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Banerji, M. L. (1958): Botanical Exploration in East Nepal.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 55 (2) : 243-268.

Prater, S. H. (1948): The Book of Indian Animals. Bombay.

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EDITORS,

91, Walkeshwar Road, Journal of the Bombay Natural

Bombay 6-WB. History Society.

The concluding section of A. Brosset’s serial on “The Bats of

Western and Central India’ will appear in the August 1963 issue of

the Journal (Vol. 60, No. 2).

VOLUME 60, NO. 1—APRIL 1963

Date of Publication: 13 July 1963 .

CONTENTS

THE ASIAN WEAVER BIRDS : PROBLEMS OF CO-EXISTENCE AND EVOLUTION WITH

PARTICULAR REFERENCE TO BEHAVIOUR. By John Hurrell Crook. (With

two plates, five text-figures, and three diagrammatic schemes)

CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INbDIA. VI. The publication of

Hooker’s FLORA OF BRITISH INDIA and what its publication released.

By I. H. Burkill

A SMALL COLLECTION OF EARTHWORMS FROM NEPAL (MEGASCOLECIDAE :!

OLIGOCHAETA). By R. W. Sims. (With a plate) ..

CRITICAL NOTES ON THE ORCHIDACEAE OF BOMBAY STATE. XI. Some of the

smaller Genera (Concluded). By H. Santapau, s.J. and Z. Kapadia.

(With two plates) a nf a

ON THE FRESHWATER MOLLUSCS OF PoONA. By G. T. Tonapi and Leela

Mulherkar. (With one map and six plates containing thirtysix figures) ..

THE NIDIFICATION OF SOME COMMON INDIAN BIRDS. Part 1. By B. S.

Lamba

ADDITIONS TO THE FLORA OF BOMBAY STATE : GRASSES FROM SALSETTE

ISLAND (MALAD-MADH AREA). By H. Santapau, s.J. and G. L. Shah

New BREEDING RECORDS OF MALAYAN Birps. By J. Cairns (With three

plates)

ENTOMOLOGICAL SURVEY OF HIMALAYA. Part XXVI. A Contribution to

our Knowledge of the Geography of the High Altitude Insects of the

Nival Zones from the North-West Himalaya. Part 6. By M.S. Mani

and Santokh Singh. (With one text-figure)

THE Birps OF NEPAL. Part9. By Biswamoy Biswas

STUDIES ON THE FRESHWATER OLIGOCHAETA OF SOUTH INDIA. I. Aeoloso-

matidae and Naididae. Part 5. By K. Vanamala Naidu. (With eight

text-figures) Si ; ae aie ;

THE EARLY STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT IN’ AcCchatina Fulica BowpiIcH

(MoLLuscA: GaSsTROPODA). By Krishna Chandra Ghose. (With three

plates) oe ae ae are

OBITUARY :

Lieutenant-Colonel Richard Watkins Burton. (With a photograph)

REVIEWS :

1. Flowering Trees of the World for tropics and warm climates.

(S.R.) oe

2. The House Sparrow. (S.A.) se!

3. A Classification of Living Animals. (J.C.D.)

4. A Bird and its Bush. (H.A.) :

5. Bird. (Z. F.) =n ae a a,

104

121

134

140

160

173

201

228

233

237

239

241

242

243

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :

1. On the cranial characters of Macaca silenus (Linn.) (Primates :

Cercopithecidae). (With a plate). By G. U. Kurup (p. 246). 2. A curious

protective device among wild elephants. (With a text-figure). By K. V.

Lakshminarayana (p. 250). 3. Census of the Nilgiri Tahr Hemitragus

hylocrius (Ogilby) in the Nilgiris. (With a plate). By E. R. C. Davidar

(p. 251). 4. Stranding of a Blue Whale Balaenoptera musculus (Linn.) near

Surat, Gujarat, with notes on earlier literature. By J. C. Daniel (p. 252).

5. ‘Transmission of rabies without biting’. By Editors (p. 254). 6. Some

records of petrels handled in the northern Indian Ocean. By N. Bailey and

W. R. P. Bourne (p. 256). 7. The Blue-tailed Bee-eater Merops philippinus

Linnaeus, nesting in Ceylon. By C. E. Norris (p. 259). 8. The Common

Hawk-Cuckoo (Cuculus varius varius Vahl) in the Punjab. By H. W. Waite

(p. 260). 9. The Forest Wagtail Moracilla indica Gmelin in the Gir Forest,

Saurashtra. By R. S. Dharmakumarsinhji (p. 261). 10. First record of

Beddome’s Wolf-snake Lycodon travancoricus (Beddome), from the Laccadive

Archipelago. By K. G. Adiyodi (p. 261). 11. The diet of the Indian Bull

Frog Rana tigerina (Daud.). By U. L. Wadekar (p. 263). 12. Further

studies on Indian spiders of the genus Cyrtarachne (Family : Argiopidae).

(With four text-figures). By B. K. Tikader (p. 268). 13. Notes on a collection

of ticks with a new host record of Hyalomma aegyptium ferozdeni Sharif

(Ixodidae). By G. Mathai (p. 276). 14. Occurrence of the butterflies

Hypolimnas misippus form inaria (Cramer) and Cirrochroa thais (Fabricius) in

the Surat Dangs, south Gujarat. By Ernest M. Shull (p. 278). 15. The

mating of the Atlas Moth Aftacus atlas Linnaeus. By K.R. Sethna (p. 279).

16. Detailed description of Diaspine Scale Insect Chionaspis venui Menon &

Khan, 1961. (Diaspididae : Coccidea). (With a plate). By M. G. Ramdas

Menon and M.S. H. Khan (p. 280). 17. Intelligent behaviour by the Mason

Wasp (Eumenes petiolata Fabr.). By D.E. Reuben (p. 283). 18. Odonototer-

mes obesus Ramb. as a pest of Japanese Mint. (With two plates). By

Rajendra Gupta and M. K. Agarwal (p. 285). 19. The termite Cryptotermes

havilandi (Sjéstedt) from the interior of India. (With a plate). By O. B.

Chhotani (p. 287). 20. Occurrence of Schouwia purpurea (Forsk.) Schweinf.

= §. arabica DC. in India. (With a plate). By M. V. Thombre (p. 289).

21. The acquatic plants of the Khandala talao. (With a sketch). By John

J. Gaudet (p. 290). 22. Nomenclatural notes on some Bombay plants-II.

By G. L. Shah (p. 296).

NOTES AND NEws

299

JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL

HISTORY SOCIETY

1963 APRIL Vol. 60 = Now

The Asian Weaver Birds: Problems

of co-existence and evolution with

particular reference to Behaviour

JOHN HURRELL CROOK?!

Sub-Department of Animal Behaviour, Zoological Laboratory, Cambridge

(With-two plates, five text-figures, and three

diagrammatic schemes)

CONTENTS

PAGE

I. INTRODUCTION

: a. Aim oe as oe cine ate

b. Study area—the amon tarai * i phe an

c. Field methods 4

II. NEW OBSERVATIONS ON TWO iia Serene IN Tee

a. Ploceus benghalensis. . ze re. Ry Sait

b. Ploceus manyar oa A. 10

Ill. PROBLEMS OF PLOCEINE SYMPATRY IN Vere WITH PARTICULAR REFERENCE

TO THE TARAI

a. Habitat selection .. oe oles we Me Do

b. Food preferences... Ms a ws m. Be

c. Mate selection Bs an a0 x sees

d. Conclusions ; a ste Pons |

TV. THE EVOLUTION OF THE AgtAN Weivnes

a. The African origin of the Asian Weavers .. es SOL

b. Dispersal and adaptive radiation sie Me OLS)

c. The origin and nature of the behavioural Hifferenecs he Pes)

d. Species grouping... ae +i aH oe 42

V. SUMMARY ie at Us ne aA .. 43

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS... rs na 2 en ad

REFERENCES .. ” 2 ae Se re i)

APPENDIX 47

1 Present address: Department of Psychology, Bristol University.

2 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

I. INTRODUCTION

a. Aim

In many parts of tropical Asia two or more weaver species (Ploceinae),

often apparently very closely related indeed, may be found side by side

in a common, usually fairly homogeneous, environment. The question

is at once posed as to how reproductive isolation is maintained between

them and whether they compete with one another for certain biological

necessities 7. In recent years the ecology and behaviour of the com-

monest species, the Baya Ploceus philippinus, has been much studied (Ali

1931, Ali & Ambedkar 1956, 1957, Ambedkar 1958 and in preparation,

Crook 1960c), and in 1959 a start was made on the other Indian species

about which, apart from notes in Jerdon (1877), Oates (1883), Hume

(1890), and Stuart Baker (1926, 1934), the standard works on Indian

ornithology, and a short study by Spennemann (1926), very little was

known. The area chosen for a comparative field study was the Kumaon

tarai for this was known to be one of the localities where extensive sym-

patry of at least three species occurred.

_ During the visit the elusive Finn’s Baya (Ploceus megarhynchus

Hume), for long one of the mysteries of Indian ornithology, was redis-

covered (Ali & Crook 1959) so that a total of four species was kept under

observation throughout the same period. The enquiry was of necessity

exploratory and consisted mainly in recording hitherto unknown details

of the ecology and reproductive behaviour of Ploceus manyar, P. benghal-

ensis, and P. megarhynchus, details which were quantified whenever

possible. The observations on P. megarhynchus have already been

published (Ali & Crook 1959) and the aim of this paper is, firstly to

present the new data on P. manyar and P. benghalensis and, after com-

parisons with other Asian weavers, to review briefly the problems pre-

sented by the extensive sympatry of the group. As the paper goes to

press the ecological work is being continued in Kumaon by Dr. Salim

Ali and Shri Vijaykumar Ambedkar.

b. Study area—the Kumaon tarai

Below the Himalayan foothills the Kumaon area consists of a northern

tract of forested country known as ‘bhabar’ and, to the south of this, a

1 Modern theory assumes that species originate in the following way. The

appearance of geographical barriers between local populations of a species prevents

gene exchange between them. In isolation the adaptive differentiation of the separated

populations continues leading to regional contrasts in physical, physiological, and

behavioural characters which may prevent inter-breeding if and when an overlap

in distribution occurs. If reproductive isolation is complete when this occurs the

sibling populations are considered distinct species (Dobzhansky 1941, Huxley 1942,

Mayr 1942, Lack 1944). The contrasts of particular importance in preventing inter-

breeding are differences in courtship and mating behaviour and in habitat and food

preferences (Hinde 1959). Furthermore the co-existence of sibling or closely related

species in the same general environment depends also on the absence of ecological com-

petition between them (Gause 1934, Crombie 1947).

THE ASIAN WEAVER BIRDS ; 3

flat largely treeless and often flooded stretch of grassland known as the

‘tarai’. This type of country extends parallel to the bhabar for most

of the length of the Himalayas north of the Ganges plain and reaches

southwards to the river. The contrast between the forested bhabar and

the swampy tarai depends on the fact that the drainage water from the

Himalayas runs very deeply below the surface in bhabar, necessitating

the construction of concrete surface runs from the hills and deep wells,

whereas it emerges on the surface of the plain in the tarai and moves

slowly along meandering streams and rivers down to the Ganges. In

the monsoon season the tarai is subject to extensive flooding.

The four weaver species occur almost exclusively in the tarai, only

the Common Baya having colonies in the agricultural lands in cleared

bhabar. In the Rudrapur area of Nainital district colonies of all four

species were observed ; those of P. philippinus in bushy trees over ditches,

streams, and rivers, P. megarhynchus mainly in Salmalia trees (Ali &

Crook loc. cit.), P. benghalensis in grassland near flood pools and fish

tanks, and P. manyar in reed and rush beds over swampy pools and in

rushes over flood water. Mixed colonies of P. benghalensis and P. manyar

occur both in rushes in swamps’ and in grass near flood pools, normally

with one of the two species predominating. Thus, while differences

in colony siting are apparent, the overall environment of the species is

the same. All species are gregarious and it is probable that in winter,

when the males lose the bright nuptial dress, the three smaller species

flock together in search of food. Ploceus megarhynchus, much larger

and with a massive bill, probably moves separately, and certainly exploits

different food supplies although the degree of overlap in preferences

remains unknown. All these birds are seed eaters, the smaller three in

particular being granivores. In the monsoon season there is a fairly

clear concentration of each species around their nesting colonies and

this tends to promote some degree of ecological segregation. Females

of P. philippinus have, however, been seen visiting colonies of both P.

benghalensis and P. manyar, and the country is in general so homogeneous

and the individual nesting habitats so interlaced that there is ample

opportunity for interspecies communication. There are considerable

differences in both nest form and site between the species. The Baya

suspends its nests with long tubular entrances from the twigs of trees

and bushes. P. benghalensis fixes its tubed nest to a wad of rushes passing

through the fabric at the upper end of the structure. P. manyar builds

a Similar nest supported by the long leaves of rushes (Typha), which

are often bent down and woven into the structure for the purpose.

P. megarhynchus usually places its vast globular nest, with an entrance

at the side near the top, in the terminal twigs of treertops but sometimes

amene reeds (Phragmites) standing in water.

4 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

c Field methods

The party consisted of Dr. Salim Ali, Mrs. Eirene Harvalias Crook,

the author and, for much of the time, Shri S. S. Bahadur, Wild Life

Warden, Western Circle, U.P. We began work on July 10th 1959 and

left the area on August 8th. Dr. Salim Ali had to leave on July 23rd

by which time the pattern of investigation had been well established.

The original base of operations was Fatehpur (an excellent rest-house

some 10 miles from Haldwani) and from here preliminary surveys were

made. The later more detailed study, particularly of behaviour, was

based on the Forest Rest House at Lalkua. The country was toured

by car with additional trips into the forests on elephant back arranged

by Shri Bahadur.

The colonies were studied from very close quarters, and the detailed

movements of the birds observed with x 8 binoculars and when neces-

sary with a x 21 telescope. The data recorded in the diagrams were

taken down directly on tape using an EMI field tape recorder.

II. NEW OBSERVATIONS ON TWO WEAVER SPECIES IN INDIA

a. Placeus bDenen aliens s

Geographical distribution. The species, of which only the nominate

race has been described, is restricted to the northern regions of the

Indian sub-continent from the East Punjab and Sind to eastern Assam,

Sylhet, and Manipur. In western India it is found as far south as Baroda

and there is a record from near Bombay (Hume 1890), but it is most

common in the flat low-lying country of Bengal, Bihar, and the Ganges

plain. It has not been seen in Burma. In most of its range it is local

and capricious (Stuart Baker 1926).

Ecology. Ploceus benghalensis is essentially a bird of the plains and

lower hills though it has been recorded breeding in a tea estate at 4000

feet (Baker 1926). Its common habitat is open country, grass covered

and liable to monsoon flooding. The breeding colonies are placed in

elephant grass or ‘moony’ (Saccharum munja), often close to or standing

in flood water. The colony studied most closely in Kumaon was

built in tall grass on a bank overlooking a fish culture tank, some of

the nests leaning out over the water itself. All were easily approached

along the bank by passing carefully through the high grass that hid the

colony from view on the landward side. On July 21st 1959, there were

eight territories each with several nests, but later the number increased.

At another colony there were seven nests in a patch of moonj reeds

standing in a shallow pool. At a further colony some birds were nest-

ing in rushes and grasses over water in association with P. manyar. Two

THE ASIAN WEAVER BIRDS 5

records from Bengal describe nests in low bushes over water on river or

stream banks.

Nests, sex ratio in the colony, eggs and clutch size. The nests are

finely woven unlined structures extremely similar to those of P. philip=

pinus (Ali 1931, Ali & Ambedkar 1957, Crook 1960c). The fabric is

identical except that it is not thickened to so great an extent by repeti-

tive weaving. The structures are attached to upright grass stems woven

tightly together by much stitching and entwining to form the wad. base

of the nest. The top of the nest is flat or dome-like, unlike the long

thin supporting ‘neck’ of the Baya’s structure. The male alone weaves

and the entrance tubes may vary greatly in length, many being over a

foot long. The nests are grouped into twos and threes at different

stages of construction and each group is the work of a single male.

When first observed (July 21st), the colony consisted of eight territories

containing helmet stage nests, completed nests, and several ruined nests

some partially constructed. All the old ruins had been abandoned and

presumably represented an earlier attempt at breeding during one of

the brief rainy spells that precede the monsoon proper. By July 25th each

territory held several new structures many only a foot apart. While

males were interested primarily in the latest nest they also maintained

the earlier structures by ‘titivating’ them and, while primarily courting

females near the latest structure, they also welcomed with greeting

postures females already established. Polygamy was confirmed; several

males having two nests occupied by females in their respective territories.

As in the Common Baya the number of nests available for occupation

is greater than the number occupied, and the number of females to a

male perhaps varies from individual to individual and from year to year.

The eggs were white and their measures all fell within the range given

by Stuart Baker (1926). Of 21 clutches examined in Kumaon in 1959

4 were c/5, 2—c/4, 12—c/3, 2—c/2, and one c/l. The mean thus

is 3.25 eggs per clutch for the sample. he F

Territorial Behaviour. Three types of territorial defence were ob-

served : supplanting attacks, head forward threats, and singing. Males

move about the colonies outside their own territories a great deal parti-

cularly when following prospecting females, which fly from one territory

to another on their visits. As soon as a territorial boundary is infringed

the owner supplants the intruder and chases it away. Sometimes sup-

plants lead to brief aerial combats. When two males are near one

another between their respective nest groups ‘head forward threats’

occur. The birds flick their wings, turn towards one another with

lowered heads and beaks pointing at the opponent, and hop about eyeing

one another. These encounters are, however, brief and do not culminate

6 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

in protracted ‘threatening matches’, ‘aggressive dances’, or ‘song bowing’

encounters such as have been described for some African ploceines

(Crook 1959, 1962, in press). Female intruders are usually courted,

but may be threatened or supplanted, particularly if another male intrudes

at the same time. The males frequently perch upright on grass stems

near their nests and sing. The song is however so soft that it is almost

inaudible to the human observer only a few yards away.

Courtship. The male P. benghalensis leave the dry season flocks

before the females and establish nests and territories in the colony.

They continue to forage and to roost with the females, and retain intact

the flocking responses of the breeding season. There is evidence to

suggest that, as for P. philippinus in the Bombay-Poona area, several

false starts are made at breeding as soon as the rain falls at the onset of

the monsoon. Breeding activity slows down and stops if the rainfall is

not maintained, and only develops fully when the rains are well under

way. Thus half constructed nests and abortive courtships are seen at a

few localities where, a few days later, the nests are abandoned. Later

still, renewed activity at the same spot culminates in breeding.

At the start of breeding the males keep strictly to their territories,

building nests and supplanting intruding neighbours. The females fly

into the colony, usually singly but occasionally in small groups, and

proceed to hop through the territories and to approach the various nests.

Should the male be absent a female will alight in his nest, examine it,

titivate upon it, and then hop on into the next territory. As soon as a

male observes an approaching female he leaves his nest and flies towards

her, often leaving his territory, alights close beside her, and gives an

intense wing beating display during which he moves along the grass stem

towards her. Most of these displays occur on tall grass stems over-

hanging water which usually bend to a horizontal position under the

weight of the performing birds (Fig. 1). The posture of the male in

this ‘Upright Wings Beating SES (UWBD) has the following

components:

i. Wings beaten vigorously (mean speed 10 beats in 1.7 seconds

n=21, Table I) fully elevated and extended above the back

up to about 10° degrees from the dorso-ventral Tine. of the

body.

ii. Body plumage sleeked except for some “fluffing. OF the nape

feathers.

iii. Body crouched, oriented tonmeas ferile®

iv. Tail straight, rarely raised, often fanned. |

v. Beak turned down vertically so that the yellow crown. n faces the

ss female. OGG BE: é ; : tS eae:

2yiy Sone.) -L 2 a ee ae te

THE ASIAN WEAVER BIRDS 7

Fig. 1. Upright Wings Beating Display of male Ploceus benghalensis. Male on

grass stem following close approach to female. Two field sketches.

TABLE I

Wing beating speeds of P. benghalensis and P. manyar during Upright

Wing Beating Displays. Stopwatch accurate to 0.1 seconds

Time in seconds for P. benghalensis P, manyar

10 wing beats | (n=21) yy

: hE =

2.0-2.1 seconds | 4 5

1.8-1.9 g 4 2

1. 6- 1 a or) | 9 ae

1.4-1.5 a | 3 —

1213 | 1 ae

Mean time for 10 beats | 1.7 secs. 2.0 secs.

_N.B.: The mean time for P. philippinus is 10 ae every 1.8 seconds (Crook

1960c) (n=25).

8 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

The female crouches, somewhat sleeked but otherwise appearing

unconcerned, until the male is very close to her. She then either hops

a short distance away, flies a short distance, or pecks fiercely at her suitor.

The latter may pause a moment before commencing his display again.

If the female has flown some distance the male flutters after her, and,

unless chased off by some territory owner upon whose defended area

he has trespassed, again begins the wing-beating approach. This

sequence is often repeated several times before the female flies out of the

colony with the male in swift pursuit. They may fly for more than a

hundred metres from the colony but eventually the female lands. The

male alights near her and, on some occasions at least, again approaches

her in display. Sometimes, however, he tires of the chase, alights some

distance from the female, and then returns alone to his nest. The female

is, however, clearly attracted by her pursuer for, commonly, as the male

begins his return flight, she, without having landed, turns in flight and

follows him swiftly to his nest where the familiar approach sequence is

again performed. Sometimes during the return flight, if the female

wavers, the male will turn again and start to chase her until she swings

around once more and follows him to his territory. After several such

chases the male often wing-quivers intensely in the presence of the female

who now repeatedly hops on to the developing ‘initial ring’ (Skead 1947)

of the nest. Often, after a bout of wing-beating approaches and mutual

hopping about in the territory, the female goes to the nest and the male

rushes to the nest entrance and performs an intense Upright Wings

Fig. 2. Upright Wings Rigid Display of Ploceus benghalensis. Wings outstretched

at side of body in the plane of the back and held motionless. Tail extremely fanned.

Bird facing female in or near nest. : ane!

THE ASIAN WEAVER BIRDS 9

Beating Display just outside. At moments of high intensity the wing-

beating changes to ‘ wings rigid’, recalling similar changes in the

composition of the Advertisement displays of P. cucullatus and P.

philippinus (Crook 1960c, and in press).

The ‘ Upright Wings Rigid Display’ (UWRD) has the following

composition :

i. Wings fully spread and stretched out to full extent on either

side of the body (at 90 degrees to the dorso-ventral line).

They are quite still and have an appearance of rigidity.

ii. Body plumage sleeked.

ili. Body not crouched, bird usually hopping about.

iv. Tail widely fanned and straight.

v. Beak not turned down, usually oriented to female, but the head

is not retracted into shoulders as in preparatory movements

of lunging.

As the female leaves the nest the male commonly hops about the

territory in this posture with her.

The female solicits the male either in the nest entrance or in the

grasses below the nest. Her posture is a simple crouching accompanied

by tail vibration in the vertical plane and wing-quivering. The male

normally mounts at once. Frequently, however, in the course of these

sequences the female attacks the male, particularly after he has made

a close approach in the Upright Wings Beating Display posture. No

pseudo-female solicitation has been recorded for the male.

A total of 71 courtship sequences were closely observed and recorded

in detail on tape. These are presented in Diagram A which thus sum-

marises the data and shows the frequency with which the various

responses occurred. Altogether only 11.2% of all sequences included

copulations or attempted copulations, whereas 32.3 % included aggression

from one sex or the other. In one case only did the male succeed in

copulating when the female had previously lunged at him in the same

sequence. Normally, only those sequences in which neither sex showed

aggression ended in copulation. Most of the attacks were made on the

male by the female (18/23 of sequences containing aggression) usually

following the close approach of the former. Only 6 actual attacks on

females by males were seen. Copulation normally followed intense

wing-quivering which in all weavers indicates a strong tendency to

respond sexually (Crook 1960b, c, and in press). In only 2/8 copulations

did the response follow the Upright Wings Beating Display directly with-

out an interim period of wing-quivering usually performed: mutually.

There was one anomalous response in which the male both sang at the

female and wing-quivered to her. These data may be compared with

those of P. manyar in Diagrams B and C and those of P. philippinus in

Crook -1960c (Table V).

10 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

-- Vocalisation. Soft chit chit calls are given by birds flying into the

colony. These appear to help in the orientation of the female to the

male during the return flight to the nest. The soft, barely audible song

tsi tsi tsisik tsisik tsik tsik ‘like the chirp of a cricket or the subdued

short squeaks of an unoiled bicycle wheel’ (Salim Ali, in litt.) is given

during the UWB approaches to the female and also by males sitting soli-

tarily within their territories. The extreme softness of the song, an

anomaly among Ploceines, correlates with its utterance from a mere

inch or so from the female to which it is given. The function appears

to be courtship rather than advertisement (cf. P. manyar). In the

alert ‘ song posture ’ when the male sings solitarily in his small territory

there may be some advertisement significance for the neighbouring males

close by. It is clear, however, that the contrast in loudness of song

between this species and P. philippinus and manyar is due to its pro-

duction at close quarters to the female [cf. Estrildid song (Hall 1962)].

b: -Ploceus man y.an

Geographical distribution. Three races of P. manyar are accepted at

the present time. The nominate, manyar, extends throughout the islands

of Java, Bali, and Bawean, P. m. peguensis occurs from Annam, Yunnan,

Siam, Burma, and Assam into the Ganges Valley ; while P. m. striatus

(with which the former race flavipes is now merged) is found from NW.

India through S. India to Ceylon. The distribution of the species is

thus not only as great as that of the Common Baya, P. philippinus, but

regional differentiation into races has similarly occurred. The range of

the two races in northern India overlaps that of P. benghalensis the two

species being, so far as is known, entirely sympatric within the range of

the latter.

Ecology. Ploceus manyar inhabits flat swampy and rain-flooded

lands in India and SE. Asia. In north India it shows a preference for

swampy areas covered by rushes or reeds over standing water and colonies

are normally so situated. In this it contrasts with P. benghalensis in the

same area which tends to occupy grassland alongside flood water. — P.

manyar is locally distributed in most of peninsular India and Burma

being limited to sizeable areas of swamp ‘country. In the Ganges Valley

and in Bengal colonies of some 40-50 pairs are usual, but in Sind and

Punjab, where suitable tracts of reed-covered swamp are more restricted,

it often breeds in very large colonies and Hume once found about 100

nests on a-small bulrush island not twenty yards in diameter. Occa-

sionally the species has been seen breeding in thorny bushes overhanging

water (Hume 1890). Spennemann (1926) and Delacour (1947) write

that in Java the nominate race nests in large colonies in bushes, trees,

or palms, often near houses and usually over water, and it is common

THE ASIAN WEAVER BIRDS

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12 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

in a variety of terrain including reed beds, open grassy country, rice

fields, and lowland gardens. i

In Kumaon, colonies were situated in reeds or rushes over muddy

pools in the tarai grassland, all in close proximity to colonies of P.

benghalensis, P. philippinus, and P. megarhynchus. The colonies varied

in size from 3-4 nests up to about 30. Three particular sites were

watched during the visit.

Nests, sex ratio in the colony, eggs and clutch size. The nests of P.

manyar are normally suspended from the tips of rushes or reeds usually

bent down and incorporated into the wall of the structure (Fig. 4). The

nests are 2-3 yards apart, at the closest one yard and in the most dis-

persed colonies about 6 yards. The structures are more coarsely woven

than the nests of either P. benghalensis or P. philippinus and the top of the

nest is rounded and not extended into flanges of weaving along the sup-

porting reeds. The coarseness of the fabric is due to the use of strips

of greater width for building than in the other two species. The tubular

nest entrance is rarely developed much beyond the level of the bottom

of the egg chamber floor in Kumaon, but in Java Delacour (1947) states

that long tubes are made. This correlates evidently with siting in trees

there. |

The species is commonly monogamous. In one colony in Kumaon

in 1959, groups of 5 and 3 nests respectively were closely observed and

each nest was found to belong to a single male. This condition’

remained unchanged throughout the period of observation. In a large

colony of 30 nests male manyar were never observed to visit more than.

a single structure except during occasional attempts to steal material.’

In no case was a male observed constructing a series of nests in the

manner of P. benghalensis or P. philippinus in the same area. In addition

in two nests males were seen incubating, an activity not recorded from.

polygamous male weavers and, in a mixed colony with P. benghalensis,

males of the latter species continued courting and chasing females long

after the male manyar had ceased to do so—although the nests of both

species had been established at the same period. There are suggestions, ~

however, that sometimes the species may breed polygamously. - Thus,~ —

although Spennemann (1926) described monogamy in Java, Delacour —

(1947) says the species is polygamous there. In addition Salim Ali

(personal communication) saw a single male with three nests at different

stages all being maintained at once at Shamshabad in the Deccan in

1952, and in Kumaon he recorded two cases of males building a couple

of nests each with courtship occurring at both structures.

The eggs are white. Some measurements exceed those of Stuart

Baker (1926) made in south India (maximum length 21.6 mm., minimum

19.2, maximum breadth 15.1, minimum 13.1). The maximum length of

._THE ASIAN WEAVER BIRDS 13

Kumaon sample of 16 eggs was 22.6 mm. with a minimum of 20.2,

maximum breadth 15.5 with minimum 14 mm.

Of 7 clutches examinedin Kumaon in 1959 1 was ¢/4, 4—c/3, 2—c/2,

and none c/1. Ali (in litt.) in Travancore in 1933 recorded 1—c/3,

3—c/2,and 1—c/1. From these 12 clutches therefore the mean clutch

size for the species is 2.85 eggs. Further figures may substantiate the

slightly larger clutch size from the more northern population.

Territorial behaviour. The only aggressive behaviour observed. be-

tween the males was an occasional supplant easily dodged by the offender.

Trespassers over territorial boundaries were treated in this way but,

compared with P. benghalensis, there was much less territorial infringe-

ment and this correlated with the different mode of pair formation of

the latter in which the males fly out at females, and thereby enter other

territories, much more frequently.

The males further advertise their territories by a loud and remarkably

attractive song given when sitting solitarily on a conspicuous perch near

or on the nest. This song undoubtedly emphasises territorial claims.

Further, when females begin to arrive, the males perform Upright Wing

Beating Displays near their nests often in social facilitation with one

another. These mass performances undoubtedly make clear the position

of defended areas to other males as well as the sites of potential nests to

females.

Courtship. As in other Ploceines the males leave the flocks before

the females and establish nests in territories in their colony sites. Flock-

ing responses likewise are retained away from the colony itself. As

soon as the nest sites are established the males respond to the arrival of

other individuals, male or female, with dramatic Upright Wing Beating

Displays. These are, moreover, given at the nests and do not follow a

flight towards the female during her approach as in P. benghalensis.

Approaching birds can be heard for a considerable distance and emit

loud chirt chirt chirt calls continuously over a distance of at least 100

yards as they fly into the colony. This appears to alert the colony and

coincides with the start of display by some of the males, display rapidly

taken up by others through social facilitation. As soon as the females

enter the colony they pass rapidly to the nests or territories of displaying

males. The Upright Wing Beating Display, performed either on the

nest or, more frequently, on rushes near it, has the following

composition :

i. Wings fully raised above the back at about 45 degrees to the

dorso-ventral line of the body and beaten vigorously (mean

speed 10 beats in 2 seconds, n=7, Table I).

ii. Body plumage normal, not markedly sleeked.

14. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

lii. Body upright, usually oriented to approaching birds or the

female. i :

iv. Tail straight, sometimes a little fanned.

v. Beak neither turned down over chest nor pointed at female

aggressively. ye

vi. The bird calls tre tre cherrer cherrer repeatedly when perform-

ing in unison with other males, but in courtship to the female

he sings a slightly curtailed version of the song.

Fig. 3. A. Upright Wings Beating Display of male Ploceus manyar. B. Wing

quivering of male Ploceus manyar to female in or near nest.

If a female enters the colony unnoticed she slips quietly into the

territory of her choice, where the male greets her by going to the nest

structure and performing the Upright Wings Beating Display. Often,

however, the male supplants the female and chases her out of the colony.

In the territory the female moves about into and around the nest in a

‘sleeked’ nervous posture while the male hops about in the display

posture frequently singing, especially when she has entered the nest.

Sometimes the male’s display assumes the form of an Upright Wings

Rigid posture with the wings held out on either side at about 90 degrees

to the dorso-ventral line and quite still and rigid. He then sings loudly

to the female who is usually in or emerging from the nest. When the

female leaves the territory the male pursues her well beyond the colony

following her flight manoeuvres closely. When she alights he comes

down near her and quivers his wings in continued courtship after which

he leads her back in swift flight to his territory turning to follow her at

THE ASIAN WEAVER BIRDS 15

once should she diverge from the flight line. On arrival he at once goes

to his nest, perches in the initial ring, and, as the female arrives in the

- Fig. 4. Male Ploceus manyar giving pseudo-female solicitation in nest entrance

of fresh incompleted structure.

territory behind him, he gives an intense ‘ pseudo-female solicitation,

display with body crouched, wings drooped and tremored, and tail tre-

moring at high speed in the vertical plane (Fig. 4). The female then

hops into the nest, the male emerges and usually attempts to mount her.

At this she frequently flees and a further long chase follows until both

return again calling the loud chirt chirt approach cry as they come in.

When the female is receptive she solicits copulation, often as soon as

she has arrived at the nest, in a crouched posture with quivering wings.

Copulation occurs in the nest entrance or in vegetation near or below

the nest.

During pursuit flights several males may join in the chase and, in

general, competition between males for females is very considerable.

Males sometimes zip into another’s territory and attempt a stolen copu-

lation as soon as the rightful male dismounts—a particularly fine piece

of timing it would appear. Dr. Ali has also seen neighbouring males

copulating, apparently successfully, with a single female during her visit

to the colony. |

In Diagram B, 19 sequences of early courtship during the first

approaches of females to territories are shown. These are marked by

displays near the nest and, if the female is receptive, attempts at copula-

tion. In Diagram C, 26 later sequences depicting events following sex

16. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

chases away from the colony are shown. Here the male performs pseudo-

female solicitation and attempts copulation when the female has perched

in the nest entrance. In 5 sequences (heading B) he sang aggressively

at the female after which she usually fled. If the female leaves the nest

the male usually returns to it again and performs further pseudo-solici-

tation. 10/16 copulations in Diagram C occurred in the nest entrance,

others below the nest in the reeds. Copulations in Diagram B likewise

occurred in the nest ring. Only 29% of all sequences contained marked

aggression while 47.1 °% ended in copulatory behaviour (Table IV). It is

concluded that in courtship the species is much less aggressive than

P. benghalensis. There are no records of female P. manyar attacking

males and this clearly correlates with the absence of Wing Beating

approaches. Finally pseudo-female solicitation indicates a conflict state

in which sex and escape tendencies are active rather than the tendency

to attack. This posture, common in P. manyar, has not been seen during

the courtship of P. benghalensis.

Vocalisation. Vocalisations include: (i) the chirt chirt cries on

approaching the colony, (ii) the tre tre cherrer cherrer calls in repetition

during Wing Beating Display, and (iii) the song.

All these cries are louder and more emphatic than similar cries pro-

duced by P. benghalensis. The song is clearly aggressive though the

tendency to attack is balanced by conflicting tendencies to retreat, remain

near the nest, or to behave sexually, depending on context. Often, in

company with the female, wing-quivering occurs with song indicating a

strong sexual tendency. Even when song is clearly threatening, the female

rarely abandons the territory completely but merely flies away and later

returns with the male which has pursued her. Both the threatening and

the chasing are probably highly-stimulating to the female (Hinde 1953)

and are an integral part of courtship although the initial chases are clearly

more in the nature of supplanting attacks than sexual pursuits. Again

copulatory behaviour commonly follows the return from a pursuit. The

song which is charmingly musical, contains a long trill of about six notes

(tsi tsi etc.) culminating in a long drawn wheeze. It is apparently not

sung in choruses like the baya. It may be rendered Tzrr we tsee tsee tsi

tsi tser cheeze we. It is often shorter when given to the female in

courtship.

At times the males give a variety of chirring sounds particularly as

a party arrives in the colony and each bird separates to his nest. The

cry is apparently aggressive.

During mounting attempts the male flutters about after the female

calling chewe chewe chewe repeatedly. When the female is soliciting she

gives a very thin repeated piping call.

i /

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THE ASIAN WEAVER BIRDS 19

II]. PROBLEMS OF PLOCEINE SYMPATRY IN ASIA, WITH

PARTICULAR REFERENCE TO THE TARAI

Evaluation of the extent of competition and reproductive isolation

between closely related species in the same area depends upon a detailed

knowledge of the relevant ecological and behavioural variables. The

existing information may be summarised under headings: (i) habitat

selection, (ii) food selection, and (iii) mate selection. Differences in

habitat and food preferences clearly reduce the likelihood of competition

while in addition the habitat contrasts reduce the frequency with which

species encounter one another in the breeding season and thus reduce

the likelihood of attempted hybridisation. Contrasts in behaviour

ee | in mate selection tend to inhibit pairing and prevent

hybridisation.

Throughout the discussion it will be clear that differences in size,

colour, beak proportions, and behaviour set P. megarhynchus apart from

the other Indian weavers. Only Ploceus hypoxanthus, for which there is

regrettably little information, appears to have some significant resem-

blances to P. megarhynchus. A general comparative summary of the

relevant characteristics is provided in Tables II and III.

deme ilabitat Selection

Differences in habitat preference are important in reducing ecological

competition and the frequency of opportunities for hybridisation. In

general P. philippinus is found in drier areas than either P. benghalensis

or P. manyar and shows a strong preference for agricultural land rather

than extensive grasslands or swamps. Furthermore, it requires trees,

commonly in protective sites near water or around habitation, in which

to construct its nests. Even in the arid Deccan the species appears

locally wherever agriculture is permitted by the presence of seasonal

streams or wells, over which the nests are commonly built. The nature

of the bird’s habitat suggests that prior to the establishment of wide-

spread farming in India the bird was an inhabitant of damp ‘ savannah ’,

nesting in colonies in trees over water. By contrast P. manyar requires

extensive swampy areas and P. benghalensis the wet often seasonally

flooded grasslands of the tarai. Both species place their nests low down

in rushes (see further below) and grass respectively, and not in trees.

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only weaver in the Valley of Nepal.

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sprinkling of trees, patches of swamps, and extensive grass plains inter-

digitate tightly within the same general environment and the three species

breed in adjacent, occasionally mixed (P. manyar and P. benghalensis),

colonies in which, however, one species is normally in the majority. In

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

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JOURN. BoMBAY NAT. HIstT. Soc. PLATE II

Treetop nests of Ploceus megarhynchus

Photos : Dy. Salim Ali

THE ASIAN WEAVER BIRDS Pali

peninsular India both P. philippinus and P. manyar are widely, though

often locally, distributed but only where extensive swampy places are

found in river valleys or coastal plains are the two species likely to occur

together. Both are found again in Ceylon with the same habitat

preferences. |

In south-east Asia there is a more complex picture. In Burma and

Thailand P. philippinus and P. manyar occupy habitats apparently ident-

ical to those in India. In Malaya only P. philippinus occurs and this

is restricted to gaps in the prevailing forests and to farming areas. P.

hypoxanthus also occurs with P. philippinus locally in Sumatra but the

latter isthe commoner. In Java, where P. manyar reappears, P. philippinus

again appears the commoner in coastal areas. P.manyar now occupies

a habitat around farmed areas and plantations nesting in trees and

bushes (Spennemann 1926, Delacour 1947) and thereby differing

considerably from other populations elsewhere. It is commonly

found at higher elevations than philippinus though there seems

to be considerable overlap in altitudinal range. Hoogerwerf (1947), in

a survey of the birds of contrasting localities in Java, found it not only

at sea-level but also up to 1500 feet in the area of Buitenzorg (Bandung)

while he records P. philippinus only between sea-level and 800 feet. Dela-

cour (loc. cit.) furthermore reports that the manyar nests in trees have

long tubular entrances. Thus, in Java, far from being a swamp dweller,

P.manyar seems to inhabit precisely the same niche as P. philippinus but

primarily at a higher altitude. In addition Spennemann (loc. cit.)

describes a difference in breeding season between the two species.

_ P. megarhynchus occurs in the tarai and usually nests in the tops of

trees near canals or roads. It is sympatric with the other three Indian

species and ranges widely though patchily over their breeding areas.

In Burma and Thailand P. hypoxanthus occurs in swampy marshy areas

often together with other species, and reappears apparently very locally

(it seems to turn up only rarely in bird lists) in Sumatra and Java, again

in similar habitats.

There are of course profound differences in the vegetation of India

and south-east Asia, for whereas the former suffers a monsoon climate

with an alternation of wet and dry seasons, in Malaya, Sumatra, Borneo,

parts of Burma, and Thailand climatic conditions change little throughout

the year and much of the land is covered with vast expanses of tropical

rain forest in which Asian weavers are never found. In Java there is a

monsoon season and a widespread. deciduous forest, the rain forest being

limited to favoured areas (Richards 1952). In India the plains of the

tarai in winter are bare and dry and limited observations suggest that

at this time the habitat preferences of the weavers break down entirely

and the three smaller species then flock together in a mutual search for

food, In addition they probably undergo migrations along the Ganges

jp JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

Valley. It is thus likely that. the habitat contrasts in the northern

areas are only operative during the breeding season. In more constant

climates (Ceylon, Burma, Sumatra) breeding and habitat differences are

maintained for much of the year. In Java nothing seems to have been

recorded of seasonal changes in bird activity.

b. Food Preferences

While it is generally agreed that the Asian Ploceines are all seed eaters

to date no critical study of the subject has been made. In Poona P.

philippinus takes a variety of seeds during the dry season mostly from

the ground around farms and, in the breeding season, in addition to

attacking ripening crops of jowar (Sorghum), bajta (Pennisetum), and

maize (Zea), it brings insect food in the beak for the young in the nest.

Similarly P. megarhynchus brings insects in the beak for its young but

otherwise takes seeds. Nothing is known of its food outside the breed-

ing season. The massive bills of both P. megarhynchus and P. hypoxan-

thus suggest food supplies differing from those of other weavers.

The beak sizes of P. philippinus, P. manyar, and P. benghalensis are

similar and this, together with similarities in body size and gregarious

habits, suggests that they take similar foods (Kear 1962). In order to

evaluate more precisely the similarities in beak sizes, measurements were

made on samples of British Museum material and analysed statistically

(Appendix). The results show: 1) the beak lengths of P. manyar, P.

benghalensis, and P. philippinus do not differ significantly. 2) The beak

depths of the same three species do not differ significantly. 3) The beak

lengths and depths of P. hypoxanthus differ significantly from those of

the other three species. 4) A consistent difference in bill length was

found between the sexes of each species, those of the males being the

larger. This sex effect appears to be the same for all four species. 5) A

similar sex effect was found in the beak depths but here the difference

between the sexes for P. benghalensis was much greater than for the

other three species (see Appendix). 6) The sex effect is presumably

due to secondary sexual changes in the beak of the breeding male and

is probably not sufficient to have any differential effect on the food taken

by the two sexes. The larger beak of the male may be of survival value

in nest building. |

These facts suggest that, unless the responsiveness to food objects

differs between the three species, they must take seeds and perhaps insects

of the same size range whenever they feed together in the same area.

In the breeding season such habitat contrasts as exist in Kumaon will

tend to aggregate the species in differing areas so that local supplies

will, to some extent at least, be utilised by different species. If, asseems

possible, the flocks join up in winter then the conclusion that they take

THE ASIAN WEAVER BIRDS 7163

the same food is inescapable. If this is so when the food supplies are

insufficient to support the whole population competition between the

individual members of the flock for the diminishing supply must occur.

In such competition any individuals which through dominance or any

other characteristic (such as faster ‘ follow up ’ responses ensuring quicker

arrival.at limited food supplies found by the group) have an advantage

over their fellows will tend to survive at their expense and ultimately

replace them throughout the area. The result of such a process has

been expressed in Gause’s Law (Gause 1934).

There are, however, certain conditions under which sympatric species

in the same niche can maintain their numbers in a balanced population.

Such conditions are those of food ‘superabundance’ (Lack 1954).

Moreau (1948) has in fact suggested that competition between the species

members of mixed flocks of weavers in Africa is prevented by the over-

whelming quantity of grass seed in the savannah areas at the end of the

rainy season and that the birds move from one rich food area to another

as the supplies are exhausted. Alternatively, factors other than density-

dependent mortality through food shortage may control the absolute

and relative numbers of birds present (i.e. see Wynne Edwards 1959,

Ripley 1959a). If this were so and the numbers maintained at such a

level that food supplies were never limiting, clearly competition would

not occur. In the Ganges Valley ‘ superabundance’ of food is most

likely at the start of the dry period but it seems improbable that this

should outlast the season. Competition, it seems, must occur at some

times and in some localities in every year, but its extent and duration

remains an open problem. Ore method of study would be to weigh

samples of natural populations throughout the dry season.

c Mate Selection

As all the weavers breed in the monsoon real possibilities of cross

breeding exist in nature. Only in two cases are there differences in

breeding season between sympatric species. In the Kumaon P. mega-

rhynchus breeds earlier than P. manyar, P. benghalensis and. P. philippinus

though there is some overlap in timing. Similarly in Java Spennemann

(1926) states that while P. philippinus starts breeding in early February

P. manyar does not begin until middle or late March. As these two

species are so similar in their habitat preferences in Java this contrast is

likely to have considerable significance in preventing hybridisation.

Factors reducing the chances of interspecies mating in these weavers

are contrasts in: (i) coloration, in particular the nuptial dress of the

male, (ii) the sequence of events in courtship, (iii) the postures of adver-

tisement and courtship display, their orientation and accompanying

vocalisation, (iv) nest site, (v) nest form and fabric, and (vi) habitat.

The relative importance of these factors is undetermined, but present

24 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

observations suggest that i-iv are of particular significance with other

factors playing a contributory role. Mate selection, which is performed

by the female, is probably a response to the summation of the effects

of numerous mutually reinforcing stimuli from the male, his nest, and

the context of the whole behaviour. If any factors have negative valence

they will play the part of ‘ inhibitors’ (Marshall 1959) the summation

of which may prevent breeding.

i. Coloration. The coloration of male weavers is species-specific

and minor contrasts also exist between the females. In parti-

Fig. 5. Heads of male and female weavers. A. Ploceus benghalensis. B.

-Ploceus manyar. C. Ploceus philippinus.

THE ASIAN WEAVER BIRDS : 25

EXPLANATION TO FIGURE 5

MALES A. P.benghalensis B. P. manyar C. P. philippinus

Beak Blue Black 7 Dark brown horn

Crown Orange-yellow Golden yellow Golden yellow -

Face Black with dark Black with brown Black with brown

brown nape striated nape nape

Breast Black Striated Upper black ;

; lower yellow

Underparts White Striated ; whiteon Yellow ; white on

belly belly

Note: In the field male P. manyar often showed striated nape running up as a

cleft for a short distance into yellow of crown. Yellow ends in straight line in

benghalensis.

FEMALES A. P.benghalensis B. P.manyar C. P. philippinus

Beak All females have beak of horn brown colour.

Superciliary stripe Yellow above Pale yellow above Pale fawn

thick black line thin dark

brown line

Cheeks Grey Fawn Dark fawn

Ear coverts Large yellow patch Small pale yellow Dark fawn ;

behind black patch behind no yellow

line brown line

Chin Yellowish white White White

Moustachial streak Black Dark brown None

Breast Pale fawn Striated Pale fawn

All the characters listed are those observed through x 8 binoculars in the field and

found useful for identification of females in the colonies.

cular the yellow heads and bodies, including the rump, of both P. mega-

rhynchus and P.hypoxanthus males set these species apart from the others.

P. philippinus, P. benghalensis, and P. manyar are alike in colour pattern-

ing, the main contrasts being the black chest in P. benghalensis, streaked

in P. manyar, and yellow in P. philippinus. Further, while the bills of

breeding male P. philippinus and P. manyar are dark brown-black, ies

of P. benghalensis are pale blue (see details—Fig. 5).

li. Sequence of events in reproductive behaviour. Here again the

behaviour of P. megarhynchus contrasts sharply with the other Indian

species ; in particular courtship is restricted to the territory and no

26 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

sexual chasing occurs (Ali & Crook 1959). Nothing is known of the

courtship of P. hypoxanthus.

In general the events and postures in the reproductive behaviour

of P. philippinus, P. manyar, and P. benghalensis are remarkably alike.

There are however important contrasts in the sequence in which these

events occur and in the precise context in which the Wing Beating

Displays are given. This contrast in context also involves a shift in

the function of the display. In Table III the sequences of events for

the three species are summarised. Thus in P. philippinus the timing of

events goes : (a) Nest Advertisement (i.e. invitation) and acceptance ;

(b) Courtship in the territory with sex chasing outside it ; (c). Mating

in the territory. In P. manyar it is: (a) Advertisement Display in the

territory ; (b) Sex chasing and courtship, the latter both within and with-

out the territory ; (c) Nest invitation by pseudo-female solicitation by

the male, and mating. In P. benghalensis : (a) Courtship approaches to

female with WBD and sex chasing ; (b) Flight to the nest, female follow-

ing and entering with male WBD outside; (c) Nest acceptance and

mating. Thus whereas in P. philippinus and P. manyar advertisement

precedes courtship, in P. benghalensis courtship comes first and nest visiting

second. In all three species, however, unlike P. megarhynchus, sex chasing

is an important element in courtship.

iii. The postures of Advertisement and Courtship and contrasts in

motivation. ‘The main contrasts here are :

(a) The WBDs of P. philippinus are usually inverted iow the nest

while those of P. manyar are upright and given in the territory usually

near the nest rather than upon it. The WBD of P. benghalensis is given

without reference to the nest and is exclusively oriented to the female.

Thus, while the displays of the first two species have advertisement func-

tion in attracting females to nest and territory, that of P. benghalensis

is essentially a courtship posture. The extreme similarity of these

displays indicates their homology.

The compositions of the ritualised WBDs are remarkably alike. The

wing beating speeds differ but little (Table I) and tail elevation varies

only in the greater frequency of depression in P. philippinus. There are,

however, differences in wing arc, the elevation of P. manyar and P. benghal-

ensis being greater than that of P. philippinus. Again while the beaks

of P. benghalensis and P. philippinus are normally turned down during

display (Fig. 1) that of P. manyar (Fig. 3) is not. P. benghalensis gives

a short soft song during display while P. manyar gives a curtailed song

phrase, and P. philippinus a special cry (Crook 1960c). All these contrasts

probably originated through differential sexual selection of displays in

isolated populations, but the tail and beak differences originally probably

expressed motivational contrasts in courtship prior to posture ritualisa-

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28 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

tion. Thus tail depression, otherwise common in threat, suggests that

prior to ritualisation the tendency to attack was strong during the relevant

phase of P. philippinus courtship. Similarly beak depression suggests a

tendency to escape in conflict with attack (Crook in press, in prepara-

tion). Such contrasts are supported by an analysis of the motivation of

contemporary unritualised posturings inthe courtship of the three species.

(b) The ‘ pseudo-female solicitation ’ posture occurs in P. philippinus

(Crook 1960c) and in P. manyar but not in P. benghalensis. In P. manyar

it is most marked and plays a special role in enticing the female to the nest

and in initiating copulatory behaviour (Fig. 4).

Contrasts in behaviour sequences and postures express differences

in motivation. Analysis is based on the methods of Tinbergen 1959,

Hinde 1953, 1955, 1956, Morris 1956, Andrew 1961 and follows analyses

of other Ploceinae (Crook 1962 etc.) in which the rationale is given in

detail. In brief, the reproductive behaviour of the weavers is determined

by the interaction of attack, escape, and sexual responses in conflict.

The relative strengths of these tendencies in courtship vary between

related species and produce contrasting behaviour patterns. In addi-

tion the strength of attachment to nest during courtship varies between

the species. The number of sequences containing attack (and threat)

is particularly high in P. philippinus, high in P. benghalensis, but low in

P. manyar (see Table IV). In correlation with this a particularly high

percentage of sequences ends in copulatory behaviour in P. manyar while

P. philippinus and P. benghalensis show low percentages. In the latter

species this is probably due to the fact that 18/23 recorded sequences

containing aggression involved attacks by females on approaching males.

The giving of aggressive responses in a sequence clearly reduces greatly

the chance of a copulation in that visit, aggression inhibiting sexual

behaviour. By contrast in P. manyar the high rate of copulatory activity

correlates with a high frequency of male behaviour patterns expressing

sex and escape tendencies in conflict (the ‘ pseudo-female postures ’ see

Morris 1952, Hinde 1955, 1956, Crook 1960b).

These comparisons suggest: (i) The threshold for attack on females

entering a territory is low throughout the early courtship of P. philippinus

and is only gradually raised as the sexual tendency increases in strength

during courtship. The tendency to remain at the nest is strong until the

female has actually entered the structure after which chases occur. (ii) In

P. benghalensis the male has a low threshold for sexual behaviour and

the tendency to remain at the nest is weak. Thus onthe approach of a

female he flies out and approaches her. Thenearer he gets the stronger

becomes his tendency to escape. The female at first responds to these

approaches, often within her individual distance, with attack. Only after

many sequences does her threshold for attack rise as she begins to respond

sexually to the male’s approaches. (iii) The male P. manyar, shows

THE ASIAN WEAVER BIRDS 29

particularly strong tendencies to behave sexually and to flee from the

approaching female. This is associated with relatively strong nest

attachment and a high threshold for attack.

It follows that while aggressiveness inhibits the early expression of

sexual behaviour in the sequences of P. philippinus and P. benghalensis,

in the former case this is due to the male’s tendency to attack approach-

ing females near his nest, and in the latter to the female’s aggressive

response to the approach of courting males. In P. manyar courtship

attempts by the male are frequently frustrated by the female’s lack of

responsiveness rather than by aggression by either sex.

To summarise : the displays and postures of the three species are

homologous. The WBD clearly plays an important role in mate selection,

and females probably react specifically to the posture composition (and

coloration) and also to the display orientation. The major contrasts

concern orientation—whether the display is given to the female away

from or at the nest, and whether it is upright or inverted. Such contrasts

undoubtedly enhance the likelihood of reproductive isolation, particularly

since they are maintained when two species are breeding in mixed colonies

(P. manyar and P. benghalensis) in the same habitat. Both the contrasts

in behaviour sequences and in postures depend largely on differences in

motivation between the species.

TABLE LV

COMPARISON BETWEEN THE BEHAVIOUR SEQUENCES OF THREE ASIAN

WEAVERS DURING PAIR eon TON

| Other sequences

ending incon-

No. of sequences

containing.at-

No. of sequences -

ending in copu-

: . . Total of

Species: tack or threat /lation or attempt- Pee ee oe sequences

upon sex partner| ed copulation | Pp fare .

Ploceus 1en2e:8'/) 21 (46.7 %) 11 (24.4%) 45

manyar

(Diagrams

B and C) |

Ploceus benghal-

ensis 2356253 7%) | Sai) | 40 (56.4%) 71

(Diagram A)

Ploceus |

philippinus 31(65.9774) 2. 13 C7674) | 3 (6.5%) | 47

(Schemes B |

and Cin

Crook 1960¢)

Notes: (a) In P. benghalensis 18/23 aggressive sequences were initiated by the females

as against 7/31 in P. philippinus and zero incidence of female attack on

males in P. manyar. Other attack sequences were initiated by terri-

torial males: Discussion in text.

() Statistics: An overall X? test gives the significance of the differences

between the proportions for the three species at the 0.00! level and

- similar tests, taking the speciesin pairs, give in each case significance

at the same level. Real behaviour differences are thus considered

established.

30 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

iv. Nest site. It is uncertain how far differencesin nest site as such

are of direct significance to the female. For instance in Kumaon P.

Philippinus females visit P. manyar colonies in reeds and hop about actually |

visiting their nests in the absence of the males. It seems probable also

that female P. manyar and P. benghalensis, not easy to distinguish quickly

in the field, may also visit each other’s untenanted nests particularly in

mixed colonies. No P. manyar or P. benghalensis females have been

recorded in the tree sites of P. philippinus, however, and although P.

megarhynchus often build nests (in Kumaon) in rushes they have not

visited structures of P. manyar when perching in their colonies.

v. Nest form and fabric. The fact that female weavers spend much

time examining and adjusting the fabric of the nests they visit suggests

that differences in nest form and the manner of construction might inhibit

acceptance of a nest not built by a male of the species. The globular

structures of P. megarhynchus and P. hypoxanthus are of course quite

different from those of the other species, and where P. hypoxanthus and

P. manyar are sympatric this may be a factor preventing female interest

in each other’s colonies or nests. Nests of P. benghalensis and P. philip-

pinus are particularly alike both in form and in the fineness of the materials

used although mud is plastered more extensively in the interiors of some

P. benghalensis nests than has ever been recorded for P. philippinus. P.

manyar nests are rough, rather ‘ angular’ balls made of coarser materials

and have a shorter tube (in Kumaon), and mud is often plastered fairly

extensively in the egg chamber. Nonetheless female P. philippinus

visiting P. manyar colonies not only enter the nests but mandibulate the

fabric extensively suggesting little appreciation of these differences.

Spennemann (1926) considered nest construction important in pairing

and. showed that male P. manyar destroy nests not accepted by a courted

female and build another in the same or a near-by site. Salim Ali (1931)

has also recorded the destruction of unaccepted nests by the male

P. philippinus.

vi. Breeding habitat. Specific preferences for certain habitats un-

doubtedly play a major role in ensuring reproductive isolation. Where,

however, the preferred habitats are dovetailed in an intricate fashion as

in the Kumaon area, direct segregation of the species is very much reduced

and the factor of less significance.

Observed attempts at cross-mating

So far no direct evidence for hybridisation between any Asian weaver

species in the wild has been obtained, and in captivity there are only

two records of possible hybrids between P. manyar and P. philippinus

(Gray 1958). There are, however, some observations showing that male

THE ASIAN WEAVER BIRDS 31

P. benghalensis do occasionally chase and mount female P. manyar in

mixed colonies. In a particular case recorded by Salim Ali (in litt.) the

female was already mated and in possession of a nest of its own species.

Such cases are probably due to the relative inability of males to dis-

tinguish quickly their own mates and females of their own species.

Since, however, it is the female which ultimately chooses her mate and

nest, and which therefore plays the fundamental role in mate selection

(as in the American Grackles, Selander & Giller 1961), it follows that

only observations showing females to have chosen mates and nest of a

species other than their own can be considered evidence for hybridisation

of any biological significance. No such cases have yet been recorded.

d Conclusions

The above discussion allows the following conclusions regarding

the extent of competition and the maintenance of reproductive isolation

between sympatric Asian weavers.

Competition

(a) Ploceus megarhynchus probably has quite different food pre-

ferences from those of the smaller species in Kumaon. In SE. Asia P.

hypoxanthus, probably also takes different food from the three smaller

weavers.

(6) P. philippinus, P. manyar, and P. benghalensis probably take simi-

lar or identical foods and must compete for nourishment in environ-

ments where they are sympatric if food supplies are limiting. Differences

in habitat preference in the breeding season and food ‘ superabundance ’

for at least part of the dry season probably reduce the extent of competi-

tion considerably. Exact measures are required. In Java contrasts in

breeding season and altitudinal range between P. philippinus and P.

manyar, the nest siting of which is identical there, have been noted.

Reproductive isolation

(a) Differences between the species in six sets of variables influence

to varying extents the likelihood of matings between the closely related

species. Matings between P. philippinus, P. manyar, and P. benghalensis

are possible, especially between the last two in north India and the first

two in Java where ecological similarities are particularly apparent. In

the latter case, however, contrasts particularly in the timing of the breed-

ing season reduce the likelihood of hybridisation.

(b) Of the variables discussed, contrasts in the coloration of the males,

in the sequences of events in courtship, in posture composition, and in

song are likely to play a direct role in inhibiting cross-matings. Con-

trasts in the behavioural context, orientation, and form of the ritualised

32 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

Wing Beating Displays are probably especially significant! as the latter

function as signals in the initial communication between the sexes at the

onset of pairing. The contrasts in orientation are particularly important

and are closely linked with the differences in nest site. Differences in

the conflict motivation shown by each species in the behaviour sequences

are apparent, and might involve incompatibilities in any attempted

hybridisation in addition to the effects described above.

benghalensis allows males to attempt copulations with females of species

other than their own. Females have, however, never been seen choosing

mates and nests of another species.

These results suggest that some degree of competition may exist in

India particularly between P. manyar and P. benghalensis and in Java

between P. manyar and P. philippinus although in both cases this must

occur only for limited periods and only in the few localities where exten-

sive sympatry occurs. Inter-breeding between the species is prevented

by a number of species-specific characters.

IV. THE EVOLUTION OF THE ASIAN WEAVERS

a. .Lhe African origin of the Asta mamgeaviens

The weavers (Ploceinae) are found throughout Africa and tropical

Asia but not in the desert areas of the Sahara and the Middle-East. Most

of the 95 species occur in Africa and only 5 are known in Asia. In Africa

all biomes have weaver representatives : rain forest, montane forest,

humid and dry savannah, lakeside, and grass. The Asian species,

however, are restricted to savannah, grassland, and swampy country.

In spite of the absence of a fossil record a coherent evolutionary picture

of a bird family can be built up from two sorts of evidence: firstly, a precise

knowledge of comparative anatomy and behaviour together with an

understanding of the functional significance of these characteristics in

relation to species ecology, and, secondly, a knowledge of the ecological

changes dependent upon climate, which have occurred within the geo-

graphical range of the group during the relevant period of time. While

at present this latter type of evidence is meagre there is sufficient to con-

struct an hypothesis which represents in outline the likely course of events.

The picture will become clearer not only through further study of the

birds themselves but through an improved understanding of the phyto-

geographical changes in Asia since the Pliocene.

The following points suggest that the ancestors of the Asian weavers

invaded Asia from Africa at a time, or at times, when a suitable tract of

country connected the two continents.

THE ASIAN WEAVER BIRDS a3

(a) Prior to the Miocene unbroken evergreen forest is believed to have

stretched from West Africa to eastern tropical Asia. As the weavers are

not represented in the Asian forests they could not have been part of the

widespread pan-Afro-Asian avifauna of that time. They must have

invaded African evergreen forests after the biome had split.

(b) The great majority of weaver species occur in Africa which has

been the main centre of radiation of the group.

have entered forest secondarily (Chapin 1923, Crook in preparation).

Their spread northwards and eastwards into Asia was dependent upon the

existence of a suitable tract of open country in those areas.

(d) The Asian weavers are few, all are open country birds of general

similarity to African savannah species but showing signs of long isolation

and parallel evolution. Typical African grassland weavers (i.e. Euplectes

spp., Quelea spp., etc.) and insectivorous weavers (i.e. Malimbus spp.,

Ploceus bicolor, etc.) are not represented in Asia suggesting that only the

most adapatable seed eating species of the genus Ploceus reached a lati-

tude sufficiently northerly to turn the Arabian Gulf and spread into Asia.

The suggestion that Asian weavers came from a stock of savannah

adaptation is supported by their nest structure. The tubed nests (retort

shape B, Crook 1960a, and in preparation) of P. philippinus, P. manyar,

and P. benghalensis are characteristic of weaver construction in trees when

fine terminal twigs are used for suspension. In Africa such nests occur in

both forest and savannah. In swamp, grass, or scrub, however, African

weavers have globular nests supported from below rather than above.

Now, in spite of major contrasts in nest site, P. manyar and P. benghal-

ensis retain the same basic tubed nest as P. philippinus, and all are sus-

pended from their upper parts. This indicates that the Asian grassland

and swamp species are derived secondarily from a tree-nesting stock,

to which P. philippinus is presumably very similar, and that in the absence

of selection to the contrary they have retained the tubular entrance to the

suspended nest. Only in P. manyar is there a noticeable shortening of

the tube. Since there are no forest weavers in Asia the tree-dwelling

ancestors must have lived in savannah.

The nests of P. megarhynchus and P. hypoxanthus are globular but,

while that of the latter is only sited in bushes in swamps (etc.), the former

places its nest both in a curious tree-top site (Ali & Crook 1959) and in

reeds. This major contrast with the P. philippinus species group, taken

together with other anomalous characteristics, suggests that P. mega-

rhynchus and P. hypoxanthus come froma separate stock. The nest

construction and siting suggest that these birds built globular nests in

dense scrub or marsh in the manner of Quelea quelea (Morel, Morel &

Bourliere 1957) in Africa today. Once in Asia, they became specialised

to their particular sites and ways of life in different areas.

34 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

(e) As no Asian weaver lives in particularly arid areas, except where

watercourses, wells, and agriculture provide tolerable conditions for P.

Philippinus, it can be assumed now that their ancestors belonged to the

relatively humid African savannah contribution to the Indian avifauna

rather than to the Somali-Arid element (Chapin 1923, Hussain 1958,

cf. Ripley 1959a).

Only two Asian weavers are widespread over the whole area (P.

Philippinus and P. manyar), and only P. philippinus can be considered a

very common bird. P. benghalensis, P. megarhynchus and P. hypoxanthus

all have small ranges and those of the latter two species are much sub-

divided. This suggests that, while the weavers spread widely in Asia on

their arrival and underwent adaptive radiation, obscuring any close

relationship with African forms, later phyto-geographical changes brought

about restrictions in range for all except the two species able to take active

advantage of them (P. philippinus and P. manyar). Thus, while P. benghal-

ensis, P. megarhynchus, and P. hypoxanthus are essentially relict popu-

lations, P. manyar and especially P. philippinus are dynamic and expand-

ing stocks (see Darlington 1957).

Although a general similarity between the African and Asian weaver

faunas persists, certain details of weaver life in Asia are peculiar to that

area. These features are: (i) the development of colonial life in areas

of short rainy seasons without reduction of courtship activity outside the

territory (P. megarhynchus excepted) ; (ii) the development in P. philip-

pinus of elaborate nest repair behaviour ; (iii) the use of mud in nest

construction (P. hypoxanthus ?). These points refer particularly to P.

Philippinus, P. manyar, and P. benghalensis and are probably all correlated

closely in relation to the survival value of the particular type of nest

constructed by them. P. philippinus resembles closely many colonial

species of relatively dry areas in Africa, but unlike them does not show

reduction in the amount of sex chasing beyond the limits of the territory.

In African species such as P. cucullatus the survival value of this limitation

is held to be that it reduces the frequency of nest robbing attacks by neigh-

bouring males by increasing the amount of time spent in active occupation

of the territory. Nest robbing is known to delay nest completion ap-

preciably and, in a short breeding season, this reduces the chances of a

male acquiring a maximum number of females for his nests and of having

young in them during the period of optimum food availability.

Furthermore, females will only accept properly completed nest

baskets with at least a fine floor to the egg chamber. In philippinus, by

contrast, the male is often absent from his nest and sex chasing and nest

robbing then occurs without hindrance. Any damage done is, however,

repaired with a speed and agility not seen so far in tests on African species.

In addition the male brings several strands of material to the nest on each

visit and the method of construction is such that it encourages rapid

THE ASIAN WEAVER BIRDS 35

repair and constant fabric maintenance. Female P. philippinus accept

nests in the ‘ Helmet stage ’ when the floor of the egg chamber is not yet

finished. The males await acceptance before completing the structure.

Furthermore, P. philippinus maintains the nest by constant attention

throughout its occupation. These features of construction, together

- with the use of mud, appear originally to have been adaptations to rain-

shedding, thereby keeping the young from chilling. Additionally they

permit rapid nest repair thereby eliminating the necessity of a courtship

restricted to the nest area (Crook in press). P. benghalensis and P. manyar

have not yet been tested for their repair abilities. Some observations

suggest that the constant padding of the fabric, typical of P. philippinus, is

absent. The nest sites in thick vegetation with a reduced visibility between

nests may entail a reduced frequency of nest robbing compared. with the

tree site and hence less need for repair. Furthermore, the nests may

be better protected from rain. In conclusion the contrasts between P.

Philippinus and similar African species are interpreted as different adapta-

tions to identical selection pressures occasioned by high seasonal

rainfall and nest robbing by other males.

b. Dispersal and adaptive radiation

The dispersal of weavers through Asia depended upon the provision

of suitable climatic and vegetational conditions. It is therefore essential

to determine, so far as possible, the nature of the phyto-geographical

changes that occurred within the relevant time period. Recent studies

suggest that the age of the Oscines is very much less than had previously

been suspected—their radiation probably occurring primarily in the

Miocene (Darlington 1957). Furthermore, while Brodkorb (1960) puts

the average longevity of pleistocene birds at about $ million years and the

top longevity at one million, Moreau (in press) points out that the fossil

evidence is mostly non-passerine. He considers that for passerines the

figures are likely to be very much lower even for the oldest species. This

Suggests that, at most, the present Asian weavers could only have seen two

glaciations and have undergone their radiation entirely within the

Pleistocene.

Moreau (in press) has recently completed a re-evaluation of the ecolo-

gical history of Africa since the Pliocene based upon new geological

- evidence obtained since his earlier account (1952). During the

Pleistocene three glacial periods occurred of which the last continued for

at least 50,000 years prior to 18,000 years ago. During this period the

temperature of Africa must have been some 5°C. lower than at present at

the glacial maximum, and a corresponding reduction in evaporation would

have increased the effectiveness of the rainfall. The reduction in tem-

perature would have extended the area of the montane biome down to

36 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

between 500 and 1000 metres greatly restricting the lowland biota except

in the areas to the west of the Cameroons. The montane avifauna, at

present restricted to small isolated areas, would have ranged from the

Cameroon Highlands to Abyssinia and to South Africa. Such extension

in range must have occurred at each glaciation to be followed by recession

and local isolation. In addition sub-regional geological changes, the

dating and relationship of which to the glacial changes are not yet under-

stood, occurred. The most significant to the present discussion are the

extensions of the Sahael (Sudanese climatic belt) to at least 300 miles

north of the present position (on the last occasion only about 7000 years

ago) and the southward movement of the palaearctic fauna at least 400

miles into the Sahara.

- Changes similar to these must have occurred in both the Arabian and

the Indian areas. It seems likely that during each glaciation unbroken

palaearctic conditions must have reached southward deeply into Arabia

and Persia, in the latter, due to the elevation of the land, penetrating to

the coastal strip. In India the whole of the elevated Deccan Plateau

was much cooler and more humid and, except where edaphic factors were

unsuitable, a Himalayan type of flora and fauna similar to those at

present restricted to the Nilgiri Hills, parts of the Western Ghats, the

hills of Assam, and the Himalayan foothills (Ali 1949) must have been

widespread throughout. Following the glacial maxima the montane

biota would have receded giving place to tropical forest in the wetter

areas and savannah in the drier or poorer soils (i.e. in Rajasthan and the

Deccan traps). At this time a savannah vegetation probably linked

Africa through Arabia to India along a rather narrow coastal strip of

Persia. The Indo-Gangetic plain was covered by flat land of high water

table and presumably flooded for long periods each year. Such seasonal

flooding prevents the establishment of a climax swamp forest and great

areas of marsh and wet grassland, similar to the uncultivated tarai of

today, probably existed. |

Archaeological evidence from the Harappa culture (3250-2750 B.C.)

and records in stone and literature from Buddhist and ancient Hindu

sources (around 2000 years ago) allow a limited reconstruction of the

flora (Randhawa 1945, Law 1954). The forests stretched from west to

east along the Satpura-Vindhya range (furthest west at Aravalli Hills)

and south to the Ajanta area (Hora 1949, Ali 1949, Ripley 1949, 1959a,

Dilger 1952) while some probably persisted for a long time in the Indus

basin. The forests of the Western Ghats, north central India, and Burma

thus formed an unbroken area bordering swamps and grassland in the

wet Ganges Valley and savannah in both Rajasthan and to the south in

the area of the Deccan traps. Within these forests there must have been

sub-divisions into the flora of the cooler more elevated regions, then

diminishing in extent, and those of the lower altitudes. Other contrasts

THE ASIAN WEAVER BIRDS 37

due to the differential distribution of the monsoon rainfall over the area

must also have occurred.

The above picture represents a stage in the progressive desiccation

which has been going on since the last Ice Age (d’ Aubreville 1949,

Moreau 1952, Ripley 1959a). The forests of central India have now

disappeared and only groves remain (Randhawa 1949). Much of the

Ganges Valley is very arid in the dry season.

Similar changes must have occurred in SE. Asia with a major

expansion southward of cool climate biota over higher ground at the

glacial maxima followed by a recovery of vast tropical forests.

In southern Burma, Thailand, and south Indochina the climax forest

development was probably prevented over wide areas by prolonged sea-

sonal floods resulting in a grass vegetation (Suvatabandhu 1958, Stamp

1959). During the Ice Ages the islands of Borneo, Java, and Sumatra

were connected together with Malaya and Indochina to form the vast

continental area of Sundaland. Changes in that land area have been

extremely complex (Umbgrove 1949, Beaufort 1951, Dammerman 1929)

but most of it must have been covered by rain forest (Richards 1952).

In the huge river system draining north over the low-lying land between

Malaya and Borneo there were probably patches of open grass-

scrub and palms and occasional extensive areas of swamp or grassland

maintained on a heavily waterlogged soil. Such areas are more likely

than swamp forest because when Sundaland was undivided the climate

in the rain shadow to the north of the Sumatra-Javan mountains was

probably very much drier than at present with a seasonal rainy period.

It follows that, as on the Amazon, the upper reaches of the great north-

ward flowing river contained much swamp grassland rather than the

forest that is all to be seen today. Following the Ice Ages the low-lying

areas between the present islands were gradually submerged.

The dispersion of the weavers was probably affected by these changes

in the following way :

(i) The main eastward movements of the birds probably correlated

with the recessions of the last two Ice Ages. During glaciation movement

must have been prevented by the southward penetration of the palaearc-

tic biota into Arabia and Persia as well as the expansion of the ‘ montane’

floras of Africa and Asia. The ensuing savannah conditions in the

Middle East must have been ideal for dispersal of seed-eating weavers.

During the arid interglacial period, however, desert regions must have

constituted a barrier as at present.

(ii) Entry to India would have been much hindered by forest barriers.

As these broke up under increasing desiccation the eastward movements,

particularly into the Deccan, continued.

(iii) Since only the last two glaciations are considered, it follows that

the weavers could have reached Asia following either the last or the

38 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

penultimate Ice Age. The Red Sea and Persian Gulf do not appear to

have constituted effective barriers. The relict distributions and charac-

teristics (such as the nest form) of P. megarhynchus and P. hypoxanthus

set these species apart from the other Asian birds. They probably

represent a distinct and phylogenetically primitive group within the genus,

which entered India at the earlier glaciation to be followed later by the

more advanced birds of P. philippinus type when conditions again became

suitable for movement.

Both P. megarhynchus and P. hypoxanthus are marshland birds and

the savannah ancestor is no longer extant. The size contrast is unlikely

to be completely explained as an example of Bergmann’s Law although

P. megarhynchus undoubtedly lives in the cooler climate, at least in winter.

The upright stance in display and the nest form of P. megarhynchus

suggest that the use of the tree-top nesting sites is recent following the

reduction of swampy marshland.

(iv) The ancestors of P. philippinus, P. manyar, and P. benghalensis

presumably spread first into savannah country around the Indus Valley

and in Rajasthan. Forest belts doubtless still existed in the Indus basin

together with large swamps along the river. The opportunity thus

existed for a population to colonise the marshland. A similar region in

the Ganges Valley was more certainly cut off from savannah by forests

in the Delhi area and to the south. Once weavers had reached the area

adaptation to the prevailing marshland would have followed rapidly.

Thus at an early date opportunities existed for the development of two

marshland populations in the eastern and western limbs of the Indo-

Gangetic plain. The relatively greater contrast between P. benghalensis

and P. philippinus, together with the restricted range of the former, sug-

gests that P. benghalensis was the first to diverge, probably in the Indus

basin. The P. manyar stock from the Ganges Valley could have spread

eastwards later to colonize the highly suitable marshland areas in SE.

Asia by moving along the coasts. It also proved more adaptable than

P. benghalensis and spread widely over India and Ceylon wherever suitable

marshy areas existed.

There are of course several possible alternative explanations. P.

manyar may have arisen in SE. Asia from a stock ancestral both to it and

P. benghalensis, or it may represent a second invasion of the Ganges

swamp-land at a later date from P. benghalensis, when the two had

diverged sufficiently for reproductive isolation to have developed. Be

this as it may, the main point here is that the local conditions in north

India and parts of SE. Asia, in which large swampy basins lay surrounded

by forests and at periods effectively isolated from savannah on higher,

drier, or poorer land, provided the local isolation during which marsh-

land populations could diverge from the parental savannah stock.

The savannah birds persisted in suitable areas as the ancestors of

THE ASIAN WEAVER BIRDS 39

P. philippinus. Furthermore, as drier conditions developed and savannah

spread, the birds ranged widely over India especially in the Deccan.

(v) Prior to the dissolution of Sundaland SE. Asia appears to have

contained widely dispersed populations of both P. hypoxanthus and P.

manyar. Later the flooding of the low-lying land between Sumatra,

Java, and Borneo seems to have entailed the virtual extinction of most of

the weaver populations that lived there. The vast unbroken forests of

Malaya, Sumatra, and Borneo would not support a relict population but

on drier Java, with its Monsoon climate, a small population of P. manyar

survived (presumably at first only on the northern alluvial plain), and

eventually adapted to the absence of extensive swamps by moving in

on a tree nesting site. P. hypoxanthus also survived locally on Sumatra

and Java.

(vi) The spread of the adaptable and vigorous P. philippinus through

the forests of SE. Asia seems to be a recent event occasioned by the felling

of forests and the opening up of areas to agriculture. It is found now

irregularly throughout Malaya (which has no other weavers), Sumatra,

and Java, but has not yet reached Borneo where the almost unbroken

forests would probably effectively prevent colonisation. In Java P.

manyar and P. philippinus probably compete (see above) ; the result seems

to be the present contrast in altitudinal range and breeding season.

In spite of obvious weaknesses and the paucity of information the

above argument does account in general for the facts available and ex-

plains the origin of the extant Asian weaver species. During isolation

the populations diverged sufficiently in habitat preferences and in re-

productive behaviour, so that now that the forest barriers have largely

disappeared sympatry occurs without extensive hybridisation. The

specific ranking of the birds is certainly justified even though the precise

extent of their ecological and behavioural interaction remains to be

determined. The degree of competition that occurs is an expression of

the continuing unstable relations between the species and their environ-

ment.

c The origin and nature of the behavioural

differences

The differences between the Asian weavers concern primarily the

coloration of the males, habitat preferences, nest sites, and the methods

of communication between the sexes by display and voice during pair

formation. In particular, contrasts in the orientation of the WBDs and

their context within the courtship sequences have been shown to cor-

relate with different motivation in the species concerned. All these

contrasting features are fundamentally directed to the guiding of the

female to the nest. It is thus the nest site and the nature of the environ-

40 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

ment around it which comprise the ultimate factors determining the

behaviour shown.

In the tarai contrasts in nest site and communication behaviour are

maintained in sympatry in an area of complex interdigitation of species

habitats, and it appears that they are genetically controlled and hence

innate. However, nest site selection is by no means invariably fixed? and,

in particular, the contrasts in site between P. manyar races on Java and

elsewhere suggest that here the factors determining site selection may

be sufficiently labile to allow the choice of trees in one locality and

rushes in another. The convergence of P. manyar in nest site, and

probably in courtship, to P. philippinus on Java may thus depend on the

relative absence of swamp there and the choice of tree sites for nests.

Here then the whole shift from the characteristic marshland behaviour of

the species could have been due to a direct reaction to the environment.

Whether at present the site selection of the Javan population is

environmentally or genetically controlled will require much further

analysis but the point raises wide issues.

‘ Genetical systems do not directly and rigidly determine the charac-

teristics of organisms but set up reaction ranges within which those

characters develop’ (Simpson 1953). Within the labile reaction range

the particular character depends upon interaction with the environment.

It thus seems probable that the initial adaptation to the grass nest site in

a recently invaded (or rapidly changing) environment was due to the

differential survival of those members of a population whose site pre-

ferences were sufficiently labile to allow the choice of a site, abnormal

for the species, but of adaptive significance. Such ‘ facultative adap-

tations ’ dependent upon particular environmental circumstances may

be distinguished from ‘ fixed innate adaptations ’ determined genetically

independently of the environment (Underwood 1954). Furthermore, the

learning of the species nest site by the young occupants (i.e. nest site

imprinting) may result in the perpetuation of the preference in succeed-

ing generations and the establishment of a tradition (Thorpe 1945, Klopfer

1961). The establishment of such a tradition may allow the selection of

genetic changes such that eventually the site preference becomes incor-

porated into the genotype (i.e. the ‘ Baldwin effect ’, Thorpe 1945, Mayr

1 Note the variation of nest sites chosen by P. philippinus in different parts of its

range : tall palmyra and date palms near Bombay, vegetation over or hanging within

wells near Poona and in the Deccan, trees on canal and stream banks in the tarai, and

bungalow verandahs in eastern India and Burma. Even within a given area different

sites are chosen in different localities (Crook 1960c, Table I) but the species has never

been recorded nesting in rushes or reeds. Similarly occasional records (Hume 1890)

describe P. manyar and P. benghalensis nesting in atypical sites’such as low bushes over

water rather than in reeds and grass but never in palms or tall trees. In addition Ali

(in litt.) informs me that P. megarhynchus breeds both in tree-tops and in reed-beds

in the same area of the tarai. In this case the preferences cannot be controlled by

genetic contrasts as the populations must intermingle in feeding flocks and probably

visit both types of site when selecting building places.

THE ASIAN WEAVER BIRDS 41

1947, Waddington 1953, Simpson 1953, Hinde 1959, Underwood 1954),

the behaviour thus becoming ‘innate’. This, however, is not essential

for the perpetuation of the behavioural change once the tradition is

established.

The contrasts in nest site between these three weavers correlate with

major differences in the conditions of cover affecting the visibility of the

Advertisement displays attracting females to the nest. Thus if a male

with a nest hidden in grass continued to display upon it not only would

the likelihood of a female seeing him be reduced but the male, often

unable to spot the approach of females, might be inhibited frequently

from display.

In such a context however the likelihood of neighbouring males

seeing one another frequently on their nests is less and the tendency to

visit neighbouring nests to steal materials is probably reduced. A reduced

frequency of observation of his fellow males is likely to lower the aggres-

siveness of a territory owner so that the threshold for attack behaviour

would rise. This would correlate with a reduced tendency to stay con-

stantly beside the nest and a lowered threshold for approach to females.

Displays would thus soon become orientated towards approaching females

away from the nest rather than upon or very close to the structure. This

could be a simple phenotypic effect of reduced visibility and less terri-

torial trespassing. Furthermore, since the male’s display is rarely released

without the sight (or sound) of other males in display, and since the

performance of display is probably rewarding, particularly if it ends in

sex chasing and especially in copulation, the birds may learn to give their

displays on grass tops etc. rather than upon the nest, so that a tradition

may develop through some such process as ‘local enhancement’.

Certainly the P. philippinus data (Crook 1960c) showing that males some-

times leave their nests on the approach of a female and display upright

on twigs indicate that the display orientation is sufficiently labile to

allow the development of a facultative adaptation here. Further shifts

in orientation so that the display comes to be given following an approach

flight to the female could develop in the same way.

This approach could account for the present differences in pair for-

mation behaviour between P. philippinus, P. manyar, and P. benghalensis.

P. philippinus, a highly successful dry country stock responding fully to

the climate changes favourable to it in the present epoch, retains the

original inverted nest-oriented type of advertisement at the tree nest-site.

In P. manyar, nesting in rushes and reed-beds scattered over swamps, the

relatively loose character of the vegetation appears to have permitted the

retention of display near the nest so that it still functions as a territorial

proclamation. The dense grass in which P. benghalensis places its nest

makes approach to the female a necessity if initial contact between the

sexes is to be established. The display here becomes purely of courtship

42 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 6@ (1)

function and in correlation with this the song is much subdued. Further-

more the motivational contrasts between the three species in the tarai

(pp. 26-29) are also explained.

In Java the local race of P. manyar places its nests in trees with good

visibility all around. As a result the behaviour of the bird probably

resembles that of P. philippinus extremely closely.

The important question then is to determine the limits of lability of

nest site selection in each species for it is this that very largely determines

the types of pair formation behaviour (Crook 1962). Thus, while

P. philippinus chooses a wide range of sites in different localities, the con-

ditions of visibility around the nests remain about the same and the

communication system between the sexes in reproductive behaviour is

not affected as it would be if a local population suddenly took to the

reeds. In the case of the Java population of P. manyar the change does

involve a major increase in visibility which probably has affected the

signal system. Here then the lability of site selection appears to have

been larger than for P. philippinus and has probably had more severe con-

sequences. In the Kumaon tarai, in spite of the mixture of habitats,

each species shows clear nest-site preferences suggesting that the range is

fairly tightly controlled. There is, however, probably sufficient lability

to allow quite a drastic change of site should the birds be confined to a

habitat radically different to the preferred one. The effect of such a

change, which might be arranged experimentally, on the orientation of

the WBD would be extremely interesting to observe.

Finally, while the stereotyped appearance of the ritualised displays

(Tinbergen 1952, Blest 1961, Crook 1962) in advertisement must be the

result of sexual selection, differences in the posture material, upon which

selection has worked in producing the signal, may well have been deter-

mined initially by shifts in the strengths of tendencies to remain at the

nest and to approach the female of the type described above.

Thus while characters such as plumage coloration, body size, beak

proportions, nest structure, and ritualised wing beating displays have

narrow reaction ranges, other characteristics such as nest-site selection,

the orientation of the displays, and the sequence of events in courtship

are probably more labile and, through their adaptability, allow rapid

phenotypic adaptation to invaded or changing environments. It follows

that some ‘ fixed adaptations’, such as the ritualised displays, may be

dependent for their orientation and function on facultative adaptations

perhaps maintained by local or specific traditions.

d. Species grouping

Moreau (1960) placed the Asian Ploceines in two separate species

groups of the genus Ploceus, the first consisting of P. manyar, P. philip-

pinus, P. benghalensis, and P. megarhynchus and the second of P. hypoxan-

THE ASIAN WEAVER BIRDS 43

thus together with the African species Ploceus (Pachyphantes) supercilio-

sus. This latter group was established mainly upon supposed similari-

ties in nest structure, which a close reading of the literature taken in

conjunction with new observations in Africa on the nest form and con-

struction of P. superciliosus (Crook in preparation) now show to be in-

valid. Since Moreau’s account the new data on P. megarhynchus has

also become available. In the above survey it is shown that while

P. philippinus, P. manyar, and P. benghalensis are extremely similar to one

another, P. megarhynchus and. P. hypoxanthus resemble one another much

more than either resembles the manyar group. It is thus considered

that the two species groups of the genus Ploceus found in Asia be com-

posed as follows: (1) Ploceus megarhynchus and P. hypoxanthus, (2)

Ploceus manyar, P. philippinus, and P. benghalensis. Neither appears to

have any close relationship with any well-studied African species group.

V. SUMMARY

(i) In many areas of tropical Asia several closely related Ploceine

species show sympatric distributions. The problems of reproductive

isolation and competition posed by these species are discussed. New

field data on Ploceus benghalensis and Ploceus manyar observed in the

Kumaon tarai 1959 are provided, and the characteristics of these and other

Asian weavers are summarised in Tables II and III.

(ii) The available data suggest :

(a) Ploceus megarhynchus and P. hypoxanthus, which differ greatly

in body size, bill proportions, coloration, nest form and site, and

behaviour (still unknown for hypoxanthus) from other Asian weavers, are

only distantly related to them and would under no circumstances in the

wild interbreed or compete with them.

(b) P. philippinus, P. manyar, and P. benghalensis, probably take

- similar or identical foods and compete for nourishment in areas of sym-

patry under conditions of food shortage. Differences between the species

in habitat preferences in the breeding season and ‘ superabundance ’ of

food in at least part of the dry season probably limits the frequency and

duration of periods of competition. Actual measures are required.

reproductive isolation between P. philippinus, P. manyar, and P. benghal-

ensis are: (i) coloration of nuptial males, (11) sequence of events in court-

ship, (ili) postures, orientation and vocalisation during Wing Beating

Display, (iv) nest site, (v) nest form and fabric, and (vi) habitat. The

first four are the more important—in particular the orientation of WB

display postures, which is closely correlated with differences in nest

sites. The females perform mate selection so that attempts by males in

mixed colonies to mount females other than those of their own species are

not, by themselves, of much biological significance. Deliberate female

44 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

choice of male, nest, and site of a species other than her own has yet to be

recorded.

(iii) The ancestors of the Asian weavers entered Asia from Africa as

savannah-adapted birds. Radiation into swamp and grassland species

has occurred in isolation within Asia. Evidence from nest structures

and sites, comparative behaviour, and, in particular, the few available

studies of vegetation changes in Asia since the Pliocene, is used to produce

a hypothesis for the radiation and speciation of the birds. The relative

importance of ‘ innate’ and ‘ traditional’ behaviour in the maintenance

of specific characters is briefly discussed.

The Asian weavers are listed in two groups : (a) Ploceus megarhynchus

and P. hypoxanthus ; (b) P. philippinus, P. manyar, and P. benghalensis.

Neither appears to have any particularly close relationship with any

existing African species group of the genus.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Without the encouragement and assistance of many persons these

studies could never have been made. First and foremost I owe much to

Dr. Salim Ali, who not only took a great personal interest in these studies

but also arranged and participated in the expedition to Kumaon.

Dr. Ali’s great knowledge of the Asian Ploceinae has been a major source

of information and he has helped to mould many of the ideas presented

here. It was largely due to him that my visit to India became possible

and without his help and advice it would have been most difficult to

obtain satisfactory results.

During the Kumaon trip the co-operation of the Chief Conservator

of Forests, U.P., and officers of his department, in particular Shri S. S.

Bahadur, Wild Life Warden, Western Circle, was deeply appreciated.

Further in India, I have benefited from working in the field with Shri

Vijaykumar Ambedkar who did much to help me with itivestigations on

the Baya in the Poona area, and with whom I have had many interesting

discussions. I am also grateful to Drs. Telford Work, C. Anderson,

Harold Trapido, and Raja Varma, all of the Virus Research Centre,

Poona, who took an interest in the work and in various ways assisted me

during my stay with them. I greatly appreciated the use of V.R.C.

facilities. Mr. John Goatly, regional representative of the British Council

in Bombay, helped me greatly over certain problems.

In Cambridge Dr. W. H. Thorpe, F.R.s., and Dr. Robert Hinde have

discussed the work with me at various stages and helped me greatly with

their advice and encouragement. Dr. N. Tinbergen, F.R.s., kindly read

through the manuscript in preparation and commented upon it. In

addition Dr. E. J. H. Corner and Mr. Peter Ashton of the Cambridge

Botany School helped me over certain questions. I am indebted to Mr.

A. M. Walker for statistical advice. The studies were financed by the

——_—_——____ et

_ servations on

THE ASIAN WEAVER BIRDS 45

Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, London, without

whose assistance the work could never have been done.

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(1959a) : Zoogeo-

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56 : 72-81.

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Nat. 93 : 127-134.

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Ploceus manyar. De Tropische Natuur.

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——————_ (1952): ‘Derived

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27 : 1-32.

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(Laridae) : a progress report. Behaviour

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‘ Baldwin effect’, ‘ genetic assimilation ’

and ‘ homeostasis ’. Evolution 7 : 386-387.

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Salim Ali, (in litt.)

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behaviour. Ibis 101 : 436-441.

THE ASIAN WEAVER BIRDS 47

APPENDIX

STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF BILL MEASUREMENTS ON SAMPLES OF

PLOCEINE MATERIAL FROM THE BRITISH MUSEUM

The table below gives the mean beak lengths and beak depths (from

top to bottom of bill at its base when closed) for male (x) and females

(¥) of each of the four species : (A) Ploceus manyar (nf'=12, nQ=6),

(B) P. benghalensis (ni =2, n 2=10), (C)P. philippinus (ng =11, nQ=6),

and (D) P. hypoxanthus (nf’'=5, nQ=4). Also it shows the sums and

differences x+¥ and x—y together with their estimated standard errors.

Tabulating x+y rather than of § (x+y) makes only one standard error

necessary for each species since s.e. (X—y)=s.e. (x+y). These estimated

standard errors are calculated on the assumption that the variance of

beak length or depth is the same for all the eight groups, so that a fairly

precise estimate of this can be obtained by pooling the estimates for the

separate groups. The differences between the estimates for the separate

groups are in reasonable agreement with this assumption, which enables

one to include all the groups in the analysis and not just those that are

fairly well represented (thus B 3 has not been omitted).

Beak length Beak width

Species X() y(Q) X—Y X¥+y S.c.of x Y k¥Y X+Y Sec. of

x—J| sl

X+5/ EY

A 1.690 1.667 0.023 3.357 0.027 1.201 1.188 0.013 2.389 0.026

B 1.685 1.642 0.043 3.327 0.043 1.255 1.145 0.110 2.400 0.040

C 1.727 1.690 0.037 3.417 0.028 1.188 1.215 0.027 2.403 0.026

D 1.562 1.495 0.067 3.057 0.037 1.304 1.270 0.034 2.574 0.035

(a) Beak lengths |

Although none of the differences x—y exceeds twice its estimated

standard error, they all have the same sign, which suggests a systematic

sex effect. If there were no sex effect each difference would have the

same chance of being positive or negative, and the probability that all 4

differences have the same sign is only 4. In fact the average difference

4 (0.023-+-0.043-+0.037-+-0.067)=0.0425 is significant at the 5% level

(its estimated standard error is only 0.0172).

Moreover the 4 values of x—y do not differ significantly from one

another at the 5% level, so that the data may be considered consistent

with the hypothesis that the sex effect is the same for all 4 species. On

this hypothesis the best estimate of the sex effect, obtained by taking a

weighted mean of the 4 values (the weight being proportional to the

estimated variances of X—Y) is 0.0388 (with standard error 0.0161). How-

ever, it is perhaps doubtful whether this hypothesis is meaningful as D

48 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

is clearly different from A, B, C (if Dis omitted, the weight mean becomes

0.0323, which is not significantly different from zero at the 5% level,

being only about 1.8 times its estimated standard error 0.0178).

The values of x+y for A, B, C do not differ significantly at the 5%

level (this is almost obvious fromthe magnitudes of the estimated standard

errors), while the difference between x+y for D and these are very highly

significant.

(b) Beak widths

The situation here is less clear. For the values of x+y we reach

the same conclusion as in (a), those for A, B, C not differing significantly

at the 5% level and the difference between them and x+y for D being

very highly significant. But the behaviour of the values of k—y is rather

puzzling. The differences between them are quite large compared with

their standard errors and, if we test the hypothesis that the sex effect is

the same for all 4 species, we obtain a result that is just significant at the

5% level. In view of this, averaging the 4 values is not very appropriate.

Omitting D does not alter the result, which is due to the value of x—y

for B being much greater than the rest ; in fact B is the only species for

which x—Y is quite highly significant. (B ¢‘ has only two members, but

that does not affect the argument, as the small size of this group is properly

allowed for in the formula for the standard error. Certainly it might

not be legitimate to treat the 2 members as a random sample from the

species but this is an objection that may be applied to any of the groups

regardless of their size).

N.B.—I am indebted to Mr. A. M. Walker of the Statistics Laboratory,

Cambridge, for this analysis and discussion.

Chapters on the

History of Botany in India

VI. THE PUBLICATION OF HOOKER’S FLORA OF BRITISH

INDIA AND WHAT ITS PUBLICATION RELEASED

I. H. BURKILL

[ Continued from Vol. 59 (3) : 777]

1. THE PUBLICATION OF HOOKER’S FLORA OF BRITISH

INDIA RELEASES FLORAS OF DIVISIONAL OR SUB-SUB-AREAS

Sir Joseph Hooker described his FLORA OF BRITISH INDIA as

‘an attempt to sweep together and systematise a century of hitherto

undigested materials scattered through a library of botanical books and

monographs, in vast public and private herbaria and a “‘ pioneer work” ’,

It was a large undertaking ; its seven volumes together weigh so much

that a botanist cannot conveniently take them into the field ; the work is

for the study. Ina valedictory preface to the last volume he expressed a

wish that ‘it would facilitate the preparation of local floras’. That it

did. By the time that others were in a position to guess the date of its

conclusion some of them were engaged on writing their own local Flora.

So much the better. Hooker himself set the example by taking up at

once the completion of Trimen’s HANDBOOK TO THE FLORA OF CEYLON ;

and he had vol. 4 out in 1898 and vol. 5 in 1900. But the reader is en-

titled to comment—S is not a great reduction on 7. The next author in

time was Theodore Cooke with the first part of his FLORA OF THE BOMBAY

PRESIDENCY who reduced the number of volumes to 2, albeit bulky.

Theodore Cooke (1836-1910) had gone to India in 1860 to build railways ;

Botany became a hobby, ability brought him to the position of Principal

of the Poona Civil Engineering College and it was from it that he orga-

nized both teaching and a field study of Botany. When the Forest Service

wanted to start training Forest Rangers (see chapter V, section 11) he

came forward with proposals to have Botany taught at Poona. The

proposal was not accepted. But when King advised the formation of

the Botanical Survey (see chapter V, section 12) Cooke organized

(1891) a Bombay section complete with a Presidency Director and

collectors and within the College buildings a herbarium which remained

under his direction until he retired (1893).

50 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HiST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

From 1866 George Marshall Woodrow (1846-1911) had been in charge

of the Ganeshkhind Experimental Garden—in 1872 his charge was

extended over all the official gardens in Poona ; in 1879 he became lecturer

in the College ; and in 1893 when Cooke retired the directorship of the

local Botanical Survey passed to him. He held it until 1899, when his

retirement came and it was passed to George Gammie. The Survey

originated a method of collecting by caravan. This team was well cal-

culated to advance available knowledge of the Bombay flora. Cooke

determined to write a Flora for which purpose he moved to Kew on

retirement. He had divided a personal herbarium into two parts, one to

retain, the other for the Herbarium in the College. Cooke contrived

to get a volume of his FLORA completed by 1901. Later, when an un-

fortunate fire destroyed the Herbarium that he had so enriched, he gave

in replacement the half that he had kept. He continued his work, com-

pleting it by a second volume (1908).

It will conduce to clarity if I assemble the dates here: Ceylon, re-

cognizing that the first essential rested in a Flora, began the preparation

of that for the island with Trimen’s appointment to the post of Director

of the Peradeniya Garden (1879) ; Bengal held itself ready at the publi-

cation of Hooker’s FLORA OF BRITISH INDIA (1897) and was prompt (1903)

with one ; Upper India held itself entitled to begin one (1903) ; Bombay

and Madras were left behind ; Bombay took the help that Kew was able

to offer and Cooke did his work there ; the means of Bombay had not

been developed adequately. Later Madras needed similar help. As

the Government of India had turned a nearly deaf ear to King’s

suggestions for linking the botanical work of the different parts of India

together, the efforts were independent, save that the Saharanpur and

Calcutta gardens kept in rather close touch.

When Cooke commenced making his collections he was so domiciled

as to be able to explore rather more freely that part of the Presidency

where Bombay City and Poona are than the southern parts of the

Presidency ; these were then getting the attention of Alexander Talbot

and A. P. Young. The considerable collections of the latter were sent

to the British Museum (Natural History) in 1884.

The next Flora to reach printing was Kanji Lal’s FOREST FLORA OF THE

SCHOOL CIRCLE, i.e. of Dehra Dun. It was out as a whole in 1901, the

year of Cooke’s first volume and much before Cooke’s second. It was

followed in the next year by two other Floras, Sir David Prain’s BENGAL

PLANTS and Sir Henry Collett’s FLORA SIMLENSIS; and these were followed

one year later by the first part of Duthie’s FLORA OF THE UPPER GANGETIC

PLAIN AND THE ADJACENT SIWALIK AND SUB-HIMALAYAN TRACTS. With

this sequence of dates before him my reader sees how real was the release.

if Beyond all doubt, each of the five authors felt the need of keeping

down the size of his volume or volumes ; but they reacted in very different

CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA 51

ways. Prain took the most original line. Writing actually for the

students that he taught in the Medical College and well aware that the

common garden plants of Bengal were on the whole better known to them

’ than the country’s wild plants, he inserted these, getting room to do so

by excluding descriptions in favour of keys. Brandis, who had retired

to his native town in Germany at some date in the early nineties, re-

turned to taxonomic work ; and, restricting himself as he had done be-

fore to woody plants, started to write his INDIAN TREES. In 1899 he moved

to Kew that the work might be checked there. The book has great value,

- butis of course not a geographic section cut out of the FLORA OF BRITISH

INDIA. It was not published until 1906. Another forest Flora which

must have been well in preparation before 1900, but not published until

1909 (with a second in 1911) was Talbot’s FOREST FLORA OF THE BOMBAY

PRESIDENCY AND SIND.

Duthie’s FLORA is deserving of great praise, but progressed so slowly

that he himself did not complete it.

Prain, while engaged on writing his BENGAL PLANTS prepared a working

list for the use of the dweller in Calcutta—a list of the plants of the three

districts that surround the city—Howrah, Hughli, and the Twenty-four

Parganas. It was printed in the third volume of the Records of the

Botanical Survey. The nearer these publications were to the date of the

FLORA OF BRITISH INDIA the more faithfully do they follow its taxonomy.

Does my reader at times give thought to the ‘ species’ as a concep-

tion that has grown up very much without challenge but with universal

consent? That consent is basic in the biological sciences, and the species

concept is unavoidable. But the individual taxonomist, except, it seems,

a Russian school, forms his own concept of the range of variation which

he should allow. That being so, it was vastly to the advantage of India

that-one man, namely Sir Joseph Hooker, should ‘be allowed to impress

his estimate of specific range on the whole phanerogamic flora of the sub-

continent. :

To a small extent Dalgado’s FLORA OF GOA escapes Hooker’s influence

in that Celasio Dalgado, the author, though a correspondent, was not

more closely associated with Kew. He had been born in Goa, had quali-

fied in Medicine, and became the Civil Surgeon of the little State

of Sawantwadi. Goa and Sawantwadi are outside the area of Malabar

whence Rheede drew his information ; but it was the HORTUS MALABARICUS

that drew Dalgado to his study of the simples. The FLORA was published

in 1898 ; and later its author lived in Lisbon.

While Prain was at work on his Flora, the surgeon John Justus Wood

of the Madras Medical Service retiring, moved to Chota Nagpur and

collected compiling a list of the PLANTS OF CHUTIA NAGPUR published in-

the Records of the Botanical Survey in 1902, and two missionaries Father

Cardon and the Rev. Campbell of Pokhuria collected. Further the

52 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL BIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

Hieronymite missionary, Father Rastier, collected at Bettiah in the un-

worked district of Champaran.

The following information may be inserted here. A list of Simla

plants was printed privately by Mr. H. B. Smith and Lady E. Smith ; and —

some years after 1900 Miss Emilia Frances Noel published an enumera-

tion of plants that she had found in various parts of Kashmir.

Right in the extreme south of India Emile Deschamps and Francis

Wilms collected. The first mostly in the French Settlements of either

coast and in Ceylon ; the second in Kerala. Wilms’s specimens were given

to Kew.

2. COOPER’S HILL AND A MORE FAVOURABLE OUTLOOK IN

INDIA TOWARDS BOTANY

Towards the end of section 11 of chapter V the reader was made aware

how it came about that teaching was provided at Dehra Dun for Forest

Rangers and told that, though Brandis was still in India when events led

up to it, the moving spirit was Schlich’s.

Schlich was Inspector-General of Forests for less than five years, as

in 1885 he left for Britain to organize another teaching centre—the

Forestry College as part of the Imperial Engineering College at Cooper’s

Hill (some 20 miles west of London) where Foresters for India were to

have the advantage of learning their technology through the medium of

their own tongue and under a specially appointed staff. |

I have called the Botanists who entered the Forest Service under

Brandis, Brandis’s front line. Those who followed them, and had had a

different training make the second line. They had for a teacher Marshall

Ward who was appointed to the Professorship of Botany (1886).

Harry Marshall Ward (1854-1906) was contemplating a career as a

teacher of the Natural Sciences when at the age of 20 he attended evening

classes taught by the most inspiring teachers in London, and then went to

Cambridge where he passed botanically under Vines. With a degree

gained, he was chosen to go to Ceylon with an appointment of two years

in which he was to find if possible a way of suppressing the coffee-leaf

disease. That experience over he taught Botany in the University of

Manchester until chosen for Cooper’s Hill.

His suitability for the post was undoubted, his experience of tropical

vegetation a recommendation, and he taught for 10 years. I put before

my readers the names of a few of his pupils who made their mark on the

Botany of India with the dates of entering India: H. H. Haines (1888),

C. G. Rogers (1888), R. L. Heinig (1895), C. E. C. Fischer (1895), and R. S,

Hole (1896).. Marshall Ward left Cooper’s Hill in that year, before the

following two new pupils could finish their courses: B. B. Osmaston

(1896) and R. S. Troup (1897).

CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA 53

Cooper’s Hill is near enough to Kew, for Ward to bring over his

students week by week in summer to see live plants falling within their

interest. |

The reader perhaps comments that the botanical maturity of these

officers came one or two decades after 1900 at which my chapter is ex-

pected toend. Thatisso. I break bounds as without looking forward

the shaping of the end of my period will become uninformative and ragged

as regards Troup’s most valuable work.

Henry Haselfoot Haines (1867-1943) reached India at the very end of

the year 1888. He had passed out of Cooper’s Hill at the head of the list

and it was to be his to serve in northern Bengal forests which Schlich him-

self had. organized excellently ; he was in these forests until 1899 when he

was moved to Singbhum, south of the Ganges, where working plans

for forest management were in hand. Haines collected, but had not at

first the idea of writing on that flora. The idea came in a further spell

of service in the same part of India which enlarged his opportunities.

It may be said that he was fortunate in regard to them. He escaped the

very great transfers which have broken into the experiences of so many

of the botanists of the Forest Service—interruptions through wide ex-

periences are pleasant if time is given for digesting them. He became

Divisional Forest Officer for Chota Nagpur and when he could obtain

leave tramped through four of the districts of Chota Nagpur to extend

his knowledge. Being appointed to the new post of Imperial Forest

Botanist at Dehra Dun (1905) he had the time and the means of working

out his collections. The working out was finished next at Kew. On his

return to India his results to date were embodied in his FOREST FLORA OF

CHOTA NAGPUR INCLUDING GANGPUR AND THE SONTAL PERGUNNAHS (1910).

| Chota Nagpur had of course come within the area that Prain covered

in his BENGAL PLANTS, but that in no way lessened the value of Haines’s

FLORA, for Haines wrote for an entirely different assembly of readers,

and moreover his descriptions were original. We do not need to follow

Haines’s successive appointments ; it suffices to record that in 1914 he

became Conservator of Forests, Bihar and Orissa, and that the gradual

extension of the interest of the Forest Service over forests in which grazing

was encouraged had meanwhile increased the responsibilities and directed

attention to the carpet of herbs on the soil. Now at last a complete

flora had the right which Haines gave to it. Haines had collected as he

could ; then again he used his own time to work the plants out in the

Calcutta Garden and at Kew.

How far Haines’s opportunities were officially designed to lead toa

complete FLORA can only be ascertained from official records. One

would like to think that they were ; whether it was so or was not, the

curating and naming cost Haines most of his leisure. He gave the collec-

tions to Kew when his book had appeared.

54 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

The next name on the list is that of Charles Gilbert Rogers (1864-

1937). Like Haines he had his early service in northern Bengal ; there-

after he was posted to widely scattered parts—the Andaman Islands,

Berar, and Pegu, so scattered that the learning of each flora involved a

step back at each transfer. This and a catholicity in interests made him

a collector for others ; but he did much to promote their work.

The third name on the list is that of Robert Lawrence Heinig. He

had service in the Andaman Islands, Chittagong, and the Sundarbans.

He compiled A FOREST MANUAL OF THE ANDAMANS which was published

in 1900 ; and he collected a large part of the information required for

working plans for the forests of the Sundarbans whence Calcutta so

extensively gets its fire-wood. He compiled A LIST OF PLANTS OF THE

CHITTAGONG COLLECTORATE AND HILL TRACTS (1925) and supplied to

Prain much information for his FLORA OF THE SUNDRIBANS (Rec. Bot.

Survey Ind., 1903).

The fourth name on the list is that of Cecil Ernest Claude Fischer

(1874-1950). He had had part of his technical training at Nancy and part

at Cooper’s Hill. Arriving in India in 1895, he was sent to Madras and

did the whole of his service in that Presidency except a short spell of

teaching at Dehra Dun. He sent collections to the Calcutta Garden and,

when stationed at Coimbatore from 1911 forward, was able to give time

to the flora of the Anamalai Hills and with the help of collections in the

possession of the Agricultural College to produce his ‘Survey of the Flora

of the Annamalai Hills’ (Rec. Bot. Survey Ind.9, No.1; 1921). After re-

tirement he became Assistant for India in the Kew Herbarium (1925-

1937) and. did most valuable work including the completion of Gamble’s

unfinished FLORA OF MADRAS.

Robert Selby Hole (1874-1938) arrived in India in 1896. He had

passed out of Cooper’s Hill at the head of the list. His first service in

India was in the Central Provinces ; then he was sent to Dehra Dun as

Instructor in the College; following this he was promoted Imperial Forest

Botanist in succession to Haines (1906), teaching and investigating forest

composition and chiefly the make-up of the ground covering, seeking

the relation between it and the canopy. Hole was indeed a pioneer. In

1909 he was instructed to prepare a text book for the student. This,

his MANUAL OF BOTANY FOR INDIAN FOREST STUDENTS, has for us the great

interest of exposing what was taught.

Bertram Beresford Osmaston was an earlier Instructor in the College,

then did service in various parts of northern India, and was again on the

College staff, sending collections to the Calcutta Garden.

The last name on this list is that of Robert Scott Troup (1874-1939).

He reached India in 1897, already a marked man ; and was sent to the

Tharrawadi teak forests of Burma, whence 9 years later he was called to

the establishment at Dehra Dun; and at Dehra Dun he completed his

CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA 55

service in India in 1920, returning to Britain to succeed Schlich at Oxford

_as Professor of Forestry.

Troup comments in one place that the Service in India had not the

ability—one may say had not the experience—for drawing up working

plans until after the days of Brandis. Genuine plans came later and were

gradually improved. as experience was gathered. Then came the concen-

tration of the minds who did the actual planning at Dehra Dun, and after

that the establishment of a Research unit—the Research Institute with

five divisions, one of them for working plans. Troup being at Dehra

Dun, when the Institute actually came into being, was at first given the

Division of Utilisation, but was soon turned over to the Division of

Working Plans. The transfer gave him charge of a vast store of data on

tree behaviour which he digested into his masterly SILVICULTURE OF

INDIAN TREES. |

In the year after Troup, Sir Ralph Pearson went out to India in the

Forest Service. It suffices to add his name as being that of one

of the men who put Botany forward: He was not of Marshall Ward’s

teaching.

I have. sought in this section to convey to the reader how greatly

Schlich’s educational policy was calculated to increase the efficiency of

the botanically minded who reached India, and that the needs of

the Service were segregating specialists and, again, what the delegation of

work to Dehra Dun has meant.

At the same time a voice whispers—Dehra Dun is far from central.

3 VASCULAR CRYPTOGAMS OVER THE HALF CENTURY

No one can complain that ferns do not get the attention of botanists.

Because they are of a size similar to herbaceous flowering plants, they

get the same attention. They even get rather more, for there are many

of those who specialize. The mosses get the attention of collectors of

mosses.

This section is a continuation of the record brought to 1850 on p. 84

of the second chapter. Soon after that year two botanists whose in-

terests were wide, cleared a way for the fern specialist ; they were R. H.

Beddome and C. B. Clarke. Beddome published in 1863-1864 his FERNS

OF SOUTHERN INDIA : BEING DESCRIPTIONS AND PLATES OF THE FERNS OF

THE MADRAS PRESIDENCY, following it in 1865-1870 by his FERNS OF BRITISH

INDIA : BEING FIGURES AND DESCRIPTIONS OF FERNS FROM ALL PARTS OF

BRITISH INDIA. Later (1883) came his HANDBOOK OF THE FERNS OF BRITISH

INDIA, CEYLON AND THE MALAY PENINSULA.

C. B. Clarke had slightly anticipated the last by publishing in 1880

his paper—‘A Review of the Ferns of Northern India’ (1880). Henry

Francis Blandford followed in 1888 with his FERNS OF SIMLA.

56 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

Very striking indeed is the relative abundance of ferns in different

parts of India, so striking as to set the mind wondering on what limiting,

factor Nature failed to evolve ferns more freely for generally unsuitable

areas. The local poverty is illustrated by what Prain records in his

BENGAL PLANTS. His area is divided by him into 10 sub-areas: Tirhut,

Bihar, Chota Nagpur, North Bengal, Central Bengal, West Bengal,

Orissa, East Bengal, Tippera, and Chittagong. He names 112 species,

of which 88 are found in Chittagong, 53 being only in Chittagong.

Chittagong therefore for a collector of ferns is a paradise. After

Chittagong Chota Nagpur is favourable, for it has 12 that are unrecorded

for other sub-areas of Bengal and 5 more in common with Chittagong,

but not beyond these two sub-areas. The rest of Bengal is strikingly

poor, so poor as to handicap the Botanical teaching in Calcutta by making

material for illustration difficult to get, save from the Botanic Garden ;

and of the Garden it may be recalled Griffith discovered his fern material

deficient (see p. 66 of the second chapter).

It is evident that the fern specialist who is not free to travel may be

area-limited.

Of fern-lovers connected with India Sir William Norris may.have been

among the first ; if not, it would be because he was not collecting during

his earlier years in Ceylon: he collected vigorously after his transfer to

Penang as Recorder for the Straits Settlements. Lady Dalhousie was

at the time in Penang and an enthusiastic companion in the field. Sir

William Norris went back to Ceylon as Chief Justice (1847), and on re-

tirement took his collections to Britain and they were given to Kew.

He has already been mentioned in chapter II as climbing Mount Ophir

with Griffith.

Ceylon is a paradise for the botanist seeking ferns. William Ferguson

(1820-1887), a Surveyor who reached the island in 1839 and was there

until his death, collected ferns during part of his long career, and in 1880

published an account of them. There were three other collectors in the

island about that time—George Wall, a merchant of Colombo, W.Thomas

Naylor Beckett, a coffee-planter, and Frederick J. Hutchinson, an army

officer. They rivalled each other in collecting and helped each other.

Hutchinson collected also in the Nilgiri Hills. After his service in the

East he was stationed in Plymouth and, when he died, he left a beautifully.

mounted and cared-for collection. A contemporary, collecting in

northern India, was Charles William Webley Hope (1832-1904), a Civil

Engineer who had reached India in 1859 and had adopted fern collecting

as a pastime. His FERNS OF NORTH-WESTERN INDIA was published by the

Bombay Natural History Society in 1899-1903. One of Hope’s interests

was to connect the epiphytic ferns with the most favourable support, a

line of study which belongs to ecology. Harry Corbyn Levinge (1831-

1896), of the Bengal Public Works Department, collected ferns in the

CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA | 57

Sikkim and Kashmir Himalaya and in the Nilgiri Hills ; and J. Munro,

a tea-planter, collected in Sikkim. It happened that Britain was leading

Europe in attention to ferns; and, by British workers of the time in

India, the knowledge of the ferns was brought to a very dependable

level.

Not so the Mosses; specialists interested in them were few, and

their study more difficult.

The study of the Mosses of India may be said to have commenced

when the road to Nepal was opened; but it was not long before the

southern parts of the Peninsula also received attention. Francis

Buchanan, the first (1802) to collect in Nepal these small but most attrac-

tive plants, had collected mosses to good effect in Scotland before he

went to India (see Prain, LIFE OF FRANCIS BUCHANAN p. vi footnote). The

first close attention to the southern mosses came from some of the earliest

to settle in the Nilgiri Hills and also when collecting in Ceylon followed.

Sir Joseph Hooker, when he searched for geographic data for his SKETCH

OF THE FLORA OF BRITISH INDIA, was compelled to admit that in 1900 data

which would serve him did not exist. Nor did they for yet another 30

years—that is until the publication of a list compiled by Professor

J. P. Briihl (Rec. Bot. Survey Ind. 13, pp. 15-120 ; 1931). The list sug-

gests a great abundance among themin all the wettest parts of India

proper, not only of species of mosses but also of endemics. This great

endemism is doubtless exaggerated and will be reduced by further study

as exploration is continued. Many of the Ceylon species not recorded

as occurring in the mountains of southern India will be found to have

been overlooked ; and a considerable number now known from the

Nilgiri or Palni Hills will be found in the Western Ghats or elsewhere

outside their known range. As for the species of Burma the knowledge

that we have is very meagre.

Among the collectors of mosses in India, the only taxonomist so

advanced as to make determinations had been Griffith.

In my second chapter I referred to Mitten’s CONSPECTUS of the mosses

that he knew to occur, and I got together the names of the collectors to

his year of publishing (1869). At that date Thwaites was collecting as

opportunities came to him, and Mitten (1873) reported on Thwaites’s

specimens including what W. T. Naylor Beckett obtained for Thwaites.

In 1872 Odoardo Beccari left Italy on his great travels in Malaysia, and

halted in Ceylon for a short time. His mosses, then collected, were

determined later by Hampe (1872). Activity increased towards the end

of the century. J. F. Duthie collected vigorously when touring in the

north-western Himalaya, and Brotherus reported on the results. He

reported also on mosses collected in Coorg by Dr. T. L. Walker. Mrs.

May Bradford collected in the Sikkim Himalaya; J. H. Darrell and

C. E. C. Fischer in southern India, H. N. Dixon reporting on these,

58 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

A. W. Fraser, an officer in the Royal Engineers, collected in northern

Burma.

- The Hepaticae drew very little attention until 1893, in which year

Victor Felix Schiffner, at the time a lecturer in Prague, was commissioned

to write up this group for Engler’s PFLANZENFAMILIEN, and to get material

travelled in Bombay, Ceylon, and forward to Malaysia, collecting in

large quantities, |

4. THE MICROSCOPE IS GREATLY IMPROVED AND BOTANY PROFITS IN

UNDERSTANDING THE LOWER PLANTS : EFFECTIVE COLLECTING

OF THEM BEGINS IN CEYLON

The great improvements referred to in this section were made in

Europe, where every branch of Botany profited, perhaps most of all the

understanding of sex in the higher plants, which, as it involved under-

standing sex in the plants at large, intensified the interest in the Algae

and Fungi. The first Botanist to make any systematic attempt at col-

lecting these in our area was George Gardner who in 1844 reached Ceylon

as Superintendent of the Peradeniya Botanic Garden. During the short

time before his death in 1848 he sent herbarium specimens to his former

teacher, Sir William Hooker, and by the services of the artist Harmanis

De Alwis preserved records of fleshy Agarics in coloured drawings. -

But Gardner’s time was short ; and it was not much that he could do.

William Henry Harvey (1811-1860) as a school boy made all the use

that he could of holidays at the sea-side to satisfy a tremendous inquisi-

tiveness into the life that was there, and again as a young man in business

used the opportunities of holidays. Among diverse interests he found

his greatest in collecting the sea-weeds of the British Isles. Then came

to him some years of employment at the Cape of Good Hope where he

made acquaintance with a different algal flora. A return to Ireland was

followed by appointment as Keeper of the Herbarium of the Dublin

University. He had made a friendship with Sir William Hooker as far

back as 1829 ; now University vacations allowed Harvey personal con-

tact with him in work at Kew. Publication on British sea-weeds com-

menced. Harvey was next enabled to visit the east coast of North

America. In 1853 he executed the largest collecting trip of his life. He

sailed for Egypt, proceeded via Aden to Ceylon, then went to Singapore,

Australia, the Central Pacific, the west coast of South America, and

returned to Dublin carrying back very extensive material ; and in Dublin

was elected a Professor (1848). His collection had numbered 5000

specimens before Australia was reached.

The reader realises how advantageous it was that so great an authority

should name up the Ceylon sea-weeds.

Next as to Fungi :

Thwaites, as the reader will have realized, was at Peradeniya at the

CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA 59

time of Harvey’s visit. He had been in Ceylon for 24 years, finding his

feet, enquiring what the obscure as well as the obvious plants were. Like

Harvey he had been in business and his knowledge was that which a

naturalist gets by contact with living things.

He was soon sending specimens which he could not name to Sir

William Hooker at Kew and leaving to his discretion the manner of

handling them. Hooker from 1828 had had the friendship and cO-opera-

tion in work of the mycologist, M. J. Berkeley, and all the fungi received

from Thwaites were sent to Berkeley.

Miles Joseph Berkeley (1803-1889) was already a naturalist before

he went as a student to Cambridge. There he came into the company

of J. S. Henslow, not as yet the Professor of Botany but sufficient of a

leader to have been elected Secretary of the Cambridge Philosophical

Society.

Berkeley left Cambridge for a curacy at Margate on the Kent coast,

where he was able to give his leisure to studying the life of the sea-shore,

just as Harvey was doing on an Irish coast of very different aspect.

Berkeley’s first publications were on animals ; the next (1833) were on

Algae. Fungi later usurped the first place, partly because Berkeley by

moving inland lost touch with the sea-weeds and partly because he found

his energy satisfied when Hooker persuaded him to undertake the elabo-

ration of the Fungi for his edition of Smith & Sowerby’s BRITISH FLORA.

Later the interest became world wide and a very fruitful association

commenced between Berkeley and Christopher Edmund Broome (1812-

1886) which carried the study of Ceylon fungi so far that before Broome’s

death they had described more than 1200 species. Broome was by pro-

fession a lawyer, but leisured and had had the friendship of Thwaites

in Bristol.

The coffee-leaf disease, Hemileia vastatrix, got its condemnatory name

from them in 1871 ; but it had not deserved the epithet vastatrix had not

intense cultivation, by offering unbroken stretches of planted coffee,

invited its riotous spread.

Wallich’s son George Charles Wallich, born in the Calcutta Garden

in 1818, after taking the degree of doctor of medicine in Edinburgh had

entered the service of the East India Company. In Calcutta he became

a specialist in the Diatoms of Lower Bengal and of the Bay of Bengal

and listed them. Later when the great undertaking came of connecting

the coasts of Britain and North America by a submarine cable (1860)

he was drawn from India to study the life on the floor of the Atlantic.

The algae of the Indian fresh waters, swamps, rice fields, and rivers

got little attention ; and it was their smallness that led to this.

In 1888 an ingenious botanist, Professor G. von Lagerheim, observing

in the Copenhagen Museum much debris attached to the roots of a speci-

men of a Myriophyllum collected by Hooker in the Bengal plains, soaked

60 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

off the adherent material, and identified 52 species of algae init. Then

he treated specimens of Utricularia similarly.

Professor George Dickie (1813-1882), at one time of Aberdeen and

then of Belfast, in the last paper that he wrote describes algae that he

had received from the Himalaya (1881).

William Joshua (1828-1898) described (1886) Desmidiaceae of a con-

siderable collection that Dr. Robert Romanis had sent to him from

Rangoon. William Barwell Turner’s FRESH WATER ALGAE, principally

Desmids of India, appeared in Stockholm in 1892. Professor Antonin

Hansgirg collected in the Bombay Ghats ; and his collection was worked

through by Wilhelm Schmilde (1900). In 1896-1897 William G. Freeman

took rather extensive samples from various places in western Ceylon

and from under various conditions. Freeman’s sampling, probably the

best sampling made before the century ended, was reported on fully by

the two Wests, William West (1848-1914) of Bristol and his son Professor

George Stephen West of the Mason College, Birmingham. The Wests’

report on the Ceylon Algae was followed by reports on Algae from

various parts of India both by the Wests and by Dr. Nellie Carter. But

right up to the early years of the 20th Century the Indian freshwater

Algae were very inadequately collected.

Some collecting of fungi in Ceylon was done by Odoardo Beccari.

He (1843-1920), as soon as he had finished his University studies (1864),

began to plan jointly with Marquis Giacomo Doria the first of his col-

lecting expeditions to the Malay Archipelago. Together they set out

in the next year and there was a halt in Ceylon when a small collection

of fungi was made.

The reader will find more details regarding fungi than are given here

in a paper by Sir Edwin Butler and Dr. Bisby in the first of the Science

Monographs of the Imperial Council of Agricultural Research, 1931.

5. A GREAT STEP FORWARD IN THE BOTANIC LABORATORY :

THOUGH VERY HESITATINGLY TAKEN

Laboratories are of many kinds; but our interest is in none until

dedicated temporarily or otherwise to botanic work.

The word ‘ laboratory ’ had obtained recognition as meaning a work-

room for chemical investigations and other work requiring apparatus.

What was new in the use of it in India was not the holding of apparatus,

but the idea of needing a building to hold apparatus for the purposes of

Botany. The medical schools, powder factories, museum of the Asiatic

Society, etc. had had need of a room set apart ; Jacquemont describes

a chemical lecture given in Calcutta in 1829 which implied a chemical

laboratory. Without Mycology the appearing of the botanical labora-

tory in India would have been even later than it was,

CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA 61

David Douglas Cunningham (1832-1914) entered the Indian Medical

Service in 1868. He and another entrant, T. G. Lewis, were not forth-

with sent out to India in the usual way, but were marked off for a little

further learning ; they were sent to Berkeley to see him at work and

then sent to Germany to see Professor Anton De Bary at work. We

have seen Berkeley at his life-work—the taxonomy of the Fungi. Why

were these two entrants to the Indian Medical Service sent to Berkeley ?

De Bary had published two years earlier one of his books—his Mor-

PHOLOGY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE FUNGI, LICHENS AND MYXOMYCETES,

a book which he himself said had been well received and had paved the

way for further advances. De Bary was a master of method of labo-

ratory study of the Fungi and other Lower Plants ; Cunningham would

be able to see life-histories under investigation in the most fertile

conditions.

The two entrants into the Medical Service were sent to other centres

of research also. They went to India in 1869 ; doubtless the better for

what they had seen ; though their delegation might be taken for an inten-

tion to promote a study of the fungi, their careers were not directed

towards that. Cunningham’s first laboratory in India was pathological

and only mycological in an incidental way. In 1885 there was a redis-

tribution of work which affected both. Lewis was called to the India

Office in London and Cunningham nominated Professor of Physiology

in the Medical College, Calcutta. He controlled a laboratory of course ;

and in that laboratory carried out some very interesting mycological

investigations. Sir David Prain, who saw Cunningham’s work in pro-

press, classes his mycological writings as recreations of an active mind,

‘either questions which attracted his attention as a teacher of Physiology

or subjects in which his interest was the outcome of his early friendship

' with Berkeley and De Bary.’ The reader doubtless appreciates that

whatever were the thoughts of the Government that sent him to see

these two, there was no official dedication of him to Mycology ; but he

kept his laboratory in part mycological. King had asked that a Mycologist

be added to his staff; but had not received one. Cunningham was a

good friend who could and would do work for him at times, but his

health broke down in 1897 and he was invalided out of India. In 1880

he had acted as Superintendent of the Calcutta Garden.

Four years after Cunningham had been attached to the Calcutta

Medical College Arthur Barclay (1852-1891) entered the same service

and was appointed Professor of Pathology in the College. He, too,

commanded a laboratory which though dedicated to a different purpose.

provided him with room for mycological work.

Barclay specialized on the Rusts of Wheat. He died in India in

1891, having been the Professor of Physiology in the Calcutta Medical

College from 1874.

62 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

Two years after Cunningham’s arrival in India, and the same before

Barclay’s, a parasitic fungus had appeared on the coffee bushes in Ceylon;

and this, Hemileia vastatrix, was destined to bring another mycologist

eastwards. The mycologist was Harry Marshall Ward whose career

as a teacher of Botany brought mention of him into section 2 (see p. 52).

The rapid spreading of Hemileia had been alarming ; it girdled the World

in 25 years—whence its sudden vigour is not clear. At length (1880)

the Ceylon Government determined to find funds for an investigation

in Ceylon. Now (1880) for the first time a laboratory was set aside

in the East completely but temporarily dedicated to Botany. In it

Marshall Ward did superb work on three or four different fungi and

a lichen ; but the coffee-disease had gone beyond control, as every

villager’s garden was full of it.

He returned to Britain and held among various professorial posts

that of Professor of Botany at Cooper’s Hill. Marshall Ward’s work

drove into the minds of the least philosophical of administrators and

planters this—that there may be circumstances when a botanical labo-

ratory has an overruling value. In 1897 the planters of Cacao in

Ceylon, troubled as to their crops, engaged the mycologist John Bennett

Carruthers, which meant providing the service of a laboratory, and in

the same year the tea-planters in Assam engaged Dr. Harold H. Mann

for their crops for work, at first conjointly with Sir George Watt, on

pests and then with a laboratory for whatever he saw needed attention.

In 1900 Dr. John Christopher Willis (1868-1957), who had succeeded

Trimen in 1896 as Director of Peradeniya, sought to make mycolo-

gical work at Peradeniya permanent by the appointment of J. B. Carru-

thers as Assistant Director and Mycologist.

The Botanical Laboratory with this began to be a mark of advance

at large characterizing colleges as well as research institutions.

The indigo-planters later, but too late, engaged experts of their own.

6. By WHOSE BOTANIZING CAME THE RECOGNITION OF AN

UNLIKE FLORA TOWARDS THE PERSIAN GULF

An observant traveller from Gujarat to Sind is readily aware of pass-

ing into an altered vegetation. This altered vegetation is Persian.

Botanizing in Sind was impossible before 1838 ; but in that year Vicary

was sent thither with his regiment ; and Griffith, deputed from Calcutta,

entered the northern edge, later to be the Upper Sind Frontier. Griffith

was not again in Sind ; but Vicary was, and he wrote three papers on

the vegetation. Next Ritchie visited Sind ; then Stocks.

John Ellerton Stocks (1822-1854) had been a pupil of Lindley in

London and went to Bombay in 1847, where he was employed as a vac-

cinator in Sind. In 1848 starting from Hyderabad (Sind), where he

CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA 63

verified the Assyrian method of pollinating dates, he ventured into the

Las-Bela District of Baluchistan. Two years later, ascending the Indus

to the Upper Sind-Frontier District, he passed through Nushki and

Kalat to Quetta (Shawalkot). He wrote to Sir William Hooker that he

had collected 300 plants new to him. He explains further that in travers-

ing the Zawa pass and returning through Zehri he saw change in the

vegetation. Both places are to the south of Kalat. What this implies

is that Stocks had detected the passing over of the flora of Persian type

which occupies southern Baluchistan and Sind into that of Afghanistan.

Stocks took his collections to Kew in 1855 where Bentham was pre-

pared to work them out with him ; but he died in the next year. Sir

Joseph Hooker has said of Stocks that he was a collector so observant

that he scarcely missed anything.

During the seventies two other men collected to good effect in Sind ;

and the collections that they made were given to Kew in the year 1877.

One was Captain William Stackhouse Church Pinwill (1835-1920) whose

regiment was stationed there. At the time he was an indefatigable

collector, not only of plants but of animals of various groups. He collect-

ed also in Malacca. He left the army, inheriting property in the extreme

south-west of Britain and the enthusiastic collecting was redirected into

an equally enthusiastic accumulation of growing plants; he indeed

became a great horticulturist.

The second was his brother-in-law, Archdeacon Stead of Bombay.

Two very highly placed administrators, both Commissioners in their

time, were among the next collectors of plants of the Sind flora—Sir

Bartle Frere and Sir Henry Evan Murchison James.

Many of the plants that occur retain their positions by means of

water which rivers bring to them and their drought-resistance is very in-

teresting. So too is the fight of the field weeds to keep a place. I

would call my reader’s attention to the collecting along the rivers by

Father E. Blatter and T. S. Sabnis in order that more may be done in

this ecological line.

After the year 1900 this intrusive flora of Persian type was studied

as it occurs in southern Baluchistan.

7. BEHIND THE PERSIAN FLORA IS THE AFGHAN FLORA

The Afghan flora has attracted considerable attention. The first

to collect in Afghanistan was John Martin Honigberger, a man to whom

adventure seemed irresistible. He was born in Kronstadt, Transylvania ;

and in 1815 left his home to practise medicine and surgery for various

periods in Constantinople, Cairo, and elsewhere and continued, until

in 1833, he found himself on the Indus at Dera Ghazi Khan where he

joined a caravan starting for Kabul. The caravan took him north to

64. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

the Kurram and thence to Ghazni and Kabul. He collected a little,

but the weather was at its hottest and conditions unfavourable. His

few specimens he took at a later date to Vienna and Endlicher described

them in his SERTUM CABULICUM.

A second period in India followed, during which he studied the

Indian Materia Medica extensively, and, employing an artist, figured

the plants in his THIRTY-FIVE YEARS IN THE EAST ; but it was no longer

Afghanistan in which he worked, but chiefly Kashmir.

The next botanist was Griffith, who reached Quetta by the Bolan

pass in the spring of 1840. He was at Kandahar on the first of May

and then passed by Ghazni to northern Afghanistan to spend the rest

of that year and the next year collecting diligently, getting aid from

friends and employing local men. There was a trip to Bamean and a

trip to Saighan and a trip up the Kuner Valley. In fact Griffith would

have allowed little to escape him in the latitude of Kabul. As to the

south he had friends there too, who collected for him and added to what

he himself had obtained of the spring flowers. But the botanist of that

part of the Afghan flora was J. E. T. Aitchison.

James Edward Tierney Aitchison (1838-1898), with a degree in

medicine, had entered the service of the East India Company in 1858

and was sent to the Punjab where he started studying the plants at once.

In 1865 he published a list of what he had observed in the Jhelum Dis-

trict, Thomas Thomson helping him to name them. Six years later he

published a list of what he had found in the Hoshiarpur District, followed

by a list of the plants of the Punjab and Sind. He returned to the Jhelum

District and to Rawalpindi, but was soon sent to Leh in the Upper Indus

Valley on an economic mission which resulted in his HANDBOOK OF THE

TRADE PRODUCTS OF LEH (1874); then he had a short time in Hazara.

These many charges with their considerable experience ended now in a

permanent dedication to the eastern and south-eastern margins of

Afghanistan. The collections that he made then were worked up at

Kew, conjointly with Dr. W. B. Hemsley, into a valuable report.

In the year 1876 Quetta became the centre of civil administration,

There was a collecting of plants also by two medical officers, Oliver T.

Duke and H. Hamilton, who sent what they collected to the Calcutta

Garden. Duke collected as far south as Kalat. In 1877 Colonel J. W.

Johnstone collected a little at Kandahar and Kalat-i-Gilzai. By 1884

it had become possible to put the fuel and timber supplies under control ;

and John Henry Lace was appointed Deputy Conservator. He made

considerable collections in the area under him until 1888, and an account

of them was published for him by the Linnean Society. In 1888 Sir

Robert Sandeman had straightened out the affairs of the area of the

Zhob river, east and north-east of Quetta, and Duthie, who had paid a

visit to Quetta, was able to send his collector Harsukh into that part of

CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA 65

Baluchistan. In 1896 there was another Boundary Delimitation Com-

mission on which Surgeon-Captain Frederick P. Maynard collected

along the border west of Quetta. He in conjunction with David Prain

reported on the collection. Maynard’s work had extended towards

Persia. After 1900 Baluchistan in general was collected over by Mr. R.

Hughes-Buller and Rai Bahadur Diwan Jamiat Rai, and their results

were incorporated by the writer into an enumeration of the Baluchistan

flora published as a supplement to the Baluchistan Gazetteer. The

southern Afghan flora appeared now to be fairly well-known; to the

names of collectors of it are to be added those of two more army officers,

Henry Appleton and Edwin Pierce.

8. ASCERTAINING WHAT THE HIMALAYA SHUTS OUT FROM INDIA

The abruptness of the Himalaya brings the flora of the upper or gritty

Tibetan plateau to a position against the real Himalayan flora ; but in

Kashmir the long range of snowy peaks on the north of the Vale has been

interjected and is like a parting fence. It is interesting historically that

botanical investigation should have found so much favour behind the

fence.

The reader will recall that in 1812 the Government’s veterinary officer,

William Moorcroft made a dash through the Himalaya of Kumaon to

procure shawl-wool goats (see p. 869 of chapter I). In 1819 he en-

deavoured to reach Turkestan that he might procure horses. On this

occasion he was not on an expedition with a directing official but, on

his own responsibility and for rather obscure reasons, he began by

proceeding through Kulu to the Upper Indus, where he lingered. A little

bundle of dried plants sent to the Calcutta Garden was the result of the

lingering—plants which would seem to have been to Moorcroft curios.

Among them was Gentiana moorcroftiana from Dras, which village he

would pass through when in 1822 he left the Upper Indus to reappear

in the Vale of Kashmir. The date was 10 years before Jacquemont

botanized in the Vale ; it was the year of the building of the first per-

manent house at Simla and two years before the Garden at Saharanpur

was reconstructed. Only when those 10 years were over was further

botanising to be done. Jacquemont did not penetrate as deeply ; he

entered the Vale via Punch and Baramula, collected through the summer,

and left by Jammu when the winter came. Godfrey Vigne obtained

entry into Kashmir in 1834. He was a leisured traveller who claimed

to carry a plant press on his journeys, but probably used it only on a few

occasions. He had entered the Vale by Jammu and thence crossed the

Snowy range to the Upper Indus ; he was in Srinagar again in 1835 where

he met von Hugel who likewise had reached the Vale by Jammu. The

two left together by Baramula and Hazara, after a little exploration

66 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

near Srinagar undertaken while von Hiigel was packing and sending to

Bombay collections which would seem to have held little botanical.

Vigne went back to Kashmir and again into the rift of the Upper Indus,

and there he met Falconer who had entered the Vale from Hazara (1836),

had. wintered there, and had taken the road northwards through Tragbol.

Falconer, as one knows, collected in that year diligently ; and Vigne,

then or afterwards collected in Astor. Falconer’s plants would repre-

sent the first serious botanizing in the Rift of the Upper Indus ; they were

fated to be kept for working out until Falconer could take them to London

and after that to lie in the store of the India House until 1865 when Sir

Joseph Hooker succeeded in getting them out, somewhat the worse for

the passing of time. Vigne’s plants were taken to Royle in England,

the worse for not having been well collected or from rough handling.

Simla was becoming an attractive base from which to go into the

Himalaya to its north. Edgeworth did so, collecting in Kulu and

Chamba ; his friends Lance went to Ladak and Lord William Hay went

to Lahoul.

James Edward Winterbottom visited Kashmir at the time when

Thomas Thomson was there. It was a short visit and not quite along

the Rift ; but to Astor where the upper Indus wriggles out of its con-

finement.

A few words may be said here regarding the juxtaposition of the

exit of the Indus to the peaks of Nanga Purbat. It has been pointed

out that such juxtaposition is to be expected for the supply of snow which

the peaks secure, and therefore the supply of water to be run off, in-

tensifies the grinding power of the streams it feeds. It is therefore not

to be thought that the appearance which the Indus has of cutting the

corner comes from some remote period of greater volume in the river

above the corner, but can be explained without supposing that. There

are three kinds of plants among these peaks: the melt-water species

whose vegetative season climbs the hill-side behind the thaw of the winter

snow, the short-lived annuals which are followers of man, and the xero-

phytes. The earlier collectors scarcely appreciated this ; but Thomson

did point out what melt-water meant in the maintenance of flowering

plants on stream sides.

Thomson went north from Leh to the Shyok Valley and the Nubra

Valley, reaching the passes of the Karakoram. He was followed (1854)

into these desolate regions by the brothers Schlagintweit. These three

brothers, Hermann, Adolph, and Robert, were financed by the King of

Prussia and their occupation was chiefly physical geography ; but they

collected plants also, though their collections not being in the first line

only very tardily received attention in Europe. Adolph was seized

and killed by a rascal in rebellion at Kashgar. The other two worked

on until 1858, their area of work the upper parts of the rivers of the

CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA 67

Punjab, the Tibetan plateau to Gartok, and the Karakoram. The next

interest in the area came after an interval of 10 years. The Chinese had

lost their overlordship of Kashgaria and their traders had been driven

away. This produced a great shortage of such things as tea which had

been coming to these parts from China.‘ But it could also come from

the new industry of the lower Himalaya by caravans trading from

Kashgar to the Punjab in increasing numbers. For their convenience

a market had been established at Palanpur, north of Amritsar. Contact

with these traders caused a Kangra tea planter, R. B. Shaw, to adven-

ture back with some of them to Yarkand. A request for official con-

tact followed. Two embassies were sent, the first in 1870, the second

in 1874, both under Sir Douglas Forsyth. Each embassy had a Surgeon-

naturalist and the second had other scientific officers. The embassies

went through the Vale of Kashmir, over the Zozi pass, up the Indus to

Leh, and then over the Karakoram, varying the way a little after reach-

ing the Tibetan plateau. As surgeon-naturalist on the first was George

Henderson (1836-1929) ; we hear of him later as acting Superintendent

of the Calcutta. Garden. As surgeon-naturalist on the second was

Henry Walter Bellew ( ? -1892) who had seen service on several political

missions around the eastern frontiers of India. Ferdinand Stoliczka,

the geologist, who reached India in 1862 and died in 1874, was on the

second ; he was taken ill in Tibet, and he died two marches short of

Leh, to the great loss of Geology, for he had made himself an authority

on the structure of the Himalaya. While attached to the mission he had

made several side trips as for instance to Wakhan. The missions were

so timed that, by crossing Kashmir when the passes were free, they left

Tibet soon after the entry of spring-—too early for a part of the flowers.

The reader understands that the stationing of Aitchison at Leh, summer

and winter, in 1874 was connected with the consent to send these mis-

sions. After all, the tea which Kangra produced was not liked in Kashgar

and the trade in Chinese tea slowly came back. Bellew was observant

enough to comment on the change in the vegetation at the Zozi pass ;

already he knew the flora of the Vale from previous residence in it.

The Vale had become a popular hot weather resort and now and then

among the visitors would be someone who found an interest in the plants.

Such was W. S. Atkinson, the entomologist, who collected at various

places round the Vale shortly before his death in 1878 or 1879.

C. B. Clarke’s longest collecting trip was through Kashmir in 1876.

He had entered the mountains in 1874 from Kangra, 2 years earlier,

going forward to Dalhousie ; but the journey of 1876 was much longer.

Entering Kashmir at its eastern end he travelled through the Vale, then

took the Tragbol route by Astor to the Upper Indus, across the Indus

he visited Askole and then the Karakoram. From these journeys he

took to Britain in the next year vast collections.

68 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (A)

Forsyth’s two Yarkand Missions were preludes to collecting in Tibet |

with Leh a centre from which the explorers set out or to which they |

came on returning. In June 1890 Captain N. H. P. Deasy and Arnold |

Pike crossing the Lanak pass went over the gravel plateau as far east-

wards as the Choral Cho, which lake is roughly north of the Manasarovar

lakes, and returned. In 1891 Captain (later Major-General Sir) Hamilton |

Bower and Surgeon Captain W. G. Thorold crossed Tibet from the Lanak

pass eastwards well to the north of Lhasa and so into China, descending

into the lower plateau at the position where the Brahmaputra leaves

Tibet. In 1895 Sir Martin Conway explored the Karakoram defiles

north of the Lanak pass. In October of the same year Mr. and Mrs.

St. George Littledale, who had crossed the Thian Shan in February of

that year, completed the arduous part of their journey at Leh. In 1896

Captain M. S. Welby and Lieutenant Neill Malcolm left Leh on a route

parallel to that of Deasy and Pike, crossed the whole upper plateau, and

descended on to the lower plateau, where there was a carpet ‘ everywhere

of good grass, flowers and wild onions, rhubarb and game’, in the month

of August. These expeditions and the plants that were collected on

them are very fully discussed by Hemsley in a paper published by the

Linnean Society in 1902 (Journal 35, pp. 120) to which the reader is

referred. What I wish to do here is to take these statements from

Dr. Hemsley’s paper: Above 16,000 feet 282 flowering plants and one

fern are reported to grow, of which 53 belong to the Compositae, 30 to

the Gramineae, 23 to the Cruciferae, 19 to the Ranunculaceae, 18 to the

Leguminosae, 11 to the Caryophyllaceae, and 10 to each of these—the

Crassulaceae, Gentianaceae, and Labiatae, also 9 to Polygonaceae, and

8 to the Cyperaceae. Bulbous species are few in number but as there

is a part of eastern Tibet where Allium is so common that the country

is called ‘ the onion country ’, there seems nothing against the bulb as a

way of survival.

Hemsley, having called attention to the Compositae being present

in more species than any other family, showed that this is so for the

floras of the Karakoram, of Gilgit, and of the Yatung in the back of the

eastern Himalaya.

While the adventurous explorers, who have been named, were explor-

ing Tibet, certain botanists were paying attention to the flora where the

Indus bends southwards. Collections made in Baltistan by Captain

Hunter Weston and by Dr. A. Neve (1895) reached Kew in 1890 and

1898 respectively ; and the first named was in touch with Duthie in

Saharanpur. Gilgit to this time had attracted other collectors ; C. B.

Clarke visited the Gilgit Valley in the very long tour that he made in

1876. Colonel H. C. B. Tanner did so in 1880 ; Dr. G. M. J. Giles went

there for a long stay in 1886 ; J. F. Duthie paid a visit in 1892, and so did

Professor Paulus Johannes Briihl of the Shibpur Civil Engineering

_CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA 69

College. Colonel Tanner’s and Dr. Giles’s collections were large, and

the latter who was able to make excursions beyond the Gilgit Valley

had reached Wakhan. In 1895 there was an expedition to meet the

Russians in the Pamirs, on which Captain Alfred William Alcock went

as surgeon-naturalist.

Though the phyto- -geography of the western end of the Himalaya

needs much study yet, it is convenient to recognize as the Trans-Indus

Himalaya an approximately rectangular block with the Indus on the

east, the Kabul river on the south, and Russian Turkestan completing

the other two sides. Chitral is towards the back of this rectangle. In

the last years of my period the rectangle had needed military occupation

along with parts of the mountains of Afghanistan, and it is interesting

to record to what a large measure officers whose duty kept them in these

wild mountains found the collecting of plants a relief from the tedium of

their watch and ward. The names of the following can be found on

herbarium sheets of these years : 7

Field Marshals Lord Roberts and Sir Arthur A. Barrett, Sir Francis

Younghusband, Sir Henry Collett, and Sir William Gatacre, Colonels

Henry Halcro Johnston, Davidson, Mainwaring, H. H. Rich, and Wingate,

Captains Hare, Harriss, Marsh, Milne, Pirie, Skey, and Wright, and

Lieutenant Sidney Miles Toppin.

Six of these, Sir William Gatacre, Colonels Rich and H. Johnston,

Captains Harriss and Wright, and Lieutenant Toppin, collected also on

other occasions, and Colonel Johnston (1856-1930) possessed a her-

barium of his own which, after his death, was given to the Garden in

Edinburgh.

The Afghan flora laps round the end of the inner north-west

Himalayan flora and then appears to have its own end tucked into it.

But there is a great deal of disentangling to do towards sorting out the

components of the vegetation. Duthie’s collector Inayat by visits to

the district of Hazara made extensive collections there. James Ramsay

Drummond (1851-1921) collected largely in the submontane districts and

gave his collections to Kew.

The following comment may be made here. The geologists have

shown that there have been descents in the mountains of glaciers to

4000 feet below present altitudes and therefore periods of increased

cold ; and G. S. Puri has discovered plant impressions in Kashmir of

living species which at one time grew at greater elevations than they

now do. Thus we have in considering distribution evidence of changes

of the climate in both directions. Perhaps a few northern species were

enabled to reach the Deccan by the lowering across the plains.

70 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL GIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

9. THE FLORAS OF FURTHER INDIA AND THE WAY IN

WHICH A KNOWLEDGE OF THEM GREW

In the last three sections we have seen the way in which knowledge —

grew of a Persian flora that extended into India, a flora characterizing

Afghanistan, and of the flora of the upper or gritty plateau of Tibet. It

is time to do the same for the opposite or Assam corner.

India proper is rather symmetrical in the way it spreads as an isosceles

triangle with the long angle pointing south, almost reaching the equator,

and with the Himalaya from west to east in the north. Warm seas make

the southern complete boundary ; frosty and very high mountains make

the less incisive but yet incisive northern boundary ; and there can bea

great range in climate on the score of temperature, which is mixed with

room for a like range in humidity. Under the Himalaya at either

corner the isolation of India is modified by continuous land, a consocia-

tion of lowland and mountain which has allowed plant migration through

it to a degree which must interest a phyto-geographer. The passage way

towards the west is half as wide again as the passage way towards the east,

the addition of width being towards the north. Favoured by the width,

passage towards the west would seem to have been more penetrable

during climatic change than the passage towards the east, but climate

rules.

Of the two floras which today plug the passage towards the west,

the Afghan flora is montane and the Persian lowland ; but in the passage

towards the east there is less difference due to elevation. Exactly what

this amounts to is a matter for future work ; and therefore let us assess

the incompleteness of our knowledge of the botany from the eastern

Himalayas to the isthmus of Kra.

The first botanical specimens which reached any scientific destination

were sent from Siriam in the delta of the Irrawaddy by Edward Bulkley

to the East India Company in London. Siriam faces the site

on which Rangoon was to be built some 50 years later. And after that a

century passed before there was a fresh and better opening. Then (1793)

Francis Buchanan, newly arrived in India, was attached to Captain

Michael Symes’s mission to the Burmese court at Ava. He collected in

the Irrawaddy delta in the hot weather and ascended the river in the

rains, returning in the cold weather.

After that he was stationed on medical service at Noakhali and

gradually worked out his collections in correspondence with Roxburgh.

From Noakhali he had a brief deputation to Chittagong and then a move

to Baruipur, which to his satisfaction brought him within a day’s journey

of the books of the Calcutta Garden. In 1809 the missionary Felix

Carey sent to the Garden dried plants"from the neighbourhood of

CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA 71

Rangoon. In 1826 Wallich made the journey that Buchanan had made

22 years earlier ; he did yet more, for after descending the Irrawaddy he

went to Moulmein and up the Salween as far as the East India Company’s

authority ran, and up the Ataran river to its teak forests. A very few

years later the missionary Francis Mason arrived and was at first at Tavoy, ©

then at Moulmein. There was in him that thirst for knowledge that

characterized and drove forward the Serampore missionary Carey. Next

Griffith arrived ; stationed at Mergui, Moulmein was within reach and

he actually was there, for according to Griffith his collections ran to 400

species. A year after Griffith had been called away to join the Assam

Delegation, Helfer and his wife arrived—energetic and diligent collectors.

Helfer went to the Andaman Islands and lost his life in an attack on his

party by a band of Andamanese (1840). His wife apparently returned

to Bohemia. (See Kerr in Journ. Thail. Res. Soc., Nat. Hist. Suppl., 12

p. 9.) In 1849 Falconer was sent to Moulmein to report on the teak

forests. In 1857 McClelland was sent to Pegu to take charge of

the forests ; and these in 1856 passed into the charge of Sir Dietrich

Brandis, who in 1857 was also given charge of the Moulmein forests.

About four years earlier Charles Samuel Pollock Parish had been ap-

pointed chaplain at Moulmein and he remained there until 1878, collect-

ing and sending dried plants to Kew.

Before this activity, Griffith had made (1838) his journey down the

Irrawaddy. The colony at Rangoon had been growing, looking after its

own affairs and reached the state of maintaining a horticultural establish-

ment.

Chittagong as to its flora is Burmese. Mention has been made of

Buchanan’s visit of a month’s duration in 1798. Roxburgh had arranged

also the visits of his sons William and John as he well knew the interest

of the plants there. Later Wallich sent his collector, Henry Bruce, to

Chittagong. But none of these contrived to explore in the interior.

However a door was found further north and in this again water-carriage

had a great influence — the way by water from the mart of Bengal into

Sylhet was so convenient and useful. Along it the first botanical exploi-

tation was made ; and we find in Roxburgh’s day the magistrate M. R,

Smith residing at Pundua (16 miles from Sylhet village) to which the hill-

~ men would come to barter. It is evident that his dealings with the

hillmen extended to getting plants for his own garden, some of which he

would send as gifts to Roxburgh He died in 1819. To Pundua Wallich

sent a collector, Francis de Sylva, who living on a boat could carry on

collecting in a most convenient way. In 1826, the missionary teacher of

Serampore, Professor John Mack (see Chapter II, Vol. 54, p. 45) visited

the stations of the mission to the Khasis, presumably via Pundua, and he

and his wife prepared a collection of dried plants which was a beginning.

Sir Alexander Mackenzie records that 1826 was the year of the first poli-

72 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

tical approach to the Khasis. David Scott, who has been mentioned as

sending a scrap of a Camellia to Wallich in 1826 enquiring if he had in

it the tea plant, was at the time the Governor-General’s Agent on the

north-eastern frontier, and in 1829 he suggested to the hillmen the con-

venience of a bridle-path down from the neighbourhood of Cherrapunji

and at the further end down to Gauhati. Scott constructed for himself a

house at Cherrapunji and the path was made. With the trouble that

followed its completion we are not concerned, save to mention that the

police officer Captain Lister, who had the business of restoring order,

later did a little plant collecting. Scott died in 1832 and after a short

break Francis Jenkins succeeded him (1834) operating from Gauhati.

He was there when at the end of that year Wallich received through him

a twig and admitted it to be the tea plant, an admission that caused the

Assam Delegation to be planned, Jenkins taking a leading part. Of the

alternative ways of reaching Gauhati, the river for the whole way or the

river to Sylhet and David Scott’s path through the Khasia Hills, the for-

mer wasted an opportunity of seeking the tea bush in accessible parts,

and so Jenkins would have the Delegation cross the Hills ; from Gauhati

there was no alternative but the river. Perhaps Wallich would have

preferred to use the river all the way; Griffith certainly did not. And so

the plateau received its first visit from a professional botanist. Griffith

was destined to cross the plateau again and ableslightly to vary his route.

Masters must have used the road, for he travelled not a little when in

charge of half the Company’s patches of tea and he certainly collected

as far away as Sadiya and in a journey into the country of the Angami

Nagas. Griffith kept a paid collector in the Khasia Hills.

In 1851 Hooker and Thomas Thomson spent the months from May to

November collecting in the Khasia Hills with great vigour and, when they

left, Falconer had collectors there ; the Kew Collector Richard Oldham

made a short visit in 1861, the geologist Thomas Oldham, the zoologist

H. H. Godwin-Austen, and the physician Sir Joseph Fayrer as occasion

offered would collect. C. B. Clarke was appointed Inspector of Schools,

Assam, in 1883 and that connected him with Shillong until his retire-

ment in 1887. Sir George Watt visited the Hills at the beginning of

Clarke’s years in Assam. The hills then and continuously afterwards

served as a base for botany deeper in the Province. The tea industry

brought fresh workers into it. Wild tea had been found in Cachar in 1855

and planting followed. Among the early planters was Richard L. Keenan

who left Kew, where he had been training, in 1867, to become a tea-

planter, and carrying with him his interest in Botany sent a consignment

of dried plants to Kew in 1874. There is a reported abundance of wild

tea on the Manipur-Burma boundary, where Watt later collected, but the

difficulty of communications beyond Cachar arrested planting towards it.

Few tea planters collected in the Brahmaputra Valley. One who did

CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA 73

was S. E. Peal of Sibsagar. Further collecting was a little here and a little

there, but nothing consecutive. Early in the time when any collecting

was possible Griffith had gone some 80 miles into Bhutan on Pemberton’s

mission—the season : late rains to the return of the rains—when he col-

lected nearly 1600 numbers. On his short journey among the Mishmis

in mid-October he collected nearly 1200 numbers. Smaller collections

resulted from Booth’s journey for rhododendron plants into the moun-

tains just beyond Bhutan, ascending to 7000 ft. ; Colonel Lister’s gather-

ing from the edge of the mountains when occupied in a bloodless blockade

of the Daphlas of the Dukrung Valley ; a little material from the zoologist

Godwin-Austen, Griffith’s collection from the more eastern Naga

country; Collett’s visit to Kohima in 1891 ; Prain’s collections a year in

the hills of the Angami Nagas ; J. Rollo’s collecting of Bamboos, and

the Calcutta Garden’s collecting from the trace of the railway through

the hills ; Griffith’s rains and cold weather collecting about Sadiya and

George Gnnne s collecting there in 1894.

The collectors of plants for growing : Thomas Lobb was funtine for

them on the Khasia Hills when Hooker was collecting. Booth soon after-

wards came to hunt for handsome rhododendrons on the other side of

the Brahmaputra Valley. Others followed.

10. Sim JoseEpH HOOKER EXPOSES IN A NEW WAY SOME

- OF THE PHYTO-GEOGRAPHIC PAST OF INDIA

When the FLORA OF BRITISH INDIA was done Sir Joseph Hooker was

asked if he would prepare a review for the IMPERIAL GAZETTEER then in

preparation, and he consented. No one living could have done it better

than he. He recognized and admitted that what he had written in 1855,

conjointly with Thomson, was now quite out-of-date. The two of them

had then suggested 64 areas each characterized floristically, and these

they had called ‘ provinces’ ; Hooker makes it quite clear in the new

Sketch that he put them aside though suggestive. He now made a

different approach ; he reduced the number of ‘ provinces ’ to 9, as parts

of three divisions of political India which he calls regions.

At the time when Hooker was commencing to write his Sketch,

C. B. Clarke had prepared a paper on the geographic dispersal of the

Cyperaceae in British India, and had read it to the Linnean Society as

nis presidential address (1898). His approach was through an Indo-

Chinese area cut out of Asia, of which British India became a sub-area :

and the sub-area he divided into 11 sub-sub-areas. They had a close

74 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL GIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

resemblance to Hooker’s 9 provinces as the adjoining table shows :

HOOKER’S PROVINCES CLARKE’S SUB-SUB-AREAS

Himalayan ( Eastern Himalaya Eastern Himalaya

Region | Western Himalaya § Western Himalaya

British

Indus plains India deserta Indian

Western | Gangetic plains Gangetic plains Sub-area

Region of ( Malabar Malabar of Indo-

India [Deccan Coromandel Chinese

Ceylon Ceylon . Area

of Asia

Eastern Burnia ss. Assam

Region of Ava

India Pegu

Malaya Malay Peninsula |

Differences not obvious on the Table need not be detailed here :

Hooker and Clarke had discussed them. Clarke excluded from his paper

any botanic defining of areas and sub-areas, as being to his purpose no

more than links with Geography.

The agreement between Hooker and Clarke is important as far as it

means that both of them regarded sub-sub-areas as having dimensions

appropriate for discussion, Hooker judging by the whole vegetation,

Clarke by the family Cyperaceae which he had recently worked up for

Hooker’s FLORA. They may assuredly be accepted. Clarke’s nomen-

clature is better than Hooker’s in avoiding the word ‘ province ’, which

word from its very origin has belonged to political geography. But the

term ‘ region’ is as elastic as ‘ area’ and is without political implications ;

there is no objection to recognizing ‘ regions ’, ‘ sub-regions’, and ‘ sub-

sub-regions ’” as in the following pages, should ‘ region’ suit the context

better than ‘ area’. The two authors diverge widely in dividing or not

dividing Hooker’s Eastern Region and in the ways of dividing the

Peninsula of India.

Hooker put an enormous amount of work into the collection of the

data that he used. He would have liked a large number of plant-lists

and had to compile many for his purpose. Having provided himself

with lists, he scored them by the ten families with most species proved

present.

A few pages back I have had cause to quote Hemsley on the flora

of the upper Tibetan plateau in which Compositae come first and the

families follow it in this order: Gramineae, Cruciferae, Ranunculaceae,

Leguminosae, Caryophyllaceae, Crassulaceae, Gentianaceae, Labiatae ,

and Polygonaceae. Hooker’s first 10 in all cases differ from the sequence of

CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA 75

high altitudes in Tibet. Ido not wish to quote all ; but I wish to indicate

what a striking result can be reached, and in the following table quote

eight lists :

2 3s he

Bout loi, 2

See 5 = 8

Be eGee me gt lowe |. -

a | & a |i x)

=| 5 3 cy =e s x s

yo OLS dea lealsclses ea uae ali

~ 2 q ie | : = 5 a

(0) isc} =|

Acanthaceae 7 3 7 | 6

Annonaceae 5

Asclepiadaceae bi 10

Boraginaceae Ne oe iis 7

Compositae 8 8 4 5 2 4 9 |

Convolvulaceae ce iM 9 10

Cruciferae oe: sd pa ie 8

Cyperaceae 4 5 3 4 4 5 7 9

_ Euphorbiaceae 6 6 8 9 10 5 3

‘Gramineae 1 1 1 1 1 2 3 6

Labiatae a 9 6 5

Leguminosae 2 2 2 2 3 3 2 2

Malvaceae Wi Ae 6 6

Melastomaceae 10 .. oy: Ph sce er a 8

Orchidaceae 3 4 He ae 4 l | ees ie P|

Ranunculaceae as a4 iy a 6

Rosaceae Ne ae be = 9 8

Rubiaceae 5 mS ee hae: 9 4 4

Scitamineae ry oe Ae Fae a as: 10 7

Scrophulariaceae et Aes a) 5 10 q)

Urticaceae 0) alan 10 re a8 6 8 | 10

The 8 columns carry the names of 21 families of flowering plants :

of them 3, being Gramineae, Cyperaceae, and Leguminosae, occur in all

the columns ; Compositae and Euphorbiaceae in 9 ; Orchidaceae and

Rubiaceae in 8. I have arranged the columns to show that the families

76 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol..60 (1)

in which turf-making herbs abound are on the left and those in which

epiphytes abound are on the right. In brief the table exposes the fact that

the turf-herbs belong to the west side of India and the epiphytes to the

east side. Why ?—climatic. Hooker was endeavouring to read back

from present dispersal into geological time. Furthermore he had called

attention to the existence of a Cupuliferous boundary line which runs

along the base of the western Himalaya and at Bhutan turns south to the

Bay of Bengal ; and now his new figures suggest another line, say from

southern Gujarat to the Nepal Himalaya sagging southward in the

centre—a line that under increasing dryness might sag right to the south

of India, restricting without driving out the flora which Hooker calls

‘Malayan’, or putting an end to the evolution of the seasonal

Podostemaceae of the Western Ghats.

If that line at one time sagged enough on the map for this—and the

patanas of Ceylon suggest that it did—it has retreated as well as advanced.

The line anyhow is something that must be considered in discussions

on that drying of India which certain other features demonstrate.

Hooker published further decads which do not illustrate climatic

change at all, usually because the collections had not been spread over

the whole year. If two lists be prepared and compared, one from

Griffith’s intense collecting when he spent 24 months in the Afghan area

and the other from list of Aitchison’s Kurram Valley collection, the first

has the Acanthaceae in the sixth place and the second has Scro-

_ phulariaceae in the fifth place, neither getting into the decad of the other.

And in regard to this the reader needs to be told that military exigences

kept Aitchison out of his area in the spring, causing the periods to dis-

agree. If Hooker’s method is to be used, the periods and area must agree.

The use of Hooker’s device is most certainly recommendable but with

considerable caution.

There is another confusion possible. It is obvious that genera such

as Impatiens, Pedicularis, and showplant Rhododendron must greatly

disturb the sequences in some areas. In their case evolution seems

recently explosive so that their species have not the specific value safe to

associate with evolution.

Clarke postulated a land-bridge from the Malay islands to Ceylon to

account for the presence in both areas of certain sedges ; he did not

bring to notice the alternative of a route round the Bay of Bengal.

I would that the reader should realize the tremendous but complicated

interest of Hooker’s line of investigation.

The Sketch was put into print in 1903 for the convenience of obtaining

criticism ; then in 1907 it was published in the appropriate volume of the

IMPERIAL GAZETTEER.

In 1903 Sir David Prain’s BENGAL PLANTS appeared. He applied a

terminology of his own to geographic areas in relation to Bengal. He

CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA 77

accepted India deserta for the dry north-west, India; diluvia for the

Gangetic plains, India aquosa for the western coastal strip which the

south-west monsoon soaks, Jndia vera for the plateau east of it, India

subaquosa for Coromandel which the dying monsoon saturates, and

India littorea for the great Ganges delta and the lesser deltas of India’s

outline. Prain’s terminology is climatic saving the last name. Professor

Troup later gave another set of names which, though their date is 1921,

I mention here lest they be overlooked.

Robert Scott Troup (1874-1939) entered the Indian Fotos Service in

1897 and had had 9 years of experience in the best teak forests of Burma

when (1905) he was transferred to the forest central siation at Dehra

Dun.

The Forest Service as far back as 1872 had taken to Dehra Dun their

survey work. Already three years earlier Brandis had pointed out that

the Service would need to teach at least its Forest Rangers and, when

teaching began, the experiment was tried of giving it to apprentices

sent to the Engineering College. Schlich, who had suggested this, was

soon to come into contact with the result and found himself constrained

to report that the new Forest Rangers back from the Roorkee College

had acquired there much useful knowledge, but not in Botany. The up-

shot was that teaching was established by the side of the Forest Survey

work and a large area of forest attached to the School, where, as re-

corded, J. F. Duthie would teach the young men to know their trees.

. The Forest Service was irregular, experimenting with its working plans

until 1880 ; then by way of improving work their preparation began to

be regularized ; and the process led to specialization ending in transfer

of the final and decisive stages to Dehra Dun. The next step was the

setting up of a department for Research, and Troup, though he was not

at first in charge of working plans, soon found his day to day work in

them. The Forest Service had collected large quantities of data. Troup

with these wrote his excellent SILVICULTURE OF INDIAN TREES. He had

commenced it in 1916; he was called to Oxford in 1920 to the

post of Professor of Forestry ; and the three volumes were published

in the next year. The date of course is far beyond the end of my period,

' but to proceed without a reference would suggest that the work of Hooker,

C. B. Clarke, and Prain had a sort of finality.

Troup’s phyto-geography, founded only on the growth of forest trees—

there are a little over 700 referred to or dealt with in great detail, led

to suggesting these ‘ regions ’

(i) Western Himalaya ; (ii) Eastern Himalaya; (iii) The Trans-

Indus ; (iv) the North-Eastern Dry Region ; (v) the Gangetic Plain ; (vi)

the West Coast Region; (vii) the Central Indian Region; (viii) the years

along with the Carnatic ; (ix) Assam ; (x) Burma ; and (xi) the Andaman

Islands. Like the sub-regions or sub-sub-areas there is as much

78 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

definition in them from geography as from botany, or perhaps even

more. :

It is desirable that the nomenclature should come under criticism, and

that botanists now in India should shape it, and that they co-operate with

the climatologists for they have put forward classifications of India’s

surface that, differing in detail, should not be neglected. They suggest

improvements : for instance, they take note of the equatorial air-regime

by which there is rain twice in the year as the sun is twice at its remotest

from the equator. Of this the phyto-geographers up to 1900 have taken

no notice, although Ceylon and Kerala show its effects; phyto-

geographers, furthermore, before 1900 had not thought it proper to

divide Ceylon into its dry and humid parts. Other improvements originat-

ing with them are recognition of a sub-Himalayan belt on the north-west

of India, and a closer union between the Santal Hills and the one

deltaic plains than had been conceded.

11. PLANNING IN CEYLON

John Christopher Willis (1869-1958) succeeded Trimen as Director

of the Peradeniya Garden in 1896. Trimen, who had become a very sick

man, was endeavouring in spite of his difficulties to complete his

HANDBOOK OF THE FLOWERING PLANTS OF CEYLON ; and Hooker, his-own

FLORA OF BRITISH INDIA completed, had promised to see Trimen’s HAND-

BOOK out. The situation suggested the end of a chapter to any involved

in it, and of course particularly to the new Director with whom lay plan-

ning for the future. The Government of the island accepted his views.

The taxonomic work_of the Garden was to be intensified as to the

lower plants, and particularly towards the fungi for economic reasons :

the disaster of the coffee-leaf disease impressed that. Further, for the

security of existing crops provision for the entertainment of an ento-

mologist was made ; and for miscellaneous enquiries needing the attention

of a biologist the entertainment of one who acted as an assistant to the

Director and, as the occasions for requiring his research could not be

predicted, was to be as it were on post-graduate research within a period

of three years.

The three, a mycologist who was to be at the same time Assistant

Director, the entomologist, and the post-graduate engaged on research

were laboratory workers whose results depended on development of

buildings in the Peradeniya Garden.

I have called my reader’s attention to the creation of a high level

plantation in 1860 when the introduction of Cinchona was contemplated.

This, the Hakgala Garden, preserved also a sample of the vegetation

characteristic of its zone on the mountains. In 1876 another plantation

was required, a hot humid one for the accommodation of the rubber

CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA 719

tree, Hevea brasiliensis, from the Amazon ; this, the Heneratgoda Plan-

tation, also held a sample of the local jungle. Naturally these were

used for lesser experiments—the way plants unsuited for Peradeniya

would. behave in the climates of these plantations. They are called

gardens officially, and botanical work was theirs in this geographic

way. About 1880 the whole of Peradeniya was landscape-gardened. In

1886 another plantation was established, that of Badulla, hot and re-

latively dry, with a dry season between July and September instead of

that between January and March of the Colombo side of the island.

Yet another plantation was made, that in the dry north at Anahadrapura.

This useful dispersal of trial grounds was to be somewhat increased.

There was a small school of Agriculture in Colombo and proposals came

forward to close it in favour of something more ambitious on the

Gangaruwa estate alongside Peradeniya. The estate had been owned

by the Governor Barnes who, having opened the way for the coffee-

planters into the hills by making the Colombo-Kandy road, had

grown coffee, indigo, and sugar-cane on his estate. It was now to hold

demonstration plots, and agricultural practice regarding them was to be

taught by the officers of the Garden staff. The illiterate peasant, it was

hoped, would learn new ways through those who had learned them at

Gangaruwa. Meanwhile he was to learn through school gardens and

then a teacher using a vernacular language of the island was chosen

as a demonstrator for the schools.

There was a planters’ magazine in the island ; this, taken over and

entrusted to Willis as editor, sufficed along with Circulars to keep the

literate in touch with the progress of the Gardens. As an outlet for the

Gardens for scientific research, Willis arranged for the publication of a

journal in pure science—the Annals of the Royal Botanic Gardens,

Peradeniya ; and the first part appeared in June, 1901. In it he gave an

account of his planning to that date. When later the duty of education

was entrusted to him, he began to call his charge a department of Agri-

culture. Then someone else planned, seeking to place Agriculture over

Botany ; this came after Willis’s department had been growing for a de-

cade and so was outside my period but I have to refer to the way in which

it broke up Willis’s planning, leading him to retire.

The speed of a convoy is that of the slowest unit in it; the slowest

speed of Willis’s convoy was that of the unit of the peasant’s

education.

Ceylon is on one of the busiest of ships’ highways and for some time

before Willis’s appointment botanists of various nations had, as it were,

looked in if they had the opportunity. Some of them were on their way

to the Netherlands Indies to undertake research, and the Dutch provided

facilities for their work. Willis, taking a lead from this, planned to do the

Same at Peradeniya. He wrote : ‘it would be difficult to exaggerate the

80 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

value of travel in other countries to the working botanist, especially if his

work lie in the departments of systematic botany, geographical distri-

bution, ecology, morphology or economic botany, whilst to the physio- |

logical or anatomical worker there are also innumerable problems which |

can only be solved by research in tropical countries.” He sought to make

it easy for students new from British centres of teaching, and their teachers

too, to visit Ceylon as others were visiting Java, to learn how the plant

lives in the tropics—a knowledge which really is essential—and got —

sanction for an extension of his laboratory facilities to make work easy.

It had been necessary to create working room for Marshall Ward when |

the coffee-leaf disease needed investigation ; Willis would have the work-

ing room ready in advance. But visitors from Britain had come without —

waiting, some with grants for travel.

Willis assembled his staff. But on the horticultural side the two chief _

men were already there—(i) William Nock who had been acting Director _

from the date of Trimen’s retirement and who on Willis’s arrival went —

back to his substantive post at Hakgala, and (ii) Hugh Fraser Macmillan -

who had. been sent out from Kew in 1895. H. F. Macmillan (1869-1948)

took charge of the horticulture of Peradeniya when Nock went back to

Hakgala. From that year until 1912 he held this position ; but in 1912

with the passing of Peradeniya under a Director of Agriculture he was

given charge of all the Department’s horticulture and had the title of

Superintendent of Gardens. His 30 years in Ceylon enabled him to write

his TROPICAL GARDENING (1912). John Parkin had arrived in Ceylon by

an understanding with Trimen ; and to him was given the new three-year

post of Assistant to Director. A disease of Cacao had alarmed the

planters of that crop and they had invited John Bennett Carruthers (1869-

1910) in 1891 to Ceylon to seek for remedies. The Government accepted

him as their Mycologist, coupling with that post the post of Assistant

Director of the Garden. Ernest E. Green was in the island investigating

insects, chiefly pests, and was attached to the staff. The research work

of these three was such as would be done in a laboratory, and so was also

the work that the Director expected to do apart from administrative

duties ; and so Willis planned to facilitate the research of visitors —

by providing laboratory accommodation for them too. Willis went on

to get chemists attached to the Garden. The plans for the education

in agriculture took time to shape and, except that the Garden’s officers —

were to teach, could have been separate.

Parkin joined the Director for work on the bleeding of rubber trees

and joined Pearson in research on the plants of the patanas. At the end

of his period he gave place in 1900 to Herbert Wright (1874-1940, knighted

in 1930) whose future economic interests were shaped in Ceylon, partly

as the Assistant to Willis and then as Controller of the Peradeniya Experi-.

mental Station (1904-1907).

CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA 81

Carruthers left Ceylon for Malaya in 1905, T. Petch succeeding

him as Mycologist and remaining until 1906. So far the intensification

of the taxonomic work of the Garden towards the fungi has had a favour-

able development.

Willis entertained no doubt as to the nature of the department

entrusted to him ; it was to be brought into line with such departments

as that of the Dutch in Java and reflect the thought of lively European

universities as far as possible. The island could teach many lessons in

the way that tropical life moves.

Here is a list of eminent botanists whose visits proved this aware-

ness :

Karl I. E. Goebel, Assistant Professor at Strasburg, visited Ceylon

in 1886; Michael C. Potter, when teaching in Cambridge, in 1888 ;

Wilhelm O. A. Tschirch, a professor of Berlin, in 1888 ; John Bretland

Farmer from London in 1891 ; Frederick W. Keeble, a post-graduate

student of Cambridge in 1893 ; Carl Holtermann from Berlin in 1895 ;

Hans Molisch, a professor from Prague, in 1897 ; Henry H. W. Pearson,

a post-graduate student of Cambridge, in 1899 ; J. Stanley Gardener also

from Cambridge in 1899 ; Andreas F. W. Schimper from Basel in 1899 ;

K. Giesenhagen from Marburg in 1899; Arthur George Tansley and

Felix E. Fritsch together, from London, in 1902. The list might be made

longer ; but from it the reader understands that botanists of the new

school were very well aware that to visit the tropics was expedient. I

have excluded from it others who came to collect as Otto Warburg

(1881), Wenzel Svoboda (1886), and Gustav F. Radde (1890). The

first visited many parts of India collecting economic plants. Willis

embarked on a morphological and taxonomic study of the Podoste-

maceae, for which he had excellent material in the river Mahaweliganga

close at hand and for the furtherance of which he made two journeys in

India, one to the Bombay Ghats and the other to the Khasia Hills. The

value of his work was great ; as to the geographic dispersal in the East

which the work detailed, there was a connection with that of Hooker

which I have pointed out in section 10 (see p. 74) and which did not

emerge at the time. :

The conditions under which Podostemaceae can grow are limited

by their seasonal need of torrents ; therefore their dispersal proves a

past climate of contrasted seasons dry and wet in alternation for ages

long enough for their establishment. Applying what this shows to the

knowledge that climates within the peninsula of India have oscillated, we

have it clear before us that the margin of the Peninsula has never failed,

since Gondwanaland went to pieces, to retain its wet seasons while the

inner parts went dry.

Willis did not succeed in finding Podostemaceae in Sikkim, but they

are now known to occur in at least one part.

82 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

_ What was the dying condition of Gondwanaland when the condition

of India, bordered by deluge-monsoon-needing Podostemaceae, took

its origin ?

In 1907 a serious accident terminated Willis’s field ioe His

administrative planning, than which there was nothing more advanced

in India, had made its mark and it is for another to assess the effect of

the counter planning to which I have alluded.

When Willis was appointed to Ceylon, the Forests were in charge of

A. F. Brown, who had written an account of the forests as an appendix

to Trimen’s HANDBOOK. He was followed by Frederick Lewis; who,

like Bourdillon in Travancore, had been a planter at one time. A planter

with a botanical interest, who was in Ceylon at the time, was John Foot

Jowett. Passing mention is due to J. Miguel Silva, plant collector at

Peradeniya under Trimen and for twenty years after Trimen’s death.

His name becomes familiar to any botanist interested in Ceylon collec-

tions.

12. A GREAT STRIDE FORWARD COMES THROUGH THE UNIVERSITIES ~

At the end of section 5 attention was called to the setting up in India

of laboratories to aid or guide certain large industries. It had seemed,

when Dr. D. D. Cunningham was sent to see Miles Berkeley at work

and to visit various teaching institutions in Germany where the study of

Fungi was active, as if he was to link his work with the greatest industry

in the country, namely the raising of food crops; but that was not to

be ; Sir David Prain, a most intimate friend, states that Cunningham’s

work with fungi, when it came, originated without attachment to

economy. In 1878 he was publishing on the way in which a living

organism, whether animal or plant, meets starvation. This was followed

by other work as purely scientific, which gave to Cunningham the place

of a pioneer. The next pioneer after him was Marshall Ward, who went

to Ceylon in 1882 on a two years’ agreement originating in a definitely

economic enquiry, but which gave him the opportunity of making in-

vestigations of great general import in pure science. Marshall Ward

left Ceylon in 1885 when his mission was finished ; Cunningham left

India in 1897, broken in health.

It was shortly after this that Professor Jagadis Chunder Bose

(knighted later) turned his attention to the perceptions of plants. He

had. been led into making observations by physical work which at first

he had in hand in London ; and then he took the prosecution oe it to

his University laboratory in Calcutta.

The reader sees that the entry of the botanical research (ace

- into India, which ensued through the three old Universities, was at the

very end of my period. That being so, I shall not follow its course

CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA 83

more than to refer the reader to a publication by Professor P. Mahesh-

wari and R.N. Kapil (Journ. Univ. Gauhati 9 (2), 1958) in which are named

the Universities and University Colleges whereat courses in the Science

of Botany are given. My chapters are not for the scholars of these teach-

ing establishments but for the botanists engaged in taxonomic research ;

and the proper place for them is not the class-room but the herbarium

‘work-tables, as four-fifths of the names in them are the names of men

who collected plants and by their collecting not only established the

make-up of the flora of India but got together also a fair amount of

information on plant-geography. I began a card-index when engaged

on herbarium work in India and it ultimately became a foundation for

these chapters. As to completeness I think very few names can have

been omitted: The chapters could have been headed ‘A record of

the growth of systematized knowledge of the plants of India’.

I had not in my mind, when determining that my narrative should

end at 1900, the fact that Reynold Green’s HISTORY OF BOTANY IN THE

UNITED KINGDOM ends at the same date. But so much the better, for

my chapters become a chronicle that can be read along with that ex-

cellent book.

(To be continued)

A small collection of earthworms from

Nepal (Megascolecidae : Oligochaeta)

R. W. Sims

British Museum {Natural History)

(With a plate)

During October and November i961, and March 1962, Dr.

W. G. Inglis and Mr. K. H. Hyatt made a small collection of

Megascolecid earthworms when in Nepal as members of the British

Museum Nepal Expedition 1961-1962. Although only a few speci-

mens were collected they were found to include some which are

rarely recorded. It seems useful, therefore, to report on this collec-

tion particularly as it was made in an area from which material is

seldom obtained. All of the worms were collected in the vicinity of

Maewa Khola, Sanghu, Nepal (27° 21’ N., 87° 33’ E.). 1 would

like to express my gratitude to Dr. Inglis and Mr. Hyatt for providing

me with the material.

Pheretima campanulata (Rosa)

Perichaeta campanulata Rosa, 1890, Ann. Mus. Genova 30, p. 115. Palon,

Burma.

Under a damp stone, Maewa Khola, Sanghu, 6500 ft. 14 November,

1961, K. H. Hyatt. 1 clitellate specimen.

External Characters. Length 108 mm. Diameter 4 mm. Number

of segments 110. The specimen which is preserved in alcohol, is

a dark greyish brown colour. Prostomium +4 epilobous. The first

dorsal pore is in intersegmentai furrow 11/12. The clitellum is

annular and extends over three segments, x/v-xvi; the intersegmental

furrows and the dorsal pores in this region are missing, also the setae

except for a few in xiv. The setal areas on the ventral surface of

the preclitellar region are raised giving a triannulate appearance.

Generally the setal rings are broken irregularly on the ventral surface.

The number of spermathecal setae on vii is 11, viii 17; penial setae

suasuldffip “gq (2) Suapjnoy *q (q) ‘ojvjnuvduvs vunjasayq (e) : (MOIA [eSIOP) SPIeZZIDH °7 “BI “puL[s poyyeys “°3's

“snjoadof xduolladg (p) ‘suasuiffip *q (9) ‘iajjnoy ‘gq (q) ‘vjvjnuvdwuvs vuiljadayd (@) : (MIA JOIIN}Ue) Sedo eUTIOdS *| ‘31

A COLLECTION OF EARTHWORMS FROM NEPAL 85

xviii 11; setae xx 52. There is a single, median female pore on xiv.

_ The male pores are paired and each lies within a copulatory chamber

in xviii, the chambers are in the setal ring and each is closed by a

medially directed tongue-like lateral lobe. The spermathecal pores

are three pairs, 6/7, 7/8. 8/9. They are minute on the right side

but larger on the left. The areas surrounding the pores on the left

are swollen as transversely ellipsoidal mounds extending to the setal

rings. No genital markings were seen.

Internal Characters. Septa 5/6-7/8 and 10/11-13/14 are thick-

ened, septa 8/9 and 9/10 are represented by ventral rudiments only:

in 8/9 extending laterally only to the spermathecae. The gizzard is

somewhat bell-shaped (Fig. 2 a) with the anterior diameter only

slightly less than the posterior. The intestinal caeca are simple

extending anteriorly from xxvii to xxiii where they flex ventrally into

xxii. The caeca are almost imperceptibly constricted by the septa

through which they pass but the constrictions are more evident at

22/23. The intestine begins in xv. Lateral hearts are present in

ix-xiii passing into the ventral vessel. ‘The right heart in ix is

rudimentary, its diameter being about one-quarter of the left heart.

A single median testis sac is present in both x and xi; laterally each

sac curves gently anteriorly, the antero-lateral margins being bilobed.

The seminal vesicles are fairly well developed in xi and xii being

about the same height as the oesophagus.. ‘They are a somewhat

depressed heart-shape each with a small ampulla arising from the

dorsal cleft. The ampullae are of a slightly finer texture and in size

each is about one-quarter of that of the seminal vesicle from which

it arises. The prostates extend from xvi-xxi, they comprise two

closely associated anterior and posterior groups of three lobes, each

lobe itself being lobulated. As usual the paired prostatic ducts are

situated in xviii, each forms a single loop with the ental end lying

immediately dorsal to the ectal end above the copulatory chamber.

The dorsal (coelomic) surfaces of the paired copulatory chambers are

smooth and penial setae are apparently absent from inside. Anterior

to each copulatory chamber there is an ovoid mass consisting of three

small stalked glands which pass into the anterior wall of the chamber,

posterior to the chamber is a smaller mass containing one stalked

gland which passes into the posterior wall. The spermathecae are

paired and lie in segments vii, viii, ix. Each is flattened and leaf-like,

the length of the duct is about equal to the length of the main body.

The diverticulum arises from midway along the mesial surface of the

spermathecal duct, it consists of a narrow stalk reaching to nearly the

equator of the spermatheca where it becomes slightly convoluted, the

86 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

loops which remain in the same plane are contained by connective

tissue (Fig. 1 a). Where the spermathecal duct passes into the

parietes two small stalked glands enter into the duct, one into the

anterior surface the other into the posterior surface.

Remarks. This species is the only Indian Pheretima with sper-

mathecal pores in intersegmental furrows 6/7, 7/8, 8/9 and possessing

both an anterior and a posterior stalked gland arising towards the

ectal end of each spermathecal duct (see Remarks under P. houlleti

below, and Gates, 1937: 197, for other characters). Gates (1931 :

435) separated the subspecies penetralis on a _ series from near

Darjeeling in which he found that on the posterior face of each

copulatory chamber there were two ovoid glandular masses instead

of the usual one; also the seminal vesicle in xi curled upwards and

around to cover the dorsal blood vessel (this latter difference could

be due to age or season, see P. houlleti below). These characters

were not seen in the specimen reported here which resembles the

Siamese subspecies meridiana Gates (1932 : 457) in lacking penial

setae inside the copulatory chambers. In view of these discrepancies

in subspecific characters and the fact that I have only one specimen

before me, I do not propose to identify it subspecifically.

Pheretima diffringens (Baird)

Megascolex diffringens Baird, 1869, Proc. zool. Soc. London, 1869, p. 40. Plas

Machynlleth, Montgomeryshire, Great Britain.

Under a damp stone in forest, Maewa Khola, Sanghu, 6500 ft.

29 October, 1961. K. H. Hyatt. 1 clitellate specimen.

Under a rock by a river, (very active when exposed to light),

Maewa Khola, Sanghu, 5500 ft. 12 November, 1961. K. H. Hyatt.

1 clitellate specimen.

Under a rock by a river, Maewa Khola, Sanghu, 5500 ft.

15 November, 1961. K. H. Hyatt. 1 clitellate specimen. |

On the banks of a stream afier heavy rain, Maewa Khola, Sanghu,

6500 ft. 2 March, 1962. W. G. Inglis. 69 specimens.

External Characters. Gates (1931 : 387; 1936 : 412; 1937 : 198)

gave details of variation in the external characters of this fairly well-

known species. Jn the present series differences in the external

anatomy are well within the limits which Gates recorded. It is

interesting to note that these worms agree with his series from near

Kathmandu and differ from most from elsewhere in that the clitellum

extends beyond intersegmental furrows 13/14 to 16/17. It begins in

the posterior quarter of xiii, midway between the setal ring and

' 4 COLLECTION OF EARTHWORMS FROM NEPAL ~~ 87

furrow 13/14, and finishes in the anterior quarter of xviii, midway

between furrow 16/17 and the setal ring; the furrows being: almost

obliterated by the clitellum. The same agreement is not to be found,

however, in the genital markings. In the Sanghu specimens there are

the usual paired presetal genital markings on vii, viii, ix at cd but the

larger worms have small, paired postsetal genital markings on vi, vii,

vii abutting on the anterior or antero-dorsal borders of the

spermathecal pores, also on v (eight specimens). :

Internal Characters. (Three specimens dissected.) Septa 5/6-7/8,

10/11, 11/12 are thickened also 12/13 to a lesser extent; septa- 8/9,

9/10 are missing. The gizzard is somewhat barrel-shaped but the

diameter of the anterior end is less than that of the posterior (Fig. 2 c).

The intestinal caeca arise in xxvi and pass forwards as far as xxiii,

they are simple and only slightly constricted by the septa. Paired

lateral hearts are present in xi, xii, xiii, passing into the ventral vessel.

The testes sacs in x are joined medially and are almost dumb-bell

shaped with the contents aggregated laterally. There is only one

median sac in xi, resulting probably from fusion similar to that in x

but it is more complete and the contenis are more uniformly dis-

tributed. The seminal vesicles are paired in xi and xii, each is

bilobular with a large ampulla arising from the dorsal cleft between

the lobes, each ampulla is at least half of the size of one lobe. The

prostates are variable differing in size from two fragile flattened lobes

of the same width as the duct to massive, rather globular glands

extending from xv! to xix. The right prostate of one specimen is

well developed whereas the left, both gland and duct, are rudimentary.

The prostatic duct forms a simple loop, like a closed U, with the

open side directed postero-laterally. The spermathecae are paired

and lie in segments vi, vii, viii, ix. Each is a slightly compressed

cone slightly longer than the duct. The diverticulum arises from the

antero-mesial surface of the spermathecal duct near where it passes

into the parietes. It is directed posteriorly either curving gently or

with a sharp flexure near its site of origin (Fig. 1 c). The ampulla is

ellipsoidal and pure white in colour in contrast to the creamy colour

of the diverticulum and spermathecal duct of these alcohol preserved

specimens.

Pheretima houlleti (Perrier)

_ Perichaeta houlleti Perrier, 1872, N. Arch. Mus. Paris 8, p. 99. Calcutta.

From soil in banks of river terrace. Maewa Khola, Sanghu.

6500 ft. 18 November, 1961. K. H. Hyatt. 2 clitellate specimens.

88 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 60 (1)

External Characters. J.ength 64, 65 mm. Diameter 3 mm.

Number of segments 62, 75. The colour of one specimen is a greyish

brown, the other is a greenish grey-brown; both are preserved in

alcohol. The first dorsal pore occurs in intersegmental furrow 10/11.

The clitellum extends over xiv, xv, xvi, in one specimen to 4xvii.

The setal rings are raised on the ventral surface in the pre-clitellar

region giving a triannulate appearance. Posteriorly, the setal areas

in the last seven or so segments are considerably raised. Setae are

present throughout the clitellum.

Number of setae

vil | viii? xviii? XX

qi 18 9 Sit

12 17 9 By

The spermathecal pores are minute in furrows 6/7, 7/8, 8/9.

The paired male pores are situated + circumference apart in xviii

where they may be seen as indistinctly paler coloured areas in the

setal ring. The single median female in xiv is situated anteriorly to

the setal ring at a distance equal to ab. The pore is in the centre

of a small papilla surrounded by a paler coloured area.

Internal Characters. Septa 5/6-7/8, 10/11-12/13 thickened.

Septum 8/9 is rudimentary and is represented only ventrally as a

narrow strip, septum 9/10 is thin and appears to be applied

peripherally to 10/11. The gizzard is rather pitcher-shaped with the

anterior diameter considerably less than the posterior (Fig. 2 5). The

intestine begins in xv. The paired intestinal caeca are simple, they

arise in xxvii and extend forwards only to xxiv. They are constricted

where they pass through the septa, the constriction at 24/25 is parti-

cularly marked and the distal end of each caecum is devoid of gut

content and appears as a semi-transparent ampulla. The lateral hearts

pass into the ventral vessel, the last pair being in xiii. In one specimen

the right heart in xi and the left heart in xii are rudimentary. The

testes sacs are joined ventrally in both x and xi but their contents are

concentrated laterally and each pair appears to be dumb-bell shaped,

they are somewhat transparent but laterally they are whiter and more

opaque. One specimen has a pair of small vertical seminal vesicles

in xi and xii, each individual vesicle being surmounted by a primary

ampulla of similar diameter. The other specimen which is sexually

riper, has a pair of large seminal vesicles in xi each with a mid-dorsal

cleft from which a small primary ampulla extends (the ampullae are

the same size as those of the first specimen but the seminal vesicles

== _—_ |,

1 Between the spermathecal pores

* Between the male pores

A COLLECTION OF EARTHWORMS FROM NEPAL 89

are much larger). The seminal vesicles in xii unite dorsally above

the dorsal blood vessel and the ampullae were not seen. The

prostates extend from xvii-xx in one specimen and xvii-}xix in the

- other; in both they consist of several slightly depressed lobes. Each

prostatic duct forms a simple loop like a constricted U and lies on

the dorsal (coelomic) surface of the copulatory chamber with the open

end of the U directed mesiaily. On the anterior wall of each copulatory

chamber there are two stalked glands and on the posterior wall one.

The surface of each copulatory chamber is smooth indicating the

absence of setae from within. The spermathecae are paired in vii,

viii, ix. They are variable in shape, the first pair are rounded sacs

about half the size of the last pair which are more leaf-like; all are

distally transparent. The spermathecae and their ducts are about

equal in length, the duct being flexed through nearly 180° where it

issues from the spermatheca. The diverticulum arises from the

antero-mesial surface of the spermathecal duct at one-third of the

distance from the ectal end. The duct is convoluted with five or six

folds lying in the same plane and its diameter gradually increasing

entally to swell finally into a small ampulla (Fig. | 5b). The total

area of the convoluted diverticulum is nearly equal to two-thirds of

that of the spermatheca. A small stalked gland is closely associated

with each diverticulum, its fine duct passes forwards to join the

antero-mesial surface of the spermathecal duct as the latter passes

into the parietes.

Remarks. For many years P. campanulata was contused with this

species until Gates (1932 : 462) recognized the taxonomic importance

of the stalked glands of the spermathecae and of the copulatory

chambers as means of distinguishing between the two taxa. The

spermathecal ducts of P. campanulata have both anterior and posterior

stalked glands compared with only an anterior gland in P. houlleti:

further, there are three stalked glands on the anterior walls of the

copulatory chambers of P. campanulata compared with two in P.

houlleti. Gates examined longer series than reported here and

referred to other specific characters. In the Sanghu material of

houlleti and campanulata additional interspecific differences are readily

evident. The gizzard of houlleti is pitcher-shaped whereas the

gizzard of campanulata is bell-shaped, also the spermathecal diverti-

culum of houlleti has five or six large loops in contrast to the

diverticulum of campanulata which has only two small loops (Fig. 2).

90: JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST: SOCIETY, Vol, 60 (1)

Perionyx foveatus Stephenson

- Perionyx foveatus Stephenson, 1914, Rec. Indian Mus. 8, p. 396. Rotung, Abor

Country, eastern Himalayas.

Under a stone by a river, Maewa Khola, Sanghu, 6500 dt. ps

October, 1961. K. H. Hyatt. 1 aclitellate specimen.

On vegetation beside a river, Maewa Khola, Sanghu, 5500 tt

12 November, 1961. K. H. Hyatt. 1 aclitellate specimen.

On the banks of a stream, Maewa Khola, Sanghu, 6500 ft. 2 March, |

1962. W. G. Inglis. 1 clitellate specimen.

External Characters (Clitellate specimen). Length 56 mm.

Diameter 2 mm. anteriorly, tapering to 1 mm. posteriorly. Number

of segments 138. The ventral surface of the worm is slightly concave

along most of its length. The specimen is preserved in alcohol,

dorsally it is a uniform dark purple. ventrally a light straw colour:

apart from a median ventral, oval brownish area, the clitellum is

paler.. The first dorsal pore is in intersegmental furrow 4/5. The

prostomium is } epilobous and closed posteriorly; furrow 1/2 is

missing so that the first apparent segment, i.e. 7 and ii, seems to be

conical and twice the length of other anterior segments. The clitellum

is annular and extends from midway between the setal ring in xiii

and furrow 13/14 to slightly posterior to furrow 16/17. The setal

rings are closed ventrally but dorsally zz=14zy, the number of setae

at x being 52; penial setae are absent. The female pores are closely

paired immediately posterior to furrow 13/14. The male pores are

paired and situated in a narrow transverse pit in xviii. A single.

median tuberculum pubertatis is present on the ventral surface of

xvii. The spermathecal pores are small circular papillae in furrows

6/7, 7/8, 8/9, they are closely paired each being about one-third of

the distance from the lateral margin of the ventral surface to the

mid-ventral line. )

Internal Characters. The first septum is 5/6, no septa are

thickened. The gizzard is absent but the intestine is slightly swollen

in ix, x, }xi. The last lateral hearts are in xiii. The ovaries are in

xiii, the funnels small and circular. The testes in x and xi are free

on the posterior wall of septa 9/10 and 10/11; large, transversely

situated fimbriated funnels lie freely in x and xi, they have oval

apertures with the length equal to twice the width. The seminal

vesicles in xi and xii extend dorsally and around the dorsal blood

vessel to meet mesially. The prostates are paired, they are large in

xvii and small in xviii. A short prostatic duct leads from the hilus

of each gland with only slight convolutions. Paired spermathecae

A COLLECTION OF EARTHWORMS FROM NEPAL 91

present in vii. viii, ix of varying size. the series on the right is larger,

the largest spermatheca is the right in viii. The spermathecal ducts

are rounded and half the diameter of the glands. At the ental end

of each spermathecal duct there is a rudimentary diverticulum

represented by a minute protuberance (Fig. 1 d). The excretory

system is meganephridial, the nephridia which lack terminal reservoirs.

‘end-bladders’, are arranged in a single row along each side.

Remarks. The specimens collected at Sanghu appear to be the

first recorded since Stephenson described the species nearly fifty years

ago. F. foveatus approaches the description of P.. hingstoni

Stephenson, 1925, but among other characters it would seem to be a

more slender worm tapering from the clitellum to the posterior end

with a concave ventral surface which is markedly different to the

convex ventral surface of the stouter hingstoni, moreover the female

pores are more closely paired in foveatus. Internally, the prostates

of hingstoni are more reniform and the prostatic ducts longer. The

Sanghu- specimens of foveatus differ from the original description in

the spermathecal pores being somewhat more closely paired and the

presence of dorsal pores. The position of the former were described

in relation to the lateral margins of the ventral surface which may

vary either in life or according to the method of killing, while dorsal

pores are difficult to see even in the well-relaxed specimen reported

here, so they may have been overlooked previously.

REFERENCES

Gates, G. E. (1931): The earthworms Gates, G. E. (1937) : Indian earth-

of Burma. II. Rec. Indian Mus. 33: worms. I. The genus Pheretima. Rec.

327-442. Indian Mus. 39 : 175-212.

—— (1932) : The earthworms of Stephenson, J. (1925) : Oligochaeta

Burma. III. Rec. Indian Mus. 34 .: from various regions, including those

357-549. collected by the Mount Everest Expedi-

— (1936) : The earthworms of — tion 1924. Proc. zool. Soc. London, 1925:

Burma. V. Rec. Indian Mus. 38: 377-468. 879-907.

Critical Notes on the Orchidaceae of

Bombay State

XI. SOME OF THE SMALLER GENERA

H. SANTAPAU, S.J., F.N.I., AND Z. KAPADIA, Ph.D.

(With two plates)

{Continued from Vol. 59 (3): 842]

23. SARCANTAUS Lindl.

SARCANTHUS Lindl. Coll. Bot. t. 39 B, 1825, et Gen. Sp. Orch. 233,

1833 ; Endl. Gen. Pl. 206, 1837 ; Benth. & Hook. f. Gen. Pl. 3: 580.

1883 ; Pfitz. in Engl. & Prantl, Pflanzenf. 2 (6) : 212, 1889 ; Hook. f. FI.

Brit. Ind. 6: 66, 1890; King & Pantl. in Ann. R. Bot. Gard. Calcutta

8 : 239, 1898 ; Duthie, ibid. 9 (2) : 149, 1906; J. J. Smith, Fl. Buitenz.

6: 595, 1905; Schltr. Orchid. 577, 1927 ; Holttum, Rev. Fl. Malaya

1: 645, 1953.

The generic name Sarcanthus is derived from the Greek words sarks

= flesh, anthos = flower, referring to the very fleshy flowers in most of —

the species. |

This genus contains over 70 species, occurring in Ceylon, India,

Burma, Malaya, Sumatra, Java, S. China and New Guinea.

The date for Sarcanthus is usually given as 1821. But according to

van Steenis (in F/. Males. I, 4 (5) : CXCVII, 1954) the part of Lindley’s

Coll. Bot. containing Sarcanthus was not published before 1825.

The only species described by Lindley, when he erected the genus

Sarcanthus in 1825, was S. rostratus ; this, therefore, must be considered

to be the type species.

Type species : S. rostratus Lindl.

Sarcanthus peninsularis Dalz. in Hook. Kew Journ. Bot. 3: 343,

1851 ; Lindl. in Journ. Linn. Soc. 3 : 39, 1858 ; Dalz. & Gibs. Bomb. FI.

264, 1861 ; Hook. f. 67 ; Cooke, Fl. Pres. Bomb. 2: 706, 1907; Gammie

in Journ. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 20: 128, 1910 ; Blatt. & McC. ibid.

35 : 495, 1932 ; Fischer, Fl. Pres. Madr. 1447, 1928. Sarcanthus pauci-

florus Wight, Icon. 5 (1) : 20, t. 1747, 1851. (See Plate LIIT.)

JoURN. BomBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. . PLATE LIII

Sarcanthus peninsularis Dalz.

A. Whole plant. B. Sepals and petals dissected. C. Side view of flower.

JOURN. BoMBAY Nat. Hist. Soc.

Acampe praemorsa Blatt. & McC.

B. Sepals and petals dissected.

A. Whole plant.

THE ORCHIDACEAE OF BOMBAY STATE 93

Pendulous epiphytes. Stem pendulous, dirty-green ; internodes about

1 cm. long, 3-5 mm. thick. Leaves 6-14 x 0.7-1 cm., thick, coriaceous,

narrowly linear-oblong, somewhat acuminate, + constricted about

1.5-2 cm. from the sharp apex. Racemes pointing downwards, usually

arising opposite a leaf, simple, about 2-8 cm. long. Flowers about

7 x 7mm., reddish-yellow, bracteate, shortly pedicellate. Pedicel with

ovary about 2-3 mm. long, pale yellowish. Bracts 1.5 x 1 mm., minute,

scarious, persistent, oblong, subacuminate. Sepals 4 x 2.5 mm.,

spreading, very fleshy, yellow with 2 broad brown-red bands along the

_ margins, broadly oblong, entire, glabrous ; dorsal sepal obtuse ; lateral

ones somewhat oblique, acute. Petals 3 x 1.5-1.75 mm., of the same

colour as the sepals, very fleshy, oblong, subfalcate, acute, entire,

glabrous. Lip 2.5 x 2 mm., 3-lobed, produced backwards and down-

wards into the spur ; lateral lobes erect, triangular, acute, minute, pale

violet ; midlobe somewhat incurved, subacute, fleshy, arrow-head-like,

with 2 yellow rounded calli in between the lateral lobes. Spur 2.5 x

1.5mm. conical, obtuse, yellow, with a longitudinal septum from the

mouth of the spur, ending in a rounded central callus in between the

lateral calli of the midlobe. Column about 1.5 mm. long, stout, pale

yellowish. Anther 2 x 1.5 mm. oblong with the anterior lip truncate

and somewhat extended : pollinia 4, in pairs, globular with a narrow

caudicle and a small gland. Capsules 17-19 x 6-8 mm. narrowly oblong,

almost sessile, strongly ribbed.

Flowering : June. Fruiting : November.

Occurrence in Bombay State: KONKAN: Stocks; Wari Country,

Dalzell. N. KANARA: Kalanaddi, Ritchie; Arbail Ghat.

Sedgwick ; Ans hi, Bell; Yellapur, Bell 7870, Blatt. Herb. 233.17

(coll. Bell), Kapadia 1974-1979 ;Sirsi, Santapau 18640; Siddha-

pur, Kapadia 2365-2369 ; Jo g, Kapadia 1775, 1777 (coll. Bole).

Distribution ;: India : Konkan, N. Kanara, W. Ghats of South India,

Travancore. World : India, Ceylon.

24. ACAMPE Lindl.

ACAMPE Lindl. Fol. Orch. 1853 ; Benth. & Hook. f. Gen. PI. 3: 579.

1883 ; Pfitz. in Engl. & Prantl, Pflanzenf. 2 (6): 213, 1889 ; Schltr.

Orchid. 578, 1927 ; Holttum, Rev. Fl. Malaya 1: 620, 1953. Saccola-

bium sect. Acampe Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind.-6: 62, 1890. Saccolabium

King & Pantl. in Ann. R. Bot. Gard. Calcutta 8: 217, 1898 ; Duthie,

ibid. 9 (2) : 136, 1906 ; (partim, non Blume 1825).

The generic name Acampe is derived from the Greek dkampes = ri-

gid, alluding to the brittle, rigid flowers of the species.

94 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

A_small genus with but a few species, distributed mostly from India,

Burma, to Southern China ; ; it is also represented 1 in Africa and Mada-

gascar. |

According to Lindley, this: genus is distinguished from Vanda R. Br.

by its small, brittle, inflexible flowers ; by the lip, which is adnate to

the edges of the column; and by their slender caudicles with a very

small gland ; it forms a very natural group. Holttum, however, has

pointed out that the genus Acampe Lindl. has not been dealt with by

those who have rearranged the orchids of the Sarcanthus group in recent

years, and that the limits of the genus are not yet certain.

“KEY TO THE SPECIES OF ACAMPE oF BOMBAY:

Inflorescence much shorter than the leaves,

up to 8 cm. long, in dense corymbose ~

racemes ; spur a Small conical sac a praemorsa

Inflorescence much longer than the leaves, -

up to 20 cm. or more long, laxly panicled ;

spur about 3-4 cm. long, oblong Ly - ochracea

Acampe praemorsa (Roxb.) Blatt. & McC. in Journ. Bombay nat.

a Soc. 35 : 495, 1932. Epidendrum praemorsum Roxb. Pl. Corom.

: 34, t. 43, 1795. Cymbidium prgeuorsuyy Swartz in Nov. Act. Upsal.

= 75, 1799; Roxb. Fl. Ind. 3 : 465, 1832; Aérides praemorsum

Graham, Cat. Bomb. Pl. 204, 1839, (non Willd. 1805). Saccolabium

papillosum Dalz. & Gibs. Bomb. Fl. 264, 1861 (non Lindl. 1832 nec Bot.

Reg. t. 1552). S. praemorsum (Roxb.) Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 6 : 62, 1890;

Prain, Beng. Pl. 1022, 1903 ; Haines, Bot. Bih. Or. 1180, 1924. Acampe

wightiana Lindl. Fol. Orch. Acampe 2, 1853 ; Cooke, Fl. Pres. Bomb.

2: 705, 1907 ; Fischer, Fl. Pres. Madr. 1447, 1928 ; Thwaites, Enum.

Pl. Zeyl. 303, 1864. Vanda wightiana Lindl. ex Wight, Ieon. 3(1)- Oot

1670, 1851. Saccolabium wightianum Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 6: 62,

1890 ; Grant, Orch. Burma 286, 1895; Gammie in Journ. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 20 : 126, t. 10, 1910. (See plate LIV.)

Epiphytes. Stem about 1-1.5 cm. thick, sheathed ; sheaths brown,

woody, longitudinally striated. Leaves thick, coriaceous, channelled, 12-30

x 1.5-3 cm., oblong, entire, emarginate with 2 unequal rounded lobes.

-Peduncle 1.5 -6 cm. long, rarely branched; racemes compact, corymbose.

Flowers clustered at the apex of the peduncle, pedicellate, bracteate.

Bracts minute, ovate-oblong, acute, persistent, brown. Sepals 8x5 mm.

similar, coriaceous, entire, creamy-yellow with dark brownish-red

irregular transverse bands ; lateral sepals ovate, obtuse, rarely subre-

tuse ; dorsal sepal. obovate: -oblong, obtuse, mucronulate. Lip 7.5 mm.

long, 5mm. broad when spread out, creamy-yellow with 3-4 small

THE ORCHIDACEAE OF BOMBAY STATE 95

narrow, red lines arranged in the form of across on the broad midlobe;

fleshy, saccate at the base, obscurely 3-lobed ; lateral lobes small, erect,

subentire ; midlobe dilated beyond the lateral lobes, deflexed, obovate-

suborbicular, acute or mucronulate, margin irregularly waved. Column

3.~% 3mm. short, stout, with 2 erect, minute horns produced on top

from the sides of the column ; broadly margined with deep brownish-

red. Anther 2x2 mm. triangular-conical ; pollinia 2, waxy, yellow,

globose, with a narrow, linear-oblong, translucent caudicle and a small,

oblong gland. Stigmatic surface broadly oblong, large, margined with

brownish-red. Ovary with pedicel 1 x 0.4cm. yellow, twisted. Cap-

sules 6-7 x 0.6-0.8 cm. cigar-shaped, longitudinally ribbed.

Flowering : April to August. Fruiting: May onwards.

Occurrence in Bombay State: KONKAN: Kanheri, Gammie ;

Thana, Ryan; Bhandup, Blatter; Kapadia 1504; Kondita (Salsette),

Blatter; Sion, Blatter; Indapur, Graham; Vehar, Santapau

11197; Kapadia 489; Andheri, Santapau 10015-10018 ; Borivli.

R. Fernandez 71; Herbert 1615; Ghodbunder, Kapadia 1111,

1119-1120; Bassein, Santapau 10077; Mumbra, Shenoy 2437,

3490; Badlapur, Kapadia 1945. N. KANARA: Belgaum,

Ritchie; Devicop, Sedgwick; Dandeli, Sedgwick 2546;

Kapadia 2036; Ankola-Belikeri, Kapadia 2175; Kumbelli

Mines, Koc. |

Distribution : India; Bengal, Chota Nagpur, Konkan, W. Ghats

of Bombay and south peninsular India, Godavari District, N. Kanara.

World : India, Burma and Ceylon.

Notes: This is one of the commonest ana: most abundant orellids

in Bombay State. It is usually found in masses epiphytic on Mangi-

fera indica L., Syzygium sp., Terminalia sp.

Acampe ochracea (Lindl.) Hochr. in Bull. N. Y. Bot. Gard. 6 : 270,

1910. Saccolabium ochraceum Lindl. in Bot. Reg. misc. 2, 1842; Hook,

f.62; Grant 285; Briihl, Guide Orch. Sikk. 131. S. lineolatum

Thwaites, Enum. Pl. Zeyl. 304, 1864. Acampe wightiana Lindl. var.

longepedunculata Thwaites, Enum. Pl. Zeyl. 303, 1864.

Erect or pendulous epiphytes. Leaves coriaceous, sheathing at the

base, 8.5-20 x 0.6-2 cm., narrowly oblong, entire, shallowly and

unequally 2-lobulate at the apex. Inflorescence 8-20 cm. long; pani-

cles lax, branching, longer or shorter than the leaves ; peduncles terete,

bracteate at the nodes. Flowers pedicelled, bracteate. Bracts minute,

scarious, brown. Sepals and petals 6x 2 mm., similar, yellow with

pale red transverse markings, fleshy, obovate-oblong, obtuse, ‘the

lateral sepals subacute, entire, faintly 3-nerved. Lip 3.5 x 3 mm.,

3-lobed, pale pinkish-white ; lateral lobes erect, small, 2 mm. broad,

irregularly toothed ; midlobe obovate-triangular, irregularly. serrulate,

96 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (A)

acute. Spur 3-4 mm. long, oblong, subclavate, obtuse, parallel to the

ovary, with 2 longitudinal septa within. Column small, with 2 erect,

anterior horns; clinandrium with a central elevated boss. Anther

1x1.5 mm., transversely oblong-orbicular ; pollinia 2-cleft, globular

with a caudicle 1 mm. long and narrow linear, and a gland minute and

transversely oblong. Stigmatic surface deeply seated within, below the

projecting bosses of the rostellum. Ovary with pedicel 7.5 mm. long,

oblong columnar, faintly ribbed. Capsules with stalk 3.5 x 0.7 cm.,

linear-oblong, faintly ribbed.

Flowering : December. Fruiting : May.

Occurrence in Bombay State: N. KANARA: Yellapur, Kapadia ©

1770, 2862; Sirsi—Siddhapur, Kapadia 2445.

Distribution : India : Sikkim, Khasia Hills, N. Kanara. World:

India, Burma and Ceylon.

Notes: This species has not been found previously in Bombay State.

It constitutes a new record for this area.

25. DIPLOCENTRUM Lindl.

DIPLOCENTRUM Lindl. in Bot. Reg. sub t. 1522, 1832, et Gen. Sp.

Orch. 218, 1833 ; Endl. Gen. Pl. 204, 1837; Benth. & Hook. f. Gen.

Pl. 3 : 582, 1883; Pfitz. in Engl. & Prantl, Pflanzenf. 2(6) : 209, 1889;

Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 6 : 78, 1890 ; Schltr. Orchid. 580, 1927.

The generic name Diplocentrum is derived from the Greek words

diplos = double, and kentron = a sharp point, a spur, in allusion to the

2 collateral spurs found in the species.

This genus contains 2 species restricted to south peninsular India.

Type species : D. recurvum Lindl.

Diplocentrum congestum Wight, Icon. 5(1) : 10, t. 1688, 1851 ; Hook. |

f. 78 ; Rolfe in Hook. Icon. Pl. 27: t. 2687, 1901 ; Cooke, Fl. Pres.

Bomb. 2: 704, 1907; Gammie in Journ. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 20:

129, 1910°; Blatt. & McC. ibid. 35.: 497,° 1932; Fischer, “Fl. Press

Madr. 1449, 1928.

Small epiphytes. Stem very short, sheathed. Leaves 2-4, coriaceous,

somewhat channelled, recurved, 2-7 x 0.5-0.8 cm., narrowly _linear-

oblong, unequally and obtusely bilobed at the apex, green mottled

with purple. Racemes up to 9 cm. long, arising from much below the

leaves just a little above the roots, few- to many-flowered ; peduncle |

1-1.5 mm. thick, greenish, bracteate. Flowers about 5-7 mm. across,

bracteate, very shortly pedicellate. Ovary with pedicel about 3 mm.

long, greenish-brown, slightly curved in the apical part. Bracts minute,

apiculate, pale brown. Sepals and petals pale green ot pinkish-brown

with a central deep pink streak, spreading, subobtuse, entire, glabrous ;

THE ORCHIDACEAE OF BOMBAY STATE 97

dorsal sepal 3 x 1 mm., narrowly elliptic-oblong. Lip 4-5 mm. long,

white, pale pink, or pink-mauve, fleshy, somewhat reflexed and truncate

at the apex, broader and produced at the base into 2 spurs which are

shortly diverging, about 1 mm. long, somewhat tubercled and pale

pinkish or greenish-brown. Column very short, white with 2 parallel,

pink, somewhat kidney-shaped streaks on the sides. Anther 1 xX 1mm.

oblong-obovoid, pale greenish-yellow or yellow, anterior lip truncate ;

pollinia 2, bipartite ; caudicle 1.5 mm. long, apiculate, basal half ovate-

oblong, about 1 mm. broad, glandular. Capsule 18 x3-4 mm., broadly

ovoid, slightly curved, ribbed, with a 2 mm. long pedicel.

Flowering : May. Fruiting : May onwards.

Occurrence in Bombay State: N. KANARA: Sirsi—Kumpta,

Woodrow; Castle Rock, Blatt. Herb. 31030 (coll. 7. R. Bell) ;

_ Kapadia 2817-2818 ; Yellapur, Kapadia 2870-2871.

Distribution : N. Kanara, W. Ghats of Bombay State and South

India, Travancore.

Notes; We have found this species ebiphyatc on Syzygium sp. in open

deciduous forest.

26, EPIPOGIUM R. Br.

Epipocium R. Br. Prodr. 330, 1810 ; Santapau in Proc. nat. Inst. Sci.

India 24 B: 138. Epipogum Gmelin, Fl. Sibir. 1: 11, t. 2, f. 2, 1747;

Endl, Gen. Pl. 212, 1837 ; Benth. & Hook. f. Gen. Pl. 3 : 617 ; Pfitz. in

Engl. & Prantl, Pflanzenf. 2 (6): 111 ; Hook. f. Fl. Brit. India 6 : 124;

King & Pantl. in Ann. R. Bot. Gard. Calcutta 8 : 252; Duthie, ibid.

9 (2): 150; J. J. Smith, Fl. Buitenz. 6: 61 : Schltr. Orchid. 100 ; Holt-

tum, Rev. Fl. Malaya 1: 106. Ceratopsis Lindl. Gen. Sp. Orchid. 383,

1835. Podanthera Wt. Icon. 5 (1): 22, t. 1759, 1851.

_ The name Epipogium is derived from the Greek, epi = upon, and

pogon = beard, probably with reference to the glandular hairs on the

| lip.

Species about 5, very widely distributed ; in the temperate bezions of

Europe and Asia.

On the spelling of the generic name, see Santapau, loc. cit.

Epipogium roseum (D. Don) Lindl. in Journ. Linn. Soc. 1: 177,

1857; Holttum 106 ; Santapau loc. cit. 139. Limodorum roseum D.

Don, Prodr. Fl. Nep. 30, Febr. 1825, Galera rosea Bl. Bijdr. 416, f. 3,

Dec. 1825. Epipogum nutans Reichb. f. in Bonpland. 5: 36, 1836;

Lindl. 177 ; Hook. f. 124 ; King & Pantl. 252, t. 335; J. J. Smith 61, f.

39 ; Briihl, Gale Orch. Sikk. 148 ; Fischer 1460; Blatt. & McC. 35:

729. Podanthera pallida Wt. Icon. 5(1): 22, te Woe lool,

98 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

Rhizome an ovoid horizontal tuber, about 5 x 3.5 cm., with few

short internodes. Scapes leafless, 10-40 cm. high, hollow, fleshy, about

I cm. thick at base, gradually narrowing upwards, sparsely sheathed in

the basal region, yellowish. Flowers drooping, white, pedicellate, bract-

eate; pedicels about 3 mm. long, curved. Bracts 7-9 x 3-4 mm.,

shorter than the ovary. Sepals and petals 8-11 x 2-4 mm., not much

spreading, narrowly linear, acute, entire, 3-nerved. Lip about equalling

sepals and petals, concave, obovate-oblong in outline, irregularly crenu-

late, with the sides raised at the base, with a small blunt apiculum or

without it; upper surface minutely warted in 2 rows ; colour white with

a few reddish brown spots. Spur short, somewhat bulbous, pointing

backwards below the ovary, obtuse. Column very short. Anther larger

than the column. Stigmatic surface at the base of the column, promi-

nent. Ovary broadly ovoid, drooping, pale yellow, 8 x 4 mm.

Flowering : May.

Occurrence in Bombay State : N. KANARA: Yellapur, Bell 4068.

Distribution : Tropical Himalayas, Sikkim in hot valleys up to 1300

m., Khasia Hills up to 2000 m., southwards to N. Kanara, Coorg,

Bolampati Hills at 1400 m., Anaimalais, Pulneys at 1600 m., Wynaad.

World : W. Africa, India, Nepal, Ceylon, Malaya, Java, Australia.

ARTIFICIAL KEY TO THE GENERA OF ORCHIDACEAE IN

BOMBAY STATE

1. Epiphytic or lithophytic plants :

2. Plants with distinct pseudobulbs :

3. Pseudobulbs flattened, discoid, rounded :

4, Pseudobulbs with distinct reticulate, lace-like

sheaths ; flowers orange or deep brown-red ;

sepals united to form a tube at least at base .. Porpax

4, Pseudobulbs without lace-like sheaths; flowers

greenish-yellow or white ; sepals completely

free St Eria

3. Pseudobulbs elongated, ovoid or conical :

4, Pseudobulbs 2- or more-noded (rarely 1-nod-

ed in Dendrobium sect. Stachyobium) :

5. Leaves thick, coriaceous, 20-25 cm. long ;

inflorescence lateral; lip with calli or

keels at base ae Cymbidium

5. Leaves thin, membranous, not exceedin

15 cm. in length ; inflorescence terminal

or lateral; lip without calli or keels :

6. Flowers spurred; spur projecting

beyond lateral sepals ; sepals and petals :

about 4 cm. long ; pollinia 8 Ae, Thunia

THE ORCHIDACEAE OF BOMBAY STATE™ he

6. Flowers with a short mentum which

is enclosed by lateral sepals; sepals -

and petals up to 2.5 cm. long ; pollinia

4or8:

7. Inflorescence terminal ; lip superior ;

pollinia globular with a short broad

caudicle Polystachya

7. Inflorescence terminal or faieral’:

lip inferior ; pollinia linear or pyri-

form without caudicles :

8. Pedicel and ovary sparsely pubes-

cent ; pollinia 8, pyriform ae Eria mysorensis

8. Pedicel and ovary glabrous;

pollinia 4, linear or linear-oblong Dendrobium

4.Pseudobulbs only of a single node :

5. Pseudobulbs with 2 or more thin, membra-

nous leaves ; leaves deciduous at time of

flowering ; scape bearing a fan-shaped,

radiating umbel at apex; lateral sepals

23-34 times as long as the dorsal — Cirrhopetalum

5. Pseudobulbs with a single thick coria-

ceous leaf on top ; leaves persistent ; scape

1-flowered or bearing an _ elongated

raceme ; sepals subequal :

6. Pseudobulbs 1 x 1.3-1.7 cm. shortly

conical-ovoid ; leaf 1.5-4.5 cm. long ;

scape 1-flowered; anther with a long

horn ee Trias

6. Pseudobulbs 2-8 cm. long, oblong or

conical-ovoid; leaf 4-30 cm. long;

scape many-flowered; anther without

a horn ;

7. Pseudobulbs_ conical-ovoid, dark-

green or brownish-purple with broad

grooves along its length ; leaf-apex

acute; scape 20-45 cm. long Bet Pholidota

7. Pseudobulbs oblong, yellowish-green,

3-S5-angled ;_ leaf-apex obtuse or

emarginate ; scape up to 12 cm. long Bulbophyllum

2. Plants without pseudobulbs :

3. Plants completely leafless, or rarely with scale

leaves; scape small, glandular-pubescent, arising

directly from cluster of greenish roots if Chiloschista

3. Plants with normal green leaves :

4. Plants with fleshy rhizomes ; scape pubescent ;

sepals united for about half their length;

pollinia lamellate . : Cheirostylis flabellata

4. Plants without rhizomes; scape Mateos :

sepals free ; pollinia waxy :

5. Leaves membranous, plicate ; lip superior Malaxis versicolor

5. Leaves fleshy or coriaceous, not plicate ;

lip inferior :

100 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (i)

6. Plants without a distinct stem ; leaves

radical :

7. Leaves sessile, fleshy, laterally com- |

‘pressed ; flowers in terminal, dense, |

cylindric, simple spikes or racemes ;

pollinia 4, without a gland or

caudicle oe Oberonia |

7. Leaves petiolate, coriaceous, nor-

mal; flowers in lateral, laxly bran-

ching racemes; pollinia 4 with a

broad gland xs Sirhookera

6. Plants with a distinct stem; leaves

cauline :

7. Leaves terete; scape up to 2 cm. |

long, stout, woody a Luisia

7. Leaves flat, scape longer, her- |

baceous : |

8. Scape branched, 2-5 times as long

as leaves: flowers not spurred;

lip resembling a bee Cottonia

8. Scape simple or rarely pment

not more than twice as long as

leaves ; flowers spurred; lip not

resembling a bee :

9. Spurs 2 a Diplocentrum

9. Spur 1:

10. Leaf-apex acute or sharply

pointed ; flowers about 7

mm. across Sarcanthus

10. Leaf-apex irregularly ome

ed with 1-3 sharp teeth ;

flowers larger :

11. Flowers whitish or pale

pink; lip scarcely

a lobed ; spur laterally

Boat compressed, truncate

at apex ig Rhynchostylis

11. Flowers variously co-

loured, not whitish or

pale pink; lip dis-

tinctly 3-lobed ; spur

short oblong or coni-

cal, obtuse at apex .. Vanda

10. Leaf-apex bilobed, lobes

unequal or _ subequal,

rounded or _ subacute;

flowers larger :

11. Stem very short; mid-

lobe of lip semi-circular

forming a brim on

large ventricose, sacc-

THE ORCHIDACEAE OF BOMBAY STATE

ate spur; pollinia

shorter than narrow

linear caudicle, with a

small linear gland

11. Stem long; midlobe of

lip various; spur nar-

row, linear or rarely a

small conical sac;

pollinia about equall-

ing oblong caudicle

with a small more or

less oblong or square

gland :

12. Sepals and petals

coriaceous, yellow

with unequal, hori-

zontal, crimson

bars; lip 3.5-7.5

mm. long, column

without a foot

12. Sepals and petals

pale pink or pink-

ish-mauve ;__ lip

10-28 mm. long,

column with a

stout foot

1. Terrestrial or saprophytic, rarely epiphytic plants

(see Cheirostylis, Malaxis) :

2. Lip spurred; spur projecting beyond lateral

sepals :

3. Plants with green leaves; leaves not plicate;

anther immovably affixed to column by a broad

base :

4. Flowers about 7.5 cm. across, greenish-

white ; stigmatic surfaces flat, almost

confluent

4. Flowers not exceeding 3 cm. across, dee

white or yellow ; stigmatic surfaces not flat,

separate :

5. Ovary and capsules + erect and parallel

to peduncle, not spreading at an angle

to it; stigmatic surfaces in form of small

swellings on edge of lip

5. Ovary and capsules widely spreading at

an angle to peduncle; stigmatic lobes stand-

ing out as stalked appendages

3. Plants with green leaves or rarely manta phytes: ;

leaves plicate, rarely absent ; anther separable

from the column or often attached at base by

a slender filament :

4. Plants with a cluster of stout fibrous roots ;

lip superior

10]

Gastrochilus

Acampe

Aérides

Platanthera

Peristylus

Habenaria

Tropidia

102

4. Plants with a fleshy rhizome or subterranean

tuberous pseudobulbs ; lip inferior :

5. Flowers appearing with the leaves:

6. Leaves puberulous; spur long, slender;

pollinia 8 tie

6. Leaves glabrous ; spur short, rounded,

conical or saccate ; pollinia 2

7. Inflorescence erect; lip with a oe

rounded or conical spur

7. Inflorescence decurved; lip aah. a

wide conical sac

5. Leaves absent or flowers appearing afiee

leaves :

6. Leafless saprophytes with fleshy, roun-

ded or ellipsoid rhizomes lying hori-

zontally on ground ; pollinia 2, pow-

dery, each with its own long, slender

caudicle oe

6. Leaves present appearing much before

flowers ; plants with fleshy, tuberous,

irregularly shaped pseudobulbs ; polli-

nia 2, waxy, attached to a short

caudicle anda small gland

2. Lip not spurred, often saccate at the base; sac

never projecting beyond the lateral sepals :

3. Sepals united for about half their length :

4. Leafless, brown saprophytes ; pedicels greatly

elongating in fruit; limb of lip undivided

4. Plants with green leaves; pedicels not

elongating in fruit ; limb of lip 2-cleft, lobes

digitately fimbriate

3. Sepals free :

4. Leaves and flowers not appearing together :

5. Leaves petiolate, cordate or orbicular ;

scape glabrous; pollinia 2, powdery,

without caudicles or glands oe

5. Leaves sessile, narrowly oblong-lanceo-

late ; scape pubescent; pollinia 8, waxy,

adhering to a small viscid mass

4. Leaves and flowers appearing together :

5. Plants with subterranean pseudobulbs;

pollinia 4, waxy without caudicles, adher-

ing in pairs to a small, viscid mass:

6. Lip inferior, without auricles ; column

long, winged in upper part

6. Lip superior, with or without auricles ;

column very short, wingless

5. Plants with a rhizome or a cluster of

fibrous roots; pollinia 2, lamellate

with a caudicle and a small, orbicular

gland :

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

Calanthe

Eulophia

Geodorum

Epipogium

Eulophia

Didymoplexis

Cheirostylis

Nervilia

Pachystoma

Liparis

Malaxis

THE ORCHIDACEAE OF BOMBAY STATE 103

6. Plants with a cluster of stout, fibrous

roots ; spikes spirally twisted ; lip sub-

saccate at base, the apex not widened

into a blade ae Spiranthes

6. Plants with a short or long rhizome ;

spikes not spirally twisted; lip with a

prominent convex sac at base, the apex

widened into a bilobed blade ae Zeuxine

(Concluded)

On the freshwater Molluscs of Poona

G. T. TONAPI AND LEELA MULHERKAR

Department of Zoology, University of Poona, Poona

(With one map and six plates containing thirty-six figures)

INTRODUCTION

The available information on the freshwater and amphibious

Mollusca of Poona City and its neighbourhood is necessarily scanty and

scattered. Some of the references are not even readily available. The

volumes of the FAUNA OF BRITISH INDIA series on Mollusca, though

comprehensive, provide Latin descriptions of many species and thus

are of limited utility to Indian students of Mollusca. The lack of

adequate illustrations of the species described has also made it difficult

to understand these otherwise excellent works. Further, as has been

rightly pointed out by Satyamurty (1960), the nomenclature of many

species, their correct systematic position, and their true relationships with

other groups have undergone serious revision during the last three

decades. The few earlier records of the species available in this area are

very vague in mentioning the localities and are practically devoid of any

useful biological information. The present paper aims at giving a revised

list of the species available in and around Poona City with brief informa-

tion on their habitats. The list is provisional and is in no way com-

plete, as the work is currently under progress and will be followed later

by a full list of the species together with observations on their biology.

Satyamurty’s (loc. cit.) recent contribution on the land and fresh-

water Mollusca in the collection of the Madras Government Museum,

a most welcome addition to the literature on conchology, has proved

very useful in?the present work.

METHODS

Collection of the specimens was made in regular once-a-week visits

to different aquatic habitats in and around Poona City. The sketch

map shows the localities and area explored for this study.

1 MILE

Kch map of Poona showing stations where collections of Freshwater Molluscs were made

by. Deccan Gymkhana; 2. Yerandawane; 3. Left Bank Canal; 4. Law College area; 5. Fergusson

’ atea; 6. Shivajinagar Station ; 7. Mula River near Sangam ; 8. Mutha River near Sangam ; 9, Nava

; 10. Parvati; 11. Swargate (Right Bank canal); 12. Vithalwadi area; 13. Vadagaon region; 14.

Pi Society ; 15. Kothrud Canal; 16. Pashan tank ; 17. Pashan Canal ; 18. National Chemical Labo-

kt; 19. University of Poona; 20. Botanical Garden ; 21. Mula River near Kirkee, South ; 22. Mula River

a <irkee, East ; 23. Bund Garden area; 24. Mula-Mutha River near Yerawada; 25. Mula-Mutha River

aYerawada, two miles East; 26. Mula-Mutha River near Yerawada, one mile East ; 27. Right Bank

( near Shankarshet Road; 28. Ambil Odha near Padmavati; 29. Aranyeshwar Temple area ;

. adgaon Canal; 31. Mutha River towards Kharakwasala.

ON THE FRESHWATER MOLLUSCS OF POONA 105

ABBREVIATIONS

The following contractions have been used in describing the different

parts and usual measurements :

L—length

H—height

D—diameter or depth

DM—diameter major

dm—diameter minor

AH—apertural height

AW-—apertural width

DV—depth of the two halves

The measurements are those of single specimens of the species and

do not represent averages. Average measurements are deliberately not

provided in this paper; unless a long series of specimens is examined it

would be meaningless to give average measurements.

The bracketed numbers indicate other localities where a given species

. occurs.

SYSTEMATIC LIST OF THE SPECIES

Class GASTROPODA

S. Class PROSOBRANCHIATA

Order MEGAGASTROPODA

Series ARCHITAENIOGLOSSA

Family CYCLOPHORIDAE

1. Cyclophorus (Litostylus) involvulus (Miller) (Fig. 1)

The shell is turbinate and the spire is elevated with inflated whorls.

The shell is spirally striated and striae on the body whorl form spiral

ridges. The aperture is oblique to the axis and is circular. The

peristome is thick and markedly reflected. The umbilicus is broad and

deep but partially occluded by the reflected peristome. The shell is

chestnut coloured with brownish white wavy marks.

Locality. Only a single intact specimen was collected, along with

some broken pieces, on the bank of Mutha River near Vithalwadi.

Attempts to secure more specimens have not proved successful. The

species is thus rare and not available readily in this area.

_ Measurements. H—13 mm. ; DM—26 mm.; dm—16 mm.; AH—12

mm.; AW—12 mm.

106 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

2. Cyclophorus (Annularia) aurantiacus (Schumacher) (Fig. 2)

The shell is quite large, thick, and solid. The spire is turbinate,

more'depressed and relatively broad: The last whorl is broad and the

whorls of the spire are convex. All the whorls are transpirally striated

but the basal part of the body whorl is smooth and fine. The conspi-

cuously large aperture is circular and has a thickened peristome which

is reflected out. The shell is fulvous white with zig-zag deep brown

marks. The interior of the apertural lip is bright orange while the

inner portion is whitish.

Locality. Two specimens in good condition were collected from

the bank of Mutha River near Vithalwadi. The species seems to be rare

and has not been noticed elsewhere.

Measurements. H—20 mm. ; DM—33 mm. ; dm—22 mm. ; AH—16

mm. ; AW—16 mm.

Family VIVIPARIDAE

S. Family VIVIPARINAB

3. Vivipara bengalensis (Lamarck) (Fig. 3)

This is a familiar banded pond snail formerly known as Paludina.

Satyamurty (loc. cit.) gives good information on the various allied

species.

The shell is ovately conical. The lower part is more or less ovoid

with a spire which is broadly conical. The whorls are rather inflated and

the sutures are well impressed. The aperture is mango-shaped, i.e.

angularly pointed above and rounded below. The sculpture consists of

close-set fine transpiral lines and minute punctures. The coloration

varies a great deal but usually the shell is olive-green with alternating

broad and narrow dark brown spiral bands. The narrower bands are

lighter in colour than the broad ones. The former alone are present in

the basal part of the body whorl.

Locality. This species is quite common in Poona and is found in

ponds and pools. The specimens were collected from all the localities ;

the one figured is from the ponds in Sambhaji Park. (1, 2, 4,5, 8, 13,

16, 19,20; 235 25, 29): {

Measurements. H—25 mm. ; DM—21 mm. ; dm—17 mm.; AH—15

mm. ; AW—11 mm.

4. Vivipara dissimilis (Miller) (Fig. 4)

This is also a common pond snail. It is treated by some authors as

a variety of V. bengalensis. The shell is broader with a body whorl

which is more ovoid. The sculpture consists of close-set delicate spiral

striae and oblique transpiral growth striae which are prominent and

well marked in the peripheral region of the body whorl. The ovoid

OURN. BOMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. PLATE I

2 6 Oe ©2 Caacess

0 0 02 eme see sone

PS SRR *

1. Cyclophorus (Litostylus) involvulus (Miller) x 0.8 ; 2. Cyclophorus (Annularia) aurantia-

cus (Schumacher) x 1 ; 3. Vivipara bengalensis (Lamarck) x 1.6; 4. Vivipara dissimilis (Miller)

x 1.6; 5. Pila globosa (Swainson) x 1; 6, Pilasp. x 1,3

JOURN. BomBAY NAT. Hist. Soc.

7. Bithynia stenothyroides Dohrn. x 4; 8. Sulcospira (Sulcospira)

hiigeli var. compacta Nevill. x 4; 9. Faunus ater (Linné) x 2.5;

10. Paludomus (Stomatodon) stomatodon Benson x 1:8 ; 11. Melania

(Plotia) scabra (Miller)* x 2

ON THE FRESHWATER MOLLUSCS OF POONA 107

-aperture is covered by a horny operculum which is narrowed above.

The umbilicus is narrower in this species than in V. bengalensis. The

shell is dirty olive-green ; the interior is of dull bluish white colour.

Locality. Several specimens of empty dead shells of varying sizes

have been collected from the Mutha River banks. They are abundantly

available beyond M. E. S. College and Sambhaji Park area. Fresh-

water ponds often contain this species along with V. bengalensis, but it

is of interest that the number of specimens of the species is relatively

more in flowing water than V. bengalensis. (1, 8, 9, 13, 20, 26).

Measurements. H—21 mm.; DM—19 mm. ; dm—14 mm. ; AH—12

mm. ; AW—9 mm.

Family AMPULLARIDAE

5. Pila globosa (Swainson) (Fig. 5)

This species, with a globose shell, is most familiar. The spire is de-

pressed but the whorls are inflated. The surface is very smooth and

glossy. The aperture is oblong oval with the margin slightly thickened.

The umbilicus is small, contracted by the raised peristome which is

slightly reflected. The colour of the shell is brownish olive with irreguiar

red-brown conspicuous spiral bands. The interior of the shell is shiny

with yellow tinge and transverse reddish bands. The transpiral growth

striae occur on the last whorl and are stronger near the aperture.

Locality. This species is not collected from Poona City area but is

common in the adjoining parts and is used for dissections.

Measurements. H—47 mm.; DM—42 mm.; dm—32 mm. ; AH—33

mm.; AW—20 mm.

6. Pila sp. (Fig. 6)

Since it has not been possible to determine its identity only a des-

cription of the shell is given here.

The shell resembles the preceding species ; it differs in the spire

being much more depressed but the whorls are less markedly inflated

and convex. Consequently, the spire is more conical. The surface of

the shell is not smooth and glossy but roughened by transpiral striae.

The striae are particularly prominent on the body whorland give a wrink-

led appearance. The aperture is ovate but very slightly narrowed above

and rounded below. The lips of the aperture are feebly reflected and so

the columellar lip does not occlude the umbilicus. One of the characteristics

of the species is the conspicuous and wide umbilicus. In this respect it

does not resemble P. Jaygardi (Reeve), P. virens (Lamarck), P. nux

(Reeve), and P. dolioides (Reeve) with each of which it shares some

characters. Moreover, it differs from these in coloration as the present

species has a uniform olive-brown horny periostracum beneath which

108 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

the shell is whitish.. The interior of the aperture is whitish but towards

the outer side is yellowish with irregular red bands.

Locality. The species is often collected along with P. globosa and

presumably occurs in the same habitats. It is not available in the City

limits.

Measurements. H—37 mm, ; DM—33 mm. ; dm—14 mm. ; AH—28

mm. ; AW—17 mm.

Series RISSOACEA

Family HYDROBIIDAE

7. Bithynia stenothyroides Dohrn. (Fig. 7)

The shell is small ovately globose with four to five whorls. The last

whorl is strongly inflated and is larger than all the others together. The

whorls are convex with the spire conical. The aperture is broadly oval

with the lip continuous but feebly reflected. The shell is semi-trans-

parent, glossy with a faint bluish tinge. The shell is devoid of any

conspicuous sculpture. The operculum is concentrically striated.

Locality. This is one of the common species occurring in Poona.

The species is abundant in slow-moving streams, ponds, pools, and tanks.

Specimens have been collected from the underside of stones in the Vithal-

wadi canal and the University campus in wet season. They collect in

large numbers and seem to be gregarious in habit. (12, 13, 14, 16, 19,

20).

Measurements. H—6 mm.; DM—4.5 mm.; AH—2.3 mm.; AW—1.7

mm. :

Series CERITHIACEA

Family MELANIIDAE

S. Family MELANATRIINAE

8. Sulcospira (Sulcospira) hiigeli var. compacta Nevill. (Fig. 8)

This is a shorter and stouter variety of S. hiigeli. The body whorl

is markedly angular and the spire is more truncate. The upper whorls

are often found missing in older shells. The aperture is more or less

contracted with the basal margin markedly produced below. The outer

lip is sharp and thin. The columellar margin is smooth and white.

The characteristic smoky-brown colour is darker in the dead shells.

The spiral sulcations at the base of the body whorl are conspicuous.

Locality. The specimens are common in Poona and were collected

from Pashan tank area and particularly in muddy habitats. (16, 17,

28, 30, 31).

Measurements. H—15 mm. ; DM—9 mm.; AH—6 mm. ; AW—4 mm.

ON THE FRESHWATER MOLLUSCS OF POONA 109

S. Family MELANOPSINAE

9, Faunus ater (Linné) (Fig. 9)

The shells are elongatedly tapering and turreted with the whorls

more or less flattened. The apex is acuminate and the sutures are well

impressed. The lower whorls have widely-spaced spiral grooves mixed

with dense transpiral striations on the surface. The aperture is small,

ovately angled above but with a broad basal anterior canal. The

columella is smooth, arched, and extends into a parietal callous. The

labrum is sharp and thin. The surface is rough with iron rust colour

and some specimens are bleached into yellowish olive-brown colour.

The number of whorls are eleven to twelve with the following dimen-

sions which are rather small compared to type specimens. But the

species and its variety Ff. ater (Linnaeus) var. perdecollata Nevill. to

which also this shows resemblance in coloration is extremely variable

in size. Probably the specimens are not fully grown.

Locality. This species is quite common in Poona and is an inhabi-

tant of small freshwater streams and brooks, occasionally of large

ponds and river banks. They were usually found on muddy substrates.

The specimens have been collected from Ambil Odha, Kothrud canal,

Vithalwadi, and adjacent Mutha River. (1, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 13, 16, 20,

26, 27, 31).

Measurements. H—36 mm. ; DM—12 mm. ; AH—10 mm. ; AW—

5.6 mm.

S. Family PALUDOMINAE

10. Paludomus (Stomatodon) stomatodon Benson (Fig. 10)

The shell is very thick and solid and has a neritoid form and appear-

ance. ‘The shell has a depressed spire with a very strongly inflated body

whorl. The aperture is sigmoidly oval with a tooth-like projection in

its basal margin. The apices of the spire are usually worn out or

damaged. The shell is dark olive-brown but the apex is black.

Locality. Species belonging to this and other related genera are

known to occur in Maharashtra but it is rare in Poona. Some shells

were collected from the bank of Mutha River where Vadagaon stream

joins it. The approach to this place is from Vithalwadi temple.

Nowhere else have the shells been noticed again.

Measurements. H—21 mm. ; DM—17 mm.; dm—14 mm. ; AH—

17mm. ; AW—10 mm.

S. Family MELANIINAE

11. Melania (Plotia) scabra (Miller) (Fig. 11)

Quite apart from the other characteristics which separate this species

from the succeeding one it is more broad in proportion to height than

110 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

M. tuberculata. The whorls of the spire bear spinous shoulders in

their upper part. The whorls also bear well-developed transpiral ridges

with spiny processes. The aperture is ovate. The shell is variable in

its coloration but usually is brownish olive, spotted with few rust-

coloured transpiral marks. The apical region is often darker than the

body and the penultimate whorl. The prominent angular ridges and the

spinous processes are often worn out in older specimens.

Locality. The species is quite common in Poona. The specimens

were found to inhabit flowing clear water and sandy and gravelly

habitats. #(1, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 13)-14,.15, 16, -17, -215,22)24.055 ie

28, 29, 30).

Measurements. H—20 mm. ; DM—12 mm.; dm—9 mm.; AH—

7.5mm.; AW—5 mm.

12. Melania (Plotia) scabra (Miller) var. elegans Hutton (Fig. 12)

This is a variety of M. scabra and deserves separate treatment as

has been given by other authors. The shell is markedly thick, more

solid with a turreted spire. The whorls have well-developed angular

shoulders which are occasionally provided with spinous projections.

The small oval aperture is sinuous above and rounded below. The

colour is variable between pale brown and sandy brown with fine reddish

transpiral wavy elegant marks. :

Locality. This species is quite common in Poona and is found to

occur in similar and often the same habitats as the M. scabra.

Measurements. H—20 mm. ; DM—8.5 mm. ; dm—7.5 mm. ; AH—8

mm. ; AW—4.5 mm.

13. Méelania (Striatella) tuberculata (Miller) (Fig. 13)

The shell is elongated with an acuminate apex. The whorls are

neatly convex and progressively increase towards the body whorl. The

aperture is oval but more narrowed above and broadly rounded below.

The sculpture consists of transpiral tuberculated ridges with raised

spiral striae. The body whorl is usually devoid of transverse tuber-

culated ridges. The colour of the shell is dark brown with rows of

reddish undulating flame-shaped discontinuous bands. The interior of

the shell is glossy with external marks faintly visible.

Locality. Living specimens and dead empty shells were invariably

found in clear running water. The specimens have been collected from

a large number of localities of which the following were found to con-

tain relatively more abundant number of the species: 1, 3, 6, 7,8, 9,

10; 12, 13, 14,°15;46, 175.21, 24, 520, 28, 29,31. .

Measurements. The measurements of a specimen collected from the

University area are as follows: H—30 mm.; DM—9 mm.; dm—7.5

mm.; AH—8 mm. ; AW—S5 mm. At:

PLATE ITI

S§

Lymnaea

14.

ean Gs é Pee Ue LL |

at : SHE

TH | iy meek

METH EG ;

aE : =

tuberculata (Miller) x 3

JoURN. BOMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc.

12. Melania (Plotia) scabra var. elegans Hutton x 4; 13.

(Striatella)

Lamarck x 1.5 ; 15. Lymnaea luteola Lamarck x 2,5

JOURN. BomBAY Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE IV

16. Lymnaea pinguis Dohrn. x2; 17. Lymnaea auricularia (Draparnaud)

x 2; 18. Planorbis (Indoplanorbis) exustus (Deshayes) x 3; 19. Anisus

(Gyraulus) convexiusculus (Hutton) x 2.5 ; 20, Opeas gracile (Hutton) x 4;

21. Zootecus chion (Pfeiffer) x 4; 22. Zootecus insularis (Ehrenberg) x 4

ON THE FRESHWATER MOLLUSCS OF POONA 111

S. Class PULMONATA

Order BASOMMATOPHORA

Series HYGROPHILA

Family LYMNAEIDAE

S. Family LYMNAEINAE

The genera of non-operculate thin-shelled freshwater snails have a

world wide distribution and are exceedingly plastic. A large number of

varieties of each species has been described by previous authors.

14. Lymnaea acuminata Lamarck (Fig. 14)

The shell is ovately oblong, smooth, thin, and semi-translucent.

The body whorl is slightly angular above and inflated below the middle.

The spire is short, narrow, with the attenuated whorls forming a pointed

apex. The aperture is wide with the columellar lip twisted. There is a

fine close-set transpiral striation on the surface of the shell. The body

whorl is clearly demarcated from the spire with an abruptly narrowed

base.

Locality. This is a common and widely distributed species inhabit-

ing ponds, pools, and ditches with abundant aquatic vegetation with

sphagnum. (1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12, 15, 16, 19, 20, 29, 31).

Measurements. A dry shell from Law College Ponds measured :

H—31 mm.; DM—18 mm.; AH—24 mm.; AW—10 mm.; Body

whorl—27.5 mm. ; Spire—4.5 mm.

15. Lymnaea luteola Lamarck (Fig. 15)

The shell is broader in proportion to the height in this species than

in L. acuminata. The spire is short, conical, with a broader base which

gradually merges with an inflated body whorl. The whorls of the spire

are clearly inflated. The ovate aperture is rather angularly narrowed

above but is rounded below. The shell is smooth, glossy, with a pale

yellow horny tinge. The sculpturation consists of close-set fine trans-

piral striations, which are seen only under binocular microscope. In

addition to these a few widely-spaced spiral striae were also seen. The

colour of the columellar fold is opaque white and is a rather character-

istic feature of this species.

Locality. This species has been so far noticed only in streams and

standing water on the banks of rivers Mula and Mutha. They were

found attached to various floating objects such as twigs. (1, 7, 8, 9, 13,

ei22, 23, 24, 26, 31).

Measurements. H—18 mm. ; DM—10 mm.; AH—10 mm. ; AW—

6 mm.

112. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (A)

16. Lymnaea pinguis Dohrn. (Fig. 16)

The shell is ovately oblong or more or less spindle-shaped. The

shell is narrower in the middle in relation to its height than the other

Lymnaea species. The spire is elevated and consists of about four

whorls which are slightly concave. The spire terminates in an acute

apex. The body whorl is elongately ovate, inflated, and measures more

than two-thirds of the total length. The aperture is slightly oblique

and elongately oval. The outer lip-is thin and the columellar lip slightly

reflected and bears callus. The surface of the shell is closely striated —

transpirally. The shell is pale horny brown and semi-translucent.

Locality. This is a very widely distributed species occurring on Mutha

River banks and in ponds and pools. The specimens were collected from

habitats with abundant sphagnum and other emergent aquatic vegetation.

(1p 2ESP4 25,07, S386, 19520 929):

Measurements. H—22 mm.; DM—10 mm. ; AH—16 mm.; AW—

9 mm.

17. Lymnaea auricularia (Draparnaud) (Fig. 17)

The shell is semiglobose, squarish, and rather thin, with pallid horny

colour. The conical spire consists of three whorls which are convex

and form a sharply pointed apex. The body whorl is abruptly widened

and is greatly inflated. The large and broad aperture has a thin and

expanded outer lip. The columellar lip is callus, twisted, and covers

the narrow umbilicus. The surface of the shell is irregularly striated in

the direction of the lines of growth.

Locality. This species is very cosmopolitan in distribution and

occurs in every type of habitat. It has been noticed in all the spots

visited and particularly in standing water.

Measurements. H—22 mm.; DM—-13 mm.; AH—16 mm.;

~AW—38.7 mm.

Family PLANORBIDAE

18. Planorbis (Indoplanorbis) exustus (Deshayes) (Fig. 18)

It has been quite difficult to determine the identity of the various

Planorbids collected in the course of this work. The species is extreme-

ly variable in its size, form of its spire, and other architectural details.

The shell is relatively large, moderately thick, and flattened on both

sides. The shell is usually sinistral, discoidal, with the spire depressed

and sunk in the expanded body whorl. The three whorls are quite con-

vex and are spirally coiled in the horizontal plane. The basal part of

the shell shows the wide umbilicus and the whorls of the spire. The

aperture is ear-shaped and enlarged. The outer lip is relatively thicken-

ed and feebly reflected outwards. The shell is transpirally and finely

ON THE FRESHWATER MOLLUSCS OF POONA 113

striated throughout, and the body whorl shows more distinct trans-

piral ridges. The range of variation in colour is considerable.

Locality. The species has been collected from sluggish streams,

stagnant ponds, marshy spots, and is so common that none can miss

it. The presence of haemoglobin enables them to inhabit even foul

water. Specimens were collected even from portion of the Mutha

River where the city sewage flows out (almost everywhere except fast

flowing rivers and streams).

Measurements. H—7 mm.; DM—15 mm. ; dm—10 mm. ; AH—

10 mm. ; AW—7.5 mm.

19. Anisus (Gyraulus) convexiusculus (Hutton) (Fig. 19)

This is one of the smallest mollusca recorded in this account.

The shell is strongly depressed with the sunken spire giving an

appearance of a flattened disc. The shell is dextral with four to

five whorls and has_ well-defined sutures. The oblique aperture

is lunately oval with the outer lip evenly rounded. The umbilicus is

wide, exposing the involutions from below. The surface is polished and

of pale horn colour, with close-set oblique transpiral striae.

Locality. The species is common and occurs in abundance in tanks,

ponds, ditches, and many other places with vegetation. It is widely

distributed. The one figured and measured is from the University

campus. (2, 3, 4,5, 12, 16, 19, 20, 29).

Measurements. H—1.78 mm. ; DM—6.5 mm. ; dm—4.5 mm. ; AH

—1.80 mm. ; AW—2 mm.

Order STYLOMMATOPHORA

Series ACHATINACEA

Family SUBULINIDAE

S. Family OPEATINAE

20. Opeas gracile (Hutton) (Fig. 20)

The shell is small, thin-walled, and turreted. The spire is gradually

tapering and the apex is rounded. The body whorl is conspicuous and

equal to two preceding ones. The number of whorls is variable from

eight to twelve. The aperture is distinctly longer than broad, semi-

ovate, but slightly narrowed above. The columellar lip is almost

straight and partly reflected, while the outer lip is thin and sharp-edged.

The shell is uniformly pale-horny-coloured but variable in the different

hues of yellow colour. Striae are not discernible to the naked eye.

Locality. A couple of specimens were collected from the Mula

River near Yerawada. The species is reported from Poona before and

114 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (i)

has a wide range of distribution. However, it is not so common in the

Poona area.

Measurements. H—9 mm. ; DW—2.9 mm.; AH—2.8 mm.; AW—

1.9 mm. The measurements are smaller than those given by previous

authors.

S. Family RUMININAE

21. Zootecus chion (Pfeiffer) (Fig. 21)

The shell is of moderate size, smooth, and glossy. The spire is

elongated and terminates in a conical apex. There are seven whorls,

of which the body whorl is large and is approximately one-third the

total length and is well rounded below. The penultimate and ante-pen-

ultimate whorls are almost as broad as the body whorl. Thus the shell

has a characteristic cylindrical pupiform appearance. The aperture is

semi-oval with inner lip slightly reflected to partly occlude the umbilicus.

The peristome is slightly thickened, with callus. The surface of the shell

is covered by close-set fine transpiral striae.

Locality. The species is represented by a single intact shell. The

specimen was collected from the banks of Mula-Mutha River near Bund

Garden. This species has not been reported before from Poona.

Measurements. H—12 mm.; DM—5 mm. ; dm—4 mm. ; AH—3

mm. ; AW—2.2 mm. :

22. Zootecus insularis (Ehrenberg) (Fig. 22)

The shell is pupiform, subcylindrical, and thin. There are about

seven-and-a-half whorls and they are moderately convex. The body

whorl is slightly above the aperture. The aperture is semi-oval pointed

above with the columellar margin dilated, thickened, and partially cover-

ing the narrow umbilicus. The sculpture consists of close-set fine

subvertical striae. The shell is translucent, corneous-white.

Locality. The specimen was collected from the same locality as the

preceding one. ;

Measurements. H—8.5 mm. ; DM—3.7 mm.; dm—1.8 mm.; AH

—18 mm.; AW—1.3 mm. The species is extremely variable in size but the

specimen measured here confirms to the measurements given by Gude

(1914).

Series ARIOPHANTACEA

Family ARIOPHANTIDAE

S. Family - MACROCHLAMYDINABE

23. Macrochlamys pedina (Benson) (Figs. 23 & 24)

The genus Macrochlamys is represented by a little over hundred

species in this continent and it is difficult to recognise the different forms

ON THE FRESHWATER MOLLUSCS OF POONA 115

as the differences in the shells are so small indeed, that they had to be

arranged according to locality (Blanford & Godwin-Austen, 1908).

The shell is depressed, very thin, and translucent. The spire is

conoid but very low. The whorls are six-and-a-half to seven in number

and are slightly convex above. The body whorl is bluntly subangulate

above the periphery but rounded below. The lunately round aperture

is oblique to the axis. The peristome is thin, while the columellar lip

is vertical and reflected to cover part of the umbilicus. The umbilicus

is wide and conspicuous. The shell is more or less smooth with minute

close-set transpiral striations. The colour is variable from pale yellow

to fulvous horny.

Locality. This species has been reported from Poona and is known

to be common in a considerable part of old Bombay Presidency. The

specimen was collected from the vicinity of a tank in the Poona

University campus.

Measurements. H—15 mm. ; DM—33 mm. ; AH—14 mm. ; AW—

8.5 mm. The measurements are slightly more than those given by

Blanford & Godwin-Austen (1908). This is one of the largest Indian

species.

24. Macrochlamys infausta Blanford (Fig. 25)

The shell is thin, depressed, and subglobose. There are six whorls,

rather convex, with well-impressed sutures. The spire is very low and

broadly conoidal. The body whorl is relatively broader and rounded at

the periphery. The aperture is oblique to the axis, and is lunately

round. The peristome is thin and the columellar margin curved and

carried forward without being reflected. The sculpture consists of fine

- close-set longitudinal striae. The shell is translucent, delicate, and

fragile, with a dull oily lustre above. The colour is brownish tawny

and glassy below. The species differs from M. pedina by its smaller size,

rounded periphery, and relatively more open perforation.

Locality. The species is quite common in gardens and parks.

Specimens were collected from the ponds of the Sambhaji Park and the

University campus. (1, 4, 5, 8, 19, 20).

Measurements. H—9 mm.; DM—18 mm.; dm—15 mm. ; AH—8

mm. ; AW—5 mm.

25. Cryptozona (Xestina) belangeri var. bombayana (Pfeiffer) (Fig. 26)

The shell is large, more or less globose, with depressed and low spire.

- The whorls are slightly inflated and distinctly convex with well- impressed

sutures. The aperture is roundly lunate, not as broad as high. The

peristome is thin and the columellar margin is slightly reflected. The-

surface of the shell is obliquely striated with decussated impressed lines.

which are sometimes absent. The basal region is relatively smooth. The

116 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (i)

colour is extremely variable, ranging from dull white, pale horny, and

sometimes to tawny brown.

Locality. This is considered as a variety of C. belangeri on account

of its small size. There is significant variation in the size of shells

collected from different localities. The species is available in large —

numbers in the Poona University campus especially during the wet season.

(19, 20).

Measurements. One specimen: H—25 mm. ; DM—28 mm. ; dm—2?2 |

mm. ; AH—20 mm. ; AW—14 mm. ; Another specimen: H—20 mm. ;

DM—24 mm. ; dm—18 mm. ; AH—15 mm. ; AW—10.5 mm. _-

26. Ariophanta laevipes (Miller) (Fig. 27)

The shell is relatively depressed, rather thin, with coloured bands.

The spire is low, and there are five whorls which are more or less con-

vex. The body whorl has an angulated periphery but is rounded below,

The apex is depressedly conoidal. The aperture is very oblique and

almost diagonal to the axis. The peristome is moderately thickened and

reflected below. The shell is obliquely striated and decussated with fine |

spiral lines. The lower part of the body whorl is smooth. The ground |

colour of the shell is variable from white to brown or dark brown. But |

the species is characterised by three spiral chestnut bands, one close to |

the suture, and one above and one below the periphery. The parietal |

wall of the aperture and the area surrounding the umbilicus (Periompha- |

lus) have the same colour as the body whorl.

Locality. The specimens are not so abundant in Poona as Crypto- |

zona. The species is common in gardens and the specimens in the |

collection are from the University campus. (19, 20).

mm.

27. Ariophanta bajadera (Pfeiffer) (Fig. 28)

Measurements. H—17 mm. ; DM—28 mm. ; AH—11 mm. ; AW—8_-

The shell is of moderate size and rather thin. The spire is bluntly |

conical with apex which is broadly obtuse. There are four-and-a-half |

to five whorls which are convex with the well-impressed sutures. The |

body whorl is swollen and rounded at the periphery. The body whorl |

is slightly inclined below at the aperture. The aperture is diagonal to |

the axis and roundly lunate. The peristome is thin and whitish. The |

surface of the shell is sculptured with coarsely plicate striae but is rela-

tively smooth below the body whorl. The shell is brownish horny and |

is glossy.

Locality. A few broken pieces together with an intact empty shell |

were collected from the banks of Mutha River near Vithalwadi (Aran-

yeshwar). The area was covered with small shrubs. The specimens

were few and probably this species is not so common. (20, 23).

JOURN. BoMBAY Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE V

23. Macrochlamys pedina (Benson) x | ; 24. Macrochlamys pedina (lower

view) x 1; 25. Macrochlamys infausta Blanford x 1.5; 26. Cryptozona

(Xestina) belangeri var. bombayana (Pfeiffer) x 1.3 ; 27. Ariophanta: laevipes

(Miller) (lower view) x 1; 28. Ariophanta bajadera (Pfeiffer) (lower view)

x 1; 29. Planispira proxima (Férussac) x 1.5; 30. Planispira proxima

(Férussac) (lower view) x 1.8

CLA 5 J wuld opaupmvosn opurrys4u “yu *cort nr (mein aoxtUy eUbiag Smupiocn OT a a

DT “PE: (SARA Yo] OY} JO MOA JOUUT) (YOILUTe']) symulsipim suapyjauUUT “EE < (oBUIY) ST x (e277)

Sisuas00dspu “IBA DIDSNAIOD (VISKaLMIDg) DISKaL “TES CT x (C9]) sisuasoodsou *1eA vMSnNA109 (DISAaLMD_) DISKALMDG BG

; be

JA dLVTg "00S ‘“ISIE] “LVN AVaWog ‘Nanos

ON THE FRESHWATER MOLLUSCS OF POONA 117

Measurements. H—20 mm. ; DM—27 mm.; dm—20 mm.; AH—14

mm. ; AW—12 mm.

Series HELICACEA

Family PLEURODONTIDAE

28. Planispira proxima (Férussac) (Figs. 29 & 30)

The shell is moderate in size, conoidly depressed, and is rather glo-

bose. The whorls are five to five-and-a-half in number, increasing rapidly

in size until the body whorl is dilated near the aperture. The whorls

are convex and sutures are deeply impressed. The apex is obtuse as the

spire is depressed. The body whorl is slightly inclined towards the

aperture, which is somewhat oblique to the axis and is broadly ovate.

The margins of the aperture approach towards each other and are united

by a thin callus on the parietal wall. The peristome is_ thickened,

expanded, and reflected. The umbilicus is moderately open and more

or less perspective. The sculpturation consists of close-set, rather coarse,

oblique transpiral striations. The colour of the shell is light fawn with

a brown band at the periphery.

The genus is characterised by the body whorl strongly deflexed in

front and the converging ends of the aperture. The species shares some

characters with P. albicostis, P. fallaciosa, P. crassicostata, P. colletti, P-

footei, and P. vittata, but can be separated from them on the basis of the

above characters.

Locality. The genus has been reported from Poona and the adjoining

parts of Maharashtra. The shells are not common. A couple of good

specimens were collected from Mutha River banks near Vithalwadi.

Measurements. H—12 mm. ; DM—21 mm. ; dm—15 mm. ; AH—9

mm. ; AW—8.5 mm.

Class PELECYPODA (BIVALVIA)

Order EULAMELLIBRANCHIATA

S. Order SCHIZODONTA

Series UNIONACEAE

Family UNIONIDAE

29. Parreysia (Parreysia) corrugata var. nagpoorensis (Lea) (Figs. 31,

32) |

The shell is of large size, transversely ovate, sub-triangular and in-

equilateral. The shell is moderately inflated and the valves are almost

as long as high. The anterior end is narrowly rounded, while the poste-

118 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

rior end is more or less broadly angular above and below. The promi-

nent umbo is slightly inclined forwards. The periostracum is rufous-

brown tinged with green towards the ventral margin. The umbonal

region is ornamented with divaricating obliquely radial ridges. The

hinge margin is slightly inclined downwards in front of and behind the

umbo. The inner surface of the shell is pearly, slightly pinkish, and

brilliantly iridescent. The cardinals are strong, jagged, and crenulated.

The laterals are lamellar, elongated, and slightly curved.

Locality. The specimens are quite common on the banks of Mutha,

Mula, and Mula-Mutha Rivers. The empty shells have also been noticed

in the canals which have more or less permanent water throughout the

year. (20; 23; 24:25, 26):

Measurements. L—45 mm. ; H—22 mm. ; DV—20 mm.

30. Lamellidens marginalis (Lamarck) (Fig. 33)

The shell is oblongly ovate, approximately twice as long as high, and

relatively more inflated. The umbones are prominent. The anterior

margin is narrower than the posterior, the former evenly rounded while

the latter is roundly angular. The shell is thin and covered with

blackish brown or greenish brown epidermis which is frequently worn

away in the adult shells and more particularly near the umbones. The

inner surface is iridescent and pearly. ?

Locality. This species is available in Poona but is not so common as

the next one. The species is available in the Mula-Mutha River ; the

specimens were collected from the river near Yerawada and a mile

further up.

Measurements. L—76 mm. ; H—40 mm. ; DV—30 mm.

31. Lamellidens corrianus (Lea) (Fig. 34)

The shell is narrowly elliptical, strongly transverse, and is longer in

proportion to the height. The valves are relatively thin. The anterior

margin is rounded, while the posterior margin is sub-angular. The beaks

are not so prominent and usually the periostracal layer is eroded in

fully grown shells. The ventral margin is roundly curved. The cardinal

teeth, single in the left valve and paired in the right valve, are thin and

bladed. The lateral teeth are elongated and nearly straight. The pearly

white iridescence of the nacreous layer is characteristic.

Locality. This species is more common in Poona rivers than L.

marginalis, of which this was considered as a variety. Specimens are

available in Mula and Mutha rivers.

Measurements. L—74 mm. ; H—37 mm. ; DV—20 mm.

ON THE FRESHWATER MOLLUSCS OF POONA i 29

S. Order HETERODONTA

Series SPHAERIACEA

Family CORBICULIDAE

32. Corbicula regularis Prime (Figs. 35, 36)

The shell is triangular, ovate, transverse, and equilateral. The

anterior and posterior margins are similarly rounded. Externally the

shell is strongly and concentrically striated. The periostracum is dark

brownish green while the interior is violet and glossy. The hinge bears

three divergent cardinal teeth which are well developed in each valve.

- The lateral teeth are elongated, lamelliform, and bear fine transverse

striae. The pallial line is continuous and is distinct with a shallow

pallial sinus. 7

Locality. This isa common species in this area and empty shells are

abundant on the banks of the river. The specimens were collected from

many places near the rivers which had a muddy bottom.

Measurements. L—25 mm. ; H—20 mm. ; DM—14 mm.

CONCLUSIONS

A consideration of the preceding systematic account leads to a

few generalisations and the following points of interest :

i. The species belonging to the genera Cyclophorus and Paludomus

do not seem to be the true residents of the area investigated.

It is probable that they are washed down from the westerly

mountainous region.

li. The small size of the species of Opeas and Zootecus adds to

the difficulties in their detection in the field. Even so they

have been reported previously from this region and are

probably distributed more widely than indicated here.

iii. The most common Molluscan residents of Poona are the species

belonging to the Gastropod genera, viz. Vivipara, Bithynia,

Melania, Lymnaea, Planorbis, Anisus, Macrochlamys, Cry-

ptozona, and Ariophanta. The Pelecypoda, represented by

the genera, viz. Parreysia, Lamellidens, and Corbicula, are

equally common.

iv. Other genera such as Rachis, Cerastus, Euplecta, and Ptychotrema

of Gastropoda and Nodularia, Vellorita of Pelecypoda are not

only known to occur in this region but have also been

collected in the course of the present study. However, they

have not been included in this account as these genera contain

several annectent forms and their exact identity is being

determined, |

120

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

v. It has been noticed in the course of this work that the various

species of the genus Planorbis are difficult to separate on the

basis of only the shell characters.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The work was carried out under a scheme of freshwater fauna of

Poona and adjoining areas supported by a research grant from the

University of Poona.

Acknowledgements are due to the authorities of

the University for financial assistance and facilities.

REFERENCES

Annandale, N., & Prashad, B. (1919) :

Fauna of Certain Small Streams in the

Bombay Presidency. Rec. Ind. Mus.

16: 139.

Blanford, W.T., & Godwin-Austen, H.

H. (1908): Fauna British India Series I

(Mollusca, Testacellidae, and Zonitidae).

Gude, G. K. (1914): Fauna British

India Series II (Mollusca—Trochomar-

phidae—Janellidae).

Gude, G. K. (1921) : Fauna British

India Series III. (Mollusca—Land Oper-

culates).

Preston, H. B. (1915) : Fauna British

India Series (Freshwater Gastropoda &

Pelecypoda).

SATYAMURTY, S. T. (1960) : The land

and freshwater mollusca in the collection

of the Madras Government Museum.

Bull, Madr. Govt. Mus. (Nat. Hist.

Series) 6 (4) : 1-174 with 21 plates.

The nidification of some common

Indian birds—Part 1

B. S. LAMBA

Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta

INTRODUCTION

Very little is known about the breeding habits of common Indian

birds. Monumental works of savants like Hume (1873, 1889) and

Baker (1932) on the subject of nidification deal mainly with the

breeding seasons, situation and location of nests, descriptions and

measurements of nests and eggs. Many interesting aspects like court-

ship, nest building, territory, incubation, etc. have been completely

left out in the majority of the cases. Although many ornithologists and

naturalists have written from time to time about one or more of these

aspects of some species or the other, yet our present knowledge of

the subject remains sadly deficient.

Material and method. I first got interested in the subject while I

was working on the systematics of birds of Hoshiarpur at Panjab Uni-

versity during 1951-52. But the really good opportunity to pursue my

interest was provided by the Virus Research Centre, Poona’, where I

worked during 1953-57. In 1953 the Virus Research Centre became

interested in nestling birds considering the possibility of their being

potential propagators of arthropod-borne viruses. I was asked to keep

an eye on the breeding pattern of some of the common species of birds

in and around Poona. Accordingly, nests of common species of birds

in and around Poona were located by scouting the area. A systematic

record was kept of the situation and location of the individual nests.

The nests were visited at intervals of one to four days and the contents

noted after having a look at the nest. Similar observations were repeated

at the Vellore (N. Arcot, Madras) Field Station of the V. R. C., Poona,

in 1955-56 and at the Akividu (W. Godavari, Andhra) Field Station in

1956-57 where, in addition to the resident breeding birds, many species

of water birds collect in enormous numbers to breed in and around

Kolair Lake. On joining the Zoological Survey of India in December

+The Virus Research Centre is jointly maintained by the Indian Council of

Medical Research and the Rockefeller Foundation.

| 122. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

1957, I was encouraged to keep up my studies, and made observations

in and around Calcutta, at Chilka Lake (Puri, Orissa), and in the

Balaghat Forest Division (Madhya Pradesh).

Data gathered from these observations and other observational notes

kept from time to time are being utilised in the preparation of this

series.

Acknowledgements. I am indebted to the Director, Virus Research

Centre, Poona, and the Director, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta,

for the facilities extended for carrying out these studies. I express my

thanks to Dr. J. Austin Kerr and Dr. Telford H. Work of Virus

Research Centre, Poona, Lt.-Col. S. L. Kalra of the Armed Forces

Medical College, Poona, Dr. B. Biswas of the Zoological Survey of

India, Calcutta, and Dr. Salim Ali and Mr. Humayun Abdulali of the

Bombay Natural History Society for their helpful suggestions. I also

thank Prof. G. P. Sharma, Head of the Department of Zoology,

Panjab University, Chandigarh, for having initiated my interest in the

subject.

1. THE COMMON INDIAN House Crow, Corvus splendens (VIEILLOT),

WITE NOTES ON BROOD PARASITISM ON IT BY THE INDIAN KOEL, Eudynamys

scolopacea (LINN.)*

Previous work. The Common Indian House Crow needs no intro-

duction. It is by far the commonest bird of India and yet not much is

known about its nidification. Hume (1873: 413-14) was perhaps the

first ornithologist to collate the data then available on the subject. But

the information was rather sketchy and far from complete. Many

interesting aspects like courtship, nest building, territory, incubation,

mortality in young and feeding the young, etc. were, however, left

completely untouched even in his later (Hume 1889: 8-12) and more

elaborate compilation, presumably because nothing much was then

known about them. Dewar (1905) gave a very useful, still more elabo-

rate and original account of the breeding habits of this bird, but he too

failed to throw any light on some of these aspects, especially territory,

incubation period, and mortality in the young. Many ornithologists

and naturalists (Adam, 1873; Butler, 1875; Davidson, 1878 ; Cripps,

1878 ; Scully, 1879; Doig, 1879; Vidal, 1880; Ried, 1881 ; Swinhoe,

1885 ; Barnes, 1886 ; Davidson, 1887; Taylor, 1887; Oates, 1889a ;

Munn, 1894; Jesse, 1902 ; Fergusson, 1903; Prater, 1926; Ali, 1926,

1946, 1953 ; Ali & Abdulali, 1937; Baker, 1926, 1932 ; Whistler, 1928 ;

Inglis, 1931-34 ; Rao, 1936 ; Sen, 1947 to cite a few) have written about

the nidification of this bird from time to time but the subject is still

far from exhausted.

1 This section is based almost entirely on observations made when I was working

with the Virus Research Centre, Poona.

NIDIFICATION OF SOME COMMON INDIAN BIRDS—PART 1 123

Breeding season. The breeding season of the common Indian House

Crow, Corvus splendens (Vieillot), seems to differ slightly in different

- parts of India. In this connection Hume as early as 1889 stated that

the ‘ breeding season par excellence is June and July but an occasional

nest will be found earlier even in Upper India and in Southern and

Eastern India a great number lay in May’. According to Dewar

(1919 : 27-28) the breeding season of this species ‘in Northern, Western

and Central India is June to August, most eggs being laid between June

10th and 30th. In Bengal and Burma from March to May, also in

January and December. In South India from April to June, a few birds

however, nest in November and December or February and March.’

Whistler (1928 :8) remarked that the ‘ breeding season is very regular in

the North-west, eggs being laid from the middle of June till the middle

of July. In the rest of India numbers lay in April and May and _ occa-

sionally nests are found in November, December and January.’ Baker

(1932: 16) writing on the subject stated: ‘Over Eastern Bengal,

Bihar and Arakan the normal breeding season is March and April but

in Dacca and Mymensingh there are two well-defined seasons : Decem-

ber, January and February in winter and April, May, and rarely June

in the hot weather. In Ratnagiri and in other parts of Bombay Presi-

dency Messrs. Vidal and Davidson found that they had two similar

seasons, the principal months being November and December and then

again in Apriland May. Over the rest of India the favourite months

seem to be June and July.’ Ali (1946: 2) writing on the subject

states : ‘In Western India, House-Crows nest between April and June,

in Bengal slightly earlier; while in the heavy rainfall areas of SW. India

breeding is usually over before the onset of the South-west Monsoon in

May.’ .

Around Poona where a part of this study was made, the breeding

season commenced by the end of April, most eggs and nests were found

in May-June, and fledglings in June-July. Occasional nests were also

met within August. On the other hand at Vellore (N. Arcot, Madras)

where a major portion of the present work was executed the nests did

not start coming up till nearly the middle of May. Most of the eggs

were found in June and most fledglings in July. The breeding season

lingered fairly well into August, when a few nests with fledglings could

be located.

Mating. With the advent of the breeding season large flocks, which

feed and habitually hang about near markets, rice and ground-nut

mills, municipal refuse-dumping grounds and cultivated fields, start

breaking up. Partners are now sought out and courted. The pairs

keep fairly close together even when feeding. At this time if any one

happens to look for crows one can find them sitting in pairs on shady

124 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

trees or in other shady spots, resting after their meals, during the

hottest part of the day.

Apparently the crow does not like to make a public exhibition of its

connubial affections. Whereas it does not mind a little indulgence in pub-

lic, by way of head-tickling in a tree, on a house top, or any other con-

venient spot, it is rather discreet about its sexual intercourse. Although

the most common bird everywhere, very rarely indeed does one observe

crows copulating. Copulation usually takes place in trees, sometimes

on house tops or on the ground, and occasionally even in the middle of a

busy road (Acharya, 1951). No particular part of the day is preferred,

and it is most frequent when the nest is under construction. It may

be preceded by mild spooning (head-tickling) or the passage of a tooth-

some morsel from male to female but, as frequently as not, it comes

off without any preliminaries. The male having secured a hold on

the female’s head with his beak mounts on her back, and she in turn

sits quietly with neck drawn in and wings spread out a little.

Balancing himself with his foot-and-beak hold the male brings his

hind quarters down to eftect a cloacal connection. The whole pro-

cess hardly takes a few seconds. Sometimes, however, the male is not

able to establish the connection at the first attempt, either because of

losing his balance while lowering his hind part or owing to the

movement of the female at the crucial moment under his weight. In such

cases the male lowers his hind quarters a number of times against

the female cloacal opening.

Nest building. Mating in crows is indicative of the fact that they

have either started building nests or are going to do so shortly.

The first step towards the construction of the nest is the selection of

a suitable site, of which there appears to be no lack for the House

Crow. It is not known which sex makes the final decision as regards

the suitability of the site, but I have reasons to believe that the

female does have an important say in the matter. It is not an un-

common sight in the breeding season to see a bird, stick in beak,

moving from one tree to another, hesitant to put it down, being

followed closely by another bird with or without a stick. On three

such occasions I have shot the leader in order to determine the sex

and all the three turned out to be females.

A thin vertical fork near the top of the tree, or on one of the outer-

most branches of any of the larger trees like Dalbergia sissoo, Acacia

arabica, Tamarindus indicus, Melia azadirachta, or Ficus is a favourite

site. But in the localities where large trees are wanting or have already

been occupied by others of its own species, it does not hesitate to avail

itself of other sites provided by smaller trees, edges and nooks of

buildings (Hume, 1889 : 8; Baker, 1932 : 17), telephone and telegraph

NIDIFICATION OF SOME COMMON INDIAN BIRDS—PART 1 125

poles and wires (Dewar, 1905 : 25). It is seldom that a site inside a

building is selected; the most famous and historic of such cases

on record is that reported by Benjamin Aitken to A. O. Hume

(1889 : 10) of a pair of Madras crows who selected the very narrow top

ledge of a pillar in the verandah of an office to construct a nest and

took nearly five months to finally build a nest which did not fall off the

ledge. The site selected is invariably in or near human habitation.

After the site for the nest has been selected construction starts

in right earnest. Both the birds go hunting for twigs/sticks together.

Dry, usually thorny, sticks and twigs are picked up from under

trees, hedges around the fields and farms, and from the firewood

piles of the poorer classes of labourers who collect dry sticks for cooking.

If fallen sticks are not easily available, green twigs are wrenched off

trees. Having secured a stick the female returns directly to the

nesting site to fix itin position. The male usually accompanies her back

even if he has not yet secured or found a stick of his own, though he

usually manages to find one. The female first arranges her stick, and

later the one passed on to her by the male if he has brought one. The

male does not do any actual building himself but waits till she has .

fixed both the sticks and then they fly off together in search of more.

The arranging of a stick generally does not take more than a few

seconds. However, when a difficult spot is reached it may take a couple

of minutes for the female to adjust a projecting stick to her satisfaction.

As many as thirty sticks may be brought and arranged in an hour during

the peak of building activity.

In the earlier stages of construction the sticks are arranged in the

fork in criss-cross fashion resulting in a circular platform 22-27 cm. in

diameter. When this platform is three to four sticks thick, additional

sticks are laid on it tangentially, converting it into a shallow cup

7-10 cm. high and 5-8 cm. thick. The sticks, however, are not the only

material used in the construction of this outer cup. Instances are on

record when soda-water bottle wires, brandy bottle wires (Hume,

1889 :9, Baker, 1932: 16, Dewar, 1929 : 27-28), and gold and silver

_ spectacle frames (Dewar, 1905 : 26) have been used in the construction

of this outer structure.

The inside of this cup is lined with finer material like khus and

other grass roots, coconut and other vegetable fibres, grasses, human

and horse hair. Hume (1889 :9) mentions finding wool and rags

in addition to the above materials. Dewar (1929 : 27-28) writes of

having come across pine needles, hard twigs and feathers, while Baker

(1932 : 16) mentions a nest with the lining comprised of an old cap.

Coming back to the mode of construction, the actual construction

of the outer cup and the inner lining is done by the female alone, the

male only helping by bringing in suitable material. For the purpose of

126 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

lining, wet or green vegetable material is sought probably for their

flexibility ; dry material is also collected and wetted before use. The

female sits inside the nest and spends hours at a stretch fixing up the

lining, and during this time the male brings in the required material.

When supplies from the male are inadequate, both the partners make

trips together.

Both the male and the female keep busy throughout the better part

of the day bringing in material. There are interludes, of course, for

meals, a little bit of love-making or a rest for a few minutes, in between

the material-hunting trips. From observations made of 14 separate

nesting pairs it appears that it usually takes an average pair about four

to seven days for completion of a nest with lining and all.

The time factor appears to be directly proportional to the availa-

bility of the building material in the locality.

The finished nest is, generally speaking, a large (25-30 cm. diameter)

shallow cup of sticks and twigs, roughly put together and occasionally

containing metal strips and wires ; the inner cavity is 12-15 cm. across

and 7-10 cm. in depth, lined with roots, grass, vegetable fibres, animal

hair, and other soft materials already mentioned.

Territory. The house crow does not seem to mind other members

of the species building their nests in the same tree or as a matter of fact

onthe same branch. As many as nine nests are sometimes located in

one large tree. To all appearances there are no territorial limitations

and all birds, except birds of prey and the koel, are welcome to make

use of the nesting tree in any way they think fit.

Laying and clutch size. The eggs are laid only when the nest 1s

complete ; sometimes a couple of days may lapse between the comp-

letion of the nest and the laying of the first egg. The female starts

sitting in the nest from the time the first egg is laid. Four or five eggs

are normally laid at intervals of twenty-four to forty-eight hours each ;

occasionally three (Dewar, 1929 : 27-28), and rarely six (Hume, 1889 : 9,

Dewar, 1929 : 27-28) eggs, may be laid.

As much variation in the clutch size of this bird has been recorded

by various workers in the past it will not, perhaps, be entirely

irrelevant to mention here that the clutch size in indeterminate layers

like this bird is conditioned by a number of ecological and physiological

factors, details of which can be found in Lack’s (1947) paper on the

significance of clutch size.

The eggs vary a good deal in shape, size, colour, and markings.

Typically the eggs are broad ovals pointed towards the small end, but

pyriform, elongate, and globular varieties are commonly met with.

The eggs are hard and fine in texture and fairly glossy. The ground

colour is any shade of bluish green. All eggs are blotched, speckled

NIDIFICATION OF SOME COMMON INDIAN BIRDS—PART 1 127

and streaked with dull reddish brown, sepia, grey, and neutral tints.

The shade and intensity of blotches, specks, and streaks vary a great deal

in the various eggs and also in various parts of the same egg, usually

near the ends. The size varies from 24-29 mm. x 33-40 mm.

Incubation. The incubation for the most part is done by the female.

The male relieves her at intervals during the day when she goes out

for food and a much needed outing. At night the female alone sits

in the nest.

It will be interesting to remark here the reaction of the incubating

birds to strange eggs and foreign objects appearing all of a sudden in

the nest. Usually the nest is never left unattended. One of the birds

mounts guard when the other is away and does not ordinarily leave

the nest till the partner relieves him or her. But the sight of a

koel in the neighbourhood or of a man climbing the tree on which

the nest is located or another tree in the vicinity is too much for

the crow to endure. Losing all self control it launches in sudden fury an

attack all by itself or joins the mélée of the brotherhood for an attack

on the intruder, forgetting for a while its own eggs. It is probably

in such unguarded moments of extreme excitement that it is deceived by

a female koel or an experimenting ornithologist who seizes the oppor-

tunity of placing its eggs in the nest or replacing the crow’s eggs

by some other object (s).

Intelligent as the bird is, it is hard to believe that it does not

notice the change when it returns. But it may react differently to the

visit of the two intruders. After having noticed the man’s approach and

then the change in the contents of the nest, it may attribute the

change to the visit of the man and may abandon the nest, with its

contents. But such desertions are very rare ; in my experience they are

not more than 5 per cent, presumably because the crow is not much

afraid of man.

If the nest has been robbed completely it is sure to be deserted.

If only a part of the contents has been removed or replaced, apparently

no great notice is taken no matter how strikingly different the

replacement may be. On several occasions I have removed one or

two of its eggs and replaced them after painting them scarlet and

brown with transparent photographic water dyes, and they have been

accepted coolly. Thrice a crow accepted eggs of a jungle crow, twice

of a common Myna and once a Paddy bird’s added by ones and

twos to its own clutch. It refused to incubate a full clutch replaced by

Myna’s eggs and another one by those of a Drongo, but readily

accepted a jungle crow’s clutch in replacement. It appears that this

species accepts strange eggs and foreign objects if they resemble its own

clutch or if one or more of its own eggs are left in the nest along

with the replacements.

128 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

Period of incubation. By the period of incubation I here mean

the time lag between laying of the last egg and the appearance of

the last hatchling. Of the 20 nests watched at Vellore for the determi-

nation of the period of incubation, in fifteen the eggs hatched out

after sixteen days of incubation, in two it took 17 days, in two the eggs

did not hatch at all, while one was deserted on the 7th day.

It will be interesting to note here that, in the cases where the eggs

did not hatch, the birds incubated for 27 days in one and 30 days

in the other before giving up and finally deserting the nest.

At Poona on two occasions I collected crow’s nests with eggs,

for ectoparasite study, which according to my previous observations

should have been incubated for more than a week. To my surprise

they failed to show any signs of developing embryo on being opened ;

evidently the clutches were infertile.

All the eggs in a clutch, do not hatch, especially in clutches of five.

Clutches of four and three hatch a comparatively larger percentage than

those of five. At Vellore it was observed that of twenty-five eggs

from five clutches of five eggs each, twenty (80%) hatched, of thirty-two

eggs from eight clutches of four eggs each twenty-eight (87.5%) hatched,

while all the 12 eggs (100%) from four clutches of three eggs each hatched

out.

The young in the nest. The young hatch out one after the other, at

intervals of twenty-four to forty-eight hours. The newly hatched young,

like other nidicolous young, are entirely devoid of nestling down. They

are unable to stand up and lie helplessly on their delicate and almost

transparent abdomens. The body is light flesh coloured. The eyes are

closed. The beak and claws are soft and fleshy, and are of the same

colour as the rest of the body. The Neossoptiles make their first

appearance between forty-eight and seventy-two hours after hatching.

They consist of prepennae which are duly replaced by regular contour

feathers. The remiges and rectrices appear in the second week and look

like gramophone needles at first. Then a tuft of hair-like feathers

(barbs) appears at the needle point. At this stage, with elongated shafts

and tufts of hair at the distal end, they resemble miniature artists’

brushes arranged in rows of uneven sizes. The tuft gradually elongates

into rachis and vane while the shaft ultimately forms the calamus. By

the end of the fourth week the young are fully fledged. The colour of

the plumage of the fully fledged young is similar to that of adult bird.

Apparently the freshly hatched nestlings are not fed, or rather are not

able to accept food, till about 24 hours after their emergence from the

shell. Some time between forty-eight and seventy-two hours their eyes

open and by that time the feeding of the young by the parents is in

full swing. Both parents bring food and feed the young. One of the

NIDIFICATION OF SOME COMMON INDIAN BIRDS—PART I 129

parents is always around during the early days to guard them from pre-

dators, to warn them, or to protect them from the hot sun or a light

shower of rain, while the other is hunting food for them.

Just as all the eggs that are laid do not hatch, all the young ones that

hatch out do not live to leave the nest as will be seen from Table I.

Table I

MORTALITY IN FLEDGLINGS OF THE HOUSE Crow Corvus splendens

No. of

a phe : | hetlings pede | No. of fledglings died

‘ |) laid | hatched out s Bueries |

| oh ‘ORE ae

2 5 5 | 3 | ig

3 4 4 4 0

4 3 3 ues 0

5 5 4 2 2

6 4 4 3 1

a 4 3 3 0

8 3 3 2 1 (1 Koel present)

924 bois 3 ae 0

10 4 Nest gee ices

1 4 as | +2 |

AQ 3 3 3 | 0

Bee 5 4 | foFy es

14 4 Nest deecsve © ed

15 4 4 | 2 | 2

16 4 Bia te 3 3 0

petits 4 | 3 I

18 4 Nes “tis-deecsserr tge= d.

19 hebae bist ae I | 2 (1 Koel present)

20 | 4 : 3 1 2 (1 Koel present)

The majority of deaths occur in the first week. Most deaths

amongst the young ones of the crow are due to want of food. It is

rarely due to a chance fall from the nest or as a result of some marau-

der’s attack. Although the birds keep bringing in food from dawn till

130 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

dusk they cannot usually meet the full demand of a clutch of five, and

sometimes even of four, nestlings who, for the first few days, are sup-

posed to consume more than their own weight of food; unless, of

course, there is abundance of food in the locality, in’ which casé they

do get around to the feeding of all the five or four of the clutch satis-

factorily. When the fledglings are very young, the parents seem to make

no discrimination whatever, in feeding them. The parent on arrival at

the nest with bill full of food is confronted with a number of gaping .

mouths as each of the nestlings raises its neck and gapes widely. The

parent. stuffs the food into one of the gaping mouths, probably that

which happens to be the nearest, until the food it has brought is

finished, or the chick is unable to swallow any more; in such cases

what remains is pushed down another throat. This is repeated at

every visit by the parent. The young which are not fed until their

stronger brethren have received all they can take start losing ground

with the passage of time, and soon become so weak that they cannot

even raise their necks to demand food. The parents do not seem to

take any notice of such weaklings, and certainly do not make any

Special attempts to feed them. The weakest thus go to the wall. The

dead are thrown out by the parents without the slightest concern.

Most such deaths occur during the first week and very rarely during the

second week.

The nestlings who survive the critical early phase in the nest remain

there for three to four weeks, closely guarded and devotedly fed by the

affectionate parents. A three-to-four-week-old nestling is fully fledged

and can fly short distances if forced to do so. After leaving the nest

they stay around in the branches of the nesting tree where they are fed

by the parents. Later they stay close to the parents for a few weeks,

usually the mother, and follow her wherever she goes. As soon as she

picks up a little bit of food the demand by the young one starts. It

opens and shuffles its wing and presents a gaping bill to be fed.

Generally the mother transfers the morsel to it.

Nesting success. By nesting success I mean here the ratio of the

fledglings that flew from the nest to the number of eggs laid. As

already indicated the nesting success in crows depends on many factors,

the most important ones being the amount of food available for the

young atthe nesting stage, the fertility of the eggs laid, and interfer-

ence by parasites (koels) and predators (including man). In the present

study a total of eighty-one eggs were laid in twenty nests. A total of

forty-four young excluding the three koel fledglings left the nest. It

mowehly works out to fifty-four per cent.

Parasitising by the Koel [Eudynamys scolopacea (Linnaeus)]. Coming

back again to the subject of deceiving the clever crow, none can beat the ~

NIDIFICATION OF SOME COMMON INDIAN BIRDS—PART I 131

Koel Eudynamys scolopacea (Linnaeus). This species of parasitic

cuckoo, whose breeding season happens to coincide with that of the

crow, has decided to entrust, rather thrust, the responsibility of a part

of her own domestic duties to this crow, and has made the crow its

main host.

The crow, not liking to be exploited, guards its nest all the twenty-

four hours, but the mere sight of a koel prompts it to leave its nest and

chase the koel. Knowing this weakness of their victim the male and

female koels seem to have worked out a clever bit of a strategy. When

the female koel is ready to lay, the male flies up to the crow’s nest

and makes himself known by emitting loud notes. The very sight of

him infuriates the crow, who is usually incubating alone. Leaving

the nest unguarded the crow attacks the koel, who turns tail the

moment the owner or owners of the nest go for him. Being a better

flier the male koel manages to keep only a little ahead, thus encouraging

the crows to chase further and leads them away from the nest. The

female koel who sits hidden, watching the proceedings, then takes posses-

sion of the deserted nest and relieves herself of her egg. She then flies

away emitting a shrill kuil-kuil-kuil, apparently to tell the male that

the strategy has been successful. The male then shakes off the pursuers

and proceeds at full speed to join the female. Sometimes, however,

things go wrong and the male or the female koel is caught red-handed

and punished for its crimes by the indignant crows. I have myself seen

and there are instances on record (Butler, 1876, quoted by Hume, 1889)

when koels have been mauled by an angry mob of crows.

Usually only one egg is laid by the koel in one nest. Sometimes,

however, more than one koel’s egg may be found in crow’s nest (Jacob,

1915 ; Jones, 1916 ; Abdulali, 1932+ ; Burton, 1935); probably, they are

the produce of more.than one bird. It is difficult to say whether or not

the koel destroys one of the crow’s eggs, when she lays one of her own

in its nest. To all appearances she does not (Dewar, 1907). A koel

leaving a crow’s nest with an egg in its beak is yet to be seen.

Meanwhile the crows, pleased with themselves for having success-

fully driven away the treacherous koel, return to their nest only to be

confronted with a strange egg lying amongst their own. Whether they

recognise it or not is a controversial question, but the fact remains that

the crows neither desert the nest nox try to throw out the koel’s egg.

The koel’s egg has a superficial resemblance to that of a crow but it

is smaller and has a green ground colour instead of blue. The green

may be olive, sea-green, or almost stony colour. The texture is com-

pact and fine and is entirely devoid of gloss. It is speckled, spotted,

(1 The nest contained 11 koel eggs and none of the crow.—Ebs. ]

132 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

streaked and clouded with brown, or red or purple tint. The average

size is 30 mm. in length and 23 mm. in breadth.

The koel’s egg (or eggs) is (are) hatched along with (its) their own by the

crows in the most matter of fact way. The period of incubation for koel’s

eggs as observed during the present study in three cases was 13 days.

The young koel usually hatches a little before its foster brethren and

hence has a little start on them. The freshly hatched koel like the

young one of all other nidicolous species is blind, pinkish red in colour,

entirely devoid of down or feathers, with a very soft and fleshy beak

and claws. But for its zygodactyl claws it could easily pass for a crow

fledgling. The crows do not appear to see this difference, and feed it in

right earnest, even before any one of their own eggs is hatched. The

young koel seems to have an insatiable hunger and greedily devours

large quantities of food brought by the foster parents. By the time the

young crows hatch out, it is usually big and strong enough to attract

the greater attention of its foster parents by stretching out its neck to- |

wards them as they come in with food, and thus obtains a greater share

Aceh

of it. The great hunger of the koel nestling tells on some of the young —

crows, who fight a losing battle in the struggle for existence in the nest

and perish. All but one, sometimes two of the young crows die for

want of food if their nests include a koel nestling. Twice I have collect-

ed crow’s nests at Poona, with only two koel fledglings, about three

weeks old and no crows. As the brood size is limited by the feeding

capacity of the parents (Lack, 1947) I am inclined to believe that the

young crows in those nests could not compete with the two koels.

The young koel is usually the healthiest occupant of the nest. It.

acquires its feathers faster than its foster brethren. The plumage is

uniformly black spotted with white all over the body, wings, and tail. —

It is still in this plumage when it leaves nest and when it finally takes

leave of its foster parents. It leaves the nest along with and about the

same time as the young crows, provided there are any left. The crows

continue to feed it even after it has left the nest. On many occasions

I have seen crows paying more attention to this foster child, whose

demand for food never ceases, than to their own. The procedure for —

asking for food is the same as that of young crows. Although not well

adapted for terrestrial movement, after leaving the nest it often alights

on a stone or boulder to demand. food when the foster parents are

feeding on ground.

NIDIFICATION OF SOME COMMON INDIAN BIRDS—PART I

133

REFERENCES

Abdulali, H. (1932).: Eleven Koel

eggs in a crow’s nest. iE Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 35 : 458.

Acharya, H. G. (1951): Mating of

House Crow, Corvus splendens splendens

Vieillot. ibid. 50 : 170.

Adam, R. M. (1873) : Notes on the

Birds of Sambhar Lake and its vicinity.

Stray Feathers 1 : 361-404.

Ali, S. A. (1926): The mating of

crows. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 31:

823.

— — — (1946) : The Book of Indian

Birds. Bombay Natural History Society,

Bombay.

— — — (1953) : Birds of Travancore

and Cochin. Oxford University Press.

———, & Abdulali, H. (1937) :

Birds of Bombay and Salsette. J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 39 : 91-103.

Baker, E. C. S. (1922) : The Fauna of

British India including Ceylon and

Burma. Birds 1. Taylor and Francis,

London.

— — — (1932) : Nidification of the

Birds of the Indian Empire 1. Taylor

and Francis, London.

Barnes, H. E. (1886) : Notes on the

birds nesting in Rajpootana. J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 1 : 38-62.

Burton, R. W. (1935) : Cuckoo Lore.

ibid. 38 : 266-281.

Butler, Capt. E. A. (1875) : Notes on

the Avifauna of Mount Aboo and Nor-

Bern Guzerat. Stray Feathers 3: 437-

Cripps, J. R. (1878): First List of

Birds of Fureedpur, Eastern Bengal.

ibid. 7 : 238-315.

Davidson, CS. 2and Wenden? Gr E-

(1878) : A contribution to the Avifauna

of Deccan. ibid. 7 : 68-95.

Davidson, J. (1887) : Rough List of

the Birds of Western Khandesh. ibid.

10 : 279-327.

Dewar, D. (1905) : The Indian Crow.

Thacker Spink and Ca, Calcutta.

— — — (1907): An enquiry into the

parasitic habits of the Indian Koel.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 17 : 765-82.

— — — (1929) : Indian Birds’ Nests.

Thacker Spink and Co., Calcutta,

Bombay.

Doig, S. B. (1879) : Birds Nesting on

the Eastern Nara. Stray Feathers 8:

369-379.

Ferguson, H. S. (1903) : The Birds of

Travancore with Notes on their nidifi-

cation by T. F. Bourdillon. Part 1. J.

Bombay nat.Hist. Soc. 15 (2) : 249-264.

Gill, E.H.N. (1922): A description

of Nests and Eggs of the Common Birds

occurring in the plains of United Pro-

vinces. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 28:

1069-74.

Hume, A.O. (1873) :

of Indian Birds.

tendent 2of

Calcutta.

—-—— —— (1869) Nests and Hees of

the Indian Birds. Vol. I. 2nd Edition.

R. H.-Porter, London.

Inglis, C.M. (1931-34) : The Crow

family of our area. J. Darjeeling nat.

Hist. Soc. 6-8 : 48-54.

Jacob, J. R. (1915): Seven Koels’

eggs in one nest. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 24 : 191.

Jesse, W. (1902): On the birds of

Lucknow. Ibis (8)2: 470-490.

Jones, A. E. (1916): Number of

Koels’ (E. honorata) eggs found in one

nest. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 24 : 370.

Lack, D. (1947): The significance

of clutch size. (bis 89 : 302-52.

Munn, P. W. (1894): On the Birds

of Calcutta District. ibis (6)°6315,39277¢

Oates, E.W. (1889): The Fauna of

British India including Ceylon and

Burma, Birds 1. Taylor and Francis,

London.

S.H. (1926) :

Nests and Eggs

Rough Draft. Superin-

Government printing,

Prater, Crows’ nests

and electric cables. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 30: 913.

Pycraft, W. P. (s.a.): The infancy

of animals. Hutchinson & Co., London.

ae lol)? : beather= “encycio=

peed Britannica. llth Ed. 10 : 343-

Rao, N. B. (1936) : Mating habits of

crows. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 38:

620.

Reid.) GG. (1S8l) : . The: Birds, "of.

Lucknow Civil Division. Stray Feathers

10: 1-88.

Sen, S. N. (1947) : Late breeding of

Common House Crow. J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 44 : 474.

Scully, J. (1879) : A contribution to

the ornithology of Nepal. Stray Feathers

8 : 204-366.

Swinhoe, C., & Barnes, H. (1885) ;

On the birds of Central India. Jbis (5)

3: 124-138.

Taylor, C.J.W. (1887): A tentative

list of the Birds of Manzeerabad,

Mysore. Stray Feathers 10: 454-467.

Van Tyne, J., & Berger, A. J. (1959) :

Fundamentals of Ornithology. John

Wiley & Sons, Inc., London.

Vidal, G. W. (1880) : First list -of

Birds of South Konkan. Stray Feathers

9 : 1-96.

Whistler, H. (1928) : Popular Hand-

book of Indian Birds. Gurney and

Jackson, London, ie

Additions to the Flora of Bombay

State : Grasses from Salsette Island

(Malad-Madh Area)

H. SANTAPAU, S.J., AND G. L. SHAH

St. Xavier's College, Bombay

Lisboa (1891), Cooke (1908), and Blatter & McCann (1935)

described the grasses of the Bombay Presidency. Santapau (1950,

1953, and 1957) enumerated the grasses from Saurashtra, Khandala,

and Purandhar. We add the following grasses which are recorded for

the first time for Bombay State. The herbarium specimens referred

to herein, with the collectors’ names and numbers, are deposited in

Blatter Herbarium, St. Xavier’s College, Bombay.

The authors are deeply grateful to Dr. N. L. Bor, Kew Gardens.

England, for their identification.

Digitaria adscendens (H.B.K.) Henrard ssp. chrysoblephara

Henrard, Mon. Gen. Digitaria 998, 1950; Bor 299.

Annual herbs; stems glabrous, simple or branched, 45-60 cm.

tall, ascending from a geniculate base or f-ostrate, rooting at the

lower nodes. Leaf-blades 5.5-20X0.6-1 (159.8) cm., hairy, flat;

sheaths 3-6 cm. long, glabrous or sparsely hairy. Spikes 4-10,

6-15 cm. long. Spikelets 2-3-nate, closely appressed to the wavy or

nearly straight, somewhat winged rachis.

Collected from Madh Island, along roadsides (Fernandez 2082,

2084, 2086-87).

Spikelets: September.

World distribution: ‘Tropical Africa and in tropical Asia from |

India to China and Japan.

Digitaria timorensis (Kunth) Bal. ssp. blepharophora Henrard.

Mon. Gen. Digitaria 747, 1950.

Annual herbs; culms tufted, simple or branched from the base, |

erect or ascending, 45-60 cm. tall, deeply striate, glabrous, at times |

rooting at the lower nodes, Leaves 12-20 cm. long, linear-lanceolate,

GRASSES FROM SALSETTE ISLAND (MALAD-MADH AREA) _ 135

glabrous .or sparsely pilose above, somewhat scaberulous on the

margins; sheaths 4-11 cm. long, somewhat compressed, glabrous or

more or less pubescent, at least the lower ones. Racemes 6-8.5 cm.

long, secund, spreading, digitate. Spikelets 2.5-3 mm. long, very

narrowly linear-lanceolate, on a flattened, narrowly- winged, . green,

glabrous rachis. Glume III (sterile lemma) glabrous between the

broad central interspaces along the mid-nerve, apparently 3-nerved,

the indistinct marginal nerves double and not conspicuous in front:

margins provided with a row of crateriform protrusions from which

arise long, stiff, yellowish, spreading bristles which are as long as or

longer than the diameter of the spikelets; between them there are

moreover soft, shorter common hairs. Fruit about as long’‘as the

spikelet, very narrowly lanceolate. |

Occasionally found along roadsides lea 714 is the ons sheet of

this plant in Blatter Herbarium).

Spikelets: November. ; |

World. distribution: For the distribution Henrard writes:

‘Hitherto only known from Timor’. We add locality ‘Bombay’ from

India. oe ci

Eragrostis tef (Zucc.) Trott. in Bull. Soc. Bot. Ital. 62, 1918 in

Obs.; Bor 513. Poa tef Zucc. Diss. Ist. Pianta Panizz. Abiss. 1774.

Annual herbs; about 40 cm. tall; culms tufted, slender, Striate,

glabrous, pale-green, erect or geniculately ascending from the short

creeping base, simple or branched in the lower part; nodes glabrous.

Leaf-blades 4-10 (6.5) cm. long, very narrowly linear or almost

subulate, erect or spreading, flat or convolute, many-nerved, central

mid-rib prominent, glabrous, setaceous, acuminate at the apex, some-

what contracted and subrotund at the base; sheaths 3.5-7 (5.5) cm.

long, tight, close-fitting, glabrous, striate. Panicles 15-20 cm. long,

open; branches almost filiform, erect, straight or slightly wavy. Spikelets

about 2-4 mm. long, olive-green or greenish-purple, ovate, laterally

compressed, -pedicellate, glabrous. Florets 4-6 or more, exserted

from the glumes. Glumes membranous, 1-3-nerved. Lemmas about

1.5 mm. long ovate with a short acumen, membranous, 1-3-nerved;

when 3-nerved, the central nerve prominent and somewhat keeled on

the dorsal side. Palea about 1 mm. long, hyaline, prominently

2-Keeled. Stamens 2. Caryopsis oblong, brown, shorter and

enclosed by the lemma and palea and falling with the lemma only.

Rare in the district; noted only once along roadsides (Shah 696).

According to Bor, the plant is a native of Ethiopia, introduced in

several parts of the world.

Spikelets: September.

136 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

Critical notes: This plant so far is not recorded in any of our

Indian floras; however, Bor cites two sheets of this plant from India:

(1) J. S. Gamble 21404 Nilgiris and (2) J. F. Duthie s.n., north India.

We add the locality ‘Salsette Island, Bombay’. Our collection is the

only sheet of this plant in Blatter Herbarium.

Isachne dispar Trin. Sp. Gram. Icon. t. 86, 1828; FBI. 7 : 26;

Bor 580.

Annual herbs; 15-40 cm. tall; culms spongy, somewhat polished,

glabrous, prostrate, rooting at the nodes and then geniculately

becoming erect. Leaf-blades 2.3-6.50.4-1 (4.50.6) cm., ovate to

lanceolate, fiat, rather stiff, striate, scaberulous; apex finely acute or

acuminate; base subcordate or rounded; upper leaves sometimes

sparsely hairy at the base; margins minutely scabrid and thickened;

Sheaths 1.8-3.5 cm. long, smooth, shining, striate, glabrous, hairy at

the mouth. Panicles 1.5-5 cm. long, pyramidal and open, or con-

tracted and ovoid. Spikelets about i mm. long, green or purple,

obtuse. pedicellate, smooth and polished.

Common along water ditches and in moist ground (Shah 7669, |

8622). . :

World distribution: India (western Peninsula, Assam, and North-

West) and China.

Critical notes: This plant is very similar to JIsachne globosa

O.Kuntze; the two are common and often grow together in moist ground

and water-logged soil. For /. dispar Trin. Hooker in FBI. 7 : 26, 1896

writes in the note: “This again is perhaps a variety of J. australis

R. Br. [=I. globosa O.Kuntze] of low stature, with more rigid

scaberulous strongly margined leaves, sometimes ciliate at the base

and smaller panicles with shorter pedicels’. Bor distinguishes the two

species as follows:

Panicles lax; leaf-blades narrowly lanceolate;

pedicels with glandular bands — | ... IL, globosa

Panicles dense; leaf-blades ovate-lanceolate ... /. dispar

There are some sheets of this plant, identified by Dr. Bor, in

Blatter Herbarium from Khandala, Dangs, Saurashtra, and Mount

Abu; it seems the plant is common in Borabay State. Santapau does

not give this plant (1950, 1953). <

Oryza rufipogon Griff. Notul. 3 : 5, 1851; Bor 605. Oryza fatua

Koen. ex Trin. in Mem. Akad. Petersb. (VI) 2: 177, 1839 nom. nud.

Oryza sativa L. var. fatua Prain, Beng. Pl. 1184, 1903. Oryza sativa

var. rufipogon Watt, Dict. Econ. Prod. Ind. 5 : 504-05, 1891.

ela

GRASSES FROM SALSETTE ISLAND (MALAD-MADH AREA) 137

Annual herbs, 60-90 cm. tall; culms soft, glabrous, pale-green,

spongy below. Leaf-blades 15-30X0.8-1.2 (201) cm., linear, flat,

acuminate at the apex, scabridly hairy on both surfaces; sheaths

smooth, glabrous. Panicles 8-20 cm. long, effuse, at first erect, at

length nodding. Spikelets 7-8 mm. long, pale-green, drying pale-

brown, scabridly hairy; hairs whitish; awns 4.5-8 cm. long, coarsely

scabrid, pale-brown, polished.

A common, abundant and gregarious, marshy grass, often forming

large patches in shallow water-ditches (Shah 702, 4992, 7825).

Spikelets: September-October.

Local name: Dev-Bhat.

World distribution: India, Ceylon, Burma, Malaya, Indo-China,

‘Indonesia, and Thailand. Type loc.: India.

Critical notes: This plant is not given by Cooke and Santapau.

Blatter & McCann treat it as a synonym of O. sativa L., to which it

is closely related. However, the two species can be separated as

follows : :

Spikelets persistent awned or awnless sO Sauva

Spikelets caducous, always awned ... O. rufipogon

Paspalum orbiculare Forst. Fl. Ins. Austr. Prodr. 7, 1786; Bor 340.

Perennial herbs; culms 30-45 cm. tall, loosely tufted, branched

near the base, erect or ascending from a somewhat geniculate base,

deeply striate, glabrous, terete above, slightly spongy below; nodes

glabrous, dark-brown. Leaf-blades 5-10X0.2-0.6 cm., linear or

sublanceolate, glabrous; margins involute, glabrous or minutely

scabrid or scarcely rough, finely acute or acuminate at the apex,

somewhat contracted at the base, densely hairy behind the ligule;

sheaths 4-6 cm. long, compressed, persistent, striate, glabrous or

hairy, with scarious, glabrous, or ciliate margins. Spike-like racemes

4-5 cm. long, solitary or subdigitately paired, erect, closely appressed

or spreading. Spikelets many, about 2 mm. long, biseriate, plano-

convex, yellowish-brown, glabrous and polished, much imbricating,

ovate-elliptic, broadly ovate or orbicular; lower floret sterile, upper

one hermaphrodite; upper glume and lower lemma 3-nerved, subcor-

iaceous or subcrustaceous, punctate, polished. Stamens 3.

Rare; noted only once along margins of a pond on Madh Island

(Shah 7191).

Spikelets: August.

World distribution: Forster described this plant from Society

Islands; now distributed in the tropics and subtropics of the Old

World but in tropical Asia rarer than P. scrobiculatum L. Bor

138 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

(p.. 340) writes: ‘south-east Asia generally, but not found in north-

west India, Central India, or Bombay, extending to Polynesia and

Australia’. We add locality Bombay.

Critical notes: Our collection is the only sheet of this olante in

Blatter Herbarium and so far it has not been collected or reported by

any previous worker from Bombay State. :

Paspalum orbiculare Forst., and Paspalum scrobiculatum L. occur

in the present area; they apparently look very similar and are liable to

be confused. Hook. f. in Fl. Brit. Ind. 7: 10, 1896 treated P.

orbiculare Forst. as a synonym of P. scrobiculatum L. Stapf. (Fl. Trop.

Afr. 579, 1919), and Bor (Fl. Assam 254, 1940 and Mon. Grasses

p. 340) considered the two species as distinct. For P. orbiculare

Henrard (Blumea 3 : 440, 1940) remarks: ‘In this specimen the small

green spikelets are distinctly apiculate and not rounded at the summit

as is the case in P. scrobiculatum L. and both glumes are 3-nerved. We

are thus able to separate this species which occurs rather plentiful in

Lingga Archipelago. Rheder (Journ. Arn. Arbor. 29 : 300, 1948)

writes for the present plant: ‘Readily distinguishable from P.

scrobiculatum L. by its 3-nerved glume and sterile lemma and its

usually more numerous racemes which are distant on the axis.’ The

following is the key to separate the two species:

Annuals; upper glume and lower lemma 5-7-

nerved; spikelets obtuse or rounded at |

the apex ... P. scrobiculatum

Perennials; upper glume and lower lemma |

3-nerved; spikelets distinctly apiculate ... P. orbiculare

Setaria pallide-fusca (Schum.) Stapf. & Hubb. in Kew Bull. 1930:

259; Bor 363. Panicum pallide-fuscum Schum. Beskr. Guin. Pl. 58,

1O2 7a

Annual herbs; 30-60 cm. tall; culms tufted, slender, glabrous,

geniculately ascending from a short base. Leaf-blades 3.5-25 (15) cm.

long, linear, flat or folded, glabrous or slightly hairy towards the base:

apex finely acuminate; base rounded; sheaths glabrous, lower ones

somewhat compressed, upper terete. Spike-like panicle 5-12 (8) cm.

long, erect, cylindric, continuous, densely flowered. Spikelets 2-2.5

mm. long, on slender rachis; bristles mostly rufous, rarely purplish.

Common in open grass lands on hills (Shah 33, 109, 704, wae

Spikelets: July-September.

World distribution: From tropical and south Africa to tropical

Asia, northern Australia and Polynesia. Type loc.: West Africa.

Critical notes: This plant is recorded here for the first time from.

GRASSES FROM SALSETTE ISLAND (MALAD-MADH AREA) 139

Bombay State. It is very similar to Setaria glauca (L.) P. Beauv.

and the two are likely to be confused. Both the species are purely

monsoon plants; they are common, abundant, and often gregarious,

in pure stands or mixed together. ‘The large patches of these plants,

with their reddish-brown spikelets, especially by the end of monsoon,

are conspicuous along roadsides, railway lines, in open grass lands on

hills, etc.; occasionally they have also been noted on walls.

The two species are distinguished as follows:

Spikelets 3 mm. long; upper lemma coarsely

rugose, boat-shaped and slightly keeled

upwards,

Spikelets 2-2.5 mm.

broad and _ dorsally

curved on the back in profile

long;

strongly

S. glauca

upper lemma

finely rugose, narrow and dorsally gently

curved, not at all keeled

S. pallide-fusca

REFERENCES

Blatter, E. & McCann, C. (1935) :

The Bombay Grasses. Scientific Mono-

graph No. 5, 1.C.A.R. Delhi.

Bor, N. L. (1960) : Grasses of Burma,

Ceylon, India and Pakistan. Pergamon

Press, London.

Cooke, T. (1908) : Flora of the Presi-

dency of Bombay. London.

Lisboa, J. C. (1891) : List of Bombay

Grasses. Government Press, Bombay.

Santapau, H. (1953): Plants of Sau-

rashtra. Saurashtra Research Society,

Rajkot.

— (1953): The Flora of Khandala

on the Western Ghats in India. Rec.

Bot. Surv. Ind. 16 (1) : 344-363.

—— (1957): The Flora of Purandhar

or an Enumeration of all the phane-

rogamic plants discovered in Purandhar

during the years 1944-56. Oxford Book

and Stationery Co., Calcutta.

New Breeding Records of

Malayan Birds ©

J. CAIRNS, M.C., M.B.O.U.

(With three plates)

Family ARDEIDAE

Cattle Egret : Ardeola ibis coromanda (Boddaert)?

Having discovered in 1956 and reported in the Malayan Nature

Journal, December 1959, 13 (2): 92, a breeding colony of Little

Egrets, E. g. garzetta, in Perak, I had for a long time before this felt

convinced that the Cattle Egret, A. i. coromanda, also bred in Malayan

territory. This conviction was based on my own records of cattle

egrets wearing their full regalia of breeding plumes while present in

Penang right through April, May, and into the first week of June,

after which they vanished. Eventually, however, when I did find

them breeding it was a long way from Penang. ‘This was in mid June

1959 in Kelantan, when on my way to revisit the pratincole colony

discovered the previous year. I first noticed a few egrets around a

group of the smallish black buffaloes which are a characteristic feature

of Kelantan landscapes. Six birds were visible and all had golden

plumes. The area was seared by the sun, miles inland from the coast,

and the birds were simply following the meandering buffaloes. The

date being 16 June gave me reason to hope that they might be mates

of brooding birds; or if not already nesting they probably intended

doing so. Therefore, I devoted the day to watching them. Great

stretches of flat land in three directions lacked limitless vistas due to

numerous ‘islands’ of mixed trees irregularly scattered over it, thus

conveying a distinct sense of contraction and interrupted horizons.

In the afternoon, after having noted numerous flights to and from

one particular ‘island’ about half a mile (c. 1 km.) distant, I headed

directly towards this objective and there ultimately found a colony.

NEW BREEDING RECORDS OF MALAYAN BIRDS 141

There were ten nests in thinly foliaged fringe trees along a frontage

of twenty yards (c. 18 m.) facing east. The lowest and highest of

these nests were 8 and 18 feet (c. 2 and 5 m.) respectively, and the

remainder between 12 and 15 feet (c. 4 and 5 m.) high. Their ragged

loosely constructed appearance from the ground was an illusion as I

soon discovered on close inspection, when I was surprised by their

compactness and solidity. Exterior diameters averaged around 16

inches (c. 40 cm.); interiors were spacious and deeper than expected

and had no lining other than rootlets and broken twigs. Eight nests

contained eggs: two with four, three with three, two with two, one

with one, while two nests were empty. The eggs had smooth

glossless texture and unique colour—uniform pale milky blue—with

no trace of heron green. Average measurements of the twenty-two

eggs were: c. 45X35 mm. At least half of the bill and end of the

tail of an incubating bird projected over the nest rim. I made a

complete circuit of the ‘island’ and then went through it in two

directions but saw no trace of old nests, and so concluded that this

present colony was freshly established, although in all probability

it had been sited at other ‘islands’ in other years. At any rate,

this prosperous nucleus of beautiful birds was flourishing again in

1960, but since then I have not been back.

Tiger Bittern : G. melanolophus melanolophus Raffles

Compared with the small bitterns the Tiger Bittern is considerably

longer [20 inches (c. 50 cm.)], rounder, and as a breeder in Malaya

very much rarer. In forty years I have seen four nests: October

1923, September 1931, August 1941, and September 1953—the first

‘two in Penang, the third in Province Wellesley, and the last in

Kelantan. The salient features of this shy and solitary bird are its

plumage, its bill, and its nest. The adult has a black crest projecting

beyond the back of the crown to the nape; the sides and back of the

neck are rufous; the back, mantle, and wings are cinnamon, with close

stipplings of black; some primary coverts and primaries are black

with touches of white at the tips. The upper side of the tail is oily black,

the underside white. The whole of the underparts from throat to vent

may be described as ochreous yellow, streaked, barred, and mottled with

black, and the impact on the observer is very striking. In addition,

the bird has a noticeably thick, slightly down-curved green bill with

a black tip, more like that of a gallinaceous bird than a heron. The

1923 nest was placed in the summit of a dense reed bed mixed with

scrub a little less than 7 feet tall, and was made of stiff reed stems

and twigs with a lining of dried iris flags and water hyacinth leaves.

142 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

The others, however, were high up in trees constructed entirely of

sticks and lined with dead leaves. The 1953 nest was highest of

all, 60 feet (c. 18 m.) up in a mangrove tree (Kelantan River estuary,

in the vicinity of Tumpat). Each nest when found contained four

eggs, but although the tree nests were definitely in the heron-type

category, excepting of course the leaf-lining, the eggs were very

definitely not, being slightly pointed at both ends and pure mat-white.

The average measurements of sixteen are c. 49X39 mm. The birds

fed habitually by day during the nesting period.

Schrenck’s Bittern : [xobrychus eurhythmus (Swinhoe)

Schrenck’s Bittern [length 12 inches (c. 30 cm.)] is the smallest of the

three small Malayan bitterns, the two others being the Yellow (/. sinensis)

[length 14 inches (c. 35 cm.)], and. the Chestnut (J. cinnamomeus)

[length 15 inches (c. 38 cm.)]. At a glance Schrenck’s might be

mistaken for the Chestnut, but there are two features which distinguish

it at once. Generally speaking the Chestnut in flight is uniformly

chestnut over all its upper surface, whereas Schrenck’s is chestnut with

blue-black wing primaries and tail. The Chestnut and the Yellow

are resident breeding birds and, although the Yellow and Schrenck’s

stand in official records as winter visitors only, Schrenck’s also breeds

but is not resident. Full accounts by me of the breeding of the

Chestnut and the Yellow Bitterns have been published (vide Malayan

Nature Journals 1941 and 1954) but hitherto the breeding of Schrenck’s

has not. The latter, of course, is the rarest of the three and can easily be

missed or its identity mistaken as cited above. However, over many

years of field work amongst bitterns, and long before I got a nest, I noted

it occurring more frequently than it was supposed to do. My first

nest was found on 7 July 1941. It was composed of living herbage

bent over and interlocked to form a substantial pad about 2 feet

(c. 60 cm.) above ankle-deep water in dense reeds (Scirpus grossus) at

the corner of a paddy field. Lined with dry menerong (Scirpus grossus

blades) it contained three eggs on the point of hatching. So began an

irregular series of odd nests all on Penang Island, the most recent

one occurring in August 1961. These comparative factual observa-

tions may be useful: Nests of Chestnut Bitterns are large open

platforms at water level; nests of Yellow Bitterns are domed suspended

small pads from 3 feet to 6 feet (c. 90 to 180 cm.) above water level:

nests of Schrenck’s Bitterns are open supported small pads usually

about 2 feet (c. 60 cm.) above water. Again, Chestnut Bittern eges

are broad chalky white ovals averaging c. 34X27 mm.; Yellow

Bittern eggs are smooth pale green ovals averaging c. 32X24 cm;

NEW BREEDING RECORDS OF MALAYAN BIRDS 143

whilst Schrenck’s Bittern eggs are smooth creamy-white ovals

averaging c. 30X23 mm.; each a thin-shelled distinctive type. When

clearing land for paddy planting Malays come across many bittern

nests and gather the eggs for food. On several occasions in different

years I have seen the eggs of all three species being carried home in

coconut shells and other receptacles, which means there must be

more nests of Schrenck’s Bitterns about than those now recorded.

Family ANATIDAE

Cotton Teal : Nettapus coromandelianus coromandelianus (Gmelin)

This small resident duck is also something of a phenomenon. It

is known from every Malay State, yet no breeding has ever been

reported which, to say the least, is quite extraordinary since a resident

bird must breed regularly. It is a fact, however, that I. have never

found them breeding in the same place in consecutive years,

although all such places are secluded and remote. In addi-

tion, as soon as egg laying begins the birds become completely

silent so that seclusion and silence may have some bearing on the

lack of information. First nests were found in Kedah in September

1947. There were five within the area of a small backwater sur-

rounded by secondary forest. Two of these were placed in a reed

bed and three were in hollow tree-limbs projecting over the reeds.

The open nests were made entirely of dried reeds lined with down

and the whole wedged into and supported by the densely growing

stems. The tree nests were made entirely of down, creamy with

dusky centres, sparingly mixed with slivers of dessicated herbage.

The reed nests contained six (eventually ten) and nine eggs respec-

tively, while the contents of the tree nests were seven, eight, and eight.

Near Chalag, Kelantan, in September 1950, I got one tree nest con-

taining eleven. The eggs are smooth ivory-white ovals averaging

c. 43X32 mm., which is somewhat smaller than the cream-shelled

eggs of the Whistling Teal, D. j. javanica. According to my observa-

tions only the duck incubates. The drake is a striking bird; bill

black, crown and nape dark brown; face, neck, and all underparts

pure white with a broad black collar round the base of the neck.

Back and wings shiny green-bronze with white wing patches very

noticeable in flight. The duck’s face and neck are grey with no

collar. Her back is brown, breast grey, flanks tinged with buff, belly

dull white. The male looks like a pigmy goose and his peculiar voice

is a goose-like gabble in minor key. In November 1956 a Malay

144 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

fisherman with whom I had contact for many years sailed his prahu

all the way from Port Weld to Penang to tell me he had found some

ducks’ nests in mangrove forest! JItek belabas he called them, which

is the Malay name for Cotton Teal, and at the same time handed me

a small basket containing three eggs. Next day we started the long |

trip back to Port Weld. Eventually I was taken to the place and

saw six nests of Cotton Teal wedged into the mingled arches of

mangrove roots ‘in old forest. Three adjacent trees were involved in

supporting the little colony. On our approach I noticed that all the

disturbed birds flew inland and not seawards. The nest from which —

the three eggs had been taken still contained three, so that the clutch

in this case had been six when found. Two others held nine each,

and three held ten each. The principal breeding period appears to

be September through to December, but characteristically the bird and

the month and the place are unpredictable.

Family ACCIPITRIDAE

Bat Hawk : Machaerhamphus alcinus alcinus Westerman

9 November 1959 was bright blue and sunny. At 9.30 a.m. of

that day I happened to be in a remote area of Penang Island when a

large black falcon-like bird passed overhead with what appeared to

be a snake but was in reality a small branch dangling under its body.

Through my glasses I followed the bird to its destination,. which was

a tall tree on the edge of swamp backed by forest about 400 yards

(c. 365 m.) distant. Moving inside the forest fringe to within 20 yards

(c. 18 m.) of the tree I discovered that the bird was none other than

a splendid Bat Hawk or Pern, M. a. alcinus, serenely employed in

shaping the foundation of an eyrie. From that day on I learned

some new facts concerning the habits of Bat Hawks, supplementing

the meagre known ones. Because of its appearance the speciés is

quickly and easily identified. In the field it shows entirely black with

conspicuous white throat and central breast. A closer look reveals

white patches above and below the eyes and a long black crest down

the nape. The bill is black and the legs and feet are reddish black

with black claws. Through the four weeks following, nest building

by both birds was a daily routine, especially between 9 a.m. and noon,

but if it rained all such activity ceased. Longish flights were taken

to collect material usually in one direction, which might or might not

indicate preference for certain sticks. At any rate it is to be noted

that, although the birds are definitely crepuscular in habit when feed-

ing, as I will soon describe, the entire nest was built during the

NEW BREEDING RECORDS OF MALAYAN BIRDS 145

brightest part of 28 consecutive days and at no time did the birds

show any sign of embarrassment or distress through the dazzle of

tropical light. Flight was swift and sure at all times and no different

from the feeding flight at dusk. After 9 December no more material

was collected and for the next 7 days both birds perched close to the

nest several times daily, but between these visits disappeared

altogether. The nest was a fair-sized structure of sticks, which looked

smaller than it actually proved to be, due to its being sited a short

way out on a limb in a bower of foliage, and could only be wholly

seen from directly below. On 16 December my climber made his first

ascent which presented no difficulty. The nest was empty. It

measured 1 foot (c. 30 cm.) high and 2 feet (c. 60 cm.) wide with a

shallow central depression ! foot (c. 30 cm.) across. The lining consisted

of fine roots and fibres but no leaves. Height from the ground was

110 feet (c. 33 m.). The fineness of the sticks comprising the upper

exterior structure gave a close-packed effect suggestive of a squirrel’s

drey. At 10 a.m. on 17 December there was one egg in the nest and

one spray of green leaves. At 10 a.m. on the 18th there was no

change. At 10 a.m. on the 19th there were two eggs and three green

sprays. On the 20th, no change. At 10 a.m. on the 21st there were

3 eggs and 5 green sprays. This proved to be the complete clutch and,

as shown, egg-laying occurred on alternate days. Individual measure-

ments of the 3 eggs were: c. 63X47, c. 60X46, c. 61X47 mm., giving

an average of 61X47 min. All were smooth, without gloss and

blue-white in colour, yet each egg was different. The largest was

unmarked blue-white, the second largest had submerged clouding of

pale grey, whilst the smallest, also clouded with pale grey, had in

addition pale red freckles sparingly sprinkled over the small end.

This egg was laid first and the largest last. Nesting on one previous

occasion is on record but the nest and eggs were not examined or

described. The Bat Hawk’s method of hunting is fascinating; and

Over a period of months I never saw either bird chase or catch any-

thing other than bats. Invariably about 6.50 p.m., the bat-echelons

in depth began their erratic coursing, always north to south, past the

Hawk’s tree and, strange to relate, the bird on watch never attempted

to interfere with these first flights. When attacks did begin, however,

they were continuous and amazingly successful. On several evenings,

no less than seven bats were caught and devoured in 12 minutes by

the same bird. The captures were not made by power dives from

above like a Peregrine; the Bat Hawk always flew level with and

Straight through the flank of advancing bats, then curved up under

its victim, and in one simultaneous movement turned on its back,

146 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

reached upward with its talons, and literally plucked the bat out of

the air, before swerving away into normal flying position. Bats so

caught were often devoured piecemeal in the air at once or just as

frequently after flying back to the favoured perch. When consumption

occurred in flight I was able to observe that some part of the bat was

always dropped—wings, I think—but this was not definitely

established. Another remarkable fact was noted; the hawk at no

time ever flew into a flock of bats to chase them indiscriminately.

Every sally out of the tree was fast and straight towards what was

quite evidently a pre-selected bat and all others were ignored. How

and why this selection was made I cannot even remotely determine;

and the solution will no doubt continue to remain as elusive as this

very elusive bird.

Sparrow-Hawk : Accipiter virgatus (Temminck)

In any year in all kinds of country Sparrow-Hawks are frequently

encountered from October through to April. Presumably these birds

are members of the Japanese race, A. v. gularis, and regular winter

visitors to Malaya. The existence of a resident race, however, has

long been suspected but definite status never established. In view of

this the finding of a Sparrow-Hawk’s nest in Malaya becomes an

important ornithological record. On 26 May 1957, in mountain

forest east of Selama, Perak, I found one containing 3 eggs. My first

glimpse of the bird as it flashed out of the tree made me think. it

was some species of cuckoo, but on hearing its voice I knew it was a

Sparrow-Hawk. The alarm consisted of a querulous phrase of six

notes, keh-keh-keh-keh-ki-kee, exactly to the time and accent of the

song “Ta Ra Ra Boom De-Ay’ uttered in quick time. It was this call

that encouraged me to expect a nest, since migratory birds rarely

break silence when disturbed. Examining the tree from various

ground positions I eventually spotted what appeared to be something

denser and darker than a mere mass of foliage, sited on a horizontal

bough where it branched into a treble fork about 8 feet (c. 2 m.) out

from the main trunk; and when measured later found to be 65 feet

(c. 20 m.) up but still well below the canopy. Changing to x15

binoculars I could see a few flecks of white down and so knew the

answer. On instructions my Malay climber went on up beyond the

bough and looking down, reported three red-marked white eggs in

the shallow centre of a structure of fine sticks about 18 inches (c. 4 m.)

wide. Although the nest was surrounded by green foliage no leaf,

green or brown, or lining material of any kind was used in the fabric.

Tufts of white down flecked the inner and outer perimeters: and all

NEW BREEDING RECORDS OF MALAYAN BIRDS 147

was fresh and new, indicating that the hawks had completely built

their own nest and not used any older relic as a foundation. Next day

27th I got a good long look at the female preening on a bough some

10 feet above her nest. The head was dark grey; wings, back, and

tail earth brown marked with darker brown. The throat was white’

with a dark vertical line in the centre. The breast and abdomen were

off-white barred with medium strength brown. The under tail coverts

were white; the iris, cere, and legs yellow tinged with green; and the

beak was blackish grey. From her behaviour it was evident the

clutch was incomplete. On examination my climber again reported

three eggs, but as sparrow-hawks lay on alternate days the clutch, as

shown later, was incomplete. Awang lowered the eggs in a basket

for inspection. All were bluish white. unglossed, richly splashed with

dull red. One had a claw hole at the side and this I retained.

Individual measurements were: 39X30, 39X30, 40X31 mm.

Counting in reverse the third egg must have been laid on 26 May,

the second on 24 May, and the first on 22 May. After the two eggs

were hoisted back to the nest the male appeared. He was uniform

grey above including the tail which had four bars across it. The

throat, central belly and undertail were cream while all remaining

underparts were very rich rufous without bars. The bill appeared to

be black and the tarsi an impure yellow. I judged him to be a foot

(c. 30 cm.) in length and the bulkier female about 15 inches (c. 38 cm.).

On the 28th the female definitely flew off the nest which, as anticipated,

again contained 3 eggs including the new laid fourth egg which was

very handsome. A fifth egg in the nest on 30 May was uniformly

blue-white without a single mark. On account of anti-bandit opera-

tions no further visits were possible.

By this record breeding is established but racial identity remains

unsolved. I could detect no difference other than the male’s rich

colour between them and normal visiting sparrow-hawks, some males

of which have pink underparts, and think it possible that this pair

might have been A. v. gularis which stayed to breed. Eventually

this may be confirmed or contradicted if and when breeding birds are

subsequently taken and proved to be some other race. In the mean-

time these facts are cited in support of the gularis concept. Bay-

headed Bee-eater, Brown-breasted Bee-eater, Black-capped King-

fisher, Pied Imperial Pigeon, Little Grebe, Bronze-winged Jacana.

Philippine Banded Crake, Short-toed Eagle, Tiger Bittern, Yellow

Bittern, Schrenck’s Bittern, Night Heron, Little Egret, Cattle Egret,

Pratincole—all classed as migrants and winter visitors—remain to

breed, so there would appear to be no valid reason why any species

148 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

at any time should not extend the conventionally known limits of its

breeding range.

Blyth’s Hawk-Eagle : Spizaétus nipalensis alboniger (Blyth)

Early in January 1950 when vacationing on Penang Hill, I became

aware of the presence of a pair of birds, and after seeing and hearing

them continuously every day for three weeks they became as familiar

as Fairy Bluebirds. Smailer than Changeable Hawk-Eagles and

entirely different in colour, they are adequately described as being all

black above and streaked and barred black and white below. The

bill is black and the feet are yellow. On this occasion I was

fortunately placed for observation. The house 1 occupied, situated

at 2200 feet (c. 670 m.) elevation, overlooked the densely forested

valley which was their favoured habitat; and it was in this valley they

built their nest. In doing so the birds passed just beyond and below

the house level when bringing material, and I could watch whilst

sitting in the garden or from any southward-facing window. Sticks

were occasionally carried crosswise in the bill, but more frequently

in one foot either crosswise, lengthwise, or hanging below the foot.

Both legs were always down but only one foot held the stick. For

a week this was the daily routine. Then all activity ceased after

10 January, so they must have started early December. In the mean-

time I had located the selected tree, which was actually higher up the

valley than the house and was approximately 2350 feet (c. 720 m.)

above sea-level. Knowing from experience the leisurely habits of the

big Raptores I left it severely alone and devoted my time to other

species. Every day I saw the eagles circling and winging their courses

just above the treetops and calling repeatedly in flight. This call is

a resounding tri-syllable kee-lu-kuk, which echoes round the hills and

totally unlike the Changeable Hawk-Eagle’s clear, double blee-kwik.

Time passed and it was 28 January when I eventually returned to the

eagles’ tree with my climber Awang, the best of many I ever had.

He was more than half way to the nest before the eagle went off in

a hurry, the vibrations of his ascent having registered rather late,

probably because she was asleep. The nest proved to be 75 feet

(c. 23 m.) up, placed in a stout treble fork of the tree bole and at

least 20 feet (c. 6 m.) below the canopy. The exterior diameter

measured 2 feet 6 inches (c. 75 cm.), the interior 1 foot 6 inches (c. 45

cm.), and the stick pile 1 foot 3 inches (c. 38 cm.) thick. It contained a

single egg lying on desiccated green leaves with four sprays of green

leaves round the inner perimeter. The unglossed grey-white shell

was strewn with flecks of claret and had sub-surface grey patches at

NEW BREEDING RECORDS OF MALAYAN BIRDS 149

the smaller end, which may or may not have been leaf stains. It

measured 59X48 mm. Subsequent history shows that a pair, pro-

bably the same, bred in the same locality in 1951. In 1956 a pair

bred in another forested valley 3 miles (c. 5 km.) to the south at an

elevation of not more than 1000 feet (c. 300 m.), and in 1959 a pair

bred in Batu Ferringhi Forest Catchment Area at not more than 600

feet (c. 180 m.) elevation. The relics of this eyrie still linger.

Black Eagle : Ictinaétus malayensis (Temminck)

The Black Eagle is unmistakable. Including the bill it is com-

pletely black with numerous faint grey bars across both sides of the

tail; and bright yellow legs, and feet.’ It is larger than the Hawk-

Eagle with a longer tail; and on the wing is truly a magnificent bird.

Strangely enough, although resident, its breeding in Malaya has not

been reported, probably because its chief habitat, mountain forest, is

difficult of access and more than difficult to negotiate. Thereafter

guess work and frustration begin as all who have entered mountain

forest must know. Once in, there is no way of seeing out, and even

if an eagle or any bird passes above the canopy it cannot be seen

or cast a shadow which in the open normally betrays a large bird

passing overhead. If the forest is scanned from some vantage point,

above it there is no way of seeing in, and eagles’ nests are always

below the canopy. My first inclination was to use the vantage point

method, try to locate a bird on the wing and watch it down to its

final tree-fall. Then it occurred to me that, if I could locate a bird

on the wing whilst I myself was outside the forest altogether and

looking up some hill face, I might do better; so for 7 consecutive days

from a different place each day, I gazed over green treetops into

birdless blue skies. This was April and I did not know whether

Black Eagles nested in April or any other month earlier or later,

but on the 8th day, just before 10 a.m., I picked up two birds in the

field of my glasses, one slightly larger than the other and evidently

a pair. They were swinging round in opposing circles, drifting

gradually towards the hill forest which faced south-east. Using x15

binoculars, I followed the aerial evolutions of the female and gave a

pair of X10 to my climber to follow the male. At 10.20 a.m. she

stopped gliding, dropped her feet and, on slightly retracted wings,

sped towards and into the trees at an elevation close to 300 feet

(c. 90 m.). She did not alight on a tree but went straight through a

gap in the forest ‘roof’. In the meantime the male had simply drifted

off southward. After memorising everything possible that would help

! The yellow cere, and gape are very noticeable in the Indian bird,—Eps;

150 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

to guide us, we sat in deep shade by a stream and shared a big

pomelo—the best thirst deterrent in forest work. Starting about noon

and surmounting the tortuous hazards of the ascent we finally, at

3.30 p.m., came upon an eyrie in a big tree. At the striking of the

trunk with a heavy bough off went the Black Eagle uttering as she

left one loud whistling squeal. The eyrie was a. massive structure,

the basal sticks weathered grey denoting considerable age, whilst the

upper mass was fresher and some green-leafed sprays were visible

at the rim. It was placed in a great central junction of three boughs

at 90 feet (c. 28 m.) from the ground—the canopy another 30 feet

(c. 10 m.) above it—with not a single branch on the entire 90 feet

(c. 28 m.) of the trunk. Seeing no more of the eagle and being too

late in the day to make such a climb, we returned to camp for the

night. The date was 25 April 1958. Starting at dawn next morning

we were approaching the tree by 8 am. There was an eagle on a

bough above the nest, and within moments another rose out of the

nest and stood on the rim. This was the male. There was no alarm

since our presence was still unsuspected. At 8.20 a.m. the female

came down to the nest and settled. Not until then did the male

glide out of the forest. |

Malays have two methods of tackling big trees and Razali, my

climber on this occasion, was an adept at both. The first method is

slow and laborious; it consists of lashing saplings to the bole of the

tree all the way up, with short cross pieces for resting at 10 foot

(c. 3 m.) intervals. This ‘pipe’, of course, lias to be fixed in sections

one at a time and is a most arduous undertaking since the higher it

goes the longer each descent for and ascent with the next section

becomes. This is always the method employed if the bark is smooth

or wet after rain. If the bark is rough and dry (in the present case

it was), then two loops of half-inch (C. 12 mm.) rope are sufficient,

one stretched between his feet. the other passed round the trunk

and stretched between his hands, thus completely spanning the circum-

ference which his arms alone could not do; he then ‘stands’ by the

pressure of the taut foot-rope, flicks the hand-rope upwards, leans

back on it, brings up his feet and so, by a continuous series of

caterpillar loops, goes up in no time at all.

The eyrie interior was clean, fresh, shallow, and about 2 feet

(c. 60 cm.) wide, and contained two eggs lying on a bed of flattened

green leaves. Exterior diameter was 34 feet, so that the rim all

round was a foot and a half wide. The height of the structure was

2 feet 6 inches (c. 75 cm.). Razali had taken up with him 200 feet

(c. 60 m.) of half-inch (c. 12 mm.) rope for the dual purpose of letting

*JourRN. Bompay Nat. Hist. Soc. Ai a

Pratincole’s nest, containing two eggs and showing remarkable harmony with

surroundings

Photos: J. Cairns

Journ. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE I

Nest and nesting tree of the Lesser Fishing Eagle

Photo: J. Cains

NEW BREEDING RECORDS OF MALAYAN BIRDS 151

down the contents for inspection and measurement, and making his

descent easily and quickly simply by leaning outwards facing the tree

and ‘walking’ down while holding the rope double slung from above.

One egg was white, handsomely splashed with rich brown and

clouded with ochreous pink and soft grey, and measured c. 69X53 mm.

The second egg was also white clouded with pink and grey, but had

no dark splashes. Slightly larger, it measured c. 69.5X53 mm. From

the appearance and feel of the shells I estimated that incubation had

begun about a week before. Whilst Razali was at the nest around

10 a.m. the eagles were not heard or seen, but after his descent one

bird returned and settled, and although we kept watch till mid-after-

noon, we did not see it leave. Inaccessibility and security are surely

synonymous for breeding success, yet Black Eagles still remain rare

birds and never seem to increase. The nest described above is located

in the Jedok Forest Reserve, Kelantan.

‘Lesser Fishing Eagle : Icthyophaga nana nana (Blyth)

Over a period of 40 years I have seen five nests of the Lesser

Fishing Eagle, four in Kedah and one in Perak. This species is con-

siderably smaller than the Black Eagle and, of course, strikingly

different in appearance. The entire head, neck, breast, flanks, and

underwings are unblemished ash-grey. The abdomen, thighs, and

underside of the tail are pure white. The back, wings, rump, and

upper side of the tail are brown. The grey of the breast and the

white of the abdomen do not merge. They meet and remain sharply

contrasted across the body, and this forms the most striking feature

of the plumage. The bill is blue-grey, and the legs and feet are

pale grey. Although this bird is not particularly scarce, yet it is rarely

encountered since it avoids open country and frequents inland forest

and river reaches with heavily forested banks. Finding a nest is a

matter of luck; a bird may be seen flying into or out of a tree and

there it is. Nest building takes a very long time, as the bird seems

to be exceedingly fussy over sticks, many of which are either deli-

berately discarded or accidentally dropped, judging by the numbers

that strew the ground at the base of the tree. I never have seen

sticks at ‘the base of a nesting tree used by any other species of eagle.

My experience is that a bird which starts building in December lays

its eggs in February. The large structure of sticks is wide and flat

and not piled high, with a spacious shallow interior lined with green

leaves mixed with leaf debris. The eggs, two or three in number,

laid at intervals of 4 days, are smooth in texture and uniformly

grey-white without marks. The average measurements of twelve are

152. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

57X45 mm. One constant factor applies to all 5 nests. They

were placed very high in big trees--three isolated and two not—at

the edge of dense forest, and in every case far out from the trunk

near the end of a strong horizontal bough. The call in flight is a

double-syllabled nasal yelp which echoes among the trees. |

Short-Toed Eagle : Circaétus gallicus (Gmelin)

One mid-November day in 1954 I was working through heavy

swamp immediately east of the mangrove belt along Penang’s west —

coast and, on pausing for a quick survey ahead, I picked up through

my glasses and a long way off a large bird perched on a low stump.

It was obviously a raptore but too white and also perched too low

to be in character with more familiar species. Taking advantage of

available cover I pushed on and closed the gap to about 50 yards

(c. 45 m.). The bird was still on the stump intently gazing down

into the swamp herbage. Presently it jumped off without using its

wings into deep growth on its right, remained out of sight for perhaps

ten seconds, then flapped back to the perch with a snake about three

feet long, wriggling in its talons. This was a fortunate occurrence

from the observational point of view, because the bird was now

forced to adopt many attitudes with wings outspread for balance

while manoeuvring with the snake. I was therefore able to note

every aspect of plumage and identify it as a splendid adult Short-toed

Eagle, Circaétus gallicus subsp. The snake was eventually swallowed

whole head first. Seen in flight from below this eagle is the whitest

of all eagles, and the present specimen was almost uniformly white

with dark wing tips and only slight duskiness across the breast. The

white undertail showed three cross-bars, the bill was blue-grey, the

naked tarsi pale grey, and all upper parts including tail showed a

marbled effect of honey-brown with flecks of grey. The head had a

slightly flat-faced appearance reminiscent of an owl’s. Leaving it un-

disturbed I! veered away on a wide detour but returned in the afternoon

when I saw it again, about 20 feet (c. 6 m.) up, quartering the swamp

like a harrier and hovering briefly at intervals. Back in the vicinity

on 4 December I found to my surprise a pair of birds. I watched

them soaring, searching, feeding, preening, resting; and incredibly

also building an eyrie already of considerable bulk. From then on

they became my sole obsession, and I returned three times every

week to record progress. The chosen tree was a fringe tree of the

mangrove forest overlooking the swamp, stout but not very tall, and

the eyrie was placed against the trunk at a double fork and only 65

feet (c. 20 m.) from the ground. In the course of time it became

NEW BREEDING RECORDS OF MALAYAN BIRDS 1S3

a huge structure of sticks and could be seen against the sky from a

long distance. Yet it survived all hazards and was never disturbed.

Although the birds seemed never to do very much building the

ageregate of material was astonishing. By 8 January 1955, all

building appeared to have ceased and not a bird was seen all day.

In order to get a clue to possible events I had my climber examine

the nest. It was empty. On the 15th again no birds and no egg.

On the 19th still no birds and no egg and then, on the 22nd, as we

approached the tree the tail of the brooding eagle was visible. After

one sharp tap on the trunk she rose out of her eyrie and stood on

the rim a few moments before launching herself over the forest.

_ The single large egg was oval in shape, unglossed, bluish white with

very few specks of russet here and there but scarcely noticeable—

and measured c. 73X57 mm. The egg was lying on shiny dry leaves

surrounded by fresh green ones and must have been laid on the

20th, 21st. or 22nd, practically two whole months after nest building

began. Five tufts of white down were noted. The bird returned

- and left twice during the next hour but did not settle.

The strange absences and long delays between completion of nest

and egg-laying are also typical of Changeable Hawk-Eagles, S. c.

limnaeetus, and Serpent Eagles, S. c. bassus. Incubation lasted 28

days and the eaglet remained in and at the eyrie for 3 months. The

Short-toed Eagles also bred in 1956 and 1957 in the same area but

used different trees. In 1958 they moved to the foothills east of the

swamp.

This eagle is unique in that it moves about on the ground and

perches near the ground looking and waiting for food, and this is

the only successful hunting method I witnessed. It also soars and glides

and cavorts grandly and easily, and rockets earthward at great speed

with half closed wings. I believe this to be solely a spectacular way of

descending and not a prelude to pursuit or capture of prey. The

adult call is a soft but far-carrying plu-ee.

Family HELIORNITHIDAE

Masked Finfoot : Heliopais personata (G. R. Gray)

The Finfoot is a resident bird, yet its nest has never been reported

within Malayan territory. This is surprising because, although it is

a shy bird, it is not a small bird [being some 20 inches (c. 50 cm.)

long] but it is definitely rare. In my experience it is not so widely

distributed as it is said to be. On the contrary I consider its range

extremely limited. Having made extensive explorations through

154. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

every State in Malaya I never have seen or heard a finfoot anywhere

except in Perlis and Kedah, and it was in the latter State I eventually

found the bird breeding. There is no other waterbird like it. The

sexes are similar with the exception of one distinguishing feature

which is easily seen and remembered. The male has a black throat

and foreneck with a thin white border all round the black: the

female has a white throat and foreneck with a black border all round

the white, and the black in turn is narrowly edged with white.

Otherwise, both have black crowns, grey necks, oily-greeny-brown

backs, wings, and tails, white underparts, yellow bills, and light green

feet. The legs are placed far back, and the bird has a sleek

appearance when swimming low in the water like a grebe. When /

taking off, which is seldom, it runs along the surface with pattering

feet until air-borne. Flight is strong and straight... What astonished

me most was its running ability on land. It is an expert diver when

fishing, but when alarmed submerges by sinking without a ripple.

The call of the male is a phrase of falsetto bubbling notes, and that

of the female a lower pitched gurgling akin in quality to the frenzied

nuptials of White-breasted Waterhens. To me the breeding season

is synonymous with rains. Although I have examined sixteen nests:

one in July, three in September, and twelve in October, yet before

the discovery of the first of these in October 1941 I had been twenty

years in Malaya. During the twenty years since, knowing where to

look and when to look, the fifteen others were, of course, confined

to the years 1946 to 1961, giving a yearly average of one, but this

component includes four nests in one season. The Finfoot breeds

in flat scrub jungle flooded by overflowing small streams. If there

is no flood water it does not breed. I have proved this to my own

satisfaction by visiting the habitat monthly through a calendar year.

Thus, the solitary July discovery was made because there was flood

water, the depth of which is usually from 6 to 9 inches (c. 15 to

23 cm.). Nesting sites vary in height above water, 3 to 6 feet

(c. 1 to 2 m.) being normal, and lower or higher abnormal. One

does not naturally associate waterbirds with sticks, yet all the

Finfoot nests I have seen were made of fine sticks and lined with

dried bamboo leaves. Each structure was about one foot thick and

closely packed into a neat tight mass. This neatness has always

impressed me and is diagnostic. The most favoured sites were

recesses in the ‘walls’ of big upturned tree roots, on vertical

tree stumps, and near the ends of horizontal tree boughs thrusting

into ground scrub. Both sexes incubate and in doing so sleep swan-

like with necks over their backs. When disturbed they simply plop

NEW BREEDING RECORDS OF MALAYAN BIRDS 155

into the water and melt away into the forest mazes. Full clutches

of eggs range from five to eight in number, seven being most fre-

quent. They are roundish ovals with medium glossy textures. Typical

eggs are creamy-white bearing rich chestnut splashes and _ violet

areas which, however, become pale grey with the passage of time.

Another type is moorhen-grey with similar colours but the grey

reduces the colour intensity. Average dimensions are c. 49X41 mm.

Family GLAREOLIDAE

Pratincole : Glareola maldivarum J. R. Forster

In my experience pratincoles with red underwings are irregular

November visitors to north Malaya: numerous, scarce, or absent

altogether for reasons unknown. I have no earlier record of arrival;

and my records for northward passages are all in February. Con-

sidering that these records cover a period of 40 years this dual

consistency is remarkable. Nor have I ever discovered where the

birds go in the intervening months. On the other hand, E. H. Bromley

once told me that when he resided in Alor Star, pratincoles were

present from March to July. This undoubtedly spans the breeding

season but no nest or nestling was ever found or seen. It is there-

fore gratifying to be able to report now that pratincoles do breed in

Malaya.

In 1958 I spent three months—April, May, June-—-in Kelantan and

Trengannu and when I made the discovery no thought of pratincoles

had even remotely entered my mind. I was quartering some old plough-

ed and tussocky land looking for the nests of 3 pairs of Red-wattled

Lapwings, L. i. atronuchalis, whose habitat I had previously noted,

and in doing so walked into the pratincole colony. The date was

20 June. In the ensuing three hours I located 15 pratincole nests

Over an area of approximately six acres and the lapwing nests as

well. One of these containing 4 eggs was 10 feet (c. 3 m.) from a

pratincole nest with 2. The other lapwings’ nests contained 4 and

3 eggs respectively and were outside the precincts of the colony. Of

the 15 pratincole nests three contained 3 and twelve contained 2 eggs

in various stages of incubation from fresh to near-hatching; ground

colours varied—pale straw, grey, or green---and carried spots and

fine broken scrawls of sepia and black bloomed with violet. All

nests were slight depressions: ten in dry broken-down earth, four on

dried cow-pats, and one on solidified mud. Not a single nest had

any shelter, and under the boiling sun the birds brooded their eggs

with wide open bills and throbbing throats. Average measurements

156 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

for the 33 eggs were 32X23 mm. The pratincole’s flight is easy,

leisurely, and buoyant. From the ground it starts off low and gains |

height by a long gentle upward trend. The double call note kee-tik |

has a light timbre and tern-like quality. Notes of protest sounded

like tee-tirek, tee-tirek. When the bird is incubating or standing the

long crossed wing-tips can be mistaken for the deeply forked tail.

In flight the prominent feature is the white rump.

A Malay shepherd on the spot with whom I spoke knew of no

Malay name for the bird, but was so familiar with it as to show no

abnormal interest, merely adding that he had seen eggs in previous

years in different places and that the birds would disappear in

August. These simple facts were given in reply to my relative

questions and at least confirm the new status of this dainty bird

probably the Eastern Pratincole, Glareola maldivarum, as a breeding,

summer visitor. The breeding ground is in Trengannu, practically

on the same latitude as Penang, which for comparison is at least

60 miles (c. 97 km.) further south than Alor Star.

Family 'TIMALIIDAE

Rail-Babbler : Eupetes macrocerus macrocerus Temminck

On 29 May 1958 I entered the Lebir Forest Reserve in the vicinity

of Jeram Chalil, after travelling for several days some twenty miles

up the Sungei Lebir from Manek Urai. This Forest Reserve through-

out its whole length of 30 miles (c. 48 km.) lies between the Sungei

Lebir on the west and the Kelantan-Trengannu State Boundary on the

east, while its southern end, about 7 miles (c. 11 km.) wide, meets

the north-eastern extremity of King George V National Park under

the great north massif of Gunong Tahan. In this forest at an

elevation of about 500 feet (c. 150 m.) above the river I stumbled

across what is probably the first Rail-Babbler’s nest ever found in

Malaya. As usual I was not looking for or expecting such a rarity,

since I have yet to meet an ornithologist who has even seen the

Malayan bird, and until I found this nest I was in the same category.

My chief objectives—hornbills, pheasants, peafowl—were forgotten and

abandoned and throughout the day J made observations and notes on the

nest which are now rendered verbatim. ‘A ragged assembly of thin

sticks, tangled tendrils, and black leaf-mould forms the basic

structure; on this foundation rests the cup-shaped open nest com-

posed of fibrous roots, lichens, and some moss in places; densely

and neatly woven. The diameter of the interior is 4 inches (c. 10 cm.),

its central depth 14 inches (c. 4 cm.), and the entire lining composed

}

NEW BREEDING RECORDS OF MALAYAN BIRDS 157

of skeleton leaves. On this gauze-like bed lie two beautiful pink

eggs, the larger ends circled by zones of russet. They are longish

slightly pointed ovals, have a fine texture and slight gloss, are quite

fresh, and measure c. 30X22 mm. The nest is placed on a flat-

topped boulder well-covered with vegetation and only 2 feet (c. 60

cm.) high, and even when known is scarcely visible at very short

range. In fact the only reason I did see it is because the bird

jumped off close to my knee. Both birds are alike and, although

exquisitely plumaged, appear soberly coloured in the sombre forest

light. They have no fear of me. They do not fly; simply

move about on or near the ground and jump up to or down from

the nest, turn over leaves, pass food to each other, and neither has

uttered a single note in four hours.’

Family PARIDAE

Sultan Tit : Melanochlora sultanea flavocristata (Lafresnaye)

In the hill forest of Penang there is no other small bird like the

Sultan Tit. For a tit, its plumage is revolutionary. All underparts

of the male’s body below the chest and the striking head crest are

bright yellow, while the rest of the bird is entirely black. The female

is not quite so yellow and not quite so black. Two other non-tit-like

features are the large size [8 inches (c. 20 cm.)] and the graduated

tail. However, its voice, nest, eggs, and nesting sites are similar to

those of the true tit family, Paridae. Small parties move about in

forest glades above the 2200 foot (c. 670 m.) contour and attract

attention by their continuous churring chuckling as they search for

food among green foliage; although decaying timber, standing or

fallen, always receives special attention. When so encountered at

ground level watching them is indeed a pleasure—absorbed in their

searching and showing no concern or apprehension of possible danger.

Their actions are deliberate, not jerky, and convey an impression. of

never being in a hurry. Spiders, caterpillars, grubs are placed under

the feet and the contents only of their bodies eaten piecemeal.

Butterflies are also caught and devoured in the same way after nipping

Off and dropping the wings. One call phrase is a pleasant zip-tree-

free, another is zup-zee Zup-zee Zup-zee repeated over and over:

another, a slow mournfal plaint, pay-pay-pay, when disturbed from

the nest: besides the customary puffed-throated churring at any time.

As in the case of the Malayan Great Tit, P. m. ambiguus, whose life-

history and nesting habits I have fully described in the Journal of the

Bombay Natural History Society, 1956, (53 : 367-73), the female

i158 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

collects all materials and builds the nest wth the male accompanying

her to and fro on every trip. Breeding activity is greatest during the

period February to May, its peak March-April with an occasional late

nest in June. The only way of locating a nest comes through a

fortunate chance encounter with the female collecting materials, which

she usually does near or on the ground, and watching her to the

site, which may be difficult or easy according to the forest density.

Holes in living trees are favourites, ranging in height from 8 to 50

feet (c. 3 to 16 m.) though most nests are around the 30 foot (c. 10 m.)

mark. I have always wondered and wished to know why the chosen

hole is chosen, with so many others in the vicinity, but I suppose I

never shall. The nest is a thick pad of green mosses, soft lichens,

and spider-silk, lined with cream-coloured flower floss mixed with

thread-like fibres and shaped to the mould of the cavity. Four to six

eges are laid, five predominating. They are pure white, splashed and

spotted with clear light red, and although similar in colour to those

of the Great Tit and the Velvetfronted Nuthatch are, as they should

be, distinctly larger averaging c. 18X14 mm. During incubation, there —

is no sound or clue to any nest location, but when eggs hatch on the |

14th day both parents enter upon a period of prodigious feeding —

activity. They enter and leave the nest without reference to anything |

or anybody close by. At this time I am always surprised by the

number of females I did not see when they were building one month

earlier. Fledglings come out of the nest around the 15th or 16th day

after hatching and wait to be fed on convenient boughs. For a few

more days both parents still feed them, but when they are able to

fly and follow through the trees, the male alone caters for the family.

This peculiar habit is also true of the Great Tit.

Family SITTIDAE

Velvetfronted Nuthatch : Sitta frontalis saturatior Hartert

This beautiful little bird is widely dispersed through the forest on

Penang Hills, also above the 2200 foot (c. 670 m.) contour. Just 5.

inches (c. 13 cm.) long, its violet-blue upper parts, lilac-peach under- |

parts, combined with its bright vermilion bill, are arresting features

as the bird runs up and down tree trunks with jerky movements.

It descends head first, not tail first like Woodpeckers. In the brilliant |

months of January and February it is more frequently seen than in

any other month, probably because of its fondness for ‘wintering’

trees. In addition, these are the nuptial months of pairing, nest

building, and flying together. Small parties are also fond of

NEW BREEDING RECORDS OF MALAYAN BIRDS 159

travelling together at this time of the year, and exhibit an astonishing

habit of visiting the same group of trees every morning about the

same time; constantly twittering, whether feeding or flying. This

would appear to indicate a scheduled daily circuit of territory.

Appearances and departures are instantaneous and for this reason

disconcerting. Never a sign of site prospecting! Never a clue to

nest building! My constant surmise for many years was simply how,

when, where do they build, for in any dense rainforest there is no

way of following small fast birds and everything is relatively

accidental. When eventualiy I had the solution its simplicity was

slightly fantastic and will no doubt appear so now in retelling. Over

and over again I had noted that favoured feeding trees were in glades

of thinner forest or at forest fringes which received strong sunlight.

One day I decided to examine one closely (something I had not done

before) after the visiting party had gone. I struck the trunk sharply

with a stick and from a crevice in the trunk only 10 feet (c. 3 m.)

up there emerged a female nuthatch. I soon reached the crevice

which was 6 inches (c. 15 cm.) tall 2 inches (c. 5 cm.) wide, and using

a torch I could see six eggs in a fur and feather lined green moss nest

about 5 inches (c. 13 cm.) down in the cavity. By the pink

appearance of the white shells I could tell they were fresh. Markings

(freckles and small splashes) were red. There was no plastering at

the entrance. The date was 4 February 1950. So, in this case at

least, the feeding tree was the nesting tree of one pair, and the

morning parties were visitors. This discovery sent me off on a

speculative visit to two more party feeding trees which I knew,

incidentally far apart, and a pair of nuthatches had a nest in each.

This phenomenon invariably happens in bird-nesting. Years may

pass before finding a first nest; yet as soon as this is found a second

and third turns up, sometimes immediately or very soon afterwards.

Because of this experience I am not implying that these are the only

sites used. There must be others but I have yet to find them. Five

or six eggs are normal clutches. They measure c. 17X13 mm., and

the exact nesting season I place from the last week of January

through February to the first week of March. The richly coloured

birds on Penang Hills are undoubtedly S. f. saturatior. Only once

have I ever heard and seen this species away from the hills; and that

was a single bird in one of the tall Angsanna trees bordering Light

Street near the General Post Office on 11 March 1949. Out of these

notes emerges one unresolved surmise as to what birds are free to

make up the parties which continue their morning visits throughout

the breeding season.

Entomological Survey of Himalaya

Part XXVI. A Contribution to our Knowledge

‘of the Geography of the High Altitude Insects

of the Nival Zones from the North-West

Himalaya

PART 6

M. S. MANI, D.Sc., F.L.S., AND SANTOKH SINGH, Ph.D., F.R.E.S. |

(With one text-figure)

[Continued from Vol. 59 (3) : 861]

VII. CONCLUDING REMARKS

The zoogeographical problems of the nival insects from the NW.

Himalaya centre largely around the high endemism of a cold-adapted,

ecologically highly specialized, Tertiary-mountain fauna. Attention

has already been drawn to the very high proportion of the Tertiary-

mountain element and it has also been shown that at least 60% of

the mountain species, found at present above the timber-line, have

had their origin within the region of the NW. Himalaya. Large-scale

migrations of the. present. species-complex of the nival zones from

outside is thus at once ruled out.

From his extensive studies on the Palaearctic bumble-bees,

Skorikow (142) concluded that the region of the Tertiary mountains

constitutes an independent place of origin of many fauna within the

Palaearctic Realm. The NW. Himalaya is one~ such important

region of recent faunal development and differentiation. The possi-

bility of the origin of many races, subspecies, species, and even genera

in such a recently disturbed area was not overlooked by Eidmann

(34) in his general remarks on the ants from the Nanga Parbat area.

It is also readily apparent that the endemism of ‘the Tertiary-

mountain autochthone fauna of the NW. Himalaya 1S naturally core

bound up with the rise of this mountain system.

ENTOMOLOGICAL SURVEY OF HIMALAYA 161

At least in so far as the NW. Himalaya is concerned, there seems

to be little doubt that the present nival insect fauna above the timber

line certainly did not ascend to these high elevations, either from the

surrounding lowlands or even from comparatively lower elevations.

On the other hand, there is every indication that the territory, which

the ancestors of the present nival insect fauna occupied, was uplifted

by the Tertiary orogenic movements to the high elevations where

the endemites and others are now found. The endemites thus arosa

pari passu with this uplift of the Himalaya and are therefore in every

sense products of the growth of the mountain system itself.

The origin of endemism. As is well known, the Himalaya is a

series of more or less parallel or nearly converging ranges of high

mountains, intersected by longitudinal valleys (18, 81, 82, 153). The

-NW. Himalaya is connected with the other ‘Tertiary and older

mountain ranges of Asia in the so-called Pamir Knot (Fig. 35). This

is really an enormous area of the earth’s surface, which has undergone

considerable recent foiding, crumpling, thrusting, and other violent

crustal movements during the Tertiary Epoch. The equator-ward

movements of the Angaran land mass caused the uplift of the

Tethyan sediments and the obliteration of the Tethyan sea. The

Gondwana land mass on the south also produced an under-thrust

towards the central Asiatic mass and thus contributed to the uplift of

the Himalaya. These orogenic movements are believed to have

occurred in four major phases respectively in the Upper Eocene,

the Middle Miocene, Pliocene, and Pleistocene. The thrusting move-

ments produced a series of folds. The curving of the NW. Himalaya

away from the rest of the Himalaya east of the River Sutlej is

believed to be due to the resistance by the Gondwana mass to the

equator-ward movements from the north.

The obliteration of the Tethyan sea and the uplift of the Tethyan

sediments opened up the possibilities of the southward extension of

the Angaran lowland and mountain (Asiatic) faunal elements. While

the central granite mass of the Great Himalaya was breaking up

through the Tethyan sediments, and other crustal movements succeed-

ed one another, the insect fauna, which had already peopled the

region, was also simultaneously uplifted to elevations, often even

higher than those which species generally inhabit at the present time.

The Angaran ancestral stock of the older Asiatic mountain-auto-

chthones spread by way of the Pamir to the NW. Himalaya. The

occurrence of Conophyma and Gomphomastax on the Turkestan

mountains, Pamir, and NW. Himalaya is explained, for example, by

Uvarov (149) on the basis of the tropical and sub-tropical Angaran

162 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

faunal elements of the region being elevated at the same time as the

uplift of the mountains and simultaneous evolution to the cold-adapted

types. With the uplift of the Tertiary mountain system, the

Tertiary tropical and sub-tropical fauna were in a sense transported

to alpine and arctic climates. That the present nival insect fauna of

the NW. Himalaya are really central Asiatic derivatives, and have

had very little or no substantial contribution from the southern

Gondwana stock is indicated by the absence of the latter and the

presence of numerous typical Angaran and high northern genera like

Nemoura, Nysius, Chlamydatus, Bembidion, Cymindis, Nebria,

Trechus, Atheta, Parnassius, Colias, etc. The present distribution of

Bembidion fuscicrus Motsch. (Fig. 16), Catapionus and Scepticus

(Fig. 20), Subterraneobombus melanurus (Lepel) (Fig. 23), the

fourteen subspecies of Karnasa hibneri Feld. (Fig. 30), Deuterophle-

biidae (Fig. 31), and Aédes (Ochlerotatus) pullatus Coq., and Ephydra

glauca Meig. (Fig. 32) is also additional evidence of the northern

origin. The higher endemism and other peculiarities of the Indus

province, to which we have already referred, are also best explained

by the northern stock. The crest line of the Great Himalaya seems

to have been an effective barrier to the Gondwana _ elements.

Furthermore, it was not until the uplift of the NW. Himalaya had

progressed sufficiently high to start deposition of sediments on the south

that any direct route became available for the Gondwana fauna to

the Himalaya (27, 32). The only endemite of undoubted southern

source 1s Phaeropsopus stenoderus Chaud., which, as we have already

indicated, is confined to the timber line altitudes on the outer

Himalayan ranges and is never found north of the crest line of the

Great Pir Panjal Range. This species is obviously neo-endemite

(Post-Pleistocene origin).

Although the southward extension of the Angaran lowland insect

fauna must have followed soon after the obliteration of the Tethyan

sea, the transformation of the tropical and sub-tropical lowland forms

to the cold-adapted mountain-autochthone elements seems to have

come about probably only during the late Miocene, when the Pamir-

Karakorum-NW. Himalaya region had reached sufficient elevation.

The ecologic specialization of these cold-adapted Tertiary-mountain

fauna seems to have reached its climax during the Pliocene uplift of

the Himalaya and thus also culminated in the origin of the endemism

that characterizes the nival insect fauna at present. The endemites

are thus largely of Pliocene origin. The entire nival insect fauna of

the region is indeed of Tertiary development. None of the genera,

and often even many of the families represented in the present nival

er ——o

ENTOMOLOGICAL SURVEY OF HIMALAYA 163

fauna, are known to have existed before late Eocene. The genera

Amara, Trechus, Nebria, and Bembidion are known as fossils only

from the late Eocene and others like Aleochara and the family

Bombidae are known from the Miocene (52, 53). It is, therefore, not

possible to assign an age older than late Pliocene for the greatest

majority of the endemic species. It is also only the phylogenetically

young and thus plastic groups that could be expected to evolve the

high altitude specializations for life in a newly elevated region.

Thus, most endemic genera like Dicranophyma, Dolmacoris,

Tibetocoris, Chaetobroscus, Ascelosodis, Bioramix, and Stenophylina

would appear to be of late Pliocene or also of Pleistocene develop-

ment. Petersen (118), who studied the speciation in the cold-adapted

Holarctic fauna, concluded that at least in the case of insects it was

not before the Pliocene that cold specialization arose. It is also

apparently during the Pliocene that the central Asian, cold-adapted.

mountain-autochthone species spread north-east to the Nearctic Realm

and south-west and south to the NW. Himalaya, using the chain of

mountains as migration route. ‘The Mediterranean elements also

appear to have more or less penetrated the NW. Himalaya about the

same time. Though the bulk of the endemites are of Pliocene devetop-

ment, many would also appear to have become differentiated during

the Pleistocene. ‘The local subspecies of Coleoptera, Hymenoptera,

and Lepidoptera are without doubt neo-endemites. The ‘Tibetan-

Himalayan elements seem to represent Post-Pleistocene arrivals.

The Pleistocene survival. The Pliocene origin of the endemisnt

of the nival insect fauna above the timber line in the NW. Himalaya

involves considerations of the Pleistocene survival of the cold-adapted

Pliocene endemites and other central Asian elements.

The Pleistocene survival of fauna is now an admitted fact. The

older belief in the total destruction and migration of flora and fauna with

the advancing Pleistocene ice has long ago been shown to be quite

erroneous. Incredible numbers of species of both plants and animals were

neither annihilated nor even did they migrate away from the glaciated

areas, but have survived in the heavily glaciated areas in various parts

of the world. Several workers like Erhard (26), Holdhaus (57-67),

Lindroth (84, 85, 86, 87), Schweiger (126), Horion (69), Franz (43), and

others have demonstrated the survival of different animals on the Alps.

Recently Janetschek (75, 76) has brought together a mass of evidence

for the survival of the boreo-alpine species in the heavily glaciated

areas on the inner-alpine nunatak system. Even at the present time,

surprising numbers of insects are in fact associated with the nunataks

in Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets and in the Arctic Alaska.

164 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

in all of which places the Pleistocene conditions still continue to- :

persist.

Bal

Wee

2500 KM|_

Bigzes: Map of Asia and part of Europe, showing the areas which were

glaciated at one time or another during the Pleistocene. (Equal area azimuthal

projection, scale 1 : 4,000,000. After Antevs, 4).

The Pleistocene glaciations in Asia (Fig. 55) were small in com-

parison to those of Europe and North America. There were no

great ice sheets coinparable to those of Greenland and Antarctic ice of

today, but only numerous ice-covered areas and extensive valley

glaciers in mountains and plateaux. During the Pleistocene, general

atmospheric aridity seems to have prevailed in large parts of the

elevated areas of central Asia, more or less exactly as today. Ice

covered the Pamir, Himalaya, Hindukush, Kuen-Lun, and the connect-

ing ranges in Tibet and Sinkiang (Fig. 55). In Altai, the valley

ENTOMOLOGICAL SURVEY OF HIMALAYA 165

glaciers reached a length of about 320 kilometres and width of about

96 kilometres. There were large ice sheets in Pamir and in Kashmir.

There are even at the present time nearly 1200 glaciers in the Pamir

area, including some of the largest valley glaciers in the world. The

Pamir Valley glaciers of Pleistocene were about 240 kilometres long.

The ice sheet often attained a thickness of 150 metres in central Asia

and Hiraalaya. The central Asian mountains like Alai (39° N.,

70° E.), Tienshan, Alexander Mountains (43° N., 74° E.), Ala

Tau Mts. (45° N., 80° E.) carried numerous valley glaciers. These

glaciations are believed to have depressed the permanent snow

line by 800 metres on the north slope and by 1600 metres on the

south slope on the NW. Himalaya (4, 27, 89). Above the glaciers and

ice sheets nunataks existed during the Pleistocene as they do today in

these areas. As in Greenland, Antarctica, and the Himalaya at the

present time, even during the maximum Pleistocene glaciation, high

and massive rocky areas projected above the general mass of ice sheet

and valley glaciers, bare and not covered by snow and ice, either

because of the steepness, effects of wind, or because of various other .

local peculiarities. Such rock islands in the midst of ice and snow

known as nunataks (from the Eskimo language), represent ecologically

optimal islands or survival centres for flora and fauna, at present and

during the Pleistocene.

Extensive nunatak systems and simultaneous adaptations to

the changing conditions accounted for the survival of this fauna.

The nunatak system was on a more massive scale than in the

Alps. There were further large ice-free, dry, elevated and cold

_ areas. According to Hutchinson (74), genera like Dolmacoris are,

for example, not recent migrants, but the Heteropteran endemites

have certainly survived the Quaternary glaciations in ice-free

areas. Numerous ecologic and distributional peculiarities indicate

such survival of the nival insect fauna on the nunataks. We

have shown earlier (100) that the nival insects are bound to the

Seasonal snow cover, and it is justifiably conceivable that this was sc

even during the Pleistocene. The ability of genera like Nysius and

Chlamydatus to survive in the vicinity of Pleistocene ice is referred

to by Hutchinson (74). The pronounced massing of the nival species,

especially the endemites, around high peaks and ridges, above the

Present permanent snow line and in areas, such as for example, the

Pongong Valley, which were formerly heavily glaciated, and the

concentrations in the neighbourhood of the present day glaciers are

indications that these were the centres of the origin, evolution, and

Pleistocene survival of the nival insect fauna. The Pliocene origin and

166 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

Pleistocene survival of endemites explain the lack of affinity to the Alps

and the absence of the boreo-alpine type of distribution. While both

the Alps and the Himalaya would seem to belong to the same Tertiary

mountain system, their nival insect fauna have had totally different

crigins and histories. There has been no east-west faunal exchange.

Hormuzaki (70, 71) has shown, for example, that even in the case of

Lepidoptera, there has been no east-west exchange between Himalaya

and the Alps, but the few species which are common to these areas are

of northern origin. The differences in the Pleistocene glaciations of

Europe and Asia would also account for some of these peculiarities.

Not only is there no affinity between the nival insect fauna of the Alps

and NW. Himalaya, but also in the Himalaya itself the endemism and

faunal components of the NW. Himalaya are quite unrelated to those

of the rest of the Himalaya, for example, Kumaon, Nepal, or

Darjeeling Himalaya.

Rapid speciation. The high endemism and the occurrence of large

numbers of local subspecies are evidence of the high phylogenetic

plasticity and the intense speciation in the nival insect fauna of the

NW. Himalaya. We have also found other direct evidence in the

field in support of the high speed of speciation. We propose to

discuss the subject in some detail on a future occasion. The extreme

dynamism of the ecological conditions (100), recent geological,

physiographical, topographical, and altitudinal changes, Pleistocene

glaciations', isolation in small and localized allopatric patches

on high massifs with intense potentialities for Sewall Wright

phenomena (166), the phylogenetic youth and plasticity in spite of

cold-specialization, and simultaneous appearance of variations in

entire populations of an ecological niche are some of the major

factors which govern the intense rate of speciation that is in progress

among the nival insects at the present time. Even a minor topo-

graphic change, such as the damming of the River Chandra by the

Bara Shigri Glacier about 180 years ago, so alters the ecological

complex that a totally different type of allopatric population becomes

rapidly differentiated. Many of the Pliocene endemites are at present

developing local races and subspecies in a number of localities. In

the montane tundra above the timber line in the NW. Himalaya there

exists a high potential for rapid speciation. We are indeed witnessing

still the birth of a unique new insect fauna on one of the largest,

highest, and youngest elevated regions of the world.

_* The presence of a considerable proportion of neo-endemites is evidence of

Pleistocene and Post-Glacial evolution. Petersen (118) has discussed the Pleisto-

cene and Post-Pleistocene evolution in Holarctic fauna. Rand (122) has recently

shown the importance of Pleistocene as an isolating factor in speciation, -

ENTOMOLOGICAL SURVEY OF HIMALAYA

167

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The

(Concluded)

The Birds of Nepal

PART 9

BISWAMOY BISWAS

Zoological Survey of India, Indian Museum, Calcutta

[Continued from Vol, 59 (3) : 821]

Family PARIDAE

Most of the specimens of this family listed below have already

been dealt with by Vaurie (1950a).

*645. Parus ater aemodius Hodgson. Himalayan Coal Tit.

Scully (1879), Ripley (1950b), and we did not come across the

Himalayan Coal Tit in Nepal. However, Proud (1949, p. 698) once

observed it on Nagar Jong (c. 1830 m.), Nepal Valley, in December.

It has subsequently been reported in central Nepal by Polunin (1955,

p. 888) from the Langtang Valley at c. 3350 m. upwards in summer,

and Lowndes (1955, p. 30) fron. Manangbhot at c. 2440-3655 m. in

August. Rand & Fleming (1957, p 115) recorded it in November

from c. 2895 m. in the Kali Gandak Valley, west-central Nepal—the

Most westerly record for the subspecies. They also found it in

Okhaldhunga District, eastern Nepal, at c. 3050 m. in winter. Biswas

(1960a) reported it from Khumbu, eastern Nepal, at c. 3655-4265 m.

between February and May.

646. Parus major nipalensis Hodgson. Nepal Grey Tit.

TARAL: Simra: 3 gg, 1 unsexed (March 4,5). BHaBAaR: Amlekhganj :

1 imm. ¢ (June 8). Dun: Hitaura: 1 ¢,3 imm. ¢¢, 1 &, 2 imm. 29, 1 unsexed,

1 imm. unsexed (May 11-26, June 18).

The Grey Tit is common in lower central Nepal from the tarai to

the dun in light forests and forest edges, on bushes and trees, singly,

in small flocks or in mixed feeding parties with other small birds.

Scully (1879, p. 323) found it in the Trisul Ganga Valley, central

Nepal, in November, and Proud (1955, p. 57) occasionally in the

174. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

Nepal Valley in winter and spring. Ripley (1950b, p. 407) and Rand

& Fleming (1957, p. 114) noted it from western through eastern Nepal

from the tarai and dun up to the lower valleys, and Biswas (1960a)

on the bank of Charnawati Khola, Ramechhap District, eastern Nepal,

in January.

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill

46a: 63, 64+, 65, 65+ 55 (2), 60 (2) 11: 52(2), 31272)

19: 61 53 12

2 unsexeda : 64, 65 58, 59 1252)

a Both these appear to be males.

647. Parus monticolus monticolus Vigors. Himalayan Greenbacked Tit.

CHITLANG VALLEY: Chitlang:1 ¢ (March 15). NEPAL VALLEY : Thankot,

Crest of Chandragiri: 6 ¢¢, 3 22 (March 21-24, April 16-20).

The Greenbacked Tit is common in central Nepal from about

1525 m. above. It is found in small parties or pairs, in open parts

of forests on bushes and trees.

It has further been reported from the northern regions of central

Nepal in summer by Polunin (1955, p. 888) in the Langtang Valley at

c. 2745-3350 m., and Lowndes (1955, p. 30) in the Marsiyandi Valley,

and Manangbhot at c. 1830-3655 m.; from western through eastern

Nepal at c. 1220-3050 m. in winter by Rand & Fleming (1957,

pp. 114-115). It was also once spotted by Biswas (1960a) at c. 3960 m.

in Khumbu, eastern Nepal, in February.

It was breeding in March-April. A female dated April 17 had

quite an enlarged ovary with the three largest ova measuring 2.5, 3,

and 4 mm., in addition to a 7 mm. oviducai ovum without layers of

albumen. A male taken April 20 had much swollen testes, R: 6X6,

L: 6X5 mm.

Colours of soft parts : Iris dark brown; bill black; legs, feet and claws bluish

slaty, horny black on tips of claws ; pads light grey.

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill

dace 66, 68, 68.5, 69 (2), 69.5, 71 54, 56 (4), 57 Q) 11.5: G), 12, @e

372°. i ya, 68; 70 — 53,54, 56.5 12 (2), —

- Baker (1922d, p. 80) has given 60-65 mm. as the wing length of

the female. However, I measure the wing of 25 female specimens

from western and central Himalayas (Murree to Nepal Valley) 63- —

71 mm. (average 66.9 mm.).

The population of the Greenbacked Tit from eastern Nepal and

Sikkim was separated by Meinertzhagen (1926) as _ Jlepcharum.

Ticehurst (1935, p. 40), and Kinnear (1937a, p. 23) did not recognize

THE BIRDS OF NEPAL 175

lepcharum and considered it indistinguishable from nominate monti-

colus. Vaurie (1950a, p. 37) accepted lepcharum, and placed the

birds from the Nepal Valley, Sikkim, and Darjeeling District under it.

After a careful comparison I find that the depth of green on the

dorsal side and yellow on the ventral side varies clinally from western

Himalaya eastward to China, the variation being very gradual and

not very well marked, although the two extremes are quite distinct.

It further appears that lepcharum consists of nothing more than

intergrades between monticolus and yunnanensis. Many individual

specimens from the intergrading zone (Nepal Valley to Bhutan) can

be matched with monticolus, while many others can be matdhed equally

well with yunnanensis-—a fact also noted by Vaurie (op. cit., p. 36).

I do not think any useful purpose will be served by recognizing such

a poorly characterized race as lepcharum, and I would prefer to

follow Ticehurst and Kinnear in considering it as a synonym of

nominate monticolus. Recently, however, Vaurie (1957b, pp. 34-35)

has agreed with this view. Still recently, Ripley (1961, p. 548) has

also synonymized lepcharum with monticolus.

648. Parus xanthogenys xanthogenys Vigors. Western Blackspotted

Yellow Tit.

Parus xanthogenys Vigors, 1831, Proc. zool. Soc. Lond. (1): 23. (Himalayas, re-

stricted to Murree, West Pakistan, by Baker, 1920b, p. 236.)

Dun : Bhimphedi : 2 ¢¢ (March 12). MARKHU VALLEY : Deorali : 1 subad. ¢,

1 9 (April 28, May 2). CHITLANG VALLEY : Chitlang: 2 ¢¢ (April 23, 24). NEPAL

VALLEY : Kathmandu, Phulchauki Danda above Godavari, Thankot, Chandragiri

above Thankot : 5 ¢¢, 3 22 (March 22-30, April 9-11, May 13).

The Blackspotted Yellow Tit is common in central Nepal during

March-May from c. 1220 m. upwards in small flocks or pairs in tree

forests as well as in woods.

Ripley (1950b, p. 407), and Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 115)

recorded it from western through eastern Nepal. Biswas (1960a)

observed it in Bhota Kosi and Khimti valleys, eastern Nepal, at

c. 1065-1830 m. early in February.

It was breeding in March, April, and May.

Colours of soft parts: Iris dark brown ; bill black, sometimes horny on tip;

legs, feet, and claws bluish slaty or horny slaty ; pads white.

Measurements :

9 oe 1 subad. ¢ 4 22

Wing : 67, 68 (2), 70, 71.5, 72 (2), 73, 74 69 + 65, 66, 68, 71

Tail : 32,(2)2505.94. (2); 95; 55-5390 (2) 50 50, 51, 52, 54

Bill : 1273). 12.5 3), 3°), — 12 12 (2), 12.5 (2)

(

176 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

*649. Parus xanthogenys spilonotus Bonaparte. Eastern Blackspotted

Yellow Tit.

The only records of the occurrence of this eastern race in Nepal

are furnished by Hodgson’s later collection (Gray, 1863, p. 37)

presumably from eastern Nepal, and by Stevens (1923b, p. 725) from

the Mai Valley, extreme eastern Nepal. at c. 2135-2440 m. in

March-April.

*650. Parus rubidiventris rufonuchalis Blyth. Simla Black Tit.

The sole record of the occurrence of the Simla Black Tit in Nepal

is furnished by Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 116) on a single example,

obviously a stray one, taken in winter in the Kali Gandak Valley,

west-central Nepal, at c. 2805 m., within the range of nominate

rubidiventris.

Vaurie (1950a, pp. 41-44) has discussed at length the advisability —

of uniting the blackbellied forms (formerly P. rufonuchalis and races) —

with the rufousbellied P. rubidiventris. Dr. Walter Koeiz, however,

informs me (in litt.) that he had seen both of them together in Garhwal

and Kumaon, although he did not collect any blackbellied example

there.

*651. Parus rubidiventris rubidiventris Blyth. Rufousbellied Crested

ibn

Since Hodgson’s days, the Rufousbellied Crested Tit has been

recorded from Nepal by Smythies (1948, p. 439), and Proud (1952a,

p. 362) in the Gandak-Kosi watershed between c. 3050 and 3960 m.,

Polunin (1955, p. 888) in the Langtang Valley at c. 3200-3960 m., and

Lowndes (1955, p. 30) in Manangbhot at c. 2440-3960 m.—all in

northern central Nepal; and by Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 116) in

the Kali Gandak Valley, west-central Nepal, at c. 2805 m.

*652. Parus rubidiventris beavani (Jerdon). Sikkim Black Tit.

The post-Hodgsonian records of the Sikkim Black Tit from Nepal

consist of Ripley’s (1950b, p. 407) in the Tamur Valley, eastern

Nepal, at c. 2745 m. in winter, and Biswas’s (1960a) in Khumbu,

eastern Nepal, at c. 3655-4265 m. between March and May.

*653. Parus dichrous dichrous Blyth. Brown Crested Tit.

Scully (1879), Ripley (1950b), and we were unable to find the

Brown Crested Tit in Nepal. It has, however, been reported from the

Kali Gandak Valley, west-central Nepal, at c. 3655 m. in December

by Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 116), from the northern regions of

THE BIRDS OF NEPAL Teal

central Nepal by Smythies (1948, p. 440), and Proud (1952a, p. 362)

in the Gandak-Kosi watershed between c. 3350 and 3655 m., Polunin

~ (1955, p. 888) in the Langtang Valley at c. 3350 m., and Lowndes

(1955, p. 30) in Manangbhot at c. 3050 m., and from eastern Nepal

by Rand & Fleming (loc. cit.) in Okhaldhunga District at c. 2895 m.

in winter, and Biswas (1960a) in Khumbu at c. 3655-3960 m. between

February and May.

Snow (in Vaurie, 1957b, pp. 39-40) has shown that izzardi Biswas,

1955, is a synonym of nominate dichrous.

654. Sylviparus modestus modestus (Burton). Eastern Yellowbrowed

Tit:

MARKHU VALLEY: Deorali: 1 2 (April 28). CHITLANG VALLEY: Chitlang,

Chandragiri above Chitlang :3 ¢¢, 2 29, 1 unsexed (March 15, April 18-27). NEPAL

VALLEY : Thankot, Crest of Chandragiri : 4 ¢¢, 3 29 (March 23-April 15).

The Yellowbrowed Tit is not particularly common in central Nepal

during March-May. We found it at c. 1525-2440 m. in small flocks

in open parts of forests on bushes, small trees, and lower branches

of large trees.

Smythies (1948, p. 440) recorded it from the Gandak-Kosi water-

Shed at c. 4265 m. in autumn. Except Ripley’s (1950b, p. 407) report

from eastern Nepal, it has been known in Nepal only from its central

region.

It was breeding in April. Two females taken April 15 and 18 had

well-developed ovaries.

Colours of soft parts : Iris dark brown; upper mandible dark horny, bluish slaty

on base and greyish white on the sides of its anterior half ; lower mandible bluish

slaty with dark tip and greyish white on the sides of its anterior half ; legs, feet and

claws bluish slaty ; pads greyish white.

Measurements :

mete) 6 2° L unsexed

Wing: 57, 58.5, 60, 60.5, 62 (2), 63 DOO. D060, 57 (2); 38 62

Tail : 35, 36, 37, 38, 40 (2), 41 34 (2), 35, 36, 37, 39 4]

Bill : 9 (5), 9.5, 10 9 (4), 9.5, 10 9.5

655. Melanochlora sultanea sultanea (Hodgson). Indian Sultan Tit.

Dun: Hitaura : 1 ¢ (May 24).

The Sultan Tit was noted by us to be a rare bird in central Nepal.

having been found only once in the forest at Hitaura in the dun.

Ripley (1950b, p. 408) observed it only once in the eastern Nepal

tarai, and Rand & Fleming (1957) found none. However, 80 years

ago Scully (1879, p. 324) found it ‘fairly common in December’

between Nimboatar and Hitaura in the central dun.

Measurements : 1 ¢ : Wing 113 ; tail 94 ; bill 18.

178 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

*656. Aegithalos iouschistos iouschistos Hodgson. Rufousfronted Tit.

Neither Scully (1879) nor we came across the Rufousfronted Tit in

Nepal. Of the post-Hodgsonian records of the species from Nepai,

except Proud’s (1952a, p. 362) sighting in the Gandak-Kosi watershed

at c. 2745-3655 m. in spring, it has been found only in eastern Nepal

(Stevens, 1923b, p. 724; Ripley, 1950b. p. 408; Rand & Fleming, 1957,

p. 118; and Biswas, 1960a).

657. Aegithalos concinnus iredalei (Baker). Himalayan Redheaded Tit.

Dun : Bhimphedi: 1 ¢ (March 13). MARKHU VALLEY: Deorali: | unsexed

(April 29). CHITLANG VALLEY: Chitlang, Chandragiri above Chitlang: 2 ¢¢,

2imm. 3%, 2 2°, 2 unsexed, 1 imm. unsexed (March 15, April 19-24). NEPAL VALLEY

Godavari, Thankot, Chandragiri above Thankot, Crest of Chandragiri : 9 4-7, 4 99,

| imm. unsexed (March 21-April 16, May 11).

The Redheaded Tit is common in central Nepal between c. 1370

and 2285 m. It occurs in small flocks in open parts of forests on

busnes and trees.

It has been reported from western Nepal by Ripley (1950b. p. 407)

and Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 117); trom the northern region of

central Nepal by Polunin (1955, p. 888); and from eastern Nepal by |

Stevens (1923b, pp. 723-724), Rand & Fleming (op. cit., p. 118) and

Biswas (1960a).

It was breeding in late March and April.

Colours of soft parts : Iris yellowish white; bill black; legs and feet orange

brown or brownish yellow ; claws pale horny or brownish horny; pads fieshy

yellowish fleshy or white.

Measurements :

12 é3 6 2° 3 unsexed

Wing : 52'(4); 52.5 (2), 53 (2), 54 @), 55:2) 492); 502); S152" 50551, ot

Tail : 50.5, 51 (3), 52(2), 52.5, 53.2), 45, 47, 48, 49, 49.5,50° 49--, 50(2)

55(2), 58

Bill : 8, 9. (8), 9.5 (2),— ; 8.5 (4), 9 (2) 8.5, 9 @)

Of late there has been some difference of opinion as to the validity

of an eastern Himalayan race, rubricapillus Ticehurst. While Ripley

(loc. cit., and 1961, p. 555), and Rand & Fleming (loc. cit.) admit

rubricapillus, Vaurie (1950a, p. 65, and 1957c, pp. 15-16) does not

recognize it. It would appear that this difference of opinion is

due to the fact that when individual specimens or small series are

compared, rubricapillus appears distinct. In large series such as thai

present in the British Museum, however, the differences between the

western and eastern Himalayan populations are reduced to insignificant

proportion, leaving, to quote Snow (in Vaurie, 1957c, p. 16) ‘many

many birds [that] are not separable’. To me it appears inadvisable

to accept rubricapillus, especially ‘as other subspecies of this species

THE BIRDS OF NEPAL 179

are rather distinct, it seems doubly undesirable to admit this poorly |

marked form’ (Snow, in Vaurie, loc. cit.).

*658. Cephalopyrus flammiceps olivaceus Rothschild. Eastern Fire-

capped Tit.

Although Nepal lies within the range of the species, I am unable

to trace any definite record of the Firecapped Tit from that country,

except Gadow’s (1883, p. 70) entry of a single specimen as ‘Nepal

Purchased’.

Family SITTIDAE

Subfamily SITTINAE

659. Sitta castanea almorae Kinnear & Whistler. Western Cinnamon-

bellied Nuthatch.

TARAI: Simra: 1 ¢ (March 5). BHABAR : Amlekhganj : 2 ¢¢, 1 (2), 1 subad. 2

(March 6-9). Dun: Hitaura, Bhimphedi: 9 ¢¢%,2 imm. ¢¢, 1 9, 1 subad. (9),

3 imm. unsexed (May 13-June 19). NEPAL VALLEY : Pashupatinath, Phulchauki

Danda above Godavari, Thankot : 3 99 (March 22, April 11, May 13).

The Cinnamonbeljied Nuthatch is a common bird of central

Nepal. We found it more numerous in the dun during May-June

than in the tarai and bhabar in early March or in the Nepal Valley

during March-May. It occurs usually in pairs, but sometimes singly,

on trees in forests and woods.

Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 118) recorded it from west-central to

eastern Nepal.

In the Nepal Valley it was breeding in April and early May. A

female taken April 11 was actually laying, having a 10 mm. oviducal

egg without shell. By late May breeding was over in the duns, for

specimens taken then or in June had spent up ovaries and reduced

testes.

Colours of soft parts : Iris dark to reddish brown ; upper mandible black with

bluish slaty on base ; lower mandible bluish slaty with black anterior quarter ; legs,

and feet slaty horny ; claws horny; pads grey-white to white.

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill .

12¢¢: 81, 83 (3), 84(4), 84.5, 41, 42 (3), 43 (5), 44, 22.5 (3), 23 (4), 23.5 (3),

85 (3) 47,— 24 (2)

629: 79, 82, 83 (2), 84,84.5 40, 41, 42, 43, 45, 48 22 G);, 22.5, 23:@)

The specimens from central Nepal are somewhat intermediate

between the western almorae and the eastern cinnamoventris Blyth

(type locality Darjiling), but closer to the former. as has already been

180 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

shown by Vaurie (1950b, p. 6). Ripley (1950b, p. 408) placed his

birds under cinnamoventris, while Rand & Fleming (1957, pp. 118-

119) followed Vaurie in designating their specimens from west-central,

central, and eastern Nepal as almorae. Recently, Ripley (1961,

p. 558) has given the range of almorae eastward up to east-central

Nepal (presumably Kamala Valley, Mahotari District, where Rand &

Fleming’s single eastern specimen was taken) where it has been said

to intergrade with the eastern race cinnamoventris whose western

limit has been given as eastern Nepal. Since I cannot trace any definite

record of the occurrence of cinnamoventris in Nepal, I am not list-

ing it in this paper. —

*660. Sitta castanea castanea Lesson. Chestnutbellied Nuthatch.

The sole record of the occurrence of the Chestnutbellied Nuthatch

in Nepal has been provided by Ripley’s (1950b, p. 408) specimens

taken in the western tarai and central plains during winter.

661. Sitta himalayensis himalayensis Jardine & Selby. Himalayan

Whitetailed Nuthatch.

Dun: Bhimphedi: 1 imm. ¢, 1 imm. unsexed (May 6, 8). MARKHU VALLEY :

Deorali: 1 ¢ (May 1). CHITLANG VALLEY : Chitlang, Chandragiri above Chitlang :

4 $3, limm. 4, 2 29, 1 imm. 2 (March 15, April 17-20), NEPAL VALLEY : Thankot,

Crest of Chandragiri :4 ¢¢, 3 22 (March 21-April 15).

The Whitetatled Nuthatch is common in central Nepal from c. 1370

to 2285 m., and probably further upward. It is found singly or in

pairs on trees in forests.

In west-central Nepal it has been reported by Rand & Fleming

(1957, p. 118) from the Kali Gandak Valley at c. 1830 m. in winter;

in northern central Nepal by Proud (1952a, p. 362) from the Gandak-

Kosi watershed up to c. 2895 m. in spring, and Polunin (1955, p. 888)

from the Langtang Valley at c. 2440-2745 m. in summer; and in

eastern Nepal by Stevens (1924a, p. 1008) from the Mai Valley at

c. 2590 m. in April, Ripley (1950b, p. 408) from the Tamur Valley

in winter, and Rand & Fleming (loc. cit.) from the Maulung and

Dudh Kosi valleys at c. 2285 and 3050 m. in winter.

March and April birds were all breeding.

Colours of soft parts - Iris brown ; upper mandible horny black with ashy on

base of culmen ; lower mandible pale bluish white with horny black tip; legs, feet,

and claws horny brown ; pads greyish white.

Measurements :

9d 322

Wing : 71, 72 (2), 73, 74, 75(2), 76,— 72(2), 72.5, 73,—

Tail : 35, 36 (2), 36.5, 37, a8:(5),2 1 35(2), 36, 37.5, 38

Bill: 16.5, 17 (4), 17.5 (2), 18 (2) 16:5, 17:3), 18

THE BIRDS OF NEPAL 181

662. Sitta frontalis frontalis Swainson. Velvetfronted Nuthatch.

TaRAI : Simra : 4 ¢¢ (March 4, 5). DUN : Hitaura, Bhimphedi: 3 ¢¢, 1 imm. 4,

3 99, 1 imm. unsexed (May 5-28, June 15).

The Velvetfronted Nuthatch is not uncommon in the dun and tarai

of central Nepal. It occurs in pairs or small parties on trees in the

forests. We had not been able to locate it in the Nepal Valley where

Ripley (1950b, p. 408), Smythies (1950, p. 513), and Rand & Fleming

(1957, p. 119) observed it. Scully (1879) did not find it in Nepal.

Rand & Fleming recorded it also from western, west-central and

eastern Nepal.

The unsexed juvenile specimen (May I!) has some spots on the

anterior crown.

The June 15 specimens are very worn but there is no sign of moult.

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill

fcc. 12,. 1225 (2), 14°73 (@),.77 39 (2), 40 (2), 40.5, 1i>53(2), 16°),

41, 43 16.5,—

ee Ors O72). 1235 36.5, 37; 38 15.5, 16, 16:5

I agree with Vaurie (1950b, pp. 11-13) that corallina Hodgson

(type locality Nepal) cannot be upheld.

Subfamily TICHODROMADINAE

*663. Tichodroma muraria nepalensis Bonaparte. Himalayan Wall

Creeper.

Scully (1879, p. 262) recorded the eae Wall Creeper in the

Nawakot District. and the Nepal and Markhu valleys during winter,

“but not in any great numbers’. Stevens (1924a, p. 1011) found it on

the Nepal side of the Singalila Range, eastern Nepal, near Sandakphu

at c. 3597 m. in March. Proud (1949, p. 699) noted it once on

Sheopuri, Nepal Valley. Ripley (1950b, p. 409) sighted it once in

eastern Nepal at c. 1980 m. in February. Polunin (1955, p. 890)

recorded it from the Langtang Valley, central Nepal, at c. 2745 m. in

summer. Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 121) found it from west-central

through eastern Nepal at c. 550-2745 m. in winter.

Family CERTHIDAE

*664. Certhia familiaris mandellii Brooks. Mandelli’s Tree Creeper.

Gadow’s (1883, pp. 328-329) lists of specimens under ‘Certhia

discolor’ and ‘Certhia nipalensis’ are a curious mixture of C. familiaris

mandellii, C. nipalensis, and C. discolor. Thus, under C. nipalensis

182 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

(with C. mandellii as a synonym), he enters six specimens from Nepal,

four from Hodgson’s collection and two from Gould’s and under C.

discolor (with C. stoliczkae as a synonym), two specimens ex Gould

collection from Nepal are listed. In point of fact, however, C.

mandellii has nothing to do with C. nipalensis, being accepted as a

subspecies of C. familiaris, and C. stoliczkae in its turn is no close

relation of C. discolor, being only a synonym of C. nipalensis.

The first definite record of Mandelli’s Tree Creeper from Nepal

was made by Smythies (1948, p. 440) from the Gandak-Kosi watershed,

central Nepal, at c. 3505 m. in autumn, followed by Proud (1949,

p. 699) from the Nepal Valley at above 1980 m. Both these are,

however, visual records. The first rost-Hodgsonian specimens taken

in Nepai are Ripley’s (1950b, p. 409) from the Tamur Valley, eastern

Nepal, at c. 2745 m. in winter. It was subsequently reported from

central Nepal by Proud (1952a, p. 363) in the Gandak-Kosi watershed

at c. 2440-3505 m. in spring, Polunin (1955, p. 890) in the Langtang

Valley at c. 3350-3960 m. in summer, and Lowndes (1955, p. 31) in

Manangbhot at c. 3350-4115 m. in summer; from west-central Nepal

by Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 119) in the Kali Gandak Valley at

c. 3655 m. in winter; and in eastern Nepal by Rand & ‘Fleming

(loc. cit.) in the Maulung Valley at c. 3505 m. in December, and

Biswas (1960a) in Khumbu at c. 3655-3960 m. between February and

May.

*665. Certhia nipalensis Blyth. Nepal Tree Creeper.

Scully (1879), and we were unable to find the Nepal Tree Creeper

in Nepal. Stevens (1924a, p. 1010) came across it on the Singalila

Range, eastern Nepal, at c. 2745-3505 m. between January and May—

a fact apparently overlooked by Ripley (1950b, p. 409) when in

reporting his single specimen from the Tamur Valley, eastern Nepal,

he said that the only earlier Nepali record of the species was

Hodgson’s. Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 120) found it not only in

eastern Nepal (Maulung Valley) at c. 3505 m. but also in west-central

(Ulleri) at c. 2440 m. in December. This last constitutes the most

westerly record known for the species.

Regarding the early Nepali collections of this species, see under

C. familiaris mandellii (p. 181).

#666. Certhia himalayana infima Ripley. Dark _ Himalayan Tree

Creeper. |

The Dark Himalayan Tree Creeper was not included in the

catalogues of Hodgson’s collections (Gray & Gray, 1846; Gray, 1863),

THE BIRDS OF NEPAL 183

but Gadow (1883, p. 328) listed two specimens in the British Museum

presented by Hodgson. Since Hodgson’s days it was not known from

Nepal, until Ripley (1950a, p. 106: 1950b, pp. 408-409) collected it

from the western tarai in winter, and separated the Nepal population

from the farther western Himalayan birds. It has also been obtained

by Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 121) from western Nepal at c. 1065 and

1830 m. in winter.

Vaurie (1959a, pp. 544-545) does not recognize infima as distinct

from the nominate Aimalayana.

667. Certhia discolor discolor Blyth. Sikkim Tree Creeper.

CHITLANG VALLEY : Chitlang: 1 ¢ (April 23).

This Tree Creeper appeared to be scarce in central Nepal where

we found it only on two occasions, once on Chandragiri near

Chitlang, when the specimen was collected, and again on Phulchauki

Danda above Godavari at about 1830 m. on May 13.

~ Reporting on our specimen, Vaurie (1950b, pp. 38-39) remarked

that this was the first specimen that was undoubtedly taken in Nepal.

Subsequently, however, examples were collected in the Nepal Valley

by Ripley (1950b, p. 409), and in western through central Nepal by

Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 120). Earlier, Smythies (1950, p. 515)

observed Tree Creepers at c. 2135-2440 m. on Sheopuri Range, which

he recorded as C. discolor.

Regarding the early Nepali collections of this species, see under

C. familiaris mandellii (p. 181).

Our specimen was breeding.

In pointing out certain variations in colour of their Nepal speci-

mens from northern Bengal, Rand & Fleming (loc. cit.) commented

that Vaurie (loc. cit.) did not note those differences. However, no -

critical comparison was possible between the Nepal specimen and

the specimens from Sikkim-Darjeeling, since, as Vaurie (op. cit., p. 39)

has distinctly noted that ‘The Nepal bird is very worn while the

plumage is fresh in the others’. |

Measurements : 1 4: Wing 72; tail 77+; bill 17.5.

Faraily DICAEIDAE

*668. Dicaeum agile agile (Tickell). Thickbilled Flowerpecker.

Scully (1879, p. 260) was the first to report the occurrence: of this

species of flowerpecker in Nepal. He found it ‘not uncommon in the

central part of the Nepal Valley, from May to September’. We. were,

184. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

however, unable to locate it in central Nepal. Proud (1949, p. 713)

noted it to be very common in the Nepal Valley up to c. 2135 m. from

summer to autumn. Ripley (1950b, p. 410) found it in the eastern

tarai and dun in winter. Polunin (1955, p. 895) reported it from the

Trisul Valley, central Nepal, in summer. Rand & Fleming (1957,

p. 198) recorded it in the western tarai and central plains in winter.

*669. Dicaeum chrysorrheum chrysorrheum Blyth. Yellowvented

Flowerpecker.

The lone record of the Yellowvented Fiowerpecker from Nepal

is based on Hodgson’s collection (Gray, 1863, p. 26; Sharpe, 1885,

p. 44). |

670. Dicaeum melanozanthum (Blyth). Yellowbellied Flowerpecker.

NEPAL VALLEY : Thankot : 1 <4, 1 subad. ¢ (April 2).

This flowerpecker appeared rather scarce in central Nepal. We

came across it only occasionally in pairs on tall trees in open

parts of forests. It was not included by Scully (1879), and Ripley

- (1950b) in their lists. Lowndes (1955, p. 35) reported it from the

Marsiyandi Valley, central Nepal, at c. 2440 m. in August. Proud

(1955, p. 69) found it occasionally during December-February in the

Nepal Valley where Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 198) took a single

specimen in March.

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill

(Uh Al 41 11

1 subad. ¢: 70 37 11.5

671. Dicaeum erythrorhynchos erythrorhynchos (Latham). Tickell’s

Flowerpecker.

~TaRAL: Simra: 1 4, 1 2 (March 4).

This flowerpecker is not a common bird of central Nepal. We

found it in pairs in the tarai in tree-groves growing in open country.

Scully (1879) did not report it from Nepal. Proud (1949, p. 713)

noted it as common in the Nepal Valley all summer. Ripley (1950b,

p. 409) came across it in the western and central tarai, and Rand &

Fleming (1957, p. 197) in the western through eastern lowland in

winter.

Measurements : :

Wing Tail Bill

yore 46 23 12

1Q: 47,5 24 13

Rand & Fleming (loc. cit.) questioned the validity of the statement

by Mayr & Amadon (1947, p, 19) that this species ‘is a close relative

THE BLRDS OF NEPAL 185

of concolor and so similar to it that occasional specimens may not be

identifiable’. Although not clearly indicated, Mayr & Amadon

referred in all probability to living birds in the field. Indeed, D.

concolor and D. erythrorhynchos are exceedingly similar in their

habits, call, and general appearance, and they are easily and frequently

mistaken in the field, unless particular attention is paid to the colour

of the bill, which is blackish in the first-named species but pale

yellowish or fleshy in the other. This again is not always possible

to note accurately, for it depends to a Jarge extent on the distance

between the observer and the bird, restlessness of the bird, and the

direction of the light.

672. Dicaeum concolor olivaceum Walden. Plaincoloured Flower-

pecker.

Dun: Hitaura: 6 ¢¢,3 22 (May 13-28, June 19, July 9).

The Plaincoloured Flowerpecker is not uncommon in the central

dun. It occurs in pairs, sometimes several pairs feeding together, on

large trees and tree-groves growing in open country.

Scully (1879) did not find it in Nepal, but Ripley (1950b, p. 409),

and Rand & Fleming.(1957, p. 198) collected it in the Nepal Valley.

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill

6¢d: 44(2), 45(2), 46, 47 21(2)s 222); 23) 1165, 2026)

oe ae 43, 44(2) 22(3) 1g, 115312

*673. Dicaeum cruentum cruentum (Linnaeus). Scarletbacked Flower-

pecker.

Hodgson’s collection furnishes the only record of the Scarletbacked

Flowerpecker for Nepal.

674. Dicaeum ignipectus ignipectus (Blyth). Firebreasted Flower-

pecker.

Dun : Bhimphedi: 3 ¢¢, 2 22 (March 11, 13). CHITLANG VALLEY : Chitlang :

1 2 (April 18). NEPAL VALLEY : Thankot, Crest of Chandragiri: 7 ¢, 6 28, 1 (Q),

1 imm. 2 (March 22-April 16). | |

The Firebreasted Flowerpecker is common in central Nepal,

especially in the forests on the bases of the hills surrounding the

Nepal Valley. It occurs in pairs in bushes as well as on trees.

Polunin (1955, p. 894) found it in the Langtang Valley, northern

central Nepal, at c. 2745 m. in summer. Rand & Fleming (1957,

pp. 197-198) recorded it from west-central to eastern Nepal at c. 915-

2285 m. in winter.

The juvenile specimen (2, April 9) has chin and throat white,

and the buff on the underside much paler and duller than that of adult.

186 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

March and April birds were breeding. A female taken March 23

was marked ‘laying’ on its label.

Colours of soft parts : Iris brown to dark brown ; bill black with a patch on. the

base of lower mandible—whitish in male but yellow to orange in female ; legs, feet,

and claws dark horny, sometimes black on the claws ; pads greyish white.

Measurements :

10 o¢ 10 9°

Wing: 47(2), 48, 49(5), 51(2) 45, 46(5), 47(3), 48

Tail : 25(4), 26(3), 27(2), 28 23, 24(5), 25(2), 26, —

Bill : 10, 10.5, 11(6), 11.5, 12 10, 10.5(3), 11(2), 11.5, —(3)

Family NECTARINIIDAE

*675. Anthreptes singalensis rubinigentis (Baker). Indian Rubycheek.

Ripley’s (1950b, p. 410) collection of a single specimen in the

eastern tarai forms the sole record of the occurrence of the eo

Rubycheek in Nepal.

As I have pointed out elsewhere (Biswas, 1963, in ness Baker S

name rubinigentis should be used for the Indian Rubycheek.

676. Nectarinia asiatica asiatica (Latham). Purple Sunbird.

TARAI: Simra: 1 2 ae 6). BHABAR: Amlekhganj: 2 ¢¢ (March 6, 8).

Dun : Hitaura, Bhimphedi: 1 °%, 1 2 (March 11, May 28). NEPAL VALLEY : Kath-

mandu: | subad. 3,1 juv. ¢, 2 92 (July 23, 24).

The Purple Sunbird is not uncommon in central Nepal in sanded

on hedges, bushes, and smaller trees about villages and edges of

forests. | |

Ripley (1950b, p. 410) found it in eastern Nepal, and Rand &

Fleming (1957, pp. 194-195) in western and west-central Nepal also.

The subadult male specimen (July 23) corresponds with the des-

cription of the eclipse plumage given by Whistler (in Ali, 1936b,

p. 773). The black stripe on its underside is: with very little gloss,

but there is a greenish wash on the dorsal side, and. the SOREL side

is yellow.

The juvenile male specimen (July 23) has merely an indication of ©

black throat stripe.

Measurements : | .

: Wing Tail Bill 6

4 db: 54a, 56, 57(2) 31a, 35, 37, 38 20a, 20.5, 21.5(2) ©

49°: 51.5,52.5,-53,, 54 30(2), 31, — 20(2), 20.5, —

aSubadult

*Comments on Ripley’s A SYNOPSIS OF THE BIRDS: OF INDIA AND PAKISTAN,

to be published in J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc,

THE BIRDS OF NEPAL 187

*677. Aethopyga gouldiae gouldiae (Vigors). Mrs. Gould’s Sunbird.

Although not listed in any of the catalogues of Hodgson’s collec-

tions, Sharpe (1884, p. 28) traced a single specimen of Mrs. Gould’s

Sunbird in the British Museum from Nepal presented by Hodgson.

The only other record of this sunbird from Nepal appears to be

Biswas’s (1960a) sight record from eastern Nepal in the Bhote Kosi

Valley at c. 3655 m. in ‘February-May, the Dudh Kosi Valley at

c. 3050 m. in June, and the Hongu Yalley at c. 3350-3655 m. in June.

*678. Aethopyga nipalensis horsfieldi (Blyth). Blyth’s Yellowbacked

Sunbird.

Blyth’s Yellowbacked Sunbird is known from Nepal only through

Ripley’s (1950b, p. 410) collection from the western tarai, and Rand

& Fleming’s (1957, p. 195) record from western and west-central Nepal

at c. 1065-1830 m. in November-December. The _ west-central

specimens are, however, intermediate between hAorsfieldi and_ the

eastern nominate nipalensis.

679. Aethopyga nipalensis nipalensis (Hodgson). Nepal Yellow-

backed Sunbird.

-CHITLANG VALLEY: Chitlang: 5 ¢¢, 1 Q@ (April 15-26). NEPAL VALLEY

Thankot, Crest of Chandragiri: 9 ¢¢,9 99 (March 21-April 14). ;

The Yellowbacked Sunbird was found common in central Nepal

between c. 1525 and 2285 m. during March-April on bushes, shrubs,

etc., especially those with flowers. Several pairs of them were frequently

found feeding together.

It has been reported from central Nepal in the Chandragiri Pass

by Smythies (1950, p. 516), the Gandak-Kosi watershed at c. 2440-

2745 m. in spring by Proud (1952a, p. 363), the Langtang Valley up

to c. 3505 m. in summer by Polunin (1955, p. 894), and the Marsiyandi

Valley at c. 1980-2440 m. in September by Lowndes (1955, p. 35);

and from eastern Nepal by Ripley (1950b, p. 410) in the Tamur

Valley at c. 2745 m. in winter, and Rand & Fleming (1957, p. Ee) in

Okhaldhunga District at c. 305 and 2285 m. in December.

Colours of soft parts : Iris reddish brown ; legs, feet, and claws dark horny; pads

grey.

Measurements.:

. 14 3d 10 29

Wing : 51 (2), 52, 53, 54 (3), 55 (2), 56 (2), 47, 48 (3), 49 (2), 49.5, 50, 51, 52

57 (2), 58

Tail: 61, 63, 64 (3), 65, 66, 67, 70 (3),—(3) 42 (2), 43 (2), 44 (2), 45 (2), 46, 49

Bill: 20.5.2) (2), 22 (2), 22.9 (2); 23, 20 (4), 20.5, 21 (2), 21.5, 22,—

“y 23.5,—(5)

188 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

680. Aethopyga saturata saturata (Hodgson). Blackbreasted Sun-

bird.

Dun: Hitaura, Bhimphedi: 5 ~¢% (March 11, 13, May 4-16). CHITLANG

VALLEY : Chitlang: 1 juv. ¢ (April 26). Nepal VALLEY: Thankot: 3 ¢3, 1 2

(March 30-April 8).

The Blackbreasted Sunbird is not uncommon in central Nepal

from about 455 m. up to some 1830 m. It is found mostly on bushes

in the forests.

Scully’s (1879) list does not include this species. Rand & Fleming

(1957, p. 196) have also recorded it from western and west-central

Nepal at c. 455 and 760 m. in winter.

One of my male examples (Thankot, March 31) has no yell

on the rump.

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill

8.dd: 53,54.GC), 55.G), 70, 73 (2), 76 (2), 20.(2), 21°(),:21.35.2),

SF 79, 80,— 22,—

i Sde 49 —_ 22

681. Aethopyga siparaja seheriae (Tickell). Indian Scarletbacked

Sunbird.

BHABAR : Amiekhganj: 5 ¢¢, 1 juv. 4, 1 2 (March 6-8). DUN: Hitaura,

Paharé Ghat, Bhimphedi:9 ¢¢,5 92 (March 11, 13, May 18-30, June 11-18).

NEPAL VALLEY : Thankot: 1 ¢%, 1 9 (March 26, 29).

The Scarletbacked Sunbird is common in central Nepal, especially

in the bhabar and dun.

Scully (1879) did not find it in Nepal. Ripley (1950b, p. 410}

reported it from western Nepal, and Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 196)

from western, west-central, and eastern Nepal up to c. 1370 m. in

winter.

Two of my female specimens taken March 8 and 11 have their

forecrowns in moult.

Two male specimens taken June 11 and 18 had breeding testes

measuring. respectively, 6X6 (each), and R: 6X5, L: 5X5.

Colours of soft parts : Iris dark brown ; upper mandible dark horny, black on

posterior third ; lower mandible horny brown; legs, feet, and claws dark horny ;

pads greyish or yellowish white.

Measurements :

15 3d Vee

Wing. 56 (2),-56.5; 57 (3);57.5, 58: 2), 29: 49, 50 (2), 51(4)

59.5, 60 (2) .

Tail: 62 (2), 64 (3), 66, 69, 70, 71 (2), 73,—(4) 34, 35 (2), 36, 38 (2), 39

Bill : 20, 20.5 (2), 21 (7), 21.5, 22,—(3) 19.5, 20 (4), 20.5, 21

Baker (1926, p. 378) did not recognize Hodgson’s miles from

Nepal on the basis of Hodgson’s ancient skins, although they were

THE BIRDS OF NEPAL 189

dull grey on the underside. Ticehurst (1927a, p. 355), however,

upheld miles saying that the ‘Nepal birds (miles) stand out rather

prominently with dull grey under parts’. He apparently ignored the

fact that Hodgson’s skins were then about 90 years old (and for

some years they were kept in the tropics). Baker (loc. cit.) had also

cautioned about the peculiar coloration of those skins by saying that

it may be ‘due . . . to his [Hodgson’s] method of curing the skins’.

I accept Baker’s opinion on the status of miles, for all fresh skins of

the species (Col. Bailey’s at the British Museum, and ours) are not

separable from seheriae. Rand & Fleming (loc. cit.) have arrived at

the same conclusion.

682. Aethopyga ignicauda ignicauda (Hodgson). Firetailed Sunbird.

Dun : Bhimphedi: 2 ¢%, 12 (March 13, 14). CHITLANG VALLEY : Chitlang ;

1 ¢ (March 15). NepaAL VALLEY: Thankot:2 ¢¢, 4 92 (March 22-31).

The Firetailed Sunbird was occasionally found by us in central

Nepal during March and early April on bushes or shrubs with

flowers at elevations over 1525 m. In the Nepal Valley we did not

find them after the first week of April, they evidently having gone

up to their breeding grounds.

Ripley (1950b, p. 410) found it in the Tamur Valley, eastern

Nepal at c. 1525 m. in winter. Polunin (1955, p. 894) reported it

from the Langtang Valley, central Nepal, at c. 3050 m. in summer.

Rand & Fleming (1957, pp. 196-197) recorded it from west-central

through eastern Nepal at c. 1370-2895 m. in winter. Biswas (1960a)

came across it occasionally in Khumbu, eastern Nepal, at c. 3050-

3655 m. between February and May.

Most of our specimens are in different stages of moult from

eclipse to breeding plumage, but nearing completion.

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill

Seto 57, 58 (4) moulting (5) 21.5, 23,—(3)

Seo 53, 54, 55 (3) 40 (2), moulting (3) 21, 22 (2),—(2)

683. Arachnothera magna magna (Hodgson). Indian Streaked Spider-

hunter.

DuN: Hitaura : 2 2° (June 21, 27).

The Streaked Spiderhunter appeared scarce in central Nepal, having

been found by us only two or three times about Hitaura. Our two

specimens referred to above are the only ones obtained in Nepal since

Hodgson’s time.

Measurements: 222: Wing 84(2); tail 44,45; bill 41, 42.

190 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

Family ZOSTEROPIDAE

684. Zosterops palpebrosa palpebrosa (Temminck & Schlegel). Eastern

White-eye.

Tarat: Simra: 1 2 (March 6). BHaBar: Amliekhganj: 2 9¢ (March 6, 8).

Dun : Hitaura, Bhimphedi: 13 ¢¢, 1 subad. 3, 4 99, 2 unsexed (March 11, 13,

May 3-June 16). MARKHU VALLEY: Deorali: 1 unsexed (May 1). CHITLANG

VALLEY : Chitlang: 2 gg, 1 9 (April 17-26). NepaL VALLEY: Kathmandu, Goda-

vari, Thankot : 6 ¢¢,4 29 (March 30-April 2, 14, 27, May 13, 15, July 24).

We found the white-eye as a common bird of central Nepal from

the tarai up to the Nepal Valley. It was abundant in the duns, and

occurred in pairs or parties of three to a dozen birds or so in gardens,

orchards, forests, on trees overhanging ravines, etc.

Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 198) reported it from western through

eastern Nepal.

The birds were approaching breeding condition in March and April,

and had fully breeding gonads in May.

The spring moult appears to be rather late or prolonged in this

species. A male specimen taken on May 13 still has a few growing

feathers on the crown, while another male (May 20) has the central

tail feathers in moult.

A subadult male taken on May 1&8 is moulting into adult plumage.

Colours of soft parts: Iris usually hazel, but grey-brown, brownish buff,

yellowish buff, and even creamy white iris was also seen ; bill black with grey on the

base of lower mandible (once upper mandible horny with paler horny on base, lower

mandible pale bluish slate on basal two-third and dark horny anteriorly) ; legs, and

feet bluish slate ; claws horny ; pads white or yellowish white.

Measurements :

21 dd 1239 3 unsexed |

Wing : SOS 5li.c old; O22), 02295 Si (2) 3153525(2)2 5225) 51, 54 (2)

53 (10), 54 (2), 54.5, 55 (2) 533 (2), 53.5, 54, 54.5, 55

Tail: - 34; 35,36 (2), 36.5 (2), 376), 35, 36°@); 37'G)s37.5'@), | 34,0624

38 (3), 38.5, 39 (3), 41,— 38, 39 (2),—

Bill =~ 12, 12,5 (4), 13 (7); 13-5 (6), — . 12.5) 13'(8), 13-5314 2) | 1342), 133

In the latest review of the Indian races of the species, Mees (1957,

pp. 26-63) has recognized four races in India, namely palpebrosa

(Nepai, Sikkim, Bengal, probably eastern Bihar, and eastern Orissa,

eastward to the greater part of Burma and Yunnan, etc.), sdlimalii

(Eastern Ghats north to Godavari), nilgiriensis (Nilgiris, Palnis and

associated ranges of south-western India), and egregia (Ceylon and

the rest of India). While | have not made any special study of the

species, I do think that the arrangement proposed by Mees is not

entirely satisfactory. For instance, Mees (op. cit., pp. 40, 50)

synonymizes amabilis Koelz (type locality Sasan, Kathiawar, Gujarat)

THE BIRDS OF NEPAL 191

with egregia Madarasz (type locality Ceylon). I do not know if

he had the opportunity to examine fresh specimens from Kathiawar,

but on comparing recent collections from the Gir Forest (Kathiawar),

Balaghat District (Madhya Pradesh), Darjeeling District (West Bengal),

etc., I find that the Kathiawar series stands out quite distinctly, so

that Koelz’s amabilis is, in my opinion, a valid race.

It may be further mentioned here that amabilis appears to be

the most distinct of the Indian races, and the difference between

amabilis and egregia is more than the differences between the four

races admitted by Mees, which are nowhere perfectly clear-cut.

Family EMBERIZIDAE

685. Emberiza pusilla Pallas. Little Bunting.

BHABAR : Amlekhganj: | 3, 1 2, 3? subad. 22 (March 6, 8). NEPAL VALLEY :

Thankot : 3 ¢¢ (April 3, 9).

The Little Bunting was seen by us only on a few occasions in

central Nepal. We observed it in small flocks on hedges and shrubs

about cultivation at Amlekhganj (bhabar) and Thankot (Nepal

Valley).

Scully (1879), and Ripley (1950b) did not find it in Nepal, but

Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 209) recorded it from the Nepal Valley

in March, and from the Kamala and Maulung valleys at c. 305 and

1830 m. in December.

Two of my male specimens (April 3 and 9) had already attained

the summer plumage. Three of my female specimens taken March 6

(listed above as ? subad.) do not appear to be in full adult plumage.

They are, moreover, somewhat smaller in size.

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill

4g: We I25 laid, Tt 57, 60 (2), 61 2). 12:5, 13

Po: 70 oF, 12

3? subad. 2° : 65, 66.5, 67.5 Se am ips) eS 1252)

*686, Emberiza fucata arcuata Sharpe. Indian Greyheaded Bunting.

Hodgson’s later collection (Gray, 1863, p. 57) has furnished the

only record of the Greyheaded Bunting for Nepal.

*687. Emberiza cia stracheyi Moore. Eastern Meadow Bunting.

The Eastern Meadow Bunting has only recently been recorded for

the first time from Nepal by Lowndes (1955, p. 34) who found it

in Manangbhot, northern central Nepal, at c. 3050-3960 m. during

192 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

summer. Later, Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 210) have come acxoss

it in the Kali Gandak Valley, west-central Nepal, at c. 2440-2775 m.

in November-December.

Rand & Fleming’s specimens represented a variable series from

par to stracheyi.

*688. Emberiza stewarti (Blyth). Whitecapped Bunting.

The lone record of the occurrence of the Whitecapped Bunting in

Nepal has been furnished by Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 210) from

specimens taken in western and west-central Nepal at c. 290 and

1370 Im, mm) winter:

*689, Emberiza spodocephala sordida Blyth. Blackfaced Bunting.

Hodgson’s collection has provided the only record of this bunting

from Nepal. |

*690. Emberiza aureola aureola Pallas. Yellowbreasted Bunting.

The Yellowbreasted Bunting was not observed by us, nor by

Ripley (1950b). Scully (1879, p. 334), and Proud (1949, p. 711; 1955,

p. 66) found it as a winter visitor to the Nepal Valley; and Rand &

Fleming (1957, p. 210) obtained a single specimen from the central

duns (Chitawan District) in April.

*691. Emberiza rutila Pallas. Chestnut Bunting.

Rand & Fleming’s (1957, p. 210) collection of a single example

from the Nepal Valley furnishes the sole record of the Chestnut

Bunting for Nepal.

692. Melophus lathami subcristatus (Sykes). Indian Crested Bunting.

BHABaR : Amlekhganj : 1 2 (March 9). DUN: Bhimphedi: 2 ¢¢, 19 (March 11,

13, May 6). MarKHU VALLEY: Deorali: 1 ¢ (April 30). CarrLANG VALLEY : Chit-

lang: 1 ¢, 19 (April 20, 24). Nepat VALLEY: Thankot: 2 ¢¢,2 imm. 4¢,5 99,

2 imm. 22 (March 28-April 11).

The Crested Bunting is not uncommonly found in central Nepal.

It usually occurs on bushes and shrubs about cultivation.

Ripley (1950b, p. 412), and Rand & Fleming (1957, p.’211) have |

found it from western to eastern Nepal. Polunin (1955, p. 894) has |

recorded a single example from the Trisul Valley, central Nepal,

at c. 1830 m. in summer; and Biswas (1960a) has observed it in the

Bhota Kosi Valley, Ramechhap District, eastern Nepal, at c. 1370 m.

in February.

One of my male specimens from Bhimphedi, taken on March 11,

still has traces of olive-brown edges to black feathers.

THE BIRDS OF NEPAL 193

A female specimen taken April 11, has the wing coverts in moult.

Measurements :

6 dd 8 29

Wing: 81, 82, 82.5, 83 (2), 84 76, 77 (2), 77.5 (2), 78, 78.5, 80

Tail : 66, 68 (3), 69 (2) 64, 65 (2), 66 (2), 67 (2), 69

Bill : 1512); 1525.2). 16) (2) 14.5, 15 (3), 15.5 (2), 16, —

Family FRINGILLIDAE

693. Carduelis spinoides spinoides Vigors. Himalayan Greenfinch.

Carduelis spinotdes Vigors, 1831, Proc. zool. Soc. Lond. (1): 44. (Himalayas,

restricted to Simla, Himachal Pradesh, by Baker, 192ib, p. 730.)

CHITLANG VALLEY : Chitlang: 1 3, 2 2°, 1 imm. 2 (March 14, April 16, 19).

NEPAL VALLEY : Kathmandu, Thankot : 3 ¢¢, 1(¢), 1 imm. 3, 5 22, 1 (9), 3 imm.

22 (March 20-April 12).

This greenfinch is a common bird of the Chitlang and Nepal valleys.

‘During March-April it occurred in parties consisting of several pairs,

sometimes in flocks of about 30-50 individuals, on the edges of forests

or on trees about cultivation such as on the suburbs of Kathmandu.

During this period the flocks were tending to break up into pairs.

It has been reported from the northern regions of central Nepal

by Smythies (1948, p. 442) in the Gandak-Kosi watershed up to

c. 3655 m. in autumn, Proud (1952a, p. 365) in the same zone but

at c. 2135 m. in spring, Polunin (1955, p. 893) in the Langtang Valley

up to c. 3350 m. in summer, and Lowndes (1955, p. 34) in Manangbhot

at c. 2440-3655 m. in summer. In western and west-central Nepal it

has been recorded only by Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 202).

Vaurie (1949c, p. 9) has already reported on the moult of most of

my specimens listed above. Some of the immature specimens are

beginning to undergo post-iuvenile moult; for instance, a male

(April 10), two females (March 20 and April 16).

The gonads of the adult birds showed signs of enlargement.

Colours of soft parts: Iris brown to dark brown; upper mandible brownish

fleshy, darker on base and tip ; lower mandible fleshy with dusky tip ; legs and feet

brownish fleshy to pale horny ; claws horny ; pads white.

Measurements :

Wing Tail | Bill

mood: 76, 79 (2), 80, 81 47, 49, 50 (3) 12.5, 13:(2), 13.5.2)

89°: 76 (4), 77 (4) 46, 47 (2), 48 (2), 49,50,— 12.5, 13 (3), 13.5 (3),—

*694. Carduelis carduelis caniceps Vigors. Himalayan Goldfinch.

The sole record of the occurrence of the Himalayan Goldfinch in

Nepal has been furnished by Lowndes (1955, p. 34) who found it in

Manangbhot, central Nepal, between c. 3050 and 3960 m. in summer.

194 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

Ripley (1961, p. 611) does not include Nepal within the range of

this species.

*695. Carduelis thibetana (Hume). Tibetan Siskin.

The Tibetan Siskin was not found by us in Nepal, or by Scully

(1879) or Ripley (1950b), but Proud (1955, p. 66) observed it in the

Nepal Valley late in winter, and Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 202) took

specimens there at Godavari in January.

*696. Leucosticte nemoricola nemoricola (Hodgson). Hodgson’s

Mountain Finch.

The first post-Hodgsonian record of this mountain finch from Nepal

has been provided by Ripley (1950b, p. 411) who came across it in

the Tamur Valley, eastern Nepal. at c. 2440-2745 m. in winter. It

has subsequently been reported from northern region of central Nepal

by Polunin (1955, p. 894) in the Langtang Valley at c. 2745-3350 m.

in summer, and Lowndes (1955, p. 34) in Manangbhot at c. 4265- |

4725 m. and higher in summer; from eastern Nepal by Rand &

Fleming (1957, p. 209) in the Maulung Valley at c. 3050 m. in winter, |

and Biswas (1960a) in the Likhu Valley at c. 3655 m. in February and

in Khumbu at c. 4265-5335 m. in late March-May.

*697. Leucosticte brandti audreyana Stresemann. Stresemann’s Moun- |

tain Finch.

The only record of Stresemann’s Mountain Finch from Nepal has |

been provided by Biswas (1960a) who found it in Khumbu, eastern

Nepal, between c. 4570 and 4875 m. in February-May.

Nepal has generally been excluded from the range of the species |

L. brandti in standard books. except Ripley’s (1961, p. 616) where

L. b. haematopygia (Gould) is said to extend ‘east probably to Nepal’. |

However, Biswas’s specimens are no doubt audreyana.

698. -Erythrina erythrina nr. erythrina (Pallas). Russian Rosefinch.

Dun : Bhimphedi: 1 ¢, 19 (March 14, May 6). CHITLANG VALLEY :

Chitlang : 2¢¢%, limm. ¢ (April 16). NepAL VALLEY: Kathmandu, Thankot,

Chandragiri above Thankot : 8 ¢¢,5 imm. ¢¢, 7 22, 3 imm. 29, 1 unsexed (in 2 |

plumage) (March 26-April 23).

The Russian Rosefinch is common in central Nepal above c

1220 m. during March-April. We found it in small flocks of about

half-a-dozen to a dozen birds on bushes and trees, usually about |

cultivation. On Chandragiri and elsewhere it was found to be parti-

cularly fond of the flowers and buds of Polygonum sp. on which it was |

noticed to frequently congregate.

THE BIRDS OF NEPAL 195

Scully (1879, p. 335) reported it on passage in spring in the Nepal

Valley. Ripley (1950b, p. 412) recorded it from western and central,

Nepal in winter, and Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 203) from western to

eastern Nepal in winter, spring and summer.

The immature males are all in feminine plumage. Of them, the

one taken on April 4 has a reddish tinge on the chin, and its mantle,

wing coverts, and the edges of wings have a slight reddish tone, while

another specimen taken on April 10 has only a reddish tinge on the

cheeks. .

All the specimens had non-breeding gonads.

Colours of soft parts: Iris brown to dark brown ; upper mandible horny or

brownish horny with darker horny on culmen; lower mandible pale horny with

darker tip (once much paler, almost white tip) or horny with greyish on base ; legs

and feet horny brown ; claws horny ; pads white.

Measurements :

11 é¢ 8°29 1 unsexed

Wing: $1 82.5583'(4)3, 85), 80,81, @); 82 (2), 82

84 (3), 86 83 (2), 86

Maile 56) (2).357) (3), 58 (2), 09 (2);,60; 61 | 55,56, 57 GC), 58559 2) 56

Bill : 14 (6), 14.5 (4), 15 13.5, 14 (4), 14.5 (2), 15 14

Vaurie (1949c, pp. 36-44), Ripley (1950b, pp. 411-412), and Rand &

Fleming (1957, p. 203) have commented on the status of the races of

the species in India, and I agree that all my winter specimens are

‘non-roseatus’ type, as given by Vaurie (op. cit., p. 44) under ‘erythrinus

subspecies’.

*699. Erythrina erythrina kubanensis (Laubmann). Caucasian Rose-

finch.

Ripley’s (1950b, p. 412) single example [rom western Nepal

furnishes the sole record of this Rosefinch from Nepal.

*700. Erythrina erythrina roseata (Blyth). Common Indian Rosefinch.

The Common Indian Rosefinch was reported from the Nepal Valley

on passage in spring by Proud (1949. p. 710; 1955, p. 66). Ripley

(1950b, pp. 411-412) took it in western Nepal in winter. It was

further reported from the northern region of central Nepal by Proud

(1952a, p. 364) in the Gandak-Kosi watershed at c. 2440 m. in spring,

Polunin (1955, p. 893) in the Langtang Valley at c. 3350 m. in summer,

and Lowndes (1955, p. 34) in Manangbhot at c. 2745-4265 m. in

summer.

*701. Erythrina rubescens (Blanford). Blanford’s Rosefinch.

The first record of this rosefinch from Nepal is based on Mandelli’s

collection of a single specimen at Dolakha, Bhota Kosi Valley,

196 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

Ramechhap District, eastern Nepal, in August 1875. The only other

Nepali report of the species appears to be Polunin’s (1955, p. 893)

from the Sun Kosi watershed, northern central Nepal, at c. 2745 m. in

summer.

702. Erythrina nipalensis nipalensis (Hodgson). Nepal Dark Rosefinch.

NEPAL VALLEY : Thankot: 1 2 (March 21).

The only specimen of the Dark Rosefinch obtained by us was

observed in a party of four birds on a tree overlooking a cultivated

field at the edge of forest. Very likely, most examples had by then

gone to their breeding grounds.

Scully (1879. p. 336) recorded it from the Nepal and Chitlang valleys

in winter. Stevens (1925a, p. 371) found it in the Mai Valley, eastern

Nepal, at c. 2440-2745 m. in April-May. Proud (1949, p. 711) noted

it in the Nepal Valley above c. 1830 m. in winter. Ripley (1950b,

p. 412) came across it in the Nepal Valley and eastern Nepal in winter.

Polunin (1955, p. 893) observed it in the Langtang Valley, central

Nepal, at c. 3050-3350 m. in summer. Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 203)

reported it from west-central, central and eastern Nepal between

c. 1370 and 2285 m. in winter.

Measurements : 1 2: Wing 81; tail 53 ; bill 12.

703. Erythrina rhodochroa (Vigors). Pinkbrowed Rosefinch.

CHITLANG VALLEY : Chitlang : 1 9 (March 15).

Only once a party of about half-a-dozen individuals of the

Pinkbrowed Rosefinch was observed by us on scrub at Chitlang. Like

the Dark Rosefinch (see above), most of the individuals appeared

to have already left for the breeding grounds. 3

Scully (1879), and Ripley (1950b) did not find it in Nepal. Polunin

(1955, p. 893) reported it from the Langtang Valley, central Nepal,

at c. 3350 m. in summer. Proud (1955, p. 66) observed it on Sheopuri

Range bordering the Nepal Valley on the north at c. 2440 m. upwards

in winter and early spring. Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 204) recorded

it from western and west-central Nepal between c. 915 and 2745 m.

in winter. Biswas (1960a) came across it in Khumbu, eastern Nepal,

at c. 4265 m. early in May. :

Measurements : 12: Wing 71; tail 55; bill 11.5.

*704. Erythrina rhodopepla (Vigors). Spottedwinged Rosefinch

The first post-Hodgsonian record of this rosefinch from Neépal

appears to be that of Polunin (1955, p. 893) who found it in the Langtang

Valley, central Nepal, in summer. It has subsequently been reported

THE BIRDS OF NEPAL 197

also by Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 206) from the Kali Gandak Valley,

west-central Nepal, and the Maulung Valley, eastern Nepal, between

c. 2135 and 3050 m. in winter.

*705. Erythrina edwardsii rubicunda Greenway. Nepal Large Rose-

finch.

Stevens’s (1925a, p. 370) collection of a single example of the Large

Rosefinch from the Mai Valley, eastern Nepal, at c. 2440 m. late in

March, provides the first post-Hodgsonian record of the species from

Nepal. Later, Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 206) have also reported a

single specimen from western Nepal! at c. 1065 m. in December.

#706. Erythrina pulcherrima pulcherrima (Moore). Beautiful Rosefinch.

Since Hodgson’s days, Smythies (1948, p. 442) was the first to

report this rosefinch from Nepal. He found it fairly common in the

Gandak-Kosi watershed, central Nepal, up to c. 3960 m. in autumn.

Subsequently, it has been recorded from central Nepal by Polunin

(1955, p. 893) in the Langtang Valley at c. 3655 m. in summer, and

Lowndes (1955, p. 34) in Manangbhot at c. 3960-4570 m. in summer.

Furthermore, Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 206) found it in the Kali

Gandak Vailey, west-central Nepal, and the Maulung Valley, eastern

Nepal, at c. 2135-3050 m. in winter; and Biswas (1960a) noted it as

very common in Khumbu, eastern Nepal, between c. 3655 and

4570 m. in March-May.

*707. Erythrina thura thura (Bonaparte & Schlegel). Nepal White-

browed Rosefinch.

The post-Hodgsonian records of the Whitebrowed Rosefinch from

Nepal consist of Smythies’s (1948, p. 442) observation in the Gandak-

Kosi watershed, central Nepal, up to c. 4265 m. in autumn; Ripley’s

(1950b, p. 412) in the Tamur Valley, eastern Nepal, at c. 2440 m. in

winter; Proud’s (1952a, p. 364) in the Gandak-Kosi watershed at c.

2560 m. in spring; Polunin’s (1955, p. 893) in the Sun Kosi watershed,

central Nepal, at c. 3960 m. in summer; Rand & Fleming’s (1957, p. 204)

in the Kali Gandak Valley, west-central Nepal, and the Maulung

Valley, eastern Nepal, at c. 2745-3050 m. in winter: and Biswas’s

(1960a) in Khumbu, eastern Nepal, at c. 4265 m. early in May.

*708. Erythrina rubicilloides lucifer (R. & A. Meinertzhagen). Tibetan

Great Rosefinch.

The only record of the Tibetan Great Rosefinch from Nepal has

been furnished by Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 205) who found it in the

198 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

Kali Gandak Valley, west-central Nepal, at c. 2775 and 2805 m. in

winter. ?

*709. Erythrina punicea punicea (Blyth). Nepal Redbreasted

Rosefinch. | 3 pot CGY

The first post-Hodgsonian record of the redbreasted rosefinch from

Nepal is based on Smythies’s (1948, p. 442) observation in the Gandak-

Kosi watershed, central Nepal, at c. 3655 m. in autumn. It has

subsequently been reported by Lowndes (1955, p. 34) from Manang-

bhot, central Nepal, at c. 4265-4420 m. in summer; Rand & Fleming

(1957, p. 205) from the Kali Gandak Valley, west-central Nepal, at

c. 2745 m. in winter; and Biswas (1960a) from Khumbu, eastern

Nepal, at c. 4875 m. in mid-May. .

*710. Propyrrhula subhimachala (Hodgson). Redheaded Rosefinch.

Since Hodgson’s days, the Redheaded Rosefinch has been recorded

from Nepal by Smythies (1948, p. 442) in the Gandak-Kosi watershed,

central Nepal, at c. 3350 m. in autumn; Ripley (1950b, p. 412) in the

Tamur Valley, eastern Nepal, at c. 2745 m. in winter; Polunin (1955,

p. 893) in the Langtang Valley, central Nepal, at c. 3960 m. in summer;

and Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 209) in the Maulung Valley, eastern

Nepal, at c. 3050 m. in winter.

Vaurie (1956a, pp. 36-37) has discussed the question of geographical

variation in this species.

*711. Loxia curvirostra himalayensis Blyth. Himalayan Crossbill.

The only two post-Hodgsonian records of the Crossbill from Nepal

are Stevens’s (1925a, p. 368) in the Singalila Range, eastern Nepal, at

c. 3505 m. in March, and Rand & Fleming’s (1957, p. 209) in the

Maulung Valley, eastern Nepal, at c. 3050 m. in winter.

712. Pyrrhoplectes epauletta (Hodgson). Goldheaded Blackfinch.

NEPAL VALLEY: Thankot: 6 ¢¢, 3 imm. ¢¢, 3 29, limm. 2 (March 18-

April 12).

The Goldheaded Blackfinch is not uncommon in small parties of

three to six birds on bushes and trees in the forests around Thankot

during March and April.

The only other post-Hodgsonian record of this species from Nepal

appears to be that of Stevens’s (1925a, p. 368) from the Mai Valley.

eastern Nepal, at c. 1830 m. in April.

The immature birds (c‘ co": March 21, April 1, 5; 9: March 25)

are all moulting into adult,

THE BIRDS OF NEPAL 199

Measurements :

; Wing Tail Bill

6 od: 75+, 78, 79(2), 80(2) 54+, 58, 59, 60, 61(2) 12.5(4), 13(2)

Sees: 14; 15, EL 53, 56(2) 12(3)

713. Haematospiza sipahi (Hodgson). Scarlet Finch.

Dun: Bhimphedi : 3 22 (May 6).

We did not find the Scarlet Finch at all common in central Nepal.

Once a party of eight birds was observed in the pine forest olf

Bhimphedi when the three specimens listed above were taken. Ours

appears to be the only post-Hodgsonian record of the species from

Nepal.

Measurements: 3 22: Wing 99, 101, 102; tail 63(2), 67, bill from anterior

edge of nostril 12(3).

*714, Pyrrhula erythrocephala Vigors. Redheaded Bullfinch.

Ripley (1950b, p. 412) has provided the first post-Hodgsonian

record of the Redheaded Bullfinch from Nepal. He came across it

in the Tamur Valley, eastern Nepal, at c. 2440 m. in winter. It has also

been found by Proud (1952a, p. 364) in the Gandak-Kosi watershed,

central Nepal, at c. 2440-2745 m. in spring; Polunin (1955, p. 893) in

the Langtang Valley, central Nepal, at c. 3655-3960 m. in summer:

Lowndes (1955, p. 34) in Manangbhot, central Nepal, at c. 3655-3960

m. in July-August; Proud (1955, p. 66) on Sheopuri Range, Nepal

Valley, at c. 2440 m. in April-May; Rand & Fleming (1957. pp. 206-

207) in the Kali Gandak Valley, west-central Nepal, and in the

Maulung Valley, eastern Nepal, at c. 2135-3960 m. in December; and

Biswas (1960a) in Khumbu, eastern Nepal, at c. 3655-4265 m. in

March-May.

715. Pyrrhula nipalensis nipalensis Hodgson. Nepal Brown Bullfinch.

CHITLANG VALLEY : Chitlang: 3 ¢¢& (April 17). NepAL VALLEY: Thankot :

1 § (March 24).

The Brown Bullfinch did not appear to us to be particularly

common in central Nepal during March-April. We came across it on

a few occasions in small flocks of about six to a dozen birds on bushes

and trees in the forests on Chandragiri at c. 1525 m. upwards above

both Thankot and Chitlang.

Scully (1879, p. 335) found it only once in the Nepal Valley in

February. Smythies (1948, p. 441; 1950, p. 516) noted it on Sheopuri

Range, Nepal Valley, and further northward in the Gandak-Kosi

watershed at c. 2135-2440 m. in autumn. Proud (1955, p. 66) observed

it on Sheopur: Range and Phulchauki Danda in the Nepal Valley

200 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

from winter until May. Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 207) also found

it in the Nepal Valley on Phulchauki Danda and its base at Godavari

in March and May.

Measurements: 428: Wing 85, 87, 88.5, 89 ; tail 71, 74, 75, 79; Dill 14(2),

14.5, —.

*716. Mlycerobas affinis (Blyth). Allied Grosbeak.

The only post-Hodgsonian records of the Allied Grosbeak from

Nepal appear to be Stevens’s (1925a, p. 366) from the Singalila Range,

eastern Nepal, at c. 2895 m. on January 31, and Lowndes’s (1955,

p. 33) from Manangbhot, central Nepal, at c. 3810 m. in August.

*717. Mycerobas carnipes carnipes (Hodgson). Whitewinged Grosbeak.

Since Hodgson’s days the Whitewinged Grosbeak has been re-

ported from Nepal several times. Thus, in west-central Nepal, it has

been found by Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 207) in the Kali Gandak

Valley at c. 2745 m. in December; in the northern region of central

Nepal in the Gandak-Kosi watershed by Smythies (1948, p. 441) at

c. 3655 m. in autumn, and Proud (1952a, p. 364) at c. 3200-3655 m.

in spring, and in Manangbhot by Lowndes (1955, p. 34) at c. 3050-

4265 m. in summer; in eastern Nepal by Biswas (1960a) from Khumbu

at c. 3655-4265 m. in February-April.

718. Mycerobas melanozanthos (Hodgson). Spottedwinged Grosbeak.

CHITLANG VALLEY : Chitlang: 1 (April 21).

The Spottedwinged Grosbeak appeared to be decidedly a rare bird

in central Nepal. We saw it only once in a small flock of perhaps

eight birds on a tree near Chitlang.

Scully (1879), and Ripley (1950b) did not find it in Nepal, but

Rand & Fleming (1957, pp. 208-209) recorded a single example from

the Nepal Valley in February.

My specimen was just finishing a complete (prenuptial) moult.

Measurements: 12: Wing 129; tail 72; bill 24.

Vaurie (1956b, p. 22) has discussed the geographical variation in

this species.

(To be continued)

Studies on the Freshwater Oligochaeta

of South India

I. Aeolosomatidae and Naididae

PART 5

K. VANAMALA NAIDU

Government Arts and Science College, Chittoor (A.P.)

(With eight text-figures)

(Continued from Vol. 59 (3) : 921}

c. Subfamily STEPHENSONIANINAE nov.

Type genus : Stephensoniana Cernosvitov

Prostomium simple. No eyes. Dorsal setae begin in II, consist of

hairs and needles. Ventral setae of 2 types. Pharynx with dorsal diver-

ticulum. Coelomocytes absent. Nephridia present. Testes and sper-

mathecae in IV; ovaries and atria in V. Four segments formed

anteriorly by budding.

9. Genus Stephensoniana Cernosvitov, 1938

Generic characters : Prostomium triangular. Dorsal bundles from

II with hairs and simple-pointed anodulate needles. Ventral setae of

II-V distinct from the rest. Stomach absent. Septa present, no septal

glands. Dorsal vessel lateral mostly, mid-dorsal anteriorly. Budding

zone Single.

28. Stephensoniana trivandrana (Aiyer, 1926)

Fig. 28 A-D

Stephensoniana trivandrana (Aiyer). Sperber, 1948, pp. 208-209, fig. 28c.

Material examined : Several worms collected from the Bugga stream,

Cuddapah, in May and December 1955 ; from the Brucepettah tank,

Bellary, in April 1954.

Worms small, filiform, reddish brown, tapering abruptly from VI

anteriorly, gradually from middle to posterior end, Prostomium bluntly

202 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

triangular. Eyes absent. Anterior 4-2. covered by mucus sheath to

which fine sand particles and clay adhere around annuli and give papil-

lated appearance ; posterior 3-4 delicate without sheath, probably for

respiration.

es da: 29D

2en

Fig. 28. Stephensoniana trivandrana (Aiyer): A. Needle seta x 1450 ; B. Ventral

seta of II x 1450 ; C. Ventral seta of V x 1450; D. Hair seta x 1000.

Dorsal, setae start in II, 3-5 hairs and 3-5 needles in couples of 1

hair and 1 needle per bundle. Hair (Fig. 28 D) clearly bayonet-shaped,

115-175 » long. Needle (Fig. 28 A) simple, straight, suddenly tapering

and slightly curved near the tip, without nodulus, 42-52°5 » long. Ven-

tral setae (Fig. 28 B, C) 4 per bundle anteriorly, decreasing to 1 poster-

iorly ; in II-IV straight with proximal nodulus (D : P :: 14:12), 77-93 p

THE FRESHWATER OLIGOCHAETA OF SOUTH INDIA 203

long, less curved, distal prong thicker and longer than proximal ; in rest

76-91 » long with distal nodulus (D: P :: 16: 10), distal prong twice as

long and as thick as proximal and prongs end in sharp points.

Pharynx in II-III, wide with dorsal diverticulum protrusible through

mouth for feeding. Oesophagus in IV-V, thin and sinuous. Stomach

- absent. Intestine starts in VJ and wide all through. Chloragogues cover

the gut from VI, and brown. Intestinal antiperistalsis and ascending

ciliary vibration occur. Septa well developed; no septal glands.

Coelomocytes absent. Intestinal wall posteriorly has orange-red pig-

ment.

Blood orange-red. Dorsal vessel ventrally attached to gut on the

left from hind end to V, where it takes a spiral course and runs mid-

dorsally in anterior segments. Contractile vascular vessels | pair in V,

connect dorsal and ventral vessels.

First nephridium in VI with its pre-septal funnel in V ; post-septal

has a fusiform ampulla and a long coiled duct ending in nephridiopore

ventrally.

One budding zone developed at a time ; some hind segments for

anterior Zzooid are budded off earlier than prostomium and four anterior

segments of posterior zooid, before fission.

Sexual worms not encountered.

1 (p.) = 2 mm.; d(p.) = 0.2mm.; s = 32 + undifferentiated zone ;

n = 12-14.

Lengths of longest setaein and position of nodulus in ratio D: P: :

II III 1V V

Hair 126 157 175 175

Needle 42 52.5 52.5 5255

V. seta 92.7 91 14) 91

14:12.5 14:12 12:10 16:10

Distribution in Indian sub-continent : Trivandrum in Travancore (S.

India). Now recorded from Cuddapah and Bellary (S. India).

Remarks : The worms move very slowly on muddy substratum and

wriggle briskly in water. When disturbed or taken into pipette they

coil into flat and close spirals like Aulophorus michaelseni and Pristina

synclites. Stomach absent. Gut abruptly widens in VI and continues so

throughout.

Parasites : Large number of holotrichus astomatous ciliate parasites

have been found in the gut of several worms. These parasites emerge

out of their bodies through the mouth when slight pressure is exerted on

them with cover glass on slides.

Habits ; Swim by brisk wriggling movement.

204. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

Subfamily PRISTININAE Lastockin, 1924

10. Genus Pristina Ehrenberg, 1828

Generic characters : No eyes. Prostomium with or without pro-

boscis. Dorsal setae from II or III or IV, hairs and needles ; ventral

setae all of one type. Pharyngeal glands present ; stomach fusiform or

pear-shaped, usually with intracellular canals. Intestinal anti-peristalsis

and ascending ciliary vibration occur. Septa well developed; septal

glands present. Coelomocytes present. Dorsal vessel median (lateral

in P. synclites). Nephridia start in IX, with pre-septal and post-septal

in two successive segments. Budding zones 1-3, produce prostomium

and seven anterior segments to the posterior zooid and some hind

segments to the anterior zooid before fission.

KEY TO ALL THE KNOWN AND VALID SPECIES AND SUBSPECIES OF

PRISTINA

A-1 Needles simple-pointed

B-1 Prostomium with proboscis ; needles fine, straight

C-1 Dorsal setae beginning in II

D-1 Hairs of III specially elongated

E-1 Distal tooth of ventral setae of Il and

III nearly twice as long as proximal .. Jongiseta longiseta

E-2 Distal tooth of ventral setae of IT and

II] thrice as long as proximal

F-1 Ventral setae of III fewer than in

following segments ; serrations of

hair close and fine “longiseta sinensis

F-2 Ventral setae of HI not fewer tian

in following segments; teeth of

serrations of hair far apart a *longiseta leidyi

D-2 Hairs of II-VII shorter, in others specially

elongated “biserrata

D-3 Hairs not specially elongated in any seomient proboscidea

C-2 Dorsal setae beginning in III or IV xe *macrochaeta

B-2 Prostomium without proboscis; needles bayonet-

shaped Re , menoni

A-2 Needles double-pointed

G-1 Prostomium with proboscis

H-1 Hairs specially elongated in one or more

segments

I-1 Hairs of III specially elongated .. “longiseta bidentata

I-2 Hairs of IV-VI specially elongated aa “schniederi

H-2 No specially elongated hairin any segment

J-1 Needle teeth fine

K-1 Giant ventral setae present

L-1 Giant ventral setae in IV, bifid .. aequiseta

L-2 Giant ventral setae in V, single

pointed <a evelinae

* Species not known from the Indian sub-continent,

ane,

K-2 Giant ventral setae absent

M-1 Dorsal bundles with not more than

4 hairs and 4 needles; ventral

setae of IIL not shortest; length

of worms up to 6.5 mm. ;

M-2 Dorsal bundles with 1 hair aid

1 needle; ventral setae of HI

shortest ; length of worms up to

2mm.

J-2 Needle teeth long and unequal

N-! Distal tooth of needles longer than

proximal

N-2 Distal tooth of needles shorter tan

proximal

O-1 Distal tooth of needle slightly

shorter than proximal ; hairs non-

serrate

O-2 Distal tooth of needle about half

as long as the proximal; hairs

serrate

J-3 Needle teeth long and equal

P-1 Needle teeth diverging ; dorsal bundles

with 1 hair and 1 needle; hair non-

serrate ; stomach in VII Share

P-2 Needle teeth parallel; dorsal bundles

with 2-4 hairs and 1-3 needles ; hairs

closely serrate ; stomach in VIII

G-2 Prostomium without proboscis

Q-1 Needle teeth short and about equal

Q-2

R-1 Dorsal setae stout in III; hairs of ILI-[V

specially elongated up to 1200 / long

R-2 Dorsal setae start in If; hairs not specially

elongated in any segment

S-1 Intermediate teeth 2-3 between main

teeth in needles

S-2 No intermediate teeth between main

needle teeth

T-1 Needle teeth parallel ; hairs serrate

T-2 Needle teeth diverging with wide

angle ; hair non-serrate :

T-3 Needle teeth diverging at acute

angle; hairs serrate

Needle teeth long, distal tooth shorter ian

proximal

U-1 Distal tooth of needles much shorter than

proximal, teeth diverging ; hair non-serrate;

needles thicker in IV (and V) than in others

U-2 Distal tooth of needles shorter than

proximal

V-1l Needle teeth parallel and long, distal

slightly shorter than proximal ; needles

in IV longer and stouter than in others ;

hairs non-serrate

“Species not known from the Indian sub-continent.

-. [THE FRESHWATER OLIGOCHAETA OF SOUTH INDIA 205

foreli

Sperberae sp. nov.

*plumaseta

syncliles

*americana

breviseta

*peruviana

*bilongata

*sima

*bilobata

minuta

*notopora

*amphibiotica

*idrensis

206 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

V-2 Needle teeth diverging ; distal tooth

about half as long as proximal

W-1 Proximal tooth of needles 5-10

long; hairs non-serrate ; nodulus

median in anterior ventral setae

and distal in others jenkinae

W-2 Proximal tooth of needles 3-5 ,

long; hairs finely serrated ; all

ventral setae with slightly distal

nodulus ree *rosea

29. Pristina minuta (Stephenson, 1914)

Fig. 29 A-C

Naidium minutum Stephenson. Stephenson, 1915 a, p. 786.

Pristina minuta (Stephenson). Sperber, 1948, pp. 222-223.

Material examined : Several worms collected from the Bugga stream,

Cuddapah, in December 1955 and January 1956.

Worms pale white, minute, slender. Prostomium bluntly triangular

without proboscis. Anterior 7 segments shorter than succeeding seg-

ments in all adult worms. Anus in a notch bounded by 2 lobes on either

side.

298 29/3 2Ye

Fig. 29. Pristina minuta (Stephenson) : A. Needle seta x 2000; B. Ventral seta

of If x 2000; C. Ventral seta of a middle segment x 2000,

a ree

*Species not known from the Indian sub-continent.

THE FRESHWATER OLIGOCHAETA OF SOUTH INDIA 207

Dorsal setae start in II, each bundle with 1 hair and | needle. Hairs

non-serrate, straight, 91-112 4. long. Needles (Fig. 29A) bifid, 24.5-35 pu

long, with distal nodulus (D:P:: 3:7), teeth of equal length and

diverging. Ventral setae (Fig. 29 B, C) 3-5 per bundle, decreasing to

2-3 posteriorly, 31.5-36.5 . long, shortest in II gradually increasing in

succeeding segments, nodulus median (D:P::5:4 or 5.5:5.,5),

prongs of equal thickness, distal longer than proximal.

Pharynx in II-IV ; oesophagus in V-VII; stomach in VIII, abrupt

and pear-shaped ; intestine thin and flexed on itself in IX and wide

from X. Chloragogues begin in VIII, yellowish brown. Coelomocytes

granular, morula-like, grey, largest 14 4 in diameter. Septal glands on

4/5,5/6 and 6/7.

Blood tinged with light shade of red. Sorat vessel contractile and

mid-dorsal.

Nephridia in IX-XII or XIII, | per segment. Each nephridium has

nephrostome-bearing pre-septal funnel in one segment and post-septal

with a long coiled duct and nephridiopore in next segment.

Only one budding zone develops at a time in a worm.

Sexual worms not encountered.

] (living) = 1.5-1.85 mm.; d (living) = 0.13 mm.;s = 16; n = 12.

Lengths of longest setae in « and position of nodulus in the ratio

DP:

II Ul IV Vv VI VII VIL IX X XI

Hair 91 247101 oe 108.5). 112 108.5 87.5 87.5 ot —

meedie 26:3 28). --31.5 33.5 35 35 35 35 35 35

Bye ey te a) 3:08 B326:0) 2237, a7 aH | Be NS hey ost

Weseta:: 315° ..35 35 36.5 3625 3905 755.) 38.5 35: «(36.7

5:45 155) DO is DIVO sos. SOL De Osoaoe Ds e) | oto.)

Distribution in Indian sub-continent : Lahore (Pakistan). Now

recorded from Cuddapah (S. India).

Habits : No swimming. Backward progression present.

Remarks : These worms have longer needle teeth than the worms

of Stephenson. Length of setae, body length, and segment number of

the present worms agree with those given by Stephenson (1914), and

Marcus (1943).

Naidium osborni Walton (1906, Galloway 1911, Smith 1918) with

1 = 1.6 mm.,s == 15-16, stomach in VIII, agrees very well with Pristina

minuta (Stephenson). It, however, differs greatly from the latter in

having very much longer needles and hairs (needles 50 as against 35 pz

and hairs 140 »« as against 120 «). If they are identical, N. osborni (with

similar body length as Pr. minuta) ought to have had setae of similar

length. With very much longer setae (particularly needles) for such a

small specimen, as Marcus (1943) suggested, it is not identical with

Pr. minuta, but a distinct species Pr. osborni (Walton).

208 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

30. Pristina synclites Stephenson, 1925

Fig. 30 A-D

Pristina synclites Stephenson. Sperber, 1948, p. 225.

Material: examined ; Several worms collected from the Bugga

stream, Cuddapah, in March 1954, May 1955; from the Kandakam

tank, Bellary, in April 1954; from Miller’s tank and Langford Town

tank, Bangalore, in May 1958.

SCA 302 200

Fig. 30. Pristina synclites Stephenson : A. Needle seta x 1400; B. Ventral seta

of IT x 1400; C. Ventral seta of a posterior segment x 1000; D. Nephridium.

gl: gland ; ma: nephridial ampulla ; "pd: nephridial duct ; mpp : nephridiopore ;

nps: nephrostome; s: septum.

Worms largest among the 7 species of Pristina in the locality, light

redin colour. Posterior half of body is slender, highly vascularised,

decreasing gradually in diameter to blunt hind end. Prostomium with

a delicate proboscis, with sensory hairs, frequently breaking off partly

or wholly. Proboscis shorter than the triangular prostomium.

Dorsal setae start in II, each bundle with 1-2 hairs and 1-2 needles.

Hairs slightly bayonet-shaped, non-serrate 175-350 « long, shorter than

body-diameter. Needles (Fig. 30A) bifid, bayonet-shaped 70-101.5 u

long, with weak, distal nodulus (D: P::9: 17), teeth faintly diverg-

THE FRESHWATER OLIGOCHAETA OF SOUTH INDIA 209

ing, proximal slightly longer and thicker than distal. Ventral setae

(Fig. 30 B, C) 4 per bundle, decreasing to 2 posteriorly, 63-87.5 w long,

length increasing from II-V and gradually decreasing from VI onwards.

Nodulus median in II-IV and distal from V on. Prongs equally long,

distal thinner than proximal.

Pharynx in II-s1V, wide. Oesophagus in $IV-VI, thin and straight.

Stomach in VII-VIII, gradual and fusiform without intracellular canals.

Intestine thin and wavy in IX-XI, wide and sacculated behind, opening

at hind endina notch, Chloragogues cover from VI on, brownish and

cover also dorsal vessel. Septal glands in IV-V. Coelomocytes grey,

granular, spherical and largest measure 17.5 in diameter.

Brain incised deeply in front and less deeply behind.

Blood orange-red. Dorsal vessel contractile, laterally attached to

left of gut upto XII, unattached in IX-VIII, again attached in VII-VI,

and mid-dorsal in anterior 5 segments. Contractile lateral vessels, 4

pairs, first 2 pairs in the middle of IV and V, other 2 pairs nearer pos-

terior septa of VI and VII. Non-contractile loops in I-III. Dorsal

vessel thicker in slender hind part of body and gives off several non-

contractile vessels to body-wall, 1 pair per segment. Vascular plexus

exists anteriorly.

First nephridium (Fig. 30 D) in IX with its short pre-septal funnel

in VIII ; post-septal with a long cylindrical granular ampulla followed

by a coiled duct, partly passing through gland tissue and opening by

nephridiopore.

Single budding zone common, 2 zones rare ; buds off hind part of

anterior zooid and proboscid prostomium and 7 anterior segments

to posterior zooid before they separate. In fact it is only after the

production of hind part to anterior zooid budding of anterior segments

to posterior zooid takes place. 7

1 (p.) =4-4.5 mm. ; d (p.) =0.35 mm. ; s = 42-63; n ~18-23.

Lengths of longest setae in » and position of nodulus in the ratio

iD: Ps: Cuddapah worm

Il Il IV V VI Vil VIII IX X XI

Hair PAG etOe ere Some 241.5) 2450") 295.9 --259 89259. 266° 2275

Meedle 52.5 61.5 75.2 -.80.5 80.5 80.5. 80.5 80.5 80.5 77

3510: 5 6:9.5 8:413.5 .10:13)°10:13), 10:13), 10:13 (10:13 10313 . 9:13

V. seta 63 63 id 70 13.5 MSRM OD) 11 dt Dis ty 1 Seok WO,

O93 9:97 10:12 9stt POMEP 10310 20:11.” 10:11 #210311,- 10211

Bellary worm

: Il III IV Vv VI VIE Vill IX x XI.

Hair Mai e227. 200. 2350) 315 Sie) 280). “201 3301 301

Needle 70 Mad) 689.3. O45) 91 980s 1015 ti 875 2487.5 87.5

Gold. ete 2G;507- OSes 9:17 =... 9319 9:20 9:16 9:16 9:16

V. seta 63: 66:53:25; 73.5.) 580.5 +, 84 77 77 133-5, 71 (BSS)

99 9:5;59.) 10:11. 10:13), 10:14 10:12, 9:13. 9:12. O:1t.S ~ 9312

210 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

Distribution in Indian sub-continent: Recorded only from Mysore

(S. India). Now recorded from Cuddapah, Bellary, and Bangalore

(S. India).

Habits: Worms coil into flat spirals when disturbed. They live in

soft mud along with Dero dorsalis, Aulophorus michaelseni, Limnodrilus

socialis, etc. Swimming absent.

Remarks : Needles and ventral setae of these specimens are longer

than in the specimens of Stephenson (1925b). As reported by Stephen-

son the hind half of the body has numerous vascular loops similar to

those seen in the tubificids. During budding the hind segments of the

anterior zooid are budded off before the anterior segments of the

posterior zooid start forming.

31. Pristina jenkinae (Stephenson, 1931)

Fig. 31 A-B

Pristina jenkinae (Stephenson). Sperber 1948, pp. 224-225; 1958, p. 51,

fig. 17.

; Pristina rosea (Piguet), Yamaguchi, 1953, p. 286.

Material examined : One worm collected from the Kandakam tank,

Bellary, in May 1954.

Worm small and pale white. Prostomium bluntly triangular without

proboscis.

Dorsal setae begin in II, each bundle with 1-2 hairs and 1-2 needles.

Hairs nearly straight, non-serrate, 108-210 » long, about equal to body-

diameter, in II nearly half, in III 3 as long as, in following segments.

Needles (Fig. 31 A) bifid, bayonet-shaped, nodulus distal (D:P::

6:11), 53-65.5 w long, teeth faintly diverging, unequal and blunt,

proximal tooth twice as long and as thick as distal. Ventral setae

(Fig. 31 B) all of one type, 4-5 per bundle, decreasing to 2-3 posteriorly,

nodulus median (D:P::6: 6.5 or 6:7) in anterior segments, and

slightly distal (D : P: : 6: 8) in rest ; shortest setae in II-III, 43.7-45.5 pg

long, abruptly increasing to 52.5 » in IV and decreasing in middle and

hind segments; with teeth about equally long, distal thinner than

proximal... : a | .

Pharynx in II-IV, wide. Oesophagus in V-VI, thin and sinuous.

Stomach in VII-4VIII, gradual and fusiform. Intestine thin in IX, wide

from X on, opening by anus in a notch at hind end. Septa delicate and

complete. Coelomocytes spherical, granular, largest 12 » in diameter.

Chloragogues cover gut from VI, brownish.

Blood yellowish red. Dorsal vessel attached laterally to left from

hind end to VI, mid-dorsal in anterior 5 segments. Simple vascular

vessels 6 pairs in II-VII, latter 4 pairs contractile. “4

First nephridium in IX with its nephrostome in VIII, post-septal

coiled duct opens by nephridiopore ventro-laterally. — |

THE FRESHWATER OLIGOCHAETA OF SOUTH INDIA 211

Budding occurs as seen in a Single worm. As the worm was in early

stage of budding, the number of segments budded off to posterior zooid

cannot be stated. The presence of first nephridium in IX as in other

3/A 318

Fig. 31. Pristina jenkinae (Stephenson): A. Needle seta x 1600; B. Ventral

seta x 2000.

Species of the genus, indicates that 7 anterior segments are budded off

here also.

Sexual worm not encountered.

l (living) = 25 mm. ; d (living) = 0.17 mm. ; s = 22 + undifferen-

tiated region ; n = 16 (in one).

Lengths of longest setae in » and position of nodulus in the ratio

mm: P.: :

II III RY, V VI VII VITi IX X

Hair 108.5 150.5 178.5 210 175 175 175 168 15735

Needle 38.5 52.5 G4 eee OOr: 259.5, . 59:5 59.5 °+59.5 59.5

4:7 69s eG5s127 7 3t2s: 6:1T | 6211 6:11 6:11 6:11

V. seta 43.7 AS ot 52: Sep 2d. oes) SES) 49 49

6.5:6 6:7 ies 7:8 7:8 7:8 7:8 6:8 6:8

212 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

Distribution in Indian sub-continent: Now recorded from Bellary

(S. India); first record for the Indian sub-continent.

Habits : Swimming absent.

Remarks : The description given here is from a single non-sexual

worm. The lengths of setae of the present worm agree very closely ©

with those of Stephenson (193la). -

Sperber (1948) is undoubtedly right in pointing out that Naidium

roseum Piguet of Marcus (1943) is identical with Pristina jenkinae

(Stephenson). It agrees very closely with the present species in all

respects.

Pristina rosea (Piguet) of Kondo (1936) certainly belongs here, as

pointed out by Sperber, as its needles (Pl. 24, fig. 16a) are stated to

resemble those of Pr. jenkinae, and its chalk-white colour agrees with

that of latter, not with rose-coloured Pr. rosea. Pr. rosea (Piguet) of

Michaelsen & Boldt (1932) may also belong here.

32. Pristina aequiseta Bourne,. 1891

Fig. 32 A-D

Pristina aequiseta Bourne. Lastockin, 1927. p. 67 ; Cernosvitov, 1938, pp. 536,

538; Berg, 1948, p. 50; Sperber, 1948, pp. 230-232, fig. 24, pl. XXI fig.5; 1950,

p. 77, fig. 28b, pl. Til fig. 8; Causey, 1953a, p. 55 ; 1953b, pp. 422-423; Yamaguchi, —

1953, pp. 284-285, fig. 4.

Material examined : Numerous worms collected from the Bugga |

stream, Cuddapah, in February 1954; from the Balaji tank, Kakinada, |

in November 1956 ; from the Kandakam tank, Bellary, in April 1954. |

Worms small and whitish. Prostomium with fairly long, mobile |

proboscis with sensory hairs. Anus in a notch bounded by rounded

lobes on either side.

Dorsal bundles start in II, each bundle with 1-2 hairs and 1-2

needles. Hairs finely serrated, straight, 100-240 u long, not specially .

elongated in III, increase in length from II-IV. Needles (Fig. 32 A) |

bifid, bayonet-shaped, 31-45 » long, without nodulus and with fine |

teeth. Ventral setae (Fig. 32 B, C) 5-6 per bundle, in II, 52-56 p long, |

thicker and longer than the rest, with nodulus slightly proximal (D :

P::9: 7), distal prong 1.5 times as long as proximal ; in III 43-45.5 p |

long with slightly distal nodulus (D:P::6: 7), distal prong slightly —

longer than proximal ; in IV giant setae 1-2 per bundle (Fig. 32 D), |

longest of all 66.5-70 « long and peculiarly shaped, with distal prong

strongly hooked and thicker than the rudimentary proximal prong and

distal nodulus (D:P::8:11); in the rest 45-51 » long, prongs of |

about equal length and thickness; with slightly distal nodulus

(DUP: 46.241).

THE FRESHWATER OLIGOCHAETA OF SOUTH INDIA 213

Pharynx in T-IV, wide with inner wall ciliated and roof eversible.

Oesophagus in V-VIi, thin and sinuous. Stomach in VIII, abrupt and.

pear-shaped with intracellular canals. Intestine thin and wavy in IX

Sy ap

2213 Bole

324

Fig. 32. Pristina aequiseta Bourne: A. Needle seta x 2000; B. Ventral seta of

II x 2000; C. Ventral seta of IX x 2000 ; D. Giant ventral seta of V x 2000

and wide from X. Chloragogues start in VI and greenish brown.

Septal glands in III-V. Coelomocytes spherical, morula-like with grey

granules, largest of 14 » diameter.

Brain incised anteriorly and posteriorly.

Blood tinged with yellow. Dorsal vessel contractile and mid-dorsal.

Contractile vascular vessels 6 pairs in II-VII connecting dorsal and ven-

tral vessels.

First pair of nephridia in IX with pre-septal nephrostome in VIII.

214 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

Single budding zone common, two zones rare, second zone always

developing in anterior zooid a segment in front of the first zone.

1 (p.) = 1-1.5 mm. (single), 1.5-2 mm. (chain) ;d (p.) = 0.2 mm.;

s'= 17-20 n = 12-18.

Lengths of longest setae in » and position of nodulus in the ratio

Dene:

II Ill IV V VI VII VII IX xX

Hair 105 140 161 189 1925" .192'5 210 210 210

Needle #3125." 35 42 42 42 43.7 43.7 43.7 43.7

V.seta 56 45.5 66.5 49 49 49 45.5 45.5 45.5

Ori 3607 8:11 6:8 6:8 6:8 6:7 6:7 6:7

Distribution in Indian sub-continent : Calcutta, Allahabad (N. India).

Now recorded from Cuddapah and Bellary (S. India).

Remarks : Setae of the present specimens agree in form with those

in literature, and are slightly longer than those recorded by Piguet (1906)

and Marcus (1943), and agree with those tabulated for a single Swedish —

specimen (Sperber, 1948, p. 231).

Pristina aequiseta var.? from S. America (Michaelsen, 1913) and Pr.

aequiseta Bourne from Germany (Hempelmann, 1923) and from south

India (Aiyer, 1930) with giant ventral setae having a single hooked

prong in V have been included in this species by Sperber (1948). —

forms are actually Pristina evelinae Marcus, 1943.

33. Pristina evelinae Marcus, 1943

Fig. 33 A-D

Pristina aequiseta Bourne var.? Michaelsen, 1913, pp. 209-211.

Pristina aequiseta Bourne. Hempelmann, 1923, pp. 380-444 ; Aiyer, 1930, pp.

25-26, fig. 5.

Pristina evelinae Marcus. Sperber, 1948, p. 232, fig. 25.

Material examined : Several worms collected from the Bugga stream,

Cuddapah, in January 1956 ; from the Langford Town tank, Bangalore,

in May 1958.

Worms minute, brownish, capable of high contractility, hence very

short in preserved condition. Proboscis longer than prostomium with

sensory hairs. Anterior 7 segments shorter than following segments.

Anus posterior in a notch between 2 lobes with sensory hairs.

Dorsal setae from II on, 1 hair and 1 needle per bundle. Hairs

nearly straight 91-175 » long, longer than diameter of body. Needles

_ (Fig. 33 A) finely bifid, 28-42 » long, slightly curved distally, nodulus

distal (D : P : : 4: 8), teeth fine, short, diverging. Ventral setae (Fig. 33

B, C) 4-7 per bundle, higher number in middle segments, 38.5-52.5 p

long ; in II, 49-52.5 p long, longer than rest, in III, 38.5 » long and

THE FRESHWATER OLIGOCHAETA OF SOUTH INDIA 215

shortest. Nodulus proximal in II (D: P::8: 7 or 8: 6) and distal in

others (D:P::5:7). Giant setae (Fig. 33 D) 1 per bundle in V, 70-77

» long, single-pointed with double curve with shape resembling a prun-

ing knife, nodulus strong and distal.

2 530)

Fig. 33. Pristina evelinae Marcus: A. Needle seta x 2250 ; B. Ventral seta of

iE x Dae ; C. Ventral seta of posterior segment x 2250 ; D. Giant Ventral seta of

x 2250.

Pharynx in II-III, wide. Oesophagus in I[V-VII, thin. Stomach abrupt

and narrowing posteriorly with intracellular canals in VIII. Intestine

216 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

from IX onwards. Coelomocytes granular, spherical, largest 12 » in

diameter. Septal glands in III-V, whitish.

Brain incised in front and behind.

Blood red. Dorsal vessel mid-dorsal all along. Transverse commis-

sural vessels from II-VII, enlarged and contractile in VI and VII.

First nephridium in IX, placed to left, with its pre-septal nephros-

tome in VIII. 2

One budding zone develops at a time.

Sexual worms not encountered.

1 (p.) = 1.1-1.4 mm.; d (p.) = 0.14 mm.; s = 22 + undifferentiated

zone ;n = 13-14.

Lengths of longest setae in p and position of nodulus in the ratio

II Il IV Vv VI Vil Vil IX Xx

Hair 91° 101.5 108.5 112 1295 12905 140 175 140

Needle PLS Deeb) 35 35 36.7 35 38.5 42 38.5

3 Dei kosde) 4:6 4:6 4:6.5 4:6 4:7 4:8 4:7

WV sela) (2.00 55.5 42 70 45.5 42 42 42 42

8:7) 136 SA Oe 5:8 Sil 337 i) 327

Distribution in Indian sub-continent : Travancore (S. India). Now re-

corded from Cuddapah and Bangalore (S. India).

Remarks : Lengths of setae of the present worms agree with those

of Aiyer (1930) and Marcus (1943).

Habits : Swimming absent. Live in aquatic plants and algae.

34. Pristina longiseta longiseta Ehrenberg, 1828

Fig. 34 A-K

Pristina longiseta Ehrenberg. Pointner, 1911, p. 634; Stephenson, 1916,

p. 304 ; 1922, p. 282; 193la, pp. 41-42, fig. 2; Lasto€kin, 1924, p. 5; 1927, p. 66;

Sperber, 1950, p. 77, pl. III, fig. 9 ; 1958, p. 52, figs. 18-19.

Pristina longiseta Ehrenberg f. typica Michaelsen; Lastotkin, 1918, p. 59;

1924, p.5; 1927, p. 66.

Pristina longiseta longiseta Ehrenberg. Sperber, 1948, pp. 236-237, pl. XXI,

figs. 2, 6.

Material examined: Numerous worms collected from the Bugga

stream, Cuddapah, all round the year ; from the Ulsoor tank, Bangalore,

in May 1958.

Worms small, slender and light yellow. Prostomium (Fig. 34 A, B)

with a mobile proboscis, latter longer than former, both with sensory

hairs. Anus posterior ina notch between 2 lobes with sensory hairs

(Fig. 34 C).

THE FRESHWATER OLIGOCHAETA OF SOUTH INDIA 217

Dorsal bundles from IT onwards, each bundle with 1-3 hairs and 1-3

needles. Hairs of III specially elongated, straight non-serrate, highly

34G

Fig. 34. Pristina longiseta longiseta Ehrenberg : A. Anterior part of the worm

(lateral view) ; B. Prostomium (dorsal view) ; C. Posterior part of the worm (dorsal

view) ; D. Needle seta x 1700; E. Ventral seta of II x 1700; F. Ventral seta of

Ill x 1700; G. Ventral seta of posterior segment x 1700; H. Brain ; I. Nephri-

dium ; J. Seminal funneland atrium ; K. Genital seta x 650.

at: atrium ; dv : dorsal vessel ; g/: gland ; m: mouth ; mf: male funnel ; 7a:

nephridial ampulla ; mpd : nephridial duct ; mpp : nephridiopore ; mps : nephrostome ;

pb: proboscis ; pr: prostomium ; 5: septum; vc: ventral seta ; vd: vas deferens.

mobile, 658-714 « long, reaching beyond tip of proboscis when turned

forwards; in others nearly straight with close serrations on convex

border, up to 315 w long. Needles (Fig. 34 D) fine, straight with distal

end simple pointed and curved, without nodulus, 35-49 « long. Ventral

218 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL GIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

setae (Fig. 34 E, F, G) 4-5 per bundle in anterior segments and 5-6 —

in later segments ; in II longest, 63-66.5 long ; in others 49-56 « long.

In II and III nodulus proximal (D: P:: 11:7) and prongs equally

thick, distal prong 14 times longer than proximal, in others nodulus

median to distal (D: P::7:7 and 6:7), prongs of equal length,

distal thinner than proximal.

Pharynx in II-III, ovoid and ciliated with a dorsal diverticulum

communicated by a longitudinal slit in roof. Oesophagus in IV-VII,

thin and wavy. Stomach in anterior half of VIII, abrupt pear-shaped,

thick-walled with intracellular canals. Intestine narrow in IX, wide

from X on. Chloragogues start in VI, greenish grey. Septal glands

on septa 4/5, 5/6 and 6/7. Coelomocytes colourless, spherical of 10 «

diameter with greyish granules.

Brain (Fig. 34 H) incised deeply in front and less deeply behind.

Blood light yellow. Dorsal vessel contractile and mid-dorsal ;

ventral vessel non-contractile and mid-ventral. Simple contractile lateral —

vessels in II-VII, later pairs larger and more contractile.

First pair of nephridia (Fig. 341) in IX with pre-septal funnels in

VIII, each funnel connected by a neck to post-septal, consisting of

fusiform ampulla followed by a coiled, ciliated duct, partly free and

partly enclosed in gland tissue, and opening by nephridiopore.

One budding zone common, two rare, second budding zone always

develops in anterior zooid 3-4 segments in front of first zone.

Clitellum from $VII—4IX (2 segments). Testes ovoid and white,

attached to posterior face of septum 6/7. Sperm-sac, back-pouching of

septum 7/8 extends to XI when full. Ovaries not clearly seen. Ovi-sac,

back-pouching of septum 8/9, extend to XII when full. Sperm-funnels

(Fig. 34 J) with wide ciliated openings, vasa deferentia short and wide,

slightly bent on themselves and opening into atria. Atrium ovoid and

glandular with short, thick ectal duct opening ventro-laterally in VIII.

Spermathecal ampulla long and cylindrical with short ducts opening

ventro-laterally in VII. Ventral setae of VI replaced by a pair of

genital setae (Fig. 34 K) of 80 4 long, each with 2 long prongs con-

verging distally.

As in Stylaria fossularis worms developing sex organs go through

asexual reproduction repeatedly producing fission zones.

1 (living) = 2-3 mm. (simple), 4-5 mm. (chain); d (living) = 0.12

mm. ; Ss =.22-262. m9 —' 14-17.

Lengths of longest setae in » and position of nodulus in the ratio

Di Pa:

Ir I IV V VI -VII.- VOI IX DD. XII

Hair 161 714 178.5 196 247 70 63 241.5 245 245 2354

Needle 35. AZ 42 45.5 45.5 45.5 49 49 49 49 49.

V. Sseta.1> 633. 52.5 49 49 45.5 56) 25255 52.5:9152:5; 32:55) 4 325

M137 8:7 |. 757, 7.32050 8:8 7.8725) 10-7) es 8:7

THE FRESHWATER OLIGOCHAETA OF SOUTH INDIA 219

Distribution in Indian sub-continent : Calcutta (N. India) ; Bheema-

nagar, Trivandrum (Travancore, S. India); Bombay (W. India) ;

Gwalior (C, India) ; Lahore (Pakistan). Now recorded from Cuddapah

and Bangalore (S. India).

Parasites ;: Sporocysts of the microsporid sporozoan, Mrazekia

caudata Leger & Hesse (Naidu, 1959a), were found in the coelom of

two worms and of the actinomyxid sporozoan, Triactinomyxon sp.

(Naidu, 1959b) were found in the gut wall of one worm.

Habits ; No swimming. Backward progression present. Live in

algae. ;

Remarks : Lengths of setae of the present specimens agree with

those of the Swedish worms. Genital setae agree with those of

Aiyer (1930).

Pristina longiseta Ehrenberg from W. Australia (Jackson, 1931) and

Pr. longiseta Ehrenberg f. typica Michaelsen from East Indies

(Michaelsen & Boldt, 1932) are probably identical with the present

species. To determine their identity a re-investigation of the forms is

necessary.

35. Pristina sperberae! sp. nov.

Fig. 35 A-D

Material examined : A few worms collected from the Bugga stream,

Cuddapah, in October 1953, January 1954 and 1956.

Worms minute, slender, and whitish. Prostomium with proboscis,

latter slightly longer than prostomium and does not snap. Both

prostomium and proboscis bear sensory hairs. Eyes absent.

Dorsal bundles start in II, each bundle composed of 1 hair and

1 needle. Hairs non-serrate, nearly straight, 100-190 » long, in TI not

specially elongated but slightly longer than hairs of II and slightly

Shorter than those of IV. Needles (Fig. 35 A) bifid, 28-35 » long, with

weak distal nodulus (D: P : : 2: 10), curved above nodulus, with fine un-

equal and diverging teeth. Ventral setae (Fig. 35 B, C) 7-8 per bundle

in anterior 7 or 8 segments, gradually decreasing to 4 posteriorly ; in

II, 43.8-45.5 p long, longer than the rest, with proximal nodulus and

distal prong longer than proximal; in III shortest 35-36.7 long, with

median nodulus (D : P::5: 5.5); in others 38.5-45.5 » long, with dis-

tal nodulus (D:P::5:7). Prongs about equal in thickness, distal

longer than the proximal in anterior 7 segments, and prongs equally

long, distal thinner than proximal in rest.

Pharynx in II-III, wide and ciliated, with eversible roof. Oesopha-

gus in IV-VII, thin and wavy. Stomach in VIII abrupt, pear-shaped with

2 Named after Dr. Christina Sperber of Uppsala, Sweden, for her valuable con-

tribution on the taxonomy of the Naididae.

220 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

intracellular canals. Intestine thin and sinuous up to X, wide and sac-

culated from XI. Chloragogues start in VI, greenish grey. Coelomo-

cytes morula-like, spherical with grey granules. Septa well developed,

septal glands on septa 4/5, 5/6 and 6/7.

Ty ee rd

Fig. 35. Pristina sperberae sp. nov. : A. Needle seta x 3000; B. Ventral seta of

IT x 3000 ; C. Ventral seta of VIII x 3000; D. Nephridium.

_ gl: gland; na: nephridial ampulla ; mpd: nephridial duct ; npp: nephri-

diopore ; mps : nephrostome; s: septum.

Brain incised deeply behind and less deeply in front.

Blood tinged with yellow. Dorsal vessel median on gut, covered

partially by chloragogues and contractile. Transverse commissural

loops in II-VII. Ventral vessel mid-ventral and non-contractile.

First pair of nephridia in IX and 1 in each of the succeeding seg-

ments. Each nephridium (Fig. 35 D) has pre-septal with nephrostome

and a post-septal with a fusiform ampulla followed by a long, coiled,

ciliated duct, partly passing through gland tissue and partly free, ending

in nephridiopore.

THE FRESHWATER OLIGOCHAETA OF SOUTH INDIA 221

One budding zone develops at a time.

Sexual worms not encountered.

] (living) = 1.5-2 mm. ; d (living) = 0.12 mm.;s = 20; n = 14-15.

Lengths of longest setae in » and position of nodulus in the ratio

DP: |

II Ill IV Vv VI VII VIII IX x

Hair 98 101.5 122.5 164.5 154 164.5 189 185.5 185.5

Needle 28 31.5 35 35 35 35 35 35 35

1.5:6.5 Pas | Past csehy We Ans: 2:8 2:8 2:8 2:8 2:8

V. seta 45.5 36.7.) 45.50 243.7. y 42 42 40.3 38.5 38.5

8:5 SOc a Onl mOLOs Dy. O47. a7 5:6.5 4.5:6.5 5:6

Type ; The type specimen is being deposited with the Zoological

Survey of India, Calcutta.

Habits : Lives among water plants and lamientows algae. No

swimming.

Commensals ; Sessile vorticillids are found attached to ventral setae.

Taxonomic remarks: The present species closely resembles Pr. foreli

out of the 21 species recognized for the genus (Sperber, 1948). It differs

from the latter in having lesser number of hairs and needles per

bundle, (1 hair and 1 needle as against 1-4 hairs and 1-4 needles),

smaller size of body (2 mm. as against 3-6.5 mm.), simple hairs (non-

serrate as against serrate hairs), with shortest ventral setae in III (as

against setae of normal length in Pr. foreli). Hence it is described here

as a new species.

Diagnosis of Pristina sperberae sp. nov. : Prostomium with proboscis.

Eyes absent. Dorsal setae from II on, 1 non-serrate hair and 1 bifid

needle with fine teeth, weak distal nodulus and slight curve distally.

Ventral setae 4-8 per bundle, of II longer and of III shortest with

proximal nodulus ; in the rest nodulus distal; in II-VII distal prong

longer than proximal, from VIII prongs equally long. Stomach in

VIII, pear-shaped with intracellular canals. Dorsal vessel mid-dorsal.

Transverse commissural vessels in II-VI. n = 14-15; s = 20.

VI. SUMMARY

Till 1958 the aeolosomatids and naidids known for the Southern

region and Indian sub-continent were 27 and 36 species respectively.

Recording of 18 species in this paper for the Southern region has —

established 45 species for the region and 54 species for the sub-contin-

ent [cf. pp. 643-644, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 58 (3)].

The thirty-five species treated here include 7 new species, and 11 new

records for the Southern region, inclusive of 2 new records for the

Indian sub-continent. They are Nais menoni sp. nov., Dero indica sp.

nov., D. plumosa sp. nov., Aulophorus hymanae sp. nov., A. indicus sp.

222 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

nov., Allonais rayalaseemensis sp. nov., and Pristina sperberae sp. nov.

The new records for the Southern region are all 3 species of Chaetoga-

ster, Stylaria fossularis, Haemonais waldvogeli, Dero cooperi, D. sawayai,

Allonais gwaliorensis, Pristina minuta, Pr. jenkinae, and Pr. aequiseta.

Of these Dero sawayai and Pristina jenkinae are new records for the

Indian sub-continent.

All the 35 species treated here were collected by the author in the

ten localities [see p. 640, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 58 (3)]. A record

collection of 32 species belonging to the Aeolosomatidae and Naididae

was made from the Bugga stream, Cuddapah. From the other locali-

ties 1-11 species of worms were collected. Geographical distribution of

all the forms is tabulated [see pp. 643-645, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

58 (3)].

The section on systematics deals with the descriptions of new species

and redescriptions of known species of worms. Lasto¢kinia gen. nov.

is created for an aberrant species, Aeolosoma niesvestnovae Lastotkin,

with its diagnosis. Stephensonianinae nov. is created for the reception

of a solitary genus Stephensoniana Cernosvitov, with its diagnosis.

Key to all the genera of the Aeolosomatidae, key to all the known

and valid species of Aeolosoma are given. Also, the key to subfamilies

of the Naididae, keys to all the genera of the subfamilies, and keys to

all the known and valid species of Chaetogaster, Nais, Stylaria,

Branchiodrilus, Allonais, Pristina, Dero, and Aulophorus are given.

Diagnostic characters of twelve genera and subgenera treated here are

given. :

Description of each species includes external characters, details

of setae, internal anatomy, budding zones, sex organs, habits of worms,

etc. Prostomium is rudimentary in Chaetogaster, simple and triangular

in others except in Stylaria fossularis and Pristina (except in Pr. minuta

and Pr. jenkinae) which have antero-median proboscis. Eyes are present

only in Nais communis and Stylaria fossularis. :

Dorsal bundles of setae begin in II in Pristina, Stephensoniana

trivandrana ; from IV in Dero dorsalis.; from V in Aulophorus (except

in A. tonkinensis); from VI in Dero, Stylaria fossularis, all Nais, Allonais,

and. Aulophorus tonkinensis ; from V or VI in Branchiodrilus semperi.

They are absent in Chaetogaster.

Hair setae plumose in Dero plumosa sp. nov., bayonet-shaped in

15 species, and straight or slightly curved in 16 others. Needle setae

are simple-pointed in Aeolosoma, Stylaria fossularis, Branchiodrilus

2 Ruttner-Kolisko (1955) has created genus Rheomorpha to receive the aberrant

species Aeolosoma neisvestnovae Lastoctkin. Hence Lastotkinia gen. noy. [see

pp. 645-646, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 58 (3)] created in the present paper to receive

the above species is invalid and the name Lasto¢kinia is nomen nudum. - sb

THE FRESHWATER OLIGOCHAETA OF SOUTH INDIA 223

semperi, Stephensoniana trivandrana, and Pristina longiseta longiseta ;

in the first two they are bayonet-shaped, in the later two they are

straight, in the last two they are straight but with distal part curved.

Needle setae are pectinate in Aulophorus indicus and Allonais inaequalis,

oar-shaped in Aulophorus tonkinensis, and bifid with sickle or bayonet-

shape in others. Giant ventral setae are observed in IV of Pristina

aequiseta and in V of Pr. evelinae. Penial setae are observed only in

Nais communis, Stylaria fossularis, all species of Allonais ; and genital

setae in Pristina longiseta longiseta among those in which the sexual

worms were examined.

Gilled forms are Branchiodrilus semperi with dorso-lateral gills in

anterior and middle segments ; all species of Dero and Aulophorus with

gills situated posteriorily in branchial fossa.

Stomach is absent in Haemonais waldvogeli, Branchiodrilus semperi,

Dero dorsalis, Aulophorus furcatus, A. michaelseni, A. hymanae, and

Stephensoniana trivandrana. Intracellular canals observed in stomachal

wall of Pristina aequiseta, Pr. evelinae, Pr. longiseta longiseta, and Pr.

sperberae are absent in Pr. synclites, and are not known from Pr.

minuta and Pr. jenkinae. Anti-peristalsis and ascending ciliary vibra-

tion of intestine occur in all the species treated here except in

Chaetogaster.

_ Dorsal vessel is mid-dorsal in Aeolosoma, Chaetogaster, and Pristina

(lateral in Pr. synclites), and ventro-lateral in all others. Blood is

colourless in Aeolosoma and Chaetogaster, and coloured in others, the

colour varying from pale yellow to bright orange-red. Statocyst in’

the brain, hitherto not reported, is reported for Chaetogaster cristal-

linus.

Nephridia commence in II or III in Aeolosoma, in VI or VII in

Chaetogaster, in VI in Stephensoniana trivandrana, in VIII or IX in

Aulophorus tonkinensis, in X in Aulophorus indicus, in XII in Branchio-

drilus semperi, in IX in Pristina, and in VII or VIII in all others.

They are exonephric in Chaetogaster and coelomonephric in others.

Asexual reproduction is by formation of budding zones in ail

Species treated here except in Allonais, where fragmentation occurs.

Prostomium and 4 anterior segments are produced in Stephensoniana

trivandrana, 7 in Pristina, and 5 in all others. The anterior segments of

the posterior zooid start budding only after complete formation of the

hind part of the anterior zooid in Pristina synclites. Positions of

testes and spermathecae, and ovaries and atria are in VII and VIII in

Pristina longiseta longiseta, and in V and VI in others in which sexual

worms were examined.

Among the Naididae the species of Dero and Aulophorus are known

to construct tubes of mucus and foreign matter to live in. Of the

8 species of Dero and 5 species of Aulophorus treated here all were

224 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

observed to live in tubes except 3 species of Dero and 2 of Aulophorus.

Stephensoniana trivandrana lives in soft mud and has a part of its body

covered by thin mucus film studded with mud particles. Among the

species of Aeolosoma, Ae. travancorense live in tubes much larger

than their body, evidently tubes vacated by larger species of worms.

Swimming was observed in Nais menoni sp. nov., Stylaria fossularis,

all species of Dero, Aulophorus, Allonais (except in Dero dorsalis and

Aulophorus indicus) and in Stephensoniana trivandrana. Species of

Aeolosoma glide on substratum like turbellarians. Chaetogaster

cristallinus, Ch. diastrophus, all species of Nais, Allonais, Pristina (except

Pr. synclites), and Stylaria fossularis live in filamentous algae and

water plants ; others live in soft mud. Chaetogaster langi lives in

encrustations of plant and animal matter.

Vorticellids were observed as commensals attached to the setae of

Chaetogaster cristallinus, Nais communis, Dero digitata, Aulophorus

hymanae, Allonais gwaliorensis, and Pristina sperberae.

chous astom tous ciliate parasites were found in the gut of Aeolosoma

travancorense, Chaetogaster cristallinus, Allonais gwaliorensis, and

Stephensoniana trivandrana; sporocysts of actinomyxid sporozoan

parasites were found in the gut wall of Nais communis and Pristina

longiseta longiseta ; and sporocysts of microsporid sporozoan parasites

were found in the coelom of Nais communis, Dero sawayai, and Pristina

Some holotri-.

longiseta longiseta.

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* Not seen in original.

The Early Stages of Development in

Achatina fulica Bowdich

(Mollusca: Gastropoda)

KRISHNA CHANDRA GHOSE, D.Sc.

Department of Zoology, City College, Calcutta

(With three plates)

EN: TE ROch UC. ON

Records on the early stages of Achatina fulica are far from —

complete. Rees (1950) described these stages briefly and Bequaert

(1950) recorded only some of the features of young shells. Snails

bred and reared in the laboratory (Ghose, 1959) attain sexual

maturity at the age of about six months, but in nature they require

more than one year to attain the same phase as aestivation starts

when they are three to four months old or even still less.‘ The

coloration of the adult shell is influenced to some extent by the

climatic conditions in diiferent countries, but sunlight seems to have

no effect on pigmentation during early stages of growth.

OBSERVATIONS

Since eggs with embryos in different stages of development are

laid, the period of hatching out of the snails is variable. In a brood,

the first young snail comes out of the egg within 1 to 14 days after

laying, and most of the embryos hatch out within a further period

of seven days. Hatching may continue in some cases for about a

week more. The healthy individuals come out first, and only the

weaker and smaller ones, especially those from the small eggs, emerge

later. The percentage of hatching in the eggs laid with embryos in

late stages of development is 82.5, whereas in the eggs laid with

embryos in early stages of development it is only 26 approximately.

The egg shells lose their brilliance and toughness considerably

during incubation; they become fragile and can be easily broken by

1 This depends on the period of time between the hatching out of the young

snail and the appearance of dry and cold weather.

JouRN. BomBAy NAT. Hist. Soc. PLATE [I

Pulmonary

vein

Stages in growth of Achatina fulica

_1. Eggs; 2. Newly hatched snail 4 mm.; 3. Same as Fig. 2 (shell removed) ; 4. 4.5 mm.

snail; 5. Same as Fig. 4 (shell removed) ; 6. 5 mm. snail; 7. Same as Fig. 6 (shell removed)

8. 5.5 mm. snail ; 9. 6.5 mm. snail, 8 days old ; 10. 8 mm. snail; 11. 9.mm. snail, 16 days old

12. 12 mm. snail, 24 days old; 13. 15 mm. snail, 32 days old ; 14. 18mm. snail, 46 days old

i i mm. atl 60 days old; 16. 31 mm. snail, 74 days old ; 17. 38 mm, snail, 88 days old

, mm. snail.

we Bowe we

EARLY STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT IN ACHATINA FULICA — 229

the pressure of the foot of the young snails. The young snails come

out in most cases carrving broken egg shells on their back. The

cracking of the shells with a sharp click (Rees, 1950) at this stage

was never heard by me.

Some of the newly hatched snails remain inactive for a few hours,

while others are active from the moment of hatching. They show

considerable variation both in the size of the shell and in that of the

body. In most cases, the young snails begin feeding on soil, leaves of

_ plants, and broken egg shells, lying on the soil or on the backs of

other young snails, and in this way they meet their demand for

calcium, which is very high in the early stages. While feeding on

leaves, they scrape off their surface and make small holes in them.

Snails in captivity thrive well on lettuce, mustard, cabbage, cauli-

flower, and various types of leafy vegetables. I never found young

snails cannibalistic as observed by Rees (1950).

In spite of all possible care mortality is very high among young snails

being about 85.2 per cent. In a batch of 425 snails, only six survived

to reach sexual maturity. The death rate is highest in very early

stages; it then comes down gradually but again sharply increases in

the first few weeks of aestivation. In India, the cold and dry period

comes when the snails are young; this acts as an effective check on the

increase of Achatina population. The growth rate is nearly uniform

up to the attainment of sexual maturity, and slows down subsequently

which is shown in Plates II and IN.

The measurement (in mm.) and weight of four snails, three months

old, are given in the table below:

| E

| abel No. of as Sertute Weight of the

SI. No. as spirals — living snail

Length | Breadth | Length | Breadth in gr.

inmm. ; in mm. | inmm. | in mm.

! 38 22 6 22 15 7.9

2 Sul 21 6 21 12 6.6

3 4 36.51 elie 2 I 6 22 LOE, 73

4 Sasa ba 20) 6 20 11 Sal

FEATURES OF THE EARLY STAGES

Stage 1. (Newly hatched snail) (Pl. I, Fig, 2)

The shell is globose, very thin, almost transparent, glossy, without

any decussation, and of uniform light horny colour. The first whorl

1S very small, but the next one is quite large.

230 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

The colour of all the organs except eyes (black), kidney (cream-

white), and digestive gland (light brown) is almost glass-hke. In the

larger snails (4 mm. and above), which constitute about ten per cent

of the total, black pigment in the form of small rods and dots is

scattered irregularly on the mantle over the pleuropedal visceral

mass. Reticulation on the body is entirely absent. The heart,

kidney, and pulmonary vein are distinctly visible through the shell.

The heart-beat of some snails at this stage may be as low as 20 per

minute’.

Young snails are very active and begin to feed on soil®. Their

activity increases during the night.

From the fourth day onwards, very light brown pigment begins to

be deposited on the dorsal surface of the visceral stalk and foot, and

reticulation appears on the dorsal surface of the visceral stalk.

Stage 2. (Age 8 days) (Pl. L Fig. 9)

The ground colour of the shell is uniformly light horny. Fine

vertical wrinkles, not visible to the naked eye, appear on the post-

nepionic whorl. Narrow, almost paraitlel, very faint light-brown,

vertical stripes run from suture to columellar lip. Black pigmentation

on the mantle increases; the digestive gland becomes brownish black

and occupies the first two whorls; kidney yellowish, and foot cream-

white. Light brown pigment appears on the visceral stalk, ventral

tentacles, ocular tentacles, and dorsal surface of the foot. Pigmenta-

tion is heavier on the dorso-lateral sides of the visceral stalk, posterior

to ocular tentacles and at the junction of the visceral stalk and foot.

The snails are very active, especially during rain. Feeding takes

place mainly at night, and leaves are eaten from the margins. They

can consume comparatively hard substances like germinating pea and

gram seeds. Occasionally, the snails burrow holes in the soil and

rest there. 3

Stage 3. (Age 16 days) (Pl. L, Biel)

The shell appears thicker and more opaque with a flexible and

greyish horn lip. White patches in the form of small rods and dots

placed at regular intervals appear on the apical visceral mass. The

1J—In order to ascertain the effect of sunlight on the deposition of pigments,

eggs were kept in a dark room. The young snails hatched and reared in the dark

did not exhibit any difference in their pigmentation when compared with the

controls.

? The maximum heart-beat in the larval stage was noted to be 150 per minute.

% Embryos not allowed to come in contact with soil did not thrive well. So

it appears that they obtain the supply of certain requirements of their early

stages from the soil,

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EARLY STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT IN ACHATINA FULICA — 231

digestive gland occupies almost the whole of the first two and one-

fourth whorls. The colour of the tentacles is like that of the visceral

stalk. Pigmentation on the foot increases to light brown, and reticula-

tion appears on it.

Stage 4. (Age 24 days) (en | Rui)

The shell loses its globose shape, but it cannot yet be called

elongate. This stage resembles the stage number 3 in every respect

except that the pigmentation on the body becomes deeper and the

reticulation on the visceral stalk appears more prominent.

Stage 5. (Age 32 days) (Pl. I, Fig. 13)

The shell is slightly elongate. It loses its glossy appearance and

is light roseate in colour with increased opacity. The vertical

wrinkles on the body whorl are slightly bent at the sutures. The brown

stripes on the body-whorl are deeper but, instead of running from

suture to columellar lip, stop at the middle, being slightly defiected

at the end. The white spots on the apical ‘visceral mass and the

black pigment on the pleuropedal visceral mass assume elongated

appearance and form small scattered stripes. Pigmentation on the

rest of the body approaches a deep brown colour. The foot is light

brown. Reticulation on the foot and visceral stalk is very prominent.

Stage 6. (Age 46 days) (Pl. I, Fig. 14)

The shell is elongate-ovate, the apex forming a broad cone. The

vertical wrinkles are cut by a few incised lines. The brown stripes

are broad and deeper and fraying appears at the margins. The

digestive gland shifts its position, and the first whorl of the shell

becomes empty. The pigmentation on the apical and pleuropedal

visceral mass is no more visible. Pigmentation and reticulation on

the body and foot increase, and the foot is brown in colour.

Stage 7. (Age 60 days) (PI. I, Fig. 15)

The shell is still partially transparent. The shape and pigmenta-

tion of the shell nearly approach those of an adult. Similarly, the

reticulation on the foot and visceral stalk is almost like that of an

adult. The colour of the exposed parts of the body is deep brown.

Stage 8. (Age 74 days) (Pl. I, Fig. 16)

Pigmentation on the body and the shell is adult-like,

232 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

Stage 9. (Age 88 days) (Pl. Le Figs 17)

It resembles an adult in every respect. Only the heart can be

seen through the shell against light’.

REFERENCES

Bequaert, J. C. (1950) : Studies in the

Achatininae, a group of African land

snails. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. Harv.

105 (1): 1-217.

Ghose, K. C. (1959) : Observations on

the mating and oviposition of two land

pulmonates, Achatina fulica Bowdich and

Macrochlamys indica Godwin-Austen.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 56 (2): 183-

187.

Rees, W. J. (1950): The giant African

Snail. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. 120 (3);

577-598.

* The heart-beat can be counted through the shell up to the’ age of four and

half months,

Journ. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Richard Watkins Burton

Obituary

LIEUTENANT-COLONEL RICHARD WATKINS BURTON

(With a photograph)

With deep regret we record the death at Woodcote Park, Surrey,

England, of this old and valued member of our Society. He died on

the 12th January 1963 in his 95th year. ;

Richard Burton was the sixth son and seventh child of the late

General E. F. Burton of the Madras Staff Corps and Georgiana his

wife. All the nine sons followed their father’s profession.

Commissioned from Sandhurst in the Ist Battalion of the Lancashire

Fusiliers on the 23rd March 1889, he was transferred to the 2nd

Battalion in India and landed at Bombay on the Sth April 1890. On

being posted to the Indian Army he joined at Belgaum on the 16th

December 1890. After serving in Burma he was appointed to the

Hyderabad Contingent at Aurangabad in 1891.

Permanently crippled by a riding accident in December 1903, he

was saved from half-pay on the understanding that he would enter the

Cantonment Magistrate’s Department. After various assignments

under the Foreign Department of the Government of India he was

appointed to the Cantonment Magistrate’s Department in 1906.

Col. Burton joined the Bombay Natural History Society in 1893

and was, at the time of his death, our oldest member. He wrote for

the Journal regularly during the 70 years of his membership, his last

contribution being in Volume 58 (3) in 1961. Throughout his long

connection, Col. Burton was a staunch supporter and well-wisher of

the Society. His note on the. Duties of Members of the Society

(Vol. 53 : 507), a confession of faith which he himself discharged in

full measure, needs to be read and re-read and acted upon by all

Members. Among his nearly 200 contributions—original articles,

compilations, miscellaneous notes, and book reviews--some of special

interest and importance are the following:

Notes from the Oriental Magazine--New Series—1869 to 1879.

Vol. 25 : 491.

Notes from the Oriental Sporting Magazine—New Series—June

£328 to.June 1833. Vol-26 : 309,

234. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

Three months up the Valley of the Sutley River. Vol. 31 723:

31352.

The Indian Wild Dog. Vol. 41 : 691.

On the banks of the Narbada. (Compiled from the Note Books

of Major H. G. H. Munrowd.) Vol. 42 : 757; 43 : 48.

Some Reminiscences of Sport in Assam. Vol. 45 : 199; 45 : 321;

45 : 485; 46: 108; 46: 269.

Wild Life Preservation : India’s Vanishing Asset. Vol. 47 : 602.

Preservation of Wild Life in India: Supplement to the article

published in Vol. 47, pp. 602-622 of this Journal. Vol. 48 : 290.

A History of Shikar in India. Vol. 50 : 845.

Wild Life Preservation in India (Text of the farewell address given

to members of the Bombay Natural History Society at Bombay

on! 1S* April 1953)7° Vol. 543:561-578.

The Ahmedabad Tent Club in earJier days. Vol. 51 : 732.

His shikar articles are not merely chronicles of success or failure in

killing; most of them carry a lesson which has helped many a novice

or less experienced sportsman to keep out of trouble. They contain

valuable field observations on the habits and behaviour of the quarry

—information of the type that forms the core of our knowledge of the

natural history of Indian game animals. By means of a _ rather

elaborate but extremely efficient cross-referenced index of the Journal

from its inception, which he prepared for his own use and meticulously

kept up-to-date almost to the end, he could put his finger immediately

on anything and everything that had ever been published in previous | |

volumes. The editors had reason to be thankful to him again and again

for the promptness with which he could refer them back, when in

difficulty, to the exact volume and page. He generously offered this

index to the Society for publication for the benefit of its members,

but on scrutiny it was found to need so much editing and simplifica- —

tion before any one but himself could make proper use of it, that the |

offer had to be regretfully declined. © |

Col. Burton was a fearless big game hunter, a keen and |

knowledgeable fisherman, and an ardent upholder of the highest ethics |

and traditions of sportsmanship. And he had lived through many |

thrilling encounters with wounded or man-eating tigers and panthers, ~

and runaway shikar elephants, and survived a serious mauling by a :

wounded bear. Once he almost lost an eye, and indeed very nearly

his life, when the bolt of a much-advertised new type of magazine

rifle with the ‘Straight Pull’ action—all the rage at the time—blew

back and took away with it a large part of his cheek. The deformity

OBITUARY 235

caused by this accident he carried the rest of his life. In his later

years he dedicated himself with missionary zeal to the cause of nature

conservation and wild life preservation. To him, perhaps more than

to any other single individuai, must go the credit for awakening the

public conscience to the urgent need for practical conservation during

the early years of our independence when conditions were somewhat

disorganized and the wild life position in the country looked

particularly bleak. His formal campaign for the preservation of wild

life in India may be said to commence with the publication in the

Journal of his article “Wild Life Preservation : India’s Vanishing

Asset’ in 1948. This article, reprinted in pamphlet form, was widely

circulated among governmental circles—from the Prime Ministers of

India and Pakistan down to many individual forest officers—also

among sportsmen, game associations. and influential politicians and

private citizens throughout the newly partitioned countries, often with

a personal covering letter from the author himself or from the Society.

The matter was also widely publicized through the press. Although

no immediate response was apparent-—partly owing to public and

official apathy and lack of vision, partly to other important preoccupa-

tions following upon the political change-over-—there is little doubt

that in the long run the effort did contribute towards drawing

attention to the deteriorating state of affairs. It paved the way for

the formation of the Indian Board for Wild Life which, at least on

paper and in an advisory capacity, is today the central agency

responsible for governmental policy pertaining to wild life preserva-

tion in the country.

In 1949 in Vol. 48 (2) he published a supplement to the above

article which added considerably to its value and completeness. This

was followed up in October 1950 by a Memorandum to the Under

Secretary, Government of India, Ministry of Scientific Research, New

Delhi, for the use of the Advisory Committee for coordinating

scientific research charged with examining the question and suggest-

ing ways and means for setting up National Parks and Wild Life

Sanctuaries in India. In 1953, with the financial sponsorship of

H. H. the Maharaja of Mysore, who meanwhile had been nominated

President of the newly formed Indian Board for Wild Life, Col. Burton

prepared a compendium indexing, sunimarizing, or reproducing all

the more important articles on wild life preservation in India that had

appeared in the Journal since its inception. This booklet forms an

indispensable, handy reference and guide for everyone interested in

the problem,

236 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

Col. Burton was perhaps the last of the illustrious band of —

‘Anglo-Indian’ sportsmen-naturalists who, by their unquenchable

thirst for scientific enquiry, contributed so significantly to what may

be termed the ‘marginal gains’ of game shooting in India, namely a

knowledge of the natural history of the animals they hunted. At the

same time they built up and codified exemplary traditions and ethics

of sportsmanship which it seems imperative to inculcate and encourage,

and even scrupulously enforce, among shikaris of the present genera-

tion, if wild life in this country is to be saved from early total

extinction.

S.A.

Reviews

1. FLOWERING TREES OF THE WORLD For TROPICS

AND WARM CLIMATES. By Edwin A. Menninger. pp. xv+336

(25x20 cm.). With 425 plates in full colour and 40 line drawings.

New York, 1962. Hearthside Press Incorporated. Price $ 18.95.

The author has spent more than twenty-five years in a search for

beautiful flowering trees to introduce into South Florida. The hunt

involved the study of the extensive botanical literature of all the

tropical countries—nearly 150 references are mentioned in the

bibliography appended to the text. More useful for his purpose.

however, was personal correspondence with residents and workers in

the various countries. The collection of seed at the appropriate time,

often in places remote from human habitation, the proper handling of

it after collection, and its packing and despatch by air to its destination

abroad involved a considerable expenditure of time and effort, and

it speaks very well for the innate goodness of human nature that the

author found ready co-operation from those whom he approached.

Perhaps, the labour was not without its humour, witness the

correspondent in Madagascar whose parcel of Harpagophytum

grandidiere seeds was accompanied by the warning: ‘Open and

handle with great care’. One look at the seeds was sufficient. ‘Thorns

recurved like fish-hooks made the seeds dangerous to any living

creature which might brush against the plant or step on a pod, and

the box was hastily taken to the back lot and burnt!

Incidentally, the author gives an account of how he discovered

the proper treatment for the seeds of the Teak (Tectona grandis)}—t

mention this as it is of interest to us in India:

‘ These seeds are about the size of garden peas, but each one is covered with

a thick corky rind, making the whole as big asa marble. The seeds were dry, so

were placed in a glass of water to be soaked overnight, but they were so buoyant

that the water failed even to wet their surfaces. Another glass jammed into the

first kept the pellets under water, but next morning when released they popped

to the top as dry as ever despite the immersion. Out came a knife and file, and a

lot of the corky rind was cut away. The seeds were soaked another 24 hours, then

planted. No germination. Every few days an exploratory dig showed that

nothing was happening. Perusal of some Indian books turned up a chapter in

Cleghorn on ‘ How to Grow Teak Trees from Seed’. This sounded pertinent and

the 18 pages were greedily devoured ; about all the book said was that germination

was difficult. However, a gleam of light emerged from one sentence. Observers .

had found, the book said, that after the annual brush fires swept through the teak

238 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

forests of Burma, an immediate upcropping of seedlings resulted. Oh! Oh! The

author went out to the propagating shed, dug up the poor little teak seeds for the

umteenth time, put them in the family popcorn popper, and shook them over a slow

fire. Pop! Pop! went the seeds, like so many little firecrackers. Back into vermi-

culite they were plunged and 100 per cent germination resulted.’

Starting out with the idea of describing 500 species of beautiful

flowering trees, the author found the material at hand so extensive

as to require twice that number for adequate treatment. Even so,

he thought it necessary to add a chapter about ‘Flowering Trees That

Were Left Out of the Book’.

Numerous trees with which we are familiar in India figure in the

pages of this book, and it is pleasant to look at them through the

eyes of a foreigner. They are.not always the same in appearance

and behaviour as they are in this country. I mention, for example,

a Kanakchampa (Pterospermum acerifolium) in Orlando, Florida,

planted about seventy-five years ago: “Repeatedly frozen back to the

ground, it has as repeatedly come back from the roots, so that today

its dozen trunks still proudly support a leafy crown 30 feet or more

in the air. Also, the tree has never been known to set seed in Florida.

Similarly, in Florida our stately Queen’s Flower Tree (Lagerstroemia

speciosa) is ‘a great sprawling shrub that makes no effort to become

treelike unless tied to a stake and forced up’.

There is much more of interest, but I think I have given enough

samples to tempt my reader to go to the original for it. I must,

however, give one more extract, which will explain for itself why I

feel compelled to do so:

‘What matters it whether the tree you plant grows in your own yard or in

your neighbor’s? All you can do anyway is feast your eyes on its beauty. You

can probably see it better if it is planted in the yard across the street, than if it

is crowded into your own place. Who owns the real estate where a thing of

beauty stands is of small consequence. If there is no more room in your yard

and you feel your job there is complete, it is time to start all over again. Planta

beautiful tree in your neighbor’s yard, or in the city parkway, or in that ugly

vacant lot next door.’

The text is enriched by 425 beautiful plates in full colour, mostly

showing the flowers or the fruit, but including some, e.g. plates 378

and 379, showing the beauty of the tree as a whole. In addition, there

are 40 line drawings by Eva Melady, drawn with meticulous care by

an artist who evidently loves the work.

For the fare provided the price is not unreasonable.

There is one strange error to be corrected. Though the bibliography

correctly mentions Blatter & Millard’s SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN TREES as

published by the Bombay Natural History Society, the text incorrectly

says that it first appeared as a series of articles in ‘The Bombay

REVIEWS 239

Journal of Botany’. The fact is that the authors of the book were

valued members of the Bombay Natural History Society and the series

of articles first appeared in the Society’s Journal.

S.R.

2. THE HOUSE SPARROW. By J. D. Summers-Smith. pp.

xvit 269 (13.5 20.0 cm.). With a colour frontispiece. 32 photographs

in black and white, and 36 text-figures. London 1963 (Collins).

Frice 25s. net.

As a species the House Sparrow (Passer domesticus) is, at the

present time, certainly one of the most ubiquitous birds, sharing with

man an almost worldwide distribution. In Great Britain it ranks with

the Chaffinch and the Blackbird as the most common and abundant

resident species.

Despite its being such a regular commensal of man-—making itself

completely at home arourd his habitations, fields, and factories—

surprisingly little precise information was available regarding its

ecology and life-history. Over a period of 11 years the author studied

the entire yearly cycle and every phase of House Sparrow activity in

Great Britain with the aid of colour-ringed local populations in a

rural as well as an urban-industrial environment. Pair formation,

nest building, sexual and communal display, courtship, egg-laying,

clutch size, incubation and nesting success, care of the young and their

subsequent dispersal, enemies, mortality, sex ratio, and the behaviour

patterns motivated by all these activities are some of the topics

that form this fascinating record. He discusses the extreme

adaptability of the House Sparrow as shown by its ability to thrive as

a sedentary breeding bird—without recourse to seasonal migration—

in countries with temperatures as divergent as—15° F. and 110° F.,,

and at altitudes ranging from sea-level to 15,000 feet, and to profit

from the liveable conditions which man has artificially created for

himself in such inhospitable climes. Its bumptious aggressiveness

combined with a natural wariness, and its catholicity in food and

_ feeding habits have contributed in large measure to its phenomenal

- success as a colonist, whether by natural expansionism or by human

introduction, in such far-flung ends of the earth as the Americas and

_ Australasia. The history of its introduction into different parts of

the world is very fully documented in Chapter 15—‘Origins and

Distribution’.

240 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

The communal displays known as ‘Sparrow Weddings’ or ‘Sparrow

Parties—always an intriguing situation for the bird watcher— where

a single female seemingly on the detensive is mobbed by a swelling

circle of noisily strutting amorous cocks, is well described, and an

explanation of its function is suggested.

It is found that house sparrows pair for life, but that, if one of

the mated pair is accidentally killed or otherwise disappears, he or

she is quickly replaced by another from an apparently ever-present

‘waiting list,’ or reservoir, of unmated birds of either sex. An

instance is cited of seven cocks thus rapidly filling the vacancy caused

by the shooting of one cock after another at a nest on which a female

was incubating a clutch of eggs. Curiously enough this episode is

almost identical in nearly every detail with an experience of the

reviewer in India, recorded in the Newsletter for Birdwatchers for

June 1962. Social behaviour, particularly concerning roosts and

roosting in urban areas in Great Britain, seems to differ in certain

respects from what has been casually observed in Indian birds (P. d.

indicus) 11 Bombay City for example. The difference may be of

degree rather than of kind, but nevertheless a comparative study of

roosting habits under the more or less uniform tropical conditions

prevailing here—without anything like a northern winter to interrupt —

the yearly rhythm—would be of great interest and may possibly |

disclose some adaptive significance. For instance there is no reference |

to a type of roost common in Bombay City, sited in moderate-sized

leafy roadside trees, frequently in the heart of a bustling bazaar, |

where house sparrows—presumably from the immediate neighbourhood |

—gather noisily to sleep at sunset and depart near sunrise preceded |

by much twittering and chatter. Such roosts, strung out every few |

hundred yards along busy thoroughfares, seem to remain in use more |

or less the year round. In our area, moreover, the birds breed |

practically throughout the year with perhaps a slight slackening during |

the rainy season, June to September—a fact which may bear some |

correlation. |

Young birds after fledging are said to wander between the various |

breeding colonies, but never more than a few miles. Once a nest |

site and mate have been acquired (the young breed when less than

12 months old) sedentary life begins and the house sparrow is.

reluctant to move across even a short stretch of unsuitable country. —

This extreme sedentariness accounts for the curiously patchy local FP

occurrences of the bird and is doubtless the origin of the genetically |

different populations that have developed within the House Sparrow’s |

circumglobal distribution.

REVIEWS 241

_ Chapter 19 sums up the secret of the House Sparrow’s success as

a colonist. Among the chief ingredients are: catholicity of food and

feeding habits, adaptability for commensalism with man in both town

and country environments, and capacity for learning quickly

and profiting from the experience of others of its kind how to avoid

dangers and natural enemies such as cats, hawks, and occasionally

even man. But the main reason for immediate colonising success

where deliberately introduced by man seems to be that the bird is

already conditioned to occupy an ecological niche that has not been

exploited by any native species, namely human habitations, and

therefore meets with no serious competition from ‘vested interests’.

The book ends with six useful appendixes and a selected biblio-

graphy of 66 titles. Both the author and the publishers deserve

congratulation on this admirable production which, incidentally, is

No. 19 of the well-known monographs on British animals in “The

New Naturalist’ series. The book is fascinating to read and well

documented throughout. It provides a valuable reference source for

comparative ethological studies on the house sparrow in other climatic

regions of the world.

S.A.

3. A CLASSIFICATION OF LIVING ANIMALS. By Lord

Rothschild. pp. vii-+106 (26X17 cm.). Glasgow, 1961. Longmans

Green & Co. Ltd. Price 25s.

This handy little book fulfils a long felt need in the study of the

animal kingdom by providing a comprehensive, summarized, and up-

to-date classification of animals, and should prove very useful not only

to zoologists but also to students of allied disciplines.

The scope of the book is best explained in the author’s words:

‘The book and its index can be used to find out how the animal

kingdom, or parts of it, are classified, which are the eutherian

mammals, what phasmids and Homoptera are, etc. Neither the book

nor its index can necessarily provide answers to questions about the

systematic positions of individual genera, because there are some two

hundred thousand genera in the animal kingdom.’ Chapter I explains

the purpose of the book and how to use it. Chapter II is a

summarized classification of living animals. Chapter III is a

Classification of living animals, with examples of genera in each class,

order, sub-order, etc. Appendix | provides references for further

242- JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

reading. Appendix II is a list of the authorities consulted on the

SPSS AS ICES

~ One hopes that the book will not be ‘dated’ within a few er,

systematics is a field in which stability is noted in very few of animal

groups, new finds and new methods of approach and outlook frequently

up-setting apparently established arrangements. For instance -the

present publication offers alternative classifications for three groups

and the author notes that alternative classifications are available for

several more. Indian zoologists who are not systematists and who-

graduated a decade ago will be surprised at the changes that have

since occurred in Systematic Zoology.

J.C. D.

4. A BIRD AND ITS BUSH. By Michael Lister. pp. 142

(2214.5 cm.). With: 35 photographs and 16 text-figures. | London,

1962. Phoenix House Ltd. Price 16s. net.

The first stage in the scientific study of birds has been the

collecting of specimens in the field and taxonomy in the museum. In

most parts of the world, the bulk of the taxonomic work has been

completed and ornithologists are exploring various aspects of

ecological and other studies both in the field and in the laboratories.

Indian ornithology is still in its infancy and our few field workers.

have not yet provided the preliminary ‘background ‘of. knowledge

to facilitate more detailed studies of the finer problems of ecology.

_. This little book tries to create the background for. English

conditions. The ‘Bush’ described in 8 chapters includes geology,

soils and topography, climate and weather, vegetation, as well. as

other inhabitants of the area. Such a book is badly needed in India

to enable the birdwatcher to identify and name the many factors which

make up a habitat. A rose by any other name may be the same, but

restriction to one definite name is essential to permit its study. . The

worker must be able to give a name to the phenomenon, plant, or

other object with which his observation is associated. Alternatively,

without such knowledge, he cannot record it suitably nor benefit by

the information already recorded by others.

; While we may not have a birdwatcher with | the Supplement

knowledge required for such a book, it may be possible to produce

it collectively. — Tt would” certainly be nue ‘great assistance: to all

concerned. ~

J Si ae

REVIEWS ~~ Ae BY - 243

-. 5, BIRD. By Lois and Louis Darling. pp. xi+261 (23x15.4

cm.). London, 1962. Methuen & Co. Ltd. Price 30s. |

This husband-and-wife team of ornithologists set themselves a very

ambitious task—nothing less than ‘a basic, simplified but scientifically

valid. account of evolution, behaviour, anatomy, and physiology of

birds as well as comparison of these features with those of the

animals’. It was not a modest target and one would be justified in

being sceptical about the competence of anyone to fulfil a task so

comprehensive. But after reading the book one concedes. that it is

an undoubted success. In spite of being filled with detail the book

can be read effortlessly throughout. For this, a great deal of the

credit must go to Mrs. Darling whose superb illustrations help to

illuminate and clarify all the more difficult portions of the text. In

his foreword Niko Tinbergen says: *. . . the authors had a. strong

urge to communicate. They have kindled the fire of motivation . .

they delight in detail, but the results of scientific analysis are con-

tinually put back into their proper functional context.’ The great

merit of. the book is the sense of proportion with which it has been

written; we never lose sight of the weod for the trees.

The book consists of three main parts: Time and Birds, Bene ioue

and Anatomy and Physiology.. As may be. imagined the first two

sections are the more absorbing ones for the general reader..

.. The initial chapters on Evolution refer to: the highlights in man’s

discovery of the process. A glance at a neat tabulation of Eras,

Periods, and Epochs helps to assess .the geologic time, e.g. that birds

arrived in the world in the Jurassic period of the Mesozoic era, that.

is-165: million years ago—man it may be recalled is only one million

years. old....The fossil Archaeopteryx, the first creature that can be

called a bird, was found in Bavaria in.1861.-.The authors point out,

with the help of a striking sketch, that the most fortunate feature -of

the fossil: was-the imprint of the feathers. embedded in the limestone.

Without this clue it may have appeared that the fossil belonged to-

a-reptile and studies in bird evolution would not have progressed as

tapidly as they did. In 1872 the discovery of the fossil of the sea-bird

Hesperornis was another valuable guide post, and then: scientists could

confidently assert that by the time of the Eocene epoch; 60 million

years ago, there were already. fifteen- orders. of -birds in: existence as

against -28--at present.- Immediately. Man arrived on the scene he

started to take an interest in birds, as pre- -historic cave drawings and

244. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

engravings show. Unfortunately his contact with birds has not always

been to the advantage of the latter.

Darwin’s visit to the Galapagos Islands in 1835 on the equator,

600 miles to the west of South America, was an event of decisive

importance to the progress of evolutionary studies. In these islands,

cut off from the mainland, the effects of the forces of Natural Selection

and Survival of the Fittest could be clearly seen. From a single

ancestral seed-eating ground finch fourteen other types developed.

The bill of each species was a pointer to the type of food it ate and

the habitat which it preferred. At this stage the authors emphasise

a point which is not quite obvious to a layman; that hereditary

changes always come first, and adaptation to the environment follows.

For instance, ducks started with normal feet, not with webbed toes

perfected for swimming. Webs were developed from fortuitous

natural variations in the direction of webbed feet, giving a slight

advantage, or survival] value, in swimming and food-getting to the

possessors over other birds without them. Thus, by working upon

and improving the minor variations, Natural Selection gradually

eliminated the less fitted in the struggle for existence, and perfected

the webbed feet of ducks and other specially adapted swimming birds

seen today.

The chapters on Behaviour are written with a sureness which

could only be shown by persons who have the knack of handling birds

and maintaining the most intimate relations with them. The authors

frequently ‘imprinted’ themselves on the minds of young birds, and

occasionally goslings and ducklings preferred their companionship to

that of the natural parents.

It is a rule of thumb that if a species has an outstanding brightly

coloured mark it will be used in display. The authors refer to the

interesting fact that closely related birds which have overlapping

breeding ranges have distinct colour insignia or behaviour patterns

of their own. Mallard, Pintail, and Widgeon, for instance, should

have little difficulty in recognizing one another, and a female mallard

could offer no legitimate excuse for flirting with a male widgeon.

But birds whose breeding ranges are separate, like the Black Duck

and the Mottled Duck, can afford to look the same without endanger-

ing racial purity. | |

Describing the flight mechanism of birds is a difficult matter. Some

writers treat the subject so technically that one forgets that birds are

involved in it. Some simplify it to such an extent that there seems

REVIEWS 245

nothing to it except the simple fact that speed increases lift and vice

versa. The Darlings, because of their ability to relate details to

their functional context and with the assistance of lively sketches, give

the reader a feeling of knowing a lot more than he did before. If only

for this, the book is well worth possessing.

Z.F.

i ete

Se ee

c < Bi

ih bs .

Miscellaneous Notes

- 1. ON THE CRANIAL CHARACTERS OF MACACA

SILENUS (LINN.) (PRIMATES : CERCOPITHECIDAE)

(With a plate)

The specific differences in the cranial characters of catarrhine

monkeys are not conspicuous and are often masked by individual

variations. ‘This caused many earlier workers to rely more on external

characters and devote less attention to cranial variations. In many

cases the published accounts of specific cranial characters are not

based on a sufficiently good series of specimens to sift out the

individual variations. Of the Indian species of the genus Macaca

(Primates : Cercopithecidae),. the least known in this respect is

M. silenus (Linn.), the Liontailed Macaque of the Western Ghats of

India. The only known descriptions of the cranial characters of

this species are those of Anderson (1879) and Pocock (1939). Elliot

(1912) records only the measurements of a skull. Anderson’s

description of the skull, based on a single male specimen, is extremely

general and vague. The features described by him are either

common or individual, none being characteristic of the species.

Pocock, having only an incomplete skull, relied for the most part

on Anderson’s description, adding as far as the broken specimen

would permit some of his own observations. The sulky, savage

nature of this monkey and its inaccessible forest abode make it

difficult to procure material and there is a paucity of skulls in many

zoological collections. The present detailed description of the cranial

characters of this species is based on a series of five specimens (2 oo

and 3 @¢@). In addition, four adolescent skulls were examined to

study the lines of cranial development. I wish, in this connection,

to express my sincere thanks to the Bombay Natural History Society

who kindly spared two specimens for my examination.

DESCRIPTION

The brow-ridge is well developed and curved backwards acutely.

The temporal ridges start from the two sides of the brow-ridge and

> 1 “MISCELLANEOUS. NOTES = 5) 247

join the occipital crest separately, although in one skull they are very

close together at this confluence. In female skulls the temporal

ridges are very faint and never converge posteriorly. The occipital

ridge in the male- is well developed, especially at the mastoid region.

The -orbital ring and the inter-orbital septum are more vertical and

steeply curved than in allied species. In adult male skulls the

maximum width of the orbital margin, which is across the lowermost,

point of the vertical wall of the orbit (jugal), is slightly greater than

the mastoid width.

The jaws are fairly long, but not as long as in M. nemestrina

(Linn.). The anterior zygomatic root is directly in a line running

vertically in between the second and the third molars. In short-jawed

forms the corresponding line will be through the second molar. The

post-canine depression on the sides of the muzzle is prominent and

extends upwards along the ascending process of the maxilla up to the

base of the inter-orbital septum. The nasal and the ascending process

of the maxilla tend to be slightly raised above the general level of the

maxilla,-so that this part often forms a distinct table on the muzzle.

Ventrally, the pterygoids curve outwards symmetrically so that the

mesopterygoid fossa is narrowest in the middle. The posterior

palatine foramina are situated anterior to, or in line with, the third

or last molar, never posterior to it, which again is an indication of

jaw length. The transbullar width is markedly less than the mastoid

width, as the external auditory meatus does not extend up to the

fringe of the squamosal. This feature is more marked in female

skulls.

The measurements of the specimens examined by me are noted

in the table on page 248.

DIFFERENCES IN CRANIAL CHARACTERS BETWEEN THE SEXES

Certain differences between the sexes in cranial characters are

particularly striking. Many of them may be common to the genus,

but as this aspect has not been discussed much in this genus, it may

be worth recording them here. The most obvious is the marked

difference in size, the female -skull being much smaller. On the

whole, the female skull shows less muscular development, the various

crests that are present in the males are often absent or feebly

developed in the female. Generally, it can be said that the female

skull retains the juvenile condition in its cranio-muscular relations.

_The transbullar width is less than the mastoid width by a greater

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

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; Figures 3 & 4: dorsal |

lenus (8)

dorsal and ventral views of skull of M.

and ventral views of skull of M. nemestrina (¢).

Figures | & 2

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 249

degree in females. The facial length is also proportionately less and,

owing to the smaller size of the canines, the muzzle is more tapering

in front. The measurements indicate that the difference between

the upper and lower cheek teeth is proportionately more in males than

in females. The orbital margin width is lesser than the mastoid

width in female skulls because of the inflated condition of the latter

and the lesser development or bulging of the orbital ring.

CoMPARISON WITH ALLIED M, NEMESTRINA, (LINN.)

Macaca silenus | Macaca nemestrina

rn SS

1. Post-canine depression on the 1. Post canine depression on the

muzzle extends along the ascending | muzzle extends only up to the mid-lateral

process of the maxilla up to the base of | line.

inter-orbital septum.

2. Nasal bone region, elevated above 2. Nasal bone region flat

near-by areas of the maxilla

3. The pterygoid bones are evenly 3. The pterygoid bones are straight

curved outwards so that the narrowest | and closer to each other posteriorly so

part of the meso-pterygoid fossa is in the | that the narrowest part of the meso-ptery-

middle. | goid fossa is on its posterior end.

_4, The posterior palatine foramina 4. The posterior palatine foramina

are situated either anterior to, or in | are posterior to the last molar.

line with, the last molar. |

5. Size smaller | 5. Size larger

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

INDIAN MUSEUM, G. U. KURUP

CaLcuTTA, 13, Asst. Zoologist (Mammals)

January 14, 1963. 3

REFERENCES

ANDERSON, J. (1878 & 1879) : Anato- the Primates, If, pp. xxvi + 382. Ameri-

mical and Zoological researches: com- can Museum of Natural History,* New

prising an account of the Zoological York. tee

results of the two expeditions to Pocock, R. I. (1939): The Fauna of

western Yunnan in 1868 and 1875. Vol. British India, including Ceylon and

1, pp. xxv + 985 Bernard Quaritch, Burma, Mammalia, Vol. I, pp. xxxiii

London. +464. Taylor and Francis Ltd., London.

ELutioT, D. G. (1912): A Review of

_250 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

2. A CURIOUS PROTECTIVE DEVICE: AMONG: ED ar

EDR eae Ns) ks

(With a text- eee)

Thekkady (Kerala State) on the bank of Periyar Lake. - The take is

an artificial one, formed out of the impounded waters of the Periyar

River for irrigating the Vaigai Valley in Madras State. Part of the

original forest on the hillocks on the way is submerged by the diverted

river water and, in the midst of the lake, we can see isolated hillocks

and, on them, remnant strips of the forest. The Kerala Government

has established a game sanctuary for wild elephants at this beautiful

place.

On 23-3-1962, our party proceeded to Periyar head-water works.

On the way, we noticed 23 wild elephants (all cows) feeding on the

grass on an isolated hillock. One of us started taking a movie from

our boat, when we were still some distance from the shore. Probably

disturbed by the sound of the motor boat and of the movie camera,

one of the elephants gave a loud trumpet call. Immediately, another

ames batch of 14 elephants, which

included one old tusker, two

smaller tuskers, and five calves,

came running. This new batch

CALVES obviously belonged to the same

herd, since they mingled freely

with the old batch. Three of

— them, including the one which

L fee trumpeted, stood facing the boat.

Four cows formed — square

behind them (sée ‘text-figure, in

which the arrowheads represent

the heads of the elephants), and

two calves were driven into the

square. A similar square was

. mee Tpeeee cae | tOnmcusion the other three calves.

— — — _-— Both the squares were closely

ie _LAKE atta | packed. This phenomenon ds

obviously. a curious -protective

device for the young. Some of

= the elephants led by the old tusker

* Communicated by Dr. K. K. Tiwari, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta 13.

‘20S ‘ISIH “LYN AVEWOg ‘Nuno¢

.. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES | AEG 25]

started moving: Lomas le water’s edge at an Ise (following the

us in case. of need.

The boatmen Saroel the: engine, and aren te to row away

lest the elephants charge us.. We stopped taking the movie and

waited for ‘a while. The Ae enn calmed down, and the two

small tuskers. even started a mock fight.

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, ae

34, CHITTARANJAN AVENUE, - -K. V. LAKSHMINARAYANA

CaLcuTTa 12, |

December 12, 1962.

'[Mr. E. O. Shebbeare, I.F.S. (Retd.) to whom this note was sent

for opinion comments: ‘I age never seen a wild herd behave at

all as your correspondent tells us the Periya one did, but there is

no. reason why elephant behaviour should be the same throughout

Asia: for example reports have been published that, in S. India, a

herd is sometimes led by a bull—-a thing I have never come across.

My experience with wild elephants has been restricted almost entirely

to N. Bengal, Assam, and Chittagong except for a few years as a

game-warden in Malaya.’-—EDs.]

-3. CENSUS OF THE NILGIRI TAHR HEMITRAGUS

HYLOCRIUS (OGILBY) IN THE NILGIRIS

(With a plate)

A census of the Nilgiri Tahr Hemitragus hylocrius (Ogilby) (locally

known as the Ibex) on the Nilgiri Plateau was taken at the end of

January 1963. The tahr country was divided into four blocks and four

parties did a simultaneous count in them. Every precaution was

taken to avoid duplication. The tahr live among the cliffs and, if

undisturbed, come up during the day to feed on grass on the mountain

tops. Therefore, the visual method of counting is most suitable and

was adopted. Binoculars and telescopes were used as aids. The tahr

actually seen and counted amounted to 292. On a very conservative

estimate, -at least a third of this number escaped observation on

account of- unfavourable ground, wind, and weather conditions. So it

can be safely. estimated that there are about 400 tahr in the Nilgiris

and their number appears to be registering an increase, :

252 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

The largest herd consisted of 38 animals. Several fine saddle-backs

and brown bucks were seen, also a number of young tahr. Although

the herds move from area to area the places where the saddle-backs

were found are not given for obvious reasons.

The herd on the eastern slopes around Glen Morgan has been

wiped out by poachers, thanks to the ban imposed on shooting and

the consequent absence of licence holders who provide a check on

illegal shooting. No tahr were seen in the Nilgiri Peak area and it

is reported that this is because of poaching by the estate labour.

Licence holders will be doing a great service by frequenting this area.

In the Kundah Hydro-Electric Scheme area roads are being laid

in the tahr country and forest wattle plantations are also being pushed

through. Poaching activity is therefore expected to increase. This

seems a crucial stage in the protection of this species.

In conclusion I may state that unless the licence holder is allowed

to pursue the saddle-backs, most of which are useless for breeding

purposes, and thus patrol the area, there is no doubt that tahr will

eventually share the fate of the Glen Morgan herd.

THE NILGIRI WILD LIFE ASSOCIATION,

OOTACAMUND, E. R. C. DAVIDAR,

NILGIRIS, SOUTH INDIA, Honorary Superintendent

February 14, 1963.

[Leslie Brown in a note entitled ‘Wild Life in some areas of South

India’, published in Vol. 57 (2) : 403-408, 1960, of our Journal, at

p. 404, says: ‘In the Nilgiris, on the high plateau sambar were few,

but I saw without difficulty a herd of 16 Nilgiri Tahr.’—Eps.]

4. STRANDING OF A BLUE WHALE BALAENOPTERA

MUSCULUS (LINN.) NEAR SURAT, GUJARAT, WITH

NOTES ON EARLIER LITERATURE

On press reports of the stranding of a whale, which were

confirmed by the local Superintendent of Fisheries, an assistant of

the Society, Shri V. C. Ambedkar. was sent to collect data. The

whale was stranded on 23 February 1963 close to village Gavier, near

Magdalla Port, about seven miles from Surat. On 27 February when

the body was examined, decomposition had progressed considerably

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 253

and the skin had almost completely peeled off. A patch of skin

still on the body near the flipper was slate-grey in colour. Some

portions of the floor of the mouth were dirty yellow. The following

measurements were obtained:

Total length 20.28 m. (66 ft. 6 in.)

Length of flipper 3:30.m.- (10: ft. 10%an.)

Upper jaw 5.60 m. (18 ft. 4 in.)

Lower jaw 4:10am: (13-864; 5.1n.)

Among species of Balaenoptera, the Blue Whale [Balaenoptera

musculus (Linn.)] has the longest flipper, approximately 1/7th of the

body length as against 1/9th or lower in other species of the genus.

The length of the anima! and ratio of the length of its flipper to its

total length establish the identity of the specimen as B. musculus.

In the Fin Whale [Balaenoptera physalus (Linn.)], the only other

species of the genus which grows to over 60 ft. in total length, the

ratio is 1/9th; the average of its total length is also less than that of

B. musculus being 63 ft. male, 65 ft. female as against 74 ft. male and

77 ft. female (Gibson-Hill, 1950). The present specimen is apparently

immature. This species is referred to a distinct genus Sibbaldus in

American classifications, 4 position that has not been accepted by

Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951) and most other European authors.

It might be of interest to mention some points arising out of the

literature on the stranding of whales on the coasts of India. Gibson-

Hill (loc. cit.} has commented on the probable species of the strandings

recorded in S. T. Moses’s (1947) list of whales stranded on the coasts

of India and in near-by areas. He has, however, overlooked the

specimen from Naduvattum, Kerala, in the list, first reported by

P. K. Jacob & Devidas Menon (1947), the length (45 ft.), colour, and

number of ventral furrows (45) of which agree with his description of

the Sei Whale, Balaenoptera borealis Linn., and which was probably of

this species. Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951) give its distribution

in the tropics as Borneo, Java, and Siam.

One very interesting fact noted by Jacob & Menon (loc. cit.) is

that the animal had fed on a large shoal of mackerel (Rastrelliger

kanagurta)—the usual food of this species in the North Atlantic is

a tiny crustacean Calanus finmarchicus. In this connection, the

popular name of the species in Norway and Japan may not be without

significance. The Norwegian ‘Seievhal’ seems to comment on the

arrival of the whale in Norwegian coastal waters when the Sei or

coalfish (Gadus virens) are migrating; and the Japanese name ‘Iwashi-

Kujira’ is translated as ‘Sardine Whale’. There is, however, little

evidence to prove that the names are in fact associated with the food

254 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

habits of the animal. Shoals of mackerel occur along the west coast

of India in January, the month of the stranding at Naduvattam.

Feeding on fish is not peculiar to B. borealis, for the Fin Whale [B.

physalus (Linn.)] is known to feed on TE and other fish,

particularly Osmerus arcticus (Sanderson, 1958). --

Since Gibson-Hill’s (1950) note on Rorquals there! has been one

additional report in the Journal on the stranding of a whale

(V. K. Chari; 1951).: The “species is recorded as Balaenoptera indica

Blyth [= Balaenoptera musculus (Linn.)] but the measurements noted

(total length 68 ft., flipper 6 ft. | in.) show a rather short flipper for

B. musculus and the possibility that the whale was Balaenoptera

physalus (Linn.) cannot be overlooked. ;

BoMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY,

91, WALKESHWAR RoabD, J.C “DANIEES

BOMBAY. 6-WB., Curator ?

April 8, 1963.

REFERENCES

Chari, V. K. (1951) : The Great arn the Rorquals (Balaenoptera spp.)

Rorqual or Fin Whale Balaenoptera

indica Blyth off Umargam (Bombay

State). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 50 (1):

161.

Ellerman, J. R., & Morrison-Scott,

T. C. S. (1951): Checklist of Palaearctic

and Indian Mammals. British Museum.

London.

. Gibson-Hill, C..A. (1950): A note on

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 49 (1) :

Jacob, P. K., & Menon, M. ‘Devidas

(1947): The piscivorous habits: of the

-Rorqual or Fin Whale (Balaenoptera

spp.). ibid. 47 (1):

Moses, S.. T. (1947) Stranding of.

Whales Re the coasts of India. ibid.

47 (2): in

eum L.-T. (1958): Follow: the

Whale. London. F. Seo

5. “TRANSMISSION OF RABIES WITHOUT BITING: od

“With relorenee to our Miscellaneous Note in the ea 1962;

Vol. 59 (1), number of the Journal on the transmission of rabies. by.

a non-bite route, Dr. Alan Gilroy, Principal, Ross Institute of Tropical

Hygiene, India Branch, Assam, has drawn our attention to ?.an

announcement by Dr. G. Stuart in the Tropical Diseases Bulletin,

Vol. 59, No. 8, p..776, August 1962, London, referring to a> papét

published in Prague [Yurkovsky, A. M. (1962) : Hydrophobia follow-

ing the Bite of Apparently Healthy Dogs. J. Hyg:,. Epidemiol;

———

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Oh. TSS

Microbiol. & Immunol. v. 6, No. 1, 73-8. (13 refs.), Prague 1962].

Dr. Stuart, himself a specialist in rabies, writes:

‘An analysis of reports from Pasteur Institutes in the U.S.S.R.

reveals that since 1947, in different republics or regions in the

territory, there have been 21 cases of hydrophobia in persons bitten

by apparently healthy dogs. In these cases, in which the- length of

the incubation period varied from 1 month to 2 years, diagnosis was

based mainly on the typical clinical picture presented, but in 5 of 6

on whom a post-mortem examination was carried out Negri bodies

were found to be present in the brain. Reports on the 21 dogs res-

ponsible for the biting showed all to have remained clinically healthy

after their victims had developed rabies.

‘These findings confirm the view previously expressed by many

authors that apparently healthy dogs may act as carriers and trans-

mitters of the rabies virus and that risk of infection is not. therefore,

limited to contact with a clinically rabid animal which develops rabies

within 14 days after the time of biting.

‘Inasmuch as apparently healthy carriers as well as_ clinically

rabid animals secrete the rabies virus in their saliva, the author

stresses the importance of examining the salivary gland to determine

the degree of danger of an animal bite. In this connexion it is

noteworthy that, in the opinion of some workers, absence of virus

from the saliva, even when it is present in the brain, provides sufficient

reason for withholding specific treatment. 5 case histories are given.

(See this Bulletin, 1958, v. 55, 30.)

~ We may add that all specialists do not accept these findings as

conclusive. For instance, Dr. A. N. D. Nanavati, Assistant Director,

Department of Virology, Haffkine Institute, Bombay, who was asked

for his opinion writes : eet

‘May I point out that your note “Transmission of rabies without

biting” is-likely to give rise to the impression. (though you have: not:

said so) that all the bat species mentioned are capable of causing

rabies without biting and may be responsible for indiscriminate. bat-

slaughter by readers of the Journal unless you clarify this point!!

The Frio Cave incident is the only known instance of such infection

occurring. Various explanations for this are possible, or it may turn

out to-be inexplicable, but it still needs a lot of investigation.

‘The known information on rabies can be summed up as follows:

‘1. Rabies can occur in an individual (human or animal) who

_ comes’ into contact with saliva or raw. Hesh eu a sls

os oe

2 We are mrteral to the Editor of the “Tropical Dees Bulletin for permitting

us to reproduce this extract.—Eps.

256 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (i)

animal, i.e. the infecting animal, even if symptom free

at the time, must die of rabies, usually within 10 days.

(The only known exception to this is the vampire bat

which is reported to be an immune carrier. No other bats

have been found immune so far.)

‘2. The rabies virus (infection) cannot penetrate through un-

broken skin. The infecting saliva must, therefore, come in

contact with a break in the skin (as in biting) or with the

mucous membranes (conjunctiva, mouth, etc.).

‘The reference mentioned by you is an abstract of a recent WHO

report discussing about 21 cases, and mentioning others, where

rabies is said to have been caused by contact with non-rabid dogs.

Since all the necessary data are not available one does not know what

to make of these reports. Such transmission can only be proved by

showing the presence of infective virus in the animal’s saliva, which

has never so far been done. Contacts with dogs are very common,

(the only incidents recalled later being ones of actual biting etc.) and

it is very likely that the actual infecting contact, if a minor scratch,

or a lick over a cut or abrasion on the skin, may have passed un-

noticed. I would not rule out the WHO reports completely, but

would be very chary of accepting any such incident without the

positive evidence of virus in the saliva. This is very difficult to

provide, since suspicion is not aroused until long after the incident,

when symptoms start appearing.’

As we would not like to be responsible for a holocaust of bats in

India we are glad to publish Dr. Nanavati’s observations. Incidentally,

the genus Tadarida to which T. brasiliensis mexicana Saussure found

in the Frio Cave belongs, occurs in India, but not this particular

species; nor have we any species of vampire bats (Desmodus).

BomBay NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY,

91, WALKESHWAR ROAD, EDITORS

BOMBAY 6-WB.,

February 16, 1963.

6. SOME RECORDS OF PETRELS HANDLED IN He

NORTHERN INDIAN OCEAN

Although H. G. Alexander (1929, 1931) and W. W. A. Phillips

(1947, 1950, 1954, 1955) and numerous subsequent authors have

reported that many petrels can sometimes be seen in the northern

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 257

Indian Ocean, few of these birds have ever been examined in the

hand. The most important evidence for the identity of the birds seen

at sea therefore rests on reviews of birds collected on ships by Junge

(1941), of the large dark petrels by Jouanin (1955, 1957), and of the

‘Persian’ Shearwater Puffinus lherminieri persicus by Phillips & Sims

(1958). Although it is well known that Wilson’s Storm Petrel

Oceanites oceanicus winters in this area (Roberts 1940), and Junge

reported the collection of a number of moulting Whitefaced Storm

Petrels of the Australian race Pelagodroma marina dulciae all round

the northern border of the Indian Ocean during the southern winter,

the only evidence for the identity of another species in the area has

previously been a specimen of the Blackbellied Storm Petrel Fregetta

tropica labelled ‘Bay of Bengal’ in the Tweeddale collection in the

British Museum (Gibson-Hill 1948).

During the course of a cruise through the Indian Ocean in an

aircraft carrier in 1960 the first author saw numerous petrels come

to the deck-lights at night, and was able to handle some, including a

Blackbellied Storm Petrel. Photographs of two of the larger petrels

handled have already been published in the journal of the Royal

Naval Bird Watching Society, Sea Swallow, for 1960, together with

an account of the petrels of the area by the second author, and many

other observations of the seabirds of the area will be found there; since

- the Blackbellied Storm Petrel is the first which has actually been

handled in recent times in the Indian Ocean north of the equator, it

seems desirable to call attention to this record in particular here.

THE BLACKBELLIED STORM PETREL

A bird came to the deck-lights at night at 08° 03’ N., 72° 50’ E.,

14 miles SE. of Minicoy, on 9 September 1960. The head, neck,

upperparts, wings, tail, bill, and legs were more or less black, the

rump, belly, flanks, and under tail coverts were white, the underwing

was grey, and there was a dark line down the centre of the belly. The

overall length was 180 mm., the overall wingspan 410 mm., the wing

168 mm., the tail 70 mm. and almost square, the exposed culmen

was 15 mm., the tarsus 40 mm., and the middle toe 28 mm. The

account agrees exactly with the more southerly populations of

Fregetta tropica which breed to the south on Kerguelen among other

subantarctic islands. Numerous sight records of storm petrels of the

genus Fregetta by Phillips (1947) and a number of subsequent observers

Suggest that this species is a common visitor to the central Arabian

17.

258 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

Sea during the southern winter, arriving about May and leaving about

September. The very similar Whitebellied Storm Petrel Fregetta

grallaria may occur as well, but we are not aware that one has been

handled yet.

OTHER SPECIES

A Whitefaced Storm Petrel Pelagodroma marina came on board and

was. photographed in much the same area as the last species earlier in

the year, at 08° 05’ N., 73° 00’ E. on 28 May.

Examples of Bulweria (bulwerii) fallax, recently described by

Jouanin (1955), came on board at 16° 40’ N., 55° 15’ E. and 18° 50’ N.,

57° 50’ E. on 14 February, and 11° 24’ N., 57° 05’ E. on 25 May

in the central Arabian Sea off the mouth of the Gulf of Aden. They

agreed in appearance with the original description, except that one

was said to have a paler chin. The overall length in life was 295-300

mm., the overall wingspan 790 mm. The local water temperature was

78° F. in February, and 83° F. in May. The third bird vomited a

small squid about 2 cm. long. The Indian specimen of the Mascarene

Petrel Pterodroma aterrima' quoted by Ripley (1961) should perhaps

be re-examined to see if it is this species.

Wedgetailed Shearwaters Puffinus pacificus came on board at 09°

25’ N., 66° 24’ E. on 27 May and at 05° 10’ N., 84° 00° E. on 1 June.

The bill was described as steel-grey with the tip black in the first case,

and black in the second; the legs and feet were pink. The overall

length in life was 370-380 mm. (15 in.), the overall wingspan 860 mm.

The water temperature was 83° F. in both cases, and the first bird

also vomited squid.

THE GREEN, N. BAILEY

RAVENSTHORPE, NORTHANTS.,

ENGLAND. ~

46, WILBURY RoaD, W. R. P. BOURNE

HovE 3, SUSSEX,

ENGLAND,

November 24, 1962.

——_————_——

1 The specimen of Pterodroma aterrima first reported by Salim Ali & Huma-

yun Abdulali in J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 42 : 193, and later listed by Ripley in

A SYNOPSIS OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA AND PAKISTAN (p. 5) cannot now be traced.—

EDs. 5

b te OO

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

259

REFERENCES

Alexander, H. G. (1929) : Some birds

seen in the Indian Ocean and Mediter-

ranean. Ibis (5) 12 : 41-53.

— —— (1931): Shearwaters in the

Arabian Sea. Jbis (13) 1 : 579-581.

Gibson-Hill, C. A. (1948) : The storm

petrels occurring in the northern Indian

Ocean and adjacent seas. J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 47 : 443-449.

Jouanin, C. (1955) : Une nouvelle

espéce de Procellariidé. Oiseau 25:

155-161.

— — — (1957) : Les Procellariidés

mélaniques signalés en mer d’Oman.

Oiseau 27 : 12-27.

Junge, G. C. A. (1941): Biological

results of the Snellius expedition X :

Aves. Temminckia 4 : 100-108.

Phillips, W. W. A. (1947) : The orni-

thological diary of the voyage of the

s.s. San Luzon from St. Johns, New

Brunswick, to Karachi, India. J. Bombay

nat. Hist..Soc. 46 : 593-613.

— — — (1950) : Wilson’s Storm Pet-

rels, shearwaters and other seabirds in

the Gulf of Aden and Indian Ocean.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 49 : 503-508.

Phillips, W. W. A. (1954): Petrels,

shearwaters and other seabirds in the

northern Indian Ocean. J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 52: 335-348.

— — — (1955) : Wilson’s Petrel

[Oceanites oceanicus (Kuhl)]. In Indo-

Ceylon waters, with special reference

to the 1954 southwards migration.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 53 : 132-133.

——— & Sims, R. W. (1958) : Some

observations on the fauna of the Mal-

dives. III. Birds. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 55 : 195-217.

Ripley Il, Sidney Dillon (1961): A

Synopsis of the Birds of India and

Pakistan: 5. Bombay Nat. History

Society.

Roberts, B. B. (1940) : The life cycle

of Wilson’s Petrel Oceanites oceanicus

(Kuhl). Brit. Graham Land Exped. 1934-

1937 Sci. Rep. 1 (2): 141-194.

7.) THE BLUETAILED BEE-EATER MEROPS PHILIPPINUS

LINNAEUS, NESTING IN CEYLON

You will be interested to hear that I have recently established

that the Bluetailed Bee-eater, Merops philippinus Linnaeus, nests in

Ceylon.

I found a single pair at Kumana, in the Eastern Province, nest-

ing in a sandy slope leading down to an estuary, during Easter 1962.

I think that these birds were incubating as I saw one of the birds

enter the hole and stay within for about 3 minutes only possibly

feeding the mate. If young were being fed the visits would have

been more frequent and regular.

Again, a fortnight later, I came upon some of these birds further

north up the same coast obviously feeding young. They were

catching flies over the sea and returning very regularly to the nest

at intervals of about 5 minutes. Unfortunately, J could not get to

Where they had their nests as this was on the other side of a river

over which I had no means of crossing.

PINGARAWA,

NAMUNUKULA,

CEYLON,

May 19, 1962.

C. E. NORRIS

260 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

8. THE COMMON HAWK-CUCKOO (CUCULUS VARIUS

VARIUS VAHL) IN THE PUNJAB

When in 1930 Stuart Baker (FAUNA OF BRITISH INDIA, Birds 4:

149) excluded the Punjab from the range of the Common Hawk-

Cuckoo it had long been known to occur in several Punjab districts.

Whistler (J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 26: 177, 287, 592) found it

common in Ambala in 1916 and in Ludhiana in 1917, and in 1918

recorded it from Lahore. In Kangra in 1921-1923 he met with it each

year in small numbers along the Kangra Valley up to about 4000 feet

(Ibis, 1926,: 749). In 1933-1935 I myself found it common in

Ambala and also collected specimens in the adjoining districts of —

Hoshiarpur and Karnal. In 1923 I took one at about 3000 feet in

the Rawalpindi District in June and in the following month another

at Jhelum, where several were haunting the Cantonment. From 1949

to 1954 I was stationed at Sargodha, the headquarters of the Shahpur

District. There I repeatedly heard its call in the first half of June

1949, from the middle of March to the middle of July in 1950, and

in the first half of August 1951. I have, however, no record of having

heard it in the three following years. In 1960 I met with it for the

first time in the Salt Range, which [ had been frequently visiting for

over forty years. On 11th and 12th March it was heard calling all

day at Choa Saidan Shah (c. 2000 ft.) in the Jhelum portion of the

Range, and a fortnight later at Sodhi, in the Shahpur portion, some

40 miles further west. It will be interesting to see how much further,

if at all, it extends its range in this direction.

KALABAGH,

MIANWALI DISTRICT, H.W. WAITE

WEST PAKISTAN,

February 16, 1963.

[Ripley in A SYNOPSIS OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA AND PAKISTAN

(p. 176) gives the distribution of C. v. varius as: ‘Breeds throughout

most of India at lower altitudes than the preceding species (Cuculus

sparverioides). A straggler in Rajasthan. Occurs east to Assam and

East Pakistan, from the plains to 3000 feet; in open scrub land, light

forest, and near cultivation. —EDs.]

—— ——_—_~- ——

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 261

9. THE FOREST WAGTAIL MOTACILLA INDICA GMELIN

IN THE GIR FOREST, SAURASHTRA

Recently I went to the Gir forest and while walking in a nullah

where a stream was flowing I came across a Forest Wagtail,

(Motacilla indica Gmelin). which flew away on seeing me, and I could

distinctly see the white barring on the wings. This is the

first time I have seen this bird in the Gir forest and perhaps con-

stitutes a first record. In A SYNOPSIS OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA AND

PAKISTAN (p. 574) the bird is mentioned as ‘a straggler on passage

in Gujarat (rare) and later said to ‘winter in India from Saurashtra

(Junagadh), Surat Dangs . . . and southwards’. I do not know on

what basis it is said to occur in Saurashtra.

Dit BAHAR,

BHAVNAGAR, R. S. DHARMAKUMARSINHJI

December 20, 1962.

[Salim Ali (J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 52 : 779) obtained it in

the Surat Dangs and said ‘not observed elsewhere in that area, but

possibly occurs in the Gir forest of Junagadh (Saurashtra)’. We were

unable to trace any other published record in support of Dr. Ripley’s

statement, and Dr. Ripley also could not recall whence he had obtained

this information, but thought it may have been based on a specimen

collected by Dr. Walter Koelz. Inquiry at the American Museum of

Natural History, New York, Chicago Natural History Museum,

Chicago, Illinois, and Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan,

where most of the Koelz collection is housed reveals no specimen

(of this species) from Saurashtra, and it is possible that Dr. Ripley

misquoted Sdélim Ali and that the present is the first record from that

area.—EDs.]

10. FIRST RECORD OF BEDDOME’S WOLF-SNAKE.

LYCODON TRAVANCORICUS (BEDDOME), FROM THE

LACCADIVE ARCHIPELAGO

A juvenile specimen of the Wolf-Snake Lycodon_ travancoricus

(Beddome), measuring 199 mm. in length, was captured during March

1962 by student-members of a Social Service League Camp engaged

in the construction of a road at Androth (Long. 73° 57’ E., Lat. 10°

48’ N.), and was handed over to me later by P. Gopinathan Nambiar.

now Headmaster of the Government High School, Ameni Island.

262 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

Though rare, it is well known to the natives. of Androth who call it

Chera [Malayalam name on the mainland for Ptyas mucosus (Linn.)|

and what is interesting is that they refuse to consider this reptile as

a snake at all! In Kerala this snake is called Cheralav, because of

its superficial resemblance to Ptyas mucosus (Linn.).

Of the ten inhabited islands in the Laccadive group, Androth lies

closest to the Indian peninsula, the distance to Calicut being only

139 miles. Inhabitants of no other island except Androth remember

having ever come across a snake. The proximity of Androth to the

mainland would suggest transportation as an easy possibility for the

occurrence of the species in the island, and the collection of a juvenile

indicates that the species is probably now breeding on the island.

No other species of snake is known from the Laccadives.

Lepidosis

Costals at mid-body ™ 17 |

Ventrals Hoe 18535

Caudals 7 Ppt oP ONE

Anal eos Ne]

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT.

The author is indebted to Miss Jennifer A. Cochrane of the

British Museum (Natural History) for her help in lepidosis and —

identification of the specimen.

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY, } ;

ST. JOSEPH’S COLLEGE, K. G. ADIYODI

DEVAGIRI, KOZHIKODE-8,

KERALA STATE,

September 23, 1962.

[It is interesting tc note that A. O. Hume in his~article “The —

Laccadives and the West Coast’, Stray Feathers, Vol. IV, pp. 413-459, |

1876, states that to control the rat population of the inhabited islands —

of the Archipelago ‘Government. sent down a lot of snakes and |

mongooses; the former, the people exterminated as undesirable —

colonists’. Perhaps the extermination was not complete and the

specimen collected is a descendant of the ones that got away.—EDs.]

~ MISCELLANEOUS NOTES sae ee ee) 263

11. THE DIET OF THE INDIAN BULL FROG RANA

TIGERINA (DAUD.)

The frog has been one of the most extensively studied laboratory

animals. Yet sufficient attention has not been paid to its dietary

habits particularly in the different seasons of the year, even though

many species of frogs have been examined to ascertain their diet.

Noble (1918, 1924) examined the stomach contents of several species

of tree frogs and also of Bufo bufo vulgaris and Rana temporaria. ‘The

stomach contents of Rana ridibunda were examined by Smith (1953).

Many others such as Needham (1905), Drake (1914), Liu & Chen (1932)

examined the stomach contents of Rana catesbiana, Rana _ pipiens,

Rana _ limnocharis, and Rana nigromaculata respectively. Studies

have also been made on the diet and the feeding habits of the edible

frogs, Rana esculenta (Linnaeus) and Rana pretiosa, by Tyler (1958)

and Turner (1959). The latter author has studied the seasonal

variation in the diet of the western spotted-frog.

From the observations of different authors the following could be

listed as the food items of frogs: larvae of various invertebrates,

molluscs, insects, young batrachians, the eggs and young ones of

fishes: Tyler (1958) has recovered several species of various orders

of insects and has concluded that Rana esculenta as a species is not

selective in its food habits.

The frog Rana tigerina, popularly known as the Indian Bull Frog

on account of its large size and loud call, is widely distributed in

eastern Asia. The published records on the diet of this species refer

to the unusual rather than the normal food of the animal. The

present study was undertaken with the object of determining the

ordinary diet of the species by the examination of the stomach

contents during the different months of the year.

MATERIAL AND MR&THODS

The frogs were collected from a small pond, mainly rain-fed,

with a surface area of approximately 150 sq. ft., on the outskirts of

Baroda city. The depth of the water was about 20 ft. during the

rains and between 5 to 10 ft. in summer. Water weeds were plentiful

and the pond fauna consisted of aquatic insects, insect larvae, small

crustaceans, and snails. The average maximum/minimum tem-

peratures during the summer (March-June), monsoon (July-October),

and winter (November-February) of the year under study were

264 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

39.8/22.8, 32.4/24.4, and 31.6/13.9 in degrees centigrade, and the

total rainfall 75.2, 1359.6, and 8.4 mm. respectively.

OBSERVATIONS

The frogs were captured at night when out on land to feed. They

were immediately killed and the stomach contents of each were

separately preserved in 5% formalin. A report on the stomach con-

tents is presented on pp. 265-7.

DISCUSSION

Frogs are known to prefer live moving animals chiefly insects,

motionless creatures often being ignored. From the observations

recorded in the present study it can be noticed that there is no

special selection of food: Dermaptera (Earwigs) were found in the

stomachs throughout the year, but the number was greater during the

months of November and February. Thus it is seen that Dermaptera

formed the chief item of diet in winter when these insects are found

in large numbers, while Diptera were found to be the major item

during late winter and early summer.

Coleoptera were found throughout the year except in January and

February. Hemiptera reached their highest mark in the month of

December. They were also found in good number during the last

three months of the year. Hymenoptera were taken in only when

they were available in large numbers. The number of ants was high

in the months of April and May. The same was the case with

Isoptera.

Lepidoptera, Arachnida, and Isopoda were also occasionally found.

Myriopoda were found only after the first rain, while Orthoptera were

obtained throughout the year except during -the months of January

and February. Young frogs during the breeding period fall a prey

to the adult ones. At times bigger animals like mice, birds, and geckos

become the victims of the adult frogs.

During the winter the feeding was comparatively less but in the

rainy season the feeding reached its highest mark as during this period

the adult frogs have just finished breeding and their reserve food is

all depleted. In this season the insects are also plentiful. It was also

observed that frogs captured on full-moon nights contained considerably

more food in their stomachs. This was apparently due to their greater

ability to find food in the moonlight.

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268 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

The type and number of the prey caught depends more on the

availability of these animals during certain seasons rather than any

particular preference.

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY,

M.S. UNIVERSITY,

BARODA,

March 16, 1962.

U. L. WADEKAR

REFERENCES

Liu, Chi-Ying & Chen, Kan-fan

(1932) : Analysis of the stomach con-

tents of two species of frogs (Rana

limnocharis and Rana nigromaculata) in

the vicinity of Kashing with special

reference to insects. Year book Bur. Ent.

Hangchow 2: 183-91.

Needham, J. G. (1905) : The summer

food of the Bull-frog (Rana catesbiana

Shaw) at Saranac Inn. Bull. New York

State Museum 86: 9-15.

Noble, G. K. (1918) : The amphibians

collected by the American Museum Ex-

pedition to Nicaragua in 1916. Bull.

Amer. Mus. nat. Hist. 38 : 311-47.

—— — — (1924) : Contributions to the

herpetology of the Belgian Congo based

on the American Museum Congo Ex-

pedition in 1909-15. Part Il. Bull.

American Mus. nat. Hist.49 : 147-347.

Smith, M. (1953) : The feeding habits

of the marsh frog (Rana ridibunda ridi-

bunda). British Jour. of Herpetology

1: 170-72.

Turner, F. B. (1959): An analysis of

Rana pretiosa in Yellowstone Park,

Wyoming. The Teed Midland

Naturalist 61 (2) :

Tyler, M. J. O58) On the diet and

feeding habits of the edible frog (Rana

esculenta Linnaeus). Proc. Zool. Soc.

London 131 (4) : 583-95.

12. FURTHER STUDIES ON INDIAN SPIDERS OF THE

GENUS CYRTARACHNE (FAMILY ARGIOPIDAE)

(With four text-figures)

INTRODUCTION

The Oriental spiders of the genus Cyrtarachne were first described

by Thorell (1895). Pocock (1900) recorded two known and one new

species.

Tikader (1960) revised the Indian spiders of this genus and

recorded two known and three new species.

Recently, I have received from my friend Dr. F. Schmid, some

interesting spiders of the genus Cyrtarachne collected by the Swiss/

Indian Zoological Expedition 1960-61.

Assam and NEFA. during his Trichoptera collection tour.

IT have

also made some collection of spiders of this genus from Maharashtra

and Mysore States.

He made this collection from

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES x | 269

While examining the above-mentioned material of spiders, I came

across four new and three known species. The present paper contains

descriptions of the four new species. The type specimens will, in due

course, be deposited in the collections of the Zoological Survey ot

India, Calcutta.

Cyrtarachne inaequalis Thorell

Cyrtarachne inaequalis Thorell, 1895, Spiders of Burma, London : 201 ; Pocock,

1900, Fauna Brit. India, Arach. : 229; Tikader, 1960, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

57 (3) : 548. ;

Material: 1 9 from Songpekmum, Manipur, Assam, 1-9-1960.

Coll. Dr. F. Schmid.

Distribution: Burma: Toungoo and Tharrawaddy; India: West

Bengal, Balaghat, Madhya Pradesh, Songpekmum, Manipur, Assam.

Cyrtarachne raniceps Pocock

Cyrtarachne raniceps Pocock, 1900, Fauna Brit. India, Arach. : 229; Tikader,

1960, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 57 (3) : 550 ; 1963, J. Poona University 23 : 41.

Material: 1 @ from Kotigehar, Dist. Chikmagalur, Mysore,

29-12-1960. Coll. B. K. Tikader.

Distribution: India: West Bengal, Mysore; Ceylon.

Cyrtarachne gravelyi Tikader

Cyrtarachne gravelyi Tikader, 1960, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 57 (3) : 553.

Material: 1 @ from Khaorang, Manipur, Assam, 28-8-1960. Coll.

Dr. F. Schmid.

Distribution: India: Pashok, Dist. Darjeeling, West Bengal

_ (Type locality), and Manipur, Assam.

Cyrtarachne avimerdaria sp. nov.

General: Cephalothorax and legs light brown, abdomen chocolate

in colour. Total length 5.10 mm. Carapace 2.00 mm. long, 2.20 mm.

wide; abdomen 3.70 mm. long, 8.50 mm. wide.

Cephalothorax: Relatively broader in front, slightly wider than

long. Ocular quad slightly longer than wide, median eyes encircled

by a black ring on the base, lateral eyes smaller than medians.

Clypeus narrow. Chelicerae subapically with outer row of three large

570 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1).

Text-fig. 1. Cyrtarachne avimerdaria sp. nov.

a. Dorsal view of female; 6. Epigyne ; c. Chelicera

~ MISCELLANEOUS NOTES | i 2 oe

teeth and inner row only one smali tooth. .Text-fig. 1, c. Sternum

heart-shaped, pointed behind. Legs short, .clothed with hairs.

Abdomen: Strongly rounded posteriorly and overlapping the post-

erior region of cephalothorax in front, much wider than long, dorsal

surface provided with brown granular patches but anterior portion

deeper than the other parts of abdomen and the anterio-lateral portion

also provided with a pale patch. Epigyne V-shaped at the base as

in Text-fig. 1, b.

Holotype: One female in spirit.

Type-locality: Cherrapunji, .Assam, 15-10-1960. Coll. Dr. F.

Schmid. ; 7 ee

This species resembles Cyrtarachne bengalensis Tikader but is

readily .separated as follows: (i) Abdomen chocolate colour and

strongly rounded posteriorly and dorsal surface provided with brown

granular patches, but in C. bengalensis abdomen uniform chocolate

colour and moderately rounded posteriorly. (ii) Chelicerae sub-

apically with outer row of three large teeth and inner row with only one

small tooth, but in C. bengalensis chelicerae with outer row of three

large and inner row of three small teeth.

Cyrtarachne schmidi sp, nov.?

General: Gepnaloimory and legs light Yellowish, abdomen light

greenish. Total length 4.80 mm. Carapace 1.50 mm. long, 2.00 mm.

wide; abdomen 3.50 mm. long, 8.00 mm. wide. :

Cephalothorax: . Relatively broad in front, wider than long. Ocular

quad square, lateral eyes smaller than medians. Clypeus narrow.

Chelicerae subapically with outer row of three medium size teeth and

inner row of two small teeth. Text-fig. 2, f. Sternum heart-shaped,

pointed behind. Legs short, clothed with hairs.

Abdomen: Wider than long, triangular, strongly overlapping the

posterior region of cephalothorax in front; broadest in its anterior half.

- When living abdomen dark, greenish brown with a narrow yellowish

belt laterally and posteriorly. Almost all sigilla yellow in centre and

encircled by brown patch. Epigyne as in Text-fig. 2, e.

Holotype: One female in spirit.

Type-locality: Amatulla Kameng (NEFA.), India, alt. 1500 feet

(c. 460 m.), 18-10-1961. Coll. Dr. F. Schmid.

1] ate pledetive in naming this. species afer Dr. F, Schmid, who made this

collection.

272 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

This species is closely allied to Cyrtarachne biswamoyi Tikader but

differs as follows: Abdomen wider than long and triangular in shape,

Text-fig. 2. Cyrtarachne schmidi sp. nov.

d. Dorsal view of female; e. Epigyne ; f. Chelicera

but in C. biswamoyi abdomen wider than long and widely rounded

posteriorly, dorsal surface armed with a few symmetrically placed |

tooth-like tubercles.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES ZS

Cyrtarachne sundari sp. nov.

General: Cephalothorax, legs and abdomen brownish red. Total

length 4.00 mm. Carapace 1.00 mm. long, 1.60 mm. wide; abdomen

3.50 mm. long, 5.50 mm. wide.

Text-fig. 3, Cyrtarachne sundari sp. nov.

g. Dorsal view of female ; hk. Epigyne ; i. Chelicera

Cephalothorax: Relatively broader in front, slightly wider than

Jong. Ocular quad slightly longer than wide, lateral eyes smaller

than medians. Clypeus narrow. Chelicerae subapically with outer

row of three large teeth and inner of four small teeth. Text-fig. 3, 7.

Sternum heart-shaped, pointed behind. Legs short, clothed with

hairs.

Abdomen: Moderately rounded posteriorly, strongly overlapping

the posterior region of cephalothorax in front. wider than long, the

anterior lateral and mid-dorsal areas furnished with dark brown

patches. All sigilla prominent and encircled by a yellowish ring.

Epigyne as in Text-fig. 3, h.

Holotype: One female in spirit.

| Type-locality: Poona University Compound, Maharashtra, 6-9-1962.

Coll. B. K. Tikader.

274. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

This species resembles Cyrtarachne bengalensis Tikader but is

separated as follows: (i) Abdomen brownish red and the anterior

lateral and mid-dorsal areas furnished with dark brown patches, but

in C. bengalensis abdomen pale chocolate colour and anterior lateral

extremities with a white patch; (ii) Chelicerae subapically with outer

row of three large teeth and inner row of four small teeth, but in

C. bengalensis outer row of chelicerae with three large teeth and inner

row with three sma!1 teeth.

Cyrtarachne promilai sp. nov.

General: Cephalothorax light brown, legs light greenish, and

abaomen dark or deep brown. Total length 5.00 mm. Carapace

1.50 mm. long, 2.40 mm. wide; abdomen 4.00 mm. long, 7.00 mm.

wide.

Cephalothorax: Relatively broader in front, wider than long.

Ocular quad as long as wide, lateral eyes small. Chelicerae subapically

with outer row of three large teeth and of two small teeth. Text-

fig. 4, 1. Clypeus narrow. Sternum heart-shaped pointed behind.

Legs short, clothed with hairs.

Abdomen: Wider than long, nearly pentagonal in shape strongly

overlapping the posterior region of cephalothorax in front, broadest

in its anterior half. Almost all sigilla yellow in centre and encircled

by black patch. Epigyne simple as in Text-fig. 4, k.

Holotype: One female in spirit.

Tvpe-locality: Poona University Compound, Matai 6-9-1962.

Coll. B. K. Tikader.

This species resembles Cyrtarachne biswamoyi Tikader but is readily

separated as follows: (i) Abdomen wider than long and pentagonal

in shape and dark or deep brown colour, but in C. biswamoyi abdomen,

wider than long and armed above with a few symmetrically-placed

tooth-like tubercles; (ii) Abdomen deep brown, but in C. biswamoyi

abdomen light yellowish grey.

SUMMARY

Four new and three known species of Indian spiders of the genus

Cyrtarachne, family Argiopidae, are recorded in this paper. All

specimens were collected from Assam, NEFA, Maharashtra, and

Mysore, India.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Text-fig. 4. Cyrtarachne promilai sp. nov.

J. Dorsal view of female ; k. Epigyne ; /. Chelicera

276 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I am thankful to Dr. F. Schmid, who kindly made some of the

interesting collection of Cyrtarachne spiders available for my studies.

WESTERN REGIONAL STATION,

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, B. K. TIKADER

POONA,

December 27, 1962.

REFERENCES

Pocock, R.I. (1900): The fauna of Tikader, B. K. (1960): Revision of

British India, Arachnida: 228-229. Indian spiders of the genus Cyrtarachne

London. (Argiopidae: Arachnida). J. Bombay

Simon, E. (1895) : Hist. Nat. Araign. nat. Hist. Soc. 57 (3) : 547-556.

I, pp. 880. Paris. —-—w— (1963): Studies on some

Thorell, T. (1895): Spiders of Burma, spider fauna of Maharashtra and Mysore

pp. 201-207. London. States. Part I. J. Poona University 23 : 41.

13. NOTES ON A COLLECTION OF TICKS WITH A NEW

HOST RECORD OF HYALOMMA AEGYPTIUM FEROZDENI

SHARIF (IXODIDAE)

Recently I had an opportunity to study a small collection of

Ixodid ticks received from the Head of the Department of Zoology, © |

Panjab University, Chandigarh. The material includes: (i) Hyalomma

aegyptium ferozdeni Sharif—2 oo, Chandigarh, Panjab (off donkey),

15-7-1961; Gi) Hyalomma aegyptium aegyptium (Linnaeus)—8 oo,

4 29, Ferozpore, Panjab (off camel) 30-7-1961; (iii) Rhipicephalus

sanguineus (Latreille)—4 oo%, 2 9 9, Chandigarh, Panjab (off donkey),

15-7-1961.

Four subspecies of Hyaiomma aegyptium (Linnaeus) are known, |

viz. H. aegyptium aegyptium (Linn.), H. aegvptium dromedari Koch,

H. aegyptium isaaci Sharif, and H. aegyptium ferozdeni Sharif.

Sharif (1928) reviewed the taxonomy, distribution, and hosts of these

subspecies.

- A. aegyptium ferozdeni Sharif (1928) was described from 3 oo;

and 1 @ specimen, found to be parasitic on cattle from Sasaram,

Shahabad District, Bihar. Sharif also recorded it on cow (Chatra,

Hazaribagh District, Bihar), on pony (Sasaram, Shahabad District,

Bihar), and on buffalo (Porahat, Singhbhum District, Bihar). Accord-

ing to Sen (1938) cattle (Bos indicus), bualo (Bubalus bubalis), and

horse (Equus cabalus) only are the hosts of H. aegyptium ferozdeni.

——. P- — es, SS ~_

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 277

This collection is quite interesting for two reasons. A perusal of

the literature shows that the subspecies ferozdeni has not hitherto

been recorded on donkey; secondly, this is the first record of its

occurrence outside Bihar State.

Nagar (1962), while working on the ticks of Delhi State, expressed

the view that both H. aegyptium ferozdeni Sharif and H. aegyptium

isaaci Sharif belong to H. detritum Schulze, H. aegyptium tf. aegyptium

(Linn.) to H. excavatum Koch, and H. aegyptium dromedari Koch to

H. dromedari Koch. In the present paper, Sharif’s (1928) key has

been followed, pending further research on the systematics of these

species. Incidentally, it may be worth mentioning that H. detritum

Schulze is also not recorded on donkey.

In the present case H. aegyptium ferozdeni has been found

associated with Rhipicephalus sanguineus, which is of considerable

economic importance as the vector of malignant jaundice of dogs in

India caused by Babesia canis (Piana & Galli-Valerio) and of

Marseilles fever due to Rickettsia conori Brumpt in the Mediterranean

region and Kenya colony, and which is a suspected vector of tick

typhus fever in man and Babesia gibsoni (Patton) in jackals and dogs

in India (Sharif 1938). It may be interesting to investigate whether

H. aegyptium ferozdeni plays a part in the distribution of the diseases

transmitted by Rhipicephalus sanguineus.

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

34, CHITTARANJAN AVENUE,

CALCUTTA 12,

December 24, 1962.

G. MATHAIT,

Asst. Zoologist

REFERENCES

Nagar, S. K. (1962): A Faunistic Sharif, M. (1928): A revision of the

Survey of Ticks (Ixodidae) from Delhi

State with revision of the Genus

Hyalomma Koch reported from India.

Bull. Ent. 3: 58-61.

Sen, P. (1938): A Check- and Host-

list of Ixodidae (Ticks) occurring in

Abarp Ind. J. Vet. Sci. & Anim. Hush. 8:

3-147.

Indian Ixodidae with special reference to

the collection in the Indian Museum.

Rec. Indian Mus. 30 : 300-311.

— — — (1938) : Diseases transmitted

by the Indian species of ticks and the

possibility of their prevention through

biological control. Ind. J. Vet. Sci. &

Anim. Husb. 8 : 353-366.

278 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

14. OCCURRENCE OF THE BUTTERFLIES HYPOLIMNAS

MISIPPUS FORM INARIA (CRAMER) AND C/RROCHROA

THAIS (FABRICIUS) IN THE SURAT DANGS,

SOUTH GUJARAT

The Danaid Eggfly [Hypolimnas misippus (Linnaeus)] is found in

India, Ceylon, and Burma. Its range includes also southern Florida,

the Antilles, and the northern part of South America. It is very

common in Africa, tropical Asia, and the islands south as far as

northern Australia (Holland, 1940).

Male and female Danaid Eggflies are common in the Dangs, but

the female is more seclusive and less commonly observed. In,

addition to the regular female form of the Danaid Egegfly there are

two rare female forms: ‘alcippoides’, which mimics the ‘alcippoides’

form of Danaus chrysippus, and ‘inaria’, which mimics the ‘dorippus’

form of D. chrysippus. Wynter-Blyth (1957) states that the female

form ‘inuria is very rare but not as rare as the form ‘alcippoides’.

On 28 September 1960 one ‘inaria’ was sighted at Ahwa. Another

was seen on 29 September 1960 at Mulchond. Again on 23 August

1962 one escaped capture at Ahwa. On 12 September 1962 the

writer saw this rare ‘inaria form in his garden at Ahwa. By the

time a net had been found this butterfly had flown into a near-by

rice field. After several futile swings of the net and wading through

a muddy rice field, a perfect specimen of Hypolimnas misippus @

form ‘inaria was captured.

It was not difficult to recognize this female form from the dozens

of the common female H. misippus captured in the past sixteen years

of collecting in India. In the female form ‘inaria’ the front wings have

the elongated spots yellowish, instead of white as in the common

female form; also. the middle of the black apical area is tawny in the

‘inaria form.

On 27 September 1962 the writer caught another rare butterfly a

Tamil Yeoman Cirrochroa thais (Fabricius) in the Mission compound

at Ahwa while it was feeding on nectar from Lantana flowers.

Wynter-Blyth (1957) states that the Tamil Yeoman is found in

Ceylon, the Western Ghats, Coorg, Wynaad, the Nilgiris, and the

Palnis (p. 227), and remarks that it is commonest in south India from

February to May (p. 228). He gives its size as 60-70 mm. The

specimen netted measures 24 inches (about 64 mm.). The writer has

collected butterflies in the Surat Dangs since October 1952 and

frequently in various parts of Gujarat since 1946, but not a single

species of Cirrochroa genus was ever observed in this large area.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES | AMS)

C. B. Antram (1924) gives the range of the Tamil Yeoman as

southern India (p. 194). Marshall & De Niceville (1886) give a

complete description of the genus Cirrochroa (pp. 107-119). Here the

habitat of C. thais is listed as south India. According to the records

of the Bombay Natural History Society C. thais has been taken only

as far north as Karwar in Mysore State.

Thus, the capture of a Tamil Yeoman in south Gujarat extends

its northern range by about five hundred miles. However, the

presence of a single Cirrochroa thais (Fabricius) in Gujarat State is

probably an accidental occurrence.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The writer expresses gratitude to the Bombay Natural History

Society for providing several boxes of Cirrochroa butterflies for

study.

DANGS RURAL BOARDING SCHOOL,

CHURCH OF THE BRETHREN MISSION, ERNEST M. SHULL

AHWA, VIA BILLIMORA, DANGS DIST.,

November 29, 1962.

REFERENCES

. (1886) : The Butterflies of India, Burma

Antram, C. B. (1924): Butterflies of and Ceylon. Vol. II. Calcutta.

India. Calcutta and Simla. Peile, H: .D. (1937) : A Guide to

Holland, W. J. (1940): The Butterfly Collecting Butterflies of India. London.

Book. New York. Wynter-Blyth, M. A. (1957): Butter-

Marshall, G. F. & De Niceville, L. flies of the Indian Region. Bombay.

15S. THE MATING OF THE ATLAS MOTH ATTACUS ATLAS

LINNAEUS

In September last year, when I was taking photographs of some

landslides on one of our estates (Balur Estate, alt. 3500 ft.) with a

colleague, we suddenly came on two pairs of Atlas Moths (Attacus

atlas Linnaeus) mating about ten feet from one another. They were

on small bushes about 4 to 5 feet in height. The moths were facing

each other with the lower portions of their abdomens touching, and

were clinging to a cocoon presumably the one from which the female

had emerged.

280 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

They took not the slightest notice of us even when we approached

very close to them. When we disturbed one of the pairs, the larger

of the two, the female, flopped to the ground. The male flew only

a few yards and alighted on a coffee bush from where it was caught.

Although we caught the female and threw her gently up in the air

she seemed unable to fly and, after fluttering about, flopped on to the

ground.

I regret I was unable to watch them mating over a longer period,

as I had very little time and had to return to my estate the same

evening.

MYLEMONEY ESTATE,

JOLADALU P.O., K. R. SETHNA

CHIKMAGLUR DIST.,

Mysor_E STATE,

December 13, 1962.

16. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF DIASPINE SCALE

INSECT CHIONASPIS VENUI MENON & KHAN, 1961.

(DIASPIDIDAE : COCCIDEA)'

(With a _ plate)

The authors came across certain specimens of Diaspine scale

insects in the National Pusa Collection, which on closer study proved

to be a new species of the genus Chionaspis Signoret. A_ short

description of the same was published in 1961 (Menon & Khan 1961).

A detailed description is given here. It is confined to the female, as_

a complete male specimen has not been available.

Chionaspis venui

Female. Body oval and distinctly segmented, broadest at the

second abdominal segment: antennae knob-shaped with distinct setae,

set close to each other (Fig. 3); mouth-parts of typical diaspine type;

spiracles two pairs, anterior pair slightly away from the apex of the

rostralis, with its anterior end surrounded by numerous quinquelocular

disc pores (Fig. 5); posterior pair much smaller than anterior; ducts

‘two-barred’ type, about 0.015 mm. long; macroducts broader than

long (Fig. 4): microducts more clearly seen in prosoma, long, thin, |

g g y: p e

1Communicated by Dr. Md. Zaka-ur-Rab, Dept. of Zoology, Muslim

University, Aligarh, U.P.

*gpovlids Io1eyuy ‘¢ f JoNpoIOKU , PoIeq-s[qnoqd , “p * euUS}UY “¢ £ sourds 94} Jo s}ueW

-O3ULIIE OY} SUIMOYS WNIPIZAd oY} JO OPIS JYSII 94} JO j[ey [esIOd °*Z 5 SMOIA [eIJUOA PUL [eSIOP OY} SUIMOYS odAjO[OY s[ewWe,y *]

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 281

and metamerically disposed in clusters; segmental rows of ducts

distinctly marked into submarginal and submedian ducts; submarginal

ducts more numerous on segments 3-5; submedian ducts numerous on

segments 4-6; gland spines long, projecting from the body; arrange-

ments of spines: one between median and second lobes, one between

second and third lobes, one between third and fourth lobes, four on

segment six, seven on segment five, and numerous on segments three

and four (Fig. 1). Median lobes zygotic, round, strongly sclerotized

and projecting from the margin of pygidium. inner and outer margins

of median lobes faintly serrate; no gland spines present between the

bases of median lobes, only a single pair of setae present between the

bases (Fig. 2). Second lobe distinctly bi-lobed; first lobule well

developed, apically rounded; second lobule small and conical: third

lobe stumpy, with serrate margins, setae numerous. Perivulvar

pores in five distinct groups: anus at a considerable distance from the

median lobes.

Measurements. Length of scale of male 1.5 mm.; length of

scale of female 2.901 mm., breadth of the scale of female 1.938 mm.;

Jength of female 1.669 min.; breadth of female 1.023 mm.; length of

antennae 0.025 mm.; length of the antennal seta 0.017 mm.; length of

anterior spiracle 0.06 mm.; length of posterior spiracle 0.02 mm.;

length of ‘two-barred’ ducts 0.0!5 mm.; length of median lobes 0.045

mm.; length of second lobe 0.025 mm.

Habits. Occurring for the most part on leaves but also to some

extent on twigs and petioles; scales of female outnumber the scales of

male; dirty white, slender, and long, carina not visible; puparia

conspicuous, brownish, elongate, and measuring about one-fourth of

the length of male scale; scale of female dirty white, pear-shaped,

exuvial end narrow, broadening gradually with posterior half almost

parallel, moderately convex.

Type material. A number of females deposited in National Pusa

Collection, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, collected

on 12 March 1902.

Host plant. Ficus palmata Forsk.

Locality. Palampur, Kangra District, Panjab, India.

Discussion. The genus Chionaspis Signoret is represented in

India by 22 species. The present species possesses certain important

characters, which markedly differ from those hitherto described. It

comes very close to C. pusa Rao and C. manni Green, but differs

from them as follows:

aoe

Chionaspis venui

Menon & Khan

1. Median

serrate

lobes faintly

2. Second lobule of second

lobe half of the first

lobule

3. Third lobe stumpy,

without any lobule

4. Arrangements of spines:

1,1,1, 4, numerous

5. Antennae are not very

far from each other

6. Base of the antennae

oval and setae emerge

from above

7. Disc pores numerous in

anterior spiracle

8. Anterior spiracle not

very close to rostrum

C. manni Green

Median lobes. clearly

serrate

Second lobule of the

second lobe a little smal-

ler than first lobule

Third lobe bi-lobed

ebb S57

Antennae far from each

other

Base of the antennae slight-

ly serrate, setae from

lateral side

Disc pores not many in

anterior spiracle

Anterior spiracle close to

rostrum

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

C. pusa Rao

Median lobes non-serrate

Second lobule of second

lobe nearly equal to first

lobule

Third lobe bi-lobed

11,1, 356.7

Antennae very close to

each other

Base of antennae lobed,

setae long

Disc pores few on anterior

side of anterior spiracle

Anterior spiracle at a con-

siderable distance

The authors wish to thank Dr. E. S. Narayanan, Head, Division

of Entomology, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi,

for his kind permission to examine the National Pusa Collection.

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY,

ALIGARH MUSLIM UNIVERSITY,

ALIGARH,

September 9, 1962.

REFERENCES

G. RAMDAS MENON

H. KHAN

Ayyar, R. (1929): A contribution to

our knowledge of South Indian Coccidae.

Bull. Agr. Res. Inst. Pusa, Calcutta, No.

197-2 12-35.

Ferris, G. F. (1937): On nomenclato-

rial and other problems in the systema-

tics of the Coccoidea. Ann. Mag. nat.

Hist. (10) 20 : 525-30.

— — — (1937-1942): Atlas of the

ae Insects of North America. Vols.

1-4.

Green, E. E. (1901): Remarks on

Indian Scale Insects with description of

new species. Indian Mus, Notes 5: 93-

Green, E. E. (1908): Remarks on Indian

Scale Insects. Mem. Dep. Agric. India,

Entom., 2 : 15-46.

Menon, R. D. & Khan, M. S. H.

(1961) : Proc. Indian Sci. Congr. 48 Ses-

sion : 425-426.

Misra, C. S. (1925) : A list of Coccidae

in Pusa Collection. Report Proc. Sth.

Ent. Meet. Pusa : 345-51.

Rao, P. (1952): Little known or un-

recorded Coccids from India. Indian J.

Ent. 14: 1-10.

Rao, R. (1914) : A preliminary account

of the Coccids from India. J. Bombay

nat, Hist, Soc. 23°: 133-35, :

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 283

17. INTELLIGENT BEHAVIOUR BY THE MASON WASP

(EUMENES PETIOLATA FABR.)

Major R. W. G. Hingston in part III of his interesting paper on

the mason wasp Eumenes conica (J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 31 (4):

§90-896) described the experiments by which he tested the capacity

of the wasp to act intelligently. He came to the conclusion that

it is far from being a mere automaton whose actions are governed

by instinct. May I be permitted to describe an instance of intelligent

behaviour by another mason wasp Eumenes petiolata Fabr. ?

I noticed her at the beginning of September 1962 building her egg-

chambers against the vertical side of a concrete pillar in my verandah—

I did not see when the work began. At 7.30 a.m. on the 4th a new

cell was complete and ready for filling—about five or six cells had

already been closed and plastered over. At 4 p.m. that day the

cell had been closed and the whole construction plastered over. There

was nothing to indicate that further building was contemplated and

J took it that the wasp had completed her labour.

At about 4.50 p.m., I noticed that the construction had been

attacked by small red ants. They were in fair numbers and fresh

reinforcements were coming up. The ants were moving about over

the plaster and going in and out of several little holes which did not

appear to be very deep.

Coming back to the place at about 5.35 p.m. I was surprised to

see the wasp back on her egg-chambers and battling with the ants.

She was darting quickly backward and forward. attacking individual

ants and biting them. From where I was I could not see what she

did with them. I could not see wounded or dead ants lying about

and it looked as if she was eating the ants. Later, however, I dis-

covered several wounded or dead ants lying on or near the field of

combat, though not enough in number to account for all the ants I

saw being attacked. An explanation of this latter fact is suggested by

my experience when I attempted to collect some of the victims with

a painting brush—the wounded ones bit fiercely at the bristles of the

brush and were dislodged with difficuity. So it is possible that many

of the wounded ants held on to the wasp and were brushed off some-

where else. The wasp seemed to be able to see ants close to her, but

some ants moving about slowly a little more than an inch from her

escaped notice. By about 5.50 p.m. the field was pacticaliy clear of

ants and the survivors withdrew in a thin line.

From then on the wasp worked with feverish rapidity, replastering

the egg-chambers. Every 14 to 2 minutes she returned with a ball of

284. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

clay about the size of a pea and spread it on in patches. The plaster-

ing took 4 to 1 minute each time according to the size of the area

covered, and she started out immediately to bring her next pellet of

clay. In this way she covered the whole construction, including the

cells first made by her. At about 6.30, when the light was fading

slightly, she flew away and did not return.

On the Sth at 8 a.m. there was no sign of activity and the wasp

was not to be seen. At 9 a.m. I noticed a few red ants on the con-

struction. There were again a few holes in it, and the ants were

passing into and out of them. At about 10 a.m. the wasp appeared

on the scene and came within three feet of the construction, when my

two daughters and I were examining it closely. We drew away at

once, but probably our sudden movement disturbed her and she departed

without drawing nearer and did not come back—this was the last time

she was seen. Only a few ants were at work, and fine grains of

soil lying on and below the construction suggested that the ants had

made the holes that we saw and that they had been at work longer

than I had first imagined—probably they were there when I first

inspected at 8 a.m. It was easy to overlook the presence of the ants,

as I discovered later the same morning when I! watched, for about 10

minutes without seeing any ants and then, seeing something moving

at the mouth of one of the holes, used a magnifying glass and found

it to be the waving antennae of ants moving cautiously inside the hole.

Similarly, in the next ten minutes apart from the waving antennae I

saw only two red ants move inconspicuously on the surface of the

construction for a short while.

The secret tunnelling seemed to be still in progress at 12.40 p.m.

At 1.10 p.in. reinforcements arrived in a thin line and about 13 ants

joined those already at work. By 1.55 p.m. the ants, though still

few in number, were more openly at work, and small numbers of ants

were coming and going in a thin line.

Work continued like this till the 12th. It was noticeable that on

and after the 10th the grains brought out by the ants were black in

colour, instead of being grains of red soil as they were before. By

about the 21st all activity died down.

During all this time there were ants coming and going and

moving about, but never in large numbers. Evidently the ant colony

was a small one, which explains why the wasp was able to prevail in

its fight with the ants. Never at any time did we notice the ants

carrying away anything from the nest chambers.

I waited about three months and opened up the nest-chambers on

the 17th December. There were seven cells in all, containing dry,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 285

broken-up, and shapeless remnants of dark crumbly matter. The two

lowest cells, evidently the first that were built by the wasp, were

completely lined with silk. Here the eggs seem to have developed

up to the pupal stage; there was no sign of development in any other

cell. Holes in the walls separating the cells from each other indicated

that the ants had succeeded in penetrating them and had eaten the

contents.

49, Patt HILL,

BANDRA, D. E. REUBEN

BOMBAY 50-AS,

December 19, 1962.

18. ODONTOTERMES OBESUS RAMB. AS A PEST OF

JAPANESE MINT

(With two_ plates)

The termite Odontotermes obesus Ramb., the common .mound-

building termite, is widely distributed throughout India and has been

observed to attack a large number of trees like Grevillea, Coconut

Palm, Ficus, etc. in addition to sugar-cane setts, paper, cloth, and

other articles of economic importance. The insect is an occasional!

wood-eater, otherwise making fungus beds for its food.

The present paper describes damage to standing crop of Mentha

arvensis haplocalyx Briquet var. piperascens Holmes, the common

Japanese mint, cultivated for the production of mint oil and menthol.

Japanese mint is a perennial herb propagated by suckers, planted

in February. It begins to sprout after spring rains in early March.

The aerial portions of the plant are harvested and distilled. A first

crop is usually harvested in June-July and a second in October. This

is an essential oil-bearing plant of major economic importance.

The attack was observed in May at Chakrohi, Jammu District,

J. & K. State, and attacked plants were collected from Miran Sahib farm

at Jammu District in early August 1962, by the authors. The atiack

Was more intensive on plants growing on raised portions of the field.

It was first thought that this withering was due to some soil fungi but

closer examination revealed the presence of numerous termites.

The affected portion of the field looked dry. In fact 50-60°%, of

the plants were either in a process of drying or totally dry. In

286 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

addition some of the green plants were also found to be attacked.

Of these, 15-20% had no roots at all and showed symptoms of wilting.

A good number of the others had no main root but were sustained

by the presence of side shoot or shoots, supplying necessary nutrients

to the main stem (Plate II, C).

The infested plants show progressive wilting from the lower

leaves upwards, and growth is inhibited as the roots are continuously

eaten by the termites. This wilting is succeeded by gradual drying

and yellowing of the leaves and the plant ultimately dies when no

side shoots are thrown out with supporting roots to supply the necessary

nutrients. Sometimes the roots are eaten up so fast that the plants

remain standing as such while the root is totally consumed (Plate

it, Dp):

The damage is usually restricted to the underground parts which

are destroyed partially or completely by the termite leaving no trace

of the root in the soil. At times, when the injury is not confined to

the roots alone, the insect enters the stem by tunnelling through the

cortex into the pith of the stem. The epidermis together with the

left-over hypodermal portion dries up but is strong enough to keep

the dry plant standing on the soil. In certain other cases, these

termites have been observed to go up to the very tip of the shoot that

they infest. In this case the insects were observed to have one or

several exit holes to the outside on the hollow stem. Many holes

are therefore observed on the dry, hollow, standing stem (Pl. I, B and

Il, E, a). This mode of boring out is in no way universal and at times

the termites find their way back medeh the tunnel through which

they: enter “(Pl aiih a).

A split stem at this stage of acute infestation shows a hollow

tunnel formed of the original vascular and cortical regions together

with the hollow pith, surrounded by a thick or thin layer of epidermal

and hypodermal cells (Pl. I, A and HI, F). Sometimes the hollow

tunnel is seen to be full of a spongy, clayey substance together with

black particles of organic matter and fungus bodies.

Termite mounds, about 6 ft. tall. were located in a _ garden

adjacent to the infested fields of Miran Sahib farm, and a smaller one

about a foot in height. was found at the base of a tree near the

infested field.

CONTROL

(1) As the attack is more intensive on plants growing on raised

patches of soil, levelling of the field is recommended.

JOURN. BOMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. PLATE I

Japanese Mint Plant

A. Showing the splitstem. Only a thin wall is left encircling a hollow ;

B. Showing the holes made by the termites for their exit.

JourN. BOMBAY NAT. HIsT. Soc. PLATE II

Japanese Mint Plant |

C. The Plant is still green though the original root is missing. The side shoot with roots)

is also seen; D. The plant appearing normal and green but devoid of any root (a); EE. The

‘ Exit Holes’ formed by the termites (a) ; F. Stem split longitudinally to show the hollow and

the surrounding dry epidermal and hypodermal portions.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 287

(2) As soon as the attack is observed, u light hoeing to allow

water to percolate through the soil, followed by flood-watering for

24-36 hours, is found to be an effective deterrent.

(3) Heptaf, a 3% Heptachlor dust at the rate of 40-50 lb. per

acre is recommended. The chemical should be dusted in rows and

raked into the soil to effect fair mixing. :

This, as far as we know, is the first record of this termite attack-

ing Japanese mint.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors wish to express their sincere thanks to the Director,

Commonwealth Institute of Entomology (British Museum of Natural

History) and Dr. M. L. Roonwal, Director, Zoological Survey of

India, for their valuable help in identifying the termite.

RAJENDRA GUPTA

M. K. AGARWAL

CENTRAL INDIAN MEDICINAL PLANTS ORGANISATION,

(COUNCIL OF SCIENTIFIC AND INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH)

OLD MILL Roap,

NEW DELHI,

February 19, 1963.

REFERENCES

Assmuth, J. (1913) : Wood destroying

white ants of Bombay Presidency.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 22 (2) : 372-

384, 4 pls.

Holmgren, K. & Holmgren, N. (1912):

Termites from British India (Bombay)

collected by Dr. J. Assmuth. J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 21 (3) : 774-793.

—— (1913a): Termites from

British India (near Bombay, in Gujarat

and Bangalore) collected by Fr. J.

Assmuth, S.J. ibid. 22 (1): 101-117, 3 pls.

Margabandhu, V. (1934): An annota-

ted list of Indo-Ceylonese termites.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 37 (2) : 700-

714.

Review of Applied Entomology. Ser.

A. Agricultural. 1920-1962.

Roonwal, M.L. (1954 & 1959) : Biology

and Ecology of Oriental Termites. J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 52 (2 & 3):

459-462, 1 pl. and 463-467, 1 pl. ; 56

(3) : 511-523.

19. THE TERMITE CRYPTOTERMES HAVILANDi

(SJOSTEDT) FROM THE INTERIOR OF INDIA!

(With a plate)

Species of the genus Cryptotermes are dry-wood termites and are

Serious pests of woodwork in buildings, household furniture, etc.

They are generally restricted to the coastal regions and _ islands.

7 Communicated by Dr. M. ie Roonwal, Director, Zoological Survey of India,

Calcutta.

288 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

Until now there has been only a single specific record of the genus

from an area at a distance from the coast, viz. Ituri Forest, Belgian

Congo, Africa (Emerson 1952).

Cryptotermes havilandi (Sjostedt) [=C. ‘bengalensis Snyder]

(Family : Kalotermitidae) has been recorded from the Ethiopian,

Malagasy, Neotropical, and Oriental regions. Its native habitat

appears to be the eastern coast of Africa, south of the Sahara Desert,

where it exists in a natural state. It has been found to occur in

human habitations on the western coast of Africa and in Brazil

(South America), where it has been regarded as a serious pest.

From India Cryptotermes havilandi has been recorded by Snyder —

(1934) from the Sundarbans (Sea Forest, Bengal) as C. bengalensis

sp. nov. from the wood of Heritiera fomes, and by Beeson (1941) from

the woods of Heritiera fomes and Erythrina indica. Roonwal &

Pant (1953) and Roonwal & Chhotani (1962) have recorded this species

from Jokhai Reserve (Assam), Sundarbans (Bengal), and Dacca

(East Pakistan).

During a survey in November 1959, I found this species nesting

in a branch of Ficus bengalensis Linn. at Mandla Fort (lat. 22° 43’ N.,

long. 88° 35’ E.) in Madhya Pradesh. This town is located in hilly

area (alt. c. 450 m.) on the banks of Narbada River and about 600 km.

from the nearest sea-coast. From this ‘present record, and _ the

previous record of Jokhai Reserve Forest (lat. 27° 10’ N., long. 95°

25’ EB.) by Roonwal & Pant (1953) and Roonwal & Chhotani (1962),

which also is about 600 km. from the nearest sea-coast, it appears

that after introduction into India the species travelled inland (probably

through human agency—infested wood) and later got established in

a semi-wild state far inland.

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

CALCUTTA 12,

November 2, 1962.

O. B. CHHOTANI

REFERENCES

BEESON, C. F.C. (1941) : The Ecology

and Control of the Forest Insects, etc.

pp. ii + 1007. Dehra Dun.

Emerson, A. E. (1952) : Biogeography

of termites. Bull. Amer. Mus. nat. Hist.

99 : 217-225. Washington.

ROONWAL, M.L., & CHHOTANT, O. B.

(1962): Termite Fauna of Assam Region,

eastern India. Proc. nation. Inst. Sci.

India (B)28 : 281-406, 26 pls.

Delhi.

New

ROONWAL, M. L. & PANT, G. D. (1953):

A systematic catalogue of the majn iden-

tified entomological collection at the

Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun.

Part 9. Isoptera. Indian Forest Leaft.,

(Ent.) No. 121, Pt. 3, pp. 40-60. Delhi.

SNYDER, T.E. (1934): New termites

from India. Indian For. Rec., (Ent.),

20 (11) : 1-28. Delhi.

Journ. BomBay Nat. HIsT. Soc.

Cryptotermes havilandi (Sj6stedt)

(a) Damaged wood of Ficus bengalensis Linn. (6) faecal pellets. Mandla

Fort (Madhya Pradesh, India) coll.O.B. Chhotani, November, 1959,

JOURN. BOMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc.

Schouwia purpurea (Forsk.) Schweinf.

(1) A branch with leaves, flowers, and fruits; (2) Entire flower; (3) Petals and

sepals ; (4) Tetradynamous stamens ; (5) Siliqua.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 289

20. OCCURRENCE OF SCHOUWIA PURPUREA (FORSK.)

SCHWEINF.=S. ARABICA DC. IN INDIA

(With a _ plate)

An erect, much branched leafy undershrub, 60-90 cm. high; spread-

ing about 80 cm.; stem glabrous, divaricately branched. Leaves

simple, sessile, semi-amplexicaul, 4-5 by 2-3 cm. long; ovate glaucous,

green.

Flowers violet, in terminal and in leaf-opposed racemes. Sepals

5 mm. long sub-erect, inore or less saccate; the margins dull white.

Petals 7 mm. long, spathulate, violet, truncate, varied. Stamens 6,

tetradynamous, the 4 inner 5 mm. long; the 2 outer 3.5 mm. long.

Siliqua more or less orbicular or obcordate, about 2 cm. across, flat,

with an ensiform seedless beak. Seeds many, 2-seriate, round,

reddish brown with cotyledons conduplicate.

The plant is not mentioned either in Cooke’s FLORA OF BOMBAY

(1901) or Hooker’s FLORA OF BRITISH INDIA (1875). However, it has

been described in De Candolle’s PRODROMUS SYSTEMATIS NATURALIS

(1824), GENERA PLANTARUM of Bentham & Hooker (1876), INDEX

KEWENSIS (1893), MANUAL FLORA OF EGYPT by Muschler (1912),

FLOWERING PLANTS OF AFRICA by Thonner (1915), and FLOWERING

PLANTS OF ANGLO-EGYPTIAN SUDAN by Andrews (1950), According to

these authors three species of Schouwia, all natives of Arabia, occur

in south and north Africa and the desert regions, bordering the Red

Sea.

This plant was first located at Indapur, district Poona, in

Maharashtra State, by Dr. M. B. Ghatge, Director of Agriculture, MS.,

in 1961. It was identified by Dr. A. S. Rao of the Botanical Survey of

India, Western Circle, Poona, and was confirmed ‘by the Director,

Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.

With a view to observe the distribution of this plant, the eastern

part of Poona district was surveyed in 1962. It was found that the

plant grows profusely in Dhond and Indapur talukas on light

sandy soils as well as in low-lying areas. The soils are absoluleiy

dry from January to March when the plants flower and produce

fruits. It often grows in cultivated lands, frequently infesting the

entire fields. Cultivators of these areas report that they have been

observing this plant every season for the last 15 years. This plant

is rare at Yevat, frequent at Patas and Kedgaon, common at Dhond

and Bhigwan, and abundant at Sakhargaon and Indapur.

290 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

My sincere thanks are due to Dr. A. S. Rao, Botanical Survey of

India, Western Circle, Poona, for identification and to Prof. V. D.

Vartak of Fergusson College, Poona, for the description.

BOTANY DIVISION,

COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, M. V. THOMBRE

Poona 5,

July 20, 1962.

21. THE AQUATIC PLANTS OF THE KHANDALA TALAO

(With a sketch)

In his paper presented to the symposium of the Indian Botanical

Society at the 1955 Indian Science Congress (summary published in

1957) H. R. Ladwa reviewed the literature pertinent to the aquatic

and marsh flora of the freshwater tanks of India. He stressed the

need for intensive study of the permanent tanks, since they represent

an interesting habitat with their seasonal changes in water level.

Seasonal changes in the water content of small ponds also occur in

BomMBAY

Vy INU TREA

ae Se

\ KHANDALA TALAO

tin. = 120 ft

——————E |

iP) tin.

Sketch showing the Khandata talao

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 291

other countries, e.g. Byars (1959) studied the fauna and flora of

small, young New Zealand pond which fluctuated in area from c.

to 1 acre depending on the season.

The talao at Khandala although very small does exhibit seasonal

changes and, since it is easy to reach as well as being in an area

which is well known floristically, it was felt that a detailed study of

the talao would be of some value. The talao is in the centre of

Khandala village in Maharashtra State. The Bombay-Poona road

passes through the village and along the north side of the talao.

Biotic factors affecting the talao are present in two main forms:

the local people, who uproot many of the ‘kamal’ plants (Nymphaea

pubescens Willd.) for food and medicinal use, and animals which

graze the slopes of the talao. The uprooting of kamal takes place

mostly in the shallow water of the southern end and the grazing is

usually restricted to the grassy areas on the west slope, above the

water edge.

The water area and level increase during the monsoon, so that the

‘ventle grassy slope on the western side is inundated. ‘The water

retreats with the approach of the dry season, and normally (most of

the year) maintains an area of c. {4 acres and a depth of 1-4 ft. New

aquatic plant growth starts toward the end of the monsoon, but does

not reach a maximum until the water recedes to the normal. At the

height of the monsoon the water of the talao flows over the eastern

retaining wall and the overflow drains off rapidly. The water in the

talao is supplied mainly by a stream which flows from the hills west

of the talao during the monsoon and for a short while afterward.

Eventually the stream dries up. The other three sides of the talao

are faced by retaining walls (see sketch). The water is not used at all

for irrigation or for drinking and the talao never dries up even at,

the height of the dry season. In the north-west corner by the road

is a large well made of stone blocks which contains a dense growth

of Ceratophyllum demersum L. No stagnation seemed to occur in

the well and it is said to have been used for water supply many

years ago. The shallow areas around the talao contain water from,

the depth of a few inches to almost a foot in some areas; however,

the shore drops off sharply to a depth of 3 feet and attains a maximum

of 4 feet in the centre, the deepest part being the area against

the north wall. Along the eastern side a narrow, steep embankment

exists between the wall and the water’s edge, and a wider, more

gradual slope is present at the southern end.

I visited the talao during January, February, and April of 1960

292 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

after the monsoon and observed the plant associations in the water ©

and those appearing on the moist soil left by the retreating water.

All of the plants described here can be found in Santapau’s work

(1953) with the exception of Marsilea minuta L., a common water

fern, and Naias minor All., a common pond weed which seems to

be a new plant in this area. The climate of the area is also recorded

in Fr. Santapau’s work and he informs me the talao is at least over

100 years old, as it is known to exist since the railway lines were

laid in 1850.

Submerged plants. The bottom of the talao is entirely

covered with a dense mass of Ceratophyllum demersum; it is the

commonest plant in the water. The older plants were covered by

diatom growth and attained a height of c. 2 feet. A large round mass

of Naias minor appeared every yard or so and this plant grew up

above the rootless Ceratophyllum ‘carpet’ so that the tops of the

Naias plants reached just to the water surface. Lagarosiphon

alternifolius was common in patches along the west shore with a few

plants of Blyxa octandra. These plants were not affected most of the

year except for the drying along the west shore. Dead dry plants

could be found here and in areas higher up on the west slope.

Floating plants. Patches of Aygroriza aristata, a floating

grass, were found in the shallow southern portion and these patches

increased in size by February but later died back after fruiting.

Those plants which became established near the shore flourished into

April. None of the ‘duckweeds’ or floating ferns were seen and have

not been reported in the area. Their absence indicates that the

organic content of the water is not yet sufficient for their growth.

The water lily, Nymphaea pubescens, sprouts from _ turions

stranded in the grassy mat along the west and south shores. These

turions can also be found along with the dead remains of Cerato-

phyllum and seeds of Limnanthemum spp. high up on the west slope

which is inundated during the wet phase (see Gaudet, 1960, for an

account of the early growth of these Nymphaea turions). The

Nymphaea spreads into water 31 feet deep but does not grow in the

deepest water along the north or east shore. As was mentioned

earlier these plants are thinned out especially in the shallow areas by

the local people. Potamogeton indicus is common among the

Nymphaea as well as in shallow water and can even be found doing |

well on wet mud. In the water it reaches its peak in April. Two

Limnanthemum species occur among the Potamogeton patches in the

water and on wet mud, and although the two species are found grow-

ing close together, one species, L. indicum, is more often in deeper

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 3 293

water. Marsilea minuta was found floating only in one patch near

the south-east shore, but occurred on wet mud also.

Wet mud. On the west shore a large stand of the grass

Pseudoraphis aspera covered the whole slope from the water edge to

the drained soil higher up, except for some bare spots where the dry

mud plants mentioned below were prevalent. Other wet mud plants

often formed large stands on the west shore, e.g. Limnophila indica

spread into patches of stranded Potamogeton and Limnanthemum

plants. Myriophyllum spathulatum was also abundant here, but

later in April it was dying off. On the south-east shore Dysophiia

stellata and Salvia plebeia did very well as long as the soil remained

moist, but as drying continued they died off. These last plants spread

along the east shore but they could not compete against a pure stand

of Polygonum glabrum which thrived on the moist soil along this

shore. The soil here is protected by the retaining wall.

Dry mud. On the mounds along the west side where the

Pseudoraphis was absent, Gnaphalium indicum was the first plant to

establish itself, along with a few individuals of Mollugo oppositifolia.

Drying proceeded from the centre of the mounds and by February

the plants on the crest of the mounds had died and the soil appeared

dry, cracked and light-coloured. Argemone mexicana grew very

well in and along the sides of the empty bed of the stream that drains

surtace run-off from the hills into the talao (see sketch).

The talao has been approaching old age for some time. Sediments

washed from the surrounding hills and organic material from the

decay of plant material, as well as that contributed by biotic factors,

have caused the soft bottom now present in the talao. Since no

earlier work is available for comparison, we can only .surmise that

the talao is much shallower at present. No doubt the flora of the talao

is at a ‘peak’ in terms of the number of aquatic species present.

The only new aquatics which could enter now would be of the

‘duckweed’ type. The talao flora resembles that of the Mugad tank

described by Ladwa (1955). This is the oldest of the four near

Dharwar studied by him and it has remained perennial for at least

a century. It is quite large (97 acres) and deep, yet much organic

matter is present and it contains the largest number of aquatic plant

_ Species compared to the other three.

If the Khandala talao were not subjected to such ‘high grazing

pressure, possibly Polygonum glabrum would be more prevalent along

the shallow shores, but young seedlings are easily damaged by trampl-

ing. This plant is limited to a narrow protected bank along the east

Shore. As the bottom of the talao fills gradually through the years

194

294 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

it would be interesting to follow the effect on the vegetation. At

present the grassy slope seems to be encroaching along the west side

where its new shoots are protected in the shallow water.

The talao will most likely become a marshy, grassy area in the

future, and, since it is so small, this succession can be followed.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author would like to thank the faculty and staff of the Botany

Department of St. Xavier’s College, Bombay, for their help and advice

during the course of this and earlier work, which was done while the

author was a Fulbright Scholar at the above institution.

LIST OF PLANTS IN AND AROUND THE TALAO

SUBMERGED

Ceratophyllum demersum L.

Naias minor All.

Lagarosiphon alternifolius (Roxb.) Druce’

Blyxa octandra Planch.

FLOATING (non-rooted)

Hygroriza aristata (Roxb.) Nees

FLOATING (rooted)

Limnanthemum indicum (L.) Griseb.

Limnanthemum cristatum (Roxb.) Griseb.

Potamogeton indicus Roxb. |

Nymphaea. pubescens Willd.

Marsilea minuta L.

WET MUD

Myriophyllum spathulatum Blatt. & Hallb.

Alternanthera sessilis (L.) R. Br.

Pseudoraphis aspera (Koen.) Pilger

Limnophila indica (L.) Bruce

Polygonum glabrum Willd.

Hygrophila polysperma (Roxb.) Anders

Dysophylla stellata Benth.

Salvia plebeia R. Br.

1 The correct name of this plant is Nechamandra alternifolia (Roxb.) Thw. ; the

genus Lagarosiphon does not seem to occur in India. On the subject see

Subramanyam & Balakrishnan in Bull. bot. Surv. India 3 : 23-24, 1962 .—Eps,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

DRY MUD

Alternanthera sessilis (L.) R. Br.

Mollugo oppositifolia L.

Gnaphalium indicum L.

Argemone mexicana L.

Physalis minima L.

Tithonia tagetiflora Desf.

Ageratum conyzoides L.

Cyperus eleusinoides Kunth

Polygonum plebeium R. Br.

DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY,

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA,

BERKELEY, CALIFORNIA, U.S.A.,

March 6, 1962.

JOHN J. GAUDET

REFERENCES

Byars, Jean A. (1960): A freshwater

pond in New Zealand. Aust. Journ.

Marine and Freshwater Res.2 : 222-240.

Gaudet, J. J. (1960) : The submerged

leaves of Nymphaea pubescens Willd.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 57: 234-236.

Ladwa, H.R. (1957) : The ecology and

seasonal aspect of the phanerogamic flora

of the irrigation tanks about Dharwar.

Journ. Ind. bot. Soc. 36: 587-605.

(Summaries of papers of a symposium

on vegetation types of India by Ind.

Bot. Soc. 1955 Ind. Sci. Cong.)

Santapau, H. (1953): The flora of

Khandala on the Western Ghats of India.

Rec. bot. Sury. India 16 (1) : 1-396.

[A. L. Adams, M.D., in WANDERINGS OF A NATURALIST IN INDIA,

THE EASTERN HIMALAYAS AND CASHMERE, pp. 30-31, 1867, writes of

the Khandala talao at about the middle of the nineteenth century:

*.. . Kandala is a little highland paradise ... I spent a delightful

day toiling over these rugged ravines, and after a hard scramble at

length gained the camp, and was reclining on my couch, when a

soldier rushed into the tent, to inform me that one of his comrades

was drowning in a pond close by, and no one could attempt to save

him, in consequence of the dense weeds which covered the surface.

On repairing to the spot, we found the poor fellow in his last struggle,

manfully attempting to extricate himself from the meshes of rope-like

grass that encircled his body; but, to all appearance, the more he

laboured to escape, the more firmly they became coiled round his

limbs. At last he sank, and the floating plants closed in, and left

not a trace of the disaster. After some delay, a raft was made, and

_We put -off to the spot, and sinking a pole some 12 feet, a native dived.

holding on by the stake, and brought the body to the surface .. ”—

Eps.] |

296 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

22. NOMENCLATURAL NOTES ON SOME BOMBAY

PLANTS—II

(Continued from Vol. 59, page 322)

PAPILIONACEAE

(1) Alysicarpus glumaceus (Vahl) DC. Prod. 2 : 353, 1825;

Andrews, Fl. Pl. Anglo-Egypt. Sudan 2: 175, 1952. Hedysarum

glumaceum Vahl, Symb. Bot. 2 : 106, 1791. Hedysarum violaceum

Forsk. Fl. Aegypt.-Arab. 136, 1775 (non Linn. 1753). Hedysarum

rugosum Willd. Sp. Pl. 3 (2): 1172, 1803. Alvysicarpus violaceus

(Forsk.) Schindl. in Fedde, Repert. 21:13, 1925. Alysicarpus

rugosus (Willd.) DC., Prodr. 2 : 353, 1825; Cooke 1 : 348.

The earliest basionym for the present plant is Hedysarum violaceum

Forsk. (1775) and it should have been called Alysicarpus violaceus

(Forsk.) Schindl.; however, Forskal’s name cannot be taken up here,

it being a later homonym to that of Linné (1753), which is Lespedeza

violacea. Willdenow in Sp. Pl. 3 (2) : 1172, 1803 considers Hedysarum

violaceum Forsk. and Hedysarum glumaceum Vahl conspecific. The

next valid name, therefore, is Hedysarum elumaceum Vahl and the

correct name for the present plant should be A. glumaceus (Vahl)

DC. as adopted by Andrews.

(2) Desmodium heterocarpum (L.) DC. Prod. 2: 337, 1825;

Merrill in Trans. Amer. Phil. Soc. (n.s.) 24 : 200, 1935. Hedysarum

heterocarpon Linn. Sp. Pl. 747, 1753. Hedysarum polycarpon Foit.

in Lamk. Encycl. 6: 413, 1804. Desmodium polycarpum (Poir.)

DC. Prod. 2 : 334, 1825; Cooke 1 : 354.

This plant goes under the name D. polycarpum in our Indian

fioras; however, it must be called D. heterocarpum, based on

Hedysarum heterocarpon Linn. 1753.

(3) Indigofera spicata Forsk., Fl. Aegypt.-Arab. 138, 1753; Gillett

in Kew Bull. 1958 (Add. Ser. I): 119. Indigofera hendecaphylla

Jacq. Coll. Bot. 2 : 358, 1788; Cooke 1: 314. Indigofera endeca-

phylla Jacq.; Lamk. Encycl. Suppl. 3 : 147, 1813 (per Sphalm); Baker

in Hk. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 2 : 98, 1876.

(4) Tephrosia pumila (Lamk.) Pers., Syn. 2 : 330, 1807; Prain,

Beng. Pl. 406, 1903; Haines, Bot. Bih. & Oris. 2 : 242, 1921; Santapau,

Fl. Saurashtra 1 : 137, 1962. Galega pumila Lamk. Encycl. 2 : 599,

1788. Tephrosia purpurea (L.) Pers. var. pumila (Pers.) Baker in Hk.

f. Fl. Brit, Ind. 2 ; 113, 1876; Cooke 1 :325. Tephrosia procumbens

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES | 297

Buch.-Ham. in Trans. Linn. Soc. 13 : 54, 1822; Gamble, Fl. Madr.

320; LOLS. 3

Baker, and following him Cooke, treated this plant as a variety

of T. purpurea. Gamble raised it to specific rank as T. procumbens.

Prain, Haines, and Santapau also treat it as a distinct species. The

prostrate habit, 1-3-flowered inflorescence and the overail small size

of all its parts make it quite distinct from 7. purpurea; in our opinion

it deserves specific rank and we agree with Prain, Haines, and

Santapau in calling our plant 7. pumila.

(5) Vigna unguiculata (Linn.) Walp. Repert. 1 : 779, 1842; Andrews,

Fl. Pl. Anglo-Egypt. Sudan 2: 246, 1952. Dolichos unguiculatus

Hinneespe Pl 725,,.1753cDolichos ‘sinensis: Linn..:Cent,. Ph 2.728

1756. Vigna catjang Walp. in Linnaea 13 : 533, 1839; Cooke 1 : 380.

Vigna sinensis (L.) Savi ex Hassk. Cat. Hort. Bogor. 279, 1844. Vigna

- catjang var. sinensis Prain, Beng. Pl. 389, 1903.

Merrill (Enum. Phil. Fl. Pi. 2 : 320, 1923), Bailey (Man. Cult. Pl.

» 576, 1949). and Santapau (Rec. Bot. Surv. Ind. 16 (1): 80, 1953)

name this plant V. sinensis (L.) Savi ex Hassk.; on the authority of

Andrews the correct name should be V. uwnguiculata (L.) Walp., based

on Dolichos unguiculatus L. 1753.

MIMOSACEAE

(6) Neptunia prostrata (Lamk.) Baill. in Bull. Soc. Linn. Par. 1:

356, 1883. Mimosa prostrata Lamk. Encycl. 1:10, 1783. Neptunia

oleracea Lour. Fl. Cochinch. 654, 1790; Cooke 1 : 435.

EUPHORBIACEAE

(7) Manihot esculenta Crantz, Inst. Rei Herb. 1: 167, 1766;

Andrews, Fl. Pl. Anglo-Egypt. Sudan 2: 86, 1952. Jatropha

manihot Linn. Sp. Pl. 1007, 1753. Manihot utilissima Pohl, Pl. Bras.

micon.. |: 32,-1. 24, 1827; Cooke 2°: 627.

(8) Baliospermum montanum (Willd.) Muell.-Arg. in DC. Prod.

i), 0125, 1866: Hoffm. mm Pireich. 63 : 208; 1914. Jatropha

montana Willd. Sp. Pl. 4 : 563, 1805. Baliospermum axillare BI.

Bijdr. 604, 1825; Cooke 2 : 608.

CYPERACEAE

(9) Eleocharis acutangula (Roxb.) Schult. in R. & S. Syst. Veg.

Mant. 2: 91, 1824; Andrews, FI. Pl. Sudan 3 : 359, 1960. Scirpus

298 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

fistulosus Poir. Encycl. 6 : 749, 1806 (non Forsk. 1775). Scirpus

acutangulus Roxb. Fl. Ind. 1 : 213, 1820. Eleocharis fistulosa Link

ex Spreng. Jahrb. Gewach. 3 : 78, 1820; Cooke 2 : 888.

(10) Eleocharis dulcis (Burm. f.) Trin. ex Henschel, Vita Rumph.

186, 1833; Blake in Journ. Arn. Arbor. 28 : 227, 1947. Andropogon

dulce Burm. f. Fl. Ind. 219, 1768. Scirpus plantagineus Retz. Obs.

5:14, 1789. Eleocharis plantaginea (Retz.) R. & S. Syst. 2 : 150,

1817; Cooke 2 : 888.

The name E. duicis Trin. ex Henschel is accepted here on the

authority of Blake (1947), based on Andropogon dulce Burm. f.

Burmann in Fl. Ind. describes the present plant ‘Spica solitaria,

imbricata, flosculis muticis. Habitat in India’, and refers to Cyperus

dulcis Rumph. Herb. Amb. 6: 7, t. 3, f. 1, 1750. I have not. been

able to check the later reference.

(11) Fimbristylis falcata (Vahl) Kunth, Enum. Pl. 2 : 239, 1837;

Kern in Blumea 8 (1): 113, 1955. Scirpus falcatus Vahl, Enum. PI.

2 : 275, 1806. Trichelostylis junciformis Nees in Wt. Contrib. Bot. -

Ind, 106, 1834. Fimbristylis junciformis (Nees) Kunth, Enum. Pl. 2:

239, 1837; Cooke 2 : 886.

ST. XAVIER’S COLLEGE,

Bompsay 1, G. L. SHAH, M.sSc., Ph.p.

January 8, 1963.

Notes and News

RINGING OF FLAMINGOS AT LAKE MAGADI, KENYA COLONY

As a result of a co-operative effort by the East African Natural

History Society, the British Museum, and the Africana Flamingo

Fund, 8000 young Lesser Flamingos (Phoeniconaias minor) and 80

young Greater Flamingos (Phoenicopterus ruber) were ringed at Lake

Magadi, Kenya Colony, in 1962. The rings used were 16 mm. monel

rings, attached above the tibio-tarsal joint. Should anyone find a

ringed flamingo, or even only the ring, the ring should be returned

to the Bird Ringing Committee, British Museum (Natural History),

Cromwell Road, London S.W. 7, with details of the locality and date.

Although the British Museum will be co-ordinating all recoveries, the

East African Natural History Society will be most interested to hear

of the find, and the finder should send details of the ring number,

date, and locality to the Ringing Committee, East African Natural

History Society, Coryndon Museum, Nairobi. The ring itself should

be returned to the British Museum.

Finders in India, if any, may communicate with the Honorary

Secretary, Bombay Natural History Society, 91 Walkeshwar Road,

Bombay 6-WB, who wil! be glad to arrange for the transmission of

the ring to the British Museum (Natural History).

XIV INTERNATIONAL ORNITHOLOGICAL CONGRESS

The XIV International Ornithological Congress will be held at

Oxford in Great Britain in July 1966 with Dr. David Lack as President.

Dr. N. Tinbergen has been elected as Secretary-General and a British

Executive Committee has been formed. If it proves practicable, one

excursion will be organised—a week’s cruise of Scottish sea-bird

islands in a ship of sufficient size to accommodate most members of

the Congress. The provisional dates are: 16-23 July 1966 for the

cruise, and 24-30 July for the meeting in Oxford.

The British Executive Committee gratefully acknowledges $200

received from the American Ornithologists’ Union. If other countries

wish to contribute, cheques should be sent to the Treasurer (Mr.

A. G. S. Bryson), 7 Forres Street, Edinburgh 3.

* * *f

300 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (1)

EAST AFRICAN WILD LIFE JOURNAL

The East African Wild Life Society is producing a Journal for the

publication of scientific papers and research notes relating to all

aspects of wild life. The contents, although primarily based on

observations and research in East Africa, will not be limited to this

region. Initially the Journal will be published yearly; it will cost 15s.

within East Africa and 17s. 6d. (U.S. dollars 2.50) elsewhere, inclusive

of postage and packing. The first issue will appear on September Ist,

1963, and will include papers by L. H. Brown (Birds of prey),

H. F. Lamprey (The Ecological Separation of East African Mammals),

D. L. W. Sheldrick and P. Napier Bax (Food Plants of Elephants),

J. Glover (The Elephant Problem in Tsavo), J. Procter (Spotted- -

Necked Otters), A. Ritchie (The Black Rhinoceros), H. P. Ledger

(Carcase analysis) and D. R. M. Stewart (The Arabian Oryx).

Mrs. Elspeth Huxley, the well-known writer on East African affairs -

and supporter of wild life conservation, will contribute an introductory

article.

All enquiries and subscriptions should be sent to the Executive

Officer, East African Wild Life Society, P.O. Box 20110, Nairobi.

PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY V. M. PHILIP AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS

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CONTENTS

Tue ASIAN WEAVER BIRDS : PROBLEMS OF CO-EXISTENCE AND EVOLUTION WITH

PARTICULAR REFERENCE TO BEHAVIOUR. By John Hurrell Crook gal

CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA. VI. The publication of

Hooker’s FLORA OF BRITISH INDIA and what its publication released, By

I. H. Burkill Me ae ee i ne -- 49.

A SMALL COLLECTION OF EARTHWORMS FROM NEPAL (MEGASCOLECIDAE :

OLIGOCHAETA). By R. W. Sims ae ve we oe 84

CRITICAL NOTES ON THE ORCHIDACEAE OF BOMBAY STATE. XI. Some of the

smaller Genera (Concluded). By H. Santapau, s.5. and Z. Kapadia ss OZ

ON THE FRESHWATER MOLLuScS OF POONA. By G. T. Tonapi and Leela

Mulherkar ae a =e es mn, .. 104

THE NIDIFICATION OF SOME COMMON INDIAN BIRDS—PaRT 1. By B. S. Lamba 121

ADDITIONS TO THE FLORA OF BOMBAY STATE : GRASSES FROM SALSETTE ISLAND

(MALAD-MADH AREA). By H. Santapau,s.J. and G.L. Shah .. 134

New BREEDING RECORDS OF MALAYAN Birps. By J. Cairns ate .. 140

ENTOMOLOGICAL SURVEY OF HIMALAYA. Part XXVI. A Contribution to our

Knowledge of the Geography of the High Altitude Insects of the Nival

‘Zones from the North-West amen Part 6. By M. S. Mani and

Santokh Singh .. ae ‘ -- 160

Tue Birps oF NEPAL. Part 9. By Biswamoy Biswas .. a » 173

STUDIES ON THE FRESHWATER OLIGOCHAETA OF SOUTH INDIA. I. Aeolosomatidae

and Naididae. Part 5. By K. Vanamala Naidu .. se -o aOL

Tue EARLY STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT IN ACHATINA FULICA BOWDICH

(MOLLuscaA : GASTROPODA). By Krishna Chandra Ghose... .. 228

OBITUARY - a we Ae ar oo wae

REVIEWS 237—

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES ° 246

Se Gee ae

SPOR Ee ee Ne ee

Journal of the

Bombay Natural History Society

SG 5Y

Wi37A

Vol. 60, No. 2

Editors

H. SANTAPAU, 8.J., & ZAFAR FUTEHALLY

AUGUST 1963

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91, Walkeshwar Road, Journal of the Bombay Natural

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VOLUME 60, NO. 2—AUGUST 1963

Date of Publication: 12 November 1963

CONTENTS

THE BIOLOGY OF THE EASTERN SPANISH SPARROW, Passer hispaniolensis trans-

caspicus TSCHUSI, IN KAZAKHSTAN. By E. I. Gavrilov. (With three

plates)

A NOTE ON THE EASTERN SPANISH SPARROW, Passer hispaniolensis trans-

caspicus TsCHusI, ININDIA. By Salim Ali. (With a plate)

DESCRIPTION OF A NEW GECKONID LIZARD FROM MAHARASHTRA, INDIA. By

Alice G. C. Grandison and P. W. Soman. (With two plates)..

A TAXONOMIC STUDY OF THE GENUS Indigofera LINNAEUS IN RAJASTHAN. By

N. C. Nair and T. T. Koshy

THE BATS OF CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA. PartIV. By A. Brosset. (With

three text-figures)

CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA. VII. Epilogue. By I. H.

Burkill

THE GENUS Phoenix LINN. IN INDIA. By T. 8S. Mahabalé and M. V. Partha-

sarathy. (With two maps and eight plates)

THE Birps OF NEPAL. Part10. By Biswamoy Biswas. .

THE INDIAN CHO Oyu EXPEDITION, 1958: OBSERVATIONS OF A _ BOTANIST

MEMBER. By Seshagiri Rao Rolla. (With four plates and a sketch map)

THE BNHS/WHO Birp MIGRATION STUDY PROJECT—3. Activities from

15-10-1962 to 15-4-1963. By Salim Ali

FIELD GUIDE TO THE AMPHIBIANS OF WESTERN INDIA. Partl. By J.C. Daniel.

(With two plates and fourteen text-figures)

OBITUARY :

Mark Alexander Wynter-Blyth

REVIEWS :

Management of artificial lakes and ponds. (H. G. Kewalramani)

Collins guide to bird watching. (Y.S. Shivrajkumar)

Survival of the free. (H.A.)

Goma, the baby gorilla. (I.R.) .. bee as Ne

An Fk Ww WN

Silent spring. (R.R.) .. ie - is we

301

318

322

326

337

356

371

388

400

410

415

439

441

442

443

444

445

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :

1. The wild dog [Cuon alpinus (Pallas)] and the tiger [Panthera tigris

(Linn.)]. By H. Khajuria (p. 448). 2. ‘Bat migration in India and other

notes on bats’: A correction. By Humayun Abdulali (p. 449). 3. A piebald

Rattus norvegicus (Berkenhout) from Bombay. (With a plate). By A. K.

Joshee and K. M. Kamath (p. 449). 4. The Nilgiri tahr [Hemitragus

hylocrius (Ogilby)] in captivity. By N.G. Pillai (p. 451). 5. Rescue and ring-

ing of flamingos in Kenya Colony. By Editors (p. 454). 6. On the alleged

inferiority of the southern grackle [Gracula religiosa indica (Cuvier)] as a talk-

ing bird. By Salim Ali (p. 455). 7. Occurrence of the Verditer Flycatcher,

Muscicapa thalassina thalassina Swainson (Passeriformes : Muscicapidae), in

Kathiawar peninsula. By G. U. Kurup (p. 456). 8. Additions to the list of

birds eating the fruit of Yellow Oleander (Thevetia neriifolia). By P. J. Sanjeeva

Raj (p. 457). 9. Point Calimere as a refuge for wintering shore birds. (With

a text-figure). By Salim Ali (p. 458). 10. Recovery of ringed birds. By

Editors (p. 461). 11. Testudo hypselonota Bourret referred to Geochelone

radiata (Shaw). (With a plate). By Walter Auffenberg (p. 462). 12. Notes

on the red cotton bug (Dysdercus cingulatus Fabr.). By D. G. Sevastopulo

(p. 466). 13. Genitalia of the butterfly genus Spindasis Wallengren. (With a

plate). By Keith Cantlie (p. 466). 14. Parasitizing of common freshwater

turtle Lissemys punctata punctata (Bonnaterre) by the copepod Argulus indicus

Weber. By R. B. Malaviya (p. 468). 15. On the occurrence of the leech

Ozobranchus branchiatus (Menzies 1791) (Hirudinea) in India (Gulf of Kutch).

(With three text-figures). By J. M. Ghosh, Peace Johnson, and C. K. G. Nayar

(p. 469). 16. New host plants for Dendrophthée falcata (Linn. f.) Etting. at

Pavagadh. By A.R. Chavan and G. M. Oza (p. 472). 17. Hosts of Dendroph-

thée falcata (Linn. f.) Ettingsh. in the National Botanic Gardens, Lucknow.

By J. G. Srivastava (p. 474). 18. A contribution to our knowledge of Dale-

champia tamnifolia Lam. (With a plate). By K. J. Thomas (p. 475). 19. A

note on the occurrence of Rhynchospora longisetis R. Br. in India with some

interesting observations. (With a plate). By S.L. Kapoor, V.S. Sharma, and

(Mrs.) S. Chopra (p. 479). 20. Notes on some Bombay plants. By -G. L.

Shah (p. 481). 21. Forty-seven more grasses from Lucknow. By J. G. Sri-

vastava (p. 484).

ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY FOR THE YEAR

1962-63

SUPPLEMENTARY REMARKS FOR THE PERIOD JANUARY TO APRIL 1963

STATEMENT OF ACCOUNTS OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

MINUTES OF THE ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING

NoTFs AND NEWS 4c ac Sic

APPEAL FOR BIRD NOTES

Page

489

492

494

503

505

JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL

rest ORY i SOCIETY

1963 AUGUST Vol. 60 No. 2

The Biology of the Eastern Spanish

Sparrow, Passer hispaniolensis transcas-

picus Tschusi, in Kazakhstan’

E. I. GAvRILOV

Institute of Plant Protection, Alma-Ata, U.S.S.R.

(With three plates)

The study of the bionomics of different species of birds has not

teceived sufficient attention till recently. This is true not only about

rare birds, but also about common ones which have a world-wide dis-

tribution. For example ornithologists have so far paid very little

attention to the sparrows, although some species of sparrows have

a very important economic significance. For a long time in central

Asia and in south Kazakhstan they have been serious pests to the

farmers. But apart from this some of them are very sociable birds —

and it is especially interesting to study their communal life.

During three years the author studied the biology of sparrows. He

tried out the earlier methods of controlling their numbers and tested

new methods. This work was performed under the guidance of

Professor I. A. Dolgushin, Doctor of Biological Sciences.

The Eastern Spanish Sparrow, Passer hispaniolensis transcaspicus

Tschusi, is the most numerous among our sparrows. It is distributed

in Kazakhstan from the administrative frontier at the south, northward

as far as the valleys of the rivers Sir-Daria and Chu. It is also found

*Communicated by Dr. Sdlim Alli.

402 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (2)

in the lowlands adjoining the Kirgizsky, Zailyisky, and Dzungarsky

Ala-Tau, north to Lake Alakoul.

The observations of the last few years show that this species is

rapidly colonizing new areas. In the first forty years of this century

the north-eastern boundary of its range lay along the river Karatal and

in the valley of Ili river near the town of Panfilov (Shnitnikov, 1949).

Development of extensive forest plantations and agriculture since

then has provided the sparrow with excellent living conditions. Taking

advantage of these the bird has spread right up to Lake Alakoul

where it was found in 1959.

Simultaneously with the extension of its range, the Eastern Spanish

Sparrow increased in numbers. According to the observations of

I. A. Dolgushin (personal information) the bird was not found near —

the village Ilyisk in 1931, 1932, and 1933. The itrst birds wee

obtained by him there in 1934, and they were then considered to be

extremely rare in this region. But already by 1949-50 the Spanish

Sparrows had become the most numerous among the sparrows in this

place.

Meanwhile the numbers of the Indian Sparrow (Passer domesticus

bactrianus Zar. et Kudasch.)' dropped. Apparently, the Spanish

Sparrow, being larger, more aggressive, and more communal, forced

the Indian Sparrow out from the forest plantations. The latter has

now taken to nesting in villages, and in holes in precipices, etc.

The Spanish Sparrow nests almost exclusively in cultivated areas,

living in the proximity of man. The availability of grain crops is

one of the necessary conditions for these birds, and they seldom nest

at any distance from cultivation. However, Spanish Sparrows usually

nest away from actual human settlements, and only occasionally

within villages and the outskirts of small towns. But the bird readily

follows in the wake of cultivation, and has reached 500 to 600 m. —

above sea-level in the Zailyisky Ala-Tau mountains, and in places

even up to 1370 am: |

It is a migratory bird. Its winter range chiefly comprises northern

Africa, Palestine, Iraq, Iran, Baluchistan, north-western India, and

Sintzian. In the Soviet Union it winters in large numbers in-

Turkmenia. It may also be found in winter in Tadjikistan, Kirgizia,

along the northern outskirts of the Kisil-Kum desert, in the valley of

the river Sir-Daria. In winter 1954-55 it was observed in small

numbers in the delta of the river Ili (Gratchev, 1960).

* Considered by some authors to be synonymous with both parkini and griseigula-

ris; by others to be separable from parkini.—S. A

THE EASTERN SPANISH SPARROW IN KAZAKHSTAN 303

The birds probably start the return flight from their winter

quarters about the beginning of March, as the spring migration takes

place in northern India from the second week of March to the middle

of April (Whitehead, 1909). They come to Kazakhstan at the end

of April, or in May. Their mass arrival is observed, usually, in the

middle or end of May.

During their migration the birds keep mainly to open biotope,

preferring areas with bushes, especially thorny ones, which are

favourite places of rest for all sparrows. They fly in flocks of 5-10

to 150-300 individuals, which consist, as a rule, exclusively of birds

of their own species, only rarely mixed with a few Indian Sparrows.

It is typical of the flocks to fly along open highways if running in

the proper direction. The spring passage occupies a long overall

period. In 1959, near the village Nikolaevka, the sparrows were

flying in from the end of April till the first days of June. The first

to arrive are the males, beginning with a few individuals and then in

small flocks. Later, at the period of mass fiight, the flocks of males

contain a small number of females; while in the last flocks the females

predominate.

The Spanish Sparrow nests as a rule in large colonies. Commonly

the colonies are of 20-30 thousand nests, and sometimes they consist

of 100 thousand or even 800 thousand nests. The smaller colonies

of sparrows are found mainly in the north-eastern region of its range.

For example, in the Alma-Atinsky region in 1959 along the river

Karatal and near the village Uch-Aral their colonies consisted of

200-5000 nests (average 1700) and near the villages Ilyisk and Chilik

of 500-25,000 nests (average 10,000). In 1961, in the neighbourhood

of the villages Chokpar and Krasnogorka they consisted of 7500-

90,000 nests (average 31,000); in 1962 in the Kurdaisky district of

the Djambul region, of 300-800,000 nests (average 42,500). One

hectare of forest plantation contained an average of about 13,000 nests.

We observed two types of sparrow colonies. The first type is

situated in gardens, groves, and small forest plantations, within a

distance of a few hundred metres. Such places are usually settled by

the sparrows in 1-2 days. The colonies of the second type are situated

in forest plantations stretching very often over several kilometres.

Here, side by side with areas of dense settlement, are areas with a

small sparse settlement or completely unoccupied. In such colonies,

the sparrows first build in the central parts, which still have many

of the last year’s nests, and it is only afterwards that they occupy

the outer areas with fewer nests.

304. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (2)

During the establishment of a colony, incoming flocks give first

preference to trees already occupied by other sparrows. If all the

suitable places are occupied, the newcomers are forced out by the

males guarding their territories. The birds have then to resort to

neighbouring trees with either very few nests or none at all. Thus

in the well-established colonies the number of nests on each tree re-

mains more or less constant from year to year.

It is interesting to note that wherever there is room for two or more

nests the males may sit side by side to attract the females. If in the

forked crown there is room for only one nest, the ‘owner’ forces out

each intruder.

In contrast with many colonial birds which return for breeding to

the same place year after year, the Spanish Sparrows prove not to be

constant to particular nesting sites. Often without apparent reason

the birds will not settle in the forest plantations where they nested

during previous years, and will organize their colonies in new places.

This might be explained by the change in the number of sparrows and

by their attempt to occupy a more suitable area from the beginning.

In any region they always settle first in forest plantations, which are

the most convenient for them, and afterwards, as their number

increases, they occupy other places less suitable for reproduction. On

the other hand the primarily settled places may be deserted.

By means of ringing it was found that in 1961 among the sparrows

near the village of Chokpar only 11% of the birds were ‘local’, i.e.

bred here in the previous year, while 89° of the birds were ‘new

arrivals’ from some other regions. In 1962 in the same region these

figures were changed to 5 and 95% respectively (in 1961 and 1962

there was mass extermination of the sparrows here).

The data obtained by us confirmed the wide exchange of birds

between different populations. This circumstance may be responsible

for the intensive settling of the Spanish Sparrows in new places. It

may also explain the extremely weak development of nest-conserva-

tism and the lack of constancy to their nesting places.

The establishment of the Spanish Sparrow colonies usually happens

a few days after the beginning of the mass arrivals, and even in the

same region the colonies are not occupied simultaneously. The first

to be occupied are those mixed colonies which are situated in the

neighbourhood of villages, in which there are a considerable number

of House Sparrows as well as Spanish Sparrows. House Sparrows

uttering their mating-call may already be observed here by the middle

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‘THE EASTERN SPANISH SPARROW IN KAZAKHSTAN 305

of April. Probably this attracts the Spanish Sparrows, which first

begin establishing their colonies in such areas.

Some colonies which consist exclusively of Spanish Sparrows start

establishing 7-28 days later. when the first-settled birds have already

hatched their chicks.

The Spanish Sparrow nests in Kazakhstan in different forest

plantations (Fig. 5 and 6). It is a marked fact that the birds gravitate

towards that species of tree, the branching of which facilitates nest

construction. The sparrows’ nests are situated in the greatest density

on Lombardy Poplars (more than one hundred on a single tree), then

to a diminishing degree on Oleasters (Elaegnus angustifolia L.), False

Acacias (Robinia pseudoacacia L.), Ashenleaf Maples (Acer negundo

L.), other poplars, and Cork Elm (Ulmus campestris L.). They also

make their nests on fruit trees, and in exceptional cases even on

Huntingdon Willows.

Depending on the character of the branching of the trees, the. nests

may be situated alone, or one below another like a garland, or they

may be built surrounding a stem. There may be anything from 1-5

to 120-130 nests on one tree. The height of the nest depends as a

rule on the species and age of the tree. In young forest plantations

they were found at a height of 50 cm. on Oleaster, whereas on

Lombardy Poplars the nests may be built at the top, about 25-30 m.

high.

The vanguard of males usually occupy last year’s nests or even

older ones which are sometimes merely semi-putrefied heaps of grass.

Occasionally, but not often, the birds choose some forked crown, where

they bring ten or more blades of grass to make the apron.

After choosing the site for his future nest the male, by means of

a strenuous twittering, begins to attract a female (Fig. 2). The

twittering of thousands of sparrows makes such a deafening noise

that it is often difficult to converse in a colony.

When the females fly in they carefully observe the sites for the

nests, but pay little attention to the males uttering their mating-call

with so much enthusiasm. Later, each female chooses one of them.

After pair formation the male begins the intensive repair of an old

nest or works on a new one. He does the main work, bringing the

building material and laying it in its place. At this period the female

helps very little, but later she lines the nest herself.

The nest is made exclusively of green grass, which is collected by

the birds themselves (Fig. 1). They use a lot of mown grass. At

some places where a field of lucerne, which is first cut in May, is

306 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (2)

situated near a colony of sparrows, the birds bring in many tons of

the newly cut grass. Often it was observed that the maies made

attempts to steal one another’s material for their own nests. The nest

is lined with small pieces of wormwood, with leaves of acacia, and so

on, and only occasionally with a few feathers. This isthe sign by

which Spanish Sparrows’ nests may be differentiated from those of

House, Indian, and Tree Sparrows which always have a large amount

of feather lining.

The building of the nest is carried out in the following way: at

first the apron is made from the stems of grasses and thin branches,

then the walls and the roof are built from the same material. At the

end of the second day the nest has the appearance of a ball-shaped

openwork structure (Fig. 4). At the time of egg-laying the nest looks

like a globe with thick walls and a lateral entrance. During the

period of egg-laying, and in the first days of incubation, the male

prolongs his activity by making the lateral tubular entrance—the

antechamber of the nest.

Where the lack of branches does not ailow it to make the open-

work foundation of the nest, or if the bird uses the cut lucerne as

building material, the nest is made in another manner. After building

the apron of the nest the sparrow begins to build its thick walls,

leaving a place for the lateral entrance. Thereafter it makes the roof,

and last of all the antechamber. The finished nest represents a ball-

shaped or ova! structure with a diameter of 20-30 cm., with a lateral

entrance which projects like a small tube (Fig. 3). The weight of

the nests is from 70 to 300 gm. (average 150). |

The building of the nest takes 4 or 5 to 7 days (Achmetov, 1953;

Umrichina, 1955). The sparrows that come later complete their

nests in a shorter time than those that arrive and start earlier.

The sparrows begin laying before the building of the nest is

completed. This may be especially observed in colonies which are

rather late in settling. The females come here with well-developed

gonads and the first eggs may be laid during the flight, while on

passage to their nesting place. Every morning the female lays one

egg. As may be seen from Table I, the full complement is of 2-7 eggs,

but usually 4-5 eggs, with an average of 4.4. The egg measurements,

taken with a vernier calliper, are given in Table I.

Abnormal (pigmy) eggs, lacking the yolk, were found twice. One

of them measured 11.6 10.6 mm. and weighed 0.67 gr. It was the

first of the clutch, the other five eggs of the same female being normal.

The number of the laid eggs in some birds, for example in the

(20]14004) “a : SoJ0Yd)

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THE EASTERN SPANISH SPARROW IN KAZAKHSTAN 307

Starling (Sturnus vulgaris L.), does not correspond to the ova ovulated

(Davis, 1958). We examined the state of the ovaries of 19 Spanish

TABLE I

CLUTCH-SIZE OF THE SPANISH SPARROW

(according to the data obtained in 1959-61)

aaa ea ea

: | | | Total nests

Number of eggs 2 | 3 A Wie 3S | 6 | ee | Saad

Windia Wie Wan eg, : -

No. of nests in which |

found cule pee ry bets S99! 11493 Se, 2 1099

a a. UL

TABLE II

EGG MEASUREMENTS OF THE SPANISH SPARROW

. ‘(Mean with stand-| Quadratic Number

Min. | Max. | “ard deviation deviation measured

Length in mm. ve | 8:07.) 25:7 1-21.93: 2020712 + 1.1111 244

Width in mm. eels Te 16.6 | 15.29 + 0.0346 + 0.5395 244

Shape width/length.. 0.55 0.81, 0:70 £ 0.0032 + 0.0505 244

| |

Weight in gr. =e | 1.62) 3.47) 2.63 + 0.0156 + 0.2460 248

Sparrows and the contents of their nests. It was found that only

4 females had the same nuniber of eggs in the nest as the ovulated

Ova, and the clutches of the others were 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 less than the

broken follicles. The latter two cases represented an exact replace-

ment of: the first clutch by a second one; in the other cases the

extra eggs laid were probably lost.

In some species of birds there is possibility of producing more

eggs than is typical for the species (indeterminate laying).

A. E. Brehm (1911) cites the observations of Rey, who took one egg

from nests of House Sparrows every day and in such circumstances

the females laid up to 49 eggs in succession. The same experiment

was performed by us on 11 females of the Spanish Sparrow. After

the first egg was laid, every time another egg was laid one of the two

eggs was removed so that there was always only one egg left in the

nest. Jt became clear that this species is a determinate layer and

308 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (2)

that the number of eggs could not be increased in this manner. Each

of the 11 birds laid 3-6 eggs (average 4.5) and then stopped. By

examining 172 nests in this colony it was ascertained that the average

clutch-size of Spanish Sparrows was about 4.5 eggs.

The egg-laying in a colony is usually completed within a short

period. In three colonies, when only the Spanish Sparrows were

nesting, by the 5th day after the appearance of the first egg in the

nests, 75, 80, and 89% of all the birds began their laying. In this

case nestlings also developed rapidly and the colonies very soon became

disinhabited, more or less synchronously.

Many authors have stated that the same colony of sparrows may

contain nestlings of different ages and eggs at different stages of

incubation. Our material confirms this; this condition is usually

observed in mixed colonies where different species of sparrows,

including House Sparrows, which have several broods in a year, nest

together. Thus such colonies have nesting sparrows during the

whole summer. If the Spanish Sparrows lose the first clutch for

some reason, or if any one of the parents dies, the birds join these

mixed colonies for reproduction. Besides, some of the birds normally

nest twice a year.

In the incubation, which starts after the second egg is laid. both

parents take part, although the female’s is the major share. At night

only females have been found on the nests. The males gather in large

flocks at night and roost in leafy trees. often at a considerable distance

from their nests.

After an incubation period of 11-14 days the blind naked

nestlings are hatched. Both parents bring them up. While catching

the sparrows at night we made an interesting observation. It was

found that the female parent, which was frightened off her nest,

returned after some time in spite of the total darkness. One female

returned to the nestlings twice, and it was possible to catch her only

at the third attempt.

It is quite obvious that the sparrows cannot orientate themselves

well in darkness. When the birds were released after the ringing

they feli down and it was only after some time that they could fly

up’. On reaching the tops of the trees they alighted on the first

_ > From similar experience with Spanish Sparrows during the BNHS/WHO bird

ringing field camps in Rajasthan, it is suggested that this seeming helplessness in the

dark may be due only to the birds becoming temporarily blinded by the bright

electric light under which the ringing was done. The birds at first used to flop to

the ground immediately on being released but, later, when set down gently on a

platform away from the light, they soon recovered their sight and flew off strongly

into the darkness.—S.A. ! ; ;

THE EASTERN SPANISH SPARROW IN KAZAKHSTAN 309

branch. It is possible that in locating their nests at night the sparrows

orientate themselves by means of the ‘muscle feeling’, [echo-loca-

tion ?], based on the filmostatic memory, in the same way as Ojilbirds

(Steatornis) and Collocalia swiftlets nesting in dark caves, which un-

erringly find their own nests from among numerous others (Dementiev,

1940).

Ordinarily 1-2 of the younger nestlings, who are behind the others

in growth, perish. On an average 2-3 nestlings fly from each nest.

The chicks leave the nest after 11-12 days.

As already mentioned, the egg-laying in many colonies is _per-

formed rapidly and synchronously. In consequence of this all

other stages of breeding, including hatching and flying of young

from the nests, are also synchronized. It is interesting that each of

the three stages—egg-laying, incubation, and the nestling period

—covers a period of abeut 9X24 hours.

After their first fight from the nest the fledglings live in the colony

where they are fed by the parents. At night they usually fly to their

nests, sometimes to another's, where there are other chicks too. Some

of the fledglings spend the night on trees with the adults.

After becoming fully fledged, the young leave the colony, bunch

into fiocks consisting sometimes of a few thousand birds, and start

the migratory life. All the time the flocks are augmented by young

ones from later broods. Sometimes these flocks are joined by

juveniles with imperfectly developed flight feathers and still dependent

on the parents for food. The absence of adult birds in these flocks,

except for the few individuals that are tending such immature

juveniles, is characteristic. About one month after leaving the nests

the young sparrows begin to shed the first feathers and gradually moult

into adult piumage. :

it was observed that in the juveniles of the Spanish Sparrow before

the moult, when the sex of the birds cannot be determined superfi-

cially, or just at commencement of the post-juvenile moult, the flocks

tend to split up sex-wise. In 1961 on July 4-9 from each of 26 flocks

near the village Chokpar 5-11 birds were collected. In 13 flocks,

males predominated (91% of 105 sparrows), and in the other 13 flocks,

females (90% of 98 sparrows). Only males were obtained from 6

flocks of which 48 birds were collected; and only females from 4

flocks of which 31 birds were collected. It is in such sex-segregated

flocks that the sparrows apparently spend the time left till their

departure in autumn, and also during migration.

In this interval the adult sparrows either re-nest or raise second

310 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (2)

broods, or gather in flocks and in the middle of June or in July are

flying for the moult. Probably for the completion of the post-

nuptial moult the birds gather in some other region, since all adult

sparrows obtained by us in August were only just beginning the

moult, and in spite of careful searching none were found in sub-

sequent stages of moult in this region.

Only a few of the sparrows which are the first to arrive, at the

beginning of May, nest twice a year; the rest only breed once. ‘The

possibility of re-nesting keeps all birds there rather a long time. And

in case of accidents, either to the clutch or the nestlings, they readily

breed again. Thus it is that the destruction of nests alone has little

effect in the campaign for reducing sparrow numbers.

During the autumn migrations the birds confine themselves to corn

fields and thickets of weeds. They are partial to the fields of late

ripening millet and hemp, where they collect in masses causing great

damage to the crops.

The departure of adult Spanish Sparrows from Alma-Atinskaya

and Dzambulskaya regions takes place immediately after breeding is

over. In 1961 the passage near the village Chokpar was observed

from June [3th on, and it became especially intensive at the begin-

ning of July. Young birds leave considerably later than the adults,

aid probably all the late meetings with the Spanish Sparrow in

Kazakhstan concern young birds. Normally they emigrate in

September-October; a few stray birds stay behind up to the middle

of November.

Fecundity. It is well known that not all laid eggs are fertile. The

number of infertile eggs in the clutches of the Spanish Sparrow is not

large. In 1959-1961 such eggs were found in 95 (17.6%) out ot

537 nests examined, and represented 4.9% of the total number of eggs.

The loss of embryos during the incubation period is also not heavy.

In 1959-1961 dead embryos were found in 23 (4.2%) out of the 537

nests inspected, and represented 1.2% of the total number of éggs.

Thus the joint loss from both these causes during 3 years was

6.1% of the total number of eggs. Observation at 75 nests in 1960

showed that 95.1% of the eggs hatched.

But the loss of nestlings in Spanish Sparrows is considerable. It is

only in a few cases that all the nestlings leave the nest as fledglings.

Ordinarily 1-2 of the younger and weaker nestlings die.

The number of chicks which reach the flying stage is in direct

ratio to the clutch-size: as more eggs are laid so, on the average, more

fledglings leave the nest (Table III).

THE EASTERN SPANISH SPARROW IN KAZAKHSTAN att

TABLE III

NUMBER OF NESTLINGS THAT FLEW IN RELATION TO CLUTCH-SIZE

(In the colony near the village Chokpar, 1960)

No. of young that flew

Clutch-size } eset ere ee Average tor

one nest

1 2 | 3 | 4 5

]

2 1 I — — — Id

3 — 2 = — way 2:0

4 = SU ee ON PRC er | )) 2.69

5 6 17 15 17 | = 2.78

6 alin tc yet 3.3

$i) ee as,

folofdea .. | 10 |) ai Bw) w | 1/2 ea

The loss of nestlings is higher in the larger clutches. If in the

clutch of 2 eggs an average of 75% reach the flying stage, so in the

clutch of 3 eggs—66%, of 4 eggs—67%, of 5 eggs—55% and of

6 eggs—54%. According to the observations at the 290 nests in

1959-1961 the average number of Spanish Sparrow nestlings which

left the nest was 2.54 per breeding pair of adult birds.

In 1960, in the colony near the village Chokpar, there were 100

nests the building of which had just begun. They were examined

regularly every second day. The results are contained in Table IV.

TABLE IV

NESTING SUCCESS OF THE SPANISH SPARROW

Fate of nests No. of cases

1. Nest deserted before egg-laying began i 11

2. Nest deserted before egg-laying finished we 6

3. Nest deserted after egg-laying finished a 8

4. Nest with eggs fell off tree Me | 2

5. Nest destroyed (by man?) Ee 18

6. All nestlings died ies 4

7. Nestlings flew successfully a Si

otal Of data.) 2: 100

312. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (2)

In July of the same year, in the colony near the village Nikolaevka,

66 nests were inspected. 2 of them (3.1%) were unfinished, 3 (4.5%)

were deserted before the egg-laving, 6 (9.1%) were deserted with

clutches, 3 (4.5%) contained dead nestlings, and 52 (78.8%) live

nestlings. So, as a result of unequal sex-ratio', of death of either

one or both parents, of the destruction of nests by predators, or for

some other reason, only 50-80% of nests are usually saved.

There are contradictory data as regards the number of broods in

a year. Some workers consider that Spanish Sparrows nest only

once in a season (Kashkarov eft ai., 1926: Achmetov, 1953: Stegman.

1956a, b), while others think that there are two broods in a season

(Brehm, 1911; Sudilovskaya, 1954; Umrichina, 1955).

The study of the gonads of these birds at the different stages of

the reproductive cycle showed that the gonads of the males and

females during the incubation and feeding of nestlings decreased only

very slightly (Table V). This confirms their ability to resume the

laying at any stage of the reproductive cycle. As stated above, some

of the sparrows have normally two broods in a year. The birds that

started their nesting early in the season—at the beginning or middle

of May-——had two full complements. The late comers, who occupied

the colonies at the end of May or in June, raised only one brood.

TABLE V

CHANGE OF GONAD-SIZE IN THE SPANISH SPARROW AT DIFFERENT

STAGES OF THE REPRODUCTIVE CYCLE

| tee Stages of reproduction

au Measured | s ie

=e | gonads | poe | | Feeding

| | | Egg- Incubation | of

| | laying | nestlings

og Testes (average length 1959 9.1 (8)? | 9.0 (21) 9.3 (11)

in mm.) 1960 — | 9.1 (25) 8.7 (25)

ele) Ovaries (average 1959 (223) xa834 8.2 x 4.9 7.8 x 4.8

length, width, diameter d = 7.6(9) , d=1.9(19)| d =1.6 (10)

of the largest follicle

in mm.) 1960 — S77 xao4 6.9 x 4.1

d=2.0(21))} d=1.5 (44)

1 Unfinished nests are the product of the surplus males. The birds apparently

failed to attract females, so deserted the nests and probably left the colony.

2 Number of birds studied in brackets,

THE EASTERN SPANISH SPARROW IN KAZAKHSTAN 313

It is quite possible that the number of clutches of the Spanish

Sparrow depends on the presence of favourable conditions for breed-

ing, and potentially all adult sparrows may apparently hatch their

broods several times in a year.

The fecundity of the Spanish Sparrow in different years is

variable, as may be seen in Table VI.

TABLE VI

FECUNDITY OF THE SPANISH SPARROW IN DIFFERENT YEARS

1959 1960 | 1961

Clutch-size ale aie 4.51 | 4.48

Nests with unfertilized eggs in % - | 14.8 le Sa — Ge?

Number of unfertilized eggs in % ye 4.3 2.4 | 7.4

Nests with dead embryosin % sie ee) Had 5.4

Number of dead embryos in % sk | 0.8 ‘yallaan brah We

Number of hatched nestlings in each nest |

(average) pare ca) 4.4 licens ce

Number of nestlings that flew from each nest |

(average) 2.34 Dh) DSA

Number of females that nested twice in a =

in % . 45.4 4.6 21.0

Food. The Spanish Sparrow is a granivorous bird with strongly

marked morphological devices for eating plant seeds.

During the spring migration the birds have the possibility of

gathering food in various places. But they prefer areas under wheat

cultivation, fields of spring crops, unploughed stubble fields, old

threshing-floors, outskirts of villages, and so on. The seeds of culti-

vated crops are the staple food of sparrows. But when for some

reason it is difficult to procure this, it becomes only a small part of

the bird’s diet. In such cases the Spanish Sparrow principally eats

the seeds of the most easily available wild plants, visiting fallow

land, weed-patches, etc. in the quest.

After settling in the nesting colonies the birds prefer to glean

grains of the last year’s crop, if they can find them. Otherwise their

food is made up largely of insects and the seeds of wild plants. It

the sparrows are late in settling in their nest colonies (i.e. end of May

or beginning of June), and find insufficient grain left over from last

314. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (2)

year’s harvest for gleaning, they readily attack ripening wheat crops

while the grain is on the ear (in ‘milk’). At this stage the birds cause

heavy damage and loss of yield.

If the crops are not ready at the time the nestlings have to be

fed, the sparrows feed themselves as well as their young almost

exclusively on insects. If the feeding of the nestlings takes place later,

then the staple food of the nestlings and adult birds consists of ripening

wheat at the ‘milk’ and ‘waxen’ stages. After the fledglings become

independent the birds begin their wide migrations. This is the time

the grain crops are ripening and the harvesting begins.

As pointed out earlier (Kashkarov ef al., 1926; Umrichina, 1955)

the sparrows do not usually touch the fully ripened ears. However,

they readily eat the grain which is spilt, and according to our

observations this comprises the principal food of the sparrows

(98-100%) at this period.

From April to August the stomachs of 432 birds were examined.

Seeds of cultivated cereals were found in 7596 of the stomachs, seeds

of wild -plants in 13.6%, insects in 20.3%. and green orass im

7.0%. Thus the seeds of cultivated crops have a paramount im-

portance in the diet of these sparrows. Insects and the seeds of wild

plants play a subsidiary role, but may become the principal food items

at certain periods and in particular conditions, when there is a lack

of cultivated grain. |

The nestlings of the Spanish Sparrow are fed principally on insects,

as may be seen from Table VII. However, in some cases cultivated

erain in ‘milk’ and ‘waxen’ stages of ripening may form a considerable

portion of the nestlings’ diet.

TABLE VII

Foop OF SPANISH SPARROW NESTLINGS

(according to the data from 679 stomachs)

cea i a ih a a LR IC ES

oS ei a a Nc OR

Food items | Occurrence in %

Seeds of cereals 5 34.9

Seeds of wild plants bs 0.3

Insects a ; 89.5

Green leaves wits 0.3

The nestlings’ food of many species of birds changes in accordance

with their age. A similar state of affairs was also noted in the Spanish

THE EASTERN SPANISH SPARROW IN KAZAKHSTAN oi)

Sparrows (Stegman, 1956b), which were found feeding their nestlings

on insects, although the adults themselves fed on grain. The parents

were feeding the older nestlings with insects as well as grain, and in

the last days before flight chiefly with grain.

On 30 June 1960, in one colony near the village Chokpar we

examined the stomach contents of 87 nestlings. The results are given

in Table VIII.

TABLE VIII

Foop OF SPANISH SPARROW NESTLINGS AT DIFFERENT AGES

(Occurrence in % of total number examined)

Age 1-6 days 7-11 days

Food items: |

Seeds of cereals ceva 78.9 | 82.3

Insects oe 94.2 | 88.2

: = a i eer ave

Total No. examined eat 19 68

ann r renee rere reer reese r S S s s

It is possible that the change in the composition of the nestlings’

diet may be explained not only by the need of the chicks for particular

foods at different ages, but also by the availability at different periods

of the most suitable food items. This is confirmed by the data on

the feeding of nestlings and fledglings of the Spanish Sparrow near

the village Chokpar in summer 1961 (Table IX).

TABLE IX

-Foop OF SPANISH SPARROW YOUNG AT DIFFERENT AGES

(Occurrence in % of total number examined)

aS 0.2

Age | Nestlings Fledglings | Total

Date _ June 3 | June 12-21 | June 12 June 29 —

Food items : | | | |

Insects i Petoooe) me os lose) aaa 87.2

Seeds of cereals ea cg Ninos eer gral raul

Seeds of wild plants... Se ee a Ba |

| | |

No. examined a sd) | 183), ese 201 470

316 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (2)

Thus when suitable cereals are available the parent sparrows use

them for supplementing the nestlings’ diet of insects, though they

themselves may feed on grain almost exclusively. G. Umrichina

(1955) reported that in the valley of the River Chu Spanish Sparrows

fed their nestlings of the first and the second broods exclusively on

the grain of the cereal crops. The development of extensive farming

of cereal crops has provided the sparrows with an abundant and

regular food supply. Since the various grains ripen at different times,

the supply is maintained over a considerable period. But, as pointed

out by A. S. Malchevski (1959), the nestlings of the sparrow also

possess many characteristic morphological adaptations for an insec-

tivorous diet. These are of survival value, since in nature it would

be hard to find large enough concentrations of seeds of wild plants

(such as human agriculture now provides) for sustaining such

enormous breeding populations. This accounts for the fact that

under natural conditions (where uninfluenced by agriculture) the

Spanish Sparrow feeds its young during the greater part of their nest

lite exclusively, or at least principally, on insects.

TABLE X

AVERAGE WEIGHTS OF ADULT SPANISH SPARROWS (in grammes)

| ar

April | May June July | August

| |

an tS ee ee ee eee

Males .. _— 29.3 (8) 29.1 (129). | -228:7'(118) |" 27-7107) 28

| | |

Females..| —— 29.8 (106) | 28-4 (143)) |) 260.7 G6) a 227816)

| |

(Number of birds weighed in brackets)

Range of 286 males 24.5—37.5 ; average 28.89 gm.

288 females 23.7—37.8 ; average 28.82 gm.

(Weights include gonads and crops)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author expresses his thanks to Dr. I. A. Dolgushin for guidance

in this investigation, and to Dr. Sélim Ali for correcting and editing

the manuscript and assisting in its publication.

THE EASTERN SPANISH SPARROW IN KAZAKHSTAN

317

REFERENCES

Achmetov, K. R. (1953): The spar-

rows of Tadjikistan as pests of crops,

and control methods. Sci.-pop. library

of zool. and parasitol. Inst. of Sci.

Akad. of Tadj. SSR, n. 16.

Brehm, A. E. (1911): The life of

animals. 9th ed. The birds, v. 4—

Passeriformes.

Gratchev, W. A. (1960): About find-

ing of Spanish Sparrows in delta of the

Ili-river in winter. Transactions of zool.

Inst. of Sci. Akad. of Kaz. SSR. 13.

‘ Davis, David E. (1958): Relation of

clutch-size’ to the number of ova

ovulated by Starlings. Auk 75, No. 1.

Dementiev, G. P. (1940): A guidance

on zoology. 6—Vertebrates. The birds.

Kashkarov, D. N. with assistance of

Foss, L. P., Rusinova, K. I., Sataeva,

Zw. L.,: and Zaruba, E. A. (1926):

Observations on the biology of the

sparrows in Turkestan and on their role

in the deterioration of the crops. Bull.

of the Middle-Asia Univ. No. 13.

Malchevski, A. S. (1959): The nesting

life of song birds.

Shnitnikov, W. N. (1949): The birds

of Semiretchye.

Stegman, B. K.(1956a) : The sparrows

of Kazakhstan and investigation of

control methods. J. of zool. 35, No. 8.

—— — (1956b): The sparrows of

Kazakhstan, their harmful activities

and control methods. Trans. Republ.

Station of Plant Protection 3.

Sudilovskaya, A. M. (1954): Family

Ploceidae. In book ‘ The birds of the

Soviet Union’ 5.

Umrichina, G. (1955): The materials

On sparrows of the valley Chu. Sci.

notes of biol.-soil faculty of Kirg. State

Univ. (zoology), n. 5.

Whitehead, C. H. T. (1909) : On the

birds of Kohat and Kurram, Northern

India. Jbis, 9th ser., 3, No. 10.

A Note on the Eastern Spanish

Sparrow, Passer hispaniolensis

transcaspicus Tschusi, in India

SALIM ALI

(With a plate)

Little is recorded about the migratory Eastern Spanish Sparrow in

India apart from its winter distribution in the country. This 1s

summarized by Ripley, 1961 (SyNopsis: 594) as follows: ‘A winter

visitor to West Pakistan and India, straggling to northern Baluchistan,

Chaman, Gilgit, Chitral, NW.F.P., Sind, Punjab, northern Rajasthan, U.P.

east to Mirzapur, in the plains and low hills; sometimes in flocks in

sarpat grass jungle, reed beds, edges of cultivation and scrub tropical

thorn forest. Whistler’s excellent distribution maps [with his MS.

notes now in the British Museum (Nat. Hist.)] show the southernmost

Indian record as from c. 25° N., and easternmost as from c. 84° E.

Thus, a few notes about its ecology and behaviour in its winter quarters

would seem to be interesting.

Perhaps the best published account we have is that of Major

Magrath from NW. India quoted by Lieut. C. H. T. Whitehead (1909,

Ibis, January: 232-3) as follows: ‘Mixed up with flocks of the last

species (Passer domesticus), numbers of the present occur on the

spring migration. At the height of the migration vast flocks of

Sparrows in company with flocks of Pastor roseus pour into the

station (Kohat) to roost. The combined noise of these birds before »

they have settled down te sleep is indescribable, and the smell of

them becomes~ quite appreciable and rather offensive. Gardens,

hedges, and trees are disgustingly soiled by the rain of their excreta.

Shooting the birds is encouraged in Cantonments at this time, and

every sepoy who can procure a gun slaughters to his heart’s content.

But notwithstanding these drastic measures little mitigation of the

nuisance is effected.’

According to Whitehead spring passage in the NW. Frontier

Province (now in W. Pakistan) begins in the second week of March

and continues till mid-May when large numbers pass through the

JouRN. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Migratory sparrows in treetop before flying into roosting bushes.

Bharatpur

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Sparrow flock on its way to roost. Bharatpur

(Photos : Salim Alt)

THE EASTERN SPANISH SPARROW IN INDIA 319

Kurram Valley. Return passage in autumn commences in early

August and continues till October.

In Bahawalpur, W. Pakistan, in February/March I found small and

large flocks of up to 100 birds or more, frequently in association

with Passer domesticus parkini, about canal cultivation in desert and

semi-desert biotope. In a specimen collected on 9 March the testes

had enlarged to 4X3 mm. (1940, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 42 : 726).

The above information can now be supplemented with my

experience of the Spanish Sparrow in Bharatpur (Rajasthan) between

15 March and 15 April 1962 during the BNHS/WHO bird migration

study field camp. On 19 March an enormous roost was discovered

about 7 miles (c. 11 km.) out on the road to Kumher and Deeg. It

was a low-lying area of maybe a hundred acres or more of semi-desert

thorn jungle—the hard-baked ground pock-marked with old hoof

prints and cattle wallows, obvious signs of flooding during the

monsoon. It was dotted about with bushes and shrubs—singly or in

clumps—of Zizyphus jujuba and Z. oenoplia, Capparis aphylla and

C. horrida, Prosopis spicigera, Salvadora persica and §. oleoides, and

other xerophytic species. The dense assemblage of birds that con-

centrated to roost in this patch of thorn jungle at sunset may well

be of the order of a million or more. They consisted chiefly of

Passer hispaniolensis transcaspicus and P. domesticus parkini

(presumably also P. d. bactrianus if one recognizes that race), and

Redheaded Buntings (Emberiza bruniceps). The first two were about

equally abundant, and among them were also mixed a few resident

House Sparrows (P. d. indicus). The buntings varied significantly in

numbers from day to day, apparently as they moved northward on

emigration and were replaced by fresh waves from the Peninsula.

The vast mixed swarms of sparrows spent the day in the surround-

Ing expanse of ripening wheat fields, where their ravages must be

very serious indeed. The birds moved about in ‘clouds’ and settled

from time to time amongst the crops to commit their depredations.

When driven off by the slings and shouts of the watchmen, the cloud

merely lifted from one field to settle in a neighbouring one. The

disturbance served at best only to keep the birds moving and thus to

distribute the damage over a wider area. It is only when one has

witnessed the helplessness of the farmers and the magnitude of the

swarms that one can appreciate, up to a point, the mass extermination

of sparrows undertaken in China and elsewhere. In a recent campaign

against these pests by the Institute of Plant Protection in Alma-Ata

(Kirghizia, USSR) no less than 1.8 million sparrows were destroyed

320 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (2)

by poisoned grain. It is from this holocaust that 3 of the birds

ringed by us in Bharatpur a few months previously were recovered.

Two of these were Spanish Sparrows; the third, identified as P. d.

parkini when ringed has been reported as ‘P. d. bactrianus’ on

recovery. (For details see infra, p. 461.)

It is curious that such a gigantic concentration of Spanish Sparrows

should have gone unrecorded in India before, though it is doubtless a

regular seasonal occurrence and possibly not confined to this area

alone. At the Bharatpur roost the flocks of sparrows began to arrive

a few minutes before ‘sunset in a succession of dense swarms. The

birds usually alighted on the leafless branches of bare treetops in the

neighbourhood, flying about restlessly to perch again on small trees

and shrubs standing amidst the wheat fields. From time to time

they descended into the crops presently to rise again and settle

elsewhere. The masses in the bare treetops silhouetted against the

evening sky looked in the distance like a dense crop of foliage. On

3 April, fourteen days after its discovery, the sparrow roost was noted

as being more fantastically populous than ever, and it was obvious

that the birds were being augmented by fresh arrivals, maybe pre-

paratory to emigration. Unfortunately it was not possible to ascertain

when the birds actually left.

From a little before till a little past sunset—-during 20 aia or

so—the sky was filled with a continuous stream of birds all hurrying

from long distances over the extensive wheat fields in the

direction of the roosting jungle. The stream was boosted from time

to time by denser waves of birds, the noise of whose wings was like

surf breaking on a sandy beach—reminiscent also of a distant rain

storm advancing over broad-leaved forest. The sparrow flocks were

interlarded with flocks of Rosy Pastors, which had increased: pro-

gressively in the last few days, also hurrying towards the roost. The

roosting bushes can be easily recognized even in daytime, when

unoccupied, by the masses of the birds’ droppings on the branches

and leaves and the ground beneath, and the acrid stench the place

exudes.

In March and April the Spanish Sparrows in Bharatpur were all

in freshly moulted plumage and excessively fat. Some 1293 birds

were netted and ringed at this roost between 22 March and 3 April—

857 males, 436 females. Measurements of 100 adult males and 100

adult females picked at random from the above, are as follows:

Males: Wing 73-87 mm. (av. 79.98); Weight: 20-28 gm.

(av. 24.9).

THE EASTERN SPANISH SPARROW IN INDIA a21

Females: Wing 73-82 mm. (av. 77.07); Weight: 18-28 gm.

(av. 23.49).

It is interesting to compare the above figures with Table X in

Dr. Gavrilov’s paper (p. 316 above) and with similar data obtained

by Paludan on 15 October 1949 in Afghanistan of birds in fresh

post-nuptial plumage, presumably on autumn passage. Paludan

gives:

1 male: Wing 81 mm.; Weight 33 gm. 4 females: Wing 77, 79,

81, 81 mm.; Weight 29, 29, 30, 20 gm. Therefore, in autumn both

sexes would seem to be considerably heavier than before emigration

in spring from their Indian winter quarters!

The adult male Spanish Sparrow has a heavy black bill with a

hawfinch-like profile, broad and flat-convex dorsally near the fore-

head. It has a prominent white loreal streak in front of the eye with

a shorter continuation behind it, broken above the eye by a black spot.

The tarsus was noted as being appreciably stouter than in either

P. d. parkini or P. d. indicus.

Up till 24 September no Spanish Sparrows were observed in

Bharatpur on the autumn immigration although our catches of

sparrows at this time included a few P. d. parkini (and/or bactrianus?)

along with the resident race of the House Sparrow. The dates of

arrival or departure have not been recorded.

Description of a new Geckonid

Lizard from Maharashtra, India

ALICE G. C. GRANDISON

Curator of Herpetology, British Museum (Natural History)

AND

P. W. SOMAN

Bombay Natural History Society

(With two plates)

Hemidactylus albofasciatus sp. nov.

Material Examined. Holotype (No. BNHS. 148), adult co‘, in the

collections of the Bombay Natural History Society, collected by the

junior author in January 1962 at Dorle village, Rajapur Taluka,

Ratnagiri District, Maharashtra.

Paratypes, 11 29, 14 oo, and four hatchlings collected at

Dorle village, Rajapur Taluka, Ratnagiri District, Maharashtra,

in the months of January 1962, and January 1963;

Dabhil village, Taluka and District Ratnagiri, Maharashtra, in

January 1963;

Gavkhadi village, Rajapur Taluka, Ratnagiri District, in January

1963.

These will be deposited in the collections of the British Museum

(Natural History), Bombay Natural History Society, and the Zoological

Survey of India, Calcutta.

Diagnosis. Small, slender gecko; scales of the dorsum small,

keeled and granular, intermixed with irregularly arranged, enlarged,

keeled tubercles. Subdigital lamellae in ‘straight, transverse series;

undivided except for the penultimate and two or three more proximal

plates which are notched; eight or nine, exceptionally ten (1), lameiiar

plates. under the fourth toe, five under the first toe. Only the distal

two or three finger lamellae notched; otherwise the lamellae are entire.

Lamellar plates under the fingers number 5, 6, 7, 7, 7, counting from

the first to fifth respectively. Usually one pair of post-mentals,

(unmos *M ‘d * 0404)

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A NEW GECKONID LIZARD FROM MAHARASHTRA 323

rarely two or three pairs, which may (17) or niay not (9) form a suture

on the median line. Other chin shields gradually merge in size with

the gular scales. Males with seven (1), eight (9), nine (3), or ten (2)

preanal pores arranged in a widely angular or almost straight series,

uninterrupted mesially. Tail cylindrical, tapering fairly rapidly, with

a median furrow: scales of the tail considerably larger than those on

the dorsum, faintly keeled or striated, imbricate, arranged in whorls,

28 scales round the third whorl at its posterior edge; a denticulation

on each side formed from two to three longitudinal series of enlarged,

keeled, pointed but rather flat scales; subcaudals subequal. A con-

spicuous white band from the nostril to above the ear; dorsum and

tail cross-banded with light streaks.

Description of Holotype. Head moderate, snout obtusely pointed,

distance from tip of snout to anterior border of eye only very slightly

greater than distance from posterior border of eye to anterior

border of ear. Diameter of ear ith diameter of eye. Eight upper

labials, seven lower labials. Mental triangular, its length equal to

the width of the first lower labial; one pair of post-mentals, not

forming a suture. Rostral 14 to 1} times as broad as deep. Nostril

between rostral, first labial and three scales, the uppermost separated

from its fellow by one internasal. Head covered with small granules.

those on the snout keeled and considerably larger than the granular,

conical, parietal scales. Back with small, keeled granules, intermixed

with larger trihedral tubercles, which are twice as large as the granules.

About 80 midbody scales. Tubercles arranged irregularly, separated

by one to three granular scales. Belly with smooth, rounded,

imbricate scales. Digits free, with little dilation; distal joints rather

short; nine lamellae under the fourth toe, the seventh and eighth

deeply notched, the remainder without any indentation. Five lamellae

under the first toe, the penultimate indented. Adpressed hind limb

reaches to the elbow of the adpressed fore limb. A vertebral groove

continuing on to the tail where it is more pronounced. Tail round in

section, tapering, verticillate, covered above with faintly keeled, pointed

imbricate scales; in the middle of each whorl and to either side of

the vertebral line are two longitudinal rows of larger, pointed. keeled

scales; 28 scales round the tail at the posterior edge of the third whorl.

Ventral surface of the tail with subequal, somewhat pointed, smooth,

imbricate scales. A slightly curved series of eight preanal scales, not

interrupted mesially. Ground colour dark brown; a whitish ‘streak,

two scales wide, runs from the nostril, through the eye to above the

ear. Ten narrow, somewhat wavy, whitish bands run transversely

324. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (2)

from behind the eyes to the hind limbs; interspaces three times the

width of a band. ‘Tail similarly cross-banded at each alternate whorl.

Ventral surfaces cream with fine brown speckling. A longitudinal.

midventral dark line is present on the tail.

Measurements. Snout to Vent 29.6 mm.

Tail 26.5 mm.

Field Notes. The type locality of H. albofasciatus is on the open,

rocky crests of the hills in the Ratnagiri and Rajapur talukas of

Ratnagiri District between 15° 44’ to 17° 17’ N. and 73° 12’ to 72°

52’ E., SW. Maharashtra State. Although the crests bear a few

patches of scrub, mainly Carissa carandas and Holarrhena antidysen-

terica, the surrounding country is jungle of a semi-evergreen nature.

The geckos are nocturnal and by day they remain concealed

beneath stones. Many clutches of two eggs were found in January;

the eggs measure from 7.5X6.0 mm. to 9.07.0 mm.

The livery of the juvenile at birth is dark brown on the dorsum

with three darker, longitudinal lines, one on the vertebral region, the

other two more lateral and running from the shoulder to the base of

the tail. The tail is brick red with narrow, dark lines on the upper

surface. The belly is whitish.

Affinities. Allied to Hemidactylus reticulatus Beddome, from

which it differs mainly in dorsal pholidosis, in the nature of the

subdigital lamellae, in tail scalation, and in pattern. In H. reticulatus

the dorsal tubercles are more numerous and are separated from each

other by one (rarely two) scales. A vertebral band, three scales wide,

in which no tubercles are developed is present; the scales in this band

are smaller than those separating the tubercles. Although Beddome

(1870), Boulenger (1885), and Smith (1935) make no mention of there

being undivided subdigital lamellae in JA. reticulatus, in fact the

basal five or six lamellae under the fourth toe are without any

indentation, although a groove is usually - present. The plate

adjacent to the terminal scansor is always deeply indented and might

almost be thought to be divided; but division is not complete, as is

evident when the lamellae are sloughed. Likewise the one or two

plates proximal to this one, although ‘the indentation is less

developed. Only the greater indentation of the plates and the

grooving of the basal ones distinguish the digits of reticulatus from

those of albofasciatus, although there appears also to be more dilation

of the distal halves of the digits. The tail denticulation of reticulatus

is formed from eight (4+4) longitudinal rows of enlarged, keeled,

A NEW GECKONID LIZARD FROM MAHARASHTRA 525

almost conical scales, as opposed to four (2+2) to six (3+3) rows of

keeled, rather flat, pointed scales in the new species. A _ dorsal,

median tail furrow is absent in reticulatus. There is also a greater

disparity in the size of the dorsal tail scales and the spines in

reticulatus and the number of scales round the posterior edge of the

third whorl is 34-40. The pattern of reticulatus is basically, as the

name implies, a network. Dark brown lines on a lighter brown

background form an open mesh over the head and dorsum.

Longitudinal lines from the eye to the ear, or as far as the insertion of

the arm are usually pronounced. The dorsal tubercles are usually

whitish.

REFERENCES

Beddome, R. H. (1870) : Descriptions the Lizards in the British Museum

of some new lizards from the Madras (Natural History) Vol. 1, 436 pp.

Presidency, with 2 Plates. Madras London.

Month. J. Med. Sci.1: 30-35. [Reprin- Smith, M. A. (1935): The Fauna of

British India and

ted under the title ‘Some Reptiles of

South India’ in Vol. 59 (2) : 430-436 of

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. |}

Boulenger, G. A. (1885): Catalogue of

including Ceylon

Burma, Reptilia and Amphibia Vol. 2,

Sauria, 440 pp. Taylor & Francis,

London.

A Taxonomic Study of the Genus

Indigofera Linnaeus in Rajasthan

N. C. NArR? AND T. T. Kosuy

Department of Botany, Birla College, Pilani, Rajasthan

INTRODUCTION

The genus Indigofera Linn. comprises a little more than 300 species

distributed in the tropical zones. Africa claims the largest number of

species. About 42 species are reported from India. In the existing

floras and other similar publications, including some of the more recent

ones, the genus is treated more or less unsatisfactorily with frequent

uncertainties in specific conception, nomenclature, and description.

An exhaustive taxonomic investigation of the genus as represented in

India has, therefore, been highly desirable for a long time. The present

work is an attempt to give a morphological and taxonomical account of

the representatives of the genus in Rajasthan. The work was started in

1956 by one of us (NCN). By the time our work progressed considerably,

Ali (1958) published his revision of the genus Indigofera from Pakistan

and NW. Himalayas. This work was very helpful in the completion

of the present account. It must be mentioned that the species of Indigo-

fera found in Rajasthan have not earlier been the subject of a comprehen-

sive taxonomic investigation. Although the representative species were

few, the work was more time-consuming than was thought likely in the

beginning, particularly because we have attempted to study the material

in the field itself and to examine the herbarium sheets from almost all

the districts of Rajasthan. Therefore our place of work was now the

museum, now the laboratory, and now the field. A very large sample of

each species has been studied closely. This would have been impossible

without the materials obtained from various quarters and facilities given

to us by various museums for studying the herbarium sheets. We

therefore owe a great debt of gratitude to the numerous persons we have

troubled. Of the various persons who helped us we should like to men-

tion in particular Rev. Fr. H. Santapau, St. Xavier’s College, Bombay

(now Chief Botanist, Botanical Survey of India), who gave to one of us

facilities to work in Blatter Herbarium, and who went through the manu-

* Present address : Botanical Survey of India, Dehra Dun

GENUS INDIGOFERA LINNAEUS IN RAJASTHAN 327

script and suggested several improvements; the Regional Botanist,

Botanical Survey of India, Western Circle, Poona, for permission to

study herbarium sheets ; Dr. K. M. Gupta and Mr. V. S. Sharma of

Government College, Ajmer, Drs. H. S. Narayana and B. Tyagi of the

University of Rajasthan, Jodhpur, Messrs. Ganga Singh Natawath of

Maharajah’s College, Jaipur, and L. N. Vyas of Government College,

Alwar, for lending their herbarium sheets. Most part of the investi-

gation has been carried out in the Department of Botany, Birla College,

Pilani. To the Head of the Department, Dr. B. N. Mulay, we proffer

our warmest thanks not only for the facilities given to us but also for

encouragement given and interest taken in the work.

KEY TO THE SPECIES OF JNDIGOFERA OF RAJASTHAN

Pods 1- to 2-seeded:

Leaves simple ovate cordate te a eo 1. cordifolia

Leaves simple not cordate :

Leaves linear, internode long, inflorescence up

to 20-flowered raceme Ae a a 2a. linifolia

Leaves obovate-obtuse, internode short,

inflorescence 1- to 4-flowered raceme ce 2b. linifolia var. campbellii

Leaves compound :

Leaflets three ‘ rae : S. 3. glandulosa

Leaflets more than three, up to 11 a Fe 4. linnaei

Pods more than 2-seeded :

Pods flat curved slightly Ey us ie 5. hochstetteri

- Pods angular :

Leaves simple i fe = un 6. dalzellii

Leaves compound :

Leaflets more than three aye BY ve 7. astragalina

Leaflets three, pods slightly curved at the

base a Me ee ~, «8a. irita-var, (rita

Leaflets three, pods drooping and not

; curved at the base ne ee 8b. trita var. subulata

Pods torulose :

Inflorescence axillary short peduncled glo-

bose spike Bs ae 9. sessiliflora

Inflorescence raceme, shorter than the leaves :

Leaves pilose on both sides .. Ae 10a. caerulea var. occi-

dentalis

Leaves glabrous adaxially be * 10b. caerulea var. subu-

lata

Inflorescence exceeding the leaves :

Leaves compound, rarely unifoliate,

leaflets alternate. cf se oi 11. oblongifolia

328 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (2)

Leaves always compound, leaflets opposite :

Seeds discoid with irregular depressions .. a 12. argentea

Seeds concave with a raised ridge in

the centre AA a a ae 13. angulosa

Pods almost cylindric :

Pods with depressed white hairs .. bie Fe 14. wightii

Pods glabrous :

Leaflets more than seven ae ie x 15. tinctoria

Leaflets less than seven vs = Be 16. glabra

ENUMERATION OF THE SPECIES OF INDIGOFERA OF RAJASTHAN

1. Indigofera cordifolia Heyne ex Roth, Nov. Pl. Sp. 357, 1821.

Description: Cooke, Fl. Pres. Bomb. (Reprint) 1 : 331, 1958. This

description should be supplemented as follows: pods frequently 1-

seeded ; seeds sometimes white, ovate, truncate at one end, pitted ;

pericarp with black spots inside.

Specimens examined. Jodhpur: Blatter 7179, 7183 ; S. K. Tandon 231;

G. S. Puri 4037. Ajay Sagar (Ajmer): V. S. Sharma 81. Khetri:

Kanodia 1146, 1149 ; Nair & party 1150. Kotah: Bhartya 1161. Pilani :

R. K. Joshi, 1144 ; Natawath 1147; Kusum Kanta 1148 ; Padmanabhan

1153 ; Tripathi 1156 ; Dhami 1157 ; Sukumaran 1160 ; Prabha Bhatnagar

1162.

Distribution. India, W. Pakistan, Baluchistan, Afghanistan, Africa,

Sudan, Ethiopia, Eritrea, Timor, Australia.

Flowering period. August-December.

Ecological notes. Common in sandy waste; good sand binder ;

sometimes pioneer on fresh sand dunes; rarely in crevices of rocks.

Pods eaten by pigeons ; ants seem to have a special liking for them.

2a. Indigofera linifolia (L. f.) Retz. Obs. 4:29, 1786 & 6:t. 2,

1791 ; Wight, Icon. t. 313, 1840. Hedysarum linifolium Linn. f. Suppl.

331, 1781. Sphaeridiophorum linifolium (Linn. f.) Desy. in J. Bot.

1: 125, t. 6, f. 35, 1813. S. abyssinicum Jaub. & Spach. Illust. Pl. Or.

t. 494. Indigofera polygonoides Wendl. Bot. Beobacht. 55, 1798. :

Description: Cooke, Fl. Pres. Bomb. (Reprint) 1 : 330, 1958. This

description should be supplemented as follows: flowers 6-22 in each

raceme.

According to Duthie (1903) the plant is perennial and the flowers are

sometimes white. The plant can be an annual or perennial in the same

population. None of the specimens examined had white flowers.

Specimens examined. Jodhpur: Blatter 7039, 7040; S. K. Tandon |

271. Ajmer: V. S. Sharma 580. Kotah: 7. 7. Koshy 16. Khetri:

Kanodia 1209. Pilani: Omkumari 1197; Khamboj 1198; Bhatnagar

GENUS INDIGOFERA LINNAEUS IN RAJASTHAN 329

1199 ; Padmanabhan 1200 ; Natawath 1201 ; Bharadwaj 1202 ; Khushlani

1204 ; Bahl 1205 ; Tripathi 1206 ; Vasu Pillai 1207 ; Mukherji 1208.

Distribution. Throughout India, W. Pakistan, Afghanistan, Eritrea,

Ethiopia, Sudan, Ceylon, E. Pakistan, Burma, Indochina, Siam,

Indonesia, New Guinea, Australia (Queensland, New South Wales),

China, Yunnan, Szechuan, Formosa.

Flowering period. July-December ; occasionally even up to March.

Ecological notes. Common in sandy areas as well as hillocks. Seeds

eaten by pigeons.

2b. Indigofera linifolia var. campbellii Wight ex Baker in Hook.

f; Fl. Brit. India 2 : 93, 1879.

Differs from I. linifolia in having shorter internodes, shorter leaves

up to 1.8 cm. long, obovate to obtuse, and 1- to 4-flowered short axillary

racemes.

Specimens examined. Kotah: Bhartya 1192. Harigarh : Chuda 1193.

Distribution. Plains of India.

Flowering period. July-December.

Ecological notes. Rare. On hills in crevices of rocks.

3. Indigofera glandulosa Willd. Sp. Pl. 3 : 1227, 1800.

Description: Cooke, Fl. Pres. Bomb. (Reprint) 1 : 332, 1958. This

description is to be supplemented as follows: petiole as long as

the leaflets ; flowers red, 7 to 11 in an inflorescence ; pods brownish ;

seeds reddish. °

Specimens examined. Pilani: Varghese 1186. Harigarh: Chuda 1187.

Distribution. Bihar, central India.

Flowering period. August-October.

4. Indigofera linnaei Ali in Botan. Notis. 111 : 549-550, 1958.

Hedysarum prostratum Linn. Mant. 1 : 102, 1767. H. prostratum Burm.

f. Fl. Ind. 168, t. 55, f. 1, 1768. Indigofera prostrata (Burm. f.) Domin

in Bibl. Bot. Stuttgart : 187, 1926, non Willd. (1803). J. enneaphylla

inn: Mant: 2 +272, 1771. Append: 571, 1771.

This is Indigofera enneaphylla Linn. of Indian floras. As shown by

Ali (1958) the names Hedysarum prostratum Linn., H. prostratum Burm.

f., and Indigofera prostrata (Burm. f.) Domin are invalid. Cooke (Reprint,

1958) regarded I. semitrijuga as a synonym of I. enneaphylla. Ali (1958)

pointed out that the photograph of the holotype of J. semitrijuga reveals

that it is a different species. Thus Ali (1958) proposed a new name J.

linnaei for the taxon.

Description: Ali, Botan. Notis. 111 : 449-550, 1958. Ali reports 3-

seeded pods, but none of the material we examined had 3-seeded pods.

Specimens examined. Khetri: Kanodia 1167, 1171. Harigarh:

330 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (2)

Chuda 1185; Ajmer: V. S. Sharma 326. Jodhpur: Shanti Sarup 59.

Kotah: T. T. Koshy 7. Sawaimadhopur : Dhami 1172. Pilani: Tripathi

1173 ; R. K. Joshi 1174 ; Padmanabhan 1175; Chhajlani 1178; Nata-

wath 1179 ; Bishnoi 1180; T. T. Koshy 2. -

Distribution. Ali (1958) wrongly states that this species is not found

in Rajasthan. Throughout India, W. Pakistan, Ceylon, Burma, Siam,

Indochina, Indonesia, Java, New Guinea, Australia (N. S. Wales).

Flowering season. Cooke reports October to be the flowering season

of the species. In Rajasthan it begins flowering from August and extends

up to January.

5. Indigofera hochstetteri Baker in Oliver, Fl. Trop. Afr. 2: 101,

1871 ; Jaub. & Spach. Illustr. Pl. Or. 5: t. 480, 1856. Indigofera ana-

baptista Steud. ex Baker in Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 2: 102, 1876. J.

arenaria A. Rich. Tent. Fl. Abyss. 1: 183, 1847 (non E. May, 1835-

1837). JI. ornithopodoides Hochst. ex Jaub. & Spach. [lust. Pl. Or.

t. 480, 1856 (non Cham. & Schlecht. 1830). J. jaubertiana Schweinf.

in Bull. Herb. Boissier, App. 2 : 1876.

Description : Cooke, Fl. Bomb. Pres. (Reprint) 1 : 334, 1958. This

description should be supplemented as follows: inflorescence some-

times longer than the leaves ; pods 6- to 8-seeded.

According to Hooker and Duthie the number of leaflets varies from

3to 7. Inthe material examined the maximum number was 5.

Specimens examined. Jodhpur. Blatter 7055; S. K. Tandon, 14.

Khetri: Nair 522. Ajmer: V. S* Sharma 1083. Madarpura: V. S. Sharma

609. Kotah: Bhartya 1131. Pilani: Dhami 1132 ; Joshi 1133 ; Deshpande

1134 ; Mahajan 1140 ; Surjit 1135 ; Chuda 1137.

Distribution. W. Pakistan, Afghanistan, Arabia, Somalia, Ethiopia,

Eritrea, Sudan, Nigeria, Kenya, Uganda, Tanganyika, French Sudan,

Belgian Congo, India.

Flowering period. August-October.

6. Indigofera dalzellii T. Cooke, Fl. Pres. Bomb. 1: 311, 1902.

I. triquetra Dalz. in Hook. Kew Jour. 2 : 36, 1850.

Description: Cooke, Fl. Pres. Bomb. (Reprint) 1 : 331, 1958.

Specimens examined. Only one sheet collected by Natawath from

Jaipur in 1953. The sheet is not in good condition and the label in-

completely filled.

Distribution. Western India.

7. Indigofera astragalina DC. Prodr. 2 : 228, 1825.

A herb 60-120 cm. high, densely covered with soft greyish or slightly

brownish hairs. Leaves up to 12.9 cm. long, short-petioled; stipules

GENUS INDIGOFERA LINNAEUS IN RAJASTHAN 331

setaceous ; leaflets 9 to 11, very rarely 7, opposite, 3.5 to 5 cm. long,

obovate to oblanceolate, membranous, hairy on both surfaces, greyish

green above, glacous beneath. Racemes axillary, 5 to 15 cm. long;

peduncles less than 25 mm. long. Flowers many, crowded. Calyx

4 to 6 mm., teeth of different sizes, setaceous. Corolla scarcely exserted,

reddish to pink, hairy ; keel petals united. Pod pointing downwards,

straight, 4-angled, densely pubescent, 1.2 to 2 cm. long, 0.3 mm. wide,

3- to 6-seeded. Seeds cylindric, inner surface of pericarp and septa

separating the seeds spotted brown.

This species has been only very recently reported from India. Very

often the taxon is confused with I. hirsuta Linn. Hooker & Bentham

(1849) treated I. astragalina DC. as a synonym of J. hirsuta Linn.

The characters which have been used to differentiate the two species

include length of peduncle, breadth of pod, number of seeds, colour of

_ hairs on the pod, number of leaflets, and length of pod. According to

Ali (1958) none of these characters can be applied with complete success

to distinguish astragalina from hirsuta. He therefore treated I. hirsuta

(including J. astragalina DC.) as a single polymorphic species. Gillett

(1960), on the other hand, took exception to the above treatment.

According to him the two species can be differentiated on the

following characters :

Longer peduncles nearly always over 25 mm. long ; pod. usually

6- to 9-seeded, 0.2 mm. wide, some or all of the hairs on the dorsal

surface usually brown ; largest number of leaflets on any one

eats 7. orc less: often 9... : . hirsuta

Longer peduncles under 25 mm. fous pod asually ie to 6-seeded,

0.3 mm. wide, the hairs on its dorsal surface usually white ;

largest number of leaflets on any one leaf usually 9 or 11, occa-

sionally 7.. ce ee a . .astragalina

In our material the hair is sometimes brownish.

Specimens examined. Khetri: Nair 400, 975 ; Nair and party 1188.

Punch Kund (Ajmer): V. S. Sharma 408. Ajay Sagar (Ajmer): V. S.

Sharma 80.

Distribution. India and tropical Africa.

Flowering period. August-November.

8. Indigofera trita Linn. f. Suppl. PI. 335, 1781.

I. trita L. f. and J. subulata Vahl ex Poir. are closely related. The

distinction between the two was based chiefly on the number of leaflets

(Baker, 1871, 1876). J. subulata is regarded as a five-foliolate plant.

Meikle (1951) has pointed out that this is erroneous as the species is

trifoliolate. He placed all five-foliolate plants, previously included under

I. subulata, in I. subulata var. scabra (Roth) Meikle.

332. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (2)

Under J. subulata Vahl ex Poir. Gillett (1958) recognised the following

taxa : ;

1. var. nubica Gillett

li. var. microphylla Chiov.

ili. var. maffei (Chiov.) Gillett.

After studying the various taxa put under J. trita L. f. and I. subulata

Vahl ex Poir., Ali (1958) transferred all plants previously attributed to

I. subulata to I. trita. He recognises the following taxa under J. trita :

(a) Subspecies trita

ly Vatvtnita

ii. var. maffei (Chiov.) Ali

(b) subspecies subulata

i. var. subulata

ii. var. scabra (Roth) Ali.

Of the four taxa recognised by Ali (1958) only subspecies frita var.

trita and. subspecies subulata var. subulata occur in Rajasthan.

8a. Subspecies trita var. trita. J. cinerea Willd. Sp. Pl. 1225, 1803.

I. rigidula Willd. Enum. 780, 1809. J. timoriensis DC. Prodr. 2 : 223,

1825. I. leschenaultti DC. Prodr. 2: 223, 1825. J. canescens Larne

Encycl. Meth. 3 : 251, 1789. I. hedysaroides Lam. Encycl. Meth. 3 : 250,

1789.

Description: Parker, For. Fl. Punj. 127, 1956. This description

should be supplemented as follows : seeds smooth, slightly concave with a

raised ridge in the centre.

Specimens examined. Kotah: S. K. Jain 4118, 4119 ; T. T. Koshy 4, 10.

Flowering period. September-November.

Ecological notes. In moist places, browsed upon by cattle.

8b. Subspecies subulata (Vahl ex Poir.) Ali in Botan. Notis.

111: 558, 1958 var. subulata J. subulata Vahl ex Poir. in Lam.

Encycl. Meth. Supp. 3: 150, 1813. J. subulata var. microphylla

Chiov. in Atti Inst. Bot. Univ. Pavia, Ser. 4, 7: 128, 1936. J. subulata

var. nubica Gillett in Kew Bull., Add. Ser., 13, 1958.

Differs from the above taxon in the larger leaves, up to 6.2 cm., longer

petioles, up to 1.8 cm., longer inflorescence axis, between 2.5 and 4.4

cm., larger number of flowers, drooping fruits not curved at the base,

slightly longer pods, up to 2.8 cm., and pyramidal seeds. |

Specimens examined. Alwar: R. K. Bhartya 346.

In Ali’s Fig. 2, showing the distribution of the species the taxon

does not extend into India.

Distribution. Rajasthan, Africa, Arabia.

Flowering period. July-December.

GENUS INDIGOFERA LINNAEUS IN RAJASTHAN 333

9. Indigofera sessiliflora DC. Prodr. 2: 228, 1825. J. tribuloides

Boiss. Fl. Or. 2 : 189, 1872. J. trigonelloides Jaub. & Spach. ex Baker in

Hook. f. FI. Brit. India 2 : 94, 1876.

In the existing Indian floras this species is referred to as J. trigonelloides

Jaub. & Spach. According to Gillett (1958) and Ali (1958), the correct

name of this taxon is I. sessiliflora DC. ; I. trigonelloides Jaub. & Spach.

is confined to SW. Africa and Ethiopia and does not extend into India.

There is remarkable difference in the number of chromosomes between

I. sessiliflora DC. collected from Africa and India. The chromosome

number of the species from Africa is 2n=32 (Darlington & Wylie, 1955)

and that of India is 2n=16 (Ramanathan, 1955).

Description: The description of J. trigonelloides Jaub. & Spach.

as given by Cooke, Fl. Bomb. Pres. (Reprint) 1 : 332, 1958. This descrip-

tion should be supplemented as follows : pods about 22 in the axils of

leaves, up to 9 mm. long, cylindric, beaked ; seeds 3 to 4, rarely 2 or 6,

globose. at

Specimens examined. Jodhpur: Blatter 7075. Pilani: Kahate 1215 ;

T. T. Koshy 3, 8 ; Nair 1002.

Distribution. W. Pakistan, Punjab, Arabia, Eritrea, Sudan, French

Sudan, Fr. Niger Colony, Senegal.

Flowering period. August-October. February-April in Pakistan

(Ali, 1958).

10. Indigofera caerulea Roxb. FI. Ind. 3 : 377, 1832.

_ This species is known by the name J. articulata Gotian in most of

the Indian Floras [Prain, 1897 ; Cooke (Reprint), 1958 ; Gamble, 1957 :

Duthie, 1903]. Baker (1876, in Hook. FI. Brit. India) regards it as a

variety of J. argentea Linn. According to him I. argentea Linn. is a

synonym of J. articulata Gotian. Ali (1958) pointed out that J. argentea

isa nomenambiguum. I. articulata Gotan and I. caerulea Roxb. are two

distinct species (see Ali, 1958). Cooke (Reprint, 1958) and Blatter (1921)

have preferred J. houer Forsk. in preference to J. caerulea Roxb. As

pointed out by Ali, the name J. houer Forsk. should be regarded as

nomen ambiguum and. therefore must be rejected.

Gillett & Ali (1958) distinguish a variety in this species, [. caerulea

var. occidentalis Gillett et Ali.

10a. Indigofera caerulea var. caerulea

Description : Description of [. houer given by Cooke, Fl. Bomb.

Pres. (Reprint) 1 : 338-339, 1958. This should be supplemented as follows:

leaflets glabrous adaxially ; seeds usually 3 to 4 per pod, rarely 2 or 5,

separated by partitions.

Specimens examined. Beer Hills: V. S. Sharma 391. Ashagunj

(Ajmer) : V. S. Sharma 825.

334. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (2)

Distribution. W. Pakistan, Baluchistan, Arabia, Eritrea, Somaliland,

Sudan, India.

Flowering period. Throughout the year.

Ecological notes. Prefers hilly areas.

10b. Indigofera caerulea var. occidentalis Gillett et Ali in Kew

Bull., Add. Ser., 13: 102, 1958, J. articulata auct. non Goiian. Cooke,

Fl. Pres. Bomb. (Reprint) 1 : 336, 1958.

Differs from J. caerulea var. caerulea in having leaflets pilose on both

sides and in the frequency of more than 4-seeded fruits.

Specimens examined. Khetri: N.C. Nair 423.

Distribution. W. Pakistan, Arabia, Mauritius, Ethiopia, Somaliland,

Kenya, Sudan, French W. Africa, Rajasthan (India).

Flowering period. October. 3 .

Ecological notes. In fertile fields and river beds ; eaten by cattle.

Rare.

11. Indigofera oblongifolia Forsk. Fl. Aegypt-Arab. 137, 1775;

Delile, Fl. Egypt. 1: t. 37, f. 22, 1812 ; Wight, Icon. t. 33, 1840-1843.

I. paucifolia Delile, Fl. Egypt. 251, 1812. J. argentea Roxb. FI. Ind.

3: 374, 1832 (non Linn. 1771). JI. desmodioides Baker in Kew Bull.:

331, 1894. J. oblongifolia var. carposphigma Schweinf. in Bull. Herb.

Boissier 4, App. 2 : 240, 1896.

Description: The description of I. paucifolia Delile is as given by

Cooke, Fl. Pres. Bomb. (Reprint) 1: 334, 1958. This .description

should be supplemented as follows : leaves rarely unifoliate. |

Specimens examined. Ajmer: V. S. Sharma 182. Jodhpur: Blatter

7070 ; Bhandari, 186.

Distribution. W. Pakistan, Baluchistan, Jordan, Yemen, Hejaz,

Bahrein, Eritrea, Somaliland, Egypt, Sudan, Senegal, Angola, Fr. Niger

Colony, Nigeria, Java, Ceylon, India. |

Flowering period. September-November.

12. Indigofera argentea Burm. f. Fl. Ind. 17, 1768 (non Linn. 1771).

I. semitrijuga auct. non Forskal. Baker in Hook. f. Fl. Brit. India

2: 98, 1876. J. semitrijuga var. tetrasperma DC. Prodr. 2: 230, 1825.

I. burmannii Boiss. Fl. Or. 2 : 189, 1872.

Description: Cooke, Fl. Bomb. Pres. (Reprint) 1 : 338, 1958. This

description should be supplemented as follows : pods slightly torulose ;

generally 4 to 6, rarely up to 8-seeded ; seeds more or less discoid with

irregular depressions. | |

Specimens examined. Jodhpur: Blatter 727, 7028; S. K. Tandon

412 F.

GENUS INDIGOFERA LINNAEUS IN RAJASTHAN 335

Distribution. Rajasthan, Punjab, W. Pakistan, Baluchistan, Arabia,

Egypt, Sudan, Somaliland, Ethiopia, Libya, French Sudan, Persia.

Ecological notes. Prefers sandy soil. One of the pioneers on sand

dunes.

13. Indigofera angulosa Edgew. ex Baker in Hook. f. Fl. Brit. India

297, 1876.

Description: Duthie Fl. Upp. Gang. Pl. 1: 252-253, 1903. This

description should be supplemented thus : leaflets generally 5, rarely 3,

mucronate ; pods often 4-seeded ; seeds concave with a raised ridge in

the centre.

Specimens examined. Ajmer: V. S. Sharma 8, 831.

Flowering period. July-August, December-February.

14. Indigofera wightii Grah. ex W. & A. Prodr. 202, 1834.

Description : Cooke, Fl. Pres. Bomb. (Reprint) 1 : 340, 1958.

Specimen examined. Sikar: Natawath. The label is incompletely

filled and the specimen not properly preserved.

Distribution. Throughout India ; Ceylon.

Flowering period. October.

15. Indigofera tinctoria Linn. Sp. Pl. 751, 1753. J. indica Lam.

Encycl. Meth. 3: 245, 1789. J. sumatrana Gaertn. Fruct. 2: 317, t.

148, f. 4, 1791. |

Description: Duthie, Fl. Upper Gang. PI. 1 : 254-255, 1903. This

description should be supplemented thus: seeds separated by septa,

cylindric, dotted brown.

Specimens examined. Anand Sagar: Vasavada 4088. Ajaysagar :

V. S. Sharma 84. Foysagar: V. S. Sharma 195. Khetri: Kanodia 225,

254. Pilani: Koshy 11, 12.

Distribution. Throughout India, Ceylon, Burma, Indonesia, Philip-

pines, Siam, Indochina, Malaya, W. Pakistan, Tropical Africa, Florida,

W. Indies.

Flowering period. Mostly during the rainy season, but may continue

up to December.

Ecological notes. Gregarious. Often forms pure associations in

stable soil as well as on hill slopes.

16. Indigofera glabra Linn. Sp. Pl. 751, 1753. J. pentaphylla Murr.

Syst. Veg. ed. 13 : 564, 1774.

Description: Cooke, Fl. Pres. Bomb. (Reprint) | : 337, 1958.

Specimen examined. Sikar : Natawath. An unnumbered and impro--

perly preserved specimen.

Distribution. Throughout India ; Tropical Africa.

Flowering period. October.

336

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (2)

REFERENCES

Ali, S. I. (4958): Revision of the

genus Indigofera L. from W. Pakistan

and NW. Himalayas. Bot. Notis. 111:

543-577.

Baker, J. G. (1871) : Leguminosae in

Oliver, Fl. Trop. Afr. 2 : 81-103.

—-——(1876) : Leguminosae in Hook.

f. Fl. Brit. India 2 : 92-102.

Blatter, E. (1921): Flora Arabica in

Rec. Bot. Surv. India 8: 142-149.

Cooke, T. (1958): The Flora of the

Presidency of Bombay 1: 329-341.

Calcutta.

Darlington, C. D. & Wylie, A. P.

(1955) : Chromosome Atlas of Flowering

Plants. London.

Duthie, J. F. (1903): Flora of Upper

Gangetic Plain 1: 248-256. Calcutta.

Gamble, J. S. (1957): Flora of the

Presidency of Madras 1: 215-221.

Calcutta.

Gillett, — J.” B.

(Microcharis) in Tropical Africa.

Bull., Add. Ser., 13 : 1-166.

———(1960) : Indigofera hirsuta L.

and Indigofera astragalina DC. Kew

Bull. 14 : 290-295.

Hooker, J. D., & Bentham, G. (1849) :

Flora Nigritiana in W. J. Hooker, Niger

Flora.

Meikle, R. D. (1951) : Tropical African

Plants—21. Kew Bull, 1950 : 352.

Parker, R. N. (1956): A forest flora

of the Punjab. Third ed. 126-130.

(1958) : Indigofera

Kew.

Lahore.

Prain, D. (1897): Some additional

Leguminosae. J. As. Soc. Beng. 66:

347-522.

Ramanathan, K. (1955): Chromo- ~

some numbers in Indian desert plants.

Curr. Sci. 24; 17.

The Bats of Central and Western India

BRA mean, 2 EN!

A. BROSSET

(With three text-figures)

[Continued from Vol, 59 (3) : 746]

This fourth and last part deals with certain general aspects of

the biology of Indian bats, mainly their zoo-geographical affinities,

ecology, reproduction, and hibernation. More detailed papers on

their reproduction and hibernation are under preparation and only a

a summary is given here.

Z.00-GEOGRAPHICAL AFFINITIES OF INDIAN BATS

The theories concerning the zoo-geographical origin of the different

species of bats admit of a large amount of speculative uncertainty.

However, if we consider, not the species or even the genus one by

one but, the whole fauna of bats of a given area, their zoo-

geographical affinities appear more clearly. Table I below gives

the general distribution of the genera represented in western and

central India. Most of these genera have an immense area of

distribution; not a single one is specifically Indian. This table shows

_ that it is not possible to deduce the affinities of Indian species from

the examination of the distribution of the genus. Table II shows the

distribution of the Indian bats at species level. The zoo-geographical

affinities of the Indian bats appear clearly at this level and Indian

_ Species can be classified in several groups:

(i) Species having their centre of distribution in the deserts of

Africa and Asia: The two species of Rhinopoma and_ probably

Taphozous kachhensis.

(ii) Species having their centre of distribution in the arid areas

of eastern Africa: They are Taphozous perforatus and Tadarida

aegyptiaca, :

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (2)

338

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359

THE BATS OF CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA

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JI a1avy,

340 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (2)

(ii) Species having their centre of distribution in south-eastern

Asia: Vhey are the great majority: Rousetius leschenaulti, Pteropus

giganteus, Cynopterus sphinx, Taphozous melanopogon, T. saccolaimus,

T. theobaldi, and T. longimanus, Megaderma spasma, and M. lyra,

Hipposideros bicolor, H. speoris, H. lankadiva, and H. galeritus,

Rhinolophus rouxi, R. lepidus, and R. luctus, Pipistrellus mimus,

P. ceylonicus, P. coromardra, and P. dormeri, Hesperoptenus tickelli,

Kerivoula picta, Tylonycteris pachypus, and Scotophilus kuhli, and

S. wroughtoni.

(iv) Purely Indian species: Myotis peshwa and M. peytoni, and

Otomops wroughtoni. These species are rare and perhaps inhabit

other areas, where they have not been studied.

(v) Cosmopolitan species: A single one—Miniopterus schreibersi.

The bats in India appear to be essentially oriental, with a few

species originally from eastern Africa and the deserts of the tropical

areas of the Old World. India forms the meeting place between

two types of fauna, the bats from Rajasthan, Gujarat, and western

Madhya Pradesh belonging to the western world, and the rest of the

country being inhabited by oriental species. This difference is

evidently determined by ecology—north-western India forming the

eastern border of this immense arid area extending eastwards from

Mauritania, the rest of the country belonging to the oriental region

of Asia.

It may be noted that the zoo-geographical origin of bats in India

recalls that of birds in the same area (cf. Dillon Ripley). It would

appear that these two groups of flying vertebrates evolved aiong

parallel lines adapting themselves to prevalent ecological conditions.

ECOLOGY

Every nocturnal species has two kinds of biotopes: the diurnal

roost, where the individuals rest and sleep, and the nocturnal territory

where they search for their food. According to the species, their

social activities occur in the diurnal or the nocturnal territory. Most

species of bats have very precise requirements for both diurnal and

nocturnal biotopes.

(a) The diurnal roost: The existence of suitable diurnal

biotopes is a very important factor in the ecology of bats. In India

species living in cracks and trees easily find shelter. But the highly

gregarious species, which live in cavities in large colonies, need caves

THE BATS OF CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA 341

or decayed buildings, which do not exist all over the country. The

abundance or absence of species like Taphozous, for instance, is

linked with the presence of old palaces, ces temples, or cliffs

with large crevices.

Indian bats have two types of roosting biotope: cavities, and the

open air.

1. Cavities

Four types of cavity are inhabited by Indian species: (a) caves;

(b) deserted buildings; (c) crevices of cliffs, walls, and wooden

structures; and (d) hollows in trees.

(a & b) Caves and deserted buildings: The same species inhabit

caves and the interior of buildings and are of the genera Taphozous,

Rhinopoma, Rhinolophus, Hipposideros, and Megaderma. During

the day, they hang by their hind limbs from the ceilings like cocoons

(Rhinolophus, Hipposideres), or keep themselves hooked by the fore

limbs against the walls (Taphozous).

The artificial caves carved by the Hindus and the Buddhists have

provided many suitable biotopes. In fact, natural caves do not

occur in the coastal areas and in the Deccan. Before the caves and

temples were made by man, the species of Taphozous, Rhinopoma,

and Megaderma only had the cracks in the cliffs, which are not

numerous in western India, as their diurnal roosts. But now, probably

Over many centuries, these species have no doubt occupied the many

artificial caves and hypogean temples, which today form the most

suitable and accessible places in India in which to study them.

Let us see what are the factors favourable to the settlement of

bats in caves and buildings. A large cavity is not a strict necessity,

and the size of the room is of secondary importance. For instance.

I saw in Chikalda hundreds of Rousettus roosting under the dome of

a small isolated dungeon. The whole surface of the ceiling was

covered with bats. In the cave at Alibag, Taphozous melanopogon

Were in low recesses, almost at the level of the ground. Colonies of

Hipposideros have been observed in holes of foxes and porcupines.

But an important factor is the existence near by of other caves where

the bats may find shelter when they are disturbed during the day in

the main habitat. In fact, if bats like Rousettus or Hipposideros are

chased from a cave into the open air, they are attacked by kites and

crows and must quickly reach another place of safety. For this

reason, large colonies are most often found where the caves are

numerous, with ramifications and recesses.

342 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (2)

This darkness is no doubt a favourable factor, but perhaps more

important is the quietness which usually prevails in dark places. For

instance, the colonies of Rhinopoma microphyllum of western India

spend the day in well-lit porches, at the entrances of caves and ruins.

They take shelter in the darker parts of the diurnal habitat only if

they are disturbed. Similar observations may be true of Taphozous

and Megaderma. !

A high degree of humidity is required by the palaearctic species

living in caves, and they do not frequent the dry cavities. This need

of humidity is certainly connected with periods of hibernation which

may extend to six months and more in cold countries. In India,

these conditions do not exist and many species live in relatively dry

cavities. Rhinolophus rouxi appeared. to be an exception, and was

always found in humid caves. Generally speaking the Rhinolophids

are known for the fragility of their wing membranes; if the bat is

kept in dry air, the wing membranes dry quickly and the bat dies. |

Tranquillity affects different species differently. Rousettus

leschenaulti is very intolerant and abandons its diurnal roost easily

and definitely if it is disturbed. Twenty years ago, the colony at

Khandala deserted the railway tunnel after Br. Navarro took some

specimens there. In 1961, the Archaeological Department carried out

some work in the vicinity of the large colony at Elephanta with the

same result. - | Pea

On the other hand, the elimination of Taphozous and Rhinopoma

from the caves of archaeological interest is a difficult enterprise. These

species refuse to abandon their diurnal roosts, even when much

disturbed. The cracks and other small inaccessible cavities adjacent

to the main caves or hypogean temples give temporary shelter to

the disturbed members, which return. to the original place as soon

as the immediate cause of disturbance has. passed. Many well-known

places, e.g. Ellora, Ajanta, and Agra, are full of Taphozous, and the

Archaeological Department have been unable to do anything better

than continue to pay numerous scavengers to sweep away the guano.

Finally, we may say that bats in India can be found in all types

of caves and old buildings. Caves are relatively not numerous in

India and, the choice being restricted, practically every cavity gives

shelter to populations of bats.

group of species which need to have both their back and belly closely

in contact with the surface of the wood or the stone. This

‘chasmotropism’ is usual in the Molossid family (Tadarida, Otomops).

THE BATS OF CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA 343

The individuals of these species introduce themselves in narrow

crevices of the buildings, cliffs, ceilings of caves, timber work, etc.,

and their reactions to disturbance is not to fly away, but to draw

back into the deeper parts of the cracks or crevices. Similar habitat

and behaviour are also characteristic of several Vespertilionidae,

e.g. Pipistrellus, Scotophilus, Myotis, etc. -

For instance, the Pipistrellus, which are far the most numerous. and

the commonest bats of India and of the Old World, live in the roofs

of buildings especially under the tiles, and also under the blinds,

behind picture frames on the walls, etc. Tadarida aegyptiaca inhabits

deep crevices of the cliffs (Aurangabad) or of old buildings (Poona,

Mandu, Agra). Humayun Abdulali told me that he had found one

specimen of Tadarida sp. (?) on the ground, under a stone on a

small islet off the Malwan Coast, south of Bombay'. Such type of

biotope, although probably rare in India, is well known in certain

African bats of the same genus. Ofomops wroughtoni inhabits deep

crevices and the upper portion of large funnels in the ceiling of

Barapede Cave. This heavy bat has very narrow wings, and has to

let itself drop down from a height before it can fly off. Usually the

species of the genus Tadarida have the same requirements. —

The Pipistrellus are much more numerous around villages and

towns than in the country. They have taken great advantage of

man’s presence by colonizing his houses. All these species have little

to fear from human beings. The owners of the houses inhabited by

Pipistrellus pay no attention to their presence. Tadarida and Otomops

are not common species in India; they are difficult to find and to

capture, and human interference in their life is very rare.

(d) Hollow trees: In various parts of the world, holiows in trees

form the normal diurnal roost for many species of bats. I have

myself had the opportunity to verify this in Africa and South America.

In India, except perhaps in large forests, this is not so, and the bats

inhabiting decayed or hollow trees are few. Some Pipistrellus were

observed in crevices of tree trunks, and a few observations show that

Taphozous saccolaimus spend the day in decayed palm trees. In

Kanara, Shortridge found two species of Rhinolophus in hollows of

trees. Tylonycteris pachypus is known to roost inside decayed

bamboos. ;

1JIn Vol. 26 of the Journal at p. 824 Inglis et al. in‘ A tentative list of the verte-

brates « of the Jalpaiguri District, Bengal record Myotis muricola as common ‘ under

stones in the bed of the Torsa river ’.—Ebs.

344. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (2)

2. Open air

In Central and South America, numerous species inhabit the open

air during the day: surface of rocks, foliage, branches of trees, etc. .

In the Old World, this type of biotope concerns only a few species,

none in the palaearctic, perhaps a dozen in Africa, and only three or

four in India. The best known is Prteropus giganteus, an arboreal

species, very common everywhere, especially on trees in the middle

of villages. In Gujarat, Taphezous longimunus often roost on the

external walls of houses. Finally it seems that Kerivoula picta and

Hesperoptenus tickelli live in trees, probably concealed among the

leaves during the day, but precise information is not available.

(6) The nocturnal feeding territory: Acconimne

to the ornithologists, competition for food between the various species

of birds living in a given area is unimportant, or even non-existent,

because each species has its own type of food or has a special feeding

area and does not encroach into the territory of the others. The rule

does not seem true everywhere, especially in the tropical forests of

America (or even of India) where numerous closely allied species

of birds having a similas morphology and diet live side by side.

Nevertheless, the theory of Ecological Niches is useful and helps to

explain the exploitation of the food available in a given biotope.

During the night, the hunting territories of birds are occupied by

the bats. Have they in the same manner exploited the various

possibilities of the biotope for their food? Are their morphological

differences associated with their special diet or methods of hunting

as in the birds? An affirmative reply can be given to both questions.

The hunting territories of insectivorous Indian bats are of three

main types: (a) the open air; (b) amid the foliage of trees; and (c) on

the surface of rocks and on the bark of trees.

The frugivorous species have two types of feeding territory, not

so well marked as those of insectivorous species:

(i) At the top of large fruit trees (Preropus);

(ii) Among the lower branches and bushes (Rousettus and

Cynopterus).

(a) Species hunting in the open air: Such species are the

majority. They explore large areas of air, searching for insects

which fly out at sunset and at night. They are essentially the

Vespertilionidae, Emballonuridae, and Molossidae. But the hunting

territory is not exactly the same for the different groups.

The Pipistrellus and Scotophilus of the Vespertilionidae usually

THE BATS OF CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA 345

hunt at middle heights, between trees and buildings. The territory

is more or less the same as is worked during the day by flycatchers

AaB%®&

ayt® «KARATE

KOE RR K

AY RE

Ls ae

Ny cx »

XXX

Fig. 1. °° ° Hunting territory of Pipistrellus, Scotophilus, etc. ; tee

Hunting

territory of Megaderma

The Taphozous and Molossidae hunt higher above the ground, and

explore the aerial open fields. They have during the night the

territories of the swifts and the swallows.

(b) Species hunting amid the foliage of trees: The Rhinolophus

belong to this group. They search for insects both flying and settled

on the leaves and branches. They occupy during the night the

territory of the warblers (Sylviinae) during the day.

barks oj trees: The Mesaderma have this special hunting biotope

where they search for terrestrial insects and small vertebrates. The

feeding territory is similar to those of the shrikes, rollers, and the

smaller birds of prey. The Hipposideros hunt over similar territory,

not far from the ground and around the bushes.

. RELATIONS BETWEEN THE MORPHOLOGY OF THE SPECIES AND

THE NATURE OF THEIR FEEDING TERRITORY

The comparison with birds can be continued further. In the same

way that the wings of warblers differ from those of the swifts, some

bats have broad and short wings while others have them long and

pointed. These differences, corresponding to the nature of their

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (2)

346

Hunting territory of

- ‘Hunting territory of Rhinolophidae ; ae

Fig. 2.

Molossidae and Emballonuridae

Above: Wing of astrong flyer, Taphozous saccolaimus;; Below: Wing

of a weak flyer, Rhinopoma microphyllum

Fig. 3.

THE BATS OF CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA 347

respective feeding territories, are attained by changes in the length of

the third finger, as illustrated in the accompanying sketches.

REPRODUCTION

Study of the reproduction of bats is important to understand

their general biology. Their sexual life can give an explanation of

many aspects of behaviour, including cycles of displacement and their

social life so peculiar in different species of Chiroptera. However,

until recent years, methods and details of the reproduction of tropical

bats remained unknown and mysterious. Several important studies

have now shed light on the main aspects of the reproduction of Asian

and African species. For Africa, Verschuren had given data of

considerable value. For Asia, the placentation and sexual cycles of

several Indian species are known by the important work of Moghe &

Gopalakrishna, and their students. I have myself been able to obtain

much information on the reproduction of Indian bats. My notes,

in comparison with the researches of the Indian authors, may appear

superficial, especially in relation to spermatogenesis and duration of

pregnancy, because they lack the histological basis. On the other

hand, I obtained in the natural environment data which would not

be available in a laboratory. For this reason, I think these different

studies will help to supplement and complete each other.

(a) Secondary sexual characters: Several - Indian

Species have curious secondary sexual characters which are not easily

visible in the skins preserved in museums. For this reason, the

descriptions of the older authors are often incomplete, sometimes

erroneous. The question needs to be re-examined with fresh speci-

mens.

It may be noted that such characters sometimes occur in both

Sexes, sometimes in the males alone. In India they are not seasonal

but permanent in all species, appearing after the juvenile stage, and

sometimes well before sexual maturity is attained.

1. Erectile beard: The black beard appears in the young of

T. melanopogon when about six months old (observations made in

Kanheri). In the same time, the fur becomes lighter, of a sandy grey

colour. This black beard is a good field character for the identification

of the species in its diurnal biotope, and the more because the bat

bristles up its beard when excited or frightened.

Six adult males of Taphozous theobaldi caught in North Kanara

in May 1961 show a beard of the same type, but rufous and not

black.

348 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (2)

2. Gular pouch: Males of T. longimanus possess a very large

inter-mandibular pouch (Known as the inter-mandibular organ of

Schaffer). The females also have the pouch, but less developed. A

gland in front of the pouch produces a fatty and reddish secretion,

with a strong and disagreeable smell; the same type of gland is

present in 7. perforatus and T. kachhensis. The gular sac appears

early, being noticeable in the juvenile stage in T. kachhensis.

3. Pectoral gland: This gland is round and well developed in the

male of Taphozous kachhensis, and absent in the females. Both sexes

of Otomops wroughtoni have a deep and large gland at the base of

the throat.

4. Frontal sac: Well developed in the males of H. speoris and

H. galeritus.

5. Variations in the colour of the fur: Large variations have been

noticed in the colour of the fur in several Indian species. In most

cases, this polymorphism is unconnected with the distribution of the

bats, and arises from purely individual variations of no taxonomic

value. Several of the well-differentiated types of colour can be

observed in individuals of the same colony, and we saw that indian

subspecies named on such differences cannot be sustained.

Colour variations may be due to age; except in Preropus the young

of all species, are grey. The true colour of the adults appears in the

smaller species, after six months. Sexual dimorphism exists in three

Indian species. The adult male of C. sphinx has bright rufous upper

parts (sometimes the females also). The males of R. leschenaulti

have the sides of the body washed with grey, the female being

yellowish all over. The females of 7. melanopogon are darker and

browner than the males. .

Finally, we do not know the reason for most of the variations of

colours of bats. For instance, a red type is known in numerous

species which are usually brown. Tadurida aegvptiaca, Otomops

wroughtoni, Rhiaolophus rouxi, Hipposideros lankadiva, and H.

fulvus, Pipistrellus ceylonicus, and Miniopterus schreibersi have both

types represented in the same colony. These phases of colour appear

to have no connection with season or sex. Their biological signi-

ficance remains to be elucidated. :

(b) Periodicity of reproduction: Data have steam

collected on the reproduction of twenty-seven species. The greatest

number have a well-marked periodicity. All the adult females of a

THE BATS OF CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA 349

given species give birth to their young during one or two short periods

regularly the same in the annual cycles. These dates vary from one

species to another, but not for the individuals belonging to the same

species. 3

In the state of our knowledge, unfortunately incomplete for

several species, it seems that bats have three types of periodicity in

India :

1. One short and single cycle in the year—the young being born

in a precise and restricted period: This type of periodicity occurs in

the great majority of Indian bats.

2. One cycle in the year, but very long (March to September):

_ The greater number of females deliver in March, but others continue

through the summer. This is the case with the small frugivorous bats

and certain species of Pipistrellus.

3. Cycles of reproduction free of the rhythm of the season, and

following one another without stop: One single species shows this

type of cycle—-Taphozous longimanus.

The analysis of the internal and external factors which determine

the cycles of reproduction of the Indian bats show that the periodicity

is firstly determined by the phylogenetic origin of the species; for

instance, all the Indian Rhinolophidae (8 species) give birth to their

young in spring, but the Molossidae do so in autumn. On the other

hand, climatic factors particularly the rains in tropical countries may

also be an important external factor in the determination of the time

of their birth. In Africa and Asia, the majority of the species give

birth to their young before the start of the rains, or just at the same

time (cf. Verschuren for Africa, and Brosset for India).

(Psexudh maturity, mating behaviour, preg-s

nancy: I give here a summary of my notes published in another

paper (cf. Brosset, La reproduction des chiroptéres de lOuest de

YInde. Mammalia, June 1962).

The small insectivorous bats, like Hipposideros speoris and H.

bicolor, reach sexual maturity when 18-20 months old. Young

individuals ringed in autumn in Elephanta were still immature the

Next spring. But one juvenile female ringed at Elephanta on

15 November 1959 (Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., Ring No. 1357) gave

birth to one young in May 1961. Owing to their slow development,

the sexual maturity of the fruit bats probably takes longer.

Most activities of the bats are nocturnal and, owing to difficulty

Of observation, the sexual behaviour of this group of mammals is

350, JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 60 (2)

practically unknown. The biological significance of pairs of bats

resting or flying together is of little importance as very often the two

individuals of the pair are found to be of the same sex. The

copulation of Megaderma spasma was observed during the night in

January 196] at Kanheri. The male overlapped the female modo

ferrarum. Each was hanging from the ceiling by a single foot only,

and the hind part of their bodies was turned to the side, so that the

two pubes were face to face. The free foot of each individual was

used to hold the body of the other, probably in order to maintain the

contact. It seems that the position of bats during copulation shows

variations related to the systematic position of the species. Pairs of

Taphozous melanopogon were seen in Kanheri in the position of

copulation normal in most species of mammals.

The pregnancy of some Indian species has been studied carefully

by Moghe & Gopalakrishna. These species belong to purely tropical

groups of bats. Some new studies of bats belonging to the genera

Myotis and Rhinolophus are needed in order to determine if they show

in tropical countries such phenomena as delayed fecundation, or

slackened pregnancy, as in the palaearctic regions.

In France, Courrier has proved that in Miniopterus schreibersi the

foetus stops growing in winter and the pregnancy extends over about

eight months. It seems the same occurs in India in this species. In

the Robbers’ Cave, I noticed that the pregnancy of this small

insectivorous bat has a duration of at least five months.

(7) Number, of.) youns, Show 2 ile titers cae

young. Juvenile mortality: With a few exceptions, bats

give birth to a single young. It is the rule for the whole order

Chiroptera. In India, hundreds of Taphozous, Rhinolophus, and

Hipposideros were seen carrying a single young, and no case of twins

was noticed.

One case of twins has been recorded by Moghe in the fruit bats

in Cynopterus sphinx. Twins seem rather frequent in Megaderma

spasma, and are the rule for the Indian Pipistrellus and Scotophilus.

During growth, the position of the young varies according to

the anatomy and ecology of the mother. In Megaderma, Rhinolophus,

Hipposideros, and probably Rhinopoma, the voung is carried by the

mother in an inverted, ventral position. This position, which serves

to give a good balance to both, is associated with the existence in the

mother of the pubic false dugs to which the young affix themselves

firmly by the mouth. The mother can fiy with a young almost as big

as herself. The other groups of bats have no false dug. In the fruit

bats the position of the young is ventrally parallel. The young is

THE BATS OF CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA 351

affixed to the natural dug with the body crossing the belly of the

mother, so that she can carry a large young and fly with a good

equilibrium. The species belonging te the genus Taphozous, and

probably also the Tadarida, keep their belly in perinanent contact

with the stone surface of their diurnal roost, and the young cannot

be accommodated under the belly; so the young are displaced to the

side, under the wing. The mother cannot fly with a large young in

such a position. Contrary to the previous species, the young of

Taphozous melanopogon leave the mother early, being able to fly a

long time before reaching adult size. In Taphozous kachhensis the

young has found another position. It keeps itself on the back of the

mother. Probably in the great majority of bats, the young is reared

by its own mother. But in Miniopterus schreibersi the mother does

not carry and suckle ker own young. All the young are put together

in a special cluster and reared by the community of the females.

(For development and pictures of this behaviour, see Brosset, La

reproduction des chiroptéres Tropicaux. Mammalia, Tome 26, No. 2,

June 1962.)

Due to especially good conditions I was able to study the juvenile

mortality in Taphozous melanopogon and Rousettus leschenaulti at

Kanheri. In Rousettus about one-fourth of the young die in the

early stages; in Taphozous one-fourth at the time of the separation

from the mother (forearm 50-54 mm. in length for 34 dead young

collected).

a Reproduction. amd socralo life: “Recent. researches

have shown that the social life of the European species covers a short

part of the sexual cycle. After fecundation the sexual segregation

occurs and males and females live in separate roosts. Even the

seasonal movements, which affect the two sexes differently, are under

the influence of ‘sexual rhythms. Unlike in the palaearctic area, in

India such behaviour does not seem to be the rule. The segregation

of the sexes is exceptional. In the great majority of species males

and females live together the whole year. In addition to the colonies

Where both sexes are completely mixed, one can meet in India a

second type of colony where males and females live in the same

diurnal roost but in separate groups. This type of colony was

observed in P. ceylonicus, Rh. lepidus, and T. melanopogon. In these

Species, the males are frequently scattered around a nucleus of

females, sometimes several colonies of males occupying secondary

diurnal roosts in the vicinity of the main roost, where only females

may be found. These observations show that among bats, the

352. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL GIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (2)

females are dominant, and occupy regularly the better and_ safer

portions of the biotope.

The only species in which a rigorous segregation of thé sexes in

India is proved is Rhinolophus 1ouxi, though two cases of segregated

colonies were observed in Rhinopoma hardwickei.

In colonies where males and females live together, the sex ratio

is far from balanced. In fact, with a few exceptions, the females are

‘more numerous than the males. In India, the fact was brought to

light for the first time by Humayun Abdulali (cf. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 48 : 423-427; 1949). For various countries, the same observation

has been made by numerous authors. Baker & Bird 1936, Blanford

1888, Brosset & Caubére 1950, Casteret 1938, Gopalakrishna 1947,

1950, Ramakrishna 1951, Nimsatt 1945, etc. 7

What is the reason for this unbalanced sex ratio in bats? The

only species for which sufficient statistical data are available is

Miniopterus schreibersi in France. In the colony of Rancogne 1747

newly born were examined, of which 877 were males and 870 females.

The sex ratio is equal at the time of the birth of the young. Never-

theless, adults caught at the same place showed 897 females against

oniy 700 males. We saw that, for this species, both sexes live

together indiscriminately mixed, and the higher mortality of the males

does not appear to be connected with any ecological factors. The

explanation for this unbalanced sex ratio in bats may lie in physio-

logical factors, connected with sexual endocrinology.

HIBERNATION

In temperate and cold countries, bats hibernate. This hibernation

often broken by short periods of activity is practically continuous

from October to April in middle Europe, where bats are known to

hibernate even in summer. Practically nothing was known about the

hibernation of bats in tropical countries, and I made special efforts.

to ascertain if such behaviour could be observed in Indian species.

For this reason the degree of activity of all individuals observed was

noted. Bats found in a state of torpidity were caught, and their

reactions carefully observed. Experiments were made to ascertain

whether hibernatorial faculties existed in species which did not

hibernate under natural conditions. Twelve species were experi-

mentally tested by repeated cooling.

Observations in the field throughout the year prove that the species

belonging to the group of the fruit bats and also of the genera

Taphozous, Rhinopoma, Megaderma, and Hipposideros never hiber-

ere

THE BATS OF CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA ; 353

nate in natural conditions. Probably, it is the same for the

Molossidae, Tadarida, and Otomops. On the other hand, the various

species of Indian Rhinolophids and Vespertilionidae were frequently

found all over western India in a state of complete hibernation.

The cooling experiments were made with a refrigerator, where

bats were placed, each in a bag, a short time after their capture

(internal temperature 8° C.; duration of the experiment: from 6 to 36

hours; control of tested individuals: they were examined on an average

once every five or six hours—for a detailed account of these experi-

ments, see Brosset: L’hibernation chez les chiropteres Tropicaux.

Mammalia, Tome 25, No. 4, December 1961).

During these experiments, four types of reactions were noticed: —

(i) The bats tolerate the cooling experiment, do not enter

into any hibernatory stage, and fly away easily immediately after

24 hours of experiment. Various Taphozous, Megaderma, and the

larger Hipposideros showed this type of reaction.

(ii) After a period of restlessness, the bats enter into complete

hibernation; at the end of the experiment (24-36 hours) the bats

- recovered progressively (in periods varying from 15 to 30 minutes)

the normal state of activity, and did not seem to suffer from the

experiment. Rhinolophus and Vespertilionidae showed this type of

reaction.

(iii) After a few hours, the tested individuals entered a state

of torpidity which looked like hibernation, but from which they did

not recover and died. Rousettus leschenaulti reacted in this manner

to the cooling experiment.

(iv) The tested bats did not endure the cooling experiment and

died after a few hours. The small species of Hipposideros showed this

‘reaction.

Two important facts are established by these observations and

experiments :

(a) The hibernation of the Chiroptera is not entirely connected

with the thermic regulation of the body; it may be due to causes other

than climatic conditions. Tropical species pass through periods of

complete hibernation, Palaearctic' species are frequently found

hibernating in summer, and the same type of hibernation has been

observed in rodents, and even in birds. The Hummingbirds of the

Andes, which sleep in caves during the night, have a rhythm of

torpidity independent of the external variations. of temperature.

Further, the hibernatorial rhythms are individual; bats in a state of

354. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (2)

complete hibernation may be found resting beside others of the same

species in a state of absolute activity.

(b) The field observations strengthened by experimental research

and by data recorded in Africa show that bats like Taphozous,

Megaderma, Rhinopoma, and Hipposideros, which do not possess

hibernatorial faculties, are restricted to countries with warm winters,

i.e. the tropical and equatorial areas. The Rhinolophids and

Vespertilionids, which all hibernate, have been able to settle in

temperate and cool countries. It seems that the presence and/or

absence of hibernatorial faculties in the different groups of bats has

determined their distribution over the world.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I cannot conclude this paper without once more thanking Mr.

Humayun Abdulali for the help he has given me throughout the

course of its publication. He kindly revised the entire manuscript,

an office rendered very necessary by my imperfect knowledge of the

language, and he has made many corrections in the text which I was

not able to make myself because, among other things, I was not

within range of the mail.

REFERENCES

Abdulali, Humayun (1948): Bat mi-

grations in India and other notes on bats.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 47 (3) : 522-6.

— — — — (1949): Sex ratio in Indian

bats. ibid. 48 (3) : 423-427.

Aellen, V. (1959): Contribution a

etude de la faune d’Afghanistan—

Chiroptéres. Revue suisse de zoologie 66

(21};25353.

Ashlaque, Mohamed & Shailaja, M.

Tungare (1960): Observations on the

structure of the female reproduction

organs in some Indian bats. Bull. Zool.

Soc., Coll. of Sci., Nagpur 3: 1-8.

Brosset, A. (1953): Remarques sur

le compartment des chiroptéres pendant

la periode de reproduction. Mammalia

47 3883-08:

— — — — (1955) : Remarques sur la

biologie des chiroptéres du Maroc

Oriental. Bull. Soc. Sc. Nat. et Physiques

du Maroc 25: 295.

— — —— (1961): L’hibernation chez

les chiroptéres Tropicaux. Mammalia :

413-452.

— — — (1962): La reproduction des

chiroptéres de l’Inde. ibid. : 176-213.

Brosset, A. & Caubére, B. (1959):

Contribution a l’etude des chiroptéres

de l'Ouest de la France et du Bassin

parisien. Mammalia : 180-238.

Dorst, J. (1953): Considerations sur

le genre Otomops et descriptions d’une

espece nouvelle de Madagascar. Memo-

ires de I’Inst. Scient. de Madagascar,

series A, 8.

Eisentraut (1940): Von warmchau-

shalt tropischer chiropteren. Biol. Zen-

tralbl. 60 : 199, 209.

French, N. R. & Hodges, R. W.

(1959) : Torpidity in cave roosting hum-

mingbirds. Condor 161 : 223.

Gopalakrishna, A. (1949) : Studies on

the embryology of Microchiroptera. Part

IV—An analysis of implantation and

early development in Scotophilus wrough-

toni (Thomas). Proc. Indian Acad. of Sci.

30 B (4) : 226-242.

— — — — (1950) : Studies on the em-

bryology of Microchiroptera. Part VI.

Structure of the placenta in the Indian

Vampire Bat, Lyroderma_ lyra lyra

(Geoffroy) (Megadermatidae). Proc.

Nat. Inst. Sci. India 16 (2) : 93-98.

THE BATS OF CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA

Gopalakrishna, A. (1955): Observa-

tions on the breeding habits and ovarian

cycle in the Indian Sheath-tailed Bat,

Taphozous longimanus (Hardwicke). Proc.

Nat. Inst. Sci. India 21 (B) : 41.

— — — — (1958) : Foetal membranes

in some Indian Microchiroptera. J. Mor-

phol. 102 (7).

— — — — (1969): Development of

the foetal membranes in the Indian Leaf-

nosed Bat, Hipposideros bicolor pallidus.

Zeischarift fiir Anatomie and Entwick-

lungsgeschichte 122 : 137-149.

—— -—w— & Moghe, M.A. (1960) :

Observations on the ovaries of some

Indian bats. Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci. India

26 (B) (Suppl.).

Grassé (1955): Traite de zoologie

17 : Chiroptéres Masson edit.

Hill, J. E. (1961) : Indo-Australian bats

of the genus Tadarida. Mammalia: 29.

Moghe, M. A. (1952): Development

and placentation of the Indian Fruit Bat,

Pteropus giganteus (Brunnich). Proc.

Zool. Soc. Lond. 121 (3) : 703-721.

— — — (1956) : On the development

and placentation of a Megachiropteran

bat, Cynopterus sphinx (Anderson). Proc.

Nat. Inst. Sci. India 22 (B) : 1.

— — — (1958): A case of monozotic

twins in the Fruit Bat, Cvnopterus sphinx

355

gangeticus. Proc. zool. Soc. Lond. 130 (1):

Moghe, M. A. & Gopalakrishna, A.

(1959): Interrelationships of Chiroptera

based on the foetal membranes.’ Bull.

Agen Soc., College of Sci., Nagpur 2:

19-24.

Phillips, W. W. A. (1922): Notes on

the habits of some Ceylon bats. J. Bom-

bay nat. Hist. Soc. 28 : 448-52.

Prater, S. H. (1913) : Notes on Wrou-

ghton’s Free-tailed bat, Otomops wrou-

ghtoni. ibid. 22: 788.

Ripley, S. Dillon (19) : Zoogeographic

considerations on the Indian Avifauna.

ibid. 56 (1) : 72.

Vamburkar, A. (1958) : The male geni-

tal tract of the Indian Megachiroptera,

Cynopterus sphinx gangeticus. Proc. Zool.

Soc. Lond. 130 (1): 57-77.

Verschuren, J. (1957): Ecologie, bio-

logie et systématique des chiropt2res.

Explor. Parc Nat. Garamba. Miss. de

Saeger, Inst. Parcs Nation. Congo Belge,

Brussels No. 7: 1-473, 1 pl. 178 figs. map.

Wroughton, R. C. (1912) : Some new

Indian Mammals. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 21: 767-73.

& Riley, Kathleen V.

(1913) : Scientific results from the Indian

Mammal Survey. ibid. 22: 13.

SS)

Chapters on the

History of Botany in India

VII. EPILOGUE

I. H. BURKILL

[Continued from Vol. 69 (1) : 83]

My narrative is finished. In the years round about 1900 India

reached a kind of culmination to her very gradual entry into the

comity of nations using an elaborated philosophy and an accepted

vocabulary for intercommunication—the Language of Botany. India

in that had become prepared to face and “answer her questions in

Botany by the founding of schools and above all in the possession of

her own laboratories. The story of the slow progress is made

yeculiarly interesting by the circumstarice that the majority of those

who took part in making the progress entered into it with their botany

as a release or pastime in dull hours—the more credit to them. It

was in admiration that I prepared myself to write of them. They were

men of action. Education, however, be it said, combined with their

circumstances in determining the direction that their energy took. At

the end of this my last chapter, it is suggested that the implanters of

the science were chiefly surgeons. |

Before I close, I have two matters which I wish to bring to my

reader's notice. The first is actually part of the contributors’ aptitude

to which I have alluded. It refers to regional ease or adverse

difficulty of getting pleasure. A mountaineer cannot enjoy his bent

without the mountains; a botanist needs his magnet—a manageable

and attractive flora, at least for his beginnings; and my reader will

find, connected with the name of Linnaeus, my interpretation of the

cause of reasoned plant taxonomy having had its development among

herbalists who were not confronted with the handling of the profusion

of a tropical flora. My reader doubtless realises that I am pointing

out to him one of India’s handicaps.

1. SOME PHYTO-GEOGRAPHICAL CONSIDERATIONS

I draw my reader’s attention now to a phyto-geographical matter

ripe for work---it is full of interest and full of openings for work.

CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA a5

Hooker’s last writing on India led to it, namely his essay in the

IMPERIAL GAZETTEER on plant distribution; but Hooker had not the

material that he wanted, and the account is imperfect though he gave

a useful lead by analysing certain provincial floras of India. In my

chapter 6, by rearranging part of his data, I have drawn attention

as far as seemed desirable in that place to the contrasted sward and

forest sides of India.

Accompanying the contrasts in India’s natural vegetation are the

contrasts of India’s cropping. Naturally the crops have called oué

much attention but not yet enough. The history of the crops and

the history of the climates should be brought to a common footing.

Man’s part in evolution had thereby received light. The belt between

sward and forest has been pushed eastwards since it became re-

cognizable as the Glacial Ages ended.

Let us see what is believable of it at its earliest. The Glacial

Period had great alternations of cold and fertile temperatures—for

clarity disregard this and think only of the end. Geographically the

last great and extensive glaciation followed the other quaternary

glaciations (some greater) and all inflicted their damage on the

evolution of the northern vegetation of the Globe. That is a fact

which makes it convenient to draw attention to the passing away of

the last Pleistocene destruction by the spread of a condition which

must have killed much and spread herbs rather than trees, so that

the afflicted areas recovered through herbs. In the place of snow,

expanses of tundra were formed; and what interests us in them is

that in time they became the feeding grounds of herds of mammals—-

we may picture cattle, and deer of various species, asses and their

relatives, and mammoths. This abundance caused such forms of

mankind, as were in a position to associate themselves, to live by

hunting, and they became intensely carnivorous. As the tundra

moved backward, so did the herds and the hunting men. There came

times, more particularly in some parts than in others, when the

complex was squeezed out. It was then that pastoralism entered and

with the increasing squeeze came the entry of more and more herbs

into the diet.

' 2. MAN THE HUNTER BECOMES MAN THE AGRICULTURIST

Whatever happened, Man was compelled to have resting places

and more or less repeatedly occupied spots; and at these the seeds

that he scattered by bringing food home fixed his interest on certain

plants. I envisage Barley as among the first in the Old World, with

358 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol, 60 (2)

Wheat following up, but more local and believably later. Man would

learn to increase the availability of what he used most, encouraging

the self-grown annuals about his settlements to grow to usefulness.

Man in this phase might even imprison a cow in milk for a short period;

but neither act was more than pre-agriculture. Genuine agriculture

must be dated as of a later time, when whatever was done was

habitual over seasons, i.e. when Man became involved in promoting

the reproduction of what he fed on; as to plants, it was by tilling.

Tilling required tools, and is to be dated by them. As the potters

found possible the manipulation of copper and then the making of

bronze, hope of something better than stone for the tiller dawned;

and the use of iron completed the triumph: This triumph was the

vegetarian feeding which is our chief interest here.

From the evidence of the geologists on the passing of Ice, from

the evidence of the availability of copper ore and later other

metals, from the searches of the archaeologists for tcols in old

inhabited places, and from what botanists prove to have been used

as food and where this was, it is proved that primitive Man never

made greater progress in real agriculture than in the south-western

part of Asia. Pliny echoed what must have been a belief of his

time that Barley was leading—a not impossible thing. We have

evidence that population and therefore food-production had a great

increase squeezing down onto Mesopotamia; then Sumeria, escaping

the greatest, aided the accepting of Barley and also of Wheat in the

lands of northern India, to meet there the copper for spades and to

be joined there by Rice in a way to be explained. I shall proceed

to explain it; but there is an interesting observation on the passing

of an excessively carnivorous to a more vegetarian condition which

I desire to intercalate.

There are in caves in southern France beautifully executed drawings

of deer which can be dated as Upper Palaeolithic, as they were the —

work of Magdalenians. They are interpreted as done for calling the

deer; for the Magdaleniaiis were suffering from loss of flesh for which

they hunted. Leaving that. I take my reader back to Asia.

Asia is the largest block of land on the face of the Globe; it is

made even larger by having Europe, so to speak, soldered on to its

western side; and it is dried in its central parts by their remoteness

from oceanic winds. Africa, as well as Europe, makes a contribution

to this effect. In spite of the set-back of the condition towards

plant-growth, or rather because of it, the interior parts of Asia

fostered the origin of the earliest system of agriculture which Nature

CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA 359

pushed into the affairs of Man. Its emergence must not be attributed

to a single determinant directing the lives of the prairie dwellers, for

of determinants there were many leading towards versatility. and a

large contribution came from the strong contrast between summer

and winter.

Man, having long before abandoned arboreal habits, did not miss

‘the trees and found the prairies a nursery in which to do some grow-

ing up. The conditions drew his food-gathering into the enterprise

of hunting. The plants countered by early and abundant production

of seed the hazards of their being killed out by drought. Man drew

on the seed-harvest when it came, and on the tender buds of various

plants when in new growth; for food at other times he depended on

the mammals which he could catch. It is convenient to throw a line

on a map round the area of his adventures; towards the west it

encloses Egypt, towards the east it encloses the nearer part of

India. The plains within the enclosing lines are all watered when the

rivers are seasonally in flood. My reader remembers the Nile, the

Euphrates, and the Tigris, and I remind him that the Indus must be

added. The Fertile Crescent is made fertile by the silt of the first

three rivers; the Indus plains are not quite as these, though of the

same agricultural region. In its north-to-south dimensions, remotely

in time, it must be allowed to enclose Inner Asia. Of a later time

differentiation between a northern and a southern half by drawing a

line along the Caucasus and along the rising land to the south of

the Oxus becomes a descriptive convenience.

Within the enclosed area, undoubtedly before 10,000 B.C., Man

domesticated the Dog to be a companion in the hunt. It had not

been a particularly difficult thing to do. The Dog was accustomed

to hunt in a pack, and when in the pack an urge to common action

determined his behaviour. It was necessary to teach him as a puppy

to consort with Man. He ‘wolfed’ his food when food was present,

lest another should get it; but at all other times he would be

co-operative. He shared Man’s shelter and guarded it as his own,

while the Man was doing what the Dog could not, planning the

morrow and provisioning against it. Out of this planning came the.

domestication of Sheep. This and essays towards the domestication

of larger animals dominated the prairie. man’s life for millennia, not

by reason of resistance from the domesticated but from the disciplin-

ing of Man himself. In a way the Sheep took possession of Man, who

had to learn to devote the time which had been taken by the hunt

to restraining, pasturing, and guarding his sheep. It is impossible to

500 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (2)

understand the slowness of the growth of culture without allocating

a very long time to that phase. Time and time again Man relapsed

individually and was driven back io hunting, then would renew the

shepherding, until at last a whole-time shepherd resulted. The

advantages of shepherding must for the area have been very great

to recall Man to the occupation with millennial persistence.

Over those millennia the shepherd gathered such vegetable material

as he needed and was available. His contemporaries who were

without sheep did the same—year by year the varying flood of the

rivers exposed for them bared mud; year by year they looked to the —

mud for the repetition of a certain source of food. It came naturally.

It was the edible among the seedlings which appeared as the flood

subsided.

We know that later in time there was a custom of using the Garden,

Cress, Lepidium sativum, in this manner. Its seedlings were pounded

and crushed into a paste of the consistency of butter, and the prepara-

tion could be seasoned to fancy by the use of a considerable range of

aromatic herbs, available to a food-gatherer. Though, at the period

for which we have proof of the eating of such a preparation, the Cress

must have been sown so long as seed was in hand, the food needed

no cultivation whatsoever. I put it to my reader that, before there

was any cultivation, such use of food-plants marked a period in Man’s

progress and that, though we have evidence of the collecting of edible

seeds, we are not ipso facto in possession of evidence that particular seeds

were obtained by cultivation. I prefer the term pre-cultivation for

the process. The Nile floods in June and the water is warm and

lasting; the Euphrates and Tigris flood earlier on the melting of the

snows, and the water starts cold and the flood does not last long. The

encouragement to scatter seed on the mud as the flood passes away

would seem greater on the Nile than on the other rivers; but it would

exist everywhere at all times in the making of what Woolley, in

reference to the cutting of an irrigation channel at Ur, called ‘garden

plots’ (see his THE SUMERIANS, p. 133, 1928). With only the tools

available before metal came, Man could not be deterred from pre-

- cultivation.

The shepherd who drove his flocks into the mountains where the

disappearing snows exposed new grass had his flooding rills and bared

soil also. He, with the ability to keep sheep, inevitably had a wish

to have vegetable food-supplies in hand; and we must credit him and

his fellow men who were not shepherds with the ability to produce some

handfuls of grain to scatter over exposed mud without tilling.

Fo hp Cy TEPER ee

CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA 361

3. BARLEY AND WHEAT AT THE BEGINNING OF RECORDED HISTORY

Among the produce of the shepherd’s pasture were certain grasses,

attractive to the food-gatherer as producing the largest grass seeds of

the pasture, seeds so large that they could be picked up readily

between the finger and thumb and moreover growing in spikes by

the culling of which they could be garnered with some rapidity. They

were the seeds of Barley and Wheat. ‘They were excellent as food

and moreover welcome for providing beer.

I stress the importance of the second use for this reason: the

provision for beer used up less than that for eating; and when return- -

ing after harvest-time from the pastures, with grain stored to

transport the shepherd would be tempted to convey the lesser amounts

he wanted for beer rather than the larger amounts needed for food.

This ended in the driving of the interest in garnering Barley and

Wheat into two tracks: (1) that of a static individual who mada

beer and allotted land for the receipt of seed, and (2) that of the

shepherd who took his supply as found food. The beer maker

naturally lived where his market was, that is to say in the growing

population along the margins of the rivers that flooded. Food pro-

duction was here entangled with beer production and enforced by

the community headed by a king whose communal granary had to

be kept filled and was. By the history of the riverside cities we get

the date 4000 B.C. for the reaching of this phase in the Barley and

Wheat agricultural system of the Fertile Crescent. The history of the

entry of the Metal Age confirms the date. Tillage had by now a

firm acceptance, copper and bronze being used for the agricultural

tools where wood was not adequate, and the need of extending the

spread of the flood waters by dug channels was great.

The 17th chapter of C. E. P. Brooks’s CLIMATE THROUGH THE AGES

begins: ‘it is not many years since it was generally believed that

variations in climate came to an end with the Quaternary Ice Age’,

and continues with data towards an understanding of variations

in the Near East before and afiter the year 4000 B.C. From 5000 BC.

the humidity grew, then fell; but was still high at 4000 B.C., so that

the establishment of tilling got encouragement when particularly

wanting it. Climate and the coming of copper got into double harness;

but after the harnessing the climate went on getting drier and less

favourable. But counteracting and niuch more than counteracting

__ the worsening, iron was brought into use. The Hittites, apparently an

association of more than one origin, settled between Syria and ore-rich

Cappadocia, discovered how to smelt iron. This was not far from

362, JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (2)

3000 B.C. up to which time the metal though known was not under-

stood. The Pharoah ruling Egypt, Rameses III, heard of the Hittites’ .

success and asked for a supply; he received a dagger and a promise of

more iron when supplies had been built up. The fact that a weapon —

was. sent exposes the purpose—war—for which the metal was asked.

This coming of iron led greatly to the improvement of agricultural

toois. A thousand years later, the Aryans, who would seem to have

been not without affiliation to the stem of the Hittites, carried an iron-

dominated animal husbandry through the hills of northern Persia into

the plains of north-western India, where they broke into the eastward

extension of the agriculture that the dwellers towards the west of the

Fertile Crescent had built up on Barley and Wheat. The intervening

millennium, it seems, had sufficed for a considerable building up in

Sumeria; and this had been added to by contributions from beyond

the southern end of the Red Sea, travelling by the Sabaean Lane

towards India. The system reached forward then to the similar

climate of the plains of the equally flooding Indus. It is time to seek

light on it.

The two cities of these plains, Mohenjo-daro and Harappa, were

riverside cities like those of the Fertile Crescent: the first was on the

Indus itself, at about 125 miles from the sea, and thence drew a good

deal of food in the form of cat-fish which would be sun-dried as

modern supplies are. The circumstance indicates shipping on the

sea. ‘The second city was on the Ravi far above where it empties its

waters into the Indus and about 600 miles from a coast. Both cities

clearly had a well-occupied countryside to grow their food and timber;

ior the upper parts of the houses were wooden and the lower of

burned brick which must have required fuel for burning. Harappa

could have received timber fioated down the Ravi, Mohenjo-daro by

looking for it on the Takht-i-Suleiman. Bullock carts were so familiar

as to vouch for earth roads. The basic grains were barley and wheat

(emmer). Letters were not in use, but pictographic seals. Customs

would seem to have been such as the Sumerian city of Ur had and

friendships to have been in that direction. A clay tablet found at

Ur names the cargo of a ship inward bound, the venture of a temple

in Ur, that by its direction and by the copper ore in its cargo could

have been returning from the coast of Mohenjo-daro.

At 2000 B.C. the prosperity of the Indus cities was sapped by

some unrecorded agency. As the Aryans are thought to have arrived

from 1700 B.C. onward, the agent would appear to have been another.

It could have been by methods such as Nebuchadnezzar applied to

CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA 363

the Jews—a removal of the leading men into exile. If so, then a

condition which I should like to be able to show clear of agricultural

stagnation would have been there when the Aryans thrust the prongs

of their animal husbandry into the Sumerian tilling of the area. At

any rate the agricultural Barley and Wheat system would survive at

subsistence level. The Aryans claimed lordship, backed it by the

power of their horsed chariots of war and their iron weapons; and

their priests held the clan together by a claim to keeping contact with

tribal gods by a liturgy which they kept rigidly precise as well as

secret. If that worked, as it would seem it did in 1700 B.C., at

700 B.C. or approaching it the precision was failing, and Buddhism

and the religion of the Jains came in a spirit of Reformation. And

the concession of committing to writing a large part of the faith, an

alphabet having been accepted from Persia at about 700 B.C.. was for

the counter of schism. Great changes were being made. And I

want my reader to note in particular that, while they were being made,

Rice arrived at that part of India in which the changes were

being made. I take my reader across India to the further side of the

Bay of Bengal in order to seek the manner in which the agricultural

system of Aroids with Rice came about.

4. RICE IN INDIA

As a preliminary I need to state that we deal with not one species

of plant, Oryza sativa, but with two kinds of cultivation: (1) by

irrigation, and (2) without irrigation, or what is misleadingly spoken

of as dry land rice. It was the first kind which alone was able

to reach north-western India; the second would not be able to do so.

Oryza is a small genus, but occurs in three areas or regions of the

Globe; the largest and appearing to be the oldest extends through

eastern Asia and Malaysia and reaches Australia, the second and

third are in tropical Africa and tropical South America respectively.

All the species have in common three requirements which delimit the

range: the first is tropical heat, the second abundant rain, and the

third full or almost full sunlight; and these for the more important

Species must be continuous for a period of 6 to 8 months. Botanists

are agreed that the cultivated Rice plant, which is Oryza _ sativa,

Originated in Asia and therefore in the humid south-eastern part, for

there the three requirements could be met though far from widely.

The wide deltaic areas, of which three are these: Ganges and

Brahmaputra, Irrawaddi and Salween, Menam, Mekong, Hanoi, and

Yang-tze-kiang, at sight offer possibilities and one or several pro-

364. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (2)

babilities. The sea face of these deltas is held by mangroves; it is

towards the back that savannahs appear where trees are discouraged;

and it is there only that light is added to heat and water in adequate

supply. |

The best studied of these deltas is that of the combined Ganges

and Brahmaputra. It has two species of Oryza in it, O. sativa and

O. coarctata. The latter is peculiarly restricted in distribution in

India; in the Gangetic delta it is the commonest grass, showing a great

suitability to its deltaic habitat, and in it the greatest prevalence is

towards the back where the water reaching it is least saline. There

it appears directly a bared surface is available over the band of

islands covered by a dense growth of the sedges, Cladium riparium,

Scirpus grossus, Cyperus exaltatus, and the grasses, Phragmites karka,

Andropogon intermedius, Imperata arundinacea, and Saccharum

spontaneum, capable of growing so densely and to a man’s height, |

or enough for suppressing the Oryza although it does itself at times

get to the same height. Widely it grows to no more than a few

inches, salinity showing itself very inimical. My data are from

Prain’s paper on ‘The flora of the Sundribuns’ (Rec. Bot. Survey Ind.

2, pp. 231-376; 1903). Of O. sativa in the delta, Prain remarks that

‘it occurs everywhere . . . from the northern boundary to the sea-face

. appearing as if feral after escape’. As to individuals he calls

it rare, and it is difficult to use the information as an argument for

the origin of cultivated rice. But as to the cultivation, it is distinctly

suggestive of the habitat in which wild O. sativa appeared and from

which it must have been taken by Man for providing food.

As in the origin of the Barley and Wheat system, the System now

to be discussed began with animal food; but the food came from

fish. The delta needed to be large, so -large as to confine the

Fisherman’s living space to the fiat land. Deep in it he had his

shelter and he gathered such vegetable food as he wanted to eat

along with the fish. I suggest that a beginning was made with

perennial aroids which the Fisherman stuck into the bare mud banks

of a creek conveniently near his shelter, and that into this perennial

source of food in the course of time wild Oryza sativa was taken.

The position suggested embanking and with that conditions were

present for starting artificial lakes outside the delta, and the flooding

inflow into the delta ceased to be a limiting factor. The parental

- wheats had fruiting spikes that shattered, so wouid, it seems, parental

Rice have panicles which shattered. We find them characteristic of

O. sativa var. fatua and take it for parental. But then it would seem

CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA 365

that parent and selected cultigen entered India together. Man would

try to eliminate, even unconsciously, the shattering. Giving the

cultigen water, by which he enabled it to cross, he was imposed on

by the parent, which crossed too.

The attraction of Rice, which sent its cultivation eastward, sent

its cultivation southward into increasingly rainy country, where Man,

to give it the needed sunlight, had to fell, for it was dry-land rice

which was then raised. In as much as the labour of felling was more

exacting than the labour of embanking, the date of the spread of dry-

land rice to Malaya would be later than the commencement of the

march of irrigated rice across India. Dry-land rice makes a return

so much lower than irrigated rice that enterprise, where the labour

of entrenching and terracing brought a reward, led to such glorious

stretches of rice as may be seen in Java. They were developed late

in time by redirection. Such Rice growing for success requires

co-operative labour and has been a great political factor.

Irrigated rice in Java presumedly had no direct connection with the

aroids that led irrigated rice to its popularity.

When did the cultivation of Rice reach north-western India? The

Hymns of the Rigveda contain no mention of the grain. The

Atharvaveda, which came as the last of the Vedas and other

Brahmana literature and is dated by scholars as likely to have got into

writing after 600 B.C., does. If it can be connected with the provision.

of spades, it perhaps started the journey from the head of the Bay of

Bengal about 3000 B.C. The pace at first would be very slow; it

would be slow again at the dry end of its journey by which time

shipping leaving India at rice harvest would familiarize the grain at

new ports without familiarizing cultivation. Campbell Thompson

wrote in his DICTIONARY OF ASSYRIAN BOTANY (p. 106; 1949): ‘there is

no difficulty in accepting the certainty that rice was at least known,

even if not cultivated, in Mesopotamia in the 7th Century B.C’

Laufer points out in his SINO-IRANICA (p. 372; 1919) that rice was

unacceptable—we may say still unacceptable—in Persia at the date

of Alexander the Great (327 to 325 B.C.). This would be natural, as

the novelty of the cultivation would hold up the cultivators and the

novelty of the domestic preparation would influence the markets. It

was not until the 8th Century A.D. that Rice took first place in Persia.

But it seems to have advanced rather more freely into Turkestan.

Wkat of its passage across peninsular India? It had most

certainly other cultivated plants in company. It is possible to name

some; but to arrange their adoption chronologically is not possible

366 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (2)

There was the Barley and Wheat system to the west of India and

influencing the Indus plains at 3000 B.C., and this date has been

suggested for the start of the movement of Rice from the Bay of

Bengal. A subsequent leap of Wheat into the hills of the centre of

India would be certain, and could take place early and be followed

rapidly by acceptance for parallel cultivation of the three panics,

Panicum crus-galli, P. miliaceum, and FP. miliare, and in addition

to Paspalum scrobiculatum, all four likely to have had their first

cultivation in India. Probably the leguminous Phaseolus radiatus and

two derivatives, P. aureus and P. mungo, were added, and Amorpho-

phallus campanulatus as a root crop. Not one of these needed more

water than the climate supplied within the Peninsula. If the accep-

tance of these was in India, they were most certainly associated with

other cultivated plants before a date at which Rice took the local

lead. ;

As moving with Rice from East to West were cultivated races of

Musa, of Dioscorea alata, perhaps Colocasia esculentum. The con-

clusion is that Dravidian India collected to itself an agriculture

between 3000 B.C. and the holding up of the Aryans’ coming that

was not despicable. Further than that, the closing of the gap between

Rice and Wheat which brought all India everywhere a supply of the

best available cereals was a iremendous event. The abundance

favoured the release for agricultural labour that the Buddhist fraternity

claimed and got, and it can be thought that the brilliance of the

Gupta Period was not without stimulus from the resulting proportion

between productivity and population.

5. BOTANY IN EUROPE DURING THE RENAISSANCE AND LATER

It is time to return to the botanists themselves to let the

circumstance be explained of Europe possessing a system of Botany

when the rest of the World had scarcely more than Botany’s

technologies. Firstly, the system had not at A.D. 1500 had time for

spreading. To account for its origination by date and place is a

more involved matter, involved because it had needed a very favour-

able working together of conditions to bring it about. The date had

depended on the Renaissance of Learning which followed Europe’s

Dark Ages. Dr. Arber conveniently cuts out of the general renaissance

a late part as the Botanical renaissance.

It is right to call it a movement——-a movement among the physicians

for accuracy in the healing herbs that they used; and for communi-

cating their determinations to each other calling their books herbals.

CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA 367

They profited immensely by the development of printing among them;

it gave them cohesion. Though they were of several nations the

use of Latin secured a common understanding. When the North

Italian physician Matthioli visited Vienna to verify if _ possible

what Dioscorides used from the precious manuscript CODEX ANICIAE

JULIANAE, his decision must have had rapid diffusion. The unification

of the gathered knowledge was a great asset throughout the move-

ment. It is interesting how woodcuts of plants reappeared in the

works of others than the writer for whom they had been cut; but the

publishers were instrumental there. A greater factor in the move-

ment than the geographical unity was that the physicians were

students of a limited flora, a flora which was in contrast to the

exuberance of the tropical regions. I think that it is right to suggest

that the system could not have developed without the joint co-

operation of the three factors—the fraternity, the printing, and the

restricted flora of a temperate climate. The like conjunction was

_ improbable on two occasions in the World’s history, and the initiated

inevitably contacted new conditions wherever they spread. All of

us in our education learn on simpler problems how to deal with the

more complex ; and the initiated out of their experience were the

more ready to read the problems of the Tropics when faced with

them. .

Let us straighten out the time-scale by a few dates.

In May 1498 a Portuguese ship, at the end of a voyage of 11

months, dropped anchor at Calicut. The voyagers stayed for nearly

6 months and then the first contact was over, with an exchange of

merchandise and the departure of the Portuguese with such informa-

tion as had happened to reach them. Other Portuguese followed.

As I mentioned in my first chapter among them came Garcia da Orta,

an excellent pharmacologist who spent the last half of his life in India

and wrote a very worthy book on drugs. It held some botanical

_ observations as well. Just in time to print it a printing press was

set up in Goa and Garcia took advantage of it. The book, however,

was for his fellow countrymen in Europe; it was intended to be

read there. While as yet Garcia was alive. the missionary Christobal

Acosta arrived in Goa where he met Garcia; his visit over he took

to Burgos in Spain the materials for another book that holds illustra-

tions of the plants that had interested him. He, better than Garcia,

illustrates what I wish the reader to note, namely that the Portuguese

had commenced sending botanical information to Europe. I am

dividing the centuries from 1500 to 1900 into two parts by the fact

368 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (2)

that through the first part all the information gathered in India by

Portuguese and also by those who followed the Portuguese was sent to

Europe—each individual was looking back to the sources of his

knowledge. |

The Dutch were quick in the wake of the Portuguese and far more

effective in carrying information to Europe, for their return voyage

took them to the very hub of an interest in Indian botany which had

arisen. The Dutch were better schoolmen, more receptive and open-

minded, more organized; and one of them, Charles de lEscluse

(Carolus Clusius), as the result of visiting Spain brought to his

countrymen the knowledge that Spain and Portugal had of the flora

of the East. The Dutch interest grew; it may be said to have reached

a peak sin the time when Rheede was their governor of Malabar.

London was also interested, and England produced the great patient

naturalist, John Ray, whose HISTORIA PLANTARUM was an attempt at

ordering the knowledge that had by then (1704) been collected. The

size of Ray’s great volumes testifies to it having outgrown classifica-

tion. | :

Release came through Linnaeus, who was born two years after

Ray’s death. Linnaeus has been called the last botanist of the period

of Herbals (Sachs), but as regards Indian Botany he was the first of

a new period—an expansionist period, for which Linnaeus was fount

and origin.

The collectors of plants went into the accessible parts of the

World. It was the time when Captain Cook voyaged and when his

and other’s ships carried naturalists mainly for the purpose of collect-

ing. India was accessible and not disregarded. India’s pace of

gathering knowledge was immediately increased by the work of men

who collected for thernselves more than for despatch to someone who

had asked for specimens.

Linnaeus went through his probationary period with the limited

flora of Scandinavia about him. With consummate skill he marshalled

in his mind all that had then been written, without the blurring of

the riot of the Tropics, and when he was ready he went to what I

have called the hub, namely the Netherlands. From Holland he

issued one after another what may be called a guide to the Botany of

the time in five separate publications, which took the rank of text-

books—-his CLASSES PLANTARUM, GENERA PLANTARUM, BIBLIOTHECA

BOTANICA, SYSTEMA BOTANICA, and FUNDAMENTA BOTANICA. Later

he put forward an artificial system of classification for the purpose

of methodically keeping in order records and herbaria. Though the |

CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA 369

sweeping away of the system began at once Linnaeus is, nevertheless,

to be thanked for it as a setting of the house in order. There was no

Darwinian theory then ascribing natural relationships, but only rather

uneasy feelings that such would have to be given a recognition.

Linnaeus’s artificial classification was so simple that it eased the first

botanizings of tyros and that is why it was so immensely beneficial

for a while. Indian botany perhaps owes more in proportion to the

number of botanists who appeared in India than most parts of the

World, for India had such a considerable proportion of tyros. These

were they who, with but an elementary knowledge, thrown into

isolation in India turned to the plants around them for a kind of

companionship in their leisure. Crawford has written of them in his

HISTORY OF THE INDIA MEDICAL SERVICE, expressing the weight of their

monotony and the need of relief. The direct cause of their arrival in

India with an elementary knowledge was the way in which Botany had

become popular in Britain among the more educated. The Linnean

classification was that given to these.

Incidentally, it may be recalled that a pupil of Linnaeus reached

India and brought his enthusiasm with him. This was Johann Gerhard

Koenig (1728-1785).

6. SUMMARY

An analysis of the botanists of my second period begins here. I

have found cause to mention no fewer than 457 persons as connected

with my subject, and I have sought to classify them by the occupation

which brought them to India, on which their occupation was changed,

as for instance Benjamin Heyne who arrived as a missionary but was

employed as a botanist, accepting that in which each was longest.

The results are interesting, and perhaps unexpected. Out of the 457

for the second period 111 were either administrative officers or officers

of the Army, and 104 were surgeons almost all at one time of the

Army. The two added together amount to 3 in every 5. This is a

large proportion and it is surprising not to find the surgeons out-

numbering the others as elementary Botany had been in_ their

curriculum. Perhaps we may say that the opportunities for botanizing

after the otficers had reached India had not been discriminatingly

unequal. The East India Company never engaged an officer as a

Botanist. After it had passed away some appointments were made

of professed botanists. Again, out of the 457 one in eight visited

India as travellers and the same as horticultural collectors: their

purposes dictated the length of their stay.

370 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (2)

These are some of the more prominent of the administrators or

army officers: Beddome, Champion, Cathcart, Colebrooke, Drummond,

Edgeworth, Hardwicke, Hay, Jenkins, Law, Madden, Poinwill, Sykes,

Tanner; and these are among the surgeons: Alcock, Aitchison,

Thomas Anderson, Barclay, Sir George Birdwood, .Buchanan-

Hamilton, Giles, Griffith, Sir George King, McClelland, Sir David

Prain, Royle, Scully, Stocks, Stewart, Thomas Thomson, Wight,

Wallich. It is interesting that the sum of the surgeons is only just

larger than the sum of the other groups, for that shows, or rather

suggests, that a proportion had taken to medicine through an interest

in Natural History; and the earlier love came out.

It is seen that the University of Edinburgh played a great part in

providing the surgeons. Therefore, it interests us who the Professors

were. John Hope (1725-1786) was a man of ardour who embraced

and taught the botany of Linnaeus. Robert Graham (1786-1845)

drove into his pupils a recognition of the parts by which he classified

plants, and was therefore the teacher of how to collect for the purpose

of classification. John Hutton Balfour (1808-1884) got nearer to

the living plant than his predecessors and gave to the many who

received his teaching ecological ideas—these were very elementary;

had they been more advanced, it had been easier to staff the Forest

Service. |

When the individuals are gathered together and rearranged by their

botanical work, the general impression is that the surgeons did the

most for the advancement of the subject.

(Concluded)

The Genus Phoenix Linn. in India’

T. S. MAHABALE, AND M. V. PARTHASARATHY

Department of Botany, University of Poona, Poona

(With two maps and eight plates)

INTRODUCTION

Palms form a large family of tropical and sub-tropical woody plants

not well studied taxonomically or anatomically. They belong to nearly

130 genera and 1100 species, but systematists like Lawrence (1951)

believe that the number of valid species may be 4000 or more. As a

rule the family is very poorly represented in herbaria and an appreciable

number of genera and species are undoubtedly still unknown to science:

The family dates as far back as the Triassic (Brown, 1956) but it

becomes prominent in many lands in the Tertiary period and continues

to be so till the present time. It is concentrated in the Indo-Malayan

region in the East, and in the tropical islands of the West. Its northerly

limit lies below 40°N. latitude in the Mediterranean region, Afghanistan,

and. the Sino-Japanese region, and its extreme southerly limit is 44°S.

latitude in New Zealand. Despite its large size very little work has

been done on different aspects of the family, perhaps owing to the

scarcity of authentic material and the technical difficulties involved in

handling it.

Most of the taxonomical works on the family are old, there being

no recent monographs. The present taxonomical accounts, therefore,

are based on the works of Griffith (1850), Bentham & Hooker (1862-83),

Wendland (1879), Drude (1887), Hooker (1894), and Beccari (1914,

1924). By far the best work on the taxonomy of palms in India is

1 This paper forms the seventh in a series of Studies on Palms, the earlier parts of

which have been published as follows :

Part I. Notes on the anatomy of the peduncles in palms. 1950, Proc. 37th Ind.

Sci. Congr. (Abstr.), part 3: 52;

aa II. Anatomy of Sabal palmatto. 1953, Proc. 40th Ind. Sci. Congr. (Abstr.),

part fon:

Part IIL. Anatomy of petioles in palms. 1953, ibid. : 102

Part IV. ‘ Cytoanalysis ’. 1953, ibid. : 102 ;

Part V. Hyphaene indica Becc.—I. Morphology (Part V). 1957, Phytomorph.

7 (2): 185-194 ;

é Part VI. Anatomy of palm roots, 1960, Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci. Ind. 26B ; 73-104.

—EDs.

372 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (2)

THE PALMS OF BRITISH INDIA AND CEYLON by Blatter (1926), describing

both indigenous and cultivated species of India and Ceylon. The palms

of the world, especially of the New World, have been monographed by

McCurrach (1960), and Moore (1961) has revised their classification.

Economically, the family ranks next to grasses, the tar-gur! industry

being one of the foremost cottage industries in parts of India. The

State Governments are also taking active interest in introducing Phoenix

sylvestris in arid regions where this gur-yielding palm thrives well.

As monocotyledons the palms are rather peculiar and present many

archaic features. They are generally arborescent, some of them being

branched, e.g. the genus Hyphaene. They have monocolpate pollen

grains similar to those in the Cordaitales, Bennettitales, Cycadales, and

Magnoliaceae. Their leaves have reins and hooks, the importance of

which in the leaf morphology has been emphasized by Eames (1953).

Recently Mahabalé (1958) has stressed the importance of utilizing

the characters of vessel members in the Palmae to distinguish genera

and. species, and Tomlinson (1960) has traced the trends of specializa-

tion in young leaves of palm seedlings. It is hoped that all these studies

will ultimately help, inter alia, in resolving the fossil palms lumped

together under the form genus Palmoxylon.

Prompted by these considerations studies on palms both living and

fossil have been made in this Department for the past several years and

the present paper is the seventh contribution in the series. It deals

with the taxonomy, morphology, and geographical distribution of the

species belonging to the genus Phoenix as they occur in India.

MORPHOLOGY

The genus Phoenix consists of tall trees or low shrubs, some of

which are almost stemless. The stem is topped by a crown of leaves,

those outside being in various stages of drooping. Those in the centre

are younger and they form the bulk of the crown. The leaves are

pinnate. The induplicate pinnae are entire, linear, longitudinally folded,

and obliquely attached to the petiole by their folded base. The lowest

pinnae are usually transformed into spines as in Cycas. There is no

true midrib, but only a prominent nerve on the other side of the fold.

The spadices are several, inter-foliar, erect when young. When fruited

they become pendulous and are completely protected by coriaceous

basal spathes. They bear either male or female flowers. The nature

of the pinnae is of considerable importance in the classification of palms.

In Phoenix they are induplicate, and Moore (1961) has utilized this

* The thick viscid residue left on boiling juice tapped from the palm (tar); it

may be consumed in this form or be processed into sugar.—Ebs.

THE GENUS PHOENIX LINN. IN INDIA 373

character in separating Phoeniceae from the genera belonging to the

Sabaleae. Cooke (1907) on the other hand classified the genus Phoenix

Linn. on the basis of its habit as adapted below :

A. Very tall palms with stem more than 33

metres high .. Phoenix dactylifera L.

B. Tall palms with stem 5-16 metres high :

(i) stem slender, 10-16 metres high, leaves

2-4 metres long .. Phoenix sylvestris Roxb.

(ii) stem stout, 5-6 metres high, leaves 1-1.5

metres long .. Phoenix robusta Hook.

C. Low palms with very short stems, often

stemless :

(i) stem very short or nil .. Phoenix acaulis Buch.-Ham.

(ii) stem 0.5-3 metres high .. Phoenix humilis Royle

It is rather interesting to find that this rough and readymade classi-

fication derives further support from the external characters of stem as

can be seen from Plates IV-VI figs. 16-22, and their analysis given below:

A. Stem surface very rough with persistent leaf

bases :

(a) ascending .. Phoenix sylvestris Roxb.

(Plate V, fig. 17)

Phoenix zeylanica Trim.

Phoenix dactylifera L.

(b) horizontal .. Phoenix roebelinii And.

(Plate V, fig. 18)

B. Stem surface semi-rough, without distinct

annulate rings .. Phoenix rupicola And.

(Plate V, fig. 20)

C. Stem surface rough with annulate appear-

ance and vertical cracks .. Phoenix reclinata Jacq.

(Plate VI, fig. 21)

D. Stem surface smooth and slender, with

annulate rings .. Phoenix paludosa Roxb.

(Plate VI, fig. 22)

E. Stem surface semi-smooth, tessellated, look-

ing more or less like a Cycas trunk .. Phoenix robusta Hook.

(Plate V, fig. 19)

F. Stem short or often rhizomatous with large,

closely-set leaf bases .. Phoenix acaulis Buch.-Ham.

(Plate IV, fig. 16)

374 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (2)

DESCRIPTION OF SPECIES

A. Wild species

1. Phoenix sylvestris Roxb.

(Plates I, fig. 1; IV, figs. 13-15; V, fig. 17; VI, figs. 23-24)

This is the commonest species of the genus in India and is quite

abundant. It is a tall, graceful palm often called ‘Wild Date’. It is

about 8-16 m. high when not cut for tapping (Plate I, fig. 1). The

trunk is rough owing to persistent leaf bases (Plaie V, fig. 17). The

crown is very large and thick, made up of 3-5 m. long leaves with com-

pressed petioles. They have a few short spines at the base, triangular,

7-8 cm. long. Leaflets are numerous and end in short points. Male

and female spadices are separate, 0.75-1 m. long, borne on different

plants, on highly compressed, smooth peduncles. In a season 20-25

peduncles appear on a tree in the midst of leaves. Male spathe is

coriaceous, separating into two boat-shaped valves. Numerous slender

spikes emerge from the apex of the peduncle in fascicles 10-12 cm. long.

Flowers are very numerous, white, about 6 mm. long, angular, and

oblique. Cup-shaped calyx has 3 short rounded teeth. Petals concave

three times longer than sepals, deeply furrowed and ridged on the inside.

Filaments very short, free, anthers linear, adnate, shorter than petals.

The female flowers are arranged in distinct groups on spikes 25 cm.

long. The lower spikes are 8-10 cm. long and bear no flowers. Carpels

are 3, free, erect. Ovules are solitary. Male flowers are roundish,

their cup-shaped, 3-toothed calyx being very broad. Petals are con-

volutely imbricate ; and there are 3-4 staminodes.

Fruiting spadix about 1 m. long, fruits being confined to its upper

4 part. Its lower § part forms a handle, very much compressed. Many

such spadices appear on a tree, and fruits are formed in huge bunches.

Fruits 2.5-3 cm. long, oblong, ellipsoidal, orange-yellow in colour.

Each fruit has a terminal stigma surrounded by perianth at the base.

Branching in palms on the whole is very rare, except in the genus

Hyphaene Gaertn. where it is habitual. However, it does occur rarely

in genera such as Borassus Linn., Cocos Linn., and Phoenix Linn. In

Poona District itself four trees of P. sylvestris were found branching.

Generally there are two branches, rarely more,* near the apical region

of the tree or near the upper one-third of it (Plate IV, fig. 13-15). An

intensive search showed that generally a few trees of Phoenix sylvestris

Roxb. do branch. P. dactylifera L., which is occasionally bulbiferous,

also branches but this is rare. A more thorough investigation on the

branching and bulbil-forming habits in palms is desirable.

ag For an instance of a 14-branched specimen see the Journal, 1908, 18 : 699-700.

The branching in that case was attributed to the tree having been struck by

lightning.— EDs.

JouRN. BomBAy NAT. Hist. Soc. PLATE I

The Genus Phoenix in India

: 1. P. sylvestris Roxb. (growing wild) ; 2. P. zeylanica Trim.; 3. P. rupicola And. ; 4. P. acaulis

Buch.-Ham (growing wild in Mysore hills)

PLATE II

JouRN. BomBAY NAT. HIST. Soc.

~ RASA

pe eee wate SRA aa ota

The Genus Phoenix in India

5. P. pusilla Gaertn. (growing wild near sandy coast at Pondicherry) ; 6. P. Aumilis Royle var’

pedunculata Beccari; 7. P. paludosa Roxb. (growing wild at Calcutta); 8. P. robusta Hook.f)

(growing wild at Bhorkas, Poona District)

)

THE GENUS PHOENIX LINN. IN INDIA 375

Habitat. Most common throughout India, wild, or cultivated. It

is abundant in Bengal, Bihar, the Coromandel coast, and Gujarat. In

Maharashtra it is common throughout dry districts along the river

banks, monsoon streams, and watercourses with subsoil water. It is

thus a good indicator of moist substratum in dry areas. It grows in

the plains as well as on hills up to 1600 m. in Kumaon, Garhwal,

Jammu, etc.

2. Phoenix zeylanica Trim.

(Platect,, fig.” 2)

This palm, known as the Ceylon Date Palm, resembles Phoenix

sylvestris but differs from it in the habit of its leaflets. The stem is

3-7 m. high, rough, short, with very many quadrifariously inserted leaflets

spread at right angles to the axis of the rachis. It is easily distinguished

from Phoenix sylvestris by this character of its leaflets. Leaflets

20-25 cm. long, linear, lanceolate, coriaceous, bright green.

Male spadix about 30 cm. or more. Male flowers 4-5 mm. long,

stamens 6, anthers subsessile, linear. Female spadix with longer pedun-

cle, 2-3 cm. broad, flattened ; branches 20-25 cm. long. Female flowers

scattered, globose, 3 mm. in diameter. Calyx cup-shaped, petals

orbicular.

Fruits 1.5 cm. long and 0.75 cm. in diameter, obovoid, oblong, and

apiculate, scarlet when unripe, dark purple when fully ripened.

Habitat. This palm of Ceylon grows along coastal streams and has

been successfully introduced in many Indian gardens, e.g. at Baroda

in the University Botanical Garden.

3. Phoenix rupicola And.

(Plates I, fig. 3; V, fig. 20)

This is by far the most handsome species of the genus. The trunk,

5-7 m. high, is slender with diameter about 20 cm., solitary, naked, annu-

late, but less conspicuously so. Leaves 3 m. long, with leaflets about

0.5 m. long, bifarious, flaccid, bright green. Petiole compressed. Spa-

dices elongated, compressed. Female spadix 1-1.25 m. long. Fruits

1.75 cm. long, oblong, and shining yellow.

This species is easily distinguished from the rest by its numerous

bright green, decurved leaflets, all in one plane. Very small spines

towards the base of the petiole form its distinguishing character.

Habitat. Generally grows in rocky regions of Sikkim in the Hima-

layas, and in Mishmi Hills of Assam at altitudes 135-460 m. Being

highly ornamental, it is a favourite in many gardens of India parti-

cularly in north India, e.g. the National Botanical Gardens, Lucknow:

have several groves of this palm.

376 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (2)

4. Phoenix acaulis Buch.-Ham.

(Plates I, fig. 4; IV, fig. 16)

This species, known as the Dwarf Date Palm, is almost stemless ;

its bulbiferous stem, 15-25 cm. in diameter, is underground (Plate IV,

fig. 16). It is densely clothed with leaf sheaths and bases of petioles

above the ground. Leaves are 0.75 m. long, leaflets nearly opposite,

20-50 cm. long, stiff. Petioles 30 cm. long with spines. 5-15 cm. long,

compressed, pale yellow. Male flowers 6 mm. long, alternate, solitary,

sessile and pale yellow. Calyx cupular, 3-toothed ; petals 3, obliquely

lanceolate, acute ; stamens 6, filaments very short, anthers linear, as

long as the petals. Female flowers alternate, solitary, sessile ; calyx

cup-shaped ; petals 3, truncate, sub-rotund, fleshy, concave, smooth ;

carpels three, each single-ovuled ; styles 3, small, short and recurved.

Fruits 1.75-2 cm. long, oblong-ellipsoid, fleshy, smooth ; orange-red

when unripe and blue-black when ripe.

Habitat. This species grows on hills, slopes, and elevated plains of

Kumaon, and in the Khasi Hills, and on the northern side of the Ganges

in north India. In peninsular India it is very abundant in the hilly

tracts of Mysore, the Nilgiris, and parts of Telangana (Andhra Pradesh).

5. Phoenix pusilla Gaertn.

(Plate II, fig. 5)

A short palm with stoloniferous stem enclothed in the leaf sheaths,

It grows in clumps. Leaves pinnate ; petiole with one or more pairs

of spines. Leaflets are sub-opposite, much pointed, rigid, and smooth.

Spathe axillary, 1-valved, convex outside. Male flowers with 3-toothed

small calyx ; petals 3, white, oblong. Female flowers with 3 orbicular

petals with recurved style. Spadices 20-30 cm. long. Ripe fruits 1.5 cm.

long, brown outside, and greyish white inside.

Blatter (1926) has followed Trimen (1893-1908) in considering this

palm to be identical with Phoenix farinifera Roxb. Griffith (1850) has

followed Roxburgh’s (1874) description of Phoenix farinifera. Beccari

(1877-1890) and Hooker (1894) have also named it as Phoenix farinifera

Roxb. Blatter’s choice seems to be more appropriate, and has been

accepted here since his observations are more recent, direct, and agree

with those of ours.

Habitat. Commonly found on the Coromandel coast, not far from

the sea ; seldom grown in parks and gardens.

6. Phoenix humilis Royle

(Plate II, fig. 6)

Stem short, tufted, rarely elongated. Leaves sub-glaucous, and

leaflets interruptedly fascicled. Fruiting spadices long, fruits oblong,

pericarp thin.

———

JOURN. BOMBAY NAT. HIstT. Soc. PLATE

The Genus Phoenix in India

| 9. P. roebelinii O’Brien (growing in Maharajbag Gardens, Nagpur) ; 10. P. dactylifera

L.; 11. P. reclinata Jacq. (cultivated in Calcutta gardens) ; 12. gregarious bulbiferous Phoenix

Species (undetermined) (growing in Committee Gardens, Baroda)

JOURN. BOMBAY NAT. HIST. Soc. PLATE IV

Branching in P. sylvestris, and the stemless Phoenix, P. acaulis

13. P. sylvestris with side shoot growing from bulbil; 14. P. sylvestris with

four branches; 15. P. sylvestris with three branches; 16. P. acaulis showing

rhizomatous stem and large persistent leaf-bases

THE GENUS PHOENIX LINN. IN INDIA 377

This species has three varieties : var. Joureirii, var. typica, and var.

pedunculata. The one collected and described here resembles closely

var. pedunculata.

Phoenix humilis Royle var. pedunculata Becc. has stem 15 cm.-2 m.

high, 20-25 cm. in diameter, densely covered with bases of fallen petioles.

Leaves 1.5-2.5 m. long, pliable ; leaflets 25-50 cm. long ; petioles rather

thin, about 3-5 cm. broad at the base, with spines often 6-7 cm.

long. Spathes and spadix about 20 cm. long and with fringed margin.

Fruiting spadices 1-1.5 m. long, compressed. Peduncle very much

elongated, 1.25 m. long. Fruit orange in colour, turning black later.

Habitat. Found mainly in the Western Ghats from Konkan south-

wards, ascending up to 2000 m. in the Nilgiris and in hilly districts of

Andhra Pradesh, Madras, etc. Very common in North Kanara Ghats

at Castle Rock. Also grown in gardens.

7. Phoenix paludosa Roxb.

(Plates; tig. 77> Vi, fis: 22 > Vili fig. 26)

This elegant palm grows like mangroves on coastal swamps (Plate VII,

fig. 26). It is sub-arboreous, gregarious, with trunks 2.5-8 m. high,

7.5-10 cm. broad, soboliferous, annulate, except at the top (Plate VI,

fig. 22). Leaves 2.5-3 m. long. Petiole brownish in colour at the base,

often covered with scurf and triangular, channelled spines. Leaflets

0.25-0.50 m. long, opposite, alternate, bifarious, spreading, flaccid, with

8 distinct parallel veins. They have acuminate apex and are condupli-

cate at the base. Male and female spadices about 0.5m. long. Male

spathe compressed, coriaceous, and brown. Flowers about 6 mm. long,

yellow. Petals 3, filaments 6. Female flowers greenish, petals round

and concave ; staminodes 6. Fruiting spadix nearly 1-1.25 m. long,

highly compressed and branched at the apex. Fruits 1.25 cm. long,

sessile, placed on thickened knobs, yellowish in colour but turning red

to purple on ripening.

Hooker’s (1894) description of Phoenix paludosa as having a stem

25-45 cm. in diameter seems to be slightly exaggerated. At any rate

none of the specimens examined by us were larger than 22 cm. in

diameter at the epi-basal region.

Habitat. A thorough study of the habitat was made during a tour

to Andaman and Nicobar Islands. These palms grow along estuarine

banks from the Bay of Bengal (Plate II, fig. 7) to Burma, and form a

considerable portion of the littoral forests in the Sundarbuns (Bengal)

and Andaman Islands (Plate VII, fig. 26). They grow luxuriantly in the

central and southern Andamans and thrive very well near the sea-coast.

They seem to tolerate and even to thrive better in places with a higher

percentage of salt in the water, compared to Nipa fruticans which is

also an estuarine palm but does better in water with a low percentage

378 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (2)

of salt. Thus though both N. fruticans and P. paludosa grow as mangro-

ves in the same area, they do not do so inthe same place or locality.

Curiously P. paludosa is not so abundant on Nicobar Islands and is

totally absent in Ceylon estuaries, although Nipa fruticans does occur

in Ceylon. Apparently, though both stand similar climatic conditions,

their edaphic requirements are different.

8. Phoenix robusta Hook.

(Plates II, fig. 8; VII, fig. 25)

This interesting species was first described in detail by Woodrow

(1899). Later Talbot (1902), Brandis (1906), and Blatter (1926) also

described it following Woodrow’s description. Earlier Hooker (1894)

had collected this species from Parasnath Hill in Bihar. In the present

investigation it was collected from a hill near the village of Bhorkas in

Poona District (Maharashtra State), from where it was reported by

Woodrow (1899) (see Map 1). ,

"ty SHENDAVANI

VARVATHAR ee

NBM NANDIVIL: (ac1\SHIMBHAVE tA River

——* TO POONA

8 WADI

bad

_RATNAGIRI_ 7."

mi se BAK 2!-@ MULSHI

NIRA VADI VEO

a NIRA

SAROLA 8S =.:/

iy r MAP SHOWING THE BHORKAS

ry LOCALITY OF P. ROBUSTA

ff CHACHITLI (DIST. POONA)

*. TAHMINKUND 1 MILE

Map 1. The Bhorkas locality

{

THE GENUS PHOENIX LINN. IN INDIA 379

The tree trunk about 5-6 m. high with diameter about 38 cm., looks

tessellated (Plate V, fig. 19). Leaves 1-1.5 m. long, glabrous, shining,

short, thinner and smoother than those of Phoenix sylvestris. Leaflets

quadrifarious, strongly conduplicate. Fruiting peduncle 1.75 m. long.

Ripe fruits brown in colour.

Blatter (1926, p.24) had no material before him for complete

diagnosis. Earlier description by Talbot (1902) is more detailed. Male

flowers are alternate, solitary, 2-3 mm. long, pale yellow in colour ;

calyx triangular, cup-shaped, truncate, and 3-toothed. Petals 3-4 times

as long as calyx, ovate, concave, thick, smooth and longitudinally striated.

Filaments very short. Fruiting peduncle 0.75-1.5 m. long, smooth,

yellow, rounded and compressed by secondary axes, 15-20 cm. long.

Fruit sessile, ovoid, cylindrical, 2 cm. long, 1 cm. broad, flattened and

apiculate at the top ; smooth, fleshy and black when ripe. Talbot (1902)

feels that this species may be a variety of Phoenix humilis Royle. Hooker

(1894) also included this species under imperfectly known species. He,

however, rightly pointed out that the tessellated appearance of the trunk

is due to the comparatively small size of the adpressed. old leaf sheaths

Parasnath Hills

a Nandgaon Ghats

. orkas

Vizagapatam

Map 2. Distribution of Phoenix robusta Hk. f. in India

380 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (2)

on the trunk, on account of which it looks like Cycas stem. This character

of this species is highly distinctive (Plate V, fig. 19).

Habitat. This species is confined to small isolated areas in the trap

hills of western India, particularly to the Ghats in Poona and Nasik

districts, to Parasnath Hill in Bihar, and to a few places in Andhra

Pradesh such as Ventala in Vizagapatam and Ganjam District (Map 2).

Owing to its gregarious nature in certain localities and occurrence in

restricted areas, a detailed study of its habit was made near Bhorkas Hills,

about 36 miles to the west of Poona. It was from this locality that

Woodrow (1899) had described this species. Map 1 illustrates this area

in which the species grows gregariously. The hill on which this species

grows borders on the Mulshi Lake in Poona District. Here also it is

more ot less restricted to particular hillocks at altitudes about 600 m.

and is not very common. Only a few plants grow below 575 m. altitude.

They are quite abundant between 675 m. (c. 2200 ft.) and 1000 m.(c. —

3000 ft.) level (Plate V, fig. 19). These areas are.demarcated by contour

lines in the map. Possibly the gregarious habit of this palm and its

occurrence at certain places only may be due to edaphic and. historical

factors rather than climatic, and hence its endemic nature. Its geo-

graphical distribution in India is discontinuous and is shown in Map 2.

9. Phoenix roebelinii O’Brien

(Plates III, fig. 9; V, fig. 18)

A dwarf species seldom growing more than 2 metres with stem 10-15

cm. in diameter. Leaf 0.25-0.5 m. in length, curving and drooping.

Leaflets 15-20 cm. long, very narrow, numerous, and dark green.

Peduncle about 30 cm. long with obovoid fruits about 1 cm. long. The

fruits bright red in colour when unripe.

Blatter (1926) has included this species as a variety of P. humilis (var.

loureirii). The morphological characters, however, do suggest that it

may be raised to the level of a species.

Habitat. Khasia Hills, Assam ; Burma. Also grown in a few Indian

gardens, e.g. at Nagpur in the Maharajbag Gardens.

B. Introduced species

10. Phoenix dactylifera Linn.

(Plate III, fig. 10)

A very tall palm often attaining a height of 33 m. or a little more

introduced from the Middle East. The trunk is covered with persistent

leaf bases similar to those in P. sylvestris but they are shorter. Its

leaves are longer than those of Phoenix sylvestris. They do not droop as

in the latter, but stand straight and pointed, rather obliquely in the

crown of leaves; this gives it a characteristic appearance (Plate III,

JOURN. BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOC.

PLATE V

ene.

LAA BERTI OOO

Stem in Phoenix species

17. P. sylvestris with persistent leaf-bases; 18. P. roebelinii with horizontal

persistent leaf-bases; 19. P. robusta with tessellated diamond-shaped leaf-scars ;

20, P. rupicola—semi-rough stem having more or less annulated appearance

PLATE VI

JOURN. BOMBAY NAT. HIsT. Soc.

“ ere ce NOMA ARCA AO HORNS URE ENON RES SE RERLERES A EESTI OSTEO

TITS TROT

ML STEEL IS teen

Phoeni.

Stem and young leaves

P. paludosa—

th reins (R)

Nee

ss}

2 |

—

o's

om AS

fats

tly annulate w

The same, showing young leaf with hook (H)

ta—stem distinc

smooth stem with distinct annul

21. P. reclina

24.

THE GENUS PHOENIX LINN. IN INDIA 381

fig. 10). Leaflets are 20-40 cm. long, regularly distichous, and form a

very acute angle with the petiole. Petioles grey and flat at the base.

Male peduncle short, flowers 5-6 mm. long, scented. Female spadices

0.5-0.75 m. long. Fruit oblong, 2.5-6 cm. long, reddish brown in

colour.

Habitat. This species has the highest commercial value in the whole

genus. It is cultivated on account of its fruit, and has many varieties.

It is self-sown in Sind and southern Punjab, and is also cultivated in the

Sindhu-Sagar Doab in the trans-Indus territory. It is occasionally

cultivated in drier and sandy regions of northern Gujarat, e.g. around

Surendranagar or at Mt. Abu, but is grown quite often in parks and

gardens. Its cultivation in other parts of India is worth trying. It

is largely propagated by man, its fruit being a favourite dessert.

11. Phoenix reclinata Jacq.

(Plates Mls fig. 11s) Vip fic. 21)

This palm is introduced from Africa. Its soboliferous stem is 6-10 m.

high, at times more. Its leaves are long and armed with solitary or

basal spines on the lower surface. Leaflets are ensiform and numerous.

Male flowers lanceolate, acuminate ; calyx 3-dentate, petals lanceolate.

Female flowers arranged on 20-25 rigid secondary peduncles ; calyx

3-dentate, staminodes 6. Fruits oval, yellowish orange in colour ;

seeds oblong with prominent longitudinal groove.

Habitat. Grown in some gardens in India, e.g. in Indian Botanical

Gardens, Sibpur, Calcutta. It is found throughout tropical Africa.

12. Phoenix canariensis Hort.

A tall palm with solitary stem, often reaching 15-18 metres high and

covered with persistent leaf bases. The species can be easily identified

by its exceedingly large crown of leaves consisting of 175-200 leaves and

short straight cylindrical massive trunk. Leaves 6-7 metres long, stiff.

Leaflets about 150-200, long, pointed, induplicate, light green. In-

florescence including peduncle often 2 metres long. Male flowers alter-

nate, angular ; calyx cup-shaped, trigonous, sharply 3-dentate ; petals

densely striate. Stamens shorter than petals. Female flowers globose,

depressed ; calyx cupulate, 3-ribbed, acutely dentate ; petals twice as

broad as long. Fruit ovate or sub-globose, produced in heavy clusters,

2 cm. long, orange-coloured.

Habitat. Canary Islands. Grown in some Indian gardens, e.g.

at Allahabad, Agra, and Delhi. A great favourite in gardens in Latin

countries bordering Mediterranean Sea ; also in Georgia, U.S.S.R.

382. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (2)

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

A. Habitat and Distribution

The paper gives an account of nine species of Phoenix indigenous to

India and three introduced ones. Of these P. pusilla needs further study

and clarification. The broad morphological features of these species

and their geographical distribution are given. Among the species

described P. robusta is endemic, P. paludosa grows like mangrove,

P. acaulis is montane confined to hilly regions of north and south India,

P. pusilla inhabits the dry regions near the Coromandel coast, and P.

sylvestris 1s cosmopolitan occurring both in the hills and on the plains

of India.

In point of fruit, P. dactylifera is the most important, but is not

much cultivated. The possibility of introducing it as a horticultural

crop in suitable arid regions, as has been done in California, needs imme-

diate exploration. It is likely to succeed in the coastal regions of western

India, especially in the drier parts of Konkan, northern Gujarat, Raa

than, Vidarbha, Telangana, and Anantapur District.

From the tar-gur industry’s point of view, P. sylvestris is equally

important. The utility of other species for making gur or nira is not

yet studied. This also should be considered important as the Vitamin

C content of ¢ar-gur obtained from P. sylvestris is quite high. About

this and other aspects of P. sylvestris and other species of Phoenix avail-

able in India, we know next to nothing. |

B. Morphological

Morphological observations assume great importance in palms, as

it is not always possible to collect flowers, fruits, and other parts in order

to determine the systematic position of a particular palm or its species.

These, therefore, are briefly discussed below.

Phoenix is the only genus in the Tribe Coryphineae which has pin-

nate induplicate leaves looking V-shaped in vertical section. The leaves

in different species, however, do not show much difference in _ their

broad features and hence the main characteristics of the genus

Phoenix are :

i. Basal spines on the leaf. These are uni-, bi-, or quadeienens and.

project laterally from the rachis at various angles. A regular transition

of spines into leaflets is noticeable in P. sylvestris, P. acaulis, etc. (Plate

VIII, figs. 1-4).

Secondly, though both in Phoenix and Cycas lower leaflets are con-

verted into spines, their mode of formation is quite different. In Cycas

the primordium of each leaflet or spine is separately laid ; in Phoenix

phyllopodium as a whole is formed and then-as the reins get disinte-

grated, leaflets and spines are separated from each other schizogenously.

JouRN. BomMBAY Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE VII

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THE GENUS PHOENIX LINN. IN INDIA 383

In other words, no separate primordia for spines or leaflets are laid in

the genus Phoenix.

ii. Induplicate nature of leaflets. This is a constant feature of all

species of the genus, but the amount of folding undergone by the leaflets,

their angle of attachment to the sides of the more or less trigonous petiole

are different in different species. In P. robusta this angle is so small

that a leaflet looks almost flat as in Crysalidocarpus except at the point

of its attachment with the rachis, whereas it is so acute in P. roebelinii

throughout the length of leaflet, that it looks urn-shaped.

The stem in Phoenix is rather variable. It cannot be depended on as

a generic or broad character, as shown by Mahabalé (1958), nor does

it fit in Von Mohl’s (1849) classification of palms based on stem charac-

ters only. The leaflet characters, on the other hand, such as size,

arrangement of pinnae on the rachis (petiole), their projection laterally,

and the angles of the laminar fold about mid-vein, do help in identifying

species. Table below gives a summary of leaf and leaflet characters

in the species studied.

iii. Reins and hooks. Arber (1922) and Eames (1953) have already

drawn attention to these neglected structures in the morphology of

palm leaf. Eames (1953) is of the opinion that the ‘ reins ’ and ‘ hooks’

in an unfolding palm leaf are related to the evolutionary derivation of a

compound leaf whether palmate or pinnate from a simple leaf. In

this connection it is rather interesting to find that these ‘ reins’ were

first observed in palms by Mirbel (1843) in the genus Phoenix, and later

in other palms by Naumann (1887) etc. The ‘ reins’ of Phoenix definitely

show reduction as compared to the rest of the genera of the Coryphineae.

The reins in P. sylvestris are brown in colour, about 2-3 mm. wide.

They are extremely fragile. The hook also is not prominent and in

many cases is indistinguishable (Plate VI, fig. 23 and 24). These features

no doubt show greater advance over that in Corypha where the ‘ reins ”

are green, fleshy, ribbon-like and often persistent even after the leaf has

been fully unfolded. The hook is also not very prominent in Phoenix.

The ‘reins’ in Phoenix, therefore, do not seem to be primitive but

reduced ; hence, its leaf notwithstanding its pinnate nature like Cycas

or fern leaf may not prove to be the most primitive type in palms.

Phoenix leaf shows further specialization in having the topmost

leaflets turned into rigid hook-like structures. It appears that this helps

in holding the ‘reins’ in position till the leaf opens out fully, as the

hook and ‘ reins ’ in Phoenix are poorly developed.

iv. Pinnate nature of the leaf. This is by far the most important

character of the leaf of this genus. The Phoeniceae are considered to

be a primitive subfamily or tribe of the Palmae. This naturally raises

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (2)

384

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THE GENUS PHOENIX LINN. IN INDIA 385

the question whether its pinnate leaf is more primitive than the palmate

leaf in other genera ; but this may be discussed later.

v. Seedling leaves. Eophylls in palms are important from the

phylogenetic point of view and Tomlinson (1960, 1961) has emphasized

their importance in determining the primitive or otherwise nature of

leaf in palms. According to him eophylls are simple in Phoenix species.

Observations made on the leaves of seedlings in P. sylvestris, P. rupi-

cola, P. paludosa, P. robusta, and P. dactylifera showed that in these

species simple lanceolate eophylls occur till they are above 2 cm. wide

and 20 cm. long. Separation and formation of pinnae takes place

later resulting in the imparipinnate leaf characteristic of the genus and

induplicate pinnae attached to the rachis at various angles.

The leaf in P. paludosa, however, is a little exceptional in this respect.

It was noticed that in this palm, growing abundantly in mangrove

swamps in the Andamans, simple eophyll on the seedlings persisted for

a much longer period than in other species. For example, it was com-

mon to find simple lanceolate eophylls in this species as long as 35 cm.

and, as broad as 3-5 cm., and still the pinnae were not cut. However,

a detailed study of this feature in different species of Phoenix and of

leaf forms intermediate between simple lanceolate leaf and pinnately

cut leaves would be worth pursuing.

vi. Inflorescence. The inflorescence and the peduncle in Phoenix

show vast difference from the rest of the genera falling under the sub-

family Coryphineae. The flowers and fruits in Phoenix are crowded

into a cluster on each flat peduncle, only towards the upper one-third

part thereof, in contrast to other genera traditionally included in the

tribe Sabaleae in which the flowers and fruits are borne along the

entire length of the floral axis.

Further the flowers in Phoeniceae are dioecious and more evolved

than the polygamous flowers in the rest of the genera of the Coryphineae

as pointed out by Hutchinson (1934). Therefore the separation of the

genus Phoenix by Moore (1961) seems to be justifiable, as also Hutchin-

son’s (1934) classification of Palmae in which he has removed Phoe-

niceae from the Coryphineae and has placed it next to Cocoineae! as a

distinct tribe.

C. Species Incertae Sedis

As early as 1894, Sir Joseph Hooker (1894) pointed out that the

tentatively diagnosed species of Phoenix in India await much further

knowledge from living plants before they can be accepted as trust-

worthy. The position with reference to certain Indian species still

1 Hutchinson’s classification of Paln Palmae (1934) : (1) Corypheae ; (2) Borasseae ;

(3) Lepidocaryeae ; (4) Calameae ; (5) Areceae ; (6) Cocoineae ; (7) Phoeniceae ;

(8) Phytelephantineae.

- 386 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (2)

remains the same and hence the keys given to identify them should not

be considered to be final or phylogenetic.

Position as regards the taxonomy of African species of the genus

is also equally uncertain as rightly remarked by Blatter (1926, p. 2),

and attempts are being made to clarify it by studying their morphology,

anatomy, and embryology. Plate III, fig. 12 illustrates a species growing

in the Municipal Committee Garden at Baroda which has gregarious

soboliferous stems and which defies analysis. Possibly it is an intro-

duced species and belongs to the P. paludosa-reclinata group but is not

P. paludosa. Similarly, the exact points of dissimilarities between P.

pusilla and P.acaulis also need further investigation on all grounds,

morphological, cytoembryological, and anatomical.

D. Past History

The genus is believed to be of much wider occurrence in the past.

It is supposed to have originated in the Liassic period from which a leaf

resembling Phoenix leaf called Propalmophyllum liassimum has been

described by Lignier (1907). Another species resembling P. robusta

anatomically has been found in the Deccan Intertrappean Series belong-

ing to early Tertiary Period (see Mahabalé, 1958, p. 81). Several seeds

of it are found in London Clay Flora. Its leaves from the Tertiaries of

Europe have been described under the name Phoenicites. The genus,

therefore, may prove to be quite ancient, but possibly multifocal in its

origin. Today it is mostly concentrated in India, Ceylon, Middle East,

and Africa.

REFERENCES

Arber, A. (1922): On the develop- Cooke, T. (1907): The Flora of the

ment and morphology of the leaves of

Palms. Proc. Linn. Soc. Lond. 93:

249-261.

Beccari, C. (1877-1890): Malesia,

Vol. I and III. Genova.

— — —(1914) : Palme del Madagascar,

Descrite ed Illustrate, Con 50 Tavole

in Fototipia fuori Testo. Raphia ruffia

Firenze. Instituto Micrographico Italiano.

— — — (1924): Palme Della Tribu

Borasseae. Firenze Stabilimento Tipo-

graphico G. Passeri.

Bentham, G. & Hooker, J.D. (1862-

1883) : Genera Plantarum, Vol. III.

Blatter, E. (1926): The Palms of

British India and Ceylon. Oxford

Univ. Press, Oxford.

Brandis, D. (1906): Indian Trees.

London.

Brown, R. W. (1956) : Palm-like leaves

from the Dolores formation (Triassic),

S. W. Colorado. U.S, Geol, Surv, Pro.

Paper 274H : 205-209,

Presidency of Bombay. Vol. Il, part 4;

799-803.

Drude, O. (1887): Palmaceae. In Engler

and Prantl, Nat. Planzenfam. 2 (3) : 1-93,

Eames, ihe ip (1953) : Neglected mor-

phology of the palm leaf. Phytomorpho-

logy 3 : 172-189.

Griffith, W. (1850): Palms of British

East India. Calcutta.

Hooker, J. D. (1894): The Flora of.

British India 6 : 424-428.

Hutchinson, J. (1934): The Families

of Flowering Plants, II. Monocotyledons.

Macmillan and Co., London.

Lawrence, G. H. M. (1951) : Taxo-

nomy of Vascular Plants. Macmillan

and Co., N.Y.

Lignier, C. (1907) : Novelles recherches

sur le Propalmophyllum liassimum. Mem.

Soc. Linn. Normandie 23 : 1-15.

Mahabale, T. S. (1958) :*Resolution of

the artificial palm genus Palmoxylon : A’

new approach. Palaeobot.-7 (1) : 76-84.

THE GENUS PHOENIX LINN. IN INDIA

McCurrach, J. C. (1960) : Palms of the

World. Harper and Bros., New York.

Mirbel, C. F. B. (1843) : Recherches

anatomiques et Physiologiques sur quel-

ques vegetaux monocotyle’s. Comp.

Rend. Acad. Sci. 16 : 1213-1235.

Mohl, H. von (1849): On the struc-

ture of the PaJm stem. English transla-

tion published by the Ray Soc. London.

Moore Jr., H. E. (1961) : Botany and

classification of Palms. Amer. Hort. Mag.

40 : 17-26.

Naumann, A. (1887): Beitrage zur

Entwicklungeschichte Palmenblatter.

Flora 70: 193-202; 209-218; 227-242 ;

250-257.

Reid, E.M., & Chandler, M.E.J.

(1933) : London Clay Flora. Brit. Mus.

(Nat. Hist.) Publication.

Roxburgh, W. (1874): Flora Indica.

Calcutta.

Talbot, W. A. (1902): List of the

387

trees, shrubs, and woody climbers of

the Bombay Presidency. Bombay.

Talbot, W. A. (1911): Forest flora of

Bombay Presidency and Sind. Vol. II.

Poona.

Tomlinson, P. B. (1960): Seedling

leaves in Palms and their morphological

significance. J. Arnold Arb. 41 (4):

414-428.

(1961) : Essays on the mor-

phology of Palms. III. Seedling leaves

ane juvenile foliage. Principes 5 (1):

Trimen, H. A. (1893-1908) : A Hand-

book of the Flora of Ceylon. London.

Wendland, H. (1879): Die habituelle

Merkmale der Palmen mit gader for-

mingen Blatt, der sogennten Sabalartigen

Palmen. Bot. Zeit. 37 : 147-154.

Woodrow, G. M. (1899): The Flora

of Western India. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 12 : 525-526.

The Birds of Nepal

PART 10

BISWAMOY BISWAS

Zoological Survey of India, Indian Museum, Calcutta

[Continued from Vol. 60 (1): 200]

Family ESTRILDIDAE

—*719. Estrilda amandava amandava (Linnaeus). Indian Red Munia.

The Indian Red Munia is known from Nepal only through Hodg-

son’s later collection (Horsfield & Moore, 1856, p. 502 ; Gray, 1863, p.

56; Sharpe, 1890, p.322)".

*720. Lonchura malabarica malabarica (Linnaeus). Whitethroated

Munia.

Loxia malabarica Linnaeus, 1758, Syst. Naturae, 10th ed., 1: 75. (India, res-

tricted to Malabar, Kerala, by Baker, 1921b, p. 725.)

The sole authentic record of the occurrence of the Whitethroated

Munia in Nepal has been provided by Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 201)

on the basis of two specimens taken in the eastern tarai in winter.

There are, however, two specimens in the British Museum presented by

Hodgson, but Sharpe (1890, p. 371) gave ‘Behar’ as their locality on

unknown authority.

721. Lonchura striata acuticauda (Hodgson). Hodgson’s Munia.

Dun : Hitaura: 1 ¢ (May 13).

Hodgson’s Munia appeared rather rare in central Nepal, having been

met by us only once at Hitaura, when a flock of about half-a-dozen

birds was seen.

Scully (1879, p. 333) and Ripley (1950b, p. 413) found it only once — |

each in the Nepal Valley, where Proud (1955, p. 66) noted it as a resi-

dent bird. Polunin (1955, p. 893) reported it from the Trisul Valley,

1 It has since been reported from Nepal by Fleming & Traylor (1961, Fieldiana,

Zool., 35 : 484). Additional information contained in this and other papers received

after the present series started appearing in 1960, as well as in the valuable field

notes very kindly made over to me by Col. F. M. Bailey will be utilized for a sup-

plementary part of the series.

THE BIRDS OF NEPAL 389

central Nepal, in summer. Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 201) recorded it

as common in western and west-central Nepal at c. 290-1220 m. in

winter, but did not find it in central.

The specimen under report is very worn, and the crown and throat

are moulting (see also Vaurie, 1949a, p. 36).

Measurements: 1 & : Wing 52+ ; tail 43+ ; bill 12.

722. Lonchura punctulata punctulata (Linnaeus). Indian Spotted

Munia.

BuaBar: Amlekhganj: 1 imm. @ (March 6). Dun: Hitaura: 2 ¢, 6 2°

(June 13, 14, July 6). Nepa Valley : Thankot : 1 imm. ¢ (March 30),

The Spotted Munia is common in the central dun, but we did not

find it so elsewhere in central Nepal. It occurs in flocks in cultivated

fields, especially those that are near forests.

Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 201) reported it also from western and

west-central Nepal at c. 275-915 m. in winter.

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill

DSS: $4, 56.5 43, 45 12,.12.5

6 2°: 54(2), 55, 56, 57(2) 40(2), 42, 44, 45,— 11.5, 12(4), 12.5

723. Lonchura malacca rubroniger (Hodgson). Chestnutbellied Munia.

Dun: Hitaura: 1 2 (July 1).

The Chestnutbellied Munia was found by us only once in central

Nepal in a paddy field near Hitaura in a loose party of four or six

individuals.

The only other post-Hodgsonian record of this munia from Nepal

is Scully’s (1879, p. 332) who noted it as common in the Nepal Valley

from the end of May to October.

My specimen is very worn, and is marked ‘ laying’ on the label.

Measurements: 1 2: Wing 56+ ; tail 35+ ; bill 12.

Family PLOCEIDAE

*724, Passer domesticus indicus Jardine & Selby. Indian House

Sparrow.

This is the common House Sparrow of the lowlands of Nepal.

No specimen was taken by us.

725. Passer domesticus parkini Whistler. Kashmir House Sparrow.

NEPAL VALLEY : Kathmandu, Thankot: 9 ¢¢,1 (3), 8 99, 1 (2) (March 21-

April 28).

The Kashmir House Sparrow is common practically all over central

Nepal from the dun upwards about human habitation. It is commoner

in towns and larger villages than in the smaller ones. It is frequently

390 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (2)

found associated with the Tree Sparrow (Passer montanus) in mixed

feeding flocks.

One of my female specimens (Thankot, March 31) is an abnormal

intersex (= ‘Passer enigmaticus’ Zarudny). This has already been

commented upon by Vaurie (1949a, p. 16) and Mayr (1949, p. 305).

The birds had near breeding gonads in March and early April, but

fully breeding from about the second week of April.

Colours of soft parts : Iris brown to grey-brown ; upper mandible pale horny to

horny with darker tip ; lower mandible fleshy with dusky tip ; (bill black in male

from about mid-April ; gape yellow in female and near breeding male) ; legs and feet

pale horny brown ; claws horny; pads white.

Measurements :

Wing Tal Bill

3 od: PSST: 19 55,59, 62 14.5(2), 15

SES 713, 13.95 142); 16 52; 53(2);156; 57 13, 13.5(2), 14, 14.5

Other male specimens measure (Vaurie, 1949a, p. 18): 7 é¢ : Wing 75.5-81 (av.

78.4) ; bill 13-14.5 (av. 13.8).

Although the central Nepal Sone of the species are included

under parkini, it must be understood that they differ from topotypical

examples by being somewhat paler in general coloration and in the

chestnut of males, and by having a fulvous tinge on the underside of a

few female specimens. They are, in fact, somewhat intermediate between

parkini and indicus, but closer to the former. se

*726. Passer rutilans cinnamomeus (Gould). Himalayan Cinnamon

Tree Sparrow.

Since Hodgson’s days, the Cinnamon Tree Sparrow has been record-

ed from Nepal only by Proud (1949, p. 711) in the Nepal Valley during

April, and by Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 200) in the Kali Gandak Valley, ©

west-central Nepal, at c. 760-1980 m. in winter.

*727. Passer montanus tibetanus Baker. Tibetan Tree Sparrow.

The first authentic record of the Tibetan Tree Sparrow from Nepal

has been furnished by Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 200). They report its

occurrence in the Kali Gandak Valley, west-central Nepal, at c. 2745

and 2805 m. in winter. Lowndes’s (1955, p. 34) earlier record of the —

bird under malaccensis from Manangbhot, central Nepal, at c. 3960 m.

in summer, refers in all probability to tibetanus.

728. Passer montanus malaccensis Dubois. Malayan Tree Sparrow.

Dun : Bhimphedi: 3 ¢¢, 1 2, 1 juv. 2, 1 nestling in alcohol (March 11, 13, May

3. June 18, 19). CHITLANG VALLEY: Chitlang: 1 ¢,.2 992 (March 15-18). NEPAL

VALLEY : Kathmandu, Thankot : 3 gg, 2 29, 1 subad. 2, 1 unsexed (March 23,

April 8-25, June 29).

The Malayan Tree Sparrow is quite a common bird. of central Nepal

from the upper dun (Bhimphedi region) upwards, and in this zone it

appears to be commoner than the House Sparrow (Passer domesticus).

THE BIRDS OF NEPAL 391

Below Bhimphedi in the dun, however, it is not so common, and P.

domesticus appears to be the commoner bird. Mixed feeding flocks of

the two species are frequently observed in the Nepal Valley.

Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 199) have reported it also from west-

central Nepal.

My May-June specimens are worn.

Three male specimens collected on April 10 and 12 were marked

‘breeding ’, while a female taken June 29 was marked ‘laying’ on the

labels.

The female specimen indicated as subadult above (Kathmandu,

April 25) has the throat and central rectrices in moult. Ithas the fore-

head to nape rufous-brown with chestnut tinge above and behind

the eyes, lores and under the eyes sooty, general coloration of plumage

paler than that of adults, chin and throat dusky, remiges dark brown

with rufous edges, no white tips to the greater wing coverts, and the

rectrices brown with rufous edges. However, this specimen had granu-

lar ovary measuring 6 x 5mm., suggesting that it was preparing to

breed.

The juvenile female specimen (Bhimphedi, June 18) also has moulting

central tail feathers. Incoloration this specimen appears nearer adult

than the subadult bird. Its upper plumage is darker than the subadult

specimen but paler than the adult, forehead to middle of crown with a

dusky tinge, remaining parts of the head almost as in adult, under parts

and tail as in the subadult bird. This specimen, however, had quite un-

developed (non-breeding) ovary. From the evidence available, it is not

possible to say with any degree of certainty whether breeding in this

species normally takes place even before the birds attain full adult

plumage.

Colours of soft parts : Iris dark brown (grey in juvenile) ; bill blackish in May

and June, otherwise horny to dark horny with yellowish on base and gape; legs and

feet light fleshy brown (fleshy in juvenile) ; claws horny; (fleshy in juvenile); pads

pale yellow.

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill

133d: 1035, 72), 72.5, A] 55 ss Sh D.0, 12655 15(3) 435%

7/6 OA eM [8 a) 56(2), 56.5 14(2)

52° 67, 68, 69 (2), 69+ 50+, 51, 52 (2),—. 12.5, 13) @2), 13:5'@)

1 unsexed : 71 56 13

729. Petronia xanthocollis xanthocollis (Burton). Yellowthroated

Sparrow.

TARAL : Simra : 1 9 (March 5). BHABAR : Amlekhganj: 1 2 (March 6).

The Yellowthroated Sparrow was met with by us only a few times in

the tarai and bhabar of central Nepal in small, loose parties on scrub

and hedges bordering cultivation during early March. 3 :

392. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (2)

The only other post-Hodgsonian record of this species from Nepal is

Rand & Fleming’s (1957, p. 201) from the central dun and eastern

taral.

Measurements : 2 29: Wing 77, 80; tail 52(2); bill 13, 13.5.

{Montifringilla adamsi adamsi Adams. Tibetan Snow Finch.

Most of the standard books on Indian avifauna include Nepal with-

in the range of the Tibetan Snow Finch (Oates, 1890, p. 246; Hartert,

1910, p. 134; Baker, 1926, p. 187; Vaurie, 1959a, p. 589 ; Ripley, 1961,

p. 598), and it very probably occurs there. However, I am unable to

trace any definite record of any specimen of the species taken in

that country.

Montifringilla blanfordi blanfordi Hume. Blanford’s Snow Finch.

Although there is no definite record of the occurrence of Blanford’s

Snow Finch within the territories of Nepal, I am inclined to agree with

Ripley (1961, p. 599) that it ‘probably occurs in extreme northern >

Nepal ’. |

*730. Ploceus benghalensis (Linnaeus). Blackthroated Weaver Bird.

Rand & Fleming’s (1957, p. 202) collection from the western tarai in

winter provides the lone post-Hodgsonian record of the Blackthroated

Weaver Bird from Nepal.

731. Ploceus philippinus philippinus (Linnaeus). Indian Baya.

NEPAL VALLEY : Thankot 12 ¢¢, 2 9° (April 11, May 20, June 29, July 25).

More than eighty years ago, Scully (1879, p. 332) found the Baya a

common bird in the Nepal Valley from mid-April to end of September.

However, we could discover only two breeding colonies near Thankot.

Ripley (1950b) did not find any, and Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 202)

found it only occasionally in the western tarai in winter, but none in

central Nepal.

The Thankot colonies were first noticed by us in the second week of

April. The birds were then starting to build nests on a solitary large

tree growing on the edge of a paddy field, and on a palm tree near by

growing in a patch of fallow land overgrown with grass. About a month

afterwards the nests were found to befrom a quarter to a third complete,

but on June 25 most of the nests were almost complete, a few being actual-

ly complete. On that date there were some 20 nests on the large tree,

with a few very incomplete ones which were obviously abandoned at the

early stages. The palm tree had 12 almost complete nests with four old,

disarrayed ones. ad

THE BIRDS OF NEPAL 393

Proud (1949, p. 710) has reported it as common in the Nepal Valley.

She further noted that its breeding there is rather late, end May to end

September. During that season, however, we had been in the Nepal

Valley only for very short periods. This fact must be responsible for

our failure to observe more breeding colonies there.

The male specimen taken April 11 is in eclipse plumage, but the May

and June specimens are all in breeding dress. They had breeding gonads

too. The July 25 female bird had already laid.

Colours of soft parts: Iris dark brown; bill in breeding male very dark

horny, in others horny brown with yellow on base and underside of lower mandi-

ble ; legs and feet horny brown, paler in female; claws light horny ; pads fleshy.

Measurements :

12 3d 2.02

Wing: 71, 73(2), 74,74.5, 75(4), 76,76.5, 77 71, 74

Tail : 47, 47+, 48, 49(3), 50(4), 51,— 48, 51

Bill : 18(2), 18.5(2), 19(5), 19.5(3) 18.5, 19

The central Nepal birds are somewhat intermediate between

Dhilippinus and burmanicus. The males have the yellow pectoral band

broken and a little narrower than that of true philippinus, and the yellow

on back is confined to a small area on the upper back only. They are,

however, nearer the Indian subspecies. See also Vaurie (1949a, p. 33).

Family STURNIDAE

732. Saroglossa spiloptera (Vigors). Spottedwinged Stare.

BHABAR: Amlekhganj: 3 ¢¢,2? imm. 3, 2 22 (March 8, 9). DuN : Hitaura :

2 3d, 1 imm. (fledgling) ¢, 1 2 (June 12-21, July 19).

The Spottedwinged Stare is occasionally seen in the bhabar and dun

of central Nepal, in flocks (March) or in pairs (June-July). This appears

to be the only record of the species from Nepal since Hodgson’s time.

The March birds are in fairly fresh plumage, but the June birds are

all worn.

The fledgling (July 19) has been described in detail by Marien

(1950b, pp. 472-473). The two doubtfully immature male specimens are

in feminine plumage, but are as large as fully adult males. Can they

not be adult males in ‘retarded’ plumage (for discussion, see Marien,

op. cit., p. 473) ?

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill

4d: 110, 110+, 111(2) 57, 58, 58.5, 60 24.5(2),25,—

2?imm. ¢: 109, 111 59,60 22.5, 24

3 OO: 105+, 105.5, 106 56(2), 57 22523(2)

Ticehurst (1935b, p. 870) and Marien (op. cit., p. 472) are of the

Opinion that assamensis Baker should not be recognized.

394 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (2)

733. Sturnus malabaricus malabaricus (Gmelin). Greyheaded Myna.

TARAL : Simra : 2 ¢¢ (March 5). BHABAR : Amlekhganj: 1 ¢, 1 2 (March 6,

7). Dun: Hitaura: 10 ¢4, 1 imm. ¢, 3 22 (May 16-June 16). NEPAL VALLEY :

Pashupatinath, Maharajganj, Thankot: 4 éd, 3 9? (April 11, 12, 28-May 5, 20).

The Greyheaded Myna is a common bird of central Nepal. It

occurs in the Nepal Valley from about the first week of April onwards,

but is resident in the lower regions.

Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 193) have recorded it from west-central

Nepal at c. 915 and 1370 m. in December-January.

My March specimens are in fresh plumage. The April birds are

slightly worn, and the May and June birds are more so.

Specimens taken during April and the single example of May 25,

had near-breeding gonads which were fully developed in other May and

early June birds.

Colours of soft parts : Iris bluish white (once creamy white and once greyish

white); bill blue on the basal third, gradually changing to yellow on the anterior

third, so that the middle third is light green, bluish proximally and yellowish

distally ; legs and feet light yellowish brown ; claws light brownish horny (once light

horny) ; pads white.

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill

ecieu: 99, 100(3), 102, 60, 61, 62, 63(2), 21(2), 222), 225;

103.5, 105 64, 65 23, 24

2 22°: 95.5, 99 : 59, 60 PAS P22

*734. Sturnus pagodarum (Gmelin). Blackheaded, or Brahminy, Myna.

*735. Sturnus roseus (Linnaeus). Rosy Pastor or Rosecoloured Starling.

Hodgson’s collection has provided the only records of the occur-

rences of the Brahminy Myna and the Rosy Pastor in Nepal.

*736. Sturnus vulgaris poltaratskyi Finsch. Finsch’s Starling.

The record of Finsch’s Starling from Nepal is based on one of

Hodgson’s specimens and Scully’s (1879, p. 329) only specimen. The

latter was taken from the central plains in winter. See also Sharpe

(1890, p. 34).

*737. Sturnus vulgaris porphyronotus Sharpe. Central Asian Starling.

The only authentic record of the occurrence of the Central Asian

Starling in Nepal has been furnished by Rand & Fleming’s (1957,

p. 193) collection from the western tarai in winter.

THE BIRDS OF NEPAL 395

*738. Sturnus vulgaris humei Brooks 1. Himalayan Starling.

The only record of the Himalayan Starling from Nepal is based on

Hodgson’s collection (Sharpe, 1890, p. 36).

*739, Sturnus contra contra Linnaeus. Indian Pied Myna.

We had not been able to observe the Pied Myna in Nepal. How-

ever, Scully (1879, pp. 329-330) found it during his days as ‘fairly

common about houses in the Hetoura [=Hitaura] Dun’, and to be

‘very common in the Tarai and plains of central Nepal, in winter’

and Ripley (1950b, p. 413) observed it as ‘common throughout the

Terai [ ? including central] in gardens and near cultivation’ in winter.

Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 193) obtained a single specimen from the

tarai of western Nepal.

740. Acridotheres tristis tristis (Linnaeus). Common Myna.

TARAI: Simra: 1 ¢ (March 4). BHABAR: Amlekhganj : 1 9 (March 10). Dun:

Hitaura: 1 Jd, 1 juv. ¢, 4 92, 1 juv. 2 (May 15, 30-June 16, July 14, 20). CuITLANG

VALLEY: Chitlang: 3 éd, 1 Q@ (April 16-22). NepaL VALLEY: Burhanilkantha,

Kathmandu, Thankot : 3 99 (March 21, 23, May 1).

The Common Myna is a very common bird of central Nepal about

human habitation up to about 1830 m.

Ripley (1950b, p. 413) has recorded it throughout Nepal up to c.

1830 m. Rand & Fleming (1957, pp. 193-194) have noted it in western

and west-central Nepal up to c. 1525 m. Biswas (1960a) has found it

in eastern Nepal up to c. 1830 m.

The March birds had non-breeding gonads, but the May and June

birds had them in fully breeding condition.

Colours of soft parts : Iris brown to reddish brown, spotted with pale yellow ;

orbital skin bright yellow ; bill yellow with black or greenish black on base of both

upper and lower mandibles or of the latter MO legs and feet yellow; claws

horny ; pads white.

Measurements: 322: Wing 140, 147, 151 ; tail 84, 88, 90; bill 26(2),—

1 An earlier name Sturnus indicus Blyth, 1843 (Ann. Mag. nat. Hist. 12:97, ex

Hodgson MS. and in Gray’s Zool. Miscellany, 1844, p. 84, nomen nudum) has been

frequently used for this bird, e.g. Baker (1930, p. Diy, Ripley (1961, p. 299), among

Others. According to Blyth’s description, the bill of indicus ‘never becomes yellow

at any age ’—a character not known in any of the subspecies of S. vulgaris recorded

from the Indian region. Again, more than one subspecies of the species occurring in

this area do not have yellow bill in winter, but whether Blyth referred to only winter

migrants is far from clear from his writing. However, he later (1852, p. 109)

changed his opinion and treated ‘ Sturnus indicus’ as a synonym of S. vulgaris.

A search for the specimens of the species he had at his disposal prior to describing

indicus (namely two specimens purchased in Calcutta brought ‘ probably from

Rajmahl’ and one from Nepal, presented by Hodgson) proved abortive, so that the

correct identification of Blyth’s Sturnus indicus is not feasible at present. Under

the circumstances, it is best treated as unidentifiable to subspecies, as suggested

by Amadon (1962, p. 109).

396 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (2)

*741. Acridotheres ginginianus (Latham). Bank Myna.

The post-Hodgsonian records of the Bank Myna from Nepal con-

sist of Rand & Fleming’s (1957, p. 194) observation in the western and

eastern tarai in winter, and Biswas’s (1960a) in the Likhu Valley,

Chautara district, central Nepal, at c. 1220 m. in January.

742. Acridotheres fuscus fuscus (Wagler). Northern Jungle Myna.

Pastor fuscus Wagler, 1827, Syst. dvium, Pastor, sp.6. (India, restricted to

Eastern Bengal by Baker, 1921b, p. 702.)

TARAL: Simra: 1 ¢ (March 5). Dun: Hitaura: 1 4,3 juv., 22 (June 14-16).

NepaL VALLEY : Burhanilkantha, Godavari, Thankot: 4 ¢¢, 3 99 (April 2-12,

May 1-13).

The Jungle Myna is not uncommonin central Nepal. It occurs in

pairs or loose flocks on the edges of forests or inside light forests.

Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 194) recorded it from west-central and

eastern Nepal at c. 290-915 m. in winter.

My three juvenile specimens are without crests, but have brown on

the dorsal side and have brownish tinge on the chin.

A female specimen (Godavari, May 11) is regenerating all its tail

feathers, evidently accidentally lost.

Specimens taken in May had breeding gonads.

Colours of soft parts: Iris bright yellow ; bill orange-yellow with black on the

base of the upper and on the basal half of the lower mandible, and with whitish tip ;

legs and feet yellow ; claws light horny with darker tips (once yellowish horny on

base and horny distally) ; pads white.

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill

63d: 122), 127-028; 7122), 74.75, 26, 26.5(2),

129,130 13.5, 10 27(2), 28

By ONS 120, 124(2) 71.5, 72,— 25; 26,27.

I would agree with Amadon (1956, pp. 32-33 ; 1962, pp. 113-114) in

considering fuscus, grandis, albocinctus, and cristatellus as distinct species,

contra Marien (1950b, p. 483) and Biswas (1953, p. 55).

It may be pointed out in passing that if fuscus Wagler and grandis

Moore are treated as conspecific, the former name must be used as the

specific name because of its priority by 31 years over the latter.

743. Gracula religiosa intermedia A. Hay. Northern Hill Myna.

BHABAR : Amlekhganj : 2 ¢¢, 1 2 (March 9, 10). Dun: Hitaura, Pahare Ghat :

2 3d; limm. 4, 2 22, 2 imm. 2? (May 20-June 12). '

The Hill Myna is occasionally met with in the bhabar and duns of

central Nepal. During May and June, it was seen by us in the Hitaura

dun in parties of six to about a dozen birds on Ficus trees.

Ripley (1950b, p. 413) came across it in the eastern tarai in winter,

and Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 193) in the central dun in April.

THE BIRDS OF NEPAL 397

The March specimens are in fresh plumage, but the May-June ones

are worn.

One of the immature females (May 25) is undergoing post-juvenile

moult which appears to be rather late.

The gonads of a male and a female example taken June 12 suggested

that their breeding was already over ; the ovary was exhausted, and the

testes somewhat reduced in size.

Colours of soft parts : Iris dark brown (grey-brown in juvenile) ; bill orange to

reddish orange, yellow on tip (in juvenile yellowish orange, dusky on culmen

and anterior half of the upper and yellow on tip of the lower mandible) ; bare skin

on head and wattles bright yellow (lemon-yellow in juvenile); legs and feet yellow;

claws dark horny, paler on bases ; pads pale yellow.

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill

46d: 166, 166 +, 169, 176 78, 84, 85, — 315-3, 0553.32(2)

Se 163, 169,— 80, 84,— 3132, 3255

Family ORIOLIDAE

744. Oriolus oriolus kundoo Sykes. Indian Golden Oriole.

NEPAL VALLEY : Thankot: 1 imm. ¢ (April 14).

The Indian Golden Oriole did not appear to be a common bird of

central Nepal during our stay there. Scully (1879, p. 298) observed it

between April and August in the Nepal Valley frequenting the central

woods, gardens, and groves. The only other post-Hodgsonian record of

the species from Nepal is Proud’s (1949, p. 709) who noted it breeding

on the hills surrounding the Nepal Valley.

The specimen under report appears to be a first-year bird ; it con-

forms to the account given by Whistler (1936a, p. 497).

*745, Oriolus chinensis tenuirostris Blyth. Slenderbilled Oriole.

It appears that Scully (1879, pp. 298-299) was the first to record the

Slenderbilled Oriole from Nepal. He found it fairly common in the

Nepal Valley from October to March, and thought that it probably

bred there on the Sheopuri Lekh. Proud (1949, p. 709) observed it

only occasionally in the Nepal Valley in January-February. Rand &

Fleming (1957, p. 108) took a single example in the eastern tarai in

December.

746. Oriolus xanthornus xanthornus (Linnaeus). Indian Blackheaded

Oriole.

TARAI: Simra: 1 9 (March 5). BHABAR: Amlekhganj: 1 ¢ (June 8). Dun:

Hitaura, Kusumtar, 1 3, 3 juv. ¢¢, 19, I juv. 9, 1 juv. unsexed (May 12-June 4).

The Blackheaded Oriole did not appear to us to be particularly com-

mon in central Nepal, at least during May-June. It occurred in the

398 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (2)

tarai, bhabar, and dun singly or in pairs in the deeper parts or on the

edges of forests, as well as in groves about cultivation.

Scully (1879, p. 299) noted it in the central plains up to the duns in

winter ; Ripley (1950b, p. 414) in the tarai in March; and Rand & ©

Fleming (1957, p. 107-108) in west-central and eastern Nepal from c.

275 to 1370 m. winter.

An adult male taken June 8 had fairly developed testes.

Immature specimens :

(a) # (Sune 4), unsexed (June 4) : Primaries black ; the first one

from outer side without edging; second narrowly edged white on the outer

web and tip ; third to sixth edged yellow proximally, white distally, and

mixed yellow and white on tips ; other primaries and secondaries with

yellow on outer edges and tips. Iris grey-brown, bill black. Gonads

of the male rudimentary.

(b) 3 (May 27): Similar to (a) but yellow on lower breast and

flanks, and whitish on abdomen and vent. Bill black (in dry skin).

Colours of other soft parts and condition of gonads not noted.

edging ; second to sixth edged with white, second one very narrowly,

and tips without yellow; other primaries and secondaries edged yellow.

Underside from lower breast posteriorly yellow. Bill fleshy pink (in dry

skin). Colours of other soft parts and condition of gonads not noted.

(d) 2 (June 3): Primaries brown ; secondaries faintly edged with

yellow ; breast, abdomen, and vent yellow, slightly less rich than the

upper side. Crown typical of first-year bird as described by Whistler

& Kinnear (1933a, p. 584). Iris crimson, bill fleshy pink. Ovary en-

larged (9X 5.75 mm.) but appeared spent (with a few granular ova),

suggesting it might have bred recently.

Blackheaded Oriole in first-year plumage, then, do breed (?occasion-

ally, ?regularly). It would appear that such breeding first-year birds

have adult coloration of the iris and bill. It is possible that the juvenile

male of May 17 (‘c’ above) with fleshy pink bill might also have bred

recently, although there is nothing to prove it. It occurs to me that

Baker (1926, p. 12) based the description of the adult female on first-

year female specimens with positive breeding data on their labels.

Colours of soft parts: Iris crimson ; bill fleshy pink; legs and feet deep plumbeous;

claws black ; pads white.

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill

ZOCs 143 (2) 96, 99 3h.5532

2.00 137, 139 92, 93 30, 31

Biswas (1949, pp. 233-234) and Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 108) have

questioned the validity of the intermediate subspecies maderaspatanus

Franklin, which was revived by Whistler & Kinnear (op. cit., p. 585) and

THE BIRDS OF NEPAL 399

upheld by Ripley (1961, p. 285). Greenway (1962, p. 134) is, however,

doubtful as to its distinctness.

747. Oriolus traillii traillii (Vigors). Himalayan Maroon Oriole.

Pastor traillii Vigors, 1832, Proc. zool. Soc, Lond. (1): 175. (Himalayas, restrict-

ed to Darjiling by Baker, 1921b, p. 698.)

Dun : Bhimphedi: 2 J, 1 juv. 2 (May 5-8). MARKHU VALLEY: Deorali: 1 ¢

(May 2). NeeAL VALLEY : Thankot: 3 ¢¢, 1 juv. ¢, 2 22 (March 21-26, April 1-7).

The Maroon Oriole is not uncommon in the dense forests of central

- Nepal above c. 1370 m. during March-May. It usually occurs singly.

Ripley (1950b, p. 414) observed it in the duns and foothills of west-

ern and eastern Nepal in winter. Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 167)

recorded it also from west-central Nepal at c. 2440 m. in December.

It was breeding in early May in central Nepal.

The juvenile male listed above is a first-year bird. Its testes were

somewhat enlarged (8 mm.) on March 26.

Measurements t

Wing Tail Bill

6 od: 141, 147 (2), 148,452, 153 104, 107, 109, 110 (3) 32: (4); 32.5, 33

2 9°: 147 (2) 110, 112 31, 32.5

(To be continued)

The Indian Cho Oyu Expedition, 1958:

Observations of a Botanist Member

SESHAGIRI RAO ROLLA

Regional Botanist, Eastern Circle, Botanical Survey of

India, Shillong!

(With four plates and a sketch map)

In the middle of January 1958, I was asked by the Chief Botanist,

Botanical Survey of India, if I would accompany as a Botanist Member

the Indian Cho Oyu Expedition, 1958, ihe first Government-sponsored

expedition in the history of Indian mountaineering. I was delighted

at the prospect, as the expedition would give me an opportunity to

visit not only Nepal, which I had not till then visited, but more parti-

cularly the high valleys between Mt. Everest and Mt. Cho Oyu, the

sixth highest peak in the world, with all their magnificent snow peaks

and their glorious sights which only the very fortunate have ever seen.

But I fully realised the various responsibilities attached to such a

commitment and the heavy strain I would have to undergo during the

expedition at the age of thirty-eight, possibly the oldest, I then thought,

among the various members of the Expedition. However, with my

earlier experiences in the eastern Himalayas, I felt confident that 1

would be able to do well in this expedition also. But above all these

feelings, the great passion for the Himalayas which I had developed

during my previous explorations was the main attraction for me and

I answered in the affirmative without any hesitation.

APPROACH MARCH TO NAMCHE BAZAR

After necessary arrangements at Shillong and Calcutta, I reached

Kathmandu on 19 March 1958 where, after a couple of days, I met

the rest of the members of the Expedition, namely Shri Keki Bunsha,

* Present address : Western Circle, Botanical Survey of India, Poona 1

OURN. BoMBAY NAT. HIstT. Soc. PLATE I

2. Hard, hemispheric clumps of Avenaria musciformis an important component of alpine

moorland vegetation on rocky moraine between Lobuche and Gorashap : 5000-5200 m.

(Photos : R. S. Rao)

— LOSS ON BR Ay NAT ST Cee . a PLATE Il

1. Rhododendron arboreum, a common associate in pine forests and 2. Rhododendron sp. stems thickly covered with moss, typical of

abundant along slopes: 1350-2000 m. temperate vegetation along slopes between Shete and Jumhesi :

3300-3500 m.

(Photos : R. S. Rao)

THE INDIAN CHO OYU EXPEDITION, 1958 401

Capt. John Dias, Shri Sonam Gyatso, Capt. Jagjit Singh,

Dr. R. M. Boal, and Shri A. K. Dutta. Maj. N. D. Jayal, who un-

fortunately died during the expedition, proposed to meet the party

later at Namche Bazar by trekking via 'Jayanagar. Along with other

friends, I met Sirdar Pasang Dawa Lama, the Sirdar of our Sherpas,

a very brilliant mountaineer with several expeditions to his credit,

who climbed Mt. Cho Oyu in 1954 along with the leader of the Austrian

expedition. On 24 March, while we were packing our materials for

leaving Kathmandu, we heard of the crashing of the plane bringing

our equipment to Kathmandu. Valuable equipment and particularly

photographic materials were lost. In spite of this mishap, we left

Kathmandu on 26 March, as scheduled, after a pleasant farewell by

the Indian Ambassador there. By then I came in contact with Shri

Chakraprasad Sharma, a young Nepali liaison officer with pleasant

manners and with many of our Tiger sherpas of Darjeeling, such as

Aung Nima, Danru, and the famous cook of several expeditions,

Thondup, with his ‘Didi’, the wife of Aung Nima, as his helper who

have excellent records in various expeditions.

After leaving Kathmandu we followed the route along the upper

valleys of eastern Nepal above River Sun Kosi and passed through

several villages of Tamang Nepalis. The various hill slopes along

the track have been mercilessly cleared of vegetation for terrace cultiva-

tion and, in such dry season with barren appearance all around, small

bushes of Hypericum offered a delightful sight with their bright yellow

flowers. The people are quite simple and pleasant. The women made

quite a good business by selling te our one hundred and twenty

porters their light intoxicating drinks (jhand and rakshi) made of

millet, rice, or wheat. After crossing the two rivers, Indravati and

Sun Kosi, at Dolaghat at an altitude of 720 m. we passed through

a few interesting villages, like Resingo where the inhabitants

are known as Newar Nepalis. At Dumre village, the village school

boys together with their teacher were happy to pose for my camera

enjoying the peppermint sweets I distributed. Along the track the

Blue Pine, Pinus wallichiana (Plate I, fig. 1), and Rhododendron

forests particularly of R. arboreum (Plate II, fig. 1 and 2) with their

beautiful red and pink flowers are common. Orchids on _ tree

branches, though not very common, are represented by a few species

of Vanda, Cymbidium, Dendrobium, and Coeélogyne in bloom. Along

the surrounding terraced valleys, wheat is the standing crop ready

for harvest during this period of the year, and potato and maize are

in the seedling stage. Of the various wild animals panthers are

402 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (2)

quite common and trouble the villagers, who have erected interesting

traps made of stone walls and wooden doors for trapping them.

After a few days’ march, sometimes crossing deep gorges by delicate

single-chained bridges of thin wooden slats which swung up and down.

with the weight of even one man, we reached Megchen, otherwise

called Those, at an altitude of 1800 m., the well-known Newar

town of eastern Nepal. The blacksmiths of this village were otice

famous for the manufacture of country guns, a variety of Nepali

kukris, and other metallic weapons. The iron ore which forms the

main source for making metal weapons is available in considerable

quantities along the upper slopes of this area. After a couple of

days’ march or so, we entered the Sola Khumbu area, the land of the

Sherpas. The Buddhist monasteries known as Gompas began to ©

appear along the various Sherpa villages. After crossing Jumbesi at

an altitude of 2800.m. a typical Sherpa village with no Nepali element

at all, we started trekking along the higher valleys covered with beauti-

ful temperate vegetation consisting of Pinus wallichiana, Rhododendron

barbatum, R. grande, and a few other species, Magnolia campbellii,

Abies spectabilis, Taxus baccata, Tsuga brunoniana, and shrubby species

of Berberis, Daphne, and others, and small herbs of Primula

denticulata, P. walshii, P. sculliyi, Oxygraphis polypetala, and several

others, most of them in their full bloom. Large pearl-white flowers

of Magnolia campbellii at the tips of bare leafless branches look like

twinkling stars against the background of the green foliage of other

trees. Rhododendron shrubs with flowers of a variety of colours and

tiny Primula and Ranunculus herbs with their myriads of flowers

spreading on wide grassy meadows are a sight to see and enjoy. On

7th April night, I felt a little unwell. Thinking that I was well

enough to undertake the strenuous march of nearly 11 miles with the

entire camp, I moved off quite early next morning. On the way I

felt unusually sick with high temperature and diarrhoea. ‘The

journey I made. on that day is one of the most strenuous I have

ever made. But, with a little rest in the night and a few pills of

medicine, I could manage more or less satisfactorily on the next day.

On the way, between Khari-Khola and Painya, we met some youths

of Rai Nepali community who looked very different from other Nepalis

with their profuse ornaments in the form of metal bangles, rings, ear

rings, using many of- the silver coins of Nepal for decoration. Sub-

sequently, after a few days’ trekking we reached Namche Bazar situated

at an altitude of 3300 m., a grand village of about 100 Sherpa houses,

on 11 April 1958,

THE INDIAN CHO OYU EXPEDITION, 1958 403

Namche Bazar, without really a bazar in the village, has secured

a quite prominent place in the history of mountaineering in

Nepal. The villagers are quite familiar with several expeditions

and greeted us with them usual characteristic smiles. Though it

was snowing while approaching this village, when once _ it

cleared late in the evening the yellow rays of the evening sun glisten-

ing on the surrounding snow peaks of Kwangde and Kwangtiga and

the adjacent ranges presented them as masses of gold. The steep

rocky peak right above the village called Kumbi La is highly revered

as the presiding Deity of the Sola Khumbu area. After climbing a

small hill above our camp site we saw for the first time the whole

view of the Imja Khola valley with Mt. Ama Dablam on one side

and the Lhotse-Nuptse wall further away with the pyramidal top of

Mt. Everest just behind the wall. The sight was really most

enchanting in the evening light.

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The three high valleys—Imja Khola, Dudh Kosi, and Bhute Kosi—between

Mt. Everest and Mt. Cho Oyu with rocky ranges and glaciers in between, showing

the route followed by the scientific party of the expedition.

EXPLORATION ALONG THE HIGH VALLEYS BETWEEN MT. EVEREST

AND MT. CHo Oyu

After considerable planning it was decided that the scientific party

would explore the three important valleys of the rivers Imja Khola,

Dudh Kosi, and Bhute Kosi situated in between Mt. Everest and Mt.

404 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (2)

Cho Oyu while the climbing party would attempt to climb Mt. Cho

Oyu situated very near to Nangpa La along the border of Nepal and

Tibet. We were told that Major Jayal would join the climbing party

at the Base Camp of Cho Oyu. After giving a nice send off to our

climbing friends on 14 April and after meticulous planning we started

off along the Imja Khola Valley on 16 April. Our first halt was at

the Buddhist Monastery of Teng-Poche situated at 3900 m., a very

important Gompa for the Sherpas with the most revered Avatar

Lama as the head-priest of the Monastery. The Monastery is quite

an impressive one with the largest and holiest temple on the top of

the mound in the centre surrounded by small rugged Tibetan houses

and hutments of the Lamas and with the usual decorated entrance and

chorten. Overlooking the Imja Khola Valley it is set in most beauti-

ful and picturesque surroundings with Mt. Ama Dablam standing out

prominently at a very close distance. The monastery, founded in

1915-16, the Tibetan Fire-Dragon year, is meant for the Lamas only

and there is a very severe restriction that no female should stay within

the premises of the Gompa at night. Even our girl porters who

were casual visitors at that time had to leave the monastery for the

night after helping our cook in the kitchen. The next day we passed

through another Gompa meant for Laminis (nuns) only at Dibuche

at an altitude of 3850 m. On the way at Pangboche we saw the famous

Yeti! scalp carefully preserved in the village monastery.

While camping near Mingbo at an altitude of 4500 m. just under

the shadow of Mt. Ama Dablam along the grassy mounds, with

grazing yaks all around, the scenic beauty is most enchanting, and

the sight of gigantic Mt. Ama Dablam on one side and Mt. Tawache

on the other, watching the valley like two snowwhite sentinels, is a

remarkable feast to the eyes. These two peaks though below 7300 m.

are still unconquered? owing to the dangerous hanging glaciers near

their tops.

As we climbed up further along the Chola Khola Valley and

proceeded along the Lobuche Khola Valley towards the Everest area

the beautiful peaks of Pumori, Lingtrense, Kumbutse, Nuptse, with

the gigantic Everest still hiding behind Nuptse, were the constant sight

before us infusing vigour and enthusiasm into us and inviting us to

approach them more briskly. The vegetation along the edges of the

Khumbu glacier is very sparse, consisting of stunted, tiny plants of

Rhododendron anthopogon, R. lepidotum, Ephedra saxatalis, Cassiope

1 The Abominable Snowman. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 52 594-598 ;‘ Scalp’

of the Abominable Snowman. ibid. 58 : 261-263.—Eps.

* Mt. Ama Dablam was climbed by a British Expedition in 1961.—Eps.

THE INDIAN CHO OYU EXFEDITION, 1958 405

fastigiata, Juniperus wallichiana, Gentiana albicalyx, Caragana

crassicaulis, Ranunculus pulchellus, Sedum quadrifidum, Anaphalis

xylorhiza, Arenaria musciformis in hard, hemispheric, creamy-white

patches (Plate 1, fig. 2), and several others. A little further along ihe

Khumbu glacier, the region turns out to be a rugged and barren rocky

moraine terminating in an extensive glacier moraine covered with loose

rocky boulders mixed with very loose sand covering the solid icy

masses at the bottom. There is no definite path and the track had

to be made by us according to the stability of the rocky boulders with

huge icy blocks beneath. Vegetation is practically absent from this

area. Very near our camping site at Gorashep situated at an altitude

of 5300 m., right under the shadow of Mt. Nuptse and Mt. Everest,

there is a very extensive sandy bed evidently formed by the constant

weathering of rocks and frequent covering of the area by glacier waters.

Here the hard icy glacier lake, the edges of which consisted of chiselled

icy pieces as sharp as broken glass, was an interesting sight. Owing

to the high altitude some of the members suffered from severe headache

and a feeling of sickness, but they recovered to a certain extent after

a short period. Subsequently I climbed the adjacent mountain top

with an altitude of 5600 m. to see some of the finest views of Mt.

Everest. The view of Mt. Everest with Khumbu Ice Fall just above

the glacier, along the edge of which a track for climbing Mt. Everest

was formed by the recent Everest Expeditions, including the successful

ones, and a small part of South Col further back gave me immense

pleasure in spite of all the strain I had undergone in climbing that

mountain top under such altitude conditions. Vegetation along these

slopes becomes extremely sparse and develops into thick, hard clumps

of short, stunted species such as Sedum crenulatum, S. himalense,

Stellaria decumbens, Anaphalis xylorhiza, Saussurea _ tridactyla,

Saxifraga imbricata, and alpine grasses like Festuca valesiaca,

Deyeuxia pulchella, mixed with a few moss species and lichens! like

Cladonia sp., Stereocaulon myriocarpum var. orizabae, Cetraria

_everniella, Usnea hookeri a rare species in the Himalayas but more

common in Tibet where it is used for dyeing wool, bone-white worm-

like Thamnolia vermicularis which is used as an offering while praying

in monasteries, and also the new records for this area of east Nepal,

Sticta henryana and S. platyphylloides which are so far recorded from

China only. Such compact development resists the extremely rigorous

conditions of life existing in such high altitudes.

1 For more details of lichens collected during this expedition, reference may be

made to the paper ‘On a collection of macrolichens by the Indian Expedition to

eyo Foe. Nepal’ by D. D. Awasthi [1960, Proc. Indian Academy of Sciences

: -180],

406 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (2)

On our way back to Namche Bazar we paid our respects to the

Avatar Lama at Teng Poche Monastery, who very kindly enquired

about our movements and the welfare of the expedition members who

were then climbing Cho Oyu. We reached Namche Bazar on 30

April and heard the shocking news about the death from pneumonia

on the 28th at camp I on Mt. Cho Oyu of Maj. Jayal, one of the best

mountaineers of our country.

During three weeks of May we wandered about the Bhute

Kosi and Dudh Kosi valleys carrying out scientific exploration

right up to the points of Nangpa La glacier and Ngojumbo glacier

near Dudh Kosi lake. Camping near snows under very cold condi-

tions with the night temperatures getting down to —7° C. along the

uppermost regions of these valleys was really an interesting ex-

perience. The surroundings of Nangpa La (Plate II, fig. 1), probably

the highest pass in the world at an altitude of 5600 m., with an extensive

glacier and enormous white snowy bed present an amazing sight with

its perfect beauty blended with dreadful loneliness. ‘This is the main

trade route between Nepal and Tibet along which commodities are

transported in summer by yak, the only animal that can move safely

on such a snowy pass.

After cutting across the Bhute Kosi Valley we reached Mosumba

Lake situated at an altitude of 5100 m. on 12 May and planned out

our track to cross the rocky range at Tak Marpo separating Bhute

Kosi Valley from the Dudh Kosi Valley. Even along such siopes

littered with huge rocky boulders, small clumps of Saussurea

eraminifolia (Plate IV, fig. 2), with their fleecy white hairy covering,

and hard hemispheric or globose white balls of Arenaria musciformis

struggle very hard to survive along the rocky crevices and corners

with suitable soil cover. This area is completely uninhabited and

the Daily Mail Expedition in 1956 in search of the Yeti crossed this

range at this point for the first time. Though we had no special

equipment, such as ropes etc., we attempted to cross the range though

certain parts of track were extremely dangerous with narrow loose

rock formation. However, we toiled hard along this steep slope

and, after reaching the top at an altitude of 5500 m., saw the most

glorious sight of the world with the entire panorama of giant snow

peaks consisting of Everest, Ama Dablam, Gyachung Kang, and

several other surrounding peaks. The glistening blue waters of Dudh

Pokhri Lake right below us with Ngojumbo glacier in the background

made the view all the more wonderful. Dudh Pokhri, which is about

2 miles long and a mile broad, is regarded by the Sherpas as their

JOURN. BOMBAY

Nat. Hist. Soc.

1. Panoramic view of Lonak Valley on way to Nangpa La

2. Mt. Cho Oyu (8189 m. = 26867 ft.)

(Photos : R. S. Rao)

Prate ih

l. Saxifrvaga vamulosa growing on the slopes between Dudh Pokhri and Dole: 4840 m.

2. Small colony of Saussurea graminifolia in rocky moraine between Mosamba Lake and

Lhenjo: 5120 m.

(Photos : R. S. Rao)

THE INDIAN CHO OYU EXPEDITION, 1958 407

most sacred lake, and all our porters believe strongly that if one

circles round the lake once and prays to the Goddess of the lake

asking for a boon it will certainly be granted. Interesting species of

insects and algae growing even in the icy cold waters of lakes and

ponds at an altitude of 5000 m. have been collected. Ducks" such

as Aythya fuligula, A. ferina, and Tadorna ferruginea were seen in

very small ‘numbers on the waters of Dudh Pokhri. On our way

down from Dudh Pokhri to Dole along 4700 m., clusters of Saxifraga

ramulosa forming clumps on moist rocky slopes with tiny white

flowers are a beautiful sight indeed (Plate IV, fig. 1). After general

survey work along the valley we returned finally to Namche Bazar

on 16 May.

EXPERIENCES OF THE SUCCESSFUL CHO OyU CLIMBERS AND

RETURN MARCH TO KATHMANDU

The 17th of May was the happiest day for us when the news reached

us by wireless that Sonam Gyatso, a member of our team, and Sirdar

Pasang had reached the top of Cho Oyu on the 15th at 3.30 p.m.

Later, on the 20th, all the climbing members with their flags of Mt.

Cho Oyu, Nepal, and India flying on their haversacks were heartily

received at Namche Bazar. While approaching the village the Lamas

of the Gompa welcomed the climbers in their traditional style with the

blowing of long trumpets and conch shells and beating of huge drums.

It was really a strange sight to see the various members with their

weather-beaten faces, skin peeling off, and extremely exhausted. They

had had a very tough time on the mountain with unusually strong

winds blowing over their tents at an average speed of 50 miles per

hour, though they had a favourable sun on most of the days.

A word about the Sherpas with whom we moved so closely all

these months on very affectionate terms. They are a fine people with

a jovial nature and everlasting smiles on their faces. The high

Himalayas are their place of birth and play. {ft is sometimes most

surprising to note their extraordinary lung power, together with their

- capacity for withstanding the enormous strain of mountain climbing

with loads of 30 kg. at elevations of 4600-6000 m. and about

20 kg. at 6000-7000 m. The heroic part played by many of the

Sherpas in various expeditions in the Himalayas is well known.

During the return march, we followed a different track along the

higher valleys on the right flank of Dudh Kosi river passing through

we The writer’s thanks are due to Dr. B. Biswas of the Zoological Survey of

India, Indian Museum, Calcutta, for the identification of bird species, |

408 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (2)

camping places called Tate, Hesingnasa, and Tanga. The vegetation,

consisting of Pinus wallichiana, Tsuga brunoniana, Abies spectabilis,

and a few species of Rhododendron, is typically of temperate type.

The region along the highest altitude of 4600 m. reached along this

route above Tanga presents a characteristic alpine moorland vegeta-

tion with wide grassy slopes and interesting flowering species of

Pedicularis, Cochlearia, Potentilla, Anemone, Primula, and a few

others. Subsequently, we joined the approach march route at

Junbesi and, while following the track along lower altitudes, interest-

ing species of fish were collected from the small streams by Shri

Dutta, the Zoologist member.

We reached Kathmandu on 15 June and were warmly received

both at Kathmandu and subsequently at Delhi. Our Prime Minister

on one of the occasions connected with mountaineering observed that

India is nourished by mountains and seas and if the people of the

land become afraid of mountains and seas they will fall. The

Expedition was really an arduous one but it has remained a memorable

experience, not because of the sense of achievement but because of

the virtues it taught—bravery in the face of danger and a feeling of

fellowship.

SUMMARY

The Indian Cho Oyu Expedition, 1958, was sponsored and financed

by the Government of India. The members of the Expedition were

Shri Keki Bunsha (a solicitor from Bombay—Leader), Capt. John

Dias (Indian Army), Shri Sonam Gyatso (Government of India), the

late Maj. N. D. Jayal (Principal, Indian Mountaineering Institute,

Darjeeling), Capt. Jagjit Singh (Indian Army), Shri R. M. Boal (a

physician from Bombay), Shri A. K. Dutta (Zoological Survey of

India), and Shri R. S. Rao (Botanical Survey of India). This Ex-

pedition team was ably assisted by Shri Pasang Dawa Lama as

Sirdar of the Sherpas. All the members of the party except Maj.

Jayal (who later joined the party at the base camp of Mt. Cho Oyu)

assembled at Kathmandu. The entire Expedition, including approach

march, botanical and zoological survey by the scientist members,

assault on Mt. Cho Oyu, and return march to Kathmandu, was

carried out during the period from 26 March to 15 June, 1958.

During the approach march to Namche Bazar, altitudes ranging

from 1525 to 3660 m. (5000 to 12,000 ft.) were passed through. Along

the earlier stages of the journey most of the mountain slopes presented

THE INDIAN CHO OYU EXPEDITION, 1958 409

denuded vegetation due to extensive cultivation etc. Along the

higher slopes with an altitude of 3000-3660 m. (10,000-12,000 ft.),

typical Rhododendron forest mixed with species of Magnolia, Berberis,

Tsuga, etc., most of them with their beautiful flowers, were observed.

A few interesting details with regard to the various beautiful flowering

trees, shrubs, and herbs characteristic of the temperate vegetation are

discussed.

After reaching Namche Bazar, the party divided into two sections,

the climbing section and the scientific section. While the climbing

party was engaged in the successful assault on Mt. Cho Oyu, the

scientific party surveyed three high valleys, namely the Imja Khola,

Bhute Kosi, and Dudh Kosi valleys, right up to glacier points

covering altitudes between 3660 and 5800 m. (12,000 and 19,000 ft.).

Interesting floristic components, such as species of Arenaria, Sedum,

Festuca, Stellaria, Saussurea, and several others developing as thick

hard clumps along the typical alpine moorlands and rocky moraines,

studied during this period are discussed.

The BNHS/WHO

Bird Migration Study Project—3

Activities from 15-10-1962 to 15-4-1963

SALIM ALI

| Chief Investigator, BNHS/|WHO Bird Migration Study Project

[Continued from Vol. 59 (3) : 929]

1.. PoINT CALIMERE AREA, MADRAS

In November 1962 I visited Point Calimere, about 200 miles south

of Madras, and contemplated a project for ringing, and collecting

parasitic arthropods from, migratory shore birds (Charadriidae) winter-

ing in there. The work had to be postponed owing to a procedural

hitch following the Madras Government’s recent ban on all (com-

mercial) netting. It is expected, however, that this will be resolved

by the time the next autumn immigration is due. It seems parti-

cularly desirable to work with this group of migrants in India since

very little is precisely known concerning their places of origin,

migration routes, and local movements in their Indian winter quarters.

Their significance here as potential disseminators of arthropod-borne

viruses also remains to be investigated.

2. MAHIM, GREATER BOMBAY, MAHARASHTRA : 22 NOVEMBER

1962 To 11 JANUARY 1963

The mangrove roost of migratory swallows at Mahim, Bombay —

[cf. Part 2, Section 2, Journal 59 (3) : 923] was re-occupied by the

birds this season on or about 14 November 1962, i.e. about 9 months

after its sudden abandonment on 8 February 1962. During 19

alternate evenings’ netting between 22 November and 11 January,

1673 swallows, Hirundo rustica, were ringed, the majority belonging

to the eastern race gutturalis with possibly a thin sprinkling of typical

rustica as suggested by their heavier weight and larger wing measure-

ments. Among the birds captured were six ringed at the same roost

in February 1962, ie. 9-11 months earlier, and 17 re-captured during

the current session, ie. from 4 days up to about 5 weeks after

ringing. These data may be of some significance for the statistical

estimation of the total number of swallows at the Mahim roost.

THE BNHS/WHO BIRD MIGRATION STUDY PROJECT—3 411

Visual estimation is subjective and pointless; all that can be said is

that the number of birds present was positively stupendous! The

roost grew progressively less populous after 24 December and was

practically abandoned by the middle of January. It seems likely that

the birds shifted to some alternative site subjected to less disturbance.

Again the swallows were found to be remarkably free from tick

infestation. Of the 262 birds examined, not a single one proved

positive. On the other hand 2 out of the 3 resident Cliff Swallows

(H. fluvicola) taken at the same common roost showed a _ heavy

infestation by Argasid ticks.

3. THe EDANAD WAGTAIL Roost, KERALA : 8 DECEMBER 1962 TO

27 FEBRUARY 1963

The roost, described in Part 2, Section 1, Journal 59 (3) : 922

[see also Journal 59 (1) : 294] was, according to information,

abandoned by the wagtails between 16 and 21 April 1962 although

some suitable cane patches were still standing uncut. It became

re-occupied some time between 20 October (When no birds were

reported to be present) and 2 November, when they were found to be

roosting ‘in large numbers’ in sugar cane of the stiff and broad-leaved

Java variety. Local farmers, rather extravagantly, estimated the

birds to be 8-10 times as many as in the previous season. On

arrival at Edanad in early December, the BNHS field party estimated

them to be twice or thrice as many, which may be nearer the truth.

When I reached the camp on 28 January, the concentration was

fantastic and there certainly seemed far more birds than in the previous

season; but it is impossible to make an objective comparison. Work

began on 8 December and continued till 27 February. At first the

netting, ringing, and de-ticking of the birds were all done in a single

Operation in the evening, but later it was found more satisfactory to

divide the work into an evening and a morning session—the first after

the birds had settled in the cane at sunset, the second before they

vacated the roost at sunrise. With the limited personnel available it

was found more convenient to handle the captures in two batches, and

this also enabled a more thorough search on the birds for ticks in

daylight. The abundance of the birds can be gauged from the fact

that during the 10 weeks’ netting at the Edanad roosts the total

number ringed was 20,330—all but 11 being Motacilla species. This

excludes the 146 re-captures which were released after noting the

serial number, weighment, and de-ticking. Except for 42 ringed in

the Edanad area some months earlier in 1962, all of them were birds

ringed during the current operation. In other words, taking 16 gm. ag

412 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (2)

the average weight of a wagtail, the grand total represents a biomass

of nearly 3.5 tonnes! The wagtails were mostly Motacilla flava, of

races and quantities as follows:

M. f. beema 8624

M. f. thunbergi 7021

M. f. melanoerisea 376

M. f. simillima ? 1535

M. f. ssp. 2448

In addition there were:

Motacilla citreola ST,

» caspica caspica ibe

99 alba dukhunensis 29

» su SSP: 2

. indica 276

The above break-up is indicative of the frequency of occurrence

of the various species and races near the southern tip of the Indian

peninsula. The comparative scarcity of the Forest Wagtail,

M. indica, was noticeable. In the previous season, out of a grand

total of some 6000 wagtails, 355 were of that species. It is interesting

to note that in the case of one particular cane field—-perhaps an acre

in extent—a line of 5-6 nets was strung out along one edge of it in»

the identical place, morning and evening day after day practically

throughout the 10 weeks of operation, without the catches showing

the least sign of diminishing.

The Kerala camp, consisting of 3 members of the Society’s field

staff assisted by 5 or 6 local helpers for varying periods, deserves to

be complimented on its notable performance. The work had to be

discontinued on 28 February only because of our stock of rings

becoming exhausted. Otherwise, there is no reason to doubt, we could

easily have continued ringing at the rate of 300 to 500 wagtails per

day till the time the roosts were abandoned for the season, reportedly

about the middle of April. Indeed the roosting concentration of

yellow wagtails is so stupendous on Edanad island that, with adequate

personnel and organization, it would be no problem at all to ring

1000 birds per day for weeks on end between November and April.

From the tick collection point of view, the result was disappoint:

ing since the birds were again found to be largely free of infestation.

Of the 12,919 birds examined, only 3 proved positive for ticks! In

one case, the nymphs have been identified by the Virus Research

Centre as of the species Hyalomma isaaci.

THE BNHS/WHO BIRD MIGRATION STUDY PROJECT—3 _ 413

The Edanad camp was attended from 30 January to 6 February by |

Mr. R. McL. Cameron, Secretary of the Ceylon Bird Club, in order

to familiarize himself with our mist netting and ringing techniques

for starting similar work in Ceylon. It is hoped that the Ceylon project

will develop at an early date and provide an important link in the

network of migration study field centres which the Society is anxious

to see functioning all over the country.

4. BHARATPUR, RAJASTHAN : 17 MARCH To 9 ApRIL 1963

A BNHS party of 3 field assistants, assisted by Yuvraj Shivrajkumar

of Jasdan and one of his helpers from Saurashtra, resumed work on

the sparrow roost in the area of scrub jungle known as Rund Sakitra

near Kumher [cf. Part 2, Section 3, Journal 59 (3) : 924], and also at

the previous reed-bed roost of wagtails in Keoladeo Ghana Breeding

Waterbird Sanctuary. During the three weeks a total of 2366 migrant

birds of 19 forms was ringed. They comprised chiefly the following:

Passer domestics parkini (and/or bactrianus ?) ... 826

Passer hispaniolensis transcaspicus or 416

Motacilla citreola .. 403

Motacilla flava beema ... 403

Motacilla flava thunbergi ee Dy,

Motacilla flava simillima eaacts

Motacilla alba dukhunensis ee oo

Acrocephalus stentoreus dwar ak

Emberiza brunicéps ee a

with fewer individuals of the following:

M. f. melanogrisea (8), M. a. personata (18), Hirundo rustica (2),

Riparia riparia (1), Erithacus svecicus (1), Acrocephalus agricola (6),

Hippolais caligata (1), Sylvia curruca (2), Passer domesticus indicus ?

(52), and Carpodacus erythrinus (1).

Of all these, ticks were found only on a single Hirundo fluvicola—

a heavy infestation of 64 nymphs. The specimens have gone for

identification to the Virus Research Centre, Poona.

There is a move afoot for clearing and reclaiming for cultivation

the low-lying scrub jungle which constitutes the sparrows’ roosting

area. Representations are being made to the proper authorities to

leave undisturbed at least a portion of this unique natural bird

sanctuary. It would indeed be a tragedy if this remarkable show place

were allowed to disappear.

414 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL UIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (2)

The wagtail roost among the sugar cane cultivation near Pengore

village, at which some profitable ringing was done last autumn (abid.,

p. 925) was no longer there at this season since all the cane had been

harvested and the fields were completely dry. It is hoped that the

new cane will be up and ready for occupation by the birds when the

autumn immigration commences in September/ October.

Rosy PASTOR ROOSTS IN ANDHRA

To verify reports of large roosting concentrations of Rosy Pastors

in the extensive sugar cane plantations irrigated from the Nizamasagar

Reservoir, and explore the possibility of netting, I visited the Anand

Nagar farm in Nizamabad District [belonging to the Deccan Plantations

(Prvt.) Ltd.] between 25 and 30 March 1963. Unfortunately it was

rather late in the season for a correct idea to be obtained. Many of

the roosting fields in this farm were in the process of being harvested,

and the disturbance created by the cutting operations caused all the

several species in the area to concentrate together in the shrinking

stands. Thus in one field where some trial netting was done at sunset,

there were flighting in to roost in company several hundred roseringed

parakeets, and equal quantities of common mynas, house crows, and

rosy pastors. Even before the operation could commence the nets got

sagging full with dozens of unwanted parakeets and mynas.

Extricating an angry parakeet from a mist net in falling dusk is not

an amusing experience, and it soon became clear that netting for

pastors at such mixed roosts is an impracticable and unprofitable pro-

position. Somewhat earlier in the season rosy pastors are said to

occupy separate roosts of their own species. Only then would their

netting seem feasible. A further investigation will be made next

season at a more appropriate period. Rosy Pastors should prove a

rewarding subject for investigation both from the migration and the

arbor-virus dissemination points of view.

WAGTAIL ROOSTS NEAR CALCUTTA

Mr. P. V. George, the discoverer of the Kerala Wagtail roosts, who

is currently in Calcutta, reported in January having located very large

roosts of wagtails and swallows in the Salt Lake area on the outskirts

of that City. Netting and ringing could not be organized this season

for lack of rings and the required personnel. But these are very

welcome finds, and it is hoped to exploit the possibilities of the roosts

in the coming autumn and winter, and to enlist and train local

volunteers for operating a regular field station in this area.

Field Guide to the Amphibians of

Western India

PART 1

J. C. DANIEL

Curator, Bombay Natural History Society

(With two plates and fourteen text-figures)

The study of Indian amphibians has not equalled the progress made

in recent years in other vertebrate groups. Though the majority of

Indian species are now known, the information available on their

mode of lite and life-history is meagre. A handicap to the student of

Indian amphibians is the lack of comprehensive and easily available

literature. The FAUNA OF BRITISH INDIA volume on the group was

published in 1890, and subsequent papers are scattered over several

journals. In these circumstances, it was felt that even the considera-

tion of the status of species occurring within a limited area would be

of value to create interest in a very neglected field of study.

Two regions in India have a very rich amphibian fauna, the Western

Ghats and the eastern Himalayas. This paper describes the

amphibians of the Western Ghats with special reference to species

found in the plains and hill areas of Salsette Island and Bombay City

and the ghats or hilly areas to the south-east of the City. Most of the

common species occurring elsewhere in India are represented here,

as well as some genera which are peculiar to the Western Ghats, like

Nyctibatrachus. The species occurring elsewhere along the length of

the Western Ghats are also described including those which I have not

observed personally.

I am indebted to Mr. Humayun Abdulali for having interested me

in the study of amphibians and for having given me the opportunity

of accompanying him on field trips over several years.

These notes include a brief sketch of the natural history of

amphibians; characters of external morphology aiding their specific

identification; keys for the separation of families, genera, and species

occurring in the area of study; and a description of the species. For

416 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (2)

the sake of completeness information already available has been

compiled.

The amphibians consist of three well-defined types, grouped in

three Orders:

Caudata : tailed salamanders and newts, represented by a

single species in the eastern Himalayas;

Gymnophiona: limbless, snake-like amphibians, represented by

five genera and 14 species;

Salientia : quadruped frogs and toads represented by five

farnilies, 18 genera, and 111* species.

These Orders have certain characters in common. They are cold-

blooded vertebrates having a smooth or rough glandular skin and

lacking fur, feather, and/or scales found in dry-skinned, truly land

vertebrates. A primitive type of scale occurs embedded in the skin

of some caecilians.

The skin of the amphibians has several functions. The numerous

glands on the skin keep it moist with their secretion; however, this

offers little protection against dessication and consequent death. The

frogs and caecilians therefore keep to a moist humid habitat. The

toads are comparatively better protected and are able to survive in

areas unsuitable for frogs but even a toad restricts its wandering for

food to the humid night and seeks a cool retreat in which to spend

the hours of daylight. The moist skin also acts as a temperature

regulator keeping the body cooler than the surrounding air in dry

air and warmer in humid air. Frogs are thus better able to function

on a rainy than on a sunlit day. Another effect of this function is

noticed in the habitat preference of tree frogs. Small tree frogs

which have a large surface area in relation to body weight would lose

a larger volume of water through evaporation. They are consequently

unable to occupy higher levels of trees where wind promotes a rapid

rate of evaporation and are, therefore, usually seen on bushes and

lower levels of trees.

The skin glands also protect the animal. They are usually found

grouped together as the parotoids in toads, or are seen in ridges as

in many species of Rana. Their secretion, produced on being pro-

voked, is injurious to the mucus membrane of the eye and mouth of

other animals. The action of the poison is said to resemble that of

digitalis.

*This figure does not include the 19 species described by C. R. N. Rao in 1937 in

the Proc. Ind. Acad. Sc. as the type specimens are not now available. The total num-

ber of valid species awaits a revision of the Order.

AMPHIBIANS OF WESTERN INDIA 417

The skin acts as a respiratory organ as well, and the cool wet,

crannies along stream and pond banks in which frogs hide provide an

ideal situation for this function. In addition the skin has a chemical

sense which enables amphibians to avoid areas unsuitable for them

in their habitat and is also sensitive to light helping the animals to

avoid bright sunlight. i

Most of the Indian species are sober-coloured, with various

shades of brown and grey predominating. Red, which is an un-

common colour in amphibians, is seen in many Indian species.

Microhyla rubra and Rana malabarica have shades of red on the back

as a major component of their colour pattern. The common toad

(Bufo melanostictus) has often a pale red ground colour. Red spots

and patches are seen in Rana rufescens, juvenile Rana limnocharis,

and the Microhylid Kaloula pulchra taprobanica. The inside of the

thighs is bright red during the breeding season in such unrelated

species as Megophrys parva, and Philautus annandalii of the eastern

Himalayas, and Rana beddomii and Méicrixalus fuscus of the

Western Ghats. The large wrinkled frog Nyctibatrachus major is

often dull reddish orange, and some specimens of Humayun’s Wrinkled

Frog Nyctibatrachus humayuni almost purplish. The bi-coloured

frog Rana curtipes has an unusual colour pattern being grey above

and black below. Most frogs and toads have the ability to change

colour to a certain extent. This character is developed to a remark-

able degree in the tree frogs. The Chunam Frog Rhacophorus

maculatus can change from green to darker shades, and from brown

to pale creamish yellow. Low temperature and high humidity tend

to darken, and high temperature and dryness to lighten colours. One

curious factor in amphibian coloration is the limitation of pattern

types seen in the group as a whole. A dark band between the eyes

for example appears in several Indian species.

The eye of amphibians is adapted for far sight. The iris is

beautifully coloured in many species being often flecked with gold.

In the terrestrial frogs and toads and the arboreal tree frogs the eyes

are of a large size and placed well above the plane of the head.

The burrowing species usually have small beady eyes, and in many

caecilians the eye has degenerated and may not be visible above the

skin. Frogs and toads have good colour vision and show a preference

for green and blue, believed to be in association with their habit of

hunting in grass.

The sense of hearing is particularly well developed in most

amphibians. The tympanum, which is exposed on the side of the

head, is usually circular or oval in shape, and in size equal to or less

418 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (2)

than the diameter of the eye. It is not visible externally in many

species and may be completely absent along with the middle ear in

burrowing forms; however, these are quite receptive to the call of their

kind during the breeding season. Hearing also plays a part in the

detection of prey. Toads can spot the location of an insect on hearing

its call.

The sense of smell, not well developed in adult frogs and toads, is,

believed to be acute in tadpoles. The burrowing caecilians are peculiar

in having tentacles which are connected with the nasal passages and act

as tactile noses for conveying smell impressions. Frogs and toads are

indiscriminate feeders and have a poorly developed sense of taste but

obnoxious material is either left untouched, or voided if taken. The

former may be learnt from experience, while the voidance is helped

by the ability of some species to evert their stomach when anything

disagreeable is swallowed.

The most remarkable factor in the life of amphibians is their

breeding habit. It is a well-known fact that, among land vertebrates,

only amphibians begin their lives in water as tadpoles. It is during the

breeding season, coinciding with the monsoons in India, that the

normally circumspect frogs and toads throw all caution to the winds

and the male makes its presence known by its loud call. a sound which,

at night in well-watered country, is a continuous roar as thousands of

frogs and toads of different species give tongue to advertise their

presence in the selected breeding site.

The larynx in the male is divided by the vocal organ in the form

of a thickened lip and sound is produced by the vibration of the rim

of this lip as air from the lungs is forced into the vocal sacs, which act

as resonators amplifying the volume of sound. The lungs and vocal

sacs act as a closed system, air being forced back and forth between

the two. The call at the breeding season is one of the principal.

means of guidance for individuals of a species to gather at

suitable breeding sites. The noise made by early arrivals guides

the late comers. The sense of hearing is acute at this period and

experiments have proved that some species can recognise the call of

their kind at distances of over 600 yards. The call of each species

is distinctive and is a good guide for field identification. Normally

the depth of tone is in proportion to the size of the frog, the larger

species having a deeper voice, but exceptions occur. Abdulali

(1962, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 59 : 236) records the call of Kaloula

pulchra taprobanica as being shriller than that of the smaller

Ramanella montana. Several other factors, e.g. condition of the

gonads, increased humidity, temperature of the water, moisture

AMPHIBIANS OF WESTERN INDIA 419

gradient, and odour of aquatic vegetation, influence the arrival of the

animals at their breeding grounds. The breeding site is usually a

place of clamour and activity with scrambling for position among the

males. The normal method of amplexus is for the male to clasp the

female with his forelegs around the body behind her forelegs.

The male is carried round till the eggs are laid and fertilised.

Several factors help the male to recognise the female. Most males

embrace any object in movement similar to them or slightly larger

in size, but if the embraced object does not have certain characters

it is released. These characters are the correct size and firmness,

gravid females having distended, tense abdomens. A male, when

embraced by another, croaks while females are silent. The breathing

movement of the female also stimulates the grasp reflex of the male.

Males in amplexus kick vigorously to resist attempts by other males

to dislodge them. Several species may breed in the same area but

the characters that help reproductive isolation are not fully known.

Many frogs and toads emit an odour which is sometimes pungent, but

there may also be odours beyond human comprehension which may

be of significance in sex and species identity. In two Indian species,

this character has been noticed. In Rana malabarica, McCann

(1946)' records an cdour similar to that of fungus, and I have

noticed an odour akin to that of vulcanised rubber in Rana curtipes.

In both species the smell was noticed during the breeding season at

the onset of the monsoon.

Secondary sexual characters are developed by the males of many

species during the breeding season. Spines and callosities are often

present on the fingers. As mentioned earlier many have the inside

of the thighs bright red. The throat of the male, if the vocal sac is

internal, may be black in colour in association with the capacity for

enormous expansion of the region during the breeding season. In

Rana beddomii a granular patch is seen on the inside of the thigh.

The manner of deposition of the eggs varies, many frogs lay them

in a frothy mass. Among the tree frogs the eggs are usually not

laid in water, but in a situation which would enable the developing

young to be released into water. The egg mass hardens into a crust

on the outside in these species. The toads lay their eggs in gelatinous

strings of varying lengths which are loosely twined round water-weeds

by the movements of the female. The number of eggs laid by one

female may be as high as 2000+ in Indian species; those which

_ *McCann, C. (1946) : Strong odour emitted by the fungoid frog Rana malaba-

rica. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 46 : 406.

420 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (2)

have an abbreviated larval life lay a smaller number varying with

the period of the larval life. Eggs, larvae, and breeding habits

of many species of Indian amphibia are yet to be described. The

tadpoles usually have numerous teeth rows in the mouth area. Tha

number of teeth rows varies in different species and is one of the

characters used for identification. The teeth are absent in some

species and tadpoles of species breeding in torrential streams often

have a circular ventral sucker.

Amphibians are relatively defenceless animals and seek safety in

crevices and other shelters when faced with danger or remain

immobile depending on their cryptic coloration to escape detection.

The skin secretions also give a certain amount of protection, but many

predators are immune to their effect. The common toad (Bufo

meélanostictus), for example, is a normal item of food of the Green

Keelback (Macropisthodon plumbicolor). A method of defence,

used mainly by toads, is to inflate the body thus making it difficult

for the predator to hold the smooth and swollen body. This reaction

is activated by the size and speed of the approaching object. An

object the size of a snake’s head evokes it, while the approach of a

larger body is ignored.

Amphibians are beautifully adapted to life in their particular

environment and usually it is possible to ‘place’ a species by a

superficial examination, for instance burrowing species have well-

developed metatarsal tubercles, the spades they use for digging, while

tree frogs have large adhesive discs, and aquatic species have ex-

tensive webbing on the toes. ©

The bulk of the food consumed by amphibians consists of

invertebrates, mainly insects. They also feed on any animal, includ-

ing others of their kind, which they can overcome.

KEY CHARACTERS OF EXTERNAL MORPHOLOGY

The identification of amphibians, particularly the frogs and toads,

to even the family level could be difficult to non-herpetologists as

there are no marked differences in their external appearance. ‘There

are, however, several characters of the external morphology by which

the animals can be separated down to the species in the field. These

characters are:

1. The skin: Asa rule, the appearance of the skin is moist

in frogs, and dry and rough with numerous spiny tubercles and warts

AMPHIBIANS OF WESTERN INDIA 421

in the toads. Tubercles which may be present in frogs are not

as prominent as in the toads. .

Skin glands are numerous and may occur as a localized mass, as

the characteristic Parotoid Glands (Text-fig. 1, @) which occur behind

the eyes and above the tympanum in almost all toads. The glands

also occur as folds or ridges on the skin, the most frequent being a

pair of dorso-lateral folds along the flanks (Text-fig. 2, dl), supra-

tympanic (Text-fig. 3, st) from behind the eye to the shoulder, and

longitudinal folds of different lengths, parallel to each other or

otherwise, on the back (Text-fig. 4). The numerous ridges on the

back sometimes give a wrinkled appearance to the skin as in

Nyctibatrachus.

In some species a row of porous warts analogous to the lateral

line organs in fishes are found from near the groin up to the axilla

(Text-fig. 5, pw). Ventrally the skin is usually smooth but may

have varying degrees of granulation on the belly and inside of the

thighs particularly in arboreal species. Bony ridges occur on the head

of some toads (Text-fig. 1, b). In the breeding season the males of

many species develop spines and callosities on the hands and sometimes

glandular or granular patches on the thighs and breast.

2. The head: The shape and the relative dimensions of parts

of the head heip in identification. These are: the length of the head

in relation to its width, the shape of the pupil, vertical, horizontal, or

circular (Text-fig. 6); inter-orbital width or the space separating the

eyes in comparison to the width of the upper eyelid (Text-fig. 1, a),

the diameter of the tympanum, if visible, in relation to the horizontal

diameter of the eye and its distance from the eye; the distance of the

nostril from the eye and the tip of the snout; the shape of the snout

and the nature of the canthus rostralis or the angle of the junction of

the side and top of the snout (Text-fig. 1, c). |

3. The mouth: The width of the mouth is usually equal to

the maximum width of the head. The tongue is attached to the front

of the mouth and free behind. It varies in shape being bifid at the

end (Text-fig. 7, b, c) or entire, oval (Text-fig. 7, a), pyriform (Text-fig.

7, d), or terminating in a point. A pointed papilla is seen in the middle

of the tongue in some species (Text-fig. 7, b). The lower jaw is

toothless in Indian species and the upper jaw may or may not have

teeth. ‘These teeth are minute and difficult to distinguish but can be

made out by passing a finger or a needle over the jaw (Text-fig. 8).

In addition to these, some genera have two rows of teeth on the

inside of the mouth close to the internal opening of the nostrils (Text-

422 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (2)

>» i Ido

; * 7 .

TENE fas ie sy ate

_ * PAT, ay

or ny eS

SrA ee “a ST stom gs oe ee : <

g Ki . (a a ie :

as Araya ot os ‘ fi

ay ] ey! 1 . grr ad

Testis ¥ oS ne gt

1bs, . H

Fig. 1. (a) Parotoid glands, (b) Cornified ridges, (c) Canthus rostralis, (d) Inter-orbital width ; |

Fig. 2. Dorso-lateral fold; Fig. 3. Supra-tympanic fold; Fig. 4. Longitudinal folds; |

Fig. 5. Porous warts

(Figures diagrammatic)

AMPHIBIANS OF WESTERN INDIA 423

fig. 9, v). These are the vomerine teeth and their form and position

are also useful for identification.

Fig. 6. Shape of the pupil: a. vertical, b. horizontal, c. circular

(Figures diagrammatic)

4. The limbs: The forelimbs are always considerably

shorter than the hindlimbs in frogs and toads. The hand has four

digits the first digit being the one nearest the body. The hindlimbs

are very long, particularly so in the frogs and consist of the femur,

tibia, tarsus, and foot (Text-fig. 10). The foot has five toes.

POSS

aya

ESS ak

“teeth

Fig. 8. Rige, 9:

Fig. 7. Shape of tongue: a. oval, b. &c. bifid, d. pyriform ; Fig. 8. Upper

jaw showing row of teeth ; Fig. 9. Palate region showing vomerine teeth (v)

(Figures diagrammatic)

424 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (2)

The characters of the limbs used in diagnosis are:

(i) The relative lengths of the Ist and 2nd finger,

(ii) The point reached by the tibio-tarsal articulation (tarso-

metatarsal in toads) when the hindlimb is held along the

body (Text-fig. 10, ta). It may reach the shoulder, the

tympanum, the eye, the nostril, the tip of the snout or

beyond. The tibio-tarsal articulation is analogous to the

human ankle.

* Sean

ome

Fig. 10. Parts of the leg: ff femur, ¢i. tibia, ta. tarsus, tta. tibio-tarsal arti-

culation, ¢ma. tarso-metatarsal articulation, fo. foot

(Figure diagrammatic)

(iii) The feet may or may not overlap when the hindlimbs are

folded at right angles to the body (Text-fig. 11, a, b).

Fig. 11. Position of feet when folded at right angles

(Diagrammatic)

AMPHIBIANS OF WESTERN INDIA 425

(iv) The two external metatarsals may be entirely separated by

web (Text-fig. 12, oms) or attached partly or fully (Text-

fig. 12, omb). A human analogy would be the separation

of the little toe from its neighbour by web up to the

ankle.

(v) Tubercles, Sub-articular Tubercles: These are found at

the joints of the fingers and toes (Text-fig. 12, sat). They

may be well developed or weak or absent.

Metatarsal Tubercles: Two tubercles occur on the heel of

the foot (Text-fig. 12, imt, omt), the inner metatarsal

tubercle constantly and the outer metatarsal tubercle

occasionally. The inner tubercle varies in size and shape

and is very prominent and crescentic in burrowing species

(Text-fig. 12, f).

(vi) Webbing: The degree of webbing of the fingers and toes

is of importance. The digits may be 4, 4, 4, 2,°3, or

fully webbed or the webbing may be rudimentary or

absent (Text-fig. 12, c, f, d, g, e, a, b respectively). In

many aquatic species the web extends as a fringe along

the outer toe up to the tarsus (Text-fig. 12, fr).

Fig. 12. Foot characteristics : fr. fringe, oms. outer metatarsals separated by

web, omb. outer metatarsals bound, sat. sub-articular tubercles, imt. inner metatarsal

tubercle, omt. outer metatarsal tubercle, td. toe disc

(vii) Finger and toe discs: The tips of the digits are usually

_ obtuse, but in the tree frogs and several torrent-dwelling

species, the tip is enlarged into a circular adhesive disc.

The tree frogs (Rhacophoridae) also have an additional

cartilaginous phalange between the two distal phalanges

426 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (2)

(Text-fig. 13, a) which gives a characteristic bend to the

digits. In many torrent-dwelling Ranidae a _circum-

marginal groove is found along the side of the disc

(Text-fig. 14, cm).

QS.

Fig. 13. Toe of tree frog showing additional cartilaginous phalange (a)

(Diagrammatic)

isa ie

Fig.14. Circum-marginal groove

(Diagrammatic)

KEY TO THE FAMILIES OF AMPHIBIANS OF WESTERN INDIA

1. Limbs absent ; body snake-like ut Caecilidae

Limbs present ; without tailin adult 2

2. Upper jaw toothed, tongue bifid? (Text-fig. 7, b Be eo

and 8) ae 3

Jaws toothless, tongue entire (Text-fig. 7,a &d) .. 4

3. Digits with an intercalary cartilage between penulti-

mate phalanges (Text-fig. 13, a) Anse Rhacophoridae

Digits without intercalary cartilage Ranidae

4. Pupil horizontal (Text-fig. 6,5), tongue pyriform ext

fig. 7, d), skin tubercular Bufonidae

Pupil circular (Text-fig. 6,c), tongue oval es 7,

a), skin smooth Microhylidae

Family CAECILIDAE: Caecilians

Fossorial, limbless amphibians, snake-like in general appearance,

for which they are often mistaken. The head, except for the lack

of annulations, is not distinguished from the body. The eyes may or

may not be visible externally. There is a short tentacle on each side of

hee Except in the genus Ooeidozyga of Ranidae, which genus does not occur in W.

India.

AMPHIBIANS OF WESTERN INDIA — 427

the head between the eye and the nostril. The mouth is armed with

teeth. The body has a series of annulations. A short tail may be

present or absent. The caecilidae are the most primitive among the

amphibians and are found only in the tropical regions of Asia, Africa,

and America. Very little is known of these secretive creatures.

Five genera occur in the Indian region and of these Herpele is

restricted to eastern India, Gegeneophis, and Uraeotyphlus to south-

western India, and Indotyphlus is known only from the type locality,

Khandala and the neighbourhood of Lonavla in the Western Ghats,

75 miles south-east of Bombay City. The genus Ichthyophis is widely

distributed being found all along the Western Ghats from the Dangs

southwards and also in some areas of the Eastern Ghats and north-

east India. Its extralimital distribution’ extends to the Philippines.

It is likely that Ichthyophis as well as other genera may occur in

suitable areas in other parts of the country, particularly the hills of

central India. Their distribution is, however, restricted to areas with

good rainfall.

A key to the Indian genera of the family as well as to the species

of Indian [chthyophis has appeared in a recent issue of the Journal

[Taylor, 1961, ‘Notes on Indian Caecilians’, Vol. 58 (2) : 355-365].

Of the other three genera, which occur in _ south-west — India,

Indotyphlus and Gegeneophis are monotypic; therefore, only a key

to species of Uraeotyphlus is included here.

Genus Indotyphlus Taylor 1960

Indotyphlus battersbyi Taylor 1960

Diagnosis. A slender caecilian, uniform light brown in colour,

distinguished by its transverse anus and absence of tail.

Habits. During the rains (June to September) the animai lives

under stones on the grassy hill-sides at Khandala. It has not been

collected at any other season. In its slender girth and colour it bears

a striking resemblance to the earthworm which occurs with it in its

habitat, but the caecilian can be distinguished by its distinctive head.

Breeding habits and larvae unknown.

Genus Gegeneophis Peters 1879

Gegeneophis carnosus (Beddome) 1870

Diagnosis. A slender species similar in dimensions to Indotyphlus

which it also resembles in its uniform flesh colour. However, the

head is yellowish in colour and the eyes are not visible. Tentacle

428 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (2)

globular surrounded by a circular groove and situated behind and

below the nostril.

Distribution and habits. Originally collected under stones at Peria

Peak in the Wynaad, Malabar. The species has also been reported

further south in Kerala from Kallar (500 ft.) at the foot of the

Ponmudi Hills (Ferguson 1904)', Tenmalai and Trifandru at sea-

level (Seshachar 1942)’. The species thus has a _ considerable

altitudinal range and its distribution is perhaps influenced only by

climatic conditions.

Breeding habits. A large number of adults with their eggs were

taken from burrows by the side of small hill streams at Tenmalai,

Kerala, by Seshachar (1942) who records that the egg clusters of

about 15 eggs each resembled Ichthyophis eggs but with the difference

that in this species the filaments connecting the eggs were not twisted

together as in Ichthyophis, and also in the embryos having only two

well-developed gills, the third being rudimentary or absent.

Genus Uraeotyphlus Peters 1879

Diagnosis. Distinguished from Indotyphlus and Ichthyophis by the

tentacle being closer to the tip of the snout than to the eye and from

Gegeneophis by the presence of eyes.

KEY TO THE SPECIES OF URAEOTYPHLUS PETERS 1879

150-177 folds or annulations round the body .. narayani

195-197 i a .. menoni

200-210 a 4s .. oxyurus

240-260 i Ae .. malabaricus

Colour in life size

Uraeotyphlus narayani B. R. Seshachar 1939: Steel grey,

ventrally pale flesh-coloured except on the throat and also

posteriorly where it is dark. A pale spot round the vent.

Uraeotyphlus menoni N. Annandale 1913: Slate grey above,

paler on lips and throat; ventrally white blotched with siate

grey. A pale spot round the vent.

Uraeotyphlus oxyurus (Dum. & Bibr.) 1854: Blackish or

purplish brown, lighter sometimes, white beneath lip and on

folds on side. Length 11 inches, diameter 0.5 in.

1 Ferguson, H. S. (1904) : A list of Travancore Batrachians. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 15 : 499.

2 Seshachar, B.R. (1942) : The eggs and embryos of Gegeneophis carnosus Bedd.

Curr. Sci. 11: 439.

AMPHIBIANS OF WESTERN INDIA 429

Uraeotyphlus malabaricus (Beddome) 1870: Dark olive-brown

above, slightly paler below. Lips and tip of snout yellowish..

Length 9 in., diameter 0.3 in.

Very little information is available on these animals. U. oxyurus

is perhaps the commonest species. The type locality of U. oxyurus

and U. malabaricus is given as ‘Hills of Malabar’, but several

specimens of the former are recorded from Cochin which is also the

type locality of U. menoni. This species has also been collected at

Koduvalli, 13 miles north of Calicut [Elayidom eft al., 1963, Curr.

Sci. 32 (6): 274]. The type locality of U. narayani is Kannam,

16 miles from Kottayam, Kerala.

Breeding habits and larvae are unknown.

Genus Ichthyophis Fitzinger 1826

Six species occur in western and south-western India. These are:

(i) Ichthyophis bombayensis: Surat Dangs (Waghai).

(ii) 7. subterrestris: Alibag, Kolaba_ District. (across the

harbour from Bombay City); Anamalai Hills, Kottayam,

Kerala.

(iii) 1. beddomii: Gersoppa, N. Kanara; Nilgiris; Kerala.

(iv) I. peninsularis: Malabar, Kerala.

(v) I. tricolor: Nilgiris; Peermade, Kerala (T. L. Maddathori).

(vi) J. malabaricus: Maduvangard, Kerala.

The seven species (including J/. sikkimensis of the eastern

Himalayas) of Indian Ichthyophis described by Taylor were formerly

grouped under /. glutinosus and I. monochrous, and the available

information on their habits perhaps refers to one or the other of

several species. However, as the Ichthyophids have very similar habits,

the notes given below can be considered as typical for the genus.

These caecilians are not uncommon in well-watered country,

particularly in the hill areas and are also the most well known among

Indian Gymnophiona. According to Seshachar ef al. (1932)', specimens

have been collected from under rocks, fallen tree trunks, decaying

vegetation, dilapidated houses, and under hayricks. They have limited

burrowing capacity useful only in soft moist earth, and in dry months

live under stones and rotten wood. On moist ground they can move

quickly and are difficult to capture. Abdulali (1954)? records the

1 Seshachar, B. R., & Muthuswamy Iyer, M. S. (1932) : The Gymnophiona of

Mysore. Half Yearly Journal, University of Mysore (6) : 170.

2 Abdulali, H. (1954) : Distribution and habits of the Batrachian Ichthyophis

glutinosus Linn. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 52: 639.

430 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (2)

movement of /. beddomii ‘as a series of ripples reminiscent of a

-millipede rather than a snake or eel’. They swim well with horizontal

movements like a snake but are uncomfortable in water. Under

provocation the skin exudes a cream-coloured secretion with the smell

of musk. While moving the tentacles are constantly protruded and

retracted. They are essentially solitary animals.

Their main food appears to be earthworms (Wall 1922)', but they —

are also known to take termites and small earthsnakes.

Breeding. The main period is between March and September.

The eggs are few in number and large-sized, about 10 mm. in

diameter. Each egg has a filament and the filaments of a clutch are

twisted together. The mother after laying the eggs in a burrow

near water, coils around them and gives a certain amount of protec-

tion during development. The caecilians provide the only instance

of parental care among Indian amphibians. The larvae are found in-

small hill streams.

Family BUFONIDAE: Toads

Nine species grouped under three genera are recorded from Western

India.

KEY TO THE GENERA OF BUFONIDAE

1. Parotoid glands absent (Plate I, fig. 1) .. Ansonia

' Parotoid glands present (Text-fig. 1, a) 2

2. Fingers webbed, discs present (Plate I, fig. 4, a) .. Nectophryne

Fingers free, no discs (Plate I, fig. 1) .. Bufo

Genus Ansonia Stoliczka 1870 : Torrent Toads

The generic characters are: Head without cranial ridges; parotoid

glands absent; skin with small tubercles, finger and toe tips swollen;

toes fully webbed; eggs unpigmented, large-sized (2+ mm. diameter

as compared to 1+ mm. in Bufo); less than 250 per clutch (1000+

in Bufo). Tadpoles which are found in hill-streams have a large

sucker-like oral disc (Inger 1954)?.

1 Wall, F. (1922) : Report on some lizards, frogs and human beings in the Nilgiri

Hills. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 28 : 493.

2 Inger, R. F. (1954): easy: and eae of Philippine esis

Fieldiana, Zool., 33 (4) : 239

AMPHIBIANS OF WESTERN INDIA 431

Ansonia ornata Giinther 1875: Malabar Torrent Toad

Bufo pulcher Boulenger 1882.

(Plate I, Fig. 1, 2)

Diagnosis. A small (30 mm. head to vent length) slender toad

with distinct tympanum, half the diameter of the eye. Parotoids

absent. First finger shorter than second; toes almost fully webbed;

tibio-tarsal articulation reaches to between eye and tip of snout; skin

of back finely granular on anterior half only.

Colour. Black with greyish head or with greyish spots on head

and a grey dorsal line; ventrally biack with bright yellow spots.

Distribution. This species has been recorded only from the

_ Brahmagiri Hills in Coorg, Mysore State.

Breeding habits and larvae unknown.

Allied species which occur in Malaya and the Philippines live in

and near the hill streams where they breed. The tadpoles with their

sucker-like mouth discs are adapted for life in hill torrents.

Genus Nectophryne Buchholz & Peters 1875 : Tree Toad

Nectophryne tuberculosa (Ginther) 1875: Malabar Tree Toad

(Plate I, Fig. 3, 4)

Diagnosis. A slender, small (35 mm. head to vent length) toad

with the tips of fingers and toes dilated into truncated discs.

Tympanum distinct, + diameter of eye. Parotoids present. Fingers

webbed at base; first finger half the length of the second. Toes

almost fully webbed. Skin of back tubercular with the largest

tubercles in two rows on the sides of back. Colour brownish grey

above with darker sides. A white band from below the eye to the

shoulder and another on the flank. Below whitish spotted with

black.

Distribution. Malabar.

Habits and larvae unknown. An allied species in Malaya N.

hosii has been observed on bushes and small trees near water during

the breeding season. The eggs of the Malayan species are laid in

strings. | 7

Several species of the genus occur in Africa and south-east Asia.

Two are known from India, N. tuberculosa and N. kempi Boulenger

1919 from Garo Hills, Assam, which has the tympanum hidden.

422. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (2)

Genus Bufo Laurenti 1768 : Toads

Toads are easily recognised by their warty skin and the presence

of two well-marked glands behind the head, the parotoid glands.

They are true land animals and except for the breeding season are

not seen in water. They have a world wide distribution but are not

found in areas where the ground is permanently frozen and are also

absent in Australasia, and in some oceanic islands.

Seven species occur in western and south-western India.

KEY TO THE SPECIES OF BUFO LAURENTI 1768

1. Head without bony ridges (Plate II, fig. 5) Pee:

Head with bony ridges (Plate I, fig. 1) ahs

2. Tympanum nearly as large as eye, toes webbed at base

(Plate I, fig. 5) .. hololius

Tympanum 3 diameter of eye, toes 3 or 3 webbed

(Plate II, fig. 5) .. Stomaticus

Tympanum very small or indistinct, toes fully webbed .. beddomii

3. Parietal ridges present (Plate II, fig. 7a) Sia

Parietal ridges absent (Plate II, fig. 1) Sh)

4, Size large ; first finger longer than second .. parietalis

Size small ; first finger equal to second .. fergusonii

5. Tympanum % diameter of eye (Plate II, fig. 1) .. melanostictus

Tympanum small less than 4 diameter of eye (Plate II,

fig. 4) .. Microtympanum

Bufo hololius Giinther 1875

(Plates Figs <5)

Diagnosis. A small toad, 38 mm. in snout to vent length, without

cranial ridges. Distinguished by its large tympanum nearly as large

as the eye and slightly webbed toes. First finger slightly longer than

second.

Skin with flat glandular patches. Colour olive-brown above

marbled with brown, immaculate white below.

This species is uncommon. It has been reported from Malabar,

Kerala. Habits and larvae are not known.

Bufo beddomii Ginther 1875 : Beddome’s Toad

Diagnosis. A small toad 41 mm. in head to vent length, distin-

guished by its very small rather indistinct tympanum and entirely

webbed toes. First finger equal to or less than the second in length.

Skin tubercular, brown above with indistinct black spots, limbs

marbled with carmine and ventrally marbled with brown.

Journ. Bompay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE I

1 and 2. Ansonia ornata; 3 and 4. Nectophryne tuberculosa ;. 5. Bufo hololius

(Sketches after Giinther, 1875)

(Magnification of all figures : x c. 13)

JOURN. BoMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. CM mee erin scr er

a ty LX Nb 5

SED Bites Ras

SEBRING Ss ica

Fig. 1, 2, and 3. Bufo melanostictus ; 4. Bufo microtympanum ; 5, 6, and 6a Bufo

stomaticus ; 7,8,and 8a, Bufo fergusonii

Note : Fig.2: x3; rest.x 1, except3, 6,and 8: x c. 275; 3a, 6a, and 8a: Mouth parts of tad-

poles (diagrammatic). Colour in life : 3 : uniform black ; 6 : black with silver spots; 8 : dark brown

AMPHIBIANS OF WESTERN INDIA 433

A rare toad recorded from the Travancore Hills, Kerala, between

2500 ft. (where Beddome collected a specimen under an old rotten

Bufo stomaticus Lutken 1862: Marbled Toad

(Plate II, Fig. 5, 6, 6 a)

Diagnosis. Medium-sized (76 mm. in head to vent length when

adult). Tympanum distinct, # diameter of eye, vertically oval or

circular. First finger longer than the second. Toes about % webbed,

tarso-metatarsal articulation reaches to between the shoulder and eye.

Two equal-sized metatarsal tubercles with sharp edges.

Skin may be smooth with a few flattened tubercles or heavily

tuberculated. Crown of head above parotoid glands smooth or with

a few scattered tubercles. A row of white tubercles along the outer

aspect of the forearm, ventrally coarsely granular but with the chin

and throat smooth.

_ Colour. Grey or olive above, rarely uniform but more often with

darker marblings. Ventral side and upper lip white. Juvenile toads,

are light ‘brown with darker marblings which have a pale pinkish

centre. This colour pattern helps to distinguish this species from the

dark grey or almost black juvenile B. melanostictus of similar age

group. The juvenile coloration may be seen in specimens up to

30 mm. in snout to vent length. The male has a bright yellowish tint

during the breeding season.

The male has a subgular vocal sac and has black cornified patches

on the inner aspects of the first and second fingers during the breed-

ing season.

Breeding. The toads breed in the Bombay area from June after the

onset of the monsoon and tadpoles at different stages of developmeut

are available up to August. Within the City they have been observed

breeding in shallow rainwater pools in the Backbay area, often about

a hundred yards from the sea. The call of the male is distinctive

and easily distinguished from that of the common toad (Bufo

melanostictus). The amplexus is axial. The eggs are laid in

translucent strings, pale yellowish green in colour. The tadpoles are

small. The coloration is distinctive, being black with shiny silvery

spots on the body. The metamorphosed young measures less than

10 mm. in snout to vent length. 7

Distribution. West Pakistan, India (no records from the west

coast, except Bombay), Nepal, Ceylon.

434 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (2)

Habits. This toad is equally at home under varying climatic

conditions but appears to be commoner in dry areas and under semi-

desert conditions. It occurs up to 6000 ft. in the Nepal Himalayas and

is believed to replace Bufo melanostictus above 3000 ft. in the hills

of Waziristan. They are nocturnal but during the breeding season

can be seen moving around during the day. In areas of scanty

rainfall they aestivate during the summer. C.R.N. Rao (1923)'

records that a specimen was unearthed from 4 ft. underground in

Waziristan. In Kutch, McCann (1938)? observed these toads visiting

a pool to spend some time in it before setting out on their nightly

rounds, presumably to replace the water they may have lost. during

the day. Usually solitary, but if kept together in captivity they have

the curious habit of resting all together in'a jumbled heap. They

burrow easily in wet or sandy soil, using their metatarsal tubercles

for the purpose. In captivity they fed on termites but refused larger

prey.

Related species. Bufo stomaticus has been confused with Bufo

andersoni, the Arabian Toad but can be distinguished from it by the

absence of a tarsal fold and by the tadpoles being black instead of

yellowish. A race was described from Mysore by C. R. N. Rao.

Examination of a large series from Bombay proves that the racial

characters described by Rao are covered by individual variations.

Bufo parietalis Boulenger 1882

Diagnosis. A medium-sized (85 mm.) toad distinguished by the

presence of parietal ridges from other toads of similar size. First

finger longer than second. Tympanum 2 diameter of eye, toes half

webbed. Parotoids prominent. Colour brown above and marbled

with brown on white ventrally. | 3

Distribution. Originally recorded from Malabar. According to

Ferguson, the toad is confined to the hills in the Travancore area of

Kerala, where it may be seen up to 3000 ft.

Breeding habits and tadpoles not known.

Bufo fergusonii Boulenger 1892 : Ferguson’s Toad

(Plate II, Fig. 7, 8, 8 a)

Diagnosis. A small toad hardly exceeding 46 mm. when adult.

Distinguished from Bufo parietalis by its small size, weak cranial

ridges, and in the first and second fingers being equal.

* Rao, C.R.N. (1923) : ee Bu a collection of Batrachia from S. Waziristan.

we Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 29 (1) :

oe McCann, C. (1938) : The eae and Amphibia of Cutch State. ibid. 40 @); ;

AMPHIBIANS OF WESTERN INDIA 435

Colour olive-brown or reddish with darker markings on the legs.

Distribution. The species was originally recorded from

Trivandrum, Kerala. It is now known from North Kerala, eae

Madras, and Ceylon.

Breeding. The tadpole of this species has been recorded by

Annandale from coastal pools in southern Kerala. They are dis-

tinguished from the tadpoles of B. melanostictus occurring in the same

area by their smaller size, relatively larger nostrils, and brownish

instead of black colour.

Habits. According to C. R. N. Rao (1915)! this toad is entirely

nocturnal and rather rare. It has good capacity for burrowing and

specimens kept by him fed exclusively on white ants.

Bufo melanostictus Schneider 1799: Common Indian Toad

(Riate les 2. 35. 3a)

Diagnosis. This is the largest among Indian toads reaching a

snout to vent length of up to 150 mm. and is only equalled in size

by the closely allied Bufo himulayanus of the Himalayas. Cranial

ridges prominent, these as also the upper lip, tips of fingers

and toes, metatarsal tubercle, and tubercles on the palm of

the hand have black cornifications in the adult. (These tend

to peel off in preserved specimens.) Parotoid glands large and

prominent. Tympanum distinct, oval or circular in shape, % diameter

of eye. First finger equal to or longer than second. The skin is

heavily tuberculated and has many black spine-tipped warts. Two

series of large warts along the middle of the back, which has other-

wise very few tubercles. Crown of head smooth, especially in the

_ larger specimens, or with a few tubercles.

Uniform grey of various shades, brown or reddish with darker

markings, ventrally uniform white or speckled with black on the chin

and throat.

Juvenile. Dark grey or black or reddish brown above, and ventrally

uniform white or speckled with black. The juvenile common toad is

likely to be confused with species without cranial ridges as these do not

appear till the toad attains a snout to vent length of over 20 mm.

(Plate II, fig. 2). The ridges are rather indistinct in specimens of up

~ 2 Rao, C.R.N. (1915) ; Some South Indian Batrachia. Rec. Ind. Mus. 11 : 31,

436 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (2)

to 30 mm. length and are cornified only in specimens with a snout to

vent length over 35 mm.

Secondary sexual characters. The throat of the breeding male is

light orange or yellow in colour, very evident when the vocal sac is

distended. The male also has cornified callosities on the inner

aspect of the first and second fingers during the breeding season.

Distribution. Oriental region and Malaysia.

Breeding. This species is a very prolific breeder. A _ single

female may lay over a thousand eggs, in any convenient patch of

water. An excellent description of its breeding habits has been

given by McCann (1928)'. In the Bombay area, after the first heavy

fall of the monsoon rains, the characteristic call of the male, resembl-

ing the noise produced by a child’s horsehair rattle? can be heard in

the vicinity of ponds, streams, and rainwater pools. The male, which

may be considerably smaller than the female, is very much on the

alert at this period, calling from a stone or other vantage point near

the water and investigating any movement of other toads in its

immediate vicinity. At the approach of a female, several males will

scramble around her, the whole group at times resembling a rugger

scrum with the female buried under a mass of struggling, kicking males,

till one among them is successful in holding on to her with the arms

clasping the body of the female behind her forelimbs. The callosi-

ties on the fingers permit a non-skid grip. With a male thus firmly

established on her back the female enters the water to lay. If the

amplexus happens away from water it may be continued till water is

available which may be even after several days. McCann (supra)

records one instance where it was continued for 21 days—this was,

however, in captivity. The eggs are laid embedded in a translucent

string, which is twisted round the stems of grass and other plants in

water by the movements of the animals. In the absence of plants the

eges lie in long strings at the bottom of the pond or stream.

The tadpoles, which are uniform black in colour, hatch in about

four days after laying. They are usually gregarious and are omnivor-

ous in diet. They move usually at the surface and feed at the edge

of the water, mainly on algae and other plant life, but I have also

observed them, in a garden tank, feeding on dead toads which had

drowned when unable to get out of the tank.

1 McCann, C. (1928): Notes on Indian Batrachians. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

36 (1) : 154.

2 ia indigenous toy made from horse hair with a weight at one end of the hair,

while the other is looped to a groove on a wooden handle,

AMPHIBIANS OF WESTERN INDIA 437

The metamorphosed toads are very small in size averaging less than

10 mm. in snout to vent length. The period of larval life is not known

but this may vary with ecological conditions. Tadpoles of the same

clutch metamorphose more or less together; immediately thereafter

they migrate from the breeding area and large numbers of

young toads may be seen as the young from several clutches laid at

the same time start moving. McCann (op. cit.) records seeing several

thousand young toads migrating near Kalol in Rajputana in September.

Mortality is extremely heavy at this period.

The breeding season extends over a considerable period in south-

western India and Assam. Tadpoles have been collected from January

(Assam), February (Ootacamund) to August. The main breeding

season throughout the country coincides with the arrival of the

monsoon. However, in areas where conditions are favourable breeding

may occur sporadically during most of the year. The only months

in which specimens in breeding condition or tadpoles were not noticed

were November and December.

Habits. This toad is the commonest among Indian species and

also the amphibian most likely to be seen. It is equally at home in

almost all the biotopes found in the country, and occurs from sea-

level up to 6000 ft. in the hills. The few biotic requirements of the

species, a cool retreat for the day, insect food, and water even of

temporary nature to breed, has enabled the species, coupled with its

‘enormous fecundity, to exist under diverse climatic conditions.

Except during the breeding season it is nocturnal and spends the

day in any convenient cranny which is cool and dark. Once a toad

has found a suitable day retreat it will generally use it as its permanent

abode and if undisturbed will spend its life-time using it as its base

of operations for its nightly forays after food. However, during the

breeding season, the toads leave their home range for their breed-

ing sites, their period of absence depending on the distance and

conditions at the breeding pool. If conditions are ideal and space

permits several toads may occupy the same day hideout. They have

very limited powers of hopping and near-by prey which have been

_ spotted by sight or ear are usually walked up to. These toads are mainly

insect feeders and consume a large number during their night hunts,

and are thus of economic importance. In spite of the protection

afforded by the secretion of the parotoid and other glands on the

skin, a large number are eaten by snakes and other predators.

438 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (2)

Bufo microtympanum Boulenger 1882: Soulhern Hill Toad

(Plate II, Fig. 4)

Diagnosis. Similar in appearance to Bufo melanostictus but dis-

tinguished by its very small tympanum which is half or less than

half the diameter of the eye.

Distribution. ‘This species is not uncommon in the hills of southern

peninsular India.

Breeding. The breeding habits are not known but the tadpoles

which are distinguished from those of Bufo melanostictus in having

the nostrils 3 the size of the eye (less than half in melanostictus) have

been collected at Bangalore.

Habits. Unknown.

(To be continued)

Obituary

MARK ALEXANDER WYNTER-BLYTH

-Mark Alexander Wynter-Blyth died on the 16th of April 1963

of coronary thrombosis at Leysin, Switzerland, where he had gone

from India to spend his vacation.

His death has created a gap in the ranks of naturalists in this

country which will be difficult to fill, Mr. Wynter-Blyth will be

well remembered for his engaging articles in the Journal on

butterflies, travels in the Himalayas and the Nilgiri Hills, and the

lions of the Gir Forest. His BUTTERFLIES OF THE INDIAN REGION is

a most comprehensive work of its type on the subject. The third

census of lions in the Gir Sanctuary was completed in May 1962 using

the method evolved by him. He conducted the first two counts at

the invitation of the then Government of Saurashtra.

He was born at Harrow-on-the-Hill, Middlesex, England, on

15 August 1906, and was educated at Sedbergh School in Yorkshire

and Magdalene College, Cambridge. Sedbergh is considered one of

the toughest Public Schools of England, and his bent for Nature was

acquired during the formative years of his life at this school, as was

his spartan attitude towards life, which admirably suited him for his

chosen career as a school master.

Wynter-Blyth came out to this country in 1936 as House Master

at Bishop Cotton’s School, Simla, and when that school opened a

preparatory school he was appointed its first Head Master. It was

in Simla that he met A. E. Jones, who set him on his lifetime passion

for butterflies. |

From Simla he went to the Nilgiris as Head Master of St. George’s

School, Ketti, in 1941. Here he was called up for military service

during the Second World War but, being found unfit for active

service, was offered a staff appointment which he declined and asked

to be allowed to continue at his school, considering that his work

there was equally important towards the war effort.

He came over to Saurashtra in 1946 as tutor to the young

Maharajkumar of Navanagar, and in 1948 he was asked to take

charge of Rajkumar College, Rajkot. He dedicated the remain-

ing years of his life to tirelessly working to make the school one of

440 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (2)

the best for boys in the country. Mr. Wynter-Blyth devoted his

entire life to the cause of education in India, and this school is a

fitting memorial to him, its well-loved Principal.

A list of Mr. Wynter-Blyth’s papers contributed to the Journal

is appended below:

Note on Curetis species at Kallar. Vol. 43 : 671-2.

Some interesting butterflies. Vol. 44: 601-2.

A note on the transmission of malaria at Ketti, Nilgiris, 6300 ft. Vol. 44: 307-9.

The butterflies of the Nilgiris. Pt. 1, Vol. 44: 536-49; Pt. 2, Vol. 45: 47-61;

Addenda and corrigenda. Vol. 45: 613-5; Additions. Vol. 46: 736.

Description of a new dimorphic female of Euripus c. consimilis Wd. Vol.

45 : 257-8.

A list of the butterflies of the Simla Hills. Vol. 41: 716-41; Additions to the list.

Vol. 42:448; 43:672-3; 45:256-7; 46: 735-6.

Note on the butterfly Valeria valeria hippia (Fabricius) 2 form philomela.

Vol. 46: 736-7.

An expedition to Sangla in Kunawar. Vol. 47: 565-85.

The Nilgiris Revisited. Vol. 48 : 246-60. .

The Gir Forest and its Lions. Pt. 1, Vol. 48 : 493-514 ; Pt. 2 (with K. S. Dharma-

kumarsinhji), Vol. 49: 456-70.

Butterfly collecting in India. Vol. 50: 885-93.

A naturalist in the north-west Himalaya. Pt. 1, Vol. 50: 344-54; Pt. 2, Vol.

50: 559-72; Pt. 3, Vol. 51: 393-406. |

The Lion Census of 1955. Vol. 53 : 527-36.

Book :

BUTTERFLIES OF THE INDIAN REGION (Published by the Bombay Natural History

Society, 1957).

K. 8S. LAVKUMAR

Reviews

1. MANAGEMENT OF ARTIFICIAL LAKES AND PONDS.

By George W. Bennett. pp. xviit283 (23.5X15.5 cm.) With

numerous illustrations. New York, 1962. Reinhold Publishing

Corporation. Price $ 8.

The introduction of the word ‘artificial’ in the title of the book

points the limitations to its usefulness for those who will be con-

cerned with such waters. However, the principles of management,

as elaborated in the book, are equally applicable to natural as well

as artificial lakes and ponds. As such, the book can serve as a

useful reference for all those who are concerned with the manage-

ment of captive water resources from the fisheries point of view.

The book is divided into nine chapters. The first one is directed

to the concise history of fish management. In the second chapter

the author describes in simple language different types of ponds and

lakes, giving at places photographs to illustrate his classification.

The third chapter embodies information on the usual physico-chemical

factors of water, correlating these with the management of lakes and

ponds. The next four chapters, dealing with carrying capacity, pro-

duction, growth, reproduction, competition, predation, techniques of

Management, and fishing and natural mortality, constitute an im-.

portant feature of the author’s contribution, making the book a

useful reference even for workers in the field of fishery biology. The

last two chapters, describing fish behaviour, angling, and the com-

mercial aspects of sport fishing, are directed to help those concerned

with the management of sport fishing.

Considering the bias with which the book is written, it will evoke

admiration from those who seek to manage lakes and _ ponds

scientifically for sport fishing which, as a hobby, has astonishingly

increased in the last ten years in western countries, especially in the

U.S.A. Even otherwise, the book is a useful addition to the

libraries attached to institutions concerned with pisciculture and

general work on fishery biology.

H. G. KEWALRAMANI

442 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (2)

2. COLLINS GUIDE TO BIRD WATCHING. By Ros) ke

Fitter. pp. 254 (20X13.5 cm.). With 40 monochrome plates and

49 line drawings. London, 1963. Collins. Price 21s. net.

Here is a very well brought out little book, unique in that

it combines conciseness with full comprehension and is richly

illustrated with compelling line drawings and attractive photographs.

True, it is written for bird watching in the British Isles and so to

some extent is of limited scope fer birdmen elsewhere. Even so, it

is a very welcome addition to any library and is of special worth

for those just started on the hobby, or those contemplating getting

to know birds; the entire lay-out is for such people, and there is a lot

of very practical information which can be of aid in taking the -first

steps into this richly rewarding hobby.

This book approaches the subject from a very novel nee

novice birdwatcher; the author treats the subject with great care

and perspicuity lest his reader might stumble, and very soon the simple

text unfolds the intriguing vistas of the natural history of birds.

The first part of the book tells how to start—a thing which in

itself makes the book worth possessing. After learning the various

parts of a bird and what to look for, there are simple instructions on

the care of binoculars, the keeping of notes, and the attracting of birds

to gardens by bird-tables, bird-baths, and nesting boxes. Bird ring-

ing, photography, scientific investigations, and conservation laws are

all discussed. The second part deals with the identification of British

birds. As many species found in Britain visit us during the winter,

this section of the book is likely to be of use to people in India. The

novel method of grouping birds: according to their habits or habitats,

with a common type species as an introduction to each group, is

most convenient for a beginner.

The third section of the book is of less eine to us in India, but

the manner. in which the habitats have been recognised and their typical

bird groups described suggests a new approach towards identifying

birds, and also draws attention to the importance of. plant communities

in bird distribution, population densities, and community set-ups.

It also provides detailed information on sanctuaries, special birds of

each. locality, and Societies and regional literature of all the counties

of the British Isles, and gives a portrait of efficient co-operation among

the birdwatchers of the- U.K. In fact, any visitor to that country,

known for its phlegmatic exterior to outsiders, will find this book a

key to the warm heart of a nation of birdwatchers.

Y. S. SHIVRAJKUMAR

REVIEWS 443

3. SURVIVAL OF THE FREE. Edited by Dr. Wolfgang

Engelhardt. Translated from the German by John Coombs. pp.

xiv+257 (24X18 cm.). Numerous illustrations in colour and mono-

chrome, and nine maps. London, 1962. Hamish Hamilton. Price

S0s. net.

Part One of this book includes over 140 first-class photographs of

wild animals and birds, including six in colour. Such a magnificent

collection is seldom brought together, and the short paragraphs on

the different species add to their value. In spite of occasional slips,

probably introduced in the course of translation, the book contains

many interesting facts and figures which may help to convince

more people of the necessity for wild iife preservation and also

perhaps for the control of human spopulation—130,000 persons are

born every day and, by the year 2000, the human population will

have increased from 2809 million (1960) to 6900 million, assuming

of course that no atomic war intervenes. |

In Part Two different people relate their experiences in various

National Parks and Nature Protection areas, and Part Three has

more detailed and critical accounts of National Parks, Game Pro-

tection, Hunting, and their Problems.

The volume concludes with a list of National Parks and other

important Nature Protection areas. Under India, E. P. Gee’s INDIA’S

WILD LIFE SANCTUARIES (1961) is warmly recommended, and the

following 16 areas are mentioned: Dachigam Sanctuary (Kashmir),

Corbett National Park, Keoladeo-Ghana Sanctuary, Shivpuri National

Park, Chandraprabha Sanctuary, Hazaribagh National Park, Jaldapara

Government Reserve, Manas Government Reserve, Kaziranga Govern-

ment Reserve, Gir Forest, Kanha National Park, Ranganthittoo

Sanctuary, Vedanthangal Sanctuary, Bandipur Sanctuary, Mudumalai

Government Reserve, and Periyar Sanctuary. Curiously, serow are

said to occur at Shivpuri, Chandraprabha, and the Gir!

The Kruger Park in South Africa was opened in 1926 and visited

by the occupants of 3 cars in the following year. In 1960 there were

more than 140,000 visitors. In America, the National Park

authorities reckon they will receive 80 million visitors by 1966 and,

even today, every third American visits a national park at least once

a year. The corresponding figures for India would be microscopic,

and one wonders how far conditions here warrant Sir Julian Huxiey’s

statement in the Foreword: ‘The world has at last become aware of

444 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (2)

the fact that wild life is one of its most precious resources and yet

is threatened with extinction.’

H.A.

4. GOMA, THE BABY GORILLA. By Ernst M. Lang. pp. 62

(25X 19.5 cm.). 56 Monochrome plates. London, 1962. Victor

Gollancz Ltd. Price 21s. net.

The gorilla with a few other beasts equally temperamental has

refused to breed in captivity. The birth of a gorilla in an Ohio zoo

in 1956, therefore, was a historic event. Soon after, Europe got its

first zoo-born gorilla—at Basle. The mother seemed unable to care

for the baby, and so it came about that Goma was adopted into the

home of the Director of the zoo, Ernst Lang.

If Goma demanded as much care as a newborn human baby, she

was as lovable and charming. It is interesting to remark that no

visitor ever felt repelled by the little ape—on the contrary, women

wanted to cuddle and fondle her, as they would a human baby.

Not that Mr. Lang and his family fell into the habit of regarding

Goma as human. The first two years of Goma’s life are recorded

carefully and accurately and—this is important—without any trace of

sentimentality. It is a completely fascinating story, with many

surprises for those of us who are unacquainted with this particular

animal—and most of us are. I discovered, for example, that the

gorilla laughs, that he goes off his feed when teething starts, that he

is our nearest relative among the primates—in fact every page of

the 60 pages or so was a discovery.

I know for certain that as a child I would have been excited to

receive this book as a gift. The writing is clear enough to be read

by or to most children between 10 and 14. As for the photographs,

there is no period in our brief threescore years and ten when they

would not be utterly delightful.

Goma’s mother has given birth to another baby, and this time she

is able to care for it. We therefore look forward to another volume

telling us of the development of a gorilla baby under its mother’s

care, |

LR.

REVIEWS 445

5. SILENT SPRING. By Rachel Carson. pp. 368 (22X15 cm.).

With 17 black and white drawings. Boston, 1962. Houghton

Mifflin Company. Price $5.00.*

All thinking persons should read this book. Insecticides have

| become so much a part of our daily life that we no more question

their use than we would that of soap. Miss Carson has brought

together a great deal of information to shatter our complacency.

Disturbing reports have been coming in for years, but they have been

hidden in the scientific literature and this is the first time they have

been presented to a wider public. In spite of the uncompromisingly

scientific nature of the subject the book is absorbingly readable. This

will not surprise anyone who has read any of Miss Carson’s earlier

books.

Insecticides act by interfering with vital processes in the body.

Unfortunately these effects are not confined to noxious insécts; other

forms of life suffer. An example of this was seen in E. Michigan

Where elm trees were sprayed with DDT to rid them of bark beetles,

carriers Of Dutch elm disease, a fungus. All seemed well till the

following spring, when migrating robins returned to their territories

and began dying in large numbers. Each new wave of migrants was

Wiped out in about a week and few nests and young were seen. What

had happened was that the DDT formed a water-resistant film on the

elm leaves; in autumn the leaves fell and were eaten by earthworms,

which thus accumulated large quantities of DDT in their bodies, and

in spring the robins ate the earthworms. It was estimated that eleven

large earthworms contained enough DDT to kill a robin! Paradoxi-

cally, instead of Dutch elm disease being reduced, it actually spread

faster in the sprayed areas. This was because the natural enemies

of the bark beetle were killed. The only effective method of control

was found to be the immediate destruction of the diseased trees.

There has been wholesale destruction of other wildlife also. Fish

have died in streams after overhead spraying, and in Britain foxes

are known to have died in large numbers, perhaps from eating

poisoned birds and mice. When the dead creatures have been analysed

large amounts of DDT have been found in fatty tissues. The

accumulation of DDT in tissues is one of its most alarming features.

It makes nonsense of the concept of ‘safe residues’ of insecticides

1 Also published in Great Britains 1963, by Hamish Hamilton, London. pp. 304

mex? 13'cem.). Price 25s. net.

446 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (2)

which are permitted on foodstuffs for human consumption. No one |

- ,

appears to have considered the cumulative effect of numerous ‘safe

doses throughout an individual’s life. |

There is evidence that DDT reduces fertility in birds. It has been

found in their gonads, in unhatched eggs, and in newly-hatched dead

nestlings. Whether such effects occur in man is at the moment

speculative. Miss Carson presents evidence to show that chemicals

may act like radiation in bringing about genetic and carcinogenic —

changes. The evidence that insecticides are linked with malignant

anaemias and leukaemias appears to me to be inadequate. A large

number of case histories of sufferers from these diseases have been |

collected in the States, and all ‘had been exposed to these environmental

agents, with a fair amount of exposure’. With the amount of insecti-

cides that are being used these days in the States this statement must —

surely be true of nearly everyone. Without histories from a control

group of normal persons this statement is not very conclusive, though

it may be suggestive. This is perhaps a quibble. There is certainly

enough evidence on the point to disturb, but I feel that the author

cheats somewhat in this section by presenting the evidence so as to

suggest that it is better than it is; this is a pity in a book which is

otherwise so logical.

What is urgently needed today is the reassessment of the biologi-

cal effect of chemicals and a more realistic policy for controlling

their use—as Miss Carson points out, this will clash with a great

many vested interests, and more money will have to be spent on the

development of other means of control. The only permanent

solution is a more basic knowledge of the relationships between

different forms of life, and the wise use of it to ‘promote an even

balance and damp down the explosive power of outbreaks and new

invasions’. Spectacular results have already been achieved. The screw-

worm, a pest of livestock, was eliminated very ingeniously in Florida.

Large numbers of male screw-worm flies, bred in the laboratory, were

sterilized with gamma rays and released. They mated with normal

female flies, with the result that the eggs laid were infertile and the

population of the flies was reduced. Successive releases have

eliminated the screw-worm. Preliminary trials where large numbers

of sterilized male mosquitoes were released into a population have not

been a success, and it will take years of patient research to find

biological solutions to all our problems. Meanwhile our insect

problems are pressing. No one can deny the enormous reduction in

the incidence of malaria, plague, and kala azar, to mention only a few,

REVIEWS 447

following the discovery of DDT, and Paul Miller the discoverer richly

deserved his Nobel Prize. So, until the permanent solution is found,

it seems most sensible to follow the advice of Dr. Briejer, Director of

Holiand’s Plant Protection Service: ‘Spray as little as you possibly

can’, rather than ‘Spray to the limit of your capacity’.

Most of the appalling destruction described in this book was quite

unnecessary, and we are in Miss Carson’s debt for pointing this out.

R.R.

Miscellaneous Notes

1. THE WILD DOG [CUON ALPINUS (PALLAS)| AND

THE TIGER [PANTHERA TIGRIS (LINN.)|

During a short visit to Kanha National Park in February 1963,

an interesting incident throwing further light on the relations between

the wild dog and the tiger came to my notice and is recorded below.

On the 20th February at about 3 a.m., loud alarm calls of chital

and swamp deer near Kanha Forest House indicated the presence of

a large carnivore in the vicinity. At about 8 a.m., vultures and

crows were seen collecting near a spot in the forest hardly a

kilometre from the Forest House. Some local boys, sent to

investigate, soon returned rather frightened and reported that a fight

between a pack of wild dogs and a tiger was in progress and that

they had heard at very. close range the fierce growls of the tiger

and the yaps of wild dogs. After making loud noises to scare away

the fighting carnivores, I visited the spot with some local people.

About a dozen wild dogs were seen feeding on the kill, a chital doe.

They left the kill ‘under protest? on human approach. The tiger

could not be seen but the details of a grim drama of the Indian

jungle could easily be made out. An old, thick and straight sal

tree (Shorea robusta) about 10 metres from the kill was profusely

covered with fresh claw marks of the tiger up to a height of about

5 metres. The lowest branches of the tree were at a height of about

7 metres. Obviously the tiger had not succeeded in climbing the

tree and had slipped down and been attacked by the wild dogs. The

leaves below the tree were smeared with blood drops which could

be followed deep into the forest showing the route of the retreat of

the mauled tiger. Tiger pug marks near the dead chital and the

other marks at the spot suggest that the tiger killed the chital and

was chased away by the wild dogs. The fact that the tiger was able

to kill a deer and to ascend a branchless tree up to the said height

shows that it was quite healthy.

CENTRAL REGIONAL STATION,

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, H. KHAJURIA

JABALPUR,

‘May 4, 1963.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 449

{Lt.-Col R. W. Burton in “The Indian Wild Dog’? (Journal,

Vol. 41 : 691-715) lists records of fights between wild dog and tiger

and suggests that the most frequent reason for such encounters probably

is ‘the killing by a tiger of an animal being hunted by the dogs and the

ensuing fight for their quarry by the ravening pack’.—Ens.]

2. ‘BAT MIGRATION IN INDIA AND OTHER NOTES ON

BATS’ : A CORRECTION

In my paper ‘Bat Migration in India and Other Notes on Bats’

(1948, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 47 : 522-526) I mentioned

Rhinolophus rouxi (Temm.) as one of the bats ringed at Elephanta

Island, Bombay, by me together with Salim Ali and Charles McCann.

In May 1962, when I visited the island with Lord Medway, he drew

my attention to the fact that the smaller bat with pointed ears (which

in. my paper I had referred to as Rhinolophus rouxi) was in fact

Hipposideros speoris (Schneider). Later, at the Society’s Office, we

verified that four specimens collected by McCann in 1942 and marked

R. rouxi are in fact HA. speoris. This error was noticed by

M. Brosset when examining the skins in the Society’s office, but was

not then separately recorded as I thought it would be referred to in

his paper. It would appear, therefore, that our earlier notes were

based on a wrong identification. . :

_ Incidentally, several of the bats seen by us in May 1963 bore

tings, presumably those placed by Brosset in November 1959 and

February 1961 (1962, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 59 : 612).

MEssrs Faiz & Co.,

75, ABDUL REHMAN STREET, HUMAYUN ABDULALI

BOMBAY 3,

July 18, 1963.

3. A PIEBALD RATTUS NORVEGICUS (BERKENHOUT)

FROM BOMBAY |

(With a plate)

During the rat-flea survey of G/north Ward of Greater Bombay

a curious solitary female specimen of rat was trapped on 6 February

1960 in the locality of Library Road, Dadar. It was heavily infested,

all twenty-five fleas being Xenopsilla cheopis (Rothschild),

450 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (2)

The specimen, identified as Rattus norvegicus (Berkenhout), had

the posterior two-thirds of the body white, except for a streak of

brown in the mid-dorsal line continuing from the anterior third of

the body, which was the normal brown. The tail had brown hair

on the upper side but only a few hairs on the lower side, and con-

sequently appeared pale and scaly beneath. The terminal portion of

the tail, over 25 mm., was white. Measurements were: head 30 mm.,

body 120 mm., tail 140 mm., ear 20 mm. long and 15 mm. wide,

weight 93 gm. The accompanying photographs give a clear idea of

the colour pattern.

The specimen bears some resemblance to that described by Romer

(1949) frorn Hong Kong, but is more regular, and indeed bears a

close resemblance to the domestic rat of the ‘hooded’ pattern. Romer

claimed that his specimen must have been a _naturally-occurring

albino, since domestic rats were not imported or kept in Hong Kong.

In Bombay the possibility of hybridization with a domestic albino rat

cannot be ignored, although we are not aware of the presence of a

strain of ‘hooded’ domestic rats. The pattern is also similar to one

of those described by Harrison & Lim (1951) from the wild forest rat,

Rattus cremoriventer, in Malaya.

Naturally-occurring albinism appears to be rare in R. norvegicus,

although it is known in R. rattus. Hossack (1907) refers to part

albino house rats of this species in Calcutta, and both Gibson-Hill

(1950) and Harrison (1950) note the occurrence of part albinos,

while the former records a full albino R. norvegicus from Singapore.

Harrison (1950) appeals for statistics of the frequency of such albinos

as of value to quantitative geneticists. The Plague Investigation

Commission in India (1912) has recorded data for such albinism

(white belly) in R. rattus from Bombay. Figures from the rat-flea

survey as recorded by us for the period August 1959 to November

1959 from the suburban area of Bombay (Bhandup) relating to part-

albinos are as follows:

Species No. examined No. of albinos

R. rattus 682 16

The skin of the piebald specimen of R. norvegicus is preserved in

the Entomology Department, Haffkine Institute, Bombay.

We are thankful to the Director and the Assistant Director

(Entomology) for the facilities and help given to us. Our thanks

Ventral view

A Piebald Rattus norvegicus (Berkenhout)

FiisSl.

Dorsal view

DOMBAY INAIL.

JOURN.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

451

are also due to Dr. J. L. Harrison, Singapore University, for valuable

suggestions.

BioLOGY DEPARTMENT,

RUPAREL COLLEGE,

BOMBAY 16,

A. K. JOSHEE

THE COMMONWEALTH INSTITUTE OF

BIOLOGICAL CONTROL,

BANGALURE 6,

May 25, 1963.

K. M. KAMATH

REFERENCES

Gibson-Hill, C.A. (1950) : Feral albino

and piebald rats. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 49 : 298.

Harrison, J.L. (1950): The occurrence

q albino and melanic rats. ibid. 49:

48.

———— & Lim, B.L. (1951): AIl-

binism in Rattus. cremoriventer. ibid.

49 : 780.

Hossack, W.C. (1907) : An account of

the rats of Calcutta. Mem. Znd.Mus.1:17.

Reports on Plague Investigation in

India (1912): J. HAyg., Plague Suppl.

Il, p. 227

Romer, J.D. (1949): Naturally occur-

ring albinism in a specimen of R. nor-

vegicus. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 48:

a0.

4. THE NILGIRI TAHR [HEMITRAGUS HYLOCRIUS

(OGILBY)] IN CAPTIVITY

Thanks to the generosity of the management of the Kanan Devan

Hills Produce Co. Ltd., Munnar, it was possible to obtain, from their

sanctuary near Vagavurray Estate, a pair of Nilgiri Tahr Hemitragus

hylocrius (Ogilby) for the Trichur Zoo. ‘They were captured when

hardly ten days old and transported to Trichur in a large dealwood

case, well padded with straw. When the two kids arrived at the

Zoo, on a hot December afternoon in 1959, they looked so small

and helpless that their chances of survival seemed slender. But

with proper care, they have not only survived but acclimatized

themselves to the Zoo and even raised a family. Bamby is now

the mother of two kids, Parvati born on 27-4-1962, and a male born

on 9-2-1963. Cookei, the father, is now a ‘saddle-back’.

From the time of capture, fresh cow’s milk diluted with water

was their sole sustenance for a long time. It was fed to them

out of a feeding bottle at regular intervals night and day. The

animals were kept in a sheltered verandah next to the library instead

of in their paddock, for safety and closer attention.

452 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (2)

Their umbilical cords were still intact when the kids arrived at

the Zoo. Bamby, which came from a different herd, was a shade

taller than Cookei and had a dark-grey back, with paler flanks and

white belly. Cookei’s colour soon deepened and both looked almost

alike, except for Cookei’s horn-knobs being more prominent and _ his

face slightly shorter. Their eyes were dark brown with the pupil

darker and horizontal. The muzzle was calico-black and, under

stress of exertion, a moustachia! streak of black would issue out of

each nostril. There was a whitish circle around the eye and a black,

oblique streak in front of each foreleg. ‘The hair inside the ears was

parted in four grooves, as in the Barbary sheep. When measured on

14-1-1960, just when they were about a month old, Cookei stood

17 inches at the shoulder and Bamby 18 inches...

Besides milk, the young animals loved to nibble at pieces of earth,

laterite, dry leaves, and paper, while they licked with obvious relish

the plaster off walls, the hands of the attendants, the seats and arms of

chairs, and dust settled on the old .book-cases. Later, they. began

to browse on the tender grass of the lawn and developed a partiality |

for the leaves of Bridelia retusa. Hibiscus and Ficus leaves were

also eaten. So was Tridax procumbens, a common weed in the

compound, but not Boerhavia, another common plant. Their present

food consists of soaked Bengal gram, grass, leaves of the jak-iree,

and ripe bananas.

The kids were most active after their feed of milk and kept dash-

ing up and down the verandah, sometimes together, sometimes in

Opposite directions. In this mad career, their sure-footedness alone

saved them from crashing into one another. When they ran, all four

legs were off the ground. I have seen Cookei leap over the height

and length of Bamby at one bound. The wall of their present run

is nearly 8 ft. high, but this had to be provided with a 3-foot top- |

railing to prevent them from jumping over.

After play and exertion, they generally dropped down to rest

just where they happened to be at the moment. The usual posture

was with the legs folded beneath the body, head raised and attentive.

But when really relaxing, the legs were stretched sideways with the

neck either drawn forwards or curved around to rest on the body.

They liked to sleep during the hottest part of the day. When fast

asleep, they did not seem to mind small noises. On rising fully

rested, they would stretch their bodies, holding their front legs erect

and hind legs depressed and then give themselves a vigorous shake.

Bamby invariably urinated on the gunny bag supplied to her before

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 453

lying down, and Cookei at times pawed the ground as a prelude to

repose. i

In their earliest infancy, both the animals were tame and confiding,

but with the passage of time, they became timid and suspicious and

would start at every unfamiliar sound. They got upset when doors

were opened or shut, or someone trod on dry leaves and made a

rustling sound. Bamby, when parted from her mate or otherwise

disturbed, showed her restlessness by a sharp circular motion of the

neck. This habit of twisting the neck is occasionally present in

cattle, and such animals are looked upon with superstitious dread in

parts of Kerala. Cookei was free of this habit. .I once saw him

curl up in fright at the call of a Paradise Flycatcher from a neighbour-

ing tree. Bamby’s hair literally stood on end at the sight of her

first mosquito. Their hearing is acute and senses of smell and sight

well developed. Both have a plaintive bleat like a goat’s but, under

excitement of chasing one another or of fight or fright, they emit a

foud hiss.

Two or three days after their arrival at the Zoo, Cookei mounted

Bamby in the copulatory posture, but with no servicing movements.

Bamby, at times, also behaved in the same way. ‘Towards the close

of. the first year, Cookei began to make passes at Bamby and also at

passers-by. This became such a nuisance that the animals had to

be transferred to their present run. Here he was seen to be constantly

making advances to Bamby with back arched and head lowered, but

stopping short on getting close and contenting himself by stroking

her once or twice with his forelegs. Any attempt to mount was

prevented by Bamby moving away. When visitors approached the

cage, Cookei transferred his advances to them, putting out his head

and making clicking noises with the tongue. Actual copulation was

not observed by me and is presumed to have taken place at night.

I am thus unable to give the exact gestation period. No special

rutting season was noticed; the male ‘made advances to the female

in all the months of the year.

The animals seldom fought, although they butted at each other

playfully. The moment Cookei became really aggressive, as at feed-

ing time, Bamby would move out of his way. Earlier, they had

allowed themselves to be led about by their ropes, but Cookei soon

Started butting at the attendants. Once roused, he would not leave

off, even if belaboured with a stick. On one occasion, an attendant

was badly gored by him and had to be sent to the hospital. On another

occasion, a man who jumped over the wall to pick up something he

454 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (2)

had thrown into the run was attacked and severely wounded. The

goats themselves once jumped over the partition wall into the

adjoining deer-run. While the authorities were in dread of the

diminutive creatures being crushed to death by the stampeding sambar

and spotted deer, what actually happened was that the goats had put

the inmates to rout and sent them galloping to the farthest end of the

paddock, after which they wandered about in supreme nonchalance

until roped and led back to their own cage.

They have not suffered from any serious illness during the three

and odd years of their life at the Zoo. Periodical examination of the |

faeces has revealed them to be free of internal parasites. Also, no

external parasites have been noticed so far. But they are subject to

attacks of severe cold during the hot months.

‘BELL-VIEW, .

DEWAN’S ROaD, N. G. PILLAI

ERNAKULAM, KERALA,

May 20, 1963.

5. RESCUE AND RINGING OF FLAMINGOS IN

KENYA COLONY

In October 1962 a local daily newspaper published a report about

flamingos dying by the thousand on Lake Magadi in Kenya Colony.

Enquiries made by Mr. Humayun Abdulali have elicited the following

information from Mr. Leslie Brown, President, East African Natural

History Society, which we are glad to publish. There were colonies

of both species of flamingos, Lesser Flamingo (Phoeniconaias minor)

about 1,000,000 pairs and Greater Flamingo (Phoenicopterus ruber)

about 10,000 pairs. Between 800,000 and 900,000 young hatched.

Shortly after hatching many young birds were affected by the

saturated solution of soda in which they were moving forming heavy

balls of soda round their legs. There was a generous response to

appeals for helpers and funds, and active rescue efforts were put in

train at a very early stage. Teams of catchers caught the affected

young and knocked off the soda anklets. It is estimated that about

30,000 lives were saved by this method. In addition, about 100,000

more young were saved by driving them into water in which the

solution of soda was not so concentrated and where the anklets did

not form. The final saving was the ability of the young to move to

the southern end of the lake, and the early arrival of the rains in

- MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 455

October which diluted the solution of soda in the water of the lake.

Late in November Mr. Brown estimated the number of young at

about 400,000, which would give a breeding success of rather less

than 50%. Further mortality occurred later among the last-hatched

young owing to the parents having to fly long distances to get food

(to Lake Natron and back, a good sixty miles a day). Even so,

making allowances for the unusual conditions, the proportion of

breeding success would not compare very unfavourably with that in

a normal year in the usual breeding ground in the centre of Lake

Natron.

The tragedy has a redeeming feature in so far as the big organisa-

tion set up for rescuing the young made it possible to ring the flamingos

on a large scale. As was metitioned in ‘Notes and News’ in our last

issue, 8000 young Lesser Flamingo were ringed. It is hoped that

some definite information about the migratory movements of the two

species of flamingo will now be obtained.

Bompay NaturaL History SOcIETY,

91, WALKESHWAR ROAD, EDITORS

BOMBAY 6-WB,

June 17, 1963.

6. ON THE ALLEGED INFERIORITY OF THE SOUTHERN

GRACKLE [GRACULA RELIGIOSA INDICA (CUVIER)]

AS A TALKING BIRD

A conversation I had recently with Mr. K. I. Mathew, State Wild

Life Ojficer of Kerala, suggests an explanation for the widespread

belief that Pahari Mynas from north India (Gracula religiosa inter-

media and G. r. peninsularis) are better talkers and learn more readily

than south Indian birds (G. r. indica), a belief that bird dealers take

advantage of by asking for ridiculously high prices. The majority of

the birds that come from Gorakhpur, U.P., and from eastern and

northern central India are taken as nestlings; they are therefore

reared in captivity and become conditioned to human handling and

the sophisticated noises of human society. As against this, I learn

from Mr. Mathew that in Kerala these birds are caught with bird lime

when they collect in large flocks to feed on the nectar of the freely

flowering forest shrub Helicteres isora; that is to say, their training

does not begin till they are adult. To my suggestion that the few

456 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (2)

southern birds that talk well may be hand-reared, Mr. Mathew

confirmed that fledglings taken at the nest do, in fact, learn to talk

quite proficiently.

During the ornithological survey in Orissa in 1950, I learnt that

the right to collect Pahari Myna nestlings was auctioned along with

other forest rights, and at a royalty of 4 annas (=25 nP.) per bird

brought the State an annual income of about Rs. 3000. This, along

with nestlings destroyed or unaccounted for in the process of collect-

ing, represents an enormous drain, the effect of which calls for serious

consideration.

335 PAta’ Ain,

BANDRA, - §SALIM ALI

BOMBAY 50,

June 6, 1963.

7. OCCURRENCE OF THE VERDITER FLYCATCHER, -

MUSCICAPA THALASSINA THALASSINA SWAINSON

(PASSERIFORMES : MUSCICAPIDAE) IN KATHIAWAR

PENINSULA

The Verditer Flycatcher (Muscicapa thalassina thalassina Swainson) |

is so far not recorded from the peninsula of Kathiawar, although it —

is known to over-winter in the greater part of northern and penin-

sular India. Dharmakumarsinhji (1954, BIRDS OF SAURASHTRA : 429)

lists the bird as not recorded from Saurashtra, but occurring in the

mainland of Gujarat. Therefore, it was of interest to notice the

occurrence of this bird in the Gir forest of Saurashtra which I had

occasion to visit during November-December 1962. ‘Three specimens

of this bird were seen on 10 December 1962 at Chhodawadi in the

Jamwala Range, on the forest track leading to Jasadhar, about 4

kilometre from the Forest Rest House. The area was light forest

adiacent to hillside where the undergrowth was burnt out, probably

to facilitate timber operations. The birds were darting about among

the denuded branches of the trees (Salmalia malabarica) on the forest

roads and making short sallies after insects. Baker (1924, FAUNA OF

BRITISH INDIA, BIRDS 2 : 239-240) speaks of the bird as very sociable

and often to be seen moving about in pairs. The birds seen by me

seemed to be moving about alone. They are said to be not common

in Gujarat; this seems to be the case here also, as they were not

seen again in a stay of approximately a month.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 457

One specimen, a male, was collected. — - :

I am thankful to Dr. B. Biswas of the Zoological Survey of India

for kindly confirming the findings.

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

INDIAN MUSEUM, G. U. KURUP

CALCUTTA 13,

ipril 15, 1963.

[Salim Ali in ‘The Birds of Gujarat’, Journal Vol. 52 : 747, gives

the status of this species as: ‘Winter visitor. Sporadic solos, or

separated pairs, amongst groves of leafy trees near villages, and in

wooded compounds, etc.’. We have with us an unpublished manu-

script, dated October 1950 and received in the Society’s office in the —

same month, by Y. S. Shivrajkumar wherein the species is recorded

from Jasdan, Saurashtra, in winter——EDs.]

8. ADDITIONS TO THE LIST OF BIRDS EATING THE FRUIT

OF YELLOW OLEANDER (THEVETIA NERIIFOLIA)

Some time ago, I recorded in this Journal (56 : 639) that Redvented

Bulbuls (Molpastes cafer) and Whitebrowed Bulbuls (Pycnonotus

luteolus) feed on the fleshy mesocarp of the fruit of the Yellow

Oleander (Thevetia neriifolia). 1 referred therein to notes by other

authors recording the same habit in the Koel (Eudynamys scolopdcea),

the Common Myna (Acridotheres tristis) and the Common Grey

Hornbill (Tockus birostris).

During the latter half of last year my wife and I observed Brahminy

Mynas (Sturnus pagodarum) and Redwhiskered Bulbuls (Pycnonotus

jocosuS) in our compound eating this fruit. Brahminy Mynas are local

migrants on this campus arriving by about September and departing

by about March, whereas Redwhiskered Bulbuls are residents. Usually

the Brahminy Mynas feed in company with the Common Mynas and

Hoopoes in the grass lawns of this estate. Occasionally they take to

eating this fruit, but always the over-ripe ones fallen on the ground.

We have noted them sometimes eating the mesocarp of even the stale

or the dark and dried fruit. When disturbed, they fiy off but come

back soon to resume eating, each bird thereby finishing almost a

complete fruit.

We suspect the Crow-Pheasant (Centrepus sinensis) to have this

habit but have seen only one instance of such feeding. We have only

458 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (2)

one or two of these birds round about our house, so it may take time

before we can definitely include the Crow-Pheasant in this list.

In all these present instances the unripe fruit full of latex on the

plant is never touched.

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY,

MADRAS CHRISTIAN COLLEGE, P. J. SANJEEVA RAJ

TAMBARAM, SOUTH INDIA,

April 15, 1963.

9. POINT CALIMERE AS A REFUGE FOR WINTERING

SHORE BIRDS

(With a_ text-figure)

The Asian Section of the International Council for Bird Preserva-

tion (ICBP) whose headquarters are in Tokyo, Japan, has been fully

alive to the need for a proper investigation of the movements of

migratory wading birds (Charadriidae) in south and south-east Asia,

and anxious to promote the establishment of refuges for them while

on passage or wintering in these countries. The Section was recently

allotted a small monetary grant by the World Wildlife Fund through

the world body (ICBP) for the furtherance of this objective, a part

of which it has passed on to the Indian National Section for

appropriate utilization. Partly to prospect in this connection and

partly in order to explore the possibilities of netting shore-birds

for investigating their role, if any, in the dissemination of arthropod-

borne viruses (cf. the BNHS/WHO Bird Migration Field Project), but

chiefly at the invitation of the Government of Madras to assess the

suitability of Point Calimere for their proposed shore-birds sanctuary,

I] visited the area from 10th to 16th November 1962.

Point Calimere (190° 18’ N.x79° 51’ E.) lies in the Tanjavur

(Tanjore) District of Madras State, about 200 miles south of Madras

City. The area is an extensive coastal belt of some 50,000 acres

(or more?) of tidal mudflats, salt marshes, and lagoons along the

southern Bay of Bengal, and about 3C miles from the Jaffna Peninsula

of Ceylon across Palk Strait. The stunted scrub jungle bordering

the backwaters and mudflats consists of shrubs and moderate-

sized trees of Mimusops hexandra, Memecylon edule, Bassia latifolia,

Carissa carandas, Eugenia jambolana, and other species. Further

inland from the edge, the scrub becomes denser and merges into ©

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 459

thorn forest, interspersed here and there with open low-lying grassy

maidans. Considerable numbers of cheetal, blackbuck, and pig are

still to be seen here though reportedly much reduced by poaching.

The thick shrubbery—up to 10 or 12 feet high---consists largely of

Dichrostachys sp. (an acacia-like plant with yellow-tipped pink

pompom flowers), Randia dumetorum, Zizyphus oenoplia, Carissa

carandas, Cassia fistula and C. auriculata, and other species. Contrary

to the season in the Bombay area, Gloriosa superba was flowering

profusely everywhere in this terrain. Also, an epiphyte—Vitis quadr-

angularis—was common on the trees.

Bird life was not particularly abundant in the scrub jungle though

of considerable variety. But the mudflats and shallow lagoons were

(at the time of my visit) alive with wading birds—sandpipers, plovers,

etc.—in addition to the large flocks (thousands) of fiamingos (P. ruber),

for whom they are reported to be regular feeding grounds in winter.

In a trial catch with the help of a local professional fowler using

rows of upright Borassus palm fibre nooses (see sketch) strung out

Borassus palm fibre nooses used by local fowler

more or less at random along the mudflats, over 120 birds were taken

within a few hours including such species as Philomachus pugnax,

460 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (2)

Charadrius mongolus, C. alexandrinus, Tringa totanus, T. stagnatilis',

T. glareola, Calidris minutus, and others—also two Roseate Terns

(Sterna dougalli) and a single Rednecked Phalarope (PAalaropus

lobatus). With the co-operation and collaboration of the Wildlife

Preservation Department of the State, it seems possible to do very

profitable large scale ringing of shore-birds in this locality, using

mist nets and decoys, and also other local techniques.

Little is known about the migrations of the Charadriidae that

visit India in winter, and nothing at all regarding their significance

as arthropod-borne virus disseminators; Point Calimere offers an

exceptional venue for these studies. As a result of my prospecting,

it was planned to send out a BNHS field party in December to com-

mence ringing work, but owing to certain procedural snags per-

mission for netting could not be granted by the Madras Government.

It is to be hoped that these difficulties are only of a temporary nature

and that it will be possible tc utilize the opportunities to the full

during the coming autumn.

According to a recently retired lighthouse keeper of Point Calimere

lighthouse for 25 years, large numbers of birds (‘land as well as

aquatic’) are regularly observed every year between late August and

early November flying over Point Calimere ‘in a steady stream’ in a

southward direction across Palk Strait and towards Ceylon. It would

be interesting to investigate this report in greater detail. Large

numbers of the Indian Pitta (Pitta brachyura) are also reliably

reported to pass through Point Calimere on their way south to Ceylon

for a fortnight or so in every October. In view of our utter ignorance

regarding the local migrations of this conspicuous species the place ©

would seem to provide a wonderful opportunity for intercepting and

ringing these birds in adequate quantity.

33, MEAL seth:

BANDRA, SALIM ALI

Bompsay 50,

May 13, 1963.

2 One of the ringed Marsh Sandpipers (7. staguatilis) has since been recovered in

the U.S.S.R. For particulars see p. 461—EDs,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 461

10. RECOVERY OF RINGED BIRDS

(TERE EL ee TE

Species and | Date and place | Date and place of

Ring No. of ringing recovery Remarks

*Passer domesticus | 23-3-1962. Bha- | 2-6-1962. Near Che-| Reported by the Bird-

parkini? ratpur, Rajas-| molgan, Kaskelan Ringing Bureau,

Bombay A-10270 | than, c. 27° 13’| Dist., Alma-Atare- | USSR Academy of

NG 32 Bs gion, Kazakh SSR.,| Sciences, Commission

c. 43° 12’ N., 76°; for Nature Protection,

37’ E., c. 1800 km. | Moscow, USSR

directly north of

Bharatpur |

nd aes ee sens eg eee | as ce Ee Ss ee Ss | ET cg SN ss a SS eS SRS SD

a ng ns ns a ns

*Motacilla flava | 2-2-1963. Eda- | 10-5-1963. Neighbour-| Reported by Dr. D.

beema nad, Chenga- ! hood of Nowabad,| Meyer-Oehme, Teach-

Bombay A-33005 |} nur, Alleppey Bagramivillage,east} er of Biology, Royal

Dist., Kerala, c.| of Kabul, c. 34° 30’; Afghan High School,

9° 20’ N., 76°) N., 69° 13’ E., c.| Kabul, Afghanistan

38, E. | 2800 km. north of

| Edanad

*Motacilla indica | 25-2-1963. Do. | 25-4-1963. Tiddim, {Shot with a catapult.

Bombay AB-7960 | Chin Hills, Burma,| Reported by Mr. Khup

c. 23° 50’ N., 93°} Khan Kap, Lailo Vil-

70’ E., c.2400 km.! lage, P.O. Tiddim,

NE. of Edanad Chin Hills, Burma

tee:

ee ee

eee

Anas querquedula '22-7-1961, ad. ¢ | 28-12-1962. Shot near| Shot and reported by

Moskwa E527297| ringed at the} a tank between the Rajasaheb of

nest, at the | Jakapur and Kun-! Miraj, Maharashtra

mouth of River| danpur in Sangli | State

Svir (c.55km. | District, Maharash- |

N-0 from town }_ tra State

of Novaya Lad-

oga) c. 60° 30’ |

ING 32° 507-E3

Leningrad Dis-

trict

*Motacilla flava | 16-12-1962. Eda-| 16-5-1963. Found | Reported by Bird-Ring-

thunbergi nad, Chenganur,| dead. Southern | ing Bureau, USSR

Bombay A-22268 | Alleppey Dist., | part of Karaganda Academy of Sciences,

Kerala, c. 9° | region, Kazakh- Commission for Na-

Ie ZO LING. | 76° stan, USSR, c. 46° | ture Protection, Mos-

38’ E. N., 72° E., c. 4170 | cow, USSR

km. north of Eda- |

nad

*Tringa stagnatilis| 12-11-1962. 4-5-1963. Shot at do.

Bombay AB-1690| Point Calimere,| Novosibirsk region,

Taniavur (Tan-| nearKupino, USSR,

jore) “District, ||. c. 54% 22’ N., 77°

Madras State,| 18’ E., c. 4930 km.

cs 10° N., 80° | north of Madras

The five birds marked with asterisks were ringed in the course of

the BNHS/WHO Bird Migration Field Project. The 3 wagtails are

462 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (2)

from the lot of 20,300 odd ringed by the BNHS field party in Kerala

between December 1962 and February 1963. The recovery of the

Forest Wagtail in the Chin Hills is of particular interest since we know

even less about its movements than of other migratory wagtails. It ©

is a species that normally breeds in NE. Asia. Nesting has also

been reported in the N. Cachar Hills of Assam but doubts have been,

cast on this report. Its migration route/s to and from SW. India

and Ceylon is/are unknown. The speculation is that this wagtail

either follows the Eastern Ghats or goes partly over the Bay of

Bengal via the Andamans.

It is a question whether the ringed bird had arrived at its destina-

tion in the Chin Hills or how much further it still had to travel to

its breeding grounds. The reporter states that it was shot by a boy

with a catapult, and that it was by itself and not in a party.

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY,

91, WALKESHWAR ROAD, EDITORS

BOMBAY 6-WB,

May 27, 1963.

lJ. TESTUDO HYPSELONOTA BOURRET REFERRED

TO GEOCHELONE RADIATA (SHAW)

(With a plate)

While working on the preparation of a checklist of Recent and

fossil land tortoises of the world the validity of the Recent species

Testudo hypselonota Bourret was investigated. This contribution is

the result of that short study.

Bourret (1941) described a presumably new species of Recent land

tortoise on the basis of a single specimen in the Botanical Gardens

of Saigon, to which he gave the name of Testudo hypselonota. Bourret

stated quite clearly that the exact origin of the specimen was unknown,

and that it is not even certain that it was found in Indochina. ‘‘ Malhe-

ureusement l’origine exacte de cette Tortue, provenant d’un Chinois de

Cholon qui l’avait lui-méme achetée au marché de cette ville, n’est pas

connue, et il n’est pas certain qu’elle ait été trouvée en Cochinchine.”’

Unfortunately, more recent authors, such as Wermuth & Mertens

(1961), have failed to recognize the questionable Indochinese origin

of the specimen, and have assumed that only the exact locality was

unknown. ‘“‘ Verbreitung: Indochina (nahere Fundort-Angaben liegen

nicht vor)..., Terra Typica: Cholon ?”’ (p. 213).

Re ee eee Cree eee See PEE Case Loe

on ge ae

Sa S —~ § nrnr

» DJOIpv-

ead fanny

CAGILIZ)

DyIOFES “HW pue aT = 0c e WAL “ev5 aT "Sy ast uyy +VWN xs40 sta vacje auojeqsee je pe as

S9SIO}I0} JO sudTIOads INOJ JO (F-q) wNiyoPIqoyUe 94} PUP (q-V) prey 241 Jo doz aq} Jo VoTeL[eos OY],

CULLY , GsOuAJoja Juv

Nees

‘00S ‘ISIF[ “LVN AVaWog ‘Nuno¢

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 463

Bourret distinguished Geochelone (as Testudo) hypselonota from

the two somewhat similar Asian species, Geochelone elegans and

Geochelone platynota, on the following characters: from both species

by (1) the presence of a nuchal scute, (2) the absence of a scale or

spur at the tip of the tail, and (3) the colour of the upper part of the

head—black in G. hypselonota and light in the other two. In addition,

it differs from G. elegans by (1) the absence of tubercles or spurs on

' the heel and on the back of the thigh, (Z) the small number of yellow

rays on the scutes of the carapace, and (3) the presence of a frontal

and two rather distinct prefrontals. It differs from G. platynota by

the plastral pattern as well. i

In his description Bourret states that the shell of this tortoise is

particularly bombous, and that its sides are inclined inwards below;

the large, single supracaudal scute is convex; the mandibles are feebly

denticulated, and the upper jaw is bidentate at the front. He states

that G. hypselonota closely resembles Geochelone radiata ot

Madagascar, but that the former is much more elongate.

Wermuth & Mertens place Geochelone hypselonota close to

G. radiata in their key (p. 187), separating it from the latter on the

basis of a presumed flattening of the middle of the carapace, and that

the outer surface of the front leg is supposedly covered with small

scales in G. hypselonota and large scales between smaller ones in

G. radiata.

All the presumed diagnostic characters given by Bourret and by

Wermuth & Mertens, as well as several additional ones, are com-

mented upon below in an attempt to clarify the relationship of

G. hypseloncta to the three similar species, platynota, elegans, and

radiata.

Nuchal scute. Absent in platynota and elegans, present in

radiata and hypselonota.

Tubercles on thigh. Present in platynota and elegans, absent in

radiata and hypselonota.

Terminal tail spur. Present in platynota and elegans, absent in

radiata and hypselonota.

Second costal shape. Same width dorsally and ventrally in

platynota and elegans, wider dorsally than ventrally in radiata and

hypselonota.

Heel scales or spurs. Usually enlarged in platynota and elegans,

never enlarged in radiata and hypselonota.

Inguinal scute. Relatively small in platynota and elegans, re-

latively large in radiata and hypselonota.

464 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (2)

Position of the femoro-abdominal sulcus. Distance to hypo-

xiphiplastral suture less than anal length in platynota and elegans,

distance to hypo-xiphiplastral suture equals anal length in radiata and

hypselonota.

Shape of the pleural bones. Not noticeably alternately wider and

narrower distally in platynota and elegans, noticeably alternately

wider and narrower distally in radiata and hypselonota.

Supracaudal scute. Dorsal width aimost equal to ventral width

of Ist suprapygal in platynota and elegans, dorsal width much

less than ventral width of the Ist suprapygal in radiata and

hypselonota.

Head scalation. Essentially the same in all four described species

(Plate, fig. A-D).

Head coloration. Each scale on the top and sides of head usually

with a light centre and black or brown border in platynota and

elegans, black on top, sharply set off from white or yellowish sides in

radiata and hypselonota (Plate, fig. A-D).

Number of costal scute rays. The number of rays on the scutes

of the carapace of these species is not significant. The number of

rays in radiata, platynota, and hypselonota are relatively few.

Within elegans there seems to be a north-south cline, in which

specimens from northern India have proportionately more rays on

each scute than those from southern India and Ceylon.

Plastral pattern. Though the ventral coloration and pattern are

variable in all three of the valid species with which Aypselonota is

compared, the basic pattern is the same. A series of black or brown

rays of varying thickness diverge from the edges of the juvenile areoli.

The widest back rays are always found in the anterior and/or

posterior edges of the plastral scutes.

Shell shape. Bourret (p. 9) and Wermuth & Mertens (p. 187)

refer to the presumed differences in shell shape between hypselonota

and radiata. Bourret describes the shell of the type and only known

specimen of hypselonota as bombous, and like that in radiata, except

that the shell is narrower. His illustration clearly shows the almost

even convexity of the carapace of the type, with the central areas of

each scute only slightly raised. However, Wermuth & Mertens state

that the middle of the sheil is flattened in hypselonota, and their

accompanying figure (p. 213) would indicate that the anterior portion

rises quite abruptly. Bourret’s illustration is clearly more carefully

done in many details (width of the shell compared to its length, shape

of the inguinal scute, coloration of the head, etc.). The presumed

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES : 465

difference in convexity of the shell of hypselonota and radiata is not

valid. |

Bourret states that the shell of Aypselonota is narrower than that

of radiata. Ratios of the height of the shell compared with the greatest

width of 23 specimens of subadult and adult G. radiata, 18 in my own

study collection and data for 5 additional specimens taken from

Vallant & Grandidier (i910), show considerable variation (height /

greatest width shell=0.74-0.79). This variation includes the ratio

Bourret cites for the single specimen of hypselonota (0.79). The

character will not separate the two species.

-Forelimb scalation. Geochelone radiata possesses several large.

flat scales between many smaller ones on the external surface of the

front limbs. Wermuth & Mertens state (p. 187) that the forelimbs

of Aypselonota possess only small scales. Bourret’s illustration (pl. 1,

fig. e) clearly shows several enlarged scales between the smaller ones.

Furthermore, the larger ones are in the same position, and of the

same shape as those found in radiata (Plate, figs. E-H).

SUMMARY

In view of (1) the unknown type locality of Geochelone hypselonota

(Bourret), (2) the circumstances in which it was obtained, (3) no

additional Indochinese specimens have been secured, (4) and the fact

that it cannot be separated from Geochelone radiata on any single

or combination of characters, G. hypselonota is placed in the synonymy

of G. radiata. 4

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank the Bombay Natural History Society, and

Mr. M. N. Acharji, Zoological Survey of India, for making the land

tortoises in their institutions available to me for study. I also wish

to thank the United States National Science Foundation without whose

financial assistance (NSF G-17613) it would have been impossible to

continue my studies on the systematics of Recent and fossil tortoises.

UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO,

BOULDER, WALTER AUFFENBERG

CoLoRADO, U.S.A., |

April 3, 1963,

466 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (2)

REFERENCES

Bourret, R. (1941): Comment déter- Crocodiles et Tortues. Paris, France:

miner une Tortue d’Indochine. Bull. 1-86

Inst. Publ. Hanoi 9 (21): 1-40, pl. 1. Wermuth, H. & Mertens, R. (1961):

Vallant, L. & G. Grandidier (1910): Schildkréten, Krokodile, Briikenechsen.

Histoire... de Madagascar, vol. 17, Jena, Germany: 1-422, figs. 1-270.

Histoire Naturelle des Reptiles. (1)

12. NOTES ON THE RED COTTON BUG (DYSDERCUS

CINGULATUS FABR.)

I must confess to a certain amount of surprise on reading

Mr. McCann’s record of Calotes versicolor and C. rouxi as major

predators of the Red Cotton Bug (1962, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

59 : 680).

Apart from the fact that the genus Dysdercus are almost perfect

text-book illustrations of an aposematic insect, an East African

species, considerably less striking in colour than D. cingulatus, is

definitely distasteful to toads, which I have always considered as the

least discriminating of reptilian and amphibian insectivores. The

Dysdercus visits my mercury vapour lamp in small numbers and is

almost always avoided by the attendant toads, but occasionally,

perhaps due to the colour changes caused by the light, one is caught

and is then invariably spat out and the inside of the mouth scraped

by the forelegs with every appearance of disgust.

P.O. Box 5026,

MOoMBASA, D. G. SEVASTOPULO, E.R.E.S.

EAST AFRICA,

January 11, 1963.

13. GENITALIA OF THE BUTTERFLY GENUS SPINDASIS

WALLENGREN

(With a plate)

The drawings on the plate are as follows:

Figure (1) Armature of syama peguanus; (2) ventral aspect of its

aedeagus; (3) inside of its clasps; (4) diagrammatic view of inside of

the uncus of syama but representing all the species; (5-7) lohita

himalayanus; (8-9) vulcanus fusca; (10-11) elima; (12-13) ictis; (14-16)

nubilus; (17-18) gabriel; (19-22) schistacea; (23-25) nipalicus both ssp.

sani and nipalicus; (26-28) maximus.

JOURN. BOMBAY Nat. Hist. Soc.

d Ql i069

Genitalia of butterfly genus Spindasis Wallengren

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 467

Uncus. There is no back, only the two sides. Fig. 4 gives an

interior view, actually of syama but it serves for all species. The

sides are pressed open to about 30 degrees so their shape at this angle

is quite unlike their real shape. This is seen in the figures of

armatures, 1, 5, 8, etc.

Shape of uncus. All species have the same shape except syama

(1) tip produced, lJohita (5) tip broad, maximus (26) back twice

incurved with tip produced and rather pointed.

Clasps. Side view. As drawn but the tip of elima (10) though

correctly drawn like an inverted foot with a heel, has in reality the

heel so small that close attention is needed to distinguish it from

ictiS.

Inside of clasps. Atl are figured from the inside but maximus

from the outside also (fig. 27). The tips (styles) as figured are really

the inside edges of the clasps and a little of the interior. They are

all drawn to one shape but in maximus there is such a curve that

the inside edge appears folded over and has been so drawn (28).

The points to be observed are as follows:

a. The slope from the tip to the shoulder where it joins the

ventral edge is smooth in syama (3) and lohita (7) and wavy in

maximus (27, 28) but with a step in all others, the step being very

steep in gabriel (18).

b. The shoulder may be right angled as in syama (3) and

gabriel (18) or sloping as in lohita (7). The shoulders of the rest

are rounded, some perhaps more abruptly curved than others but this

is hard to judge. Differences in the figures are due to imperfect

drawing.

c. The base of the clasp may have an extension alongside the

vinculum to a slender point of attachment to it at the end (11, 13, 16,

25). :

d. After removal of the aedeagus the arms which embrace it

canbe seen, -They are broad! in fig. 3, 7, 9, 18, 22. In syama-©G)

they are excavated where the end of the arm turns down sharply.

Where arms are broad they have been drawn shorter than in reality,

so that a gap in the centre can show the bridge joining the clasps.

The arms are narrow in fig. 11, 13, 18, 25, but they expand near

the tips, though this is not seen in the figures as only the narrow

outside edge of the expansion is apparent to the viewer. The arms

of maximus were torn when extracting the aedeagus so although

figured as very narrow (28) they may not in fact be so. In maximus

they spring from peculiar sharply triangular bases. There is a thin

468 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (2)

chitinous membrane from this triangle to the base of the clasp, seen

only in this species.

e. Shape of the bridge. The cleft is V-shaped in all except

syama and maximus where it is U-shaped (3, 28). In the centre its

bottom is rounded but sometimes two thread-like points emerge from

it. They are drawn in the figures of nubilus (16) and nipalicus (25).

They are the edges of the curled membrane supporting the bridge and

connecting it to the clasps. In all species a most troublesome non-

chitinous membrane covers the arms and spreads across the clasps

over the triangular legs of the bridge. It obscures the interior and

can only be partially torn away by a dissecting needle, when in liquid.

When dry it becomes hard and opaque. Genitalia can be affixed to

a card by Durofix and detached by amyl acetate at a future examina-

tion.

f. Aedeagus. Distinct in nubilus (15), elima (10), and ictis (12).

The others are alike seen ventraily (e.g. 2, 6, 21, 24) but the internal

process may project from the edge of the orifice towards the uncus in

fig. 1, 5, 8, etc. and be visible from the side view or lie against the

back as in schistacea (19) and be invisible. The aedeagus of maximus

has its sides straight and parallel.

Conclusion. If all the above characters of each species are taken

together a difference in one or more points will be found from the

total characters of any other species. The accepted names therefore

are of species really separate and this examination results in nothing

original. My own collection is incomplete and I have to thank the

authorities of the British Museum (Natural History) for allowing me

to examine their collection, but have not requested special permission

to dissect rarities. The area treated is that of India, Pakistan, Burma,

and Ceylon.

5, UPPER WIMPOLE STREET,

LONDON W. 1, i , KEITH CANTLIE

May 24, 1963.

14. PARASITIZING OF COMMON FRESHWATER TURTLE

LISSEMYS PUNCTATA PUNCTATA (BONNATERRE)

BY THE COPEPOD ARGULUS INDICUS WEBER

On 10 December 1956 a specimen of the common freshwater

turtle Lissemys punctata punctata (Bonnaterre) was collected from

Gokalpur Lake, Jabalpur (M.P.), in a throw net along with several

species of fish. The turtle was kept aside as a side collection since

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 469

the netting was intended for the investigation of the fish fauna. Later,

on-a closer examination of the turtle on its ventral side, some

parasites, subsequently identified as Argulus indicus Weber, were

observed at the basal portion of the anterior pair of appendages and

attached to the skin of the plastron. The fact that these parasites

make use of the aquatic turtles as hosts is not unexpected, though so

far unrecorded.

Argulus indicus Weber has been previously recorded in India

from Ophicephalus punctatus Bloch by Ramakrishna (1951) and

from Ophicephalus (Chana) gachua H.B. by the author in 1958.

The genus Argulus though primarily ectoparasites of fishes are

also found on other aquatic vertebrates. An American species A.

americanus has been reported from the Salamander Psendobranchus

siriatus axanthus and a tadpole of the frog Rana heckscheri Wright

by Goin & Ogren (1956).

The author is thankful to Dr. B. S. Chauhan, Superintending

Zoologist, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta, for the specific

identification of the parasites.

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY,

GOVERNMENT COLLEGE,

SHAHDOL, M.P.,

May 17, 1963.

R. B. MALAVIYA

REFERENCES

Goin, Coleman J., & Ogren, Larry H.

(1956) : Parasitic Copepods (Argulidae)

on Amphibians. Jour. Parasitology

42 (2) : 172.

Malaviya, R. B. (1958) : Parasitism of

Ophicephalus gachua Hamilton by the

Copepod Argulus indicus Weber. J. Bom-

bay nat. Hist. Soc. 55 ; 370-371.

Ramakrishna, G. (1951): Notes on

the Indian species of the genus Argulus

Miller (Crustacea : Copepoda) parasitic

on fishes. Rec. Indian Mus. 49 : 207-215.

15. ON THE OCCURRENCE OF THE LEECH OZOBRANCHUS

BRANCHIATUS (MENZIES 1791) (HIRUDINEA) IN INDIA

(GULF OF KUTCH)

(With three text-figures)

Ozobranchus shipleyi Harding 1927, O. papillatus Kaburaki 1921,

and O. polybranchus Sanjeeva Raj 1954 are the only three species

of genus Ozobranchus recorded from India so far.

On 2 October 1962 the authors collected a few specimens of

Ozobranchus from the plastron of a live turtle on the coast of Piroton

470 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (2)

Island, Gulf of Kutch. Fifteen preserved specimens were studied and

identified as Ozobranchus branchiatus (Menzies). Earlier records

of this species are from the tropical Pacific, Flanders, Australia, and

Florida (Raj 1954). This is the first record from India.

The live specimens were creamy white in colour. The length of

the specimens studied varies from 5 to 11 mm.; the maximum width

of the body (excluding the gill) is 4 mm. The body is divisible into

an anterior narrow part, the neck, and a posterior broad abdomen.

Somites one to three are represented by the first two rings (Text-

fig. 1). The succeeding twenty-three somites, from the fourth to the

FIG.3.

Fig. 1. Entire specimen Ozobranchus branchiatus x c.8; Fig. 2.

A single gill; Fig. 3. O. brauchiatus : anterior region (ventral view)

A. anus; AS. anterior sucker; FP. finger-like process; G. gill; GO. genital

opening; M. mouth; N. neck; PS. posterior sucker. The numbers denote the

somites,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 471

twenty-sixth, are bi-annulate, the anterior ring being wider. The

twenty-seventh somite is uni-annulate. In ali the specimens the eyes

are not visible externally. The anterior sucker (Text-fig. 3) is not

prominent; it carries the mouth and is directed ventrally. The

posterior sucker (Text-fig. 1, PS) is large and as wide as width of the

body. There are seven pairs of gills on the anterior seven abdominal

somites, the larger ring of the somite bearing the gill. Each gilli

(Text-fig. 2) is divided into two to three branches bearing finger-like

processes. The number of these finger-like processes in each gill

varies from thirteen to twenty-one in a single specimen. It is

observed that the finger-like processes are more in number in the

anterior gills. The remaining eight somites of the abdomen are

without gills.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors are thankful to Dr. A. K. Datta Gupta, Professor of

Zoology, for his valuable suggestions. Thanks are also due to Dr.

B. N. Desai, Fisheries Research Officer, Jamnagar, for his help in the

collection.

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY,

BIRLA COLLEGE, J. M. GHOSH

PILANI, | PEACE JOHNSON

RAJASTHAN, C. K. G. NAYAR

April 23, 1963.

[The turtle from which the specimens reported were collected was

released and its identity is not certain. This species of leech has

so far been recorded only from Chelonia mydas (Linn.), the Green

Turtle.— Eps. ]

REFERENCES

Harding, W. A. & Moore, J.P. (1927): Ocean. Trans. Linn. Soc. London 1:

Fauna of British India, Hirudinea. 187-188.

Kaburaki, T. (1921) : Notes on some Raj, P. J. S. (1954) : A synopsis of

leeches in the collection of the Indian the species of the genus Ozobranchus (de

Museum. Rec. Ind. Mus. 22 (5) : 689. Quatrefages 1852) Hirudinea-Annelida.

Menzies, A. (1791): Descriptions of J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc, 52 (2 & 3):

three new animals found in the Pacific 473-480.

472 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (2)

16. NEW HOST PLANTS FOR DENDROPHTHOE FALCATA

(LINN. F.) ETTING. AT PAVAGADH

Recently! V. Ravindra Nath & V. L. Narasimha Rao (1959), in

their paper ‘Additional Hosts for Flowering Parasite, Dendrophthée

falcata (L. f.) Ettingsh. (Loranthus longiflorus Desr.’, have brought

together all the scattered data on the subject from different parts of

India thus putting before the readers an up-to-date host range of

268 hosts of Dendrophthde falcata.

During the exploration of the flora of Pavagadh for the year

1958-59 we noticed on several occasions Dendrophthde falcata as a

parasite on different host plants. ‘This paper reports the attack of

Dendrophthde falcata on 5 new host plants, recorded for the first

ime in India. This brings the host range of Dendrophthée falcata to

273. The host plants noticed are: Cadaba_ fruticosa Druce,

Firmiana colorata R. Br., Ailanthus excelsa Roxb., Butea monosperma

(Lam.) Taub., and Tecoma stans H.B.K.

Past RECORDS FROM PAVAGADH

Rev. Fr. Santapau (1955) in his paper “Excursion of the Indian.

Botanical Society to Pavagadh Hill near Baroda’ recorded the

parasite as very rare for this type of forest. The plant, in flower

and young fruit, was noticed on the following hosts: Alangium

salvifolium, Grewia tiliaefolia, Cassia fistula, Acacia leucophloea. Tt

seems that, of the four host species recorded above, Alangium

salvifolium has not been included in the list of host plants recorded

in India published by V. Ravindra Nath & V. L. Narasimha Rao:

hence, due credit for the new record should be given to Santapau.

This raises the host range to 274. It is for the first time that the

family Alangiaceae acts as a host for the parasite.

Phatak & Oza (1957-58) in their paper ‘Contributions to the

Botany of the Pavagadh Hill, Bombay State’, under the heading

‘Parasites and Epiphytes’ recorded four more host plants other than

those recorded by Santapau. The hosts noticed were Salmalia

malabarica, Mangifera indica, Cordia dichotoma, Tectona grandis,

all of them recorded for the first time from Pavagadh. |

1 This note was received in the Society’s office in 1961. Its publication was

delayed as it went astray in correspondence between the Society and its referee.—Eps,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

473

ANNOTATED LIST OF NEW HOST SPECIES RECORDED FROM PAVAGADH

CAPPARIDACEAE

1. Cadaba fruticosa Druce

It is for the first time that the genus Cadaba is reported as a

host for this parasite.

STERCULIACEAE

2. Firmiana colorata R. Br.

The parasite has attacked a new species in the genus Sterculia

sensu lato.

SIMAROUBACEAE

3. Ailanthus excelsa Roxb.

This is the first time that the family Simaroubaceae has been

connected with this parasite. About 54 plant families have been

recorded as being parasitized by Dendrophthée falcata: the family

Simaroubaceae is an addition to the previous records.

PAPILIONACEAE

4. Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taub.

This is the first report that the genus Butea has been attacked by

this parasite.

BIGNONIACEAE

5. Tecoma stans H.B.K.

The range of host species in the genus Tecoma is hereby

extended.

DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY,

M.S. UNIVERSITY,

BARODA,

June 12, 1963.

A. R. CHAVAN

G. M. OZA

REFERENCES

Cooke, T. (1901-08) : The Flora of the

Presidency of Bombay. London and

Bombay.

Hooker, J. D. et al. (1872-97) : The

Flora of British India. London.

Nath, Ravindra & Rao,V. L. Narasimha

(1959) : Additional Hosts for Flowering

Parasite, Dendrophthée falcata (L. f.)

Ettingsh. (Loranthus longiflorus Desr.).

Journ. Indian bot. Soc. 38 : 204-07.

Phatak, V. G. & Oza, G. M. (1957-58):

Contributions to the Botany of the Pava-

gadh Hill, Bombay State. (unpublished),

Santapau, H. (1954-55) : Contributions

to the Botany of the Dangs Forest, Bom-

bay State. Journ. Gujerat Res. Soc. 16:

285-320, 1954; 17: 1-59, 1955. (Publi-

shed in book form in May 1955.)

—— (1955) : Excursion of

the Indian Botanical Society to Pavagadh

Hill near Baroda, on January 7th 1955,

Journ, Indian bot. Soc, 34 : 158-89, t.}.

474. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (2)

17. HOSTS OF DENDROPHTHOE FALCATA (LINN. F.)

ETTINGSH. IN THE NATIONAL BOTANIC GARDENS,

LUCKNOW

Dendrophthée falcata (Linn. f.) Ettingsh. (fam. Loranthaceae) is a

destructive semi-parasite occurring on a large number of plants of

economic importance. B. Singh [1962, Studies in Angiospermic

Parasites. No. 1. Dendrophthde faicata (L. f.) Ettingsh., its life-

history, lists of hosts and contro! measures. Bulletin of the National

Botanic Gardens No. 69] gave a list of 319 host species from all over

India. He accepts that his list is not a final one as the observations

are only casual, and that an intensive survey might yield many more

host plants. With this suggestion of Singh in view, a survey was

made in the National Botanic Gardens, an area of about 80 acres

(c. 32 hectares). This revealed a large number of hitherto unrecorded

hosts; an intensive survey throughout the country therefore appears

advisable.

The complete list of hosts from and near the National Botanic

Gardens is given below, the location of the plant being given within

parenthesis. The host species that are new records for India are

marked with an asterisk:

* Acacia lenticularis Buch.-Ham. (Central Lawn).

Achras sapota Linn. (Botany Plot).

Aegle marmelos (Linn.) Correa (Am-bagh Road, Gokhale Marg).

Albizia lebbek Benth. (West Lawn, New Building).

Annona squamosa Linn. (Nursery).

Anogeissus latifolia Wall. (Medicinal Plot).

Bauhinia purpurea Linn. (Am-bagh Road).

Bauhinia variegata Linn. (West Lawn).

Callistemon lanceolatus DC. (Am-bagh Road).

*Casuarina glauca Sieber (Botany Plot).

Casuarina equisetifolia Forst. (South of Rosarium).

Cassia fistula Linn. (West Lawn).

Cassia siamea Lamk. (Arboretum).

Celtis australis Linn. (Nursery Road).

*Celtis sinensis Pers. (Carlton Hotel).

Chloroxy!on swietenia DC. (Nursery Road).

Ficus lacor Buch.-Ham. (near Stadium).

Ficus religiosa Linn. (Rana Pratap Marg).

*Firmiana colorata (Roxb.) R.Br. (Arboretum)?.

Garuga pinnata Roxb. (Botany Plot).

*Gleditschia sinensis Lamk. (Medicinal Plot).

Gmelina arborea Linn. (Nursery).

Grevillea robusta A. Cunn. (Nursery).

Holoptelea integrifolia Planch. (Ashok Marg).

1 But see Miscellaneous Note No. 16 above.—EDS.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 475

Kydia calycina Roxb. (Am-bagh Road).

*Lagerstroemia floribunda Jack. (West Lawn).

*Lagerstroemia flos-reginae Retz. (Nursery).

Lagerstroemia thorelli Gagnep. (near Workshop).

Mangifera indica Linn. (near Workshop).

*Markhamia platycalyx Sprague (Am-bagh Road).

Melia azedarach Linn. (Nursery).

*Milletia ovalifolia Kurz. (Nursery).

Millingtonia hortensis Linn. (Am-bagh Road).

Olea cuspidata Wall. (Botany Plot).

*Olea sp. (near O. europea) (West Lawn).

*Parmentiera cerifera Seem. (Am-bagh Road).

Pithecellobium dulce Benth. (Woodland).

Saraca indica Linn. (Medicinal Plot).

Shorea robusta Gaertn. (Central Lawn).

Tectona grandis Linn. f. (Tectona Plot).

Terminalia chebula Retz. (Gokhale Marg).

Terminalia muellerii Benth. (Bulb Garden).

“Wrightia coccinea Sims. (Arboretum).

NATIONAL BOTANIC GARDENS,

LUCKNOW, J. G. SRIVASTAVA

June 25, 1963.

[It is distressing to read of so many trees in and near the National

Botanic Gardens attacked by this parasite. We trust that, now that

their attention has been drawn to its presence, the authorities will get

the trees examined and cleaned of the pest where necessary.—EDs.]

18. A CONTRIBUTION TO OUR KNOWLEDGE OF

DALECHAMPIA TAMNIFOLIA LAM.

(With a piate)

Dalechampia is a fairly large Euphorbiaceous genus, comprising

over 140 species (INDEX KEWENSIS 1893-1940) and mostly distributed

iit the warmer regions of the globe. According to Bentham &

Hooker’s classification the genus comes under the tribe Crotoneae

and subtribe Plukenetieae. Most of the species are twiners having a

pair of conspicuous bracts for the inflorescence. D. tamnifolia is

indigenous to Madagascar. However, the species has been reported

irom India by Poivre and specimens of this are found in the herbarium

of de Jussieu (Lamarck, 1786). Later in 1875 Lt.-Col. Hobson has

recorded this species as occurring in the former Presidency of Bombay.

Engler (1919) has described this taxon in DAS PFLANZENREICH. This

species was collected from Trivandrum, and it is here reported for the

first time from south India.

476 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (2)

While studying the morphological characters of Dalechampia

tamnifolia, it was found that there are a number of important features

left out in the original description by Lamarck (1786) and the one by

Engler (1919). This necessitated a thorough study of its morphology

and revision of the description. |

DESCRIPTION

Habit. A twining undershrub with stinging glands all over the

plant body, interspersed among the ordinary hairs. Tender portions

of the plant are velvety tomentose. Stem. Terete and hairy with

a massive central core of pith. Leaves. Alternate, palmately trilobed,

5-nerved, reticulate, dentate, cordate, acuminate, pulvinate and hairy,

Janceolate and with persistent stipules 10-15 mm. long. The leaves

are 15-20 cm. long and 5-8 cm. broad and are provided with

a pair of scales at the basal notch of the lamina. These scales

are smaller than the stipules. There are 3-4 glands usually at

the base of the scale at different levels, rarely on the lamina near the

scales. Inflorescence. Compound, axillary, monoecious, in dense

peduncled heads. Often a small leaf is present towards the base of

the peduncle. Peduncles 6-12 cm. long, pubescent with a pair of white

trilobed bracts 3.5-4.5 cm. long, each one subtending the male and

female inflorescence. The leafy bracts are also provided with a pair

of stipule-like structures on either side. The bracts later on turn

creamy white, yellow, and finally green resembling a leaf, as the fruits

ripen. The male and female inflorescences arise from the same level

on the peduncle. In the young inflorescence the male flower buds

are originally posterior in position. When they grow older and attain

a bigger size, the inflorescence axis resupinates bringing the male

inflorescence to the anterior position, as the young female flowers

are relatively much lighter than the cluster of male flowers. But with

the ripening and consequent increase in weight of the fruits, the

inflorescence axis again turns through 180°, bringing back the female

inflorescence to its original anterior position. Male inflorescence. A

compound cyme of 16 flowers. There are five cymose bundles of

3 flowers each, and each of these bundles is subtended by_a bract, the

five bracts forming an involucre. There are also five smaller bract-

eoles in between the male flowers. The remaining oldest flower of

the cluster is centrally located. ‘The flower stalk is jointed slightly

above the middle. Perianth lobes are yellow, keeled, 5-7, and valvate.

There are 25-40 stamens on a convex receptacle and surmounted on

an androphore. Staminal filaments are slightly longer than the

anthers, which are basifixed and extrorse. The pollen grains are

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES: UOT Nhe 477

tricolpate, oblong, 35-40” broad, 70-75” long, with thick and rough

outer wall. Pistillode is absent. Female inflorescence. A simple cyme

of 3 flowers, each subtended by a ciliate bract. Anterior bract is

slightly larger than the others and is rhomboid. The other two

bracts are keeled and 3- or 4-toothed. Perianth 12, pinnatifidly

fimbriate, accrescent, green and velvety tomentose. Ovary is tricarpellary,

syncarpous, and deeply 3-lobed. Stylar column broader towards the

trilobate stigma. Ovules solitary, anatropous, axile, pendulous with

ventral raphe. Fruit. A capsular schizocarp splitting into 3 one-

seeded mericarps which in turn split loculicidally to liberate the seed.

Seed. 5 mm. in diameter.

COMMENTS

Hooker (1885), Rama Rao (1914), and Gamble (1925) have

reported Dalechampia velutina Wight as occurring in south India.

This species has some resemblance to D. tamnifolia Lam. especially

in having a staminal column. Therefore it appears worthwhile to

compare these two species and to establish their morphological

differences. The chief points of variation between the two can be

summarised as shown below:

D. velutina Wight D. tamnifolia Lam.

LEAVES

Velvety-Pubescent beneath. Scales absent Sparsely hairy. Leaves are larger and

at basal notch of lamina. Pulvinus scales present at basal notch of lamina.

absent. | There are 3-4 glands at base of each of

the scales. Pulvinate.

MALE FLOWERS

| Outer perianth 4-lobed. Anthers Outer perianth 5-7. Anthers not apiculate.

| apiculate.

7 FEMALE FLOWERS

Outer perianth 8-10 — We Outer perianth invariably 12

STINGING GLANDS

Absent. Present all over the plant body.

Thus it is seen that the species under review in this note is

Dalechampia tamnifolia Lam. A specimen of this taxon is deposited

in the Kew Herbarium.

it2

478 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (2)

The present observation has elucidated some of the important

features quite characteristic of the species unnoticed in previous tfe-

ports. These include the . presence of: (1) stinging glands, (2)

glandular structures found at the base of leaf scales and adjacent parts

on the lamina, (3) pulvinate leaf, (4) the resupination of inflorescence

before and after anthesis, and (5) the characteristic three-chambered

pollen grains.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author is deeply indebted to Prof. A. Abraham, Head of the

Botany Department, University of Kerala, for his keen interest in the

work and encouragement. He is also grateful to Dr. H. Santapau

Director, Botanical Survey of India, and to Dr. S. K. Mukerjee,

National Herbarium, Calcutta, for kindly making available some

relevant literature. To the Director, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew,

he is thankful for assistance rendered in determining the species

name.

DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY,

UNIVERSITY OF KERALA,

TRIVANDRUM, S. INDIA, |

May 24, 1963.

REFERENCES

Engler, A. (1919) : Das Pflanzenreich,

Leipzig. 4.

Gamble, G. S. (1925) : Flora of the

Presidency of Madras. 3. London.

Hooker, J. D. (1885): The Flora of

British India 5. L. Reeve & Co.,

London.

Jackson, D. B. (1893) : Index Kewen-

sis Plantarum Phanerogamarum, Part I.

Oxford Clarendon Press (and Supple-

mentary Volumes from 1896 to 1940).

Lamarck, Jean B.A.P.M. de (1786) :

Encyl. Meth. Bot. 2 : 255-257.

Rama Rao, M. (1914) : Flowering

Plants of Travancore. Government

Central Press, Trivandrum.

1 Present address : Biology Division, Atomic Energy Establishment, Trombay,

India

Fig. 1. Part of shoot with inflorescences x c.g; 2. A node showing the

K. J. THOMAS! —

persistent stipules and pulvinate petiole (note the origin of leaf petiole from the |

peduncle) x c.4; 3. Ventral view of lamina (basal region) showing the scales, which

possess glandular structures near the base xc.1; 4. A stinging gland xc.75; 5. Ordi-

nary hairs x c. 75; 6. A compound inflorescence x c.4; 7. A male inflorescence « c. 3; 8.

Flower buds of a compound inflorescence bringing out the arrangement of flowers,

especially those of the male inflorescence x c. 3; 9. One of the five cymes of the male

inflorescence with the outer perianth x c.?; 10. Two lobes of the outer perianth of

male inflorescence x c.$; 11. A male flower (note the androphore) x c.12; 12.

Longitudinal section of male flower xc. 13; 13. A perianth lobe of the male flower

x c.14;14.Astamen x c.6;15. A tricolpate (3-chambered) pollengrain x c. 175;

16. A female inflorescence x c.3; 17. Outer perianth of female inflorescence x c. 3}

18. A female flower showing the fimbriate perianth lobes teased apart x c. 3; 19.

Longitudinal section of pistil x c.14; 20. Transverse section of ovary x c. 14; 21.

A mature fruit x c. 4; 22. A seed showing the ventral raphe x c. §.

JOURN. BOMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc.

‘i

Dalechampia tamnifolia Lam.

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 479

19. A NOTE ON THE OCCURRENCE OF RHYNCHOSPORA

LONGISETIS R. BR. IN INDIA WITH SOME

INTERESTING OBSERVATIONS

(With a plate)

Among the species of Riynchospora Vahl mentioned by Clarke (1 a)

in Hooker’s FLORA OF BRITISH INDIA, R. longisetis—an Australian

species—is known to extend westwards up to Burma only. Recently

this species has been collected from the Ramtek Forests (79° 20’ E.,

21° 24’ N.) situated about 28 miles (c. 45 km.) north-east of Nagpur

(Maharashtra). A perusal of the pertinent literature reveals that about

20 years after the publication of Clarke’s treatment of the Cyperaceae

in the above work, Graham (2a) recorded its occurrence for the first

time at the ‘Jubbulpore Farm’, Jabalpur (Madhya Pradesh), which

lies about 135 miles (c. 217 km.) north-east of Ramtek. It will be

worthwhile to mention here that Graham (2 5), in his paper on the

vegetation of Ramtek based on the collection made in September 1912,

does not report the occurrence of this interesting species in that area.

It is, therefore, quite probable that at the time of his recording this

species, it was more or less restricted to the above Farm only. After

Graham, it was again reported by Raizada(3) from Banda (South

Banda, U.P., 15-10-1921, Sri Ram), a_ station about 150 miles

(c. 240 km.) north-east of Jabalpur. Since the occurrence of R.

longisetis has not been reported west of the limits of its natural

geographic distribution except from the above-mentioned localities,

one is inclined to believe that it got introduced at the Farm

accidentally. During this period of about SO years, the present

species has obviously spread to a considerable area between Jabalpur

and Ramtek, as our field notes show that it is very common in moist

situations at Ramtek Hill Forests. It is not very unlikely that it

may be occurring in the adjoining areas also.

On a critical examination of the material at our disposal, certain

discrepancies in the account of R. longisetis given by Clarke in

Hooker’s FLORA have been noticed. For example, he does not

mention that out of the six hypogynous bristles, one is comparatively

more slender and much shorter than the rest, which is an important

constant character for the above species. This fact has been

corroborated in a communication to us by Dr. J. H. Kern, who has

had access to authentic material of R. longisetis from various localities

as well as to the type. Further, Clarke mentions for the species

that the bristles °. . . in the upper half all are simply scabrous with

teeth pointing upwards, in the lower half the 3 inner (petals) are

480 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (2)

nearly glabrous, the 3 outer (sepals) densely plumose’. But in the

material examined by us—including a sheet from Calcutta Herbarium

(Burma, Karen Country, S. Kurz) determined by Clarke—the shorter

bristle is antrorsely barbed throughout its length, whereas the

remaining 5 are antrorsely barbed only in the upper half and plumose

in the lower region; one of the longer bristles may be almost glabrous

at the very base.

Apart from the above-mentioned differences, it has been found

that the figure of the nut of R. longisetis given in Clarke’s (1 5)

ILLUSTRATIONS OF CYPERACEAE (t. 65, f. 2) is inaccurate, as all the bristles

have been shown of almost equal length and the slender nature of

the sixth bristle remains unaccounted for. Besides, the shape of the

beak of the nut also has not been correctly depicted. Hence, the

present illustration of R. longisetis showing its habit and the correct

details of the nut is being provided. The head and nut of R.

wightiana Steud. have been illustrated, too, for comparison in the size

of their heads and chiefly in the details of the mature nuts of these

two species which superficially resemble each other.

The figures of these two species have been drawn from the

following sheets:

R. longisetis—INDIA, Nagarjun Hill Forests, Ramtek, Maharashtra,

18-10-1959, K. M. Balapure 70606, sheet no. 48705 (LWG); R.

wightiana—Wight 2911 (CAL).

We are grateful to our Director, Prof. K. N. Kaul, F..s., for

giving us facilities for work and for going through the manuscript.

Our thanks are also due to the Chief Botanist, Botanical Survey of

India, for the loan of the herbarium sheets, and to Dr. Kern of

Rijksherbarium, Leiden, for confirming the identification and for his

valuable comments.

HERBARIUM,

NATIONAL BOTANIC GARDENS, S. L. KAPOOR

LUCKNOW 1, V. S. SHARMA

April 19, 1963. (Mrs.) S. CHOPRA

REFERENCES

la. Clarke, C. B. (1893): Hooker’s 2b. Graham, R. J. D. (1913) : Notes

Flora of British India 6 : 669-672. on a collecting tour at Ramtek, C. P.

-1b. ——— (1909): [Illustrations of Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.22 : 236-241.

Cyperaceae. London. 3. Raizada, M. B. (1939): Recently

2a. Graham, R. J. D. (1913): List introduced or otherwise imperfectly

of Grasses and Sedges found on the known plants from the Upper Gangetic

Nagpur and Telinkheri Farms—including Plain. Ind. For. Rec. (N.S.), Botany, 1:

a few common species from other parts 235.

of the Provinces. Nagpur.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 481

20. NOTES ON SOME BOMBAY PLANTS

After an intensive exploration of various areas in the neighbour-

hood of Bombay, this note is prepared to add to the present

knowledge of our Bombay plants. In the text, references to the

specimens in Blatter Herbarium are given with the collector’s names

and numbers. 3

CAPPARIDACEAE

Cleome burmanni W. & A. Prodr. 1 : 22, 1834; Cooke, Fl. Pres.

Bom. 1 : 39, 1901; Blatter in J. Bom. nat. Hist. Soc. 31 : 899, 1927.

A rare plant, noted only once along roadsides in Malad, Salsette

Island, Bombay, in July 1954. The author’s collection (Shah 7117)

is the only sheet of this species in Blatter Herbarium. A distinct

Species in the genus Cleome, easily recognised by the violet-purple

flowers.

Cooke and Blatter give locality Hyderabad (Sind); the latter author,

however, is doubtful of the occurrence of this plant there. Cleome

burmanni seems to be recorded for the first time for Bombay by

Graham in his CATALOGUE 7, 1839; since then it appears not to have

been reported from erstwhile Bombay State by any other worker

- except the author. See ees

The author is deeply thankful to Dr. S. K. Mukerjee, Keeper of

the Central Herbarium, Calcutta, for confirming the identification.

POLYGALACEAE

Polygala chinensis Linn. Sp. Pl. 704, 1753; Cooke 1: 60, 1901.

Polyegala arvensis Willd., Dalzell & Gibson, Bom. Fl. 12, 1861.

A fairly common plant during the monsoon in grass fields and on

grassy slopes, generally in rocky ground. In general habit and

in yellow flowers, it is similar to some species of Crotalaria with

which it is confused; the flowers and fruits, however, are typical.

According to Dalzell & Gibson, Gamble (Fl. Madr. 1 : 57, 1915),

Saxton & Sedgwick [Rec. Bot. Surv. Ind. 6 (7) : 245, 1918], Santapau

(fourn. Guj. Res. Soc. 16: 300; FL. PURANDHAR 21, 1958) the

flowers are yellow. Mukerjee (Bull. bot. Soc. Beng. 12 : 35, 1958)

states that they are yellowish green. Cooke describes: ‘Flowers

yellow, fading pink.’ Haines (Bot. Bih. & Oris. 40, 1921) states

482 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (2)

the flowers are green or ‘when young yellow, fading to pink (C. B.

Clarke)’. In the vicinity of Bombay, the flowers are yellow only.

Dalzell & Gibson, and Saxton & Sedgwick give the flowering

season July-August, whereas, according to Cooke, it is October-

March. The latter seems to be incorrect at least for our Bombay

plants. In Bombay, this is one of the first plants to appear soon

after the onset of the monsoon and it disappears by the end of the

rainy season. The sheets of P. chinensis L. in Blatter Herbarium,

collected from many parts of erstwhile Bombay State, also indicate

the flowering and fruiting seasons between July and October.

MALVACEAE

Abutilon ramosum (Cay.) Guill. Perr. et A. Rich. Fl. Senegamb.

1 : 68, 1830; Cooke 1: 98, 1901. :

Blatter (J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 34: 630, 1930) adds localities

Cutch and Bombay to those given by Cooke. In Blatter Herbarrum

there are sheets of A. ramosum from Cutch, Saurashtra, Ahmedabad,

Cambay, Baroda, and one sheet (No. 13846, without collector’s name)

from Parel (Bombay) collected in February 1917; the latter seems to

be near A. indicum (L.) Sw. In my opinion, A. ramosum does not

occur in the vicinity of Bombay. The axillary and terminal, tricho-

tomously branched, pedunculate cymes, small size of the fruits, and

8-10 distinctly mucronate carpels are typical of this plant and render

it easy for identification.

PAPILIONACEAE

Alysicarpus hamosus Edgew. in Journ. Asiat. Soc. Beng. 21 : 171,

1853; Cooke 1: 346, 1902. Hedysarum procumbens Roxb. Hott.

Beng. 56, 1814 (nomen), & Fl. Ind. 3 : 345, 1832 (non Mill. 1768).

According to Cooke this is a rare plant. This does not seem to be

correct; it is fairly common in Bombay and its neighbourhood during

the monsoon along roadsides, railway lines, in undergrowth on hills,

in grass fields, and occasionally on sandy shores, in loose or dense

patches. It is also common at Baroda and Broach and according to

Santapau (FL. SAURASHTRA 1: 147, 1962) in various parts of

Saurashtra. |

Desmodium gangeticum (L.) DC. Prodr. 2 : 327, 1825; Cooke 1: |

356, 1902.

This is one of the commonest plants of Bombay during the_post-

monsoon period. In most of the Indian floras it is described as

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 483

30-60 cm. tall. Judging from the remarks on the sheets of this

species in Blatter Herbarium and from my own observations, it is

generally 30-60 cm. tall, occasionally up to 150 cm., rarely 180-195

cm. high (Shah 10446; Tavakari 1766).

On the Karjat hills, the author noted 180-195 cm. tall plants in

a patch of Apluda mutica L. which itself was about 180 cm. tall.

APCCYNACEAE

Rauvolfia tetraphylla Linn. Sp. P!. 208, 1753; Rao in Ann. Miss.

Bot. Gard. 43 : 285, 1956. Rauvolfia canescens Vinn. Sp. Pl. (ed.

Dye 303; 1762: Cooke: 2): 1283”. 1904-

A native of West Indies, reported for the first time in India,

probably by Voigt (HORT. SUB. CAL. 532, 1845). Dalzell & Gibson

(BOM. FL. SUPPL. 53, 1861) describe it and state that it was raised

from Calcutta seeds at Hewra and Dapoorie. In Bombay, it is

occasionally cultivated in gardens. As a weed it is rare, collected

from Sewri hills (Acland 679), Thana (Fernandez without number),

Mazagaon (Fernandez 4200), and National Park, Borivli (Shah 10565).

At Baroda, especially in the University Campus, this has been found

running wild (Shah 564, 1496-98; [rani 561, 1981-83).

BORAGINACEAE

Heliotropium marifolium Retz. var. laxiflorum (Roth) Cooke, FI.

Pres. Bom. 2: 213, 1904. Heliotropium laxiflorum Roth; Dalzell &

Gibson, Bom. Fl. 171, 1861.

Dalzell & Gibson give the locality Worli hills (near Bombay); Cooke

states that he has not seen any specimen of this plant from Bombay

Presidency. In the neighbourhood of Bombay, however, it is a fairly

common plant among grasses during the rainy season, but is often

missed because of its size, only 5-10 cm. tall, and minute, white flowers.

SCROPHULARIACEAE

Peplidium maritimum (L. f.) Wettst. in Pfam. 4 (3 5) : 78, 1895.

Peplidium humifusum Delile: Cooke 2 : 299, 1905.

A rare plant, so far found only along sea-side at Bandra (Vakil

31247) and on Madh Island in rice fields during monsoon (Santapau

21304; Shah 7623, 7804, 7952). In Blatter Herbarium, there are a

few sheets from other parts of erstwhile Bombay State (Kumta,

484. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (2)

Saldanha 6621-3, 8446-48; Karwar, Sedgwick 6751; Saurashtra,

Santapau 16760). There is one sheet from Mahableshwar (Nana

7300) wrongly identified as P. humifusum; it is Glossostigma

spathulatum W. & A.

Striga gesneroides (Willd.) Vatke ex Engi. Abhandl. Preuss. Akad.

Wiss. 28, 1894. Striga orobanchioides Bth. : Cooke 2: 302, 1905.

In many parts of Bombay State the common host for this root-

parasite is Lepidagathis cuspidata Nees. It is also found on some

other hosts, e.g. Lepidagathis trinervis Nees (Dwarka, Santapau

16592), Lepidagathis prostrata Dalz. (North Kanara, Hall. & McCann —

34177), Euphorbia neriifolia L. (Anand, Saldanha 1647-51), and

Nicotiana tabacum L. (Ahmedabad, Shah 10612). ,

AMARANTHACEAE

Cyathula prostrata (L.) Blume, Bijdr. 549, 1825; Cooke 2: 496,

1906, - -

Dalzell & Gibson (BOM. FL. 219, 1861) and Cooke describe this

plant without giving any locality; the latter author remarks ‘Rare,

Stocks without locality in Kew Herbarium.’

In the vicinity of Bombay this is a rare plant only found at

Ghodbunder (Sedgwick, without number; Shah 10482-83). It is also

collected from North Kanara (Castle Rock, Fernandez 462; Supa,

Sedgwick 4864; Yellapur, Sedgwick 3133; Karwar, Hall. & McCann

34800; Sedgwick & Bell 6585). |

ST. XAVIER’S COLLEGE,

Bompsay 1, G. L. SHAH, M:Sc., Ph.p.

January 21, 1963.

21. FORTY-SEVEN MORE GRASSES FROM LUCKNOW

Patil (1960)' reported the presence of 39 grass species from

Lucknow. During the course of a survey of the vegetation of

Lucknow district (1961-1962), the author toured round the whole

district in all seasons of the year and collected many grasses, which

have not been reported by Patil. Most of these grasses are quite

common in and around Lucknow town.

a a i rt

2 Patil, R. P. (1960): A key to the genera of the common grasses of Lucknow

and its environs. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. 51 (B) : 122-132.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 485

The list is given below; the areas whence the species have been

collected are also mentioned:

Alloteropsis cimicina (Linn.) Stapf in Prain, Fl. Trop. Afr. 9 : 487, 1918. Milium

cimicinum Linn. Mant. Alt. 184, 1771.

On alkaline and eroded lands, Fatehkhera, N.B.G. 68851; Rehmankhera,

N.B.G. 68840.

Aristida adscensionis Linn. Sp. Pl. 82, 1753. var. adscensionis.

On old walls and steep banks, common in Daulatgunj-Ranigunj area, N.B.G.

68807.

Aristida setacea Retz. Obs. Bot. 4 : 22, 1786.

On old walls, Daulatgunj-Ranigunj area, N.B.G. 68808, and on eroded

lands, Rehmankhera, N.B.G. 68862.

Arthraxon lancifolius (Trin.) Hochst. in Flora 39 : 188, 1856. Andropogon lanci-

folium Trin. in Mem. Acad. Sci. Petersb., ser. 6, 2: 271, 1832.

On old walls, National Botanic Gardens, N.B.G. 68815.

Arundo donax Linn. Sp. Pl. 81, 1753.

Along rainwater channels, Hussainabad area, N.B.G. 68809.

Bothriochloa odorata (Lisboa) A. Camus in Ann. Soc. Linn. Lyon, n.s., 76 : 165,

1931. Andropogon odoratus Lisboa in J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 4 : 123, 1889.

In grasslands, Barabanki road, m. 7, N.B.G. 68801.

Brachiaria distachya (Linn.) Stapfin Prain, Fl. Trop. Afr. 9 : 565, 1919. Panicum

distachyum Linn. Mant. Alt. 183, 1771.

Along ditches, Ismailgunj, N.B.G. 68802.

Brachiaria reptans (Linn.) Gard. et Hubbard in Hook. Icon. Pl. sub tab. 3363,

1938. Panicum reptans Linn. Syst. Nat., ed. 10, 870, 1759.

On old walls, Mahanagar, N.B.G. 68805.

Cenchrus biflorus Roxb. Fl. Ind. 1: 238, 1820. C. catharticus Del. Cat Hort.

Monsp. 1835, 4: 1939.

Dry sandy fields, Bastauli Farm, N.B.G. 68819.

Cenchrus setigerus Vahl, Enum. Pl. 2 : 359, 1796. C. biflorus of Fl. Brit. India

7: 89, 1896, non Roxb. 1820.

Eroded lands, Kukrail Reserve Forest, N.B.G. 68863, and Bastauli Farm,

N.B.G. 68820.

Chloris dolichostachya Lagasca, Gen. et Spec. Pl. 5, 1816. C. incompleta Roth,

Nov. Pl. Sp. 60, 1821.

In shade of shrubs, Goila forest, N.B.G. 68825, and Improvement Trust

Forest, N.B.G. 68838.

Chloris montana Roxb. FI. Ind. 1 : 331, 1820.

On alkaline and eroded lands, Fatehkhera, N.B.G. 68852, and Bakshi Talab-

Asti road, N.B.G. 68864.

Chloris virgata Sw. Fl. Ind. Occ. 1 : 202, 1797.

On old walls, Daulatgunj-Ranigunj area, Hussainabad, and National Bolanie

Gardens, N.B.G. 68859,

486 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (2)

Crypsis schoenoides (Linn.) Lamk. Tab. Encyc]. 1: 166, 1791. t. 42. Phleum

schoenoides Linn. Sp. Pl. 60, 1753. aye:

On damp soil along Gomti river, N.B.G. 68830. -

Dichanthium caricosum (Linn.) A. Camus in Bull. Mus. Hist. Nat. Paris 27 : 549,

1921. Andropogon caricosum Linn. Sp. Pl. 1980, 1763.

Most grasslands and wastelands in the district, N.B.G. 68816.

Digitaria longiflora (Retz.) Pers. Syn. Pl. 1: 85, 1805. Paspalum longiflorum

Retz. Obs. Bot. 4 : 15, 1786.

Eroded lands along Loni nala, N.B.G. 68812.

Digitaria stricta Roth ex Roem. et Schult. Syst. Veg. 2: 474, 1817. D. royleana

(Nees) Prain, Bengal Pl. 1182, 1903.

Eroded lands along Loni nala, N.B.G. 68812, Rehmankhera, N.B.G. 68865.

Eragrostis cilianensis (All.) Vignolo-Lulalati in Malpighia 18 : 386, 1904. Poa

cilianensis All. Fl. Pedem. 2 : 246, 1785, t. 91. Eragrostis major (Linn.)

Host Gram. Austr. 4: 14, 1809.

On old walls, Chinhat village, N.B.G. 68826.

Eragrostis ciliaris (Linn.) R.Br. in Tuchey, Narr. Exp. Congo. App. 478, 1818.

Poa ciliaris Linn. Syst. Nat. 2 : 875, 1759.

Eragrostis diarrhena (Schult.) Steud. Syn. Pl. Glu. 1: 266. 1854. Poa diarrhena

Schult. Syst. Veg. 2, Mant. 616, 1827.

Along ditches. Kukrail area, N.B.G. 68847.

Eragrostis japonica (Thunb.) Trin. in Mem. Acad. Sci. Petersb., ser. 6, 1: 405,

1831. Poa japonica Thunb. FI. Jap. 51, 1786.

Along ditches and in moist. lands, National Botanic Gardens, N.B.G.,

68831.

Eragrostis nutans (Retz.) Nees ex Steud. Nom. Bot., ed. 2, 563, 1840. Poa nutans

Retz. Obs. Bot. 4: 19, 1786.

Common in moist wastelands, National Botanic Gardens woodland, N.B.G.

68817.

Eragrostis pilosa (Linn.) Beauv. Ess. Agrost. 71, 162, 175, 1802. Poa pilosa

Linn. Sp. Pl. 68, 1753.

Common in moister grasslands, National Botanic Gardens, N.B.G. 68848.

Eragrostis tremula Hochst. ex Steud. Syn. Pl. Glum. 1: 264, 1854.

Dry, sandy and eroded lands, Bastauli Farm, N.B.G. 68821, Ujarion, N.B.G.

68850.

Eremopogon foveolatus (Del.) Stapf in Prain, Fl. Trop. Afr. 9: 183, 1917.

Andropogon foveolatus Del. Fl. Egypte 16, 1812, t. 8.

Eroded lands, Military area Arjungunj, N.B.G. 68843.

Erianthus ravennae (Linn.) Beauv. Ess. Agrost. 14, 1812. Andropogon ravennae

Linn. Sp. Pl. 1481, 1763.

Along Gomti bank, N.B.G. 68832.

Eulalia leschenaultiana (Decne.) Ohwi in Bull. Tokyo Sci. Mus. 18: 2, 1947.

E. cumingii (Nees) A. Camus in Lecompte, Fl. Gen. Indoch. 7 : 250, 1922.

Pollinia cumingii Nees in Hook. Kew J. Bot. 2 : 98, 1850.

In a depressed field south of Kukrail Forest road crossing, N.B.G. 68849.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 487

Hackelochloa granularis (Linn. f.) O. Ktze. Rev. Gen. Pl. 776, 1891. Manisuris

granularis Linn. f. Nov. Gram. 40, 1779.

Sand covered open fields, Bastauli Farm, N.B.G. 68822.

Heteropogon contortus (Linn.) Beauv. ex Roem. & Schult. Syst. Veg. 2: 836,

1817. Andropogon contortus Linn. Sp. Pl. 1045, 1753.

Common in grasslands, Arjungunj Military Farm, N.B.G. 68844, along railway

line and elsewhere.

Hygrorhiza aristata (Retz.) Nees apud Wt. & Arn. in Edinb. New Phil. J. 15 : 380,

1833. Pharus aristatus Retz. Obs. Bot. 5 : 23, 1789.

On sides of Kathauta tal near Malhaur railway station, N.B.G. 68803.

Ischaemum rugosum Salisb. Icon. Stirp. Rar. 1: t. 1, 1791.

In paddy fields, Bakshi Talab-Asti road, N.B.G. 68806.

Leersia hexandra Swartz, Prod. Veg. Ind. Occ. 21, 1788.

In ditches near Tiwarigunj, N.B.G. 68829.

Mnesithea laevis (Retz.) Kunth, Rev. Gram.1: 154, 1829. Rottboellia laevis

Retz. Obs. 3: 11. 1783.

Common on sandy low banks of Gomti river at Bari, at Arjungunj, N.B.G.

8845, and National Botanic Gardens, N.B.G. 68833.

Oplismenus compositus (Linn.) P. Beauv. Ess. Agrost. 54, 168, 1812. Panicum

compositum Linn. Sp. Pl. 57, 1753.

In shade of trees in Improvement Trust Forest, Moosa Bagh, N.B.G. 68839.

Panicum austro-asiaticum Ohwi in Act. Phyto-tax. et Geo-Bot. 2: 45, 1942.

P. humile Nees ex Steud. Pl. Gen. 1 : 84, 1854 (non Thunb, ex Trin.).

Exposed situations, wastelands, eroded lands, etc., N.B.G. 68814.

Panicum paludosum Roxb. FI. Ind. 1: 310, 1820.

On sides of Kathauta tal near Malhaur railway station, N.B.G. 68804.

Panicum psilopodium Trin. Gram. Panic. 217, 1826, var. psilopodium.

Moist situations, Kukrail farms, N.B.G. 68827.

Panicum trypheron Schult., Syst. Veg. 2, Mant. 244, 1824.

Most wastelands, N.B.G. 68823, 68834.

Perotis indica (Linn.) O. Ktze. Rev. Gen. Pl. 787, 1891. Anthoxanthum indicum

Linn. Sp. Pl. 28, 1753.

Sandy and exposed moist areas, Bastauli Farm, N.B.G. 68824, National

Botanic Gardens, N.B.G. 68817, 68841.

Phragmites karka (Retz.) Trin.ex Steud. Nom. Bot., ed. 2, 2 : 324, 1841. Arundo

karka Retz. Obs. Bot. 4: 21, 1786.

In moist localities, N. B. G. 68856.

Poa annua Linn. Sp. Pl. 61, 1753.

In shady areas of the National Botanic Gardens, in winter, N.B.G. 68857,

68858. 3

Polypogon monspeliensis (Linn.) Desf. Fl. Atlant. 1 : 67: 1798. Alopecuros mons-

peliensis Linn. Sp. Pl. 61, 1753.

In lawns, along water channels, National Botanic Gardens, N.B.G. 68859,

and Mahanagar, N.B.G. 68860.

488 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (2)

Rottboellia exaltata Linn. f. Nov. Gram. Gen. 40, 1779, t. 1, et Suppl. Pl. 114;

1781.

Wastelands in National Botanic Gardens woodland, N.B.G. 68835.

Sporobolus coromandelinus (Retz.) Kunth, Rev. Gram. 1: 68, 1829. Agrostis

coromandelinus Retz. Obs. Bot. 4: 19, 1786.

On old walls and kachcha roads, Chinhat village, N.B.G. 68828, and National

Botanic Gardens, N.B.G. 68836.

Themeda triandra Forsk. Fl. Aeg.-Arab. cxiii et 178, 1775.

On grasslands, Barabanki road, m. 7, N.B.G. 68854, Arjungunj Military Farm.

N.B.G. 68846.

Tragus biflorus Schult. Syst. Veg. 2, Mant. 205, 1824.

On eroded lands, Rehmankhera, N.B.G. 68842.

Vetiveria zizanioides (Linn.) Nash in Small, Fl. South-East. U.S.A. 67, 1903.

Phalaris zizanoides Linn. Pl. 2: 183. 1771.

In depressed lands which get filled up with water during the rains ; most parts

of the district.

The author acknowledges with thanks the kind encouragement

received during the course of this work from Prof. K. N. Kaul, F.L.s.,

Director, National Botanic Gardens, Lucknow.

NATIONAL BOTANIC GARDENS, 7

LUCKNOW; J. G. SRIVASTAVA

May, J5, 1963.

ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY

SOCIETY FOR THE YEAR 1962-63

EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE

President

Dr. P. SUBBARAYAN, Governor, State of Maharashtra

Vice-Presidents

Major-General Sir Sahib Singh Sokhey, I.M.s. (Retd.)

Rey. Fr. H. Santapau, s.J.

Dr. Salim Ali .

ex-officio

Hon. Secretary

Mr. Humayun Abdulali

Hon. Treasurer

Mr. J. D. Kapadia, I.c.s. (Retd.)

Members

Dr. D. V. Bal, M.sc., Ph.D.

Mr. G. V. Bedekar, I.c.s.

R. S. Dharmakumarsinhji

Mr. Zafar Futebally

Mr. R. E. Hawkins

Dr. C. V. Kulkarni, M.Sc., Ph.p.

Mr. D. N. Marshall

Mr. D. J. Panday

Mr. D. E. Reuben, I.c.s, (Retd.)

Dr. H. Trapido, M.D.

ADVISORY COMMITTEE

| Mr. H. G. Acharya, F.R.E.S. .. - .. Ahmedabad |

| Mirai ©. Badhwat.,O.BiE: ns. nga, .. New Delhi

Sir C. D. Deshmukh, Kt., C.1-E., 1.c.s. (Retd.) .. New Delhi

Rev. Fr. Dr. J. B. Freeman, M.A., L.T., Ph.D., D.D. ... Mysore

MroEs BGee eM A..,CM.Z.S.) 5. a .. Shillong

Dr. Baini Prasad, D.Sc., F.N.I. ats .. Dehra Dun

Mr. P. D. Stracey, I. Fs. (Retd.) .. Shillong

Dr. M. L. Roonwal, M.sc., Ph.D. & Sc.D. (Cantab»,

FN.I:,/F-Z.S... .. Calcutta

Lt. Gen. Sir H. Williams, C.B., C.B.E., M.LC.E.,M.E.E. Roorkee

Y.S. Shivrajkumar of Jasdan ag ey, .. Jasdan

HONORARY SECRETARY’S REPORT FOR THE YEAR 1962,

WITH SUPPLEMENTARY REMARKS FOR THE PERIOD

JANUARY TO APRIL 1963

At the last Annual General Meeting of the Society we presented a

report for the period ending 31st August 1962. The present report

covers the 4 months thereafter.

THE SOCIETY'S JOURNAL

Two numbers of the Journal completing Vol. 59 were published

during the period under report. The 651 pages include 5 papers each

on insects and botany, 2 each on mammals and birds, and one each on

national parks, reptiles, fish, and Annelids. 54 Miscellaneous Notes

covered many subjects and, together with the papers, included des-

criptions of several new species and races of different forms of animals

and plants. We are continuing our efforts to make the Journal of

greater interest to the naturalist while maintaining the high standard

of the past, and hope that members will help by sending in notes of

their observations on various aspects of natural history. During the

present national emergency the prospects of receiving grants from

Government have been adversely affected and, therefore, it will not be

possible to include as many illustrated articles as in previous years.

GENERAL

New Building. In late 1962 construction of the new building in the

compound of the Prince of Wales Museum of Western India was begun.

The foundation and part of the mezzanine floor have been completed

and, if we receive all the funds that we are hoping to get from the

Ministry of Scientific Research and Cultural Affairs, Government of

India, we hope to have the building ready for occupation by the

middle of 1964. The total cost of the building is estimated to be

Rs. 3,30,343 ; a grant of Rs. 1,50,000 has already been received. We

are grateful to the Government of India for the grant and to the

Trustees of the Prince of Wales Museum of Western India for per-

mission to house the Society on their land.

BNHS/WHO Bird Migration Study Scheme. We have had a very

successful half-year in the Bird Migration Study Project. The two

camps held at Bharatpur (September/October 1962) and Kerala

(December 1962 to February 1963) resulted in the ringing of 2109 mig-

rant birds at the former and 20,369 migrants at the latter. The species

involved were Spanish Sparrows (Passer hispaniolensis) and several

subspecies of the Yellow Wagtail (Motacilla flava). At the invitation

PROCEEDINGS 1962-63, AND ACCOUNTS 1962 491

of the WHO Prof. G.I. Netzky, Parasitologist of the Institute for

Diseases with Natural Foci, Omsk, U.S.S.R., spent two weeks at our

Bharatpur camp in order to familiarise himself with our techniques to

help him devise an adequate scheme for co-operation between the

Society and Russian workers on the virological aspects.

Research Grant from C.S.I.R. During the year a project for studying

‘The Role of Birds in our National Economy’, financed by the Council

of Scientific and Industrial Research, was commenced. One student

investigator has been appointed and the University Department of the

Society has another vacancy under the scheme for a competent graduate

student of botany. Applications from possible candidates are invited.

Research Grant from University of Bombay. The University of

Bombay sanctioned a research grant to Mr. V. C. Ambedkar for con-

tinuing his field work on the breeding biology of weaver birds on which

subject he was awarded his M. Sc. degree.

Talks. Members in Bombay had the opportunity of hearing Major

John Dias on the 1962 Indian Everest Expedition.

New Additions to our Collection. During the year some 104

additions were made to our registered collections of vertebrates: 33

birds, 47 reptiles, and 24 amphibians. Interesting additions among —

reptiles and amphibians include : Japalura kumaonensis, Trimeresurus

huttoni, and Uperodon systoma.

Library. During the year 59 books were added to the library of

which 33 were purchased, 14 received for review, and 12 donated. Our

thanks are due to the donors. 59 journals were bound.

PUBLICATIONS

We expect to publish the revised second edition of THE BOOK OF

INDIAN ANIMALS (now in the press) early next year. The sale of our

other publications, except THE BOOK OF INDIAN BIRDS, has not been

satisfactory and continues to be a matter of concern to the Com-

mittee.

NATURE EDUCATION SCHEME

The Nature Education Scheme for children financed by the Govern-

ment of Maharashtra is now in its 15th year. Tours of the Natural

History Section of the Prince of Wales Museum and special talks on.

natural history subjects with the aid of exhibits and other specimens,

films, and living animals were continued.

One field trip for teachers was arranged. It was led by Dr. R. N.

Sukheshwala of the Geology Department of St. Xavier’s College,

Bombay.

492. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (2)

MEMBERSHIP

The total membership on our books at the end of 1962 was 1215,

including 240 life and 4 honorary members. Subscriptions were

received from 763 members, and we hope to receive subscriptions from

most of the remaining 208 members, except for the few who cannot be

traced. During 1962, 112 ordinary members and 7 life members were

enrolled as against 61 ordinary members resigned, and 4 life members

who died during the year.

REVENUE ACCOUNT FOR 1962

During the year 1962 the income of the Society, excluding the

special grant received from the Government of Maharashtra for the

maintenance of the Reference Collections, was Rs. 54,223.96 as against

Rs. 42,701.84 in the previous year. The operations of the Society

during 1962 showed a deficit of Rs. 5,632.94 as against Rs. 19,955.45

in 1961.

STAFF

The Committee wishes to record its appreciation of the willing

co-operation of the entire staff in the activities of the Society.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The Committee’s thanks are due to Mr. J. L. Bernard who continues

to look after the Society’s interests in the United Kingdom.

SUPPLEMENTARY REMARKS FOR THE PERIOD

JANUARY TO APRIL 1963

GENERAL

Honorary Secretary. In January 1963 the Committee accepted with

great regret the resignation of Mr. Humayun Abdulali as Honorary

Secretary of the Society. Mr. Abdulali during the last 14 years, has

done a great deal to further the objects of the Society. It is largely due

to his persistent efforts that the construction of the new building to

house the Society has become possible, and his work has been deeply

appreciated. Mr. Abdulali, after his resignation, continues to be the

Society’s representative on the Indian Board for Wild Life, the State

Wild Life Advisory Board, and the Board of Trustees of the Prince of

Wales Museum of Western India.

PROCEEDINGS 1962-63, AND ACCOUNTS 1962 493

Research Work. The Society is sponsoring a study of the ecology of

the Indian Red and Grey Junglefowls by Dr. N. E. Collias, Associate

Professor of Zoology, University of California, Los Angeles 24, U. S.A.,

who has already commenced his work.

Society’s Nominee on H.M.I. Training Courses. The Himalayan

Mountaineering Institute have agreed to have a nominee of the Society

included in their mountaineering courses every year. This. proposal was

made to them with the object of spreading interest in ornithology

among mountaineers. K.S. Lavkumar of Jasdan was nominated. by us

for the course in April this year, but unfortunately he was not able to

participate. It is hoped that candidates will be available in future to

take advantage of this offer by the Himalayan Mountaineering

Institute.

Talks and Film Show. Rev. Fr. H. Santapau, S.5., gave a lecture on

14th February to members in Bombay on the impressions of a botanist

on a tour of Russia, and the Films Division, Government of India,

kindly arranged a special show on 25th March at their Auditorium of the

films ‘ Gir Sanctuary ’, ‘A Trek to Pindari Glacier’, and ‘ Beauty in

Bloom’ for members of the Society. |

NATURE EDUCATION SCHEME

The activities of the scheme were extended to Poona, and the Nature

Education Organiser visited Poona twice during the period under

review and conducted nature rambles and contacted several schools: to

discuss the possibility of permanently organising nature education acti-

vities at Poona. He also visited the National Defence Academy at

Khadakvasla and the Cadets seem to be keenly interested i in having fur-

ther talks and rambles arranged for them. =

a Ss Be as

494

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (2)

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Bs oi:

MINUTES OF THE ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY HELD IN THE

PREMISES OF THE SOCIETY, 91 WALKESHWAR

ROAD, BOMBAY 6, ON FRIDAY 31ST MAY 1963

AT 6 P.M., WITH DR. SALIM ALI IN THE CHAIR

1. The Honorary Secretary’s report for the year 1962, with supple-

mentary remarks for the period January to April 1963, having been

previously circulated to members was taken as read and adopted.

2. The Balance Sheet and Statement of Accounts for 1962 presented

by the Honorary Treasurer were approved.

3. The following were elected as members of the Executive and

Advisory Committee for the year 1963-64.

~ EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE |

President

Mrs. VIJAYA LAKSHMI PANDIT, Governor,

State of Maharashtra

Vice-Presidents

Major-General Sir Sahib Singh Sokhey, I.M.s. (Retd.)

Rev. Fr. H. Santapau, s.J.

Dr. Salim All ex-officio

Hon. Secretary

Mr. Zafar Futehally

Hon. Treasurer

Mr. J. D. Kapadia, Lc.s.(Retd.) )

Members

| Mr. Humayun Abdulali

Dr. D. V. Bal, m.sc., Ph.D.

Mr. G. V. Bedekar, I.C.s.

R. S. Dharmakumarsinhji

Mr. R, E. Hawkins

Dr. C. V. Kulkarni, M.sc., Ph.p.

Mr. D. J. Panday

Mr. G. S. Ranganathan

Dr. T. Ramachandra Rao, D.Sc., F.N.1.

Mr. D. E. Reuben, 1.C.s. (Retd.)

‘

504. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (2)

ADvISORY COMMITTEE

Mr. H. G. Acharya, F.R.E.S.

Mr. F. C. Badhwar, 0.B.E. ee

Sir C. D. Deshmukh, Kt., C.1.E., 1.C.S. (Retd.)

Rev. Fr. Dr. J. B. Sohn M.A, -L. Ts, Ph.D., D.D.

Mr. E. P. Gee, M.A., C.M.Z.S. 4

Dr. Baini Pad. D.SC., F.N.I.

Mr. P. D. Stracey, 1.F.s. (Retd.) fae

Dr. M. L. Roonwal, M.sc., Ph.D., & Sc.D. - (Cantab,),,

E.N.L, F.Z.S.1

Lt.-Gen. Sir H. Williams, c.B., C.B.E., M.I.C.E., M.E.E.

Y.S. Shivrajkumar of Jasdan

Ahmedabad

New Delhi

Mysore

Shillong

Dehra Dun

Shillong

Calcutta 3

Roorkee

. Jasdan

4. Two films ‘SEA SANCTUARY ’ and ‘WINTER QUARTERS * loaned by

the British Information Services were exhibited and greatly appreciated.

5. The meeting terminated with a vote of thanks to the British

Information Services for the loan of the films, and to the Chairman of

the meeting.

Notes and News

We are glad to announce a new Society publication:

THE LYCAENIDAE PORTION (EXCEPT THE. ARHOPALA GROUP) OF

BRIGADIER EVANS’ THE IDENTIFICATION OF INDIAN BUTTERFLIES 1932

(INDIA, PAKISTAN, CEYLON, BURMA). Reissued and Revised by Sir

Keith Cantlie, c.1.E., Indian Civil Service (retired). Mimeographed.

Price Rs. 10.

The revision of Brigadier Evans’s classic work was found necessary

as much work has been done on Lycaenidae since 1932 and there have

been considerable changes in nomenclature. The Society is grateful

to Sir Keith Cantlie who took on himself the entire responsibility for

the preparation of the book and who has borne the greater portion

of the cost. As very few copies of the book are available, members

who are interested should reserve their copies at an early date.

Appeal for Bird Notes

Work has started on the long-projected HANDBOOK OF INDIAN BIRDS

under the joint authorship of the undersigned and Prof. Dillon Ripley.

The manual is planned to be completed in five volumes at intervals of

about a year each. It will attempt to bring the Bird volumes of the

FAUNA OF BRITISH INDIA series (2nd ed.) up-to-date for the taxonomist

and museum worker, and also to provide the field naturalist with a

fully illustrated guide to the complete avifauna of the Indian sub-

continent. By bringing together all that is known about Indian birds

in life it will serve to emphasize how little in fact we do know, and

thus enable field workers to try and fill the gaps. The first volume

is expected to be ready for the press in about fifteen months from

now. It will cover the first 450-500 species and subspecies of Ripley’s

A SYNOPSIS OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA AND PAKISTAN etc. The under-

signed will be grateful for field notes by bird watchers under any of

the following heads: Distribution (additional to what is already

published in the FAUNA and other standard works); Habitat (biotopes);

506 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (2)

Food and Feeding Habits; Voice and Calls; Migration; Breeding

(including courtship, period of incubation, share of the sexes in

incubation and nest-feeding), Economics (if the bird or any of its parts

or products are, or formerly were, used for particular purposes);

Conservation. Any other observations relating to ecology or behaviour

will be welcome. Though the immediate request is for notes pertain-

ing to the birds to be covered by Vol. I, those for the subsequent |

volumes will also be appreciated.

33, Pai Hirt, SALIM ALI

BANDRA, BOMBAY-50.

«)

PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY V. M. PHILIP AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS

10 CHURCH ROAD, VEPERY, MADRAS— 12-11-1963. ©9938

EDITORS: H. SANTAPAU & ZAFAR FUTEHALLY

THE SOCIETY’S PUBLICATIONS

Mammals

The Book of Indian Animals, by S. H. Prater. With many coloured and monochrome

__. Plates. 2nd (revised) edition. (In preparation)

Birds

ne Birds of India, by E. C. Stuart Baker. Vol. III. Pheasants, Ist Edition. Rs. 20

(Price to Members Rs. 15)

The Book of Indian Birds, by Sélim Ali. With 64 coloured and many monochrome

plates, 6th edition, revised and enlarged. Rs. 25

(Price to Members Rs. 20)

A Synopsis of the Birds of India and Pakistan, by S. Dillon Ripley II. An up-to-date

checklist of all the birds resident and migrant, including those of Nepal, Sikkim,

Bhutan, and Ceylon.

(Price to Members Rs. 20)

Snakes

Identification of Poisonous Snakes. Wall chart in English, Gujarati, and saa

] e 0

(Price to Members Rs. 8)

Miscellaneous

Some Beautiful Indian Trees, by Blatter and Millard. With many coloured and

monochrome plates. 2ndedition. Revised by W. T. Stearn

(Price to Members Rs. 16)

Some Beautiful Indian Climbers and Shrubs, by Bor and Raizada. With many coloured

and monochrome plates. Rs.

(Price to Members Rs. 17.50)

Butterflies of the Indian Region, by M. A. Wynter-Blyth. With 27 coloured and 45

monochrome plates. Rs. 28

(Price to Members Rs. 22.50)

Indian Molluscs, by James Hornell. With 2 coloured and many monochrome plates,

and text-figures.

(Price to Members Rs. 4.50)

Glimpses of Nature Series Booklets :

1. Our Birps I (with 8 coloured plates) in English, Gujarati, Hindi, and ae

s. 0.

Kannada Rs. 0.62

Our Birps II (with 8 coloured plates) in English, Gujarat Hindi, and Marathi.

Rs. 0.62

Marathi. Rs. i

Our MONSOON PLANTS (with 8 coloured plates) in English, Gujarati, Hindi,

and Marathi. Rs. 0.80

5. Our ANIMALS (with 8 coloured plates) in English, Gujarati, Hindi, Marathi.

Rs. 1.25

3. Our BEAUTIFUL TREES (with 8 coloured plates) in English, Gujarati, Hindi, and

Back numbers of the Society’s Journal. Rates on application.

Correspond with :

The Honorary Secretary,

Bombay Natural History Society,

91, Walkeshwar Road, Bombay 6-WB.

Agents in England :

Messrs. Wheldon & Wesley Ltd.,

Lytton Lodge, Codicote, Nr. Hitchin,

Herts., England.

The Society will gratefully accept back numbers of the Journal, particularly

numbers prior to Vol. 45, from members who may not wish to preserve them.

Pe TERMS OF MEMBERSHIP

Life Members pay an entrance fee of Rs. 5 and a life membership fee of Rs. 500.

Ordinary Members pay an entrance fee of Rs. 5 and an annual subscription of Rs. 30.

The subscription of members elected in October, November, and December covers

the period from the date of their election to the end of the following year.

MEMBERS RESIDING OUTSIDE INDIA

The terms are the same for members living outside India. Such members should

pay their subscriptions by means of orders on their Bankers to pay the amount of the

subscription, plus postal registration (Rs. 2.50) if required—in all Rs. 32.50—to

the Society in Bombay on the Ist January in each year. If this cannot be done,

then the sum of £2-10-0 should be paid annually to the Society’s London Bankers—

The National & Grindlays Bank Ltd., 26 Bishopsgate Street, London, E.C. 2.

CONTENTS

THE BIOLOGY OF THE EASTERN SPANISH SPARROW, Passer hispaniolensis trans-

caspicus TSCHUSI, IN KAZAKHSTAN. By E. I. Gavriloy

A NOTE ON THE EASTERN SPANISH SPARROW, Pasrer, hispaniolensis trans-

caspicus TSCHUSI, ININDIA. By Salim Ali me

DESCRIPTION OF A New GECKONID LIZARD FROM MAHARASHTRA, INDIA. By -

Alice G. C. Grandison and P. W. Soman

A Taxonomic Stupy oF THE GENUS Indigofera EPS IN a By

N. C. Nair and T. T. Koshy SS

“Tue Bars or CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA. PartIV. By A. Brosset

(CHAPTERS ON THE History oF Borany IN INDIA. VII. Epilogue. By I. H.

Burkill 3

THE GENUS Phoenix LINN. IN INDIA. ra T. s. Mahabalé and M. V. Partha-

sarathy s ay :

‘Tue Breps oF NEPAL. Part 10. By Biswamoy Biswas. .

Tue INDIAN CHo Oyu EXPEDITION, . 1958: OBSERVATIONS OF A BOTANIST

MEMBER. By Seshagiri Rao Rolla

THe BNHS/WHO Birp MiGRATION STuDy PrRrojyect—3. Activities from

15-10-1962 to 15-4-1963. By Sdlim Ali . ; oe

oe GUIDE TO THE AMPHIBIANS OF WESTERN INDIA. Part 1. By J. C. Daniel

OBITUARY

REVIEWS

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES ae ae vie ae sa

ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL History SOCIETY FOR THE YEAR

1962-63

SUPPLEMENTARY REMARKS FOR THE PERIOD JANUARY TO APRIL 1963. . ate

STATEMENT OF ACCOUNTS OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL History SOCIETY

MINUTES OF THE ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING vf ads ne

APPEAL FoR Birp Nores He be as

301

318

322

326

337

356

371

388

400

410

415

439

441

448

489

492

494

$03

505.

505

Journal of the

Bombay Natural History Society

506, 5Y

@ /o—-

Vol. 60, No. 3

Editors

H. SANTAPAU, s.)., & ZAFAR FUTEHALLY

DECEMBER 1963

Rs. 215

NOTICE TO CONTRIBUTORS

Contributors of scientific articles are requested to assist the

editors by observing the following instructions :

1. Papers which have at the same time been offered for publica-

tion to other journals or periodicals, or have already been published

elsewhere, should not be submitted.

2. The MS. should be typed (double spacing) on one side of a

sheet only, and the sheets properly numbered.

3. All scientific names to be printed in italics should be under-

lined. Both in zoological and in botanical references only the initial

letter of the genus is capitalized. The specific and subspecific names

always begin with a small letter even if they refer to a person or a

place, e.g. Anthus hodgsoni hodgsoni or Streptopelia chinensis suratensis

or Dimeria blatteri.

4. Trinomials referring to subspecies should only be used where

identification has been authentically established by comparison of

specimens actually collected. In all other cases, or where identification

is based merely on sight, binomials should be used.

5. Photographs for reproduction must be clear and show good

contrast. Prints must be of a size not smaller than 8.20x5.60 cm.

(No. 2 Brownie) and on glossy glazed paper.

6. Text-figures, line drawings, and maps should be in Indian ink,

preferably on Bristol board.

7. References to literature should be placed at the end of the

paper, alphabetically arranged under author’s name with the abridged

titles of journals or periodicals underlined (italics), and titles of books

not underlined (roman type), thus :

Banerji, M. L. (1958): Botanical Exploration in East Nepal.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 55 (2) : 243-268.

Prater, S. H. (1948): The Book of Indian Animals. Bombay.

Titles of papers should not be underlined.

8. Reference to literature in the text should be made by quoting

the author’s name and year of publication, thus : (Banerji, 1958).

9. Synopsis: Each scientific paper should be accompanied by

a concise, clearly written synopsis, normally not exceeding 200 words.

10. Reprints: Authors are supplied 25 reprints of their articles

free of charge. In the case of joint authorship, 50 copies will be

given gratis to be distributed among the two or more authors. Orders

for additional reprints should be in multiples of 25 and should be

received within two weeks after the author is informed of the acceptance

of the manuscript. They will be charged for at cost plus postage and

packing.

EDITORS,

91, Walkeshwar Road, Journal of the Bombay Natural

Bombay 6-WB. History Society.

CORRECTION

Vol. 60, No. 3, in the credit captions to the plates illustrating the

er ‘A Naturalist in Borneo’, by Dr. T. Norman, correct ‘Photos :

Norman’ to ‘Photos: W. P. Reid’. ¢

ee Saag ol

VOLUME 60, NO. 3—DECEMBER 1963

Date of Publication: 14 April 1964

CONTENTS

A NATURALIST IN BoRNEO. By Dr. T. Norman. (With two plates)

THE INDIAN WILD Ass: A Survey. February 1962. By E. P. Gee. (With a

plate and one map) a or a i

A BoTANICAL Tour To TRIKUTA Hitts. By L. D. Kapoor, Y. K. Sarin, and

A. K. Dutt ;

THE BIRDS OF THE MALDIVE ISLANDS, INDIAN OCEAN. By W. W. A. Phillips.

(With two maps and three plates)

THE BUTTERFLIES OF SOUTH GUJARAT. By Rev. E. M. Shull

ON THE OCCURRENCE OF Thalassina anomala (HERBST), A BURROWING CRUS-

TACEAN IN BOMBAY WATERS, AND ITS BURROWING METHODS. By K. N.

Sankolli. (With two plates and one text-figure)

MossEs OF EASTERN INDIA—IV. Eubryiidae. Series II. DICRANALES (Contd.) :

Family LEUCOBRYACEAE, and Series III. PorTTiIALes: Family CALYM-

PERACEAE. By H.C. Gangulee. (With twenty text-figures)

THE BirDS OF NEPAL. Part11. By Biswamoy Biswas ..

COPEPODS PARASITIC ON SOUTH INDIAN FISHES: FAMILY ANTHOSOMIDAE—1.

By N. Krishna Pillai. (With seven text-figures)

More CYANOPHYCEAE OF HosHIARPUR: II. By P. C. Vasishta. (With two plates). .

CoMMENTS ON RIPLEY’s A SYNOPSIS OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA AND PAKISTAN. By

Biswamoy Biswas. With a SUPPLEMENT by Sidney Dillon Ripley II.

FIELD GUIDE TO THE AMPHIBIANS OF WESTERN INDIA. Part 2. By J. C. Daniel.

(With two plates and four text-figures)

ORN.THOLOGICAL NOTES OF A SECOND TRIP TO THE GULF oF KuTCH. By Humayun

Abdulali

OBITUARIES :

B. B. Osmaston

R. F. Stoney

REVIEWS :

1. Birds of the World. (D.N. Mathew)

2. Forever Free: Elsa’s pride. (D.E.R.)

3. Bee keeping in India. (N.T.N.)

Proceedings of the Summer School of Be Dele 1960. P." v.

Bole) se :

The Asclepiadaceae & Be aideacees of Romeay (Pave Bole)

6. Naming the Living World: An introduction to the principles of bio-

logical nomenclature. (J.C.D.) as 3 me

507

516

530

546

585

600

606

638

655

671

679

690

703

709

711

713

714

715

717

719

720

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :‘

1. Note on the breeding season of Rhinopoma hardwickei Gray. By R.

Reuben (p. 722). 2. Bat Megaderma lyra Geoffroy caught in a Zizyphus bush.

By John Goatly (p. 722). 3. Occurrence of the European Freetailed Bat [Tada-

rida teniotis (Rafinesque)] (Chiroptera : Molossidae) in India. By J. E. Hill

(p. 723). 4. Do goats eat crabs? By K.K. Tiwari (p. 725). 5. Occurrence of

Blainville’s Beaked-Whale [Mesoplodon densirostris (Blainville)] in the Indian

Ocean. (With a plate and two text-figures). By Charles McCann (p. 727).

6. Occurrence of the Whiterumped Swift [Apus pacificus (Latham)] at Hingol-

gadh, Jasdan, Gujarat. By Yuvraj Shivrajkumar (p. 731). 7. Occurrence of

the Large Whiterumped Swift [Apus pacificus leuconyx (Blyth)] in Bombay.

By Humayun Abdulali (p. 731). 8. Occurrence of the Blackcapped Kingfisher

[Halcyon pileata (Boddaert)] near Madurai, Madras State. By M. C. A.

Jackson (p. 733). 9. Re-appearances of the Haircrested, or Spangled, Drongo

[Dicrurus hottentottus (Linnaeus)] in Kutch. By M. K. Himmatsinhji (p. 734).

10. Angry behaviour of House Crow Corvus splendens Vieillot. By Ira Reuben

(p. 734). 11. Occurrence of the Blackheaded Cuckoo-Shrike [Coracina

melanoptera (Ruppell)] in Kutch. By M. K. Himmatsinhji (p. 735). 12. Re-

covery of ringed birds. By Editors (p. 736). 13. Second record in India of

the gecko Gehyra mutilata (Peropus). By P. W. Soman (p. 737). 14. A list

of the reptiles and amphibians of the Surat Dangs, south Gujarat. By J. C.

Daniel and E. M. Shull (p. 737). 15. Occurrence of the Fungoid Frog Rana

malabarica (Bibr.) at Jagdalpur, Bastar District, M.P. By J. C. Daniel and

T. G. Selukar (p. 743). 16. Occurrence of the Ceylon Kaloula, Kaloula pul-

chra taprobanica H. W. Parker (Family Microhylidae) at Jagdalpur, Bastar

District, M.P. By J. C. Daniel and K. K. Verma (p. 744). 17. Occurrence

of the butterflies Neptis hordonia hordonia Stoll, and Issoria sinha pallida Evans

in Mussoorie: new altitude records. By Ernest M. Shull (p. 745). 18. Butter-

flies: Hesperiidae : Polytremis minuta Evans. (With a text-figure). By Keith

Cantlie (p. 747). 19. Use of vertebrate faeces by the sphecoid wasp Chalybion

bengalense Dahlb. By S. D. Jayakar and H. Spurway (p. 748). 20. The

Indian hive bee Apis indica Fabr. (Hymenoptera) and Sapindus emarginatus

Vahl with a note on Acaris woodi (Rennie) (Acarina). By K. V. Lakshmi-

narayana (p. 749). 21. Lensia gnanamuthui, a new siphonophore from the

Madras plankton. (With a text-figure). By A. Daniel and (Mrs.) R. Daniel

(p. 751). 22. On the distribution of Gymnosporia bailadillana Narayan &

Mooney. By H. Santapau and S. K. Wagh (p. 754). 23. Description of

Tephrosia collina sp. nov. and two new varieties. (With a plate). By V. S.

Sharma (p. 754). 24. Solanum aculeatissimum Jacq. : a new record for northern

India. (With a plate). By H. P. Bezbaruah and Balamani Bezbaruah (p. 759).

25. Hyphaene indica Becc. along the west coast of India. (With a plate). By

Seshagiri Rao Rolla (p. 761). 26. A new species of Lasiurus from western

Rajasthan. (With a plate). By Y. Satyanarayan and K. A. Shankarnarayan

(p. 763)

GLEANING Me ne et ated ce bis

767

JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL

HISTORY SOCIETY

1963 DECEMBER Vol. 60 | No. 3

A Naturalist in Borneo

Dr. T. NORMAN!

(With two plates)

My wife and I recently had the good fortune to spend 9 months

in North Borneo on our way back to England after 14 years in Assam.

We were stationed at Wallace Bay on Sibatik Island, 2 hours by

launch from Tawau, at the extreme SE. of the Colony and only

3 miles from the Indonesian border. Wallace. Bay consists only of

the headquarters of the Borneo branch of the Bombay Burmah Trading

Corporation, but the isolation of the station was redeemed for us by

the fact that good forest began only 200 yards behind our bungalow,

and the sea, sometimes with as many as 5 timber ships at anchor at

a time, 100 yards in front of us. We spent 2 consecutive days a

fortnight at the Corporation’s main timber camp, 3 hours from

Wallace Bay by launch up the Kalabakan River, and 2 days a fort-

night at Tawau to visit another timber camp and a cocoa estate,

17 and 25 miles respectively from Tawau on the road which will

eventually lead to Mostyn. Living and working in such close

proximity to the forest we were able to spend the midday hours

there whenever the weather permitted. My wife’s primary interest

is ornithology, and my own butterflies, but we are sufficiently general

Natural Historians for our interests to overlap and for us to take an

intelligent interest in other branches.

Our biggest and continuing surprise in the Tawau area of Borneo

was the climate. Rainfall is approximately the same as in central

* Address : The Old Rectory, Winterborne Houghton, Blandford, Dorset, U.K.

SPIT RSONIR? J IN 23 (ORs

ye }

508 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

Assam, i.e. 80 in. a year, but is far more equally distributed. With-

out going into meteorological details, subjectively the climate is mild

and pleasant, no single day of our 9 months being as unpleasantly

hot and humid as the coolest monsoon day in the Assam Valley.

There were other surprises, both of things present and things absent.

Agathis sp. (the Kauri of New Zealand and Australia) and Podocarps,

both typically Southern Hemisphere conifers, grew in the interior,

and several Rhododendron spp. in the equatorial lowland rains forest.

Unfortunately we saw none of these, nor will it be a surprise to a

zoologist to learn that we failed to see the tapir, cassowary, and_ great

black cockatoo illustrated on the stamps of the Chartered Company,

pre-war rulers of what is now the Colony of North Borneo. After

enquiring about these 3 vertebrates and vehemently denying the

possibility of lowland rhododendrons I quickly learnt to keep to

myself opinions based on Indian experience.

The figures usually given for the forest area of Borneo are 75%

of the land under primary forest with another 15% under secondary

forest, and a flight across the island certainly seems to bear these

figures out. One can fly for half an hour and see nothing but virgin

forest in every direction—although it must be explained that half an

hour in a jet plane, or even in the familiar Dakota, is not the same

thing as half an hour in a Borneo Airways’ Pioneer, which looks as

though it ought to be propelled by the piece of twisted rubber

familiar in the toy planes of my boyhood. It is not easy to compare

the primary forest of the lowlands of Borneo with similar forest areas

in Assam, since so many of Assam’s virgin forests are not, in fact,

true primary forest. In the non-swampy areas the canopy appears to

be at least 50 feet higher and more dense than in the best Assam

forests, the boles straighter and proportionately more slender, and the |

forest floor more open. This picture gave place to the familiar Assam

pattern of dense undergrowth, with much thorny rattan, wherever

light had been let in. In open places, especially along roadsides,

Eupatorium is firmly in control, coming into flower at about Christmas

time but lasting into March. Although Tawau is in the tropics (4° N.),

with no real seasons, the familiar plants of the Asian sub-tropics

flower in their proper months but with a much longer flowering season.

This long flowering season applies also to native plants. It was parti-

cularly noticeable with some of the more showy creepers, Bauhinia

kochi, for instance. This very characteristic and lovely plant of

Malaysia is not seen in India. It is a heavy creeper draping trees and

stumps at the forest edge or wherever it can reach the sun; the flowers

are small for a Bauhinia, of a rather variable but always very bright

Journ. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. Pate I

Typical Secondary Forest on banks of Kalabakan River

Photos : T. Norman

Journ. BompBay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE If

Iban fellers at foot of Red Serayah (Shorea sp.) tree

Photos : T. Norman !

A NATURALIST IN BORNEO . 509

orange-red, in terminal corymbs which give the appearance of being

flat-topped. It is quite as dramatically showy as the ‘Golden Shower’

(sometime Bignonia venusta) of Indian gardens. |

A characteristic small tree of cleared areas was a species. of Wormia,

perhaps burbidgii, with very large leaves and large yellow flowers

similar (except in size) to those of Ochna spp. This was a case where

familiarity. bred, if not contempt, at least disappointment, so that I

no longer regretted my failure to make it thrive in Assam. After the

excitement of finding a whole riverbank covered with Nepenthes

khasiana during our last Christmas in Assam we had looked forward

to seeing the many species of pitcher plants which grow further east,

but they were very scarce in our area and we only found one small

group (on Sibatik Island), although we saw many species on brief

visits to Brunei and Sarawak. Orchids were a little disappointing.

While it is true that many fine species occur in Borneo (for instance

Phalaenopsis spp.), by far the most remarkable we saw in the wild

was Grammatophyllum speciosum. This- commonly grew perhaps

50 or 60 feet from the ground at the point where the first branches of a

forest giant forked from the trunk, dwarfing the enormous size of the

orchid itself. This may have 20 or 30 six-foot sprays of large tawny-

orange flowers, the whole plant being large enough to fill completely

an ordinary-sized room. ‘' |

As elsewhere in the tropics, the lowland forests are melting away

and giving place to cash crops—rubber, manilla hemp, cocoa,

coconuts, and oil palm are important ones on the east coast—but the

greatest clearing of forest is from the thriving timber industry. The

Forest Department is active and progressive, although there is widely

expressed concern (in which I agree) about the correctness of its

method of forest perpetuation. Large areas have. been set aside

permanently for timber. After the concessionaires have felled what

they require, the Forest Department moves in and poisons off all

remaining trees right down to the smallest sapling size. It would be

more correct to say that this is what has happened in areas I have

personally been able to observe, but I believe the intention is to poison

all the ‘useless’ species and leave only the smallest saplings and a

few seed parents of the commercially desirable species, mainly

Dipterocarps. The theory is that the ‘useless’ species will die out

while pure stands of Dipterocarps will grow up tall and straight under

the protection of the quickly growing secondary species. The method

has been used extensively and, I believe, successfully in Malaya. No

conservationist can approve of an attempt at such a radical alteration

of the forest, but far worse than this, there is grave doubt as to

510 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

whether it is even going to achieve its purpose in Borneo. As far as

I can see from personal observation of large areas on the east coast,

the Dipterocarps are germinating and starting to grow satisfactorily,

but the growth of secondary species is so dense and dark that this

has strangled the forest species, resulting in pure stands of dense (and

useless) secondary growth after 5 years. In sharp contrast to this

is the magnificent natural regeneration which has taken place around

the Selimpopon River, where selective felling of commercial species

took place in the earlier part of the century.

‘The relatively few species of common large animals occurred in

great plenty—pig, particularly, in primeval numbers. Mouse-deer,

barking deer, and sambar were common, and tembadau (local

equivalent of the Indian gaur or bison) was said still to be plentiful

a few days’ march from Tawau. Elephanis have never been as

plentiful as on the Asian mainland, probably due to the less suitable

food with relative scarcity of bamboo; in our area there was only

known to be one, whose tracks we frequently found. Squirrels,

lizards, and monkeys occurred in endless variety and vast numbers:

flying squirrels and flying lizards, large monitor lizards and giant

Malayan squirrels, and tiny lizards rustling in the dry leaves on the

forest floor, often confused with the not much larger rabbit-skinned

squirrels. My wife may have seen one orang-utan, but if it occurred

in Our area at all it was certainly very rare. In compensation, the

proboscis monkey was common and could be seen in troops varying

from a few individuals 'up to 50 or more on any launch journey

through the mangrove swamps at low tide. There was one old male

who used to sit serenely only a few vards from us on his flat-topped

mangrove bush (which exactly resembled one of the small-leaved

widely-spreading -bushes of China-type tea which until recently could

be seen on many of the older Assam tea gardens) while his more

nervous subjects raced from the mud to the safety of the taller

mangroves. Proboscis monkeys were large and handsome clean-

looking creatures in sharp contrast to the dirty little grey swamp

monkeys who lived in similar places and were characteristically seen

with an arm plunged up to the shoulder in the squelchy mud

feeling for shell-fish. In the forest proper gibbons (perhaps of two

species) were common, as also were several species of langur. We

were fortunate to see a small group of the pig-tailed monkey.

Although the Borneo forests are not, any more than other tropical

forests, the writhing nightmare of snakes imagined by so many stay-

at-home Europeans, I had more narrow snake escapes in 9 months ©

than in 14 years in Assam. There was the magnificent pit-viper of

A NATURALIST IN BORNEO 511

the species named after the gentleman whose name is spelt something

approaching Wangel, banded in two shades of green and looking

quite as venomous as, in fact, it was, which I nearly caught in my

net with a Euthalia. It was lying coiled on a frond of rattan, and

nothing I could do succeeded in making it move. This was in a

particularly productive spot for butterflies which we visited several

times a week. For the next 5 weeks it was always there in one of two

places on either side of the narrow track. Once we had located it

each day we felt fairly safe, but a day came in the fifth week when

we could not do so; and when it reappeared on its first perch next

day we regretfully decided that the only safe thing to do was to bring

a man with a parang. Within a day of first finding this snake I

met another of the same species, equally immobile and on a similar

perch, but this second specimen I never saw again. That was a bad

period because on the same day I had my foot lifted and was about

to put it down when something made me hesitate . . . there was a

long green snake (probably non-poisonous) lying across the track. I

had the very greatest difficulty in moving it sufficiently to allow me

to pass. This immobility seemed to be a feature of Borneo snakes,

and rather a disturbing one, which caused us to lose many butterflies

from watching too closely where we were treading instead of keeping

our eyes on the main objective. On another occasion in very thick

and dark secondary jungle I saw several fat caterpillars on a twig

just in front of me. I was about to pick up and examine one of

these when a inovement to the left caught my eye .. . the bright blue

flickering tongue of a snake whose folds round the twig I had mistaken

for caterpillars. On the other hand, when actively hunting, snakes

could be as active in Borneo as anywhere else—the one, for instance,

that whistled past my cheek into a stream after a frog I had just

disturbed.

We not only saw animals in the forest more frequently than in

Assam, but we also from time to time had a curious feeling that the

barriers between them and us were down, possibly because less

intensive hunting through the ages has caused a less intense alertness

towards humans. Two incidents will illustrate this. On an early

morning waik along a disused timber road through the forest my wife

saw a leopard cat with three kittens cross the track and go into the

thick bushes. The kittens saw her and immediately emerged on to

the track, approaching to within a few feet with every sign of friend-

liness. My wife had visions of the enraged mother and moved off,

but the kittens followed her and in the end she had to shoo them off.

This incident was all the more remarkable because the smaller cats

512 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

are. no more tractable in captivity in Borneo than in India. The other

incident occurred during one of my midday collecting trips. I was

in the Place of the Pit Viper when I became aware of a large animal

coming at speed towards me down the track. Quite suddenly a

sambar stag appeared, and as avoiding action was absolutely necessary

I shouted at him. The shout registered, but not its source or direc-

tion, and for about 2 minutes he stood 8 feet from me, with his flank

towards me, staring into the bushes on the right. Oddly enough he

appeared to be using his eyes rather than his nose, otherwise at such

a range he could hardly have failed to scent my sweaty body. It is

difficult to describe the feeling of utter nakedness standing alone in

the forest with not even a bush between myself and a large wild

animal which I could have touched with my net. It is not easy to

judge time under such circumstances, but after perhaps two minutes

the sambar turned and started to move in my direction again.

Another loud shout was necessary to avoid-a collision, and this time

he bounded off and away into the forest. Pig were noticeably more

alert than most other animals, but even so there was always the danger

of meeting them head-on on a narrow track. Near the end of our

time in Borneo we were on a narrow track following the crest of a hill.

To the right this fell away for 800 ft. in an apparently sheer rocky

precipice, and at this particular place there was a view point a few

feet wide and screened from the track by a few bushes. We had just

reached this point when there was the thunder of hooves on the track

ahead. It crossed my mind to move quickly to the view point and

watch the sounder go by, but very fortunately I decided to shout

instead and they changed course off into the forest on the left—‘as

large as landrovers’ as my wife described them later. We found

afterwards that a well-used pig track went over the edge of the

precipice and obliquely down and I am quite sure that if I had obeyed

my first impulse to stand aside on the view point we would have

been swept over the side. — , :

In all fields of Bornean Natural History an enormous amount yet

remains to be learnt, and this applies even to birds, where Smythies’s

book is full of the challenging ‘not recorded from Borneo’ under the

headings of habits, voice, and nidification. My wife was able to fill

in a surprising number of gaps in such a short stay and will be writing

these up elsewhere when she has a respite from cooking and washing.

As:a generalisation one might say that the tropical groups are bigger

and brighter than in India and more numerous in numbers, and that

there are fewer of the nondescript ‘little brown jobs’. No apology

is required for using a term originated by such an eminent ornitholo-

A NATURALIST IN BORNEO % ols

gist as Mr. Roger Peterson—nor would it be given after. the comments

frequently passed on some of my Lycaenids and Hesperids!

Broadbills, trogons, woodpeckers, kingfishers, malkohas, and cuckoos

are all conspicuous groups. Hornbills of 8 species make the forest

resound with a variety of weird sounds from the blood-chilling roar

of the rhinoceros hornbill (Buceros rhinoceros) to the demoniac

laughter of the rarely seen but often heard helmeted hornbill

(Rhinoplax vigil). This is an extraordinary creature with the two

central tail feathers prolonged for 2 feet as a thin streamer. It is

also the source of hornbill ivory, since the casque is of solid instead

of cancellous bone, and one also finds a whole head with the casque

beautifully and intricately carved by Chinese craftsmen. I have one

such whose origin I cannot trace, but which was always reputed in

the family to be a toucan and to have come from South America.

So much for the accuracy of oral tradition. For sheer colour the

pittas are hard to beat, and as in India, although reputedly not. rare,

they are very infrequently seen. One has the feeling that when the

Creator came to the pittas he had become tired of the dull brown

warblers and babblers and just tried to see how many and how bright

colours could be painted harmoniously on to one bird. For grace

and beauty of line I shall not forget the frigate birds which we

occasionally saw off Wallace Bay, and for tameness the common

sandpipers (Tringa hypoleucos) which were the common birds of our

lawn from October to February, feeding unconcernedly by our windows

and steps.

It was pleasant to be welcomed in Borneo by the call of the

plaintive cuckoo (Cacomantis merulinus) and, more rarely and less

melodiously than in Assam, the Indian cuckoo (Cuculus micropterus)

—but one could hardly expect more of it in a land where the urgency

to make more Pekoe does not arise. Apart from these and a few

other old friends the common birds made a marked contrast. There

are no sparrows in Borneo, their place being taken by the very common

chestnut and dusky munias (Lonchura malacca and L. fuscans);- the

only myna is the grackle (Gracula religiosa), which normally keeps to

the forest; the common house crow does not occur and the jungle

crow (Corvus macrorhynchos) has only been recorded 4 times, their

place being taken by another forest bird, the slenderbilled crow

(Corvus enca). These gaps are all the more extraordinary when one

considers the wide distribution and aggressive invasiveness of these

birds. ) :

Apart from check-lists and the inclusion of Bornean forms in

works covering the whole of the Indo-Australian region there do not

5i4. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

appear to be any books in English on the butterflies of Borneo. Even

using papers such as Evans’s recent monograph on the Oriental

Arhopala is not entirely satisfactory without access to a museum when

one is dealing with material which one hopes and expects to include

new forms, and this must explain and excuse the ambiguity of the

names I shall use. I cannot attempt a satisfactory identification of

the mass of material I brought back until I can find the time to spend

a month or more working at the British Museum.

My great love amongst the butterflies has always been for the

Lycaenidae (and to a lesser extent for the Hesperiidae), and in the

tropics particularly for the fascinating complex formerly known as

the genus Amblypodia. The latter are very well represented in

Borneo where there are 74 out of a total of 187 species for the whole

Indo-Australian region, the individual butterflies of the group often

being very plentiful indeed. Their favoured habitat was not the dark,

bare floor of the primary forest but places where the loss of a few

forest giants had allowed sunlight to reach the ground, and not toa

dense low leafy vegetation to flourish. Such conditions could be found

where trees had fallen in primary forest, forming natural clearings, or

where only a few of the larger trees had been felled a few years pre-

viously—though the latter areas could be very difficult for the collector

due to the dense secondary growth of prickly rattan. Some of the

very best places were beside newly made roads just inside the forest

border, where extra light filtered through before the wound in the

forest was covered by a dense leafy growth of granulation tissue, if

I may use a medical parallel. Equivalent conditions could be found

at a stage of felling when tracks had been driven through the forest

and only a few trees felled, but these places had to be exploited quickly

before they became an impenetrable mass of lopped and _ tangled

branches in which it became impossible to collect. I could not decide

whether the Borneo butterflies, and particuiarly the Arhopala group

and the Hesperiidae, were faster and more restless than in Assam, or

whether I had become slower, but we quite certainly found them more

difficult to take.

Other inhabitants of the forest floor were a limited number of

rather striking Satyrid species, Erycinids in great and exciting variety

but not very great numbers, Amathustids of many species, Euthalia

spp. in great numbers, and (on the undersides of leaves) a single common

species of Eulacera, an endless variety of Lycaenids, and disappoint-

ingly few Hesperids. Of the last mentioned family Erionota spp. (or

perhaps only one species) were common and there were some exciting

Plastingia spp. The Lycaenids included a few Poritia spp., a very

A NATURALIST IN BORNEO 515

great number of Allotinus of many species, Jamides spp., Nacaduba

spp., and very many species allied to Cheritra, although only a few

of the individual species of this group were common. Even during

our few periods of really dry weather we very rarely found butterflies

at damp places on the ground except to a limited extent in January

and February, and never anything approaching a real congregation.

Until the Eupatorium came out and introduced us to a new world

of butterflies there were very few flowers to attract them except for

two or three shrubs with insignificant white flowers which were

favoured by Plastingia spp., as were similar plants in Assam.

The problem of Borneo, as of tall primary rains forest the world

over, iS the forest canopy. I did not regret the Papilios and

Nymphalids (judging from the Sarawak Museum the latter were poor

anyway), but I would have given a lot to have had one single day of

the sort of weather conditions which would have driven the Poritiinae

as well as Tajuria and Pratapa to the forest floor. The few I took of

these groups were sufficient to keep me awake at night imagining the

treasure, perhaps unknown to science, which I was sure must be in

the canopy. The most surprisingly unrewarding habitat of all was

gardens. A few common Papilios (with an _ occasional Troides

brookiana), a few common Hesperids, the ubiquitous Zizeeria maha

and otis, an occasional Neptis sp., and that was all.

I had been intending to conclude with a paragraph about the very

happy race relationships and the peacefulness of this small territory,

but the Brunei rising and its aftermath of rumbles from Indonesia

have shown that so quickly do events move in the world to-day that

it would be unwise to make remarks which may be nonsense by the

time they appear in print. |

The Indian Wild Ass:A Survey’.

February 1962 |

EE. P:GEE

(With a plate and one map)

I. INTRODUCTION

Information on the present population and status of the Indian

Wild Ass Equus hemionus khur Lesson, 1827, is scanty. For this

reason I was prompted tc undertake this brief fact-finding survey,

especially as South African Horse Sickness? had been reported in that

part of India recently. The International Union for the Conservation

of Nature and Natural Resources sponsored my expedition, and the

World Wildlife Fund very kindly paid my travelling expenses from the

eastern part of India to the furthest western tip of the country. —

The Report deals with the Indian Wild Ass. There are altogether

in Asia five subspecies of Equus hemionus listed by Ellerman

& Morrison-Scott (1951):

“¢ Equus hemionus hemionus Pallas, 1775. Chigetai, Kulan, or Mongolian Wild

Ass. Range: now apparently only found about Orok Nor and Zagan Nor, in

Central Mongolia.

‘© Equus hemionus onager Boddaert, 1785. Persian Onager or Ghor-khar.

Range: north-eastern parts of Persia and North-Western Afghanistan ; Russian

Turkestan, as above.

‘* Equus hemionus khur Lesson, 1827. Indian Wild Ass or Ghor-khar. Range:

the Rann of Cutch, possibly Baluchistan, and South-Eastern Persia.

“¢ Fguus hemionus kiang Moorcroft, 1841. Kiang. Range: Ladak, Nepal, Sikkim,

Tibet to Kukunor district.

“¢ Equus hemionus hemippus 1. Geoffroy, 1855. Range: Syrian Desert and

adjacent parts. Possibly now extinct.”

1 This survey was done for the Survival Service Commission of the International

Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. The report was

first published in Oryx 7 (1) : 9-21, April 1963, and is reproduced here by courtesy of

the editcr, the IUCN, and the author.—Eps.

2 A virus disease of equines known from Africa for a long time. It spread to the

Middle East a few years ago, and thence in 1959 to Pakistan. In April 1960 it

began in Rajasthan in epidemic form, and by the end of the year over 9000 horses

were reported to have died of it in various parts of India. Believed to be trans-

mitted by midges of the genus Culicoides, Horses which recover from the disease

are immune.—EDs,

THE INDIAN WILD ASS : A SURVEY S17,

The last mentioned is the Syrian Wild Ass. which is considered by

Talbot (1960) to be extinct. Of the wild asses of Egypt Talbot (1960)

states: “The wild ass was once found over much of the Eastern

Desert, occasionally ranging further west along the Sudan border. At

present the only concentrations known are in the isolated mountain

groups north of the Sudan between the Nile and the Red Sea. They

apparently are also partly feral, as they are considered the property of

the local Bedouin.’ And of the Nubian Wild Ass Talbot says:

miitere «is ee oe doubt whether the animals now considered

“wild asses” in Sudan are truly wild or merely “feral” ’.

The Indian Wild Ass stands 11 to 12 hands (44 to 48 inches) high

at the shoulder, whereas the local domestic donkeys only average 91

hands (37 inches). The wild ass is a bright yellowish sandy colour,

with a short mane of dark chestnut colour and a line of the same

colour extending down the back to the root of the tail. The lower

parts are white. It has light fawn-coloured shoulders, saddle and

sides to the rump, constituting an example of disruptive coloration.

The ears are shortish, like those of a zebra.

The local domestic donkeys, on the other hand, are a dingy grey

or dirty brown, with long ears. From all accounts it is evident that

not only does the wild ass never interbreed with the domestic donkeys,

but it keeps entirely aloof and never mixes at all with them or with

any other domestic animals. Domestic donkeys breed at any time of

the year; but the wild ass is said to mate in August, September and

October, and to bring forth young in July, August and September,

the gestation period being eleven months. The call of the wild ass

is shriller than that of a domestic donkey.

II. GENERAL REVIEW AND SUMMARY OF REPORT

The Indian Wild Asses are handsome, zebra-like creatures. They

live in a unique habitat, which has to be seen to be believed.

The human population round the borders of the Little Rann of

Kutch are peaceful, vegetarian folk, who do not molest the wild asses

beyond driving them away from their cultivations when crops are

raided. Previous estimates of the numbers of the wild asses were

given in ‘thousands’. I actually saw 214 in five days, and in close

consultation with the local Forest Officers I estimate them now at

870. This lower figure may be due either to earlier exaggerations of

their numbers, or to the fact that diseases may have taken a toll of

them, or to both.

518 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

It is evident that a number of them died of surra’ in 1958 and in

1960, and that at least some had died during the recent epidemic of

South African Horse Sickness in November and December, 1961.

A census is urgently required of these rare creatures and should be

repeated annually or bi-annually. All possible precautions should be

taken by the authorities against diseases prevalent among domestic’

horses and donkeys.

II. History OF THE AREA

The Little Rann, which is the home of the wild ass, and most of

the Great Rann, into whose eastern end a few asses may occasionally

stray, used to form part of the princely state of Kutch. During this

time, I understand, wild life was preserved by the rulers.

After India gained independence in 1947 this part of the country

became the new State of Saurashtra. Later Saurashtra was merged

with the larger Bombay State. More recently Bombay State has

become divided into Maharashtra in the south and Gujarat in the

north. So now Kutch is a district of Gujarat State.

The only serious expedition to obtain information on the wild

asses was the one made by Salim Ali in 1946. In his excellent and

most valuable paper he has described how he visited the Little Rann

from 24th February to 3rd March 1946, chiefly in order to obtain

specimens for R. I. Pocock who was revising the Mammalia volumes

of the FAUNA OF BRITISH INDIA. Sdlim Ali again visited the Little

Rann in 1960 to select places for field studies in bird migration.

Occasionally wild asses have been captured by running down and

noosing from a moving vehicle, for zoos and to breed mules for the

army. For example in February 1953, six were captured and sent

to Jullunder. And in the old days, before the advent of the motor

vehicle, spearing and capturing of wild asses were evidently done by

relays of horsemen. No single horse, it is said, could keep up with

them: only by changing shorses and wearing down the wild asses

could they be speared or captured. Gravid mares were the easiest to

catch up with.

I was told that a pair was captured about thirty years ago by the

princely family of Dhrangadhra, and trained to draw a carriage, and

that they worked very well.

An arthropod-borne disease of horses and other animals caused by a protozoan

blood parasite Trypanosoma evansi. The disease is almost always fatal to horses

unless injection of arsenical preparations is given as a curative. Prophylactic doses

sive an immunity of about six months, Transmitted by various blood-sucking

1eS ton DS,

THE INDIAN WILD ASS : A SURVEY 519

IV. GEOGRAPHICAL AND ECOLOGICAL

The Little Rann of Kutch, an area of about 1000 square miles,

is a salt-impregnated, flat waste, only a foot or two above sea level.

It is sometimes described as an old estuary, from which the sea has

receded. It is completely dried up from about November to June

when motor vehicles can travel over most of the surface quite easily,

avoiding the darker patches which might be soft.

During the monsoon months from July to September, the discharge

from the rivers Banas, Rupen and others, together with sea water

blown up from the Gulf of Kutch in the south-west by the strong

monsoon winds. cover the area with | or 2 feet of water and render

it impassable. As this flat area is salt-impregnated, no vegetation of

any kind can grow on it.

In the Little Rann there are several small islands or bets of higher

ground, on which there is some sparse tree and grass vegetation. The

wild asses graze on the bets and on the ‘shores’ of the mainland which

borders the Rann.

The vegetation of the Rann and its environs is largely xerophytic,

the average annual rainfall being only 13 inches. A common tree

seen was the babul, Acacia arabica. Of grasses growing on the isiands

and shores of the mainland, I was informed that thegado (Cyperus

capillaris) forms about three-quarters of the total. The grasses of

the pasture lands of the villagers close to the Rann were said to be:

dabhado — Eragrostis cynosuroides (30 per cent)

ZiINZVO Andropogon spp. (25 per cent)

kynyadi Andropogon laniger

khariga Sporobolus indicus

lampdos _ Aristida hystricula

kadvano _ Aeluropus_ viliosus

fulisenur Eragrostis ciliaris

dhrokad Cynodon dactylon

The planting of 3000 acres per annum in the Rann area in Kutch

Division (plus another 1000 to 2000 acres in Palanpur Division nearby)

of Prosopis juliflora was started several years ago. These trees were

introduced from Mexico into India some forty years ago for planting

up saline tracts in the Punjab. They are being planted on the shores

of the Rann as a wind-break, to improve land fertility and as firewood.

The tree grows 20 to 25 feet in ten years, and flowers twice a year.

Its dry seed pods, but not its leaves, are eaten by the wild asses,

and the seeds (500 to an ounce) grow from the animals’ droppings—

thus aiding the forest staff in their work.

i a

vu i

ae uh

Wi i" os

THE

LITTLE RANN OF

8 2~0 Miles) 8

THE INDIAN WILD ASS : A SURVEY 521

These plantations on the mainland border of the Little Rann will

eventually change the terrain and ecology considerably, with an effect

on the wild asses which it is hoped will not be injurious in any way.

It may be beneficial to them.

Near Kuda and even more so in the vicinity of Kharaghoda, to

which places two railways run, are extensive salt workings. Holes _

are dug at the edge of the Rann, and the white saline water extracted

and run off into pans. After evaporation the salt is collected, forming

quite a big industry.

V. ADMINISTRATIVE AND POLITICAL

The responsibility for the preservation of wild life in the area,

particularly the wild asses, mainly rests with the State Forest

Department. In Gujarat there is a State Wild Life Officer, directly

under the Chief Conservator of Forests.

The Divisional Forest Officer of Kutch Division, with headquarters

at Bhuj, has jurisdiction over most of the Little Rann, up to I5 miles

north of Jhinjhuwada. North of that point is Palanpur Division,

under the DFO of that Division. Under the DFO of Kutch is a

Range Officer stationed at Dhrangadhra, and under the latter officer

is a Round Officer at Jhinjhuwada, as well as other subordinate staff.

Their chief duty consists of planting and protecting the Prosopis

juliflora trees.

The population of the environs of the Little Rann of Kutch, all

Gujarati speaking, are vegetarian. They do not harm the wild asses

or other wild life. In fact some of them are reputed to be so

‘orthodox’ that they are very reluctant to kill the locusts which devour

their crops, but wish only to drive them away. One village, I was

informed, does not allow even eggs to be eaten by others in the

vicinity of their village. This belief in the sanctity of life has obvious

advantages when the preservation of wild life is in question.

VI. GENERAL ACCOUNT OF THE SURVEY

On 9th February 1962, a brief train stop at Baroda enabled me

to discuss my proposed tour with Conservator of Forests, Shri

S. R. Umbarje and the State Wild Life Officer, who came to meet me

and brought my tour programme. This tour was to be rather short

and circumscribed, I was informed, due to the fact that the. DFO of

Kutch and his jeep were required for the forthcoming Election. As

522 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

there was no time tc be lost, I continued my journey on the same

train and arrived at Surendranagar about midnight. There I was met

by Shri R. K. Rathod, DFO of Kutch, who had jeeped from Bhuj

across the Little Rann to meet me. He had crossed the Rann via

Kesmari Bet and other small bets, but had seen no wild asses. Shri

P. G. Joshipura, Range Officer of Dhrangadhra, was also there to

meet me.

At noon on 10th February we arrived at Dhrangadhra, which is

very close to the Little Rann where we were to camp for at least one

night. At 3 p.m. we jeeped the few remaining miles to the village of

Kuda on the shore of the Rann and looked at a freshwater pond

where a forest guard had seen 59 wild asses drinking on the previous

afternoon. A little further on we saw herds of 22, 11 and 3 wild

asses. They were very alert, usually keeping a sharp look-out for —

human approach. ;

I tried to observe carefully whether each herd had a leader or not,

and particular ‘look-out’ animals. I noticed that two animals were

slightly lame—probably due (I was told) to having stones thrown at

them when they raided crops at night. As we drew near to each herd,

it moved away from the undulating shore of the mainland, and made

off on the flat and barren Rann.

While we followed each herd as it galloped across the Rann, we

were able to catch up quite easily in the jeep by doing 40 m.p.h. and

then slowing down to 32 te 34 m.p.h. which is the maximum speed of

the asses. The driver was instructed to drive to the left of each herd,

so that I could observe and take photographs of the animals on my

right.

The asses were not panicky—in fact they seemed almost to enjoy —

the gallop which is their normal method of evading enemies. Every

now and then they would suddenly wheel to the right, away from

the jeep, or to the left just in front of the jeep; and we had ourselves

to stop and turn to the required direction if we wanted to follow

them again. After a mile or two their speed would drop to about

28 m.p.h.

Whenever, during the course of our investigation we came to a

sizeable village, I requested the DFO and RO to make inquiries about

wild asses, especially whether any had died, and whether any domestic

horses or donkeys had died from diseases. The information so

collected is summarized iater in the Report.

On 11th February we packed our belongings and set off on a

journey along the south and up the east border of the Rann to the

large bet of Zilanand (Jalander) and the nearby village of Jhinjhuwada.

JOURN. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc.

The Indian Wild Ass

Young ones, about six months old, can be seen on the extreme left and

right. Mirage effect in the distance, but no water,

Photos : ~E. P: Gee

THE INDIAN WILD ASS : A SURVEY 523

Near Sultanpur we saw a herd of 22 wild asses, with two solitary

ones wandering close by. I am not sure what is the reason for

certain asses going solitary. Presumably they were oldish males, in

either enforced or voluntary exile; but we noticed that they were

always close to their herd and sometimes even rejoined it.

I tried to photograph one of these solitary ones by remaining

hidden in a thorny thicket while the others of the party tried to drive

the animal towards me. Several attempts ended in dismal failure,

for the animal each time cleverly made off in another direction.

Inevitably I had a feeling that I was the ‘ass’ and that the wild

animal I was trying to capture on film was an alert and astute creature!

Only by returning to the jeep and following the herd on to the Rann

and photographing them at 32 to 34 m.p.h. at 1/1000 second shutter

speed was I able to regain some of my self-respect! I was told by

a smiling informant that on a certain occasion the local police had

been detailed to drive the asses away from the cultivations they were

raiding. The asses galloped out in front to the Rann with the police

following behind in jeeps. On the return journey, which took place

immediately, the order was reversed: the police were in front and

the asses behind!

At Degam village we met the sarpanch (president of the viilage

council) and the panchayat (council members), from whom we got

much information. It was particularly fortunate that I could meet

these men, as I was able to learn from them what the feelings of the local

people were regarding the wild asses. With the help of the DFO and

RO, who did the English-Gujarati Gujarati-English interpretation, |

explained to them the value of the wild asses as a rare species found

only in their part of India; how the animals could be a source of

pride to them, and that they could perhaps tolerate some damage to

their crops, in order that a valuable species might survive.

In other parts of the country, I explained, the lions of the Gir

Forest caused some destruction to cattle, and the rhino of Assam and

West Bengal raided rice fields—but the local people commendably

tolerated this. The reactions of the council members were very

gratifying : the sarpanch confirmed that the villagers only drove away

the wild asses from their crops at night, and never harmed the animals.

They were proud to be the only custodians of a rare species of India.

We drove past the extensive salt workings near Kharaghoda, and

then, further north near the southern tip of Zilanand Bet, saw 60 wild

asses in herds of 10, 7 and 43. In this area the mirage effects in

the shimmering heat were even more striking than previously : asses

seemed to be walking in water complete with their reflections, and the

$24. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

bets seemed real islands in a real sea—though every yard of the

Rann was dusty dry.

The next day, 12th February, we explored fresh terrain near

Zilanand Bet on the north and east sides, and encountered wild asses

in groups of 8, 7, 45 and 22. I found a carcase of a wild ass, about

two or three months old, which I photographed. We glimpsed a

frightened blackbuck—the only one on our tour. Earlier, on the

mainland, we had seen two or three nilgai.

In Jhinjhuwada village we met, among others, the Veterinary

Assistant and were able to get more authoritative information about

deaths from diseases of wild asses, domestic horses, and donkeys during

the past few years.

On the morning of 13th we met the Vet. again, and also the

members of the village council. We obtained more information and

as at Degam spoke about preservation of the wild asses——-with very

gratifying response. I feel certain that direct personal contact with

these village panchayats is a very effective way of putting across the

reasons and need for wild life preservation.

I longed for the opportunity to explore further, and to visit Pung

Bet, but our time was circumscribed by the forthcoming Election for

which the DFO had to return. So in the afternoon we jeeped back

to Dhrangadhra by the route along which we had come. In the evening

I made a special point of contacting the Veterinary Officer of

Dhrangadhra, who had 60 villages under his charge. He informed

me that from 15th November to 7th December 1961, no less than

392 domestic horses (and some donkeys) had been inoculated against

South African Horse Sickness, a dose giving six months’ immunity

and costing Re. 1 each at Government expense. The vaccine is

prepared in the brains of mice, one mouse providing 20 doses of 5 c.c,

each.

It was interesting to learn that it was proposed to inoculate all

domestic horses and donkeys by the end of September, 1962, for this

disease breaks out in epidemic form from the end of the monsoon,

chiefly in November.

During my survey I was able to contact the local military, includ-

ing the Commanding Officer, for firing practice is often done af

Kesmari Bet near Tikar. They stated that they had never seen any

wild asses in that area, nor had they shot at any. :

On 14th we paid a second visit to Kuda and its environs, and set

up a hide near a freshwater drinking place in order to get a close-up

view of the asses moving about freely and undisturbed.. A herd

could be seen about half a mile away, keeping a sharp look out in all

THE INDIAN WILD ASS ;: A SURVEY 25

directions. The animals were much too clever to approach the hide.

Once again a very strong conviction obsessed me that I, crouching

uncomfortably in the hide in the heat of the day, was the ‘ass’ and

once again my self-respect could only be restored by following the

herd in the jeep. The usual thing happened: the asses galloped away

to the safety of the Rann, and at 32 to 34 m.p.h. I took photographs

of them at 1/1000 second shutter speed. They numbered 48 this

time, but of these 36 may have been seen by us on the first day, so

I added only 12 to the score! 7

Thus ended my brief field observations of the wild asses in their

unique habitat.

VII. DISTRIBUTION, STATUS, AND FUTURE OF THE INDIAN WILD ASS

Distribution. Wild asses appear to have once had a fairly wide

distribution in the dry regions of North-West India and West

Pakistan. During the last century they existed as far north as

Jaisalmer and Bikaner of Rajasthan (India), and Sind and Baluchistan

(West Pakistan).

Talbot (1960) was mistaken when he wrote of the wild asses:

‘Most of them live in the Great Rann of Kutch, northward from

Bombay .. .. As far as I can ascertain, there are no wild asses

actually in the Great Rann. Only a few stragglers are reported to

pass along the eastern border of the Great Rann, presumably on their

way to and from West Pakistan where a few animals have been

reported.

I have been trying to check these reports of wild asses in Wesi

Pakistan, and have been in correspondence with Dr. A. R. Ranjha,

Director of the Zoological Survey Department of Pakistan. From

him has come information that a local shikari (sportsman) shot one

in 1959, and that the shikari has stated that wild asses are found in

the Nagarparkar and Chacro tehsils of Tharparkar District, which

adjoins the (Great) Rann of Kutch on the Pakistan side, and are

hunted by shikaris. The shikari also reports that between the Indian

and Pakistani outposts the wild asses come over to the Pakistan side

for grazing; that they move back to the open spaces of the Rann of

Kutch in the morning, and live and breed on the Indian side of the

border because they feel safe and free from molestation there; that

no data regarding their population is available.

From Baluchistan the information is that the wild ass is no longer

found at Tallab on the border of Kharan District, that it was

‘originally met with in Balgatar (Makran) but is no longer found in

$26 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

the contiguous areas of Buleda and Zamran . . . it was formerly met

with between Panjgur and Sohtgaon areas but is now rare’.

Status. In 1946 Salim Ali estimated the population of the Indian

Wild Ass in the Little Rann of Kutch as 3000 to 5000. Later in

1960 (in litteris) he considered that the estimate given by the Range

(Round ?) Officer of Jhinjhuwada of 2000 animals as ‘probably not

unreasonable’. Wynter-Blyth (1956) described the wild ass as ‘more

than abundant’ and ‘in his thousands’ and ‘undoubtedly very com-

mon’. When I mentioned these figures to the DFO and RO who

accompanied me on my expedition, they both expressed surprise and

gave much lower estimates.

After our tour along the southern and eastern borders of the Little

Rann, where the District Forest Officer, the Round Officer, and I

saw a total of 214 wild asses (Kuda 36, Sultanpur 24, South Zilanand

60, East and North Zilanand 82 and Kuda 12), the three of us sat

down and made an estimate. They did the actual estimating, locality

by locality. I was a ‘sobering influence’ on them, requesting them to

be careful and conservative. Their estimate, which I accept is as

follows: :

Khakhrechi F j 20

Venesar . 4 30

Tikar ; ; ; 100

Malaniad . : ‘ 60

Kuda : ‘ ; 60

Jesda ; : ; 20

Sultanpur ; A 50

Odu b : 70

Jhinjhuwada al

Zilanand Bet 10

Rupen River. , 100

Pung Bet and

Ken Mewmiand + 200

Total: . é ; 860

To this I have tentatively added 10 for the border of the east of the Great Rann

and West Pakistan, making a grand total of 870.

Grand Total. ; 870

In the Little Rann of Kutch the wild asses appear to be secure

from danger as far as molestation and killing by man are concerned.

Wolves are the only potential predator enemy, and eess Pbpeer to

have become very rare indeed.

‘Wild asses show a strong partiality to crops, raiding (in aes of

preference) gram, wheat, cotton, millet and jowar. They get driven

THE INDIAN WILD ASS : A SURVEY 527

away from the fields when they enter them at night, and an occasional

ass might become temporarily lame from stone throwing.

Although they have to compete with vast numbers of domestic

cattle, sheep and goats for the little grass that there is, the asses are

probably accustomed to such conditions and looked rotund and

healthy in condition. 7 |

Diseases. The chief danger, as I see it, to the wild asses is

undoubtedly their susceptibility to diseases contracted from domestic

stock. Sdlim Ali (1946) stated ‘No epidemics appear to be known

among the wild asses’; but in August, 1960, he informed me (in

litteris): ‘One disturbing bit of information the Ranger gave me is

that quite recently 25 to 50 (to his knowledge) asses had died of a

mysterious illness. The animals “turned round and round and fell

dead”’.’

While in Jhinjhuwada we checked and confirmed this occurrence

of 1960. In fact one forest guard stated categorically that in April

to May 1960, he saw 30 dead carcases of wild asses, and heard of

about 120 more; but no report had been made to higher authority.

From the symptoms described, the Veterinary Assistant at Jhinjhuwada

said this disease was almost certainly surra, and this was later con-

firmed by the Veterinary Officer of Dhrangadhra. The latter officer

also stated that in 1958 at Jhinjhuwada six domestic horses died of

surra and surra had been confirmed in two dead wild asses which had

been brought in to him for post-mortem examination. There are no

large scale inoculation arrangements for combating surra: apparently

each dose costs Rs. 3.50 and the owner has to bear the expense.

Now for South African Horse Sickness. This disease apparently

swept through the area under review in November and December,

1961. Personal inquiries at some of the villages we visited revealed

the following deaths:

Village Horses Donkeys Wild Asses

Kuda . : : — — 2

Nirali . : : 10-11 0 3

Degam . : 2 12 0 5-6

Odu : , : 15 — —

Jhinjhuwada . ; 10-15 1) 1

The Veterinary Officer at Dhrangadhra stated that as far as he

knew wild asses rarely get anthrax and they are not susceptible to foot

and mouth disease, hemorrhagic septicemia or rinderpest. Also that

he had records of 78 horses and 6 donkeys dying of South African

Horse Sickness in November and December 1961, but no knowledge

of wild asses dying of this disease as these wild animals did not come

528 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

within his purview. Now it appears that at least some wild asses

died at the time that South African Horse Sickness was prevalent

and that no note was taken of this by the authorities.

Future. A careful system of reporting outbreaks of diseases among

domestic horses and donkeys, and deaths of wild asses at the same

time, needs to be instituted. Prophylactic measures against such

outbreaks require the urgent attention of the authorities. It is

gratifying to learn that steps are intended to be taken to immunize

horses and donkeys against South African Horse Sickness.

A census of the wild asses should be conducted every year, or at

least every two years. As the country is all open and the animals

easily seen, this should not be difficult. The possibility of under-

taking an aerial census should not be overlooked, and the co-operation

of the Indian Air Force or of private flying clubs should be sought.

Wild asses, if captured young, seem to do well in captivity. Harper

(1945) records that the breeding of captive wild asses from India was

successfully carried out in Paris from 1842-1849; and that out of

nine foals produced during this period, six survived in 1849. I saw

a male ass in the Junagadh Zoo, and suggested that a female be

procured and attempts be made to get them to breed there. In the

Ahmedabad Zoo I saw a pair together in one enclosure, and an odd

one by itself in another. The latter could well do with a mate.

It would be a reasonable conservation measure, in my opinion,

to capture departmentally a few pairs of young wild asses and keep

them in good zoos with a view to studying their life history and

breeding them—in case anything serious should happen to the ones

in the wild state.

VIII. RECOMMENDATIONS

I make the following recommendations:

1. That the Indian Wild Ass be officially placed on the list of

fully protected animals by the Gujarat State Government, and that it

be constituted State property wherever found.

2. That permits for capture of young ones be issued only for

special reasons, for good zoos, and only by the Chief Conservator of

Forests, Gujarat.

3. That a physical count (census) be done as soon as possible,

and repeated annually, or at least at regular intervals of two years

or three years. : [

4. That the Veterinary Department be moved to inoculate all

domestic horses and donkeys in the area against South African

THE INDIAN WILD ASS :; A SURVEY 329

Horse Sickness each year by the end of September, and also against

ssurra if possible.

5. That all outbreaks of diseases or other occurrences among the

wild asses be observed and reported by the authorities concerned.

6. That a few pairs of young ones be humanely captured and

kept in good zoos, for study and for breeding.

7. That a complete ecological study of the Indian Wild Ass and

its environment be conducted by competent persons in the near future.

IX. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I owe my sincere thanks to Shri Hari Singh, Chief Conservator

of Forests, Gujarat State, for welcoming my offer to come and

investigate the Indian Wild Ass and for extending his Department’s

full co-operation to me. Particularly I am grateful to the DFO of

Kutch, Shri R. K. Rathod and his RO, Shri P. G. Joshipura, for

making all the detailed arrangements of the expedition, for

accompanying me, and for further demonstrating that Gujarati

hospitality has to be experienced to be believed.

I am grateful to the villagers who replied patiently to all our

cross-questioning, and especially to the presidents and members of

the village councils of Degam and Jhinjhuwada for their interest and

for their offers of continued help in preserving the wild asses. (I

suggest that copies of this Report be sent to all village councils of

the area in which the wild asses occur.)

1 thank the Veterinary Assistant of Jhinjhuwada, and the

Veterinary Officer of Dhrangadhra, Dr. V. K. Poundarik, for all the

information they gave me.

I also thank Dr. A. R. Ranjha, Director of the Zoological Survey

Department of Pakistan, for so promptly and fully replying to my

queries about the existence of the wild ass in that country.

Finally I must again express my indebtedness to the IUCN who

sponsored my investigation, and to the World Wildlife Fund for paying

my travelling expenses to and from the Little Rann of Kutch.

X. REFERENCES

Aut, SALIM (1946): The Wild Ass of

Kutch. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 46

(3) : 472-7.

ELLERMAN, J. R. & Morrison-Scotrt,

T. C. S. (1951) : Checklist of Palaearctic

and Indian Mammals 1758-1946 : 341-2.

London.

Harper, F. (1945): Extinct and

Vanishing Mammals of the Old World:

363-7. New York.

TALBOT, L. M. (1960): A Look at

Threatened Species: 99. Fauna Preser-

vation Society, London, for the Inter-

national Union for the Conservation

of Nature.

WYNTER-BLYTH, M. A. (1956): An

Account of the Wild Ass and a Brief

History of the Indian Lion. Indian

Forester : 644-8.

A Botanical Tour to Trikuta Hills

L. D. Kapoor, Y. K. SARIN, AND A. K. Dutt

Regional Research Laboratory, Jammu-Tawi

On the north-eastern horizon of Jammu-Tawi peeps a group of

three peaks, commonly known as ‘Irikuta Hills, under which lies the

cave of the sacred shrine of Shri Vaishnodevi. Situated at 5300 ft.

above sea-level, the shrine is held in high esteem by the Hindus, and

people from all over India come to the holy cave to worship.

Devotees have to ascend to 6150 ft. and then to descend about 750 ft.

on the other side of the hill, where a narrow 100 ft. long entrance

leads to the Deity. The pilgrimage attended by tens of thousands

of people every year continues from mid-October to December or

even January, till heavy snow-fall makes access difficult.

The authors, who were on a study tour to Trikuta Hills while making

their botanical collections, were asked many questions about the

utility of the plants growing all along the way to Shri Vaishnodevi.

This prompted them to write the present paper.

Situated at 34°N., 74°E., Trikuta Hills are included in the

‘Outer Hills’ division of geographical divisions of the Jammu and

Kashmir State. A large portion of this “Outer Hills’ lies at an altitude

between 2000 and 4000 ft., but the highest among the three peaks:

reaches a maximum height of 7000 ft. With such variations in

altitude, wide differences in temperature are inevitable and climatic

conditions differ widely. At the higher elevations on the mountain

slopes and ‘margs’ the climate is cold, and at the lower elevations on

the plains it is warmer. July-August receive the maximum rainfall,

the average annual rainfall ranging between 55 in. and 60 in.

Katra, the base of the hill, is 29 miles north-east of Jammu-Tawi.

It is connected by a first class tarred road with the main Jammu-

Srinagar road. From Katra, two routes lead to the hill, a bridle-

path (11 miles) and a foot path (7 miles) which is very steep. :

The botanical tour was undertaken along the bridle-path in the

month of November, 1960.

As the motor route leads from Jammu (900 ft.) to | Ramnagar on

the main Jammu-Srinagar road, the forest flora comes into view.

The Phulai-Khair (Acacia modesta Wall.-A. catechu Willd.) associa-

A BOTANICAL TOUR TO TRIKUTA HILLS 331

tion dominates and at some places is interrupted by the deciduous

Kachnar (Bauhinia variegata Linn.) trees. Among the other trees and

shrubs which go into the formation cf the forest flora are Harsinghar

(Nyctanthes arbor-tristis Linn.), Ber (Zizyphus mauritiana Lamk.),

and Lantana camara Linn. The white-flowered Vasaka (Adhatoda

vasica Nees) forms the forest undergrowth, and the ground cover is

composed of such herbaceous plants as Kanjuna (Commelina obliqua

Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don), and Gul-doda (Leucas cephalotes Spreng.).

Nearing Nagrota (1100 ft.) the frequency of Phulai-Khair associa-

tion is replaced by the Khair-Tali (Dalbergia sissoo Roxb.) association.

Much of the greenery of this area is contributed by many large shrubs,

which cover most of the otherwise naked area. Common among them

are Dhawi (Woodfordia fruticosa Kurz), Villebrunea frutescens Blume,

Carissa opaca Stapf, and Colebrookea oppositifolia Smith, while

Adhatoda vasica Nees and Lantana camara Linn. grow in abundance

on both sides of the road. ,

At Nagrota (1300 ft.) instead of much greenery there is scanty

vegetation. The lower slopes, or popularly called dragon peaks all

around are strewn with boulders and in between them grow Sanatta

(Dodonaea viscosa Linn.) and Carissa opaca Stapf. The former

species, which is the commonest and most conspicuous plant in the

area, becomes gregarious at places, often to the exclusion of other

species. Dodonaea and Carissa are abundant all around, while Bana

(Vitex negundo Linn.) with its blue-purple flowers is also observed

growing in small patches.

Further onwards, at Nandini (1800 ft.) the climatic conditions

change to that of moist locality, where stunted trees of Chir pine

(Pinus roxburghii Sar.) make their appearance.

Higher up about 2000 ft. above sea-level at Domel, the route

deviates from the main Jammu-Srinagar road, and zigzags further in

the east for about 8 miles, where Chir forms pure forest over extensive

areas and is tapped for resin. While Chir pines confine themselves

to the hill-tops and other similar habitats, Wendlandia exserta DC.

grows in abundance on the steep rocky slopes. The undergrowth

beneath the Chir is mainly of evergreen shrubs like Dodonaea viscosa

Linn., Colebrookea oppositifolia Smith, Carissa cpaca Stapf, and

Sakena (Indigofera pulchella Roxb.), and the forest floor is covered

with Lotus corniculatus Linn., Desmodium triflorum DC., and Oxalis

corniculata Linn.

Further onwards, nearing Katra, at an altitude between 2200 and

2700 ft., the vegetation again becomes scanty and is represented by

the fleshy cactus-like Dudal-petal (Euphorbia royleana Boiss.).

532. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

The town of Katra has no special features of vegetation, except

for much biotic interference which has resulted in extreme dry condi-

tions. The major components of the vegetation in this area are such

armed trees and shrubs as Zanthoxylum, Zizyphus, Euphorbia, and

Lantana species.

The path from Katra (2706 ft.) to the steady flowing stream

Banganga (2200 ft.) is a steep descent of about 500 ft. through barren

limestone rocks and, among the various sedges and grasses that line

the way, the commonest are Kai (Eriophorum comosum Nees) and

Chrysopogon aucheri (Boiss.) Stapf.

Climbing the hill begins at Banganga itself and requires about six

hours’ steady climb through an eleven-mile long winding path. Con-

siderable change in the main composition of the vegetation is observed

at different levels on the route. As the flora changes with the change

in altitude, new and beautiful flowers come into view. The vegetation

on the Banganga-Adhkanwari (2200-4300 ft.) sector shows remarkable

uniformity and consists mainly of shrubs and herbs. Trees are few

in this area and wherever present are represented by Simul [Salmalia

malabarica (DC.) Schott. & Endl.], Ber (Zizyphus mauritiana Lamk.),

and Mallotus philippinensis Muell.-Arg. while among the shrubby

elements cactus-like Euphorbia royleana Boiss. grows in abundance

on hilly slopes, and Timru (Zanthoxylum alatum Roxb.) along with

Berberis lycium Royle, Debregeasia hypoleuca Wedd., and Boehmeria

platyphylla D. Don, on the exposed rocky surfaces; the shrubby

element is composed of the yellow-flowered Crotalaria sericea Retz.

and the blue-flowered Hamiltonia suaveolens Roxb. The appearance

of dense green vegetation in the locality is due to a number of climbers

and twiners that interweave between the trees and shrubs, namely

Butterbail (Cissampelos pareira Linn.), Chambeli (Jasminum grandi-

florum Linn.), and a yellow-flowered Clematis Linn. | Pink-flowered

Micromeria biflora Benth. along with Dicliptera roxburghiana Nees,

and Galium rotundifolium Linn., inhabit the moist crevices of the

rocks, while the common lithophytes in the area are Polygala

abyssinica R. Br., Gidar-tamaku (Verbascum thapsus Linn.), species

of Conyza and Lactuca Linn., Pennisetum orientale L. C. Rich.,

Arundinella nepalensis Trin., and Arundinella pumila Steud.

As the predominantly shrubby and herbaceous vegetation of the

previous area is gradually passed, at an elevation of 4400 ft.

(Hathimatha-Chhangichhat sector) the Chir pines become more and

more dominant. Shrubs are few and are represented by the yeliow-

flowered Hypericum cernuum Roxb. and the pale purple-flowered

Lespedeza juncea Pers, on hill slopes, while the herbaceous elements

A BOTANICAL TOUR TO TRIKUTA HILLS 533

are represented by the cream-coloured Dipsacus inermis Wall., dark

blue Gentiana kurroo Royle, along with many members of the Com-

positae family, the commonest among which are the white-flowered

Anaphalis triplinervis Sims ex C. B. Clarke, purple-flowered Artemisia

roxburghiana Besser., and the pale yellow-flowered Phoss (Cnicus

wallichii DC.).

The path from Chhangichhat (the highest point at 6150 ft. above

sea-level) to Vaishnodevi is a steady descent on the other side of the hill

to 5300 ft. at Vaishnodevi. The open dry vegetation of the previous

zone is gradually replaced by the moist evergreen vegetation thickly

covering the soil. While the Conifer trees occupy the hill-tops, the lower

slopes have a rich representation of J//ex dipyrena Wall., Cedrela

serrata Royle, Litsaea umbrosa Nees, and many other trees of the

temperate climate. Sarcococca pruniformis Lindl., along with Senecio

rufinervis DC. and Lonicera quinquelocularis Hardw., form the

undercover and common climbers like Smilax aspera Linn, S.

parvifolia Wall., and Diosccrea deltoidea Wall. add to the density of

the flora. Hedera helix Linn. with its green berries is a common

sight on the trees. Multicoloured patches of low and prostrate herbs

like Triflora Linn., Wulfenia Jacq., Potentilla Linn., and Polygonum

Linn. along with abundant mosses and ferns cover the floor and the

white-flowered Pissumar (Boeninghausenia albiflora Reich.) imparts a

characteristic beauty to the locality.

PLANTS OF ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE

A careful perusal of the census list of the collected plants will

show that about 50% of the plants growing in this region are, or are

reputed to be, of economic importance.

The tubers of Dioscorea deltoidea contain 4.8% of Diosgenin

which forms the base material for the manufacture of cortisone and

other sex hormones. The tubers are in considerable demand by the

pharmaceutical industry.

The roots of Cissampelos pareira contain among other alkaloids

a working percentage of hyatin which possesses and almost equal degree

of curari-form activity to that of d-tubocurarine.

The roots, leaves, and flowers of Adhatoda vasica are used in

Indian medicine for treatment against cough, bronchitis, asthma, and

phthisis. An active principle vaccine isolated from this plant is of

therapeutic use. Similarly Pinus roxburghii is utilized for tapping

resin for the manufacture of rosin and turpentine and this is a well-

established industry of the State. In addition to the commercial

importance of the timber, the pine needles yield an essential oil

534. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

which can be used as a disinfectant. The exhausted needles after a

simple treatment can be used as fibre for making ropes, mats, etc.

The flowers of Jasminum -grandiflorum, Nyctanthes arbor-tristis,

Lantana camara yield essential oils for cosmetic or other purposes.

The essential. oils from Zanthoxylum alatum, Vitex negundo, and

Boeninghausenia albifiora have reputed insecticidal and insect-repellent

properties which can be usefully employed as an important ingredient

with other disinfectants or insecticides. Some plants, such as Acacia

sp., yield tanning material while others such as Rumex sp. and

Cassia sp. contain chrysophanic acid. The above plants have known

active principles with therapeutic activities. Many others in the list

which have not been worked out chemically may yield still more

interesting results if systematically analysed. Plants which are of

established or possible economic importance are marked with asterisks

in the census list.

SYSTEMATIC CENSUS

RANUNCULACEAE

* Clematis graveolens Lindl.

Banganga-Adhkanwari zone, 2700 ft.

A climbing shrub with pale-green flowers.

Thalictrum pedunculatum Edgew.

Banganga-Adhkanwari zone, 4300 ft.

A slender herb with greenish flowers.

MENISPERMACEAE

* Cissampelos pareira Linn.

Ver. Name: Butterbail

Banganga-Adhkanwari zone, 4300 ft.

A climbing shrub with fruits.

BERBERIDACEAE

Berberis lycium Royle

Ver. Name: Simblu.

Banganga-Adhkanwari zone, 4300 ft.

An armed shrub with fruits.

POLYGALACEAE

Polygala abyssinica R. Br.

Banganga-A dhkanwari zone, 4300 ft.

An erect herb on rocks with purple-marked pink flowers.

A BOTANICAL TOUR TO TRIKUTA HILLS 535

Polygala erioptera DC.

Ramnagar, 1000 ft.

An erect herb with yellow flowers.

CARYOPHYLLACEAE

Silene falconeriana Benth.

Bhairoghati-Vaishnodevi zone, 5900 ft.

An erect herb with purple-marked green flowers.

HyYPERICACEAE

Hypericum cernuum Roxb.

Hathimatha-Chhangichhat zone, 6150ft.. —

A shrub with bright yellow flowers.

MALVACEAE

* Salmalia malabarica (DC.) Schott. & Endl. Bombax malabaricum DC.

Banganga-Adhkanwari zone, 2750 ft.

A tall deciduous tree common in the area.

TILIACEAE

* Corchorus aestuans Linn. }

Ver. Name: Tifapat.

Ramnagar, 1100 ft.

A tall herb with orange flowers.

GERANIACEAE

* Oxalis corniculata Linn.

Ver. Name: Amilika.

Domel, 2000 ft.

A prostrate herb among grasses with yellow flowers.

RUTACEAE -

* Boeninghausenia albiflora Reich.

Ver. Name: Pissumar.

Bhairoghati-Vaishnodevi zone, 4300 ft.

A much-branched shrub with white flowers.

; * Zanthoxylum alatum Roxb.

Ver. Name: Timru.

Banganga-Adhkanwari zone, 4300 ft.

A shrub armed with prickles. a5 1

536 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

MELIACEAE

Cedrela serrata Royle

Ver. Name: Tuni.

Bhairoghati-Vaishnodevi zone, 5900 ft.

A medium-sized tree common in the area.

ILICINEAE

Ilex dipyrena Wall.

Ver. Name: Kanderu.

Bhairoghati-Vaishnodevi zone, 5300 ft.

An evergreen tree with scarlet fruit.

RHAMNACEAE

* Zizyphus mauritiana Lamk. Z. jujuba Lamk.

Ver. Name: Ber.

Ramnagar, 1000 ft.

An armed tree common in the area.

AMPELIDACEAE

* Leea robusta Roxb. L. aspera Wall.

Banganga-Adhkanwari zone, 4600 ft.

A straggling shrub with black fruits.

SAPINDACEAE

* Dodonaea viscosa Linn.

Ver. Name: Sanatta.

Nagrota, 1200 ft.

An evergreen shrub, abundant throughout the area.

LEGUMINOSAE

* Crotalaria sericea Retz.

Ver. Name: Jhunjhunia.

Banganga-Adhkanwari zone, 2700 ft.

An erect villous herb with yellow flowers;

* Trifolium pratense Linn.

Bhairoghati-Vaishnodevi zone, 5300 ft.

A procumbent herb with pink flowers in terminal corymbs.

* Lotus corniculatus Linn.

Domel, 2000 ft.

A prostrate herb with greenish yellow flowers.

* Indigofera pulchella Roxb.

Ver.Name: Sakena.

Domel, 2000 ft.

A deciduous shrub. Common in the area.

A BOTANICAL TOUR TO TRIKUTA HILLS

* Tephrosia purpurea Pers.

Ver. Name: Sarbank.

Banganga-Adhkanwari zone, 3900 ft.

An undershrub with fruits.

Lespedeza juncea Pers.

Hathimatha-Chhangichhat zone, 6150 ft.

An undershrub with pale purple flowers.

* Desmodium gangeticum DC.

Ver. Name: Kanthi

Ramnagar, 1100 ft.

A slender suberect shrub, with fruits.

* Dalbergia sissoo Roxb.

Ver. Name: Tali.

Nagrota, 1100 ft.

An erect tree, with pods.

* Cassia tora Linn.

Ver. Name: AHerwanh.

Ramnagar, 1100 ft.

A glabrous annual weed, with long slender pods,

* Cassia mimosoides Linn.

Ramnagar, 1100 ft.

A diffuse perennial herb, with orange flowers.

* Bauhinia vahlii W. & A.

Ver. Name: Bari Kachnar.

Ramnagar, 1100 ft.

A climbing tree.

* Bauhinia variegata Linn.

Ver. Name: Kachnar.

Ramnagar, 1100 ft.

A medium-sized deciduous tree.

* Acacia arabica (Lamk.) Willd.

Ver. Name: Kikar.

Ramnagar, 1100 ft.

A medium-sized tree with yellow flowers.

* Acacia catechu Willd.

Ver. Name: Khair.

Nandini, 1800 ft.

A medium-sized deciduous tree, with pods.

Acacia modesta Wall.

Ver. Name: Phulai.

Ramnagar, 1000 ft.

A medium-sized tree with pods.

Dad

538 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

ROSACEAE

Rubus ellipticus Smith

Banganga-Adhkanwari zone, 4200 ft.

A straggling armed shrub.

Rubus lasiocarpus Smith

Bhairoghati-Vaishnodevi zone, 5700 ft.

A straggling armed shrub.

*Potentilla supina Linn.

Bhairoghati-Vaishnodevi zone, 5300 ft.

A weak annual herb with yellow flowers.

COMBRETACEAE

*“Terminalia belerica Roxb.

Ver. Name: Bahera.

Nandini, 2000 ft.

A large deciduous tree with fruits.

LYTHRACEAE

* Woodfordia fruticosa (Linn.) Kurz. W. floribunda Salisb.

Ver. Name: Dhawi.

Ramnagar, 1100 ft.

A pubescent shrub, common on rocks.

ARALIACEAE

* Hedera helix Linn.

Ver. Name: Banda.

Bhairoghati-Vaishnodevi zone, 5900 ft.

A creeping shrub with fruits, common on trees and rocks.

CAPRIFOLIACEAE

Lonicera quinquelocularis Hardw.

Bhairoghati-Vaishnodevi zone, 5700 ft.

An erect shrub, with white translucent berries.

RUBIACEAE

Wendlandia exserta DC.

Domel, 2000 ft.

An evergreen tree, abundant on steep slopes.

* Hamiltonia suaveolens Roxb.

Ver. Name: Fisauni.

Bhairoghati-Vaishnodevi zone, 5400 ft.

A shrub with blue fiowers.

Galium rotundifolium Linn.

Banganga-Adhkanwari zone, 4300 ft.

A decumbent herb with fruits.

A BOTANICAL TOUR TO TRIKUTA HILLS

DIPSACACEAE

Dipsacus inermis Wall.

Hathimatha-Chhangichhat zone, 6150 ft.

An erect herb with pale yellow flowers.

COMPOSITAE

Conyza stricta Willd.

Banganga-Adhkanwari zone, 4100 ft.

A pubescent herb with yellowish heads.

Anaphalis triplinervis Sims ex C. B. Clarke

Hathimatha-Chhangichhat zone, 6000 ft.

An erect herb with white heads.

* Bidens pilosa Linn.

Domel, 1700 ft.

An erect herb with yellowish heads.

* Artemisia vulgaris Linn.

Ver. Name: Tithban.

Bhairoghati-Vaishnodevi zone, 5800 ft.

A tall aromatic herb with dirty white heads.

: Artemisia roxburghiana Besser.

Hathimatha-Chhangichhat zone, 6150 ft.

An erect aromatic herb with dull purple heads.

Senecio rufinervis DC.

Bhairoghati-Vaishnodevi zone, 5300 ft.

A shrub with yellow flowers in heads.

Cnicus wallichii Hook. f.

Ver. Name: Phoss.

Hathimatha-Chhangichhat zone, 6050 ft.

A spinescent erect herb with dull yellow heads.

Saussurea albescens Hook. f. & Th. ex C. B. Clarke

Bhairoghati-Vaishnodevi zone, 5700 ft.

An erect herb with red heads.

* Lactuca heyneana DC.

Banganga-Adhkanwari zone, 4500 ft.

A tall glabrous herb with yellow heads.

OLEACEAE

* Jasminum grandiflorum Linn.

Ver. Name: Chambeli.

Banganga-Adhkanwari zone, 3100 ft.

A large climbing shrub with fruits.

539

540 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

* Nyctanthes arbor-tristis Linn.

Ver. Name: AHarsinghar.

Ramnagar, 1000 ft. He

A shrub with cream-coloured flowers..

Ce NaCEE

Carissa opaca Stapf. C. spinarum ree

Nandini, 1900 ft.

An armed shrub with fruits.

* Nerium indicum Mill. N. odorum Soland.

Ver. Name: Kaner.

Nandini, 2000 ft. nate

An erect shrub or small tree with fruits.

ASCLEPIADACEAE

* Pergularia daemia (Forsk.) Chiov. Daemia extensa R.Br.

Ver. Name: Dodi.

Ramnagar, 1000 ft.

A twining herb. Common in the locality.

GENTIANACEAE

* Gentiana kurroo Royle

Ver. Name: Nilakant.

Hathimatha-Chhangichhat zone, 6000 ft.

A reclining herb with blue flowers.

BORAGINACEAE —

* Trichodesma indicum R. Br. Bea Re OS

Ver. Name: Chhota kulpha.

Nandini, 1900 ft.

An annual herb with blue flowers.

SOLANACEAE

Solanum pseudo-capsicum Linn. ~*~

Banganga-Adhkanwari zone, 4200 ft.

An erect much-branched shrub with flowers.

* Physalis minima Linn.

Ver. Name: Habbikaknaj.

Ramnagar, 1100 ft.

An erect pubescent herb with yellow aowers.

SCROPHULARIACEAE

* Verbascum thapsus Linn.

Ver. Name: Gidar-tamkau.

Banganga-Adhkanwari zone, 4200 ft.”

An erect herb with yellow flowers.

A BOTANICAL TOUR TO TRIKUTA HILLS.

Wulfenia amherstiana Benth.

Bhairoghati-Vaishnodevi zone, 5600 ft.

A glabrous herb with purplish blue flowers.

ACANTHACEAE

Strobilanthes dalhousianus C.B. Clarke

Hathimatha-Chhangichhat zone, 6150 ft.

An erect shrub with dark blue flowers.

* Barleria cristata Linn.

Ver. Name: Tadrelu.

Banganga-Adhkanwari zone, 4200 ft.

An erect undershrub, with pinkish flowers.

Lepidagathis cuspidata Nees

Banganga-Adhkanwari zone, 3500 ft.

A much-branched shrub. Common in the area.

* Adhatoda vasica Nees

Ver. Name: Vasaka.

Ramnagar, 1000 ft.

An evergreen shrub. Abundant in undergrowth.

* Dicliptera roxburghiana Nees

Ver. Name : Bouna.

Banganga-Adhkanwari zone, 3700 ft.

A diffuse herb with pink flowers.

VERBENACEAE

* Lantana camara Linn.

Ramnagar, 1000 ft.

A large evergreen shrub with orange flowers.

* Vitex negundo Linn.

Ver. Name: Bana.

Nagrota, 1300 ft.

A large shrub with blue purple flowers.

LABIATAE

Plectranthus coetsa Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don

Banganga-Adhkanwari zone, 4300 ft.

An aromatic shrub with lavender-blue flowers.

Plectranthus rugosus Wall.

Banganga-Adhkanwari zone, 4100 ft.

An erect shrub with white flowers.

* Colebrookea oppositifolia Smith

Ver. Name: Shakkardana.

Banganga-Adhkanwari zone, 3900 ft.

An erect tomentose shrub with fruits.

541

542 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

* Origanum vulgare Linn.

Ver. Name: Mirzanjosha.

Banganga-Adhkanwari zone, 4500 ft.

An erect herb with purple flowers.

Micromeria biflora Benth.

Nandini, 1700 ft.

An erect shrub with pink flowers.

* Stachys sylvatica Linn.

Bhairoghati-Vaishnodevi zone, 5000 ft.

An erect herb with pink flowers.

* Leucas cephalotes Spreng.

Ver. Name: Gul Doda.

Ramnagar, 1000 ft.

An erect herb with white flowers.

Teucrium quadrifarium Buch.-Ham.

Banganga-Adhkanwari zone, 4200 ft.

A stout herb with pink flowers.

Ny CTAGINACEAE

* Boerhavia diffusa Linn.

Ver. Name: Punarnava.

Ramnagar, 1100 ft.

A diffusely-branched shrub with reddish flowers.

AMARANTHACEAE

* Amaranthus spinosus Linn.

Ver. Name : Katailichuli.

Ramnagar, 1000 ft.

An erect, spinescent herb with spikes.

Pupalia lappacea Juss.

Ramnagar, 1000 ft.

A large straggling undershrub with fruit.

* Achyranthes aspera Linn.

Ver. Name: Kutri.

Ramnagar, 1000 ft.

A straggling undershrub, with dull green flowers.

* Achyranthes bidentata BI.

Ramnagar, 1000 ft.

A straggling undershrub, with flowers on Konpated spikes.

POLYGONACEAE

* Polygonum alatum Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don

Bhairoghati-Vaishnodevi zone, 5600 ft.

A procumbent herb with fruits in pink heads.

Rumex hastatus D. Don

Banganga-Adhkanwari zone, 4300 ft.

A much-branched herb with fruits.

A BOTANICAL TOUR TO TRIKUTA HILLS 543

LAURACEAE

Litsaea umbrosa Nees

Bhairoghati-Vaishnodevi zone, 5400 ft.

A small-sized tree.

EUPHORBIACEAE

* Euphorbia hypericifolia Linn.

Ver. Name: Hazardana.

Ramnagar, 1000 ft.

A decumbent annual with pale pink flowers.

* Euphorbia royleana Boiss.

Ver. Name: Dudal petal.

Katra, 2700 ft.

A fleshy cactus-like tree. Abundant on hill slopes.

Sarcococca pruniformis Lindl. S. saligna Muell.-Arg.

Ver. Name: Sanglu.

Bhairoghati-Vaishnodevi zone, 5300 ft.

An evergreen shrub with male and female flowers.

Mallotus philippinensis Muell.-Arg.

Ver. Name: Kamila.

Banganga-Adhkanwari zone, 3300 ft.

A small evergreen tree with pale green flowers.

URTICACEAE

*Ficus rumphii Blume

Ver. Name: Paker.

Nandini, 2000 ft.

A large tree with fruits.

Boehmeria platyphylla D. Don

Banganga-Adhkanwari zone, 4400 ft.

A large shrub with fruits.

Villebrunea frutescens Blume

Nagrota, 1100 ft.

A small tree.

Debregeasia hypoleuca Wedd.

Banganga-Adhkanwari zone, 4600 ft.

A softly pubescent shrub.

CONIFERAE

* Pinus roxburghii Sar. P. longifolia Roxb.

Ver. Name: Chir.

Nandini onwards.

A large tree with cones, abundant on hilly slopes.

DIOSCOREACEAE

* Dioscorea deltoidea Wall.

Ver. Name: Kins.

Bhairoghati-Vaishnodevi zone, 5500 ft.

A twining herb in fruit. Common, on shrubs in moist shady places.

544. JOURNAL, -BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

LILIACEAE

Smilax parviflora Wall.

Bhairoghati-Vaishnodevi zone, 5600 ft.

A climbing shrub with blue-black berries.

* Smilax aspera Linn.

Bhairoghati-Vaishnodevi zone, 5700 ft.

A climbing shrub with blue-black berries.

* Asparagus adscendens Roxb.

Ver. Name: Sansar-pawr.

Banganga-Adhkanwari zone, 4300 ft.

A straggling shrub with red berries.

*Gloriosa superba Linn.

Ver. Name: Kalihari.

Nagrota, 1400ft.

A straggling herb with yellow flowers changing gradually to scarlet.

COMMELINACEAE

*Commelina obliqua Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don

Ver. Name : Kanjuna.

Ramnagar, 1000 ft.

An erect herb, with blue flowers.

CYPERACEAE

Eriophorum comosum Nees

Ver. Name: Kai.

Banganga-Adhkanwari zone, 2200 ft.

A sedge in flowers. Common on dry rocks.

GRAMINEAE

Arundinella pumila Steud.

Banganga-Adhkanwari zone, 4300 ft.

An erect grass, with spikes.

*Arundinella nepalensis Trin.

Banganga-Adhkanwari zone, 4000 ft.

A slender, erect grass.

Pennisetum orientale Rich.

Banganga-Adhkanwari zone, 4100 ft.

A perennial grass.

Apluda mutica Linn.

Banganga-Adhkanwari zone, 4200 ft.

A leafy perennial grass.

Chrysopogon aucheri (Boiss.) Stapf.

Ramnagar, 1000 ft.

A tall grass. Frequent.

A BOTANICAL* TOUR TO TRIKUTA. HILLS 545

Themeda anathera (Nees ex Steud.) Hack.

Ver. Name : Babraka.

Banganga-Adhkanwari zone, 4200 ft.

An erect grass with fruits in spikes. . fe a eee

Oryzopsis aequiglumis Duthie = = =

Bhairoghati-Vaishnodevi zone, »5600 ft. : :

A tall perennial grass.

Arundinaria falcata Nees

Bhairoghati-Vaishnodevi zone,

A tall grass.

5600 ft.

Common in forest undergrowth. .

- FILICINEAE

POLYPODIACEAE

* Adiantum caudatum Linn.

Ver. Name : Adhsarita-Ka-Jari.

Nandini, 2000 ft. |

A common fern of moist shady places.

Onychium japonicum Kurz

Bhairoghati-Vaishnodevi zone, 5700 ft.

A common fern, on moist shady places. _

Pteris cretica Linn. ares a : e 7 LI, tris |

Bhairoghati-Vaishnodevi zone, 5700 ft. ~

A fern, frequent on moist Se places.

Polystichum aculeatum Sw.

Bhairoghati-Vaishnodevi zone, 5700 ft. |

A fern; abundant on moist shady places.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT |

The authors wish to express grateful thanks to Dr.'I. C. Chonies

Deputy Director, Regional Research Laboratory, for his keen interest

and encouragement in this project, and for providing various facilities.

REFERENCES

~ BLATTER, E. & McCann, C. (1935):

The Bombay grasses. Imperial Council

of Agriculture, Delhi.

BEDDOME, R. H.’ (1883) : Handbook

of the ferns. of British India, Ceylon and

Malay Peninsula: ~

CHOPRA,

CHOPRA, 1.e (1956): Glossary of Indian

Medicinal Plants.

. ges in common Indian plants.

‘ Cote H. (1921): Flora Simlensis..

Hooker, J. D. (1875-1897) : The Flora

of British India. Vol. I-VII. London.

PARKER, R. N. (1924) : A forest flora

for the Punjab with Hazara and. Delhi.

2nd. ed.

RaIzaDA, M.B. (1958) : Name chan-

Indian

Forester 84 (8) : 467-538,

The Birds of the Maldive Islands,

Indian Ocean

W. W. A. PHILLIPS

(With two maps and three plates)

INTRODUCTION

Until a few years ago almost the only information available in

connection with the ornithology of the Maldivian Archipelago was

contained in the rather brief notes of Gadow & Gardiner (1903) where

24 species of birds were listed, some of them rather doubtfully, as

occurring in the Maldives. Then, during the three months of December

1956 to February 1957, the author visited the capital, Male, situated

in North Malé Atoll and lying slightly to the north of the centre of the

archipelago; as a result, an additional 39 species were added to the

list of Maldivian birds (Phillips & Sims, 1958b). Furthermore,

specimens of three endemic races, two of them new to science, were

collected.

Subsequently, many of the atolls were visited by the Xarifa

Expedition of the International Institute for Submarine Research,

under the direction of Dr. Hans Haas. During this expedition, Drs.

Georg Scheer and L. Franzisket devoted some of their time to

collecting and observing the bird life of the atolls. Then, from May

1958 until April 1959, the author resided in Gan Island, Addu Atoll,

in the extreme south. During his second stay in the Maldives, all the

chief islands and reefs of Addu Atoll were visited frequently, and

several brief excursions were made to Suadiva Atoll as well as a short

return visit to Malé. And lastly, while this paper was being written

and revised, additional notes were received from J. J. Latham

(W/O., R.A.F.) who served in Addu Atoll in 1960 and 1961.

The results of the observations made on my last visit, together

with those of Dr. Scheer and Mr. Latham, form the basis of this paper.

Furthermore, in order to give as complete a picture as possible of

the bird life of the atolls, breeding and migrations are briefly described

THE BIRDS OF THE MALDIVE ISLANDS, INDIAN OCEAN _ 547

‘in addition to incorporating all available information into the

Systematic List.

The 1956/57 visit increased the number of species, recorded from

the Maldives, from 24 to 63; the present paper now advances the

number of forms to 113 of which 73 are supported by collected

specimens and the remaining 40 by sight records only. Forms

peculiar to the Maldives are increased to 5 endemic races, including

one of Ardeola grayii described by Dr. George Scheer (1960).

GEOGRAPHY AND ECOLOGY

The Maldivian Archipelago, consisting of upwards of 2500 small

coral islands, islets, and exposed reefs, of which less than 250 are

permanently inhabited, lies in the Indian Ocean over 400 miles. to

the west and south-west of Ceylon. It is located between 8° N. and

1° S. and between 72° to 74° E. In length, the archipelago stretches

for over 470 miles, from the Eight Degrees Channel, south of the

Laccadives and Minicoy (or Minikai) Island (at one period of its

political history forming a part of the Maldives) to Addu Atoll, some

30 miles south of the Equator and 300 miles north of the Chagos

Islands.

With the exception of a small number of isolated islets, the islands

and their encircling reefs form 19 natural groups, clusters or ‘atolls’,

of varying sizes and shapes, which in their turn form an incomplete,

double chain, nowhere wider than 70 miles, running practically north

and south. It would seem probable that the atolls have gradually

been built up around and along the crests of a submerged, interrupted

mountain range or ranges for, while within the central lagoons

enclosed by the more or less circular peripheral reefs the depth of the

water averages no more than 25 fathoms, it may reach 2000 fathoms

in the seas close outside the islands.

In all the nineteen atolls the formation is very similar—an

interrupted, peripheral reef, on the higher sections of which long, low,

flat islands have been formed, encloses a wide shallow lagoon generally

dotted with a varying number of small islets and coral sand-banks

together with numerous flat-topped, tidal reefs. As a rule, tides of

between three and four feet are normal throughout the archipelago,

the reefs, dangerous in the extreme, being mostly exposed or awash

during low water. Between the atolls, deep (frequently dangerous)

channels of varying width and depth, in which ten-knot currents race

when the monsoon winds are blowing, divide and isolate one atoll

from the next.

548. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

~ Climatic conditions are closely similar throughout the atolls but the

northerly islands are more subject to the impacts of the North-east

Monsoon from November to January, and of the South-west Monsoon

from April to July, and are, in consequence, perceptibly coolér at

times. In the ‘southern atolls of Suadiva and Addu, which lie close to

the ‘Equator and within the doldrums, the impact of the monsoons 18

very slight and the climate is more humid. : |

Rainfall averages, annually, between 90 and 100 inches; ‘it is ofteti

associated, especially in the southern atolls, with sudden, severe

tropical storms. Generally, however, the fall is well distributed; long

droughts are rare but deluges of several inches are not infrequent.

Humidity. is high, especially in the southern atolls, close to’ the

Equator. Day-temperatures vary between 80° and 95° in the shade,

which in conjunction with the high humidity makes the climate very

trying for the average European.

None of the islands rises_more than five feet above mean. sea-level

and many of them have marshy interiors and freshwater. ponds; the

water-table is rarely more than four or five feet below ground- -level.

Originally, the islands were composed entirely of coral sand but, in

course of time through the rotting of vegetable matter and the forma:

tion of humus, they have become well clothed with RSC LETO Meee

tion, both high and low.

Geologically, the archipelago’ is of comparatively recent formation:

so recent, in fact, that distinct forms of animal or plant life are only

just beginning to emerge. The terrestrial mammalian and reptilian

fauna is very limited and is confined to a few species (Phillips, 1958;

Hill, 1958) common to the Indian peninsula and/or Ceylon, except

for one fruit-bat, Preropus hypomelanus maris Allen, which was

described from Addu Atoll but which I was unable to trace in that

Atoll. Of the other mammals, only the Common Flying- fox has

diverged sufficiently to be accepted as a distinct endemic form,

Pteropus giganteus ariel Allen. None of the reptiles is distinct but,

amongst the birds, five local races are considered worthy of recognition.

It would appear. that the archipelago has been colonized by animal

and plant life almost entirely from the Indian mainland and Ceylon,

either by ‘island hopping’ down through the Laccadives or by direct

drift aided by the north-easterly monsoon winds as well as, in some

cases such as the small rodents and shrews, by the unintentional

assistance of man and his ships. But the fact that the Double Coconut

or Coco de Met, Lodoicea seychellarum, has occasionally been washed

ashore on the western littoral, having drifted from the Seychelles over

MAP OF SOUTHERN INDIA ANO CEYLON

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THE BIRDS OF THE MALDIVE ISLANDS, INDIAN OCEAN — 549

1700 miles to the south-west, shows that there are possibilities of some

colonization from the west or African zone.

As a direct result of the abundant and well-distributed rainfall, all

the islands with the exception of those of very recent emergence have

a luxuriant but specifically rather limited vegetation in those areas

that have remained untouched by the hand of man. In the interiors

of many of the larger islands, shallow brackish or freshwater pools

and marshy areas occur, verged with extensive reed-beds, rank grass

tracts, and matted pandanus brakes, the home of Amaurornis

phoenicurus (the Swamp-Hen or Whitebreasted Waterhen), herons, and

other marsh-loving birds, and the haunt of numerous migrant water-

fowl and waders during the northern winter months. The natural

vegetation clothing the remainder of the land, right down to the

beaches, consists of large trees with dense, often matted, undergrowth

through which it is difficult to force a passage. Most of the larger

islands have however been cleared and planted with coconut palms,

-without which life for the Maldivians would be barely supportable.

Villages and townships have been built on some of the islands, the

surroundings of the houses being planted with many, large-leafed

breadfruit trees, Artocarpus incisus, partly to give ever-welcome shade -

to the dwellings but chiefly to provide additional vegetable food. A

few mango trees, Mangifera indica, areca-nut palms, A. catechu,

drumstick trees, Moringa sp., tamarind, Tamarindus indicus, and

edible pandanus are generally dotted about within the gardens or

compounds, with several varieties of bananas, a few pomegranates,

and large or small areas of yams as garden produce. In the open

meeting places bo trees Ficus religiosa and banyans F. bengalensis are

frequent. The Maldivian House Crow, Corvus splendens maledivicus,

and an occasional Koel, Eudynamys s. scolopacea, are normally the

only birds to be seen, except on the beaches when the tide is low.

Since under Muslim teaching only web-footed wild-birds may be

used for food, Boobies, Frigate-birds, Shearwaters, Ducks, and Terns

are taken as and when opportunities offer; frequently they are

brought to the markets, alive but wing-clipped, for sale as food.

Most of them are taken while they are nesting or roosting, for the

Maldivians are adept at snaring. Other species are also taken and

kept alive, with one wing clipped, as pets or playthings for the

children who are without dolls or toys such as are enjoyed by those

of more advanced lands. So, in the more densely populated atolls,

the bird life often suffers considerably from the depredations of man,

even if other enemies are few. .

550 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

BREEDING SEASONS

On landing in the Maldive Islands, the ornithologist is immediately

impressed by the total absence of small passerine birds. No singing

or cheerful chirping greets him, either in the jungles or around the

dwellings—only the occasional harsh ‘caw’ of the House-crow, the

sole resident passerine in the whole of the archipelago, welcomes him.

Of the 113 species and subspecies of birds that are now accepted

as occurring in the Maldives, under 20 species are known to be truly

resident in the atolls. Several more, such as the Brown Booby, Sula

leucogaster, Crab-plover, Dromas ardeola, Pratincole, Glareola

pratincola, and some of the numerous terns are suspected of breeding

true status can be determined. Furthermore, observations on the

breeding of the resident species are still too inadequate for definite

conclusions to be formed regarding their breeding seasons but it would

appear most probable that most species breed, with varying intensity,

throughout the greater part of the year—as might be expected in a

climate where there is so little variation in the seasons, length of

daylight, temperature and rainfall.

A brief summary of our present knowledge of the breeding of

each of the resident species is as follows:

Audubon’s Shearwater, Procellaria lherminieri bailloni, lays its eggs

in burrows dug in the coral sand on a number of secluded islands,

scattered along the eastern aspect of the archipelago, from Suadiva

Atoll in the south (the bird does not breed in Addu) to Fadiffolu Atoll

in the north. Gardiner recorded ‘great numbers’ breeding on Difuri

and Olivelifuri islands, in Fadiffolu Atoll and the collecting of both

eggs and chicks at the end of December. I recorded fresh eggs and

chicks at the end of January (1957) and the local Maldivians, who use

both the eggs and the birds as food, state that breeding continues

throughout the year. This requires confirmation. Owing to the

depredations of the fisherfolk, this shearwater appears to be rapidly

decreasing in numbers in the Maldivian area.

The beautiful Long-tailed Tropic-bird, Phaéthon 1. lepturus, a

moderately plentiful species that frequents the lagoons and sparsely

populated islands in all atolls, nests in cavities in old evergreen trees,

such as Hernandia ovigera and Cordia subcordata. Gardiner records”

both eggs and young on 24 November and young, still unable to fly,

were brought to Malé in January. In Suadiva Atoll, breeding was

suspected in late March but not proved and in Addu in early July.

In both cases, the local Maldivians stated that breeding was in

THE BIRDS OF THE MALDIVE ISLANDS, INDIAN OCEAN _ 551

progress. During the heat of the day in hot, sunny weather, these

birds very frequently seek shade and rest in large shady trees; often

several will circle round and round, calling continually for half an

hour or more before making a successful landing, their feet not being

developed for perching in trees.

The Lesser Frigate Bird, Fregata ariel iredalei, was discovered by

Gardiner nesting in the tops of tall trees, Calophyllum inophyllum and

Terminalia catappa, 11 Mahlosmadulu Atoll during October and

November. Although I received rumours of breeding in other atolls,

this appears to be. the only authentic record available. The Eastern

race of the Common Heron, Ardea cinerea rectirostris, a common

bird throughout the archipelago, nests in the tops of coconut palms,

in wild pandanus trees in swampy areas, and in small trees and large

bushes overhanging lagoon shores. Gardiner records young during

July and August; in Malé, two semi-fledged young were brought to

me in early December and nests and young were seen in January. In

Addu Atoll, I saw occupied nests early in June and the same nests

were reoccupied early in December while young were in the nests

during January and February. Indications are, therefore, that this

heron breeds at least twice during the year, generally from June to

August and from December to February. Possibly breeding may be

intermittent throughout the year.

The Little Heron, Butorides striatus, commonly nests in bushy trees

growing close to lagoons or in swamps, as well as in the tops of

pandanus trees. I have observed nesting in North Malé Atoll

(B. s. didii) during December and January and in Addu Atoll

(B. s. albidulus) I found eggs and small young in mid-October and

again towards the end of January but birds in full breeding plumage,

with reddish pink legs, were noted in almost every month. It would

seem probable, therefore, that although the majority breed during the

period October to February, some breed at other times of the year.

The Maldivian Pond-heron, Ardéola grayii phillipsi, is even more

plentiful in Addu Atoll than the Little Heron, B. s. albidulus, but

nests are difficult to find. Individuals in full breeding plumage, with

reddish pink legs, have been noted throughout the year; a large chick,

taken from a nest, .was examined on the 18 October; a pair was

Observed building a nest in the top of a wild pandanus on the 24

January when almost all of these birds appeared to be in breeding

dress and on the 14 February a female containing 3 oviduct eggs,

almost due to be laid, was collected. It seems from this evidence that

this bird also breeds chiefly during the period September or October

552 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

to March or April as well as, less intensively, at other times of the

year. ,

The Swamp-Hen or Whitebreasted Waterhen, Amaurornis

phoenicurus, although plentiful in all the atolls is so elusive and its

nests are so well concealed that it is difficult to study its breeding.

Nests are concealed amongst rank vegetation and in low bushes.

Gardiner recorded a young bird (maldivus) taken from a nest in July;

in Addu Atoil birds (pheenicurus) were very noisy and apparently

commencing to breed in June and a 2 grown juvenile was seen on

the 21 July and three well-grown chicks on the 25 August. Again, in

October a 4 grown chick was observed on the 10th and a hatchling

on the 18th. From these observations it would seem that this bird

breeds from about June to November or, possibly, throughout the

year. |

Although at least 10 species of terns are stated by the Maldivians

to breed in the archipelago, we have authentic records of the breeding

of only four. The Blacknaped Tern, Sterna sumatrana mathewsi, was

said by the local Maldivians to nest in North Malé Atoll in April and

May but it was not until early June that I located several breeding

colonies on sandy islets in Addu Atoll. Breeding appears to be

confined to the months of May, June, and July. |

The Common Noddy, Azxoiis stolidus pileatus, is exceedingly

numerous, at times, in many of the atolls but although its presence

within the lagoons (as well as in the seas outside) is well known to the

Maldivians, they know nothing of its breeding. However, on the

28 April, I discovered a single nest, containing a newly hatched chick,

on a large metal marker-buoy anchored in Addu Atoll lagoon. This

appears to be the sole definite record of the breeding of this noddy

in the Maldives. Gardiner states that Forster Cooper took an adult

female and a nestling of the Lesser Noddy, A. tenuirostris, from a

nest in a pandanus (Screw-pine) on Mabaru Island, South

Mahlosmadulu Atoll, on 26 November 1899; he states further the

Lesser Noddy is ‘nowhere common, but found throughout the whole

of the Maldives’ but he fails to mention the presence of the Common

Noddy. A search in both North Malé and in Addu Atoll failed to

yield a single Lesser Noddy but showed that the Common Noddy is

plentiful. It seems possible, if not probable, therefore, that this nest-

ing record should, in fact, refer to the Common. Noddy. In any case,

it is interesting that one of the records should refer to a Noddy

nesting in November and the other to one nesting in April, indicating

that either the two species (if two species do, in fact, occur in the

Maldives) breed at different times during the year or, alternatively,

THE BIRDS OF THE MALDIVE ISLANDS, INDIAN OCEAN _ 553

that the Common. Noddy (if both the-records refer to that species)

breeds either in othe spring or in the autumn or pas both these

periods.

The charming White Tern, Gygis alba monte, eeedls very freely

in Addu Atoll, to which atoll it is confined. Probably owing to the

presence of large numbers of House-crows, Corvus splendens

maledivicus, it has not been able to establish itself in other atolls.

Presumably, also, it is of comparatively recent arrival in Addu Atoll

as it is not mentioned by Gardiner; he could hardly have overlooked

it, had it been present at the time of his visit. In Addu Atoll, it is

always present in the trees around the villages, flying overhead or

sweeping over the central lagoon and near-by seas. In habits, it is

essentially a ‘tree-tern’. Moreover, though it is often active throughout

the greater part of the day, it prefers the early mornings and late

evenings for its foraging and is often on the move on moonlight nights.

Generally, when incubating its single egg on a horizontal branch, high

stump, or other lodgement in a tree or palm, it is most confiding in its

behaviour towards man but it will collect in large numbers to mob to

exhaustion or precipitous flight any crow, buzzard, or other potentially

dangerous bird that appears in the vicinity. It is probable that pairs

mate for considerable periods. Frequently a pair indulges in dual

display flights over the lagoon and the land. Although only a single

egg is laid at each laying, observations point to each pair raising, or

attempting to raise, several young during each year. Breeding

continues throughout the year but my notes show that the peak periods

are during January and early peony and again towards the | end

of May and in June.

The single resident Cuckoo, the Koel, Eudynamys s. scolopacea, iS

dependent upon the Maldivian House-crow, Corvus. splendens

maledivicus as host, so its breeding must coincide with that of the

crow. An oviduct egg was taken in Malé on 11 December and a

juvenile, scarcely able to flutter, was captured on another island in

North Malé Atoll on 23 January when the crows were nesting. - The

koels of Addu Atoll are most puzzling as, although both sexes are

present and courtship flights were observed, there are no crows .or

other suitable foster-parents present in the atoll; presumably, there-

fore, the koels of Addu Atoll are either of non-breeding stock or they

return over 30 miles of ocean to Suadiva Atoll in order to breed.

_ Although Gadow & Gardiner state that the Maldivian House-crow

breeds- between May~and--September, I saw no signs of breeding in

the southern atolls either at the end of May, when all crows appeared

to be in moult, or in July. On the other hand, I saw nest-building in

554. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

North Malé Atoll early in December and again in January when all

crows were in full plumage. It would seem probable, therefore, in

spite of Gadow & Gardiner’s statement, that the breeding period extends

from about November to March or April if it does not continue,

intermittently, throughout the greater part of the year.

TABLE SHOWING OBSERVED AND PRESUMED BREEDING OF MALDIVIAN

RESIDENT BIRDS

(Unconfirmed breeding is denoted by ‘P’ and confirmed by ‘ B’)

te toy | te

o om)

re) 8 pr

| FSTEVETB IE IE Els

Ol >| mie | ele | Bla Bol 2 lee

S/2l(eI Bl S/S | 8 /eiBisliale

Sos oe | ma PO 2 | O° Sie eas

Procellaria

lherminieri bailloni P?| P| P| PPP IB BBB. Pee Pa oe

Phaéthon |

lepturus lepturus P B iB BB B' P| Pp

Fregata

ariel iredalei BB BB

| |

Ardea . |

cinerea rectirostris E BB BB B B BB BBB

Butorides |

striatus didii | B BB B

striatus albidulus B BB PP P'B BB B

Ardeola | |

grayii phillipsi | P BBP PP PB BB B

Amaurornis |

phoenicurus P BB BB BP PB B P

Sterna |

sumatrana mathewsi’ |B BB B | | P|IpB

Anoiis |

stolidus pileatus | BIBB

tenuirostris ? | P BB P

Gygis | |

alba monte BBB 'B|B|B |B {|B [BBB ts BIBB

Eudynamys | |

scolopacea scolopacea | | B BBB |

Corvus

splendens maledivicus |? | ? | 2? | Z4 P |B a B| B ?

' \ {

THE BIRDS OF THE MALDIVE ISLANDS, INDIAN OCEAN — 555

MIGRATION

Some slight knowledge of the migratory movements in the Maldives

was gained during my first visit to Malé, in North Malé Atoll, from

the end of November 1956 to the beginning of February 1957. This

knowledge was added to, considerably, during my subsequent residence

in Addu Atoll during 1958 and early 1959 and has been further

extended by the notes collected by Mr. J. J. Latham during his service

on Gan (Addu) in 1961 and 1962.

- The observations made in Addu Atoll confirm that considerable

numbers of non-breeding visitors, of eastern European and. western

Asian origin, arrive from the north during October to December (a

few may come in August and September) and return northwards

during the following March to May: it has also been established that

unexpectedly large numbers of non-breeding waders loiter in the

southern Maldives throughout the northern summer months. Further-

more, evidence has been collected that tends to show that some

migrants travel beyond Addu Atoll to the Chagos Archipelago, over

300 miles to the south, and return later.

Since it was stressed in 1958 (Phillips & Sims) that so very little

information had been recorded from the Chagos Islands, Loustau-

Lalanne has published his paper (1962) on the birds of that archipelago.

In this paper, he lists, as ‘migrants recorded November/December

1960’, the following: Anas sp. seen in flocks on Diego Garcia;

Charadrius squatarola, several of which were seen in December:

Numenius phaeopus, often seen feeding under the coconuts in

December; Numenius arquata, one shot on the beach in December;

Arenaria interpres, seen in flocks on the beach on several islands;

Crocethia alba, two of which were seen on the outer beach of Diego

Garcia; Dromas ardeola, which is probably an itinerant resident in

both the Chagos and the Maldivian archipelagos and several hirundines

which, he states, were probably Delichon urbica. He states, further,

that reports received locally show that the hirundines arrive in the

Chagos Islands in November and leave again in March.

It is significant that all the migrant species mentioned were recorded

in Gan (Addu) between October and March or April, in 1958/59 and

again in 1961/62, indicating that they are regular annual winter

visitors. On several occasions it seemed most probable that the birds

seen had arrived in Gan (Addu) from the southward, instead of from

the north; there are therefore strong indications, supported by

Loustau-Lalanne’s paper, that small numbers of migrants pass through

the Maldives into the Chagos Archipelago where they spend the whole

556 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

or part of the winter before returning by the same route. Only ring-

ing or ‘banding’ can confirm or disprove this theory.

The following notes briefly outline the movements of some of the

more notable species that visit the Maldivian atolls but do not qualify

as residents. |

PROCELLARIDAE. The three regular visiting species of this family:

Wilson’s Petrel, Oceanites oceanicus, the Wedgetailed Shearwater,

Procellaria pacifica, and the Pinkfooted Shearwater, P. carneipes, all

appear to conform to the accepted movement pattern of southern-

hemisphere-breeding ‘species that visit the northern waters of the

Indian Ocean during the southern winter. All three species are .

reported to arrive in the waters off the Maldives towards the end of

March and in April and to leave during the following October and

early November. The single Bulwer’s Petrel, Bulweria bulwerii, taken

in Addu Atoil on the 22 August, was the first of its species to be

reported in the Indian Ocean.

ARDEIDAE. A Purple Heron, Ardea purpurea, appeared in Addu

Atoll on 13 October (1958) but, being a juvenile, the race to which

it is referable cannot be determined; another was observed, in Gan

(Addu), by J. J. Latham on 14 July (1961). These may have come

from the north. moving from atoll to atoll down the length of the

Laccadives and the Maldives, but it is possible that they might have

crossed over from the Chagos Islands. The early dates of arrival

would seem to point to the latter. The Eastern Large Egret, Egretta

alba modesta, did not arrive in Addu Atoll until 20 December, indicat-

ing that it had gradually worked its way southwards through the atolls;

it is well known to the Maldivians as an annual visitor.

A party of Black Bitterns, Dupetor f. flavicollis, was observed

flying south-west across Gan Island, Addu Atoll, on 4 June; no other

was seen in this atoll, so this party may have gone farther south.

Farther north, it is an annual visitor, in small numbers, during the

northern winter. Both the Chestnut Bittern, Jxobrychus cinnamomeus,

and the Little Yellow Bittern, /. sinensis, appear to be vagrants.

ANATIDAE. Wild ducks commenced to arrive in Addu Atoll with

a flight of Garganey, Anas querquedula, on 3 October. Flights of

up to 25 were frequent until the middle of January. In early

November, small parties of Shovellers, Spatula clypeata, and a few

Pintail, Anas acuta, were seen. These three species seem to be

regular visitors from the north but the White-eyed Pochard or

THE BIRDS OF THE MALDIVE ISLANDS, INDIAN OCEAN _ 557

Ferruginous Duck, Aythya nyroca, and the Cotton Teal, Nettapus

c. coromandelianus, that appeared in Gan, Addu Atoll, early in

December were probably vagrants. The Garganey is well known to

the Maldivians of Addu Atoll but I heard nothing of it farther north;

it is likely that the flocks of ‘“4nas sp.’, recorded in the Chagos Islands,

were of this species.

FALCONIDAE. All members of this group are either migrants or

vagrants; none is resident. The Honey-buzzard, Pernis apivorus

orientalis, arrived in Addu Atoll on 4 December, the Buzzard, Buteo

sp.. on 14 January, and the Osprey, Pandion halicetus, in July; all

were probably stragglers from the north, working their way south-

ward. The Harriers, which are regular visitors to the whole of the

Maldives during the northern winter months, commenced to arrive in

Addu Atoll about the middle of November; they remained, feeding

chiefly upon Calotes lizards, C. versicolor, and large grasshoppers,

until the middle of the following March. These Harriers, Circus

macrourus and C. pygargus, are wel! known to the Maldivians who

dislike them as they take an occasional chicken. The Common

Kestrel, Falco t. tinnunculus, is also a regular migrant to the northern

atolls but it is uncommon in Addu Atoll where its place is taken by

the Lesser Kestrel, F. n. naumanni,- and the Eastern Redlegged

Falcon, F. vespertinus amurensis. The former arrived in a small party

on 12 November and the latter on 5 December. Neither of these two

species has been recorded from any other atoll—like the Harriers, they

probably came from the north. A single Peregrine, F. peregrinus,

arrived in Addu Atoll in the middle of October (14th); it appeared to

depart in a southerly direction and, as it was not seen in Addu again,

may have passed on to the Chagos Islands.

CHARADRIIDAE. With the exception of the Caspian Plovers,

Charadrius asiaticus, which were probably stragglers to Addu Atoll,

all the representatives of this family appear to be regular annual

visitors, in small or large numbers, during the northern winter period.

The Lesser Sand Plovers, C. mongolus atrifrons, were the first to

arrive in Addu Atoll; they were closely followed by the Grey Plover,

C. squatarolus, both species commencing to fly in during the latter

half of August. The Large Sand Plover, C. leschenaultii, came in

September and the Asiatic Golden Plover, C. dominicus fulvus, in

flocks, in early October. But it was not until the second week in

November that large influxes of plovers took place. Then, in addition

to the foregoing, the Ringed Plover, C. hiaticula tundrae, arrived on

the 17th, Jerdon’s Little Ringed Plover, C. dubius jerdoni, on the 10th

558 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

(with the two Caspian Plovers) and the Kentish Plovers, C.

alexandrinus, on the 18th. From the middle of November to April

there were always considerable numbers of plovers, of various species,

to be seen in Addu Atoll where they spent the winter. A small flock

of non-breeding Grey Plovers and at least two Large Sand Plovers

remained the whole year on and around Gan Island.

The Turnstone, Arenaria i. interpres, the most abundant of all the

waders that visit the Maldives, appeared in Addu Atoll at the end of

May when a flock of 25 arrived; probably they were non-breeding

loiterers but towards the end of June another flock of c. 65 appeared.

Did they come from the north or did they come in from the Chagos

Islands, to the south? That considerable numbers of non-breeding

birds loiter in the Maldives throughout the northern summer period

is certain but it is curious that large flocks should arrive in Addu Atoll

in May and June.

SCOLOPACIDAE. Three species of snipe visit Addu Atoll although

only one species, the Pintail Snipe, Capella stenura, was seen in North —

Malé Atoll. Swinhoe’s Snipe, C. megala, of which a single specimen

was collected on 8 November, is almost certainly a rare straggler but

the Pintail Snipe and the Fantail or Common Snipe, C. g. gallinago,

are both regular annual visitors to Addu. C. stenura arrived on.

4 October, after which date there were always small numbers in tha

marshy areas until the following spring. C. gallinago, however, did

not arrive until 15 December, after which date a few wisps were

generally present. Although C. gallinago did not arrive until so long

after the arrival of C. stenura, it was the former species only that

Gardiner found so plentiful in Addu Atoll, in April 1900, that he

thought the species must breed there.

While the Eastern Curlew, Numenius arqguata orientalis, which did

not arrive in Addu Atoll until 6 November, is a scarce visitor, the

Whimbrel, N. D. phaeopus, is one of the most abundant of all the

birds that visit the Maldives. Not only do large numbers spend the

northern winter in the archipelago but many non-breeding birds

remain in Addu throughout the summer as well. Some of these

loiterers appear to pair and behave as though they were about to

breed but none actually did. The numbers in the atoll have been

observed to fluctuate from time to time so some may pass to the

Chagos Islands and return or, alternatively, they may fly northwards

and return. Birds intending to breed have generally left Addu by

late March or early April.

A single, non-breeding Bartailed Godwit, Limosa lapponica, also

THE BIRDS OF THE MALDIVE ISLANDS, INDIAN OCEAN _ 559

spent a year in Addu Atoll; presumably, it was a straggler from the

north. |

In 1958, the Wood Sandpiper, Tringa glareola, and the Common

Sandpiper, 7. hypoleucos, arrived in Addu Atoll on 12 and 10

August, respectively. These arrival dates coincide with the early

arrival dates of these two species in the south of Ceylon (Phillips,

1957) and are probably normal. Both are regular visitors but whereas

T. hypoleucos comes in considerable numbers 7. glareola is distinctly

scarce. The Eastern Redshank, 7. totanus eurhinus, and the Green-

shank, 7. nebularia, both regular visitors, did not appear until

November, the Greenshank arriving in small parties early in the month

and the Redshank later. Terek Sandpiper, Xenus cinerea, came in

about the same time (21 November); this curious little wader may be an

annual visitor, in small numbers, as it is in Ceylon.

The majority of waders of the genus Calidris also commenced to

arrive about the middle of November; the Little Stint, C. minuta, a

regular visitor in smal! numbers, arrived on 11 November, the

Longtoed Stint, C. subminuta, on the 17th and the Dunlin, C. a.

alpina, on 25th. The occurrence of small parties of C. subminuta in

Addu Atoll was as interesting as unexpected; hitherto the species had

not been recorded from so far westwards. ‘They remained until late

February. The arrival of C. a. alpina was also unexpected as,

although the species occurs in northern India, it has not yet been

recorded from Ceylon. A single Temminck’s Stint, C. temminckii,

was seen in Addu on 5 October; another, possibly a non-breeding

loiterer, was there on 26 May.

The Curlew Sandpiper, C. testacea, is puzzling. On 23 May a party

of 8 appeared on Gan, Addu Atoll, and next day there were two parties

of 5 and 7 respectively; all but one were in non-breeding plumage.

On 25 June, a flock of between 45 and 50 appeared while on 16

October a large company, estimated at over 100, passed over flying

westwards. Obviously, many non-breeding birds loiter in the

southern Maldives during the northern summer months but from

where did the parties suddenly appear in May and June? It seems

reasonable to suspect that some of them may have come up from the

Chagos Islands.

A single Sanderling, Crocethia alba, appeared on the southern

beach of Gan, Addu Atoll, on 15 November and a juvenile Ruff,

Philomachus pugnax, on 5 October; both unusual visitors. from the

north.

- LariDAE. At present there is insufficient information available to

permit of the classification, as residents or visitors, of many of the

560 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

Maldivian terns. It is evident, however, that the single Whitewinged

Black Tern, Chlidonias leucoptera, collected in Addu Atoll on

8 November, was a northern visitor and so were the two Tibetan

Terns, Sterna hirundo tibetana, taken on 11 January and 22 February,

respectively. A single Mesopotamian Ternlet, Sterna albifrons

praetermissa, caught on 15 November, was also a northern visitor but.

the race S. a. saundersi, which is so plentiful in the Maldives, and

several of the other species of terns are presumably residents. It is

curious that the Brownheaded Gull, Larus brunnicephalus, which is

so plentiful in India and Ceylon during the northern winter, does noi

visit the Maldives.

CUCULIDAE. Cuckoos are notorious wanderers so it is interesting

to record that in 1959 two species arrived in Addu Atoll within a

week of one another; the Common Cuckoo, Cuculus canorus, on

4 January and the Plaintive Cuckoo, Cacomantis merulinus passerinus,

on 13 January. Another Common Cuckoo was seen during the first

week of January 1961. Both these species are known as habitual

wanderers.

APODIDAE. The occurrence of three species of swifts is of more

than passing interest. An Edible-nest Swiftlet, Collocalia brevirostris,

was seen in Malé, North Malé Atoll, on 19 December 1956 and another

in 1957, while still others were observed in Gan in 1961/62 yet there are

no normal roosting places available in the Maldives; so, contrary to

their usual habits, these swifts must have roosted either in trees or in

low buildings. It seems odd that they should have wandered into

the Maldives. A common Swift, Apus apus, was observed flying

southward over Gan, Addu Atoll, on the morning of 1 November; it

disappeared in the general direction of the Chagos Archipelago. It

appeared to be on passage and was not feeding, as it passed over.

MEROPIDAE. On 10 January, a party of one adult and two first-

year Common Bee-eaters, Merops aniaster, appeared on Gan, Addu

Atoll; they remained unti] 31 March, living chiefly on large dragonflies.

Their presence in Addu Atoll was most unexpected; presumably they

came from the north.

HiIRUNDINIDAE. The Eastern Swallow, Hirundo rustica gutturalis,

is well known as a winter visitor to the Maldives; a party of 3 appeared

in Addu Atoll on the evening of 14 October and another party of

about 20. accompanied by several Sand Martins, Riparia riparia, on

the evening of 3 November (1958). This second party remained in

THE BIRDS OF THE MALDIVE ISLANDS, INDIAN OCEAN _ 561

the atoll for some weeks and then disappeared. Did it (and the

October birds) return northwards or did it pass on southwards to the

Chagos Islands?

TURDIDAE. The most interesting of all the migrants and wanderers

that appeared in Addu Atoll were the Wheatears. On the afternoon

of 16 November (1958), a single Pied Wheatear, Oenanthe leucomeld

leucomela, was observed on the southern beach of Gan Island (Addu

Atoll), almost the extreme southerly point of the Maldives; on the

23rd afternoon, although there were no Wheatears present in the

morning, a party of orice Pied Wheatear and two Isabelline O.

isabellina isabellina was on the southern beach at 16 hours; they were

just above the tide line and gave one the impression that they had

just arrived from overseas. Later, on 14 December, another Pied

Wheatear appeared close to where the others had been seen. All

these birds gave one the impression that they had just arrived from

the south but they could have come from other islands in Addu Atoll or °

from Suadiva Atoll to the north. As far as can be ascertained, they

are the only wheatears ever to have been observed in the Maldive

Islands.

MOTACILLIDAE. It has already been recorded (Phillips & Sims,

1958) that a Yellow Wagtail, Motacilla flava, was observed on a ship

passing between Addu Atoll and the Chagos Islands on the 10 April

1957, so it was hoped that more of these wagtails would be observed

passing through Addu Atoll in 1958/59. In fact, only a single Grey

Wagtail, M. cinerea, was observed on 17 December and no Yellow

Wagtails appeared that year but, in 1961, small numbers were observed

in Gan (Addu) by J. J. Latham between 28 October and 18 November.

All these birds disappeared almost at once, so it seems likely that

they may have passed on farther south. Another Redthroated Pipit,

Anthus cervinus, was collected in Gan (Addu) on the 8 December and

several pipits were observed by J. J. Latham in 1961 on 22 September,

12 October, and 7 and 18 December, indicating that small numbers,

of Pipits not only visit the Maldives annualiy, but that some .of them

pass southwards at any rate as far south as the extreme southernmost

tip of the archipelago. Whether any of them (and the wagtails) pass

on farther south to the Chagos Islands must await further investigation

in the Chagos Islands. There is every indication that some do so.

562 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

TABLE SHOWING THE APPROXIMATE DATES OF CASUAL VISITORS TO

ADDU AND NorTH MALE ATOLLS

‘A’ denotes Addu Atoll; ‘M’ denotes North Malé Atoll;

‘S’ denotes ‘at Sea, close to the Maldives’

June

July

August

September

October

November +

December

January

February

March

April

May

Bulweria

bulwerii A

Ardea

purpurea Ree | Ania A A

Ixobrychus

sinensis | A

cinnamomeus ; A A

Botaurus |

stellaris A

Plegadis

falcinellus A A

Aythya

nyroca A

Nettapus

c. coromandelianus A

Pernis

apivorus orientalis

Pandion

haliaetus A |

Falco |

peregrinus

amurensis

n. naumanni

Charadrius

asiaticus A

Capella

megala | A

Xenus

cinerea A A

Himantopus

himantopus A

Chlidonias

leucoptera A A

Philomachus

pugnax A A

THE BIRDS OF THE MALDIVE ISLANDS, INDIAN OCEAN — 563

Sterna

albifrons praetermissa

Cuculus

canorus

Cacomantis

merulinus passerinus

Collocalia

brevirostris

Apus

affinis

apus

Merops

apiaster

Oenanthe

isabellina

leucomela leucomela

Tchitrea

paradisi

Motacilla

cinerea

flava

Anthus

t. trivialis

cervinus

Riparia

riparia

Lanius

cristatus

Sturnus

vulgaris

June

July

August

ae)

(2)

rag

|e | =

Coli) eas

Bye) Moy i 7)

eZ a

Neale

el Ok

Wea

A AAM

a its:

Se LES Specs [ars

SS eal enle

Slr ee eet

A |

A AIA AIA A

ANNOTATED SYSTEMATIC LIST OF THE BiRDS OF THE MALDIVES

(including all records from and from the vicinity of the Archipelago)

The following abbreviations are used in this list: M.=Maldivian ; (P. & S.)=

Phillips & Sims ; (P.) =Phillips ; (G. & G.)=Gadow & Gardiner ; (G.S. & L. F.)=

Georg Scheer & L. Franzisket ; (J. J. L.)=J. J. Latham.

564. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

PROCELLARIIDAE

Oceanites oceanicus (Kuhl) : Wilson’s Petrel. (M.=Kurangee)

Sight record only. One identified at sea (28 November 1956) less

than 100 miles to the east of Malé Atoll. Well known to the

Maldivians who state that large numbers frequent the sea around the

atolls from April to October. Normally does not enter the lagoons.

Procellaria lherminieri bailloni Bonaparte : Audubon’s Shearwater.

(M. = Hoogula)

Collected in North Malé Atoll (P. & S.) and in Fadiffolu Atoll °

(G. S. & L. F.). Observed in small numbers in the Equatorial Channel

between Addu and Suadiva Atolls. Breeds December and January

and possibly throughout the year.

Procellaria pacifica Gmelin : Wedgetailed Shearwater. (M.=Bodu-

Hoogula) :

Sight record only. Small numbers observed in the Equatorial

Channel, between Addu and Suadiva Atolls, in March (25th), May, and

June 1958. Reported by the Maldivians to frequent the seas adjacent

to the atolls during the period April to October but, normally, does

not enter the lagoons.

Procellaria carneipes (Gould) : Pinkfooted Shearwater. (M.=Ma-

Hoogula)

Sight record only. Several observed in the Equatorial Channel, in

March (26th) and July (6th) i958. Large shearwaters of this type are

reported by the Maldivians to frequent the seas adjacent to Addu

Atoll but, normally, they do not enter the lagoons. It is probable

that some of the birds seen were Whitefronted Shearwaters (P.

leucomelaena Temminck) which also occur in this area of the Indian

Ocean.

Bulweria bulwerii (Jardine & Selby) : Bulwer’s Petrel. (M.=Kurangee?)

A single female was caught, in an exhausted condition, in Addu

Atoll on the evening of 22 August 1958; the first record for the

Indian Ocean. The species is not known to the Maldivians.

PHAETHONTIDAE

Phaéthon lepturus lepturus Daudin: Longtailed Tropic-Bird. (M.=

Dandfulu-Doonie)

Collected in North Malé (P. & S.); in Addu (P.) and in Suadiva and

Fadiffolu Atolls (G. S. & L. F.). Plentiful and resident throughout the

THE BIRDS OF THE MALDIVE ISLANDS, INDIAN OCEAN _ 565

Archipelago. Breeds from November to January and probably later

in the year.

SULIDAE

Sula leucogaster rogersi Mathews : Brown Booby. (M.=Ma-Doonie)

One female collected in Addu Atoll (P.) and a captive, from

Fadiffolu Atoll, examined and measured in Malé (P. & S.). Reported

by Maldivians to occur in numbers in Suadiva Atoll and observed in

North Malé Atoll (P.). Specimens from the Maldives and from the

Laccadives, in the British Museum, are very close to specimens from

the Solomon Islands and Borneo. They have larger and heavier bills

than those from Aden and the Red Sea which have been referred to

the nominate race leucogaster (Boddaert).

Sula dactylatra Lesson : Masked Booby or Gannet. (M.=Ma-Doonie)

Sight record only. Two observed, end of November 1958, in North

Malé Atoll (P. & S.); one observed and photographed on 28 November

1962, at Gan (Addu) (J. J. L.). Reported by Maldivians to occur,

frequently, in Suadiva Atoll. Status uncertain.

FREGATIDAE

Fregata minor (Gmelin) : Larger Frigate Bird. (M.= Hora or Ma-Hora)

Sight record only. Smail numbers observed over ‘Malé, North

Malé Atoll, during December 1956 and January 1957 (P. & S.).

Several observed over Addu Atoll during 1958 (P.) and during May

and June 1961 (J. J. L.). Appears to be a frequent visitor to the

atolls but status uncertain.

Fregata ariel iredalei Mathews : Lesser Frigate Bird. (M.=Hora or

Ma-Hora)

2 females collected from Mahlosmadulu (P. & S.) and 2 from

Suadiva Atoll (P.). In Addu Atoll, 36 were observed hanging in the

sky over a reef on the morning of 8 June 1958 (P.). Plentiful around

most atolls and probably resident in some; but breeding observed only

in Mahlosmadulu, during October and November (G. & G.).

ARDEIDAE

Ardea cinerea rectirostris Gould : Grey Heron. (M.=Markana)

Collected in North Malé (P. & S.), Addu (P.), Gaha Faro, Ari, and

Addu (G. S. & L. F.). - Plentiful and resident in all atolls. Breeding

566 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

observed during June, July, August, November, December, January,

and February.

Ardea purpurea Linnaeus: Purple Heron. (M.=Markana)

Male, in sub-adult plumage, collected in Addu Atoll on 3 November,

1958 (P.). Others observed on 14 July, 23rd and 31 October, 5

November, 19 November (2), 29 December, and 18 January (J. J. L.).

Status uncertain, probably a frequent visitor. Specimen is probably

of the race manil2nsis Meyen but sub-adults are difficult to determine,

with certainty.

Butorides striatus didii Phillips & Sims: Central Maldivian Little Heron.

(M. = Rabonde)

Coliected in North Malé Atoll; plentiful, breeds during December

and January (P. & S.). A well-marked, pale race with the crest,

crown-patch, and eye-stripe greatly reduced. Meets the darker form,

albidulus to the south and a considerably darker form, more akin to

javanicus (Horsfield), to the north. Probably javanicus has invaded

the Laccadives from India and has spread into the northern atolls

of the Maldives where interbreeding with didii has occurred. More

collecting in the intervening atolls is necessary before the exact range

of each race can be worked out.

Butorides striatus albidulus Bangs: Southern Maldivian Little Heron.

(M. = Rabulli)

Collected in Addu and observed in Suadiva Atoll (P.). Plentiful

in southern atolls but northern limits of range not ascertained.

Breeding observed during January, February, September, October, and

November. This race is considerably darker than didii; the crest,

crown-patch, and eye-stripe are well defined but not as dark as in

javanicus. Comparisons with albolimbatus Reichenow, from Diego

Garcia in the Chagos Islands have not been made owing to lack of

specimens.

Egretta garzetta (Linnaeus): Little Egret. (M.=Jrruwar-Hudu)

Sight record only. Two in captivity in Addu Atoll and one

observed in South Mahlosmadulu Atoll (G. & G.). One observed in

Addu Atoll (G. S. & L. F.). Status uncertain; probably an occasional

winter visitor.

Egretta alba modesta (J. E. Sees Eastern Large Egret. (MS ade

Markana)

A male collected on 20. Denke 1958, on Gan Addu), -and

JOURN. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc,

page 566

Common Bittern (Botaurus stellaris), Gan, Addu Atoll, page 567

Photos: A. J. H. Cobon

PLATE I

Journ. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE II

Whimbrel (Numenius phaeopus), Gan, Addu Atoll, page 573

Ardea cinerea rectirostris), Gan, Addu Atoll, page 565

Grey Heron (

Photos: A. J. H.Cobon

THE BIRDS OF THE MALDIVE ISLANDS, INDIAN OCEAN _ 567

- another observed on 31 January 1959 (P.). Maldivians state, it is a

frequent winter visitor.

Bubulcus ibis coromandus (Boddaert): Eastern Cattle Egret. (M.=

TIrruwar-Hudu)

2 males collected in North Malé Atoll in December 1956 (P. & S.):

4 observed in Addu Atoll on 5 February 1961 were believed to have

been bred, locally, in September 1960 (J. J. L.). Stated by Maldivians

to be a frequent visitor.

Ardeola grayii grayii (Sykes): Indian Pond Heron. (M. = Hudu-Rabonde)

One collected in Fadifollu Atoll (G, S. & L. F.). Status unknown,

probably a straggler.

Ardeola grayii phillipsi Scheer: Maldivian Pond Heron. (M.=Hudu-

Rabulli)

Collected in Addu Atoll, where abundant, and observed in

Suadiva Atoll (P., G. S., & L. F.). Appears to be confined, as a resident,

to Addu and Suadiva atolls.

Ixobrychus sinensis (Gmelin): Little Yellow Bittern. (M.=Rabulli

or Rabonde)

Sight record only. One flushed from dense reeds on Medu Island,

Addu Atoll, on 8 November 1958 and another a few weeks later (P.).

Status unknown.

Ixobrychus cinnamomeus (Gmelin): Chestnut Bittern. (M.= Ratu

Rabonde)

Male collected in North Malé Atoll in December 1956 (P. & S.).

One observed in Addu Atoll on 5 March. 2 on 30 August, and one

on 31 October 1961 (J. J. L.). Status uncertain; reported by Maldivians

to be an occasional visitor.

Dupetor flavicollis flavicollis (Latham): Black Bittern. (M.=Karlu

Rabonde)

2 males collected and others observed in North Malé Atoll during

December 1956 and January 1957 (P. & S.). 3 together in Addu on

4 June 1958 (P.) and one 10 March 1961 (J. J. L.). Status un-

certain, probably occasional visitor.

Botaurus stellaris (Linnaeus) : Common Bittern. (M.= ? ? )

One caught and photographed on Gan (Addu) on 25 October,

another on 15 November, and a third on 27 December 1961 (J. J. L.).

Status uncertain, probably a rare vagrant.

568 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

PLATALEIDAE

Plegadis falcinellus (Linnaeus) : Glossy Ibis. (M.= ? ? )

Sight record only. One observed on Gan (Addu) on 10 January

1959 (P.); another on 23 October 1961 (J. J. L.). Status uncertain,

probably a rare vagrant.

ANATIDAE

Anas crecca Linnaeus : Common Teal. (M.=Ratu Rairu)

Sight record only. Observed in South Mahlosmadulu and

Miladumadulu Atolls (G. & G.). Siatus uncertain; probably an

occasional winter visitor to the northern atolls.

Anas querquedula Linnaeus : Garganey. (M.= Rairu)

A captive female examined and small flocks up to 25 frequently

observed in Addu Atoll from 3 October to 17 January 1959 (P.).

Reported by Maldivians to be a regular visitor to Addu Atoll during

the northern winter period.

Anas acuta (Linnaeus): Pintail. (M.=Rairu)

Sight record only. Several observed in Addu Atoll during October

and December 1958 (P.). Status unknown.

Spatula clypeata Linnaeus : Shoveller. (M.=Rairu)

observed in Addu Atoll, from 5 November 1958 to 17 January 1959

(P.). Probably a regular winter visitor, in small numbers.

Aythya fuligula (Linnaeus) : Tufted Duck. (M.=Rairu)

2 females examined, in captivity, in North Malé Atoll, during

November 1956 (P. & S.). Reported by Maldivians to be a fairly fre-

quent winter visitor to Malé Island reefs.

Aythya nyroca nyroca (Gildenstadt) : Ferruginous Duck. (M.=Rairu)

A single female collected on Gan, Addu Atoll, on 5 November,

1958 (P.). Status unknown; probably a vagrant.

Nettapus coromandelianus coromandelianus (Gmelin): Cotton Teal.

(M. = Rairu)

A single female collected on Gan, Addu Atoll, on 8 December

1958 (P.). Status unknown; probably a vagrant.

THE BIRDS OF THE MALDIVE ISLANDS, INDIAN OCEAN _ 569

FALCONIDAE

Buteo sp.: Buzzard. (M=Bazzu)

Sight record only. On 14 January 1959, a Buzzard was observed

flying over Gan, Addu Atoll; it was being mobbed by 30 or more

White Terns (Gygis alba monte) and was too far away for identifi-

cation of the species (P.). Another was observed in Suadiva Atoll

(G. S. & L. F.). Status unknown.

Pernis apivorus orientalis Taczanowski: Siberian Honey Buzzard.

(M. = Bazzu)

A single male collected in Gan, Addu Atoll, on 4 December

1959 (P.). This specimen agrees well with a male in the British

“Museum from ‘the hills south of Samarkand’. Status unknown;

probably a vagrant.

Circus aeruginosus (Linnaeus): Marsh Harrier. |[M.=Bazzu (male) ;

Ahunda (female) |

Sight record only. Adult male observed in North Malé Atoll on

26 December 1956 (P. & S.); several on Gan (Addu) during 1961

(J. J. L.). Reported by Maldivians to be an occasional visitor.

Circus macrourus (S. G. Gmelin): Pallid or Pale Harrier. (M.=Bazzu)

A first winter female collected on Gan, Addu Atoll, on 11 January,

1959 (P.). One collected on Fadiffolu Atoll (G. S. & L. F.). Status—

see under next species.

Circus pygargus (Linnaeus) : Montague’s Harrier. (M.=Bazzu)

Male and female, both in first winter plumage, collected on

Gan, Addu Atoll, on 6 December 1958 and 13 January 1959, res-

pectively. Small numbers of harriers (C. macrourus and C. pygargus)

all in female or immature plumage, recorded on Gan from 12

November 1958 to 14 March 1959 (P.) and again in 1961 (J. J. L.).

Gardiner recorded both this and the last species as very common ‘from

October to February in the northern parts of the Maldives’.

Both species are regular winter visitors; the majority are in first

winter plumage.

Pandion halieztus (Linnaeus): Osprey. (M.=Bazzu)

Sight record only. One observed fishing off the southern coast of

Gan (Addu), in July 1960 (J. J. L.). Probably a vagrant.

570 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

Falco peregrinus Tunstall: Peregrine Falcon. (M=Bazzu)

Sight record only. A large, dark falcon, which appeared to be an

immature female, observed on Gan (Addu) on 14 October 1958 (P.);

others observed on 12th and 18 December 1961 (J. J. L.). Appears to

be an infrequent visitor.

Falco vespertinus amurensis Radde: Eastern Redlegged Falcon.

(M. = Sirumuthi)

Male and female collected on Gan (Addu) on 5th and 14 December

1958, respectively (P.); others seen on 26 November and 12th to 14

December 1961 (J. J. L.). Feeds upon large grasshoppers and locusts,

chiefly upon Catantops pinguis innotabilis (P.). Appears to be a

winter visitor, in small numbers.

Falco naumanni naumanni Fleischer : Lesser Kestrel. (M.=Sirumuthi)

First year male and a female collected on Gan (Addu) on 12th and

15 December 1958; several others observed from 12 November to

21 December (P.); others observed from 8 October to 26 November

1961 (J. J. L.). Feeds chiefly upon large grasshoppers (C. p. innotabilis)

and small Calotes lizards (P.). Probably an annual winter visitor.

Falco tinnunculus tinnunculus Linnaeus : European Kestrel.

(M. = Sirumuthi)

Female collected in North Malé Atoll in February 1957 (P. & S.);

others collected in Ari Atoll, Radu Atoll, and Gaha Faro (G. S. & L. F.).

Observed on Gan (Addu) from 22 October to 18 December 1961]

(J. J. L.). An annual winter visitor in moderate numbers.

RALLIDAE

Amaurornis phoenicurus phoenicurus (Pennant): Ceylon Swamp-Hen or

Whitebreasted Waterhen. (M.=Cumbilli)

Collected in Addu Atoll (P.); in Ari, Rasdu; Gaha Faro,

Miladumadulu and Fadiffolu Atolls (G. S. & L. F.). Resident in all

atolls, both to the north as well as to the south of Malé Atoll. Breeds

in Addu, May to September and frequently later (P.). This race

appears to inhabit the whole of the Maldives with the exception of the

Male Atolis where the next race is resident. -Specimens from Addu

show a marked tendency towards enlargement of the white areas and

frequently have odd white feathers, but most of them are so similar

to typical phoenicurus from Ceylon that I am unable to separate

them.

THE BIRDS OF THE MALDIVE ISLANDS, INDIAN OCEAN _ 571

’ Amaurornis phoenicurus maldiyus Phillips & Sims: Maldivian Swamp-

Hen or Whitebreasted Waterhen. (M.=Cumbilli)

Collected in North Malé Atoll, in 1957, where it is resident (P. &

S.). Breeds from May or June to August and September. This race

appears to be confined to North and South Malé Atolls and to their

vicinity.

Gallicrex cinerea (Gmelin) : Watercock. (M.=Coolie-Kukulu)

A single female was collected in North Malé Atoll (P. & S.); one

seen in Addu Atoll (G. S$. & L. F.). Reported by Maldivians to be

resident in the more northerly atolls.

CHARADRIIDAE

Chettusia gregaria (Pallas): Sociable Plover. (M.= ? ?)

The Sociable Plover was reported to visit the Maldives (P. & S.) but

it is now considered probable that the informant confused it with the

Pratincole, Glareola pratincola (see below). It should, therefore, be

deleted from the list of Maldivian Birds, pending confirmation.

Charadrius hiaticula tundrae (Lowe): Arctic Ringed Plover. (M.=

Findon)

A. single male collected in North Male Atoll in December 1956

(P. & S.). 2 ‘females collected in Gan (Addu) and several others

observed from 17 November 1958 to 24 February 1959 (P.) and on

16 to 29 December 1961 (J. J. L.) The majority were in first-year

plumage (P.). Appears tc be an annual winter visitor, in small

numbers.

Charadrius dubius jerdoni (Legge): Little Ringed Plover. (M.= Findon)

One collected and several others observed in parties of 2 or 3 in

Gan (Addu) from 10 November 1958 to 12 February 1959 (P.) and

from 24th to 26 November 1961 (J. J. L.). Appears to be an annual

winter visitor, in small numbers.

Charadrius alexandrinus Linnaeus: Kentish Plover. (M.= Findon)

Sight record only. Several observed on 18th and 19 November

1958 and again on 24 February 1959 on Gan (Addu) (P.). Status

uncertain.

Charadrius mongolus atrifrons Wagler: Lesser Sand Plover. (M. =Findon)

3 collected and many observed, in small flocks, on Gan (Addu)

from 24 August 1958 to 6 March 1959 (P.). One collected in North

Rees

572. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

Malé Atoll in December 1956 (P. & S.) and one in Fadiffolu Atoll —

(G.S. & L. F.). Appears to be a regular winter visitor, in considerable

numbers.

Charadrius leschenaultii Lesson : Large Sand Plover. (M.= Bondun)

One collected and many observed, generally singly, on Gan (Addu),

from September 1958 to March 1959; a few non-breeding birds were

seen in May, June, and August (P.), and also in 1961 (J. J. L.). One

collected in North Malé Atoll in December 1956 (P. & S.). A regular

winter visitor, in small numbers.

Charadrius asiaticus asiaticus Pallas : Caspian Plover. (M.=Bondun)

A male and female collected, together, on Gan (Addu) on 10

November 1958 (P.). Status uncertain.

Pluvialis squatarola (Linnaeus): Grey Plover. (M.=Alaka)

Collected in North Malé Atoll, where plentiful in winter (P. & S.).

Very plentiful in Gan (Addu) from August to March but small

numbers of non-breeding birds loiter throughout the year (P.). A

regular winter visitor, in moderate numbers.

Pluvialis dominica fulva Gmehne Asiatic Golden Pieter (M. =

Durrceen)

Several collected and many observed, in flocks to about 50, on

Gan (Addu) from 5 October 1958 to 21 March 1959 (P.) and from

29 December 1960 to 3 May 1961 (J. J. L.). Observed in North Male

Atoll (P. & S.), in Malé, Miladumadulu and Minicoy Atolls (G. & G.).

A regular winter visitor, in considerable numbers.

Arenaria interpres interpres (Linnaeus): Turnstone. (M.=Ratafy) |

Very plentiful in Addu Atoll; flocks of 60+ arrive in late June

and remain until the following March and April. Small numbers of

non-breeding birds remain throughout the year (P.). Plentiful also

in North Malé Atoll (P. & S.). Collected in Addu, Ari and Fadiffolu

Atolls (G. S. & L. F.). The commonest of all the wintering waders;

flocks of 150/ 200 in Gan (Addu) on 16 April and 13 September 1961

SL):

SCOLOPACIDAE

Capella stenura (Bonaparte) : Pintail Snipe. (M.=Durrceen Elolly) _

_ 2 females collected and many more observed in Addu Atoll, from

4 October 1958 to 13 February 1959 (P.). Collected in North Malé

THE BIRDS OF THE MALDIVE ISLANDS, INDIAN OCEAN _ 573

Atoll in December 1956 (P. & S.). Appears to be a regular winter

visitor, in moderate numbers.

Capella megala (Swinhoe) : Swinhoe’s Snipe. (M.=Durrceen Elolly)

A single male collected in Medu Island, Addu Atoll, on 8

December 1958 (P.).

Capella gallinago gallinago (Linnaeus) : Common Snipe. (M=Durrceen

Elolly)

2 males and 2 females. collected and several more observed in

Addu Atoll from 15 December 1958 to end of January 1959 (P.).

Reported to be ‘extremely numerous in April 1900 on the mud-flats

of Addu Atoll at low tide’ by Gardiner who thought that it must

breed in Addu Atoll but this is most unlikely. Appears to be a

regular winter visitor.

Numenius arquata orientalis C. L. Brehm: Eastern Curlew. (M.= Bodu

Bulithumbi)

A female collected on Gan (Addu) on 6 December 1958 and

several more observed during December, and one on 9 March 1959

(P.); one on 22 March, 2 on 16 April, and others from May to

November 1961 (J. J. L.). One observed in North Malé Atoll on 6

February 1957 (P. & S.). A regular winter visitor, in small numbers.

Numenius phaeopus phaeopus (Linnaeus): Whimbrel. [M.=Bulithumbi

or (in Addu) Bulithunga or Orana]

Collected and observed in Addu Atoll where it is very plentiful,

especially during the northern winter. A regular winter visitor, in

large numbers; many non-breeding birds loiter throughout the year.

Limosa lapponica lapponica (Linnaeus) : Bartailed Godwit. (M.=Buli-

thumbi Eloily)

- A single bird observed, frequently, in Addu Atoll, from 6 June

1958 to 31 January 1959 (P.). A male collected in North Malé Atoll

December 1956 (P. & S.). Appears to be a frequent visitor, chiefly

during the winter.

Tringa glareola Linnaeus : Wood Sandpiper. (M.= Findon Elolly)

3 collected and several observed on Gan (Addu) between 12

August 1958 and 13 January 1959 (P.), 6 on Gan on 18 February

1961 (J. J. L.). Others observed in North Malé Atoll, December 1956

and January 1957 (P. & S.). Appears to be a regular winter visitor.

574. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

Tringa hypoleucos Linnaeus : Common Sandpiper. (M.= Findon)

Many observed in Addu Atoll from 10 August 1958 to 22 March

1959. A regular winter visitor, in moderate numbers, from August

to April, to all Atolls. 7

Tringa totanus eurhinus (Oberholser): Eastern Redshank. (M.=Ratafy

Elolly)

A male collected and small numbers observed in Addu Atoll

between 20 November 1958 and 6 March 1959 (P.) and others

observed in 1961 (J. J. L.). Collected and observed in North Malé

Atoll in December 1956 (P. & S.). A regular winter visitor in small

numbers.

Tringa nebularia (Gunnerus): Greenshank. (M.=Chunchun Elolly)

Many small parties observed in Addu Atoll, from early November

[958 to early March 1959 (P.) and again from the 16 June 1961 to

the 20 January 1962 (J. J. L.). Collected and observed in North Malé

Atoll during December 1956 and January 1959 (P. & S.). Collected

in Addu and Miladumadulu Atolls (G. S. & L. F.). A regular winter

Visitor, in moderate numbers; some non-breeding birds loiter.

Xenus cinerea (Latham) : Terek Sandpiper. (M. = Findon)

A male collected on Gan (Addu) on 21 November and another

observed on the 7 December 1958 (P.). A winter visitor; status

uncertain.

Calidris minutus (Leisler) : Little Stint. (M—=Kirru Bondun)

2 males collected and several observed on Gan (Addu) between

11 November 1958 and 31 January 1959 (P.) and between 13 November

and 16 December 1961 (J. J. L.). A single male collected and

one other observed in North Malé Atoll during December 1956

(P. & S.). A regular winter visitor, in small numbers.

Calidris temminckii (Leisler) : Temminck’s Stint. (M.=Kirru Bondun)

Sight record only. One observed closely on Gan (Addu) from

23 to 26 May 1958 and others from 5 October to 11 November (P.).

Status uncertain.

Calidris subminutus (Middendorff): Longtoed Stint. (M.=Kirru Bondun)

4 collected and small numbers observed, frequently, on Gan (Addu)

between 17 November 1958 and 24 February 1959 (P.) and also on

the 26th and 27 October 1961 (J. J. L.). Appears to be a winter visitor,

in small numbers, to Addu Atoll.

THE BIRDS OF THE MALDIVE ISLANDS, INDIAN OCEAN _— 575

Calidris alpinus alpinus (Linnaeus): Dunlin, (M.=Kirru Bondun or

Findon)

3 collected and others observed on Gan (Addu) between 25

November 1958 and 24 February 1959 (P.). Probably a regular winter

visitor, in small numbers.

Calidris testaceus (Pallas) : Curlew-Sandpiper. (M.= Findon)

3 collected and large numbers, in flocks up to 100, observed in

Addu Atoll from 25 June 1958 to middle March 1959 (P.) and also

in 1961 (J. J. L.). Large numbers visit the Maldives in winter and

small numbers, of non-breeding birds. loiter throughout the year.

Calidris albus (Pallas): Sanderling. (M.=Kirru Bondun)

A single male collected and several others observed on Gan (Addu)

between 15 November 1958 and 4 January 1959 (P.) and another 6 in

March 1961 (J. J. L.). Status uncertain; a winter visitor.

Philomachus pugnax (Linnaeus) : Ruff. (M.= Findon)

A single sub-adult male visited Gan (Addu) from 3rd to 17 October

1958 and another, also in sub-adult plumage, was collected on 5

November (P.). Appears to be an occasional winter visitor.

RECURVIROSTRIDAE

Himantopus himantopus (Linnaeus) : Blackwinged Stilt! (M= ? ? )

Sight record only; one on the southern reef of Gan (Addu) on

5 November 1961 (J. J. L.). Status unknown, probably a vagrant.

GLAREOLIDAE

Glareola pratincola (Linnaeus) : Large Pratincole. (M.=Abularge)

A party of 3, in sub-adult plumage, visited Gan (Addu) from 4th

to 7 October 1958 and another was observed on 5 November (P.). A

broken egg was found on the Air-field on 14 December 1960, a pair

was in the area from 14 December 1960 to 16 March 1961 and

many were observed, in flocks to 25+, from 18 October 1961 to

27 January 1962 (J. J. L.). Probably a resident, moving from atoll to

atoll. The race maldivarum was named by J. R. Forester, in 1795,

from the description given previously by Latham (1785) of a bird

taken at sea in about the same latitude as the Maldives; the Addu

Atoll. pratincoles were probably of the same race.

576 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

DROMADIDAE

Dromas ardeola Paykull: Crab Plover. [M.=Eshunga (Addu) or

Tayrawa (Malé), Moola Lumbo (Juvenile)] 3

2 observed in Addu Atoll on 8 June 1958 (P.). Male collected

and others, including juveniles, observed in North Malé Atoll in —

December 1956 and January 1957 (P. & S.). Collected in Addu,

Suadiva, and Rasdu Atolls (G. S. & L. F.). Appears widespread and

resident in small numbers. 7

STERCORARIIDAE

Stercorarius skua Briinnich : Great Skua. (M=Bodu Hoogula)

Sight record only. One observed, at close range, in Addu Atoll

(J. J. L.). Almost certainly an Antarctic Skua as these skuas are well

Known as occasional visitors to the north Indian Ocean.

LARIDAE -

Larus ridibundus Linnaeus: Blackheaded Gull. (M.= ? ? )

Sight record only. One visited Gan (Addu) from the 10 to 23

December 1961 (J. J. L.). An unusual wanderer.

Chlidonias leucoptera (Temminck) : Whitewinged Black Tern. (M.=

_Kirru Dooni)

Solitary, sub-adult male collected in Addu Atoll on 8 November

1958 (P.) and 3 observed, feeding over flooded areas, on 10 to 16

December 1961 (J. J. L.). Probably an infrequent winter visitor.

Gelochelidon nilotica nilotica (Gmelin): Gullbilled Tern. (M.=Kirru

Dooni Amma)

Female collected and others observed in North Malé Atoll during

December 1956 and January 1957 (P. & S.); one observed off Addu

Atoll on 29 March, another from 13 to 15 September 1961, and one

from 21st to 25 January 1962 (J. J. L.). Appears to be resident

in small numbers but status is uncertain.

Hydroprogne caspia (Pallas): Caspian Tern. (M.= ? ? )

Sight record only. 3 observed (separately) in North Malé Atoll

on 30 November 1956 (P.); one in Addu Atoll on 18 April, 4 on the

22 September, and 4 on the 18 October 1961 (J. J. L.). Status un-

certain; probably an occasional visitor.

THE BIRDS OF THE MALDIVE ISLANDS, INDIAN OCEAN _ 577

Sterna hirundo tibetana Saunders: Tibetan Tern. (M.=Kirru Dooni)

2 females, in worn, sub-adult plumage, collected in Addu Atoll

lagoon in January and February 1959 (P.). Status unknown; probably

an occasional winter visitor.

Sterna dougallii korustes (Hume): Eastern Roseate Tern. (M.=Kirru

Dooni)

4 collected and others observed in North Malé Atoll during

January 1957 (P. & S.). Status unknown; reported by Maldivians to

breed during March/May with other terns.

Sterna sumatrana mathewsi Stresemann: Blacknaped Tern. (M.=Kirru -

_ Dooni)

Pair collected and large numbers observed in Addu Atoll (P.).

Several collected and many observed in North Malé Atoll (P. & S.).

Collected -and observed by various observers in Ari, Rasdu, Gaha

Faro, Fadiffolu, and Miladumadulu Atolls. The most abundant and

widespread tern in the Maldives; breeds in Addu Atoll during June

and July.

Sterna fuscata Linnaeus : Sooty Tern. (M.=Wailla or Waili)

One collected in Addu Atoll (G. S. & L. F.). Large flocks observed

between Ceylon and North Malé Atoll in late November 1956 (P. & S.).

Reported by Maldivians to breed during March and April. Status

uncertain; occurs in the vicinity of the Maldives at various times

during the year.

Sterna anaethetus Scapolir Bridled or Brownwinged Tern. (M.=

Walla or Walili)

Sight record only. One observed over the southern reef of Gan

(Addu) on 15 February, 1959 (P.). Large flocks observed at sea

between Ceylon and North Malé Atoll in late November 1956 (P. & S.).

Status uncertain; reported by Maldivians to breed in certain atolls

during March and April.

Sterna albifrons praetermissa Baker : Mesopotamian Little Tern. (M.=

Bondu or Bondu Dooni)

A single male collected in Addu Atoll on 15 November 1958 (P.).

Status uncertain.

Sterna albifrons saundersi Hume : LE Ses Little Tern. (M=Bondu

or Bondu Dooni)

3 collected and very thee numbers observed throughout the year

in Addu Atoll (P.). 3 collected and many others observed in North

578 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

Malé Atoll (P. & S.). Resident in considerable numbers throughout

the Maldives; reported by Maldivians to breed, ‘with other terns,

during April.

Thalasseus bergii velox (Cretzschmar): Large Crested Tern. (M.=

Gardooni) |

Collected and observed in small numbers in North Malé Atoll

(P. & S.). Observed by various observers in Addu, Ari, Gaha Faro,

and Fadiffolu Atolls. Appears to be resident and widespread, in

small numbers; breeding reported by Maldivians in North Malé Atoll

during April.

Thalasseus bengalensis bengalensis (Lesson): Indian Lesser Crested

Tern. (M.=Jam Mutie Gardooni)

3 collected and many observed in Addu Atoll (P.). Collected and

observed in small numbers in North Malé, Ari, and Rasdu Atolls by

various observers. Appears to be resident, in moderate numbers;

reported by Maldivians to breed, with other terns, in North Malé

Atoll during April.

Anois stolidus pileatus (Scopoli): Common Noddy. (M.=Maranga)

Several collected and many observed, in Addu Atoll, throughout

the year (P.); others collected, by various collectors, in Suadiva, Gaha

Faro and North Malé Atolls. Breeding (one nest) observed in Addu

Atoll in April (P.). Appears to be resident in large numbers but,

as Maldivians have no knowledge of its breeding, may be only a

visitor rarely staying to breed.

Anous tenuirostris (Temminck) : White-capped Noddy. (M.=Maranga)

Gadow & Gardiner reported this species breeding in South

Mahlosmadulu Atoll in November 1899 but its presence has not been

recorded since. Status unknown.

Gygis alba monte Mathews: White Tern or Fairy Tern. (M.=Cundu

Wallu Dooni)

Collected and observed, in large numbers, in Addu Atoll to which

atoll it is confined (P.). Breeds throughout the year.

PSITTACIDAE

Psittacula calthorpae (Blyth): Emeraldcollared Parakeet. (M.= ? )

Gardiner reported seeing a pair, twice, in January 1899, on Hulule

Island, North Malé Atoll. His description of ‘green parakeets, a little

Journ. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. PiaTeE III

SNS

White Tern (Gvgis alba monte) juvenile, Gan, Addu Atoll, page 578

Photos: W. W. A. Phillips

THE BIRDS OF THE MALDIVE ISLANDS, INDIAN OCEAN — 579

bigger than a thrush and of a brilliant green colour all over’ scarcely

fits Psittacula calthorpae which, moreover, is confined to Ceylon, so

it would appear that an error in identification has occurred. Possibly

the birds were a pair of Indian Parakeets or Lorikeets that had

strayed or been brought over from the mainland. The bird is not

known to the Maldivians.

CUCULIDAE

—Cuculus canorus Linnaeus: Common Cuckoo. (M.=Dindin Koel)

Sight record only. A cuckoo, which appeared to be a sub-adult

C. canorus, was observed on 4 and 5 January 1959, on Gan (Addu)

(P.). Another, extremely tame, frequented Gan (Addu) during the

last three weeks of January 1961; it appeared to be of the Asiatic

race telephonus (J. J. L.). Status uncertain.

Cacomantis merulinus passerinus (Vahl) : Indian Plaintive Cuckoo.

Oa)

A single male, in sub-adult plumage, collected on Gan (Addu) on

13. January 1959 (P.); another observed on 9 November 1961

(J. J. L.). Appears to be a very unusual visitor.

Eudynamys scolopacea scolopacea (Linnaeus): Koel. [M.=Karlu Koel

(Male) ; Dindin Koel (Female) ]

2 males collected on Gan (Addu) and several others, both males

and females, observed in spite of the total absence of House Crows

(Corvus splendens maledivicus). Koels in this atoll must either forego

breeding or return to Suvadiva Atoll, over 30 miles to the north, to

breed. Resident and widespread, in moderate numbers, throughout the

archipelago. Eggs are laid in the nests of the Maldivian House Crow

early in the year.

STRIGIDAE

Asio flammeus (Pontoppidan) : Shorteared Owl. (M.=Bukhamoonu)

Gardiner recorded this ow! from Goifurfehendu Atoll in October

1899; from Miladumadulu in December; from North Malé in January

and February, and from Addu and Suvadiva Atolls in April (G. & G.).

Well known to Maldivians. Appears to be an irregular winter visitor,

often in considerable numbers.

580 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

APODIDAE

Collocalia brevirostris (McClelland) : Edible-nest Swift. (M.=Forika)

Sight record only. One observed flying low and feeding over Male,

North Malé Atoll on 19 December 1956 (P. & S.) and another in the

same area in 1957 (G. S. & L. F.). One appeared over Gan (Addu) on

the 10 November 1961 and another on the 20 January 1962 (J. J. L.).

Appears to be an occasional winter visitor although there are no

caves or high buildings to attract it.

Apus affinis (J. E. Gray): Whiterumped House Swift. (M.=Forika) —

Sight record only. Party of 7 observed over a swamp on Gan

(Addu) on 16 December 1961 (J. J. L.). Status unknown.

Apus apus (Linnaeus): Common Swift. (M.=Forika)

Sight record only. One observed, flying southwards, moderately

low over Gan (Addu) on morning of 1 November 1958 (P.). Status

unknown; an unusual visitor.

MEROPIDAE

Merops apiaster Linnaeus: European Bee-eater. (M.= ? )

Sight record only. Party of 3 (an adult and 2 sub-adults) visited

Gan (Addu) from 10 January to 31 March 1959; they lived mainly

upon dragonflies (P.). Status unknown,

HIRUNDINIDAE

Hirundo rustica gutturalis Scopoli: Eastern Swallow. (M.=Forika)

Immature male collected from a flock of 20+ on Gan (Addu) on

3 November 1958 and others observed from 14 October 1958 to

17 January 1959 (P.); others observed in Gan (Addu) from 20 October

to 18 December 1961 (J. J. L.). One collected and others observed

in North Malé Atoll in December 1956 (P. & S.). Recorded from

Minicoy on 1 September (G. & G.). An annual winter visitor.

Delichon urbica (Linnaeus): House Martin. (M.=Forika) .

Sight record only. One observed over Gan (Addu) on 28 November

1961 (J. J. L.). Several seen over North Malé Atoll from end January

to end February 1898 (G. & G.). An irregular winter visitor, some-

times in moderate numbers.

THE BIRDS OF THE MALDIVE ISLANDS, INDIAN OCEAN _ 581

Riparia riparia (Linnaeus) : Sand Martin. (M.=Forika)

Sight record only. Several observed, flying with swallows, over

Gan (Addu) on 3 and 4 November 1958 (P.). Status unknown.

TURDIDAE

Oenanthe isabellina (Temminck): Isabelline Wheatear. (M.= ? )

A male collected and ‘another observed on Gan (Addu) on 23 and

24 November 1958 (P.). Status unknown.

Oenanthe leucomela leucomela (Pallas): Pied Wheatear. (M.= ? )

2 males and a female collected on Gan (Addu) on 16 and 24

November and 14 December 1958 (P.). Status unknown.

MUSCICAPIDAE

Tchitrea paradisi (Linnaeus): Paradise Flycatcher. (M.= 2)

Sight record only. A single female or immature male was observed

on Gan (Addu) on 27 October 1961 (J. J. L.). Status unknown.

MOTACILLIDAE

- Motacilla cinerea Tunstall: Grey Wagtail. (M.=Fanfoudooni)

Sight record only. One on Gan (Addu) on the morning of 17

December 1958 (P.). Status unknown.

Motacilla flava Linnaeus : Yellow Wagtail. (M.=Fanfoudooni)

Sight record only. A male settled on a ship, approx.: 45 miles

south of Addu Atoll on 10 April 1957; it was in fresh plumage with

a bluish head and appeared to be of the race beema (P. & S.). An

immature visited Gan (Addu) on 1 November and another, answering

to the race thunbergi, was present on the 28th and 29 October,

while 4 or 5 others appeared on the 27 October, and one on the

18 November 1961 (J. J. L.). Appears to be an irregular winter

visitor, in small numbers; is well known to the Maldivians.

Anthus trivialis trivialis (Linnaeus): Tree Pipit. (M.=Fanfoudooni)

A single female collected on Malé, North Malé Atoll, in December

1956 (P. & S.). Status unknown. Maldivians report that small

numbers of pipits appear annually during November and December;

some are. probably of this species.

582 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

Anthus cervinus (Pallas) : Redthroated Pipit. (M.=Fanfoudooni)

An immature male collected on Gan (Addu) on 8 December 1958

(P.); and other pipits, believed to be of this species, observed on Gan

(Addu) on 22 September, 12 October, and 18 December 1961

(J. J. L.). A single male collected on Malé, North Malé Atoll, in

December 1956 (P. & S.). Small numbers of pipits visit the Atolls

annually, during the northern winter period; it is probable that the

majority are of this species but further collecting is desirable.

LANIIDAE

Lanius cristatus (Linnaeus) : Brown Shrike. (M.= ? )

Sight record only. One, in immature plumage, visited Gan (Addu)

from 20 November 1961 to 2 January 1962 (J. J. L.). Status unknown.

STURNIDAE

Sturnus vulgaris Linnaeus : Common Starling. (M.= ? )

Sight record only. One identified at sea, about 40 miles to the

west of Minicoy (Minikai) Island, on 10 December 1954 (Jan. 1955).

Status unknown.

CORVIDAE

Corvus splendens maledivicus Reichenow: Maldivian House Crow

(M. = Karlu)

4 collected in Malé, North Malé Atoll, and many more observed

1956/57 (P. & S.). Resident and abundant throughout the archipelago

with the exception of Addu Atoll from where it is excluded by the

mass attacks of the White Terns (Gygis alba monte). Breeds during

December and January and probably during other months.

NoTeE: Several other small passerine birds were seen on Gan

(Addu) during 1961/62 by Mr. Latham and others but they have not

been included in this paper as they were not satisfactorily identified.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

While working on this paper, I have received great assistance from

Mr. R. W. Sims, until recently working in the Bird Room, British

THE BIRDS OF THE MALDIVE ISLANDS, INDIAN OCEAN _ 583

Museum (Natural History), who has not only assisted me in connection

with the determination of the specimens collected and sent to

England from, the Maldives but has also given me invaluable

advice and help in the preparation of this paper. To him are due

my very sincere thanks. Also, my thanks are due to Dr. Georg

Scheer, now of the Hessissche Landesmuseum, Darmstadt, for so

kindly placing his notes at my disposal, for naming the new race of

Ardeola grayii, and for much assistance in working out the approximate

distribution of the races of Butorides striatus and Amaurornis

phoenicurus, and to Mr. J. J. Latham for sending me his very recent

and most valuable notes from Gan, Addu Atoll, and the excellent

photographs, taken in Gan, by his friend Mr. A. J. H. Cobon. I am

most grateful for all this assistance. I am also indebted to Mr.

R. E. Moreau for calling my attention to the note on the occurrence

of Sturnus vulgaris in the vicinity of Minicoy (Minikai) and for many

useful suggestions in connection with the editing of the first draft of

this paper, and, finally, to my wife, Paddy, who not only accompanied

me on both my visits to the Maldives and so cheerfully put up with

many hardships (including shipwreck) and privations but continually

gave me her very ready assistance and advice in so many ways.

SUMMARY

1. A short history of the ornithology of the Maldive Islands is

given, together with a brief description of the atolls, their situation,

climate, fauna and flora, and the general conditions governing the

survival of the resident birds.

2. Some details of the breeding of 13 resident species are given,

together with a table showing the approximate dates of breeding,

observed and conjectured.

3. Migration to the Maldives is discussed, and details of arrival

and departure dates of over 60 migrants are given, the great majority

of which are winter visitors from the north. The suggestion is put

forward that, for some of these migrants to the Maldives, Addu Atoll

(the extreme southern-most atoll) is not the terminus of their south-

ward flight, indications having been collected that point to some

exchanges of bird life between Addu Atoll and the Chagos Archipelago

to the south.

4. An annotated, systematic list of Maldivian birds, complete as far

as our present knowledge permits, gives the status (known or presumed)

of the 113 species and subspecies that have been recorded from the

archipelago.

584

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

REFERENCES

Bell, H.C.P. (1940): The Maldive

Islands. Monograph on the History,

Archaeology and Epigraphy. Ceylon

Government Press, Colombo.

British Ornithologists’ Union (1952) :

Checklist of the Birds of Great Britain

and Ireland. London.

Gadow, H. & Gardiner, J. 8S. (1905) :

Aves. The Fauna and Geography of

the Maldive and Laccadive Archipelagos.

1: 365-373. Cambridge.

Hill, J. E. (14958) : Some Observations

on the Fauna of the Maldive Islands.

Part II. Mammals. ed. Phillips, W.W.A.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 55 : 3-10.

Jany, E. (1957): Star (Sturnus

vulgaris) uberquert die Arabische se-.

Die Vogelwarte 19: 140-2.

Loustau-Lalanne, P. (1962) : The Birds

of the Chagos Archipelago, Indian

Ocean. Jbis 104: 67-73.

Peters, J. L. (1931-40) : Checklist of

Birds of the World. Harvard University

Press, Cambridge, Mass.

Phillips, W.W.A. (1953): A (1952)

Revised Checklist of the Birds of

Ceylon. National Museums of Ceylon,

Colombo.

———— (1957): Bird Migration in

Relation to Ceylon. J. Ceylon Branch,

R. Asiatic Society, N.S. 5, Colombo.

Phillips, W.W.A. (1958) : Notes on the

Nesting of the Blacknaped Tern Sterna

sumatrana mathewsi Stresemann in the

Maldive Islands. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 55 : 567-569.

———— (1959) : Note on the occur-

rence of Bulwer’s Petrel (Bulweria

bulwerii) in the Indian Ocean. Bull. Brit.

Orn. Cl. 79 : 100-101.

—————' & Sims,: ‘R? W. (1958aye

Two New Races of Birds from the Mal-

dive Archipelago. Bull. Brit. Orn. Cl.

78: 51-55.

(1958b) : Some

Observations on the Fauna of the Mal-

dive Islands. 3. Birds. J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 55 : 195-217.

Ripley II, S. Dillon (1961) : Synopsis

of the Birds of India and Pakistan.

Bombay.

Scheer, G. (1960): Eice neue rasse

des teichreihers Ardeola grayii (Sykes)

von den Maldiven. Frankfurt am Main

Senck. Biol. 41 : 143-147. —

Worthington, T. B. (1959): Ceylon

Trees. Colombo.

Wynne, O. F. (1956) : Key-list of the

Palaearctic and Oriental Passerine Birds.

Arbroath.

The Butterflies of South Gujarat

Rev. E. M. SHULL !

Church of the Brethren Mission, Ahwa, via Billimora

The term South Gujarat, as used throughout this paper, comprises

the Dangs and the districts of Broach and Surat. The Dangs, where

the majority of species were collected, consists of a tract of hilly

teak and bamboo country south of Tapti River which lies between

the Nasik-Khandesh Deccan and the South Gujarat plain. This area

has tropical moist deciduous and tropical semi-evergreen plant life

with an annual average rainfall of 80 inches. .The Dangs forest with

its mountain streams, hills, valleys, and plateaux supports a wide

variety of flowering plants attractive to many species of butterflies.

In this pan-tropical terrain with its seasonal and altitudinal differences

the writer between October 1952 and March 1963 has collected

thousands of butterflies. Less intensive collecting was done between

March 1946 and March 1963 in Surat and Broach districts.

The following is a list of the species collected together with such

field notes as are available. The latest work on Indian butterflies

is Wynter-Blyth’s BUTTERFLIES OF THE INDIAN REGION (1957); where

my records appear to add anything to the information already

available, I have sale the HENCE CH as in ME Blyth in

parenthesis. |

- DANAIDAE

Danaus aglea ee (Cramer) : The Glassy Tiger

Fairly common throughout the year. ;

(South India to Poona. Himalayas east from Kashmir, Assam,

Burma, Bengal.)

Danaus limniace mutina Fruh.: The Blue Tiger

Common throughout the year.

Danaus melissa dravyidarum Fruh. : The Dark Blue Tiger

~ One netted on 18 October 1952 at Ahwa; another on 19 March

1963 at Ahwa.

~ (Ceylon. South India.)

586 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

Danaus genutia Cramer : The Common Tiger

Common throughout the year.

Danaus chrysippus (Linnaeus) : The Plain Tiger

Very common throughout the year.

Euploea core core (Cramer) : The Common Indian Crow

Very common throughout the year.

Euploea crassa kollari Felder: The Brown King Crow

In September and October in South Gujarat. Rare. Uncommon

further south in the Konkan.

SATYRIDAE

Mycalesis perseus (Fabricius) : The Common Bushbrown

Very common throughout the year.

Mycalesis mineus polydecta Cramer : The Dark-brand Bushbrown

From July to October, fairly common. Occasionally at lights

during the south-west monsoon.

(Peninsular India south of Bombay. Madhya Pradesh and Bengal,

Kulu to Assam and Burma.)

Lethe europa ragalva Fruh. : The Bamboo Treebrown

September to December. Rare.

Lethe rohria nilgiriensis Guerin : The Common Treebrown

October to January. Not common.

Ypthima hubneri hubneri Kirby : The Common Fourring

Common throughout the year.

Ypthima baldus Fabricius : The Common Fivering

From July to January only; common.

Ypthima asterope Klug : The Common Threering

Common throughout the year.

Melanitis leda (Drury) : The Common Evening Brown

~ Common throughout the year. It has wet and dry season forms

and is crepuscular in its habits. Wet season form determinata

frequently netted at lights. 7

THE BUTTERFLIES OF SOUTH GUJARAT 587

NYMPHALIDAE

Charaxes polyxena imna Butler : The Tawny Rajah

February to April. Uncommon to rare.

Charaxes fabius fabius (Fabricius) : The Black Rajah

In some years fairly common from October to April.

Fairly common from October to April.

Euthalia garuda (Moore) : The Baron

Common throughout the year.

Euthaliia evalina laudabilis Swin. : The Redspot Duke

September and October. Not common.

(S. India.)

Euthalia nais (Forster) : The Baronet

Common throughout the year.

Neptis columella Cramer : The Short-banded Sailer

| February to April. Not common.

Neptis hylas Linnaeus : The Common Sailer

Very common throughout the year. It has distinct dry and wet

season forms.

Neptis jumbah Moore : The Chestnut-streaked Sailer

One captured on 14 March 1963 at Ahwa in the Surat Dangs.

(Ceylon. S. India. Bengal. Burma.)

Cyrestis thyodamas indica Evans : The Common Map

Very rare in South Gujarat.

Hypolimnas bolina (Linnaeus) : The Great Eggfly

Common throughout the year.

Hypolimnas misippus (Linnaeus) : The Danaid Eggfly

Common throughout the year.

588 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

Kallima philarchus horsfieldii Kollar : The Blue Oakleaf

Common from February to June; otherwise scarce. In April 1956

I collected forty specimens in two hours in a valley close to the

mission bungalow at Ahwa.

(Confined to the western side of south India from Nasik and near

Bombay southwards. Not rare from Matheran to Kanara.)

Precis hierta hierta (Fabricius) : The Yellow Pansy

Very common throughout the year. At 9.00 p.m. on 17 February

1963 I caught a female of this species flying around a petromax

lamp in our mission bungalow. It is not normally crepuscular

nor nocturnal in its habits.

Precis orithyia (Linnaeus) : The Blue Pansy

Very common throughout the year.

Precis lemonias (Linnaeus) : The Lemon Pansy

Very common throughout the year. I have a melanistic example

of this species, caught in July 1960 at Ahwa on Lantana flowers,

in which the ground colour on the upper surface is much darker

than usual and the large ocelli on the hindwings are absent.

Precis almana almana (Linnaeus) : The Peacock Pansy

Common throughout the year.

Precis iphita (Cramer) : The Chocolate Pansy

Very common throughout the year.

Vanessa cardui (Linnaeus): The Painted Lady

Very common throughout the year.

Vanessa indica (Herbst) : The Indian Red Admiral

Very rare in South Gujarat.

(Ceylon. Hills of South India. Coorg. Himalayas as far west as

Kashmir, Hills of NE. India, Burma.)

Argynnis hyperbius (Johanssen): The Indian Fritillary

Very rare in South Gujarat. Recorded on 9 April 1960 at Ahwa.

Atella phalantha (Drury) : The Common Leopard

Very common throughout the year.

THE BUTTERFLIES OF SOUTH GUJARAT 589

Cirrochroa thais (Fabricius) : The Tamil Yeoman

Appearance in South Gujarat probably accidental. The sole

specimen was netted on 27 September 1962 at Ahwa on Lantana

flowers. : isi

(Ceylon. Western Ghats. Coorg. Wynaad. Nilgiris. Palnis.)

Byblia ilithyia (Drury) : The Joker

My only record for South Gujarat is a specimen netted on 19

September 1957 in the mission garden at Ahwa.

Ergolis ariadne (Johanssen) : The Angled Castor

Fairly common throughout the year.

Ergolis merione merione (Cramer) : The Common Castor

Common throughout the year.

ACRAEIDAE

Telchinia violae (Fabricius) : The Tawny Coster

Throughout the year in the Surat Dangs but not common. Fairly

common at Broach. |

ERYCINIDAE

Libythea lepita lepitoides Moore : The Common Beak

Rare in South Gujarat. |

(Ceylon and S. India, rare. Elsewhere common to very common.)!

Abisara echerius (Stoll) : The Plum Judy

Fairly common throughout the year.

LYCAENIDAE

Spalgis epius (Westwood): The Apefly ~~

Netted in July and August only; rare.

(Ceylon and S. India.)

1 Wynter-Blyth does not mention this subspecies. Evans in his IDENTIFICATION

OF INDIAN BUTTERFLIES says that this subspecies occurs in Ceylon and S. India

and is not rare.—EDs.

590 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

Castalius rosimon rosimon (Fabricius) : The Common Pierrot

Fairly common throughout the year.

Castalius caleta decidia (Hewitson): The Angled Pierrot

Not uncommon. October to March.

(Recorded from the Western Ghats south of Bombay.)

Castalius ethion ethion (Doubleday & Hewitson): The Banded Blue

Pierrot

October and November. Not common.

(Ceylon. S. India. Assam and Burma.)

Tarucus theophrastus indica Evans: The Pointed Pierrot

Fairly common during the winter months.

Tarucus extricatus Butler : The Rounded Pierrot

Common from March to July.

Syntarucus plinius (Fabricius) : The Zebra Blue

Common from November to July.

Azanus ubaldus (Cramer) : The Bright Babul Blue

September and October. Not common.

Azanus uranus Butler: The Dull Babul Blue

November and probably other months. Not common.

Azanus jesous gamra (Lederer): The African Babul Blue

November and probably other months. Not common.

Neopithceops zalmora (Butler) : The Quaker

Collected on 15 November 1960 and 8 December 1962 at Ahwa.

Rare.

(Ceylon. South India to Bengal. Kumaon to Burma. Andamans.)

Lycaenopsis puspa gisca Fruh.: The Common Hedge Blue

November to February. Not common.

Lycaenopsis albidisca Moore : The Whitedisc Hedge Blue

November, December, and January. Not common.

(Hills of S. India.)

THE BUTTERFLIES OF SOUTH GUJARAT

Chilades laius laius (Cramer) : The Lime Blue

Common throughout the year.

Zizeeria putli Kollar : The Southern Grass Jewel

Common throughout the year.

Zizeeria maha Kollar : The Pale Grass Blue

Common from November to July.

Zizeeria lysimon Hub. : The Dark Grass Blue

Common from October to April.

Zizeeria gaika Trimen : The Tiny Grass Blue

Fairly common from November to April.

Zizeeria otis Fabricius : The Lesser Grass Blue

Common from October to April.

Euchrysops cnejus (Fabricius) : The Gram Blue

Common from October to April.

Euchrysops pandaya pandaya (Horsfield) : The Plains Cupid

Fairly common throughout the year.

Catochrysops strabo (Fabricius) : The Forget-Me-Not

Common throughout the year.

Lampides boeticus (Linnaeus) : The Peablue

Very common throughout the year.

Lycaenesthes lycaenina Felder: The Pointed Ciliate Blue

March to May in the Surat Dangs. Not common, |

Jamides celeno celeno Cramer : The Common Cerulean

Common throughout the year.

Jamides bochus bochus Cramer : The Dark Cerulean

Very common throughout the year.

Nacaduba nora nora Felder : The Common Lineblue

Found throughout the year. Not common.

391

592. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

Curetis thetis (Drury) : The Indian Sunbeam

Fairly common throughout the year.

Curetis acuta dentata Moore : The Angled Sunbeam

Fairly common throughout the year.

Curetis bulis (Doubleday & Hewitson): The Bright Sunbeam

Fairly common during the monsoon season; however, the dry

season form angulata is more common than the above from

October to April.

(S. India. Pachmarhi.)

Iraota timoleon timoleon (Stoll) : The Silverstreak Blue

Collected only in July, October, and November, rare.

Amblypodia amantes amantes Hewitson : The Large Oakblue

Fairly common from September to March.

Surendra quercetorum Moore : The Common Acacia Blue

Taken only in August and September. Probably rare.

(Ceylon. S. India. Simla Hills to Assam and Burma. S. Bihar.)

Spindasis vulcanus vulcanus Fabricius : The Common Silverline —

From July to April only, fairly common.

From July to April ae fairly common.

Spindasis elima elima Moore: The Scarce Shot Silverline

November and December. Not common.

Spindasis lohita Horsfield : The long-branded Silverline

Taken only in July and November; rare.

(Mussoorie to Assam and Burma. Calcutta. Ceylon and S. India.)

Zesius chrysomallus Hubner : The Redspot

One netted on 15th March 1963 at Ahwa in the Surat Dangs.

Apparently rare.

Tajuria cippus cippus (Fabricius) : The Peacock Royal 7

From March to November only. Not common. Found on

Poinsettia blossoms.

THE BUTTERFLIES OF SOUTH GUJARAT 593

Rathinda amor (Fabricius) : The Monkey Puzzle

Found in South Gujarat from September to November. Not

common.

(... up the Western Ghats to Bombay.)

Deudoryx epijarbas epijarbas (Moore) : The Cornelian

November, December and March. Not common.

Virachola isocrates (Fabricius) : The Common Guava Blue

November to March. Not common.

Virachola perse ghela Fruh. : The Large Guava Blue

Rare. 12 November 1960 on Poinsettia blossoms at Ahwa.

(Ceylon. S. India.)

Rapala melampus Cramer : The Indian Red Flash

Fairly common from November to April.

PAPILIONIDAE

_ Polydorus hector (Linnaeus) : The Crimson Rose

Rare in South Gujarat.

(Common in Bengal, S. Bihar, Orissa, S. India.)

Polydorus aristolochiae aristolochiae (Fabricius) : The Common Rose

Common throughout the year.

Chilasa clytia clytia (Linnaeus) : The Common Mime

From July to September. Uncommon and local.

Papilio polymnestor polymnestor Cramer : The Blue Mormon

Uncommon locally from July to October.

(Ceylon. S. India. Madhya Pradesh. S. Bihar. Bengal. Western

Ghats to Bombay. Sikkim.) |

On 8 July 1960 a large caterpillar of this species was found eating

a pumelo leaf (Citrus grandis) in the mission school garden at

Mulchond. The larva had a greatly enlarged head and was

mainly green in colour. It formed a chrysalis on July 10th.

The pupa was attached at one end of the base of the leaf stalk

on the underside of a pumelo leaf. The male imago emerged

on 30 July 1960, hatching in a box in the author’s office at Ahwa,

594. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

Occasionally this magnificent butterfly measures nearly six inches

from wing tip to wing tip.

Papilio helenus daksha Moore : The Red Helen

One netted on 25 October 1957 at Ahwa. Very rare or accidental

in Gujarat. ,

(Ceylon. Western Ghats. Nilgiris. Palnis. Shevaroys. Coorg and

Bangalore.)

Papilio polytes Linnaeus : The Common Mormon

The male and its three female forms are found in South Gujarat.

The male is very common throughout the year.

° form stichius—very common throughout the year.

2 form romulus—fairly common throughout the year.

Papilio demoleus demoleus (Linnaeus) : The Lime Butterfly

Very common throughout the year.

Graphium nomius nomius (Esper) : The Spot Swordtail

Common from February to June; rare in July and August.

Graphium agamemnon agamemnon (Linnaeus) : The Tailed Jay

Very common throughout the year.

Graphium sarpedon teredon Felder : The Common Bluebottle

Rare in September in South Gujarat. More common to the south

in the Konkan. ,

PIERIDAE

Leptosia nina nina (Fabricius) : The Psyche

Some years common from October to March.

Delias eucharis (Drury) : The Common Jezebel

Common throughout the year. Abundant from November to

February.

Cepora nerissa (Fabricius) : The Common Gull

Common throughout the year.

Anaphaeis aurota aurota (Fabricius) : The Pioneer

January to May. Not common.

THE BUTTERFLIES OF SOUTH GUJARAT 595

Appias libythea libythea (Fabricius) : The Striped Albatross

Throughout the year. Uncommon.

Appias lyncida latifasciata Moore : The Chocolate Albatross

Throughout the year. Rare.

Appias albina darada Felder : The Common Albatross

January to March. Not common.

Ixias marianne (Cramer) : The White Orange Tip

Fairly common throughout the year.

Ixias pyrene (Linnaeus) : The Yellow Orange Tip

Fairly common throughout the year, but more common in winter.

Colotis calais (Cramer) : The Small Salmon Arab

Rare in the Dangs, but common elsewhere in South Gujarat.

@ form albina at Broach. Unconimon.

Colotis vestalis (Butler) : The White Arab

Rare in the Dangs, but common elsewhere in South Gujarat.

Colotis etrida etrida (Boisduval) : The Little Orange Tip

Uncommon from January to June in the Dangs. Common in

Bulsar, Surat, and Broach.

Colotis fausta (Olivier) : The Large Salmon Arab

Rare in the Dangs. Common elsewhere in South Gujarat from

- October to April.

Colotis eucharis (Fabricius) : The Plain Orange Tip

Rare in the Dangs. Common throughout Broach District and

Surat District, especially in winter months.

Colotis danae danae (Fabricius) : The Crimson Tip

Uncommon in the Dangs, but common elsewhere in South Gujarat

from October to April.

Hebomoia glaucippe australis Butler : The Great Orange Tip

Only record for the Dangs is in January 1959 at Ahwa. Fairly

common in the Konkan south of Gujarat.

596 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

Parenonia valeria hippa Fabricius : The Common Wanderer

Fairly common from October to April.

2 form philomela is occasionally found from October to April.

(Recorded from Assam, Calcutta, Jabalpur, the Nilgiris, and N..

Kanara.)

Catopsilia crocale (Cramer) : The Common Emigrant

Abundant throughout the year having two distinct female forms,

one white and the other yellow.

Catopsilia pomona (Fabricius) : The Lemon Emigrant

Very common throughout the year.

2 form catilla with purple blotches below is fairly common.

Catopsilia pyranthe (Linnaeus) : The Mottled Emigrant

Found throughout the year, but more common during the monsoon.

Catopsilia florella gnoma (Fabricius) : The African Emigrant

Found throughout the year, but more common from October to

April.

C. florella may be only the dry season form of C. pyranthe; however.

this problem needs more study.

Eurema brigitta (Cramer) : The Small Grass Yellow

Common throughout the year.

Eurema laeta Boisduval : The Spotless Grass Yellow

The wet season form venata and the dry season form laeta are

both very common. Wet season form rarely netted at mercury-

vapour lamp; however, it is not normally crepuscular nor

nocturnal.

Eurema hecabe (Linnaeus) : The Common Grass Yellow

Abundant throughout the year. Occasionally captured at mercury-

vapour lamp in Ahwa and sometimes crepuscular.

Eurema blanda silhetana Wall. : The Three-spot Grass Yellow

Uncommon throughout the year.

HESPERIIDAE

Celaenorrhinus leucocera leucocera (Kollar) : The Common Spotted Flat

During the monsoon. Not common.

THE BUTTERFLIES OF SOUTH GUJARAT 597

Celaenorrhinus ambareesa (Moore) : The Malabar Flat

February to May. Not common.

Coladenia dan dan (Fabricius) : The Fulvous Pied Flat

During the monsoon season. Rare.

(S. India... Kulu to Assam and Burma.)

Sarangesa dasahara (Moore) : The Common Small Flat

Fairly common throughout the year.

Sarangesa sati de Nicéville : The Tiny Flat

Common during the monsoon months. According to Wynter-

Blyth (p. 464) S. sati is now considered a race of S. purendra.,

Caprona ransonnetti (Felder) : The Golden Angle

Throughout the year, the dry season form much paler than the wet

season form. Not common.

(S. India to Igatpuri, Kalka and Assam. Burma. Ceylon.)

Tapena thwaitesi hampsoni El. & Ed. : The Black Angle

Rare in February and March in the Surat Dangs. Not mentioned

by Wynter-Blyth, but rare in south India according to Evans.

Spialia galba (Fabricius) : The Indian Skipper

Common throughout the year.

Chromus alexis alexis (Fabricius) (= Hasora chromus Cramer, according

to some authors) : The Common Banded Awl

Abundant throughout the year. Occasionally attracted to lights at

night in the bungalow.

Badamia exclamationis (Fabricius) : The Brown Awl

Fairly common throughout the year.

Suastus gremius (Fabricius) : The Indian Palm Bob

Fairly common in September and October at Waghai, but rare

elsewhere.

Arnetta vindhiana (Moore) : The Vindhyan Bob

September and October in the Surat Dangs. Not common.

Matapa aria (Moore) : The Common Redeye

In some years common from September to January; one taken on

598 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

16 March 1963. Usually flies early in the morning and at dusk;

however, I have netted it at midday on Lantana flowers.

(Ceylon. S. India to Matheran and Calcutta. Dun to Assam and

Burma.)

Taractrocera ceramas niceyvillei Watson : The Tamil Grass Dart

During the monsoon season. Not common.

Telicota ancilla = Astychus augias (Linnaeus), and A. pythias (Mabille):

The Pale Palm Dart and The Dark Palm Dart

Common from November to May, especially the Dark form.

Potanthus pseudomaesa cato Evans : The Indian Dart

Common from December to March.

Pelopidas conjuncta Hewitson: The Conjoined Swift

December to March. Not common.

Caltoris kumara Moore: The Blank Swift

Fairly common on Lantana bushes and in nullahs during October

and November.

(Ceylon. Western Ghats to N. Kanara. Palnis, Nilgiris, Bangalore.

and High Wavys. Calcutta. Sikkim to Assam and Burma.)

Pelopidas mathias mathias Fabricius: The Small Branded Swift

Common throughout the year.

Borbo bevani Moore: The Bevan’s Swift

Fairly common throughout the year.

Udaspes folus Cramer: The Grass Demon

Fairly common throughout the year.

Iambrix salsala (Moore): The Chestnut Bob

Fairly common from October to March.

(Ceylon. S. India. Sikkim to Calcutta, Assam and Burma.)

SUMMARY

From March 1946 to March 1963 the writer collected thousands

-of butterflies in the Dangs and the Broach and Surat districts. In

all, one hundred and forty-five species and seven additional female

forms were collected. Only in a few cases have the dry and wet

THE BUTTERFLIES OF SOUTH GUJARAT 599

season forms been mentioned. Completeness is not claimed in this

report, for additional species and races will no doubt be found or

may have been overlooked.

‘Data on the distribution of the butterflies presented in this paper

should help to clarify the range of thirty or more species, races, and

rare female forms. Many species and races from south India are

now extended considerably north of Bombay. From this study it

is clear that South Gujarat has a very rich butterfly fauna.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The writer is indeed grateful to Mr. N. T. Nadkerny, Entomologist

of the Bombay Natural History Society, for help with the identifica-

tion of some difficult species; and to Mr. Humayun Abdulali, the

then Honorary Secretary of the Society, for suggestions and encourage-

ment in the preparation of this paper. 7

REFERENCES

ANTRAM, C. B. (1924): Butterflies of Burma and Ceylon. Three volumes.

India. Calcutta and Simla. Calcutta.

Evans, W. H. (1932): Identification Pritt, H. D. (1937): A Guide to

of Indian Butterflies. Madras. Collecting Butterflies of India. London.

MARSHALL, C. F., & de NICEVILLE, L. WYNTER-BLYTH, M.A. (1957): But-

(1882-1890): The Butterflies of India, terflies of the Indian Region. Bombay.

On the Occurrence of Thalassina

anomala (Herbst), a burrowing

crustacean in Bombay waters, and its

burrowing methods

K. N. SANKOLLI

Marine Biological Research Station, Ratnagiri

(With two plates and one text-figure)

During a shore collection trip along the coast of Ratnagiri, I saw

some mounds of mud (Plate I) not far from the low-tide water mark,

in the swamps of Karla, a fishing village. These mounds, different

from those generally made by crabs, were made by ‘scorpion-like’

animals according to the villagers. On digging, I found that the

‘scorpion-like’ animal was Thalassina anomala (Herbst) (Text-figure)

locally called angde khod (angde means fingers, and khod means to

dig, in Marathi). This is the first record of the species from Bombay

waters.

The body parts of Thalassina anomala (Herbst) : 1. Antennule ; 2. Antennal

flagellum ; 3. Endopodite of third maxilliped; 4. First leg; 5. Second leg;

6. Third leg; 7. Fourth leg ; 8. Fifth leg; 9. Abdominal terga ; 10. Abdominal

pleurites ; 11. Pleopods; 12. Telson ; 13. Dactylus ; 14. Propodus ; 15. Carpus ;

16. Merus; 17. Fixed finger |

The genus Thalassina is monotypic. de Man (1928) recognizes two —

varieties, ZT. a. gracilis Dana and T. a. squamifera de Man. In India,

Journ. BomsBay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE |

Thalassina anomala (Herbst)

Colonies of mounds near the bund and the houses situated on the edge

of the creek

£2 23 B4 SR £4 27 2a ce:

Oz!

A closer view of the mounds. The arrow indicates the presence of a

freshly formed top layer of mud on the entrance of the mound.

Photos: K. WN. Sankolli

urljvotjer jeurtue OUT

‘suiduinp jo ssoooid sutinp spediyy]t

UL ply} JO UOTZIPUCD }UAq

pue sso] jo sired om} 4SIY JO JNO BSuiUapIM SUTMOYS MIA [eSIOG

le aly Ig

(WSqloH) vypmouv

__teqye prt poyeavoxoe AeMe Surysnd yeurrue so MotA yesiogq

‘spodiypixeur pity} oy} Aq sAOQqK WOIF Pfoy SI pnt oy yp “ssaooid

Al1v9 OY} SULINP MOIING JO JNO SUTWLOD TeULIUR JO MOTA [TeSIOC,

sul

DUISSDIVY J.

‘90S “LSIH “LVN AVaWog ‘Nunof[

THALASSINA ANOMALA (HERBST) IN BOMBAY WATERS 601

so far this species has been recorded only from Mysore [Geelvink-bay,

as cited by de Man (op. cit.)].

- Observations on the habitat and habits of JT. anomala are few.

Pearse (1911) described its burrowing habits and, on the basis of the

examination of the stomach-contents of a single specimen, suggested

‘that the animal is vegetarian in diet. According to Marshall & Orr

(1960) the species feeds on land vegetation. Johnson (1961) made

detailed observations on the food and feeding habits and concluded

that T. anomala is not a vegetarian, but a mud-feeder. Observations

made by me on the feeding habits, mouth parts, and alimentary tract

of the animal are more or less similar to those made by Johnson.

The mounds of T. anomala range from 1 ft. to 24 ft. in height,

and are so abundant that they form a distinct topographic feature of the

mangrove swamps of the Karla creek. The colonies of these

mounds often extend beyond the high-tide mark, even into the back-

yards of the houses on the edges of the creek.

The entrance leading to the main burrow is generally plugged with

layers of earth; a freshly formed topmost layer indicates the presence

of the animal inside, irrespective of whether this is observed during

the day or at night. Burrows dug in the mud flats near low-water

mark slope down gradually; those above high-water mark often go

almost vertically down until they reach the water level. The main

burrow ranges in depth from 4 ft. to 8 ft. and has 6 or 7 side tunnels,

of which 3 or 4 may terminate blindly, the blind ends being broader

than the tunnels. Several mounds are generally grouped together; in

such cases the tunnels of one burrow are often inter-linked with those

of the other burrows and make the collection of the animal a difficult

task. During a period of one and half years I never came across a

Specimen outside the burrow, even at night, though I had several

reports from local people about the animals having been seen outside

the burrows, mostly on moonlit nights.

METHOD OF BURROWING (Plate II)

It is difficult to observe the burrowing of T. anomala in its naturak

habitat, hence the only possibility of recording its behaviour was by

allowing it to make burrows in the mud under laboratory conditions.

For this, a wooden tub 2 ft. long, 3 ft. high, and 14 ft. broad was

filled with soft dark mud to a depth of 2 ft. to 24 ft. and over it a

layer of yellow mud of about 6 in. to 8 in. depth was spread. The

two types of mud were collected from the locality where Thalassina

was abounding. An adequate quantity of water was splashed on to

602 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

the mud as repeated experience showed that the animal refused to

make its burrow when kept on wet mud alone.

When the animal was introduced in the tub, it first crawled

for a while. Then, as it came across some soft portion in the mud,

it pushed in its second pair of legs inside the soil as if to loosen it.

Simultaneously, from the front, the first pair of legs was also

introduced in the soil and the digging began. While loosening the

soil, nearly the entire propodus together with the whole of the dactylus

of the second pair and more than one-haif of the propodus of the

first pair went inside the mud. The action of the first two pairs of

legs while loosening and collecting the mud was like that of a

spade in action. During this process, the endopodite of the third

maxilliped was also used to a certain extent to manipulate the gathering

of the mud in between the first two pairs of chelipeds. The mud was

held from either side by the. first pair of legs, from below by the

second pair held almost in a horizontal plane, and from above by

the third maxilliped. After collecting a sufficient load of mud the

animal carried the load either forward or backward, in the manner

of a tractor, away from its prospective burrow. The way the first

two pairs of legs act while holding the mud has been well expressed

by Pearse (op. cit.): ‘the first two pairs of legs form a sort of basket’.

Outside the opening of the newly started burrow, its grip was loosened

by widening out the chelipeds—in this process of dumping the mud

the endopodite of the third maxilliped played an important role. It

was first bent downwards and then moved outwards so as to push

the mud away from the burrow. The dumping was also shared by

both the chelipeds. Along with the endopodite of the maxilliped, the

propodus and dactylus of the chelipeds also moved in an outward

direction so that the mud should not fall back into the burrow. After

dumping the mud the animal returned to the burrow and recommenced

burrowing.

~ It was interesting to observe the reaction when a small piece of

stone was thrown into the burrow while the animal was retreating.

It would simply pick up the stone and bring it towards the mouth of

the burrow and store it away in the usual manner but, if this was

repeated four or five times, the animal would come out farther and

push the stone along with the already excavated mud quite far from

the previous position. During the digging the animal used to freely

bend its abdomen in various postures.

Ecological adaptations. The range of occurrence of the mounds

inhabited by these animals is from the low-tide level where they are

more or less completely submerged under sea-water, or little above the

THALASSINA ANOMALA (HERBST) IN BOMBAY WATERS 603

splash zone of the high tide, where they are subject to dessication.

However, the animals living at the higher level, as mentioned earlier,

have access to water under the ground through their main burrows.

Of the first two pairs of legs performing the work of excavation

and dumping of the mud, the first pair has the major role. Accord-

ingly these two appendages are modified for digging. The fixed

finger does not extend beyond half the length of the dactylus; hence

it is strengthened and is capable of digging deep in the mud. The

inner and outer lateral surfaces of the .propodus and dactylus are

quite smooth, ic. without any rough tuberculations, and these two

surfaces converge on the ventral margin. The inner lateral surface

of the merus is more flattened than that of the carpus. The inward

deflexed nature of the fingers, and the smooth and more or less

flattened inner lateral surface of the carpus and merus are useful

in holding the excavated mud between the chelipeds and in dumping

it. The first pair is less hairy than the second, and is so massive

and stout that it can bear the weight of the mass of mud which the

animal carries during its burrowing operations.

The dactylus, propodus, carpus, and merus of the second leg are

flattened from either side. The dactylus is comparatively flat, the

flattening being more steep towards the ventral margin. The propodus

is produced into a blade-like form and its sub-chelate fixed finger

is equally efficient in digging, as it is short and stumpily flat. The

ventral surface of the merus is slightly flattened. The ventral margin

of the propodus and merus is provided with fringes of bristles. The

entire second leg moves in a plane at an angle of less than 90° to

the horizontal. Hence, the flattened and fringed nature of its segments

offers help in holding and lifting the mass of mud held between the

chelipeds and thus provides additional support from below.

The tip of the dactylus of the remaining legs is bent slightly

outside, and is provided with some tooth-like spines to have a firm

hold on the walls of the burrow during the operations.

The ventral surface of the segments of the endopodite of the third

maxilliped is flattened and is fringed with tufted bristles on either side.

This facilitates drawing in the mud towards the animal, holding the

mud from above during the carrying process, and pushing out the

mud, when the grip of both the chelipeds is loosened.

As the abdominal terga are loosely jointed, the animal can easily

bend its abdomen beneath the thorax and slightly sidewards, a

property of immense importance to a burrowing animal like this

thalassinid.

The last three pairs of legs are rather poorly developed, and as

604 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

such the animal can only crawl sluggishly on land. The pleural

plates, because of their lateral extensions, offer protection to the

abdomen from its ventral side.

Considering the differences in the range of occurrence of these

animals, from low-tide level to far above high-tide level, and the

extreme changes in salinity prevailing in the creek during the monsoon

and summer, it was found necessary to study the effect of submersion,

dessication, and salinity changes, since in nature the animal is exposed

to these conditions in the creek.

Under normal conditions of room temperature (25° to 27° C.) the

animal, when kept outside the water, could survive for only 14 to 16

hours; when submerged in fresh water or in sea water separately for

15 days, it lived equally well.

The structural peculiarities and tolerance to dessication and

extreme changes in salinity indicate that the animal, morphologically

and physiologically, is well adapted for its burrowing mode of life

in the swamps of the creeks.

The local people are afraid of T. anomala because of its grotesque

look and its way of spreading out its chelipeds on the slightest dis-

turbance very much like that of a terrestrial scorpion. Also the first

pair of chelipeds and the abdomen closely resemble the corresponding

parts of a terrestrial scorpion, but there is no poison fang in the

terminal segment of its abdomen.

Economic importance. Johnson quotes Dammerman (1929) who

states that T. anomala is destructive to Nipah seedlings without

specifying whether the destruction is caused as the result of feeding

activity or other activities of the animal.

I have seen the colonies of Thkalassina mounds in Karla,

Sakhartar, and Mazagaon in Ratnagiri, at Vengurla in the Ratnagiri

district, and at Versova and Navha in the Bombay suburban area.

The animal is notorious for causing severe damage to bunds by its

burrowing activities. The paddy fields and backyards of houses in

the proximity of the creeks are also subject to this sort of damage.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am greatly indebted to Dr. L. B. Holthuis of Leiden for his

guidance in identifying the animal and for sending me a photocopy

of the Pearse paper. My grateful thanks to Dr. C. V. Kulkarni for

constant encouragement, to Dr. H. G. Kewalramani for his personal

guidance, and to Mr. M. R. Ranade for helpful suggestions.

THALASSINA ANOMALA (HERBST) IN BOMBAY WATERS

605

REFERENCES

*BATE, C.S. (1888): Report on the

Crustacea Macrura dredged by H.M.S.

Challenger during the years 1873-1876.

Challenger (1888) : 24, 27.

*DAMMERMAN, K.W. (1929): Agricul-

tural Zoology of the Malay Archipelago.

The animals injurious and beneficial to

Agriculture, Horticulture and Forestry

in the Malay Peninsula, the Dutch East

Indies and Philippines, i-xi, 1-473, text

figs. 1-179, pl. 1-40,1 map. (de Bussy,

Amsterdam).

JoHNsoN, D.S. (1961) : The food and

feeding of the mud-lobster Thalassina

anomala (Herbst), Crustaceana 2:

325-326,

MARSHALL, S.M., & Orr, A.P. (1960):

Feeding and Nutrition. In T. H.

Waterman (Ed.): The Physiology of

Crustacea 1 : 227-258, figs. 1, 2. (Acade-

mic Press, New York-London). ;

MAN, J.G. DE (1928) : The Decapoda

of the Siboga Exped. Pt. VII. The

Thalassinidae and Callianassidae collect-

ed by the Siboga-Expedition with some

remarks on the Laomediidae. Siboga-

Exped. Monogr. 39: 1-187, 20 pls.

Pearse, A.S. (1911) : On the habits of

Thalassina anomala (Herbst). Philipp. J.

Sci. Sect. D6: 213-217, pl. 1, figs. 1-2.

* Not referred to in original.

Mosses of Eastern India—IV. Eubryiidae

Series II. DICGRANALES (Contd.): Family

LEUCOBRYACEAE, and Series II]. POTTIALES; Family

C:ALYMPERACEAE!

H. C. GANGULEE

Department of Botany, Presidency College, Calcutta

(With twenty text-figures)

Series II. DICRANALES (Contd.)

Of the three families representing the series DICRANALES in India,

Ditrichaceae (Gangulee 1959) and Dicranaceae (Gangulee 1960) have

already been dealt with. The last family Leucobryaceae is taken up

here.

The family Leucobryaceae is distinguished from the other two families

by the broad costa where one layer of small, green chlorocyst cells is

sandwiched between two or more layers of large, hyaline lJeucocyst cells.

This is a tropical and subtropical family of epiphytes represented in —

eastern India by 10 species in 5 genera which are enumerated below with:

their geographical distribution. All these have been examined by the

author and are described and illustrated in this paper.

Family LEUCOBRYACEAE

KEY TO THE GENERA

1. Midrib prominent with median stereid strand oe Leucophanes

Midrib not prominent, without stereid .. it 2

2. Chlorocysts in 3 layers: dorsal, ventral, and central ;

irregularly 3-4-sided. Leaves in several ranks, narrow

above from a broad geeiee base, highly papillose.

1 The three earlier parts in this series appeared in the Bull. Bot. Soc. Bengal:

I. Eubryinales. Series I. Fissidentales. Vol. 11, No. 2, 1957, pp. 59-84 ;

II. Eubryiidae. Series II. Dicranales. Family Ditrichaceae. Vol. 13, Nos. 1&2

1959, pp. 1-9 ;

III. Eubryiidae. Series II. Dicranales (contd.). Family Dicranaceae. Vol. 14,

1 & 2, 1960, pp. 10-57.—Ebs.

MOSSES OF EASTERN INDIA—IV 607

Chlorocysts in a single central layer with 1 or more layers

of leucocysts on each side. Hyaline lamina forming

a narrow border ee rat a 3

3. Leaves more or less flat above ; chlorocyst cells 3-sided

at least in upper half of leaf ; capsule erect, symme-

trical an sf ue at Octoblepharum

Leaves canaliculate above ; chlorocyst cells 4-sided, each .

at the junction of 4 leucocysts as a 4

4. Capsule on extended seta, ovoid, inclined, asymmetrical.

16 dicranate peristome teeth aN i‘. Leucobryum

Capsule immersed on short seta, hemispherical. Peris-

tome absent. Leaves smaller ie =. Ochrobryum

In the following drawings of the species described, the undermen-

tioned symbols have been used: P,=natural-sized plant ; P,=magni-

fed plant; Ppo=—dry plant; L=leaf; La=leaf apex; Le=leaf base ;

Lsac=leaf base cells ; Lt.s.=t.s. of leaf at middle height; Lat.s.=t.s. of

leaf base ; Lp=perichaetial leaf; Chl=chlorocyst cell; C=capsule;

op=operculum ; Pr=peristome teeth ; Sp=spore.

I. Subfam. LEUCOPHANOIDEAE

LEUCOPHANES Hampe

Whitish green tropical epiphytes with crowded spreading leaves.

Stem without central strand. Leaf with a prominent ‘ midrib’ because

of the presence of a median stereid band. Costa shows one layer of

4-angled chlorocyst cells between 2 layers (there may be more layers near

base) of larger leucocyst cells. Leaf bordered throughout by 2 or 3

rows of very narrow, greatly elongated cells. Lamina wings of hyaline

cells confined to the leaf base only. Fruiting condition rare. Seta

slender, terminal, soon becoming lateral; capsule erect, cylindrical ;

peristome teeth 16, not cleft or striped, papillose; operculum conic-

rostrate ; calyptra cucullate with entire base.

1. Leucophanes octoblepharoides Bridel in Bryol. Univ. 1: 763,

1826,

Syrrhopodon octoblepharis Nees in Schwaegr. Suppl. 4: t. 311a, 1842.

Octoblepharum octoblepharoides Mitten in Voy. Challenger, Bot. 3 : 259,

Short, glossy, whitish green, epiphytic plants turning brown, densely

covered with leaves and forming tufts. Stem without central strand,

+2 cm. long, usually single, sometimes branched. Leaves erect-spread-

ing, linear lanceolate, slightly concave at base and nearly flat above, not

much changed when dry, up to 4 mm. long. Wide costa completely

covers the whole of the leaf in the upper part, becomes narrower at base

(less than 4 of total leaf length) where only it is flanged by a hyaline

lamella ; t.s. of costa shows one layer of 4-angled chlorocysts between

608 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

2 rows of larger colourless leucocyst cells and a median dorsal stereid

band which is prominent as a ‘mid-rib’. Leucocysts at leaf base

‘ww 1°0

He ON

HH ce

ENA

Bee alle

Fig. 69. Leucophanes octoblepharoides Bridel -

measure +1817 p. Leaf bordered all round with 2 to 3 rows of very

long, narrow cells having yellowish, thickened walls. Leaf apex toothed

‘with the percurrent stereid band. Lamina cells hyaline, quadrate to

short rectangular, -—-24 » wide. Fruiting plants not seen.

Distribution. Nepal, Wallich; NEFA, Bor 63; East Bengal, Brihl,

& Sarkar.

Tropical countries spreading from Nepal eastwards to Pacific Islands.

MOSSES OF EASTERN INDIA—IV 609

II. Subfam. LEUCOBRYOIDEAE

LEUCOBRYUM Bridel

General characters as in Leucophanes but without any stereid band in

costa so that there is no prominent ‘ mid-rib’.

KEY TO THE SPECIES

1. Mature vegetative leaves auriculate at base a 2. L. sanctum

Leaves not auriculate ae se oe 2

2. Leaves smooth on back ce # oe 3

Leaves strongly scabrous on back ae sie 4

3. Silky plants with slender flexuose leaves up to 10 mm.

long. Leaf lamina cells elongated and pitted a 3. L. bowringii

Coarse plants with shorter leaves (up to 7mm.). Leaf

lamina cells not pitted, elongated only in the border

rOWS .. i a he i 4. L. nilghiriense

4. Large plants with leaves 10 mm. or more in length and

more than 1 mm. wide “8 A a 5. L. javense

Smaller plants with dense leaves less than 3 mm. long

and with characteristic pattern on back .. ot 5

5. Leaves broader at tip, chlorocyst cells broader, scabrous

cells on back less raised ae bi AH 6. L. aduncum

Leaves narrower and more pointed at tip, chlorocyst

cells narrower (+ 6 / wide), scabrous cells on back

more prominent .. ae ae ey; 7. L. scalare

2. Leucobryum sanctum (Brid.) Hampe in Linnaea 13 : 42, 1839.

Dicranum glaucum var. sanctum Bridel in Bryol. Univ. 1 : 811, 1826.

Dicranum sanctum Nees in Schwaegr. Suppl. 2 : 121, 1826.

Octoblepharum sanctum Mitt. in Proc. Roy. Soc. (1879): 99, 1879.

Leucobryum auriculatum C. Muell. (fid. Geheeb) in Bibl. Bot. : 2, 1889.

Comparatively robust, brownish pale green epiphytic plants in tufts.

Stems up to 3 cm. long, usually branched, without central strand.

Leaves erect to: erect-spreading, flexuose to secund, not much changed

when dry; abruptly lanceolate-subulate from a -+ rectangular base,

canaliculate above, shortly apiculate ; mature leaves on vegetative shoots

distinctly auriculate, up to 4 mm. long (known to be much longer, up to

7 mm. in Java and Philippine specimens) and about 1 mm. wide at base.

Leaves at top and base of vegetative shoots and most leaves on fertile

shoots do not show auricles. Wide costa scabrous on back flanged by

a narrow lamina only at the basal part. T.s. of leaf shows costa with

inner 4-angled chlorocysts sandwiched between 2 layers of leucocysts.

610 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

Leucocysts become several-layered on the dorsal side and 2-layered on

the ventral side at leaf base near attachment with stem. Leucocyst

NV Wy

\ i;

ZEA

LD E206 be eS

CH ay

Wee Sa. f\

p> <> {YS

sebOSOrgns meaete Hs

Fig. 70. Leucobryum sanctum Hampe

(Kurz 2231 and fruiting plant Griffith 39 from Moluccas). LB,-2 = base of a leaf

not showing development of auricle. I = sterile plant ; II = fruiting plant.

cells +48 x33 p at upper part of leaf base becoming smaller towards

base and towards margin. Lamina cells hyaline, rectangular, smaller

than leucocyst ceils, narrower and slightly more elongated at the border.

Cells round the auricle smaller and 2-layered. Perichaetial leaves not

auriculate, much smaller, +2 mm. long and 1 mm. broad at base, sud-

denly tapering from an ovoid base. Terminal, reddish brown seta

becomes lateral by further growth, +1.5 cm. long with an inclined,

strongly strumose, more or less sulcate, asymmetrical capsule -+1 mm.

MOSSES OF EASTERN INDIA—IV 611

long and 0.75 mm. in diameter. Peristome teeth 16, dicranate, finely

papillose with vertical stripes. Operculum conic-rostrellate, bent to one

side. Spores smooth, 10-12 » in diameter.

Distribution. Nepal, Wallich ; Sikkim, Kurz 2231.

Malaysia, Java, Borneo, Philippines, New Guinea, Fiji, Samoa.

3. Leucobryum bowringii Mitten in Musc. Ind. Or. 26, 1859.

° Fig. 71. Leucobryum bowringii Mitten

(I. Gangulee 757 ; Il. Fruiting plant from Japan)

_ Epiphytic silky plants forming dense tufts with branched stems

+1.5cm. long and densely covered with narrow elongated leaves. Leaves

up to 1 cm. long, patent to flexuose, gradually narrowed toalong, narrow,

tubular, acute tip from a wider concave base. Costa wide, smooth at

back, showing one layer of 4-angled chlorocysts between 2 layers of

leucocysts in the upper part ; leucocysts become multi-layered (2 layers

on dorsal side and 1 or 2 layers on the ventral) near the base. ~Leucocyst

cells measure up to 7028 p. Lamina cells narrow, elongated, some-

what incrassate with pitted walls, up to 12 rows at the basal region, grad-

ually narrowing and ultimately vanishing upwards. Perichaetial leaves

smaller (+3 mm. long) with ovate base. Reddish slender seta 1.6 cm.

‘pase

612 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

long, lateral by further growth of branches. Capsule inclined, strumose,

asymmetrical, --1.2 mm. long, lightly plicate.

Distribution. Khasia, J.D.H. & T.T. 1272, 1275; Gangulee 757;

NEFA, Bor 227.

South India, Ceylon, Malaysia, Borneo, China, Japan, Formosa,

Philippines. |

4, Leucobryum nilghiriense C. Mueller in Bot. Zeit. 32: 556,

1854.

L. vulgare Wilson in Hook. J. Bot. & Kew Gard. Misc. 9 : 293, 1857.

——————

= Z ZAL I LZ Z Fz

= SS —=

= = ‘ S SS = =

A XN SSS

LA NX NY Ss

S = ZA ZGEZ ~~ \ ES =

SS ~ = Z a S WS

SS 2 Z MRIS

SS = ZZ

\\ Y

\ \t

¥ WW

YY hh,

"WAAa

IZ Z

VGLZZ

NYY}

s7F ecor

“wus 10:

Fig. 72. Leucobryum nilghiriense C. Muelier

(Foreau 19 from South India)

Dull whitish green plants on tree trunks forming dense tufts with

branched or single stems up to 2.5 cm. long densely covered with usually

erect, sometimes erect-spreading, more or less rigid leaves up to 6 mm.

long. Leaves gradually narrowing from a comparatively broad (+

MOSSES OF EASTERN INDIA—IV : 613

1 mm. wide), ovate, concave base to a rigid, canaliculate, minutely

apiculate apex. Costa wide, smooth on back, with one layer of 4-angled

chlorocysts between 2 layers of leucocysts,.the latter becoming multi-

layered (usually 3 layers on the dorsal and 2 on the ventral side—except-

ing the median region where the layers do not increase) at the base,

Leucocysts -— 42 x 28 » at leaf base. Lamina cells hyaline, 9 to 12

rows at base, gradually decreasing in width towards top ; inner cells

rectangular but 2 or 3 marginal layers at base formed of narrow, elongated

cells ; not incrassate or pitted. Fruiting plants not seen.

Distribution. Sikkim, J.D.H.; Bhutan, Khasia, J.D.H. & T.T. 1277;

Manipur, Deb B/62.

South India, Ceylon, Sumatra, Java, Celebes, Borneo, Philippines,

Tonkin, China, Korea, Japan.

5. Leucobryum javense (P. Beauv.) Mitten in Musc. Ind. Or. 25,

1859.

Sphagnum javense P. Beauv. in Prodr. 88, 1805.

Leucobryum falcatum C. Mueller in Syn. 1 : 79, 1848.

> oO

CAT oo

aane %

SLOT HT OY

Less

Fig. 73. Leucobryum javense (P. Beauv.) Mitten

(Burkill 36345)

614 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

Comparatively large greenish white plants on tree trunks forming

tufts. Stems up to 3 cm. long in these specimens, crowded with falcato-

secund leaves up to 10 mm. long and 1.7 mm. broad at base which do

not change much when dry. Leaves gradually lanceolate from a broader

concave base, tapering into a canaliculate, minutely apiculate point.

Costa wide, scabrous on back in the upper half, with one layer of 4-

angled chlorocysts between 2 rows of leucocysts except at base where

leucocysts on both sides become 2- to 3-layered except at the median

furrow. Lamina cells at base formed of 4 to 5 rows of rectangular

cells next to costa and with 2 to 3 rows of narrow, elongated cells form-

ing a border; gradually narrowing upwards but persisting up to the tip.

Perichaetial leaves much smaller, -- 2.3 mm. long and 1.1 mm. wide

at base. Seta red, apical but pushed to a side by growing branches,

+3 cm. long. Capsule short oblong, a symmetrical, almost horizontal,

strumose, somewhat sulcate when dry. Peristome teeth red, -+ 730

» long, dicranate to two-thirds of length, vertically striped, papillose at

tips. Spores round, smooth, brown, 10 to 15 p» in diameter. Calyptra

conic-rostrate, bent to one side.

Distribution. Nepal, J.D.H. 1270, 1271; Sikkim, NEFA, Burkill

36345 ; Khasia, J.D.H. & T.T. 1276 ; Naga Hills, Bor 363.

NW. Himalayas, south India, Ceylon, Malaysia, Yunnan, Hong

Kong, Java, Borneo, Philippines, New Guinea.

6. Leucobryum aduncum Dozy et Molkenboer in Bryol. Jay.1: 13,

1855-61.

L. brachyphyllum Wilson in Hook. J. Bot. & Kew Gard. Misc. 9: 293, 1857.

~ Greenish brown plants on tree trunks forming tufts. Stem without

central cylinder, branched, up to 2.5 cm. long, densely covered with

leaves. Leaves erect, up to 3 mm. long, iridescent and somewhat falcato-

secund when dry, narrowed from an oval concave base (up to 0.7 mm.

broad) into a short, canaliculate tip. Costa wide, prominently scab-

rous on back showing a distinct pattern, with one layer of 4-angled

chlorocysts between 2 layers of leucocysts which later become 4-layered

(2 layers on each side) at leaf base. A narrow lamina of 3 to 4 rows of

hyalocysts at base which become narrower but still persist in the upper

part. Leucocyst cells at base up to 67 x 20 3; lamina cells also rect-

angular but smaller, becoming narrow and rhomboid at the margin,

not incrassate. Fruiting plants not seen.

Distribution. Nepal, Hooker, Gollan 2115.

South India, Malaysia, Java, Borneo.

MOSSES OF EASTERN INDIA—IV 615

EFS

Fig. 74. Leucobryum aduncum Dozy et Molkenboer

(Gollan 2115). P (inset) and La show pattern on leaf back due to scabrous

nature.

7. Leucobryu scalare C. Mueller in Micholitz, Musci Philipp.

No. 173 & Paris, Index Bryol. Suppl. 230, 1900.

Light yellow-green plants on tree trunks forming dense tufts. Stem

usually with several branches, densely covered with leaves, up to 2 cm.

long. Leaves more or less bent to one side (sometimes erect), more

strongly so when dry; up to 2.45 mm. long and 0.74 mm. wide at

middle ; leaf base elongated, elliptical, suddenly narrowed from middle

to a canaliculate tip which is more pointed than in L. aduncum. Narrow

transparent lamina on both sides become narrower towards base and

apex, shows 5 to 6 rows in the middle of the leaf of which the outermost

2 to 3 layers are of long (159 « ), narrow prosenchymatous cells with

perforated walls, while the inner 2 to 3 layers are rectangular (up to

35 x 20 p ) with irregularly thickened walls. All the inner part of the

leaf is formed of the broad costa with two layers of leucocysts (cells

+ 44 x 29) sandwiching one layer of narrow, chlorocyst cells as in

L. aduncum but narrower (-- 6 p» wide) in this case. Leaf base shows

more layers of such leucocysts. Costa back prominently scabrous with

the cells on back much more raised than in L. aduncum so that the leaf

tip looks toothed.

616 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

Fruiting plant not known.

Fig. 75. Leucobryum scalare C. Mueller

(Foreau from Palni Hills). Pp (inset) shows scabrous pattern on dry leaf back

and La shows the elevated cells on back.

Distribution. Manipur, Deb B/109.

South India, Malacca, Singapore, Java, Borneo, Philippines, New

Caledonia.

OCHROBRYUM Mitten

Dioicous, whitish green, tufted plants with stems devoid of central

strand. Leaves erect, formed mainly of a broad multi-layered costa

showing one layer of chlorocyst cells (4-angled as in Leucobryum) bet-

ween two layers of leucocysts, bordered by a hyaline lamina. Seta

apical, very short with an immersed, erect, hemispherical capsule. Peris-

tome absent. Calyptra frilled at base.

MOSSES OF EASTERN INDIA—IV 617

8. Ochrobryum nepalense Bescherelle in J. de Bot. 11: 144, 1897.

Schistomitrium gardnerianum Mitten p. p. in Musc. Ind. Or. 26, 1859.

SS SS

= SSS

Fig. 76. Ochrobryum nepalense Bescherelle

(Poilane from Cambodia). Capsule, operculum and calyptra from Bescherelle’s

figures after Wilson

Caespitose erect plants, simple or branched, up to 2 cm. long and

0.5 cm. wide with leaves, densely covered with whitish green, imbricate,

erecto-patent (not much changed but more appressed when dry) leaves.

Leaves up to 3.75 mm. long, with a broad, ovate, sheathing, concave,

-t 0.4 mm. wide base which is about 4 of the total leaf length ; narrow-

ing into a lanceolate upper part with inflexed, concave margin becoming

almost tubular at tip ; apex naircw with a small apiculus. A hyaline

lamina of thin-walled (sometimes porose), elongated, rectangular cells

( 70 p» long) extends on both sides of costa from base to at least the

middle of the leaf, 7 to 8 rows of these cells are seen at the leaf base.

Costa flat, brownish green, occupying most of the leaf at base and all

of it at the tip with two layers of leucocyst cells (up to 56 x 23 p) at leaf

base. These cells are smaller at leaf apex. Perichaetial leaves shorter.

Seta very short (+ 1 mm. long), apical, erect, reddish at base, with a

stout vaginula. Capsule immersed, hemispherical, cup-shaped, without

peristome. Operculum conic-rostrate. Calyptra narrow, very much

elongated, base fimbriate.

Differs from O. kurzianum in the shorter operculum and from other

species in the narrow leaf apex.

Distribution. Nepal, Wallich.

Cambodia.

618 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

Subfam. OCTOBLEPHAROIDEAE

OCTOBLEPHARUM Hedwig

Autoicous, greenish white, tufted, epiphytic plants with stem devoid

of central strand. Leaves formed mainly of a broad, thick (multi-layered)

costa formed of one layer of chlorocyst cells (3-angled, at least in upper

parts) between several layers of leucocysts ; bordered with a narrow,

hyaline lamina only at base. Capsule erect, symmetrical. Peristome

teeth 8 or 16 (8 pairs). Calyptra cucullate, entire at base.

9. Octoblepharum albidum Hedwig in Sp. Musc. 50, 1801.

Bryum albidum Linn. Sp. Pl. 1583, 1762-1763.

=sEet

ESI

Fig. 77. Octoblepharum albidum Hedwig

'(Gangulee 3004)

- Autoicous, greenish white plants up to 2 cm. high, forming tufts on

tree trunks. Stem usually only 5 mm. and not branched but may be

longer, without central strand. Leaves more or less crowded, erect-—

spreading, rigid, not changed when dry, usually forming a rosette near

tip, -- 5 mm. long, ligulate from a wider and concave + sheathing base,

more or less flat above, apiculate at tip where it may be minutely serrulate.

Costa wide, smooth on back, with a median row of triangular chlorocyst

MOSSES OF EASTERN INDIA—IV 619

cells between 5 to 6 layers of leucocysts in the middle of the leaf and 2

such layers on the sides. Leaf base flanked by 5 to 9 rows of hyaline

laminar cells of which inner rows are rectangular (about 30 » wide) like

the leucocyst cells and the border 2 rows are narrow linear to rhomboidal.

_ The outer linear rows persist to the tip of the leaf. Seta straight, apical,

+5 mm. long. Capsule erect, oblong-ovoid, symmetrical ; urn —+

0.8 mm. long x 0.45 mm. in diameter ; 8 yellowish peristome teeth, not

split but showing longitudinal line of fissure, each 110 » long and 67 p

wide at base, formed of short rectangular cells. Operculum conical,

-$ to 2 of urn in height. Calyptra cucullate, entire at base, reaching

about two-thirds down the urn. Spores light brown, finely papillose,

19.5to 21 windiameter. Fruiting in October.

Distribution. Nepal, Wallich, Jap. Expdn. 65721 ; Sikkim, Hooker

1280, Gammie 24, Dr. King ; West Bengal Himalayas, Kurz 2479, Gan-

gulee 741, 3004 ; Lower Bengal, Gangulee 3079, 3096 ; NEFA, Burkill

37027, Bor 154 ; Manipur, Deb B/125.

Cosmopolitan all over the tropics.

Subfam. ARTHOCORMOIDEAE

EXODICTYON Cardot

Dioicous, tufted whitish green plants with stems devoid of central

strand. Leaves narrow from a broader sheathing base, spread out in

several rows, formed mainly of thick costa rounded at back, triangular

at apex, usually papillose showing three layers (dorsal, ventral, and

median) of chlorocysts and several layers of leucocysts in between;

bordered by a hyaline lamina which is very narrow above. Seta slender,

capsule erect cylindrical. Peristome of 16 undivided papillose teeth.

Calyptra cucullate, entire at base.

10. Exodictyon blumii (C. Muell.) Fleisch. in Musci Archi. Indici

No. 58, 1899.

Leucophanes blumii C. Muell. in Syn. 2 : 537, 1851.

Branched or unbranched whitish green plants in loose tufts. Stems

greenish, | to 3 cm. long and up to 0.7 mm. wide with the evenly spread

and feathery (but in several ranks) erecto-patent leaves which are not

much changed when dry. Leaves up to 3.6 mm. long, linear from an

erect, concave, sheathing, elongated-oval base (about 4 of leaf length),

+ 0.33 mm. wide ; leaf margin serrulate, spinously serrate at leaf shoul-

der ; leaf apex blunt, often showing filamentous gemmae (-E 165 p long)

on the tip. Leaf bordered from base to apex by 2 to 4 rows of very

620 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

elongated, narrow, incrassate cells ; the teeth, where present, are out-

' side this border—these cells are wider at the leaf shoulder while the

lumens are almost non-existing near the tip. Brownish green costa narrow

(-E 66 » broad) at base, spinose on both surfaces and shows three layers

of 3-to 4-angled chlorocysts with hyaline cells in between in cross section.

Hyaline lamina cells 6 to 8 rows (-- 33 x 10 p) at base ; somewhat wider

(-- 16.5 » wide) at the shoulder, smaller (-: 24.5 x 9.5 ») and gradually

reduced to only one row near tip. Seta red-brown, erect, + 4 pw long.

Fig. 78. Exodictyon blumii Bescherelle

Sterile plant from Type (Fleischer 58 from Java). Fertile plant Everett from East

Indies ia

Erect, ovate, red-brown capsule + 0.8 mm. long and0.3 mm. in diameter

with a distinct apophysis 0.2 mm. long.

The external and internal appearance of the costa is a distinctive

feature. : |

Distribution. NEFA, Bor 216.

China, Malay, Java, Borneo, Celebes, Philippines, Oceania.

MOSSES OF EASTERN INDIA—IV 621

Series III. PoTTIALES

Family CALYMPERACEAE

The third series POTTIALES in PFLANZENFAMILIEN (Brotherus 1924) is

represented by the families Calymperaceae and Pottiaceae in eastern

India.

The family Calymperaceae is identified by the large hyaline cells in

the inner leaf base forming the ‘cancellinae’. Capsules are erect.

Peristome missing or with 16 teeth. Calyptra completely covering

capsule. The family is represented in eastern India by 10 species in 3

genera which are enumerated below. All these (including one new

species) have been examined by the author and are fully dealt with here.

Family CALYMPERACEAE

KEY TO THE GENERA

1. Leaves with a hyaline border, peristome present 83 2

Leaves without hyaline border, peristome absent e Calymperes

2. Hyaline border narrow, seta terminal S, ws Syrrhopodon

Hyaline border broad, seta terminal on side branches Thyridium

In the following drawings, in addition to those used in the previous

family, the following symbols have been used: G=gemmae; Le=leaf

bearing gemmae ; cal=calyptra.

SYRRHOPODON Schwaeg.

Small to medium-sized epiphytes with more or less erect main stems.

Leaves linear-lanceolate to lingulate from an erect sheathing pale base,

usually with a narrow, hyaline or thickened border. Upper leaf cells

small, papillose ; inner basal cells large, hyaline, forming cancellinae.

Perichaetia not differentiated. Capsule erect, cylindrical. Peristome of

16 papillose teeth. Calyptra cucullate.

KEY TO THE SPECIES

Cancellinae extending to above midleaf oe oe 1. S. rufescens

Cancellinae confined to leaf base .. i: oe 2. S. gardneri

1. Syrrhopodon rufescens Hooker et Greville in Brewster, Edinb.

J. Sci. 3: 227, 1824.

Leucophanella rufescens (Hook. et Grev.) Fleischer in Musc. Flor. Buitnz.

1 : 200, 1902.

S. revolutus Dozy et Molkenboer fide Mitten in Musci Ind. Or. 39, 1859

but considered different by subsequent authors.

622 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

Be r ~

caer Reageeten

we Ga" ||| WOH

sess ll Bageeeney

a Oeney|| Beans yraet

HO ADT 695559522,

EOOAY MNT OR

Smee |'1|||| Beccetzeze

CH (]) | (avaesgen es

ga | PLIST

ee enil|| AY

i o,

| lgusstceree

Lf HAH

ede

2 eed Y

| ‘ e 000% t

; I Beices

S "all cance

WN a Dieircrs|

3] Nwy MG AL] I | ( Ket

2] NAY e284 | 1 erases

" sah (gives

Ni : | | | 5 recy

| 9 WN erat

p yy WY r mee

Wt ; | ae | i AN

} (| i Bey

LN Q i aves

[) | Wee

\\ WN Vt Y

WW WY WG WZ WY, wall

SW WA, Wr \~\Y YW YY S/O

WW WB SVAN WW? Si)

7 NVA" al

/ G Ly Sw); |

WV; Z WH)

| Wi Me

ma \\N NW

| NY Wi ©

EN /Z Mi :

VY W |

WH y Wo

Fig. 79. Syrrhopodon rufescens Hooker et Greville

Wallich from Nepal

Subgenus Orthophyllum C. Mueller=Section Leucophanella Bes-

cherelle=Genus Leucophanella Fleischer. Dioicous, glossy, greenish

brown, dichotomously branched (stem up to 1.5 cm. long) plants with a

reddish (rufescent) tint and white leaf bases forming epiphytic tufts and

densely covered with erect leaves whose tips become flexuose and con-

torted when dry. Leaves up to 2 mm. long and 0.22 mm. wide at base,

narrow lanceolate, gradually acuminate from the hyaline base, carinate-

concave ; bordered all round with 3 to 1 row of elongated, narrow,

hyaline cells; margin + flatand entire. Costa without deuter, rough at

top of cancellinae, narrow, percurrent. Cancellinae of large (up to

60 x 28 ~), rectangular, hyaline cells reaching very near tip covering more

than # of leaf length. Chlorophyllose cells at tip subquadrate, incrassate,

“ww |"

MOSSES OF EASTERN INDIA—IV 623

papillose. Seta terminal, very slender, 6 to 7 mm. long, usually straight,

sometimes sinuous. Capsule erect, small, oval, 0.65 mm, long and

0.36 mm. in diameter. Fruiting about February.

Distribution. Nepal, Wallich.

Malay, Indian Archipelago, Java, Philippines.

2. Syrrhopodon gardneri (Hooker) Schwaeg. in Suppl. 2 (2): 110,

1826.

Calymperes gardneri Hooker in Musc. Exot. Pl. 146, 1818.

Syrrhopodon curranii Brotherus in Philip. J. Sci. C5 : 142, 1910.

Cleisostoma gardneri Bridel in Bryol. Univ. 1 : 155, 1826.

Weisia macclellandi Griffith in Not. 408, 1849, and Jcon. Plant. Asiat.

22 €, 18; 1849,

CoSsos

Ook vee

See cen

PEE Ry ACY

Seng ht

IIOan als

ON j

OSODG,

AMA

Fig. 80. Syrrhopodon gardneri (Hooker) Schwaeg.

(Gangulee 2480). Pa = plant apex with sprouting plants on leaf-tips ; La-1 =

gemmae on leaf-tip; La-2 = protonema-like germination of such gemmae. Lec

shows top of cancellinae and leaf margin. Papillae not shown,

624 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

Subgenus Orthotheca Bridel, Section Paracalymperes Fleischer.

Dioicous. Tufted, dull green, epiphytic plants with usually single,

sometimes dichotomously branched stems without any central strand

and up to 1.3 cm. high. Leaves rigidly erect spreading from a slightly

wider sheathing base into a ligulate, carinate lamina ; up to 3.5 mm. long

and 0.7 mm. broad at base ; tip acute. Leaf margin sharply serrate from

slightly above base to apex. Leaf-edge with a triangularly thickened,

double-toothed border from top of base to a little below tip but the border

cells are similar to lamina cells. Cancellinae of about 8 to 10 rows of

hyaline rectangular cells on each side of costa filling most of the leaf

base, except a narrow border of 3-6 rows of smaller hyaline cells, to a

height of about 4 the leaf length with a rounded acute-angled top.

Chlorophyllose lamina cells quadrate to ovate, + 8.5 p» in diameter,

slightly elongated (- 11 p» in diameter) below, papillose and obscure.

Costa narrow, with deuter cells in cross section, ending in a number of

spines slightly below apex. Fruiting plants not seen. Specimen 2480

from Darjeeling copious development of elongated gemmae from leaf-

tip. These gemmae also show protonema-like growth in situ and young

plants are seen to develop on leaf-tips.

Distribution. Nepal, Gardner, Wallich ; Bengal Himalayas, Gangulee

2480, 4965 ; Bhutan ; Khasiya, J.D.H. & T.T. 124.

NW. Himalayas, Ceylon, Siam, Java, Borneo, Philippines.

THYRIDIUM Mitten

Main stem creeping with erect shoots. Leaves oblong or lingulate

from an erect, sheathing, hyaline base. Hyaline border of elongated cells

broad and extending above middle of leaf; upper lamina cells small,

incrassate, papillose, distinct from border and the hyaline cancellinae

at leaf base. Seta terminal on lateral branches. Peristome teeth

papillose. Calyptra cucullate.

KEY TO THE SPECIES

Fasciculated plants more than 1 cm. high an e. 3. T. fasciculatum

Shorter plants less than 1 cm. high oe ew 4. T. piluliferum

3. Thyridium fasciculatum (Hooker et Greville) Mitten in J. Linn.

Soc. 11: 189, 1869.

Syrrhopodon fasciculatus Hook. et Grev. in Brewster, Edinb. J. Sci. 3 : 225,

1824.

Codontoblepharon fasciculatum Dozy et Molkenboer in Bryol. Jav. 1 : 53,

1856.

MOSSES OF EASTERN INDIA—IV 625

Calymperes fasciculatum Mitten (non Dozy et Molk.) in Musc. Ind. Or.

41, 1859.

SS\ai\\

SSN

ww Q|

SSS

)

(oh

Se a

BEE

IIL

CEE HE

LEE

LEELA

SASS

IIb

EZ 4

Zs Z

—ez

(Aa

(LE

Wy. *

A YY

~ YW

V/ Ww IN ae WE 4

WP VELA fea

NN VA WN iz fi

Fig. 81. Thyridium fasciculatum (Hooker et Greville) Mitten

Wallich from Nepal

Dioicous. Epiphytic, more or less robust plants infascicles. Shoots

‘up to 2cm. long. Leaves erecto-patent, + 3 mm. long and 1.5mm. broad

in the widest region ; canaliculate and slowly tapering from a wide,

sheathing, concave base ; tip acute and somewhat flexuose when dry ;

margin undulate but almost flat. A wide border (+ 90y broad at leaf base)

of about 9 rows of elongated (-t 56 x 10 y at base), hyaline cells is promi-

nent. It narrows gradually and vanishes quite nearleaf-tip. Triangular

cancellinae of about 24 rows of hyaline, elongated cells, longer ones up

to 56X17 p, + 0.75 mm. high and 0.55 mm. wide at top on each side of

costa. Chlorophyllose cells small, oval to subquadrate, incrassate,

multipapillate, +5 » wide. Leaf margin denticulate at sheath, serrate

near tip. Costa narrow, percurrent, rough on back near tip. Fruiting

plants not seen.

626 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

Distribution. Nepal, Wallich. | |

South India, Ceylon, Malacca, Indian Archipelago, Java, New

Guinea, Australia, Samoa, Chili.

4. Thyridium piluliferum (Dixon) Gangulee, comb. nov.

Syrrhopodon pilulifer Dixon in J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 39 : 769-795, 1937.

ay Y} y Nip Le e

VA ne WS

Y Pie i

on WAGe GN

ONY, s) WG

») Cap@@er x

ee ET SEN

Y aaa Was SHAS

SS : =

1 es

BG 8a58 ee ; ‘

o rua gA aN

a AY i

aT Wr m iy

U ra)

e2e~

Fig. 82. Thyridium piluliferum (Dixon) Gangulee

(Bor 46—Type). G shows gemmae

is;

ie)

Corticolous olive-green plants ramifying on bark giving rise to erect

shoots 3 to 7 mm. high and - 4 mm. wide with leaves. Dense erecto-

spreading leaves, oblong lanceolate, up to 2.5 mm. long and 0.87 mm.

wide at the wider base; margin wavy, almost smooth, apex acute,

minutely denticulate. Dry leaves curled or falcate. Costa brownish

at base, yellowish above, smooth, + 55 » wide at top of cancellinae.

Broad margin — 60 » wide at top of cancellinae showing 14 to 16 rows of

narrow, elongated, incrassate, cartilaginous cells, + 45 p» long; this

broad. border spreads from base to a little below tip, narrowing at both

ends. Transparent cancellinae horizontal on top, + 550 » high, formed

of large, thin-walled rectangular cells up to +45 x12 ».. Chlorophyllose

cells above small (- 5 wide), oval to subquadrate, somewhat incrassate,

papillose though not obscure. Spherical multicellular gemmae 20 to

MOSSES OF EASTERN INDIA—IV. 627

30 » in diameter on upper leaf surface, specially on the upper half. Small

fusiform apical gemmae as well as filamentous growth noticed on tips of

some mature leaves.

Fruiting plant not seen. Dixon reports seta + 5 mm. long and minute,

erect to nodding capsule.

Distribution. NEFA, Bor 46.

CALYMPERES Swartz

Epiphytic plants forming tufts. Leaves lanceolate or ligulate, curled

when dry. Costa stout, usually gemmiferous in the tips of upper leaves

which are longer and narrower than the lower. Chlorophyllose lamellar

cells small. Border usually thicker and often with submarginal elongated

cells forming tenioli. Cancellinae of lax, hyaline cells prominent in leaf

base. Seta and capsule erect. Peristome absent. Calyptra large,

covering complete capsule, pleated, often scabrous on top, usually

persistent.

KEY TO THE SPECIES

J. Sturdy plants + 3cm. high .. SA .. 10. C. heterophyllum

Slender plants usually up to 1.5 cm. high .. 2 Z

2. Tenioli not developed on lamina Ne .. 5, C. tenerum

Tenioli prominent on lamina .. 5s ay 3

3. Cancellinae top scalariform, dry leaves falcate inflexed.. 6. C. burmense

Cancellinae top rounded or rectangular, dry leaves

curled ie oe oe 4

4. Base of normal leaf rounded oval, broader than lamina;

apex broadly pointed or rounded ns .... 7. C. hampei

Base of normal leaf rectangular, as wide as lamina ; apex

rounded ca ae e ah .. 8. C. calcuttense

Base of normal leaf narrower than lamina ; apex round-

ede nee. ate 56 a3 .. 9. C. noakhalensis

5. Calymperes tenerum C. Mueller in Linnaea 37 : 174, 1871.

C. dozyanum Bescherelle (non Mitt.) in Amn. Sci. Nat. Bot., Ser. 8,1: 264 & 283,

1896.

Subgenus AHyophilina. Section Stenocycla. ODioicous. Plants

forming tufts of green epiphytic plants with stiff leaves which soften on

getting wet. Plants usually short with rosette-like spreading of leaves on

top ; stem simple, may be up to 6.5 mm. long with erect leaves + 2.5 mm.

long and 0.5 mm. broad which are curled and incurved when dry. Normal

leaves lingulate, base not broader than lamina, apex obtuse. Upper

wir. -

628 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

‘ww |°0

———

Coles

AONE

ekox yoy

ee A ecad

(O PKo) Fi EERE ea Ml

Eo ' ailenne ||

1 ‘Gain |

Lge See) |

ee aie

_ Fig. 83. Calymperes tenerum C. Mueller — | |

(Gangulee 774). Lea-I & Lea-II show normal and abnormal tips of gemmiferous

leaves. Right hand P, figure shows top view of a cluster of plants.

. MOSSES OF EASTERN INDIA—IV 629

gemmae leaves longer and narrower at top, + 3 mm. long and 0.7 mm.

broad at base (sometimes even broader). Chlorophyllose lamina cells

hexagonal to quadrate, swollen with one or several coarse papillae, +

5.5 » wide, 5.5.-7 « long. Leaf margin smooth at tip, may be slightly

denticulate at base. Cancellinae within leaf base, + 0.75 mm. high,

of about 10 rows of pellucid, elongated, rectangular cells on both sides of

costa ; cells very large (+ 13037 p) near costa gradually becoming

natrower towards margin and. bordered by about 6 rows of elongated,

very narrow cells at the margin, 2 rows of these cells may extend to a little

above the base as very short tenioli. Costa prominent, percurrent

in normal. leaves but excurrent into a club-like structure (which

may branch by splitting in some cases) in gemmiferous leaves bearing

the radiating brood bodies in star-like clusters. Gemmae 13436 up,

green, germinating from tip forming a protonemous hypha. Not known

in fruiting condition in this area.

Distribution. Bengal, Kurz ; Gangulee 774, 2436, 3057, etc. all from

Calcutta and its suburbs.

Malay, Sumatra, Java, New Caledonia.

6. Calymperes burmense Hampe ex Bescherelle in Ann. Sci. Nat.

Bot., Ser. 8, 1: 279, 1896.

C. crocatum Hampe nom. nud. ex Bescherelle in Ann, Sci. Nat. Bot., Ser.

8,1: 281, 1896.

Subgenus Hyophilina. Section Climacina. Epiphytic plants with

usually unbranched, erect stems upto 1.25 cm. long. Normal leaves

carinate-lingulate with an acute, acuminate apex, up to 2.75 mm. long ;

erect when moist, when dry convolute, falcate-inflexed and twisted. Leaf

base oblong, concave, broader in the upper ones. Chlorophyllose

lamella cells small, quadrate, + 76 yp, papillose but not obscure;

marginal row of same width but slightly longer and denticulate. Cancel-

linae 1 to 1.2 mm. high, formed by about 9 rows of pellucid, quadrate

to rectangular cells (larger ones about 38 x 30 «) descending like a stair-

case and becoming smaller towards the margin, then bordered by about

Trows of hyaline, elongated cells and a marginal layer of small, denticulate

cells. The inner rows of the border extend into tenioli of 2to 3 rows of

elongated cells, 2 to 3 layers in thickness and reaching almost the apex

of the leaf. Lower immature leaves ovate with rounded tip and ovate-

topped cancellinae. Upper gemmiferous leaves more elongated, with

narrower limb, canaliculate, + 4.5 mm. long but the topmost one may

be as long as 6.5 mm. and with a spoon-like extension of the lamina at

the tip. Costa narrow, about 70 » broad, rough on top back, percurrent

in lower leaves but excurrent in a gemmiferous tip in the upper leaves.

Seta apical, straight, short (+ 3 mm. long). Capsule permanently and

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 Syres

630

Fig. 84. Calymperes burmense Hampe

,» 3005)

(Gangulee

completely covered by a pleated hood-like calyptra the top of which is

rough and reddish and the base narrow. Capsule cylindrical, -+- 1.62 x

, with a conic-rostrate operculum about 4 the capsule in height.

0.72 mm.

, 21 to 28 p

papillose

light pellucid brown,

Spores

Fruiting in October.

Peristome absent.

in diameter.

, Gangulee 3005; NEFA, Bor 2,

Bengal Himalayas

Distribution.

- Burma.

<i ae

MOSSES OF EASTERN INDIA—IV US.631

7. Calymperes hampei Dozy et Molkenboer in Bryol. Jay. 1: 48,

1856.

4 Calymperes sandeanum Bescn. in Ann. Sci. Nat. Bot., Ser. 8, 1 : 303, 1896.

Calymperis naumanni Besch. ibid. : 294.

Calymperes varium Mitt. in Mason, Burmah, its People & Products, ed.

2 : 50, 1883 nom. nud.

“ww 1-0

tuts. SY) )

We IG u s |

ie US PD

xa)

io)

OLS

pO}

ROsSe

QSOS

"ww CO}

Fig. 85. Calymperes hampei Dozy et Molkenboer

(Fleischer No. 64 from Java). P in P., shows a young plantling developing at leaf

tip. Ls is leaf base at top of cancellinae.

Subgenus Hyophilina, section Eurycycla. Caespitose, green, epiphytic

plants with usually unbranched dark brown stems; most plants

up to 1 cm. long but some old plants up to 2 cm. long, covered. with erec-

to-patent leaves which are strongly curled when dry. Leaves up to

3.25 mm. long ; sheathing leaf base broad (up to 1 mm. wide), whitish,

carinate ovate, about 4 of total leaf length ; upper lamina broadly lan-

ceolate, margin finely denticulate, apex usually broadly rounded and

then pointed with the excurrent vein. Chlorophyllose lamina cells

very small (-- 5 » wide), irregularly quadrate, slightly incrassate, with

short coarse papillae ; marginal row of cells longer (+ 12 p» high) and

632 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

Causing serration almost throughout the leaf length. Cancellinae +

1 mm. high with rounded ovate top, formed of up to 13 layers of hyaline,

wide lighted, thin-walled, rectangular to square cells (up to 69 x 34 p

at middle near costa), somewhat irregular at top where it meets lamina

cells. Tenioli extend to near leaf apex, formed of 2 to 3 layers of

elongated, narrow, hyaline cells at top of cancellinae, reduced to one

layer at top but extending to 7 or 8 layers at middle of leaf base, again

narrowing to 4 or 5 rows at extreme base. 6 or 7 rows of marginal

cells (similar but slightly bigger than the small lamina cells) beyond

tenioli at top of cancellinae, gradually decreasing and vanishing at base

but the margin layer of denticulate cells may be traced almost halfway

down the leaf base. Costa light brown, rounded in lamina, excurrent

into a gemmiferous tip. Tips of upper gemmiferous leaves often ex-

panded like spoons. Gemmae elongated, narrowly club-shaped ; -b

133 x 10 with about 10 cells in a linear row. Gemmiferous leaves also

show young plants developing on the leaf tips. Fruiting plants not seen.

Distribution. NEFA, Bor 173.

Burma, Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Timor.

8. Calymperes calcuttense Bartram et Gangulee sp. nov.

Sessa

Tae)

EES

Vy,

esEennmAnnMMledar

C1 1 tate

Tess

eel

SEED 0.1 mm.

Fig. 86. Calymperes calcuttense Bartram et Gangulee sp. nov.

(Gangulee 3067)

Pertinet ad subgen. Hyophilina, sect. Eurycycla. Herba laxa, viridis,

epiphytica, culmis ad 1.2 cm. longis, crescens simul cum Taxithelium

MOSSES OF EASTERN INDIA—IV 633

nepalense (Schwaegr.) Broth. Folia ordinaria erecta vel erecto-patentia

cum madida, inflexa et curvata cum sicca, ad 3.5 mm. longa, 0.75 mm.

lata, late ligulata ex basi concava, quae lamina latior non est, margini-

bus plus minusve planis, minute denticulatis, apicibus latis etrotundatis. .

Tenioli eminentiores in inferioribus foliis, apicem fere attingentes.

Cancellinae -- 0.75 mm. altae, apice rotundato vel ovato, efformatae

seriebus 12 ad 14 cellularum rectangularium hyalinarum magnarum

(usque ad 49 x 18 w) ad utrumque latus costae ; cellulae minores evadunt

in apice ipso atque admixtae sunt cellulis superioribus chlorophyllosis

lamellatis, circumdatae seriebus -t senis cellularum hyalinarum elon-

gatarum, quarum eae ad seriem marginalem tantum pertinentes breviores

sunt atque denticulatae. Costa angusta, + 85 p lata, percurrens, papil-

losa ad dorsum. Laminarum cellulae minutae, quadratae, + 8 p latae,

densae et papillosae. Folia gemmifera angustiora atque plus elongata,

canaliculata per totum, usque ad 4.8 mm. longa, 0.36 mm. lata ad_ basin,

quae est latior, fastigata supra ; apices dilatantur ad modum cochlearis,

ibique gemmae includuntur ; cancellinae cellularum magnarum (ad

85 x 20 p) hyalinarum rectangularium ad utrumque latus costae, ovatae

supra, margine constante e sena vel septenta serie cellularum nonnihil

elongatarum et serie marginali cellularum minutarum denticulatarum.

Tenioli unius seriei ex superiore parte cancellinarum fere ad apicem.

Cellulae superiores chlorophyllosae quadratae, + 9 » longae, gradatim

minores ex costa ad marginem, densae, papillosae. Gemmae

+ 158 x 38 p, sed nonnullae ad 425 p» longae. Capsulae ignotae hoc

in loco.

Typus lectus ab H.C. Gangulee ad Sonarpur prope Calcuttam mense

novembri anni 1957 et positus in Presidency College, Calcutta sub

numero Gangulee 3067; isotypus positus in herbario Bartrami in

U.S.A. sub eodem numero Gangulee 3067.

Subgenus Hyophilina; Section Eurycycla. Lax green epiphytic

plants with stems up to 1.2 cm. long, simple or branched, growing mixed

with Taxithelium nepalense (Schwaegr.) Broth. Normal leaves erect to

erecto-spreading when moist, curled and twisted when dry; up to 3.5 mm.

long and 0.75 mm. wide, broadly ligulate from a concave, rectangular

base which is not broader ; margin more or less flat, minutely denticu-

late ; apex broad and rounded. Tenioli more prominent in lower leaves,

reaching almost the apex. Cancellinae + 0.75 mm. high, top rounded

to ovate, formed of 12 to 14 rows of hyaline rectangular cells (up to

49 x 18 ») on both sides of costa, cells becoming smaller just at the top

and merging with the upper chlorophyllose lamellar cells, bordered by

about 6 rows of elongated hyaline cells of which the border row cells

are shorter and denticulate. Costa narrow, + 85 yw wide, percurrent

papillose back. Lamina cells small, quadrate, + 8 » wide, dense and

papillose and subobscure. Gemmiferous leaves narrower and more

634. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

- elongated, canaliculate throughout, up to 4.8 mm. long and 0.36 mm.

wide at base which is broader, tapering above ; the tip widens out like a

spoon within which the gemmae are wholly or partly enclosed ; can-

cellinae of about 9 rows of large rectangular hyaline cells (up to 85 x 20)

on each side of costa with ovate top, border of 6 or 7 rows of somewhat

elongated cells and a marginal row of small denticulate cells ; tenioli

of one row from top of cancellinae almost to tip ; upper chlorophyllose

cells quadrate, -- 9 p» long progressively smaller from costa to margin,

dense, papillose. Gemmae + 158 x 38 p» but there are a few as long

as 425 ». Capsules not formed in this locality.

Differs from C. hampei in the oblong-ligulate leaves broadly rounded

at apex and not wider at base. -

Collected by author from Sonarpur near Calcutta in November 1957

and named by E. B. Bartram.

Distribution. Lower Bengal, Gangulee 3067.

9, Calymperes noakhalensis Brihl & Sarkar in J. Dept. Sci. Cal. Uni.

10 : 3, 1929.

Lts.» fe

Fig. 87. Calymperes noakhalensis Brthl et Sarkar

(After Brahl & Sarkar). L,=Ilower leaf, L,=upper normal leaf, Lg=upper

gemmiferous leaf, Lts,,=t.s. of leaf base, Lts.2=t.s. of upper leaf.

Hyophilina. Plants-in cushions of Octoblepharum albidum Hedw.

associated with Leucophanes octoblepharoides Brid. growing on palm

MOSSES OF EASTERN INDIA—IV 635

trees. Stems 10-15 mm. long, densely foliose. Leaves erecto-patent,

flexuose or variously twisted when dry; lower leaves oblanceolate-

spathulate, submucronate at apex due to slightly excurrent costa, +

2 mm. long and 0.5 mm. broad above middle ; middle and upper normal

leaves narrow spathulate or lingulate, rounded at apex, narrow at base,

3.3 to 4 mm. long, 0.6-0.9 mm. broad at upper half, 0:3-0.4 mm. broad

at base ; leaf margin entire or minutely serrulate, undulate, sheathing

part 4 of whole leaf. Abnormal gemmiferous leaves 5-6 mm. long,

-+ 0.1 mm. broad at upper part. Costa 4 of lamina broad at base,

bearing a cluster of small, spindle-shaped gemmae at leaf tip. Costa of

normal leaves not reaching leaf tip. Deuter cells in a median row,

accompanied on the ventral side by two or three similar deuter cells ;

cells on both sides of deuter numerous, much smaller, peripheral cells

on costa papillose on upper half. Boundary between cancellinae and

laminal cells not step-like, cancellinae more or less rectangular, large

transparent cells near costa 38-44 « long, upper crosswalls more or

less oblique, cells broad near costa but the breadth gradually diminishes

towards margin, uppermost cells distinctly shorter. Laminar cells

irregularly quadrate, 8 to 10 » in diameter, papillose. Tenioli extend-

ing from above base to # of leaf length, 3 to 2 rows of 30-40 x 6-10 yp

cells. Marginal cells in two rows, somewhat longer than broad, outer

row Slightly serrulate by projection of upper corners.

Differs from C. hampei and C.moluccense by the leaf base, midrib

not excurrent in normal upper leaves and tenioli of not more than 3

rows.

As the type specimen could not be traced, the description and

figures are based. on those given by the authors.

Distribution. East Bengal, Sarkar.

10. Calymperes heterophyllum (Mitten) Bescherelle in Ann. Sci. Nat.

Bot., Ser. 8, 1 : 286, 1896.

Syrrhopodon heterophyllus Mitt. in Musc. Ind. Or. 40, 1859,

Eucampylopus. Lax caespitose, comparatively sturdy plants with

branched stems up to 3 cm. long, uniformly covered. with erecto-patent

leaves which are curled to falcate when dry. Leaves carinate-lanceolate

with a broad apex, up to 3.2 mm. long and 0.25 mm. wide in the com-

paratively broader, oblong, sheathing, concave base which is about

¢ of the total leaf length. Upper leaves longer, up to 3.6 mm. long

and 0.36 mm. broad in the base which is more abruptly wider in these

leaves. Chlorophyllose lamina cells very small, quadrate, 3 to 5 » wide,

densely papillose with many blunt papillae and obscure; marginal

row of cells bigger (up to 11.2 y in height), clearer and causing a serrate

636 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

margin of the leaf from tip almost to base. Cancellinae + 1.22 mm.

high in lower leaves and 0.9 mm. in the upper leaves formed of up to

= Ss

REDROTEBCR Atos mr

Sag) 5

Dasaya

(ass

]

FSS

pose

Gieae

ie os

Ta)

ie tee erat ee nye Te

= [-} [Fy

ws eas cata ea er cone 2 a

ag Pit On Sees

Fig. 88. Calymperes heterophyllum (Mitten) Bescherelle

(Gardner from Ceylon). Lz at top of cancellinae.

types of leaves.

L, and L, show two different

up to 42 x 33 w nearcosta. Cancellinae top obovate to slightly pointed ;

the hyaline cells are bordered by the tenioli of transparent, narrow,

elongated cells, 3 rows at top of cancellinae, extending to about 8 rows

below. The tenioli bordered on the margin by 4 or 5 rows of smaller

cells as on top lamina, the outermost row of which is the serrulate outer

margin. The tenioli becomes narrower (2 or 1 layer) above the can-

cellinae and extends to a little below tip. Costa rough on back, light

brown, about 61 , wide at base, excurrent into a gemmiferous tip in

all the upper leaves. The gemmae germinate by forming protonema-

like filaments. |

Distribution. Nepal, Wallich.

Ceylon.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author expresses his sincere thanks to Mr. E. B. Bartram,

Mr. A. H. Norkett, Dr. H. Persson, and Dr. J. C. Sen Gupta for their

MOSSES OF EASTERN INDIA—IV 637

kind co-operation ; to Rev. Dr. H. Santapau for kindly preparing the

Latin descriptions and going through the manuscript ; to Dr. Madhuri

Barua for making some dissections, to Mr. L. K. Roy for making the

drawings, and to the authorities of the Indian National Herbarium, the

British Museum (Natural History), the New York Botanical Garden

Herbarium, and the Swedish Riksmuseum for the kind loan of material.

Finally, he acknowledges with thanks the financial support received from

the Council of Scientific & Industrial Research and the Education

Department, Government of West Bengal.

SUMMARY

This fourth paper of the series dealing with the mosses of eastern

India describes the families Leucobryaceae (last family of the series

DICRANALES) and Calymperaceae (first family of the series POTTIALES).

Leucobryaceae are represented in this area by 10 species in 5 genera, viz.

Leucophanes (1 sp.), Leucobryum (6 spp.), Ochrobryum (1 sp.), Octo-

blepharum (1 sp.), and Exodictyon (1 sp.). Calymperaceae are represent-

ed by 10 species in 3 genera, viz. Syrrhopodon (2 spp.), Thyridium (2

spp.), and Calymperes (6 spp. including a new one). AIl these species

(including the new species Calymperes calcuttense Bartram et Gangulee)

are described and illustrated here. Necessary identification keys are

also provided.

REFERENCES

BARTRAM, E. B. (1939): Mosses of

the Philippines. Philip. J. Sci. 68 : 1-423.

BESCHERELLE, E. (1895): Essai sur le

Genre Calymperes. Ann. Sci. Nat. Bot.,

Ser. 8, 1 : 247-308.

Dixon, H. N. (1914): Report of the

mosses of the ae Expedition. Rec.

Bot. Surv. Ind. 6 : 57-73.

(1937) : Niece collected in

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 39:

Assam.

* BrROTHERuS, V. F. in Engler & Prantl

(1924): Die Naturlichen Pflanzenfamilien,

2nd Edition, Band 10. Leipzig.

BRUHL, P. & SARKAR, N. (1929):

The Mosses of Bengal, Ist. contrib.

J. Dept. Sci. Cal. Uni. 10 : 1-12.

Des, D. C. (1955): Mosses of Mani-

pur. Bull. bot. Soc. Beng. 9 : 81-83.

769-795,

FLEISCHER, M. (1900-1902) : Die Musci

der Flora von Buitenzorg 1. Leiden.

GRIFFITH, W. (1849): Icones Plan-

tarum Asiaticarum 2. Calcutta.

MITTEN, W. (1859): Musci Indiae

erential: J. Proc. Linn. Soc. Suppl.,

of,, t.

The Birds of Nepal

| es ee

BISWAMOY BISWAS

Zoological Survey of India, Indian Museum, Calcutta

[Continued from Vol. 60 (2) : 399]

Family DICRURIDAE

748. Dicrurus macrocercus albirictus (Hodgson). Himalayan Black

Drongo.

Dun: Hitaura: 1 imm. ¢ (May 14). CHITLANG VALLEY: Chitlang: 1d

(March 14). NepAL VALLEY: Maharajganj, Kathmandu, Patan, Bandegaon,

Thankot: 4 ¢¢,3 imm. 6, 3 29, 2 imm. 2° (March 21, April 4-14, May 5, 17).

The Black Drongo is very common in central Nepal from about

455 m. up to at least 1370 m. It occurs in and about villages,

gardens, cultivation, light woods, open fields, etc.

It has also been recorded in eastern Nepal by Ripley (1950b,

p. 413) and Biswas (1960a), and in west-central and eastern Nepal by

Rand & Fleming (1957, pp. 104-105).

The males were noticed to chase females in the Nepal Valley from

early April and they were fully breeding from the beginning of May.

By the third week of March the gonads had already started swelling

and in May they were fully developed. Thus, an adult male taken

March 21, had slightly swollen testes, measuring R: 6.5xX4, L: 7x4

mm.; another adult male on April 8 had them more developed

(R: 11X6 mm., L: damaged); the adult male shot on May 5 had

enormous testes (R: 17X11.5, L: 19.59 mm.); and an adult female

taken May 17 was actually laying, there being a broken shelled egg

in the oviduct.

Colours of soft parts: Iris blood red to deep crimson (reddish brown to

brownish red in first year birds); bill, legs, feet and claws black ; pads grey.

Immature specimens:

All the six specimens referred to above as immature are first year

birds. Their plumage corresponds with the description of first year

[ 267 ]

THE BIRDS OF NEPAL 639

birds as given by Whistler (1935, p. 316). Two of the April specimens,

both females taken April 4 and 13, are very similar and appear

younger than the immature May birds. They have the upper side

with very little gloss; rump greyish; upper tail coverts tipped white;

primaries brown; axillaries greyish; under wing coveris tipped white;

underside brownish; abdomen, vent and under tail coverts fringed

with white; irides reddish brown; and non-breeding condition of the

ovaries.

The first year birds of May 5 and 17 are in similar plumage. They

have blacker and more glossy upper parts and sides of the breast;

almost black but not glossy rump; reduced white on the tips of upper

tail coverts; brownish primaries; blacker axillaries; under wing coverts

blacker and with reduced amount of white on the tips; blacker under-

side, the May 17 specimen being more so; reduced white on abdomen

and vent, more reduced on the May 17 specimen; irides brownish red;

testes enlarged (May 5: R: 8X5, L: 8X45; May 17: R: 8X55,

L: 10.5X4.5 mm.). The May 5 specimen was seen chasing a female

in full adult plumage.

It would appear that corresponding with the gradual loss of brown

and white in attaining the glossy black adult dress, there is a change

in the colour of iris from brown of juvenile to blood red or deep

crimson of adult through the addition of increased amount of red

to brown in first year birds (reddish brown, brownish red). It would

further appear that older first year birds (? all, or ? some) do breed.

These factors seem analogous to those of the Blackheaded Oriole,

Oriolus x. xanthornus (see Vol. 60 (2) p. 398).

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill

length depth of fork

Corel oo, 14. 155-2), 159, 166, 167, Slee 59) PL SPAS

156 169,172 — 63 (2) DTOLT CS

SIO: 149, 151, 153 159, 164, 166 48, 55, 56 26 (2), —

Ripley (1961, p. 287) prefers to combine the Asian D. macrocercus

with the African species D. adsimilis.

749. Dicrurus leucophaeus longicaudatus A. Hay. Indian Grey

Drongo.

Dun: Bhimphedi: 2 imm. ¢¢ (March 12, June 18). CHITLANG VALLEY:

Chandragiri above Chitlang: 1 2 (April 18). NepaAL VALLEY: Kathmandu,

Godavari, Thankot: 13 ¢¢, 1 imm. ¢, 3 92 (March 21-April 14, May 10, 20).

The Grey Drongo is very common in central Nepal, more so above

c. 1065 m. It occurs about villages and towns, in gardens and groves,

as well as in light forests.

[ 268 ]

640 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

It was preparing to breed from the third week of March. -The

specimens from this period onwards had their gonads in different pro-

gressive stages of enlargement, until the third week of May when

specimens with fully breeding condition of gonads (eg. o with

16X10 mm. testes) were obtained.

Colours of soft parts: Iris blood. red (brownish red in first year birds) ; bill,

legs, feet and claws black ; pads grey.

Immature specimens:

All the three immature specimens are males in first year plumage. |

Of them, the June 18 specimen appears oldest from the amount of

gloss and white fringes to the posterior ventral feathers. This specimen

had brownish red iris and somewhat enlarged testes (R: 5X3, L:

9x5 mm.); it probably had already bred. The May 10 specimen looks —

a little younger. It also had brownish red iris, and enlarged testes

(R: 9X6, L: 12X6 mm.). The other specimen (March 12) appears

still younger. No notes on the coloration of its iris and the condition

of its gonads are available.

As in the Black Drongo, Dicrurus macrocercus albirictus (p. 639),

this species also appears to breed in the first year plumage.

Unusual behaviour of a first year specimen:

The oldest of the specimens in first year plumage, a male

(Bhimphedi, June 18), indulged in what appeared to be an unusual

behaviour. Three fledglings of the Lesser Racket-tailed Drongo

(Dicrurus remifer tectirostris) were huddled close together on the

branch of a tree, and the first year Grey Drongo was engaged in

aerobatics before them (time: about 9 a.m.; air temperature: about

35° C.). The aerial display consisted of upward flights, followed by

sudden somersaults in midair with dexterous twists and turns, and

finally return to perch on the same branch on which the Racket-

tailed Drongos were perched or on an adjacent branch of the tree.

Each flight was short and in full view of the tiny spectators, and it

was almost constantly uttering a harsh call. From time to time it

also performed the normal sallies for hunting insects. I am unable

to account for the aerobatic flights with certainty. Was it because

the bird (which appeared to have bred for the first time in its life)

for one reason or the other was in a gay mood that it was happily

showing off all it knew about flying to the only ‘spectators it could

find—three baby Lesser Racket-tailed Drongos?

[ 269 ]

THE BIRDS OF NEPAL 641

Measurements?

13 gg 42°

Wing: 137, 138 (2), 139, 140 (3), 141 (2), 134, 135, 136 (2)

141.5, 142, 143, 147

length: 157, 159, 160 (2), 161, 162, 163, 166, 153, 155, 163,—

Tail 167 (2), 170, 175,—

depth of fork : 60, 61, 64 (2), 65, 68 (2), 71, 72, 74, 59, 62, 68,—

1592

Bill: 26 (2), 26.5 (2), 27 G), 27.5 (3), 28 (2),— 25.5, 26, 26.5, 27

750. Dicrurus caerulescens caerulescens (Linnaeus), Whitebellied

Drongo.

Dun; Hitaura: 1 ¢ (June 6).

The Whitebellied Drongo appeared rather scarce in central Nepal.

The single example listed above was the only one found by us.

While Scully (1879, pp. 271-272) found it common in the central

dun in winter, Ripley (1950b, p. 414) and Rand & Fleming (1957,

p. 105) reported it from the western tarai only.

This species was not mentioned in the catalogues of Hodgson’s

collections, but two skins presented by Hodgson to the British Museum,

one from Nepal and the other from ‘Behar’ were listed by Sharpe

(1877, p:,. 253).

My specimen is very worn.

Measurements: 16: Wing 126+.

751. Dicrurus annectans (Hodgson). Crowbilled Drongo.

Dun : Hitaura, Paharé Ghat: 1 3,4 imm. 99 (May 18-June 12).

The Crowbilled Drongo did not appear to be common in central

Nepal. We came across it only occasionally in the deeper paris of

forests of the Hitaura dun, and we found it only singly.

This species does not seem to have been reported from Nepal since

Hodgson’s time, save for the present record.

The immature birds listed above are in the first year plumage. The

May 29 specimen appears to be the youngest of the lot. Its bars on

the underside are broad and very conspicuous. It had, however, a

somewhat enlarged ovary (7.5X5 mm.) with two or three 1.5 mm.

ova. The June 12 specimen had a more enlarged ovary (8X6 mm.)

with the largest ova measuring 2.5 mm.

Colours of soft parts (of first year birds): Iris dark brown; bill, legs, feet, and

claws black; pads yellowish grey.

Measurements : 1 3: Wing 148; tail: length 121, depth of fork 20; bill 30.

[ 270 ] ‘

642 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

In addition to the characters that separate this species from

D. macrocercus, as given by Baker (1924, p. 354), the bill of

‘ ]

H ERT

by Me. oe Wu See

fed = ‘

IN wah, Ti I TSX

Yi \ ~

YN \.

\ . ee)

~ Wa Wi ms Pe

10 20 mm

Fig. 3. Bills of Dicrurus annectans (A) and Dicrurus macrocercus albirictus (B)

showing their characteristic shapes

D. annectans, which is large, heavy (Vaurie, 1949b, p. 266) and more

crow-like, will prove a characteristic feature of distinction (Fig. 3).

752. Dicrurus aeneus aeneus Vieillot. Indian Bronze Drongo.

BuaBAR : Amlekhganj: 1 ¢ (March 8). Dun: Hitaura, Bhimphedi: 2 ¢¢,

1 subad. of, 1 9, 2 imm. 22 (March 12, May 12-15, June 17). NEPAL VALLEY :

Thankot: 1 3, 1 2 (March 25, 28).

The Bronze Drongo is occasionally seen in the forests of central

Nepal. During spring and summer, it occurs singly or in loose parties.

Scully (1879, p. 272) who obtained specimens from the central dun,

noted that ‘it was never observed in the valley of Nepal, but Mr.

Hodgson seems to have obtained it there in summer.’ Ripley (1950b,

p. 414) found it from the tarai up to c. 1220 m. (his single specimen

was taken at Chisapani, c. 275 m., western Nepal). Rand & Fleming’s

(1957, p. 105) examples were taken in western and west-central

Nepal at c. 915-1065 m. in winter.

The two immature females (Hitaura, May 12, 13) were evidently

born early that season. They still have some sooty black down on

the ventral side, and have grown only a few metallic feathers on the

breast.

The Bronze Drongo was breeding in the Nepal Valley late in

March, when males were seen chasing females, and a male specimen

(March 28) had quite swollen testes (R: 9.5x6, L: 11.5X6 mm.).

By June, breeding was over: one male taken June 17 at Bhimphedi

(Dun) had almost non-breeding gonads,

271}

THE BIRDS OF NEPAL 643

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill

; length depth of fork

AeGiGie ez. 127, 128) 119, 120, 123, 126 29°2)-31,.53 22,23, 24:(2)

Deer 125, 126 122, 126 32, 34 23, 23.5

753. Dicrurus remifer tectirostris (Hodgson). Indian Lesser Racket-

tailed Drongo.

Dun: Bhimphedi: 2 ¢¢, 2 fledgling ¢¢, 1 nestling ¢, 2 29, 1 fledgling 9,

1 nestling unsexed (May 4-12, June 18). MARKHU VALLEY: Deorali: 3 ¢¢, 2 99,

1 subad. &, 1 imm. @ (April 28, 29).

The Lesser Racket-tailed Drongo is occasionally seen in central

Nepal. We noted it in small numbers between c. 1220 and 1830 m.

on Mahabharat Range about clearings in the forests.

Scully (1879) and Ripley (1950b) were both unable to locate it in

Nepal, but Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 106) reported it from the western

tarai and the Nepal Valley in January, and Biswas (1960a) from

Ramechhap district, eastern Nepal, at c. J220 m. in January.

The immature female specimen (April 28) is in the first annual

plumage, and the subadult female (April 28) is in the second annual

plumage as described by Vaurie (1949b, p. 271). The three fledglings

(2%, 19, June 18) were huddled close together on the branch of

a tree and evidently belonged to the same brood.

Measurements :

5 3d 49°

Wing :

central feather :

outer feather? (L/R) :

bare shaft (L/R) :

Tail

length of racket (L/R):

140, 142, 144 (2), 149 139, 140 (2), 141

1211, 122, 123, 126, 129° ~ 118,120; 125; 126

397/401, —/444, —/4578" ~ '388/= 2/324.

423/—, 439/443 8508

185/186, 206/202, 206/—, 162/—, —/137, —/140,

—/210, 240/227

90/—, 91/95, —/95,

100/—101, — /105

96/—, —/81+, —/84,

width of racket (L/R): 19/18, 20/—, —/21, —/23, 23/—, —/25, —/25,

22/22 ERA eta

Bill : 26, 26:5,220-2789, 29 26 (55427,21 2220

1 Up to the base of the shaft

754. Dicrurus hottentottus hottentottus (Linnaeus). Indian Haircrested

Drongo.

TARAI: Simra: 2 ¢¢ (March 5). BHABAR: Amlekhganj: 1 subad. ¢, 1 @

(March 7, 9). Dun: Hitaura, Paharé Ghat: 2 ¢¢, 1 imm. 2, 1 nestling 3,

1 subad. 9, 3 imm. 99 (May 27-June 13). NEPAL VALLEY: Godavari: 1 ¢

(May 13).

The Haircrested Drongo is not uncommon in central Nepal. We

observed it to be commoner in the Hitaura dun than in the lower

272]

644 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

regions (the tarai and bhabar) and the higher regions (Bhimphedi dun

upwards). In the Nepal Valley, however, it was seen only once, and

the only other record of its occurrence’ there is by Rand & Fleming

(1957, p. 106) who obtained a single juvenile female on Nagar Jong

in February. It occurs singly in forests.

Rand & Fleming (loc. cit.) have also found it in western, west-

central and eastern Nepal.

_ My nestling specimen (c%, June 13) has black down feathers on the

body. Of my immature specimens, the one taken June 13 (9) appears

to be the youngest: it has downy feathers on the underside. Two

other specimens (9, June 7, <%, June 11), which have all their remiges

and rectrices still growing, are similar to those of adults in

coloration. The female has no crest, very short hackles, almost bare

axilla, tips of outer tail feathers not curling, brown iris, bill horny

black with whitish on the tip, and had non-breeding gonad. The

male appears a little older. It has started getting the crest which

consists of five rudimentary filamentous feathers. Further, it has short

hackles, uncurled outer tail feathers, a few white-tipped pee

dark brown iris, and had non-breeding testes.

The specimen from the Nepal Valley (c‘, May 13) had slightly

enlarged testes (R: 7.53, L: 6.5X3 mm.), but the adults taken in

the duns late in May and early in June, had fully developed gonads.

Colours of soft parts: Iris brownish red to blood red ; bill, legs, feet and claws

black ; pads dark grey.

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill

5 $b: 166.5, 168, 169 (2), 169.5. 143, 144, 146, 147.5, 149 39, 41 (2), 42, 43

ft Qs 168 148 42.5

755. Dicrurus paradiseus grandis (Gould). Northern Large Racket-

tailed Drongo.

TarRAI: Simra: 1 ¢ (March 5).

We found the Large Racket-tailed Drongo rather uncommon in

central Nepal. Our only specimen was taken in the dense forest of

the tarai.

Scully (1879, p. 272) recorded only a captive bird from the lower hills

of central Nepal; Ripley (1950b, p. 414) found it ‘throughout the

Terai’, presumably including that of central region; and Rand &

Fleming (1957, p. 106) had specimens from the lower regions of

western, west-central and eastern Nepal. ,

Measurements : 1 &: Wing 177; central tail feathers 160; outer tail feathers:

left 463, right 468 ; length of racket : left 99, right 100 ; width of racket : left Die

right 28; bill from the anterior edge of nostril 25.

[2735]

THE BIRDS OF NEPAL 645

Family ARTAMIDAE

756. Artamus fuscus Vieillot. Ashy Swallow-Shrike.

Dun: Hitaura: 8 34,5 92 (May 19-25, June 1).

The Ashy Swallow-Shrike did not appear to us to be particularly

common in central Nepal, except about the Hitaura village in the

central dun, where small parties consisting of two to six individuals

were commonly met with. Isolated trees in cultivated fields (of

maize at that time of the year) were noted to be its favourite launching

base in that. area.

Our specimens seem to be the only ones collected in Nepal since

Hodgson’s time. It has not been recorded by Scully (1879) or Rand

& Fleming (1957), but Ripley (1950b, p. 383) who did not collect any

example, found it to be common ‘in the Terai, in open areas, and

up to Bhimphedi’ in central Nepal dun.

My specimens do not fully agree with the description given by

Baker (1924, p. 348), especially in the coloration of the forehead,

chin and throat, and wing. Rather, Deignan’s (1945, p. 516)

description seems to fit them well.

The specimens under report are all more less worn. The tail of

a female (May 22), and the forehead, chin and throat of a male

(June 1) are in moult.

Examples taken on June 1 (o‘<*) had near breeding gonads, R:

B25 x7, 6X45; E+ 5.5X 3, 6X45 mm.

Colours of soft parts : Iris reddish brown to blood red (4); bill bright mauve-

blue with black tip (4); legs and feet slaty, bluish slaty on the back of legs and

sides of feet ; claws«dark horny ; pads white.

Measurements :

| 8 33 599

Wing: 132 (2), 136, 137, 138, 138+, 139, 140 132+, 133+, 134, 138,—

Tail : 56+, 57, 58 (2), 58.5, 61, 62, 64 53+, 54, 56, 57, —

Bill : 22 (3), 22.5 (3), 23, — 2) .(2) 622 (2), 23

Family CORVIDAE

757, Garrulus glandarius bispecularis Vigors. Western Himalayan Jay.

Garrulus bispecularis Vigors, 1831, Proc. zool. Soc. Lond. (1) : 7. (Himalayas,

restricted to Murree, West Pakistan, by Baker, 1922d, p. 63.)

758. Garrulus glandarius interstinctus Hartert. Eastern Himalayan

Jay.

Dun: Bhimphedi: 1 ¢ (March 14). MarKHu VALLEY: Deorali: 1 ae

I juv. 2 (May 2, July 2), CHITLANG VALLEY : Chitlang, Chandragiri above Chitlang:

[ 274].

646 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

4 $¢ (March 15, April 18-21). NEPAL VALLEY : Thankot, Crest of Chandragiri ;

4 $3, 8 22 (March 23-April 14).

The Himalayan Jay is a common bird of central Nepal between

c. 1220 and 2285 m. in pine and oak forests.

The earlier Nepali records of the species are all from central

Nepal, except Stevens’s (1923a, p. 515) who reported it from the Mai

Valley, eastern Nepal, at c. 2590 m. in March, and Biswas’s (1960a)

who observed it in Ramechhap district, eastern Nepal, at c. 1830 m.

in January.

The juvenile specimen (9, July 2) is darker than the adults, and

has some downy feathers on the abdomen and vent.

It was breeding on the Chandragiri during mid-April. One of the

female examples collected there on April 14 had a somewhat exhausted.

ovary with a 13 mm. ovum. Another female taken the same day had

its ovary only partially mature, its largest ovum being only 3 mm. in

a 12X65 mm. ovary. This was, however, an anomalous ovary,

being located on the right side instead of the left (see Biswas, 1961a).

Colours of soft parts: Iris brownish pink ; edges of eyelids dull pink ;. bill

dull black with whitish tip ; legs fleshy ; feet yellowish fleshy ; claws pale horny with

whitish on bases; pads white.

Measurements :

10 3d 8 22

Wing : 158, 164, 165, 166(2), 167, 168, 169(2), 171 158, 162(2), 163(2), 164(3)

Tail : 142, 143, 144, 145, 147, 148, 149, 150(2), 153 135, 139, 140(2), 143, 144, 145,—

Bill : 32(5), 33(4),— 38.5(3); 31:(2),. 31. 5(@); 32

Ripley (1950b, p. 416) and Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 114) have

identified their birds from central Nepal (Nepal Valley) as bispecularis.

Examination of large series from central Nepal shows, however, that

this area lies in the zone of intergradation between the western

bispecularis and eastern interstinctits, all gradations between the two

being found here. While Biswas did not obtain any specimen from

eastern Nepal, Stevens’s examples from that area have been identified

as interstinctus. I am not aware of any known specimen of the species

from western Nepal, but birds from that area will, in all probability,

prove to be bispecularis, for the few skins from eastern Kumaon not

far from western Nepal border, that I have examined, no doubt belong

to the western subspecies.

759. Garrulus lanceolatus Vigors. Blackthroated Jay.

Dun: Bhimphedi: 1 ¢ (March 12). CHITLANG VALLEY: Chitlang: 1 ¢;

1 & (April 17, 19). aay

The Blackthroated Jay was met with by us only on a few occasions

between c. 1370 and 1830 m. in central Nepal. It was found singly

in thinner parts of oak and pine forests,

[275]

THE BIRDS OF NEPAL 647

Scully (1879) was unable to locate it in Nepal. Ripley (1950b,

p. 416) and Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 113) recorded it also from

western Nepal.

Our specimens are worn, those taken in April being more so.

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill

20d: 1554+,158 141,— 28(2)

er: 151 + — Pie he

*760. Cissa flavirostris cucullata (Gould). Western Yellowbilled

Blue Magpie.

*761. Cissa flavirostris flavirostris (Blyth). Eastern Yellowbilled Blue

Magpie.

Scully (1879, p. 328) tound the Yellowbilled Blue Magpie in the

Nepal Valley and Nawakot district, central Nepal. Ripley (1950b, p.

415) reported it from the Tamur Valley, eastern Nepal, at c. 2440 m.

upwards. Smythies (1950, p. 513) found it on Phulchauki Danda,

Nepal Valley, at c. 2440 m. Proud (1952a, p. 361) observed it in the

Gandak-Kosi watershed, central Nepal, at c. 2745 m. Rand & Fleming

(1957, p. 110) recorded it from the Kali Gandak Valley, west-central

Nepal, at c. 2135-2440 m., and in the Maulung Valley, eastern Nepal,

at c. 3050 m.

The few central Nepali skins (Hodgson’s earlier collection, as well

as Scully’s and Bailey’s) of this magpie that I have been able to

examine indicate that this area falls in the zone of intergradation

between the western and eastern subspecies, the specimens showing a

great deal of variation among them. This intergrading zone surely

extends eastward up to at least the Maulung Valley, for Rand &

Fleming’s single specimen thence has been identified as belonging to

the western race. Further eastward, probably from the Arun Valley,

the birds are flavirostris (one Hodgson specimen presented to the

British Museum in 1859, and Ripley’s skins).

It may be pointed out here that Baker’s (1922d, p. 43) description

of flavirostris is not quite accurate for all characters. Thus, the nape

is very pale bluish lilac and not white; the crown feathers are tipped

very pale bluish lilac instead of white in the majority of specimens.

In worn specimens the tips wear off and the feathers appear wholly

black. Furthermore, the culmen cannot be ‘about 65 mm.’ when the

bill from skull in 10 co @ measures 37-42 (av. 40.4) mm.

762. Cissa erythrorhyncha occipitalis (Blyth). Redbilled Blue Magpie.

BHABAR: Amlekhganj: 1 gf (March9). DuN: Hitaura: 2. juv. ¢¢, 2 99,

1 juv. 9, 1 nestling 9 (May 12, 15, June 13-16, July 14). NepaL VALLEy : Godavari,

Thankot :3 ¢¢, 2 99 (April 14, May 10-13).

[276 |

648 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

The Redbilled Blue Magpie is common in certain parts of central

Nepal. ‘Thus, we found a single specimen at Thankot for some days

early in April, while during that period several parties were seen on

the Chandragiri above Thankot. It was, however, very common at

Godavari and above it on Phulchauki Danda during the second week

of May. About Bhimphedi in the dun only a few parties were found,

while it was common in a patch of forest situated between the Karra

and Rapti rivers near Hitaura. js

It occurs usually in small parties of four to six birds. It frequently

feeds on the ground, walking awkwardly with such a long tail (cf.

Rattray’s observation mentioned by Baker, 1922d, p. 42). At Godavari

a party was seen pecking at a baby Himalayan Cuckoo, Cuculus

saturatus, see Part 2 of this series in the Journal 1960 (1961), 57 (3):

541-542, presumably stolen, and on examination it was found to have

severe injuries on its head and abdomen caused by the predators’

beaks.

Lowndes (1955, p. 29) reported it from the Marsiyandi Valley,

central Nepal, at c. 915 m. in September; Rand & Fleming (1957, p.

109) found it in west-central Nepal at c. 610-915 m., and in eastern

Nepal at c. 290 and 915 m. in winter; and Biswas (1960a) observed it

in the Tamur Valley, eastern Nepal, at c. 1525 m. in June.

The two juvenile male specimens (June 15, 16) have no white spots

on the forecrown, have the crown feathers sooty, centre of crown to

nape white, and the tail growing. The juvenile female (July 14) is

similar but with a longer tail. The nestling is also similarly coloured,

but has down on abdomen and vent, and is smaller in size.

The May and June birds are worn.

In May the birds were very noisy and were chasing one another,

presumably males chasing the females. The gonads were nearly ready

in specimens taken May 10-13.

Colours of soft parts: Iris dark brown ; eyelids brownish yellow ; bill, legs and

feet deep orange-red (in a female more orange, less red); claws horny, yellowish

ochre on base ; pads deep orange-red.

Measurements : .

Wing Tail Bill

A\3g% 200, 202,204; 207 440, 461, 464, 469 39, 41, 42(2)

4 92: 194+, 198, 199,— 414+,—(3) 39, 40, 41, 42

763. Cissa chinensis chinensis (Boddaert). Green Magpie.

Dun: Hitaura: 2 6¢,5 92 (May 17-30).

The Greer’ Magpie is not uncommon in the duns of central Nepal.

It occurs in dense forests.

Cerz|

THE BIRDS OF NEPAL 649

Scully (1879) did not record it from Nepal, and Ripley (1950b,

p. 415) and Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 110) found it only in western

Nepal.

The characteristic change of coloration of its plumage from green

to blue in museum skins is commonly believed to be a post-mortem

change. But surely it is not always so. Baker (1922d, pp. 45-46)

noted that such changes might occur in live birds in ill-health or in

captivity. It may be noted here that many specimens even in wild

state (freshly killed) have varying amount of blue on their plumage.

Thus, four of the seven specimens under report had already some

blue on them when alive, and the following notes were made at the

time of skinning:

1. ct, May 17: Crown clear blue: slight blue wash on breast

and abdomen.

2. o, May 30: Head pale blue; underparts washed with blue.

3. 2, May 23: Crown clear blue; slight bluish wash on breast

and abdomen.

4. 9, May 30: Head pale blue; bluish band across breast.

All those skins were re-examined two years afterwards and were

found to have changed considerably in coloration by becoming more

or less completely blue.

The specimens are more or less worn.

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill

I oses at 157,— 202+ ,— 39, 41

SOO 1146:—. 147, 149.--(2) _ 199. 202, 203, (2), ~. 35. 36; 38(2), 39

764. Crypsirina vagabunda vagabunda (Latham). Indian Tree Pie.

TARAI: Simra : 2 99 (March 4).

The Tree Pie did not appear to be common in central Nepal. We

were unable to locate it in the Nepal Valley or in the areas south of it,

except in the tarai and probably also in the Hitaura dun. In the

last-named area once some tree pies were seen at a great distance

nearly at dusk, and am not sure of their identity. Their pale coloration

suggested that they were probably the Indian Tree Pie.

Scully (1879, pp. 328-329) found it fairly common between the

bhabar and Hitaura dun. Ripley (1950b, p. 415) reported it from

the tarai. Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 110) recorded it from c. 275-

1370 m. in west-central and c. 275 m. in eastern Nepal.

Our specimens are worn, one being very much so.

Measurements: 299: Wing 142+, 150; tail 210+, 222; bill 30.5, 31.

Three other skins, all unsexed, from central Nepal (two Hodgson skins in the

British Museum from ‘ Kachar’ and Nepal Valley according to Kinnear’s corrections

[ 278 ]

650 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

made on the labels, and one in the Zoological Survey of India, taken by the

Museum Collector) measure: Wing 147, 152(2) ; tail 226, 227,—; bill 30+-, 31, 34.

As Ripley (loc. cit.) has pointed out, the central Nepal birds are

close to vagabunda in coloration, but a little larger, thus leaning

towards pallida.

765. Crypsirina formosae himalayensis (Blyth). Eastern Himalayan

‘ree Pie,

Dendrocitta himalayensis Blyth, 1865, Ibis (2)1: 45. (Himalayas, restricted to

Sikkim by Ticehurst, 1925, p. 22.)

Dendrocitta formosae sarkari Kinnear & Whistler, 1930, Bull. Brit. orn. Cl. 51:17.

[Anantagiri, Vishakhapatnam (= Vizagapatam) district, Andhra Pradesh. ]

Dun : Hitaura, Kusumtar, Bhimphedi: 4 ¢g,1 juv. g, 1 Q (March 12-14,

May 10-12, June 2, 3). NepAL VALLEY: Godavari, Phulchauki Danda above

Godavari, Thankot: 6 Jo, 5 92 (March 23-April 13, May 10-13).

The Eastern Himalayan Tree Pie is a common bird of central

Nepal from the dun up to the Nepal Valley. A few were also

observed at Amlekhganj in the bhabar. During spring and summer it

occurs singly or in pairs in fairly dense, as well as lighter parts of

forests.

Lowndes (1955, p. 29) found it in the Marsiyandi Valley, central

Nepal, at c. 915 m. in September. Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 111)

recorded it from west-central Nepal at c. 915-1370 m. in winter. In

eastern Nepal, Biswas (1960a) came across it in the Irkhua Valley at

c. 1220-1525 m. and in the Tamur Valley at c. 1525 m. during June.

My May and June specimens are worn.

Birds were chasing one another (presumably males chasing females)

in April and May. The gonads of specimens taken April 1 (Thankot)

and May 10-13 (Godavari) were approaching breeding condition, and

that of June 2 (Kusumtar) was fully developed.

Colours of soft parts: Iris deep crimson or crimson-brown ; bill black (once

with the tip of the upper mandible horny) ; legs, feet and claws very deep horny or

black ; pads grey.

Measurements : .

10 gd ane

Wing: 132+, 138, 144 (2), 145 (2), 146 (2), 147,— 136, 141 (2), 142, 146, 148

Tail : 205, 213, 215, 218,222,232, 235; 243,;—(2)° $202, 210; 212.52 15: 2219223

Bill : 34 (3), 35 (3), 36 (4) 33, 34 (2), 35 (3)

The isolated population of C. formosue in the northern Eastern

Ghats described by Kinnear & Whistler (loc. cit.) as sarkari (with

Anantagiri, Andhra Pradesh, as the type locality) and admitted by

Ripley (1961, p. 311) and Vaurie (1962, p. 248), is said to. differ

from himalayensis only by having a smaller bill. This is not,

however, borne out by my examination of the material of the species

, 279 |

THE BIRDS OF NEPAL

651

contained in the British Museum, the American Museum of Natural

History and the Zoological Survey of India.

three paratypes (with a topotype) of sarkari.

ments of this material are as follows:

W. Himalaya (Chenab Valley to Kumaon): 4 ¢¢:

[= occidentalis Ticehurst, 1925].

PRL

7 unsexed :

E. Himalaya (Nepal to Assam) : 30 3d:

[= himalayensis Blyth, 18651.

20 9°:

32 unsexed :

N. Eastern Ghats? (Jeypore to DOGr:

Anantagiri) :

[= ‘sarkari’ Kinnear & Whistler, 1930]. 12:

4Average measurements are given in parentheses.

Wing

147-156

Gl525)2

149-156

(152.4)

146-155

(150.9)

137-151

(142.7)

137-148

(141.8)

138-150

(141.9)

137, 142

143

Tail

243-260

(253.5)

241-261

(249.7)

231-253

(241.3)

194-228

(211)

192-230

(207.3)

192-227

(209.4)

203, 209

201

This material includes

The standard measure-

Bill

35-375.

(36.5)

35-40

(37.4)

37-40

(38.4)

34-39.5

(36.5)

33.5-39

(36.1)

33-39

(36.5)

34, 35

318)

* Whistler & Kinnear (1932a, p. 517, note), and Abdulali (1949, p. 391) mention

This specimen, an unsexed adult,

a specimen ex Horsfield collection from Madras.

collected by Wight (or ? Wright) is now in the British Museum.

It measures :

151, tail 233, bill 37, and matches the western Himalayan occidentalis.

there must have been some error in the locality of the specimen.

wing

Evidently,

It would appear from the measurements that sarkari fits in well

within the subspecies himalayensis.

Baker’s (1922d, p. 53) measurements of wing (132-140) and tail

(200-210) of ‘himalayensis’

(= occidentalis + himalayensis) ate not

correct, as may be seen from the measurements presented above.

*766. Crypsirina frontalis frontalis (Horsfield).

Pie.

Blackbrowed Tree

The only record of the occurrence of the Blackbrowed Tree Pie in

Nepal is based on Hodgson’s later collection (Horsfield & Moore,

1854, p. 570; Sharpe, 1877, p. 78).

*767. Nucifraga caryocatactes macella Thayer & Bangs.

Nutcracker.

Scully (1879) did not find the nutcracker in Nepal.

Eastern

Stevens

(1923a, p. 516) came across it on the Nepal side of the Singalila

Range, eastern Nepal,

AienG, 20959-3505) Ills

in March-May. Ripley

(1950b, p. 416) noted it in the Tamur Valley, eastern Nepal, at

c. 2590 m. upwards in winter.

[ 280 ]

Polunin (1955, p. 887) reported it

652 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

from the Langtang Valley, central Nepal, up to c. 3960 m. in summer.

Lowndes (1955, p. 29) found it in Manangbhot, central Nepal, at

c. 3655 m. in summer. Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 111) recorded it

from the Kali Gandak Valley, west-central Nepal, at c. 2590-2805 m.

in winter, and in the Maulung Valley, eastern Nepal, at c. 3505 m.

in winter. Biswas (1960a) heard it at c. 3505 m. in the Dudh Kosi

Valley, eastern Nepal, in February.

Biswas (1950a) has shown that the Nepal birds belong to the

eastern subspecies. Vaurie (1959a, p. 159; 1962, p. 257) has come

to the same conclusion. However, Ripley (1961, pp. 312-313) has

referred the Nepal birds to the western race hemispila. oe

*768. Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax himalayanus (Gould). Himalayan

Redbilled Chough.

Like us, Scully (1879) and Ripley (1950b) were unable to find the

Redbilled Chough in Nepal. Polunin (1955, p. 887) reported it from

the Langtang Valley, central Nepal, at c. 3350 m. upwards in summer.

Lowndes (1955, p. 30) noted it in Manangbhot, central Nepal, up

to c. 4875 m. in summer. Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 111) recorded

it from the Kali Gandak Valley, west-central Nepal, at c. 2745-

2805 m. in winter. Biswas (1960a) found it in Khumbu, eastern Nepal,

at c. 3655-4570 m. during February-April. |

*769, Pyrrhocorax graculus digitatus Hemprich & Ehrenberg. Eastern

Yellowbilled Chough.

The first record of the Yellowbilled Chough from Nepal was

furnished by Stevens (1923a, p. 517) from the Nepal side of the

Singalila Range, eastern Nepal, at c. 3610 m. in March. It has

subsequently been reported by Lowndes (1955, p. 30) from

Manangbhot, central Nepal, up to c. 4875 m. in summer, and

Biswas (1960a) from Khumbu, eastern Nepal, at c. 3655-5425 m.

during February-May. 3

770. Corvus splendens splendens. Vieillot. Indian House Crow.

Dun: Hitaura: 1 ¢ (June 24). NepAL VALLEY : Thankot : 4 3g, (June 29).

The House Crow is very common in and around all the villages

and towns of Nepal from the plains up to about 1525 m.

It was breeding in June.

Measurements: 538%: Wing 285, 287, 288, 290 (2); tail 174, 177, 178, 180,

186; bill 50,51 (2), 55, 56.

[ 281 ]

THE BIRDS OF NEPAL 653

771. Corvus macrorhynchos intermedius Adams. Himalayan Jungle

Crow.

MaArRKHU VALLEY : Kulikhani, Deorali: 2 ¢¢, 1 2 (April 27-May 2). CHITLANG

VALLEY : Chitlang: 1 ¢, 1 2 (April 19, 25). NepaL VALLEY: Thankot: 1 juv. ¢

(May 20).

The Himalayan Jungle Crow is not uncommon about 1220 m.

upwards. It is usually found in pairs or smail parties, frequently

away from human habitation. From April 13 to April 22, three or

four birds were found every afternoon circling round above the pass

on the crest of Chandragiri, with outstretched wings, sometimes

diving down a little, flying up again, and cawing harshly all the time.

This aerial display would go on for some time; then the party would

break up, or the birds would fly normally down the northern or

southern sides of the mountain out of sight. Scully (1879, p. 325)

described similar flights, but had seen larger flocks of 50-60 birds.

Scully (loc. cit.) reported it from the Nepal Valley; Stevens (1923a,

p. 513) from the Mai Valley, eastern Nepal, below c. 3505 m. in

March-April; Ripley (1950b, p. 414) from the tarai ‘up to the highest

elevations’; Proud (1952a, p. 361) from the Gandak-Kosi watershed,

central Nepal, at c. 3350-3655 m. in spring; Polunin (1955, p. 887)

from the Langtang Valley, central Nepal, up to c. 3350 m. in summer;

Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 108) in winter from the western tarai, the

Kali Gandak Valley in west-central Nepal at c. 2745 m., and the

Maulung Valley in eastern Nepal at c. 3505 m.; and Biswas (1960a)

from the Sun Kosi Valley in central Nepal at c. 1370-2285 m. in

January, Khumbu in eastern Nepal at c. 3655-4570 m. in February-

‘May, and the Arun and Tamur valleys in eastern Nepal at c. 1220-

1830 m. in June.

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill

3 dé: 3164, 341, 350 199+, 218, 219+ 61.5,627,—

Zo: 310, 311+ 178, 195-+- 60,-—

*This specimen has brownish primaries and may be a first year bird. |

All the specimens listed above, and those taken by Scully in the

Nepal Valley (now partly in the British Museum and partly in the

Zoological Survey of India) have white bases of nape feathers, bill

56-65, and are not as black or as glossy as birds from Tibet or high

Sikkim, thus differing from dibetesinensis Kleinschmidt & Weigold, 1922,

as discussed by Vaurie (1954a, pp. 17-19). See also Rand & Fleming

(op. cit., pp. 108-109) for comments on their specimens. |

[ 282 ]

654. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

772. Corvus macrorhynchos (? subspecies).

Dun: Hitaura : 1 juv. 3 (May 26).

Subspecific identification of such a young specimen was not

possible for me.

It has, however, raised a question: What is the Jungle Crow that

is found in the lower regions of Nepal?

All the jungle crows that were seen in the bhabar and the Hitaura

dun looked distinctly smaller, in life, than the birds higher up

(=intermedius), and their call was not quite so deep or loud. More-

over, juvenile intermedius has the bases of nape feathers white, but

the juvenile specimen under report has them grey. Rand & Fleming’s

(1957, p. 109) specimen from Bilauri, western Nepal (c. 275 m.),

which they placed under intermedius, also nas them greyish.

Although nothing definite could be said until adult specimens are

examined, the evidences presented above would indicate that the

breeding birds of the lower regions of Nepal (below 600 m.) are not

intermedius. 'They may possibly be, as Baker (1922d, p. 29) had

indicated, intermediate between intermedius and the birds found in

the plains immediately to the south of Nepal, which, curiously, are —

themselves intermediate between culminatus and levaillanti according

to Whistler & Kinnear (1932a, p. 512). They advised to treat those

birds as culminatus. An examination of carefully sexed series of the

Jungle Crow from the lower regions of Nepal should yield interesting

findings.

[Corvus corax tibetanus Hodgson. Tibetan Raven.

Lowndes (1955, p. 29) records the raven, Corvus corax (presumably

the Tibetan Raven, C. c. tibetanus Hodgson) by sight in Manangbhot,

central Nepal, between c. 4265 and 4570 m. in July-August.

No specimen of the species seems to have been taken in Nepal

so far, although it is likely to occur in the plateau region north of

the main Himalayan axis. In this connexion, it is interesting to note

that both Baker (1922d, p. 23) and Ripley (1961, p. 318) have included

Nepal within the range of the species, so has Vaurie (1962, p. 281)

by implication. .

A word of caution may here be said about sighting of the raven.

From a distance, many specimens of the Himalayan Jungle Crow

(Corvus macrorhynchos intermedius) in areas where the raven is

likely to occur, look large enough to pass for the raven. It is only

after collecting such specimens that their true identity is revealed.

The characteristic neck hackles of the raven may not be clearly visible

from a distance unless one pays particular attention to them through

field glasses.]

(To be continued)

[ 283 ]

Copepods parasitic on South Indian

Fishes: Family Anthosomidae— |

N. KRISHNA PILLAI

Marine Biological Laboratory, Trivandrum, Kerala State

(With seven text-figures)

Anthosomid copepods of the genus Lernanthropus Blainville are

extremely common gill parasites of the teleostean food fishes of this

region but very few have so far been described. During the course

of a year I have been able to collect a large number of species, of which

eight are described here; four of them are new. In a previous publica-

tion (Pillai 1962) I described three species, one belonging to

Lernanthropus and two to Lernanthropodes Bere.

Genus Lernanthropus Blainville

Lernanthropus giganteus Kroyer

Lernanthropus giganteus Kroyer, 1863, p. 280, pl. 8, figs. la-e; Wilson, 1913,

p.227, pl. 33, figs. 148-150 ; Delamare-Douboutteville & Nunes-Ruivo, 1954, p.141.

Remarks. Wilson has given a detailed description and

Delamare-Douboutteville & Nunes-Ruivo a detailed synonymy of

this species and hence variations observed in my specimens alone are

presented. Wilson has shown the posterior border of the dorsal plate

of the female as faintly bilobed but described it as straight; it is

straight in the present specimens. The antero-lateral lobes of the

carapace reach the level of the antennal lobe and not beyond the latter

as shown by Wilson. The long triangular postero-lateral processes of

the anterior division of the trunk easily distinguish L. giganteus.

Length 7.1 mm.

38 females were collected by the author from the gills of Caranx

sp. at Trivandrum.

Lernanthropus trifoliatus Bassett-Smith

Lernanthropus trifoliatus Bassett-Smith, 1898, p. 11, pl. 7, f. 3. nec Lernanthropus

trifoliatus Kirtisinghe, 1956, p. 18, f. 11.

Text-fig. 1

Material. 2 females from Polynemus plebeius (Broussonet),

8 females from Polynemus sextarius Bloch, and a large number of

656 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

females and males from Polynemus heptadactylus Cuvier were

collected by the author at Trivandrum.

A.B. LOmm CEF-bM-P Ofmm,

a eel

Fig. 1. Lernanthropus trifoliatus Bassett-Smith: A-J. female: A. lateral

view; B. dorsal view; C. antenna 1; D. antenna 2; E. maxilla;

F. maxilliped 1; G. maxilliped 2; H.leg 1; I. leg 2; J. posterior part of

body showing legs 4, 5, and anal lamina. K-P. male: K. dorsal view ;

L. ventral view; M. tip of leg 3, dorsal view; N. tip of leg 4, dorsal view;

O. tip of leg ~3, -ventral view; P. tip of leg 4, ventral view. Q. female from

Polynemus plebeius

Female. Carapace longer than broad and posteriorly rounded,

antennal area ill defined, antero-lateral parts produced into two

prominent prolongations, lateral parts bent downwards. Anterior

division of trunk rectangular, as long as carapace, with a slight bulging

behind the position of the second legs. Dorsal plate rounded, longer

than broad and demarcated from the anterior division of trunk by

comparatively shallow lateral incisions. Genital segment fused with

COPEPODS PARASITIC ON SOUTH INDIAN FISHES—I1 657

the fifth trunk segment, abdomen small. Anal laminae long ovate,

with a row of apical spinules.

First antenna seven-segmented. Second antenna prehensile, its

basal segment with a proximal spine-tipped papilla, distal segment with

a swollen base carrying a claw. Maxilla bilobed, inner lobe ovate and

with a stout spine, outer lobe large, with three spines, one of them stout.

Basal segment of first maxilliped not much stouter than distal, latter

with a claw, unguis barbed on both edges. Basal segment of second

maxilliped with a spine-tipped papilla, distal segment long and strongly

falcate, with a claw-like spine in the middle.

First pair of legs with stout exopod carrying five teeth, endopod

small, ovate and spiny, inner spine on basipod large, with a patch

of spinules near its base. Second pair of legs with rectangular spiny

exopod carrying four teeth, endopod similar to that of first leg, outer

spine on basipod pectinate. Third leg uniramous and rolled up,

directed at right angles to the long axis of the body and apically

curved forwards. Fourth pair of legs biramous, exopod longer and

stouter than endopod, its distal half with several groups of small

teeth, endopod with an apical bunch of spines. Fifth leg uniramous,

slender and tipped with a row of spines.

Length 3.4 mm.

Male. Carapace longer than broad and clearly demarcated from

the trunk. Trunk segments indicated by lateral incisions and dorsal

grooves. First two segments fused, equal to third, third and fourth

segments subequal and rectangular. Fifth segment roughly squarish,

with a pair of spine-tipped papillae. Genital segment small, immersed

in fifth segment. Abdomen very small. Third pair of legs short, as

long as the width of the segment. Fourth pair large, remotely club-

shaped, both pairs with spiny surface. Anal laminae ovate, longer

than broad.

Total length 1.2 mm.

Remarks. Bassett-Smith’s description of this species was based

on females and to my knowledge the male has not been described so

far. As pointed out by Kirtisinghe, Bassett-Smith mistook the fifth

leg for a third ramus of the fourth leg. The specimens Kirtisinghe

assigned to this species are, however, totally different from those

described by Bassett-Smith. A very prominent character of this

species is the spinulation of the exopod of the fourth leg of the female.

The groups of spines make the border so irregular that it is surprising

that Bassett-Smith makes no mention of them. During the present

investigation L. trifoliutus was found to parasitise three different but

closely related species. The one ffigured here was from

658 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

P. heptadactylus. The size of the parasite was found to vary

proportionately to the size of the host. In the large specimens, collected

from P. plebeius, the exopod of the fourth leg is club-shaped. This

species is apparently slightly variable.

Lernanthropus cornutus Kirtisinghe

Lernanthropus cornutus Kirtisinghe, 1937, p. 448, figs. 88-98 ; Capart, 1953, p. 649,

Delamare-Douboutteville & Nunes-Ruivo, 1954, p. 141.

Text-fig. 2

Material. Four females from the gills of Tylosurus crocodilus

(Le Sueur) and 2 females and 1 male from the gills of Belone sp.

were collected by the author at Trivandrum.

Female. Carapace roughly equal in length and breadth, re-

gularly broadening backwards and postero-laterally produced into

triangular apically blunt processes inclined backwards. Antennal area

broad and folded downwards. Anterior division of trunk slightly

longer than broad, roughly oblong, antero-median part produced into

a conical prominence overlapping the carapace and continued back-

wards as a high median ridge reaching the hind border of the dorsal

plate, the ridge progressively narrowing backwards. Dorsal plate

demarcated from the anterior division of trunk by a mere lateral

sinuosity, regularly broadening up to the middle, distal border roughly

semicircular. Genital segment large, twice as broad as abdomen,

abdomen slightly longer than broad.

First antenna small and indistinctly segmented. Second antenna

strong, subequal in size to the second maxilliped, basal segment with

the usual tubercle, distal segment stout, with a basal claw. Maxilla

two-lobed, inner lobe not very much smaller than outer, prolonged

into a conical spine, outer lobe with two spines. Unguis of first

maxilliped with one inner and several outer rows of spines. Basal

segment of second maxilliped oblong,- claw of distal segment hook-like.

Exopod of first leg comparatively very large,. with five dissimilar

teeth, endopod small, with a long spine, setae on basipod large.

Second leg very small, endopod larger than exopod. Third leg

comparatively small, uniramous and folded as usual. Fourth leg

biramous, not reaching the distal border of the dorsal plate, rami

subequal, fusiform. Anal laminae ovate, with a spine-like apex.

Total length 4.2 mm.

Male. Cephalothorax almost equal in length and_ breadth,

slightly broadening backwards afd constricted in front to form an

antennal area and behind to form a neck. First two trunk segments

COPEPODS PARASITIC ON SOUTH INDIAN FISHES—I1 659

indistinct, genital segment and abdomen together forming a narrow

conical indistinctly segmented lobe. Anal laminae longer than

broad, with two pectinate and three non-pectinate setae. Third leg

Aetd 'Omm = DEKL 0.3mm.

—_____—___—J _BEKL 0.3mm. | €F.H,M 0.{ mm. / 0.5 mm.

Fig. 2. Lernanthropus cornutus Kirtisinghe: A-I. female: A. dorsal view ;

B. ventral view; C. lateral view; D.antenna2; E.maxilla; F. maxilliped1;

G. maxilliped 2 ; H. leg 1; I, posterior part of body showing leg 4 and anal

paints, J-M.male: J. dorsalview; K. tip ofleg3; L. tip of leg 4; M. anal

amina,

660 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

long, tapering distally, base with one and apex with a bunch of

short teeth. Fourth leg as long as third, parallel-sided and apically

bifid, each ramus with an apical bunch of teeth.

Total length 2.1 mm.

Remarks. Kirtisinghe’s description clearly applies to the

present specimens except in the following characters. He has des-

cribed the maxilla as two-jointed, basal segment spherical and with

an accessory spine, and terminal segment smaller. As far as I could

find this appendage is exactly as in other species, except that the inner

lobe is comparatively large. It is possible that Kirtisinghe examined

this appendage with the inner lobe lying over the outer. Kirtisinghe

has described the fourth leg as projecting beyond the posterior border

of the dorsal plate, but they are completely hidden under the dorsal

plate in the specimens collected from 7. crocodilus while in those

collected from Belone they are as shown by Kirtisinghe. The latter

specimens are larger than those from Tylosurus. Except that the

third thoracic segment is clearly indicated and that the anal laminae

carry spines, the present male is as described by Kirtisinghe. |

Lernanthropus corniger Yamaguti

Lernanthropus corniger Yamaguti, 1954, p. 387, figs. 35-41.

Text-fig. 3

Material. 43 females and 2 males were collected from the

gills of Megalaspis cordyla (Linn.) by the author at Trivandrum.

Allotype, male, is deposited in the Indian Museum, Calcutta.

Female. Carapace comparatively very large, subequal to the

anterior division of trunk, with two lateral constrictions. Antennal

area prominent but not produced, antero-lateral parts produced into

large foliaceous lobes dorsally appearing as two acute horns reaching

far beyond the frontal margin, posterior border of carapace convex.

Anterior division of trunk roughly squarish, abruptly enlarged at the

posterior half, antero-lateral parts rounded and shoulder-like. Dorsal

plate completely covering the abdomen and anal laminae, roughly

circular and as long as the anterior division of the trunk. Genital

segment large, abdomen narrow, anal laminae long, each with three

to four setae.

First antenna five-segmented, with long setae, third segment with

a very long seta. Second antenna strong, basal segment stout,

with a spine-tipped papilla, distal segment half as long as basal, with

two claws, inferior distal part produced below the unguis into a

flattened lobe with irregular border, unguis claw-like. Maxilla two

COPEPODS PARASITIC ON SOUTH INDIAN FISHES—I1 661

lobed, inner lobe with one and outer with three spines, one of the

latter very large. Basal segment of first maxilliped stout, distal

A-C 1.0mm. DEG 0.imm.

(a (Re

HK 0570. Pi ai:

Fig. 3. Lernanthropus corniger Yamaguti: Female. A. dorsal view; B. ventral

view; __C. lateral view ; D. antenna 1; E. antenna 2; F. maxilla;

G. maxilliped 1; H.maxilliped2: I. leg 1; J.leg2. K.male

segment as long as basal, with a few sharp teeth at its inner distal

part, unguis not clearly separated, with two to three teeth. Second

maxilliped, as usual in the genus, uncinate, unguis strongly curved.

First pair of legs with a large exopod carrying five strong winged

teeth, endopod with a stout spine, inner seta on basipod broad, outer

662 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

seta small, basipod and the rami spiny. Basipod of second leg with

stout outer seta, exopod with five teeth, endopod spiny but without

the apical spine. Third leg biramous, exopod folded and facing

downwards, endopods of the two sides fused except at the tip, outer

margin of endopods curved towards the venter, producing a semicircular

channel. Fourth leg with long slender rami, endopod shorter than

exopod. Fifth leg absent.

Total length 3.1 mm.

Male. Cephalothorax much broader than rest of body, median

lateral parts angular, producing a diamond shape, antennal area

demarcated into a well-delimited lobe, posterior border rounded.

Thoracic segments indicated by dorsal grooves. Genital segment

much broader than the one-segmented abdomen, anal laminae longer

than abdomen. Third leg long, steadily narrowing towards the apex,

its surface minutely spiny. Fourth leg biramous, outer ramus much

longer than inner, both rami spiny like the third leg.

Total length 1.9 mm.

Remarks. Yamaguti’s description was based on a _ single

female. The present specimens show slight difference in the shape of

the frontal horns, structure of the distal segment of the second

antenna, and in the length of the fourth leg. The second segment of

the second antenna has a claw in addition to the small tooth shown

by Yamaguti and the unguis is clearly marked off. The rami of the

fourth leg are slightly longer and more conspicuously narrowed

distally. In Yamaguti’s specimen the anal laminae are visible beyond

the dorsal plate but they are hidden in my specimens.

This species can .be distinguished from all the others by the long

horn-like antero-lateral lobes of the carapace, which have suggested

the specific name, and the peculiar modification of the distal segment

of the second antenna. The laterally produced diamond-shaped

carapace of the male is also very characteristic.

Lernanthropus secutoris sp. nov.

Text-fig. 4

Material. 33 females were collected from the gills of Secutor

insidiator (Bloch) by the author at Trivandrum. Holotype, female, is

deposited in the Indian Museum, Calcutta (Reg. No. C. 4343/1).

Female. Body demarcated into three subequal parts, carapace,

anterior division of trunk and dorsal plate. Carapace roughly

triangular, narrowing backwards, antennal region demarcated by two

shallow dorsal grooves, antero-lateral regions prominent and produced

COPEPODS PARASITIC ON SOUTH INDIAN FISHES—1 663

into rounded lobes not much folded downwards. Anterior division of

trunk broader than long, demarcated from the dorsal plate by shallow

lateral incisions. Dorsal plate slightly longer than broad, as broad

as thorax and posteriorly rounded, anal laminae projecting beyond

Fig. 4. Lernanthropus secutoris sp. nov.: Female. A. dorsal view; B.

lateral view; C. ventral view; E. antenna 2; F. maxilla ; G. maxilliped 1;

H. maxilliped2 ; I.leg1; J. leg2; K. posterior part of body; L. cephalic

appendages

664. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

its posterior border. Genital segment very large, about three times

as broad as abdomen. Egg sacs short and stout, with large eggs.

First antenna indistinctly seven-segmented. Second antenna with

a large massive basal segment, its distal inner part pustulose, second

segment strong and curved, with a large cylindrical and apicaily flared

process at the middle of its inner side, obviously an extreme modifica-

tion of the simple claw normally seen in this position. Inner lobe of

maxilla with a sharp spine, outer lobe with a long spine and two short

ones. First maxilliped with a stout basal segment, distal segment

much shorter and narrower than basal, with a distal bifid claw,

unguis with two rows of sharp teeth. Second maxilliped normal, with

a slender strongly curved distal segment.

Exopod of first leg larger than endopod and armed with five sharp

teeth and several small denticles, endopod denticulated and with a

short apical spine. Second leg similar to first but smaller, endopod

lacking the apical spine. Third leg uniramous, composed of two

contiguously placed cups facing the posterior. Fourth leg biramous,

exopod large, endopod half as long as exopod. Fifth lez absent.

Anal laminae twice as long as abdomen.

Total length 1.3 mm.

Remarks. L. secutoris can be easily distinguished from all the

other species by the triangular carapace narrowing backwards and by

the oblong thorax. The egg tubes are unusually stout. The most

distinctive character is the peculiar modification of the accessory claw

on the distal segment of the second antenna, something even remotely

resembling which is found only in L. corniger Yamaguti.

Lernanthropus otolithi sp. nov.

Text-fig. 5

Material. 34 females were collected from the gills of Otolithus

argenteus Cuvier by the author at Trivandrum. Holotype, female, is

deposited in the Indian Museum, Calcutta (Reg. No. C.4344/1).

Female. Body clearly divisible into carapace, trunk, and dorsal

plate. Carapace roughly circular and anteriorly trilobed, antennal —

lobe broader and projecting beyond the lateral lobes. Anterior

division of trunk cylindrical, with subparallel sides, dorsal plate cir-

cular in outline. Genital segment, abdomen, and anal laminae hidden

by the dorsal plate, abdomen long and two-segmented, first segment

longer and broader than second. Genital segment short but broader

than abdomen. Anal laminae long and slender, with two apical and |

two outer setae. Aa AY Os ae

COPEPODS PARASITIC ON SOUTH INDIAN FISHES—1 665

First antenna clearly seven-segmented, accessory process at its

base strongly curved and with swollen base. Second antenna with

stout basal segment, distal segment short, with a basal inner spine.

LQmm,

A-C

DEC.H Olam.

Fig 5. Lernanthropus otolithisp. nov.: Female. A. dorsal view; B. ventral

view ; C. lateral view ; D. antenna 1; FE. antenna 2; ~ F. maxilla;

G. maxilliped 1; H.maxilliped2; I.leg1; J. leg2; K. posterior part of body.

Inner lobe of maxilla small, with one spine, outer lobe long, with

one long and two short spines. First maxilliped with segments

subequal in length, distal segment with a strong claw-like accessory

666 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

process below the unguis, unguis with prominent marginai teeth.

Second maxilliped with a very stout basal segment, distal segment

proximally expanded, unguis distinct.

First leg with outer and inner pectinate setae, exopod stout, with

five teeth, endopod with a single apical spine, both rami sparsely

spinose. Second leg without inner seta, exopod with four teeth,

endopod without spine, rami subequal in size. Third leg with rami

completely fused and folded lengthwise. Fourth leg biramous, long

and slender, exopod longer than endopod. Fifth leg uniramous, about

half as long as the endopod of the fourth leg.

Total length 3.0 mm.

Remarks. This species shows the closest resemblance to L.

eisleri van Beneden (1852) as described by Yamaguti (1936), which

like the present is a parasite of sciaenid fishes. Both have the same

type of carapace and trunk but in L. ofolithi the dorsal plate is nearly

circular while it is roughly parallel-sided in L. gisleri. Also in L.

otolithi the exopod of the fourth leg is much longer than the endopod,

but almost subequal in L. gisleri.

Lernanthropus sillaginis sp. nov.

Text-fig. 6

Material. 41 females were collected from the gills of Sillago

sihama (Forskal) by the author at Trivandrum. Holotype, female, is

deposited in the Indian Museum, Calcutta (Reg. No. C. 4345/1).

Female. Body stout, carapace nearly rounded, with distinctly

demarcated antennal area, lateral parts forming prominent ventrally

directed flaps projecting beyond the antennal area as small triangular

lobes. Anterior part of trunk regularly widening backwards, as long

as the carapace. Dorsal plate large, transversely expanded and

roughly ovate, with evenly convex posterior border. Genital segment

small, abdomen longer than broad, anal laminae slightly shorter than

abdomen.

First antenna distinctly seven-segmented, with a few stout setae,

fifth segment with a long stout seta, first segment large, seventh small.

Basal segment of second antenna comparatively slender, with a proximal

and a distal tubercle carrying a spinule, distal segment with a swollen

base carrying a claw-like spine. Maxilla with a small inner and large

swollen outer lobe, latter with one large and one small distal spine.

First maxilliped slender, distal segment with a small spine, unguis with

serrate edge. Second maxilliped with a comparatively very stout basal

segment with one papilla, distal segment slender, with two spines,

unguis very distinct.

COPEPODS PARASITIC ON SOUTH INDIAN FISHES—I 667

First leg with large exopod carrying five spines, endopod oblong,

with a long spine. Exopod of second leg with five spines, three of

them very small, endopod considerably larger than exopod, with a

A-C 25mm. DF. O.l mm.

E 0.3 mm,

G.H 0.4mm.

Fig. 6. Lernanthropus sillaginis sp. nov.: Female. A. dorsal view; B. ventral

view; C. lateral view; D.antennal; E. antenna2; F. maxilla; G. maxilli-

ped1; H. maxilliped2; I.leg1; J. leg2.

slender seta. Third leg distinctly biramous, rami foliaceous, exopod

folded over the linguiform endopod. Fourth leg comparatively short,

with subequal rami, half of the rami projecting beyond the dorsal plate.

Eggs comparatively large.

Total length 2.5 mm.

Remarks. In general appearance and in the structure of the

appendages this species resembles L. villiersi Delamare-Douboutteville

& Nunes-Ruivo (1954), but in the latter species the dorsal plate has

a very distinct postero-median incision and the endopods of the third

668 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

pair of legs are fused. In L. sillaginis the dorsal plate has an entire

posterior border and the endopods of the third pair of legs are

completely free.

Lernanthropus triangularis sp. nov.

Text-fig. 7

Material. 2 females and 1 male were collected from the gills

of Gerres filamentosus Cuvier by the author at Trivandrum. Holotype

(Reg. No. C. 4346/1), female and allotype (Reg. No. C. 4347/1), male,

are deposited in the Indian Museum, Calcutta.

Female. General shape of body elongate-triangular. Carapace

triangular, with the postero-lateral parts slightly produced, making the

posterior border concave. Antennal area fairly broad, antero-lateral

parts hardly produced. Anterior division of trunk regularly broaden-

ing backwards, demarcated from the dorsal plate by a distinct lateral

incision and indistinct dorsal transverse grooves. Dorsal plate nearly

rectangular, broader than anterior part of trunk, its posterior border

nearly straight. Genital segment large, abdomen short. Anal laminae

as long as abdomen, with one distal and two proximal setae.

First antenna distinctly seven-segmented, sparsely setose, accessory

process at its base long and apically slightly curved. Second antenna

comparatively slender, distal segment stout, with a claw and a spine,

apical part of the segment strongly curved. Maxilla two-lobed, inner

lobe with one and outer with three spines. Distal segment of first

maxilliped with a very small tooth and a spine, unguis with serrate

border. Basal segment of second maxilliped very stout, distal segment

slender, with two spines on the inner border, unguis long.

Basipod of first leg with both inner and outer setae, exopod larger

than endopod, with five subsimilar teeth, endopod spiny, with a long

apical spine. Second leg with subequal spiny rami, exopod with four

teeth, endopod with a very small spine seta. Third leg small, rami

partially fused, exopod facing forwards and endopod backwards.

Fourth leg biramous, reaching beyond the dorsal plate by about half

their length, exopod slightly longer than endopod. Fifth leg absent.

Total length 2.4 mm.

Male. Body subcylindrical, carapace ovate, narrower in front,

antennal area slightly indicated. Trunk demarcated into four indis-

tinct thoracic segments, genital segment and abdomen partially fused.

First antenna prominently setose. Second antenna slender and very

long, strongly prehensile. Third leg biramous, endopod indicated by

COPEPODS PARASITIC ON SOUTH INDIAN FISHES—1 669

a mere lobe. Fourth leg twice as long as third, endopod half as long

as exopod.

Total length 2.4 mm.

Fig. 7. Lernanthropus triangularis sp. nov.: A-I. female: A. dorsal view;

B. ventral view; C.antennal; D. antenna2; E. maxilla; F. maxilliped 1;

G. maxilliped 2; H.leg1; I. leg2. J. male

Male. Body subcylindrical, carapace ovate, narrower in front,

antennal area slightly indicated. Trunk demarcated into four indis-

670

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

tinct thoracic segments, genital segment and abdomen partially fused.

First antenna prominently setose.

long, strongly prehensile.

a mere lobe.

as exopod.

Total length 0.9 mm.

Remarks.

L. sciaenae Gnanamuthu (1947).

Second antenna slender and very

Third leg biramous, endopod indicated by

Fourth leg twice as long as third, endopod hali as long

This species shows a_ superficial resemblance to

In the latter species the fifth leg,

which Gnanamuthu seems to have mistaken for a third ramus of the

fourth leg, is present but absent in L. triangularis.

Because of the

lack of details further comparison is difficult.

REFERENCES

BASSETT-SMITH, P.W. (1898): Some

new parasitic copepods found on fishes

at Bombay. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (7)

1: 4-17.

CapartT, A. (1953): Quelques copepod-

es parasites de poissons marine de la

region de Dakar. Bull. Inst. Frang.

Afriq. Noire 15 : 647-671.

DELAMARE-DOUBOUTTEVILLE, CL. &

. Nungs-RuIvo, P. (1954): Parasites de

pOissons de mer ouest-africains recoltes

par M.J. Cadenat. Il. Copepodes genres

Lernanthropus, Sagum, Paeon, Penella.

Bull. Inst. Franc. Afriq. Noire 16:

139-166.

GNANAMUTHU, C.P. (1947): Lernan-

thropus. sciaenae sp. nov. a copepod

parasitic on the gills of the fish Sciaena

glauca from Madras. Rec. Ind. Mus.

45: 291-298.

KIRTISINGHE, P. (1937): Parasitic

copepods of fish from Ceylon. II.

Parasitology 29 : 435-452.

(1956): Parasitic

eee, eee ee

copepods of fish from Ceylon. IV.

Parasitology 46 : 15-21. ;

Kroyver, H. (1863): Bidrag til

Kundskab om Snyltekrebsene. Naturh.

Tidsskr. 2: 75-426.

PILLAI, N.K. (1962) : Three new antho-

somid copepods parasitic on South

Indian fishes. J. Parasitology 48(4): 613-7,

VAN BENEDEN, P.J. (1852) : Notes sur

quelques parasites d’un poisson rare sur

nos cotes (le maigre d’Europe) Sciaena

aquila Cuv. Bull. Acad. Belgique 19:

1-7.

WILSON, C.B. (1913). Crustacean para-

sites of West Indian fishes and land crabs,

with descriptions of new genera and

species. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. 44:

189-277.

YAMAGUTI, S. (1936) : Parasitic cope-

pods from fishes of Japan. Part. III.

Caligoida 2 : 1-18.

———— (1954): Parasitic copepods

from fishes of Celebes and Borneo. Publ.

Seto Mar. Biol. Lab. (3) 3: 375-398.

More Cyanophyceae of Hoshiarpur: II

P. C. VASISHTA*

Department of Botany, Government College, Hoshiarpur, Panjab

(With two plates)

[Continued from Vol. 58(1) : 146]

In the first two papers on the systematics of Cyanophyceae of Hoshiar-

pur [J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 57 (3) and 58(1)] the author described

73 species belonging to 28 genera, including two new species, two new

varieties, and seven new forms. The present paper which is the third

in the series further adds to our knowledge of the blue-green algae of

Hoshiarpur, and 41 species belonging to 17 genera have been recorded

herein. This brings the total to 114 species belonging to 32 genera.

Six new varieties have been included in the present work.

Phormidium mucosum Gardner, P. hieronymusii Lemm., Scytonema

millei Bornet, and Microchaete tenera var. major Moebius have been,

to the best of author’s knowledge, reported for the first time from the

Indian soil.

Cyanophyceae described in the present paper have been mainly collected

from freshwater and terrestrial habitats. Freshwater forms are important

as lithophytes and epiphytes, whereas some live in or on the bottom of

deep or shallow water ponds. There are a limited number of Cyano-

phyceae that constitute a conspicuous element of the plankton at different

times of the year. Some of the lithophytes grow commonly in fast

flowing streams.

SYSTEMATIC ENUMERATION OF THE SPECIES OBSERVED

Order CHROOCOCCALES Wetstein

Family CHROOCOCCACEAE Nageli

CHROOCOCCUS Nageli

1. Chroococcus minor (Ktitz.) Nag. Gatt. Einzell. Algen 47, pl. 1 A, fig. 4, 1849 ;

Desikachary, Cyanophyta 105, pl. 24, fig. 1, 1959.

Diameter cell without sheath=3-3.4 m ; diameter cell with sheath=up to 4.3 p.

_ Habitat : Mixed with other algae in a stagnant water pond situated by the side of

a railway track near village Singriwala, Hoshiarpur.

_* Present address: Department of Botany, Government College, Kapurthala,

Panjab.

[13]

672 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

2. Chroococcus limneticus Lemm. in Bot. Cbl. 76 : 153, 1898 ; Desikachary 107,

pl. 26, fig. 2, 1959. :

Diameter cell without sheath=6.6-10.5 « ; diameter cell with sheath=7.6-12.1 4 ;

cells spherical or sub-spherical, 16-32 in a colony.

Habitat : Planktonic in an old tank at Bhadarpur, Hoshiarpur. Mixed with

Synechococcus cedrorum Sauv. 7

GLOEOCAPSA Kiitzing

3. Gloeocapsa quaternata (Breb.) Ktitz. Tab. Phycol. 1:5, pl. 20, fig. 1, 1846;

Desikachary 120, pl. 20, fig. 9, 1959.

Diameter cell without sheath=3.4-4.7 & ; diameter cell with sheath=7.6-11.5 & ;

diameter colony=1!1.5-19.2 “ ; sheath usually red, sometimes colourless, cells 2-4-8

in a colony.

Habitat : Forming blackish green encrustation on tree trunks, Hoshiarpur.

4. Gloeocapsa violacea (Corda) Rabenh. Fl. Eur. Alg. 2:41, 1865 ; Desikachary

123, 1959.

Diameter cell without sheath=3.4-3.8 «& ; diameter cell with sheath=9.5-13.4 pu ;

diameter colony =76.8-102.1 / ; sheath violet and unlamellated.

Habitat : On the moist stones of a rivulet at Bharwain, Hoshiarpur.

5. Gloeocapsa sanguinea (Ag.) Kitz. Phyc. Gen. 175, 1843; et Tab. Phyc. 1:

pl. 22, 1846 ; Desikachary 121, pl. 27, fig. 7, 1959.

Diameter cell without sheath=3.8-6.6 “ ; diameter cell with sheath=7.6-11.5 # ;

diameter colony=38.4-46 /.

Habitat: Mixed with G. quaternata Kitz., Hoshiarpur.

6. Gloeocapsa kuetzingiana Nag. Gatt. Einzell. Algen 50, 1849; Desikachary

118, pl. 23, fig. 4 & pl. 24, fig. 12, 1959.

Diameter cell without sheath=3.8-4.7 « ; diameter cell with sheath=5.7-7.6 / ;

diameter colony =38.4-76.8 ; sheath yellowish brown and unlamellated.

Habitat : Forming blue-green to brownish encrustation on bricks and stones at

the bottom of an irrigation channel passing through village Rihana, Hoshiarpur.

MERISMOPEDIA Meyen

7. Merismopedia aeruginosa Breb. in Kiitzing, Spec. Alg. 472, 1849 ; Desikachary

156, pl. 20, fig. 3, 1959.

Lat. colony =34.5-50 / ; lat. cell=4.7-5.1 /.

Habitat: Ina roadside pond, Phagwara road, Hoshiarpur.

SYNECHOCYSTIS Sauv.

8. Synechocystis aquatilis Sauv. var. major var. nov. (Plate I, Figs. 1-2)

Cellulae sphaericae, 7.6-8.5 ” diam., singulae vel binae immediate post divisionem ;

contenta caeruleo-viridia, granularia. Typus lectus 8 junii, 1960, et positus in Hoshiar-

pur herbario Collegii Gubernii sub numero Vasishta 10.

Cells spherical, 7.6-8.5 # diam., single or in twos after division, contents blue-green,

granular.

Habitat: Planktonic in a stagnant water pond, Phagwara road, Hoshiarpur.

Collected on June 8, 1960. Deposited in Government College, Hoshiarpur herbarium

under reference number Vasishta 10.

The variety differs from the type in possessing the greater dimensions of the cell.

[14]

JouRN. BoMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. PLATE I

7 or lO

Figs. 1-2. Synechocystis aquatilis var. major var. nov. : Fig. 1. A single cell; Fig. 2. A cell

after division. Fig. 3. Oscillatoria foreaui Fremy.: A portion of the trichome. Fig. 4.

Oscillatoria subuliformis Kiitz. ex Gom.: Portion of the trichome. Fig. 5. Phormidium

rubroterricola var. mijus var. nov. : Portion of the filament. Fig. 6. Phormidium mucosum

Gardner : Portion of thefilament. Fig.7. Phormidium stagninum var. minus var. nov. : Portion

of the filament. Higs. 8-9. Phormidium hieronymusii Lemm.: Portions of two filaments.

Fig. 10. Lyngbya kuetzingii Schmidle.: Portion of the filament. Fig. 13. Lyngbya crypto-

vaginata Sch. : Portion of the filament

JouRN. BomBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. PLATE II

Fig. 11. Lyngbya spirulinoides var. minor var. nov. : Portion of a filament.

Fig. 12. Lyngbya laxespiralis var. major var. nov.: Portion of the filament.

Fig. 14. Aulosira fertilissima var. hoshiarpurensis var. nov. : Portion of a fertile

filament showing series of spores interrupted by dead cells. Fig. 15. Scytonema

millei Bornet ex Born. et Flah. : A portion of the filament showing false branches.

MORE CYANOPHYCEAE OF HOSHIARPUR : Il 673

SYNECHOCOCCUS Nag.

9, Synechococcus cedrorum Sauv. in Bull. Soc, Bot. France 39: 115, pl. 6, fig. 1,

1892 ; Desikachary 144, 1959.

Lat. cell=3.4-4.2 # ; long. cell=6.6-8.5 /.

Habitat: Planktonic in an old tank, Bhadarpur, Hoshiarpur. Mixed with

Chroococcus limneticus Lemm.

Order PLEUROCAPSALES Geitler

Family PLEUROCAPSACEAE Geitler

MYXOSARCINA Printz.

10. Myxosarcina spectabilis Geitler in Arch. Hydrobiol. 12: 624, 1933; et 14:

387, fig. 14, 1935-36 ; Desikachary 178, pl. 30, figs. 1-5, pl. 31, figs. 17-22, 1959.

Diameter cell=5.7-8.5 ; diameter endospore =3.8-4.7 /.

Habitat: Forming a deep blue-green thallus on tree trunks, Hoshiarpur.

Order NOSTOCALES Geitler

Family OSCILLATORIACEAE Kirchner

SPIRULINA Turpin ex Gardner

11. Spirulina gigantea Schmidle in Bot. Jahrb. 32 : 59, pl. 1, fig. 5, 1902 ; Desika-

chary 197, pl. 36, figs. 12, 14-17, 1959.

Lat. trichome=3.8-4 ; breadth of spiral=11.3-15.3 # ; spirals 7.6-11.3 distant.

Habitat: Among other_algae in a pond, Hoshiarpur.

OSCILLATORIA Vaucher

12. Oscillatoria princeps Vauch. [Hist. Conf. Eau Douc. 190, pl. 15, fig. 2, 1803]

ex Gomont, Monograph Oscill. 206, pl. 6, fig. 9, 1892 ; Desikachary 210, pl. 37, figs.

1, 10, 11, 13, 14, 1959.

Lat. trichome =26.8-49.9 /; long. cell=5.7-7 /.

Habitat: In slowly running water of a watercourse at Una, Hoshiarpur.

13. Oscillatoria formosa Bory [Dict. Class. Hist. Nat. 12 : 474, 1827] ex Gomont,

loc. cit. 230, pl. 7, fig. 16, 1892 ; Desikachary 232, pl. 40, fig. 15, 1959.

Lat. trichome=4-6.6 / ; long. cell=3.8-5.1 /.

Habitat: Forming a blue-green thallus attached to the walls of a water reservoir,

Government College, Hoshiarpur.

14. Oscillatoria animalis Ag. [Aufzah. Fl. 10 : 632, 1827] ex Gomont 227, pl. 7,

fig. 13, 1892 ; Desikachary 239, pl. 40, fig. 4, 1959.

Lat. trichome =3.4-4 “ ; long. cell=1.7-3.4 /.

Habitat: Forming a blue-green thallus at the bottom of a pond at village Purhiran,

Hoshiarpur.

15. Oscillatoria foreaui Fremy in Blumea, Suppl. Il : 23, fig. 2, 1942 ; Desikachary

219, pl. 40, fig. 18, 1959. (Plate I, Fig. 3)

Lat. trichome=2.5-3 / ; long. cell=1.5 » ; trichomes constricted at the joints.

Habitat: From the bottom of a pond, village Purhiran, Hoshiarpur.

[15]

674 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

16. Oscillatoria amphigranulata Van Coor in Rev. Trav. Bot. Neerl. 15 : 255, pl. .

2, fig. 2, 1918 : Desikachary 226, pl. 37, fig. 4, 1959.

Lat. trichome=2-3 “; long. cell=4.7-5.1 “; one vacuole on either side of the

septum.

Habitat: Planktonic in a pond situated by the side of a railway track near village

Singriwala, Hoshiarpur.

17. Oscillatoria mougeotii Kitz. [Tab. Phycolog. 1 : 30, pl. 41, fig. 10, 1849] ex

Desikachary 222, 1959.

Lat. cell=5.1-8.5 & ; long. cell=3.4-4.2 & ; gas vacuoles present. |

Habitat: Planktonic in a pond, village Singriwala, Hoshiarpur. |

18. Oscillatoria subuliformis Kutz. [in Oster-progress. 7, 1863] ex Gomont 226,

pl. 7, fig. 10, 1892 ; Desikachary 213, pl. 49, fig. 10, 1959. (Plate I, Fig. 4)

Lat. trichome=4.7-6.6 / ; long. cell=4.7-6.6 &.

Habitat: Forming a pale yellow or yellowish green thallus attached to Hydrilla

plants in a pond, Hoshiarpur.

PHORMIDIUM Kiutzing

19. Phormidium fragile (Menegh.) Gomont, loc. cit. 163, pl. 4, figs. 13-15, 1892;

Desikachary 253, pl. 44, figs. 1-3, 1959.

Lat, trichome=1.7-2.5 # ; long. cell=1.7-3.4 mw.

Habitat: On the walls of Botanical tank, Government College, Hoshiarpur.

20. Phormidium molle (Kiitz.) Gomont 163, pl. 4, fig. 12, 1892 ; Desikachary 255,

pl. 59, fig. 8, 1959. Forma tenuior W. & G.S. West in Bot. Trans. York. nat. Union

5 : 146, 1902.

Lat. trichome=2-2.7 / ; long. cell=2.7-3.8 &.

Habitat: Forming a thin, mucilaginous and light blue-green thallus on the sides of

Botanical tank, Government College, Hoshiarpur.

21. Phormidium rubroterricola Gardner var. majus var. nov. (Plate I, Fig. 5)

Trichomata 2.5-3.4 “ lata, non constricta ad septa. Cellulae 1.7-3.4 « longae ;

cellula terminalis conica; vagina distincta. Positus in Government College,

Hoshiarpur herbario sub numero Vasishta 17.

Trichomes 2.5-3.4 “# broad, not constricted at the septa ; cells 1.7-3.4 ™ long ; end

cell conical; sheath distinct.

Habitat: In crop field soil cultures, Botanical laboratory, Government College,

Hoshiarpur, September 15, 1960. Deposited in Government College, Hoshiarpur

herbarium under reference number Vasishta 17.

The variety differs from the type in possessing broader filaments and trichomes.

22. Phormidium mucosum Gardner in Mem. N. Y. Bot. gard. 7 : 43, pl. 9, fig. 84,

1927 ; Desikachary 265, p. 43, figs. 6, 7, 1959. (Plate I, Fig. 6)

Lat. trichome=2.7-3.4 “ ; long. cell=3.4-5.1 /& ; lat. filament=4.8-6.7 « ; crass.

vag.=0.85-1.7 #.

Habitat : From the inner sides of a water pipe, Government College, Hoshiarpur.

The type is being reported for the first time from the Indian soil.

23. Phormidium stagninum Rao var. minus var. nov. (Plate I, Fig. 7)

Thallus caeruleo-viridis vel pallide viridis ; filamenta longa, recta vel curvata, 8.5-

9.5 u lata ; trichomata non constricta, pallide caeruleo viridia, 6.8-7.6 # lata ; vaginae

hyalinae, firmae, distinctae ; cellulae 1.7-2 ~ longae ; cellula terminalis late rotundata ;

[16]

MORE CYANOPHYCEAE OF HOSHIARPUR : II 675

calyptra adest. Typus lectus mense maio 31, 1960, et positus in Hoshiarpur Collegio

Gubernii sub numero Vasishta 11.

Thallus blue-green or pale green, mucilaginous ; filaments long, straight or curved,

8,.5-9.5 & broad ; trichomes unconstricted, pale blue-green, 6.8-7.6 “ broad ; sheath

hyaline, firm, distinct ; cells small, 1.7-2 # long ; end cell broadly rounded ; calyptra

present.

Habitat: On the inner sides of a water pipe, Government College, Hoshiarpur,

May 31, 1960. Deposited in Government College, Hoshiarpur herbarium under

reference number Vasishta 11.

The variety differs from the type in possessing narrower filaments and trichomes.

24. Phormidium ambiguum Gomont 178, pl. 5, fig. 10, 1892 ; Desikachary 266, pl.

44, fig. 16 & pl. 45, figs. 5-8, 1959.

Lat. trichome=4.7-6.6 / ; long. cell=3-3.4 &.

Habitat: On moist soil, village Purhiran, Hoshiarpur.

25. Phormidium corium (Ag.) Gomont 172, pl. 5, figs. 1-2, 1892; Desikachary

269, pl. 44, figs. 10-11, 1959.

Lat. trichome=3.8-4.7 # ; long. cell=3-8-7.6 “.

Habitat: On stones in swiftly flowing water ofa rivulet at Dholbaha, Hoshiarpur.

26. Phormidium hieronymusii Lemm.in Ark. Bot. 2 : 104, 1903, et Abh. Nat. Ver,

Bremen 14 : 259, pl. 1, figs. 5-7, 1934 ; Desikachary 269, 1959. (Plate I, Figs. 8-9)

Thallus olive-green to yellowish brown ; filaments usually regularly spirally coiled,

8.5-10.2 “ broad ; sheath distinct, firm, thin or thick, not lamellated, not coloured

violet by chlor-zinc-iodide ; trichomes not constricted, slightly attenuated at the ends,

blue to yellowish green, 6.8-7.6 “ broad ; cells very short, 1.72 @ long ; cross walls

sometimes granulated ; end cel! rounded, rarely slightly capitate.

Habitat : On the moist sides of a hillock at Dholbaha, Hoshiarpur. The type is

being recorded for the first time from the Indian soil.

LYNGBYA Agardh

27. Lyngbya lachneri (Zimm.) Geitler, Kryptogamenfl. 1037, fig. 655, 1932;

Desikachary 281, 1959. Oscillatoria lachneri Zimm. in Zeitschr. Bot. 20:18, pl.

Id, IL e, 1928.

Lat. trichome=1.9-3.4 “ ; long. cell=1.7-3.4 w.

Habitat: Attached to the leaf segments of Utricularia, Hoshiarpur.

28. Lyngbya kuetzingii Schmidle in Allg. Bot. Zeutschr. 58, 1896 ; Desikachary 282,

pl. 48, fig. 2, 1959. (Plate I, Fig. 10)

Long. filament=38.4-76.8 /; lat. trichome=1.7-2.5 & ; long. cell=0.85-1.5 pw.

Habitat : On Spongomorpha sp. in a watercourse near village Sham Chaurasi,

Hoshiarpur.

29. Lyngbya spirulinoides Gomont var. minor var. nov. (Plate II, Fig. 11)

Filamenta laxe spiraliter curvata, libere natantia, singula, 12.4-15.3 » lata; vagina

tenuis, indistincte lamellata ; trichomata non-constricta, 10.5-11.3 & lata ; spiris 76.8-

. 107 » distantibus ; septa nongranulata ; cellulae 3.4-4.7 « longae ; cellula terminalis

rotunda ; calyptra nulla. Positus in Government College, Hoshiarpur herbario sub

numero Vasishta 12.

Filaments loosely spirally coiled, free floating, single, 12.4-15.4 “ broad ; sheath

thin, indistinctly lamellated ; trichomes unconstricted, 10.5-11.3 “ broad ; spirals

[17]

676 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

76,.8-107 / distant : septa not granulated : cells 3.4-4.7 uw long ; end cell round ; calyptra

absent. :

Habitat: Free floating in a tank containing Utricularia sp., Hoshiarpur. Collected

in October 12, 1959. Deposited in Government College, Hoshiarpur herbarium

under reference number Vasishta 12,

The variety differs from the type in possessing narrower filaments and trichomes.

30. Lyngbya laxespiralis Skuja var. major var. nov. (Plate II, Fig. 12)

Filamenta spiraliter curvata, 11.5-12.1 lata ; vagina tenuis, firma, incolora, non-

lamellata ; trichomata constricta, 9.5-11.5 /& lata; cellulae 5.7-7.6 “ longae ; contenta

granularia, caeruleo-viridia ; parietes transversi non-granulati ; cellula apicalis rotun-

data; spiris 100-115 “ distantibus. Positus in Government College, Hoshiarpur

herbario sub numero Vasishta 13.

Filaments spirally coiled, 11.5-12.1 # broad ; sheath thin, firm, colourless, unlamel-

lated ; trichomes contricted, 9.5-11.5 # broad ; cells 5.7-7.6 / long, cell contents granular,

blue-green, cross walls not granulated ; apical cell rotund ; spirals 100-115 / distant.

Habitat : Among other algae on moist soil, Hoshiarpur. Collected on September

20, 1960. Deposited in Government College, Hoshiarpur herbarium under reference

number Vasishta 13.

The variety differs from the type in possessing broader filaments and trichomes.

31. Lyngbya cryptovaginata Schkorb. in Arch. Russ. Protistologia 6(-4) : 125, pl,

8, figs. 14-16, 1927 : Desikachary 297, pl. 50, fig. 6, 1959. (Plate I, Fig. 13)

Filaments single, free floating, straight or curved, 7.6-8.5 / broad ; sheath colourless;

trichomes constricted, 6.6-7.6 # broad, blue-green ; cells quadratic or up to 4 as long

as broad, 3.8-5.7 / long ; contents granular, pseudovacuoles present ; end cell round,

Habitat : In water course, village Sham Chaurasi, Hoshiarpur.

MICROCOLEUS Desmaziers

32. Microcoleus sociatus West et West in Jour. Bot. Lond. 35:272, 1897;

Desikachary 346, 1959.

Lat. trichome=2.7-3.4 / ; lat. filament=38.4-76.8 / ; long. cell=3.8-7.6 /.

Habitat : On moist soil, village Purhiran, Hoshiarpur.

Family NOS TOCACEAE Kiitzing

Subfamily ANABAENOIDEAE

CYLINDROSPERMUM Kiitzing

33. Cylindrospermum licheniforme Kiitz. [in Bot .Zeitung, 5: 197, 1847; Tab. Phycol.

1:53, pl. 98, fig. 6, 1849] ex Born. et Flah. Rev. Nostoc. Heterocyst. 253, 1888;

Desikachary 366, pl. 65, fig. 8, 1959.

Lat. trichome=3.4-4.2 /; long. cell=3.4-5.1 “5 lat. heterocyst=4.7-6.6 /; long.

heterocyst=7.6-11.5 / ; lat. spore=11.5-15.3 & ; long. spore=19.2-30.7 #.

Habitat: Free floating in a stagnant water tank at Bhadarpur, Hoshiarpur.

NOSTOC Vaucher

34. Nostoc spongiaeforme Ag. [Syst. Alg. 22, 1824] ex Born. et Flah. Rev. Nostoc.

Heterocyst. 197, 1888 ; Desikachary 380, 1959.

Lat. trichome=3.8-4 # ; long. cell=5.7-7.6 / ; lat. heterocyst=5.7-7.6 “; long.

heterocyst=7.6-9.5 / ; lat. spore=6.6-7.6 / ; long. spore=7,.6-10.5 /.

[18]

MORE CYANOPHYCEAE OF HOSHIARPUR : II 677

Habitat: Floating in a stagnant water pond, Phagwara road, Hoshiarpur.

var. tenue Rao in Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. 3 : 170, Fig. 2 F, 1936.

Lat. trichome=3.4-3.8 # ; long. cell=3,8-5.7 / ; lat. heterocyst=4.7-6.6 / ; long.

heterocyst =5.7-9.5 / ; lat. spore=4.7-6.6 / ; long. spore=5.7-9.5 &,

Habitat ; On moist soil, Guru Nanak Nagar, Hoshiarpur.

ANABAENA Bory

35. Anabaena iyengarii Bharadwaja in Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. B, 2: 105, fig.

6 H-K, 1935 ; Desikachary 406, pl. 78, fig. 2, 1959.

Lat. trichome=5.6-6.6 / ; long. cell=3.8-4.7 & ; lat. heterocyst=7.6-8.5 / ; long.

heterocyst=7.6-8.5 @ ; lat. spore=9.5-11.5 / ; long. spore=11.5-19.2 pw.

Habitat: Floating on the surface of water, Dholbaha, Hoshiarpur.

36. Anabaena vaginicola Fritsch et Rich. forma fertilissima Prasad in Journ. Indian

Bot. Soc. 31 : 361, figs. 14-17, 1952 ; Desikachary 401, pl. 73, fig. 3, 1959.

Lat. filament=11.2-15 #; lat. trichome=4.6-5.6 / ; long. cell=3.7-7.5 / ; lat.

heterocyst=5.6-7.5 / ; long. heterocyst=7.5-12.1 / ; lat. spore=4.6-8 / ; long. spore

=5,6-1).2 b.

Habitat: In stagnant water of a crop field, Phagwara road, Hoshiarpur.

Subfamily AULOSIRAE Born. et Flah.

AULOSIRA Kirchener

37. Aulosira fertilissima Ghose var. hoshiarpurensis var. nov. (Plate II, Fig. 14)

Plantarum massae fibrosae, luteolo-brunneae vel luteolo-virides ; trichomata recta

vel paulum flexuosa, 5.7-7.6 “# lata; vaginae crassae, firmae ; filamenta 7.6-10.4

lata ; cellulae doliiformes vel cylindricae, 4-11.5 # longae, contentis granularibus ;

ramis falsis brevibus ; heterocysta intercalaria, 5.7-8.5 “ lata, 11.5-13.4 «4 longa, oblonga

vel elliptica ; sporae seriatae, ubique alternantes cellulis mortuis, 9.5-11.5 latae,

15.3-19.2 & longae, oblongae vel ellipticae. Positus in Government College, Hoshiar-

pur herbario sub numero Vasishta 14.

Plant mass fibrous, yellowish brown to yellowish green ; trichomes straight or a

little flexuous, 5.7-7.6 “” broad ; sheath thick, firm ; filaments 7.6-10.4 «& broad ; cells

barrel-shaped or cylindrical, 4-11.5 “ long, contents granular ; false branches short ;

heterocysts intercalary, 5.7-8.5 “ broad, 11.5-13.4 / long, oblong or elliptical ; spores

in series, 9.5-11.5 # broad, 15.3-19.2 “& long, always alternating with dead cells, oblong

or elliptical.

Habitat: In a stagnant water pond, Phagwara road, Hoshiarpur. Collected

on September 12, 1959. Deposited in Government College, Hoshiarpur herbarium

under reference number Vasishta 14.

The variety resembles the type in the shape of cells, heterocysts and spores; the

spores are formed in long series alternating with dead cells ; but differs in the smaller

dimensions of the cells, heterocysts and spores.

This variety differs from the var. tenuis Rao (1937) in possessing (a) broader

filaments and trichomes, (b) broader heterocysts, and (c) broader spores. The

Hoshiarpur alga is intermediate between the type and variety tenuis Rao. It suggests

the merger of the variety tenuis Rao with the type.

[19]

678 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

Family SCYTONEMATACEAE Rabenhorst

SCYTONEMA Agardh

38. Scytonema hofmanni Ag. [Synop. Algar. Suec. 117, 1817] ex Born, et Flah,

Rev. Nostoc. Heterocyst. 97, 1887 ; Desikachary 476, pl. 91, fig. 2, 1959.

Lat. filament=11.3-13.4 “ ; lat. trichome=7.6-9.5 /& ; long. cell=7.6-15.3 / ; lat

heterocyst=9,5-15.3 “ ; long. heterocyst=11.3-23 “ ; crass. vag.=1.7-2.7 m.

Habitat :: Forming cushion-like, broadly expanded thallus of blackish blue-green

colour on moist sandy soil mixed with clay, Hoshiarpur.

39. Scytonema ocellatum Lyngbye [Hydroph. Danica 97, pl. 28 a, 1819] ex Born.

et Flah. Rev. Nostoc. Heterocyst. 95, 1887 ; Desikachary 467, pl. 92, fig. 3, 1959.

Lat. filament=15.3-19.2 “ ; lat. trichome=9.5-11.5 / ; long. cell=3.8-7.6 / ; lat

heterocyst=11.5-13.4 “ ; long. heterocyst=11.5-15.3 “ ; crass. vag.=3.8-4 /.

Habitat : On moist soil, Hoshiarpur.

40. Scytonema millei Bornet [in Bornet et Thuret, Not. Algol. 2 : 147, 1880] ex

Born. et Flah. 93, 1887 ; Desikachary 460, pl. 93, fig. 2-3, 1959. (Plate II, Fig. 15)

Thallus woolly, expanded, light blue-green and yellowish brown ; filaments inter-

woven, 15.3-22 / broad ; sheath thick, lamellated, firm, brownish, 3.4-5.1 thick ;

trichomes constricted ; cells discoid in young and healthy trichomes, 11.5-14.3 « broad,

4.7-9.5 / long, becoming more or less quadrate in old trichomes, contents blue-green,

granular ; heterocysts discoid, usually broader than the cells ; reproduction by hor-

mogones ; false branches in pairs or even single.

Habitat: On moist soil near Model Town, Heston: The type is being

reported for the first time from the Indian soil.

Family MICROCHAETACEAE Lemm.

MICROCHAETE Thuret

41. Miicrochaete tenera Thuret var. major Moebius in Abh. Seuckenb. naturf,

Ges. 343, pl. 2, figs. 2-4, 1894.

Lat. filament=11.5-13.4 #; lat. trichome=7.6-9.5 “#3; long. cell=8.5-11.5 mM;

diameter basal heterocyst=8.5-9.5 ; lat. intercalary heterocyst=7.6-9.5 “; long.

intercalary heterocyst=11.5-19.2 &.

Habitat : On submerged plant parts of Trapa bispinosa, Hoshiarpur. This variety

is being reported from the Indian soil for the first time.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author wishes to express his sincerest thanks to Rev. Fr. H.

Santapau, Director, Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta, for rendering the

new diagnoses into Latin.

[20]

Comments on Ripley's

A SYNOPSIS OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA AND

PAKISTAN

BISWAMOY BISWAS

Zoological Survey of India, Indian Museum, Calcutta

(With a Supplement by Sidney Dillon Ripley I)

After Baker’s FAUNA OF BRITISH INDIA, BIRDS (1922-1930), Ripley’s

A SYNOPSIS OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA AND PAKISTAN (1961) is the most

important and standard reference work on Indian ornithology. In

view of its importance, it is proposed to publish, from time to time, notes

and comments on the contents of the book. It may be mentioned at

the outset that I have no serious criticism of the volume, and the

following notes are more in order to supplement the information already

contained therein. Since the question of recognition of one subspecies or

the other is largely a matter of opinion of individual zoologists, it is not

proposed to discuss that aspect, except in very obvious cases.

Drs. Salim Ali, K. K. Tiwari, Charles Vaurie, S. Dillon Ripley, and

Ernst Mayr read a draft of this paper and offered helpful advice. I must,

however, specially mention that Dr. Ripley has been kind enough also

to point out to me some omissions and commissions in his book

that escaped my notice ; and that Dr. Mayr, in spite of his extremely

busy hours, has greatly helped me in the interpretation of certain articles

of the new code of zoological nomenclature. To all of them I express

my grateful thanks. I am also thankful to Mr. F. C. Sawyer, Librarian,

Zoological Library, British Museum (Natural History), London, for his

invaluable help in finding out the correct dates of publication of certain

books and periodicals.

1. Map between pp. viii and ix. Despite the caption ‘India and

Pakistan before the 1956 re-organization of Indian States’,

it shows India as it was before the reorganization of Provinces

in 1937, for no boundaries between India and Pakistan or

Bihar and Orissa are given.

Further, in place of ‘ N.W.F.D.’ read. ‘ N.W.F.P.’

2. p. 2, no. 4. As per no. 706 of the OFFICIAL LIST OF SPECIFIC

| NAMES IN ZOOLOGY, Podiceps nigricollis Brehm is the correct

name for this species.

680 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

3. p. 12, no. 33. The name should be Ardea insignis Hume.

Hume’s name is available, since its citation as a synonym of

Ardea nobilis Blyth and Ardea sumatrana Rafiles are based. on

misidentification.

4, p. 13, no. 38. The name should be Butorides striatus chloriceps

(Bonaparte), as has been shown by Biswas (1959, p. 288).

5. p. 21, no. 64. The name should be Ciconia ciconia boyciana

Swinhoe, for Severtzov’s asiatica is scarcely valid and is best

synonymized with the nominate ciconia (see Baker, 1929, p.

32).

6. p. 49, no. 156. It also occurs in Nepal in winter (Scully, 1879,

p. 225 ; Rand & Fleming, 1957, p. 54).

7. p. 52, no. 165. There is no recorded evidence of its breeding

in Nepal.

8. p. 52, no. 166. The correct name is Aquila chrysaetos daphanea

Severtzov, 1888, for it is not preoccupied by A. [quila] ?

Daphanea Hodgson, 1844, which is a nomen nudum and hence

has no nomenclatural standing. Ticehurst (1932) renamed

this bird as A. c. hodgsoni because he thought that since

Severtzov’s name was cited in the synonymy it was not

available. This was, however, unnecessary in reference to

Art. 16 (b) (ii) of the New Code.

9. p.72,no.236. The type locality, Srinagar, as given by Hell-

mayr, is in Dehra Dun district, U.P., and not in Kashmir.

Watson (1962) has recently shown that Alectoris graeca (Meisner) —

and. Alectoris chukar (J. E. Gray) are distinct species.

10. p. 73, no. 238. Scully (1879, p. 348) reported it also from

Nepal at c. 6000 ft.

11. p. 116, no. 383. The author of the name Charadrius placidus |

is J. E. Gray alone. |

The first (1846) edition of the CATALOGUE of Hodgson’s collection |

was published under the joint authorship of J. E.andG.R. |

Gray (see announcement at the back of the second edition),

although G. R. Gray alone was responsible for all new names

proposed therein (see pp. iv-v of the first edition). The

second (1863) edition was, however, all J. E. Gray’s own work.

12. p. 122, genus Capella Frenzel. As per no. 58 of the OFFICIAL

LIST OF GENERIC NAMES IN ZOOLOGY, Gallinago Brisson is the

correct generic name for the. snipes.

COMMENTS ON RIPLEY’S SYNOPSIS WITH A SUPPLEMENT 681

13.

14.

bD:

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

D2:

23%

24.

a),

26.

p. 156, no. 501. Robinson & Kloss’s name was originally printed

as Treron bisincta praetermissa.

It occurs also in Nepal.

p. 162, no. 524. Biyth’s name originally appeared as C. (Also-

comus) puniceus.

It occurs also in south-eastern Bihar and southern West Bengal

although rather scarce there.

p. 172, no. 562. Occurs below 2000 ft. also, for example, 800

ft. reported by Biswas (1961b, pp. 537-538).

p. 172, nos. 562 and 563. Husain (1959) has shown that Psitta-

cula himalayana (Lesson) and. P. finschii (Hume) are distinct

species.

p. 173, no. 566. Hodgson obtained two specimens in Nepal

(J. E. & G. R. Gray, 1846, p. 113).

p. 175, no. 572. Occurs also in Orissa (Mayurbhanj district,

reported by Mukherjee, 1953, pp. 157, 160).

p. 205, no. 682. The subspecific name should be corrected to

monticola.

p. 210, no. 700. The type locality of Cypselus leuconyx Blyth is

Calcutta.

p. 217, no. 729. Occurs also in southern West Bengal. |

p. 224, no. 755. In the reference mentioned, Stresemann refers

only to the specimen(s) of Coracias benghalensis (L.) collected

by P. Poivre, which did not form the basis of Linnaeus’s

description of the species.

Regarding designation of a neotype for Coryus benghalensis

Linnaeus, see Biswas (1961a), and for the Ruling (Opinion

663) given on the case by the International Commission on

Zoological Nomenclature, see Bull. zool. Nomencl. 20(3) :

195-196, April 1963.

p. 233, no. 783. Recorded also from Dehra Dun district, U.P.

(Mukherjee, 1956, pp. 162-163 ; Rand & Fleming, 1957, p. 88).

p. 233, no. 784. Bonaparte’s name was originally spelt as

Megalaima hodgsoni.

p. 235, no. 792. Latham’s name Bucco indicus occurs on page

205 of INDEX ORNITHOLOGICUS, vol. 1 (1), and its type locality

is India.

p. 236, no. 793/794. No specimen of Indicator xanthonotus

has yet been taken in Nepal. It is not known, therefore, if

682

Daf

28.

Pe):

30.

SHE

32.

33.

34.

36.

37.

38.

39.

40.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

the subspecies radcliffi or the nominate xanthonotus or both |

occur there.

p. 245, no. 827. The original name was published as Picus

(Chrysonotus Swainson) Grantia, and its author is Horsfield.

p. 261, no. 877. The year of publication of Blyth’s name is

1845, although it was due in 1844.

Under Range : delete ‘ western’ from Bihar.

p. 264, no. 888. It occurs in Nepal also (Sharpe, 1890, p. 585).

p. 271, no. 912. J. E. Gray’s name Hirundo chinensis was

published in 1830 in the ILLUSTRATIONS OF INDIAN ZOOLOGY,

vol.“T, pt. 2, pl. 35,<me. 3;

p. 300, no. 1002. In the reference cited, Stresemann refers to

Sturnus Capensis Linnaeus, 1766, and not to Sturnus Contra

Linnaeus, 1758.

p. 305, no. 1020. The type locality of Garrulus bispecularis

Vigors was earlier restricted to Murree by Baker (1922, p. 63).

p. 310, line 19. Delete ‘ Nepal’ from the range of the species

Dendrocitta frontalis Horsfield.

p. 340, no. 1133. The type locality of Trichophorus striatus

Blyth is Darjeeling. : |

p. 341, no. 1140. The type locality of Trichophorus flaveolus

Gould was originally given as Himalaya Mountains, Nepal,

etc. Baker’s restriction to Cachar (Assam) cannot stand,

for Cachar is neither in the Himalayas, norin Nepal. It has,

however, been restricted to Nepal by Koelz (1954, p. 10).

p. 343, no. 1146. Horsfield’s name originally appeared as

Hypsipetes McClellandii.

p. 366, no. 1228. The type locality of Tickell’s Motacilla rubri-

capilla is not Manbhum, but ‘Borabhum’ (—Barahabhum,

Purulia district, West Bengal). 3

p. 367, no. 1231. The year of publication of Gmelin’s name

Parus sinensis is 1789.

p. 370, no. 1241. Hodgson’s specimen on which Sharpe named

Suthora humii came from Darjeeling (Gray, 1863, p. 37).

The restriction of the type locality to eastern Nepal is,

therefore, unnecessary.

p. 382, no. 1279. Vigors’s name was originally published as

Garrulus striatus.

pad

COMMENTS ON RIPLEY’S SYNOPSIS WITH A SUPPLEMENT 683

41.

42.

43.

44,

45.

46.

47.

48.

49.

50.

a2:

383, no. 1280. Whistler died in 1943, and vibex was described

in 1950. Naturally, he could not possibly write in his MS.

notes anything about its occurrence in eastern Kumaon.

However, he thus referred to the British Museum series from

Nepal : ‘ These are called intermediate by B.M. but seem to

me, particularly Scully’s birds, close to typical race.’

417, no. 1397. Lowndes (1955, p. 31) found it as far up as

10,500 ft. in Nepal.

. 417, no. 1399. Koelz’s restriction of the type locality of

Hypsipetes gracilis Horsfield to Naga Hills may not be valid,

for there is nothing to show that McClelland (the collector)

ever visited that part of the country.

. 433, no. 1447. Moore’s name originally appeared as Nemura

Hodgsoni.

439, no. 1465. It occurs in Nepal also (J. E. & G. R. Gray,

1846, p. 93 ; Biswas, 1963a, p. 807).

. 443, nos. 1477 & 1478. Sylvia montana Horsfield, 1821, is

older than Horornis fortipes Hodgson, 1845. The names of

nos. 1477 and 1478 should, therefore, be changed to Cettia

montana pallidus (Brooks) and Cettia montana fortipes

(Hodgson), respectively.

. 457, no. 1528. Prinia catharia Reichenow, 1908, is an older

name for this bird.

. 459, no. 1534. The type locality of Graminicola bengalensis

Jerdon is Cachar. Although Jerdon (1863, p. 177) mentioned

‘Ganges’ first, he (loc. cit., note) clearly stated that he did not

procure any specimen there, and that his first specimens were

taken in Cachar. The type locality being the place of origin

of the first specimen (type), only Cachar can qualify.

p. 471, no. 1570. Biddulph (1881, p. 67) obtained a specimen

of Sylvia alathaea in Gilgit in May, and Scully (1881, p. 450)

recorded. it breeding there.

p- 478, no. 1592. The type locality of Regulus inornatus Blyth

is Darjeeling.

Proud (1955, p. 63) reported it also from Nepal.

p. 487, no. 1620. Seicercus poliogenys (Blyth) has also been

known from Nepal (Gray, 1863, p. 32 ; Proud, 1955, p. 65).

p. 488, no. 1622. According to Art. 58 (8) of the International

Code of Zoological Nomenclature (1961), Abrornis albigularis

Blyth, 1861, is preoccupied by Abrornis albogularis Moore,

684 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

1854. The next name available, Abrornis flaviventris Jerdon,

1863, should, therefore, be used for this form.

It has also been known from ee (Gray, 1863, p. 33 ; Biswas,

1962b, p. 423).

53. pp. 496-497, no. 1647/1648. Summer birds from Manangbhot,

northern central Nepal, taken between 13,000 and 15,000 ft.

by Lowndes (1955, p. 32) have been identified as nominate

pectoralis.

54. p. 503, no. 1671. The description of Ruticilla phoenicuroides

Moore occurs in vol. 1 of Horsfield & Moore’s work.

55. p. 506, no. 1678. Moore’s name originally appeared as Ruti-

cilla Vigorsi.

56. p. 507, no. 1680. It occurs much below 6000 ft., for example,

Stevens’s (1925, p. 358) report from Bhutan Duars (500 ft.,

O’Donel coll.) and from Nurbong (2000 ft.) ; Biswas’s (1962a,

p. 662) record from central Nepal at c. 1000 ft.

37. p. 514, no. 1700. The author’s name Sykes should not be

enclosed in parentheses.

58. p. 543, no. 1785. The subspecific name was originally published

as sushkini.

59. p. 557, no. 1823. Also reported as far west as the Gandak-

Kosi watershed, central Nepal (Proud, 1952, p. 362).

60. p. 571, no. 1865. The author of the name Anthus pelopus is

G. R. Gray (see remark on no. 383).

61. p. 576, no. 1883. Hodgson’s name was originally published

as Motacilla (Budytes) Calcarata.

62. p. 583, no. 1906. The date of publication of Baker’s name

Chalcoparia singalensis rubinigentis in his FAUNA OF BRITISH

INDIA, BIRDS vol. 7, as given, that is, 14 May 1930, does not

seem to be correct. This date has presumably been obtained

from the set of Baker’s work in the Zoological Library of the

British Museum. Inserted in the vol. 1 of that set is a hand-

written memorandum from the publishers addressed to the

late Sir Norman Kinnear, giving the actual dates of publication

of the various volumes. In it the date for vol. 7 is written as

14 May 1930 which is obviously a slip of the pen (probably

intended to be 14 March 1930), for the copy of vol. 7 of the

same set is datestamped 23 April 1930 by the Library !

Again, the publishers have recently informed me that the date

on the title pages of the volumes are the dates on which they

COMMENTS ON RIPLEY’S SYNOPSIS WITH A SUPPLEMENT 685

63.

64.

65.

66.

67.

were published and were available for sale to the public, which,

for vol. 7, is March 1930. Baker’s name should, therefore,

have priority over Kloss’s, and the Indian Rubycheek should

be known as Anthreptes singalensis rubinigentis (Baker).

p. 611, no. 1989. Reported also from Nepal (Lowndes, 1955,

p. 34, from Manangbhot, northern central Nepal, at c. 10,000-

13,000 ft., in summer).

p. 616, no. 2004. Recorded also from eastern Nepal (Biswas,

1963b, p. 194).

p. 634, no. 2055. Sharpe’s name was published in 1888.

It has also been known from Nepal (Gray, 1863, p. 57).

Various pages. Add Andaman Islands in the ranges of :

nos. 14 (p. 5), 17 (p. 7), 44 (p. 15), 49 (p. 16), 114 (p. 37), 133 (p.

43), 147 (p. 47), 175 (p. 55), 191 (p. 60), 193 (p. 60), 222/223

(pes) 55 (p 101). 346 (p7103), 37 (pa 112)3379 (pe 115),

409 (p. 124), 418 (p. 128), 424/425 (pp. 129-130).

Add Nicobar Islands in the ranges of :

nos. 18 (p. 7)—definite records ; 49 (p. 16)—probable records ;

_52 (p. 17)—definite record ; 418 (p. 128)—doubtful record.

Add Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the ranges of :

mos. 21 (9.8); 37 (p. 13),48_ Cp. 16), 57 (p: 18); 373 (p: 113), 374

(p. 114), 385/386 (p. 117), 387/388 (p. 117), 393/394 (p. 119),

396 (p. 120), 406 (p. 123), 422 (p. 129), 434 (p. 133).

(See Ball, 1873 ; Hume, 1873, 1874, 1876; Butler, 1899-1900 ;

Kloss, 1903 ; Osmaston, 1906).

Various pages. The author of the following names is Horsfield :

Hirundo brevirostris (p. 205, no. 683) ; Coracias affinis (p. 225,

no. 757) ; Phaenicornis elegans (p. 325, no. 1080) ; Hypsipetes

gracilis (p. 417, no. 1399).

The author of Spizaetus rufitinctus (p. 46, no. 144) and Jantho-

cincla gularis (p. 385, no. 1288) is McClelland.

The date of publication of all the abovementioned names and

of Mirafra Assamica Horsfield (p. 260, no. 873), Hirundo

brevicaudata Horsfield (p. 271, no. 912), Dendrocitta frontalis

Horsfield (p. 310, no. 1035), Muscicapa? capitalis Horsfield

(p. 320, no. 1064), Phaenicornis affinis McClelland (p. 326,

no. 1084), Saxicola? olivea McClelland (p. 441, no. 1472),

and. Cinnyris labecula Horsfield (p. 590, no. 1928) is best given

as 1839 (1840).

686

68. Various pages.

(in Horsfield & Moore) :

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

The author of the following names is Moore

Delichon nipalensis (p. 277, no. 932), Pnoepyga longicaudatus

(p. 358, no. 1202), Accentor rubeculoides (p. 542, no. 1781).

69. Various pages.

The authorship of J. E. Gray’s ILLUSTRATIONS

OF INDIAN ZOOLOGY (London, 1830-1835) has been given to

Hardwicke as well as to Gray & Hardwicke. A perusal of

the title page of the work.leaves one without doubt that the

author is J. E. Gray alone.

Kinnear (1925) and Sawyer (1953) have written on the dates of

publication of the various plates.

REFERENCES

Baker, E. C. S. (1922) : The Fauna of

British India, Birds (2nd ed.) 1. London.

—— (1929): The Fauna of British

India, Birds (2nd ed.) 6. London.

BALL, V. (1873): List of birds known

to occur in the Andaman and Nicobar

Islands. Str. Feath. 1 :51-90.

BIDDULPH, J. (1881): On the birds

of Gilgit. Ibis (4)5 : 35-102.

Biswas, B. (1959): A note on the

correct zoological name of the Indian

Little Green Heron (Aves, Ardeidae).

Curr. Sci. 28 : 288.

—— (196la): Proposal to designate

aneotype for Corvus benghalensis Lin-

naeus, 1758 (Aves), under the Plenary

Powers. Bull. zool. Nomencl. 18:

217-219.

—— (1961b): The Birds of Nepal,

part 2. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 57:

516-546.

—— (1962a): The Birds of Nepal,

part 5. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 38:

653-677.

—— (1962b): The Birds of Nepal,

part 7. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 59:

405-429.

—— (1963a): The Birds of Nepal,

part 8. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 59:

807-821.

—— (1963b): The Birds of Nepal,

part 9. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 60:

173-200.

Butter, A. L. (1899-1900): The

Birds of the Andaman and Nicobar

Islands, parts 3 & 4. J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 12 : 684-696 ; 13 : 144-154.

Gray, J. E. (1863): Catalogue of the

specimens and drawings of mammals,

birds, reptiles, and fishes of Nepal and

Tibet, presented by B. H. Hodgson, Esq.,

to the British Museum (2nd ed.). London.

GRAY, J. E. & Gray, G. R. (1846):

Catalogue of specimens and drawings of

Mammalia and birds of Nepaland Thibet,

presented by B. H. Hodgson, Esq., to the

British Museum. London.

Hume, A. O. (1873): Additional re-

marks on the avifauna of the Andamans.

Str. Feath. 1 : 304-310.

—— (1874): The islands of the Bay

of Bengal. Str. Feath. 2: 29-324.

—— (1876): Additional notes on the

avifauna of the Andaman Islands. Str.

Feath. 4 : 279-294.

Husain, K. Z. (1959): Taxonomic

status of the Burmese Slaty-headed

Parakeet. Jbis 101: 249-250.

JERDON, T. C. (1863): The Birds of

India 2 (1): 177. Calcutta.

KINNEAR, N. B. (1925): The dates

of publication of the plates of the birds

in Gray and Hardwicke’s ‘ Illustrations

of Indian Zoology’, with a short account

of General Hardwicke. Ibis (12) 1:

484-489.

Koss, C. B. (1903): In the Anda-

mans and Nicobars: 328-331. London.

Koetz, W. (1954): Ornithological

studies. I. New birds from Iran,

Afghanistan, and India. Contr. Inst.

Reg. Explor. (1) : 1-32.

LownpeEs, D. G. (1955): Some birds

from north-western Nepal. J. Bombay

hat. Hist: (SOc. 53.2 29°37-

MukKHERJEE, A. K. (1953): Ona

collection of birds from the Simlipal Hills,

Mayurbhanj_ district, Orissa. Rec.

Indian Mus. 50: 157-172.

—— (1956): Catalogue of birds in

the Indian Museum. 3. Capitonidae.

Rec. Indian Mus. 52: 157-175.

OsmasTon, B. B. (1906): Notes on

Andaman birds with accounts of the

COMMENTS ON RIPLEY’S SYNOPSIS WITH A SUPPLEMENT

nidification of several species whose nests

and eggs have not been hitherto described.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 17: 156-163,

486-491.

Proub, D. (1952): Some birds

seen on the Gandak-Kosi watershed in

March, 1951. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 50: 355-366.

—— (1955): More notes on the birds

of the Nepal Valley. J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 53: 57-78.

Ranp, A. L. & FLEMING, R. L. (1957) :

Birds from Nepal. Fieldiana, Zool., 41:

1-218.

SAWYER, F. C. (1953): The dates of

issue of J. E. Gray’s ‘ Illustrations of

Indian Zoology’ (London, 1830-1835).

J. Soc. Bibl. nat. Hist. 3 : 48-55.

687

ScuLLy, J. (1879): A contribution

to the ornithology of Nepal. Str.

Feath. 8 : 204-365.

—— (1881): A contribution to the

ornithology of Gilgit, part 1. Ibis (4)5:

415-453.

SHARPE, R. B. (1890): Catalogue

of birds in the British Museum 13.

London.

STEVENS, H. (1925): Notes on the

birds of the Sikkim Himalayas, part 5.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 30: 352-379.

TICEHuURST, C. B. (1932): Communi-

cation on a new name, Aquila chrysaetus

hodgsoni. Bull. Brit. orn. Cl. 52: 24-25.

WATSON, G. E. (1962): Sympatry

in Palearctic Alectoris partridges. Evo-

lution 16 : 11-19.

SUPPLEMENT

Additions and corrections to A SYNOPSIS OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA AND

PAKISTAN, and a comment.

p. 5. Add species 13a:

By Sidney Dillon Ripley II.

Bulweria fallax Jouanin

Small Black Petrel

Northern Indian Ocean.

13a. Bulweria fallax Jouanin

Bulweria fallax Jouanin, 1955, L’ Oiseau 25: 156.

(Near

Socotra, 12° 30’ N., 55°E.)

Range.—Northern Indian Ocean (see Jouanin, 1957, L’Oiseau

27: 12-27), wandering perhaps as far east as the western

coast of India. The record of the Mascarene Black Petrel,

Bulweria aterrima, should be treated as unresolved until

fresh specimens come to hand to determine to which species

birds near the coast might be assigned.

688 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

p. 14. no. 42. This should be read as:

Ardeola grayii grayii (Sykes)

and ‘ Maldive’ deleted from its Range.

p. 14. Add race 42a:

42a, Ardeola grayii phillipsi Scheer

Ardeola grayii phillipsi Scheer, 1960, Senck. biol. Frankfurt

am Main 41: 145. (Hitadu, Addu-Atoll, Maldives.)

Range.—Southern Maldive Islands, Addu and Suadiva.

p. 122. Genus Capella Frenzel :

The International Commission of Zoological Nomenclature (1957)

have decreed that the snipe species at present included in the genus

Capella should be transferred to ‘ Gallinago Brisson 1760’, and this is

what Dr. Biswas is referring to in his comments on my treatment of

these species in the sYNopsis. However, Dr. Alexander Wetmore, (1958,

Ibis 100 : 125-127) has shown that the Commission has attempted to

validate as a genus a term that does not have generic status. Thus

current standard lists such as the American Ornithologists’ Union

CHECK LIST (1957) and the South African CHECK LIST (1952) as emended.

by the Seventh Report (1963, Ostrich 34: 40) as well as my SYNOPSIS

continue to recommend the use of the genus Capella pending further

study.

p. 205. Add species 683a :

Collocalia maxima Hume

Low’s Swiftlet

Bhutan, southeast Tibet, east to Thailand, Viet Nam, Malaya,

Sumatra, Java and Borneo.

683a. Collocalia maxima maxima Hume

Collocalia maxima Hume, 1878, Stray Feathers 6: 49.

(Tenasserim. )

Range.—Eastern Bhutan and southeast Tibet (skins in B.M.)

from 7000 to 12,750 feet, vide Medway, 1961, J.B.N.H.S.

59 : 149.

COMMENTS ON RIPLEY’S SYNOPSIS WITH A SUPPLEMENT 689

p. 206, no. 685. This should be listed as a species :

Collecalia unicolor (Jerdon)

Indian Edible-nest Swiftlet

Southern India and Ceylon.

685. Collocalia unicolor (Jerdon)

Hirundo unicolor Jerdon, 1840, Madras Jour. Lit. Sci. 11 : 238.

(Coonoor.)

Range.—as stated.

p. 206, the citation Collocalia inexpectata ume, Hand no. 686

following it should be read as:

Collocalia fuciphaga (Thunberg)

Greyrumped or White-nest Swiftlet

Andaman and Nicobar islands east into the coastal Indochinese and

Malaysian subregions, Philippines and Lesser Sunda Islands.

686. Collocalia fuciphaga inexpectata Hume

Collocalia inexpectata Hume, 1873, Stray Feathers 1: 296,

in text. (Andaman Islands.)

Range.—as seated.

p. 325. Add race 1080a :

1080a. Pericrocotus flammeus andamanensis Beavan

Pericrocotus andamanensis ‘ Tytler’=Beavan, 1867, Ibis:

322. (Andaman Islands.)

Range.—Andaman Islands.

p. 599, no. 1954. Additional note to range, Montifringilla

ruficollis :

Sight record, Bass (1963, pers. comm.), Jalapahar, Darjee-

line cy 7500 11: Oct. 12, 1956.

Field Guide to the Amphibians of

Western India

PART 2

J. C. DANIEL

Curator, Bombay Natural History Society

(With two plates and four text-figures)

[Continued from Vol. 60 (2) : 438]

Family MICROHYLIDAE: Narrow-mouthed Frogs

These frogs are easily distinguished by the smallness of the head in

relation to the body. They are not uncommon but, being fossorial

forms, are rarely seen except during the breeding season. Many

species live more or less exclusively on ants and termites and are

often seen in association with termite colonies. The family ts widely

distributed and occurs in the tropics of both hemispheres. ;

The narrow-mouthed frogs differ from the frogs (Ranidae) and tree

frogs (Rhacophoridae) by the absence of teeth in the upper jaw and

the entire nature of the tongue, and are distinguished from the toads

(Bufonidae) by the circular or oval tongue, the circular or vertical pupil,

and the smooth skin of the body. Within the family, two characters

are of importance in separating the genera, the presence or absence

of ridges on the palate in front of the pharynx and the presence or

absence of disc-like dilatations on the finger tips. In all Indian

microhylids, the tympanum is hidden or absent and the first finger is

shorter than the second. The tadpoles lack teeth rows on the lips.

Five genera with nine species occur in India.

KEY TO THE GENERA OF MICROHYLIDAE

1. Tips of fingers not dilated cover 2:

Tips of fingers dilated into discs mete

2. Palate without ridges .. Melanobatrachus

Palate with ridges See:

[25 ]

AMPHIBIANS OF WESTERN INDIA

3. No papillae behind internal nares. Size small, when

adult less than 35 mm. from snout to vent

Papillae present below internal nares. Size large, when

adult over 40 mm. from snout to vent

4. A bony ridge immediately below internal nares

A fleshy ridge some way below internal nares

Microhyla

Uperodon

Kaloula

Ramanella

691

Fig. 15. A Hand of Ramanella montana; Mouth of : b. Uperodon

systoma; c. Microhyla ornata; d. Uperodon globulosum; e. Kaloula

pulchra taprobanica ; f. Ramanella montana.

N : internal nares ; Pa: papilla ; E : inner bulge of eye; P: dotted lines on

tongue indicating position of palatal ridges; T.: tongue; Br. Bony ridge; D.

dermal ridge

[ 26 ]

692. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

Genus Melanobatrachus Beddome 1878

Restricted to south-west India. One species.

Melanobatrachus indicus Beddome 1878 : Black Microhylid

Diagnosis’. Distinguished from other species of the family by the

absence of palatal ridges. Size small, 34 mm. in snout-to-vent length.

Interorbital width broader than upper eyelid; pupil circular; tongue

oval entire; toes webbed at base; sub-articular tubercles and inner

metatarsal tubercle indistinct; tibio-tarsal articulation reaches to

midway between shoulder and eye. Skin pustular above, smooth

below.

Colour. Black. Thigh with a continuous or interrupted quarter-

inch-broad scarlet band near groin. A few scarlet blotches on chest,

between forelegs, and on lower portions of hindlegs sometimes present.

Distribution. A rare species. Collected only from the Anamalais

and other hill ranges in Kerala.

Habits. Beddome (1878) remarks that he collected the frogs in

moist evergreen forest at an elevation of 4000 ft. (c. 1219 m.), torpidly

curled up almost into a bail under old rotten logs.

Breeding habits and larvae unknown.

Genus Microhyla Tschudi 1838

The genus is widely distributed in south-east Asia and from

Brazil to the southern United States of America. Two species occur

in India.

Fig. 16. Hindfoot of: a. Microhyla ornata; b. Microhyla rubra

(both ventral views)

Mt: metatarsal tubercle

* Based on Beddome, Lt.-Col. R. H. (1878): Description of a new Batrachian

from South India belonging to the family Phryniscidae. Proc. Zool. Soc. London :

[27]

AMPHIBIANS OF WESTERN INDIA 693

KEY TO THE SPECIES OF MICROAYI.A TScHupDI 1838

_ Habit slender, two normal metatarsal tubercles .. ornata

Habit stout, two shovel-shaped metatarsal tubercles J UDG

Microhyla ornata (Dum. & Bibr.) 1841 : Ornate Microhylid

(Text-fig. 15c, 16a, 17)

Diagnosis. A small slender microhylid rarely exceeding 25 mm.

in snout-to-vent length. The colour pattern of the back is distinctive.

Interorbital width nearly twice as broad as upper eyelid. Toes with

a rudiment of web. Two prominent metatarsal tubercles. Tibio-tarsal

articulation reaches to the shoulder or to slightly beyond the anterior

border of eye. The heels meet when the legs are held at right angles

to the body. Skin smooth or slightly tubercular.

Colour. The characteristic pattern on the back, which may be

bright pink or brown of varying shades, begins between the eyes where

it extends to both eyelids, narrows on the nape, widens above the

shoulder, narrows again, and finally broadens out sending a stripe to

the groin and the thigh. A dark streak from behind the eye to the

shoulder, limbs crossbarred. White below, throat and chest may be

stippled with brown. Throat in breeding male black.

Distribution. India, Ceylon, south-east Asia, south China, and

Formosa,

Fig. 17. Microhyla ornata x 2

Breeding. The breeding season commences once the monsoon rains

have well set in and occurs throughout the monsoon period in south-

western India. The period varies with the rainy season in different

[28]

694 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

areas of its distributional range. Flower (1899)' records tadpoles

between December and February in Malaya. The male can be heard

calling at night near temporary rainwater poo!s and similar situations.

Several males may call from the same area but, though the call is

startlingly loud for an animal of its size, it is ventriloquistic and makes

location of the smiall frog sitting in the midst of grass or among stones

extremely difficult. In this, as in some other species of Microhyla, I

believe the male remains stationary and is located by the female by

its call. McCann (1940)? records the number of eggs in a female

collected in September as approximately 200. Earlier (1932)’ he

opines that eggs are laid singly in separate mucilaginous envelopes.

However, Ferguson (1904)’ states that the eggs which measure 2 mm.

in diameter are laid in flat transparent masses. I have, unfortunately,

no personal record. The tadpoles are transparent and have a

diamond-shaped mark of almost gold colour on the head. The head

and body are massive and the tail which is half as long as the head

and body ends in a short terminal flagellum. They move in shoals

just below the surface of the water or at the surface. According to

C. R. Narayan Rao (1917) the large air spaces which occur in the

gill chambers provide the necessary buoyancy and the offensive

secretion of two cephalic glands makes them unpalatable to fishes and

other aquatic life thus offering them protection in spite of the exposed

nature of their movements. The tadpoles are microphagus. Parker

(1928)° suggests that the flagellated tail helps the tadpole to maintain

a stationary position while feeding by counteracting the forward

thrust of the water taken in through the mouth and filtered out by

the gills through the spiraculum. When feeding the tail is bent back

almost parallel to the body and the flagellum at the tail tip vibrated

rapidly. Unlike in the adult the toes when they appear are completely

webbed. Development is rapid and the young measure c. 9 mm. at

metamorphosis.

Habits. This pretty little microhylid is the commonest species of

the family and one of the smallest of Indian amphibians. It has

adapted itself to life in different biotopes, and occurs in desert areas

* Flower, S. S. (1899) : Notes on a second collection of Batrachians made in the

Malay Peninsula and Siam, from November 1896 to September 1898, with a list of

species recorded from those countries. Proc. Zool. Soc. London : 885-966.

* McCann, C. (1940) : A Reptile and Amphibian Miscellany. J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 42 (1) : 45-64.

° ———— (1932) : Notes on Indian Batrachians. ibid. 36 (1) : 152-180.

Py Ferguson, H. S. (1904): A list of Travancore Batrachians. ibid. 15 (3): 499-

> Rao, C. R.N. (1917): On the occurrence of iridocytes in the larva of

Microhyla ornata Boul. Rec. Indian Mus. 13 : 281-92.

° Parker, H. W. (1928): The Brevicipitid frogs of the genus Microhyla. Ann.

Mag. Nat. Hist. 2, 10th series, 473-99,

[29]

AMPHIBIANS OF WESTERN INDIA 695

like Cutch and areas of heavy rainfall as Kerala and Assam. It is

found in the plains and to about 5000 ft. (1524 m.) in the hills.

While it aestivates when conditions are unsuitable, it may be found

throughout the year in suitable areas with cover and moisture. The

juvenile frogs may be seen for a short period in the dried-up but still

moist beds of temporary rainwater pools well after the monsoon

season. The dispersal of young which occurs among toads from the

breeding area apparently does not happen to a similar extent in this

species. Unlike many microhylids this frog is quite agile and difficult

to capture. It feeds mainly on ants and other small-sized insects.

Microhyla rubra (Jerdon) 1854: Red Microhylid

(Text-fig. 165, 18)

Diagnosis. A stout small frog distinguished from Microhyla

ornata by its well-developed shovel-shaped metatarsal tubercles and

more webbed toes, the web reaching the last row of tubercles in the

male and midway between the first and second row of tubercles in

the female. Sub-articular tubercles prominent. Tibio-tarsal articula-

tion reaches to between the shoulder and the eye. Skin smooth or

slightly warty above; a fold from eye to shoulder. Smooth below

except anal region which is granular. Heels may or may not meet

when the legs are held at right angles to the body.

Fig. 18. Microhyla rubra x 2

Colour. Head and back red bounded by two dark bands along

flanks from tip of snout to groin. Back with or without traces of dark

[ 30]

696 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

pattern, usually broken-up. Limbs indistinctly crossbarred; _ white

below, throat and chest light brown. Male with subgular vocal sac

which area is black in the breeding season.

Distribution. South India, Ceylon, Assam. Not recorded north of

Malabar in western India and Bangalore in the Peninsula. This species

is likely to be more widespread than the collection records indicate.

Breeding. The breeding season coincides with the monsoon and

in areas which receive both the south-west and the north-east monsoons

tadpoles may be seen from June to November. The eggs are laid in

flat transparent masses as in M. ornata but are of large size, 5 mm. in

diameter (Ferguson op. cit.). Tadpoles similar to those of M. ornata

but have a longer tail, over twice the length of head and body.

Transparent with reddish pink tint according to Ferguson (op. cit.)

but noted as olive above beautifully marbled by C. R. N. Rao (1915)'.

Parker (op. cit.) suggests that the difference in colour may be due to

local variation. The spawn is laid in rainwater pools. Tadpoles

similar in habit to M. ornata tadpoles. Development is rapid.

Habits. A fossorial species unlikely to be seen except during the

breeding season. The specimens collected by me were from sandy

river beds and according to Ferguson (op. cit.) the species is fairly

common in the low country of Kerala. C. R. N. Rao (op. cit.) states

that the call is akin to the chirping of crickets but can be distinguished

from a cricket’s as it is interrupted and not continuous.

Genus Uperodon Dum. & Bibr. 1841: Balloon Frogs

The rotund shape of the species of this genus makes them dis-

tinctive. The mouth has a short ridge ending in one or two papillae

behind or between the internal nares. The genus is restricted to

India. Two species are known.

KEY TO SPECIES OF THE GENUS UPERODON

A pair of ‘papillae’ together below internal nares.

Interorbital width nearly thrice upper eyelid. Colour

uniform brown or grey (Text-fig. 15d). ais globulosum.

A pair of ‘ papillae’ between the internal nares and a

papilla below each internal nare. Interorbital width

about twice upper eyelid. Back marbled (Text-fig. 15b).. systoma

1 Rao, C. R. N: (1915): Some south Indian Batrachia. Rec. Indian Mus. 11 : 31-8,

[a1]

AMPHIBIANS OF WESTERN INDIA 697

Uperodon globulosum (Giinther) 1864: Balloon Frog

(Plate III, Text-fig. 15d)

Diagnosis. Head small with rounded snout and beady eyes;

interorbital width 24 to 3 times the breadth of the upper eyelid.

Hindlegs short with two large shovel-shaped metatarsal tubercles.

Toes with a rudiment of web, tibio-tarsal articulation does not reach

the shoulder.

Skin smooth above and smooth or wrinkled below. Anal region

granular. An occipital fold and an indistinct fold from eye to shoulder,

uniform brown or grey above, white below with tinges of yellow during

the breeding season. Throat black in the breeding male.

Distribution. Bengal (Calcutta, Jalpaiguri), Orissa (Russelkonda),

Madhya Pradesh (Berar), Gujarat (Surat Dangs)', Maharashtra

(Bombay), Mysore (Khanapur).

Breeding. The breeding season coincides with the onset of the

monsoon in western India. This species was first recorded breeding

in cisterns in rock near Kanheri caves, Salsette Island, Bombay; how-

ever, later observations have shown that the species breeds in any

standing water, even temporary rainwater pools which may dry up in

a few days. The call is a loud grunting oink and helps the female to

locate the male. Tadpoles are active swimmers. In colour they are

Olive-brown above with a whitish tail which is striped longitudinally

with dark blotchy lines. Flanks and below spotted with dark. The

tadpoles are microphagus.

Habits. This species was considered to be rare but recently

Abdulali (1962)? found them at Khanapur, in Mysore, in large numbers

in the month of May. The species has, perhaps, a wider distribution

than what the collection records indicate, but as a completely fossorial

species it is not seen above ground except during the breeding season.

Apart from collections made at breeding spots the species has been

seen mainly in termite nests, and it would appear that this sedentary

species restricts its movements to finding and burrowing into the nests

of their main food, termites and, perhaps, ground-dwelling ants. They

are excellent burrowers and in loose soil using their powerful

metatarsal tubercles quickly burrow and disappear underground.

While burrowing the soil is dislodged by sideways movements of the

legs and the animal literally subsides into the ground; the eyes dis-

appear last, leaving no trace above of its presence inside. In clayey

1 infra page 742.

* Abdulali, Humayun (1962): An account of a trip to the Barapede Cave,

Talewadi, Belgaum District, Mysore State, with some notes on Reptiles and

Amphibians. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 59 (1): 228-37.

[32]

698 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

soil, however, an opening to the outside may be seen. Dampness of

the soil is essential for their well-being and they live at considerable

depths in the dry months—one specimen has been collected at a

depth of eight feet and lived for about 13 months without food,

showing no effects of starvation during the first nine months (D. D.

Mukerji, 1931)’. The globular shape is partly due to the enormously

distensible lungs which when inflated rise above the level of the back-

bone. The skin exudes a sticky secretion when the animal is kept

above the soil. On land they move with short hops or slow waik.

In water they float and are at the most feeble swimmers.

Uperodon systoma (Schneider) 1799 : Marbled Balloon Frog

(Plate III, Text-fig. 155)

Diagnosis. Distinguished from U. globulosum by its coloration, its

smaller size, and the interorbital width being narrower—13 to twice the

width of the upper eyelid, and the papillae in the mouth consisting of

a pair between the internal nares and one below each nare.

Colour. Olive to fawn or pinkish above, marbled or spotted with

dark brown. Below white, throat often mottled with brown. Breed-

ing male has the vocal sac area black and flower lip tinged with

yellow.

Distribution. Agra, Allahabad in the Gangetic plain, south India

(common at Madras). In western India only recorded in south

Kerala. The species may prove to be more widespread than recorded.

Breeding. Ferguson (op. cit.) recorded it as breeding in Trivan-

drum in June and July. Like other species of Indian Amphibia

breeding coincides with the rainy season and would vary with the

advent of the rainy season in different areas of its distribution. The

call has been. compared to the bleating of a goat (C. R. N. Rao, 1918)?.

The vocal sac distends enormously and looks more like a float than a

resonator while the animal is calling from water. The eggs are laid

in masses. The tadpole is indistinguishable from that of

U. globulosum.

Habits. Similar to U. globulosum.

1 Mukerji, D. D. (1931) : Some observations on the burrowing toad Cacopus

sopulogen Giinth. J. Proc. Asiatic Soc. Bengal, N.S., 27: 97-100.

C. R. N. (1918): Notes on the tadpoles of Indian Engystomatidae.

Rec. Tidien Mus. 15: 41-5.

[334

JourN. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. PraTE III

Balloon Frog, Uperodon globulosum

(Photo : J. C. Daniel)

Marbled Balloon Frog, Uperodon systoma

(Photo ; S. R. Sane)

Journ. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE IV

Ceylon Kaloula, Kaloula pulchra taprobanica

(Photo : J. C. Daniel)

Jerdon’s Ramanella, Ramanella montana

(Photo : S. R. Sane)

AMPHIBIANS OF WESTERN INDIA 699

Genus Kaloula Gray 1831

(Text-fig. 15e)

Diagnosis. A strong bony ridge behind opening of internal nares;

tip of fingers dilated into discs, toes webbed. A single species in

India.

Kaloula pulchra taprobanica Parker 1934: Ceylon Kaloula

(Plate IV, Text-fig. 15e)

Diagnosis. A medium-sized stout microhylid immediately dis-

tinguished from all other Indian frogs and toads except Ramanella by

having only the finger tips dilated into discs. Distinguished from

Ramanella by the presence of bony ridges immediately below choanae.

Head short, rounded, with indistinct canthus rostralis; interorbital

Space broader than upper eyelid; fingers with well-developed truncate

discs which are twice as wide as the last phalange: toes about 4-webbed;

two strong compressed metatarsal tubercles; tibio-tarsal articulation

reaches to the shoulder.

Colour pattern is distinctive and consists of blackish brown and

bright red areas. A wide median blackish brown area bordered by

two dorso-lateral bands of red and narrow interorbital band of red.

In addition there are spots and patches of red within the black

pattern. Light grey below, spotted or marbled with brown. Chin

and throat black in breeding male.

Distribution. South India (Cauvery River), Calcutta, Ceylon; in

western India collected at Khanapur, North Kanara.

Habits. Very little information is available on the habits of this

microhylid. Breeding habits unknown but they have been observed |

in copula in temporary rainwater pools in May at Dandeli by Abdulali

(op. cit.) who records the call as shriller than that of the smaller

Ramanella montana. The nominate race Kaloula pulchra_ pulchra

Gray is widely distributed in south-east Asia.

Genus Ramanella C. R. N. Rao & B.S. Ramanna 1925

The genus is found only in peninsular India and Ceylon. Three

species occur in India.

KEY TO THE SPECIES OF THE GENUS RAMANELLA

1. Belly immaculate white variegata

Belly brown or black spotted or marbled with Rites 2

2. Toesfree. ste triangularis

Toes webbed is montana

Geis |

700 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3) |

Ramanella yariegata (Stoliczka) 1872: Variable Ramanella

(Text-fig. 19)

Diagnosis. A small microhylid, less than 40 mm. in snout- iSsvent

length. Post-narial ridges sometimes pigmented; finger discs triangular

xis

Fig. 19. Ramanella variegata nat. size.

(After Giinther 1875)

nearly -twice the width of penultimate joint; toes with rudimentary

web; two metatarsal tubercles; tibio-tarsal articulation reaches shoulder.

onan smooth. Bye! 1 .

‘Colour. Brown with lighter eeslinee or pols. no stable petees

White below, chin and throat may be brown stippled. ee

Distribution. Mainly recorded from eastern peninsular ladies up

to Chanda in Madhya Pradesh.

Breeding. Very little information is available on the rooting

habits. C. R. Narayan Rao (1918, op. cit.) syllabilises the call as

ghauy, ghauy usually heard after heavy rainfall. The tadpoles are

brown or grey with minute black spots and occasionally a blue spot

on each side of the body. They are bottom dwellers and development

is rapid being completed within a month. pn

Habits. On its habits Narayan Rao & Ramanna (1925): state

that it is most often found in termitaries or under stones in association

with large black scorpions Heterometrus sp. When disturbed they briskly

crawled over the scorpions but when the scorpions went over them in

turn flattened out and froze. In soft soil they burrow well but usually

remain with :the nose above ground probably related to their habit of

ivi under stones: which makes deep burrows unnecessary. They

“~2Rao, C. R.N. & Ramanna, B. S. (1925): On a new genus of the Family

Engystomatidae (Batrachia). Proc. Zool, Soc. London : 587-97.

£35]

AMPHIBIANS OF WESTERN INDIA 701

can-climb weil. _ The specimens housed in the Society were collected

by Humayun Abdulali while ey, were climbing on the walls of a

well at Chanda. See ae cits

pier triangularis (Giinther) 1875 : Triangle-Spotted Ramanella

“Diagnosis. Size smal, 40 mm. in snout-to-vent length; post- -narial

tidges strong, narrowly” separated from each other; finger discs less

than twice width of ‘penultimate joint: toes free; two metatarsal

tubercles; tibio-tarsal articulation reaches shoulder or between shoulder

and eye. Skin smooth.

Colour. Pattern distinctive consisting of a lateral streak, a dorsal

patch breaking into two stripes at the loins at right angles to the

length of the animal, and a triangular patch enclosing the anus.

Fore- and hind-limbs banded. Ventrally spotted with white on a

brown ground colour.

Distribution. Malabar (Kerala) and Nilgiri Hills (Madras).

Breeding. The tadpoles are transparent but become brown when

the front limbs emerge. Metamorphosis completed within a month

(C. R. N. Rao, 1918, op. cit.).

Habits. Little known. Have been collected under logs and

stones in forest.

Ramanella montana (Jerdon) 1854: Jerdon’s Ramanella

(Plate 1V, Text-fig. 15a, 15f)

Diagnosis. Size small, about 35 mm. in snout-to-vent length. Post-

narial ridges well marked and nearly in contact on mid-line; finger

discs twice as broad as penultimate joint. Toes webbed, webbing more

extensive in the male than the female; two metatarsal tubercles; tibio-

tarsal articulation reaches to shoulder or between shoulder and eye.

Skin smooth.

Colour. Brown of varying shades, uniform or with darker spots,

the pattern varies. Below dark brown, almost blackish, with white

spots or blotches.

Distribution. South-west India from the Dangs (infra p. 742) to

south Kerala. 3

Breeding. Coincides with the monsoon. The call is recorded by

Abdulali (1962, op. cit.) as deeper in tone than that of the larger

Kaloula Dp. taprobanica. The tadpoles _ have been described by

féteuson (1904, ° ‘Op. “cit. as teenish brown, ‘mottled “darker above

[36]

702 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

Tail pinkish spotted with brown. Length of larval sponse and breed-

ing habits not recorded.

Habits. This species is not uncommon in the Boilibay area and

was first reported by McCann (1932, op. cit.). It has since been

collected occasionally on Salsette Island during and after the monsoons,

though the tadpoles have so far not been reported. Recently the

distribution of the species has been extended to the Dangs. Little is

recorded of their habits. They apparently aestivate after the rains.

McCann (1946)' records a male and female dormant with their legs

tucked in, in the hollow of a tree.

(To be continued)

* McCann, (1946): Aestivation of the frog Ramanella montana (Jerdon).

J. Bombay nat. Siist Soc. 46: 404-5.

[ 37]

Ornithological Notes of a second

trip to the Gulf of Kutch

HUMAYUN ABDULALI

In the Journal for August 1962 (59 : 655-658) I gave a short

account of an attempt to visit some of the islands in the Gulf of Kutch.

This year again, with the assistance of the Department of Fisheries

(Survey & Research), Government of Gujarat, another attempt was

made from the 3rd to the 6th August. Together with M. J. Pereira,

Field Assistant, Bombay Natural History Society, I drove from

Jamnagar to Salaya, and on the way stopped at Sikka to pick up

Mohamed (who was with us on the last trip) and Dost Mohamed who

has spent many years as a shikari in the Jamnagar Darbar. The

latter’s fund of interesting stories relating to the ‘good old days’

helped to while away the time. A pair of crow-pheasants seen from

the car produced the following: “The bird known as hook-ah builds

large globular nests in inaccessible places in thorn clumps. The nests

are lined with a valuable kind of grass, which thrown into a stream

floats against the current!’ Dost Mohamed had no personal ex-

perience of this strange ‘fact’ and did not know any particular use

for the grass, but he had no doubt about its value. One can only

wonder how such a story started’. )

The launch Moti which had left the previous day was to pick us

up on arrival and leave on the midday tide. When we reached Salaya,

-there was no trace of the boat. It came in at about 3, when we were

taking our lunch. I immediately sent a man down to the wharf to

ensure that the boat anchored some distance off-shore but, when we

walked down with our luggage a little later, we found her prow stuck

in the mud and the boat rendered immobile. The next high tide’ was

at midnight.

We spent the evening walking the shore and obtained specimens

of the Lesser Flamingo (Phoeniconais minor) and the Reef Egret

(Egretta asha=E. gularis schistacea in Ripley’s SYNopsis). The flamingo

1Our editorial assistant, J. S. Serrao, informs us of a similar belief in South

Kanara. According to this belief a valuable component of the crow-pheasant’s nest

known as sanjivana kaddi (life-giving herb), is separated from the other nest material

by throwing the nest into a stream, whereupon the former flows upstream while

the latter flows down.—Ebs.

704. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

was alone, busily feeding on the mudflats from which the tide

had ebbed and which though wet only held water irregularly in -small

puddles.’ ' Its crop was packed with algae and held no mud: ~

About midnight, | after much. -pushing and pulling, we took off and

hoped to reach Baida by 9 a.m. ‘At dawn I woke to find that we

had anchored at the mouth of the Salaya Creek and the tindal explained

that as he had no compass he could not navigate on a cloudy night.

As it was now daylight I suggested that we start off, only to find that

We were again stuck in the mud. Again we lost a couple of hours

and reached Baida about noon. This is a large island, mainly mangrove

forest with many nullahs and creeks running into it. We waded on

toa small sandy beach at one end and crossed over a low ridge on

to open mudflats. A flock of Large Flamingos (Phoenicopterus roseus)

stood on the edge of the incoming tide, while a mixed lot of ibises,

egrets, grey herons, and other waders were bunched together some

distance away. The creeper Ipomoea pes-caprae covered the sand-

banks, while on the drier mudflats Arthrocnemum indicum Mog. and

Asparagus racemosa grew together with mangroves. :

Three large skeletons were noticed lying on the island, probably of

the Hawksbill Turtle Eretmochelys imbricata (Linn.), the species from

which the tortoise-shell of commerce is derived, but the carapaces

were missing. Did they come ashore to lay their eggs?

_ As the tide moved in large areas were flooded and the boat was

run into one of the many creeks flowing into the mangrove forest,

where only the tops now showed above water. Numerous Darters

(Anhinga rufa melanogaster),, Grey Herons (Ardea cinerea), Reef

Egrets (Egretta gularis schistacea), White Egrets (Eegretta sp.), and

Night Herons (Nycticorax nycticorax) were crowded on the trees, but

there was no evidence of their nesting here. The many Reef

Egrets seen were all of the dark variety, as illustrated in Plate 11 in

Salim Ali’s THE BIRDS OF KUTCH (1945). Their dark legs and yellow (not

black as in the illustration referred to) feet reminded me of the Little

Egret (E. garzetta) which was not noted in the area—see Berlioz

(1956): The Dimorphic Egrets (J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 54 : 188-

190). The (light) slaty ashy-grey birds (Sykes’s asha from the Deccan,

illustrated on Plate 52, Salim Ali’s THE BOOK OF INDIAN BIRDS, 1961),

seen around Bombay (25 August to 25 May) and southwards, were said

by Jerdon (1870, THE BIRDS OF INDIA : 789) to be in winter plumage,

while Blanford (1895, FAUNA—Birds 4 : 391) thought they were birds

of the year. In Ceylon it has not been found breeding since Layard

noted it about a hundred years ago. K. M. Kirkpatrick found them

breeding in the ‘slaty blue phase of plumage’ along the east coast near

‘ORNITHOLOGICAL NOTES FROM THE GULF OF KUTCH . 705

Pulicat Lake. It is difficult to say if these were light or dark, ‘and

I think it is still to be decided if these two forms are me same or

different birds.

- In the mangrove we heard Re Great Indian Reed Warbler

(Acrocephalus stentoreus) calling loudly and, if we had had the time

to wait and investigate, it should not have been difficult to find yer

nests, if they were breeding. : : .

In the distance we saw a low mudbank, Gua aoe tis eenaed

with hundreds of curlew, whimbrel, and other water-birds.

On the mangroves, a little above the high waterline, there. were

many globular ‘nests’ (over a foot in diameter) made of mangrove

leaves; according to a local guide they were the ‘nests’ of a water-rat.

Here again it was not possible to stop and investigate. ;

We then turned towards Ajar which was now visible:. Here also

we landed (c. 4 p.m.) on a‘sandy beach, but the boat was almost

alongside and it was possible to jump ashore. This island is about

2 miles long by three-quarters of a mile wide and rises to a height of

perhaps a hundred feet. The higher areas are relatively fiat and

cultivated with bajri (Pennisetum typhoideum), and there is a per-

manent settlement of about six houses. A few water-birds, already

mentioned, were feeding along the shore all around and the following

land-birds were noted:

--Nectarinia asiatica, Purple Sunbird (one male)

Pycnonotus leucotis, White-cheeked Bulbul (several) -

Corvus splendens, Common House Crow (frequent, with pale

necks)

Streptopelia decaocto, Ring Dove (several)

Streptopelia senegalensis, Little Brown Dove (several)

Columba livia, Blue Rock Pigeon (several)

Vanellus indicus, Red-wattled Lapwing (several)

Zosterops palpebrosa, White-eye (2 pairs in Salvadora persicu

on edge of shore)

Galerida cristata, Crested Lark (the single specimen ebiaitied

seems greyer above than any of those available for comparison

in the Society’s collection)

A darter flew towards us and settled on a rock 200 yards

away. There was something very odd about the coloration and I

saw that the underparts from chin to vent were white with three

oval patches of black, arranged in a triangle, on its breast. When

approached with lethal intentions, it flew away and the upper surface

showed the normal colour of a darter, except that it appeared

paler. I put this down to some form of albinism. A _ little

106 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

later, I was able to collect a female which also was all white

from chin to vent, excepting the sides of the belly which were dark

and had slight extensions which formed two blobs of black on the -

belly. There was a slight trace of the white line down the sides of

the neck and the upper plumage was paler and grey rather than the

normal black of the adult. This specimen was perhaps a variation of

the earlier bird. It contained 4 fish (Platyglossus marginatus and

Therapon quadrilineatus) each about 3 inches long, and there was

nothing to suggest that they had been pierced by the bill.

Further sea-ward, and not far away. lay another island Chusna,

which rose high out of the water and, being uninhabited, appeared to

provide possible nesting sites for gulls, terns, and other water-birds.

We decided to lie alongside during the evening and to make a landing

in the morning.

When we got back to the boat at dusk, she was again high and

dry and the tindal was firm that it would not be possible to make a

landing and take off on the same tide. My enthusiasm had ebbed with

every tide and I was not inclined to risk another day. So, when

we floated off in the night we made towards two low islands towards

the Kathiawar shore, also visible from Ajar, with the tindal’s assurance

that we would be able to examine both. Here again the tide prevented

-our reaching them, but we landed on an exposed coral reef which lay

between. Numbers of starfish both chestnut and dark brown

(Astropecten indica) lay in the water near sea-anemones (Stoichactis

sp.) of many colours, which when disturbed threw out fine jets of

water and folding up almost disappeared into the mud. Crinoids

(Lamprometra sp.) of various colours lay around and an orange-and-

black Mantis-Shrimp (Gonodactylus chiragra) was picked up. An

octopus disgorged several crabs, and puffer fish (Tetrodon sp.) swam

about in pools with sandy floors. When approached, they buried

themselves in the sand and could be picked up with a handful of sand.

When handled, they puffed out and a companion related how, as

schoolboys, they had burst the fish underfoot, making loud noises!

Except for a couple of dark reef egrets, a pair of oyster-catchers,

and a Caspian tern that looked as big as a gull, there were few birds.

Across a nullah which we could not cross, and perhaps a quarter of

a mile away, was a large expanse of mud left uncovered by the tide.

Though wet, it held no continuous sheets of water on the surface. On

this mud were 20/30 each of the Large and the Lesser Flamingos, all

busily feeding. The Lesser were perhaps more sociable, keeping near to

another of either species. The two species have basically different

diets and it was difficult to imagine how each was picking up. what

ORNITHOLOGICAL NOTES FROM THE GULF OF KUTCH 707

it wanted. The liquid mud between us prevented a closer approach

for examination.

As we passed through the creek approaching Salaya, we saw many

pairs of Little Terns (Sterna albifrons). Earlier we had seen small

parties but failed to obtain specimens. One specimen shot has

brownish white shafts to the primaries and is of the typical race (S. a.

albifrons). On the last trip I obtained 3 specimens which are

S. a. saundersi.

We reached Salaya in the afternoon and, as we decided to take the

bus back to Jamnagar on the following (7th) morning, I had the

evening free. The House Crows appeared to have paler necks than

those in Bombay and I collected a couple. Having been told about

-a jheel on the other side of the town, I walked over to investigate.

A large sheet of water bordered with tall weeds is separated from a

tidal creek by a large bund over which runs a motor-road. Close by

is a Jain temple and apparently shooting is prohibited. Several

flamingos (Large) were feeding in the tidal nullah, while a party of

about 15 stood together in the lake some 30 yards from the road.

Those feeding in the creek constantly tapped the bottom with their

feet, presumably to disturb their food at the bottom. A man with a

lota walked to less than 20 yards of a flamingo and squatted, each

unmindful of the other.

As we watched, a considerable stream of Common Sandgrouse

(Pterocles exustus) in twos and small parties of 8 to 10 flew chuckling

overhead. On the lake were many Spotbill Duck in pairs, often

several together. In the shelter of the reeds I walked to within 20

yards before they rose, the larger drakes quacking while the ducks

were silent. There were many Purple Coots (Porphyrio poliocephalus)

which ran along the shore and flew on to the reeds when disturbed.

They settled sideways on the reeds, behaving like gigantic warblers.

One bird with a grey head and without the red patch on the crown

was apparently a full-fledged young.

The lake also held many Dabchicks eens ruficollis), some

Common Coot (Fulica atra), a few Whistling Teal, and a single Cotton

Teal drake (Nettapus coromandelianus). The Coot were a little earlier

than the first recorded by Salim Ali at Bhuj, Kutch (12 August), but

Dharmakumarsinhji has taken nests with eggs at Bhavnagar in August.

A single Yellow Bittern (/xobrychus sinensis) flew from one patch

of grass into another. A number of large terns were seen settled on

the mud in the tidal area. I walked up and most of them, all Gull-

billed Terns (Gelochelidon nilotica), flew away leaving half-a-dozen

birds behind. These when glassed were seen to have brown wings and

708 + JOURNAL,.BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY,’ Vol. 60> (3)

large red bills. As they flew away, their long pointed wings confirmed.

that they were Skimmers (Rhynchops albicollis). This species is not

included either in Salim Ali’s BIRDS OF KUTCH er in-his paper ‘The

Birds of Gujarat’ (J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 52 : 374-458, 735-802)

but M. K. Himmatsinhji of Kutch saw it in Laija Creek west of Mandvi

in August 1957 (J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc: 54.: 190) and Dharmakumar-

sinhji has several records in ‘his BIRDS OF SAURASHTRA, p. 222. As I

returned to the bund to watch the duck and other birds, several parties

of 10/15 Skimmers oot leisurely ACTOSS the lake, some 10 feet above

the water.

- A single swallow ee rustica) flew’ past. Though this did not

eae winter’ or even autumn, there can be little doubt that many

of: thesé ‘winter’ visitors arrive much earlier than is generally believed.

I was unable to obtain evidence of any of them staying over or breed-

ing in the area, but it was not possible to visit all the islands, nor to

be certain that some of the water-birds did not nest there during May,

June, and July. If a research scholar were placed on Ajar. for the

duration of the monsoon, he would: undoubtedly get some useful

information. Sailmg boats are available and, with no need to worry

about a tide or two, it should be~possible to visit all the islands. The

cost- would be small but time and-effort must be forthcoming. The —

island of Ajar also appeared to be of just the right size and character

to permit a really accurate census of its birds and an assessment of

the relations between individuals of the same and different species.

Ecological work would also be of almost laboratory convenience and

yet under entirely natural conditions. :

‘During the two days we: were actually in the field, Pereira worked

hard. Three flamingos, two Reef Egrets, and several other birds are

not easily skinned in a small and crowded cabin. The Lesser Flamingo

is an addition to the epee s collection, no other Recs being

available.

The Fisheries Denevinien: of the Government of Gujarat was help-

ful and co-operative, and I must record my thanks and gratitude to

them. I am sure that they will extend their co-operation. to any

person who makes another effort in that direction. If a longer trip

is envisaged, it would be worthwhile working together with somebody

who can handle the invertebrate fauna of the coral reefs and the

mudflats. There appear to be unlimited possibilities in this direction,

where almost no work has been done. I would advise that a small

boat be kept available—a rubber dinghy. may be sufficient. It will

permit movement and. work during many uigus which are otherwise

spent waiting for the tide. aon

Obituaries

BB: B. OSMASTON, CLE.

“We record with regret ‘the death on the Sth Se atstabee 1961 of

Bertram‘ Beresford Osmaston.

Bertram Beresford Osmaston, known to many in India as ‘B. B., :

was born at Yeldersley Hall, Derbyshire, in 1867, the ninth of a

family of fifteen, two of whom sutvive him. He was educated, at

Harborne Vicarage Private School, Trent and Cheltenham. Colleges,

and the Royal India Engineering College at Cooper’s Hill, where those

entering the Indian Forest Service were trained in those days. Passing

in and out the first of his year, he was. made a Fellow of the College.

B.B. came out in the Service: in 1888, served in the United

Provinces (including Dehra Dun Forest College), Bengal, the Andaman

Islands, and Burma, and retired as Chief Conservator of the Central

Provinces. His meritorious service was acknowledged by Government

by the award of the C.LE. )

After retirement he lived with, his family for some time at

Srinagar in Kashmir, and for the remainder of his life at Oxford.

One of the band of distinguished officers of the Indian Forest

Service whose interests covered almost every aspect of Indian natural

history, B.B. was “primarily an ornithologist and recorded his obser-

vations of bird life in several regions of India in numerous papers

contributed to the Society’s journal.

Not knowing what it was to be afraid, B.B. had more than his

share of dangerous encounters with wild animals. The first came

at the age of 21, when he had not yet seen a tiger outside a zoo. With

Hansard, an equally young companion, he ‘stalked’ a man-eating tigress

in the afternoon, imagining that she would be asleep. Instead, the

tigress did the stalking and jumped on Hansard. B.B.’s first shot

turned her attention to him and a fortunate shot from his second

barrel killed her in the midst of a furious charge.

In 1892, B.B. married Catherine Mary, daughter of General and

Mrs. Hutchinson, and they had a long and happy married life till her

death in 1960. One son was killed in the First World War. Two

sons and three daughters survive.

710 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

A list of his contributions to the Journal is given below:

On the nidification of certain birds not previously recorded. Vol. 9 : 190.

Birds nesting in the Tons Valley. Vol. 13 ; 542.

Curious course taken by the Hyoid Cornua or tenis muscles in certain wood-

peckers. Vol. 14: 587..

Notes on the nidification of some birds, the nests aad eggs of which have not

been previously described. Vol. 14: 815. ‘

The Himalayan Nutcracker. Vol. 14: 818.

The Chestnutheaded Shortwing (Oligura castaneicoronata). Vol. 14; 819.

Notes on the breeding of certain birds near Darjeeling. Vol. 15 : 510.

A visit to Narcondam. Vol. 16 : 620.

Notes on the Andaman Island birds with accounts of the nidification of several

species whose nests and eggs have not been hitherto described. Vol. 17 : 156, 486.

Mangroves and Paroquets. Vol. 17 : 240.

A visit to Barren Island, Andamans. Vol. 18 : 357.

Strange behaviour of certain birds when in possession of strong smelling insects-

Vol. 19 : 752.

The supply of water to young birds in the nest. Vol. 19: 753.

The Himalayan Greenfinch (Hypacanthis spinoides). Vol. 20 : 852.

Notes on the cuckoosin Maymyo. Vol. 24: 359.

Nidification of the Green Shrike-Tit (P. xanthochloris). Vol. 24: 593.

Pied Crested Hawk-Cuckoo (C. jacobinus). Vol. 24: 821. —

Owl caught onathorn. Vol. 24: 822.

Breeding of the Banded Crake. Vol. 24: 824.

Further notes on birds nesting in the Tons Valley. Vol. 25 : 493.

Further notes on Indian Nightjars. Vol. 27 : 948.

- The White-spotted Fantail Flycatcher (Rhipidura pectoralis). Vol. 28 : 282.

The Crested Swift (Macropteryx coronata). Vol. 28 : 283.

Birds of Pachmarhi. Vol. 28 : 453.

Predaceous habits of the Common King Crow. Vol. 28 : 546.

The occurrence of the Blue-bearded Bee-eater (Nyctiornis athertoni) in the C. P.

Vol. 28 : 805.

Woodpecker occupying nesting box. Vol. 28 : 1137.

Supposed occurrence of the Ermine in India. Vol. 29 : 277.

Bird life in Gulmarg. Vol. 29 : 493.

The trinomial system of nomenclature as applied to Indian birds. Vol. 29 : 556.

Supplementary notes on some Indian birds. Vol. 26 : 424.

The Shikra (Astur badius). Vol. 29 : 560.

Birds nesting in the Dras and Suru Valleys. Vol. 31: 186.

The Rock Horned Owl in Kashmir. Vol. 31 : 523.

Clicking noise made by Muntjac. Vol. 32 : 795.

A tour in further Kashmir. Vol. 34: 108.

Some Andaman birds. Vol. 35 : 891.

Do birds employ ants to rid themselves of ectoparasites? Vol. 39 : 182.

The large Red Flying Squirrel Pteromys inornatus. Vol. 49 : 114.

EDITORS

OBITUARIES 714

R. F. STONEY

It is with deep regret that the death is recorded of R. F. (Dick)

Stoney, an old and valued member of the Society, at Ootacamund on

the 27th of August 1963.

Dick Stoney was born at Coonoor in the Nilgiris in 1876 and was

educated at Cheltenham College, England. The name Stoney has long

been associated with engineering, Dick’s father E. W. being at one

time the Chief Engineer of the old Madras Railway, whilst the ‘Stoney

Patent Sluice’ may be found on the various River Nile projects.

Following this tradition, Dick was posted in 1896 as Executive

Engineer, P. W. D., Madras, from which Service he finally retired

as Chief Engineer. The most notable of his works are the Mettur

Dam and the Observatory at Kodaikanal.

It was always a pleasure to sit in Committee with Stoney, a man

of many parts and varied interests, be the subject wild life control, the

local library, or any of the many public bodies on whose committees

he served. A concise analytical mind, a very dry sense of humour,

the gift of Irish ancestry, and a fund of anecdotes always rendered dis-

cussion of the driest balance sheet or administrative problem a rare

form of relaxation rather than a tedious duty.

Recognised throughout the philatelic world, Stoney was a member

of the Indian Philatelic Advisory Committee and a Committee Member

of the Philatelic Society of India. At an Exhibition held in connec-

tion with the centenary of the Indian Post Office in 1954, he was

awarded the President’s Gold Medal ey the best collection of stamps

of the Indian States.

An authority on Indian mythology, he was justifiably proud of his

collection of bronzes portraying the many deities and symbolical

figures associated with this time-old subject. The collection, worthy

of a place in the best of Museums, was not just an accumulation of

items gathered at random. The various pieces were the subject of

loving care in selection, each with a purpose. To the untutored eye

many had a sameness, but it was fascinating indeed to hear unfolded

the various aspects of design, ornamentation, purpose, and even

manufacture by an undoubted master of his subject. Greater interest

was added by the fact that Stoney respected the beliefs which prompted

the creation of such objects of beauty.

My personal association with him commenced only some fifteen

years ago when, as a newcomer to Ootacamund, I had occasion to

seek his guidance, as the local authority, on the chances of obtaining

some woodcock and duck shooting. Without stint, I was given the

712. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

benefit of years of experience with regard to the best waters and how

to tackle them. If woodcock were in the Hills, Stoney knew of it

and the location was freely given to me and others and not kept a closely

guarded secret.. Subsequently, I enjoyed many hours of unforgettable

sport in the company of this grand, unselfish, old-timer.

In 1959 Stoney had to have his right leg amputated and, as may

be expected of his type, the inability was regarded as tedious but no

teal detriment to the pursuit of his favourite sport. A special swivel

chair was constructed and he continued to shoot the Mysore and

Gundalpet tanks right up to his last trip in April 1963, some fout

months before his death.

We, of a younger generation, feel decnky the passing of such men

for, without doubt, we shall never see their like again.

Gentleman, scholar, sportsman, friend, Dick Stoney will be missed

by Indians and Europeans of all stations alike. —

. Stoney leaves a son and a daughter to whom, we of the Soe

and on behalf of mutual friends ote our sincere condolences.

4G | a wed Bs

Reviews

dk BIRDS. OF THE WORLD.. Bea) Hans Hvass.. Translated

into English by Gwynne Vevers. pp.. 211 (22.5X16°cm.). Over

1100 birds illustrated in full colour by Wilhelm Eigener. London,

1963. ; bere & Co. el Jee 2 ks.

* The earliest known students of bird life are perhaps the neolithic

men who painted the Spanish caves over 8000 years ago. From ‘the

time of Aristotle onward, this interest in the winged world helped men

. in interpreting the basic principles of evolution, for birds are extremely

sensitive to their surroundings and a comparative study of the birds

of the world offers ee clues -to anyone etudyiae the mysteries

- a ecoeies Hayy ; :

~ Hans Hvass’s BIRDS OF THE WORLD is a positive step Lomaniena

pouta ‘understanding. of the feathered world. Of about 8600 living

species, the: book. deals with: 1100, some common .and some. rare,

drawn from all over the world and from all of the 27 living natural

orders. ‘They are split up into some 120 families and arranged from

the highest developed species downward. ‘The chapter on each order

opens with an account of the general characteristics, number of species,

and centres. of abundance of the order. This. is supplemented by a

brief discussion of the range. relationship, and special adaptation. of

each family. The English and Latin names of the birds. along with

the total body length in inches of each bird are given. All the birds

discussed ‘are illustrated. The text is limited to a few lines on the

range and food for most of the species, but more detailed information

about the appearance, calls and breeding habits, etc., is provided for |

some of the lesser-known birds.

_ The author has given prominence to the birds of Europe and the

New World, touching about 200 and 300 species respectively from

these regions. PULnen birds are represented ee the - characteristic

Sie:

‘The primary. object as stated in the ‘foreword is. to show the

enofmous range of form and colour in birds. This 1s” achieved in a

simple and efficient manner refreshingly free of many technical terms.

The illustrations generally are good in spite of a tendency of many

to look too dark in the reproduction. The usefulness of the book as

a‘field-guide could have been enhanced by bringing more of the habitat

‘into the pictures. —

Py “ . jaa

pmb vide Hi ti bi Wore DodiadD, NoiMA THEW

714. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

2. FOREVER FREE : ELSA’S PRIDE. By Joy Adamson.

pp. 192 (24X17 cm.). Numerous photographs in. colour and black

and white. London, 1962. Collins & Harvill Press. Price 30s.

BORN FREE told how the lion cub Elsa grew to maturity under the

fostering care of the author Joy Adamson and her husband George.

LIVING FREE continued the story. Elsa, now living free and mated to

a wild lion, brought her cubs to the Adamsons. Thereafter Elsa and

her cubs gravitated between the wild and the camp of the Adamsons, ,

Elsa mixing freely with them as before, her cubs living on the fringe

with only Jespah reconciled to their presence and the other two fight-

ing shy and at most tolerating them. When FOREVER FREE begins the

cubs are a little over a year old and the peace of the ‘family’ has been

disturbed. The African District Council has decided that lions, so

used to human company, may become a danger and has directed that

they must be removed from the area in which, with the approval of

the local authorities, Elsa was released two and a half years before.

After a prolonged search George Adamson reported a possible though

not very inviting home in the region of Lake Rudolf, which involved

the construction of a sixty-mile road to carry the lions there. While

the Adamsons were contemplating this possibility and Joy Adamson

was prospecting the south for something more suitable, Elsa com-

plicated matters by dying. It now became difficult to keep in touch

with the cubs. They wandered and, driven by hunger, attacked the

goats of the tribesmen. The Adamsons saved their lives by liberally

and frequently compensating the tribesmen, and with immense pains

attracted the cubs back to the camp. With Elsa’s death the idea of

a home in the wild had to be given up, and the Adamsons accepted

gladly the offer of a home in the Serengeti National Park. With what

patience and perseverance the cubs were captured, how they were

transported by road over 700 miles of difficult country, how they were

released at Serengeti and found a place to their liking, how for some

months the Adamsons fed them with game killed outside the Park,

how their continued presence in the Park and their tending of the

cubs was forbidden, how Joy Adamson stayed on as an ordinary

visitor to watch over the fortunes of the cubs, and how the Adamsons

made frantic but unsuccessful efforts to persuade the Park authori-

ties to permit an operation to remove from Jespah’s rump a tribesman’s

arrow-head which remained stuck in it all this time make absorbing

REVIEWS TMs

reading. A lover of wildlife and a keen observer, Joy Adamson has

much else to tell that is of interest to us. The book is illustrated with

beautiful and numerous photographs of the lion cubs and other wild

animals.

D.E.R.

3. BEE KEEPING IN INDIA. By Sardar Singh, php.

(Cornell). pp. 214 (2214.5 cm.). New Delhi, 1962. Indian Council

of Agricultural Research. Price Rs. 8.

Bee keeping received a great fillip in India when the Village Indus-

tries Association gave it a high place among village industries. No

doubt bee keeping has been practised in India for a very long time

but it was carried on haphazardly by a few in an unorganised manner.

A fairly good literature was available on the subject such as Bulletin

No. 10 of the Mysore Agricultural Department, 1933, and Miscellaneous

Bulletin No. 6 of the Imperial Council of Agricultural Research, New

Delhi, 1936. In more recent years the Indian Bee Journal published

in Ramgarh (U. P.) has been doing very useful work in this field,

giving information regarding the latest methods of bee keeping, honey

disposal, statistical data, etc. In spite of these and other such books

and journals bee keepers often found themselves at a loss, in the midst

of their success, by the puzzling behaviour of bees, and because of

this one will find bee keeping being given up in villages where it had

become very popular a few years back. Yet bee keeping can be a

steady and more profitable industry if properly looked after, as shown

by the statistics in the book under review. There seems to be good

scope for improvement and for increasing one’s income through this

source in India. Any help in achieving this result should be welcome

to the bee keeper.

The author treats the subject fairly thoroughly giving his reader an

idea of what the bee is, its general way of life, its temperament, and

its whimsicalities. The anatomy and physiology of the insect, the

various species of bees available with the temperament of each and

their economic values, the castes into which a bee colony is divided,

the duties of each caste and how to recognise them from the younger

stages to the adult, as treated in this publication are all useful informa-

tion. Chapters dealing with how to acquire bees. their seasonal

716 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

management, and miscellaneous manipulation will help bee keepers in

dealing with their difficulties. A bee keeper’s knowledge will be

incomplete without knowing the enemies and diseases of bees and their

combs, how the honey and bees-wax are formed and how they can

be gathered and disposed of. All these subjects are treated. Additional

knowledge about the usefulness of bees as pollinating agents will make

the bee keeper proud that by keeping bees he is helping nature to

perpetuate its species. All this information, along with the chapter

on bee pasture, consolidated in one place in fairly great detail with

appropriate illustrations makes this publication very useful to amateur

and professional bee keepers alike. While going through the chapter

on pasturage one feels disappointed that the flowering plants and trees

that we ordinarily have in our areas are not sufficient to keep the bee

colony going throughout the year. The suggestions given at the end

of the chapter, however, are heartening and worth trying.

The reviewer, however, would like to suggest a few points for |

incorporation in the next revised edition, as he feels that they would

enhance the usefulness of the book. They are: (a) in fig. 13 the

worker, drone, and queen cells are not distinguished by any signs or

marks: this should be done; (b) in figs. 29 and 30 photographs of

different appliances and equipment are shown without indicating which

is which: they should be pointed out; (c) in fig. 80 the stigma is shown

by an arrow mark and the explanation on it says ‘anthers ready to

discharge pollen dust upon waiting stigmatic surface which is sticky

when ripe’: rather it ought to read ‘Stigmatic surface which is sticky

when ripe waiting to receive pollen dust from the anthers’; (d) a few

contradictory statements will have to be rectified, e.g. (i) on page 20

it is said that the differentiation in the workers and queens is not

due to quality but quantity fed to the larva and on page 28 a statement

says that the composition of food given to the grubs destined to be

queens, workers, and drones is somewhat varied; (ii) on page 176 the

first paragraph contradicts the views expressed in the last paragraph

about honey as food; and (e) the scientific names of two insects are

misspelt on pages 167, 168, etc.—the ‘death’s head’ moth is Acherontia

and not Achrontia and the praying mantis is Creoboter and not

Creobrator as spelt by the author.

Recently Phadke & Sinha have stated in the Indian Journal of

Entomology, Vol. 25, p. 86 (March 1963), that the eggs of Apis indica

Fabr. laid in an artificial comb foundation are nonviable. This factor

will have to be studied carefully as a bee keeper has to depend on

artificial comb foundations for his hive.

The Appendix at the end of the book is full of very useful informa-

eee

REVIEWS 717

tion. It mentions, with addresses, Indian and foreign (1) bee keeping

organisations, (2) bee keeping periodicals and books, (3) bee supply

organisations, (4) courses of training in bee keeping, and (5) suppliers

of containers for honey.

In short the book serves as a handy reference book for those

interested in bee keeping.

The price of only Rs. 8/- is very reasonable.

N.T.N.

4. PROCEEDINGS OF THE SUMMER SCHOOL OF

BOTANY—baRJEELING 1960. Edited by P. Maheshwari, B. M. Johri,

and I. K. Vasil. pp. viii--522 (23X16 cm.). 8 photographs. New

Delhi, 1962. Ministry of Scientific Research & Cultural Affairs,

Government of India. Price Rs. 25.

This is a report of the first Summer School in Botany in the series

of Summer School meetings in various subjects initiated by the Ministry

of Scientific Research & Cultural Affairs, Government of India. The

Summer School under review was held at Darjeeling from 2 to 15

June 1960. The inauguration was graced by the presence of the Chief

Minister of West Bengal and the Deputy Minister as well as the Joint

and Deputy Secretaries of the Government of India, Ministry of

Scientific Research & Cultural Affairs. The proceedings as a whole

are reviewed here, not the individual papers which are admirably edited

by a most capable team of Indian botanists.

The Summer School was directed by Prof. P. Maheshwari and

organised by Dr. B. M. Johri. Thirty-six botanists attended, including

two foreign delegates, one from the U.S. Embassy, the other a visiting

Professor from Argentina. Almost the whole of India was represented,

four delegates from Delhi University (including the Director and the

organiser), three each from the Botanical Survey of India and Andhra

and Utkal universities, two from Madras, and one each from the

universities of Agra, Allahabad, Bombay, Calcutta, Gauhati,

Gorakhpur, Gujarat, Karnatak, Kerala, Lucknow, Mysore, Patna,

Poona, Punjab, Rajasthan, Saugor, Sri Venkateshwar, and Vallabh

Vidyapeeth. The Indian Botanical Garden, Sibpur, was also represent-

ed. Institutions like the Indian Botanical Society, the Botanical

Society of Bengal, Bombay Natural History Society, the National

Botanical Garden, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, and Birbal

Sahni Institute of Palaeobctany were not officially represented.

The delegates who attended sacrificed their vacations for the

stimulating but heavy work of lecturing and discussing, presumably as

718 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

guests of the Government of India. They stayed in the same hotel

which allowed them ‘long informal and group discussions which were

very helpful’. According to the programme given in Appendix II,

there were 59 talks, 3 film shows, 3 excursions, | at-home (Governor’s),

and 1 dinner (farewell), and 7 hours of special discussions. By any

standard, this is an achievement which speaks very highly of

the organising talent of those who were in charge. This publication

is another proof of the tremendous amount of work involved.

In all 48 papers and one report of the discussions (Appendix III) have

been published. Of the 11 which were not published, 6 were after-

dinner talks. The papers on tissue culture and embryology stand out

by their brilliance, and those on algae and micro-organisms by the

ingenuity and the scope of application of the scientific principles

involved. All the other papers, embracing various topics in plant-

physiology, anatomy, ecology, geography, viruses, cytology, genetics,

systematics and morphology of angiosperms, pteridophytes, fossils,

etc., are well written and more or less represent the current trends of

botanical research in India.

Some of the papers tock as much as two hours and two instal-

ments, and at times there were as many as nine papers or talks a day.

No wonder ‘coffee’ figures as a separate item in the programme.

Barring the two Sundays, this stimulant was consumed on eleven of

the twelve working days; curiously, it was not needed after the talk

on ‘Botanical Nomenclature’! Although a tea estate (Happy Valley)

was visited, there is no evidence of tea consumption by the botanists

—perhaps by its sheer abundance it did not call for special mention!

Eleven senior botanists graced the chair, several of them more than

once except the seniormost (the Director), who never accepted this

honour!

The serious student of botany feels very happy to go through

these very valuable papers but sadly misses the most interesting dis-

courses that followed the reading. The majority of such reports from

abroad are accompanied by lively (and duly edited) post-mortems.

The views and sentiments expressed as a result of two days of solid

discussions concerning teaching and research in Botany in India are

admirable. One would have liked to know if effective machinery was

established to bring these laudable objectives to fruition. The delegates

seem to have noted several institutions in the U. K. and Germany

dedicated to research in plant physiology, genetics, mycology, etc.,

but they failed to take note of the applied aspects of the research

programmes undertaken there and of the innumerable short courses

in applied botany such as in horticulture, plant protection, forestry,

REVIEWS 719

conservation, quality control of vegetable produce, etc., that would in

effect promote the employment potential and attract better talent to

take up the study of Botany.

This reviewer agrees with the delegates that the Darjeeling Summer

School stimulated interest in the work of delegates who attended. It

therefore served its purpose very admirably. It is earnestly hoped

that the subsequent reports of the Summer Schools in Botany will be

similarly published for the benefit of those who cannot be invited. It

may even be a good idea if these meetings can be thrown open to the

‘unprivileged’, at their own expense, to attend as observers, without

being allowed to participate in the proceedings.

Pav. BOLE

5. THE ASCLEPIADACEAE & PERIPLOCACEAE OF

BOMBAY. By H. Santapau and N. A. Irani. pp. iv+118

(24.5<16.5 cm.). 12 plates. Bombay, 1960. University of Bombay.

Botanical Memoir No. 4. Price Rs 7.

This is an excellent little publication that gives a short sketch of

this group of plants since its inception in ‘Pentandria monogyna and

P. digyna of Linnaeus to the present-day concept. It gives the

synopsis of the record of this group in the region under survey, viz.

the former Presidency of Bombay which included parts of the present

States of Gujarat and Mysore. It also gives a brief account of the

economic uses of a few of these plants as recorded in literature.

The main part of the publication consists of carefully drawn

diagnostic characters with appropriate comments about 25 genera of

the Asclepiadaceae and 3 of the Periplocaceae. The specific des-

criptions of 61 taxa are very critical and are based on literature study

as well as on careful analyses of the plants in the field and the labora-

tory. All the data given in the book are authentic as they are derived

from personal observation and based on examinations of collections

from various herbaria, a list of which is appended under each species.

In most cases, critical notes regarding nomenclature, description, and

uses are also included with appropriate references.

The keys to genera and species are artificial and are meant to

assist the systematist to arrive at the correct identity of the taxa of

this difficult group of plants. Line drawings of 12 species, executed to

scale, are highly commendable. It seems a great pity that all the

61 taxa could not be represented by diagrams, perhaps in consideration

of the high cost of printing.

720 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

This is a very ideally executed project in systematic Botany as a

partial revision (in preparation to a complete revision) as stated

by the authors. It has certainly brought our knowledge of this group of

plants up to date. A more complete and broad-based revision could be

best achieved by compiling such limited revisions of various botanical or

geographical areas. It is often thought that partial revisions are not

wise to undertake (hazardous to reputation!) on account of their

intrinsic limitations. It is also said that full facilities and the required

critical materials may not be available at university level. However,

as long as these limitations are recognised and appreciated, it is safe

to take up this type of project. Many young workers can be trained

in methods of plant taxonomy and many significant facts can accrue out

of repeated field studies on smaller numbers ‘of species in limited

areas. This publication is an eminent example of such efforts and is

worthy of emulation by other workers in different parts of India.

Data brought out in such studies form a good basis for further work

in the field of morphological, ecological, physiological, and genetical

studies. It can also be added that such studies will play an important

role in evolving quantitative surveys of plant species if and when

necessary.

The senior author and his students have carried out similar studies

of several other families, notably Apocynaceae, Convolvulaceae,

Solanaceae, Rubiaceae, and Verbenaceae. Many of the plants of these

families are proved to be of economic value and the others may have

potential interest in view of the gradual realisation of the relationship

of plant taxonomy and chemical constituents. It is earnestly hoped

that all this work will also be published by the University of Bombay.

Such studies are no doubt a great service to the cause of science and

the utilisation of national wealth. Both the authors and the publishers

deserve our thanks for bringing out this excellent little book.

P, V. BOLE

6. NAMING THE LIVING WORLD : AN INTRODUCTION TO

THE PRINCIPLES OF BIOLOGICAL NOMENCLATURE. By Theodore Savory.

pp. xiiit128 (22x14 cm.). London, 1962. The English Universi-

ties Press Ltd. Price 12s. 6d.

One of the primary requisites for a student of biology is at least

a basic knowledge of the principles of nomenclature, a subject, as the

author rightly states, so often overlooked by authors of biology text

books. Many mistakes which editors so frequently come across in notes

REVIEWS 721

on taxonomy could have been avoided if the authors had an adequate

knowledge of these principles. This need is fulfilled comprehensively

by this small and well-written book.

The three sections of the book cover the principles of

Nomenclature, Codes of Nomenclature, and Practice of Nomenclature.

In the first section are described the need for names, the languages in

use, the nature of the names in use, and the methods for forming new

names. The second section describes the rules of nomenclature and

the codes of several disciplines of biology. The third section describes

the mistakes to be avoided, and the methods to be used in the practice

of nomenclature.

Taxonomists would do well to refresh their memory occasionally

with a reading of the last section of the final chapter describing the

‘Essentials of a Code’.

A book which should find a place in the libraries of all institutions

teaching and doing research in Biology.

J.C.D.

Miscellaneous Notes

1. NOTE ON THE BREEDING SEASON OF

RHINOPOMA HARDWICKEI GRAY

Little is known about the breeding of the bat Rhinopoma hard-

wickei Gray in India. Brosset (J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 1962,

59 : 27) says of this species: ‘No young were seen in October,

November, December, February, March or April. Females dissected

in March or April had no foetuses ... From these negative obser-

vations we can infer that pregnancy and birth takes place between the

end of April and the end of September, June being the time of parturi-

tion. The existence of young obviously born in June, in the

B. N. H. S. collections, supports this deduction. Reproduction, how-

ever, appears io be very restricted.’

In view of the scarcity of information about the breeding of this

species, it seems worthwhile to record the following observations.

There is a colony of Rhinopoma hardwickei in a cave on a hilk

just outside Vellore, North Arcot District. On the Ist July 1963,

25 specimens were captured from this colony in a mist net. Of these

17 were adults, 12 females and 5 males, and 8 were young, 3 females

and 5 males. The eight young were roughly one-third to one-half the

size of the adults and were clinging to their mothers in an inverted

position. On a previous occasion, in December 1962, 7 individuals

were captured, 5 females and 2 males. None of the females was

carrying young on this occasion. Brosset’s assumption that parturi-

tion takes place in or about June is therefore supported for this part

of the country at least.

VELLORE FIELD STATION OF THE

VIRUS RESEARCH CENTRE, POONA, R. REUBEN

CHRISTIAN MEDICAL COLLEGE HOSPITAL,

VELLORE,

November 13, 1963.

2. BAT MEGADERMA LYRA GEOFFROY CAUGHT IN

A ZIZYPHUS BUSH

In May 1962 I was looking for bears along a rocky hill-side in the

Wamanpalli Forest Block, Central Chanda Division, Maharashtra. I

was accompanied by Humayun Abdulali and two men, and our tactics

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 123

were to work along rocky hill faces searching for caves and hollows

where bears might be lying up in refuge from the extreme afternoon

heat. Any likely caves or hollows were stoned in hopes of flushing

a bear. The hill-sides were excessively hot, uncomfortable, and

thorny. At the entrance of one low horizontal cave we saw a bat

(Megaderma lyra Geoffroy) whose wings were caught on the curved

thorns of a small) bush of Zizyphus sp. about two feet above ground

level.

THE BRITISH COUNCIL,

21, Jor BAGH, JOHN GOATLY

NEw DELHI 3,

June 25, 1963.

[Among other prey this species feeds on terrestrial vertebrates and

its hunting flight is low ‘almost touching the ground’ (A. Brosset, 1962,

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 59 : 591). This may explain how this bat

got caught in the bush. It is interesting to note in some parts of

India bats are caught by suddenly thrusting into their roosting places

sticks with Zizyphus twigs tied on them. G. M. Allen (1939, Bats,

p. 291) says that several cases are on record of bats perishing by flying

too close to the hooked burrs of burdocks and getting hopelessly

entangled in them.—EDs.]

3. OCCURRENCE OF THE EUROPEAN FREETAIED BAT

[TADARIDA TENIOTIS (RAFINESQUE)] (CHIROPTERA:

MOLOSSIDAE) IN INDIA

Previous records of the molossid genus Tadarida from the Indian

sub-continent refer only to JT. aegyptiaca, T. tragata, and T. plicata.

Through the courtesy of Mr. J. C. Daniel, Curator, Bombay Natural

History Society, I am able to report the occurrence of T. teniotis (Rafi-

nesque) in India. The specimen on which this report is based was obtain-

ed by Brother A. Navarro, s.J., of St. Xavier's High School, Bombay, at

Kurseong, Darjeeling District, at an altitude of 5454 ft., on 10 March

1963, and will remain in the possession of the Bombay Natural History

Society. Mr. J. C. Daniel considered that this specimen represented

T. teniotis, but in the absence of comparative material submitted it

to the British Museum (Natural History) for further examination, which

has confirmed this identification. ‘This species differs from 7. aegyp-

tiaca, T. tragata, and T. plicata in greater size, with the forearm 57-64

724. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

mm. in length [Lewis & Harrison, 1962 : 479 (in part)] : in J. aegyptiaca,

the largest of the species hitherto recorded, the length of the forearm

does not exceed 54 mm. (Siddiqi, 1961 : 118; Hill, 1961 : 36; Brosset,

1962 : 707). It may be distinguished from 7. aegyptiaca and T. plicata

by the usual presence of six and not four lower incisors, although

occasionally one or both members of the outer pair may be absent.

The anterior upper premolar (pm?) in 7. teniotis is comparatively

large and is situated more nearly in the line of the tooth row than is

the small anterior upper premolar of T. aegyptiaca. The palatal

branches of the premaxillae are absent in T. teniotis and the palate

conspicuously emarginated anteriorly while in 7. plicata the palatal

branches of the premaxillae are present and the palate has no con-

spicuous anterior emargination. In the details of its dentition

T. teniotis resembles T. tragata, which on this account was referred by

Wroughton (1919 : 731) to a teniotis section of Tadarida distinct from

an aégyptiaca section and which was thought by Hill (1961 : 35) to

be possibly related to T. teniotis. However, from the measurements

given by Dobson (1876 : 181; 1877 : 721; 1878 : 424) and as represent-

ed in the collections of the British Museum (Natural History) by the

specimen listed from the Malabar coast by Dobson (1878 : 425),

T. tragata is considerably smaller than 7. fteniotis, with a forearm

approximately 50 mm. in length (from Dobson). Assessment of the

affinities of T. tragata requires further study of the type specimen and

of the other specimens listed by Dobson (1874 : 143) in the original

description, all preserved in the Indian Museum, Calcutta.

It is difficult to allocate the Indian specimen to any one of the

currently accepted subspecies of T. teniotis. Although known from a

number of localities in southern Europe, Egypt, south-western Asia,

and the Far East, records from the central part of this wide range

are few. The nominate subspecies T. ¢. teniotis (Rafinesque) is

found in southern Europe and according to Ellerman & Morrison-Scott

(1951 : 134) extends to the Caucasus and Turkestan, although Kuzyakin

(1944 : 108) made no subspecific allocation of central Asian specimens.

The slightly paler and greyer subspecies 7. t. rueppelli (Temminck)

occurs in Egypt and south-western Asia (Lewis & Harrison, 1962 : 476).

A very dark subspecies, T. t. coecata Thomas is known from Yunnan,

while the dark subspecies T. t. insignis (Blyth) occurs in eastern China,

Korea, and Japan and has been quoted from as far north as Vladivostok

(Satunin, 1914: 44). Dorsally, the Indian specimen is brownish and

is similar to T. ¢. teniotis or to T. t. insignis. Ventrally, however, it

Jacks the brownish tinge evident in these subspecies and is paler and

more greyish, in this respect resembling T. t, rueppelli but slightly

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES (25

darker. It is much lighter in colour both dorsally and ventrally than

the type specimen of 7. ¢. coecata and it seems evident that determina-

tion of the subspecific status of 7. teniotis in the Indian sub-continent

must await the advent of adequate series of specimens. Measurements

(in mm.) of the Indian specimen (the skull has been damaged and the

entire base of the braincase is missing): length of forearm 64, interor-

bital width 4.9, m*-m*® (outside alveoli) 9.5, c’-c' (outside alveoli)

5.9, c-m® (alveoli) 8.8.

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY,

BRITISH MUSEUM (NAT. HIST.),

CROMWELL ROAD,

Lonbon, S. W. 7,

November 19, 1963.

J. E. HILL

REFERENCES

- Brosset, A. (1962) : The Bats of Cen-

tral and Western India. Part III. J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 59: 707-746, 1 pl.,

9 maps.

Dosson, G. E. (1874) : On the Asiatic

species of Molossi. J. Asiat. Soc. Beng.

43 (2) : 142-144.

— — — (1876): Monograph of the

Asiatic Chiroptera. London.

— — — (1877) : A monograph of the

group. Molossi. Proc. zool. Soc. Lond.

(1876) : 701-735.

— — — (1878) : Catalogue of the Chi-

roptera in the collection of the British

Museum. London.

ELLERMAN, J. R. & MORRISON-SCOTT,

T.C. S. (1951) : Checklist of Palaearctic

and Indian Mammals. 1758-1946. Lon-

don.

Hitt, J. E. (1961): Indo-Australian

Paris 25 : 29-56, 5 tabs.

KUZYAKIN, A. P. (1944): II. The

Order Bats. In: Bobrinskii, N. A.,

Kuznetzov, B. A. & Kuzyakin, A. P. Key

to the mammals of the U.S. S. R. Mos-

cow.

Lewis, R. E. & HARRISON, D.L.(1962):

Notes on bats from the Republic of

Lebanon. Proc. zool. Soc. Lond. 138:

473-486, 1 pl., 2 tabs.

SATUNIN, K. A. (1914) : Conspectus

Mammalium Imperii Rossici. Tiflis.

Sippiai, M. S. (1961): Checklist of

mammals of Pakistan with particular

reference to the mammalian collection in

the British Museum (Natural History),

London. Biologia, Lahore 7 : 93-225.

WROUGHTON, R. C. (1919): On the

genus Tadarida (Wrinkle-lip bats). J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 26 : 731-733.

bats of the genus Tadarida. Mammalia,

4. DO GOATS EAT CRABS ?

The Andaman and Nicobar Islands are noted for the paucity of

indigenous mammalian life and, barring the native pig, no other large

mammals are known to occur there. Therefore, when these islands

caught the eye of civilisation, man tried to fill the faunal lacuna left

by Nature! New creatures were introduced for food and fun. Among

the wild animals introduced in these islands, the most important is

the spotted deer, a few of which released over a hundred years ago have

726 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

now multiplied to such an extent as to be a nuisance to cultivation

and forestry. The spotted deer is now a pest in the Andamans as

much as the rabbit in Australia.

More interesting, however, is the domestic goat, small herds of

which were left on Barren Island, a volcanic island about 50 miles

east of the main group, and other tiny isolated islands in the Duncan

Passage. These islands.do not have any permanent source of fresh

water, and have little vegetation to support the goats, with the result

(it is said) that their dietary habits are considerably modified.

The goats left on these islands, it is stated by the inhabitants of

Port Blair, have taken to drinking sea-water, and a friend informs me

that the flesh of these goats tastes different from that of the fresh-

water-drinking goats. It is further alleged that the goats of Barren

Island, which was active till the beginning of the present century, eat

crabs! The crab-eating trait of these goats, if confirmed by authentic

evidence, should prove of great biological interest.

Changes in the dietary habits of animals occur frequently in nature.

Literature is full of instances (mostly of insects) of such changes. Thus,

most of the dangerous insect pests of cultivated plants originate

through changes in food preferences of formerly harmless species.

KE. Mayr (1942, SYSTEMATICS AND ORIGIN OF NEW SPECIES, p. 209) cites

the case of an English willow bug (Plesiocoris rugicollis) which turned

to apples in 1918 and has become a serious pest. Sometimes the

introduction of a new faunal element in an area affects the dietary

habits of some of the original inhabitants of that area. The case

of New Zealand Parrot, the Kea (Nestor notabilis), is famous in this

connection. This species fed largely on insects and vegetable matter

before the island was colonised by the Europeans. After sheep had

been introduced in the island, the Kea developed a taste for their

_ meat by feeding on dead sheep. Later, it began to attack live animals.

More inieresting, in the present context, is the case of the Spotted

Deer (Axis axis) in the Sunderbans feeding on crabs (Uca sp?) cited

by J. K. Stanford (195), Crab-eating Chital. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 50 : 398-9). It should not, therefore, be surprising if under force

of circumstances, the goats of Barren Island, have modified their

dietary habits to include crabs also on their menu!

Any light on the food habits of these goats, based on direct

observation, will be very welcome.

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, ;

CALCUTTA 12, K. K. TIWARI

March 15, 1963.

tr, BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc.

JOUR

Mesoplodon densirostris (Blainville), adult male

Whole animal, ventral view.

Photos :

Courtesy Yaichiro Okie

Dorsal view. Note the enormous dental eminences and teeth.

Ventral view, Note the V-shaped gular eroove. oe |

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 727

[B. B. Osmaston (1907, A Visit to Barren Island in the Andamans,

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 18 : 357-9) recorded that goats on Barren

Island drink salt water, and William Beebe (1947, BOOK OF BAYS)

speaks of goats on Guadalupe Island that drink sea-water and eat

kelp exposed at low tide. In this connection reference may also be

made to Dr. Alain Bombard who, in his lone venture across the

Atlantic, sustained life for two months on sea-water (not more than

one and a half pints per day), plankton collected with a small

net trailed behind his craft, and such fish as he caught from

time to time (1956, Alain Bombard: THE BOMBARD STORY. Penguin

Books).— EDs. ]

5. OCCURRENCE OF BLAINVILLE’S BEAKED-WHALE

[MESOPLODON DENSIROSTRIS (BLAINVILLE)] IN THE

INDIAN OCEAN’

(With one plate and two text-figures)

_ Dr. Yaichiro Okada, Director of the Fisheries Research Laboratory,

Tokai University, Shizuako, Japan, sent me some photographs of a

beaked-whale for determination. The specimen had been caught about

the middle of June 1963 in the Indian Ocean, in the vicinity of the

Seychelle Islands, 5° S.x65° E., by one of the Japanese Tuna fleets

of the Faiyo Fishing Company operating in the Indian Ocean.

The photographs clearly indicated that the specimen was an

example of an adult male Blainville’s Beaked-Whale, Mesoplodon

densirostris (Blainviile), one of the least recorded members of the

genus. Unfortunately, the specimen was cut up for food, but the

photographs leave no doubt of its identity.

Mesoplodon densirostris is one of the rarer species of the genus

Mesoplodon; only twelve or thirteen specimens have been recorded

since it was first described in 1817, and that from a mere fragment of

the rostrum measuring only 225 mm., without locality. This, the

type, is in the Paris Museum. In addition, a skull obtained in the

Seychelle Islands in 1839 is also in the same museum.

The majority of the known specimens have been recorded from

the Atlantic coasts of North America, including Canada. One strand-

ed in eastern Australian waters (Queensland) and another on Lord

Howe Island. Three specimens have been recorded from South

Africa.

* The author is engaged on a revision of the genus Mesoplodon.

728 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

Blanford (1888-91 : 573) recorded no Ziphioids as definitely occur-

ring wthin the limits of his FAUNA, but suggested the possible

occurrence of Ziphius cavirostris Cuvier and Mesoplodon densirostris

(Blainville) in India Seas. The former ranges very widely and has

been caught or stranded in widely separated parts of the world, between

the northern and southern tropics.

The Ziphiidae comprise a family of smaller whales, Ziphius,

Hyperoddon, Mesoplodon, Berardius, and Tasmacetus. With the

exception of Tasmacetus, the other four genera have one (Ziphius,

FHlyperoddon, and Mesoplodon) or two (Berardius) pairs of large

mandibular teeth only, situated either at the extremity of the rami

(one in each) or at some distance behind the tip, near or at the pos-

terior union of the mandibular symphysis. With the exception of

Berardius, the males alone erupt these mandibular teeth. The shape

of the teeth is characteristic of the species. These functional teeth

of the males are used as weapons of offence or defence in much the

same manner as a boar uses its tusks. The males fight much among

themselves and, at times, inflict severe linear scars on each other. In

the females the corresponding teeth are present in the alveoli but are

Fig. 1. Rami of Mesoplodon densirostris (Blainville)

Top: male; bottom: female

normally not erupted. Because of the close similarity in external form

the females of Mesoplodon are sometimes difficult to determine

correctly, when in the flesh.

In the genera Ziphius, Hvperoddon, and Tasmacetus the teeth are

circular or ellipsoid in transverse section but in Mesoplodon and

Berardius the teeth are strongly, laterally compressed. In Tasmacetus

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 12

functional teeth are present in both jaws. Rudimentary teeth occasion-

ally occur in some of the genera, but they are normally not socketed

in alveoli.

*w> |

2 em.

Fig. 2. Teeth of Mesoplodon densirostris (Blainville)

Left: male; Right: female

The genus Mesoplodon comprises eight species not exceeding 6

metres (20 ft.). Some are confined to the Northern Hemisphere while

others are restricted to the Southern Hemisphere, but occasionally one

or the other of the species may be found a long way from its known

territorial waters. Very little is known of the habits and movements

of the various species. Of all the species M. densirostris appears to

Visit intertropical waters more frequently than do any of the others.

Blainyille’s Beaked-Whale. Mesoplodon densirostris (Blainv.)

Delphinus densirostris Blainville, 1817, Nouv. Dict. Hist. Nat., 2nd ed., 9: 178.

(Type loc. unknown.)

Mesoplodon densirostris Flower, 1872, Trans. Zool. Soc. Lond. 8: 11.

Description. Head and body fusiform, deepest in the middle,

strongly compressed caudally. Head moderate, not well defined by

a nuchal depression; rostrum prominent, subacute, posteriorly con-

cealed in lateral view between the dental eminences of the mandibles

carrying the teeth; mandible slightly longer than the rostrum. Mandi-

bular teeth in male large, attaining a vertical height of 150 mm., antero-

730 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

posterior width 85 mm. and a lateral diameter of 44 mm., teeth oblique-

ly ovate-lanceolate in shape, with furrows and striae on the lateral

faces; obliquely set in the jaw with the apex directed forwards. In

the female, teeth unerupted, somewhat ligulate in shape with a minute

apical mucro or cusp; vertical height 54 mm., antero-posterior width

30 mm., at base; lateral diameter 7 mm. (There is no bony eminence

for the tooth.) Blowhole crescentic, median. Eye moderately large.

Two throat grooves present, forming an open V, following the angle

of the diverging rami. Flippers moderate, subacute: flukes moderately

large with no median notch; lobes slightly falcate. Dorsal fin nearer

the caudal, well behind the centre of the body, triangular or slightly

falcate.

Size. No specimen exceeding 4.4 metres (14 ft. 8 in.) has been

recorded (male). M. densirostris appears to be the smallest member

of the genus. Skull length reaching 770 mm. by 494 mm. at the widest.

Colour. Nearly completely black. Occasionally some lighter spots

ventrally between the flippers and paler around the anal and genital

openings. Undersurface lighter, greyish or whitish. In males the body

is frequently covered with criss-cross ‘battle scars’ made by the teeth

of the opponents. Such scars are linear and may vary from a few

centimetres to over a metre in length. In addition, the body of both

sexes often bears oval or elliptical scars scattered over the body, but

particularly in the vicinity of the vent. These scars are often caused

by parasitic and epizoic animals. However, it must be remembered

that the colour of cetaceans alters very rapidly after stranding and

the skin turns black.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I wish to express my thanks to Dr. Y. Okada for his kind permis-

sion to reproduce the photographs accompanying this article.

17, CLARKE STREET,

KHANDALLAH, CHARLES McCANN

WELLINGTON N. 5,

NEW ZEALAND,

November 18, 1963.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

a34

REFERENCES

BEDDARD, F. E. (1900): A Book of

Whales. pp. 320, illust. London. .

BLAINVILLE, H. M. DE (1817) : Nouv.

Dict. Hist. Nat., 2nd ed.,9. Paris.

BLANFORD, W. T. (1888-91) : Fauna

Brit. India Series, Mammalia. pp. 617,

Illust. London.

Gray, J. F. (1846) : On Cetacean

Animals. Zool. ‘ Erebrus and Terror’,

p. 28, pl. 6, figs. 1 and 2.

FLower, W. H. (1872) : On Recent

Ziphioid Whales, with a description of

the skeleton of Berardius arnouxi. Trans.

Zool. Soc. Lond. 8 : 203-234, pls. 27, 28.

——— (1878): A further contribution

to the knowledge of existing ziphioid

whales : genus Mesoplodon. Trans. Zool.

Soc. Lond. 10 (11) : 415-437, pls. 71-73.

LONGMAN, H.A. (1926) : New Records

of Cetacea, with a. list of the Queensland

species. Mem. Qnl. Mus. 8: 266-278,

pls.

NorMan, J. R. & Fraser, F. C.

(1937) : Giant Fishes, Whales and Dol-

phins. pp. 361, illust. London.

RAVEN, R. C. (1942) : On the struc-

ture of Mesoplodon densirostris, a rare

beaked whale. Bull. Am. Mus. Nat.

Hist. 80 : 23-50, figs. 1-36.

TRUE, F. W. (1910) : An account of

the beaked whales of the family Ziphiidae

in the collection of the United States

National Museum, with remarks on

some specimens in other American

Museums. Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus. 73:

1-89, pls. 1-41.

6. OCCURRENCE OCF THE WHITERUMPED SWIFT [APUS

PACIFICUS (LATHAM)] AT HINGOLGADH, JASDAN,

GUJARAT

On 25 August 1963 while watching the small flock of House Swifts

(Apus affinis) which are always wheeling about this ancient fort on

a hill which is over a 1000 feet high and rises out conspicuously from

the surrounding low hills and plain, I saw a single Whiterumped Swift.

This bird wheeled about at great speed for a few minutes before dis-

appearing again. I can trace no previous record of its occurrence in

Gujarat.

THE PALACE,

JASDAN,

August 27, 1963.

YUVRAJ SHIVRAJKUMAR

7. OCCURRENCE OF THE LARGE WHITERUMPED SWIFT

[APUS PACIFICUS LEUCONYX (BLYTH)] IN BOMBAY _

On 11 November 1957, Bombay city was threatened by a storm

which failed to show up, but two swifts Apus pacificus and Apus

affinis were blown into houses facing the sea at Walkeshwar and

Colaba respectively. The Regional Meteorological Centre stated that

the storm initially formed as a depression in the south-east Arabian

Sea and moved in a north-north-easterly direction. The birds were

sent to Br. A. Navarro of St. Xavier’s High School, who in his turn

732 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

forwarded them to the Bombay Natural History Society for sub-

specific identification. Both the birds were new to Bombay and, owing

to lack of suitable material here, were sent to the British Museum

(Natural History) where Mr. J.C. Macdonald identified the former

as Apus pacificus leuconyx (Blyth). Though Ripley (SYNoPsIS : 210)

refers to the occurrence of this race ‘south in winter to Bombay,

Hyderabad, Kanara, Malabar (once) and possibly Madras’, it may be

worthwhile drawing attention to the fact that no one appears to have

recorded it in peninsular India after Davidson (1898, J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 12: 47-48) who said ‘this is the common Kanara

swift . .. . it appears in large flocks occasionally at Karwar during

the rains and all along the coast it may be found in the cold weather’.

With the recognition of kanoi (Yamashina) in 1942, we have no

specimen from India or Burma in the Bombay collection which can

be said to be typical pacificus, which according to Deignan (1956,

Bull. Raffles Museum 27 : 147-148) has a white rump averaging 20

mm. in breadth. Perhaps, it may be worthwhile ascertaining if typical

pacificus has a place in the Indian avifauna. Dr. Charles Vaurie in a

letter dated 27 March 1962 very kindly gave me the following wing

measurements which may be worth recording.

10 males of leuconyx: 155-171, avg. 158.5 mm.

10 males of kanoi: 176-188, avg. 181.6 mm.

The present specimen B.N.H.S. No. 20055 is a female with the wing

measuring 158 mm. and the white of the rump 13 mm. broad. In

spite of the name the claws are not white.

Mr. Macdonald was unable to identify the other swift racially, but

I have had opportunity of comparing it with fresh material and a

separate note on the races of Apus affinis is under preparation.

I must draw attention to the paucity of bird skins available for

comparison and work in Bombay. While our collection is among

the best in the country, it is not sufficiently representative and large

gaps become apparent as soon as one attempts subspecific identifica-

tion. Regional collections were made either by the Society or with

its collaboration during the pre-war years, but the taxonomic work

was carried out abroad and the type specimens and others of particular

interest were retained by the workers or by the British Museum. I have

no statistical information but have gained the impression that many

of the key specimens referred to in relevant literature are not available

here. The last word regarding the taxonomy of Indian birds has not

yet been said and I hope it will be possible, with the assistance of

members resident in different parts of the country, to build up a

really representative collection within a reasonable time so that the

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 733

racial differences, at least of the forms resident in India, can be satis-

factorily studied and finalised here.

MEssrs. Faiz & Co.,

75, ABDUL REHMAN STREET, HUMAYUN ABDULALI

BOMBAY 3,

September 4, 1963.

[In the BOMBAY GAZETTEER, 1880, at page 97, Cypsellus leuconyx

is included as a doubtful entry in Captain E. A. Butler’s “A catalogue of

the birds of the southern portion of the Bombay Presidency’.—Ebs.]

8. OCCURRENCE OF THE BLACKCAPPED KINGFISHER

[HALCYON PILEATA (BODDAERT)] NEAR MADURAI,

MADRAS STATE

Unfortunately the trees in and around the tank at Uthamapalayam

were felled this year and the Blackcapped Kingfishers which

were observed there in 1961 [vide my note in Vol. 59 (2) of the Journal,

August 1961] appear to have left the place.

However I have further observations of this species to report:

(a) On 23 December 1962 I observed a single bird at a tank near

the village of Yelangapatti not far from Madurai, Madras

State.

(6) On 27 April 1963 I saw a pair in a deserted well-wooded creek

on the upper reaches of the Periyar Lake, Kerala State. I could

not ascertain if these birds were nesting in the area but as the

place where I saw them is very secluded there is hope that

they may become resident there.

Yelangapatti must be at least 80 miles from the nearest sea coast

on the east and still further on the west, and Periyar Lake is

approximately 60 miles from the Kerala coast line. The occurrence

of these birds so far inland would seem to be very unusual.

PAMBANAR ESTATE,

PEERMADE P. O., M. C. A. JACKSON

KERALA STATE,

SOUTH INDIA,

June 28, 1963.

[There are several records of the occurrence of the Blackcapped

Kingfisher far inland. It has so far been recorded in south India from

Coimbatore, Cumbum Valley (Madras State). and as nesting at

Gersoppa (Mysore) and in Travancore.—EDs.]

734. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

9. RE-APPEARANCES OF THE HAIRCRESTED, OR

SPANGLED, DRONGO [DICRURUS HOTTENTOTTUS

(LINNAEUS)] IN KUTCH

I have been watching with great interest the more or less regular

appearances of Dicrurus hottentottus (Linnaeus) in Kutch during the

last few years. Since I collected the first bird on December 29, 1956

[J. Bombay nat. Hist. Sec. 55 (3) : 575] I have come across the

Haircrested Drongo on 25 December 1958 and 30 January 1959, and

in December 1961 and January 1962. I have toured the whole district

oft and on during the last four years but curiously enough I have

not come across this bird anywhere except at Mandvi. While on a

visit to Mandvi from 24 December 1962 to 7 January 1963 I once

again saw my old friends. At first I saw only two birds on

24 December from the back verandah of Vijaya Vilas Palace, but

later on when I went into the garden to have a closer look at them

I saw one more bird and noticed that all the three more or less kept

together. During the whole of my stay at Mandvi I heard them

calling and saw them practically every day; but they were absent

when I went there again in the middle of February. .

JUBILEE GROUND,

BHUJ, KUTCH, M. K. HIMMATSINHIJI

October 20, 1963. : Member of Parliament (Lok Sabha)

10. ANGRY BEHAVIOUR OF HOUSE CROW CORVUS

SPLENDENS VIEILLOT |

I work in an office in a street just off Sir Pherozeshah Mehta Road.

A few days ago, when I was relaxing on the terrace, a house crow

(Corvus splendens Vieillot) alighted’ on the parapet. The bird was

very agitated, and was cawing loudly. The reason was evidently the

feather that had been passed through its nostrils by some practical

joker. For some minutes the crow fluttered up and down, trying to

wipe off the feather against the edge of the expanding metal awning

over my head. It then tried the metal supports of the awning, where

two strips of metal came together, and soon managed to get the

feather caught in the chink between them and so drew it out. It

proceeded to make a determined attack on the feather. For some

time, continuing its frenzied cawing, it worried the feather, trying

repeatedly to push it back into the chink, dropping it and catching

it as it fell—almost as if it wanted to punish the feather. At last

ee eee

TVISCELEANEOUS: NOTE Sia 8 (LP TBD.

an irate peon rushed out and drove away the crow, but its outraged

voice was heard for a long while afterwards, from the tops of neigh-

bouring buildings.

49, Pati HILL,

BANDRA, BoMBAY 50, IRA REUBEN

August 9, 1963. .

11. OCCURRENCE OF THE BLACKHEADED CUCKOO-

SHRIKE [CORACINA MELANOPTERA (RUPPELL)] :

IN KUTCH

While out on my usual round of bird watching in the grounds

of Vijaya Vilas Palace, Mandvi, on 4 April 1963, I came across a

male Blackheaded Cuckoo-shrike [Coracina melanoptera (Riippeil)]. I

observed him for quite some while in the jamun, mango, and other

trees in the garden. During the period I watched him, he gave me the -

opportunity of studying his typical undulating flight more than once.

I had seen this bird in the same place during the cold weather of

1962-63, but was able to catch a mere fleeting glimpse and hence a

definite identification was not possible then. Unfortunately, I did not

record the date, but it was seen during my stay at Mandvi between

24 December 1962 and 7 January 1963.

The Blackheaded Cuckoo-shrike is found in many places in India,

including Gujarat, but according to R. S. Dharmakumarsinhji (BIRDS »

OF SAURASHTRA) it is uncommon in Saurashtra. In view of the fact

that this bird has been neither seen nor mentioned by Dr. Sdlim Ali, _

Capt. Lester, or any other ornithologist, my sight record can be con-

sidered a very rare occurrence of this bird in Kutch. It is easy to

miss this bird owing to its habit of keeping absolutely silent and also

because of its preference for remaining in the thick foliage of trees.

I might also mention here the Whitebrowed Fantail Flycatcher

(Rhipidura aureola Lesson) which I saw at a village called Rav near

*Rapar on 3 February 1962. This bird also seems to be a very rare

. cold weather visitor to Kutch. Lester mentions it, but the Sdlim Ali

_ Survey did not meet with it and this was the first time i came across

_ the bird in Sd :

~ JUBILEE GROUND, | es

Buus, KUTCH, : M. K. HIMMATSINHSI

October 11, 1963. ~ Member of Parliament (Lok Sabha)

fee

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES T3T

13. SECOND RECORD IN INDIA OF THE GECKO GEHYRA

MUTILATA (PEROPUS)

During a tour to Kottayam, Kerala, in May 1963, Mr. S. R. Sane

of Messrs Sachetan, Bombay, collected and presented a few specimens

of Geckos to the Society, which were later identified as Gehyra

mutilata (Peropus).

Though very widely distributed in the Oriental and Australian

regions, there is only a single record of its occurrence in India (Cochin,

Kerala) [Smith, F. B. 1. Rep. & Amph. 2: 106]. According to Mr.

Sane the gecko is very common on trees in gardens along with Hemidac-

tylus frenatus and is nocturnal in habit. The species is known to

be transported in cargoes which may explain its occurrence in Cochin.

The present record further south indicates that it has now established

itself in south-west India.

BoMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY,

91, WALKESHWAR ROAD,

BOMBAY 6-WB, P. W. SOMAN

October 16, 1963. Research Assistant

14. A LIST OF THE REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS OF

THE SURAT DANGS, SOUTH GUJARAT

The Surat Dangs area of south Gujarat where the Western Ghats

dovetail with the Satpura range of hills is of considerable interest

faunistically being the northernmost limit in the range of many species,

for instance of birds (Ali, Salim 1954)' previously believed to be

restricted to the more humid regions of the southern ranges of the

Western Ghats. The collections reported here are not extensive, made

as they were when opportunities offered, by one of us (E. M. S.) during

several years’ stay at Ahwa, the Dangs District Headquarters, and

together in July 1963 when J. C. D. visited the Dangs for a short period.

The list can be considered only as a preliminary survey and we are

confident that many species, now considered to be confined to the

southern areas of the Western Ghats, would be recorded from the

Dangs if an extensive survey were made of the herpetology of the area.

Distributional records are mentioned only for species whose occurrence

in the Dangs is an extension of the known range in the case of

Ali, Salim (1954): The Birds of Gujarat. Pt. I. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

52 ; 374-458,

738 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

amphibia and for reptiles, as given by Smith in the FAUNA OF BRITISH

INDIA, Reptilia and Amphibia 1, 2 and 3.

REPTILIA

~ Family CROCODILIDAE

1. Crocodilus palustris Lesson 1834

The Marsh Crocodile has been recorded at Mahal, Waghai, and

Mulchond. The largest, approximately 10 to 12 ft. in length, was

seen at Waghai. In March 1954 a small specimen about 14 to 2 ft.

in length was seen on the road near Mulchond but escaped capture

by running into the grass by the side of the road. The nearest pool

of water was about a furlong away. Formerly the mugger was quite

common in the Dangs but in the past ten years or so it has become

uncommon. —

Family EMYDIDAE

2. Geomyda trijuga Schweigger 1814

‘Uncommon. A female collected on a road at night on 11 August,

1956 contained several oval hard-shelled eggs, and was pe in

search of a suitable site to lay.

Family GEKKONIDAE

3. Hemidactylus maculatus Dum. & Bibr. 1836

Two specimens, one collected from the wall of an outhouse in 1958

and another inside the hollow of a tree at Ahwa in 1963. Near

Bombay the species is most often seen on rocks and in rock-cut

caves. The recorded distribution is Bombay District, Malabar, Salem,

and Tinnevelly in south India. Anderson (1871)' records a specimen

from Berar in the collection of the Indian Museum but-this has not

been included either by Boulenger or Smith in their volumes of the

FAUNA. :

4, Hemidactylus brooki Gray 1845

Common under stones and on trees. Those seen on stones in

stream beds were invariably blackish.

Pace? John (1871) : On some Indian _ reptiles. Proc. Zool. Soc, London:

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 739

5. Hemidactylus leschenaulti Dum. & Bibr. 1836

Common, one or two always on the wall near the mercury vapour

lamp at the Ahwa Bus Depot, feeding on the enormous number of

insects, mostly moths, attracted by the light. The geckos keep to

the darker face of the wall away from the light. .

6. Hemidactylus flaviviridis Ruppell 1835

One specimen taken off a trellis overgrown with jasmine vine in

the mission compound.

Family AGAMIDAE

7. Calotes versicolor (Daudin) 1802

Common. We noticed one specimen fast asleep, clinging to the

Wire mesh on a window adjoining the mercury vapour lamp at the

Bus Depot at Ahwa oblivious of the insect food fluttering around.

A clutch of 15 eggs found buried in loose soil in the Mission Garden

in July 1955 began hatching on 7 September 1955. One of us

(E. M. S.) has observed this species eating unripe pods with soft

seeds of the Lima bean. | eo

8. Sitana ponticeriana Cuvier 1844

One specimen at Waghai, the brown of the back was almost

golden.

Family CHAMAELEONIDAE

9. Chamaeleon zeylanicus Laurenti 1768

Fairly common.

Family SCINCIDAE

10. Mabuya carinata (Schneider) 1801

Common.

11. Riopa guentheri-(Peters) 1879

The extension of the range of this species to the Dangs has been

already reported (J. C. Daniel, 1962)’.

Family TYPHLOPIDAE

12. Typhlops braminus (Daudin) 1803 ene

Common, often seen under logs and stones. Two were collected

from a compost pit probably attracted by insect larvae and imagos..

1Daniel, J.C. (1962) : Extension of range of the skink _Riopa. guenthert (Gray).

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 59(3) : -965.-

140 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

Family BOIDAE

13. Eryx conicus (Schneider) 1801

Fairly common, often mistaken for Russell’s Viper.

14. Eryx johni Russel 1801

Common.

15. Python molurus (Linnaeus) 1758

Not uncommon. A 10 ft. long specimen was shot at Mulchond in

1959. An 84 ft. long female collected in June 1954 at Ahwa con-

tained sixty eggs.

Family COLUBRIDAE

16. Ptyas mucosus (Linnaeus) 1758

Common.

17. Oligodon arnensis (Shaw) 1802

One specimen. The scalation and markings agree with Smith’s

data for specimens from India south of lat. 20° N.

18. Ahaetulla tristis (Daudin) 1803

One specimen; not uncommon.

19. Sibynophis subpunctatus (Dum. & Bibr.) 1854

One specimen collected at Mulchond, 5 miles from Ahwa. The

species is believed to occur north of lat. 18° and has been recorded

in the Nasik District of Maharashtra adjoining the Dangs. There

appears to be confusion in collection records between this species and

S. sagittarius.

20. Natrix piscator (Schneider) 1799

Common, especially during and after the monsoon.

21. Natrix stolata (Linnaeus) 1758

Common.

22. Macropisthodon plumbicolor (Cantor) 1839

Common. The habit of erecting the forebody and flattening the

head like a cobra was noticed in one specimen.

23. Boiga trigonata (Schneider) 1802

One specimen, on a jasmine vine in the Mission compound. _

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 741

24. Boiga forsteni (Dum. & Bibr.) 1854

A correction is necessary to the earlier report on this species where

it was recorded that the specimen collected by McCann at Mt. Abu

was not reported earlier (Daniel 1962)’. McCann recorded this

specimen in the Journal 43: 645 (1946). The specimen from

Ahwa was collected while it was trying to swallow a juvenile myna.

25. Dryophis nasutus Lacépéde 1802

Fairly common.

Family ELAPIDAE

26. Bungarus caeruleus (Schneider) 1801

Fairly common.

27. Naja naja (Linnaeus) 1758

Fairly common.

Family VIPERIDAE

28. Vipera russelli (Shaw) 1797

Common. Every year during the grass-cutting season after the

monsoon a few are seen and killed.

29. Echis carinatus (Schneider) 1801

Fairly common.

30. Trimeresurus gramineus (Shaw) 1802

Fairly common at Ahwa, usually seen on hedges. A Rhode

Island Red cock bitten by one died in about 20 minutes.

AMPHIBIA

The amphibians unless otherwise mentioned were collected in the

last week of July 1963.

Family BUFONIDAE

31. Bufo melanostictus Schneider 1801

Specimens collected: Ahwa 1 o%, 2 juv.; Waghai J juv.

The male has the throat yellow but the nuptial pads on the fingers

are peeling. Of the juveniles the two collected at Ahwa (22 mm.,

25 mm.) appear to be of an earlier brood and the Waghai specimen

1 Daniel, J.C. (1962) : Extension of the known range of the Catsnake, Bowen

(Dum. & Bibr.). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 59(3) : 966-7,

742. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

(10 mm.) of the current season. Breeding was over in July. No

tadpoles were seen nor was any breeding activity noticed among the

adults. The call was not heard. Several were seen below lights

feeding on insects.

Family MIcROHYLIDAE

32. Microhyla ornata (Dum. & Bibr.) 1841

Common. The male was heard calling and four were located in

grass with some difficulty. Average size 23 mm. A shoal of tadpoles

were seen in a rainwater pool overgrown with grass.

33. Uperodon globulosum (Gunther) 1864 |

Specimens collected: Ahwa 1 o, 1 @ July; 1 oo, 1 juv. August

1963. : ee |

A male was located by its distinctive call in a small cement cistern

on the evening of 30 July. When sighted it dived into the water

and in searching we missed the male but collected a female. The mala

was caught later in the night by E. M. S., when it resumed calling.

The call was not heard before the 30th but was heard on subsequent

days at Ahwa and at Waghai. The breeding season is apparently

later in the Dangs than in Bombay (June). Tadpoles were not seen.

The species‘ has not been recorded north of Bombay on the west

coast.

34. Ramanella montana (Jerdon) 1854

Specimens collected: Ahwa 1 c%, June 1963.

A specimen was collected in June while calling from a small

cavity containing water on a mango tree. Its occurrence at Ahwa

marks the northernmost range of its distribution. The species has

so far been reported from Bombay to Trivandrum in the coastal and

hill areas.

Family RANIDAE

Bo: Rana cyanophlyctis Schneider 1799

Very common, calling at Ahwa and Waghai. In this species how-

ever the calling is not restricted to the breeding season. One specimen

was rufescent brown in colour.

36. Rana limnocharis Boie 1835

Common. Three males were collected from a dry nullah after .a

shower of rain. The smallest breeding male measured 28 mm. and

had a broad light-coloured band on the back. The specimens collect-

ed resemble the var. syhadrensis of Annandale. :

Ph echalene 2s -syn

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 743

37. Rana tigrina Daudin 1803

Common. A juvenile collected has three yellowish green lines on

the body, one median and two lateral from behind the eye to the

groin with a branch to the shoulder. Adults seen were not breeding.

38. Rana breviceps Schneider 1799

A male (45 mm.) was collected while calling. The call is a soft

awang which can be heard at considerable distances. The tibio-tarsai

articulation lacks the tubercle noticed in some south Indian specimens.

Though robust they are not toad-like as are specimens from the south

(Trivandrum), resembling in this character specimens from Bombay.

Tadpoles were collected from a hill-stream as well as just metamor-

phosed young which measure c. 10 mm.

39. Rana leithii Boulenger 1888

Several tadpoles were collected at a hill-stream off rocks wetted

by spray. Very active and the coloration so well matches the dark

grey of the rocks that it is very difficult to distinguish them. The

recorded distribution of the species is from Panchgani to Bombay.

Family RHACOPHORIDAE

40. Rhacophorus leucomystax maculatus Gray 1832

Common, heard at night on trees surrounding a small rainwater

pool.

BomMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY,

91, WALKESHWAR ROAD, J.C. DANIEL

BOMBAY 6-WB, | Curator

CHURCH OF THE BRETHREN MISSION,

AHWA, VIA BILLIMORA, E. M. SHULL

DANGS DISTRICT, GUJARAT STATE,

November 27, 1963.

15. OCCURRENCE OF THE FUNGOID FROG RANA

MALABARICA (BIBR.) AT JAGDALPUR, BASTAR

DISTRICT, M. P.

Recently one of us (T. G. S.) collected a frog at Jagdalpur, Bastar

District, M. P., which was later identified as the Fungoid Frog [Rand

malabarica (Bibr.)]. The species is not uncommon in the Bastar area

of Madhya Pradesh. Rana malabarica has so far been reported only

from the Western Ghats from Kasara Ghat near Igatpuri (Abdulali

744. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

in V. K. Chari, 1962) to central Kerala where specimens have recently

been collected by P. B. Shekar of the Society’s staff at Edanad, Alleppey

District. The species has also been reported from the Nilgiri Hills.

Instances are available of bird species with Indo-Malayan affinities,

occurring only in the Western Ghats in peninsular India, being re-

ported from Bastar (Ali, Salim 1951). The Satpura trend of hills have

been postulated as the route of migration of these elements of the Indo-

Malayan fauna to the Western Ghats. However, the affinities of

Rana malabarica which is endemic are with the African fauna where

there exists a very closely allied species. It is likely that the species

may occur in suitable biotopes in other areas of peninsular India.

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY,

91, WALKESHWAR RoOaD,

BOMBAY 6-WB,

GOVERNMENT DEGREE COLLEGE,

JAGDALPUR,

BASTAR DistricT, M. P.,

October 20, 1963.

J. C. DANIEL

Curator

T. G. SELUKAR

Lecturer in Zoology

REFERENCES

ALI, SALIM (1951) : The Heart-spotted

Woodpecker Hemicircus canente. J. Bom-

bay nat. Hist. Soc. 49 : 786-87.

—— (1951) : Discovery of the so-

named ‘ Malabar’ Black Woodpecker

[Dryocopus javensis hodgsoni (Jerdon)]

Sets (East Madhya Pradesh). ibid.:

Chari, V.K. (1962) : A description of

the hitherto undescribed tadpole of, and

some field notes on the Fungoid Frog

Rana malabarica (Bibr.). J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 59 ; 71-76.

16. OCCURRENCE OF THE CEYLON KALOULA, KALOULA

PULCHRA TAPROBANICA H. W. PARKER (FAMILY

MICROHYLIDAE) AT JAGDALPUR, BASTAR

DISTRICT, M.P.

In October 1963 one of us (K. K. V.) collected a specimen of

Kaloula pulchra taprobanica H. W. Parker in the compound of his

residence at Jagdalpur, Bastar, M.P. Parker (1934) in A MONOGRAPH

OF THE FROGS OF THE FAMILY MICROHYLIDAE: 87, gives the range of

this species as ‘India South of the Ganges’ though specimens were seen

by him only from Cauvery River, Madras, and Calcutta. Recently

Abdulali (1962) reported the species from Dandeli in North Kanara,

Mysore. The genus Kaloula is Indo-Malayan and is represented in

India solely by this species and its occurrence in Bastar is significant

in view of several other Indo-Malayan forms previously recorded from

the area (S. L. Hora 1949; Salim Ali 1951). |

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 745

It is interesting to note that the distributional records of another

genus of Amphibia Philautus with Indo-Malayan affinity also relates

to the Western Ghats, Eastern Ghats, and eastern India. One species

P. variabilis has been reported from the Western Ghats and from

Golconda in the Eastern Ghats. Recently one of the Society’s staff,

P. B. Shekar, collected this species in the Shevaroy Hills also. Hora

(1949) and Abdulali (1949) have suggested the Eastern Ghats as an

alternative route to the Satpura trend of hills for migration of terres-

trial Indo-Malayan species to Western India which these records seem-

ingly substantiate.

However, it must be noted that the Amphibian

fauna of the Satpura Hills is more or less unknown.

BomMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY,

91, WALKESHWAR ROAD,

BOMBAY 6-WB,

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY,

GOVERNMENT DEGREE COLLEGE,

JAGDALPUR, Dist. Bastar, M. P.,

November 1, 1963.

J. C. DANIEL

Curator

K. K. VERMA

Assistant Professor

REFERENCES

ABDULALI, H. (1949): Some Peculiari-

ties of Avifaunal Distribution in Peninsu-

lar India. Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci. India 15:

387-393.

————-— (1962): An account of a

trip to the Barapede Cave, Talewadi,

Belgaum District, Mysore State, with

some notes on Reptiles and Amphibians.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 59 : 228-237.

ALI, SALIM (1951) : The Heart-spotted

Woodpecker Hemicircus canente. J. Bom-

bay nat. Hist. Soc. 49 : 786-787.

Aut, SALIM (1951) : Discovery of the

so-named ‘ Malabar’ Black Woodpecker

[Dryocopus javensis hodgsoni (Jerdon)]

in Bastar (East Madhya Pradesh). ibid. :

787-788.

Hora, S. L. (1949) : Geographical

features of the Flora of the Bailadila

Range in Bastar State, C. P. Proc. Nat.

Inst. of Sci. India 15 : 369-373.

(1949) : Climates as

affecting the Satpura Hypothesis. ibid.:

361-64.

17. OCCURRENCE OF THE BUTTERFLIES NEPTIS

HORDONIA HORDONIA STOLL, AND ISSORIA SINHA

PALLIDA EVANS IN MUSSOORIE : NEW ALTITUDE

RECORDS

In the J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. (Vol. 11, 1898) Mackinnon & de

Nicéville published a ‘List of the Butterflies from Mussoorie and the

- Dun Valley’.

Since the publication of this list Brigadier W. H. Evans

(1932), Lt.-Col. H. D. Peile (1937), and Mr. M. A. Wynter-Blyth (1957)

have added a number of species to this area. As there is a great

deal of difference in the altitude of Dehra Dun (2300 ft.) and that of

Mussoorie (3000 to 8000 ft.) some species recorded in Dehra Dun are

not found in Mussoorie and vice versa.

746 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

During nine years of collecting butterflies in Mussoorie (largely

confined to the months of May and June and rarely in October), the

writer has collected only two species which represent a considerable

change in altitude. These two are of the family Nymphalidae and are

as follows:

Neptis hordonia hordonia Stoll : The Common Lascar

Mackinnon & de Nicéville found this species in the Dun only

(never in Mussoorie) during April, May, September, and October.

Evans gives its range as: ‘S. India; Dun—Burma’ (p. 172).

Peile records its range as: ‘S. India; Dun to Dawnas’ (p. 131).

Wynter-Blyth gives its range as: ‘S. India; Dehra Dun to Assam

and Burma’, and limits its altitude ‘to 7000 feet in the hills of the

south; to about 2500 feet in the north’ (p. 197).

On 20th May 1963 the writer caught a perfect Common Lascar at

the famous Pumping Station (alt. 5600 ft.) in Mussoorie. As Mussoorie

is situated in the north-west Himalayas this record constitutes an

altitudinal range extension in the north of 3300 ft.

Issoria sinha pallida Evans: The Vagrant

Mackinnon & de Nicéville refer to this species as Vagrans egista

(sinha) and report it as rare in the Dun in August and December. (See

Peile’s Appendix B, p. 228.)

Evans gives its range as: “‘Dun-Kumaon’ (p. 187).

Wynter-Blyth gives its range as: “Dehra Dun to Sikkim, Bengal,

Orissa, Assam and Burma’ (p. 226). He states further that it is

found ‘at low or moderate elevations in the hills . . ” (p. 226).

The writer has collected several Vagrants at much higher eleva-

tions, as follows:

25th May 1963: one in the Kolti Valley (alt. 3500 ft.) near

Mussoorie;

3rd June 1963: three at the Pumping Station (alt. 5600 ft.) in

Mussoorie;

4th June 1963: one more in the Kolti Valley;

12th June 1963: five at Kempti Falls (alt. 4500 ft.) in Mussoorie.

The above records considerably extend the altitudinal ranges of

the Common Lascar and the Vagrant in the north-west Himalayas.

DANGS RURAL BOARDING SCHOOL, |

CHURCH OF THE BRETHREN MisSION, ERNEST M. SHULL

AHWA, VIA BILLIMORA,

Dancs DIST., GUJARAT STATE,

September 20, 1963.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 747

REFERENCES

Evans, W. H. (1932): The Identifi- Hist. Soc. 11: 205-228 ; 368-389; 585-

cation of Indian Butterflies. Madras. 605.

MACKINNON,.P. W. & de NICEVILLE, L. PeILE, H. D. (1937): A Guide to

(1898): A list of the butterflies of Collecting the Butterflies of India.

Mussoorie in the western Himalayas London.

and neighbourhood. J. Bombay nat. WYNTER-BLYTH, M. A. (1957) : Butter-

flies of the Indian Region. Bombay.

[8. BUTTERFLIES : HESPERIIDAE : POLYTREMIS

MINUTA EVANS

(With a text-figure)

Figured in colour in Evans’s CATALOGUE OF THE HESPERIIDAE OF

EUROPE, ASIA AND AUSTRALIA 1947 with genitalia on his Plate 53. But

his drawing is that of a broken clasp. The figures below are correct,

taken from a male captured at Pathechaung, Karens, in December

1926 and found by me in a tin of the Tytler collection in the British

Genitalia of Polytremis minuta Evans

Museum (Nat. Hist.) and dissected because I was unable to identify

it by facies. In front of the uncus are two non-chitinous membraneous

processes, transparent in liquid (I dissected by the wet method) but

Opaque when dry (Evans dissected by the dry method). Being flexible

in liquid, they can be partially unrolled from the interior edges. They

are shown in outline by me by discontinuous streaks to indicate trans-

parency. No such processes are found in any other Hesperiid. This

is a worn DSF; two of the normal 3 apical spots are missing as also

the discal spot in 4 and there are no spots UPH or UNH and no

ochreous-green scales UNH. But it has two cell spots UPF; a sur-

prising character as the others have only a lower spot. Only 3 males

and 2 females are in the British Museum.

5, UPPER WIMPOLE STREET, |

LonpbDon, W. 1, KEITH CANTLIE, c.1.£.

July 255) 1903.

748 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

19. USE OF VERTEBRATE FAECES BY THE SPHECOID

WASP CHALYBION BENGALENSE DAHLB.

Chalybion bengalense Dahlb. [Sceliphron violaceum (Fabr.)] (FAUNA

OF BRITISH INDIA, Hymenoptera 1 : 240) is a metallic bluish-black, so-

called domestic, wasp which puts several spiders, to one of which

an egg is attached, into pre-existing holes or cavities, which she then

seals. The finished lid to the cell, in the majority of cells we have

seen, is white. Maxwell-Lefroy (1909)! states that these wasps use

lime or plaster to seal such holes.

However, we have observed that these wasps, having provisioned

their cells, first make a lid of mud (in this part of India, reddish brown

to brown). Having made this lid which requires several loads, they

then proceed to coat it with a white substance which is carried in

the mouth, as mud is brought. The first load is spread all over the

red mud which thus becomes pinkish. A further load, or loads,

completely obliterates any underlying colour. On three occasions, wasps

so covered the red mud lids which had been built and left as finished

by wasps of the Vespoid species Antodynerus flavescens, which nests

in similar holes. Therefore the covering with white is an act

independently stimulated by a mud lid, not part of an inevitable

sequence of actions. We have observed one C. bengalense collecting

this white substance from the faeces of our pet tortoises (Testudo

elegans). Another individual used bird faeces. This is probably what

they usually employ for this purpose.

Having made this smooth white concave or flat lid to the cell, the

wasps sometimes go on to put several loads of a black substance on

it, though this may be delayed and the black put on several lids at

the same time. This does not usually cover completely the white, as

the white covers the mud, but is put in the centre of the lid leaving

an annular white margin. We have seen one wasp collecting this black

substance, partly from the black portion of the tortoise faeces and

partly from the encrustation on the cement lining of a drain. In another

example, we did not see the wasp working, but only two finished

cells. The topmost layers here looked crystalline, and consisted of

many fragments of insect cuticle (among which head capsules were

conspicuous) stuck on to the white. These may, of course, be from

the faeces of any insectivorous reptile, bird, or mammal, but after

inspecting the faeces of a chuchunder (Suncus murinus), we have little

* Maxwell-Lefroy, H. (1909): Indian Insect Life. Agricultural Research

Institute, Pusa.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 749

doubt that this is what was used. These shrews are very common

in the yard from which the wasps collected material.

It is not clear under what stimuli these wasps do, or do not,

blacken a lid, but all the above cells were in a disused wooden fitment

in a not very well-illuminated bath-room.

This faeces-using habit makes C. bengalense a possible vector for

diseases of those insectivorous vertebrates which prey upon them.

GENETICS AND BIOMETRY LABORATORY, |

GOVERNMENT OF ORISSA, S. D. JAYAKAR

BHUBANESWAR 3, H. SPURWAY

October 1, 1963.

20. THE INDIAN HIVE BEE APIS INDICA FABR.

(HYMENOPTERA) AND SAPINDUS EMARGINATUS VAHL

WITH A NOTE ON ACARAPIS WOODI (RENNIE)

(ACARINA)!

Storey (1890) reported that honey bees (Apis indica Fabr.) were

attracted by the blossoms of Lapindus emarginatus (=Sapindus

emarginatus Vahl?) and after drinking the nectar died in large numbers

at Oodeypore. This has not been queried by any subsequent

observer. It is therefore of interest to mention that honey bees do

gather honey from this tree, and that a sample of such honey was

exhibited by the Entomology Division of the Andhra Pradesh Agricul-

tural Department at the World Agricultural Fair. New Delhi.

The latter part of the observation made by the author is also of

interest, namely: ‘the effect produced appears to be that of a powerful

purgative and there are now numbers of bees buzzing about on the

ground unable to fly’. The symptoms described are like those

produced by the scutacarid mite, Acaraupis woodi (Rennie).

Baker et al. (1952) state that Acarapis woodi (Rennie) is the cause

of ‘Isle of Wight’ disease found in Europe. The mites harbour in

the tracheal tubes and cause the death of the host, death being due

to: (1) the parasite living upon the host fluids and causing active

injury, or (2) possibly, toxic secretion, or (35) mechanical stoppage of

the tracheae which prevents air from reaching the individual organs

or cuts off the air supply to the nerve centres that control the bee’s

activities. Recently, Singh (1957) recorded this disease in India in

Kulu and Kangra valleys and Simla Hills. He observes that a number

®Communicated by Dr. K. K. Tiwari, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta.

750 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL UIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

of parasitised bees come out of the hive on a warm day, particularly

after a cold and rainy spell and fail to return to the hive, as they

are unable to fly and merely hop about. They crawl up blades of

grass and form small groups. The front and hind wings get unhooked

and have a ‘K’ wing appearance. The abdomen gets distended. The

inside and outside of the hive and the ground in front of its entrance

are plastered with yellow faeces indicating dysentery. The mites

harbour in the anterior thoracic tracheae, which appear either bronzed

or brown. He says that it has still to be ascertained whether the

disease is already widespread in distribution and has assumed an

endemic status or is only a recent introduction in this country.

I was recently in charge of examining the several hundreds of

randomised samples of honey bees from different districts of Andhra

Pradesh to find out the incidence of this disease in that State.

Different methods of dissection were tried, but the one described below

was found to be the most useful. A microscalpel is made out of a

triangularly-cut edge of a new razor blade, fixed in a match-stick or

discarded camel-hair brush. The specimen is decapitated a little below

the neck. Another cut is made a little above the petiole and the

sectioned thoracic part is transferred to a clean cavity block con-

taining sterilised water. The contents of the thorax, ie. muscles, gut,

etc., are removed with the help of a fine forceps (watch repairer’s NN

and BB were used) under a stereoscopic microscope. This leaves the

body wall with the tracheal tubes in situ for examination. With a

little practice the method will be found quite comfortable. No instance

of the mite was found.

My thanks are due to Dr. Md. Qadiruddin Khan and Shri C.

Krishnamoorthy, the successive Entomologists of the Government of

Andhra Pradesh, and Shri P. V. Ranga Rao, Assistant Entomologist,

Regional Research Unit, Bapatla, for facilities and encouragement,

and to the Director, Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta, for necessary

information on the nomenclature of the host plant.

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

34, CHITTARANJAN AVENUE, K. V. LAKSHMINARAYANA

CALCUTTA 12,

May 6, 1963.

REFERENCES

BAKER, E. W. & WHARTON, G. W. Indian J. Ent. 18 Se) [1956] : 458-9.

(1952) : An introduction to Acarology : Storey, T. H. (1890) : Bees destroyed

163. Macmillan & Co., New York. by Lapindus soe as J. Bombay nat.

SINGH, S. (1957) : Acarina disease in Hist. Soc. 5 (4) : 423.

the Indian Honey-bee, Apis indica F.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES (|

21. LENSIA GNANAMUTAUI,: A NEW SIPHONOPHORE

FROM THE MADRAS PLANKTON

(With a text-figure)

Material

2 anterior nectophores from an open haul from 0 to 25 metres off

the Madras coast on 26.9.1952.

4 anterior nectophores from surface plankton off the Madras coast

on 4.12.1952.

2 anterior nectophores from surface plankton off Madras coast on

8.1.1960.

Diagnosis |

Anterior nectophore small, 3.8 mm. in Iength and 1.8

mm. in breadth; 5 distinct non-crested complete ridges; somatocyst

placed near the mouth of the nectosac, characteristically minute with

a stalk and a minute globular tip. Hydroecium in level with the

velum.

Size

Anterior nectophore: length 3.8 mm., breadth 1.8 mm.

Somatocyst: length 0.32 mm.

Description

Anterior nectophore very small, pyramidal in shape with five

complete non-crested longitudinal ridges extending from apex to base;

ventrobasal margin or corner slightly rounded. Hydroecium shallow,

level with mouth of nectosac. Mouth plates large and divided.

Somatocyst characteristically very small and situated on the summit of

the hydroecium very near base of nectosac; with thread-like, minute,

curved stalk (0.2 mm. in length) and a globular tip (0.1) mm. in diameter).

Stem and posterior nectophore not collected.

Type Material

The holotype and paratypes will be deposited in the collections of

the Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta. An anterior nectophore

collected on 26.9.1952 from 0 to 25 metres off the Madras coast

has been designated as the holotype. 2 anterior nectophores from

surface plankton of the Madras coast collected on 8 January 1960 have

been designated as paratypes.

1Named after Prof. C. P. Gnanamuthu, Director, Zoological Research Labo-

ratory, Madras.

752. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

Comparison

The genus Lensia’ includes the following twenty-two valid species:

grimaldii*, exeter’, ajax, hostile, lelouveteau, meteori', reticulata’,

Lensia gnanamuthui sp. nov.

Le—Lateral canal; Lr—Lateral ridge; Sm—Somatocyst ; Hy—Hydroecium

subtilis®, cossack, multicristata’, hunter, havock, subtiloides*, conoidea,

fowleri®, campanella, achilles, hardy, hotspur, challengeri, leloupi, and

tottoni'®. The present species differs from all the other species

hitherto described in the minute size of the somatocyst, its position

near the mouth of the nectosac, and its shape, and in the rounded

margin of the ventral corner of the nectophore.

Notes. on Siphonophores: ‘The Siphonophora includes 150. valid

species of which 80 are known to occur in the Indian Ocean. We

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 733

have recorded 29 species in the limited area of the Madras coast

(Daniel & Daniel, 19635).

The Siphonophores are wholly holoplanktonic agreeing well in

their distribution with the holoplanktonic surface medusae. A great

majority are epiplanktonic. During our studies on the Siphonophore

fauna of the Madras coast during 1952-54 and 1956-60, 23 species

were taken from surface plankton hauls. As typical examples of

epiplanktonic forms Diphyes truncata, D. monoica, and D. dispar may

be mentioned. Among Physophorae, Agalma okeni and Anthophysd

are surface forms. Véelella, Porpita, and Physalia in the adult stage

are known from the surface only, though the larvae are sometimes

seen in the lower regions also. No Siphconophore has adopted the

ocean floor as its usual habitat and none are parasitic.

Although Siphonophores are known to occur in a wide range of

temperature, they are absent (or at least uncommon) in regions of

low salinity. None has penetrated into brackish or fresh water, and

they are uncommon in Ocean regions of low salinity. In the Madras

coast where the salinity varied from 30°/,,to35°/,, during our studies

the Siphonophores were found in abundance in the plankton hauls

throughout the year, whereas in the adjoining brackish waters at the

mouths of the rivers Adyar and Cooum they were not collected.

Siphonophores are very delicate animals and usually during collec-

tion and transferring, the different parts of the colony become detached.

In the case of Diphyids the anterior and posterior nectophores are

easily detached and as such, in the genus Lensia except for a few

forms the posterior nectophores have not yet been matched or

described.

This work was done in the Zoological Research Laboratory,

University of Madras. We are gratefui to Prof. C. P. Gnanamuthu,

Director of the Laboratory, for his helpful suggestions.

A. DANIEL

(MRS.) R. DANIEL

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

INDIAN MUSEUM,

CALCUTTA, 13,

April 11, 1963.

REFERENCES

1. Totton, A. K. (1932): Sci. Rep. Akad. Wiss. 38 : 681-8.

oh Barrier Reef. Exped. 4 (10) : 317-

2. Lexoup, E. (1933): Result. Comp.

Sci. Monaco., Fasc. 87 : 1-67.

3. Totton, A. K. (1941) : Ann. Mag.

nat. Hist. (2), 8 : 145-68.

. Letoup, E. (1934): Bull. Mus.

Hist. nat. Belg. 10 (6) ; 1-87.

5. Totton, A. K. (1954): Discovery

Report 27 : 1-160.

6. CuHuNn, C. (1896): S. B. presuss.

7. Moser, F. (1925) : Dtsch. Sudpol.

Exped. 17, (Zool.) 9 : 1-541.

8. LENs, A. D. & VAN RIEMSDUK, T.

(1908) : Siboga Exped. 9 : 1-130.

BIGELOw, (1911): Mem. Harv. Mus.

comp. Zool. 38 : 173-402.

10. DanteL, A. & DANIEL, R. (1963a):

Ann. Mag. nat. Hist. (13th series) 5:

621-23.

11. DANtEL, R. & DANIEL, A. (19635):

J. Mar. Biol. Ass. India. 5 (2) [in press].

754 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

22. ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF GYMNOSPORIA

BAILADILLANA NARAYAN & MOONEY

Kapoor & Srivastava in J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 59 (2) : 685-686,

1962, have reported Gymnosporia bailadillana Narayan. & Mooney

from Mahendragiri Hills of Orissa, extending its range of distribution

eastwards to 18° 58’ N.x84° 26’ E. The plant was originally

collected by Mooney from Bailadilla Hiil (Bastar State) between

1000-1200 m. Later on Mooney reported it also from Karlapet

(Kalahandi State).

_ The authors seem to have overlooked a paper by R. Seshagiri Rao

on “Observations on the Vegetation of the Rampa and Gudem Agency

Tracts of the Eastern Ghats’ published in J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

55 (3) : 429-449, 1958. Gymnosporia bailadillana Narayan. & Mooney,

therein, is already reported as a new record for the N. Circars of Andhra

Pradesh. Rao mentions it as one of the common shrubs near the

deserted village of Nilavaram and the Ebul Reserve Forest in the

Gudem Agency at about 1800 m.

The present authors have also collected the plant from

Sankarimetta at about 900 m. in the Vizag Agency on 11 May 1956

with dehisced carpels. (The specimens Santapau 20551 and Wagh

2562, 2563 are preserved in the Blatter Herbarium, Bombay.) This

extends the range of distribution still southwards, i.e. up to 18° 30’

N. and $22 27° E.

BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, H. SANTAPAU, S.J., F.N.I.

CALcuTTA 13, S. K. WAGH, ph.p.

October 19, 1963.

23. DESCRIPTION OF TEPHROSIA COLLINA SP. NOV.

AND TWO NEW VARIETIES'

(With a plate)

The author, while investigating the flora of Ajmer (Rajasthan),

came across an interesting, hitherto unknown species of Tephrosia,

together with a variety of the same. Both are being described in the

present communication.

1 Communicated by the Director, National Botanic Gardens, Lucknow.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES TSS

Tephrosia collina sp. nov.

Affinis nulli speciei indicae generis Tephrosiae, haec species dis-

tinguitur habitu simplici vel paulum ramoso, foliis paucioribus, racemis

terminalibus vel oppositifoliis, laxis, elongatisque; corolla cremea et

praesertim legumine longo, 8-11-sporo, marginibus valde crassis ornato.

Herba annua, erecta, 30-60 cm. alta. Caulis simpiex vel paulum

ramosus, rarius suffrutescens, teres et tenuiter pubescens ad_ basin,

supra vero angularis vel nonnumquam subteres, griseo-sericeus vel non-

numquam villossus et striis brunneis ornatus, tandem. minus

pilosus. Folia imparipinnata, laxa et vulgo pauca; basalia quidem

multo breviora, foliolis 3-7, quorum infima decidua. Stipulae sub-

ulatae, ad 8 mm. longae, trinerviae, argenteo-hirsutae extus, persis-

tentes. Foliorum rachis ad 15.5 cm. longa, abaxialiter sulcata, obscure

pulvinata ad basin; petioli 2-5 cm. longi, saepe ad basin aeque crassi

ac pedunculi, gradatim sursum fastigati. Foliola (3-7-) 9-17 (-19),

opposita vel nonnulla alterna, (1-) 2-6 cm. longa, 0.5-1.2 cm. lata,

terminalia quidem vulgo paulo longiora caeteris, atque rachis apici

fixa; lateralia vero aequalia inter se, vel gradatim decrescentia sursum,

elliptico-oblonga, paulum angustata ad basin vel saepius ad utrumque

apicem, sericea infra, glabra supra, apice obtuso vel truncate emarg-

inato, mucronulato; nervus medius eminens infra, laterales vero obliqui,

secundum, marginem decurrentes; petioluli — 2 mm. longi, argenteo-hir-

suti. Racemi terminales vel oppositifolii, valde elongati, 10.30 cm.

longi, pedunculati, laxe 5-12-flori vulgo supra medium vel paulo

altius floribus 1-3 ad singulos nodos, rarius ad nodum infimum suff-

ultis uno folio parvo; bracteae longiores pedicellis, deciduae, ternatae,

quarum inferior quidem paenitus stipulis similis, interiores vero

laterales angustiores sed fere exteriorem aequantes. Flores cremei,

1.5-1.7 cm. longi pedicello incluso; pedicelli 1.5-3 mm. longi, dense

argenteo-canescentes, tandem crassi sub iructu. Calyx — dense

argenteo-hirsutus extus; tubo 3-4 mm. lato, 1.5-3 mm. longo; lobis

subaequalibus, lanceolato-subulatis. acuminatis, tubo —longioribus,

infimo quidem omnium longissimo, -- 5 mm. longo, lateralibus vero +

3.5 mm. longis, superioribus binis connatis et distincte brevioribus, -+

2 mm. longis. Vexillum late obovatum, + 1.5 cm. longum, 1.2 cm.

latum, punctatum, unguiculatum, ungue 2-3 mm. longa, apice retuso

apiculo minuto ornato, extus adpresse sericeo-brunneum, pilis densis

et longioribus ad medium, marginibus ciliolatis supra basin. Alae -&

1.4 cm. longae, usque ad 4 mm. latae, punctatae, auriculatae supra un-

guem. Carina + 1.5 cm. longa, usque ad 5 mm. lata, punctata, glabra,

apice retuso et intus inclinato, marginibus exterioribus fere rectis.

Vagina staminalis 1.2 cm. longa, 3 mm. lata ad basin, supra basin

164

756 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

dilatata; filamenta 2.5-3.5 mm. longa; antherae 0.5 mm. longae, 0.2 mm.

latae ; filamentum vexillare liberum usque ad basin, paulum dilatatum

supra basin. Ovarium sessile, dense argenteo-hirsutum. Stylus 2.5 mm.

longus, incurvatus, barbatus secundum faciem complanatam interiorem,

tenuiter pubescens in facie exteriore; stigma minutum, glabrum.

Legumen pallide brunneum, 6.5-8.5 cm. longum, 6-7 mm. latum, com-

pressum, seminibus 8-11, rectum vel paulum falcatum ad apicem, glaucum

inter semina, fortiter rostratum, rostro acuto et calloso, 2-4 mm.

longo, fere recto vel paulum curvato ; suturae valde crassae ad effor-

mandum marginem eminentem + 1 mm. latum, valvulis post dehiscen-

tiam spiraliter convolutis, spiris 3-4; legumen tenuiter argenteo-canes-

cens secundum suturas et ad utramque faciem. Semina oblonga,

glabra, brunneola, nigro-punctata, strophiolo albo, 4-4.8 mm. longa,

2.5-3 mm. lata aliquantum reniformia.

Typus, Sharma 551-A, lectus ad Happy Valley in Rajasthan a me

die 22 augusti 1959 ; isotypi, Sharma 551 B-C, lecti eodem loco ac

tempore. Typus et isotypi positi in Herbario National Botanic Gardens

ad Lucknow.

Tephrosia collina sp. nov.

This species does not appear to be allied to any other Indian species

of the genus Tephrosia. It is characterised by simple or little-branched

habit with fewer leaves; terminal or leaf-opposed, laxly-flowered, elon-

gate racemes; creamy corolla and chiefly by few, 8-11-seeded long pods,

bordered by much thickened sutures.

Annual herb, erect 30-60 cm. high. Stem simple or branching a

little quite above the base, rarely suffrutescent, terete and thinly pube-

scent towards base, angled or occasionally subterete, grey-sericeous or

sometimes villous and brown-striped above, at length less hairy. Leaves

imparipinnate, lax and usually few; basal much shorter with only 3-7

leaflets, the lowermost one or two soon falling. Stipules subulate, up to

8 mm. long, 3-nerved, argenteo-hirsute outside, persistent. Leaf-rachis

up to 15.5 cm. long, abaxially furrowed,-obscurely pulvinate at base ;

petiole 2-5 cm. long, often at base as thick as the peduncle, tapering

eradually upwards. Leaflets (3-7-) 9-11 (-19). opposite or a few casually

alternate, (1-) 2-6 cm. long, 0.5-1.2 cm. broad, terminal usually a little

longer than laterals and jointed to rachis-apex extending 1-2 mm. beyond

the upppermost pair; lateral leaflets apparently equal or gradually

decreasing in size downwards, elliptic-oblong, slightly narrowed towards

base or frequently at both ends, sericeous beneath, glabrous

above, apex obtuse or somewhat truncately emarginate, mucronulate ;

midvein prominent beneath with lateral nerves oblique—the ends

running along the margins to some distance ; petiolujes + 2 mm, long,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 157

argenteo-hirsute. Racemes terminal or leaf-opposed, much elongate,

10-30 cm. long, pedunculate. laxly 5-12 flowered from usually above the

middle or still higher up, flowers 1-3 at each node, very rarely at the

lowermost node subtended by a small leaf; bracts longer than the

pedicels, deciduous, ternate—the lower exactly similar to stipules, the

two inner laterals (bracteoles) narrower but almost equalling the outer.

Flowers creamy, 1.5-1.7 cm. long (including pedicel) ; pedicels 1.5-3 mm.

long, densely argenteo-hirsute later thickened in fruits. Calyx densely

argenteo-hirsute outside ; tube 3-4 mm. wide, 1.5-3 mm. long; lobes

subequal, lanceolate-subulate, acuminate, longer than the tube, the

lower longest, — 5 mm. long, laterals + 3.5 mm. long, upper two

connate and conspicuously shorter, - 2mm. long. Vexillum broadly

obovate, -- 1.5 cm. long, 1.2 cm. broad, punctate, unguiculate, the claw

2-3 mm. long, apex slightly retuse with a minute apiculum, back adpres-

sedly silky-brown with hairs dense and longer along the middle, margins

ciliolate above the base. Alae + 1.4 cm. long, 0.4 mm. wide at its

broadest, punctate, eared above the claw. Carina + 1.5 cm. long,

0.5 cm. wide at its broadest, punctate, glabrous ; apex retuse and

pointing inwards, the outer margins almost straight. Staminal-sheath

1.2 cm. long, 0.3 cm. broad at base when explanate, dilated above the

base ; filaments 2.5-3.5 mm. long ; anthers 0.5 mm. long, 0.2 mm. wide;

vexillary-filament free down to the base, thinly widened, dilated above

base as in sheath. Ovary sessile, copiously argenteo-hirsute. Style

+2.5 mm. long, incurved, bearded along the inner flattened face,

thinly pubescent on outer ; stigma minute, glabrous. Pods light-brown,

6.5-8.5 cm. long, 0.6-0.7 cm. broad, compressed, 8-11-seeded, straight

or slightly falcate towards apex, glaucous within between the seeds,

strongly beaked, the beak pointed and callose, 2-4 mm. long, almost

straight or slightly curved; sutures much thickened to form — 1 mm.

broad prominent border, valves on dehiscence twisting completely by

3-4 turns; on faces and along sutures thinly argenteo-canescent with

forwardly adpressed short hairs in var. collina; in var. lanuginocarpa at

faces villous and along the sutures conspicuously fringed with dull-

brown, stiff and almost erect short hairs of nearly equal length. Seeds

oblong, glabrous, brownish and flecked with black, strophiole white ; in

var. collina seeds 4-4.8 mm. long, 2.5-3 mm. broad, somewhat reniform,

in var. Januginocarpa 5-6 mm. long, 3-3.2 mm. broad, at one or both

ends nearly truncate.

Flowering and Fruiting : August to October.

Habitat : India: Ajmer district (Rajasthan), on hills throughout the

district, chiefly among montane grasses,

758 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

T. collina var. collina

(Figs. A-H)

Pods on faces and along the sutures thinly argenteo-canescent with

forwardly adpressed short hairs. Seeds 4-4.8 mm. long, 2.5-3 mm.

broad, somewhat reniform in outline.

Flora of Ajmer, Rajasthan, India: Sharma 551-A, Happy Valley

(Taragarh Mt.), alt. 450-550 m., Fl. & Fr. 22-8-1959, open hills (type) ;

Sharma 551 B-C (isotypes): Sharma 586-A, Ajayasar Gate, above Happy

Valley, Fl. & Fr. 17-9-1958 : Sharma 990, Nagpahar Mt., under shade

of forests, Fl. & Fr. 23-8-1959: Sharma 1805, Todgarh, on way to Bhim,

Fl. & Fr. 1-9-1961. :

Type is deposited in the Herbarium National Botanic Gardens,

Lucknow.

T. collina var. lanuginocarpa var. nov.

(Fig. I)

Legumina villosa ad facies, ad suturas vero pilis obscurate

brunneis, rigidis, fere erectis, brevibus aequalibus ornata; semina 5-6

mm. longa, 3-3.2 mm, lata, truncata ad unum vel ad utrumque

apicem.

Typus, Sharma 1130-A, lectus a me ad 1 Nagpatins Mt. die 4 octob.

1959; isotypi, Sharma 1130 B-C, lecti eodem die ac loco.

Typus et isotypi positi in Herbario National Botanic Gardens ad

Lucknow. 7

Pods on faces villous and along the sutures conspicuously fringed.

with dull brown, stiff and almost erect short hairs of nearly equal

length. Seeds 5-6 mm. long, 3-3.2 mm, broad, at one or both ends

nearly truncate.

Flora of Ajmer, Rajasthan, India: Sharma 1130-A, Nagpahar

Mt., alt. 370-550 m., Fr. 4-11-1959 (type of variety); Sharma 1130 B-C

(isotypes of variety); Sharma 586-B, Ajayasar Gate, above Happy

Valley, Fl. & Fr. 17-9-1958.

Type of variety is deposited in the Herbarium National Botanic

Gardens, Lucknow. _ | | |

As is evident from the above data, the present species is well dis-

tributed throughout Ajmer district which stretches to about 130 kilo-

metres. The type as well as the var. lanuginocarpa may occur

together within a small area confined to hills where they are chiefly

seen among the montane grasses. It is fairly common at Todgarh

and because of the identical topographical features of the adjoining area,

JouRN. BomBAY Nat. Hist. Soc.

DEL.

VsSharma

Tephrosia collina var. collina: A. Entire plant (drawn from type-specimen), a. leaflet showing

venation; B. Vexillum expanded (dorsal view); C. Ala; D. Carina (spread out); E. Staminal-

sheath (expanded); F. Vexillary stamen; G. Flower, showing calyx and pistil; H. Pod, a

portion showing indumentum. Tephrosia collina var. lanuginocarpa: J. Pod, a portion

showing indumentum

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 759

there is every possibility that the species may extend beyond this

region.

The above described variety appears to be a slightly more robust

_ plant and is more hairy in all parts than the type form. It is mainly

distinguishable by the kind of indumentum on the faces and sutures

of the pods which persist even when the valves have separated. The

character of the seed as keyed out above for the identification of the

two forms, has been derived on the study of seeds from a few available

mature pods. Unless more material is studied, the reliability of this

character cannot be stressed.

It may be of some interest to record here that in one of the

specimens the lowermost leaf showed reduction to the extent that it

was represented only by a single leaflet, measuring 80.8 cm. with

rachis (petiole) about 0.6 cm, in length.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am grateful to Rev. Fr. H. Santapau for valuable suggestions

and the Latin diagnoses. I am also thankful to my teacher Dr. B.

Tiagi for encouragement, Dr. J. B. Gillett, Kew Herbarium, for the

scrutiny of the material and helpful comments. Shri M. B. Raizada

for the facilities of work at Forest Research Institute Herbarium,

Dehra Dun, and the Curator, Central National Herbarium, Calcutta,

for the loan of herbarium sheets of Tephrosia.

GOVERNMENT COLLEGE,

AJMER, V. S. SHARMA!’

RAJASTHAN,

June 6, 1963.

24. SOLANUM ACULEATISSIMUM JACQ. : A NEW RECORD

FOR NORTHERN INDIA?

(With a plate)

While collecting some Solanum species from Jorhat and_ its

neighbourhood (Assam), we came across this species which does not

seem to have been recorded from northern India. C. B. Clarke, who

wrote the Solanaceae in Hooker’s FLORA OF BRITISH INDIA, cites only

Thomson’s specimen from Singapore for this species, with a note that

* Present address : National Botanic Gardens, Lucknow.

aii See runicated by Rev. H. Santapau, Director, Botanical Survey of India,

alcutta.

760 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

his specimen in fruit is identical with the type specimen of Solanum

aculeatissimum var. d@nudatum Dunal. J. S. Gamble in his FLORA OF

MADRAS records this plant from Quilon in Travancore. But he does

not give any description of the species beyond the statement that it

is a prickly shrub.

Our correspondence with Dr. S. K. Mukerjee, Keeper, Central

National Herbarium, brought to our notice the collection of this

species by Rama Rao from Tharayamukka in 1912, from Trivandrum

in 1913, and from Quilon in 1913. It is apparent that this species has

not been recorded anywhere else in India.

Solanum aculeatissimum Jacq. Collect. Bot. 1 : 100, 1786.

Shrub about | m. tall; older brariches brown, terete, glabrous;

branchlets green, pubescent, spiny; spines tender, green, sharp,

Straight, varying in length from 0.2 to 1 cm.; hairs about 3 mm. long,

rather sparse, stiff, erect. Leaves simple, alternate, distichous,

exstipulate and petiolate; petioles green, tinged with purple in upper

leaves in the grooves, 2-4 cm., terete, grooved above, pubescent, spiny;

spines and hairs like those on the branchlets; lamina ovate, 8-10-lobed,

entire at margins, acute at apex, somewhat cordate at base, hairs on

the lower surface 2-3 mm. long, only on veins, hairs on the upper

surface 1-2 mm., found all over, dense, spines only on the veins on

both the surfaces, like those on the branchlets, sometimes tinged with

purple when mature on the upper surface of the upper leaves; iateral

nerves 3-4 on either side of the midrib, lowermost pair arising from

the base of the midrib, extending laterally, nerves impressed on upper

surface, prominent on lower. J/nflorescence of helicoid cymes,

generally in the axils of upper leaves, or extra-axillary, ebracteate,

pedunculate; peduncles 5-7 mm. long, green, terete, very slightly

tinged with purple, pubescent with stiff erect hairs which are almost

like spines. Flowers regular, bisexual, ebracteate, pedicellate; pedicels

like the peduncles. Calyx green, cup-shaped, persistent, 5X4 mm.,

slightly accrescent, pubescent with stiff erect hairs which are almost

like spines, 5-toothed; teeth triangular, nearly 2 mm., entire at margins,

acute at apex. Corolla 0.7X1.4 cm., rotate; tube about 2 mm. long,

preenish, glabrous, hidden by the calyx; lobes 5, elliptic-lanceolate,

about 7X2 mm., white, entire at margins, acute at apex, glabrous on

both surfaces. Stamens 5, equal; filaments whitish green, less than

1 mm., arising from the base of the corolla, glabrous; anthers

dorsifixed, yellow, lanceolate, about 5 mm. long. Ovary 2-celled with

many ovules in each cell, arranged on an axile placenta, green, glabrous.

Stigma green, otherwise undistinguishable from the style. Fruit a

JOURN. BomMBAY Nat. Hist. Soc.

Solanum aculeatissimum Jacq.

1. Twig; 2. Dissected flower; 3. Pistil; 4, Fruit; 5. Seed.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 761

berry, spherical, 2.5 cm. or more in diameter, white with greenish

streaks at the base when young, bright orange when ripe, glabrous and

shining. Seeds numerous, winged, pale brown coloured, about 4 mm.

in diameter, including the wings; wings circular, going all round the

seed.

Flowering: More or less throughout the year.

Fruiting: More or less throughout the year.

Distribution: Tropical Asia and America.

Remarks: This species occurs wild in Assam on roadsides and

in damp waste places, growing side by side in some places with

Solanum khasianum Clke., which it closely resembles.

Chemical investigations on the species is in progress.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Our grateful thanks are due to Rev. Fr. H. Santapau, Director,

Botanical Survey of India, for confirming our identification and also

for guidance.

REGIONAL RESEARCH LABORATORY, H. P. BEZBARUAH

JORHAT, BALAMANI BEZBARUAH

ASSAM,

October 8, 1963.

REFERENCES

CLARKE, C. B. (1885) : in Hooker, J.D. Presidency of Madras 2 (reprint ed.).

The Flora of British India 4. London. Calcutta.

CookE, T. (1908) : Flora of the Presi- KANJILAL, U. N., Das, A., KANJILAL,

dency of Bombay 2. London. P.C., & Der, R. N. (1939): Flora of

GAMBLE, J. S. (1957): Flora of the Assam 3. Shillong.

25. HYPHAENE INDICA BECC. ALONG THE WEST COAST

OF INDIA

(With a plate)

Burkill (1908), in J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 18 : 929, recorded a

few interesting points of the Indian Doum Palm, Hyphaene indica

Becc. besides other African species of the genus on the basis of

Beccari’s work. During the study of the flora of western India, the

present writer collected and studied this species in further detail and

found that the species is quite distinct from H. thebaica (Linn.) Mart.,

the Egyptian Doum Palm, which is only cultivated in a few gardens

of India particularly of the west coast and the Indian Botanic Garden,

762 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

Calcutta. H. indica, however, is the only species indigenous to the

west coast of India.

H. indica grows along the sandy coast of western India almost

adjoining the sea ranging from 18° to 23? N. lat. The areas newly

recorded now, from which actual notes or collections have been made

after study by the author, are coastal areas opposite Nagaon (on way

to Revdanda from Alibag), Dahanu (only one broken tree and a

seedling), Daman Grande (Jampore village, opposite market) (Plate,

fig. 1), and small Daman. On the available information it can be

noted that this palm grows at Shirgaon (beyond Palghar) and

Okamandal, Diu (Saurashtra coast). It is also very likely that this

species may occur along suitable sandy coastal belt further south of

Alibag area and also along Daman-Diu range of the Gujarat State.

It is normally considered that all plants of Hyphaene growing in

Indian gardens are H. thebaica. At Bombay, it is found that there

is only one clump of well-grown plants of H. thebaica in Mazagaon hill

garden (with pumping station), Bombay-10, and the small immature

plant (about 7-8 metres) in the Victoria Gardens, Bombay, as kindly

shown by Shri Irani in charge of the Botany section of the Gardens,

may be either H. thebaica or H. indica, and the correct identity will

be decided when the fruits of this plant are available. It is normally

considered that the branched palms in the public garden of Baroda

belong to H. thebaica, but the material sent from Baroda by Prof.

A. R. Chavan of M. S. University, Baroda, is found to be H. indica.

The author’s recent scrutiny of the various palms of Hyphaene growing

in the Indian Botanic Garden, Calcutta, reveals that there are three

young fruiting palms of A. indica growing on a mound near the old,

tall palms of H. thebaica. There is, however, no entry of H. indica

in the Garden records. It is, therefore, of considerable interest that

the indigenous species of H. indica has also found a place in the

gardens of Baroda and Calcutta, possibly introduced inadvertently

from the seed material of the palms growing along. the Gujarat Coast

or other parts of the western coast of India. It is necessary to check

up whether all the Hyphaene plants growing in the Baroda gardens

belong to H. indica only, or H. thebaica was also introduced in an

earlier period, as in the Calcutta Garden, when such distinction

between the two species was not clearly known.

It is difficult to distinguish the two doum palms, the Indian and

the Egyptian, from vegetative characters. The fruit and the axis of

female inflorescence provide distinct features (Plate, fig. 2). In 4.

indica the fruit (B,) has a characteristic ovate shape with a distinct

stalk (b,, 10-15 mm.) covered by fine hairs and with rough cracked

JOURN. BOMBAY Nat. Hist. Soc.

Fig. 1. Several trees of Hyphaene indica growing along the coast of

Daman Grande, India

—

‘3

Ip es

Dae

aba : é

tas 6

if 3

¥,

Fig. 2. Fruit and inflorescence of Hyphaene thebaica and H. indica

A. H. thebaica: A, fruit; A, female inflorescence axis; a, pedicel (much

enlarged) ; a, tomentose cushion. B. AH. indica: B, fruit; Be

female flowering

axis ; Bg male ditto ; b, pedicel ; b. tomentose cushion ; b, male flowers.

(Photos : Seshagiri Rao Rolla)

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 763

exocarp, and the axis of female inflorescence (B,) is less hairy with

a few rhomboid tomentose cushion-like structures (b,) in each spiral

not quite prominent. In A. thebaica, the fruit (A,) has an irregular

oblong shape with an indistinct stalk surrounded by a thick bushy

hairy cushion thus making it broader than high (a,) and a smooth and

glossy exocarp; the axis (A,) is more hairy with larger number of

rhomboid tomentose cushions (a,) in each spiral distinctly protruding

out. The internal structure of the fruit of both the species is mostly

identical without any distinct variation.

It would be a good and interesting botanical acquisition if H. indica

which is propagated by seed is introduced in the gardens and parks

along the west and east coasts of India.

The author wishes to express his thanks to Prof. A. R. Chavan for

kindly sending the material from Baroda.

BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

WESTERN CIRCLE, SESHAGIRI RAO ROLLA

Poona, 1,

Jaly 16, 1963:

26. A NEW SPECIES OF LASIURUS FROM WESTERN

RAJASTHAN®*

(With a _ plate)

During a reconnaissance survey of the flora of Jodhpur district, the

authors came across an interesting species of Lasiurus, a genus which

is found commonly growing all over western Rajasthan. It was pro-

visionally listed as Lasiurus hirsutus but examination in the herbarium

showed that it is a distinct species.

At the outset, it should be stated that there are two recorded

species of Lasiurus in north-west India, namely Lasiurus hirsutus

(Forsk.) Boiss. and L. sindicus Henr., the latter being differentiated

from the former solely on the basis of indumentum on the internode

and peduncle.

The Lasiurus species collected by us did not agree with the descrip-

tion of the above two species although the inflorescence had some

morphological ‘similarities with that of Lasiurus sindicus. The

specimen was sent to Kew Gardens, where Dr. Bor after studying the

1 Communicated by the Director, Central Arid Zone Research Institute,

Jodhpur, Rajasthan.

7064. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

specimen, observed that the absence of tail to the lower glumes of the

sessile and pedicelled spikelets is an important taxonomic character

that distinguishes it from Lasiurus sindicus. In all the Indian sheets

at Kew, the long tail is a very conspicuous feature in both species of

Lasiurus. It was, therefore, considered that this plant merited

specific rank by itself.

Lasiurus ecaudatus sp. nov.

It is distinguished by its large leaves, 3 to 4 racemes per culm,

absence of tail to the lower involucral glume and absence of nerves

on the lower floral glume.

Gramen perenne, fasciculatum plus minusve ramosum et lignosum

infra, surculis intravaginalibus. Culmi pubescentes, 80-108 cm. alti,

nodis 2.8-5 cm. inter se distantibus. Vaginae arctae, glabrae. Ligula

contracta in fimbriam capillorum. Foliorum lamina linearis pulchre

acuminata, — 26.9 cm. longa, 4 cm. lata, glauca, glabra vel capillis

nonnullis e tuberculo oriundis ornata prope ligulam.

Racemi spicati 3-4 in singulis culmis, terminales et axillares;

pedunculi dense pubescentes; spicae argenteae sericae, ad 11 cm.

longae, 1 cm. latae, fragiles, articulis linearibus, 5-7 mm. longis, 2 mm.

latis dorsaliter compressis, paene complanatis carina ornatis ad faciem,

interiorem.

Spicula sessilis lanceolata, 3-4.5 mm., rachis nodis barbatis;

flosculi bini, quorum inferior masculus, superior vero hermaphroditus,

arista nulla; gluma inferior 9 mm. longa, 59-nervia, ecaudata, ovata,

fastigata supra, dense ciliata et membranacea; superior gluma carinata,

8-9 mm. longa, membranacea: gluma floralis inferior hyalina, 6 mm.

longa, nervo nullo, ovata, acuta; palea hyalina, ovata, acuta, nervo

nullo distincta, 3.9-4.9 mm. longa. Lodiculae 2, cuneatae; stamina 3,

antherae 2.9 mm. longae. Ovarium 0.5 mm. longum; stylus 1.5 mm.,

stigmatibus linearibus exsertis 1.25 mm. longis.

Spiculae pedicellatae eis sessilibus similes callo indistincto glabro,

utroque flore masculo vel reducto.

Holotypus: C.R. Farm, Central Arid Zone Research Inst., Jodhpur,

Rajasthan, 250 m., 7 januarii 1962, Y. Satyanarayan & K. A.

Shankarnarayan 719. In Herbario eiusdem instituti ad Jodhpur.

Perennial, tufted more or less branched and woody below with

intravaginal shoots. Culm pubescent, height of culms varies from

80 to 108.8 cm. The distance between nodes 3.8-5 cm. Leaf sheaths

closely clasping the culm, glabrous. Ligule a fringe of hairs. Leaf

blade linear, finely acuminate, the average length being 26.9 cm., and

JOURN. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc.

{EMTs Seams cmeRcey

2 EMIRE KEITEL ES wewE LES

«DISSECTED S€ssat spmecer

«SLOWER wevoLUCaL sLUME

4 UPPER INVOLUCRAL GLUME

SLOWER FLiomaL SLume

& UPPER FLORAL GiUME

7 PALEA

* comuLE

APC CT

1 Gm ECE f

a é te oF atu size | \ X12 OF NATURAL SIZE

% at

‘ 4

Lasiurus ecaudatus sp. nov.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 765

width 4 cm., glaucous, glabrous or with a few tubercle-based hairs

towards the ligule.

Spike-like racemes 3 to 4 per culm, terminal and axillary. The

peduncle is densely pubescent and the spike silvery silky all over.

The spikes are up to 11 cm. long and | cm. wide, fragile, joints linear

5.0-7 mm. long, 2 mm. wide, dorsally compressed, almost flat with a

keel on the inner surface.

Sessile spikelet lanceolate 3-4.5 mm.; nodes or rachis bearded all

round. Florets two, lower male, upper hermaphrodite awnless; lower

involucral glume 9 mm. long, 5-nerved with no cauda, ovate, tapering

above, densely ciliate and membranous; upper involucral glume boat-

shaped, 8-9 mm. jong, membranous; lower fioral glume hyaline, 6 mm.

long, nerveless, ovate, acute, palea hyaline, ovate, acute, nerveiess,

3.9-4.9 mm. long. Lodicules 2, cuneate; stamens 3, anthers 2.9 mm.

long. Ovary 0.5 mm. long; style 1.5 mm. while stigmas are linear,

exserted 1.25 mm. long.

The pedicelled spikelets are similar to the sessile ones with a

glabrous indistinct callus and with both florets male or reduced.

Holotype. C. R. Farm, Central Arid Zone Research Institute,

Jodhpur, Rajasthan, 250 mm., 7th January 1962, Y. Satyanarayan and

K. A. Shankarnarayan 719, deposited in the Herbarium, Central Arid

Zone Research Institute, Jodhpur.

Lasiurus ecaudatus sp. nov. Lasiurus sindicus Henr.

1. Leaves 15-27 cm. 1. Leaves 7.5-15 cm.

2. Racemes at least 3 to 4 per culm

3. Lower involucral glume 9 mm.

long

4. Tail or cauda absent in the lower

involucral glume

5. Lower floral glume nerveless

6. Pedicellate spikelet similar in size

to sessile spikelet

7. Pedicels 3 mm. long

2. Racemes solitary

3. Lower involucral glume 10 mm.

long

4. Tail present in the lower involucral

glume

5. Lower floral glume 3-5-nerved

6. Pedicellate spikelet shorter than

sessile spikelet

7. Pedicels 4 mm. long

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank Dr. P. C. Raheja, Director, Central Arid Zone Research

Institute, Jodhpur, for evincing keen interest.

To the Director, Royal

Botanic Gardens, Kew, and Dr. N. L. Bor we express thanks for

confirming the identification of this taxon.

We are grateful to Rev.

766 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 60 (3)

Fr. H. Santapau s.J., Director, Botanical Survey of India, for the Latin

diagnosis. We also thank Prof. P. V. Bole, St. Xavier's College,

Bombay, for supplying literature on the genus.

CENTRAL ARID ZONE RESEARCH INSTITUTE,

GOVERNMENT OF INDIA, Y. SATYANARAYAN

JODHPUR, RAJASTHAN, K. A. SHANKARNARAYAN

August 26, 1963.

Gleaning

THE DESCRIPTION AND NAMING OF NEW SPECIES

In view of the gleaning at page 705 of the Journal for April 1962,

Vol. 59 (2), our readers may be interested to read the following

extract from a paper by B. H. Hodgson published in the Journal of

the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Vol. 5 (1836), describing sundry animals

enumerated in the Catalogue of Nepalese Mammals.

‘The whole of the above animals were discovered by me several

years back (1823-1829), and might have been described much sooner,

had I not deemed it improper to hazard the multiplication of imaginary

species by characterising from one or two specimens. There is not

one of these species of which I have not procured several specimens

at all seasons, and either alive or just killed. The indications of the

catalogue are such as to entitle me to date from its publication

(originally in 1829). But in truth, my object has been, and is, much

less to share in the scramble of nomenclature, than to ascertain the

habits and structure of species.

‘Nothing is so vague at present as the true limits of species and as

my first aim was rather to find resemblances than differences, so

perhaps it might wisely have been my last.

‘If, however, any person who chances to lay hold upon a single

shrivelled skin, may forthwith announce a new animal, the real

student of nature must be content to leave what is called discovery

to the mere nomenclator; and the science must continue to groan

under an increasing weight of fictitious species.’

PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY V. M. PHILIP AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS

10 CHURCH ROAD, VEPERY, MADRAS— 14-4-1964. (C568

EDITORS: H. SANTAPAU & ZAFAR FUTEHALLY

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CONTENTS

A NATURALIST IN BORNEO. By Dr. T. Norman

‘THE INDIAN WILD Ass: A SuRvVEY. February 1962. By E. P. Gee

A BOTANICAL TouR TO TRIKUTA HILLs. = L.-D. cea Y. K. Sarin, and

A. K. Dutt - ie

THE BiRDS OF THE MALDIVE ISLANDS, INDIAN OCEAN. By W. W. A. Phillips. .

‘THE BUTTERFLIES OF SOUTH GUJARAT. By Rev. E. M. Shull

ON THE OCCURRENCE OF Thalassina anomala (HERBST), A BURROWING CRUS-

TACEAN IN BOMBAY WATERS, AND ITS BURROWING METHODS. By K. N.

Sankolli

MosseEs OF EASTERN INDIA—IV. Eubryiidae. Series II. DICRANALES (Contd.) :

Family LEUCOBRYACEAE, and Series II. POTTIALEs : Family CALYMPE-

RACEAE. By H. C. Gangulee

Tue Birps oF NEPAL. Part 11. By Biswamoy Biswas

‘COPEPODS PARASITIC ON SOUTH INDIAN FISHES : FAMILY ANTHOSOMIDAE—1.

By N. Krishna Pillai

More CYANOPHYCEAE OF HOSHIARPUR : II. By P. C. Vasishta

(COMMENTS ON RIPLEY’S A SYNOPSIS OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA AND PAKISTAN.

By Biswamoy Biswas. With a SUPPLEMENT by Sidney Dillon Ripley II..

FIELD GUIDE TO THE AMPHIBIANS OF WESTERN INDIA. Part 2. By J. C. Daniel. .

ORNITHOLOGICAL NOTES OF A SECOND TRIP TO THE GULF OF KutTcH. By Huma-

yun Abdulali

OBITUARIES

REVIEWS

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

GLEANING

679

703

713

722

767