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THE

JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

INDEX AND TITLE PAGE

VOL. XLI

: wy LE

ff, 5 ad 3

® eo Ee é

5 >

’ . a.

Ai £%% 2 ~~ £ “re

i rok ek aug > ¢ % "

"8 >

. 3

NOS. 1 & 2

Price ae Rs. 2-4-0

MADRAS

PRINTED AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS

1940

INSTRUCTIONS TO BINDER

The contents of these two parts should be arranged in the

following order when they are being bound :—

Title page ee

Contents of Nos. 1 and 2 of Vol. XLI

; ; To follow frontis-

List of Contributors gt ae piece Tetictonder.

List of Plates...

Index to Illustrations aie bans

Index to Species e ® ea go at the end of

two numbers.

THE

JOURNAL

OF THE

BomBay NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

| EDITED BY

Rev. Fr. J. F. CAIUS, S.J.. F.L.S.. H. M. MCGUSTY AND S.H. PRATER, M.L.A., C.M.Z.S.

VOL. XLI

Nos. 1 & 2

Containing 4 Coloured Plates, 72 Black and White Plates,

31 Text-figures, 1 Map and 1 Graph.

Dates of Publication

Part I. (Pages 1 to 202) .. August 1939,

a ee Gay 203 to 452) oe December 1939,

LONDON AGENTS

DAVID NUTT, (A. G. BERRY)

212, Shaftesbury Avenue,

London, W.C. 2.

PRINTED AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS, MADRAS

1940

; a man ¢ in kok

iP iby ieee Rae, aoe

: . ; a J a =

R b ; : ‘ y a hv Ae Te :

f Cat “ 4 Kaew t aay Le ~< (4 book sf

F2as Binet * - a]

7 ie Oe: ; Aye \ agate {4 hi a

nat P at

= — y

a o

: a

CONDISNES: OF VOLONME XIEF

No. 1

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS. By N. L.

Bor, M.A.,.D.SC., F.L.S., I.F.S., and M. B. Raizada, M.sc.

(With one coloured plate, two Black and White plates and

ten text-figures)... es

THE FLAMINGO Cinna us pies SN ee 2m some ara

yee awic@anm, EoESak i Vii SCUCI PIGLCS indo: saietsto<-s ves

THE INDIAN CADDIS FLiEs (7yichoptera). Part VI. By Martin

Py OSes 4ER-EsS:) B:Z.050 (IV Lele DIQIES) 2525502200

WiLD LIFE PHOTOGRAPHY IN THE MALAYAN JUNGLE. By

Theodore Hubback. (W2zth eight plates)...

THE GAME FISHES OF INDIA. Part VII. By ore S. L. aon,

DiSC.,7H RS. B., B.Z.S:, B.RcAGS.B., E.N.LI. ee one coloured

plate and two eve -f7gQures)... : eae ceeaee

THE EARLY STAGES ee eee eae ue Ran. “Part ele

Sew Ore SEV ASLO PU OFiF RDS os co bee baabetaon ose S8Pteesen eevee

THE BIRDS OF CENTRAL INDIA. Part I. By Salim Ali, with

notes by H. Whistler. (With a Map)...

STUDY OF SEX ORGANS OF MAHSEER. By Dye aged ieasei.

MMe eee e catia ain ONS ck owe sas chet acc swe meoelanstones subaneees ted aes

SOME COMMON INDIAN HERBS WITH NOTES ON THEIR

ANATOMICAL CHARACTERS. By M.Sayeedud-Din. (W2th

three plates)... Pes iiaoL eels seisie colhoe seaniy wee te tens coe Ses

CORACLES AND Chie iiease: By Lt.-Col. R.W. Burton, 1. a.

(Retd.). (With two plates)...

THE RECENT PLACUNA PEARL rennet IN Teneo AND

SOME NOTES ON THE WINDOW-PANE OysTER. By Dr. S.

T. Moses.. ee a Atenas

MEDICINAL AND 5S DGmanouS Prtersic OF ee DIA. Pat Rev. Fr.

J. F. Caius, $.J., F.L.S.. En Seer te

ADDITIONS TO THE DESCRIPTION OF Wi Deis Dalz.

(Asclepiadaceae) AND SOME OBSERVATIONS ON THE

SERCINS 7 oy ©. McCann, F.E.sy (With three plates). .o<...

MEMORANDUM ON THE KAHILU SANCTUARY. By D’Arcy

Peeataetbes CW7227t 1200 PLAICS).. «can. seusea'ssoteagserycesccbeeses

PAGE

107

116

TES

123

CONTENTS OF VOLUME XLI

Annual Report on Game Preservation in Burma

for the year ended 3lst March 1938................

The Formenkreis Theory and the Progress of the

Organic World.. 4) eee ene

A Guide to the Snakes of ere Bee al chee ar acres

REVIEWS :—

LET.

IV.

Medical sEntomologycn.::.:.:7n ee

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :—

III.

IV.

XT.

IN:

KVe

Behaviour of Monkeys when attacked. By A. A.

Dunbar Branders: sce eee Boas

Occurrence of Tiger in Sikkim. By Capt

R. Ke. Batty.e...

Occurrence of gern in oie aoe it (Ob. 'F.

M. Bailey...

Unusual Renee iene of Panes: aod Bivers, ope

Lt.-Col. RR. W.*Burton,; 1 As(Retd> 2 ere

A Coin lodged in a Tiger’s palate. By. Capt..):

Chetwodere. Patch ee ee ee

Effects of mauling by Tiger. By H.A. Fooks...

Hyaenas attacking human beings. By Lt.-Col.

RW) Burton. A Netds)e. Sas

Number of young Medeenocs hue aba ‘pun

By C: McCann... :

Weight of Masi ei ihe Tales Elephant.

G. D. L. Millar.. ae

Behaviour of Se in the | presence a Wild

Does. “By 1. KR: Hubback. :

The Punjab Sirkeer Cuckoo [Tac accocun les ee,

sirkee (Gray)| in Sind. By N.H. Menesse.......

Leeches attacking chicks of the Pied Kingfisher

(Ceryle vudis Linn.) By Humayun Abdulali....

Breeding of the Indian Barn Owl [Zo alba

javanica (Gmelin)] in Bhavnagar. By K. 5.

Dharmakumarsininiies ese

The Indian Great Horned Owl [ouso bibs ae:

lensts (Frankl.)] By K. 8S. Dharmakumar-

SMM doe. uta vane

ihe Padiant "Crested ‘Serpent Baie’ iESparornns

cheela cheela ie M By K.S. Dharmakumar-

‘By

PAGE

161

163

164

165

166

167

167-,

169

170

17/1

171

172

174

177

CONTENTS OF VOLUME XLI

XVI. Death of a Curassow (Crvax sp.) caused by con-

, gestion of the oviduct. By C. McCann...........

XVII. Supposed breeding of Pintail Snipe [Capella

stenura (Bonaparte)] in Belgaum District. By

Oe V VAM SHC IR ae, ecue tart cents ten actemnona nace tek abe

XVIII. Occurrence of Swinhoe’s Snipe [Capella megala

(Swinhoe)}] in Mysore. By Major E. G.

Phy thian-Adatmis, eae INGICs )ys.0< tay tase eteiclen a

XIX. Records of Snipe shot in the Tingri Dyistrict,

Assam. By H.R. D. Robey...

XX. Breeding of the Great Black. headed! Gull ae

ichthyaéius Pallas). By H. E. Richardson, I.c.s.

XXI. Occurrence of Sheldrake (Zadorna tadorna) and

Godwits on the Chilka Lake. By H.A. Fooks.

XXII. Mahseer and Turtle. By Lt.-Col. C. G.

TPoocooG.e.. 2: re sek ioe’ ghee or oe onset ee

XXIII. Extension of the Rance ‘ef fe Micon lid Frog

[Uperadon systoma ( Sie By Beni Charan

Mahendra.. Yea ae ie

XXIV. Notes on Pieri zs ees pie’ in Hohe para tee Ac.

bailed mpeenne rece to kes agence Ons settace rah oe weet, mc eaten?

XXV. The Veen of Butterflies. ae a. Ne Coe.

XXVI. Variation in the leaves of Auphorbia caducttolia

Haines.

plates)... A

Beocecdines: oe the Samanal Conceal Nieeone nad

Statement of Accounts for 1938

By P. V. Mayuranathan (W7th three

eeeeeecesreeeeee see soe

No. 2

SoME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS.

By N.L. Bor, M.A., D.Sc., F.L.S., 1.F.S., and M. B. Raizada,

M.sc. (Wzth one coloured plate three black and white

PRUAUESEAN OG LIUELUC TOMES I LUTE \ oh coca ca cee sat cin toe csbaceathos tad vos

SOME Foop PRAWNS AND CRABS OF INDIA AND THEIR

FIsHERIES. By B. Chopra, B.sc., F.N.1. (Wth five plates)

NoTES ON SOME NEW AND INTERESTING BUTTERFLIES

CHIEFLY FROM Burma. By late Major-General Sir Harry

‘Ry cleme K.C.B., C.MéG., (C1. Bs, DiS!O\. cea

STUDIES ON De Sine exigua HB. AND ITS NRA

BEMIS. |) By MC. Cherian, “B.A., B-Sc., D:I.c. and

hee yas atin Be Acre( EVONMS #) clin. acteehs code sar gsae tev dau cee tee

Pare Le

178

179

180

181

182

183

186

203

235

253

vi CONTENTS OF VOLUME XiLI

THE Gum ARABIC OF THE BAZAARS AND SHOPS OF BOMBAY.

By J. F. Caius, $.J., F.L.S., and Miss K. S. Radha, m.sc....

THE GAME FISHES oF INDIA. Part Vill. By Dr. S. L. Hora,

D,SC.} F.R.S.E.; 'F.Z.S., FoRsAsS.B., BaN. Doty io erColouved

plate, one black and white plate and two text-figures)........

THE BIRD YEAR IN BETUL a ae By C. EB.

Hewetson, I.F.S.. ; Sater core we

THE PAR Seas OF hone eS wOrTER bean IV.

By D. G. Sevastopulo, F.R.E.S.. sre ie an :

SOME CoMMON INDIAN HERBS WITH eNoreoe ON THEIR ani

TOMICAL CHARACTERS. Part II. By M. Sayeedud-Din.

(With three plates)... ete NR a Ie SS cc

DAys AND DOINGS WITH MY Bounone eee By Lt.-Col.

R, W. Burtoms (WV 726h 076 spla7e) co tenae een cee een

THE INDIAN Cappis FLius (77vrichoptera). Part VII. By

Martin E. Mosely, F.R.E.S., F.Z.S. (With seven: plates)......

MARINE FISHERIES OF THE PROVINCE OF BOMBAY. By

S. B. Setna, M.Sc., F.R.M.S., Ph.D. ee one plate, a map

and a graph)... o. ee tian

MEDICINAL AND Barconcne Pete OF cree Ss dR ais

CaisSa).,.h Je. Si. Mente: Piatgaeee ae

THE NILGIRI Cane ecoctto ais 1939, By Major

E. G. Phythian-Adams, F.z.S., -1.A. a ee three

plates)... SNe cee

ON AN poreeics AMONG Aa eon minora IN THE Hee

HATCHERY, KASHMIR, DURING 1934; WITH OBSERVA-

TIONS ON CERTAIN RECENT CASES OF MorTALIity. By

G. M. Malik, p.sc. (W7th two plates and one text-figure)...

OBITUARY :—

Major-General Sir H2C. Tytler, kc B." Cane. C.Le.,

1): SiOwcosens ee ee eee ee ee ee ee re ee ee 2 ey

REVIEWS :— |

Il. Fauna of British India. Butterflies, Vol. I

Il. Uganda Game Department. Annual Report for

the:y. earl G38. e sae so eee eer eee

IlI. Fauna, of British India: veeine yon ee has

IV. frees and Shrubs int my «Garden 9.) eee

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :—

I. The Breeding of the Mottled Polecat (Putorius

sarmaticus). By Brigadier A. F. P. Christison.

(With @ text-L1 gure)... cercesescreeveccee

PAGR

261

Zhe

286

Sy EE

384

3o7

409

410

41]

413

414

415

VIII.

2c EET

XIV.

XV.

VI:

XVII.

XVIII.

XIX.

CONTENTS OF VOLUME XLI

The Mottled Polecat (Pztorius eres By

Capt. J. Of 5.4 Wonald.: Bae

The Record Alaskan Moose! Ges a. eitas). ORS

Re ©, Morisy (W727 a: plate)... ae

A Fine Swamp Deer Head. With a ‘hot. By

Jee all:

Curious ony. ie ie tail ore an C riceeane ‘(With

GEPHOLO. ey, DY eb ey A MCIC: LMaharee Quoc ative sieieninicty'

On the Occurrence of Hume’s Wedge-billed Wren

(Sphenocichla humei Mand.) in the Aka Hills,

Assam. By G. 8. Lightfoot...

The Spur-winged Plover Gobiopieris ar

Wagl.) By J. K. Stanford... sae se

Notes on Birds Nesting in the Rishail nen

Lake, Quetta. By Brigadier A. F. P.

Christison.. :

Notes on Wild once er Cones in me eee

Frontier Tract, Assam. By R. E. Parsons,

F.R.E.S.. Be ecee nae nat acces sre

The Nomeaciatare hot pice ae T. R. Livesey...

The Sun as a Mortality Factor among Young

Birds. (With a plate). By Humayun Abdulali

On the Occurrence of the European Redstart

(Phenicurus phenicurus) in British Baluchis-

tan. By Brigadier A.F.P. Christison..

On a Large Sawfish (Préstzs perrottetz Mull. ana

Henle) caught at Bombay (Wzth a plate). By

». H. Prater..

The Nesting erate. of he route OCR oe:

mus gorvamy). By C. Amirthalingam, B.sc.,

Ph.D..

Trout Bishi in Gate “(Ww ith a ge By

Brigadier E. J. Ross . wane

A Curious Habit of the enc iButictiae hie

E. Barnes.. ne

A Caterpillar Post Bf Giveate ‘(Michelia ee

paca). By T. V. Ramakrishna Ayyar, B.A.,

Ph.Ds : ease

Birds Satine Buccice Be T. R. ceigenack pee

On the Road to Gersoppa and back. By A. R.

Paiute spancs Civic anti 2c .ce testes so s'cec canis ses

419

420

aoe

426

433

434

435

436

437

443

445

446

ALPHABETICAL LIST OF GONTRIBU TORS

VOLUME XLI

Nos. 1 and 2

PAGE ©

ABDULALI, HUMAyYUN ; Leeches | Burton, Lr.-Cor. R. W., LA

attacking chicks of the Pied Days and Doings with my

Kingfisher (Ceryle rudis Bobbery-Pack. (Wilh one

Linn.) 173 | plate) : a ned

—— — The Sun Caius, J«F., S32). B.L.S. ; Meédi-

asa Mortality ewan among | cinal and Poisonous Plants of

Young Birds. (Wittha plate) 433 India: Capparids, Mignonet-

Att, SAuIM ; The Birds of Cen- tes, Violets, Rockroses, Bixads

tral India, Part I. With notes - Medi-

by H. Whistler. ss a cinal and Poisonous Plants of

map) 82 India ; Flacourtiads, Pittospo-

AMIRTHALINGAM, GBSes, oa rads, Milkworts, Seaheaths,

p.; The. Nesting Mabie of Purslanes, Tamarisks

the Gourami (Osphronemus —— —-——; and

goramy) Pr) 436 Rapuwa, Miss K.S., M. Sc. ;

Avvar, T. V. RAMAKRISHNA, ‘The Gum Arabic of the

B.A. .Ph.D.; A Caterpillar Bazaars and Shops of

Pest of Champaka (Michelia Bombay a

champaca) a soe.) 3443) “CARRIAN,, M. (Coy oBrA aBeSe..,

BAILEY, Lt:-Cons Bi. MiOc: DI.c. and KyLasAm, M.S.,

currence of Tiger in Sikkim... 166 B.A. (Howns.); Studies on

BARNES, E.; A Cur:ous Habit Laphygma exigua HB. and

of the Danaid Butterfly . 443 its Natural Enemies

BATTveE, -Capr. R.K. Moy Oc: CHETWODE, Capt. D.; A Con

currence of Figer in Sikkim. 1€§ lodged in a Tiger’s petaee as

Bor, Nz ibs, M74. 6D. SC, eh eS CHOPRA, B., B.SC: ) EN. s.50me

I.F.S.; and RAIZADA, M.B., Food Prawns and Crabs of

M.Sc.; Some Beautiful Indian India and their Fisheries.

Climbers and Shrubs. (Witt (With five plates)

one coloured plate; two black CorRBETT, J. N.; The Migration

and white plates and ten of Butterflies

text-figures) Pts. land2 ... 1, 203 | CHRISTISON, BRIGADIER

BRANDER, A, A. DUNBAR; Be- A. F.P.; The Breeding of the

haviour of Monkeys” when Mottled Polecat(Putorius sar-

attacked Be 165 maticus).(Withatext-figure)

Burton, Lt.-CoLt. R. W.., -————-—_—_- —-;

(Retd.) ; Coracles and eae Notes on Birds Nesting in

panzees. (With two plates). 116| the Kushdil Khan Lake,

— ———-—— ; Quetta see .

Unusual behaviour of Pan- —-— + |

thers and Tigers 167 On the Occurrenceofthe Euro-

= = _ F | pean Redstart (Phenicurus

Hyenas attacking human _ phenicurus) in British Balu-

beings 170 chistan

PAGE

324

123

369

251

253

167

415

420

434

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

DHARMAKUMARSINHII, K. S.;3

Breeding of the Indian Barn

1 [Zyto alba javanica

(Gmelin) ] in Bhavnagar

—— —_ —~

The Indian Great Horned Owl

[Bubo bubo bengalensis

(Frankl.) | ee

The Indian Crested Serene

Eagle [Spzlornts cheela cheela

(Lath.) ] ee

DoNALD, Capt. J. O. SS The

Mottled Polecat (Putorius sar-

maticus) °

Fooks, H. A.; Effects of eeu

ing by tiger

a ee =

-—_- —_—-—— ; Occurrence of

Shelduck (Zadorna tadorna)

and .Godwits on Chilka

Lake ae

Hatt, J. E.; A Fine Swamp

Deer Head. (With a

photo)

Harman,A.C.; Notes on lier

brassiceé in Champaran

Hewetson, C. E., 1.F.Ss.; The

Bird Year in Betul (Central

Provinces) is ae

Hora, SUNDER LAL, D.Sc.,

FIR:SLEY, OFSZS:3 PARSA.S.B.;

F.N.I ; The Game Fishes of

India, Part VII. (With one

plate and two text-figures) ...

Part VIIL. (With one coloured

plate, one black and white

plate and two text-figures) ...

HouBBACK, THEODORE; Wild Life

Photography in the Malayan

Jungle. (With eight plates)..

HuBBAcKk, T. R.; Behaviour of

Sambhur in the presence of

Wild Dogs

Butterflies

HuGuHEs, A. R., and MONS,

C.; On the Road to oe

ae Back

KuAN, DR. HAMID, Ph.D. cian)

of Sex Organs of Mahseer

; Birds eating

PAGE

174

416

169

180

417

181 |

286

65 |

272

172

445

416

107

KyLasaM, M. S., B.A. (Hons.) ;

See CHERIAN. M. C., B.A.,

B.SC, DIC. : aes pe

Licutroot, G. S.; On _ the

Occurrence of Hume’s Wedge-

billed Wren (Sphenocichla

humeit Mand.) in the Aka

Hills ie

LivESEY, T.R.; The Nomencla-

ture of Birds ee ies

MAHENDRA, BENI CHARAN;

Extension of the Range of the

Microhylid Frog [Uperadon

systoma (Schn.) ]

MaLik, G. M., B.sc.; On an

Epidemic among Rainbow

Trout in the Harwan Hat-

chery, Kashmir, During 1934;

with observations on certain

recent cases of Mortality.

(With two plates and one text-

figure) i

MAVURANATHAN, 2 Vas Sane

tion in the leaves of Hubner

btacaducifolia Haines. (With

three plates) ee we

McCann, -C., ¥F.bis.; The

Flamingo (Phenticopterus

vuber antiquorum 'Temm.)

(With seven plates) x

; Additions to fie

cece on of Frerca indica

Dalz. (Asclepiadacee) and

some observations on the

species. (With three plates).

; Number of young

Hedgehogs have at a birth ...

; Death ofa Curas-

sow (Crax sp.) caused by

ie eres of the oviduct

; On the Road to

ae aad back

MENESSE, N. H.; The Punjab

Sirkeer Cuckoo [ 7accocua

leschenaultit sirkee (Gray) ]

in Sind i oe ai

MIEDAR, G. 9D. b.; Weichtof

Tusks of the Indian Elephant.

Morris, R. C.; The Record

Alaskan Moose

gigas) (With a plate)...

(Alces a.

PAGE

253

426

180

183

143

17]

172

aya

416

x LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

PAGE

MOSELY, MARTIN, E., F.R.E.S.,

F.Z.S.; The Indian Caddis

Flies (Zrichoptera). Part V1.

(With twelve plates) . ie 39

——_——_- — —— Part VIL.

(With seven sie deel) Mees 332

Mosks, Dr. 8. T.; The Recent

Placuna Pearl Fishery in

Baroda and some notes on

the Wirdow-pane Oyster... 119

OBITUARY :—

TYTLER, MAJOR-GEN. SIR

HC. K.C.B.C.M. Gr CauKu,

D.S.O. re ae 409

Parsons, R. E., F.R.E.S. nates

on Wild mack and Gecke in

the Sadiya Frontier Tract,

Assam ca ee A

Ba ee ante MAJOR,

E.G., 1.A.. (Retd.) ; Occurrence

of Swinhoe’s Snipe [Capella

megala (Swinhoe)] in

Mysore af Ane Fon) 1S

The Nilgiri Game Association-

1879-1939. (With three plates) 384

PRATER, S. H.; On a Large

Sawfish (Przistis perrotteti

Mull. and Henle) iss man ASO

RADEA; MISS cK. ., SC. ; see

Calus,.)-hs, S.JenE LS. Hey S261

Ra1izApDA, M.B., M.sc.; See Bor.

IN] 5 MAS oD SC.y Se,

I.F.S. Py = wae ele 20S

REVIEWS :—

Annual Report on Game Pre-

servation in Burma for the

year ended 31st March 1938. 161

The Formenkreis Theory and

the Progress of the Organic

World oe 163

A Guide to the ay ieee of

Uganda ses is ee alg

Medical Paismoloey af a lOe

Fauna of British India: Butter-

flies, Vol. I eee i 410

Uganda Game Depetment

Annual Report for the year

1938 aoe : ere ek

Fauna of British feces Man

malia, Vol. igs nu als

Trees. and Shrubs “in “my

Gardenge aye te: 500 ve:

RICHARDSON; 9H. E., “2.C:S.;

Breeding of the Great Black-

headed Gull (Larus ichth-

yaétus Pallas) ? ee

Rosey, H. R. D. Records ee

Snipe Shot in mine Tingri

District, Assam see aoe

Ross, BRIGADIER, E. J.; Trout

Fishing in Kashmir (With a

plate) sz. : ies ses

SAYEEDUD-DiIn, M.; Some

Common Indian Herbs with

notes on their anatomical

characters. Part 1 ( With three

plates) re tee “00

— 7 Part oi

(With three plates)

SETNA, S. B., M.SC., F.R.M.S.,

Ph.D.; Marine Fisheries of

the Province of Bombay ( With

one plate, a map and a

graph) ... oes ous

SEVASTOPULO, D. G., F.R.E.S.

The Early Stages of me

Lepidoptera, Part LII

Part 1V ee sas

STANFORD, J. K.; The Spur-

winged Plover (Hoplopterus

ventralis Wagl.) ae

TooGoon, sLr-CoLt, | (CyHG.

Mahseer and Turtle ...

TYTLER, MAJOR-GENERAL SIR

HARRY,K.C.B.,C.M.G.,C.I1.E.,

D.S.0.; Notes on Some New

and Interesting Butterflies

Chiefly from Burma ...

WEATHERBE, D’ARCY; Memo:

randum on the- Kahilu

Sanctuary. (With two

plates) aN

WHISTLER, H. Supposed breed:

ing of Pintail Snipe [Capella

stenura (Bonaparte)] in Bel-

gaum District

Dee Ann, Sane

YANDLE, A. ike ; Curious Injury

to the tail of an Elephant.

(With a photo)

PAGE

414

WAS)

179

437

321

340

311

420

180

178

418

LESH OT: BILAL ES

VOLUME XLI

Nos. | and 2

Some Beautiful Indian Climbers and Shrubs

Plate

Plates

Heavenly Blue Morning Glory. (lpomea rubro-

cerulea) Hook oes ae ied

Ipomea palmata Forsk.; Botanical Garden, Forest

Research Institute

The Flamingo (Phenicopterus ruber antiquorum Temm.)

Nesting in the Rann of Cutch

Nest colonies

Nest colonies showing ‘ eae ae

Some of the largest nests in the colony ...

Three week (?) old chick 2

Bills, showing formation of curvature ...

Tongues, showing papille

The Indian Caddis Flies ( 7vichoptera\

Lothremma parva sp. n. F

ELothremma burmana sp. n. ¢ and 2

Do. do.

Flathremma laga sp. n. ¢

Eothremma punja sp.n. 3

Flelicopsyche minuta sp. n. % and 2

Helicopsyche martynovi sp. vu. ¢ and &

flelicopsyche maculata sp. n. ¢

Flelicopsyche shaunga sp. n. ¢

Ashmira elia sp. un. ¢ and Q

Gastrocentrides evanst sp. u. ¢

Noleka asaka sp. n. f

Wild Life Photography in the Malayan Jungle

Plate I,

Plate I

Plate Ill.

Plate Eis

Plate V.

Plate VI.

Plate VII.

Plate Te,

Plate IG

Plate III.

Plate IV.

Plate We

~ Plate VI.

Plate VII.

Plate VIII.

Plate IX.

Plate DS

Plate XI.

Plate IU

Plate I.

Plate II.

Plate IV.

Plate Ve

Plate VI.

Plate Wage

Plate VIII.

Malayan Wild Elephant balancing on fallen tree

Wild Elephants at salt lick

Do. do. aes

Bull and cow seladang in a salt lick

A group of seladang in a salt lick

Sambhur Deer Stag ‘ Showing the Flag’

Sambhur Deer. 1. Drinking. 2. Ina salt lick

Sambhur Deer. 1. Inasalt lick. 2. Hideina salt

diek vs.

Game Fishes of India

Plate

The Mulley of Boali (Wadlagonia atti)

Central India, Map of :

Some Common Indian Herbs with BS eae on their Sea ieal Cham

Plate

III.

Pedaliace@. Sayeedud-Din (Sesamum laciniatum)

Do; do. do. do,

Do. do. do. do.

PAGE

1 O06

113

114

xii LIST OF PLATES

PAGE

Coracles and Chimpanzees

Plate ‘A Coracle in use’, and ‘ A Coracle in transit’ 116

Plate ‘Mannans on the Peryar Lake’ and ‘ A Sarnai ’ 118

Additions to the description of Frerea indica (Asclepiadacez) and some

observations on the species

Plate I. Copy of Dalzell’s plate published in Journal of the

Linnean Society, vol. viii, (1865), p. 10, t. 3 143

Plate Il. A drawing from a living specimen, Shivner Fort,

near Junnar, Poona District, Figs. 1-4 .. 144

Plate Ill. A rare Euphorbia-like Asclepiad, from the Deccan... 144

Memorandum on the Kahilu Sanctuary

Plate (a) The Great Indian one-horned Rhinoceros (Rhi-

noceros uticornis) approaching camera

(6) A male Asiatic two-horned Rhinoceros

(Dicercrhinus sumatrensis) in a salt-lick in

Malaya soe Pole

Plate (a) Footprints of D. ROUEN ETS in dried wallow.

(6) Footprints of D. sumatrensis 155

Variation in the leaves of Euphorbia caducifolia.

Plate I. Variationin leaves. Form I 184

Plate II. Do. Form II “3 184

Plate TLL: Do. Form III aoe 184

Some Beautiful Indian Climbers and Shrubs.

Plate II. Bird’s-head Birthwort (Aristolochia ornithocephala,

Hook) : si ve ae) 1203

Plate The Pelican Blower (Aristolochia grandiflora Sw.

var. sturtevantit) : 208

Plates Bird’s-head Birthwort Coca EEO,

Hook.) New Forest, Dehra Dun _... 210, 212

‘Some Food Prawns and Crabs of India and their Fisheries.

Plate I. Peneus, Metapeneus, and Palemon 221

Plate Il. Leander, Palemon, Macropsis, Potamomysts, ana

Panulirus LA eae 223

Plate Ill. Scylia, Neptunus, Varuna and PEED ign 224

Plate IV. Carcinus, Peneus and Panulirus 226

Plate V. Traps and implements used ... 230

Game Fishes of India.

Plate The Putitor Mahseer (Barbus [tor] putitora) Bae

Plate Do. do. do. ee 77,

Some Common Indian Herbs with notes on their anatomical eraractetes

Plate I. Herpestis monniera. Figs. 1-11 Ree eee ee)

Plate LE; Do. Figs. 1-2 322

Plate III. Do: Figs. 1-2 322

Days and Doings with my Bobbery-Pack.

Plate (a) Raichur 1895. (6) Bolarum 1899 ... ceo oe

Indian Caddis Flies ( 7vichoptera).

Plate I. Dinarthrum flerox BaF ; 338

Plate Il. Dinarthrum parvulum a sa cae SESS

Plate Ill. Dinarthrum inerme 338

Plate IV. Dinarthrum rema 338

Plate V. Dinarthrum kamba ese 338

LIST OF PLATES

Plate VI. Dinarthrum nagana

Plate VIL. Dinarthrum sonomax

Marine Fisheries of the Province of Bombay.

Plate The ‘ Lord Brabourne’

Map Littoral area of Bombay Browinice and part of Weel

Coast of Madras Presidency

Graph Sales of Salt

The Nilgiri Game Association—1879-1939.

Plate (a) Nilgiri Tahr (Hemitragus hylocrtus).

(6) Chital (Axis axis) shot at Mudumalai

Plate (a) Solitary tusker near Anaikatti

(6) Rogue shot at Benne, 1937

Plate (a) The Mukerti Lake.

(6) Ten Mukerti Trout :

Epidemic among Rainbow Trout in the Harwan Hetcnees Keener

during 1934.

Plate I. Brown and Rainbow Trout from Kashmir

Plate If. Rough plan of Harwan Hatchery

The Record Alaskan Moose.

Plate Alces alces gigas ...

The Sun as a Mortality Factor among Young Birds

Plate (a) Ternlets at nesting site.

(6) {sland of Utan-Gorai where Ternlets were found

Diecding i... ons

A Large Sawfish (Prestis perrottett) caught at Benbay,

Plate | Photo of a cast in the Prince of Wales Museum,

Bombay

Trout Fish’ ng in Kashmir.

Plate (a) The Chattergul—Burn fishing on a large scale.

(6) My last day—upper Naubug

xili

PAGE

338

344

362

388

390

394

398

406

416

433

435

438

INDEX TO TLECSTRAVONS

VOLUME XLI

Nos. 1 and 2

PAGE

Alaskan moose, ‘The Record Dinarthrum rema

Pl; — aoe 416 Plo vik ct

Alces alces gigas sonomax

Pl ea is ae .. 416 Pl. vii

Aristolochia grandiflora var. Elephant, injury to tl

sturtevantit Photo :

Pl. bee sa’ ae 208 | Eothremma parva

— ornithocephala PIM. hes: 1-5

1eAB oe ee 203, 210, 212 —— burmana

Ashmira elia Pir ings. 166

Pl. figs. 1-9 46 Pl, iii. figs. 1-4

Axis axis — laga

Pl. fig. (B) 388 Pl. iv. figs. 1-7

Barbus (tor) putitora —— punja

Pils; ue ZED eid Pl. ve igs 25. “er

Bobbery-Pack Euphorbia caducifolia

Pp). Figs. Aand B 324 Pl. i. Variation in leaves

Carcinus Form I. :

Pl. iv. figs. 1-2 226 Pl. ii. Variation in leaves

Central India, map of ... "60 82 Form II.

Cervus duvauceli Pl. iii. Variation in leaves

Photo. of head 417 Form IIf

Coracles and Chimpanzees Frereia indica

Pl. (a) Coracle in use PI..1. A copy of 3Walzellts

(6) a in transite... lho plate published in

Pl. (a) Mannans on_ the Journ. Linn. Soce.,

Peryar Lake 118 Vill, 1865) > op.) LO;

(6) A Sarnai 118 tind aeess ont te

Dicerorhinus sumatrensts | a ele Fig. 1. Entire plant

Pl]. Male in a salt lick in Fig. 2. Seeds

Malaya .. 152 Fig. 3. Seeds with

Pl, Sonne in dried a pappus.

low os 15S Fig. 4. Fruit.

Dinarthrum eee Plyiit.. eAcrare Paenorbia: Tee

Pia. ee 338 Asclepiad: Inset.

imerme Close-up of flower

Pl it. aoe 338 (NatAsize) =...

kamba Gastrocentrides evansi

Plein: oe 338 Pl. figs. 1-5

——— nagana Helicopsyche minuta

PIA ic tare AP aoe 338 Pl. figs. 1-7

parvulum martynovt

Pav causes a a0 bah peecesose) Pl eigs.-9 eee. ane oe

PAGE

338

419

184

143

144

INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS

Helicopsyche maculata

Pl. figs. 1-5

shaunga

Pl. figs. 1-5

Hemitragus hylocrius

EAR foe (a)

Herpestis monniera

Pl. i. figs. 1-11

Pieaiy Wes. 1-2

Pl. iii. figs. 1-2 oe atk

Indian Caddis Flies (77vicho-

ptera)

Pls. i-vii ss

Ipomea carnea. Text-fig.5

—— coccinea. Text-fig. 7...

— — hors falliae. Text-fig. 2

—_———- learii. 'Text-fig. 3

—— lobata. Text-fig. 8

—_——- palmata.

Pls. Botanical Garden ;

Forest Research In-

Stites. oe 6

Text-fig. 4 : Sie

—_——- purpurea. Text-fig. 9.

—--— guamoclit, Text-fig. 1.

— — rubro-cerulea

By ate sais ae

—— sinuata. ‘Text-fig.

10 ct

——-——. vitifolia. Text-fig. 6.

Macropsis

Pl,.it, fisy4

Marine Fisheries in Bombay

Pit

Map

Graph

Metapeneus

Pl, i. fig. 4

Neptunus

Pl, iii. figs. 2-3

Nilgiri Game Association, 1879-

1939

Pl. (a) Nilgiri Tahr (Hfemz-

tragus hylocrius).

(6) Chital (Axis axis)

shot at Muduma-

lai

Pl. (a) Solitary tusker near

Anaikatti

(je Rogue, shot) at

Benne, 1937

PAGE

388

321

322

338

nmoni

388

390 |

Pl. (a) The Mukerti Lake

(6) Ten Mukerts

Trout.

Noleka asaka

Pl. figs. 1-5

Palemon

Pl. i. figs. 5-6.

Pl. ii. figs. 2-3

Panulirus

Ele 112S310-7 4.

Riki, fis:

Paratelphusa

Pl. iii. figs. 6-7 ard ee

Peneus

Pl. i. figs, 1-2

Pit ive io. 3 oe

Phenicopterus ruber antiph:

rum

Pl. i. Nesting in the Rann

Of Cutchis..

Pl. ii. Nest colonies (figs.

1 and 2) ;

Pl. iii. Nest colonies, eho a

ing scoops (figs.

land 2)...

Pl.iv. The largest nests

in the colony

(Figs.- 1 and

2) .

Elva. Dhree:week (2) old

chick. (fits,. |

and 2)

Pl. vi. Bills, showing for-

mation of curva-

ture

Plo vil, Toneues, Sane

papille ...

Potamomysts

Pl. 11. fig, 5

Prawns and Crabs of radia

eee ats

ela

Pini,

le ty.

Pine Ve

Pristis sept.

Pl, Photo. of cast in Prince

of Wales Museum,

Bombay.

Putorius sarmaticus

Photo. a@e0 eae ee0

PAGE

394

Zen

223

226

224

221

226

223

221

223

224

226

230

435

415

xVi INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS

PAGE

Rainbow Trout. Epidemic

among, in the Harwan Hat-

chery, 1934

Pl. i. Brown and Rainbow

‘Trout us 397

Pl, ii. Rough plan of ihre

wan Hatchery ... 406

Rhinoceros unicornts

Pl. Approaching camera ... 152

Sawfish caught at Bombay

Pl. a a3 ro see ©2435

Scylia

Platitioe] sce not ae £224

Sesamum laciniatum

Pi Ws. ees en, Pees ane 13

Pl), 41. figs: andi2. .. eae 114

Pl. iii. ffgs. 1-4 ite 114

Sun as Mortality Factor among

Young Birds

Pl. .(a) Ternlets at nesting

site

(6) Island of Utan-Gorai

where: Dernilets

were found breed-

ing ne Co sty 438 |

Ternlets, nesting sites

Pl. figs. (@) and (6) ... we 433 |

Tiger

Photograph. Coin lodged in

palateof .. ven «. 168

Trout Fishing in Kashmir

Pl. figs. (a) and (6) ... .. «438

Varuna

Pl. iii. figs. 4-5 ae ae ood

Wallagonia attu

Pl. se sie he as 64

Text-fig. 1. Upper and lower

dentition = 69

Text-fig. 2. (a) Aliment)

Canal ... 70

(6) Stomach ...

Wild Life Photography in the

Malayan Jungle

Pl. i. Malayan Wild Ele-

phant balancing

on fallen tree

(2) Two Wild Ele-

phants in a salt-

lick mixing

their medicine.

(6) Two Wild Bull

Elephants in

the same salt-

lick 28

Pi. iii. (@) A Wild Bull Ele-

phant entering

a salt-lick

Pia.

—

(6) The same place,

the same salt-

lack, but a

different ele-

phant.. Ab

Pl iv. Bulland Con Selad-

ang in a Ssalt-lick.

Pl. v, A group of Seladang

in a salt-lick

Pl. yi: As “Sambhur Deer

Stag ‘ Showing the

Flag’

Pl. vii. (@) Crow picking off.

‘PAGE

ticks from: ac:

doe Sambhur

Deer.

(6) Sambhur . Deer

in a salt-lick...

.viii. (2) Sambhur Deer

in a salt-lick

(6) Hide in a salt-

lick

—

Acacia arabica

farnesiana

modesta

Accipiter nisus

Achaea (Ophiusa) percents

Acontia transversa

Acridotheres ginginianus

tristis

-—-—-- -- —— tristis

Acrocephalus agricola..

dpe lorain

Actia monticola ...

Adinarthrella

Adinarthrum

Aigithina nigrolutea

— tiphia

humei...

Aimona amathusia

-- lena

———-- —— haynei

—_____--- —— kalawrica

——- —— karennia ...

—_—_-- —— kengtunga

-——_— -- —— salweena...

AMthiopsar fuscus

Ageoerodella

Agrotis spinifera

Alauda gulgula

— punjaubi

Albizzia lebbeck

—- odoratissima

————- procera

- stipulata

Alcedo atthis

Alces alces gigas

Alcippe poiocephala

Aleurites moluccana

Alseodaphne semicarpifolia

Alseorrax latirostris

Alsodeia echinocarpa

INDEX OF

PAGE

100,

293,

95,

stentoreus brunnescens. 5. 95,

288,

295,

297,

288,

Amandava amardava amandava

Ammomanes phoenicura phoenicura.

Anacardium occidentale

269

301

319

293

306

100

421

Ws)

421

256

333

334

304

250

249

250

293

d30

319

307

105

269

307

416

304

269

318

135

101

106

269

SPECIES

Anacronececia

Anapheeis messentina

Anaphasis aurota

Anas platyrhyncha

——- peecilorhynchus ...

Andraca bipunctata

Anogeissus latifolia

——-—— pendula

Anthracoceros coronatus

Anthus campestris griseus

TermOpnuise wae ee L04

- hodgsoni

——— - richardi coat

- roseatus

- rufulus

- waitei

——--- sordidus jerdoni

- trivialis haringtoni

-- trivialis

Aphis gossyphit

Aporia agathon bifurcata

Appias (Catophaga) paulina ...

- lalage lalage

Ardeola grayli

Arganais ficus s

Argya caudata cel

——. malcolmi

Aristolochia

bracteata...

brasiliensis

ciliata

elegans

ie Man ey Mees Se A ee eS Fe ta

grandiflora

———___—_—— indica

-—_-——— macroura ...

———- ———— ornithocephala ..

—_—. ———_ ridicula

——- ———- ringens

———. ——— roxburghiana

——_— —— tagala

tomentosa

Armandia lidderdalii ochracea

Artamus fuscus

PAGE

334

256

410

. 424

424, 425

269

tar 84.

297, 307

104

295, 306

104

3) 1105

295, 307

104

257

ie 240

alee

242

.. 303, 310, 446

313

.. 203

. «218

210

216

219

216

208

212

209

210

215

eee!

211, 214

igen 2b

wee 217

240

‘291, 305

XVili

Ashmira elia ae

Asteriastigma macrocarpa

Astur badius

Atella phalantha

Athene brama x

Aulocera loha japroa’ ..

padma thawgawa

Azadirachta indica

Barbus cunningi

- putitora

- tor

- (tor) putitora

Bauhinia purpurea

——--—-~- variegata

Belenois mesentina

Biston bengaliaria

Bixa orellana

Boswellia serrata

Brachypternus bengalensis

Bramia indica

Brithys crini

Bubo bengalensis

Bubo bubo bengalensis ...

Bubulcus ibis A oe

—— -——-- —- coromandus

Bufo andersoni

Butastur teesa

Butea frondosa

Butorides striatus

Cadaba farinosa

——————- — trifoliata

Calandra acutirostris

PAGE

369

301, 309

183

299, 308

247

269

279

107

UEDA AT) 7

269

410

141

bs 84

296, 307

321

is 78

299, 308

174

310

446

300, 308

84, 174

303, 310

123

124

105

Calandrella brachydactyla longipennis. 105

Calceolaria pinifolia

Callichrus macrostomus

Calogramma festiva

Cannabis sativa

Capella megala

- stenura

Capparis decidua

——_——-- grandis

——_——-- heyneana

————-- micracantha ...

—--——- sepiaria

—— ——- spinosa

- zeylanica

Capraria biflora

Caprimulgus asiaticus ...

indicus

-——- macrurus...

Caralluma fimbriata

322

253

178

124, 126

124. 197

124, 126

124, 125

124, 127

322

298, 308

298, 307

452

INDEX OF SPECIBS

PAGE

Carcinus meenas 226

Caridina gracilipes 223

Carpodacus erythrinus erythrinus 101

- erythrinus 294, 306

Casarca ferruginea 424

Catla catla 112

Cedrela toona 269

Centropus sinensis 299, 308

Cephalopyrus flammiceps flammiceps. 99

Cephonodes hylas 315

Cercomela fusca ey 88

Cerithium 22) 2m)

Cervus duvauceli 244 wwe) Pee,

Ceryle rudis L/S, 29/ woUr

Chalcophaps indica 301

Chalioides vitrea 317

Charadrius dubius 303

Charybdis cruciata 224

Chaulelasmus streperus 424

Chelones hurrianze 36

Chilasa slateri marginata 237

——— -- -———. tavoyana 236

Chloropsis jerdoni 88, 288, 304

Chloroxylon swietenia ... Bf 269

Chrysomma sinensis sinensis ... 87

Cinnyris asiatica asiatica 106

————. asiaticus 296, 307

———— zeylonicus oe eeco

Circus macrourus 300, 308

Cirrhina mrigala ye

Cisticola juncidis cursitans es 96

Clamator jacobinus 298, 308

Clangula hyemalis 424

Clania cramerii 318

Cleome brachycarpa ele pete

- chelidonii 128, 130

- felina 128, 130

-————-- heptaphylla 128, 130

———- monophylla 128

- viscosa 128, 129

Clupeoides lile 5 434

Cochlospermum gossypium ... 140

Coelites epiminthia epiminthia 248

-— -——— — calverti 248

Columba livia 301, 309

Copsychus saularis 288, 304

- saularis == 89

Coracias bengalensis 296, 307

Corvus macrorhynchos ... if 304

——_—- -——— culminatus .. 85

- splendens 304

~[NDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

Corvus splendens insolens 428, 431

—_—__- —— -—-- protegatus .. 428, 431

—~—-—_ - - —— -——_- splerdens . 85, 427, 428

- ————- zugmayeri 428, 431

Cosmophila fulvida 80

Coturnix coturnix 302

Crateeva nurvala 130

——~—— religiosa 130

Crax sp: sy

Cricula trifenestrata oe 76

Crocopus phoenicopterus 301, 309

Cuculus canorus 298, 308

-- micropterus 2°8, 308

Culicicapa Be eer 290), 305

— —— ale Aon oz

Cyanosylvia suecica suecica — 89

Cynoglossum denticulatum var, zey-

langcuns 1o. 443

Dafila acuta 424

Danais plexippus is 193

Danaus aventina purpurascens 243

Dasychira complicata 74

Delias aglaia aglaia 240

——-- belladona lugens 241

——--- berinda berinda 242

—-- -- boyleze 242

—--- - cooperi ... 242

——--~ descombesi 72

——-- lativitta naga 240

ees — parva 240

——-- leucacantha 72

—-- patrus shan 240

——--- sanaca perspicua 242

Delcnix regia acts sone LOU

Dendrocitta vagabunda vaca aude oe 85

Dendrocygna javanica... 424

Dercas verhuelli 242

Desmeocrera fasciata ... 78

Dicerorhinus sumatrensis 152, 153

Dichocrocis punctiferalis 320

Dicrurus coerulescens ae 292, 305

—_—- ——-~- coerulescens 95

————-- longicaudatus ae 97

——--———- macrocercus ... 292, 305

— ae Bea enioeis ene OS

Dinarthrella 334

Dinarthrena = SOI)

Dinarthrodes 2334

Dinarthrum res 333, 334

——-- ferox aoa 334

—-—— ——--- inerine 336

———— harrisi hopei ...

——-——, midamus margarita ...

yee? gee

xix

PAGE

Dinarthrum kamba 338

——-- nagana 338

—- ——- -- parvulum ... 335

—— -——- -- rema 337

——-- sonomax 339

Diospyros tomentosa 84

Discophora deo ee 252

———- - —- deodoides ee BY

Dissemurus paradiseus... 292, 305

oe - —— Oe selene oe pee

Dissoura episcopus 30a, 0010

Dryobates hardwickii 296, 307

— mahrattersis 296, 307

Dumetia hyperythra 288, 304

—-—-— _ -—_ ——_ hy Deny ehra 87

Kchis carinata a 36

Egretta intermedia ate ruecne 446

Eichornia crassipes 436

Eiymnias dara deedalion 248

————-- pealii ... bee 248

pee penanga chelensis ... seem 320)

Eleusine coracana Pero eS)

Emberiza bruniceps we. 102

—— ——- icterica 294, 306

— melanocephala Od, 204.506

————-- stewarti 101

Kothremma burmara 40

——-— hindustana... 40

—- — japonica 40

— -laga.. 41

—— ——- parva 39

—- - punja 4]

Erasmia sanguiflua 73

Erebia narasingha dohertyi 247

orixa watsoni 247

suroia aoe 247

Eremopterix griseus siccata . ~106

= grisea 2953307

Ergolis merione ... CD 2ONZ

——-- tapestrina Tomo

Erites falcipennis 247

ee 248

Eudynamis scolopaceus 298, 308

Eulophia campestris w. 449

Eumyias thalassina : 290,305

— —_—_——-- Pesca ee ou

Euphorbia caducifolia ... te, Byles

Euploea coreta coreta 443

——-—— diocletiana talboti 243

243

XxX

Euploea midamus splendens

Euproctis guttata

Falco tinnunculus

Faunis caneus subpallida

- eumeus burmana

=m Centciaesc

Feronia elephantum

Flacourtia cataphracta ...

—— —-——- ramontchi

-—— sepiaria

Francolinus pictus

-——-- pondicerianus

Frankenia pulverulenta ...

Franklinia buchanani

—— gracilis

Frerea indica

Fulica atra

Galerida deva

Galloperdix spadicea

Gallus sonnerati ...

Garrulax moniligera

Gastrocentrides evansi ...

Geokichla citrina cyanotis

Gisekia pharnaceoides ..

Goercdella ...

Goerodes inequalis

-- khasiana

Goerodina ...

Gratiola monniera

Graucalus javensis macei

Gymnorhis xanthocollis

Gynandropsis gynandra

— pentaphylla

Gynocardia cdorata

Gyps indicus

Halcyon smyrnensis

Haliastur indus

Helicopsyche borealis

ceylanica ..,

maculata...

martynovi

—— —— minuta

—— shaunga...

Hemidactylus prashadi ...

Hemiechinus collaris

Hemiramphus sf.

Hemiprocne coronata

Hemipus picatus...

Herpestis gratioloides

——_———- monniera sae

-——— xanth

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

243

313

300, 309

249

248

249

269

370

371

302

ee Be Aah

ae OF 32292, 306

143

421

105

302

432

ee 46

289, 304

255

334

333

nee OR

oe gy doo

ue ae 94

oe 294, 306

ecollis... 101

134

131

Ree wee ell

300, 308

297, 307

300, 308

450

171

can ee ah

298, 307

291305

322

32)

PAGE

Herpestis spathulata gen aoe

Hierococcyx varius 298, 308

Hippolais caligata caligata ... a 97

—_-—__-- ———__-- rama oe si 97

Hirundo daurica ... 295, 306

—_——- —-—-- erythropygia 103

Saeeeienemed —scullit... 103

———— fluvicola 103

———— rustica ... 102

————— smithii... : 294, 306

—_—_—_- - filifera 102

Hoplopterus duvaucellii 303

——--ventralis ... 420

Hydnocarpus anthelmintica 373

—- ———-- venetata ... 372

- wightiana 372

Hypocala deflorata ve 3 ae 80

Hypodinarthrum parvulum 335

Hypolixus brachyrrhinus 256

Hypothymis azurea fete 200 OUD

——— = styani oe eR 92

Imperata arundinacea ... ae siete Syl

Indocruncecia See 333

lonidium enneaspermum 135

~-- suffruticosum ... 135

Ipomoea cairica 6

— carnea ... 3,7

— coccinea on aie 3,8

— horsfalliae ae Cerone

— learii i. bia oe SE ys)

———— lobata 3,9

— palmata af 346

———-— purpurea Bee set satay AO

— quamoclit 3, 4

———— rubro-cerulea... ats eae 3

— Ssinuata ... 5. ela:

— tricolor ... “hc Rn ae 3

— vitifolia... 357

Isospora minuta . 194

Ixobrychus minutus minutus ... 42]

Kalanchee olivacea Si Poa

Ketupa zelonensis é 299, 308

Kodala:. w.. fare ae ARG 833

Kophene cuprea ... 194

Labeo calbasu 2

rohita ee 112

Lagerstroemia indica sas oS SUS

Lalage sykesii ... aa, ue sae 94

——--- sykesi ee se 291, 305

Lamproptera indistincta amplifascia. 230

Lanius cristatus ... aig cfs 290, 305

Lanius excubitor...

- lahtora

schach

erythronotus

vittatus

Lanrea grandis

Laphygma exigua

Larus brunnicephalus

——--- ichthyaétus

Leander styliferus

Lebeda nobilis

Lespedeza thomsoni

Lethe andessoni ...

= — brisanda

=—==— Christophi ...

a= Gakwania ...

oo aira dura ...

-—___— ——— mansonia

goalpara kabruensis

maitrya thawgawa

meelleri bruno

nicetas nicetas

pulahina

sadona

serbonis pallida

visrrava 4a

Leucocera aureola aureola

Leucocirca aureola

—— ——-- pecioralis

Lissemys punctata

Lobipluvia malabarica...

Lobivanellus indicus

Locustella nevia straminea

Machlolophus xanthogenys

Macropsis orientalis

Meerua “Arenaria ...

Mareca penelope...

Macrosiphum pisi

Meandrusa gyas aribbas

——— payeni amphis

Melanitis zitenius an sakara ...

Melophus lathami

Mergellus albellus

Mergus merganser orientalis

Merops crientalis

— superciliosus

Metadinarthrum inerme

Metanastria hyrtaca

violaceopicta burmana ...

-— subcristata...

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

290,

. 93, 290, 305

290,

287,

aplonotus.

290

305

269

259

179

223

246

244

245

246

245

245 |

246 |

245 |

246

244

245

305

180

303

302

304

223

133

425

257

239

248

3C6

102

425

424

/, 307

297

336

Xxi

PAGE

Metanastria latipennis ... ie

Metapenaeus brevicornis 222

——— monoceros gee

Michelia champaca 443

Micropus affinis PASH SOL

——- melba 298, 307

- melba... 450

Milvus migrans 300, 308

Mina lobata 9

Mirafra erythroptera tae 295

- -——— erythroptera 105

— javanica cantillans 105

Molpastes cafer 288, 304

--- ——- pallidus 88

-—_—-——--- leucogenys leucotis 88

Moniera cuneifolia 321

Monticola cinclorhyncha wee 90

——— — solitaria 289, 304

=a —- pandoo Bes 30

Motacilla alba 295, 306

——_——- — dukhunensis 103

—_——- —- personata eas LOG

———— ~ cinerea 295, 306

—--——- ——-- caspica 103

—--- - citreola were 104

——~-— flava... oo 295, 306

—_-__ — = — thunbere: 103

—— maderaspatensis ... 103, 295, 306

Mug’! corsula ate Paes

Muscadivora cenea 301

Musc:capula superciliaris superciliaris 91

—- tickellicz 290, 305

—-—— ——-— ———-— tickellize 91

Mycalesis anapita 244

—— -——- mestra sadona 244

-— suavolens konglua ... 244

Myophonus horsfieldii ... » 289, 305, 447

Myricaria elegans 38]

—-— germanica 381

Nadata niveiceps Ui

Neophron ginginianus .. x 19

———— -— percnopterus 300, 308

Neorina patria westwoodi 248

Neptunus pelagicus 224

Nettapus coromandelianus 424

Nettion crecca crecca 424

Noieca asaka ‘c 47

Noorda blitealis ... 256

Nyctimera plagifera ~ 74

Nyroca fuligula fuligula Pe 22

— marila marila ...

425

INDEX OF SPECIES

Xxli

PACE

Ochradenus baccatus 133

Oedicnemus oedicnemus 302

Oenanthe deserti atrogularis 88

—- opistholeuca ... 88

——--—— picata Nae 58

Oenopopelia tranquebarica 301; 309

Oligomeris subulata ee od

Oriolus oriolus 292, 306

——— - kundoo ane 99

———-— - xanthornus 292, 306

-—_ ——-- Haderacne ane 99

Orthotomus sutorius 292,305

———-- —--—- ~ guzerata ... 96

Osphronemus goramy ... eee ERIS

Otocompsa jocosa 288, 394

Otus sunia 299, 308

Oxyplax ochracea 7

Palaemon lamarrei 223

—————- malcolmsonii 223

——-—— rudis 223

Panchax lineatus 192

Pandalus borealis 298

Pangium edule 373

Panulirus fasciatus 223

—— ——- ornatus 224

——--—— polyphagus ... 223

Papilio arcturus dawna 237

- bootes mindoni... e250

- demoleus S27 see

- krishna manipuri 238

—_———- - thawgawa 238

-machaon suroia 239

Ss —— verityi 238

___-- (Pathysa) nomius 183

- polyctor significans 238

pee ee -- stockleyi - 238

-—— - protenor protenor 235i

- rhetenor publilius 237

UES 238

Paralithodes Bf to anien 298

Paranticopsis macareus dawna 239

Paraphlegopteryx Bi sc 305

Pararge praeusta burmana 246

— satricus kabrua 246

Paratelphusa hydrodromus 2311

2 ——— jacquemontii 229

meteors spinigera 225

Parus major bo4 287

Se mahrattarum - 85

Passer domesticus 294, 306

2 .____++ ———. jndicus 101

PAGE

Pastor roseus oa

Pavetta indica 447

Pavo cristatus 392, 209 |

Pedalium murex 114, 1159

Pellorneum ruficeps 288, 304

Penaeus carinatus 222 |

-— indicus ... 222 |

— —--—— - semisulcatus 222 |

Perdicula asiatica 302

Peregrinus maidis 257 |

Pericallia ricini : Me 73)

Pericrocotus prenocnns 291, 305 }

———- -- —— —-—- brevirostris, 93 |

— --—-- -- erythropygius . 94, 291, 305m

——_-—__-- peregrinus 291, 305,

——-- --—— - - peregrinus 93 |

—~—--———-- speciosus semiruber 291, 305 |

Pernis ptilorynchus - 301

Phalacrocorax niger 303 f

Phalera parivala 78)

Phcenicopterus ruber antianions um 12 |

— ——- ruber a 12

Phceenicurus ochrurus ... 288, 304

—— ——- -———_ ecbraniats 89 |

~___-—-- —__——. phoenicuroides. 434]

——_————- phoenicurus 434 |

Phylloscopus collybita tristis ... 98 |

-—-——. eriseolus 98 |

ee OTA (a1 Summa is 98 |

-_—.-——— nitidus viridanus 50 98

—_—-------- occipitalis occipitalis ... 98

subviridis 98 |

Pieris brassicae ... 181, 240

——-- naganum 240 |

Pinnotheres placunae 122]

Piprisoma agile agile 106 |

Pithecellobium dulce 269

———---— saman 3) Ge |

Pitta brachyura e 106, 296, 307

Pittosporum napaulense 374

Ploceus philippinus a 293, 306%

pes -philippinus 100.

Pluvianus aegyptius 434 |

Podiceps rufiicollis capensis 420)

Polydorus crassipes 236 |

———-- doubledayi 23618

Sees = ——- merguia 236)

2 putaoa ... 236

————- latreillei ticona 236.

— ——- nevilli 236

236 |

—— polla ae

4 Fe

-Polygala brachystachya

——-—— chinensis

== — —— crotalarioides ...

————- elongata

———_—— glomerata

—— —— sibirica

telephioides

Pomatorhinus horsfieldit

Portulaca oleracea

-— quadrifida

——_———- tuberosa

Potamomiysis assimilis ...

Prinia inornata..

-——-——terricolor

socialis

- stewarti

sylvatica gangetica

Pristis perrotteti

Prodenia litura

signata

Prosopis spicigera

Pseudogyps bengalensis

Psittacula cyanocephala

——. ——- eupatria

-— krameri

Pterocles indicus

Putorius sarmaticus

Pycnonotus luteolus

Pyrameis cardui

Quamoclit coccinea

——-_— — lobata

Quisqualis indica

Ramphalcyon capensis eee

Rana leithii ~

Reaumuria hypericoides

Reseda odorata

Rhinoceros sondaicus

-—— sumatrensis

- unicornis

Rhinccoris fuscipes

Rhinophis travancoricus

—_—_—_————

—_—

Rhodonessa caryophyllacea

Ricinus communis

Riparia chinensis

~ concolor

- paludicola [chenensis ]

— rupestris

Ruppia rostellata

Russelia sarmentosa

Santalum album

Saprolegnia

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE |

S704)

376 |

146, 149, 150,

72, 314,

294,

..102, 294,

376

376: |

3767)

376 |

377

304

378

380 |

381

220

» 306

306

435

256

254

268

, 308

9, 308

Sarcogyps calvus

Saxicola caprata bicolor

— torquata indica

Saxicoloides fulicata

cambaiensis

Schilbe boalis :

Scomber macrolep: ene

Scombermorus guttaties

Scoparia dulcis

Scylla serrata

Sesamum indicum

—--——-laciniatum

Sesbania aculeata

—— —— grandiflora

Silurus asotus

- attu

- boaiis

———-- mulleri

- ruallagoo

- walla goo

Siphia parva

parva

Sitta castanea e

-— castanea

Spatula clypeata

Sphenocichla humeti

Spilornis cheela

—————s

eheela ..

Spizaétus cirrhatus

Spodoptera mauritia

Spondias pinnata

Sterna albifrons albifrons

—— aurantia

———-—- melanosaster ae

Stichophthalma camadeva aborica

——-- burmana

—- ———=—

— nourmahal

Stictcspiza formosa

Streptopelia chinensis ;

—_--————~ orientalis agri foley

—-—-——- risoria

——_—-——- senegalensis

Sturmia inconspicuoides

Sturnia malabarica

Sturnopastor contra

dehrze

Sturnus vulgaris poltaratzskii...

Swietenia mahagoni

Sylvia curruca blythi

hortensis jerdoni

Taccocua leschenaultii sirkee ..,

277, 304

XX1ii

PAGE

300, 308

288, 304

349

434

322

224

si Lia

114, 115

253

203

289, 305

424

419

300, 308

256

269

433

303

433

250

.. 101, 293, 306

301, 309

301

301, 309

256, 359

100, 293

293

XxiV INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE PAGE

Tadorna tadorna a i .. 180] Turdus simillimus mahrattensis a 90

Tamarix aphylla me a i, 002 | Dytolalba javanica ie ath ... 17

—-— dioica of Ais .. 383 | Uperadon systoma sae ah . 186m

SS EROU pA ae oli i. 363 | Upupa epops tee 600 297, 307

Taraktogenos kurzil... dee ... 3/4 | Uroloncha malabarica ... ...100, 293, 306 |

Tchitrea paradisi Oe bere wot | AaS punctulata lineoventer ... 100°

a — encocacten rn 92 Vanessa cardui in oes .. 182m

- ——_—— paradisi nee ome 92 , Varuna litterata aee Sis sew | eee |

Tectota grandis aoe om Se 84 | Viola biflora Aan ane 136, 139%

Temenuchus pagodarum #005293; 300 || ——— cinerea Mes ae 136, 133)

Tephrodornis pondicerianus ... 291, 305 | ——-- diffusa a see 136, 138 |

palaces Se Re odontal wo! a

Terminalia belerica ... Fe .. 269 | ——~- patrinii oes or 136, 138.

——- tomentosa ... Bis oe; S4 | ——- serpens nee mee .. J3Gm

Terpsiphone paradisi ... ws. ose «= 290 | —=— sylvestris wee nee 136, 139 |

Thaumantis diores splendens .. 251 | ——- tricolor rae a: 136, 139 |

aoe --lucipor ... , .. 251 | Wallago attu ase ae a 64

Thauria aliris merguia... we ae B51: |: -——— leerii a _ ne 65 |

aa lathyi lathyi .. 25) | ——-— mulleri nog) Ma Ate 66 |

‘Thereiceryx zeylanicus ... eda 296, 307 | ———— russellii ae ee ae 66 |

Toccocua lescheraultil ... ase 299, 308 | Waltheria indica vee nee ee 81 |

Tockus birostris a 7 297, 307 | Xantholaema hemacephala ... 296, 397 |

Trabala vishnu he a = 314 | Ypthima doherty: persimilis 7. ... 247m

Trimeresurus annamalensis ... «. 450) --——— mecalomma megalia ... 247m

Tringa hypoleucus oe ” ... 303 | Zeuxidia aurelius cr see ee 2) |

Troides helena ferrari ... e .. 235 | Zeuxidia doubledayi chersonesia ... 95]mm

Turdoides somervillei ... ae 287, 304 | Zosterops palpebrosa ord 295, 307 |

ee. orientalis ; 86 | ——-—-- ——-—- occidentis -.. L06GR

Turdus simillimus sea oes 289, 304

ay Narurab History Societ

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ae National Bank of India, Bishopsgate Street. London, E.C.

CONTENTS OF VOLUME XLT/, No. t.

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS. By N. L. Bor, M.A.,,

D.Sc., F.L.S., 1.F.S. and M. B. Raizada, mM.sc. (With one coloured

plate, two Black and White plates and ten text-fi gures)....cecccecesers

THE FLAMINGO (Phoentcopterus ruber antiquorum Temm.) By C.

eS Atel Se GILL SCLC PUALES). doiviwiet en enis Siew cavaes prdecertebgeticcunevess

THE INDIAN CapDpDIS FLIES (7vichoptera). Part VI. By Martin E.

MOSEL PEA RGES., B.Z.Saq (WIL LWELVE. PLATES) 0; svel syessnis cevetsescresnevuee

WiLpD LIFE PHOTOGRAPHY IN THE MALAVAN JUNGLE. By Theodore

MMOD ACK HZ ELENG DLALCSY! Stea ins «ses oanlse ousgesecai<p vq t4 de 0 ures deaeees vues

Tue GAME FisHES oF InpIA. Part VII. By Drv. li. Hora, pxSe:,

F.R.S.E., F.Z.S., F.R,A.S.B., F.N.I. (With one coloured plate and two

BOIL OS an nee gat aes take COLTS Hee Cea ONO Uaiseun Teint anee nee seeweherwaes mesic nee

THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA. Part III. By D. G. Sevas-

OMCHLOMMBE Fee Lea Sa tasea es esac eanauie sme sth auees,s by etaves tensed (¢ Lesnar d cesbubeiseuat elolts

THE BIRDS OF CENTRAL INDIA. PartI. By Salim Ali, with notes by

PEM S ULC a (VIOLE Cs L7G Di onieee cde cates 00 sah pak eh ecieas Le Biede'es aevsees characte’

StuDY OF SEx ORGANS OF MAHSEER. By Dr. Hamid Khan, Ph.p.........

SoME COMMON INDIAN HERBS WITH NOTES ON THEIR ,ANATOMICAL

CHARACTERS, By M. Sayeedud-Din. (With three plates).........cc0000

CORACLES AND CHIMPANZEES. By Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton, 1.a. (Retd.)

Zea CUORDIOLOS naa tam rr faa neue teas an saa ebetay SHOR Se paaens Otouds SeaseuetessiNeeanes

THE RECENT PLACUNA PEARL FISHERY IN BARODA AND SOME NOTES

ON THE WINDOW-PANE OvsTER. By Dr. S. T. Moses................

MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS PLAN'S OF INDIA. By Rev. Fr. J. F. Caius,

PIPE NIEES Ver eritrece cet lt che aa oib vice Bo sWeeWasdivels sta ¥iigeveadlwel doesdedveadiiows uv:

ADDITIONS TO THE DESCRIPTION OF Frevea indica Dalz. (Asclepia-

daceae) AND SOME OBSERVATIONS ON THE SPECIES. By C. McCann,

IMIOR GOMER (CLIAULIL. CILV-CE DI QLCS cou ae saa i nveed te hous cas ecuva daveaucecedeccarens ter stesso

MEMORANDUM ON THE KAHILU SANCTUARY. By D’Arcy Weatherbe.

MEEBO NAL LU O PLOTOS) Sonus asskn'sotteviceelsaae doa sesh hares vs MN gtute ca easansteanteuecetineys

REVIEWS :—

1. Annual Report on Game Preservation in Burma for the year

ENMed els ari LISS Hei inwtaisusis ie sdt atte Wings ntasd ea Soadbacen ies ste

2, The Formenkreis Theory and the Progress of the Organic

IVECO a liepecciove scree teen nearest eels olan visjawniantry OnmneTsee aus vdh eae os ven ete

DeEPCe Gtice torte ona kes! Of U candace: ticeccccn-tesrsenivessschesesavese

SV CCICAL LuMtOMOLO SY. taacsdais ee sseevaaierertacwndsnevessqennes Pacteesean ri

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :—

1.—Behaviour of Monkeys when attacked. By A. A. Dunbar

SS IgeUIN LC Gaaisnsilaied soAlty Chl swuiiens sees s4Ge se can essinacincrtns tees Coens esos

II.—Occurrence of Tigerin Sikkim. By Capt. R. K. M. Battye.

IlI.—Occurrence of Tiger in Sikkim. By Lt.-Col. F. M. Bailey....

IV.—Unusual behaviour of Panthers and Tigers. By Lt.-Col.

ROVE UT LO Mee LAG SINCEGs Nace acinctas etic nscsswedvetvsawsuperescentses

V.—A Coin lodged in a Tiger’s palate. By Capt. D. Chetwode.

MAR 1 1940

PAGE

il CONTENTS OF Vel. XLT7 No. 7

VI.—Effects of mauling by tiger. By H. A. Fooks..........:.0....0008

VII. ag he ia Se wee oe ice Lt.-Col. R. W. lee

A. (Retd2)s: DS sRW aes ne

Vill.—Number of young Hkanenee: have at a birth. a C. MGC

1X.—Weight ‘of Tusks'of the Indian Elephant. By G. D. L. Millar

X.—Behaviour of Sambhur in the presence of Wild Dogs. By

POOR. SHubback ys. 0c... seosden sibs tuetooues oe creer sean erat, eee

XI.—The Punjab Sirkeer Cuckoo [ Zaccocua leschenaultii sirkee

(Gray)i|in Sind: “By No Ei.eMenessen sneer eeecere ne

XII.—Leeches attacking chicks of the Pied Kingfisher (Ceryle

yudis inn:).: By Humayun Abdulaliyce sce: steers eee

XIIJ].—Breeding of the Indian Barn Owl [7Zyto alba javanica

(Gmelin)] in Bhavnagar. By K. S. Dharmakumarsinhiji...

XIV.—The Indian Great Horned Owl [2ubo bubo bengalensis

(Frankl.)]. By K. 5S. Dharmakumarsinhji

XV.—The Indian Crested Serpent Eagle [Spzlornis cheela cheela

(Lath.)]. By K. S. Dharmakumarsinhji

XVI.—Death of a Curassow (Crax sp.) caused by congestion of the

oviduct: By: C: McCannis.. casement eee ee ee Bees

XVII.—Supposed breeding of Pintail Snipe ‘Capella stenura (Bona-

parte) ] in Belgaum District. By H. Whistler

Oe ee

Ceo e8 eereeesesoecorsooece

abe: (se 8 081650, ie: ialeelatale:

XVIII.— Occurrence of Sw'nhoe’s Snipe [Capella megala (Swinhoe) |

in Mysore. By ate ]O% E.G. Phythian-Adams, (1-07Ac;

OPREtA: iis sais wsen ocatnededure uses daueuaraten caer seen tee Wie tere a ean

XIX.—Records of Snipe shot in the Tingri District, Assam. By

AikRe DARODGYs6 te aks sas Aa eaa eee ee lcci aie en ei aes

XX.—Breeding of the Great Black-headed Gull (Larus itchthyaétus

Pallas). “By Hom, Richardson, 1.0°S 213 ee ee

XXI.—Occurrence of Shelduck (Zadorna tadorna) and Godwits on

the Chilka Lake: By WitAe Hooks 2-22). conch teen ee

XXII.—Mahseer and Turtle. By Lt.-Col. C. G. Toogood............: es

XXIII.—Extension of the Range of the Microhylid Frog j{ Uperadon

systouza (Schn.)| By Beni Charan Mahendra.s..05. tee:

XXIV.—Notes on Pieris dbrassice in Champaran. By A. C. Harman.

XXVi—The Micrationiof Butterfiies “Syd Nv i@orbett es sete

XXVI1.— Variation in the leaves of Auphorbia caducifolia Haines.

By P. V. Mayuranathan. (With 3 plates)

Proceedings of the Annual General Meeting and Statement

of Accounts for 1938

eee ese eeeeceeroreeateoe

Coe renee TOF COBH TELE G BR Oee EM ED HOE EOL EOE EOS eoeoreosees

Journ. Bompay Nar. Hist. Soc. Prare ae

—-—-

John Bale, Sons & Curnow, Lt¢ London.

HEAVENLY Btue Mornine GLORY.

Ipomoea rubro-caerulea, Hook.

(5% nat. size)

JOURNAL

OF THE i

Bombay Natural History Society.

1939. Vor: <lel No. 1.

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS.

Nee Je DOR. MOA. DSCs, Fil... 1.61

Forest Botanist,

AND

MES be RAIZADA,. M.Sc. ,

Assistant Botamnst,

Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun.

(With one coloured and two black and white plates and

ten text-figures.)

INTRODUCTION.

This series will deal with some of the commoner ciimbers and

shrubs which are to be found in our Indian gardens.

It must not be assumed from the title of the series that all of

the plants described are natives of India.

This is not so, for the very great majority of them have been

introduced from other tropical countries, but are now so common

in our gardens that they may be considered to be naturalised.

Many of them even have escaped from gardens and are found

growing wild.

The plates have been reproduced from paintings of the living

olant executed by Ganga Singh, Artist, Botanical Branch of the

ieorest Iesearca Institute. Mr. ©. E. C. Fischer, .r.s, (Retd.),

Assistant for India at Kew, has been kind enough to help us

with nomenclatural problems.

{Ipomoea Linn.

The genus Ipomoea, which is the largest in the family

Convolvulaceae, is native in most of the tropical and sub-tropical

regions of the world. Many of its four hundred species have been

1 1940

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Voi. ALI

introduced into our Indian gardens where they are cultivated for

their striking, and often very beautiful, flowers. The generic name

seems to be derived from two Greek words: Ips, bindweed, and

homoios, like, similar to.

The genus Ipomoea as known to Linnaeus, and to Hooker in

the Flora of British India, has been the subject of much systematic

work in recent years and has been greatly modified. Garden plants

well known to horticulturists as species of Ipomoea now appear

under such generic names as Qudmoclit, Mina, Calonyction,

Merremia, and so forth. Some of these genera are quite distinct

and are gradually being accepted. On the other hand the nature

of the extine of the pollen, whether echinulate or not, as a character

for splitting genera, may appeal to a monographer, but is hardly

likely to find favour with horticulturists. Hence, in this series

of articles, the ordinary name as known to horticulturists will be

given together with the correct name in brackets.

The majority of the species found in our gardens are herbaceous

twiners; but one, which will be treated in this article, 1s a shrubby

scrambler. The presence of latex vessels in the bark is not

uncommon.

The flowers of Ipomoea, in the wide sense, may be salver-,

bell-, or funnel-shaped. They are, as a rule, large and showy,

with red, blue, yellow or purple corollas and are borne singly or

in clusters in the axils of the alternate, often cordate, leaves.

The method of folding in the bud, a feature which is quite

apparent in the fully opened flower, is characteristic of the genus.

Five triangular, smooth and rigid areas arising and tapering from

the base of the corolla are easily discernible. In the intermediate

spaces are areas of more delicate texture which, in the bud, are

folded inwards so that the triangular firmer areas are exterior, and

touch by their edges. The bud is twisted to the right.

The calyx lobes are five in number and may be united or free,

glabrous or hairy. The stamens, too, are five; and are alternate

with the triangular bands referred to above. The ovary, which may

be two-, three- or four-celled, is seated upon a fleshy disc which

SECECteS MECtar,

The flowers in most species are short-lived and only remain open

for a short time; sometimes only a few hours. Others remain open

all day, while a few open at sunset and wither at dawn. When

withering the corolla rolls up and remains tightly closed till it falls.

Some species with tubular corollas are adapted to cross pollina-

tion by birds (e.g. Ipomoea (Mina) lobata) while others are fertilised

by insects or by the wind. If cross fertilisation does not occur

when the flower is open, self-fertilisation is almost certainly ac-

complished when the withering corolla rolls up.

Economic uses.—The sweet potato, Ipomoea batatas is grown

extensively for its large, edible, fleshy-fibrous roots. I. turpethum

furnishes a_ well-known purgative named Indian Jalap. The Jalap

of the British Pharmacopoeia is the resin obtained from the roots

of I. purga. I. pes-caprae has some repute as a sand binder.

It is, however, as a garden plant that the genus is most highly

valued. Their gorgeous flowers and the ease with which they may

QO.

SOME -BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS

be propagated have contributed to their popularity. Most species

are not exacting as regards soil but they love a sunny site with

plenty of water. To ensure early germination it is recommended

that a small notch be filed in each seed or that they be soaked in

warm water for about two hours. The perennial species can be

grown from seed but they can also be propagated vegetatively

by cuttings, layers or division of the roots. Owing to their thick

foliage and rapid growth it is advisable to grow the climbing

species over trellis-work.

KEY TO THE SPECIES.

Climbing species.

Corolla salver-shaped.

Stamens and style far exserted from corolla: flowers

orange or scarlet... Si % wn Ls lobata,

Stamens and style not much exserted: flowers a brilliant

crimson.

Leaves ovate-cordate 1... cocemea:

Leaves with filiform segments ... a w. 2. Quamoclit.

Corolla campanulate.

Leaves deeply lobed or palmately compound :

Sepals hairy: corolla yellow ae ... IT. vitifolia.

Sepals glabrous.

Lobes of leaf again lobed or deeply serrate, flowers

white with a purple eye: Be w. TD. sinuata.

Lobes of the leaf elliptic.

Sepals purplish: flowers shining rose or light

purple Pe a ;

Sepals greenish: flowers violet-purple with a

purple tube

Leaves entire :

Sepals short and thick oe ee w. 1. rubro-caeruled.

Sepals prominently acute.

I. Horsfalliae.

—~

. palmata.

Sepals acute I. purpurea,

Sepals long acuminate I, Leavit.

Scrambling shrub; flowers pink [. carnea.

Ipomoea rubro-caerulea Hook. (I. tricolor Cav. ).

Morning-glory ; Heavenly Blue.

(rubrocuerulea is derived from two Latin words meaning’ red

and sky blue, and refers to the colour of the corolla which fades

from blue to red.)

Description.—A twining, glabrous creeper of extensive growth,

requiring a large trellis for its support. Branches rounded, her-

baceous, tinged with purple. Leaves alternate, membranous, dark

green, truly cordate, with a deep and broad sinus at the base,

shortly but sharply acuminate, quite entire, wavy on the surface,

much veined.

Peduncles axillary, hollow, longer than the petioles, 3- to 4-

flowered, the pedicels thickened. Calyx five-partite, the segments

small, erect and appressed, linear-subulate; corolla funnel-shaped,

white in the bud but tinted with a rich red which, when the flower

is fully expanded, becomes clear azure blue or purple, with five

angles and five plicae; the angles mucronate. Stamens 5; filaments

unequal, inserted at the base of the tube, hairy at the base. Anthers

oblong, yellow (sometimes tinged with purple). Ovary superior,

4 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XLI

oblong, 2-celled, with 2 ovules in each cell. Style filiform, stigma

2-lobed. Fruit a capsule, usually 4-valved containing 4 seeds.

Flowers.—September-November. Fruits.—Cold season.

Native country.—This plant is a native of Mexico, but is now

extensively cultivated in all tropical countries of the world.

Though a perennial it becomes exhausted after one season and

therefore, can be only cultivated successfully as an annual. It

blossoms at the beginning of the cold season, opening its large

clear blue flowers in countless numbers early in the morning and

presenting then as gorgeous a sight as anyone could possibly wish

for. The flowers fade in the after part of the day, turning first to

a reddish or purplish tinge.

Gardening.—It is essential that the seed be sown as early as

July in order that the plants may grow to perfection by the beginning

of the cold weather; they do not require a rich soil, but a change

of locality each year is desirable. Its rapid growth. and dense

foliage make it specially valuable for quick covering of arbors,

verandahs, walls, and for screening unsightly objects. It is also

valuable for cut flowers.

Ipomoea rubro-caerulea Hook. var. alba Hort.; a variety with

white flowers but not nearly so beautiful.

Ipomoea Quamoclit Linn. (Quamoclit pinnata Bojer)

‘The Cypress-Vine or Indian Pink’.

Description.

A beautiful annual

twiner. Stem smooth,

slender, twining to a

height of about 20 ft.

Leaves short-petioled

or sessile, pinnately

‘divided into many fili-

Low form Seo mre nates:

Pee dwn cles: aew-

flowered, commonly

much longer than the

petioles. Corolla 1-1.5

in. long, scarlet, the

tube narrowly salver-

Shap e.d), « inhated

above ; the limb nearly

flat, 5-lobed. Stamens

exserted.

Flowers.—R ainy

season. Fruit s.—

October-December.

Distribution.—

Lt) sa Snative: ior

tropical America and

is now widely spread

in the warmer parts

Fig. 1.—Ipomoca Quamocht Linn. x 4 of the world.

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS - 6

Gardening.—Raised from seed usually sown in early spring. It

is a very elegant species and makes rapid growth from June, and

covers a trellis very rapidly.

Ipomoea Quamoclit L. var. alba Hort. has white flowers, but

is seldom seen in cultivation in this country.

Medicinal uses.—The Hindus consider it to have cooling pro-

perties. The pounded leaves are applied for haemorrhoids, while

a preparation of the juice with hot ‘ghee’ is administered internally.

In Bombay, the leaves are used as a ‘lep’ (plaster) for carbuncles.

Ipomoea Horsfalliae Roth.

(Dedicated to Mrs. Charles Horsfall, at whose home it was first

raised in England.)

Description.—A more or less woody, perennial, tall, glabrous

twiner. Leaves more or less circular or orbicular-ovate in outline,

palmate, with 5, or rarely 7, leaflets which are obovate, oblanceolate

or elliptic, 3-4 in. long,

acuminate, entire, rather

thick in texture, margin

Sle htiy crisped or

waved. Peduncles

axillary, about as long

asesot loneer than, "the

petioles, bearing a fork-

Capecyme of many

flowers; pedicels thick-

ened upwards, smooth.

Calyx of 5 equal, rather

broad, purplish-black,

iimoricated lobes.

Corolla narrowly funnel-

shaped 2-2.5 in. long,

the limb with prominent

plaits and becoming

revolute, of a deep rich

and glossy rose, equally dark within and without. Stamens 5,

shortly exserted. Ovary globose, surrounded by a large fleshy

ring. Stigma capitate, two-lobed, hairy.

Flowers.—September-December. The plant does not appear to

set seed in India.

Distribution.—Native of the hotter parts of America and perhaps

of the Old World; now commonly cultivated in all tropical parts of

the earth.

Gardening.—As this species rarely produces viable seeds it is

usually propagated from root cuttings which strike with great

difficulty. It is very suitable for pergolas in the open.

Ipomoea Horsfalliae Roth. var. Briggsi Hort., is a free flowering

plant with magenta-crimson flowers. .

Ipomoea Learii Pax.

Blue Dawn-flower.

Fig. 2.—Ipomoea Horsfalliae Roth.: x4

(Named in honour of Mr. Lear, who is chiefly known as a

collector of Ceylon plants. The seeds from which plants were first

6 JOURNAL, BOMBAY (NATURAL HIST) SOCIE iy iol mun

raised in England were received from him. The plant, however,

is not a native of Ceylon but of tropical S. America.)

Description.—A perennial climber, somewhat woody at the base;

the stems ‘finely pubescent.7 Leaves 23-5) ain: long and as_ broad,

mostly entire or some-

times deeply 3-5-lob-

ed, pubescent on both

surfaces, base cordate,

apex acute; petiole

slender, nearly as long

as the blade. Flowers

a ee in capitate clusters of

5 to many flowers, 3-4

in. long and as much

across, bright violet-

“blue when fresh, with

5 narrow, pinkish

bands. Sepals about

°7 in; long.) ainear-

lanceolate, hairy

pubescent. Corolla

Very . bee aque 1 teumle

campanulate, suddenly

Fig. 3.—Ipomoea Learii Pax. x3 widened at the mouth.

Flowers.—August-October. Seeds ripen in October-December.

Distribution.—Indigenous to S. America, but now widely culti-

vated in the tropics of both hemispheres.

Gardening.—It 1s propagated by seed sown at the break of the

rains. It is a magnificent species and a most useful plant for

covering waste places, embankments and the like. It is not usually

erown on a trellis.

Ipomoea palmata Forsk. (I cairica Sweet.)

The Railway Creeper.

(palmata is Latin for

shaped like a_ hand.)

DOS CY Pl ti0 ta

A perennial — climbing

shrub. Stem glabrous and

more or less. warty.

Leaves 1-3 in. in dia-

meter, cut nearly to the

base into 5-7 elliptic or

lanceolate entire lobes.

Flowers 2-3 in. across,

purple, in axillary, often

3-flowered cymes. Sepals

.25 in. long, “broadly

ovate. Corolla campanu-

late, mauve or purple

with a deeper tinge in the

throat, Fruitva capsule Fig. 4.—Ipomoea palmata Forsk. X%

JOURN. BomsBay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Photo by M, M. N. Bakshi. Ipomea palmata Forsk.

Botanical Garden, Forest Research Institute.

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS 7

.5 in. long, ovoid, glabrous; seeds pubescent with woolly

margins,

Flowers and fruits. —Practically all the year round.

Distribution.—Indigenous or naturalized in most tropical

countries,

Gardening.—Easily grown from cuttings of the branches. The

small tubercles on half mature stems, on coming in contact with

soil easily strike root. It is exceedingly common on trellises in

gardens and fences on railway platforms (hence the name Railway

Creeper),

Ipomoea carnea Jacq.

(carneus means flesh-coloured and refers to the colour of the

corolla. )

Description.—A stout, straggly shrub with milky juice, suberect,

at times climbing to about 30 ft. Leaves about 4 in. long, 2 in.

broad, ovate or ovate-

lanceolate, long acuminate,

base cordate, entire, soft

and somewhat fleshy;

Petiole 2.5 in. long.

Flowers large, rose or

light mauve, 2.5 in. long,

2 in. across, in axillary

cymes. Peduncles 2-4 1n.

long. Sepals .2 in. long,

broadly ovate. Corolla

campanulate, narrowly

cylindrical for about .2 in.

at the base, suddenly

widened at the top. Fruit

a capsule, .5 in. long,

glabrous. Seeds silky.

Flowers.-—-All the year

except the coldest months.

Fruits in November-

December in N. India.

Distribution.—Indigen-

ous to S. America, but

now commonly cultivated

in the plains especially at Fig. 5.—Ipomoea carnea Jacq. x3

Railway stations.

Gardening.—It is easily grown from cuttings and is inexacting

as regards site and soil.

Ipomoea vitifolia Sweet.

(The specific name refers to the leaves shaped like those of

a vine.) |

8 JOURNAL,. BOMBAY-NATURALHIST 2 SSO CiE iayan cl eee!

Description.—An extensive, perennial, nearly evergreen twiner,

hairy all over. Leaves hairy, suborbicular or broadly ovate in

outline, cut one-third to one-half the way down into ovate or

triangular, acute or acuminate lobes which are often strongly

toothed, palmately-nerved with 5-7 basal nerves; petiole .5-4 in.

long. Flowers sulphur-coloured, very pretty, in peduncled, hairy

cymes of one to seven blooms.

Sepals .5 in. long, hirsute,

hardened; .7-.9 in. in? fait.

Corolla 2-2.5 in. in diameter.

Fruit a ‘capsule,) /5) “in. an

diameter, irregularly breaking

up, semi-transparent, usually

4-seeded. Seeds "black or

slate-coloured with a= matt

surface.

Flowers.—October-March.

Fruits. —May-June.

Distribution.—Throughout

India (except the North-west),

Malaya Islands.

Gardening.—It is usually

propagated by stem cuttings

Fig. 6.—Ipomoea vitifolia Sweet. X3 or layers. It is acts gaaee

grower and suitable for cover-

ing walls, trellises and pergolas.

Medicinal uses.—An infusion of the leaves is supposed to be

cooling and is applied for inflammation of the eyes.

Ipomoea coccinea L. (Quamoclit coccinea Moench).

The Star Ipomoea.

(coccineus means crimson and refers to the flowers.)

Description.—An annual, weak, glabrous twiner, climbing to

about 15 ft. Leaves ovate-cordate, slender, petioled, 2-4 in. in

diameter, entire or angulate, acuminate, petiole 2-4 in. long.

Flowers in few- to many-flowered lax cymes. Peduncle 2-6 in.

long, slender. Bracts inconspicuous. Sepals .4 in. long, unaltered

in fruit. Corolla crimson, in garden varieties often orange or

yellow; tube 1 in. long, mouth .9 in. in diameter, limb obscurely

lobed. Ovary completely 4-celled, 4-ovuled. Fruit a capsule .4

in. long or rather more, ovoid, smooth. Seeds furred.

Flowers.—Rainy season. Fruits.—October-November.

_ Distribution.—Probably indigenous to N. Mexico and Arizona,

but now common throughout India, cultivated or semi wild.

Gardening.—Easily raised from seed sown early in_ the

rains. The scarlet flowers, though rather small, are produced in

profusion.

Ipomoea coccinea L. var. hederifolia House. This form of the

species has angulate, 3-lobed or even 3-5-parted, lobed leaves and

Journ. Bompay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Photo by M. M.N. Bakshi. Ipomea palmata Forsk.

Botanical Garden, Forest Research Institute.

SO BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS ]

Fig. 7.—Ipomoea coccinea Linn. xX q

usually large flowers. It is superior to the type for ornamental

purposes. Rarely seen in cultivation in this country.

Medicinal uses.—Vhe root is sternutatory.

Ipomoea lobata Thell. (@uamoclit lobata House, Mina lobata

iay, and Lex.).

(lobata refers to the lobed leaves.)

Description.—An annual vigorous and quick growimg creeper

not attaining a very great length. Leaves cordate, with a broad

sinus, 3-lobed, the middle lobe longest and narrowed below. — In-

florescence a spiral cyme; peduncles stout below, several-flowered.

Flowers .5-.9 in. wide, when open rich crimson or orange, scon

fading to pale yellow. Sepals tipped with short awn-like points.

Corolla salver-shaped, stout and tubular below, abruptly widening

into a cylindric or bag-shaped limb with 5 small, acute lobes.

Stamens long exserted. Fruit with false partitions between the

seeds.

Flowers.—September-December (occasionally in January).

Fruits. —November-January.

10 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOGIETY,. Volzweiel

Fig. 8.—Ipomoea lobata Thell.

Distribution.—aA native of

Mexico, but now commonly culti-

vated in all tropical countries.

Gardening.—Propagated by

seeds sown in early June either in

the ground or in pots. It is best

suited for growing on small arches

and on posts. It is a free-flowering

climber and deservedly popular. —

ipomoea purpurea’ Lamk.

The Common Morning Glory.

(purpurea refers to the colour of

the flowers).

Description.—An annual, hairy

climber with entire, ovate-cordate,

shortly acuminate, pubescent, 3-5

in. long, leaves. Flowers 1-5 on

axillary peduncles, funnel-shaped,

2-3 in. long, varying in colour from

white to pale-blue or purple. Calyx-

lobes less than half the length of the

tube, acute but not elongated and

somewhat exceeding the capsule in

fruit.

It resembles I) we deracea

(another garden species) at first

sight but can always be distinguished: from it by its smaller and

entire leaves and by

the sepals not having

ligulate tips.

Flower s.—

During the rains.

Fruit s.—October-

Novemter.

Dist rnbution.—

It is said to ce a

native of tropical

America but is cer-

tainly found wild in

India. It is extens-

ively cultivated in

all warm countries.

Gardenin g.—

Easily raised from

seed sown in April.

One of the most

popular of garden

Bl averatabl 2h hi Sy [teas

found in many races

in’ “CU Pir. ataon,

Fig. 9.—Ipomoea purpurea Lamk. x

tole

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS tt

varying in colour of the flowers, with variegated foliage, and

sometimes with double flowers.

ipomoea sinuata Ortega.

(sinuata refers to the margins of the lobes of the leaf.)

Description. —A perennial, extensive, twining shrub covered with

long, yellowish hairs. Leaves 2-4 in. in diameter, smooth, sinuately

cut nearly to the base into about 7 lanceolate, pinnatifid segments

Fig. 10.—Ipomoea sinuata Ortega. X3

which are toothed. Peduncles 1-2-flowered, longer than the petioles.

Flowers about 1 in. across, white, with purple centres. Sepals °8

in. long, glabrous, elliptic-oblong. Corolla bell-shaped. Fruit a

capsule .5 in. in diameter, glabrous.

Flowers.—October-November. Fruits. —November-December.

Distribution.—It is a native of tropical America. Occasionally

grown in gardens in all warm countries.

Gardening.—Raised from seed sown in early rains, or by layers

of the stem, or division of the roots. It is worth growing for its

delicate foliage alone and deserves more popularity. It prefers

a moist situation. The flowers usually open widely in Dehra for

2-3 hours at midday as in Texas, where it is known as the ‘Noon

Flower’.

Medicinal uses.—‘The leaves have an odour of oil of bitter

almonds and are used in the preparation of the French Liquor

known by that name’ (Nadkarni). The sap contains hydrocyanic acid.

(To be continued).

THE FLAMINGO (PHOENIEOPTERUS RUBER

ANTIQUORUM TEMM.).

CHARLES McCann, F.L.S.

(With seven plates).

INTRODUCTION.

The Flamingo, that oddity among birds, holds almost the same

problematic position in the feathered world as does the camel among

mammals—both ‘compositions of spare parts’ left over after

Creation! The Flamingo’s true position in the scheme of classi-

fication is a problem both to the systematist and anatomist. In

details its anatomy points to various connections in the world of

Birds, but as a complete whole, the relationships are less definable

a real isolation! In keeping with its curious structure, its habits

call for the ‘considering cap’ of the field naturalist. The flamingo

is well known, yet a stranger in every sense. It has been, and

still is, the subject of many conflicting statements and arguments.

Who is to blame? but the flamingo! it is such a ‘patchwork’ of

Nature !

The type of the species (Ph. ruber ruber Linn.) comes from the

Bahamas, West Indies, but the subspecies antiquorum, with which

we are concerned, has a wide distribution: ‘Southern Europe,

more or less confined to the coast-line, practically the whole of

Africa and Asia as far east as Lake Baikal and India. In India

it is found here and there over the whole continent, south in

Ceylon, east to Assam, eastern Bengal, but notin Burmaces sin

a bird exhibiting such a wide geographical distribution, we must

naturally expect in the various localities some differences in habit,

varying from the ‘standard’. Accordingly, to avoid wordy conflicts,

the observer must restrict his remarks to the area studied—there

can be no generalizing—the flamingo is as much a victim of

circumstance as the observer.

My observations are restricted to India and further limited to

the Great Rann of Cutch and portions of Gujarat. I am one of

the favoured few who has had the opportunity of visiting the

birth place of flamingoes in India during their breeding season.

This opportunity arrived when I was detailed to obtain material

for a ‘group’ case in the Natural History Section of the Prince

of Wales Museum, Bombay, illustrating the breeding habits of

this beautiful bird.

It had long been our ambition to have such a case, but the

difficulties were many and the cost prohibitive to our slender means.

Mr. S. H. Prater, our Curator, broached the subject to His

. Ff. Ba. (Birds), vol, wih Sp. 375.

[ eeLy 1 ‘00S ‘ISIH IVN AvaWog ‘Nano{

THE FLAMINGO (PHOENICOPTERUS R. ANTIQUORUM TEMM.) 18

Highness the Maharao of Cutch. His Highness, an ever generous

patron of the Society, very readily offered all the assistance, financial

or otherwise he could give. Thanks to His Highness’ generosity, |

the Museum can now boast of a piece of Cutch within its four

walls, while the public have, one of Nature’s ‘extravaganzas’

brought to its very door. Our thanks must also be extended to

Maharaj Kumar Sahib Vijiaraji who took a keen interest in the

project during His Highness’ absence from the State, and lastly

to Captain V. C. Steer-Webster for his untiring efforts in locating

an active colony, and leading the museum expedition to a successful

close. |

I have endeavoured to record such observations as were

possible during my short stay in the Rann, and draw some

conclusions from a comparison of the breeding ground in the Rann

with those made by observers in other localities where these evasive

birds breed.

DISCOVERY OF THE BREEDING GROUNDS

The nesting of the flamingo long remained a_ puzzle to

naturalists. Not only were the nesting sites a problem, but, for

some unknown reason the incubating posture was also a subject of

debate! Some affirmed that the flamingo sat on its nest in the

normal way, with its legs bent under it, while others held that

the birds sat astraddle! Dampier (Voyage Round the World, ed.

2, corrected, 1., p. 71, London. 1699.) was responsibie for the

latter belief. He recorded it as his own observation and the story

found its way into scientific literature. The passage is quaint and

interesting, and is worth reproducing: ‘They build their Nests in

shallow Ponds, where there is much Mud, which they scrape

ose eae making little hillocks, like smail Islands, appearing out

f the Water, a foot and a half high from the bottom. They make

He foundation of these Hillocks broad, bringing them up tapering

to the top, where they leave a small hollow pit to lay the Eggs in:

and when they either lay their Eggs, or hatch them, they stand

still all the while, not on the Hillock, but close by it with their

Legs on the ground and in the water, resting themselves against

the Hillock, and covering the hollow Nest upon it with the Rumps :

For their Legs are very long; and building thus, as they do, upon

the ground, they could neither draw their legs conveniently into

their Nests, nor sit down upon them otherwise than by resting

their whole enies there, to prejudice of their Eggs or their young,

mere it not for this ana contrivance, which they have by

natural instinct. They never lay more than two Eggs, and seldom

fewer. The young one cannot fly till they are almost full grown;

but will run prodigiously fast; yet we have taken many of them.’

Dampier made these observations prior to 1683 near Querisao

(i.c. Curacao) near the South American coast. Crespon was the

first to doubt this statement in 1844 (Fauna Meérid., ii, p. 69),

though he had previously accepted the belief (Ornithol. du Gard.,

p. 397). He went further to assert that flamingoes did not build

i4 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLI

a nest, but laid their eggs on slight elevations to keep them out

of water. Lord Lilford (Proc. Zool. Soc., 1880, pp. 446-450)

obtained a nest, now in the British Museum, from Andalusia,

which confirmed Dampier’s description of the nests and proved

Crespon to be wrong. However, there is the possibility that the

nests which Crespon saw were new nests barely appreciable as

such, or that they were the shallow type of sand nest, as described

by Dr. C. B. Ticehurst from Iraq, which led him to this erroneous

conclusion.

In Europe, the Marismas of the Guadalquivir were long known

to be the breeding ground of antiquorum, but the difhculty of

negotiating these dangerous marshes at the breeding season was

a real problem. Besides the marismas are tremendous tracts

of country. Lord Lilford was first in the field. As early as 1856,

he attempted to investigate the breeding grounds, but his efforts and

those of Saunders were failures. Later, Crown Prince Rudolph of

Austria visited Spain and failed to reach the nesting site, though

he found a few eggs on the wet mud of the Marisma. It was

not till 1883, when Mr. Abel Chapman and W. J. Buck visited an

active breeding colony in the Marismas of Guadalquivir at much

risk, that there was some real light thrown on the subject. Mr.

Chapman gives a detailed account of his observations in his two

fine books IWVild Spain and Unexplored Spain. His cbservations

once and for all set at rest many of the old beliefs and added much

to our knowledge of these extraordinary birds. Ten years later

another interesting discovery was made, this time in India. Up

to that time flamingoes were not known to breed in this country,

though sporadic eggs had been found. In vol. viii, p. 553% we

read a personal letter, addressed by His Highness the Maharao of

Cutch, dated 5th. October 1893, to Lieutenant C. D. Lester. This

evidence was further confirmed by His Highness, with a photograph

of the site; in vol. xv, 706, of the Journal... Thus His Highness

can rightfully claim to be the discoverer of the Indian nesting site.

Almost .a decade later another discovery was

made, _ this

time in the Bahamas, the breeding ground of the typical race

Pan

ruber, by Mr. J. Lewis Bonhote, Secretary to the Governor

of the Bahamas. Mr. Frank M. Chapman, Curator of Ornithology,

American Museum of Natural History, in company with Mr.

Bonhote visited the area in April 1902 to study the colony and

obtain material for a group case. His observations were set forth

in an article in the dnn. Rep. of the Smithsonian Institution (1903),

p- 573- Much new information was added to our knowledge and

older observations were confirmed or refuted. Since these breeding

grounds were discovered, year by year something has been added

to our knowledge of the life and habits of these puzzling birds.

THE GREAT RANN OF CUTCH.

The Great Rann is a more or less sandy waste, forming a

divide between the Province of Sind and Cutch proper. To the

— errs

— —

1 Jour. Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc., vol. viii, p. 553-

THE FLAMINGO (PHOENICOPTERUS R,. ANTIQUORUM TEMM.) 15

north-west an eastern arm of the Indus river once entered the

Rann and found an exit to the sea through the Kori Creek, at

Lakput. It is now choked up, but at one time sea-going vessels

were able to go up this river as far as Ali Bundar. The Luni

river enters the Great Rann at the north-east corner; and_ the

Benas, Saraswati and other minor streams from the east flow into

the Little Rann. The joint waters of these rivers after flooding

the two Ranns find an exit to the sea through the Gulf of Cutch.

In the distant past, Cutch (in a restricted sense) was in all prob-

ability an island, surrounded by a shallow creek, now replaced by

the Ranns. The rivers which enter it drain areas of poor rainfall;

have a short, but active life during the rains and, by bringing

down enormous quantities of silt, have formed the two Ranns.

Undoubtedly the sea contributed to the formation of the western

portions and the arm of the’ Indus, when_ still active, also

played a very active part in the beginning by damming up the

north-western entrance of the creek and thereby forming an area

of ‘still water’ into which the rivers from the east deposited their

silt, in time filling up the lagoon. Now it is a shallow sea only

during the monsoon, and a dry stretch of sand during the dry

season. During the flood season it is possible that the flooded

area is in contact with sea both north and south. The annual

inflow of the sea and its former occupation of the onetime-creek

is probably responsible for the salt condition of the Rann.

My impression of the Rann is that it is a low slightly

undulating waste stretching for miles and devoid of all vegetation,

except on its borders. If we include the Bhunny as part of the

Great Rann, this area holds a vegetation with a strong maritime

affinity. During the dry season, the Rann is baked dry and

hard. Its surface is covered by acres of salt crystals and blistered

clay; but in years of good rain it becomes almost a complete

sheet of water varying in depth from a few inches to several feet.

Bogs and sinking sands are frequent, making it positively dangerous

to traverse. Many of the outlying smaller islands are completely

isolated. The eastern rivers finding no direct outlet to the sea

gradually flood the area. During our stay, there was a general

and considerable rise in the depth of the water, noticed on two

consecutive days, after which it receded once more. This rise

may have been due to a fall of rain in the upper courses of

the rivers. The receding appeared to be in a north-easterly and

easterly direction—i.e. towards the mouths of the rivers. The water

at this period was extremely salty—a mother liquor—, and _ the

crystals formed before the water dried. The temperature was high

and consequently evaporation was very rapid. The air vibrated and

mirages were common. The glitter from the water and _ salt

crystals was blinding.

Lying about on the surface there was a certain amount of drift

wood, particularly near the ‘shore’ and in the deeper hollows of

the area. In the stream beds that entered the Rann from the

bordering hills there were numerous empty shells of land snails,

which were sometimes washed into the Rann. Beyond these

traces of animal life, which did not belong to the Rann, I could

ié JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XLi

find no microscopical inhabitants in the water, even with a strong

lens. Besides the flamingoes, a few Scavenger Vultures, locally

migrant birds these, and a stranded grasshopper, the author saw

no other signs of life. On the floor below the water there were slimy

filaments here and there which appeared to be the remains of some

aquatic plants; but for the single occasion on which the author

discovered what appeared to be a single seed, there was no sign of

aquatic vegetation (see Food). Drinking water is scarce, and even

when obtainable on the island, it is brackish. In this dreary, hot

and inhospitable stretch the flamingo finds a spot to isolate itself

from the rest of Nature and complicate the problem it affords us.

The colonies of nests are built miles away from the ‘shore’ of the

Rann.

THE BREEDING SEASON.

In India the breeding season of flamingoes coincides with the

south-west monsoon (in Cutch, July-October). The nesting site

each year is dependent on the amount of water present in the Rann,

for the nests must be situated in shallow water—the presence of

water being the determining factor; incidentally the water must be

salt at some period. Likewise in the Bahamas, Mr. F. Chapman

notes that ‘their nesting 1s dependent upon the rainy season, which

in the Bahamas begins about the middle of May.’ Of the Spanish

site Abel Chapman says: ‘Their doing so (breeding) cepends on

the season and only in very wet years is the attempt made.’ ‘The

breeding season in the Bahamas coincides with the breeding season

in the Spanish area. This is a very significant point. |

The breeding ground in the Bahamas is largely dependent on

tidal influence and the heavy rain which ‘begins about the middle

of May’. Accordingly, the site would depend on the amount of

silting up each year along the shores; hence, according to Mr. F.

Chapman ‘they apparently use a nest only one season. This

seemed proven by the nicely graduated series of groups of

nests which we found, each one of which, beginning with the best

preserved, seemed about a year older than the other and by the

fact that the birds were building fresh nests near numbers of

others which were seemingly as good as new.’ My experience

in the Rann was that ‘nests were repeatedly used. But, unlike

the Bahamas, the Spanish breeding grounds are dependent on the

winter rains alone. According to Mr. Abel Chapman the marismas

are dry two years out of three! Here lies the snag! Where do the

thousands of flamingoes that breed there in wet years go in dry

years? and here it is that I venture to offer the following explanation.

On arrival at the Spanish breeding grounds after the winter,

finding the conditions unfavourable for nesting, do the flamingoes

migrate to other breeding grounds, such as those in Africa,

Iraq,. and! the ‘Great! /-Ranm?. 71> feel the possible weakness

of such a supposition in the absence of any concrete evidence,

but as the breeding is later in India than in Spain, this would

Journ. Bompay Nar. Hist. Soc. PLATE II

Nest colony of Flamingoes (P. rv. antiquorum Temm.). Note the shallow

NESts co the mesh.

(The ‘topee’ shows the comparative size)

Photos by Author.

Nest colony of Flamingoes (P. 7. antiquorum Temm.).

THE FLAMINGO (PHOENICOPTERUS R. ANTIQUORUM TEMM.) 1%

give the birds time to come over. The regular breeding season

seems to be undoubtedly from May onwards by the coinciding of

the Bahaman and Spanish records.

However, acting on this supposition, let us briefly review the

climatic conditions prevalent in the various areas during the breed-

ing season. We shall start with the Bahamas, the breeding ground

of the typical form, P. ruber ruber.

The Bahamas, West Indies. —The Bahamas are described as a

group of some 3,000 coral islands and sand banks, which rest on

a bank in continuation of the peninsula of Florida.. They are all

low and have a sandy soil. The climate is ‘Tropical, but tempered

by cooling sea breezes. There are two seasons, wet and dry. The

rainfall in the wet season is frequent and very abundant, with

severe thunder storms.’ The annual rainfall is from 80 to 120

inches, but from May to October 40 to 60 inches. The islands

are influenced by the warm North Equatorial and Gulf Stream

currents. The actual surface temperatures are, January 64-72°F.,

and July 80-88°F.

In the Bahamas the nesting sites are along the shore within

tidal limits, Chapman says: ‘‘Some were placed among young,

others among fully grown mangroves, and one colony, probably

inhabited in 1900, was situated on a sand bar 200 yards from the

nearest vegetation”’.

The Spanish sites.—‘Though rain is abundant in the north and

west of Spain, the country generally suffers from drought.’ The

Marismas in which the flamingoes breed are chiefly in the basin

of the Guadalquivir. This portion of the Iberian Peninsula is

mainly dependent on the winter rains—it has a Mediterranean

climate. The annual rainfall is 1o-20 inches, from November rst

to April 30. The actual surface’ temperatures are, January

64-72°F., and July 80-88°F. The water entering the Marismas

is undoubtedly, at first, only slightly brackish, as there is a

luxuriant vegetation (Chapman) and only becomes salt when drying.

Hence the food of the flamingoes in the area is probably composed

chiefly of seeds and other vegetable matter of the soft aquatic

plants with a certain amount of animal life that may be present.

The Great Rann of Cutch: The Rann falls into the ro-20 inches

rainfall belt, but actually the rain is very often lower than 10

inches. In years of bad rainfall it is almost dry. The rain falls

during the monsoon months (in Cutch, July-October). Actual

records for the area are not available. The actual surface

temperatures are, January 64-80°F., and July over 80°F. Actual

temperatures recorded at the border of the Rann in the shade

during our stay were over go°F. each day, and on _ one

day the thermometer recorded over 100°. The flooding of the

area is dependent on the strength of the monsoon, likewise the

breeding of flamingoes in a particular area is controlled by these

conditions.

Strangely enough the largest and best known breeding grounds

fall into a belt north of the Tropic of Cancer, i.e. from 224° to

38° N. Latitude. The other known breeding grounds are of less

importance.

i8 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLI

OTHER BREEDING GROUNDS.

Asia, Iraqg.—Dr. C. B. Ticehurst records ‘On May 21, 1921

Flamingoes were seen on Bubyan Island and a rotten egg was

picked up. On April 7, 1922 a colony of about 500 pairs was

located on Bubyan up the Khor Milah nesting on a slightly raised

stretch of sand covered with low scrub. The nests, situated on

bare dry sand within a foot of each other and just above high

water mark, were either mounds of sand raised above the level

or else the egg was laid on the level sand and the surrounding

sand scooped away leaving the egg on the mound. The nests

measured one foot in diameter and contained one egg, rarely two.

When on the nest the scapulars are raised up in the form of a

fan, the nearest approach to the sitting birds was too yards.

Subsequently the colony deserted’; and by May 30, had laid again

in another part of the Khor, but most of the eggs had been washed

away by a big tide. The young in down swim with ease. On

April 1, 1923 no flamingoes were seen on Bubyan.’

Persian Gulf.—The same authority records: ‘According to

Cummings it breeds on the Koweit side of the Gulf, whence I

believe he obtained from the Arabs many eggs which are now in

the Karachi Museum.’

Africa.—Layard writes: ‘Mr. Chapman also informs us that

both the flamingoes found in South Africa breed on Lake N’gami.’

Then further, another correspondent of Mr. Layard after indicating

various localities in which flamingoes are abundant along the coast

says that: ‘With rare exceptions (and these not well authenticated,

but merely surmised from young birds being sometimes found

barely able to fly) the Flamingoes do not breed in any parts of —

the coast above particularized; and, indeed, the only locality where

I know for a certainty that they nest is the inland one of Lake

N’gami.’

Cape Verde Islands.—Sclater writes: ‘but only known to

breed in Cape Verde Island.’

OBSERVATIONS AND GENERAL REMARKS.

Nesting site.—We have already remarked on the condition of

the Rann during the breeding season. It is a wide expanse of

deep and shallow water. The nests are built in the shallows

where there is but a few inches of water. When we arrived the

water had already receded to the northward and the colony was

high and dry. Only a week previous it was surrounded by water

and now the water was about three miles away! We sank a

drill to find out how low the level had sunk and also to ascertain

—

1 Very probably the birds deserted owing to the absence of water, the nests

being built on dry sand above water mark.

Journ. Bompay Nat. Hisv. Soc.

PLaTeE III

Part of a nest colony Flamingoes

-—

scoops’ in the foreground.

A large ‘scoop’ among the nests of I

lamingoes

(P.

P. 7. antiquovum Temm.). Note the numerous

Photos by Author.

vy. antiquovrum Temm.).

THE FLAMINGO (PHOENICOPTERUS R. ANTIQUORUM TEMM.) 19

the nature of the soil. To our surprise the water was already

about four feet below the surface. The soil was an admixture

of fine sand and clay. The colony at which we worked was a

large one, consisting of several hundreds of nests. A few yards

to the east was another colony, and a larger one about half a

mile away, which seemed as though they had not been occupied

this season. The ground round them was covered with a fine

incrustation of salt, which gave the place a greyish hue. Scattered

around were innumerable eggs and drying corpses of young

flamingoes. The eggs were either lying on the surface, or

in the nests, or wholly or partially imbedded in the ground, or

in the material of the nests. A few feathers were scattered here

and there, some imbedded in the nests. The atmosphere of the

vicinity was permeated with a strong odour of decomposition

emanating from broken, rotten eggs and corpses. The eggs were

undoubtedly the legacy of many previous years, as many of them

exploded like a gun-shot under foot, and squirted their orange

yellow or blackish content in all directions. The sun is probably

responsible for many explosions during the hot dry season, but

many survive the expansion test.

At the time of our visit the Scavenger Vulture (Neophron

ginginianus) was always present in the neighbourhood of the

nesting colonies, attracted by the many corpses and eggs. We

noticed them pulling at the remains and eating the contents of

broken eggs. They even tried to break the eggs, but without much

success. Taking an egg in its bill, the bird stretches to its full

height and forcibly throws the egg down on the sandy surface.

Owing to the nature of the ground, the effort is often repeated

before the shell gives way. Judging from the number of whole

eggs lying about the endeavours were not always successful.

The vista in the early morning before sunrise is just a wide

expanse of blue-greys and browns with a dense haze towards the

horizon. The distant hills appear as though they floated on a

sea of bluish haze. As the sun peeps over the horizon the sober

colours give place to lighter and then to more vivid tones. The

haze lifts, and the hills come down to earth again with a deep

shadow at the foot, but soon this again alters, the air begins to

vibrate and the hill tops rise again above a simmering atmosphere.

Where there is water, the reflected colours are still more beautiful

at sun rise; the sun plays a marvellous tune on the spectrum

bands, but the tune is short-lived. The heat dispels the colours

as the sun mounts the eastern sky, the water becomes a steel grey

and the air begins to dance and play tricks. Mirages appear on

all sides. In such conditions the birds are not easy to see and

distances are extremely difficult to estimate. It is a real pantomime

of phantoms ! |

Nests.—The nests are built in colonies. In the Rann they are

entirely composed of an admixture of clay and fine sand. There

is no attempt at incorporating any other material. The occasional

feathers that were in some of the nests, were to the author’s mind,

purely accidental. The mud is collected in the bill, when in

a semifluid condition from regular ‘scoops’ near the colony or

from between the individual nests. The semifluid condition of the

20. JOURNAL; BOMBAY NATURAL HUSH? SOCIbINa 8 Volar

mud at the time of building is clearly shown by the trickles down

the sides of the nests.

The older nests are truncated cones, newer ones are but shallow

saucers. The height of a nest may vary, according to age or the

depth of water, from barely a couple of inches, to a couple of feet.

Age apparently plays an important part in governing the height.

A vertical section of one of the largest nests clearly indicated that

it had been built upon again and again for six successive years.

The sequence of shallow cups with stray feathers and pieces of

egg-shells were clearly revealed.

The top of =the nest is a. shallow “saucer ibanely71” tomer)

deep, quite smooth with an irregular thick margin. The saucer

varies from 1o to 14” in diameter. The width at the base and

the conical shape is dependent on the amount of mud that has

trickled down the sides. Nests are often interconnected by

‘bridges’ inadvertently made during construction. Around the

colony, though broken in places, there is a definite shallow moat

inadvertently scooped out during nest construction. There is no

suggestion of the nests having been built on a platform. The

colonies vary considerably in size and may be far apart.

With regard to the construction of the nests in the Spanish

Marismas Mr. Abel Chapman states that the nests are built on

a definite platform 8-12 yards in length and that the nests are

themselves rarely more than five to six inches high. The condition

of the Marismas very likely calls for such construction owing to the

depth of water, or is it possible that the platform is formed under

the water by the gradual flow of the liquid mud from the nests

in construction? This might happen while the birds are building.

It is a possible explanation.

In’ Irag, according to Dr. Ticehurst, “The nests, ssituated on

bare sand within a foot of each other and just above high water

mark, were either mounds of sand raised above the level or else

the eggs are laid on the level sand and the surrounding sand

scooped away leaving the egg on the mound.’ Another deviation

from the ‘usual’ construction comes from Africa. Mr. Layard

writes: ‘Mr. Chapman also informs us . . . Flamingoes breed on

Lake N’gami forming a large elevated nest of rushes,’ amid the

reeds that surround the Lake.’ It seems strange that a bird that

usually builds in the open should here build a nest among reeds

and of reeds!

Writing of the Bahama colonies, Mr. Frank Chapman says:—

‘The thousands of nests seen were built of mud, which the nests

in process of construction showed was scooped up from about their

base. In fact it is difficult to conceive of a flamingo carrying mud.

In selecting a nesting site, therefore, the bird is governed by

the condition of the ground, which, to be serviceable, must be soft

and muddy.’ Referring to the above statements, Mr. Chapman

rightly remarks that ‘the bird is governed by the condition of the

—

2 Italics are mine.

JourN. BompBay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE IV

SRR

Photos by Author,

Some of the largest nests in the colony. Note the old eggs in the foreground covered

with mud.

THE FLAMINGO (PHOENICOPTERUS R. ANTIQUORUM TEMM.) 21

ground, etc.’, but I do not see why he doubts the possibility of

flamingoes being able to carry mud! My _ photographs clearly

show that the scoops are frequently some distance away from the

colony. One general scoop was several feet in diameter and about

four to five yards away from the colony, so that the mud was

evidently carried that distance to the nests.

Referring to the size of the nest, the same authority writes :—

‘The popular conception of a flamingo’s nest makes it not more than

6 or 8 inches in diameter at the base, whence it tapers to a truncate,

hollowed top nearly 2 feet in height. I saw no nest, however, over

12 inches high, and most of them were not over 8 inches high.

The average basal diameter was about 13 inches, that of the top

about 10 inches.’ The nests in the Bahamas are considerably

smaller than those of the Rann. This, however, may be explained

by the fact that the nests in the Rann are built on in successive

years, whereas those of the Bahamas are only occupied for but a

single season. The bases of some of the largest nests in the Rann

were almost a yard wide, the reason for which has already been

explained.

Eggs.—The eggs, in size and shape, vary from a broad and

regular ellipse to a narrow ellipse with one pole more pointed than

ime other. The Fauna records the. average of I00 eggs as

Sons 5405) MM: maxima 1037.5 x56.5 mm. and 63 x6r.0 mm.;

minima 77.0 x 48:5 and 94.5x47.7 mm. Of thirteen eggs measured

by the author the average was 82 x 56: max. 100x 59: min. 75 x55

and 88x53. The shell, though thin, is fairly strong and chalky

white in colour. The colouring of the contents of the eggs examined

varied from a bright orange-red, orange-yellow, to almost black

(the latter being the result of decomposition). In many instances

the eggs were so bad, that when drilled, the contents shot out

to a distance of several feet. The period of incubation remains

unknown. ‘Both sexes incubate; one by day the other by night’

(F. Chapman). ‘When on the nest the scapulars are raised up in

the form of a fan;’ (Ticehurst).

In Spain the eggs of the flamingo are eaten. Mr. Abel Chapman

“says, ‘egg poachers carried off thirty arrobas (750 lb.) of flamingoes’

eggs—some being still left behind as the canoes could carry no

more!’ Again, ‘these eggs are said to be the worst eating; but

in hungry Spain, ‘“‘two will make a dinner for a family’’.’

Dropped eggs.—The New Fauna' records: ‘The Flamingo has

a curious habit of dropping eggs at odd times before and after

the usual breeding-season and such eggs have been picked up

by Barnes, Hume and others in India.’ Blanford? referring to the

same habit writes: ‘but it should be remembered that in North-

‘western India these birds are migratory, arriving about October,

and remaining, if there is water, till May or June, and that around

the Sambhar salt lake, where they abound in the cold season, their

eggs have frequently been found, irregularly scattered, about May

peotuart Bakery 6.) vol.ovi, p: 375.

SD ts, VOle Vy 1D. A409;

22 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL. HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLI

and have occasionally been met with in November,’ but the birds

never sit on such eges.

Blanford’s statement shows that there is good reason to believe

that this ‘indiscriminate dropping of eggs’ is in reality occasioned

by either disturbance or lack of a breeding site at the time when

the birds are in breeding condition—or about to lay their eggs.

Unsuitable circumstances at such a time would undoubtedly result

in the laying of the eggs anywhere—the birds no longer being able

to control the passage of the eggs, must of necessity drop them.

The timing, as stated by Blanford, certainly appears to support this

statement, particularly in the absence of the exact time when the

eggs were laid. The eggs may have been laid weeks or even

months previous to the date of their finding. Though rumbers of

eggs found in the Rann were apparently ‘fresh’, the author would

not like to make a definite statement—the contents appear to

‘keep’ for a long time. Thus in my opinion, the occasional

dropping of eggs in odd places is beyond the control of the birds

and eggs are laid wherever they may be at the time of maturation.

Chick.—The chicks are clothed in a dense cotton down. The

youngest ones varied from a greyish-white to almost white, the

down being suffused with light brown in places. Below, the upper

seems to give place to an under-down. The brown intensifies

till the appearance of the darker primaries. The bill and feet in

young birds are dark brown, almost black. They gradually change

to a slaty black and finally to dull slaty blue. The eyes are entirely

black. Wandering about in this garb in the greyish and brownish

background of the Rann the chick is almost invisible, even at

a short distance—further away against the skyline their bodies

merge into the vibrating atmosphere.

According to Mr. F. Chapman,? ‘they (chicks) remain in the

nest three or four days and during this period are fed by the

parents on predigested juices of a mollusc of the genus Cerithium.

They also eat the shell of the egg from which they have so recently

emerged.’ To witness this observation in the Rann the author

was too late, but it was clearly evident that the young soon fend

for themselves. The expedition secured very small chicks miles

away from the nesting site, feeding in company with their elder

brethren. On leaving the nest the chicks congregate in large

parties, sometimes composed of several hundreds. They vary

greatly in size in the same ‘crowd’, for a dense crowd they are.

The year of our expedition was evidently a ‘bumper’ year for

flamingoes, the young were there by the thousand, real thousands !

As the water recedes from the nesting site they follow in its wake

and commence their juvenile march feeding as they go—there is

no return. This march must last for weeks, till they are eventually

able to fly. The line of march is marked with corpses and remains

of hundreds of young birds, while in the water float the dead and

the dying. Weaklings, not able to keep pace with the main hody

1 Italics are mine.

2 Natural History, J. Am. Mus, Nat, Hist. (Guide leaflet No, 28), (1930), P- 39-

Journ. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE V

A three week (?) old Flamingo chick (P. 7. antiquorum Temm.).

Photos by Author,

A ‘close-up’ of the same chick.

THE FLAMINGO (PHOENICOPTERUS R. ANTIQUORUM TEMM.) 23

and the receding water, wander about the desert aimlessly, till

death mercifully comes. The mortality appears to be exceedingly

high, and is due mainly to starvation and exhaustion.

Healthy chicks run quite fast and it requires a good effort on

the part of a man to catch them, as they dodge here and there;

but weaklings are easily caught. In the shallow water the incessant

patter of their feet is audible at a fair distance. While feeding

they keep up an incessant calling, which can only be compared to

the call of young Indian Paroquets (Psittacula eupatria) clamouring

together for food. Their combined voices could often be heard

for about a mile or more. (Distances were too difficult to estimate

and could only be calculated by walking or riding time.)

The flamingo in its youth has to be a good walker and runner

—it has to walk into adult life! Apart from being a good walker

it is also a good swimmer and is able to maintain a steady pace.

By the time the water in the Rann has receded and the chicks are

able to fly they must have covered many miles. The march, like

the receding water, is in a north-easterly and easterly direction,

towards the mouths of the rivers.

Immature plumage.—Though we did not obtain any birds at

this stage in Cutch, there are two in the collection of the

Society showing this phase, and a few observations on these

will not be out of place. One is from Ganoweh, Persian Gulf,

shot on 6 February 1925 (Capito), and the other from Bhinder,

Salsette Island, obtained on 13 September 1913 (Kinloch). The

Indian bird appears somewhat younger than the Persian Gulf

specimen. In the Indian bird the head and half of the neck still

show the smoky brown juvenile feathers while the rest of the neck

and body are white. The feathers of the back are much worn.

The wing feathers are blackish brown. (The terminal third of the

wing coverts are brown. The axillaries are rose-pink with brown

terminations. Some of the wing coverts are tinged with rose-pink.

The Persian Gulf bird is in very much the same condition, except

that the coverts and axillaries are much more pink.

In my opinion, most of the feathers, including the axillaries,

which at this stage show brown are entirely brown at an earlier

age; the brown gradually fades out from base towards tip

becoming quite white (canesence), except those feathers which are

black in the adult bird. At the same time there is a gradual

suffusion of rose-pink in feathers which in adult life are pink. That

such a fading of the brown and a suffusion of pink does take

place is clearly shown in these two specimens. Therefore the

transformation is not by moult. I have noticed a similar transition

in the Peacock.

Adult plumage.—In the adult, in non-breeding plumage, the

wing-coverts, etc., are rose-pink, brightest on the coverts and

axillaries, but during the breeding season the same areas are scarlet

and the whole of the white plumage is covered with a pink,

evanescent bloom. This was most remarkable in the birds shot in

the Great Rann on the breeding grounds and absent in the birds

shot at Mandvi, the latter were the paler birds and were without

the bloom, After death much of the bloom disappears.

24 fOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL AISE, SSO CHANG Viole wer

Sexes.—The only difference in the sexes appears to be size—-the

males were larger than the females.

Moult.—Newton writes,! ‘Late in the summer the adults shed

all their quill-feathers, and being thus rendered flightless, are

easily captured.’ I can find no evidence in support of this

statement, and it appears to be most unlikely that this should

happen when the birds are at the height of the breeding season!

This was certainly not the case in the Great Rann. Traces of

the general moult would have been visible. The only explanation

of this statement is that young birds, as yet unable to fly, were

mistaken for birds undergoing moult.

Beak.—The bill of the young bird is quite different from the

characteristically deflected bill of the adult. In newly hatched

young it is straight with a distinct hook to the tip of the upper

mandible without the slightest suggestion of a tend. When

the chick is about two weeks old (ages are based on comparison

and are therefore not exact), there isi a) slight: tendency toma

downward curve in the upper jaw and the lower is decidedly curved.

In a chick a couple of weeks older -(3-4 weeks) there is a very

definite increase in the curvature of both jaws—it now has an

aquiline nose. Henceforth the curvature increases till the adult

shape is attained.

The margins of the upper mandible are flexible along their

length, and are beset with lamellae of varying length from the

gape forward till the point where the bill hends downwards. These

lamellae are movable. From the point of deflection forward the

lamellae become somewhat larger, and wider apart till akout a

centimeter from the tip. The lamellae of this region are’ rigid:

On the interior surface of this mandible there is a median ridge

which is quite smooth. Between the lamellated flexible margins

and the median ridge,” there are oblique grooves pointing

backwards.

The margins of the lower jaw are broad and strongly inflexed

and are covered with oblique short lamellae corresponding to the

grooves in the upper jaw. The internal surface of the lower jaw

is quite smooth. The marginal inflection is so strong that the

tongue cannot possibly leave its groove—an adaptation due to the

‘up-side-down’ process of feeding. A flamingo cannot put its

tongue out!

To my mind, the lamellae aided by the papillae of the

tongue help to sort the food from the sand and mud allowing

only fine sand and mud to escape, while larger grains, useful in

the gizzard, are retained by the stiff, distant lamellae of the forepart

of the upper mandible, thus regulating the size of the granules

entering the gizzard. The gizzard is always full of only small

granules of sand—no large pebbles.

Tongue.—The tongue is slotted in the groove of the lower jaw

and can only be moved backward and forward. The rear two-

thirds is thick and muscular, the remaining tapers down to a fine

' Dictionary of Birds, p.’ 256;

JINJFVAING OT{STTIPIVICYS IY} JO UOTJEUITOF TeNpe1

oun Ee AQ OJON

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150° 9, 8 yt 8)

Mh silat oladadidadadadi pill ce u bile abtabldatbidd

SoOsUTWIeT JO ST[tE

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Dodidibadadididabadid

Journ. BompBay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Tongues of Flamingoes (Phenicopterus vuber antiquorum

papillae.

PLATES VIT

Photo by Author.

Temm.) showing the

THE FLAMINGO (PHOENICOPTERUS R. ANTIQUORUM TEMM.) 25

point. Viewed from above, the tapering portion is a leaf-like

expansion. On the thick muscular part there are two parallel rows

of stiff papillae increasing in size as they go forward, then de-

creasing slightly again. At the point where the papillae end, the

tongue turns almost abruptly downwards, coinciding with the

deflection of the bill. Between the rows of papillae there is a

shallow median groove receiving the median ridge of the upper jaw.

On the lanceolate expansion is a low median ridge running from

the tip backwards for about three-quarters the way up, with smaller

oblique ridges running forward. At the back of the tongue there

are two groups of pectinate papillae, one on each margin and the

other two forming two fan-shaped groups between.

The long marginal papillae operate backwards and forwards

against the marginal lamellae of the lower jaw and in their tips

in the grooves of the upper jaw.

Parental care.—As we have seen, the parent birds feed the

nestlings for about three or four days, but after that there is no

doubt that the young have to fend for themselves. Wath the

parties of young in the Rann there were never more than about

half a dozen adults, usually only one or two. The adults act

as sentries and marshal the young together. Amid the shrill

chorus of young the deep goose-like ‘honk’ of the adults was

frequently heard. At night the number of adults with the young is

not augmented. How this system of sentries is arranged remains

a mystery, but I am inclined to believe that only the males act

as sentries, as only males were shot in the Rann with the young.

If this is really the case then it is an Anserine character.

That the guardians herd the young together is clear from the

following incident. One morning when trying to secure an adult

we circled a party on horseback. I dismounted and tried to make

myself as inconspicuous and motionless as_ possible, while the

rest of the party drove the birds towards me. The ruse worked

well for a time, the chicks came on keautifully with the old bird

bringing up the rear. Then suddently the old bird ran up to the

fore, while the young were still out of range, turned its back to

me, and as it were, drove the chicks away in another direction,

flapping its wings all the while. The action seemed deliberate.

Only when I attempted to follow up did it take to wing. By this

time the young had gone far into the water.

Food.—With the question of food, there arise several other

problems which have a definite bearing on the subject, as far as

the Rann is concerned. Though the Rann in the area visited

is apparently an absolute desert, the flamingoes must get some-

thing to feed on, or they would not select such a locality for

nesting, more so as the chicks have to fend for themselves—But

what do they find? We examined the ground carefully for

molluscs, etc., and the water for crustaceans, but no trace of living

matter could be found even with a powerful lens. An examination

of chicks’ stomachs showed that besides a quantity of sand, they

contained nothing except a collection of small black seeds! The

questions now arose, (1) What were the seeds? (2) How did they

get there in such quantity as to sustain thousands of flamingoes?

26 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL BIST SOCKET V,. Wioln exer

Then again on examination the stomachs of the adults were found

to contain, besides some of the same black seeds, some brown

seeds, and small portions of aquatic plants resembling Naias

and Chara. The adults being able to fly undoubtedly visited other

feeding grounds, for I am positive that the three last mentioned

items do not occur in the Rann. Later we discovered that

large numbers of flamingoes visited the marshes not far from

Kawra. The swamps revealed that acres of ground were covered

with various sedges, Scirpus maritima in particular. In the water

there were other aquatic plants. The brown seeds found in the

adults were those of S. maritima. So this then was the source of

their food. The identity of the black seed of the Rann remained

to be determined.

On my return to Bombay I was able to fix the identity

of the black seed as that of Ruppia rostellata, an inhabitant

of slightly brackish water. Ruppia is unable to withstand salt

water, therefore there must bé some explanation for the presence

of its seeds in the Rann. There was no trace of aquatic vegetation

in the Rann and Captain Steer-Webster affirmed that he had

never seen any at any time he had visited the Rann. But,

here and there I did find some filamentous structures which

appeared like threads of slime. In this I found a single seed.

This material on further examination could not definitely be

ascribed to any plant, but the seed was the same as those obtained

from the flamingoes. The only explanation I have to offer on

the subject takes us back to the topography of the Rann and its

immediate surroundings. As already indicated, the eastern rivers

are largely responsible for the flooding of the Rann, their waters

spread rapidly over the surface dissolving the saline deposits. The

salinity of the water is at first low—saline enough to encourage

the growth of Ruppia. This means that Ruppia must mature very

rapidly, before the salinity increases to such a degree sufficient to

kill off the plants. Incidentally, the seed has a hard seed-coat

which is impervious to the brine and able to withstand a high

temperature during the dry months. If we accept this explanation,

it is fairly clear that the Rann is flooded with fresh water. Rain

alone (in an area where the rainfall is very low) cannot be

responsible for the flooding. That the area is not inundated by

the sea is clear from the presence of Ruppta—it cannot grow in

salt water (sea water), but when the Rann is flooded to its fullest

it is possible it joins up with the sea to the west, north and south

of Cutch, i.e. with the Kori Creek and the Gulf of Cutch. The

periodical connection with the sea may go a long way to accounting

for the salinity of the water and deposits in the Rann—by diffusion

—apart from the one time existence of a shallow arm of the sea

round Cutch proper. It is clear that the flamingo chicks miust

depend entirely on the existence of Ruppia in the Rann—in other

words on an entirely vegetakle diet.

Stuart Baker! writes: ‘We know that a considerable part of

their diet is vegetarian, but they are also in all probability far more

CC COO OOO

* Indian Ducks and their Allies (1908), p. 6,

THE FLAMINGO (PHOENICOPTERUS R. ANTIQUORUM TEMM.) 27

given to animal food than has generally been believed to be the

case. Mr. Eagle Clarke, in his interesting article already referred

to, came to the conclusion that the flamingoes inhabiting the Rhone

Delta existed almost entirely, if not quite, on a tiny Phyllopod,

the brine-shrimp (Artemia salina), which he states is found there

in marvellous abundance.’ In this passage the statement is a

general one, not differentiating between chicks and adults.

In the Bahamas, Mr. F. Chapman tells us, ‘The singular shape

of the bill of the adult Flamingo is related to the manner in which

it secures the small spiral Cerithium shells which, in the Bahamas,

appear to constitute its only food.’ In this case the food is

evidently maritime throughout.

Colouring of adults.—The question of animal colouration, its

meaning, and how it is arrived at, is a much disputed question.

The factors giving rise to animal colouration are so very complex,

that I make no pretence at explaining the problem cf flamingo

colouration, but merely advance certain deductions from facts

observed by myself and others which may contribute towards a

solution of this interesting problem.

In the Bahama birds, Ph. ruber ruber, the entire plumage is

bright crimson throughout, and what is more, it retains this colour

throughout the year. Under captive conditions the bright colour

is gradually lost till the bird is almost pure white. Experiments

have shown that the brilliant colours can be restored by special

methods of feeding. Thus Pycraft’ writes: ‘To begin with,

it is well known that many brilliantly coloured birds become

more or less pallid in captivity. This is especially noticeable

in the case of the American Rosy Flamingo (Phoenicopterus

ruber). These birds invariably lose their colour in confinement

and become almost white. This pallor, it has been shown, is due to

the reaction ,of the unfavourable climate, but it is intimately

associated with the metabolism of the body, a fact which has been

demonstrated by experiment. Mr. Beebe, the Curator of the

Zoological Gardens of New York, appears to have been the first

to demonstrate this point’. ‘‘In captivity,’? he remarks, ‘‘these

birds (American Flamingoes) fade out moult by moult, until they

become almost white, like the European species. By mixing with

their food a quantity of some strong but harmless dye, I have

had them either retain their original colour for years, or at least

the fading process has been appreciably lessened. In the Gardens

of the Zoological Society of London this experiment has been

carried out to a yet more satisfactory ending, for in place of the

‘strong, but harmless dye’ these birds were turned out into a

paddock where they had free access to a large pond well-stocked

with small crustacea, a diet which quickly restored the lost hues.

This is of particular interest, because it has been already shown

that the characteristic colour of the flesh of a salmon is due to the

red colouring matter extracted from the crustacea on which it

feeds. Thus as in the case of cayenne-fed canaries... .”’

ras SS RS ogy

a ee

* A History of Birds, W. P. Pycraft (1910), p. 315.

28 JOURNAL, BOMBAY, NATURAL “HIST SOCIETY sVols) aicks

‘The European Flamingo (Phoenicopterus roseus), it 1s signi-

ficant to note, though feeding on precisely similar diet, has only

the wings, beak and legs vividly coloured, while the rest of the

body is merely flushed with rose-pink.’ Does this factor then

really operate in the wild flamingoes? Is the subspecies antiquo-

rum then merely a bleached form of the type, due to differential

feeding? If differential feeding is partially responsible for the

colouration of the subspecies, is the difference due to the difference

in food of the chicks of the two subspecies, that it has a permanent

result? These are the questions we are now faced with and to

answer them we must return to the breeding grounds as the chicks

are confined to the breeding area.

_The chicks of the typical race and of the subspecies are un-

distinguishable. In the Bahamas the nests are built along the

shores of the islands within direct tidal influence. The water that

inundates the area is sea water, perhaps slightly tempered with the

limited amount of rain flowing off the land. Nevertheless it is

highly saline and the fauna along the shore is truly. marine,

therefore the birds, both young and old are dependent on the

marine fauna for their food and perhaps also on a slight admixture

of seed washed from the land during floods. We have already

noted the change in captive birds—the captives regained their

normal colouring !

In the Marismas of Spain conditions are different. The flood-

ing of the area is dependent on the winter rainfall and the flooding

of the Guadalquivir. This area is not under direct tidal influence,

therefore the waters of the Marismas are, at first, probably only

slightly brackish passing eventually into brine as the area dries

up. Accordingly the vegetation is totally different to that of the

shore of the Bahamas, though there are a few ‘maritime’ species

within the area. Aquatic and ‘amphibious’ plants are fairly abund-

ant and the progression from the ‘fresh’ to the saline condition must

vary. In short, the abundance of plant life means an abundance

of seed and other vegetable food. Likewise there is probably a

transition in the aquatic animal life. So evidently the young

flamingoes of this area are more dependent on a vegetarian diet

than those in the Bahamas.

In the Great Rann we find conditions somewhat similar. This

area is not under direct tidal influence, and like the Guadalquivir

the area is dependent on the monsoon and the consequent flooding

of the eastern rivers. The temporary connection with the sea is

soon severed when the water begins to dry up. At the time of

our visit there was no visible vegetation in the Rann, but we

found that the birds were subsisting on the seeds of Ruppia! As

indicated the plants must flourish during the early part of the

flooding and die out, leaving large quantities of seed as the water

becomes more saline. Is this then an explanation of the difference

in plumage seen between the type P. r. ruber and the subspecies

P. r. antiquorum? A question of food in the young?

That young birds only acquire their rosy hues when they reach

the sea is clearly evident, for when they first leave the breeding

grounds they have no rose colour on them. This is of course

THE FLAMINGO (PHOENICOPTERUS R. ANTIQUORUM TEMM.) 29

true of antiquorum. ‘Therefore the colouration is certainly cor-

related with the quality of the food. Antiquorum seems to be

more of a vegetarian than ruber. However, further evidence and

experiment is necessary on all these points.

Migration.—That birds migrate periodically from one country

to another or from one locality to another within the same country

is a well-known fact. That birds are compelled to migrate either

due to climatic conditions which govern their food supply or

their nesting site is equally well known. These same factors

evidently govern the movements of flamingoes, their nesting sites

are governed by the presence of water—no water, no nests, and

no food for the young. However, there is this difference between

the typical: P. vy. ruber and P. 7. antiquorum: the former is less

of a migrant owing to the fact that it is more litoral in habit,

therefore more certain of water supply at the time cf nesting;

whereas, the latter is far more lacustrine and therefore dependent

on rainfall for its nesting site and supply of vegetable food.

As marshes are dependent on rainfall, if the birds are to exist,

they must be prepared to find new breeding grounds in years of

bad rainfall. Perhaps this may go a long way to explain the

wider range of the subspecies antiquorum. If we take into

consideration the position of the three known, major breeding

grounds of flamingoes, viz. the Bahamas, the Spanish Marismas,

and the Great Rann’ of Cutch, we find that two of the- three

(Bahamas and Rann) are almost on the Tropic of Cancer, while

the third is just 15° north of this line. Some of the minor sites

ace. just north of the Tropic of Gancer. Therefore we may safely

conclude that the flamingoes belong to the northern hemisphere.

-~Now we come to the migration of P. r. antiquorum. Perhaps

it would be best to begin with Spain. Mr. Abel Chapman’s

comments on these birds in Spain are of interest :—

‘Flamingoes ignore the limits of continents, and shift their

mobile headquarters between Europe and Africa as the respective

rainfall in either happens to suit their requirements. Hence whether

by day or night, the sight or sound of gabbling columns of

flamingoes passing through the upper air is a characteristic of

these lonely regions, irrespective of season. . . .’ (p. 40).

This passage seems to indicate that flamingoes may inhabit the

Marismas all the year round. Writing of the permanent pools during

the month of February after a bad year Mr. Chapman says:—

‘Approaching the first of the great lucios, or permanent pools,

a wondrous sight lay before our eyes. The water might extend

for three or four miles, but was literally concealed by the crowds

of flamingoes that crowded its surface. For a moment it was

difficult to believe that those pink and white leagues would really

be all composed of living creatures. Their identity however be-

came clear enough when, within 600 yards, we could distinguish

the scattered outposts gradually concentrating upon the solid ranks

beyond. Disbelieve it if you will, but four fairly sane Englishmen

estimated the crowd, when a rifle-shot set them on wing, to

exceed the thousand units—by how much we decline to guess.’

Such then are the hordes to be seen in the Marismas just before

30 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIi

the breeding season—May. Therefore, as the Marismas are

dry in years of bad rainfall these thousands must find new

quarters. Where then do these flamingoes go? The probable

answer is to other suitaktle places in the distribution—east and

south.

From the present state of our knowledge, it appears that the

majority of the breeding birds keep within the north and south

limits of the Tropics of Cancer. The southern records of the

breeding grounds are imperfect—we know a little more of the

eastern sites. Hence it would be better to start with the eastern

‘migration’. Dr. Ticehurst' observed flamingoes on Bubyan Island

and picked up a washed up egg on 21 May 1921. On 7 April

1922 he located, on the same island, a small nesting colony, which

had built sand nests, but these birds deserted the locality and

laid again in another part on May 30 (1922). In the following

year, 1 April no flamingoes were seen on Bubyan. In another

paper the same author’? writes: ‘The flamingo is a not uncommon

resident and in some favoured localities it may be said to be

abundant, such as in the marshes round Meseyib. But almost

anywhere where suitable inundations exist some may be in any

month of the year, the flocks moving about locally according to

the varying conditions of the marshes. Doubtless many move away

to their nesting haunts in the breeding season, but a good many

non-breeding and immature birds remain behind. According to

Cumming it breeds on the Koweit side of the head of the Gulf

(Persian Gulf) whence I believe he obtained from the Arabs many

eggs which are now in the Karachi Museum. The Flamingo is

generally distributed throughout our area.’

Dr. Ticehurst’s observations indicate two points (1) that under

certain conditions flamingoes breed in Mesopotamia (2) that certain

birds do not join in the usual breeding—possibly immature birds

which may reside in the area till the next season. Incidentally,

from the same observations we see that the Mesopotamian season

coincides with the European season. Another note in the Journal

by Capito* records: ‘Not often seen, a specimen was obtained

near Ganoweh on February 6, 1925. Witherby saw two at Bushire

on March 18 (1925).’ The specimen referred to is a juvenile in

the Society’s collections. Another Persian record is that of

Buxton :* ‘I saw a flock of a dozen adult flamingoes in July at

Rula Rud, midway between Enzeli and Astara.’ Now we come

to the Indian border. Tenison’ observes: ‘On 21st October 1908

saw a large flock flying east down the Kabul River . . . about 500.

7 March 1909 I saw another large flock flying west up the Kabul

river and again more on the 8th, possibly parts of the same flock.

ee ee

1 “Additional Notes on the Avifauna of Iraq.’ J.B.N.H.S., xxxi, p. 110.

* “Notes on Birds from Northern and Western Persia.’ J.B.N.H.S., xxvii,

° “Some Birds in the N.-W. Corner of Fais, Persia.’ /.B.N.H.S., xxxiv;

Pp. 931

* Notes on Birds from Northern and Western Persia. J.B.N.H.S., xxvii,

p. 875.

* *Flamingoes in the N.-W., Frontier Province:”. /«B.iN.A.S., “xix; 9525:

THE FLAMINGO (PHOENICOPTERUS R. ANTIQUORUM TEMM.) 31

I mentioned it to Captain Bogh of the Guides, who has lived at

Mardan for some years, and he told me that he had never heard

of them in this province. However he told me yesterday (15th

March 1go09) that within the last few days several birds had been

seen in the neighbourhood of Mardan which are undoubtedly

Flamingos.’

That flamingoes breed in India during favourable seasons, in

the Great Rann of Cutch, is definitely established. The only

question is, do Spanish birds breed there in years when they cannot

breed in the Spanish area? Which would imply that they are

migratory to a certain extent. The monsoon in Cutch is late, i.e.

July, this would give the birds ample time to come over from

Spain. Of course, this is a mere supposition and further proof

is required, which would mean the wholesale ringing of birds in

the two areas. That juveniles are resident in India for at least

a certain period there seems to be no doubt.

In India the flamingo goes far to the south entering Ceylon,

where it was at one time supposed to breed, but no evidence on

the point is forthcoming. Biddulph’ records:

‘A fairly common bird seen on the island during the period

November to March each year. Only found at the extreme south

end where shallow lagoons are formed on both sides of the railway

line. Most of the birds frequent the birds along the eastern shore,

but some parties cross over to the western side late in the season.

‘They usually arrive at the end of November, when a few

hundred birds are suddenly seen one morning. The numbers

rapidly increase until it is estimated that about three thousand

birds gather in this area.

‘The winter of 1929-30 apparently suited the birds better than

that of 1930-31, as they were very numerous and never left the

island for short periods once they arrived. They finally left on

12-3-1930.

‘In the winter of 1930-31 the birds arrived on 13-1 1-1930, but

left after a week and only returned again during the first week

of December.. On 8-1-1931 three or four hundred birds were seen

to have collected and this number was not exceeded that season.

All the birds again left 31-1-1931, when the lagoons almost dried,

but returned once again in much smaller numbers about 16-2-1931.

Only about fifty birds remained on ro-3=1931 and these left shortly

after.

‘When these flamingoes leave the island they usually fly north

and spend some days near Mandapam Camp and are finally seen

in fairly large numbers on a tank at Ramnad.’ Mr. Biddulph’s

record is interesting as it gives some definite information as to

the arrival and departure of flamingoes in Ramesvaram Island.

The birds arrived in November, soon after the breeding season

in the Rann and left in March, two months before the Spanish

and four months before the Indian breeding season.

+ “Birds of Rameswaram Island.’ J: B.N.H.S., xl, p. 256.

32 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLi

That flamingoes migrate to the African continent is amply

supported by several observers, but the breeding records are scarce.

Layard states that Mr. Chapman informed him ‘that both

Flamingos found in South Africa breed on Lake N’gami.’ Young

flamingoes in immature plumage have been killed at the mouth

of the Salt River, close to Cape Town. According to Sclates they

breed in Cape Verde Island.

THE MusEuUM EXPEDITION.

The success of the museum expedition depended on the dis-

covery of an active breeding colony. Scouts had to keep an eye

open for such colonies and on discovery a telegram was to

be sent to us to start. This part of the work was undertaken by

Captain Steer-Webster. It was no easy matter under the conditions

described—it meant hard and persistent work. Weeks passed

without definite news, and we were about to give up all hope for

that year (1935) when, at last, the long-awaited telegram arrived.

The expedition left Bombay the same night. In any case, it meant

almost a week’s delay, owing to the time lost in getting to the

spot. Much can happen in a week when nesting birds are

concerned.

The party from Bombay consisted of an artist, Mr. H. N.

Wandrekar, to make sketches of the landscape, a modeller, Mr.

G. Nogeira for preparing the accessories and myself, whose task

was to ensure the success of the efforts and act as a stopgap.

All necessary arrangements had been made with the Jamnagar

State for a rapid passage through to Khandla. We were trans-

ported on the night of our arrival to Rosi Bunder; after scrambling

over piers under construction and oyster-covered, slippery rocks,

a small boat brought us on board the ferry. We slept well that

night, only to learn next morning that there was no prospect of

a breakfast. However, that was a minor evil. At last we managed

to find a cup of tea—it kept us from absolute starvation! At

dawn we weighed anchor and at about midday reached Khandla,

a promising port. |

At Khandla we were to meet Captain Webster, but when we

disembarked, after a few hours sail up the Gulf of Cutch,. there

was no Webster. His clerk, Mr. Chunilal greeted us with the

news that Capt. Webster would probably not be able to accompany

us into the Rann owing to serious sunburns. Before leaving

Khandla, one of the Customs Officers gave us a meal which

was welcome indeed. After breakfast we bid adieu to our kind

host and set out for Bhuj, forty miles away. We sped along on

an elevated road between acres of mud flats, then through a

semi-desert type of vegetation. We passed through the walled

town of Anjar and eventually reached Bhuj in the afternoon. On

arrival at Captain Webster’s bungalow we realised, and fully

understood why he was unable to meet us. His condition was self-

explanatory. His face was red, swollen, cracked and pealing in

several places, his arms were not much better—he was a picture

of misery. The blazing sun that beats over the Rann had got the

HE FLAMINGO (PHOENICOPTERUS R. ANTIQUORUM TEMM.) 33

better of him. He had been out to the Rann himself to make certain

of the site before telegraphing to us. He had been many hours

in the saddle in the inhospitable country where there is no shade

of any sort, but miles of glittering water. On the outward journey

he was compelled to ride into the east, in the face of the sun, and

on the return into the west! Only those who have experienced

the Rann can appreciate the dreadfulness of the conditions at such

a time. He very gamely suggested that if he could have another

day’s rest he would accompany us. To this we readily agreed.

So another day was pleasantly lost in Bhuj. :

In the meantime, advance parties had gone ahead to prepare

the camps, one at Kawra and one at Nir Wand on the very edge of

the Great Rann, fifteen miles away from the actual site. According

to programme we set out the following morning in two motor cars,

loaded to their utmost with human and material cargo.

Before leaving Bhuj we picked up the Khan Sahib of Pachum

Island, a well built gentleman with a dense villous growth covering

a goodly portion of his face, and a determined countenance. At his

side dangled a sword in a silver scabbard, the straps ornamented

with silver coins—he was an imposing figure. He was to be our

guardian and guide while in his territory. The road, a few miles

out of Bhuj, led to a cart track; this we followed winding our

way through clumps of bushes and babul trees till we reached the

Bhunny—a flat expanse of many miles showing traces of recent

inundation. The trees gave place to a vegetation strongly remi-

niscent of a maritime formation—it was a drying salt marsh. The

only incident that interrupted our rapid progress towards Kawra,

our first camp, was the sight of a saw-scaled Viper (Echis carinata)

up a tree. It was a large specimen and was soon brought to bag,

much to the discomfort of the occupants of the back seat! After

about fifty miles, we reached Kawra. There, just outside the

village, was our camp of several tents, horses and camels. ‘It

was the most luxurious camp the author ever occupied on a natural

history trip. There were hot baths awaiting us, and almost every

other amenity one can enjoy in a comfortable house in a city.

We left the cars at Kawra and started the next morning for Nir

Wand on horses and camels.

As we had thirty-five miles to go, the camp was astir at dawn

so as to cover the distance before the merciless sun got too hot.

Captain Webster led the way on horseback. Not being a horseman

I preferred the ‘Ship of the Desert’, an old acquaintance. The

artist and the modeiler followed my example. The track led

through undulating country for a while, then along the foot of

the Pachum hills bordering the Rann and finally through part of

the Rann itself, which in places was still treacherous for the camels.

There were several patches which clearly showed where camels

had been in great difficulties. When we got into the Rann mirages

began to play tricks—forests, hills, and flamingo colonies appeared

where there were none. Sheets of water with flamingoes were

mirrored here and there; all to disappear or reappear in some other

quarter after a few hundred yards. They were just phantoms that

appeared and disappeared like changing scenes on a great stage!

#4 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XLI

Shortly after noon, after rounding the spur of a hill that comes

down to the Rann, we reached Nir Wand, our base camp. The

animals sighted the camp and immediately quickened their pace—it

smelt like home and a rest! We were as glad as the animals.

This camp, as comfortable as the last, was at the foot of the

hills bordering the Great Rann. We soon settled down and made

preparations for the assault on the flamingo ‘city ‘the next morning.

From now on, it was to be all horses as the camels could not

possibly negotiate the slush in the Rann. For safety sake, much

against my will, I tried out some of the quieter looking horses.

There was no alternative; walking thirty miles a day and that

through slush was out of the question. The lady of my choice—

the horses were the only ladies in the camp—proved her

looks.

As the background of the case was to illustrate sunrise, it

meant we had to be astir early. Early rising requires early hed!

At 2 a.m. the camp was alive and after a hearty breakfast we

were in the saddle by 3 a.m. The cavalcade set out, at first, in

single file, then by twos and threes abreast. The artist and the

modeller, for reasons best known to themselves, selected two Cutchi

ponies instead of horses. There was no moon, but the stars shone

brightly. After picking our way through the vegetation surround-

ing the camp, mostly Salvadora persica and Babul (Acacia arabica),

we entered the Rann. The light coloured sand and _ crystallized

salt showed up clearly; the surface was only broken by the hoof-

marks left by Captain Webster’s party, on his eventful visit—we

followed them as a guide to the spot. In the dark, without the

oppressing heat of the day, we soon covered the distance to the

accompaniment of a lively conversation and the slosh, slosh of the

many hoofs. We arrived at the ‘city’ just as the eastern sky began

to show a faint glow. To our amazement and utter disappointment

there was not a flamingo to be seen, nor was there any water in

the neighbourhood. No one was more sore than Captain Webster,

who only a week previous had visited the spot and seen the flamingoes

there. The old tracks indicated clearly that we had not strayed.

Though sorely disappointed, a museum man can always make

the best of a bad job, if he has the will to. He can truthfully

reproduce a scene from the remnants, or can even create a new

species by dexterous manipulation. We dismounted and the artist

and the modeller got ready the material to commence work. While

Captain Webster and I discussed the situation the sun peeped above

the horizon and a few seconds later presented an ugly shape through

a haze. Across the face of the sun stretched a thin line of cloud

as though to hide its ungainly shape. Another few seconds and

the shape was lost in brilliancy.

Now that it was light, we surveyed the country but nothing could

be seen, except in the dim distance, many miles away, a line of

white and pink—adult flamingoes! Hurrah, there they are! Then

suddenly something moved in the lifeless plain before us, was ita

flamingo chick? It was. There was no one faster into the saddle

than myself, and quicker away. I had forgotten all about horses

and horsemanship, I was only intent on the forlorn orphan.

THE FLAMINGU (PHOENICOPTERUS R. ANTIQUORUM TEMM.) 35

Such a heap of ill dressed humanity, clinging to the saddle with

every appendage, flying along a slippery surface, is difficult to

describe. I was even oblivious of the roar of laughter that went

up as I sped along. I hadn’t hands enough to hold the horse

and other flying articles that dangled from my _ shoulders, and

now threatened to part company! The first of these was my

hat, but regardless I hurried on. I soon came up with the object

of my pursuit; it dodged here and there, but eventually it was

brought to bag. By this time, the mare (a knowing animal),

seemed to enter of her own accord into the sport. As soon as

I was back in the saddle, she made off in another direction at a

tremendous pace—much to my embarrassment. No amount of

reining had any effect. She had spied another chick and just made

for it. By this time I had had about enough of riding, so I

remained dismounted till the others came to my assistance. The

lost possessions were returned, and I decided to go about soberly

with the rest in future, in fact, my condition retarded the speed of

the whole company for the rest of the journey,

These stray chicks are undoubtedly weaklings not able to keep

up with the main body on the northward march. Later we found

many more of these wanderers of different ages. Having secured

these chicks we now set out in the direction of the adults, but the

line vanished—it was a mirage, nevertheless, we kept on and

eventually came up with the receding water. In the past week it

had receded nearly three miles from the nests! Here we also

discovered thousands of young flamingoes with a few adult

guardians. Our spirits rose high, we now knew where to find

them. The adults were extremely shy and kept well out of range,

but a lucky shot brought one to earth as it rose into the sky.

Adult birds together were not seen in the Rann at this time. We

now returned to the nesting: site.

During our absence the artist had commenced on his preliminary

sketch and the modeller was busy making a mould of one of the

nests. A small tent was pitched for storing the materials during

our absence from the site. It was now nearly g a.m., time to

turn our horses’ heads campwards; it was becoming exceedingly

hot. No sooner were we mounted than the horses broke into a

lively pace—too lively, in fact, for me, my back ached in every

bone. I continually made mental resolution never to ride again!

It was two anda half hours ride home, in a_ temperature

continually rising, and miles of waste on all sides—no distractions,

but mirages. The start of the homeward journey was_ usually

good, problems were discussed, but soon everyone kept his own

counsel, except now and again when there was a general laugh

at the artist and modeller having a race on their respective ponies.

When this amusement ceased, all relapsed into silence once more.

The only sound that broke the still, hot air was that of the

horses’ hoofs as the. animals ploughed through the slush. Either

from want of good sleep or due to the atmosphere and_ the

monotony of the journey, I could never keep my eyes opened for

long, and would gradually fall into a deep doze, only to be

awakened by a sudden acute ache in the spine which indicated an

36 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL. HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLI

increase in speed. On comparing notes I was not the cnly

slumberer on horseback, some others were guilty too!

On arrival in camp a bath and a sumptuous lunch awaited us,

After lunch a short rest was indicated and the necessity for the

labours of the champiwallas (massage experts). They pummled our

aching bodies for a while before we fell asleep. After this respite,

work on the specimens commenced. For some unknown reason

the artist refused the attentions of the champiwallas the first

afternoon, but to our surprise the next day he was among the

first requiring their aid—but this he did very secretly. The laugh

was the greater !

Our camp was situated in the midst of a colony of Desert Gerbils

(Chelones hurrianae). Lying in bed of an afternoon it was easy

to watch the activities of these little creatures as they popped in

and out of their burrows—the place was riddled with holes and

mounds of excavated sand. They would first peep out, have a

look round, and if the coast was clear, sit at the entrance on their

hind limbs, with their long whiskers scintillating in the sun. On

the slightest sound they would dart in again. Together with the

adults were several half-grown young. One female shot was gravid.

On the sand, little sand lizards scuttled about and on approach often

sought refuge in one of the burrows. At nightfall, out of the same

burrows (disused?) came toads (Bufo andersoni) and tenebrionid

beetles all apparently living together on good terms! Possibly the

frequent visits of the Saw-scaled Viper (Echis carinata), which

caused much distraction in the camp, were also from the same

burrows (?). The camp was alive with desert forms, yet a few

hundred yards further not a living thing stirred in the Great Rann,

except flamingoes—and those were miles away.

Day after day this was a routine for ten days. However, one

morning our exit from camp was marked by a humorous incident.

As we wended our way through the bushes in the dark, there was a

sudden flow of good Mahrati from a little way off! As the artist

was the only’one capable of such a feat in a Cutchi speaking country,

something must have happened for this outburst of invective. We

soon discovered the reason for it. In the darkness the artist’s

pony took the wrong track and tried going under a babul tree and

so landed the artist in a bed of thorns !—no wonder the language !

A babul is at all times to be respected, but in the dark it is a devil

incarnate. Luckily the incident passed without serious consequences

and we continued our journey—the artist silently cursing the

ancestry of his animal. Another incident of note occurred on the

day before we left Nir Wand. We awoke in the morning to find

that one-of our mares had given. birth to. a healthy ‘colt Diis

animal had been ridden all the while—the groom had miscalculated

her time by months. It was a surprise for no one expected it. The

same: evening the colt was put on a cart en route for Bhuj, his

mother following behind.

The regularity of our daily visits to the site was only broken

on two occasions owing to the difficulty of getting adult flamingoes,

so Captain Webster and I decided on night attacks. As it was

quite. an-easy matter to lose our way on the desert in the dark,

THE FLAMINGO (PHOENICOPTERUS R. ANTIQUORUM TEMM.) 37

some men were sent out with a lantern and a pole—a light-

house in ‘flamingo land’. At dusk we would set out and wend our

way to the ‘light house’. From this point we followed our ears

to where we could hear the flamingoes, only the deep ‘honks

interested us. We were now on foot, often wading knee-deep 1n

water, with soft treacherous sand underfoot. The electric torches

showed the young birds running in all directions, but it was no

easy matter to locate the sentinel adult. In the light, the young

birds got quite confused and were easy ‘o catch—they would often

rush into the beam and come between our legs. Two nights of this

was enough—it meant wading for hours. The temperature dropped

considerably at night, it was not cold, but the continuous wetting

chilled our bodies a good hit. In this way we added two more

adults to the collection.

On completing our work in the Rann we turned our horses’

heads homewards. In spite of my ‘broken’ back I was _ sorry

to leave—the time was only occupied with one job—flamingoes,

but besides flamingoes there were so many things of great interest,

both botanical and zoological—a meeting ground of the absolute

and semi-desert fauna and flora. What made our stay all the more

enjoyable was the generous hospitality we received at the hands

of the State—we thank them most cordially. Back at Kawra we

tried to secure some more adults on a marsh near by, but failed,

owing to the impossibility of getting near the birds. That evening

we had a particularly heavy, local storm over the area and were

forced to make a hurried retreat, for fear of the cars being bogged

in the treacherous ground. From Kawra it was but a morning’s

drive back to Bhuj. In spite of the many difficulties we were all

in good spirits. Before leaving Cutch we paid our respects to

Maharaj Kumar Sahib Vijiaraji at Mandvi. At the same time we

managed to add three more adults to the collection. We= said

good-bye to Cutch and boarded the steamer at Mandvi for home

—Auf wiedersehen !

LITERATURE.

Saunders, H.—Proc. Zool. Soc. London, p. 432 (1869).

Saunders, H.—Ibis, pp. 394 et seq. (1871).

Layard, E. L.—The Birds of South Africa (New ed.

PP. 744-45 (1875-84).

Lilford, Lord.—Proc. Zool. Soc. Landon, pp. 446-50 (1880).

Newton, A.—A. Dictionary of Birds (1893-96).

Lester, C. D.—Journ. Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc., vol. vill, p. 553 (1894).

Blanford, W T.—Fauna British India (1st Ed.), vol. iv, p. 408-409 (18608).

Chapman, F. M.—Ann. Rep. of Board of Regents of the Smithsonian

Institution, pp. 573-75 (1903).

His Highness the Marharao of Cutch.—Journ. Bom, Nat. Hist. Soc.

p. 706 (1904).

Stuart Baker, E. C.—Indian Ducks and their Allies, pp. 2-6 (1008).

Tenison, C. B.—-Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., vol. xix, p. 5

Chapman, Abel.—Unexplored Spain (1910).

Pycraft, W. P.—A History of Birds, p. 315 (1910).

Buxton, P. A.—Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., vol. xxvil, p. 875 (1921).

Ticehurst, C. B.—Journ. Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc., vol. KKVil, Pp. 657 (1923):

Thomson, J. A.—The Biology of Birds, p. 94 (1923).

rev. Ik, Bo Sharpe);

Vol Xv.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL TEST? SOCIETY) Vole

Ticehurst, C. B.—Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., vol. xxxi, p. 110 (1926).

Chapman, Abel.—Retrospect (1928).

Stuart Baker, E. C.—Fauna British India (Birds), 2nd Ed., vol. vi, pp.

373°75 (1929).

Chapman, F. M.—The Habitat Groups of North American Birds. Guide

Leaflet, No. 28, p. 39 (1930).

Sclater, W. L.—Systema Avium Aethiopicarum, p. 39 (1930).

Capito, C. E.—Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. “Soc., vol. xxxiv,yp; 1031, (19210).

Biddulph, C. H.—Journ. Bomb,. Nat. Hist. *Soc., vol, xl; p.) 256 (1938):

THE INDIAN CADDIS FLIES (TRICHOPTERA).

Martin E. MOSELY, F.R.E.S., F.Z.S.

(WVith twelve plutes).

PARD WE,

(Continued from page 496 of Volume xl, 1938).

SERICOSTOMATIDAE (Cont.)

Thremminae Martynov.

Thremminae Mart., Trav. Inst. Zool. Ac. Sci., U.R.S.S., 12,

pp. 386-387, 1933-

Ocelli present; maxillary palpi of the ¢d either one- two- or

three-jointed; discoidal cell present in the anterior wing, absent

in the posterior in the known Indian species. Insects generally

blackish.

Only one genus, Eothremma, is at present known to occur in

India.

The Thremminae is the only sub-family in the Sericostomatidae

in which ocelli are present.

Eothremma Martynovy.

Eothremma Mart., Annot. Zool. Japon., 14, p. 150, 1933.

Spurs 1, 3, 4; maxillary palpi d, sinegle- or two-jointed, terminal

joint sometimes obscure; in the wings, discoidal cell present in

the anterior, absent in the posterior; genitalia 3 with generally a

pair of oval superior appendages and a wide ventral plate bearing

numerous,upturned teeth;

Genotype: Eothremma japonica Mart.

Eothremma parva sp. n. Pl. 1. Figs. 1-5.

Insect small and black. Maxillary palpi ¢, single-jointed, the

joint being exceptionally short.

Genitalia d.—Superior appendages very large, clavate at their

apices; ninth tergite, from above, obsolete; in the cavity is a pair

of downwardly directed processes, possibly strongly chitinized

productions of the lateral angles of a membranous dorsal plate;

the apices of these processes are slightly inturned; between them

is a forked process, the forks appearing as plates set edgewise ;

penis short, slender and rod-like; ventral plate rectangular, armed

with short, peg-like teeth.

Length of the anterior wing d 8 mm.

N.-E. Burma: Kambaiti, 6,800 ft., 9-iv-1934. R. Malaise.

Type ¢ in the collection of the Stockholm Museum. A ¢

paratype in the British Museum collection.

40 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLI

Eothremma burmana sp. n. Pl. 2. Figs. 1-8. Pl. 3. Figs. 1-3.

Insect dark walnut-brown; anterior wing with a broad, short

discoidal cell; maxillary palpi in the ¢ varying in form in individuals,

one- or two-jointed, basal joint large and dilated, terminal Joint

slender, sometimes very inconspicuous and scarcely to be made out

in the dried examples; in the 2°, the maxillary palpi are unusually

short, measuring only 0.86 mm. against a width of head and oculi

of 1.46 mm.; only two ocelli present.

Genitalia ¢.—The ninth tergite from above, slightly depressed

and produced in a pair of broad plates, somewhat penthouse in-

shape with the upper edges slightly overlapping; superior append-

ages very large, rounded at their apices and_ slightly constricted

at their bases; the other parts of the genitalia are obscure; penis

slender accompanied by a pair of sinuous and strongly chitinized

sheaths; ventral plate rectangular, armed with short teeth along

its apical margin. |

Genitalia °.—The abdomen terminates in a triangular dorsal

plate. There is a large vulvar scale of which the middle lobe is

broad and the side lobes terminate in acute points; above the

scale is a plate which is excised at the centre of its apical margin.

Leneth of the anterior wing ¢ TO mimo. 7.12) mim:

N.-E. Burma: Kambaiti, 1v-vi-1934, R. Malaise.

Type ¢ in the collection of the Stockholm Museum. Numer-

ous paratypes d and @ in the collections of the Stockholm and

British Museums.

This species presents the very unusual character of a varying

number of joints to the male maxillary palpus. In some examples

there are very definitely two though the second may be reduced

to a mere tubercle. In others, there is a single, cylindrical joint.

The neuration is also subject to variation, fork no. 3 having a short

footstalk in some examples and being sessile in others. I have

been unable to find a sufficient variation in the form of the

genitalia to warrant the erection of separate species but figures of

the wings and palpi from additional examples are here shown.

Eothremma hindustana Martynov. Pl. 3. Fig. 4.

Eothremma hindustana Mart., Rec. Ind. Mus., 38, pp. 296-7,

Big. £60,31926,

Martynov describes the species as follows :—

‘Head blackish-brown, with distinct ocelli, behind which and

the eyes are seen pale yellow stripes. Basal joint of the antennae

brownish, second very short, next two joints elongated, yellow.

Thorax dark brown, portion of membrane uniting separate sclerites,

pale; coxae brown, legs brownish-yellow. Anterior wing pale

brownish, with brownish venation; venation resembling that of

Eothremma japonica Mart., but discoidal and thyridial cells are

longer, fork 3 pedicillate and CuA in its end portion is dark

towards M,. In posterior wings, M divides a little earlier than

the division of Rs, crossvein rs-m longer, fork 5 is very short in

FE. hindustana; abdomen brown, but three posterior segments

yellow above.

THE INDIAN 'CADDIS FLIES (TRICHOPTERA) 41

‘Leneth of body 5.5 mm. .

‘Remarks.—Judging, by the wing venation, HE. hindustana 1s

evidently similar and allied to E. japonica Mart. from Japan.

Thremminae is a relict sub-family with few genera and_ species ;

its representatives are very rare; therefore the discovery in North

India of the second species of FEothremima is very interesting ;

similar geographical distribution is met with in the genus,

Limnocentropus Ulm. (Phryganeidae).

‘@ Punjab, Punj-pul Nullah, about a couple of miles from

Dalhousie-Bakloh Road, 6,500 ft., v.27, S. L. Hora.’

Wype S in the Calcutta Museum.

Eothremma laga sp. n. Pl. 4. Figs. 1-7.

The examples before me were both collected in fluid and

subsequently mounted in balsam; I am unable, in consequence, to

give any indication as to the general appearance of this insect.

Antennae, basal joint, about as long as the breadth of the head,

next joint not much more than half the length of each of the

following joints; maxillary palpi with a microscopic terminal joint;

labial palpi very long; both wings have a narrow, yellow, chitinized

groove at the base between the subcosta and the base of the

radius which, in both wings, is somewhat thickened; in the

anterior wing, fork no. I very narrow, with a short footstalk.

Genitalia ¢.—Margin of the ninth tergite straight; projecting

beyond it is a slender, arching process with a narrow stem and

bifid apex which is dilated both from above and the side; this

may be the upper portion of an upper penis-cover; superior

appendages strong, caliper-shaped, somewhat dilated at the apices

as seen from the side; the lower portion of the upper penis-cover

is in the form of a pair of wide, blackened, down-curved hooks;

penis narrow and sinuous, only visible in a cleared example;

inferior appendages very small and round; there is a wide, shallow,

rectangular ventral plate with a strongly fringed and_ shallowly

excised apical margin, with the inner surface set with short, peg-

like spines. ;

Length of the anterior wing ¢- 5 mm.

Kashmir: Gagabal. 12,000 ft. F. J. Mitchell.

Type ¢ and paratype ¢ in the author’s collection.

Eothremma punja sp. n. Pl. 5. Figs. 1-5.

The type and paratype of this species are both vreserved in

balsam so that a description of the general appearance of the insect

is not possible.

Ocelli present; maxillary palpi single-jointed, the joint broader

at its base than at its apex, carrying on its upper surface a mass

of very stiff bristles; labial palpi, joints nearly equal in length,

middle joint the shortest of the three; wings; the balsam in which

the insects are mounted has rendered the neuration very indistinct,

particularly in the posterior wing where it is too obscure for figuring.

Genitalia. ¢.—The ninth dorsal segment is widely excised at

its apical margin and there is a raised upper part, also with an

42 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLI

excised margin and with the lateral apical angles slightly produced

to form outstanding spurs; set in the centre of the excision is a

pair of broad, vertical plates with much blackened apices; on each

side of these plates is a stout superior appendage, broad and

incurving from above and with a rounded, dilated apex from the

side; penis somewhat bulbose at the base, narrowing to a rod-like

apical part; from beneath, there 1s a somewhat rectangular ventral

plate, the upper surface set with short stout spines, apex

widely excised; inferior appendages very small and narrow, lying

along the ventral margin of the ninth segment and directed

inwards; ninth segment slightly produced at its centre.

Length of anterior wing 3 4.5 mm.

India: Punjab, Chotah, Bagahal, trib. R. Uhl. G. C. L. Howell.

Type and paratype ¢ in the author’s collection.

Helicopsychinae Ulmer.

Helicopsychinae Ulmer, Bernstein, Beitr. Naturk. Preussen, 10,

Pp. 304, 1912.

Spurs 1,°2; 2, Or 1, 2, 4, or 2, 2, 4. ‘Ocelli absent smaxiliany,

palpi of the 3 two- or three-jointed; basal joint, where three are

present, very small; wings long and narrow, densely pubescent ;

in the anterior, discoidal cell present; posterior, forks nos. 4 and

5 generally present; discoidal cell wanting.

“Only one genus, [Helicopsyche, has been found as yet in India.

Helicopsyche Hagen.

Helicopsyche Hagen, Ent. Mon. Mag., 2, pp. 252-3, 1866.

McLach., (Rev. & Syn. Trich.,. pp.- 268-0, 1376,

Spurs 1, 2, 4 or 2, 2, 4. Antennae with the basal joints stout

and with a pair of rounded, hinged plates between them at their

junction with the head; maxillary palpi ¢, two-jointed, joints about

equal in length; wings narrow, acute at their apices; neuration

differing according to species; in the posterior wing, fork no. 4

generally present; costal margin bearing a row of small hooks;

genitalia: 3, dorsal plate large; inferior appendages large, dilated

and directed upwards; in both sexes, there is a ventral process to

the sixth segment; the third, fourth, fifth, sometimes only the

third and fourth sternites reticulated on their surfaces.

Genotype: Helicopsyche borealis Hagen.

[ am unable to find the second and minute spur mentioned by

McLachlan as pertaining to the anterior leg. In the Indian spec 1es

here described, microscope preparations indicate that there is only

one; the preparations also show that the ventral process is situated

on the sixth and not on the seventh sternite as stated in McLachlan’s

Revisional Monograph. I cannot find, moreover, more than two

joints in the 3 maxillary palpi as against three, stated by McLachlan

to be present in the European species.

The larvae of species in the genus are remarkable for their

spiral and heliciform cases, constructed of sand and small stones.

These were at first considered to be the shells of small fresh-water

Mollusca and it was only in 1843 that their Trichopterous nature

was first suspected.

THE INDIAN CADDIS FLIES (TRICHOPTERA) 43

Helicopsyche ceylanica Brauer.

Helicopsyche ceylanica Brauer, Reise Nowara, Neur., p. 26,

1866.

~Brauer’s description is confined to an account of the larva and

case. There is no mention of the adult form.

Helicopsyche minuta sp. n. Pl. 6. Figs. 1-7.

Insect small, wings clothed with widely separated, coarse hairs.

In the 3, anterior wing narrow and acute, with the discoidal cell

doubtfully closed; posterior wing narrower than the anterior, with

a very acute apex; spurs I, 2, 4.

Genitalia ¢.—Dorsal plate large, widely cleft at its truncate

apex, lateral angles produced in short spurs; a pair of short,

slender appendages arising from the sides at the base; from the

side, the dorsal plate is stout, arching downward; penis large

and membranous with a pair of slender sheaths; inferior append-

ages very large and black; from the side, with slightly dilated

apex, a short spur arising on the lower margin near the base;

from beneath, inner margin serrate; there is a pair of long, slender

branches arising from the base of the appendages between the

two, apices slightly divergent; ventral process very small.

Genitalia °.—From above, there is a pair of raised, triangular

ridges, narrowing to sub-acute, blackened apices; beneath is a

rounded plate with a small excision at the centre of the apical

margin; a small process to the sixth sternite.

Weneth Of the anterior wing ¢o 4 mm.; 2 4.5 mm.

N.-E. Burma: Kambaiti, 30-iv-1934.

Type ¢ in the collection of the Stockholm Museum; paratypes

3 and 2? in the Stockholm and British Museum collections.

Helicopsyche martynovi sp. n. Pl. 7. Figs. 1-5.

Insect small, yellowish. Neuration towards the base of the

posterior wing, irregular, with no apparent fork no. 5; spurs 1, 2, 4.

Genitalia ¢.—Ninth tergite produced in a long, rectangular plate

with a deeply excised apex, each lateral angle bearing a pair of

bristles; there is also a bristle on the upper surface on each side

of the excision; at the base, on each side, is a slender appendage,

seen from above, and with a clavate apex from the side; penis

concealed, no apparent sheaths; inferior appendages claw-shaped

with an excision on the lower margin towards the apex as seen

from the side; from beneath, the lower margin overlaps the upper

to make a fold in which is seen a pair of small processes, each

armed at its apex with a bristle; a strong process to the sixth

sternite.

Genitalia 9.—The apex of the abdomen from above, terminates

in a pair of parallel, finger-like processes, widely separated, with

the surface of the tergite on each side strongly reticulated.

Length of the anterior wing ¢d 4 mm.; ¢ 5.5 mm.

Tenasserim: Mekane, gokm., East of Moulmein, 200 m. 2-8-x1-

1934, R. Malaise.

44, JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLI

Type ¢ in the Stockholm Museum collection. dc and & para-

type in the British Museum collection.

I dedicate this species to the memory of the late A. B. Martynov

whose recent papers on the Trichoptera in the Calcutta Museum

are of the greatest value and are outstanding examples of careful

work.

Helicopsyche maculata sp. n. Pl. 8. Figs. 1-5.

This is a small, dark insect with narrow, brown wings, the

anterior bearing a pale spot on its lower margin near the arculus;

no apparent fork no. 5 to the posterior; head and thorax very

dark brown; antennae dark brown, basal joint about the same

length as a joint of the maxillary palpi, second joint small, remain-

ine joints longer than the second; a small, rounded lobe arising

from the head near the attachment of the basal joint on the inner

side; ocelli wanting; maxillary palpi two-jointed, joints about the

same length labial palpi three-jointed, all the joints short and

approximately equal in length; spurs (1, 2, 4; °tarsi and tibiaevor

the median, and tarsi only of the posterior legs bearing short,

black spines.

Genitalia ¢.—Ninth tergite produced in a long, rectangular

plate with an excised apical margin, ihe excision beginning at

the apical angles so that a pair of triangular forks is formed;

beneath this is a membranous penis with a pair of long, fine,

caliper-shaped sheaths; inferior appendages furcate, basal fork

short, situated ventrally, triangular from beneath with a produced

apex, directed distally; second fork. large, directed upward from

the side, apex curving distally, outer margin produced towards

its centre in an irregularly shaped mass; the lateral angles of

the ninth segment are produced in small, irregular knobs; a large

process to the sixth ventral segment.

Length of the anterior wing ¢ 4.5 mm.

Palnis: 7,000 ft. Kodaikanal Shola, 16-vili-1921, Fletcher

Coll.

Type 3 in the collection of the British Museum.

Helicopsyche shaunga sp. n. Pl. 9. Figs. 1-5.

Insect small and yellowish; basal joint of the antenna about

half the width of the head with the oculi; maxillary palpi two-

jointed, basal joint broad and slightly curved, terminal joint very

small; labial palpi three-jointed, basal joint long and broad, twice

the length of the second, third joint microscopic; wings with the

neuration abnormal or aberrant in the single example before me;

apical forks nos. 1, 4 and 5 in the anterior, only 3 and 5 in the

posterior. The species is thus exceptional in lacking fork no. 4

in the posterior wing. Spurs, 1, 2, 4:

Genitalia ¢d.—Ninth tergite forming a long plate arising

from a broad base and produced to a narrower, truncate apex,

slightly excised at the centre of its apical margin; it bears a few

short, stout bristles on its upper surface towards the apex; the

appendages of the plate small, arising from narrow stéms, apices

THE INDIAN CADDIS FLIES (1 RICHOPTERA) 45

clavate; from the side, situated midway and towards the margin

of the segment; penis concealed; lower penis-cover broad, with an

excised apex and perhaps bearing a ventral ridge at the base of

which are two short, rod-like spurs, slightly diverging from each

other; inferior appendiages large, apices clavate, arising from

narrow stems, lower and inner margins set with short, peg-like

teeth; the surface of the third, fourth and fifth sternites reticulated.

Length of the anterior wing 3 4 mm.

Burma, ca. 200m. Washaung, 20km. East of Myitkyina,

14-vil-1934, R. Malaise.

Type ¢ in the collection of the Stockholm Museum.

The following genera, Ashmira, Gastrocentrides and Noleka

have not been placed in any of the established subfamilies. When

further knowledge of the Indian Sericostomatidae has been

obtained, new sub-families will doubtless indicate themselves along

natural lines to take these genera.

Ashmira gen. nov.

Spurs, 2, 4, 3. Forks 1, 2, 3 and 5 present in both wings in

both sexes; discoidal cell in anterior wing long and narrow, in

the posterior, shorter and broader, particularly towards the distal

end. Other details in the description of the single species ela.

Genotype: Ashmira elia sp. nov.

Ashmira elia sp. nov. Pl. 10. Figs. 1-9.

Head black; oculi bronze; antennae dark fuscous with very

faintly indicated, slightly paler annulations; basal joint large with

a short acute tongue arising at the apical margin to engage with

a narrow excision of the second joint; this joint is very short,

third joint more than twice the length of the second, other joints

slightly longer than the second; palpi fuscous, maxillary with the

basal joint shorter than the second, first and second joints globular,

third small and slender, legs fuscous, spurs 2, 4, 3; wings dark

fuscous with short, close, fuscous, nearly black pubescence.

Genitalia ¢.—Dorsal margin of the ninth segment widely

excised; in the centre of the excision are the superior appendages,

set very close together, slightly dilated before the sub-acute apices,

and, in one example, with serrated lateral margins; beneath them

is an upper penis-cover varying considerably in form in individuals ;

it is roughly triangular with a pair of strongly chitinised processes

arising at the centre of its basal margin; in one example these

processes are small, in another nearly as long as the triangular

cover and with serrate or sinuous lateral margins; arising from

beyond or between their apices is a pair of finger-like membranous

preeesses projecting beyond the excised apex of the cover,

each apical angle slightly produced and often there are small wart-

like projections along the lateral margins; penis with a slender

stem and furcate apex; inferior appendages branched; upper branch

terminating in a rounded, membranous apex, seen from above;

obliquely truncate from the side; below this branch is a strongly

46 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XLI

chitinised second branch, apex from above and beneath, acute and

directed inwards, lower branch from beneath, very stout and also

terminating in a membranous, rounded apex; from the side, there

is a wide rounded excision between the upper and lower branches,

the second branch long and somewhat rectangular, arising at

the centre of the excision, directed tailward.

Genitalia °.—From above, the last segment terminates in two

triangular plates which cover a membranous plate, the apex of

which is turned slightly over; terminal ventral segment produced

in a rectangular plate.

Length of anterior wing d 7.5 mm.; 2 9 mm.

Kashmir: Arrah Riv.,° 4-v-1925, F. J. Mitchell; Gulmarg:

15-vi-1931, Fletcher Coll.

Type ¢d, a microscope preparation, (Arrah Riv.) in the author’s

collection; paratypes d and & in the author’s and the British

Museum collections.

Gastrocentrides Ulmer.

Gastroceninides Ulm., Treubia, xl, pp. 475-6, 109020.

According to Ulmer, the maxillary palpi ¢ should be three-

jointed. His figure of the genotype, sumatrana, only indicates

two, joints and I am unable to find more than this number in the

single species present amongst the Indian material. He also gives

the spurs as 2, 4, 4 whereas, in the single Indian species they are

unquestionably 1, 4, 4. Anterior wings with forks nos. 1, 2, 3

and 5, posterior nos. 1, 2 and 3; neuration alike in both sexes;

ventral processes in both sexes to the sixth sternite.

Genotype: G. sumatrana Ulmer.

Gastrocentrides evansi sp. n. PI. 11. Figs, 1-5.

Insect small and yellowish. Maxillary palpi ¢ two-jointed,

joints equal in length, the terminal with a branch arising towards

the base, closely applied on the upper surface; labial palpi with

a small basal joint, second twice as long, third, twice as long

as the second.

Genitalia ¢.—Superior appendages narrow from above, inclin-

ing slightly inwards, rounded from the side; dorsal plate very

large, deep from the side; penis obscured by other parts of the

genitalia; inferior appendages very broad, particularly from the

side, with the apices turned outwards, lateral margins sinuous

from beneath; apical margin of the ninth sternite produced at

its centre to form a process when seen from the side; a very strong

process to the sixth sternite.

°.—The neuration will enable the 2 to be easily recognised,

differing in no great respect from that of the 3. As in this sex,

there is a process to the sixth sternite.

Length of the anterior wing ¢ 4 mm.; 2° 6 mm.

N. Burma. Myitkyima, 175 m., 1-14-111-1934; Washaung, 20km.

East of Myitkyina, 16-11-1934; 14-vli-1934, R. Malaise.

Type ¢ in the collection of the Stockholm Museum. Paratypes

Sd and & in the Stockholm and the British Museum collections.

Journ. BomMBay Nat. Hist. Soc. . PLATE I

Eothremma parva sp. n., ¢.—Fig. 1, wings. Fig. 2, palpi. Fig. 3, genitalia,

dorsal. Fig. 4, lateral. Fig. 5, ventral.

Q Ne en

: : cay 5 ni

oo ’ _ 7 i a ie

iy o an 8

, J : - yy

a 7

y i

: f

‘

Journ. Bompay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE II

Eothremma burmana sp. n.—Fig. 1, wings g. Fig. 2, palpi g. Fig. 3,

genitalia g, dorsal. Fig.4, penis and sheaths, dorsal. Fig. 5, genitalia J,

lateral. Fig. 6, ventral. Fig. 7, head of 9. Fig. 8, apex of the

abdomen 9, ventral.

Journ. Bompay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE Ill

Eothremma burmana sp. n., ¢.—Another example. Fig. 1, wings. Fig. 2,

maxillary palpus. Fig. 3, maxillary palpus from a third example.

Eothremma hindustana Mart., 9.—Fig. 4, wings (after Martynov)

»—

’

- ©

“ aa

5 sere

“ SiG ky

Journ. Bompay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE IV

Eothremma laga sp. n., ¢.—Fig. 1, wings. Fig. 2, palpi. Fig. 3, maxillary

palpus, more enlarged. Fig. 4, genitalia, dorsal. Fig. 5, lateral.

Fig. 6, penis, lateral. Fig. 7, genitalia, ventral.

~Journ. BompBay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE V

Eothremma punja sp. n., g.—-Fig. 1, anterior wing. Fig. 2, palpi. Fig. 3,

genitalia, dorsal. Fig. 4, lateral. Fig. 5, ventral.

Journ. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE VI

4 5

Helicopsyche minuta sp. n.—Fig. 1, wings g. Fig. 2, portion of the fifth

sternite. Fig. 3, genitalia g, lateral. Fig. 4, dorsal. Fig. 9, ventral.

Fig. 6, genitalia 9, dorsal. Fig. 7, ventral.

Journ. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE Vii

Helicopsvche martynovi sp. n.—Fig. 1, wings g. Fig. 2, genitalia g, lateral.

Fig. 3, dorsal. Fig. 4, ventral. Fig. 5, genitalia 9, dorsal.

Journ. BomsBay Nat. Hist. Soc. ; PLATE VIII

Hehcopsyche maculata sp. n., f.—Fig. 1, wings. Fig. 2, head, from in front.

Fig. 3, genitalia, lateral. Fig. 4, dorsal. Fig. 5, ventral.

Journ. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE IX

Helicopsyche shaunga sp. n., g.—Fig. 1, wings. Fig. 2, palpi. Fig. 3,

genitalia, lateral. Fig. 4, dorsal. Fig. 5, ventral.

Journ. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE X

Ashmirva elia sp. n.—Fig. 1, wings g. Fig. 2, palpi g. Fig. 3, maxillary

palpus 9. Fig. 4, genitalia g, lateral. Fig. 5, dorsal. Fig. 6, upper

penis-cover, from above. Fig. 7, the same, from another specimen.

Fig. 8, genitalia g, ventral. Fig. 9, genitalia Q, ventral.

Journ. BompBay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE XI

Gastrocentrides evanst sp. n., @.—Fig. 1, wings. Fig. 2, palpi. Fig. 3,

genitalia, dorsal. Fig. 4, lateral. Fig. 5, ventral.

Journ. BomsBay Nar. Hist. Soc. PLATE XII

Noleka asaka sp. n., ¢.—Fig. 1, wings. Fig. 2, head, from in front. Fig. 3,

genitalia, dorsal. Fig. 4, lateral. Fig. 5, inferior appendage and

margin of ninth sternite.

THE INDIAN CADDIS FLIES (1RICHOPTERA) 47

I have pleasure in dedicating this species to F. V. Evans, Esq.,

who has generously defrayed the major part of the cost of the

plates for this series of articles on the Indian Caddis Flies.

Noleca gen, n.

Spurs 2, 2, 2. Back of the head produced in a conical wedge,

the apex lying between the basal joints of the antennae; the base

is almost entirely covered by two large warts extending to the

rims of the oculi; vertex bearing an impressed vertical line; antenna

with the basal joint large and much rounded, a small round cluster

of black scales (?) at the base on the inner surface; second joint

about half the length of the third which, like the four or five

succeeding joints, is encircled with a raised line towards the apex ;

maxillary palpi ¢ apparently single-jointed, very small; not covered

with scales; there is a large inverted triangular plate on the frons

with a broad base and rounded apex, lying between the maxillary

palpi; labial palpi three-jointed as usual, all joints of approximately

the same length; tibiae and tarsi of the median legs bearing rows

of equidistant short black spines; these are confined to the tarsi

in the posterior pair and are entirely wanting in the anterior where

the tibiae are shorter than either the femora or tarsi; in the single

known species, the spurs are 2, 2, 2; in each leg, one spur much

longer than the other; wings, anterior with a cross-vein connecting

the radius with the sector, enclosing a triangular area which must

not be mistaken for a discoidal cell; the neuration is very abnormal;

costal margin of the posterior wing elevated at the centre; abdomen

bearing tufts of long hairs particularly on the ventral surface.

Genotype: Noleca asaka sp. n.

Noleca asaka sp. n. Pl. 12. Figs. 1-5.

Insect generally black; other characters detailed in the generic

description.

Genitalia ¢.—Apical margin of the ninth dorsal segment trun-

cate; beyond it is a large, spatulate and sinuous upper penis-cover

with an excised apex, directed slightly downward, with a pair of

minute, tailwardly directed spurs at its base; on each side are

two small triangular projections; penis long and fleshy, from the

side, arching downward beyond its cover, apex excised; inferior

appendages with four antler-like, widely outspread branches, the

basal branches short and rounded, arising side by side opposite

the centre of the margin of the ninth ventral segment which is

widely excised; eighth ventral segment rather more thickly clothed

with hairs than the preceding ones.

Length of anterior wing d 4 mm.

Ceylon: Mousakande, Gammaduwa, 19-24-xi-33.

Type d in the collection of the British Museum, kindly presented

by the Colombo Museum.

(To be continued).

WILD LIFE PHOTOGRAPHY iN THE MALAYAN JUNGLE.

THEODORE HUBBACK.

(With Eight Plates).

HUNTERS AND PHOTOGRAPHERS.

Big Game Hunting in a Malayan Jungle is a strenuous business

provided the sport is exercised in the best traditions. Persons

who obtain trophies by sitting up for them or by waiting for

them in some open clearing never taste the real joys of jungle

tracking because jungle lore or craft is not wanted for what 1s

not true hunting, and little knowledge of the animals and _ their

ways is ever obtained by such methods. As the years pass, even

to the most ardent followers of big game, the actual killing of

large animals for sport becomes more and more distasteful, and

although the urge for the excitement of the chase may not be at

all diminished still the climax is no longer accepted with unmixed

feelings.

Besides long and arduous treks become more and more difficult

until the time comes when ageing muscles will no longer respond

to intensive effort. But one’s energies can still be utilized in a

mild form and. one’s active interest in large wild life need not

become only a memory.

Jungle photography of large animals will fill the blank and will

provide not only much excitement but also should be productive

of much knowledge of the habits of animals which, now that the

rifle is laid aside, can be watched moving about without let or

hindrance. I do not wish to imply that wild life photography

is an old man’s recreation, it is a recreation worthy of anyone,

but can be enjoyed after long jungle jurneys. are things of the

past.

I have heard people refer te those who have; given upethe

rifle for photography, or to hunters who take an active interest

in Wild Life Conservation, as ‘the penitent butchers’, an attractive

catch phrase showing the entire ignorance of those who use it.

I believe that unless a man has hunted and hunted a good

deal in jungle that he would find the greatest difficulty in adapting

himself to the art of jungle photography. Although the technique

of the sport of jungle hunting is different in many ways from that

of the art of jungle photography, the ground work for success in

either must rest on a knowledge of the jungle and the habits of

the animals you wish to get in contact with. In other words

to be a successful jungle photographer you should be or should

have been a successful jungle hunter.

After many years of hunting by tracking in dense jungle such

as is prevalent in those parts of Malaya, where large game is or

was to be found, one is bound to have accumulated knowledge of

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WILD LIFE PHOTOGRAPHY IN THE MALAYAN JUNGLE 49

the habits of the large wild animals, one of them being that they

periodically visit places in the jungle where there are mineral

exudations from the ground—generally sulphur springs. Such

places are called ‘salt-licks’.

SALT-LICGKS.

Salt-licks, used for centuries by wild animals, are free for

some distance of all jungle growths and so provide a_ natural

clearing surrounded by dense jungle. Often when hunting I have

seen animals in these licks, but being sacrosanct where no killing

was allowed, I have been quite content to watch the animals until

they have left the lick. But it often occurred to me that I might

have got a photograph had I a suitable camera. When the time

came to lay aside the rifle, I had my knowledge of salt-lick localities

and knowledge of the animals also. So I decided to see what I[

could do with jungle photography. It had never been done in

Malaya before, so | had to evolve my own methods. I had tried

to get photographs by stalking, and got some good results of

dark jungle with a smudge somewhere in the picture, which I

was reluctant to show to anyone as a photograph of a bison or an

elephant—I could have called it either. I soon realized that such

efforts were quite futile and just waste of time. For all practical

purposes there is no sufficient light in uncleared Malayan forest

for instantaneous photography.

So I devoted my time to the salt-licks. The animals would

come to me there; would have to come sometime or other and

I hoped it would be during the day time.

Now, although my salt-lick areas admitted more light than

there was in uncleared jungle, most of them still required a little

attention. 1 found by -kitter experience and heartbreaking’ inci-

dents that where any cover was left in a lick, a large tree or stump

or clump of undergrowth, an animal coming into the lick would

so frequently be covered or partly covered ky that obstruction that

it became more than an unfortunate coincidence, it became a

tragedy. My best chances were ruined. So some clearing had to

be done. I must obtain a clear view from my hide of the lick

and of the approach to the lick. First of all the position of the

hide had to be very carefully selected. A hide is useless in a

tree because you do not want a bird’s-eye view of an animal.

On the ground it is easy to disguise a hide so that it is quite

inconspicuous, but you cannot disguise your scent, and a suitable

site must be sought so that, so far as you can reasonably antici-

pate, the air currents will seldom take your scent to the lick. I

knew one man who went to one of my old hides where I had

taken many photographs, sat there for several hours, and smoked

large cigars the whole time. That was unfair to the wind. I

Suppose he was one of those unfortunate people who cannot exist

without tobacco? Well he had his tobacco but he got no

photographs. You cannot have it both ways.

: However careful you are slants of wind may give you away.

Try and find a place a few feet above the level of the lick and

50 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLI

about 100 to 150 feet away from the main attraction, and you

should be comparatively safe from treacherous eddies. As I relate

later on, animals sometimes get a slight taint in the wind and

become restless, but often remain within photographic distance.

But the wind is not the only consideration. The orientation of

the hide is most important. It must face as nearly north or south

as possible otherwise, during some part of the day, the sun will be

peeping into your lenses. In Malaya there is a variation of 47°

in the declination of the sun between the Summer and Winter Sol-

stice and a hide suitable for work in June, unless carefully oriented,

will not be suitable in December. Malaya is so little north of the

Equator that the slightly greater declination towards the north

can be ignored.

However these are not difficult matters to adjust; but they

should not be overlooked.

That wild animals visit salt-licks more at certain periods than

at others is well known to me, but despite every effort on my part

to try to correlate the facts that I have observed, I am quite

unable to come to any conclusions or to give any feasible explanation

on the matter.

When first I became interested in this subject I inquired from

native hunters if they had noticed any particular periodicity in

the visits of wild animals to salt-licks. I had a variety of answers:

many favoured the full moon; some favoured rainy weather; others

dry weather. This took me nowhere. So I made notes of my

own for some years and discovered that none of the above pheno-

menon appeared to have much bearing on the visits of wild animals

to a salt-lick. |

I believe that most sulphur-licks have a variable amount of

sulphur in their springs—sometimes one gets a strong smell of

sulphur, at other times none—and this may be the deciding factor.

Personally I favour the dry weather; as an old Sakai once said

to me—the Sakai are an aboriginal tribe—‘the deer won’t be in

the lick there has been too much rain and they don’t like the

waters too much diluted’. Another factor that operates to keep

sambhur deer away from a salt-lick is the presence of elephants.

Deer do not like elephants or their smell, and after elephants have

been in a lick for two or three nights and have left piles of ordure

all round and in the lick, the place smells rather worse than the

elephant house at the Zoo.

Besides the sulphur springs are all mixed up with earth and

other refuse and I do not blame the dainty deer from fighting

shy of such a place. There are probably many other reasons

which make a lick attractive or otherwise to certain animals, but

only. observations over long periods by trained persons would

enable data to be tabulated and deductions made.

APPARATUS.

Before dealing with the photographic details I should like to

refer to apparatus. I will discuss still photography first. I have

no interest in recommending any particular make of camera or

Journ. BomBay Nar. Hist. Soc. PLATE II,

» a

Two Wild Elephants in a salt lick mixing their medicine.

(13.5 cm. telephoto lens).

Gonvrichtl [T. Hubback

Fig. 2.

Two Wild Bull Elephants in the same salt lick.

(20 cm. telephoto lens).

wiLD LIFE PHOTOGRAPHY IN THE MALAYAN. JUNGLE 51

film. and,. where any make is mentioned, it is because I have

had experience of or know about it. Since the introduction. of

the miniature camera, photography of wild life, as I have practised

fathat is from a hide, has been greatly simplified. Ate one time

I used a well known make of reflex camera, taking 5” x4" plates

or film packs, with which I used a powertul islephiore lens. I

got some good results and many poor ones. The lens was too

slow for most of the conditions of light that came my way, and

the noise made by the shutter was startling. Then I took to

using a Leica for which I obtained telephoto lenses and, although

I still used my reflex, it has gradu ally been pushed to one side by

what, I have no hesitation in saying, is a more efficient and handy

instrument for my purpose.

There are other miniature cameras obtainable no doubt as good

as the Leica with equally efficient lenses, but I have had no personal

experiences with any of them, so am in no position to draw

comparisons.

Of miniature films for this work a fine grain film is necessary,

but it must also be very fast, a combination not easy to find. I

have experience of Agfa and Perutz films; both brands are excel-

lent. Lately I have got use to Agfa Isopan F. and use it almost

exclusively. The Eastman Kodak Company have lately placed on

the market three new films for miniature cameras, the fastest

(Kodak Super-XX) brings within the range of the animal

photographer possibilities of pictures under bad lighting conditions

which will no doubt be gladly utilized. The new Kodak Plus-X

is somewhat slower than the Super-XX, but is still very fast and

a little finer in grain. As all animal photographs will require to

be enlarged many diameters the Plus-X film may prove the more

suitable.

The Leica camera has a long series of Leitz lenses to choose

from ; they are not cheap but are super-excellent. A telephoto lens

is essential and. -l’ have found by experience that the 13.5 -cm,

;ilektor’ or the 20 cm. ‘Telyt! are the most suitable. For salt-lick

work a more powerful lens is seldom necessary. In fact at times

I have found my 20 cm. a little too powerful.

If you will refer to Plate Il showing two elephants in a salt-lick

you will appreciate what I mean. In Fig. 2 the big elephant is

thirty-five yards from my camera, the picture being taken with

gae-20,¢m. ‘lTelyt’ lens. But it is all elephants which, although

what one wanted, would have been more artistic with a little jungle

around as in Fig. 1 on the same plate, Nee we have two

with the Hagecm. lens,

Again in Plate III the photograph of an elephant entering a

salt-lick at about 50 yards distance, (Fig. 2) was taken with a

zo cm. lens while Fig. 1 of another elephant taken in exactly the

same place but at quite a different time of year, was taken with the

foe em. lens:

Of course an elephant is a bulky subject: smaller animals do

not so entirely monopolize the picture, as for instance the sambhur

52 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLI

deer shown on Plate VII which were taken with the 20 cm. lens.

For photographing small animals the 20 cm. ‘Telyt’ is invaluable.

Light in the jungle is difficult. Photography in a salt-lick means

dealing with a range of light far beyond the H and D exposure

curve; and if you expose for the shadows you will have to give so

slow an exposure that, unless extraordinarily lucky you will never

be able to eliminate movement. So you must compromise. I find

that by using a Weston 650 Photronic Exposure Meter, which,

when used to measure the average photographic intensity of the

light from the openings in the hide where the cameras are, will

give you as good an average reading as you can hope to get.

The shading of the sun by a heavy cloud will sometimes increase

your exposure by two or three times and on windy days one has

to be continually adjusting one’s stop.

No telephoto lens should ever be used except in conjunction with

a stand. And no stand should ever be used that has not a revolving

and tilting top. In other words you must use a stand suitable for

a cine camera. There are many makes of such stands on the

market, so choose with care.

For sub-standard cine photography of wild life—I am writing

for amateurs so I presume the 16 mm. cameras are the ones we

are most interested in—two essentials are similar to what one

wants for still photography, a telephoto lens and a revolving top

stand.

I always use the fastest reversible films that I can get and

generally in 100 feet rolls. I have used 50 feet rolls but the risk

is too great of having insufficient film to work on when the rare

opportunity of taking an animal under good conditions arrives. I

have suffered from this parsimony and it is not worth while.

Some workers use negative films and before editing them cut

out the useless parts, splice the remainder from which they have

positives made. Where much work is undertaken this may be

worth while, but I doubt if it is much of a saving in such wild

life photography as I am describing. |

Lenses are a difficulty because few of the telephoto variety

work at a larger aperture than F4, and this is often too small

with shutter speeds of 1/25th to 1/30th of a second. I generally

use a 2” lens whose full aperture is F 1.5, and have had some

excellent results with this lens. It is not a true telephoto lens

but is very suitable for wild life photography in salt-licks. When

the light is not good enough for this lens at full aperture one may

as well go home.

The conditions governing the taking of still or cine photographs

from a hide in a salt-lick are the same, and the appurtenances,

excepting for the camera, the similar. '

THE ERECTION OF HIDES.

A suitable site having been selected, the building of the hide

should be done carefully and with as little disturbance of its sur-

roundings as possible. The size will depend entirely on how many

cameras you intend to use and how many people will occupy the

Journ. Bompay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE III.

“" = ae oy

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A Wild Bull Elephant entering a salt lick.

(13.5 cm, telephoto lens).

[T. Hubback

The same place, the same salt lick, but a different elephant.

(20 cm, telephoto lens).

WILD LIFE PHOTOGRAPHY IN THE MALAYAN JUNGLE 53

hide. You cannot attend to a cine camera and a still camera at

the same time, so will probably have at least one other person in

the hide with you. Presuming that the maximum number of

cameras you will be using is four then you would want a front of

about 12 feet in length to enable you to work in comfort. As you

may have to remain for many days it is advisable to make yourself

comfortable and the hide must be as roomy as convenient to suit

the site.

The front, back and sides are constructed of a light framework

of jungle poles—any sapling growing in a suitable position may

be utilized—and jungle palm leaves which will provide a complete

screen.

On Plate VIII, figure 2 is shown a hide overlooking a salt-lick.

It was from this hide that I got the only photograph of a rhinoceros

that I have had the good fortune to obtain. The general construc-

tion of the hide is fairly clear. All my hides are made on the same

lines. The roof, which is invisible in the photograph because it is

covered with boughs, consists of a green tarpaulin which is so

arranged that the front protects my cameras from rain by over-

lapping the front screen. -Holes are cut in the front screen at

suitable heights for the cameras. A good camp chair—the gold-

medal American camp chair is the most suitable I know for the

purpose—and some sort of small table which I generally make out

of bamboo or jungle sticks are desirable. If the lick is surrounded

by high ground it may be necessary to dig into a slope to make

a suitable site; such details can be solved on the spot, but do not

forget to take tools with you to meet all emergencies. The

approach to the hide must be masked from the lick and, where

openings in the jungle preclude this, suitable screens can be made

with jungle palm leaves. One may want to enter the hide when

there are animals in the lick and the approach should be selected

to enable this to be done under cover. To construct a hide, provided

there is not much clearing to do and no earth to excavate, will

take three or four hours, and this hide will last until it is pushed

over by an elephant, if there are any in the vicinity, or until the

palm leaves have withered and fallen to pieces.

TAKING THE PHOTOGRAPHS,

Nothing now remains but to take the photographs of any animals

that come into the lick when you are there.

This sounds quite simple, but it is not. Most of the large

animals such as elephants and seladang usually visit these licks at

night or in the early hours of the morning and late afternoon

when the light in such places is not good enough for photography.

In Malaya this reluctance to enter salt-licks is no doubt the

outcome of such places having been used by poachers for many

years. Sitting up in a tree, safely out of harm’s way, these nasty

creatures have killed many and wounded hundreds of head of big

game in salt-licks and it is only natural that animals should give

these places a wide berth during the day time. A few years ago

54 JOURNAL; BOMBAY “NATURAL GUST. SOCIE DY. VV ola

it was practically impossible to go into a salt-lick and not find a

shooting: platform in a tree commanding the lick.

But where a little vigilance has been exercised and poachers

have been checked, the animals soon seem to sense the fact that

the danger has been diminished, the urge caused by ‘that salt-lick

feeling’ overcomes their fear, and large animals will visit the lick

even at mid-day.

To observe an animal’s approach to a lick and its behaviour in

the lick is an education in itself. Seladang, except old solitary

bulls, approach a lick from the jungle edge with the greatest caution,

testing the wind from every direction. I have even seen seladang

smell the ground, but whether to locate a friend or spot a foe I

could not determine. .

An old bull seladang is not so careful; on arriving at the edge

of the jungle he takes a good look round and then walks straight

to the lick. Of course if he gets a bad taint in the wind he turns

round and bolts with the youngest of them: their law says you

must take no chances with the horrid scent of man.

Sambhur deer are also very wary when entering a lick, but not

so scrupulously careful as seladang.

Elephants just enter as if it was any other spot in the jungle.

I cannot say very much about the entrances of rhinoceros into

a lick because I have seen this happen so seldom, but I do know

that a Sumatran rhinoceros is always in a terrible hurry as if he

was obsessed with the fear of missing something. Wild pig are

also very fussy in a lick, but they are restless souls at all times

and are very difficult to photograph.

All animals when in a lick for some minutes, and provided the

air is not tainted, relax their caution and no longer show decided

signs of nervousness, but directly they get a taint in the wind, they

move back into the shelter of the jungle. I" have ‘seen three “or

four seladang run out of a lick in a bunch, stop just cutside the

jungle edge and wait there apparently unconcerned. I have seen

a young bull seladang, entering a lick very slowly, very cautiously,

testing the wind every few steps, turn round and bolt for the

jungle, stop just inside and then move leisurely away. Suddenly

detecting a taint, he had drawn back so quickly that it looked as if.

something had hit him hard on the nose. None of these animals

react as quickly to the sight of something unusual or when hearing

some slight noise which might come from the direction of the hide,

it is the scent of Man which is so objectionable to them and, when

taking photographs, that is the menace one has to trv and overcome

with every precaution.. Also'-do not stare. too lone) aur rany

particular animal, especially a seladang, they sometimes get restless.

I cannot explain why; I can only give this phenomenon as part

of my experiences.

The open clearing in the lick appears to wild animals to be no

place to remain in even if they get the slightest taint in the

wind.

All this leads up to what should be our procedure, when in a

hide ready to photograph we see animals come to the edge of the

jungle preparing to enter the lick?

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WILD LIFE PHOTOGRAPHY IN THE MALAYAN JUNGLE 55

In most places in Malaya, where one can photograph in a lick

the far jungle edge will not be more than 200 feet from one’s

hide, frequently much less. So, generally speaking, directly an

animal is clear of the jungle it is photographable, provided there is

sufficient and suitable light. Now the temptation is very great to

allow the animal to come a little closer as it appears to be about to

do and as it probably will do. But I have been caught like that,

waiting for a more favourable opportunity and then getting nothing.

An unfavourable eddy in the wind, a quick turn, and your animal

is in the jungle again.

So now I always start taking photographs so soon as I can

and keep on taking them so long as the position and pose is

favourable. Opportunities come so seldom that one must seize

with both hands what the Gods give us.

It is exciting enough to see a big beast coming closer and

closer and getting bigger and bigger in the finder to make one

forget details, and sometimes a failure to alter the focus of the

lens results in useless pictures. One must train oneself to make

the adjustments to one’s camera mechanically so as never to forget

the focussing ring.

Animals may vary a great deal in their behaviour when in a

salt-lick. Seladang and sambhur deer are good subjects for a

camera and move very deliberately. If at all suspicious-——they may

hear the cine camera or see a slight movement behind one of the

openings in the front screen—they generally ‘freeze’ and stare and

stare, with possibly a movement of ears and a twitching of the

nose, but at other times remaining as still as if carved out of stone.

This is your opportunity and good studies can sometimes be made

with comparatively long exposures. Elephants, pig and barking

deer are not so accommodating being much too restless to make

good subjects. An elephant seldom seems to keep his ears. still

and if he does then he swishes his tail about. Still, one does at

times get good opportunities with the resulting good pictures if

other circumstances are favourable. Practically all my exposures

in salt-licks are made at an eighth of a twentieth of a second. The

first will not entirely eliminate movement, but is often necessary due

to poor light. The chief road to success 1s persistence 1f you have

the leisure to persist; at times day after day in a hide with nothing

to show for hours and hours of waiting may be discouraging, but

the reward will come if you are prepared to wait for it.

OUTFIT.

I think some of my readers may be inclined to say ‘That’s all

very well, but elaborate apparatus has keen used and we cannot

emulate the results by using our simple cameras.’

It is true that the better the lenses the better the chances one

has of getting good results, but that is merely a matter of com-

parison and very good results can be obtained with quite inexpensive

cameras.

To illustrate this Plate VIII, Fig. 1, of two sambhur deer was

taken with a Kodak Junior No. 6 by my Malay assistant working

56 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY,” Vol. Xi

from my hide in the same lick where the photographs shown on

Plates*I; II, ‘Ill; and VI’ were taken. (At the same lick (ago

the same camera he got photographs of elephant showing four

in a group. There is no need to be discouraged on the score of

apparatus, if you have knowledge of the animals and their usual

haunts and leisure to devote to this fascinating recreation, you will

in time achieve results that you will surely be proud of.

I have been put to some inconvenience at times because of the

hakit of certain lens makers of engraving the numbers of the stops,

(F values), on the front of the ring which opens or closes the

diaphragm. After all, the operator must be behind the camera,

and the only reason why the stop values are marked on the front

is to suit the convenience of the manufacturer not the convenience

of the operator. I cannot give a better illustration of how these

lenses should be marked for work in a hide, than mention the way

Leitz marks his lenses for the Leica camera. Both F values and

focussing distances are clearly marked so that they can be read

from the back of the camera. You cannot push your head through

the front of the hide to look at the face of the lens every time

you want to adjust your stop, which will be many times during

the day. The Cooke-Hobson 3” telephoto lens for the Bell and

Howell Filmo is well marked and adjustments can easily be made

from the inside of the hide, but the 1” lens is not well marked

and not so easily adjusted.

Generally speaking, colour photography is not for the salt-lick

photographer because the films are not yet fast ehough for this

class of work. I believe that the Agfa people have now placed on

the market a film much faster than anything yet obtainable, but

it has not reached the Tropics yet and I have not had an opportunity

of trying it. I have made several abortive attempts with available

films and although there may be occasions when the light conditions

are good enough for a slow exposure with a large stop, they are

very few and far between. However I expect it will not be long

before the difficulties of producing a colour film of sufficient speed

will be overcome and that. will add enormously to the joys of

salt-lick photography.

THE MENACE OF DAmpP.

The atmosphere in the Malayan Jungle is never dry. All photo-

egraphers know how easily damp will spoil a film or even a camera,

and it is necessary to take some precautions if one is likely to be

away on a long trip. _

I always take with me two or three drying tins containing some

drying agent—silica-gel for instance—in which I keep all opened

or unopened films and my cameras when they are charged with

partly exposed films. This certainly helps to defeat the damp which

during wet weather is a serious menace to one’s films. The ideal

way is to develop one’s films so soon as possible after exposure and,

with daylight developing tanks now on the market, this operation

has been simplified so that developing one’s films in a tungle camp

no longer presents any terrors to the nature photographer,

ool oo 7 wear eee - PADI SSITIANAN 1A9aNn . 2 ‘

— ALLYGQUES ALGAD A[ACIE GCAGLCYY GE ANYON FU Gursveye vimoper “ue Sr 4, I~ ~~ A SRE ae NE PS RS EE IE TS or ee SE Ota Oe DTS

yIvgqnHy *J) [1y824Ado

IA ALV Id "D0G ALSIP] “LVN AvaWwog ‘“Nanof

WilD LIFE PHOTOGRAPHY IN THE MALAYAN JUNGLE 57

I] have written nothing about flashlight photography in the

jungle for two very good reasons. Firstly I know nothing about

it. Secondly such an activity does not appeal to me. However I

fully appreciate some of the magnificent photographs of wild life

that I have seen which were taken by that method.

ANIMAL PSYCHOLOGY.

I have no hesitation in writing that all species of large wild

animals in a Malayan Jungle are governed by a feeling of insecurity,

and during the day-time seldom seem to be quite free from the

idea that they must never relax their vigilance. Herein is probably

the germ of the herd instinct—mutual protection.

I cannot believe that this vigilance is due to fear of modern

man and his lethal weapons but is probably a primeval instinct

which goes back through the ages to the remote past.

On the other hand this theory is somewhat discounted by the

known reactions of certain animals, lions for instance in the Kruger

National Park in South Africa, when freed from the menace of

the rifle, a freedom they undoubtedly appreciate. Once eliminate

the tradition of fear, and wild animals react very quickly to new

conditions, in fact, in some instances react too suddenly and the

balance of nature is upset. The older the animal the less nervous

it appears to be, although its cunning greatly increases with age.

The loss of nervousness may be partly due to its mature strength,

partly to the indifference of age and the weariness of spirit such

age generates. Experience may have taught the older animals

that all the alarms and the nervous reactions produced thereby are

often not worth bothering about and so they lead a more tranquil life.

All this is a diversion, speculative and possibly unprofitable, but

to obtain good photographs of wild animals whose lives are often

a hair-trigger existence, we must try to understand a little about

their potential behaviour under abnormal conditions. Fear appears

to be the dominant motive and we must lay our dispositions to try

to overcome that, bearing in mind that by far the greatest fear

conveyed to wild animals is by their sense of smell. The felidae

are a possible exception.

Only once over a period of years have [ had an animal sufficiently

curious to come over to investigate what I was after. Sambhur

and barking deer often come towards one, stamping their feet and

belling or barking, but they seldom come very close and the whole

action is one of mild curiosity so strongly developed in deer.

One afternoon, about 5 p.m. I entered an old clearing covered

with long coarse grass (Imperata arundinacea) and immediately

spotted the high back of a seladang on the edge of the clearing.

He was moving slowly and feeding sparingly. A gentle breeze

wafted his bovine scent towards us. I was entirely in the open,

but was able to hide myself behind a large ant-hill also covered

with long grass. I had a cine camera and a still camera with me.

I scrambled up the ant-hill so that I could see over the grass

but was then in full view of the seladang. I could now see that

he was an old bull with much-worn horns,

58 JOURNAL, BOMBAY: NATURAL HIST! SOCIETY, Volwxel

As he raised his head from time to time I tried to photograph

him. He looked straight towards me from about forty yards

distance, but did not appear to see me. He may have been a

little blind. Presently he fed closer and finally did spot me or

some movement I made and raised his head well up. He stared

and stared, swishing his tail from side to side. Then he threw

his head up and down two or three times and started to walk

towards me but slightly across my front. He was row within

less than thirty yards and I thought that this was close enough,

so I picked up my apparatus and backed towards the jungle edge

which was ten yards behind me. I had two Malays with me; one

of them had already disappeared. When I got down from the

side of the ant-hill I could see nothing. We waited inside the

shelter of the jungle and heard the seladang snuffing about

apparently close to the ant-hill. My boat was tied up to the river

bank forty or fifty yards away. I told the Malay with me to come

along and bring the outfit, and then discovered that he had left

my camera case and a rubber cushion on which I was kneeling.

Well! we could not go back at the moment, so went down to the

boat, where we found the other fellow, and poled up stream a

few chains to where I knew there was a crossing with a game

track leading up to the clearing which I expected the bull had used

when entering the clearing. Sure enough there were his tracks,

so fresh as to show that he had only preceded us by a few minutes.

We got out of the boat and climbed up the bank to reach the

clearing and out-flank the seladang. One of the Malays being more

active than myself got to the top yards ahead of me and seeing no

signs of the bull turned sharp left towards where he had left my

camera case and my cushion.

Suddenly a magnificent snort from the bull sent him running

back in about even time, anyway far faster than he had ever run

before, and hurling himself down the bank very neariy upset us

who were coming up behind. Then we heard the pounding of the

seladang’s hooves getting fainter and fainter as he rushed through

the clearing for the safety of the far jungle.

What had happened was this. Up to the arrival of the Malay

at the top of the bank the bull had never got our scent properly,

but I think that he must have been not only a little blind but his

power of smelling must have been deficient too, because when we

did recover my belongings we found that he had been all round

the place and had actually stamped on my cushion. But he finally

reacted according to book. When he was quite certain what

all the fuss was about, after getting the scent of a much perspiring

Malay he realized that it was no place for him.

‘Stand not upon the order of your going, but go at once.’

I only got fair photographs; balanced on the edge of an ant-hill

I was not in an ideal position.

An incident with a tiger which resulted in no pictures at all,

serves to illustrate the ever present fear that is always only just

below the surface with wild animals.

About half past seven one fine morning, having left camp half

an hour earlier, my friend P. and myself were approaching a salt-

Journ. Bomsay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE VII.

ig te

‘DOING HIS GOOD DEED FOR THE DAY.”

A Crow picking off ticks from a doe Sambhur Deer.

(20 cm. telephoto lens).

» . Se

gi OH bn “ Cute

. * F fag ’

~ PS P < Tl fo.” oud

Wit : A+ dh Teron? on

[T. Hubback

a Fig. 2.

Sambhur Deer in a salt lick. This is the same lick shown in Plate 1. Elephants were not about when

this picture was taken.

(20 cm. telephoto lens).

WieDTLIkh PHOTOGRAPHY IN THE. MALAYAN. JUNGLE 59

lick hoping for photographs of seladang or sambhur. When about

eea@uarter of a mile from the lick we had. to top a Sharp rise and

mounting this rise I heard, somewhat indistinctly, an animal call

from the direction of the lick which I thought was a seladang. I

turned to P. and said that I thought seladang were in the lick.

Topping the rise and nearing the lick we then heard the un-

mistakable AA-oh, AA-oh of a tiger. That’s what I now realized

iad’ heard the first time.

We had been in the lick the previous day and the tripods for

our cameras were in position; the cameras were with us. We had

two hides, P.’s being about forty yards from mine. We parted

company getting into the hides as quickly and _ stealthily as

possible.

The moment I looked through one of the openings in the front

of the hide I saw a fine tiger on the edge of the jungle fifty yards

from me and coming straight in my direction. My Leica was in

my hand with a 13.5 cm. lens attached to it. Like a fool I put it

on the stand obsessed I suppose, with the idea that a telephoto

lens must be put on a stand. I had no tilting top in those days,

in fact this incident cured me of trying to do without one.

There was a gentle slope towards me—-down which came the

tiger—rolling his head from side to side, his great bowed legs

conveying the very acme of power. He gave vent every few

strides to a resonant AA-oh, AA-oh, just to show, I suppose, that

he was well fed and quite pleased with himself.

inthe meantime to brine the tiger within my finder, I

frantically tried to adjust the tripod—my Leica was pointing to

the top of the slope—I miserably failed. The tiger, a magnificent

sight with a great ruff round his neck, came within fifteen

yards of me, and then to avoid some wet ground turned left giving

me a perfect broadside view which would indeed have filled my

picture. What a chance—a close up of an unsuspecting tiger.

When making the turn he must have caught a movement—I was

probably making many movements wrestling with my _ tripod—

hesitated, turned his head in my direction and immediately saw me.

He curled up his lips, snarled, swung round very quickly and lopped

off in the direction he had come, but this time with his tail well

tucked in and no signs of being at all pleased with himself. .

On the edge of the jungle he stopped a moment, stretched up a

tree to clean his claws on the bark, and was gone. I got nothing

except the memory of the incident; still a very vivid and very sore

one.

I wondered what, luck P. had had. But enough of failures.

He also was unsuccessful. He did get some few feet cf cine film

but it was badly underexposed and the tiger was not very close

to him.

Had I kept my Leica in my hand I could have got some ex-

posures, but with a telephoto lens I would have almost certainly

have had blurred negatives. The light precluded a fast exposure.

This is the only chance I have ever had of photographing a

tiger, although, not very long ago, I had a tiger come past my

hide, but on the wrong side.

60 JOURNAL, -BOMBAY NATURALSAISE SCCIEIY > WWolwwcrr

We were waiting for sambhur in a salt-lick in a very different

part of the country to the lick I have been writing about. Shortly

after mid-day I heard a tiger call in the far jungle. We had seen

tiger tracks on the trail leading to the lick and as there was

frequently a tiger in the vicinity I thought that possibly it might

pass through the lick. I looked over my cameras and had every-

thing ready when we heard three or four shattering roars quite

close to the left side of the hide. I thought the tiger might pass

just in front of me but unfortunately it passed directly behind the

hide and came within eighteen feet of the opening at the back of

the shelter. It then stopped. Unfortunately I had put out at the

back, well sheltered I thought from the gaze of any animal, a white

singlet to air. The tiger saw this, otherwise I think he would

have passed along. One of my men who was nearest the entrance

shuted towards one of the others and this movement immediately

attracted the tiger’s attention. It turned round and ‘beat it’ up

the trail it had just come down. I was at the far end of the hide

and did not see the tiger until. 1t turned to flee. It qwas not vam

old tiger, but very well marked. I asked my man why he had

moved and what he was frightened about? With a face as white

as a Malay’s face can go he brazenly said that he was not frightened

but moved to get a better view. I think that man would make a

good liar if he really tried !

At times animals will behave in a peculiar manner when about

to enter a salt-lick; there is generally some very good reason for

any exaggerated caution but we are seldom able to find out what

that reason is.

On one occasion I watched a young sambhur stag on the jungle

edge of a lick quite unable to make up its mind to enter.

He sniffed and sniffed, moved his head backwards and forwards,

right and left, ears shifting in all directions; still he would not

come in. Once he came within one step of the clearing and backed

again into the jungle. He behaved like this for three-quarters of

an hour and then came into the lick for a few minutes. But here

I knew or thought I knew what the trouble was. Wild dogs were

in the vicinity, and no doubt that was the reason for the deer not

liking to go into the lick in the daylight. Wauld dogs do not hunt

in jungle during the night, and that may be one of the reasons

Why sambhur and barking deer so much prefer to go to a lick at

night in country where wild dogs are to be found.

Occasionally one observes incidents of the behaviour of species

to species, but there is not always the opportunity of recording the

occurrence. One incident, amusing and instructive, I have often

thought over.

A young bull seladang, little more than a calf, was moving

along a game trail leading out of a salt-lick. He was skirting

the jungle edge when a well grown sambhur doe came into the

lick from the opposite direction following the same trail. The

seladang stopped immediately, but the doe carried on until within

about ten yards of the seladang. They stared and stared at each

other but neither would give way. They kept very still; the

seladang switched his tail and shuffled his forefeet; the doe twitched

Journ. Bompay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE VIII.

SAMBHUR DEER IN A SALT LICK.

(This picture was taken with a Six-20 Kodak Junior Camera).

are es

4 *

j See, ~

HIDE IN A SALT LICK.

From this hide the only photograph ever taken of a Sumatran Rhinoceros was obtained.

7%” ‘‘ Express ’’ lens. 5”x 4” plate.

wiLD LIFE PHOTOGRAPHY IN THE MALAYAN JUNGLE 61

her ears and once or twice turned her head to look straight dewn

the middle of her back in the way sambhur have, as if she was

expecting another sambhur to join her. After about five minutes

of this the doe daintily stepped off the trail, made a half circle

through the jungle and joined the trail behind the seladang. ihe

little bull never looked. round but presently continued his interrupted

journey out of the lick. What did they think of each other?

Seladang and sambhur often meet in that lick—no doubt these two

were not strangers. I think each was waiting for the other to

say ‘after you’? Finally the sambhur, no doubt looking forward

to a good drink at the lick which it had still to reach, pretended

that it wanted to go by another route and gave the seladang a

wide berth.

On another occasion in the same lick a young bull seladang

and a mature cow were drinking when a sambhur doe came into

the clearing, some way from the seladang. She walked directly

towards the seladang and stopped when between the two of them.

The three animals were within a circle of ten yards. The cow

seladang turned her head with a gesture implying surprise as if

she would like to say, ‘Well! and what do you want here?’ The

bull took no notice at all.

I managed to secure some photographs of this group. What

would have been the ultimate outcome for this ‘gate-crasher’ |

never found out because one of the seladang becoming alarmed

the two turned quickly round and made for the jungle; but the

doe, standing facing me, never moved a muscle, ‘froze’ in a rather

stilted position most of its weight on three legs, and so remained

for several minutes. It then started to drink at the lick.

It is useless to speculate as to what sambhur will do under

abnormal circumstances. In a lick, they are not as alert as

seladang; still when photographing them take no chances and never

forget that they are wild animals to whom the dread scent of man

conveys a deadly sense of fear.

I was on one occasion in this very lick exposing a cine film on

two sambhur, a doe and a big stag. They were about 4o yards

from me. The doe was very busy in the lick but the stag was

somewhat lethargic and presently lay down. As he was amongst

boulders he was almost invisible and I knew he would be

indistinguishable in the photograph as the light was poor. So I

stopped my camera and waited. Nothing happened. I made a

slight noise and the doe immediately looked up. I softly clapped

my hands and the doe then became alert, stamped a forefoot, turned

round and started to walk out of the lick, her tail well up and

stepping carefully with deliberation, lifting her forefeet like a high

stepping horse. The doe disappeared, the stag gave no sign of

even being alive! I then clapped my hands without restraint and

imitated, or thought I imitated, the bell of a sambhur. Still nothing

happened. I then moaned like a tiger. A.slight movement of the

antlers. This was a bit too much even for my patience, so I put

my head out of the hide and shouted, ‘Get up, you lazy old devil’.

He heard that and very slowly struggled to his feet, looked with

what I fear was supreme contempt towards me—those foolish efforts

62 JOURNAL, 9BOM BAY. NATURAL \HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XEl

at imitations—and walked slowly out of the lick. He was in fine

condition and obviously in excellent health.

Perhaps for him it was ‘The morning after the night before?’

On the other hand, sambhur sometimes show an extraordinary

nervousness which it is difficult to account for.

I was photographing a young stag in a lick when without

warning a helmeted hornbill (Rhinoplax vigil) flew into a tree behind

my hide creating, as they so often do, a good deal of fuss. The

sambhur started violently at the noise, although it must have been

a familiar one to him.

Then the hornbill left the tree and flew right over the lick making

a most infernal row. This was too much for the sambhur who

turned and rushed for the jungle. Of course the hornbill may have

conveyed to the sambhur a warning of something unusual which

the deer was quick to act upon; anyway it was an interesting little

glimpse of nature with the lid off.

What has always struck me and still strikes me about wild

animals going about their lawful occasions when undisturbed and

unafraid is their extraordinary deliberation. Except when alarmed

there is no fuss, no rushing to get there first, no hurry. We can

well learn much from a close study of Nature.

Great caution is generaily shown when entering a lick by all but

elephants and very old seladang, although I always suspect that

elephants very carefully test the wind when still some distance from

the lick, and when they find it all right walk straight into the

lick. If they find it all wrong you do not see them at all.

I was once in a lick when a big sambhur. stag came in. He

was a magnificent specimen. He approached very cautiously,

stopping every few steps and took a long time coming within my

range. I was using a reflex camera whose shutter went down

with a bang and I seldom got a chance of more than two exposures,

if as many. I used film packs in that camera. The stag after

many false starts settled down and came within 35 yards of me.

I then..got into action. 1 ‘expected. to ‘see him run“so soon sas: et

released my shutter but all he did was to start and shudder as

if in protest at such an unnatural noise. I actually exposed six

films on him. He shuddered every time but otherwise took no

notice at all. Finally he walked away. His change from extreme

caution when entering to entire indifference when once settled

down in the lick, despite the noise of the shutter, seems to me to

point to the fact that if these animals are satisfied that all is well

they .rely-on their ‘safety: in the, open space in“ the lick: WNom tiger

could stalk them in a lick—-I do not think they ever try—and wild

dogs leave so much scent behind them that were there any in

the immediate neighbourhood the sambhur would know and act

accordingly.

CONCLUSION.

1 often hear persons who should know better upholding the

practice of carrying firearms when in the jungle as a defence against

unprovoked attacks by wild animals. As a cold fact unprovoked

WiLD LIFE PHOTOGRAPHY IN THE MALAYAN JUNGLE 63

attacks by unwounded wild animals in the jungle is a myth, and

it is quite unnecessary to make any provisions for carrying firearms

unless one is hunting. |

I never think of taking a firearm with me into a hide, and none

should be permitted to do so.

One has many days sitting in a hide on the edge of a salt-lick

when no opportunities for photography will occur, but one never

has a blank day so far as interest in wild life is concerned, because

things are always happening which are of vital interest to the

nature lover.

The distant call of the seladang, the faraway trumpet of an

elephant, the moaning of a tiger, the wonderful call of the Argus

pheasant, so often answered by another one from some distant

ridge or strutting .ground, the numerous species of birds which

one sees and hears, all combine to make a dull day in a hide in

a Malayan jungle, an impossibility to anyone who can appreciate

the real voice of Nature and be thankful for the peace and

comfort that it can and does bring to the human race.

THE GAME FISHESJOP-INDIA

SUNDER “LAL HORA, °D.SC., F.R.S.E., F.Z.S.5. PER.A/S'B) FON.

Assistant Superintendent, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta.

(With one plate and two text-figures).

Contention pages 503 0; .Vol,- xi.

VII.—Tue MUutiey or Boat.

WALLAGONIA ATTU (Bloch and Schneider).

CONTENTS.

PAGE

Introduction or: an ie ae st te Oe

Nomenclature and Systematic Position oe a Sar. AOD

Synonymy and Description... see aes ae se 106

Bionomics and Fishing Notes ... em ane sae oe. 100

Acknowledgments og ie ba ehh sa Wl

List of References & hia a ng se” dee

Explanation of Plate 5 se oe a vhs Syeczal

INTRODUCTION.

The most predaceous fish encountered by anglers in the tanks

of India is the so-called Freshwater Shark, designated so far in

scientific literature as MWallago attu. On account of its forbidding

aspect and unclean feeding habits it 1s not usually eaten by the

higher classes, yet there is a fair demand for it and it forms

one of the important food-fishes of India. Further, in Bengal the

fish is particularly valued as an offering to the goddess Wali.

Though the Mulley is generally more abundant during the warm

season, considerable quantities of it are offered for sale in all parts

of the country at practically all times of the year. Owing to its

wide distribution and familiarity it is known by an amazing variety

of vernacular names in different parts of India, and very often it

is puzzling, when in conversation with fishermen, to make out

what kind of fish is meant.

Like other Catfishes, the Mulley is devoid of scales and is

provided with long feelers. It is a greatly elongated fish, with

the head as the broadest part. It has a huge mouth armed with

two broad bands of rather large, sharp teeth. It grows to an

_———_—_—_—_——<—— eee

* Published with permission of the Director, Zoological Survey of India.

(4aplouyss Y YDo|g) NIB eLUOseE|eAA

IIWOg 49 AATINW SAL

"20S ‘LSIFJ “LVN Avawog ‘Nunof

THE GAME FISHES OF INDIA 65

immense size and according to Hamilton (4)' sometimes specimens

of six feet in length are met with. Fish weighing over 100 lbs.

are not rare.

Owing to their predaceous habits, these fish are very destructive,

in confined waters, to other more valuable food-fishes, such as

Carp. Their presence in a tank is almost a sure indication of the

absence of any other type of fish in it. As the Mulley can be

readily fished out with rod and line it is always advantageous

to clear the fishery tanks of this pest before introducing any young

fry in it. Generally, they prefer muddy tanks, especially those

which are subject to periodical flooding from a nallah or river

during the rainy season. It is stated that they are far more

plentiful in such tanks than in those which are fed more frequently

by artificial channels.

NOMENCLATURE AND SYSTEMATIC POSITION,

The Mulley was originally described as Silurus attu by

Bloch and Schneider in their Systema Ichthyologiae (p. 378,

pl. Ixxv, 1801). In 1803, Russell (9) gave an account of the

fish under its vernacular name Wallagoo, but regarded it as a

Silurus. In describing Silurus boalis Hamilton (4) recognised its

close affinity to the Wallagoo of Russell, but pointed out a few

minor differences in the number of fin-rays, etc. The fish was

described under different names by later ichthyologists (vide

Synonymy on p. 66), but in 1862 Bleeker (2) referred it to his

genus Wallago and revived its original specific name attu given

by Bloch and Schneider. Ever since it has been known, both

popularly and in scientific literature, as Wallago attu. In 1936,

however, it was pointed out by me (5) that in accordance with the

strict application of the International Rules of Zoological Nomen-

clature Wallago should be used for those species which are at

present included under Belodontichthys Bleecker and a new name

proposed for Silurus attu and its allies. However, in view of the

great familiarity of the generic name Wallago in its present-day

accepted sense I did not make any change in nomenclature. Myers

(7) independently found the impropriety of using Wallago for

Silurus attu and proposed for it the genus Wallagonia, with

Wallago leerii Bleeker as the genotype. He included three species

in his new genus, viz., Wallagonia attu (Bloch and Schneider),

W. miostoma (Vaillant) and W. leerii (Bleeker). In view of these

recent nomenclatorial changes the Mulley should be known now

as Wallagonia attu (Bl. & Schn.).

Wallagonia Myers is included in the family Siluridae (Order:

Siluroidea), which is characterised by the possession of a very short,

spineless dorsal (at times it may be rudimentary or absent al-

together), a very long anal and one or two pairs of barbels.

Regan (8) observed that ‘This family has usually been united

with the Schilbeidae, but the two have little in common beyond

* Numerals in thick type within brackets refer to the serial numbers of

the various publications listed in the ‘List of References’ at the end of the

paper.

66 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HiSt, SOCIEDY, Vol xit

the elongation of the anal fin. The many-rayed pelvic fins, the

contiguous or confluent anal and caudal, combined with the

absence of a dorsal spine, of an adipose fin, and of nasal barbels,

characterize the Siluridae externally, whilst the osteology is quite

different from the Schilbeidae, with their rod-like palatine, frontals

with free edges, and lateral ethmoids not projecting outwards.’

Among the Siluridae, Wallagonia is characterized by _ the

possession of a short dorsal fin of about 5 rays, by the

deeply forked caudal fin, which is free from the anal fin, by the

free orbital margins to the eyes and by the position cf the eyes

above the level of the corners of the mouth.

SYNONYMY AND DESCRIPTION.

WALLAGONIA ATTU (Bloch and Schneider),

1801. Silurus attu, Bloch and Schneider, Syst. Ichth., p.

1803. Silurus (vern. name Wallagoo), Russell, Fish. V

pio vclxv.

1822. Silurus boalis, Hamilton, Fish. Ganges, pp. 154, 375; pl. xxix, fig. 40:

1839. Silurus Wallagoo, Cuvier and Valenciennes, Hist. Nat. Potss., xv,

£5) Sh, sae 50;

P- 354-

1839. Silurus asotus, Cuvier and Valenciennes (nec Linnaeus), ibid, p. 358.

1839. Callichrus macrostomus, Swainson, Nat. Hist. Fish., etc., ii, p. 300.

1841. Schilbe boalis, Sykes, Trans. Zool. Soc. London, ii, p. 268, pl. Ixiv,

figs 3:

1846. Silurus Mulleri, Bleeker, Nat. Geneesk. Arch. Ned. Ind., ili, p. 289.

1847. Silurus Mulleri, Bleeker, Verh. Bat. Gen., xxi, p. 56.

1849. Silurus boalis, Jerdon, Madras Journ. Litt. Sct., p. 335.

1849. Silurus ruallagoo, Jerdon, ibid., p. 333.

1850. Silurus Mulleri, Bleeker, Verh. Bat. Gen., xxiii, p. Io.

1852. Wallago Mulleri, Bleeker, Nat. Tijdschr. Ned. Ind., iii,

1853. Wallago Russellii, Bleeker, Verh. Bat. Gen., xxv, p. 108.

1858. Wallago Russellit, Bleeker, Ichth. Arch. Ind. Prodr., i, Silurt, p. 261.

1858. Wallago Russellii, Blyth, Journ. As. Soc. Bengal, xxvii, p. 283.

1859. Wallago Russel, Bleeker, Nat. Tijdschr. Ned. Ind., xx, p. 102.

1862. Wallago attu, Bleeker, Atl. Ichth., ii, p. 79, pl. Ixxxvi, fig. 1.

1864. Wallago attu, Giinther, Cat. Fish. Brit. Mus., v, p: 36.

1877. Wallago attu, Day, Fish. Indta,. p.. 479, pl. cxi; fig. 4.

1889. Wallago attu, Day, Faun. Brit. Ind. Fish., i, p. 126, fig. 54.

1890. Wallago attu, Vinciguerra, Ann. Mus. Civ. Stor. Nat. Genova (2)5, ax.

p- 199.

1913. Wallago attu, Weber and de Beaufort, Fish. Indo-Austral. Archipel.,

li, p. 201.

i916... Wallago atiu, Raj, Rec. Ind. Mus.,- xii,> p26;

1923. Wallago attu, Hora, Journ. Nat. Soc. Siam (2), vi, p. 165.

1929. Wallago attu, Prashad and Mukerji, Rec. Ind. Mus., xxxi, p. 175.

1932. Wallago attu, Deraniyagala, Ceylon. Journ. Sci, (B), xvi, p. 275,

plow dy.

1934. Wallago atiu, Fowler, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1xxxvi,

2 O73

euaerite cates :—Boyali and Keyali (Dinajpur); Boali (Rungpur); Bovari

(Bhagalpur and Patna); Barhari (Gorakhpur); Shivada, Pari, Purram and

Worshoorah (Mahratta); Valai, Alhi Yalai, Wallah and Tele (Tamil); Boallee

(Hind.); Ballia and Boalee (Uriya); Mulley (Punjab); Potkee Mulla, Pi-i-kee

and Jer-i-kee (Sind); Walagah (Telugu); Maha Valeya and Valeya (Sinhalese) :

Sareng (Manipur, Assam); Poil (Chittagong); Nga-bat (Burma); Gwalli,

Bawali, Latchi, Laki and Bawari of Trihut; Lanch and, Lanchi of Deoli,

Baralie of Assamese; Painda of Rohtak.

Sanskrit. names :—Sahasradanshtra, Pathina Rupyabarna, Udaradirgha and

Mahasira.

THE. GAME FISHES OF INDIA © : 67

pase2r Diese 86-93); Pry 14-055) 0V.. ao, °C. 17.

The large head is the most conspicuous part of the fish; it

increases in size considerably during the growth of the fish and

its length is contained from 4.2 to 4.7 times in the standard length.

The depth of the body is contained from 5 to 7 times in the standard

length. The eyes are small and are situated entirely above the

mouth opening; the hinder border of the eye is about one diameter

in front of the posterior extremity of the cleft of the mouth. The

diameter of the eye is contained from 6.5 to 10 times in the length

of the head. The snout is spatulate and somewhat produced. The

lower jaw is slightly longer. The maxillary barbels are twice as

long as head, and extend to the anterior part of anal; the mandi-

bular barbels are as long as snout. There are broad bands of

depressible, pointed teeth in the jaws; those of the posterior rows

increasing in size. The vomerine teeth are similar and are situated

in two oval patches. The lateral line is well marked. ‘There are

21 short gill-rakers.

The dorsal fin is short, spineless and is situated in the anterior

third of the body length; its height is more than the postorbital

part of: the head. The anal is separated from the caudal. The

pectorals are about two-thirds the length of the head; the spine

is entire and feeble with the stiff portion as long as the postorbital

part of the head. The caudal fin is forked and the lobes are

rounded... The colour is more or less uniform, somewhat darker

above and lighter below. The fins are sometimes ‘covered with

fine dots.

Hamilton (4) described the colouration as follows :—

‘Above it is of an olive shade with a golden gloss, and below white with

clouded spots, consisting of numerous black dots; but the vent and tail fins

are blackish, and over the whole fish is spread a livid hue, which rapidly

increases after it is taken out of the water, and soon covers the whole.’ |

In a fresh specimen from a Calcutta market purchased in May

1938 the dorsal surface was found to be light elm green, while

the sides were of a cream colour, lighter below and darker above.

Along the lateral line there was a faint band of light orange

yellow. The operculum was light purple, while there was a patch

of light blue behind the eyes. Along the dorsal margin of the

eyes there was a band of burnt sienna colour. Above the pectorals

there were patches of light indigo which faded upwards into whitish

areas. Along the base of the anal fin the colour was_ light

vermilion. The barbels were light yellowish white. The paired

fins were of a light. yellowish vermilion -colour, while the anal

and the caudal were of reddish neutral tint. The dorsal fin was

marked with a yellowish neutral tint.

The air-bladder is heart-shaped and is attached to the bodies

of the second to the fourth vertebrae.

Distribution: —Wallagonia attu is found throughout India,

Ceylon, Burma, Siam, Java, Sumatra and Western Yunnan. This

is the only species of the genus found in Indian waters. In the

material examined it has not been possible to differentiate local

races or varieties, but as a rule in the Burmese and Siamese

specimens the eyes are proportionately smaller.

Kier

Vol.

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THE GAME FISHES OF INDIA 69

BIONOMICS AND FISHING NOTES.

In the introduction reference has been made to the general

habits of the species and the types of localities inhabited by it.

Sundara Raj (10) noted that

‘W. attu is a large and powerful fish and predaceous in habits. It feeds

on both vegetable and animal matter, preferably on the latter, and is said

to destroy fry and large numbers of smaller fish in ponds. It is sluggish

in its movements and lives for the most part at the boftom. Thomas

attributes the frequent slowness of this fish to discover the presence of food

to deficient sight. The statement that it feeds mostly at night appears to

be incorrect, as I have seen it active and freely take a bait by day. It

is usually caught in large nets and when handled it makes fierce attempts

to: bite.’

Its formidable rows of teeth

: SRW A dae ;

(text-fig. 1), all of which are avs Vi Mp.

directed backwards, are _ not & \\ NWWaiieas ",

meant for mastication or for LONI VY by

tearing the prey, but to prevent NS RO ty Vy t bs,

its escape once it is inside the EN Soe “, ML ECR,

mouth. The teeth are so effect- NG OYE WG Lhe).

ive that Thomas (II) warns Asx OP Mi LF Che,

, SILOS # 2 LaGA

anglers not to thrust their fingers NaS hy (hE

ie i as SX we 4,

inside the mouth to take out the AAS fy;

Wwe tl A.

hook. He observes that KANY tht

7 AAS “oy

‘However dead the fish may seem, SS Wit

never dream of attempting to take out SS C27

your hooks without securing yourself pe aCe

against his closing his awful jaws on “SY Ea

you, by firmly wedging his mouth open

with a log, or stone, or gag. And a

disgorger will be found useful.’ wh, Si

; 257 RAN

The predaceous habit of the 77, AN

fish is also evident from the ¥%74 ea

e “40 : Vo ~ :

nature of its alimentary canal 7-4 S33

(text-fig. 2a) which is only 7st ere

slightly convoluted. The stomach Coe ASS

is a large, bag-shaped structure hae SSs

the walls of which are greatly es Ss

folded internally (text-fig. 2b). ALES OSS

These structures indicate that UG Gt RIN

the fish feeds mostly on animal GIO pn, ESS YY

matter and on living organisms. L674 ey BANS Ne

There seems hardly any doubt “bh Whe”

that during its search for prey MOLE es

the sense of sight plays very

little part and that its tactile ext-fig. 1—Upper and lower dentition

feelers are the main agency for of a specimen of Wallagonta attu

the fish to feel its way in the (Bl. and Schn.), 302 mm. in

: : ae standard length. X13.

muddy waters in which it lives.

According to Beavan (1), W. attu is ‘a remarkably good fish

for eating purposes, when taken from clean waters, and is much

70 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL (HIST SOCIETY “Vol oar!

in request among the natives. In Sylhet they capture it by spearing

from a boat rowing slowly up stream and coming behind the fish.

This would seem to indicate that it is not a bottom feeder like

many of the Siluridae.’ Beavan’s inference that the fish is not

sel, A

—

Soman

Text-fig. 2.—Alimentary canal of Wallagonia attu (Bl. and Schn.).

a. Alimentary canal of a specimen 302 mm. in standard length. x13; b.

Stomach of a specimen 464 mm. in standard length cut open to show

the structure of its inner walls. x13.

a bottom feeder will be contested by all anglers. For mstance

Dhu (3) gives the following method of catching it :—

‘A stout hand line with a dead fish on the hook, weighted and thrown

into the tank bed in the evening, is sure to take in one of these monsters

who will give plenty of ‘sport. Young fish from 5 to 15 lbs. can be taken

at any time of the day with a stout pike or Salmon rod and light tackle

spinning with a small fish or a 1} inch spoon.’

Thomas (I1) also suggests ‘pike or Salmon rod, and spinning

with a small fish the size of your fcrefinger, or even with a small

i$ inch spoon. With such light tackle they give excellent sport.’

He advocates the use of wire in preference to gimp or gut while

fishing for this species,

THE GAME FISHES OF INDIA fal

According to Dhu, the Mulley ‘Takes fly, spoon and spinning

bait sometimes in rivers, also occasionally rises to fly in tanks,

greedy as regards live bait. Fights fairly well and is not bad

eating. Takes worms and occasionally paste in tanks. Also

frequently springs out of water when hooked.’

Lacey (6) gives a good account of the species from an angler’s

point of view and suggests that best fishing can be had in warm

season and on warm days.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.

The Bombay Natural History Society very kindly made a grant

towards the cost of the illustrations, and for this I offer my sincere

thanks to the authorities of the Society. Mr. K. S. Misra helped

me with the preparation of the table of measurements, and for

this I am indebted to him. The illustrations were prepared by

Babu B. Bagchi with his usual skill and care under my supervision.

List OF REFERENCES.

1. Beavan, R.—Handbook of the Freshwater Fishes of India, p. 128 (London,

1377).

2. Bleeker, P.—Atlas Ichthyologique des Indes Orientales Néerlandaises, vol.

iil, p..79 (Amsterdam, 1862).

3- Dhu, $.—The Angler in India or the Mighty Hahseer, pp. 11. 65

(Allahabad, 1923).

4. Hamilton, F.—An Account of the Fishes found in the River Ganges and

is ranches, pp. 154, 375,. pl: xxix, fig. 49 (Edinburgh,. 1822).

5- Hora, S. L.—‘Siluroid Fishes of India, Burma and Ceylon, iv. On the

use of the generic name Wallago Bleeker’. Rec. Ind. Mus., vol. xxxvili, pp.

107, 208 (1936).

6. Lacey, G. T.—The Anglers’ Handbook for India, 4th ed., pp. 111-15, 120,

121 (Calcutta, 1905).

7. Myers, G. S.—‘Notes on Ansorgia, Clarisilurus, Wallago, and Ceratoglanis,

four genera of African and Indo-Malayan Catfishes.’ Copeta, p. 98 (June,

1938).

8. Regan, C. T.—‘The Classification of the Teleostean Fishes of the Order

Ostariophysi.—2. Siluroidea.”. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (8), vol. viii, p. 560 (1911).

9g. Russell, P.—-Descriptions and Figures of 200 Fishes, collected at Visaga-

batam on the coast of Coromandel, vol. ii, p. 50, pl. clxv (London, 1803).

10. Sundara Raj, B.—‘Notes on the Freshwater Fishes of Madras.’ Rec. Ind.

Mars., vol. xil, p.. 263. (1916).

tr. Thomas, H. A.—Rod in India, 3rd ed., pp. 207-209 (London, 1897).

EXPLANATION OF PLATE.

Colour sketch of the lateral view of a specimen of Wallagonia attu (Bl. and

Schn.), 464.mm. in standard length. It was purchased from a Calcutta market

in fresh condition.

THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA.

D. G. SEVASTORULO, 2 °R-E-s:

Parr Ete

(Continued from Vol. xl, p. 692).

RHOPALOCERA:

PIERIDZ.

Delias descombesi Bsd., leucacantha Fruhs.

Pupa—Head produced into a point, forked at the end and shaped

rather like a T. Thorax with a large keel. Abdomen with six

stout black spines along the dorsum, the first and second curved

backwards. Three subdorsal blunt black spines above the edge

of the wing case, the central one largest. Colour of head and

thorax blackish brown; abdomen whitish dorsally, brownish !aterally

with a series of white dots; wing cases black with yellow veins;

antenna sheaths black ringed with yellow. Attached to a leaf

by the cremaster and rather a long girdle of white silk.

Described from a batch of seven pupae found on one leaf in

Shillong 15-vii-38, from one of which a female emerged 16-vii-38.

NYMPHALIDA.

Ergolis merione Cr., tapestrina Moore.

Bingham, Fauna Brit. Ind., Butterflies, i, 462. 1905.

Head flattened frontally, very dark brown marked with whitish,

and produced above into a pair of straight red-brown spinous horns.

Body green with a fawn dorsal stripe, edged with dark brown,

from rst to 11th somite. A subdorsal series of short branched

spines from the 2nd to the 12th somite, the roth and rrth somites

each with an additional dorsal spine. <A lateral and sublateral

spine on the 2nd and the 3rd somite, and a lateral and two

sublateral on each somite from the 4th to the 1toth. 11th somite

with a lateral spine only. Legs and prolegs green.

Another form is without the dark edged, fawn dorsal stripe.

Pupa—Head_ bifid. Wing cases slightly dilated. Thorax

keeled. A slight prominence on the 3rd abdominal somite. Colour

pale purplish brown, the sides of the meta-thorax and the abdominal

prominence rather darker. A median heart-shaped dark brown

mark on the 5th abdominal somite. Wing cases with a faint

reticulated pattern and a fairly distinct antemedian and median dark

line. Antenna cases dark brown. Attached by the cremaster below

a leaf of the food-plant.

Food-plant—Castor (Ricinus communis Linn.),

THE EARLY. STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA 73

Described from a full fed larva found in Calcutta 17-i-39, pupated

19-i-39, and a female emerged 27-1-39. bee

Bingham, quoting Moore, describes the larva as ‘Cylindrical,

slender; segments armed with two dorsal and two lateral rows of

short-branched spines; head with a pair of long, straight, branched

spines. Colour green with dorsal longitudinal dark brown lines.’

HETEROCERA.

ZYGAENID.

Erasmia sanguiflua Drury.

Head dull dark brown, retractile. Ground colour dark brown.

“th and 8th somites each with a white transverse dorsal band. A

subdorsal series of tubercles, those on the 7th and 8th somites

yellow the others brown, bearing paired brown bristles. A sub-

lateral series of similar tubercles, those cn the first three somites

brown the others deep pink, with longer yellow bristles. Prolegs

deep pink. Venter pinkish.

Cocoon of very pale yellowish brown papery silk. Spun in a

folded leaf.

Described from a full fed larva found in Shillong 14-vii-38,

spun 2-vili-38, and a female emerged 22-viil-38.

ARCTIDA.

Pericallia ricint F.

Moore, Lep. Ceyl., ii, 70, pl. 106, fig. 2b. 1882-83.

Hamps., Fauna Brit. Ind., Moths, ii, 18. 1894.

Head black, mouth parts marked with white. Ground colour

dark grey. A pale yellow dorsal stripe blotched with dull orange.

A double yellowish lateral line joining together between the somites.

Hairs grey tipped with whitish. Legs black. Claspers marked

externally with black, the feet orange.

The immature larva is similar but the ground colour is pale

greenish grey and there is a black subdorsal spot on the 2nd

and 12th and a dark grey subdorsal spot on the 4th and roth

somites.

Pupa dark purplish of typical Arctiine shape. In a double thin

hammock-shaped cocoon of brown silk mixed with larval hairs.

Food-plant—I have bred it on Sunflower and Castor, whilst

Moore records Notonia, Fagraea and Dahlia. There are probably

few herbaceous plants that it will not eat.

Very subject to the attacks of parasites, out of a batch of

seven larvae four were ichneumoned.

Described from a full fed larva found in Calcutta 26-vi-38,

pupated 29-vi-38, and a female emerged 27-vii-38.

Moore’s description, which is more or less copied by Hampson,

is ‘Larva dark brown, white speckled; with dorsal and_ lateral

tufts of fine hairs,’

74 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLI

Nyctemera plagifera Wk.

Head red brown with a few black hairs. 1st somite red brown,

ground colour of the rest of the body black. A broad white dorsal

stripe, interrupted between the somites, and with one broad and

two narrow transverse black lines on each somite from the 5th

to 1ith. A broken white lateral stripe. 2nd somite with sub-

dorsal pencils of long black hair, pointing forward and having

the appearance of antennae. Rest of the body with rosettes of

black hair. Venter blackish. First pair of legs red brown, the

others black. Claspers reddish brown.

Pupa in a thin cocoon of white silk. Pale chestnut in colour,

abdominal somites with a subdorsal, lateral and_ latero-ventral

series of black spots. Thorax with two subdorsal black spots.

Leg, antenna and wing cases streaked with black.

Food-plant—A_ species of Compositae.

Described from a full fed larva found in Shillong 22-vii-38,

pupated 27-vil-38, and a male emerged 5-vili-38.

LYMANTRIIDZ,

Dasychira complicata Wk.

Head orange. Ground colour orange brown, a white dorsal

line edged with black from the 8th to roth somite. First three

somites rather greyer and marked with reddish intersegmentally.

roth somite with two sublateral short white streaks. Very

elaborately haired. Ist somite with subdorsal, lateral and sub-

lateral tufts of greyish hair forming a fringe. 2nd somite similar,

3rd somite in addition with a slender subdorsal pencil of very

long white hairs. 4th to 7th somites each with a double dorsal

fan-shaped brush of fairly long golden hair and a similar brush

on the 11th somite. 4th to 11th somites with lateral warts giving

rise to tufts of golden hair and a series of similar sublateral warts.

8th to roth somites with subdorsal warts bearing short whitish

hairs. Anal somite with a pencil of a few long white hairs.

Venter black. Legs and prolegs crimson. The larva has_ the

appearance of having been compressed laterally.

Pupa pale chestnut brown, the dorsum densely clothed with

golden brown hair about an eighth of an inch long. In a double

cocoon of whitish silk mixed with larval hair.

Food-plant—Various, found on Apple, Bracken and Montbretia,

it also ate Lagerstroemia indica Linn. in captivity.

Described from a full fed larva found in Shillong 25-vii-38,

spun 29-vil-38, and a female emerged 17-viii-38.

LASIOCAMPID. .

Lebeda nobilis Wk.

Ovum barrel-shaped, whitish with a dark spot at each end

and three olive brown rings, the central one being the most

prominent.

Larva—Head dark brown with a paler streak on each side and

clothed with short hair. Ground colour varying from dark blue

THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA 75

grey to pale silver grey, some examples being plain and others

mottled. The whole: body is clothed with small scale-like hairs,

which give it a speckled appearance. ist somite with a dorsal

fringe of short buff coloured hair projecting forward over the head,

a subdorsal tubercle bearing a fringe of long buff coloured spatulate

hairs and a lateral tubercle with a fringe of similar hairs. 2nd to

11th somites each with a lateral tubercle, those on the 2nd and

3rd being largest, bearing a fringe of long buff coloured spatulate

hairs. 2nd and 3rd somites each with a transverse dorsal fold

lined with dark skin and fringed internally with bright red-brown

blue-tipped sharp pointed hairs and externally with short buff

coloured hairs. 5th to rith somites each with a subdorsal brush

anteriorly, consisting of the sharp red-brown blue-tipped hairs

covered by a layer of ribbon-like buff coloured hairs. When the

larva is in repose the dorsal folds are closed and the brushes lie

flat along the dorsum, the appearance then matches a piece of

bark or dead stick. When alarmed the folds are opened and the

brushes erected, revealing the sharp pointed hairs, and any attacker

is bound to run into them. Legs reddish. Claspers marked with

reddish. Venter black with a dark red lateral stripe.

Pupa in a dense cocoon of blackish brown silk, usually spun in

a leaf, through which the red-brown larval hairs are pushed point

outwards. Dark purple in colour with the intersegmental areas

dark chestnut. Abdominal somites with a short fringe of golden

brown pubescence.

Food-plant—Pine, Bracken, Rubus sp., and probably many

others.

Described from a number of full fed larvae found in Shillong,

one of which spun 28-vii-38 and a male emerged 1-ix-38.

Metanastria latipennis Whk.

Grunberg Seitz, Indo-Austr. Bombyces, x, 395.

Ovum barrel-shaped. Chalky white with a large clive green

spot on each side. Micropyle dark.

Larva—Head very dark brown with an inverted white Y mark,

the area between the arms almost filled in with white. Ground

colour of body dark golden brown dotted with black. Dorsal and

lateral areas thickly covered with longish pale-tipped dark hair,

that on the dorsum growing more or less in tufts, that on

the sides in a fringe. 4th to 9th somites each with a short sub-

dorsal and lateral tuft of dark reddish brown hair. Legs reddish

brown. Claspers with a double white stripe externally. Venter

very dark brown. One example had tufts of bright yellow hair

among the dark hair of the dorsum and sides.

Pupa dark purple brown, the intersegmental areas paler. The

thorax and abdomen sparsely clothed with very short golden brown

pubescence. Enclosed in a thick cocoon of very dark brown silk,

usually spun in a leaf, through which the larval hairs are pushed

point outwards.

Described from a full fed larva found in Shillony 18-vii-38,

pupated 26-vii-38, and a female emerged 30-vili-38,

76 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL, HIST SOCTETY, “Vol XEL

The description in Seitz is as follows:—‘Larva at the thorax

with dense long, lateral hairing, on the abdomen with basal lateral

and dorsal hair-tufts of light and dark hair. Pupa on the broadly

obtuse anal end with a corona of bristles.’

BOMBYCID.

Andraca bipunctata WIk.

Head paler or darker brown. Ground colour varying from

greenish yellow to darkish brown. The 3rd and 4th somites ex-

panded laterally into a triangular lobe. 11th somite with a longish

curved fleshy horn, the end of which curls and uncurls. Body

clad with very short sparse hairs, only visible under a lens. 2nd to

roth somites each with a dark subdorsal wart bearing a_ black

bristle. A dark dorsal and lateral line from the rst to the 4th

somite. A dark line starting from the subdorsal wart on the 4th

somite, running through the spiracles of the 5th, 6th and 7th

somites and then along the anterior margin of the proleg on the

8th somite. Above this line there is a paler area and

there is a pale stripe along the side of the proleg on the

8th and goth somites. An oblique stripe on the 8th-gth, oth-roth

and roth-r1th somites. In some examples the dorsum is slightly

mottled. Horn rather darker in colour and there is a’ dorsal dark

stripe running from its base to the apex of the anal flap. Legs,

prolegs and venter varying with the ground colour.

Pupa in a small cocoon of brown silk, spun along a twig or

in a tuft of leaves. Dark purple in colour, somewhat pitted. The

end of the abdomen truncate.

Described from a number of full fed larvae found in Shillong,

one of which spun 22-vii-38, and a female emerged 3-viii-38.

SATURNIIDZ.

Cricula trifenestrata Helf.

Moore,-Lep. Ed. Co., pl. 18; fies." 7ay 7bs 1857-50.

Hamps., Fauna Brit. Ind., Moths, i, 28. 1892.

Seitz Seitz, Indo-Austr. Bombyces, x, 507.

Head crimson with a few white hairs. Ground colour black

sprinkled, except between the somites, with yellow green dots. 1st

somite with a crimson dorsal patch. A transverse series of six

small crimson tubercles on each somite, bearing short stinging

bristles. A yellow green sublateral stripe. Anal flap, legs, prolegs

and a stripe along the venter crimson. The body is clothed with

medium length white woolly hair. Gregarious.

Pupa golden fawn, sprinkled with minute black dots. Inter-

segmental areas darker. Wing cases suffused with blackish.

Cocoon shuttle-shaped of bright golden yellow silk, not altogether

net-like but with a fair number of holes.

Described from a full fed larva found in Shillong (13-vii-38,

spun 15-vil-38, and a male emerged 9-vill-38. my

My larvae were very different from those described by Hampson

and Seitz. The former’s description is ‘Larva black brown; 2nd

HE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA “a

to 11th somites each with six setiferous tubercles ; Ist somite and

claspers crimson; a pale reddish sublateral stripe; legs and prolegs

brown.’ Seitz writes ‘The larva distantly resembles that of

Lasiocampa quercus; it has a yellowish brown fur, dark - ring—

indentations, each ring with 6 tufted small tubercles; neck and

anal shield reddish, legs red brown.’

LIMACODIDZ.

Oxyplax ochracea Moore.

Moore, Lep. Ceyl., ii, 129, pl. 129, fig. 3a. 1882-83.

Hamps., Fauna Brit. Ind., Moths, 1, 376. 1892.

Hering Seitz, Indo-Austr. Bombyces, x, 719. |

Shape oval, flattish. Head dark brown, retractile. Body dark

brown with a pale dorsal and pale transverse lines. A_ yellow

saddle-shaped mark slightly behind the centre of the body, wide

at the sides and narrow on the dorsum. Anterior part with four

subdorsal, the first one pointing forward, and three lateral brown

spined scoli. Median part with three subdorsal tufts of short

yellow spines and four very small lateral yellow spined_ scoli.

Posterior part with two subdorsal and three lateral brown spined

scoli.

Cocoon dark red brown, almost spherical.

Food-plant—Found on Apple, but ate the leaves of a number

of shrubs in captivity.

Described from a full fed larva found in Shillong 12-vii-38,

spun 15-vii-38, and a male emerged 5-viii-38.

All three descriptions mentioned above refer to a pale green

larva, whitish above, with two dorsal rows of black spots, a black

dorsal patch on the second segment and a single spot on the anal

one. Both Hampson and Hering appear to have copied Moore’s

description of a Ceylon larva, the wording of the three descriptions

being almost identical.

NOTODONTID.

Nadata niveiceps Wk.

Head large, slightly triangular, pale bluish green dotted with

white at the sides and with a double white central stripe. Ground

colour of body white, except the first three somites which are

pale bluish green. <A series of seven subdorsal oblique green stripes

trom the 4th to the roth somite, the last meeting dorsally on the

11th somite, which is humped. Spiracles consisting of a yellow line

surrounded by a dark red and a white ring. Legs yellow green.

Prolegs and venter bluish green. Anal flap very large and with

a raised reddish brown margin.

Pupa, in captivity, formed in a slight cocoon among: litter.

Very dark purple, almost black. Minutely pitted. In shape blunt.

at both ends and with the divisions between the abdominal somites

very deeply cut. Cremaster a transverse row of six slightly hooked

spines with two more immediately behind them on the dorsum.

Food-plant—Quercus sp.

78 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLI

Described from a full fed larva found in Shillong 18-vu-38,

pupated 24-vui-38, and a female emerged 17-viii-38.

Phalera parivala Moore.

Head pale brown spotted with black. Ground colour very pale

yellow, changing to bluish white when completely full fed. A black

sublateral stripe throwing out a branch on each somite, those on

the 1st to 4th almost erect and on the 5th to 11th slightly more

oblique. A broken double black dorsal line from the ist to the

3rd somite, where it joins together and terminates. 11th somite

with a pale orange transverse dorsal band, edged with black and

with three black spots on it. 12th somite laterally and anal flap

yellowish spotted with black. Legs black. Prolegs black with

two rings of the ground colour. Venter black with a bluish

central stripe from the Ist to the 9th somite. Each somite with

a subdorsal tuft of a few long white hairs and with a few. more

laterally and sublaterally.

Pupa subterranean in an earthen cocoon. Purplish black.

Rather long. Cremaster consisting of four short spines ketween

two teeth.

Food-plant—Lespedesa Thomsoni Benth. (Leguminosae).

Described from a full fed larva found in Shillong 8-v1i-38, buried

itself ro-vii-38 and a male emerged 27-vii-38.

Desmeocraera fasciata Moore.

Head bluish green. Ground coiour green. Ist somite with a

pale yellow collar behind the head, bilobed subdorsally. 8th to

toth somites each with a dorsal fawn blotch. 11th somite with a

short fawn dorsal stripe posteriorly, joining a transverse blotch

on the 12th somite. Legs red, ringed with pale yellow at the

base. Prolegs’ and venter green. Spiracles red. The fawn

markings fade and the ground colour becomes purplish prior to

pupation.

Pupa subterranean in an earthen cocoon. Smooth, dark purplish

brown. Prothorax with a pair of short subdorsal tubercles. Cre-

master broad with six small teeth.

Food-plant—Quercus sp.

Described from a full fed larva found in Shillong 8-vii-38,

pupated 13-vii-38, and a female emerged 29-v11-38.

NOCTUID.

Brithys crim FE,

Moore, ‘hep: Ceyl.,iin, 14, plo145, ‘fe. 2as* 1884287.

Hamips., Fauna Brit: Ind., Moths, i, 168-- 1894.

Warren Seitz, Indo-Austr. Noctuidae, xi, 85.

Head orange buff with two large black spots. Ground colour

black, 1st somite with an orange buff dorsal blotch with two black

spots. Each somite with five large white spots on the posterior

edge and five slightly smaller spots on the anterior. A few short

bristly hairs. Anal somite and claspers orange buff spotted with

black. Legs black. Venter blackish.

THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA 79

Pupa subterranean. Very dark purple, almost black, with the

intersegmental areas paler.

Food-plant—Amaryllideae and, according to Seitz, Liliaceae.

Described from a full fed larva found in Shillong 28-vil-38, buried

itself 31-vii-38, and a female emerged 8-viil-38.

Moore’s description, which is more or less copied by Hampson,

is ‘thick, warty; second to eleventh segments black, spotted with

bluish white; head, top of second segment, and the two anal

segments red, with black spots; legs red; forelegs black tipped.’

Seitz’s description is ‘Larva with the head, the second and last

segments, and the legs yellow; the rest brown, with dorsal and

subdorsal series of yellowish white spots.’

Calogramma festiva Don.

Semper, Schmett. Philippines, 516, pl. Q, figs. 4 & 5.

Warren Seitz, Indo-Austr. Noctuidae, x1, 320.

Head black with a dark brown inverted Y-shaped mark. Ground

colour grey, Ist somite with a darker dorsal blotch. <A yellow

dorsal stripe, a white dorso-lateral stripe, with a series of black

streaks above it and with an irregular double white line between

it and the dorsal stripe. A white lateral line with an irregular

white line between it and the dorso-lateral stripe. A yellow sub-

lateral stripe with a series of black blotches above it. 4th somite

with a transverse black band, straight in front and curved behind,

between the dorsal and sublateral stripes. Anal plate black. Legs

black. Prolegs purplish marked with black externally. Venter

purple.

Pupa subterranean in an earthen cocoon. Mahogany brown,

wing cases and thorax slightly darker.

Food-plant—Liliaceae. Feeds gregariously.

Described from a full fed larva found in Calcutta 4-viii-38,

pupated 7-vili-38, and a male emerged 15-viii-38.

Seitz’s description which is based on Semper’s, is ‘Larva brown

with black and white irrorations, a black band on 5th segment ;

dorsal and subdorsal lines whitish; stigmata with white spots

defined by black above and with a broad yellow band below them;

head and ventral surface redbrown.’

Acontia transversa Guen.

Moore, Lep. Ceyl., ili, 42,-pl. 149, fig. 2a. 1884-87.

Hamps., Fauna Brit, Ind., Moths, ti, 323. 1894.

Head green with a few pale hairs. Body green. Each somite

with a subdorsal pair of oval rust coloured spots. Very slightly

darker green oblique lateral stripes. A pale spiracular line. A

few scattered hairs. Legs green. Proiegs green, the first two

pairs completely obsolete. Venter silvery green. Turns purple

just prior to pupation.

Pupa, in captivity, in a slight cocoon between two leaves.

Abdomen dark chestnut with a darker dorsal stripe. Thorax very

dark chestnut. Wing cases dark olive green. Cremaster two

diverging spines.

Described from a full fed larva found in Shillong 25-vii-38,

pupated 29-vii-38, and a female emerged 9-vili-38.

80 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Voi. XLI

Hampson’s description, which is more or less copied from

Moore, is ‘Larva pale green, with a few very fine hairs; subdorsal,

lateral and sublateral series of white spots, the subdorsal series

with a larger yellow spot on each somite.’ Moore’s figure shews

a plain green larva with a series of yellow subdorsal spots and a

broad white sublateral stripe, this latter is not mentioned in the

text. He describes and figures the larva as having twelve legs,

but Hampson, in his description of the genus, writes ‘Larva with

four pairs of abdominal proleg’s’; the word ‘pairs’ should obviously

be omitted. Moore calls the pupa pale purplish red, Hampson pale

pinkish red.

Hypocala deflorata F.

Head brown. Ground colour black. ist somite with an orange

dorsal blotch marked with black. 4th somite with a deep yellow

transverse dorsal band anteriorly. 11th somite with a_ similar

orange band. Anal somite marked dorsally with orange. Three

white subdorsal lines, interrupted by the yellow and _ orange

transverse bands, and three sinuous white lateral lines. An orange

spiracular stripe and a very broken yellow subspiracular stripe, most

noticeable on the roth somite. Legs black. Prolegs pale with a

black shield-shaped mark externally. Venter blackish with a pale

median line and the area between the prolegs pinkish. Spiracles

white ringed with black.

Pupa subterranean in a slight earthen cocoon. Chestnut brown,

with wing cases slightly paler. Rather slender in shape. Cre-

master two long and two short spines.

Described from a full fed larva found in Shiliong 15-vii-38,

buried itself 16-vil-38, and a male emerged 2-viii-38.

Cosmophila mesogona Whk.

Head yellowish green. Ground colour yellowish green, a darker

dorsal and lateral stripe. mst somite with two transverse rows of

six white-ringed black dots immediately behind the head. 2nd and

3rd somites each with a median row of cight similar dots and with

a lateral pair, one in front of and one behind the median series.

4th to 12th somites each with two subdorsal and thiee lateral

white-ringed black dots. Legs and prolegs each with a_ white-

ringed black dot at base. Some of these dots give rise to a single

black hair. Legs green. Prolegs green, the first pair obsolescent.

Pupa dark purplish, rather slender. Between two spun together

leaves.

Described from a full fed larva found in Shillong g-vii-38, spun

up 10-vii-38, and a male emerged 25-vii-38.

Cosmophila fulvida Guen.

Moore, Lep. Ceyl., in,.85 & 86, pl. 155;, fies. 24), Cy deWegae

1884-87.

Hamps., Fauna Brit. Ind., Moths, 11, 410. (1894.

Head green marked on the vertex with crimson, slightly hairy.

Ground colour green. A pale dorsal line, edged on each side with

darker, a yellow dorso-lateral line and a very thin white lateral

Hitz EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA 81

and sublateral line. ist somite with two transverse series of six

white-ringed black dots, each giving rise to a short bristle. 2nd

and 3rd somites each with a series of eight similar dots and with

an extra two, one anterior and the other posterior to the transverse

series, sublaterally. 4th to rith somites each with four similar

“dots subdorsally, two on each side of the dorsal line, and with a

lateral series of three in the form of a triangle with the apex

forward. 12th somite with four subdorsal but only one lateral dot.

A similar dot just above the origin of each leg and proleg. Legs

green. Prolegs green with pink feet, the first pair partially aborted.

Wenter green.

Pupa in a slight cocoon between leaves. Dark purplish, rather

slender.

Described from a full fed larva found in Shillong 12-vil-38,

pupated 14-vii-38, and a female emerged 29-vi1-38.

The larva is apparently very variable. Moore, whose descrip-

tion is copied by Hampson, giving the ground colour as_ black,

olive green and olive grey. All my larvae, however, were as

described above. Moore gives the food-plant in Ceylon as

‘Waltheria indica, ete.’

(GEOMETRIDZ.

~Biston bengaliaria Guen.

Head flattened and bilobed, mottled brown with a darker

central blotch. tst somite bilobed. Ground colour brownish,

blotched and mottled with darker, resembling a dead and slightly

lichen covered twig. 8th somite with a lateral white wart.

Pupa subterranean. Dark purplish, minutely pitted. A raised

ridge on the thorax at the origin of the wing cases. Cremaster

long and ending in a sharp spine. Last somite with a pair of

short spines ventrally.

Described from a full fed larva found in Shillong g-vii-38,

buried itself 11-vil-38, and a male emerged 4-viii-38.

THE BIRDS OF CENTRAL INDIA.

SaLtim ALI.

WitH Notes By HUGH WHISTLER.

PART |.

(With a map).

This paper is based on a collection of 886 birds made during

1938, and on field work lasting aggregately six months—January

to April and August to September—in the Central Indian States

of Bhopal, Gwalior, Indore and Dhar. The Survey was made

possible by the generosity of the Durbars concerned to whom the

thanks of the Society and of all ornithologists are due.

The area here dealt with had not, as a whole, been systematically

worked before. The bibliography at the end gives an idea of the

comparative meagreness of our previous knowledge. While no

novelties were to be expected, it was desirable to obtain fresh

material in order to determine the races that occur, and for

generally bringing Central India up in line with other areas that

have been systematically investigated within recent years. Only a

more or less bald list of the birds met with is here given, with

short remarks on status, etc. Owing to pressure of time I have

had to discard my usual practice of “collating all previous records

under one comprehensive paper.

As in my earher regional papers, Mr. Hugh Whistler is respon-

sible for the useful taxonomical notes which appear in square

brackets. His painstaking research and constant collaboration have

added considerably to the usefulness of this work, and I am deer

erateful to him.

PHYSIOGRAPHY

Of the total area of 78,772 square miles covered by Central

India, the four States here dealt with occupy 43,218 as follows:

Gwalior 25,041; Bhopal 6,902; Indoré 6,500; Dhar 1,775) Vicm

the physiographical point of view they may be considered fairly

representative of the whole, and this is doubtless true in regard

to the ornithology as well. They lie between latitudes 22° 10!

andie260 u52) IN? and lon; gitudes 74° 30/ and 79° %8' E.

The general declination of the country is to the north, falling

from about 2,000 ft. along the Vindhyan Range to 500 ft. along

its northern boundary. The country can be conveniently split up

into three natural divisions with marked diversity of physical aspects,

CENTRAL

oO Jaipur

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CENTRAL INDIA

oO Jaipur

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Scale =1:4000,000 or 63-1 Miles to an Inch Collecting Stations... te

Miles Miles Height in feet... ......... 1300

0 20 40 60 80 100

THe BIRDS OF CENTRAL INDIA 833

climate and scenery, namely (1) the Plateau, (2) the Low-lying

portions or Plains, and (3) the Hilly Tracts.

The Plateau takes in most of Malwa—an extensive tableland

with a mean elevation of 1,600 ft. above sea level. In its widest

sense, Malwa includes the country between the Vindhyan_ barrier

(which forms the northern bank of the Narbada Valley) and a point

just south of Gwalior town. Its eastern limit is marked by a

ridge running north to south starting near Bhilsa, while its western

limit marches with the Rajputana border.

The Low-lying Tract or Plains, with a mean elevation of about

Zoo ft., embraces the country round Gwalior town, 1.e. to the north

and north-east of it, extending thence across into Bundelkhand

of which it includes the greater part, till it meets the Kaimtr

Hills in Baghelkhand.

The Hiliy Tracts lie principally along the Vindhya and Satpira

Ranges and their numerous branches.

The country worked falls chiefly into two of these three natural

divisions, namely Plateau and Hilly Tracts. Only the area to the

north and north-east of Gwalior town up to the Chambal River

comes in the Plains.

Temperature: The hill system, i.e. the parallel Vindhya and

Satptra Ranges (which strictly speaking are one range) of which

isolated peaks rise to 3,000 ft., has a marked effect on the climate

of Central India, both from the high tableland it forms on the

west and from the direction it gives to prevailing winds at different

seasons. The average maximum and minimum temperatures are

as follows:

Max. Min.

Malwa Plateau:

January ie 45°F.

May 103° 76°

Rains ie 77

Plains:

January a 48°

May [O7 81°

Rains 37 hs a

Humidity: Variation of humidity in Central India during the

year is marked. It is lowest in March, April and May; highest

in January and August.

Rainfall: The whole of the area specifically dealt with in this

paper is supplied by the Bombay monsoon current. Average fall:

Plateau 30”; Plains 30-40"; Hilly Tracts 4o-50”.

There are good grounds for believing that Central India has

undergone marked desiccation during the last 300 years. Reports

point to a diminution of at least 20” in the annual rainfall during

the last 70 or 80 years. In the 16th and early 17th centuries the

Moghul Emperors Akbar and Jehangir hunted elephants about

Narwar, Chandéri, Satwas, Bijagarh and Raisen the forests then

containing some large herds. In their place there is nothing but

$4 jJOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLI

stunted thorn jungle today, and it is obvious that the rainfall then

must have been considerably heavier to support forests capable of

harbouring elephants.

Flora: An immense area in Central India is covered by the

fertile black cotton soil formed by the decomposition of the Deccan

trap. The flora of the Deccan trap area differs markedly from

the sandstone region of the hilly tracts. In the former mostly

Dhak (Butea frondosa) thrives, while on the latter the jungle is

closer and the trees more abundant and of greater variety. The

change to a sandstone soil is at once signalled by the presence of

teak (Tectona grandis), tendt (Diospyros tomentosa), salai (Boswellia

serrata), sa} (Lerminalia tomentosa) and other species.

The forests belong to the type designated by Champion’ as

‘Tropical Dry Forest’. They approximate mainly to the following

of his subsidiary edaphic types:

Hardwickia forest.

Boswellia forest.

Butea forest.

Anogeissus pendula forest.

. Cotton soil Babul forest.

esMesMesMesl es

wm Our &

ITINERARY.

Bhopal State:

Sanchi, ca. 1,600 ft. (23° 29' Nx 77° 44’ E) 6-12 January.

Dodi tea ay 7OONlt 2. Nx "6 34’ E) 13-19 January.

Mathar, ca, 1,500 ft. (22°“S2"-N.x 77 28) 4h), 20227) Jamuaigy.

Jaithari, cae 1,950 1 (23° 13 Nx78° 37! E)...29- January-3

February.

Gwalior State:

Kino, ca. 1,500 ft. (25° 32) Nx77° 15) EF) ar Pebsuagy-22

February. ae

March.

Narwar Fort, ca. 1,900 ft. (25°° 38) °N x77 57 Ejieaers arch:

March. : a

Strwaya, Ca. 1,300 ft. (25° 25/°Nx77 53) (16-23. March

Badarwas,.ca. (24 58) Nec77 a2) | e24-om een

. Gina, «ca. -1,600 -ft,-(24° 39!°N x 77° 21’ E). 31 March-5 April.

Chandeért, ca: 1,450 ft.-(24 "43° N X78 11) J6-14e\pau,

Bhind, ca. 500 ft. (26° 33 Nx78° 50 Hjna5ee2 oNpril:

Sardarpur, ca, 1,050) ft.1l22 sao IN a5 a2) oo 18 September.

Bagh Ga. (22> 23/'N x74 45) E) 18-20) September.

1 Champion, H. G.—‘A Preliminary Survey of the Forest Types of India

and Burma. Indian Forest Records (New Series) Silviculture’, vol. i, No. 1

(Manager of Government Publications, Delhi, 1936).

As this. is the latest: and most comprehensive work on the classification. a

forest types, it is to be hoped that field ornithologists and those working on

other groups of animals will generally make use of it wherever possible.

Only by adopting a standard and well-defined terminology will it ever become

possible for us to establish habitat types for our own subjects.

eng

THES BIRDS OF CENTRAE INDIA 85

Indore State:

Biywar, ca. 1,450 ft. (22° 42) Nx 76° 36’ E) 22-28 August.

@houal,. Ca. 1,100 Ht. (22° 26’ Nx75°° 58 E) 28 August-2

September.

Dhar State:

Gujri, ca. 750 it. (22 TO NGX 7G 330 2-8 September.

Mandus “ca. 2,300 ft. (22° 20' Nx 75° 25/ E) 8-14 September.

SYSTEMATIC LIST.

Corvus macrorhynchus culminatus Sykes. The Southern Jungle Crow.

Specimen collected: 546 Q 25-3-38 Badarwas (Gwalior State).

Elsewhere noted: Bhopal: Bhopal town, Mathar, Jaithari. Gwalior : Gwalior

town, Satanwara, Narwar, Surwaya, Chandéri, Sardarptr. Indore: Indore

town, Bijwar, Choral, etc.

Common. Collecting sticks for nest 22-2-38 (Satanwara). Nest nearing

completion ; both birds working, 11-4-38 (Chandéri).

Corvus splendens. splendens Vieillot. The Indian House Crow.

Specimen collected: Gwalior: 547 G 25-3-38 Badarwas.

Elsewhere noted: Bhopal: Bhépal town, Jaithari, Sehore. Gwalior : Gwalior

town, Kuno, Satanwara, Sardarptr. Indore: Indore town, Bijwar, Choral,

Mhow. Dhar: Dhar town, Mandt, Gijri, etc.

Common. In and about towns and villages. Large flocks collecting every

evening on shingly bank of Ktno River to drink before flying off to roost,

15-2-38 (Kuno). Feeding nearly full-fledged Koel (Eudynamis scolopaceus) in

nest, 28-8-38 (Choral).

Dendrocitta vagabunda vagabunda (Latham). The Indian Tree Pie.

Specimens collected: Bhdpal: 24 9 8-1-38 Sanchi, 230 @ 31-1-38 Jaithari.

Gwalior: 262 Q 12-2-38 Kino, 451 G 9-3-38 Narwar Fort, 624 ¢ 7-4-38

Chandéri, 870 Q juv. 16-9-38 Tanda (near Sardarpur). Indore: 737 0? juv.

29-8-38 Choral.

[Nos. 737 and 870 are in juvenile plumage. There appears to be no difference

between the juveniles of the four Indian races of this species, all that I have

examined having the pale creamy fulvous underparts which are normally the

distinction of D. v. vernayi in the adult.—H.W. ]

Elsewhere noted: Bhopal: Bhopal town. Gwalior: Strwaya, Badarwas,

Guna, Bagh. Indore: Indore town, Bijwar. Dhar: Dhar town, Gujri, Mandu.

Common.

Parus major malrattarum Hartert. The Southern Grey Tit.

Specimens collected: Bhopal: 155 ¢ Mathar 21-1-38. Gwalior: 309 2 19-2-38

Kuno, 419 2 5§-3-38 Narwar Fort, 628 @ 8-4-38 Chandéri. Indore: 704 6

Juv., 705 0? juv. 24-8-38 Bijwar, 728 ¢ 27-8-38, 736 0? juv. 29-8-38 Choral,

741 3d 30-8-38, 814 ¢ 7-9-38 Manpir 1,500 ft. Dhar: 836 ¢ juv. 10-9-38 Mandu.

_[Nos. 704, 705, 736, 814, 836 are all in juvenile plumage and all exactly

alike, having the upper plumage tinged with green and the nuchal spot, cheeks

and white of the underparts faintly washed with yellow as noted in the

Eastern Ghats Survey (J.B.N.H.S., xxxv, p. 517). The post-juvenal moult

has not yet commenced.—H.W. ]

Elsewhere noted: Bhopal: Sanchi, Jaithari. Gwalior: Surwaya, Bagh,

Shivpuri.

Common, Family parties in August and September.

Machlolophus xanthogenys aplonotus (Blyth). The Yellow-cheeked Tit.

_ Specimens collected: Bhopal: 63 3, 64 Q 11-1-38 Sanchi, 115 OG 17-1-38

Dodi. Gwalior: Sol Gy 502 ,;-603° O,. 564 9 27-3-98, 383. 3 30-3-38

Badarwas, 600 2, 6o1 ©, 602 G 2-4-38, 621 2 5-4-38 Giina, 629 8-4-38

86 JOURNAL, BOMBAY ‘NATURAL “HIST: *SOCIB# Y, Vol. Xt

Chandéri. Indore: 689 _¢ -juv., 690 ¢G, 69% G6 juVv., “G92 02. quV. 22°8396

Bijwar. Dhar: 83: SG juv. g-9-38 Mandi.

[Chandéri provides the most northerly records for this race. This admirable

series of 18 carefully sexed birds consists of 6 adult males, 8 adult females

and 4 juvenile males. It will be remembered that in the Eastern Ghats Survey

(J.B.N.H.S., xxxv, 521) I introduced the interesting problem of plumages of

this group of Tits, and Mr. Salim Ali has kept the matter carefully before

him in his various surveys, contributing greatly to its elucidation. In_ the

present case the six adult males are all black-headed birds with black ventral

stripes. The eight adult females are black-headed with dull olive-green ventral

stripes, and the 4 juvenile males are black-headed with black ventral stripes.

as described in the Hyderabad Survey (J.B.N.4US., xxxvi, 371). It now

remains to be proved that the juvenile female is black-headed with dull olive-

green ventral stripes as in the adult female. I have seen no juvenile of this

type in this race (and I have seen a juvenile marked female with the black ventral

stripe, but the size—-wing 7o mm.-—suggested that the sexing was not reliable) but

it occurs in the race travancoreensis and it is hardly credible that the juveniles of

this sex should start with the black ventral stripe and assume an_ olive-green

ventral stripe in adult plumage. It seems fairly safe therefore to draw up

the following plumage scheme for the Machlolophus xanthogenys group as at

present constituted :

Machlolophus xanthogenys xanthogenys : Adult male and female alike. Crown

black ; ventral stripe black. Juveniles alike and similar to adults.

Machlolphus xanthogenys travancoreensis: Adult male and female not alike.

Male: crown black; ventral stripe black. Female: crown black; ventral stripe

dull olive-green. Juveniles not alike but resembling their respective adults.

Machlolophus xanthogenys aplonotus: Adult male and female not alike.

Male: crown black; ventral stripe black. Females dimorphic: phase (1) crown

and eye-streak black, ventral stripe dull olive-green; phase (2) crown and

eye-streak dull olive-green, ventral stripe dull olive-green. Juveniles not alike,

but resembling their respective adults. As I have an unsexed juvenile from

the Nilgiris with black crown and olive-green ventral stripe it would seem

that both adult female phases are represented in the juvenile.

Unfortunately I have been unable to obtain any fresh material of Machlolophus

sptlonotus and subviridis to throw further light on their plumages and connection

with the xanthogenys group.—H.W.]

Elsewhere not noted.

At the end of March males were observed courting females, singing with

erected crest and drooping wings. A clear whistling cheewit-pretty-cheewirt.

Family parties of parents and 3 or 4 young usual in August/September. A

male on 30 March had testes 2X1 mm. and was busy courting and singing.

A male in full song also noted on 10-9-38.

Sitta castanea caStanea Lesson. The Chestnut-bellied Nuthatch.

Specimens collected: Indore: 755 0? juv. 31-8-38 Choral. Dhar: 837

juv. 10-9-38, 849 ¢S juv. 12-9-38 Mandu; 802 ¢ 6-9-38 Gijri.

[Nos. 755, 837 and 849 are juveniles. As the juvenile plumage of this

species does not appear to have been described, it may be recorded that

both sexes closely resemble the respective adults of their sexes except that

the chestnut-bay on the underparts of the male is not quite so rich and dark

in colour.—H.W. |

Pairs or family parties of 3 or 4 in localised bird associations in forest.

Almost invariably with Dryobates hardwickit.

Turdoides somervillei orientalis Jerdon. The Eastern Ghats Jungle Babbler.

Specimen collected: Bhopal: 185 @ 25-1-38 Mathar.

[Although slightly intermediate in character this specimen is best kept with

this race (vide Travancore Survey, J.B.N.H.S., xxxvili, 72).—H.W.]

Elsewhere noted: Bhopal: Sanchi, Dédi. Gwalior: Kuno, Satanwara,

Narwar Fort, Sarwaya. Indore: Bijwar. Dhar: Mandu, Badarwas, Guna,

Bhind.

Common. In forest. Usually in localised bird associations,

MARV BIRDS OF (CENTRAL INDIA 87

Argya caudata caudata (Dumont). The Common Babbler.

Specimens collected: Bhopal: 16 OG 8-1-38 Sanchi, 102 ¢ 15-1-38 Dodi,

218 9, 219 Q 30-1-38 Jaithari. Gwalior: 448 @ 9-3-38, 483 O 13-3-38 Narwar

Fort, 666 9 juv., 667 9, 668 od, 669 ¢ 18-4-38, 680 ¢, 681 SG 19-4-38

Bhind, 876 @ 17-9-38 Sardarptr. Indore: 763 3 1-9-38 Choral.

Elsewhere noted: Gwalior: Gwalior town environs, Kuno, Satanwara, around

base of Narwar Fort, Sarwaya, Badarwas, Guna and environs. Indore: Bijwar,

Dhar: Mandu.

Common in dry open facies. Apparently breeds throughout the year. Gonads

of specimens mature in March, April, August and September. Observed nest-

building 13 and 20 March. Specimen No. 666 about 3 to 4 weeks old.

Argya malco!mi (Sykes). The Grey-headed Babbler.

Specimens collected: Bhopal: 44 3, 45 @& 9-1-38 Sanchi.

Elsewhere noted: Bhopal: WDdédi, Udaipur, Jaithari. Gwalior: Gwalior

town environs, Kuno, Satanwara, Narwar (only in open thorn = scrub and

cultivation about base of Fort), Surwaya, Badarwas, Guna and environs, Bhind,

Sardarpur. Indore: Indore town and environs, Bijwar, Choral. Dhar: Gajri,

Mandu.

Common. Usually in facies not so dry as A. caudata and not so wooded

as T. somervillei, but in patches side by side with either.

Dumetia hyperythra hyperythra (Franklin). The Rufous-bellied Babbler.

Specimens collected: Bhdpal: 51 © 10-1-38 Sanchi, 146 CG 19-1-38 Dodi,

172 0? 23-1-38 Mathar. Gwdélior: 440 9, 441 0? 7-3-38, 443 oc, 444 0?

8-3-38 Narwar Fort, 606 {G 2-4-38 Chhipon (Gina Dist.). Indore: 713 0? juv.

24-8-38 Bijwar, 760 2, 761 GG 1-9-38 Choral.

[No. 713 is a juvenile. It differs from the adult in lacking the chestnui

tinge on the forehead and crown and the stiff shafts to the feathers of the

forehead. The chestnut of the lower parts is considerably duller and_ paler.

It has the soft brown rounded first primary and the soft tail feathers characteristic

of the juveniles of the Timaliidae. These specimens clear up = a_ point

that has always puzzled me—as it did not agree with my mapping of the

distribution of the two races of hyperythra. Wing (J.A.S.B., 1868 p. 215) said

that Dumetia albogularis occurs at Goona (Guna) which the survey now shows

to be incorrect. King’s statement was doubtless another example of the con-

fusion between the two races, from which even Jerdon was not immune.—H.W. |

Elsewhere noted: Bhopal: Jaithari. Gwalror: Ruthiai, Chandéri, Bagh.

Dhar: Mandu.

Not uncommon in tall grass and thorn scrub country. Gonads mature 1-9-38.

Juvenile 24 August.

Chrysomma sinensis sinensis (Gmelin). The Yellow-eyed Babbler.

Specimens collected: Bhdpal: 211 ¢@ 26-1-38 Mathar, 226 3 30-1-38 Jaithari.

Gwalior: 303 Sd 19-3-38 Kino, 462 GG 10-3-38 Narwar Fort.

Elsewhere noted: Bhipal: Sanchi. Gwalior: Satanwara, Stirwaya, Badarwas.

Indore: Bijwar. Dhar: Mandi.

Not uncommon in tall grass and scrub, usually in association with Prinia

sylvatica, Prinia inornata and Frnklinia gracilis.

Specimens collected: Bhopal: 4 ‘ v

17-1-38 Dodi. Gwalior: 417 @ 5-3-38, 454 CS 9-3-38, 464 &? 12-3-38 Narwar

Fort, 493 ¢ 17-3-38, 507 @ 18-3-38 Strwaya, 549 S 25-3-38, 566 ¢ 27-3-38

Badarwas. Indore: 697 G juv. 23-8-38, 706 0? juv. 24-8-38 Biwar. Dhar:

823 0? juv. 824 2 9-9-38 Mandi.

Agithina tiphia humei Stuart Baker. The Central Indian Tora.

7-1-38, 37 2, 38 6 2, 9-1-38 Sanchi, 113 9

[The males obtained from 12-27 March are in body moult starting to

assume the characteristic summer plumage. Nos. 697 3S and 823 0? are in

the juvenile plumage. Both are alike and resemble the adult female in

colour and pattern, but as the feathers are very soft, fluffy and decomposed

the green of the upper plumage and the yellow of the lower plumage are

definitely paler in appearance.—H.W. |

Elsewhere noted: Gwalior: Kuno, Sardarpur, Bagh.

Common. Testes of specimen 17 March enlarged to 5X3 mm.

88 JOURNAL, BOMBAY UNATU RAL GIST? (SO CRED. AV olen

Agithina nigrolutea (Marshall). Marshall’s Iora.

Specimens collected: Gwalior: 645 6, 646 @Q 16-4-38 Bhind.

[These 2 specimens are not really typical mgrolutea but in the amount

of white on the wings and tail they are intermediate between -F£. t. humet

and -E. nigrolutea. I have not noticed specimens of this intermediate type

before and they of course make it still more evident—inspite of the difficulties

of distribution—that nigrolutea must really be a race of tiphia, albeit approach-

ing the status of a true species.—H.W. |

Elsewhere not noted.

Not uncommon about Bhind.

Chloropsis jerdoni (Blyth). Jerdon’s Chloropsis.

Specimens collected: Bhopal: 25 92 8-1-38, 55 6; 56 Q 10-49-38 Sanchi

Gwalior: 626 ¢ 8-4-38, 633 ¢ 9-4-38 Chandéri. Indore: 693 3, 694 2 23-8-38

Bijwar.

The April specimens had testes enlarged to 5x4 and 4X3 mm. respectively.

The August pair are undergoing the complete post-nuptial moult.

Molpastes cafer pallidus Stuart Baker. The Central Indian Red-vented

Bulbul.

Specimens collected: Bhopal: 111 @ 17-1-38 Dodi. Gwalior: 521 ¢, 522

Elsewhere noted: Sanchi, Jaithari. Gwalior: Gwalior town and environs,

Kuno, Satanwara, Narwar Fort, Chandéri, Bhind, Sardarptr. Indore: Indore

town, Simrol, Mhow, Choral. Dhar: Dhar town, Gujri, Mandu.

Common. Often congregations of over a hundred birds on Banyan and

Peepal trees in fruit, and in fruiting Lantana patches.

Molpastes leucogenys leucotfs (Gould). The White-eared Bulbul.

Specimens collected: Gwalior: 682 3, 683 @ 19-4-38 Bhind,

Elsewhere not noted.

The first and only meeting in Central India. A few amongst wooded

outscoured) ravines in Barai Dalbergia Plantation near Chambal_ River.

Breeding. Testes 7X5 mm.; ovary granular.

Oenanthe picata (Blyth). The Pied Chat.

Specimens collected: Gwalior: 367 92 26-2-38, 371 Q 27-2-38, 388 9

28-2-38 Satanwara, 518 dG 19-3-38 Surwaya.

Elsewhere noted: Between Kuno and Pohri (Gwalior).

Sparingly. Pairs on stony, sparsely-scrubbed semi-desert facies. Excessively

shy. Specimen of 19 March very fat.

Oenanthe deserti atrogularis (Blyth). Gould’s Desert Chat.

Specimens collected: Bhopal: 223 Q 30-1-38 Jaithari. Gwalior: 336 <6,

337 Q 24-2-38, 336 S 26-2-38, 370 J 27-2-38, 414 Q 3-3-38, Satanwara.

Elsewhere noted: Bhopal: Ashta, Bareli village. Gwalior: Sardarpur.

Not uncommon in stony semi-desert country with stunted Bér (Zizyphus)

and Acacia bushes: Lanius lahtora facies. Earliest date: 15 September (Sar-

darpur).

-Oenanthe opistholeuca (Strickland). Strickland’s Chat.

Specimens collected: Gwalior: 368 ¢ 26-2-38 Satanwara, 517 CG .19-3-3&

Surwaya.

Elsewhere not noted.

Sparingly—singly or pairs—in same facies as CH. picata. Very shy.

Specimen of 19 March very fat.

Cercomela fusca (Blyth). The Brown Rock-Chat.

Specimens collected: Bhopal: 244 $, 245 Q 1-2-38 Jaithari, Gwalior: 418

3 §5-3-38 Narwar Fort.

Elsewhere noted: Bhopal: Sanchi, Sehore, Bhopal town. Gwalior : Gwalior

Fort, Gtna, Chandéri. Dhar: Manda.

THE BIRDS OF CENTRAL INDIA 89

Common about old forts and ruined buildings. In full song in 2nd week

of March. Nest building 13 March,

Saxicola caprata bicolor Sykes. The Northern India Stone-Chat.

Specimens collected: Bhopal: 89 0? 15-1-38 Dodi, 181 Q 24-1-38 Mathar,

224 dG 30-1-38, 243 dG 1-2-38 Jaithari. Gwalior: 394 Q 28-2-38 Satanwara,

478 S 14-3-38 Narwar.

Elsewhere noted: Bhopal: Sanchl. Gwalior: Kuno, Magr6ni, Bhind.,

Uncommon. Usually singly.

Saxicola torquata indica (Blyth). The Indian Bush-Chat.

Specimens collected: Bhopal: 41 3S 9-1-38 Sanchi. Gwalior: 345 G 25-2-38

Satanwara, 487 6 15-3-38 Narwar Fort.

Elsewhere noted: Jaithari. Bhopal: Bhopal Lake environs. Gwalior: Kuno,

Badarwas, Bhind, Sardarpur.

Commoner than above. About cultivation and fallow land. Farliest date

17 September (Sardarpur); latest 17 April (Bhind).

Cyanosylvia suecica suecica (Linnaeus). The Blue-throat.

Specimens collected: Bhopal: 36 3 9-1-38 Sanchi, 104 SG 15-1-38 Dodi.

Gwalior: 261 CO 12-2-38, 308 oO? 1g9-2-38 Kuno, 410 CG 2-3-38 Satanwara,

527 Q 21-3-38 Surwaya.

[The identification of winter Bluethroats is a matter of great difficulty

and the group as a whole needs careful revision. These specimens are however

certainly neither abbotti nor pallidogularis and I see no means of distinguish-

ing them from the typical race.—H.W. ] .

Elsewhere noted: Bhopal: Bhopal Lake environs, Gwalior: Badarwas,

Guna, Ruthiai, Rampura Tank.

Common. In cotton and surgar-cane fields, and grass and reed patches by

streams and tanks. Majority had departed by 4 April; after 7 April none

seen.

Phoenicurus ochruros rufiventris (Vieillot). The Eastern Indian Redstart.

Specimens collected: Bhopal: 33 g-1-38 Sanchi. Gwalior: 421 Q 5-3-38,

459 Y 10-3-38 Narwar Fort, 523 2 20-3-38 Surwaya, 558 ¢ 26-3-38 Badarwas,

881-0? 19-9-38 Bagh.

[No. 558 is an unmistakable male of this race with the head and_ back

black without any grey fringes. No. 881, unsexed but presumably a female,

is very dark and can also be attributed to it without hesitation. The other

4 birds might in colour belong to either race, but in view of the large size

may also be attributed to this race which about here seems to find its ordinary

western limits in the Peninsula.—H.W. |

Elsewhere noted: Bhopal: Bhopal town. Gwalior: Ktno, Satanwara,

Chandéri, Bhind. Dhar: Mandu.

Latest date 16 April, by which most had departed: earliest 10 September.

By 19 September appreciably commoner.

Saxicoloides fulicata cambaiensis (Latham). The Brown-backed Indian

Robin.

Specimens collected: Bhopal: 198 S 25-1-38 Mathar. Gwalior: 557

26-3-38 Badarwas. Indore: 751 CG 31-8-38 Choral.

[These 3 birds vary inter se which is only to be expected. No. 557 is

closer in colour to true cambaiensis than the other two birds which come from

near the -border line with S. f. intermedia, but I think all 3 specimens are

best kept with cambaiensis.—H.W. |

Elsewhere noted: Bhopal: Sanchi, Dodi. Gwalior: Kuno, Satanwara, Narwar

Fort, Surwaya, Sardarpur. Indore: Bijwar. Dhar: Manda.

Common in Bhopal and Gwalior, less so in Indore and Dhar. Breeding

at end March. Gonads of 557 (26 March) mature. Nest on same date, and

another bird with nesting material.

Copsychus saularis saularis (Linn.). The Indian Magpie Robin.

Specimens collected: Bhopal: 177° 3 23-1-38, 204 @ 26-1-38 Mathar.

Gwalior: 386 ¢ 28-2-38 Satanwara.

SO JOURNAL, BOMBAY “NATURAL, TISTASO Gli V5 (Vola win

Elsewhere noted: Bhopal: Sanchi, Dodi, Bhopal town and environs. Gwalior :

Kuno, Strwaya, Shivpuri, Badarwas, Guna, Ruthiai, Chandéri, Sardarptr.

Indore: Indore town and. environs, Bijywar. Dhar: Mandu.

Common. First heard in song 28 February. Full song not general till

grd_ week of March. Many tailless in September (moulting all rectrices

simultaneously) and silent again.

Turdus simillimus mahrattensis Kinnear and Whistler.

Specimens: collected : Dhar : 730, OP juve, 7o2 juy., 783% Orejuve; S40 ee.

4°9-38, 793 2 juv. 5-9°355.0797 @ .jUV., 798° Oy auve, G-9-48; Sous aia ius

Gujri, 821 Q juv., 822 @ juv. 9-9-38, 845 GO juv. 11-9-38 Mandu.: Indor

80g ¢ 7-9-38 Manpur.

[Nos. 781, 783, 797 and 815 are all in juvenile plumage and the _post-

juvenal moult has not yet commenced. They agree with two juvenile birds

from Khandalla (June 1935 and July 1936) which I owe to the kindness of

the authorities of St. Xavier’s College, Bombay. From this series it is clear

that the sexes are just distinguishable in juvenile plumage.

In the juvenile male the upper plumage, wings and tail are dark sooty blue

grey, much as in the adult, the lesser and median coverts tipped with triangular

fulvous spots, the ear coverts and sides of the neck streaked with fulvous ;

lower plumage dark ashy olive, the feathers broadly edged with blackish, the

throat and the central breast and abdomen with the centres of the feathers

largely white. The tail feathers are slightly narrower than in the adult.

The juvenile female has the upper plumage dull olive brown, the feathers

faintly streaked with fulvous and edged with sooty; wings, tail and lower

parts as in the adult.

Nos. 782, 793, 821, 822, 845 are immature birds in different states of

progress with the post-juvenal moult. This includes the whole body plumage

and the lesser and median coverts but evidently not the greater and primary

coverts, the primaries, secondaries and tertiaries or the tail.

No. 784 is a very worn female just commencing to moult the wings. Nos.

798 and 809 are adults in heavy complete moult, the old feathers being greatly

worn. It will be appreciated therefore that though this series of Blackbirds is

most interesting from the point of view of plumage studies it is a poor one

for racial identification. However, so far as it goes in that respect it would

seem to belong to the form Turdus simillimus mahrattensis as one would expect.

—H.W.]

Elsewhere not noted.

Common where occurring. Often localised and patchy. Completely silent

except for throaty chuck-chuck-chuck. In wooded ravines at base of Vindhyas

and feeding on jungle cart tracks.

Monticola solitaria pandoo (Sykes). The Indian Blue Rock-Thrush.

Specimens collected: Bhdpal: 74 9? 14-1-38 Dédi, 194 3S 25-1-38 Mathar.

Gwalior: 321 Q 20-2-38 Kuno, 875 9 17-9-38 Sardarpur.

[gd No. 194 has a very long bill 31.5 mm., but comparison shows that

it is not longirostris but pandoo with an abnormally long bill.—H.W.]

Elsewhere noted: Bhopal: Sanchi, Bhopal town and environs. Gwalior:

Satanwara, Narwar Fort, Surwaya, Rampura Tank, Gwalior Fort. Dhar:

Mandt.

Not uncommon. Singly about ancient forts and ruined buildings. Latest

date 4 April earliest 11 September.

Monticola cinclorhyncha (Vigors). The Blue-headed Rock-Thrush.

Specimen collected: Gwalior: 617 4 5-4-38 Bajranggarh Fort (near Gina).

Elsewhere not noted.

A solitary example.

Siphia parva parva (Bechst.). The European Red-breasted Flycatcher.

Specimens collected: Bhépal: 11 0? 7-1-38, 30 OG 9g-1-38 Sanchi, 154 92

21-1-38, 180 ¢ .24-1-38 Mathar. Gwalior: 266 ¢ 12-2-38, 274 J 14-2-38 Kanor

437_ 3 7-3-38 Narwar Fort, 509 ¢ 18-3-38 Surwaya.

Elsewhere noted; Bhopal: Bhopal town, Dédi,

LTE BIRDS OR CENLRALNSINDIA Ot:

Common. Usually singly, often in association with Dicrurus coerulescens,

Phylloscopus griseolus, etc. on stony scrub covered hillocks. Also in groves of

large trees. Latest date 18 March. Not met with again up till 20 September.

Muscicapula superciliaris superciliaris Jerdon. The White-browed Blue Fly-

catcher. :

Specimens collected: Bhopal: 202 4 26-1-38 Mathar. Gwalior: 505 ¢

18-3-38, 524 ¢ 20-3-38 Surwaya.

Elsewhere noted: Narwar Fort.

Not common. Usually singly.

Muscicapula tickellie tickellia (Blyth). Tickell’s Blue Flycatcher.

Specimens collected: Bhopal: 32 CG 9-1-38, 70 G 11-1-38 Sanchi. Gwalior:

263 2 12-2-38, 315 GY? 20-2-38 Kuno, 619 ¢ 5-4-38 Bajranggarh (near Guna),

637. 2 9-4-38, 643 ¢12-4-38 Chandéri. Indore: 703 0? juv. 24-8-38, 722 ¢

20-8-38 Bijwar, 735 ¢G juv. 29-8-38 Choral, 807 d, 808 @ 7-a-38 Manpir.

Dhar: 794 3, 795 2 5-9-38, 799 0? 6-9-38, 3816 0? juv. 7-9-38 Gujri, 826 o?

juv. 9-9-38, 846 Q 11-g-38 Mandu.

[The adult female differs from the adult male in having the blue of the

upper parts wings and tail duller and greyer and the chestnut of the throat

and breast paler. The lores, which are black in the adult male, are dull

bluish or white mottled by the dusky tips to the feathers. There is no spring

moult in this species and the complete autumn moult (which starts simultaneously

so far as the wing is concerned in both the inner primaries and the inner

secondaries) takes place from the end of August to October.

The juvenile is described in the New Fauna, ii, 235 as a brownish, fulvous

and white bird. This is quite incorrect. The wings and tail are blue in both

sexes, brighter in the male, duller and greyer in the female—that is to say

agreeing with the corresponding sexes of the adults. The body plumage has

the characteristic squamation of the juvenile flyeatchers, but the upper parts

have a dark bluish tinge.

The five juveniles obtained by Mr. Salim Ali unfortunately could not be

reliably sexed. Nos. 703 and 735 appear on the evidence of the plumage to

be males and Nos. 816, 826 and 846 to be females. The post-juvenal moult

in all these specimens is confined to the body plumage except in 846 which is

also moulting the tail. From these specimens it would appear that after the

post-juvenal moult the birds of both sexes would be separable from their

respective adults only by the fulvous tips to the greater wing coverts. In

the Hyderabad Survey (J.B.N.H.S., xxxvi, 387) I stated that the first winter

male and female are indistinguishable from the adult 9. This statement was

based on Nos. 112 and 127 of the Hyderabad Survey, but it now seems clear

that 127 must have been wrongly sexed.—H.W. ]

Elsewhere noted: Indore: Indore town, Simrdl, Mhow. Bhopal: Jaithari.

Common. Invariably present in bamboo and scrub covered. ravines.

Eumyias thalassina thalassina (Swainson). The Verditer Flycatcher.

Specimens collected: Bhopal: 66 4 11-1-38 Sanchi. Gwalior: 496 @

17-3-38 Surwaya.

Elsewhere not noted.

Probably less uncommon than records indicate.

Alseonax latirostris (Raffles). The Brown Flycatcher.

Specimens collected: Indore: 698 2, 699 0? juv. 23-8-38 Bijwar, Zor J,

702 3 24-8-38, 731 CO 29-8-38, 752 6d, 753 9 31-8-38 Choral. Dhar: 806 ¢

6-9-38 Guyjri.

[No. 699 is a juvenile with the post-juvenal body moult well advanced.

The remainder are all adults which have nearly finished a complete post-

nuptial moult. From this series one would be entitled to think that the

birds had been collected on their breeding ground. It will be remembered that

the breeding has already been recorded in much the same neighbourhood

namely on the ghats near Mhow (Shelley, J.B.N.H.S., ix, 223 and Betham,

J.B.N.H.S., xix, 989) and at Sehore’ (Whitehead, J.B.N.H.S., xxi, 161).

Curiously enough it has not yet been recorded as breeding anywhere between

92 JQURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. "SOCIETY: Wolken

this area and North Kanara where Davidson found the eggs (J.B.N.H.S.,

xi, 608.—H.W.|

Common, Not met with at all in Bhoépal or Gwalior between January and

May!

Culicicapa ceylonensis pallidior Ticehurst. The Grey-headed Flycatcher.

Specimens collected: Bhopal: 158 ¢ 21-1-38, 203 OG 26-1-38 Mathar.

Elsewhere noted: Bhopal: Jaithari.

Uncommon. Usually singly in localised bird associations in wooded glades

and ravines.

Tchitrea paradisi paradisi (Linn.). The Indian Paradise Flycatcher.

Specimens collected: Indore: 727 @ 27-8-38 Bijwar. Dhay:"97o0. ¢ juve

77 O2 JOVs, “772 Os 778 “Go juve. Gugn:

[Nos. 727 and 772 are adult females which are finishing the complete

post-nuptial moult. Their throats are grey, mottled slightly with black. The

other three birds, namely 2 males and 1 unsexed, I take to be in the juvenile

plumage and they exhibit no moult. They differ from the 2 adult females

only in having shorter crests and in having the throat a purer grey with

less of the black mottling, which indeed in 2 of the birds is practically

absent.—H.W. |

Tchitrea paradisi leucogaster (Swains.). The Himalayan Paradise Flycatcher.

Specimens collected: Gwallor: 573 Q 28-3-38 Badarwas, 603 ¢ 2-4-38 Gina,

610 o, 611 S 4-4-38 Bajranggarh, 639 9 11-4-38 Chandeéri.

[Nos. 610 and 611 are adult males in the white phase with white streamers

and are therefore identified by reference to the fact that the other 3 specimens

obtained in Gwalior are most clearly of the pale race leucogaster. These

3629 are all in the same rufous plumage with the grey throat, but the

female No. 639 is remarkable for having streamers 102 mm. longer than the

rest of the tail, i.e. the total length of the tail and streamers is 199 mm.

In the red phase of the adult male the tail with streamers runs from about

268-332 mm. These birds were presumably on passage.—H.W. |]

Elsewhere noted (races undifferentiated): Gwalior: Narwar Fort, Ramptra

Tank, Bhind, Bagh. Dhar: Dhar town environs (Jhira Palace garden), Mandt.

Not observed in Bhopal during January. First met with in Gwalior on

11 March, a single bird (9 ?) obviously on passage. Common in Dhar during -

September; family parties in teak forest at foot of Vindhyas.

Hypothymis azurea styani (Hartl.). The Indian Black-naped Flycatcher.

Specimens collected: Indore: 711 3G 24-8-38 Bijwar, 810 Q 7-9-38 Manpir.

[Both are undegoing the complete adult post-nuptial moult. These

specimens provide a_ slight extension of range in this area as the species

has not here been recorded north-west of Sehore and Dhulia.—H.W. ]

Elsewhere not noted.

Usually singly or pairs. In localised bird associations in forest, frequently

in Muscicapula tickelliae facies.

Leucocera aureola aureola (lesson). The White-browed Fantail Flycatcher.

Specimens collected: Bhédpal: 28 G 9-1-38, 61 G 10-1-38 Sanchi. Gwalior:

463 od. 12-3-38 Narwar. Indore: 740 G juv. 30-8-38 Choral.

[No. 463 from Narwar, Gwalior, is definitely of the typical race as defined

by me in (J.B.N.H.S., xxxvi, 91). The 2 Bhopal birds are slightly inter-

mediate, as one might expect, approaching the characteristics of compressivostris

in the reduction of the white in the tail, but they may also be kept with

the typical race. No. 740 is in post-juvenal body moult.—H.W. ]

Elsewhere noted: Bhopal: Dodi, Jaithari, Mathar. Gwalior: Kino, Sir-

waya, Chandéri, Bhind, Sardarpur, Bagh. Indore: Bijwar.

Common, Usually in groves of large trees near villages and often in

attendance on grazing cattle,

(Eee RDS. ORAGHMERA Ly IN DLA 93

Lanius excubitor lahtora (Sykes). The Indian Grey Shrike.

mespecimens collected ;,. Gwalior: 334 9, 335.9 24-2-38, 353 ¢ 2§-2-38, 389

Elsewhere noted: Bhopal: Sanchi, Baréli village. Gwalior: Narwar (at

base of Fort), Surwaya, Badarwas, Bhind.

Fairly common in semi-desert. Ovary of specimens on 24 and 25 February

maturing. Nest with hard set’ c/2 (27X19 mm. each) on 30 March.

Lanius vittatus Valenciennes. The Bay-backed Shrike.

Specimens collected: Bhopal: 114 Q 17-1-38 Dodi. Gwalior: 393 Q 28-2-38

Satanwara. Indore: 743 0? juv. 23-8-38 Choral.

Elsewhere noted: Bhopal: Bhopal town environs, Sanchi. Gwalior: Gwalior

Fort and environs, Kuno, Narwar Fort, Surwaya, Badarwas, Chandéri, Bhind.

Indore: Bijwar. Dhar: Gujri. hoe

Common. The facies it favours is between the dry semi-desert of L. e.

lahtora and the more wooded country of L. schach. In patches occuring

with eithr. Courtship observed 18 March.

Lanius schach erythronotus (Vigors). The Rufous-backed Shrike.

Specimens collected: Bhopal: 35 @Q 9-1-38 Sanchi, 109 ¢ 17-1-38 Daodi.

Gwalior: 272 ¢ 14-2-38 Kuno. Indore: 714.-Q 24-8-38 Bijwar.

° Elsewhere noted: Gwalior: Satanwara, Narwar Fort, Surwaya, Badarwas,

Bhind. Dhar: Giujri, Mandu. :

Common. Carrying nest material 25 August. |

Tephrodornis pondicerianus pallidus Ticehurst. The Sind Wood Shrike.

Specimens collected: Bhopal: 168 G, 169 Q 22-1-38 Mathar. Gwalior :

290 2 16-2-38 Kuno, 452 ¢, 453 @ 9-3-38 Narwar Fort, 672 @ juv., 673

gd juv. 18-4-38 Bhind. Indore: 756 Q 31-8-38- Choral.

[In (J.B.N.H.S., xxxviii, 309) I commented on the unsatisfactory nature

of the races of this species’ and it is difficult to identify any series without

reference to their locality of origin. However, for what it is worth, I consider

that -this series go better with pallidus .than with the typical race. Nos.

672 and 673 are juveniles. They may be described as follows :—Upper plumage

with darker brown. Wing .coverts ‘conspicuously tipped with pale fulvous,

the. greater coverts. and tertiaries mottled and submargined with dark brown.

Wings, tail-and_ tail-coverts as in the adult but the upper tail coverts and

dark tail feathers are lightly tipped with. fulvous. Supercilium fulvous. A

band through the eye from the lores to the ear coverts dark brown streaked

fainly- with fulvous. Lower plumage white, faintly washed with fulvous, the

sides of the chin and throat and the whoie of the breast mottled and

streaked .with brown. The juvenile, in short, has a strong resemblance to

a juvenile Flycatcher.—H.W. ]

> Elsewhere noted: Bhopal: Sanchi, Jaithari, D6di. Gwalior: Satanwara,

Shivpuri, Starwaya, Badarwas, Bagh. Indore: Mhow, Bijwar. Dhar: Mandi.

Common. .

‘Pericrocotus brevirostris brevirostris (Vigors). The Indian Shot-billed Minivet.

_ Specimens collected: Gwalior: 495 CG 17-3-38, 531 db, 532 @, 533 “3

21-3-38 Surwaya.

[Nos. 495 and 533 are yellow birds in. plumage exactly agreeing with that

of the female. No. 495 has some new feathers coming through on the throat

which are yellow. If it is correctly sexed this must surely mean that the

yellow male remains yellow, i.e. that it is dimorphism rather than a_ sign

of immaturity.x—H.W. |

Elsewhere noted: Bhopal: Sanchi. Gwalior: Narwar Fort.

Not common.

Pericrocotus peregrinus peregrinus (Linn.). The Small Minivet.

- Specimens collected: Bhopal: 71. gd 11-1-38 Sanchi, 103. 15-1-38 Dédi.

Gwalior: .269 . .12-2-38 Ktino, 458 -S 10-3-38,, 485 ¢ 15-3-38 Narwar Fort,

94 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIBTY, Vol. XLI

882 dod juv. 19-9-38 Bagh. Indore: 685 o? juv., 686 0? juv. 23-8-38, 716 oO?

juv. 25-8-38 Bijwar, 738 ¢ juv. 30-8-38 Choral. Dhar: 774 @ juv. 3-9-38

Guyjri.

[1 here follow the treatment of this group outlined in (J/.B.N.H.S., xxxvi,

342) which has borne the test of subsequent work satisfactorily. Nos. 685,

716, 738 and 882 are juveniles, the post-juvenal body-moult just beginning

in No. 738. All are exactly alike. In plumage they agree with the adult

female except that the upper parts are a browner grey, the feathers narrowly

edged with pale fulvous, often edged interiorly with darker brown. All wing

coverts have the tips edged with pale fulvous.—H.W. |

Elsewhere noted: Bhopal: Mathar, Jaithari. Gwalior: Satanwara, Badar-

was, Bhind, Barai, Sardarpur.

Common. Family parties in August-September.

Pericrocotus erythropygius (Jerdon). The White-bellied Minivet.

Specimens collected: Bhopal: 9 ¢ 7-1-38, 47 CS 9-1-38 Sanchi, 97 &, 98

@ 15-1-38, 144 9, 145 0? 19-1-38 Dodi, 156 @, 157 Q 21-1-38 Mathar.

Gwalior: 284 3, 285 dod 15-2-38 Kuno, 479 Q 14-3-38 Magroni, 857 9, 858

o? juv. 15-9-38 Amjhéra.

[The juvenile. No. 858 closely resembles the adult female but the greater

part of the post-juvenal moult seems to be finished. A certain number of

the feathers of the tfpper plumage have their tips finely edged with white;

the primary coverts are tipped with white; the outermost white greater

wing covert on each side is washed with yellow, a curious feature and _ possibly

individual that appears in neither adult. Nos. 145 and 157 may be recognised

as first winter birds by the retention of the white spotted primary coverts.

—H.W.]

Elsewhere noted: Gwalior: Narwar, Satanwara, Surwaya, Shivpuri.

Usually in dry thorn scrub and Butea jungle.

Lalage sykesii Strickl. The Black-headed Cuckoo-Shrike.

Specimens collected: Indore: 687 9, 688 dG juv. 23-8-38 Bijwar. Dhar:

769 0? juv. 3-9-38, 817 Q juv. 7-9-38 Gujri, 825 ¢ 9-9-38 Mandu. Gwalior:

885 6d 19-9-38 Bagh.

[No. 769 (Q by measurement) is a juvenile. It is in plumage very similar

to the adult female but the upper parts are barred, the grey feathers having

a subterminal blackish bar and a pale fulvous terminal fringe. The median

coverts are fulvous barred with blackish. The primaries and greater coverts,

secondaries and tertiaries are edged with clear fulvous buff, itself edged interiorly —

with blackish on the tertiaries. The tail, of which the feathers are narrower

and more pointed than in the adult, has the two central pairs of feathers

edged with fulvous and the white of the remainder washed with fulvous.

The black barring of the lower parts is, owing to the softness of the feathers,

indistinct and largely broken up into mere mottling.

After the post-juvenal moult the first winter male and female are. still

alike and resemble the adult female. They may however be distinguished

from her by the retention of the primary and greater wing coverts, primaries,

secondaries and tertiaries with their clear fulvous buff edges (which however

gradually fade into whitish) and by the retention of the narrow and _ pointed

juvenile tail feathers.

It is not quite clear when the male moults into adult dress, but I believe

it will be found to do so in the first spring so that the first summer plumage

is the same as that of the adult.—H.W.]

Elsewhere noted: Gwalior: Sardarpur.

Not met with in Bhopal or in the Gwalior area surveyed between February

and May.

Graucalus javensis macei (I-esson). The Large Indian Cuckoo-Shrike.

Specimens collected: Bhopal: 14 2, 15 Co 8-1-38 Sanchi, 246 Q_ 1-2-38

Jaithari. Gwalior: 856 9 15-9-38 Amjhera.

[No. 856 is a female in fresh first winter plumage. This resembles the

adult female except that the whole of the underparts are a purer, less greyish,

white with the barring of the chin, throat and breast more widely apart.

TE BIRDS OF CENTRAL INDIA 5

From the juvenile plumage the primaries and primary coverts, the bastard

wing and secondaries, the tertiaries and the tail have been retained and with

them of course their distinctive features. —H.W. |

Elsewhere noted: Bhopal: Dewanganj, Dodi. Gwalior: Satanwara, Narwar

Fort, Surwaya, Badarwas, Guna. Dhar: Gujri. Indore: Choral.

Often near villages with groves of large trees. Eating Banyan figs.

Parents with 2 full-fledged young on 8 September (Gujri).

Dicrurus macrocercus peninsularis Vicehurst. The Black Drongo.

Specimens, collected: Bhopal: 135 & 19-1-38 Dodi, 229 J 31-1-38 Jaithari.

Indore: 723 3, 724 SG 27-8-38 Bijwar.. Dhar: 776 -2 juv. 3-9-3838 GuUjri.

[Ticehurst has dealt with this group very lucidly in f.B.N.H.S., .xxxvi, p.

g27 and shown how this species gradually decreases in size from north to

south throughout the Indian Peninsula. It is not of course possible to fix a

hard and fast dividing line between peninsularis and albirictus, but as Nos.

135, 723 and 724 (Qdd adults) have | wings” 142.5-145 mm. | think it is

better to keep the Bhopal, Dhar and South Gwalior area under peninsularis

to which ‘Ticehurst has already attributed birds from the South Central

Provinces.—H.W. ]

Elsewhere noted: Bhopal: Bhopal town and environs, Ashta. Gwalior :

Satanwara, Narwar Tort, Surwaya, Chandéri, Shivpuri.

Common. In’ August to September the majority minus outer tail feathers.

In post-nuptial moult.

Dicrurus ccerulescens cerulescens (Linn.). The White-bellied Drongo.

Specimens collected: Bhopal: 3 > ¢O 7-1-38, 34 @ 9-1-38 Sanchi. Gwialior.:

435 6 7-3-3838 Narwar, 608 ¢ 2-4-38 Chhipon, 618 ¢ 5-4-38 Bajranggarh Fort.

Indore: 700 0? juv. 23-8-38, 710 @Q 24-8-38, 725 ¢ juv. 726 G 27-8-38

Bijwar.

[I have not been very successful in diagnosing the age of all these birds,

whether adult or first year, but 6 males have wings 125.5, 130, 130, 132, 133

and 136.5 mm., and 3 females have wings 122, 126.5 and 129 mm., so I

presume the series may be attributed to the typical race. Until, however, a

series is available from the type-locality Bengal, and until the situation in

Ceylon is properly understood, it is difficult to work out the races of this

species. —H.W. ]

Elsewhere only noted at Chanderi (Gwalior).

Usually in localised bird associations in teak forest. Breeding in April.

Testes of Nos. 608 and 618 17xX8 and 12X6 mm. respectively.

Acrocephalus stentoreus brunnescens (Jerdon). The Indian Great Reed-Warbler.

Specimens not obtained.

Noted only at Ramptra Tank near Guna (Gwalior 4 April). Unconfirmed.

In view of Briggs’ remarks (J.B.N.H.S., xxxv, 387-88) a special search made

at Bircha Lake near Mhow (Indore) on 2 September. Owing to abnormally

high level of water—rainfall about 20” above average—reeds largely submerged.

No Reed-Warblers present.

Acrocephalus dumetorum Blyth. Blyth’s Reed-Warbler.

Specimens collected: Dhar: 832 92, 833

Elsewhere not noted.

First heard g September.

2 10-9-38 Mandu.

Acrocephalus agricola} Jerdon. The Paddy-field Warbler.

Specimens collected: Gwalior: 372 S$, 373 9?, 374 CG 27-2-38 Satanwara.

Elsewhere noted: Bhopal: Bhopal Lake.

Among reeds and bulrushes on tank margins.

Locustella nevia straminea Seebohm. The [astern Grasshopper-Warbler.

Specimens collected: Bhopal: 163 ¢ 22-1-38, 187 9, 188 9, 18 JG 25-1-38

Mathar. . |

Elsewhere noted: Gwédlior: Satanwara, Sardarpur.

96 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL Hist, SOCIETY, Vol. XLi

In patches of coarse matted grass by tanks and around cultivation in forest

clearings. “Earliest date 17 “September.

Orthotomus sutorius guzerata (Latham). The Tailor Bird.

Specimens collected: Bhdpal: 178 Q °24-1-38 Mathar. Gwalior: 273

14-2-38 Kuno, 447 @ 8-3-38 Narwar Fort, 551 do, 25-3-38, 556 2 26

Badarwas,: 651 G 16-4-38 Bhind; 665 © 17-4-38.. Indore: 719 -g 25

Bijwar.

[It has always been stated and believed that the male Tailor Bird has

the central tail feathers narrow and greatly elongated in summer and_ short

and broad in winter, but this certainly does not always hold good so far as

I have been able to study the plumages of the species. The actual sequence

of plumages is not yet clear to me but the difficulty chiefly arises from the

fact that the sexing of so many specimens (not this series) is unreliable.

Carefully sexed birds are required from September to April.—H.W.]

Elsewhere noted: Bhopal: Bhopal town, D6édi, Sehore. Gwalior: Gwalior

Fort, Satanwara. Dhar: Mandut.

Cisticola juncidis cursitans (Franklin). The Streaked Fantail-Warbler. —

Specimens collected: Bhdpal: 141 G 19-1-38 Dodi, 191 @, 192 0?, 193

25-1-38 Mathar, 216 ¢ 30-1-38 Jaithari. Gwalior: 289 Q 16-2-38 Kuno,

383. oi 27-2-38 Satanwara, 590 dG, 591 0? 1-4-38 Ruthiai, 634 ¢ 9-433

Chander.

[I have submitted this good series to Admiral Lynes who reports that

all are. perfectly typical cursitans obeying the plumage rules of this race,

except for two points worth remarking. No. 141 has still got the 3 outer

primaries of the left wing juvenile, probably due to a local pathological

weakness. The testes of No. 216 are shown as 3X2 mm. in size, which

combined with the fact that while the head and body plumage are winter

in character the tail is new and summer plumage in character, suggest that

some local factor such as irrigation with its effect on insect-life’ was inducing

the birds to breed before their time.—H.W. |

Elsewhere noted: Gwalior: Sardarpur. Indore: Bijasan Ramna (near Indore

town), Bircha Tank (near Mhow).

Common vin tall grassland.

Franklinia gracilis (Franklin). Franklin's Wren-Warbler.

Specimens collected: Bhopal: 80 9, 81 ¢G 14-1-38, 116 9 17-1-38 Dodi, 217

30-1-38 Jaithari. Gwalior: 265 O 12-2-38 Kuno,. 291 ¢@? 16-2-38, goo ¢@

28-2-38 Satanwara, 426 GQ 6-3-3838, 471 o 13-3-338 Narwar Fort, 594 0? 1-4-38

Ruthiai. Indore: 712 ¢ 24-8-38 Bijwar, 757 ¢G juv. 31-8-38 Choral.

[No. 712 is in summer plumage. No. 757 is a juvenile. The remainder

of this fine series are all in winter plumage and agree with the series of

birds in winter plumage collected by the Jodhpur Survey which are much

paler than bids in winter plumage collected by Mr. Waite and myself in

the Punjab. Owing to the kind help of various correspondents I have been

gradually assembling a number of specimens of this Wren-Warbler and it is

quite clear now that my opinion expressed in the Eastern Ghats Survey

(J.B.N.H.S., Xxxvi, 564-566) that this ‘species. had mo races is, incorrect; gue

certainly has several races, but it is at present quite impossible to define

them for two reasons. First of all the summer and winter plumages are

quite different so that it is useless comparing any but birds in a similar state

of plumage. The soft plumage of this warbler wears very quickly and fades

and abraids into a nondescript tint. When one has eliminated such worn

birds, juveniles and birds in spring and autumn moult, one is left with

comparatively few specimens to work on and these are divided between two

different plumages. The second reason is that the older writers, confused

by summer and winter plumages and by the existence of these races, gave

a number of names to this species and unfortunately the type-localities for

these names are very badly represented in the series that I have been able

‘to assemble. Until satisfactory topo-types are forthcoming, it is impossible

to correlate the available names with the possible races. I therefore venture

to append a list of the names and their type-localities in case any member

basi)

THE BIRDS OF CENTRAL INDIA i)

of the Society has a chance of providing topo-types for the work. Birds in

fresh winter plumage are required.

Franklinia gracilis Franklin. TVype locality: Ganges, between Calcutta and

Benares and in the Vindhyan Hills between the fatter place and Gurra Mandela

on the Narbada.

Prinia hodgsoni Blyth. Vype locality: Nepal.

Printa adamst Jerdon. Type locality: Poona.

Prinia albogularts Walden. Type locality: Coorg.

Prinia humilis Hume. Type locality: N-W. Provinces and the Punjab.

Prinia rufula Godwin-Austen. Type locality: Naga Hills and Manipur.

—H.W. ]

IkIsewhere noted: Bhopal: Sanchi. Gwalior: Badarwas, Chandéri, Bagh.

Dhar: Gujri, Mandu.

Common. I*locks in grass and thorn jungle, and light forest. Breeding

in August: Testes of 712 5X3 mm. Nest with 2 young 24 August (Choral).

Males singing and displaying.

Franklina buchanani (Blyth). The Rufous-fronted Wren-Warbler.

Specimens collected: Bhopal: 82 ¢ 14-1-38 Dodi. Gwalior: 275 ¢ 14-2-38,

Bear eo= 15-2-35, 302 ¢ 19-2-38: Kuno, 363 cd? 364 2. 26-2-38 Satanwara.

Indore: 759 G juv. 1-9-38 Choral, 786 @ 5-9-38 Mandleshwar.

Elsewhere noted: Gwaltor: Gwalior Fort environs, Narwar Fort, Badarwas,

Bhind.

Common in dry, open thorn and grass scrub jungle, and stony semi-desert.

Habits on ground very like Scotocerca. locks, frequently in association with

Iranklinia gracilis and Chrysomma. Courting and in full song at end February.

Nest with c/3 16 April (Bhind).

The position of this nest was given away by the curious fact of one

of the owners carrying a green caterpillar to it although it contained no

young as vet!

Hippolais caligata rama (Sykes). Sykes’s Tree-Warbler.

Specimens collected: Gwalior: 489 oO? 17-3-38 Surwaya, 519 ¢ 19-3-38.

Indore: 696 0? 23-8-38 Bijwar.

Hippolais caligata caligata (licht.).

Specitnens collected: Gwalior: 571 3 28-3-38 Badarwas,° 590 CG 1-4-38

Ruthiai 647 9, 648 9, 649 9, 650 Q 16-4-38, 674 Q 18-4-38 Bhind.

[No. 696 is a bird in juvenile plumage, just beginning to moult the tail.

I have noticed before that young birds of this species migrate in juvenile

plumage. They differ from the adults in being more of a pale sandy . grey

colour above and the lower parts are whiter.

The name caligata was at one time discarded because it was said that

the type of caligata was not a Hippolais. This, however, was proved to

be a mistake (vide Stresemann, Orn. Monatsb. 1928, p. 51) and the emendation

has now been accepted by European workers and we must follow suit using

it as the specific name since it is the oldest of the three names caligata,

rama and scita.-—H.W. |

Fairly common. Usually singly, often gregariously, hunting — insects on

freshly sprouting foliage of Chilor (Holoptelea integrifolia) and Peepal (Ficus

religiosa). Also on Butea frondosa_ blossoms.

Earliest date: 23 August, latest 18 April.

It will be noted that earliest specimen (23 August) is a young bird,

Sylvia hortensis jerdoni (Blyth). The Eastern Orphean Warbler.

Specimen collected: Gwalior: 616 Q 5-4-38 Bajranggarh Fort (near Guna).

The only example met with by the Survey.

Sylvia curruca blythi Ticeh. and Whistl. The Indian Lesser Whitethroat.

_ Specimens collected: Bhopal: 62 Q 11-1-38 Sanchi, 88 © 14-1-38 Dédi.

Gwalior: 344 @Q 25-2-38, Satanwara, 480 ¢ 14-3-38 Narwar Fort, 500 9

18-3-38 Surwaya, 598 ¢ 1-4-38 Ruthiai, 659 2 17-4-38 Bhind; 874 ¢ i5-9-38

Sardarpur. Indore: 785 0? 5-9-38 Mandléshwar. |

98 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLI

Elsewhere noted: Bhopal: Jaithari: Gwalior: Kuno, Badarwas, Guna.

Common. Earliest date 5 September, latest 17 April: Specimens of 18

March and 17 April very fat.

Phy!loscopus collybita tristis Blyth. The Brown Wiilow-Warbler.

Specimens collected: Bhépal: t10 Q i7-1+38 Dodi. Gwalior:.379 J 27-2-38

Usually in cotton fields or among reeds and bulrushes by water. Also

on Butea flowers: Specimen of 17 March very fat.

Satanwara, 494 ¢ 17-3-38 Surwaya.

Phy!loscopus griseolus Blyth. The Olivaceous Tree-Warbler.

Specimens collected: Bhédpal: 6 ¢G 7-1-38 Sanchi, 106 Q 17-+1-38 Dodi.

Gwalior = 470. Gi3-2-88 Naiwat. Port, 567 Ger505 Oe

Elsewhere noted: Bhdpal: Mathar.

Fairly common. Singly—sometimes 2 or 3 together—on stony scrub covered

hillocks, walls of ancient forts and steep sides of rocky ravines. Unfailingly

about the stupas at Sanchi in January. Latest date 27 March. Not observed

in Indore and Dhar, August/September.

7-3-38 Badarwas.

Phylloscopus subviridis (Brooks). Brook's Willow-Warbler.

Specimens collected: Gwalior: 515 2 19-3-38 Surwaya.

Elsewhere not recognised,

Paylloscopus inornatus humii (Brooks). Humeii’s Willow-Warbler.

Specimens collected: Bhépal: 153 Q 21-1-38 Mathar. Gwalior: 420 dg

§-3-38 Narwar Fort.

Elsewhere not recognised.

Phylloscopus nitidus viridanus Blyth. The Greenish Willow-Warbler.

Specimens collected: Gwalior: 268 ¢ 12-2-38 Kuno, 860 ¢ 15-9-38° Amjhéra.

Dhar: 768 ¢ 3-9-38 Gujri.

Earliest date 3 September. Fairly common by 15 September.

Phylloscopus occipitalis occipitalis (Blyth). The ~ Large Crowned Willow-

Warbler.

Specimens collected: Indore: 707 0? 24-8-38, 718 o? 25-8-38 Bijwar; 739

3 30-8-38 Choral 754 0? 31-8-38. Dhar: 813 0? 7-9-38 Gijri.

I have no record from Bh6dpal or Gwalior. Earliest date 24 August, but

had probably arrived a few days earlier.

Prinia socialis stewarti Blyth. Stewart’s Ashy Wren-Warbler.

Specimens collected: Gwalior: 264 G 12-2-38, 307 Q 19-2-38 Kuno, 520 J

19-3-38 Surwaya, 587 ¢, 588 oc, 589 CG 1-4-38 Ruthiai, 663 d, 664 6

17-4-38 Bhind.

Elsewhere noted: Bhopal: Dodi. Indore: Manpar. Dhar: Mandt.

[All the above are in the winter plumage as described in jJ.B.N.H.S.,

XXXVI, 573, but Nos. 663 and 664 are starting to moult into summer plumage.

—H.W. |]

In grass by stream banks, etc.—wetter facies than P. inornata. Breeding

August to September. One carrying food 7 September.

Prinia sylvatica gangetica (Blyth). The Northern Jungle Wren-Warbler.

Specimens’ collected: Bhopal: 186 Q° 25-1-38, 205 ¢, 206 6; 207: ,; 2082 o8

209 '°9; 210 9 o? 26-1-38° Mathar.. Gwalior: 427 G5. 428" 2, 420 1d, G-3-4an

466 6 12-3-38, 472 2, 473 SO 13-3-38 Narwar Fort, 506 ¢ 18-3-38 Surwaya,

581 Ss, 582 3S 30-3-38 Badarwas, 869 @ 16-9-38 Tanda (near Sardarpur), 879

0? 19-9-38 Bagh.

[No. 869 is a female in summer plumage. No. 879 is a juvenile, male

by measurement. The remainder of this fine series are all in winter plumage

but Noy 582 has the spring moult just beginning. It is worth remarking that

Nos. 207, 427 and 473 have each got a single white feather of the summer

THE BIRDS OF CENTRAL INDIA 99

type in the tail. This feather is unworn. 10 males in winter plumage yield

the following measurements :

Bill from skull 15.5-17, all but the 2 extreme birds measuring 16-16.5 mm. ;

wing (58) 61-67.5; tail (70) 84.5-95.5; tarsus 22.5-24.5 mm.

The juvenile No. 879 (which unfortunately lacks the tail) is very similar

in colour to the female in summer plumage, but there is a faint yellowish

wash in the plumages most marked on the sides of the head and the

underparts.—H.W. |

Elsewhere noted: Indore: Choral.

Common in open tall grass and thorn serub country, often in association

with Dumetia, Chrysomma, and Franklinia gracilis. In song and breeding

August/September. Largest ovarian follicle of specimen 16 September 3 mm.

in diameter.

Prinia inornata terricolor (Hume). Phe North Indian Wren-Warbler.

Specimens collected: Bhopal: 140 @ 19-1-38. Dodi, 213-¢?, 214 gd, .21§ ¢

30-1-38, 248 dG 2-2-38 .Jaithari. .Gwalior: 258 od, 259 G 12-2-38, «295

17-2-38 Kuno, 343 @ 24-2-38 Satanwara, 555 @Q 26-3-38, 580 @Q 29-3+38

Badarwas, 675 ¢ 18-4-38 Bhind. Indore: 715 oO 25-8-38 Bijwar.

[No. 715 is in summef plumage. The remainder are all in winter plumage,

but Nos. 580 and 675 are just beginning the spring moult.—H.W. |

Elsewhere noted: Indore: ‘Choral, Mhow. Dhar:- Mandut.

Common among Ber and other thorn thickets mixed with tall grass, and

also in patches of tall grassland. Breeding August September. Testes of

Specimen 25 August 5X3 mm. Nests at Choral. 1 September, and Bircha

Lake (near Mhow) 2 September.

Cephalopyrus flammiceps flammiceps (Burton). The Fire-capped Tit-Warbler.

Specimen collected: Gwalior: 511 ¢ 18-3-38 Surwaya.

Elsewhere not noted. ™ ay

The specimen was a solitary bird eating exudation from petioles of Banyan

leaves. Movements and habits very like Dicaeum. Very fat. ae

Oriolus oriolus kundoo Sykes. The Indian Oriole.

Specimens collected: Bhépal:-12¢ 8-1-38 Sanchi. Gwalior: 613 ¢ 4-4-38

Guna, 627 ¢ 8-4-38 Chandéri. Indore: 729 ¢ 27-8-38 Bijwar. Dhar: 804

Q 6-9-38 Gujri.

Elsewhere noted: Gwalior: Bajranggarh, Bhind, Sardarpur, Bagh. Dhar:

Mandu.

None observed between 8 January and 3 April!

Oriolus xanthornus maderaspatanus (lranklin). The Indian Black-headed

Oriole.

Specimen collected: Gwalior: 620 9 5-4-38 Guna.

Not noted elsewhere.

Rare.

Pastor roseus (Linn.). The Rose-coloured Starling.

Specimens collected: Gwalior: 559 92, 5600 @& 26+3-38 Badarwas.

Elsewhere noted: Bhopal: Bhopal Lake environs. Gwalior: Satanwara,

Shivptri, Surwaya, Bhind.

By 25 September they had not arrived in Central India though a flock

was observed in New Delhi on 16 August. Latest date recorded by survey

16 April when they were still fairly abundant at Bhind, feeding on Butea

nectar. Mostly in breeding plumage.

Sturnus vulgaris poltaratzskii Iinsch. Finsch’s Starling. »

Specimens -collected: Gwalior: 342 Q@ 24-2-38, 350 Q 25-2-38, 351. 9 ?;. 411

@, 412 Q 3-3-38 Satanwara.

Elsewhere not noted.

A small flock attending grazing cattle on wet grassy tank margin. 3 of

the specimens very fat and with conspicuously granular ovaries.

i00 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLI

~Sturnia malabarica ssp.2 The Grey-headed Myna.

Specimen collected: Dhar: 820

juvenal moult).

Ilsewhere not noted.

This was the first and only meeting in Central India. Flocks of up to

20 birds including individuals ‘with conspicuously white heads! (blythii?)

2 9-9-38 Mandu (a young bird in post-

Temenuchus pagodarum (Gmelin). The Black-headed Myna.

Specimen collected: Bhopal: 101 GG 15-1-38 Dodi.

Elsewhere noted: Bhopal: Sanchi. Gwalior: Satanwara, Surwaya, Badar-

was, Chandéri, Bhind. Indore: Bijwar. Dhar: Gujri, Mandu.

Fairly common. Accompanied by juveniles in August/September.

Acridotheres tristis tristis (Linn.). The Common Myna.

Specimen collected: Bhopal: 182 Q 24-1-38 Mathar.

EJsewhere noted: Bhopal: Bhopal town and environs, Sanchi, Sehore, Dddi.

Gwalior: Gwalior town and environs, Kuno, Satanwara, Narwar, Surwaya,

Gina, Bhind, Sardarpur. Indore: Indore town and environs, Mhow, Choral.

.Common. Collecting nest material 20 April. Nest with 4 chicks 5-7 days

old 28 August (Choral).

Acridotheres ginginianus (Latham). The Bank Myna.

Specimen collected: Gwalior: 365 ¢ 26-2-38 Satanwara.

Elsewhere noted: Bhopal: Sanchi, Dodi. Gwalior: Kuno, Surwaya,

Badarwas, Bhind.

Not uncommon but patchy. Usually in attendance on grazing cattle, also

about. refuse dumps on village outskirts. .

Sturnopastor contra dehrae Stuart Baker. The Punjab Pied Myna.

Specimens collected: Gwalior: 476 2 14-3-38 Magroni (near Narwar), 543

25-3-38 Badarwas. _

Elsewhere noted: Bhopal: Sanchi, between Bhopal and Jaithari. Gwalior:

Bhind.

[If the two races—contra and dehrae—are to be recognised, and the difference

between them is: certainly not very marked or constant, these birds are

of course dehrae..—H.W. | ‘

Not ‘common. Frequently about refuse dumps near villages.

Ploceus philippinus philippinus (Linn.) The Baya.

Specimens collected: Bhopal: 137 @, 138 9, 139 Q 19-1-38 Dodi. Gwalior:

432 9, 433.0, 434 2 7-3-38 Narwar.

Elsewhere noted: Gwalior: Kuno, Satanwara, Surwaya, Badarwas, Bhind.

Scattered nest colonies in Indore and. Dhar. States—general.

Common. Shifting markedly with the seasons. Many old nest colonies

observed in the dry season where no Bayas were to be seen then.

Uroloncha malaberica (Linn.). The White-throated Munia.

Specimens: colleéted: Bhopal :: 252 Q, 253 OG 2-2-38 Jaithari. Gwalior: 279

,. 280 of 15+2-38: Kuno, 380 gd, 381 oO, 382 Q 27-2-38 Satanwara, 438 9

7-3-38 Narwar.

Elsewhere: noted:.: Bhopal: Sanchi, Dédi. Gwalior: Magroni, Harsi Dam,

Bhind Barat.- Indore: Bijwar, Choral. Dhar: Gujri.

Common all ‘over Central: India. Breeding January, February, March,

August, September. Probably throughout the year.

(@}

Uroloncha punctulata lineoventer (Hodgson). ~The Spotted? Munia.

Specimens collected: Indore: 708 ¢, 709 ¢ Bijwar 24-8-38.

Elsewhere noted: Dhar: Mandut.

Uncommon. In fresh breeding plumage in August/September. Largest

evum of 708; 5. mm. in diameter; testes of 709, 7X5 mm. Nest with c/7

en 10 September (Mandt).

THE BIRDS OF CENTRAL INDIA 101

Stictospiza formosa (Lath.). The Green Munia.

Specimen collected: Bhopal: 122 ¢ 18-1-38 Dodi.

Elsewhere noted: Gwalior: Badarwas (unconfirmed).

Uncommon and_ sporadic.

Amandava amandaya amandaya (Linn.). The Indian Red Munia.

Specimens collected: Bhopal: 251 ¢ 2-2-38 Jaithari. Gwalior: 299 Orr, 300

oO? 17-2-38 Kuno.

Frequenting tall grass patches—Cisticola facies.

Carpodacus erythrinus erythrinus (Pallas). The Common Rose-Finch.

Specimens collected: Bhopal: 50 % 10-1-38 Sanchi, 148 2 19-1-38 Dodi,

Pew 30-1-35, 227 Gy, 228 G 31-1-33 Jaithari. Gwalior: 5o1 GG 18-3-38

Surwaya, 862 ¢ 1§-9-38 Sardarptur. a

[With the exception of No. 862 which is in worn breeding dress and

somewhat brighter than many specimens of the typical race of the common

Rose-Finch, I have no hesitation in attributing this series to the typical form

whose winter quarters have always been a subject of speculation and mystery.

This race passes through the N-W.F. Province and the Punjab on both the

spring and autumn passages. See Ibrs.—H.W. |]

Elsewhere noted: Gwalior: Badarwas, Chandéri, Amjhcra.

Earliest date 15 September; latest 7 April. Flocks feeding largely on

linseed where available. Stomachs of specimens shot about this cultivation

contained linseed exclusively. Also very partial to Butea nectar.

Gymnorhis xanthocellis xanthocollis (Burton). The Yellow-throated Sparrow.

Specimens collected: Bhdpal: 5 @ 7-1-38, 57 od, 58 oO 10-1-38 Sanchi,

170 ¢ 22-1-38 Mathar. Gwalior: 883 ¢ 19-9-38 Bagh.

(

[Nos. 57, 170 and 883 are typical dark xanthocollis. Nos. 5. and 58 on

the other hand are much paler and would pass very satisfactorily as the

Sind-Ferso-Baluchistan-Punjab race transfuga. This species is, however, very

unstable in colour and I have often wondered whether it is worth recognising

the two races. It is impossible to say, therefore, whether Nos. 5 and 58 are

merely non-typical examples of xanthocollis or winter visitors of transfuga

which is only a summer visitor to the extreme north-west of India. Only

careful local observations by a resident naturalist can really settle the point.

SW.

Elsewhere noted: Bhopal: Jaithari. Gwalior: WKuno, Satanwara, Narwar

Fort, Surwaya, Badarwas, Chandéri, Shivpuri.

Common in the dry season. Noted as absent in August and up to 19

September when the first and only example was again met. By 23 September

it was becoming more prominent. Decidedly local migrant.

Passer domesticus indicus Jardine & Selby. The House-Sparrow.

Specimens collected: Gwalior: 395 9, 396 3, 397 G 28-2-38 Satanwara,

886 ¢ 19-9-38 Bagh. Dhar: 777 $ juv. 3-9-38 Goujri.

Very common everywhere as a commensal of man.

Emberiza stewarti Blyth. The White-capped Bunting.

Specimens collected: Gwalior: 256 9, 257 CG 12-2-38, 276 CS 14-2-38, 282

°, 283 ¢ 15-2-38 Kuno, 415 ¢, 416 Q 5-3-38 Narwar Fort, 439 9 7-3-38.

Elsewhere noted: Gwalior: Surwaya, Badarwas, Guna, Ruthiai.

Common in winter.

Emberiza melanocephala Scopoli. The Black-headed Bunting.

Specimens collected: Bhopal: 118 ¢? 17-1-38 Dédi. Gwalior: 855

15-9-38 Amjhéra.

Elsewhere noted: Gwalior: Satanwara.

Not common. Earliest date 15 September.

102: JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL ‘HISTASOCIELY, Vols 2err

Emberiza bruniceps Brandt. The Red-headed Bunting.

Specimens collected: Bhopal: 126 9, 127 @Q 18-1-38 Dodi. Gwalior: 502

Cc 18-3-38, 536 5, 537 3, 538 Q 22-3-38 Surwaya.

[No.502 has an abnormal beak with the upper mandible 27 mm.long andthe

lower mandible 18.5 mm. The bill of a normal male measures 14-16 mm. The

upper mandible is slightly twisted towards the right and the~ lower °

mandible slightly towards the left. This fact, together with the unhealthy

scabrous condition of the feet with overgrown claws suggests that the bird may

have been in captivity though the plumage is normal and in good condition.—

H. W.]

Elsewhere noted: Gwalior: Badarwas.

Not abundant, but rather more common than the Black-headed Bunting.

Melophus lathami subcristata (Sykes). The Crested soap le

Specimens. collected’: Bhopal: 17 G, 18 6, +19; dG; 20° 9 8-1-38 Sanchi

220 ¢G 30-1-38 Jaithari. Gwalior: 310 4 19-2-38 Kuno, 385 “4 Sauer 38 Satan-

wara, 460 ¢ 461 6 10-3-38 Narwar Fort, 597 @ 1-4-38 Ruthial (near Gina).

[The plumages of this bird are rather puzzling and I have not yet been able

to work them out satisfactorily. It may be that the sequences are very irre-

gular but I am inclined to think that the explanation will prove to be that the

female is dimorphic and the young male also dimorphic, individuals resembling

both phases of the adult female. 2215p W. |

Elsewhere noted: Gwalior: Surwaya, Gitina, Bajranggarh, Chandéri. Indore:

Bijwar, Choral, Simrol Ghat. Dhar: Giujri.

Common. Colouration very obliterative on burnt patches in grass and scrub

jungle to which the species is partial. Preparing to breed in March to April.

Males in full song, and courtship general.

Riparia paludicola [chenensis (Grey)].. The Indian Sand-Martin.

No specimens.

Noted (unconfirmed) only at Kwari River near Bhind (Gwalior). Several.

Riparia rupestris (Scop.). The Crag-Martin.

No. specimens.

Noted: Gwalior: Narwar Fort. 3 or 4 flying steadily due north at sunset

19-3-38.

Riparia concolor (Sykes). The Dusky pe ee

Specimens collected: Gwalior: 322 3, 323 9, 324 d 20-2-38 Kuno, 430

6-3-38 Narwar Fort, 631 © 9-4-38 Chandéri.

Elsewhere noted: Bhopal: Sanchi, Dewanganj, Bhopal town. Gwalior:

Sardarpur. Indore: Bijwar, Indore town environs, Mhow. Dhar: Mandt.

Common. Invariably about rock scarps and ruined forts and buildings.

Breeding August/September; nests with eggs, and flying juveniles. Also in

February. Gonads of specimens mature on 20th February.

Hirundo rustica subsp.? The Common Swallow.

Specimen collected: Gwalior: 405 0? 2-3-38 Satanwara.

[An immature bird and unsexed, with a wing of 112 mm., which I cannot

identify racially. Wing and tail are in moult, but post-juvenal body moult

has scarcely begun.—H.W. |

Elsewhere noted: Bhopal: Bhopal Lake.

Small numbers in association with Hirundo filifera, H. daurica and H.

fluvicola near water.

Hirundo smithii filifera Stephens. The Indian Wire-tailed Swallow.

Specimens collected: Bhépal: 124 ¢G, 125 9 18-1-38 Déddi.

Elsewhere noted: Bhopal: Bhopal Lake. Gwalior: Kuno, Satanwara, Gina,

Rathiai. Indore: Mhow, Bijwar. Dhar: Gujri, Mandu.

Common. Always near water. Nest with 2 chicks 1 April (Ruthiai)

and another with c/2, fresh, 11 September (Mand).

THE BIRDS OF CENTRAL-_INDIA 103

Hirundo flusicola Blyth. The Indian Cliff-Swallow.

Specimen collected: Gwalior: 406 0? 2-3-38 Satanwara.

Elsewhere noted: Gwalior: Chandéri. Indore: Choral.

Fairly common. Breeding in April. Large nest cclony under arch of

masonry bridge 8 April (Chandéri).

Hirundo daurica erythropygia Sykes. Sykes’s Striated Swallow.

Specimens collected: Bhopal: 119 ¢, 120 d, 121 Q 18-1-38 Dodi. Gwalior:

325 G, 326 oO 20-2-38 Ktino, 455° ¢ 9-3-38 Narwar Fort, 640. gd, 641 o

11-4-38 Chandéri. Indore: 811 9, 812 ¢ 7-9-38 Manpur.

[All are adults. It is interesting to remark that in this race the tail is

in shape and proportions similar to that of the juvenile of the other races.

—H.W. |

Fairly common. In small numbers. Breeding in September. Nest with

eggs (7?) 11-9-38 (Kankra Kho, Mandu). Old nests also noted at Narwar

@ g March, and at Sanchi, 8-1-38.

Elsewhere noted: Bhopal: Sanchi, Bhopal town. Indore: Bijwar. Dhar:

Gujri, Mandu.

Hirundo daurica scullii Secbohm.

Specimen collected: Gwalior: 404 2-3-38 Satanwara.

Elsewhere race not definitely recognised.

[This specimen with its pale rump, warm underparts with very fine streaking

and small size (wing 115, central tail feathers 42.5, outer tail feathers 98.5

mm.) clearly belongs to this race (vide Ticehurst, [bts 1933, pp. 547-548) which

has not hitherto been recognised so far south in India. It is in fairly fresh

plumage with no moult.—H.W. }

Motacilla alba dukhunensis Sykes. The Indian White Wagtail.

Specimens collected: Gwalior: 355 OS 25-2-38 Satanwara, 609 @ 2-4-48

Chhipon (near Guna).

Elsewhere noted: Bhopal: Bhopal town, Dodi.,Gwalior: Gwalior Fort and

town, Shivpuri, Chandéri, Bhind. Indore: Choral.

Not abundant but frequent. Earliest date 1 September (Choral); latest 18

April (Bhind).

Motacilla alba personata Gould. The Masked Wagtail.

No specimens.

Noted only at Harsi Lake, Gwalior, 11-3-38—in full summer plumage.

Motacilla maderaspatensis Gmelin. The Large Pied Wagtail.

Specimens collected: Bhopal: 99 ¢G 15-1-38 D6édi. Gwalior: 267 CG 12-2-38

Kuno, 354 0? 25-2-38 Satanwara. Indore: 765 9, 766 3 1-9-38 Choral.

Elsewhere noted: Gwalior: Harsi Lake, Narwar, Ramptra Tank, Guna,

Chandéri. Dhar: Mandu.

Fairly common. In small numbers at tanks and rocky streams and rivers.

Evidently breeding in April (4 April, Rampiara Tank). —

Motacilla cinerea caspica (Gmelin). The Eastern Grey Wagtail.

Specimens collected: Bhopal: 195 @Q 25-1-38 Mathar. Gwalior: 499 0?

17-3-38 Surwaya, 593 oO 1-4-38 Ruthiai. Dhar: 830 ¢ 9-9-38 Mandi.

Elsewhere noted: Bhopal: Bhopal Lake, Dodi, Jaithari. Gwalior : Chandéri.

Indore: Mandléshwar. Dhars Gujri.

Earliest date 5 September (Mandléshwar); latest 8 April (Chandéri).

Specimen of 1 April very fat. Nos. 499 and 593 in breeding dress.

Motacilia flava thuobergi Billberg. The Grey-headed Wagtail.

Specimen collected: Indore: 791 @ 5-9-38 Mandléshwar.

IXlsewhere noted (subspecies?): Bhopal: Bhopal Lake. Gwalior: Narwar,

Chandéri, Bhind.

Earliest date 5 September; latest 19 April.

104. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL: HIST. (SOCIETY, Vol. XLI

Motacilla citreola werae Buturlin. The Yellow-headed Wagtail.

_ Specimens collected: Bhopal: 83 ¢ 14-1-38 Doédi. Gwalior: 319 G 20-2-38

Kuno, 504 ¢ 18-3-38 Surwaya, 592 oO 1-4-38 Ruthiai.

. [ Nos. 504 and 592 are just completing the moult into breeding dress. No. 83

is a first winter male.—H.W. |

Elsewhere noted: Bhopai: Bhopal Lake. Gwalior: Satanwara, Chandéri,

Panchamnagar,

On grassy margins of tanks, etc. Latest date 8 April.

Anthus trivialis trivialis Linn. The Tree-Pipit.

Specimens collected: Bhopal: 53 CO 10-1-38 Sanchi; 159 Q 21-1-38, 173 Q

23-1-38 Mathar. Gwalior: 512° ¢, 513 2 19-3-38, 525 CG 20-238, 5340

21-1-338 Surwaya, 572 2 28-3-38 Badarwas, 607 ¢ 2-4-38 Chhipon (Guna Dist.),

880 & 19-9-38 Bagh.

[Rather dull brownish birds of the type which was separated as_ sibirica

though this is really an intermediate which is hardly worth recognition. They

intergrade into haringtoni but in doubtful cases the thinness i the bill has

been the deciding factor.—H.W. |

Anthus trivialis haringtoni Witherby. Witherby’s Tree-Pipit.

Specimens collected: Gwalior: 677 9, 678 @ 19-4-38 Bhind.

Elsewhere noted (subspecies?) : Dhar: Mandu.

Usually in groves of large trees, e.g. mango and tamarind, and open deciduous

forest. Earliest date 10 September; latest 22 April.

Anthus sordidus jerdoni (Finsch). The Brown Rock-Pipit.

Specimens collected: Bhopal: 250 GQ 2-2-38 Jaithari. Gwalior: 288

16-2-38 Kino, 340 ¢, 341 Q 24-2-38 Satanwara, 375 do 27-2-38, 539 9 22-3-38

Surwaya.

{It appears to be almost impossible to be certain of separating jerdoni and

decaptus in winter plumage but I think that these specimens belong to the

former race. The difficulty is to get hold of a series of freshly moulted birds

known to belong to their respective races from which to initiate the comparison.

The variations in warmth of colouration may be due to wear and to individual

variation.—H.W. |

Not uncommon. In standing wheat-fields, fallow-land and stony sparsely

scrubbed country.

Anthus richardi richardi Vieill. Richard’s Pipit.

Specimen collected: Gwalior: 636 3 9-4-38 Chandeéri.

Solitary on wet grassy tank margin.

Anthus campestris thermophilus Jerdon. The Tawny Pipit.

Specimens collected: Bhopal: 87 ¢ 14-3-38 Dodi. Gwalior: 304 ¢, 306 9

19-2-38 Kino, 332 ¢ 24-2-38 Satanwara, ree Oo 7-3-38 Narwar, 552 3 26-3-38

Badarwas, 654 ¢, 655 ¢ 656 ¢ 17-4-38, Bhind. Dhar: 838 Q 11-9-38 Manda.

Anthus campestris griseus Nicoll. The Eastern Tawny Pipit.

Specimens collected: Bhopal: 39 GB 9-1-38 Sanchi; 86 ¢ 14-1-38, 94 6,

95. 2 15:1-38, 133° 9 18-1-38 Dodi. Gwalior: go5~¢ 109-2-38) Kuno; 333005

24-2-38, 348 9 25-2-38 Satanwara, 514 G 19-3-38, 540 CG 22-3-38 Surwaya,

550 9, 553 Q 26-3-38, 25-3-38 579 @ 29-3-38 Badarwas, 657 9, 658 9

Bhind. Dhar: 854 @ 13-9-38 Mandu.

Fairly common. Specimens of 17 April flatest date) mostly very fat. On

17 September, by which date the birds were well in, flocks observed arriving

from north direction (Sardarpur, Gwalior).

Anthus rufulus waitei Whistler. ;

-Specimens...collected: Bhopal: 249 Q 2-2-38 Jaithari. Gwalior: 635

9-4-38 Chandéri, 863 @ 16-9-38 Sardarpar. Indore: 789 9, 790 2 5-09-38

Mandléshwar,

hie BERS OFVCENTKALY INDIA 105

[These specimens confirm the opinion which I expressed in J.B.N.H.S.,

xxxviii, 765 that the range of this race extended through Sind and Rajputana

to the Narbada River.—H.W. |

Fairly common. Evidently breeding in April. Testes of No. 635, 5x4 mm.

Anthus roseatus Hodgs. Hodgson’s Pipit.

Specimens collected: Gwalior: 407 92, 408 0?, 409 OG 2-3-38 Satanwara.

On grassy edge of tank.

Alauda gulgula punjaubi Whistler. The Funjab Skylark.

Specimen collected: Gwalior: 361 9 26-2-38 Satanwara.

elsewhere noted: Bhopal: Jaithari.

About) grassy tank margins and standing wheat crops. Soaring and

singing (lebruary).

Calnadrella brachydactyla longipennis (Eversm.). The Yarkand Short-toed

Lark.

Specimens collected: Gwalior: 330 CS 24-2-38 Satanwara, 653 ¢ 17-4-38

Bhind.

Elsewhere noted: Bhopal: Sanchi, Dodi, Jaithari.

Less common than the next.

Calandra acutirostris Hume. Hume’s Short-toed Lark.

Specimens collected: Bhopal: 247 Q 2-2-38 Jaithari. Gwalior: 346 9, 347

25-2-38, 359 d, 360 Q 26-2-38 Satanwara; 516 Q 19-3-38 Surwaya; 542

25-3-38 Badarwas.

Common. Flocks in semi-desert and fallow land about cultivation, often

in association with the foregoing species. By the end of September, Short-

toed Larks had evidently not arrived in Centrai India.

+O Oy

Mirafra javanica cantillans Jerdon. The Singing Bush-Lark.

Specimens collected: Bhopal: 92 J 15-1-38 Dodi, 190 G 25-1-38 Mathar.

Mirafra erythroptera erythroptera Jerdon. The Red-winged Bush-Lark

Specimens collected: Bhopal: 46 0? 9-1-38 Sanchi; 72 ¢, 73 0? 14-1-38

Come Gt Go -15-1-38 Dodi; 231 of 31-1-38 Jaithari. Gwalior: 277 ¢ 14-2-38

281 ¢G 15-2-38 Kuno, 358 @ 25-2-38 Satanwara, 474 ¢ 16-4-38, 477 G 14-3-38

Narwar Fort, 544 CG 26-3-38 Badarwas, 652 ¢ 16-4-38 Bhind. Indore: 764

2 1-9-38 Choral. Dhar: 779 2 4-9-38 Gujri.

Generally distributed; on stony, arid thinly scrubbed or straggly grass-

covered country. Both species in the same facies. Testes of specimen on 16

April enlarged to 4x3 mm.

Galerida deva (Sykes). Sykes’s Crested Lark.

Specimens collected: Bhopal: 93 0? 15-1-38 Dodi. Dhar: 839 ¢, 840

@ juv., 841 9, 842 d juv., 843 9 .11-9-38 Mandu. Gwalior: 861 ¢ 15-9-38,

864 d, 865 ¢ 16-9-38, 873 Q 17-9-38 Sardarpir.

[The two juveniles—Nos. 840 and 842—are crestless. They have the

general colouration of the adults but differ like other juvenile larks in having

the upper parts squamated, owing to most of the feathers having a narrow

terminal fringe of pale fulvous.

The adults of this series are all in rather worn plumage with no sign of

moult. I have now examined a good many specimens of this lark but have

so far only found them undergoing their complete moult (which is presumably

post-nuptial) in March, April and May. This requires explanation and it is

evident that we do not yet know the full life-history of this species.

Mr. Salim Ali collected samples from Mandti and Sardarpir of the soil on

which these larks were found, and though the samples from the two localities

differ rather in colour they are both very dark and agree fairly well with the

colour of the lark. IT have in my ‘own collection five other soil samples

106° JOURNAL, BOMBAY “NATURAL FIST SOCTE Inv sols cen

collected with this lark in the neighbourhood of Mhow by the Rev. Frank

S. Briggs in the years 1927-1929. All these are also dark soils, four of them

being practically black. It would be interesting to verify that this lark is

found on dark soil throughout its range.—H.W. |

Patchily distributed. Gregarious, on stony sparsely scrubbed country—Mirafra

facies. September specimens all had their gonads enlarged and were breeding.

Many juveniles were being fed by parents.

Ammomanes phenicura pheenicura (Franklin). The Indian Rufous-tailed

Finch-Lark.

Specimens collected: Bhédpal: 40 @ g-1-38, 59 SG 10-1-38 Sanchi. Gwalior:

292 2, 293 G 16-2-38 Kuno. Dhar: 853 9 13-9-38 Mandut.

Fairly common on fallow land, etc. in open cultivated country. Gonads

maturing in specimens of 16 February. In flocks of up to 50 or more in

September.

Eremopterix grisea siccata (Ticehurst). The Ashy-crowned Finch-Lark.

Specimens collected: 234 d, 235 6, 236 9 31-1-38 Jaithari, “Gwaloret

331 OG 24-2-38 Satanwara, 866 9 16-9-38 Sardarpur. Indore: 762 Q 1-9-38

Choral.

[Most of these birds come from near the boundary line between the

typical race and siccata and are therefore slightly intermediate in character

but all the same they may be definitely attributed to the latter.—H.W. ]

Fairly common on waste and fallow land about cultivation. Apparently

breeds throughout the year. Gonads of all specimens mature. In September

in mixed flocks with Ammomanes.

Zosterops palpebrosa occidentis Ticehurst. The White-eye.

Specimens collected: Bhdpal: 239 9, 240 Q 1-2-38 Jaithari. Gwalior: 446

3S 8-3-38 Narwar Fort, 498 dG 17-3-38 Surwaya 508 <o_ 18-3-38, 595 6

1-4-38 Ruthiai. Indore: 732 @Q 29-8-38 Choral.

Elsewhere noted: Bhopal: Bhopal town environs, Sanchi. Gwalior:

Gwalior Fort, Satanwara, Shivpuri, Chandeéri, Sardarpur. Dhar: Mandu.

Common in gardens and wooded country.

Cinnyris aSiatica asiatica (Lath.). The Indian Purple Sunbird.

Specimens collected: Bhopal: 238 © 1-2-38 Jaithari. Gwalior: 4go1 @

1-3-38 Satanwara, 510 @Q 18-3-38 Surwaya, 548 dG 25-3-38 Badarwas, 661

3, 662 o? 17-4-38 Bhind. Dhar: 796 0? 5-9-38 Gijri.

Common. Gonads of March and April specimens mature. Nest-building

26 March. Nest with 2 chicks, about 5 days old, 31 March. Juveniles ex nest

19 April.

Piprisoma aglle agile (Tickell). The Thick-billed Flowerpecker.

Specimens collected: Bhopal: 222 ¢ 30-1-38, 242 9 1-2-38 Jaithari. Gwalior :

605 0? 2-4-38 Chhipon. Dhar: 803 ¢ 6-9-38 Gujri.

Fairly common. Invariably on Banyan, Peepal and Loranthus in ripe

fruit. Gonads of January and February specimens maturing.

Pitta brachyura (Linn.). The Indian Pitta.

Specimens collected: Indore: 717 3 juv. 25-8-38 Bijwar. Dhar: 780 9

4-9-38, 805 2 6-9-38 Gujri.

FAIL three specimens are young birds with the post-juvenal body moult well

advanced; the lesser and median wing coverts are being moulted but there

is no moult in the remiges or rectrices.—H.W. ]

Elsewhere noted: Dhar: Mandt, Dhar town environs. Gwalior: Tanda

(near Sardarptr).

Evidently a breeding monsoon visitor. None met with in Central India

between January and May.

(To be continued),

STUDY OF THE SEX ORGANS OF MAHSEER

(BARBUS LOR” WB.)

Dr. Hamip Kuan, Ph.p. (Cantab.),

Fisheries Research Officer, Punjab, Lyallpur.

In Europe, America and elsewhere a good deal of information

has been collected and published on the natural history of fishes.

Buckland (1883), for instance, in his book on ‘Natural History of

British Fishes’, deals exhaustively with their ‘structure, economic

uses and their capture by net and rod’; while Norman (1931) in

his recent work on ‘A History of Fishes’, supplies information on

such questions as locomotion of fishes, their age, population,

breeding, etc., and Jordan (1925) in his ‘Fishes’, has tried ‘to

compress all that an educated man is likely to know, or care to

know, about fishes’, and treats with ‘considerable fulness’, ‘each

one of the food and game fishes of the United States.’

In India, however, our knowledge regarding the natural

history of Indian fishes is very meagre, and, for lack of such

knowledge, very little authentic information is available regarding

the breeding season of the various species. Dunsford (1911),

in his report ‘On Fish and Fisheries of the Punjab’, commenting

upon the question of a close season for catching fish, remarks,

regarding the breeding time of the Indian fishes, ‘Conjectures

and surmises exist in plenty, some of which express the belief

of experts and are, therefore, entitled to respect but there

has been nothing recorded which can be accepted as absolutely

proved regarding this matter. By epitomising such knowledge

and opinions as do exist, we may perhaps arrive at conclusions

which are sufficient to furnish a basis for present action.’

For example, taking the case of Mahseer, one of the most

important game and food fishes of India, very little is definitely

known regarding its breeding habits. Beevan (1877) says: ‘When

the rains begin these fish €0mmence moving up the streams for

spawning purposes. ... The Mahseer, and many other Cyprinoid

fish, are said not to deposit their spawn all at once, like the

‘ “The status of Barbus tor is not correctly known and it is probable that

a number of large scaled Barbus of India are now included under this specific

name. Further it is quite possible that as in the Eastern Himalyas, we have

various species of Barbus, i.e. B. putitora (Hamilton) in which the head is

considerably larger than the depth of the body, B. tor (Hamilton) in) which

the head is considerably shorter than the depth of the body and B. hexatichus

(McClelland) in. which the length of the head equals depth of the body. The

data presented in this paper show that the ‘Mahseer’ breeds thrice a year in

the Punjab hills and it is quite possible that the three species enumerated above

breed at different times of the year and if detailed information is collected

species by species from different localities throughout India wherever the Mahseer

is found it may be possible to clear up the breeding season of the various

species included under Mahseer,’

108 fOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL EIST, “SOCTE IM] Volo

Salmon, but in small batches during a period of several months,

say from May to August.’ Thomas (i897) remarks: ‘Careful

examination of the ovaries of many fish has satisfied me that the

Mahseer does not spawn like the Salmon all at one time, but just

as a fowl lays an egg a day for many days, so in my opinion

the Mahseer lays a batch of eggs at a time, and repeats the process

several times in a season. How many batches it lays im a season

cannot Le positively said, but I should judge from the appearance

of the ovaries that there were three batches.’ Dunsford (1911)

asserts that, ‘In the Kumaon lakes, Mahseer most certainly breed

at the commencement of the rains. I have taken them there

frequently of both sexes, ready for spawning operations, in July,

just after the rainy season commenced.’ Nevill (1915) states: ‘I

have caught female Mahseer with well developed roe during several

months of the year. I have seen fish at different times of the

year working themselves over gravel and small stones in tributary

streams and in very shallow waters. I imagine they were working

out the gravel and small stones for the reception of eggs.’ Sir

Reginald Spence and Prater (1933), commenting on the breeding

of the Mahseer, remark: ‘How many katches of eggs the Mahseer

lays in one season is not known.’

In order to acquire some scientific data regarding the breeding

season of the Mahseer, collections of the sex organs of the Mahseer

were made from different localities in the Punjab from 1929 to

1931, and their study reveals some interesting results, which,

together with such field observations as were actually made on

the streams, are presented in this paper.

The sex organs, preserved in 5 per cent formalin, were collected

from Kangra, Gurdaspur, Hoshiarpur, Jhelum and Rawalpindi

Districts by the Fisheries Staff stationed there, to whom I express

mv appreciation.

The results of the examination of the sex organs of the Mahseer

are tabulated in Table I and I, showing the condition of the ovaries

and testes respectively during various months of the year.

In January, the ovaries were full of eggs to their entire extent,

and each egg measured 1.5 mm. to 2.5 mm. in diameter. Testes

were also swollen and full of milt. In February, in almost. all

cases, the ovaries were empty. In March, eggs were again seen

in the ovaries, present in their entire length, but of small size.

In April, again the same condition prevailed. In May, the ovaries

contained eggs of all sizes and the testes were filled with milt. It

was observed that the milt was present in a male Mahseer measuring

8" in length, while ova were not found in females less than 12”

in length. In June, the ovaries were invariably empty.

In july, some of the ovaries examined were empty and_ shrunk,

and some had eggs throughout their entire length. The ovaries,

were, however, not swollen with eggs. Testes, too, were either

empty or were slightly swollen with milt. In August, the eges

had attained their maximum size, measuring 2 to 3 mm., in

diameter. Towards the end of August, some of the ovaries were

again empty. Some of the testes were full of milt and

others empty. A female 32” long caught from the River Ravi

MAHSEER 169.

THE SEX ORGANS

STUDY. OF

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iia) sOURNAL, BOMBAY’ NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XLI

(Madhopur) in August was found to be quite ‘spent’, and another

temale 24” long had few ripe ova at the upper part of the ovaries,

while the lower portion was empty, showing, thereby, that the

spawn had been laid. In September, some ovaries had fully ripe

ova and others were found to be empty. Testes were full of milt.

Irom Jugal Khad near Nagrota (Kangra) on the 15th September,

temperature of water ranging from 79°F. to 80°F., four female

Mahseer were caught and were found to be spent up. Another

female 20” long, when dissected, showed very few small sized eggs

in its ovaries. The eggs were all of uniform size and measured

less than 1 mm. in diameter. Its kelly was flabby, evidently it was

also spent. Very minute Mahseer fry were seen in the said stream

on that date. From October to December the ovaries were

invariably almost entirely empty.

There is thus strong evidence to show that the Mahseer spawns

more than. once during the year. Most of the Indian Carps,

such .as. Labeo vroliuta,* Labeo calbaswu, “Civrhina’ mrgala, Catia

catla and’ others spawn in June and July when the rivers are

flooded with the monsoon rains and lay their eggs in one batch

once in--the year (Hamid Khan, 1924). The Mahseer, however,

as a study of its sex organs reveals, seems to spawn firstly, in

winter, in January and February, secondly, in May and June,

when the snow melts and the rivers. are swollen, and thirdly, from

July to September, when the rivers are flooded with the monsoon

rains. It is for this very reason that fry of the Mahseer of all

ages is seen during the whole of the year in the hill streams of

Kangra, Hoshiarpur, Jhelum and Rawalpindi Districts.

There is, however, hardly any evidence to corroborate the views

of Thomas (1897) that the Mahseer lays its eggs in batches, ‘just

as a fowl lays an egg a day for many days.’ The simile does

not appear to ke appropriate, as in the case of the Mahseer all

the eggs contained in the ovaries seem to be laid at the spawning

time and the ovaries become empty. At the approach of the. next

spawning season the ova reappear, increase in size, swell the

ovaries and are laid again. It may, therefore, be said that the

Mahseer does not lay its eggs in three batches, but .that it spawns

three.‘times tp the year, and that all the eges in the evaries sane

laid at each spawning season.

LITERATURE,

Beevan, R.-—-‘Handbook of the Fresh Water Fishes of India.’ London (1877)

Buckland, F.—‘Natural History of British Fishes.” London (1883).

Dunsford,; H. -S.—‘The Report ,on Fish and Fisheries of the Punjab.’

Lahore (1911).

Hamid Khan.—‘ Observations on the Breeding.Habits of Some Fresh Water

Fishes of the Punjab.’ Journ. Bom. Nat. idast. (See5, SSixe 4. (102 p)

Jordan, D. S.—‘Fishes.’ New York (1925)

Nevill, C. A.—‘The: Bréeding Habits of the Mahseer (Barbus tor.) Journ.

Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc., xxiv, 4 (1915).

Norman, J.—‘History of. Fishes’. London (1931).

Spence, Sir Reginald and S. H. Prater.—'Game Fishes of ‘Bombay, the

Deccan and the neighbouring Districts of the Bombay Presidency.’ Journ.

Bomb. ‘Nat: Hist. Soe. xxxvi, 1 (1933):

Thomas, H. S.—‘Rod in India.” London (1897).

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Sec.

Saveedud-Din—Sesamum laciniatum Klein. Xa

PEDALIACEZ:.

(For explanation see end of ar le).

SOME COMMON INDIAN HERBS WITH NOTES ON

THEIR ANATOMICAL CHARACTERS.

M. SAYEEDUD-DIN,

Prof. of Botany, Osmania University, Hyderabad Deccan.

(With three plates).

].—-SESAMUM LACINIATUM Klein.

(PEDALEACE AS).

SYSTEMATIC DESCRIPTION.

Sesamum lacimatum Klein. ; Willd.-sp. Pl. iti, 359; DC. Prodr.,

Paeog. wieht Ic, t. 1345; -H.F.B.1., tv, 387 (Plate I and Plate. I,

Fig. 1), is a prostrate, hairy herb, abounding in mucilage. Leaves

elliptic, deeply pinnatifid with acute laciniations. Corolla finely

pubescent, purple, yellow in the palate. Ovary incompletely 4-celled

by the intrusion of the placentae. Capsule scabrous-pilose, rounded,

shortly mucronate at the apex, dorsally compressed. Flowers in

the rainy season about July and August.

HABITAT.

Common towards South Deccan Peninsula. Rare in the Bombay

Presidency. It grows almost under xerophytic conditions on sandy

and rocky soil.

ANATOMICAL NOTES.

The structure of the glandular hairs seems to ke very character-

istic of the Pedaliaceae by which it can readily be distinguished from

allied families. Many members of this family, viz. Trapella, Pretrea,

Josephinia, Ceratotheca, Martynia diandra Glox., Pedalium murex

Linn., and Sesamum indicum Linn. have already been investigated.

In the available literature no reference is found regarding the

structure of the glands and the hairy covering in Sesamum laciniatum

Klein.

All parts of the plant possess calcium oxalate crystals which are

either solitary or clustered. Leaf is bifacial and possesses stomata

on both sides. Mucilage glands (Pl. II, Fig. 2 and Pl. III) are

more abundant in the epidermis of the leaf, especially on the lower

side, than in that of the stem. Moreover there are absorbing hairs

with entire and also with divided heads like those in the stem.

(Pl. III, Fig. 1, b andc.) The trichomes are of two kinds—ordinary

hairs, and glandular hairs with long uniseriate stalk and a spherical

114. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi. XLI

head (Pl. IIl,, Fig. 2, bj). Another: striking feature of the leatsire

that the epidermal cells are enlarged at certain places. Possibly

it iS a water Sstorme device (Pl Ii, Big. 2).a):

In the epidermis of the stem three different kinds of hairs are

present, viz., ordinary multicellular, long uniseriate hairs which are

broad at the base and gradually narrow down towards the apex,

and end in a more or less sharp point (PI. Ill, Fig. 3, a); thene

are other trichomes wth rounded head) (PL I0)\ Fic. ae aae

again there are absorbing hairs which possess a uniseriate stalk

of varying length bearing a spherical head which is_ generally

divided by two vertical walls (Pl. III, Fig. 1, b). In addition

to these there are mucilage glands (Pl. III, Fig. 1, e) which

are not so plentiful as in other parts. The mucilage gland

consists of a one-celled stalk and a peltate head which has four

cells arranged crosswise with their walls projecting convexly at the

margin of the head. No striations could be detected in the cells

like those illustrated by Solereder in the case of Sesamum indicum

Linn. In the presence of water the glands swell up and break off

from the stalks.

On the outer side of the calyx also ordinary hairs, absorbing

hairs, and fewer mucilage glands are present. Some of the ordinary

trichomes are constricted in the middle. These are also found

on the stem and on the corolla. The heads of some of the hairs

fall off, leaving the stalks.

Trichomes, absorbing hairs and mucilage glands are found on

the upper and lower sides of the corolla (Pl. III, Fig: 3). Stamens

also possess mucilage hairs on the lower sides of the anthers facing

the filament. The cells are more or less empty and transparent.

There are very few scattered ordinary trichomes (PI. III, Fig. 4).

Mucilage glands are most abundant on the outer wall of the

ovary and in the epidermis of the fruit. Ordinary hairs and

absorbing hairs are also present.

CONCLUSIONS.

Systematists depend chiefly on the floral characters to distinguish

one family from the other. Since the progress of anatomical

research ample evidence is forthcoming to show that anatomical

characters too offer important diagnostic clues in the identification

of families. In the present case, viz., the investigation of the

mucilage glands in many genera and species of Pedaliaceae shows

that these structures are a typical and distinguishing feature of

this family. Although mucilage glands are found in other families

too, viz., Plumbaginaceae and Polygonaceae, the structure of the

glands in Pedaliaceae is quite distinct from that of the others.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.

I am indebted to Mr. Sri Ram Loo for the illustrations which

were prepared under my supervision. Mr. M. Moinuddin has helped

me in the preparation of the slides for which I am thankful to him.

"(2J91AD 4O pua aas uoywpun)gXxa 40-7)

“ULI, MNIDIUIID] WNWYSAS

II ‘Sty I ‘Sty

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE Il

€ K200 |

Fa |

@ | |

€ x100 & a a

Sayeedud-Din Sesamum laciniatum Wlein.

(For explanation see end of article).

SOME COMMON INDIAN HERBS 115

LITERATURE CONSULTED.

Cooke, T.—The Flora of the Presidency of Bombay, vol. ii, Pt. 2, p. 338.

Haberlandt, G.—Physiological Plant Anatomy, Engl. Ed. (1928).

Hooker, J. D.—The Flora of British India, vol. iv, p. 387 (i885).

Mullan, D. P.—‘On the Mucilage Glands and Absorbing Hairs of Pedalium

muvex Linn.’ J.I.B.S., ixv, 3, pp. 179-182 (1936).

Solereder, H.—Systematic Anatomy of the Dicotyledons, Eng. Ed., Vol Ic

pp. 611-612 (1908).

EXPLANATION OF PuaTEs I To III.

Illustrating M. Sayeedud-Din’s paper on ‘Some Common Indian Herbs with

notes on their Anatomical Characters.’ I. Sesamum lacintatum Klein.

PLATE I.

Black and white sketch of Sesamum laciniatum Klein. (x4%), showing—

right, opened out corolla and gynaeceum; left, transverse section of ovary

( X 60).

Puate II.

Fig. 1.—Photograph of Sesamum laciniatum Wein.

Fig. 2.—Photograph of transverse section of leaf, showing trichomes and

mucilage glands.

PuaTE III.

Fig. 1.—Stem—epidermis. a, a’, trichomes; b, absorbing hair with divided

head; c, same with entire head (xX100) d, surface view of absorbing hairs

(xX100); e, mucilage gland in surface view (xX 200).

Fig. 2.—T.S. leaf, showing: a, enlarged epidermal cells; b, glandular hair;

c, mucilage gland in side view (xX 100).

Fig. 3.—Corolla-—epidermis. a, mucilage gland; b, glandular hair; c, ordinary

trichome (X 200).

Fig. 4.—Stamen—a, showing position of glandular hairs and_ trichomes on

the anther-lobes; b and c, glandular hairs (x 120).

CORACLES AND CHIMPANZEES.

Lieut.-COLONEL R. W. BurRTON.

(With two . plates).

At Whipsnade the Great White Lion invites the visitor from

afar to view the many zoological treasures in the. beautiful

Park where are to be observed animals and birds from distant

lands; and there also you may see the chimpanzees with their keeper

taking afternoon tea in quite human fashion and_ notice other

instances of their intelligence. If you closely watch you will see

what appears to be real reasoning in their manipulation of nails

and staples which they hammer into posts with pieces of shaped

stone after the manner of human beings in the stone age.

On an artificial island are four young chimpanzees, confined

there by a narrow strip of water and their limited intelligence.

Much amusement can be had in watching them play all sorts of

pranks with one another and seeing their romps and antics with

pieces of cloth tossed to them by delighted visitors.

Observing these creatures kept within bounds merely because

they do not know ‘how to cross the seemingly impassable obstacle

to freedom, the mind of the onlooker is. perhaps turned to con-

templation of the wonderful processes by which we human beings

have progressed from even such beginnings as this to the building

of great ocean liners, battleships and submarines. :

There is much room for conjecture as to how primitive man

first conceived the idea of a means of crossing water-ways.. There

may have been a flood, a chance voyage on a drifting log, or

anything of that kind. Probably the dawn of the idea was a

log; then there would have been a raft of drift-wood, then reeds

or logs of light wood, or of bamboos, bound together with lianas.

Even at the present day the Mannans, an aboriginal tribe in

Travancore, cross the wide waters of the beautiful Periyar Lake

by means of primitive rafts of the giant bamboo as shown in

the accompanying photograph. After the raft idea there would

have been the use of a single log followed quickly by the propelling

and guidance of it with a stick or pole; and from these beginnings

must have come the dug-out of various shapes and sizes still so

widely used in many parts of the world; as the poet says, ‘rivers

then first the hollowed alders felt’.

Dug-outs have reached much perfection in many countries. In

the Auckland museum is a dug-out eighty-two feet long by seven

feet wide made in 1835 out of the bole of a gaint totara tree; it

was propelled by a hundred rowers. In such a craft as this did

the ancestors of the New Zealand Maories cross the wide uncharted

seas of the Western Pacific to arrive at the beautiful islands which

they have made their home for the past six hundred years. Off

JourN. BoMBAY INA®, Fist Soc.

A Coracle in transit.

CORACLES AND. CHIMPANZEES 17

the West Coast of India the writer has felt complete confidence

in the sea-worthiness of quite small dug-outs, even in tempestuous

weather, miles from those palm-fringed s shores. 7

In various parts of the world local requirements and aitenle

materials which guided invention to those primitive vessels have

continued their use to the present day. In tropical forest lands

dug-outs will probably be always used. There are bamboo rafts

where those giant grasses grow; the birch bark of America is

still used in wild places for the canoe, and more finished craft of

that material are sold. in up-to-date stores; the reed-raft is in

use in Northern Australia; and the log-raft, the well known

catamaran formed of three or four logs lashed together, is a

familiar sight all along the eastern sea-board of Madras.

' The coracle of Wales is no doubt of very ancient origin; as

also is the basket boat used at the present time in Mesopotamia

and India. Alexander the Great made use of these hide-covered

circular boats during his invasion of the East; and the conquering

armies of the East India Company which founded British Dominion

in India were dependent on similar craft for conveyance of troops

and supplies across the wide rivers of the Deccan and South India.

Years ago, when on the march with a regiment, the writer had

to arrange with the Civil Authority for a number of these useful

and efficient vessels for the transport of men and baggage across

the Kistna River. One boat could convey two loaded bullock carts

as well as several soldiers; the bullocks were driven into the river

and left to find their way across. On the Narbada river in Central

India boats for such a purpose are of wood and more of the nature

of barges, as the photograph shows.

Basket boats of bamboo framework covered with buffalo hide

are in daily use in parts of South India for transport of passengers,

carts, and goods of all kinds: and in many parts of India it is

probable that the use of such primitive methods will never be

discontinued.

Coracles, as the smaller of these boats are called by British

sportsmen, are used by the wielder of the rod in South India; and

very good and safe they are for the purpose, the native fishermen

being exceedingly expert in their management. Fine fun it is to

be hitched on to a big mahsir and race after him down the foam-

tossed rapid to some large pool which may be quite a considerable

distance down stream. Without a coracle one’s fishing on some

rivers would te greatly curtailed. In the photographs a coracle

is seen in transit and in use: twenty rupees will buy a new one

of the -est bamboo and _ hide.

In out-of-the-way places the old and new combine as shown

in the picture of the author’s motor car being ferried over a wide

river on a platform of strong bamboo matting laid on three dug-

outs lashed together. A native bedstead placed across two small

dug-outs makes an excellent duck-punt; and the humble hollowed

log is indispensable to the sportsman in many Eastern lands, as

also on the myriad waterways of South America.

Besides dug-outs, rafts, and such contrivances there are other

primitive methods of crossing rivers in various parts of India.

118 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLI

Of such is the sarnai, the inflated hide. of a buffalo with which,

as seen in the picture, the hide of a calf is an auxiliary to support

the arms and chest of the passenger as he kicks his way across

the river. This contrivance is no doubt of great antiquity. There

are other things of a similar kind such as gourds, bladders,

earthenware vessels, and necessity being the mother of invention,

on one occasion the writer, seated in a bath tub, pursued a bul

bison across a river in Jeypur!

The making of various kinds of bridges no doubt followed,

or accompanied, the progress of raft to dug-out; and from the

tree across the stream primitive man advanced to the beautiful

structures of cane and bamboo which are met with in Upper

Burma. Here is a photograph of such an one in the Kachin country:

To the use of these tigers soon become accustomed; and when

that is known by the tracks it is not uncommon for Tom Puss

to drop through a trap-door prepared in the centre of the bridge

to be spiked on bamboo stakes firmly fixed in the ravine below:

a cruel and inglorious end to the monarch of the primeval forests.

But one can expect anything from people who make a practice

of fattening up the friendly Chow dog—the family pet—for the

family cooking-pot !

JOURN. BomBAY NAT. Hist. Soc.

SS Phi: rie

MRNA ios

| A Sarnai.

THE RECENT PLACUNA PEARL FISHERY IN BARODA

AND SOME NOTES ON THE WINDOW-PANE OYSTER.

Dr. S. T. Moses.

In May 1938, the State department of Fisheries conducted a

Pearl Fishery, in the Okhamandal area, more as a relief work

which lasted for a little under three months. Prior to 1g05, when

the Fisheries Expert, Mr. James Hornell, visited Baroda for the

first time, to advise the State on Fishery development, the very

existence of the Window-pane oyster (Placuna placenta) and its

pearl-bearing qualities were unknown both to the coastal residents

and the State authorities. These oysters were found in bays on

the North-eastern sea-board of the Okhamandal district, where the

bottom is of soft mud, an agreeable habitat for the Mollusc which,

therefore, flourished in extensive beds. There were also found

inshore large areas, where dead shells were embedded in the muddy

bottom, the result of innumerable generations of countless numbers

of mature oysters, which had died where they lived. The dead

window-pane oysters, unlike the true Pearl-oyster from which when

dead, pearls cannot be retrieved, retain the pearls in situ, even

while dead and buried in the mud. For a series of years, the beds

of both live and dead oysters were leased out and fetched an

average annual revenue of over Rs. 10,000, the maximum to which

the rental soared being Rs. 25,300 in 1913-14. A series of trans-

planting experiments were also conducted, the beds in Balapur and

Kiu yielding gratifying results. The value of pearls from live

oysters being higher than those from the dead ones, the contractors

paid more attention to live beds and the relaid banks, not that the

dead beds were ignored. The Placuna pearls are small and are

poorer in lustre than the pearls yielded by the true Pearl-oyster ;

being more used in medicine, particularly in the Far East, they

have a low value, which of late has dwindled, and an uncertain

market. The beds had, therefore, complete rest for over 7 years,

if we omit a small fishery attempted for a month or so in 1935

by a lessee. The coastal population were suffering and so to afford

them relief, one of my earliest activities, after starting the Depart-

ment of Fisheries in/Baroda, was to arrange a Pearl fishery. Thus

a departmental fishery was organised this year and the dead oyster

beds in the following bights in the Rann Bay from Poshetra point

to’ the frontier separating Nawanagar from Baroda viz. 1 Nang-

sura,. 2. Divdi, 3. Kurichli, 4. Nangara, 5. Beditad, 6. Jegania,

7. Kagiatad, 8. Doribid, 9. Katumba and to. Sarihad, were fished

(Vide Map). Fishing is done at low tides, particularly on the

days of major spring tides when great areas of the shallow seas

are exposed. The fisher—the work is done usually by men though

a few women also join—with crude mocassins of rough hide shod

on his feet—to prevent their damage by cuts from the sharp-edged

120 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL’ HIST” SOCIETY, Volssxit

shells—and cruder gloves fitted to his right hand, forces his way

into the mire, with a stout stick, with which he plumbs the depth

and feels his way. A gunny hangs by a rope slung across his

shoulder and when the oysters are felt by the feet, he picks them

up by hand and puts them into the bag. The collection goes

on till the tide turns and makes it impossible to carry on any

further. The oysters are then opened and the contents, mud with

the pearls embedded, are carefully washed, strained and dried.

The pearls are then picked up by being sifted. The beds most

popular and so most frequently worked are Doribid and Kagiatad,

Jegania and Nangara taking the next place among the prolific

pearl-producing areas. In Doribid, it was found by actual counting,

that as many as 893 oysters were sufficient to yield nearly one

tola of pearls, while elsewhere a little over 2,000 were required for

a tola of pearls. From measurements of the dead oysters it was

seen. that the sizes ranged from 8-6-cms. x9 cms. to. 12:8 Cms7x

i3.1 cms. and the oysters, judging from the varying thickness of

the shells, belonged to many generations. The total depth of the

deposit has not been ascertained but from trial pits and other —

examinations, the supply seems to be inexhaustible. In Dorikid in

pits roughly 2 feet square and about 2 feet deep, 1.e. in a mass of

glairy mud 8 cubic feet in content, between 12 to 17 dead oysters

were taken. There “were more: below! ther 2) feete deprhawalm

Jegania in similar pits 5 to 13 were found. The quantity of dead

oysters present can well ke imagined when it is remembered that

the area exposed at low tide is 8 miles long along the coast line,

and over # of a mile broad in most places and in the kays nearer

Nawanagar limits over 14 miles.

Inspections of live oyster keds were made in Rann Bay as also

at Balapur. In Rann Bay live oysters were found in good numbers

from the lowtide level up to a depth of y feet at low water of the

spring tide, and were completely absent in the exposed areas and

very sparse in the deeper areas beyond the two-fathom line.

As the Window-pane oyster selects a soft muddy bottom—it is

found in association with another mud-lover the Brachiopod Lingula

which is more abundant in Balapur than in Rann Bay. It is very

difficult to work the live keds because apart from the softness of

the mud, there is the violence of the tidal current-to be reckoned

with. Experienced local divers find the tidal rip to te strong and

so the output is very little and not remunerative.

The action of currents has to ke studied and understood,

because without that knowledge, no cultural operations can be

efficient. The generally accepted notion among the fishermen is

that the oysters are wandering farther and farther away from the

Baroda waters into the Jamnagar area, and hence they pleaded that

work should be started early, as otherwise some 5 more years of ©

inactivity will see the complete transference of the Window-pane

oysters to the Jamnagar waters. The truth is that dead oysters

are found closer inshore, and for living ones the fisher has to go

into deeper waters and put in harder work, contending against

tide, making use of boats, etc. In fact the work necessary is not

mere wading and picking but actual diving, though this diving is

THE RECENT PLACUNA PEARL FISHERY IN BARODA 121

child’s play compared with the diving for chanks and Pearl-oysters

‘1 South India or Ceylon. There is also evidence that the Bay

is in the process of silting up. }

A knowledge of currents is essential in tracing from whence the

spat repopulating the beds arrive, or whereto they pass from the

present beds. Observations by a country boat following specially

made wooden cubes fitted with tiny flags, set afloat in the oyster

beds during the spatting season were suggested, but not tried

because of the fear that such an attempt would be ‘difficult and

unsafe in the Gulf of Cutch and especially in Okha waters where

underground reefs and boulders abound and currents are strong’.

Drift bottles, i.e. bottles weighted with shot and containing cards

to be returned by the finders, were liberated in 1919 and 1920.

These drift bottle experiments conducted for 2 years led to the

general conclusion that the current flows from North to South and

follows the contour of the shore. It was inferred that currents

from Balapur, Kiu and Gopi, where relaying experiments were

done, pass eastwards and are caught by cross currents and so are

deflected to the South and carried into the Rann Bay. Rann Bay

has always been the source of supply for transplantation experiments.

From observations it was inferred that there are two spawning

seasons of the dioecious Window-pane oyster, the first being the

trimester October to December, and the other April to May. The

first is more intensive, as generally confirmed by this year’s

dissections. In Fekruary the gonads were completely empty.

In July there were signs of development in that the gonads were

assuming a colour change towards orange and were thickening

in size. Live oysters had their shells measured and the sizes ranged

mom SxX10.3° cms. tO 13.4x14 cms. and a few were smaller

7507.0 cms. to 8x8.2 cms. but as the history of these oysters,

which are obviously of different broods, is not known, the

measurements did not help in estimating the rate of growth.

Growth rate is inferred from records made at the time of trans-

plantation as follows:—‘size: 44 to 5 cms.: 2-3 months old, rot

to 11 cms.: 18 months old’. The anatomy of the Window-pane

oyster has been very succinctly described in Mr. Hornell’s Report

ii Part I, Marine Zoology of Okbamandal, 1909 and our

dissections revealed no new feature nor any divergence from the

Ly pe. j

Pearls are located at the side of the visceral mass and also

in the thin tissue of the free portion of the mantle. If, however,

they are attached to the shell, as is frequently the case, they are

of no use at all. Pearls are said to be found in the Window-pane

oysters only after they reach the age of 3 years. That is they

should have attained maturity and have spawned at least a couple

of seasons. At one of our inspections, when 43 specimens were

examined, there was not any, which had not at least 2 pearls.

One oyster of the size 15x16.9 cms. yielded 4 pearls, another

Noro. a2.A: 6 and another 15.2x16.7: 1o pearls. Of course all

the pearls are seed pearls. While the difficulty in Bombay was

to convince prospective bidders of the existence of pearl-bearing

oysters, in Baroda waters it is not the lack of pearls or of oysters,

122> JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTAUSOCIE IN. wy ols excel

dead or alive, but the problem of a good market for the pearls. Of

the 43 specimens examined, all did not have the commensal peacrab

(Pinnotheres placunae), but only 29 1.e. a great majority. In

February I found the peacrabs carrying eggs.

A coincidence noted was that the bays in which the oysters

yielded a comparatively richer crop of pearls were those patronised

by fishermen as being more prolific of fish. There is however no

danger of poaching for pearls, since apart from the gruelling

nature of pearl fishery work, there is always the difficulty of the

sale of pearls. Particularly do the fishermen find shoals of the

beautiful wrasses which are very fat, Platyglossus spp., known in

the vernacular as Babat. The Tetrodons (Vernacular: Popcha,

Khaku) are also found but being inedible are rejected.

MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS PLANTS OF INDIA:

CaAPPARIDS, MIGNONETTES, VIOLETS, ROCKROSES, BIXADS.

eal MOANUIS | Soyo ets Se

The CapPaRIDACE are herbs or shrubs, rarely trees, distributed

nearly equally over the tropical and subtropical regions of both

hemispheres. They abound in Africa and India; some are found

in Europe and Canada; the frutescent species are mostly American.

There are 4o genera with about 450 species.

The herbaceous members are acrid, and their therapeutic

properties are similar to those of the Crucifers. These same

properties persist in the roots and the leaves of the arboraceous

members, the bark of which is usually bitter and laxative.

Quercetin has been isolated from the flowers of Cappuaris spinosa

Linn.

The medicinal and poisonous Capparids of the world belong to

Io genera:—Boscia (tropical and South Africa); Capapa (tropics

of the Old World); Capparis (warm regions); CLEOME (tropical and

subtropical regions); CouRBONIA (tropical Africa); CRATAEVA

(tropical regions); EuapEnta (tropical Africa); GyNANDROPSIS

(tropical and subtropical regions); MArrua (tropical Africa and

Asia); RircHigza (western tropical Africa). |

The medicinal and poisonous Capparids of India belong to 6

genera :—CADABA, CAPPARIS, CLEOME, CRATAEVA, GYNANDROPSIS,

MAERUA.

A. Herbs. Fruit capsular

I. Stamens sessile on the disk. Petals imbricate in

bud se ee so ... CLEOME.

II. Stamens on the gynophore. Petals open in bud .... GYNANDROPSIS.

B. Shrubs or trees. Fruit berried or capsular

I. Calyx-tube lined by the disk, lobes valvate. Petals

4. Fruit moniliform ae re ... Magrua.

II. Sepals 4, open in bud, disk hemispheric ... CRATAEVA.

III. Sepals 4, biseriate, imbricate or 2 outer valvate

a. Stamens 4-6, inserted high on the gynophore ... CADABa.

b. Stamens 8-co, inserted at the base of the

gynophore as 5 sa wo» CAPPARIS:

CADABA.

The genus consists of 20 species, natives of the Palaeotropics.

Leaves ovate or oblong-obtuse ... af I. Cy farinosa,

Leaves palmately 3-foliate ey a . 2. C. trifoliata.

1. Cadaba farinosa Forsk. (=C. indica Lam.) is very common

in India. It is found in the Punjab, Baluchistan, Sind, the Raj-

putana Desert, Central India, Gujerat, Konkan, the Southern

Mahratta Country, the dry districts of the Northern Circars, the

124. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HisSd. VSOCIED YY, = Voleewien

Deccan and the Carnatic from Vizagapatam southwards to the

Madura District. It extends to Arabia and tropical Africa.

In Sind the leaves and roots are considered deobstruent and

anthelmintic, and are prescribed in uterine obstructions. In Pudu-

kota the root and leaves are used in decoction as an anthelmintic.

The plant is used as a general antidote in Arabia Felix. The

fresh young branches are either masticated or taken in powder

form.

In Senegal a decoction or an infusion is used in pulmonary

affections, dysentery, fever and rheumatism.

Arabic: Asal, El-bejadd, Gorrah, Gorreh, Korrah, Saerah, Sserah—;

Bombay: Habab—; Canarese: Chegaviche, Maragache, Maragade, Shegurti—;

Cutch: Budkiyal, Janglimirchi, Karopinjero—; Gujerati: Khordu—; Hausa:

Bagayi— ; Hindi: Kodhab—; Jodhpur: Dabi—; Katagum: Anza—; Madras:

Viludi— ; Malayalam: Kattakatti—; Porebunder: Kalokatkiyo, Kimiyatunjad-

vung, Thaniung—; Sind: Kodhab—; Tamil: Vili—; Telugu: Adamorinika,

Chavukuttiyanku, Chemudu, Chikonadi, Chimurudu, Polumokinika—; Tuigré:

Astan—; Tigrinia: Sernak, Tueblischnai—; Yemen: Asal, El-bejad, Korreh,

Serah, Toreh—.

2. Cadabatrifoliata Wight and Arn. occurs in the Carnatic

and in Ceylon.

In India the roots and leaves are used by Ayurvedic practitioners.

They are considered purgative, emmenagogue, anthelmintic and

antiphlogistic; they are said to be useful in the treatment of

amenorrhoea, and dysmenorrhoea, indigestion of children, and

painful joints. The leaves are much employed in the preparation

of medicated oils.

Sanskrit: Balaya—; Tamil: Manudukkurundu, Viluti—; Telugu: Chek-

onadi—.

CAPPARIS.

The genus includes 200 species, natives of tropical and warm

regions, except North America.

The genus exhibits stimulant, antiscorbutic and antispasmodic

properties. The following species are used medicinally in Europe—

C. spinosa Linn.—; in Southern Africa—C. citrifolia| Lam., C.

Guemzu Sond., C. tomentosa. Lam.—;: in Brazil C. Yoo: Marti==

in Peru and Bolivia—C. coriacea Linn.—.

A. Flowers axillary, solitary or in fascicles of 2-3

I. Prostrate shrubs. Leaves orbicular or ovate-orbi-

cular. Thorns usually hooked. Lower sepal not

very saccate che ade ae ) I, (Co Spinosa:

II. Erect shrub. Leaves _ elliptic-lanceolate. Thorns

minute or absent oe tee ... 2. C. heyneana.

B. Flowers corymbose (sometimes racemose in C. grandis)

I. Mature branches leafless ay, to) Bu, Ce decidua:

II. Mature branches leafy. Leaves olive-green, pubescent Cpe

when young ne wee a in-i4a, Srandss.

C. Flowers in shortly peduncled or sessile umbels. Woody

climber ge ae set i.2 § GC. Seprana.

D. Flowers supraaxillary in a vertical line on_ the

branches.

I. Leaves 13-3 by $-13 in. ou ae 2.0 6. (6s zeylanvea

Il. Leaves 4-8 by 2-334 in 7. C. micracantha,

MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS PLANTS OF INDIA 125

‘1. Capparis spinosa’ Linn. occurs in the plains between the

Indus and the Jhelum, the Salt Range, the low inner valleys of

the Himalaya, Chamba, Jsumaon, Nepal; it is fairly common in

the Bombay Presidency, being chiefly found in Sind, the Konkan,

the Deccan and the Western Ghats; it is also met with in

Waziristan and Baluchistan, whence it extends to Afghanistan, the

Mediterranean region, North Africa, and Australia.

The root bark is a favourite Yunani remedy. It is said to be

aperient, tonic, expectorant, anthelmintic, emmenagogue and

analgesic. It is commonly prescribed for rheumatism, paralysis,

toothache, enlarged spleen, and tubercular glands. The juice of the

plant, more especially the fruit, is used to kill worms in the ear.

In Baluchistan the juice of the fresh berries—or, if they are

dry, the liquid obtained by adding a very little water—is poured

into the ear as a cure for earache. In Ormara and Las Bela a

jelly prepared from the fruits is considered to ke a cure for

rheumatism and for snake bite.

In the Punjab the dried bark of the root is considered diuretic.

In Kangra, the macerated roots are applied to sores.

In Persia the root and root-bark are given for intermittent

fever and rheumatism.

In Arabia the berries are given for toothache, and the bruised

leaves applied to the head in cephalalgia.

In Europe the flower buds and fruits are considered aperient

and diuretic. The young flower buds are the capers of the shops;

they are esteemed antiscorbutic, stimulant, and aperient. The bark

of the root passes for a diuretic. The leaves are bruised and

used as poultices for gouty affections.

Afghanistan: Kabarra, Kabawa, Kabra—; Arabic: Amdryan, Azuf, Kabar,

Kabbar, Kabur, Lassaf, Leysouf, Schok-el-homar, Uard-el-gebel—; Baluchi:

Krap—; Bettani: Kamarkuniae—; Bombay: Kabar—; Canavese: Mullu-

kattari— ; Catalan: Tapara, Taparera—; Diwana: Pahinro—; Dutch: Kap-

perboom—; Egypt: Kabar, Lassaf, Shok-el-homar, Ward-el-gebel—; English :

Caper Plant—; French: Caprier, Tapenier—; German: Kapernbaum—; Greek :

Kapparis, Rimoniaria—; Hamadan: Risha kabar—; Hebrew: Ezov—; Hind: :

Ber, Kabara, Kabra—; Ivaq: Kabar—; Italian: Capparo, Cappero—; Jaunsar :

Bauri, Kiari—; Jhalawan: MKhafkhander, WKhakandir—; MKumaon: Bussar,

Ultakanta—; Ladak: Kabra—; Las Bela: Kirap, Krap, Pahinro, Panetero— ;

Malta: Caper-plant, Cappara, Capparo, Cappero—; Northern Baluchistan; WKha-

warg—; Ormara: Kirap, Krap—; Persian: Kabar, Kebir, Kurak—; Portuguese :

Alcaparra—; Punjab: Bandar, Barar, Barari, Bassar, Bauri, Ber, Kabarra,

Kabra, Kakri, Kander; Kaur, Keri, Kiari, Taker—; Russian: MWKapersovyi

kust—; Sind: Kalvari—; Spanish: Alcaparra, Alcaparro—; Syria: Kabar—;

Teheran: Risha kavar—; Telugu: Kokilakshamu—; Tibet: Kabra—; Turktsh:

Kabarish— ; Urdu: Kabar—; Waziri: Katmavae—; Yemen: Lasaf—.

var. canescens Coss. occurs in Baluchistan. The leaves. are

bitter; they are used by the Baluchis as a medicine for goats.

Baluchi: Khafkhandar, Krap—; Brahui: Karap, Khafkhandar—.

var. parviflora Boiss. is found in Baluchistan, where the plant,

boiled in water, is applied as a poultice for boils.

Baluchi: Krap—; Brahut: WKhafkhandar, Khalkandir—.

196 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLi

2. Capparis heyneana Wall. is found in the Western Ghats

of South Konkan and North Kanara, spreading to the Tinnevelly

District and Ceylon.

The leaves are used for rheumatic pains in the joints, and

the flowers are made into a laxative drink.

Hindi: Chayruka—.

3. Capparis decidua Edgew. (=C. aphylla Roth.) is found

in Sind, Baluchistan, Western Rajputana, Punjab, Central India,

Gujerat, Deccan, and Tinnevelly. It extends to Socotra, Arabia,

Egypt, and tropical Africa.

The bark and the fruit are Ayurvedic medicines of some repute.

The whole plant is used by Yunani practitioners.

In the Punjab, the top shoots and young leaves are made

into a powder and used as a blister; they are also applied to boils,

eruptions and swellings, and used as an antidote to poison; they

are prescribed in affections of the joints; when chewed, they are

efficacious in relieving toothache.

The fresh young twigs (tips only) are crushed and soaked in

water. The water is strained off. Sometimes this is done twice

or thrice. The residuum is dried and allowed to solidify. A tiny

piece of it is eaten with butter and gives relief from pain after a

bruise or fall. Also makes a very strong plaster (Hotson).

Arabic: Hanbag, Margh, Sodab, Sodad, ‘Tundub—; Baluchistan: Kaler,

Kalir, Karar, Khirar—; Beray: Kari—; Bombay: Kari—; Canarese: Chip-

puri, Karira—; Deccan: Karyal—; Egypt: Hagbag, Tundub—;. Gujerat:

Ker, Kera—; Hind:: Karel, Karer, Karu, Keril, Kurrel, Kurril, Lete, Satari—;

Jaisalmer: Ban—; Jodhpur: Kair—; Konkani: Wiral—; Marathi: Karil, Ker,

Kera, Nevati—; North-Western Provinces: Kair, Kari, Karil—; Persian:

Bergesodab—; Punjab: Delha, Karel, Karia, MKaril, Karis, Karril, Kerin,

Kirra, Pinju, Tenti—; Sanskrit: Granthila, Gudhapatra, Kantaki, Karaka,

Karira, Kataphala, Krakatha, Krakara, Krishashakha, Marubharuha, Mridu-

phala, Nishpatra, Nishpatrika, Shakapushpa, Shatakunta, Shonapushpa, Su-

hala, Tikshnakantaka, Tikshnasara, Ushnasundara, Vidahika, Vishvakpatra— ;

Sind: Dorakiram, Kirab, Kiral, Kirrur—; Tamil: Kulaladondai, Sengam, Sir-

akkalii— ; Telugu: Kariramu—; Urdu: Titali—; Wastristan: Karil, Kirra

4. Capparis grandis Linn. fil. is found in Mount Abu,

Western Rajputana, Kanara, the Carnatic, the hill-forests of the

Deccan, and on the eastern slopes of the Western Ghats from

the Godaveri southwards.

An infusion of the bark and leaves is used internally for swel-

lings and eruptions in Western Rajputana.

Bombay: Puchaonda, Ragota—; Buldana: Pacharan—; Burma: Hkaw-

kwa—; Canarese: Revapi, Tarate, Totte, Tottulla—; Deccan: Pachaonda— j;

Gujerati: Dhuti—; Konkani: Ragot—; Lambadi: Raldero—; Malayalam:

Waghutty—; Marathi: Kandel, Katarni, Kauntel, Pachenda, Puchunda, Rag-

ot; Melghat: Pacharan—; Nimar: Pachar—; Porebunder: Dhuti—; Raj-

putana: Antera—; Tamil: Nakkulinjan, Turattu, Vellaitturattu—; Telugu:

Dridonda, Dudduppi, Guli, Nalluppi, Regutti—; Yeotmal: Pachunda—.

5. Capparis sepiaria Linn. is found in the dry parts of India

and Ceylon. It extends to Malaya, Indo-China, Timor and

Australia.

MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS PLANTS OF “INDIA 127

The plant possesses febrifugal properties. It is considered to

be alterative and tonic; it has been found useful in skin diseases.

Bengal: Kaliakara, Kantagurkamai—; Canarese: WKadukattari—; Gujerat:

Kantharo—; Hindi: WHiun, Kanthari—; Marathi: Kanthar, WKantharyel—;

Merwara: Katan, Kataran—; Porebunder: Walokantharo, Kantharo—; Punjab :

Hiungarna, Hius—; Sanskrit: Ahimsra, Amlaphala, Dupravesha, Durdharsha,

Guchchagulmika, Gridhranakhi, Hinsra, Jali, Kakadani, Kakatinduka, Kantha,

Kanthari, Kantharika, Kanya, Kapalakulika, Krishnashriphalika, Kruragandha,

Krurakarma, Tikshnagandha, Tikshnakantaka, Vakrakantaki, Vayastinduka— ;

Tamil: Karindu, Karunjurai, Kattukkattiri, Kokkimullu, Sirukkattiri— ;

Telugu: Nallapuyyi, Nallavuppi, Nalluppi, Puyyi, Uppi—; Uriya: Hulubhi,

Kantikapali, Koli, Kontoko, Nibido, Otaibe, Solorakoli—.

6. Capparis zeylanica Linn. (=C. horrida Linn. fil.) is to be

found throughout the greater part of India; it extends to Java

and the Philippine Islands.

Ayurvedists use the root-bark as a bitter and a cholagogue.

The root-bark is sedative, stomachic, and antihidrotic.

In Northern India, the leaves are used as a counter-irritant

and as a cataplasm in boils, swellings and piles.

In Chota Nagpur, the bark, along with native spirit, is given

in cholera. The Mundas use the thorns to prick the pustules of

small pox. The root, well ground, and mixed with those of Cussia

occidentalis and Mimusops elengi, is rubbed on the body in dropsy ;

also, even alone, on aching bodies, legs, or feet.

Ajmere: Gitoran—; Bengal: Bagnai, Kalokera—; Bombay: Anti, Taranti,

Tarti, Wag, Wagatti—; Burma: Nahmanitanget, Nahmanitanlyet, Nwamani-

thanlyet—; Canarese: Mullukattari, Totte, Tottulla—; Ceylon: Kattoddi,

Kilaohedi, Vennachi—; Deccan: Ardanda—; Dehra Dun: Hins, His, Kalhins,

Kalhis, Khalis—; Gond: Katerni—; Hindi: Ardanda, Jhiri—; Ilocano: Tal-

actac—; Kharwari: Bagnahim—; Kolami: Gaterna—; Konkani: Govindphal,

Wageti— ; Kumaon: Bipuwakanta, Ultakanta—; Marathi: Govindi, Pachwa— ;

Matheran: Taranti, Tarti—; Monghyr: Bagnai—; Mundari: Gaterna, Kula-

rama, Marijanum, Ramakula—; Oudh: Karrallura—; Punjab: His, Hiungarna,

Karvila— ; Sanskrit: Govindi, Granthila, Kantakalata, Karambha, Katukandari,

Kinkani, Krishangi, Tapasapriya, Vartala, Vyaghraghanti, Vyaghrapada, Vya-

granakhi— ; Santali: Buru asaria—; Sind: Ardanda—; Sinhalese: Welangi-

riya—; Tagalog: Dauag—; Tamil: Adondai, Igudi, Indu, -Kaguturatti, Kottotti,

Migupalattam, Tondai, Tulambikkiri, Viyanicham—; Telugu: Adonda, Arid-

onda, Chittigara, Doddi, Palaki—,; Uvriya: Asadua, Govindi, Lobhyotai, Osaro,

Oserwa—; Visayan: Laguino—.

7. Capparis micracantha DC. occurs on seashores and spots

in Pegu, Tenasserim, the north of the Malay Peninsula, extending

to Siam, Cambodia, Java, Timor and the Philippine Islands.

The roots and the wood are used medicinally in Cambodia.

The roots are considered diuretic. The wood is given for bron-

chitis and for ulceration of the mucous membrane of the nose.

Cambodia: Kanhchoeu bai dak—; Tagalog: Dauag, Halugabat, Mararayat-

cathoy—; Visayan: Alagiing-ung, Salimémo—.

CLEOME.

The genus consists of 70 species, inhabitants of tropical and

subtropical regions.

198 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST..SOCIETY, Vol. XLI

The leaves are stimulant; the roots stimulant, antiscorbutic,

and anthelmintic; the seeds rubefacient, vesicant, anthelmintic, and

Carminative.

The following are used medicinally :—in Indo-China—C. Cheli-

dont Linn., C. viscosa Linn.—; in the Philippine Islands—C. vis-

cosa Linn.—; in North and Central America—C. gigantea Linn.,

C. graveolens Rafin., C. heptaphylla Linn., C. serrata Jacq., C.

viscosa Linn.—; in the Gold Coast—C. ciliata Schum. & Thonn.—;

in La. Reunion—C. viscosa Linn.—; in Guiana—C. frutescens

Aubl.—.

A. Leaves simple

Stamens 6 or less

Leaves oblong-lanceolate, — penni-nerved; — bracts

petiolate pe “ee on > I.€,. monophylla

B. Leaves compound

I. Stamens 6. Capsules sessile or subsessile

Leaflets linear-oblong to obavate. Stem and leaves

not asperous iis ae i. | 25. Cy .brachycarpas

II. Stamens indefinite

a. Flowers yellow. Capsule glandular pubescent ... 3. C. viscosa.

b. Flowers purple or pink. Capsule glabrous,

striate oe ee 4. Celina,

c. lowers rosy. Capsule smooth oat “+ “6.-C. Chelidont!

d. Leaves 7-foliolate get doe .. 5. C. heptaphylia.

1. Cleome monophylla Linn. is found in fields and waste

places from Bihar and Orissa to Gujerat, the Deccan, the Konkan,

the Southern Maratha country, and Ceylon. .It also occurs. in

tropical Africa.

The pounded root is put on the lips by the Santals to restore

consciousness when in a faint.

Kolami: Chamani—; Mundari: Carmani ara, Carmari ara—; Sadani:

Hurhuriasag—; Sanialt: Harhara, Hurhura, Kedar Jhawar—.

2. Cleome brachycarpa Vahl is found in Sind, Baluchistan,

the West Rajputana Desert and the Punjab Plain. It extends

westwards to Arabia, Abyssinia and North Africa.

Mohammedan. practitioners use the plant in the treatment of

scabies, rheumatism and inflammations; they consider the leaves

beneficial in leucoderma. ; |

In Ormara the plant is said to be a useful medicine for persons

suffering from heat. The Baluchis crush the leaves in oil and

rub the paste on the arms and legs as an embrocation for high

fever. |

In Jodhpur and Jaisalmer the plant is used to cure worms in

camels’ noses. |

The strongly aromatic leaves are often sold in the market of

Aden. They are put between clothes in order to protect them

against insects.

Arabic: Berberem, Chosam, Daf—; Balucht: Miskok—; Brahui: Pawal—,;

Egypt: Berberan—; Jhalawan: Panwar—; Ormara: Shapako, Shawang—;

Rajputana: Navli, Nodi—; Sind: Kasturi—; Urdu: Panwar—. es

Nop iGnwwit LAND POISONOUS PLANTS OF INDIA 129

3. Cleome viscosa Linn. is found throughout the tropics of

the world.

Both Hindu and Mohammedan practitioners credit this weed

with great therapeutic value as an anthelmintic and carminative.

The juice of the leaves, poured into the ears, is useful in deafness.

The juice of the leaves mixed with oil is a popular Indian

remedy for purulent discharges from the ear.

The juice of the leaves is poured into the ear to relieve earache,

and the bruised leaves are applied to the skin as a counter-irritant.

The seeds are used as anthelmintic and carminative; they: also

are given occasionally in fevers and diarrhoea.

In Indo-China the roots are considered to be stimulant and

antiscorbutic; the whole plant, bruised, is used for counter-

irritation and _ blistering.

In La Reunion the plant is said to be astringent and anti-

spasmodic.

The leaves are given by the aboriginals of Australia to relieve

headache.

In the United States, the roots are said to be used as a

vermifuge.

In Ceylon the roots and the seeds are considered to be cardiac

stimulants, and they are given internally in cases of snake bite

(Roberts). But Mhaskar and Caius have shown experimentally that

both the roots and the seeds are useless in the antidotal and

symptomatic treatment of snake bite.

‘The seeds of this plant are said to possess anthelmintic and

rubefacient properties. Mohideen Sheriff recommends the pure

dried seeds as substitute for santonin. The dose recommended is

half to one drachm for adults and half the quantity to children

to be given twice a day for two days and followed ou the third

day by a dose of castor oil. I tried the drug as per directions

given above in an adult and in a child whose motions contained

large number of round-worm ova, but the result was negative in

both the patients’ (IKoman).

Arabic: Bantakalan, Oddar—; Bengal: Hurhuria—; Biruw: Cirlinggid— ;

Bombay: Hurhuria, Kanphuti, Pivalatilavana—; Canarese: Huchasasavi, Nayi-

bela—; Deccan: Choriajuwan, Churaiyajwani, Janglihulvul—; English: Sticky

Cleome—; French: Bréde puante, Herbe puante—; Gangpur: Cirliggid—;

Guam: Mongos paloma—; Gujerat: Yalvani, Tilwan, Tinmani—; Hausa:

Namijan gasaya—; Hindi: Boogra, Hulhul, Hurhur, Hurhureh, Jangliharrar,

Kamphutia— ; Indo-China: Man man trang, Sa phae ron tien—; Kolami:

Chamani— ; Malay: Kutepeng—; Malayalam: Ariavila, Katkudagu—; Marathi :

Harhuria, Kanphodi, Kanphuti, Pivalatilavana—; Mundari: Marang carmaniara,

Marang carmari— ; Porebunder: Pilitalvani—; Portuguese: Bredo mamma—;

Punjab: Bugra, Hulhul—; Sanskrit: Adityabhakta, Arkabhakta, Arkakanta,

Arikahita, Barbara, Bhaskareshta, Brahmasuvarchala, Karnasphota, Kukavai-

-minta, Kukavumitie, Mandukaparni, Manduki, Martandavallabha, Raviprita,

Ravishta, Sauri, Satyanamni, Shunakabarbara, Surasambhava, Suryalata, Surya-

varta, Suvarchala, Suteja, Svanabarbara, Tilparni, Varada, Vikranta—; Santali :

Harhara—; Sind: Kattori—; Sinhalese: Ranmanissa, Walaba—; Tagalog:

Apoyapoyan, Balabalanoyan, Silisian, Silisilihan—; Tamil: Nayikudagu,

Nayivelai—;_—- Telugu: = Kulkhavayulu, Kukhavominta—; Urdu: Hulhul—;

Visayan: Hulayasangayan—.

130 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL? HIST «{ SOCIETY \Wol, axel

4. Cleome felina Linn. fil. occurs in the Southern Maratha

Country, the Northern Circars and the Deccan districts of the

Madras Presidency.

The plant is reputed antiscorbutic.

The seeds are vesicant; they are given internally as a vermifuge.

The plant mixed with milk is applied externally to raise

blisters.

Malayalam: Ariavila—.

5. Cleome heptaphylla Linn. is an American plant grown in

Indian gardens.

It is used as a stomachic and as a vulnerary.

6. Cleome Chelidonii Linn. fil. is found in the Northern Circars

and in most places throughout the Bombay Pesidency. It is also

found in Indo-China and Java.

In Indo-China the roots are considered to be vermifuge. An

infusion of the plant is commonly used in gingivitis and in the

treatment of skin diseases.

Indo-China: Man man—;_ Porebunder: Ubhitalvani—; Telugu: Kar

wominta—.

CRATAEVA,

This genus consists of 10 tropical species.

C. religiosa Forst. is used medicinally in Indo-China and the

Philippine Islands, C. tapia Linn. in Brazil and Guiana, C. Greve-

ana Baill. in Madagascar.’

Crataeva nurvala Ham. (=C. religiosa Hook. fil. and Th.—

non Forst.—) is found almost everywhere all over India and Burma,

either wild or cultivated. Although commonly met with along

streams, it may also be found in the dry deep boulder formations

of the sub-Himalayan tract. A native of Malabar and Canara.

Its properties are described in Sanskrit and in Persian works.

It is said to promote the appetite; increase the secretion’ of the

bile, act as a laxative, and remove disorders of the urinary organs.

In calculous affections it is used in a great variety of forms; thus

a simple decoction of the bark may be given with the addition of

treacle.

The bark is demulcent, antipyretic, sedative, alterative, and

tonic; and the fresh leaves and root-bark are rubefacient.

The bark is a Pondicherry remedy for amenorrhoea. Boiled in

oil it is considered good for rheumatism.

The bark is useful in some cases of urinary complaints and

fever, and in some mild forms of skin diseases in which sarsa-

parilla is generally resorted to. It also relieves vomiting and

other symptoms of gastric irritation. The fresh leaves and _ root-

bark, particularly the former, are very efficacious in all the

affections in which mustard poultice is indicated.

Bruised well with a little vinegar, lime-juice or hot water and

applied to the skin in the form of a poultice or paste, the fresh

MEDICINAL .AND POISONOUS PLANTS OF INDIA 13]

leaves act as a rubefacient and vesicant. The bark and_ leaf

pounded and tied in a cloth are used as a fomentation for

rheumatism.

In Ceylon the leaves are used for gouty swellings. In Bombay

they are a remedy for swelling of the feet, and a burning sensation

imetne soles of the feet. .In the Konkan the juice is given in

rheumatism. In caries of the bones of the nose, the leaf is smoked

and the smoke exhaled through the nose. In China the leaves

are used in drunkenness; an extract is given for diarrhoea.

A couple of buds pounded with salt are taken before meals

to promote the appetite. In indigestion they must be given after

meals.

In Ceylon the bruised roots, leaves and seeds are applied

topically to snake bites and scorpion stings. But Caius and

Mhaskar have shown experimentally that they are useless as an

antidotal and symptomatic treatment.

Bengal: Barun, Tikoshak, Tilktoshak, Varuna—; Bombay: Bhatavarna,

Hadavarna, Kawan, Kumla, Vayavarna, Waruna—; Burma: Kadat, Kadet,

Katat—; Canarese: Bilpatri, Bitusi, Hoddelenage, Mavilinga, Marave, Nera-

vambele, Neravele, Nervala, Nirvala, Tudemadirenge, Vitusi—; Central

Provinces: Bel, Bela—; Chinese: Pa Yeh—; Coorg: Nerajane, Nerujani,

Nirajani, Vittasi, Vitusi—; English: Holy Garlick Pear—; French: Tapier— ;

Gujerati: Varno, Vayavarno—; Hansot: Kagdakeri—; Hindi: Barna, Barua,

Barun, Bila, Bilasi, Biliana, Brarna, Varuna, Varvunna—; Konkani: Nervol—;

Lao: Mai fuk koom—; Lepcha: Purbong—; Malay: Cadat—; Malayalam:

Kili, Niravila, Nirumaliyan, Varana, Vitusi—; Marathi: Haravarna, Karvan,

Kumla, Nirvala, Ramola, Varun, Vayavarna—; Mechi: Bunboronda, Tailaslu— ;

Punjab: Barna, Barnahi—; Rajputana: Barna, Barnahi—; Saharanpur :

Barna, Bilarsi, Brarna—; Sanskrit: Ajapa, Ashmarygna, Asmarighna, Barha-

pushpa, Kumara, Kumaraka, Mahakapittha, Marutapaha, Pasunadha, Sadhu-

vriksha, Setuka, Setuvriksha, Shikhimandala, Shvetadru, Shvetadruma, Shveta-

vriksha, Tamala, Tiktashaka, Urumana, Varana, Varuna, Vasaha—; Sinhalese :

Lunuwarana—; Tamil: Adicharanam, Adimalam, Anjali, Inaivilai, Kattu-

mavilangai, Kuvilam, Maluram, Maralingam, Mavilangai, Miguttiyal, Narvala,

Nilluvam, Nirumaliyam, Periamavilangai, Shuppigam, Shuvedan, Sinnamavi-

lingam, Tiriburamerittan, Varanam, Villuvam—; Telugu: Bilvaram, Chinna-

vulumidi, Magalingam, Maredu, Peddamagalingam, Peddavulimidi, Tellavulimidi,

Ulimidi, Urumatti, Urumudu, Usiki, Uskia—; Urdu: Barna—; Uriya: Barun,

Boryno, Varuna—.

GYNANDROPSIS.

This genus includes 15 species spread over the tropical and

subtropical regions of the world.

Gynandropsis gynandra Merrill (=G. pentaphylla) is used

medicinally wherever it is found growing. It is a common weed

in all tropical countries, and is abundant throughout the warmer

parts of India.

It has long been known as a domestic remedy by the Hindus.

The seeds, as well as the leaves, are administered in decoction in

convulsive affections and typhus fever, to the quantity of half a

teacup daily.

A decoction of the root is said to be a mild febrifuge.

The leaves are applied externally to boils to prevent the forma-

tion of pus. The bruised leaves are rubefacient and _ vesicant,

132 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XLI

producing a very copious exudation, affording in many cases the

relief obtained from a blister without its inconveniences. The ex-

pressed juice is a popular remedy, in high repute as a. local appli-

cation in otalgia, both amongst the natives of India and_ the

settlers in the West Indies, w here the plant is also indigenous.

In Jodhpur and Jaisalmer the leaves are used against rheu-

matism; the green leaves applied to the skin and tied down form

a good blister.

In Arabia the juice of the fresh leaves is made into an ointment

with sesame oil, and used for prurigo.

In Yoruba the natives use the roasted leaves as a cure for

earache; the jucie also is mixed with palm-kernel oil and squeezed

into the ear.

In Gold Coast the juice of the leaves is commonly used for

curing earache, and sometimes for curing headache. As it causes

pain when applied freely to the eye or the ear it. shouid be used

with care.

The Shangaans of South Africa apply the pounded leaf as a

counter-irritant in rheumatism, neuralgia, headache, and a. stiff

neck, taking care to withdraw the application before it produces

a blister.

The seeds are anthelmintic and rubefacient, and are employed

internally for the expulsion of round worms, and, externally as

a counter-irritant. They are used as a substitute for mustard, and

yield a good oil.

In Lakhimpur (Assam), a paste of the seeds is applied locally

in headache.

In the Rajputana Desert the seeds infused in boiling water are

used as a cure for coughs; bruised, they are applied as a poultice

to sores that have maggots in them (Blatter). They are given to

horses for stomach-ache.

The plant is used as a _ sudorific in Pondicherry and in the

Nilgiris.

In Indo-China the plant is used as an antiscorbutic. In La

Reunion it 1s mostly used as a diaphoretic, and as an emollient

in the form of poultice.

A reputed cure for cobra bite in Ceylon; the bruised roots,

leaves, and seeds are applied to the wounds (Roberts).

The plant is not an antidote to snake and scorpion venom;

and it is useless as an external application in the treatment of

snake bite or scorpion sting (Caius and Mhaskar).

Arabic: Gheifakan—; Ashanti: Tete—; Awuna:-Sorbui—; Bengal: Ansa-

risha, Arkahuli, Hulhul, Hurhur, Hurhuria, Kanala, Kanalla, Karaila, Sada-

hurhuria—; Bombay: Mabli, Tilavana—; Ceylon: Tayirvalai Chinese: Pai

Hua Ts’ai—; Deccan: Halhal—; Egypt: Abu-qarn, Arareg, Tamalika—; Ewe:

Sorlwi—; Ga: Kete, Tete—; Gujerati: Adiyakarhan, Satitalvani, Tanmani—;

Hausa: Gasaya—; Hindi: Churota, Hulhul, Hurhur, Karaila, Lalhuthul,

Safedhulhul— ; Indo-China: Man ma _ tia—; Nano: Gasaya—; Nolami: Cha-

mani—; Krobo: Tete—; La Reunion: Pissat de chien—; Loanda: Mozambue,

Mozembue—; Malay: Maman antu, Maman putih—; Jalayalam: Karavela,

Taivela, Vela—; Marathi: Kanphodi, Mabli, Motitilavan, Pandharitilavan,

Tilavana—; Mundari: Carman, Ciarmari, Marangcarmani, Marangcarmari,

Tundicarmani— ; New Caledonia: Oua meti hakon—-; North-Western Provinces :

Kathalparhar— ; Philippines : Cincocinco, Silisihan—; Porebunder: Dholitalvani,

MEDTCINAL AND. POISONOUS PLANTS OF INDIA 133

Gandharitalvani, Satitalvani—; Punjab: Ghanduli, Hulhulsafed—; Rajputana

Desert: Bagra, Pagra—; Sanskrit: Ajagandha, Arkapushpika, Avigandha,

Barbaragandha, Bastagandha, Bodhayika, Bramhagrabha, Brahmi, Choraka,

Hulhul, Kabari, WKarnaspota, WKjarapushpa, Putimayurika, Sugandhika, Sur-

javarta, Tilaparni, Tungi, Ugragandha—; Santal: Setakataarak—j; Sind:

Kinro—; Sinhalese: Suriyavarta, Vela—; Sokoto: Yarungawa—; Tagalog:

Apoyapayan, Balabalanoyan—; Tamil: Kadugu, Nayvelai, Velai—; Telugu:

Vaminta, Velakura—; Twi: Tete—; Visayan: Hulaya—; Yoruba: Ekuya—.

MAERUA.

This genus includes 4o species, natives of tropical Africa and

Asia.

M. angolensis DC. is said to be toxic, but is nevertheless used

medicinally in Somaliland and Abyssinia, where M. Denhardtiorum

Gilg. is similarly employed.

Maerua arenaria Hook. fil. and Th. is found in the Punjab,

Sind, Gujarat, the Deccan, Central and South India, and Ceylon.

The root is used as an alterative, tonic, and stimulant.

Cutch: Dhoropinjero, Katkiyal—; Gujerat: Vika—; Porebunder: Dholo-

katkiyo, Dudhiyohemkand, Hemkand—; Tamil: Bhumichakkarai, Mulmur-

andai—; Telugu: Bhuchakramu, Makamettanitige, Menikatige, Morinika,

Pattatige, Pattutige, Puttatige—.

The RESEDACE# are herbs, rarely shrubs, grouped into 6 genera

including about 70 species. They grow in southern Europe,

northern Africa, Syria, Asia Minor, and Persia ; some reach the

Indian frontier; a few inhabit central and northern Europe;

three species belong to the Cape of Good Hope.

Medicinal Mignonettes belong to three genera: OCHRADENUS

(southern Mediterranean); OLtcomerts (Africa, India, south-western

North America); Resepa (Mediterranean region, Europe).

1. Petals 4-7, lobed; ovary syncarpous we RESEDA,

2. Petals 2; ovary syncarpous se ... OLIGOMERIS.

3. Petals 0; ovary syncarpous; fruit a berry ... OCHRADENUS.

OCHRADENUS.

The genus consists of 5 species spreading from the Mediter-

ranean to Sind.

Ochradenus baccatus Del. occurs in Sind and _ Baluchistan;

extending to Persia, Arabia, Syria, Egypt, Nubia and Abyssinia.

In Baluchistan the twigs, leaves, and flowers are fried, ground

to a powder, mixed with a little neshar and applied dry to wounds

and sores to kill maggots, etc. (Hotson).

Arabic: Bliha, Gord, Gurdy, Gurssi, Gurzi, Ourdhah, Wuebeh—; Baluchi-

stan: Kalirram, Kirmkush—; Egypt: Gurdy—.

OLIGOMERIS.

This genus includes 5 species distributed over. Africa, Western

Asia, India, and North America.

134 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLI

Oligomeris subulata (Del.) Boiss. is found in Sind, Baluchistan

and the Punjab; it extends to Afghanistan, Persia, Arabia, the

Mediterranean, and West North America.

In Kalat the plant is pounded, and the juice thus extracted is

used by women to put on to their breasts to keep them soft.

Egypt: Deneban, Dhenebun—,; Kalat: Shataki—.

RESEDA.

This genus numbers 55 species inhabiting the Mediterranean

region, Europe, and Western Asia.

The root is considered sedative, aperient, diaphoretic, and

diuretic; the seeds are used as a resolvent.

The following are used medicinally: in Europe—R. alba Linn.,

R. glauca Linn., R. lutea Linn., R. luteola Linn., R. odorata Linn.,

R. phyteuma Linn.—; in North America—R. alba Linn., R. luteola

Linn., R. odorata Linn.—.

Reseda odorata Linn. is widely cultivated in Indian gardens.

In Spain the acrid root is used as a laxative, diaphoretic,

and diuretic; the seeds are applied externally as a resolvent.

Arabic: Khuzam—; Catalan: Mardugi, Marduixi—; Dutch: Reseda—;};

Egypt: Tamr-el-hina frengi—; English: Mignonette—; French: Herbe d’amour,

Mignonnette, Réséda, Réséda odorant—; German: Gartenreseda, Reseda—;

Roumanian: Roseta—; Russian; Reseda—; Spanish: Mifioneta, Reseda, Reseda

de olor, Resedal—.

III

The VioLtaceE#® are herbs or shrubs, natives of warm and

temperate regions. The herbaceous species principally inhabit the

northern hemisphere; they are rare in the temperate regions of

the southern hemisphere and in the tropics; the woody species are

chiefly natives of equatorial America; many species inhabit the

intertropical region of both worlds, and especially of America.

The family includes 21 genera with about 450 species.

The members of this Order are used for their sedative, dia-

phoretic, diuretic, emetic, purgative, and expectorant properties.

Among the products isolated from them may be mentioned :—

1) essential oils; (2) glucosides—iridin, violaquercitrin, violutoside

—; (3) a carbohydrate—inulin—; (4) an ester—methyl salicylate— ;

(5) a mustard oil—phenylethyl—; and (6) colouring matters—lute-

in, quercetin.

The medicinal and poisonous Violets of the world belong to 5

genera :—ALSODEIA (tropical and subtropical regions); ANCHIETEA

(tropical South America); JTonrprumM (tropical and subtropical

regions); SAUVAGEsIA (tropics; Brazil); VioLa (cosmopolitan).

The medicinal and poisonous violets of India belong to 3

genera:—ALSODEIA, IONIDIUM, VIOLA.

I. Corolla irregular. Lower petal dissimilar. Staminodes

absent. Capsule loculicidal

1. Sepals produced at the base aa -c1 OV LOLA.

2. Sepals not produced at the base ... ... IONIDIUM.

If. Corolla regular. Staminodes absent. Fruit a berry or

loculicidal capsule Sua: oh: ... ALSODESIA.

MA DICINAL AND POISONOUS: PEANTS (OF INDIA 135

ALSODEIA.

The genus includes 80 tropical and subtropical species.

Alsodeia echinocarpa Korth. is common in woods from Sin-

gapore to Tringganu. It extends to Southern Siam, Laos, Cochin-

China, Borneo, and Sumatra.

The Malays use the seeds as a purgative.

A decoction of the leaves is used in Annam in cases of myiasis

of the nostrils in ruminants. The drug is administered per os.

The same decoction, but in smaller doses, is given to pregnant

women to procure abortion.

Malay: Aho lumut, Jangut baong, Jenta-jenta, Kayu rembut, Latada, Lelada,

Medang gombot, Sebilik, Segumpa betina—; Penang: Ardani—-.

IONIDIUM.

The genus consists of 50 tropical and subtropical species.

The root is diaphoretic, diuretic, and in large doses emetic and

cathartic.

The following species are used medicinally in China—lI. hetero-

phyllum Vent.—; in South America—I. brevicaule Mart., I. circae-

oides H. B. & K., I. glutinosum Vent., I. Ipecacuanha Vent.,

I. oppositifolium Roem. & Schult., I. Poaya St. Hil., I. polygalae-

folium Vent., I strictum Vent—.

lonidium enneaspermum Vent. (=I. suffruticosum Ging.) is

found in Bundelkhand, Agra, Bengal, almost throughout the

Madras Presidency, Gujarat, Khandesh, the Carnatic, and Ceylon.

It is common throughout tropical Asia, Africa and Australia.

The native physicians regard the plant as a tonic and diuretic,

and prepare a confection of the whole herb.

The Santals employ the root in bowel complaints of children.

The leaves and tender stalks are demulcent, and are used in

decoction and electuary; they are also employed in conjunction

with some mild oil in preparing a cooling liniment for the head.

The plant is used in Southern India as a demulcent in gonor-

rhoea; and its demulcent properties are known in New South

Wales, where the plant is common.

Arabic: Ssibbah—; Bengal: Nunbora—; Bombay: Ratanpuras—; Deccan:

Ratanpuras—; Hindi: Ratanpurus--; Malayalum: Orelatamara--; Marathi :

Ratanpuras—; Naguri: Pirikantara—; Sanskrit: Amburuha, Atichara, Avyatha,

Charati, Chariti, Lakshmishreshta, Padma, Padmacharini, Padmavati, Padmavha,

Pushkaranadi, Pushkarini, Ramya, Sarade, Sthalapadmini, Sthalaruha, Sugandha-

mula, Supushkara—; Santal: Birsurajmukhi, Tandisol—; Tamil: Orilai-

tamarai—; Telugu: Nilakobari, Purusharatnam, Suriyakanti—.

VIOLA,

The genus includes some 300 species distributed broadly in

temperate regions, chiefly of the northern hemisphere.

The root is slightly emetic; the leaves are considered emollient

and laxative; the flowers are used as an emollient, diaphoretic,

antispasmodic, and stomachic.

136 JOURNAL, BOMBAY (NATURAL: AIST GSOCER TY.) Volare

The following species are used medicinally :—in Europe—V.

alba Bess.,.V. alpina Jaeq., V. arenaria DC., V. calcarata Linn

V. campestris Bieb., V. canina Linn., V. cenisia Linn., V. collina

Bess., V. biflora Linn., V. hirta g@linn,, V.. iaorabils vines

odorata Linn., V. palustris Linn., V. pedata Linn., V. pinnata

Linn., V. sciaphila Koch., V. sepincola Jord., V. sylvestris Lam.,

V. tricolor Linn., V. uliginosa Bess.—; in China—V. Patrinii

DC.—; in Indo-China—V. diffusa Ging, V. japonica Lang., V.

mirabilis Linn., V. Patrinii DC., V. pinnata Linn., V. sylvestris

Lam., V. vaginata Max., V.. verecunda-A. Gray.—; in North

America—V. canadensis Linn., V. canina Linn., V. cucullata Ait.,

V. lanceolata Linn., V. palmata Linn., V. pedata Linn., V.

pubescens Ait., V. scabriuscula Schwein—; in Colombia: V’. odor-

ata Linn., V. tricolor Linn.—; in Madeira: V. maderensis Prim.—.

The toxic glucoside ividin has been found in V. canina, V.

odorata, V. sylvestris, and V. tricolor.

A. Stigma obliquely 2-lobed, not beaked; lobes short,

spreading ac Bi. a soul by Ven | eeOLOMGns

B. Stigma terminal, truncate, dilated, depressed, orbicular

or lobed

1. Flowers lilac or pale blue ees wie he? Vie Patyennin

2. Flowers pale purple : a. io whe Vevdotfusa:

C. Stigma very oblique or quite lateral, often minute and

perforated

1. Flowers lilac or pale blue - we 1. Ve Serpens.

2. Flowers bluish purple or white, more or less

scented aoe sib es 2 2: V.nodorata,

3. Petals lilac, the lower with a few parallel simple

veins, not reaching the margin ie 8. V.asulvesinis:

4. Flowers small, white with a violet blotch on the

uppermost petal

: one Ba: V. “cinerea.

5. Flowers large, usually about. 3. colours represented.

. tricolor.

1. Viola serpens Wall. is found in hilly districts throughout

India, Ceylon, Burma, and the Malay Peninsula. It extends to

Java, Sumatra and China.

This species yields Banafsha of the bazaars, and is considered

to have medicinal properties similar to those of V. odorata. In

the Punjab, a medicinal oil, called raughan-i-banafsha, is prepared

from it.

Hindi: Banafsha, Thungtu—; Kumaon: Thungtu—; Punjab: Banafsha—;

Waziri: Khojakai—.

2. Viola odorata Linn. occurs in Kashmir at 5,000-6,000 feet ;

it is planted in most of the hill-stations. It is distributed to

Northern and Western Asia, North Africa, and Europe.

A long account of its properties will be found in most Arabic

and Persian works on Materia Medica; it is generally considered

cold and moist, and is especially valued as a diuretic and expec-

torant, and as a purgative in bilious affections. The diseases in

which it is recommended are very numerous; they are generally

those in which a cooling treatment is thought to be indicated by

the hakims.

Violets were used by the Athenians to moderate anger, to

procure sleep and to comfort and strengthen the heart.

MEDICINAL. AND. POISONOUS PLANTS OF INDIA 137

Pliny prescribes a liniment of violet root and vinegar for gout

and disorder of the spleen, and states that a garland or chaplet

of violets worn about the head will dispel the fumes of wine and

prevent headache and dizziness.

The root is a powerful emetic, and is frequently used to

adulterate ipecac. A dose of from forty to fifty grains of the

powdered roots acts powerfully, inciting nausea and great vomiting

and nervous affection.

The leaves are an old popular remedy for bruises.

Of late years, preparations of fresh violet leaves have been

used both internally and externally in the treatment of cancer. It

is stated that an infusion of the leaves, or a syrup of the petals

and a liquid extract of the fresh leaves, have been used with

benefit to allay the pain in cancerous growths, especially in the

throat, and as a cure for cancer of the tongue. The fresh leaves

are also prepared as a compress for local application.

For lubricating the throat, violet leaves are dried, powdered,

and allowed to stand in olive oil for six hours in a water bath.

Violet leaves, stewed in lard for an hour till they are the con-

sistency of cooked cabbage, are good as an application for super-

ficial tubercles in the glands of the neck, violet leaves tea being

drunk at the same time.

The leaves and petals are official in the pharmacopceia for

Portugal.

The flowers are emollient and demulcent. They were used in

olden times as remedies in many disorders, and were supposed to

be especially serviceable in ague, sleeplessness, and inflammation

of the eyes.

‘The flowers’, says Gerard, ‘are good for all inflammations,

especially of the sides and lungs; they take away the hoarsenesse

of the chest, the ruggednesse of the winde-pipe and jawes, and

take away thirst.’

He adds: ‘There is likewise made of Violets and sugar certaine

plates called Sugar violet, Violet tables, or Plate, which is most

pleasant and wholesome, especially it comforteth the heart and the

other inward parts.’ Violet sugar was a favourite conserve in the

days of Charles IT; it was considered of excellent use in consump-

tion, and was sold by all apothecaries. The flowers have undoubted

expectorant qualities; they are officinal in France.

A syrup is made from the petals which is a favourite household

remedy for infantile disorders. In France syrup of violets is a

medicine for cough and hoarseness. In England violets are culti-

vated largely at Stratford-on-Avon for the purpose of making the

Syrup, which when mixed with almond oil is a capital laxative for

children, and will help to soothe irritative coughs, or to relieve a

sore throat.

_The seeds are purgative and diuretic, and have been given in

urinary complaints, and are considered a good corrective of gravel.

A modern homoeopathic medicinal tincture is made from the

whole fresh plant, with proof spirit, and is considered useful for

a spasmodic cough with hard breathing, and also for rheumatism

of the wrists.

1388 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLI

O’Shaughnessy experimented with the dry plant as a substitute

for Ipecacuanha, but without success.

Mohideen Sheriff considers it antipyretic and diaphoretic, and

very useful in relieving febrile symptoms and excitement in all forms

of fever, particularly in combination with other drugs of the same

class.

‘This is the ‘‘banafshah’’ of the hakims who value it as a

strong febrifuge in acute and chronic fevers when given in combina-

tion with other drugs. Mohideen Sheriff in his Materia Medica

of Madras gives the ingredients of a compound decoction which

he found useful in relieving pyrexia of obstinate and long standing

cases of typhoid fever, after European medicines, generally used,

had failed. The same decoction was administered to a case of

chronic fever without any benefit at all. In the out-patients a

simple infusion of Viola odorata was given to several cases of

pyrexia and intermittent fevers without benefit’ (Koman).

Arabic: Banafsaj, Banafshaj, Behussej, Benephig— ; Armenian: Manischar— ;

Bengal: Banafsha, Banosa—; Bombay: Banafshah—; Calabria: Rovesciole— ;

Catalan: Viola, Viola boscana, Viola de Bosch, Viola d’olo, Viola d’olor,

Viola vera—; Czech: Fialke—; Danish: Martzfioler—; Deccan: Banafsha— ;

Dutch: Tamme viol—; Egypt: Benefshig—; Hnglish: Appel-leaf, Bairnwort,

Banwort, Bessy Banwood, Blaver, Blue Violet, March Violet, English Violet,

Fine-leaf, Sweet Violet, Vilip, Violet—; French: Fleur de mars, Jacée de

printemps, Violette, Violette cultivée, Violette de mars, Violette odorante,

Violette des quatre saisons, Violier commun, Violier de mars—; Genoa: Viuleta,

Viuretta—; German: Blauoesken, Blauvoegschen, Blauvoelken, Maertzveilchen,

Veielotenblau, Veieloteykraut, Veilchen, Viole, Wohlriechende Veilchen—; Greek :

Ton, Menexe, Menexes—; Gujerati: Banaphsa—; Hindi: Banafshah—;

Hungarian: Ybolya—; Italian: Mammola, Mammoletta, Viola, Vicla mammola,

Viola marzia, Viola zoppa, Violetta—; Languedoc: Memog, Memoi—;

Lombardy : Zoppina—-; Marathi: Bagabanosa—; Persian: Banafshah—; Polish:

Skopek—; Portuguese: Viola, Viola roxa, Violata—; Roumanian: Micsunea,

Tamaioasa, Toporas-——; Russian: Packutchaya fialka—; San Remo: Viureta—;

Sanskrit: Jvarapaha, Nilapushpa, Sukshmapatra, Vanapsa—; Sardinia: Vio-

ledda, Viuletta—; Spanish: Violeta, Violeta de olor—; Swedish: Aekta fioler— ;

Tuscany: Mammoletta, Mammolina, Viola maura, Viola mammola—; Urdu:

Banafshah—; Verona: Fior de San Bastian—.

3. Viola cinerea’ Boiss. is found in Sind, Baluchistan,

Waziristan, Punjab, Western Rajputana, and Kathiawar. It

extends to Afghanistan, Persia, and Arabia.

This plant is used medicinally in Sind as a substitute for V.

odorata.

Porebunder : Jinkobanafsha—; Punjab: Banafsha—; Sind: Banafsha—.

4. Viola diffusa Ging. is found in the subtropical Himalaya

from Nepal to Mishmi at 3,000-5,000 feet, and in the Khasia Hills.

It also occurs in China and Indo-China.

In Indo-China the flowers are given in diseases of the chest

as a pectoral and bechic.

Annam: Dia dinh—.

5. Viola Patrinii Ging. occurs in the temperate Himalaya,

China and Japan.

In China, Indo-China, and Malaya the flowers are said to

purify the blood and the plant is used as a pot-herb. The plants

MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS PLANTS OF INDIA 139

are also bruised and applied to ulcers, foul sores, and swellings.

They are prescribed in syphilis, scrofula, and biliousness.

Annam: Tu hoa dia dinh—; Chinese: Tzu Hua Ti Ting—.

6. Viola tricolor Linn. is indigenous in Europe, North Asia

and North America. It is cultivated in India.

The fresh plant is reputed emollient, slightly laxative, emetic,

and pectoral; it has been used with success in the treatment of

nephritic and cutaneous diseases.

The Wild Violet, or Pansy, is a household remedy in many

parts of Europe. The plant is taken internally in infusion as a

depurative in skin cruptions.

‘For curing milk crust and scalled head in children, a small

handful of the fresh plant, or half a drachm of the dried herb,

boiled for two hours in milk, is to be taken each night and

morning; also a bread poultice made with this decoction should

be applied to the affected part. During the first eight days the

eruption increases, and the urine, when the medicine succeeds, has

a nauseous odour like that of the cat, which presently passes off;

then, as the use of the plant is continued, the scabs disappear,

and the skin recovers its natural clean condition.’

In Spain the plant is considered to be stimulant, and is used

in rheumatism and in skin diseases.

A homoeopathic medicinal tincture is made from the entire

plant with spirit of wine. Hahnemann found that the Pansy Violet,

when taken experimentally by provers, served to induce cutaneous

eruptions, or to aggravate them, and he reasoned out the curative

action of the plant in small diluted doses for the cure of these

symptoms, when occurring as disease.

The flowered plant is official in Austria, Germany, Portugal,

Switzerland, and Turkey.

The leaves were once esteemed in the cure of cutaneous dis-

orders, and they are still employed in Italy in tinea capitis.

The root is said to have similar properties to those of Ipeca-

cuanha, and is often used beneficially as a substitute by country

doctors in England. An infusion thereof is admirable for the

dysentery of young children.

Catalan: Herba de la Trinitat, Pensaments, Trinitaria—; Dutch: Driekleurig

viooltje—; English: Bird’s Eye, Bouncing Bet, Bullweed, Call-me-to-you,

Cuddle Me, Cuddle-me-to-you, Cull Me, Flame Flower, Flamy, Flower

0’ luce, Gardengate, Gentleman John, Godfathers ‘and Godmothers,

Heartsease, Herb Constancy, Herb’ Trinitatis, Jack-jump-up-and-kiss-me,

John-of-my-Pink, Jump-up-and-kiss-me, Kiss-her-in-the-buttery, Kit-run-about,

Kit-run-in-the-fields, Live-in-idleness Love-in-idleness, Love-lies-bleeding, Love

Idol, Loving Idol, Meet-her-i-th-entry, Meet-me-in-the-entry, Pance, Pansy,

Pansy Violet, Paunce, Pink-eyed-John, Pink-o’-the-Eye, Stepmother, Three-

faces-under-a-hood, Tittle-my-fancy, Wild Pansy, Wild Violet—; French:

Clavelée, Fleur de la Trinité, Herbe a la chevelée, Herbe clavelée, Herbe A

la clavelée, Herbe de la Trinité, Jacée tricolore, Pensée sauvage, Petite jacée,

Violette tricolore—; German: Abnehmkraut, Ackerveilchen, Blauoesken, Denk-

anmich, Denkbluemchen, Dreifaltigkeit, Dreifaltigkeitskraut, Faulschken, Fioel-

ken, Freisamkraut, Fresern, Gedenkemein, Gengelkraut, Hundsveilchen, Mauk-

raut, Schwiegerle, Schwiegermuetterchen, Stiefmuetterchen, Tagundnachtblume,

Tausendschoen, Unnuetzesorgen, Dreifarbiges Veilchen, Veilchenkraut, Wergeh-

undkommnichtwieder, Vergissmeinnicht—; Hungarian: Arvacska—; Italian:

140° JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATORAL HIST SOCIETY avon xs

Penserio, Pensieri, Viola tricolore—; Languedoc: Pensado—; Malta: Pansy,

Viola di tre colori, Pensieri—; North America: Cupid’s-delight, Garden Violet,

Heart’s-pansy, Johnny-jump-up, Pansy—; Portuguese: Amor perfeito, Herva

seraphica, Violeta tricolor—; Spanish: Amor perfecto, Nueras, Pensamientos,

Suegras, Trinitaria—; Roumanian: Catifeluta—; Russian: Anyutini glazki—;

Turkish: Hercai menekse—.

7. Viola biflora Linn. occurs in the temperate Himalaya, and

is found in the northern temperate regions of the world. In

Kashmir it is common in damp woods and under big rocks at

8,000 feet at Gulmarg; it is found at Khelanmarg 10,000 feet, on

steep rocky hill-side at Tosh Maidan 9,600 feet; about 10,000 feet.

at Basam Gali in Juniper tract.

This violet is much used medicinally in Spain. The root is

given as an emetic; the flowers as an emollient, pectoral, diapho-

retic, and antispasmodic; the leaves as an emollient and laxative.

English: Two-flowered Violet, Yellow Violet—.

8. Viola sylvestris Lam. is found in Kashmir and Kishtwar

at 4,000-8,000 feet, extending to Northern Asia and westwards to

the Atlantic.

The plant is used in chest troubles as a bechic and _ pectoral.

The stems, leaves, and flowers are bruised and applied to wounds

and foul sores.

The CoCHLOSPERMACEZ are trees, shrubs or rhizomatous under-

shrubs with coloured juice. They are grouped under 3 genera

with about 18 species.

COCHLOSPERMUM.

This genus consists of 12 tropical species.

C. tinctorium Perr. is used medicinally in Gambia and Guinea,

C. tmsiene St. Hilo ing Brazik

Cochlospermum Gossypium DC. extends from Garhwal to

Bundelkhand, Bihar, Orissa, Bengal, Burma, Central India,

Deccan, the Western Peninsula, the Madras Presidency in dry

forests, especially on stony hills, in all districts, but less common

on the west coast.

In Punjab the dried leaves and flowers are given as stimulants.

The floss has been recommended as admirably suited for padding

bandages and splints, and the gum has been proposed as a substi-

tute for Tragacanth. |

The gum, sold in the bazaars as katira or kathira, is used as

a demulcent and astringent. It is given in cough and _ hoarse

throat in the form of lozenges and mucilage. Mixed with curds

or whey it is largely dispensed in. cases of diarrhoea and dysentery.

The gum is a Yunani remedy prescribed for the treatment of

gonorrhoea and syphilis, for eye troubles and trachoma.

Arabic: Katira—; Bengal: Golgol—; Betul: Galgal, Ganiar—; Bhil:

Ganeri— ; Cararese: Arasinaburaga, -Arisinaburuga; Bettatvare; Buruga, Gagili,

On CENAT YAN D POISONOUS PLANTS, OF INDIA 14]

Kaduburaga—; Chota Nagpur: Sisibaha, Udal—; English: White Silk-Cotton

Tree, Yellow. Sillk-Cotton Tree—;-Gond: Gangam, Ganiar—; Gujerat: MKada-

chogund—; Hasada: Hupudaru—; Hindi: Gabdi, Galgal, Gangal, Gaaiar,

Gejra, Kumbi—,; Kolanmz: Golgal, Hupu—; Lambadi: Hoghara—; Malayalam :

Appakutakka, Chempanni, Chimappanni, Panninara, Parapanni—; Marathi:

Galgal, Ganer, Ganeri, Ganglay, Gongal, Gulgul Gunglay, Kathalyagonda— ;

Nagun :. Galgalolaru—; Nimar: Galgal, Ganiar—; North-Western Provinces :

Gajra, Kumbi—; Persian: Gone, Katira-i-hindi, _Kokamara—,; ° Punjab:

Kumbi—; Saharanpur: Arlu, Gejra—; Santal: Hopo—; Saora: Onkur—;

’ ) ’ I ’

Sinhalese: Elaimbul, Kinihiriya—; Tamil: Kannigaram, Kattilavu, Kattolaga,

Katupanju, Kattuparutti, Kongilam, Kongu, JXumarai, Malaiparutti, Manjar-

danakku, Nalal, Pachaigiluvai, Palini, Panjittanakku, Pinar, Sudinar, Tanakku,

Turumorbalam—; Telugu: Adaviburaga, Akshotamu, Buraga, Gungu, Konda-

gogu, Kongu, Parijatamu, Pratti—; Urdu: Katira—; Uriya: Beniyamrydami,

Ganiari, Konokopolaso, WKontopolas, Pobosokoniari—.

The BrxacEa& are shrubs or small trees with coloured juice.

They comprise 3 genera with 6 species.

BIXA.

The genus consists of 2 species, natives of tropical America.

B. Orellana Linn. is used medicinally in Indo-China, the

Philippine Islands, Brazil, Guiana, and Sierra Leone.

Bixa Orellana Linn. is largely cultivated throughout India.

The plant is used by Ayurvedists as an astringent and mild

purgative, and is considered by them a good remedy for dysentery

and kidney diseases. |

The root-bark is antiperiodic and antipyretic, of great help in

uncomplicated intermittent, remittent, and continued fevers.

The leaves are a popular febrifuge in Cambodia. In French

Guiana they are considered detergent; an infusion is prescribed

as a purgative in dysentery.

The seeds are cordial, astringent and febrifuge, and a good

remedy for gonorrhoea. They possess the antiperiodic and anti-

pyretic properties of the root-bark, but to a smaller extent.

The seed pulp, a well-known colouring matter, has the same

astringent and febrifugal properties as the other parts of the plant.

It is used by American Indians to paint their body all over for

full dress, and this use of it is said also to prevent mosquito bites.

The root in combination with other drugs has been recom-

mended for internal use in snake bite (Bapat); but it is not an

antidote to snake venom (Mhaskar and Caius).

Angola: Quisafu—; Antsianaka: Vahinamalona—; Ashanti: Konin—;

Assam: Jarat, Jolandhar—; Awka: Nkbul-ufia—-_; Bengal: Latkan, Latkhan,

Watkana—; Bombay: Japhar, Kesari, Kesuri, Kisri, Sendri, Shendri—;

Brazil: Urucu—; Burma: Thideng, Thidin—; Cambodia: Chompuh chralok— ;

Canarese: Arnattu, Bangarakayi, Kesari, Japhredu, Kuppamanhala, Ragna-

malar, Rangamali, Rangumale, Sannajabbale, Sannajapali—; Chittagong:

Powasi—: Deccan: Shalkepandu—; English: <Annatto, Annotto, Arnatto,

Roucou—; Espiritu. Santo : Nepekara—; Ewe: Berniticu—; French: Achiote,

Achit, Achote, Ananaie, Anate, Atole, Bichet, Cochehue, Rocouyer, Roucouyer— ;

French Guiana: Rocou, Roucou—; Galibi: Ururu—: Guan: Achiote, Ach-

uete—; Guarana: Urucuy—; Gujerat: Sinduri—; Hindi: Latkan, Latkhan,

142 -.JOURNAL, BOMBAY \NALURAL HIST SOCIETY Volm wer

Rangphal, Vatkana—; Honduras: Anatto—; Hova: Sahy—; Ibo: Ula, Ula

machuku—; Ibuzo: Ola, Ufie, Uhia nkum, Uhie aro—; Indo-China: Cham

pou, Dieu nhuom, Som hou, Som phu, Xiem phung—; Konkani: Kesri—;

Lambadi: Japrero—; La Reunion: Rocou, Roucou—; Limba: Kuburo—;

Lokko: Mbundona—; Malayalam: Kuppamannal, Kurannamannal—; Mani-

pur: Reipom—; Marathi: Kesari, Kesuri, Kisri, Sendri, Shendri—; Mende:

Bundoi, Mbundoi—; Mexico: Achiotillo, Achiotl, Bija—; Mundari: Rang-

jodaru—; Onitsha: Ula, Ula machuku—,; Pentecost: Waiang—,; Philippines:

Achiote, Achuete, Anate, Atola—; Portuguese: Arnotto—; Samoa: Loa—;

Sanskrit: Karachchada, Raktabija, Raktapushpa, Shonapushpi, Sinduri,

Sindurpushpi, Sunomala, Trivapushpi, Virpushpa—; Santal: WKougkuombi—;

Sinaloa: Achiote—; Sinhalese: Kaha—; Spanish: Achote—; Susu: Kam-

unyi—; Tagalog: Achuete, Achute, Atsuiti—; Tamil: Amudadaram, Avam,

Kungumam, Manjitti, Sappiravirai, Uragumanjal, Vennaivirai—; Telugu:

Jabura—; Timne: Kam, Pu-bundoi—; Tschaudjo: Kirane—; Tupin: Urucu

uva—; Twi: Brorfo agyama—; Urntya: Gulbas, Guliabha, Japhoran, Lotkons,

Sakta—.

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE I

2 Ot

aS . Ye

meee:

Frerea indica Dalz. A copy of Dalzell’s plate published in the Journal of

the Linnean Society, vol. viii, (1865), p. 10, t. 3.

ADDITIONS TO THE DESCRIPTION OF FREREA INDICA

DALZ. (ASCLEPIADACEAE) AND SOME OBSERVATIONS

ON DHE SPECIES.

CHARLES MCCANN, F.L.S.

(With 3 plates).

Frerea indica Dalz., first discovered in 1864 by Nicol Alexander

Dalzell, if for no other reason than the fact that it is a rarity,

is deserving of attention and worthy of a note. As ‘ar as I am

aware, it has only been found once since its discovery and that

by Mr. Ranade, before Mr. T. Cooke had written the Flora of

the Bombay Presidency (1908). Since that date I do not know

of any botanist having found the plant. It is not only a rare,

but also a curious plant. In appearance, it is a miniature of

Euphorbia nivulia—without the thorns, but with stellate Asclepiad

flowers and fruit. Dalzell evidently did not obtain the plant in

fruit for he did not describe it in his original description. However,

Hooker under the generic description describes the fruit as: ‘follicles

terete, smooth. Seeds comose’. Cooke evidently copied Hooker’s

generic description, but under the specific description says, ‘Follicles

not seen’! Cooke examined Ranade’s specimen, but evidently it

was without the fruit, or he would certainly have described them.

On the assumption that the fruit have not been described, I give

below a detailed description of the fruit, seeds and other parts,

where necessary. The description is based on fresh material

collected by myself at Shivner Fort, Junnar, Poona District. The

plants were collected on the 23rd October 1938.

Genus: FREREA.

Dalzell created a new genus for this curious plant and named

it after Sir Henry Bartle Frere ‘not only as a mark of esteem and

respect, but also because he always has been the enlightened

encourager and promoter of scientific researches in India, and is

himself a close observer of nature’. It is a monotypic genus con-

sisting only of F. indica. The genus differs from Caralluma only

in the remarkable feature that its stems bear true leaves. This

character constitutes a link between the leafless species of more

arid areas and the remaining tribes of Asclepiads.

iiveren-wndica Dalz..in Journ. Linn. Soc., v,:8 (1865), p. 10, t.

ppeuook. &.6.1.; v, 4 (1883), p. 76; Nairne, Fl Pl. of W. Ind.

(1884), p. 187; Woodr., Journ. Bom. Nat. His. Soc., v, 12 (1898),

p. 168; Cooke, v, 2, pt. 1 (1904), p. 178; Blatt., Journ. Bom. Nat.

Hist. Soc., v, 36 (1933), p. 536; White and Sloane, The Stapelieae,

V, I (1937), PP. 149-50. |

144 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol: Deck

The following description is mainly taken from that of Dalzell

with slight changes and additions. The changes were necessitated

by the examination of fresh material.

Description: A decumbent, sometimes pendulous, fleshy, glabrous herb with

thick branches, at times exceding 2 cm. in dia. ; young stems and branches green

turning gray with age. Roots thick arising from the nodes and along the

branches. Leaves 64X28 mm., oblong or ovoid, obtuse or sub-acute, fleshy,

subsessile, margin entire, decurrent into the petiole. Flowers solitary or in

pairs; pedicels arising between the petioles or near their bases, very short,

elongating and thickening in fruit (5-7 mm.). Calyx glabrous, divided about

two-third the way down; lobes deltoid, acute. Corolla rotate 20 mm. in dia.,

divided rather less than half way down; lobes deltoid, acute, fringed with

fine hairs, purple, with a _ pale-yellow irregularly shaped spot in the centre

of each lobe; corona purple, the outer copular with five broad short truncate

or sinuate lobes, the inner-of 5 linear truncated lobes incurved at the apex

and inflected over the staminal column. Staminal column short; anthers red

(Dalz.). Style-apex pearly white. Follicles 2, 87xX6 mm., erect, slender, terete,

tapering to a small rounded apex and _ slightly narrowed towards the base.

Seed 9X5 mm., ovate or ovate-lanceolate, brown when dry; coma 15 mm. long.

Flowering and Fruiting: September to October or early

November. The fruits mature towards the end of November and

December.

Habitat: Dalzell. (1.c.) gives the habitat of his type, ‘Concan,

alt. 3,000 ped.’; Hooker (l.c.) who evidently had the opportunity of

examining the type, as, ‘The Concan; hill foot ((per. ernonem

‘‘foot’’?) near Hewra, alt., 3,000 ft.’. Hivra (Hewra) is a small

village a little more than ro miles east-south-east of Junnar, Poona

District, Deccan.. Cooke (l-c.) writes; “A rare plant originally

found by Dalzell on a hill near Junnar.’ Ranade’s specimens

come from, ‘Hill Fort, Junnar’. My own specimens come from

the eastern face of Shivner Fort (Hill Fort, Junnar), Junnar.

Distribution: From the ‘Habitat’ -recorded above’ it. 1s\ clear

that the plant is very local. It is apparently endemic to the Bombay

Presidency as it has never been recorded outside its circumscribed

locality on the Deccan. ,

Notes: Colour of flower: Dalzell describes the flowers as

purple, etc. It has been my experience that newly open flowers

are reticulated with bands of greenish-yellow and dull red-purple ;

with age both tints intensify, the former becomes yellow and the

latter a richer. red purple. The yellow then fades out and the

entire flower assumes a deep red (almost black) purple. However

no two flowers are alike in colour. The fringe of hairs is deep

purple, like the rest of the flower, and is hardly visible until

looked for.

Habit: On Shivner Fort the plant was growing on the almost

vertical face of the trap rocks where tufts of Tripogon sp. had

been established. The two plants were almost invariably associ-

ated. In such situations it assumed a pendulous character, cling

ing by its thick roots to the mud accumulated under such patches.

On the ‘shelf’? it was rarely truly’ erect for more than a: few

centimetres, but the pendulous branches often exceeded 30 cm.

in length. Old stems kecame a silver grey, but the new branches

were a shining green. Due to dripping water the branches were

covered with a thin solid layer.

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE

Frerea indica Dalz.

Junnar, Poona District.

A drawing from a living specimen, Shivner Fort, near

1. Entire plant. 2. Seed. 3. Seed with pappus. 4. Fruit.

“UUDOITW *D 070

Til Sividg

*(azis [vanzeu) Jamoy jo dn-asoyy

990q 94} WOIfE **

zjeq vIIpur va

‘

perdoposy

: Josuy

vriqtioydny oer Vv

“00S “LSIf]T “IVN AvaWog ‘Nano]

DESCRIPTION AND SOME OBSERVATIONS OF FREREA INDICA 145

Unlike the closely related Caralluma of the Deccan hills, which

is partial to the well drained hill-sides, Irerea appears to favour

bare vertical rocks over which water trickles, at least during the

monsoon months. The plants flourish best in damp _ situations.

When the plants are washed off the recks on to level ground

they do not appear to thrive. The plants are evidently leafless

during the dry season as only those collected in damp spots had

leaves.

Cultivation: Specimens kept by me in pots seem to be doing

well, both in the sun and in the shade, the only difference being

that the tendency to elongate is greater in the shade specimens.

Under cultivation the specimens, particularly the new branches,

retain their leaves.

Dalzell: Before concluding this note a few words on N. A.

Dalzell, the discoverer and author of this illusive plant, would not

be out of place, therefore I give below a brief summary of his life.

Nicol Alexander Dalzell was born in Edinburgh on the a2ist

April, 1817. He graduated from the Edinburgh University where

he took his M.A. in 1837. He was elected a Fellow of the

Botanical Society of Edinburgh in 1836. He was Conservator of

Forest, Bombay from 1841 to 1870. In collaboration with A.

Gibson, he wrote the Bombay Flora (1861). He contributed to

the Transactions of the Linnaean Society; Journal of Botany (1850-

57); Proceedings, Botanical Society, Edinburgh, etc. His collection

is at Kew. He returned to the place of his birth and died there

“in January 1878, at the age of 61.

MEMORANDUM ON THE KAHILU SANCTUARY.

D’Arcy WEATHERBE.

WITH AN INTRODUCTION BY THEODORE HUBBACK.

(With two plates).

INTRODUCTION.

Mr. D’Arcy Weatherbe has asked me to write an introduction

to his note on the Kahilu Sanctuary in Burma.

He has also asked me to express an opinion, based on his

investigations and statements, regarding the value of this place

as a Sanctuary.

I am sure scientists and conservationists throughout the world

will be interested in reading this entirely disinterested report on

what Mr. Weatherbe calls, and rightly calls, a ‘so-called’

Sanctuary.

Mr. Weatherbe has shown quite clearly that with the exception

of the identification of parts of a skull of a IRhinoceros sondaicus

obtained in the area, there is no evidence at all regarding the

species of Rhinoceros in the Kahilu. No scientific data can be

based on the evidence of village people, and the testimony of a

native Game Ranger is seldom more valuable.

Mr. Weatherbe was satisfied after questioning the Game Ranger

in the Kahilu on many matters relating to this area and the

Rhino therein that his testimony was unreliable. From Mr.

Weatherbe’s description, the conditions under which these unfor-

tunate animals exist, due to the failure of the Government to

undertake any restrictions to avoid disturbance, makes the title of

‘Sanctuary’ for such a place a bad joke. In fact I might say that

the encouragement to provide disturbance by allowing unrestricted

‘Taungya’ activities—the cut, cultivate and clear out policy—to go

on over 50 square miles of the ‘Sanctuary’; by allowing villagers

to go in and out of the area as they please; by permitting men

armed with guns and accompanied by dogs free access to the

area; entirely discount and render ineffective what might have been

a permanent and valuable refuge for wild life.

The Sanctuary as organized is valueless as a permanent contri-

bution to the Cause of Conservation.

If the Government of Burma want to preserve the Rhinoceros

in this area then let them undertake the work in a proper and

business-like manner and try to emulate what has been and is

being done in Canada, the United States and elsewhere, and

draw up a proper constitution for this area to establish it as a

real Sanctuary.

MEMORANDUM ON THE KAHILU SANCTUARY 147

If the Conservation of Wild Life is merely to be looked upon

as something which can be carried on so long as it does not

interfere with anything else; which requires no special steps to

be taken except those which might be described as marks on

pieces of paper; then it will fail. The sooner it 1s recognized by

Governments which profess solicitude for wild life, but who take

no adequate steps to save it, and spend insufficient money to guard

it, that their inactivity is fatuous and fatal, the sooner there

will be some hope for a real policy of Conservation.

Mr. Weatherbe’s report should be carefully studied. Presum-

ing that the Government of Burma really want to preserve wild

life, I feel sure that those in whose hands lie the destiny of the

Wild Creatures of that country will take to heart the implications

or the report.

TEL

NOTE ON A VISIT TO THE KAHILU RHINOCEROS

SANCTUARY.

The following geographic description of the Kahilu Sanctuary

is taken from the report of the Game Warden in 1928 and supple-

mented by my own observations, as his data about communications

are, perhaps, less up-to-date.

Comprising an area of approximately 62 miles, the Sanctuary

is situated on the right bank of the Yunzalin river on the borders

of the Papun and Thaton Civil Districts, and the Salween and

Thaton Forest Divisions. Of the total area 16 miles consist of

reserved forests (IKahilu Reserve 11 square miles and balance in

the Tagelung reserve). As the portion in the Tagelung reserve

is isolated, close to Kyowaing and the cart road, and as signs

of rhino are said never to be found there now, it may, perhaps

be left out of consideration. The other 46 square miles are public

forest land, cultivations and village sites. The boundaries are

notified as follows:—East—P.W.D.—Papun-Kammemaung cart

road from the Kayindon Chaung in the north to Yebu Chaung in

south. South—The Yebu-Lapotha-Kyowaing village cart track

as far as the eastern boundary of Tagelung reserve, thence by

the reserve boundary to the Donthami Chaung. West—the

Donthami Chaung to Pinmalinawik village, thence by reserved

forest department cart road as far as the Kayindon Chaung.

North—the Kayindon Chaung to the starting point. The area may

be reached by two routes. The first is from Thaton, on the

Rangoon-Moulmein Railway, by motor ear to the Dondami river,

some seven miles, and then up this river by motor boat 55 miles

to where a forest road, 20 miles long, connects with the village

of Kyowaing, and this stage can be done, by special arrangement

by bus. Kyowaing is at the south-western corner of the Sanctuary

and has a comfortable Forest Rest House, while a cart road

leads into the Sanctuary to the village of Lapotha, 8 miles from

Kyowaing. By starting in the morning from Thaton, one can

sleep at Kyowaing Rest House. The alternative route is from

148 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST “SOCIETY Vol ei

Moulmein to Shwegun on the Salween River, 52 miles by I.F.C.

steamer which takes a day. Starting from Shwegun, with a motor

boat, next morning, Kammemaung can be reached in about 4 hours,

and, by arrangement, a bus can be had from Kammemaung

to Kahilu Rest House, a distance of about 16 miles, so ‘that

this route takes over a-day and a half, at best. The above

itineraries refer to the dry weather season. While the total

area comprises about 62 square miles a portion of this area

nearly 12 square miles in extent within its borders forms part of

a reserved forest and it is only this small area that in any way

faintly deserves the. name ‘Sanctuary’. Within this Reserved

Forest, there is no cultivation and there are no villages and the

forest remains mostly uncut. ‘The trees are largely evergreen and

both fruit and foliage of a number of them, provide suitable food

for the Rhinoceros. A number of permanent streams of good

water intersect this forest reserve. In the portion of the Sanctuary

outside the Reserved Forest and comprising some 50 square miles

the greater part has been, and is being, annually cultivated by the

Taungya method. For the benefit of those unused to this method,

it should be explained that it consists, in each year, of cutting

areas in the dry season, and, before the rains begin, in burning

these areas. Immediately the rains commence, which in this

region is towards the end of May, planting with paddy starts.

By September the harvest has been gathered, and thenceforth, with

the exception of some garden produce, chillies, etc., that particular

area lies fallow for as long as from seven to twenty years

depending upon the nature of the soil, and its relative fertility.

A very large and annually increasing population is dependent

upon the crops grown within the Sanctuary area possibly now

totalling 4,000 to 5,000 people. A Forest Official estimated,

from official records, that the villages dependent upon this area

comprised 669 houses in 1927 (the year before the Sanctuary was

constituted), and in 1933, this number had increased to 869. The

Game Warden stated in 1929, that 8 of these villages were actually

situated within the borders of the Sanctuary itself, and contained

i58 houses while 6 other villages were on the border with a large

number of houses. Besides the ‘Taungya’ Cultivation, referred to

above, wherever the rivers permit it, irrigated paddy land “is

cultivated, which with clearings for pasture, take a consider-

able area out of the total now available for the rhino. Ne

restriction of any kind exists as to the locality or the extent of

land cleared and cultivated and the villagers may cut or burn

(outside the small area of the forest reserve) wherever or whenever

they like. Traffic throughout the Sanctuary is completely un-

restricted. Dogs can be, and are, taken anywhere within its limits.

Besides cultivation, forest products of many kinds are collected

and certain timbering operations carried on also, practically un-

restricted. The rivers and streams are fished to extinction. In

all of the villages whose inhabitants travel and cultivate, cut

trees, or gather forest products, kill vermin and in all likelihood

game and other birds, and some of the smaller fauna, fish, and

cut tracks, there are licenses for not less than 30 guns. The

MEMORANDUM ON THE KAHILU SANCTUARY 149

Game Warden reported 13 guns in the villages in the Sanctuary

alone and a Forest Officer, that in two of the large villages the

number of gun licenses increased from 12 to 16 between 1929 and

1933. These guns and dogs may be and are taken into the

Sanctuary by a number of their owners who reside within its

limits for, or ostensibly for, the protection of crops, lives or

domestic animals and with them, or by other means, any animal

including Rhino, Bison, Sambhur, Hog-deer, Tiger, Gy. big, tc.

as well as any birds, may be and doubtless often are destroyed.

Only after the killing is an explanation necessary. Besides dogs

and other form of ‘protection’ such as trapping, maroons and

other noise, fire may be used for the protection of crops, and it

must be quite obvious that the constant effect of any or all of the

above disturbing agencies must keep the few rhino which are still

alive here, in a great state of alarm and tension, and constantly

on the move throughout practically the whole year. Besides the

effect of this almost daily disturbance and alarming of the rhino,

the depletion of their food supplies is serious and cumulative.

After burning and harvesting are finished on these ‘Taungya’ areas

the bulk of it comes up in dense bamboo, cane, high coarse reedy

grass and thorny bush, none of which is edible by rhinoceros.

Reports during the past decade from various sources, and

more frequent of late years, have led us to suppose that specimens of

the rarest of all contemporary species of Rhinoceros may still be

found at Kahilu in Burma. I refer, of course, to the Javan or

Lesser One-horned Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros sondaicus). When

travelling in Burma during some 5 months in 1937 and 1938, I

determined, if possible, to investigate this question on the ground.

One of the last if not actually the last specimens of this species

known to have been killed, in Burma, was shot by Theodore Hubback

in Lower Tenasserim in 1920. This animal, a female, was mounted

and is in the South Kensington Museum. Later, in 1932, a large

female was shot in the State of Perak in Malaya. This specimen

is likewise in the British Museum. Since the shooting of this last

Javan rhino, and with the exception of those reported in south-

western Java, the animal itself has not been authentically reported,

as far as I am aware, unless of course, and as one hopes, these

rhino at Kahilu, belong to that species. Otherwise, although an

odd specimen may still exist elsewhere, in Malaysia or in Indonesia,

the possibility is that the death rate exceeds the birth rate, and

so for all practical purposes the species must be considered as

extinct. It may be imagined, therefore, with what interest I set

about my visit to this Sanctuary, where, from all reports, not only

were there still survivors of this species, but breeding was taking

place. In this quest to try and verify if possible, the statements

made, I was given every assistance and hospitality by members

of the Burma Forest Department.

It is now over ten years since Burma’s first Game Warden, a

member of the Forest Service, surmised that the Javan rhino

might be found here, and visited the place in 1927. This forest

area is not far from the right bank of the Salween River and

some 100 miles perhaps, above Moulmein. The Game Warden on

150. JOURNAL; BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, VSOCIH EY. Wom

that occasion, was accompanied by another member of his service,

and though no animals were seen, tracks and other evidence of

the presence of rhino, were observed. In the following year the

Burma Government set aside an area of some 62 square miles as a

Sanctuary for the rhino in this locality. The place was legally

constituted as a Sanctuary in July 1928, and.a Game Ranger was

appointed shortly afterwards and has remained in that position

ever since. In July 1928, a few completely decomposed remains

of a rhino were said to have been found by some native women

during the rains; but it was also alleged that the whole of this

animal was removed by natives. There is no direct evidence as

to where the animal had been killed or died, but fragments of a

skull said to belong to it were some time later on secured, and

sent to .the Bombay Natural History Society for identification.

The skull was that of a Javan rhino (Rhinoceros sondaicus).' In

1929, the Game Warden visited the area but was unsuccessful in

‘viewing’ rhino, though further evidence (tracks and other signs)

were seen and his conclusion then was that there were not less

than. three animals living there. On March 6th, ‘1631, “two

members of the Forest Service, on a report of some rhino remains

having been found, went to a locality close to the eastern boundary

of the Sanctuary, and were shown completely decomposed remains

of a rhino which had been, so it was reported, first observed by

a villager in October, 1930. When the Forest Officers went there

in March five months after its alleged discovery, there were only

some bones mixed with debris to be seen in a river bed, to which

position it is inferred they had been carried by the freshets,

though this is not certain as October to March is normally the

driest season. It is stated in the report made by one of the Forest

Officers that the villager was frightened to report the find at the

time; he reported that there were dah (knife) cuts on the sides

and belly of the animal when he first saw it. During the same

week of the alleged ‘find’ it was authentically reported to the

police that fresh rhino blood was on sale in a nearby village.

Notwithstanding all this very circumstantial evidence of the animal

having been illegally killed, the conclusion drawn was that it had

met its death in a trap, presumably a dead-fall, though no

evidence of any kind is put forth in the report to substantiate

this assumption. No evidence of identification of the species or

sex of this animal exists but I believe it was assumed to be a

female. Why, I do not know. Now, to me, the chief importance

of these two incidents is the fact that in the first three years of

the existence of the Sanctuary, at least two rhinos are known to

have met their death there, and though there were two Game

Rangers on the ground, nothing was known of the latter event at

least, for some five months afterwards. That is what I assume,

as I cannot think that, had the fact been known to the Game

Ranger, it would have been concealed. I point this out as im-

portant, and strongly opposed to charitable opinions expressed

1 A second and complete skull of R. sondaicus was presented to the Society

by the Forest Department, Burma in 1933.—EDs.

MEMORANDUM ON THE KAHILU SANCTUARY 15]

elsewhere that ihe rhino at Kahilu are quite safe with the local

Karen. The incidents indicate clearly that it- is not impossible,

especially in the rains, that other rhino may have been killed here,

the fact hushed up and the remains completely removed. With

regard to the villager’s alleged altruistic attitude towards the

rhinoceros, I fear I have much less confidence than others who

have reported on this subject. Another rather silly piece of native

gossip has, by repetition in Forestry reports, been given such

prominence that outside readers may accept it as a firm fact, and

that is, that superstition would also prevent them from killing a

rhino. One of these writers himself, however, naively states: ‘but,

for a few years before the Sanctuary was formed they (the rhino)

were much harassed by hunters, who killed five or six in a com-

paratively short time.’ Is it the inference that altruism and super-

stition has only become a safeguard since the constitution of the

Sanctuary, otherwise, why this mysterious ‘change of heart’

among the Karen? Several thousands of these tribes-people live

or depend for existence on the area enclosed in this violable

Sanctuary. It surely cannot be seriously contended that among

this community, there are no longer a certain proportion, as

formerly, who could not withstand the temptation of securing the

relatively high remuneration from the products of a rhino, were

opportunity easy and risk small? Let us be practical in this matter,

and admit that it would be the height of folly to depend either

upon the altruism or upon the alleged superstitions of some 4,000

Karen natives for the safety of this handful of rhino. Prevention

is much better than cure as unfortunately in this case, the latter

does not exist. After the Game Warden’s visit in 1929, the next

inspection of the Sanctuary by a European was four years later,

when a member of the Forest Service was sent there to report

on conditions. He visited the place in March 1933, and was in

and about the Sanctuary for some three weeks. During this time

he reported on having visited the wallows and followed and _in-

spected the tracks of rhino and interviewed natives. This report

apparently based, to some extent, on the Game Warden’s reports

and, similarly to those reports, depends largely on information from

local natives and more particularly from the Game Ranger. On

the second day of his visit and before he had had an opportunity of

seeing the Sanctuary itself this Forest Officer was fortunate in

actually seeing a Rhinoceros. The spot as indicated to me by the

Game Ranger, was on a small stream bed near the northern border

of that portion of the Forest Reserve, which lies within the

Sanctuary limits. Curiously this was elso the first occasion on

which the Game Rangeft had seen a rhino in the Sanctuary though

then in his fifth vear of residence. This ‘view’ is the sole ocular

evidence that is on record by any European of the presence of

rhino at Kahilu, either before or since the constitution of the

Sanctuary, and obviously as most of the other evidence extant

points to the present rhino at Kahilu being smaller than mature

Rhinoceros sondaicus, it is of the utmost importance that we

examine the conditions carefully and in detail. First, it will be

182 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL) BIST, SOCIETY) Val, MET

best to give the Forest Officer’s own words in describing what

he saw.

He writes:—‘The animal was encountered feeding with another

which was not seen. It was walking slowly through the vegeta-

tion about 50 yards from me, but was sufficiently clear for me

-to say that it carried one horn about 9 inches long, set back

slightly from the tip of the snout, and to estimate its height as

4 ft. 9 ins. to 5 ft. at the shoulder. It was not possible to obtaim

corroborative evidence of its species from the texture or folds of

the skin, the light being too poor for these details to be visible.

The shade was so dense that at 8 o’clock on a sunny morning,

I should have required a flash-light apparatus to photograph the

animal.’

I have questioned the Forest Officer as to this view, but, as

it was some five years after the occurrence, he could not, without

his diary, give any further details. He emphasised the indistinct-

ness of the animal, that it was at least 50 yards away, and that

the light was exceedingly bad. As a photographer, I am not

clear as to the import of his reference to the use of a flash-liett

in daylight, but on one point, he is emphatic, and that is that

he was definitely unable to identify any details of the animal’s

skin. As this is really the most important evidence that he might —

have got had conditions been better, it leaves us practically in

the dark as to the species of this animal. A rhino, about 150

feet away, in thick bush, in semi-darkness, plastered with mud

as he would have been having just come from a wallow, would,

indeed, be a very difficult beast in which to identify details, yet,

the Forest Officer does not hesitate to estimate his height within

3 in.; 1e. between 4 ft. 9 in. and 5 ft., and estimates his ‘hes

at g in. in length. (The record R. sondaicus horn is 102"), and

that he was a male; but perhaps that was inferred from

his having a horn, and therefore, that another rhino whose

tracks only were seen later on, was a female. Now refer-

ring to the horn, published in the last issue of this jJouvmal

are three photographs of rhino (vide, the Two-horned Asiatic

Rhinoceros (R. sumatrensis); Theodore Hubback, /.B.N.H.S.. wel

xl, No. 4, pp. 594-617, pls. in, iv, and vii). | The first: two were

taken in a much better light than in the case of the Kahilu

rhino, as, instead of having to use a flash-light, they were taken

in daylight, not long after midday, in an open salt-lick. One

with a stop -of F3.5 and 4 of a second exposure, (‘A’) andthe

other (‘B’) with a cine camera. They are unique and I believe,

the only two photos of a Dicerorhinus sumatrensis that have been

taken in natural wild conditions, and yet both might be of a one-

horned rhino. The posterior horn of the D. sumatrensis may

ke so insignificant as to be unobservable, even in a fairly good

light, and, as both male and female have horns, that feature of

the animal is not sufficient, alone, upon which to base its gender.

The other photograph I mention and exhibit is one of a Rhinoceros

unicorns (‘C’), taken by myself with F8 and 1/25 second in broad

daylight, and at ten yards distance (in captivity, it may be

observed). It would be difficult to swear that even this beast in

A male Asiatic two-horned Rhinoceros [ Dicerorhinus sumatrensis Cuv.] in a salt

lick in Malaya.

(Fvom a photo by T. R. Hubback. Copyright reserved.)

MEMORANDUM. ON THE KAHILU SANCTUARY 153

that position had one horn or two, and under difficult light con-

ditions, quite impossible. In this connection a note from C. W.

Loch’s interesting article in the Journal of the Malayan branch

of the Royal Asiatic Society, September 1937 is interesting. It

states:—‘It must be remembered that all statements of occurrence

of the sondaicus are open to doubt, though given in good faith.

The identification of the species can only be accepted from persons

competent to give an opinion on the matter. It sometimes happens

that the second horn of Rhinoceros sumatrensis has been broken

off and in any case natives cannot by any means distinguish

between the two species. In fact the animal can only be definitely

identified when a specimen has been shot and examined at close

quarters.’*

Rhino, like buffalo, and some other animals, crave, indeed

must have, wet and muddy places in which to wallow, many of

which, doubtless, contain mineral salts or medicinal earth, which

seem also to be a practical necessity to the well-being of the

larger fauna, and not least of them, to the Rhinoceros. Before

visiting Kahilu, I had asked a number of people as to whether

any of these salt-licks as they are called, occurred in the Sanctuary,

but none could tell me. As these places are usually the most

favourable in the jungle in which to observe or photograph, one

of my first questions to the Game Ranger was as to the locality

of any salt-licks, but he could give me no information nor had

he, so he said, ever observed any. By chance a rhino visited

one of the largest wallows the day after we were there, and,

gave unmistakable evidence of eating and licking the ground at

one special place. The Ranger saw and confirmed this occurrence

himself.

Even in the comparatively small area of the forest reserve,

within the Sanctuary limits, the rhino are not entirely free from

disturbance, there being a well used footpath from the village of

Lapotha to Shweye which passes directly through the reserve from

north to south. Certain villagers have the right to collect forest

products within the reserve, and do sc, and every stream is fished

whether they have the right or not. The Game Warden in his

report states that one village also has the right to hunt in the

reserve and certainly turtles, lizards and other vermin are hunted

within its limits; and all the streams show signs of constant ‘cutting

of tracks’. Dogs, of course, are taken on these peregrinations.

So that even in here, there is no immunity from disturbance.

Cultivation, however, is not carried on there—and food supplies,

to my knowledge, consisting of at least two varieties of trees, and

one fruit (and probably a number more of each), exist in fair quantity.

The Rhinoceros is a ranging animal and the area of the forest reserve

alone would I should think be too small for a number, all through

the year. Though the Game Warden and Forest Officer in their

reports agree that the few animals remaining here are largely

confined to the reserved forest, and from what I have written

above the reason must be quite obvious, one reason for their

—=.

1 The italics are mine.

154 JOURNAL, (BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST. MSOCTEIY Viol, xaiet

leaving its comparative protection and peace, is the practical

necessity to visit the wallows and salt-licks, outside the reserved

forest, more especially at the latter end of the dry season, when

so many of these places are rapidly drying up. The attraction

or possibly the necessity for certain fruits or other food might

also necessitate their travelling beyond the boundaries. But it is

apparently very rare to find their tracks outside the Sanctuary

border. I visited the place at the end of March arriving on the

ground on the 30th of that month, and leaving on April 6th.

During that period, we had only two hours of rain which did

not in anyway interfere with the very strenuous work of my

examination. Besides the Game Ranger, and his Assistant, there

were with me in camp and during the period of my sojourn on

the ground, the chief Forest Ranger of the Division, the local

Forester of the Reserve, and a Forester, who accompanied me

from Thaton, and who spoke English more or less fluently. The

Forest Ranger has a good knowledge of English and the Game

Ranger and the assistant understand it passably. With one ex-

ception, I visited all of the wallows, said by the Ranger to be

known to him, and some of them several times, but I cannot

help thinking that there must be others which we did not see,

unknown to him, and also that more of them are salt-licks than

he realizes. In fact he, as I have stated, had apparently not

known that any of these wallows were ‘licks’ until I pointed out

that probability. The one known wallow (said never to dry) which

I was unable to reach, though we tried to do so, lay too far

away to go there and back in one day, under the existing con-

ditions of the jungle. I think that I visited, practically the whole

area, frequented by rhino, at that season, and though we did not

actually see a rhino, we narrowly missed doing so.

Besides visiting and carefully examining many wallows and

their surroundings and photographing and measuring tracks for

7 to 8 hours each day, I followed rhino paths and stream beds,

where their tracks followed or crossed. Though I cbserved a

great number of foot-prints of rhino, I only saw a comparatively

few places where they had fed or slept or other signs of the

animals except mud-smears near the wallows, but what impressed

me most were the remarkably few droppings either fresh or old,

that were to be seen. In only one place were they deposited in

any quantity and these might have been a year old. This might

be thought the more surprising in comparison with the large

number of tracks seen, but to me it constituted the very strongest

evidence of the very few animals that exist, in this locality. It

must be remembered that at the time of my visit 6 months of the

dry season had passed and tracks in. soil containing any clay

ingredients at all, might remain for years on end, unless obliter-

ated by rain. In this jungle, wind may be disregarded as a

disintegrating agent, though in parts of Africa and elsewhere it

is the only one. The clearest and most easily measured tracks

I saw were in a baked wallow, on an eminence, and probably at

least two months old. I saw them in April and the last rains, of

any amount, before that were, I believe, in February. I venture

Journ. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Wr VERMA Oy

Footprints of D. sumatrensis in dried wallow.

(Widest measure of print 74 in. The spectacles ave exactly 4% in. across).

Footprints of D. sumatrensis.

(The widest track at Kahilu, under 8 inches and fairly fresh).

MEMORANDUM ON THE KAHILU SANCTUARY 155

to suggest that these two points have not been sufficiently taken

into account in previous estimates of numbers of rhino remaining.

The Measurements of Tracks.—I measured I should think, in

all perhaps some thirty or more seperate footmarks though I saw

a good many more. Wherever there was any chance to take an

accurate measurement of the width I did so with extreme care.

I used for the purpose a 5 foot tested tape measure, graduated

in inches and tenths on one side and millimeters on the other.

The Forest Officer in the report already referred to does not say

how his measurements were taken. I understand that the Game

Ranger’s estimates were used in some cases. The Game Ranger’s

measurements, wherever I saw him make them, were, literally,

by rule of thumb (and finger); he apparently does aot carry a

measure.

Some Comparative Characteristics of the Java Rhinoceros and

the Two-horned Asiatic Rhinoceros.—The first of these animals,

when mature, stands 5’ 6” at the shoulder or even more. The

width of the fore foot of a mature animal might be from 9” to

11” or wider. His coat has polygonal scales and is heavily folded

round the neck with a deep double fold underneath. It is

characteristically folded down the back of the shoulder and across

the top and below the fore legs, almost as if a cape were worn.

There is a fold in the skin down the junction between the hip and

body. There is sometimes a slight fold across the rear and upper

portion of buttocks as in the R. unicornis. The skin, however, is

not so fantastically folded, as this latter species. The single horn

of the male sondaicus is generally wide at the base and in great

age, is often, much worn and splintered. The record length is

only 102". The female sometimes carries a _ horny nasal

protruberance, in that position. The head of a R. sondaicus is

bigger and heavier than D. sumatrensis, while the muzzle is not

as short or square as the other one-horned rhino, but is inclined

to be long and rather pointed or rounded and the upper lip over-

hanging.

The D. sumatrensis, both male and female, carry horns and the

posterior one, even in the male, is often so insignificant as to be

negligible at a distance. This is the smallest of all the existing

species of rhino, measuring, in the mature animal, only four feet

to about four feet six inches at the shoulder. The width of the

foot of a full-grown two-horned Asiatic rhino, is from 63” to 9”

in width, but rarely of the latter width. His skin is much smoother

than the sondaicus without the abnormal folding and wrinkling

of the skin round the neck. The curious appearance, almost like

the R. unicornis, of the skin of the sondaicus nor its scales has

ever even been referred to in any report of the rhino at Kahilu,

either by Europeans or natives, that I have heard of, yet it ought,

as I have tried to show, to be a much more certain identification

than the horn, to the uninitiated. I submit photographs which will

more or less clearly show the difference, mentioned above, but

unfortunately, have not been able to provide one of the male

sondaicus.

156 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. pbs

The Rhinoceroses at WKahilu.—In critically examining all the

data we have of these animals, our obvious main quests are as

follows. =—

i: What are: them specres?

2. How many animals exist there today, and of these how

many are (a) male, (b) female, and (c) young or immature?

3. What evidence have we of breeding in the past? .

4. Can breeding go on under present conditions? or if not—

5. What are the prospects of breeding under improved

conditions ?

Beyond the mere fact that we are certain that a few rhino

exist at this place on close analysis, the sum total of our evidence

as -to (1), (2) and (3), is lamentably small, indefinite, and often

conflicting.

It consists wholly in the reports already mentioned, the periodic

reports of the Game Ranger, and with what meagre further details,

confirmatory or otherwise, and largely critical I fear, I have been

able to supplement the above.

As regards (1), there does not appear to ke sufficient ocular

evidence to settle the matter for a moment, the only reliable ocular

evidence, in my opinion, being that of the Forest Officer which

as I have, I think, clearly shown is inconclusive. Neither the first

Game Warden nor I have seen a rhino at Kahilu and even assuming

for the moment that the Game Ranger’s testimony of having seen

rhino twice (other than the case of the Forest Officer’s rhino) is true,

the first occasion, at night with a torch, may be ruled out, for

our purpose of identification, and no definite identifying evidence

has been offered in his second case, I have elsewhere pointed out

in detail the reasons why I cannot accept this testimony as

conclusive either.

So that our case for R. sondaicus rests, first on the evidence

of fragments of a skull having been identified by the Bombay

Natural History Society as R. sondaicus, and second on _ the

measurements of footmarks and mud smears on trees, etc. As

regards the first, where did it come from?. It is allezed thatwam

was found among bones and debris, in the rain, by some native

women. There is no evidence that it was not the leaving of a

poacher, brought to a village long before, but even if from an

animal killed here in 1927, eleven years ago, it need have little

or no bearing on the animals living here at present, and in their

identity alone are we at the moment interested. I am not clear

as to the suggestion that these animals must be sondaicus, because

the terrain is not ‘sumatrensis country.’ I do not quite know what

is meant by the term. Although today these almost extinct

animals are where you find them, there was no such thing as

sumatrensis or sondaicus country in the past. Let me quote an

extract from Waller’s Das. Indo-Malay Archipelago und _ die

Geschichte Seiner, published in 1902. It says, speaking of the

Javan Fauna, ‘the Javan Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros sondaicus)

‘‘Sarak’’ in Javanese and ‘‘Badek’’ in Sundanese, differs from

that in Sumatra in having one horn instead of two. It ranges

over the highest mountains and its regular paths worn into deep

MEMORANDUM ON THE KAHILU SANCTUARY 157

channels may be traced up the steepest slopes, and round the

rims of even active volcanoes.’ The italics are mine, and I may

observe that the volcanic mountains in Java are sometimes. over

10,000 feet in height!

The description of D. sumatrensis in Encyclopedia Britannica

describing the fauna of Sumatra states: ‘The Sumatran Rhinoceros

differs from the Javanese in having two horns like the African

variety. It is commonest in the marshy low lands, but extends

to some 6,500 feet above sea level.’ Again the italics are mine.

In lower Burma until the sondaicus became extinct both they

and the sumatrensis lived in the same country. In 1920, a

sondaicus was shot in Lower Tenasserim and the hunter during

the same visit got up to a sumatrensis. In Malaya, in lower

Perak and Northern Selangor, both species were found in_ the

same country. Though generally speaking, the suiatrensis are

fond of the mountains and one would not, perhaps, expect to find

sondaicus there now, one was actually tracked right across the

high ranges from the Pak Chan Valley to the lower Tenasserim

coast. Rhino, supposed to be sumatrensis, are, I believe, today,

found in-another part of Burma in country not dissimilar to Kahilu,

and in Indo-China the habitat of each was not dissimilar. So far

as the measurements of footprints go, those made by the first

Game Warden, the Forest Officer, and myself do not vary greatly,

and the reliable records in firm ground would probably indicate

feet between 64 and 84 inches in width. All these measurements

and the mud smears would indicate animals rather of the D.

sumatrensis than of the R. sondaicus species; or, if sondaicus,

then, the measurements made by us must all have been of im-

mature animals. There is, of course, always the bare possibility

that here we have an undiscovered, or still unidentified species,

or sub-species. Now with reference to (2), I was at Kahilu at

exactly the same season as the Forest Officer. The Game Ranger

stated that all climatic and physical conditions were identical and

presumably so they would have been. I have already pointed

out and it is obvious to anyone who has travelled in this particular

place and under similar conditions, that unless one has actually

seen tracks in a spot where he has been a short time previously,

and seen none, it would in the great majority of cases, be impossible

to accurately estimate their age, within a few days, at a minimum.

The Forest Officer does not give the necessary detail as to where

or under what conditions he saw two pair of tracks on the same

day, and how far apart they were; nor in fact, is it clear that he

did this tracking himself. 1 knew from hard experience, just how

far it is possible to travel in that particular jungle in a given time,

and how very much faster a rhino can do the distance, and to

be convinced that he himself saw and measured four tracks in

the same day that were indubitably different rhino, much more

detail would have to be given than he affords. The Game Ranger’s

testimony on this point, I cannot, I fear, accept. His alleged

ability in deciding whether a track is male or female sounds

uncanny, but in practice I did not find it so. In no case either

in wallow or elsewhere, and invariably with the Game Ranger,

158 jOURNAL, BOMBAY (NATURAL LHIST SSOCHERY «Vol. cen

did I or he see unmistakable evidence of more than three tracks

that, we could feel reasonably sure, were different; and that was

chiefly due to my measurements. Only once in the whole time and

area covered did I see fresh droppings, as fresh as say, perhaps

one day old, and then of one animal only, and only in two cases

as fresh as possibly a month. I personally can give no opinion

except surmise, as the Game Warden did, of two animals, appar-

ently together, being probably male and female, from the relative

difference in the width of their footprints, and so we come to the

question of breeding. None has any personal evidence on this. I

have been told by a member of the Forest Service that reliable

evidence exists as to calves being born in 1928 and 1935. All

the evidence there is, is as follows, and no immature animal has

ever been seen :—

The report of a native villager is given by the Game Warden

as in 1928 having seen the tracks of an old rhino and those of a

very young one together, sizes of tracks are not given and would

doubtless in any case be unreliable. The smaller track was shortly

after not seen again, and it was surmised it had gone off on its

own, though only a few months old. It was hoped, the report

says, that it would soon be _ rediscovered.

The only further evidence is of a track said by the Game

Ranger to have been seen by him several times, measuring about five

inches in width. Knowing how this individual measures the width,

this track could have easily been 6 inches, the size of a hindfoot

of a semi-mature sumatrensis. I was given a tale by another

member of the Forest Service, before visiting Kahilu, of Karen

natives having watched from a machan, two rhinos mating.

Recently, however, I have received a copy of a most curious report

made by a forester at Kadaingti in July, 1933, and addressed to

the S.D.C. Thaton. It is written in English of a sort, but whether

this copy is of an original, or is a translation, I cannot say. It

states in effect, that he and a villager saw rhino tracks and

following them, saw blood on the leaves. He had never seen a

rhino in his life before. They followed and heard the animals

roaring. They climbed up a tree 10 or 15 feet and saw two rhino,

one with a horn ‘which is about a foot in length just below the

eyes,’ and the other, the female, ‘with a bulging thing on the

nose-ridge.’ After ten minutes the rhino left, and the forester

went away in the opposite direction. He describes the head as

‘resembling a pig, and on the whole, the animal resembles an

elephant, where the tail looks like a pig.’ Referring to the blood

on the leaves, he states ‘The blood smells as rhino’s blood as

used for medicine, but with stronger odour.’ Without giving any

specific reason in the report he infers that the blood is from the

rhino menstruating as the village elders have told him that the

rhino have this habit. The story as told, sounds much as a village

elder’s tale would. I do not know if this is the same forester

I saw at Kahilu, but the tale sounds like his that I have quoted

before:

In face of all the foregoing the official Game Warden’s report

for 1936 says: ‘The Head Keeper could not substantiate his

MEMORANDUM ON THE : KAHILU SANCTUARY 159

estimate of eight Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros sondaicus) made last year

and the number of these exceedingly rare and valuable animals 1s

now estimated to be six’. It is reported that these animals used

to leave the Sanctuary, during the dry season and graze outside

Kahilu and as there is no other source of information except from

the Head Ranger the above information is obviously entirely from

him, though I should not have thought he would have been

responsible for the statement of these animals ‘ grazing’. The only

Asiatic rhinoceros that grazes is the Great Indian Rhinoceros. |

should like to know how the Game Ranger estimated these eight

rhino in the reserve. It must have been at some time after the

Forest Officer’s visit. How did the number increase so suddenly

and most particularly do we wish to know what he believes has

happened to the other two? There has obviously been a mis-

understanding in the compilation of the report and for ‘Sanctuary’

should probably be read ‘Reserve’, as it has never been alleged,

to my knowledge, certainly not in previous reports, that the rhino

are in the habit of leaving the ‘Sanctuary’ limits. I understand

that the Game Warden’s report for 1937 has not been issued, but

in the Rangoon Gazette in April, an extract as follows is given :—

‘The six Rhinoceros sondaicus were accounted for, again italics

mine.’ I should be interested to know whether the definite state-

ment in each report that the rhino is sondaicus comes from the

reports of the Game Ranger or whether this has been inserted

by the Game Warden. Certainly, no Rhinoceroses were seen by

the Game Ranger in either 1935 or 1936. Nor have I heard of

any further evidence offered in either year, other than I have

reviewed in this report. It is official reports, on which public

knowledge of the Kahilu rhino is based. It would seem to be

most important that sources of any new information should be

given in detail. In the Rangoon Gazette of March 12th, was an

article on Wild Life Conservation, which after stating that the

Kahilu Sanctuary is one of the ‘most interesting in the world’,

goes on to make the surprising assertion that since the foundation

of this Sanctuary the stock has increased from 5 to 7 animals and

the author states that there are now three males and four females.

He further volunteers that the cow only produces a calf once in

three years.

The writer of that article has also never been to Kahilu. From

what private sources does all this ‘information’ come? Most

of it must be imagination or based on native gossip. As to the

period of gestation and the average time of production given

above, who can tell? The greatest living expert on the subject,

who has for years tracked and hunted Rhinoceros, and who has

shot both sondaicus and sumatrensis, believes from his long ex-

perience, that the period of following the mother is much nearer

six years. Be that as it may, theory has little to do with this

matter. It is not here a question of periods but of the conditions,

under which these few wretched animals exist, that affect their

breeding. One has only to have the slightest knowledge of the

ecology. of the Rhinoceros—the Javan species is by no means the

least sensitive of the five known—to realize that the slow rate of

160 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY; Vol, XEI

breeding under the best conditions and the extreme sensitiveness

of the female to disturbance will, if at all excessive, probably

prevent procreation altogether. I think, therefore, from the facts

given above, in connection with this very mis-named ‘Sanctuary’

the chances of rhino breeding there under present conditions are

thousands to one against, and [ cannot conceive upon what possible

grounds the following statement in the Forest Officer’s report is

based, ‘there seems every prospect of the stock of sonduaicus

growing considerably in the next ten or fifteen years.’ Five years

of that time has already passed and whatever allegations there

may have been as to a rhino having been born here ten years

ago (in 1928), no one has, to my knowledge, offered evidence to

suggest that one has been born since that time. I am quite

aware that criticism is useless unless it can also be constructive. I

have assumed that if further investigation proves it necessary,

steps will be taken to render possible the procreation of these

animals and as I contend that their species has not definitely been

proved beyond question that is the first object to be undertaken.

Having proved that the animals are sondaicus as I fervently hope

may be done, it is then, useless to ask how much can, or will

be done by the Government. It is not, unfortunately, a question

admitting of bargaining or compromise. The irreducible and

minimum reforms necessary must first be recognized as essential,

and unless those can in one way or other, be immediately effected,

it is a waste of time attempting anything, for if these few pathetic

remnants persistently referred to by the writer of one report, as

a ‘herd’, are proved to be of the Javan species and to contain

among them a virile male and female, then immediate and drastic

steps must be taken to provide the necessary opportunity for

breeding. The first step undoubtedly will ke to stop all cultivation,

whatever in that portion of the Sanctuary in which, the rhino find

it necessary, or are at all likely to go, and secondly and of equal

importance is it that the entrance or passage of any natives or

dogs whatever is not merely prohibited, but absolutely prevented.

These minimum conditions being found impossible to effect or

having been effected, are found eventually not to have been success-

ful in their object, then in the interests of science it would be

better to effectually secure their pitiful carcases, for posterity, not

as technical exhibits alone, but as monuments to the apathy,

ignorance and ineffectiveness of our legislators.

REVIEWS. © @. ts

I.—ANNUAL REPORT ON GAME PRESERVATION IN BURMA FOR

fit YEAR ENDED 31st MARCH 1938.

The ‘Annual Report on Game Preservation in Burma’ for the year»which

ended on 31st March 1938 gives us little information about practical Game

Preservation. The reason is not far to seek. The Burma Government vote

inadequate supplies from the large forest revenue for this service.

We read on the first page of six areas aggregating 542 square miles, nearly

350,000 acres, containing a formidable list of species to be preserved—that we

may presume was the object in creating these sanctuaries—, but when we turn

over the page we find that only two of these sanctuaries have guards attached to

them, and then only a total of eight, six in the Pidaung Sanctuary and two in

the Kahilu Sanctuary.

In these areas there were two cases of poaching discovered in the Pidaung

Sanctuary and none in the others. As four of them appear to have looked after

themselves this is not surprising.

In paragraph 8 we are informed that ‘From reports of the keepers the stock

of animals appears to be increasing steadily’, in the Pidaung Sanctury. One

bison herd of 106 animals was reported, and the Game Warden himself obtained

a close-up view of another herd containing 52 animals. The counting of a herd

of wild animals, always moving, always restless, is a very difficult and exacting

business, and only figures obtained by trained observers, such as the Game

Warden himself, can be considered as reliable

In paragraph 9, bison and saing are referred to as ‘rutting’ in April, but the

Bovidae do not rut in the meaning of the word as applied to the Cervidae. With

bison and saing the females come into season not the males, and although the

reasons for the urge are somewhat obscure it is probably governed by conditions

of feeding rather than by conditions of weather due to seasonal changes.

Mention is made of the probability of any very old bison being killed by

tiger or panther. It would be interesting to know of any reliable records of

panthers killing bison.

In several places in this report it is suggested that action might be advis-

able to reduce tiger in sanctuaries. The very name ‘Sanctuary’ implies a refuge

for all wild life and in the early stages of conservation of wild life as pertains

at present in Burma such mistakes should be avoided.

In paragraph 12 the Kahilu Sanctuary is referred to as having as its sole

object the preservation of Rhinoceros sondaicus, and it is recorded that during

the year a calf was born, bringing the total up to seven specimens.

These statements are based on the reports of the ranger-in-charge of the

sanctuary and no expert examination was made by the Game Warden.

I have recently seen a report made by an entirely independent cbserver, well

qualified to explore the area and examine the evidence, and it is extremely doubtful

if there are anything like seven sondaicus in this sanctuary. The statement that

a calf was born during the year was not supported by any reliable evidence ob-

tained by the investigator I refer to.

As his report is published in this issue it is unnecessary for me to refer

to the matter further.

In paragraph 16, sanctuaries are proposed for thamin, the Brow-antlered

Deer, in the Shwebo Division, which it is hoped will be constituted during

the coming year.

This rare and striking deer has been persecuted to such an extent in Burma

that it is on the verge of extermination, and as the Game Warden writes,

‘There is little doubt that the continued existence of this deer will depend on. the

protection afforded by sanctuaries’.

In paragraph 24, referring again to the Kahilu Sanctuary, it is stated that it

is believed the Rhinoceros sondaicus in this area are the only reccgnized survi-

vors of this species in the world. This is incorrect because they undoubtedly

xist in Java and Sumatra:

162, JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL WHIST?-SOCGIE T\ ow olan

In Chapter II reference is made to the wild life in forests other than

Sanctuaries.

The question of proper control of the work of wild life preservation is

briefly referred to and it is clearly indicated that a system by which the care

of the fauna has to be entrusted to those who have full time-work as Forest

Officers is unsatisfactory and can never mean efficient protection for wild life.

It is difficult to understand the reference to the case mentioned in paragraph

36 of shooting a male bison being prosecuted in a civil court. Surely poaching

is a criminal offence in Burma?

Mention is made in paragraphs 39, 40, and 43, that wild dogs are on the

increase,

It is possible that wild dogs have a period during which they progressively

increase and then due to some unknown reason become scarce, again increasing

until some unknown peak is reached. This phenomenon is well recognized

amongst some species, the Ptarmigan in Alaska being a striking example. It

is Nature’s way of adjustment. and something of this sort may operate to

keep wild dogs within reasonable limits.

In paragraph 41 surprise is expressed at the reported disappearance of game

in the Tharrawaddy Division.

Until there is an adequate staff for the purpose of wild life conservation

answers will never be found to these queries.

The control of elephants, which is an important activity of the Game Warden,

does not provide very exhilarating reading in a Game Preservation Report.

We are told that 711 elephants were removed from the forests of which 543

were killed or found dead. We are also told that the removal of 711 elephants

from the forests probably slightly exceeds the annual natural increment. No

reasons are given for this statement and it would be interesting to know on what

statistics it was based. With the inadequate arrangements for guarding the

fauna of Burma, it is somewhat astonishing to hear even a_ tentative figure

mentioned in connection with the annual increase of calves which can only be

ascertained after much observation and hard work.

Although a Wild Life Protection Act was passed in 1936, Rules had not

been issued up to March 1938. As is so common in present-day legislation

many important items have to be dealt with by the Rules, and it is surprising

that the obligations that the legislators have placed on the Local Government

have not been attended to! So the Game Rules of 1927 are still being followed

where they do not conflict with the provisions of the new Act.

Paragraph 53 pleads for a better organization to deal with the preservation

of the wild life of Burma, a very necessary and urgent matter if conservation

is to be taken seriously and placed on a proper footing.

Chapter III deals exclusively with the control of firearms and ammunition

and in studying this chapter it is easy to understand how unsatisfactory the

position must be from the Game Warden’s point of view.

The exploitation of the Fauna supplies the theme for Chapter VI. It calls

for no special comment.

In Chapter VII the last paragraph contains a significant statement. It

is:—. . . although sambhur and hog-deer may now be shot outside reserves

irrespective of sex and without game licences. at

It is astonishing that such game animals as sambhur and hog-deer may be

shot outside reserves without any restrictions and is a sad reflection on the

medizeval ideas of Burma on the value of such forms of wild life.

Paragraph 75 contains some alleged particulars of an animal not yet

identified. If the other particulars are as valuable as the remark that it is

‘apt to attack on sight’ they are not worth considering.

Chapter IX, ‘Financial Results’, does not make inspiring reading.

Under expenditure the biggest item is for elephant control, which means

largely the destruction of elephants. There is no item at all for Rangers

employed solely on Wild Life Conservation, outside the Sanctuaries, although

19 Game Rangers were employed to destroy.

Part IV refers to the Federated Shan States.

In paragraph 86 we are told that in these States there are two sanctuaries,

Shwe-u-daung in Mongmit, comprising an area of 45 square miles, and Taunggyi

Fuel Reserve North Block, in the Southern Shan States, comprising an area of

62 square miles. The former marches with the Shwe-u-daung Sanctuary in

East Katha, Burma, making a compact block of 126 square miles.

REVIEWS 163

No special staff guards these sanctuaries.

It is proposed to exploit teak in the Shwe-u-daung Sanctuary, and as this

area is supposed to contain Dicerorhinus sumatrensis one can imagine the result?

The Sumatran rhinoceros will neither breed nor remain in a disturbed area.

When will the Government of Burma appreciate the fact that wild life

conservation and commercialism do not make happy bed-fellows. If commercialism

is to take precedence of other considerations then it would be better to state

clearly that wild life conservation is not a vital issue or even an important

activity but that a little temporary window-dressing may be desirable at times.

After reading this report one is bound to feel sympathy with the Game

Warden in having to make his bricks without straw. No successful conser-

vation of the fauna, except possibly in a favoured site such as the Pidaung

Sanctuary, appears to be possible under the unfortunate conditions which

obtain.

If Burma really wants to preserve its wild life then it should organize a

proper department to do so and should try to follow the lines adopted in

North America where in many parts the work of conservation of the wild

creatures of the plains, the forests and the streams has been successfully

organized and is efficiently executed.

THEODORE, TIVUBBACK.

He bit -PORMENKREIS THEORY AND THE PROGRESS OF THis

ORGANIC WORLD, by O. Kleinschmidt. Translated by F. C. R. Jourdain.

Pp. 192. London: H. F. & G. Witherby.

This translation was first published in 1930. The book under review appears

with the author’s preface of 1926; and the author’s note to the English

translation is dated 1930.

The author’s aim is to explain the nature of the Formenkreis Theory,

which, in his opinion, is the key to the right interpretation of Evolution and

Raciology. With this end in view he begins by exposing all that is erroneous

in the old theory of Evolution. He then disposes of the biased objections to

the Formenkreis Theory, and thus clears the ground for a full statement of

his doctrine, which he does in a manner that leaves no doubt as to what he

holds.

The one drawback, however, is in the understanding of the very phrase

‘Formenkreis’. ‘Formenkreis is the true Real species of the philosopher Kant,

not the Species of Linné, not the Species of Darwin, not the Species of my

friend Dr. Hartert, and other English, German, or American zoologists, not

the Formenkreits of Tschulok, nor the Rassenkvreis of Rensch (Author’s note).

\ ee ae Oe

III.—A GUIDE TO THE SNAKES OF UGANDA, by C. R. S. Pitman.

Pp. xxi+362. The Uganda Society, Kampala, Uganda; 1938—London:

Simpkin Marshall, Ltd., 1939. Price 30/— net.

Captain Pitman is an enthusiast who has put a great deal of work into

this book, which should stimulate the study of the snakes of Uganda.

As he is already well known for his capacity for collecting and recording

information, and as he is equally experienced in field worl, the author has

on the whole attained his threefold object: to afford a descriptive list of the

known species and make their identification easy, to provide a better under-

standing of snakes generally, and to draw attention to their very definite

role of benefactors to humanity. But to attempt to include so much, combined

with the author’s somewhat drab style, tends to make the book rather confused

and unsatisfactory reading.

As a faunistic work the book is undeniably of the greatest value. It is

moreover generously illustrated with abundant line drawings and coloured plates,

some of them excellent. These and other unquestionably good points must

induce a lenient view of the many shortcomings in the matter of clarity and

presentation.

Ie Ba sGs

164 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NALURAL AIST SOCiEaY Wol exter

IV.—MEDICAL ENTOMOLOGY : A survey of insects and allied forms which

affect the health of man and animals, by W. A. Riley and O. A. Johannsen.

Pp. xiii+483. New York and London: Mc Graw-Hill Book Company, Inc. ;

1938. ;

This is the second edition of a book published in 1932, which was, itself,

a revision of the authors’ justly appreciated ‘Handbook of Medical Entomology’.

The present text is excellent and up-to-date, and the bibliography, though

incomplete, is valuable. It will be of great assistance to doctors and_ senior

medical students.

MISC LEANEOUS: NOTES.

I.—BEHAVIOUR OF MONKEYS WHEN ATTACKED.

The letter of the heir-apparent of Malerkotta State on the

above subject draws attention to the extraordinary behaviour of

monkeys, which I can confirm. On several occasions when attacked

by leopards, and on numerous occasions when attacked by dog's,

which of course cannot climb, I have known them to abandon

safety in the tree tops, and taking to earth, get destroyed. In

this respect, an animal which must be considered intelligent,

behaves as an imbecile. <A fuller account of this habit will be

found on pages 137 and 138 of Wild Animals in Central India,

this being so far as I know, the first occasion on which the

phenomenon was referred to. The letter under discussion, of course

confirms, what I wrote in 1923. The observations of others would

be of interest, as more enlightenment is required on such very

peculiar behaviour.

February 6, 1939. A. A. DUNBAR BRANDER.

Il.—OCCURRENCE OF TIGER IN SIKKIM.

In view of the report in the December 1938 issue of the Journal

‘by Lt.-Colonel F. H. Lister to the effect that he had come across

a fresh tiger skin at Lachung, North Sikkim, last April, it may

be of interest to record that in 1934 a tiger killed a mule at a

place called La Gyap (11,500 ft.) on the road between Gangtok

and the Nathu La pass. The late Mr. F. Williamson, then

Political Officer in Sikkim, sat up for the tiger and actually saw

it, though he was unsuccessful in his attempt to shoot it. It would

be interesting to know the maximum height above sea level at

which tigers have previously keen known to occur.

At this place, La Gyap, the country is very steep and

mountainous and the jungle consists chiefly of bamboos and giant

rhododendrons. Apart from the one transport mule killed, it is

difficult to suggest what might have been the tiger’s fare; though

there is an abundance of bird life in these precipitous jungles

neither pig nor barking deer, common lower down, occur, while

monkeys would probably be safe from a tiger. Had the tiger

taken up his permanent abode in this locality it is not unlikely

that he would have been faced with the problem of killing serow,

goral or musk deer on their own pretty difficult ground. There

can be little doubt however that this particular tiger was a pioneer

explorer and probably returned to lower levels after being shot at.

There is another alternative, though it is one which I hesitate to

166 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL is? SOOT \ Viol meen

suggest, it 1s that he may have gone on over the Nathu La pass

(14,300 ft.) and into the Chumbi valley ! Colour is lent to this sug-

gestion when it is remembered that some time later a large domestic

bull yak was found here killed yet uneaten, with fang marks in his

throat, though at the time, this tragedy was thought by the owner

of the yak to have been the work of an ‘abominable snow man’

or ‘mirka’.

GILcin, . Re, Vi SB Ai Nv

January 14, 1939. Captain.

IHI.—OCCURRENCE OF TIGER IN SIKKIM.

In connection with Colonel Lister’s note of the appearance of

a tiger in North Sikkim, the following may be of interest :—

A tiger was reported to be killing ponies and yaks in the

neighbourhood of Karponang, the first rest house on the road

between Gangtok and the Nathu La. I actually saw the pug

marks where the animal had jumped up the steep bank of a road

cutting. One evening it was reported that two ponies had been

killed. I went out at once but found the owners were already

engaged in skinning the animals. I put the skin back roughly

and sat among some rocks from about 8 p.m. till 11. The tiger

did not appear so I returned to Gangtok. The owners of the

ponies went again at daybreak to finish skinning them and found

the tiger on the kills. They reported that the tiger growled at

them and they fled. I went out and beat for him and he was

seen by the beaters but no one had a shot. All this eccurred at

about 9,000 feet. The tiger then crossed the Lagyap La, 11,000 ft.

and reports of kills were brought in on several occasions. It finally

reached Changu lake at 12,600 ft. where on 19th June 1924 it killed

a yak. I myself saw this yak and judging by the distance be-

tween the tooth marks I am convinced it had been killed by a

tiger.

The animal had been driven off before he commenced to eat and

the ground round the dead yak was so trampled by the yak-herds

that no pug marks could be found. The tiger then crossed the

ridge, about 13,000 ft. above sea level into the valley of the Yelli

Chu. From here 1t crossed another ridge into. the valley of the

Dikchu where it was killed at a comparatively low elevation. It

will be noticed that this tiger was never seen (except by yak-herds

and a beater) at any high elevation, but the total evidence that

he actually travelled the road and passed the heights indicated is

in my opinion convincing.

Fo Mey BATE,

EGMERE, Lieut.-Col.

WALSINGHAM,

NORFOLK.

February 13) 1930.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 167

1V.—UNUSUAL BEHAVIOUR OF PANTHERS AND TIGERS.

A Planter friend in the Travancore Hills, Mr. M. R. Coghlan,

writes to me that one evening in January, 1939 when returning

after dark from the Vandiperiyar Club in his car there, on

rounding a bend, headlights on, a fine panther was seen to be

walking along. The car stopped, so did the panther. He sat

on the crown of the road facing the headlights, and about 20

yards away. His mate, presumably, with a very young cub, joined

him from among the roadside bushes, and all three sat on the

road, baby in the centre, gazing at the lights. A delightful scene,

but nothing very unusual.

The three were joined by a half-grown panther, presumably of

a former litter, and the four of them sat together until some

estate coolies coming from the opposite direction caused them

to move into the bushes.

This association of a half-grown animal with the very small

cub of a later litter and its parents is an occurrence not within

my own experience; and in the fifty odd years of the Journal of

our Society there is no record of such a thing having been seen.

Perhaps one of our members may be able to cite something of the

kind.

There is an unusual incident from the same locality in regard

fo a tiger. On-.Mr. H. Gibbon’s Tea Estate a large tiger broke

into the cowshed early one morning and killed thirteen cows and

calves. I have a copy of a photograph showing eleven of the

poor creatures lying at their tethering pegs.

A few days later this same tiger killed a bullock on the Estate

and was shot at sundown by Mr. Gibbon. It was a large tiger,

measuring g feet 7 inches.

I have personal knowledge of a panther in the Chratrata Hills

having slain 33 sheep at one killing in the lower storey of a house

when the owners were away, and of a tiger having killed five

tethered baits one stormy night in the Godavery jungles, but in the

fifty years of the Journal there is no record of such wanton

slaughter as this; neither can I recollect having read of such a

happening in any natural history or shikar book.

Can any member record anything to equal it?

COONOOR. R. W. BURTON,

Mevruary. 13,. 1930. Et.-Cole

Indian Army (Retd.)

V.—A COIN LODGED IN A TIGER’S PALATE.

I thought it might interest the Society to hear that in January

this year, I shot a tigress in which was. found a coin, when: it

was skinned the next day.

168 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST: SOCIETY, “Vol. cer

I shot the tigress on the 3rd January at I-15 a.m. over a

kill near Umarti, a village in West Khandesh. The tigress had

killed a bullock, a tie up, the previous night; we had a beat for

her the next afternoon, which was unsuccessful. As the tigress

had not been seen in the.beat, I decided to;sit. up: for her than

evening over the kill, and she duly came straight to the remains

al I-15 a-m. Next morning.

The tigress was skinned the next day and the skinner, on

boiling out the head, found a coin between the skin of the roof

of the mouth and the palate. The coin was an 1877 piece, the

head side of the coin which was against the skull, being rather

scratched.

A coin lodged in a tiger’s palate.

I enclose a photograph of the skull, which clearly shows. the

coin in the roof of the mouth. I am sending you the coin and

also a photograph of the tigress, before being skinned.

The most obvious theory as to how the coin got into the skull,

is that the tigress was a maneater, but I think that that is

definitely disproved by the fact that she went straight up to her

kill of the previous night and also the forest people had no reports

of a maneater in that area. There were, also, no marks on the

skin, which disposed of the theory that some villager had fired

wt the tigress with some ancient weapon, and had put in a coin,

‘as tuck, to help his aim. I thought that these were the two most

obvious theories, of what I imagine must be a very uncommon

ae E

MISCELLANEOUS. NOTES 169

occurrence. But I think both are wrong in this case; so I thought

that possibly you would care to get some answers on the subject.

GOVERNMENT HOUSE, . D. CHETWODE,

BomBay. Captain.

Meoruary (2A, -1930.

VI.—EFFECTS OF MAULING BY TIGER.

Maulings.—At the time of my accident I wrote to the Field

mentioning the fact that maulings, so far as I was concerned, were

nearly painless. No comments were made on this particular point

so I would like to bring the subject up again in this country where

accidents of this nature are more prevalent than at home.

My friend and I had wounded a tigress who retired to long

erass and lay completely invisible except to one of the stops in a

Inmeh Sal tree. Ihe first branch of this tree was some 25 feet

from the ground and I attempted to swarm this tree with a view

to finish her off from the safety of the first branch. My friend

meanwhile stood within a few feet of the foot of the tree. I had

arrived within a foot or so of my objective, some 20 feet from

the ground, when the tigress charged. My friend fired but missed.

The tigress completely disregarding the person on the ground,

within a few feet of her, proceeded to scramble up the tree. I

could .hear her climbing. and. tried. to. get.a-.view. of her which

I finally managed to do coming up under my right leg. Forgetting

my friend on the ground, I kicked out at her as she came and

managed to get her on the nose, almost dislodging myself in doing

so as I was only hanging on with my arms which were wrapped

round the bole of the tree. The tigress however did not release

her hold on the tree but seized my foot in her mouth; she very

soon let go, but as I was trying to recover my grip on the tree, she

seized my right leg, mid-way between the ankle and the knee.

My friend owing to the sharp angle from which he had_ to

shoot, had walked back a few paces and proceeded to open fire.

He put five shots into her before she fell. Unfortunately she

forgot to open her mouth when we parted, and in falling ripped

muscle and bone from the leg.

‘When I was sure she was dead I climbed down, by this time

feeling fairly faint, mainly from want of breath. I was finding it

extremely hard to fill my lungs and appeared only to be partially

able to do so.

However this was soon put right by our Baiga Shikari, who

waved some branches of a particular shrub in front of my face.

I had felt no pain from start to finish, yet had felt the blood

trickling down the side of my leg. I was also stone deaf and

did not even hear the five shots fired by my friend at some few

yards range and in my direction. About an hour and a half later,

when we applied permanganate of potash, I felt extreme pain but

this wore off in a very short time and I felt. nothing except a faint

170 jOURNAL, BOMBAY “NATURAL HIST SOCIEDY® Vole er

kind of numb ache, until I arrived in hospital some ro hours later

and the wounds were being probed and cleaned.

The interesting questions which emerge are these :—

1. Had the tigress’ attack come without any warning, would

I have felt more pain?

2. Was it because I had ample time to realise what was

going to happen that my nervous system was prepared to receive

the shock ?

3. Would this be applicable to an animal either wounded by

a bullet or by another animal?

4. It is common knowledge that should an animal be only

wounded with the first shot, all subsequent shots appear ineffective,

unless vital. Is this because they feel no pain after impact of the

first shot?

The views of any one else who has been mauled would contri-

bute to our knowledge on this interesting subject and I hope you

will find space to publish at least some of what I have written as

I feel sure that this topic would ke of more than general interest.

4 ALiporE Roan, H., Ay HOOKS:

CALCUTTA.

February 4, 1939.

VII.—HYAENAS ATTACKING HUMAN BEINGS.

Having been out of India since March 1936, I have only now

come across references in articles contributed by Mr’> >. Hi -Prates

regarding man-killing hyaenas in India, so give an instance which

came to my notice in 1907 when stationed at Nowgong, Central

India: al

On the 13th March 1907, I received information from the village

of Ajnar, 12 miles to the north of Nowgong that an old woman

had been killed by a wild beast. I went next day to the village

and found that an old woman—Mussumat Jhunari had been sleep-

ing on the ground in a field near the village on the night of ‘the

23rd February and been killed, dragged off, and mostly eaten. A

boy had been killed and eaten 4 months previously 5 miles away.

On the 17th March a woman, Mussumat Gori Doolan, aged 50

was seized by the head near the village while sleeping in the

open. The beast let go. On the ‘19th March’ a- tethered 20am

was killed but the carcase not touched on the two following nights.

On the 23rd I went to the village and sat in a grave-like excava-

tion with a cart frame placed on top and covered over with thorns.

At 3 a.m. a stone chinked on the hill side and soon after a beast

came with a rush and seized the goat. The moon had gone down.

I fired the right barrel of my 12 gauge gun loaded with Meade’s

shell and followed this up with the left barrel loaded with SSG.

A gurgling and gasping was heard and field-glasses showed some

large creature was down.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 171

At daybreak I found the animal killed to be a female Hyaena

with Meade’s shell in the back of its head. The gurgling noises

had been from the goat which had been seized by the head and

had the top of its skull almost torn off.

The hyaena was a large one and in milk. I heard stones

chinking on the hill side after the shots were fired and have no

doubt there were young ones with her.

I examined Gori Doolan’s head and found two fang holes and

sundry abrasions and have no doubt that she was attacked by the

hyaena.

After this hyaena was killed there were no further casualties by

wild beasts in the neighbourhood.

Coonoor, RW. BURTON, 1.4. (Retd.),

January 23, 1939. Lt.-Col.

VIII.—NUMBER OF YOUNG HEDGEHOGS HAVE

PE A BURGE,

Referring to my note ‘Notes on Hardwicke’s Hedgehog (Hemie-

chinus collaris Gray and Hardw.)’, published in volume xxxix,

p. 616, regarding the number of young hedgehogs have at a birth,

it seems quite clear from a photograph published in the September

issue (1938) of The Iield, p. 572, that hedgehogs do have more

than a single young at a birth. In the photograph referred to

taken by Dr. Swaine there are three young to be seen with the

mother. There is no reason whatsoever, why Indian hedgehogs

should differ from European ones in this regard. Accordingly we

must accept Dobson’s statement (I°.B.I., Mammalia, p. 214) ‘the

number of young at a birth never exceed’ four. An explanation of

my observation may be that not all the foetuses were discharged

from each female.

BomBay NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, C. McCANN.

BOMBAY.

AUPUSE 23, 1938.

IX.—WEIGHT OF TUSKS OF THE INDIAN ELEPHANT.

Will you kindly let me know the weight of the largest pair of

elephant tusks recorded in Assam? I have just shot an extremely

large solitary elephant carrying tusks of 7 ft. and 7 ft. 1 in. weighing

1154 lbs. The tusks are perfectly symmetrical and converge towards

the extremities leaving a distance of only 4 in. between the points,

making it impossible for the elephant to raise his trunk between

them.

I have taken photos of this elephant and if it would be of

interest to readers will be pleased to send them to you for publi-

JOURNAL, -BOM BAY “NAPURAL ST 2“ SOCIE Tey.) Vic)!

cation. You may recollect that last year I sent you photos of a

most unusual tusker which you were kind enough to publish in

your journal.

I am writing to you because it occurs to me that the weight

and length of these tusks may constitute a record for Assam.

THe KacuHart GAon TEA Co., LTD., GicD) EME EAR?

TEZPUR, ASSAM.

january A, 1939.

|The heaviest recorded tusks of the Indian Elephant is a pair

in the possession of H.M. The King:—Length 8! 9”; and 8’ 64”;

weight 161 and 160 lbs. The animal was shot in the Terai. The

record for Assam is a pair of tusks in the possession of the Earl

of Lytton :—Length 8 9” and 8! 2”; weight 81 and 8o.2 lbs.

(Rowland Ward, Records of Big Game, 8th Edn.).—Eps. |

X.—BEHAVIOUR OF SAMBHUR IN THE PRESENCE

OF WILD DOGS.

It was very interesting to see the reaction of sambhur deer

to the presence in the locality of wild dogs. One afternoon when

I was in the lick a male barking deer or kijang was killed by wild

dogs about half a mile up river from my camp and about a mile and

a half from the lick. I had, on a previous occasion, seen wild

dogs actually in the lick ranging for tracks. A day or two after

the killing of the kijang, a young spike buck sambhur deer came

to the edge of the lick. This was at 11 a.m. It messed about just

on the fringe of the jungle for three quarters of an hour before

it would venture into the lick. The way it tested the wind was

wonderful, and the positions it got its ears into were astonishing.

On another day a young sambhur, sex undetermined, came _ to

the edge of the lick but never went in at all. But three sambhur

—separate ones—came into the lick at night and had a good drink

and were evidently there for some time, no doubt knowing that

they were safe from wild dogs at night.

I have seen hundreds of sambhur approach and enter salt-licks

but have never seen them as cautious as the one I mentioned above.

SUNLAWS,

Bukit BETONG,

KUALA LIPIS, TRU BBAGIS

PAHANG, F.M.S.

March 1, 1939.

Al.—THE. PUNJAB SIRKEER~ CUCKOO “[TACCO CEA

LESCHENAULTIT SIRKEE (GRAY)] IN SIND.

In the Honorary Sceretary’s report for the year 1937 (vol. xl, No.

2, September 1938) interesting reference is made to the effect of

MEISCHEEANIEOUS. INOGES 173

the Sukkur Barrage and its perennial Canals on the bird life of Sind.

Another species which now appears to be establishing itself and

extending its range in the Province is the Sirkeer Cuckoo.

Prior to the Barrage (1932) the Sirkeer was almost unknown.

Dr. Ticehurst, in his Birds of Sind, shows that one was obtained

in Sind by Doig, and one on the Baluchi frontier by Blanford,

but goes on to say that no other records exist and that its status

is doubtful.

I first saw a Sirkeer in August 1933°at Katiar, 1 village on

the Indus about 25 miles south of Hyderabad.

After that I did not come across another either in Lower or

Upper Sind until I was transferred to the Hala Division in

December 1937. |

Between December 1937 and February 1938 we occasionally

flushed one while shooting partridge in cotton fields some 20 miles

north of Hyderabad in the vicinity of Oderolal and Matiari

(Hyderabad District).

In roughly the same area I saw one on 1st July 1938, and

one on 15th August, 1938.

By the shooting season October 1938 to February 1939, the

number of Sirkeers seemed to have increased, and we frequently

drove one out in this same locality when shooting partridge in

the cotton fields.

On 5th January 1939, one was put up during « partridge

shoot in the Nawabshah District, a few miles west of Shahdadpur.

This is the most northerly point at which I have come across it.

The bird usually skulks in cover, or on the ground at the side

of cover into which it dives if disturbed.

Its flight is feeble, and it is not flushed until nearly trodden on.

Only once, on 13th February 1939 in Matiari P.W.D. Bungalow

compound, have I seen it in a tree.

Although not yet found breeding by me, as Dr. Ticehurst says,

this bird is probably resident where it occurs.

HYbERABAD (SIND). Ne ES NMIENE SSE,

March: (29, 1939. iS.

ell = LEBCHES ATTACKING CHICKS OF THE PIED

KINGFISHER (CERYLE RUDIS LINN.).

It might be of interest to record that a half-fledged pied kingfisher

(Ceryle rudis), taken from a nest at Poona last Sunday, had several

well-gorged leeches hanging on to various parts of its body.

Another interesting point raised was that the chick could (or

would?) only move backwards. ‘The possibility of this trait being

more prevalent among other hole-breeders has already been touched

upon (J.B.N.H.S., xl, p. 171), and further notes and observations

on this subject would be of interest.

ANDHERI. HUMAYUN: ABDULALI.

March 24, 1939.

174. * JOURNAL, BOMBAY “NAT RAL. ERS Dae S OGLE i Ve lol exe

XIII.—BREEDING OF THE INDIAN BARN OWL [TYTO

ALBA JAVANICA (GMELIN)] IN BHAVNAGAR.

In Ambla village, in an orchard of old mango trees stood a 50

foot Jambuda tree, the trunk was thick at the base and the branches

well leaved on all sides. The main stem had been burnt hollow

from the top downwards for about to to 12’ at the centre. A native

trying to smoke a beehive had set the tree on fire, Qalnside, ime

cavity was the nest of the Indian Barn Owl (Tyto alba javanica),

four young barn owls were pulled out, the youngest had still some

downy feathers remaining while the other three were yet unable to

fly although fully Aeeed. The nestlings when irritated gave out

prolonged hisses much like the hissing of a large snake.

The eggs must have been laid during the first week of October

and the parents had found it easier to rear the young when the

field mice were in plenty in the standing crops.

BHAVNAGAR. K. S. DHARMAKUMARSINHJI.

November 19, 1938.

XIV.—THE INDIAN GREAT HORNED OWL

[BUBO BUBO BENGALENSIS (FRANKL.)].

This morning to my delight I received news from my shikari

of the nest and eggs of the Indian Great Horned Owl (B. b.

bengalensis), a bird seldom seen at day and not found commonly

in these parts of Western India. We motored to the hillsga

distance of approximately seven miles from Bhavnagar, which are

now partly grazed and denuded of long grass. The hills are not

higher than 250 to 350 feet in elevation and as you progress the

chain becomes wider and the hill tops numerous.

The actual nest, which can hardly be called more than a scraping

in the earth, was under the shelter of three black, superposed rocks;

while on one side, were two small stones of the same type which

formed a screen against the evening sun. The nest cavity was

fairly large but not deep. The situation of the nest was half way

up the sloping side of a hill and facing North. The site must

have been selected so as to protect the eggs from direct sunlight.

The country round about is studded with Khakhra (Butea frondosa)

and Gorad trees of small size, the former more profuse, there are

cactus clumps to be seen. While the two sides of the particular

ravine showed numerous outcroppings of black rocks.

From across the ravine we sat and watched the parent owl

brooding with half-closed eyes, gazing at us now and then. The

sun was high but the overhanging rock sufficiently shaded the nest.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 175

I tried to approach the nest by walking nearer but when about 10

feet away, the bird took alarm and flew away, but not going

far, alighted amongst some rocks. I then saw the four white

spherical eggs, one of which was slightly soiled with a blood stain.

The hollow in which they were deposited was natural, there were

three castings two of them I recognized to be gerbilles. I took

a few photographs and then waited for half an hour for the bird

to return but was disappointed.

22nd December.—Saw the first young owl, the mother flew

away leaving the two white eggs and her naked, newly hatched

chick. One egg was missing and there was no trace of it. How

and by whom was it removed so carefully 1 wonder! The young

in down had its eyes closed and its pink skin showed wherever

the pure white fluffy down was wanting.

27th December.—As expected, all three young owls had hatched

and were growing rapidly. On this occasion I met with the male

bird which seemed decidedly smaller in size than the female.

Moreover, he never called like the female but watched me from

the top end of the ravine. The female, even though it was

12 o’clock in the morning, called once or twice in a very irritated

manner and then flew away as I came close to her. I spent the

day watching the birds as I had read that the Great Rock Owl

was a diurnal feeder. But during all my visits and observations

never did I once notice the owl feed at day time.

4th January.—Just before sundown I visited the nest again with

the three little baby owls in their soft smoky grey down. As I

approached, the parent bird flew a little way off and feigned to be

wounded. Coming to ground she began flapping her wings from

side to side on the ground and at the same time squealing. I had

seen similar performances by other birds, but this experience with

a Great Owl was astounding. Having had a look at the young,

I moved towards the greatly worried bird, she let me approach

to about 60 feet and then flew away. I waited to see whether

feeding would commence so sat down behind a bush. After sun-

down, as the moon rose, I could in the silence clearly hear the

young owls chattering in hunger. The mother bird now flew back

and perched on a rock higher up the hill and in a second began

to hoot. The hoot was a double note, whooo-whooo, which went

echoing into the hills. She emitted this call every half minute.

Then behind me and behind the hill I heard a new sound which

proved to be that of the male. He did not see me and flew up

to the nest, and spying me immediately flew off and circling round,

settled about forty feet away with his horns erect. Then he gave

out a few growls and the. next moment the female arrived and

commenced hooting again, but this time she gave out another sound

—a note of three syllables which sounded very weird and ominous.

I tried to see whether they would leave to procure food for the

young, but the male which was more quiet flew away, while the

female kept a very scrupulous guard upon me and followed me

until I left the hills.

6th January.—Today I was out exploring the grassy hills

endeavouring to shoot some Nilgai, as they had_ increased

m6 JOURNAL, BOMBAY (NATURAL HUSH FSOCIELY Volk sain

enormously and were causing damage to the neighbouring village

farms. After having reduced their number by half a dozen I met

a grass cutter, who on enquiry told me that he had seen a nest of

a Great Horned Owl with two young about ten days before. He

led me to and showed me the nest. It was situated on the side of

a hill, with a ravine below and much resembled the first nest I had

seen, except that this was a scraping in the long grass and was

not under any stone. Above it was a small thorny shrub and in

front a Khakhra bush. The nest was facing north like the other

nest, there were no rocks on that particular side of the hill but across

the ravine there were many. With close observation one could

distinctly see the white mutings of the parent birds on the black

boulders. The sole and only nestling that occupied the nest was

not at all aggressive nor did it hiss when I picked it up. It had

vermicellated markings on its downy feathers. There was no trace

of the second young as mentioned by the grass cutter. The white

mutings near the nest were conspicuous and I also found the

feathers of Quail, Painted Partridge and Common Partridge which

had evidently been killed to feed the young. There were no castings

or remains of other food mater. I was surprised not to see the

parent birds which are usually much on the qui vive, but I presume

that the fledgeling was large enough to leave the nest soon, the

parents did not take the same keen interest in guarding it. The

young bird’s eyes were precisely the same colour as the adult bird

and the down feathers browny-grey.

12th January.—A party of friends and myself decided to take

the parent birds and the nestlings for the Museum. We obtained

both the male and female. To our surprise and disappointment

we only saw two young owls in the nest one of which was

stone dead, the other seemed to be drooping, -What~ had

become of the third nestling? It was the same mystery as in

the case of the fourth egg. The thought brought me back to the

second nest, where there had been two young and now there was

only one.. Does the Great Horned Owl only feed one and leave

the rest to. die? or was there less food. There was plenty of

game in the close vicinity and as I searched the nest, I found

Painted Partridge, Common Partridge and egret feathers as well

as hare fur; this evidence convinced me that the supply was ample.

Then what could have happened to the young?

In front of the nest were scattered white mutings and a leg

and feathers of a Partridge. The young owl when disturbed snapped

causing a. click. made by the friction of the upper and lower

mandibles. This click sounds like a hard nut being cracked. The

sound is much more audible in the adult birds generally emitted

in anger and defence.

CONCLUSION.

1. The male in size is decidedly smaller than the female.

2. Both male and female share in rearing the young guarding

the nest.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES vas

3. The Great Horned Owl may feign injury to divert attention

from its nest. |

4. This Owl is not a diurnal feeder.

5. It does some damage to game and also kills water birds and

at the same time destroys harmful mammals.

6. The call varies from squeals and growls to resounding hoots.

It even hoots in broad daylight especially when there is a nest.

BHAVNAGAR. K. S. DHARMAKUMARSINHYJL.

Wanary 19, 1930.

XV.—THE INDIAN CRESTED SERPENT EAGLE

[SPILORNIS CHEELA CHEELA (LATH.)].

At 7-30 a.m. in the morning I took a drive in the park alone

intending to take some photographs of Nilgai. When nearing

a familiar bridge, I perceived in front of me two smallish eagles

perched on a Neem tree. I stopped the car at about twenty yards

distance, and at a glance I recognized one of the birds to be a

Tawny Eagle, whereas the second slightly larger bird was, a species

I had never seen before in these districts. It had a black crest,

golden yellow eyes and body of fulvous colour with white spots

on the flanks. It sat very upright and seemed to have long legs.

I was getting ready to take a picture when another car drove

opposite me and passing the tree scared away, first the tawny

eagle, and then the newcomer, which, without much agitation, flew

towards me and sat in a clump of thickly interlaced trees. This

brought the bird much closer to about 20 feet. I took two snaps

before it flew away. The bird was later shot for me by a shikari

and proved to be an Indian Crested Serpent-Eagle which I do not

believe has ever been recorded in Kathiawar.

BHAVNAGAR. kK. S. DHARMAKUMARSINHYJI.

November 22, 1938.

XVI.—DEATH OF A CURASSOW (CRAX SP.) CAUSED

BY CONGESTION OF THE OVIDUCT.

On the 19th May 1939, Mr. Ahamadi, the Superintendent of

the Victoria Gardens, Bombay, sent the Society the carcase of a

Curassow which had died in the Gardens. It was made over to

the skinner for disposal. Some time later the skinner returned

with a full term egg which he had found in the bird. As the

egg was badly stained black, I was anxious to discover the reason

for the peculiar colouration, which was undoubtedly a sign of

decomposition; so I carefully examined the specimen. The egg

was an old one. On blowing it out the contents appeared stale

and smelly. The bird, either could not void the egg, or was

disinclined to lay it, when mature, owing to uncongenial surround-

ings. Whatever the reason the egg remained in the oviduct, not

only obstructing it, but also causing an obstruction to the

178 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIS tT maSOCIET Vay olnm cal

alimentary canal against which it was pressing. In due course

decomposition must have set up, and the discolouration of the egg

was undoubtedly due to its products, as the egg is very deeply

stained and no amount of washing will remove the stain. The

intestines were affected by the putrefaction going on within, and

were bloated with gas. The death of the bird was undoubtedly

due to the congestion caused by the presence of the egg.

BomMmBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY C. McCANN.

BoMBAY.

May 20, 1939.

XVII.—SUPPOSED BREEDING OF -PINTAITL. SNIPE

[CAPELLA STENURA (BONAPARTE)] IN

BEEGAUM DISTRICT.

With reference’ to the note by Mr. O. He de St. Croix song

571 of vol. xl of our Journal I write to say that it is exceedingly

unlikely that the Pintail Snipe should breed in the Belgaum

district. May 5th is admittedly a late date for this species to be

found in the plains but it can be paralleled. William Davison,

for instance, met the Pintail Snipe in the Wynaad on 5 May

(S.f., x, 413) and substantiated his record by shooting a specimen.

As to the nests described by Mr. De St. Croix’s local informants

these were very likely those of the Painted Snipe. The site—in

the large grass on the bunds of rice fields—is in accordance with

Butler’s description in Hume and Marshall, iii, 387 and July is

an appropriate month.

(CALDBEE HOuSE, HUGH WHISTLER;:

BATTLE-SUSSEX.

April 4, 1939.

XVIITI.—OCCURRENCE OF THE SWINHOE’S SNIPE

[CAPELLA MEGALA (SWINHOE)] IN MYSORE.

It may be of interest to record the bagging of 3 Swinhoe’s Snipe

during the season 1938-9 within a 4o mile radius of Mysore City.

This is the first record I have of its occurrence in this area,

and it is evidently even less common there than in Malabar

as the following figures for the past 14 years show :—

Pintails Swinhoe

Mysore 1973 z or 1 to 658

Malabar Baek 19 or-1 to 280.

WIINCHCOMBE, E.G. PHY THITAN-ADAWIS:

KaLuaTTr P.O., NILGIRIS, Major I.A. (Retd.).

SoutTH INDIA.

April 20, 1939.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES ies)

MEG RECORDS OF SNIPE SHOT IN THE TINGRI

DISTRICT, ASSAM.

With reference to the note on ‘Arrival and stay of snipe in

Assam’, by Mr. R. E. Parsons, in vol. xl, No. 1 of the Journal,

the following may be of interest :—

For the Tingri District, North Lakhimpur, my records show

the following bags with the respective dates—

1936 April 4th - oe te Couple,

a 20th see tes) ‘3

1937 March 15th o 3); ”

April 10th v ee os .

» 24th = eee 0, r

May Ist ee ae ae, y3

While after duck on March 8th 1937, in the Sibsagar District,

I picked up 34 couple.

I am afraid I cannot say whether the above were Fantail or

Pintail as unfortunately I did not identify them at the time.

This year in this district, Sibsagar, I killed a couple of Pintail

on April roth and later saw a further couple, one bird on April

19th and one on April a2tst.

Although I have very frequently wandered around the spots,

where the above birds were killed, at all times of the year, I

have never come across any until well into the beginning of the

year, in fact we never thought of snipe until February-March.

DHOOLIE T.E.,

inrasar P. O., H.-R. De ROBEY:

ASSAM.

May 5, 1939.

XX.—BREEDING OF THE GREAT BLACK-HEADED GULL

(LARUS ICHTHYAETUS PALLAS).

Ludlow in his Birds of the Gyantse Neighbourhood—Southern

Tibet records that he saw on the Hram Tso some gulls which

did not appear to him to be Larus brunnicephalus but that he was

unable to obtain a specimen.

I have seen gulls there which were distinctly larger than L.

brunnicephalus and here in Lhasa two distinct species may be seen

Om the Kyichu river. Birds here are so fearless. that . close

observation is easy. I consider that the larger species is Larus

ichtyaétus. The appearance agrees with the description given by

Stuart Baker but I have not yet heard its ‘loud raucous cry’ only

a faint croak. Most of the birds are in winter plumage but one

or two have the black head of full plumage.

180 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLI

Owing to Tibetan religious scruples it is not possible to obtain

a specimen.

LuHasa, | H..E. RICHARDSON,

‘TIBET. 1.C.S:.

January 8, 1939.

XXI.—OCCURRENCE OF SHELDUCK (TADORNA

TADORNA) AND GODWITS ON THE CHILKACLAKE:

Last year I reported through Mr. Clough on the abnormal

quantity of Shelduck (Tadorna tadorna), on Chilka Lake. This

year, as usual, there are practically none. Although I looked at

a large number of Godwits with a powerful telescope, I was quite

unable to pick out another Snipe-billed, one of which I shot last

year. I do not think they can be identified unless taken in the

hand. I think, however, that quite a few are either trapped or

shot annually and that neither the sportsman nor the netter has

sufficient knowledge or the inclination to identify them.

4 ALIPORE Roap, Hi. Ay BOOKS:

CALCUTTA.

February 4, 19309.

XX. MABSERR AND UR Ter.

At about 8 a.m. on the 14th January 1939, His Excellency the

Marquess of Linlithgow was fishing in the Cauvery River about

2 miles from Seringapatam in a large pool. The bait used was

a mixture of atta and goor. About five minutes after the bait

had been thrown in, it was taken by a masheer which weighed

14 pounds. On landing the fish there was no bait on the hook,

but in the mouth of the fish was a turtle (Lissemys punctata)

alive. It is presumed that the turtle was feeding on the bait

which was at the bottom of the pool and the masheer took the

bait and turtle. His Excellency played the fish for about ten

minutes. The turtle, which is at present in Bombay, is none the

worse for its alarming experience, and is feeding freely.

VICEROY’S CAMP, C. G. TOOGOOD,

INDIA. Lt.-Col.

january 26,1039. Military Secretary to the Viceroy.

XXIIL=EXTENSION, OF “THE RANGE Orie

MICROHYLID FROG [UPERADON SYSTOMA (SCHN.)].

Last August I obtained two specimens of Uperadon systoma

(Schneider) at Agra: one, from the large rain-water drain between

the St. John’s College Staff Club grounds and the Hariparbat

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 181

Police Station; and the other from Nala Burhan Sayyad. The

former specimen might have come floating down from farther up,

and the latter was discovered hidden under an earthen jar of

water near a hut. |

The discovery of Uperadon systoma at Agra considerably

extends the range of the species north-west-wards. Boulenger

(1890)' gave for its habitat, ‘Carnatic, Biligirirangan Hills, Mysore,

Madras’, and Ferguson (1904)* found this burrowing frog ‘fairly

common in the low country’ in Travancore. Nieden (1926),°

probably on Boulenger’s testimony, says ‘Vorderindien’; whilst

Parker (1934) gives its distribution as ‘Southern and Eastern

India as far north as the valley of the Ganges; Ceylon.’ Parker

examined specimens from Madras, Russelconda (Madras Presi-

dency), Balarangam Hills, Malabar and Trivandrum, and _ Dr.

Malcolm Smith (British Museum, London), in a letter dated

September 9, 1938, assures me that the species has so far been

recorded only as far north as the C.P.

The colouration of the specimens found at Agra agrees in

general with the description given by Boulenger and Parker.

However, the throat is neither immaculate, nor faintly mottled

with brown, as mentioned by them. The lower lip is edged with

a distinct yellow border and the vocal sac, which lies flapped up

forwards, apposed to the throat, is coloured dark anteriorly, the

darkness showing through the skin.

I am indebted to Dr. Malcolm A. Smith for kindly confirming

my determination, and to Dr. Baini Prashad for the loan of

Parker’s ‘Monograph on the Microhylidae’ for reference.

ST. JOHN’S COLLEGE, BENI CHARAN MAHENDRA.

AGRA.

January 24, 19309.

XXIV.—NOTES ON PIERIS BRASSICAE IN CHAMPARAN.

1930.

February 8. Noticed a female P. brassicae.

February 17. More females appear.

March 5. $x+ grown larvae seen on cabbages in the

March 13. Larvae pupated.

March 24. Butterflies emerge.

April 15. Noticed full grown larvae of znd brood. (I went

on leave about this time and did not see them emerge.)

1931. Can find no record.

Boulenger, G. A.—Fauna Brit. Ind., Reptilia and Batrachia, 1890.

Ferguson, H. S.—Jouv. Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc., xv, p. 507, 1904.

* Nieden, Fr.—Das Tierreich, Anura II, p. 20, 1926.

* Parker, H. W.—‘A Monograph of the Frogs of the Family Microhylidae’,

Brit. Mus., London, 1934. |

182 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. eB

1932. February 1. Saw one female only P. brassicae. There

were no larvae seen this year.

December 21. Noticed one specimen of them. A very early

appearance.

1933. My only record is ‘last brood emerged on April 16th. | They,

must have been plentiful.’

1934. First appearance of a d on 22nd January.. Last brood

hatched out before 30th April.

1935. No butterflies appeared till middle February.

1936. The same note applies to this year.

1937. Butterflies seen in January and February in good numbers.

October 17. Noticed one Vanessa cardui on this date—an

early appearance for this place.

1938. Butterflies arrive early and larvae were in best form in

the arden,

1939. No butterflies were seen at all but I noticed full grown

larvae on the cabbage on 31st March—Magines emerged

on April r2th and 13th but not seen afterwards.

RAJGHAT CONCERN, A. C. HARMAN.

P.O. BETTIAH,

CHAMPARAN.

April 25, 1030.

XXV.—THE: MIGRATION OF BUTTERFLIES,

Having read Mr. C. B. Williams’ article in the last number

of the Society’s Journal, I am sending under separate cover

butterflies taken while flighting and the following are notes made

by me of a few instances of butterflies migrating, with the hope

they may be of some use.

Appias (Catophaga) paulina. Both d 2 flight in large numbers

during the early part of the year. Flying in a westerly direction

from Haputah (elevation 5,000 ft.) this flight is a regular occur-

rence and I have two records of the date of its commencement, in

1936 on March roth and 1937 March r1oth. This flight last for

four or five days and thousands of butterflies must pass by. They

are all going in one definite direction but do not fly very fast.

They fly at a height only just above the tea and go straight up

over any obstacle such asia" Strip Of -junele, Other butterflies

are amongst them but in no great numbers.

Another similar flight takes place in the latter part of the year.

This time in a more northerly direction. These flights do not

occur in the Dickoya District (samples of butterflies caught sent).

Papilio demoleus. Appeared in large numbers at Dickoya in

November and December 1937: and seemed to be flighting, I can

remember similar instances at Haputah. The rest of the year they

are not seen up-country. . .

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 183

Papilio (Pathysa) nomius. This butterfly was in large numbers

resting in wet sand by the roadside at Trincomalee, August 7th

1936. It was definitely not flighting; but this may be one of its

breeding centres.

Tyrameis cardui. Breeds on this estate (elevation 4,o00 ft.) in

large numbers throughout the year. The larva feeds on a weed

locally called Wild Chrysanthemum.

Atella phalantha. I have two records of this fly appearing in

large numbers but it does not seem to be flighting in any particular

direction. Haputah, October, November 1935 and from Dickoya

November 1937.

DUNBAR, J Nee CORB EA:

Dickoya, CEYLON.

Mepruary 6, 1030.

The following is a list of the Butterflies taken while flighting

byeni. IN. Corbett. 16-2-30.

1 Appias paulina 2°

2 ” 9 Se

3 5 ‘5 ne

4 5 is a

g) oe) g9 Sd

6 # 2

/ be) bP) of

8 9) 99 ot

3 ‘ J

10 yxy 3) of

11 A. venusta

12 be) dv) oh

13 99 ) g

14 99 9 of

15 Pathysa nomius

NG %

I) ” yt

137 a -

19 Atella phalantha

20 3 ”

21 9 om)

22 ” ”

se. ’) ?

Eps.

XXVIL—VARIATION IN THE LEAVES OF EUPHORBIA

CADUCIFOLIA HAINES. ;

(With 3 plates).

Euphorbia caducifolia was first described by Haines in the

Indian Forester, vol. xl, p. 154 in 1914. The following is the

184 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XLI

description of the leaves in the words of the finder:—Folia_cadu-

cissima juventute late-ovata margine crispato. The specimens were

collected from Satpura Hills and in the Raipur District of the

Central Provinces. ;

In the Botany of Bihar and Onssa,’ Part 11," 19621; )) tlaimes

again describes this species as having leaves broadly ovate with

crisped margin, becoming more oblong-obovate and cuspidate with

age, reaching 2-3 inches long and then falling. This description

is drawn from plants growing on rocks in the coast at Puri. ~

In 1923 C. E. C. Fischer in his Descriptive List of Forest Flora

of East Central Madras describes the leaves of his plants as

fleshy, rounded; 4-§ inch long and falling early. His description

was based on his observations of plants in the Palkonda Hills,

Yerramalais of Kurnool and in the Palnad of Guntur.

Fischer. again in Kew Bulletin, 1925, pp. 341-343 drew up a

further description of this species. The following is his descrip-

tion of the leaves:—Folia apice areolarum solitaria, ante anthesin

decidua, suborbicularia, acuta, crassa, carnosa, glabra 8-12 mm.

longa, leviter conduplicata, marginibus crispato-undulatis. Fischer’s

description is based on that of Haines and on his extensive observa-

tions of plants in the Cuddapah District.

My observations being limited to a portion of the Ceded

Districts of the Madras Presidency to two excursions of short

duration I have had no opportunity of seeing the plants which

Haines has described. However, I have been able to recognise

three forms of leaves which I have described below.

Form I.

A specimen collected by me at Guntakal in Bellary District,

Pl. I, fig. a, agrees with Fischer’s type. Another specimen,

Pl. I, fig. b, that I collected from Rayadrug of the same district

agrees with this except for the larger size of the leaves. Leaves

are thicker than in any other forms, light green, nerveless forming

a channel along the middle and hence concave on the inside and

convex on the outside, midrib not perceptible, 1 inch long and

almost as broad, margin very slightly undulate.

Form II.

In this. form, Pl. II, the leaf is “succulent, elliptic)” dagk

green, the midrib perceptible, secondary veins not perceptible, 24

inches long, 1$ inches broad, margine entire except for the forma-

tion of a single fold on either side somewhat below the apex, de-

pressed along the middle, apex in most cases acute with a sharp

point or rarely rounded. In. rare cases the marginal fold is absent.

In this form we notice an obscure beginning towards a crispate

margin. I collected this form from ‘Gooty Fort, Anantapur

DAStrict, 3

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE I

, a.

Variation in leaves of Euphorbia caducifolia Haines.

Form 1!

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Variation in leaves of Euphorbia caducifolia Haines.

Form Il

PLATE II

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE III

Variation in leaves of Euphorbia caducifolia Haines.

Form III

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 185

Form III.

‘In this form, Pl. III, the apex is drawn out to a short point

and the margin is crispate. The leaf is elliptic, 24 inches long

14 inches broad. In thickness colour and venation it resembles

From II. I collected this plant from near Gooty Town.

In all the three forms the leaves appear about July and shrivel

and fall off completely before December. All the above forms

were grown from cuttings in Madras in the garden of the

Government Museum under identical conditions for purposes of

investigation.

USEs.

In the Ceded Districts this species is known as kola jammudu

among the Telugus and bala galli among the Kannada people. A

few leaves taken with betel leaf and areca nut is considered a

eure for malaria. The milky juice is believed to be a remedy in

cases of fractures, the injured part being anointed with the juice

and bandaged and cold water poured over the bandage. The

stems are planted to form live fences. They are used as. green

manure or are burnt for fuel.

PLATES.

Drawings of this species have not appeared so far and hence

the following plates drawn to natural size may be found useful.

They also show the transition from Form I, a to b and_ thence

through Form If to ITI.

GOVERNMENT MUSEUM, P. V. MAYURANATHAN,

MADRAS Curator, Botany Section.

ebruary 132, 1030.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING

OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

The Annual General Meeting of Members of the Bombay Natural

History Society was held on Tuesday the 18th April at 5 p.m. in

the Prince of Wales Museum; His Excellency the Governor of

Bombay presiding.

AGENDA.

i. Reading of the Annual Report of the Committee.

2. Presentation of the Balance Sheet and Statement of Accounts for the

past year.

3. Election of the Committee.

The Honorary Secretary announced the election of 28 new members since

the last meeting held on 28th July 1938 :—

Dr. R. V. Clayton, v.D., M.B., B.S., etc. Bandra; H. H. the Maharaja Saheb

Dewas Junior, Dewas State; Col. Kenneth Comyn, R.a.m.c., Meerut; Rajah

of Ettaiyapuram, The Palace, Ettaiyapuram, Tinnevelly Dist.; Mr. F. Woolley

Smith, Hoogrijan P.O., Assam; Mr. Sayed Mohammed Ali, Cawnpore; Mr.

G. R. Leonard, Pahang, F.M.S.; Shreemant Capt. Y. B. Pawar, Yuvaraj

Dewas, Junior Branch; H. H. the Maharaja Sir Sawai Mansinghji Bahadur,

G.c.LE., Jaipur State; Mr. R. J. A. Moore, Travancore; Dr. M. H. Weinberg,

M.D., Bombay; The Mess Secretary, 10/7th Rajput Regiment, Fatehgarh, U.P. ;

Major J. H. B. Lowe, R.£., Wana, Waziristan; Major J. R. West, Hongkong ;

Mr. L. J. D. Fraser, t.a., Landikotal, N.-W.F.P.; Mr. E. Burnham Chamberlain,

Charleston, South Carolina, U.S.A.; Lt. Gavin Nott, Almora, U.P os) 9M

D’Arcy Weathenbe, F.R.G.s., Hongkong; H. H. Raja Anand Chand of Bilaspur

State, Punjab; Mr. G. Critchley, Bombay; The Librarian, Dartmouth College

Library, Hanover, New Hampshire, U.S.A.; Mr. Charles S. Ogilvie, Pahang,

F.M.S.; Mr. Dwijapati Maitra, Calcutta; Mr. N. H. Barne, Calcutta; Mr.

James McPherson, London; H. H. Raja of Jawhar, Jawhar State; Mr.

C. B. Redway, Penang, F.M.S., Kumar Shree Dharmakumarsinhji, Bhavnagar.

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

OFFICE BEARERS—1939.

Patron.—H. E. The Viceroy of India.

Vice-Patrons.—-H. E. H. The Nizam of Hyderabad, G.c.s.1., G.B.E.; H. H.

The Maharaja of Baroda; H. H. The Maharaja of Travancore, G.c.1.£.; H. H.

The Maharao of Cutch, G.c.s.1., G.c.1.e.; H: H. The Maharaja of Jodhpur

G.C.1.E,, .K.C:S.1., K.c.v.0:4 H.-H. The Maharajadhicay of Patiala; ii") heen

Maharaja of Rewa, k.c.s.1.; H. H. The Maharaja of Bhavnagar, XK.c.S.1.;

H. H. The Nawab of Junagadh, G.c.1.e., K.c:s.1.; Sir David Ezra, Kty) rizisee

F.. V. Evans, Esq.; A. S. Vernay, Esq.; Lt.-Col. K. G. Gharpurey, saaes

(Retd:)s° W..°S. Millard,” Esq... 2.2.5.

The following gentlemen were elected to serve on the Managing Committee

for the ensuing year :—

President.—H. E. Sir Lawrence Roger Lumley, G.c.1.E., D.tL.

Vice-Presidents.—-H. H. The Maharao of Cutch, G.c.S.1.,. G.C.1.E.; Rev.

Fr. J. Bo ‘Caius, S.:, Fiu:S.> and. Ri Revd- ak pe sAcland sanmas

Executive Committee.—Mr. Farrokh E. Bharucha; Mr. A. Forrington; Mr.

J. B. Greaves, m.t.a.; Mr. M. J. Hackney; Mr. R. E. Hawkins; Mr, 105sGa

Hill; Lt.-Col, W. C. Spackman,. 1.m:s.; ‘Lt.-Col. S. S. Sokhey, 11s;

F. Wadia; Mr. P. M. D. Sanderson, F.z.s. (Honorary Secretary); Mr. H. M.

McGusty (Honorary Treasurer).

PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS 187

Advisory Commutiee.—Dr. C. F.. C. Beeson, b.sc., M.A., 1.F.S.; Lt.-Col.

wa ee burtom, 1A. (Retd.); Mr. ©. H. Donald, F.z:s.; Dr. F. H. Gravely, p.sc. ;

Vieee Ni, Inglis; B.E., M.B.0.U., F:Zis.; Mr. R, ©. Morris, F.R.G:S., F.Z:S. ;

Major E. G. Phythian-Adams, F.z.s., 1.4. (Retd); Dr. Baini Prashad, p.sc.;

Meine. Smith, FS, 5 Lt.-Col. CC. G,. Toogood, ¢.1.E..D:s.0.; Mr. J, H.

Williams.

ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

POR THE YEAK. ENDING gist DECEMBER 1038.

ADMINISTRATION.

President.—H. E. Sir Roger Lumley, G.c.1.8., D.L.

Vice-Presidents—H. H. The Maharao of Cutch, G.c.8.1., G.c.1.E.; Rev.

ieee Caius, S.j.; Rt. Revd. -R. D. Acland, M:a.

Executive Committee.—Mr. Farrokh E. Bharucha; Mr. A. Forrington; Mr.

lee BD. Greaves, M.L.A.; Mr. M. J. Hackney; Mr. D. G. Hill; Mr. H. L.

shoveller; Lt.-Col. W. C. Spackman, 1.m.s., Lt.-Col. S: S. Sokhey, 1.M.s.;

Dees. A. Wilkinson, M.R.c.S., L.R.c.P.; Mr, F. Wadia; Mr. P. M. D2.

Sanderson, F.Z.s. (Honorary Secretary); Mr. H. M. McGusty (Honorary

Treasurer), Bombay.

Advisory Commuttee.—Dr. C. F. C. Beeson, pD.sc., M.a., 1.F.S., Dehra Dun;

me-Col K. W. Burton,. 1.4. (Retd.), Coonoor; Mr. C. H. Donald, F.z.s.,

Dharamsala; Dr. F. H. Gravely, p.sc.. Madras; Mr. C. M. Inglis, B.k.,

Major E. G. Phythian-Adams, F.z.s., 1.4. (Retd.), Nilgiris; Dr. Baini Prashad,

pase... Calcutta; Mr. H.-C. Smith, 1.7.s., Maymyo; Lt.-Col. C. G. Toogood,

C.1.E., D.S.o., Delhi; Mr. J. H. Williams, Coimbatore.

Siajj—5. HH. Prater, M.L.A., J.P:, C.M.Z.S. (Curator); C. -McCann, F.L:s.

(Assistant Curator).

THE HONORARY SECRETARY’S REPORT

FOR THE YEAR 1038.

The Society’s Journal.—The Journal entered upon its xl

volume. Three numbers were issued during the year under review.

MAMMALS.

Among the papers on Mammals, Mr. Theodore Hubback’s

article on the Malayan Gaur or Seladang is of particular interest.

Lydekker differentiated the Gaur inhabiting the forests of the Malay

Peninsula as a separate racial form, distinguishable from the Indian

Gaur by the smaller development of the cranial ridge Letween the

horns, so pronounced in the Indian Gaur, by its colour and mark-

ings, and by the presence of a dewlap. Mr. Hubback indicates

that the presence of a dewlap cannot be regarded as a distinctive

character of the Malayan animal. As with gaur in India, the

development of a dewlap is a purely individual distinction. Mr.

Hubback regards the Gaur as a comparatively recent immigrant

into the Malay countries, and considers that its existence in this

region has been made possible through human agency. Gaur take

shelter in forest but feed mainly in open grazing grounds and

clearings. As such, the Malay Peninsula, covered except for the

188 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL’ HIST? SOCLETY, Vol. XE?

summits of its highest mountains, with dense forest was originally

unsuitable as a habitat for these animals. The extension of their

range into the Malay countries was made possible, not by the

aboriginal tribes who live mainly by hunting or on forest produce, but

by subsequent and more recent settlers. These lived by cultivation

and made clearings in what was originally virgin forest land and so

provided gaur with grazing grounds essential to their existence.

Mr. Hubback’s contention supports the theory that the Gaur

originated in India. The fossil remains of an ancestral form of

gaur (Bos namadicus), which had much larger horns than the

Gaur of our times, have been discovered in the Pleistocene beds

in India. From India, it is believed its present day descendants

have spread by way of Assam and Burma into the Malay countries.

Mr. Hubback writes of the ways and habits of the Gaur in the

Malay jungles. Based on personal observation over many years,

his paper is a valuable contribution to the natural history of the

animal, and his fine photographs add much to its attractiveness.

Mr. Hubback is pessimistic about the future of this magnificent

animal in Malaya. His opinions, as an eminent authority on the

conservation of Wild Life, must command attention. Mr. Hubback

indicates that the only hope for the larger wild animals of Malaya

is the provision and rigid maintenance by Government of sanctu-

aries, whose boundaries must remain inviolable and whose sole

purpose must be the protection from human interference of the

wild animals they contain. Reductions in the areas so reserved,

for whatever purpose, if once permitted, would establish a precedent

which would lead eventually to the sacrifice of these ultimate

refuges in which wild animals can find their sole chance for survival.

BIRDS.

Scientific Surveys.—In 1923, His Highness the Maharaja of

Jodhpur accepted the offer made by the Society to carry out an

Ornithological Survey of his State and very generously made a

grant of money for this purpose. The survey was carried out by

Mr. V. S. LaPersonne, then Assistant Curator of the Society:

Mr. LaPersonne worked in the field from October to January 1923.

The collection made by him provides a picture of the bird life of

the State during this period of the year. The avifauna of Jodhpur

is mainly typical of that of the neighbouring provinces of Sind,

Rajputana and the southern districts of the Punjab, where similar

conditions of climate, soil and plant life prevail. As the bird life

of these adjoining areas had already been investigated and reported

upon, the survey of Jodhpur was not expected to produce any

new data, but it helped to give more precise information of an

area about which there was actually little on record. Supplement-

ing the data obtained through the survey with previous records,

Mr. Whistler’s report of the Survey of Jodhpur gives a list of all

the species known to occur within the State. His report serves

as a basis for such future workers as may wish to make a more

exhaustive and critical study of the ornithology of Jodhpur. The

PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS 189

thanks of the Society are due to His Highness the Maharaja of

Jodhpur and to his Government for the assistance given to the

Society in carrying out this work.

Our grateful acknowledgments are also due to Mr. Whistler

whose work has been associated so intimately with various Ornitho-

logical Surveys carried out by the Society, and whose careful and

detailed reports on the collections made have added so much to

the value of this work.

During the year under review the Ornithological Survey was

extended from Jodhpur eastwards into the Central Indian States.

The territories covered being Bhopal, Gwalior, and Indore.

Bhopal and Gwalior were worked between January and April; while

the Survey of Indore State was undertaken in August and September

specially to provide data of monsoon bird life. The thanks of the

Society are due to the Rulers of these States for monetary grants

made to the Society and for other facilities given to our collectors

in the field. The Surveys were carried out by Mr. Salim Ali, whose

reports with notes by Mr. Whistler will be published in the Journal.

There are few workers in the field who are making a greater

contribution to recent progress in Indian Ornithology than Mr. Salim

Ali. During the past eight years he has carried out important

Ornithological Surveys organized by the Society in various parts

of India. Mr. Ali’s knowledge of all that is essential to successful

field collecting and his keenness and love for the work have con-

tributed greatly to the success of his field work and have added

much to the interest and value of his reports. We gladly take this

opportunity of expressing our thanks and appreciation of his

Bervices to the Society.

During the year, arrangements were made with the Bahawalpur

Government for a survey of Bahawalpur State, and our thanks

are due to His Highness the Maharaja and his Government for

contribution of Rs. 3,000 towards the expenses of this survey.

Mr. Salim A. Ali will carry out this survey on behalf of the

Society early in 1939.

Arrangements have also been made for an Ornithological Survey

of the State of Mysore in co-operation with the American Museum

of Natural History, New York. The Society has been anxious for

many years to survey this territory to complete its surveys of the

avifauna of Southern India. We wish to thank His Highness and

his Government for giving the Society permission to carry out this

survey and for the contribution they have agreed to make towards

the cost.

Birds of the Laccadive Islands.—Papers on Birds included Mr.

Betts’ account of observations made during his visit to the Lac-

cadive Islands. The only previous account of the bird life of these

islands is Hume’s report of a visit he made in February, 1873.

Unfortunately Mr. Betts’ report is based on observations made

during an identical period of the year. Mr. Betts’ report indicates

that the Laccadive Islands, with their limited range of plant life

and corresponding scarcity of insect life, provide an unsuitable

environment for settlement by birds. Only two species appear to

have established themselves, the Crow, probably introduced by

199 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLI

human agency, and the White-eye. The remainder of the species

met with were passage migrants. The author comments upon the

scarcity of sea birds in the neighbourhood of the main islands

during the time of his visit.

Southern India.—Mr. Biddulph’s paper on the birds of Rames-

waram Island covers observations made over a period of two years.

It is an interesting study of the birds of an island, situated close

to the mainland, in the path of movement between India and Ceylon,

where general conditions are favourable to the existence of a more

abundant and varied bird life. As series of skins for purposes of

comparison were not collected by the author, it was not possible

to ascertain whether the resident species of the Island exhibited

any differentiation from the forms inhabiting the mainland or

Ceylon. Mr. Biddulph’s observations will serve as a basis for

future workers. His paper is the first comprehensive record of

the avifauna of the Island; the information he makes available helps

in many instances to supplement the data obtained by the surveys

in South India.

Other contributions to the ornithology of Southern India include

Mrs. A. Barnes’ paper on birds observed in and near Tambaram,

Chingleput District, some 16 miles south-west of Madras, and

supplementary papers on the Birds of Hyderabad by Mr. S. A. Ali,

and on the Birds of Travancore and Cochin by Mr. J. B. Primrose.

Mr. Ali adds nine species, not previously recorded in his report of

the Survey of Hyderabad, and gives additional data establishing

the status of species obtained during the survey or confirming

species included in his original list on sight records. Mr. Primrose’s

observations on Travancore birds is the result of two visits to

Munnar, made between April and June 1937, and April and May,

1938. He adds considerably to the list of species recorded from

the Munnar area during the recent survey. Mr. Betts’ paper on

the Birds of a Coorg Down, deals with a section of the boundary

line between two distinctive ornithological zones in South India—

the dry zone represented by the central plateau and the wet zone

covering the Western Ghats and its spurs. Mr. Betts’ observations

indicate that the dry zone types, which predominate in this boundary

area, are mainly species or sub-species typical of the greater part

of India, while the wet zone forms are those limited to the south-

west of the Peninsula. Further, while the purely wet zone species

are rarely found outside their characteristic habitat, there is an

annual westerly invasion of dry zone birds into the wet zone in

the cold weather, and a retreat just before the rains. In distinction

to long distance migrants, the movement from the dry into the

wet zone is not general or uniform. Different species enter, remain

within, or leave the wet zone in response to their particular needs.

Bombay.—Parts IV and V of the Birds of Bombay and Salsette

by Messrs. Salim Ali and Humayun Abdulali were published during

the year. The passerine species are concluded and the serial is

carried as far as the Game Birds—the concluding part dealing with

waders and aquatic birds will be published with the first number

of 1939, when it is proposed to issue the articles in book form.

PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS 191

Kashmir.—Major R. S. P. Bates writes an account of a photo-

graphic expedition through the Upper Wardwan Valley in_ the

Kashmir Province of Kishtwar and gives notes on the breeding of

various species, illustrated with a number of beautiful photographs.

Most attractive to readers of the Journal are Mr. Lowther’s

notes on Indian Birds. In Part III of the series published during

the year Mr. Lowther writes on ‘Birds in my Garden’. Mr.

Lowther is to be congratulated not only on the excellence of his

photographs but also on what he writes. Based on a store of

experience, the result of many years of patient bird watching, his

article makes deligthful and interesting reading.

REPTILES AND FISHES.

In his paper on the Taxonomic Description of Rhinophts

travancoricus, Mr. Beni Charan Mahendra, proposes certain changes

in the taxonomic description of this species.

A paper on the Reptiles of Cutch State was contributed by

Mr. ©. McCann. It is based on a collection made by the author

during a three weeks’ tour of the great Rann, and on material in

the Society’s collection and other recorded data.

Game Fishes of India.—Parts IV and V of this serial were

published during the year under review. Part IV deals with

Silonia silondia, one of the large cat-fishes, which from its voracious

habits and powerful build, is sometimes described along with other

large cat-fishes under the general name of ‘Fresh Water Sharks’.

Part V deals with a second species of these large cat-fishes

(Pangasius). Dr. Hora’s papers form a valuable contribution to

Indian Icthyology and should provide students and laymen with

helpful information. But the Society’s aim in publishing: articles

went a little further. It was originally intended that these articles

should follow the general lines of Stuart Baker’s Game Birds of

India and provide information on the lives and habits of the fishes

described. While information on the natural history of Indian

Birds is generally available, little has been recorded of the ways

and habits of Indian Fishes. For such information the author is

largely dependent on the co-operation of the readers of the Journal.

We repeat the appeal we originally made to anglers and others

interested in fish and fishing to send us their notes and observa-

tions and so help to add to the popular and general interest of

these articles. There are, we feel sure, among our members, many

who could send us interesting notes on their fishing experiences

and we should greatly appreciate and gladly acknowledge such

assistance.

Aerial vision in fishes.—In an interesting article on the fresh-

water Grey Mullet (Mugil corsula), Dr. Hora discusses the origin

of aerial vision in fishes. He differs in his views from the theory

put forward by Noble that the development of aerial vision in

fishes, which possess this power, commenced with a bifocal stage

as is exhibited in Anableps, the ‘Four-eyed fish’ of Tropical

America. In this species the eye is divided by an ingrowth of the

i9f JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLi

iris into an upper section designed for use above, and a lower

section for use below water. Hora considers that the complicated

structure of the eyes in Anableps has been specialized and perfected

under the peculiar conditions and habits of life of these fishes. The

species feeds on the ‘floating material which it encounters in the

dual realm of air water.’ Whereas in the case of estuarine fishes,

such as the Gobies, which at low tide are left in hundreds on our

mud flats, and the Grey Mullet, aerial vision was acquired without

undergoing the preliminary stage of bifocal vision developed in

Anableps.

In Part III of the Fishes of Deolali, Dr. Hora continues ‘his

report on the collection of fresh water fishes made at Deolali by

Mr. A. G. L. Fraser. Part III gives a complete list of the mei

fauna of Deolali, and describes two new species of Barbus and

Parapsilorynchus. This concludes a valuable report on the fishes

of this area made possible by the very complete material collected

by Mr. Fraser. Our acknowledgments are due both to Dr. Hora

and Mr. Fraser for the work which has been done. A tomplete

set of the fishes obtained has been placed in the Society’s collection.

In his paper on the Bionomics of Panchax lineatus, Mr. Fraser

puts forward an interesting explanation of the ‘silver spot’ or

star-like marking so prominent on the head of these little fishes.

The mosquito eating propensities of the genus Panchax are well

known. Fraser’s observations showed that P. lineatus has the

habit of lying for long periods on the surface of the water, a

position in which the ‘silver spot’ on its head, its brilliance height-

ened by reflected light, becomes prominently noticeable. Fraser’s

theory is, that the bright silver marking serves to attract insects;

as such, in Panchax we have a fish which is not only an active

agent in destroying adult mosquitoes, but is also a trap for alluring

these pests to their destruction. The theory advanced for the first

time is well worth investigation.

Dr. Hamid Khan’s paper on the food of the Brown Trout is

a useful contribution to the question underlying the successful estab-

lishment and maintenance of Trout Fisheries in India. No precise

information was so far available on the food and feeding habits of

the Brown Trout in places where it has been introduced in India.

The paper deals with Trout in the Beas River in Kulu, and is based

on the examination of the stomach contents of some 102 specimens

taken at different seasons. The investigations show that the food

of the Brown Trout in this area consists mainly of aquatic and

terrestrial insects, of young fishes, and frogs and lastly of snails and

crustacea in negligible quantities. The investigations also indicate

that the fish have a restricted food supply after the rains owing to

the disturbance caused by the floods and that, owing to the scarcity

of winged flies, the Trout in the Beas are largely bottom feeders.

INVERTEBRATES

We are able during the year to resume publication of Martin

Mosely’s articles on Indian Caddis Flies. A feature of these papers,

which when completed will constitute the standard work on the

PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS 193

subject in India, are the many fine plates, so invaluable to students.

The considerable expense involved in their production compelled the

Society to suspend publication until funds were forthcoming. Thanks

to the generosity of Mr. F. V. Evans, a Vice Patron of the Society,

who offered to contribute towards the cost, we have been able to re-

sume publication. Part V which appeared during the year, deals

with the family Sericostomatidae and contains descriptions of 7

new species.

During the year we commenced publication of Mr. D. G.

Sevastopulo’s papers on the Early Stages of Indian Lepidoptera.

Part of the work already appeared in the Entomologist’s Record and

is being republished with additions and amendments. Descriptions of

the early stages of Indian Lepidoptera, commonly available to work-

ers in India in such works as Hampson’s volumes on Moths in the

Fuana of British India, and in Seitz’s Macrolepidoptera, are vague,

incomplete and often incorrect. Mr. Sevastopulo’s papers are

intended to provide new data or to supplement incomplete

information and to correct, where necessary, inaccurate data.

An interesting contribution to the Journal is Dr. C. B. William’s

paper on the Migration of Butterflies in India. While the migra-

tions of birds, mammals or of such insects as locusts, have attracted

much study and attention, until recently, litthke was known or

recorded about the migrations of butterflies. In North America,

the Monarch Butterfly (Danais plexippus) flies in great numbers

each autumn from Southern Canada to Florida and Mexico and

returns to the northern area in spring. Similar migrations take

place between Great Britain and the Continent. Out of 68 species

known to occur in the British Isles, 14 are completely dependent

on migration from the Continent for their continued existence in

Britain. Owing to insufficient study, little is known about the

migration of butterflies in India, though flights of butterflies have

been known to occur here for many years and a few observers have

sent in their observations. The most important contribution to

the subject was made by Mr. J. Evershed,-F.R.S., who was for

many years Director of the Observatory at Kodaikanal, in the

Palni Hills, where he observed and recorded directional flights of

butterflies on numerous occasions between 1907 and 1914. Dr.

Williams in giving a résumé of all the information available on

Butterfly Migration in India, makes a special appeal to the readers

of the Journal to send in their observations of directional flights of

butterflies whether seen in large or small numbers. What is want-

ed is the locality, the date and direction of the flight, and, secondly,

specimens of insects taken actually in flight for purpose of identi-

fication; even one or two specimens would be useful and 50 are

none too many. The state of preservation of the specimens so

collected is not of major importance. Other data which would be

helpful to the study of the problem are such facts as the direction

of the wind, the height of the insects above the ground and weather

conditions; in fact, any information which might strike the collector

as being relevant to the movements of the butterflies. It is known

that other insects also migrate. Dragonflies, for instance, are

known to migrate in large numbers in many parts of the world;

i94 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLI

but there are practically no records of such movements from

India.

Other contributions on Insects include notes on the Butterflies

of Kashmir by Col. W. M. Logan Home, and the description of

a new Coccidium (Isospora minuta) by M. Das-Gupta of the

Department of Zoology, Calcutta University.

Economic Entomology is represented by Mr. T. V. Sulbree

manyam’s paper on the Moth, Metanastria hyrtaca, which is one

of the more serious pests of cultivated crops in South India;

Mr. Brahmachari’s paper on the Bionomics of a Bagworm

(Kophene cuprea), which at times does appreciable damage to

Banana Plantations; and Mr. T. V. Ramakrishna Ayyar’s

observations on two caterpillars of economic importance not

previously recorded from South India.

Mr. Subramanyam ’s article on the Protective Adaptations of

Spiders describes the ingenious devices adopted by Indian spiders

to protect themselves or secure their food. Little is known of the

ways and habits of Indian spiders, and it is hoped that the author’s

paper will interest readers in this subject.

BOTANY.

Two important and interesting contributions published during

the year deal with the countries of origin of two well known trees

in India—the Cocoanut Palm and the Sandalwood tree. Writing

on .the. original home of the Cocoanut, Mr. P. V. Mayuranathan

provides evidence to indicate that the palm first evolved in what

is probably now submerged land to the north west of New Guinea.

Its dispersal was affected both by natural and human agencies.

The nuts drifting eastwards and westwards over calm tropical seas

came to ground and so established the palm from islet to islet

in the Southern Pacific. Apart from such accidental transporta-

tion, its spread was effected by seafaring Polynesian tribes who

carried and established the tree in the islands of the Pacific Ocean,

and by Malayan sea rovers, who brought it into the Malay

countries. From Malaya, it was probably brought to India by

the once maritime Tamils and by the ancient mariners of the

Bengal Coast. As regards the place of origin of the Sandalwood

tree, Mr. C. E. C. Fischer is of opinion that the Sandalwood

tree did not originate in India. After marshalling the evidence

for and against its Indian origin, the author puts forward the

theory that at a remote period, a scented wood, or woods, was

produced by a tree growing mainly in Southern India. This

scented wood was used for various purposes and went by the name

of Chandan. Later, the wood of what is now known as the

Sandalwood tree (Santalum album) began to be imported and, as

it became more and more available, it gradually replaced the

indigenous wood. The imported article, at first described under the

same name, Chandan, eventually completely appropriated the name.

Later the plant itself was introduced and slowly established itself

in this country. There is little doubt that the tree is indigenous

‘n Timor Island and in one or two neighbouring islands east of

PROCEEDINGS AND. ACCOUNTS 195

Java, from whence it was exported from the earliest times and

from whence it was brought and planted by Indian settlers in the

Malay. countries, especially in the vicinity of their temples. The

peculiar distribution of the tree and its limited range in India, up

to the commencement of the present century, are also factors which

are against the theory of its origin in this country.

Rev. Father Caius, continues his series of articles on Medicinal

and Poisonous Plants of India. The articles published during the

year deal with the Medicinal and Poisonous Spurges (Euphorbi-

aceae), to which the plants commonly referred to as ‘cactus’ in

India belong, the Nymphaeaceae, aquatic perennial herbs, such

as the water lilies, poppyworts, etc., and with the Magnoliaceae,

which include a number of aromatic trees and shrubs. Fr. Caius’

articles are particular opportune at a time when the policy of

Provincial Governments is being directed to the development of

indigenous systems of medicine, and to the wider employment of

indigenous drugs.

A paper on the Plants of Kuwait, based on collections made

over a period of nine years, was contributed by Mrs. V. Dickson.

Her list of species considerably supplements Mr. Humphrey

Carter’s paper in the Records of the Botanical Survey of India on

the flora of this State.

Mr. N. Sayeedud-Din supplemented his previous paper on the

flowering plants of Hyderabad State (published in the Journal of

the Asiatic Society of Bengal) with a further contribution on

material since collected by him.

Horticulturists in India will be interested in Mrs. Robinson’s

article on the raising of Hibiscus plants from seeds. Most species

of Hibiscus, so attractive and popular in our gardens, are propa-

gated from cuttings and rarely produce seed. Mrs. Robinson gives

information regarding three varieties, which from the colour of

mie towers she calls ‘Peach’, ‘Sunrise’ and ‘Cherry’, which

produce seed freely. The beautiful coloured plate issued with the

article is the work of the author to whom our thanks are due.

Forthcoming Publications.—We are glad to announce the

forthcoming publication of a series of articles on the Beautiful

Flowering Shrubs and Climbing Plants of India by Dr. N. L. Bor,

Forest Botanist, Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun, and _ his

colleague Mr. M. B. Raizada. Dr. Bor, proposes that his articles

Should follow more or less the lines of Blatter, and Millard’s book

on Beautiful Indian Trees, which first appeared in the Journal.

We feel sure that Dr. Bor’s idea will commend itself to horti-

culturists and lovers of gardens in India. There are so many

beautiful shrubs and climbers in our gardens, which people would

like to name and to know something about. These articles will

help them. They will be as attractively illustrated as the serial

on trees. Specimen illustrations executed by the artist of the

Dehra Dun Institute, have been submitted to us. They are of

a very high standard and will secure general appreciation. A

list of the species to be included in the serial has been sent to us

by Dr. Bor. Mr. W. S.. Millard, late Honorary Secretary of

the Society and a noted horticulturist, has made suggestions in

—

196 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY Ye Vola er

regard to the species to be dealt with, and has very kindly placed

his fine collection of paintings at the disposal of the Society. Our

thanks are due to Dr. Bor and his collaborator for their kind

offer to write this serial, and to Mr. W. S. Millard, for his welcome

offer of assistance.

Ever since his retirement from India, 20 years ago, Mr. Millard

has continued his intimate association with the Society by acting

as the Society’s representative in London. The work, implying

as it does continuous dealings with the Society’s printers and

publishers in London, has involved considerable labour and sacrifice

of time, which Mr. Millard has generously given to the Society.

We take this opportunity of expressing to him the sincere thanks

and appreciation of the Committee and Members of the Society.

In concluding this review of the Society’s work during the

year, we wish to express our thanks to all members who have

contributed notes and articles to the Journal. By their co-oper-

ation they are continuing that fine tradition of voluntary help

which has been the mainstay of the Society since it was founded

more than half a century ago. The forty volumes of its Journal,

and its magnificent collections have been brought into being almost

exclusively by the generous, voluntary help of members. We hope

that the Society will long continue to receive the benefit of such

assistance and support. It is particularly in regard to the Journal

that. the co-operation of members is most needed. The Society’s

Journal has contributed immensely to the progress of Natural

Science in India. This is only one aspect of its purpose. Equal-

ly important is the creation of a wider interest in and the spread

of knowledge of Natural History: To succeed here the Journal

must contain articles which. are intelligible and attractive to the

layman and the general reader. In the more spacious days of the

past, there were many people in India, who made Natural History

their hobby and who contributed their notes to the Journal, and

there were many again who sent us interesting accounts of shikar

and travel. More rigid conditions in India to-day are limiting

time and leisure. Commercial periodicals and papers, which are

in a position to pay well for popular contributions, have also

entered into the field and have further limited the range of volun-

tary effort. Under these conditions, the Society is finding it difh-

culty to secure voluntary contributions of a popular nature for the

Journal. We feel sure that there are many among our readers

who could help us to make the Journal what we want it to be—

more attractive and more interesting to the layman. The Society

appeals to its members for this assistance and support. The

Journal is what we, working together, can make it.

The Museum.—The New Natural History wing of the Prince

of Wales Museum, where the Society’s collections are housed,

was opened to the public by H.E. Sir Roger Lumley, Governor

of Bombay, on Thursday the 17th March. A private view of the

galleries was arranged for members of the Society on the day

previous to the opening.

In the design of the New Wing a special effort was made to

provide for the more effective control of lighting and the more

PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS 197

advantageous use of space. The windows are placed at a height

of 8 feet above the floor level. This directs the volume of light

from above and provides for its more even distribution. The

superior position of the windows also leaves a continuous and

unbroken wall space below them, thus providing the maximum

exhibition area. Provision was also made in the design of the

new galleries for several large electrically illuminated dioramas

which are such an interesting and attractive feature in modern

Natural History Museums. The new wing so far completed is but

part of a larger plan for the Natural History Museum. It includes

only the Paine galleries. The construction of that part of the

building which is to house the research collection, laboratories,

lecture room and library has been postponed till funds are available.

The present entrance to the Natural History Section opens on to

the Bird Gallery.

Colour Schemes.—The impression on entering is one of space,

to which is added the pleasing effect of an attractive colour scheme.

In this gallery the dark green of the show cases with their alu-

minium metal facings and the pale green of the walls produce an

altogether restful and pleasing impression. There is nothing of

that atmosphere of heaviness and artificiality so inseparable from

many of the older museums. There is light, space and colour.

Different colour schemes are introduced in each gallery. The object

is always to present something fresh to the eye, to renew and

maintain the interest of the visitor.

The use: of mural paintings for the decoration of the walls is

yet another development in modern museum technique. Apart

from their purely decorative effect, the murals have a distinct

educational value. They are a clear and simple means of trans-

mitting ideas and stimulating interest. Large murals in the fish

gallery illustrate the fishing industry in the Bombay Presidency and

give an added interest and meaning to the exhibits below. Other

murals depicting Pterodactyls, Great Sea Lizards, and Giant

Dinosaurs call attention to past epochs when reptiles, unlike their

puny descendants of our day, were dominant over the earth, the

seas and the sky. In the bird gallery a beautiful mural showing

wild duck flighting over a jheel strikes a charming and appropriate

note. The murals are the work of Mr. A. Valeé and Mrs. Blundell

(Ik. Nixon), who are to be congratulated on the skilful handling

of the work.

Habitat Groups.—A feature of the galleries are several beauti-

ful illuminated dioramas showing various animals, birds and

reptiles in their natural environment. These groups are the finest

expression of modern museum technique. Science and Art here

combine to hold up the mirror to Nature. The modern museum

group makes a strong appeal to the average visitor because it is

concerned with life and the living animal; at something that is

less abstract, and more likely to leave an abiding impression. The

factor on which the modern museum group depends largely for its

success 1S one which makes a universal appeal—a tons. of be auty

is common to all and affords the simplest method of attracting

attention, which is the preliminary to all successful instruction.

198 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL. HiSa, SOCEM Volx ven

The groups in the Natural History galleries fulfil these objectives.

Their beauty compels attention, while at the same time they give

the visitor an intimate insight into the lives and habits of the

creatures they portray.

Flamingoes nesting in the deserts of Cutch, Bearded Vultures in

their Himalayan eerie, Bison in the Mysore Hills, Tiger in the forests

of Assam, Spotted Deer and Black Buck, the loveliest of all deer

and antelope, a Malay Python, a submarine group of Sharks, and

Marine Turtles all are presented in these groups with vivid realism.

Shelves are not used anywhere in the Museum. They produce

a monotonous lineal type of arrangement which can be altogether

depressing. The various exhibits are fitted to the backgrounds

of the show cases with small movable brackets. The system

affords greater freedom of arrangement and offers a _ constant

change to the eye and lends itself to a pleasing and attractive

grouping of the exhibits. In the arrangement of the general

collections the objective has always been not to confuse the visitor

by presenting a multiplicity of forms. Typical representatives of

the various families of animals, birds, reptiles and fishes are shown.

Each family is illustrated with its typical genera and species and

the visitor obtains a clear idea of the classification of these

animals and the basis on which this classification 1s made. The

habitat groups illustrating the lives and habits of various species,

complete the picture and add interest and life to the story.

The labelling of the exhibits, a most important feature of

museum work, is carried out in celophane and glass. The method

provides a label which is attractive and yet resistant to discolour-

ation and mottling. It is a new method in labelling, first

introduced in the Natural History Galleries of this museum, and

is now being adopted by museums abroad.

That all this work has been made possible is due largely to

the material assistance given by the Bombay Natural History

Society which through the agency of its members not only collected

a sum of Rs. 23,000 towards the expenditure but also provided

the specimens and exhibits. The present Government equally

realizing the educational value of the work in addition to the

ordinary grants, made a special grant to the Section of Rs. 10,000

in last year’s budget and is providing an additional Rs. 7,500 in

the budget for the current year.

The Natural History Galleries of the Museum represent the

far reaching advance that has been made in modern museum

methods. They set a standard and indicate what can be achieved

by: museums in this country. The advance has been’ made

possible by the wise policy of the Society and the Trustees

who deputed the Curator, Mr. S. H’ Prater, to study miusetim

methods in England, Europe and America. He has thus been

enabled to introduce and adopt these methods to the progress

of the museum movement in this country. Mr. Prater, has also

been fortunate in having under him a most efficient staff. Parti-

cular mention must be made of Mr. C. McCann, whose indefati-

gable labour and skill have contributed so much to the success of

the work,

PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS 199

Revenue Account.—We are pleased to record a Surplus Revenue

of Rs. 3,341-4-9 as compared with a deficit of Rs. 2,262-5-5 in

1937. Total income was Rs. 35,067-5-7 in 1938 as against

Rs. 31,198-7-9 in 1937. The sum of Rs. 5,000 recovered from

the Natural History Section, Prince of Wales Museum in 1938,

gave a welcome fillip to our Finances, but it should be remembered

that in 1937, we received Rs. 2,500 in Vice Patronship fees, so

it will be seen that the position generally is definitely more healthy.

Subscriptions are up by about Rs. 4oo, the income from Game

Books and from Bird Charts shows a welcome increase and the

Tree Book brought in Rs. 2,107. This seems sufficient proof that

expenditure on books of popular appeal is money well invested,

and we hope to undertake publication of a popular bird book before

the end of this year.

Expenditure.—This shows a small increase of Rs. 500 odd,

accoutned for by the cost of Journals and increased postage

charges.

General Charges show a decrease of Rs. 300 odd.

Membership.—The position on December 31, 1938, was as

inGer :—

Resignations _G aes

Unpaid subscribers ae “a 27 (sitice resigned)

Deaths et eee 4 hd

New Members Lae eae (decrease 43)

Total Membership on ist January, 1938 ... 929

Total Membership on ist January, 1939 ... 886 (decrease 43)

From the financial point of view, the Society is not affected

by the 27 members who have not paid their subscriptions for the

last three years.

The Committee have pleasure in announcing that His Exalted

Highness the Nizam of Hyderabad has honoured the Society by

becoming one of its Vice Patrons and wish to express their thanks

-fer a contribution of Rs. 5,o00 which H. E. H. made during the

year to the funds of the Society.

Staff.—The Committee wish to record their appreciation of the

good work done by the Curator and his staff during the past year.

P. M. D. SANDERSON,

Aiaril 1, 1939. Honorary Secretary.

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SOLENT S OP VOLG VME NLT, No. 2.

“SomeE BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS. By N.L. Bor, mM.a.

O y ; )

D.Sc., F.L.S., 1.F.S. and M. B. Raizada, M.sc. (With one coloured

plate, three black and white plates and twelve text-figures)..........

SomME Food PRAWNS AND CRABS OF INDIA AND THEIR FISHERIES. By

Emehooray D.SC..F:N.1. . (W2th (202 Plates) ...cccscseuae cee cacdivvsiosnecioes

NoTES ON SOME NEw AND INTERESTING BUTTERFLIES CHiEFLY FROM

BurMaA. By late Major-General Sir Harry Tytler, K.c.B., C.M.G.,

PeMEMPIIDES Omar ria deocin tenses, ta aiveawec uch (addin Shad Medea ebi.es Cad ven .os 4b bee aes

STuDIES ON Lafhygia exigua HB. AND ITs NATURAL ENEMIES. By

M. C. CHERIAN, B.A., B.Sc., D.1.c. and M. S. Kylasam, B.A. (Hons.)

THe Gum ARABIC OF THE BAZAARS AND SHOPS OF BOMBAY. By J. F.

Somer. lyS.,amc Miss Ke S. Radha, MiSCaicesccicsces i sascecees tee

Tur GAME FIsHES oF Inpra. Part VIII. ay Dt: la Tora, DSc.

HeRSD., F.Z.S:, H-R.A.:S.B., F.N.1. (Wetth one coloured ours one

black and white plate and two text-figures)......... Cy eee Sone ere

THE BiRD YEAR IN BETUL (Central Provinces). By C. E. Hewetson,

SG MMOS ie, Re Nr oa Saco Satie chee etek Mics Lcd 4a weed ewitws evade vekastned

THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA. Part IV. By D. G. Sevas-

erent COMME MN Ee teen a etna nee h iran Vusdand jenn dines sessed sengen aa Wi biwekelSeaetsaeesee’

SoME COMMON INDIAN HERBS witH NOTES ON THEIR ANATOMICAL

CHARACTERS, Part ll. By M. Sayeedud-Din. (With three plates)...

Davs AND DoINGS WITH MY BoBBERV-PACK. a Lt.-Col. R. W. Bur-

a IMME(GIIACL/? O12 D1 CLG) se rarmca cud caeanieeet et als clo eden abSvvsicasstenacnvaess4ey

THE INDIAN CappiIS FLies (7vichoptera). Part VII. By Martin E.

RUGSCIERNIRE.S,, F2Z.S. (W/1Li SCUEH PLATES) . cre. aah vice vecaceesseweee. oc

MARINE FISHERIES OF THE PROVINCE OF BOMBAY. By S. B. Setna,

M.Sc., F.R.M.S., Ph.D. (With one plate, a map and a graph)...

MEDICINAL AND PoIsoNous PLANts OF INDIA. By J. F. Caius,

Sar k.L.S. ste A ace acicSiind Wissen saBeesasSas sobiea be shea need 4o0n uebavaens

THE NILGIRI Su hy es rATION — 1879-1939. By Major E. G. Phythian-

PMemcw re Z.S., TA. (etd) ‘(W2th thy2e Plaresy ccscccee sectteces! osncesse ons

On AN EPIDEMIC AMONG RaINBCW TROUT IN THE HARWAN HATCHERY,

KASHMIR, DURING 1934: w'TH OBSERVATIONS ON CERTAIN RECENT

CASES OF MorTALITY. ByG. M. ae: B.SC. ee two plates and

MDE OSETIA TEI AN ee TORS oP PEO oe

CURR ee Pa Or he eee eee Radner

REVIEWS :—

ieeeMauna of British India, Butterflies, Vol. [ ...0... ccseos se on

2. Uganda Game Department. Annual mend for the year

OSPR sc link iy eee ee eee ie, ee Enis

See auna of British India: Mammalia, Vol. 1 ...... aia os Siero

McessncolnibSs im imny LGATCEN whic. ieces sas ss ccs ves cnsees vec oeeoaae

MAR. 1 1940

PAGE

203

221

il “CONTENT S OF Vol. Ai No

PAGE

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :—

I.—The Breeding of the Mottled Polecat (Putorius sarmaticus),

By Brigadier A. F. P. Christison. (Wi7th a text-figure) 415

II.—The Soe Polecat ee savmaticus). By Capt.

J.00.'S. Donaldse .03. 5 Bee oe a eer Sec 416

Ill.—The Record Alaskan Moose Cine @. £1905). by Roe

Morrisy) i Wathva Plate) as oe ence eee tee eee 4165

IV.—A Fine Swamp Deer Head. ( With a photo). By. J, E. Hall — 4g

V.—Curious Injury to the tail of an Elephant. (With a photo).

By A. Je Vandlescnc. ccectoua. csawee sheen se cue coles ae eee nee 418

V1I.—On the Occurrence of Hume’s Wedge-billed Wren (Spheno-

cichla humet Mand. ) in the Aka Hills, Assam, By G.S.

Lito hthoot 5. sacidee aitacesieseons eae aestien tees oes eee ee 419

ViIl.—The Spur-winged Plover (Hoplopterus ventralis Wagl.) By

Jia Wee DEAD LOL. sores eisaaies adnes dee scten tant ation er a nee eect ame 420

Vill.— Notes on Birds Nesting in the Kushdil Khan Lake, Quetta.

By Brigadier Awa SCbristisOnva- =. teee nna eee 420

IX.—Notes on Wild Duck and Geese in the Sadiya Frontier Tract,

Assam. ;By 3. Parsons, ho ReEG..24s.n6e eterna eee 422

X.—The Nomenclature of Birds By. 1] Ry Livescysss, a ee 426

XI.—The Sun as a Mortality Factor among Young Birds. ied

a plate). BY Humayun Abdulali. =. tcc oe ee 433

XIJ.—On the Occurrence of the European Redstart (Phe

phenicurus) in British Baluchistan. By Baas Jew Maley:

Christisom:, i cc.0 siti enc ee lawrence, ale ore ee 434

XIIJ.—On a Large Sawfish (Pristis perrotictt Mull. and Henle)

caught at Bombay. (With @ plaic). By S. H. Prater...... 435

XIV.—The Nesting Habits of the Gourami Ores goramy ).

By C. Amirthalingam, B:SCe, PRD ecs Noha -iigiaue dh ara amet 436

XV.—Trout Fishing in Kashmir. (With a plate). By Brigadier

Be ids ROSS sa ccs nees canwmp tetas lod apienae te meui eee iecteg aa ene eee 437

XVI.—A Curious Habit of a Danaid Butterfly. By E. Barnes.. .. 443

XVII.—A Caterpillar Pest of Champaka (Michelia Chan poca). By

T: V «Ramakrishna vAyyar. BeAr Phe Dees on ete 443

XVIII.— Birds eating Butterflies. By T.R. anbace Ae es Pare Pras rs 445

XiX.—Cn the Road to eeregnes and back. By A. R. Hughes and

Ce McGann oe ue eect seus nok Wel laces spn Gel n ae one ate Seen ate erie 446

Journ. Bompay Nat. Hist. Soc.

BirnD’S-HEAD BiRTHWORT.

Aristolochia ornithocephala, Hook.

(% nat. size)

PLaTE Ze

John Bale, Sons & Curnow, Lt4 London.

—

JOURNAL

OF THE

Bombay Natural History Society.

1939. Vou. XE. No. 2.

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS.

IN. DC. BOR) McA>; D-SC., F-L.S:, 1.F-S.,

Forest Botanist,

AND

M. B. RAIZADA, M.SC.,

Assistant Botanist,

Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun.

Part II.

(With one coloured plate, 3 photographs and 12 text-figures).

(Continued from, Vol. xii, p. 11).

Aristolochia Linn.

Theophrastus, a Greek, sometimes known as the ‘Father of

Botany’ gave this name to the plant now known as Aristolochia

pallida, which was considered to be a valuable medicinal plant

among the ancients. Aristolochia seems to be derived from two

Greek words, aristos, ‘best’ and locheia ‘birth’; the combination

has reference to its supposed medicinal virtues in obstetric cases.

The English name for the genus is Birthwort. It is known to the

Germans as Osterluzei.

This genus comprises about 180 species, of which the very

great majority are inhabitants of the tropics, especially in South

America, while only a few are to be found wild in temperate climates.

The species are, however, largely cultivated in the tropics outside

their native homes, and are favourite hot house plants in the colder

climates of the world.

MAR 1 1940

204. JFOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, *SOCIE LY, aol see

The species are grown as ornamental plants chiefly on account

of their remarkable, often fantastic, flowers, but owing to the

unpleasant odours which the flowers emit they are usually placed

in the background. in systematic botany the genus is grouped

witn certain other families which also have extraordinary flowers

and form a well defined cohort. Many of the species thus grouped

together possess highly coloured, foetid flowers, some are insecti-

vorous and others parasites. The families represent reduced and

degraded forms and include some of the monstrosities of the plant

world.

The species of this genus are almost always climbing plants

arising {rom a perennial rhizome or root. The leaves are simple,

alternate and petioled. In many species the organs _ possess

secretory cells, which, in the case of a leaf held up to the light,

are visible as translucent dots. The flowers are arranged in various

ways and exhibit the oddest shapes. The flowers of some are

small, while others are gigantic blooms swollen into a trumpet with

a tail up to 4 feet long. Others again, like that figured in our

plate, have a large expanded broad lip and a beak.

The colours of the flowers are those usually associated with

the so-called indol group of scents, though to use the word ‘scent’

in connection with the flowers of Aristolochia is apt to give a wrong

impression. The fact of the matter is that most of the flowers

of this genus emit extremely offensive odours which apparently

arise from the decomposition of albuminoid compounds developed

in the perianth. Colours evolved in combination with such scents

are those which one instinctively connects with decomposing

carcasses. Maroon or purple, or livid spots, violet: streaks and

red brown veins on a greenish or fawn coloured background are

the prevailing colour schemes. The general effect, however, is

bizarre and eccentric, rather than beautiful.

It may be mentioned here that certain species which are entirely

odourless to the human sense of smell, have been proved to emit

scents which are attractive to insects.

The perianth is single, that is, it cannot be divided into calyx

and corolla. In many respects it is similar to the spathe of the

Arum Lilies, in that it consists of three distinct portions. The

terminal segment, or lip, may be trumpet-shaped, or two-lipped,

two-winged or expanded in various other ways. The central

portion is tube-like with a wide or narrow orifice, the inner surface

of which is usually covered with hinged hairs. The lower or

basal portion is swollen into a bulb-like structure.

At the bottom of this bulb or pouch will be found a_ thick

stylar column on the top of which are displayed the broad stigmas

with downwardly-bent tips. A ring of linear anthers is fixed to

the stylar column below the stigmas; the whole structure being

called a gynostemium.

The devices adopted by plants to ensure cross-pollination are

manifold and curious, but in the case of the genus Aristolochia

they are so remarkable that they can only be described as

astounding.

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS 205

The researches of Petch at Peradeniya have thrown a good deal

of light upon this process and have shown that although cross-

fertilisation is the rule in the genus, some at least can be self-

Fig. 1.—Aristolochia ciliata Hook.

A.—Tube with downwardly directed motile hairs.

B.—Grazing ground for insects.

C.—Gynostemium.

D,—Bulb.

fertilised. The following description of the process of fertilisation

in the genus may be taken, therefore, to be a general description

and not to apply strictly to any particular species.

The flowers of Aristolochia are termed by botanists dichoga-

mous-protogynous, which means that in any particular flower the

stigmas are receptive to pollen before the anthers in the same

flower are ripe and ready to shed their pollen. The interval

between the ripening of the stigmas and the shedding of pollen

may be 24 hours or more.

From the description of the flower already given it will be

realised that it is absolutely impossible for pollen to be transferred

from one plant to another without the help of insects. Further

Owing to the position of the stamens below the stigmas, and to

the fact that the anthers shed pollen after the stigmas are receptive,

the casual visit of an insect, even though it may result in the

fertilisation of the stigmas, does not ensure that the departing

visitor will carry away pollen to fertilise another flower. A constant

206 JOURNAL, BOMBAY (NATURAL HST 2 SOCInTY sol weeen

stream of insect visitors, from the moment the stigmas were

receptive up to the shedding of the pollen, would probably ensure

cross-pollination, but Aristolochia has improved upon this solution.

The problem before the flower is threefold; (1) insect visitors

have to be attracted, (2) they must carry pollen from another

plant, and (3) they must carry pollen away.

As regards the first part of the problem the species develop

very highly coloured and conspicuous flowers which emit odours

irresistible to insects. This combination of colour and odour

makes success doubly sure.

As regards the second and third parts of the problem it will

be observed that the solution of the third condition in respect of one

flower means the solution of the second proviso in so far as another

flower is concerned.

Aristolochia gets over the difficulty of the interval between the

time the stigmas are receptive and the time the pollen is shed by

developing a mechanism whereby an insect visitor is imprisoned.

It accomplishes this unusual feat in the following manner.

When the stigmas are ready for fertilisation the lip expands

into a perch or alighting platform. <A visitor, usually a dipterous

insect, arrives covered with pollen from an older flower and alights

on the perch. Attracted by the mephitic odours from within it

crawls down the tube. The interior of the tube is clothed with

downwardly directed motile hairs which offer no impediment to

the entrance of the insect. In some cases it has been observed

that these motile hairs actually pitchfork the visitor down into

the tube. Generally speaking, however, such ‘strong-arm work’

is not necessary and the insect makes its way into the bulb without

compulsion. Once inside, it cannot escape because the hairs of

the tube forma “very efiicient barrier.

In any case, the insect does not particularly want to escape

for not only does the bulb provide ‘lodging’, it also provides

‘board’ in the shape of special areas of nutritious cells. Moreover,

most bulbs have a window in the wall, formed of thinner layers

of cells, and it is at this translucent spot that the prisoners

congregate. The window is cunningly situated so that when the

anthers dehisce the insects are drenched with pollen.

Any pollen brought by the visitors will be transferred to the

receptive stigmas. Once the transference takes place the tips turn

upwards and press the stigmatic surfaces together in order to

prevent self fertilisation. The anthers develop rapidly and dehisce,

covering the insects with pollen.

The hairs in the tube now begin to wither and shrivel up and

the prison doors are thrown wide open. The insect, bearing its

load of pollen, crawls out and, undaunted by its previous experi-

ence, flies to a flower which has just opened and repeats its per-

formance. After the emergence of the insect, the fertilised flower

closes and the perianth withers.

Obviously the first flower to open will not be fertilised because

it cannot be visited by pollen bearing insects. If fertilisation does

not take place the flower goes through the same cycle of changes;

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN -CLIMBERS AND. SHRUBS 207

the stigmas wither and turn upwards, the anthers dehisce and

shed their pollen, the imprisoned insects are released and_ the

problem of cross-fertilisation is solved.

The various organs of these climbers, especially the rhizome,

have long been known to possess medicinal properties. Pliny and

Dioscorides described several species and recommended their use

for various complaints. Most of the older herbals contain refer-

ences to the therapeutic properties of the roots and leaves.

The roots of A. indica Linn. and A. bracteata Retz are sold

in the bazaars of India. The former has a great reputation in

this country as an antidote to snake-bite. It is recommended that

the juice of the fresh leaves be applied immediately to the bites

of snakes and scorpions. The root is also used in intermittent

fevers aS an emmenagogue and tonic and is recommended for all

kinds of intestinal disorders. Decoctions of the roots of several

species are reputed to have anthelmintic properties. An Aristolochia

of South America is said to be used as an arrow poison, probably

in conjunction with the juice of other plants.

KEY TO THE SPECIES.

Flowers tailed.

Flowers very large, with large trumpet-shaped lip; leaves

not lobed A. grandiflora,

Flowers medium sized; leaves three-lobed ... ... A. macroura.

lowers not tailed.

Corolla expanded into a large kidney-shaped lip with

purple reticulations A. ornithocephala.

Corolla not expanded into a flat lip.

Leaves acute at the tip, not orbicular or heart-shaped.

Leaves ovate-lanceolate with a sinus at the base .... A. roxburghiana.

Leaves oblong or fiddie-shaped; base cuneate ee eer inaged,

Leaves rounded at the tip, orbicular or heart-shaped.

Flowers 5 in. long and over with a conspicuous beak

and narrow lip A. ringens.

Flowers without. a conspicuous lip and beak. Much

less than 5 in. long.

Leaves orbicular.

Stems hairy. Flowers expanded into two finger-

like processes which are covered with stalked

glands a a .«. As Mdicula,

Stems glabrous. Flowers not expanded as above;

margin furnished with fleshy narrow processes. A. ciliata.

Leaves cordate-obtuse.

Whole plant hairy. A. tomentosa.

Whole plant glabrous.

Flowers inconspicuous, lip dark purple -about

I-15 in. long A. bracteata.

Flowers conspicuous, lip broadly expanded up

‘to 3 in. long, variegated with yellow and

purple Ra haa ans ..° A. elegans.

208 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLI

Aristolcchia grandiflora Sw.

Pelican-flower or Poison Hog-meat.

(grandiflora means large-flowered).

Da). “Onn ams Noda

ae A ee Oo

: “4g @ a tate i \

ahi oa ite. ‘e —

', . 5 Ns »

ae oa A Oe

Fig. 2.—Aristolochia grandiflora Sw.

Description.—A shrubby climber. Leaves alternate on rather

long petioles, cordate-acuminate, softly hairy. Flowers solitary

on leaf-opposed peduncles; when in bud resembling a_ pelican’s

head in shape. There is a leafy bract at the top of the peduncle

at the point where it joins the ovary; stalk and ovary hang

vertically. The bulb is roughly hexagonal in section with reinforced

angles, somewhat ovate in shape, about 4 in. long, slightly

narrowed into a tube which bends sharply upwards. The posterior

wall of the tube expands into a hood which is pressed back upon

the bulb. The interior wall forms the lip, while the hood already

formed bends backwards and expands into a large limb or face

which may be 1 ft. across, roughly cordate in shape, slightly con-

cave, narrowing to a thin flattened appendage up to 4 ft. long.

The exterior of the flower is greenish-white or pale yellowish-white

fourRN. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc,

The Pelican Flower (Aristolochia grandiflora

Siurtevantit).

Sw. var.

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS 209

in colour covered with a network of pale purple-red veins. The

flanges of the bulb are strongly marked with purple veins. The

mouth and inner hood are deep reddish-purple in colour, while

the face is greenish- or yellowish-white, streaked with broad,

radial, somewhat mottled, reddish-purple bands with anastomosing

branches. The odour of the flower is so offensive as almost to

beggar description and for this reason it is best planted away

from human habitations. Fruit a strongly-ribbed 6-valved capsule,

3 in. long, oblong in shape.

Flowers.—October—November. Fruits.—Cold season.

Distribution.—A native of Guatemala; but now cultivated in all

warm countries in the open, and under glass in temperate regions

of the world.

Gardening.—A very extensive climber suitable for growing over

large structures but best kept in the background on account of

its offensive odour.

Can be raised from

seed but also grows

well from cuttings of

well-matured wood.

Var. Sturtevant is

the most commonly

cultivated variety of

the plant.

Aristolochia

macroura Gomez.

Livid-flowered

Birthwort.

Descriptton.—

A perennial climber.

Leaves _ reniform,

eordate, deeply 3-

lobed, or almost 3- Sy

Maetite, the lobes N

ovate-oblong, obtuse.

etiole 1.5-2 in. long,

rounded; stipules leaf-

like, large, somewhat

cordate, acute, wavy.

Pedicels solitary axil- |

lary, much curved |

upwards. Bulb ovate,

6-ribbed, narrowed at

the apex into the tube

which is curved back

upon the aeaibe lhe Fig. 3.—Aristolochia macroura Gomez.

tube is narrow below and gradually widens into a mouth. The

posterior portion of the tube ends abruptly in a truncated waved

lip; the anterior wall expands suddenly into a broadly cordate lip

210 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XLI

which is abruptly attenuated into a slender twisted tail which may

reach 18 in. in length. Tube and bulb dingy brownish-green in

colour, ribs purplish, the intervening spaces covered with a coarse

purplish network of veins. Lip and tail of a rich blackish-brown

or deep purple colour. Fruit a 6-valved capsule.

Flowers.—Rainy season. Fruits.—November.

Distribution.—A native of Brazil, now cultivated in gardens

throughout the world on account of its striking flowers.

Gardening.—The length of the tail and the smaller upper lip in

relation to the tube of the corolla is characteristic of this species.

It bears its peculiar, fascinating flowers in great profusion during

the rains. Easily raised from seed sown in early spring.

Fig. 4.—Aristolochia macroura Gomez.

(Showing deeply partite leaves and very long tail.)

Aristolochia ornithocephala Hook. (Aristolochia brasiliensis

Mart. et Zucc.).

The Birdshead Birthwort.

(The specific name is derived from two Greek words, ornithos —

bird, Rephale head, and refers to the peculiar shape of the perianth

which resembles the head of a bird).

Description.—An extensive climbing shrub with large, alternate,

long-petioled, cordate, reniform (kidney-shaped) leaves which have

a broad‘ and deep sinus at the base. At the junction of petiole

and stem may be observed the foliaceous, glaucous, embracing

stipules. The flowers are solitary and are borne on peduncles 8-10

in. long. The perianth is single, corolla-like and can be divided

New Forest, Dehra Dun.

Shae

io)

ais)

ples

oe)

nal

cored

lal

—

The

Photo by M. N. Bakshi.

JOURN. BoMBAY NAT. Hist, Soc.

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN .CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS 211

into three parts. The lower globose part or pouch contains the

stylar column, stigmas and stamens. Dhestube (2-9) in: long) is

suddenly inflated in the upper quarter into the so-called bird’s

head. Attached to the head are two expansions which may _ be

termed beak and lip. The beak which is uppermost in the flower

is lanceolate in shape but the margins are rolled inwards on the

hairy inner surface, and the whole structure is curved downwards,

greatly resembling the beak of a bird. The lip is attached to the

lower margin of the tube by a grooved stalk which may reach

2 in. in length. The lip itself is broadly reniform in shape and is

6 in. long by 4 in. broad. The pouch and tube are often dark

shining purple in colour. The ground colour of the lip and beak

may be dirty white, dingy-yellow or greyish-fawn and on this

background is traced a most intricate pattern of purple reticulations,

giving a very striking and curious effect. The stamens are six in

number and are attached in the usual way to the six-toothed stylar

column. Fruit a six-valved capsule containing numerous flat seeds.

Flowers.—Rainy season. fF ruits.—December-January.

Distribution.—A native of Brazil, but now commonly cultivated

in all warm and temperate regions of the world.

Gardening.—This plant is easily propagated from cuttings of

well matured wood, which should be taken in spring. It can also

be raised from seed which must be sown thickly to ensure good

germination. As this plant is an extensive climber it can be

trained along walls or over trellises. In Dehra Dun it does not

emit an offensive odour and so may be used to cover the walls of

dwelling houses.

Aristolochia roxburghiana Klotz. (A. tagala Cham.).

Description.—A stout, lofty climber; with grooved, glabrous

stems. Leaves 3-10 in. long, lanceolate to lanceolate-ovate; upper

2-3 in., lower 3-5 in. broad; broadest at the cordate base, usually

with a deep and narrow sinus, reticulately veined, glabrous; petiole

twining. Flowers numerous, in loose, slightly hairy racemes,

mostly abortive, usually only one fertile; bracts small, oblong.

Perianth 2-2.5 in. long, pale green in colour, base globose, tube

curved, mouth oblique; lip straight, linear, obtuse, villous, as long

as the tube. Capsule 1-2.5 in. long including the stalk, 6-valved,

pear-shaped, globose or oblong-ellipsoid, transversely ridged, glab-

rous, splitting into six portions each of which is held suspended

on a thread like portion of the peduncle which also splits into six

parts. Seeds broadly ovate-deltoid with a deep membranous wing,

flattened, usually tuberculate on one face, .2-.4 in. broad.

Flowers.—April-May. Fruits.—May-June.

Distribution.—Indigenous to India and Burma, extending to

Malaysia.

Gardening.—This evergreen twiner has small and inconspicuous

flowers but its heavy and rapid growth of foliage renders it

212 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL “AYST.. SOCIELY|) Volawxe!

suitable for growing over unsightly buildings. It is not particular

Fig. 5.—Aristolochia roxburghiana Klotz.

in its demands as regards site or situation and is easily raised

from seed sown in March or at the break of the rains.

Aristolochia indica L.

Description.—A_ glabrous, shrubby or herbaceous perennial

arising from a woody rootstock. Branches long, slender, grooved,

glabrous. Leaves variable, fiddle-shaped to linear, 2-4 in. long,

I-2 in. broad, 3- to 5-nerved at the base, somewhat cordate,

acuminate, glabrous with a slightly undulate margin.

Flowers in few-flowered axillary racemes; bracts small, ovate,

acuminate. Pedicles long, thickened. above. Perianth .7-1.5 in.

long, with a glabrous inflated and lobed base, which is suddenly

narrowed into a cylindric tube about .5 in. long. The tube expands

above and terminates in a horizontal funnel-shaped mouth, which

is produced on one edge into a narrow, linear-oblong, obtuse lip

with revolute margins. Both bulb and tube are pale green on

the outer surface. The rim of the mouth is dark purple in colour.

The upper surface of the lip is a livid brown and the lower surface

dark purple. The purple areas on the mouth and lip are clothed

with purple, hinged hdirs. Inside the bulb are well-defined food

| JOURN. BomMBAY Nat. Hist. Soc,

Photo by M.N. Bakshi. The Bird’s-head Birthwort (Aristolochia ornithocephala Hook.)

New Forest, Dehra Dun,

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS 213

areas. Anthers 6. Stigmatic lobes 6. Capsule 1.5-2 in. long,

sub-globose, or broadly oblong, 6-valved. Seeds flat, ovate, wing-

ed. The capsule splits up into six portions each of which is

Fig. 6.—Aristolochia indica L.

suspended from a filament-like part of the peduncle which also

splits into six sections.

Flowers.—June-October. Fruits.—November-March, but the

parachute-like old capsules may be found up to the end of the hot

weather.

Distribution.—Throughout the low hills and plains of India from

Nepal and lower Bengal to Chittagong, and in the Deccan Penin-

sula from the Concan southwards. Common in Ceylon up to

6,000: ft.

Gardening.—This deciduous herbaceous or perennial twiner

sometimes dies back to the root. It has inconspicuous, small

flowers and is not at all showy. According to Roxburgh the root

Is nauseously bitter. The plant is supposed by the natives to ward

214 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. -XLI

off snakes and to be an antidote for snake-bite. This belief is

probably founded on the resemblance which the flower bears to

the head of a serpent and is interesting, in as much as _ several

species of this genus enjoy a similar reputation in both North and

South America, the Philippine Islands, and elsewhere. It is

usually raised from seed. The flowers of this plant have no

appreciable smell unless bruised.

Aristolochia ringens Vahl.

(ringens means snarling in Latin and refers to the gaping

flowers).

Fig. 7.—Aristolochia ringens Vahl.

Description.—A tall, glabrous, slender twiner. Leaves petioled,

round reniform, pale green above, glaucous beneath, digitately 5-7-

nerved at the base. Stipules foliaceous, very deeply two-lobed,

kidney-shaped. Peduncle slender, four times as long as the petiole.

Flowers 7-10 in. long, green, marked with dark-purple. Perianth

with an obovoid ventricose sack 2.5 in. long, woolly inside; tube

ascending obliquely from the sack, round, dividing into two very

long lips. Upper lip (actually the lower for the flower hangs

upside down) oblong-lanceolate, obtuse, concave, recurved, hairy

inside from below the middle or hairy up to the edge; lower

shorter, spathulate; claw long with recurved margins, blade broadly

ovate or orbicular or almost kidney-shaped. Stamens 6, equidistant

on the almost sessile stylar column. Ovary slender, twisted,

grooved, expanded at the apex into a dark purple, callous disk.

Flowers.—November-December. Fruits.—Cold season,

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS 215

Distribution.—-A native of Brazil, but now in cultivation through-

out the tropics.

Gardening.—Like other members of this genus it can easily be

raised from seeds sown in spring or by cuttings or root suckers.

It generally prefers a cool, sheltered situation at Dehra. It is

suitable for growing over trellis-work.

The roots of this striking plant are esteemed as an antidote

for snake bites in New Granuda, where it is known as ‘Guaco’, from

which place it was first introduced, according to J. D. Hooker,

into the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.

Aristolochia ridicula N. E. Brown.

_ (The specific epithet is the Latin word, ridiculus, signifying

‘droll’ and refers to the peculiar shape of the corolla).

Fig. 8.—Aristolochia ridicula N. E. Brown.

Description.—A very slender climbing shrub, covered all over

with spreading long stiff hairs. Leaves alternate, borne upon a

216 JOURNAL, “BOMBAY NATURAL HIST.) SOCIETY) Viol:s abt

petiole 1-2 in. long, membranous, very broadly ovate-cordate or

almost round in shape, very obtuse at the apex, bright green above,

paler beneath; veins very prominent on the lower surface, hairy.

Stipules leaf-like, recurved. Flowers axillary, solitary, striking.

Pouch at the base about 1 in. long, obliquely-ellipsoid in shape

contracted at its upper end into a tube about 1 in. long, the latter

gradually increasing in diameter from below upwards. Pouch and

tube with a ground colour of pale yellow upon which are traced

longitudinal veins of dull-brown-purple with anastomosing veinlets.

The limb or lip, which is the expanded portion of the tube, is

recurved at the margins and is extended dorsally into two widely-

spreading linear obtuse lobes 1 in. long by .5 in. broad, bright

yellow, spotted with reddish-purple, in colour; lobes sparsely

covered with stalked, club-shaped glandular hairs. The mouth and

throat of the tube are filled with deflexed white hairs. Stylar

column short, with six obtuse stigmatic lobes, and six linear

anthers.

Flowers.—Rainy season. J*ruits.—Cold season.

Distribution.—This grotesque looking plant is a native of

Brazil, but is now cultivated throughout the world.

Gardening.—Like its allies it is suitable for culture in cool

and protected places or in conservatories. Easily raised from

seed, suckers or cuttings.

Aristolochia ciliata Hook. (A. fimbriata Cham.).

Fringe-flowered Aristolochia.

(ciliata refers to the margins of the flowers).

Fig. 9.—Aristolochia ciliata Hook.

Description.—A weak, slender, straggling plant. Leaves cor-

date-reniform, very obtuse, with a deep sinus at the base, pale

beneath; petioles 1-1.5 in. long. Flowers solitary on peduncles

which are shorter than the petioles. Bulb pear-shaped, constricted

into the tube which is bent back upon it. The tube suddenly

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS 217

expands at the mouth into a kidney-shaped or broadly-ovate lip.

Bulb, tube and underside of lip pale green or greenish-brown with

darker green lines and reticulations. The ground colour of the

lip is deep purple or chocolate upon which is traced a pattern of

yellow bands which more or less correspond to the veins. The

margin of the lip is fringed with yellow, purple tipped, fleshy

processes about .3 in. long. The wall of the bulb is woolly in-

ternally, pale green in colour with a few purple spots. The window

area is well-defined. Gynostemium thick, fleshy, divided into 6

lobes at the top. Anthers linear, sessile on the stylar column.

Fruit a 6-valved capsule containing numerous flat seeds.

Flowers.—September-October. Fruits.—Cold season.

Distribution.—A native of Buenos Ayres, now commonly grown

in greenhouses throughout the tropical and temperate regions of

the globe.

Gardening.—The fringed, peculiarly shaped and_ coloured

flowers render this species worthy of cultivation in greenhouses

and cool, shady situations, particularly as the flowers themselves

have no particularly offensive odour, although the whole plant has

a rank smell. It is easily raised from seeds sown in April.

Aristolochia tomentosa Sims.

The Hairy Birthwort.

(tomentosa means hairy).

Fig. 10.—Aristolochia tomentosa Sims.

Description.—A tall woody climber, hairy all over. Leaves

leathery in texture, rounded, cordate at the base, tomentose, 4-7

218 JOURNAL} BOMBAY NALURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol xr

in. long, and as much across. Flowers solitary or 2 or 3 together

in the axil of a leaf. Bulb pear-shaped constricted into a narrow

tube which is bent back upon the bulb. The tube expands above

into a lip which is extended into three reflexed triangular obtuse

lobes. The bulb, tube and lower surface of the lobes are yellow

or yellowish green. The lobes themselves are greenish-purple with

a dark brown centre. Bracts absent. Stamens six, short, adnate

to the stylar column. Fruit a 6-valved capsule; seeds numerous, flat.

Flowers.—May-June. ruits.—Cold season.

Distribution.—Indigenous to North America (California to

Illinois), now commonly grown in gardens throughout the tropical

and subtropical regions of the world.

Gardening.—This plant is quite hardy in India, and will grow

to a great height if properly supported. It can be grown with

great ease over trellisses and arbours and its profuse foliage

renders it particularly useful in hiding unsightly objects. The

flowers are rather inconspicuous amid the mass of luxuriant foliage

but they are rather curious in appearance and the plant is well

worth cultivating in gardens. The root and bark are said to

possess an aromatic flavour. The plant is said to have been first

sent to England from Philadelphia in 1763.

Aristolochia bracteata Retz.

The Bracteated Birthwort.

Fig. 11.—Aristolochia bracteata Retz.

Description.—A slender perennial herb; stems 12-18 in. long,

weak, prostrate, branched, glabrous, striate. Leaves 1.5-3 in.

long and as much across, reniform or broadly ovate, usually widely

and shallowly cordate at the base, glaucous beneath, finely reti-

culately veined, glabrous; petiole .5-1.2 in. long. Flowers solitary ;

pedicels with a large sessile orbicular or subreniform bract at the

base. Perianth 1-1.9 in. long, base sub-globose; tube cylindric,

with a trumpet-shaped mouth, villous within with purple hairs;

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS 919

lip as long as the tube, linear, dark-purple, margins revolute.

Capsule .g-1 in. long, oblong-ellipsoid, 12-ribbed, glabrous. Seed

.3 in. long, deltoid with a slightly cordate base.

Flowers.—At the end of the rainy season.

Distribution.—Upper Gangetic Plain, Bengal, Western Penin-

sula, Ceylon, extending to Arabia and tropical Africa.

Gardening.—This species has very small, inconspicuous flowers

and is not worthy of cultivation but is valued for its medicinal

properties which are extensively prescribed in Ayurveda. Decoc-

tions of the plant are purgative, anthelmintic, and are said to be

useful in the treatment of ‘kapha’, fevers and painful joints.

The juice is applied to sores to kill maggots (hence the vernacular

name kera-mar).

According to Kirtikar and Basu the extremely bitter taste of

the plant persists for a long time, chiefly in the throat. Mhaskar

and Caius repudiate its supposed medicinal virtues as an antidote

to snake-venom.

Commonly raised by seed sown in early spring.

Aristolochia elegans Mast.

Calico Flower.

(elegans means graceful in Latin).

Fig. 12.—Aristolochia elegans Mast.

mee EM ae

Description.—A very slender glabrous climber with pendulous

branches and foliage. Leaves 2-3 in. long, and as much broad,

borne on long (1-2.5 in.) petioles, very broadly ovate-cordate in

Shape, with a wide sinus and rounded lobes at the base, obtuse or

rounded at the tip; bright yreen on the upper surface, somewhat

950 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLI

glaucous beneath. Stipules leaf-like, curved. Flowers _ solitary

seated on long pedicels. Perianth-pouch pale yellow-green in

colour, swollen, contracted at the mouth into the narrow tube which

is bent back sharply and lies upon the sack. ‘Tube somewhat

funnel-shaped at the top, expanding abruptly into a nearly circular

shallow cup, cordate at the base, and about 3 in. in diameter

Outside the cup is whitish in colour covered with a network of

red purple veins; inside the ground colour is a deep rich purple

brown; becoming yellowish-green and velvety at the mouth and

white towards the margins where the purple flows into the white

in irregular patches. Stylar column short, cylindrical, expanded

upwards into six oblong-obtuse lobes; anthers six. Fruit a

capsule with innumerable flat seeds.

Flowers.—Rains. J*ruits.—Cold season.

Distribution.—This plant is a native of Rio de Janeiro in Brazil,

but is now commonly cultivated throughout the tropical and

temperate regions of the globe.

Gardening.—It is a rather small-flowered, graceful species and

a most desirable climber for a greenhouse. ‘The hanging basket-

like fruits are very attractive. Easily raised from seed which is

freely produced under cultivation and usually flowers in the very

first year. It can also be propagated by cuttings, layers or suckers.

It is entirely devoid of the unpleasant odour which is characteristic

of the flowers of this genus. In Florida it reproduces itself freely.

(To be continued).

i a eae Ora Se Toe ra =F

‘VIGNJ 40 SdVYOD GNV SNMVUqd doo}

‘90S ‘LSI “LVN AvaWwog ‘Nunof

J -ALV Td

SOME FOOD PRAWNS AND CRABS OF INDIA

AND THEIR FISHERIES.’

B. CHOPRA, DySC.; FN.

Assistant Superintendent, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta.

(With 5 plates)

According to some natural-history writers Francis Drake, the

famous navigator, was killed and eaten by crabs. One version

describes his death as follows: ‘This navigator having landed on

the Isle of Crabs in America he was immediately surrounded by

these animals; although he was armed, although he made a stout

resistance, he had to succumb. These monstrous crustaceans, the

largest known in the world, cut in pieces with their claws his

legs, his arms, and his head, and gnawed his carcass to the

very bones.’ This blood-curdling story is partly based on truth.

It is true that Drake once landed on Crab Island; it is equally

true that he met with huge crabs there; it 1s not, however, true that

the crabs ate Drake, but it was Drake and his men that ate

the crabs, of which a single one, they stated afterwards, was

sufficient to make a meal for four men. An equally fantastic

‘unnatural-history’ story is that by Olaus Magnus of a giant

lobster. He states that between the Orkneys and the Hebrides

on the north-west of Scotland there lives a kind of lobster so

large and so strong that it can catch a swimmer in its claws

and squeeze him to death. His picture, as reproduced by

Stebbing (1893), shows a bearded man as a mere plaything in

the arms of this giant crustacean.

Let us, however, turn to the more pleasant subject of the

crabs, prawns and lobsters that we eat, rather than to those

that may or may not eat us. Ever since man acquired a taste

for animal food and the skill to capture aquatic animals, prawns

and crabs have been eaten by him, and to this day a boiled lobster

or curried prawn is relished by most of us. Not only is prawn

and crab meat tasty and nourishing, but in several countries of

the world, including India, it is believed to have valuable medicinal

properties; I will refer to this aspect of the question later.

Practically all species of prawns and crabs are edible and a very

large number of these are eaten all over the world, the only

——_

* Published with the permission of the Director, Zoological Survey of India.

The article is a slightly modified version of a popular lecture, illustrated

with lantern slides, delivered in the Indian Museum, Calcutta,

992 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLI

necessary condition being that the species should be sufficiently

large or abundant to make it worth while fishing for it. I will

first briefly discuss some of the Indian species that are readily

available in the markets of our large towns, and are consumed

on a large scale. |

All prawns, shrimps and lobsters are aquatic and most of our

commercial species live in the sea and in the estuaries of our

great rivers. The commonest of these are the Penaeids, in which the

first three walking legs end in claws and not in simple hooks.

Take for instance Penaeus carinatus (Plate I, fig. 1), which is called

Penaeus semisulcatus by some authors. This prawn is known in

Calcutta as Bagda chingri, and is eaten in large quantities in one

form or another, but most commonly served up as cutlets. This is

the commonest large-sized Penaeid of Calcutta, and is sold in our

markets in enormous quantities. It grows to a length of almost

a foot, and is very abundant all over the deltaic region, and in

a large number of other places along the Indian coast. Another

slightly smaller species, but also fairly common in the markets all

over India, is Penaeus mdicus (Plate I, fig. 2) “This “acount

Chapda chingri of Calcutta, the name no doubt being due to the

somewhat laterally compressed form of the animal. This prawn

attains a length of about 8 inches, but in Bengal it is not quite so

abundant as the Bagda. Two other Penaeids occurring very

plentifully in the delta of the Ganges are Metapenaeus brevicornis

(Plate I, fig. 3) and Metapenaeus monoceros (Plate I, fig. 4). The

former is known in Calcutta as Dhanbone chingri, from the fact that

as a result of inundations it is found in vast numbers in the paddy

fields during and after rains. This is probably the commonest

Penaeid of Bengal. It grows to a size of about 4 inches. The

second species, M. monoceros is the Koraney chingri or Honye

chingri of Calcutta markets, and grows to about 5 inches or a little

over in length. This Penaeid, a hardy creature—a fact to which

it probably owes its first local name—generally arrives in the market

living. When dead, the colour is very much like that of M. brevi-

cornis, with which it is often mixed for sale. Its second name,

Honye chingri or mad prawn, is probably due to the fact that

even long after capture it jumps about like a mad creature. These

two prawns are bought in large quantities, chiefly for making

curries. The four prawns just mentioned, along with several other

species, occur all round the Indian coast, but whereas one species

may be very common in Bengal, another species may take its place,

say on the Sind coast.

Another very large-sized prawn of the Calcutta market is the

Golda chingri or Mocha chingrni. This is not a Penaeid, but a

fresh-water animal, although it has accustomed itself to living in

slightly brackish waters also. It is scientifically known as Palaemon

carcinus (Plate I, fig. 5), and occurs extensively in rivers, canals,

bheels and tanks. The local name Golda is probably due to its

somewhat rounded or tubular form, in contrast with the Penaeids,

which are laterally compressed, while in Mocha some sort of resem-

blance to the blossom of a plantain tree is perhaps suggested. This

prawn grows to a foot or more in length and a single specimen may

JouRN. BompBay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Foop PRAWNS AND CRABS OF INDIA.

(For explanation see end of article.)

}

PLATE He

SOME FOOD PRAWNS AND CRABS OF INDIA 223

weigh more than a pound. In this animal the third leg does not

end in a claw; this is a characteristic of the true fresh-water prawns

as opposed to the Penaeids in which this leg is also chelate. Palae-

mon carcinus occurs and is extensively fished in several other parts of

India also. There are many other fresh-water, or partly brackish-

water prawns are also eaten in different parts of India. -Of these

Kuncho chingri (Palaemon lamarrei, Plate I, fig. 6), Ghora chingri

(Leander styliferus, Plate II, fig. 1) and Ghusha chingri (Caridina

gracilipes) must be familiar to many people in Calcutta. All these

three are comparatively small in size; the first two seldom exceed a

couple of inches in length, while the third, Ghusha, as the name

indicates, is still smaller, being less than an inch or so. There is,

however, a larger form, Palaemon rudis (Plate II, fig. 2) which is

quite common in some parts of Bengal from August to October,

when large numbers of females, carrying eggs, are brought down

to the market. This prawn is known in some parts of Bengal

as Goda chingri. The name probably refers to the stout, Aes

swollen build of the animal, something like the Goda-pa or swollen

foot of a Filaria patient. Another large-sized prawn, extremely

common in the Chilka Lake, Orissa, Central India and parts of

the Peninsula is Palaemon malcolmsonii (Plate dil ig. <3). (his is

almost six inches in length and is very extensively fished in the

Chilka Lake.

Now we come to what is known in Calcutta as Kada chingni

or ‘mud-shrimps’. Those who have visited Chingrihatta or some

of the other outlying markets of Calcutta, may have noticed large

heaps of what looks like grey mud lying on the ground. Small

lumps of this mud are sold by the stall-keepers. These consist

of tiny, shrimp-like creatures, known as Mysids, each animal

barely a quarter of an inch long. Macropsis orientalis (Plate 21;

fig. 4) is the predominant form in these heaps, but Potamomysis

assimilis (Plate HI], fig. 5) also occurs in large numbers. The

Mysids are not true prawns or shrimps, but on account of their

possessing a brood-pouch in which the young are carried, they are

sometimes popularly known as ‘Opossum shrimps’. These creatures

are so small that thousands of them must be eaten to make a

square meal. Kada chingri is of course sold very cheap, a lump or

a handful of it being worth a pice or so. It is mostly soucht after

by the poorer classes.

From the humble eee to the mighty lobster is a big jump,

but even the poor may have rich relations. Both have their uses

for us; the former fills the pot of the poor, while the latter adorns

the table of the rich. I have already mentioned the man-eating

lobsters of the north-west of Scotland, which according to Olaus

must indeed have been of titanic size and herculean strength. In

India fortunately we have no lobsters large and strong enough to

squeeze a man to death; in a way it is a pity for such lobsters might

have helped us to solve the food problem of the country. Our

common lobster, or really Spiny Lobster or Sea-Crawfish, Panulirus

polyphagus (Plate II, fig. 6), or Panulirus fasciatus, as it has been

called by some people, is but a pigmy in comparison with the Scottish

giant of Olaus’s imagination. It is about 15 inches long and does

994 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL, BIST, SOCIETY, Vol. DEI

not weigh more than a couple of pounds. It occurs quite commonly

in suitable places along the eastern coast of India and prefers a

rocky or stony bottom, a little beyond the low-tide limit. The

common species of the Bombay coast is Panulirus ornatus (Plate II,

fig. 7). It hardly grows to a foot in length and is found in fairly

large numbers on rocky beds, generally in waters somewhat

shallower than those in which P. polyphagus lives. Lobsters fetch

a high price in some markets, but in Calcutta, for instance, I am

told that on account of their spiny shells they do not find favour

with certain sections of the population. In Europe and America

lobsters sometimes grow to an enormous size; there are authentic

records in America of lobsters weighing as much as 23 pounds.

Now let us consider our food-crabs. Crabs are also essentially

aquatic animals; some have no doubt taken to land, but on account

of the necessity of keeping their gill-filaments moist, most of them

have to live comparatively near water. The family Portunidae con-

taining the swimming crabs, contributes the largest proportion of

our food-crabs. In these crabs the last leg is in the form of a paddle.

Scylla serrata (Plate III, fig. 1) is the commonest food-crab of

India and is fished extensively all along the coast. It is generally

5-6 inches across the carapace or the back shield, though Dr.

Ramaswami Nayudu of the Madras Fisheries Department has

informed me that in the Chilka Lake he has seen huge Scyllas,

which he estimates to have been 15-18 inches broad. This crab,

known in Bengal as Nona kankra, or the salt-water crab, occurs

very abundantly in the Delta. This is really a brackish-water

species, but also adapted to living in practically fresh waters.

Besides swimming about in the water it also lives on the edge in

deep burrows going below the water-level. Two or three other

swimming crabs are also eaten in considerable quantities in areas

near the coast. Neptunus pelagicus (Plate III, fig. 2) and N. san-

guinolentus (Plate III, fig. 3) are two such forms. These live

mostly in the sea or in brackish waters. N. pelagicus is

extensively fished in the Chilka Lake, where it has accustomed

itself to living in practically fresh water for at least a part of the

year. These two species grow to at least 5 or 6 inches im size:

Certain species of Charybdis, another swimming crab, are also

brought to the markets of towns on the sea coast. Some of these

swimming crabs are very vividly coloured; C. cruciata, for instance,

has its colour markings arranged in the form of a cross.

Another crab of some local importance, in Bengal at least, is

Varuna litterata (Plate III, fig. 4) or Chitti Rankra. It is not a

swimming crab, as is seen from the shape of its last legs. It is a

small species, seldom exceeding a couple of inches in the width

of its carapace, but the smallness of its size is more than made up

by the enormous numbers in which it is found in creeks of the

Gangetic Delta (Plate III, fig. 5) at certain times of the year.

Those who have bathed in the Hooghly at Calcutta towards the

middle of the rainy season must have noticed myriads of little

crab-like creatures, come crawling up the legs and bodies of the

bathers; these are the young ones of Varuna. This crab is not

really of any great commercial importance, but is extensively fished,

JOURN. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Foop PRAWNS AND Craps or INDptaA.

(L*or explanation see end of article.)

PLATE Iff.

SOME FOOD PRAWNS AND CRABS OF INDIA 225

chiefly for domestic consumption and for local sales to the poorer

sections of the people. At Uttarbhag in the Gangetic Delta, for

instance, it occurs in ponds etc. in such large numbers that quanti-

ties of 1t can be scooped up with the hand or with a small net. Verily

this is a case of reaping a rich harvest without even sowing: it.

Then there are some fresh-water crabs that are largely eaten

not only in the Provinces bordering the sea, but also inland.

The common fresh-water crab of Bengal is Paratelphusa spinigera

(Plate III, fig. 6). It occurs abundantly near tanks, bheels and

rivers. It is known in Bengal as Pati kankra and grows to about

3 inches across the carapace. Two other species of this genus

are common in the Madras and the Bombay Presidencies. The

Bombay species, P. jacquemontii (Plate III, fig. 7), is much bigger

than the Bengal form, growing sometimes to as much as 5 inches in

carapace breadth. It is sent for sale to the Bombay markets in

large numbers.

I have described so far prawns and crabs that we eat as such,

but enormous quantities of these and of smaller crustaceans are

consumed by us indirectly. Crustaceans form the food of a large

number of fishes that we eat; the pink or red colour of the salmon,

for instance, is believed to be due entirely to the shrimps on which

it feeds, while it is in the sea. In the same way the Bombay

Duck—one of our important food fishes and not a duck as the

name suggests—also feeds largely on shrimps. In fact the migration

of this fish can generally be traced by the movement of shoals of

shrimps.

Crabs and prawns are as a rule of a very timid and retiring

disposition, hiding themselves in holes and crevices of the surface

on which they live. At the slightest approach of danger they

scuttle away to their burrows or lie quiescent on the substratum,

where in the midst of weeds, etc. they generally escape notice. At

certain places on the Chittagong coast an Ocypod crab of a bright

red colour is extremely abundant. It lives near the water-edge in

such large numbers that from a little distance the place looks as

though covered with red flowers. Try to approach these flowers and

they disappear, as if by magic. The crab is a swift runner and at

the approach of any danger bolts into its burrow. If you succeed in

cutting off the retreat and, if ultimately cornered—it will give you a

good race—it raises itself on its hind legs, waving its large white

claws, as if challenging you to a fight. This is true of Scylla serrata

also. It sits outside its burrow on the muddy banks of the estuaries,

wearing the dingy, earthy colour of its residence, waiting to snap

up any food that may come its way. At any one’s approach it

vanishes swiftly into its hole, but, if cornered, it shows fight, for

it knows that in its huge claws it possesses a very serviceable

weapon, and [ can tell you from my own experience also that a

bite from these claws can be very painful indeed. Once a crab

gets a firm hold of any object, say your finger, it seldom lets it

go, and it is easier to break off the claw than try to loosen its

grip. Some small scale fisheries of Scylla and of some fresh-water

crabs are based on this habit of theirs; introduce a stick or some

similar object in their burrow and induce the crab to grip it, you

296. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

can then gently pull out the stick and will often find the crab

dangling at the end.

Crabs, prawns and lobsters eat practically any food, living

or dead, that comes their way. As scavengers of the sea and

the shore they play an important role in Nature. Large crabs

eat small crabs, which in their turn feed on still smaller ones.

A dead crab let down in a lobster trap will attract one species

or another, the clan trooping to the feast in large numbers,

till every particle of the dainty repast has been consumed. The

voracity of some of the smaller crustaceans is such, and their

numbers in some places so enormous that they have been known

to clear all. the flesh of a dead seal in a single night. Certain

species are said to prefer living food, though in times of scarcity

they will eat anything. The spiny-lobster of South Africa is

believed to feed largely on mussels and such other creatures, the

shells of which it breaks with its powerful ‘nut-cracker’ jaws.

Some crabs have also been known to do great damage in oyster

beds by eating the young oysters, while their shells are still soft

and easy to break. The harm done by crabs to fish after capture,

is also well known.

The great majority of crustaceans, including most prawns and

crabs, are hatched from the egg in a form differing greatly from

that which they finally assume, and reach the adult state only

after passing through a series of very remarkable transformations.

Take the case of the shore-crab Carcinus maenas. The youngest

larva is a translucent little creature less than one-twentieth of an

inch long, and as different from the adult crab as a caterpillar

is from the butterfly. A few hours after hatching it moults or

casts its skin for the first time and assumes the form known as the

Zoea (Plate IV, fig. 1). It swims about on the surface, feeding on

minute animals and plants and growing in size with the repeated

castings of its skin. The details of the life-history are somewhat

complicated, but a little later, by a rapid transformation, or meta-

morphosis, it emerges as a megalopa (Plate IV, fig. 2). The animal

has now all the appearance of a little crab, except that the abdomen

is still stretched out instead of being tucked up under the body,

and the appendages of the abdomen are still used as swimmerets.

It later sinks to the bottom and, moulting again, appears as a little

‘crab. It is still barely an eighth of an inch long; but voracious

feeding and repeated moultings bring it to adult size, which may

be as much as 4 inches across the back.

The life-cycle of our Penaeid prawns (Plate IV, fig. 3) is stall

more remarkable. The youngest form is so minute that it can

barely be seen with the naked eye. This is the nauplius—a pear-

shaped, unsegmented creature, with a single median eye, in fact

totally unlike the adult prawn. The Zoea stage somewhat like that

of the crab just mentioned, comes later and is followed by the Mysis

stage, in which the prawn-like shape is assumed. Changes from

one stage to the other and increase in size are effected by rapid

transformations and moultings. Though some Penaeids have taken

to living in brackish or even fresh waters, they migrate to the sea

for breeding. |

PEATE Iv.

Journ. Bompay Nat. Hist. Soc,

I'ooD PRAWNS AND CRABS OF INDIA,

(Lor explanation see end of article.)

SOME FOOD PRAWNS AND CRABS OF INDIA 227

A very early larva of our spiny lobster, the phyllosoma larva

as it is called, is a broad, thin and leaf-like creature (Plate IV,

fig. 4). It is so transparent that some of the larger ones were

formerly known as ‘Glass crabs’. Here again a number of

metamorphoses take place before the adult form is assumed.

I have referred to moulting in connection with increase in size.

All prawns and crabs, as we know, have a hard shell on the

outside, which not only affords protection to the animal and gives

support to the internal organs, but also supplies points of

attachment for the muscles with which the animal moves. It

thus plays the part of a skeleton, but unlike ours, which is inside

the soft parts of the body, the exoskeleton of the crustacean 1s

outside the body. This external covering does not increase in

size after it has been formed, nor is it flexible to any extent.

The animal, therefore, has to cast its shell periodically as it grows

in size. The shell splits in certain places, the body and limbs

are gradually worked loose and are withdrawn through the opening,

leaving behind the empty shell, with all its appendages almost

entire. A new covering, which is only a thin, flexible membrane

has already keen formed beneath the old shell before moulting.

The animal now rapidly grows in size by the absorption of water

and the soft shell gradually hardens by the deposition of lime

salts. It, so to say, rests now to consolidate its gains till it

is ready for another increase in size, when the whole process is

gone through again.

There is only one more point that I will refer to in this

connection and that is the power some of these animals have of

voluntarily throwing off their limbs and regenerating them later.

If you catch hold of a crab by one of its legs, and especially the

hinder legs, it will often free itself by breaking off the leg, leaving

it in your hand and itself scuttling away to safety. To save its

life it sacrifices a limb, but the sacrifice is only a temporary one,

for the limb is later regenerated and becomes as efficient an

organ as its predecessor.

Most of us who eat prawns and crabs must be aware that

there are fisheries of these animals for supplving our needs, but

many of us do not know the extent of these fisheries. In some

of our markets, both in quantity and value, crustaceans are of

greater importance than any kind of fish, the prawns topping the

list and the crabs usually coming next. On the Bombay coast,

for instance, millions of pounds of prawns are caught annually.

Apart from local consumption, large quantities are despatched

inland and also exported to foreign countries. The total annual

consumption along this coast has been estimated at 12 million

pounds, valued roughly at 25 lakhs of rupees. The prawn industry

along the Bombay coast gives employment to ahout 20 thousand

men, women and children. There is also a flourishing trade in

dried prawns and in their shells—-the latter are used as manure

—Karachi alone having exported these commodities to the value

of 114 lakhs of rupees a few years ago. Similarly there are very

extensive prawn fisheries on the Chilka Lake, in the Colair Lake

in Madras, in the backwaters along the Malabar coast, in several

228 JOURNAL, “BOMBAY NATURALAHIST® SOCK, Wiel, ean

creeks of the Gangetic: delta and in many “other pants vom mine

country. A great deal of the catch is consumed fresh in the country,

but enormous quantities are also dried and exported to Burma,

the Straits Settlements and other countries. Dr. Ramaswami

Nayudu of the Madras Fisheries Department, who carried out a

survey of the Bengal Fisheries recently, has informed me that, at

a very conservative estimate, 3,00,000 maunds of dried prawns

valued at nothing less than 7o-80 lakhs of rupees are exported from

Bengal every year, mostly to Burma. At a very rough and con-

servative estimate the total yield of the prawn fisheries of India

must be at least three crores of rupees every year.

This figure, impressive though it may seem, however, pales

into insignificance when compared with the value of similar

fisheries in some other much smaller countries of the world. 1

will give only two instances. Take the Prawn industry of Norway.

In 1897, Dr. Hjort, a great naturalist employed on the fisheries

staff, discovered that the softest mud at the bottom of the fjords

of south-western Norway was inhabited by an unexpected wealth

of the prawn Pandalus borealis. After many unsuccessful attempts

he succeeded in devising a trawl that could be dragged along the -

bottom without filling with mud. Before these experiments were

made P. borealis was hardly known, except to the scientist,

but since then a new fishery has arisen, the growth of which

has been very remarkable. In recent years the catches have

amounted to as much as 4 thousand tons annually. In 1930 the

yield of the industry was estimated, in Indian currency, at con-

siderably over 3 crores of rupees, and more than 60 thousand people

were employed. The prawn is about four or five inches in size

and lives in comparatively deep waters, sometimes being found up

to the 1oo-fathom line. Similarly, in the northern parts of Japan

and along the Siberian coast there lives a hermit-crab, Paralithodes

camtschatica, that grows to a very large size, some examples

having a span of four feet or so. On account of its size, it cannot

find a shell large enough to live in, as most hermit-crabs do, and

takes shelter in crannies of rocks, etc. This crab is extensively

fished in Japan and is canned for export purposes, chiefly to the

United States of America. In the earlier stages considerable

difficulties were encountered, mostly in satisfactory canning, but

patient researches by enthusiastic scientists have overcome these

and thus, during recent years, the industry has yielded several

crores of rupees annually.

It is regrettable to find that nowhere in India are the crab and

prawn-fishing industries run on sound scientific lines or even on

modern commercial methods. All that is done at present, as it

was no doubt done generations ago, is that fishermen in small

family groups do the fishing, either for themselves, or in most

cases for middlemen (to whom they are heavily in debt), with

small country boats and antiquated appliances. Most of the

fishing is done only in comparatively shallow waters while the

practically unlimited wealth of the deep still lies altogether

unexplored. The catch is sold fresh, mostly through rings of

middlemen, for the markets of neighbouring towns or for despatch

SOME FOOD PRAWNS AND CRABS OF INDIA 229

inland. When the yield is more than can be consumed fresh,

prawns are dried or even boiled and dried for export purposes.

The methods employed are crude. Drying is done mostly in the

sun, the shells are separated by trampling or by threshing and

packed in ordinary gunny bags. Very little canning is done

anywhere at present, though experiments in this direction have

peen made in the past; the success of these experiments, even

though partial, indicates that, if properly handled on_ scientific

lines, a flourishing industry of canned prawn and crab meat could

probably be established in the country.

The actual methods employed for the fishing of prawns are very

similar all over the country. The commonest net used is a kind

of fixed Purse net, conical in shape, the length, mesh and diameter

at the mouth varying with the local conditions and according to

the depth at which it is used. In Bengal this net is known as

Behundi Jal and may vary between 30 feet and 120 feet in length.

On the Bombay coast the Bokshi, for use in shallow waters, is

about 30 feet long, while the Dol, which is employed in deeper

waters may be as much as 7oo feet in length, with the mouth

about 300 feet in diameter. The narrow end of the cone has

generally a detachable bag tied on to it. The broad end of the

net is attached to poles fixed in the ground in suitable places and

the nets are set against the tide, which sweeps the catch into

mem. The picture given by Rai’ (1934) shows a number of Bokshi

nets on the Bombay coast set in position. Similarly the Moi Jal

of Bengal, which is a drag net, has its counterparts in other

provinces of India.

In the backwaters of Cochin and Travancore prawn-fishing? is

carried out on a very extensive scale. During the rains these

waters are practically fresh, but after the north-east monsoon the

backwaters and the connecting canals become increasingly brackish.

In certain places there are paddy fields adjoining the backwaters

and the canals. Paddy is cultivated in them only during July

to October; during certain other months of the year these fields

yield a very rich harvest of Penaeid prawns. With the lowering

of the water-level in the backwaters, after the end of the monsoon,

the bunds surrounding the fields are strengthened and water is

allowed to enter or flow from the fields through sluice gates only,

its level being regulated by a series of adjustable planks. At

high tide the sluice gates are opened to permit a free inflow of water

into the fields, bringing in large numbers of young prawns that

abound in the backwaters at this time. With the onset of the

ebb-tide the sluices are closed. This goes on regularly for a

month or so. Actual fishing takes place only two or three months

after the prawns have entered the fields; during this period they

have grown in size and are now about four or five inches lone.

A large conical net, like the Bokshi used on the Bombay coast, ‘is

* Rai (1934) has described prawn- and crab-fishing along the Bombay

and Sind coasts.

* See Panikkar (1937) for details of prawn-fishing in the backwaters of

Cochin and Travancore,

230 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISi.,, SOCIETY, “Vol er

fitted to the outside of the sluice gate, the wide mouth of the net

completely surrounding the gate. When, with the onset of the

ebb-tide, the water-level outside the fields begins to tall, the planks

retaining the water in the fields are removed one by one, thus forcing

it through the gate and through the net fitted outside. The prawns

are all caught in the net and are removed from the narrow end

by a man who generally sits in a boat by the side of the met

Fishing is usually done at night, the actual time changing with the

tides.

Resides this, fishing in the open backwaters is also done on a

large scale. Two country boats are tied together as shown by

Panikkar (1937), the intervening space supporting a large net.

Prawns, as we know, swim in shoals; the boats are stationed

where shoals have been located, and any prawns swimming

through are caught in the net. Another contrivance used in these

parts is locally known as the ‘Chinese net’. A large number of

wooden frameworks are set up in suitable places on the edge of

the backwater, each suporting a Chinese net, which is raised and

lowered, as the occasion demands. A strong light to attract prawns

is generally hung to the framework when the net is lowered.

A very ingenious method of trapping prawns is employed on the

Chilka Lake.’ The Uriya fisherman is a keen observer of the habits

of the animals that form his means of sustenance. He knows that

prawns are mainly nocturnal in habit and are accustomed to walk

at night in the very shallow water along the edge of the lake. If,

they come to any obstacle, such as a fence, they do their best

to make their way round it. He is also aware that they have a way

of forcing themselves into any little cranny that they come across,

in order to remain concealed and protected during the day. Taking

advantage of these habits of the prawn, he has devised a clever

way of trapping it (Plate V, fig. 2). From the shore he builds into

the lake a bamhoo fence which may be as much as 50 feet lonz,

and round its farther or lake end, in about three feet of water

he makes an enclosure of traps arranged in a circle or oval. Each

trap (Plate V, fig. 1) is a rectangular basket about 4 feet high

made of narrow strips of bamboo fastened together with creeper

stems. On one face there are three or four apertures protected

within by converging strips of bamboo, that render it very difficult

for a prawn that has once entered the trap to escape. "These

traps are set with the apertures facing inwards. Very early

in the morning, or perhaps even before dawn, some of the prawns

walking about on the shore encounter one of these fences, and

are, so to say, easily led into the enclosures, where, with the

approach of day-light, they take refuge in the traps.

An equally ingenious method (Plate V, fie. 3) is used for fishin~

crabs in the creeks of the Gangetic delta.? I have already referred

to the tenacious habit of our common food-crab Scylla serrata. At

—

1 Kemp (1915) and Annandale (1915) have described prawn-fishing in the

Chilka Lake.

7 See Hora (1935) for crab-fishing at Uttarbhag.

JOURN. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Foop PRAWNS AND CRABS OF INDIA,

(For explanation see end of article.)

PLATE V.

e" on

h i i

oe : : " 7 Wy

)

‘

* \

SOME FOOD PRAWNS AND CRABS OF INDIA 231

Uttarbhag, on the banks of the Piali, this crab is fished on a large

scale. A line is stretched across a suitable creek, one end fastened

fig ja pole dug into the bank, and the other fixed ‘to a. post

m.a boat, which is rowed to the opposite bank. The line is

weighted with pieces of brick tied to it at regular intervals, and

im between, these pieces of dead fish are suspended as bait.

Crabs are attracted to the bait and cling to the line with their

powerful claws. When the men in the boat feel that the line

has become sufficiently heavy with the weight of the crabs, they

pull it in, with the crabs hanging on to the bait. Sometimes the

number of crabs is so large that five or six men are required to

pull in the line. Devices somewhat like this are employed for

fishing crabs in several other parts of the world also.

I will mention only one other, very simple, but efficient, device

for capturing fresh-water crabs in the Ceded districts of South

India. A Potamonid crab, Paratelphusa hydrodromus, is quite

common there and is largely eaten. It lives in deep burrows on

the muddy banks of ponds and small canals. A large stick (Plate

V, fig. 4) with a swollen node at one end is taken and fitted into

a hollow bamboo, so that the bamboo-casing can be freely moved

up and down this stick. The node at the lower end of the stick

may be reinforced by winding a rope around it, the idea being

that the barrel should not slip off the stick. This implement is

passed down the crab-burrow, and when the crab catches hold of

the lower end of the stick with its powerful chelae, the bamboo-

barrel is pushed down and pressed hard against the animal, which

can now be hauled out. A somewhat similar, but perhaps less

efficient, implement (Plate V, fig. 5) is used at Uttarbhag? also

for catching Scylla on a small scale. The blunt iron hook at the

lower end of the bamboo stick is used in this case for hooking

the crab in its burrow, which is often badly mutilated before it can

be pulled out.

In the earlier part of the article I referred to the supposed

medicinal value of crab meat. In India at least this belief is quite

wide-spread. On the Bombay side and in the Deccan crab curry

is a reputed cure for asthma. Similary’ soup made from Scylla and

Neptunus is commonly used by people just after recovery from

malaria, when it is supposed to act as a specific tonic. Paratelphusa

soup is believed to cure colds. According to some Ayurvedic

authorities crab curries are recommended in cases of chronic fevers.

Professor A. Ramakrishna Reddy of Annamalai University has

collected a great deal of information about the medicinal uses of

crab meat in the South, and has got together some recipes for

the cure of asthma, chronic fevers and other ailments, but whether

these are efficacious or not, and whether the cure, if any, is due

to some properties of the meat or of the other ingredients used

in the recipes I am unable to say.

Before closing I would like to make a strong plea for the

scientific development of the prawn and crab fisheries of India.

* See Reddy (1936). * See Hora (1935).

$33 jOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XLI

With our vast coast line, enormous estuaries, lagoons and back-

waters, and a net-work of great rivers inland, where the physical

and biological conditions for the growth and propagation of these

animals are for the most part extremely favourable, we have a

source of untold wealth, which at present is but very partially

exploited. The first essential requirement for putting the industry

on a sound footing, however, is to study scientifically the animals

concerned. We should thoroughly investigate their bionomics,

chart the grounds on which they flourish best, study their breeding

seasons, lfe-histories, migration and numerous allied problems.

Some sort of protective measures, based on this scientific study,

should follow in due course and be strictly enforced. -That even

the most elementary principles for safeguarding the industry are

ignored at present can be judged from the fact that intensive fishing

is carried on even during the season when the females are breeding

and it is a very common occurrence to see females ‘in berry’ being

openly sold in large quantities. In most countries in which the

fisheries are run on scientific lines, not only is the sale of such

females prohibited by law, but even their purchase and possession

are illegal. Improvements, wherever required or possible, in the

fishing gear used at present, and devising new gear for trawling

in our deeper waters should also be undertaken. Side by side with

these scientific investigations, the commercial side will also have to

be developed, and when the question of canning comes up—as it

is bound to come up in course of time—the aid of the scientist

will have to be requisitioned once again. Like all big industries,

fisheries can also be best tackled by team work; to make them a

success we want the labour of the fisherman, the capital and

business acumen of the rich industrialist and the patient researches

of the humble scientist.

List OF REFERENCES.

Alcock, A.—'The Prawns of the Peneus Group.’ Cat. Ind. Decap. Crust.,

Part Ill, Fas. 1(Calcutta:. 1906);

Annandale, N.—‘A Naturalist’s view of the Chilka Lake.’ The Calcutta

Review, p. 15 (1915).

von Bonde, C., and Marchand, J. M.—‘The Natural History and Utilization

of the Cape Crawfish, Kreef, or Spiny Lobster, Jasus (Palinurus) lalandii (Milne-

Edwards) Ortmann.’ Department of Commerce and Industries, Union of South

Africa, Fishery Bull., No. 1, pp. 1-55, pls. i-vili, maps 1-9 (Pretoria: .1935).

Calman, W. T.—'The Life of. Crustacea’ (London: 1911).

Chopra, B.—‘The Cape Crawfish Industry of South Africa, with Some

Observations on the Prawn and Crab Fisheries in India.’ Current Science, iv,

PP- 529-33 (1936).

Hjort, J.—‘The human value of Biology’ (Harvard: 1938).

Hora, S. L.—‘Crab-fishing at Uttarbhag, Lower Bengal.’ Current Science,

lil, PP. 543-46 (1935).

Kemp, S.—‘Fauna of the Chilka Lake. Crustacea Decapoda.’ Mem. Ind.

Mus:, V; Pp." 199-325), plss xil xilis (1075).

Moses, S. T.—‘A Statistical Account of the Fish Supply of Madras.’ Madras

Fisheries Bull., xv, Rep. 6 of 1922, pp. 131-66 (1923).

Oshima, K.—‘Studies in Crab Canning.’ Invest. Rep. U.S. Bureau

Fisheries, i, Rep. No. 8, pp.-1-8 (1931). ; a:

Panikkar, K.—‘The Prawn Industry of the Malabar Coast.’ Journ. Bom.

Nat. Hist. (Soc.,) X351x, “pps 343-53; pls. d=1i1 (1037):

SOME FOOD PRAWNS AND CRABS OF INDIA 933

Rai, H. S.— ‘The Shell-Fisheries of the Bombay Presidency.’ Journ. Bom.

iN@iy East. SOC., XXXVI, pp. 884-97, pls. 1, ii (1934).

Reddy, A. R.—'Crab-Fishing. in the Ceded Districts.” Current Science, v,

pp- 178, 179 (1936).

Stebbing, T. R. R.

one

‘A History of Crustacea’ (London: 1893).

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

Plate I.

Penaeus carinatus Dana; greatly reduced. Photo.

Penaeus indicus Milne-Edwards; greatly reduced. Photo.

Metapenaeus brevicornis (Milne-Edwards); greatly reduced. (From

mMicock. Catndnd., Dec, Crust., Part Ill, pli-iv, fig. 10, 1906.)

Metapenaeus monoceros (Fabricius); greatly reduced. (From Alcock,

Caiiinds Dec. Crust... Part 111, pl. ii, fg. 7, 1906),

-Palaemon carcinus (Fabricius) ; photograph of a specimen exihibited in the

Invertebrate Gallery of the Indian Museum, greatly reduced.

Palaemon lamarrei Milne-Edwards; ca. natural size. Photo.

Plate II.

Leander styliferus Milne-Edwards; ca. natural size. (From Kemp, Rec.

lords Vints 3) xi ple. Vili, fie. 2 TOT).

Palaemon rudits Heller; greatly reduced. Photo.

Palaemon malcolmsoni Milne-Edwards; — greatly Feduced: 7G. tts,

arthrodial membrane between the thorax and the first segment of the

abdomen; an 1.,. antennule; an 2., antenna; an. s., antennal spine;

DSiee Spe epauic wopine . (C4, —cephnalotnorax.;, €., .eyes 7) costrum': tfel..

telson; u., uropod; I, II, III, IV, V and VI, abdominal segments.

(From Patwardhan, Palaemon ; in Indian Zoological Memoirs, vi, 1937.)

Macropsis orientalis Tattersall; considerably enlarged.

Potamomysis assimilis Tattersall; considerably enlarged. (From Tatter-

Sall; ec. Ind. Mus., i; pl. xxi, fig: 1, 1908.)

Panulirus polyphagus (Herbst); greatly reduced. (From? Gruvel, Ann.

insta Oceanogr:,. i, pl: v, fig. 3; -1912.)

Panulirus ornatus (Fabricius); greatly reduced. (From Gruvel, Ann.

insite Oceanogr... i, pl. vi, figt 2, 1912,)

Plate I1!.

Scylia serrata (Forskal); greatly reduced. (From Ruppell, 24 Krabben

votn. Meers,.- pl. 11, 1830.)

Neptunus pelagicus (I.innaeus); greatly reduced. (From Sakai, Crabs

of Japan, pl. xxxviii, 1935.)

Neptunus sanguinolentus (Herbst); greatly reduced. (From Sakai, Crabs

Oi NAPA. ply SkxIX, fig: 1, 1935.)

Varuna litterata (labricius); considerably reduced. (From Sakai, Crabs

Op japan, pl. Ix, hig, 2) £935:)

Photograph of masses of Varuna litterata as seen on the sloping banks

of some creeks in the Gangetic Delta just before the rains.

Paratelphusa (Paratelphusa) spinigera (Wood-Mason); greatly reduced.

(irom Alcock, Cat, Ind. Dec. Crust:, Part 1, pl. xi, fig. 53, 1910.)

Paratelphusa (Barytelphusa) jacquemontii (Rathbun); greatly reduced.

(issom: Alcock, Gat. Ind, Dec, Crust., Part 1) pl. xi; fig. 55, 1910.)

Plate IV.

Zoea cf Carcintis nidends; greatly enlarged. a’, aitennule; a”, antenna;

abd, abdomen; d. s, dorsal spine of carapace; f, telson; md, mandible ;

mx’, first maxilla; mx!, second maxilla; 7, rostrum; (hi, ¢h", first

and second maxillipeds ; thtti_t,%, rudiments of next three thoracic

appendages. (From Caiman, Crustacea: in WLankester’s Treatise on

Zoology, p. 304, fig. 181, 1909.)

234

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLI

Later stages in the development of Carcinus maenas; greatly enlarged.

A, young Megalopa; B, older Megalopa; C, post-larval stage; d,

dorsal spine of carapace; 7, rostrum. (From Calman, Crustacea: in

Lankester’s Treatise on. Zoology, p. 305, “ig. 182; 1909.)

Larval stages of the Prawn, Penaeus; greatly enlarged. A, Nauplius;

B, young Zoea; C, older Zoea; D, early ‘schizopod’ or ‘mysis’ stage.

(Krom Calman, Life of Crustacea, p. 74, fig. 29, 1911.)

Phyllosoma Larva of a Spiny Lobster, Panulirus; greatly enlarged.

(From Calman, Life of Crustacea, p. 72, lip., -25. Nomi)

Plate*V:

Photograph of a’trap used for catching prawns on the Chilka Lake;

greatly reduced.

Diagrammatic representation of the fence and enclosure of traps used for

catching prawns on the Chilka Lake. f, bamboo fence leading from

the shore into the Lake; p, poles dug into the ground for holding the

fence and the traps in position; ¢t, traps (as shown in figure 1 on this

plate) arranged in a circular enclosure.

Diagrammatic representation of the method employed for fishing Scylla

serrata in some creeks of the Gangetic Delta.

The upper figure represents a section of the creek and shows the line

in position; the lower figure shows (a) a portion of the line, with the

arrangement of weights and bait with (0). slip-knots. (irom Hora,

Current Science, il, p.. 544, figs. 3- and) 4.1935.)

Diagrammatic sketch of the implement used for catching fresh-water

crabs in the Ceded Districts. A, swollen node, B, bamboo barrel;

C, portion of the stick. (From Reddy, Current Science, v; paeagos

fig. “4; 1930.)

Photograph of a portion of the hooked stick used for pulling out

Scylla serrata from its holes at Uttarbhag in the Gangetic Delta,

(From. Hora, Current Science, iti, p. 543; fig. 1, 11935.)

toy

NOTES ON SOME NEW AND INTERESTING

BUTTERFLIES CHIEFLY FROM BURMA.

MAJOR-GENERAL SIR HARRY TYTLER!, K.C.B., C.M.G., C.I.E., D.S.O.

PART I]:

These notes were commenced in 1928 on my leaving Burma

and return to England, but for various reasons, into which it is

now unnecessary to enter, were never completed.

Some of the information may now be out of date and some

butterflies discovered by me have in the meantime been described

by other authors. On the other hand I have been able to work

out my collection very carefully, and some of these notes will, I hope,

be useful to Entomologists interested in the Butterflies from Burima.

The Butterflies from the extreme north-east of Burma are very

little known, and any one who works this part of Burma _ syste-

matically should derive a rich harvest.

I am greatly indebted to Capt. N. D. Riley, keeper of the

Entomological Department, British Museum, for the great help

he has afforded me and for the encouragement he has given me

to finish and publish these notes.

I also wish to place on record my thanks to Mr. A. G. Gabriel,

Assistant Keeper, Entomological Department, British Museum, for

the help he has afforded me in comparing many doubtful forms

with those in the National Collection and which greatly simplified

my work.

PAPILIONID2.

Troides helena ferrari, Tyt.

The female was described in the J.B.N.H.S., vol. xxxi, p. 248 of August 1926.

Col. Ferrar, the late Chief Commissioner of the Andamans, found a male

in a spider’s web; the body was eaten out and only the wings remained.

It is very close to the male of T. h. heliconoides, M., but differs on both

sides in having the yellow in the cell of hindwing extended right up to the

extreme base and the yellow in interspace 7 is restricted, the edge starting

well beyond the origin of v. 7; the yellow area in interspace 1 is also

much restricted, and the inner edge of the terminal black spot in interspace 2

has its inner edge extended up to and touching v. 2 leaving no yellow area

in between. There are no traces of any submarginal black spots on the yellow

area of the hindwing. The ¢ type specimen was taken on Kondul Island,

Nicobars on 11th March 1927 and was quite fresh. I have lately seen two

beautiful males and three females in Col. Ferrar’s magnificent collection. I

am informed that although this insect is fairly often seen it is very seldom

caught as it generally flies out of reach.

* The author, Major-General Sir Harry Tytler, died on the 16th May 1939.

An obituary notice appears on page 409 of this issue. The proofs of this part

have been corrected by Mr. G. A. Talbot, F.R.E.S., who will also edit the

second part.—EDs.

236 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. VSOCTETY, SV oleae

Polydorus doubledayi, Wallace.

The type came from Moulmein.

Hitherto all the forms flying in Burma have been placed under the name

P. doubledayi, Wallace.

The forms flying in the north-east of Burma and in the south of Moulmein

are by no means typical and are worthy of separation as subspecies.

There is a large series of both sexes before me from the Dawnas and

from Rangoon.

Polydorus doubledayi putaoa, s.sp. nov.

Female type: Futao, N.-E. Burma.

This form is between P. cacharensis, Butl. and P. doubledayi, Wallace.

The white spots on the hindwing are larger than the spots of the former

(dry season form) but smaller than the spots of the typical form from Moulmein

(dry season form). Two females of the dry season form were taken near

Putao, in the extreme north-east of Burma, in April.

Polydorus doubledayi merguia, s.sp. nov.

Types: male and female, Victoria Pt., Mergui.

Both sexes differ from the typical form from Moulmein in having all the

white spots on the hindwing smaller. I have not received this from further

north than Tavoy. In the Dawnas its place is taken by typical doubledayi,

Wallace. Described from eleven males and five females of the dry season

form.

Polydorus latreillei ticona, s.sp. nov.

This race in both sexes is very close to Polydorus 1. kabrua, Tyt. from

Manipur and the Naga Hills.

It differs in having the white patches on the hindwing rather larger and

closer up to the apex of interspaces 5 and 2. The apex of the cell has always

slight indications of grey dusting, absent in Manipur and Naga Hills specimens ;

only in one specimen out of eight males and five females, from Manipur and

the Naga Hills, is there any indication of this grey dusting.

Two oo and five QQ were received from Hthawgaw, N.-E. Burma. The

types are in my collection and paratypes ¢ and @ have been deposited in

the British Museum.

Polydorus polla, de N.

Four males and two females of this rare butterfly were obtained at Sadon,

N.-E. Burma, in July.

There is a male in the British Museum taken by the late Col. Bingham at

Bernardmyo, which is a good deal further south.

Polydorus crassipes, Oberthiir.

A male was taken in the Bhamo Hills in February, and a series of both sexes

was obtained in the Kengtung State of the S. Shan States.

Polydorus nevilli, W.-M.

A series of this rare butterfly was obtained in the Kengtung State of the

S. ‘Shan, states.

Chilasa slateri tavoyana, Butler.

The type was taken on the Thaung Yin River, E. Dawnas, on the borders

of Siam.

The type was described from a specimen with all the blue discal streaks

in the interspaces of the forewing upperside rather obsolescent; in average

specimens from the Dawnas before me these stripes are rather more conspicuous,

but there is one specimen in which the stripes are entirely wanting.

Specimens from the Karen Hills appear to belong to this race and not to

C. slateri marginata, Oberthtir, as considered by some authors; out of six

specimens from the Karen Hills before me the discal streaks are quite wanting

in four, quite typical in one, and as fully developed as in C. slateri slatert,

Hew. in another.

NOTES ON SOME NEW AND INTERESTING BUTTERFLIES 237

C. slateri marginaat, Oberth. was described from specimens taken at Nam

Ou between Upper Tonkin and Laos. There is a specimen in the British

Museum which was taken on the Mekong River, S. Shan States, which agrees

fairly well with Oberthur’s figure but not altogether. The Mekong River does

not actually cross the S. Shan States, but for a portion of its course forms the

frontier between the Kengtung State and Siam, and is close to where Oberthiir’s

type came from, and so it may be assumed that marginata does occur in the

extreme east of the S. Shan States, but I am not so sure that it occurs

further north; in any case the form occurring in the Karen Hills must be

assigned to the race of C. slateri tavoyana. It is unfortunate that the name

tavoyana should have been used for a form the type of which came from

the Dawnas.

Papilio rhetenor publilius, Fruhst.

The late Mr. G. R. E. Cooper took a large series of this form in the

eastern Dawnas in March. It differs from typical rhetenor, West. as follows :—

Male.—Hindwing much narrower. Upperside: forewing with the white

tornal patch as in the variety leococelis, Jordan; hindwing with the blue scaling

obsolescent or entirely wanting; the tornal spot in interspace 1 very con-

spicuous and placed on a large creamy white patch which extends into’ inter-

space 2; a separate creamy spot, generally in 3, below which and next to the

termen there is a large creamy white spot in interspace 2 and a smaller one

in 3; a still smaller one in 4 followed by a white edging to the termen between

veins 5, 6 and 7.

Underside as in typical form but the edge of the termen between all the

veins white.

There is a series of this form in the British Museum from Siam.

Papilio bootes mindoni, s.sp. nov.

Type: Hthawgaw, -N.-E. Burma.

The male differs from P. bootes mixta, Tyt. in having all the white

patches on the hindwing larger. The red tornal spot on the upperside is

larger and completely surrounds the central black spot. On the underside

the tornal red area is larger and generally narrowly produced along the

dorsal magin as far as the upper end of the white patches.

Ten males were obtained at Hthawgaw, N.-E. Burma in June and July;

of these the majority have the red extension along the dorsal margin.

Two male paratypes have been deposited in the British Museum.

Papilio protenor protenor, Cr.

The type came from China but no exact locality given.

A typical male form occurs at Loimwe in the extreme east of the S. Shan

States. There are also before me typical males from the eastern Dawnas

and the Ataran Valley; there is also a male in the British Museum from

south-east Siam. The males from the north-west Himalayas agree with speci-

mens from W. China, but I have no females before me from W. China

so cannot compare them with north-west Himalayan females. I have a single

female from Loimwe, where the typical male occurs, which is very near the

form euprotenor, Fruhst. and not the same as the female of the north-west

Himalayan form. Should the female from the north-west Himalayas agree with

the female from China, as the male does, then we shall be faced with the

curious fact of a quite different race, euwprotenor, Fruhst., occurring between them.

Papilio arcturus dawna, s.sp. nov.

Male; very close to specimens before me from W. China, and only differs

in the green band on the forewing being rather broader and so more

conspicuous. It differs from the north-west Indian form P. acturus arius,

Roth. on the upperside, in the green band of the forewing being narrower

and not extending beyond interspace 3, and the blue batch on the hindwing

being broader; on the underside of forewing the white area is broader

especially in interspaces 2 and 3, as in W. China specimens, giving this

238: JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURALLY EIST (SOCIETY. Vole aon

area, on its inner edge, a convex appearance instead of being narrower and

straight as in the north-west Himalayan form; on the hindwing the rufous

tornal spot in interspace 2 is larger, extending upwards as far as or beyond

the black tornal spot; this is also the case in the W. China form.

The type was taken at Dawna Taung 5,360 ft. on 2-1-1926 and a paratype

also in the Dawnas in the same month.

Papilio polyctor significans, Fruhst.

The type came from Thandaung, Karen Hills. I have before me_ three

males caught at Thandaung and these may be considered typical. Two males

and a female were obtained at Kalaw, S Shan States, and a male near

Maymyo, N. Shan States; in the latter the tornal white patch is not so well

defined but otherwise is the same. Two specimens were also taken in the

Naga Hills and are in all respects typical.

All these specimens are dry season forms and have the patch on the

hindwing a bright greenish blue.

Papilio polyctor stockleyi, Gabriel.

Two specimens were taken by the late Mr. G. E. R. Cooper at Phadi,

eastern Dawnas, at 2,000 ft. on 23rd March; the type was taken by Major

Stockley at the Hotsprings, Melamoung, W. Siam, at 2,000 ft. on 15th

April, and is in the British Museum.

This form has not previously been recorded from Burma.

Papilio krishna manipuri, s.sp. nov.

Male and female larger than the Sikkim form. On the hindwing upperside

the blue patch is much narrower, and the portion of this patch in interspace

5 does not reach the base of the interspace as it does in all Sikkim specimens.

There are four males in the British Museum from Manipur, and Mr. Talbot,

who kindly examined them for me, writes that three of them agree with the

above description.

There are before me 25 Oo and § @Q which do not vary in any way.

It is by no means rare and many males were secured; the female appears

to be <very rare.

The ¢ and Q types were taken at Kabru, Manipur, 8,400 ft., in June 1912.

It also occurs in the Naga Hills.

Paratypes ¢ and Q have been deposited in the British Museum.

Papilio krishna thawgawa, s.sp. nov.

Male larger than the typical form from Sikkim. On the upperside the pale

macular band on forewing is broader and more greenish. On the underside

the white band on forewing is much broader and on the hindwing much

narrower and broken, and absent in interspace 3. Two males were taken at

Hthawgaw, N.-E. Burma, on 27-7-27 and one of these, a paratype, was

deposited in the British Museum. Mr. Talbot informs me that there are,

in addition, in the British Museum, ‘from Yunnan: Wei-sei-Bahand (Pere

Ouvard) Ex coll. Oberthir) 2 ¢d; from Lou-tse-kiang, 1901 (R. P. Genestier)

Ex coll. Oberthiir), 2 ¢¢. The Yunnan specimen only differ in the band of

the forewing being more green than white and traversed by a dirty white line.’

Papilio xuthus, L..

A male and two females of the spring form xuthulus, Brem. were obtained

in the Bhamo Hills at 6,oo0 ft. in May. It appears to be very local and

I only came across it in one place. I have not seen the rainy season form

P. xuthus, L. from Burma and it is possible only the spring form xuthulus

occurs, it being single brooded.

Papilio machaon verityi, Fruhst.

The type came from Yunnan. id

Dr. Jordan, in Seitz’s work, p. 49, gives the habitat of P. machaon veritvt

NOTES ON SOME NEW -AND INTERESTING BUTTERFLIES 239

Fruhst as Upper Burma, Shan States, North Yunnan and adjoining parts of

East Tibet, and states :-—

‘Differs from sikkimensis chiefly in the much narrower discal band of both

wings. The tail is long; the abdominal margin of the hindwing is only

narrowly black so that the area behind the cell and the median remains

yellow for the most part.” He also gives as synonyms archias, Fruhst and

birmanicus, Rothsch. He however makes no mention of the important difference,

which is the total absence of the outer edging to the red tornal patch of

the hindwing, so characteristic of this form. Rothschild in his description of

birmanicus does mention its absence.

I possess a typical male taken at Kalaw, S. Shan States, at 5,000 ft. in

October, and a male taken by the late Mr. G. E. R. Cooper at Taungyan,

N. Shan States, also in October; the latter specimen is not quite typical as

there are indications of black edging on the red tornal spot.

It is said to be not uncommon at Kalaw, but I have seen very few

specimens from Burma altogether.

Papilio machaon suroia, s.sp. nov.

A large series of both sexes was obtained by my collectors at Suroi,

Manipur, in 1913-1914 and I was under the impression, at the time, it was

typical P. machaon verityi, Fruhst., but subsequently, on securing true P.

machaon verityi in Burma, the differences were at once recognised.

It differs from P. verityi, Fruhst., in being larger, and in having the greater

portion of interspace 1 of hindwing covered with long greyish-brown hairs ;

in P, verity: this interspace is almost entirely clear yellow with no long grey-

brown hairs. It agrees with P, verityt, however, in having no black outer edging

to the red tornal spot on hindwing. The absence of this outer black edging

to the red tornal spot appears to be confined to this race and to P. verityi,

Fruhst; all other forms from the Indian region appear to have it.

Paranticopsis macareus dawna, s.sp. nov.

Male: differs from P. macareus gyndes, Jord. as follows :—

Upperside: forewing: all white markings much narrower; the two white

streaks in interspace 1 joining the two marginal white spots; hindwing: all the

‘discal white markings as broad as in gyndes, but the post-discal streaks are

wider, and continued to the marginal row of white spots which are very large;

the whole forming a long continuous streak.

Underside: streaks on forewing narrow as on upperside, but the two

streaks in interspace 1 not touching the two marginal spots; hindwing: ground

colour uniform brownish, the marginal area not darker than the discal area;

all pale markings as broad as on the upperside, but the post-discal streaks not

‘quite touching the marginal spots except in interspace 1 and 1(a).

Several males were taken by the late Mr. G. E. R. Cooper on the Ta-ok

Plateau, Dawna Range, at 4,o00 ft. in April. One of the males kindly given

me forms the type. There is also a male in the British Museum.

Meandrusa gyas aribbas, Fruhst.

A male of the rainy season form was taken at Hthawgaw, N.-E. Burma, in

August, and two males of the dry season form in the Dawnas in April. The

dry season males are very much lighter than the wet season form from

Hthawgaw.

Meandrusa payeni amphis, —_Jordan.

Brig. Evans gives the locality for this form as North Burma. I have

not received any specimens from that part of Burma but I have received

a single male from the Karen Hills taken in March. It must be very rare

in Burma.

Lamproptera indistincta amplifascia, s.sp. nov.

Male and female are very like L. indistincta, Tyt. but the pale bands on

the wings are broader. A large series of males and two females were taken

at Putao, Hthawgaw, and Sadon, N,-E. Burma, at about 5,o00° ft, from June

to October

240 . JOURNAL, (BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, (Vol. (Xue

The locality is interesting as the typical form has only been recorded from

Manipur and the Naga Hills. Male paratypes have been deposited in the

British Museum.

Armandia lidderdalii ochracea,_ s.sp. nov.

Male: Differs from the typical form, from Bhutan and the Naga Hills, in

the pale markings across the wings being somewhat broader and more con-

spicuous. Female: all markings wider as in the male, but yellow and not

white; the marginal yellow lunules on the hindwing in both sexes are reduced

in size and more dusted with black. A large series of both sexes was taken

at Putao and Sadon, E.-E. Burma.

Male and female paratypes have been deposited in the British Museum.

PIERIDZ.

Aporia agathon bifurcata, s.sp. nov.

Somewhat similar to A. agathon, Gray, but constantly differs in having,

through the cell of the forewing, a double dark line which is sometimes

anastomosed in the middle, and in having a dark line, which becomes bifurcated

towards the apex, running through the outer two-thirds of the cell of the

hindwing.

A series of males and females was taken at Loimwe, S. Shan States, close

to the Siamese border.

dG and Q paratypes have been deposited in the British Museum,

Pieris naganum, Moore.

Four males of this rare species were taken near Sadon, N.-E. Burma,

from August to October.

Pieris brassicae, L.

Brig. Evans, in his latest Identification of Indian Butterflies, gives the

range of this common butterfly as Chitral-Assam, but makes no mention of

its occurrence in Burma. It however occurs commonly at Loimwe in _ the

extreme south-east of the Southern Shan States.

Delias aglaia aglaia, L.

The late Mr. Cooper showed me a male, in his collection from the Dawnas,

which differed from the typical form in having the basal area yellow and

HOt fed,

Delias lativitta parva, Talbot,

Several males were obtained at Loimwe in the Kengtung State, Southern

Shan States, in April and May. It appears to fly together with D, patrua

shan, Talbot.

Delias lativitta naga, S.Sp. nov.

This is an extremely dark form of D. lativitta; all the pale markings on

both sides are very small, and the tornal area of the hindwing is black with

no trace of yellow, resembling typical D. berinda berinda, M. in this respect.

Two males were taken in the Naga Hills in June and September.

A male paratype has been deposited in the British Museum.

Delias patrus shan, Talbot.

Mr. Talbot described the male from a series taken by my collectors at

Loimwe,: S. Shan. States, in January-April and May, at about 5,000 ft.

...The female is very similar to the male but all the pale markings on both

wings, upperside, are much paler and more conspicuous, especially. on ‘the

hindwing where the cell is entirely pure white.

NOTES ON SOME NEW AND INTERESTING BUTTERFLIES 241

In addition to the males mentioned above two females were taken. This

sex appears to be very rare.

A @ neallotype has been deposited in the British Museum.

Delias belladonna lugens, Jordan.

Dr. Jordan, in 1925, separated the form of D. belladonna from Assam,

Khasi Hills (type), Naga Hills; north-west Burma; S. Chin Hills under the

name lugens and remarked ‘, Q not constantly different from D. ithiela, Butl.

but the series of specimens darker, the white spots on the whole smaller, the

orange anal patch absent above, very rarely indicated below.’

The above description agrees with the large series of males and females

before me from the Naga Hills and Manipur, except in no case is there any

trace of yellow below. On the other hand it does not agree with the race

from Hthawgaw and Sadon in the extreme north-east of Burma; of this form 2

66d before me are typical lugens and 2 Oo have yellow dusting at the

anal angle above and below (f. ithiela).

As Hthawgaw. and Sadon the two distinct forms of lugens and belladonna

fly together.

Delias belladonna, Fabr.

Mr. G. Talbot, who has lately written a monograph on the genus Delias,

considers the distribution of D. belladonna to be as under :—

N.-W. Himalayas—horsfieldii, Gray.

Sikkim and Bhutan—ithiela, Butl. (f. -horsfieldii; f. lugens).

Assam (Naga Hills, Khasi, and Lushai)—lugens, Jord. (f. ithzela).

North Burma (Upper Shan States)—lugens, Jordan.

Central and Southern Burma—hedybia, Jordan.

Eastern Burma (Bhamo; Sadon)—belladonna, Fabr.

Yunnan—belladonna, Fbr.

North Yunnan (Chinese border)—zelima, Mitis.

South China—kwantungensis, Talb.

Central and West China—zelima, Mitis.

Tonkin—belladonna, Fabr.

Siam—hedybia, Jordan.

Malaya (Perak)—hedybia, Jordan.

Malaya (Pahang)—malayana, Pendl.

There are before me 9 36 from Sadon and Hthawgaw, in the extreme

north-east of Burma which, according to the above distribution, should be

typical D. belladonna, Fabr. They differ from the form before me from Kalaw,

Loimwe, S. Shan States, and the Dawnas which, in accordance with the

above distribution should be D. belladonna hedybia, Jord., in being larger,

and on the underside the yellow spots in the cell and margin of hindwing

also larger.

Mr, G. Talbot, in a letter dated 6-10-28, gives the following differences by

which zelima, Mitis can be separated from hedyodia, Jordan :—

‘This race (i.e. hedybia) has smaller spots on the hindwing below and

the cell spot especially tends to be smaller. The 9 hedybia has more yellow

on the hindwings than selima; the patch in cellule 2 is large and not pale

by white admixture which is the case in selima. Most females of selima have

a pale yellow and mostly white anal patch, and the spot in 2 is smalller than

in hedybia 9. ... .. There is no doubt that selima and hedybia are distinct

races.’

The above differences also apply to the race belladonna from Hthawgaw

and Sadon with the exception of the differences noted above between belladonna

and hedybia.

The four males of D. belladonna lugens, previously mentioned as taken at

Sadon and Hthawgaw, were taken flying with the D. belladonna belladonna,

Fabr. It is curious that two such distinct races should occur together.

There are also before me 2 Oo of D. hedybia from Kalaw; 20 ¢2,

4 2Q from Loimwe, S. Shan States; and one ¢G from the Dawnas. These

all agree with one another and T can see no difference.

242 JOURNAL, -BOMBAY “NATURAL HIST; SOCIETY; “Vol.. XE

Delias sanaca perspicua, Frust.

Four males received from Hthawgaw, N.-E. Burma, in June, where it appears

to be rare. In appearance it is very like D. berinda boyleae, Butler, but is

rather a darker insect, with the white spots smaller; the genitalia are however

quite different.

Delias berinda berinda, M.

Two forms fiy in the Naga and Manipur Hills. In the first form the

upperside is very dark and white markings not very conspicuous. In the

second form the upperside is much lighter and all the grey markings much

larger and more conspicuous.

Delias berinda boyleae, Butl.

I received a large series of a Delias from Loimwe, S. Shan States, taken in

March and April, which I thought were D. sanaca perspicua, Fruhst., but on

sending a series to Mr. G. Talbot he writes :—(21-12-28). ‘I have. recently

been examining the species of Delias which you kindly included in your lot

under the name of perspicua. I find that all these specimens belong to berinda

bovleae, Butler. The similarity of the two species is very remarkable and I

hesitated to be certain of the correct indentification until I had examined the

scent scale or the uncus. ‘The long middle lobe of the uncus is a decisive

character for the berinda forms. The scent scale is shorter than in D.,

sanaca perspicua. It seems that perspicua is a rare species, and as_ regards

pattern the discal spots of the hindwing are usually smalier than in boyleae.’

Delias berinda cooperi, s.sp. nov.

A single specimen was taken at Hthawgaw, N.-E. Burma, in June.

It is very like the light form of D. berinda berinda referred to above, and

the genitalia is the same. .

It differs, however, in having the yellow basal spot longer and_ pointed

along the costa instead of being round. On _ the underside, the streak in the

cell is shorter, and all the discal spots larger. On the hindwing upperside there

is a dusting of yellow at the tornal angle, and on the underside there is also a

yellow dusting at the tornal angle and along the inner margin.

Appias lalage lalage, Moore.

Three females are before me from Loimwe, S. Shan States. Probably more

males and females were sent me but remain unset amongst my duplicates.

This form has not previously been recorded from the S. Shan _ States,

Dercas verhuelli, Hoeven.

The following forms occur in the distribution of this species in the Indian

and Burman areas.

_ (a) Dercas verhuelli doubledayi, M.; the type came from Sikkim and the

female is yellow.

— (b) D.. verhuelli naganum, s.sp. nov., from the Naga Hills and Manipur,

has a slightly larger female which is creamy white, a yellow variety (f. double-

dayi, .M.) occurring very rarely.

(b) until more specimens are obtained. Of the 5 @9@ before me three are

creamy white (f. naganum) and 2 9 Q are yellow (f. doubledayi).

(d) D. verhuelli eshania, s.sp nov. from Maymyo, N. Shan States, and

Loimwe, S. Shan States, is rather smaller in both sexes than the forms (a),

(b) and (c), but not as small as the next form D. vehuelli parva, Evans. The

male has a blunted apex to the forewing, and the female is yellow ({. doubledayi).

_ (e) D. verhuelli parva, Evans; this is the smallest form, with very blunted

apices to the forewings of the males; the female is said to be white, but I.

am unable to verify this as in the long series of males in the British Museum,

given by Brig. Evans, there are no females.

NOTES ON SOME NEW AND INTERESTING BUTTERFLIES 243

DANAID&.

Danaus aventina purpurascens, suk. sp. nov.

The type of D. vulgaris, Butler, though labelled Nepal, is considered to

have really come from Java, and the South Burma form, which agrees with

the Siamese form, should be known as D. aventina macrina Fruh. This latter

form has not been recorded further north than Rangoon.

A rather distinctive form, however, occurs in N.-E. and N. Burma, which

differs from the southern form, macrina on the underside, in having the apex

of the forewing and the whole of the hindwing suffused with pinkish mauve.

It is common in the Hukong Valley, N.-E. Burma, in April; a female was

also taken at Kanti on the Chindwin River, North Burma, in September.

There are also three females in the British Museum collection from the Jade

Mines, N.-E. Burma.

Two pairs, paratypes, have been deposited in the British Museum.

Euploea deione deione, Westw.

A varietal form has the apex suffused with bluish streaks as in the 9

varietal form myetalius of Euripus halitherses.

I propose calling this form v. suffusa, nov.

Three specimens are before me from widely separated areas.

3 type Khasi Hills; 92 type Sikkim.

It also occurs in Manipur where a 92 was taken at Sebong.

Euploea diocletiana talboti, s.sp. nov.

The name Euploea diocletiana, Fab. has hitherto been used for all forms

from Assam to South Burma.

The type of diocletiana, Fab. was probably described from Siam or Indo-

China. The form from South Burma agrees with the form from the Malay

States and is undoubtedly E. diocletiana, Fab.

The form from Assam, the Naga Hills, and Upper Burma, differs from the

South Burma form and forms a new subspecies for which I propose the

above name.

Male and female much larger.

Male: upperside very like the typical forms but the white markings on the

hindwing slightly broader and the spot in interspace 3 larger.

Female: upperside much darker than the typical form, with the blue

colouration on the wings much more developed, and on the apex of forewing

nearly as vivid as on the apex of the forewing of the male.

Types ¢ and @, from the Naga Hills, are in my collection.

Euploea harrisi hopei, Fd.

Brig. Evans gives the range of this form as Sikkim—Shan States, and of

E. harrisi harrisi as Karen Hills—S. Burma. I have not seen the latter north

of the Dawna Range. There are, however, two intermediate forms flying

together equally commonly in the Karen Hills.

The first form is very like E. harrisi hopei, Fd. on the forewing, but the

spots on the hindwing are much more developed.

The second form is very like E. harrisi harrisi on the forewing, but the

post-discal spots on the hindwing are smaller and not so distinct.

Euploea midamus splendens, Butl.

Brig. Evans gives the range of this insect as Sikkim—Shan States. I

have taken a large number of E. midamus in the Karen Hills, and of fourteen

set specimens now before me, twelve belong to, the splendens form and two

males to the margarita form. There are specimens of the splendens form in

the British Museum from as far south as Rangoon.

244 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XLI

Euploea midamus margarita, Butl.

The name margarita, Butl. has precedence over brahma, Moore.

The types of both forms are from the same _ place—Moulmein—and are

identical.

Although this insect begins to appear in the Karen Hills it is very rare

there, and only occurs as a variety, and does not become a definite race till

Moulmein and the Dawna Hills are reached.

It also occurs in the Nicobars where Col. Ferrar has taken a_ single

female on Kamorta Island in July.

SATYRIDZ.

Mycalesis anapita, M.

Three males and two females were obtained by my collectors in Mergui

in April and June 1927. The late Mr. G. E. R. Cooper also had several speci-

mens in his collection from the same place.

The type came from Sumatra.

It had not, I believe, been previously recorded from Burma.

Brig. Evans, in his Identification of Indian Butterflies, 2nd ed., records

having received specimens taken by Mr. D. C. Ollenbach.

Mycalesis suavolens konglua, s.sp. nov.

Male. Upperside: both wings very like M. suavolens sebonga, Tyt. but

the two narrow terminal lines on hindwing much whiter. Underside: discal

band on both wings much wider; the area between this band and margin

paler than the rest of the wing, and slightly washed with grey towards the

tornal angle of hindwing, ocelli rather larger. A single male was taken in June

at Konglu in the extreme north-east of Burma.

Mycalesis mestra sadona, s.sp. nov.

Type male and female, Sadon, N.-E. Burma.

This form differs from the typical Myc. mestra mestra, Hew., from Cachar,

in having all the pale markings on both wings, upper and lower surfaces,

broader and more conspicuous, especially so in the female. On the upperside

the submarginal pale band on hindwing, in both sexes, is pure white and not

dusky white.

Fruhstorfer separates the Sikkim form under the name vetus. I have not

seen this form.

Three males and five females were taken at Sadon and Hthawgaw, N.-E.

Burma, in June, July, October and November. A female was also taken in the

Naga Hills in September.

Male and female paratypes have been deposited in the British Museum.

Lethe brisanda, de N.

Type from Bhutan.

Two males were taken at Hthawgaw, N.-E. Burma. It has not, I believe,

been previously recorded from Burma.

Lethe sadona, Evans.

Brig. Evans described this form as a race of L. brisanda, de N.

The markings are somewhat similar but the male differs in the following

respects :—

Upperside: hindwing: there is a tuft of up-turned black hairs, arising along

the middle of the cell, and directed towards the costa.

Underside: forewing: the pale transverse bar in the cell is broader and

not so well defined; the transverse pale discal band is also broader and

directed to the tornal angle and not to the inner margin as in L. brisanda.,

The genitalia are different, the tegumen in brisanda is sharply bent down

in the middle whereas in sadona it is tapering and more or less straight.

NOTES ON SOME NEW AND INTERESTING BUTTERFLIES 248

A fair series of males was taken by my collectors at Sadon, N.-E. Burma.

I have also received two specimens of L. brisanda, de N. from Hthawgaw,

which is south of Sadon. It is, therefore, more than likely the two forms

fly together at Sadon.

It is better to consider sadona a good species and not as a race of

brisanda. <¢ type is in the British Museum.

Lethe serbonis pallida, s.sp. nov.

Male and female smaller than L. serbonis naganum Tyt. from the Naga

Hills. Upper and lower sides paler, especially on the underside where it is

much _ paler.

A male and female were obtained at Hthawgaw, N.-E. Burma, in July.

Lethe christophi, Leech.

A male was taken at Hthawgaw in September. It appears to be very rare

in N.-E. Burma.

The type came from Mupin, China.

Lethe nicetas nicetas, Hew.

Four males were taken at Hthawgaw, N.-E. Burma, and are_ identical

with specimens from Sikkim. It has not, I believe, been previously recorded

from Burma.

Lethe maitrya thawgawa, s.sp. nov.

The male differs on the underside, from the typical form L. maitrya, de N.,

in having no bar at the apex of the cell of forewing; all the markings are

not so prominent.

Five males were obtained at Hthawgaw in July. This is an extremely

interesting capture as no race of L. maitrya, de N. has, 1 believe, been previously

recorded east of Sikkim.

3 paratype has been deposited in the British Museum.

Lethe visrava, M.

Nine males and a female were obtained at Hthawgaw, N.-E. Burma, and

a female in the Kengtung State of the S. Shan States, where it appears to be

very rare.

The female appears to be very rare.

This species has not previously beea recorded from Burma.

Lethe dakwania, sp. nov.

Upperside: male and female very much like L. sidonis but much paler, the

submarginal black spots well defined.

Underside: very pale brown; the post-discal hand of forewing better defined,

pure white near the costa, and extended downwards as far as v. 1 in the

male and to the dorsal margin in the female; hindwing: discal. markings

pale brown and ill defined; the submarginal ocelli' smaller, and surrounded

either with pale brown or sometimes with very pale violet.

The genitalia of the male of L. dakwania and L. sidonis are different.

In L. sidonis the uncus, as seen from the side, is distinctly raised, and higher

and thicker in the middle, and then sharply bent downwards. In L. dakwania

the uncus is evenly curved and not thicker and raised in the middle,

or suddently bent downwards. |

A large series of males and females were taken at Dakwani, Eastern

Garhwal, at about 9,000 ft. in August 1914.

Paratypes have been deposited in the British Museum.

Lethe violaceopicta burmana, s.sp. nov.

A single male was taken at Sadon, N.-E. Burma, in October. It appears

to be very close to L. kanjupkhula, Tyt., from Manipur; from this it differs

in the forewing not being so pointed. On the underside the row of apical

246 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLI

spots are reduced to pinpricks; the submarginal spots on hindwing are very

much smaller, and the ternal area has only one spot and not two.

Lethe goalpara kabruensis, sub. sp. nov.

The form from the Naga Hills and Manipur is distinct from the typical

form from Sikkim, and forms a well marked race.

On the underside all the markings are darker, and the basal area is suffused

with brown and is much darker than the Sikkim example.

A good series of males and females was obtained in the Naga Hills and

Manipur. The occurrence of this form in the Naga Hills was first recorded

by me in the J.B.N.H.S., October 1911, vol. xxi, p. 53, but was not separated as

a sub-species.

3d and Q paratypes have been deposited in the British Museum.

Lethe dura dura, Marshall.

One male of this rare butterfly was obtained at Kalaw, S. Shan States,

in October, and two males at Loimwe, in the Kengtung State at the extreme

southern edge of the S. Shan States, in June.

Lethe dura mansonia, Fruh. Three males of this very rare butterfly were

obtained on the Dawna Range in April.

Lethe pulahina, Evans.

Two males were obtained at Hthawgaw in July.

Lethe moelleri bruno, s.sp. nov.

Two males were obtained at Hthawgaw, N.-E. Burma. They differ from

the typical form from Sikkim in being much darker below, and in the complete

absence of the pale marginal line on the underside of both wings. This is

an interesting capture as the collective species has not been recorded east of

Sikkim.

Lethe andersoni, Atkinson.

Four males of this very rare butterfly were obtained at Hthawgaw, N.-E.

Burma, in September.

Pararge satricus kabrua, s.sp. nov.

The prevailing form, occurring in Manipur and Naga Hills, is very much

darker than the form from Sikkim and Bhutan. The lighter form, like the

Sikkim form, also occurs but rarely.

Before me are fourteen males and ten females of the dark form, whereas

there are no males and only five females of the light form.

I propose naming the dark form as above and treating the pale form as

a variety.

3 and @ paratypes have been deposited in the British Museum.

Pararge praeusta burmana, sub. sp. nov.

The male is larger than P. praeusta, Leech, from N. China.

On the upperside, it differs in having the orange band on the forewing

much broader and continuous, and not broken in interspace 3; in praeusta,

Leech this band is very narrow and completely broken in interspace 3. :

On the underside the colouring is altogether darker and brighter. On the

hindwing the conspicuous white crescent, bordering the inner edge of the sub-

apical spot, is wanting, and replaced by an indistinct crescent of the same greyish

colour as the ground colour of the basal and discal area.

Specimens in the British Museum from Yunnan are closer to this form than

to the typical form from further north.

Two males were taken at Hthawgaw in August.

d paratype has been deposited in the British Museum,

NOTES ON SOME NEW AND INTERESTING BUTTERFLIES 247

Aulocera padma thawgawa, s.sp. nov.

Types, male and female, Hthawgaw, N.-E. Burma.

Male and female differ from the typical form in being very much _ larger

and much darker. On both surfaces the white band on both wings is much

broader, and on the underside the white striation is very distinct and carried

right up to the base of the hindwing.

Three males and a female were obtained at Hthawgaw, N.-E. Burma, in

August.

Aulocera loha japroa, sub. sp. nov.

Types, male and female, Japro, Naga Hills.

Male and female on upper and lower surfaces, somewhat similar to Aulocera

loha, Doh. from the western Himalayas, but the white fascia on both wings

broader. On the underside it is much darker and the white striation more

extended and pronounced. On the upper and lower surfaces the white bands

are broader than in Aulocera chumbica, M.; on the underside it is much

darker, and the bands of fore and hindwings are of equal width; in chumbica

the band on the underside is wide on the forewing and narrow on the hindwing.

Two males and three females were taken in the Naga Hills, and three

males and one female in the Manipur Hills at Suroifui in September and

October. A male was also taken at Fort White in the Chin Hills which,

however, is not quite typical, and is nearer Au. loha, Doh. as regards the

striation on the underside.

Erebia orixa watsoni, Watkins.

The type and other specimens from the Chin Hills, taken in May and

June, are in the British Museum. They differ from specimens taken by my

collectors at Fort White, Chin Hills, in September, in having the underside

much paler and the discal and marginal bands much more pronounced.

I can see no difference between the specimens taken in the Chin Hills in

September and specimens of E. annada orixa, M. taken in the Chin Hills during

the same month. The occurrence of this form in the Chin Hills as early as

May and June is surely unusual. In the Naga and Manipur Hills both

orixa and suroia occur in August-October, very rarely in July.

Erebia suroia, Tytler.

Four males were obtained at Hthawgaw, N.-E. Burma, in July. They do

not differ from the typical form from Manipur except that one specimen has

two small tornal spots on hindwing underside and one small spot on one side

only. The other two specimens have no_ spots.

_ This is an interesting capture and extends the range of this race to

N. Burma. Brig. Evans records the range of orixa as Assam—North Burma,

but I have not come across it in four years’ collecting in N.-E. Burma unless

he refers to the aberrant form of suroia with two spots.

Erebia narasingha dohertyi, Evans.

Four males of this rare butterfly were obtained at Hthawgaw, N.-E. Burma.

Ypthima megalomma megalia, de N.

A single male of this very rare species was obtained in the Bhamo Hills

in February.

Ypthima dohertyi persimilis, Elwes.

Four males of this very rare butterfly were obtained at Sadon, N.-E. Burma,

in October.

Erites falcipennis, W. M.

A single male was taken in the Karen Hills in February. This is an

interesting capture as it has not previously been recorded from Burma.

248° JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLI-

Erites rotundata, de N.

A male and female were taken in Maymyo, N. Shan States, in January.

Brig. Evans does not give its locality north of the Karen Hills; so its

occurrence at Maymyo extends its range northwards considerably.

Coelites epiminthia epiminthia, Westwood.

The late Mr. Cooper obtained a male of this form in Margul. .I had

an opportunity of examining it and it is undoubtedly true epiminthia, Westw. —

This is an interesting capture as it has not been recorded so far north before

as Mergui.

Coelites epiminthia calverti, sub. sp. nov.

This form differs from C. epiminthia binghami, Moore on the underside of

forewing having the submarginal band narrower, with sharper edges, and rather

closer to the termen; the band on the hindwing is also much narrower and is

not produced beyond v. 2; the violet gloss so conspicuous in binghami is

almost absent in this form.

The late Mr. Cooper received several specimens from Arrakan, and these were

named by him calverti after Mr. Calvert who collected them for him. I am

unaware whether a description was ever published by him and in case not

[ propose the above name.

A male kindly given me by Mr. Cooper is now in my collection.

Neorina patria westwoodi, M.

Brig. Evans gives the range of this species as Assam—N. Burma. |]

have received several males from the extreme N.-E. Burma, Bhamo, and one

male from Loimwe in the Kengtung State close to the Siamese border. This

extends its range considerably to the south.

Melanitis zitenius anisakana, s.sp. nov.

Both sexes much smaller than typical zitenius, Herbst. and the apical

fulvous patch on forewing smaller and not nearly so conspicuous. The apex

of the forewing not so truncate.

Some male specimens approach M. zitenius ygokala, M. from South India.

The late Mr. G. E. R. Cooper obtained a large series of both sexes at

Anisakan near Maymyo in July and September 1926, of which he very kindly

give me 4 go and 2 QQ. There is also a male before me taken at Sebong,

Manipur, in July 1913.

Sd and @ paratypes have been deposited in the British Museum.

Elymnias penanga chelensis, de N.

A single male of this very rare butterfly was obtained in the East Dawnas,

Elymnias pealii, W.-M. Five males and a female of this rare butterfly

were obtained on the Putao Road, N.-E. Burma, in March.

Elymnias dara daedalion, de N. A male was obtained in the Karen Hills.

Brig. Evans gives the range of this insect as Dawnas—S. Burma.

AMATHUSIIDZ.

Faunis eumeus burmana, s.sp. nov.

The form from N.-E. Burma differs from F. assama, Wd. in having

both the upper and lower surfaces dark sepia brown and not fulvous brown.

On the underside of forewing the discal and submarginal lines are much

apart and parallel, and do not converge and meet at v. 1 as in assama; the

spots between these two bands are much smaller.

A single male was obtained at Sadon, N.-E. Burma, 6,000 ft. in September

1926.

NOTES ON SOME NEW AND INTERESTING BUTTERFLIES 249

Faunis eumeus incerta, Stdgr. A single male was taken at Loimwe, S.

Shan States, in. December 1924. It appears to be very rare and I believe it

has not been recorded from Burma _ before.

Faunis caneus subpallida, s.sp. nov.

Male and female: upperside very similar to Faunis caneus Hiibn.; on the

underside the outer third of the apical area of the forewing is conspicuously

paler than the rest of the wing.

Three males and one female were taken at Loimwe, S. Shan States, in

December and May.

One of the males taken in December is normal and lacks the pale area.

Aemona lena, Atkinson.

The type came from West Yunnan and was taken by Dr. Anderson in

1862 during the Yunnan Expedition in the south-west of that Province.

Two males taken at the same time are in the Indian Museum, Calcutta,

and as they are said to agree in all respects with Atkinson’s type figure it

may be assumed that his figure represents a male although not stated to be so.

Wood-Mason, as quoted by de Nicéville, stated that specimens taken by

Major Marshall in Tenasserim agreed with the Yunnan specimens in the Indian

Museum (Butterflies of India, vol. i, p. 302), except that the three white

spots on the anterior half of the hindwing are larger, forming a band divided

by the veins.

I do not, however, think the Tenasserim form can be typical for reasons

given below.

The ‘collective species covers a wide area from West Yunnan, the Bhamo

Hills, through the Northern and Southern Shan States, the Karen Hills to

Upper Tenasserim and Siam.

The Bhamo Hills form a narrow strip of hills running from the Irrawadi

River north to the border of Yunnan. The expedition in 1862 must have

entered Yunnan by the valley of the Taping River which is the main caravan

route from Burma into W. Yunnan. The Taping valley runs through the

Bhamo Hills, and the river joins the Irrawadi River at Bhamo.

The form from the Bhamo Hills may therefore be assumed to be typical

Ae. lena, Atk.

The forms occurring between Bhamo and the Salween River and Siam

may be divided into the following local races or subspecies :—

Aemona lena lena, Atkinson; Type, S.-W. Yunnan.

Aemona lena haynet, Tytler; Types g and Q Maymyo.

Aemona lena kalawrica, s.sp. nov.; Types ¢ and 2 Kalaw.

Aemona lena karennia, s.sp. nov.; Types ¢ and 9 Karen Hills.

Aemona lena kengtunga, s.sp. nov.; Types $ and 92 Loimwe.

Aemona lena salweena, S.sp. nov.; Type dG Salween River.

Aemona lena lena, Alkinson. Mr. A. G. Gabriel, Assistant Keeper of the

Entomological Department, British Museum, who very kindly compared

Atkinson’s figure on my behalf with Karen Hills specimens in the British

Museum, makes the following remarks :—

‘Atkinson’s figure is a male (sic) said to be from Western Yunnan. .. .

We have nothing quite like it in the British Museum as it is uniformly dark

along the outer area of the forewing (except for the pale markings in the

interspaces), whereas the Karen Hills form with which it most nearly agrees,

tends to become paler towards the forewing tornus.’

There are before me six males and three females of the dry season form from

the Bhamo Hills. The males differ from the Karen Hills dry season form in

having the forewing much more suffused with greyish, giving the wing a darker

appearance. This agrees with Mr. Gabriel’s statement regarding Atkinson’s

figure. The females are very much darker than the females from the Karen

Hills; the whole of the forewing up to the post-discal band and base of the

hindwing being suffused with grey; the white spots in the interspaces of the

outer area of the forewing are clear white, and stand out conspicuously on

the dark area on both sides of the post-discal band. I have seen no wet

season forms from the Bhamo and Karen Hills. |

250°: JOURNAL, "BOMBAY “NATURAL AIS Toy SOCIE EN. mViole SCE

Aemona lena haynei, Tytler. A description of this very distinct form which

occurs in Maymyo, N. Shan States, was given in the J.B.N.H.S., in August 1926

and no further remarks are necessary.

Aemona lena kalawrica, s.sp. nov.

The male does not differ from the Karen Hills form but the female is very

different. The wings are suffused with grey as in the typical form from Bhamo,

but all the dark markings, along the veins and along the termen of both

wings, are very much darker, almost black, contrasting with the white inter-

spaces on the outer area of both wings.

Described from one male and two females of the dry season form from

Kalaw, S. Shan States.

Aemona lena karennia, s.sp. nov.

The form from the Karen Hills is well known, and has hitherto been con-

sidered to represent Atkinson’s insect from Western Yunnan but wrongly so

for the reasons given.

There are eight males and a female in my collection, and a series of

males and females in the British Museum.

The types are in the British Museum collection.

Aemona lena kengtunga, s.sp. nov.

The form from Loimwe, in the extreme south-east of the Southern Shan

States, differs from the typical form from Bhamo in the male and female

being much smaller, and in having the forewing still more suffused with

grey; in some males this grey covers the whole of the forewing.

The seasonal forms. differ somewhat; the wet season form being rather

darker than the spring form.

Described from eleven males and four females of the dry season form and

eleven males and three females of the wet season form in my _ collection.

Paratypes have been deposited in the British Museum.

Aemona lena salweena, s.sp. nov.

Type: Papun, Mal-hong-song, Salween District, Upper Tenasserim (A. C.

Harman), is in the British Museum; also a paratype in the British Museum

from Bangkok, Siam (Dr. E. Milford Barnes); there is also a paratype in

the British Museum from Melamung, W. Siam, taken by Major C. A. Stockley

in April 1920.

This form is between Ae. lena karennia and Ae. haynei, Tyt. All the

pale markings tend to be obliterated, but not so much as in haynei.

This may be the form recorded as having been taken by Major Marshall

in the Thoungyeen Forests, Upper Tenasserim, in April. It is certainly not

the same as the Karen Hills form or the typical one from Bhamo.

Aemona amathusia, Hew.

Five males and a single female were obtained at Putao and Sadon, N.-E.

Burma.

It has not been recorded hitherto east of Assam and the Naga Hills.

Stichophthalma nourmahal, Westw.

A single female was obtained at Sadon, N.-E. Burma. This considerably

extends its range to the east and into Burma.

Stichophthalma camadeva aborica, s.sp. nov.

Male: upperside rather similar to camadeva nicévillei, ROb. from the Khasi

Hills, but the post-discal band on the hindwing is very small and the spots

narrow. Underside similar to nicévillet, Rob. but the ground colour is a

warmer brown.

A single male was received from the Abor Hills, taken during the

expedition in July 1913.

Stichophthalma camadeva burmana, = s.sp. nov, Male and female very

similar to camadeva nicévillei, Rob. fromthe Khasi Hills, but the ground

colour on the upperside is very. much darker, especially so in the male;

NOTES ON SOME NEW AND INTERESTING BUTTERFLIES 251

on the forewing there are four black post-discal spots; in all the other

camadeva forms I have seen there are generally only three such spets—

sometimes fewer; four spots are the exception; on the hindwing the purple

post-discal spots are darker, smaller and narrower.

On the underside the ground colour on both wings is darker and of a

richer brown; on the forewing the discal band is much narrower, especially

towards the costa, and is not continued below v. 2.

Two males and a female were taken at Hthawgaw in July 1927.

A male paratype has been deposited in the British Museum.

Thauria lathyi lathyi, Fruh.

The type came from Tonkin.

Two males were taken. at Loimwe, S. Shan States, close to the Tonkin

frontier, and agree with the co-types in the British Museum. It has not

previously been recorded from Burma.

Specimens of TJ. lathyi amplifascia, Roth. differ but slightly from lathyi,

Fruhst. in having the white band on the forewing broader.

In N. Burma it is apparently rare. I have seen no specimen of Th. lathyi

amplifascia, Roth. south of the Bhamo Hills where one specimen was obtained.

Thauria aliris merguia, s.sp. nov.

Brig. Evans, in his latest edition of Indian Butterflies, gives the range of

T. aliris intermedia, Crowley as N. Burma, and of VY. aliris pseudoaliris, Butler

as the Karen Hills—S. Burma.

The type of T. aliris intermedia, Crowley is in the British Museum with

the label Burma but without further exact locality; it, however, probably came

from the Karen Hills,. or possibly from the Dawnas, as all specimens I have

seen from the former locality and some from the latter, agree with the type.

I have seen no specimen of intermedia from north of the Karen Hills and

if it does occur there it must be very rare.

Most specimens from the Dawnas, and specimens from Mergui, on the

other hand, have the band on the forewing narrower and form a distinct

subspecies; they cannot be T. aliris pseudoaliris, Butler, the type of which is

in the British Museum and came from Malacca, and which has the band

yellowish and not white. I propose the above name for this subspecies.

Male type, Mergui; female type, Ataran Valley.

Thaumautis diores splendens, s.sp. nov.

The dry season form from the Karen Hills and the Dawnas differs from

the dry season form in North Burma and Assam in having the blue suffusion

rather more vivid and extensive, reaching the termen of the forewing. The

pale outer whitish area on the blue patch of the forewing is more silvery, and

wider, especially in interspace 3, where in the typical form it is more constricted

and hardly fills the interspace at all. -

Described from 7 ¢d and 9 2 now before me, and a large series of both

sexes in the British Museum.

Several specimens of typical T. diores were taken in N.-E. Burma.

3d and 9 types have been deposited in the British Museum.

Thaumantis lucipor, Wd.

Four males and four females of this very rare and beautiful butterfly

were taken in Mergui.

Zeuxidia doubledayi chersonesia, Fruh.

A single female of this very rare form was obtained as Myankhamba in

April.

‘\ « 4 |

Zeuxidia aurelius, Cr.

Several specimens of this beautiful butterfly were taken by the late Mr.

G. E. R. Cooper at Hangapru, Mergui, in April.

552 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Voi. Xii

Discophora deo, de N.

A single male of this very rare butterfly was taken at Loimwe, S. Shan

States. .

In the J.B.N.H.S., November, 1914, I erroneously recorded the capture of

a male of this species in the Naga Hills. On comparing these two forms

marked differences were at once apparent. The Burma torm proved to be

true D. deo, de N. and the Naga Hills form will require a new name:

Discophora deo decdoides, s.sp. nov. Male: larger than D. deo; tornus of

hindwing more produced. Upperside: forewing with a broad yellow post-discal

band, something like that of D. deo, but evenly curved and not bent down

sharply at v. 5; the lower end of the band, in interspace 2, divided from the

band above by v. 3 which is black; two large yellow spots, in interspaces

2 and 3, between the yellow band and the termen; a large patch of conspicuous,

silvery mauve, specialized scales, entering the cell and reaching v. 1; the

veins crossing this patch are dark and contrast with the lighter colour of

the patch; hindwing: a black discal patch of specialized scales as in D. deo

but larger and crossed by lighter veins.

Type: Nichuguard, Naga Hills, February 1914.

(To be continued),

Sie DIES ON LAPHYGMA EXIGUA HB. AND ITS

NAC OR ATE: EEN VEE S;

Vie CHERIAN GetaeuBscG...1).1.C,

AND

M. S. Ky asam, B.A. (Hons.).

INTRODUCTION.

The caterpillars of Laphygmu exigua Hb., belong to the well-

known famity of cutworms (Noctuidae) which are known to

devastate growing crops. According to Lefroy’ this insect enjoys

a world-wide distribution, being found in Europe, South Africa,

North and South America, Oriental regions, and Honolulu. In

India, it is distributed throughout the hills as well as the plains.

Fletcher’ has recorded a wide range of host plants such as lucerne,

indigo, onions, chillies, gingelly, cowpea, brinjal, radish and

Amaranthus in South India. Subsequently, Ramachandra Rao’ has

recorded it as a serious pest on Daincha (Sesbunia aculeata),

turmeric, maize and castor; he* has also noted it as a pest on ragi

(Eleusine coracana) nurseries, and ganja plants (Cannabis

sativa). It has also been further noted on coriander, sorghum and

agathi (Sesbania grandifiora). More recently it was noted on cotton

by the authors. In North India, Fletcher’ has recorded it on a

large variety of economic plants. Recently, the pest has come to

attract a good deal of attention from the India Leaf Tobacco

Development Company whose extensive tobacco nurseries at Chirala

(Guntur District) were invariably subjected to severe damage every

year in the early stages, by the caterpillars. Up till now there has

been no record of the above caterpillars being noted as a pest on

tobacco nurseries in South India. This is the first record of its

kind. At the request of the Company, preliminary investigation

was first made in 1936 with a view to study the pest and suggest

control measures. ‘The present paper gives a short account of the

results of these investigations. |

Lefroy, Memoirs Dept. Agri. Ent. Ent. Ser., vol. 1, p. 173.

Fletcher, Some South Indian Insects, p. 378.

Ramachandra Rao, Madras Govt. Entomologist’s Annual Report, 1924-5.

Ibid, 1928-9.

Eiletchers Proc: 3rd Ent.. Meeting, vol. 1,‘ p.: 70° (1919).

Op & pe

254 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL -HIST.. SOCIETY, Vol. Xit

Tospacco NURSERY AND PREPARATION AT CHIRALA.

A general account of the nature and extent of nursery cultiva-

tion at Chirala is given so that it is possible to know the environ-

mental conditions under which the caterpillars assume pest form

year alter year.

Nurseries are raised over an extensive area of about 70 to go

acres at a time, and as large an area is kept fallow for sowing in

the next season. Being near the sea coast, the soil is nothing but

pure sand and hence the most easily drained. Compost and redried

tobacco stems are applied to the beds in fairly large quantities as

manure. The beds are rectangular measuring nearly 45 ft. by 5 ft.;

they are laid close together in parallel series, 12 inches apart.

Preliminary cultivation is done as early as June. Sowing commences

early in August and is kept going till the end of the month. Harri-

son Special and White Burly are the two types of tobacco used

extensively for raising the nurseries. Redried tobacco stems are

strewn on the top of the beds with the double object of protecting

the tender germinating seedlings from the scorching sun and

preventing water scouring away the soil at the time of irrigation.

Irrigation is done by overhead splashing of water; this is done

five times a day from early dawn to late in the evening. The water

for irrigation is baled out by the coolies in pots from wells dug

out at definite distances within the area. Seedlings are lifted for

planting from about second week of October. The material is

mostly taken to Guntur and other places for planting. There is

very little of planting round about Chirala.

As a rule, the ryots round about follow the same method and

routine in the raising of the nursery,

THE PEsT, Its INCIDENCE AND EXTENT OF DAMAGE.

From the figures kindly furnished by Mr. Winders it would

appear that the insect occurs in a pest form every year and, since

1930 has been definitely known to be on the increase. Damage

to seedlings in the early stages consists chiefly in the removal of |

mesophyll from underneath, leaving glassy translucent patches

above. If the incidence starts early the seedlings are totally

denuded of their first formed leaves and there is a consequential

severe mortality in the seedlings. The magnitude of the problem

can well be imagined when the Company spends during the critical

period about Rs. goo for spraying, and nearly an equal amount

in handpicking the caterpillars.

The pest ceases to be a menace when the nursery is about a

month old. It follows therefore that the pest requires to be

controlled in the earlier stages, when the seedlings are in the 4th

leaf stage, if really a good stand of the nursery is to be obtained.

INSEcT ASSOCIATIONS.

It was often noticed that the pest occurred in association with

Plusia signata F. and Prodenia litura F. in the ryots’ beds and

LAPHYGMA EXIGUA HB. AND ITS NATURAL ENEMIES 255

the latter two always outnumbered the pest. But in the company’s

nurseries the reverse was always the case.

ALTERNATE Host PLANTs.

Round about Chirala no other economic crop is raised in October

except a few nursery beds of Eleusine coracana, which are

found sparsely infested with Laphygma, but never on the scale seen

in the tobacco beds. A sand dune weed Gisekia pharnaceoides L. was

found invariably infested with the pest even as late as September ;

this weed was not so evident outside the Company’s area, so that

one is led to attribute the severity of attack in the Company’s

nurseries to the presence of this alternate host. There is a record

made by Mr. Winders that there was a plague of these caterpillars

in July 1936 in all the weeds and bungalow sites. Thus it would

appear that this weed is, in all probability, the source of primary

infection.

CARRY-OVER OF THE PEST DURING THE OFF-SEASON.

So far there is no evidence to show that the pest has anything

like a long cycle pupal stage in the shape of hibernating or

aestivating pupae. All the pupae without exception turn into adults

after a specified period. There is not even a single record of

a pupa surviving for over 15 days out of a rearing of nearly 200

moths in January and February. The weeds in the fallow area

must be carrying on the pest till such time as the tobacco seedlings

appear.

LirE History STUDIES.

The studies detailed hereunder were made at an Insectary under

Coimbatore conditions.

Moths.—They are known to lay both fertile and unfertile eggs

freely during night and are less active during day time. They

begin laying eggs on the znd day of emergence. No host pre-

ferences shown for laying eggs, a weed or stray plant is sometimes

preferred to tobacco leaves.

Eggs.—Egegs are laid in small masses of 20 to 280 each; they

are covered lightly with light. grey felt of hairs. Each egg is pale

green and highly sculptured; it changes colour from pale green

to light yellow with a pink central spot at the basal end and finally

becomes fuscous at the apical pole. Under captivity the eggs were

freely laid on the muslin sides of the leaf and glass jars, but never

on the soil. The eggs hatch in 48 to 56 hours.

Larvae.—Hatchlings are buff coloured with the head black; the

abdominal segments carry black hairs mounted on warts; growth

is extremely slow in the first 5 to 6 days. Full fed and half

fed larvae show a wide range of variation in colour. Larvae bred

out of a single pair of moths were invariably of the same colour

when fed on the same food.

256 JOURNAL, BOMBAY “NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, wVoly Aid

They bite holes into. the succulent leaves from underneath. As

with cutworms, they have the habit of dropping down and assuming

a curved posture. They eat more voraciously at night and are not

inclined to migrate far out. In an experiment, out of 45 caterpillars

allowed to feed in a marked area of the tobacco nursery bed none

were ever found beyond a radius of one foot even after a lapse of

to days. Larval life lasts for about 15 days.

Pupae.—The mature larvae pupate naked mostly on the surface;

a few pupate within the soil at depths of 2 to 4 inches in cocoons

made of silk and earth.

Pupal period does not vary much even when the moisture

content of the soil is varied. There is always a total emergence

of moths. and in no case was there delayed emergence. Pupail

period lasts for 6 to 7 days.

Sex ratio.—The sex ratio is nearly equal. Of nearly 200 moths

reared 110 were females,

Fecundity and longevity of female moths.—A female moth 1s

ordinarily capable of laying 1,310 eggs. The daily output for the

first few days ranges near 350 to 300 eggs. There 1s “thenge

gradual fall. The moths are capable of living for 15 days when

fed on sugar syrup.

Life cycle.—A generation is completed in ahout 24 days.

PARASITES AND PREDATORS.

Numerous caterpillars were collected separately from _ the

tobacco seedlings and the weed, and kept separate in_ small

receptacles. From the former there were no parasites. But from

the latter two tachinid parasites—Sturmia inconspicuoides and Actia

monticola—were obtained. Only five larvae were found parasitized

Out Of <a total (or iso:

It seems strange that out of a large number of caterpillars

collected from tobacco there should be no parasites. The repeated

waterings and extra dense vegetation, perhaps, offer little scope

for the parasite to play its role effectively and hence their total

absence. A Reduvid bug—Rhinocoris fuscipes—was found in fairly

large numbers. These natural enemies were studied and _ the

following 1s a summary of the same. |

thinocoris fuscipes.—This is predaceous on young and old

caterpillars. An adult bug can easily finish off four to five cater-

pillars in a day. As a rule, bugs are less inclined to attack full

grown caterpillars, unless forced to for want of suitable stages.

In captivity, they take to full grown caterpillars of every kind.

Two or three of them sometimes join together and suck the larva

dry; it is reduced to an empty skin before it is finally discarded.

The following caterpillars and grubs were tried and found accept-

able to the bug:—(1) Spodoptera mauritia B, (2) Prodenia litura F,

(3) Anaphaeis messentina, (4) Noorda blitealis W, and _ (5)

Hypolixus brachyrrhinus B.

Adults and nymphs seem to thrive extraordinarily well on

Pereginus maidis, the cholam shoot bug, on which most of the

LAPHYGMA EXIGUA HB. AND ITS NATURAL ENEMIES 257

rearing was done at the Insectary. There was no paucity for the

shoot bug so long as there was cholam crop in the field.

Sexes can easily be distinguished. The female is usually more

plump and is devoid of any mid-vertical black stripe on the last

abdominal segment. The latter character is possessed by the male

and serves to distinguish it from the female.

Pre-oviposition period.—This period lasts for about 2-3 days.

The female pairs with the male easily and remains in copula for

nearly half an hour. Eggs are usually laid in the night on the 5th

day of emergence. |

Eggs.—Egegs oblong and finger shaped, arranged vertically in

batches of 5 to 38. They are olive in colour when fresh but later

turn dark chestnut brown. The apical end is provided with a

white frill like top which is drawn out into a papery rim. There

is a tessellated depressed area in the centre. The outside surface

of the egg is finely rugose. Each egg measures 5 mm. long and

2 mm. broad at the top. The eggs hatch normally in 5 to 7 days.

Emergence is always total and takes place both in the morning's

and afternoons.

Nymphs.—From casual inspection, the first instar nymphs look

like small red ants—Monomorium. They are orange in colour;

on the apical end of the abdomen is a black patch which is very

conspicuous. The nymphs have the habit of tilting up the abdomen

while moving about. But this habit is lost when food is taken

and the abdomen is gorged. For want of young caterpillars, Aphis

gossyphu G. and Macrosiphum pisi were offered but were not

accepted. Both adults and nymphs however, feed well on Peregrinus

maidis. Each nymph is capable of destroying 4 to 8 shoot bug's

quite easily. The prey is held up at the point of the proboscis

and is dropped only after completely sucked. Slightly advanced

nymphs also feed on Tribolium and Myllocerus beetles. The well-

fed nymph has a bloated abdomen and the black patch is rendered

very conspicuous.

The nymphs undergo 5 moults before becoming adult. The

interval between an instar is roughly 4 to 5 days. In- the last

instar the nymph is fairly well developed and assumes a

ruddy hue in sharp contrast with the dull orange colour of the

previous instars. The adult transformation is effected by the

nymph of the sixth instar breaking open along the fronto-thoracic

region and slowly pushing its head and body out. At the

time of transformation, the head and the body are pink and after

hardening, develop the bright crimson and shining black colour

of the adults.

Fecundity of female bugs.—Each female is capable of laying a

maximum of 340 eggs. The daily range of egg-laying varies from

5 to 38. Eggs are laid sometimes on alternate days and sometimes

in regular sequence.

Longevity.—Adults, both male and female, are capable of living

mp to 35°to.90 days.

Total life cycle.—The life cycle is completed in 31 to 51

days.

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LAPHYGMA EXIGUA HB. AND ITS NATURAL ENEMIES 259

FECUNDITY RECORD.

Adult No. 1 Adult No.2. | Adult No.3 Adult No. 4

Eggs Eggs | ‘ Eggs © _ Eggs

21-12~36 Namie 067 21 ee 2=3 791 weroas lt 742470. 2

93-12-36 Por a) 72237 15.. | 22-29-37 34. | 84-37 1]

25-12-36 D600 e237 24 | 25-2~37 16 G2fea7 | 22

31-12-36 PerGeoe37 of) 96-25-37 |) 20 141-37 it

e=37 68 | 21-2-37 21 | 28-2-37 2G. Wied =41=87' | 10

2- 1-37 | 24-2-37 30 | 2-38-37} 29 | 12-4-37) 18

a= 1-37 36 | 2€-2-37 21 | 6-3-37/ 32 | 124-37) —

O= 3-37 D3, - , 28-2-37 23 G2e=37 95 9 4437 19

7= 1-37 13 123=37 8 ese 37 12 15-4-37 10

2337 9 1i-3-37 fa) a sle=deayae 98

Female 4—-3-37 38 _ 17-4-37 =

died on 6-3-37 ZA Female — 38-14-37 24

27-1-37 8-3-37 23 died on 19-4-37 =

12-2237 5 13 3-37 204-37 | —

152-37 21 | 24-37 |, 24:

17-23-37 18 | 26-14-37 | Female

20-3-37 aks) | escaped

ise 37 5

Female

died on

26-3-37

Fotal ... 192 Total. 340 | Total 246 Total 199

Tachinid.—The habits of Sturmia inconspicuoides were studied

somewhat in detail.

The female is smaller than the male. Immediately after emer-

gence the pair go in copula and remain so for a period extending

for more than an hour. The fly freely lays eggs thereafter on any

caterpillar given to it during day time. When given a caterpillar

the fly approaches it but stands aloof at some _ distance.

When the caterpillar rears its head the fly projects her ovipositor

from underneath and glues an egg on to it. Or, an egg is glued on

the head without any movement from the caterpillar. All this is done

in a twinkling. The egg is pale white but later on turns creamy

in colour. As a rule, only one egg is laid and that on or near the

head. In rearing studies, every caterpillar which received an egg

died the next day before the maggot could get a start and hence .

rearing could not be pursued further. Six caterpillars were given

in succession and every one of them received an egg on the head,

all in an hour.

Trichogramma minutum.—Though no actual parasitization

of eggs was observed in the field Laphygma egg masses were

given to the parasite to parasitize them. There were six trails

260° fOURNAE, sBOMBAY: NATURAL, HIST, “SOGIEDY. Gioln aio

under enclosed conditions. The results obtained are tabulated

hereunder.

PARASITIZATION RECORD—Host: LapHycma Ecas.

| | |

When | £4When Nov of: 1 Ne: ess | aNo.-of No. of

No. | parasites parasites eggs in parasi- jhatchlings eggs

introduced emerged | egg mass tized found spoiled

| =|

] we 12-]-37 22-1-37 | | 40 42 58

2 P AS=1-37 | 28-1-37 126 40 44 42

3 9367 1|, I eens ste 32 24 30

rae ge Cs cre gel Re fs) Sa 14 41

5. 3) pe iea7 [2De37 | eas 36 42 57 |

6. ere7 | Vaceta |) < hice 37 81 68

| |

The parasites would appear to regard the felt of hairs as an

impediment to a complete parasitization. Eggs on the margins

are more easily parasitized than those in thé centre.

The utilisation of the parasites and predators in the control of

the pest looks far from promising. Firstly, the reproductive

potential of the pest is very high when compared with that of the

predatory bug or of the parasites in a given length of time; secondly,

as the life cycle of the bug is extended over a longer period it

cannot be expected to complete sufhcient generations to outstrip the

pest in numbers; thirdly, the duration of the crop is short. Hence

the idea of biological control has to be given up.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.

The authors’ thanks are due to Messrs. Winders and Willis

and their staff for the facilities given in the study of this problem

at Chirala. 7

THE GUM ARABIC OF THE BAZAARS AND SHOPS

OF BOMBAY.

eh Cars, Plage Bless

AND

Miss K. S. RADHA, M.Sc.

The history of gum arabic carries us back to a remote antiquity,

for as early as 2,000 years B.c. the Egyptian fleets used to ship

that commodity from the gulf of Aden. Mention of the gum is of

frequent occurrence in Egyptian inscriptions, and it is now a well-

established fact that the drug was used by the natives in the

fabrication of colours for painting.

As has been the case with many commodities, gum arabic found

its way out of Egypt and reached Greece and Rome, where it was

looked upon as a product indigenous to the region of the Upper

Nile.

Since the first century of the Christian era the soluble gum

procured in the Sudan has been an article of commerce shipped to

Arabian ports and thence to Europe. And as the gums were chiefly

called after their place of origin, or the port from which they were

exported, the drug received the name of gum arabic. During the

Middle. Ages the trade was largely carried on through Turkish

ports or ports under Turkish rule, and the gum was then given

the name of ‘Turkey gum’, a name that is still frequently used in

tae trade.

The so-called ‘East Indian gum’ was for some time responsible

for a considerable trade. It was chiefly a re-export trade, the

supply being drawn from Arabia and Africa and first imported into

Bombay from the Red Sea ports; it was then exported from Bombay

to England, to the continent of Europe, and to America. ‘Indian’

or ‘East Indian’ gum, then, is not gum of Indian origin, and it is

doubtful if any gum produced in India ever found its way to

Europe as an article of commerce.

Gum arabic also reaches Europe from Western Africa, with

which region the Portuguese had a direct trade as early as 1440.

Owing to the troubles in the Sudan the French turned to their own

colonies for supplies of gum arabic, and their trade from French

Senegal was ultimately started.

The more common varieties of gum arabic that now reach

the market are: Gum Senegal, Kordofan or Turkey gum, Suakim

gum, Barbary or Morocco or Mogador gum, East India gum, Cape

gum, and Australian or wattle gum.

262 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol ark

The name ‘gum arabic’ embraces gums from several botanical

sources; but most varieties are obtained from various species of |

the genus Acacia belonging to the sub-order Mimoseae of the order

Leguminosae. There are in all 430 species of Acacia in the tropical

and subtropical regions, chiefly of Africa and Australia. India

possesses some 22 species, and the Sudan about the same number.

Owing to the vagaries of botanical synonymy the list of gum-

yielding Acacia trees as mentioned in various books is as long as

it is unsatisfactory. A critical examination has led us to retain the

following species as forming a fairly complete and an up-to-date

list of the plants which are known to yield gum arabic:—Acacia

abyssinica Hochst., A. albida Delile, A. arabica Willd., A. ataxa-

cantha DC.,! A. binervata DC., A. caffra Willd., A. Catechu Willd.,

A, cochlearis Wendl., A. decurrens Willd., A. detinens Burch., A.

Dudgeoni Craib, A. eburnea Willd., A. Ehrenbergiana Hayne, A.

erubescens Welw., A. etbaica Schwf., A. Farnesiana Willd., A.

ferruginea DC., A. givaffae Willd., A. glaucophylla Steud., A.

homalophylla A. Cunn., A. horrida Willd., 4. Jacquemontii Benth.,

A. Kirkii Oliver, A. Krausiana Meissn., A. laeta R. Br., A. latronum

Willd., A. lenticularis Buch.-Ham., A. leucophloea Willd., A.

macrostachya Reichb., A. mellifera Benth., A. microbotrya Benth.,

A. modesta Wall., A. pendula A. Cunn., A. penninervis Sieb., A.

plamifrons Wight and Arn., A. pycnantha Benth., 4. Rehmanniana

Schinz, A. robusta Burch., A. Senegal Willd., A. Seyal Delile, A.

Sieberiana DC., A. spirocarpa Hochst., A. stricta Willd., A. Stuhl-

manni Taub., A. Suma Kurtz, A. tortilis Hayne, Albiszia Lebbek

Benth., and A. stipulata Boiv.

All pharmacopoeias recognize various species of the genus Acacia

as an official source of ‘gum arabic’ or, as it is now better known,

‘gum acacia’. They all admit A. Senegal Willd. as the principal

source of the drug. In addition to this species the French Pharma-

copoeia refers to A. arabica Willd., and the Spanish Pharmacopoeia

to A. arabica Willd., A. Seyal Delile, and A. tortilis Hayne. A.

Verek Guill. and Perr. of the Pharmacopoeia for Russia is synony-

mous with A. Senegal Willd. Austria, Brazil, Finland, Germany,

Hungary, Italy, Japan, Mexico, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Turkey

and the United States of America restrict official recognition to the

African species.

Numerous tests have been proposed for determining the identity

and the purity of gum arabic, but too much reliance ought not to

be placed on them; not only gums from different trees, but also

gum from the same tree, often exhibit different characters or give

different results with the same reagents. Thus, for instance, di-

fferent varieties of gum arabic yield aqueous solutions of characteri-

stically different types; some produce a thin syrupy solution, others

a thick jelly-like one. The percentage of ash and the percentage

of moisture depend upon the particular gum. under experimentation,

* According to J. M. Dalziel (The useful plants of West Tropical Africa;

March 1937; p. 205) ‘the tree is not a gum-yielder’.

ioe GUM ARABIC OF THE BAZAARS AND SHOPS OF BOMBAY 263

and for the same gum on the climatic conditions. The extent to

which climatic and geographic conditions may affect plants and

their exudation products may te gauged from the behaviour of

Acacia decurrens Willd. . In its native Australian habitat it produces

a sparingly soluble gum; if transplanted to Java and grown there it

yields a perfectly soluble gum.

Nevertheless, we found the tests mentioned in the various

pharmacopoelas sufficient for our purpose, which was to ascertain

whether the gums sold in the bazaars of Bombay as gum arabic

may be taken to represent that commodity and whether they may

sately be used for edible and medicinal purposes.

In pharmacy, gum arabic is extensively used as a demulcent

and a suspending agent in making emulsions and mixtures, pills

and troches. The mucilage of acacia, and the syrup are used to

suspend insoluble, and to disguise the taste of unpleasant, drugs.

Gum arabic is employed to relieve topical irritation and as a

protective in cases otf superficial excoriation, ulcers, burns, sore

nipples, etc. The powdered gum is used in checking haemorrhage

from leech bites, and when blown up the nostrils arrests severe

nosebleed.

The gum is advantageously employed in catarrhal affections and

irritation of the fauces, by being held in the mouth and allowed to

dissolve slowly. In Transvaal a plaster made from capsicum fruit,

Cape gum, and strong vinegar, is applied in acute inflammation of

the bone marrow, and a mucilage ot Cape gum to the mouth in

thrush and sprue. :

The Egyptians used gum largely in painting. An inscription

exists, which states that in a particular instance a solution of

‘kami’ (gum) was used to render adherent the mineral pigment

‘chesteb’, the name applied to lapis lazuli or to a glass coloured

blue by cobalt.

Large quantities of gum arabic are used for giving lustre to

crape and silk, and for thickening colours and mordants in calico

printing; in sizing cloth and paper; for suspending tannate of iron

in the manufacture of ink and blacking; in preparing certain pig-

ments, varnishes, paints and colours.

Gum ARABIC IN INDIA.

The various forms of gum arabic found in the Indian market

may be distributed into three groups:—1. True gum arabic of

European commerce, 2. East Indian gum arabic, 3. Indian gum

arabic.

1. The bulk of the true gum arabic used in India finds its way

into this country directly from Africa; but the finer pure grades

are bought from leading firms in London and in Germany.

2. East Indian Gum is entirely imported from Aden and the

Red Sea ports—no part of it being produced in India. It is hand-

picked and assorted in Bombay, and then re-exported to Europe

and America.

204 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIS Te SOGLE Icy palo) upcae

3. indian gun arabic is the name given to the commodity of

Indian origin. this consists of a multitude of diverse gums hope-

lessly intermixed, but representing the produce of the land. Rarely

clean and always mixed, gum otf Indian origin does not find its

way to Europe or America, unless it be as an adulterant of East

Indian gum. Lhe gum is, however, an important article of internal

trade, and has a particular claim on our attention as it is the form

more commonly tound in the bazaars of Bombay.

Nowhere in India is gum systematically produced, nowhere has

a large uniform and constant supply been organised. Let alone

indifference and apathy, the reason ot this state of affairs is mainly

due to the peculiar distribution of the gum-yielding trees. These

are to be found in very large numbers throughout the length and

breadth of India, they belong to several different natural orders and

often represent various species of the same genus, but there is not

one of them which anywhere exclusively covers a-wide area. And

as the collectors—usually women and children—gather indiscrimin-

ately whatever looks like gum, the article which finally reaches the

shops of the larger dealers is a mixture which defies description.

the following are the better known gum-bearing trees of

India : —

KUTACEZ: Feronia Elephantum Corr.

MELIACE&: Azadirachta indica A. Juss., Cedrela Toona Roxb.,

Chioroxylon Swietenia DC., Swietenia Mahagoni Jacq.

ANACARDIACEA: Anacardium occidentale Linn., Lannea grandis

Engl, Mangifera indica Linn., Spondias pinnata Kurz.

PAPILIONACEZ: Delonix regia Rat.

CAESALPINIACE2: Bauhinia purpurea Linn., B. variegata Linn.

MIMOSACEH: Acacia arabica Willd., A. catechu Willd., A.

decurrens Willd., A. Farnesiana Willd., A. -ferruginea DOaae

Jacquemontu Benth., A. lenticularis Buch.-Ham., A. leucophloea

Willd., 4. modesta Wall., A. pycnantha Benth., A. Senegal Willd.,

A. Suma Kurz, A. Sundra DC., Albizgzia Lebbeck Benth., Aj

odoratissima Benth., A. procera Benth., A. stipulata Boivin, Pithe-

cellobium dulce Benth., P. Saman Benth., Prosopis spicigera Linn.

COMBRETACEZ: Anogeissus latifolia Wall., Terminalia belerica

Roxb:

IUPHORBIACEZ: Aleurites moluccana Willd.

Indian gum arabic finds its use in pharniacy as a substitute for

the true gum arabic, as an emollient and demulcent.

It is used medicinally by the Mahommedans who consider it to

be pectoral, strengthening and restorative. It has been employed

with alleged benefit in intermittent fevers and scurvy. Topically it

is used with advantage in ulceration and sponginess of the gingiva,

relaxation of the uvula, and hypertrophy of the tonsils.

In times of scarcity it Constitutes an important article of food,

and at all times a much esteemed delicacy. The gum is fried in

ghee, mixed with spices, and made into a sweetmeat; it is eaten by

all, but specially administered to women in childbed.

A considerable amount of Indian gum is used in calico printing,

and in the match and paper industries.

THE GUM ARABICA Ol THE BAZAARS AND SHOPS OF BOMBAY 265

Gum ARABIC IN BOMBAY.

A survey of the local trade in gum arabic was undertaken with

a view to ascertain the source or sources of this commodity and

the uses it is more commonly put to. In our opinion the informa-

tion gathered would help not only in determining more readily the

nature of the material collected but also, and chiefly, in passing a

fair judgment on its value. It stands to reason that a gum intended

for culinary or medicinal purposes is not to be judged from the same

standards as a gum which is meant to be exclusively used as an

adhesive. What would amount to gross adulteration in the first

case would not do so in the second.

We have visited shops, about a hundred of them, of ali descrip-

tions. From the information supplied it appears that there are

three chief types of gum arabic placed for sale in the Bombay

market: 1. the true gum arabic of Sudan, 2. East Indian gum,

and 3. Indian gum. And there are three main sources wherefrom

those gums may be obtained: 1. the Chemists and Druggists, 2.

the wholesale merchants, and 3. the retail dealers.

A. Chemists and Druggists get their samples directly from gum-

exporting countries such as Egypt and Sudan, or from England and

Germany. They generally stock three varieties, the prices depend-

ing on the quality and the colour: a. gum acacia elect, b. gum

acacia ordinary, and c. pulverised gum acacia. They are all intend-

ed for medicinal and pharmaceutical purposes.

Some of the firms admitted using Indian gums in the prepara-

tion of their pharmaceuticals; a fact which was confirmed by the

detection of the products of Acacia Calechu, Anogeissus latifolia,

and Azadirachta indica.

Anyhow the gum sold by the Chemists and Druggists of Bombay

as ‘gum arabic’ or ‘gum acacia’ was found to conform to all the

tests required for the pharmacopoeial article ‘Acacia’.

B. Wholesale Merchants :—The wholesale dealers in gums reside

in that part of Bombay known to the general public as ‘Dana-

bunder’, an unmapped locality situated within the Mandvi area.

There the trade is quietly but efficiently carried by Gujeratis, Jain

Banias, Kutchis, and a few Mahommedans; all of them remarkable

for the courtesy of their manners and their readiness to oblige.

There too, in Samuel Street, is the seat of the ‘Bombay Gum

Merchants’ Association’.

The Association was founded with the object of promoting

feelings of goodwill among the gum merchants, and of encouraging

the trade by looking after the general interests of the dealers. ‘The

Association will strive to settle disputes and debatable points, and

will hold correspondence with the authorities and other public bodies

and institutions with the object of promoting the general good of

the merchants. It will also discuss matters relating to the general

good of the country and, when occasion demands, will raise and

manage funds in this connection.’

Not all the gum merchants, however, are members of the

Association; a fact of great significance since the members, though

966 fOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. xan

allowed to import or export gums, are not permitted to trade in

‘katcha’ gums, that is the unsorted raw material. Members of the

Bombay Gum Merchants’ Association may only trade in ‘pakka’

gums, that is graded gums obtained after the cleaning and sorting

of the raw material.

No restriction of any kind is put on the trade of the non-

members who deal indiiterently with the so-called ‘katcha’ and

‘pakka’ materials. They receive the raw products from various

parts of India, hold a sort of private auction sale at their own

godowns or shops, and dispose of the stuff to the members through

brokers.

On reaching the godown the large dirty masses of ‘katcha’

material are first broken and cleaned by men. The broken stuff is

then passed on to women, especially noted for their patience and

industry, whose duty it is to sort the pieces according to size and

colour. The finished product is labelled, its price fixed, and then

—and only then—is the merchant, member of the Association,

allowed to put the gum on the market for sale.

The gums stocked by the wholesale merchants at Danabunder

may be grouped according to the place they come from as 1. gums

from the Sudan, 2. gums from Iran and Iraq, and 3. gums from —

India.

1. The gums that reach Bombay from the. African ports are

‘gum arabic’ and ‘gum talha’. After their arrival they are sorted

and cleaned, and made into grades according to the size and colour

of the fragments.

The very small particles are set aside to be pulverized and

sold as powdered acacia gum. The colourless big lumps and the

colourless small fragments, which look very clean and pure, are

sold under the names of maklai (so. named after the port of

Makalla) or safed gundar. They are divided into two grades,

maklai no. 1 and maklai no. 2, according to the colour. There is,

moreover, a third variety, considered inferior to these, sold as

maswai (from the port of Massawa) or lal gundar. In one of the

shops maklai no. 1 sold at Rs. 38 per cwt., maklai no. 27926

Rs. 30 per.cwt., and maswai at Rs. 26 per cwt.

These gums have a very good sale and are in great demand in

the city as well as outside. They are used as an article of food,

in the manufacture of confectionery, and also as an adhesive. They

were found to be gum acacia, occasionally mixed with the gum of

Azadirachta indica.

2. Gum shiraz and gum mamrah are two insoluble gums im-

ported from Iraq and Iran. They are exhibited in various grades

which are used locally for medicine, confectionery, dyeing and

printing. Large quantities are exported to America and other

continents.

They were identified as the products of Albizzia Lebbeck and

A. odoratissima.

Gum mamrah of Indian origin was found to consist of a mixture

of gums from Acacia arabica and A. modesta.

THE GUM ARABIC OF THE BAZAARS AND SHOPS OF BOMBAY 267

3. Gums reach Bombay from all parts of India; more parti-

cularly from Cawnpore, the Central Provinces—Jubbulpore, Nagpur,

Amraoti—, Rajputana, Punjab, Sind, Cutch, Kathiawar, East and

West Khandesh, Gujerat, and the Western Ghats.

Gum bavool is mostly used in printing and dyeing, and is

bought chiefly by millowners and dyers. It sells at Rs. 32 per cwt.

Gum ghati is sold under two forms: (1) a superior kind which

is eaten by the people, and (2) an inferior kind which is powdered

and used as an adhesive in whitewashing. Its price is Rs. 31 per

cwt. The residue left over after the removal of the better grades

is sold at Rs. 10 per cwt.; it most probably finds its way to some

obscure bazaar shop where it is again sifted so as to enable the

keeper to make a little profit out of it.

The term ‘ghati’ is very confusing. Some dealers apply it to

any mixture of gums, while others restrict it to gums imported

from the Western Ghats, and others maintain that true ‘ghati’ is

the exudation product of Acacia Catechu.

Gum khota is an insoluble gum, used for edible purposes, which

fetches Rs. 20 per cwt. The sample we analysed was a. mixture

of gums from Albizzia odoratissima, A. stipulata, and Cedrela Toona.

Gum karaya is mostly used locally for medicinal and culinary

purposes, and occasionally in printing and dyeing. It is listed at

Rs. 40 per cwt. This is never sold as ‘gum arabic’, and is there-

fore outside the scope of this paper. It is exported in very large

quantities to Germany and other foreign countries, more parti-

cularly the United States of America.

C. Retail Dealers :—Most of the local dealers, generally grocers,

buy their stock according to need from the wholesale merchants at

Danabunder. A few deal directly with firms in Gujerat, Kathiawar,

Cawnpore, East Khandesh and Thana Districts; or with collectors

in villages of the Deccan and the Western Ghats. Others again

procure their goods from the Gonds, Bhils, Katkaris or other hill-

men, who visit the city occasionally and whose occupation is to

collect gums from the trees of the forests.

True to the tradition of Indian lore, one or two Hindu shop-

keepers told us that their samples were from the Himalayas and

had been collected there by Rishis and Yogis; and the said samples

were accordingly possessed of miraculous curing properties, whether

administered internally or externally in any form whatsoever. No

less emphatic the pair of Mohammedans who had their stuff brought

from holy places in Iran, Iraq, and Arabia!

But, as a rule, the men behind the counter give the goods for

what they are. They all readily admit that no article is the

genuine ‘gum bavul’ or ‘acacia gum’; but a mixture of this with

such other gums as kher, bel, ber, lemon, neem, gonda, ete.

Nevertheless, the bavul gond, owing to its colour and size and the

presence of numerous fissures, is always recognizable and, should

necessity arise, could be picked out from the mixture and supplied

to the customer.

For the only thing that matters here is to please the customer

and meet his requirements. The uses to which the gum is put are,

268 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL. HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLI

indeed, so very numerous and varied, that the merchant has to

keep a large number of assorted grades to be able to satisfy the

needs of his clientéle. Hence the equally long list of vocables

under which the commodity is sold! gundar, babool, dink, katila,

ghati, makali, dhavda, dhavdi or dhavli, kadala or karaya, kani

babool, deshi babool, bambul, arabi gond, safed gundar, kher, lal

gundar, gorad gond, etc.

The gum is used by mill-owners in the finishing of cloth and

paper. It is also employed in the match industry, and in the

preparation of water colours, inks, varnishes and paints, and in

calico printing. Mixed with lime, mortar and cement it finds its

way into house-building operations.

As an adhesive, gum arabic is used in the preparation of wigs,

paper kites, clay toys; and there is a very heavy demand for it at

the time of the Ganpat festival. <A fairly large amount is also

needed for the manufacture of the various cosmetics more

abundantly required on festive occasions.

Gum bavool is frequently used for adulterating asafoetida—hing ;

by soaking hing in a thick paste of gum and drying, or by soaking

gum-crystals in a concentrated hing solution and drying, and selling

as asafoetida.

The gum is in great demand and sells very well in the localities

inhabited mostly by Hindus: Gujeratis, Kathiawaris, Deccanis. ' It

is used in the preparation of laddu and numerous other kinds of

sweetmeats, of peppermints, sherbets, and syrups; and it is often

chewed after meals.

Bavool is an indispensable article in the armamentarium of vaids,

kavirajs and hakims, who credit it with numerous curative

properties.

Even the inferior, coloured varieties find a ready sale: They

are mixed with water and given to cows to increase their output

of milk.

MATERIAL COLLECTED.

In all we have collected and examined 153 samples, and we

have every reason to believe that our work is exhaustive. The

tests for identification and purity rest almost entirely on the solubility

of the gum in water, and the behaviour of the aqueous solution to

such reagents as lead acetate, lead subacetate, ferric chloride, and

borax.

We have prepared and used the following key for the identi-

fication of the various gums in hand :—

1 Gum entirely soluble in water e Sa 2

Gum partially soluble or insoluble in water ... 16

No_ turbidity 3 3

2 2.Turbid mucilage from insoluble suspended sub-

stances ae ses ee 12

3 Precipitated by neutral lead acetate ss 4

Not affected by neutral lead acetate ee 7

4 Not affected by borax es : 5

Gelatinized by borax ae she ... Prosopis spicigera. °

THE GUM ARABIC OF THE BAZAARS AND SHOPS OF BOMBAY

Gelatinized by basic lead acetate

Precipitated by basic lead acetate

A good pale-coloured mucilage with water

A weak dark-coloured mucilage with water

Gelatinized by ferric chloride

Not gelatinized by ferric chloride

Gelatinized by borax

Unatfected by borax

Thick brown mucilage with water ...

Thick pale-coloured mucilage with water

Gelatinized or precipitated by basic lead acetate ...

Unaffected by basic lead acetate

Gelatinized by basic lead acetate

Precipitated by basic lead acetate

Not affected by neutral lead acetate ...

Precipitated by neutral lead acetate

Gelatinized by ferric chloride

Not gelatinized by ferric chloride

Turbidity due to suspended yellowish oil

Presence of calcium oxalate in sphaero-crystals ...

Gelatinized by borax

Unaffected by borax

Gum incompletely soluble, forming a gelatinous

mucilage with a large volume of water

Gum swelling up into a gelatinous mass,

little dissolving ‘

f very

{ Precipitated by neutral lead acetate ...

\ Not precipitated by neutral lead acetate

Gelatinized by borax

Unaffected by borax

Unaffected by neutral lead acetate

Gelatinized by neutral lead acetate

Gelatinized by ferric chloride

Unaffected by ferric chloride

Gelatinized by borax

Unaffected by borax

Swells to a gelatinous, jelly-like mass

Swells to tough cartilage-like masses

A tough gelatinous mass

A whitish transparent

dark mahogany-red ;

jelly ; mucilage turbid,

smell of fusel oil

cracks ;

Gum dark brown, smooth, free from

crystals of calcium oxalate

No crystals of calcium oxalate

Gum soft and tough; with waved transverse

ridges

Gum from amber to dark-brown ; “superficially

fissured, free from cracks internally

Gum tough and dark, swelling up to cartilage-

like masses in Waiter

{

. Chloroxvlon

. LTerminalia

. Bauhinia purpurea.

. Pithecellobium

.. Feronia Elephantum.

. Acacia modesta.

. Swietenia Mahagoni.

: 9

. Agadirachta indica.

. Pithecellobium dulce.

. Acacia Catechu.

Acacia arabica.

... Anogeissus latifolia.

. Acacia sp.

; 13

. Bauhinia variegata.

. Lannea grandis.

Delonix regia.

... Acacia arabica.

. Anacardium

. Acacia Farnesiana.

... Spondias pinnata.

... Albiszia Lebbeck.

Cedrela Toona.

... Aleurites moluccana.

.. Albizzia procera.

Swietenia.

belerica.

Saman.

. Albizzia odoratissima.

. Albizzia stipulata.

269

occidentale.

270 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. “SOCIELY., . Vol. sal

In every case the result was checked and confirmed by reference

to the specific characters of authentic samples.

~7 articles were found to consist of only one constituent :

Acacia urabica (40), A. Catechu (1), A. modesta (3), Acacia sp. (a

Anogeissus latifolia (1), Albiszia Lebbeck (1), A. odoratissima (1),

Azadirachta indica (8), Cedrela Toona (3), Chloroxylon Swietenia

(1), Pithecellobium Saman (3), Swietenia Mahagoni (1), Astragalus

sp. (3). |

51 specimens were mixtures of two constituents : Acacia arabica

+A, modesta (8), Acacia arabicu+ Anogeissus latifolia (3), Acacia

arabica +Albizzia odoratissima (1), Acacia arabica + Azadirachta

indica (6), Acacia arabica+ Bauhinia purpurea (1), Acacia arabica +

Chloroxylon Swietenia (1), Acacia Catechu-+ Azadirachta indica (1),

Acacia sp.+A. arabica (8), Acacia sp.+A. modesta (2), Acacia sp.

+ Anogeissus latifolia (5), Acacia sp. + Azadirachta indica (3), Acacia

sp.+ Feronia Elephantum (1), Albizszia odoratissima+A. stipulata

(5), Albizzia odoratissima+ Bauhinia purpurea (4), Albizzia odor-

atissima + Pithecellobium Saman (1), Albizzia Lebbeck + Cedrela

Toona (1).

21 samples contained three constituents: Acacia sp.+A. arabica

+A. modesta (2), Acacia sp.+A. arabica+Anogeissus latifolia (4),

Acacia sp.+A. arabica+Azadirachta indica (4), Acacia sp.+A.

arabica +Bauhinia purpurea (2), Acacia sp.+A. arabica+ Bauhinia

variegata (1), Acacia sp.+Albizzia odoratissima + Pithecellobium

Saman (1), Acacia arabica+A. modesta+Azadirachta indica (1),

Acacia arabica+A. modesta+Chloroxylon Swietenia (1), Acacia

arabica+A, modesta+Feronia Elephantum (1), Acacia arabica +

Albizzia odoratissima+ A. stipulata (1), Acacia arabica + Azadirachta

indica+Feronia Elephantum (1), Albizzia odoratissima+A. stipulata

+Bauhinia purpurea (1), Albizzia odoratissima+A._ stipulata+

Cedrela Toona (1).

4 samples were made up of four constituents: Acacia sp.+A.

avabica+A. modesta+Pithecellobium Saman (1), Acacia sp. + Ae

Catechu + Albizzia odoratissima+A. stipulata (1), Acacia arabica+

Albizzia odoratissima+ Bauhinia purpurea+Chloroxylon Swietenia

(1), Albizzia Lebbeck+A. odoratissima+ Bauhinia purpurea+

Spondias pinnata (1).

GENERAL SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS.

1. The gum arabic sold in the shops and bazaars of Bombay

is of either African or Indian origin.

2. The Sudan gum is either imported directly a Africa or

bought from reliable firms in England or Germany. It is invariably

pure, and conforms to pharmacopoeical requirements,

3. The Indian product is one of the numerous ingredients found

in the ‘katcha’ gum of Indian home trade. This article, which

reaches the wholesale merchants in Bombay from various parts

of India, is a very dirty mixture of many kinds of gums gathered

indiscriminately. In Bombay the material is first broken up and

cleaned, and then sorted into several grades of ‘pakka’ gum, these

THE GUM ARABIC OF THE BAZAARS AND SHOPS OF BOMBAY 271

are labelled, their respective prices are fixed, and they are ready

for sale to the retail dealers.

4. As the retail dealers in Bombay obtain their goods from

wholesale merchants who mostly belong to the ‘Bombay Gum

Merchants’ Association’, and as the Association is concerned for

the good name of its members, it follows that the better grades

of gum are of excellent quality.

5. The Indian gums sold in the bazaars of Bombay may be

roughly distributed into two groups according to the vernacular

names under which they are sold: (a) bavul, gundar, dink, kher—;

(b) maklai, ghati, katira, deshi bavul, etc.

6. The ‘bavul’ or gum arabic group consists of 95 per cent

of Acacia gums—A. arabica, A. Catechu, A. modesta, and several

other species. The other gums present in the group are those of

Anogeissus latifolia, Azadirachta indica, Feronia Elephantum, which

have properties similar to those of Acacia-gums, and are acknowl-

edged as good substitutes for gum arabic. The rest are a negligible

quantity.

7. In the ‘maklai’ or ‘ghati’ group Acacia-gums are found to

the extent of 40 per cent, mixed with other gums very different in

their properties from gum arabic.

8. Owing to the large number of grades the buyer may easily

get the article he needs, and there is no incentive for the merchant

to adulterate the goods.

9. The conclusion forced upon us is that the gum arabic of

the shops and bazaars of Bombay is the genuine article, and

answers the purpose for which it is sold.

THE GAME FISHES OF INDIA.?

SUNDER Lat Hora, D.Sc., F.R.S.E., F.Z.S., F+R.A.S.B., F.N.I.,

Assistant Superintendent, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta.

(With one coloured plate, one black and white plate and

two text-figures).

(Continued from page 71 of Vol. xli).

VIII.—THE MAHSEERS OR THE LARGE-SCALED BARBELS OF INDIA.

1. THe Putiror Mauseer, Barbus (Tor) putitora (Hamilton).

CONTENTS.

PAGE

Introduction ee ea 7)

Etymology of Mahseer and list of Vernacular Names ae wee

Nomenclature ae a fa fe vo Ade

History and Description ee oe pee ee 77)

Note on the enlargement of fips: Tae oe ce vc eee

Bionomics see we om Bs Ho 28a

Geographical Distribution ... oe _ aa woe FETE

Measurements in millimetres iS aes ee pepe 7035

Acknowledgments is — ae a .. 284

List of Referencés ... ee rte: tis Mi 0

Explanation of Plates ne Bes ad aA wo eee

INTRODUCTION.

In my prefatory note (7)? to the present series of articles on

‘The Game Fishes of India’ it was stated that the taxonomy of

Indian fishes, especially of the freshwater species, was in a state

of great confusion, and attention was directed to the fact that

even in the case of the most valuable game-fish Mahseer the

precise generic and specific limits of the forms included under this

composite term were not easy to elucidate. The preceding seven

articles have made it abundantly clear what an amount of spade

work is needed to assign proper scientific names to our commonest

food fishes. In dealing with the Mahseers this difficulty is greatly

accentuated, because characters, such as_ scale-counts,

fin-rays,

colouration, etc.

>., usually employed in distinguishing various species

of the Carp tribe have proved of little use in separating the large-

scaled Barbels of India into species, subspecies or varieties. The

* Published with permission of Director, Zoological Survey of India.

4 Numerals in thick type within brackets refer to the serial numbers of

the various publications listed in the bibliography at the end of the paper.

‘(uoy!WweH) euowind (4o,) snqueg

pdsaShly Ala OL Gl cette

"20S ‘LSIT] ‘LVN AvaWog ‘Nunof

THE GAME FISHES OF INDIA 273

following observations of Thomas (13, pp. 27, 28) regarding the

varieties of Mahseer are of special interest in this connection:

‘Further experience has confirmed me in the view advanced in 1873, that

there are more Mahseers than have been named, and that if it were possible

that as much accurate attention could be given to the Mahseer as has been

devoted to the Salmonidae of Great Britain, of Europe, and of America, it

would be found that the Mahseers of India would likewise grow in numbers.

No one who has not tried it can form any idea of the amount of labour

required to collect specimens sufficient to clear up a moot point, to decide

which differences are only accidents of local colouring, which the ordinary result

of the change of season, which indicate only varieties, and which serve to

constitute separate species. To satisfy an accurate mind specimens must be

collected from many rivers, in many localities, at various ages, in various

seasons, and in goodly numbers; and all details of capture must be reliably

noted at the time; all these facts which form the basis of conclusions should

also be retained for the satisfaction of other enquirers.’

After making fairly extensive collections, Thomas advanced the

view ‘that there are at least three distinct forms with difference of

external structure, and many more with differences in colouring’.

Not being: an angler, I am in a less fortunate position to make

field observations on Mahseers, but from the preserved material

and literature at my disposal at the Indian Museum I shall attempt

to define in a chronological order the precise specific limits of the

various types of Mahseers described from different parts of India

and Burma. At present it is not possible to determine the relations

of one with the other; but this will be taken up after the treatment

of the various varieties is completed. It will also not be possible

to give in the first instance an accurate account of the geographical

distribution of each species. The readers are requested to send

material of and observations on the bionomics of Mahseers to the

Bombay Natural History Society so that in course of time the

information can be codified and presented in a suitable form to the

angling world.

So much has been written on the methods of fishing for Mahseer

that it seems hardly necessary for me to discuss the matter in this

series, but in the last article on the Mahseers of India a resumé

of what is known along with a general account of the bionomics

of these fishes will be given.

ETYMOLOGY OF MAHSEER AND LIST OF VERNACULAR NAMES.

Thomas (13, p. 34) noted that

‘The name Mahseer is perhaps derived from the Hindustani words maha

great and sir (pronounced seer) head, or perhaps, as a friend writes me from

Delhi, on the authority of a native gentleman there who has been a great

angler and is a well-known Persian scholar, from the two Persian words mahi

a fish and sher a lion, in recognition of its gameness.’

According to Dhu (4, p. 5), Mahseer is derived from Matsya,

‘the Sanskrit word for fish used in the Vedas, and as the Mahseer

is undoubtedly the sacred fish of India, it is more than likely that

Mahseer is simply a corruption of Matsya. Maha Sir big head,

274 JOURNAL, BOMBAY (NATURAL BIST. /SOCIETY, Vol. XEt

is an alternative derivation.’ Lacy and Cretin (11, p. 2) discuss

the etymology of Mahseer in greater detail and remark

‘The derivation of Mahseer from maha sir—big head—may be merely an

attempt to give a meaning to the word. The derivation from maha sher—big

tiger—is fanciful, although the natives sometimes pronounce the word Mahsher ;

it is merely the soft equivalent of the word. A third and a good derivation

is from Mahasaula, Mahasalka—big scaled. The natives often call the fish

Mahsol. The Mahseer has got bigger scales than any other fresh-water fish in

India. Its big scales form one of its best distinctive characters. A big Mahseer

has got scales as big a the palm of one’s hand which make the use of the

gaff unsafe. The scales are used as playing cards in some parts of India. A

fourth, and a likely, derivation is from Matsya, which is the Sanskrit word

for ‘fish’, and is used in the Vedas. As the Mahseer is a sacred fish, preserved

near many Hindu temples, it is probable that the Brahmans called it ‘Fish’

par excellence, pronouncing the word Mahsia.’

In the Dak Edition of the Statesman of Calcutta, dated the

27th June, 1939, KIM on the authority of Mr. Mohsin Hosain

Rizwi contributed a note on the etymology of Mahseer. It is stated

therein that the word Mahseer has no phonetic or etymological

resemblance to the Sanskrit word ‘matsya’, and as Mahseer is

not a particularly bigheaded fish, therefore, the name cannot be

derived from ‘maha sir’—big head. The derivation which strikes

Mr. Rizwi as more probable, simpler and more logical is that the

word ‘mahseer’ is the corruption of the Persian word ‘Mahisher’

—mahi meaning fish and sher a tiger, the reference being made to

the tigerish and sporting character of this great game fish.

KIM in agreeing with Mr. Rizwi’s observations remarked that

in his opinion the ‘sir’ of Mahseer had nothing to do with the

head. “The “‘sir’’ referring to the héad is pronounced ‘quite

differently from the second syllable of mahseer. The ‘“‘sir’’ meaning

the head is pronounced like the sir in sirrah, whereas the second

syllable of the word for fish is pronounced as it is spelt, ‘‘seer’’,

like the word for a sage or prophet.’

Finding so much confusion about the etymology of Mahseer I

referred KIM’s observations to my cousin, Dr. B. Ch. Chhabra,

Assistant Superintendent’for Epigraphy in India, and he very kindly

sent me the following opinion :—

‘As regards the discussion about the name Mahseer, let me at once say

that Mr. Rizwi’s Persian derivation of it from mahisher is fanciful and far

fetched. In the first instance the compound ought to have been shermahi in

the sense he takes it. Moreover, Kim’s objection applies to this sher as well

as it does to sir. Let me in passing also point out that the so-called Persian

word mahi for fish is a corrupt form of the Sanskrit matsyi ‘female fish’

though it looks so strange.’

Dr. Chhabra then gives details of the process by which the

Persian mahi is derived from the Sanskrit matsyi, giving numerous

instances in support of his arguments. He thinks that the term

Mahseer ‘is derived from mahdsiras, the reference to greatness

or bigness may be to the front part of the fish and not only to its

head or snout’. This derivation is supported by Yule and Crooke

(15, p. 538) in Hobson Jobson. To meet KIM’s objection that

the vowel in seer of Mahseer is not like in ‘sirrah’ but is like that

in ‘seer’, Dr. Chhabra suggests the derivation to be from mahdasirsha

THE GAME FISHES OF INDIA 275

without altering the sense. The dropping of the final sha in a

corrupt word is not impossible, Sivas or sirsha mean the same thing.

I have also consulted Mr. T. N. Ramachandran, Superintendent,

Archaeological Section, Indian Museum, and he agrees that

Mahseer is very likely a colloquial form of Mahdsirsha_ or

MahdsSiras.'

There are several local names under which Mahseers are known

in different parts of India. In recording Cyprinus putitora from

the Rangpur District, Hamilton (vide Day 3, p. 50) noted that

‘The Mahdsaul of the polished dialect of Bengal, called Putitor in the vulgar

dialect of Goalpara, is the largest of the carp kind that we have, and is often

found nine feet in length, and six feet is an usual size. The scales are

exceedingly large, being like the hand, and at Dacca are often made into

cards with which people: game. It is reckoned coarse food.’

There is hardly any doubt that in Mahdsaul reference is made

to the large scales of the fish and that the term is derived from

the Sanskrit mahdsalkalin, meaning a fish with large scales.

The following are some of the vernacular names under which

Mahseers are known in different parts of India and Ceylon :—

Putitor (Goalpara); Tor (Rangpur); Sahdra and Turiva

(Purneah); Mdsdél (Kosi R.); Kajrd (Ddidnagar, Sone R.); Bura-

patra, Junga Peetia (Assam); Naharm (Hindi); Kukhiah (Punjab) ;

Kurreah (Sind); Kendi, Bém-min (Tamil); Peruval, Harale-minu

(Canarese); Hallamtnu (Mysore Canarese); Meruval (Malayalam) ;

Heragalu, Peruval (Tulu); Kadchi, Masta (Marathi); Kuriah, Lela

(Ceylonese).

NOMENCLATURE.

Hamilton (6, pp. 303-307) included 3 varieties of Mahseer, viz.,

Cyprinus putitora, C. tor and C. mosal, in his fourth heterogenous

division of the genus Cyprinus which he termed Cyprinus proper.

He observed that the fishes of this division are of large size and

thick form, and are provided with a short anal fin. The genus

Cyprinus Artedi is, however, restricted to the true Carp found

in the temperate parts of Europe and Asia; it is not found in

India proper, but a subspecies was described by Annandale (1.

P- 47) from the Southern Shan States, Burma. Of the T5 species

included under the division Cyprinus proper Hamilton recognised

the close affinities of the 3 varieties of Mahseer for he (G,. p.. 203)

observed under C. putitora that “

‘This and the two following species have, in many points, a_ strong

resemblance, being very large fishes, affording an excellent wholesome nourish-

ment, free from bones, although not quite so delicate as the Rohita. They are

all also strong, well-formed, handsome fishes, peculiarly distinguished by the

enormous size of their scales, which, in large individuals, almost equals the

hand, insomuch, that cards for gaming are sometimes made of them at Dakha.

*In the last article of this series about Wallagonia attu, one of the

Sanskrit names mentioned for Mulley or Boali (8, p. 66) was Mahasira, in which

reference is certainly made to the large front part of the fish.

276 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NAGURAL, BIST SOCIETY, Wolpecen

Mahasaula and Tora, variously altered or corrupted, or with various additions,

may be considered as generic appellations among the natives for these fishes,

all of which frequent large rivers.’

Unfortunately Hamilton did not figure any one of the three

species in his monumental work on ‘Gangetic Fishes’, but among

his manuscript drawings, now preserved in the Library of the Royal

Asiatic Society of Bengal, he left drawings of C. tor and C. mosal.

These were published by Gray (5) without any letterpress or

acknowledgment; the latter species appears on plate 93 of Volume

I of Illustrations of Indian Zoology under the name ‘Cyprinus

mosal Hamilt.’, while the former is published as ‘Tor Hamiltonii’

on plate 96 of Volume II. Though the large-scaled Barbels have

been variously referred to the genera Barbus Cuvier, Labeobarbus

Riippel, Barbodes Bleeker, Tor Gray, etc., according to the modern

usage they are placed generally in the genus Tor Gray, with

Cyprinus tor Hamilton (=Tor Hamiltonii Gray) as the genotype.

Barbus, found in Europe, throughout Asia and Africa, is one of

the most extensive genera of freshwater fishes, and several authors

have attempted to divide it into genera and subgenera which

gradually pass one into another. In the majority of cases these

divisions have not been permanently accepted. Unless an attempt

is made to monograph the Cyprinidae of the whole word, probably

it will not be possible to define the precise generic limits of the

various forms and till such time I think it may be useful to treat

Tor as a subgenus of Barbus.

The fishes of the subgenus Tor are elongate and moderately

compressed. The snout is more or less prominent. The mouth

is inferior or subinferior, and horseshoe-shaped; the upper jaw

is strongly protractile. The lips are more or less thick and

continuous; the labial fold is uninterrupted and generally its median

part is developed into a lobe which is very extensive in some

individuals; in certain forms the upper lip is also greatly developed.

There are two pairs of small, but well defined, barbels, one pair

rostral and one pair at the angles of the mouth. The suborbital

bones are narrow. The dorsal fin is provided with 8-9 branched .

rays and commences either before or opposite the origin of the

pelvic fins; its last undivided ray is large, osseous and smooth;

generally it is very strong but in certain forms it is comparatively

feeble. The anal fin is short, with 5 branched rays. The scales

are very large, about 23 to 30 in a series along the lateral line

which runs to the middle of the base of the caudal fin. The gill-

membranes are united to the isthmus. The pharyngeal teeth are

spoon-shaped and are arranged in 3 Series \5.~ 3. 2-—2) 3. 150mm

According to Weber and de Beaufort (14, p. 148), the fishes

of the Labeobarbus-type are found in ‘Fresh water of Indo-

Australian Archipelago (Sumatra, Java, Borneo), of Asia and

aia (orle ¢

The Mahseers belong to a very large family of Carp, though in

their size, flavour, activity, etc., they are quite different from the

true Carp of Europe. It is for this reason that they are usually

called Barbels. They belong to the order Cyprinoidea of the

ea)

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

aie

ics

sae

wee

wy |

SRS,

The Putitor Mahseer, Barbus (tor) putitora (Hamilton).

(For explanation see end of article).

THE GAME FISHES OF INDIA 277

Physostomous fishes, to the family Cyprinidae and to the subfamily

Cyprininae.

HISTORY AND DESCRIPTION.

Hamilton (6, p. 388) characterized his Cyprinus putilora as

follows :—

‘Cyprinus verus cirrhis 4; radiis in pinna dorsali 11, duobus prioribus

simplicibus, in pinna anali 7; squamis maximis; rostro laevis imperforato ;

Jabiis integerrimis; pinnis pallidis.’

Sebo 1D 11, P 15, V9, A 7, C 19+ 2

-.‘Varietas cirrhis 2; radiis in pinna dorsali 10, in anali 8.’

The species was described by Hamilton from ‘the eastern parts

of Bengal’, and was stated by him to grow to g feet in length.

According to his notes on the fish and fisheries of Bengal (vide

Day 3, p. 50) he seems to have observed C. putitora only at

Goalpara in the district of Rangpur. I have already quoted (p. 275)

his brief account of the fish as given in these notes. Unfortunately

he made no drawing of the species and his description is so

generalised that the later workers found it difficult to recognise it

as a valid species. McClelland (12, p. 399) is perhaps the only

earlier ichthyologist who recorded as Barbus putitora a_ speci-

men collected at Ningpo in China. Hora and Mukerji (8, p. 140), as

a result of the collections made by them in the Eastern Doons,

discussed the specific limits of the three forms described by Hamil-

ton and came to the conclusion that B. putitora is abundantly

distinct from B. tor but may be conspecific with C. mosal. They

attached considerable importance to the colour of the fins (yellow

in putitora versus red in tor); to the form of the back in front of the

dorsal fin (sharp in putitora versus convex in tor), and the relative

size of head when compared to depth of body (head considerably

greater than depth of body in putitora versus head considerably

shorter than depth of body in tor). Further material collected since

then has shown that all the three species of Hamilton are probably

distinct. I propose to describe here the first species of Mahscers

mentioned by Hamilton, e.g. Barbus (Tor) putitora (Hamilton).

BarsBus (Tor) putirora (Hamilton).

1822. Cyprinus (Cyprinus) putitora, Hamilton, Fish. Ganges, pp. 303, 388.

Wey. xe 2/55 Peot7-18; V.00/85 C.-19.

The Putitor Mahseer is an oblong, somewhat compressed, stream-

lined, trout-like fish in which both the profiles are gently and

gracefully arched. The head is broadly pointed anteriorly and

behind the anal fin the tail becomes considerably narrow. The length

of the head is always considerably greater than the depth of the

body; it is contained from 3 to 3.6 times in the standard length;

the head is relatively longer in younger specimens. The depth

of the body is relatively greater in young individuals; it is contained

iOm-1.1.to r.4 times -in the:length,of- the. head. The eyes- are

278° JOURNAL, "BOMBAY NATURAL GHIST. SOCINTY. “Vol. oan

far forward and are provided with circular pupils; they are pro-

portionately larger in the smaller individuals; the diameter of the

eye is contained from 2.8 to 5.3 times in the length of the head;

from o.8 to 1.7 times in the length of the snout and from o.7 to

1.4 times in the interorbital distance. The least height of the

caudal peduncle is contained from 1.4 to 1.8 times in its length.

The mouth is small; its gape does not extend to below the

eyes; it is horizontal with the opening obliquely directed upwards.

The lips are fleshy and continuous at the angles of the mouth; the

posterior lip is produced into a median lobe and the post-labial

groove is continuous. The condition of the lips varies greatly in

individuals of different sizes and in those collected from different

localities (for detailed account see pages 279-280). There are two

pairs of barbels' which are more or less of equal length and are

almost as long as the diameter of the eye. The body is covered with

large scales; there are 25 to 28 scales in a longitudinal series along

the lateral line; 2} rows between the lateral line and the base of

the pelvic fin; 44 rows between the lateral line and the base of

the dorsal fin; 9 scales before the dorsal fin and 12 round the

caudal peduncle. There is a well developed scaly appendage in

the axil of the pelvic fin.

The commencement of the dorsal fin is opposite to that of the

pelvics, and is almost midway between the tip of the snout and

the base of the caudal fin. The last spine is very strong and bony;

it is generally shorter than the depth of the body below it, but in

some individuals it is equal to the body height. In a specimen

from Murree, however, it 1s considerably longer than the depth of the

body. The pectoral fins are low, considerably shorter than the head

and sharp above. The pelvic fins do not reach the anal opening.

The anal fin does not extend to the base of the caudal fin. The

caudal fin is sharply divided, with the lower lobe somewhat more

pointed.

Hamilton (6, p. 304) noted that the colour is dusky above ‘with

a gloss of steel, while the edges of the scales changed from gold to

silver. The lower parts resemble entirely the latter. The fins are

without spots, and the hinder ones are tinged with yellow. The

eyes are like silver’.

The colours vary considerably according to the nature of the

waters inhabited by the fish. In a small, fresh specimen, about 9

inches in length, collected from the Tista river near Washabari Bazaar

in the Eastern Duars, the dorsal surface of the head and a small

anterior portion of the body were found to be of a Lincoln green

colour while the ground colour of the remaining portion of the

dorsal surface of the body was warm buff which faded into light

pink at the sides and silvery white on the ventral surface. On the

sides, between the upper angles of the gill-openings and the base

of the caudal fin, there were broad bands of light mineral gray.

Each scale was anteriorly marked with a gray blotch. The portion

——

* Hamilton (6, p. 305) records that he examined one specimen in which

there were only two barbels. This has to be regarded as a case of abnormality.

THE GAME FISHES, OF INDIA 279

of the tail in front of the caudal fin was marked with an irregular,

broad, vertical band of amber yellow. The operculum and _ the

sides of the snout were of gray colour while patches of orange

and yellow colour were present on other parts of the head. The

dorsal fin was light yellow in colour while its rays were conspl-

cuously yellowish gray. The fin was provided with a broad band

of mineral gray across the rays. The pectoral fins were pink at

their bases and citron yellow distally. The pelvic fins were yellowish

with a tinge of pink at their bases and extremities. The anal fin

was likewise citron yellow with pink extremity. The caudal fin

was also citron yellow with its rays of mineral gray colour; it was

edged with pink and gray. |

The colour plate reproduced here shows the colouration of a

specimen about 34 feet in length collected by Mr. W. K. Langdale

Smith from the Tista river and kept in a kachha tank at the Runglh

Rungliot Tea Estate, Darjeeling District. Under these artificial

conditions its colouration in life was as follows :—

The back was reddish sap green and along the sides above

the lateral line there was a broad band with a purplish shadow

throughout. Below the lateral line the body was light orange

which faded into silvery white on the belly. The head below the

level of the eyes was light buff yellow which was replaced ventrally

by a light neutral tint. The iris was light green while the pupil

was dark blue. The scales in the upper half of the body were

marked anteriorly by reddish sap green colour while in the centre

they were brilliantly orange, their posterior edges were of peacock

green in colour with shades of light and deep sap green anteriorly.

The pectoral, pelvic, anal and caudal fins were peacock green in

colour; the distal tip of the anal was marked with a patch of

reddish orange, while the posterior border of the caudal fin was

- marked with reddish green. The tubes on the lateral line were

greenish silvery.

Text-fig. 1.—Lateral view of an African species of Barbus, B.

Gilchrist, with greatly developed lips. x3/8.

meetver Gilchrist, Ann. South Afr. Mus., xi, p. 392, 1918).

cunningt

Note on the enlargement of lips (Plate II) :—Reference has been

made above (vide p. 278) to the hypertrophied lips of certain

individuals. Such an enlargement of the lips is to be found not

280 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL -HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XEI

only in several species, races and varieties of the Indian Mahseers,

but in the large-scaled Barbels of the neighbouring countries and of

Africa as well. Thomas (13, p. 32) discussed the systematic value

of this character and observed :

‘I have found this peculiar formation occurring in all the places spoken of

above, except in Northern India’, where I have not fished enough. | It cannot

indicate a mere variety for I have found it so frequently. Does it indicate a

species, or is it a temporary growth like the beak of a male salmon in the

spawning season? It cannot be the latter, because I do not remember to have

ever seen it half developed, and I have notes of having frequently observed

it fully developed in small immature Mahseer of 1 lb. in weight and under,

down to fry of five, five and a half, and six inches, in length, when they

could hardly be breeding.’

Thomas then gives the opinion of the local fishermen who regard

the thick-lipped forms as females, but in view of the fact. that a

‘number of such very small Mahseer being caught with the lips

not partially but thoroughly developed, militates against their being

females.’ His conclusion is that they are distinct species. ‘But

what the function of these prolonged lips and beard may be I

cannot conceive. It is left as a puzzle for my readers to work

out.’

Hora and Mukerji (8, p. 140) also noted differences in the

structure of the lips of various individuals collected by them in

the Eastern Doons and remarked:

‘Among the yellow-finned forms there are two types: (i) The lips are

fleshy and the lower one is produced backwards into a long fleshy appendage;

the snout is blunt; (ii) The lips are of the normal type and the lower lip

does not form an appendage; the snout is rather pointed. We believe that

these differences are correlated with sex; the former type represents the male

and the latter the female.’

The above conclusion was based on an examination of immature

specimens, but as these differences are sometimes fairly pronounced

even in fry of a few inches in length I agree with Thomas that

probably they are not secondary sexual characters.

While re-examining the material from the Eastern Doons I found

that all the specimens, 8 in number, collected from the Song River at

Lachhiwala possess well-developed lips while 6 specimens obtained

from the Suswa River have lips of the ordinary type. From the

field notes made at the time of collecting the material and from

personal recollections of the nature of the two streams, it can be

stated that the Song River is a large torrential stream with rocky

and gravelly bed, but without any marked waterfalls. The Suswa

River near Sat Narain is a comparatively sluggish stream with

sandy or pebbly bed.

With regard to the enlargement of the lips Day (2, p. 77)

noted that

‘Amongst 20 specimens all of about to inches in length and taken the same

day in the Chukkee, a hill affluent of the Sutlej, I found in two the snout

Co. le OO VY EOr™

' Enlargement of lips is equally marked in several types of Himalayan

Mahseers as will be evident from this as well as the following articles in this

series.

THE GAME FISHES OF INDIA 281

elongated overhanging the upper jaw, in several the middle of the upper lip

elongated, but to varying lengths, and in a smaller number no elongation of the

upper lip. The median lobe of the lower lip was very variously produced, but

apparent in all.’

It is clear from the above that Day also found the enlarged

lips practically in all the specimens collected from a torrential

tributary of the Sutlej River in the Himalayas.

i} UN

TAN Qe ANN

: a

HHT

ERS

i QO

NUH

ort

ase

Text-fig. 2.—Ventral surface of head and anterior part of body of two specimens

of about equal size from the Eastern Doons. X14.

a. A specimen, 141 mm. in total length, from the Suswa River near Sat

Narain showing plain lips, and a small median lobe of the posterior lip.

b. A specimen, 140 mm. in total length, from the Song River at Lachhiwala

showing hypertrophied lips, and a well-developed, beard-like median lobe

of the posterior lip.

As in Carp in general, the jaws of Mahseer are protrusible so

that the lips can be applied to the substratum to form a sucker.

It is conceivable, therefore, that hypertrophied lips are characteristic

of only those individuals which live in shallow torrential streams

where they enable the fish to adhere to rocks and stones in the

same way as the Lampreys do in rocky streams. The forms with

thick lips generally possess a more graceful and stream-lined body

which also points to their torrential habitat.

To test the above hypothesis, which for the time being may

be regarded merely as a tentative suggestion, Museum collections

are not helpful. For example, of 13 specimens, ranging in standard

282. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL Ist. SOCIETY, Vol. (XLT

length from 116 mm. to 243 mm., of the Putitor Mahseer from

the Kangra Valley, Punjab, very kindly sent by Dr. Hamid Khan,

6 possess ordinary types of lips, while in the remaining exampies

the lips are greatly thickened and the median lobe of 4 specimens

is co-extensive with the extent of the mouth. As this lot is noted

to have been collected ‘from Kangra streams’, it is now impossible

to correlate the differences in the development of lips with differences

in their habitats. To elucidate this problem it is highly desirable

that anglers may kindly note the condition of the lips of the

Mahseers caught by them and also make a detailed note of the

length. The sex of the individual must also be noted by a rough

examination of the gonads, but if it is difficult to be sure whether

it Is an Ovary or a testis the same may be preserved and sent, with

other particulars, to the Bombay Natural History Society for further

study. Ihe accumulation of these data will enable us to arrive at

a satisfactory conclusion regarding the mystery that surrounds the

hypertrophied condition of the lips in certain Mahseers. One thing

is, however, clear that it cannot be relied upon as a character for

differentiating species.

Bionomics :—As a result of their studies on the material collected

from the Eastern Doons, Hora and Mukerji (8, p. 142) made the

following observations on the feeding habits and the breeding

period of the species :—

‘In most of the specimens dissected, the stomach was found to be empty

showing that the feeding is probably intermittent in this species. The alimentary

canal is considerably shorter than that of B. tor, being 2.6 times as long as

the Jength of the fish. The fish feeds on green filamentous algae, insect larvae,

water plants, slimy matter from rocks, ete. Judged by the length of its

intestine, it would appear to be more carnivorous than 8B. tor.

‘B. putitora is represented by a large number of young specimens in

our collection. This species also seems to breed in August-September. The

fry is provided with a black spot in front of the base of the caudal fin.’

Hamid Khan (10) has studied the sex organs of Mahseer of

the Punjab and has come to the conclusion that ‘it spawns three

times in the year, and that all the eggs in the ovaries are laid at

each spawning season’. The three spawning seasons are, (i)

January and February, (ii) May and June (snow melts), and (iii)

July to September (monsoon months). Unfortunately, Dr. Hamid

Khan had no opportunity to examine the actual specimens, so it

is difficult to say whether all the samples of gonads studied by

him belonged to the same species. However, from the material

sent to me from the Kangra Valley, referred to above, it seems

probable that Barbus (Tor) putitora is the commonest Mahseer of

the Punjab waters.

Geographical Distribution:—Barbus (Tor) putitora is found all

along the Himalayas. Measurements of specimens from Kashmir

to the Darjeeling Himalayas are included in the table given overleaf.

Though it is reported (12, p. 399) from China also, in the present

confused state of our knowledge it is very difficult to form an exact

idea of its range of distribution.

283

THE GAME FISHES.OF INDIA

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284. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLI

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.

The cost of illustrations for this article has been borne by the

Bombay Natural History Society and for this my sincerest thanks

are due to the authorities of the Society. I am greatly indebted

to Mr. W. K. Langdale Smith of the Rungli Rungliot Tea Estate,

Darjeeling District, who very kindly afforded facilities for my artist

to make a colour sketch of one of his tame Mahseers, which was

caught by him from the Tista River and later kept in a kachha tank

in his estate. The specimen was afterwards skinned and preserved,

and is now exhibited in the Fish Gallery of the Indian Museum.

The colour drawing made by the artist is reproduced here. As

in the case of the previous articles Mr. K. S. Misra has helped

me in the preparation of the table of measurements, and for this |

am indebted to him. The colour drawing was prepared by Babu

B. Bagchi, while the text-figures were executed by Babu A. K.

Mondul. I am obliged to them for the skill and care with which

they executed the work under my supervision.

List OF REFERENCES.

1. Annandale, N.—‘Fish and Fisheries of the Inle Lake.’ Rec. Ind. Mus.,

vol. Xiv, p. 47 (1913).

2. Day, F.—'Monograph of Indian Cyprinidae (Part II).’ Journ. As. Soe.

Bengal, vol. xl, p. 77 (1871).

3. Day, F.—'The Fish and Fisheries of Bengal.’ In Hunter’s A Statistical

Account of Bengal, vol. xx, p. 50 (London, 1878).

4. Dhu, S.—The Angler in India or the Mighty Mahseer, p. 5 (Allahabad,

1923).

5. Gray, J. E.—Illustrations. of Indian Zoology, vol, i, pl. xciii; vol. a

pl. xcvi (London, 1930-34).

: 6. Hamilton, F.—An Account of the Fishes found in the River Ganges

and its branches, pp. 303-307 (Edinburgh, 1822).

7. Hora, S$. L.— ‘The Game Fishes of India.’ J.B.N.H.S., vol.| xxxiz

p- 199 (1937).

8. Hora, S. L. and Mukerji, D. D.—‘Fish of the Eastern Doons, United

Provinces.’ Rec. Ind. Mus., vol. xxxviii, pp. 139-142 (1936).

9. Hora, S. L.—'The Game Fishes of India, VII. The Mulley or Boali,

Wallagonia attu (Bloch and Schneider).’ J.B.N.H.S., vol. xli, pp. 64-71 (1939).

10. Khan, Hamid—‘Study of the Sex Organs of Mahseer (Barbus tor H.

BB). j.BoNSHS.. vol. xli, pp. 107-1127 (19360),

11. Lacy, G. H. and Cretin, E.—The Anglers’ Handbook for India, 4th

ed., pp. 2, 3 (Calcutta, 1905).

12. McClelland, J.—‘Description of a collection of Fishes made at Chusan

and Ningpo in China.’ Calcutta Journ. Nat. Hist., vol. iv, p. 399 (1844).

13. Thomas, H. A.—Rod in India, 3rd ed., pp. 27, 28, 34 (London, 1897).

14. Weber, M. and Beaufort, L. F. de—The Fishes of the Indo-Australian

Archipelago, vol. iii, p. 148 (Leiden, 1916).

15. Yule, H. and Crooke, W.—Hobson-Jobson (A Glossary of Anglo-Indian

Colloquial Words and Phrases and of Kindred Terms), p. 538 (London, 1903).

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

Explanation of Plate I.

Colour sketch of a tame Putitor Mahseer, Barbus (Tor) putitora (Hamilton),

of the Tista River. The drawing was made from a smaller specimen.

THE GAME FISHES OF INDIA 285

The specimen, 1,060 mm. in total length, was collected by Mr. W. K.

Langdale Smith and kept in a kachha tank at the Rungli Rungliot Tea

Estate, Darjeeling District. The colours shown in the drawing probably differ

from those of a specimen living under natural conditions. In examples of

this type of Mahseer collected from torrential rivers the paired fins are

generally pale in colour (8).

Explanation of Plate II.

Lateral view of head and anterior part of body of 3 specimens of Putitor

Mahseer from the Eastern Doons.

1. A specimen, 141 mm. in total length, from the Suswa River at Sat

Narain showing plain lips. ca Nat. Size.

2. A specimen, 140 mm. in total length, from the Song River near

Lachhiwala showing hypertrophied lips. x1 5/16.

3. A specimen, 108 mm. in head length, from the Song River at Lachhiwala

with greatly hypertrophied lips. ca Nat. Size.

The lips are partially stretched outwards to show their form and extent.

(To be continued)

THE BIRD YEAR IN BETUL (CENTRAL PROVINCES).

C. E. HEWETSON, I.F.S.

The excuse for such an inexpert article is that the study of

birds in the Central Provinces has attracted few people and the

records from these parts are very meagre.

The Central Provinces are not a natural geographical -unit.

The topography, climate and distribution of the flora and fauna

intergrade with the surrounding provinces. There is, for instance,

a vast difference between the Godavary valley in Chanda district

and the Narbada valley in Hoshangabad district. It is probable

that in a careful survey of the whole province a large percentage of

Indian birds would be found. A list of birds from the whole

province for this reason is not very informative and in this article

I deal chiefly with the birds of Betul district.

Betul district is the centre of India and was once vaguely

considered for the head-quarters of the Central Government. The

greater part lies in the Satpura range and consists of a plateau

with an average elevation of 2,100 ft. The Tapti river rises near

Multai in the south. The northern part of the plateau drains into

the Narbada river. The plateau itself is .mostly cultivated but

the slopes of the plateau are covered with forest. Below the slopes

there are numerous streams which contain a certain amount of

water throughout the year. The bird population described in the

article lives in these forests. The habitat is fairly uniform. The

country is all hilly and the forest is the mixed deciduous association

with a more or less dense second storey of bamboos. A large

percentage of the forest is government reserve and due to sixty

years of fire protection tends to be mesophytic. These conditions

are ideal for a large number of bird species, and I think one of

the striking aspects of these forests is the large bird population.

There are no tanks or lakes in the area, and this explains the

absence of the majority of water birds.

The lists of birds are compiled on visual identification only;

but 1 have tried to be as rigorous as possible. I have only

included species whose identification could be checked repeatedly.

One disadvantage is that I am unable to give geographical races.

Betul is close to the boundary between many Northern and Southern

races and probably both races often occur. In the monthly lists

I have shewn only the birds seen. The absence of a bird does

not necessarily mean that it was migratory. In the notes on

species I have given details of species which are probably migratory.

One of the interesting points brought out is the discontinuous

distribution of several species. This is true not only of birds but

also of animals and plants. The higher parts of the Satpura range

enjoy a moderately cool climate and remain green and fairly moist

THE BIRD YEAR IN BETUL (CENTRAL PROVINCES) 287

almost throughout the year. The more interesting examples are

the Nilgiri Black bird, the Deccan Scimitar Babbler, the Whistling

Thrush, the Pied Shrike and the Red-Whiskered Bulbul.

There is one consideration which restricts the value of my ob-

servation. Being a forest officer I am continuously moving and

only stay two or three days in one place. This means that in the

course of a year I see the greater part of the District, but [ am

unable to say whether a rare bird is a regular inhabitant of one

locality or whether the bird’s visit and mine happened to coincide.

Regular bird watching over a year shews that there is con-

siderable local movement of the resident species. The dates of

arrival and departure of the migratory species are based on ten

years observation in various parts of the Central Provinces. Where

my opinion conflicts with previous observers I am _ prepared to

back my observations for a modest sum.

NOTES ON SPECIES.

(The scientific names are taken from Whistler’s Hand Book,

second edition and the Vernay Survey of the Eastern Ghats: I

have added the locality in which some of the rarer species were

seen.)

Tits (Paride),

Parus major Linn.

Machlolophus xanthogenys (Vigors).

‘These are both common birds throughout the forests. Parus

major may be locally very abundant.

| NUTHATCHES (Sittid@).

Sitta castanea Lesson.

_This is not a common species and I- have only seen it outside

the forest. Sitta-frontalis is common locally, but is not widely

spread (Selda Reserve). One would expect these to be common

Species. |

Bappers (Timalide).

Turdoides somervillei (Sykes).

Abundant throughout the district. The colouration varies

obviously and I should judge that both races occur equally. There

is one albino in a family near my bungalow. Argya caudata is

not_a forest species but is frequent in the open. A. malcolmi is

common round Betul town but is not a forest species. It is

irregularly distributed.

Pomatorhinus horsfieldii Sykes.

Seen occasionally (Murha and Sarni). Once at an elevation of

1,800 ft.» and once at 2,700. ft.. The only other record is from

Pachmarhi:* ee rar

288. JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL SCHIST? SSOCIEUY VV olv Gen

Dumetia hyperythra (Frankl.).

A common species found in all types of forest but more usually

in grassy areas, such as coupes closed to grazing.

Pellorneum ruficeps Swains.

Occurs in the higher forests. It is locally. common.

Alcippe poicicephala (Jerdon).

Common particularly in bamboo forest.

Aegithina tiphia Linn.

Less frequent in the forest, and is less common in this district

than in the south of the province.

Chloropsis jerdoni (Blyth).

This bird is more common than one at first realizes. It is

remarkably noisy and mimics other birds.

BuLButs (Pycnonotida).

Molpastes cafer Linn.

The only Bulbul in the greater part of the area.

Otocompsa jocosa Linn.

Only found at elevations over 2,300 ft. and I have seen it only

in one or two places where it is locally abundant. This agrees with

its habits as reported by D’Abreu*® and Bates*. At Pachmarhi it

is common on the slopes of Dhupgarh (4,000 ft.). This species is

also common at Chikalda (3,500 ft.). Generally speaking Bulbuls

are poorly represented in the province.

Pycnonotus luteolus (Less.).

Occurs in Nagpur; and I suspect that the Yellow-vented Bulbul

is locally distributed. An old inhabitant of Betul insists that there

were green bulbuls when she first came. The specimens of Oto-

compsa jocosa always appear to be considerably larger than

Molpastes cafer; and it is a forest species, and decidedly shy in this

area.

CHATS, ROBINS, THRUSHES, ETC. (Turdide).

Phoenicurus ochrurus (Gmelin).

A very common species both in the more open parts of the

forest and round cultivation. It is one of the most punctual of

our migrants arriving on October rst and leaving about April 1st.

Saxicoloides fulicata (Linn.).

Copsychus saularis (Linn.).

Well distributed throughout the forest. The latter species is

perhaps one of the most regular inhabitants. The Shama does

THE BIRD YEAR IN BETUL (CENTRAL PROVINCES) 289

not occur in the Central Provinces except perhaps rarely in the

South.

Turdus simillimus Jerd.

The distribution of this species appears to be very discon-

tinuous. Outside the province the nearest localities are Mount

Aboo, the Eastern Ghats and Kandahar in Hyderabad. In the

Central Provinces it is common at Chikalda and round Dhupgarh

near Pachmarhi. It has been recorded from Seoni district by

D’Abreu. I have found it in two localities in Betul. One was a

small valley about ro miles east of Betul town (2,200 ft.) and the

second on an isolated plateau Killindeo (3,500 ft.) which is close to

Pachmarhi. Where found it is abundant. The birds on Killindeo

were just starting to sing. It probably occurs here and_ there

throughout the Satpura range. I suspect that the birds are

resident. I wonder whether individuals ever migrate from one

colony to another.

Geokichla citrina cyanotis (Jard. & Selby).

Found throughout Betul district and as far as I know through-

out the province. It is a resident species. It occasionally occurs

in gardens but the typical habitat are the nalas in the forest where

Eugenia jambolana and Terminalia Arjuna give shade throughout

the year. Here they may be very common. They are usually in

pairs and are active in the shade throughout the day. They are

very quiet birds and unobtrusive. I have heard a bird in song on

April 15th but I think the breeding season is later.

Monticola solitaria (P.L.S. Miller).

Widely distributed species in the cold weather from October

to the middle of April. It is one of the last of the migrants to

leave. It is common both in forest and villages.

Myophonus horsfieldii Vigors.

Found here and there on the streams where they descend from

the plateau over rocky precipices. The strongholds of this species

are however the streams running off the Pachmarhi plateau. This

species is very common there. They start their well-known school

boy whistle in May. It occurs where conditions are suitable in

the Betul forests. It is a resident species.

FLY-CATCHERS (Muscicapide).

The Fly-catchers are well represented and are one of the most

generally distributed and abundant groups. It will be seen that

groups which take their food on the wing are all common species

and these forests must support an immense insect population.

Siphia parva Bechstein.

Common in the winter and leaves. comparatively late.

290 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL .HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLI

Muscicapula tickelliae Blyth.

Perhaps our most typical forest species and widely distributed.

Eumyias thalassina Swainson.

An occasional winter visitor.

Culicicapa ceylonensis Swainson.

A resident bird and widely distributed but not common.

Hypothymis azurea Boddaert.

About equally common with the last and my impression is that

it is more common in the hot weather.

Terpsiphone paradisi Linn.

Definitely a summer visitor. It is not common in Betul but I

give my observations based on five years in Bhandara and Chanda

districts. There it arrives regularly in the last week of March

and is common in suitable places in April and May. After May I

am less certain but my impression is that the majority of birds

leave at the break of the rains. A few birds are seen in July

and August and a bird or two may be seen in the cold weather;

but the main occurrence is as stated. Their favourite haunts are

the nalas where water remains throughout the hot weather. Here

the trees are in leaf in April and May and it is one of the finest

sights in the world to watch these lovely birds hawking insects

in these green fringed nalas. I have no record of the birds breed-

ing but suggest that only a small proportion of birds breed here.

I am unable to say which race our birds belong to.

Leucocirca aureola Lesson.

Our common species both in the forest and outside.

Leucocirca pectoralis Jerdon.

Occasionally seen in Betul and may be one of the species which

prefer the higher elevations. It is the common species at Chikalda.

SHRIKES (Lanide@).

Lanius schach Linn.

Lanius vittatus Valenciennes.

Occur throughout the forest.

Lanius cristatus Linn.

Only seen once in April, but I fancy it occurs fairly regularly.

Lanius excubitor Linn.

I have not found this shrike in Betul but it is a fairly regular

inhabitant of the east of the province.

THE BIRD YEAR IN BETUL {CENTRAL PROVINCES) 291

Hemipus picatus (Sykes).

An interesting species. It is not given by Osmaston* in his

list of Pachmarhi birds but is mentioned as occurring in the

Satpuras by D’Abreu: I have not seen it in any other part of

the province. It is not given in Briggs’? list of birds of Mhow.

The New Fauna gives the hills of the Deccan as one of the locali-

ties, but it is not recorded in the Hyderabad State Survey. I only

saw a few individuals and never more than two birds at a time.

Tephrodornis pondicerianus Gmelin.

_An abundant species both inside the forest and outside.

MINIVETS (Pericrocotid@).

Pericrocotus speciosus semiruber Whistler & Kinnear.

Almost certainly a resident species and I have seen in it in most

months. The males were engaged in courting flights at the

beginning of May. fon

Pericrocotus brevirostris Vigors.

A winter visitor.

Pericrocotus peregrinus (Linn.).

A common species outside the forest but rare in the denser

growth.

Pericrocotus erythropygius (Jerdon).

Seen occasionally more usually in open grassy forest, such as

regeneration areas, and is less arboreal than the other species. I

do not know whether it is resident.

CUCKOO-SHRIKES.

Lalage sykesi Strickl.

Found; but the common species of this group is Graucalis

javensis which is abundant throughout the district in the forest

and the open. They appear to be more common in the _ hot

weather.

SWALLOW-SHRIKES (Artamide@).

Artamus fuscus Vieill.

I have only seen a party of Artamus fuscus once in the Central

Provinces in my service. That was this year in February in the

centre of a large compact area of forest. I am fairly certain it

is not common but negative information is_ Bert SeWOetay: It is

not shewn in D’Abreu’s list.?

292 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY,::Vol. XLI

Kina Crows (Dicrurida).

Dicrurus macrocercus (Vieill.).

Widely distributed throughout the district.

Dicrurus longicaudatus Blanf. & Oates.

I have not recorded this shrike but this is possibly due to my

failure to distinguish specimens.

Dicrurus coerulescens (Linn.).

This is the typical Drongo of the forest. A very attractive

bird and less forbidding than the King Crow. It is also a fine

whistler and has many pleasing notes. It often whistles very

quietly as if trying over the notes under its breath. Its general

habits are the same as those of the other Drongos except that it is

more aboreal and is not found in cultivation.

Dissemurus paradiseus (Linn.).

D. p. malabaricus (Lath.).

Find these bamboo forests very suitable and is abundant.

Probably both occur as there is an obvious difference in size

of the birds seen. This is one of the most attractive of all birds

and appears to find time to practise its vocal talents. The range

and variety of the notes is great.

WaARBLERS (Sylvid@).

I omit the Warblers as my. notes are not sufficiently full.

Orthotomus sutorius Pennant.

Is common.

Franklinia buchanani Blyth.

Is occasional.

Prinia socialis (Licht.) and Prinia inornata (Sykes).

Occur locally.

ORIOLES (Oriolide).

Oriolus oriolus (Linn.).

Apparently a summer visitor. I have only recorded it in April

and May and once in September. Further observations however

are necessary.

Oriolus xanthornus (Linn.).

The common resident species being common in the forest and

the open country.

THE BIRD YEAR IN BETUL (CENTRAL PROVINCES) 293

STARLINGS, Mynaus (Sturnide).

Sturnia malabarica (Gmelin).

Rare or absent in Betul and I have no definite record of it.

It is however common in large flocks in March and April in the

south of the Province. It is certainly more common at that time

of year; but whether it is entirely absent at other times, I am

uncertain.

Temenuchus pagodarum (Gmelin).

Fairly common all over Betul district.

Acridotheres tristis (Linn.).

Also abundant throughout.

Acridotheres ginginianus (Lath.).

Not met with in Betul, but I have seen it near Katni in the

Jubbulpur district.

Aethiopsar fuscus (Wag].).

Certainly not a common species in the Central Provinces; but

I think I have seen it once or twice this year in Betul. The bird,

I suspect to be it, was certainly a Mynah and not either the

Common or Bank Mynah so by elimination I consider it likely to

have been Aethiopsar fuscus.

Sturnopastor contra Blanf. & Oates.

Also not a Betul bird, but I have seen it locally in Bhandara

district. The distribution of the mynahs appears to be very erratic

in the Central Provinces.

WEAVER Birps (Ploceide@),

Ploceus philippinus (Linn.).

A rare bird in Betul, probably in the absence of tanks and

watery ground. It is frequent in other parts of the province.

Uroloncha malabarica (Linn.).

The common species being moderately common throughout; but

it 1s more common in open cultivation. .

Stictospiza formosa (Lath.).

I have seen it once in the west of the district towards the

Nimar border. I visited the same locality a second time but did

not see any birds. The male is a very neatly marked individual.

I have no records of other species of Munia but I suspect that

Uroloncha striata occurs. It seems a very skulking bird and on

neither occasion could I get a clear view but there is no other

bird which answers the description I wrote down and it certainly

was a Munia of sorts.

294 JOURNAL, BOMBAY -NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY,: Vol. XLI

FINCHES (Iringillide).

Carpodacus erythrinus (Pall.).

_ Occurs in January and February and may be locally common,

particularly in areas under regeneration.

Gymnorhis xanthocollis (Burton).

This is another species of whose status I am doubtful. I have

only recorded it from December to June. In March and April it

is exceedingly abundant all over the forest; and, if anyone loses

their birds, we could account for the majority. In May it is seen

in quite large flocks. I think that the majority of birds must

leave us in the rains. It breeds in March and April and is then |

very prominent and the vigorous chirping fills the forest. After-

wards however it is much less obtrusive.

Passer domesticus (Linn.).

Always with us.

Emberiza melanocephala Scop.

Emberiza icterica Eversm.

Both occur in flocks in February and March when the cold

weather crops are ripening. In the south of the province it 1s

seen in January and it probably follows the ripening of the crops

to the north. Curiously 1 have never recorded either species in

September to December.

Melophus lathami Gray.

A local migrant. I have seen birds in all months of the year,

but it is more common in December to February. This year it

was quite abundant locally both round forest villages and in the

forest. Several individuals may be found together in a loosely

associated flock, but it appears less gregarious than other species

of this group. )

MarRTINS AND SWALLows (Hirundinide).

Riparia chinensis Gray.

Occurs locally.

Riparia concolor (Sykes).

Also found.

Hirundo smithii Leach.

‘The common local species of this group both in the open and

the forest. It is of course more common near water, but occurs

also in fairly dry areas. | !

“THE BIRD YEAR. IN BETUL (CENTRAL_PROVINCES) 295

Hirundo daurica Linn.

Found here and there; but I associate it with the more inacces-

sible and deserted parts of the forest. I have insufficient data to

enable me to say whether it is migratory.

WactaiLs, LarKks AND Pipits (Motacillide).

Motacilla alba Linn.

Abundant in the cold weather, arriving in the first week of

October. A wave of these birds seem to arrive and for a few

days they are as thick as leaves. They leave in the middle of

April.

Motacilla maderaspatensis (Gmelin).

Found regularly on the larger nalas and other water. They

breed in April.

Motacilla cinerea Tunstall.

Our earliest migrant to arrive in the second half of September

and leaves nearly the last after the 15th April. One of these

birds will occur wherever water is found even in the remotest

forest.

Motacilla flava Linn.

Occurs sparingly.

Anthus hodgsoni (Richmond).

Widely distributed from November to May.

Anthus rufulus Vieill.

I am discreetly non-committal about this species as I am not

sure whether I have not confused it with one of the larks. About

the Larks I am also doubtful in my identifications.

Mirafra erythroptera Jerdon.

A widely distributed species.

Alauda gulgula Franklin.

Common.

Eremopteryx grisea (Scop.).

A winter visitor in my opinion. Anyhow it is less common in

the summer and I have only recorded it from February to May.

WHITE-EYES (Zosteropida@).

Zosterops palpebrosa (Temm.).

‘Orie of our abundant species both in the forest and the mango

groves in the open areas.

296. JOURNAL, BOMBAY: NATURAL. HIST... SOCIETY ,, Vol, XEI

SUNBIRDS (Nectarinid@)..

Cianyris asiaticus (Lath.).

The only sun-bird of these parts and is common all over the

district.

Cinnyris zeylonicus (Linn.).

Only occurs, if at all, in the south of the province.

Pittas (Pittide).

Pitta brachyura (Linn.).

One of our summer visitors. It is rare in Betul, but was a very

common species in the denser bamboo forest of Chanda district.

There it used to arrive in May and probably left in September or

October. It probably breeds in the Central Provinces as I have

seen nests which answer to the description of Pitta’s nests.

WooppEckErs (Gecinide).

Brachypternus bengalensis (Linn.).

Our common wood-pecker, and it might be described as

abundant throughout our forests.

Dryobates mahrattensis (Lath.).

Also common.

Dryobates hardwickii (Jerd.).

Generally distributed.

These are the common species; at least one more occurs, but

I have never had a clear view.

BaRBETS (Capitonide).

Thereiceryx zeylanicus (Gmel.).

Very abundant.

Xantholaema haemacephala (Miiller).

Common.

ROLLERS (Coracide).

Coracias bengalensis (Linn.).

Widely distributed and penetrates right into the forest. It does

not ascend very high and is uncommon on. the Chikalda_ plateau.

THE BIRD YEAR IN BETUL (CENTRAL PROVINCES) 297

BEE-EATERS (Meropide).

Merops orientalis Lath.

The common species.

Leaves the plateau during the rains from July to September.

It occurs in the plains of the Central Provinces throughout the

rains but my impression is that it is less common at this time.

Merops superciliosus Linn.

I have not recorded at all in Betul.

KINGFISHERS (Alcedinid@).

Ceryle rudis Linn.

Not common, as suitable water is rare; but it occurs on the

larger nalas.

Alcedo atthis (Linn.).

Common and well distributed.

Halcyonsmyrnensis (Linn.).

The typical species of this group, and occurs throughout our

forest very regularly. It is apparently the victim of one of the

birds of prey as I have found remains two or three times.

Ramphalcyon capensis gurial (Pearson).

Also a regular inhabitant of stretches of permanent water in

the forest. It is found in similar places in Chanda as well.

All four species are resident. The last species is excessively

noisy and has a loud ringing call which is unusual.

HornBILLs (Bucerotid@).

Tockus birostris (Scop.).

A common species throughout.

Authracoceros coronatus (Bodd.).

I have seen one party of this at one of the higher parts of the

plateau in December.

HoopoE (Upupide).

Upupa epops Linn.

A regular inhabitant, and is partially migratory. It is less

common in the rains and more common in the cold weather.

Swirts (Cypselide).

Micropus affinis (Gray).

Found here and there.

298° JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLI

Micropus melba (Linn.).

I think also occurs repularly, but I have 5 Only noted it once

without doubt.

Hemiprocne coronata (Tickell).

A regular jungle species; but I did not know the identity of

the bird, when I first came, so that it does not occur in the

records until March.

NicuTjars (Caprimulgide).

Caprimulgus macrurus Horsf.

Regarding the Indian Nightjars I am doubtful as my identi-

fications largely depend on their calls. On this basis and going

by the descriptions of the call given in Whistler’s Hand Book and

the New Fauna I consider Caprimulgus macrurus to be the common

forest species.

Caprimulgus indicus Lath.

Caprimulgus asiaticus asiaticus Lath.

More occasional. The birds are fairly common throughout the

forest. They start to call from the middle to end of March. The

calling is most vigorous at dusk and a second crescendo announces

the dawn.

Cuckoos (Cuculid@).

- The Cuckoos. I offer my observations on this group with a

certain amount of hesitation. Granting that one more often hears

these birds than sees them, I find it difficult to acknowledge that

in ten years I should have regularly failed to see any birds in the

cold-weather—if they stayed with us.

Cuculus canorus Linn.

In my opinion it arrives towards the end of April to the

beginning of May.

Cuculus micropterus Gould.

Arrives about the same time.

Hierococcyx varius (Vahl.).

More or less a resident.

Clamator jacobinus (Bodd.). :

Definitely ‘migratory arriving with the break of the rains, »

roughly speaking in the second half of June.

Eudynamis scolopaceus (Linn.).

Also fairly certainly migratory but arrives earlier than the other

species about the middle of March to early April. The dates of

CAR BIRD YEAR IN BETUL (CENTRAL ‘PROVINCES) 299

departure of this species are much more difficult to fix but I think

they leave about the middle of September which represents the

turn of the year with us.

Toccocua leschenaultii Lesson.

A widely distributed bird in jungle with a certain amount of

grass. This is one of the quietest and most unobtrusive bird that

I know.

Centropus sinensis Stephen.

Also widely distributed but is more common in cultivation and

open country than in the forest. Both these species are resident.

PARAKEETS (Psittaculid@).

Psittacula eupatria (Linn.).

Psittacula krameri (Scop.).

Psittacula cyanocephaia (Linn.).

Abundant. Perhaps Psittacula cyanocephala is the most fre-

quent in the forest.

OwLs (Asionid@).

I do not claim that my records of the owls are in any way

complete and even the ones I have recorded may be wrongly

identified.

Ketupa zelonensis (Gmel.).

Fairly common along the larger nalas.

Bubo bengalensis (Franklin).

Also fairly widely distributed.

Otus sunia (Hodgs.).

Frequent in Betul district. This bird advertises itself by its

characteristic call and going by the call its distribution is very

irregular. I heard it in the sal forests in the east of the province,

when I first entered the service; but for ten years, until I came

to Betul, I did not hear it in the south or north of the province.

Athene brama (Temm.).

Common throughout. This owl will stay out quite late in the

mornings and when the white ants are flying will continue hunting

until the sun is well up. There are few birds who do not take

advantage of the white ant swarms. Of the birds I have seen

feeding I think the Green Barbet is the least adapted to taking

food on the wing.

Lard

300 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. (SOCIETY, Viol, xen

VULTURES (Gypiid@).

Sarcogyps calvus (Scopoli).

Ordinarily common.

Pseudogyps bengalensis (Gmelin).

The chief species of the Central Provinces.

Gyps indicus (Scopoli).

Also occurs.

Neophron percnopterus (Linn.).

Widely distributed. Some birds found near small jungle villages

look more tidy than the usual run of birds.

EAGLES, FALCONS, KITES ETC. (Ealconide

Falco tinnunculus (Linn.).

As far as I know a winter bird in Betul. It is fairly common

from October to March.

I have no definite records during the last year of any eagles.

Spizaetus cirrhatus (Gmelin).

Well distributed but in no way common.

Spilornis cheela (Lath.).

A more common forest species being found close to water.

Butastur teesa (Frankl.).

The common and abundant species of small hawk in these parts.

It is one of the birds that appear to spend very little time feeding.

It is generally either soaring or sitting lumpily on a tree.

Haliastur indus (Bodd.).

Only occasionally seen on the larger nalas.

Milvus migrans (Bodd.).

Widely distributed. Jungle birds always seem to be larger and

darker than those seen round towns. Perhaps the town birds rely

on scavenging while jungle species must vary their diet with more

natural food.

Circus macrourus (S. G. Gmel.).

I am uncertain of the correctness of my identification of the

Harriers but I think this is the common species. These birds

arrive in October and leave in February or early March.

THE BIRD YEAR IN BETUL (CENTRAL PROVINCES) 301

Astur badius (Gmelin).

Common in forest and cultivation.

Accipiter nisus (Linn.).

I have no certain record of this, but I think it does occur.

I am also doubtful of the occurrence of either the Lugger or the

Hobby.

Pernis ptilorynchus (Temm.).

A common jungle species.

PIGEONS AND Doves (Columbide).

Crocopus phoenicopterus (Linn.).

Very common.

Muscadivora aenea (Linn.).

A resident in Chanda district but only in small parties in

very restricted localities. ari :

Chalcophaps indica (Linn.).

I should like to draw attention to the occurrence reported by

D’Abreu in Balaghat district. This is probably the only locality

as I have served in the districts surrounding Balaghat without

seeing it. This is an excellent example of discontinuous distri-

bution as the nearest localities are the Western Ghats, Himalayas

and Behar and Orissa.

Columba livia Gmelin.

Occurs occasionally as a forest bird where suitable rocky sites

are found but more usually it is associated with old buildings or

towns.

Streptopelia orientalis agricola (Tickell).

A fairly common forest bird and a resident species.

Streptopelia chinensis (Scop.).

The common dove of the forests.

Streptopelia senegalensis (Linn.).

Less of a forest species and not particularly common in this

district. a

Streptopelia risoria (Linn.).

Also not a true forest species and is more usually found in the

open country.

Oenopopelia tranquebarica Herm.

Also a bird of open country. Does the male bird migrate?

From about August to November I did not note a male bird.

302.' JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. “SOCIETY, Vol. Veer

SANDGROUSE (Pteroclide).

Pterocles indicus (Gmelin).

The common sand-grouse of most of the province. Most of

the year it is found in pairs scattered in the forest; but in August

and September small covies are seen. These are probably family

parties. In the rains they are found in more open country and

on suitable sites a large number of birds may be found together.

These are the drier areas which stand above the general level of

cultivation. There is a famous shoot in the south of the province

where 200 birds may be seen in the air together. This sand-grouse

drinks after dusk and as far as I know only once a day.

PEACOCK, JUNGLE-FOWL, QualILs, ETc. (Phasianide@).

Pavo cristatus Linn.

Gallus sonnerati Temm.

Both common.

Galloperdix spadicea (Gmel.).

Also widely distributed in the forest particularly in bamboo

jungle. |

Coturnix coturnix (Linn.).

Fairly common in open country.

Perdicula asiatica (Lath.).

Francolinus pictus (Jard. and Selby).

A forest species.

Francolinus pondicerianus (Gmelin).

Both fairly common in open forest.

STONE-PLOVERS (Oedicnemid@).

Oedicnemus cedicnemus (Linn.).

An occasional inhabitant of more open forest. It seems to

shun any forest where the growth is at all dense.

PLovers, Lapwincs (Charadride).

Lobivanellus indicus (Bodd.).

A very regular forest inhabitant and no open ground is without

a pair.

He BIR DY VEAR IN BETUL (CENTRAL -PROVINCES) 303

Lobipluvia malabarica (Bodd.).

| Not a forest species, but occurs fairly regularly on the plateau

and in cultivation below. |

Hoplopterus duvaucellii Lesson.

Found in pairs on the larger nalas.

Charadrius dubius (Scop.).

Found here and there on the larger nalas.

Tringa hypoleucus Linn.

A frequent species at all water.

TERNS (Sternida).

Sterna aurantia Gray.

Seen occasionally.

CoRMoRANTS (Phalacrocorida@).

Phalacrocorax niger (Vieill).

Can find enough food on some of the larger streams.

STORKS (Ciconid@). |

Dissoura episcopus. (Bodd.).

Another occasional resident.

EGRETS AND HERONS (Ardeid@).

Egrets are found on some parts of the plateau but are not

common.

Ardeola grayii (Sykes).

Also only found occasionally.

Butorides striatus (Linn.).

Found fairly regularly on forest streams.

REFERENCES.

mD*Abreu, J.B.N.H.S., vol. xxxviii, 1.

Zeeerigss, |.B.N.H.S., vol. xxxv, “2.

3- Osmaston,

[BUN Ad. S. Vol. XxvVill, <2.

ebates, |.BeN+:S.; vols: xxxt, 4:

Ge D’Abreu, VepeNctdS.0) VOle XXXV.. of.

304 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL ALST. WOCTEDYV WWW ol ts 2k

MONTHLY LIST OF BIRDS OBSERVED

x shews bird seen. a shews bird definitely absent.

Rie 8) (8]5 |

Species. & q iA elalsra 4 Remarks. |

SSE algle wel i218 |

Se eles Zle6laia |

Corvus macrorhynchos ...\*|x|x|x|x|x|x]x|x|x]xIlx ? |

Corvus splendens wan | XP fe |e Loe l oe) xe se] see cal 3 |

Dendrucitta vagabunda ...|x |x|x|x|x|x|x|x]x|/x|x1x |

Parus major PIC ess fees [0s | [oe bs || Salts Perea ese. 0 | >< |

Machlolophus xanthogenys.| x|\x|x|x|x«x|x|x}|x}]x)x |x] x .

Sitta frontalis Hoe leasd owl De laan | awe ealree ee ws leeefeee) DEEN in one loca-

lity.

Turdoides someriillet vee | | re 5c | oe | | | SOHC sce seule

Argya caudata wae | CW be lise | 5:1 e5] Se Toes eating

Argya malcolm Pose Use al Seles Seale seal ee yeal acl cealgs

Pomatorhinus horstieldit. \...'... coil S| ea bese ease de lcrclcelees| LOCAL:

Dumetia hyperythra ee x foe Px | Loe] & [xe Foe Toe | x |e

Pellorneum ruficeps was ese leceless [OC ) om lee eee PR ria Recor i Local.

Alcippe potoicephala poe WX | Se. | Seal se Le Ieee | Sc eye uli ali

Aegithina tiphia PaParararacar arse ar ac ae an

Chloropsts jerdont sare, SAR EOCENE oN Sa 1ES 1) SCENT eal calles

Molpastes cafer Bi ines oO ale Kl Se) yl seal Selle

Otocontpsa JOCOSa saa lee sada laeielies |aealeasilsceleecleautiesiscl tlaocale

Saxicola caprata vee |X|] XL K| XY) XE KL) x Ld x

Saxicola torquata | X|x)x)alalalalala alx|x

Phoenicurus ochrurus ed (aX | ee eae@ilca eters 3 x | x

Sar tcoloides fulicata Re Ea ai peace |i ay calf oo % x

Cops)chus saularis ee [| || X 1X | 1 3C) | oe et |

Turdus simillimus Bee ith Eales aUINIS lhatslnat eee lese onl seelees Mluocate

Geokichla citrina wie LN é Raia edhe x bx | x AL % ?

Monticola Solitaria won| Xe )3e 1 alala. ala|x|xix

SE LLL TE EEE TT a aS SEE a EE

THE BIRD YEAR _IN BETUL (CENTRAL PROVINCES)

305

MONTHLY LIST OF BIRDS OBSERVED—(continued).

x shews bird seen.

a shews bird definitely absent.

SSL a RT ETRE PS IR RY ST SE AE LALA TE

; ra te

a eee cake

Species. Py a| slalplaie Remarks.

g|/p/C)_:; ‘ 5 oO iS =| q

BB is mld ft ra oe Cb 2 \69/%1O

Si et eal tel ea COP ess | =i

gq O,S/A) 8) sig 3) ololo|o

5 IIS (SIR INO IZ 10

WMiyiophnonus horslreldsz ... 20+ \%|voo| X |X| X leeolecel.e Jecokes, see lawe| LOCA.

Siphia parva SeelliX (Oboe toe | A alee Lk bes ll Se ilise

Muscicapula tickelliae... ...|*|x|x|x|x]«|x]x|x|x]x]x

Eumytas thalassina Pel eae ee levee: lear ley angus

Culicicapa ceylonensts Sil SIE eal alto Mie Pace ols x

Terpsiphone paradisi ajlalalx|x|/x|x|x}xlalala

Hy pothymis azurca B/S Wee Poss eon ee a apr ere es : me

Leucocirca aureola Ses PSC SAS 1058 SCL Se P58 1 ese 158) x. |<

Leucocirca pectoralts eltectves|saol Xl Xilsenileasiloce|aclivaless|Caikalda once,

Betul once.

Lanius vittatus Be 1 | Oe ESSE 1S TSS |e | xe | x

Lantus schach TE LK x Tee | |

Lanius crvistatus eooltee|eee x ae e)eeels.erienea Gt Migrant.

Tephrodornis pondicerianus.|x|*|*x|*|x|x1x]x}x]x| x] x

Hemipus picatus woe [eoofeee| X |X| X loco lecelece|eccleeelons fees Local.

Pericrocotus speciosus

semtiruber Piel calle alli.) p-cu bore fees os. ea foc" fees

Pericrocotus brevirostris x (ola la | aaa |, *| Migrant.

Pericrecotus peregrinus |X) «|X Ix Px xXLxbx[x |x] x

Pericrocotus erythropy-

gius ee awiileeolies mol fete etre wail aiatl| enter -+-{ Local.

Lalage syksti vee [eee| X Seale see

Graucalus javensts ee EN ERS Ses a Perea lho) | 51 7S

Artamus fuscus Pea eecler [ie lcehlneele Sel Cen bers pcg are -«| Status unknown.

Dicrurus macrocercus .«..|*|x|x|x|x]x|x|x}x«x][x |x] x

Dicrurus coerulescens elise We oe WS | SC ox Nese se se] 54 | 5

Dissemurus paradiseus x|x|x}x] x] x] x}x} «|x| x] x

Orthotomus sutorius x|xIxlxlx|x|xlx}x}x]|x|x

306 JOURNAL, BOMBAY: NATURAL® AIST, (SOCIETY, Vol: XLI

MONTHLY LIST OF BIRDS OBSERVED—(continued).

x shews bird seen.

a shews bird definitely absent.

2 Bl Bis

2 . cd)

Species. bat ie + a a re re Remarks.

SIS ojd} wf al -|s/ol2Q1G

BISISle a) ele] b/2/9/ 218

Flo 1s] ala] §\s|3|S!o |e} a

Simla lt/e 5 5/a\n,0 4/0

Franklinia buchanant Sr Be Lmeitece eels Rallies «s-|-0-|es-| SLODAblyvocercsy

Printa socialis peer be [ova Persea bie |r el seal La Do.

Prinia inornata SC SCIP Malta creealia ae lecesllereelarns Do.

Oriolus oriolus eee X |X| Xx x Probably migra-

tory.

Oriolus xanthornus x |x|] | x] x x x | Probably resident.

Teomenuchus pagodarum sail lion fa fea (esau Sean l< ei aeo esli %

Acridotheres tristis ... Padi eco enn aca hecairato-a fairey ecll4

Ploceus philippinus Segall saat aia cet lentealinare esl isase | Sat Not a thy. p nied

res:dent.

Urolcncha matabarica Nala healer allie io ee is-< |i aipe

Stictospiza formosa sadl ose Soll alee eipeliceaiersalbeee Bearer

Carpodacus erythrinus x aj ajalajalala Migratory.

Gymnorhis xanthocollis EX | x] x |X feeeleeefoeeferefeneiene x| Suspected mig-

rant. :

Passer domesticus lsc. 561] S| 3M ex | x alk x | x

Emberiza melanocethala . SAAS ciate cial gramcine, Grae peme hae aeete Migrant.

E-mberiza icterica Selly el couiheee aces. or Veco | Prete Do.

Melophus lathami Me dle ae lose fas | Sale E ...| status uncertain.

Riparia chinensis “ X 1X | X lyase lewclecteas| PbO babhy riche rie

dent.

Riparia concolor Realeat

Fltrundo smithti_ KI x) » x} x | x | x | x eel

Hiuiundo daurica x Local.

Motacilla alba ol bal a esau = a r= Ya: er: = Ya al

Motacilla maderaspatensts. | x x | > x | Resident.

Motacilla cinerea x1 | se} Hel a | AN alla | px |e | 5

Motacilla flava Sculeos| nee 6 Migratory.

Anthus hodgsoni west Sele eed lela |e pe leroe x | Absent in ‘Same

mer,

THE BIRD. YEAR IN -BETUL (CENTRAL PROVINCES) 307

MONTHLY LIST OF BIRDS OBSERVED— (continued).

x shews bird seen. ~ a shews bird definitely absent.

: ol chess

> VY; ,;|Vio

Species. | ac ene | 3 a Hs r= a Remarks.

S/o (9 S| lol -| Sto le] ola

Sl2/slblaiale| YM alsleig

« 1S D

Sle elas S15 )4laidiZ ia

Anthus rufulus Bee les silsmadecellX [omoloclere | Here ss are ince Status uncertain.

Alauda gulgula : ebaalaseil astlcwic swell <ul sues cee eee

Miratra sp. mesclete| ellewa lesa on avee tex aly eee i:|...[...| Insufficient data.

Ammomanes phoenicurd ...\eelelel X [eee ao wie a a Do.

Eremopteryx grisea es ne x | x ale fale Vlesecl Probably ~migra-

a tory.

Zostervops palpebrosa eer Cone ile: XBKEX| XTX 1X 1. te. D

Cinnyris astaticus she EM See NR Se leSeatEKC ha! Nepal ls

VELLA DVACHYVUPGI | scx 44s aie Qi less! lve atosa eco! % lesa A a] OBMIMer Visitor,

Dryobates mahrattensis. ...\x |x| «| |X| x |efeeele. | |x |-Resident.

Dy VOOALES HAV AWICKU 21. as \co.| ¥\ose| ¥| X |oweleee ee .l...| Resident local.

Brachypternus bengalensis... |x |x| «|x| |-.)x)x]x hee. x

WET ELCEV YX ZCVLANICUS.. se.) %| K1 X1 XX Jeol eee! X | Xdaselevs x

Xantholaema hremacephata.| x | |x| *|x| |x ele peat

Coracias bengalensts pel oed OO oe | Mil RSV SL a x

Merops orientalis en Scleeliscl seal salar cue ele ales x| Locally migrates.

Ceryle rudis Pee See Xl Kloet leew Geclawalecst ce Sa IVeSIGents

Alcedo atthis Beet APC Ee dete te eal ee elle le alles Do.

; |

DM PILAICVOM COPENSTS, .: os0 | KM: 1X |..4eatlaen|ics|eoulave leas |X Do.

Halcyon smyrnensts ee ae) alcslica sc le<fea | mae Do.

| |

Tockus birostris won) x x bed xe |e | 1% | ocdese leo] x Do.

Anthracoceros coronatus. ....|...\s.. Peeler oileulite lawl ssleit ss) LaBlantord and

Dazes,

PUP ORCPOPS = 68 a chee | KSC PRT XK | OS loc oes ecules x | Rare local

| migrant.

Micropus atfinis Lesa rel oem WOCHEl Se tleaa late Dpeicaenlaer x {| Resident.

Micropus melba ars i One Be asl bay vee aeelexalnen

flemtprocneé Covonata |... ss. |s.| + Sle eSGileeeiclagtllareamsiescllies: Resident.

Caprimulgus macrurus: 2. \...|.0 Wisk ae Milne ci oelnee Hel ...l.-| Only recorded by

IF | breeding calls

308 JOURNAL "BOMBAY? NATURAE VHAIST. SOCIETY? Voln MEI

MONTHLY LIST OF BIRDS OBSERV ED— (continued)

x shews bird seen.

a shews bird definitely absent.

ah 8/18

Species. 4 oe \a|8 4

pS ee 2 or ca@ -|S/Ol2)5

d/8|8|\88|8/s 2/5 /8|5

9 [LAS AIRS <n [0 [A

Caprimulgus indicus x |x

Caprimulgus asiaticus x | x

Cuculus canoris al al aix| xixlx |x ala

Cuculus micropterus al alalx|xIix/xlalalala

Hierococcyx varius ee EU Sit exc aoceliisc Sen oc oe lee

Clamator jacobinus alalajalalxix|xixlala

Eudjnamtis scclopaceus ajalx|x|xix|x|x|alala

Toccocua leschenaultit x|x |x| x

Centropus sinensts KL «1x 1 x1 | KL od 561 5

Psittacula eupatria xl x|x]x]|x]|x |x] x] x

Psittacula kramert x |x] xIx [xl x} x oe} x

Psittacula cyanccephala peat be is psa Pov cal sa [pal fis"aal a

Ketupa ze lonensis SOlaslaes ; ae es

Bubo bengalensts —=—— aaa noses x | x seal

Otus sunia x |X| x] x] x x

Athene brama Shot Xe] SEX OX Tix

Sarco gyps calvus eoenlex x1 xX] x1 x | x1 x |x

Gyps indicus x

Pseudogyps bengalensis .,.\«|x|x|x|x|x|x]x]x

Neophron percnoplerus x | X1K 1X] XT XTX |e | x

Spizaetus cirrhatus <ilere lax x

SAUOVUTS ChEELGHE uyaaomtedalers Ka] aX

Butastur teesa Kal Wal al Muleal MS aed oles eealees

Haliastur indus x|x|x XL Saal eal oaelces

Milvus migrans se dane |3<, || scp Sed Ni 5 | Seal Lagelee.

Circus macrourus sede X [de | A] A aaah a.) ay) 20) x

December.

.| Xx

Remarks.

Probably residett.

Probably resident.

Insufficient data.

alee Do.

Probably resident.

Local.

|S ST SS TA PL a LE LS = LE AE

THE BIRD YEAR IN BETUL (CENTRAL PROVINCES) 309

MONTHLY LIST OF BIRDS OBSERVED—(continuea).

x shews bird seen. a shews bird definitely absent.

a A TR TS TT EE rt

i: | sls

Species. 4 | ; 3 "8 5 8 5 Remarks.

SIE(EFEls/s|a)& £[8/2)8

SOS SS) sla 8 O12 5 |8

mela (SIAlI ait nO AlO : ;

Astur badius Seah eee cel esleieye iemtale oc ee tere x | Resident.

Falco tinnunculus eal ieee) Souls (2 J elt, x| Probably §migra-

Elanus coerulens ai >a io | tee eta (EA (ia : tee resident:

Crocopus phoenicopterus Bee alee $ xlx} x] xl «Ts] «|x |

Columba livia a es Go eee en

Streptopelia orientalis SCL Res Hex lose |e TS 15 Se Wl sectex || OX

Streptopelia chinensis pve cea fsa fcvall ivvea [cvaa b“cul oval ova cal eval p>

Streptopelia senegalensis ...|x|«x||x|x|x|x| x] x x

Streptopelia risoria xl xl xl xl x] x bx |x lx] x |x x |

Oenopopelta tranguebarica. |x| x |x| x|x |x| x lrecleoeleoelies x| Partially migra-

tory.

Pterocles indicus xl xl xlepxix]x}x}x}x]|x* |x

Pavo cristatus xlx| x} x} x] x fx} x} «x |x] | x

Gallus sonnerati Re Ih See |] oe |] aap Se ISS IP Se Il xs th |] re || ee

Galloperdix spadicea Si seals | Seu) Se tse Sap | Sct Set Sell x

Coturnix coturnix xlxlxlxlxlxlx} x} fx} x« |x

Perdicula asiatica sel se lise scllse | selise | Se 5 I seri se. lee

Francolinus pondicertanus. \«\x|x\x\|x\|x|x|x|x|x|x |x

Francolinus pictus Le bse 1 el Sed Te I | 9c 1X

Oedicnemus oedicnemus sleet rial wens | sw eilivoiad saalisesilonelleat Local.

Lobivanellus indicus xlxlxl xl xix} x] x |x [x |x |x

Lobipluvia malabarica SSC | PSC | ele | | SN xo

Charadrius dubius x il elec eaellavslnaallen les tlhe ' Status uncertain.

Floplopterus duvaucellit ...\...\...).. aie .| Probably resident.

Tringa hypoleucus x x |x x

Phalacracorax niger ws \ec.|ee.feee x x Resident.

Pseudibis papillosus a. Navalaee Sciilie | ecalline Aleit st nace Local.

310 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLI

MONTHLY LIST OF BIRDS OBSERVED-— (continued)

x shews bird seen.

a shews bird definitely absent.

2 3| 18/5

; 3 bel @alnes

Species. al cg ae ole | 5 a 2 Remarks.

ci etlbst pe 4) 3}2/ 3/8

alSiS/E) a 2|e he alels |e

oe | o

S'S /< |S) 5 15 <]0 0/2 \0

i‘ <iepal |

Dissoura episCopus. see |... Ix}x1x| x if : av Me lealees Local.

. ae

Bubulcus ibis x x | x EOE Roca bs x | Local.

Aly cola S7ayt s =A in Peas eeeleea lees < x ket i a Sie leealeuce Local,

BULOVIACS SIFTQUIA | ace |e sl a fest ht aR ae ek Local.

THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA.

D. G. SEVASTOPULO, F.R.E.S.

Part IV.

(Continued from page 81 of this volume).

——___ —_—_—.

RHOPALOCERA.

PAPILIONIDA.

Papilio demoleus L., demoleus.

Moore; Cat. Lep. Mus. E.1.C., 1, 105, pl. 3; figs. 6,.6a. 1857.

Moore, Lep. Ceyl., i, 147, pl. 61, figs. 2a, 2b. 1880-81.

Moore, Lep. Ind., v, 234, pl. 466, figs. I, 1a. 1901-03.

Bingham, Fauna Brit. Ind., Butterflies, 1, 40. 1907.

Head pale brown. Ground colour deep green, a narrow white

sublateral stripe from the 5th to 12th somite, which latter, together

with the anal flap and claspers, is greyish white. 1st somite with

a pair of small brown subdorsal points. 11th somite with a pair

of small brown subdorsal spines. 3rd and 4th somites somewhat

swollen. 3rd somite anteriorly with a small lateral ocellus con-

sisting of a black spot edged below with white and above with

fawn, the two ocelli joined by a narrow transverse dorsal stripe

of black-ringed fawn spots. interspersed with white streaks. The

skin between the 2nd and 3rd somites grey; that between the 4th

and 5th velvety black but only exposed when the larva is extended.

The 4th somite posteriorly with a narrow fawn transverse stripe

with an irregular anterior edge. Spiracles black. Legs pale

brown. Prolegs and venter greenish white. Osmeterium deep

orange shading into red at the apex. In some larvae there is a

greyish white oblique lateral stripe on the 7th somite joining the

sublateral stripe, and this is sometimes continued subdorsally on

the 8th somite. One example had particularly dark markings, the

skin between the 2nd and 3rd somites being blackish, with sublateral

blackish shading on the 1st to 3rd somites, an oblique blackish

subdorsal stripe from the 8th somite joining the sublateral stripe

on the 7th, a blackish lateral blotch on the 9th somite, the 11th

and 12th somites marked with blackish and with black subdorsal

spots on the gth, 1oth and 11th somites, head and legs redder

brown.

Pupa with head obtuse, slightly bifid. Thorax keeled and rising

to a small point directed forwards. Abdomen slightly dilated

across the 3rd somite. 4th to 6th abdominal somites with very

short subdorsal tubercles, almost obsolete in the green forms. Two

312 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol XE

colour forms. The one bright green, a transverse yellow line behind

the head, another along the keel of the thorax and continued along

the abdomen just above the edge of the wing case and a double

yellow line dorsally on the first three abdominal somites, a whitish

subspiracular stripe along the abdomen and then along the upper

edge of the wing case. The other form varying from pale to dark

greyish brown, some examples with a distinct pink tinge. The

head, prothorax, a dorsal stripe on the first four abdominal somites

and the central area of the wing cases considerably darker than

the rest. A whitish streak on the upper edge of the wing case.

Supported by a girdle and tail pad of whitish silk. The colour

of the pupa is said to vary with its surroundings but, out of four

pupae formed on the sides of a black gauze cage, two were green,

one blackish brown and one greyish brown.

Food-plant—Citrus spp.

Described from a full fed larva found in Calcutta 27-vii-30,

pupated 29-vii-39, and a male emerged 8-vill-39.

Moore’s description in The ‘Lepidoptera of Ceylon is ‘Larva

cylindrical, thickest anteriorly; green, with pale yellow lower lateral

line, head and legs; a dark-bordered yellow dorsal band on edge of

fourth segment; and another ending in a lateral ocellated spot on

third segment, a pale lateral streak obliquely ascending eight and

ninth segments, and an irregular upright streak on tenth segment,

a pair of short pointed tubercles on front and anal segment. Pupa

green.’ Bingham writes ‘Full grown the larva is brilliant rich green,

velvety and without tubercles, the sides and some of the segments

dorsally marked with black, yellowish white, and rich brown; head,

legs and prolegs reddish brown. ‘The food-plant varies, the ‘bael?

(Aegle), ‘ber’ (Zizyphus), lime, orange and pumelo. are the chief.

Pupa green or yellowish brown according to surroundings.’

NYMPHALIDZ.

Ergolis merione Cr., tapestrina Moore.

Sevastopulo, f.B. N.H. Si geexlig “7207 1936

A third form is green with a mater white double deren

stripe bordered with dark brown on the 3rd, 6th and 1oth somites,

and with a subdorsal olive green stripe. When fully fed, but

before the colour change prior to pupation, the dorsal stripe

becomes pale green.

A fourth form has a yellowish dorsal stripe with a red brown

median line and subdorsal brown stripe, this latter darker on the

3rd, 6th and roth somites. The subdorsal series of spinous

tubercles brown.

Pupa also variable. In: addition to the previously described

purplish brown form, there is a form with the wing cases, sides

of the thorax and the front of the abdominal prominence green;

the edges of the wing cases, the thoracic keel and the abdominal

somites pinkish. Another has the wing cases, sides of the thorax

and the front of the abdominal prominence tinged with olive green,

the rest purplish brown. A wild caught pupa was bright green

with the tips of the cephalic horns, the thoracic keel and the

THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA 313

edge of the wing cases on the thorax and abdomen buff, 3rd and

4th abdominal somites dull dark brown, the heart shaped mark

black and a smoky black subdorsal streak along the abdomen.

The heart shaped mark on the 5th abdominal somite and the

reticulated pattern of the wing cases is present in all forms.

Described from a number of full fed larvae found in Calcutta,

one of which pupated 29-vii-39, and a male emerged 6-viii-39.

HETEROCERA.

ARCTIIDA.

Aganais ficus F.

Sevastopulo, J.B.N.H.S., xl, 401. 1938.

Ovum—Smooth, spherical, the base flattened. When first laid

pale yellow, after twenty-four hours becoming minutely streaked

and speckled with dark red. Laid in small batches but not

touching each other. Hatched on the third day.

LYMANTRIIDA.

Euproctis guttata Wk.

Hamps., Fauna Brit. Ind., Moths, 1, 477. 1892.

Strand Seitz, Indo-Austr. Bombyces, x, 343.

Ova pale greenish yellow, slightly flattened spheres with the

micropylar area depressed. Laid in batches covered with hair from

the anal tuft of the female. Hatched on the seventh day.

Larva—Head brown. Body black. Ist somite with a brown

dorsal blotch and with subdorsal black tubercles tufted with longish

black hair. 2nd and 3rd somites each with a transverse series of

four brown warts, a lateral black and a sublateral brown wart, all

tufted with moderately long grey hair. 4th and 5th somites each

with two large red-brown dorsal warts tufted with very short

brown hair, and a brown lateral and sublateral wart tufted with

longish grey hair. 6th to rath somites with a subdorsal, lateral

and sublateral series of brown warts tufted with grey hair, that

of the sublateral series and of the warts on the 12th somite being

longest. 6th to 9th somites with an additional wart at the base

of each proleg. Eversible dorsal glands on the oth and _ roth

somites whitish. A subdorsal yellow slit-like streak immediately

behind the warts on the roth and 11th somites. Legs and prolegs

brownish.

Pupa in a cocoon of brown silk mixed with larval hairs. Olive

green, the dorsum tinged with brown. Slightly hairy. Head

obtuse.

Food-plant—Lagerstroemia indica Linn.

Described from one of a number of full fed larvae bred from

ova in Calcutta, pupated 1o-vill-39, and a male emerged 21-viii-39.

Hampson’s description, which is more or less copied in Seitz,

is ‘black, the head chestnut; long anterior and short lateral tufts

of grey hair; the thoracic somites with dorsal grey tufts; the

others with dorsal tufts of short brown hair.’

314 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST; “SOCIETY, Wol.y XeLi

LASIOCAMPID2.

Trabala vishnu Lef. : ae

Moore, Lep. Mus. E.I. Co., pl. 22, figs: 3, 3b. 1857-59.

Moore, Lep. Ceyl., ii, 146, pl. 138, figs. 1b, 2a. 1882-83.

Hamps., Fauna Brit. Ind., Moths, 1, 422. 1892. |

Ova slightly oblong, very ‘pale cream. Laid in a double row

and covered with hairs from the anal tuft of the female. Hatched

24-1V-39.

ist instar—Head red brown. Body yellow green with eleven

transverse black bands. ist somite with very slight subdorsal

pencils of dark hair arising from dark warts. Body with sparse

white hairs. Legs black. Claspers pink. Gregarious. Moulted

28-iV-39.

2nd instar—Similar but head crimson with two vertical yellow

stripes. The subdorsal tufts on the rst somite larger. Moulted

I-V-39.

3rd _instar—Similar to preceding but more hairy. The black

transverse bands each with four blue hairy spots. Moulted 5-v-39.

Ceases to be gregarious.

4th instar—Very like the final but less hairy so that the yellowish

ground colour is visible and the blue spots more pronounced.

Moulted 9-v-30.

5th instar—Similar to final. Moulted 13-v-39.

Final instar—Head crimson with two vertical narrow yellow

stripes and a fine network of vertical and horizontal yellow lines.

Ist somite with subdorsal warts giving rise to long pencils of

dark brown hair, giving the larva the appearance of a Lymantriid.

Body thickly clothed with dense whitish fur, developing dorsally

and laterally into tufts, intermixed with stouter, sharp black hairs.

Just prior to pupation the fur becomes bright yellow. 2nd to 12th

somites each with a pair of dull blue subdorsal spots giving rise

to a few coarse black hairs. A lateral series of similar spots

almost hidden by the fur of the body. Legs and prolegs pink

marked with yellow. Venter yellow blotched with pink. Spun

18-v-39. Pupated 20-v-39.

Pupa smooth and shining, pale reddish brown with the venter

and wing cases yellowish. Not very highly chitinised. Meta

thorax with a pair of raised crescent-shaped black marks.

Cremaster a cluster of minute hooked hairs. Spiracles darker

brown. In a cocoon of thick felted yellowish silk, into which the

short black, and extremely irritating, larval hairs are worked.

Boat-shaped with a dorsal hump at each end and a slit at the

front and back, the cast larval skin being ejected through. the

hinder one and the imago emerging through the front. When spun

on a thin stalk or twig, there is a barrier of silk and hairs on each

side. of the cocoon itself. A male emerged 31-v-39.

Food-plant—In Calcutta usually on Castor (Ricinus communis

Linn.), but also on Quisqualis indica Linn. and Lagerstroemia

Flosreginae Retz. In Shillong on Rubus sp. and in Murree on Rosa

sp. Moore gives Terminalia and Eugema in Ceylon.

THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN’ LEPIDOPTERA 315

Described from larvee bred from ova found in Calcutta.

Moore describes the larva as ‘olive-brown or pinkish-brown;

with a subdorsal and lateral row of black tubercular spots, from

which radiate a tuft of black hairs; a dorsal tuft of radiating black

hairs, and an intervening conical tuft of pale pinkish hairs, a lateral

row of decumbent tufts of pale pink hairs, and a projecting tuft of

long hairs on each side of the head; a black dorsal collar on front

of second segment; head with red spots; legs red. Cocoon pale

olivaceous or pinkish-brown, protuberant laterally on one side at

each end. Pupa brownish-red.’ Hampson writes ‘Head _ yellow,

spotted with red; the colour brownish grey, with long lateral tufts

on each somite; that on the first black and grey, the others grey;

paired dorsal and lateral black spots on each somite, from which

spring long black hairs, the spots on the thoracic somites coal-

escing.’ Another form of the larva is blackish with a broad white

dorsal stripe, the anterior tufts red-brown; a third form is reddish

with the lateral spots blue. Cocoon ochreous, with short black

hairs projecting from it, which are intensely irritating.

SPHINGIDE.

Cephonodes hylas L., hylas.

Moore, Lep: Ceyl., 11, 31, pl. 93, fig. 4b. 1882-83.

Eiamps.,.Pauna Bart. Ind., Moths, 1, 121. 1892.

Seitz Seitz, Indo-Austr. Bombyces, x, 544.

Bell -&- Scott, Fauna Brit. Ind., Moths, v, 249, pl. 3, figs.

emd <Q. - 1937. :

Ovum—Pale bright green. Laid singly on the upper or lower

surface of a leaf of the food-plant. Hatched 6-i1-39.

Ist instar—Head round, greenish yellow. Body greenish

yellow, clothed with very short forked hairs. Horn straight, long

and black with the tip forked. Moulted 10-1i-39.

2nd instar—Head round, yellow green. Body somewhat bluer

green, with or without a row of nine black lateral spots. OR the

body greyish with a row of nine black lateral spots; the legs

blackish; ist somite and anal claspers yellowish green. In both

forms the horn is straight and black with the tip bifid. Moulted

13-11-39.

3rd instar—Head round, green. 1st somite yellowish green,

swollen and tuberculate; body green with a white subdorsal stripe,

below which is a series of nine, or ten, round, or pear-shaped,

black spots; legs and prolegs green. OR with blackish legs. OR

with the secondary segmental lines black; the spiracles set in

orange blotches; the legs black; the prolegs marked with black.

OR with the ground colour of the body smoky black. In the

dark forms the head and first somite are yellowish olive. Horn

in all forms straight and black, the tip bifid. Moulted 16-11-39.

4th instar—Head round. rst somite swollen with small yellow

tubercles. Head and body green, a white subdorsal stripe, below

which is a series of ten round black spots; legs and prolegs reddish;

spiracles orange ringed, the posterior one set in an orange patch.

316° JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLI

OR head and rst somite yellowish olive; body grey with black

transverse lines, a white subdorsal stripe edged below with biack,

below which is a series of ten wedge-shaped black spots; spiracles

set in orange patches; legs black; prolegs and anal claspers olive

tinged with orange. OR with the head and ist somite orange

brown; body dark chocolate brown, the subdorsal line obsolescent ;

legs, prolegs and the ring round the spiracles dark golden brown.

OR with head and ist somite green; body grey green with an

indistinct smoky black dorsal stripe, a white subdorsal line edged

below with black, beneath which is a series of ten wedge-shaped

black spots; spiracles set in yellow patches; legs blackish; prolegs

and anal claspers blackish tinged with olive. In all forms the

spiracles are white with an orange transverse bar and the horn

is long, upcurved, black with the sides and under surface of the

basal two-thirds whitish, tuberculate and the tip pointed. Moulted

20-11-39.

Final instar—Head round. 1st somite swollen, both it and the

anal flap with minute yellow tubercles. Head and Ist somite

green; body green with a white subdorsal stripe, edged below

with short black streaks along the secondary segmental lines, and

with a series of ten wedge-shaped black lateral spots; spiracles

ringed with orange, the last set in an orange blotch; legs and

prolegs reddish; venter blackish, the ventral and lateral areas

separated by a broken black stripe. OR with head and ist somite

olive green; a broad black dorsal stripe from 2nd somite to base

of horn edged with yellowish; a white subdorsal stripe edged above

by a series of short black streaks along the secondary segmental

lines and below by a black stripe from which a tooth runs down-

ward onto each somite; lateral area greenish yellow; legs purple;

prolegs brownish with the base black; anal flap olive green; venter

blackish; spiracles set in orange blotches; an orange spot on each

side of the base of the horn. OR with head and ist somite pale

olive green; body with the dorsal area pinkish, a white subdorsal

stripe edged below with a series of short black streaks along the

secondary segmental lines, these streaks almost obliterating the

usual lateral series of black spots except on the 2nd and 3rd

somites; lateral area greenish yellow; spiracles ringed with orange,

the pcsterior one in an orange blotch; a short black streak from

immediately in front of the base of the horn to the subdorsal

white stripe; legs and prolegs purplish, the base black; anal

somite pale olive green; venter pinkish with a blackish lateral

stripe. OR with head and Ist somite green; body green with a

white subdorsal stripe, edged above with a crimson line, below

which is a series of nine small round black spots; a short black

streak immediately in front of and above the posterior spiracle;

spiracles ringed with orange, the last one set in an orange blotch;

legs and prolegs purplish; venter green with a lateral purplish

stripe edged above with a broken black stripe. In all forms the

spiracles are white with a transverse orange bar and the horn iS

black, slightly tuberculate, of medium length and curved slightly

downward. Pupated 1-ili-39.

THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA 317

A few larvae undergo a fifth ecdysis but there is very little

change in size and none in appearance between the 5th and 6th

instars. A peculiar feature in this species is that larvae, which

assume the greyish coloration in the early instars, may revert to

the green form in the final. .

The above descriptions apply to larvae reared in captivity.

Wild larvae are more constant, in the early instars green with the

ist somite and anal flap with minute yellow tubercles, a narrow

yellowish white subdorsal stripe after the grd instar. Full grown

larva’ with head and body green; 1st somite and anal flap with

minute yellow tubercles; a bluish white dorsal stripe with a bluish

green median stripe from 3rd somite to base of horn; a narrow

white subdorsal stripe edged above with carmine and joining the

base of the horn; immediately beneath this stripe there is some-

times a series of nine small black dots; horn green with a few

small black tubercles; legs and prolegs green; spiracles white with

an orange transverse bar; venter green.

Pupa in a slight cocoon among litter on the surface of the

ground. Rather slender, dark chestnut brown with a darker dorsal

stripe on the abdominal somites. A female emerged 14-11-39.

Food-plant—Gardenia.

Described from larvae bred from ova and found in various

instars in Calcutta.

Bell and Scott give the orange kar to the spiracles as an

absolute distinction between this species and the closely allied C.

picus Cr. ‘This is not so, however, as I have bred hylas from a

larva with unbarred spiracles and I have a preserved specimen in

which some of the spiracles are barred and others not. Moore’s

description is:—‘Early stage—Pale bluish-green; second segment

yellow dotted; a subdorsal black-dotted duplex line; a lateral row

of black transverse spots; spiracles and abdominal line, and legs

brownish-ochreous; head blue-green; horn with black granular

dots. Adult—Brighter green, with a white-bordered blue dorsal

line, and whitish subdorsal line ending in a yellow streak at base

of horn; head and spiracles blue. Pupa pale violet brown.’ This

description is followed by Hampson. Seitz writes: ‘. . . the

larvae vary a great deal both locally and individually; they may

be green, yellow, or red, sometimes with blackish, orange spotted

sides, or the larva is green with yellow sides and a blue dorsal

band; on Rubiaceae, particularly Gardenia, Adina, and Randia in

China (in Africa also on Kraussia lanceolata). The pupa has the

approximate shape of that of Celer. euphorbiae, but it is dark

brown with lighter segmental folds.’ He adds a footnote ‘Fawcett,

in Trans. Ent. Zool. Soc. Lond., xv, pl. 48, figures five. differently

coloured types of the larva of hylas.’

PSYCHIDZ.

Chalivides vitrea Hamps.

Head red brown with two small inverted yellow V-shaped marks

just above the mandibles and a double median yellow line.

Thoracic somites red brown, the skin between the somites and

318; JOURNAL,’ BOMBAY \NATURAL . HIST. “SOCIETY; Vol. XLI

also between the ist somite and the head yellow. <A yellow dorsal

and subdorsal stripe. Abdominal somites slightly chitinised and

greyish pink in colour. 12th somite, anal flap and anal claspers

more heavily chitinised and red brown in colour. Prolegs very

small. Legs increasing in size from ist to 3rd. pairs, brown.

Case of greyish silk, a tapering cylinder, broadest at the top,

not unlike an Indian ‘biri’ in shape. I have. one. case in which

the imago has escaped from the top.

Food-plant—Grewia hirsuta Vahl.

Described from a full fed larva from one of a number of cases

found in Calcutta 31-v-39, from another of which a male emerged

18-v1-39.

Clania crameri Westw.

Moore, Lep, Ceyl.; 11, ™10z@ pl, 1198, 1e.J74a4,, 1882-83:

Hamps., Fauna Brit, Ind.; Moths, 1. 207, fey 1903 s1ce2:

Gaede Seitz, Indo-Ausir. Bombyces, -x, 738.

Head dark brown, speckled with pale brown and with a double

pale brown stripe from above clypeus to vertex. Thoracic somites

very dark brown with a sublateral and subdorsal stripe starting

from the anterior edge of the 1st somite and a dorsal stripe starting

from the centre of the 1st somite. Abdominal somites with the

skin very slightly chitinised, dark grey in colour, the sides and

venter paler. Abdominal prolegs very small. Anal-claspers, anal flap

and 12th somite more heavily chitinised and blackish in colour. Legs

brown marked with paler, increasing in size from rst to 3rd pairs.

Male pupa reddish brown; the thorax shining, the abdomen

dull. Long and slender in shape, the last two somites curved

downwards. Cremaster two conical projections. roth, 11th and

12th somites with a transverse dorsal row of backward pointing

teeth. A slight keel on the head between the eyes. Female pupa

rather paler in colour, like a chitinised maggot, without wing cases,

leg or antenna sheaths, the posterior end somewhat swollen and

without dorsal teeth. The head and thoracic somites paler in colour

than the abdomen. Before pupating the larva attaches the top of

the case firmly to some support and then turns round, pupating

head downwards, and the male imago escapes from the lower end

leaving the pupal shell in the exit.

Case cylindrical, covered with longitudinally arranged twigs,

the. ends:of which are even-at the front but very irregular at the

hinder end of the case.

Food-plant—Various. 1 have bred it on Lagerstroemia indica

Linn. and Alseodaphne semicarpifolia Nees.

Described from a number of larvae found in Calcutta 3-v-39,

from one of which a male emerged 15-v-39.

Hampson’s figure shews the larva protruding from its case,

but all the descriptions and Moore’s figure are of the case only.

Moore’s.,description is the fullest and he states that the case is

‘covered with slender twigs of irregular length, which are disposed

longitudinally side by side in’ a somewhat spiral form.’

(44 THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN -LEPIDOPTERA 319

NOCTUIDZ.

Agrotis spinifera Hbn. (biconica Koll.).

Mill., Ann. Soc. Lyon, -(2)°xix,-41, pl. 112, figs. 1, 2. 1872:

Ovum—Bluish white, round with numerous ribs running from

the micropyle to the base. Laid, in captivity, in lines on the blades

of grass. Hatched on third day.

Full grown larva—Head pale brown with a dark brown H-

shaped mark. Ground colour greyish brown, the thoracic plate

darker and the dorsum tinged with pinkish. A_ blackish dorsal

and subdorsal stripe, below which there are two, whitish lines.

Sublateral and ventral areas greenish white. The abdominal

somites each with two black dots between the dorsal and sub-

dorsal stripes, the thoracic somites with one dot between and one

on the subdorsal stripe. Spiracles black and conspicuous. Leg's

very pale brown. Claspers whitish green and very small.

Pupa subterranean in a_ slight earthen cocoon. Yellowish

brown, the intersegmental area slightly darker and with a darker

dorsal stripe on the abdominal somites. A dark spot on each side

of the pro-thorax. Cremaster ending in two sharp pointed spines.

Food-plant—Grasses. The larvae feed at night, concealing

themselves during the day.

Described from a number of full fed larvae bred from ova in

Calcutta, one of which pupated 7-vil-39 and a female emerged

18-vii-309. .

Hampson in the Catalogue of the Lepidoptera Phaleanae, iv,

quotes the description referred to above as follows :—‘Greenish-

grey; the dorsum ochreous; dorsal line double brown; subdorsal

line dark; supra- and substigmal lines whitish with dark edges;

head and thoracic shield ochreous. Food-plant, grasses.’ This

description was presumably made from a French larva.

Achaea (Ophiusa) melicerte Drury. 7

Moore, Lep. Ceyl., ii, 164, pl. 168, fig. 2b. 1884-87.

Hamps., Fauna Brit. Ind., Moths; ii, 495. 1894.

iiamps., Cat. Lep. Phal., xii, §37. 1913.

Gaede Seitz, Indo-Austr. Noctuidae, xi, 481.

Head dark olive brown with a few black hairs; clypeus with a

carmine V-shaped mark, and outlined by a narrow cream coloured

stripe; the sides of the head and two small triangular streaks from

the vertex, which do not quite reach the clypeus, cream, these

streaks divided into two by a har of the ground colour. True

ground colour of the body whitish, the apparent colour due to

a dense sprinkling of minute dots. A broad blackish dorsal and

sublateral stripe, the area between slightly paler and edged above

and below by a stripe consisting of minute orange dots. An

interrupted double orange dorsal line, which joins and_ divides

forming a chain-like pattern, and an orange subspiracular line.

The 4th somite posteriorly with a solid black transverse band. <A

double dorsal and a subdorsal yellowish spot on the anterior edge

of the 5th somite. 2nd to 11th somites each with a pale ringed

320 JOURNAL, BOMBAY: NATURAL, HIST: SOCIETY; Vol“ XLT

black lateral spot. 11th somite with a pair of dorsal crimson

tubercles. 12th somite with a pair of small black dorsal spots.

Spiracles orange red. Legs orange. Prolegs marked externally

with white and with a white spot just above the base, the first

pair obsolescent. Venter pinkish sprinkled with minute grey dots,

a faint blackish median stripe expanding into a black spot between

each pair of legs and prolegs and also on the toth somite. A

narrow cream stripe, edged on each side with black, dividing the

ventral and sublateral areas.

Pupa in a thin cocoon in a spun together leaf. Purplish brown,

so densely covered with a white bloom that the true colour is only

visible between the abdominal somites.

Food-plant—Castor (Ricinus communis Linn.).

Described from a full fed larva found in Calcutta 24-ii-39,

pupated 27-11-39, and a female emerged 9-ii1-39.

Moore’s description, which is largely copied by Hampson in

the Fauna, is :—‘Adult larva elongated, slender, half-looped; with

sixteen legs, the first pair of middle legs aborted; two dorsal red

tubercles on twelfth segment; colour bluish-grey, numerously

speckled with bluish-black; a lateral and sublateral yellowish band,

with an intervening bluish-grey line; spiracles and forelegs red;

a dorsal black stripe bordered by reddish-white spots between fifth

and sixth segments; head black striped. Pupa formed within a

leaf... Hampson in the Catalogue writes:—‘Larva bluish grey

speckled with blue-black or black-brown; lateral and_ sublateral

yellowish stripes with a blue-grey line between them; a dorsal black

stripe edged with reddish white spots between 4th and 5th somites;

a pair of dorsal red tubercles on anal somite; spiracles and fore

legs red; head striped with black; the 1st pair of claspers aborted.

Pupa rolled in a leaf.’ This latter description forms the basis for

that in Seitz.

PYRALIDZ.

Dichocrocis punctiferalis Guen.

Head and thoracic plate red brown. Ground colour dirty whit-

ish grey, slightly tinged with pinkish. Each somite with two pairs

of ovoid dorsal spots, a round lateral and two round sublateral

spots of a dark olive colour. A white spiracular line. A few white

hairs. Legs and-prolegs of the ground colour.

Pupa in a slight cocoon of thin white silk. Rather slender,

with the leg sheaths projecting beyond the wing cases. Colour

reddish brown, the thorax slightly darker and the ventral surface

of the abdomen paler. Wing cases yellowish brown.

Food-plant—Castor (Ricinus communis Linn.), boring into the

unripe capsules and eating the seeds.

Described from a full fed larva found in Calcutta 27-i1i-30,

pupated 30-11-39, and a male emerged 7-1v-39.

(To be continued),

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE 1

Y Ss Ya

rete

Sayeedud-Din—Common Indian Herbs.

(For explanation see end of article)

SOME COMMON INDIAN HERBS WITH NOTES ON

THEIR ANATOMICAL CHARACTERS.

M. SAYEEDUD-DIn,

Prof. of Botany, Osmania University, Hyderabad Deccan.

(With three plates).

(Continued from page 115 of volume xli).

11.—HeErprestis Monniera H.B. & K.

(SCROPHULARIACE®).

SYNONYMY AND SYSTEMATIC DESCRIPTION.

ineypestis Monmera bi.B, dK. ELE .Bal., iv, 272; Benth,

Seroon lids, 20; DC. Prodi, x, 410; Irim, Fl. Ceyl., ui. 246;

Watt. Dict. Econ. Prod., iv, 225. Syns:—Moniera cuneifolia

Michaux., Fl. Bor. Amer., v, 2 (1803), 22. Herpestis spathulata

Biumime., Bid., 748, Gratiola Monnierva Linn., Roxb. Cor., Pl. H,

ar, and Fl. Ind. 47. Bramia indica, Lamk. Dict., i, 450.

A glabrous, rather succulent creeping herb, rooting at the

nodes; branches numerous, ascending. Leaves entire, sessile,

decussate, obovate-oblong or spathulate, fleshy, very obtuse;

nerves obscure. Flowers axillary, solitary. Corolla pale-blue with

shining dots when fresh. Anthers dark blue or blackish; pollen

white; grains blackish and ellipsoidal when dry, and triangular or

spherical and pale-yellow when moistened. Style dilated at the

top and 2-lobed. Fruit an ovoid capsule (Plate I). Flowers

practically all the year round. Root, stalk and leaves are medicinal.

(For the properties refer to Watt, 7.)

Inpran NAMES.

Brahmi, Manduki (Sans.); Brahmi, Jal-nim, Safed Chamni

(Hind.); Adha-birni, dhop-chamni (Beng.); Bam, nira-brahmi

(Bomb.); nir-brami, beami (Tam.); Sambrani chettu (Tel.).

HABITAT.

Common throughout India in damp places, and in all warm

countries (recorded by the author in one of his previous papers, 5).

ANATOMICAL NOTES.

Structure of the: leaf. (Plate II}. -The. fleshy. leaves possess

stomata on both sides which are, however, more numerous on the

322 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLI

lower surface. They are of the Cruciferous type, and are sur-

rounded by three or more epidermal cells. Chlorophyll grains are

present in the epidermal cells. The mesophyll is composed of

rounded, isodiametric cells, and shows no _ differentiation into

palisade and spongy tissues. The feeble development of water-

conducting elements is noteworthy, being related to the marshy

habit. Oxalate of lime is excreted in the form of small octahedral

Or prismatic crystals. Glandular hairs occur on the epidermis,

giving rise to transparent dots. They are provided with a very

short stalk and a large peltate head, composed of 4-8 cells. They

are different from any of those illustrated by Solereder (6), although

he has recorded the occurrence of glands with peltate heads,

composed of a considerable number of cells in Gratiola, Capraria

biflora L., Scoparia dulcis L., Herpestis gratioloides Benth., Calce-

olaria pinifolia Cav. and Russelia sarmentosa Jacq.

Structure of the Stem (Plate’ HII). The structure of the stem

too, as that of the leaves, shows a marked adaptation to the

marshy habit. Stomata are present quite in abundance. As _ in

the case of the leaves here also oxalate of lime is excreted in the

form of octahedral or prismatic crystals. The hairy covering

consists of branched hairs resembling the candelabra hairs of other

genera. The epidermal cells are thin-walled. There is a broad

cortical region which is lacunar and consists of large more or less

rounded cells. The innermost layer is formed by an endodermis.

Xylem forms a small. closed cylinder. Individual vascular bundles

are distinct, and are separated from one another by radial strips

of prosenchymatous cells arranged in one or two rows. The pith

consists of unlignified parenchymatous cells.

CONCLUSIONS.

The main features which may ke taken as characteristic of this

plant, are generally characteristic of the family Scrophulariaceae.

For example, (1) excretion of oxalate of lime in the form of simple

octahedral or prismatic crystals; (2) occurrence of cruciferous type

of stomata, (3) absence of intraxylary phloem; (4) possession of

glandular hairs with a short stalk and a large peltate head which

is divided by vertical walls only into 4-8 cells, resembling the

glandular hairs of the Oleaceae, with which they can be confused.

But, since these are not allied families, other characters can be

used to distinguish one from the other even in the sterile condition.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.

I am indebted to Mr. Sri Ram Loo for the drawings which

were prepared under my supervision. Mr. M. Moinuddin helped

me with the preparation of the slides for which I am_ thankful

to him.

LITERATURE CONSULTED.

1. Cooke, T.—The Flora of the Presidency of Bombay, vol. ii, Pine

p. 285 (1905).

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE II

Sayeedud-Din—Common Indian Herbs.

(For explanation see end of article).

PLATE IIl

.. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Journ

yeedud-Din—Common Indian Herbs.

For explan

SOME COMMON INDIAN HERBS 323

Haberlandt, G.—Physiological Plant Anatomy, Engl. Ed., p. 511 (1928).

3. Hooker, T. D.—The Flora of British India, vol. iv, p. 272 (1885).

4. Roxburgh.—Flora indica, p. 47.

5. Sayeedud-Din, M.—‘A Further Contribution to Some of the Common

Flowering Plants of the Hyderabad State; their distribution and economic

imaportance. Dicotyledons.” J.B.N.H.S., vol. xl, No. 2, p. 205 (1938).

6. Solereder, H.—Systematic Anatomy of the Dicotyledons. Engl. Ed.,

vol. i, pp. 583-9 (1908).

7. Watt, G.—Dictionary of the Economic Products of India, vol. iv, p

225 (1890).

EXPLANATION OF PLATES I! To III.

Illustrating M. Sayeedud-Din’s paper on ‘Some Common Indian Herbs with

notes on their Anatomical Characters.’ II. Herpestis Monniera H.B. & K.

PyeATE ele

Fig. 1.—Black and white sketch of Herpestis Monniera H.B. & K. (X2).

Fig. 2.—Corolla opened out, gynaeceum removed. (X5).

Fig. 3.—Stamen, showing the attachment of anthers. (X10).

Fig. 4.—Pollen grain much magnified, showing the shape in a dry condition.

( X 600).

Figs. 5 & 6.—Pollen grains much magnified, showing their shapes in a moistened

condition. (X 600).

Fig. 7.—Gynaeceum, showing ovary, style and 2-lobed stigma. (x5).

Fig. 8.—Fruit. (x2).

Fig. 9.—T.S. Ovary. (100).

Fig. 10.—L.S. Ovary. (X10).

Fig. 11.—Photograph of Herpestis Monniera H.B. & K.

PrAtEe 2h

Fig. 1.—Leaf-epidermis. (a), stoma; (b), glandular hair. (x 100).

Fig. 2.—T.S. leaf, showing undifferentiated mesophyll, conducting tissue and

glands. (xX 600).

Prate: Iii.

Fig. 1.—TI.S. stem, showing: (a), stoma; (b), lacunae in cortex; (c), broad

cortex; (d), endodermis; arrangement of vascular bundles, and_ pith.

( X 600).

Fig. 2,—Branched hair on stem. (X120).

(To be continued).

DAYS AND DOINGS WITH MY BOBBERY-PACK.

LIEUT.-COLONEL Re WW? BURTON;

(With one plate).

What a crowd of memories the above heading brings to mind!

Days of intense enjoyment and doings of delight. Up long before

dawn, and out of the Cantonment before the short Indian twilight

had broadened into day, we used to make our way to the appointed

meeting-place where the dogs had been sent out overnight, or very

early in the morning. Sometimes it was convenient to ride out,

sometimes to drive, less seldom to cycle; and though there may

have been occasional disinclination to forego several hour’s sleep,

yet the pleasure of being up early, seeing the dawn break and

hearing the many interesting sounds of awakening life which is

the reward of early rising, far outweighed any thoughts of sloth-

fulness.

And that early morning meeting of Master and pack! What

a pleasure it used to he. Each dog had its own distinctive manner

of expressing delight. ‘Bob’, the poligar, staunch and _ stolid,

quietly wagged his tail; ‘Pup’ showed her pearly teeth in a

_ delighted grin; old ‘Nelly’, ‘Bob’s’ inseparable companion, in

spite of her twelve years of life, pranced about like a puppy;

‘Paddy’, his name proclaims his native land, who had always to

be led by himself or with one of the opposite sex owing to his

incurable penchant for a fight, used to have a special caress, for

he was his master’s shadow. So the memory runs back a number

of years bringing to mind dogs big and dogs small, and of various

breeds, for membership was open to all those keen of scent and

stout of heart. Dogs, alas, are often but shortlived in this country

of so many speedy and fatal ailments to man and beast.

Only two years short of five decades is it since the first

nucleus of the Bobbery Pack was established. ‘Stag’, a Persian

hound; ‘Prince’ an Australian; ‘Jupiter’, country-bred greyhound

and a faint-hearted tackler who transmitted his failing to ‘Jingo’,

‘Sloe’, and others; ‘Simon’, most courageous of fox-terriers.

These were the forerunners of dogs of varied breeds and colours.

‘Stag’ and ‘Prince’ it was who, one memorable morning, pressed

a buck Chikara hard for some two miles, running in a circle,

while ‘Jupiter’ ran cunning, made a fine effort at a well-judged

moment, seized the gazelle at the loins and broke its back with a

single bite. Well he knew it would not bite back! It is astonishing

how very easily gazelle and antelope are killed by dogs, and yet

how tenacious of life they are when struck by bullets. This feat

was never repeated by any of my own dogs with an unwounded

chikara as the victim; but old ‘Nelly’, when at her prime, alone

and unaided killed a healthy and full-grown doe antelope among

some rocky ground. It appeared to become confused so ‘Nelly’

Journ. Bompay Nat. Hist. Soc.

My Bobbery Pack—Raichur, 1895.

= es : — — = a

Fhe Bpee Jack breed,

Pe nl ese

‘ { :

Reo> .

1399

wt Tiel ereres-

Pag & ee Bee

My Bobbery Pack—Bolarum, 1899.

DAVSVAND: DOINGS WITH MY BOBBERY-PACK 325

cut it off after a few minutes coursing, seized it by the neck and

killed it instantaneously. She was half Persian, half Afghan, and

a very handsome brindle. Poligar ‘Bob’, before he came into my

possession, earned undying fame by seizing a hyaena by the ear and

holding it until other dogs came up; how the beast was despatched

history does not relate, probably with a hunting knife. A_ knife

with stout blade of some six inches in length should always be

carried.

Beginning in tlhe days of ‘Stag’ and ‘Jupiter’—‘Prince’ had

to be destroyed as he made the killing of sheep and goats his

principal occupation—, many a fine run after fox and jack is seen

from the diary to have been had in the vicinity of the Cantonments

at which the writer was stationed in those days when the life of

the soldier-officer was less strenuous than it is now. Nothing to

do after ten o’clock on five days of the week, and Thursdays

and Sundays free. Jackals and foxes were numerous; and though

the country was much cut up by nullahs, yet falls were few, the

hardy and clever country-bred horses and ponies being nimble and

seldom coming to grief.

On most mornings a run of some kind was obtained, the tale

of ‘tails’ running well into the thirties for the period—March to

September, when much of the hunting was done. During the

cold weather the counter-attraction of shooting mostly gave the

hunted animals a well-earned respite; a large number of them

having been obliged, on one day or another to run for their lives.

At times there were some amusing incidents. On one occasion

a spaniel took up a line and ran it hard for a hundred yards,

whimpering excitedly as he went. Suddenly he found himself face

to face with a big dog jackal. But ‘Sammy’ was a nervy little

fellow and quite equal to the tactical situation; he lifted his lee

against a bush, pretending that hunting hard on the tails of stray

jackals was the last thine in the world of which he was thinking.

Seeing me galloping in pursuit the jack once more set off with

valiant ‘Sam’ hard on his heels. A blast on the whistle called up

the scattered pack and after an excellent run the jack was duly

accounted for.

The dogs very quickly learned to look for signs from Master

that quarry had been sighted. All would turn at once towards the

sound of the whistle and converge on the galloping pony. When

the ground was open I used to have the faster does in a double

slip-leash so as to give the fleeing animal a good start; for hunting

with too speedy hounds is poor sport. Three or four hundred yards

is not too much, in open country, to ensure a good run and

equalize the chances of hunter and hunted. Foxes can _ usually

take care of themselves pretty well though, owing to their habit

of crouching and trying by this means to escape notice, they are

sometimes ‘chopped’.

Some foxes, however, are quite ‘professional’ runners among

their kind and have on occasion gone clean away from fast hounds.

It is really a very gallant sight to view a little lomri skate away

with brush held straight behind him after having extended fast

326 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL: HIST. SOCIETY, Vol: XE

greyhounds to their best efforts for some two miles. This is due

without doubt to foxes having a second wind; once they have

managed to evade capture until they have gained this second

wind they stand a very good.chance of escape. In such cases

the hounds drop from a canter to a walk and then, as the fox

rapidly increases his lead, walk round and round in a state of

utter exhaustion with heaving sides and far-protruded drippiny

tongues. Such defeats do not, however, affect their keenness on

future occasions. It is but fair to the hounds* to explain that the

fox only achieves such a victory after having tired them by many

twistings and turnings and agile narrow escapes, even to the

skinning of the tail through the gaping jaws of the straining

pursuer! It is not uncommon to see a fox jump over a dog’s

back when hard pressed and necessity forces him to such hazardous

efforts at freedom.

One fox there was which raced away on near a dozen occasions

before he finally succumbed to ‘Nelly’ after 15 minutes’ hard

gallop. He must have run twenty miles, one way and another,

before he was killed.

Hares afforded good sport, dogs being always keen and excited

in their pursuit. They run straight and are very speedy. It used

to be a change for the men to turn out forty or fifty as beaters

and slip the dogs at hares only. Early in the rainy season as

many as eight would be killed in a morning in this manner. Such

outings were much enjoyed by the men as well as being good

training for them; for they had to control excitement, retain

proper intervals, and keep in touch in scrub jungle.

The Indian hare readily goes to ground, it being common for

them to take refuge down one of the tunnels of a white-ant mound.

As cobras are very partial to these ready made and safe retreats

I have often wondered whether the hare may not have been worse

frightened when inside than when hunted therein by ravening

hounds. His expression would be something like that of the baby

cotton-tail ‘Raggylug’ in Ernest Seton Thompson’s charming book

on animal life.

Escapes from snake-bite were common, but it was rare to

have a dog bitten, for instinct seems to warn them not to tackle.

A fox terrier belonging to a friend was bitten in long grass and

died twenty minutes after the yelp which announced the onset of

the tragedy; while another faithful friend, ‘John Pigeon’, died

twenty hours after being bitten while hunting among some rocks.

The former snake was doubtless a cobra, the latter probably a

Russell’s Viper or Daboia. Snakes were seen almost every day,

cobras and daboias being numerous. Whenever there was a chance

of getting at these deadly reptiles I used to dismount and kill them.

Sometimes my horses’ legs used to be struck at, but never with

success on the part of the snake. Daboias are sluggish but cobras

very active and quick. On one occasion a half-bred pointer had a

narrow escape. He was trotting along in front of me on a tank

bund and suddenly leapt into the air over a snake. The big cobra

struck at him, but the agile dog saved himself by an extraordinary

DAYS AND DOINGS WITH MY BOBBERY-PACK 327

effort—a wriggling jump while in the air, which just took him

clear of the wicked expanded hood. Having failed in his strike

the snake quickly disappeared in the grass.

To return to the hares. One of these once ran 1200 yards in

a perfectly straight line and was killed by the speedy ‘Dinah’

just as it reached cover. The soil was hard and sandy, and the

run so remarkably straight that we back-paced it, noting that the

hare had not deviated more than a few feet from the straight line

during the whole distance.

‘Dinah’ was bought for fifteen rupees at the Arab stables in

Bombay, so also ‘Jack’, a Persian hound, costing twenty rupees.

At that time too, ‘Ginger’, fiery Arab stallion, was acquired for

six hundred rupees. A very gallant horse he was; a born steeple-

chaser, afraid of nothing, and did fourteen miles to the hour in

a dog-cart. On one occasion he took off too far away from a mud

wall built in the dry ted of a tank, hitting it with his chest.

Naturally we parted, but he finished first!

‘Dinah’ was a true Arab of the desert. Her hereditary ability

to withstand thirst was extraordinary; and even in severe hot

weather, when all the other dogs would be greedily slaking their

thirst, she never drank much, and often did not even do more

than wet the tip of her tongue; also her tongue never protruded to

the extent of the other dogs. ‘Jack’ had to be destroyed—rabies—,

and ‘Dinah’ was never the same after she produced a litter to ‘Poligar

Bob’.

Only one of the six pups lived and I have never seen ‘Pup’s’

equal. She could run rings round any of the other hounds I had.

Pace, stamina, keenness, a good tackler, and the very best and

most good natured of bitches. In those days I had no camera so

have no photograph of her.

Thinking of ‘Bob’ brings to mind that clown Poligar ‘Jacky’

purchased for five rupees from a Horse Artillery syce: he turned

out to be a great character. His first exploit was on his entry

into the pack when only nine or ten months old. A fox was put

up and jinked a great deal, at last running round a rock into

‘Jacky’s’ gaping jaws which closed on him, the canine teeth being

fixed into the back of the fox’s head. ‘Jacky’ was nearly choked

by the fox’s nose sticking in his gullet so Master pulled his jaws

open while ‘Dinah’ removed the fox. After this ‘Jacky’ was mighty

keen and always a great tackler. Another of his exploits was the

slaying of a village porker for which he had to receive a drubbing

and I to pay his original purchase price.

I parted with ‘Jacky’ and the rest of my pack when going on

furlough; a couple of years later I met him in the road and he

growled ferociously at my friendly advances. <A curious thing about

this dog was that he had the smell peculiar to hyaenas; nothing

would conceal it; no amount of washing was of any use; so he

was. banished to the stables. He was a clown of a dog, always

playing pranks and amusing even to look at.

There are no better dogs for the Bobbery-Pack than the Poligar.

Good tacklers, sound feet, not too fast, stand the heat, splendid

328 JOURNAL, “BOMBAY “NATURAL MAIST ) SOCIETY) Vole CET

staying power, and the best of constitutions. They come from the

Poligar country in the south of [ndia. In the early part, of ‘the

last century the troops of the East India Company had many tough

engagements during the Poligar War in the Tinnevelly District,

as related by Colonel James Welsh in his Military Reminiscences.

At the assault on one place only forty-six of the storming party

of one hundred and twenty Europeans escaped unhurt. On _ that

day four officers and forty-nine men were killed. Of one old

Poligar it is related that, mortally wounded, he desired to be

carried before the British Commander:—‘The old man, who was

placed upright in a chair, then said, with a firm voice, “‘I have

come to show the English how a Poligar can die.’’ He twisted

his whiskers with both hands as he spoke, and in that attitude

expired.’ So the Poligars of that day were as stout-hearted as

their almost hairless hounds.

A cross-bred bull-terrier should be in every Bobbery-Pack. I

say cross-bred because pure bred ones cannot stand the heat, and

soon knock up on a hot morning. Dog ‘Tiger’ was the best of

this kind that I ever possessed. Sixty pounds in weight, with a

head like a mastiff, he feared nothing and could pull down anything

unaided. He was incorrigible in the matter of pulling down

buffaloes. No buffalo, once ‘Tiger’ had him by the nose, remained

on his legs for more than forty yards, and no amount of correction

ever wholly cured him of this propensity; it was fortunate that

he did not molest sheep or goats, for then he could never have

been taken out. He died of jaundice, that disease so common and

fatal to dogs in India.

None of my dogs were really savage. Rampur hounds have

that reputation, and perhaps those of a Bihar Rajah were of that

breed, though Doctor Daniel Johnson in Indian Field Sports calls

them Persians, ‘the Rajah slipped his Persian hounds after a

jackal but when he hallooed on the dogs they mistook the object

meant for them and attacked the Rajah’s horse, obliging him to

ride into the neighbouring river to escape their attack, to the

great amusement of the gentlemen present and the Rajah’s morti-

fication’.

Dogs of the bull-terrier class are frequently ferocious towards

animals though mild and good tempered to human beings; they

require to be trained to habits of implicit obedience from their

earliest puppyhood or they become a nuisance to their owner and

a terror to the community.~ It is’on ‘record that so long ago as

the year 1670, a bulldog owned by the Chief of a Factory on the

West Coast of India slew a sacred cow (bull?) and the mob

murdered every European in the place. The Monument to John

Best and seventeen Englishmen thus slain records that: ‘They were

sacrificed to the fury of a mad priesthood and an infuriated mob.’

(Things Indian by William Crooke).

Banjara dogs are very good but those of pure breed seldom

to be procured, as their owners, that most interesting nomad tribe

of gipsy appearance and habits, will not readily part with them.

These dogs hunt by both sight and scent and being fast and

}

ive)

DAYS AND DOINGS WITH MY BOBBERY-PACK 3

courageous are suitable for every description of hunting and cour-

sing. I owned haif-bred ones now and again. . |

The best, and also the most pleasant time of year for the sport

described is during the early part of the rains before the grass

gets high and cover too thieks 1 he fresh reel OF the-art and a

tinge of green all over the countryside is a most extraordinary

relief after the heat of the previous three or four months. Butter-

flies are to be seen in daily increasing numbers; where formerly

was parched and arid soil all sorts of wild flowers magically appear ;

birds are busy feasting on the many insects swarming in the air;

crows and kites are greedily chasing and devouring the lovely

ground mites with scarlet plush bodies seen crawling over the ground

in all directions, and if these are as good to eat as they are

beautiful to look at they must indeed be delicious morsels. Then

also myriads of flying white-ants issue from the termite mounds,

providing a ready feast for foxes and jackals which I have found

to have stomachs distended with the easily gorged meal.

It was my custom to always hold an autopsy of stomach

contents and at that season jackals were found to be in the habit

of eating various fruits, besides the many lizards, rats, mice, and

small birds which were more easily come by at that time of the

year.

Horses and dogs feel the change as much as their Master, and

throwing off the lassitude which has held them during the hot

weather months, show by their friskings and gambollings how

pleased they are that the season of green grass and cool breezes

has once more returned. An animal is sighted in the distance,

and discovered after careful scrutiny to be a jackal sneaking home-

wards to the scrub jungle two miles to the north; so quietly

trotting along we lessen the distance to about four hundred yards

and then start galloping hard. To the sound of the thudding hoofs

and the loud blast on the whistle the dogs come in from all

directions, for they soon acquire the habit of scouting to the flanks

on their own account, converging to a point ahead of the galloping

horse, as they know their Master is invariably to be trusted. Soon

the fastest among them gets a sight of the jack; this causes her

to exert herself to the utmost and she rapidly gains on the stout

varmint before her. He knows every inch of the country and

heads for some nullahs and broken ground where he hopes to

throw off the panting crew now hard on his heels. Greyhounds,

hunting entirely by sight, are soon at fault when the quarry dis-

appears from view and it is at such times that the experience and

hard riding of their Master is so invaluable to them.

It is only by hard and judicious riding that one is able, in

rough and broken country, to keep close enough to the quarry to

enable the dogs to be put on to the line it has taken; so the

success of the pack is often largely dependent on the ability of

the Master. In the case now in mind the dogs are soon put on

and another gallant jack is gathered to his fathers, his mask and

brush being consigned to the bag slung at the saddle for the

purpose.

330: JOURNAL; “BOMBAY. NATURAL. FIST CSOCIERY.. Wolly aun

Sometimes the fast dogs. would be left at home, and the hunt

conducted with the slower members of the pack, many of which

had quite good noses. That also afforded good sport, and much

that was interesting in the way of seeing the dogs at work.

Most of the hontine: was around the Cancomene ate of Auranga-

bad, Raichur and Bolarum. Wolves were occasionally seen near

the two former and hyaenas near the latter. ‘Tiger’ came into

my possession at Bolarum so never had a chance at a wolf; nor

did he come to grips with a hyaena as it was very seldom one

was found away from unrideable ground: so neither of these beasts

were accounted for by my pack. One day at Aurangabad, of course

when not hunting—I came across two wolves returning, fully gorged

to the hilly country from some antelope feast. My camp and

servants, dogs, hog-spear, etc. had gone on before me so my

sole weapon was the cleaning rod of my gun which had been left

behind at my bungalow. I rode the w Shes to a standstill, actually

touching the male with the cleaning rod at which he showed a fine

row of ‘teeth. I left them in a pool of water in a sandy nullah and

having found my camp returned with dogs and spear, but the

animals had left and could not be found. That was an unique

opportunity which never recurred.

On one occasion, again no pack and but a rook rifle as weapon,

I had a great gallop after a hyaena. My friend on a big Australian

pressed the hyaena hard and my much less speedy gray country-

bred toiled in the rear. My nag eventually gave out while my

friend was unable to use his rifle because of his pulling horse ;

so the beast made good his escape after a run of some three miles

over the broken country east of the Trimulgherry rocks. That

gallop lives in the memory.

It is marvellous what reckless riding the fast pursuit of animals

induces. I can call to mind one memorable morning when a

friend and myself galloped after a jack, in the endeavour to put

the dogs on to him, over the top of a rocky hill, across several

stone quarries, and down a sieep, jungly slope on the other side.

The jack was a fast one so we failed to get the hounds to see

him and had to abandon the chase. A lady was out with us, a

nervous rider, so we quietly made our way towards the place from

which we had started a mile or so back, being positively astonished

at the places we had galloped over and could not attempt to cross

them at a walk. At one place my pony had attempted to stop at

a perpendicular drop in the sheet rock, but being unable to do so

had been obliged to drop some four or five feet on to a slippery

surface down which he slithered for some yards before regaining

his equilibrium, when he was again urged on his mad career.

‘Ginger’ was indeed a gallant beast and a great handful on such

occasions. Truly fortune favours the reckless rider on most days,

but the pitcher, not infrequently, goes too often to the well!

I have said little about the horses and ponies. Every man has

his own ideas, which must be guided by his weight and inches.

For those riding -about.-11 st. 7 lbs. and under nothing *cammare

better than the Arab or good class country-bred. Moderately

DAYS AND DOINGS WITH MY BOBBERY-PACK 331

heavy weights can hunt on exceptionally large country-breds but

must usually ride Australian animals. Big horses are rather un-

wieldy for the kind of hunting, or coursing, of which I have

endeavoured to give a faithful picture. Handy, speedy, sure-footed

animals are best suited to the business, and few would care to

risk valuable mounts at such harum-scarum work. The pony in

the photograph used to carry a small retainer as dog-boy and

whipper-in !

To write of my Bobbery-Pack has been a pleasure, but the

narrative must be brought to an end for fear it may become weary-

some to readers who are possibly not such enthusiasts as myself.

My hunting days are over and I may never again enjoy ‘good

hunting’ except in the memories of the past; but can console

myself with the philosophic conviction that once the inevitable has

been submitted to there is much pleasure to be had in reflections

on days of enjoyment in by-gone years.

THE INDIAN CADDIS FLIES (TRICHOPTERA)

MARTIN E. MOSELY, F/RCE:S.). 5.22;

(With seven plates).

PART VIL.

(Continued from page 47 of Volume xh, 1939).

SERICOSTOMATIDAE McLacutan. (Contd.)

LEPIDOSTOMATINAE Ulmer.

Lepidostomutinae.—Ulim., Abh. Natur. Ver. Hamb., 18, p. 89,

1903.

Basal joint of the antennae usually much longer than the head,

generally clothed with very long, outstanding hairs or scales, often

in the ¢ with processes or spine-like teeth at the base; maxillary

palpi ¢ generally membranous and clothed with thickened hairs

or scales or both, number of joints varying from one to three, the

normal five always in the &; labial palpi three-jointed in both

sexes, basal joint small, about half the length of the second which

is usually slightly shorter than the third; abdomen slender, no

ventral teeth in either sex; wings generally oval, densely pubescent,

in the do, often furnished with scales and also with grooves and

folds, the former being more or less open furrows lined with scales,

whilst the latter are strongly chitinized, closely overlapping portions

ot the membrane, generally in the post-costal area and_ usually

in the anterior wing; often the costal margin of this wing is

doubled over and concealed in a heavy fringe; sometimes there is

a similar fringe along a central groove; the wings of the ¢ are

more regular and there are neither scales, grooves nor folds pre-

sent in this: s€x; spurs 2,.4, 4 or 1, 4, 4, varying according ae

the species. 5

McLachlan has termed the Sericostomatidae the ‘Curiosity Shop’

of the Trichoptera. This remark applies with particular force to

its sub-family, the Lepidostomatinae.

Of the Indian species belonging to this sub-family, sixty species

are described here, distributed in fourteen genera of which eight

are new.

If the customary rule were to be here followed, namely of basing

genera on neuration alone, their numbers would have to be still

further increased. I have therefore departed from the usual practice

and have sought for generic characters in the form of the genitalia,

antennae, etc. as well as in neuration, |

The grouping here adopted is perhaps arbitrary as my main

consideration has been to enable the student to identify his material

THE INDIAN CADDIS FLIES (TRICiIOPTERA) 333

as easily as possible. It is probable that species in many of the

genera in which I have placed them, are separated from each other

by more important characters than those which I have selected to

group them together. Probably the true affinities between the

species will be recognized only when a knowledge of the larval

forms has been obtained.

KEY TO THE GENERA.

This key applies to the male sex only.

1. Post-costal fold absent in the anterior wing. 2

—Post-costal fold present. 4

A black, shield-shaped spot on the metathorax, neuration

in the posterior wing irregular

PARAPHLEGOPTERYX Ulm.

—No spot on the metathorax, neuration in the posterior

wing regular. 2

3. Maxillary palpi single-jointed. KODALA gen. n.

—Maxillary palpi two-jointed. INDOCRUNOECIA Mart.

4. Penis-sheaths set abnormally slantwise across’ the

genitalia. DinagkTHRUM McLach.

—FPenis-sheaths symmetrical or absent (excepting in

Adinarthrella kimsa sp. n.) 5

5. Inferior appendages with an upwardly directed branch

arising at or near the basal margin as seen from the

side. 8

—Other than above. 6

6. Basal joint of the antenna armed with either one or

two basal processes. DINARTHRENA gen. n.

—Basal joint of the antenna without processes.

7- Apex of the inferior appendages unbranched.

AGOERODELLA gen. nf.

—Apex of the inferior appendages tranched.

ADINARTHRELLA gen. nN.

8. Basal joint of the antenna armed with processes or

rudiments of processes. IO

—Basal joint of the antenna simple. 9

g. In the anterior wing, generally a conspicuously long

cell between the post-costal fold and the margin ;*

penis-sheaths wanting. GOERODES Ulm.

—Several cells, not conspicuously long in the post-costal

area; penis-sheaths present. AGOERODES gen. Nn.

* Except in G. khasiana sp. n. and G. inequalis Mari.

3384 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL’ BIST. SOCIETY. a ol emer

10. Basal joint of the antenna armed with two processes, .

one at the base, the second towards the middle.

DINARTHRODES Ulm.

—Basal joint with a process or processes, sometimes

rudimentary, situated at the base only. II

11. Basal joint of the antenna with a furcate branch, some-

times with additional small branches at its base. 12

—Basal joint with a simple branch, or sometimes only

the rudiments of a branch at its base. lg

12. Post-costal fold very long, situated towards the middle

of the wing. ANACRUNOECIA gen. n.

—Post-costal fold short, situated towards the lower

margin. GOERODINA gen. n.

13. In the anterior wing, post-costal fold situated slightly

above the centre, long, extending nearly to the apexs

separated from the marginal cellules by a triangular

space. DINARTHRELLA Ulm.

—Other than the above. 14.

14. Inferior appendages two-jointed, terminal joint, however,

often obscure. ADINARTHRUM gen. Nn.

—Inferior appendages single-jointed, apices

branched. GOERODELLA gen. n.

Dinarthrum McLachlan.

Dinarthrum McLach., Journ. Linn. Soc. Lond., Zool., xg

Da LG, 72371.

Indodinarthrum Mart., Rec. ind. Mus.,. 38,.ip.281, (7930:

Metadinarthrum Mart., Trav. Lab. Zool. Univ. Varsov, p. 70,

LOt 2.

Hy podinarthrum. Matt: Op. Cits<.p> Ol, wLOue:

Acrunoecia Ulm., Genera Insect., fasc. 60a, p.106,) 19072

Spurs. 2, 45.4.

In the ¢, antenna with the basal joint long, armed generally

with distinct processes at its base. In certain species, however

these are rudimentary, or absolutely wanting. Maxillary palpi two-

jointed, basal joint longer than the second. Wings covered with

hairs and scales except, perhaps, in parvulum where hairs only are

present. Neuration irregular in the anterior, generally regular in

the posterior; in the anterior, there is a post-costal fold more than

half the length of the wing. Genitalia male, always with the penis-

sheaths lying diagonally across the genitalia; inferior appendages

two-jointed, second joint with the apex dilated; no upstanding

branch at the base except perhaps in D. kamba sp. n.

Genotype: Dinarthrum ferox McLachlan.

Dinarthrum ferox McLachlan. Pl. 1. Figs. 1-5.

Dinarthrum ferox McLachlan, Journ. Linn. Soc. Lond., Zool.

Xi pL TOs Eos

Insect brown. In the d, wings covered with hairs and scales;

DE SEN DIAN “CADDIS | FETES] (ERICHOPTERA) 335

costa heavily fringed; post-costal fold long, with five large cellules

between it and the posterior margin; basal joint of the antenna very

long, with a sinuous process or branch at its base; maxillary palpi

two-jointed, basal joint long and sinuous, terminal joint shorter,

slender. .

Genitalia ¢.—The apical margin of the ninth tergite strongly

produced so that the tergite forms a broad triangle; beyond it, the

dorsal plate is further produced at its centre which is slightly

elevated to form a pair of parallel ridges with a deep cleft between ;

on each side of these ridges, the plate expands broadly, the lateral

margins directed downward to make broad, deep keels while the

lower margins of the central part are likewise extended; penis

short; sheaths lying diagonally across it; inferior appendages two-

jointed, basal joint broad from beneath, terminal joint short, apex

slightly twisted and rounded.

Length of the anterior wing 3 10 mm.

Length of the basal joint of the antenna 3 6 mm.

North India:: Capt. A: M. Langdale R. E.

Type and paratype ¢ in the collection of the British Museum,

the type with the abdomen in balsam.

The genitalia has been drawn from the type, the abdomen

having been cleared in KOH, the antenna and neuration according

to McLachlan, the latter slichtly amended.

Dinarthrum parvulum McLach. Pl. 2, Figs. 1-7.

Mormonia (?) parvula McLach., Fedtsch. Reise Turkestan,

Reims. p. 33, pl. III, fig. 2, 1875. |

Crunoecia (?) parvula McLach., Rev. and Syn. Trich., pp. 272-3,

pl XXIX, 1876.

Acrunoecia parvula Ulmer, Gen. Insect., fasc. 60a, p. 106, pl.

pelV > figs. 123-4, 1907.

Dinarthrum parvulum Martynov, Trav. Labr. Zool. Univ.

Warsaw, pp."87-8, 1913; Ann. Mus. Zool. Ac. Sci. St. Peters., xix,

PP. 432, 436, 1915.

Hypodinarthrum parvulum Martynov, Ann. Mus. Zool. Ac. Sci.

BER S.S.; XXVill, p. 468, 1927.

The examples before me were all collected in fluid; I am con-

sequently unable to give any account of their general appearance.

McLachlan gives the expanse of the type (from Turkestan) as

only 12.5 mm. for the male, and 14 mm. for the female.

The examples collected by Mr. Mitchell in Kashmir, are rather

larger, the length of the anterior wing alone being 8 mm. in the

male and g mm. in the female. In the majority of examples there

is a very small anecular projection at the extreme base of the

antenna, concealed in the hairy clothing of the head. In one

example, this process is wanting and there are slight differences

in the neuration of the posterior wing but not enough, in my

Opinion, to warrant the separation of a distinct species. According

to McLachlan, the pubescence is hairy, without scales.

Genitalia ¢.—Apical margin of the ninth tergite produced and

rounded; beyond it is a complicated dorsal plate as wide as the

336 JOURNAL,” BOMBAY NATURAL. HIST, “SOCIETY. W ol. xen

segment, apical angles produced in large triangles with broad bases

and very acute apices as seen from the side; margin of the plate

produced in the centre in two adjacent finger-like processes as seen

from above; from the side, it is seen that the finger-like processes

are the upper edges of rounded heels of two hoot-like plates set

in the. centre of the dorsal plate, the heels projecting above the

margin and the much rounded toes appearing below its pointed

apex; penis slender, curving downward, sheaths set at an angle

across the penis, from above, pointing towards the left; inferior

appendages two-jointed, basal joint long, apical joint very short,

apex excised with a rather acute upper apical angle; margin of

the ninth ventral segment slightly produced at its centre and

widely excised.

Genitalia °.--From above, the ninth tergite is produced in two

small pointed triangles heneath which is a hood-shaped structure,

nearly square from beneath; towards the base of this hood lies a

vulvar scale which is almost completely covered ventrally by a

transparent, triangular plate; the vulvar scale has rather wide-

based wings, the bases being produced laterally beyond and outside

the covering plate; central process wide at its base with an acute

apex.

Length of anterior wing d 8 mm.

Length of anterior wing @ 10 mm.

Length of basal joint of antenna d 2.3 mm.

Kashmir. |

Dinarthrum inerme McLach. Pl. 3. Figs. 1-6.

Dinarthrum inerme MaLach., Scient. Res., ii, Yark. Mission,

Neur., Calc., p. 5, figs. 1-4, 1878;.Rev. & Syn. Trich., Supphy

Pt. II, pl. Ixiii, 1880;. Ulmer, Gen. Insect., fasc. 66a, p. 108, 19a07

Metadinarthrum inerme Martynov, Trav. Lab. Zool. Univ.

Warsaw, p. 90, 1913; Ann. Mus. Zool. Ac. Imp. Sci. St" Reteqe

xix, p. 426, rors; Ann, Mus. Zool, Ac: Sei. UlR°S'S30 au

p+ 408; 19027.

I will give McLachlan’s original description of ihe species,

supplemented by a description of the genitalia based on Kashmir

material.

‘Male, brownish, clothed with greyish-brown pubescence.

Basal joint of antennae rather longer than the head and the entire

thorax united, its basal portion black, but the apical portion brown,

somewhat compressed laterally, nearly straicht, but with a slight

bend in the basal portion to about the middle (dry material M.E.M.),

unarmed, but the basal half beneath, has a very dense fringe of

thickened black hairs; this portion above, and all the apical half,

are furnished with long outstanding grey hairs; thread of the

antennae longer than the wings, pale yellow, very distinctly

annulated with brown up to the tips. Maxillary palpi lone and

slender with a small terminal joint; the basal portion with long —

and dense thickened and ordinary grey hairs intermineled (but with

no short scales), the terminal joint with ordinary hairs only. Labial

palpi small and slender, pale yellowish. Legs pale yellow.

GHEE EN DIAN. CADDES PEIES (i RICHOPTERA) 337

Anterior wings greyish; the costal margin for more than

half its length from the base, has a dense inturned fringe of

thickened blackish-grey hairs; the membrane lightly clothed with

short greyish pubescence and with numerous small deep-black

scales, but there is a broad median longitudinal space free from

scales, limited inferiorly by a narrow groove extending from base

to apex; apical fringes greyish, very long on the apical portion

of the inner margin; neuration pale; discoidal cell short; nerves

very irregular below the groove, forming large cellules. Posterior

wings slightly paler than the anterior, with a few scattered black

scales on the costal portion, but otherwise with only slight and

very short greyish pubescence; fringes very long and greyish;

discoidal cell very short.’

This is McLachlan’s description of an example taken at Leh.

The examples before me, from which the figures have been drawn,

were collected by Dr. Hutchinson at Basgo, at about twenty miles

to the west of Leh, at Leh itself, and other districts nearby.

McLachlan’s description is so good that I have had no difficulty

in determining Dr. Hutchinson’s material.

Genitalia ¢.—The form of genitalia is very similar to that of

Dinarthrum parvulum McL. Points of difference are as follows;

from the side, the apical angles of the dorsal plate are shorter

and rounded instead of acute, the penis-sheaths are broader .and

rather shorter; the basal joints of the inferior appendages are

shorter, stouter and less curved whilst the margins of the apical

joints are less excised; from above, the centre of the margin of the

ninth segment is more produced whilst, from beneath, the margin

of the same segment is produced at its centre instead of evenly

concave.

inv the 9°, the mMeuration agrees very closely with that of

Dinarthrum parvulum MclL.

Length of anterior wing ¢ 8 mm.

Length of anterior wing @ 8 mm.

Length of basal joint of antenna ¢ 2.2 mm.

Type probably still in the Indian Museum, Calcutta. Examples

in the British Museum, collected by Dr. G. E. Hutchinson.

Dinarthum rema sp. n. Pl. 4. Figs. 1-4.

Insect more or less brownish in colour. In the ¢, basal joint

of the antenna long with two processes at its base; unfortunately,

in the type, only one antenna is present and the basal processes

in this have both the tins broken off. Maxillary palpi two-jointed,

basal joint long and sinuous; labial palpi with the second joint

longer than the first but shorter than the third. Wings covered

with hairs and scales, the latter more or less confined to the

apical part of the anterior wine in which there is the usual fold

in the post-costal area and also a longitudinal groove densely lined

with scales, passing along the centre; all the forks in both wines

psessile; in the posterior, the fourth apical cellule extends much

further inwards than the base of the discoidal cell.

Genitalia of the usual Dinarthrum pattern; dorsal plate showing

a specific character as shown in the figure.

a38 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURALS REST) SOCIBTY, (Vol Xam

Length of the anterior wing ¢ 9.5 mm.

Length of the basal joint of the antenna ¢d 4.9 mm.

Punjab : Muree, 92-98, Harford collection.

Type ¢o in the collection of the British Museum.

Dinarthrum kamba sp. n. Pl. 5. Figs. 1-5.

In the 3, basal joint of the antennae long with two processes

at its base, the basal process curved and with an acute apex,

distal process short and spatulate; maxillary palpi two-jointed, basal

joint sinuous, about twice the length of the terminal joint, labial

palpi with the second joint longer than the first and shorter than

the third; wings covered with scales, all forks sessile; anterior

with a longitudinal eroove along the centre of the wing, post-

costal fold moderately long, three basal cellules along the posterior

border, the middle one the largest; discoidal cell long and narrow,

fork No. 1 arising at the extreme upper distal angle; in the posterior,

the fourth apical cellule extending further inwards than the basal

angle of the discoidal cell.

Genitalia ¢.—Ninth dorsal segment produced in a large, some-

what rounded triangle beyond which is a wide but shallow dorsal

plate narrowly excised at its apex; the plate is roughly triangular

with very slight productions of the lateral angles; inconspicuous

vertical plates attached to the under surface; lateral angles of the

ninth segment turned inwards and produced in small, finger-like

processes; penis short, arching downward; sheaths broad excepting

towards the apices where they are abruptly acute, and lying

diagonally across the genitalia; inferior appendages furcate, two-

jointed, terminal joint clavate and excised at its apex, ovter surface

strongly fringed; a small, triangular fork arising from the upper

and inner margin of the basal joint at its base, directed distally.

Length of the anterior wing 3 6 mm.

Lensth of the basal joint of the antenna d 2.35 mm.

N.-E. Burma: Kambaiti, 6,300 ft. 12-vii-i934, R. Malaise.

Type ¢ in the Stockholm Museum. Paratypes in the Stockholm

and the British Museums.

Dinarthrum nagana sp. nov. Pl. 6. Figs. 1-6,

Insect light greyish; in the 6, antennae, basal joint very long,

with two basal processes, the apex of the lower curved inwards and

dilated in a membranous sac, the upper, stout, with the upper margin

convex; maxillary palpi two-jointed, basal joint long, with a small

nodule towards the apex; terminal joint short; wings d, greyish

with scales and hairs; anterior with a groove along the centre

and a post-costal fold extending nearly to the apical margin; sixth

apical cell with a short foot-stalk; four cellules in the post-costal

region, the middle one being very large; posterior wing in the

type, with the fifth apical sector incomplete at its base.

Genitalia ¢.—Ninth dorsal segment produced in a broad triangle

with a broad, truncate apex; beneath this is the dorsal plate, apical

excision not very deep, leaving two rounded lobes and rounded

outer angles; inner lobes in the form of rounded plates, very large

Journ. BompBay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Dinarthrum ferox McLach. 3.—Fig. 1, wings.

PLATE 1

Fig. 2, head, antenna, etc.

genitalia dorsal. Fig. 4, lateral. Fig. 5, ventral.

(Pig. 2, after McLachlan)

Fig. 3,

Journ. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE II

Dinarthrum parvulum McLach.—Fig. 1, wings g. Fig. 2, head and antenna, etc. ¢.

Fig. 3, genitalia dorsal, penis and sheaths omitted g. Fig. 4, lateral. Fig. 5,

ventral. Fig. 6, wings 9. Fig. 7, apex of abdomen Q, ventral.

Journ. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc.

wri A

Dinarthrum inerme McLach. §.—Fig. 1, wings.

same from above. Fig. 4, genitalia, dorsal.

PLATE I11

Pll C Nile eres

Fig. 2, head, antenna, etc. Fig. 3,

Fig. 5, lateral. Fig. 6, ventral.

. van _

: 5 =. a) f

a _ : i

Fg - - 7.

= : = a

: —_

; 7

\ .

‘

- =

' :

‘

i ‘

‘ 2

: ‘ :

‘3 .

v ‘

+ - - -

% 5S =

r =

3 ,

. bd a

4 7

Journ. Bompay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Pei (|

PLATE IV

Dinavthrum vema sp. n. g.—Fig. 1, wings

dorsal plate.

Fig. 4, same, lateral.

Fig 2, head and antenna, etc.

Histo)

Journ. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Dinarthrum kamba sp. n. §.—Fig. 1, wings.

genitalia, dorsal. Fig. 5, lateral.

Fig. 2, antenna.

PLATE V

Fig. 3, palpi.

Fig. 4

Journ. Bompay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE VI

Dinarthrum nagana sp. n.—Fig. 1, wings g. Fig. 2, head and antenna, etc., (@)

termination of maxillary palpus, more enlarged 3. Fig. 3, basal process of

antenna, from above, more enlarged. Fig. 4, ninth tergite and dorsal plate ¢.

Fig. 5, same, lateral. Fig. 6, wings .

: TM : Bed ; n ; a

: = ” :

: *

. :

‘ “ :

\ Z

' .

- 4

. . 5

¢ en

: F

2 i = a :

Journ. Bompay Nat. Hist. Soc.

PLATE VII

Dinarthrum sonomax sp. n., g.—Fig. 1, wings. Fig. 2, head and antenna, etc.,

\a) apex of basal process, from above.

Fig. 4, ninth tergite and dorsal plate.

Fig. 3, basal processes, more enlarged.

Fig. 5, same, lateral.

DAE SINDIAN. CADDISSELIES (LRICHOPTERA) 339

and deep from the side; penis short, arching downward, sheaths

long and directed asymmetrically to one side; inferior appendages

two-jointed, of the usual Dinarthrum type, the terminal joints short

with clavate apices.

Length of anterior wing 3d 9g mm.

Length of anterior wing @ 12 mm.

Length of basal joint of d antenna 5.7 mm.

Ieachmir: Nara Nae, ft. 7,500, 22-1x-1930, Lt.-Col. (5S. RK:

Christophers, B.M. 1930—159.

Type ¢ and paratype & in the collection of the British Museum.

Dinarthrum sonomax sp. n. Pl. 7. Figs. 1-5.

General appearance brownish. In the 6d, basal joint of the

antenna very long, under side blackened, two processes at the base,

the basal of the two blackened on its upper surface and produced

in an incurved, acute apex where there are three or four inwardly

directed, strong spines. Maxillary palpi two-jointed, a_ short,

membranous nodule at the base of the second joint. Wings long,

with acute apices; anterior, with a fold in the post-costal area

and a scale-lined, longitudinal groove occupying the middle of the

wing; all forks in both wings sessile; in the anterior, there are

three large cellules along the posterior margin, one of which, the

central, may be a fork No. 5; above the fold, there is something

in the nature of a corridor which curves round into this cellule;

in the posterior wing, the fourth apical cellule extends about as

far inwards as the base of the discoidal cell.

Genitalia conforming with the usual Dinarthrum pattern with

a characteristic dorsal plate as seen in the figure.

Length of the anterior wing d 13 mm.

Length of the basal joint of the antenna d 7.9 mm.

Kashmir; W. Tibet: Sonamarg, 28-ix-1932 (Yale North India

Expd.), G. E. Hutchinson. |

Type 3 (Sonamarg) and paratype ¢ (Kashmir) in the collection

of the British Museum.

(To be continued),

MARINE FISHERIES OF THE PROVINCE OF BOMBAY.

A REPORT ON THE EXPERIMENTS TO IMPROVE METHODS OF

TRANSPORT, WITH RECOMMENDATIONS ON MEASURES FOR

GENERAL DEVELOPMENT.

S. B. SETNA, M.SC., F.R.M.S., Ph.p. (Cantab.).

Fisheries Officer, Department of Industries, Bombay.

(With one plate, a map and a graphy).

CONTENTS.

PaGE

1. Introduction see ae a oe wee 1) GAO)

2. Genesis of Fisheries experiment... ve Aas jon Mee

3. Inauguration of experiment Re aS: ven) SEQ

4. Beginnings of a fishing fleet ve re fe vi aS

(a) Conversion of sailing boats into power-propelled vessels we O48

(b) Construction of launches by the Department of Industries and

unofficial agencies i a 238 sw 9388

5. Field of operation of the launches Be rN: .. 344

6. Seasons and statistics ... i ne aes Be 7)

7. Advantages of power-propelled boats ae bes +1) Sol

(a) Cost of upkeep of launches soe a AS ool

(b) Greater cruising radius ee es fae Aten eh)!

(d) Growth of refrigerating facilities sf a 2h Oe

8. Apprentice scheme a ae wy; 3.8 eg OOS

9g. Conclusion iss a Kes om i ie ODS.

INTRODUCTION.

1. The introduction of power-propelled vessels by the Govern-

ment of Bombay to help the fishing industry has served to awaken

interest in our fisheries which till comparatively recently had been

in a generally neglected condition.

That interest has been aroused by this experiment in Bombay

and in other maritime provinces of India and Ceylon is borne out

by the numerous inquiries addressed to my department about the

commercial possibilities of a more extended use of launches for

the transport of fish. There is no doubt that the launches have

made available in Bombay an increasing supply of fish, which, far

from creating a elut in the market, has scarcely sufficed to meet the

demand. In Bombay, at least, there is an insistent and constant

demand for fish, and the use of more rapid and effective transport

has helped to meet it The results achieved durine the past five

years show the great potentialities of power-propelled vessels to

extend and develop transport, which like other branches‘ of the

industry is still in a primitive and disorganized state.

This résumé surveys the experience of the past five years,

records the difficulties that have been encountered and indicates the

MARINE FISHERIES. OF THE PROVINCE OF BOMBAY 341

appropriate lines on which our fishing industry should be developed

if it is to flourish and prosper in the future.

GENESIS OF FISHERIES EXPERIMENT.

2. The improvement of the fishing industry has engaged the

attention of the Government of Bombay for a considerable period.

The first tangible step taken in this direction was in 1923, when

the Government of Bombay purchased the Trawler ‘William

Carrick’ and appointed Mr. A. E. Hefford as marine biologist on

board this vessel. Mr. Hefford’s work, carried out along the coast

of the Bombay Province, was exclusively confined to trawling eXx-

periments. The results were published in his Report on the work

of the trawler ‘William Carrick’. The experiment, for reasons sub-

sequently indicated, was unsuccessful. Some information was col-

lected, but there was no direct benefit as such to our fishermen. The

main object of the work was to gauge the commercial possibilities

of trawling in our waters.

The problem of directly improving the lot of the fishermen was

investigated subsequently by Mr. P. B. Advani, the Director of

Industries, Bombay, who was asked by the Government of Bombay

to submit a report on the marketing of fish in the city of Bombay

and to suggest measures for its improvement. The Director of

Industries interviewed the Superintendent of the Crawford Market,

leading fishermen and fish merchants about the possibilities of

increasing the city’s supply of fish. The inquiry revealed that there

was scope for a considerable increase in the quantity of fish nor-

mally received in the Bombay markets, and that an additional 3,000

to 4,000 tons might easily be disposed of annually without elaborate

and costly effort. The position in the mofussil, on the other hand,

was still more unsatisfactory. In several districts, fish as an

article of diet was, more often than not, a luxury which only a

few could afford. Mr. Advani’s inquiry, indicated that ‘the

introduction of power-propelled vessels in the local trade would

considerably help to improve the prospects of the fishermen and

augment the city’s supply of fish. The immediate outcome of the

inquiry was the establishment in November, 1933, of a Fisheries

section attached to the Department of Industries, Bombay.

The introduction of power-propelled vessels, as a means of

rapid transport and of extending the sources of supply. was also

advecated by Dr. H. TI. Sorley, 1.C:S., who conducted. a. survey

of the entire fisheries of the Bombay Province includine Sind in

1930-32. The results of his investigations are set forth in a Blue

Book entitled The Marine Fisheries of the Bombay Presidency.

Sir Frederick Sykes, then Governor of Bombay, manifested

a keen interest in the welfare of the fishermen. Shortly before

the inauguration of the fisheries experiment, His Excellency visited

the Koli community at Colaba in Bombay, to acquaint himself

personally with the difficulties under which they laboured. He felt

that many of the obstacles confronting the fishermen in the deve-

lopment of their trade might be gradually overcome, and believed

that there was considerable scope for the improvement of their

342° JOURNAL, “BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Wolpe

condition, provided that their traditional methods of work were

reformed and placed on a more modern and systematic basis.

The first objective of the newly established Fisheries Department

was to ascertain the benefits which would accrue to the city’s

fishing industry from the use of motor launches for the transport

of fish from the fishing grounds to the city. The traditional

means then, and even now, employed were ordinary sailing craft.

In inclement weather such craft are frequently compelled to remain

at the fishing grounds and are unable to land the catch at the

bunders, or they are confined to port when there is a total lack

of wind, or when rough seas prevail, with the result that no fishing

is done or the catch meant for transport to the city decays and

has to be jettisoned. Fish meant for the markets is thus lost, and

the fishermen’s labours are wasted. Further, absence of wind

frequently prevents a quick return to port, with the result that

large quantities of fish are landed in a rotten condition. The initial

step was therefore to provide more efficient and rapid means of

transport and, as an experiment, Government decided to obtain a

launch and use it for the transport of catches between the fishing

and landing: sites.

INAUGURATION OF EXPERIMENT.

3. Sir Frederick Sykes inaugurated the fisheries ee pennem at

Danda on November 10, 1933.

The first power- -propelled vessel to be used by Government was

one worked by a petrol engine. She was named the ‘Lady Sykes’,

and was obtained on loan from the Royal Indian Navy (then the

Royal Indian Marine). Suitable alterations were carried out to

adapt her for use as a fish carrier. Government further sanctioned

the construction of two motor boats. In the hope that the fisher-

men might eventually be able to take charge of and operate their

own launches, Government provided five stipends of Rs. 20 each

per month for the training of five apprentices of the fishermen’s

community in the operation and maintenance of motor launches.

Government were not, however, the first in the field in this

respect. At least three months prior to the inauguration of the

experiment at Danda, private enterprise had been responsible for

a venture on similar lines. With a view to findine fresh outlets

for its products, the-Burma Oil Company had conducted an in-

dependent investigation and arrived at the conclusion that the city’s

supply of fish might be considerably augmented by the use of power-

propelled boats.

Realizing, however, that the purchase of power-propelled launches

would be beyond the slender resources of a great many of ihe

fishermen, the firm decided to convert an ordinary sailing boat into

a power-propelled boat. The guiding factor in view was that if,

and when, the fishermen decided to go in for launches, they need

not discard their sailing boats numbering thousands, but need merely

install a suitable engine in them. The Burma Oil Company

accordingly purchased from the fishing village at Worli a newly

constructed fishing boat measuring 24 feet in length, and fitted it

MARINE FISHERIES OF THE PROVINCE OF BOMBAY |. 3843

with a A 1o B.H.P. Kromhout engine. Considerable structural

alterations were necessary, however, before this could be done.

BEGINNINGS OF A FISHING FLEET.

4. (a) Conversion of suiling boats into power-propelled vessels.

The Department of Indusiries simultaneously examined the possi-

bility of converting ordinary sailing boats into vessels capable of

propulsion by Diesel engines. The opinion of experts consulted by

the Department was that fishermen deciding to use mechanically

propelied boats to collect and transport fish need not perforce incur

expenditure on the acquisition of new boats. The possibility of

ordinary sailing craft being converted into power-propelled boats

was demonstrated by further experiments by Messrs. Greaves Cotton

& Co., who successtully converted a number of country craft

into passenger and cargo-carrying launches. The survey on which

these experiments were based showed that only one in every 20

of the ordinary sailing craft was capable of conversion into a

mechanically propelled unit.

(b) Construction of launches by the Department of Industries

and unofficial agencies.

The outcome of these experiments was most encouraging. The

results obtained from the use of the vessels placed at the service

of the fishermen by Government exceeded the most sanguine ex-

pectations. Equal fruit was borne by the Burmah Oil Company’s

venture. here, thus, appeared to be a promising future for the

regular employment of power-propelled vessels in the fish trade.

Accordingly in 1934 Government, impressed with the advantages

accruing trom the experiment at Danda, placed an order for the

construction of two taunches with Messrs. Alcock Ashdown &

Co. Ltd. Steps were taken to eliminate from these launches

the detects revealed in the “Lady Sykes’, which had been adapted

to the purpose of a fish carrier. ‘the two new launches were the

‘Sir Frederick Sykes’ and the ‘Lady Sykes’, and they continue to

be in use today. Appendix I shows the lauches constructed by the

Department ot Industries and also those owned by private individuals.

It turther shows the progressive increase in the horse-power of the

engines installed in the vessels.

‘Lady Sykes’ and ‘Sir Frederick Sykes’ (1934).—The “Lady Sykes’ is equipped

with a 28.5 B.H.P. Gardner engine, and tne ‘Sir Frederick Sykes’ with a 38.5

B.H.P. Ruston-Lister engine The launches, which are capable of average speeds

of seven and eight knots, respectively, were equipped with different types of

engines in order to test their suitability for the purpose of fisheries work.

The total length of each launch is 35 Iit., breadth 10 it. and depth 4 ft. g in.

Both vessels, which were built in the same year, have life-buoys, life-jackets,

fire-extinguishers and the usual navigation lights. They burn crude oil. They

were put into commission in September and October, 1934, respectively.

Launch ‘Hydari’ (1934).—The success of the original ‘Lady Sykes’ induced

Mr. Hasanaly Ebrahim, a fish merchant, to build a launch for his own use.

It was constructed at Bassein by local carpenters at the same time as the

“Sir Frederick Sykes’ and ‘Lady Sykes’. Mr. Hasanaly’s launch, the ‘Hydari’,

is fitted with Modaag Krupp Diesel engine. She is 41 ft. in length, has a‘io ft.

beam and a draft when loaded of 3 ft. Her speed is five knots. The engine,

44. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLl

a single cylinder pattern, operating on the two stroke principle, is ciaimed to

develop 25 B.H.F.

‘Lady pravourne’ (1935).—the following year saw the addition of the ‘Lady

Brabourne’ to the fleet. She, too, was built by Messrs. Alcock Ashdown & Co.

and is a great improvement, both in point of size and engine power, on her

predecessors. ter aimensions are :—length 42 tt., breadth 11 rt. 2 in. and depth

5 ft. 3 in. She is htted with a Kuston-Hornsby “3VQOM* marine” engine

aevelopinp 52 i.H.P. “at: 41000, 4.p.m-

Fishermen, who till then had teit that the provision of power transport was

beyond their means, came to realize from the results achieved. that motor

Jaunches could play an important part in their trade and that their more extended

use would tunaamentally improve their prospects.

Trawler ‘Cymbria’ (1936).—-the launching of the fisheries scheme at Danda

had synchronized with the experiment conducted by Mr. P. Schulze, who broughe

out about the same time a small second-hand trawler from Hamburg for deep

sea fishing in the waters around Bombay. A company of four share-holders

was tloated, but owing to a variety ot causes, among them repairs to the

trawler’s engine, the iack ot sufficient capital and the poor catches due to un-

favourable weather, the results were very disappointing and the experiment

wus abandoned. ‘Lhe vessel lay idie tor some time and was later reconditioned

for use as a fish carrier. It served in this capacity from October 1936 till

September 1938, when it ran aground off the rocks near Colaba lighthouse

and became a total wreck.

‘Chanatara’ (1937).—The ‘Chandtara’ constructed in the same year by local

carpenters at Vijayaurg is 46 ft. 9 in.xX1Io it. 5 in. It is equipped. witha gz

b.rt.P. Kuston riornsby engine and is capable of developing a speed ot seven

knots.

‘Lord Brabourne’ (1938).—The ‘Lord Brabourne’, an up-to-date craft, was con-

structed by the Royal indian Navy, who, in designing the vessel, ensured that

it would be a model cratt, the best in the fishing trade on the Bombay coasi.

It is the largest boat so.far built, its dimensions being 45 it..x11 ft.x5 ft. oim:

It has a 57 6.H.P. Gardner engine, which unlike the other launches is installed

amuidsnip. its distinguishing teature is a cork insulated hold provided to

minimize the melting of ice and to ensure the fish being kept in sound

condition. Another welcome feature, greatly appreciated by the crew, is the

provision.of large oil and water tanks, which carry the entire quantity of

Iuel oil (200 gations) and water (65 gallons) needed for the round voyage, usually

lasting about five days. he provision tor this storage in the engine room,

apart from making tor more deck space, also ensures the tidiness and clean-

liness ot the vesse!, both important factors in dealing with so rapidly a_perish-

abie commodity as fish. Another aspect in which the new vessel surpasses

the older launches is the equipment with electric lighting. She is~ fitted with

a 12 volt battery and a dynamo which is driven from the engine. A photograph

of the ‘Lord Brabourne’ appears at the end of this account.

‘Nooremohomedi’ (1933).—This vessel was built at Vijaydurg by local car-

penters. She is equipped with a 70 B.H.P. Ruston Hornsby engine and provides

evidence of the growing tendency to install larger engines and build bigger

boats than tormerly.

‘Seahawk’ and ‘Karimi’ (1938-39).—The vessel ‘Seahawk’ was put into service

by the Janjira Fishing Co. till the owners Messrs. Damania & Co., boat builders,

were in a position to deliver the new vessel the ‘Aarimi’ which they had been

commissioned to build. The ‘Karimi’ which is equipped with a 4o B.H.P.

Ruston Hornsby engine, worked during 1938-39, between Shrivardhan and

Bombay.

‘Khajahind’ (1939).—This is the latest addition to the fishing fleet. She

was constructed at Vijaydurg and is equipped with an engine of twice the

horse-power of any other engine on existing vessels, namely, 140 B.H.P. Her

length is 56 feet.

FIELD OF OPERATION OF THE LAUNCHES.

5: In the early stages of the experiment the field of operation of

the launches was confined more or less exclusively to the north

“"AVANOGT AO SHIAAHSIYA ANIAVIAI—VNIAS “Gd 'S

MARINE FISHERIES OF THE PROVINCE OF BOMBAY 343

of Bombay, extending as far as Bassein. The vessels brought fish

from Versova, Maloni, Gorai, Utan, Bassein and Arnala, in the

north, and trom Revdanda and adjacent sites in the south. The

time taken for the voyage to the farthermost point, north or south,

was about three hours. i*ish, however, was customarily brought

to Bombay by sail boats from these areas. It was therefore realized

that the working of the launches within this limited field would not

exactly serve the main purpose of the experiment, which was to

demonstrate to the fishermen the possibility of increasing the city’s

supply of fish by exploiting additional and more extended sources

ot supply.

Arrangements were accordingly made for the launches to journey

to more distant fishing sites. Lhe first voyage beyond the usual

sphere of operations was undertaken in November 1934, when the

‘sir frederick Sykes’ went to Jaigad (about 100 mules 1rom Bombay)

and returned with an ample catch. Both the ‘Sir frederick Sykes’

and the ‘Ludy Sykes’ subsequently made alternate voyages to Jaigad

and other ports close by, whence they returned with catches

ol mackerel and other fish. The bulk of the fish transported in

1934-35 Was Irom Jaigad. Catches in 1935-36 were unsatisfactory

owing to scarcity of tish both at Jaigad and Ratnagiri, and the

launcnes, theretore, ventured yet turther aheld. Since Sep-

tember, 1935, all the three Government launches, as well as

privateiy-owned vessels, have operated regularly as tar as Karwar,

which 1s nearly 270 miles from bombay. they also made occasional

voyages to bhatkal, which is the southernmost point of the Province,

about 334 miles trom Bombay. lransport operations in the nortan

extenaeu as far as Damaun and Ikathiawar, which were also tapped

as sources of supply to the city. Ihe first voyage was to Diu and

was made by the ‘Hydari’ in 1935. ‘Lhis vessel went to Madhwar,

at the extreme south end of tathiawar, about 150 miles from

Bombay. Lhe prevailing view till then had been that the passage to

these hshing sites was unsate for such small cralt, as part ot the

route lay across the open sea through the Gulf of Cambay. The

ease with which the passage was accomplished encouraged other

Owners to send their tauncnes to Madhwar, which, since the first

experimental voyage by the ‘“Hydari’, is now regularly visited.

The performance of the launches is very creditable in view of

their small size, limited horse-power and lack of suthcient facilities

for storage. Irom a limited radius 20 miles North and South of

Bombay the fishing grounds now served by the launches have been

extended from 270 to 300 nautical miles from Bombay, the duration

of one round voyage being generally from 3 to 5 days. The

important fishing fields brought within the sphere of operation both

north and south of Bombay are indicated in a map appearing as

Appendix 2 to this report.

Like the launches, sail boats also operate as fish carriers, but

the field is necessarily restricted on account of the longer time

taken by them on the voyage, and the consequent deterioration of

the catch by the time it reaches Bombay. The only long distance

voyage performed by the sail boats is from Madhwar (Diu) to

346 fOURNAL,: BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XLT

Bombay, from where fish is brought to the city. Madhwar is about

140 miles to the north of Bombay and the distance is usually

covered by a sail boat in about two days. Quick transport from the

northern iishing sites by sailing boats 1s facilitated by the favourable

winds which blow from the north during the first half of the year.

The season starts early in March and continues up to the latter part

of May, when the onset of the monsoon compels suspension of

fishing operations; but fishing fields in the south situated at the

same distance or nearer than Madhwar are however unable to send

their catches to Bombay in sailing boats because the strong head

winds encountered on the homeward journey considerably prolong

the voyage to the detriment of the catches. :

The prospects of a regular launch service for the transport of

fish between Bombay and the fishing fields near Diu in the north and

off the Konkan coast in the south are most promising. The working

of the launches in the Konkan and Kanara areas has shown that

the sphere of operations in the south might easily be extended to.

Bhatkal and even as far south as the west coast of. the Madras

Presidency where fish is obtained in much greater abundance than

off the Bombay coast; while in the north Jamnagar and even

Karachi might be brought within the field. This consummation

is not impossible of achievement. It will be the next inevitable

step, for there is an increasing tendency to construct larger vessels

to serve fishing sites where catches are cheaper and more abundant,

but which have not so far been touched for want of transport

facilities.

It is_a noted fact that the further south one goes the richer

and more profitable is the yield for readily saleable fishes, such as

mackerel and sardines, which move in great shoals and form the

bulk of the haul off the Malabar coast. This mainly accounts for

the high percentage of the yearly catch per fisherman in the Madras

Province. Some of the important fishing sites in the South Kanara

district (west coast of Madras Province) i.e. Malpe, Bokapatnam,

Calicut and Tanur are near Bhatkal, the southernmost point of the

Bombay Province. Malpe, Bokapatnam and Tanur are about 43, 78

and 200 miles respectively from Bhatkal. There is no reason why

fish from these ports in the Madras Province cannot be brought

to Bombay, as the possibility of the transport of fish in a fresh

condition from Bhatkal to Bombay has effectively been demon-

strated. The sine qua non, however, 1s larger launches, equipped

with higher powered engines, a small refrigeration plant and insulated

fish holds.

The use of- launches has not been an unmixed blessing. Their

operation has, to some extent, affected the prosperity of the fish

curing yards, of which there are 32 under’ the: control - of ie

Fisheries Section. While the launches have undoubtedly helped

to increase the supply of fish in the Bombay markets, they

have correspondingly diminished the quantity available for con-

sumption in the areas from which it is brought. The small

quantities of fish that find their way to the fish curing yards have

still further been reduced by the despatch of fish, in a fresh

condition, by bus and rail, to places in the interior where formerly

MARINE FISHERIES OF THE. PROVINCE OF BOMBAY 347

it was not available and where there is a regular demand for it.

The diminution in the supply to the fish curing yards has also

affected the fish curing industry. This is amply borne out by

the reduced quantities of salt sold at the fish curing yards (vide

Appendix 3). Whereas the sales of salt in 1935-6 amounted to about

80,000 mds. they declined in 1936-7, 1937-8 and 1938-9 to 56,000,

60,co0 and 62,000 mds. respectively. Moreover, people on the

Ratnagiri and Kanara coast who used to consume fresh fish are

now complaining of diminished supplies and exorbitant prices.

The improvement now effected in methods of transport by the

use of launches will not alone enable the fishing trade to take its

place as one of the major industries of the country. Increase in

the supply to Bombay has been effected by depriving the fish

curing yards and the coastal population of their former supplies.

If success in the use of launches as carriers is to be unqualified,

then fish must be caught in much more abundant quantities than

now. The launches have at present to make distant voyages to

obtain supplies of fish. (Fishing fields situated at Ratnagiri and

beyond, up to Bhatkal, are on average visited four times per

month). Not infrequently the launches have to remain for days

on end at the fishing fields, waiting for a big haul before returning

to Bombay. The larger catches on the Konkan coast are due less

to the efforts of the fishermen than to the fact that fish move in

abundant shoals towards the coast, where they are caught with

the Rapan nets. If shoals do not come in or are not sighted,

the fishermen conclude that no fish is available and they declare

the season to be a failure. Actually, so often happens, the

shoals may not approach near enough inshore to be caught with

Rapan nets, which can only be worked from the — shore.

Launches, however, if operated in conjunction with improved types

of nets, will be able to pursue shoals which are at present missed

because sailing boats cannot keep pace with them.

SEASONS AND STATISTICS.

6. It is a well-known fact that the fishing season starts more or

less simultaneously at all fishing centres in the Bombay Province,

l.e., immediately after the conclusion of the monsoon. The city of

Bombay obtains the bulk of its supply of fish in September and

October from the fishing fields situated in the vicinity of Bombay,

especially in the north. The fish caught here consists almost ex-

clusively of pomfrets. The presence of pomfrets entirely removes

whatever demand there may be for such fish as wagti, mandil,

dhoma, prawns, plaice, etc., which, meeting with scarcely any

demand in Bombay, are taken for disposal to villages adjacent

to the area where they are caught. They. are there dried or

converted into fish manure. Pomfrets at the height of the season

meron irom Re. 1 to Rs. 3 per score at the landing sites. The

demand for such prime fish as pala, bhing, surmai, kuppa, black

pomfrets is also insignificant during the pomfret season. The

period when catches of pomfret are greatest in the vicinity of

Bombay is from about the second week of September to about

348 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLI

the middle of November. Catches are heaviest usually at and

shortly after the spring tides of the first half of the lunar month

and diminish during and after the spring tides of the second

half.

Shoals of pomfrets gradually diminish after November, after

which there is a progressive decline in the quantity of fish caught.

the pomtret season py this time is practically at an end and very

small quantities are landed, and on account of their obvious scarcity,

they realize KS. 3 to Ks. 10 per score. Ghols, pala, vawas, surmar

etc., nOW appear in small quantities and in the absence of pomfrets

are in great demand. ‘lhis period of reduced catches, when

markets are barren of fish, lasts about three months (15th November

to 15th lkebruary) when any indifferent variety ot fish obtains

a price that is out of proportion -to its normal valué. he fallemm

ihe supply is not markea by a corresponding slackening in the

demana, which is uniformly constant througnout the year. An

increase in the supply of about 50 per cent auring the period will

present no duficulty in disposal.

/ A revival of fishing activities 1s again noticeable in March and

this continues up to May. Ghol, black pomfret, dara, surmai,

\ and bhing predominate among the fish caught. Ghol are avail-

able at KS. I0 per 20, aggregating goo lb. Jara is exclusively

available in the area north of Palghar, whence it is dispatchei

to Bombay. ‘lhe month of March really marks the commencement

of a second fishing season on our coast, which is not, however,

as-brisk as the pomfret season. It 1s -estimated that at time

period an addition of about 30-40 per cent to the available supply

could be absorbed easily by the consuming public in Bombay.

Supply from local sources is, of course, practically non-existent

during the monsoon, when the public contents itself with supplies

trom sarachi and such small quantities as the labours ot the

local fishermen can produce in spite of the handicaps of the in-

clement weather.

Conditions in the south of the Province, i.e., on the Konkan

and JKkanara coast, are not entirely dissimilar. Here, too, as in

the north, September marks the start of the fishing season, which

in some years reaches its height in October, in others, in November

and then at times in these very months precipitously drops almost

to the level at the start of the season.

A graph (Appendix 3) which is appended to this note bears out

the statement made above. The graph shows the quantities of

salt issued to the fish curing yards. On the basis of the sales of

salt, it is possible to arrive at some idea of the quantity of fish

landed, as on an average, one maund of salt is issued to cure

about four maunds of fish (1:4).

A reference to the graph will show that the quantity of salt

issued in June, July and August is practically on the border line,

and that it gradually takes an upward curve in September and

October, reaching its peak in November, after which it falls almost

abruptly in December to its initial level. Further, it will be noted

that the quantity of salt issued in October and November not

MARINE FISHERIES OF THE PROVINCE OF BOMBAY 349

only equals the aggregate amount of salt issued during the year

but also at times, as a matter of fact, exceeds it. Similarly, these

months see by far the biggest quantity of fish caught. The supplies

in other months are limited and scarcely equal the entire total

catch in October and November. ‘The fishing season on the Konkan

and Kanara coasts is at its ebb in February, from when onwards

there is a progressive decline in the quantities landed. This does

not mean that fish is not available, but that the fish at this time

of the year migrate into deeper waters, where the fishermen do

not venture at present on account of their frail, deckless fishing

craft and the small sized fishing gear used.

The termination of the fishing season on the Ratnagiri and

Kanara coast in March coincides with the beginning of the fishing

season off Palghar, Damaun and Diu (Kathiawar coast) in the

north and Harnai, Shrivardhan, Murud, Janjira, Mazagaon and

Nandgaon in the south. This season lasts up to the end of May,

the bulk of the catch off the Kathiawar coastal area being white

pomfrets and in the Janjira area black pomfrets. These are noted

tor their size and ensure for Bombay a supply of such fish as the

Bombay public welcomes.

In September the operation of the launches is confined almost

exclusively to the north of Bombay. They then take the utmost

advantage of the short fishing season there, and the large quantities

of white pomftrets available close by. As the end of the season

approaches the launches move south to the Konkan and Kanara

coasts, after which, in February, their sphere of operation is

transferred to Damaun and Diu in the north and the janjira area

in the south. Though the field of operations is wide, the total

annual catch transported by the launches is comparatively trivia!

and is not at all proportionate to the haul that one might have

expected from so extensive a coast-line as that of the Bombay

Province. Bombay’s supply of fish is thus precarious for the

major portion of the year and whatever semblance of steadiness

it possesses is due mainly to the launches, which to a considerable

extent make up the deficiency of supply that existed formerly. They

can shift their sphere of operations to the particular area, any-

where on the coast, where supplies of fish may be large for the

time being.

The type of work done by the launches is best illustrated by a

representative example. For this purpose the Lord Brabourne

has been selected and the relevant information is furnished in

Appendix 4. .

The total quantity of fish landed by the launches since the

inception of the experiment and the types of fish brought to Bombay

are enumerated in Appendices 5 and 6. Appendix 6 shows that

mackerel (Scomber macrolepidotus) ranks first in point of quantity.

The fish is popularly known throughout the Bombay coast by its

vernacular name ‘bangda’. It has a high food value, and is noted

for its nutritiveness and easy digestibility. Special reference 1s

made to the mackerel as it is usually scarce in Bombay waters.

The small supply of the fish which previously found its way into the

350 jOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. alah

Bombay markets was due not so much to the. sricmdee of the

fishermen, as to the fact that the shoals had somehow strayed from

their usual migratory course. In early winter, i.e. from the end

of September up to the middle of December, immense shoals of

mackerel seek our coasts, where they assemble from their mysterious

wanderings at sea. ‘lhousands ot fishermen all along the west

coasts ot both the Bombay and the Madras Presidencies depend

tor their livelihood on catches of this fish.

Prior to the introduction of the launches, owing to the meagreness

of the demand at the fishing sites, a minute fraction of the large

quantities caught was consumed fresh on the spot. The bulk of the

catch, whicn was-sold at a very trivial price, used to find its way

to the fish curing yards, where it was cured and salted to be

exported long afterwards for sale in Bombay and other places,

while a considerable quantity was converted into fish manure. As

a result, a first-class product was reduced to a third-class commodity.

Owing to the introduction of rapid long-range power transport,

mackerel and other fish are now brought in a fresh condition

to Bombay, where they find a ready sale and meet a real demand.

Large ana rich fishing fields have thus been brought within com-

paratively easy reach of the city.

Uther edible varieties of fish than those specified in the appendix

are also available, but are not brought to Bombay. People in

Bombay do not usually buy any fish beyond the regular types to

which they are accustomed. Such fish as dhoma, wagti, pedwa,

shingala, gegar, mandii and musi, for which there is very little

demand in bombay, are taken by sail boats to the fishing villages

for local consumption or for drying. Nevertheless, these despiseu

species are nutriuous, and if consumed more largely by the public

would greatly benefit our fishermen, who are often at their wit’s

end to supply the limited types of fish usually demanded by the

consuming public. No attempt has, hitherto, been made to make

known or popularize the numerous forms of fish available in Bombay

markets. Lnhis object will have to be kept in the forefront of any

programme to promote the fish trade in Bombay.

ihe report of transport operations would be incomplete without

reference to the process of dispatch from the fishing helds to the

landing site. No sooner is the fish taken aboard than gutting

operations begin. the abdomens of the larger fish such as dara,

gnol, iswan, etc.,-are slit open and. the viscera from the body

cavity are removed and thrown away. ‘ihe swim-bladders are

removed and laid aside tor later attention. These are sold in Bombay

separately to special traders who deal in them at a rate varying from

one to two annas each. They are exported to England and China,

where the product is utilized tor the manufacture of isinglass. The

gutted fish are washed with sea water and stored with their ventral

surface downwards, to facilitate the escape of water from the melting

crushed ice stuffed into the body cavity. Pomfrets, mackerel and

other small sized fish are not gutted ; they are simply stored in ice in

the holds. In storage, great care is taken, however, to ensure that

fish do not come into direct contact with the sides of the vessel as

MARINE FISHERIES OF THE PROVINCE OF BOMBAY 351

the heat transmitted from the sea outside causes softening of the

outer layers of fish. Liberal quantities of crushed ice are sprinkled

on the bottom and along the sides of the holds. The bottom of the

hold is spread over wath ice to a thickness of about 6 to 8 inches.

A layer of fish is’spread out on the ice. Fish and ice are then

arranged in alternate layers. Usually one pound of ice is allowed

for each pound of fish for a five-day voyage. The ice cools the

fish to 32° F and this temperature is maintained throughout the

voyage. The larger launches carry, per voyage, on an average,

about seven tons of ice. This ensures the perfect freshness of

the fish for about five days. Fish cargoes are landed at Sassoon

Dock, which is also extensively used by a large number of sailing

erait to land their catches.

ADVANTAGES OF POWER-PROPELLED BOATS.

7. (a) Cost of upkeep of launches.

die initial “expenditure im «respect of a launch is ‘heavy

owing chiefly to the cost of construction of the vessel and

the purchase and installation of the engine. Recurring expenditure

is, however, not excessive, representing mainly the purchase

of oil, stores and overhauling (vide Appendix 7). The ex-

penditure under the different heads is not as excessive as it seems,

and is more than made good by the increased number of voyages,

and the greater certainty of bringing large catches of fish to the

city, and by the greater loads they carry. Apart from the saving

in time comparatively much less labour is also employed in bring-

ing fish from the fishing sites. A carrier sail boat has to employ

about eight men, and is further assisted by two to four men in

small tonies stationed on the fishing grounds. These tonies take

over the catches from the fishing boats and transfer them to the

carrier sail boats.

A launch, on the other hand, is able to get alongside a fishing

boat with greater facility and rapidity than a sailing boat doing it.

Fishing pone which have contracted to supply fen catch to a

perrcilar launch, fly flags to differentiate them, at sight, from other

fishing boats fishing in the same locality.

(b) Greater cruising radius.

The greater cruising radius of the launches is their most

important advantage. Fishermen do not at present fish beyond

a radius of about 15 miles. Owing to the distance to be

traversed there is the fear that the fish may deteriorate by

the time it is brought ashore. Apart from their rapidity of

transport, the wider operations of the launches will encourage the

fishermen to venture beyond their present limited region of activity,

as they have the certain prospect of their fish being landed with

scarcely any risk of deterioration. Moreover, fish brought by

launches is more readily saleable, as there is a better demand for

it. The prices realized from the sale of fish transported by the

launches are higher than those obtained for fish brought by carrier

Sal sboats.

soo) JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL, HIST) SOCTE TY. Viol aul

Experience has shown that fish brought from distant landing

sites, even from a distance of 300 miles, by the launches is superior

in quality to the fish caught in close proximity to Bombay and even

to fish brought by train from Bhyandar, Virar, and other stations

on the B.B. & C.I. Railway, or by steamer and rail from Veraval

and Jamnagar, or by steamer from Karachi and by sail boats

from Diu. The reason is that fish transported by rail and sail

boats is usually caught about 10 to 15 miles off shore and

conveyed in open sail boats which lack storage and other facilities,

with the result that it deteriorates considerably in quality on

its way to the landing site. The fish is now auctioned and

several hours must elapse before the consignment is iced, packed

and taken to the railway station for dispatch to Bombay. A

few hours more are taken up by the journey, and further time

elapses before it 1s unpacked and auctioned to retail vendors and

eventually put up for sale in the Bombay market. It is estimated

than on an average at least 20 to 25 hours, if not more, elapse

between the time fish is caught at the fishing site and the time it

is put up for sale in Bombay. Fish brought from Karachi and

Diu takes much longer before it is put on the market counters.

There is no such inordinate delay with fish brought by the launches.

The catch is placed in ice as soon as it is caught and is transported

under specially conditioned means, i.e. properly protected fish holds

and insulated boxes. The cargo is never exposed to the sun and

is not handled so frequently as fish brought by steamer, rail and

sail boat.

Fishermen who formerly patiently waited the return of sailing

craft, now eagerly look forward to the more punctual arrival of

the launches which bring fish in a more fresh and wholesome

condition, yielding them greater profits.

Apart from augmenting the city’s supply of fish, the improve-

ment in methods of transport has also led to an improvement in

the economic condition of the fishermen working in areas formerly

outside the reach of the city’s markets. No longer dependent

on a fitful and scanty demand, .they now not only secure a profit-

able outlet for the catches but also obtain a better price for their

fish. Prior to the visits of the launches to their grounds 1,000

mackerel (approximately 200 Ib.) would fetch about Rs. 2, pu

the identical quantity now yields on an average about Rs. 7, and

sometimes as much as Rs, 13 when catches are small and the

general demand for fish in Bombay is great. Compared with

their conditions prior to the visits of the launches to their ports,

this is an immense gain to the fishermen, the capital value of

whose catches has heen advanced beyond a proportions.

Effective transport has also tended to increase activity at the

fishing sites particularly in the southern parts of the coast of

our province. The system of payments in ready cash introduced by

the launch owners has even tempted fishermen of the Madras Presi-

dency to invade our fishing fields. Fishermen from Malpe operated

MAKINE FISHERIES OF THE PROVINCE OF BOMBAY 353

vapan nets at Gangavali, Chendia, Kodar and Bingi. Their invasion

has led not only to a healthy element of competition but to

improvement in fishing methods since it has induced our fishermen

at Baitkhol (Karwar) to use the more effective rapan nets which

were formerly unknown there. There were 15 such nets. in use at

the close of the fishing season which ended on March 31, 1930.

Greater certainty of lucrative sales is also inducine fishermen to

strive for big catches, despite the obvious limitations of the primitive

fishing gear.

Users of rapan nets resorted to an original device to obtain

the fullest benefit from the launches. In the rapan net (shore

seine), which are worked from the shore a shoal of fish is surrounded

and dragged shorewards, but not landed. Advantage is now taken

of estuaries and creeks, wherever they exist, to keep the fish alive

in their natural habitat till the arrival of the launches. Fishermen

are thus enabled to demand and obtain their own price for the

catch, for if the bid of the first launch owner is below expectation,

me catch 1s not removed- from the water but kept -there till a

remunerative rate 1s obtained.

Evidence of the benefit conferred on fishermen in Karwar is

further furnished by the honorary organizer of Co-operative Societies

at Mayjali. He states in a letter addressed to this office that the

visits of the launches to places in Karwar are eagerly looked forward

to by the local fishermen, who were grateful to Government for the

introduction of the launches. They now take a keener interest

than previously in the pursuit of their trade, and feel that a period

of prosperity has set in for them. As evidence of this, the honorary

organizer reports that the fishermen have now paid in full to their

co-operative society dues which had been outstanding for the past

four years.

Improved transport has not only benefited inshore fisheries but

also fishing in deeper waters such as at Harnai, Shrivardhan, Murud,

Janjira, Mazagaon and Nandgaon. On account of the difficulty

experienced in landing their catches fresh in Bombay, fishermen from

these parts were formerly compelled to leave their own rich fishin

grounds and work in closer proximity to the city. They usually

migrated towards Bombay in April and May when black pomfrets

were in season. This tendency was arrested when the launches

started to serve these distant fishing sites. Fishermen (about 4o

boats) who had established their temporary base at Sassoon Dock

(Bombay) promptly left and returned to their native fishing grounds,

having arranged with the launches to take over their catches. This

move was beneficial. The assurance that their fish would be ex-

peditiously transported to Bombay has led them to fish for longer

hours at night. They now often remain longer at the fishing fields.

Similarly, the extension of the sphere of operations of the launches

to Damaun benefited the fishermen there. Prior to the appearance

of the launches in those waters the fishermen went out about 20

miles to sea in quest of dara and remained at the fishing site for

about 1o days at a stretch. To prevent decomposition fish caught

were salted at sea. Since the arrival of the launches their catch is

oo4 JOURNAL, “BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIET Yo avo). mec

taken over immediately and brought to Bombay in a fresh condition.

This is an undoubted piece of good fortune to the local fishermen

who are now free from the harassing anxiety of curing their fish

at sea. The launches now provide both ready custom and also

ready cash.

The surplus yields have given more employment to fishermen and

fisherwomen and to those who furnish the crew of the launches,

not to mention the large number of coolies and motor lorries which

are engaged in the transport of a perishable commodity.

Indirect interests, like the Bombay Port Trust, Municipal markets,

fuel suppliers and insurance companies have also profited from the

large quantities of fish now brought to Bombay.

The example of the benefits accruing to the fishing trade through

improved methods of transport has also influenced parallel develop-

ment in trade other than fisheries. The conversion of sailing craft

into power-propelled vessels by the installation of diesel engines has

begun to find vogue in other commercial ventures. The Bombay

Steam Navigation Company built the Noor-Jahan and equipped her

with a 50 B.H.P. Diesel engine. ‘She is being used along “the

coastal ports for the transport of merchandise other than fish.

Another private owner built a vessel named Hilda equipped with

a 25 B.H.P. Diesel engine for the same purpose. Two vessels, the

Takadevi and the Mandwa Queen, equipped with 18 and 36 B.H.P.

engines respectively were built by another company for the carriage

of passengers between Bombay and Mandwa and _ intermediary

ports. Besides these, there are now other smaller vessels, similarly

equipped and used for the transport of passengers. All the above-

mentioned vessels were designed and constructed wholly by Indian

boat-wrights. A considerable fillip has thus been given to the

boat-building industry.

(d) Growth of refrigerating facilities.

Larger supplies of fish made available by the launches have induc-

ed the flow of private capital into channels intimately bound up with

the fishing trade. Several ice factories and cold storage plants have

sprung up. ‘Two ice factories and cold storage plants have since

been set up at Malwan, on the Ratnagiri coast, and Chendia on

the Karwar coast. In Bombay quick freezing plant employing the

Z-process has been installed by a Russian technician at the Kermani

market at De Lisle road (Bombay) and.an ice factory and a cold

storage plant have been constructed on the east side of the Crawford

market (Bombay). <A feature of the last plant is that it has a

number of small chambers which are hired out at small fees either

to one individual or to several collectively. This plant also provides

for the quick freezing of fish.

During the current year an ice factory and a quick freezing and

storage plant were set up at Sassoon Dock (Bombay) where all the

launches, both Government and private, land ‘their catches. This

factory and cold storage plant have met a long-felt want and proved

an undoubted boon both to fishermen and owners of launches and

sailing craft. It has obviated the need of obtaining ice from remote

MARINE FISHERIES OF THE PROVINCE OF BOMBAY 399

centres in the city, thus saving a good deal of time and expenditure.

The existence of the cold storage plant at the Dock is a welcome

facility to the fishermen, who are now able to store catches at any

hour of the day or night when retail vendors are not on the spot.

The resources and facilities for cold storage are thus brought

within the reach of even the most petty trader. The establishment

of ice factories and quick freezing plants provides striking evidence

of the increasing realization by the public of the importance of the

fish trade as an avenue for the investment of capital. Another

advantage is that fish caught when supplies are plentiful can be

stored fresh for ready sale to the public in the monsoon when

supplies are low and the demand has to be met to a large extent

by imports of indifferent quality from Karachi.

All the capital for the ice factory and cold storage plant,

amounting to over Rs. 5,00,000, has been furnished by private

enterprise.

APPRENTICE SCHEME.

8. One of the most conspicuous features of the scheme is the

opening out of a new avenue of employment to youths of the fishing

community. An important consideration was to train youths as

mechanics to operate the launches. Wiauith this end in view an

apprenticeship scheme was started. Lads from the fishing com-

munity are now being trained in the operation and maintenance of

motor launches to enable them to take charge of their own launches.

The number of apprentices so far trained is 17 of whom six have

passed the examination and obtained the necessary certificate from

the mercantile marine department. These boys have been in regular

employment on Government launches ever since they successfully

qualified at their examination. The work of the apprentices has

been quite satisfactory. They have shown constant zeal and

devotion to duty. Besides improving their material prospects, the

scheme has thus also served to open a new sphere of employment

to the fishing community. Experience has shown that the work

of a mechanic aboard a fishing vessel is extremely arduous and

fatiguing, and calls for great powers of endurance. Machanics

recruited from classes other than the fishing community are not

able to stand up to the strain of continuous service at sea.

CONCLUSION.

9. The foregoing makes it clear that the objects underlying

Government’s experiments, namely, the popularization, by actual

demonstration, of launches for the transport of fish and an increase

in the city’s supply of fish, have been amply fulfilled (vide Appendix

s). The increase in supplies is undoubted and is forcefully borne out

by a comparison with the figures quoted by Dr. H. T. Sorley, in

his report on the Marine Fisheries of the Bombay Presidency.

His survey disclosed that the city’s supply of fish annually amounted

to 10,000 tons. The latest statistics show that the fish brought

by the launches to Bombay during a short fishing season in

856 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOC DYG "Viol piel

1938-39 totals about 700 tons over and above Dr. Sorley’s figures.

The city’s supply of fish has thus been increased by about seven

per cent in five years which, in view of the inveterate prejudices

and ingrained conservatism of the fishermen to any reforms, is no

small achievement.

As far as direct increase in supply is concerned the experiment

with launches for the transport of fish in our waters has been more

successful than the experiment with the trawler William Carrick,

which the Government of Bombay brought out in 1923. In 36

voyages, over a period of nine months, this vessel caught 188,138

lb. of fish, of which 152,875 lb. were landed for sale in Bombay,

the remainder being disposed of at Karachi. The entire sale pro-

ceeds amounted to Rs. 19,350. One of the launches during seven

months of the fishing season of 1938-39 brought to Bombay

453,943 lbs. of fish, which realized an aggregate of Rs. 34,683.

The work of the launch differs in one respect from that of the

trawler, for while the former merely transports, the latter also

catches fish. The comparison, however, has its point in one import-

ant respect. Fish landed either by launch or trawler would, in the

normal course of events, never have found its way to the Bombay

markets. These results indicate that launches are, at present, more

remunerative than trawlers and that under existing conditions even

their bare use as carriers, is productive of better results. It is

not suggested that there is no scope for trawling in our

waters. Prevailing conditions indicate that the introduction of

trawlers would at the moment be premature. Trawling must

follow an intensive study and exploration of the field. We must

know a great deal more about the movements and periodicity of fish

in our local waters before we launch on such a costly enterprise.

Trawling is bound to be hampered by certain inherent defects

peculiar to our type of fisheries. I do not intend to suggest that

I am opposed to trawling, which is indeed an invaluable and

effective method of ensuring big catches, but there seems to be

an erroneous belief that trawling is an ‘open sesame’ that will at

once unlock to our fishermen the treasures of the deep.

The view that increased supplies are synonymous with ‘trawling’

is borne out by the examples of the Bengal, Madras and Bombay

administrations, all of which have at some time or the other,

invested in trawlers as a means of augmenting supplies. This view

is founded on the mistaken belief that a trawler rakes in every

form of life below or on the surface of the water in which it is

operated. This is not so.. A trawler operates on the floor of the

sea bed, and the upper levels of the sea abounding with valuable

surface forms entirely escape the trawl. That valuable fisheries

can be established and maintained without trawlers has not at all

been realized in this country.

Trawling is but an advanced, though expensive, stage of fisheries

and should be resorted to only after exhaustive exploitation of other

cheaper and less elaborate methods, none of which have ever been

considered worthy of trial in our waters. A method extensively

employed both on the Asiatic and American sea-boards of the

MARINE FISHERIES OF THE PROVINGE OF BOMBAY 345 0/

Pacific Ocean is the ‘Purse seine’. Fishing by the purse-seine 1s

not only economic but also yields large catches. Pelagic fish,

according to present conditions, are ultimately the most remunerative

products of the sea. We must turn our attention to our most

remunerative harvests, the shoals of pelagic species such as mackerel,

sardine, pedwa, pomfrets, pala, bhing which command an instant

market. The purse-seine is one of the most effective types of net

for the capture of these pelagic forms and can be adapted most

conveniently to our requirements. The ‘purse-seine’ is not unlike

our native ‘vapan’, on which it may be considered an improvement.

The working principle of the ‘rapan’ and the ‘purse-seine’ is identical,

with this difference that the former is operated from the shore,

and dependent therefore on the appearance of shoals of fish in the

relatively shallow waters of our harbours and estuaries while the

latter is employed at sea, being designed for the capture of shoals

moving in deeper waters. The ‘purse-seine’, whose measurements

range from 200 to 400 fathoms in length and 30 to 50 fathoms in

depth would be ideal for use off the North and South Kanara coast,

where immense shoals of sardines and mackerel appear annually.

Its use would bring about a decided change for the better in the

development of our fisheries.

The Gill net (drift net), with different sized meshes for the

capture of different varieties of fishes, equally offers promise of

good results. Gill nets are not unknown in our waters. They are,

however, comparatively small, measuring, as a rule, half-a-mile in

length and usually about 12 feet in width, whereas gill nets in use

in Europe and America are over three miles long and 4o feet wide.

The dimensions of the Indian net must of needs be smaller as they

are worked by man-power, whereas in Europe and America vessels

are equipped with special power-driven machinery to lift the

extensive stretches of net. A gill net is really a wall of nettine

hanging vertically in the water, set either to capture fish moving

about in the regions nearer the surface or sunk low enough to

capture those which swim at deeper levels.

Another useful net which may be used with success in our waters

is the ‘Danish seine’, which is a simpler and cheaper form of the

trawl. A recommendation for the introduction of this net in our

waters was put forward by Mr. A. E. Hefford, in his report on

the work of the Steam Trawler ‘William Carrick’. He gives a

detailed description of the ‘Danish seine’ and its potentialities. The

‘Danish seine’ is capable of catching as much fish, and not infre-

quently more than a trawl net. The initial cost of equipping a

vessel with a ‘Danish seine’ is only one-fourth of the cost of fitting

out a steam trawler, and a vessel capable of working this gear can

be built and completely equipped at about one-tenth of the cost of

a steam trawler, while the crew 1s about half that required for a

trawler.

Bombay is in a singularly fortunate position for the introduction

of improved types of nets. The operation of the launches has

conclusively shown that fish may be transported in excellent con-

dition from anywhere on our extensive coast line to Bombay. The

358 JOURNAL; BOMBAY NATURAL, AUST ..<SOCIELY, “Vol, Oekl

adaptation of launches for actual fishing, besides their present use

as carriers, would imply a further and considerable advance in the

economic status of the fishermen, for the use of power-propelled

vessels, together with new contrivances for fishing, cannot but

render the calling of fishermen more fruitful. It will free ‘them

from their utter dependence “on the ‘eleménts, will ‘extend “them

limited sphere of their operations and provide results which cannot

be expected from the primitive type of craft and tackle now in

use.

The Province of Bombay is constantly faced with the problem

of supplying fish to that large section of its population with

whom it forms a regular item of diet. That section would con-

siderably increase if fish were made available in quantities which

would ensure cheapness of price. If the city of Bombay, with its

transport and marketing facilities, is deficient of supplies the mofussil

towns are even more so. There is no reason for the continuance of

these conditions, particularly in a maritime Province whose extensive

sea-board is abundantly stocked with fish, equal in many instances

in food and sale values to the best obtainable in any part of the world.

The present supplies are not only far below the potential but even

below the actual demand. Adjustment of supplies to demand is

our problem.

Apart from meeting the market demand, increased supplies of

fish will also lead to the establishment of several profitable ancillary

industries, such as manure, fish meal, fish guano, fish maws and

the manufacture of fish oil, and fish glue. The Bombay Province,

despite its extensive sea-board, cannot boast of a single factory

for the manufacture of these useful, saleable products. The demand

is great, but the scarcity of raw material renders their manufacture

impossible. In this respect Bombay lags far hehind the Madras

Presidency, which during 1936-37 had 103 factories for the manu-

facture of manure by-products, and during 1927-28 produced 100,000

tons of fish guano, valued at about Rs. 70,00,000. As against this

the fish annually caught in the Bombay Province including Sind

averages 50,000 tons and realizes only Rs. 80,00,000 as a primary

product.

Other activities which will be stimulated by an increased yield

of fish will be the rope-making industry, the manufacture of nets,

and boat-building. There will also be the demand for an increased

output of ice. Larger numbers of women and men will be needed

to handle increased catches. More work will be provided for

coopers, hawkers, ice vendors, packers and so on, the bulk of whom

will be recruited from the fishing community.

What efficient methods can do for the welfare of the fishing com-

munities is well illustrated by the example of Japan. This country

in 1919 had a fishing fleet of 3,933 power-propelled vessels, which

by 1936 rose to 62,169. Japan’s progress has been phenomenal.

As in Bombay, the industry in Japan was first dependent entirely on

sailing craft. It was only after the replacement of -sailine craft

by power-propelled vessels that the fishing industry was entirely

transformed and came to occupy a leading place in the nation’s

MARINE FISHERIES OF THE PROVINCE OF BOMBAY 359

economy. With a coast line less than that of India and many

European countries, Japan now occupies a rank in the fore-

front of the world’s fisheries. Sailing vessels there are being

gradually replaced by power-propelled vessels equipped with every

modern tacility for catching fish and preparing it for the market by

freezing, treating and canning it aboard. The number of sailing

boats declined from 380,577 in 1919 to 308,541 in 1935.

The explorations of our coastal waters by the ‘Investigator’ and

the work of the various trawlers that have from time to time been

employed by the Provincial Governments, and the investigations of

the recent john Murray Expedition to the Indian Ocean, conclusively

show that the Arabian Sea is as prolific of life as the North Atlantic

Ocean or the English Channel. IShere is no reason, therefore, why

analogous results, proportionate to the resources available, should

not be achieved in Bombay.

No review of the progress of the work carried out by the fisheries

section will be complete without a reference to yet another

serious handicap from. which the fishing industry in bombay now

sulters, 1.e. the lack of a regular fishing dock equipped with coniri-

vances used in leading fishing ports elsewhere in the world, tor

the expeditious landing and conveyance of catches to the various

consuming centres, both retail and wholesale.

Ktrorts to develop and modernize our ishing industry are now

hampered by atificulties arising from the want of adequate port

faciuues. Lhe absence of a suitable landing site or sites tor fish

in Bombay adversely affects the quick landing and dispatch of fish

to the markets in tne city. ‘lheir provision is fundamental to any

attempt to improve and develop the fishing trade. Our fishing cratc

should be able to leave or enter port at any stage of the tide.

Unaer the conditions prevailing nushing vessels, both launches

and sailing cratt, are unable to leave and enter port when the

tide is out. ‘Lhe result is that the owners of these vessels not

intrequently miss the busiest and most lucrative hour in the

market. oth the quality of the catch and prices are thus adversely

aitected. Further, the serious extent to which the lack of efficient

docking facilities interferes with the movements of the fishing vessels,

especially the launches, 1s not generally realized. ‘They cannot be

loaded with ice, Diesel oil, or other necessary material so long as

they rest on the floor of tne basin. ‘his reduces the eftectiveness

of power vessels, and involves loss of time and the consequent

curtailment of voyages pertormed during the season,

Even places where fish have been traditionally landed have no

special facilities for unloading catches at low tide when fishermen

have to run up and down between the boats and the shore, carrying

their loads on their heads. These drawbacks can only be overcome

by the provision of better docking facilities. The increased use of

launches on our coast has brought this problem to the forefront.

If power transport is to prove the success it is designed to pew it

is imperative that the provision of adequate docking facilities be

not delayed any longer.

Vol. Deni

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY,

360

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PB)

Name of the

launch

Shelmari

Original

‘ Lady Sykes’

“Sir Frederick

Sykes’

* Hydari’

* Lady Brabourne ”

‘Cymbria’

‘Lord Brabourne’

‘ Chandtara’

‘ Nooremohomedi’

Year of

construction

APPENDIX I

we ———e_FrQvK————————_______

Tonnage and

cost of complete

vessel

Engine B. H. P.

and speed

Name of owner

Remarks

1933

24 ft. in length

Not known

1934

35’ x 10’ x 4’ 9”

1934

35’ x10’ x 4”—9” |

1934

1936

42’ x11’ x 57-3”

Not known

1937

45’ x11’ x 5’-6”

1937

46’-9” x10)’ x8’

1928

Not known

Rs. 1,900

| 4-17

| Rs. 13,000

Engire

| Hull and

| other

equipment 7,550

| 4:93

Rs. 12,600

5,450

Engine

Hull and

other

equipment 6,690

6-06

5,640

Rs. 8,000

8-99

Rs. 19,800

Engine

Hulland

other

equipment 9,850

9,950

Not known

Rs. 40,000

7:83

Rs. 23,000

Engine

Hull and

other

equipment 13,185

9,815

Rs. 18,000

Engine

Hull and

other

equipment 6,000

12,000

Not known

Rs. 22,000

Engire 14,000

Hullete. 8,000

Rs. 3,500

Engine 2,200)

Hull 1,300 §

10 B.H.P. Diesel

Engine (Krom-

hout).

6 knots

14 B.H.P. Petrol

Engine.

66 knots

28°5 B.H.P. Diesel

Engine (Gard-

ner)

7°24 knots

38 B.H.P. Diesel

Engine (Lister)

8:34 knots.

25 B.H.P. Diesel

Krupp Engine

52 B.H.P. Diesel

Engine (Ruston

Lister)

8°32 knots.

90 B.H.P. Diesel

Not known

57 B.H.P. Diesel

Engine Gardner

(with insulated

hold) 8:23

52 B.H.P. (Rusten

Hornsby)

Notknown

70 B.H.P. Engine

(Ruston Hornsby)

Not known

Messrs. Patil &

Bhika

R.LN.

Department of

Industries.

Messrs. Hamid

& Co.

Department of

Industries

Messrs. Hamid &

Co., Bombay

Department of

Industries

Mr. Abubakar

Hussein Saheb

Thakur

Originally belonged to

|the Burmah Shell Oil Co. Ltd.,

who converted a fishing craft

| into a power propelled boat.

Borrowed from

|for demonstration

| Returned in 1934,

the R.I.N.

purposes.

| Sold on hire purchase system

|to Messrs. Patil & Bhika. Built

at Messrs. Alcock Ashdown

| & Co.

Do. do.

Sold on hire purchase sys(em

to Messrs. Jagannath S. Parkar

& Go. Built at Messrs. Alcock

Ashdown & Co,

Old trawler brought cut by

Mr. P. Schulze. It was con-

verted into a fish carrier in

1936-37. She grounded off the

rocks at Colaba and became a

total wreck in 1938.

Sold on hire purchase system

to Messrs. Jagannath S. Parker

& Co, Built at R. I. N. Dock-

yard.

Built at Vijaydurg.

Built at Bassein.

098

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Depart ment of Innustries

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| aeee ees

O |

@ 35.000 a

. DIST.

DEPRAATMENT OF INOUSTRIES.

BOMBAY.

Sales of salt at the fish curing

S. B, SETNA—MARINE FISHERIES OF BOMBAY.

25000

oe eee

Sales ap SaLT AT THE 82 Fish

1982-33, 33734, 37-3

| 20000

OS OF MDS OF

Curing yrs.in

15 000

10000

NOUGAMI S oF} DS. OF Sal [82/Les:]

Equivalent CATCH a yoeeuer

2EPART MENT OF INDUSTRIES.

| Bomeay

Sales of salt at the fish curing yards and the equivalent in thousands of maunds of Fish available at these yards.

MARINE FISHERIES OF THE PROVINCE OF BOMBAY 363

APPENDIX 4

‘LORD BRABOURNE’

Giving details of the number of voyages inade by the vessel, its destination,

wt. of fish transported, the number cf miles covered on each voyage and the

total number of working hours.

a Sy | 2 | ¢ @2° ae

Bok | ea. | aap gio wls

> | ‘Sp S }u 2c | Name of fishing site | 8 : BF IZ 5 a x Remarks

eo) 263 | oa | Ge SSE BE

5 o Ho (o) AL) 5

g A = uc fat iS Sc) oO,

1 94-38 3,580 | Devgad aus 810 84-15

2| 10-4-38 I730°) Janjira - 100 11-40

3} 11-4-38 494 Do. oe 100 We 35

4 16-4-38 | 11,885 | Dahanu ee 120 35-30

5) 19-4-38 | No fish} Murud and Nand-

gaon = 110 12-55 On account

of rough sea

no fish avail-

| able.

6 | 27-4-38 2,026 | Devgad | OOO. 48-10

7 | 28-4-38 2,668 | Janjira ae hee 0) 12-40

8 | 29-4-38 | 1,291 | Nandgaon sal) 12-30

NS) 2-5-38 837 | Hernai ae 144 30-45

10 4—5-38 112 | Revdanda a 64 16-55

1a 5-5-38 3,530 | Nandgaon re ama B16) 12— 0

12 7-5-38 4,150 | Do. a 110 21-35

3 8-5-38 683 | Shrivardhan ..| 140 16- 0

14 10-5-38 1,820 | Revdanda ae 32 15- 0

15 | 17-5-38 455 | Shrivardhan ee 140 1615.7

16 | 185-38 2,800 Do. ..| 140 16-55

17 | 19-5-38 1,645 Do. ae 140 1¢€-45

18 ; 20-5-38 6,450 Do, = 140 16--25

19 | 21-5-38 2,800 | Do. = 140 16-15

20 | 22-5-38 560 Do. - 140 16-55 |

aN 990 | Shrivardhan a 140 16- 0

22 | 3- 7-38 675 | Dharamtar . 21 5- 0

23.) 4- 7-38 803 Do. 21 5- 0

24 | S— 7-38 1,530 Do. 21 5-10

25 | 6- 7-38 1,080 Do, | 4-30)

26 | 7— 7-38 195 Do. 2a 4-45

27 | 9 7-38 290 Do; 21. 5- 0

28 | 14— 7-38 341 Do. 2) 4— ()

29 | 16- 7-38 1,000 Do. 21 4-10

30 | 17- 7-38 1,100 Do. 21 5

31 | 18- 7-38 725 Do. on 9

32 | 22- 7-38 455. Do. | 4-15

33 | 26- 7-38 296 | Do. 21 4-5

at!

464. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLi

APPENDIX 4—(contd.)

o oO! — —

5 =a ae Saas! sowmaad

>| os “a |Name of fishing site) 2 O° BIAS 5 8! Remark

+ 58 LF g Od |F-g 2 marks

oa) aaenies ore eaSSigtsh

o| aka Ss gia cess cea:

Z| 22 e a a

1 S- 9-38 | 19,800 | Devgad 386 60-15

2 | 11- 9-38 4,730 | Ratnagiri 333 44

3 | 25-10-38 5,710 | Malwan 456 66-54

4 | 17-10-38 3,616 | Diu 378 56-45

5 | 23-10-38 3,700 | Malwan 422 58-45 | She went to

6 | 28-10-38 Diu and return-

ed empty.

7 2-11-38 12,098 Karwar 596 76-15

8) 5-11-38 | 9,030) Karwar, Majali 574 70-15

9 | 15-11-38 | 11,100 | Karwar, Bingi 570 79-20

10 | 20-11-38 | 16,500 Do. 679 84-39

11 | 24-11-38 | 16,210 Do. 974 75-30

12 | 29-11-38 | 16,900 | Karwar, Devgad ...) 560 76-15 |

13 | 4-12-38 | 17,300 | Bingi, Karwar and |

Devgad 560 72

14 8-12-38 | 16,300 | Karwar, Majali 565 75-59

15 | 12-12-38 | 16,500 | Karwar 044 70-45

16 | 16-12-38 | 16,500 | Karwar, Bingi 569 Ta

17 | 22-12-38 | 16,000 | Karwar, Kajubag...| 544 71-45

18 | 28-12-38 | 15,230 | Karwar, Devgad ...| 577 73

19 1-1-39 | 16,700 | Karwar, Bingi 561 Ue

20 5-1-39 | 17,000 | Karwar 664 76

21 | 11-1-39 | 18,300 | Karwar, Majali 564 74

22 | 14-1-39 | 19,500 | Majali, Karwar 469 71

23 19-1-39 | 18,000 | Karwar 544 ipl

24 24~1-39 | 18,000 | Karwar 544 78

20 1-2-39 | 11,550 | Malwan, Devgad 754 98

26 8-2~39 | 13,000 | Karwar ay 485 67

27 28-2-39 | 11,000 | Chendia, Bingi and

Karwar ee 600 74

28 | 11-— 3-39| 10,000 | Karwar 560 69

29 | 20- 3-39 9,299 | Bilimora 200 62

30 | 25- 3-39 3,645 | Daman 180 7,

31 | 28- 3-39 2,620 | Shrivardhan 140 15-45

32 | 30- 3-39 909 Do. 140 16

445,733 19,434 | 2,689-40

MARINE FISHERIES OF THE PROVINCE OF BOMBAY

APPENDIX 5

365

Statement of amount of fish landed by the launches since the first

fishing season after the inception of the experiment.

1933-34

1934-35

| 1935-36

Name of launch 1936-37 | 1937-38 | 1938-39

; |

Shelmari Figures

not

available ore

Lady Sykes 2,662

(Original)

Lady Sykes Ji, 723 69,840 | 132,987 Sl Sl, 7 ely oa

Sir rederick Sykes 74,402 ; 59,116 92,998 | 59,842 21,075

Hydari not :

available 66,749 ) 80,793

Cymbria saa) 122,580 }

Lady Brabourne | 110,490 | 218,694 | 319,637 | 300,350

Chandtara | 93,400 | 243,157

Lord Brabourne 67,168 | 465,733

Nooremohamedi he a 270,763

Sea Hawk eee 70,559

Karimi ea 6,714

B.S. N. Co’s | |

steamers 154,560 |. 103,260 50,2504) 152,480

2,662 | 320,685 | 409,446 647,929 743,944 | 1,729,162

Total for five years = 3,384,616* Ib.

* These figures do not inciude fish brought by the B.S. N. Company’s

steamers.

led

Vol.

BOMBAY NATURAL HIST.

JOURNAL,

366

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MARINE FISHERIES OF THE PROVINCE OF BOMBAY 367

APPENDIX 7

Approximate cost of upkeep and operation of a launch with a carrying

capacity of 10,000 to 12,000 lb. of fish and

with a 60 B.H.P. engine.

WORKING CHARGES PER MONTH

Wages per month

Details of crew

Other communities | Fisherfolk*

One Mechanic ves Rs. 60 p.m. Rs. 30 to 40 p.m.

Lindal ar DOK Gs - 25 tOr00 e.

», Khalasi a 9, 80) 5; » dd ”

Seven crew @ Rs. 15 ies Peon: 7 LOS a

Total per month ... 3 2 5; oy el oto 290

RS A P

ltem

750i 0

1. To cost of crew wages Pee eas Bae

Ze Do. feeding crew 100 O 0

3. Cost of fuel oil at 160 gallons per voyage ‘and 5 trips

per month (160« 5) = 800 gallons at Rs. 65 per ton. 217 0 0

4. Cost of lubricating oil at 3 gallons 2s voyage and

5 voyages per month (3 x 5) = 15 x 2°75 per

gallon 41 0 0

5. Cost of small stores, ‘ete. ee 20 0 O

6. Wharfage on ice and oil and basin rent... 30 0 0

7: Do. ice for storing fish during transport to

Bombay. Consumption of ice is 5 tons per voyage

(cost of ice is Rs. 10 per ton) and 5 voyages es

month.. 250 0 0

8. Insurance "charges per month at 23 % premium on

Rs, 20,0€0 at. 42 0 0

9. Interest and Depreciation charges at 6% ‘Interest and

10% Depreciation on Rs. 20,000 he nie 20/-20 750

10. Maintenance, storage, painting and repairs oe 67 0 0

Total working charges per month ... 1,209 0 0

hese belong to the fishing community and have qualified for their work

under the special apprenticeship scheme of this department. They assist in

the collection, gutting, icing and storing of fish in the holds and in Bombay in

the unloading and sale of fish,

368° JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLI

The launches make on an average five voyages per month when

they operate between Bombay and the fishing fields off Ratnagiri,

Karwar and Daman. Daily voyages are made to the fishing fields

which lie off Dharamtar, Revdanda, Alibag, Murud, etc. in the

south, and Danda, Versova, Manori, Bhyander, Bassein, etc. in the

north.

Tons of fish landed per month for 5 voyages.

Average cost of transporting one ton of fish.

Average cost of transporting one Ib. of fish to

Bombay from the fishing sites off the Kanara coast. 5 pies.

20 tons.

Rs. 60-8-o.

MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS PLANTS OF INDIA:

FLACOURTIADS, PITTOSPORADS, MILKWORTS, SEAHEATHS,

PURSLANES, TAMARISKS.

1; i. CAIUS, “S-3., E-Les;

The FLacourTIACE are trees or shrubs inhabiting tropical and

subtropical regions. They are arranged in 70 genera with about

500 species.

The seeds of some of the members yield fatty oils which are

used with some success in the treatment of leprosy and other skin

diseases. Narcotic and anthelmintic properties are also found in

this Order.

The following have been isolated :—(1) alcohols—phytosterols— ;

(2) acids—hydrocyanic, linolic, palmitic, linolenic, isolinolenic, oleic,

chaulmoogric, hydnocarpic—; (3) glucosides—gynocardin—; (4)

enzymes—gynocardase—.

The medicinal and poisonous Flacourtiads of the world belong

to 14 genera:—APpuLoia (South Africa, Madagascar, Mascarenes) ;

ASTERIASTIGMA (India); CALONCOBaA (tropical Africa); DIONCOPHYL-

LuM (tropical Africa); FLacourtTia (tropical Asia and Africa) ;

GyNocarRDIA (India); Homartium (Tropics); Hypnocarpus (Indo-

malayan region); ONcosa (tropical America and Africa; Madagas-

car); Pancium (Malay Archipelago); ScoLopia (warm regions);

TARAKTOGENOS (Malaya); TRIMERIA (Southern and tropical Africa) ;

XyLosma (Tropics).

The medicinal and poisonous Flacourtiads of India belong to

6 genera:—ASTERIASTIGMA, FLACOURTIA, GyYNOCARDIA, HypNo-

CARPUS, PANGIUM, TARAKTOGENOS.

A. Petals absent, disc present; fruit baccate .»- FLACOURTIA.

B. Petals present, with an adnate scale or basal appendage.

I etals 5,

a. Sepals connate; stamens very many ... GYNOCARDIA.

Dy Sepals -ireé= 55 stamens 5 ... HYDNOCARPUS.

2. Petals 5-6; sepals connate in a_ tube; stamens

fee 2OutOne25 as PANGIUM.

3- Petals 8; sepals free 4; stamens 20 to 30 ... LARAKTOGENOS.

4. Petals 12-16; sepals imbricate 4; stamens 60-70 .... ASTERIASTIGMA.

ASTERIASTIGMA.

The sole species, Asteriastigma macrocarpa Bedd., is a large

tree found in the sholas or evergreen forests of Mysore, Tinnevelly

and Travancore from about 1,000 to 4,000 feet.

370 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, ‘Vol. XL!

The oil from the seeds is believed to be a valuable medicine.

Canarese: Doddasurante—; English: Cannonball Tree—; Malayalam :

Aileyam, Vellananga—; Tamil: Vellainangu—.

FLACOURTIA.

This genus numbers 15 species distributed over tropical Asia

and Africa.

The following are used medicinally in Indo-China—F. cataphr-

acta Roxb.—; in La Reunion—F. cataphracta Roxb., F. Ramontchi

L’Herit.—; in Madagascar—F. Ramontchi. L’Herit.,.F. seprara

Roxb.—; in Gold Coast—F. flavescens Willd.—.

A. Thorns not bearing flowers and fruit.

1. Drupe size of a plum, purple when ripe 1. Ma cataphracion

2. Drupe size of a pea. Stigmas 5-11 ... . 2. F. Ramontchy:

B. Thorns bearing flowers and_ fruit ae 10 “8. ie Seplaiga:.

1. Flacourtia cataphracta Roxb. is found in Kumaon, Orissa,

Lower Bengal, Assam and Chittagong, whence it spreads to the

Malay Peninsula and the Malay Archipelago.

Yunani practitioners often prescribe the bark and leaves, while

Ayurveda doctors seem to favour the use of the fruit.

The bark, macerated in cold water, is given in Behar for the

relief of hoarseness. A decoction is used in Lakhimpur for the

treatment of biliousness; and it is much employed in La Reunion

as an astringent and diuretic.

The leaves are said to have diaphoretic properties.

The leaves and young shoots taste like rhubarb, and are supposed

to possess astringent and stomachic properties; they are pre-

scribed in diarrhoea, weakness, and consumption.

The fruit is recommended as useful in bilious conditions and,

like most acid fruits, it no doubt relieves the nausea and checks

the purging.

Arabic: Talisfir, Zarnab—; Bengal: Beunch, Paniala—; Bombay: Jaggam,

Jangama, Tambath—; Burma: Naydwed, Naywe—; Canarese: Chankali,

Goraji, Kirinelli, Talisapatri—; Dehra Dun: Jamnua, Pachnala—; French:

Prunier d’Inde—; Gujerat: Talispatra—; Hindi: Paniala, Panialah, Pania-

malak, Paniaunvola, Talispatri—; Indo-China: Bo quan, Mu cuon, Mung

quan—; Kadir: Saralanka—; Konkani: Jagomi—; La Reunion: Prune

malgache—; Malayalam: WKanji, Talisam, Vayukattan—; Marathi: Tambat—;

Persian: Talispatar—; Portuguese: Mamonga—; Sanskrit: Ahini, Kalameshi,

Khadiraparni, Paniyamalaka, Prachinamalaka, Talishapatra, Varibadaram,

Vidara—; Saora: Kuski, Kusus, Mullumanu—; Sinhalese: Ratangwassa, Rata

uguressa—; Tagalog: Bitanhol—; Tamil: Saralu, Talisam, Talisapatri,

Vayangarai—; Telugu: Kuragayi, Talisapatramu—; Tulu: Koraji—; Uran:

Paniyara—; Urdu: Tulispatar—; Uriva: Baincha, Panionla—.

2. Flacourtia Ramontchi L’Herit. is common throughout

India, wild and cultivated. It is found in the indaing and dry

forests of Burma.

In Chota Nagpur the bark is applied to the body along with

that of Albizzia odoratissima, at intervals of a day or so, during

intermittent fever,

——_—__- —_ —____—_ —________ _____ hhh»

MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS PLANTS OF INDIA 371

In La Reunion the bark is used as an astringent and diuretic.

In Madagascar the root is prescribed in nephritic colic; the

fruit is considered diuretic.

The fruit is sweet, appetising and digestive. It is given in

India for jaundice and enlarged spleen.

The gum is given, along with other ingredients, for cholera,

After child-birth, among natives in the Deccan, the seeds are

ground to powder with turmeric, and rubbed all over the mother’s

body to prevent rheumatic pains from exposure to damp winds.

Akola: Gurgati, Parbekal, Parekal—; Almora: Kanel—; Amraoti: Kakai—;

Banswara: Kanker—; Bengal: Binja, Kakai, Katai, Obir, Tambat—;

Betsimisaraka: Valamoly, Voatronaka—; Betul: Kakai—; Bombay: Bhekal,

Kaikun, Kakad, Kantaka, Pahar, Swadu, Tambat—; Buldana: Parbekal,

Parekal—; Burma: Nayuwai—; Canarese: Gajabira, Gajale, Hettarimullu,

Hunmunki, Muldindu, Mullutari, Nayibela—; Central Provinces: Bilati, Kakein,

Kank, Kanki, Karumurukki— ; Coorg: Gapra, Gupra—; Deccan: Bowchi, Bunj,

Kanbowchi, Kundayi, Swadu—; Dehra Dun: Kango—; English: Ceylon Plum,

Madagascar Plum, Mauritius Plum—; Gond: Armasuri, Katien—; Gujerat:

Kankod—; Hindi: Bhanber, Bilangra, Bowchi, Bunj, Handi, Kakai, Kakein,

Kandai, Kandei, Kanju, Katahi, Katar, Kukar, Kundayi—; Khond: Sapka—;

Kolami: Mehrle, Mehrlo, Merlee, Sarlarka, Serali—; Kumaon: Bilangra,

Bilangur—; Kurku: Gurgoti—; Lambadi: Lotpatar—; La Reunion: Prune

malgache marronne—; Madagascar: Lamoty—; Marathi: Bhekal, Kaker,

Paker, Tambat—; Mauritius: Prune malgache—; Melghat: Gurgati—;

Mhairwara: Kaikun—; Mundari: Meriedaru—; Nimar: Parbekal, Parekal— j;

Palamou: Katail—; Punjab: Kakoa, Kandei, Kangu, Kukai, Kukoa— ;

Sanskrit : Swadukantaka— ; Santal : Merlec— ; Saora: Bejjuven— ;

Seychelles: Prunier—; Sind: Bavache, Bhutankas—; Sinhalese: Ugurassa,

Uguressa—; Tamil: Maulkkarai, Sottaikala—; Telugu: Bontakandregu,

Kanaregu, Kandregu, Nakkanaregu, Nakkaneredu, Nelli, Peddakanaregu,

Putikatada—; Uriya: Balibhaincho, Boniso, Kontadhawra, Kontaikuli, Mamuri,

Potnaboniso—; Yeotmal: Kakai—; Zambesi: Batoko Plum—.

3. Flacourtia sepiaria Roxb. occurs in the dry jungles through-

out Bengal and the Western Peninsula; in the scrub forests of

the Madras Presidency, especially on the Coromandel Coast and

in the Deccan; in Bihar, Orissa, Upper Burma, the Andamans;

Ceylon and Java.

In Madagascar an infusion of the leaves and roots is given

in cases of snake-bite; the bark triturated in oil is used as a

liniment in rheumatism; the ashes of the root are considered

serviceable in kidney troubles.

Mhaskar and Caius have established experimentally that neither

the leaves nor the roots are an antidote to snake venom.

Bombay: Atruna, Tambat—; Canarese : Mirde, Miridi—; Central Provinces :

Bainch—; Gujerat: Lodri—; Hindi: Kondai, Kondari—; Malayalam: Kuru-

muli—; Marathi: Atran, Tambat—; Porebunder: Lodri—,; Punjab: Daijkar,

Jidkar, Khatai, Kingro, Sherawane, Zargal—; Sakalave: Lamoty—; Tagalog:

Bitongol— ;_ Tamil: Kodumundi, Sottaikala—; Telugu: Kanaregu, Kandregu,

Pulivelaga—; Uriya: Baliboniso, Boniso, Botubo, Kankui, Sanubainchi— ;

Visayan: Sanasaua—.

GYNOCARDIA.

The only species, Gynocardia odorata R. Br., is an evergreen

tree of moderate: size to be found in Sikkim, the Khasia Hills,

Chittagong, and the Martaban Hills,

ofa, JOURNAL” BOMBAY NATURAL. HIST SO CTE IE] role

The fruit is used as a fish poison.

The oil from the seeds is used in the treatment of leprosy and

other forms of skin diseases.

In Indo-China the seeds are considered tonic, but they are used

externally only; they are pounded, mixed with oil, and applied

topically in skin diseases.

Bengal: Chaulmugra, Chaulmugri, Petarkura—; Bombay: Chaulmogra—,

Chinese: Ta Foung Leao—; Hindi: Chaulmogra, Chhalmugra, Choulmungri—;

Indo-China: Dai phong tu, Doc chat—; Lepcha: Tukkung—; Magahi:

Tungpung—; Nepal: Kadu—-; Persian: Brinjmogra-—; Sanskrit: Alasakapaha,

Kushthapa, Sagarodbhuta, Tuvaraka—; Sinhalese: Taliennoe—.

HYDNOCARPUS.

The genus consists of 25 Indo-Malayan species.

A medicinal oil is extracted from the seeds.

H. anthelmintica Pierre is used in China and Indo-China, H.

polyandra Blanco in the Philippine Islands.

1. Petiole 6-g mm. long. Flowers 9-12 mm. in dia-

meter, white ee va se -. a. Wightana:

2. Petiole 12 mm. long. Flowers 13 mm. in diameter. H. venenata.

3. Petiole 12-15 mm. long. Flowers’ rose, petals

15 mm. long ae = .. HH. anthelmintica.

1. Hydnocarpus Wightiana Blume occurs in the tropical

evergreen forests of South-Western India along the Western Ghats,

from the Konkan southwards, and below the Ghats in Kanara

and Malabar in damp situations; it is common in Travancore, and

is* found up.-tovan-altitide ot 000) tee.

The seeds have long been employed as a domestic remedy in

cases of skin disease and ophthalmia, and as a dressing for wounds

and ulcers. Their medicinal properties depend wholly on the oil

they contain, which is much more useful and convenient as a drug

than the seeds themselves.

The oil is employed as an external application to scabby

eruptions, after being mixed with an equal portion of Jatropha

Curcas oil, sulphur, camphor, and lime-juice. For scald-head

equal parts of the oil and lime-water are used as a _ liniment.

In Travancore half teaspoonful doses are given _ internally

in leprous affections, and the oil, beaten up with the kernels and

shells of castor-oil seeds, is used as a remedy for itch.

Bicol: Butungmanoc—; Bombay: Kadukavatha, Kauti, Kava, Kowti—;

Canarese: Bhutahi, Garuduphala, Niradivittulu, Surante—; Deccan: Jangli-

badam—; Goa: Kosto—; Kadir: Koti, Nirvetti, Vattai, Vetti—; Konkani:

Konstel, Konxtti—; Malayalam: Koti, Maravetti, Maroti, Niralam, Nirvetti,

Vetti—; Marathi: Kadukavata, Kantel, Kastel, Kowti—; Sanskrit: Garuda-

phala—; Sinhalese: Makulu—; Tamil: Maravattai, Maravetti, Niradimuttu— ;

Telugu: Adavibadamu, Niradi—; Tulu: Surante—.

2. Hydnocarpus venenata Gaertn. is found in Ceylon by the

bank of rivers up to 2,000 feet, also in Malabar, Tinnevelly, and

Travancore,

MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS. PLANTS OF INDIA 373

The seeds are employed to poison fish; but the fish thus killed

are unfit for food.

The oil is used as an external application in certain cutaneous

diseases, and has a special reputation in leprosy.

The’ oil from the seeds was administered to twenty cases of

leprosy and was found very beneficial in early cases and_ slightly

so in long standing cases (Koman).

Deccan: Jinglibadam—j; Hindi: Janglibadam—; Aalayalam: Moratti,

Niredumuttu— ; Marathi: Kauti—; Sinhalese: Makulu—; Tanul: Maravittai,

Niradimattu, Niridumuttu—; Telugu: Niradi, Niruduvittulu—.

3. Hydnocarpus anthelmintica Pierre occurs in Siam and Indo-

China up to elevations of 1,000 feet, and is in cultivation at

Singapore. It is generally to be found on the banks of rivers and

estuaries where the water table is high.

In Cambodia the bark is prescribed for incontinence of urine.

The seed is extensively used in Indo-China for the treatment

of cutaneous diseases.

The oil from the seeds has for ages been employed by the

Chinese in the treatment of parasitic pediculi, leprosy, and many

skin affections.

Annam: Chum-bao lon—; Cambodia: Krabao phle thom—; Chinese: Feng

Yu Tzu, Ta Feng Tzu, Ta Fung Tze—; Indo-China: Dai phong tu—; Malaya:

Foong yau tze—; Siam: Lukrabao, Maikrabao—.

PANGIUM.

The sole species, Pangium edule Reinwdt., is common in

Malaya by river banks and in villages. It is distributed to the

Malay Islands.

Every part of the plant is used as an anthelmintic in the

Philippine Islands.

The bark 1s used by the Malays and the Javanese as a poison

to fish.

The poisonous properties of the plant are well known to the

Malays. The seeds are the most toxic part, but apparently only

when they are quite fresh and in the raw state. The fresh seeds

are used by the Sakais in making dart poison, and the oil expressed

from raw seeds is added to cakes by Malay criminals to cause

death.

Oil expressed from sun-dried seeds is often used as an article

of food, but is said to cause diarrhoea.

The seeds boiled, cut up and macerated in water are eaten,

the oil extracted used in cookery. At Amboina the toxicity is

destroyed by crushing the seed and macerating it for some time

In pure water.

The toxic properties of the fresh seeds and oil are due to the

presence of a poisonous glucoside breaking down and producing

prussic acid.

Malay: Kepayang, Kepayung, Payung—; Tagalog: Pangi—; Visayan;

Pangui—.

374 JOURNAL, BOMBAY “NATURAL OUGEYUS Tf: SOCEM) Wome!

TARAKTOGENOS.

The genus numbers 12 species spread over Assam, Burma,

Indo-China, Malaya, and the Dutch East Indies.

Taraktogenos Kurzii King occurs in Assam, Chittagong, the

Minbu district of Upper Burma, the eastern and northern slopes

of the Pegu Yoma, Tenasserim, and Martaban, where it is very

common.

The seeds yield the Chaulmoogra Oil of commerce and medicine.

Assam: Lemtam—; Burma: Kalanzo, Kalaw, Kalawaso, Kalawni,

Kalawso—; Lepcha: Tukakunga—.

Gig

The PirrospoRACE are trees or shrubs, often climbing. They

form 10 genera, which, except for Pittosporum, are confined to

Australia.

PITTOSPORUM.

This genus numbers 70 species inhabiting the tropical and sub-

tropical regions of the Old World.

The following species are used medicinally in Indo-China—P.

tobira Ait.—; in the Philippine Islands—P. brachysepalum Turcz.

—; in La Reunion—P. senacia Putterl.—; in South Africa—P.

viridiflorum Sims.

Pittosporum napaulense Rehder and F. H. Wils. (=P. flori-

bundum Wight and Arn.) is found in the subtropical Himalaya,

from Sikkim to Garhwal, ascending to 5,000 feet on the hills, and

at Mishmi; also in Ganjam, in the Western Peninsula from. the

Konkan to the Nilghiris, in the hills of South Arcot and Salem.

The bark is bitter and aromatic, and is said by the tribes ‘of

the Western Ghats to possess narcotic properties. It is used in

doses of 5 to 20 grs..as @ febrifuge, and inv doses of 50ngns. ms

believed to be a specific for snake poisoning; 5 to 10 grains doses

of the dried bark were given with benefit in chronic bronchitis.

It is a good expectorant, but in one or two cases in which it

was tried in Bombay, it gave rise to dysenteric diarrhea.

Among the Mundas of Chota Nagpur the bark is ground with

water and rubbed over inflammatory dropsical or rheumatical

swellings, and on the limbs in all cases of rheumatism.

Mhaskar and Caius have shown experimentally that the bark

is not an antidote to snake venom.

Bombay: Yekadi, Yekdi—; Canarese: Tammata—; Kharwar: Baghmuta— $;

Kisan: Baghmuta—; Lepcha: Bongzam, Prongzam—; Marathi: Vehkali,

Vehyenti, Vilkhari, Yekadi—; Naguri: Herekasmar. Umarsing—; Nepal:

Tibiloti, Tibilti—; Saora: Pida, Rakamuki, Rongosani—; Tamil: Nanjundai,

Tammata—; Telugu: Rakamuki—; Uriya: Debosundu—; Visayan: Balung-

canayan—.

"hy

MEDICINAL AND. POISONOUS PEANTS OF INDIA 37

rT;

The PoLyGALAcEa are herbs or undershrubs, rarely small trees,

distributed over the tropical and warm southern temperate zones.

They include 10 genera with about 700 species.

All the members are more or less tonic, and expectorant; some

are bitter, and emetic; a few are acrid, and poisonous. The bark

of genus Krameria is very astringent. |

Saponins—senegin, polygalic acid—and methyl salicylate are

amongst the few compounds isolated; also glucosides—gaultherin,

polygalin—.

The medicinal and poisonous Milkworts of the world belong to

8 genera: BapiERA (West Indies), BREDEMEYERA (Australia, Tas-

mania, South America, West Indies); CaRPOLoBIA (tropical West

Africa); KRAMERIA (Mexico to Chili); Monnina (Mexico to Chili) ;

Munptia (South Africa); PoLyGaLa (cosmopolitan; except New

Zealand, Polynesia, and Arctic zone); SECURIDACA (tropics; except

Australia).

All Milkworts used medicinally in India belong to the genus

POLYGALA.

POLYGALA;

The genus numbers 475 species distributed over the whole world,

except Tasmania.

The following species are used medicinally in Europe—P. amara

linn, P. calcarea F. W. schultz., P. major Jacq., P. monspehaca

Linn., P. nicaeenis Risso, P. rupestris Pourr., P. serpyllacea

Weihe, P. vulgaris Linn.—; in Japan and China—P._ sibirica

Linn.—; in Indo-China—P. glomerata Lour., P. sibirica Linn.—;

in Malaya—P. Reinii Franch. & Sav., P. sibirica Linn.—; in North

America—P. boykini Nutt., P. polygama Walt., P. sanguinea

Linn., P. Senega Linn.—; in Mexico—P. scoparia H. B. & Kunt—;

in Brazil—P. angulata DC., P. fimbriata A. W. Ben., P. pani-

culata Linn.—; in Guiana—P. timoutou Aubl.—; in West Africa

—P. arenaria Willd., P. butyracea Heck., P. guineensis Willd.,

P. micrantha Guill & Perr.—; in Southern Africa—P. amatymbica

Hew Z., P. arenaria Willd., P. hotientota Presl., P. myrtifolia

inns, P: -oppostijola iLinn.,.P. serpentaria E. & Z., P. tenwfoha

Link.—; in Madagascar—P. macroptera DC.—.

P. amara and P. Senega contain a toxic glucoside, polygalin.

Undershrubs, or herbs sometimes woody at the base.

Calyx persistent. Keel crested.

A. Bracts persistent, at least till the flower expands.

1. Undershrubs. Racemes axillary; wings petaloid,

membranous; strophiole 2-appendiculate wx» IL. crotalartoides.

2. Herbs. Wings herbaceous, strophiole 3-appendi-

culate.

a. Flowers minute, 1/10 in. long, yellow.

Racemes longer than the leaves ... ... £. brachystachya.

b. Flowers 1/6 in. long. Racemes longer than

the leaves aor ae ... PP. elongata.

c. Flowers 1/5-i in. long. Racemes much

shorter than the leaves +. ... P. chinensis.

576 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAD) FIST. SOCIETY «iV oleae

B. Bracts caducous (before flowering), strophiole 3-

appendiculate.

1. Capsule rather broadly winged, glabrous, not

ciliate he oe Ss Hoey eee SUOULTCO

2. Capsule glabrous, margined, not ciliate is Ex delephiondes:

3. Capsule narrowly winged, strongly ciliate nt) UR clomevatam

1. Polygala brachystachya BI. occurs in Malaya and is found

in turf, roadsides, and grass plots.

The Malays use the plant as an antidote in cases of snake-bite.

2. Polygala chinensis Linn. is found throughout India, from

the Punjab to Burma, South India, and Ceylon, up to 5,000 feet.

It extends to tropical Asia and Australia.

In Chota Nagpur the root is given medicinally in cases of fever

and dizziness.

English: Common Indian Milkwort—; Gujerat: Pilibhonyasana—; Hasara:

Birminditasad—; Hindi: Meradu, Miragu—; Marathi: Negli—; Nagpuri:

Danaminjo, Danaminju, Gurgur—; Porebunder: Pilibhoysana—; Santali:

Gaighura—.

3. Polygala crotaiarioides Ham. is found on the temperate

Himalaya from Simla and Chamba to Sikkim, between 4,oo0 and

7,000 feet, also on the Khasia Hills.

The entire plant and root have a reputation as remedies for

cough and pulmonary catarrh.

Among the Mundas of Chota Nagpur the root is chewed, or

else ground and drunk with water, to expel phlegm from the throat;

it provokes coughing. .

Royle states that the plant was sent to him with the informa-

tion that the root was employed as a cure for snake-bite by the

hill people of the Himalaya.

The plant is not an antidote to snake venom (Mhaskar and

Caius).

Gond : Bijnori— ; Hasada: Birheremda—; Mundari: Heremola—; Nagpurt:

Lilkanth, Nilkanth—; Santali: Gaighura, Lilkanthi, Lilkathi—.

4. Polygala elongata Klein occurs in the Western Peninsula

from the Konkan southwards, and extends to Ceylon.

The plant is used in biliousness and constipation. It is said

to be antidote to snake poison.

Malayalam: Periyananka—.

5. Polygala glomerata Lour. is found in Sikkim, Assam, the

Khasia Hills, and Burma, whence it extends to the Malay Archi-

pelago and China.

In Indo-China a decoction of the stems and leaves is given in

inflammatory conditions.

Indo-China: Kim bat hoan—.

6. Polygala sibirica Linn. occurs in temperate and subtropical

Himalaya at 1,000-6,000 feet; in Sikkim at 8,ooo feet; from the

Punjab and North-Western Frontier to Bhotan; on the Khasia

MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS PLANTS OF INDIA 377

Hills at 4,000-6,o00 feet; in the Western Ghats from the Nilgiris

to Tinnevelly, chiefly above 6,000 feet; in Ceylon. It is distributed

to China, Japan, and Siberia.

In Japan, China, and Malaya the roots are given as a

substitute for senega in colds and coughs.

In Indo-China they are used as a diuretic; they are also given

in bronchitis, amnesia, sexual impotency, and seminal losses.

Brahui: Kaj, Mashnakaj—; Cantonese: Ven Chi—; Chinese: Yuan Chih— ;

English: Japanese Senega—; German: Schlangenwurzel—; Indo-China: Nam

vien chi, Re tieu thao, Vien chi—; Japanese: Hime hagi—; Malaya: Yoan

chee—.

7. Polygala telephioides Willd. occurs in the Carnatic,

Nellore, Chingleput, Travancore, Ceylon. It spreads to the Malay

Archipelago and China.

The plant and the root are used medicinally in catarrhal

affections.

The FRANKENIACEZ are herbs or shrublets, which inhabit

tropical and temperate maritime shores, and principally the Mediter-

ranean and Atlantic, extending into central Asia and north-western

India; they are comparatively rare in the tropics and southern

latitudes. They form a small family of 4 genera with 60 species.

FRANKENIA.

This genus consists of 32 species, mostly sea-side plants

inhabiting the temperate and subtropical regions of both hemi-

spheres.

F. grandifolia Cham. and Schlecht. is used medicinally in

California.

Frankenia pulverulenta Linn. occurs in Sind, Baluchistan, and

Punjab. It is a wide-spread species on shores and in salt deserts,

distributed over the Mediterranean regions, Arabia, Senegal, and

the Cape.

Valued by native practitioners in the fresh state for its mucil-

aginous and aromatic properties ; exhibited in the form of decoction

in empyreuma (Murray).

Arabic: Garmal—; Egypt: Ghobeyra, Gurmeyl, Homra, Kheyet, Mulleygh— ;

English: Powdery Sea-Heath—; Malta: Mealy Sea-heath—; Sind: Khareeya—.

The PortTuLacacEz are herbs, rarely undershrubs, usually

glabrous and more or less succulent. The family includes 17

genera with 225 species, mostly natives of America and South

Africa.

878 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURALMAIST | SOCIETY ww ola

The medicinal Purslanes of the world belong to 3 genera:

ANACAMPSEROS (South Africa); PORTULACA (tropical and subtropical

regions); TaLtinum (Africa, America, India).

The Purslanes used medicinally in India all belong to the same

genus, PORTULACA.

PORTULACA.

The genus numbers 20 species distributed over the tropical and

subtropical regions of the world.

Fleshy, insipid plants. They are considered cooling, diuretic,

and recommended in scurvy and urinary affections.

The following are used medicinally in Europe—P. oleracea

Linn.—; in China and Indo-China—P. oleracea Linn., P. sativa

DC.—; in the Philippine Islands—P. oleracea Linn., P. quadrifida

Linn.—; in the United States—P. oleracea Linn.—; in Brazil—

P. patens Linn., P. pilosa Linn.—; in Guinea—P. oleracea Linn.—;

in Gold Coast—P. oleracea Linn., P. quadrifida Linn.—; in South-

ern Africa and Portuguese East Africa—P. quadrifida Linn.—; in

La Reunion and Madagascar—P. oleracea Linn.—.

A. Nodes without appendages. Flowers in clusters ... P. oleracea.

B. Nodes with a ring of hairs.

1. Leaves opposite diet ope P. quadrifida,

2. Leaves alternate, root tuberous ay Seth, et CUO CLOSA,

1. Portulaca oleracea Linn. occurs in all warm countries. It

is found all over India, up to 5,000 feet in the Himalaya.

The plant has long been used as a domestic remedy in all the

various countries where it is found growing. It is reputed vul-

nerary, antiscorbutic, refrigerant, and mildly diuretic; and it is

said to be useful in catarrhal affections of the genito-urinary tract.

Thus Culpeper: ‘It is good to allay the heat of the liver, blood,

veins, stomach, and hot agues: it stays hot and choleric fluxes of

the belly, women’s courses, the whites,. and gonorrhoea, the dis-

tillation from the head, and pains therein proceeding from heat,

want of sleep, or the frenzy.’

At the present day, the herb is chiefly valued as a refrigerant

and alterative pot-herb, particularly useful as an article of diet

in scurvy and liver disease.

In Colombia the plant is used as an emollient, and is applied

to tumours and callosities. Similarly, in West Tropical Africa

it is used for local application to swellings, bruises, whitlow, etc.,

crushed along with native natron and oil and applied by rubbing or

as a poultice for abscesses and boils to bring them to a head.

In Siberia the herb is used as a gastric sedative; it is also

given as a vegetable to a baby who has ceased to thrive; along

with an aromatic Labiate plant it is a remedy for haematuria and

other urinary troubles.

In Jamaica the herb is employed as a cooling and moistening

remedy in burning fevers.

The herb, bruised, and applied to the forehead and temple,

is said to allay excessive heat and pain, and applied to the eyes

MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS PLANTS OF INDIA 379

to remove inflammation. Quoth Culpeper: ‘The herb if placed

under the tongue assuayeth thirst. Applied to the gout, it easeth

pains thereof, and helps the hardness of the sinews, ii it Come NOL

of the cramp, or a cold cause.’

The expressed juice of the plant may be applied with advantage

to prickly heat, as well as to the hands and feet when a burning

sensation is felt. It is said to afford relief in cases of scorpion

sting.

In Jamaica, the juice is of use in spitting of blood. In West

Tropical Africa it is sometimes dropped in the ear for earache,

and is used for toothache. With oil of roses, it was recommended

in England for sore mouths and swollen gums, and also to fasten

loose teeth.

The expressed juice of the herb is an ingredient in a Hausa

prescription for syphilis.

In China the leaves are used for poulticing tumours, bad

wounds and ulcers, oedematous swellings; also in blennorrhagia

and leucorrhcea. In Nigeria they are applied topically to swellings.

In Indo-China a decoction of the leaves is given in dysentery.

In Gold Coast the leaves are ground, mixed with oil, and tied

on boils to bring them to a head; they are eaten along with tiger

nuts—Cyperus esculentus—as a remedy for skin diseases; also

macerated in cold water and taken frequently they are considered

to be a heart tonic and diuretic, used for palpitations.

In Indo-China the juice of the fresh leaves is applied to

abscesses, and used as a collyrium. In North America it is con-

sidered a cooling diuretic.

In the Tamil country a thick paste obtained by mixing together

the juice of the leaves, human milk, and sesamum oil is rubbed

over the abdomen to help the expulsion of the retained placenta

in cases of uterine inertia.

The bruised fresh leaves are prescribed by the Tamil practitioners

as an external application in erysipelas; an infusion of them is

also ordered as a diuretic in dysuria.

The seeds have always been credited with anthelmintic

properties, and they are still given as a vermifuge in the Punjab.

In England they were bruised and boiled in wine when used as a

worm remedy for children.

In Cochin-China and in the West Indies the seed is frequently

used as a stomachic and as a provocative of the menses, as well as

an emollient and diuretic.

Caius and Mhaskar have shown experimentally that the plant

is not an antidote to scorpion venom.

Afrikaans: Misbredic, Porselein, Postelein, Varkkos—; Akim: Adwera—;

Annam: Rau sam, Rau tham—; Arabic: Baglah, Baglatulhumga, Bogl, Buklut-

ul-hakima, Buklut-ul-kukema, Dhoneb el farras, Khurfa, Kurfakara, Rigl—;

Ashanti: Adwera, Adwere, Asase-ne-aboo—; Australia: Pigweed—; Baluchi:

Pechali, Pichali—; Bambara: Missidi kumbaré—; Bengal: Baraloniya, Chhota-

lunia, Kulfi, Munya—; Betsileo: Kalabotetraka—; Bicol: Ausiman—; Bombay :

Gol, Kurfah, Motighol—; Brahui: Mugher, Pechali, Pichali—; Burma:

Mayabyit—; Canarese: Dudagorai—; Central Provinces: Ghol, Gholu—;

Ceylon: Nilappachali, Pulichankirai—; Chinese: Ma Ch’ih Hsien, Ma Tche

380 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST: SOCEETY, Vol. XLT

Han—; Colombia: Verdolaga—; Dagomba: Zinerigu—; Danish: Portulak—,;

Deccan: Mulfekibhaji—;. Dutch: .Porselein—; Efik: Efere makara—; Egypt:

Bakle, Higl, Rigl—; English: Common Purslane, Garden Purslane, Golden

Purslane, Pigweed, Purslane—; Ewe: Aflaa, Aflangtokpui, Devio-fe’ama,

Dugba, Kugbe—; french: Porcelin, Porcellane, Pourcellaine, Pourcellane,

Pourpier, Pourpier commun, Pourpier cultivé—; fulani: Bechalhi, Endu

nagge—; Ga: Awrorke—; German: Portulak—; Greek: Andrachni, Andrakla,

Andraklida, Antrakla, Glistrida—; Gujerat: Loni, Motiluni—; Hausa: Babba

jibji, Da’burin saniya, Fasa k’aba, Fasa kumburi, Halshen rago, Halshen

saniya, Halshen tunkiya, Rub da tukubya, Sarkin jibji—; Hindi: Baralaniya,

Baralunia, Chhotalunia, Khurfa, Khursa, Kulfa, Kulfi, Kurfa, Kurfekasag,

Lonia, Lunak, Lunia, Luniakulfah, Lunuk, Muncha,. Munya, Nonkha, Non-

khalunuk, Sagkulpha—; Hova: Tsikobokobondanitra—; Indo-China: Ma si

hien, Ma xi hieu, Rau sam—; Iraq: Barbin, Hamga—; Italian: Porcellana,

Portulaca—; Japan: Osuberi-hiyu—; Jhalawan: Pichli, Shurdako—; Kachhi:

Lunak, Pichlo—; NKalmuk: Assun obison—; Ixatsina: Fasa k’aba—; Kohlu:

Lunak—; Kolami: Dali ara—; Konkani: Gol, Golchibagi—; Krepi: Aflaakupe,

Aflaatokplei, Aflangtokpui Krobo: Nereyu, Nerufu--; Kumaon: Lunak,

Luniyahkulfah— ; Kurdish: Parpinah—; Languedoc: Poutoulaigo—; La Re-

union: Pourpier, Pourpier rouge—; Las Bela: Manshuri—; Malay: Segan—;

Malayalam: Koricchira—; Malinke: Mazabi—; Malta: Purslane, Porcellana,

Sportellacchia, Burdliecka—; Mano: Toa p’lo—; Marathi: Bhuigholi, Ghole,

Motighol— ; Mauritius: Pourpier rouge—; Mende: Toge, Tondo wolii, Tooge— ;

Mundari: Dailara, Urialangara—; Nasirabad: Lunak—; North America:

Common Purslane, Parsley, Pussly—; North Queensland: Thukouro—,; North-

Western Provinces: Desikulfah, Lunak, Luniya, Muniya—; Nubia: Segettem-

am—,; Persian: Cholza, Kherefeh, Khurfah, Kurfah, Tirehkhurfeh, Turk,

Turuk—; Polish: Kurza nega—; Porebunder: Mhotiluni—; Portuguese:

Beldroega—; Punjabi: Sagkulfa—; Pushtu: Murlai, Tursbuk, Warkharai— ;

Roumanian : Iarba grass, Portulaca—; Russian: Fortulak, Schrucha—; Sadam :

Dailsag—; Sakalave: Fandrianomby—; Sanskrit: Brihalloni, Gholika, Lona,

Loni, Lonika, Lunia—; Santal: Mota uric’alang—; Shahrig ; Lunak—; Sinaloa:

Verdolaga—; Sind: Lonk—; Sinhalese: Gendakola—; Songhai: San mafé—;

Spanish: Verdolaga—; Suto: Selele—; Swedish: Portulak—; Tagalog:

Colasiman, Golasiman, Olasiman, Sayican—; Tamil: Karikkirai, Kolhikirai,

Paruppukkirai, Fassalakkirai, Pulikkirai—; Telugu: Boddipavilikura, Ganga-

pavilikura, Pappukura, Peddapavilikura—; Toba: Khulfa, Mirri—; Tuareg:

Alokha, Alora, Aloza, Bender akech—; Twi: Adwera, Adwerair—; Urdu:

Khurfah— ; Uriya: Purunisag—; Wolof: Tang i mpiteurh, Tanguipeter— ;

Yemen: Brabra, Chamile, Denneb el farras, Rijlet el farras—; Yoruba:

Papasan—.

2. Portulaca quadrifida Linn. is found throughout the warmer

parts of India and Ceylon. It spreads to tropical Asia and Africa.

The plant is used as a substitute for P. oleracea.

_ The infusion is in Pondicherry a household remedy for cystitis

in the last months of pregnancy. The Zulus use it as an emetic.

The natives of Portuguese East Africa take a decoction of the

plant as an anthelminitic, and in the treatment of stomach com-

plaints and gonorrhea.

The plant is sometimes used as a pot-herb in Guam, either for

food or as an antiscorbutic. In Gold Coast and in Lagos it is

used to cure toothache. |

The Arabs apply the bruised fresh leaves to the forehead in

cephalalgia.

Arabic: Baglat-ul-arabbiyah, Baglat-ul-yamaniyah, Budelut-ul-mubarik, Kora-

at errai, Rozzi, Sebib ed-dhan—; Ashanti: Asase-ne-aboo—; Bengal: Chhota-

luniya, Muniya—; Bettani: Perkhadai—; Bombay: Barikaghola, Chavalkebhaji,

Chowli, Gholkibhaji, Kota—; Canarese: Halibochcheli—; Ceylon: Chirupa-

chalikkirai, Parupukirai—; Deccan: Chaunlayikibhaji, Chowli, Gholkibhaji—;

Ewe: Dugba, Kugbe—; Gold Coast: Stone Crop—; Gujerat: Jhiniluni, Luni—;

MEDICINAL AND. POISONOUS PLANTS OF INDIA 381

Hindi: Baklatalhamka, Chaunlayi, Chotaluniya, Khatechawal, Loniya—+;

Kolami: Suniara—; La Reunion: Pourpier marron—; Malinke: Mazabi—;

Marathi: Katechanval, Kathechawal, Ranghol—; Porebunder: Badhi, Jinki-

luni— ; Portuguese East Africa: Sanimarumbi— ; Pondicherry: Baselle, Pourpier

grimpant—; Punjab: WHaksha, Lunak, Lunkibuti—; Rajputana: Lunki—;

Samoa: Fiafiatuli—; Sanskrit: Kshudragholika, Laghughonika, Laghulonika,

Upadyaki— ; Sinhalese: Hingendakola—; Spanish: Yerba de pollo—; Tagalog:

Sayican—; Tamil: Passalaikkirai, Passelikkirai, Sinnaparpukkirai, Siruppas-

saraikkirai—; Telugu: Batsalikura, Goddupavili, Kura, Pavili, Payalaku,

Peddapavili, Saunapappu, Saunapavili, Sunapailkura—; Wadziri: Zhinai—;

Yemen: Mortah—.

3. Portulaca tuberosa Roxb. is found in Bihar, Sind, Gujarat,

the dry districts of the Carnatic from South Arcot to Travancore,

whence to Ceylon. |

The fresh acid leaves are used medicinally; an external appli-

cation is prescribed by native practitioners in erysipelas and an

infusion in dysuria (Murray).

Marathi: Jangligajar—; Sinhalese: Urugenda—; Sind: Lunuk—; Telugu:

Boddakura—.

The TAMARICACE2 are mostly bushes or small trees, inhabiting

the shores, steppes, and deserts of temperate and _ subtropical

regions. They prefer sea-shores, the margins of brackish lakes,

the banks of rivers and torrents, in sandy or clayey soils. There

are 5 genera with about Ioo species.

Medicinal properties are exhibited by members of 3 genera:

MyrIcaRIA (northern temperate regions); REAUMURIA (eastern

Mediterranean, Central Asia); Tamarix (Europe, Mediterranean,

Asia).

1. Seeds hairy all over, albuminous. Flowers solitary .... REAUMURIA.

2. Seeds hairy at the apex, exalbuminous. Flowers

racemed or spiked.

a. Stamens free, styles 3 a ... TAMARIX.

b. Stamens connate, stigma _ sessile ae ... MyRrIcaria.

MyrIcaria.

The genus consists of ro species distributed over the northern

temperate regions of the Old World.

1. Bracts ovate, about twice as long as the pedicels ... M. elegans.

2. Bracts ovate-lanceolate, 3-4 times as long as_ the

pedicels M. germanica.

1. Myricaria elegans Royle occurs in the Western Himalaya,

Kunawar, Spiti, Lahul, Ladakh, Kumaon, up to 14,000 feet.

In Lahul the leaves are used as an application to bruises.

Garhwal: Wombu—; Punjab: Humbu, Umbu—.

2. Myricaria germanica Desv. is found in temperate and

alpine Himalaya, from Sikkim to Kumaon,.at altitudes of _10,000-

14,000 feet. It spreads to Afghanistan, and westwards to Europe.

382 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISD. SOCIETY; Vol. EY

A decoction of the bark is used in Spain as an aperient, and in

jaundice. :

French: Petit tamarisc, Tamarisc d’Allemagne—.

REAUMURIA.

The genus numbers 15 species spreading from the Levant to

Central Asia.

Reaumuria hypericoides Willd. is indigenous in Sind, Arabia,

Syria, the Mediterranean coast, the Salt plains, and in the milder

parts of Northern Asia.

It is used in Sind in the cure of porrigo and itch, the bruised

leaves being applied externally, and a decoction of two-and-a-half

to three ounces of the juice of the leaves diluted and administered

internally.

Sind: Laneesah—.

‘TAMARIX.

The genus numbers 65 species, natives of Europe, the Mediter-

ranean, and Asia.

The bark and the galls are astringent; the manna is detergent

and aperient; the twigs and the leaves are vulnerary, carminative,

and diuretic.

The following are used medicinally in Europe and North

Atrica—T. gallica Linn., T. africana Poir.—; in Arabia and

Persia—T. aphylla Krst.—; in China—T. chinensis Lour.—; in

Indo-China—T. chinensis Lour., T. pallasti Desv.—; in Malaya—

I’. chinensis Lour.—.

Stamens 5.

1. Flowers bisexual, in racemose panicles... er, el Liromper:

2. Flowers unisexual, in close cylindrical spikes wen Te MOLOLCAs

3. Flowers bisexual, in usually interrupted spikes .... T. aphylla.

1. Tamarix aphylla Lanza occurs in the Punjab plains, Sind,

Cutch, and Baluchistan. It is distributed to Persia, Mesopotamia,

Arabia, the Mediterranean, and South Africa.

The galls are employed as an astringent. |

The bark is bitter, astringent; powdered, and in combination

with oil and Kamala, it is used as an aphrodisiac. It is also

employed as an application in eczema capitis, and other diseases.

Afrikaans: Abiekwas-gelhout, Dawee—; Arabic: Asl-ul-armar, Atl, Ethel,

Oethel, Tarfa, Tarf-al-ahmar—; Bengal: Raktajhav—; Deccan: Laljhav—=;

English: Giant Tamarisk—; Gujerat: Laljhav—; Helmand: Kohragaz—j;

Hindi: Laljhav—; Ivaqg: Athl—; Kharan: Siahgazz—; Las Bela: Kirri—;

Northern Baluchistan: Wirri—; Pahrod: Gagaz, Shakargaz—; Persian: Farash,

Gazesurkh, Khoragaz—; Punjab: Faraz, Farash, Farwa, Ghwa, Ghuz, Khagal,

Kharlei, Narlei, Pharwan, Rukh, Ukhan—; Pushtu: Ghwa, Ghwaz—; Sind:

Asrelei, Asri, Gaz, Gazlau—; Southern Africa: Tamarisk—; Tamil: Siva-

ppattushavukku, Sivappukkottashavukku, | Sivappusirushavukku—; Telugu:

Ettashirisaru, Ettaverusaru—; Tigre: Obel, Owell—; Tigrinia: Obel, Owell— ;

Tuareg: Tabrakat—; Waziristan: Khugal—.

few

MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS PLANTS OF INDIA 383

2. Tamarix dioica Roxb. is a gregarious shrub, found near

rivers and on the sea-coast; throughout India from Sind to Burma.

It is common along the Ganges, Hooghly, and forms extensive

forests along the Indus in Sind. Also common in sandy river-

beds and on the sea-coast of the Madras Presidency. It extends

to Afghanistan.

The twigs and galls are used medicinally as an astringent.

Baluchi: Podhayaz—; Bengal: Jhao, Laljham—; Betul: Saran—; Burma:

Byaungchedauk— ; Hindi: Jau, Jhau, Lalijhau, Thar-thari—; Kumaon: Jhau—;

Ladak: Regita—; Merwara: Jhau, Kachlei, Pilchi—; Oudh: Jhau—; Persian:

Ghuz—; Punjab: Faras, Farwan, Ghasiei, Harwan, Jhau, Kachlei Koan,

Lai, Leh, Lei, Panj, Panjpilchi, Pilchi, Rukh—; Pushtu: Khwa—; Sanskrit:

Pisula—; Sind: Gas, Jao, Lao, Lyi, Turunjabin—; Tamil: Attumari,

Nirumari—; Telugu: Palivela, Palligi—.

3. Tamarix Troupii Hole occurs in the Punjab, the United

Provinces, Sind, Baluchistan, and Mount Abu.

The galls are employed medicinally as an astringent, and

administered internally in dysentery and diarrhcea.

The manna is considered to be detergent, aperient, and

expectorant.

In Jaisalmer a sherbet made from the fruit is said to be very

beneficial in cases of fever brought on from exposure to the hot

wind. The shade of the tree is considered injurious to health; a

heated traveller resting beneath its shadow is certain to suffer

afterwards from fever or rheumatism.

Arabic: Asl, Taffa, Turfah—; Baluchistan: Gazkhera, Gazsurkh, Ghazlei— ;

Bengal: Jhau, Jhav—; Catalan: Tamarit, Tamariu—; Central Provnces:

Jhau—; Ceylon: Kiri—; Deccan: Jhav—; English: Tamarisk—; Gujerat:

Jhavnujhada—; Hindi: Jhau, Jhav—; Italian: Cipressina, Scopa marina—;

Konkani: Jahu—; Malayalam: Jhavukam—; Persian: Gaz, Gazshakar,

Shorgaz— ; Punjab: Jhau, Koa, Lai, Lainya, Pilchi, Rukh—; Pushtu: Gazsurkh,

Ghaz, Suragaz—; Rajputana: Imli—; Sanskrit: Aphala, Bahugranthika,

Jhavu, Jhavuka, Pichula, Shavaka—; Sind: Jhaw, Lai, Lei—; Spanish:

Taray—; Tamil: Attalari, Attuchavakku, Kodaichavukku, Sirusavukku, Sivap-

pattuchavukku, Sivappukkodaichavukku, Sivappusirusavukku, Vannikkay—;

Telugu: Erusaru, Etttasirusaru, Ettayerusaru, Pakke, Pakkepakki, Palligi,

Prakke, Sirasaru—; Tibet: Regeeta, Telta—; Urdu: Jaheva—.

THE NILGIRI GAME ASSOCIATION—1879-1939.

Major E. G. PHyTHian-ADAMS, F.Z.S., 1A. (Retd.).

(With 3 plates).

The year 1939 marks the 60th anniversary of the Nilgir1 Game

Association and affords a suitable opportunity to review the work

it has carried out during that period.

FOUNDATION.

The Association was founded in 1879 by Act of the Madras

Government, its declared object being ‘the preservation of existing

game in the Nilgiri district and the adjoining areas included under

Madras Act II of 1879 and the introduction and preservation of

other game birds and animals’. That object remains the same

today though the fact is perhaps not always fully realised.

The area under its control comprises not only the plateau and

low country of the Nilgiris but also parts of the adjacent districts

of Coimbatore and Malabar. Within those limits a game licence is

necessary for anyone desiring to shoot in reserved forests or on

Government lands. These licences are issued by the District Forest

Officer and the fees credited to the Association.

ORGANIZATION.

All holders of a season shooting or fishing licence are members

of the Association and at an Annual Gene'al Meeting they elect a

Committee in which vests the manageme:t of the affairs and the

control of the funds of the Association; a! out one-third of the

shooting members are Indian. The Collector of the Nilgiris for

the time being is ex-officio President of the Association and Chair-

man of the Committee. _

According to the Rules the Committee shall elect its own

Honorary Secretary but in practice this office for many years has

been held by the District Forest Officer for the sake of convenience.

The Collector has under the Act power to close the whole or

any part of the area for the whole or any part of the year, to

refuse to issue licences in certain cases, and to alter the conditions

of the licence. In practice the Collector acts on the recommenda-

tions of the Committee, his notifications being published in the

District Gazette and entered in the licence. |

Infringements of the shooting rules are dealt with by the

District Forest Officer as Forest offences, or if sufficiently serious

by a First Class Magistrate. All fines recovered are however credited

THE NILGIRI GAME ASSOCIATION—1879-1939 385

to Government and not to the Association. An important section

of the Act forbids the sale of game anywhere in the District during

the close season however it may have been obtained.

LICENCES.

Game licences as at present issued consist of a season licence

costing Rs. 50 and entitling the holder to shoot 2 Sambur, 2

Chital, 1 Black Buck, 4 Jungle Sheep, 1 Nilgiri Ibex, 1 four-

horned Antelope and 1 Bison; while a monthly licence costing

Rs. 30 offers a slightly smaller bag. Both these licences, which

run from 1st September to 31st August following, cover small

game also. For the benefit of short-time visitors there is a weekly

big game licence costing Rs. 20 and a weekly small game licence

costing Rs. ro. A deposit of Rs. 10 is requried on all licences

which is refunded when the return of game shot is sent in. Free

licences are issued to the District Forest Officer of the Nilgiris (the

Honorary Secretary) and to his Range Officers.

Visitors at present pay the same fees as residents.

In 1933 at the request of the Officer Commanding, Wellington

special licences were issued to British soldiers with a fee of Rs. 10

for shooting pig and hare. Six licences only were taken out but

the experiment was found undesirable and Government was

recommended not to. repeat it.

The general conditions of the shooting licence forbid the shooting

of females, stags without horns or in velvet, and immature males,

the definition of maturity being as follows :—

Sambur and Chital: Horns not less than 28”.

Bison: Horns with a spread of 33” or a girth of 18”.

Black Buck: Horns not less than 14”.

Ibex: Saddle must be well defined.

The close season for big game runs from 1st July to 31st October.

Tigers, Panthers, Bears, Hyenas, Wild Dogs and Pigs are not

classified as game and may be shot at any time, but a licence is

necessary for their pursuit except on private land.

Shooting of any kind from motor vehicles is strictly prohibited

as also is shooting of game for elephants.

No shooting of any game animal is permitted at a waterhole

or salt-lick, for a machan or shelter, or by the aid of artificial

light.

All wounded animals count to the bag and a minimum bore is

prescribed for shooting bison.

Nilgai, Malabar Squirrels and all kinds of monkeys are pro-

tected absolutely.

An area in the Kundahs is closed to all beating except

for tigers and panthers and a small sanctuary in which no

shooting is allowed has been formed near Kargude in the low

country. —

Small game shooting on the plateau is limited to two days a

386 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL ‘HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. .XLI

week. The following table compiled from the annual reports as

far back as these are available shows the number of head of big

game killed each year since 1912 and the number of licences issued.

| hoe ay Z LICENCES

| 9 | a |\do

f= nm "a rs

eP2) s-| wl eS] 8 | SB) ea | le Bp a Se | eee

fa (@)/OlS lm l/e A alse “(a ja)ale

1912-13 | 43°) 19 9 9 LAG 6 125 1 73 | 20

1913-14 Perris feces So) 6) 14 Ta 3 Si 3 80 | 34

1914-15 aloes \ ces yAR tes | 4/16 Lurals Y | 49° | 17

1915-16 iS) lmeotol ap ey Sell: 2a2 3 | 40 2 47 | 34

19J6-17 2 | 46) 21 3 8 Sil 2o 4 | 46 Sillaahg

1917-18 4| 48 18 1 Oh 29 S24 i Higa Nae Von

1918-19 2 | 43 , 28 Sih) alek 6 | 20 6 |} 20 58 | 50

1919-20 PA AZ ie 3 9 9 | 40 6 | 36 hE | Al

1920-21 10-))-38- | 43 L |) 14] 16 | 26 6 | 42 1 2 | 85 | 38

1921-22 9 | 43 | 44 N 4 8 | 32 9 | 61 es RO desl ase

1922-23 12 1 30224 2 14 a7 69 Gaaonelieac

1923-24 6G } 224 1522 1 VA AG35 7 | 62 Ste OTe 27 |

1924-25 2 | 20°) 17 OU eee oe (ea oo ay Ie 7 3 | 57 Mh iecmieoeaso om

1925-26 4/]17 | 14 Bites 6 | 10 Beleee 2). Del, OGhir22

1926-27 yA Nie As pal Po i) 4 9 6| 2) 34 £1100. 26

1927-28 4 | 17 | 22 9 5 9 | 21 ZA oe if WileS6. 33

1928-29 6] 15>) 33 9 6 Peas 8 | 45 ol DOU Zo

1929-30 2 ASE nS 8 2 al? alert (aoe 4 4 gO | 19

1930-31 14 | 18 | 20 5 Z 5 ] 3 | 42 93 1225

1931-32 oe) (ed Aan is | EL 4 Lee 2 | 34 | 68 | 30

1932-33 GaOu 7 OMe Gel 8) =2 1-26 1 | 66 | 18 |

1932-24 Sal Oo AO 4 Sula 8 2: 58 TOM Gas 27

1934-35 5 9} 18 2 alee no ih ies 4] 35 64 | 28 | 12

1925-36 13 |i 20 1438 9 3 Z| Al 1 | 46 1/83 | 20} 14

1936-37 Gel ZF 7 Be 210 gS Oi De PaaS? + ey i 14

1937-38 1A 1S SO LO eee SZ | ee aeoo 2 Tai Zoe 19

PRESERVATION.

Bison used to be fairly common at one time on the plateau but

seldom visit it now, though the tracks of a fine solitary bull were

seen at Bangi Tappal some ten years ago. But for all practical

purposes they are now confined to the low country on the North

and West where they are definitely on the increase, a herd of over

40 having been seen on several occasions this year at Mudumalai.

Heads with a spread of 40” or over are seldom obtained but

there are definite records of 4:—

403” in 1808.

Ars" in Iort.

Ae An 123.

Ao) “in 16245

Nothing over 38” appear to have been bagged in recent years.

The numbers shot have increased since a girth of 18” was included

in the definition of maturity some ten years ago.

THE NILGIRI GAME ASSOCIATION—1879-1939 387

There was a serious outbreak of rinderpest in the Mudumalai

Forest in 1909 affecting both bison and sambur, and the numbers

of the former were so depleted that their shooting was prohibited

in 1912 for five years. By 10917 they had increased to a satisfactory

extent and shooting was reopened in that area. In 1929 there was

again a small outbreak of disease in the same forest but only a

few animals died, and since then with the exception of a single

unconfirmed case of foot and mouth disease the herds have

remained healthy.

A number are killed annually by tigers and recently several full

grown cows and a fine mature bull (the head of which now adorns

the Forest Rest House at Anaikatti) have fallen victims. As usual

the hock is the first point of attack in the case of mature animals.

Sambur. Though a fair number are to be found in the low

country the great majority are on the plateau where they have so

increased in spite of the ravages of tigers, panthers and wild dogs

that it has become necessary to have a number of hinds shot

annually. The hope was entertained that only barren hinds would

be shot and so the breed improved but in practice it has proved

quite impossible to distinguish them. The present low horn limit

of 28” was fixed in 1932 in order to allow the shooting of old

stags whose horns are going back and whose retention is

undesirable, but a glance at the table shows how few mature

animals are shot annually, though it must be remembered that

the present bag limit is two as against three previously. |

The record head for the Nilgiris is said to measure 45” but

this must have been obtained before the Association was formed,

as a 42" bagged in 1905 is stated in the Annual Report to be

the largest shot for 4o years. Other fine heads are:—

394" with a spread of 41” in 1902.

40” in 1908.

404” in 1914.

394" .in 1920.

Nothing over 38” appears to have been obtained for a good many

years, the deterioration in size being probably due to the best

stags being shot off year after year. Most stags drop their horns

in April but a few are to be found in hard horn throughout the

year. ‘Sore neck’ seems to be confined to the low country but

even there it is by no means universal. An outbreak of foot and

mouth disease at the foot of the Northern slopes in 1916 caused

the death of several sambur. Except for this and the previously

mentioned outbreak of rinderpest at Mudumalai in 1900, they appear

to have remained healthy.

Chital are confined to the low country, their favourite centre

being the Mudumalai and Benne forests. In spite of the appalling

ravages of wild dogs and to a lesser degree of tigers and panthers,

large herds of 30 to go may be seen including a number of fine

stags. The way in which chital heads have improved under a

careful system of preservation is shown by the following instance.

Writing in 1880 a well known local sportsman and taxidermist refers

388: JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLI

to a head of 324” which he had recently obtained as the largest shot

to date in South India. Nowadays such horns are common in the

Nilgiris and heads of 34” and 35! can be obtained without difficulty

while several over 37” have been shot in recent years, the best

being 2 of 38” bagged in 1915 and 1926. Old stags almost in-

variably have false points, measuring as much as 3”, at the junction

of the brow and the main antler. The present horn limit of 28”

was fixed for the same reason as in the case of sambur and also

because of the great difficulty in judging the length owing to

variations of curve.

Unlike sambur, chital are very irregular in shedding their

horns and consequently some may be found in hard horn and

others in velvet during every month of the year. The majority

are however clear of velvet early in June and it is then that ae

stags may be heard roaring, and stalked.

Considering that the ale on the licence has been reduced

from four to three and then three to two the total brought to bag

each year cannot be considered unsatisfactory. Indeed it is rather

a matter for wonder that so many fine heads can be obtained year

after year from such a limited area.

The great majority of the stags shot come from the Mudumalai

Forest and if the proposal to turn that area into a Sanctuary is

accepted by Government it may be necessary to reduce the present

bag limit from two to one.

The Nilgirt Tahr is found nowhere except on the mountain

ranges of S. India and in the Nilgiris its chief habitat is on and

above the cliffs of the uninhabited Kundahs. In 1879 when the

Association was formed, its numbers, due to indiscriminate shooting,

probably did not exceed a dozen head all told—now there are

certainly not less than 500; the numbers bagged in recent years

show how they have increased.

‘Saddle backs’ which alone may be shot are so called from the

conspicuous white saddle mark on the back which develops with

age; this saddle is more prominent at certain seasons than at

others but once attained is never lost. The best horns recorded

for many years measured 163” and were obtained in 1916; nothing

over 15” has been shot in recent years. Ibex suffer much from

the depredations of panthers, and also to some extent from wild

dogs when they are lured away from the vicinity of the cliffs by

the sprouting of the young grass in April.

The Black Buck of the Nilgiris is much smaller in build than

those found in Central India and the horns seldom exceed 17” in

length. The record head for the Nilgiris is believed to measure

214” but the largest of which any mention is made in the Annual

Reports is 194”.

For several years their shooting was closed and there seems

little doubt that they need renewed protection, as they suffer severely

at the hands of patta land shooters andefrom wild dogs.

Tigers on the plateau and also at Mudumalai are more often

than not met by chance thus offering the sporting opportunity, so

seldom obtained elsewhere, of shooting them. on foot. General

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Nilgiri Tahr (Hemitragus hylocrius Blyth).

Chital (/

Axis axis Erxl.) shot at Mudumalai.

Length of horns 37”.

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THE NILGIRI GAME ASSOCIATION—1879-1939 389

Hamilton recorded meeting a family party of 5 in the Kundahs

and the writer had the good fortune to encounter 3 on the path

near Bangi Tappal some years ago, a sight never to be forgotten.

Only round Anaikatti and Masnigudi is the orthodox practice of

tying out baits and beating regularly resorted to. There seems to

be no decrease in their numbers either on the plateau or in the

low country, fresh animals turning up in a short time to replace

those shot.

Ten foot tigers are as rare in the Nilgiris as elsewhere but

they do occur occasionally. The largest verified measurement

appears to be one of 10! 2” between pegs obtained at Mudumalai in

April 1939; this magnificent specimen was stiff when taped; so

must have measured even more before rigor set in. Another very

fine tiger only slightly less but with a longer tail was shot at Mavin-

halla in July 1939. It is interesting to record that this animal passed

the gun in a beat chasing a fine sambur stag, both animals being

fully extended and separated by only a few yards.

Tigers from the Nilgiris as a rule have coats of a deeper

colour and more heavily marked than those from Central India,

but so far a ‘royal’ tiger, i.e. with an unbroken black band, does

not appear to have been obtained.

Panthers have decreased on the plateau in recent years with

the result that wild pig have increased enormously and cause very

serious damage to crops, more especially potatoes. In the low

country they appear to be as numerous as ever no less than 7

having been shot round Anaikatti and at the foot of the Sigur

ghat between April and July 19309.

The largest recorded measurements between pegs are 7’ 9" in

1900 and 7! 10” in 1t919. Animals between 8! 1” and 8’ 6” have

been reported but there seems little doubt that they were measured

round the curves. Black panthers are still brought to bag oc-

casionally and have been reported in 1939 both on the plateau

and in the Wynaad.

Sloth Bears from the table seem to be on the decrease but it is

doubtful whether this is really so as they are very nocturnal and

have never been numerous.

They are found chiefly in the low country and on the Northern

and Western slopes but seldom ascend to the plateau.

Barking Deer (locally termed Jungle Sheep) are found mostly

on the plateau but they occur also in the Nilgiri Wynaad. The

number allowed on the licence was reduced from six to four in

1929 but the table shows that their position is satisfactory.

The best head recorded is one of 63” in 1898. A pure albino

specimen was shot on Doddabetta in 1938.

Elliot’s or the Mountain Antelope, as the Four-horned Antelope

used to be termed locally is found chiefly at the foot of the Northern

slopes and in the broken ground covered with light jungle along

the edge of the Mysore Ditch, as the great rift of the Moyar river

is called. They are few in number and seldom shot.

Usually the posterior horns alone are present and a measurement

of 34” would be above the average though one of 44” was bagged

390 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLI

in 1918. The latter which must have been an exceptionally old

buck shows about 1” of one front horn.

Two of these antelopes are reported to have been shot many

years ago at Pykara but since then it has not been seen on the

plateau.

Hyenas. Except for an occasional straggler to the plateau these

unsightly but useful scavengers are confined to the dry belt at

about 3,000 feet elevation round Anaikatti where they are common.

Poor as the trophy is their skins are certainly far finer than those

from further North.

From the writer’s own experience a hyena will keep a female

or small male panther from its kill but gives way to a large male.

One is recorded as having been killed on the plateau by the

Ooty Hunt in 1gto.

Nilgai are probably now extinct in the area, though it is just

possible that one or two remain in the broken country East of

Sirur at the foot of the Northern slopes, which is seldom visited

by sportsmen. None however have been reported for many years.

Elephants are protected by the Elephant Preservation Act but

most years one or more solitary tuskers which have been damaging

crops or endangering human life are proscribed by the Collector

and permits to shoot them issued to Nilgiri Game Association

licence holders on the recommendation of the District Forest

Officer. Proscriptions last only for twelve months and lapse if

the animal has not been shot within that period; between 1931

and 1939 ten tuskers were proscribed and eight shot.

The movements of elephants depend largely on climatic con-

ditions but there are always a few to be found in the jungles at

the foot of the Northern slopes while at times their number rises

to fifty or more. The Forest Department maintains a number

of elephant pits at Teppakadu where animals are trapped from

time to time.

The droppings of a herd of elephants were found in 1929 on

Angindamalai a peak in the distant Kundahs at a height of 7,300

feet—probably they come up annually via the Silent Valley. But

nowhere else are they seen nowadays on the plateau if we except

a small lost calf which somehow found its way up and was

captured on the Ooty Golf Course some ten years ago.

Other species: So far as is known no exotic animals have ever

been introduced by the Association. A proposal some thirty years

ago to import the young of African antelopes was rejected by the

Committee on the ground that the money might better be expended

on indigenous species.

More recently a sugestion to acclimatise gooral was approved

but nothing further appears to have been done in the matter. There

seems little doubt that the experiment would prove a success and

would add an interesting variety to the existing fauna.

Small game. For many years the close season ran from 1st

March to 15th September, and as long as this was maintained a

fair head of small game was to be found on the plateau, the stock

of Jungle Fowl being maintained by releasing birds caught in the.

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

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THE NILGIRI GAME ASSOCIATION—1879-1939 391

low country. But in recent years the close season has been whittled

down and at present pigeon shooting opens as early as 1st July

while migratory birds may be shot up to the end of March. The

former results in nesting Jungle Fowl being disturbed while the

noticeable decrease in Woodcock is possibly to some extent due to

the birds being shot after they have paired prior to migration.

There are two well recognised principles of small game preservation

viz. destruction of vermin and conservation of breeding stock. The

first has been well looked after, but it seems probable that unless

more attention 1s paid to the latter the stock of small game on the

plateau will soon be so reduced as to afford little sport.

In the low country however matters are in a much more satis-

factory condition and there are still plenty of Peafowl, Jungle fowl,

partridges and hares in spite of heavy shooting.

Complaints a few years ago that game birds and hares were

dying as the result of eating the cochineal insect which had been

introduced into the low country to destroy the prickly pear, seem

to have been unfounded, though the absence of such heavy cover

has certainly deprived the birds to some extent of nesting sites.

Many attempts have been made to improve the small game

shooting on the plateau, by limiting the shooting to two days a

week, by closing certain areas some temporarily and some per-

manently as nesting sanctuaries and by planting crops in_ their

vicinity, by breeding birds from eggs coilected in the low country,

by releasing imported jungle fowl and other species and by

giving protection to jungle hens, but none have proved really satis-

factory.

Exotic Fauna. The Association has from time to time spent

large sums for importing exotic birds but they have never become

acclimatised and have all died out.

Chikor. 39 were imported in 1892 but died out. Between 1910

and 1916 no less than go were imported from Quetta but shared a

similar fate.

See-see. 8 were imported in 1g11 and 11 in 1916, but dis-

appeared.

Red Jungle-Fowl. 7 were imported from Ganjam in rg0o1—they

were kept in captivity and bred from, 74 of their progeny being

turned down between 1903 and 1907; no traces of these are now

to be found.

Ceylon Jungle-Fowl. 5 were imported and turned down in 1906.

Guinea Fowl. 6 were imported in 1893; but the experiment

proved a failure and it was decided in 1895 not to repeat it.

Pheasants. 12 English pheasants were imported in 1892, and

some Himalayan pheasants before the date, but none survived. An

attempt to obtain Silver Pheasants from Burma a few years ago

fell through as it proved impossible to obtain either eggs or birds.

Peafowl. to from Godaveri were turned down on the plateau

in 1901 but by 1903 they had,all made their way down to the

low country or been killed by vermin.

Francolin. A recent proposal to import Francolin from East

Africa fell through owing to the breakdown of arrangements at the

392; JOURNAL,: BOMBAY NATURAL SCHIST, (SOCIETY; Vol. XLI

last moment. In view of previous experiences it is doubtful whether

they would have proved any more successful than other species”

already tried.

Rabbits. Appear to have been imported and turned down many

years ago, as in 1892 it was reported that they had proved a failure.

It is perhaps just as well that no further attempt has been made

to repeat this somewhat risky experiment.

AMOUNTS PaID FOR DESTRUCTION OF VERMIN.

Year Amount Wild dogs destroyed

Rs.

1912-13 1,420 58

1913-14 12 46

1914-15 787 31)

1915-16 850 30

1916-17 657 22

1917-18 1,200 56

1918-19 1,023 46

1919-20 897 41

1920-21 1,415 62

1921-22 LS: 22

1922-23 4,192 os

1923-24 677 iw

1924-25 tins ... No figures available.

1925-26 195 20

1926-27 434 36

1927-28 | | 1,254 =|

ee eee o rNo figures available.

1930-31 909 se)

1931-32 925 16

1932-33 587 IS

1933-34 1,295 30

1934-35 943 18

1935-35 | 751 16

1936-37 1,230 48

1937-38 670 28

VERMIN.

The accompanying table-shows the amounts paid by the

Association during the past 26 years for the destruction of vermin,

included under that head being wild dogs, wild cats, red mongooses,

martens, crow pheasants, sparrow hawks, marsh harriers, etc.

Owing to the fact that small, if any, rewards were paid in

adjoining districts, the Association has from time to time been

flooded with skins, many of which must have been imported.

This reached its peak in 1922-3 when no less than Rs. 4,192 was

disbursed and to avoid bankruptcy all rewards had to be temporarily

discontinued. They were however resumed on a reduced scale in

1925-26 with various modifications since, the rewards as at present

being Rs. 20 for a wild dog, Rs. 1-8 for a wild cat or red mongoose

THE NILGIRI GAME ASSOCIATION—1879-1939 393

and 8 annas for a crow pheasant; except in the case of wild dogs

rewards are paid to licence holders only. The marked variation

in the numbers of wild dogs killed from year to year, is due

partly to the reason already given but also doubtless to the periods

of decrease and increase to which these animals are liable.

Whether such decreases are due to disease is not known but certainly

some of the wild dogs killed in 1937 were in a very mangy condition,

and a number were found dead probably from distemper in 1893-4,

sometimes as many as 3 and 4 together in one spot.

The idea that wild dogs drive all game from the forests though

true enough of open jungle does not apply to forests like Mudumalai

where the heavier jungle and tall grass (which cuts the dogs’ pads)

affords a safer refuge to their victims. There chital may be seen

daily even when wild dogs are hunting the area without remission.

POACHING.

This of course can never be entirely suppressed but it is kept

within bounds by the Nilgiri Game Association watchers and by

the subordinates of the Forest Department who receive rewards

for the detection of satisfactorily proved offences. Some dozen or

more cases are reported annually the majority of which result in

conviction. One of the most difficult types to deal with is the

motor car poacher who shoots by night but certain steps have

been taken to deal with this despicable offence which it is hoped

will prove satisfactory.

The greatest deterrent to poaching is undoubtedly the law

forbidding the sale of game out of season anywhere in the district,

however it may have been obtained.

FISHING.

Many attempts to establish trout in the Nilgiris were made in

the past by the Nilgiri Game Association and by private enterprise

at great cost, but for various reasons all proved failures and

not until 1906 when on the suggestion of the Nilgiri Game

Association the services of Mr. H. C. Wilson were obtained from

Ceylon was any real progress effected. Government took over

the trout fishing in 1909 and under Mr. Wilson’s expert guidance

Rainbow trout were introduced, and by igri trout fishing in the

Nilgiris had become an accomplished fact. In 1926 the Nilgiri

Game Association at the request of Government resumed control of

the fishing on the plateau and since then has been entirely

responsible for it. A season licence costing Rs. 100 entitles the

holder to 250 trout and a daily license of Rs. 5 to 10 trout. There

are also licences for the month, week and weekend. Coarse fishing

licences covering two streams stocked with trout and carp cost

Rs. 25 for the season or Rs. 2 per diem.

The following table shows the numbers of trout and carp killed

on the plateau between 1927 and 1938; carp and mahseer killed

394 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLI

in the Moyar and Bhavani have been excluded as these rivers are

not under control of the Association.

TABLE OF FisH KILLED IN THE NILGIRIS.

Year Trout Carp | Revenue from iicences

Rs.

1927 | 3957 | 82 5,280

1928 3440 136 6,829 .

1929 2968 | 167 6,239

1930 3145 | 108 6,393

1931 3303 | 72 6,965

1932 4321 52 4,554

1933 4393 51 5,439

1934 6742 73 6,688

1935 8191 49 7,428

1936 6828 44 7,965

1937 4003 37 329

1938 4705 52 | 7,376

The large numbers killed in 1934-6 are due chiefly to a great

increase in the number of small fish; since their reduction weights

have generally improved. The figures for 1938 include 399 trout

of 1 Jb. and over; 375 ofd lbs. and over, 214 :0f, 2 lbs. and over,

and 11 of 3 lbs. and over—most of these came from the Mukerti

lake, the average for the rivers being 3 to the lb.

The chief problem with which the Nilgiri Game Association is

faced is the provision of a sufficient food supply for the trout.

The indigenous fresh water crab provides much of this, and _ it

has been supplemented by the formation of watercress beds into

which have been introduced fresh water shrimps and snails, and

by planting trees and shrubs along the river banks likely to attract

Ephemeride. In addition the rivers are fed with the meat of

sambur hinds shot during the hot weather when the natural food

supply is low.

The Association maintains an up-to-date hatchery at Avalanche

and in it are bred trout from locally collected ova supplemented

from time to time by importation. There are also stew ponds at

Avalanche, Krurmund and Pykara where small fish are kept till

they are large enough to be turned into rivers. Besides maintain-

ing the trout fisheries of the Nilgiris the Association has been

able to supply trout for stocking rivers to the Palni Hills and the

High Range of Travancore.

FINANCE.

The finances of the Association are derived almost entirely from

licence fees for shooting and fishing. On the debit side are the

salaries of the Fishing Superintendent and of the game and fish

watchers, office establishment, rewards for vermin, upkeep of

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Ten

The Mukerti Lake.

Mukerti

Prout=—15 lbs.

THE NILGIRI GAME ASSOCIATION—1879-1939 395

hatchery and stock ponds, river improvements, upkeep of bungalows

and watchers’ quarters, maintenance of boats on Mukerti lake and

shooting improvements generally.

Generally speaking receipts balance expenditure, but the small

reserve which had been built up over many years has been almost

entirely swallowed up by the erection of the new Mukerti shooting

and fishing hut to replace the old one submerged by the recently

formed Hydro Electric Lake for which no compensation has been

received from Government.

At the beginning of 1939 the Association was asked by Govern-

ment to show cause why it should not surrender half the shooting

and fishing fees. The matter is still under discussion but it is

hoped that the well reasoned arguments of the Association will have

the desired effect, as without the present receipts it would be quite

impossible to run the shooting and fishing efficiently. It is hoped

also that the decisions of the All India Wild Life Conference held

a few years ago whose policy has already been accepted by Govern-

ment will be given due consideration.

GENERAL.

For the convenience of members, the Association maintains three

well equipped shooting and fishing bungalows on the plateau, two

of which were presented by members on retirement, and another

smaller one at Mudumalai. The block system is not in force in the

Nilgiris and so far has proved unnecessary. The unwritten law

that the man first on the spot has prior claim and should not be

disturbed, in accordance with etiquette prevailing among sports-

men, is generally recognised.

For the benefit of visitors there are on sale at the office of the

Association Notes on shooting and fishing and an up-to-date shikar

map showing all roads, bungalows and streams in the area. An

experiment in registering local shikaris was tried for several years

but proved a failure owing to lack of support.

A proposal two years ago to abolish the close season for big

game was, one is glad to record, unanimously rejected by the

Committee. The plea that the constant presence of sportsmen is

the best check on poaching is no doubt true but in this small and

well policed area already there is a continual flow of sportsmen

either shooting or fishing throughout the year. It must also be

remembered that the Nilgiris 1s under present conditions shot to

its limit and if the existing four months close season for big game

was abolished it would mean an increase of at least 30 per cent to

the numbers of animals killed annually, which would only result in

deterioration and the reduction of the bag limit. In addition the

law prohibiting the sale of game out of season would lapse and

poaching would increase. There seem therefore to be no reasonable

grounds for abolishing a system which has worked so well for sixty

years.

In 1936 a proposal to alienate the whole of the Mudumalai

forest from the Nilgiri Game Association and to turn it into a

396 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLI

National Park was put forward by the Chief Conservator of Forests.

This suggestion was most strongly combatted by the Association as

economically unsound and also unfair to the Association (which

had already been deprived of large areas in the Kundahs) as it

took away what is admittedly the best shooting ground in the low

country.

In 1938 the Chief Conservator submitted a revised plan covering

a smaller area as a Wild Life Sanctuary in which timber extraction

would continue while control would be vested in the existing Forest

staff; and it is understood that this scheme will shortly come into

elrect.

With the idea of preservation no one interested in the Fauna

of the country can find fault, the only question is in the method

employed. National Parks on the lines of those in South Africa

and America are unsuited to India as the fees from visitors will be

so small; while sanctuaries unless adequately policed merely form

a happy hunting ground for poachers, as has been found in other

parts of India.

As long as the Association exists the supervision it exercises

and constant presence of sportsmen provide a guarantee for the

preservation of the fauna, but fears have been expressed that the

Association’s days are numbered and that it is advisable now to

take steps to safeguard the wild life of the district before it is too

late.

If the scheme comes into force it is of the utmost importance

that a really effective system of policing should be maintained.

CONCLUSION.

Such has been the record of the Nilgiri Game Association for

the past sixty years, a record of which it may well be proud.

Starting with a Fauna in the case of some species on the verge

of extinction, it has by careful control built up as fine a stock of

game as is to be found anywhere in India, while the popularity of

the fishing is evidenced by the large number of licences which

continue to be sold.

But the future is not so rosy. Apart from the possible loss

of half the licence fees which would result in financial ruin, there

still persists the butcher mentality of the 70’s which given free

rein would abolish all close seasons and allow indiscriminate shoot-

ing. It is to be hoped that Government will see reason and that

the more far seeing members of the Association will continue to

exercise a restraining influence over those imbued with blood lust.

It would be a thousand pities if 60 years of good game preservation

should come to nothing; surely it is not too much to expect that

all members present and future will bear in mind the declared

object of the Association which is the preservation of game and not

its destruction. |

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE I

Brown and Rainbow Trout from Kashmir.

(for explanation see end of article).

ON AN EPIDEMIC AMONG RAINBOW TROUT IN THE

HARWAN HATCHERY, KASHMIR, DURING 1934;

WITH OBSERVATIONS ON CERTAIN RECENT

CASES OF MORTALITY.

GuLAM Mustara Matix, B.sc. (Hons.), B.Sc.

Pisciculturist, Kashmir State.

(With 2 plates and 1 text figure).

CONTENTS.

PAGE.

Introduction — by ne a ie OU

Description of the material Ete ets ee Ne fa OUG

Pop-eye or exophthalmia ... = MG moe.

Edges of the-fins ragged and turned white... at ... 400

Large white marks below the gills ... ee a ee OW

General considerations and conclusion _... ee oe .. 401

Recent cases of mortality — me i cs ... 402

Fatty degeneration of liver - = ss .. 403

Malstripping ma Se = ee ore . 405

Summary 405

Note on the 1934 epidemic among Rainbow Trout in ‘the Harwan Hatchery,

Kashmir, by Brigadier A. Campbell Ross... ae sn 4105

List of references... ee oe es na. can 407

Explanation of plate sae 408

INTRODUCTION.

At the suggestion of the Bombay Natural History Society the

Zoological Survey of India was approached telegraphically in April,

1934, by the Game Warden, Jammu and Kashmir State, to suggest

ways and means for avoiding the heavy mortality among Rainbow

Trout in the Harwan Hatchery, Kashmir. Rai Bahadur Dr. S. L.

Hora, who attended to the enquiry, suggested, as a preliminary

measure, a general improvement in the sanitary conditions by the

removal of any excessive plant growth and disinfection of pens

with Condy’s fluid. At the same time he asked for a few dead

specimens for post mortem examination, and detailed information

regarding the symptoms of the disease and the conditions under

which the fish are kept in the hatchery. Three specimens of

Rainbow Trout and an accompanying note (vide infra, pp. 405-407)

from Brigadier A. Campbell Ross about the Hatchery were received.

An examination of the specimens showed a number of external

injuries in the case of all the three specimens, which were attributed

by Dr. Hora to the spawning activities of the individuals affected.

Further it was presumed that death may have resulted from fungus

attack of the injured parts and its subsequent spreading to other

portions of the body. However, by the 8th of May the mortality

398 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLI

was checked with the increase in the water supply and later almost

stopped by taking out all the fish from the most affected tanks,

drying the tanks and treating them with a strong solution of

Condy’s fluid. In view of the healthy conditions having been

restored, Dr. Hora did not pursue investigations any further, but

in June 1938, he very kindly placed all the material at my disposal

and suggested that I should prepare a report on the epidemic of

1934 in the Harwan Hatchery. In writing this report I had: the

additional advantage of having worked in the Kashmir hatcheries

for about two years.

I am grateful to Dr. Hora for affording me an opportunity to

investigate this interesting material, and for his helpful suggestions.

To Dr. Baini Prashad, Director, Zoological Survey of India, I am

indebted for facilities for work in the department and for valuable

criticism. I have received valuable information and material from

the Game and Fisheries Division of the Forest Department, Kashmir,

and for these I am obliged to the authorities concerned, particularly

to Sir Peter H. Clutterbuck, Chief Conservator of Forests, to whom

I am further indebted for encouragement and manifold courtesies.

DESCRIPTION OF THE MATERIAL.

_ The material consisted of 3 specimens of Rainbow Trout—one

male, 390 mm. in standard length and 2 females, about 400 mm.

in standard length. The fish died on the 2oth April, 1934, and

were preserved in formalin. Later, however, they were transferred

to rectified spirits of wine. Owing to the preservation of the

specimens it is now difficult to verify some of the diagnostic features

of the disease as given by Brigadier Ross (vide infra, p. 406) but

in the following paragraphs I have attempted to correlate the

symptoms described by him with the results of the detailed post

mortem examination of the specimens.

Pop-eye or exophthalmia.—Though in the preserved material

the buiging eye-balls are not readily noticeable, their deep sunken

condition and the presence of loose flaps of skin round the eyes

indicate that, at one time, they may have protruded considerably

beyond the sockets. The opacity of the eyes is distinctly marked

in all the three specimens. In one of them, there are clear marks

of injury to the anterior side of the right lens; while the cornea

of the left eye is perforated and the lens is absent. In the other

specimens both the eyes are opaque with definite marks of injury

to the lens of the right eye.

According to Davis (1937, p. 65-67), the Pop-eye condition in

trout results from a number of causes, which may here be con-

sidered one by one.

1. A severe infestation with the larvae of a trematode worm.

An examination of the eyes showed no evidence of trematode

infestation, and, moreover, in the Harwan Hatchery there are no

snails, which could serve as the principal host of any trematode.

It is unlikely, therefore, that the pop-eye condition can be attributed

to this cause.

ON AN EPIDEMIC AMONG RAINBOW TROUT 399

2. Water supply being supersaturated by air gives rise to gas,

which causes bulging of the eye-balls.

At Harwan the ponds are fed by an open snow-fed stream and,

in consequence, there is no natural supersaturation of the water

by air or gas.

3. Accumulation of serous fluid in the abdominal cavity and

other parts of the body.

This is the common cause of pop-eye in trout, and is usually

associated with the diseased condition of the kidneys which, in

the affected specimens, become darker owing to the tubules being

filled with crystals and casts. Heavy infestation of the kidneys

with a Myxosporidian parasite also produces the same symptoms.

In the specimens under report the kidneys were normal and there

was no accumulation of serous fluid in the abdominal cavity.

4. Bacterial infection of the eye.

Bacterial infection, though not well established, is usually

seasonal and the mortality due to this cause is confined to spring

and early summer. It affects chiefly the adult fish. The usual

symptom is the appearance of bubbles or blisters on the surface

of the body usually above the lateral line. No such _ blisters,

however, were noticed in specimens under report.

5. Lipoid degeneration or fatty degeneration of the liver.

Lipoid degeneration, which in itself is a serious disease, has

been observed to cause exophthalmia or protrusion of the eye-balls

(Davis, 1937, p. 69). Diseased fish are darker in colour and float

restlessly at the surface. The gills, due to a marked anemia, are

lighter in colour. The stomach and intestine contain little, if any,

food and are filled with a pale yellow fluid. The body cavity is

frequently distended. The striking characteristic is the condition

of the liver which is: light yellow or yellowish grey. The coloura-

tion may be uniform, but not infrequently the liver gets covered

with dark blotches scattered at intervals. According to Davis this

disease is mainly confined to Rainbow Trout.

The post mortem examination of the specimens revealed that

the viscera were highly loaded with fat. In one case the liver

was slightly yellowish, while in the other two it was light yellow,

excepting the region near its point of attachment which was black-

ish. The size of the gall bladder was normal in the male, while

it was enormously distended in the two females. The fluid in the

gall bladder was found to be condensed into small, yellowish green

masses. The variability in the size of the gall bladder noticed in

the Harwan specimens its not, as remarked by Davis, an unusual

occurrence.

The stomachs and intestines of the specimens were almost

empty. In one female the intestine contained greasy fluid of a

yellow colour condensed into fat-like globules. The mesenteries

of the stomach, intestine and its czcae were heavily loaded with

fat.

Though the colour is not well preserved in these specimens,

the body appears generally darker. It may be noted that Brigadier

Ross referred to the black colour of the body and the anemic

400 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLI

condition of the mucous membrane in the mouth as the symptoms

of the disease. As indicated above, these two symptoms are highly

characteristic of the disease caused by a fatty degeneration of the

liver (Dawis, 1637, 4p. 60).

In view of the above it seems probable that the pop-eye con-

dition in the affected Rainbows was induced by the lipoid or fatty

degeneration of the liver, due to the replacement of normal glycogen

in the cells by a large accumulation of fat or lipoids. The fat,

when in great excess, may also get deposited over various organs,

as noticed in these specimens. The accumulation of too much

fat normally results from malnutrition, but from the data supplied

by Brigadier Ross there would appear ‘nothing apparently wrong

with the fish given as food’. It is, however, probable that the

country fish from the Dal Lake, comprising species of Crossochilus,

Botia, and Schizothorax, were rather rich in fat as most of them

breed in the summer months. No definite data are available about

the food and nutrition value of these species but as their local

names indicate they are regarded highly fatty and slightly bitter

in taste especially Crossochilus. Normally this type of fatty food

may not affect healthy fish, but, as has been detailed below (vide

infra, p. 402), the trout were living under unhealthy conditions in

1934 and this may have been responsible for their assimilating

too much fat in their livers.

The injuries to the lenses noted above are in all probability

accidental and may have been caused during the handling of the

fish by the catchers. Brigadier Ross reported that the eyes were

first protruded, but this condition later subsided. In this connection

reference may be made to Bullin (1913, p. 634), who, quotes

Hoffer’s remarks that in the case of fish weakened by disease or

in a dying condition the organs of sight are deeply sunk in their

orbits whereas in healthy fish the eyes somewhat protrude and

that incipient corneal opacity may sometime be taken as a

diagnostic feature of graver disorders. For opacity he gives con-

cussion as the chief cause, and remarks that the aqueous humour

accumulates more in the anterior chamber resulting in the bulging

out of the cornea. He has also indicated that the perforation of

the cornea is largely due to the susceptibility of the fish, already

weakened by disease, to injury. He is further of the opinion that

in trout it may be due to their living in waters impregnated with

iron. In the Harwan Hatchery iron screens are used in the pens,

but there is the least probability for this factor as a causative agent

owing to the fact that cases of trout with perforated cornea are

very rare and that same screens and water are used for other

fish which do not get affected. This may be an additional factor,

but requires further investigation.

Edges of fins ragged and turned white.—The next point in

Brigadier Ross’s description of the disease relates to the edges

of the fins getting ragged and turning white.

Of the three specimens examined, the large mature male with

secondary sexual characters fully developed, has both the jaws

injured. The lower portions of the caudal, anal and pelvic fins are

ON AN EPIDEMIC AMONG RAINBOW TROUT 401

also injured. In the other two specimens, both of which are

mature females, the jaws and the anal fins are only slightly injured,

but the caudal fins are greatly damaged. From the nature of the

injuries it seems probable that this is the result of sexual excite-

ment. The injuries to the fins must have resulted from rubbing

against the bottom of the pens preliminary to spawning.

The growth of fungus is usually accelerated by temperature and

unhygienic conditions. Injuries of the type noted above, form

suitable nuclei for the attack of fungus in fishes living under

artificial conditions that prevail in hatcheries. From such focii the

fungus later spreads to other living tissues.

As according to Brigadier Ross’s report the pens at Harwan

Hatchery were silted up to a depth of six inches, there is every

probability that the resulting insanitary condition of the pens was

in some way responsible for the ragging and fraying of the fins.

In this connection reference may be made to the observations of

Major Pyper, Residency Surgeon, who visited the hatcheries and

examined fresh specimens. His examination of the ulcerated fins

did not reveal any infection even under a high power of microscope,

and it can, therefore, be safely concluded that the injuries to the

fins were due, in the initial stages at least, to mechanical

causes.

Large white marks below the gills.—Brigadier Ross also noted

the presence of white marks below the gills. An examination of

the specimens shows that there are a number of white spots or

patches due to injuries over the body of the male specimen.

Microscopic examination of scrapings from these patches did not

reveal any type of infection.

Dr. Hora on receiving the specimens marked the white areas,

which were in his opinion attacked by Saprolegnia, with white rings

im the male specimen (Plate fie.-3). Though there is mo evidence

in the preserved specimens of the fungus in these regions I have

personal experience of fungus causing considerable damage to trout

in the Harwan Hatchery, Kashmir.

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS AND CONCLUSION.

From the nature of the material it seems reasonable to assume

that the injuries to the fins and other parts of the trout had

probably been caused by sexual activities. The presence of ripe

males and females in the same pen, and over-crowding may have

been additional contributory factors. Occasionally injury is also

caused by the netting of the fish for stripping manipulation or sale.

Further, under favourable weather conditions any small injury may

be sufficient for the Saprolegnia to attack fish.

According to Davis (p. 63), there 1s no evidence to show that

fungus grows on healthy specimens unless there is some foreign

organic matter adhering to the surface, while it develops quickly

on dead and injured parts. Rushton (1935, p. 52) is of opinion

that an excessive number of fish in an area results in causing abra-

sions and loss of scales which allow the fungus to get a hold,

402 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Volo XLT

Further, the presence of fungus is an indication of organic pollu-

tion. According to Brigadier Ross silt, probably containing organic

débris, had accumulated from 3-6 in. deep in the pens at Harwan,

and the pens were also over-stocked. For example, the affected

ponds Nos. 4 and 5 with dimensions of 48 ft. by 5% ft. by 53 ft.

and 46 ft. by 54 ft. by 54 ft. held 95 and 45, 3-4 and 4-5 years

old fish respectively in 1934. Owing to drought there was shortage

of water in the pens for several months preceding the epidemic.

According to Major Pyper, filth had accumulated round the village

over and above the hatchery during the earlier part of 1934, and

with the onset of rains after March, this was washed into the

stream and later into the pens.

It may also be pointed out that pen No. 5, which was most

affected, is located at a place where the water is deepest and the

current relatively much slower. In consequence the maximum

amount of silt is collected in this pen. In pens Nos. g and Io,

which held Brown Trout, on the other hand the water flows at so

rapid a rate that any food thrown in at the upper end, if not

ingested by the fish immediately, is carried to the lower end. It

was probably for this reason that the Brown Trout were least

affected.

Brigadier Ross further wrote that the disease attacked the males

more virulently than the females. As has been explained above

the males, under the urge of sexual excitement, are liable to receive

more injuries and wounds during sexual combats than the females.

Further, it is the males that struggle most while the milt is being

taken out, and often slip off and get injured. Regarding the

observation that it was the bigger trout among which the maximum

rate of death occurred, while yearlings and 2-year old ones

were apparently immune, it may be stated that here again the

sexual maturity of the larger specimens explains the difference.

Further, young fish, as a general rule, possess greater vitality,

vigour and health. Another curious feature of the disease was

that Brown Trout of the same age in the same hatchery had not

been affected. This may be due to the fact that fatty. degeneration

of the liver, as noted by Davis, is confined to Rainbows only, while

Browns are practically immune from it.

It may be concluded that whereas lipoid disease is a result of

malnutrition, food was not the only factor responsible for the

epidemic; for the fish had already been weakened by adverse en-

vironmental conditoins such as low water, overcrowding and un-

hygienic conditions of the pens. The malady was aggravated by

the breeding season during which all reserves are used up for the

proper development of the sexual glands. The sexual combats and

efforts at spawning caused injuries to the fish and the then

unhealthy condition of the pens made the fish liable to extensive

attacks by fungus.

RECENT CASES OF MORTALITY.

In June 1938, Sir Peter H. Clutterbuck, Chief Conservator of

Forests, Kashmir, was requested to send cases of Rainbow Trout

—————————————

ON AN EPIDEMIC AMONG RAINBOW TROUT 403

mortality in the Harwan Hatchery, Kashmir, in order to verify

the data already available for the investigation of an epidemic

among Rainbows in 1934. Accordingly, the Game Warden sent

a collection of two Rainbows and one Brown Trout, each two

years old, without any remarks regarding the circumstances of

their death. As a result of post mortem examination, symptoms

of fatty degeneration of the liver were observed in the two Rain-

bows, while the Brown Trout appeared to be a case of malstripping.

Fatty degeneration of the liver.—An external examination of one

of the Rainbow specimens, 245 mm. in standard length, showed that

it was somewhat blackish in colour and had a mark of an injury,

with loss of scales and skin, over the posterior portion of the

pectoral fin above the lateral line. These injuries seem to be the

result of netting or other mechanical causes. The right eye

appeared to be quite normal, but the left showed marked protrusion

or exophthalmia. Internally a great deposition of fat in the mesen-

teries and along the entire length of the alimentary canal was

observed. The liver was yellow with dark blotches on its outer

border. The rest of the organs were normal, except the kidneys

that appeared blackish in colour. The air-bladder contained fat

globules. The dissection of the abnormal eye showed that the opaque

cornea was greatly thickened by a deposition over it of a tissue-

like matter which could be removed by means of a fine pair of

forceps. According to Bullin (1913, p. 636) aqueous humour

accumulates in large quantity in the anterior chamber and results

in the bulging of the cornea outwards.

The second rainbow, 240 mm. in standard length, was more

blackish in colour. The right eye was enormously enlarged and

protruded (text-fig. 1 b). On dissection it was found that the lens

had moved much forward, and almost touched the cornea. There

were indications of fatty deposits in the eye-ball. The left eye,

though normal in size, had a perforated cornea and the eye was

without its lens. The perforation of the cornea (text-fig. ta),

according to Bullin (1913, p. 634), results from the existence of

fish in waters impregnated with iron from drains, or from injury.

The former, however, cannot account for the defective eye of a

trout in the Harwan Hatchery as such cases are very rare and

the fish as a rule do not suffer from such defects. In the present

specimen, however, the pressure of fat from behind, as is character-

istic of the disease, has probably thrown out the lens bursting

out the cornea, for in the right eye, as observed already, there is

still indication of the forward position of the lens and deposition

of the fat in the posterior chamber.

An internal examination of the viscera revealed almost the same

symptoms as noted in the first case, except that the liver had

degenerated and was greatly reduced in size. The amount of fat

deposited was in excess of that observed in the previous specimen.

The stomach and intestine were empty.

In my opinion the fatty degeneration of the liver may have been

caused by feeding the fish on fatty diet, as already indicated in

the foregoing account. The diet of the fish is reported to be the

404 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCTEIY.. Vol. XceT

same as it has ever been, but from my experience of the Harwan

Hatchery I know that trout are fed on country fish from the Dal

Lake belonging to the genera Crossochilus, Botia and Schizothorax.

During summer when species of Schizothorax are not easily available

in the Dal, Botia, and Crossochilus form the bulk of the food-supply.

Sey we

Text-fig. 1.—Lateral views of head and anterior part of body from the left

and right sides of a Rainbow Trout that died in the Harwan Hatchery,

Kashmir in 1938. Nat. Size.

a. Showing perforation (c) of the cornea of the left eye; b. Showing enormous

protrusion (e) of the right eye.

No definite data are available regarding the food value of these

forms but according to the general belief in Kashmir they are

regarded as highly fatty; their local names teth-garh or ‘bitter fish’

and tel-garh or ‘oil fish’ are to a certain extent indicative of their

food value. Another factor that may have caused this mortality

is the low temperature. According to Gaschoot (1929), low water

temperature is very favourable to the outbreak of the fatty de-

generation of the liver. The specimens under report were received

in November when the hatchery water is very cold. According

to Davis, the disease is confined to Rainbows only. !

ON AN EPIDEMIC AMONG RAINBOW TROUT 405

Malstripping.—The specimen of Brown Trout, 220 mm. in

standard length is a 2-year old female. An external examination

showed the presence of a large number of white patches on the

body. A prominent feature was the presence of an ovum at the

mouth of the genital opening held in position by a cup shaped

sheath protruding out from the genital aperture (Plate I, fig. 2). The

posterior half of the left pectoral fin was missing, and almost all

the other fins were considerably frayed (Plate I, fig. 1).

Internally the ovaries were found to be fully developed and

contained mature ova still held intact in the ovarian follicles. The

ovarian membrane was slightly injured a little above the position

of the vent and so was also the peritoneum.

From the above it would appear that an effort had been made

to extrude the eggs forcibly before they had become loose and

fallen into the body cavity; this operation seems to have resulted

in the extrusion of only one egg, inflicting at the same time

injuries to the ovarian membrane and the peritoneum. Similar

cases of malstripping have been noticed by me (in press) from the

Hatcheries of the Kagan Valley, Hazara District. The white

patches noticed on the skin may be due to a fungus attack, but

a microscopic examination of scraping from these regions did not

reveal any parasitic infection. The missing portion of the left

pectoral fin seems to have been nibbled off by a stronger trout.

Frayed condition of the fins, especially of the caudal (Plate I, fig. 2),

is clearly noticeable. According to Rushton (1937, p. 358),

the fins become frayed when the fish are kept under insanitary

conditions.

SUMMARY.

From an examination of the material in the collection of the Zoological

Survey of India the author discusses an epidemic that broke out among Rainbow

Trout in the Harwan Hatchery, Kashmir, in 1934. He further makes obser-

vations on certain recent cases of mortality from the material obtained from

the same hatchery in 1938. A short description of the material and the results

of the post mortem examination are given.

The epidemic is traced to lipoid or fatty degeneration of liver, which was

probably caused through feeding the fish on fatty diet. Normally the disease

would have never occurred in the form of an epidemic but it was accentuated

owing to unfavourable conditions that prevailed for several months preceding

the epidemic. These were—shortage of water, insanitary conditions of the

pens and over-crowding that resulted in abrasions, and subsequent attack by

fungus. The malady was further aggravated by the breeding season when

the vitality of the fish is naturally reduced as the epidemic was noticed just

at the close of the breeding season.

The recent cases of Rainbow mortality corroborate the observations made

in connection with the fatty degeneration of the liver in the cases of mortality of

1934. In the case of Brown Trout death has been attributed to malstripping,

while the frayed condition of the fins was probably due to unhygienic conditions

of the pens.

NOTE ON THE 1934 EPIDEMIC AMONG RAINBOW TROUT IN THE

Harwan HATCHERY, KASHMIR, BY BRIGADIER A. CAMPBELL Ross.

1. The Hatchery was inspected by the Game Warden (Major Anchal Singh)

on the 1st April, 1934 when everything was correct and as far as we know

no signs of disease,

406 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURA (HISTO. SOCIE TVe. (Viol Unt

2. From ist to 15th April ...13 ‘Rainbow’ had succumbed; on 16th four

were sick, on the 17th two fresh cases developed; and all six of these died

on the 17th and 18th April making a total of 19 casualties from ist to

18th April.

3. Total stock of Rainbow in all Pens in the Hatchery is as follows :—

85 Cock fish.

25 whlene fist:

130 total. (These fish are all of over 2 years; excluding yearlings and

younger fish.)

4. The death among the ‘Rainbow’ according to age and sex are as

follows :—

No. Date of death. No. of tank,

2 Cocks 3-4-1934 5

1 Cock o-4-1934 5

2 Cocks 5-4-1934 4

1 Hen 5-4-1934 a

2 Cocks 6-4-1934 4

ben: 8-4-1934 4

1 Cock and

fares \ 9-4-1934 5

I Cock 10-4-1934 4

1 Hen 13-4-1934 4)

2 Cocks 17-4-193 4 5

2 Hens 17-4-1934 4

1 Cock 18-4-1934 4

1 Hen 18-4-1934 5

Weight. Approximate age.

Cocks 2: 5 lbs 5-6 years.

4. 4 lbs 3-4 years.

is 32 lbs 3-4 years.

4, 3 lbs 3 years.

1 2 lbs 3 years.

Jara ay Ae 43 lbs 4-5 years.

li 4; lbs 4-5 years.

ie 4 lbs 3-4 years.

I, 34 lbs 2-4 years.

1. 3 Ibs 3 years.

Ze 23 lbs 3 years.

5. The proportion to sex among the casualties is :—

12 Cocks to 7 Hens:

The disease appears to attack the older fish as nearly all the yearlings and

2-year olds so far appear to be immune.

Description of Disease.

Taken from a Hen ‘Rainbow’ fish (age 3 years and weight 3 Ibs.) when

sick for five days. She died on the 7th day.

(a) Very bulging eyes covered by a white opaque film, like very severe

cataract. This is the principal feature of the disease—the eyes at

first protrude right out of the socket; then get covered by the

opaque film after which the eye subsides to normal.

(b) Edges of fins ragged and discoloured. Edges turned white.

(ad) Mucous membrane inside the mouth white and very anaemic.

(e) Stomach discoloured and whole body turning blackish.

Other data.

Water.—

(a) Source. There is no change in the source of water supply, which

has been the same since the establishment of the Hatchery over

30 years ago; the channel of the water course being the same,

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Sec, PARE II

RESERVOIR

for

HARWAN HATCHERY.

Drinking-water for City.

(DIAGRAMMATIC.)

~-Branch stream to Hatchery,

INLET.

No. 1 Pen 2 year old Brown, --Surplus overflow channel,

No. 2 Pen: 2 year old Brown,

No. 3 Pen: 1 & 2 year old Rainbow.

: MODERATELY

No. 4 Pen: 3 & 4 year old Rainbow. _--| |... APFECTED PER.

No. 5 Pen: § year old Rainbow. ~n-||.../MOST AFFECTED PEN.

No. 6 Pen: 5 & 6 year old Brown,

No. 7 Pen: 4 year old Brown.

No. 14 All fishes from 4 & §

No. 8 Pen: 3 & 4 year old Brown.

removed to Pen since affected.

(Never affectedsin shade whole day).

No. 9 Pen: 3 & 4 year old Brown.

ote No, 10 Pen: 4 & 5 year old Brown,

No. 12 Fen: 3 year old Brown,

No. 13 HOSPITAL,

(all sick fishes placed here).

| OUTLET.

A rough plan of the Harwan Hatchery.

(Supplied by Brigadier A. Campbell Koss.)

ON AN EPIDEMIC AMONG RAINBOW TROUT 407

(b) Temperature. Temperature was taken in the Pens 7 times a day.

ihe variation was. -irom.50, 4 .at 7.25 am. to 54° “at 1.25 \p im:

(Chart given below).

Food.—Fresh country fish supplied under contract (a maund daily at 12

noon), fed twice during the day about 7. a.m. and 7 p.m. Source of supply

exactly the same as it has always been. Nothing apparently wrong with the

fish given as food.

Cleaning of Pens.—Pens are cleaned out once annually in mid-winter.

Bottom of Pens natural earth which silts up to 3 to 6 inches during the

year.

Climatic.—The winter was unusually open and mild and the supply of

water at one period fell very low. During the past winter the fall was normal,

i.e. 2/3 of summer supply.

One curious feature of disease is that though ‘Brown’ Trout of about the

same age are in the same Hatchery they did not seem to have been affected.

The proportion of deaths among ‘Rainbow’ according to sexes is as follows :—

12 per cent among the Cocks and 5 per cent among the Hens. So it

would appear to attack the Cock fish more virulently than the Hens.

A rough plan of the Hatchery is attached (text-fig. 2). The greater portion

of death occurred in Pens 4 and 5, but it must be remembered that these

are the Pens which contain all the big ‘Rainbow’.

Temperature of Tanks on the loth April 1934 in the Harwan Trout

FHlatchery

Time Tank Temperature

q-25 2,00). INO we 503°

No. 4 503°

Now 503°

No. 8 503°

9-25 a.m. No. 1 514°

No. 4 514°

No. 5 513°

No. 8 514°

11-25 a.m, No. 1 523°

No. 4 523°

No, 2 523°

No. 8 522°

1-25 p.m. No. 1 53°

No. 4 54°

No. 5 54°

No. 8 534°

3-25 p.m. No. 1 524°

No. 4 S32

No. 5 Son

No. 8 33°

0-29) Pili. Noy 1 tie

No. 4 513°

No. 5 514°

No. 8 ze

7-25 p.m. No. ! 51°

No. 4 aly

No. 5 51°

No. 8 Le

REFERENCES.

Bullin, G. E.—‘Causes of blindness in marine fishes.’ Proc. Zool. Soc.

London, pp. 634-36 (1913).

Davis, H. S.—‘Care and diseases of Trout.’ Investigational report No. 35,

U.S. Bureau of Fisheries, Washington, pp. 1-76, (1937).

408 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLI

*Gaschott, O.—‘Die. Verlustreichen Lebererkrankungen der Forellenmastbe-

treibe im Fruhjahr 1929.’ Allgemeine Fischerei Zeitung (1929).

Malik, G. Mustafa—'Cases of mortality of Brown Trout (Salmo fario Linn.)

in the Hatcheries of the Hazara District, N.-W.F. Province.’ (In press.)

Rushton, W.—‘Biological notes.’ Salmon and Trout Magazine, pp. 48-54

(1935).

Rushton, W.—‘Biological notes,’ Salmon and Trout Magazine, pp. 350-58

(1937).

EXPLANATION OF PUADE,

Fig. 1.—Lateral view of a Brown Trout from the Harwan Hatchery showing

white patches on the body and frayed caudal fin.

Fig. 2.—Same as above, dissected to show

a. Extruded ovum at the mouth of the genital aperture; b. Injury to the

ovarian membrane; and c. Injury to the peritoneum.

Fig. 3.—Lateral view of a male Rainbow Trout that died during the epidemic

of 1934. Areas enclosed by white rings indicate portions. of the skin

attacked by the fungus Saprolegnia.

’ a a i Ga

es | ee -

* Not seen by the author.

OBITUARY.

As briefly announced in this Journal on p. 235 Major-General

Tytler died at his home at Ross-on-Wye on May 16th at the

age of 71. Sir Harry entered the Indian Army in 1887, and at the

early age of twenty-one, took part in the Sikkim Expedition and

was mentioned in dispatches. In the Lushai Expedition of 1890-1891,

he commanded the small force which relieved Changsil. Ten years

later he was in the Waziristan Expedition.

During the Great War he was Deputy Inspector-General of the

lines of Communication, and later Column Commander. He was

twice mentioned in dispatches. In 1918-1919 he was_ Inspector

of Communications in Persia, and held similar appointments in the

Third Afghan War and with the Waziristan Field Force of 1919-

1920. He afterwards commanded the Delhi Brigade Area, and

from 1921 to 1924 he was D.A. and Q.M.G. Northern Command.

His last four years of active service were spent in the Command

of the Burma District.

Sir Harry was an enthusiastic collector of butterflies; he was

also much interested in ornithology, and formed a good collec-

tion of the eggs of Indian birds. It was, however, to the study

of butterflies that he devoted most of his spare time. He amassed

one of the finest collections ever made in India, for he had

unrivalled opportunities for procuring specimens during the years

spent in Assam, Burma, and the North-west. He communicated to

this Journal the results of his studies, adding largely to our

knowledge of Indian butterflies, especially of those found in Assam,

many new species and forms being described, and important

observations made on many others till then hardly known.

His first contribution to this Journal was entitled ‘Notes on

Butterflies from the Naga Hills’, and appeared in tIgri-1g12 in

vol. xxi. Then followed ‘Notes on Some New and _ Interesting

Butterflies from Manipur and the Naga Hills’, published in 1914-

1915, vols. xxili-xxiv. In 1926 appeared his ‘Notes on some new

and interesting butterflies from India and Burma’, vol. xxxi.

During 1938, Sir Harry had almost completed a fourth exten-

sive paper, the preparation of which had been much interrupted

by serious illness. The first part of this paper was sent by him

to the printers just before his last illness, and is published in this

Number. Arrangements have been made for publishing the second

part in due course.

Sir Harry presented to the British Museum (Natural History)

paratypes of many of the forms described by him, and also

specimens of many rarities.

REVIEW.

I:—FAUNA OF BRITISH INDIA. Butterflies). Voli.I% (Secondtiedition):

Talbot. Published by Taylor and Francis, Ltd., London on the 8th March,

1939. 94X65: xxix+600 pages: 3 coloured plates and 184 text-figures; map

of the Indian Empire and Ceylon. Price 35 shillings.

Mr. G. VYalbot, the author, is a newcomer to Indian collectors and requires

an introduction. He is aged 56 and has spent his life as a_ professional

‘Rhopalocerist’, starting as Assistant Curator to the late Mr. H. J. Adams

and then becoming Curator to the late Mr. J. J. Joicey, who was the owner of

one of the largest private collections. Mr. Talbot is now an unofficial assistant

in the British Museum. His knowledge of the world’s butterflies is unrivalled

and he has written many important papers and books, while he is regarded

as the leading expert on the Pieridae. It will be seen that the General Editor

of the Fauna could not have secured the services of anyone more competent

for writing the Butterfly volumes than Mr. Talbot.

The work has been largely compiled in the British Museum, which now

possesses by tar the most important coilection of butterflies in the world,

having had added to it during recent years the Rothschild, Joicey, Oberthur,

and Frthstorfer collections.

The first volume of the second edition deals only with the Papilionidae

and Pieridae, which with half the Lycaenidae comprised the second volume

of the first edition. It will be seen that the space taken up by the subject

matter is now doubled. The volume commences with an excellent glossary,

more complete than provided hitherto in any book on butterflies. The intro-

duction is most comprehensive and up-to-date: it is arranged in 9g sections,

viz. :—

1. History of the study of Indian _ butterflies.

2. Life history.

3. External morphology: with excellent accounts of the androconia or

scent scales and the genitalia, the study of which have proved of

the greatest importance.

. Classification.

H Ecology: with a full account of scent organs and _ habits.

6. Protective resemblance and mimicry.

7. Variation.

8. Distribution.

Collecting and preserving.

The body of the work with its keys and descriptions of species etc. follows

the form of the first edition, but a great deal more information has_ been

included regarding the early stages and the genitalia. A small increase will

be noticed in the known species, while the numbers of local forms have increased

vastly. The volume ends with a complete Bibliography and there are the

usual systematic and alphabetical indices.

Collectors will, it is feared, notice a great many changes in names familiar

to them, such as Polydorus for Tros, Cepora for Huphina, Anaphasis aurota

for Belenois mesentina, Graphium for Pathysa, Eurema for Terias, mahagura

for saneka. The changes are necessary to accord with the International rules

of nomenclature and there is no doubt that stability in this respect is being

reached.

The work has been carefully and conscientiously compiled, a very high

standard having been reached, which it is hoped will be maintained in the

future volumes. Such criticisms as can be made, may be taken as representing

one’s personal predilections rather than in depreciation of what is a most

important contribution to science.

REVIEW 411

The Phylogenetic scheme postulates the Hesperiidae having a common

ancestor with the other families of butterflies: there is no evidence to support

such a presumption. The question is touched upon very lightly on page 22.

The division of families into sub-families and tribes is of doubtful scientific

value: subgenera have fortunately been avoided.

The order of arrangement followed in the keys differs from that adopted

in the text. To preserve the natural order in the key is sometimes difficult,

but in cases such as the first key on page 60 a correct arrangement would have

been quite simple. In reading through the second key on the same page, the

question arises as to why the Graphiini in the text have to be placed between

the Papilionint and Teinopalpini.

The reduction in the number of coloured plates on financial grounds is

unfortunate, but is more or less balanced by the increase in the number of

text-figures, of which even more would have been acceptable. The colours in

plate II are somewhat alarming.

The map should be brought up to date in future volumes. Burma is no

longer a part of the Indian Empire. The red lines indicating presumably

Indian states are very confusing and probably inaccurate as one of the largest,

viz. Kalat, has been omitted.

We Ele CE VANS?

II1.—UGANDA GAME DEPARTMENT. Annual Report for the year 1938.

There is littie difference between the Annual Report of the Uganda Game

Department for 1938 and that for 1937, except that the statistics of revenue

from wild-life resources is not so favourable for the year 1938.

Expenditure remains much the same, being £6,365 against £,6,554 in 1937;

but although there is a falling off in revenue of about £8,672 there is still a

handsome profit of over £5,000.

This decrease in revenue is due to :—

(a) Reduced price of ivory.

(b) Fewer game and special licences issued.

(d) Decrease of 36% in amount of government ivory disposed of by

auction.

UNDER SeEcTION I.—ADMINISTRATION. We read in paragraph 4, ‘Owing

to the low price of_ ivory elephant hunting has declined in popularity.’

In the. same section, paragraph 13, we read :—‘Elephant hunting for ivory,

continues to be a fairly popular pastime.’ It seems to cut both ways in

Uganda !

GAME RESERVES AND SANCTUARIES.

No information of the slightest value is given under this heading except

the fact that about 90 square miles of the Bunyoro portion of the Bunyoro

and Gulu Reserve which was excised in 1935, has been re-incorporated.

One hundred and fifty words serve to dispose of this chapter—there are

56 pages in the report—and one looks in vain in other parts of the publi-

cation for information on what should be the most important activity of a

Game Department; the administration and consolidation of Game _ Reserves

and Sanctuaries.

GAME TROPHIES.

We have, as in the 1937 Report, long lists of weights of tusks from

elephants killed by licence holders, and again in Section II. Elephant Control,

long lists of the numbers of elephants killed by the control organization as

well as details of the weight of the tusks. Twenty-six African ‘control’ guards

were employed, the same number as in 1937.

It is interesting to note that of 1053 elephants destroyed under ‘control

745 were males and 308 females. From this number there were collected

412. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol XLi

2,069 tusks of which no less than 1,110 weighed under ten pounds each, three

weighed over sixty pounds each, one over seventy pounds and one over eighty

pounds. Also 181 tusks were ‘found’ from the Control Area of which sixty-

four were under ten pounds each, three were over sixty pounds, two over

seventy pounds, and three over eighty pounds.

Up to 1937 the toll of killings under ‘control’ had steadily gone up; in

1937 it started to decrease which was reported to be due to shortage of staff.

In 1938 there was a decrease of about 30 per cent from the 1937 figure. The

bag is getting less.

It is a fair deduction to make that the numbers of elephants are decreasing

too, because the price of ivory can scarcely affect these activities. This is,

I suppose, the ultimate object of ‘control’? In paragraph 21 we read as

follows :—

21. ‘Elephants generaliy are as abundant as ever. The influence of effective

control in most localities is reflected in the very marked decrease in total

wastage, five hundred fewer elephants being destroyed this year. ‘The esti-

mated total wastage is 1,500.’

If the elephants are as abundant as ever should we understand from this

statement that ‘control’ is keeping the elephants that are still there away from

the controlled area because they realize the danger? I wonder? That is I

believe the theory, but is it a reality?

In the detailed accounts of elephant control in the Provinces we are told

of less damage to crops which shows that in these places, whatever the reason,

‘control’ is achieving its object.

In this section under heading GENERAL we find some amusing stories

of what elephants have dane, or can do, or are reported to have done.

In Section III.—NOTES ON THE FAUNA, we find as in the 1937 Report

that the misdeeds of the Fauna are related in some detail and at considerable

length.

In paragraph 117 reference is made to the White Rhinoceros which is

supposed to be increasing. This is good news and it is to be hoped that reliable

reports will be recorded.

The observations on birds are intensely interesting and _ instructive.

Under (c) Reptiles, in this section, one reads in paragraph 143 to paragraph

146 of the intensive killing of crocodiles. Crocodiles, as a species, no doubt

have their uses, and when it appears that an attempt is being made to exter-

minate the species in some particular place, as the actions described seem to

indicate, it would be interesting to know on what evidence such acts are

based. We would like to hear both sides of the case, not merely the bare

fact of destruction. We are given no reasons.

Under Section IV.—GENERAL, there are many items of interest. Under

paragraph 154 the Game Warden records that he finds the varied demands of

Publicity are an increasingly heavy burden. But I would point out that there

is little publicity given in this report to the practical work of conservation.

Perhaps there is not any?

In paragraph 159 we find a criticism made by a speaker at the London

University of what is going on in our African Colonies detrimental to our

wildlife.

However inaccurate these criticisms may be, reports such as the one under

review lead up to such expressions of disapprobation.

Under Srction V.—FISHERIES, The economic position of the Uganda

Fisheries is set out in considerable detail. The statistics given are no doubt

extremely interesting from a financial point of view.

The sporting side of fishing is referred to under (B) Angling. We are told

that rainbow trout fishing in the Sebei country on Mt. Elgon will be opened

this year (1939).

Generally speaking this is a disappointing report, supplying little if any

information on the conservation and preservation of the fauna of Uganda, but

emphasizing the activities of the Game Department as a revenue producing

department.

. THEODORE HUBBACK.

August 1939.

REVIEW 413

III.—FAUNA OF BRITISH INDIA. ‘Mammalia’. Vol. i. Primates and

Carnivora (part ?), (Second edition), by R. I. Pocock, F.r.s. Pp. xxxiii+463,

with 31 plates and 106 text-figures. Taylor & Francis, Ltd., March 31st, 1939.

Price 30 shillings.

It is just over 50 years since the first edition of the ‘Mammalia’ appeared,

under the aegis of the Fauna of British India series. In the first part of that

work, which contained the Orders Primates, Carnivora and_ Insectivora,

Dr. W. T. Blanford, the author, enumerated and described 27 species of

Primates, 73 species of Carnivora and 31 of Insectivora, resident within the

confines of British India, Burma and Ceylon.

At the time that this work was published, namely in 1888, and for many

years afterwards, sub-species or ‘constant geographical varieties’ were not,

of course, recognised as such. Scientific research had not then advanced

sufficiently far to realise the significance of the presence of these constant

varieties, due to climatic or geographical isolation, that differ to a greater

or a lesser degree from the typical, yet are not sufficiently marked to admit of

recognition as good species. In a number of cases, Blanford admitted as

distinct species, forms that are now considered as nothing more than well

marked races or sub-species, while others, less well marked, he ignored

entirely or referred to them merely as ‘varieties’.

In the new edition, Professor Pocock has recognised and described these

sub-species, which are so numerous amongst our Indo-Ceylon mammalian

species, and he has therefore, of course, adopted the trinomial system of

modern nomenclature. Professor Pocock recognises, in this first volume of his

new edition, 73 distinct forms (20 species) amongst Primates and 77 forms

(30 species) amongst the Carnivora to the end of the sub-family Hemigalinae

(the Banded Palm-civet) which concludes the first part of his work.

Before it became possible, even to consider the commencement of the

systematic work, which had to be done prior to the writing of the present

edition, it was necessary to gather together extensive collections of specimens

from all parts of the area to be included within the scope of the work. It

was here that the Bombay Natural History Society was able to render such

invaluable assistance.

As long ago as the year 1911, the Society launched its admirable ‘Mammal

Survey of India’ which, although interrupted by the Wor'd War and resumed

subsequently on a somewhat smaller scale, made collections of the utmost

value from almost all the more important climatic zones and areas within

British India, Burma and Ceylon. These collections were supplemented by

others, made by private collectors, with the he:p or through the encouragement

of the Society, and all were sent to the British Museum for examination and

determination. Without the generous assistance of the Society and_ its

supporters, the collection of this essential material would have been well-nigh

impossible.

It has taken many long years of hard work to examine, measure and

classify the vast amount of material collected, to compare it with the types

of the forms already described and to determine the status, reiationship and

distribution of each specimen. ‘The work of classification and comparison and

the researches into the nomenclature were begun by Messrs. Oldfield, Thomas

and Wroughton, about the year 1917, and has been carried on since by various

other workers until it was taken over and brought towards completion by

Professor Pocock.

A colossal amount of research work forms therefore, the base upon which the

new edition rests. Just as the first edition has been looked upon as the

standard work on Indian Mammals for the past fifty years, so the present

volume will be accepted, in its place, as the standard work for very many years

to come.

Professor Pocock has done his work in an extremely able manner. In the new

edition, he has retained the general form of the old edition but he has

revised and brought up to date all the letterpress. After his introduction,

which deals chiefly with the Geographical Distribution of the Mammals of

British India, he goes on to give, in general outline, a description Of “the

Class Mammalia. He then gives a short but adequate description of each

414 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Volar onl

Order, Sub-order, Section, Family, Sub-family, Genus, Species and Sub-

species, in its proper systematic order.

In writing a volume such as the new Mammalia, the difficulty is always

to know what to leave out, in order to conserve space, and in this Professor

Pocock has shown excellent discretion. His descriptions are concise and easy to

follow and, in the short space available, he gives a vast amount of interesting

detail and. essential information.

The pages are well illustrated with numerous text-figures, showing skulls,

heads and other important points in the anatomy of the subject that he is

describing. There are also 31 plates, of which 14 are photographs of living

animals. At the end of the volume there is a very useful map, showing the

whole area included within the scope of the work.

In studying this volume, one is at once struck by the enormous amount

of work that has, quite obviously, been put into its compilation and the care

with which all the facts have been assembled and presented, lt isa’ -work

that reflects the greatest credit upon the Author and_ will remain, for many

a long day, a fitting monument to his industry and to his deep knowledge of

Indian mammals.

As a guide to Indian mammalian fauna, it is without equal and it is just

as interesting and valuable to the systematic scientist and the field naturalist,

as to the Sportsman who takes an intelligent interest in the wild life of

the jungles that he visits. It is a book that is essential to every one over

whom the jungles and their wild life have cast their fascination.

Wo WW ceNG ee.

IV.-TREES AND SHRUBS IN MY GARDEN. By T. H. G.. Stevens.

Pp. 335 with 12 coloured plates and 32 plates in half-tone. London: George

G. THarrap.*& Co. : “1939. Price- 125.764,

The author is an amateur and writes for other amateurs to help them to

avoid the mistakes he has made and to enable them to obtain the best results

in planting, pruning, and manuring the various types of soil. The book is

not only reliable but also readable, for Mr. Stevens combines the qualities

of the teacher and the artist. Forty-four excellent plates testify to the success

of the author as a gardener.

The opening chapter, entitled ‘Getting Ready’, is replete with sound

advice which, if followed, must blossom into a garden full of beauty.

Mr. Stevens first recommends the planting of six trees, a dozen roses, a dozen

deciduous shrubs, and a dozen evergreens; he then suggests a further selection

and, by repeating the process from chapter to chapter, finally meets the

requirements of the small gardener and of his more fortunate confreres. In

every case the ultimate height of the plant, the characteristics of its foliage

and flowers, and its reaction to the soil are carefully noted.

An important feature of the book is the section giving lists for quick

reference of trees and shrubs classified according to their height and showing

at a glance whether they. are conifer, deciduous, or evergreen; the approximate

time of blooming; pruning seasons; trees and shrubs for hedges; climbers ;

trees and shrubs for towns; Latin and English names; the best roses; weeping

ihees:

In the last chapter, entitled ‘My Confession’, Mr. Stevens writes: ‘I

commenced to write this manuscript during long winter evenings, thinking

it would be reproduced cheaply as a pamphlet and circulated amongst my

friends and acquaintances. The task became a pleasure and ruthless abridg-

ment became impossible. The lists I had intended to cut down so as_ only

to include a few of the very best shrubs could not be shortened without leaving

out favourites which just couldn’t be left out. Forgive me if I have been

long-winded...’ The author need not worry; we not only forgive him, but

feel like asking him for more.» Why not? |

jae caus

MISCELLANEOUS NOLES

LTE BREEDING. OF THE MOTTLED POLECAT

GeO TORTS SArM AT ICUS):

About 21st March a Mottled Polecat was seen on a bank

between an orchard and a cornfield just outside Quetta. This

bank was riddled with coney holes. About middle of May a

young one was seen probably 5-6 weeks old and a watch was

kept until a fortnight later the nest was dug out and the litter of

3 taken. They must then have been about 2 months old and the

photo shows one at that time.

Mottled Polecat.

(Putorius sarmaticus)

It was very vicious and ran up an officer’s clothes and bit him

in the head! It bit several other people and was put in a large

wire-netted run with corrugated iron sunk 3 feet into the ground.

It burrowed at once and ate raw meat only at night. In 3 nights

it had burrowed under the corrugated sheeting and made its escape.

At no time did it emit any odour after the fashion of polecats,

and local people informed me it did not do so until after it was

a year old.

ALE. Po CHRISTISON,

H. Q. 4ru (QuetTra) INFANTRY BRIGADE, Brigadier.

Quetta. _jily 3, 1939.

io eee

416° JOURNAL, “BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol er

I].—THE MOTTLED POLECAT (PUTORIUS SARMATICUS). —

Extension of known range.

I am writing to inform you that today a specimen of the

Mottled Polecat (Putorius sarmaticus) was brought in to me by

one of the local villagers. Blanford’s Fauna of British India

refers to this animal as being very rare except in South Afghanis-

tan about Kandahar and Quetta where it is common. Its

occurrence in the Kohat District of the N.-W.F.P. I thought

would interest you.

| 0.25) DONALD:

HANGu,

N.-W.F.P. Captain.

August 22, 1939.

[The Mottled Polecat is described as being common about

Quetta. An excellent account of the animal is given by Hutton

(J. A. S. B.,; xiv, p. 346). ‘It lives in the ground in burrows

(probably made by rats originally), and appears to be equally

common in cultivation and in uncultivated tracts. It is chiefly

nocturnal, but is occasionally seen abroad hunting in the daytime.

It feeds on birds, rats, mice, lizards, beetles, and snails, and

probably, like the common polecat, on any animals that it can

master, and is excessively sanguinary. A caged animal kept by

Hutton killed in succession 4 wagtails and 4 rats, two of the latter

full-grown and large. The rats were always seized in the same

place, just behind the ear, held until they ceased to struggle, and

then killed by one or two bites through the back of the skull.

As the blood flowed from the wounds, the polecat lapped it up,

‘but never attempted to suck it. Although the animal that

slaughtered all these birds and rats had been fasting for some

time, it. made no attempt to eat-its victims durine the day,, but

stored the bodies in a portion of its cage divided off as a sleeping

apartment, and only fed after nightfall. The whole account

given (l.c.) is too long to copy, but is worth reading. The young

are produced in holes about the end of March or beginning of

April and are usually three or four in number. This species has

the same disagreeable foetid odour that is characteristic of the

common polecat.’—EDs. |

III.—THE RECORD ALASKAN MOOSE

(ALCES A. GIGAs).

(With a plate).

I am enclosing a photo of a moose-head claimed to be the

World’s record and a copy of a letter I have received with the

same, in case you would like to reproduce the photo in the

Journal. The animal was shot in Alaska by Mr. Wilton Lloyd

Smith during his Alaska Expedition in 1938. Mr. Lloyd

Smith’s Secretary in sending the photo gives the following

details :—The spread is 77-5/8”. It was measured green in Alaska

in October at 78-3/4. The previous world’s record was 76-1/2”

‘(spa1e saajp Sa7{ PV)

“ISsOO| URYSETY POY IL

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 417

and has stood since rgo1. This head is in the Field Museum in

Chicago. This head will be part of the new moose group in

the American Museum of Natural History.

R. C, MORRIS,

HONNAMETTI ESTATE,

ATTIKAN-Mysore_E P, O.,

S. InpI4,

Fébruary 8, 1939.

[Though the Moose does not occur within our area, we publish

the photo as being of general interest to hunters of big game.—Ebs. |

IvV.—-A FINE SWAMP DEER HEAD.

418 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL “AIST. SOCIETY" Vol Xn

I am sending a photograph of a fine head of the above deer

that I was lucky enough to bag some time ago. The mounting

is by Van Ingen of Mysore and is absolutely lifelike.

The head is a 16-pointer :—

Length :—Left horn: 38} in. Right horn:- 82 in.

Girth :—Above the Brow Tine: 54. in. Points -8 x 8.

This stag was bagged in the North Kheri Forest Division of

the U. P. solely due to the kindness of the Forest Officer, who

arranged the loan of an elephant for me from a local Talukadar.

I may state that shooting Gond, as these stags are called in those

parts, 1s impossible without an elephant, unless the grass is burnt.

As a concrete. example “of Game Preservation the area in

question is hard to beat; between the Forest Block, and shoot-

ing Reserves of two nearby landowners, including the gentleman

who lent me one of his elephants, I should estimate that there are

over 500 head of this deer, if not more. At the time of my visit

in November, the stags were ‘roaring’ in the high grass, and

the shooting difficult; but I was told by the local Forest Guard

and others that there were at least 2,000 Swamp Deer in that

area; this 1s probably an exaggerated figure. It must be a sight

for the Gods to see these deer in herds when the grass is burnt.

Besides Gond, I saw any number of Spotted- and Hog-Deer, but

few Sambhur. Actually the type of terrain which is mostly flat

grassy plain and swamp, is unsuited to the latter; but no doubt

they are plenty in the nearby heavy forests of the Reserve.

In drawing the attention of the U. P. Forest Department

to this area, I would remind them that the Swamp-Deer is the

most easily exterminated of our Indian deer; though I consider,

the handsomest. The U.P. and Assam have had the sad

experience of finding this deer exterminated outside of Forest

Reserves and Sanctuaries by meat hunters and poachers, including

so-called shikaris. The type of terrain favoured is also much in

demand by cattle and buffalo graziers, as well as cultivators. Can

not a closed Sanctuary be formed of part of this area, especially

for Swamp-Deer; which I do not think are found in the Hailey

National Park?

[2 Ae

GAYA.

AUGUSTE TA, “1936.

V.—CURIOUS INJURY TO THE TAIL OF AN ELEPHANT.

I enclose two photos of a large growth, or swelling at the base

of the tail of a mackhana shot near here recently. The growth

was about two feet long by one foot in diameter; and consider-

ably lacerated on the upper portion, this latter condition brought

about, no doubt, by the elephant rubbing against trees in his.

efforts to alleviate the pain. Pus was issuing from an_ orifice

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 419

and dribbling down the animal’s hind quarters, as may be seen

from the dark patch in one of the photos.

Injury to tail of Elephant.

I had this growth opened up in an endeavour to establish the

cause of the injury, but nothing was found, though I must state

that the examination was of a rather cursory nature. The

interior was a mass of inflamed tissue and pus. There was no

indication of a bullet having entered, but this could hardly be

expected as the injury was so obviously of long standing. that

the small hole made on entry would have completely healed,

leaving no trace. There was an old bullet wound just behind

the off shoulder, which was also in a suppurating condition,

This elephant was solitary and had been in the habit of raiding

crops for some _ considerable time. He was an _ old = animal

measuring about g ft. 8 in., and both tushes were broken off short

at the gum.

A, J. YANDLE.

TINKONG T.E. & P.O.

LAKHIMPUR DIsTRICT, ‘

ASSAM.

May 26, 1939.

VI.—ON THE OCCURRENCE OF HUME’S

WEDGE-BILLED WREN (SPHENOCICHLA HUMEI MAND.)

INS AKASH IS. aS SAVE

I recently obtained and sent to Mr. H. Whistler in England

a specimen of Sphenocichla humei °&.

Mr. Whistler, who identified the bird, informed me that this

was the first specimen recorded for some 70-80 years, in fact,

since a collection was made in Sikkim, by Randell’s collectors.

The recording of this specimen might be of interest to you. The

420 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLI

specimen was obtained at a height of 4,ooo ft. on 16-12-’38, in

the Aka Hills in the unadministered area of the Balifera Frontier

Tract:

G.-S, LIGHTROOT,

CHARDUAR,

Loxkra PO!

DARRANG,

ASSAM.

june. 13, 1939;

VII.—THE SPUR-WINGED PLOVER (HOPLOPTERUS

VENTRALIS [Wagl.]).

(4 Correction).

While on a recent journey in Northern Burma, I came across

by chance in a rest-house an odd number of Volume xxxii No. 1

of the Journal for 1928. I see that in it on pages 219-220 Major

R. W. G. Hingston has most adequately forestalled an observa-

tion of mine which I thought at the time to be new, and which

was described by me in the Journal (vol. xxxvii No. 1, p. 223, 1934)

under the title ‘Nuptial Performance of the Spur-winged Plover

(Hoplopterus ventralis).’

At the time of writing, I had no idea these curious parade

movements in which the body is held quite erect and the birds

proceed together with ‘slow measured unnatural paces’ (to quote

Major Hingston) had been described in the Journal only a few

years before. Major Hingston, it is true, observed the display

in September and I in March: but many birds e.g. Rollers, Snipe,

Redshanks, occasionally perform under a chance stimulus in

autumn what are normally ‘mating’ displays only visible in spring.

STANTON’S Farm, J. K. STANFORD.

KINGSCLERE.

june 6, 1930.

VIIIL.—NOTES ON BIRDS NESTING IN THE

KUSHDIL KHAN LAKE, QUETTA:

I returned to Kushdil Khan Lake and the Maleyai reed beds

to clear up the question of the grebes, and the reed warblers and

little bitterns.

Little Grebe: Podiceps ruficollis capensis (Salvad.).

On the 2nd July there were some 60 nests of the Little Grebe

on Kushdil. All except one, were of the floating type and all were

covered, which is contrary to the experience of Messrs. Williams

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 421

(lournal,’ vol. xxxin, No.3, 1929 page 613). The other nest was

2 ft. 4 in. over the water in the fork of a tamarisk bush and con-

tained 5 eggs, covered. Eggs measured between 38.6 and 40 mm.

x about 24 mm. There were a few pairs of nigricollis on the

lake but I failed to find a nest.

Reed Warblers: Acrocephalus stentoreus brunescens (Jerd.),

A. agricola (Jerd.).

At the Maleyai reed beds I found 8 of the smaller type of

Reed Warblers’ nests 3 ft. to 3 ft. 6 in. above water mostly with

3, some with 4 eggs all hard set and birds sitting close. I took

the birds to be either agricola or dumetorum. They were defi-

nitely not brunescens. Eggs averaged 16-3x12°9 mm. Largest

17-2 x13, smallest 16-4x12°8. Major Darcy, R.A., kindly checked

these measurements for me. Eggs were stone colour, primary

marks dark greyish-olive-brown blotches, with underlying marks

of pale indigo-grey. Both markings were abundant at the blunt

end, and all eggs had a definite dark greyish-olive-brown ring

(a cap in some) at the blunt end. What are they?

The larger type of nest was a 5 in. cup of dead reed stalks

lined with reed fibres and 3 ft. to 4 ft. over the water. A. s.

brunescens were sitting hard. Two nests contained 4 eggs, two

5, and one 6. The ground colour was light stone in some, in

others very, very pale greénish-blue. They were blotched and

flecked with browns, greys and olive-browns mostly at the blunt

end. uargest “epe 24.2x17 mm., Smallest 22.7*15.4 mm.

avierace: 22.2 < LO) mim:

Little Bittern: Ixebrychus minutus minutus (L.).

Three nests found and several birds seen. Is a very local but

regular summer visitor to Maleyai reed beds. I found young

there on 18th July last year.

Each nest was 2 ft. above water being built up solid, and

made of dead reed stalks, unlined. Each had 5 eggs hard set

on 2nd July. Eggs were pure white with no gloss and none had

the faint bluish tinge fresh eggs sometimes show. Largest egg

32x 27.5 mm. Smallest 29x 25.5 mm. Average 30.2 x 26.5 mm.

Does this agree with records?

Common Coot: Fulica atra (Linn.).

A Common Coot nested on Kushdil this year. I have no previous

record for Baluchistan. Have you?

A. F. P. CHRISTISON,

Brigadier.

To QUEENS Roap,

QUETTA.

July 30, 1939.

[From the writer’s description of the eggs and nest it would

appear that the Warblers were probably Acrocephalus agricola. The

422 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAE SHIST. “SOCIELTY, Vol. rT

eggs are too small for A. s. brunescens of which the average

measurement is 22.7x 15.9, but agree ‘with the measurements of

A. agricola as given by Baker (New Fawna) i.e. 16.8x 12.9 mm.

The colouration also agrees with the Baker’s description of the

eggs of this species in the New Fauna. A. dumetorum, which is

also described as a passage migrant, is not found breeding over

water., In Europe and the Altai where it breeds, it builds a deep

cup-shaped nest in bushes and brambles; in the Himalayas it is

described as building a ball-shaped nest low down in rose bushes

well away from water. The nests of A. agricola however

are described as ‘beautifully made very deep cradles of fine

grasses woven round two or more stems of a weed or rushes

about 18 inches high above the ground of water’. A. agricola

is described as a passage migrant in. Baluchistan and has not

hitherto been recorded as breeding in this area. A_ second. inter-

esting find is Ixobrychus minutus minutus described as a passage

migrant and not previously recorded breeding in Baluchistan,

though recorded breeding in the Himalayas and Sind. The Com-

mon Coot—(I*. atra) is also described as a non-breeding visitant to

North Baluchistan and common in Kushdil Khan. The finding

of the nests of these two species constitute two new breeding

records for Baluchistan; while the reed warbler if identified

correctly as A. agricola would make a third, but as warblers are very

difficult to identify with any certainty in the field, the record must be

accepted with reserve until confirmed by actual breeding speci-

mens.—EDs. |

IX.—NOTES ON WILD DUCK AND GEESE.IN

THE SADIYA FRONTIER TRACI, ASSane

The following is a note on some observations regarding duck

shooting, and species found in the Sadiya Frontier Tract in Assam,

gathered from several seasons experience in the District. It may

be of interest in view of the fact that the country is not exactly

of the type one associates with duck—dense evergreen rain

forest—and that not much has been written about this area. If

bags were not large, they were full of interest and one had to

employ all one’s ingenuity to get any return for the trouble taken.

There are no flighting and no driven birds with shooting from

boats or machans. Dotted about the Central and Western

portions of the Pasighat Subdivision, to which this note chiefly

refers, there are numerous small areas; surrounded by very

dense jungle and full of cane brakes and elephant grass, which for

some reason have become water logged; possibly due to subsiden-

ces as a result of earthquakes, or to rivers and jungle streams

changing their courses. The jungle has died out leaving the dead

gaunt trunks and stumps of the trees standing thickly in the water

which has collected. At the water’s edge the elephant grass and

cane brakes are almost impenetrable except along deer and wild

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 423

buffalo or bison tracks. Very few of these water logged areas

or jungle ‘bhils’ fail to hold a pair of the White-winged W ood-

Duck—(Asarcornis scutulata), now protected, outside Reserved

Forest, all the year round by the Assam Government. Within

Reserves the period of protection is rst April to 15th September.

The more overgrown and sheltered in dense jungle the pool happens

to be, the more likely these birds are to be found. This species

is by no means rare throughout the Subdivision; but is commonest

in the Central and Western areas and I once stumbled on a herd

of eleven together. This species is one of the commonest ducks

met with in the areas where they are found and their peculiar

whistling call can often be heard where it is impossible to get

anywhere near them. A good Miri or Abor guide is absolutely

essential and also an elephant, if possible, otherwise one would get

lost in no time. The way these men find their way about; when

to myself there was no indication of a path and the sky was very

rarely seen; is positively amazing. On one occasion a Miri led

me to a small ‘bhil’ miles from anywhere in just such country

without faltering, and was only a few yards out in his calculations

although he had only visited the area once seven years before when

looking for a lost elephant. All these jungle pools hold a species

of very large water Monitor Lizard which burrows in the banks.

These creatures are also now fully protected by the Assam

Government. Not many of the usual kinds of duck are to be found

here until towards the end of January and on into February, for

until then the ‘bhils’ are clogged with water grass and weeds; but

by about the middle of January these have died off and rotted away

leaving the water clear, with plenty of feed. The ordinary sorts of

duck seem to use this area as a kind of jumping off place on their

way north at the end of the season. The Himalayan (Abor) foot

hills are only 15 miles or less to the North. The birds begin

to collect in large numbers in February and my best bag was made

on the 23rd of that month. By the end of March very few birds

remain. In February the ground is covered with drv leaves so

shooting becomes a contest between the alertness of the birds and

one’s ability to move down to the water edge, often on hands and

knees, as quietly as possible and without disturbing the undergrowth

—no easy task. A single mistake and there would be a startled

sound of wings. Not a feather would be seen in such circum-

stances for the jungle is too thick overhead.

The usual method was to crawl down to the water along a game

track avoiding the worst of the cane and general unpleasantness

and having got that far safely to take up a position behind the

outermost fringe of jungle. A liberal plastering of mud by this

time acted as a camouflage! The birds were put up from the

other end of the ‘bhil’ and they came past the gun if things had

been well calculated and one was well hidden. Fun was fast

and furious while it lasted, which was not long, for the birds

very soon disappeared over the trees. They apparently cleared

om altogether for a shoot over these “bhils’ never caused” the

birds to go from one to another close by. Matters were some-

what complicated by the birds dodging in and out of the dead

424 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLI

tree trunks and more often than not the charge of shot went into

a tree instead of into a duck! Leeches were at times a great

nuisance also. The commonest bird was the Common _ Teal

(Nettion crecca crecca). The next most plentiful was the

Mallard (Anas platyrhyncha) followed by the Gadwall (Chaulelas-

mus streperus), White-winged Wood-Duck, and Spot Bill (Anas

poecilorhyncha) in that order. I unfortunately did not determine

the local race of the last named except in one case which proved

to be a curious aberration midway between gonorhyncha and

harringtoni. This bird was recorded in the Journal (vol. xxxix,

p. 638, 1937). The Garganey or Blue-winged Teal (Querquedula

querquedula) is extremely rare, so far as my experience goes, and

I only secured one and saw no others. Similarly the Red-crested

Pochard (Netta rufina) is very rare and I only saw one specimen.

There are only a very few pairs of the Pink-headed Duck (Rhodo-

nessa caryophyllacea), now also completely protected by the Assam

Government, and I have only seen one bird which must have been

this species. This last species must be dying out for some obscure

reason for hardly anyone shoots duck in the area and the birds

are very rarely disturbed.

The Tufted Pochard (Nyroca fuligula fuligula) and the White

Eye (Nyroca rufa rufa) are irregular in their incidence from year

to year and not at all common. I have only shot one of each

and not seen more than thirty or forty of each species. The

Shoveller (Spatula clypeata) always found in pairs, is more

common but very wary. The Pintail (Dafila acuta) is met with

in fair numbers at times but is more of a migrant only. A curious

fact is that most of the Pintails met with by me were immature

birds. This species apparently prefers more open water and the

young birds had not evidently acquired this habit. There is a

small flock of Common Whistling Teal (Dendrocygna javanica)

resident on a piece of open water in a patch of grass land near

Koplong; but curiously I have never seen a Cotton Teal (Nettapus

coromandelianus) anywhere in the District although it should be

present in large numbers. Riverine duck shooting as opposed

to shooting in the depths of the jungle can also be quite amusing

—and_ profitable—for I was lucky enough to secure the second

record of the Long-tailed Duck (Clangula hyemalis) in India on

the Brahmaputra which was also recorded in the Journal (vol. xxxviil,

Pp. 193, 1935). The Brahminy (Casarca ferruginea) is common

everywhere on the Brahmaputra and Lohit rivers and curiously

enough is not at all shy, possibly because they are not chased by

every gun in the neighbourhood as they are everywhere else. I found

them very rank, though one made excellent soup! All the rivers

and hill streams of any size always have a large quota of Merganzer

(Mergus merganzer orientalis) dashing and splashing about in the

white water of the rapids, except where it is fiercest, after small

fish. They can provide some very pretty shooting when the

river is narrow enough. They will seldom deviate from the

course of the water when driven. The gun can stand right out

in the open and they will not take the slightest notice or alter

their course in any way. They can fly very fast indeed especially

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 425

down-stream in the hills, and good shooting is necessary for a good

bag. The birds are by no means wasted, for the Abor camp

followers greatly appreciate them; though I found them absolutely

uneatable. I could never get past their rankness when cooked

—skinned or otherwise. These birds have a very pretty and curious

habit when cruising in calm water of arching their necks (especially

the males) and then thrusting their beaks vertically skywards with

a kind of darting motion. I feel sure this is not due to the effort

of forcing an extra large meal down the gullet but seems to be

a sort of game.

The Smew (Mergellus albellus) I have never seen although it

is reputed to occur on the rivers of the District; nor have I come

across the Widgeon (Mareca penelope) though it is said to be

found just outside the Sadiya boundary in the Lakhimpur District.

Stuart Baker records the Scaup (Nyroca marila marila), from the

Lakhimpur District on the borders of Sadiya; but I must have

missed seeing it.

The Spot Bill (Anas poeciloryncha) undoubtedly breeds in the

district for I have seen them in September. The White-winged

Wood Duck and the Common Whistling Teal are also resident and

must nest.

It may be worth while recording that on one occasion I shot a

female Common Teal on a small bog at Pangin about 4o miles into

the hills and at an altitude of between 2000 and 3000 feet during

the winter of 1934-35, and I also saw a large flight of Spot Bill

in the Brahmaputra gorge in the same area that year.

Geese are met with fairly frequently on the sandbanks of the

Brahmaputra, but very few are shot; and I have secured none, as

they are too wary and unapproachable. I understand there is a

particular area on the Dihang River between Pasighat and Kobo

where large numbers of geese collect at the end of February and

during March just prior to their migration to Tibet; but I have

not seen this spot and am unable to say anything further on this

subject, although I think it must exist because of the well defined

migration route of geese over the village of Dambuk not far away.

In connection with this migration route, which I have recorded

elsewhere (Journ. B.N.H.S., xl, 764-765, 1939), further enquiries

show that this is used by geese far more on their northward flight

than on their southward migration; only comparatively few birds

coming south this way, unless they pass unnoticed at night. I have

never been in this area during the time the southward migration

would ordinarily take place, so it is difficult to say what the position

is exactly about the southward flight and further investigation is

necessary on this point.

I cannot say anything about the species of geese found in the

Sadiya Frontier Tract for I have never got close enough to identify

any I have come across and the ones that have been shot, I have

not had the opportunity to examine in the flesh.

Most of the Sadiya Frontier Tract forms a large natural sanc-

tuary for Duck of all species as they are very rarely shot at or

disturbed and I feel sure there is much of great interest still to be

found there, especially with regard to the inter-gradation of races

426. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY = Vol out

when one considers that the District lies at a point on the map

where it is possible that the Far Eastern, Burmese and Indian

races overlap to a certain extent.

R. E, PARSONS,

F.R.E.S

Indian Police.

NOWGONG,

Nowconc DISTRICT,

ASSAM.

july 25, 1939.

X.—THE NOMENCLATURE OF BIRDS.

All interested in Birds are recommended to read again the

admirable letter of Mr. Hugh Whistler’s in the Society’s Journal

Ob; june as, e108 t

It contains a timely warning of the dangers of the trinomial

system that has been adopted—and its truly dreadful term of

‘subspecies’. This is indeed a ‘supercream’ product of taxonomy

—and we may expect a further enrichment of it into ‘super sub-

species’ and ‘infra-subspecies’ very soon unless we return to sanity

in nomenclature.

Few will agree however with Mr. Whistler’s statement that

‘the millennium of all good zoologists is uniformity of Nomencla-

ture’. Nomenclature is nothing of real importance in Ornithology.

It is but the technique of arrangement and is no more important

than the technique of painting in the Art of Painting. We must

ever be on our guard against allowing technique to be our master

—it is but a humble servant to us in our Science.

Nomenclature has: then to serve us, and so let us chastise it

and mould it to our will that it may serve-—and not direct us. A

suitable system must be devised then for international use as free

of error and absurdities as is possible.

It is not difficult to predict that the present system of dog-

Latin appellations will soon be scrapped entirely and simple

symbols as in chemistry adopted. When Chemistry was in its

infancy we had the simplest chemical compounds and_ elements

called by the most fantastic terms that had to go as soon as the

science became serious. Such a cleansing and approach to reality

is what is now called for in Ornithology.

Biology is the Science of Truth—and we do not serve her by

the perpetuation of error. If the minor sciences of Biology dis-

obey her principles they must be chastised and corrected. Orni-

thology needs correction. The . most _ important.) thine jin

Ornithology is knowledge of the Living Bird—and not thousands

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 427

of their remains in pigeon-holes in museums. While we must

have a recognised scheme of nomenclature let us be under no

illusion about the arbitrary system we are forced to adopt. It

bears so little relation to truth that as soon as that is recognised

we have no difficulty in recognising nomenclature for what it is

worth.

At present because a black bird was called the ‘snowy finch’

in 1735 we have to perpetuate error and absurdity today by con-

tinuing to call it the ‘snowy finch’. What effect does this have

on people inclined to take up ornithology? Then in ‘Latin’ we

have, Corvus splendens splendens—what do they think of that

example of erudition? Well we all know—or should know, that

the public laugh outright and laugh heartily. We want to attract

the public to the science of Ornithology—for their own sakes—

for the sake of science and for the sake of the conservation of

wild lfe—not to choke them off and send them off with a contempt

for ornithology !

Sweet reasonableness then must be the order of the day—and

honesty and an open countenance—not the jealousy and secrecy

of the medicos and alchemists of ancient times.

The first thing to do in nomenclature is obviously to put our

own house in order before we set out to teach the whole world—

that is we must settle upon suitable names in English for our birds.

The English should hold an honoured place in ornithology. I

advocated a long time ago that the Bombay Natural History Society

took this matter up for the birds of the Indian region and published

the lists of English names for public criticism with the object of

gradually settling upon suitable names for each species. We should

then promptly get rid of the ‘snowy finches’ and all such absurd-

ities. This is not a difficult undertaking at all. The list might

be easily and quickly revised again in twenty years time, and

brought up to date.

Mr, Stuart Baker has led the way here in a wide correction of

the English names in the new Fauna—cutting out peoples’ names

that were associated with various birds. That admirable correction

cut out vanity also—and the elimination of vanity in Ornithology

iS a very pressing need indeed. Ornithology is too good to tolerate

within it the corroding cult of self and vanity.

That excellent start in cleansing the temple must be followed

up in future works by the elimination of people’s names in the

‘Latin’ nomenclature. The adoption of commonsense symbols in

place of the present day clumsy and absurd dog-Latin nomencla-

ture is not likely to take place for some time if we consider the

frenzied heat with which the pundits of taxonomy defend it. Whiie

an individual may suggest such a reform he can hardly go further

than elaborate it and submit a scheme based on that principle.

That is work for a representative Committee of International

Ornithologists.

It is suggested that they undertake this task.

But for the immediate future, pending reforms, we can at any

rate suggest that the atrocious term of ‘subspecies’ be killed and

the proper and decent term of ‘race’ substituted.

428 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLI

Then, secondly, we can suggest that in all future bird books

race receives its proper appreciation under the species—and is not

exaggerated as at present in its presentation to the public on a

par with species.

Let us hope that in future each species of bird will have its

races—if any, described under that species and not as at present

separately.

At present in the Fauna we have:—

No. 11 Corvus splendens splendens.

Then the races of this species are given separate consideration

to as if they were different species! we have No. 12 Corvus splen-

dens sugmayeri—and then again under another heading No. 13

Corvus splendens insolens—then again under another heading

No. 14 Corvus splendens protegatus.

The result of all this is to exaggerate the importance of race,

and the beginner in ornithology for whom these books are intended

is apt to regard all these races as if they were different species

of birds which they are not of course. The presentation is wrong

—and the presentation is of great importance to people learning

the science of birds.

It is then suggested that the proper way to present these birds

would be to as tollows :—

No. 11 Corvus splendens (NOT splendens_ splendens

please!) and its races follow under the same heading—

Race 1. The Sindh race—Corvus splendens zugmayeri.

Race 2. The Burmese Crow—Corvus splendens insolens.

Race 3. The Ceylon Crow—Corvus splendens protegatus.

That finishes the House Crow and the next bird will be No. 12.

This is a presentation that is biologically correct and in order

—and in proportion, and guides the beginner along the right

lines—gives the right emphasis, and does not exaggerate the

importance of race or give it false values.

It is largely due to the present over-emphasis on the import-

ance of race that field naturalists and others are tumbling over

each other in their efforts to discover ‘new’ subspecies (races)

which they hope will be named after themselves—to perpetuate

their vanity—or at least after a colleague that can be trusted to

return the compliment at the earliest opportunity !

By getting proper proportion then in nomenclature we arc

also at the same time getting proportion in other values—in that,

for instance, of self-esteem.

To recapitulate my recommendations :—

1. Nomenclature is not an idol to bow down to and wor-

ship—but only a convenient—or inconvenient arbitrary system

drawn up to serve us.

2. That nomenclature now deserves the attention of the

authorities who should review the present system and reform it.

3. That suitable English names for all our birds be adopted

—to be revised again after a period of years. }

4. That the present dog ‘Latin’ nomenclature be scrapped

in toto and a simple system of symbols and numbers evolved to

take its place.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 439

5s. hat the present) exaggeration of the “subspecies’ be

putea stop to, hat the term +race be used instead of “sub=

species’, and that all races of a species be described under that

species and within the space allotted to that species, and not under

separate headings, in future works on ornithology.

6 That “errors im” ornithology are . corrected” and mot

perpetuated (as in History). Biology is a Science that can only

progress by the recognition of truth and the correction of error—

as in the Science of engineering. We do not perpetuate the

mistakes made in the motor car of 1890 today—then why the

mistakes made in ornithology of a past age?

7. That the association of peoples names with the ‘dis-

covery’ of ‘new’ birds be put a stop to, to check vanity and the

plethora of supposed races.

TAUNGGYI, ge7k, LIVESEY,

BURMA.

November 3, 1938.

[A comment upon this letter by Mr. E. C. Stuart Baker is pub-

lished below.—Ebs. |

I have read with great interest the note in this number of the

Journal by Mr. T. R. Livesey under the above heading.

This article really is, mainly, a comment on Mr.- Hugh

Whistler’s statement that ‘the millennium of all good Zoologists is

uniformity 1n Nomenclature’. May I say at once that I am in

compiete accord with Mr. Whistler and with the hundred and one

other Zoologists who long for this millennium. I cannot help feel-

ing, however, that Mr. Livesey does not really grasp the full

meaning of this hoped-for millennium and reads into the expression

much more and yet much less than it really contains.

For the moment I will leave the question of the trinomial system

alone and deal with ‘Unitormity in nomenclature’. In the first

place what does it mean? Briefly it presumes the creation of a

system of scientific nomenclature in all sciences which shall be

understood by every protessor and every student, whatever his

nationality, of that particular science in which he is interested.

If such a system can be perfected it does not then matter in what

language anyone speaks or writes, the mention or writing of a

name accepted by that system at once conveys to the person who

hears or reads it a full knowledge of what bird, beast, fish or

other object is spoken or written about.

A very simple example of this use has occurred recently in my

own experience. A most interesting little book has been written

in German by Herr Wolfgang Makatsch on the ‘Breeding-para-

sitism of the Cuckoo’. My knowledge of German is, I regret

to say, very limited yet it suffices to enable me to understand all

that is written so long as Herr Makatsch employs scientific names

which are in common use for the various birds to which he refers,

whether the name is in ‘dog-Latin’ or really good Greek or Latin.

When, however, he employs trivial German names I am frequently

430 fJOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLI

at a loss, because these trivial German names are oiten unknown

to me: This difficulty is: one which @gn only be got over by the

universal use of scientific names accepted by the whole scientific

world. As Mr. Livesey knows, even in the same language there

are often many trivial names for one and the same bird. Thus

if in our English-written books we employ several names for the

same bird, how is anyone, other than an Englishman, to know of

what bird we are speaking? Most people in most countries who

have learnt English know what we mean when we speak of the

Thrush, but how many would know to which bird we are referring

when.we speak or write of “Mavis’, “Throstle’; etc:

Mr. Livesey says ‘Nomenclature has then to serve us’, etc.

Surely it can serve us in no better way than in enabling us to

understand one another and to know what we are talking about.

As regards Mr. Livesey’s hope that our present amethod jo

nomenclature may be scrapped and symbols used as in chemistry,

that I hope and am sure will never happen. Which is easier to

remember “H,0O’ or “Aqua’?

Before referring to our English names it is perhaps better next

to deal with ‘Trinomialism’, i.e., the system of adding a third

name to denote some geographical or environmental variation in

a species.

First, does Mr. Livesey mean that we should refuse to recog-

nize such variations? JI think not and I believe that what he objects

to is the admittedly rather cumbrous method of adding a third

‘dog-Latin’ name to the two already possessed by the bird. As

I have agreed, the method is cumbrous but is there any alternative

suggestion made by him as to how we should show that such

differences do exist

If we may again take Mr. Livesey’s example of the Crow,

Corvus splendens; what method is the easiest when we wish to

describe the effect of geographical or environmental selection on

the various forms found throughout the great area inhabited by

this species? I know that the last thing Mr. Livesey would wish

is to lump together the almost white-backed bird of Sind with the

practically black-backed bird of Ceylon and, if this is so, how can

we draw attention to the variations more easily than by adding a

subspecific name to the specific. The term ‘subspecies’ surely

means ‘something less than a species’, i.e., ‘geographical race’

but it is rather shorter and so obviously refers to a bird as merely

a variation in the species that I can, myself, think of no better

terme

Naturally on the introduction of the trinomial system and the

acceptance of the fact that species vary geographically, some

ornithologists were much freer than others in accepting differences

as sufficient reason for giving a name. My own system has been

that no name should be given to a geographical race unless the

variation is stabilized over a definite area and that birds occupying

intermediate areas between such definite areas and ‘which are them-

selves intermediate in varying degree should not be given any dis-

tinguishing name. If it is desired to describe such _ ill-defined

forms—it very seldom is—they may be shown as > or < as for

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 431

instance Corvus splendens > zugmeyeri or Corvus splendens >

insolens, thus indicating that in the first the dominant characters

were those of splendens and, in the second, those of imnsolens.

Obviously it is impossible to lay down any degree of differentiation

as being the standard by which a name should be given. A

difference between true species is sometimes very hard to see and,

often, far less apparent than the differences between races of the

same species. If the difference is distinct under a careful examina-

tion and is, as I have already said, constant over a given area, then

that difference should be acknowledged as sufficient. reason for

giving a trinomial.

It 1s now over 50 years ago that I first came up against the

stumbling block of the geographical race. At that time I was

living in Assam, an area where the typical Indian Avifauna

blended into the typical Burmese Avifauna and in many cases, so

far as written descriptions went, the birds I there obtained might

well have belonged to either of two. At this same time also I was

in constant correspondence with the late Dr. Ernst Hartert and,

though it was before the time he had begun to use trinomials

regularly, we had both already come to the conclusion that many

of our Indian so-called species were merely geographical races of

one species and some method would have to be evolved of drawing

attention to this. [ was able to supply him with much material

from our Bulbuls (Molpastes) and Minivets (Pericrocoti) which

proved that there were definite forms of these birds inhabiting

different definite areas yet linked up in the intermediate areas by

individuals neither one nor the other yet undoubtedly of the same

species. At that time I would have liked to discriminate the first

described form by the word typicus or typica added to the specific

name but Nomenclatorial authorities preferred to show the typical

race by the repetition of the specific name and so we get Corvus

splendens splendens; Molpastes cafer cafer; Troglodytes troglody-

tes troglodytes and so on.

Thus far in disagreement with Mr. Livesey, now may I say

in what respects I agree with him. Were I again to write the

‘Avifauna’ of India and able to follow my own methods! I should

adopt the system suggested by Mr. Livesey. I should give my

species II. Corvus splendens.

Then under Ifa. I should give Corvus splendens splendens

with a full description and full notes, including area occupied.

Then would come

IIb. Corvus splendens insolens.

IIc. Corvus splendens sugmeyert.

IId. Corvus splendens protegatus.

and under each heading I would give the variations from the

typical form in colour, size, etc., each sub-species; range and then

* The different volumes of the Fauna were edited under the supervision

of one man and the format was therefore the same throughout and, obviously,

the various authors could not fol'ow their own ideas on this subject.

432 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL: HIST “SOCIERY, “Volo il

differences in habits, breeding, etc., if any. This system, indeed,

I did adopt with the exception of the numericals.

Mr. Livesey suggests, however, that a full description should

be given under ITI. Corvus splendens and no further description under

the sub-species. This, of course, would be quite insufficient as

Corvus splendens includes many races with great variations of

plumage, habits and nidification, and one description could not be

made applicable to all.

As regards trivial names I am also in complete agreement with

Mr. Livesey and, as he remarks, have I hope, gone a long way

towards creating a list of sensible and clue-giving names to our

Indian Birds by the English names I have used in my work on

‘Nidification’. To call a bird ‘Baker’s Scimitar-Babbler’ or ‘Live-

sey’s Wood-Owl’ can convey no meaning to the student, whereas,

to call the latter the Shan Wood-Owl at once helps him to locate

that bird. In ‘Nidification’ I have attempted to give birds names

drawing attention to their most marked feature and, where there

are many geographical races, adding a geographical name. Thus

Garrulax moniligera I called ‘The Necklaced Laughing Thrush’

and the races I have distinguished by geographical terms.

Many of these names can be, and will be, greatly improved on.

I would like to say, as I have so often said before, the ‘Fauna’

and ‘Nidification’ are, like all other works of the same nature,

just a basis for further work and an incentive to other workers

to confirm or refute what is written thereon. Already much has

been done and the ‘Vernay Expedition’ and others sponsored by

the Bombay Natural History Society have obtained so much beauti-

ful material that numerous new races have been worked out, some

old races eliminated and much additional information § gained.

There however, remains an immense amount of work for our suc-

cessors, while the facts already elucidated will help others to know

how and where to expect new geographical races and to give yet

a few more trinomials to our heavily, yet quite rightly, burdened

birds.

Mr. Livesey ‘refers fo’ the perpetuation or 2mistakes 2am its

true that many mistakes are perpetuated by one writer following

another but I think that, for the most part, mistakes are perpetua-

ted not because the writer is too lazy to find out facts for himself

but because the truth had not been ascertained and recorded between

the times the author copied and the writer copying composed their

work. The ‘Fauna’, I hoped at the time I wrote it, contained an

up-to-date account of Indian Ornithology so far as it was then

known and recorded but, since then, much has been found out

(vide the last two volumes of Agenda and Corrigenda) and many

corrections made to statements believed at the time they were

written to be true and accurate.

Finally I would like to say a word on the importance of trino-

mials and geographical variation, though the first is merely the

acceptance and method of naming the second. Surely geographical

variation is nothing more than a phase in the long story of evolu-

tion, so that all the material we can obtain to show what these

JourRN, BomBay Nat. Hist: Soc.

Photo by K. Fernandes. The Island of Utan-Gorai where the

Ternlets were found breeding.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 433

variations are, how they are acquired and under what conditions,

is material which can also be used in the greater question of the

evolution of present-day nature.

January 26, 1939. Dae i@ee Sens.

XI.—THE SUN AS A MORTALITY FACTOR AMONG

YOUNG BIRDS.

(With a plate).

Early this month, I revisited the colony of Little Terns (Sterna

a. albifrons). ott Salsette, (vide /.B.N.H.S.:xl, p. 635), with Messrs.

McCann and Fernandes.

We landed at 10-30 a.m., and at our approach the birds left

their nests and circled over-head. There were some too nests on

the islet, all with two or three eggs. About six nests had a single

hatchling with two eggs, and a cursory examination together with

attempts to photograph the chicks and nests kept the parents off

their nests. At 1o-45 one of the hatchlings was seen to have

collapsed, obviously overcome by the heat.

We immediately retired into a clump of mangrove some 15 ft.

from the ‘plateau’ on which the birds nested.

The ternlets were back at their eggs in five minutes, and soon

became so accustomed to our presence that we crept out of the

mangrove, and were lying out in the open, with birds coming

down to their nests hardly 10 ft. away. No bird, however, stayed

on its eggs for more than a minute, and after about half an hour,

we retreated and watched the birds from a distance. There was

however no change in their behaviour. After a minute or so, the

bird was replaced by its mate, and flew out to sea. With its head

to the wind, it dipped, touched the water with its breast, and flew

back to the nest. The shine on the eggs showed that they had

been wetted, and the mate took off again to repeat the process.

We watched numerous nests between 11 a.m. and noon, and the

procedure appeared unvaried.

The first alarm and consequent exposure of about 20 minutes

had proved too much for the hatchlings, and every one in a nest

with eggs was found dead. The only chicks left alive were two

in one nest, and these must, of course, have been slightly older

than the single hatchlings with eggs.

The day was cloudless and hot, but did the parents react to

changes in temperature? Or is this monotonous cycle of wetting

the eggs and young instinctive, and kept on indefinitely through-

out the incubation period? Do the eggs go bad as quickly as

thewchicks are “atlected?) In J. BuN eS. xxiv. 0: 575. Currie

has drawn attention to Black-bellied Terns (S. melanogaster)

wetting their eggs at noon, and it is unfortunate that Uttan Washi

is too difficult of access to permit detailed observation,

434° JOURNAL, BOMBAY- NATURAL: (AISI USOC EY = aol le

The ternlets were seen carrying fish, and their remains on the

islet seemed to indicate that they formed an important part of

their food.

Many interesting questions appear to be raised by these

observations, and notes from other sources would be of interest.

HUMAYUN ABDULALI.

BoMBAY,

jue 28, 19309.

[Specimens of the fish forming the food of the terns collected

by the writer were identified by Dr. Hora as:—

1. Clupeoides lile (C.V.) nee <2 7 Specimens

2. Scombermorus guttaties (Bl. & Sch.) 1 Specimen

3. Hemiramphus sp. oe <7 20 (Specimen

The instance recorded by Mr. A. J. Currie in his “paper ‘on

the Birds of Lahore describes the nesting of the Black-bellied

Tern (Sterna melanogaster) on the river Ravi at Lahore he says

that ‘During the middle of the day the birds do not appear to sit

at but only to stand over their eggs to protect them from the sun

and the eggs I found near Lahore were besprinkled all over with

water—apparently as an additional precaution on the part of the

birds to prevent them from’ becoming over heated’. The Egyptian

Plover (Pluvianus aegyptius) is said to moisten its eggs in a

similar manner. Dewar (Birds at the Nest p..36) records that he

noticed at Ghazipur that the eggs of terns and skimmers laid late

in the season were all deposited on damp sand. Various means

are adopted by birds to protect their eggs and young from the

sun, particularly in tropical countries. Birds which lay their eggs

on the ground in exposed positions resort to three methods of

protecting them, 7.e. covering them with sand; standing by or over

the eggs during the day to shelter them from the rays of the sun;

Or, as in the instance of the terns recorded above, keeping them

moist. Similar. protection is accorded to the voung by hovering

with wings expanded over the nest during the hotter part of the

day or in other ways using their bodies as a sun screen.—EDs. |

All.—ON THE OCCURRENCE OF THE EUROPEAN

REDSTART-(PHOENICORUS PAH OENICOIU:S)

IN BRITISH BALUCHISTAKE

As regards my specimen of the European Redstart (Phoenicurus

phoenicurus), I obtained one from a number passing through

Robat in N. W. corner of British Baluchistan on rst April 1930,

and saw others I took to be this species at Kacha 219) milesiio. of.

of Robat on 22nd April 1939.

I sent my specimen to you, and you kindly sent it on to

Dr. Ticehurst who identified it for me.

Phoenicurus ochrurus phoenicuroides (The Western Indian Red-

‘AequIOg ‘UInosn|T SeTeA\ JO 9OULIG oY} UT 4Sed & JO OJON

‘g€61 ysnsny yyor ‘Aequiog ‘Avg yor ye 4yysneo (QTUNTY pure “T[AIW ‘wayossad SYST) GST MES JUPTD

‘00S “LSI{ ‘1VN Avawogd ‘Nunof

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 435

start) occurs in the Koh-i-Pushat and Raskoh range N.-W. and

S.-W, of Nushki.

Ay. Pe -CHRISTISON,

Brigadier.

QUETTA BRIGADE,

QUETTA

AW RUST 25, T9320.

XITI—ON_ A LARGE SAWEISH (PRISTIS PERROTTETI

MULL. AND HENLE) CAUGHT AT BOMBAY.

(Vith a plate). |

A sawfish (Pristis perrotteti) was caught by fishermen off

Government House, Backbay, Bombay, on the morning of the 16th

August 1938 and brought to beach on Chowpatty sands. A com-

plete cast was made of the fish by the Museum staff, working far

into the night and under considerable difficulties, not the least of

which was the keeping back of the crowds which gathered to see

the monsier,

Colour. The general colour of the body was dull olive brown

merging to dirty yellow on the margin of the flanks and fading

to the white on the undersurface, the yellow is particularly promin-

ent on the facial margin.

Eyes. Iris golden with a black centre and black edge.

Number of Teeth.—Right side 17. Left side 18. 1st four pairs

opposite one another.

Measurements.—Total length 20 ft.

Rostrum, length—-4 ft. 9 in.

Rostrum, width at base—1 ft. 2 in.

Rostrum, width at tip—5 in.

‘ip cok Rostrum {to 1st-dorsal-—11 ft.

Tip of Rostrum to 2nd dorsal—i14 ft. 10 in.

Tip or Rostrum: to base..of caudal—17 {t.

Anterior margin of 1st dorsal—z2 ft. 44 in.

Posterior margin of 1st dorsal—1r ft. 9 in.

Anterior margin of 2nd dorsal—2 ft.

Posterior margin of 2nd dorsal—1 ft. 84 in.

Caudal anterior margin of upper lobe—3 ft. 4 in.

Caudal posterior margin of upper lobe—3 ft. 34 in.

Pectorals: total span—8 ft. 74 in.

Interorbital space—r ft. 2 in.

Diameter of eye—3# in.

The fish was caught in a net set for Ghol (Sciaena) and caused

considerable damage before being dragged ashore.

BoMBay, Seda PRR

AURUSE 30, \1930.

436 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL SAIST. “SOCLIE LY, Viole

XIV. =—THE NESTING. HABITS (OF THE GOURAM!

(OSPHRONEMUS GORAMY).

In vol: xl. No. 4, May, 1930, p. 766 of your JournaleVi Wlones

‘On the nesting habits of the Gourami (Osphronemus goramy)’

mentions the various authors who have contributed on this subject

but evidently is not aware of an article by Hilario A. Roxas and

Agustin F. Umali on ‘Fresh-water Fish Farming in the Philip-

pines’ (Philip. -Jour/*Sc. vol. "63; 1037, p. 443)... “In this*papem ane

authors deal with the bionomics of Goramy and the following

extract is illuminating on the question of the nesting habit of

Osphronemus goramy :—

‘In the Philippines, and under the conditions obtaining in

the artificial concrete ponds of the Bureau of Science, where the

bottom is muddy, the water stagnant, the temperature at the

surface ranging from 27° C. to 32° C., and where there is no

vegetation except patches of water hyacinths, Eichornia crassipes

(Martius), confined along the sides by means of a wire stretched

taut, the giant goramy breeds the year round, although the peak

of the breeding season occurs during the warm months, from

March to May.

‘On spawning, the goramy pair off, and each pair selects a

suitable place along the sides of the tank just beneath and along

the edges of the patches of water plants. The vegetation pre-

ferred is an aquatic plant that grows on the surface of the water

and whose floating roots, which rise and fall with the surface of

the water, form natural galleries under which the fish can conceal

themselves from public gaze and disturbance.

‘In the pond, among the water hyacinths and a little below

the surface of the water, the goramy attaches its nest. The nest

is composed of plants, mud, and other available floating or sub-

merged materials. Its shape varies from somewhat spherical to

oval, and in form it resembles those of some birds. Table 4

summarizes the features of nests A, B and C, all of which were

actually recovered from goramy ponds in the Philippines.

‘The size of the nest varies with that of the fishes, while

the materials of which it is built depend upon whatever is

procurable in the feeding or spawning ponds. It takes about a week

for the goramy to build its nest.

‘When the nest is completed, the female deposits her eggs

in the centre of it. The eggs are round, shading from orange

to yellow, and about 1 millimetre in diameter. After the eggs

have been deposited and fertilized, the parents remain near,

patiently aerating them by the constant fanning movements of the

pectoral fins and zealously guarding them from predators and

enemies. }

“The eggs hatch in about to %days..>Ulate: 2.unes: si toga,

shows various stages in the development and metamorphosis of

the fry, from the time the. individual is newly hatched until it

reaches the age of 1 month and 12 days, when the appearance

and shape of the adult become evident, and when the first ray of

the ventral fin is distinctly beginning to prolong.

MISCELEANBEOUS NOTES

437

The young

find refuge in the nest during the first. days of their life, under

the protection of their parents; they do not soon disperse, but

keep together in schools under the guidance of the parent fish.

Table 4. Summarized features of goramy nests recovered

from ponds in the Philippines.

= MEASURE-

o MENTS

a aw

rr 9 = vole Lets at ler 7 ie

o S co SN |e Go Contents Composition

Z 4 5 Go eee: oe

2 4 a ee

= Ale ¢

( On Onik®

&. | Novel0;| Manila 7) 30) 18-9 Remnants| Roots, stalks, and

1932 Propa- unfertilized| leaves of water hya-

gation eggs that have| cinths ; rattan; vines

Ponds. become decay-| for tying kangkong,

ed, soft andthe feed of the fish:

mossy. stalks of Aydrilla

verticillata ; mud.

Be) Ato, 16, Do. 28:1 20°) 10 Newly hatch-| Mostly roots, stalks

1935 ed fry, with|ard leaves of water

yolk sacs and) hyacinths with scat-

some decayed | terings of mud.

Mien iilized

eggs,

C.-| Oct. 19, | Mexico, | 28 | 26.) 10 Unrecorded. Grasses and twigs

LOSS Pam- made cv.mpact and

panga, somewhat woven

with roots of grasses

and some wire, and

pasted with mud.

DEPARTMENT OF FISHERIES,

C. AMIRTHALINGAM,

COLOMBO MUSEUM, B.oc., PH.D:

COLOMBO. Actg. Asst. Marine Biologist.

JUNE AO, TOG.

XV.—TROUT FISHING IN KASHMIR.

(Wtih a plate).

I have been fishing in Kashmir on and off for the last eighteen

years or so. Last year I managed to put in nearly three months,

and, as I fished most of the beats now open to the public, it is

rather interesting to look back and consider how the original

experiment of stocking these streams has fared.

Brown trout were, I think, first introduced into some of the

streams about rgor, and, after a few initial difficulties, throve and

438 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL BIST.~SOCIETY,. Vol, veel.

multiplied exceedingly. I have no first hand knowledge of these

very early years, but, from all accounts, a large number of very

big fish were killed from about 1908 up to the outbreak of the

war. My own experiences started in 1920 when I was lucky

enough to be able to spend nearly a whole summer on the Kashmir

streams. At that time the state of the rivers was peculiar and

the fishing was quite unlike any I have met elsewhere. There

were on the whole very few medium sized fish. There were how-

ever a large number of really big fish, while in most streams there

were quite a lot of fish of 6 to.8 inches, showing that natural

breeding had got a good start. The fishing, however, was unlike

most trout fishing. One spent one’s time trying for the very big

ones, spinning where spinning was permitted, fishing a large

sized salmon fly or lure elsewhere, This was the golden age as

regards big fish. Trout of three pounds and over were ordinary,

5 and 6 pounders were quite common, while fish or 8 to 10 pounds

were no great rarities. My own best fish was one of eight and

1 half pounds, while I had quite a number of between 5 and 7. To

cee what the average then was I will quote two bags—one of

24 fish killed in a week on the Lower Bringhi weighing 78 ibs.,

and another of 6 fish killed on the Naubug in one day weighing

no less than 29 lbs. There was lots of other sport to be got im

those days, for from my camp at Wyl on the Bringhi I got a

black bear in the morning, an 84 Ib. trout in the evening and

over 50 Chukor to my own gun next day.

The trout in these days were in marvellous condition and I

have never seen finer fish than these Bringhi trout. They looked

perfect, they fought well, while on the table they cut like fresh-

run sea rout.

About 1931 there came a change in all this, and it looked as

if something had gone radically wrong. Rivers like the Bringht,

which had formerly been famous for the quality of their trout

began to fall away. People began to haul out a lot of medium

Sl fish in -poor condition, and, although there were still a certain

number of bie fish about in acral good condition, the majority

were poor and lanky. It was quite obvious that something had

gone wrong with the food supply, and it looked as if the glory

was departing for ever from the Kashmir streams.

Looking back I put this falling away down to a combination

of two causes. There were, I think, tremendous floods in Kashmir

in either 1928 or 1929. These scoured out the becs of the rivers,

and, worse, cleaned out the side streams altogether, so that many

of them which had held masses of watercress and other food

harbouring weeds, were reduced to barren streams trickling over

bare gravel and silt. This meant an immense and sudden drop

in the food supply.

This happened, moreover, just at the wrong period, when

natural breeding of trout had begun to get ahead of the normal!

food supply. The resuit was a regular famine, and overstocking

of the worst kind. I can’t help thinking that the State fishing

rules also contributed to this state of affairs. These allowed far

Journ. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc.

THE CHATERGUL.

Burn fishing on a large scale.

My LAST DAY—UPPER NAUBUG.

Best 34 Ibs.

rec

, ‘

Boeck

a aay

oO na

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 4.39)

too few trout to be killed by license holders, so that there was

nothing to keep the stock under control. As a result the stock

of trout far outran the food supply. One can hardly blame the

State authorities, however, for it is only recently that people, even

at home, have begun to realise that overstocking is worse than

understocking and much more difficult to remedy.

After my experiences in 1931, therefore, I was not too

optimistic about last year’s fishing. I am glad to say, however,

that on the whole I was agreeably cdisappointed. There is un-

doubtedly a great deal of overstocking in most of the rivers. But

nature is definitely beginning to strike a balance, and the trout,

though much smaller on the average than they used to be, are

on the whole in better condition than they were a few years ago.

There are doubtless some of the old stagers left, but the trout

are now striking a natural average and one which is balanced by

the food supply. Another point is that the fishing is becoming

more like real trout fishing, and instead of hurling enormous

bunches of feathers info the streams, it now pays to fish really

fine and with the smallest possible flies. My five best fish this

year, all of which weighed over 3 Ibs., were caught on oo midges

or something similar, sometimes fished wet and sometimes dry.

It is in fact trout fishing now, and that is what we exiles are

looking for.

This state of affairs does not hold in all rivers, however, for

many of them are in earlier stages of development. The Madmatti

and the Kishengunga, for instance, which are very large streams,

and were stocked later, have not yet reached this natural balance,

and at present are in the early stage of holding a lot of big fish

in first class condition. It will be interesting to see how their

stock develops in the years to come.

Now, as to the rivers themselves. There are about 25 beats

open to the public, and I understand these will very soon be 1n-

creased to thirty or more. With as many beats as these there

must be a great variety both in the type of water and thie method

of fishing, but the beats can be roughly divided into three main

masses.

Firstly there are the extreme upper waters of the big rivers

and some of their smaller mountain tributaries. These are real

torrents, and fishing them is glorified burn fishing. But though

the methods are very like the tactics employed on a highland

burn at home, the results are very different. In these streams

a small bright fly, let it be a small Jock Scott, a Cock of the

Walk, or a Silver Grey, will bring up a trout from behind almost

every stone. These will be no fingerlings, however, like our wee

burn trout, but. will be lusty fish, eight or ten inches or: more,

while many of them will scale 1$ or 2 lbs. and will be fine fish

at that. On a good day, however, they will be just as eager as

our hungry little moorland trout. In this class are streams like

the Chatergul, the Deosoo and the Mantar, and very fine little

streams they are.

Further down, where the valleys open out, we get typical South-

440. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL, AIST. “SOCIETY, Vol xt!

land trout streams, the Kokarnag, with its green watermeadows,

and its overhung shady stickles, and the Naubug with its grassy

willow’ planted flats. These to my numnd are the best-of) ihe

Kashmir::streams, and “here is real. trout mshing, “nota gaudy

oriental imitation. The dry fly man will come into his own here,

and -many a. fine: trout will come “up at: a. well cocked dryly

floated down the runs between the weeds at the tail of the pools.

A word of warning, however. There is very seldom a real hatch

of fly on any of these streams, and the dry fly fisherman will not

do well if he waits to tackle only a rising fish. Sometimes he

will see his fish, more often not, but big fish he under the weeds

at the edge of almost every narrow channel, and a) dry fy run

down one of these will nearly always get its reward. On almost

all the big rivers, too, there are little side streams, mill leats and

the like, which nearly all hold good trout, and where a small fly

fished either wet or dry will kill fish even when the main river

seems quite hopeless. In all this type of water do not forget

the nymph. These Kashmir trout, although they are not tremen-

dous surface feeders, are very fond of taking nymph under water,

and they love grubbing about amongst the weeds for any minute

lite they can find. A nymph sunk quickly and fished past any

weed bed is very killing at times, and will often bring up fish

in the middle of a bright sunny day when they will look at nothing

Else.

The last class comprises the middle and lower beats of the

big rivers, the Bringhi proper, the Sind, the Liddar, the Madmatti

and the Kishengunga. These are like vast salmon rivers, with

heavy rapids and great sweeping pools. Here you will want big

flies and spinning tackle. Remember in these, although the big

tempting pools do hold a certain number of trout, there is more

feeding and consequently are more trout in the lighter water.

Spend most of your time, therefore, on the bouldery streams

where the river divides, the shallow tails of the pools and the

like, and especially where any weedy side stream flows into the

main river. You are fishing for trout, not salmon. Salmon are

not worried by the food supply question and lie out in the big

pools. Trout follow their food, and where there is feeding, there

will you get them.

And now to some conclusions as to the fishing as a whole.

Well, it is°-first class; but it might easily. ‘be much» better

We owe all of it to the Game Preservation. Department of the

State, and if seems. ungrateful to; be critical: ‘Il am sure, however,

that there are many points where .1mprovement could be effected,

without any serious difficulty or great expense. The first and

most important question is that of overstocking. In nearly

all the rivers natural breeding appears to be unusually good and

there 1s a very marked tendency for the natural stock of trout to

outrun the food supply. This is especially so in’ the Bringhi

area where overstocking has already got out of hand. I am sure

the aim in trout preservation should be quality, not quantity. It

is far better to have a medium stock of well conditioned fish, than

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 441

a tremendous quantity of poor conditioned small ones. Here

quality is deteriorating, for the food supply is not keeping pace

with the increase in stock. If the situation 1s to be saved im-

mediate action is needed to set this balance right. The first point

is, I think, a reduction in the number of trout. Trout in Kashmir

have very few active enemies, There are-no “pike ‘or -other

seriously predatory fish. There are a few otters, and a few

herons and kinghshers, but not enough to have any serious

effect in keeping increase within bounds. The only real agent

in keeping down the stock is the lcensed angler, and I do not

think that he is allowed to kill enough fish to have the desired

eMect.

Take a river like the Bringhi. On this, counting small tribu-

taries and side streams, there must be at least 4o mues of fAshable

water, divided into 6 beats. On each of these each ro.l is ailowed

to kill 36 fish a week, while two rods are allowed at a time. ‘this

makes a possible total of 72 fish per beat per week for the 6 months

of the fishing season. ‘there are, however, weeks of spate, ot

logrolling and other interruptions, and it is doubtful whether tne

average can be more than 50 trout per week per beat, or 1,2c0

for the season. In the six beats, therefore, probably an outside

maximum of 7,000 fish are killed during the season.

Now the Bringhi is a big river, with plenty of holding water, and

I cannot think it holds less than 5,000 mature trout to the mile.

In the whole river, therefore, there must be total adult population

of not less than 200,000 trout. The 7,000 or so trout killed per

year can hardly have any appreciable effect in keeping this vast

population in check, and the result must be an ever increasing

amount of overstocking. I am sure it would pay to do away with

the limits both with regard to size and numbers on every license,

and allow, nay even encourage, every angler to kill every trout

he possibly can irrespective of size. It might in fact be advisable

to reverse the present policy, and, while still limiting the number

of sizable fish to be killed, to make it compulsory to kill every

fish taken under the present size limit. This experiment, to have

any real value would have to be carried on for a number of years.

I am sure it is not at all a dangerous one. While it is very

difficult to cure overstocking, to cure understocking, where natural

reproduction is good, is very easy. Should it be found after a

number of years that the stock is getting low, it is only necessary

to restrict angling for a year or two and the stock will quickly

recover, while in the meantime natural food will have had a chance,

in its turn, of increasing. Personally I would recommend being

more drastic still and netting out a large portion of the existing

stock,

Another point which needs immediate and drastic treatment,

is the enormous stock of country fish in the river. The whole

Bringhi is almost paved with country fish, both in the shallows

and in the pools. Late in the year if you look into the pools you

will find that you can hardly see the bottom for them. It is

argued, I know, that the fry of these fish make excellent feeding

449 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLI

for trout. This is true up to a’ pomt,- but “trontemcecd= tamer

on water insects than they do on fish, and, in any case, their slight

value as trout food must be quite outweighed by the damage they

do to the normal sources ot food supply for trout. I do not

think any one knows with great accuracy the diet of these country

fish. Their staple is probably vegetable matter, green slime and

the like. I am sure, however, that they will eat most. things,

and that they consume or destroy caddis worms, snails and

other smaller forms of life, which are the most important ingre-

dients in the trouts diet. Further they certainly interfere with

the growth of weed, which is the natural host of most of the

trouts food. Finally they cause unhealthy crowding, they must

use up a tremendous lot of the oxygen in the water, while their

excreta, where they exist in these enormous numbers, cannot fail

to foul the bottom of the river. I am sure that a few days careful

netting of the river would result in a catch of several hundred

tons of these country fish, and would, if a market were organised,

be a paying proposition. Even if a fair number of trout were

killed at the same time, good, and not harm, would result.

Lastly, and possibly most important of all, is the question

of improving the natural food supply available for the trout. Now

that most otf the rivers are either stocked to capacity, or at least

well enough stocked to be left to natural breeding, it seems to

me that a large proportion of the money now spent on trout

hatcheries might be devoted to breeding food supplies. Much

might be done, too, by paying more attention to the minor

feeders. These might be turned into food breeding sanctuaries.

Food harbouring weeds might be planted, and protected, and the

scientific breeding of fresh water snails, shrimps caddis fly and the

like might be taken up. The Kashmir streams, like all other

Himalayan waters, are woefully deficient. in waterflies and it is

for consideration whether some of our British waterflies, may-

flles and so on might not be introduced. One thing is quite

certain. Money spent on increasing the stock of trout on most

rivers is now money wasted. Any expenditure which really helps

to increase the available food supply is certainly money well spent.

In conclusion, because I seem to be overcritical and to find

fault rather than praise, do not let it be thought that I fail to

appreciate the admirable work done by the State Game Preserva-

tion Department. It has indeed accomplished wonders, and we poor

exiles owe to it some of the best of our days out here, and some

very wonderful sport. I do feel very strongly, however, that work

on the lines I have suggested would raise trout fishing in Kashmir

from its present level of merely first class, up to a ‘standard

which could hardly be equalled anywhere else in the world.

LoRALAI, | Eo) Ross:

BALUCHISTAN, Brigadier.

June, 1939. — Lhob Brigade.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 443

XVI.—A CURIOUS HABIT OF A DANAID BUTTERELY.

During May and the first half of June this year there were

extraordinarily large numbers of the butterfly Danais melissa dravi-

darum Fruh. on the Billigirirangan Hills (Mysore-Coimbatore).

Throughout large areas of dry evergreen forest at an elevation of

about 4,000 ft. swarms of many thousands of these butterflies were

frequently met with. In this same area a wild species of hound’s

tongue, Cynoglossum denticulatum A. DC. var. zeylanicun C. B. C. is

frequent, but at this season is not yet in flower. It was noticed that

many plants of this species were completely covered with the above

butterflies. These insects were engaged in vigorously scratching the

surface of the leaves with the ‘claws’ of their front legs and drink-

ing the sap thus made available. Each front leg has two slender

sharp claws. As a result of this treatment the leaves become wilted

and soon turn black or brown. The butterflies appeared to confine

themselves strictly to this particular plant, and consequently it was

difficult to find any plants of this kind that had not been thus attacked,

at least to some extent; many plants had all their leaves completely

shrivelled.

The Danaid butterflies were accompanied by a few of the species

Euploea coreta coreta God. which were drinking the sap but which

were not seen to take part in the scratching. The butterflies did

not resort to this practice simply to get water, as there were a

number of shallow streams in the district. This plant is not re-

corded as the food plant of the larva of Danais or Euploea.

The butterflies were kindly identified by the Madras Museum.

TAMBARAM, BE. BARNES.

Soutu InpIa.

July 9, 1939.

XVII.—A CATERPILLAR PEST OF CHAMPAKA

(MICHELIA CHAMPACA) IN SOUTH MALABAR DISTRICT.’!

The Champaka (Michelia Champaca), a well known and popular

flowering tree in India is found thriving chiefly along the foot-hills

and uplands of the Western Ghats. Apart from its value as a

valuable timber tree, its sweet-smelling and beautiful golden flowers

command a good market in all villages and towns. It is commonly

cultivated round about temples and like the Asoka, Malathi, Mandara,

etc. is one of the trees held in some veneration by Hindus in many

localities. The writer has in his farm in the South Malabar District

a en

* Paper read at the Indian Science Congress, Calcutta, 1938.

444" JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL CoisT}> SOCIETY, Wol. eer

a few young trees; recently these were found subject to the attacks

of a leaf-eating caterpillar. Since we have no records of any insects

associated with this valuable tree from South India, the writer has

attempted to present a short paper on the bionomics of this insect.

The Caterpillar is the larva of the swallow-tailed papilionid butterfly

P. agamemnon. L. The caterpillars feed on the foliage, and some-

times almost defoliate the branches especially is this the case with

young plants. The attack is commoner during the rainy months

from June to September.

The insect, its life-history and habits.—The butterfly is a fairly

common species found all over the Indian region especially in tracts

with a good rainfall. It is a beautiful creature with black wing's

with numerous green markings; there are a few brown and pinkish

markings on their under side. The colour of the body is black

generally, but there are a few grey or pinkish patches on the thorax

and sides of abdomen.

Eggs.—The spherical smooth egg is pale yellowish green more

or less the colour of the tender leaf, on the undersurface of which

it is deposited.

Larva.—The egg hatches into a tiny dark caterpillar in three

to four days. The newly hatched larva measures 2 mm. _ In colour

it is blackish grey with a striking creamy white patch along the

dorsal region of the posterior half of the body; the prothorax is

also of a pale whitish colour above. Ventral region and legs are

pale grey. The head is paler and is hidden underneath the pro-

thorax. The dorsal and lateral regions are fringed with small

branched spines, in addition there are four pairs of tubercultr

processes with minute spinelets on them. The first three pairs are

on the thorax, one pair on each segment; these project posteriorly

and laterally and become very conspicuous in the later stages.

The mesothoracic and the abdominal processes are pale whitish to

some extent, the other thoracic ones being dark grey. The smal!

dorsal spines are arranged in longitudinal rows on either area of

the mid-dorsal region; each of these small spines is bifid at the

tip. At this stage the creature can be easily mistaken for bird’s

dung—evidently a protective adaptation. At the next stage the

body colour changes to dark green, but the white patch still persists

though paler in hue. The smaller body spines disappear leaving

only the four pairs of processes and a smooth body; gradually the

thoracic region gets swollen and hides the head completely from

view. In the later stages the body takes a pyramidal shape with

the middle of the body elevated up and sloping gradually towards

the front and back. The spiny processes become reduced and

shining black in colour, the mesothoracic pair becoming reduced to

mere stumps with a golden yellow areola around the base of each;

these processes now become spines, the spinelets on them gradually

disappearing. From this stage onwards the larva often assumes

the attitude of sphinx larve with the anterior region remaining

raised up over the leaf level. When disturbed the caterpillars also

thrust out the fleshy forked osmateria from the prothoracic region

emitting a very strong odour—evidently a defensive adaptation

generally found in most papilionid caterpillars.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 445

The caterpillar during its last stage grows to a length of about

40 to 45 mm. and is stout and cylindrical though compressed a

little dorsoventrally. The body surface is smooth. The general

colour is bright to yellowish green according to that of the leaf

surface. The ocelli, the four pairs of spines (3. thoracic and 1

abdominal) are blackish blue; the mesothoracic ones are considerably

reduced to two small dark pinheads; the bases of the metathoraciec

ones have a crimson shade. The eight pairs of spiracles are clearly

visible as grey spots over a yellowish green ground colour. Legs

prolegs paler and greyish at tips, the latter very well provided

with hooks and sete.

Pupa.—The caterpillar changes into the chrysalis fixing itself

by means of silk strands on the leaf stalk or branch carefully hidden

from view, difficult to detect blending as it does with the colour of

the pale green bark or stem. The chrysalis is about an inch in

length and is more or less boat shaped with the conspicuous horn

on the middle and narrowing towards each end; the tail end tapers

and the head end is more or less flattish. The thoracic region is

edged with a wavy brown border patch on each lateral side and

these meet at the horn. The abdominal region is paler than the

anterior half. The life-history roughly occupies about a month

to five weeks. In the earlier caterpillar stages the creature is more

or less like some limacodid caterpillars (Parasa, Contheyla, etc.).

It was not found breeding on any other food plant except

Champaca in this region. Kershaw has recorded it from Hongkong

breeding on Champaka and custard-apple and Senior White from

Ceylon on Anona. There is however no record of its occurrence

on this plant till now from South India.

MADRAS. T. V. RAMAKRISHNA AYYAR,

January 1938. BeAr Beda,

Government Entomologist, Madras (Retd.).

XVIII.—BIRDS EATING BUTTERFLIES.

I had very interesting experience on this trip. A Paradise

Flycatcher (Tchitrea paradisi Linn.)—the Malay name is Murai

Rimba, which means the robin of the big jungle—was very inter-

ested in certain butterflies which during the sunny part of the day

fed on the edge of the pool where, no doubt, they found succulent

juices from the large accumulations of elephants’ dung. The bird

I saw at first was the male; later on, another day, I saw both

male and female.

The flycatcher stooped at the butterflies as they were feeding on

the ground,—I am not sure whether a bird does ‘stoop’ at butter-

flies—and after many failures I saw him catch a Fritillary and

take it away to a tree where he pulled or broke the wings off and

then flew away with what was left.

I think the female was on a nest where there were possibly

young, because later on I saw her catch a large White and take

446° JOURNAL, BOMBAY "NATURAL. HIST. SOCIETY, “Viol. (XEl

it away. I saw these birds catch several butterflies, mostly

Fritillaries, almost always on the ground but sometimes when

the birds’ swoop had disturbed them, on the wing. This is inter-

esting in view of a paper lately read by Dr. Richmond Wheeler

and published in the Proceedings of the Linnean Society, Session

151, April 1939, in which this matter was discussed. Wheeler

was out here as a school master and I knew him well. I was

always of the opinion that birds did not eat butterflies in Malaya

and that was Wheeler’s view too. This error was based on

negative evidence. I know better now. I am writing to Wheeler

telling him all about it, because although it destroys his previous

convictions he is a big enough man to admit he was wrong and

will be giad of my positive evidence. I saw these two birds on

six days.

T. RAUB BACK

PAHANG,

FEDERATED MALAY STATES.

August 6, 1939.

XIX.—ON THE ROAD TO GERSOPPA AND BACK.

We decided on a short excursion to the Gersoppa Falls just

at the break of the rains. To the layman, perhaps Such-a‘ inp

offers no thrills and no interests, but to naturalists it is full of

experience. Nature is on the verge of rejuvenation and her child-

ren know the season and weather conditions even better than the

most learned metreologist and finest instruments. An inherent

‘something’ drives them to prepare for the coming event—the

monsoon. Birds move to drier or wetter climes as the conditions

suit them—some to nests, others to dodge the rains: pupas of

last season have matured and are on or absut to take to wing:

dormant plants are ready to sprout. Life is everywhere waiting

to be released. Down comes the rain and it is in motion.

We left Bombay on the 4th June, 1938 in pouring rain. The

monsoon had broken earlier than usual in spite of forecasts. In

fact, it had rained a few days previously and Nature around had

answered in response—it was green on all sides below the ghats.

The lean cattle greedily fed on the sprouting green followed by

the ubiquitous Cattle Egret (Bubulcus ibis coromandus (Bodd.)) in

full nuptial dress. Along promising streams, where pools had

already collected, the Lesser Egret (Egretta i. intermedia (Wagler))

congregated in small parties were also in their wedding wrap, full

of promise and busily intent on the small life in the pools.

Among these and belonging to the same class was our ‘Issac

Walton of the Ponds’, the Pond Heron (Ardeola grayii (Sykes)) in

his best wedding suit waiting patiently for his breakfast.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 447

Outside Panvel we stopped on the bridge. <A splashing of

water attracted our notice and on looking down, below the bridge

were a number of lads dressed in less than handkerchiefs damm-

ing up portions of the stream and bailing out water in the hope

of catching small fish. Small fish have an attraction for the

villager, not because they are easy to get or cheaper to buy, but

they are tender and it saves them the trouble of removing the

bones—the entire fish is eaten—it is really a labour-saving device

and a saving in material. Nothing wasted, but no thought for

the future.

In due course we climbed the ghats of Campoli. The Malabar

Whistling Thrush (Myophonus horsfieldit Vigors) was to be heard

but not seen—he is a skulker. At this season he is also in his best

plumage and preparing his nest away in the cliffs. We stopped

at the Khandala Hotel for lunch. While we waited for it we had

time to investigate the neighbourhood. The results were not good,

life was dull at the moment—a few metallic blue beetles (Chrysome-

lids) were lunching on Pavetta indica. We were glad to leave

this unproductive spot as soon as _ possible.

Leaving Khandala behind we were now on the Deccan. The

change was most remarkable though rain had fallen and was still

falling. The fresh greens had given place to the drab kahki and

black rocks and soil so characteristic of the Deccan. Rain had

evidently been very recent. Bird life was scarce. Now here is a

problem for the ornithologists. At most times, particularly during

the dry season, the telegraph wires, those unconsciously erected

bird perches, and dry branches are always tenanted by numerous

Drongos, Rollers, Doves, and at times by Swallows and other

birds. The Drongos and Rollers were not to be seen. During

the whole length of our journey we only saw a single Drongo,

and that near Belgaum which was close to forest. Where have

these hundreds of Drongos and Rollers gone? It is quite evident

they were absent from this part of the Deccan. Another bird whose

absence was conspicuous was the Golden Oriole.

Such conditions undoubtedly point to a local migration. The

season was the breeding season for most Drongos. The Fauna

(2nd ed.) states the Black Drongo breeds throughout its habitat.

It has been our experience that most Drongos breed in well

forested (deciduous forest) areas. This reason may explain their

absence in the Deccan where forests are wanting, for in the for-

ested areas further south, Drongos were noticed. This might

explain the absence of these birds, but what of the Rollers?

According to the same authority the Rollers would be at the end

of their breeding season. As these birds are not entirely depend-

ent on trees for their nesting sites, frequently building even in

masonry structures, their absence is not so easily explained.

Lastly we come to the Oriole. According to the Fauna it is said

to breed throughout its range during this season. In this case

too, their total absence from that area at this time points to a

definite breeding migration to more suitable localities. However,

448 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLI

these casual observations prove nothing, but merely state the facts,

which were most remarkable.

Towards evening we arrived in Poona, where we stayed the

night. As the Poona rivers hold some sporting fish and it was

still early, the Piscatorial Artist of the party tried the possibilities

with rod and line, while the botanist hoped for something fresh

along the banks; our host, who accompanied us, was torn between

the two. The net results for the evening proved a failure for the

fisherman, but the botanist had made a find. Our combination,

it must be understood, was not merely a temporary union of fisher-

man and botanist—we were ‘Naturalists on the prowl’ ready for

any emergency and to collect anything that came our way.

Next morning we bade adieu to our host and hostess and

slowly threaded our way towards Belgaum. Mile after mile went

by. It drizzled now and again. Little was to be seen on the drab

undulating plateau, yet it was full of interest. Gypsies slowly

threaded their way to their ‘rainy’ quarters, driving either buffaloes

or donkeys before them laden with the family possessions sur-

mounted either by small children or the family chanticleer, who

frequently, loudly protested against this mode of travel, while dogs

followed in their wake. It its a life of perpetual going to and

fro. The further south we went the turbans of the locals became

larger until they were fully pregnant in Kholapur State. In that

state, the size, colour, and texture, with a characteristic kink on

one side, almost closing one eye, evidently indicated the status

of the individual.

Our host at Poona had confided to the Fisherman that at Sut-

gutti, 16 miles from Belgaum there was a river with large fish in

it. This was sufficient reason to call a halt at a place, though,

at first, we accepted the information as a ‘fishing story’. We

reached our destination towards evening, hurriedly had some tea

and set out for the river. The sky was heavily overcast. Our

guide to the fishing spot was an enterprising local youth who had

evidently been out several times before. Like most guides he

went round in circles—we were hurrying against time. On arrival

at the spot we found a considerable pool. Occasional splashes

and an occasional dorsal fin indicated the presence of really large

fish. The fisherman got quite enthusiastic. He cast in all direc-

tions, now one line and then another, while the botanist looked

on. We encircled the pool, but with every cast the fish only be-

came livelier and often leapt out of the water with glee, as if

taunting the fisherman and all his skill, but they would not bite.

The fish were large carp. Some measuring almost three feet.

the enthusiasm of the fisherman was such that he determined to

visit the sport next morning.

Early next morning we were at the spot again, only to dis-

cover the cause of the activity of the fish the previous evening.

They were more learned in ‘fishy matters’ and weather conditions

than we. During the night it had rained heavily and it was still

raining when we arrived at the spot. The river had swollen to a

raging torrent of muddy water. The fish knew that this was

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 449

coming and had expressed their joy the previous evening in

anticipation of either a good feed coming down with the rush,

or of the opportunity of going up stream. The fisherman im-

mediately saw the prospects, nevertheless he made a few casts in

despair, lost a ‘spoon’, and together we returned to the Bungalow

full of regrets. So on to Belgaum.

Business detained us at Belgaum for a day and a half. Never-

theless when opportunity arose we drove to the nearest jungles or

investigated the bird life around the old fort. Rain had_ been

heavy in this area. The vegetation in the deciduous forests was

reviving. The botanist. was in his element, several terrestrial

orchids pushed their ‘flowery heads’ above the soil. The fisher-

man had forsaken his rods and turned his attention to ornithology.

Birds were numerous. The occasional conversation was highly

spiced with Latin and Greek. The terminology was often as un-

intelligible to one another as Chinese to the Bushman—but what

of that? It was scientific, and one was glad to con a new name

from the other. In this forest under piles of boulders we saw an

earthen nest adhering to an under face. It looked like the nest of

a swallow. On getting up to it we found the entrance plugged

with freshly gathered material, but no sign of life. The botanist

stuck his knife into it and we were never more surprised than to

see a whole family of Tree mice (Vandeluria) jump out and run

away as fast as they could go. There were father, mother and

several children. In their haste they used our bodies as a short

cut to the ground and in our haste we lost all, bar one.

On the 8th afternoon we left Belgaum with no regrets and

continued our way southward. That night we spent in an un-

interesting Dak Bungalow at Hubli and were early on our way

next morning continuing our journey towards Gersoppa. Rain had

been heavy during the night and in places the roads were like soft

chocolate. The P. W. D. had taken this opportunity of repairing

and building culverts and bridges and had made several divisions

which oftemr made us extremely anxious of the present and very

anxious about the future. At times the car behaved like a camel

in distress on slush. Only those who have had the pleasure of

being astride a camel under such conditions will appreciate the

simile perfectly.

The further south we went the more it rained, until in the

dense forests it became a deluge the whole duration of our stay.

As far as Siddapur the road was alright, but after that there were

streams to cross. En route the deciduous forests were carpeted

with an handsome yellow and white Curcuma—a member of the

Canna family. In some places, giant millepedes (Julus) streained

about like miniature trains. Some were added to the collection.

A curious point about these creatures is that they emit a strony

odour of bromine and frequently stain the hands pink. At one

point the car was brought to a halt by the excited shouts of the

botanist to stop—he had seen something. It was one of the most

beautiful of the ground orchids. It was a Eulophia with large

bright golden yellow flowers (EF. campestris), The colour of the

450 JOURNAL, BOMBAY (NATURALS HIS Te VSOClE UN, iol. enn

flower of this species has given rise to many different statements.

Having secured the prize we moved on. The conversation now

turned to orchids and a sharp look out was kept for further speci-

mens with no result. We sped merrily on till we were descend-

ing a slope, when excited shouts again brought the car to a halt.

The botanist had espied a green Tick (Tvimeresurus annamalensis)

reposing on the roadside. It was soon safely stored away in a bag

next to the driver, who henceforth betrayed a certain uneasi-

ness. The operation of catching this brute had been observed

by two or three locals who immediately opened fire in good

Kanarese. It fell on deaf ears, as neither of us understood that

language, not that it mattered, it was easy to conclude what they

meant by their excited ejaculations, for when the viper was safely

in the bag, their arguments stopped and they looked at us dumb-

founded and probably concluded that we were either satanic or

insane. What a story they must have told when they got home?

The length of the snake must, by this time, be several yards.

Leaving these good folks to their story we moved on.

On the gth afternoon we arrived at Gersoppa Bungalow to

find it enveloped in driving heavy rain clouds, and from now on

it remained rain and clouds. Now and again there was a break

in the clouds and we got a glimpse of the falls and the roar of the

rushing water intensified. Rain or no rain, we ventured out—we

were out for specimens. At night we sat round our lantern in

the hope of insects, but few ever came and most of these were

microscopic.. At intervals we made a round .of the house ‘for

lizards and to our. good. luck secured specimens of a newly

described gecko (Hemidactylus prashadi) and a rare frog, Rana

leithi.

The next afternoon we went down to the falls themselves, as

it promised to be clear for a time. The rain had stopped, but the

clouds -still swept up the gorge. The angler. decided to try the

river above the falls but after several attempts: gave it up. The

botanist who had visited the falls in October nearly twenty years

ago promised the fishing-ornithologist a sight to be remembered—

‘millions of swifts and Blue Rock Pigeons’. Such was the sight

he had witnessed on his previous visit. To his dismay and the

disappointment of the angler there were no swifts. (Micropus m.

melba), (we saw one which seemed doubtfully of this species away

down in the cauldron) and but a few Blue Rock Pigeons. Perhaps

the fisherman was by this time making mental reservations, but

the word of the botanist is supported by—the Fauna. Here we

find ‘I have repeatedly had reports as to its breeding at Gersoppa

Falls’—but no proof. Here again is a problem) for, the vornithe-

logist. June is the breeding month of this swift. Accordingly

we should find them in large numbers round the falls—if they

breed there—but this was not the case, so they must be breeding

elsewhere, indicating a local migration during certain seasons.

We carefully examined the cliffs with powerful binoculars, but

there were no traces of nests as far as we could see. In the

Pulnai Hills, the botanist had shot them in the months of June

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 451

and July, but as this bird flies at an enormous speed, this is no

evidence to show that they live in that habitat during these months

—the breeding months. What is it then that attracts them to the

Falls in October? “They definitely roost there at that time:

The same problem arises in the case of the pigeons. Where

do the greater majority go during the rains if there are so many

during October. In October both the swifts and the pigeons left

the cauldron of the falls by the thousand every morning, and

generally returned about three or four in the afternoon when the

mists began to gather. The air vibrated with their shrill calls.

In both cases there is a definite migration. Here we must leave

the subject until further light is cast on it.

Weather conditions became worse, so we decided to return

next day. Our collection was small but interesting. We had not

gone tar beyond the village of jog, when we found our anxiety

about the return journey fully justified. The streams were con-

siderably swollen and the sticky bits had become stickier.’ The

car crawled out of one bit with its wheels driving yards of slush

behind, but the worst was to come. We had not gone many miles

when we came to a stream—it was deep and rushing, but it had

to be negotiated if we were to get home this monsoon. On the

far side was a considerable length of liquid ‘chocolate’ sprinkled

with branches and stones which sank of their own weight. Hur-

rying lorries had ploughed this mess into a dangerous quagmire

and a sure trap for cars of low cicarance.' We got out and allowed

the driver to use his judgement. All went well till the car got a

little beyond the middle ot the stream with water half way up the

radiator, then it stopped. Our spirits sank lower and lower while

the water rose higher and higher inside the car till all was afloat.

The engine had stopped and refused to start. All luggage, plus

its water contents was unloaded. A little later a toot on the

starter, and the engine responded to our great joy—it had stopped

for a breather! Good fortune was on our side—the car just

managed to clear the water only to stick in the semiliquid mess.

It was nearly four hours before we were able to extricate ourselves

with the aid of locals and the principle of levers.

While we were embedded, we held up all traffic. A lorry

arrived on one side followed soon after by another car containing

a possible military officer. It was once said of a soldier ‘he came,

he saw, he conquered’, but of this soldier it must be said: ‘he came,

he saw, he fled’—like a scalded cat. The fat lorry driver had

the heart of a worm—he refused to attempt to tow us out. ihe

only assistance he offered us was by way of sitting on the bank

and staring at our efforts like a thinking sheep. Once on the

road again, we found all was well with the car. Only a Ford

could have got through without protesting, so much we must say

for the engine, but Oh, the springing, it strained our nerves to

breaking. As it often happens in difficulties, more trouble is added

to the existing ones. All through our efforts to extricate the car

it rained heaven’s hardest from time to time. Now that we were

out, even Nature rejoiced, the rain held off and the sun made

452 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATUBAL BIST! SOCIETY, Wo, eal

heroic efforts to peer through the blanket of clouds. We were

covered with mud and this had to be got rid of—quite an easy matter

—there was the stream. So we ‘dhobied’ ourselves in it and got

into cleaner though not much drier clothes.

By this time we had had enough, so we headed for home as

fast as we could go only to stop the night at Satara and then

move on. At Satara we dined at the ‘Hotel de Luxe’ and were

calmly told after dinner that there was no sleeping accommodation,

but the keeper, a portly gentleman, with a distinct sag under the

belt, told us that he could accommodate us in a bungalow some

distance away. To this we were conducted. There were beds but

no mattresses—the least of the difficulties—and no conveniences.

On comparing notes for the night, we agreed, that we had slept

badly—the creaking of wire springs and screaming mosquitoes.

The Deccan by this time was of a different picture—green had

replaced the kahki—dry rivers were now rolling currents of thick

pea soup. At Satara we shipped an extra load by way of a pon-

derous soldier-botanist whose car had let him down—his is a sad

story. On reaching the Khandala Ghats (Satara District) we

decided to walk down. ‘Those that were botanically minded knew

the Ghat to be the home of Caralluma fimbriata and Kalanchoe

olivacea. The Katraj Ghat was the next objective. Having sur-

veyed this Ghat, Poona was a short run. Here we unloaded the

extra 15 stone, and turned our noses homewards without any further

adventures,

AR APUG S:

AND

C. McCANN.

PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY V. M. PHILIP AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS, 18 CHURCH ROAD,

VEPERY, MADRAS

EDITORS : H. M. MCGUSTY, J.. F. ‘CAIUS, AND S. H. PRATER, 6 APOLLO STREET,

FORT, BOMBAY

Pee eee ae ee

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