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/, Journal! OF the: -

Bombay Natural History Society |

ips | Vol. 65, No. |

Editors

H. SANTAPAYU, S.3.,

ZAFAR FUTEHALLY, & J. C. DANIEL

APRIL 1968

Rs. 18 (Inland), Sh. 30 (Foreign)

NOTICE TO CONTRIBUTORS

Contributors of scientific articles are requested to assist the

editors by observing the following instructions

1. Papers which have at the same time been offered for publica-

tion to other journals or periodicals, or have already been published

_ elsewhere, should not be submitted.

2. The MS. should be typed (double spacing) on one side of a

sheet only, and the sheets properly numbered.

3. All scientific names to be printed in italics should be under-

lined. Both in zoological and in botanical references only the initial

letter of the genus is capitalized. The specific and subspecific names

always begin with a small letter even if they refer to a person or a

place, e.g. Anthus hodgsoni hodgsoni or Streptopelia chinensis suratensis

or Dimeria blatteri.

4. Trinomials referring to subspecies should only be used where

identification has been authentically established by comparison of

specimens actually collected. In all other cases, or where identification

is based merely on sight, binomials should be used.

5. Photographs for reproduction must be clear and show good

contrast. Prints must be of a size not smaller than 8°205°60 cm.

(No. 2 Brownie) and on glossy glazed paper.

6. Text-figures, line drawings, and maps should be in Indian ink,

preferably on Bristol board.

7. References to literature should be placed at the end of the

paper, alphabetically arranged under author’s name, with the abridged

titles of journals or periodicals underlined (italics) and titles of books

not underlined (roman type), thus:

Banerji, M. L. (1958): Botanical Exploration in East Nepal.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 55 (2): 243-268.

Prater, S. H. (1948): The Book of Indian Animals. Bombay.

Titles of papers should not be underlined.

8. Reference to literature in the text should be made by quoting

the author’s name and year of publication, thus: (Banerji 1958).

9. Synopsis: Each scientific paper should be accompanied by

a concise, clearly written synopsis, normally not exceeding 200 words.

10. Reprints: Authors are supplied 25 reprints of their articles

free of charge. In the case of joint authorship, 50 copies will be

given gratis to be distributed among the two or more authors. Orders

for additional reprints should be in multiples of 25 and should be

received within two weeks after the author is informed of the acceptance

of ne manuscript. They will be charged for at cost plus postage and

packing.

EDITORS,

Hornbill House, Journal of the Bombay Natural

Opp. Lion Gate, | History Society.

Apollo Street, Fort,

Bombay 1-BR.

VOLUME 65, NO. 1—APRIL 1968

Date of publication : 31-5-1968

CONTENTS

REPORT ON WILD LIFE SURVEYS IN SOUTH AND WEsT INDIA. November-

December 1966. By J. Juan Spillett. (With five plates and four maps)

Heteromysis zeylanica TATTERSALL (CRUSTACEA : MySIDACEA), AN ASSOCIATE

OF MADREPORARIAN CORALS IN SOUTH INDIAN WATERS. By N. Krishna

Pillai. (With twenty-six text-figures)

RECORDS OF RARE FISHES OF THE FAMILY CHAETODONTIDAE FROM BOMBAY. By

B. F. Chhapgar and J. K. Jatar. (With five text-figures)

PREFERENCE OF CASTOR VARIETIES FOR FEEDING AND OVIPOSITION BY THE LEAF-

HOPPER, Empoasca flavescens (F.) (HOMOPTERA, JASSIDAE) WITH PARTICULAR

REFERENCE TO ITS HONEYDEW EXCRETION. By S. Jayaraj. (With two text-

figures)

OBSERVATIONS ON AGE AND GROWTH OF Tachysurus sona (Ham.). By Vijai D.

Singh and M.S. Rege. (With eight text-figures) i

ALGAE OF ALIBAG, MAHARASHTRA. By N. D. Kamat. (With a map)

THE BIOLOGY OF THE WHITEWINGED GROSBEAK, Mycerobas carnipes HODGSON

IN KAZAKHSTAN. By I. A. Dolgushin, E. I. Gavrilov, and E. F. Rodionov.

(With six plates and a text-figure)

Coccips (COCCOIDEA : HEMIPTERA : INSECTA) AFFECTING FRUIT PLANTS IN BIHAR

(INDIA). By S. Mohammad Ali

SEA ANEMONES (ACTINIARIA) OF BOMBAY. By Arun Paruleker. (With two plates

and a map)

THE NESTING ACTIVITIES OF THE VESPOID POTTER WASP Eumenes campaniformis

esuriens (FABR.) COMPARED WITH THE ECOLOGICALLY SIMILAR SPHECOID

Sceliphron madraspatanum (FABR.) (HYMENOPTERA). By S. D. Jayakar

and H. Spurway. (With two figures)

A CATALOGUE OF THE BIRDS IN THE COLLECTION OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL

History Socittty—1l. By Humayun Abdulali

REVIEWS :

1. Nature’s Paradise (L.F.)

. Mongooses—their Natural History and Behaviour (H.A.)

General Entomology for Agricultural Students (N.T.N.)

4. Ecological Energetics (D.N.M.)

5. Seaweeds and other Algae (E.G.)

Common Birds (U.G.) ..

ik)

105

120

138

148

182

200

201

202

203

205

206

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :

1. Notes on the Bihar Drought. By Anne Wright (p. 208). 2. Can Young

Bats communicate with their parents at a distance? By Lt. Col. A. David

(p.210). 3. Noteson the Common Palm Civet or Toddy Cat Paradoxurus herma-

Dhroditus (Pallas), with special reference to the age at shedding of the Milk Teeth.

(With two plates). By S. D. Jayakar and H. Spurway (p. 211). 4. Notes on

the Malabar Spiny Dormouse, Platacanthomys lasiurus Blyth, 1859, with new

distribution record. By P. K. Rajagopalan (p. 214). 5. Occurrence of the

Reef Heron [Egretta gularis (Bosc.)] in Hyderabad District. By George F.

Neavoll (p. 215). 6. The female of Molesworth’s Tragopan Tragopan blythi

molesworthi Baker. (With a plate). By Biswamoy Biswas (p. 216). 7. Occur-

rence of the Little Crake, Porzana parva (Scopoli), in Bombay. By Salim Ali and

Humayun Abdulali (p. 217). 8. Southward extension of the range of the

Slenderbilled Gull (Larus genei Breme). By Br. A. Navarro (p. 218). 9. Sap

Sucking by Indian Woodpeckers. (With a photograph). By Humayan Abdulali

(p. 219). 10. Occurrence of the House Martin Delichon urbica (Linn.) in

Saurashtra, Gujarat. By R. S. Dharmakumarsinhji (p. 221). 11. Wire nests

of Redvented Bulbul Pycnonotus cafer (Linnaeus). By B.S. Lamba (p. 222).

12. Cettia montana versus C. fortipes (Aves: Sylviinae). By Allan R. Phillips

(p. 223). 13. Some Bird Records from Kutch. By Maharao of Kutch (p. 225).

14. Some interesting Migrants in Kutch. By M. K. Himmatsinhji (p. 225).

15. Recovery of Ringed Birds. By Editors (p. 226). 16. Notes on two species of

Hemidactylus (Gekkonidae: Reptilia) in Bhubaneswar. By S. D. Jayakar

(p. 229). 17. Observations on the Limbless Lizard Ophisaurus gracilis (Gray)

from Shillong, Assam. (With a plate). By B. K. Tikader (p. 233). 18. Paro-

xyurichthys laterisquamatus (M. Weber): First record from Indian Waters.

(With a photograph). By P. K. Talwar and T.K.Sen (p. 234). 19. Mural-

thoondi, a gear for Halfbeak Fishes. (With a text-figure). By P. K. Talwar

(p. 235). 20. A note on the use of Croton tiglium Linn. seed as a Fish poison

in Ponds. (With a photograph). By B. R. Bhuyan (p. 236). 21. Notes on Animal

Relationships : Dromiid Crabs, Cryptodromia tuberculata pileifera Alcock, 1899

sheltering beneath commensal sponges. By A. Daniel and V. K. Premkumar

(p. 240). 22. Gregariousness and Mimicry during Cocoon stage by the Butter-

fly Eurema hecabe (L.). By B. K. Tikader (p. 242). 23. On the seasonal fluctua-

tions and biology of Anaphothrips flavicinctus (Karny) on Panicum maximum in

Madras. (With six text-figures). By T. N. Ananthakrishnan and A. Jagadish

(p. 243). 24. Further data on Host-plants of Lac Insects (Tachardiidae, Homo-

ptera). By R.K. Varshney (p. 249). 25. Parasites, predators and other natural

enemies of Sugarcane pests in Maharashtra. By S.K. Dorge, V. P. Dalaya and

A. G. Pradhan (p. 251). 26. A new spider of the genus Jschnothyreus Simon

(Family Oonopidae) from India. (With five text-figures). By B. K. Tikader

(p. 257). 27. On the abundant occurrence of Desmopterus gardineri Tesch 1910,

(Thecosomata: Mollusca), in the Indian Ocean. (With a map). By

M. Sakthivel (p. 259). 28. Additions to the Flora of Bombay. By G. L. Shah,

R.J. Patel and M. H. Patel (p. 260). 29. The spirality of main stem and its

relationship to that of off-shoots in Euphorbia antiquorum Linn. (With a text-

figure). By T.A. Davis (p. 262). 30. Notes on Boerhavia. By M.R. Almeida

(p. 266). 31. Three new plant records for West Bengal. By A. K. Mukherjee

and L. K. Banerjee (p. 268). 32. Tetralocular Fruits in Cleistanthus collinus

(Roxb.) Benth. Ex Hook. F. (With a photograph). By G. R. Kumari (p. 269).

33. Algae of Simla. By N. D. Kamat (p. 271).

GLEANINGS

NOTES AND NEws

ANNOUNCEMENT

278

281

282

JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL

HISTORY SOCIETY

1968 APRIL Vol. 65 No. 1

A Report on Wild Life Surveys

in South and West India

November-December 1966

J. JUAN SPILLETT

INTRODUCTION .. abs ac ae sei i i

WILD LIFE SANCTUARIES IN ANDHRA PRADESH oF hs 3

WILD LIFE IN GUJARAT STATE oe oe Be we 1S

1WILD LIFE SANCTUARIES IN MYSORE STATE

1WILD LIFE SANCTUARIES IN MADRAS STATE

INTRODUCTION

This is a continuation of the ‘ Report on Wild Life Surveys in North

India and Southern Nepal, January-June 1966’, [J. Bombay. nat. Hist.

Soc. 63 (3) (December 1966)]. As before, these surveys in the States of

Andhra Pradesh, Mysore, Madras and Gujarat were officially sponsored

by the World Wildlife Fund (Morges, Switzerland), assisted by the Johns

Hopkins University Center for Medical Research and Training, approved

by the Government of India and financed by the Foundation Volkart

Brothers of Switzerland.

Mr. E. P. Gee made all the necessary arrangements with the Govern-

ment of India and with the State Forest Departments concerned, super-

vised the whole project, and collected and edited the reports of each

* The reports on sanctuaries in Mysore and Madras States will be published in

subsequent issues of Vol. 65—Eds.

2 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

State—incorporating the suggestions received from the State Forest

and Wild Life Officers concerned. I particularly want to thank him for

his assistance and advice.

It was intended to include Kerala State, particularly the Periyar

Wild Life Sanctuary, in the surveys. But a reply could not be obtained

from that Forest Department until it was too late and the whole prog-

ramme had been finalised. It is to be hoped that at some future date

the valuable wild life resources of Kerala can be included in a similar

survey.

My thanks are again extended to all concerned for their assistance,

co-operation and kindness so willingly given to me throughout the

surveys. Without this co-operation the surveys could not have been

undertaken.

J. JUAN SPILLETT

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Wild Life Sanctuaries in Andhra Pradesh!

J. JUAN SPILLETT

(With a plate and two maps)

INTRODUCTION

THE PAKHAL WILD LIFE SANCTUARY

Introduction

Ecology.. 5 ote s;

Visitor Facilities and Forest Department Proposals

Discussion

THE ETURNAGARAM WILD LIFE SANCTUARY

Introduction

Ecology..

Visitor Facilities

Discussion

OTHER WILD LIFE AREAS IN ANDHRA PRADESH ..

The Qawal Wild Life Sanctuary

Kolleru oe ar

The Pocharam Wild Life Sanctuary

Nehru Zoological Park

ACKNO WLEDGEMENTS

REFERENCES

TABLE

1. Names of some animals inhabiting the Pakhal Wild Life Sanc-

tuary, Andhra Pradesh, and a relative index of their abundance. .

OoOnnt RP HL

1This survey was Officially sponsored by the World Wildlife Fund, Morges,

Switzerland. The project was also assisted by The Johns Hopkins University and

its Center for Medical Researchand Training, Calcutta, India, and Baltimore, Maryland

(U.S.A.).Mr. E. P. Gee, member of the Indian Board for Wild Life, made the necessary

arrangements with the Government of India and the Forest Department of Andhra

- Pradesh, both of which extended their fullest co-operation.

4 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (i)

I. INTRODUCTION

Mr. Mazharuddin Ahmed (Deputy Chief Conservator of Forests)

met me on my arrival in Hyderabad on November 17, 1966, and kindly

accompanied and assisted me throughout my 6-day tour in Andhra

Pradesh. We travelled by car to Hanamkonda, 90 miles north-east of

Hyderabad, and there met Mr. M.S. Khan (Warangal Circle Conservator

of Forests) and other Government and Forest Department officers for

that area. We discussed at length the wild life of Andhra Pradesh, the

problems confronting these valuable resources and the possibility, through

intensive management, of the State’s wild life becoming a tourist attrac-

tion and a major source of revenue.

II. THE PAKHAL WILD LIFE SANCTUARY

INTRODUCTION

Pakhal Lake is situated in a beautiful forest setting 28 miles east of

Hanamkonda (Warangal) in the Narsampet Taluk of Warangal District.

An area of almost 350 square miles surrounding the lake was declared a

wild life sanctuary in 1953. However, apart from the prohibition of

legal shooting, this area has been a sanctuary in name only. Forest

produce of all types has been extensively exploited and domestic livestock

grazing has been permitted throughout most of the area. Much of the

sanctuary has been severely overgrazed. In addition, encroachment or

settlement and cultivation by villagers inside the sanctuary has continued

almost completely unabated. To remedy this situation, the Forest

Department presently proposes that a 75-square-mile area, including the

8°07 square-mile Pakhal Lake and the adjacent forest areas, be constituted

and preserved as a true wild lifesanctuary. Inshort, the Forest Depart-

ment now proposes to maintain this unit as a real ‘Sanctum Sanctorum’.

Pakhal Lake was formed by the construction of an earthen dam

during the Kakatiya Dynasty in the early 1600’s. The dam was renovated

by the Public Works Department (P.W.D.) in 1918 and the lake presently

provides water for the irrigation of almost 9000 acres of fertile agricultural

land to the south-west. The forest areas surrounding the lake served as

a hunting reserve for the Nizam when Hyderabad was a princely state.

The area was then renowned for its numerous tigers, as well as for large

mammals such as chital, sambar, blackbuck, nilgai, four-horned antelope

and chinkara. In 1948, shortly after Independence, this area came

under the jurisdiction of the Government of India and the Forest Depart-

ment.

The preservation and management of Pakhal as an inviolate wild life

sanctuary will fulfill a multi-purpose objective. First, it will help to

WILD LIFE SURVEYS IN SOUTH AND WEST INDIA 5

preserve a part of India’s unique and once vast, but now fast disappearing,

wild life heritage. In turn, through proper management, the sanctuary

should shortly become a notable tourist attraction and a valuable

economic asset both to the State and to the Nation. Also of importance,

the catchment areas surrounding the lake will now be protected, thus

helping to prevent erosion of the forest slopes and ensuring a stable

water supply for the agricultural lands of Warangal District.

All forest exploitation, including the grazing of domestic livestock,

will be excluded from the proposed 75-square-mile “ L-shaped’ sanc-

tuary as of April 1967 (Map 1). The sanctuary will also be clearly

demarcated from surrounding areas by clear-felling and maintaining an

approximately 50-foot-wide boundary line along the perimeter. A single

road enters the sanctuary near the forest rest house and bisects it south

of the lake. Entrance into and activities within the sanctuary should

therefore be quite easily controlled by a relatively small Forest Depart-

ment staff.

Three small forest villages inside of the proposed sanctuary (Durgarum,

Dabirpet, and Timmapur), with a total population of less than 300

people, will be resettled elsewhere on Forest Department lands. A

number of villages north and east of Pakhal Lake were too large to permit

such action. Therefore, they will be excluded from the sanctuary by

the boundary line. Initially the exclusion from the sanctuary of almost

4000 head of livestock from these villages may present some difficulties.

However, there are sufficient grazing lands available for these animals

either in the immediate vicinity of the villages or in Forest Department

lands south and east of the sanctuary. There is no justifiable reason

why domestic livestock should not be completely and permanently ex-

cluded from the entire sanctuary. Such problems should be met and

permanently settled as soon as possible.

ECOLOGY

The Pakhal Wild Life Sanctuary is located at an elevation of 850 feet

above sea-level. There are no perennial streams in the area. However,

the lake, which attains a maximum depth of 18 feet, is fed by a number of

ephemeral streams. Rainfall is monsoonal (June-September) and the

average annual precipitation is about 40 inches (1000 mm.). The maxi-

mum temperature during summer (March-June) is 114°0° F. (45°5° C.)

and the minimum during winter (November-February) is 59°20 F.,

(ia; 1° C.).

Flora

The forests in the sanctuary area, according to Champion’s classifi-

cation, are of the southern dry mixed deciduous type and their density

6 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

varies from 5 to 7. The forest height is generally from 30 to 40 feet,

but along the ravines or nullahs the trees often attain a height of about

60 feet.

The predominant species of trees are : maddi (Terminalia tomentosa),

tirman (Anogeissus latifolia) and nalla kodsha (Cleistanthus collinus).

Also common are: anduk (Boswellia serrata), billu (Chloroxylon swietenia),

' tooki (Diospyros choloroxylon), sundra (Acacia sundra), tapsi (Sterculia

urens) and kondagogu (Cochlospermum religiosum). Teak (Tectona

grandis) is common in some parts of the sanctuary and numerous other _

tree species are relatively common in others. Theega moduga (Butea

superba) and parki (Acacia caesia) are the most common climbers. There

are very few shrubs or bushes in the area.

Fauna

Numerous species of birds were observed during my brief visit.

Among the more obvious noted were: peafowl, grey junglefowl, both

grey and painted partridge, ring doves, green pigeon, mynas, babblers,

egrets, grey hornbills, roseringed and blossomheaded parakeets, cormo-

rants, herons, Indian rollers and woodpeckers, as well as many smaller

species. Other animals observed or reported to inhabit the sanctuary

and a relative index as to their abundance is given in Table 1. Gaur or

Indian ‘bison’ (Bos gaurus) are not found in the sanctuary, but are

common in the forests of the Salvai and Pasra ranges approximately

5 miles to the north-west. Among the fish that inhabit Pakhal Lake are

‘katla’ (Catla catla), ‘rohu’ (Labeo rohita) and‘ marul’ (Ophice-

phalus striatus).

VISITOR FACILITIES AND FOREST DEPARTMENT PROPOSALS

The nearest commercial airport to the Pakhal Wild Life Sanctuary

is at Hyderabad (Begumpet), 118 miles to the south-west. Flights from

other major cities in India arrive there daily. There is also an airstrip

at Mannoor, about 30 miles from the sanctuary near Warangal. Private

or chartered planes may land there by special permission. Railway

stations are located at Kazipet (Warangal), which adjoins Hanamkonda,

and at Nekkonda, which is 20 miles from Pakhal. Public transport

can be taken from either of these places to the sanctuary. The first

21 miles of road from Hanamkonda to Pakhal is blacktopped and the

last 7 miles is a good metalled road. Although the sanctuary is readily

accessible by car throughout the year, the best season for visitors is

from October until March.

There are presently less than 10 miles of forest roads within the

proposed sanctuary. However, the Forest Department proposes to

build a ‘ringroad’ around the lake, as well as ‘feeder’ roads to

J. Bompay nat. Hist. Soc. 65 (1) oe PrAte |

Spillett : Wild Life Surveys

Above : Pakhal Lake as seen from the Sarovihar Rest House; Below: A male

four-horned antelope.

(Photos ; Author)

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WILD LIFE SURVEYS IN SOUTH AND WEST INDIA 7

six watchtowers in the interior of the sanctuary, by the end of 1971. In

addition to the road that now bisects the sanctuary south of the lake,

the ringroad will entail the construction of another 15 miles of road.

The feeder roads leading to the watchtowers will average about 2 miles

each. Artificial salt licks also will be constructed in the vicinity of the

watchtowers. These improvements should permit visitors to view wild

life, particularly during the summer when the animals are concentrated

around Pakhal Lake which is the only available source of water during

the dry season. The Forest Department also plans to provide a jeep

and to have a riding elephant stationed at the forest rest house for the

use of visitors.

Pakhal Lake has the potential of becoming a noted fishing area, as

well as a recreational site for boating, camping, and picnicking. The

Forest Department presently has a row-boat stationed at the lake for the

use of visitors and plans to have a motor-boat available in the near future.

Some forest areas adjoining the lake, particularly the area just below the

dam, are excellent picnic sites and their development as such should be

considered.

There are two rest houses within the sanctuary. Both have magnifi-

cent views of Pakhal Lake and are located along its shores. One (Saro-

vihar) is located across the dam on the western shore. It has four suites

and is presently under the control of the Tourist Department (Directorate

of Publicity and Information), but should come under the jurisdiction

of the Forest Department during the early part of 1967. A cook and

modern conveniences, such as electricity provided by a small generator,

are available here. The other rest house is located about a half-mile

south of Sarovihar, a short distance from where the road from Hanam-

konda enters the sanctuary. This Forest Department Rest House has

three suites, but presently is not provided with modern conveniences.

The Forest Department proposes to renovate the building and to provide

the services of both a cook and an electric generator priorto 1968. Infor-

mation concerning the sanctuary or reservations for accommodations

can be obtained from either the Divisional Forest Officer, Mahbubabad,

Warangal District, or from the Chief Conservator of Forests in Hydera-

bad.

The most important of the Forest Department’s proposals are the

strict prohibition of domestic livestock grazing and the discontinuation

of forest operations, including the collection of minor forest produce,

inside the sanctuary. Plans for clearly demarcating the sanctuary and

providing amenities for visitors, i.e., accommodation, roads, transpor-

tation, and so forth, are also noteworthy. Among other improvements

envisioned are: the provision of six watch-towers near artificial salt licks,

road blocks to control movements inside the sanctuary, the construction

of quarters for the sanctuary staff, the provision of a library on wild life

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

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WILD LIFE SURVEYS IN SOUTH AND WEST INDIA 9

in one of the rest houses, and the purchase of equipment which will better

enable members of the sanctuary staff to perform their duties, 1.e., a type-

writer, binoculars, bicycles for the Assistant Game Wardens and Game

Trackers, etc. A detailed working plan and budget for the implemen-

tation of the proposals and for the maintenance of the sanctuary staff

has already been submitted to the State Government by the Forest

Department.

DISCUSSION

The scenic beauty of Pakhal Lake in its sylvan setting is sufficient

grounds for setting this area apart as a park or recreational site. The

wild life may be classified as an added attraction. Although relatively

few wild mammals were observed during my visit, their numbers should

soon increase if the proposed measures to prohibit all livestock grazing

and forest exploitation inside the sanctuary are fully implemented. The

possibilities are very good that within a few years visitors may readily

observe numerous animals such as chital, nilgai, sambar, and so on.

It is to be hoped that in the implementation of the measures proposed

by the Forest Department the sanctuary will be retained in as natural a

state as possible ; that an excessive number of roads will not be cons-

tructed ; that the areas surrounding the rest houses or the quarters of

the administrative staff will not be permitted to become virtual villages

within the sanctuary ; and that the recommendations of the Indian

Board for Wild Life (Gee 1962) and other international organizations

concerned with conservation will be carefully considered and as closely

adhered to as possible in the development of this outstanding area.

Administrative personnel for the Pakhal Wild Life Sanctuary should

be carefully chosen. Men witha genuine interest in wild life conservation

should be given preference. If at all possible, the staff members should

also become acquainted with some of the basic concepts of wild life

management. Once the basic amenities for visitors are available at the

sanctuary, a publicity programme should be initiated to help as many

people as possible become aware of what this area has to offer. A conti-

nued programme of conservation education should also be maintained.

Competent biologists should be encouraged to conduct scientific studies

of the sanctuary’s wild life. Check-lists of the flora and fauna should

also be compiled, both for the information of visitors and the Forest

Department staff. A visitor’s book should be maintained so that all who

enter the sanctuary may record their observations concerning the sanc-

tuary’s wild life.

A wild life sanctuary is an investment in the future. Like any sound

business it requires a capital outlay, upkeep, and proper management

before a substantial return may be realized. In my opinion, the present

proposals of the Forest Department are a major step in the right direction,

10 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

III. THE ETURNAGARAM WILD LIFE SANCTUARY |

INTRODUCTION

A 310-square mile area 40 miles north of Hanamkonda in the Warangal

Forest Division, Warangal District, was constituted in 1953 by the

Government of the State of Hyderabad as the Eturnagaram Wild Life

Sanctuary. This extensive area covers the entire forest blocks of Chittal

and Tadvai. The Godavari River forms the eastern boundary of the

sanctuary and the other three sides are demarcated by boundary lines

through the forests. However, similar to the situation in the Pakhal

Wild Life Sanctuary, little more has been done for the protection or

management of the Sanctuary’s wild life than to prohibit legal shooting.

Extensive forest exploitation, domestic livestock grazing and other

activities have been and are presently being practiced inside the sanctuary.

There are 44 villages, with a total cattle population of almost 10,000 head,

in Eturnagaram. In addition, a few professional graziers also operate

in this area. In spite of these many activities, many parts of the sanctuary

are still relatively little spoiled by man and provide prime wild life

habitat.

Itis presently proposed by the Forest Department that the Eturnagaram

Wild Life Sanctuary be reduced in size to a more manageable unit. This

would consist of an approximately 150-square-mile area, the Tadvai

Forest Block, south of the Laknavaram River. The Laknavaram would

then form both the northern and western boundaries of the sanctuary

and the Godavari River the eastern boundary. The Tadvai Reserved

Forest would adjoin the sanctuary to the south (Map 2). The Chittal

Forest Block north of the Laknavaram is relatively inaccessible, parti-

cularly during the monsoon season. It also contains a larger number

of forest villages than does the Tadvai Block. The main road from

Hanamkonda passes through the Tadvai Block and the sanctuary’s

three forest rest houses are located along this road. Therefore, it appears

that the Forest Department is wise in attempting to concentrate their

efforts in the preservation and management of this more restricted area ~

as a true wild life sanctuary, rather than to retain a more extensive area

as a wild life sanctuary in name only.

ECOLOGY

The Eturnagaram Wild Life Sanctuary is located at an elevation of

about 251 feet above sea-level. Although there are a number of ephemeral

streams inside the sanctuary, the Godavari and Laknavaram rivers are

the only source of perennial water. Rainfall is monsoonal (June-Septem-

ber). Data as to the average annual precipitation, and maximum and

ETURNAGARAM WILD LIFE SANCTUARY

WARANGAL FOREST DIVISION

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Map 2. General Map of the Eturnagaram Wild Life Sanctuary, Andhra

Pradesh. It is presently proposed that the sanctuary be

reduced in size to include only the Tadvai Forest

Block south of the Laknavaram River.

WILD LIFE SURVEYS IN SOUTH AND WEST INDIA 11

minimum temperatures for this area are not available. However, the

more luxuriant vegetation indicates that Eturnagaram receives more

rainfall than does Pakhal, even though it is only about 30 air miles

away.

Flora

The forests of Eturnagaram are classified as southern dry mixed

deciduous, the same as for Pakhal, but they are more dense and have an

average height of 40 to 60 feet. Second and third class teak, maddi and

tirman are the predominant tree species in Eturnagaram. In contrast,

teak is relatively uncommon in most parts of Pakhal. The proportion

of other tree species, such as anduk, billu, sundra, tapsi, and so forth,

are more or less the same for the two areas. However, the undercover

is more dense in Eturnagaram and Dendrocalamus Strictus predominates.

Fauna

In general, animal life (including birds, mammals, and reptiles) is

similar for both Pakhal and Eturnagaram Wild Life Sanctuaries. How-

ever, large mammals are presently more abundant and more readily

seen in Eturnagaram. Also, gaur are common in Eturnagaram while

absent in Pakhal, and blackbuck are probably absent in Eturnagaram

but present in Pakhal. Little is known concerning the species of fish in

the Godavari and Laknavaram Rivers in the vicinity of Eturnagaram.

We observed fair numbers of sambar, chital, and nilgai during the

afternoon and evening of November 19. The presence of gaur was also

very much in evidence. The following morning the Forest Department

conducted a beat or haka along the western edge of the sanctuary. We

arose prior to 4 o’clock in the morning and quietly took our positions

as ‘counters’ in machans along a cleared line through the forest.

At dawn, over 500 men (some 450 villagers + 50 Forest Department

personnel) moved systematically through a one-square-mile forest area.

‘Stoppers’ had been placed at strategic locations along the sides and

the 19 ‘counters’ recorded the animals that crossed the cleared line

to the right of their machans. The operation was the third conducted

in this area during the past four years. Such checks give an indication

of trends in wild life populations and should be repeated at yearly inter-

vals. Everything was well-planned and executed. The total count for

large mammals in this square mile was : 1 barking deer, 8 chital, 5 sambar,

1 male gaur, and 2 sloth bear.

VISITOR FACILITIES

The city nearest to the Eturnagaram Wild Life Sanctuary is Hanam-

konda, 40 miles south of the western boundary. The nearest railway

Station is at Kazipet (Warangal) adjoining Hanamkonda. The road from

12 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

Hanamkonda to the western edge of the sanctuary is black-topped and the

P.W.D. road, which crosses the southern part of the sanctuary to the

Eturnagaram Forest Rest House, is metalled. There are an additional

10 or 12 miles of metalled roads inside the sanctuary, as well as an

estimated 160 miles of jeepable roads or cart tracks. At present the

only means of transport to or within the sanctuary is by private vehicle.

There are three rest houses in the Eturnagaram Sanctuary area.

Tadvai has one suite and Eturnagaram and Salvai each have two. In-

formation concerning the sanctuary or reservations for the forest rest

houses at Tadvai or Eturnagaram can be obtained from the Warangal

Divisional Forest Officer in Warangal. Salvai, as well as the Traveller’s

Bungalow with four suites and all facilities in Hanamkonda, is under the

jurisdiction of the P.W.D. Divisional Engineer in Warangal. In addition

to the rest houses at Eturnagaram, there are also residential quarters and

17 Forest Guard Stations for the sanctuary staff, which consists of a

Deputy Range Officer and 15 Forest Guards.

DISCUSSION

Eturnagaram has the potential of becoming an outstanding wild life

sanctuary. However, primarily due to its relatively inaccessible location

and the fact that there are no notable scenic or archaeological attractions

near-by, the immediate development of this area as a major tourist attrac-

tion probably should not be initiated at the present time by the Forest

Department. Nevertheless, immediate steps should be taken to preserve

and protect this area so that it may some day achieve its full potential

as one of India’s notable wild life sanctuaries. Such measures should

entail: the strict control of livestock grazing within the sanctuary ; if

possible, the forest villages inside the Tadvai Forest Block should be

relocated outside the sanctuary or at least settled or cultivated areas in

the sanctuary should be restricted to their present limits; that the sanc-

tuary staff be indoctrinated in the basic concepts of wild life conser-

vation and be made aware of the value of the wild life resources under

their jurisdiction ; and that existing facilities, ic. roads and rest houses,

be maintained and gradually improved. Also, if forest exploitation is

continued within the sanctuary, wild life should be carefully considered

in the Forest Department’s working plans. Wild life is an important

and integral part of the State’s forest resources and like the trees should

be managed for the greatest benefit for the greatest number of people in

thelongrun. Visitor books, as well as a record of wild life observations

by the staff, should be maintained in the sanctuary. Wild life studies

should be encouraged in this area and regular inventories or checks, such

as the ‘ hakas’ conducted during recent years, should be continued so

that the Forest Department will have a sound basis upon which to for-

mulate management plans, |

WILD LIFE SURVEYS IN SOUTH AND WEST INDIA 13

IV. OTHER WILD LIFE AREAS IN ANDHRA PRADESH

THE QAWAL WILD LIFE SANCTUARY

A 200-square-mile area in the Jannaram Forest Range, Mancherial

Division of Adilabad District, was declared a wild life sanctuary in June

1964. The nearest airport is at Hyderabad (Begumpet) 180 miles to the

north. The nearest railway station is at Mancherial, 40 miles to the

South-east. Regular scheduled buses are available from Mancherial to

the sanctuary. Forest rest houses are available at Jannaram and

Birsaipot. Information or reservations can be obtained from the

Jannaram Divisional Forest Officer in the Adilabad District. Although

I did not have the opportunity of visiting this sanctuary, it is reported

that tiger, leopard, sloth bear, wild boar, sambar, chital, barking deer,

nilgai, and blackbuck are among the animals that inhabit this area.

KOLLERU

Kolleru Lake in the West Godavari District, which is under the juris-

diction of the Public Works Department, is a notable area for water

birds. Of particular interest are the large concentrations of spotted-

billed or grey pelicans, as well as migratory waterfowl during the winter,

on or in the vicinity of this lake.

The pelicanry is situated between the towns of Ganapavaram and

Undiin West Godavari District. Itis 7 to 8 miles from Kolleru Lake.

December to February is the best season to visit the pelicanry.

Accommodation for visitors is available at Ganapavaram, Undi,

Akkivedu and Bhimavaram in the existing travellers’ bungalows.

THE POCHARAM WILD LIFE SANCTUARY

This sanctuary could be developed into a bird sanctuary. There is

a tank in the notified area and efforts are being made to develop it into

a bird sanctuary. Pocharam is in Medak District.

NEHRU ZOOLOGICAL PARK

The Nehru Zoological Park in Hyderabad is not, strictly speaking, a

wild life area. However, over 135 species of wild birds have been re-

corded during recent years within its 302-acre walled-in enclosure. Good

numbers of waterfowl may also be observed in the zoo’s ‘ bird sanctuary ’

during the migratory season. I also observed several free roaming

troops of bonnet macaques (Macaca radiata) within the zoo’s confines.

However, the large number of both endemic and exotic forms of animal

14. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (i)

life belonging to the garden deserves mention. To a great extent these

animals are housed in modern enclosures, rather than in cages.

The zoological park is supervised by the Forest Department. AlI-

though it was started only recently in 1959 and is still in the develop-

mental stages, it already presents a notable collection of animals. The

setting is unique. A 13,200-foot solid masonry wall encloses a beauti-

ful desert scrub forest and on one end abuts the Miralam Tank, a 400-

acre lake formed by an arched masonry dam built in 1806. Added

attractions include : a swimming pool, boat, elephant, camel, goat cart

and pony rides ; a house-boat available for parties on the lake and two

well-furnished guest houses overlooking the lake. Reservations for the

house-boat or guest houses may be made through the Curator stationed

in the park.

V. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I wish to thank Mr. P. S. Rao (Chief Conservator of Forests) and the

Forest Department for their assistance and gracious hospitality during

my brief tour of some of the notable wild life areas in Andhra Pradesh.

Particularly I am grateful to Messrs. Mazharuddin Ahmed (Deputy Chief

Conservator of Forests), M. S. Khan (Warangal Circle Conservator of

Forests), A. V. R. G. Krishnamurthy (Karimnagar East Divisional

Forest Officer), P. Kumar (Curator, Nehru Zoological Park), as well as

to other Forest Department personnel too numerous to mention indi-

vidually. Without exception all were very hospitable, patiently answered

my numerous questions, and attempted to give me a true picture of the

status of the wild life in the areas under their jurisdiction.

VI. REFERENCES

Geez, E. P. (1962): The Management National Parks. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

of India’s Wild Life Sanctuaries and Soc. 59 (2) : 453-466.

Wild Life in Gujarat State’

J. JUAN SPILLETT

(With four plates and two maps)

I. INTRODUCTION a, 3% me se Mid 6

II. THE Gir WILD LIFE SANCTUARY ... ae te we Vel 7

Introduction ai oe fe se SHEET:

Ecology.. ae ay unt AE fe 17

Flora Le a ae at m1 7118

Fauna ah SP 34 1), eo

Visitor Facilities .. i of: ov Ee 19

Discussion a: a ui he Neo |

Livestock Grazing Ee at i Tea S

Forest Exploitation ts ae at See ae a:

Poaching Mir Bt 5 of AGL WL BAP de

Fire Fe a; a: ne Sta THOT.

Wild Life Management .. a i area Ie |

III. THE WILD ASSES OF THE LITTLE RANN OF KUTCH e fee 30

Introduction aS a a ate se OO

The Little Rann... e: as = Stora

Vegetation ee Me ay igs ppd ie 9

Fauna A wn ne ms acta ite 6

The Indian Wild Ass * a; he pe Sa

Description .. “fe Ae a ae ag

Group Size .. a ws ms Brae |)

Populations .. ie ay ie a hie (5

Disease ie ay ed = eee eT)

Human influence es As, ae SO

Discussion and Recommendations Be oH bers. |

IV. THE GREAT INDIAN BUSTARD ie cs at mah 92

Introduction By aps He * ve 42

The Great Indian Bustard As bie ie, o> 42

V. NAL SAROVAR en oe BG os a: .. 44

VI. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .. Ate ae oe: ee

VII. REFERENCES ie re . - is... 46

_ 4This survey was officially sponsored by the World Wildlife Fund, Morges,

Switzerland. The project was also assisted by The Johns Hopkins University and its

enter for Medical Research and Training, Calcutta, India, and Baltimore, Maryland

(U.S.A.). Mr. E. P. Gee, member of the Indian Board for Wild Life, made the necessary

arrangements with the Government of India and the Forest Department of Gujarat,

both of which extended the fullest co-operation.

ié JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (i)

TABLES

Table 1. Names of some of the mammals inhabiting the Gir Wild Life Sanc-

tuary, Gujarat : De a2

Table 2. Indian Wild Asses observed in the Little Rann of Kutch in December

1966 Aas ae st be 502 36

I INTRODUCTION

The State of Gujarat in north-western India comprises three geogra-

phical regions : (1) the Kathiawar Peninsula, jutting out into the Arabian

Sea and traditionally known as Saurashtra ; (2) Kutch, the lowlands in

the north bordering West Pakistan and Rajasthan, including the barren

desert wastes of the Little and Great Ranns; and (3) the mainland of

Gujarat, between the rivers Banas and Damanganga. Typical natural

vegetation for most of the State is desert scrub. The Gir Forest, a dry

deciduous stunted or scrub forest of relatively little commercial value, is

the only extensive forest area in this part of Gujarat. Annual rainfall

varies between 25 and 50 inches (65-127 cm.) for most of the State. The

arid zones of Surendranagar and north Gujarat receive even less.

Mountainous regions are comparatively lacking, although steep, barren

and rocky hills dominate the skyline in many parts. |

Relatively little wild life is presently found in Gujarat. However,

the State has the distinction of harbouring three extremely rare faunal

species. The Gir Forest in the Junagadh District, is the last stronghold

of the Asiatic Lion [Panthera leo persica (Meyer)]. The Indian Wild

Ass (Equus hemionus khur Lesson) is almost completely restricted to the

Little Rann of Kutch. The Great Indian Bustard (Choriotis nigriceps

Vigors) was formerly distributed throughout most of the Indian Union,

but now appears to be restricted to a few isolated areas in Gujarat and

neighbouring States. In addition, the Great Rann of Kutch is the only

known nesting ground in India of the Flamingo (Phoenicopterus roseus

Pallas).

The last ‘ census’ of the Gir lions was conducted in 1963. At that

time the total population was determined to be about 285 lions.

Mr. E. P. Gee undertook a survey in 1962 to determine the status of the

Indian Wild Ass. He then estimated a total population of 870 asses,

of which all but about 10 permanently resided in the Little Rann. The

Great Indian Bustard is extremely rare and apparently on the verge of

extinction. Facts concerning its present or even recent distribution and

numbers are not available.

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WILD LIFE SURVEYS IN SOUTH AND WEST INDIA 17

II. THE GIR WILD LIFE SANCTUARY =

INTRODUCTION

The Gir Forest covers an area of over 500 square miles (1,334 sq.

km.) in the centre of the Kathiawar Peninsula of Gujarat. Over 480

square miles (313,459 acres) of Reserved Forest were officially designated

as the Gir Wild Life Sanctuary in September 1965 (Agriculture and Co-

operation Department, Notification No. GH-KH/97-WLP/660/62848-P,

Sachivalaya, Ahmedabad, 18 Sept. 1965).

Besides being the only extensive forest tract in this part of Gujarat, the

Gir is particularly noted for being the last stronghold of the Asiatic

Lion. Lions appear to have ranged over the whole of Central Europe

in prehistoric times. During historical times they were spread from

Greece and Palestine, throughout the Middle East, including

Mesopotamia, Persia, and Baluchistan. In India they inhabited practi-

cally the whole of the northern and central parts of the country, extend-

ing from Sind to Bengal and from the Ganges and Indus to the banks

of the Narbada. During the early 1800’s they were still abundant in

many parts of India, but by the latter part of the century were only

sporadically reported from a few areas in northern and western India.

It appears that by the early part of the 20th century most of the few

Asiatic Lions that remained were confined to the vicinity of the Gir Forest.

Measures were finally taken to halt the indiscriminate slaughter of the

lion. Asa result, their numbers have gradually increased until presently

it is claimed that there are about 285 in the Gir Sanctuary.

Rather than keep all their ‘ lions in one basket’ the Forest Depart-

ment captured three specimens (one male and 2 females) and released

them in the Chakia Forest south-east of Banaras in Uttar Pradesh in 1957.

This is within the precincts of the Chandraprabha Wild Life Sanctuary

and was reported to be a favourable area for the re-introduction of the

lion. Although this attempt did not prove as fruitful as was expected,

there are reliable reports of lion being sighted in this area as late as the

fall of 1966 and the transplant may yet prove successful.

ECOLOGY

The terrain of the Gir Wild Life Sanctuary consists of steep, rocky

hills with deep ravines or nullahs. The maximum elevation is 1741 feet

above mean sea-level. The primary sources of perennial water are the

Hiran, Singoda, Ardak, Machhundra and Rawal rivers. The Hiran

passes near the Forest Bungalow at Sasan and the Raval is located in the

southern part of the sanctuary. In addition, a number of scattered

water-holes provide water during much of the year. These are located

i8 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (i)

along the rocky nullahs, which serve as watercourses for the numerous

ephemeral streams. Wells and water troughs have been provided in

many parts of the sanctuary by the graziers for their livestock. In 1958

the Kamleshwar Dam was constructed across the Hiran River several

miles upstream from Sasan. This normally impounds a several square

mile lake, but was practically dry during my visit.

The average annual rainfall in the Gir is normally about 35 inches

(889 mm.). However, only 20 inches of precipitation were recorded dur-

ing 1965 and 17 inches during 1966. Rainfall is monsoonal and, although

somewhat irregular, the rains generally begin in early July and end by

late October. Occasional showers often occur in January and February,

but at least six months of the year are usually completely dry. The

maximum and minimum temperatures are 106°F. and 46°F. in May

and January respectively. However, temperatures of over 100°F.

(37°8°C.) are common during the summer (April-July) and minimum

temperatures during the winter (November-March) rarely drop below

55 ol ey),

Flora

The Gir is predominantly a dry mixed deciduous forest. Near the

extremities it becomes an open thorny scrub type, comparable to the

vegetation in many desert areas of the State. Teak-(Tectona grandis),

‘although poor in size and quality, accounts for over 50 per cent of the

tree stand on the better soils. Babul (Acacia arabica) is also abundant

‘and probably accounts for about 25 per cent of the total tree growth.

Other species present include : sadad (Terminalia tomentosa), behda (T.

belerica), tendu or timru (Diospyros melanoxylon), haldu (Adina cordifolia),

sissam (Dalbergia sissoo), khair (Acacia catechu), karanj (Pongamia

pinnata), siris (Albizzia lebbek), krangsa (A. procera), mahuda (Madhuca

indica), anvla (Phyllanthus emblica), aritha (Sapindus emarginata), gar-

mala (Cassia fistula), jamun (Syzygium cumini), khakra (Butea monos-

perma), kudi (Wrightia tinctoria), aal (Morinda tinctoria), salie (Boswellia

serrata) and some patches of bamboo (Dendrocalamus strictus) in moist

areas along the nullahs. Also,-a few Eucalyptus have been planted by

the Forest Department. There are few climbers, but thorny bushes

or shrubs are commonly intermingled with the trees. These consist

primarily of Acacia spp., ber (Z Peas mauratiana), guggal (Core

mukul), and so forth.

The trees in the Gir Forest, with very few exceptions, lose their leaves

during the dry season (December-July). The scattered * Flame of the

Forest’ or khakra (Butea monosperma), simul or semal (Bombax ceiba,

formerly Bombax malabaricum), and kadaya. or karaya-(Sterculia urens)

are then particularly evident because oftheir bright red blossoms, wee

contrast markedly with the stark-absence of leaves. :

WILD LIFE SURVEYS IN SOUTH AND WEST INDIA 19

Fauna

Bird life is abundant in the Gir Sanctuary and most of the species

found here are ably described in K. S. Dharmakumarsinhji’s book BIRDS

OF SAURASHTRA (1955). Among the more obvious birds observed during

my short visit were : Bonelli’s eagle, crested hawk eagle, white scavenger

vulture, whitebacked vulture, Indian pond heron or paddy bird, Indian

black ibis, common grey partridge or francolin, Indian roller, cattle

egret, wood sandpiper, redwattled lapwing, Indian roseringed parakeet

(nest in the Forest Bungalow), Indian spotted dove, peafowl, common

green bee-eater, hoopoe, blackheaded cuckoo-shrike, Dharmakumars’

small minivet, drongo, Indian brownbacked robin, Indian magpie robin,

redbreasted flycatcher, Jungle crow, treepie, jungle babbler, redvented

bulbul, pied bushchat, yellowheaded wagtail and common myna.

Reptiles present in the Gir Sanctuary include ; common cobra (Naja

naja), Indian python (Python molurus), monitor (Varanus sp.), mugger

(Crocodilus palustris), as well as undetermined species of lizards and

turtles. A number of small species of fish were also observed in the

Hiran River, but none of these would be of importance either commer-

cially or for sport.

Mr. P. K. Pandya, the Tourist Department Receptionist at Junagadh,

has been conducting tours to the Gir since January 1964. During his

numerous visits to the sanctuary he has observed many species of

mammals and has become acquainted with their local or gujarati names.

With his aid a table was compiled listing the mammals of the Gir Wild

Life Sanctuary and their local names (Table 1). _

VISITOR FACILITIES

The nearest airport to the Gir Wild Life Sanctuary is at Keshod, 42

miles (67 km.) by jeepable road north-west of the Forest Bungalow at

Sasan. A better road is via Veraval, 61 miles. Four flights per week

(Sunday, Tuesday, Thursday, and Saturday) arrive at Keshod from

Bombay. Transportation to Sasan and return may be arranged by prior

notification to the Sanctuary Superintendent. Sasan may also be reached

by overnight metre-guage train from Ahmedabad, via Khijadia Station.

The railway station at Sasan is only several hundred yards from the Forest

Bungalow. Regularly scheduled Tourist Department tours of the sanc-

tuary may likewise be takenfrom Junagadh, approximately 50 miles north

of Sasan via Mendarda.

' The Forest Bungalow at Sasan has 16 double rooms and modern

facilities, including electricity. Both food and lodging are provided at

nominal fees. A dormitory that can accommodate up to 40 people was

added recently to the facilities at Sasan. Reservations for food and/or

lodging at Sasan and transportation to and within the sanctuary should.

20 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (i)

be made by writing to the Sanctuary Superintendent in Sasan-Gir at

least two weeks prior to arrival. Two vehicles are presently provided

TABLE 1

NAMES OF SOME OF THE MAMMALS INHABITING THE GIR WILD LIFE SANCTUARY,

GUJARAT

English Local or Gujarati Scientific

Common Langur Vandara Presbytis entellus

Asiatic Lion Untia Bagh (camel tiger) Panthera leo persica

Sinha (male)

Sinhan (female)

Leopard or Panther Dipado (male) Dipadi Panthera pardus

. (female)

Jungle Cat Bilado (male) Felis chaus

Biladi (female)

Small Indian Civet Vaniyar Viverricula indica

Common Mongoose Noliyo Herpestes edwardsi

Striped Hyena Jarakh Hyaena hyaena

Wolf Varu Canis lupus pallipes

Jackal Siyal Canis aureus

Indian Fox : Lonkadi Vulpes bengalensis

Ratel or Honey Badger Ghorkhodiya Mellivora capensis

Five-striped Palm Squirrel Khisakoli Funambulus pennanti

Indian Porcupine Shahudi Hystrix indica

Indian Hare Sasalu Lepus nigricollis

Chinkara or Indian Gazelle §Shikara Gazella gazella

Blackbuck or Indian Antelope Kaliyar Antilope cervicapra

Four-horned Antelope or Ghatudu Tetracerus quadricornis

Chousingha

Nilgai or Bluebull Rose (male) Rasadi (female) Boselaphus tragocamelus

Sambar Sabar Cervus unicolor

Chital or Spotted Deer Tipkivalaharan Axis axis

Indian Wild Boar Suvar Sus scrofa

Indian Pangolin Salvo Manis crassicaudata

for the use of visitors. Most of the sanctuary’s 300 miles of roads are

metalled and are maintained by the Forest Department. Although the

sanctuary can usually be reached throughout the year, travel sometimes

becomes difficult on these fair-weather roads during the monsoon (July-

October). Crossing on some of the ravines or nullahs become parti-

cularly uncertain. A tar road leads from Veraval to Talala, 14 miles

south of Sasan, as well as from Junagadh to Veraval via Keshod. The

next closest tar road ends at Mendarda, 24 miles north-west of Sasan.

The best season for visitors to the Gir is from January until May.

Weather conditions are rather uncertain during June. Although good

weather can generally be expected during November and December,

because of the high grass and dense undergrowth, the animals are usually

rather difficult to observe during these months. The best time to see the

maximum number of wild animals is during the dry season. However,

temperatures from April until the monsoon breaks in late June or early

July often exceed 100°F. (38°C.).

WILD LIFE SURVEYS IN SOUTH AND WEST INDIA 21

The ‘ lion shows ’ are the outstanding attraction in the Gir Sanctuary.

These are scheduled for a minimum fee of Rs. 80 per group of from 1 to 8

visitors. Each additional person is charged Rs. 10. On the second

Sunday of each month the fee is Rs. 10 per person, regardless of the

number of visitors in the party. Prior to July 1966 the minimum fee

was Rs. 150 per ‘ lion show’ for each group of 20 or part thereof. The

number of ‘lion shows’ presented to visitors increased from 192 in

1963 to 236 in 1964 and 292 in 1965. The number of visitors recorded

by the Forest Department varied from 3,645 for 1963-64 to 3,530 for

1964-65 and 4,377 for 1965-66. The decrease in 1964-65 can be attri-

buted to the Indo-Pakistani conflict. In all cases less than 10 per cent of

the total were foreigners. Tourist Department, tours from Junagadh

also brought over 2,000 Indian and 240 foreign visitors to the sanctuary

in 1965.

Twelve ‘shikaris’ are permanently employed in the Sanctuary to

track or locate lions for visitors. The ‘shikaris’ are assigned regular

beats and during the morning attempt to locate groups or prides of lions

within a 15-mile radius of Sasan. If necessary, they lead the lions with

a bait to an area more easily accessible to visitors. Then, during the

afternoon or early evening, they guide the visitors to the lions. The

‘ shikaris ’ are excellent trackers and claim to ‘know’ about 30 indi-

vidual lions within the vicinity of Sasan. These lions can usually be

observed and photographed by visitors on foot at distances of less than

50 feet.

The historic temple of Somnath near Veraval is of interest, as well

as the two near-by holy places of the Hindus—Bhalka Teerth and

Dehotsarga. The earthly remains of the most popular God of the

Hindus, Lord Krishna, were supposed to have been cremated here.

Three Hindu temples are also located in the Sanctuary. Satadhar is

approximately 16 miles north-east of Sasan. Kankai is about 17 miles

south-east. And Tulsishyam is also south-east about 50 miles. Free

board and lodging are reportedly provided for pilgrims to these shrines.

Forest Department personnel assigned to the Gir Wild Life Sanctuary

and charged with assisting and providing for the needs of visitors consist

of a Sanctuary Superintendent assisted by other officers and staff

totalling 42.

DISCUSSION

The Gir Wild Life Sanctuary presents one of the most interesting wild

life areas in India. Besides being the last stronghold of the Asiatic Lion

and the only extensive forest area in this part of Gujarat, its numerous

faunal forms are impressive and deserve major consideration. It is

true that some of the lions prey upon domestic livestock. However,

other wild animals, such as deer, antelope, and pig, form the basic food

Da JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

supply for the lion and without their presence in fair numbers the survival

of the lion would be highly jeopardized. Thus, the preservation of the

Gir lions entails the proper management of all the sanctuary’s wild life,

including the floral as well as faunal forms.

The 1965 Act which designated the major portion of the then Gir

Reserved Forest as a wild life sanctuary is highly commendable.. How-

ever, aS was recommended by the Indian Board for Wild Life in 1963,

it is hoped that shortly the Gir will be upgraded to the official status of a

national park. This action of merely converting the status of the

sanctuary would provide two basic advantages. First, a national park

necessitates an Act of the State Legislature and can only be unmade by

an Act of that legislature. On the other hand, a sanctuary can be formed

by a gazette notification and can as easily be unmade. Therefore, a

national park is much more immune to adverse changes in policies and to

political expediency. Second, designating an area as a national park

gives it greater prestige and indicates, particularly to foreign tourists,

that it is an area of national significance. The Gir has the potential of

being one of India’s outstanding national parks and this potential should

be realized as soon as possible.

The ideal faunal national park is as free as possible from foman

activities, such as settlements, cultivation, forest exploitation, livestock

grazing and so forth. These problems will be discussed briefly. How-

ever, it does not follow that because some of them are present in an area

it cannot become a national park.

Cultivation

The present human population within the confines of the Gir Wild

Life Sanctuary, in my opinion, is not excessive. Although located in the

Gir Forest, 3,000 acres belonging to the Dharmada Institution of

Tulsishyam and 863 acres pertaining to the villages of Sasan, Najanpur

Chhataria, Karasangadh and Gundiyah were excluded from the sanctuary

when it was established in 1965. Of the latter 863 acres, 87 pertain to

village sites and 776 are cultivated lands. These lands have been demar-

cated and are limited to their present size.

Major crops are cotton, millet, corn or maize, and wheat. The soils

in this region are rocky and for the most part can probably be classified

as submarginal agricultural lands. Therefore, there is little justifiable

reason to permit additional lands to be cleared for cultivation. If the

cultivated areas are strictly limited to their present confines, they should

not be a deterrent to the establishment of the Gir Sanctuary asa national

park. Probably of greater significance than cultivation are other

practises of the people within the sanctuary, such as the grazing of live-

stock, the use of “ crop protection ’ guns and the occasional use of poisons

or other means for killing lions and other wild life.

WILD LIFE SURVEYS IN SOUTH AND WEST INDIA Pie,

Livestock Grazing |

In addition to permanent village sites, temporary villages or camping

places called ‘nesses’ are common throughout the Gir Sanctuary.

Graziers or ‘ maldharis’ centre their extensive livestock grazing opera-

tions around these. Some of the sanctuary’s principal ‘ nesses’ are

Kansia, Sandhbeda, Devalia, Kapuria, Gadakia and Dedakdi.

Although their number is presently specified, they may be shifted from

- one site to another by permission of the Range Forest Officer.

It is estimated that there are over 500 families of ‘maldharis’ in the

Gir and that they graze over 15,000 head of livestock. Goats and sheep,

with the exception of a special permit for about 200 goats near Sasan, are

supposedly prohibited. However, I counted over 300 head in two flocks

west of Sasan. The number of cattle or buffalo is not specified. The

only requirement is that a very nominal grazing fee for adult animals (50

paise per adult buffalo and 25 paise per adult cow) must be paid to the

Forest Department. Young or immature animals are permitted free of

charge. There are no further restrictions as to the number of cattle or

buffalo that are grazed, as long as the grazing fees are paid.

Where there is good grazing for wild ungulates there is also good

grazing for domestic livestock. If domestic livestock grazing cannot

be excluded from an area dedicated to the preservation of wild life, then

the problem is to reconcile the two diverse objectives. This demands that

grazing be controlled and regulated under a policy of wise land use.

And, in most cases, this means a reduction in the number of domestic

animals. There were some areas observed in the Gir which appeared

to be almost completely untouched by domestic livestock. However,

almost RU exception, areas surrounding the permanent villages and

‘nesses’ were severely overgrazed for considerable distances into the

forest. The recent and prolonged drought is undoubtedly a factor to be

considered. Nevertheless, in any case the carrying capacity of the forage

should never be exceeded. Forage resources should be carefully and

periodically evaluated and measures then taken to ensure that the carry-

ing capacity is not surpassed by either domestic or wild ungulates.

When nature is abused she often retaliates with drastic actions.

Once choice lands throughout much of the world are now barren and

rocky deserts because of the abuses of man and his livestock. Parti-

cular care must be exercised in arid areas, such as the Gir Forest. Only

a year or two of excessive overgrazing in such areas may result in habitat

destruction that may take nature a century or more to repair—even with

complete protection.

Good forage conditions will result ; in better production of both milk

and work by domestic animals, as well as help to maintain the animals

‘in a healthy and vigorous condition. The incidence of diseases and

parasites in both domestic and wild animals likewise will be reduced.

24 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

Also, the maintenance of good numbers of wild ungulates will reduce the

number of domestic animals taken by lion. This in turn will reduce the

amount of compensation that the Forest Department has to pay to

villagers or ‘maldharis.’ Thus, Rs. 7000-8000 per year, paid for livestock

compensation during 1965, could be put to better use in developing the

sanctuary. In short, there is much to be gained through proper land

use, which includes the control of livestock numbers. But, literally all

can be lost if the present trend of ever increasing numbers of domestic

livestock is permitted to continue.

Forest Exploitation

Wild life is an integral part of any natural forest. As such it deserves

full consideration in all forest operations or exploitation. Forest

management involves wild life management and vice versa. Under

proper management both the forests and their wild life are managed so

as to provide the greatest benefits to all concerned over a sustained period

of time. Nevertheless, proper management will vary remarkably from

one area to another. For example, forest produce will rightfully receive

prior consideration in some areas, while wild life may be considered only

as a by-product. In other areas, particularly those set aside as wild life

sanctuaries or national parks, the wild life should receive major

consideration and the forests in many cases may not be exploited at all for

produce. Generally speaking, however, the relative values of forest

produce and wild life should be carefully considered. Then, in so far as

is possible, both should be managed-on a sustained yield basis.

The forests of the Gir Sanctuary are extensively exploited for produce.

Although very few of the trees have much commercial value for lumber,

they are utilized primarily for fire wood and small timber, which is used

for light construction. Selected * coupes’ are clear-felled and frequently

replanted with teak. Livestock grazing is prohibited for several years on

these recently cleared or teak plantation ‘coupes’, but grass cutting is

permitted on a contract basis. Minor forest produce is also of im-

portance and includes such items as wild fruits, soap nuts, “‘tendu’ leaf

(used instead of paper for rolling cigarettes), gums, wild honey and so

forth. These are usually collected on a permit basis by people living

in or near the sanctuary.

I feel that it is impractical and illogical to advocate the cessation of all

forest exploitation in the Gir Wild Life Sanctuary. However, the wild

life should receive major consideration and all forest exploitation should

be managed so as to interfere as little as possible with the function of the

area-as a wild life sanctuary.

It would be desirable if the Forest Department would demarcate and

maintain a fairly extensive area free from all forest exploitation, includ-

ing the grazing of domestic livestock. In other words, an inviolate

WILD LIFE SURVEYS IN SOUTH AND WEST INDIA Zz

‘Sanctum Sanctorum’, which would provide a refuge for wild animals

where they should be relatively immune to the disturbances of man.

Preferably, this would be within the vicinity of the Forest Bungalow at

Sasan. It would also permit visitors to view the unique wild life of this

region in almost a pristine setting.

Poaching

The extent to which poaching is a problem in the Gir Wild Life

Sanctuary is not known. It is difficult even to assess the severity of

violations in an area as complex as the Gir. First, the Gir covers over

500 square miles of steep rocky terrain. Then, there are over 300 miles

of roads within this area. These are used extensively as a thoroughfare

or for removing produce from the forest, as well as by local villagers with

their bullock carts and livestock. Thirdly, villages or ‘nesses’ are

distributed throughout the forest and ‘ maldharis’ and their livestock

are found almost everywhere. The Forest Department staff is limited.

Even if it were not, it would not be economically feasible continuously to

patrol this vast area. Complex as the situation is, practical measures

should still be as fully implemented as soon as possible to halt poaching

and other illegal activities in the Gir Sanctuary.

The sanctuary staff claims that the most common form of poaching

is from vehicles along the roads. Therefore, road blocks and periodic

inspections of all vehicles passing through or leaving the sanctuary, parti-

cularly at night, would probably help to check violations of this type.

Farmers within the sanctuary have ‘crop protection’ guns in their

possession. These villagers should be made to understand that these

guns are to be used only for their intended purpose and then only on

private lands. Even the carrying of arms in the sanctuary proper should

be considered as an offence. Likewise, except during the crop season,

the use of ‘ crop protection’ guns should be completely prohibited.

The use of pesticides or poisons by villagers to kill lion and other

carnivora has been greatly reduced by a livestock compensation policy.

Since 1964 the Forest Department has paid compensation for livestock

killed by lions. When an animal is killed under particular circumstances,

i.e., livestock must be corralled at night and accompanied by a herder

while in the forest during the daytime, the owner must report the incident

to the Forest Department. The Range Forest Officer must then inspect

the kill to ascertain that it is a bona fide claim and to assess the true value

of the animal. He then sends a claim to the Divisional Forest Officer,

who reimburses the villager or ‘ maldhari’ for his loss. The value of

animals killed is based upon their utility and is said to be about half of

what the owners generally claim. An average of between Rs. 250 and

300 per animal or a total of over Rs. 7000 was paid on claims during 1965.

All claims for livestock losses should be dealt with as fairly and as

26 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (1)

quickly as possible so that the former methods of predator control will

not be reverted to. The Forest Department should also work closely

with the Agriculture Department to ensure that toxic materials are not

indiscriminately distributed to villagers. Although the particulars were

not available, it was reported that there were two or three cases of

pesticides (including rat poison) being used to kill wild life in the Gir in

1965. There should be little reason for such incidents in the future if

villagers are made aware of the policy of remuneration and if claims are

justly dealt with. Nevertheless, precautions should be taken to ensure

that they do not arise. —

Three lion cubs were reported killed in. August 1966. It was

reported that villagers stoned and then drove their buffalo over the cubs,

but this could not be proved. Another report stated that only one lion

cub was killed. Therefore, the case could not be prosecuted. Laws

should always be practical and just. Then the common people should

be informed as to what the laws are, how they will benefit by abiding by

them and the punishment involved in their violation. When evidence is

sufficient, law breakers should also be prosecuted to the fullest extent

of the law so as to serve as a deterrent to future infringements.

Each of the 12 ‘ shikaris ’ or Game Keepers employed in the sanctuary

is provided with an ancient muzzle-loading rifle. . These arms are sup-

posedly for the protection of visitors. However, those which I inspected

probably provide little more than a false sense of security. These

weapons should either be completely discarded or replaced with modern

rifles that would effectively protect a visitor should, for some. reason, a

usually docile lion suddenly becomes violent.

Shots were heard on two occasions during my first visit to the Gir in

1965 and once in 1966. While investigating one of these a ‘ shikari’

came out of the bushes from which I had heard the shot. I was unable

to communicate with him and I never did determine whether or not it

was he that had fired the shot and if he had, for what purpose. T his,

however, raises a point. Muzzle-loaders use black powder, which is

quite readily obtainable. Cartridges, on the other hand, are carefully

controlled and accurate records of their sale are kept on file. Therefore,

if the Forest Department replaced their maa Meee with ede

arms, their use could easily be checked.

Leopards are relatively common in many parts of iB Gir. Although

only infrequently seen, they are reported to visit Sasan and other villages.

almost- nightly. © On the other hand, lions rarely enter the villages.

Leopards are also noted for being particularly fond of goats and dogs.

Concerning the latter, the villagers in Sasan claim that because of their

fear of. leopards the dogs i in the village take refuge at night either in the

houses or on the roofs. What advantage a dog ona roof would have as

compared to the climbing ability of a leopard I do not know. But I did

WILD LIFE SURVEYS IN SOUTH AND WEST INDIA. 27

observe that although there were numerous dogs around the village

during the daytime, they all seemed to disappear at night. This is rare

in Indian villages where dogs are commonly underfoot.no matter what

the time of day. The villagers further claimed that leopards are prob-

ably the greatest enemy of young lions and that lion cubs are killed by

leopards whenever they have the opportunity. If after careful investi-

gation this proves to be the case, the Forest Department in some cases

might be wise to control leopard numbers.

Fire

The Gir Forest is almost completely dry for at least six months of the

year. During this period fires often become a problem. The primary

sources of fire are sparks from the coal-burning trains, which pass

through the sanctuary, and villagers or ‘ maldharis ’, who sometimes set

fires with the belief that it will improve grazing conditions during the

coming year for their livestock. Some fires also appear to be accidental.

The only means presently available for bringing these fires under control

is the use of the sanctuary staff to fight them. An extensive area north

of Sasan had burned prior to my arrival. As a result, the ground was

completely barren and would not provide any forage or habitat what-

soever for either domestic or wild animals for at least another six months.

The Forest Department, during recent years, has wisely initiated a

controlled burning programme along the railroad right-of-way. This has

greatly reduced the number of fires from this source. Although almost

‘any burning in an area as arid as the Gir is undesirable, it is a matter of

limited burning under controlled conditions early in the season with

relatively few adverse effects versus the possibility of devastating and

extensive fires later. Villagers and ‘ maldharis ’ should be indoctrinated

as to the deleterious effects of burning and discouraged from setting

fires in the forest. Those that malici ously set fires should be ae ae

Wild Life Management

It has been demonstrated that it is ieptactivally dnpaesible to kiana

completely some animal species from their natural habitats so long as

they. are provided near ideal conditions in abundance—including food,

water, cover, and other necessities. Regretfully, the lion is not one of

these species. His behavioural and other characteristics make him

extremely vulnerable to modern man with the means of destruction

which he has at his command. The lion in his natural state had no

reason to fear any of the other animals. Asa result he did not develop

a secretive or silent attitude as is so common with many mammals.

He also found that ‘in unity there is strength’ and that his needs for

food could be more readily acquired with the assistance of others of his

kind. Thus he became a social animal and is only infrequently found

28 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

alone. However, both his lack of fear and his social nature in the

presence of man have helped to eliminate him from the greater part of

his former range. Nowthat man has shown his‘ prowess’ in eliminating

the lion from the whole of Europe and almost the whole of Asia, is it

not time that he showed his benevolence to the remnants of this great

beast? Without the aid and protection of man, the mere existence of

the lion is imperilled, even in its last remaining stronghold in Asia—the —

Gir Wild Life Sanctuary.

The management of wild life is critically dependent upon available

resources. Therefore, the first step in proper management in a wild life

sanctuary is usually a wild life inventory or census. This may be simply

a survey to discover what species are present in the area, regardless of

numbers. Or it may be an enumeration, as well as a determination of

the sex and age class composition of the species. The collection of such

data is dependent upon the availability of trained man-power.

Forest Department personnel assigned the responsibility of managing

a wild life sanctuary should be carefully selected. Only men with a

genuine interest in wild life should be chosen. If at all possible, they

should have at least some training in the basic concepts of the specialized

field of wild life management. Sanctuary staff members, particularly

senior members, should also be appointed for sufficient periods of time

so that they can become intimately acquainted with the wild life and the

problems in the areas under their jurisdiction. Likewise, they should

have sufficient time and authority to remedy the problems which they may ©

encounter and to initiate long-range improvement or management plans.

The present Sanctuary Superintendent in the Gir has been posted less

than a year and the Sanctuary Inspector just over a year. All too often

men are transferred to other positions before or shortly after they have

become oriented to the overall situation and prior to the time that they

have been able to make genuine contributions to the management of their

areas. Literature concerning wild life management should be made

available within the sanctuary and the staff encouraged to become

acquainted with it. The staff should also consult and work with wild

life experts whenever the opportunity arises.

According to Forest Department reports the total lion population of

the Gir was less than a dozen in the early 1900’s. However, according

to the Jam Sahib of Nawanagar, as reported by Gee (1964), the lowest

number was probably not less than 100. The shooting of lion was finally

prohibited in 1913, although official permits were still given to V.I.P.s

to shoot specified quotas of lions. Fortunately this custom has been

- stopped and lions, as well as all members of the deer family, are now

fully protected by the Government throughout Gujarat.

The first lion census in the Gir was conducted in 1936 and resulted

in a total count of 287 lions, Further censuses carried out in 1950, 1954,

J. BomBay NAT. Hist. Soc. 65 (1) Prane il

Spillett : Wild Life Surveys

Above: The “shikaris”’ in the Gir Wild Life Sanctuary claimed that this adult

male lion, whom they called “Bhuria” was about g years old ; Below - An adult

lioness ‘Mala Sinha”’ reported by the “‘shikaris’’ to be about 7 years old.

(Photos : Author)

J. Bompay NAT. Hist. Soc. 65 (1) Prate IIT

Spillett : Wild Life Surveys

° Pipa:

Above: A herd of Indian Wild Asses at the edge of the Little Rann Kutch ;

Below : Close-up of two Indian Wild Asses running at a speed of over 30 miles

per hour in the baked-mud surface of the Little Rann.

(Photos : Author)

WILD LIFE SURVEYS IN SOUTH AND WEST INDIA 29

and 1963 determined the populations at about 227, 290, and 285 respec-

tively. The sex and age class composition break down for the latest

figure of 285 was 82 adult males, 134 adult females, and 69 young.

Lion enumerations in the Gir have been supervised by the late M. A.

Wynter-Blyth, formerly principal of the Raj Kumar College at Rajkot.

Mr. R. S. Dharmakumarsinhji, a notable authority on wild life, has

also assisted. A method of counting tracks was employed in all cases.

This was based upon three facts or assumptions : (1) Different lions can

be identified by the pug marks of their front feet, i.e., the tracks of any

two lions can usually be distinguished. (2) Lions generally walk along

paths or roads through the forest, rather than cross-country. (3) Lions

drink at least once during every 24-hour period. Thisis basically a sound

method and should give fairly reliable estimates as long as enumerations

are carefully planned and executed with well-trained personnel. How-

ever, without expert trackers and strict supervision the results may be

subject to gross errors.

A number of reliable people of Gujarat who are well-versed in wild

life have expressed the opinion that instead of 285 lions in the Gir Sanc-

tuary there are probably only about 100 to 150. I am likewise of the

same opinion. Although I saw only 14 different lions during my short

visit to the Gir, I base my opinion primarily upon the relative scarcity of

prey species which I observed. For example, during my 4-day visit I

travelled over 250 miles by jeep inside the sanctuary. Most of this was

during the early morning or evening when the opportunities for seeing

wild life are generally quite good. However, the sum total of my obser-

vations were : 20 chital, 9 wild pig, 5 sambar and 11 four-horned ante-

lope. . Chinkara, nilgai or blackbuck were neither observed during my

1965 or 1966 visits. The ‘ shikaris’ also claim to be acquainted with

only about 30 lions within about a 15-mile radius of Sasan. Many of

these prey upon domestic livestock. In my opinion, prey populations

in the Gir presently do not appear to be large enough to support even 200

lions, let alone 300. Enumerations of prey species in the Gir have been

grossly neglected and, in so far as I am aware, have never been attempted.

The Forest Department has been conducting their lion censuses at

approximately 5-year intervals. It would be commendable if enumera-

tions of other species, such as chital, sambar, etc., were conducted at the

same time. The results would be of interest and of value if the enume-

rations are properly conducted. It would also be interesting to compare

the results of a ‘ direct count method ’ with lion, as advocated by M. A.

Rashid, Conservator of Forests in Gujarat, as compared to the pre-

viously employed ‘ track count method.’

- Other forms of wild life in the Gir Sanctuary should not be neglected.

In addition to periodic enumerations of lions and other large mammals,

checklists of birds, reptiles and smaller mammals in the sanctuary should

30 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (i)

be compiled and made available both to the staff and to visitors. Like-

wise, wild life observations by both visitors and staff should be syste-

matically recorded and kept on file inside the sanctuary. Scientific in-

vestigations concerning the sanctuary’s wild life by qualified investi-

gators should be encouraged. ‘Their findings should be utilized in for-

mulating management plans, as well as made available to the general

public.

General maps depicting roads and places of interest in the sanctuary

should be made available to visitors, as well as detailed maps depicting

vegetation types, etc., for the staff and scientific investigators. Postcards,

folders, booklets and other general information and propaganda should

be compiled and distributed through the Tourist Department and other

agencies so as to help people become aware of whatithe sanctuary has to

offer. Preferably these should be sold at reasonable rates and would

prove as an additional source of revenue for the sanctuary. Lions are

admittedly the Gir’s outstanding attraction, but its other attractions

should not be overlooked. For example, many people would be in-

terested in seeing mugger or crocodile in the Kamleshwar Lake or the

Hiran River, as well as other wild life species, such as the four-horned

antelope, chital, sambar and so forth. The near by temples or even some

of the ‘ nesses’ may be of interest, particularly to foreign visitors.

The Forest Department of Gujarat is to be commended for its role

in the preservation of the Gir Forest as a Wild Life Sanctuary. A firm

base for future management has already been established. The task

now is both to maintain and improve upon this base so that the Gir will

attain its full potential and the distinction of being one of India’s out-

standing wild life areas, which it rightfully deserves. The ultimate goal

should be perpetually to protect and preserve the wild life of the Gir,

while at. the same time providing as many people as possible the unique

experience of observing wild life in its natural state.

il. THE WILD ASSES OF THE LITTLE RANN OF KUTCH

INTRODUCTION | 1,

The Indian Wild Ass apparently was once common in much of north-

western India and what is now West Pakistan and south-eastern Iran,

formerly known as Persia. It is now extinct in Iran and, with the excep-

tion of a few animals which may occasionally stray into south-eastern

West Pakistan, it is presently restricted to the Little Rann of Kutch.

Concerning its near relatives, Talbot (1960) considered the Syrian Wild

Ass (Equus hemionus hemippus \. Geoffroy) as extinct and claimed that

the wild asses of Egypt, the Sudan and other parts of Africa are probably

feral rather than true wild asses. Salim Ali (1946a) reported that in

WILD LIFE. SURVEYS. IN SOUTH AND WEST INDIA - 31

1945 the Kiang or Tibetan Wild Ass (E.h. kiang Moorcroft) was common

or abundant on the 15,000 foot-high Barkha Plain and in the neighbour-

hood of the lakes Manasarowar and Rakhas Tal in western Tibet. How-

ever, Since the Chinese invasion little 1 is known about the status of this

species.

Valuable infdimagion concerning the Indian Wild Ass also was re-

ported by Salim Ali in 1946 when he conducted an expedition to the

Little Rann. Wynter-Blyth (1956) described how six asses were captured

for the Indian Army to be used for breeding purposes with mules.

However, I have been unable to find out the results of this project.

Dharmakumarsinhji (1959) likewise described the wild ass and presented

observations concerning it and possible methods of censusing its

numbers. In 1960 Salim Ali reported the death of a number of asses to

E. P. Gee. Some deaths of wild asses in 1958 were confirmed to be a

result of surra!. Further deaths from surra in 1960 and the report of an

epidemic of African Horse Sickness? in November and December. 1961

prompted E. P. Gee to undertake the first real survey to determine the

status of the Indian Wild Ass. This survey was initiated in February

1962 under the auspices of the IUCN (International Union for the

Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources) and the World Wildlife

Fund. The present report is a continuation of the survey initiated by

E. P. Gee. | |

THE LITTLE RANN

The Little Rann of Kutch in north-western Gujarat has to be seen to

be believed. Weird mirages are continually visible in this flat sterile

desert which covers an area of approximately 1,000 square miles.

Although a vast barren waste, the Rann has a. unique enchantment.

Heat shimmer in the intense sunlight of the dry season (October-June)

obscures anything beyond about half a mile. Visible objects beyond

several hundred yards often appear to float in the air and assume peculiar

shapes. Wild asses often appear to be walking in a shimmering sea with

their reflections mirrored below. Many objects are also greatly magni-

fied and take on grotesque proportions. For example, we once sighted

what appeared to be a long line of large animals in the distance.

1Surra—an arthropod-borne disease of horses and other animals caused by a

protozoan blood parasite Trypanosoma evansi. The disease is usually fatal to horses

unless an injection of arsenical preparations is given. Prophylactic doses give an

immunity of about six months. Common vectors are horse-flies of the family

-Tabanidae.

“African Horse Biclenesoeld virus disease of equines which has been known fot a

long time in Africa. However, in recent years it spread across the Middle East and

first entered India in either 1959 or 1960. It is generally transmitted by biting midges

of the genus Culicoides. Horses may be made immune to ‘the disease for periods of

about six months by inoculation. Those which recover from the disease : are , also

immune. - Ss .

32 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi. 65 (i)

Approaching closer with the jeep these figures assumed major propor-

tions and appeared much like a series of large block houses. Finaily,

upon closer examination it was determined that they were nothing more

than the tracks of wild asses and the irregularities caused when they

crossed the table-flat desert surface when it was muddy.

Only a few scattered hillocks or islands, locally called ‘ bets ’, break

the monotony of the flat, salt-cracked terrain of the Little Rann. The

largest of these is the somewhat centrally located 18 to 20-square-mile

Pung Bet. Salim Ali considered this ‘bet’ as the ‘headquarters’ for

the Indian Wild Ass during his 1946 expedition. However, he also stated

that the relatively small ‘ bets’ of Vachhda and Jhilandan were probably

the only source of perennial water within the Rann and the asses shifted

to them from Pung Bet about the middle of March. Other ‘bets’ include

Nanda, Mardakh or Merdhak, Kesmari and Zilanand or Jalander, as

well as a number of smaller * islands’.

Rainfall in this region is only 5 to 15 inches per year. A number

of rivers, such as the Banas, Rupen, Bambhan and Mechhu, flow into

the Rann, but then they disappear below the surface. However, during

the monsoon season (July-October) and for a few months thereafter the

flood waters of these rivers combine with the waters blown up from the

sea by the strong winds from the south-west. Much of the Little Rann,

which is only a foot or two above mean sea-level, then becomes flooded

and forms somewhat of an estuary to the Arabian Sea. Although parts

of the Rann are never completely dry, by November or December ex-

tensive areas have a caked and salty crust upon which vehicles can safely

travel until the monsoon again commences. The flat, cracked surface

actually provides a ‘ super highway ’ during most of the dry season upon

which vehicles can smoothly and safely travel at high speeds, as long as

the darker or softer patches are avoided.

Vegetation

The wild asses habitually forage at night upon the ‘bets’ or the

shores of the Little Rann. Then during the daytime they retire to the

desert wastes. With the exception of the ‘ bets’, there is no vegetation

in the Rann because of the impregnation of salt and other compounds.

The sparse vegetation of the ‘ bets’ consists primarily of low scattered

trees, mostly babul (Acacia arabica) and some grasses, such as kharib

(Aelurops villosus). Staple grasses along the shores of the mainland

include thegado (Cyperus capillaris), dabhado (Eragrostis cynosuroides),

zinzvo or jinjro (Andropogon spp.) and chaktadun (Eragrostis amabilis).

Nearby cultivations also contribute to the diet of the asses during the

crop season. According to Gee (1962) they raid, in order of preference,

the following crops: gram, wheat, cotton, millet, and jowar. These

crop depredations may be influenced by the apparent lack of other

WILD LIFE SURVEYS IN SOUTH AND WEST INDIA 33

suitable forage. Nevertheless, all of the asses which I observed were

robust and appeared to be in good condition—a marked contrast to

emaciated domestic animals in the same areas.

A wealthy land owner living in Ahmedabad, but with extensive hold-

ings near Kharaghoda and Patadi, petitioned the Government in the

spring of 1966 to reduce the number of wild asses because of crop depre-

dations. However, Forest Department personnel reported that when

the local Divisional Forest Officer met this man and explained the im-

portance and need for protecting this unique species, he withdrew his

petition.

The planting of mesquite(Prosopis juliflora),locally called vilayatibaval,

was initiated along the fringes of the Little Rann in 1954. These trees

were originally introduced from Mexico, although some seed stock has

also been obtained from the south-western United States. Seedlings

are being planted along the shores of the Rann primarily to prevent the

spread of the desert, but also to improve the soil fertility and to provide

a wind-break and firewood.

Small trenches about three feet long, a foot or two wide and about a

foot deep are dug at 15-foot intervals in selected sites during the dry

season. Seedlings are then planted at the start of the rainy season.

Some plantings do not take, particularly in areas that become flooded

during the monsoon. However, the majority of the trees grow quite

rapidly and many exceed 20 feet in height in about 10 years. Although

domestic and wild ungulates, with the exception of goats, rarely feed upon

the mesquite bushes or trees, the dry seed pods appear to be relished.

As a result, seeds disseminated through the animal’s droppings have

planted additional areas, which in some cases are relatively distant from

the plantation sites. The Forest Department has planted an average of

about 2,000 acres per year since the initiation of the programme. Thus,

the total area of mesquite plantations along the edge of the Little Rann

now exceeds 22,000 acres.

Fauna

In so far as wild life is concerned, the Indian Wild Ass is the predo-

minant species in the vicinity of the Little Rann. Blackbuck, chinkara

and nilgai were formerly abundant along the shores of the mainland.

Salim Ali observed some blackbuck during his 1946 expedition, but

claimed even then that they had been all but exterminated in many parts

of the Rann and Gujarat where they were abundant only a few years

previously. In 1962, E. P. Gee observed only a single ‘ frightened ’

blackbuck in the vicinity of Zilanand Bet and two or three nilgai on the

mainland. We observed no blackbuck, but saw two chinkara and four

nilgai in the Rann north-west of Tikar. However, we witnessed the

ruthless gunning down of one of these by some ‘sportsmen’ in a jeep

3 |

34. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

and had the unpleasant task of apprehending the culprits. Except for

wild asses, no other wild mammals were observed within the vicinity of

the Little Rann.

Domestic livestock numbers, on the other hand, are excessive along

the fringes of the Rann. Large herds of cattle were frequently encoun-

_ tered, as well as flocks of sheep, goats, and donkeys. With very few

exceptions, all the areas which we visited were severely overgrazed. A

lack of forage was already evidenced by the condition of most of the

animals and it was difficult to imagine what would sustain them during

the next six months until the monsoon rains. Mesquite appeared to

be the only plant species relatively unaffected by the abuse of too much

domestic livestock.

I am certain that if livestock numbers were properly controlled along

the Little Rann the natural vegetation would better provide the benefits

expected from the mesquite plantations. Although the cost of these

plantings was formerly Rs. 56 per acre, the cost is now about Rs. 100 per

acre or a total of approximately Rs. 200,000 per year. However, until

livestock numbers can be brought under control, I feel the Forest Depart-

ment is wise in continuing their present plantation programme. It was

also explained that a few years ago about 200 acres of Eucalyptus was

experimentally planted west of Dhrangadhra. Livestock grazing was

excluded from the plantation in order to permit the seedlings to take

hold. However, the local villagers rebelled against this infringement

upon their ‘rights’ and during a single night they drove all of their live-

stock through the area. What seedlings were not destroyed by their

livestock were then pulled up by hand. -

Bird species within the vicinity of the Rann observed during our visit

appeared to be restricted to a relatively few species. Several eagles and

the omnipresent vultures were observed. By far the most common birds |

were small larks, which were encountered in flocks of 50 to 100 or more.

Demoiselle cranes were frequently seen along the mainland and an occa-

sional pair of sarus cranes. Flamingos were also observed flying over-

head, but none were observed to light. North of Tikar, however,

thousands of flamingo tracks were evident on a mud flat within the Little

Rann.

THE INDIAN WILD Ass

Description

The Indian Wild Ass or Onager somewhat resembles a zebra in build.

The ears are relatively short, particularly in comparison to those of a

donkey or mule. The neck appears to be on the thin side as compared

to the stockiness of the rest of the body. The short mane remains erect

and the dark medio-dorsal stripe that extends to the base of the tail

pee

WILD LIFE SURVEYS IN SOUTH AND WEST INDIA 35

often gives the appearance of a continuous mane along the entire back.

The tail is not thickly haired and, excluding the brush or tuft of coarse

hair at the end, extends only to the hocks.

Specimens measured by Salim Ali (1946b) indicated that the normal

adult head and body length slightly exceeds seven feet, the tail is approxi-

mately one foot long, the ear-length is 7-8 inches and the average shoulder

height is just over four feet. The adult males which he collected weighed

just over 500 lb. and females about 450 lb. Dharmakumarsinhji

(1959), however, stated that females are usually ‘stouter’ than males.

I found that these animals are extremely difficult to sex in the field. They

rarely allow one to approach closer than séveral hundred yards and the

testes of the males ascend into the body cavity when they are running.

However, most of the animals which I distinguished as males appeared

to be somewhat larger than the females. Once we spotted a solitary ass

sprawled out in the desert, which appeared to have recently died. While

approaching I thought, ‘ At last Pll have the opportunity to examine

closely a wild ass.’ I even had my tape out to take measurements, but

when we came within.20 feet of the animal, it staggered to its feet and ran

off. It had only been sleeping.

The coloration of the Indian Wild Ass is particularly striking. The

tips of the ears and the tail, as well as the short mane and medio-dorsal

stripe are dark amber brown to almost a brownish-black. The face and

jaws, the top half of the neck, fore part of the shoulders, the saddle and

sides of the rump (posterior to the flanks) are a bright reddish buff to

fawn—almost a palamino colour. The muzzle, throat, lower half of the

neck, most of the tail, and the underparts are white.

The bright coloration, larger and stockier build and the more stately

manner immediately set the Indian Wild Ass apart from its long-eared

and dingy grey or brown-coloured domestic relatives. There is little

resemblance to the much smaller domestic donkeys common through-

out northern India. While it may sound absurd to some or perhaps trite

to others, about the best description that I can give of the Indian Wild

Ass is that it is a beautiful and magnificent beast.

In contrast to the local domestic donkeys, which breed during any

season of the year, the wild ass is reported to mate from August through

October. It is claimed that during this time the males fight viciously

for the females. The gestation period is roughly 11 months. Thus,

the young are born from July through September. With the exception

of one small male that was less than a month old, the foals which I ob-

served during the latter part of December were of uniform size and

appeared to be about 33 to 41 months old. If correct, this would mean

that they were born in August or September, which would have been

during the latter part of the normal foaling season.

36 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (i)

Group Size

Salim Ali reported that the sexes live apart in separate herds or troops

until the foals are about three months old. Although I observed some

males with females and young, a few smaller groups appeared to be all

males. Not including two solitary males nor a solitary female with her

young foal, the average size for 14 troops totalling 186 asses was just

over 13 (3-31). The average size for seven troops with young was 19 or

an average of 15 adults + 4 young. These latter figures approximate

the 6-8 young per group of 20-30 as observed by Salim Aliin March 1946.

But my overall totals indicate a ratio of less than one foal for every five

adults. Group sizes observed are presented in Table 2.

TABLE 2

INDIAN WILD ASSES OBSERVED IN THE LITTLE RANN OF KUTCH IN DECEMBER 1966

Adults Young Total

December 20 (Jesda to Kharaghoda) .. a 8 ou

26 5 31

1 1 (less 1 mo.) z

8 — 8

18 4 22

1 (male) — 1

13 2 15

a — 7

December 21 (Tikar to Khuda) i 4 11

10 2 12

1 (male) —- 1

9 4 13

3 — 3

5 — Ss

11 — 11

14 — 14

‘Potal -<.. 160 30 190

Populations

The total Indian Wild Ass population for the Little Rann was esti-

mated by Sdlim Ali in 1946 to be between 3,000 and 5,000. He also

believed their numbers were ‘increasing year by year.’ Wynter-Blyth

estimated a total population of about 4,000 in 1956 and claimed that

groups were then ‘ always in sight’ once one entered the Little Rann

north of Dhrangadhra. He also reported that some herds numbered

over 200 head. The numbers of wild asses had apparently been deci-

mated by disease prior to E. P. Gee’s survey in 1962. He estimated a

total of only 860-870 in the Little Rann proper plus 10 along the border

of West Pakistan and the Great Rann.

Regretfully, neither time nor facilities permitted me to undertake a

full-scale census or survey of the present status of the wild ass. However,

WILD LIFE SURVEYS IN SOUTH AND WEST INDIA 37

intensive counts or transects from Tikar to Kharaghoda resulted in

counts almost exactly the same as those reported by Gee. The wild

asses feed at night on the fringes or near-by croplands of the Little Rann.

They then retreat into the Rann during the day, which enables one both

readily and accurately to census them. Therefore, I am inclined to

believe that the present status of the Indian Wild Ass is similar to what

was reported in 1962. —

There is the possibility that the number of wild asses has been slightly

reduced during the last four years. The Range Forest Officer at Halvan

claimed that in recent years there have been no wild asses in the vicinity

of Khakhrechi. Gee reported 20 for that area. We were not allowed to

enter the area west of Tikar because of military restrictions. Kesmari

Bet and the adjacent parts of the Little Rann are used by the military as a

firing range. However, the Forester stationed at Tikar reported that

only occasional troops of asses are seen there. Gee reported approxi-

mately 100 for that area.

Disease

The Forest Guard in charge of mesquite plantings along the southern

boundary of the Little Rann claimed that there was an epidemic among the

wild asses in October and November of 1964. Also, he claimed to have

seen about 100 dead asses between Jesda and Malvan and that most of

these were ‘old’ animals. Since then he has not observed any more

dead asses while supervising plantation operations in that area. The

Forester at Tikar likewise reported that there was an epidemic of African

Horse Sickness among the domestic horses in that area during October

and November 1964. He stated that ‘hundreds’ of horses died in the

vicinity of Tikar at that time, but he did not observe any dead wild asses.

I met the Veterinary Officer at Dhrangadhra, Dr. S. H. Kamboya, the

evening of December 21. Dr. Kamboya claimed that the last major

epidemic of African Horse Sickness in the Surendranagar District, which

includes Thaluka and Dhrangadhra, was in November 1963. About 300

horses in the District were reported to have died as a result of this

epidemic. But there were no official reports of deaths among wild asses,

nor were the domestic asses or donkeys affected to any appreciable extent.

Although Dr. Kamboya was posted to Dhrangadhra in 1965, he was

formerly stationed in the District at Siyla, about 40 miles from

Dhrangadhra. .

' Dr. Kamboya further vated that the horses in the District have been

vaccinated against African Horse Sickness between October and

November each year since 1961. Although this programme is operated

at Government expense, some owners will not allow their horses to be

injected. Vaccinated animals should be allowed to rest for 8 to 14

days after the injection and some owners claim they cannot afford to

38 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

have their animals idle for such a long time. It was also claimed that

surra had not been observed in recent years in the Surendranagar District.

However, there were authenticated reports in 1958 and 1960 of deaths

of both horses and wild asses from this disease.

Rinderpest is present among the cattle of the district and a vaccinat-

ing programme is in operation. There was also a single case of anthrax.

reported in 1963. Rinderpest and anthrax probably have little effect

upon the wild ass, but may be of importance in so far as other wild life

in the vicinity of the Little Rann is concerned. Coupled with poaching

and habitat destruction, disease may be the ‘coup de grace’ for species

such as blackbuck, chinkara and nilgai.

Human Influence

The majority of the villagers living in the vicinity of the Little Rann

are strict vegetarians and appear to have a high regard for animal life.

With the exception of driving the wild asses from their cultivations during

their night-time raids, it is doubtful that these people ever molest the

asses.

There are scattered villages of crude shelters located within the Rann

during the dry season. These are inhabited by people operating salt

wells under lease from the Revenue Department. They dig large open

wells from 10 to 15 feet in diameter and from 30 to 40 feet deep. The

saline waters are then drawn up in skin bags by teams of bullocks. The

water is run into pans and after evaporation the crystalline minerals are

taken by lorry or bullock cart to collecting points, such as Khuda or

Kharaghoda. Considerable revenue is realized by the government from

these salt works and from taxes levied on the minerals collected.

A railroad from Ahmedabad to Kandla, a distance of approximately

180 miles, is presently being constructed primarily to further exploit this

mineral resource. The railroad right-of-way passes through some of the

areas frequented by wild asses. Whether or not this disturbance will

have an adverse effect upon the ass populations remains to be seen.

Also, it is not known whether or not the salt workers in the Rann molest

the wild asses. However, their donkeys, horses and perhaps bullocks are

a potential source of disease. Therefore, it would be desirable that the

salt workings at least be restricted to certain specified sites, rather than

allowed to cover extensive areas throughout the Rann.

There is apparently no poaching of wild asses, although Salim Ali

(19466) found their meat quite agreeable. Likewise, there appear to be

no natural predators that presently prey upon the asses. A number of

people in Dhrangadhra told us of how they occasionally chase the wild

asses in vehicles just to watch them run. Except during the foaling sea-

son and unless carried to excess, this probably does little harm.

However, a ‘ trigger-happy’ shooter in a jeep could easily decimate a

WILD LIFE SURVEYS IN SOUTH AND WEST INDIA 39

major part of the present population in a one-or two-day period.

Measures should be taken to insure that this does not occur and that the

Indian Wild Ass is protected and preserved. |

DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The responsibility of protecting and preserving the wild ass and other

wild life species in the vicinity of the Little Rann rests primarily with the

State Forest Department. The chief danger to the wild ass at present

appears to be their susceptibility to diseases contracted from domestic

livestock. Therefore, all possible precautions should be taken to

eliminate and prevent the incidence of disease among domestic animals.

The present policy of annually vaccinating horses against African Horse

Sickness during the epidemic season should be continued and also more

strictly enforced. Owners who do not permit their horses to be injected

should be penalised. A systematic method of reporting outbreaks of

disease among wild asses, as well as domestic horses and donkeys, should

likewise be initiated. _

Overgrazing and human disturbances adversely affect the wild asses

and other wildlife. Measures should be taken to halt the all too common

trend throughout most of India of ever-increasing numbers of useless

domestic livestock. When I asked a local veterinarian if my estimate

that 50 per cent of the livestock in the vicinity of the Little Rann was use-

less, he stated that my estimate was too conservative. He was positive

that no more than 25 per cent (of the cattle) in this area were useful and

that the remaining 75 per cent were completely worthless. People should

be educated as to the importance and value of natural resources, such as

wild life. Luckily, most of the villagers near the Rann are in sympathy

with the wild ass. It is regretful that more of the general public are not

of the same disposition in so far as wild life is concerned.

Poaching is undoubtedly a major factor in the disappearance of such

wild life species as blackbuck and chinkara, which formerly inhabited

the vicinity of the Little Rann in abundance. Such small numbers of

these animals now exist that there is no reason why shooting cannot be

strictly prohibited throughout the entire area. The military, specifically

those in charge of the establishment near Tikar, should be contacted and

their aid enlisted in the protection of wild life. The public should also

be made aware of laws which afford wild life protection and of the penal-

ties involved if these laws are violated. A system of rewards for infor-

mation leading to the arrest of law-breakers should encourage the assis-

tance of the local people.

Little is known about the basic ecology of the Indian Wild Ass and

qualified personnel should be encouraged to study this unique and magni-

ficent beast. Although the Indian Wild Ass could be easily and

40 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

accurately censused, its present numbers or true statusis not even known.

A census should be conducted every year, or at least every two years.

If well planned, this could probably be accomplished in less than a week

by jeep. There is also the possibility that an accurate aerial census could

be conducted over the entire Rann in a matter of a few hours. These

figures would be invaluable in assessing the status and trends of the wild

ass populations, as well as indicating measures which may be of value in

preserving this species.

The Junagadh Zoo has two adult male wild asses. In addition, two

young wild asses were captured by the Forest Department in the fall of

1966 for this zoo. Unfortunately, both were males and one died within

a few weeks. Mr. Gee reported that the Ahmedabad Zoo had three

head in 1962. However, it appears that there are no other zoos in the

world (with the exception of the Maharaja of Baroda’s zoo) with a

breeding pair of Indian Wild Asses, although Gee (1962) reported that

they were successfully bred in Paris in the mid-1800’s. Young wild

asses are easily captured and are reported to become tame within a

relatively short time. There is no reason why several pairs of young

asses should not be captured, under the supervision of the Chief Conser-

vator of Forests who is also the State Wild Life Preservation Officer,

and breeding groups established in some of the reputable zoos in India.

These would also provide a reserve in case something happened to the

wild populations.

Finally, as has been advocated by the Chief Conservator of Forests

and other members of the Forest Department, an inviolate sanctuary

for the Indian Wild Ass should be established. This sanctuary would

also provide refuge for other forms of wild life. It should include a

sufficiently large area of both the Little Rann and the adjoining mainland

so as to constitute an ecological unit. One or more sources of perennial

water should be included and, if at all possible, domestic livestock and

human disturbances, such as salt works and agriculture, should be com-

pletely excluded. Sufficient forage would then be probably available

within the sanctuary to help deter the wild asses from making forays into

the surrounding crop lands. Initially it should also be realized that the

isolated location of the Little Rann would prevent the wild ass sanctuary

from becoming a major tourist attraction in the forseeable future.

Nevertheless, this is no excuse for not establishing and maintaining a

sanctuary for the preservation of the wild ass.

If the wild asses and the presently available accommodations in

Dhrangadhra were publicised, some tourists would undoubtedly come

primarily for the sake of seeing these animals in their unique habitat—

the Little Rann. Facilities presently available consist of a Public Works

Department Rest House in Dhrangadhra, which can accommodate a

party of upto six people and which provides complete services, including

WILD LIFE SURVEYS IN SOUTH AND WEST INDIA 41

a cook. The Dhrangadhra Chemical Works also has a first class guest

house adjoining the Indian Ornithological Garden. Although privately

_ owned, perhaps prior arrangements could be made by tourists desiring

to see both the Garden and the wild asses.

I was informed after leaving Gujarat that the construction of a dam

across the entrance to the Little Rann has been proposed. Some people

apparently feel that if the waters of the Arabian Sea were excluded from

the Rann during the monsoon season, perhaps some of the Rann could

eventually be devoted to agriculture. This possibility seems improbable

because of the high mineral content of the soil throughout the Rann.

Perhaps by using tremendous quantities of water to flush these minerals

from the soil some areas could be made suitable for crops. However,

no such source of water exists in the vicinity of the Little Rann. On the

other hand, the construction of such a dam probably would change the

entire ecology of the Rann and the results may prove disastrous. Not

only may the wild asses be affected, but existing agriculture, salt works,

and so forth also may be adversely affected. In general, it is wise not to

tamper with the ecological balance of nature until thorough scientific

investigations have been made.

In summary, I make the following recommendations :

1. That domestic livestock grazing in the vicinity of the Little

Rann be brought under control and scientifically managed, particularly

on the Forest Department lands.

2. That the Government programme of inoculating horses for

African Horse Sickness be continued and that a systematic method of

reporting outbreaks of disease among both wild and domestic animals

be initiated," =

3. That all shooting within the vicinity of the Little Rann be prohi-

bited. Firing on the military range near Tikar would, of course, be an

exception.

4, That the wild asses be regularly censused and that Bhecr ations

concerning them and their populations be kept on file with the Forest

Department.

5. That competent people be encouraged to conduct thorough

ecological studies of both the wild ass and the Little Rann as soon as

possible.

6. That young wild asses be humanely captured and breeding

groups established in reputable zoos in India.

7. That a sufficiently large part of the Rann and the adjoining

mainland be constituted as an inviolate wild life sanctuary, primarily

for the preservation of the Indian Wild Ass.

8. That projects which may upset the ecological balance of the

Little Rann may not be undertaken until it has been definitely established

that their benefits would outweigh their possible deleterious effects.

42 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

IV. THE GREAT INDIAN BUSTARD

INTRODUCTION

There are 22 species of bustards occurring in Africa, Europe, Asia and

Australia. The Great Indian Bustard is one of the largest and most

stately of these. Formerly it was found locally from West Pakistan

throughout the Indian Union (excepting Bengal and Assam) south to

Mysore. However, this magnificent bird has become very rare and now is

restricted to a few secluded areas in Gujarat and neighbouring states.

In all cases it is extremely rare and it is only with a great deal of luck or

perseverance that it may be encountered.

The Indian Board for Wild Life placed the Great Indian Bustard

upon its list of rare faunal species! and gave it full protection in 1952

because of its increasing rarity. Nevertheless since that time definitive

measures have not been taken to preserve or to protect this endangered

species. In contrast, I have been told that when Dhrangadhra was a

princely state a fine of Rs. 1,000 and/or imprisonment for a period of up

to six years was levied against anyone found killing this royal bird. The

Great Indian Bustard is an endemic species. In other words, it is found

only.in India and in no other country. Therefore it is the duty of the

State and Central Governments of India, as well as the Indian people, to

preserve the remnants of this great bird as a part of their nation’s heritage.

THE GREAT INDIAN BUSTARD

The Great Indian Bustard is a large, turkey-sized bird weighing up

to 40 lbs. It stands about three feet high. The sexes are alike. They

have a distinctive black crest on the head and black and white markings

on the breast and underparts. A large whitish patch near the tip of the

wings is also prominent. The back and upper surface of the wings are

buff, finely vermiculated with black. It is a heavy ground bird and is

usually encountered alone or in pairs, although small groups numbering

up to 25 or 30 birds were reported in former days. The cock is poly-

gamous and to ‘ woo’ his harem he does a puffed-up strutting display,

similar to many of the grouse. __ | é. ern ale

The habitat of the Great Indian Bustard has been drastically reduced

in recent years due to the spread of cultivation. This has continued

unabated even though its former haunts are generally considered as sub-

_. 2 Other faunal forms in India which are included on the Indian Board for Wild

Life’s list of endangered species are: Indian wild ass, Indian lion, snow leopard,

clouded leopard, cheetah (probably extinct), Indian one-horned rhinoceros, Kashmir

Stag, musk deer, brow-antlered deer, pygmy hog, pinkheaded duck (undoubtedly

extinct) and the whitewinged wood duck. :

WILD LIFE SURVEYS IN SOUTH AND WEST INDIA 43

- marginal agricultural lands. In addition to habitat destruction,

characteristics which have further added to its decline include: it is

considered as a gourmet’s delicacy and all too many people who are

acquainted with this great bird are primarily interested in collecting it

for the table. Its large size makes it relatively conspicuous in its pre-

ferred grassland habitat. Its size and conspicuousness coupled with its

heaviness in initial flight also make it exceptionally vulnerable to the

gun. It is, however, a good runner. Finally, the female generally lays

but a single egg. Even if the singleton does survive, it does not attain

breeding age in the case of a hen until about four years old. In the case

of a cock, it does not mature until 5 or 6 years of age. _

We were informed by S. P. Patel, a photographer in Dhrangadhra,

the evening of December 21 that a farmer had reported seeing a pair of

Indian bustard on his land about 8 miles south-west of Dhrangadhra.

Therefore we decided to attempt to locate these rare birds. The follow-

ing morning the farmer accompanied us (Messrs. Patel, Karnik, two of

the local Forest Staff and myself) to the site where the bustard had been

seen a few days previously. Although we spent the better part of the

day combing the entire area, the only trace of bustard that we encoun-

tered were a few tracks of a solitary bird that had apparently visited a

waterhole the previous night. This was in an area in which

K. S. Dharmakumarsinhji claims it used to be possible to see dozens of

bustard in a single day’s search. Incidentally, besides being a noted

wild life enthusiast and conservationist, Shri Dharmakumarsinhji is

also undoubtedly the world’s leading authority on the Great Indian

Bustard. At a previous meeting in New Delhi he had expressed to me

his grave concern about the precarious situation of the bustard. Also

he is one of the few persons who has ever photographed the Indian

bustard on its nest or for that matter who has even been successful in

photographing this rare bird in recent years.

The terrain in the vicinity of Dhrangadhra consists of low un-

dulating rocky hills. Small patches of short grass are intermingled with

rocky outcroppings and scattered bushes or thorny shrubs. Small

patches of cultivation are usually located wherever the soil is not too

rocky. Dry season crops of wheat or cotton are grown on most of these.

Many patches were still in cotton during my visit in December, but the

patches of wheat had been harvested earlier in the season and had been

or were being ploughed. Although it was claimed that the rains had

been exceptionally heavy this year and that this was a much better than

usual crop season, the cotton in most cases appeared to be very poor.

Few of the cotton plants exceeded two feet in height and many were

under a foot tall.

We encountered people, bullock carts and livestock wherever we went.

Some of the people were tending their cultivations or livestock, but many

44 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

were cutting and collecting thorny shrubs, such as Zizyphus mauritiana

and Acacia leucophloea. These bushes are used to construct corrals

and livestock fences around the villages. What little cover that remains

for wild life is disappearing rapidly. Perhaps equally disconcerting

were the numerous jeep tracks which we encountered almost everywhere.

According to authoritative descriptions, the areas visited were for-

merly prime Indian bustard habitat. They should harbour a fair number

of birds even now. However, with the ever-present and excessive human

disturbances it is doubtful that few, if any, larger forms of wild life will

be able to survive long. The only wild mammals observed during our

excursion were four extremely wary nilgai (a male, 2 females and a

yearling) and a solitary hare. We made inquiries of many of the villagers

whom we encountered concerning bustard and other animals. Most

did not even know what a Great Indian Bustard looked like. The few

that did were those who remembered them from the olden days. They

usually wanted to know if we were interested in shooting this big bird.

When we explained that we were not, they appeared unable to compre-

hend why we were then so interested in this bird. Many villagers, how-

ever, told us of how ‘sportsmen’ and military personnel often came

here in jeeps to shoot. One farmer and his son explained that they saw

some ‘ sportsmen’ in a jeep a few days previous shoot a large black and

white bird that was ‘sleeping’ on the ground. In the afternoon we

finally considered the search for bustard as futile and returned to

Dhrangadhra.

No bird species has reportedly become extinct since 1945. However,

unless decisive action is soon taken, the Great Indian Bustard may soon

be added to that all too long list of faunal forms that have succumbed

to the depredations of man.

Vv. NAL SAROVAR

Almost at the junction of the mainland of Gujarat and Saurashtra or

the Kathiawar Peninsula lies an extensive flood plain. This: flat plain

was formed by silt carried down from the Chotila Ranges of the

Surendranagar District by the Baman, Bhogavo and other rivers.

Because of annual flooding there is little natural vegetation, but the rich

clay-loam soils on many of the flats are utilized during the dry season for

growing winter crops, such as cotton and wheat.

A vast shallow lake is formed during the monsoon season. This

lake is located about 40 miles south-west of the city of Ahmedabad,

along the eastern boundary of the Surendranagar District and the western

boundary of the Ahmedabad District. The excess waters from the Nal

Sarovar Reservoir then drain into the Sabarmati, after passing through

the Bhal area of Dholka-Dhandhuka. The water surface of the flooded

Wild dS C704 d)

‘97S Jerelny ul peqepouyy fo }Sam-YIMOs sayrut OF “IAOILS [WN He $00) WOUTUIOD pue soSuTUTEL J

SAQAING FIT PTLM : eds

[ie en dh th eet Seo [LENG RY ESO RSL GS ONE Re HEE SO Se a Os

J. BomBay nat. Hist. Soc. 65 (1) PLATE W)

Spillett : Wild Life Surveys

Above : The spectacular blackbuck has become increasingly rare during recent

years throughout Gujarat State ; Below : The chinkara is becoming rare through-

out its range in India.

(Photos : Author)

WILD LIFE SURVEYS IN SOUTH AND WEST INDIA 45

area often exceeds 100 square miles during the peak flood season in July

or August. The lake is then 5 to 6 miles wide and from 18 to 25 miles

long. However, by December (the migratory bird season) it usually is

reduced to a total area of less than 80 square miles. Although much of

the lake is surrounded by barren shores or flats, along the higher fringes

are scattered trees, such as Salvadora sp. and Prosopis sp., and desert

scrub.

The primary attraction of Nal Sarovar is its vast concentrations of

water birds. Particularly of note are the migratory species that arrive

from the north during late November or early December and usually

remain until late March. Included among the more conspicuous water

birds that may be observed are: flamingoes, spottedbilled or grey

pelicans, whitenecked and blacknecked storks, white and painted storks,

sarus, common, and demoiselle cranes, spoonbills, black and glossy ibis,

herons, coots, moorhens and numerous species of waterfowl. Predatory

or carrion eating birds such as eagles, vultures and kites are also present,

as well as numerous lesser species, such as kingfishers, lapwings, babblers,

bulbuls, barbets, sunbirds, tailor birds and so forth.

Nal Sarovar is readily accessible throughout the year, although

December through March is the best time for observing migratory birds.

A good black-topped road from Ahmedabad passes near the lake and

daily bus service is available. Facilities include a tourist hut near the

lake and a boat. Reservations may be obtained from the Director of

Information for Gujarat at Sachivalaya, Ahmedabad-15.

It was recently proposed that Nal Sarovar be constituted as a bird

sanctuary. Also, that facilities be developed so that it may become a

major tourist attraction. Itis to be hoped that these proposals will be

fully realized in the near future.

VI. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Special thanks go to Mr. R. D. Joshi (Chief Conservator of Forests)

and the Forest Department of Gujarat for their courteous assistance and

kind hospitality during my visits to the Gir Wild Life Sanctuary and the

Little Rann of Kutch. Particularly I wish to thank Messrs. P. B. Vyas

(Sanctuary Superintendent), J. Singh (Sanctuary Inspector), and

G. R. Karnik (Rajkot Divisional Forest Officer). Messrs. Vyas and

Singh accompanied and assisted me during my 5-day visit to the Gir

Wild Life Sanctuary. Mr. Karnik then accompanied and assisted me

during the 5-day period in which we visited the Little Rann of Kutch,

Other Forest Department personnel, too numerous to mention indi-

vidually, were likewise most helpful and their assistance is greatly

appreciated.

46 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (i)

I am also grateful to Messrs. G. C. Jain (Manager of the Dhrangadhra

Chemical Works), Kumar (Public Relations Officer) and P. Kannan

(Honorary Director of the Indian Ornithological Gardens) for their

hospitality during our stay in Dhrangadhra.

Finally, I must express my heartfelt appreciation to Mr. E. P. Gee of

the Indian Board for Wild Life for making the necessary arrangements

with both the Central and State Governments and for his always wel-

comed assistance.

The company of both he and his sister, Mrs.

Romanes, during our visit to the Gir was most enjoyable.

VII. REFERENCES

ALI, SALIM. (1946a): Drag marks made

by the Kyang (Equus hemionus). J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 46 (3) : 396.

(1946b): The wild ass of

Kutch. op. cit. 46 (3): 472-477.

(1961) : The book of Indian

birds. Bombay Natural History Society,

Bombay. 158 pp.

DHARMAKUMARSINHIJI,

Ke SS; 20955) 2

Birds of Saurashtra. Times of India

Press, Bombay.

(1959): A_ field guide to

big game census in India. Leaflet No. 2,

Indian Board for Wild Life, Ministry of

Food & Agriculture, New Delhi. 94 pp.

GEE, E. P. (1956): The management -

of India’s wild life sanctuaries and

national parks. Part III.- J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 54 (1): 1-21.

—— (1962): The management of

India’s wild life sanctuaries and national

parks. Part IV. op. cit. 59 (2): 453-

466.

211963) : The

Indian wild

ass: a survey (February 1962). op. cit.

60 (3) : 517-529.

——— (1964): Wild Life of India.

Collins. London. 192 pp.

PRATER, S. H. (1965): The Book of

Indian animals, 2nd ed., Bombay Natural

Hise Society, Bombay. 66-67, 227-

228.

Rasuip, M. A. (1965): The Gir lion.

Cheetal, J. Wild Life Preservation Soc.

India, 8 (1) : 26-37.

RAMANIJULU, B. V. (1966): The great

Indian bustard in Gujarat State.

Peacock, Indian Ornithological Garden,

Dhrangadhra (Gujarat State). 3 (4):

161-164.

TALBoT, L. M. (1960): A look at

threatened species. Fauna Preservation

Soc., London. 133 pp.

WYNTER-BLYTH, M. A. (1956): An

account of the wild ass and a brief history

of the Indian lion. Indian Forester

82 : 644-648.

(to be continued)

Heteromysis zeylanica Tattersall

(Crustacea : Mysidacea), an associate

of Madreporarian Corals in South

Indian Waters

N. KRISHNA PILLAI

Marine Biological Laboratory, University of Kerala, Trivandrum-7

(With twenty-six text-figures)

‘Mysids are predominantly free living marine animals more abundant

in comparatively shallow water. No species has so far been recorded

as a parasite. However, as early as 1879, Hilgendorf recorded Hete-

romysis harpax as an associate of hermit crabs inhabiting gastropod

shells. Nothing was known about the nature of this association until

Clarke (1955) published very interesting observations on the association

between H. actineae and the sea-anemone Bartholomea annulata. Since

then O. S. Tattersall (1962) reported H. harpax as an associate of her-

mit crabs of the genus Dardanus, H. gymnura from the arms of an ophiu-

roid and H. zeylanica from a sponge.

While washing corals for collecting their copepod associates my

colleague Sri M. J. Sebastian obtained a number of specimens of

H. zeylanica W. M. Tattersall (1922). This probably indicates that a

majority of the species of Heteromysis live in association with inverte-

brates. I, therefore, give below a short résumé of the available infor-

mation on the genus Heteromysis as it may help those who take up the

study of the ecology of these mysids. A detailed study of the speci-

mens collected has shown that a few interesting features in the mor-

phology of H. zeylanica have so far escaped notice, therefore the

Species is redescribed. |

HisTORY OF THE GENUS Heteromysis

The genus Heteromysis was created by S. I. Smith (1873) to describe

H. formosa collected from the coastal waters of North America. Sub-

sequently this species was recorded from several localities in European

waters. G. O. Sars (1877) created the genus. Chiromysis to describe

48 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (i)

C. microps collected from the coastal waters of Africa. To the latter

genus Hilgendorf (1879) added a second species C. harpax. Later on

G. O. Sars (1885) described H. bermudensis collected from Bermuda and

also admitted that his Chiromysis is a synonym of Heteromysis. Walker

(1898) described H. odontops from North American waters and Holmes

(1900) added another species, H. spinosus. The latter was, however,

found to be synonymous with H. odontops Walker. Bonnier & Perez

(1902) created the genus Gnathomysis to describe G. gerlachei collected

from the Red Sea. They published a short description without figures.

W. M. Tattersall (1922) examined the unpublished illustrations made by

Bonnier and concluded that G. gerlachei is a synonym of H. harpax and

that Gnathomysis Bonnier & Perez is the same as Heteromysis S. 1.

Smith.

The discovery of more species followed in quick succession. From

the Gulf of Mannar, south India, W. M. Tattersall (1922) described

H. proxima, H. zeylanica and H. gymnura. Verrill (1922) described

H. antillensis from Dominica but this was later found to be a synonym

of. H. bermudensis G. O. Sars. While describing a collection of mysids

from Australia W. M. Tattersall (1927b) added H. waitei and H. tas-

manica and a third species H. digitata (W. M. Tattersall 1927a) from the

Suez Canal. From subterranean salt water pools at Canary Islands,

Calman (1932) described H. cotti. More recently Nouvel (1940) des-

cribed H. armoricana and H. tattersalli (Nouvel 1942) from France and

Cape Verde Islands respectively. From the Mediterranean Bacesco

(1941) recorded H. eideri and Pillai (1961) described H. macropsis from

south Indian waters. Clarke (1955) added a very interesting species

H. actineae from Bahama Islands and O. S. Tattersall (1961) described

H. atlantidea collected from African waters. Lastly Ii (1964) des-

cribed H. xanthops from Japanese waters.

Recently Nouvel (1964) examined the original illustrations of

H. gerlachei prepared by Bonnier and concluded, contrary tothe opinion of

W. M. Tattersall, that H. harpax Hilgendorf and H. gerlachei Bonnier &

Perez are separate species and that H. harpax Kossmann (1880) is different

from both. He renamed the latter as H. kossmanni. The genus Hete-

romysis thus includes twenty-one species. :

H. formosa S. 1. Smith, 1873

H. microps (G. O. Sars), 1877

H. harpax (Hilgendorf), 1879

H. bermudensis G. O. Sars, 1885

H. odontops Walker, 1898

H. gerlachei (Bonnier & Perez), 1902

H. proxima W. M. Tattersall, 1922

H. zeylanica W. M. Tattersall, 1922

H. gymnura W. M. Tattersall, 1922

HETEROMYSIS ZEYLANICA TATTERSALL 49

. waitei W. M. Tattersall, 1927

. tasmanica W. M. Tattersall, 1927

. digitata W. M. Tattersall, 1927

cotti Calman, 1932

armoricana Nouvel, 1940

eideri Bacesco, 1941

tattersalli Nouvel, 1942

. actinede Clarke, 1955

. macropsis Pillai, 1961

. atlantidea O. S. Tattersall, 1961

1. xanthops li, 1964

H. kossmanni Nouvel, 1964

SEP aaarar

—

ECOLOGY OF Heteromysis spp.

A surprising fact about species of Heteromysis is their comparative

rarity. Most of the species have till recently been described only from

a few specimens accidentally obtained during the course of routine collec-

ting.

As early as 1879 it was known that H. harpax lives in association

with hermit crabs inside gastropod shells. But that this association is

obligatory at least for the mysid has been proved only very recently.

Since Clarke (1955) published his observations on H. actineae evidence

was obtained showing that at least two other species live in association

with hermit crabs, one species with ophiuroids and one with sponges and

corals. As observed by O. S. Tattersall (1962) ‘it is now beginning to

be apparent that the paucity of material may be due not to the rarity

of the different species so much as to their cryptic mode of life’.

The available information on the ecology of the species has been

summarised by Clarke (1955) and O. S. Tattersall (1962). According to

Clarke H. formosa generally lives in small colonies within the empty

shells of large bivalves and gastropods. This shows their natural ten-

dency to seek suitable shelters.

Clarke observed H. dctineae living in small colonies among the ten-

tacles of the sea-anemone Bartholomea annulata. He made detailed

observations both in the field and in the laboratory. The mysids spent

most of their time coursing up and down the length of the tentacles of

the anemone or spiralling around the base of the tentacles and never

strayed away from the anemone. Clarke reported that the anemone was

quite indifferent to the presence or absence of the mysids. Whenever

food was given to the anemone the mysids were never found to take it.

On the other hand every particle rejected by the anemone was at once

seized and eaten. Clearly there is perfect understanding between the

partners and this is a clear case of commensalism.

O. S. Tattersall (1962) reported the collection of H. harpax from

50 JOURNAL, BUMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

various species of pagurid crabs of the genus Dardanus. She observed

that this ‘is a true commensal with the hermit crabs, receiving protec-

tion from them and feeding upon their faeces, thereby keeping the inner-

most region of the shells they inhabit clean and free from waste matter.’

O. S. Tattersall also reported the collection of H. gymnura from among

the arms of a large brittle star, Astroboa nigra Doderlin.

H. zeylanica was first discovered as free living among the littoral sea

weeds in the Gulf of Mannar. Later it was collected from the central

cavity of a tubular sponge from African waters. During the present

investigation it was found associated with two species of corals, Favia sp.

and Montipora sp., being much more abundant on the latter. As I had

no chance to study them alive nothing can be definitely stated about the

nature of the association. However, the following conjecture may be

made. Mysids generally feed by filtering fine particles of food from the

water or eat large morsels by holding them with their legs. The massive

third thoracic endopods indicate that Heteromysis belongs to the latter

category. Coral polyps are very much like anemones in their method

of feeding. Those with large tentacles are true predatory carnivores but

others with small tentacles entangle the food in mucus and get them

wafted towards the mouth by ciliary current. According to Hyman

(1940) plankton constitutes their main item of food. The undigested

part of the food taken in, collects in the centre of the coelenteron and is

ejected out by convulsive contractions through the wide open mouth.

It is possible that the mysids make use of the ejected particles and also

get protection from the coral polyps just as in the case of H. dctineae.

By removing these particles the mysids assist the corals to remain clean.

Accumulation of dirt has been known to cause the death of certain types

of corals (Hyman 1940). This is also likely to be a case of true com-

mensalism but direct observation is necessary for a definite conclusion.

An intriguing feature of the association between species of Hete-

romysis and other invertebrates is that in every case, except that of hermit

crabs, the mysids were found in the company of caridean shrimps.

Clarke found Alpheus armatus Rathbun, regularly associated with

H.actineae. Bruce (vide O.S. Tattersall 1962) observed H. gymnura with

Periclimenes lanipes Kemp and a wide variety of shrimps were associated

with H. zeylanica. In the present case there were a large number of

small pontoniid shrimps and alpheids. Clarke found no competition

between the shrimps and the mysids. That the shrimps and mysids were

always found together, irrespective of the kind of the host, is interesting.

Identical ecological necessities might have brought them together initially.

This must have later on developed into passive toleration or active co-

operation. That a dangerous animal like the sea-anemone tolerates both

is significant. Obviously the association is old and well established.

This is thus a fertile field for detailed investigation.

HETEROMYSIS ZEYLANICA TATTERSALL 51

HeETeROmysis S. I. Smith

Heteromysis W. M. Tattersall, 1922, p.495 ; Clarke, 1955, p.75;0O.S. Tattersall,

1962, p. 234.

The members of the genus Heteromysis can be easily distinguished by

their short robust body, large eyes, oblong fully setose antennal scale

and above all by the massive third thoracic endopods. The near absence

of sexual dimorphism in the pleopods is also characteristic.

The four species hitherto known from Indian waters differ thus :—

la. Peduncle of the eye with a dorsal process, proximal part of lateral border

Oh telsOnmmWitiiy SPiMeS tras. ve so hedie teed gk eats aa Ways, Yoo aha zeylanica

1b. Peduncle of the eye without process, proximal part of lateral border of

Le lSOMeWACMOU i, SINES i cryeier Gerke Vales hea eeate coat onal sr cs Oseh ccs coh ae 2

2a. Antennal scale longer than antennal peduncle; cornea wider than eye

stalk ; endopod of uropod without spines.................. gymnura

2b. Antennal scale not longer than antennal peduncle ; cornea narrower than

eye stalke- cndopod omuropod withtspines...% oy. ov.) sass oss ph eke 3

3a. Endopod of uropod armed with a single spine at the region of the stato-

cyst ; carpopropodus of third thoracic endopod massive...... proxima

3b. Endopod of uropod armed with 8 spines ; carpopropodus of third thoracic

endopode normally; developed tin fick eens. Cale e ss ack macropsis

Heteromysis zeylanica W. M. Tattersall

Heteromysis zeylanica W. M. Tattersall, 1922, p. 499, figs. 27a-e ; O. S. Tattersall,

1962, p. 246.

Female. Body is comparatively short with moderately stout

cephalothorax and slender abdomen. Carapace has a narrow tolerably

deep postero-median excavation and is anteriorly produced into a pro-

minent triangular apically rounded rostrum (fig. 1) which reaches the

middle of the basal segment of the antennular peduncle. Eyes are large

with the cornea narrower than the peduncle. Below the cornea there is

a small cluster of oscelli embedded inside the peduncle. The peduncle

is spiny and dorso-distally produced into a sharp prominent spine-like

process overlapping the cornea (fig. 1). The telson (fig. 9) is elongate-

triangular, about one and a quarter times as long as broad, with a deep

posterior sinus which is a third of the total length of the telson. The

lateral borders of the telson are armed with fourteen pairs of spines, the

first five pairs are nearly of the same size and are separated from the distal

group of spines by a gap. The distal group of eight pairs of spines

gradually increase in length towards the apex; the apex of each telsonic

lobe is armed with two spines which are rather blunt; the outer apical

spine is nearly one and a half times the length of the inner; the distance

between the ultimate lateral spine and the outer apical spine is greater

than the distance between any two of the lateral spines (fig. 9). The

52. . JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

apical sinus of the telson is proximally armed with thirteen small spines,

six pairs and a median spine.

124-7 0.3mm.

Text-Figs. 1-8. Heteromysis zeylanica. Female

1. Anterior part of body, dorsal view ; 2. Antenna; 3. First thoracic endopod ;

4. Second thoracic leg; 5. Third thoracic leg; 6. Fourth thoracic leg; 7. Eighth

thoracic endopod; 8. Same, tip enlarged.

The outer distal part of the first segment of the antennule is produced

and carries three to four setae; second segment has a very oblique distal

border and its inner distal part carries a triggered spine and a seta; inner

border of the third segment has a median seta and a distal group of two

setae and a triggered spine. The antennal scale (fig. 2) is rather narrow

HETEROMYSIS ZEYLANICA TATTERSALL 33

and elongate-oblong, reaching slightly short of the tip of the antennal

peduncle, it is setose all round and there is a distinct apical partition.

The upper lip (fig. 11) is irregularly circular and not anteriorly pro-

duced, its distal border is spiny. The mandibles (figs. 12-13) are asym-

metrical and the palps are short but stout. Outer lobe of first maxilla

(fig. 14) has three inner distal setae and about eleven strong distal spines

in two rows. Inner lobe is small and ovate. Second maxilla (fig. 13)

is of the usual pattern with the distal segment of endopod rather large.

ST Moiaia

Q0.3 mm.

Q.'mmm.

Text-Figs. 9-18. Heteromysis zeylanica. 9-15. Female. 16-18. Male.

9. Telson and uropod; 10. Inner border of endopod of uropod ; 11. Upper lip;

12. Mandible; 13. Same, cutting edge enlarged: 14. First maxilla; 15. Second

maxilla; 16. Antennule; 17, Third thoracic endopod ; 18. Eighth thoracic leg,

54 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

First thoracic endopod is somewhat flattened and heavily armed with

strong stiff setae (fig. 3); basal segment is produced into a large inner

lobe; second segment has a small lobe; there is no distinct nail. Second

thoracic endopod (fig. 4) is rather slender; basal segment is slightly pro-

duced at the inner distal part; sixth segment is rounded; there is no dis-

tinct nail. Third thoracic endopod (fig. 5) is only moderately stout;

carpopropodus is shorter than the merus and the distal half of its inner

border is armed with four triggered spines and a few setae; there is an

indistinct partition near the distal end; dactylus is small and carries a

slightly curved nail with three setae near its base. Carpopropodus of

thoracic endopods four to eight is subdivided into several segments;

fourth (fig. 6) has four subsegments and the others (fig. 7) six subsegments;

the dactylus is very small and carries a styliform nail; the last carpopro-

podal segment carries very long characteristically curved setae (fig. 8).

Thoracic legs seven and eight carry a pair of broad lamellae; the brood

pouch generally carries four embryos.

Pleopods are simple flattened plates, first pleopod is very small and

distally faintly bilobed, the remaining pleopods successively increase in

length.

The rami of the uropods are setose all round; exopod is longer than

the endopod; both rami over-reach the telson. Beginning at the region

of the statocyst and extending up to the tip is a row of twelve moderately

sharp spines on the inner border of the endopod, which regularly in-

crease in length distally (fig. 10).

Length 5 mm.

Male. As usual in the genus the male is very much similar to the

female in general appearance. However, the following characters serve

to distinguish it. The rostral prolongation of the carapace is a trifle

narrower and apically more acute than in the female. The third segment

of the antennular peduncle (fig. 16) carries distally on the ventral side a

small lobe carrying long stiff hairs. Third thoracic endopod (fig. 17)

has its carpopropodus comparatively shorter but stouter than in the

female and the spines arming the inner border are stronger. The nail is

more strongly curved. The eighth thoracic endopod (fig. 18) carries a

large appendix masculina which is apically trilobed. Thoracic seg-

ments four to eight carry transversely oblong sternal processes becoming

successively smaller backwards, each process has in the middle a small

spiny prominence (fig. 19).

It is generally assumed that the pleopods are similar in the two sexes,

but Coifmann (1936) described some modification of the setae in

H. digitata and H. harpax. _ i (1964) found the same to be the case in

H. xanthops but did not describe or illustrate it. In H. zeylanica the modi-

fication is very pronounced and easily distinguishes the males from the

females. The third male pleopod (fig. 22) is comparatively longer than

HETEROMYSIS ZEYLANICA TATTERSALL 55

in the female. Its proximal half carries normal setae but the distal half

has along its outer border about twelve short modified non plumose

setae. Each modified seta has its distal part considerably thinned out

: 20-26 Qa.!mm

Text-Figs. 19-26. Heteromysis zeylanica. 19-24. Male. 25-26. Female.

19. Thoracic sterna five to eight showing sternal processes; 20-24. Pleopods one

to five ; 25. Pleopod two ; 26. Pleopod five.

so that the setae appear like spines when examined under low magni-

fication. The fourth pleopod (fig. 23) is still more modified. It is rather

broad throughout (not conical as in the female) and near the tip is bent

inwards, the modified setae arming the border are placed so close that

the appendage appears to have a closely serrate border.

Length 4:8 mm,

56 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

Remarks. The original description of this species was based on

two males and two immature specimens collected at Kilakarai, Gulf of

Mannar, south India. They were collected from rock pools using a

hand net. Subsequently O. S. Tattersall supplemented the short original

description with some notes based on twenty specimens collected from a

sponge at Zanzibar. The present study shows that this species is some-

what variable in its characters.

O. S. Tattersall observed sternal processes on the last three thoracic

segments of immature females but none in the male. In my specimens

adult males have these processes on the last five segments but none were

observed in the female. In the type the endopod of the uropod has

eleven spines but O. S. Tattersall mentions only seven to eight, my speci-

mens have up to twelve in female and thirteen in male. The basal part

of the telson is armed with five spines in the female and four in the male,

O. S. Tattersall noticed up to six. According to W. M. Tattersall the

distal part of the lateral border is armed with eight to nine spines arranged

at regular intervals, the gap between the last spine and the outer apical

spine being not greater than that between any other two lateral spines.

This is not so in my specimens.

W. M. Tattersall mentioned four carpopropodal segments in the

thoracic endopods and O. S. Tattersall did not make any mention about

this. In my specimens the fourth Sora) has four subsegments and

the others six subsegments.

The prominent sexual dimorphism of the pleopods has not been

observed before in this species.

REFERENCES

Bacesco, M. (1941): Les Mysidaces HILGENDoRF, F. (1879): Die von

des eaux Mediterrannes de la France et des

eaux de Monaco. Bull. Inst. Oceanogr.

Monaco No. 795 : 1-46.

Bonnier, J. & PEREZ, C. (1902): Sur

un Crustace commensal des Pagures

Gnathomysis gerlachei nov. sp. type d’une

famille nouvelle de Schizopodes. C.R.

Acad. Sci. Paris 134: 117-119.

CALMAN, W. T. (1932): A cave dwel-

ling crustacean of the family Mysidae

from the island of Lanzarote. Ann.

Mag. Nat. Hist. (10) 10: 127-131.

CLARKE, W. D. (1955) : A new species

of the genus Heteromysis (Crustacea :

Mysidacea) from the Bahama Islands,

commensal with a sea-anemone. ANEES.

Mus. Nov. saa 1716 : 1-13.

CoIFMANN, I. (1936) : I misimacei del

Mar Rosso : Studies del materiale rac-

colto del Prof. Magnaghi (1923-24).

R. Comitato Talassografico Italino. No.

233 ; 1-52,

Herrn W. Peters in Mocambique gesam-

melten Crustaceen. Monatsber. Akad.

Wiss. Berlin. 1878, 782-851.

Hoitmes, S. J. (1900) : Synopsis of

California. stalk eyed Crustacea. Occ.

Pap. California Acad. Sci. 7: 1-262.

Hyman, L. H. (1940): The Inverte-

brates: Protozoa through Ctenophora.

McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York

and London 1: vii, 726. -

Tn, Ne (1964) : Fauna Japonica My-

sidae. Biogeographical Society of

Japan, Tokyo 1-610.

KOSSMANN, R. (1880) : Malacostraca :

In Zoologische Ergebnisse einer Reise in

die Kuestengetrete des Rothen Meeres.

Leipzig. Wilhelm Engelmann. Pt. 2,

No. 1: 1-140.

NoUuvEL, H. (1940) : Observations sur

la sexualite d’un mysidace, Heteromysis

armoricana n. sp. Bull. Inst. Oceanogr.

Monaco. 37: 1-11,

HETEROMYSIS ZEYLANICA TATTERSALL By)

(1942): Diagnoses preli-

minares de mysidaces nouveaux prove-

nant des campagnes du Prince Albert 1

de Monaco. op. cit.39: 1-11.

———— _ (1964): Heteromysis ger-

lachei (Bonnier et Perez) et les especes

actuellement confoundues sous le nom

d’Heteromysis harpax (Crustacea, My-

sidacea). Zool. Meded. Leiden 39 : 37-44.

Prttar, N. K. (1961): Additions to

the Mysidacea of Kerala. Bull. Res.

Inst. Univ. Kerala 8 : 15-35.

Sars, G. O. (1877): Nye bidrag til

Kundskaben om middlehavets inverte-

brat fauna. Arch. Math. Naturyv.

Kristiana 2: 10-119.

— (1885) : Schizopoda : In

Report on the Scientific Voyage of

H.M.S. Challenger during 1873-76,

London. Zool. 13: 1-228.

SmitH, S. I. (1873): Crustacea in

Verrill, A. E. Report upon the inverte-

brate animals of Vineyard Sound and the

adjacent waters, with an account of the

physical characters of the region. Rep.

U.S. Com. Fish. 1871-72. 1: 545-580.

TATTERSALL, O. S. (1961) : Mysidacea

from the coast of tropical west Africa.

Atlantide Rep. 6 : 143-159.

— (1962): Report on a collec-

tion of Mysidacea from African offshore

and coastal waters (1957-59) and from

Zanzibar (1961). Proc. Zool. Soc.

London 139 : 221-247.

TATTERSALL, W. M. (1922): Indian

py he a Rec. Indian Mus. 24: 445

504.

———— (1927a): Report on the

Crustacea Mysidacea. In Zoological

results of the Cambridge expedition to

the Suez Canal 1924. Trans. Zool. Soc.

London 22 : 185-198.

(1927b) : Australian opos-

sum shrimps (Mysidacea). Rec. Austr.

Mus. 3 :235-257.

VERRILL, A. E. (1922): Crustacea of

Bermuda. Schizopoda, Cumacea, Sto-

matopoda and _ Phyllocarida. Trans.

Conn. Acad. Arts. Sci. 26: 181-211.

WALKER, A. O. (1898) : Crustacea

collected by W. A. Herdman F.R.S. in

Puget Sound, Pacific coast of North

America, September 1897. Proc. Trans.

Liverpool Biol, Soc. 12 : 268-287.

Records of rare Fishes of the Family

Chaetodontidae from Bombay

B. F. CHHAPGAR AND J. K. JATAR

Taraporevala Marine Biological Station, Bombay —

(With five text-figures)

In his paper ‘ Further records of lobsters from Bombay ’ (Chhapgar

& Deshmukh 1964), the senior author had remarked on the presence of

some species of fishes at Bombay in 1961-62 which do not normally occur

there. In the year 1966 this phenomenon was again repeated, this time

with fishes of the subfamily Chaetodontinae. The only fish belonging

to this subfamily regularly occurring at Bombay is Chaetodon (Chaeto-

dontops) collare Bloch. However, on 8 March, 1966, along with other

marine fishes collected on the foreshore at Cuffe Parade (southern

Bombay) and brought alive for display at the Taraporevala Aquarium,

was a juvenile specimen of the butterfly fish, Chaetodon (Chaetodontops)

lunula (Lacépéde). More specimens of this species were caught within

the next three months. Finally, on 26 May, 1966, along with one speci-

men of this fish, we received one live specimen each of Anisochaetodon

(Linophora) auriga (Forskal), Anisochaetodon (Oxychaetodon) lineolatus

(Cuvier & Valenciennes), and Chaetodon (Rhabdophorus) xanthocephalus

Bennett. All four fishes are new records for Bombay ; Munro (1955)

has recorded only two of them, viz., A. auriga and C. xanthocephalus from

Ceylon. A key to their identification and brief descriptions are given

below.

KEY TO THE IDENTIFICATION OF BUTTERFLY FISHES OF BOMBAY

1. Scales uniform, with regularly rounded posterior border (Chaetodon)........ p)

Two kinds of ciliated scales ; large rhombic ones, their posterior border with

unequal sides forming an obtuse angle, at least on anterior part of trunk, and

much smaller, regularly rounded ones elsewhere (Anisochaetodon)........ 4

2. Spinous dorsal fin nearly twice longer than soft dorsal...................-

aise heat Coe rRnake SuaueaeMtcs we eee eles Chaetodon (Rhabdophorus) xanthocephalus

Spinous dorsal fin somewhat longer than soft dorsal (Chaetodontops)........3

FISHES OF THE FAMILY CHAETODONTIDAE FROM BOMBAY 59

3. Lower border of eye below a horizontal line passing through the beginning of

tiercape: Oltmenmouth » lateraliline arches)... oe eae iisa eso woe ase soso

Se Sis cis Cae A SE Pa at a IR Cetera Chaetodon (Chaetodontops) — lunula

Lower border of eye touching or slightly above a horizontal line passing through

the beginning of the gape of the mouth ; lateral line angular..............

eae terres NERO Sueitie Se Chaetodon (Chaetodontops) collare

4. Snout straight, slightly longer than eye....Anisochaetodon (Linophora) auriga

Snout conical,twice longer than eye... . Anisochaetodon (Oxychaetodon) lineolatus

Chaetodon (Rhabdophorus) xanthocephalus Bennett

Chaetodon xanthocephalus, Day, 1887-88, p. 104, 1889, pl. 26; Smith, 1953, p. 239,

pl. 32.

Rhabdocephalus xanthocephalus, Munro, 1955, p. 174, pl. 34.

The body is silvery-grey. The area covered by a line cutting across

from the middle of the dorsal fin to the upper part of the caudal peduncle

is jet black. In front of this is a wide oblique white band. The soft

portion of the anal fin is smoky grey. The borders of the dorsal and

anal fins, as well as the cheeks, and breast are orange. The caudal

peduncle is black, but has orange stripes both before and behind it. A

black vertical stripe passes through the eye. Five narrow black parallel

lines run across the body. In their upper half they are straight and

vertical ; in their middle they suddenly turn and run obliquely backward

so as to form an obtuse angle. The tail fin is colourless and transparent.

Pee

wa ah ise

i \ Ue.

One juvenile specimen, 65 mm. in total length, was caught at Cuffe

Parade on 26 May, 1966,

60 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

Chaetodon (Chaetodontops) lunula (Lacépéde)

Chaetodon lunula, Day, 1887-88, p. 108 ; Smith, 1953, p. 238, pl. 31.

Chaetodon (Chaetodontops) lunula, Weber & De Beaufort, 1936, p. 83.

The body is lemon yellow. A black vertical band passes through

the eye ; starting above it, on the forehead, and continuing behind it is

a backwardly curving white collar. Arising from the middle of the

collar and extending backward is a black triangular patch, curving up-

ward but falling far short of the dorsal fin. A dark brown band curves

along the top of the body from shoulder to caudal peduncle, widening at

both extremities. On the trunk is a series of thin, straight, brown lines

running obliquely upward from front to back. The borders of the soft

dorsal and anal fins are lined with black, and there is a thin black line

separating the yellow caudal peduncle from the transparent, colourless

tail fin.

In very young specimens there are two round, white-bordered, black

ocelli, the lower one in front of the caudal peduncle and the other being

slightly above it. As the fish grows, however, the upper ocellus dis-

appears, while between it and the lower ocellus arises a dark grey, curved

line, very thin at the top but widening below. The tips of the spines of

the dorsal fin are black.

Five specimens, ranging from 46 to 110 mm. in total length, were

caught at Cuffe Parade between 8 March and 26 May, 1966,

FISHES OF THE FAMILY CHAETODONTIDAE FROM BOMBAY 61

Chaetodon (Chaetodontops) collare Bloch

Chaetodontops collaris, Munro, 1955, p. 174, pl. 34.

Chaetodon collaris, Day, 1887-88, p. 107, 1889, pl. 27.

Chaetodon (Chaetodontops) collare, Weber & De Beaufort, 1936, p. 91.

Body olive brown, tending to red on the dorsal and anal fins. A dark

chocolate brown vertical band passes through the eye ; in front of and

behind it are vertical white stripes, the latter being broader. The centres

of the scales on the body are paler, giving the appearance of parallel

stripes on the body obliquely ascending from front to back. The soft

dorsal and anal fins are bordered black. The caudal peduncle is car-

mine red, and is separated from the transparent colourless tail fin by a

thin black stripe.

This is the common species of butterfly fish in Bombay, being caught

at all sizes from 35 to 120 mm. in total length.

Anisechaetedon (Linophora) auriga (Forskal)

Chaetodon auriga, Day, 1887-88, p. 106, 1889, pl. 27 ; Smith, 1953, p. 237, pl. 31.

Linophora auriga, Weber & De Beaufort, 1936, p. 103 ; Munro, 1955, p. 175,

pl. 34.

The body is white in the middle, but light golden yellow at all edges

and especially in the regions of the soft dorsal and anal fins and on the

cheeks. The usual black vertical band passing through the cye is present.

Across the upper half of the body are five complete and two incomplete

dark stripes passing obliquely upward from front to back, while on the

lower half of the body are eleven stripes passing obliquely downward

62 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

from front to back, and meeting the previously mentioned stripes at right

angles. The soft dorsal fin is edged with black. There is an oval black

ocellus in the middle of the soft dorsal fin.

One juvenile specimen, 73 mm. in total length, was caught at Cuffe

Parade on 26 May, 1966. The setiferous extension of the dorsal fin

found in this species is absent in the present specimen.

Anisochaetodon (Oxychaetodon) lineolatus (Cuvier & Valenciennes)

Chaetodon lineolatus, Smith, 1953, p. 238, fig. 601.

Anisochaetodon (Oxychaetodon) lineolatus, Weber & De Beaufort, 1936, p. 114,

fig. 29.

The colour of the body is silvery grey, while the cheeks, the soft

dorsal and anal fins (except at the extreme edge) and caudal peduncle

are yellow. A black vertical band passes through the eye. A series of

16 wavy black vertical lines cross the body from just behind the pectoral

fin up to a dark black patch immediately in front of the caudal peduncle.

These lines extend right up to the base of the dorsal fin above, but stop

short a little distance above that of the anal fin. The anteriormost three

to four wavy bands stop somewhere around the middle of the body. A

black crescent-shaped patch runs along the upper posterior border of

the body from the commencement of the soft dorsal fin up to and in-

cluding the caudal peduncle. ‘The caudal peduncle is yellow, with a

narrow black posterior edge. Behind this the tail fin is colourless and

transparent.

FISHES OF THE FAMILY CHAETODONTIDAE FROM BOMBAY 63

One juvenile specimen, 66 mm. in total length, was caught at Cuffe

Parade on 26 May, 1966. This species has been illustrated by Smith

(1953, p. 238) ; however, in his figure the vertical lines are shown straight.

Day (1888) records the distribution of this fish as Ceylon and Zanzibar.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors are grateful to Dr. C. V. Kulkarni, Director, and

Dr. H. G. Kewalramani, Senior Scientific Officer, Department of

Fisheries, Maharashtra, for critically going through the manuscript.

REFERENCES

CHHAPGAR, B. F. & DESHMUKH, S. K.

(1964) : Further records of lobsters from

Bombay. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 61

(1) : 203-207, 1 pl.

Day, F. (1887-88): The fishes of

India 1 : i-xx, 1-816.

— (1889): ibid. 2: 1-11, pls.

1-195.

Munro, IAN, S. R. (1955): The marine

and freshwater fishes of Ceylon: i-xvi,

1-351, pls. 1-56, 19 figs.

SmiTH, J. L. B. (1953): The sea fishes

of southern Africa: i-xvi, 1-564, 107

pls., 1219 figs.

WEBER, MAx & DE BEAUFORT, L. F.

(1936) : The fishes of the Indo-Australian

Archipelago 7: i-xvi, 1-607, 106 figs.

Preference of Castor varieties for

feeding and oviposition by the

Leathopper, Empoasca flavescens (F.)

(Homoptera, Jassidae) with particular

reference to its Honeydew excretion

S. JAYARAJ

Faculty of Entomology,

Agricultural College & Research Institute, Coimbatore

(With two text-figures)

Seshadri & Seshu (1956) reported differential feeding injury on cer-

tain varieties of castor (Ricinus communis L.) inflicted by the leafhopper,

Empoasca flavescens (F.). Further preliminary observations were made

by Dorairaj et al. (1963) and Jayaraj & Basheer (1964) on castor resist-

ance to this insect. Detailed investigations were made by the author

(Jayaraj 1966, 1967a) into the possibility of reducing leafhopper damage

through the use of certain specific castor varieties in a study over three

seasons (1961-1964) and many sowing periods. In exploring the mecha-

nisms of such resistance and susceptibility in these varieties, the pre-

ference-nonpreference component was noted to play an important role.

The present observations were, therefore, initiated to study the prefer-

ence of the leafhopper toward different varieties for feeding and oviposi-

tion and toward leaves of different ages in the varieties. The feeding

preference was further studied in an indirect way by assessing the rate

of honeydew excretion.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The observations were made under insectary conditions with tem-

perature ranging from 21 to 24°C., humidity 80%, and sufficient arti-

ficial lighting. Preference for oviposition was studied in respect of four

castor varieties, viz., Dominica (susceptible), C3. Pakistan (tolerant),

R.C. 1098 Baker (resistant), and R.C. 1096 Coonoor (resistant), in large

wire mesh cages. Four plants, one of each variety, were caged together

and 50 adult jassids allowed to oviposit in them over a period of 72 hours.

FEEDING & OVIPOSITION BY LEAFHOPPER, E. FLAVESCENS (F.) 65

At the end of this period, the adults were killed by ether fumes, and

the plants removed and separately caged. The number of nymphs which

hatched out in each case was taken as the indication for the number of

eggs laid by the leafhoppers. Since the egg stage of the jassid lasts about

eight days (Jayaraj & Basheer, 1964), nymphal counts were commenced

from the eighth day of the experiment and continued up to the 12th day.

Preference for feeding was studied in a similar manner by introduc-

ing fifty freshly hatched nymphs into the cage. The number of nymphs:

found feeding on the plants was considered as having been attracted by

the varieties. The preference of the leafhopper for leaves of different

ages was observed under field conditions with respect to the 20 varieties

mentioned in Table 2. Weekly counts of leafhopper population, both

nymph and adult, were made during the early hours of the morning from

6 a.m. to 8 a.m. with reference to three leaves ineach plant selected from

the top, middle, and bottom of the main shoot. Thus in all, 27 leaves

in nine plants, three in each replication, were examined for each variety

at one time. The observations lasted for a total period ranging from 56

weeks in early-maturing varieties to 66 weeks in late types in two

seasons, 1962-63 and 1963-64.

Honeydew experiments: The preference of the leafhopper for the

four varieties was also tested by observing the frequency of honeydew

excretion as an indication of the feeding efficiency. A small plastic cage

made by placing in juxtaposition two circular, colourless and transparent

plastic dishes held in position by means of rubber bands*was used for the

purpose. One leaf lobe was inserted into the cage at a certain marked

position and a single leafhopper introduced at a time and allowed to feed

for 24 hours. The position of the leaf lobe inside the cage was shifted

once in 6 hours so as to avoid overlapping of the honeydew droplets and

to facilitate easy counting. Data were gathered separately for males,

females, and first instar nymphs in six replications.

The feeding efficiency of the first instar nymph on the four varieties

at different times of the day was studied in another experiment by shift-

ing the leaf lobe position once in two hours, commencing from 6 a.m.

When shifting the leaf position in the night, minimum light was used

for a short time without disturbing the feeding nymph. This experi-

ment was replicated three times.

In assessing the effect of different colours of light on the jassid feed-

ing, cages made out of red, blue, green, yellow, and colourless plastic

dishes were used under fluorescent lighting. The first instar nymph was

allowed to feed for six hours and the number of honeydew droplets

counted. In this experiment the same four varieties were used in four

replications.

66 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (i)

RESULTS

1. Preference of the jassid for castor varieties for oviposition and

feeding

The number of nymphs hatched out from each plant was considered

as an index of the preference for oviposition. The results are given

below :

TABLE 1

PREFERENCE OF CASTOR VARIETIES FOR OVIPOSITION AND FEEDING

No. of nymphs hatched No. of nymphs attracted

Variety out from each plant to each plant for feeding

: (Mean of 8 (Mean of 10

observations) observations)

1. DOMINICA 47°549°9 | 19°8+0°8

(Susceptible)

2. C3. PAKISTAN

(Tolerant) 33°0+43°2 15°741:3

3. R.C. 1098 BAKER

(Resistant) 14°142°5 4°6+40°8

4. R.C. 1096 COONOOR 10°4+2°4 5°540°7

(Resistant)

Critical

difference (P=0.05) 16°0 3°0

The susceptible and tolerant varieties were the most preferred for

Oviposition and feeding. While these two varieties were preferred alike

for oviposition, the susceptible variety attracted significantly more

nymphs for feeding. ‘

2. Preference for leaves of different ages in castor

The mean population data of the insect on leaves of different maturity

of 20 castor varieties observed during 1962-63 and 1963-64 seasons under

field conditions are furnished below.

It may be noted from the Table that the jassid population varied

significantly in the different varieties as also on the leaves of three ages.

The middle leaf harboured the maximum number with a mean of 25:9

followed by the bottom leaf which had a mean population of 20°6. The

top leaf had only a mean population of 4°8 jassids. However, when

considering individual varieties, the preference of the insect for the varie-

ties varied in respect of the age of the leaves. In both the bottom and

middle leaves the varieties differed among themselves very much in the

jassid population while most of the varieties behaved alike in the popu-

lation on the top leaf. The top leaf therefore, cannot serve as a sound

FEEDING & OVIPOSITION BY LEAFHOPPER, E. FLAVESCENS (F.) 67

basis for the evaluation of castor varietal resistance. In any case, the

analysis of the population data leaves no doubt that the preference of the

TABLE 2

COMPARISON OF JASSID INCIDENCE ON LEAVES OF THREE AGES

«IN CASTOR VARIETIES

Jassid population

Variety pels Ne lt Mean

Bottom . Middle Top

leaf leaf leaf

Resistant

1. R.C. 1098 Baker ey 3°3 4°5 1°6 3°1

2. R.C. 1094 Cimmerron es 76 10°1 3:0 69

3. R.C. 1096 Coonoor ue 8°8 11°3 2°6 a5

Intermediate (Tolerant)

Group I

4. R.C. 1077 South Africa wi 12°6 19:9 5°0 12°5

5. Mauthner’s Dwarf oy 11°0 21°1 8°3 13°5

6. R.C. 1095 U.S. 74 Pe 16°7 20°0 7 13°5

7. R.C.552/1 Nagpur 13°5 20°4 4°8 12:9

Group II .

8. R.C. 817 Koilpatti res 18°7 18°2 ha | 13°3

9. R.C. 826 Russia a 222. 18°2 2°6 14°3

10. E.B. 26/1 M.P. Pee 23°3 18°3 2°5 14°7

11. T.M.V. 1 172 29°4 6:0 17°5

Group III

12. C3. Pakistan a 28°6 28°2 3°8 20°2

13. R.C. 488 Egypt Bs 27°6 29°3 4°7 20°5

14. R.C. 842 €ddapah Re 25°6 26°7 4°4 18°9

15. T.M.V. 3 oe 42°3 44°7 5°6 30°9

16. Co. 1 es 31°6 33°6 4:7 23°3

7. TMV: 2 4°3 64°0 6°7 38°3

Susceptible |

18. R.C. 1092 Italy 3 14°5 20°8 6'°8 14°0

19. Israel M.E. ae hie 33°5 6°6 19°3

_ Highly Susceptible

20. Dominica aN 25'0 44:9 10°2 26°7

Mean at 20°6 25°9 4°8

Difference between varieties significant at the 1% probability level. C.D. (P=0°05) 2°8.

Difference between leaves significant at the 1% probability level: C.D. (P=0°'05) 11.

Interaction between varieties and leaves significant at the 1° level. C.D. (P=0°'05) 5:0.

jassid is for the susceptible and tolerant varieties. The susceptible

variety, Dominica, and tolerant varieties like T.M.V. 2 and T.M.V. 3

were preferred to resistant varieties like Baker and Cimmerron.

68 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (i)

3. Honeydew excretion as an index of feeding preference

(i) Excretion of jassid nymph and male and female adults

fed on four varieties

The excretion of the leafhopper, in general, is directly related to the

intake of plant sap. Therefore, the numberof honeydew droplets ex-

creted by the insect in unit time when fed on different castor varieties

is considered as an index for its feeding preference. This assumption

is further based on the earlier findings of Maxwell & Painter (1959) who

reported the possibility of using the rate of honeydew deposition to

measure the degree of resistance of host plants, the rate of ingestion of

plant material, and to serve as a crude measure of the metabolic activity

of the insect. The honeydew excretion of the nymph and male and

female adults was compared and the data illustrated in Fig. 1.

NYMPH

oe FEMALE

is)

Bo E

a MAL

160

in 24 hours

No. of honeydew droplets excreted

jeje)

els)

ago0gu00000

qao0o00000qa0

o00000000

DOMINICA PAKISTAN BAKER COONOOR

(Susceptible) (Tolerant) _ (Resistant) (Resistant)

Host variety

Fig. 1. Honeydew excretion of jassid nymph, male and female adults fed on” four

castor varieties.

The results show the markedly higher level of excretion of the leaf-

hopper when fed on the susceptible and tolerant varieties than when fed

on the resistant ones. Irrespective of the stage or sex of the insect, the

jassid excreted on an average 217°8 droplets in a day when fed on

Dominica variety and 155°3 on Pakistan variety as against only 75°9

and 69:6 on the resistant Baker and Coonoor varieties respectively.

Nymphs caused maximum damage excreting 161°8 honeydew droplets

FEEDING & OVIPOSITION BY LEAFHOPPER, E. FLAVESCENS (F.) 69

followed by female (126°9) and male (100°3) adults. The feeding and

excretory activity of both the sexes were statistically alike when fed on the

tolerant and resistant varieties, while the female excreted significantly

more than the male when fed on the susceptible variety.

(ii) Influence of colour on excretion

Colour affected the honeydew excretion of this leafhopper. Jassids

confined in transparent plastic cages of different colours reacted

differently in respect of feeding and honeydew excretion. The data of

honeydew drops excreted by first instar nymphs are presented in Table 3

TABLE 3

EFFECT OF DIFFERENT COLOURS ON THE RATE OF HONEYDEW EXCRETION

LEAFHOPPER NYMPHS FED ON FOUR CASTOR VARIETIES

No. of honeydew droplets excreted by a first

instar nymph in six hours (Mean of four

Variety observations)

White Red = Blue Green Yellow Mean

Dominica

(Susceptible) an IRE: 10°3 48°0 67°8 18°3 43°3

2. C3. Pakistan

(Tolerant) Ne 60°5 10°8 47°8 64°5 25 41-0

3. R.C. 1098 Baker

(Resistant) i. 34°0 9°0 29°0 29°0 13°5 229

4. R.C. 1096 Coonoor

(Resistant) a 24°0 8°5 35°0 35°0 13°8 23°3

Mean om 47°7 9°6 39°9 49°1 16°8

Difference between varieties significant at the 1% probability level. C.D. (P=0°05)

65:

Difference between colours significant at the 1% probability level. C.D. (P=0'05)

22:9;

Interaction between varieties and colours significant at the 1% probability level. C.D.

(P=0°'05) 14°5.

Normal feeding activity and excretion were observed on exposure

to green, white, and blue lights. Marked differences in the number of

honeydew drops excreted by the leafhopper fed on the susceptible and

tolerant varieties on the one hand and on the resistant varieties on the

other were noticeable only under these colours. Very low honeydew

deposition was noted in yellow and red lights and all the varieties gave

70 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

like results. Thus, besides indicating the effect of colour on the jassid —

excretion, this experiment also confirmed the preference of the insect for

the susceptible and tolerant varieties in preference to the resistant

varieties.

(iii) Honeydew excretion at different times of the day

The feeding activity of the leafhopper fluctuated at different times of

the day. To estimate this, honeydew deposition by first instar nymphs

fed on four castor varieties was observed at intervals of two hours. The

results are illustrated in Figure 2.

28 -

0-+-O DOMINICA

O° x (Susceptible)

wee x :

° . : @— @ PAKISTAN

\ O (Tolerant)

” 20 i Be 7

@ \

& _~-. *

Q \

SA) :

E re)

9 ’

ly +

= \

4p $<,

= ie? \ Be.

& . @* ° ~*~ BAKER

=e \ t (Resistant)

: ae | N /

(o) nN \ re r . (O== 3

= eas Or 3 ~D COONOOR

8 aah * 4 . (Resistant)

oO \ \@ i ms

6 hee 0” wie 16. 1G PoIG eh 20. pie ou tO 2 4

to to to to to to to to to to to to

840 92 ae ae te IS 20 22) 0.2 Z 6

TIME OF THE DAY ;

Fig. 2. Honeydew excretion of jassid nymphs fed-on tour castor varieties during

different times of the day.

As in the previous experiments the number of honeydew droplets

excreted by the leafhopper was significantly higher when fed on the

susceptible and tolerant varieties than when fed on the resistant varieties.

exces

FEEDING & OVIPOSITION BY LEAFHOPPER, E. FLAVESCENS (F.) 71

Excretion was markedly more during the night than during the day—

100°2 droplets were excreted by a jassid nymph in the night hours from

6 p.m. to 6 a.m. as against only 55°8 from 6 a.m. to 6 p.m., taking all the

varieties together. The feeding activity and consequently the excretion

were least during the hotter hours from 12 noon to 4 p.m. and maximum

between 8 p.m. and 10 p.m. (Fig. 2). However, the differences between

varieties in this regard were still maintained. The interaction between

varieties and periods within day and night was not significant.

In all the above honeydew experiments it was observed that the

honeydew droplets excreted by the leafhoppers that fed on susceptible

and tolerant varieties were comparatively big, dark green, and opaque,

while those on resistant varieties were much smaller, pale green to colour-

less, and translucent to transparent. |

DISCUSSION

It is. interesting to note that under field as well as under insectary

conditions, the jassid prefers the susceptible and tolerant varieties for

feeding and oviposition (Tables 1 and 2). The efficiency with which the

preferred host-varieties are discovered by the leafhoppers arouses interest

and curiosity. The plausible explanation for their preference lies among

other factors in the nutritional superiority of the susceptible and tolerant

varieties over the resistant ones as surmised by Lipke & Fraenkel (1956)

for phytophagous insects in general. In other words, the nutritional

requirements of the jassid may have a direct bearing on host selection.

In fact Painter (1958) has pointed out that not much emphasis has been

placed on the use of resistant varieties, particularly resistant and suscep-

tible isogenic pairs, as tools in the study of insect nutrition. The role

played by the chemical senses of the insect in the matter of host selection

may also be of much significance in this connection (Dethier 1953, 1954).

The susceptible variety Dominica and the tolerant variety C3.

Pakistan contain higher quantities of total nitrogen, free amino acids,

and peptides than the resistant R.C. 1098 Baker variety (Jayaraj 1967b).

The resistant varieties were not preferred by the insect owing to their

nutritional inferiority. These varieties had higher concentrations of total

carbohydrates, sucrose and glucose than the susceptible and tolerant

varieties, and in addition had fructose (Jayaraj 1967b). As the leaf-

hoppers have been observed to avoid higher concentrations of sugars,

particularly sucrose (Nuorteva 1952), the increased quantity of sugars

present in resistant varieties may be supposed to repel the jassids.

As reported by Kennedy (1953) in the case of Aphis fabae Scop., the

leafhopper Empoasca flavescens also seems to be capable of discriminating

between different castor varieties and the leaves of different ages within

the variety. The jassids are undoubtedly better adapted and in a better

72 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

position to do so than the aphids because of their more active habits.

The middle and bottom leaves are generally preferred to the top leaves.

Aphids, however, prefer tender leaves (Kessler et al. 1958; Kennedy

1958).

Maxwell & Painter (1959) reported the possibility of using the rate of

honeydew deposition to measure the degree of resistance of host plants,

the rate of ingestion of plant material, and to serve as a crude measure

of the metabolic activity of the insect. The frequency of honeydew

excretion was significantly higher in E. flavescens fed on the preferred

hosts than when fed on nonpreferred resistant varieties (Fig. 1). Auclair

(1958, 1959) observed that the honeydew droplet volume, the frequency,

and rate of excretion in Acyrthosiphon pisum (Harr.) were generally

proportional to the susceptibility of the pea variety. Maxwell & Painter

(1959) also found increased frequency of honeydew excretion in Toxo-

ptera graminum (Rond.) and Therioaphis maculata (Buck) fed on various

alfalfa clones, and wheat and barley varieties varying in susceptibility

to aphid attack.

The nymphs of E. flavescens excreted more honeydew than adults,

and generally the female caused more damage than the male (Fig. 1).

It has also been found that when the nymph/adult ratio is high, percentage

hopperburn is high (Jayaraj 1967c), a phenomenon, in part, due to the

voracious nature of the nymphs and their ability to drain more plant sap.

The frequency of excretion by the adults of the aphid Tuberolachnus

salignus (Gmelin) was much less than that of the nymphs (Mittler 1958)

whereas in the aphid Acyrthosiphon pisum (Harr.) it was higher in the

adults (Auclair 1958).

The higher deposition of honeydew in the night time recorded in the

present studies (Fig. 2) may be because of the increased feeding activity

of the leafhopper which prefers lower temperatures (Jayaraj 1964). The

fact that red light retards the feeding and excretory activities of the leaf-

hopper (Table 3) suggests an explanation for the less preference of the

red-leaved variety R.C. 1092 Italy which is, however, a nontolerant

variety classified under the susceptible category (Jayaraj 1967a).

SUMMARY s

In the mechanisms of resistance in castor (Ricinus communis L.) to

the leafhopper, Empoasca flavescens (F.), the nonpreference component

was found to play an important role. Evidence has been presented to

show that for feeding and oviposition the insect preferred Dominica

(susceptible) and C3. Pakistan (tolerant) varieties to the resistant R.C.

1098 Baker and R.C. 1096 Coonoor varieties. The preference among

the 20 varieties was for the susceptible and tolerant types and for the

middle and bottom leaves rather than the top leaves within the plant.

FEEDING & OVIPOSITION BY LEAFHOPPER, E. FLAVESCENS (F.) 73

The nymphs and adults fed on susceptible and tolerant hosts excreted

more honeydew than those fed on resistant plants. The excretion of

honeydew was found to be more frequent in the case of nymphs as com-

pared with adults. Normal feeding activity and excretion were observed

on exposure to green, blue, and white lights, while yellow and red reduced

the excretion. Excretion was significantly more during night than in the

day, and was much retarded during the hotterhours on all the varieties.

The plausible mechanism of the preference or nonpreference is ex-

plained from the nutritional point of view.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This study formed part of the thesis submitted to the University of

‘Madras for the Ph.D. degree, and financial support was given by the

Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, New Delhi. Grateful

appreciation is extended to Prof. A. R. Seshadri, Agricultural College

and Research Institute, Coimbatore, and Prof. R. H. Painter, Kansas

State University, Kansas, U.S.A., for valuable suggestions made during

the course of study.

REFERENCES

Auciair, J. L. (1958): Honeydew

excretion in the pea aphid, Acyrthosi-

phon pisum (Harr.). J. Insect Physiol.

2 : 330-337.

—— (1959): Feeding and excre-

tion by the pea aphid, Acyrthosiphon

pisum (Harr.) reared on different varie-

ties of peas. Ent. exptl. et appl. 2:

279-286.

Deruier, V. G. (1953): Host plant

perception in phytophagous insects.

Tages. 9th Int. Cong. Ent., Amsterdam 2:

————. (1954) : Evolution of feeding

preferences in phytophagous insects.

Evolution 8: 33-54.

DorarrAJ, M. S., SAviTHRI, V., &

AryapurRAI, S. G. (1963): Population

density as a criterion for evaluating

varietal resistance of castor to jassid

infestation. Madras agric. J. 50: 100.

JAYARAJ, S. (1964) : Investigations on

the mechanism of resistance in castor

(Ricinus communis L.) to the leafhopper,

Empoasca flavescens (F.) (Homoptera,

Jassidae). Unpub. Ph.D. Thesis, Univ.

Madras.

(1966) : Influence of sowing

times of castor varieties on their resis-

tance to the leafhopper, Empoasca fla-

vescens (Homoptera, Jassidae). Ent.

exp. appl. 9 : 359-369.

———— (1967a): Studies on the

resistance of castor plants (Ricinus com-

munis L.) to the leafhopper, Empoasca

flavescens (F.) (Homoptera, Jassidae).

Z. angew. Ent. 59 : 117-126.

—-— (1967b): Effect of leaf-

hopper infestation on the metabolism

of carbohydrate and nitrogen in castor

varieties in relation to their resistance to

Empoasca flavescens (F.) (Homoptera,

ue Indian J. exp. Biol. 5: 156-

(1967c) : Antibiosis mecha-

nism of resistance in castor varieties

to the leafhopper, Empoasca flavescens

(F.) (Homoptera, Jassidae). Indian J.

Ent. 29 : 73-78.

——— & BASHEER, M. (1964):

Biological observations on the castor

leafhopper, Empoasca flavescens (F.)

Coe : Homoptera). Madras agric.

J. 51 : 89.

KENNEDY, J. S. (1953): Host selec-

tion in Aphididae. Trans. 9th Int.

Cong. Ent., Amsterdam, 2: 106-113.

———— (1958): Physiological condi-

tion of the host-plant and susceptibility

i apna attack. Ent. exptl. et appl. 1:

KessLer, B., SwirskI, E., & TAHORI,

A. S. (1958): Effect of caffeine and

other purines upon the ribonucleic acid/

deoxyribonucleic acid ratio in leaves,

and the suitability of these leaves for

aphids. Nature, 181: 1595-96.

Lipke, H., & FRAENKEL, G. (1956):

Insect nutrition. Annu. Rev. Entomol.

1: 17-44.

MaxweELL, F. G., & PAINTER, R. H.

(1959) : Factors affecting rate of honey-

dew deposition by Therioaphis maculata

(Buck.) and Toxopetra graminum (Rond.)

J. econ. Ent. 52: 368-373.

MrrTLer, T. E. (1958): The excre-

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (1)

tion of honeydew by Tuberolachnus

salignus (Gmelin) (Homoptera : Aphidi-

ae Proc. R. ent. Soc. Lond. (A) 33:

“55. ;

Nuor Teva, P. (1952): Die Nahrungs-

pflanzenwahl der Insekten im Lichte von

Untersuchungen an Zikaden. Ann.

Acad. Sci. fenn., A TV, 19 : 1-90.

PAINTER, R. H. (1958): Resistance

of plants to insects. Annu. Rev. Entomol.

3 : 267-290.

SESHADRI, C. R., & SesHu, K.A.:

(1956): Preliminary observations on

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Observations on Age and Growth of

Tachysurus sona (Ham.)’

VusAl D. SINGH? AND M. S. REGE

Department of Zoology, Institute of Science, Bombay-1\

(With eight text-figures)

INTRODUCTION

The sub-order Siluroidea is represented mainly by the family

Tachysuridae (Ariidae) along the Bombay coast, where itis of considera-

ble economic importance. Its fishery along the coast has improved con-

siderably with the recent introduction of mechanised fishing boats and

motor trawlers which have more or less replaced the use of hook and line

(restricted to the monsoon season only) as the principal mode of capture

of catfishes. Catfishes ranked second in the total marine fish catches of

Maharashtra for the years 1962-63 and 1963-64 (Annual Report 1963-64,

Department of Fisheries, Maharashtra). Of the six species of com-

mercial importance along the Bombay coast, the husky catfish, Tachy-

surus sona locally known as ‘ Shigala’ ranks first, constituting about

60% of the catfish catches. Practically no information is available on

the biology of this fish. The present study, however, deals only with

the age and growth of the fish.

Growth studies of fishes have become an important aspect of fishery

biology investigations in view of their use in population models for

estimating the yield of a fishery. The yield estimate from population

models such as those given by Beverton & Holt (1957) is obtained in

terms of weight of the fish caught, for which a correct knowledge of

growth parameters and length-weight relationship are necessary besides

other vital statistics like catch and effort. The growth parameters

obtained in the present study are based on vertebral reading supplemen-

ted by the evidence obtained from the length-frequency polygons.

2 Part of the Thesis submitted for the M.Sc. Degree of the Bombay University

by the senior author.

2 Present Address :—Central Inland Fisheries Institute, Barrackpore P.O., via

Calcutta.

76 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The material which formed the basis of the present study was collec-

ted from the catches of bag-nets (Dol jal), long-lines and trawls at Sas-

soon Dock. Some samples were also collected from different landing

places in Bombay such as Chaupatty and Versova, during the monsoon

months. Samples were collected at fortnightly intervals and care was

taken to collect an unbiased sample of the catch.

Total length of each fish was measured to the nearest millimetre from

the tip of the snout to the tip of the upper lobe of the caudal fin. Weight

of the fish was taken to the nearest gramme by using a Salter pan balance

for smaller fishes but for bigger fishes, weighing one kilogram or more,

a spring balance was used.

For age reading, fifth vertebra which lies behind the ‘ complex ver-

-—tebra’ described by Karandikar & Masurekar (1954) was selected as it

is flat and easy to separate. The use of vertebrae was necessitated by the

absence of scales in T. sona. Pantulu (1961, 1962 & 1963) developed the

use of pectoral spines in medium sized catfishes, while Saigal (1963)

pointed out that vertebrae can also be used in determining the age of the

freshwater catfish, Mystus aor (Ham.). Since T. sona grows to a large

size, the use of pectoral spine could not be made for age reading because

of difficulties in obtaining suitable sections. Many earlier workers have

made use of vertebrae for the study of age and growth of fishes, (Heincke

1908, Appleget & Smith 1951, Partlo 1955, Mather & Schuck 1960).

_ For obtaining the fifth vertebra a portion of the body containing

the first few vertebrae was cut off and boiled in water for about five

minutes so as to remove the adhering tissue. Then the fifth vertebra

was separated from the rest with the help of a scalpel. While separating

the vertebra, all possible care was taken not to damage the margin of

the vertebra. In some cases where the margins were found damaged,

the specimens were discarded. The vertebrae were cleaned in ether so

as to remove adhering fat and then kept in glycerine for about a week

until the growth rings became clearly visible. To discriminate the true

and false rings, a few vertebrae with very clear rings were stained by

Galtsoff’s (1952) method and kept as model specimens for comparison.

The vertebrae showed alternating narrow (dark) and wide (opaque)

concentric zones, around a centre. True and false rings could be easily

distinguished by their circular continuity or discontinuity respectively.

The distance of each ring was measured from the centre along a

radial.plane to the longest axis of the vertebra. Measurement of each

zone was done by a micrometer eye piece. In all fifty-one vertebrae

were examined and growth checks from each were measured, ‘a

AGE AND GROWTH OF TACHYSURUS SONA (HAM.) 77

AGE AND GROWTH

The length of 7. sona at the time of formation of successive annuli

was back calculated for each fish by making use of the relationship bet-

ween the radius of the vertebrae and the length of the fish.

ia Rebar. & ons 0

LOG Y =-1-2281 + 12116 LOG x

LOG x = 10869 + 0:7853 LOG Y

r= 0:975433

LOG TOTAL RADIUS CMICRO DIV:-)

2:0 2:2 2-4. | 2:6 2:8

LOG TOTAL LENGTH (mm)

Text-Fig. 1. Relation between vertebral radius and total length of the fish.

Points denote observed values.

This relationship is shown in Figure 1 and was found to be linear

in the logarithmic form which can be expressed as

log y=a-+b log X

where y=radius of the vertebrae and X=length of the fish and ‘a’

and ‘b’ are the two constants. The straight line relationship between

the vertebral radius and length of T. sona is found to be

log y= —1:'2281+1:2116 log X.... (1)

which can be conversely expressed as

los xX — 1°0869--0°7853 log y..-: - 2)

The correlation coefficient ‘ r’ of the two variables is found to be 0:975433,

which is highly significant.

In deriving a formula for back-calculation it was considered more

appropriate to take into consideration the regression of the total length

on radius of the vertebrae (2), (Smith 1955, Pantulu & Singh 1962, and

Pantulu op. cit.). Based on this relationship the following formula for

48 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (i)

back-calculating lengths, at the time of formation of different annuli,

was used.

log /,=log L;-+b (log r,--log R,).

Where In=length at age n ; Lt=length at the time of capture ; r,=radius

of the vertebra at age n; R,=the total radius of the vertebra at the

time of capture ; and b=slope of the regression line. The advantage

in using this formula is that the estimates are based on a calculated

slope which eliminates any errors arising when a direct relationship is

assumed. The mean values of the back-calculated lengths are presented

in Table 1.

TABLE |

MEAN BACK CALCULATED LENGTHS (MM.) AT THE END OF EACH YEAR OF

LIFE OF ALL AGE GROUPS OF 7. sona

ine ini minal

- Age in years ;

Length at | Number of Ser men REPO, ah. Oe as Far hay

capture Specimens

1 - 2. 3 4 5

205 2 183°2 — — — —

265 3 192°9 298°3 369°2 — —

325 4 228°9 292°7 398°7 — =

345 4 229°6 284°4 299°7 323°2 —

352 6 212°9 287°1 307°0 390°9 —

393 4 270°9 306°8 356°0 393°2

405 2 | 261°0 310°7 373°5 395°6 400°7

413 1 265°5 326°6 a72°2 395°0 —

435 3 271°9 337:0 386°3 408°6 428:0

445 3 — 345°7 380°2 410°4 431°4

450 2 284°4 351°4 393°4 422°6 437°5

460 4 223°6 339°5 395°5 416°2 434°9

465 1 202°1 354°8 | 400:°7 429:0 454:0

470 Wd 2127 342°9 407°4 431°3 4651

500 4 205°6 a tec 4) 433-2 oh

510 1 s 361:3.| 415-9 450°4 475-8

550 3 242°5 379°5 | 405:0 466°5 505°4

570 2 — 318°4 | 403°9 472°0 534°4

Total 51

384°4 417°0 454°0

Mean | 229°9 315°6

The length frequency polygons as have been used by many workers

for determining the age of fishes was found to be very useful in the case |

of T. sona which has a restricted spawning season (Singh 1965).

Cassie (1954) made use of the arithmetic probability paper to dis-

sect out different length groups and determine graphically the mean

and the standard deviation of each group. The method suggested by

Cassie (op. cit.) has been followed in the present study. After estimat-

ing the mean and the standard deviation, the frequency distribution was

ibe Sf ed

AGE AND GROWTH OF TACHYSURUS SONA (HAM.) 79

—xX

as argument to enter the pro-

bability table where (x—x) is the difference between the mean length and

a given value.

The modal values of the length frequency distribution in the first

quarter given in Table 2 and plotted in figure 2, were 212°5, 296°5,

calculated by using the value of as

APRIL TO JUNE

PISH

NUMBER OF

152-5 2325 3125 3925 472°5 552°5 632°5

TOTAL LENGTH IN mm.

Text-Fig. 2. Size frequency distribution of 7. sona for the vag 1963-64 re-

presented quarterly. The year classes have been separated by

probability plot.

80 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (i)

396°5, 472°5, and 544:5 which were designated as ‘A’, “B’,‘C’,‘D’,

and ‘E”’ respectively for convenience of following their subsequent

progression. The mode ‘A’ showed a progression of 20 mm. by the

time it reached the second quarter that is from October to December,

in the third and fourth quarters that is from January to March and from

Aprilto June an increase of 12 mm. and 8 mm. respectively was observed.

TABLE 2

MEAN VALUES OF LENGTH OF DIFFERENT SIZE GROUPS SEPARATED

BY PROBABILITY PLOT AND MODES CORRESPONDING TO VARIOUS CLASSES

GROUP ASSIGNED

Year 1963-64

Expected age. |—=§_-——————_— — — —————_— _

group July to October to January to April to

September December March June

1 (A) 21235 232°5 244°5 252°5

(24:0) (20°0) (15:0)

2 (B) 296°5 32925 330°5 344°5

(26°0) (19°0) (29:0) (26°0)

3 (C) 396°5 404:5 === aa

(36°0) (12:0)

4(D) 472°5 482°5 ; 492°5 500°5

(15:0) (40°0) (36°0) (30°0)

5 (E) 544°5 — — 552:5

(29:0) (5°0)

6 (F) — — — 587°5

(15°0)

Note: The standard deviation is given in parentheses, A. B. C. D. E. F, indicate

modes in Fig. 2.

The progression of the mode marked as ‘ B’ from the first quarter to

the second quarter was found to be 35 mm. showing no substantial pro-

gression in subsequent quarters. The mode ‘C’ showed a moderate

increase from the first quarter to the second quarter, being completely

absent in the samples examined during the remaining period. The

mode ‘ D’ remained at the same value throughout the year whereas ‘ E’

appeared in the first quarter and again in the last quarter and ‘ F’ only

in the last quarter.

The above account does not give any reliable index of the increase in

length from one quarter to the next of each year class probably because

the samples were not large enough to account for shifting of the modes

from one year class to the next. However, it did give a rough estimate

of different year classes in different quarters of the year.

AGE AND GROWTH OF TACHYSURUS SONA (HAM.) 81

It may be seen that the younger age-groups below five years were

present only in the samples obtained during October-March, while in the

next half year (April-September) the samples were fairly well represented

by older fish.

When the length frequency distribution of all the samples, obtained

during the period June 1963 to June 1964, were plotted as histograms

(Fig. 3) and the normal curves were fitted to the data, by following the

.@)

fod

300 500

TOTAL LENGTH IN MM.

Text-Fig. 3. Size frequency distribution of 7. sona for 1963-64, showing the

various year classes separated by the probability method.

TABLE 3

MEAN VALUES AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS OF DIFFERENT SIZE GROUPS IN

THE POOLED SIZE FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION

Percentage

Year Class m S of total n

1 ZirS 12 8°8 ; WV

2 307'5 49 49°3 95

3 wee wee: ee Wie

4 432°5 40 16°1 Si

5 492°5 33 19°] 37

6 5725 17 6'7 13

100°0 193

snes hc mnie cil a

m=mean.

s=standard deviation.

-f1=number.

82 JOURNAL, ROMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

method described above, the mean values obtained by the probability

plot were 210, 325, 450, 510 and 610 (Fig. 4). These are given in Table 3

along with their standard deviations. The modal values thus obtained

agreed very closely with the back calculated lengths of different year-

classes (Table 4), determined from the zones on the vertebrae. How-

ever, in the third year the modal length 384:4 mm. did not agree well.

This may be probably due to the absence of this year-class in the

length frequency histograms.

692:5

§92°5

392-5

LENGTH IN mm.

LS)

192

5 ;

0:0! 0:05 0205 | 20 30 4050 6& 70 80! 90 95

15-67 84°13

98 99 99:899:'9 99°99

CUMULATIVE PERCENTAGE

Text-Fig. 4. Probability plot of the length frequency distribution of 7. sona

showing the method of separating the theoretical curve com-

ponents.

TABLE 4

COMPARISON OF MEAN LENGTH CALCULATED BY BACK CALCULATION

AND LENGTH FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION

Age in years Vertebral studies | Dan Rene

1 229-9 210

2 315°6 325

3 384-4 ~ } se

4 417-0 450

5 454-0 Be 510 -

6 — 610

The close correspondence between the back calculated average lengths

and the observed modal lengths substantiates the validity of growth

checks on the vertebrae as annular and justifies their use for age deter-

‘mination. In the case of T. sona, the formation of the clear cut growth

rings on the vertebrae may probably be attributed to the stress of spawn-

ing, which is annual and restricted to a short period. In addition to

/ AGE AND GROWTH OF TACHYSURUS SONA (HAM.) 83

that, the habit of buccal incubation of eggs in this fish, leads to a suspen-

sion of feeding which probably acts as a growth retarding factor (Singh

op. cit.).

Empirical Growth

The von Bertalanffy (1938, 1957) growth equation,

P= leo (1 —er-k (t-tp))

where 1, length at age t ; lcoo—maximum length to which the fish can

grow ; K=catabolic coefficient ; t=age of fish ; t,=theoretical value of

age when length is zero, is used for fitting the growth curve of T. sona ;

the value of loo was determined by using the graphical method of

Walford (1946), (Fig. 5). The value of t, is calculated graphically

according to the method given by Ricker (1958) and is shown in Fig. 6,

600

6°O

400 5:6

y 52

+ &

K ws

oO 4:8

200 J

° 200 400 600

LENGTH IN mm, t

Text-Fig. 5. The length and age data plotted at age t against length at age t+1.

The intersection of the bisector gives an estimate of Loo

Text-Fig. 6. Log (Loo—It) plotted against age ‘ t’ for estimating t,.

The estimated values of loo; k and t, describing the growth of

T. sona are as follows :

loo=525°5, k=0°3507, t= — 0°69.

The von Bertalanffy growth equation of T. sona may be written as,

1,=525.5 ( 1-e —9.3507 (é-(-0.69) )

From the above growth equation the length of a fish at various year-

classes can be calculated. The calculated values of lengths at different

ages are given in Table 5. These were found to agree closely with the

observed lengths at different ages. 7

84 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

Length-weigth Relationship.

The weight of the ungutted fish was taken to the nearest gramme

and the average weight when plotted against 10 mm. size interval

TABLE 5

AVERAGE LENGTHS OF TJ. sona ESTIMATED BY VARIOUS

METHODS CORRESPONDING TO YEAR-CLASSES

Theoretical Modes of length

i ; : frequency

Age in years Vertebra studies growth equation ditabution

1 229 234 210

2 315 i 320 325

3 384 380 ay

4 A417 423 as

5 454 453 450

6 474 —

7 489 ame

8 499 =<

9 506 =

10 12 510

(Fig. 7), gave the relationship of the curvilinear type. This can be des-

cribed by the equation : :

Weal?

The equation can also be written as,

log W=log. a+b log L.

Accordingly, the length-weight relationship of T. sona was found to be as

log W=-4'794868+-2:932107 log L.

The coefficient of correlation ‘ r’=0-9848 is highly significant and

shows that the relationship follows strictly the cube law, which is not

always true in catfishes. Appleget & Smith (1951) gave the value of

‘b’ as 3°66, in channel catfish which shows that weight increases at a

power much greater than the cube of the length, indicating that the

relationship between length and weight deviates from the cube law.

Relative condition

The changes in the condition of the fish or the ‘k’ value largely

depend on the state of the fish and therefore it gives a good indication

of the spawning period. Le Cren (1951), reviewed the limitations of

using the formula K = oa in the case of those fish which do not

obey the cube law and suggested a modification to account for the

deviation in the length-weight relationship. The modified formula is

bid where ‘ W ’ is the observed weight and W is the calculated weight

K,, SAT

AGE AND GROWTH OF TACHYSURUS SONA (HAM.) 85.

according to the length-weight relationship. In the present study the

‘K,,’ values were calculated using this modified formula.

LOG WEIGHT 5

o g o x 2 0 S

a3) ) “ ray) rar) NW N

2100 A : eT oe 1'-SO

11-90

‘ G)

12-30 ©

O o zZ

b Oe te eee =@)

e j a

poe EE

1500 : sie rat aos a 2°70

3:10

1000

— m

O ad

WwW

500

oy 5" =" 297°5 397°5 497°5 597:°5 647°5

TOTAL LENGTH IN ™m.

Text-Fig. 7. Length-weight relationship of 7. sona

(a) Scatter diagram of absolute values.

(b) Log-log—transformation,

VALUES

86° JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

From the variations in the ‘ K,,’ values at different lengths as shown

in Figure 8, it appears that the fish spawns for the first time when it is

{-2.0

Kn.

(@) ony

Ye]

Oi OG

MEAN

205°5 305-5 405°5 O75 605°5

TOTAL LENGTH IN MM.

Text-Fig. 8. Mean ‘ Kn’ values at different lengths of 7. sona.

about 240 mm. in length that is in the second year of its life. Subse-

quent spawnings take place when the fish attains the lengths of about

345, 475, and 525 mm. i.e. in the 3rd, 4th, and 5th year of its life.

SUMMARY

Age determination of T. sona was made from the zones on the ver-

tebrae. The back-calculated lengths of each year class were used to

study the growth of fish and to show the accuracy of back calculations.

The results were compared with the length frequency histograms. A

close agreement was obtained between observed and back calculated

lengths. The age-length data were used to estimate the growth para-

meters of the von Bertalanffy growth equation. Length-weight relation-

ship of the fish was determined and the fluctuations in the condition

factor (k) which probably correspond to the spawning were noticed.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors are thankful to the Director, Institute of Science, Bombay,

for the facilities provided at the Institute and to the Director, Central

Institute of Fisheries Education, Bombay, for his constant encourage-

ment during the course of these investigations. The authors also wish

to express their deep sense of gratitude to Dr. S. Z. Qasim for his valuable

suggestions and help in preparing the manuscript of this paper,

AGE AND GROWTH OF TACHYSURUS SONA (HAM.) 87

REFERENCES

ANoNyMous:; Annual Report 1963-

64 Department of Fisheries, Maharashtra |

State.

APPLEGET, JOHN, & SMITH, LLOYD, L.,

gr. (1951): The determination of age

and rate of growth from vertebrae of the _

catfish, Jctalurus lacustris

Trans. Amer. Fish.. Soc., 80:

119-139. : :

BERTALANFFY, L., VON (1938): A

quantitative theory of organic growth,

(Inquiries on growth laws, II). Auman

Biology 10 (2) : 181-213.

——— (1957): Quantitative

channel

punctatus.

laws

in metabolism and growth Quart. Rev.

Bole s2 2217-31.

BEVERTON, R:. J: H., & Hott, S. J.

(1957) : On the dynamics of exploited fish= -

populations. U.K. Min. Agr. and Fish.,

Fish., Invest., Ser. 2, 19 : 533 pp.

Cassig,; R. M. (1954): Some uses_ of

probability paper in the analysis of size

frequency distribution. Australian J.Mar.

Freshw. Res. 5 : 515-522.

GALTSOFF, PAUL S. (1952): Staining

of growth rings in the vertebrae of tuna,

Thunnus thynnus. Copeia No. 2.

HEINCKE, F. R. (1908) : Bericht uber

die untersu. Chungeu des Biologish-

chen Austalt anf Helgoland zur Natur-

geschichte der Nutzfische (1 April 1905

bis 1 Oktober, 1907).

‘ Die Beteiligung Deutschlands and the

- internationalur Meercsporschung.’

IV/V Jahersberchit : 67-155.

(Not consulted in original).

KARANDIKAR, K. R. & MASUREKAR,

V. B. (1954): Weberian ossicles and

other related structures of Arius platysto-

mus (Day). Jour. Bombay University.

XXII part 5 : 1-28.

LE -Cren, E. D. (1951): The length-

weight relationship and seasonal cycle

in gonad weight and condition in perch

(Perca fluviatilis). J. Anim. Ecol. 20:

201-219. “ee Bay

MATHER, |FRANK, J., & SCHUCK,

Howarp, A. (1960): Growth of blue

fin tuna of the Western North Atlantic.

U.S. Fish. Wild. Ser. Fish. Bull. 179.

PANTULU, VV. R. (1961): Determi-

nation of age and growth of Mystus

gulio (Ham.) by the use of pectoral spines,

with observation on its biology and

fishery in the Hooghly estuary. Proc.

Nat. Sci. India 27B (4) : 1-30.

(1962): On the use of pec-

toral spines for the determination of age

and. ._growth of Pangasius pangasius

(Ham.). J. Cons. Inst., Explor. Mar.27:

192-216.

——— (1963): Studies on the age

and growth, fecundity and spawning of

Osteogeneiosus militaris .(Lin.). J.

Cons. Int., Explor. Mar. 28 : 295-315.

——— & SINGH, V. D. (1962):

On the use of otoliths for the determi-

nation of age and growth of Anguilla

nebulosa nebulosa (Mcclelland). Proc.

Indian Acad. Sci., 55 : 263-275.

PARTLO, J. M. (1955): Distribution, .

age and growth of Eastern Pacific .

albacore (Thunnus alalunga Gmelin).

J. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada 12 : 35-60.

RICKER, W. E. (1958) : Hand book of

computations for biological statistics

of fish population. Fish. Res. Bd.

Canada, Bull. 119 : pp. 300.

SAIGAL, B. N. (1963): Note on the

use Of vertebrae in age determination of

the fresh water catfish Mystus (Osteo-

bagrus) aor (Ham.) of the Ganga river

system. Sci. & Cult., 29 (6): 306-7.

SINGH, VAI DEV (1965): A study of

Tachysurus sona (Ham.). Thesis sub-

mitted to the Bombay University for

M.Sc. degree (unpublished).

SMITH, S. B. (1955): The — relation

between scale diameter and body length

of Kamloops Trout, Salmo gairdneri

kamloops. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada,

12 : 742-53. ‘

WALFORD, L. A. (1946): A new gra-

phic method of describing the growth

of animals. Biol. Bull. 90 (2) : 141-47.

Algae of Alibag, Maharashtra

N. D. KAMAT

Botany Department, College of Science, Nagpur

(With a map)

In this paper 221 taxa belonging to five classes—Chlorophyceae,

Charophyceae, Euglenophyceae, Chrysophyceae, and

Cyanophyceae are recorded.

In this paper freshwater and brackish water algae collected in October

1960 from different places in the central and northern parts of Alibag

Taluka are recorded.

Alibag Taluka, in Kolaba District, Maharashtra State, lies on the

western coast of India. The geology is essentially that of the Deccan

Trap formations. The average yearly rainfall is slightly over 200 cm.

The minimum and maximum temperatures recorded for the year 1960

were 62°F. in January and 95°F. in May. All the places of collection

lie at mean sea-level.

The collections were made from brackish water in khar paddy fields

-and from fresh water. The khar paddy fields were reclaimed in the year

1870 from a large belt of salt marsh and mangrove swamps between

Rewas and Shahabaj. This land is known as Kharepat or salt lands,

and the paddy fields are known as khar paddy fields. They yield a very.

good crop of rice. Sea water encroaches on the whole of the reclaimed

land at least two or three times during the monsoon. As these paddy-

fields are never ploughed, there is a luxuriant algal growth. The domi-

nant alga of these paddy fields is Chara zeylanica Willd. locally known as

kushya har (a garland of bristles). The alga is a troublesome weed.

The planktonic alga Rhizoclonium hieroglyphicum (Agardh) Kuetz.

is also common.

The freshwater collection areas were ponds, pools, and paddy fields.

Every village had at least one pond. Most of these ponds are being

used for breeding freshwater fishes for the last four to five years. These

are mainly plankton-feeders. It is noteworthy that the richest yield of

fishes was in a pond at Kihim, where the algal flora was also richest.

Almost every pond had two to three members of Chara and/or Nitella.

The paddy fields invariably had Gloeotrichia raciborskii Wol. The

small pools on the way-side contain a large amount of organic matter,

ALGAE OF ALIBAG, MAHARASHTRA 89

the dung of buffaloes which visit these pools at noon and remain in them

for a long time constantly disturbing the water. These pools, locally

known as bodhans, contain plankton usually Euglenophyceae.

So far only four algae, Spirogyra moebii Trans. (Syn. Spirogyra

bimorphis Dixit), Nitella tenuissima Kuetz. v. byssoides Braun,

N. furcata Agardh, and chara brachypus Braun collected from a pond

at Alibag in August have been recorded by Dixit (1937, 1940)?.

- ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author takes this opportunity to thank his brother Shri Mangesh

D. Kamat for help during the collection of these algae. He also thanks

Rey. Fr. H. Santapau, Director, Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta, for

encouragement. |

CHLOROPHYCEAE

Gonium pectorale Muell.

In a puddle, Mapgaon.

2. Pandorina morum (Muell.) Bory

In pools, Zirad, Shahabaj.

3. Gloeocystis gigas (Kuetz.) Lager.

In a pond, Kihim.

4. Ulothrix aequalis Kuetz.

In a puddle, Tinvira.

5. Stigeoclonium tenue (Agardh) Kuetz.

In a pond, Dhokavade.

6. Chaetophora elegans (Roth) Agardh

Adhering to stones in a paddy field outlet, Hashivare.

7. C. pisciformis (Roth) Agardh

~ Common. In paddy fields and streamlets.

8. Coleochaete irregularis Prings.

Epiphytic on Nitella sp.in a pond, Kihim.

9. C. orbicularis Prings.

Epiphytic on Nitella sp. in a pond, Kihim.

* Dixit, S. C. (1937) : The Chlorophyceae of the Bombay Presidency, India—I.

Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. B. 5 (1): 16-25; The Charophytes of the Bombay Presidency

II, J. Indian Bot. Soc, 18 : 231-239 (1940).

10.

12.

13,

14.

1S.

16.

18.

19,

20.

21.

22,

23.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

Protococcus viridis Agardh

On leaves of Sapota sp., Mangifera sp. and on moist earthen

pots.

Enteromorpha prolifera Agardh

Attached to stones in a streamlet, Saral. Filaments are very

long.

Cladophora glomerata (L.) Kuetz.

Attached to stones in a streamlet, Saral.

Pithophora oedogonia (Mont.) Wittr.

In a well, Poynad.

Rhizoclonium hieroglyphicum (Agardh) Kuetz.

Planktonic in khar paddy fields.

Oedogonium ahlstrandii Wittr. ex Hirn

Epiphytic on Chara sp. in a pond, Kihim.

QO. anomalum Hirn

In a pool in a streamlet, Mapgaon.

O. flexuosum Hirn

In a slightly brackish water pond, Koproli.

QO. pratense Trans.

In a pool, Saral.

QO. subsexangulare Tiff.

Epiphytic on Chara in a pond, Kihim.

QO. tapeinosporum Wittr. ex Hirn

Attached to submerged cement walls in a pond, Mapgaon.

alga is slightly smaller than the type in all respects.

QO. varians Wittr. ex Hirn

In a pool, Saral.

O. vaucherii (Le Clerc) Al. Braun.

Epiphytic on Chara sp. in a pond, Kihim.

O. virceburgense Hirn

The

Epiphytic on Chara sp. ina pond, Kihim. Vegetative cells were

_ slightly broader than the type—up to 8 » broad.

Pediastrum duplex Meyen v. cohaerens Bohlin

In a pond, Dhokavade,

25:

26.

Zi.

28.

29;

30.

Sih

32.

33.

34,

a5).

36.

31.

38.

a0)

40.

ALGAE OF ALIBAG, MAHARASHTRA

P. duplex Meyen v. reticulatum Lag.

In a pond, Thal.

P. simplex (Meyen) Lemm.

Common. In ponds, puddles.

P. tetras (Ehr.) Ralfs

Common. In ponds.

P. tetras (Ehr.) Ralfs v. tetradron (Corda) Rab.

In a pond, Awas.

Coelastrum sphaericum Naeg.

Common. In ponds.

Zoochlorella parasitica Brandt

Endophyte in freshwater sponges in ponds.

Oocystis borgei Snow

Common. In ponds.

O. elliptica W. West

In a pond, Thal.

-Dimorphococcus lunatus A. Braun.

In a pond, Thal.

Ankistrodesmus convolutus Corda

In a pond, Awas.

A. falcatus (Corda) Ralfs

Common. In ponds.

A. falcatus (Corda) Ralfs v. tumidus G. S. West

In a pond, Awas.

A. spiralis (Turn.) Lemm.

In a pond, Thal.

Selenastrum gracile Reinsch

In a pond, Dhokavade.

Tetraedron trigonum (Naeg.) Hansg.

In Khar paddy fields, Rewas.

Scenedesmus arcuatus Lemm. v. platydiscus G. M. Smith

In a pond, Awas,

92. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

41. S. bijuga (Turp.) Lag.

Common. In ponds.

42. S. denticulatus Lag.

In a pond, Awas.

43. S. falcatus Chodat

In a pond, Dhokavade.

44. S. incrassatulus Bohlin v. momonae G. M. Smith

On a dam, Tinvira.

45. S. opoliensis P. Richter

In a pond, Dhokavade.

46. Micractinium pusillum Fres.

In a pond, Dhokavade.

47. Botryococcus braunii Kuetz.

In a pond, Dhokavade.

48. Roya cambrica W. et G. S. West

In a pond, Thal.

49. Pleurotaenium elatum (Turn.) Borge v. subundulatum Hir.

In a pond, Mapgaon.

50. P.simplicissimum Gron. v. semiundatum Hir.

In a pond, Dhokavade.

51. P. subcoronulatum (Turn.) W. et G. S. West

In a pond, Thal.

52. P. trabecula (Ehr.) Naeg.

In a paddy field, Saral.

53. Closterium acutum Breb.

In a pond, Thal.

54. C. cornu Ehr.

In a pond, Poynad.

55. (CC. dianae Ehr.

In a pond, Thal.

56. C. dianae Ehr. v. minus (Wille) Schred.

In a pond, Thal.

58.

59.

60.

6l.

62.

63.

64,

69;

66.

67.

68.

69.

70.

71.

72.

ALGAE OF ALIBAG, MAHARASHTRA 93

C. gracile Breb.

In a pond, Thal.

C. gracile Breb. v. intermedium Jrenee-Maric.

In a pond, Thal.

C. kuetzingii Breb.

In a pond, Thal.

C. parvulum Naeg.

In paddy fields, Saral.

C. parvulum Naeg. v. angustum W. et G. S. West

In a puddle, Mapgaon.

C. venus Kuetz.

In paddy fields, Saral.

C. venus Kuetz. v. incurvum (Breb.) Krieg.

In a pond, Kihim.

Cosmarium abbreviatum Racib. v. pygmaeum Mess.

In a paddy field, Saral. Ina pond, Kihim.

C. amoenum Breb.

In a pond, Dhokavade.

C. angulosum Breb. v. concinnum (Raben.) W. et G. S. West

In a pond, Kihim.

C. bengalense (Grun.) Turn.

In a pond, Dhokavade.

C. bioculatum Breb. v. hians W. et G. S. West

In a pond, Awas. The alga is slightly smaller in size than the

type. |

C. contractum Kirch.

In a pond, Dhokavade.

C. cyclicum Lund f. crenulatum Kam.

Ina pond, Kihim. _

C. depressum (Naeg.) Lund v. planktonicum Rev.

In a pond, Kihim.

C. furcatospermum W. et G. S. West v. koreanum. Sky.

In paddy fields, Saral.

74.

eli:

78.

19,

80.

81.

82.

83.

84.

85.

86.

87.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

C. impressulum Elfv.

In a pond, Kihim.

C. laeve Rab.

In paddy fields, Saral.

C. laeve Rab. v. reniforme Hir.

In the mucilaginous masses on the dripping wall of the dam,

Tinvira. Ina pond, Awas.

C. margaritatum (Lund) Roy et Bisset f. minor (Boldt) W. et

G. S. West

In a pond, Kihim.

C. meneghinii Breb.

In ponds, Awas, Kihim.

C. moniliforme (Turp.) Ralfs

In a pond, Thal.

C. occultum Schm.

In a pond, Kihim.

C. perincissum Gron. v. ahmedabadense Kam.

In a pond, Kihim.

C. portianum Arch.

In a pond, Kihim.

C. punctulatum Breb. v. subpunctulatum (Nord.) Borg.

In a paddy field, Saral. %

C. rectangulare Grunn. v. africanum W. et G. S. West

In a pond, Kihim.

The alga is slightly longer than the type.

C. reniforme (Ralfs) Arch. v. compressum Nord.

In a pond, Kihim.

C. sikhimense Turn. —

In a pond, Kihim.

C. subtumidum Nord. v. klebsii (Gutw.) W. et G. S. West —

In a pond, Kihim. 3

C. subturgidum (Turn.) Schm. f. minor Schm.

In a pond, Thal.

88.

89.

90.

Q2..

93.

94,

95.

96.

97.

98.

22.

100.

101.

102.

ay 103:

ALGAE OF ALIBAG, MAHARASHTRA | 95

C. tithophorum Nord. v. minor Rac.

In a pond, Thal.

Euastrum denticulatum (Kirch.) Gay v. rectangulare W. et

G. S. West

In a pond, Kihim.

E. dubicum Naeg. v. tritum W. et G. S. West

In a pond, Thal.

E. irregulare Gonz. et Gang.

On Tinvira dam.

E. spinulosum Delp

On Tinvira dam.

E. subalpinum Messik.

In a pond, Dhokavade.

E. substellatum Nord.

In a pond, Kihim.

Micrasterias pinnatifida (Kuetz.) Ralfs

In a pond, Dhokavade.

M. zeylanica Fritsch

In a pond, Thal.

Staurastrum dejectum Breb.

In a pond, Thal.

S. dickiei Ralfs v. circulare Turn.

In a pond, Thal.

S. lappomicum (Schm.) Gronb.

In a pond, Dhokavade.

S. oxyacanthum Arch.

In a pond, Thal.

Desmidium aptogonum Breb. v. ehrenbergii Kuetz.

In a pond, Mapgaon.

Hyalotheca dissiliens (Sm.) Breb. v. tatrica Rac.

In a pond, Mapgaon.

Sphaerozoma granulatus Roy et Bisset

In a pond, Thal.

96 JOURNAL, BUMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

104. Zygnema czurdae Randh.

In a paddy field, Saral.

105. Z. gangeticum Rao

Adhering to stones or free floating in a streamlet, Tinvira. The

zygospores were completely mature and agree with the

description of the type.

106. Z. hypnosporum Rich.

Planktonic in paddy fields on hills, Saral. The alga has been

observed only in the vegetative condition—the aplanospores

were not observed. Filaments with sheath were 60-70 pu

broad. Many 2-celled pieces enclosed in the sheath were

present.

107. Spirogyra daedaloides Czurda

Floating masses in a pond, Kihim.

108. S. hyalina Cleve

Common. In pools, paddy fields.

109. S. hymerae Britt. et Smith

In a pond, Mapgaon.

110. S. singularis Nord.

In a streamlet, Saral.

111. Sirogonium hui (Li) Trans.

In a puddle, Mapgaon.

112. S. ventersicum Trans.

Floating masses in paddy fields, Saral.

CHAROPHYCEAE

113. Nitella acuminata A. Braun

Common. In ponds, Awas, Zirad, Kihim, Thal.

114. N. axillaris Braun.

In a pond, Kihim.

115. N. furcata (Roxb. apud Bruz.) Agardh

In ponds, Kihim, Awas.

116. N. hyalina (DC.) Agardh

Very common. The alga is found in Khar paddy fields and in

many ponds.

117.

118.

119,

120.

Alle

122.

123.

124.

WS.

126.

eT.

128.

129.

130.

ALGAE OF ALIBAG, MAHARASHTRA 97

N. wattii J. Grov.

In a pond, Mapgaon.

Chara benthamii A. Braun

In a pond, Kihim.

C. brachypus Braun

Common in ponds, paddy fields.

C. corallina Willd.

Common in ponds.

C. pseudobrachypus Grov. et Steph.

In ponds, Saral, Awas.

C. zeylanica Willd.

Very common and a very variable species. In Khar paddy

fields, ponds, pools, paddy fields.

EUGLENOPHYCEAE

Euglena acus Ehr.

Common in bodhans.

E. gracilis Klebs

Common in bodhans.

E. proxima Dang.

In a bodhan, Koproli.

Phacus acuminatus Stok.

In ponds, Thal, Awas.

P. acuminatus Stok. v. triqueter Skv.

In a pond, Dhokavade.

P. brachykentron Poch.

In a bodhan, Shahabaj.

P. caudatus Hueb.

In a pond, Awas.

P. helicoides Poch.

In ponds, Awas, Thal.

98 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (1)

131.

132;

133:

134.

135;

136.

BT:

138.

139;

140.

141,

142.

143.

144.

145.

P. longicauda (E.) Duj.

In a pond, Thal.

P. meson Poch.

In a pond, Mapgaon.

The alga is broader than the type—up to 55 p» broad.

P. orbicularis Hueb.

In a pond, Dhokavade.

Lepocinclis acuta Pres.

In a pond, Thal.

L. ovum (Ehr.) Lemm.

In a pond, Awas.

L. ovum (Ehr.) Lemm. v. dimidio-minor Defl.

In a pond, Awas.

Trachelomonas armata (Ehr.) Stein v. steinii Lemm. emend. Defi.

In a bodhan, Koproli.

T. bulla Stein emend. Defl.

In a pond, Dhokavade.

T. klebsii, Defi.

In paddy fields, Rewas.

T. oblonga Lemm. v. truncata Lemm.

In a bodhan, Zirad.

T. scabra Playf.

In a bodhan, Koproli.

T. volvocina Ehr.

Common. In bodhans and ponds.

T. volvocina Ehr. v. punctata Playf.

In a pond, Mapgaon.

T. woycikii Kocz.

In a pond, Thal.

CHRYSOPHYCEAE

Ophiocytium cochleare (Eichw.) A. Braun | 7

In a pond, Awas. ;

146.

147.

148.

149,

150.

151.

E52,

| ek

154.

155.

156.

- Ina pond, Koproli.

158.

So.

ALGAE OF ALIBAG, MAHARASHTRA 99

CYANOPHYCEAE

Microcystis aeruginosa Kuetz.

Common. In puddles, ponds.

M. flos-aquae (Wittr.) Kirch.

In pools, ponds, Thal, Alibag, Poynad.

Aphanocapsa koordersi Strom

Floating or submerged masses in khar paddy fields, Rewas.

A. roseana de Bary

In paddy fields, Zirad.

Aphanothece castegnei (Breb.) Rab.

Floating masses in paddy fields, Zirad.

A. microscopica Naeg.

Common. Planktonic in paddy fields, ponds. —

A. pallida (Kuetz.) Rab.

Very common. On moist soils, paddy fields, khar paddy fields.

Chroococcus tenax (Kirch.) Hieron

In paddy fields, Saral, Zirad.

C, turgidus (Kuetz.) Naeg.

Rare. In paddy fields, Saral.

Merismopedia glauca (Ehr.) Naeg.

In a brackish water pond, Koproli.

M. tenuissima Lemm.

In a pond, Awas.

M. punctata Meyen

Calothrix clavatoides Ghose |

Embedded in the mucilaginous masses of Gloeotrichia sp. float-

ing in a paddy field, Saral.

C. columbiana G. S. West v. constricta Gonz. et Kam.

Embedded in the mucilaginous. masses of Gloeotrichia sp. in a

paddy field, Saral.

100

JOURNAL, BUMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (i)

160. C.fusca (Kuetz) Born. et Flah. v. crassa C. S. Rao

161.

162.

163.

164.

165.

166.

167.

168.

169.

170.

IVA

hw,

Adhering to stones in a streamlet, Alibag.

C. karnatakensis Gonz. et Kam.

Embedded in the mucilaginous masses of Gloeotrichia sp. in

a paddy field, Thal.

Gloeotrichia natans Rab. ex Born. et Flah.

In a paddy field, Poynad.

G. pilgeri Schm.

Attached to aquatic plants in a pond, Dhokavade.

G. raciborskii Wol.

Very common. In paddy fields, ponds.

G. raciborskii Wol. v. salsettense Dixit

In a pond, Awas.

Vegetative cells were broader than those in the type—up to 13

broad.

Microchaete uberrima N. Carter

In paddy fields, Saral.

Fortiea bossei (Fremy) Desik. v. indica Kam.

Attached to the dam wall, Tinvira.

Aulosira fertilissima Ghose v. tenuis C. B. Rao

Common. In paddy fields, pools, ponds.

A. implexa Born. et Flah. v. crassa Dixit

In a mountain streamlet, Saral. In paddy fields, Saral; Kihim.

Hapalosiphon luteolus W. et G. S. West

Rare. Ina pond, Thal.

H. welwitschii W. et G. S. West

Embedded in the mucilaginous masses of Chaetophora sp.,

floating in paddy field, Zirad. The heterocysts were not

rare. They were longer than those of the type—up to I5yu

~ long. The spores were observed to germinate in situ.

Nodularia spumigena Mert. ex Born. et Flah.

In khar paddy fields, Shahabaj. The vegetative cells agree with

those of N. spumigena Mert. ex Born. et Flah. v. major (Kuetz.)

Born. et Flah., while the spores agree with N. spumigena.

173.

174,

AgTS:.

176.

177.

178.

179.

180.

181.

182.

183.

184.

185.

ALGAE OF ALIBAG, MAHARASHTRA ee 101.

Cylindrospermum alatospermum F. E. Fritsch

In a paddy field, Saral. The spores in most of the filaments

were next to the heterocysts, however in few cases the spores

were found 4-5 cells away from the terminal heterocysts, and

the cells between the heterocysts and the spores remain vege-

tative only.

C. majus Kuetz.

In a puddle, Saral.

C. muscicola Kuetz.

In paddy fields, Saral, Hashivare, Zirad.

C. stagnale (Kuetz.) Born. et Flah. v. minus Kam.

Floating or submerged masses in khar paddy fields, Rewas.

The vegetative cells are slightly broader than those in the

type—up to 4°3 p» broad.

Anabaena fuellebornii Schm.

In a shaded pool, Saral.

A. vaginicola Fritsch et Rich.

In a paddy field, Thal.

A. volzii Lemm.

Common. In shaded pools, ponds, paddy fields.

Nostoc amplissisum Setch.

On a dam, Tinvira.

N. piscinale Kuetz.

In puddles, streamlets, Saral.

Scytonema coactile Mont. v. minus Wille

Planktonic in khar paddy fields, Hashivare.

S. myochrous (Dillw.) Ag.

Attached to the wall of the dam, Tinvira.

S. stuposum (Kuetz.) Born.

In a pond, Dhokavade.

Petalonema alatum Berk.

Attached to the wall of the dam, Tinvira.

102,

186.

187.

188.

189.

190.

191.

192?

193.

194,

195.

196.

Wife

198.

199,

200.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

Spirulina labyrinthiformis Gom.

In a brackish water pool, Koproli; in khar paddy fields,

Rewas.

S. meneghiniana Zan.

Common. In paddy fields—freshwater and khar both.

S. princeps W. et G. S. West

In a pond, Thal.

Oscillatoria amphibia Agardh ex Gom.

In a brackish water outlet, Rewas.

Q. annae van Goor

In khar paddy fields, Poynad.

QO. brevis (Kuetz.) Gom. v. neapolitana (Kuetz.) Gom.

In a brackish water outlet, Rewas.

O. chalybea (Mer.) Gom. v. minor Kam.

In a gutter, Saral.

O. claricentrosa Gard. __

In a brackish water outlet, Rewas. End-cells were with calyp-

tra.

Q. earlei Gard.

In a paddy field, Saral.

O. formosa Bory ex Gom.

In a paddy field, Zirad ; On the dam wall, Tinvira.

O. limosa Agardh ex Gom.

In a brackish water outlet, Rewas. Calyptera was not present.

O. mougeotii Kuetz.

Planktonic in a bodhan, Koproli.

O. pseudogeminata G. Schmid

In a khar paddy field, Rewas.

Q. pseudogeminata G. Schmid v. HmgranM ata Biswas ~

Planktonic in a bodhan, Thal.

O. quadripunctulata Bruehl et Biswas

In a brackish water outlet, Rewas.

201.

202.

203.

204.

205.

206.

207.

208.

209.

210.

Bi.

213.

214.

21S.

_ ALGAE OF ALIBAG, MAHARASHTRA ———— 103

QO. quadripunctulata Bruehl et Biswas v. unigranulata Singh |

In the mucilaginous masses of DES IS sp. floating in a

paddy field, Thal.

Q. rubescens D. C. ex Gom. f. ahmedabadensis Kam.

On moist soil near a gutter, Saral.

O. schultzii Lemm. v. cyclindrica Kam.

In a gutter, Saral.

Lyngbya aerugineo-coerulea (Kuetz.) Gom.

In the mucilaginous masses of Aphanothece sp. floating in a

paddy field, Mapgaon. Calyptra is absent.

L. allorgei Fremy

In a pond, Dhokavade.

L. confervoides Agardh ex Gom.

In a khar paddy field, Shahabaj.

L. dendrobia Bruechl et Biswas

In a paddy field and in a fast running streamlet, Saral.

L. digueti Gom.

In a khar paddy field, Rewas.

L. maior Mene. ex Gom.

In a pond, Poynad.

L. majuscula Harvey ex Gom.

In a pond, Saral.

L. palmarum (Mert.) Bruehl et Biswas

On stones in a fast running streamlet, Saral.

L. perelegans Lemm.

In a khar paddy field, Rewas.

L. polysiphoniae Fremy

In a streamlet, Saral.

L. semiplena (Agard C. A.) J. Ag. ex Gom.

In a puddle, paddy fields, Koproli, Saral.

L. shackletoni W. et G. S. West

In a bodhan, Satghar.

104° JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

216. Symploca muscorum (Agardh) Gom.

On moist soil near a well, Saral. Trichomes. were of smaller

size—up to 4°5 » broad only.

217. Polychlamydum insigne W. et G. S. West

Planktonic in khar paddy fields, Rewas, Shahabaj.

218. Milicrocoleus chthonoplastes Thuret ex Gom.

In paddy fields, Saral, Zirad.

219. M. steenstrupii Boye-Pet. f. attenuata Kam.

In paddy fields, Rewas.

220. Schizothrix mexicana Gom.

On stones in a fast running streamlet, Saral.

221. S. porphyromelana (Bruch] et Biswas) Geitler

In a fast running streamlet, Zirad.

AWASJ @

KOPROLI @

‘> @ SARAL

DHOKAVADE

@® ZIRAD

HASHIVARE

MAPGAON

SATGHAR

Xx DHARAMTAR

REVDANDA

Map oi Alibag Taluka, Maharashtra, showing localities of collection.

SRNR EEE ah

The Biology of the Whitewinged

Grosbeak, Mycerobas carnipes

Hodgson, in Kazakhstan

I. A. DoLGusuHIN, E. I. GAVRILOV, AND E. F. RODIONOV

Institute of Zoology of Academy of Sciences of the Kazakh S.S.R.

(With six plates and a text-figure)

(Communicated by Dr. Salim Ali)

INTRODUCTION

The Whitewinged Grosbeak is a common bird of the subalpine belt

of mountain ranges in the upper Mekong and Yangtze, of the ranges of

Central Asia, the Himalayas, mountains of Kashmir, Afghanistan,

Northern Iran, the Kopet Dagh and the Big Balkans, the Pamiro-Alai

and the Tien Shan ; it is considerably less common in Saur and occurs

only rarely in the Altai (it was found in February 1954 in the upper Biya

tributaries ; Ternovsky 1956). Though the distribution and occurrence

of this bird is rather wide and in some places the species is quite numerous,

its distribution, and especially its ecology, have not been investigated

thoroughly. Very little knowledge has been obtained concerning its

breeding biology, e.g. about the characteristic biotopes, nest sites, period

of laying, time of hatching, and other aspects of its life in the period of

reproduction.

The authors were able to follow some aspects of the nesting biology

of this species while working in the Zailiysky Alatau. Observations were

made in 1964-65 in the area of the Big Almatinsky Lake (2500 m.*); in

addition the observations which had been made some time before in

different gorges of the Zailiysky Alatau and in the Saur have been used

in the paper. The authors have also collated information found in the

literature for nearby localities.

? Here and further on it means height above sea-level.

106 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

HABITAT AND NUMBERS

In the Zailiysky Alatau the Whitewinged Grosbeak is a rather com-

mon bird, while in some appropriate localities it can be considered even

numerous. During the nesting season the distribution of this bird is closely

related to the occurrence of juniper (Juniperus); the ranges of distribution

of all the species of this plant (J. turkestanica, J. sibirica1) represent the

range of the Whitewinged Grosbeak as well. The relations of this species

with the juniper are exceedingly close. This has always been stressed

by every naturalist, and we in our turn confirm this fact. The number

of the Whitewinged Grosbeaks depends on the area occupied by the

juniper. The species is most numerous in the belt of maximum growth

of the juniper, i.e. at an elevation of 2600-2900 m. (Plate I). Still higher,

where juniper thickets become sparse, the number of the Whitewinged

Grosbeak is considerably less, but it still occurs up to the last shrubs of

juniper, i.e. under conditions of the Zailiysky Alatau—up to 3100-

3200 m. On May 31, 1965, we twice met single birds above 3500 m.

where they were in company with the Redbreasted Rosefinch (Pyrrho-

spiza punicea). Most probably the birds were feeding on other plant

seeds there as no juniper shrubs were present. The lower limit of nest-

ing of the Whitewinged Grosbeak is also determined by the lower limit

of the juniper. In the Big Almatinska gorge, isolated clumps of juniper

can be found deep down the canyons, in the middle belt among the

spruces growing at an altitude of about 2200 m. Individual pairs of this

species nest in these, so probably this height may be considered the lower

limit of the nesting of this bird. Thus, the vertical breeding range of

the Whitewinged Grosbeak in the Zailiysky Alatau lies between 2200

and 3200 m. |

The number of nesting birds in this range varies. At an altitude of

2200-2400 m. it is a very rare bird occurring as individual pairs near

isolated clumps of juniper bushes. At an altitude of 2400-2600 m. the

Whitewinged Grosbeak becomes quite common and is distributed more

or less evenly coincident with the wide distribution of juniper thickets.

At altitudes of 2600-2900 m., in the region of predominance of juniper

thickets on the hillsides of southern and related exposures, the White-

winged Grosbeak is very numerous, being as a rule, the most numerous

of all the birds inhabiting the juniper growth. Higher up its numbers

decrease again, while on the boundaries of the juniper zone the bird is

very rare. aay ees. wget ae Uy as sabe

At altitudes of 2600-2700 m. the spruce (Picea schrenkiana) grows

both as separate trees and in groups among the junipers, while below

2600 m. the juniper growth has a subordinate role: here the fir-wood

* In the vicinity of the Big Almatinsky Lake there is no arborescent juniper...

I alv1g

(20714005 "A : 0J04q)

‘syoyory} sodtun{ “yeeqsorn posurmo}Iy AA 94} JO o}IS SUTSAN

yeaqsoly pesuimoyiyM °: UTysnsjod

(1) so "90C “LSIM “LVN AVAWOT yf

——e ee —“—i—s

J. BomBay NAT. Hist. Soc. 65 (1) PLATE ai

Dolgushin : Whitewinged Grosbeak

Nesting site of the Whitewinged Grosbeak. Upper boundary of fir-wood.

(Photo: E. Gavrilov)

BIOLOGY OF WHITEWINGED GROSBEAK IN KAZAKHSTAN 107

formation is predominant (Plate II). In the belt of coniferous forest the.

juniper grows mostly on the bare southern versants, in clearings as well

as in areas of thin forest. Under conditions of rugged topography of

various assemblies of versants of different exposure the distribution of

any plant association is of a very complicated nature. It should be noted

that the presence of the spruce does not influence distribution of the

Whitewinged Grosbeak and its population density, because its numbers

in the optimum range of junipers is the same both in pure juniper stands

and in juniper forest mixed with fir-wood (or in fir-wood mixed with

juniper).

The following feature is very characteristic of the number of White-

winged Grosbeak. On the southern versant of the ridge, two kilometres

in length at its relative elevation exceeding 200-250 m., about 20 to 25

pairs of this species were nesting. This was a site of almost pure juniper

growth ; only in one place there was a group of 15 spruces. The same

density was observed in another area occupied by fir and juniper in

approximately equal proportions.

Analogous distribution of the Whitewinged Grosbeak was observed

on other ridges of the Tien Shan. Onthe Dzhungar, Terskey and Ketmen

ridges the maximum number was noted in the juniper-spruce belt (Koreev

& Zarudny 1906, Stepanyan 1956, Korelov 1956). On the Kirghiz

ridge the Whitewinged Grosbeak mainly inhabits the zone of arborescent

juniper (Juniperus semiglobosa, J. zeravschanica) at elevations of 1800

to 2400 m. (Kuznetsov 1962). In the Talass ridge this bird mainly in-

habits the zone of creeping juniper (J. turkestanica), while below, in the

thickets of arborescent juniper, it is very rare (Kovsharj 1966).

FIELD CHARACTERISTICS AND FOOD

The Whitewinged Grosbeak is one of the largest representatives of

the family Fringillidae. It is the size of a starling, but with a longer tail

and the body set lower. The front and the tail of the adult male are

black, its abdomen and tail-coverts are yellow-green. The remiges are

dark brown with narrow greenish-yellow edges, and on its wing there is

a small white speculum. The female has the same coloration, but in-

stead of black it is dark grey. | |

15 males measure: wing 109-124 mm. (mean 115 mm.); tail 97-

121 mm. (mean 104 mm.) ; bill length 15:2-19°7 mm. (mean 17 mm.) ;

bill height* 15-2-17°8 mm. (mean 16°7 mm.); weight (11 specimens)

56-63 gm. (mean 59°7 gm.). >

18 females measure: wing 109- 120 mm. Gnena 114°4 mm.) tail

82- 118 mm. (mean 102°8 mm.); bill length 13°8-17-7 mm. (mean

1 On the level of the front edge of the nostrils.

108 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

15:0 mm.); bill height 14:2-17°0 mm. (mean 14:7 mm.); weight (14

specimens) 50°5-66:0 gm. (mean 58-2 gm.).

The Tien Shan is inhabited by the subspecies M. c. merzbacheri

Schalow (Keve 1954 ; Stepanyan 1964).

The flight of this bird is very fast and undulating. On the ground it

moves in hops. Its voice is coarse, loud and far-carrying. The sound

may be transcribed as che-gah-gah, che-gah-gah. It is not too shy, and

while feeding in a juniper bush may be approached within 3 to 5 metres.

From external appearance, the Whitewinged Grosbeak is a typical

granivorous bird. Visual observations, analysis of the stomach and

gullet contents, as well as its close attachment to juniper thickets show

an extremely narrow food specialization. It is enough to say that during

the whole year the staple food of the birds is just the seeds of juniper.

The abundant fruit-bearing of this plant and slow ripening of the seeds

(up to two years) ensure a constant food supply for the Whitewinged

Grosbeak during the entire year. Although juniper fruits may be eaten

by other birds too (thrushes, Alpine Chough, etc.), it is only the White-

winged Grosbeak with its powerful bill that can utilise the juniper seeds

easily cracking the thick seed coat. The great quantity of fruits borne

on a single bush makes it possible for the birds to feed in one place for

a long time. As a result, the ground under the bush becomes thickly

strewn with the fruit meat and shells of juniper seeds.

L. M. Shulpin (1953) described the feeding of the Whitewinged Gros-

beak as follows: ‘....it opens its beak not very wide, owing to sharp

ends it bites the fruit from its side ; the bird thrusts its beak into the meat

and with sharp edge of the jaws simultaneously assisted by the very

peculiar spoonlike tongue, very quickly cleans the stone from meat and

shell which fall on the ground. The sides of the under half of the bill

are thick, with a swelling at the base ; the size of the thick part is almost

as thick as a pea, its upper part is flat and covered with parallel small

ribs, like notches. On the upper half of the bill there is a special cor-

responding swelling. As a result it looks something like a pliers, on

which the stone is fed by the spoonlike surface of the tongue, and crushed

by the strength of the large jaw muscles, although the stone may be

very hard. The convenience and force of this mechanism are evident

when we consider that this stone cannot be split by human teeth, besides

it slips easily off the teeth’.

In fall and winter, the birds descend to the lower mountain belts,

where they have to eat other food as there are no thickets of juniper. In

the middle belt of fir-wood the Whitewinged Grosbeak enjoys fruits of

the mountain ash ; even the young birds whose bills are still not strong

enough can split the seeds. It is known that the Whitewinged Grosbeak

can also eat spruce seeds after extracting them from thecones. Inthe

zone of deciduous forest the birds feed on the seeds of rose and haw-

BIOLOGY OF WHITEWINGED GROSBEAK IN KAZAKHSTAN 109

thorn ; they may also peck the apples remaining on the trees and extract

their seeds. On the xerophyte mountains in winter, the Whitewinged

Grosbeak feeds on seeds of the Persian parrotia (Celtis caucasica), moun-

tain cherry (Cerasus sp.)., and rose. It eats only the fruit-stones of these

plants, discarding the juicy pulp of the fruits and berries.

Whitewinged Grosbeaks feed their nestlings mainly with juniper

seeds ; most probably they bring these seeds in their mouth and not in

the ‘ craw}, as before feeding them to the nestling they do not produce

any regurgitating movements typical of other finches. However, on

the whole, they feed their young, like all other finches, with mixed food,

though animal food plays an insignificant role in their diet. In the

stomachs of five nestlings, besides juniper seeds, there were found beetles

(Curculionidae) in all five, larvae of Orthoptera in one, an egg pouch of

Orthoptera in one, larva of a leafhopper in one, molluscs in three

stomachs.

BREEDING BIOLOGY

The time of pair formation in the Whitewinged Grosbeak is unknown.

From the beginning of April the majority of the birds could be seen in

pairs. Although flocks of 10,18 and 16 individuals were seen on 10, 17

and 22 April respectively, it was evident that birds in these flocks were

in pairs.

On April 13 and 18 several fights between individual Whitewinged

Grosbeaks were observed. It is quite probable that these conflicts occur

when the birds are occupying nesting sites.

Unlike many finches, Whitewinged Grosbeaks do not exhibit any

vocal ability. The song of the male is very simple and short, merely a

low chirping and melodious piping. It is not very often that their sing-

‘ing is heard ; we heard it only twice : August 14, 1964 and April 1, 1965.

We succeeded in discovering 28 occupied and 27 old nests of the

Whitewinged Grosbeak. 36 of them (65%) were built on spruce trees

and 19 (35%) on junipers ; we failed to find their nests on other bushes

(mountain ash, honeysuckle, etc.). It may thus be assumed that the

species builds its nest with equal facility both on the juniper and on the

spruce. The figures given above are too small for generalizing about

the preferential selection of the spruce for its nest site, and it is quite

probable that chance plays an important part in this.

The nests in juniper were built 0°6 to 1°8 m. above the ground, aver-

aging 1:°2 m. (ten measurements) ; and 20 to 70 cms. below the bush

tops. The majority of nests are very well covered by the foliage and

—,

+ The ‘ craw ’ in passerines is a small enlargement of the gullet.

110 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

hidden from all sides. Only one nest was built in such a way that it

could be seen from 12 m. down below in the gorge.

The spruce trees with nests were of various sizes. The height of 34

observed nest trees, varied from 0°6 to 20 m., averaging 6°3 m. The nests

were built 0°4-14°5 m. above the ground (average 3°2 m.). In most cases

the nests were built on small spruces 2°5-5:0 m. tall ; however three nests

were found quite high above the ground. One was in a spruce 20 m.

high, and built 14°5 m. above the ground ; the second was built on an in-

clined tree 12-13 m. from base and 1°5-2:0 m. below its top ; the third

one was built 12-14 m. above ground and 4 m. from the tree top.

The nests in the spruce trees were built both near the trunk as well

as out on the boughs. Of 28 nests 18 (64%) were built near the trunk,

and 10 (36%) on the boughs 5 to 200 cm. from the trunk (mean 60 cm.).

The majority of the nests (88°5%) were situated on the southern side of

the trunk. Of 26 nests, 14 were on the southern side, 7 on the south-

western side, 2 on the south-eastern side, 1 on the eastern, and one on

the north-eastern sides.

The nests consist of two layers. The outer layer is made of various

materials such as twigs of spruce trees, juniper, spireas, honeysuckle, and

of the last year stems of different herbs ; sometimes elongated dry leaves

were interwoven in the nest. As arule, the twigs used for nest base are

comparatively slender, usually 2 to 4 mm. thick or a little thicker. Twigs

of the spruce have been observed only in the nests built in spruce trees,

while twigs of juniper and other brushwood could be observed in all

nests. The external layer may consist either of twigs only, or mainly

of dry grass, or it may consist of both of these materials in approximately

equal quantities. In three nests some green moss was found in the

external layer.

In every nest we found that the inner layer consisted exclusively of

thin strips of juniper bark and bast fibre, which were rather long (up to

30 cm., usually from 10 to 15 cm.) and wide (up to 1°5 cm., usually from

0-3 to1lcm.). This layer of strips of juniper bast represented essentially

the lining of the cup ; there was neither grass nor wool mixed in it. Only

in one nest we found that besides juniper bast there were a few pieces

of moss. This structure enables nests of the Whitewinged Grosbeak

to be distinguished from the nests of all other birds nesting in the Tien

Shan mountains.

Measurements made of 15 nests were very similar. The smallest

nest was 122 mm. in diameter, the largest one 200 mm. (mean 163 mm.).

The diameters of the nest-cups ranged from 70 to 90 mm. (mean dia-

meter 81 mm.). Most of the nests had a cup of a very regular round

shape, and only few nests being squeezed between the branches had oval

cups. Thickness of the nest 71 to 120 mm. (mean 95 mm.) ; depth of

the cup 40 to 70 mm. (average 57 mm.).

BIOLOGY OF WHITEWINGED GROSBEAK IN KAZAKHSTAN 11

Thus, nests of the Whitewinged Grosbeak in their shape and struc-

ture resemble those of a medium type nest of finches ; their cups are

quite deep. The nests are ‘cold’, and without any lining of animal

hair or wool or bird feathers. These factors, as we shall see later,

are very important.

The nest is built by the female alone, the male only accompanies her.

When the female is busy tearing off the bark from the juniper bushes or

placing the building material into the nest, the male sits on the top of a

nearby juniper or the spruce tree, periodically calling in subdued tones.

Only once did we observe a female building the nest when there was no

male around. Moreover, this female was calling while building, which

normally never happens ; females build the nest in silence. Later this

nest was deserted before the eggs had been laid.

Building materials are usually gathered by the female somewhere in

the neighbourhood, about 20-40 m. from the site. However some cases

were observed when the female had to fly about 100 m. from her nest.

‘The female is usually busy building in the first half of the day ; only once

did we see a bird carrying a twig at 5.30 p.m. The frequency of flying

to and fro with building material varies. One female was observed

carrying pieces of bast five times between 9.45 a.m. and 10.00 a.m.

Another flew three times between 11.00 a.m. to 11.30 a.m., putting the

bast into the nest, while between 11.30 and 12.00 she flew in only once.

It appears that intensity of nest-building is greatest during the morning

hours ; around noon the building activity ceases. It is resumed in the

afternoon though with much less intensity.

The Whitewinged Grosbeak usually begins laying two or three days

after the nest has been completed. The female produces one egg every

day during the morning hours. Only once did we observe a female

lay her fourth egg three days after the third one. Incubation commen-

ces after the laying of the third egg ; before that the eggs in the nest re-

main cold and unattended.

A complete clutch consists of 3 to 5 eggs (Plate III, above). All the

nests we found in the Zailiysky Alatau contained 3 or 4 eggs ; however

in the Terskey Alatau Range two out of three nests contained 5 eggs,

while in the third nest there were four eggs (Stepanyan 1956).

The eggs are smooth with a slightly glossy shell of light olive colour.

On the background there are scattered bright superficial dark brown,

almost black, spots, specks and commas and light violet-brown spots

indepth. The superficial spots aresharply outlined, while the underlying

ones have diffused margins so that the pattern on the shell looks like

marble.

_ The size and shape of eggs are given in Table 1. The weight of un-

‘incubated eggs may be 5°4, 5°5, 5°9 and 6°1 gm., while well incubated eggs

weigh c. 5‘0 to 5:2 gm. :

i112 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 66 (i)

TABLE |

SIZE (MM.) AND SHAPE OF EGGS OF THE WHITEWINGED GROSBEAK 1

| Minimum Maximum | Mean Number

measured

Length ay Fis 30-0 27-7 %

Width bes 17°4 20°5 19°4 26

Width

Shape 0°61 0°77 0-70 26

Length

1 The Table includes the size of 8 eggs given by L. S. Stepanyan (1956) for the

Terskey Alatau Range.

Both parents take part in incubation of the clutch. The main part

however belongs to the female ; 32 out of 35 birds observed on the nests

(or 91%) were females, and only 3 (or 9%) were males. It appears that

there is no special time for the male to relieve the female on the nest ; we

observed incubating males at 9.25 a.m., 11.00 a.m., and at 7.00 p.m.

Each parent has a well developed brood patch (Plate III, below). In the

female it is much more developed and of much bigger size than the male.

We have not observed if the male feeds the female while the latter is in-

cubating, but on two occasions (April 17, June 15) we observed the male

feeding the female outside the nest.

The incubation period was established for two nests. In one the first

egg was laid on June 13, while the third one appeared on June 15, and

incubation started from the same day (the fourth and last egg was laid

on June 16). The first egg hatched on June 30 ; the next day the nest was

destroyed by a magpie. In the morning there was only one egg left,

which also disappeared by midday. Thus, the first egg hatched after

fifteen days of incubation. In the other nest the first egg was laid on

June 14, incubation started from June 16, and after 16 days (on July 2)

all eggs hatched. The observations showed that the incubation period

of the Whitewinged Grosbeak is 15 or 16 days.

The young do not hatch simultaneously. Usually on the first day

three chicks are hatched while the fourth one hatches on the second day.

In rare cases one egg hatches on the first day, two more on the next day

and the last egg only on the third day. Only one case was observed

where the last egg hatched three days later than the first ones. Differ-

ences in the age of the chicks are especially marked during the first few

days of life ; later on their sizes become more uniform.

The chicks are hatched blind ; according to our observations their

eyes open on the third or fourth day. Their bodies are covered rather

thickly with light-coloured grey down with a very peculiar tint (Plate IV,

above), very difficult to describe or compare with anything else,

J. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. 65 (1) PLaTE III

Dolgushin : Whitewinged Grosbeak

Above : Nest of the Whitewinged Grosbeak ; Below : Brood patch of a male

(below) and of a female Whitewinged Grosbeak.

(Photos :; E. Gavrilov)

J. BomBay NaT. Hist. Soc. 65 (1) PLATE IV

Dolgushin : Whitewinged Grosbeak

Above: Downy chick of the Whitewinged Grosbeak 2-3 days old ; Below :

The female feeding her chicks.

(Photos : E. Gavrilov)

BIOLOGY OF WHITEWINGED GROSBEAK IN KAZAKHSTAN 113

Both the female and the male feed their young (Plate IV, below &

Plate V). Usually the chicks are fed by both parents together ; but

sometimes the food may be brought only by the female, and sometimes

only by the male. According to our observations, however, the main part

in foraging for the chicks is taken by the male. This is due to the fact

that the female has to stay with the nestlings for rather long periods. She

stays in the nest in cold weather, when it rains, and also during very hot

weather and strong insolation. During these periods the male brings

the food, which is partly fed to the female, who in turn partly distributes

it among the chicks. The food is also partly passed directly to the young

by male. But when both parents feed the chicks together they distri-

bute it uniformly among the brood.

The intervals between the visits of the parents with food to the nest

vary : there may be from ten to thirty minutes between each visit, or

sometimes it may take as much as one hour. Arriving birds alight on

a bush three or four metres away from the nest and then approach it

gradually, hopping from branch to branch ; usually the female is the first

to approach. The parents feed their young throughout the hours of

daylight ; they may cease feeding them only when severe weather sets in

(strong wind, fog, snow, heavy rain, etc.).

The food is collected far from the nest, often more than one kilo-

metre away, and it is never to be found nearer than a few hundred metres

away. The juniper thickets are the birds’ feeding site, and also where

they collect the food for their chicks. The parents fly to the wood,

perch on the tops of the bushes, and the female immediately disappears

into their depth. The male stays for some time perching on the top of

the bush looking around. After assuring himself that there is no danger

he also disappears into the thickets, but from time-to-time he mounts to

the top again to reassure himself of safety. All this time the female is

in the thickets. Should there be any danger, the male warns the female

by calling, and in case of imminent danger both birds flush out. How-

ever, the birds are not very shy, and often allow a man to approach them

within five or six metres. It is usually impossible to see the birds in the

depth of the thickets from this distance. They feed in silence, but the

very characteristic cracking noise of the stones of the juniper fruits in

their bills, which can be heard as far as 20 to 30 metres away, betrays

their presence. ~

Once we observed that a female, after feeding her chicks, stood with

her feet on the opposite rims of the nest, dipped into it and began to

pull out the lining of the cup. She would take the individual pieces of

juniper bast into her beak, chew them for some time, and then return

them back into the nest. A few times she picked up something from

the cup. It seemed as if she was trying to clean the nest of some para-

sites.

114. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (1)

Faeces of the nestlings, are as a rule eaten by their parents, mostly

by the female and very seldom by the male (Plate VI, above). When the

chicks grow bigger and produce a great deal of faeces, the birds carry

part of it out of the nest and drop it 30-40 m. away.

The nestling period was observed only in one case. On July 28 there

were one nestling and three eggs in the nest ; on July 29 three nestlings

and one egg ; on July 30 three nestlings and one slightly punctured egg

(the chick may possibly have hatched the same afternoon) ; on July 31

four nestlings. On August 11 there were only three nestlings in the nest

(the fourth evidently died), while on August 15 when we examined the

nest, two nestlings had already flown. In this case the nestling period

was about 17 or 18 days, though it appears that normally nestlings do

not leave the nest until approximately 20 days old.

It is worth noting that when the nestlings leave their nests they can

only flutter about in short flights in the depth of the thickets near their

nests. It appears that difference in nestling period is due to their ability

to make these short flights, and at the slightest danger they leave the nest.

Thus the complete nesting cycle, from commencement of nest-build-

ing until the nestlings start their independent life, takes at least one and

a half months, or rather two months.

The first flying young birds were observed in the first half of June.

On August 22 we saw a brood of Whitewinged Grosbeaks which had the

wing-feathers still growing. The dates for the Talass Alatau Range

may be somewhat later. On September 7, 1933, L. M. Shulpin found

a bird which had just left the nest ; it had a very short tail, about one-

third the normal size.

POST-NESTING PERIOD

After Whitewinged Grosbeaks leave the nest the broods still keep

together for quite a long time. These broods undertake short flights in

search of feeding sites. Some of them may moult as early as July, but

most birds moult in August-September, completing it in October.

According to the material in our collections we may infer the following

about the change of the dress of this species. The hatched chicks are

covered with down, which by the end of their nestling period changes

into a juvenile plumage. This plumage may be kept for one or one and

a half months. By the end of summer and in fall the juvenile White-

winged Grosbeaks undergo a complete moult to their first year dress.

Sexual dimorphism is not apparent in this plumage, and the young males

look very much like the old femalesin colour. The adult dress is assumed

by the young birds only after the first year is over, the moult taking place

at the same time as in old birds, i.e. July-October. We have some

evidence that yearling males in the ‘ female’ dress are capable of repro-

BIOLOGY OF WHITEWINGED GROSBEAK IN KAZAKHSTAN 1i5

ducing. Thus on July 10, 1965, from one pair we got a last-year male

which had just commenced moulting into the adult plumage. Its skull

had completely ossified, the brood patch was still bare, and the length

of testes which had already commenced to reduce, was 4 mm. (the left

one) and 2°5 mm.

Thus, the Whitewinged Grosbeaks put on the final dress during the

second year of their life, moulting at the same time as adult birds in fall,

and not in spring as had previously been assumed (Dementjev & Gladkov

1954).

After the breeding season is over, the Whitewinged Grosbeaks spend

the greatest part of their time feeding in the juniper thickets. During this

period we happened to observe a flock of birds roosting at night. In

the evening, when it was already dark, a flock of 10 to 15 loudly calling

Whitewinged Grosbeaks flew from somewhere above into the upper

boundary of a spruce grove. They quickly perched by ones and twos

on the tops of the spruces and being hidden in the dense crowns of the

trees, at once became silent.

During snowfall, when in a number of places the juniper bushes

become partly or completely covered with snow, redistribution of the

Whitewinged Grosbeaks takes place. The majority of the birds concen-

trate on the southern exposures of the versants, where the snow depth

is the least, while others descend to lower heights, into the zone of deci-

duous forests. Here they live among apple trees, dense thickets of

roses, buckthorns and hawthorns. Only a few birds, and that not every

year, may come down to the foothills. Sometimes they may be seen in

the suburbs, and even in the city of Alma-Ata, about 600 m. above sea

level. The birds have never been seen in the valley of the Ili River.

And yet, there are some places where the Whitewinged Grosbeaks

undertake migrations over very long distances. In March of 1949,

M. A. Koozmina several times saw flocks and groups of these birds on

the southern versants of the Chulack range, while on December 26, 1965,

Yu. N. Grachyov found a female example in the mountains of Anarhai.

These zones are 150 to 200 kilometres away from the nearest nesting

sites of the Whitewinged Grosbeak. Evidently these birds avoid flat

areas, which are completely covered with snow in winter preferring to

migrate to rugged ground, where there are always areas free of snow

cover even in severe and snowy winters.

FECUNDITY

We have found 11 nests with completed clutches. In five nests

(45°) there were three eggs each, in 6 nests (55%) 4 eggs each ; aver-

age 3°54 eggs per nest. In five out of nine nests there were three hatched

nestlings each, and in the remaining four nests, four nestlings each ; thus

116 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi. 68 (i)

on an average there were 3°44 nestlings per nest. Evidently embryonic

mortality is insignificant; in any case we have never seen any unfertilized

eggs or eggs with dead embryo. From two out of seven clutches two

nestlings each flew, from four, three each, and only from one, four nest-

lings. On an average, 2°85 nestlings flew per nest. Thus, mortality of

chicks in the nest is insignificant, being approximately 17%. Usually

one in each clutch dies, the last chick of the brood.

On the whole nesting success in the Whitewinged Grosbeak is not

very high, as clutches and nestlings are often destroyed by various agents.

One of the causes of their death is freezing of eggs in early layings. We

have observed this twice. On May 13 in one nest there was one egg,

on May 14 there appeared another egg, at night from 14 to 15 May

they both froze at the temperature—10°C. Another cause of mortality

is magpies and crows which often destroy the nests. It is also quite

probable that nestlings may be sometimes eaten by stoats when the nest

is built in low situations. According to our observations, two out of

20 clutches (10°) perished because of cold, seven (35%) from predators,

three (15%) from desertion by the parents at different stages of the

nesting cycle. Only from eight (40%) nests the nestlings grew up to fly

safely.

The breeding season of the Whitewinged Grosbeak is very prolonged.

This may be seen from Table 2. Thus eggs in various stages of incuba-

tion may be found from the beginning of May to the end of July, i.e.

almost during three whole months. The text-figure illustrates the dates

of laying the first egg. The curve shows that the species has two peaks

of reproduction: in May and in June. However, we believe that the

statement in the literature about the existence of two clutches a year in

this species (Dementjev & Gladkov 1954, Portenko 1960) is incorrect.

We have every proof of this assumption tested by our observations of

this bird both during the nesting and the post-nesting periods. As

already mentioned the complete breeding cycle from the commencement

of nest-building until the juveniles become independent takes more than

one and a half months, i.e. from the point of view of nesting periods,

double-peaked curve cannot result from double-nesting of the White-

winged Grosbeak.

In our opinion, the prolongation of the laying period is due to the

different environments existing on the mountain versants of different

exposures. The southern mountain slopes are entirely devoid of snow

already by the middle of May; they are then covered with verdure, the

insects are active, and many passerine birds commence their nesting,

including the Whitewinged Grosbeak. At the same time the northern

versants are still thickly covered with snow, and the water here is still

frozen. Visual examination of different species of birds, including the

Whitewinged Grosbeaks, proved that when on the versants of southern

J. BomBay NAT. Hist. Soc. 65 (1) PLATE V

Dolgushin : Whitewinged Grosbeak

Above : The male Whitewinged Grosbeak passing the female juniper seeds ;

Below ; The male and the female Whitewinged Grosbeaks feeding the chicks

simultaneously.

(Photos : E. Gavrilov)

J. Bomsay nat. Hist. Soc. 65 (1) PLATE VI

Dolgushin : Whitewinged Grosbeak

Above: The female Whitewinged Grosbeak swallowing the faecal sac. ;

Below : Semi-fledged chicks of the Whitewinged Grosbeak in the nest.

(Photos : E. Gavrilov)

BIOLOGY OF WHITEWINGED GROSBEAK IN KAZAKHSTAN 117

exposure birds have already commenced nesting, in less favourable

localities many pairs are still migrating, looking for food; andjudging

TABLE 2

LisT OF 28 NESTS OF THE WHITEWINGED GROSBEAK FROM THE ZAILIYSKY ALATAU

Nest Nest b

No. Date Nest contents No. Date Nest contents

1. May 12,1965 One new-laid egg. 15. June 10, 1964 Building of the nest

just commenced.

2. May 13, 1964 One new-laid egg. 16. June 13,1964 One new-laid egg.

3. May 21,1964 Three new-laideggs. 17. June 15,1964 Three eggs. Begin-

ning of incuba-

tion.

4. May 27,1964 Three blind chicks 1- 18. June 20,1964 Building of the

2 days old. nest just com-

menced.

5. May 27,1964 Four just hatched 19. June 22,1964 Two chicks with

; chicks. brushes in all

pterylae.

6. May 31,1964 Three chicks semi- 20. June 20, 1965 Three eggs. Incu-

fledged ; remiges bation.

2 cm. long.

7. June2,1965 One new-laid egg. 21. June 23, 1965 pace eggs. Incu-

ation.

8. June 2,1965 Almost completed 22. June 25, 1964 Three fledglings.

nest, still empty.

9. June4,1965 Three chicks with 23. June 26, 1964 Three downy chicks.

brushes in all pter-

ylae.

10. June5,1964 Fournew-laideggs. 24. July 4, 1964 Four errgeys old

chicks.

11. June 5, 1964 Four new-laid eggs. 25. July 11,1965 ee ae old

chicks.

12. June6,1965 One new-laid egg. 26. July 28,1964 Three Tee and one

chi

13. June 7, 1964 Chicks of unidenti- 27. July 28,1964 Four eggs. Incu-

fied age. ~o bation

14. June 8,1965 Almost completed 28. July 30, 1964 Three hard set

nest still empty. eggs, ready for

hatching.

from their behaviour it is clear that the time for their nesting is still far

off. However, gradually all mountain slopes get free of snow, first the

western, then the eastern and last of all the northern versants. Thus

while on the southern versants the nestlings are leaving their nests, on

the northern slopes the birds are only just commencing reproduction ;

they are building nests and laying eggs. To support these statements

we can give the following data : on the versants of southern exposure in

five nests the dates of laying the first egg varied from 3 to 13 May (average

6 May). On the versants of eastern exposure in 12 nests the first eggs

were laid from 12 May to 24 July (average 9 June). On the versants of

northern exposure in three nests the first eggs were laid from 11 to 17

118 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

June (average 13 June), and on the versants of western exposure in four

nests the first eggs were laid from2 June to 12 July, (average 16 June).

Number of nests

(Secs: 3

May June = uly

Thus, on the versants of southern exposure the Whitewinged Grosbeaks

commence nesting 1-1°5 months earlier than on versants with any other

exposure. This is illustrated by double-peak curve on the text-figure.

It must be mentioned that the problem of the length of the nesting

period in the Whitewinged Grosbeak is complicated by the re-nesting of

birds in the event of their first clutch being destroyed. However, the

data at hand are too scanty to solve this problem. Probably the nesting

period of the species is also influenced by the age of the birds, the old and

the young ones commencing their reproduction at different times, as

well as by differences in the time of maturing yearlings of the early and

late broods. It is quite possible that there may exist some special

micropopulations adapted to the conditions existing on the versants of

different exposures. Very probably this surmise is true for the White-

winged Grosbeak.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors express their thanks to Dr. Salim Ali for correcting and

editing the manuscript and assisting in its publication.

BIOLOGY OF WHITEWINGED GROSBEAK IN KAZAKHSTAN 119

REFERENCES

DEMENTIJEV, G. P. & GLADKOV, N. A.

(1954) : Ptitsy Sovetskogo Soyuza, T.V.

Keve, A. (1954): Einige bescheidene

Bemekrungen: zur geographischen Varia-

tion von Mycerobas carnipes (Hodgson).

Anz. Ornithol. Gesellschaft in Bayern,

Bd. V1.

Koreev, B. P. & ZARUDNY, N.

A. (1906) Ornitologicheskaya fauna

Semirechenskogo kraya. Mat. k pozn.

fauny i flory. Ross. Imperii, otd. zoolo-

gich., vyp. VII.

Kore.Lov, M. B. (1956): Materialy k

avifaune khrebta Ketmenj (Tien Shan).

Tr. in-ta zoologii AN Kaz SSR, t. VI.

KovsHarnJ, <A. F. (1966): Ptitsy

Talasskogo Alatau.

Kuznetsov, A. A. (1962): K_ biolo-

gii ptits vysokogorja Kirgizskogo

khrebta. Ornitologiya, vyp. 5.

M PORIENKO, L. A. (1960) : Ptitsy SSSR.

SHULPIN, L. M. (1953): Materialy

po vaune ptits zapovednika Aksu-

Djabagly (Talassky Alatau). Tr. in-ta

zoologii AN Kazssr, t. Il.

STEPANYAN, L. _ S. (1956): Ptitsy

Terskey Ala-Tau (Tien Shan). Uch.

zap. Mosk. obl. ped. in-ta, t. 71, vyp. 4.

——— (1964): O nomenklature

pamiro-tienshanskikh archevykh dubo-

nosov—Mycerobas_ carnipes Hodgson.

Sb. trudov zool. muzeya MGU, t. IX.

TERNOVSKY, D. V. (1956): Archevyi

dubonos. Priroda, No. 2.

Coccids (Coccoidea: Hemiptera :

Insecta) affecting Fruit Plants in

Bihar (India)

S. MOHAMMAD ALI

Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta

The Coccids of horticultural importance in Bihar have not received

adequate attention. Misra (1923) published a list of these insects then

known to occur in Bihar, but in the light of recent systematic studies

his list needs revision. The present author made extensive collections

of the Coccid fauna of Bihar in the period 1955-1959. An account of

the Coccids affecting sugarcane in Bihar has already appeared (Ali

1962); the present communication is a taxonomic enumeration of

thirty-four species of Coccoidea that affect fruit plants in Bihar.

This annotated list includes new distributional records of five species

from this region. It also gives the distribution of the species in the

Orient and particulars of their hosts, together with brief ecological or

supplementary notes on some of those forms which the author has

collected and observed during the course of his studies. In citing litera-

ture only those references have been mentioned which are necessary in

tracing the nomenclatorial history of the species under report.

I. Family MONOPHLEBIDAE

Subfamily Monophlebinae

Tribe Drosichini Morrison

1. Drosicha stebbingi (Green)

1902 Monophlebus stebbingii+ Green, Stedbing ; Dept. Notes Ins. Forestry 1 : 133.

1903 M. stebbingi Green ; Indian Mus. Notes 5 (3) : 101.

1928 Drosicha stebbingi (Green), Morrison ; U.S. Dept. Agr. Tech. Buil. 82: 169.

1949 Drosicha stebbingi (Green), Latif ; Bull. ent. Res. London 40 (3): 351.

Type locality: Dehra Dun, Uttar Pradesh, India.

Host: Sal tree (Shorea robusta).

1 The spelling of the specific name was emended to stebbingi in the errata.

COCCIDS AFFECTING FRUIT PLANTS IN BIHAR 121

WEST PAKISTAN: on forty-four different host plants which include

Mangifera indica, Pyrus malus, P. communis, etc., in Lyallpur, Lahore,

Multan, and N.W.F. Province (Khan & Latif 1941, 1945). INDIAN

UNION: on Sal trees in Dehra Dun, Saharanpur, and Simla Divisions

(Stebbing 1902); on Mangifera indica, Tamarindus indica, and Ficus

spp. in Madhya Pradesh (Hingston 1929); on Mangifera indica, Arto-

carpus integrifolia, Citrus spp., Anona squamosa, Litchi chinensis, Carica

papaya, Musa sp., etc. in the districts of Saran, Muzaffarpur, and Dar-

bhanga (Haque 1955),}

2. Drosicha dalbergiae (Green)

1902 Monophlebus dalbergiae Green, Stebbing ; Dept. Notes Ins. Forestry 1: 142.

1903 Monophlebus dalbergiae Green, Indian Mus. Notes 5 (3): 101.

1928 Drosicha dalbergiae (Green), Morrison ; U.S. Dept. Agr. Tech. Bull. 52 : 169.

Type locality: Sutlej Valley at elevations between 710 to 1067 metres

in the Punjab, India.

Host: Dalbergia sissoo.

I observed it in an epidemic form during 1955-1957 at Pusa. It was

also found during 1955-1959 in and around Pusa, Muzaffarpur, Motihari,

Bettia, Narkitiagunj, Hajipur, and Sonepur in Bihar on Mangifera

indica, Litchi chinensis, Psidium guajava, Punica granatum, Citrus spp..,

Achras sapota, A. integrifolia, Eugenia jambolana, and other plants. It

is usually found from the third week of December to the last week of

May in Bihar. In case of severe infestation it may invade any vegetation

in its surroundings and the males are of common occurrence in the field.

The exuviae of early instars may be found even on railings and brick walls.

During the course of his studies on the new host of D. stebbingi

(Green) in Bihar, Haque (1955) confused D. dalbergiae (Green) with the

species D. stebbingi (Green). Examination of Haque’s collections show

that the specific determination by Haque (1955) was doubtful. Some of

the specimens from his collections were also forwarded to the British

Museum for identification and Dr. D. J. Williams, of the Common-

wealth Institute of Entomology, London, remarks : ‘ this is the penulti-

mate stage of a species close to Drosicha dalbergiae (Green). This

stage has 7-segmented antennae, the adult female will have either 8- or

9-segmented antennae.’ As such the list of host plants reported by

Haque (1955) for D. stebbingi (Green) is doubtful.

INDIAN UNION: on Dalbergia sissoo in the Sutlej Valley (Stebbing

1902) ; on Citrus sp. in Uttar Pradesh (Pruthi & Mani 1945), and on a

number of other host plants in Bihar as mentioned above.

——

1 See author’s remark under D. dalbergiae (Green) below.

122 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

3. Drosicha mangiferae (Green)

1903 Monophlebus stebbingi var. mangiferae Green, Stebbing ; Dept. Notes Ins.

Forestry 2 : 332. :

1908 M. stebbingi var. octocaudata Green ; Mem. Dept. Agri. India 2 (2) : 16.

1928 Drosicha mangiferae (Green), Morrison ; U.S. Dept. Agr. Tech. Bull. 52 : 169.

Type locality: Shalimar Gardens, Lahore, West Pakistan.

Host: Mangifera indica.

Originally the description of this species was made from males only

as the adult females were unknown till then. A collection of Stebbing

from Shorea robusta in Dehra Dun was described by Green (1903, and

in Stebbing 1902) as Monophlebus stebbingi in which the presence of three

pairs of caudal tassels in the male of this species was the specific character.

Another collection from Dalbergia sissoo in the Sutlej Valley was desig-

nated as Monophlebus dalbergiae by the same author (Green 1908, and

in Stebbing 1903) on account of four pairs of caudal tassels found in the

male of this form. Subsequently, material from a mango orchard of the

Shalimar Gardens, Lahore, was described by Green (in Stebbing 1903)

as Monophlebus stebbingi var. mangiferae in which the young females

were identical with M. stebbingi Green, but the males carried a very small

fourth pair of caudal tassels. Later, Green (1908) proposed the name

M. stebbingi var. octocaudata for the same material with a remark:

‘differs from male of dalbergiae (which also has 8 appendages) in its

much smaller size’. Again, Green (1923) published a synopsis of

characters for the females of the species M. phyllanthi, M. tamarindus,

M. stebbingi, M. octocaudata, and M. dalbergiae with the comment:

‘TI have not been able to find satisfactory characters to differentiate the

females of octocaudatus and dalbergiae ; but the males of these two

species may be distinguished by their size and by the character of the

abdominal tassels’. Morrison (1928) replaced the genus Monophlebus

by Drosicha and suggested the distinctiveness of the species Drosicha

stebbingi (Green), D. mangiferae (Green) [placing D. octocaudatus

(Green) as a synonym of D. mangiferae (Green)], and D. dalbergiae

(Green) from the Indian region. The characters given by Morrison

(1928) are quite helpful in distinguishing the two similar species

D. stebbingi and D. dalbergiae, whereas they are not applicable for the

separation of two species, namely, D. dalbergiae from D. mangiferae.

The finding of Latif (1949) that a great deal of variation takes place,

either in the presence or in the development of the fourth pair of caudal

tassels, within the males of the same species, and the fact that the two

species (D. stebbingi, D. mangiferae) interbreed freely in nature (Rahman &

Latif 1943) are liable to upset the specific status of all the three species

D. stebbingi, D. mangiferae, and D. dalbergiae. As such a careful study

COCCIDS AFFECTING FRUIT PLANTS IN BIHAR 123

of the collections from different localities as well as a check-up of the

type specimens are necessary before accepting the conclusions of

Khan & Latif (1943) and Latif (1949) that D. mangiferae is a synonym of

D. stebbingi.

D. mangiferae (Green) has been considered here, provisionally, as a

distinct species, as the author has not seen the type specimen and he does

not agree with the conclusions of Rahman & Latif (1943) and Latif

(1949), but is of the opinion, on the basis of his field studies, that the

species D. mangiferae actually refers to D. dalbergiae, to which it comes

close, rather than D. stebbingi as pointed out by Latif (1949). The

record of this species from Bihar by earlier workers appears to be of

D. dalbergiae ; the author was not able to collect this species during the

course of his studies in Bihar.

WEST PAKISTAN: since Khan & Latif (1941, 1945) considered it

as a synonym of D. stebbingi, all those hosts which have been mentioned

under D. stebbingi are common for this species. INDIAN UNION:

Mangifera indica at Sitamarhi and Dalsingsaraiin Bihar (Stebbing 1903) ;

practically on all trees including mango at Pusa, Bihar (Lefroy 1908),

and on mango, jak, guava, papaya, citrus, jamun, Ficus sp., etc. in the

districts of Bhagalpur, Santhal Parganas, Darbhanga, and Muzaffarpur

(Sen et al. 1956).

Tribe: Iceryini Cockerell

4. Icerya aegyptiaca (Douglas)

1890 Crossotosoma aegyptiacum Douglas, Ent. Mon. Mag. 26: 79.

1893 Icerya aegyptiaca (Douglas), Newstead ; Ent. Mon. Mag. 29 : 167.

1896 I. tangalla Green, Indian Mus. Notes 4 (1) : 7.

1950 I. aegyptiaca (Douglas), Rao ; Indian J. Ent. 12 (1): 51 (1951).

Type locality : Alexandria, Egypt.

Host: Fruit trees.

The original home of this coccid is not known, but in 1885 it appeared

as a serious pest on fruit trees in Alexandria, from where it was described.

Since then it is commonly known as Egyptian mealy bug. In India it was

observed by Miss Tomlin during 1892 in Madras, and later Cotes (1896)

reported its occurrence from Calcutta. It is quite common in India,

and Rao (1950) recorded forty-six different species of plants as its host

in India, with a comment that it does great damage to fruit trees like

custard apple, jak, sapota, citrus, and guava. He (Rao 1950) further

reported its occurrence in Bihar from Rampur (Khas Mahal plantation)

only, though Fletcher (1919) mentioned its record from Pusa and Ranchi

124 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

as well. I observed it in abundance on mango and guava, causing signi-

ficant damage at Motihari, Manjhawlia, and Bettiah. It is also fairly

common in the districts of Darbhanga, Muzaffarpur, Patna, Gaya,

and Ranchi in Bihar on croton, citrus, jak, rose, and Ficus, in addition

to mango and guava. It is a sporadic pest in Bihar, and usually found

from February to August. The males are fairly common during March

and April in north Bihar.

CEYLON: on several plants including rose, Jatropha podagrica,

etc. FORMOSA: on citrus, tea, and many other plants, (Rao 1950).

PHILIPPINE ISLANDS: on Citrus, Morus alba, and Barleria cristata

(Morrison 1920, Rao 1950). INDIAN UNION: on forty-six different

varieties of plants, in Bengal, Bihar, Bombay, Coorg, Cochin, Madras,

Mysore, Orissa, and Travancore (Ayyar 1921, Pruthi & Mani 1945,

Rao 1950). Further, the author has recently observed it on Gracinia

sp. at Calcutta, West Bengal, during November 1964. THAILAND: on

Ceiba pentandra and mango (Takahashi 1942).

5. Icerya pulcher (Leonardi)

1907 Palaeococuss pulcher Leonardi, Ann. R. Scuola Agr. Portici 7 (Ser. 2) : 3.

1928 Icerya pulcher (Leon.), Morrison ; U.S. Dept. Agr. Tech. Bull. 52 : 310.

1932 Icerya pulcher (Leon.), Green ; Stylops London 1 (2) : 32.

1952 Icerya pulcher (Leon.), Rao ; Indian J. Ent. 12 (2) : 68.

Type locality: Java.

Host: Ilex sp.

Recently it has been recorded from India by the present author (Ali

1962). It was observed only at Pusa, Bihar, on mango leaves from

February to July.

SINGAPORE: on Rhopaloblasta palm, Michelia champaca. JAVA.

on citrus, Mangifera sp., and rose. PHILIPPINE ISLANDS: on Guinta

beans. SUMATRA: on orange and coconut (Rao 1950). INDIAN UNION :

on Mangifera indica at Pusa, Bihar (Ali 1962).

6. Icerya minor Green

1908 Icerya minor Green, Mem. Dept. Agri. India 2 (2) : 17 (Ent. Ser.).

1928 Icerva minor Green, Morrison ; U.S. Dept. Agr. Tech. Bull. 52 : 210.

1950 Icerya minor Green, Rao ; Indian J. Ent. 12 (1) : 62.

Type locality: Pusa, Bihar, India.

Host: Mango.

COCCIDS AFFECTING FRUIT PLANTS IN BIHAR 125

INDIAN UNION: on mango at Pusa, Bihar (Green 1908) ; on Citrus

and guava in Assam and only on guava at Benares in Uttar Pradesh

(Rao 1950).

Tribe: Monophlebini Cockerell

7. Aspidoproctus cinerea (Green)

1908 Walkeriana cinerea Green, Mem. Dept. Agri. India 2 (2): 17 (Nom. nud.).

1922 Aspidoproctus cinerea (Green), Cocc. Ceylon 5 : 450.

1930 Aspidoproctus cinerea (Green), Ayyar ; Bull. Dept. Agri. India 197 : 69.

Type locality: Ceylon.

Host: On Grevillea sp.

Originally it was collected from Acacia arabica in Surat and named by

Green (1908) as W. cinerea but no description was published till 1922

when he described it from Ceylon as A. cinerea.

CEYLON: on Grevillea sp., Citrus sp., Terminalia sp., Thespesia sp.,

etc. (Green, 1922). INDIAN UNION: on Lawsonia alba and Acacia

arabica in Surat (Lefroy 1908, Misra 1923): on pomegranate, Lawsonia

alba, and sandalwood, etc., in south India (Ayyar 1921); on Achras

sdpota at Pusa, Bihar (Misra 1923).

II. Family PSEUDOCOCCIDAE

Subfamily Pseudococcinae

8. Ferrisiana virgata (Cockerell)

1893 Dactylopius virgatus Cockerell, The Entom. 26: 178.

1893 D. virgatus var. farinosus Cockerell, ibid. 26 : 178.

1893 D. virgatus var. humilis Cockerell, ibid. 26 : 179.

1896 D. dasylirii Cockerell, Jn. N.Y. Ent. Soc. 4: 202.

1896 D. ceriferus Newstead, Indian Mus. Notes 3 (5) : 24.

1897 D. talini Green, ibid. 4 (1): 7.

1912 Pseudococcus marchali Vayssiere, Soc. Ent. de France Bull. 17 : 366-368.

1915 P. bicaudatus Keuchenius, Med. Bez. Proefst. Diemba 16 : 1-65.

1920 Pseudococcus virgatus (Ckll), Morrison, Philip. Jour. Sci. 17 (2).

1950 Ferrisiana virgata (Cockerell) Ferris ; Atlas Scale Ins. N. America 5.

1962 Ferrisiana virgata (Cockerell), Ali ; Indian J. Ent. 23 (3) : 236 (1961).

Type locality: Kingston, Jamaica.

Host: Ona tree.

The list of host plants of this species in the oriental region is endless

and it may be expected to occur on almost any flowering plant. In India

126 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (i)

it has been reported from Assam, Bengal, Bihar, Bombay, Hyderabad,

Madhya Pradesh, Madras, and Mysore on forty different varieties of

plants by Ali (1962). It is one of the common mealy bugs, widely distri-

buted in the districts of Darbhanga, Muzaffarpur, Champaran, and

Saran in Bihar. It may be found in different stages of its development,

throughout the year clustering upon the terminal shoots, leaves, and

fruits of the host plants, like custard apple, crotons, guava, jak, plantain,

Phyllanthus emblica, aerial roots of banyan, Ipomoea hederacea, Mimu-

sops elengi, etc. It does considerable damage, especially to custard

apple and crotons, from April to September, and often its infestation

proves fatal to young plants in Bihar.

CEYLON: on a number of plants (Ayyar 1919, 1921, 1930).

FormMosA: on Bauhinia sp. JAVA: probably on citrus (Pruthi &

Mani 1945). MALAY PENINSULA: on guava (Takahashi 1950).

PHILIPPINE ISLANDS: ona number of plants, including Anona squamosa

and Psidium sp. etc. (Cockerell 1907, Cockerell & Robinson 1915,

Robinson 1917, Morrison 1920). INDIAN UNION: on forty different

host plants (Ali 1962). INDO-CHINA: on Albizzia sp. THAILAND :

on legume and other plants (Takahashi 1942).

9. Nippaecoccus vastator (Maskell)

1895 Dactylopius vastator Maskell, New Zel. Inst. Trans. & Proc. 27 (1894).

1910 D. perniciosus Newstead & Willcock, Bull. ent. Res. London 1 : 133.

1948 Nipaecoccus vastator (Maskell), Zimmerman ; Honolulu Univ. Press 464 :

1322

1950 Nipaecoccus vastator (Maskell), Ferris ; Atlas Scale Ins. N. America: 5.

1957 Pseudococcus vastator ((Maskell), Ali, Indian J. Ent. 19 (1) : 54.

1962 Nipaecoccus vastator (Maskell) Ali, ibid. 23 (4) : 304 (1961).

Type locality : Sandwich Island.

Host: Citrus.

A new distributional record of this species has been established from

India by Ali (1957). It is quite common in Bihar from April to Novem-

ber on Citrus spp., Phyllanthus emblica, Artocarpus integrifolia, Abel-

moschus esculentus, Gossypium sp., and Dalbergia sissoo, in the districts

of Darbhanga, Muzaffarpur, Champaran, Patna, and Gaya. An

Aphelinid parasite, Eriaporus aphelincides Cam., is an effective enemy of

this pest at Pusa, Bihar.

INDIAN UNION: on Citrus spp., Euphorbia sp., and Dalbergia sissoo

in Uttar Pradesh (Ali 1957), on tea in Assam (Das 1959), as above in

Bihar (Ali 1962) and the author recently observed it on Citrus sp. and

Zizyphus sp. at Calcutta in West Bengal.

COCCIDS AFFECTING FRUIT PLANTS IN BIHAR 127

10. Phenacoccus ballardi Newstead

1917 Phenacoccus ballardi Newstead, Bull. ent. Res. London 8 : 17.

1921 Phenacoccus ballardi Newstead, Ayyar ; Proc, 4th. Ent. Mtg. Pusa : 334.

Type locality : Coimbatore, south India.

Host: Mango.

INDIAN UNION : on mango at Pusa, Bihar, and in south India (Ayyar

1921).

11. Phenacoccus hirsutus Green

1908 Phenacoccus hirsutus Green, Mem. Dept. Agri. India 2 (2) : 25 (Ent. Ser.).

1921 Phenacoccus hirsutus Green, Ayyar ; Proc. 4th. Ent. Mtg. Pusa : 3.

1958 Phenacoccus hirsutus Green, Williams; Bull. B.M. Nat. Hist. 6 (8) : 228.

Type locality : not known (probably northern India).

Host : Undetermined.

PHILIPPINE ISLANDS: on Hibiscus sp., Samanea saman (Morrison

1920). INDIAN UNION: on Ficus sp. at Mohol in Sholapur (Kasargode

1914); on Morus sp. at Pusa, Bihar, and in Bengal (Fletcher 1919).

THAILAND : on Hibiscus sp. (Takahashi 1942).

12. Rastrococcus iceryoides (Green)

1908 Phenacoccus iceryoides Green, Mem. Dept. Agri. India 2 (2) : 26 (Ent. S.).

1921 Phenacoccus iceryoides Green, Ayyar, Proc. 4th. Ent. Mtg. Pusa: 3.

1922 Dactylopius obtusus Newstead, Green ; Cocc. Ceylon 5 : 391.

1954 Rastrococcus iceryoides (Green), Ferris ; Microentomology 19: 51.

Type locality : Calcutta, India.

Host: Mango.

It was observed at Pusa on sapota leaves and fruit in November

1956—a new distributional record for this species from Bihar.

MALAY PENINSULA: most common on Cassia, cacao, Cajanus,

Centrosema, Citrus sp., coffee, Crotalaria, cotton, Derris, Gardenia,

Ficus sp., Michelia, Mangifera, Vitex, Phyllanthus, and twelve other host

plants (Takahashi 1950). INDIAN UNION: on a number of wild and

cultivated plants in different parts of north and south India (Ayyar

1921), sporadic major pest of Citrus spp. in several parts of India

Pruthi & Mani 1945) ; on sapota at Pusa, Bihar, as mentioned above.

128 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (1)

13. Centrococcus insolitus (Green)

1908 Phenacoccus insolitus Green, Mem. Dept. Agri. India 2 (2) : 26 (Ent. S.).

Type locality: Pusa, Bihar, India.

Host: Sida cordifolia.

INDIAN UNION: throughout India on brinjal (Solanum melongena)

(Fletcher 1919, Ayyar 1921); on Cape gooseberry (Physalis maxima)

at Pusa, Bihar (Fletcher 1921).

If. Family COCCIDAE

Subfamily Coccinae

Tribe Pulvinariini

14. Pulvinaria polygonata Cockerell

1905 Pulvinaria polygonata Cockerell, Proc. Dav. Acad. Sci. Iowa. 10 : 131.

1917 Pulvinaria polygonata Cockerell, Robinson, Philippine Jour. Sci. 12 (1) : 10.

1920 Pulvinaria polygonata Cockerell, Morrison ; ibid. 17 (2) : 182.

Type locality: Manila.

Host: cultivated shade-tree.

PHILIPPINE ISLANDS: on orange, Citrus nobilis, and shade-trees

(Cockerell 1907, Robinson 1917, and Morrison 1920). INDIAN UNION :

on mango leaves and shoots at Pusa, Bihar (Misra 1923).

15. Pulvinaria cellulosa Green

1909 Pulvinaria cellulosa Green, Cocc. Ceylon 4 : 262.

1964 Pulvinaria cellulosa Green, Ali, Indian J. Ent. 26 (3) : 361.

Type locality: Pundaluoya, Ceylon.

Host: Citrus.

Morrison (1920) considered it to be a synonym of Pulvinaria poly-

gonata Cockerell. But it has been regarded here, provisionally, as a

distinct species on the basis of the identification report of the British

Museum, London.

CEYLON: on Citrus sp. (Green 1909). INDIAN UNION: only in

Bihar on mango (Misra 1923), serious sporadic pest in Bihar on citrus

and mango (Ali 1964).

COCCIDS AFFECTING FRUIT PLANTS IN BIHAR 129

16. Pulvinaria psidii Maskell

1892 Pulvinaria psidii Maskell, New Zel. Inst. Trans. & Proc. 25: 223.

1917 Pulvinaria psidii philippina Robinson, Philippine Jour. Sci. 12 (1).

1920 Pulvinaria psidii Maskell, Morrison ; ibid. 17 (2) : 182.

Type locality : Sandwich Island.

Host: Guava (Psidium).

In India, it is one of the commonest and most destructive in south

India on a variety of plants like guava, mango, coffee, tea, etc. In Bihar,

Fletcher (1919) and Misra (1923) reported its occurrence on mango and

litchi only, but I observed it on guava also at Muzaffarpur during April

to September months. It is similar in appearance to P. cellulosa Green,

especially after the formation of the ovisac. So far as the author is

aware, it has never assumed a serious pest status in Bihar.

CEYLON: on guava, tea (Green 1896). FORMOSA and SUMATRA:

on Citrus sp. and other plants (Pruthi & Mani 1945). INDIAN UNION :

all over India on guava, mango, jamun, loquat (Eriobotrya japonica),

tea, coffee, etc. (Lefroy 1908, Fletcher 1919, Ayyar 1921, Misra 1923).

PHILIPPINE ISLANDS : on Citrus sp., Eugenia jambolana, Psidium guajava,

Ficus sp. (Robinson 1917, Morrison 1920, Pruthi & Mani 1945).

THAILAND : on Euphoria longana and Ficus sp. (Takahashi 1942).

Tribe Coccini

17. Coccus discrepans (Green)

1904 Lecanium discrepans Green, Cocc. Ceylon 3 : 204.

1961 Coccus discrepans (Green), Das & Ganguli ; Indian J. Ent. 23 (4) : 247.

Type locality : Pundaluoya, Ceylon.

Host : On Tea plants.

CEYLON: on tea (Green 1904). INDIAN UNION: on mango and

banana (Musa sp.) in south India (Fletcher 1919, Ayyar 1921); on plan-

tain at Gauhati (Fletcher 1921); on tea at Tocklai (Das & Ganguli

1961) ; on Zizyphus jujuba at Pusa, Bihar (Misra 1923).

18. Coccus mangiferae (Green)

1899 Lecanium mangiferae Green, Ent. Mon. Mag. 35 : 249.

1903 Coccus mangiferae (Green), Fernald ; Cat. Cocci. World : 172.

1904 Lecanium mangiferae Green, Cocc. Ceylon 3 : 216.

1920 Coccus mangiferae (Green), Morrison, Philippine Jour. Sci. 17 (2) : 200.

Type locality : Ceylon.

130 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

Host : Mango.

CEYLON: on mango (Green 1904). PHILIPPINE ISLANDS: on Cocos

nucifera (Morrison 1920). INDIAN UNION: on mango at Pusa, Bihar

(Fletcher 1919). THAILAND: on Ficus sp. (Takahashi 1942).

Subfamily Ceroplastinae

19. Ceroplastes ceriferus (Anderson)

1791 Coccus ceriferi Anderson, Monogr. Cocci Ceriferi Madras.

1872 Ceroplastes ceriferus (Anderson), Signoret ; Ann. Soc. Ent. Fr. 2 (5) : 40.

1903 Ceroplastes ceriferus (Anderson), Fernald ; Cat. Cocci. World: 149.

1920 Ceroplastes ceriferus (Anderson), Morrison ; Philip. Jour. Sci. 17 (2) 200.

Type locality: Madras, India.

Host: Celastrus ceriferus.

CEYLON : on Antigonon, Poutzolzia, mulberry, tea, Ficus spp., etc.

(Green 1896, Ayyar 1921). Formosa (Pruthi & Mani 1945) ; PHILip-

PINE ISLANDS : on Phytocrene and Ficus hauili (Morrison 1920) ; INDIAN

UNION: on tea in Kangra Valley (Atkinson 1889); on tea in Assam

and Darjeeling (Das & Ganguli 1961); on Lawsonia alba, Boswellia,

Asclepiadron, etc. in south India; on Terminalia, Buchanania, etc. in

Madhya Pradesh (Ayyar 1919, 1921) ; on Casuarina in Bombay (Misra

1923) ; on mango, pipal, and arjoon trees in Ranchi, Chota Nagpur,

Bihar (Cotes 1891). THAILAND: on Euphoria longana (Takahashi

1942).

20. Ceroplastes pseudoceriferus Green

1933 Ceroplastes pseudoceriferus Green, Stylop London 4 (8) : 180.

1959 Ceroplastes pseudoceriferus Green, Sankaran ; J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

56 (1) : 39.

Type locality : Ceylon.

Host : Undetermined.

This is a new distributional record for this species in Bihar. It was

observed heavily clustered upon mango shoots causing considerable

damage specially to the seedlings at Motihari during February 1956.

Again, in 1957 and 1958, it appeared as a menace to ‘ Maha Buddha

Tree’ (Ficus religiosa) along with one more unidentified mealy bug at

Buddha Gaya in south Bihar. Later it was effectively controlled by the

State Department of Agriculture, Bihar.

COCCIDS AFFECTING FRUIT PLANTS IN BIHAR 131

CEYLON : on undetermined plant (Green 1933). INDIAN UNION :

on Azadirachta indica and Diospyros montana (Green 1935) ; on Mad-

huca longifolia in south India, on Mangifera indica, Ficus religiosa, F.

glomerata, F. bengalensis, Artocarpus heterophylla, Madhuca_ indica,

Mimusops hexandra, Terminalia chebula, and Holoptelea integrifolia in

Benares, Uttar Pradesh (Sankaran 1959) ; and on Mangifera indica and

Ficus religiosa at Motihari and Gaya in Bihar as mentioned above.

21. Ceroplastes floridensis Comstock

1880 Ceroplastes floridensis Comstock, Rep. U.S. Dep. Agr. : 331 (1881).

1880 Ceroplastes rusci Ashmead, Can. Ent. 12 : 252.

1903 Ceroplastes floridensis Comstock, Fernald ; Cat. Cocci. World: 152.

1909 Ceroplastes floridensis Comstock, (Green 1896) ; Cocc. Ceylon 4: 277.

Type locality : Florida.

Host : i

CEYLON : on guava, mango, citrus, tea, etc. (Green 1896, 1909).

JAVA: on mango and citrus (Green 1900). Formosa (Pruthi & Mani

1945). INDIAN UNION: on Michaelia, Anacardium occidentale, etc. in

south India (Ayyar 1919) ; on mango; minor sporadic pest of citrus,

guava, Ficus carica in different parts of India (Fletcher 1919, Pruthi &

Mani 1945) ; on tea in Assam and Darjeeling (Das & Ganguli 1961);

and on Anona squamosa at Pusa, Bihar (Misra 1923).

22. Ceroplastes actiniformis Green

1896 Ceroplastes actiniformis Green, Indian Mus. Notes 4 (1): 9.

1909 Ceroplastes actiniformis Green, Cocc. Ceylon 4 : 275.

Type locality: Pundaluoya, Ceylon.

Host: Coconut palm.

It is quite common in north Bihar on mango and guava from April

to September. Usually found singly distributed on shoots and leaves

in different stages of its development. Once seen on sugarcane leaves

(Ali 1962), but this appears to be an accidental host for the species.

CEYLON : on Coconut palm and some other plants (Green 1896).

INDIAN UNION : on coconut, mango, etc., in south India (Ayyar 1919) ;

on loranthus in Poona (Fletcher 1919), on Ficus carica at Pusa, Bihar

(Misra 1923) ; on mango and guava as mentioned above.

132 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

IV. Family DIASPIDIDAE

Subfamily Diaspidinae

Tribe Aspidiotini

23. Aonidiella aurantii (Maskell)

1878 Aspidiotus aurantii Maskell, New Zel. Inst. Trans. & Proc. 11 : 199.

1881 A. citri Comstock, Rep. U.S. Dept. Agri. 293 (1880).

1881 A. coccineus Gennadius, Ann. Soc. Ent. Fr. 1 (6) : 189.

1887 Aspidiotus gennadii (Targioni), Penzig ; Studi Bot. Sug. Agr. : 497.

1903 Chrysomphalus aurantii (Maskell), Fernald ; Cat. Cocc. World : 287.

1938 Aonidiella aurantii (Maskell), Ferris ; Atlas Scale Inst. America su-179.

Type locality: Sydney.

Host: Orange.

BURMA: on Citrus sp. (Misra 1923). CEYLON: On Agave, and

Citrus spp. (Green 1896). FoRMOSA: on Citrus (Ferris 1921).

PHILIPPINE ISLANDS : on Artocarpus sp. (Cockerell 1907) and on Astronia

(Robinson 1917). WesT PAKISTAN: on Citrus (Pruthi & Mani 1945).

INDIAN UNION : practically common all over India and thrive best in a

semi-arid climate. They are usually found on Citrus spp., mulberry,

cycas, rose, etc. (Fletcher 1919, Ayyar 1921) ; on rose and orange leaves

at Pusa, Bihar (Misra 1923). INDO-CHINA and THAILAND: on Citrus

sp. (Takahashi 1942).

24. Aonidiella orientalis (Newstead)

1894 Aspidiotus orientalis Newstead, Indian Mus. Notes 3 (5) : 26.

1896 A. osbeckiae Green, ibid. 4 (1): 4.

1896 A. osbeckiae Green, Cocc. Ceylon 1 : 47.

1897 A. (Diaspidiotus) osbeckiae (Green), Cockerell; Bull. Tech. Ser. 6, U.S.—

Dept. Agri. : 28.

1898 A. (Evaspidiotus) osbeckiae (Green), Leonardi ; Riv. Pat. Veg. 7: 77.

1898 A. (Evaspidiotus) orientalis (Newstead), Leonardi ; ibid. 7 : 79.

1908 A. (Aonidiella) cocotiphagus Marlatt, U.S. Dept. Agr. Ent. Tech. Ser.16: 11.

1908 A. orientalis var. cocotiphagus Marlatt ; ibid. Ser. 16 : 11-32.

1915 Chrysomphalus pedroniformis Cockerell & Robinson, Bull. American Mus.

Nat. Hist. 34 : 107.

1938 Aonidiella orientalis (Newstead), Ferris; Atlas Scale Inst. N. America:

si-180.

Type locality : Seven Pagodas, Madras, India.

Host : unknown (probably, a species of Panicum grass).

COCCIDS AFFECTING FRUIT PLANTS IN BIHAR 133

BuRMA: on Ficus religiosa (Misra 1923). CEYLON: on Osbeckia

(Green 1896), and on Atylosia (Ayyar 1921). PHILIPPINE ISLANDS:

on Vitis vinifera and Eriodendron anfractuosum (Cockerell & Robinson

1915, Robinson 1917). INDIAN UNION: on Tamarindus indica and

Solanum melongena in south India, on coconut palm in Travancore, on

rose in Bombay and Poona, on guava and plantain leaves in Madhya

Pradesh (Ayyar 1921, Fletcher 1919); on Eugenia jambolana, Zizyphus

jujuba, Tamarindus indica, plantain leaves, Melia azadirachta, etc. at

Pusa, Muzaffarpur, and Darbhanga in Bihar (Fletcher 1919, Misra

1923).

25. Aspidiotus destructor Signoret

1869 Aspidiotus destructor Signoret, Ann. Soc. Ent. Fr. 9 (4) : 120.

1869 A. lataniae Signoret, ibid. 2 (4) : 124.

1890 A. transparens Green, Insect Pest of Tea Plants : 22.

1938 A. destructor Signoret, Ferris ; Atlas Scale Ins. N. America, su-191.

Type locality: Reunion Island.

Host: Palms and Psidium gudjava.

CEYLON : on mango, Ficus carica, tea, rubber, etc. (Green 1900).

Formosa : on Morus alba (Ferris 1921). PHitipprine IsLANDS: on

Mangifera indica, Mangifera verticillata, Eugenia calubcob, Cocos nuci-

fera, etc. (Robinson 1917). INDIAN UNION: a minor sporadic pest

throughout the plains and low hills of the country. Occurs on mango,

apple, peach, orange, citrus, jamun, Zizyphus jujuba, Tamarindus in-

dica, Psidium guajava, Cocos nucifera, Phoenix sp., etc. all over India

and on Cocos nucifera in Laccadive Islands (Maskell 1896, Green

1908, Fletcher 1919, Ayyar 1921, Misra 1923). INpDo-CHiNA and

THAILAND : on mango and palm (Takahashi 1942).

26. Pseudaonidia trilobitiformis (Green)

1896 Aspidiotus trilobitiformis Green, Indian Mus. Notes 4 (1): 4.

1896 Aspidiotus trilobitiformis Green, Cocc. Ceylon 1:31.

1903 Pseudaonidia trilobitiformis (Green), Fernald ; Cat. Cocc. World : 284.

1921 Pseudaonidia trilobitiformis (Green), Ferris ; Bull. ent. Res., London 12 : 218.

Type locality: Pundaluoya, Ceylon.

Host: Unidentified tree.

CEYLON : on leaves of unidentified tree (Green 1896) and on Dal-

bergia championii (Fletcher 1919). ForMOsA: on Citrus sp. (Ferris

1921). PHILIPPINE ISLANDS: on Artocarpus sp. (Cockerell & Robinson

134 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

1915). INDIAN UNION : on unidentified plant in Calcutta (Green 1903),

on Mimusops elengi, Ixora sp., and mango leaves in south India (Fletcher

1919), and only on mango leaves at Pusa, Bihar (Misra 1923). INDo-

CHINA and THAILAND : on Ficus sp. (Takahashi 1942).

Tribe Diaspidini

27. Chionaspis pusa Rao

1923 Chionaspis pusa Green, Misra; Proc. 5th Ent. Mtg. Pusa348.(Nom nud.).

1953 Chionaspis pusa Sp.n.,Rao, Proc. R. ent. Soc. London (B) 22 (3 & 4):62.

Type locality: Pusa, Bihar, India.

Host: Citrus sp.

Misra (1923) referred this species under manuscript name, but actually

no description was published until Rao (1953) examined its type speci-

men and described it, provisionally, under Chionaspis as originally

placed by Green with his (Rao 1953) comment that ‘it would require a

review of the whole group of species referred to the genus Chionaspis

to determine exactly the generic position of thiS species’.

INDIAN UNION : on Citrus sp. at Pusa, Bihar (Misra 1923, Rao 1953).

28. Aulacaspis mangiferae (Newstead)

1908 Diaspis cinnamomi Newstead, Jour. Econ. Biol. 3 : 34.

1919 Diaspis cinnamomi mangiferae (Newstead), Green; Rec. Ind. Mus., 16: 433.

1930 Diaspis cinnamomi mangiferae (Newst.), Ayyar ; Dept. Agri. India, Bull.

197 : 14.

1952 Aulacaspis mangiferae (Newst.), Scott, Microentomology 17 (2): 35.

Type locality: East Java.

Host : Cinnamomum ceylanicum.

INDIAN UNION : on mango at Bangalore and at Pusa, Bihar (Green

1919, Misra 1923). JAVA: as above.

29. Lepidosaphes gloverri (Packard)

1869 Coccus gloverii Packard, Guide to study of Ins. Ed. 1 : 527.

1872 Aspidiotus gloverii (Packard), ibid. Ed. 2 : 527.

1938 Mytilaspis gloverii (Packard), Ferris ; Atlas Scale Ins. N. America : s1-74.

1938 Mytilella sexspina Hoke, Ferris ; ibid. : st-74.

1938 Lepidosaphes gloverri (Packard), Ferris ; ibid. ; sI-74.

Type locality: Florida,

COCCIDS AFFECTING FRUIT PLANTS IN BIHAR 135

Host: Citrus sp.

CEYLON: on orange (Ayyar 1921). SOUTHERN CHINA and PHILIP-

PINE ISLANDS : on Citrus sp., (Pruthi & Mani 1945). INDIAN UNION :

on mango and croton leaves at Pusa, Bihar (Misra 1923).

30. Parlatoria camelliae (Comstock)

1883 Parlatoria pergandii var. camelliae Comstock, Agr. Expt. Stat. Rept. Cornell

2:114.

1939 Parlatoria camelliae (Comstock), Morrison ; Misc. Pub. No. 344, U.S.

Dept. Agr. : 8.

1945 Parlatoria camelliae (Comstock), Mckenzie, Microentomology 10 (2) : 57.

Type locality: North America.

Host : Camellia.

JAVA: on mango (Morrison 1939). West PAKISTAN: on olive

(Misra 1923). INDIAN UNION: on Aegele sp., Azadirachta sp., Melia

sp., and Vitis sp., in different parts of the country (Ayyar 1921, Morrison

1939), on mango leaves in Rajputana, and only on Aegele marmelos at

Pusa, Bihar (Misra 1923).

31. Parlatoria oleae (Colvee)

1880 Diaspis oleae Colvee, Gac. Agr. Min. de Fomento (Spain). 14 (2) : 39.

1895 Parlatoria calianthina Berlese & Leonardi, Riv. di. Patob. Veg. 3: 346.

1897 Parlatoria affinis Newstead Tran. Ent. Soc. Lond. : 97.

1935 Parlatoria oleae (Colvee), Nichol & Wehrle, Ariz. Agr. Expt. Sta. Tech.

Bull, 56 : 201-235.

1937 Parlatovia oleae (Colvee), Ferris, Atlas Scale Ins. N. America st-87.

1937 Syngenaspis oleae (Colvee), Borkhsenius, U.S.S.R. Agr. Plant Quarantine,

Georgia : 87.

1939 Parlatoria oleae (Colvee) Morrison, Misc. Pub. No. 344, U.S. Dept. Agr. : 15.

1946 Parlatoria oleae (Colvee), Mckenzie, Microentomology 10 (2) : 69.

Type locality? : Spain.

Host: Olive.

+ Spain vide Mckenzie 1946 and Italy vide Ferris 1937,

136 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

INDIAN UNION : on peach, pears, and plums in Bengal and at Ranchi,

Hinoo, Jaganathpur, Kanke, Nankum in Bihar (Rao & Chatterjee 1948).

32. Phenacaspis dilatata (Green)

1899 Chionaspis dilatata Green, Cocc. Ceylon 2: 148 & Ann. Appl. Biol. 5 (2):

46 (1919).

1903 Phenacaspis dilatata (Green), Fernald ; Cat. Cocci. World : 273.

Type locality: Kandy, Ceylon.

Host: Eurycles sp.

CEYLON : on mango, Eurycles sp., Myristica spp., etc. (Green 1899).

EAST PAKISTAN: on mango leaves in Dacca (Misra 1923). INDIAN

UNION : on palm in Bangalore and Calcutta and on mango leaves at

Pusa, Bihar (Misra 1923, Ayyar 1921, Fletcher 1919).

33. Phenacaspis megaloba (Green)

1899 Chionaspis megaloba Green, Cocc. Ceylon2: 149 & Rec. Indian Mus. 16:

438.

1903 Phenacaspis megaloba (Green), Fernald ; Cat. Cocci. World : 238.

Type locality : Kandy, Ceylon. |

Host: Psidium sp.

CEYLON : on Psidium sp. and Actinoclaphne molochina (Green 1899) ;

INDIAN UNION : on Zizyphus jujuba at Pusa, Bihar (Misra 1923).

34. Phenacaspis vitis (Green)

1896 Chionaspis vitis Green, Indian Mus. Notes 4 (1): 3.

1899 Chionaspis vitis Green, Cocc. Ceylon 2: 140.

1903 Chionaspis vitis Green, Fernald ; Cat. Cocc. World : 286.

1942 Phenacaspis vitis (Green), Takahashi, Rept. Govt. Agr. Res. Inst. Formosa

81: 33.

Type locality : Pundulaoya, Ceylon.

Host: on Vitis sp.

CEYLON : on Vitis lanceolaria, Elaeagnus latifolia, and Loranthus sp.

(Green 1896, Fernald 1903, Fletcher 1919). INDIAN UNION : on Elaeag-

nus sp. and mango in south India ; only on mango at Pusa, Bihar (Fletcher

1919, Ayyar 1921). THAILAND: on undetermined tree (Takahashi

1942).

COCCIDS AFFECTING FRUIT PLANTS IN BIHAR $37

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(1896) : Miscellaneous notes

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211-220.

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Sea Anemones (Actiniaria) of Bombay

ARUN PARULEKAR

Senior Research Fellow (C.S.I.R.), Bombay Natural History Society

(With two plates and a map)

A collection of sea anemones from the intertidal region of different localities of the

Bombay shore are described. For each species, the habit and preferred habitat,

size range, coloration, distinguishing external features, association and distribu-

tion are given. Out of 17 species, two are new and seven new records for India.

A key to the identification of sea anemones of Bombay is given.

INTRODUCTION

Sea anemones form an important group of intertidal organisms.

On Bombay shores, as elsewhere, they are distinguished by their habit,

habitat and beautiful coloration. Information about the sea anemones

of Bombay is rather meagre being limited to notes by Dave (1957) and

Bhatt (1959). Dr. Cutress (Personal communication) of Puerto Rico

University, collected 12 species from this area.

Seventeen species of intertidal sea anemones, collected from different

localities, viz. Cuffe Parade, Secretariat Foreshore, Chaupatty, Breach

Candy, Worli, Dadar, Mahim, Versova, Madh, Manori and Mazagaon

Docks, within Bombay City limits (See Map) are described in this paper.

The specimens have been identified up to species level except for

two forms for which only generic identification is given. The notes on

coloration are based on live specimens. For technical terms usedin the

description of species the actinian glossary of Carlgren (1949) is followed.

The intertidal actinian fauna of Bombay of 17 species, belong to9

families and 15 genera. Of these, Anemonia indicus and Acontiophorum

bombayensis are new species (Parulekar 1968). The undescribed Cri-

brinopsis sp. and Aiptasia sp. require more observations for Seg

their taxonomic position.

Amongst the sea anemones reported in this paper, Bunodosoma

granulifera, Anthopleura midori, Anthopleura asiatica, Anthopleura paci-

fica, Actiniogeton sultana, Metridium senile var. fimbriatum and Aiptasio-

morpha luciae are new records for India.

A survey of the geographical distribution reveals that sea anemones

of Bombay are chiefly composed of Indo-Pacific forms. Of the

SEA ANEMONES OF BOMBAY 139

17 species recorded here, eight described by various authors (Panikkar

1939, Dave 1957, and Parulekar 1968) are confined to Indian waters.

Three species of the genus Anthopleura, were known previously only from

Japan (Uchida 1958) and M. senile var fimbriatum, A. sultana, B. granuli-

fera and A. luciae have been reported from Pacific, Atlantic and Indian

Oceans.

LIST OF SPECIES

Order ACTINIARIA

Tribe Nynatheae

Sub-tribe Athenaria

Family EDWARDSIIDAE Andres, 1880

Genus Z£DWARDSIA Quatrefages, 1862

1. Edwardsia tinctrix Annandale, 1915

Family HALOCLAVIDAE Verrill, 1899

Genus METAPEACHTA Carlgren, 1943

2. Méetapeachia tropica (Panikkar), 1939

Family HALIACTIDAE Carlgren, 1949

Genus PELocoETES Annandale, 1915

3. Pelocoetes exul Annandale, 1915

Genus exyTocozTes Annandale, 1915

4, Phytocoetes gangeticus Annandale, 1915

Tribe Thenarra Carlgren, 1899

Sub-tribe Endomyaria Stephenson, 1921

Family ACTINIDAE Gosse, 1858

Genus 4vEmon/4 Risso, 1826

5. Anemonia indicus Parulekar, 1968

Genus suvoDosoma Verrill, 1899

6. Bunodosoma granulifera (Leseur), 1817

Genus 4vraoPLzEvRA Duchassaing & Michelotii, 1860

7, Anthopleura midori Uchida, 1958

140 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

8. Anthopleura asiatica Uchida, 1958

9. Anthopleura pacifica Uchida, 1958

Genus PARACONDYLACTIS Carlgren, 1934

10. Paracondylactis indicus Dave, 1957

Genus ac7rinioGETon Carlgren, 1938

11. Actiniogeton sultana (Carlgren), 1900

Genus crrerrvopsrs Carlgren, 1921

i2. Cribrinopsis sp.

Sub-tribe Acontiaria Carlgren, in Stephenson, 1935

Family ACONTIOPHORIDAE Carlgren, 1938

Genus 4conTiopHorUm Carlgren, 1938

13. Acontiophorum bombayensis Parulekar, 1968

Family METRIDIDAE Carlgren, 1893

Genus merripium Oken, 1815

14. Méetridium senile var. fimbriatum Verrill, 1865

Family AIPTASIIDAE Carlgren, 1924

Genus are7asra Gosse, 1858

15. Aiptasia sp.

Family AIPTASIOMORPHIDAE

Genus 4zPTasromorPHa Stephenson, 1920

16. Aiptasiomorpha luciae (Verrill), 1899

Family DIADUMENIDAE Stephenson, 1920

Genus D/4DUMENE Stephenson, 1920

17. Diadumene schilleriana (Stoliczka), 1869

DESCRIPTION OF SPECIES

1. Edwardsia tinctrix Annandale, 1915 (Plate I, Fig. 1)

Occurrence: Burrowing, solitary and rare form found in soft mud |

at Cuffe Parade. |

Remarks: Specimens measure 18-20 cm. in length. Column and |

tentacles dirty-white in colour. 8 longitudinal rows of nemathybomes |

SEA ANEMONES OF BOMBAY 141

on a worm-like column. Ampullaceous, physa-like base. 16 tentacles

in two cycles.

Distribution: India—Chilka Lake and Bombay.

2. Metapeachia tropica (Panikkar, 1939) (Plate I, Fig. 2)

Occurrence: Quite common on all sandy shores but abundant at

Chaupatty. Burrowing. Holes round and smooth in clean sand.

Remarks: Elongated column, measuring 30-300 mm. in length,

with adhesive papillae. Base tapering to a point. 16 tentacles and 5

lobed conchula. Column, milky white, whereas tentacles, oral disc and

conchula are spotted.

Distribution : India—Krusadi Island, Madras Coast, and Bombay.

3. Pelocoetes exul Annandale, 1915 (Plate I, Fig. 3)

Occurrence: Very common in soft mud at Secretariat Foreshore,

Chaupatty, Versova, Madh and Manori. Solitary forms also found

attached to submerged structures and to the tubes of the polychaete,

Polydora coeca.

Remarks: Long, vermiform column, divisible into distal short

capitulum and proximal elongated scapus. Blunt tapering base, without

physa. Longitudinal rows of nematocyst batteries alternating with cin-

clides on the column. Branched tentacles and lobed oral disc.

Anemone light-green in colour and measuring 40-85 mm. in length.

Distribution : India—Gangetic Delta, Calcutta, Madras, Cochin

Backwaters, and Bombay.

4, Phytocoetes gangeticus Annandale, 1915 (Plate I, Fig. 4)

Occurrence: Found together with P. exul but less common.

Remarks: Narrow physa-like base. Column smooth with cin-

clides. Unbranched tentacles. Anemone light pink or light green in

colour. Length, 60-80 mm. |

Distribution: India—Gangetic Delta, Calcutta, Madras, Cochin

Backwaters, and Bombay.

5. Anemonia indicus Parulekar, 1968 (Plate I, Fig. 5)

Occurrence: Adhesive, solitary to gregarious forms attached to

rocks, or oyster shells or to the tube of the polychaete, Onuphis sp. or

to the shell of the mollusc, Coecella sp. or even to the submerged pier-

wall. Found in abundance at Cuffe Parade, Mahim, Mazagaon Docks

and Madh.

Remarks : Small anemone with a wide pedal disc and a pillar-like

column bearing marginal spherules. Column green with brown longi-

tudinal stripes, long tentacles, in 4-5 cycles with V-shaped green or

142 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

brownish marks, alternating with white patches. Radial and transverse

brown stripes on the oral disc.

Distribution: India—Bombay and also at Ratnagiri, Malvan and

Redi in the Ratnagiri District of Maharashtra State.

6. Bunodosoma granulifera (Leseur, 1817) (Plate I, Fig. 6)

Occurrence: Rare and solitary forms living in the deep fissures of

rock at Cuffe Parade and Breach Candy.

Remarks: Strong, adhesive circular base, pillar-like, pink column

with longitudinal rows of nematocyst batteries. Anemone measures

20-30 mm. inlength. Tentacles, light pink with red longitudinal stripes.

Distribution : West Indies—Jamaica, Puerto Rico, Bahamas, Bar-

bados, Curacao, Guadeloupe, Martinique and St. Thomas. India—

Bombay.

7. Anthopleura midori Uchida, 1958 (Plate I, Fig. 7)

Occurrence: Abundantly found attached to rocks or under surfaces

of boulders at Cuffe Parade, Chaupatty (Band Stand) and Manori..

Remarks: Small, blackish-brown anemone, with broad base and

cylindrical column. 96 rows of light-green verrucae on the column.

Pieces of shell often attached to column. Grey tentacles and dark brown

oral disc. Length of the anemone 10-15 mm.

Distribution : Japan—Mutsu Bay and from Hokkaido to Kyushu.

North America—Atlantic and Pacific coasts. Northern Europe and

India—Bombay.

8. Anthopleura asiatica Uchida, 1958 (Plate I, Fig. 8)

Occurrence: Found only at Chaupatty, firmly attached to rocks or

oyster shells, in shallow rock-pools. Not very common.

Remarks: Greyish-green, pillar-like column with a circular basal

disc. Only 12 out of 48 longitudinal rows of red to reddish-brown

verrucae on the column, are clearly seen. Column bell-like, when

contracted. Acrorhagi in big specimen. Column 10 mm. in length.

Distribution: Japan—Coast of Pacific and Japan Sea from Honshu

to Kyushu and in the inland sea near Okayama City. India—Bombay.

9. Anthopleura pacifica Uchida, 1958 (Plate I, Fig. 9)

Occurrence: Attached to rocks in rock pools at Worli, Mahim and

Manori. Gregarious, forming dense colonies with a superficial hexa-

gonal green design due to algae in the oral disc. Not very common.

Remarks: Small anemone 10-18 mm. in length with a flesh-like or

reddish-brown cylindrical column, ending in a easily detachable base.

Verrucae inconspicuous. Slit-like mouth. Oral disc deep green.

J, BoMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. 65 (1)

Parulekar: Sea Anemones

PLATE I

vt :

“=

Sea Anemones (Actiniaria) of Bombay : Figs 1-9

1. Edwardsia tinctrix ; 2. Metapeachia tropica; 3. Pelocoetes exul; 4. Phyto-

coetes gangeticus ; 5. Anemonia indicus; 6. Bunodosoma granulifera;7. Antho-

pleura midori; 8, Anthopleura asiatica; 9. Anthopleura pacifica,

J. BOMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. 65 (1)

Parulekar : Sea Anemones

PLATE II

So GQ

aac ©

eal 9

Sea Anemones (Actiniaria) of Bombay : Figs 10-17

10. Paracondylactis indicus; 11. Actiniogeton sultana; 12. Cribrinopsis sp. ;

13. Acontiophornm bombayensis; 14. Metridium senile var fimbriatum: 15,

Aiptasia sp.; 16. Aiptasiomorpha luciae; 17. Diadumene sehilleriana.

SEA ANEMONES OF BOMBAY 143

Irregularly arranged tentacles which are greenish on oral and flesh-

coloured on aboral side.

Distribution : Japan—Hokkaido, Mutsu Bay and Southern part of

Korea. India—Bombay.

10. Paracondylactis indicus Dave, 1957 (Plate II, Fig. 10)

Occurrence : Abundantly found at Secretariat Foreshore, burrowing

singly, in mud puddles. Also found at Cuffe Parade and Chaupatty.

A crab, Thalamita crenata, is usually found in association with this

species.

Remarks: Reddish-orange, elongated and tapering column, measur-

ing 60-500 mm. in length. Pseudospherules on the column. Presence

of a distinct flattened pedal disc. 96 tentacles arranged in 5 cycles.

Tentacles and oral disc white to colourless.

Distribution: Yodia—Bombay.

11. Actiniogeton sultana (Carlgren, 1900) (Pilate II, Fig. 11)

Occurrence: Rare, solitary and burrowing forms, usually found in

sandy mud at Cuffe Parade and Secretariat Foreshore.

Remarks : Column 70-160 mm. in length and white to pale yellowish

or pink in colour. Distal 4 of the column is covered with longitudinal

rows of verrucae to which are attached sand particles and shell fragments.

Narrow, physa-like or flat, weakly adhesive basal disc, yellowish-white in

colour. Dark transverse bands on the inner surface of tentacles.

Distribution: Zanzibar and Durban. India—Bombay.

12. Cribrinopsis sp. (Plate I, Fig. 12)

Occurrence: Attached to oyster shell and to rocks at Chaupatty,

Breach Candy, and Manor.

Remarks: Light-pink, short column 10-15 mm. in length. Feebly

developed, light red to dark red verrucae on the distal one-third of the

column. Pseudospherules and acrorhagi on the column. Tentacles

and oral disc crystalline white to semi-transparent. Inner tentacles

longer than the outer ones. Strongly adherent base.

13. Acontiophorum bombayensis Parulekar, 1968 (Plate II, Fig. 13)

Occurrence : Adhesive form living in association with wood-boring

mollusc, Martesia sp. at Madh. Gregarious due to asexual re-

production by pedal lacerations. Uncommon to rare.

Remarks : A very small anemone measuring 10-15 mm. in length.

Short column, green in colour, divisible into scapus and capitulum.

Longitudinal rows of squarish coloured cinclides on the scapus. Oral

144 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

disc, broader than the column and green in colour. Tentacles light-

pink in colour. Adherent circular base.

Distribution : India—Bombay.

14. Metridium senile var. fimbriatum (Verrill, 1865) (Plate II, Fig. 14)

Occurrence: Solitary and rare form, found inside rock-crevices

at Cuffe Parade and Manori.

Remarks: Well developed, adherent and spreading base. Column,

bright or pinkish or light yellowish, with irregularly arranged cinclides.

Length of the column 15-25 mm. Presence of readily discharging

acontia. Oral disc bright orange with white radial stripes. 4-5 cycles

of tentacles, with innermost whorl of blunt thick catch-tentacles.

Distribution: North America through Alaska, Kamchatka and

Behring Sea to Hokkaido and Honshu in Japan. India—Bombay.

15. Aiptasia sp. (Plate II, Fig. 15) |

Occurrence: Found at Cuffe Parade, Chaupatty and Dadar.

Attached to molluscan shells Babylonia spirata and Turritella dupli-

cata, inhabited by hermit-crabs of the species, Dicgenes custus and Cli-

bararius pddavensis. Colour of the anemone same as that of the shell.

Abundant during monsoon.

Remarks : Strongly adhesive and irregularly flattened basal disc.

Column short, undivided and yellowish-brown to dark brown in colour.

Distal narrow part of the column with tentaculate margin. Tapering

short tentacles, with transverse brownish stripes.

16. Aiptasiomorpha luciae (Verrill, 1899) (Plate H, Fig. 16)

Occurrence : The anemone lives as a commensal with a gastropod,

Nassarius orndta. Common at Chaupatty but also occurs at Cuffe

Parade and Secretariat Foreshore.

Remarks : Specimens 15-30 mm. in length with a strongly adherent

spreading base. Column, dark-green with light yellow longitudinal

stripes. Cinclides on the distal part of the column. Oral disc light-

green. Tentacles, generally retracted, with alternating transverse bands

of green and white.

Distribution: East coast of U.K., Plymouth, Holland, Busum,

Naples, Venice, Suez Canal, Japan, West Coast of N. America, and

India—Bombay.

17. Diadumene schilleriana (Stoliczka, 1869) (Plate II, Fig. 17)

Occurrence: Found attached to drifting material, such as, pieces

of decaying timber and empty barnacle shells at Chaupatty, Dadar,

Mahim and Madh. Uncommon.

SEA ANEMONES OF BOMBAY 145

Remarks : Small anemones, about 10-20 mm. in length, with a

strong adhesive basal disc, with diameter greater than that of the

column. Column and oral disc pink to flesh-coloured. Presence of a

definite collar between scapus and capitulum. Bright-red actinopharynx.

Hexamerously arranged tentacles with innermost cycle of thick and long

tentacles.

Distribution: India—Chilka Lake, Port Canning, Diamond

Harbour, Calcutta, and Bombay.

KEY TO THE IDENTIFICATION OF SEA ANEMONES OF BOMBAY

I. Burrowing Forms

IA. TENTACLES SIMPLE

(i) Base: Physa-like or Rounded

(2) Worm-like, dirty-white anemone. 8 longitudinal rows

of nemathybomes on the column. Only 16 tentacles.

Edwardsia tinctrix

(b) Anemone having an elongated light pink smooth column

with longitudinal rows of cinclides. 96 tentacles.

Acontia present. Phytocoetes gangeticus

verrucae. Pseudospherules also present. Speci-

mens white to pale yellowish or pink in colour.

Actiniogeton sultana

(d) Elongated, reddish-orange anemone found in mud-

puddle. 5 cycles of tentacles. Pseudospherules on

the column. Paracondylactis indicus

(ii) Base : Tapering

(e) Elongated, worm-like column bearing minute adhesive

papillae. Milky-white in colour. 16 tentacles and 5

lobed conchula. Metapeachia tropica

IB. TENTACLES BRANCHED

(f) Light green anemone with a tapering blunt base. Longi-

tudinal rows of nematocyst batteries and cinclides on

the column. Lobed oral disc with 96 tentacles.

Pelocoetes exul

Il. Adhesive forms

IIA. ATTACHED TO ROCKS, OYSTER SHELLS OR SUBMERGED STRUCTURES

(a) Blackish-brown anemone attached to under-surface of

boulders. Broad based, cylindrical column having

96 rows of light green verrucae. Anthopleura midori

‘10

——

146 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

(b) Anemone having short greyish-green, pillar-like. column

with reddish-brown verrucae. Acrorhagi in big

specimens. Found in rock pools firmly attached to

rocks and oyster shells. Anthopleura_ asiatica

oral disc. Cylindrical column with inconspicuous:

verrucae. Found in shallow rock pools.

_ Anthopleura pacifica

(d) Anemone found inside deep fissures of rock. Pink,

pillar-like column with longitudinal rows of nematocyst

batteries. Tentacles, light-pink with red stripes.

Bunodosoma granulifera

(e) Small anemone with distal one-third of the column

covered with dark red verrucae. Inner tentacles

longer than the outer ones. Pseudospherules and

acrorhagi on the column. Attached to rock or oyster

shell. Cribrinopsis sp.

(f) Hour-glass like green column with marginal spherules

and broad pedal disc. V-shaped green or brownish

marks on the tentacles. Anemone attached to rock,

oyster shell, tube of polychaete Onuphis sp., shell of

Coecella sp., or to submerged concrete structures.

Anemonia indicus

(g) Brightly coloured, small anemone living in the crevices

of rocks. Pinkish or yellowish-white column, with

irregularly attached cinclides and acontia. Bright-

orange oral disc. Presence of inner catch tentacles.

Metridium senile var. fimbriatum

IIB. ATTACHED TO GASTROPOD SHELLS |

(a) Yellowish-brown to dark- brown anemone found .

attached to the shell of Babylonia spirata or Turritella

duplicata. Circular spreading basal disc.

Aiptasia sp.

(b) Small, light green anemone found attached to the shell

of Nassarius ornata. Cinclides on the distal part of

the column. Irregularly flattened, thin basal disc.

Aiptasiomorpha luciae

IIC. ATTACHED TO TIMBER IN ASSOCIATION WITH WOOD BORING

MOLLUSC, Martesid sp. ;

(a) Small anemone in which the light-green column is

divided into scapus and capitulum. Longitudinal

rows of cinclides on the scapus. Light-pink tentacles.

Acontiophorum bombayensis

VERSOVA

MADH@

MAZGAON

BREACH- :

CANDY 4 DOCKS

9 CHAUBATTY

CUFF ~ yECRETARIAT -

PARAD FORESHORE

fecal

2 miles

Map of Bombay showing localities of collection

SEA ANEMONES OF BOMBAY

147

IID. ATTACHED TO DRIFTING MATERIAL

(a) Anemone found attached to decaying wood or empty

barnacle — shell.

actinopharynx.

present.

Pinkish-white

Column divided, by a definite collar

into distal capitulum and proximal scapus.

column with red

Cinclides

Diadumene schilleriana

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author is grateful to Mr. J. C. Daniel, Curator, Bombay Natural

History Society, for his keen interest in this work. Thanks are due to

Dr. Ch. E. Cutress and Dr. Tohru Uchida for suggestions and reprints.

Acknowledgements are made to C.S.I.R. for granting a Post-Doctoral

Research Fellowship for conducting the study.

REFERENCES

ANNANDALE, N. (1915): Fauna of

Chilka Lake. Mem. Indian Mus. 5

(1-6) : 68-96.

Byatt, Y. M. (1959): A study of the

Intertidal Organisms of Bombay. Ph.D.

Thesis. Univ. of Bombay (Unpublished).

CARLGREN, OSKAR (1949): A Survey

of the Ptychodactiaria, Corallimorpharia

and Actiniaria. Kungl. Svenska Vetens.

Handi. Fijarde Serien, 1 (1): 1-121.

Dave, M. J. (1957): Study of Antho-

zoa M.Sc. Thesis Univ. of Bombay (Un-

published).

PANIKKAR, N. K. (1939): Studies on

Peachia from Madras. Proc. Indian

Acad. Sci. VII Nr. 4.

PARULEKAR, A. H. (1968): Two new

species of Sea Anemones (Actiniaria)

from Maharashtra. J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 64 (3) : 524-529,

Ucnipa, T. & Muramatsu, S. (1958) :

Notes on some Japanese Sea Anemones

J. Fac. Sci. Hokkaido Uniy. Series VI.

Zoology Vil (i) : 111-119,

“

The nesting activities of the vespoid

potter wasp Eumenes campaniformis

esuriens (Fabr.) compared with the

ecologically similar sphecoid Sceliphron

madraspatanum (Fabr.) (Hymenoptera)

S. D. JAYAKAR AND H. SPURWAY

Genetics and Biometry Laboratory, Government of Orissa,

Bhubaneswar-3, Orissa, India

(With two figures)

[Continued from Vol. 64 (2) : 332]

DAUBING

All individuals of both species added a number of loads of mud to

their constructs after they had completed and sealed a cell. These can

be classified in various ways. In our previous paper on ml we used

the word daubing and often used the metaphor ‘roughcast’. Other

authors have adopted Roubaud’s (1916) word crépissage which may be

translated by roughcast, but has been adopted into entomological lite-

rature in English because it has a wider range than any translation. In

this paper we are using both words and giving them separate meanings.

Crépissage in the present sense is only constructed by esuriens and other

species Of Eumenes that we have seen Jayakar & Spurway (1965). Its

structure is physically different and, as shown in Table 11, it is worked

at a different tempo from the daubing proper which is similar in form

in both species, and it is laid down in a special context. Crépissage

will be considered more fully in the next section.

All wasps observed, when they had sealed a cell, laid down some

loads of mud not clearly associated with the lid or with the site of the

next cell. These loads were carried and put down in the manner charac-

teristic of the species. The madraspatanum wasps first put down the

loads and gradually spread them out so that their final form was like a

little cow-dung cake drying on a wall for fuel. The esuriens wasps

again held their loads clear of the construct and spread out the mud

[27]

149

NESTING OF E. c.-esuriens COMPARED WITH S. madraspatanum

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[28]

150 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

from only that part of the load with which the construct had been touched,

so that one load was frequently divided between several sites.

In both species daubs were usually placed in chinks between two

cells, and between cells and the substrate, and their function could often

be appreciated. However, the number of such loads put down by

members of both species was very variable. Sometimes only one or

two such loads were brought between building two cells and the daubs

made with these would be quite inconspicuous in an excavation of the

finished nest. The wasps m3, m4, and m5 made few daubs before making

the foundations for the next cell. The result of variation in the number

of loads put down seems similar to a nest variation reported by Roubaud

(1916) in the Vespoid which he calls Synagris callida L. but which

Wheeler (1923) states is correctly S. spiniventris (without anauthor). The

nest made by ml corresponded accurately to Roubaud’s description of a

compact nest in that species, whereas m3, m4, and m5 made what would

be called dissociate nests. This difference, which we regard as quan-

titative, Roubaud believes to be determined by the consistency of the

mud used. Wasps el, e2, e5, and e8 also differed similarly among them-

selves, only e2 resembling ml. Their daubs were spread much thinner

and more smoothly blended with each other and with the previous con-

struct than those of madraspatanum.

While daubing, both species of wasps put loads of mud, not only

on the construct, but also on the surrounding substrate. The working

of these loads was, for both species, quite deliberate, but quite different,

and in both the function is at best controversial. Wasps e2 and e5

occasionally, and late in their work, laid down a load either entirely

separate from the main part of the construct or as discrete patches or

blobs extending out from it. These may be considered as the begin-

ning of crépissage and will be considered later. They were also made

by less systematically watched wasps. On the other hand, madras-

patanum wasps spread out mud with movements indistinguishable from

those with which they made foundations but in regions where cell walls

could not have been built without occluding the opening of previous

cells. Some of such smoothings by m3 did not join the cell block ; Dutt

(1913) has also described these. They may have a camouflaging func-

tion (Horne 1872).

We have so far considered daubing (in our sense) and associated

activities that were performed after a cell has been closed. These may

be called in phase daubing. Concerning out of phase daubing, ml only

daubed one load at any other time and this was between two loads used ~

to make cell walls and was related to the walls of the cell being built.

The esuriens wasps more frequently alternated daubs and walls at the

beginning of a cell. These daubs are considered to be part of the series

of in phase daubing which had preceded the wall building. However the

[29]

— a

NESTING OF F¥. c. esuriens COMPARED WITH S. madraspatanum 151

esuriens wasps appear to daub at least two other times, and under other

stimuli. Wasp el followed oviposition in the two cells we watched with

a period of daubing before provisioning which did not extend on to the

newly built cell. These were calm and though each was preceded by a

relatively long absence and at least one loadless inspection, they seemed

to have the same function as the daubs she added after sealing, and in

Table 11 and Fig. 9, are grouped with these. Secondly, e2 produced

one period of work, e5 two, and e8 three which might be called panic

daubtng. We do not know what evoked this from e2 but her behaviour

left little doubt that she was dealing with a crisis. After inserting the

fourth larvae into her cell V, e2 did not leave, but hovered and landed

twice. She then brought ten loads of mud most of which she put down

on the two most recent cells. She worked more quickly than previously

(Table 11 and Fig. 9) and also deposited water on the construct while

doing so. She then resumed provisioning cell V. Judging by this

behaviour, it seemed that the crisis was caused by the construct becoming

defective. Over two and a half hours before, while building cell V, e2

had spent an unusually long time feeling the construct.

On the two occasions when e5 daubed out of phase, the wasp was

almost certainly aware that another insect had been near the nest in her

absence. Similar incidents preceded the final closing of nests of this

and other species (Jayakar & Spurway 1965, and below). Therefore we

suggest that the presence of an enemy stimulates or releases this activity.

This is suggested by the following observation: On 19/10, an individual

of Chalybion bengalense landed on the construct and swept the newly

finished mouth of cell e5 IX with its antennae for four seconds before

flying away. It thus can be assumed to have left some scent on the nest.

However e5, who was first noticed 113 seconds later, and who approached

hesitatingly, and from an unusual direction, may have seen it on the

nest. After appearing reluctant to land, e5 landed and examined the

nest for over 5 minutes, left for over half an hour, returned without a

load, and examined for 6 minutes. She then daubed 16 loads followed

by an inspection visit and left for the day. Next morning, after the first

loadless inspection visit, she provisioned cell IX normally. !

On 24/10, while e5 was making the neck and lip of cell XII after nearly

an hour’s delay due to rain, a blue-green cuckoo wasp of the family

1 Our interpretation of this behaviour of e5 suggests that C. bengalense has, for

potter wasps, some stimuli similar to those produced by chrysid cuckoo wasps. The

closely related C. californicum is believed to open cells of Sceliphron cementarium and

remove the wasp larvae and provisions before using the cells for rearing its own young

(Meeusebeck et al. 1951, Evans 1963). C. bengalense is certainly a squatter, and

we have seen individuals empty the provisions out of holes in wood recently filled by

themselves, by other members of their own species, and by other squatters. Vespoid

Squatters also behave similarly. C. bengalense also collects mud for sealing its own

cells from the nests of potter wasps and_ om the lids of squatter wasps, and may,

therefore, open their cel!s while these are still occupied.

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152. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

Chrysididae examined the abortive foundation built by m2 27 days

before. This smear of mud was about 48 cm. vertically above cell XII

of the nest of e5. The chrysid was chased away by the observers before

e5 began ovipositing. After this, instead of provisioning, she imme-

diately daubed 13 loads of mud before work was interrupted by failing

light. :

As for e8, we are unable to understand why she daubed out of phase

when she did. On 17/4/63, in the middle of making the walls of cell

VIII, she put down 6 daubs in several different places. Then, on the

next day, having finished her cell IX and laid an egg in it, she left at

11.56.51. At 13.27.36 she returned without a load, inspected for 74

seconds, and then fetching mud in another 242 seconds, she had a spell

of daubing during which she brought 10 loads of mud. The only other

visit she paid to the nest that afternoon was an inspection visit. There

was some rain that afternoon. On 20/4, also, after ovipositing in newly

finished cell XI, she left at 13.48.43. At 14.26.42 she returned loadless,

inspected for 103 seconds, was away for 582, at the end of which she

brought 7 loads of mud which she daubed, then remained away for 3133

seconds, returned loadless, inspected for 140 seconds, made 4 more

daubs, remained away for 2929 seconds, returned loadless for 32 seconds,

then daubed 4 loads and left for the day at 16.47.45. During this panic

daubing, the clouds had been increasing.

Table 11 and Fig. 9 (below) make clear that all wasps increased their

speed of work while panic daubing, and where data are available, i.e.

for e2 and e5, these speeds were not significantly different from those at

which they built their final crépissage. Three esuriens (e13, e22, e23)

made structurally unmistakeable crépissage before returning to cell con-

struction. We do not know the contexts in which this was made.

THE FINAL FORM OF THE CONSTRUCTS INCLUDING CREPISSAGE

Column 10 of Table 1 describes the condition of the material con-

struct when the nest was left. For many nests we have evidence, either

direct, or from the accumulation of prey, that the wasp had visited the

construct after the last load of mud had been deposited. This is the

date entered in column 9 of Table 1 and used in constructing Table 9.

From these data, we find that 2 or 3 esuriens and 3 madraspatanum

wasted some labour and at least 12 esuriens and 2 madraspatanum not °

only wasted labour but left an offspring partially or completely unpro-

vided for. A young wasp in an unsealed cell is not certain to perish,

though e161 was both abnormally small and unable to emerge from its

pupal skin. Wasp e9I, unfortunately, was killed 24 hours after emer-

gence from the pupal skin. At the time it was judged to be deformed but

[31]

NESTING OF E. c. esuriens COMPARED WITH S. madraspatanum 153

the observation made later that esuriens imagines do not assume their

adult posture until at least 36 hours after emergence from the pupa

makes this interpretation almost certainly erroneous.

Before we discuss whether these 19 desertions are to be considered

involuntary, i.e., the mother being prevented, probably by death, from

returning to the construct, we will consider how the remaining 11 nests

were left. They were all constructed by esuriens. In 5 (e7, e13, e15,

e19, e24) the last cell was sealed, and in some certainly daubed a little in

the way previously described. The remaining six esuriens (e2, e4, eS,

e6, e14, and e22) made the qualitatively different style of daubing to

which we wish to restrict Roubaud’s (1916) term crépissage. This

structure was begun by all except e4 and e14 only after the sealing of a

cell ; in these two it was begun while a cell was not only unsealed but

completely unprovisioned containing only the suspended egg, so these

two individuals must be added to the previously mentioned 19 who

wasted labour and abandoned an offspring. The wasps observed built

their crépissage by working with increased intensity, fetching mud more

quickly (Fig. 9 below), working it more rapidly on the nest and, at the

end, hardly spreading it out at all. Table 11 compares the various types

of daubing for the different wasps with regard to time spent on the nest

while working a load. e2 and e5 also divided a single load between

more and more sites, the maximum being five. Therefore finished

crépissage has a crumbly or granular surface and must have a porous

consistency (compare Fig. 7 with Fig. 8). The wasps also made ribbons

of mud on the substrate. These were slightly ruched and resembled the

ribbons made by pushing the paste made of icing sugar through a funnel

while decorating a cake. These ribbons were often continuous with

ridges over the cells, but some were entirely separate from the main con-

struct. The wasps also constructed vaults extending over many cells.

These were constructed from ridges and ribbons which were added to

so that they curved over enclosing a considerable amount of space. A

vault could be constructed from one, two, or three ridges joined up in

an elaborate manner which was sometimes symmetrical and sometimes

not. The open lips of the last cell of e4 (IX) were joined up and made

continuous with this vaulting, as were those of cell e22 VII which had not

been destroyed when the cell was sealed, perhaps precisely because the

wasp had determined to build crépissage immediately afterwards. Iwata

(1942) considers these vaults to be an adaptation to minimise fluctuations

of temperature within the cell by surrounding it with an air jacket. We

suggest that they may also provide a defence against cuckoo wasps.

Wasp e14 put on two complete layers of vaults, and included her open

cell within them whereas e2 and e5 only made one small vault each.

We have compared such a completed crépissage (Jayakar & Spurway

1965b) to a miniature chain of recent mountains with smaller ridges

[32]

154. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

extending from a central spine. Only four wasps (e2, e5, e6 and e14)

closed their vaulting, and the first three of these, to continue the moun-

tain metaphor, built up the peak over their youngest cell (which, only

in nest e5, was the highest vertically) into a little pinnacle approximately

1 cm. high, and therefore somewhat destroying the resemblance of the

construct to a mountain range by being so grossly out of proportion.

In detail this pinnacle resembled a small cairn of stones, the mud balls

of which it was made being barely worked into one another at all. The

function of this cairn is unknown. Wasp e5 almost invariably landed

on hers once it was constructed. We have seen no comparable struc-

ture to this cairn constructed by E. emarginatus conoideus or E. p. pyri-

formis (Jayakar & Spurway 1965b).

The only esuriens for whom we have data (e5), fetched all the mud

for her crépissage from the same source as she used for her cell walls,

and the colour of the crépissage of the other nests confirms that, for our

population at least, this is so far the rule. In this esuriens again differs

from conoideus and pyriformis, who in our experience have completed,

almost decorated, their crépissage with material of a different colour and

consistency from the material of which their cells and the bulk of the

former were made. Finally, e5 and e22, who were still working on their

crépissage when their earlier cells were due to emerge, left these earlier

cells uncovered. We have recorded the same omission by conoideus

(Jayakar & Spurway 1965b).

As a routine we continued watching the nests of el, e2, e5, and e8

during the hours of daylight until the wasp had failed to return for 24

hours (20 hours 24 minutes for wasp e2). We thus watched e2 and e5

withdraw from their constructs after they had finished building them to

their own satisfaction. Their remaining visits were loadless and are

given below:

e2 e5

away on away on

256 10 10621 4}

4856 Pte 4183 13

8833 10 760862 Pgh

734622 watching 876442 watching

discontinued discontinued

1 hovered over sill before leaving.

2 including a night.

3 including hovering over nest.

The function of these returns after long intervals (also recorded for

conoideus and pyriformis) is not obvious ; perhaps they have no function

and are the inescapable consequence of the evolution of both a memory

and a positive reaction to the nest, neither of which disappears abruptly.

[33]

NESTING OF E. c. esuriens COMPARED WITH S. madraspatanum 155

The capacity to make these visits may make various adjustments possible

in rare catastrophes, and it may have important evolutionary significance.

If we consider closed vaults, and perhaps a cairn, as evidence for a

completed construct, we imply that no madraspatanum and only 3, or

perhaps 4, esuriens completed their constructs, though it is probable that

e22 would have done so if the nest had not been dissected on 18/6/64.

Beginning with the animals we watched at work, we will consider the

circumstances that stimulate a wasp to cease cell building and begin

crépissage, and discuss the evidence that similar stimuli may precipitate

desertion.

After el had left, having put down her second load of mud onto her

cell IV, a chrysid cuckoo wasp landed on the nest. She was attacked

by el and they both flew off together. The cuckoo returned and laid

an egg through the wall of cell IT with the mother hovering over her.

The movements of el were frightened, not aggressive. The two wasps

then left together but the cuckoo returned in 6 seconds and inserted her

“abdomen. el returned in 198 seconds but was temporarily prevented

from reaching the cells by an unsuccessful attempt to catch the cuckoo.

The cuckoo left, returned, and put her ovipositor into I. When the

chrysid left, el returned. We do not know if she had been around all

the time. She inspected the cells for 11 seconds. She returned two

more times for 8 seconds and 2 seconds after intervals of 15 and 27

minutes respectively bringing no loads, merely inspecting the cells. After

an hour, a chrysid of the same species again appeared on the cells. That

she concentrated her attention on cell III does not prove she was the

same individual, as she could perhaps have recognised, by the visible

little pits in their walls, that cells II and I had already been parasitized.

She laid in II, and was captured. Nearly half an hour later, i.e. after

she had been away 50 minutes, el returned again without a load and

inspected for 5 seconds. She did not return during the next 24 hours

of daylight, i.e. she apparently deserted because all her cells had been

parasitized.

The panic daubing performed by e2 during provisioning of cell V

has previously been described. On the same day, after sealing cell V

she immediately made an inspection visit and then brought 15 loads of

mud, 14 of which she daubed during periods on the nest ranging from

14 to 32 seconds. The last load she dropped, most probably because

she saw the approach of a chrysid. This cuckoo was most persistent

in her attempts to lay but was finally captured by us. e2 returned with

mud and it was soon after realized that her building was different from

any previously seen. Though between sealing one cell and beginning

the next, e2 always made more than 20 daubs, usually more than 30,

the speed with which she worked the 14 daubs immediately after sealing

V suggests that these were crépissage daubing. If this is correct, the

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156 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

beginning of this crépissage was not stimulated by the presence of the

cuckoo. The decision to close the nest may have been due to the stimuli

that provoked the panic daubing during the morning.

On two occasions when e5 brought larvae to cell XIII, a striped fly,

probably a sarcophagine and similar to those which parasitized e8 and

m3, followed her across the verandah and settled on the window sill

facing the nest. As soon as e5 had left, the fly flew to cell XIII and put

its head in. On both occasions it was disturbed by the observers. On

neither occasion did e5 do any feeling that could be interpreted as re-

acting to the fly’s foot prints as she had reacted to the Chalybion 14 days

before (p. 151). However, after the second occasion she made an in-

spection visit, sealed her cell and began her crépissage, again immedi-

ately, judging from her speed of work. Wasp e5 roughcasted the earlier

cells very much less than the later so that their surfaces remained smooth

and only the upper half of the construct assumed the crumbly texture

(see Fig. 8). This seemed a deliberate response to the demands of the

situation. Is it possible that the wasp knew that her earlier cells con-

tained offspring too advanced to be vulnerable to parasitization? Or,

to use a somewhat pedantic jargon, why did these early cells not provide

the stimuli for crépissage or, alternatively, provide stimuli inhibiting it.

The first emergence, that from cell II, took place while this final rough-

casting was being performed.

Wasp e8, who had not reacted to the presence of a fly which, on

17/4/1963, had successfully oviposited, or perhaps larviposited in cell

VII, deserted on 21/4. On 20/4, she oviposited in cell XI at 13.48 after

completing the building of that cell. At 14.26 she returned without any

load, which in itself was not surprising, but what followed was. She

spent 103 seconds feeling the construct, than left, and returned after

582 seconds with a load of mud and daubed it on the construct. She

brought 7 such loads and was then absent from 14.48 to 15.40 when she

again came without a load. This time she spent 140 seconds on the

construct of which she spent 63 seconds absolutely quiet with her head

over the mouth of cell XI. She left and then returned for a second

stretch of out of phase daubing. This time she brought 4 loads. She

was absent from 15.50 to 16.40 when, after another inspection of 32

seconds, she did some more daubing (4 loads). The next day she started

work at 07.35. She brought 2 larvae, made one inspection and then

brought a third larva (at 11.41), until that time behaving quite normally.

It was only when she brought her fourth larva that we noticed any change

in her behaviour. After putting this larva in within 5 seconds of her

arrival, she spent 736 seconds on the construct, for 638 of which she

stood over cell XI, quiet except for opening and closing her wings. She

left at 11.53, brought her next larva in 154 seconds, spent 168 seconds

on the nest, flew away rather suddenly at 11.58 (perhaps frightened by a

[35]

NESTING OF F. c. esuriens COMPARED WITH §S. madraspatanum 157

house sparrow), returned at 12.44 without a load, and spent 50 seconds

on the nest. She returned again with a larva at 14.40, spent only 9

seconds on the nest, and that was the last we saw of her. What the

reason, or reasons, were for this unusual behaviour we do not know, but

once again desertion was preceded by a marked disruption of the wasp’s

usual sequence of activities. It is possible that there had been parasitiza-

tion by an organism such as a chalcid too small for us to notice its entry.

Concerning the esuriens nests watched in less detail, we know nothing

about the desertion of the nests built by e7, e9, e10, e12, e13 (who had

made some crépissage before returning to pot building), e16-21, e23

(perhaps interrupted by observers because emergence had begun), or

e25. The last certain visit of ell was followed by six days of almost

continuous rain, and though m4, building at the same time, returned and

continued her nest, it is not surprising that any given wasp failed to do so

after so long an interval.

For the others we have some observations which will now be listed.

Wasp e3 built one cell, presumably laid in it, and inserted at least

three larvae, one a caterpillar and one an apodous larva. Within three

minutes of the mother leaving the nest, ants had begun to remove these

larvae. They also apparently removed the egg. The wasp was never

seen at that site again. It is surprising that other nests were not similarly

plundered as there were several ant colonies on the same verandah and

individual ants ran in and out of several cells.

Between 11.28 and 11.43 on 11/10/62, cell VIII of e4 was sealed and

two beginnings of cell IX were made. The second of these was com-

pleted and laid in at 12.01. During this building, a chrysid was seen

flying in the hole in the parapet. It did notland. At 12.03, e4 returned

with mud which she put between cell VIII and the just finished definitive

cell IX, beginning her crépissage with a vault. An hour later, e4 had laid

out rows of mud on the wall separated from the cells, and begun to build

these up into vaults. At 13.27 a chrysid was found ovipositing, watched

by e4. Both wasps settled and inspected (not together) and e4 only

resumed building at 13.33. At 15.43 a chrysid was again laying, again

watched and not disturbed by e4; e4 was not seen again and no further

mud was added to her construct. A third egg was laid by a chrysid next

morning at 08.08. When the nest was deserted the nine cells were almost

covered by a series of overlapping vaults. e4 was working on the already

continuous edge of the only open hole when the first two chrysid eggs

were laid. They were laid within this hole, i.e. into cells and not through

the vault roofs into the empty spaces in the crépissage. The overlapping

vaults of the crépissage were smooth on the outside and resembled closely

the overlapping cells whose contours they masked. Cell IX had not been

sealed and the false walls had been joined onto its lip. One vault cut

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158 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

across the abandoned half-built cell LX, one of its brackets being enclosed

and one left outside.

Wasp e6 was painted at 14.38 while building her cell II. She stopped

the moulding she was doing, left, and brought no more mud until 09.03

next morning. Though at 10.16 the cell was found completed, she was

found ovipositing in it at 11.02. At 12.02 she was sealing this cell and

by 14.02 had completed her crépissage, which contained little vaulting.

This was extremely rapid work, and the wasp that emerged from cell I

was small.

Wasp el4 was exposed to both stimuli. At 12.58 she was painted on

the abdomen while making cell walls. She had finished that cell (VIII)

by 13.18 and was daubing. At 14.11 while she was still daubing a chrysid

was hovering over the nest, and by 14.41 the crépissage was in an

advanced stage with an elaborate series of vaults begun. Though these

vaults were closed the same evening, the wasp added to her crépissage

next morning but left without adding a cairn.

The nest of el5 was only discovered at its moment of desertion when

the presumed mother was watching a chrysid depositing her eggs. No

further additions were made to the nest.

Wasp e22 was captured while daubing at 13.29 on 14/6 and painted

under ether. On the morning of 15/6 she constructed some crépissage

including a vault before building her next cell (VII). This she did not

seal until 17/6, and when this was discovered, crépissage was already

begun and a chrysid was laying in the construct having made at least six

holes. On the morning of 18/6 the construct was dissected because the

wasp from cell I had emerged. The vaults were not yet closed and, as

e22 was working late the previous afternoon, it is probable that she —

would yet have completed them if she had not been interrupted.

Wasp e24 hovered while a sarcophagine fly landed and felt the

mouth of her cell II on 13/6. She provisioned this cell, built cell HI

(interrupted in order to etherise and paint), provisioned and closed it,

and deserted. When found, all three cells had the small pits left by

chrysid oviposition, mud had been dug out of the nest walls, and a mud

load was lying near, as though dropped by e24 while agitated.

From these anecdotes, we consider both that the wasp’s behaviour is

altered by stimuli provided by the parasite (or perhaps labour parasite),

and by her egg holes, and that one very important function of the crépis-

sage is protection from such parasites. The presence, or past presence,

of a parasite to which a wasp visibly reacted, stimulated her to cease work

on her cells, sometimes abruptly, sometimes after the next closure, and

to consolidate those she had already sealed. The overlapping walls of

the vaults in the crépissage completely obscure but mimic the overlapping

cell walls which they cover, and the spaces within them would trap and

starve harmlessly any parasitic egg that was laid into them. Wasp e4

{37]

NESTING OF &. c..esuriens COMPARED WITH S. madraspatanum 159

did not crépissage cells which had been so parasitized and e5, e13, and e22

(and a conoideus) left uncovered their earlier cells in which perhaps pupae

were not vulnerable to this form of parasitism, as the full grown larva

is known to be. Finally, on those occasions when the observers believed

that all cells had been parasitized, the mother wasp showed initial

confusion from which she recovered by deserting the construct. The

chrysids themselves examined partly finished crépissage. They always

laid inside open vaults if possible, and also did not lay inside cells which

had already been parasitized, at least by members of their own group.

Two species of chrysid, Stilbium cyanurum splendidum F. and Chrysis

orientalis Guer., and the dipteran Pachyophthalmus auriceps Baronow

have emerged from cells made by esuriens.

We have no data which can be used to compute frequencies of parasi-

tization in these species in this locality. Not only have we frequently

driven away parasites from nests which we were watching, but the care

taken of the nests after they were built was not standardised. Some

were caged immediately, some were dissected after varying intervals, while

others were exposed until emergence of the oldest offspring had begun,

and consequently frequently parasitized long after desertion by the

mother.

We have described elsewhere the enigmatica] behaviour of ml the

morning before she deserted her nest. Wasp m3, m4, and m5 left

their constructs in a similar condition and we have no evidence as to

what stimulated this. Dutt (1913) states that madraspatanum wasps

build all their cells and then roughcast the whole group together, i.e.

that they make a crépissage. This has not been performed by any of the

wasps we have watched, nor have we found any nest presumably of this

species in which all the cells were roughcasted?, and it is rare to find one

without evidence of unfinished work i.e. an unfinished or open cell, or

one sealed with a concave lid indicating that provisioning was incomplete.

We have noticed that the behaviour patterns of these two groups of mason

wasps are often confused in the literature, a behaviour pattern peculiar

to one being stated to be performed by the other, e.g. by Frost (1959).

Finally, the desertion by m2 of a site on which she had not built

should be put on record. We have described how m2 selected this site.

Including her first visit with mud, she made 15 more visits on 27/9/62,

on nine of which she brought mud and smeared it on the place she had

selected. She disappeared for the day at 12-44. On 28/9 she made 3

inspection visits beginning at 07.59, being away for less than half an hour

* Note added November 1967: of the 13 individuals of madraspatanum in our

records, one at Bhubaneswar, m7, deserted her construct after covering it with a

layer of unusually rough daubing. She was painted, and therefore recognised

Subsequently. She therefore confirmed Dutt’s observation.

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160 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (1)

between them. She was then away for just over two hours and then

returned with a large untidy black load certainly not mud and plausibly

a spider. She landed for 3 seconds only, then hovered 3 times approach-

ing her mud, flew the whole length of the verandah and returned leaving

from the extreme west. No further visits were paid to the smeared mud.

Next day a S. madraspatanum was seen examining non-homologous

parts of the frame of (5), and an individual was seen again on 9/10.

This last visit of m2 (on 28/9) to the mud smeared by her was clearly a

mistake, and her uncertain movements confirm this. However, was it a

failure of memory or the miscarrying of an instinctive cycle? Did she

(as a human might) temporarily forget that he had deserted this site and

return to it instead of the later chosen site, where (we are suggesting)

she had a cell open to receive the prey ; or was she having difficulty finding

mud (she took longer to fetch this than m1), so her ‘ building drive’ had

been superseded by a ‘ provisioning-drive’ without the cell being built,

and did the traumatic experience resulting cause the site to be

abandoned? There is one piece of evidence suggesting the ‘failure of

memory’ explanation. Before this visit m2 was absent 7479 seconds.

The longest absence after which ml returned with a spider was 6106

seconds and this was exceptional ; ml, at least, behaved as though she

was likely to forget the condition of her construct if she was absent for

much more than half an hour, and had to make an inspection visit before

she could resume work. Therefore we think that m2 must have been

working at some unknown site during these 7479 seconds.

INSPECTIONS AND MEMORY

All the esuriens*watched in detail (except e8 on 1 occasion) made a

loadless inspection visit in the morning before bringing any load. On the

one occasion e8 did not do so, she had however hovered for 30 seconds

in the vicinity of the nest without landing. Chores that did not necessi-

tate a load could be done on these visits, e.g., e5 laid eggs on the first

visit of a morning and ml removed concave lids, in both cases after pro-

longed antennal feeling of the construct. Both wasps sometimes per-

formed these chores on a later visit, but in both cases always before any

load had been brought during that day.

Apart from these visits, all the wasps made several inspection visits,

mainly during provisioning, and el, e2, e5, and e8, between them made

only 10 that were during other activities. The times spent away from the

nest before such inspection visits and the times spent on the nest during

such visits are summarised in Tables 12 and 13. We suggested that these

visits made by ml were due to failures of her memory, so that she had to

check what her next activity was to be. There is much more overlap

in duration between the periods before a loadless visit and one with prey

[39]

NESTING OF E. c. esuriens COMPARED WITH S. madraspatanum 161

- in the esuriens wasps observed (compare Table 6) i.e. on this interpretation

they have more variable memories than m1, and, as is shown in the tables,

TABLE 12

TIMES SPENT AWAY FROM NEST JUST BEFORE AN INSPECTION VISIT

mi el e2 e5 e8

no. of timed absences .. oe 3 22 25 23

shortest period Se 40 1006 4 7 | 1896

longest period ae 7018 4661 6054 8027 6722

mean oe es 1878*5 2532°3 1403*2 3039°9 3681°2

median Ed at 1658 1930 169°5 2756 3324

Q- a Be 809 8 562 2743

Q+ ma sf 2127 2210 4134 4674

Visits after a night absence and visits after desertion of the nest are omitted.

TABLE 13

TIMES SPENT ON NEST INSPECTING

mi el e2 e5 e8

no. of timed visits she 90 3 26 25 22

shortest period aH 8 20 2 4 5

longest period ae 917 34 63 108 140

mean a oe 87.13 27 16.96 39.68 48.00

Se. mean .. ae 14.00 ee 2.95 4.97 9.08

median ne 42 27 10 35 38

IQR median % ee 156 bs 186 88 165

G.ONV.% a 152.6 vs 88.7 62.7 88.7

For e1—e8, oviposition visits and first visits of the day have been excluded, as

they were clearly longer.

longer ones for this activity. The longest absence before bringing mud

was by e2 and was of 2441 seconds compared with 1863 seconds by ml.

Some inspections were made by ml, el, e2, and e5 after the wasp had

been prevented from working bya spell of rain which interrupted building

and all other visits of both species, though m1 once arrived during a slight

drizzle and e5 once flew into heavy rain after waiting on the construct

for an unusually long period and hovering in the verandah before she left.

All mud users which we have observed avoid rain, unlike members of

the paper-making social species Polistes olivaceus, whom we have seen

flying into rain so heavy that they were repeatedly buffetted out of course

for the best part of a metre until they gave up and returned to the comb.

Because of the wasp’s avoidance of rain, it is possible that m4 made the

longest absence recorded even though her work was not continuously

11 [ 40]

162 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (i)

observed. At 12.17 on 21/10/63, when cell VII was 2? complete, rain

began. She was not seen again until after 13.17 on 27/10 when cell VII

was found completed, the mud on the newly made third of the cell being

still wet. The morning of the 27/10 was the first time the sky had ceased

to be overcast, and rain had been almost continuous since midday on

21/10. Such weather conditions gave her very few opportunities to

make a visit and, as the cell was unfinished, these, if made, must have

been loadless. The continuously-watched e5 also ceased all building

activities for almost seven days during similar weather in the last week

of October the year before, but intermittently brought prey to cell XII

which was open. The 1963 rainy period also interrupted el1 in the

middle of provisioning cell V. No further prey were added, nor was there

any other indication that the wasp had returned to the construct. There-

fore, for the long periods when the absences are certainly due to external

causes, there is no indication that one species has a better memory than

the other.

There were some inspection visits at the end of the day in both species.

On some occasions when a parasite had been on the nest, the esuriens

seemed very agitated and made several long inspection visits, but in these

cases the time spent away from the nests were much shorter than for the

other kinds of inspections. Because the visits which wasps have made

after completing their crépissage have been always loadless, we think these

are true inspection visits and are nota result of the wasps forgetfully

taking their old path after starting work on a new site, in the way we

interpreted the desertion of m2.

FETCHING OF MuD

E. esuriens had four different activities for which she needed mud:

(1) building of the cell wall, (2) putting the lid on the cell, (3) daubing,

and (4) crépissage. The fact that el, e5, and e8 could use the same load

of mud for both building part of the wall and to daub indicates that any

differences in the composition of the mud used for the two activities are

not of any importance. e2 and e5 also sometimes used the same load

for making the lid and daubing. In one period of panic daubing, e2

- used much more water for her work.

Iwata (1953) and Olberg (1959) have described their observations on

species of Eumenes where the wasps drank water on some journeys, took

it to their mud patch, and regurgitated it there. Our observations

support theirs. For el, we knew the location of the spot where she col-

lected her mud. She certainly did not always get it from exactly the

same spot but roughly from within a rectangle about 1 metre by 50 cm.

She preferred to get it from the bed of a herbaceous border. We could

not trace where she got water from, but we know that on some journeys

[41]

NESTING OF F¥. c. esuriens COMPARED WITH S: madraspatanum 163

she did not go to her mud patch which was about 5 m. from her nest

but went away to the west, probably to the leaking tap of a neighbour’s

garden which was about 50 m. away.

The other wasp for whom we have information is e5. This wasp got

her mud from dry caked soil in exposed rough ground about 27 m. south

of the nest and her water from a leaking tap about 50 m. to the east of her

nest. By the time eS had built 4 cells (i.e. 13/10) her mud patch had

narrowed down to a very small area, and after that she always collected

from a roughly circular patch about 30x30 mm. and at that

time about 4 mm. deep. She collected all further mud from here and,

half way through her crépissage on 2/11, her quarry had narrowed to a

pit 10 mm. deep but only 20 and 15 mm. in diameter. It had by then

been exposed to heavy rain and hence standing water.

The wasps did not, however, need to fetch water on every journey.

They could bring water in their crops sufficient usually for two loads but

on occasions even for 3 loads. However we do not know where the wasps

went on each of their absences. Fig. 9 shows the distributions of times

spent by the wasps in bringing mud for different activities. As one would

expect, it takes a wasp a longer time on the average to fetch water and

mud than it takes her to fetch mud alone. This is reflected in the bimo-

dalities in several graphs e.g. those for crépissage by e5 and cell building

for e8. The time spent away should therefore indicate whether a wasp

went on a ‘ water+mud’ journey or a ‘mud’ journey. But, unfortu-

nately, the ‘ noise ’ is so much that there is considerable overlap and these

two types of journeys cannot be sorted out by the time spent on them.

The unexpectedly long intervals, some of which have been excluded from

the graphs, are probably journeys on which she was either disturbed or on

which she fed. Table 14, however, gives the distributions of times spent

TABLE 14

COMPARISON OF TIMES SPENT ON FETCHING MUD ONLY WITH THOSE SPENT

ON FETCHING WATER AND MUD

Object of journey | No. of journeys Range mean variance

timed (in secs.)

Fetching mud only 30 50-121 73°20 + 3°37 6342

Fetching water-+-mud 6 100—168 144°17 +10°28 340°9

for those journeys throughout her construction when we actually saw e5

going straight to mud or straight to water. (On some occasions when

there had been rain e5 did not go to her usual supply of water at all but

flew around a herbaceous border. We never actually saw her collecting

water accumulated on the leaves of the plants, but suspect that she did).

. [42]

164 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

Concerning S. madraspatanum, m2 only brought 9 loads and she took

considerably longer to fetch them (mean time away, 225-++91 seconds ;

range, 116-402 seconds) than either m1 or the various esuriens. When ml

fetched mud, she not only made a choice of several directions when she

departed, as did the esuriens wasps, but unlike them, she could also

return from one of several directions. Nevertheless her times away were

remarkably constant. When these were classified into the use made of

the mud some small but significant differences were found between the

times taken to bring mud for different functions. About 10 seconds

longer (or 25-30% of the time away) was taken to fetch mud used for the

finer work. We previously interpreted these figures as revealing that ml

may either have worked the mud for some purposes longer while collect-

ing it or may have chosen some mud more carefully i.e. have had different

collecting sites for different purposes. We watched m4 collecting her

mud to build cell walls. It was scraped with the mandibles, rolled with

the front tarsi, and carried in the mandibles. The wasp buzzed during

this work as she did while building. Her source was about 38 m. from

her nest in a small hollow eroded by the drain from an outdoor bath tap.

The soil was slightly soapy but not smelly. She had a stereotyped route

of about 40 m. going round the house, and we never saw her either collect

water or make any detour suggesting that she did so. Her collecting

spots were all within 1 cm. of one another and, for example, during the

building of one cell, her left hind tarsus was on one particular stone during

all collecting we watched. During another period she was delayed by a

column of ants crossing her minute quarry. She collected from an

adjacent place which she took time to select, but after carrying away

several loads she started dropping them without leaving and, after —

attempting to collect as near as possible to her own site, she

finally returned to it when the ants left. She had a stereotyped landing ©

and walked 2 cm. to her quarry. We could see no difference in location

or texture between the mud she used for walls and the mud she used for

daubs, and thus consider our second hypothesis about m1 inapplicable

at least to m4, who resembled e5 in having one quarry for all purposes.

We have thus failed to confirm Iwata (1942) that madraspatanum

carries water to its mud patch to damp the mud!. On the contrary, we

have seen m4 collected mud_at a permanently damp place, and, as we

suspected for ml, any damping would have been redundant. The col-

lecting site chosen by m4 confirms Iwata (1964) that thisspecies choose

relatively dirty mud. The frequent observation of cells filled with mouldy

spiders in which no wasp offspring can be found is explained by Iwata

1 Note added November 1967: We have repeatedly seen the squatter Chalybion

bengalense Dalb. collect water, This species was included in an extended genus

Sceliphron by Bingham (1897) and Kohl (1918).

[43 ]

FREQUENCY

. Bompay Nat. Hist. Soc. 65 (1)

ll ee me

A a

: e2

‘o> crepissage

ane : rhe Bs e wh gf Fl 8 a

Oil's a oy a Bs a panic daubing

a ao ; daubing

io 2 ee = sa os Py

ec walls

0 - i doe sf Le oa a ae sa

10 « E

crepissage

i e5

B =S ese

a panic daubing

0 hs a

ee a daubing

0 i Sed (SS eal ofl Bell ua oO 5 8 —

ae walls

> eta a

A a fe oles m G8 «2 cee

5 a a d e8

panic daubing

oe le. es G@ saa a a B

5» : daubing

Gs micu se af Pi e se 2 om

I5 «

10 e

: walls

o 6 Ls dal cs om om ne 8 8 a ®

a a 8 t ® e 8

9 50 100 200 300 400

TIME SPENT FETCHING MUD— IN SECONDS

Fig. 9

J. BomBay NAT. Hist. Soc. 65 (1)

PREIMAGINAL LIFE

LENGM) OF

MEAN TEMPERATURE

Fig. 10

NESTING OF E. c. esuriens COMPARED WITH S. madraspatanum 165

(1964) as due to the organisms present in the mud infecting the spiders

so that these become inedible to the wasp larva, who therefore perishes

soon after hatching. While confirming the facts, we are nevertheless

sceptical of this explanation, perhaps because of our experience as

Drosophila workers. Mould does not render a Drosophila culture

sterile, it only begins to grow in a culture after this has become sterile

for other reasons. Similarly we think that mould would not attack

paralyzed but still living spiders ; it would attack only after these had died

because a wasp larva had delayed or failed to eat them for some other

reason.

LENGTH OF PREIMAGINAL LIFE, EMERGENCE AND COCOONS

The length of the period between oviposition and emergence for

esuriens is very variable. Assuming that the first egg is the functional

one, the length of preimaginal life varies, in our sample of 17 males and

17 females, from 17 to 25 days-for males and from 19 to 30 days for

females. This variation is largely dueto variation in temperature during

preimaginal life. Fig. 10 shows the relation between length of

preimaginal life and the mean temperature during it. (This is the mean of

all daily maximum and minimum temperatures during the relevant

period). The solid 3 and @ signs represent individual wasps, while the

larger open signs represent mean periods for a giventemperature range

(Table 15). Even such small samples show that development is speeded

TABLE 15

RELATIONSHIP OF LENGTH OF PRE-IMAGINAL LIFE TO TEMPERATURE

Males Females

Mean Temperature

(CC) Mean length Mean length

Number | of pre-imaginal Number | of pre-imaginal

life life

23- 1 21:0 2 28°5

24- 4 26:0

25- 5 23°0 3. 237)

26- 2 19°5 2 PN)

27- 4 19°5 1 20:0

28- a 1 19:0

29- af 3 19:7

30- 5 17°8 1 19:0

17 17

up with increase in temperature. (The exceptional 3 on the extreme left

of the graph is the small e6 II who emerged from a cell sealed only 1

[44]

166 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

hour after oviposition). It is also clear that females take a longer time

than males to develop, and that this difference, where data are available,

varies from 0°5 to 1'2 days (excluding the exceptional male e6II). The

only comparable data we have on the length of preimaginal life for

madraspatanum are those for ml, for all the imagines produced by m4

and m5, except perhaps one, had entered diapause in the larval stage.

The variation between individuals was much less, the period being 20

days for males and 20-21 days for female (mean 20°35 days). More

data must be awaited before a comparison can be made between the two

species.

Wasps that have emerged from their pupae in glass tubes are fully

coloured but lie passively in a curled up position for well over 36 hours.

The bellies of madraspatanum are distended with the white pellets of

excreta which can be seen through the intersegmental membranes. This

confirms Roubaud (1916) that wasps remain as imagines inside their

cells for several days. Certainly they do not emerge until they can walk

and fly normally. The typical folding of the vespoid wing takes place

within two minutes after emergence from the cell.

The imagines of esuriens emerged from a hole gnawed in the side of the

pot usually facing the source of maximum light. The lids fell off com-

pletely and were unexpectedly thin. The lids of madraspatanum were

_ even thinner, which was surprising as these were chewed through the

convex lid and lid daubing with which the mother had originally sealed

the cell. The hole opened had a smaller diameter than the original

mouth of the cell, and often the lid was not pushed off by the emerging

wasp, but fell back into position lying parallel to the surface of the block

and again occluding the hole.

The internal debris in the cells reveals very different larval and pupal

Organisations. Both species are typical of their taxonomic groups. The

inner walls of esuriens cells were very faintly silvered as though by snail

tracks. This was the only vestige of a cocoon. The larval faeces were

deposited as a large yellow or red clayey patch which was adsorbed

by the mud of the cell wall. The colour almost certainly depended upon

the food. When animals were reared in glass tubes the extrusion of this

coincided with the larvae ceasing to be green or yellowish brown, trans-

parent and glassy, and becoming butter-coloured and opaque. Several

larvae seemed to drown themselves in their excreta unless some fragment

of cell wall or other absorbent substance were present to soak up

the liquid. Like other members of their genus (Kohl 1918, Shafer 1949),

madraspatanum wasps made cylindrical cocoons which, though of silk,

had the russet colour and lac-like consistency of a cuticular pupariumg

The larval excreta formed dense black masses in the proctodeal ends

of the cocoons which were sculptured to receive it and thus formed what

has previously been called faecal baskets. There is also a butter-coloured

[45.]

wiles ee,

NESTING OF F. c. esuriens COMPARED WITH S. madraspatanum 167

opaque stage after the cessation of feeding and this excretion in madras-

patanum, and it is in this stage that diapause occurs.

We saw no meconium produced after pupal life in a nest of esuriens.

It is probable that they void this after flying from the nest as do the social

Polistes. Shafer (1949) has discussed the development and composition

of the little spindle-shaped white pellets of excreta with which Sceliphron

wasps are full when they emerge from their pupal skin and which they

slowly void, both before and after leaving the cell.

SEX RATIO AND BIRTH ORDER

Table 16 summarises the emergences we have observed. As would

be expected from our descriptions of the wasps’ behaviour, a large

number of cells were parasitized but, as previously explained, the data

given in Table 16 were not collected to give any estimate of the frequency

of this in this region. There were other causes of death in undisturbed

cells which are not easy to explain, and some larval and pupal deaths

were certainly due to the abnormal conditions provided by a glass

tube. ;

The individuals of S. madraspatanum were sexed by examining their

genitalia and/or their antennae. The individuals of E. esuriens were

sexed by the presence of a hook-like thirteenth segment on each of

antenna of the males. Bingham (1897) listed several pigment differences

between males and females in this species. We agree with him that the

mid and hind tarsi of males are black, and of females russet. We also

note, which he does not, that the antennae of males have a dark band at

their most swollen point. The male 5 II whom we only saw for 13

minutes on the nest was sexed on these pigmentary characters only.

Bingham also stated that females do not possess two black spots present

on the ventral surface of the second abdominal segment of males. About

half of our females scored are noted as having these spots, which are

however fainter, smaller, and more diffuse than any seen on males.

The sex ratios observed in these samples are exactly 1 in each species.

This is surprising, as the order in which eggs are laid is far from random.

Jayakar (1963) reported a condition which he called ‘ protarrhenotoky ’,

namely that during the life of a single female, she lays a// her male eggs

before a// her female eggs. The data which were available at the time of

that publication were those from el to e6 and ml. Ascan be seen from

the data now available, at least in esuriens, this rule is not invariably

followed. In nests e8 and e23, there were exceptions to this rule ; in

the former, 1 male egg having been laid after 4 male and 1 female eggs,

and in the latter, 2 male eggs having been laid after 3 female eggs. In

mddr aspatanum so far, we do not have any exception to the rule.

[46 ]

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1).

168

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[47]

NESTING OF E. c. esuriens COMPARED WITH S. madraspatanum 169

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170 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

Arguing from all the madraspatanum data where offspring could be

sexed, as Jayakar (1963) did for the esuriens data, we now compute the

probability that if 10 male eggs and 10 female eggs are laid at random

in nests of 9, 3 and 8 cells, the rule of all male before all female will not

be broken. This probability B 18475¢ mee é or 1 in 5434.

For esuriens, such a test becomes impracticable. The tendency to

‘protarrhenotoky’ however, is still clearly evident. The data show several

peculiarities which are due to this tendency. One is the large number of

unisexual broods. Classifying the nests by the number of sexed off-

spring we have :

No. of sexed offspring No. of nests Sexes of sexed offspring

1 5 all go

2 3 all go

3 1 32¢

4 2 $333; LYE

5 2 all 99°

6 2 SdddLS 5 LLESSE

12 1 SSSSSPLLPPLP

All three nests with 2 sexed individuals, both those with 4 individuals,

and both with 5 individuals are unisexual. The probabilities of these

results are +, 4, and =4, respectively.

As the hymenopteran sex determining mechanism does not auto-

matically produce a primary sex ratio of 1 at conception, the observa-

tion of such a sex ratio at emergence is surprising for at least two reasons. -

Firstly, all recessive lethal allels, immediately they arise by mutation,

must kill all haploid (i.e. male) embryos into which they segregate.

Secondly, one would expect the females to be more exposed to predation

than males during both their frequent loaded flights over standardised

paths, and their preoccupied pauses working on the two small areas of ©

the quarry and the nest. This would be expected to have produced a

selection pressure in solitary wasps with highly evolved maternal be-

haviour patterns which would have resulted in an excess of females in

fertilized eggs such as is observed in even the most primitive social species

in which the worker caste is not discretely specialized. That such an

excess is not observed or, more correctly, that equality itself has been

evolved, suggests that some premises should be re-examined (See

Jayakar & Spurway 1966a & b). Dutt (1913) reported that madras-

patanum has not been discovered in the gut contents of any predator.

Both species would be considered aposematic, but no more so than

many social species which are known to be predated. Is there a com- —

[49]

NESTING OF E. c. esuriens COMPARED WITH S. madraspatanum 171

pensatory selection on males? The evolutionary consequences of

‘ protarrhenotoky ’ have been briefly discussed by Jayakar (1963).

SEASON AND DIAPAUSE

Table 1 and its footnote list all animals seen associated with a con-

struct in our locality. The few isolated individuals we have seen do not

extend the seasons of these species, determined either by when they were

seen working or when they emerged in our collection.

There are unaccountable disappearances of both species e.g.

the absence in 1964 of madraspatanum which was seen that year in both

the more urban Calcutta locality, and on the as yet completely

undeveloped river bank at Tikerpara, Dhenkanal. However, it seems

that esuriens is not active during December and January and madras-

patanum for a shorter period i.e. these species disappear for a ‘ winter’

like their relatives in temperate climates. However we have only dis-

covered diapausing individuals in the latter species.

Table 17 gives the dates of pupation and emergence (from pupae,

not cells) of the offspring of m4and m5. The nests were dissected on 4/11

and 3/1 respectively when it was thought that all the inmates would

TABLE 17

PARTICULARS RE. OFFSPRING OF 5S. madraspatanam Wasps, m4 AND m5

laid Pere died pupated died emerged _ sex

m4 | onor 18/10 a 26/2 6/3 o

before

I 18/10 5/3

III 18/10 25/2 6/3 Jo

IV 19/10 5/3

Vv 19/10 17/12

VI 20/10 25/25 6/3 Jo

Vil 27/10 5/11 28/2 5/3

VI 28/10 6/11 12/11

IX 30/10 TAL 21/12

mS | 10/12 10/3 19/3 3

I 11/12 2/3 12/3 3a

g8t 11/12 <3/1 16/1 a

IV 12/12 28/2 11/3 e

Vv 14/12 4/3 12/3 Q

Vie on-or + 15/12 28/1 10/2 2

before ;

VII before 17/12 . 2/3 11/3 Q

VOI 33 28/2 10/3 Q

The date of death is given in the space between the two relevant stages.

[50]

172. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

have at least ceased feeding and perhaps pupated. Only one, m5 II had

pupated by 3/1 and this was not the earliest laid. He emerged on 16/1

after a preimaginal life of 36 days, compared with the 20 days recorded

for the offspring of ml in July. Therefore it is likely that this individual

is to be classified with his sibs as undergoing diapause.

There seems little doubt that all survivors of these two families laid

late in the year underwent a diapause. This, as is usual in the group,

was undergoing at the end of the last larval instar after feeding had

ceased and defaecation had been performed.

It is curious that diapausing larvae should have started pupating before

January 3. The range is over 67 days (<3/1-10/3) with a peak involving

both families between 25/2 and 4/3. Jayakar & Spurway (1965a)

have recorded similar data for Chalybion bengalense (Sphecoidea) and

Antodynerus flavescens var. (Vespoidea) which show that both these

species pupate after a diapause which extends well into the summer

(May to July). Further observations show that Chalybion bengalense

comes out of diapause in two bursts, a small one in January and a larger

in May to July. There may, of course, be a corresponding second burst

in the summer for madraspatanum, which we have not yet observed.

Despite the larger samples, we have no evidence for diapause in

esuriens. Rouband (1916) takes for granted that some Eumenes species

migrate during a dry season to regions with constant water. We may be

accumulating evidence that esuriens migrates, perhaps southwards, during

the coldest months of the year. An alternative suggestion is that the

population becomes so much smaller that we have not yet recorded a

specimen during this period, perhaps simply because the animals work

less rapidly at the lower temperatures. Finally, fertilized females may

hibernate as do females of the social Waspsin temperate climates, and as

Polistes olivaceus does even as far south as Calcutta.

COMPARISON BETWEEN INDIVIDUALS AND SPECIES

Table 18 ranks the various working speeds of the four esuriens

watched in detail using the data presented in previous tables. From

this table, e2 appeared to perform most jobs more rapidly than the others

and e5 more slowly. This is confirmed by their mud fetching times

graphed in Fig. 9. e5 worked at the coolest period of the year but the

temperatures for e2 were only slightly higher, and lower than those for

el ande8. Therefore e2 seemed more energetic than e5. She also used

more loads during both her periods of inphase daubing and during

her crépissage (Table 11), though this covered a surface of comparable

area in both constructs. She perhaps also used more loads in cell

construction (Table 2).

[51]

NESTING OF E. ¢. esuriets COMPARED WITH S. madraspatanum

173

From the dates and location of the nests it is possible that e2 and e5

were the same wasp. The differences in their speed of work do not con-

TABLE 18

COMPARISON OF WORK SPEED IN esuriens INDIVIDUALS

On walls

On lid

On daub

On panic daub

On crépissage

Away prey

On prey

Away inspection

On inspection

1 the quickest work on the evidence provided by means.

data

from

table

el e2 e5

Pets 4

Seer

hae eee 4

<a ee

Piagetian ee ae

3 I 2

hee alae Din sen

is 1 2

Af Si cei a eee

4 1 2

Sa ska 4

3 a 4

2 ian eee

2 7a 3

ee al tele 3

2 i 3

ED 1 3

1 2

Z on the evidence provided by medians.

aes

erie

oaeae

ee eR a

ney

er ame

tradict this possibility, as we have seen different work tempos in the same

individual of E. e. conoideus when working on different constructs.

Also, the observation that e2 and e5 seemed to have different water and

mud sources is again not evidence for their separate identity as we have

seen an E. p. pyriformis change her water source when beginning a second

group of cells in a new place.

The daubing of the previous construct by el tore provisioning the

naked open cell has not yet been noticed in any other Eumenes wasp.

[52]

174. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (i)

As it was only observed twice, it may not reveal a consistent idiosyncrasy

of behaviour.

If these four wasps and ml are typical of their species, the vespoid

seems more efficient than the sphecoid. For the analogous chores, pot

building, provisioning, and sealing, esuriens wasps achieve a comparable

result with fewer loads than a madraspatanum. This economy, like their

capacity to return with the appropriate loads after longer absences, is

harmonious with the morphological conclusion that the vespoids are a

more advanced group than the sphecoids.

DISCUSSION

For two centuries the behaviour of the Hymenoptera has been

studied—and studied by some of the greatest biologists of whom we have

historical record. These insects were often discussed as providing the

most typical examples of instinctive behaviour. And by the criteria of

Species specificity and of performance without any previous apprentice-

ship (which are not two criteria but one), construction, predation, and

other rearing activities of our wasps can be judged to be instinctive. We

know of three systematic attempts to analyse the behaviour of members

of the Aculeata influenced by the concepts of instinct due to Lorenz

and Tinbergen (L-T), those of Deleurance (e.g. 1957), Tsuneki (e.g. 1958),

and Evans (e.g. 1966). —

These studies, and our own observations, completely vindicate

Lorenz’s emphasis that an instinct is best defined by motor patterns.

They also vindicate his division of these motor patterns into Erbkoor-

dinationen (or fixed action patterns) and taxis components. Because

wasps make material artifacts, we are able to see that taxis components

are typical of the homeostatic capacities that are characteristic of

living creatures. The taxis components are necessary for a wasp to

be able to build a species-specific nest on an individual location with

special, theoretically unique, features by means of movements which

are at least species-specific and often characteristic of much larger taxa.

We have described elsewhere (Jayakar & Spurway 1965b) the failure

of two individuals of E. emarginatus conoideus to oviposit on finishing

their cells and their different subsequent behaviour. One-(c3) continued

normally. The other (c12) seemed unable to stop building and so con-

structed a pathological nest. Wasp cl2 thus behaved as did Tsuneki’s

Bembix niponica and showed that the reproductive sequence is divided

into sub-sequences of activities each of which is ended by a consummatory

activity without which the next sub-sequence cannot be initiated, and

after which, Tsuneki showed experimentally in his sphecoids, they cannot

return to an earlier sub-sequence. This pattern of nervous organisation

is characteristic of vertebrate instincts as L-T describe them. However

[53]

NESTING OF Ff. c. esuriens COMPARED WITH S. madraspatanum 175

the behaviour of c3 reveals that in wasps there is some variation in this

organisation which may make possible an escape from its rigour.

If the motor pattern of the wasps’ behaviour is harmonious with the

L-T analysis, and the neural organisation sometimes so, the sensory

aspects seem to be much less so. The fact that we have not performed

experiments on our wasps would not have prevented us from gathering

information on these matters if the information had been in the form in

which it is revealed in vertebrate behaviour. We have been using a

technique which L and T have themselves emphasised as being very

fertile—observing the behaviour of animals surrounded by, and utilizing

human artifacts. We have observed, as do all observers, the inevitable

mistakes and miscarriages that such animals make, and we have observed

their reaction to the inevitable interferences or frustrations which such

animals invariably encounter. The technical vocabulary of L-T does

immediately leap to the mind while watching mistakes being made, and

frustrations being reacted to, by vertebrates. But this vocabulary does

not leap to the mind while watching wasps which, as previous observers

have noted, are much more succinctly described in human terms. A

wasp making a mistake resembles much more a man entering the wrong

house or, having forgotten where he put down his book, than a fledgling

sparrow trying to perch on a horizontal high-light on a motor car or,

among insects, a butterfly alighting on a coloured fabric while flying bet-

ween flowers. ;

No reaction, usual or unusual, has suggested to us any hypothesis

about the sign stimuli relevant to these wasps. Judging from the animals’

movements, among the most important of these for building are those

perceived tactilely by the antennae. The scanning movements differ

in the two species. It is always difficult to recognise stimuli to senses

which the observer does not share but, for example in work on the court-

ship of many insects, sign stimuli have been recognised, or at least models

have been presented that provided sign stimuli. We, onthe other hand,

have seen neither a mistake in the putting down of a load, nor a pause

that suggested that a sign stimulus was attended, but had not yet arrived.

The ceaseless antennal probing can be described as appetitive behaviour,

but the form of this seeking gives us no reason to classify the stimuli

which it collects into two classes, of which one precipitates an instinc-

tive action, and another which gives immediate information about the

present state of the construct, and is relevant to the special features of

the work. A wasp may put down a load on an obvious imperfection, or

she may put it down completely isolated only to be joined up many

loads later. We have not been able to recognise any evidence of an

innate releasing mechanism common to these acts.

The much more thorough experimental analyses of Tsuneki confirm

us in this matter. In his work on Bembix niponica, he is able to describe

[54]

i176 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

the context which, on L-T instinct theory, must present the sign stimuli

(or releasing factors) evoking the next sequence of movements. However,

these contexts are only described in terms of their biological function e.g,

‘ burrowing ground’, ‘ paralysed prey’, ‘ operated prey’, ‘ stored prey.’

This is unsatisfactory. A sign stimulus can be presented and be effective

quite independently of its normal context, and it is identified by this experi-

mental technique. In William James’s metaphor, we have never seen

a wasp reacting to a label independent of its usual parcel. i

However, cl2 also showed a classic characteristic of instinctive reac-

tions to sensory stimuli. As her nest became deformed she made a bad

job worse because she reacted to certain features only when the stimuli

these produced were relevant in the normal sequence. In an unusual

context, objects, though undoubtedly perceived, were unable to sti-

mulate a modification of behaviour, i.e., they presented no sign stimuli,

as the wasp possessed no appropriate innate releasing mechanism to be

stimulated. There is every reason to believe that esuriens and madras-

patanum would show similar nervous organisation.

We have seen two members of E. emarginatus conoideus (Jayakar &

Spurway, 1965b) and an individual of Polistes olivaceus put down

preliminary loads before constructing their first cells as has been des-

cribed for ell and e22. Therefore abortive building is a typical activity

of vespoids at least. Can it be regarded as parallel to the intention

movements with which, for example, birds make abortive nest building

attempts? This identification is fertile, but cannot, we think, be made

without qualification. Does it justify the induction that nesting is con-

trolled by a ‘reproductive drive’ (potentially describable in chemico-

physiological terms) which gradually develops and/or accumulates in the

individual animal as any other physical product may gradually increase ;

and when present in quantities inadequate to produce functionally efficient

activities, produces small dissociated scraps of activity? The actual

physical movements with which wasps make the abortive brackets and

pedicels are in every way normal in form, intensity, and therefore, (at

least temporarily) efficiency. They are associated with long periods of

feeling which we have recognised as appetitive behaviour. They are not

therefore like the intention movements of vertebrates, which are slight,

languid, short, and have only traces of their typical form. The abortive

behaviour of wasps resembles much more the early sketches of books or

pictures on which some artists spend much thought, excitement, and

effort before they determine on the finalform. The tendency to make

false starts may be as much a common idiosyncracy among wasps as it is

among men. If the two kinds of behaviour, i.e. the vertebrate languor

and half-heartedness in performance and the wasp’s lack of persistence

with a particular construct (not lack of persistence with the performance

of the activity) are interpreted as evidence for a physiological state in the

[55]

NESTING OF E. c. esuriens COMPARED WITH S. madraspatanum i77

creatures concerned sufficiently alike for the same technical term (e.g.

‘low motivation’ or ‘ weak drive’) to be applied, the differences between

the two kinds of activity equally reveal that there are considerable

differences between the nervous organisations of mechanical work which

the drives activate.

The only obviously bad workmanship we have seen in these two

species was the desertion of a partially built cell by e4 and m3. e21 had

presumably put down the two orientated brackets 7 cm. from her first

definitive cell. This may be a third example or may be more comparable

to the abortive brackets just discussed. Roubaud (1916) discussed in

detail many inefficient practices which he has observed in the African

Eumenes tinctor. In discussing these, he approaches very closely a

Tinbergian point of view, attributing them to various responses to the

difficulty in finding provisions during the season in which they occur.

Roubaud’s wasps, in addition to laying extra eggs which we have pre-

viously discussed, sealed these extra eggs in cells without provisions.

This he interprets as due to their inability to delay too long the

performance of one part of the normal sequence because environmental

conditions have prevented a previous phase from being completed or

consummated. Roubaud has also seen wasps who went into periods of

‘continuous cell building and plastering which he interprets as neurotic

behaviours consequent on the frustrations of failing to find prey for pro-

Visions. In this he approaches very closely the Tinbergian idea of

displacement activity.

The delays which we observed in our animals were caused by rain.

As we have emphasised, these produced no sign of disturbance in the

normal and functionally efficient sequence of activities. The wasps, on

return, examined their construct and continued with the efficient task.

Some delay in beginning again, and consequent repeated inspections, was

sometimes observed, and may be attributed to waiting for the relevant

drive to develop. If we accept this hypothesis, we are again saying that

‘drives’ in wasps are integrated with the other nervous functions in a

different way from that in which they are hypothesised to be integrated

in non-human vertebrates. On any hypothesis, wasps seem much less

slaves of their drives—they almost invariably do what the external occa-

sion demands, not what their internal physiological condition

demands. .

Both e2 and e8 did some daubing out of their usual sequence of

activities. On one occasion e8 carried out this daubing in the middle of

building a cell. On all other occasions, it was hunting that was

interrupted ; el did daub after building a cell but she did this for both

cells that she was observed building. Although this ‘ out-of-sequence ’

daubing did not have any function obvious to us, it cannot be labelled

as an inefficient activity.

12 [ 56 ]

178 . JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1).

We have seen no behaviour which we would describe as displacement

activities, though we watched wasps repeatedly in situations of frus-

tration and conflict where these are very common in vertebrates. We

have seen on several occasions a wasp showing clearly that she was under

a conflict to attack or flee when finding a parasite on her nest ; we have

seen the perturbation followed by repeated agitated checking of land-

marks when a nest site is moved or a landmark altered; we have seen

animals struggle for long periods to insert reasonably active prey, and,

in the case of ml, both fail to do so, and also remove their own prey

accidently ; we have seen animals drop their loads or leave them half-

worked when disturbed ; but in all these contexts we have not seen any

movement which we could recognise as being characteristic of another

activity. We have never seen a wasp mdke movements characteristic

of an activity when any recognisable part of the consummatory situation

was absent. There is every evidence that a wasp, as a rule, ceases work-

ing when she has achieved a consummatory situation, not when she has

performed a consummatory act. The only possible exception was c12

whose behaviour was not duplicated by c3.

In the context in which we were observing, it is not critical that we

observed no vacuum activities, which are probably most common in

captive animals deprived of much of the environment to which they have

evolved adaptations.

We then suggest that the anthropomorphic language which entomo-

logists working with the higher hymenoptera use, and: defend, reveals

that these animals must in their behaviour be seriously compared with

Homo sapiens and perhaps other mammals, and not with the lower verte-

brates and the other insects whose behaviour has contributed so much to

instinct theory.

There is no doubt that men are descended from ancestors who were

more instinctive than themselves, and traces of human instincts are easy |

to find. Freud was admittedly influenced by the workers whom the

ethological school regard as their precursors. However it is inefficient

to describe human behaviour in a vocabulary coined to describe instinc-

tive behaviour—too much both in quantity, and in complexity, is omitted.

We suggest that our Hymenoptera show an analogous complication of

behaviour, in which the complication has similarly become so great as to

form a superstructure not only more conspicuous to the observer, but

more important to the performer. Haldane & Spurway (1954)

approached this conclusion by stating that in the Hymenoptera there

had been an increase in the importance of taxis components relative to

Erbkoordinationen, comparable to that which McDougal had previously

pointed out occurred in the mammals. For example, they suggested

that the bees’ communicatory dances had evolved from intention move-

ments assuming these to have the form observed in vertebrates, and this

[57]

NESTING OF E. c. esuriens COMPARED WITH S. madraspatanum 179

hypothesis has been accepted by Thorpe (1956). Our observation, that

the only analogues to intention movements which we have seen per-

formed by our wasps were of an intensity high enough to be functionally

efficient, is not incompatible with this hypothesis. Tsuneki (1958) made

another approach to our present conclusion: ‘ Behaviour of Bembix

exhibited during her brood-rearing activities can all be attributed to the

so-called appetitive behaviour in its broadest sense’.

From its systematic context, this evolutionary trend in the Hymeno-

ptera must be entirely independent of that in the primates, (or the

mammals). Therefore there is a strong case for attempting to avoid an

anthropomorphic vocabulary however much this may be succinct, ele-

gant, and express the tenderness observers feel for members of this

group. Since evolution has been accepted as a fact, there has been a

tendency to redefine homology in terms of hypothesised common

ancestry and to avoid using the same word for phenomena where this

cannot be presumed, however similar these phenomena may be. This

rule is frequently ignored. Nevertheless, though it would be foolish

pedantry to refuse to use the term ‘ head’ for a structure in both the

arthropods and vertebrates because their latest common ancestors were

acephalic, it may not be comparable pedantry to work out a vocabulary

that would not blur the differences expected between systems whose

rarity and independent evolution in the animal kingdom are perhaps

their most striking features.

It is important that this escape from instinctive behaviour had arisen

in both groups before the evolution of social species (in the narrow and

most useful sense). Can a comparable evolutionary trend be detected

in the Isoptera, or would it have been more conspicuous in their less

specialized ancestors ?

It must be emphasised that we have documented only a fraction of

the behaviour patterns, even of the imaginal stage of these insects. We

know nothing of their sexual, eating, hunting, or sleeping behaviours, or

their nesting behaviour independent of human artifacts, or the behaviour

of esuriens when it disappears from our biotype during the cold weather.

All these phases of behaviour are of more general occurrence in the

animal kingdom than building and provisioning, and it is probable that

the movements and reactions of wasps while performing them may, like

the behaviour of humans in the same contexts, be more comparable

with the instinctive behaviour of other animals.

SUMMARY

Twenty-five nests of the vespoid potter wasp Eumenes campaniformis

esuriens (Fabr.) are described. All were on or in contemporary con-

crete buildings in Bhubaneswar, Orissa. Twenty-two were found

[58]

180 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

associated with their builders, and an attempt was made to time, and

describe briefly, all visits to four of these nests from discovery to deser-

tion. These totalled 1459.

Site selection, pot building, oviposition, provisioning with insect

larvae, sealing, the various subsequent daubings, the stimuli which preci-

pitated desertion, loadless visits, and the fetching of building mud are

described. The number and durations of collecting periods, and work

periods on the nests are analysed.

The duration of pre-imaginal life, which is temperature sensitive,

is discussed as is the unexpected sex ratio of unity. Individual broods

were uniSexual or with one exception showed an approximation to

‘protoarrhenotoky’. No individual has been observed to enter diapause,

but the species, like other wasps in this locality, has not yet been observed

during December and January.

Five nests of the sphecoid potter Sceliphron madraspatanum (Fabr.)

are also discussed, including one nest described in detail in an earlier

paper (Spurway et al. 1964). Throughout, a comparison is made between

the two species which ecologically overlap in site selection.

No sign stimulus (or releaser) has yet been recognised for either

species, neither have they been observed to perform a displacement

activity.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful to Dr. R. W. Crosskey of Leiden, Dr. H. E. Evans

of Harvard, Dr. J. B. S. Haldane of Bhubaneswar, Dr. W. D. Hamilton

of London, Dr. K. Iwata of Sasayama, Dr. N. E. Marston of Wyoming

University, Dr. E. Mayr of Harvard, Dr. K. Tsuneki of Fukui, Dr. J.

‘Van der Vecht of Leiden, and Dr. S. Zimmerman of Vienna, who have

identified animals, given introductions, reprints and the advice and other

help without which scientific work is impossible.

REFERENCES

BincHAM, C. T. (1897): Fauna of

British India. Hymenoptera 1. Taylor

and Francis, London. —

Dutt, G. R. (1913): Life Histories of

Indian Insects (Hymenoptera). Mem.

Dept. Agri. India. Entomological series

IV : 183-267.

DELEURANCE, E. P. (1957) : Contribu-

tion a Llétude biologique des Polistes

(Hyménoptéres—Vespides). I L/acti-

vité de construction. Ann. Sci. Nat.

Zool. Biol. Anim. 19 : 91-222.

Evans, H. E. (1963): Wasp Farm.

Natural History Press, New York.

[59]

Evans, Howarp E. (1966): The com-

parative ethology and evolution of the

sand wasps. Harvard University Press,

Cambridge, Massachusetts.

Fasre, J. H. (1924) : Souvenirs. Ento-

mologiques. Edition definitive illustrée,

Delagrave, Paris.

Frost, S. W. (1959): Insect life and

insect natural history. 2nded. Dover.

HALDANE, J. B.S. & SpuRway, H.

(1954): A statistical analysis of com-

munication in Apis mellifera and a com-

parison with communication in other

animals. Jnsectes Sociaux 1 : 247-283.

NESTING OF E. c. esuriens COMPARED WITH S. madraspatanum 181

HamILTon, W. D. (1964) : The Gene-

tical Evolution of Social Behaviour II.

J. Theoret. Biol. 7 : 17-52.

Horne, C. (1872): Notes on_ the

Habits of some Hymenopterous Insects

from the North West Provinces of [ndia.

With an Appendix, containing Descrip-

tions of some new Species of Apidae and

Vespidae, collected by Mr. Horne, by

Frederick Smith of the British Museum.

Trans. Zool. Soc. Lond. Vit: pp. 161-196.

IwaTA, K. (1942); Comparative

Studies on the Habits of Solitary Wasps.

Tenthredo IV : 1-146, 5 plates.

———— (1953): Biology of Eumenes

Mushi 25 : 25-46, 1 plate.

(1964): Bionomics of non-

social wasps in Thailand. Nature and

Life in Southeast Asia TIT : 323-383..

JAYAKAR, S. D. (1963) : ‘ Proterandry ’

in Solitary Wasps. Nature 198 : 208-209.

JAYAKAR, S.D., SPUR WAY, H., MEEKER,

C. R. & MEEKER, J. E. (1964): Ab-

normal cells built by the wasp Enmenes

esuriens abr. (?): Vespoidea. J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 61: 208-210,

1 plate. ,

JAYAKAR, 8S. D. & Spurway, H

(1965a) : Winter diapause in the squatter

wasps Antodynerus flavescens (Fabr.)

and Chalybion bengalense (Dahlb.)

(Vespoidea and Sphecoidea). op. cit.

61 : 662-667.

——&— (1965b) : Normal and

abnormal nests of Eumenes emarginatus

conoideus (Gmelin) including notes on

crépissage in this and other members

of the genus. op. cit. 62: 193-200.

——& —— (1966a): Sex ratio of some

Mason wasps (Vespoidea and Sphecoi-

dea). Nature 212: 306-307.

——& —— (1966b): Re-use of Cells

and Brother-Sister Mating in the Indian

species Stenodynerus miniatus (Sauss.)

(Vespidae : Eumeninae). J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 63 : 378-398.

in Japan.

“Mexico.

. Mud Dauber.

KIRKPATRICK, T. W. (1957): Insect

Life in the Tropics. Longmans, London.

Kou, F. F. (1918): Die Hautfliigler-

gruppe ‘ Sphecinae’. IV. Teil. Die

naturliche Gattung Sceliphron Klug

(Pelopaeus Latr. ). Ann. Naturhis-

torischen Hofmuseums XXX¥E: 1-171.

MEEUSEBECK, C. F. W., KROMBEIN,

K. V., Townes, H: K. et al. (1951):

Hymenoptera of America North of

Synoptic Catalog. Agri-

culture Monograph 2. United Siates

Department of Agriculture.

OLBERG, G. (1959): Das Verhalten

der Solitaren Wespen Mitteleuropas.

Deutscher Verlag der Wissenschaften,

Berlin.

PeEcCKHAM, G. W. & PECKHAM, E.G.

(1905): Wasps Social and Solitary.

Constable, Westminster.

RousAuD, E. (1916): Recherches

Biologiques sur les Guépes Solitaires

d’Afrique. La Genése de la Vie Sociale

et l’Evolution de I’Instinct Maternel

chez les Vespids. Annales des Sciences

Naturelles (Zoologie). Ser. X, 1 : 1-160.

SHAFER, G. D. (1949) : The ways of a

University Press, Stan-

ford.

SPURWAY, H., DRONAMRAJU, K. R.

& JAYAKAR, S. D. ((1964): One nest

of Sceliphron madraspatanum (Fabr.)

(Sphecidae ; Hymenoptera). J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 61: 1-26.

THorRPE, W. H. (1956) : Learning and

Instinct in Animals. Methuen, London.

TsuNEKI, K. (1958): Ethological

Studies on Bembix niponica Smith, with

Emphasis on the Psychobiological

Analysis of Behaviour inside the Nest.

(Hymenoptera Sphecidae) If Conclusive

Part. Mem. Fac. Liberal Arts, Fukui

Univ. Series II Nat. Sci. 8 31-78.

WHEELER, W. M. (1923): Social Life

Among the Insects. Constable, London.

ERRATA to part 1.

p. 312 3rd para line 12 for 11.20 read 11.30.

p. 313 2nd para line 16 for 140 read 100.

P. 326 Table 5 the sex of wasp 5 II was ¢.

A Catalogue of the Birds

in the Collection of the

Bombay Natural History Society—1

Gaviformes to Ciconiiformes

HUMAYUN ABDULALI

INTRODUCTION

The first number of the Journal of the Bombay Natural History

Society (1886) contained a list of birds of 144 species in the collection

of the Society, collected by a Mr. Anderson at Simla and Col.

W. B. Thompson in Cashmere. From time to time the Journal carried

lists and notes on the birds of the various districts and provinces, and

such contributions were almost invariably accompanied by specimens,

at least of the more interesting forms, to support the identification.

Sportsmen all over the country sent in specimens (or parts) of ducks,

geese, and swans which they could not identify, or in support of new

records from outside the known ranges. :

The publication of Stuart Baker’s FAUNA OF BRITISH INDIA : BIRDS,

Vols. 1-8, 1922-1930, drew attention to the absence of an essential

requirement for the determination of subspecies, namely series of speci-

mens from different places of the form under examination. The first

attempt to fill in these gaps was the Scientific Survey, sponsored by

Mr. A. S. Vernay, of the Eastern Ghats, an area which had been omitted

from the Society’s extensive Mammal Survey commenced before the

First World War. The Ornithological Section of the Vernay Survey,

which commenced work in April 1929, obtained fair series of the com-

moner birds, and the collection was reported upon by Hugh Whistler &

N. B. Kinnear in the Society’s Journal. This report is still an indispen-

sable work of reference for any study of Indian birds, for the authors

had access not only to the earlier literature but also to the specimens

collected by giants like Jerdon and Hume and they not only published

their findings but also discussed the evidence examined by them.

Then followed the ornithological surveys of the various States,

namely Hyderabad, Mysore, Travancore and Cochin, etc., most of them

by Dr. Salim Ali.

[1]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION-—I1 _ 183

And, all this time, members throughout the country, many of them

officers of the Civil, the Forest, and the Police Services, continued to

send occasional specimens for their own information or in support of

notes and observations made by them.

The collections obtained by the Surveys were reported upon, mostly

by Hugh Whistler, N. B. Kinnear, and C. B. Ticehurst, who between

them described several new races and built upon the foundations laid

by Stuart Baker. I have no figures, but my association with the Society

and its collections, extending over three decades, had left me with the

impression that the key specimens were usually retained in England

though the numerical bulk was returned to the Society. As the several

collections were worked out separately at different times all the speci-

mens were never looked at together. In addition to this, the occasional

specimens added from time to time to the collections do not appear to

have been critically examined.

When working out my collection from the Andamans, I could not

help being struck by the fact that many specimens did not agree with

the accounts in current literature. The transfer to the Society’s new

premises has now made it possible, in spite of distressingly inadequate

furniture and equipment, to lay out series of specimens of more than one

species and to take a reasonable amount of time over their comparison

and study. This therefore is an attempt to list the 22,900 odd specimens

in the Bombay collection and to name as many as possible trinomially.

This will undoubtedly take a considerable time and, therefore, if any

specimen has indicated an extension of the known range of any species

or form or necessitated the correction of an earlier record, or where the

specimens available have permitted a taxonomic conclusion which

differs from that in the syNopsis, I have published my findings separately

from time to time.

This instalment of my Catalogue ends with the flamingoes (No. 74 in

the SYNopsis) and deals with about 435 specimens, up to Register

No. 22914 in the Society’s collection.

As the number of specimens is expected to increase from time to time

and efforts will be made to keep the catalogue up-to-date as far as

possible, the highest registered number covered by further instalments

will be mentioned in each case.

This work has been and continues to be interesting and many un-

expected discoveries have turned up. Twenty-four of the forms men-

tioned in this instalment are entirely missing from our collection. -The

paucity of specimens of several forms from many parts of India is

patent and I can only hope that these notes will prompt all those, who

have the opportunity, to help complete the Society’s collection. In

many instances we lack specimens of species common in other parts of

the world, and I am sure the Society would be glad to consider any ex-

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184 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

change against species available in India. Our taxonomic studies are

far from complete ; the days of random collecting for most districts

have gone, but specimens of different species are needed from many

areas and the work can only be completed with the help of individuals

in different places. The Society’s collection with all its gaps is one of the

best in the country and is intended to form the base of many taxonomic

and other studies in India. In instances where migrant species from the

north are of two or more races, it is yet unknown to what extent they

occupy the same or different areas in India. Of resident species, it is

necessary to have series from different parts of the country and at

different seasons to determine if there are any consistent differences bet-

ween such populations. Where the type locality is also mentioned,

specimens from these areas (topotypes) are essential for further study. .—

I hope that members in India will help whenever they can. It may be

possible for the Society to give lessons in skinning to those who are

willing to help, and also to assist them to obtain such permits as are

necessary.

EXPLANATIONS

In this Catalogue, the sequence and terminology is generally that

used by Ripley in his SYNOPSIS OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA AND PAKISTAN

(1961). Where this differs from subsequent (or even earlier) records

and where it is not possible for me to decide which is correct, I have

retained the name as in the SYNopsis and referred to the differences.

The name is preceded by the number in the syNopsis and followed by

the type locality in parenthesis, the English name, and the volume

number and page of Stuart Baker’s FAUNA. The absence of this

reference indicates that the species/race is not listed in the SYNOPSIS or

the FAUNA, as the case may be. The next line gives the number of

specimens, followed by figures showing the break-up by sex. Young

and juvenile plumages are difficult to designate exactly, particularly as

the correct sequence in many Indian birds is imperfectly known. I

have referred to young birds in non-flying plumage (e.g. down), both

nidifugous and nidicolous, as chicks (abbreviated: ch.), keeping the

term pulli (abbreviated: pull.) for young with feathers insufficiently

developed to permit flight. Young in their first flying plumage are

referred to as juv. (juvenile) or imm. (immature). Ifa plumage (in which ~

the bird may breed) intervenes between the first flying plumage and the

final dress, the bird in such plumage is referred to as sub-ad. (sub-adult),

Where sexual, seasonal, or other differences of plumage exist, an attempt

is made to indicate which forms are available, e.g. non-flying young or

pulli, juvenile, in nuptial plumage, etc. Heads and necks of geese and

swans, which form the basis of several records from India, were not

[3]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION—I 185

registered ; this has now been done. Entries relating to species which

do not occur in Indian limits, but of which specimens are available, are

preceded by the prefix EL (extra-limital). I should mention here that

by the term ‘ Indian limits.’ J understand the area covered by the SyNopsIs,

i.e. India and Pakistan, together with Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan, and

Ceylon, and also ‘the area known roughly as south-east Tibet, the

districts of Charme, Takpo, Kongbo, Pemaké and Pome especially,

lying as they do along the upper reaches of valleys and waterways of

Bhutan and the hills of northern Assam ’, and the Andaman and Nicobar

Islands.

Then follows a list of the localities from which the specimens have

been obtained ; this will serve to indicate at a glance the paucity of

material from large areas. Specimens of species and subspecies known

to occur in India, but which have been obtained outside our limits, are

included but italicised. Where the examination of the material avail-

able has raised any points of interest, these are mentioned. They may

serve to indicate lines of further work and clarification by those who

have the opportunity. Unless otherwise mentioned or appearing from

the context, the measurements are in millimetres, the bill is measured

from the feathers on the forehead, and the measurements in brackets are

from the FAUNA.

In the text, references to literature are made in the customary manner,

except :

JBNHS or Journal.. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society.

FAUNA... .. Stuart Baker’s FAUNA OF BRITISH INDIA, Birds,

Vols. 1-8 (1922-1930).

OLD FAUNA .. The first edition of the FAUNA, Vols. 1-4 (1889-

1898), by Blanford & Oates.

BR. HANDBOOK ~~ .. HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS, Vols. 1-5 (1938-1941),

by Witherby, Jourdain, Ticehurst, and Tucker.

* IND. HANDBOOK .. HANDBOOK OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA AND PAKISTAN,

by Salim Ali and S. Dillon Ripley.

Vaurie .. .. THE BIRDS OF THE PALEARCTIC FAUNA, Passerifor-

mes (1959) and Non-Passeriformes (1965).

Ripley or SYNOPSIS.. A SYNOPSIS OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA AND PAKISTAN

(1961).

Before I proceed with the formal list, I record my appreciation of the

help received from the assistants at the Society, particularly V. C.

Ambedkar, B. R. Grubh, D. N. Mathew, M. J. Pereira, and P. B.

* This is yet in the press but it is hoped that it will be possible to refer to it

Ip succeeding instalments. 2

[4]

186 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY,-Vol. 65 (1)

Shekar, without which my work involving, in addition to mere handling,

the measuring of almost every specimen would not have been possible.

Finally, a word of explanation. It is possible that some of my re-

marks and conclusions are erroneous or out of date. This may be

attributed, in part at least, to the absence of several standard works on

the ornithology of other parts of*the world, as also many of the foreign

journals and periodicals. Remedy of the former need would neces-

sitate an appreciable amount of capital investment, but the latter can

perhaps be made good, or at least kept up to date, by exchanges against

the Society’s journal. J trust that this will be done and better facilities

will be available to future workers, both in this and in other groups.

1 Gavia arctica (Linnaeus) (Russian Turkestan) Blackthroated

Diver 6 : 485

1:9 Ambala, Punjab.

This specimen, which constitutes the only record from India, has

been named svschkini (Sarudny) in both the FAUNA and the syNopsis,

ignoring Ticehurst’s statement (JBNHS 34 : 490) that the specimen does

not permit. subspecific identification. Vaurie treats suschkini as a

synonym of the typical race.

2 Gavia stellata (Pontoppidan) (Denmark) Redthroated Diver 8 : 703

nil.

e) Podiceps cristatus cristatus (Linnaeus) (Sweden) Great Crested

Grebe 6:477

10:358¢ 50?

6 Persian Gulf and Mesopotamia; 1 Peking, China: 1 Gujner, Bikaner

1 Viramgam, Gujarat ; 1 no data.

4 Podiceps nigricollis nigricollis Brehm (Germany) Blacknecked

Grebe , eau 6 : 480

(=P. caspicus caspicus (Hablizl) as per Opinion 406, 1956, Inter-

nat. Comm. Zool. Nomen. 13 : 121)

523d¢'207

2, Banderi-Gaz, near Astrabad, Caspian Province ; 1 Mesopotamia ; 1 Bhavnagar ;

1 Poona.

EL Podiceps ruficollis poggei (Reichenow) (Province of Chihili,

China) Little Grebe

1:9 Peking, China.

This can be distinguished from the other races by the almost com-

plete absence of the white patch on the wing-coverts,

[5]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST, SOCIETY COLLECTION—1i 187

EL Podiceps ruficollis iraquensis Ticehurst (Ishandarieyeh, Euphrates)

Side Wie Lo?

5 Persian Gulf.

They are all in immature non-breeding plumage and I cannot dis-

tinguish them from birds from India either by size or by plumage.

5 Podiceps ruficollis capensis Salvadori (Shoa, Africa) 6: 481

Meo Deo) SO to?

2 Kalat, Baluchistan ; 1 Manchar, Sind; 1 Simla; 2 Bahawalpur; 1 Gwalior;

1 Rajputana ; 2 Meerut, U.P.; 8 Bombay, 2 Nasik, Maharashtra; 1 Palnis :

1 Calcutta Market; 1 Assam; 2 Burma; 4 no data.

A female from Kalat, Baluchistan, in breeding plumage has the

rufous of the neck extending further downwards than in any of the others.

This and a male from the same area and another from Sylhet, Assam,

have the underparts irregularly marked ashy, separating them from all

the others.

6 Daption capensis (Linnaeus) (Cape of Good Hope) Cape Pigeon

or Cape Petrel 6 : 307

nil.

_ 7 Procellaria leucomelaena Temminck (Seas of Japan and Naga-

saki Bay) Whitefronted Shearwater 6 : 306

me nil:

8 Procellaria carneipes (Gould) (Small islands off Cape Leeuwin,

West Australia) Pinkfooted Shearwater 6 : 305

nil.

9 Procellaria pacifica chlorohyncha (Lesson) (Sharks Bay, Western

Australia) Wedgetailed Shearwater 6 : 303

nil.

10 Procellaria tenuirostris Temminck (Japan) Slenderbilled Shear-

water : 6 : 304

nil. |

- 11 Procellaria Jherminieri bailloni Bonaparte (Mauritius) Audubon’s

Shearwater

nil. |

12 Procellaria lherminieri persica Hume (At sea between Guadar

and Muscat) Persian Shearwater 6 : 306

2 92: 1 Bombay (wing : 202) and 1 Alibag, Kolaba (211), both taken in July.

12a Bulweria bulwer (Jardine and Selby) (Madeira) Bulwer’s Petrel

No specimen.

This species is mentioned for the Maldives in Vaurie (1965, p. 22)

and for the Laccadives by Phillips, Bull. B.O.C. 79 : 100 (1959).

[6]

188 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

. 13 Bulweria_aterrima (Bonaparte) (Reunion) Mascarene Black Petrel

The first and only specimen from India (JBNHS 42 : 193) was not

registered and is now not traceable.

13a Bulweria fallax Jouanin (Near Socotra, 12° 30” N, 55°E) Small

Black Petrel.

No specimen

Ripley (JBNHS 60 : 687) has suggested that this may have been the

species recorded as B. aterrima (q.v.)

14 Oceanites oceanicus oceanicus (Kuhl) (South Georgia) Wilson’s

Storm Petrel 6 : 300

1: ¢ Bombay (wing : 145).

15 Fregetta tropica melanogaster (Gould) (Southern Indian Ocean)

Duskyvented Storm Petrel 415 (63 302

nil.

16 Oceanodroma leucorhoa monorhis (Swinhoe) (Amoy, China)

Leach’s Petrel, Forktailed Storm Petrel.

nil.

17 Phaethon acthereus indicus Hume (Mekran Coast) Short-tailed

Tropic-bird 6: 291

63 3°99 © 3:07

5 Persian Gulf ; 1 Kolaba, Maharashtra.

Three have the middle pair of tail feathers elongated, one in each

pair being frayed and the other fresh.

18 Phaethon rubricauda rubricauda Boddaert (Mauritius) Redtailed

Tropic-bird 6: 292

nil. :

19 Phaethon Jepturus lepturus Daudin (Mauritius) Longtailed Tropic-

bird 6 : 293

nil.

20 Pelecanus onocrotalus Linnaeus (Africa, Asia) White or Rosy

Pelican 6 : 271

8:234¢d 392 30?

1 Mesopotamia ; 4 Gujarat ; 3 Bihar.

_ There still appears to be diversity of opinion regarding the relation-

ships of the several pelicans. The SyNopsis has no races of this species

and treats crispus as a race of Papers In the NEW DICTIONARY OF

BIRDS (1964, p. 608), the expression ‘White (or Rosy or Spotted- -billed)

Pelican’ seems to refer to one species.

The present identifications are based on the key in the FAUNA—the

feathers of the forehead ending in a Py in this species as against an

[7]

a a a aes = ————————————————————— —-- -—

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION--1 189

inwardly curved line in the others. The primary shafts are also all pale

coloured as against black in the others.

Their wings measure 612-735 (av. 675) and bills 303-420 (av. 341).

While these measurements are more or less in keeping with those re-

corded earlier, it is curious that the only two birds which are completely

brown above, i.e. in immature plumage, have the largest wings, 700 and

735. Their bills are 335 and 420 respectively, both being unsexed.

21 Pelecanus philippensis philippensis Gmelin (Manila) Grey or

Spottedbilled Pelican 6:274

Sh Sglige ay AeA

1 Vizagapatam ; 1 Madhubani, Darbhanga, Bihar; 1 no data, collected like the

immediately preceding specimen by C. M. Inglis and probably from same area.

In the two females (both September) the ivory-white bills, with the

line of irregularly shaped black spots on both sides, are very distinct.

In the male (June) the bill is brownish with traces of some parts having

peeled off.

The wings measure 570 (2 29), 588 ¢: av. 576; bills 305 9—355 3:

av. 333. One female is in breeding plumage with the upper parts white

and the breast feathers lanceolate as in a male onocrotalus. The primary

shafts, as in the next form, are black.

22 Pelecanus philippensis crispus Bruch (Dalmatia) 6 : 273

2:20? Bhavnagar. Wings 655, 665 ; bills 345, 390.

Though the feathers of the forehead and the dark shafts of the pri-

maries are similar to those of the previous form, this can be separated

by its larger size and the black shafts to the feathers of the scapulars,

wing-coverts, and shorter upper tail-coverts.

23 Sula dactylatra melanops Heuglin (Burda-Rebschi, Somali Coast)

Masked Booby 6: 287

4:399 10?

All from Bombay, July (2), August, and December.

Wings 420, 420, 412, 410; bills 105, 96, 97, 100.

24 Sula sula rubriceps Gould (New South Wales, Raine Island,

- northern Queensland) Redfooted Booby 6 : 286

nil.

25 Sula leucogaster plotus (Forster) (Near New Caledonia) Brown

Booby 6 : 285

4-19 307 |. 7 : .

1 off Hongkong (wing: 404); 1 Red Sea (385); 1 Karwar (408 ; bill95 mm); 1 no

data.

The Karwar bird was collected by G. Monteith, I.c.s.; no date

appears on the label, but we have other specimens obtained by him in

the same area during 1916 and there seems to be no reason to ignore

[8]

190 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

an apparently overlooked record. Its range extends into the Red Sea,

though this is not suggested by the wording in the SYNOPSIS.

Philips & Sims recently recorded the race rogersi Mathews from the

Maldives (JBNHS 55: 202), but this race is not accepted either by

Vaurie or in the SYNOPSIS.

26 Phalacrocorax carbo sinensis (Shaw) (China) Cormorant 6 :277

ke oe OS DiS? |

4 Persian Gulf ; 1 Baluchistan ; 1 Lucknow ; 3 Bihar ; 1 Malwa ; 1 Nasik.

No. 15002, 2 from Herbuz, 55 miles east of Panjgur, Baluchistan,

has 4 feathers on each side of the tail badly frayed and brown in colour,

as against the other feathers which are normal and black. THE NEW

DICTIONARY OF BIRDS (1964) p. 488 states that tail feathers (in most

species of this family) are moulted in symmetrical pairs and the moult

commonly begins with the central pair and proceeds centrifugally.

This great disparity in the feathers at one time is very striking. A

similar condition exists in No. 21333 a @ P. fuscicollis, there being 2

faded-brown feathers on one side and three on the other.

27 Phalacrocorax fuscicollis Stephens (Bengal) Indian Shag 6 : 279

1 : 2 Nasik, Maharashtra.

Wing 244. Upper breast white.

28 Phalacrocorax niger (Vieillot) (Bengal) Little or Pygmy Cor-

morant 6 : 280

20:8 d¢ 1022 20? (juveniles).

1 Sind ; 1 Jaipur ; 1 Gwalior ; 1 Gir; 1 Calcutta Bazar; 1 Tirunelveli; 7

Bombay; 1 Nasik ; 3 Bihar ; 2 Oudh, U.P. ; 1 Burma.

The amount of white on the chin varies greatly and cannot be linked

with sex or locality. According to the FAUNA, the black chin 1 is a charac-

ter of the breeding plumage.

28a Phalacrocorax pygmeus (Pallas) (Caspian Sea)

Sinden 4 oie

1 Amara, Iraq ; 1 Enzil Gilan, North Persia ; 1 Gujar Mashkai Kalat, Baluchistan.

The last mentioned specimen constitutes the first record from India

(JBNHS 62 : 553), having been overlooked for many years. ,

29 Anhinga rufa melanogaster Pennant (Ceylon and Java) Darter

» 63282

14g TOS 2 oF : ;

1 Amara, Iraq; 2 Gulf of Kutch; 1 Gujarat; 2 U.P.; 1 Rajasthan ; 3 Bihar

1 Malwa; 1 Nepal; 1 Burma; 1 no data.

Sp. No. 21388 ¢ from Kutch (July 1962) has its wing quills in moult

and was incapable of flight. A 9 from the same area (Ne; 20) has

its underparts completely white.

[9]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION—I1 191

The 9 from Amara has black underparts with the pure white of the

upper breast extending to the chin. It is marked A. rufus and is pre-

sumably A. r. chantrei (Oustalet). It can be matched with No. 15031

from Burma, except that the bases of the black feathers of the under-

parts are white in the former and dark in the latter. The upperparts

of both differ from those of the others, but the Iraq bird is slightly washed

with rufous and the other with grey. A bird from Oudh, U.P.

(No. 15032) and the Kutch bird referred to earlier (No. 22078) are

similar in this respect.

30 Fregata andrewsi Mathews (Christmas Island, Indian Ocean)

Christmas Island Frigate Bird 62295

alt | | |

To be removed from the Indian list (see Abdulali, J/BNHS 57 : 667).

31 Fregata minor aldabrensis Mathews (Aldabra Island) Lesser

Frigate Bird gS) 7)

1 o ? Quilon, Kerala.

32 Fregata ariel iredalei Mathews (Aldabra Island) Frigate Bird

6 : 298

nil.

A specimen obtained near Bombay (JBNHS 57 : 668) is. exhibited

at St. Xavier’s High School, Bombay.

33 Ardea imperialis Baker (Sikkim Terai, Bhutan Duars) Great

Whitebellied Heron 6 : 342

Ba vey Naga Hills;12 10? Duars.

34 Ardea goliath Cretzschmar (White Nile, Bahhar Abiad) Giant

Heron 6 : 343

40? .

3 Basra, Mesopotamia ; | Khulna, Sunderbans, Bengal.

Only No. 15103, said to have died in captivity in Basra, has the dark

rufous underparts of the adult. Its wing and bill (from gape) are 572

and 212 (176 from feathers) as against 590 and 246 (202 from feathers)

in the bird from Bengal. The difference in the size of the bill is very

noticeable. 2

35 Ardea cinerea cinerea Linnaeus (Europe, restricted to Sweden)

Grey Heron 6 : 339

36 Ardea cinerea rectirostris Gould (India) Grey Heron 6 : 340

OF 1 Ss 699" 2 0?

3 Bubiyan Is., Muscat, Baghdad; 1 Upper Sind; 2 Oudh, U.P.; 2 Gujarat; 1

South Kanara. - |

Typical material not being available, it is difficult to decide if recti-

rostris Gould can be distinguished from cinerea. The bird from South

[10]

192 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

Kanara in sub-adult plumage carried a ring placed on it at Kazakhstan

(40° 48”N. 70°E), U.S.S.R. (JBNHS 59 : 650). The birds from this area

are accepted as cinerea and this specimen is hardly darker than the others

in similar plumage, though both its wing (468) and its bill (129) are

larger than in any of the others (wings 418-464 av. 442°5 and bills 113-

125 av. 120).

Of the three in adult plumage (Bubiyan Is., Jamnagar, Oudh), the

upperparts of the birds from Oudh are palest. Vaurie (1965 : 73) says:

‘birds from Iraq and eastward to India are also slightly paler, but

in my opinion these populations are best referred to nominate cinerea’.

He accepts jouyi Clark from Seoul, Korea.

37 Ardea purpurea manilensis Meyen (Philippines) Purple Heron 6:337

T2999 2 OF Chu):

1 Gujarat; 2 Bombay; 1 Darbhanga, Bihar; 1 Trinkut, Central Nicobars ;

2 Burma.

37a Ardea purpurea purpurea Linnacus (Philippines)

621055 07 7auy).

Persian Gulf area.

They include one marked * Kurna, June/July 1916 Maj. H. Wall’.

The locality cannot be traced on the maps available, but snakes were

obtained by Col. Wall from this area between January 1916 and January

1917 and it probably refers to Al Qurna at the confluence of the Tigris

and the Euphrates,

Vaurie (p. 75) accepts birds from Iraq as of the nominate race and

separates manilensis by its almost completely black lower belly, against

variegated with chestnut in the present form. These differences are

consistent in the specimens available and, considering that Meinertz-

hagen (Ibis 1920:179) and Christisen (JBNHS 43: 486) have both

identified specimens from Baluchistan as of this race, it would appear

that though it is omitted from the syNopsis it has a place in the Indo-

Pakistan avifauna.

38 Butorides striatus javanicus (Horsfield) (Western Java) Little Green

Heron 6 : 357

18:533 722 60? (7 ad. with grey underparts; 5 sub-ad. brownish below ; 6

imm. with streaked breasts.)

1 Ambala, Punjab; 1 Kutch; 1 Saronj, M.P.; 4 Bombay, 1 Kihim, Kolaba, 1

Khandala, 2 Ratnagiri; 1 North Kanara; 1 Darbhanga, 1 Chapra, Bihar ;

3 Burma ; 1 Rabeng, Siam.

In my Andaman paper (JBNHS 61: 501) I had referred to Biswas

separating Indian birds from those from Java by their larger size and

some differences of colour (one m.asurement of 174 mm. was a typo-

graphical error for 184). The five birds from Bihar and Burma are

larger than those from other parts of India :

[11]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION—1 193

. Wings

5 Bihar and Burma 179-185 av. 182°8

13 others 167-181 av. 171°3

Both sexes and birds in different plumages are measured together as

there does not appear to be any difference in size between them. Some

birds have one wing as much as 5 mm. longer or shorter than the other.

There is great variation in plumage; some birds have the primaries in

one wing of different colour from those in the other, and beyond con-

firming that the eastern and Burmese birds do appear larger than those

from other parts of the country, I am unable to venture an opinion.

These larger birds may perhaps be listed as Bonaparte’s chloriceps.

39 Butorides striatus spodiogaster Sharpe (Andamans and Nicobars)

Little Green Heron 6 : 359

a oo 7 GOT oO?

3 Betapur, Middle Andamans ; 2 Car Nicobar ; 7 Central Nicobars.

40 Butorides striatus didii Phillips & Sims (Male Island, North Male

Atoll, Maldive archipelago)

nil.

This was described in 1958 and is an addition to the 19 races listed

in Peter’s CHECK-LIST OF THE BIRDS OF THE WORLD (1929).

. 41 Butorides striatus albidulus Bangs (Suadiva Atoll, Maldive Islands)

nil.

Southern atolls of the Maldive archipelago.

42 Ardeola grayii grayii (Sykes) (Dukhun) Pond Heron or Paddy-

bird 6 : 354

31:1635 1192 40? 1 pull.; 3 in breeding plumage.

17 Bombay, 4 Ratnagiri, Maharashtra ; 1 Nilambur, Kerala; 2 Kanyakumari

District, Madras; 2 Bastar, M.P.; 1 Manbhum, Bihar; 1 Calcutta;

1 Andamans ; 2 Burma. :

The males are larger than the females, eight of each sex from around

-Bombay having their wings 195-218 av. 208, and bills 51 (next 60) to

68 av. 61°5 against 180-203 av. 193, and 55-60 av. 57:5, respectively.

42a Ardeola grayii phillipsi Scheer (Addu Atoll, Maldives)

nil.

Described from the Maldives in 1960 as ‘ they tend to be whiter on

the primaries’ (Vaurie 1965: 63). It is significant that two males

from Ratnagiri, Maharashtra, West Coast, Nos. 20973 and 22307 differ

from all the others, including those in breeding plumage, in having white

Shafts to all the primaries. In ralloides all adults have them white and

this is quoted as an index of maturity.

13 [12]

194 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (1)

43 Ardeola bacchus (Bonaparte) (Malay Peninsula) Chinese Pond

Heron 6 : 356

nil.

EL Ardeola ralloides (Scopoli) (Krain)

6:13 292 30? (1 juv. ; 3 in breeding plumage).

1 Medina ; 5 Persian Gulf.

EL Bubulcus ibis ibis (Linnaeus) (Egypt)

232.36.

Sheik Saud, Mesopotamia.

Both are in non-breeding plumage and I cannot separate them from

Indian birds.

44 Bubulcus ibis coromandus (Boddaert) (Coromondel) Cattle

Egret 6 : 349

23:1233 1092 10? (4 in breeding plumage).

1 Meerut, 1 Shahjahanpur, U.P. ; 1 Rajputana ; 2 Gujarat ; 15 Bombay ; 1 Nasik ;

1 Andamans ; 1 Burma.

Of the four in breeding plumage, the three sexed are males. Some

skins with slight traces of the breeding plumage on the upperparts are

marked females.

Though the smallest wings of both sexes are identical, the males are

larger—233-263 av. 251, against 233-253 av. 242 in the females. Curianelys

their bills and tarsi do not show any differences.

45 Egretta alba alba (Linneaus) (Sweden) Large Egret 6 : 345

1 0? Manchar Lake, Sind.

Wing 447 ; Bill from feathers 126, from gape 163 ; Tarsus 215.

46 Egretta alba modesta (Gray) (India) | —66: 346

8:345¢6 422 10?

1 Kutch ; 3 Gujarat ; 2 Bombay ; 1 Andamans ; 1 Burma.

The males are larger than the females and the Andamans bird was

originally wrongly identified as intermedia (Abdulali, JBNHS 62 : 554).

47 Egretta intermedia intermedia (Wagler) (Java) Smaller Egret 6:347 |

Sel ka Oe |

1 Saugor, C.P. ; 1 Bharatpur ; 3 Bombay.

All with yellow bills, except black in a 2 dt. 17-7-1959 in which the

dorsal plumes project far beyond the tail. The sexes show no difference

in size and measure :

Wing Bill Tarsus

296-305 av. 301 70-77 av. 73 99-110 av. 105°4

[13]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION—I1 = 195

The measurements in the FAUNA (6 : 347) are erroneous (see Abdulali,

JBNHS 62 : 554).

[48 Egretta intermedia palleuca Deignan (Muang Chiang Rai, Siam)

This race from Thailand, Burma, and eastern India separated for

having the bill yellow at all seasons is not now accepted. Egrets and

herons change the colour of their bills and other soft parts for very short

and transitory periods. ]

49 Egretta garzetta garzetta (Linnaeus) (North-east Italy) Little

Egret 6 : 348

Bi4gd 292 1.0?

1 Baghdad; 1 Gujarat; 1 Gondia, Bhandara Dist., 3 Bombay, Maharashtra ;

1 Kanyakumari Dist., Madras.

50 Egretta gularis schistacea (Hemprich & Ehrenberg) (Red Sea)

Indian Reef Heron 6: 353

Mr 6S5 392 2.0?

1 Muscat ; 1 Indus Delta, Sind ; 3 Kutch ; 4 Bombay, 1 Nasik, 1 Ratnagiri.

_ The males are slightly larger than the females.

There is no all-white specimen available, but two are dark slaty black

with a prominent patch of pure white wing-coverts about half way down

the edge of the wing. One is a male from Kutch and the other an un-

sexed bird from Muscat which, being larger than all the others (wing

293, bill 99), is probably also a male. A third is almost as dark but

lacks the white on the wing. The colours of the feet are not noted on

all, but the bird from Kutch had them bright yellow (as in the Little

Egret, E. garzetta) and the same was noted in another dark bird with a

white wing patch recently seen (October 1965) at Rewas, Alibag,

Maharashtra.

The other specimens are in varying shades of lighter grey with an

unequal amount of white on the underparts.

Ripley and Vaurie (1965, p. 70) both state that the form occurring in

India is schistacea (Type locality : El Tor, Sinai Peninsula), but the latter

adds that it is larger than the nominate gularis. His measurements

(marked with asterisks below) however, compared with those of the

few available, show that the wings of Indian birds are nearer to gularis

and the bill and tarsus intermediate between the two races ; the single

unsexed bird from Muscat agrees with schistacea :

Wing Bill Tarsus

* 10 3S schistacea 272-311 av. 288°3 94-103 av. 98°5 92-116 av. 103.55

6 3d Indian 272-285 av. 276 85- 98 av. 92 97-101 av. 99

* 10 $3 gularis 263-285 av. 277°1 80- 94 av. 84:7 80- 95 av. 89. 5

10? Muscat 293 99 101

With the material available it is not possible to suggest any con-

Clusions.

[14]

196 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

51 Egretta sacra (Gmelin) (Tahiti) Reef Heron 6: 351

7:5 33 (including 2 white) 299.

1 Middle Andamans ; 5 Car Nicobar ; 1 Camorta, Central Nicobars.

52 Nycticorax nycticorax nycticorax (Linnaeus) (Southern Europe)

Night Neron. 6 : 359

20:8 386-592 7:0? [1 ch.; 6 juv.; 12 ad. 34 albino (Bihan),

5 Mesopotamia and Persia ; 2 Chitral; 1 Punjab ; 1 Gujarat ;7 Bombay ; 2 Bihar ;

1 Burma ; 1 Peking, China.

The 6 adults collected from January to March have a green gloss on

the upperparts while the same number from April to November do not.

53 Gorsachius melanolophus melanolophus (Raffles), (Western Sumatra).

Malay or Tiger Bittern 6: 361

6:13 292 30? (4 in adult plumage, 2 juv.).

2 Mysore ; 3 Karwar ; 1 Ceylon.

54 Gorsachius melanolophus minor Hachisuka (Katchel Island,

Nicobar Islands)

nil.

55 Ixobrychus minutus minutus (Linnaeus) (Switzerland) Little Bittern

10:3¢¢ 392 40? (5 in adult male plumage ; 1 female ; 4 juv.).

4 Mesopotamia ; 5 Kashmir ; 1 Bombay.

The register included under this species 4 birds, g, 2 and o ?, which

have pale buff margins to the feathers of the upper surface, are smaller

(wing 125-137 av. 131, against 142-151 av. 146), and do not have a black

cap ; they also have the first primary shorter than the second, as in the

specimens of sinensis available, against the first and second being equal

in 9 of the 10 minutus, a character which is mentioned in the BR. HANDBOOK

(3: 165). I think they are sinensis and have listed them accordingly.

56 Ixobrychus cinnamomeus (Gmelin) (China) Chestnut Bittern 6 : 367

19:73 6260? (7 all-chestnut ; 6 juv) :

1 Sind; 1 Daman, Gujarat ; 4 Bombay; 1 Poona; 3 Kanara; 1 Kottayam,

Kerala; 2 Tirhut, Bihar; 2 Calcutta Market; 1 Assam ; 1 Trinkut, Central

Nicobars ; 1 Burma; 1 Ceylon.

The 7 all-chestnut birds include a 9. From the material available it

is not possible to understand the sequence of plumages.

57 Ixobrychus sinensis (Gmelin) (China) Yellow Bittern 6.: 365

112466: 5 99 20? Cad do: tad 2:

1 Kashgar, 1 Burma; 2 Sind; 1 Chapra, Bihar; 1 Kutch; 2 Bombay; 1 South ©

Andamans ; 2 Trinkut, Central Nicobars.

58 Dupetor flavicollis flavicollis (Latham) (India) Black Bittern

6: 368

1:4 Ataran, Burma.

Bill 85 (69-82 in FAUNA).

[15]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION--1 197

59 Botaurus stellaris stellaris (Linnaeus) (Europe, restricted to

Sweden) Bittern 6 : 370

14°: 792.70?

_ 2 Mesopotamia ; 1 Shiraz, Persia ; 4 Sind ; 3 Punjab ; 1 Kutch ; 1 Agra ; 2 Bombay.

Curiously, the seven sexed specimens are all females. The unsexed

birds have their wings and bills slightly larger and may include males.

60 Ibis leucocephalus (Pennant) (Ceylon) Painted Stork 6: 331

6 : none sexed (5 ad. ; 1 in juvenile plumage, but not smaller in size).

1 Bhavnagar ; 1 Bombay Harbour ; 3 Baghowni, Bengal ; 1 no data.

~The range of measurements is slightly different from that in the

FAUNA.

Wing 490-523 av. 505 (490-510) ; tarsus 205-242 av. 225 (240-250) ;

culmen 230-256 av. 246 (252-278).

Vaurie (1965 p. 86) refers to Ticehurst’s records from Baluchistan,

which have been omitted in the SYNOPSIS.

61 Anastomus oscitans (Boddaert) (Pondicherry) Openbill Stork

6 : 333

Bes 3S l Q:

1 3 and 1 2 are in juvenile plumage with almost no gap in bill.

1 Malwa, M.P.; 1 Baghowni, Bengal ; 1 Darbhanga, Bihar ; 1 Burma.

62 Ciconia episcopus episcopus (Boddaert) (Coromandel Coast)

Whitenecked Stork 6 : 324

12:733 492 10?

1 Malwa, 1 Gird, M.P. ; 1 Ratnagiri; 7 Bihar ; 1 Nepal; 1 Burma.

The males have wings (471-523 av. 493) slightly larger than the females

(450-516 av. 485).

63 Ciconia ciconia ciconia (Linnaeus) (Sweden) White Stork 6 : 320

4:43.

1 Persian Gulf ; 1 Patan, Satara, Maharashtra ; 2 Baghowni, Bengal.

64 Ciconia ciconia asiatica Severtzov (Turkestan) White Stork

6 = 322

nil.

Biswas in his comments on the sYNopsis (JBNHS 60 : 680) says that

Severtzov’s asiatica is synonymous with nominate ciconia and presumably

suggests that the remarks regarding asidtica wintering in ‘ Burma, Assam,

East Pakistan, south to the Sunderbans’ should apply to boyciana

(Swinhoe) as in the FAUNA (6: 322). Vaurie (1965 : 64) has accepted

asiatica as a good race with a larger bill (184-235 av. 215 against 169-

206 av. 189, all males from skull) and expressed the opinion that boyciana

is a different species, separated by its black bill, red skin on the face, and

larger size. From the references immediately available to me, I have

[16]

198 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

no evidence of the occurrence of the White Stork in that area, except

for Stuart Baker’s statement (loc. cit.) that he saw a pair with black bills

in Khulna in Bengal. Smythies in BIRDS OF BURMA (1953 : 520) speci-

fically states there are no records of the White Stork from Burma, while

it is mentioned in the SYNOPSIS.

La Touche in HANDBOOK OF BIRDS OF EASTERN CHINA (1934) measures

the wings of 2 boyciana as 665 and 680 against 590-614 av: 600 in the 3

males of nominate ciconia from India. The bills are also 225 against

198-202 (from feathers) in the Bombay specimens.

65 Ciconia nigra (Linnaeus) (Sweden) Black Stork 6 : 323

3: ON

1 Persian Gulf ; 2 Baghowni, Bengal.

66 Xenorhynchos asiaticus asiaticus (Latham) (India) Blacknecked

Stork 3 6 : 326

3:0? 2 adult; 1imm.

1 Gwalior ; 2 Baghowni, Bengal.

67 Leptoptilos dubius (Gmelin) (India) Adjutant 6 : 327

nil.

68 Leptoptilos javanicus (Horsfield) (Java) Lesser Adjutant 6 : 329

nil.

69 Threskiornis melanocephala (Latham) (India) White Ibis 6: 314

2:13 10? Both immature, with grey-feathered heads.

1 Bhuj, Kutch ; 1 no data.

The FAUNA (6: 314) measures the bills 139-170; both the present

specimens are 183 from feathers, which measurement would increase as

the feathers recede.

70 Pseudibis papillosa papillosa (Temminck) (India) Black Ibis 6 : 316

6:13 492 10?

1 Sind; 1 Ahmedabad; 1 Meerut, U.P.; 1 Malwa, C.I.; 1 Darbhanga, Bihar ;

1 Baghowni, Bengal.

The male, wing 360 (365-400), bill 127 (138-158), tarsus 60 (75-85), is

smaller than the range indicated in the FAUNA.

71 Plegadis falcinellus falcinellus (Linnaeus) (Austria and Italy)

Glossy Ibis 6: 318

4:12 30? ee

1 Manchar Lake, Sind; 1 Honavar, North Kanara; 1 Darbhanga, Bihar; 1 no

data.

[17]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST, SOCIETY COLLECTION—I _ 199

72 Platalea leucorodia major Temminck & Schlegel (Japan) Spoon-

bill 3 6.331)

ese? 207

1 Sind ; 2 Nasik, Maharashtra ; 1 no data.

Stuart Baker in the FAUNA states this is a poor subspecies while Vaurie

(p. 78) includes this as a synonym of the nominate form,

73. Phoenicopterus roseus Pallas (Mouth of the River Volga, South

Russia) Flamingo. 6: 373

13:33 292 80? [5ad.,4juv. (marked * below), 4 ch.]

1 Aden*, 1 Persian Gulf * ; 3 Sind ; 4 Rann of Kutch (ch.); 2 Gulf of Kutch ;

_ Bhayander*, 1 Manmad + etarehic

The 2 males have larger wings, 430-447 av. 438 and tarsi 335-365 av.

350 against 398-435 av. 416 and 280-365 av. 322 in the females. The

juvenile with the smallest 339 wing, and 216 tarsus (its bill is 129 and

almost full grown), presumably flew to Bhayander near Bombay, from

Kutch, the nearest breeding place, which is almost 400 miles away.

Two adults obtained in August have pink bills, while the three others,

all collected in December, do not have any pink, The colours in the

‘dry’ state may be of little significance.

74 Phoeniconaias minor (Geoffroy) (East Africa) Lesser Flamingo.

6 ; 375

2:12 10?

1 Bombay Zoo (imm.) ; 1 Gulf of Kutch.

(to be continued)

[18]

Reviews

1. NATURE’S PARADISE. By Jen & Des Bartlett. pp. 360

(32:5 X24 cm.). With many ccloured, and black and white photo-

graphs. London, 1967. Collins, St. James Place. Price 5 gns.

The only way for a layman to review this book is to describe it

carefully. It is one of these large, opulent coffee table productions;

it belongs to the class where, a few years ago, art and architecture

had the field to themselves, but where natural history is gaining

rapidly. The authors, a husband and wife team of photographer-

naturalists went to Africa for 6 months and stayed ten years studying

the flora and fauna, taking photographs and making films for

the BBC. 7 ie

The present volume—heavily conservation-biased, is really a

book of photographs, coloured as well as black and white. It is

divided into sections according to the type of country. Beginning

with the coral reef on the coast, we go through dry thornbrush, open

bush and woodland, the plains, the forest, lakes, and so. on. Each

section is intreduced by a few pages of text which while it does not

attempt to teach the reader too much, links the habitat with the

inhabitants, tells enough for us to interpret and understand the

photographs intelligently. The authors’ attempt is not so much to

amaze us with their magnificent pictures of individual animals, as to

enable us to connect their physical characteristics with their food,

habits, and environment. It is this subtle line of education which

makes this book more valuable than just a luxury book of splendid

pictures.

As far as the photographs themselves go, one still finds oneself

marvelling at modern technology. To say this is not to belittle the

talent, hard work and perseverance of the authors. Those seemingly

effortless close-ups, with every hair and bristle clear and alive, must

have meant many hours of patience supported by years of experience

and expertise. There is a portrait of a panther, showing each detail

of the fly on his nose; at the other end of the scale are slugs, bugs,

the minute inhabitants of shallow pools, each scarcely visible bit of

life filling a whole quarto page in accurate delineation. Night

prowlers and those that live in dark small caves have also somehow

been made to ‘sit’ for the author. Fortunately, Des Bartlett is not

one of those writers who inflicts a blow by blow account of the

REVIEWS — ey) 201

history of each picture. He leaves us free to imagine that he was

out for a walk when a——happened to run up and posed in front

of him. Luckily he had a camera handy.

The pattern of the book is broken to describe, in words and

pictures, some of the operations of capturing animals either to save

them from drowning when the Kariba Dam was built, or to transport

’ them to stock new reserves, and parks. The speed with which

emergency operations were carried owt, the enthusiastic and efficient

help from the highest quarters are almost unbelievable to those of

us accustomed to Indian conditions. The sport of shikar has, it

seems, turned upon itself; and the sportsmian with a gun is now

teplaced by the man with rope and harness, catching and resettling

animals in safer areas. Future generations will owe much to him.

bak.

2. MONGOOSES—THEIR NATURAL HISTORY AND

BEHAVIOUR. By H. FE. Hinton and A.M.S. Dunn. pp. 144 (15x

22:5 cm.). With 16 plates and 26 figures. London 1967. Oliver &

Boyd. Ltd. Price 42s. |

_ The snake-killing propensities of the mongoose have always

attracted man’s attention and the animal has a prominent place in

Indian and Egyptian mythology. The present book is a welcome

attempt to bring together all that is known of the 36 species of the

subfamily Herpestinae which occur in the African and Oriental

regions, and of which 6 are from our area.

The titles of the 17 chapters, ‘In the West Indies’, ‘In Ancient

Egypt’, “Life Span’, ‘Play’, ‘Indian Folk Tales’, ‘Colour Vision’, etc.

indicate the nature of the information collected but the very fact that

some of the chapters, e.g. Mongooses as Pets, cover little more

than a page, is an index of how little is known about them.

The reports on the introduction of the mongoose into Hawaii,

the West Indies and into other parts of the world for the control of

Snakes or rats are quoted in some detail, but as to results they are

conflicting and it is not possible to be certain if the introductions can

be said to have been successful. The mongooses ate the rats and

snakes, but did great damage to poultry and ground-nesting game

birds and were also accused of killing newly-born deer. The black

trat’s damage to sugarcane was reduced, but the rat became arboreal

and transferred its attention to cocoa. Barbados had to have its

202 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

Mongoose Destruction Act of 1904, while Trinidad paid bounties for

the destruction of over 30,000 mongooses in 1928 and 1929. All

this stresses the complex nature of such introductions and the danger

and uncertainty accompanying them.

The list of 259 references at the end includes about 30 from the

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society many of which

appeared as Miscellaneous Notes, thus drawing attention to the

importance of recording the smallest piece of information which adds

to recorded knowledge. Notes, which at first sight appear of little

value, can often form the basis of much further research by those

who have the opportunity.

The book makes interesting reading and may prompt readers with

experience of Indian conditions to fill in some of the many gaps in

our knowledge.

H. A.

3. GENERAL ENTOMOLOGY FOR AGRICULTURAL

STUDENTS. By H. L. Kulkarny. pp. xv+291 (22x14 cm).

With 198 figures. Bombay, 1967. Asia Publishing House.

Price Rs. 15/-.

The book contains 32 chapters, the first 17 of which contain

general information regarding insect life, including their anatomy,

physiology and classification. One chapter each in this section is

devoted to beneficial and harmful insects. For a general reader and

for a student of entomology as well, this portion of the book is en- —

lightening. The chapter on how to collect insects could have been ~

more elaborated by adding a paragraph to it on preservation of

insects. This subject has been touched slightly at the end of the —

chapter but one would think it deserved better treatment in view

of the importance it has gained in recent years. An entomology

student, general or agricultural, would surely !ook to such books for

guidance in this direction.

The next 15 chapters contain brief descriptions of the orders of

insects and some of their important families, with a brief study of their

life cycle. Names of insects, harmful to agriculture and their host

plants are mentioned under each family. There is neither a /

description of the insect, their life history and habits nor is there

a mention of the part of the plant attacked by each. One would

surely expect to find this information in an agricultural entomology

book. Again, no mention is made of the various control measures in

REVIEWS 203

use against the pests, cultural, mechanical, chemical etc. or the

apparatus used for the same. Ia fact it should form an important

section in any book dealing with agricultural entomology.

The book contains a large number of illustrations. This is as it

should be, but the figures in some cases are misleading. Some of

the figures are drawn without proper care, some are partially, and

some totally, incorrect. Fig. 71 Periplaneta americana, and Fig. 105

Bombyx mori are poor representations whereas Fig. 106 butterfly of

the castor leaf eating caterpillar is not that of a butterfly but of a

moth.

In the foreword it is stated that the English books, now prescribed

for Indian students but written for foreign students should be re-

placed by Indian books suited to local conditions. It is difficult to

see how this ideal is being fulfilled by the book under review as

nothing of particular interest to India is discussed in it except that

it mentions some Indian agricultural pests. In addition the author

recommends to the students, for further information, under each

chapter, reading of foreign books only, almost to the complete

exclusion of Indian agricultural entomology books, periodicals, reports

etc. which though few, are worth studying as they are full of

information.

INE Te N:

4. ECOLOGICAL ENERGETICS. By John Phillipson. pp.

57 (21:5 14 cm.). With 20 text-figures and 9 tables. London, 1966.

Eaward Arnold (Publishers) Ltd.. Price 12s. 6d. Hard . cover,

7s. 6d. Paper back.

Science, Sir Julian Huxley said, has two functions, viz., com-

prehension and control. To achieve scientific exploitation of the

limited sources of nature man must have a complete understanding

of energy flow within ecosystems. John Phillipson’s new book is a

clear and concise introduction to this specialized field.

Energy is defined here as the capacity to do work. Nuclear trans-

mutations within the sun release energy on which life on earth

depends. The photons of light energise electrons in the chlorophyll

molecules and in the course of a cyclic reaction the plant cells extract

this energy and store it. To complete photosynthesis solar energy is

used to build energy rich glucose from energy pcor carbondioxide

and water, In respiration energy is recovered from glucose and used

204 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

to do work. Such energy transformaiions within the living cell obey

the first and second laws of thermodynamics.

The living things as well as the physical features of the environ-

ment, together form the ecosystems. There are autotropic organisms

which can synthesize organic materials using inorganic chemicals and

energy from the envircnment. The heterotrops utilize the tissues of

other organisms as source of energy. From the quantity of solar

energy available to plants only 1-5 per cent is used in photosynthesis,

the rest being lost as heat of evaporation and sensible heat. The

synthesis of plant materials by autotrophs is termed primary production

and the amount stored by them per unit area per unit time, gross

primary production. Gross primary production minus the energy

spent for respiration is termed net primary production. The various

plants and the animals of an ecosystem can be sequentially placed

into food chains of plants, herbivores, and carnivores. By suitable

techniques like introduction of radioactive isotopes of phosphorus into

plants which form the initial food source the structure of food chains

can be elucidated. The food chains of a particular ecosystem with

its complex webs can be represented diagrammatically in ecological

pyramids on the bases of numbers, biomass, or energy. The author

prefers the pyramid of energy, which represents energy in kilocalories

used by the different feeding types in a square metre over one year,

as a unifying and unambiguous concept. The productivity of different

regions can thus be compared in terms of energy.

The calorific values of the different species can be determined by

combusting small quantities of materials from each, in miniature bomb

calorimeters. In laboratory studies of ecological efficiency, one can

use the concept of gross ecological efficiency which is a ratio of

the calories of prey consumed by the predator to the calories of food

consumed by prey. Laboratory studies by Slobodkin on Chlamy-

domonas/Daphnia/Man systems showed a maximum gross ecological

efficiency of the order of 13 per cent. For natural ecosystems.

ecologists suggest a value of the order of 10 per cent as the most

probable. Assuming a constant gross ecological efficiency of 10 per

cent presupposes that for every 1000 calories of plant material

consumed by herbivores only 100 calories are passed on to the

carnivores, and of those only 10 reach the top carnivores. Eco-

logically the most economic use of solar energy when converted into

protein is human consumption of herbivore flesh. Beef cattle raised

on grass land consume only one-seventh of the total primary

production, the rest being consumed by the herbivores and de-

composers which are of no direct food value. The amount of plant

REVIEWS 205

material converted into food proteins can be increased by adopting

modern methods of farming and animal husbandry such as strip

grazing, and raising of chickens, calves, and pigs in specially con-

structed buildings. Livestock should be used for food at a period

when their growth efficiency is maximum, i.c. when they are youog.

To meet the food requirements of an increasing world population

both farming methods and feeding methods and feeding habits of man

have to be changed. Production of protein eaten by man can be

increased by preferring high individual growth efficiency and the

maximization of food energy reaching the livestock. Farming of the

sea and use of unconventional materials such as starfish as poultry

feed are among the steps recommended by ecologists.

Throughout the book, the stress is on the thermodynamical aspects.

The formulations of energy flow at the different trophic levels are

discussed in some detail. The specialist student for whom the book

is meant will find the book immensely useful. Anyone interested

in the food economy of the future will find the last chapter specially

interesting.

DN. M.

5. SEAWEEDS AND OTHER ALGAE. By C. L. Duddington.

pp. 207 (14X22 cm.) London, 1966. Faber and Faber Limited.

Price 36s. net.

This little book gives a general over-all picture of all types of

algae such as freshwater forms, soil forms, epiphytic, endophytic

and parasitic forms in addition to seaweeds. Written in a lucid

and effortless style, and supplemented by excellent plates and

simple line drawings, the book condenses a wealth of information

within its short compass of 207 pages. A useful glossary enhances

the value of the publication.

The dust cover indicates that the aim of the book is to acquaint

the intelligent general reader with this absorbing subject, as also to

furnish ‘background reading’ to the student of elementary botany in

order to bolster his knowledge of the algae. The book has more

than succeeded in its objective, for the fairly up-to-date matter it

contains should prove equally useful to, also, the student of advanced

botany. |

The majority of the chapters deal with the general characteristics

of the major groups of the algae together with brief life histories of

206 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

judiciously selected forms belonging to them. Although the types

selected are ones with which most students of botany are familiar,

interest is, nevertheless, sustained by the inclusion of significant in-

formation from specialized works, apart from little-known facts, not

generally found in text-books, about these types.

Unfortunately, because of the need for economy of presentation

in a book of this size, and, perhaps, because of a desire to widen

its popular appeal, important stages in life histories are cursorily

mentioned or occasionally overlooked. To give only one example—

the manner of formation of autocolonies in Gonium, Pandorina and

Eudorina is not clearly explained. Evolutionary tendencies and

phylogenetic relationships are also not discussed. Such omissions are

understandable and, in no way, detract from the merit of the book.

The remaining chapters are concerned with the physiology, ecology

and uses of algae. Containing valuable data collated from various:

sources, these chapters make fascinating reading and contribute to the

special appeal of the book to the curious layman and its specialistic

flavour to the avewed student of botany. To the several general

books on algae, this one is certainly a welcome and commendable

addition.

EG.

6. COMMON BIRDS. By Sdélim Ali and Laeeq Futehally.

pp. x+118 (4x20 cm.}. With 97 coloured plates. New Delhi,

1967. National Book Trust, India. Price Rs. 9 (paper back).

COMMON BIRDS by Salim Ali and Laeeq Futehally is a very wel-

come addition to the National Book Trust series.

In this small book, nearly 100 common birds are described. It

opens with an introduction followed by three important chapters

entitled (i) Ornithology and Birdwatching (ii) Reproduction and (iii)

Migration. They cover a wide range and provide a rich background

of knowledge required for the study of birds. Beginning with an

explanation of the system of classification of birds, the authors trace

the history of Indian Ornithology, and offer instructive suggestions

for field identification of birds. They explain how the physiological

readiness for reproduction in birds is adapted to an assurance of

an optimum food supply, which again depends upon the seasonal

cycle. The chapter on migration is particularly stimulating because

Dr. Sdlim Ali is a pioneer in the field of bird ringing in India and

REVIEWS 207

has been carrying on this work for the last ten years or more.

Thanks to his initiative and leadership, more than twenty thousand

wagtails, several thousand Spanish Sparrows, ducks and waders have

been ringed by the Bombay Natural History Society. (Several

important recoveries have been reported mainly from the U.S.S.R.).

For the classification, the authors have adopted the Wetmore

order. Each family has been assigned a brief introductory section.

The descriptions of individual birds leave nothing to be desired and

contain a wealth of information. The style is lucid and entrancing.

The admirable text is supplemented by numerous coloured illustr-

ations borrowed from the earlier editions of Dr. Salim Ali’s Book

OF INDIAN BIRDS. A few of them are new. Almost every bird is

illustrated.

The printing and get-up are of high quality, the format is of a

convenient size and the quality of binding ensures that the book opens

flat for easy reference. The price of Rs. 9 is very reasonable

considering the profusion of illustrations and the quality of printing

and binding. The book is also available in hard cover.

There is a crying need for trained field ornithologists who should

study different aspects of bird life, such as migration, breeding

biology, population study, role of birds in agriculture etc. COMMON

BIRDS will help beginners to learn to recognise with confidence the

common birds of their localitv. [It would appeal equally to seasoned

ornithologists. A book like this richly deserves wide circulation.

EG:

Miscellaneous Notes

1. NOTES ON THE BIHAR DROUGHT

We recently revisited the Palamau National Park and stayed in one

of the attractive forest bungalows in an adjoining block. This bungalow

lay in the centre of an area of about two hundred square miles in which

we felt we had come to know every hill and nullah, and every bump on

the jeep tracks for miles around. Almost overnight the jungle had

become unrecognizable, for lush green grass hid the tracks while the

vegetation had thickened and become almost impenetrable. Not so

very long ago we had seen this jungle as a barren waste, a place of ter-

rific burning heat during the day-time where even the sparse shade

offered by the leafless trees was unbearable—and in this heat Bihar had

faced the worst drought in living memory.

During the drought, coming after the failure of two monsoons, the

water level had fallen. It was only with the aid of the powerful Halco

drills donated by UNICEF, which could bore a hundred feet through

rock in a few hours, that water could be reached at all, and pumps put

in for the villages. Huge aid schemes came into action for the famine

struck people of the State. No outside aid however was available for

the unprotected wild life, until in answer to a letter of appeal the

R.S.P.C.A. in London donated £1000 through the Animal Welfare

Board in Madras. £500 of this money was given to the Bihar S.P.C.A.

and £500 came to the Save the Wild life Fund which we had started

in Calcutta.

The Forest Department, aware of the danger to wild life, had started

a system of filling water tanks by a jeep tanker in the small sanctuary at

Betla. Large herds of gaur and chital could be seen congregated in the

mornings and evenings around these waterholes. Mr. Shahi, the Chief —

Conservator of Forests, Bihar, who is a naturalist, photographer and

keen wild life conservationist, did all in his power by touring the vast

areas of forest in the State to inspect and encourage the digging of water-

holes.

Our task in the comparatively small area allocated to us was formid-

able for here water-holes already dug had either dried up or contained |

only an inch or so of murky water. These small water-holes situated

often at a distance of ten miles apart were ringed with poacher’s hides.

The local poachers, taking full advantage of the situation, were respon-

sible for more deaths than the drought. There was no time to build

the cement tanks we had planned, and with the co-operation of my hus-

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 209

band’s firm, Andrew Yule & Co., who had started a scheme to deliver

water to the villages, lorry loads of drums were sent to Palamau from

Calcutta. These drums were cut lengthwise and installed in nullahs

where the water-holes had dried up, and where further digging had failed

to reach water. We had organized earlier the digging of a tank in the

dry river bed of the Auranga, where water could be pumped from an

underground stream to fill the drums and water tanks hauled by the

company jeeps. The organization of delivering water had then to be

operated daily and this proved to be hot, hard work. It was gratifying

to see from the fresh slot and pugmarks around our water troughs in

the mornings that thirsty sambar, chital, barking deer and the occasional

tiger and leopard had come immediately to drink. In the daytime a

myriad of birds congregated around the troughs—drongos, paradise and

whitebrowed flycatchers, white-eyes, the spotted and rufous doves,

redvented and whitecheeked bulbuls, pittas, orioles, bee-eaters,

junglefowl and peafowl—to name only a few, we saw with open beaks

and obviously suffering from the extreme heat. Chital we saw in the

day-time were open-mouthed and panting, while the normally fat wild

pig looked half starved.

With only four jeeps to cover the two hundred square miles allotted

to us, the daily delivery of water to villages and filling water troughs took

from dawn until dusk. Young Assistants from the Calcutta Office and

two British V.S.O.’s volunteered for this work. By evening everyone

was exhausted and our forest bungalow was a welcome place of rest.

But the nights were often disturbed by our endeavours to stop illegal

poaching. Hides and machans had continually to be destroyed and were

as continually rebuilt by the poachers. We tried to catch these men by

waiting near the water-holes, or creeping up on them in the dark.

Although they were too clever for us, they must have been aware of our

efforts for the shots at night became less frequent. The Forest Depart-

ment have taken strong measures to enforce the law and protect the

animals of the beautiful sanctuary at Betla. Elsewhere the scale of the

poaching astounded us by its magnitude and this side effect of the drought

caused the greatest damage. We learnt from the villagers who worked

for us, and others whom we had helped, that the poaching is done by

headmen shooting with licensed shot guns and muzzle loaders. The

meat of deer and occasionally gaur, is sold mainly to lorry drivers who,

in turn, profit by selling to restaurants on the Grand Trunk Road and

inthe towns. To quote from a book written many years ago by a Forest

Officer, the Hon. James Best—‘ The activities of the local poacher is

mainly responsible for the disappearance of game in India’.

Licenses for guns given to headmen to protect the crops, are being

continually misused for the slaughter of wild life for profit. It is the

210 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

opinion of most of the people I have met that these guns should by law

have sawn off barrels. A special force of game wardens could also be

formed to help stop the destruction of wild life by illegal shooting.

The beautiful jungles of Palamau always notoriously short of water

in the summer can only conserve its wild life in the years to come by the

building of properly maintained protected watering places, so that people

and animals alike can never again be struck by the great tragedy of

drought.

14, BALLYGUNGE PARK ROAD, ANNE WRIGHT

CALCUTTA,

November 24, 1967.

2. CAN YOUNG BATS COMMUNICATE WITH THEIR

PARENTS AT A DISTANCE ?

I write to report an experience similar to the one reported by me in

August 1965 at page 539 of Volume 62 of your Journal. Once more,

though it was in a different house, the bats had made their home in the

electric meter box. This time there was only one young one and it fell

to the floor at about 7 p.m. I put it on the cement floor near my small

wicket gate and, switching on the verandah light, I settled down to keep

watch. Immediately, the bat began to move and wriggled its way to-

wards the verandah, a distance of about seven yards. Reaching the

steel door-mat it wriggled halfway across. Then, evidently not liking

the feel, it turned about and went back to the gate, where it settled down

peacefully. About fifteen minutes later it repeated the performance,

and again settled down. Half an hour thereafter, when two adult bats

appeared and made six or seven low sorties over it, the baby suddenly

came to life with renewed energy, not only crawling back towards the

verandah but even making low hops in an evident attempt to rise in the

air. I feel definite that some kind of message was interchanged. Or,

was it merely an acute sense of smell that was responsible? After a

few minutes the adults departed and the baby lay down at the gate as if

dead. This new performance was repeated five times over by adults

and baby, till on the fifth occasion one of the adults alighted near the

baby and took it back to its home in the meter box. The time was then

8.40 p.m. Throughout the proceedings I did not hear a sound.

OFFICERS’ QUARTER A-l1,

OLD POLICE LINES, Lt. Col. A. DAVID

MoRIGATE ROAD,

DELHI-6,

October 3, 1967.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 211

3. NOTES ON THE COMMON PALM CIVET OR TODDY CAT

PARADOXURUS HERMAPHRODITUS (PALLAS), WITH

SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE AGE AT SHEDDING OF

THE MILK TEETH

(With two plates)

On 12-viii-1965 a female kitten of Paradoxurus hermaphroditus

(Pallas) was given to us by members of the priestly community in charge

of the great temple here, Lingaraj or Bhubaneswar, in the compound of

which they informed us that they had captured her on the previous day.

This kitten (Plate I, above) was completely weaned when received

and was able to eat raw meat quickly and deftly. She has not become

tame, perhaps because she was too old when captured. In 1966, thanks

to Mr. Ghanashyam Naik, the Superintendent of the Nandan Kanan

Biological Park near Bhubaneswar, we have examined young animals -

who were seen by him on recorded dates before their eyes were open.

These comparisons make certain that our own animal, here discussed,

was born not later than May 1965, and most probably during the pre-

vious February.

Examination of these Nandan Kanan kittens has also enabled us to

confirm Pallas’ original description of the male genitalia published in

1777 by Schreber in Vol. HI of his SAUGETHIERE. We are grateful to

Professor Ernst Mayr for the following translation of this from the

German.

‘ Above the penis extends a longish bare area toward the anus, the

tender and white skin of which, below, where it begins, forms a double

fold with an intervening cleft [Scheidung].

‘This is the reason why uninformed people have been shown this

animal as a hermaphrodite.’

In a six months’ old individual the penis is actually in this bare area

enclosed by the two folds and the testes have not descended into an

external scrotum. The form and position of the vulva of our now adult

female is unexceptional when compared with those of dogs and cats,

though both orifices are horizontal and ventral when at rest.

After various experiments she is now fed on fruit, chiefly bananas,

which are necessary to keep her stools firm. The divergence of the nos-

trils and the vertical cleft down the centre of the rhinarium of this civet

parallel the nose structure of another banana eater, the fruit bat Cynop-

terus sphinx (Vahl). She also receives daily one raw egg and a helping

of flesh, either mammal, fish, prawns or snails, supplemented by insects

and the small vertebrates that our dog maims or kills, but does not eat

herself. The only mammalian butcher’s meats the civet will now accept

212 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

are raw goat’s liver, and various preparations of cooked and salted pork.

She accepts cakes and sweets, but not their raw materials such as gur

or chopped coconut. Care has to be taken to vary what is offered to

her, as she is the first non-human animal known to us who shows the

human corruption of alternating periods of greed for a food substance,

with periods of refusal to accept it.

She breaks an egg by steadying it with her forepaws and biting into

it. Usually this steadying is performed by lifting the egg with paws

several centimetres off the ground (Plate I, below), and gradually lower-

ing it so that when the teeth penetrate the shell it is cupped between the

pads of her paws, and the knuckles rest on the ground.

That insects are food may explain a peculiar reaction of which we

publish two photographs. On both occasions on which she was first

offered a new blanket of thick, rough, eri [Philosamia cynthia (Drury)]

silk, she reacted as though she were afraid of it, withdrawal alternating

with timid experimental bites dragging the blanket towards (Plate II,

above) her, and then letting go to retreat from it (Plate II, below). The

behaviour pattern resembled that exhibited by a dog to a mechanical

toy, and may have a similar explanation. A dog in this context is in-

terpreted as being frightened because the toy has movement like a living

being, but is not alive.* It is possible that this raw silk even after spin-

ning, weaving and some laundering still smelt significantly of insects,

smells which certainly excite her, and for which, in captivity, she may

be starved. Such a smell associated with a non-insect form might excite

the fear reaction observed.

Prater (1965) states that civets are silent animals. Ours has pro-

duced no sound except a cat-like explosive spit when she fears she may

be touched. This is often accompanied by a stamp. She hits the floor

abruptly with one of her forepaws, thus making a sharp sound coin-

cident with the vocalization and contributing to the effect.

On 23-v-66 it was noticed that her right lower canine was missing.

While demonstrating this absence immediately afterwards, the left lower

canine was seen to be leaning outwards in its socket, i.e., it too was work-

ing loose. On 24-v-66 both the empty sockets were seen, but on 27-v-66

she possessed two new lower canines already erupted sufficiently to show

their characteristic shape, and for their crowns to extend above the

level of the adjacent incisors and molars. No partial double row of

teeth could be seen in the lower jaw, as can be seen in young cats when

they are replacing their milk, or deciduous, dentition by their permanent

dentition. Thus the milk canines were replaced by their permanent

1 Since making the first draft of this note we have seen our dog react similarly

ambivalently to a somewhat naturalistic scarecrow in a turban and pyjamas. Until

this we have always believed that scarecrows were ineffectual, being based on in-

accurate suppositions about anima! behaviour.

J. BomBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. 65 (1) PLATE I

Jayakar : Common Palm Civet

Above: & born 1965—on 13-8-65

(Photo: J. C. Hoard)

Below: & born 1965—eating egg on 16-1-66

(Photo : S. D. Jayakar)

J. BOMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. 65 (1) PLATE II

Jayakar : Common Palm Civet

Above : & born 1965—15-1-66 timidly attacking a new silk blanket

Below: Two or three minutes later, apprehensively watching

the same blanket (in the top right hand corner of picture)

from a distance

(Photos: S. D. Jayakar)

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 213

representatives when this palm civet was 12 to 15 months old, and the

eruption of the latter was explosive. This would seem appropriate to

the way of life of a full grown herbivorous and insectivorous carnivore

(Davis quoted by Diicker 1965). No other losses of teeth have been

noted, but we were away from Bhubaneswar between 20/vi and 13/vii,

1966. As is usual after such an absence, changes were found to be con-

spicuous, and the dentition of her lower jaw (which, in the cage provided,

is seen more frequently and easily than that of the upper) had become

more robust and the teeth more differentiated. Therefore we conclude

that tooth replacement had continued.

We have seen only a fraction of the relevant literature on this group

but neither Ewer (1963) nor Diicker (1965), both of whom bred viverrids

in conditions of intimacy, give any information about tooth replacement.

Information on this in any species seems rare. Mivart (1881) writing

of the milk teeth of the domestic cat says, ‘ They begin to fall out after

the seventh month, but the lower true molar comes into its place before

the deciduous molars fall out’. Sisson & Grossman (1953) state that the

process in domestic dogs begins when they are between four and five

months old, the canines being among the earliest to be replaced.

When dogs and cats are similar, as in this, in their gestation periods,

and their expectations of life there is a tendency to assume that they are

typical of the smaller fissipede carnivores. However Maxwell (1960)

quotes the first owner of one of his otters as stating that she replaced

her milk teeth by her permanent teeth coincidentally with weaning, and

they estimated this to be at not more than 3 months old. Ina later book

Maxwell (1963) identifies this individual as belonging to Lutra cornuta,

but as this west African species is clawless, and a male grew to a weight

in the region of 50 lbs. some authorities might prefer to change the generic

designation.

Crandall (1965) gives 14 years 5 months 12 days as the record for

P. hermaphroditus in captivity, and quotes Simon (1943) that a European

otter lived for over 22 years in the Trivandrum Zoo. Thus both species

might in this respect be expected to have an expectation of life in cap-

tivity similar to dogs and cats.

We would be interested in any other records of ages at the eruption

of permanent dentitions in small carnivores. This, after all, consti-

tutes a climacteric in the development of a mammal.

GENETICS AND BIOMETRY LABORATORY, S. D. JAYAKAR

GOVERNMENT OF ORISSA, H. SPURWAY

BHUBANESWAR-3,

OrISSA, INDIA.

December, 1966.

214

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

REFERENCES

CRANDALL, E. S. (1965) : The manage-

ment of wild mammals in captivity. 2nd

ed. University of Chicago Press,

Chicago.

Dicker, G. (1965): Das Verhalten

der Schleichkatzen (Viverridae).

Handb. Zool. 8, 10 (20a) : 1-48.

———— (1963): The Rocks Remain.

Longmans, London.

MivarT, ST. G. (1881): The Cat.

John Murray, London.

Simon, E. S. (1943): Life span of

some wild animals in captivity. J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 44: 117-118.

Ewer, R. F. (1963): The behaviour

of the Meerkat, Suricata suricatta

(Schreber). Z. Tierpsychol, 20 : 570-607.

MAXWELL, G. (1960) : Ring of Bright

Longmans, London.

SISSON, S., & GROSSMAN, J. D. (1953):

The Anatomy of the Domestic Animals.

4th ed. Saunders, Philadelphia and

London.

Water.

4. NOTES ON THE MALABAR SPINY DORMOUSE,

PLATACANTHOM YS LASIURUS BLYTH, 1859, WITH NEW

DISTRIBUTION RECORD

During the course of routine trapping of small mammals in the

Kyasanur Forest Disease (KFD) area in Shimoga District, Mysore State,

one female Spiny Dormouse was captured on February 2, 1966, from

Dasangadde, near Sagar in Shimoga District (Altitude 1800 Ft. ; Lati-

tude 14° 10’). The identification was confirmed by Mr J. C. Daniel of

Bombay Natural History Society. Subsequently another specimen,

also a female, was captured from the same locality on 21 May 1966.

The external measurements in millimetres of these two specimens were :

Head and body i355 140

Tail if He 85 80

Left hind paw oe 25 23

ett ear e.2: re ley 17

Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951) and Ellerman (1961) have reported

this species from ‘ Coorg, Travancore and Malabar in Southern Penin-

sular India’. Shortridge (in Ryley 1913), says that ‘ Platacanthomys is

known to exist as far north as Kadur District in Western Mysore’. The

finding of this species near Sagar extends the northern limits of the dis-

tribution of this species in India.

Both the specimens were trapped in Sherman traps (9” x 3” x34”)

using ‘ Pakoda’ as bait (a mixture of onion and gram flour fried in oil).

During the extensive and intense trapping of small mammals over the

past ten years in a variety of habitats, this specimen was recorded only

twice in the KFD area, and as such the species should be considered rare

in this area.

The description of this species tallies with Ellerman’s (1961) descrip-

tion except in two respects. The colour of the back is not ‘ dark red-

dish brown’. There is no reddish tinge to the coloration at all. Also

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 215

the spine-like hairs are white tipped, a fact not stated in the FAUNA OF

INDIA volume, but mentioned by Shortridge (loc. cit.)

It is quite probable that this species feeds on ripe pepper (Piper nig-

rum) and Jackfruit (Artocarpus sp.) which abound in the forests of Sagar

area. In captivity, one female is thriving very well on a feed of bananas

and groundnut for the last twenty months. During the day the animal

is sluggish and has a tendency to curl up like a hedgehog, with the

bushy tail protruding. The animal is active during the night only and

feeds voraciously. It is very shy and tries to hide in some corner when

approached and is quite tame to handle.

ViRUS RESEARCH CENTRE,? P. K. RAJAGOPALAN

Poona,

December 4, 1967.

REFERENCES }

ELLERMAN, J. R., & Morrison-Scotr, by M. L. Roonwal. Zoological Survey

T. C. S. (1951) : Checklist of Palaearc- of India, Calcutta. Volumes 1 & 2.

tic and Indian Mammals, 1758-1946. 884 pp.

British Museum (Natural History), RYLEY, KATHLEEN, V. (1913):

London, 810 pp. Mammal Survey of India—Report No.

ELLERMAN, J. R. (1961): The Fauna 11 Coorg. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

of India including Pakistan, Burma and 22 (3) : 486-513.

Ceylon, Mammalia. Volume 3. Edited

5. OCCURRENCE OF THE REEF HERON [EGRETTA GULARIS

(BOSC.)] IN HYDERABAD DISTRICT -

On the afternoon of June 8, 1967, I observed a slate-blue wading bird

feeding at the edge of the Shamsabad (A.P.) tank in the company of 18

little egrets [Egretta garzetta (Linnaeus)].

It appeared to be almost exactly the same size as the egrets, and when

the flock flew up, it displayed the same manner of flight, with head pulled

in and legs trailing behind.

Closer examination—I was able to approach to within perhaps 40

feet—revealed the bird quite positively to be an Indian Reef Heron

[Egretta gularis (Bosc.)], with a conspicuous white patch on its throat

and bright yellow feet which flashed into prominence once when it flew

directly away from me. I cannot be positive as to the colour of its legs

and bill.

When I returned to the tank on the afternoon of June 17, 1967, the

reef heron was still there again feeding at water’s edge with several little

egrets.

1The Virus Research Centre is jointly maintained by the Indian Council of Medical

Research and The Rockefeller Foundation. The Centre also receives a grant (3 x 4307)

of the PL 480 Funds from the National Institutes of Health, US PHS, through the

Indian Council of Medical Research, |

216 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

I observed the bird for perhaps two hours altogether, in conditions

of both full sunlight and overcast skies.

The south-west monsoon (light showers) arrived on June 7 in this

area (Hyderabad Dist.), but I cannot say whether this may have had

some influence in the occurrence of this western sea-coast bird so far

inland.

SHAMSABAD,

HYDERABAD DISTRICT, GEORGE F. NEAVOLL

ANDHRA PRADESH,

July 8; 1967:

6. THE FEMALE OF MOLESWORTH’S TRAGOPAN

TRAGOPAN BLYTHI MOLESWORTHI BAKER

(With a plate)

Molesworth’s Tragopan, Tragopan blythi molesworthi Baker, has so

far been known from only two specimens, both males. The holotype

was taken by Capt. A. L. M. Molesworth at Dengan La (alt. c. 2438 m.),

c. 27° 11’ N. 92° 1’ E., Scherechopka country, south-eastern Bhutan, on

31 March 1914. Ludlow (1944)? procured the second specimen from

Shingkar (alt. c. 2591 m.), Louri District, eastern Bhutan (c. 64 km.

north-west of Dengan La, the type-locality), on 1 April 1936. Its female

has so far been unknown.

During a recent ornithological survey of Bhutan undertaken jointly

with Dr. Salim Ali since 1966, I have been able to collect a female Tragopan

which clearly belongs to Tragopan blythi, but differs from the nominate

subspecies in some important details. There can, therefore, be little

doubt that my specimen represents 7. b. molesworthi, and the first known

female at that (Plate).

The specimen was taken by me above the Bulfai Pass (alt. c. 2621 m.),

c, 27° 14’ N. 91° 31’ E., Manas Valley, eastern Bhutan, on 30 March

1966. It was shot while skulking in a patch of rhododendron forest

with thick undergrowth of various herbs and shrubs, and a few scattered

clumps of ringal bamboo. It was a lone example busily feeding at

about 8.00 hours when my presence there disturbed it.

This female specimen differs from the females of the nominate sub-

species in having the whole upper plumage darker, the blackish marks

being larger and deeper coloured, grey-brown markings much deeper

grey and less brown, ear coverts subtipped rufous, rufous-centred cheek-

2 LupLow, F. (1944): The birds of south-eastern Tibet. J/bis 86 : 380-381,

‘eeulay “(loye_ rypomsajoum wyd7qg uvdosva yz) uedosery, $,yiOMso[oW

uedosely S YVIOMSI[OJ : SEASTG

‘EVN AvaWwom “f

(1) $9 ‘90S “LSIH

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES . 217

feathers, rump and upper tail coverts greyer and not quite so reddish

in-general tone. On the underside, the rufous edges of feathers of breast

and abdomen deeper.

COLOUR OF SOFT PARTS: Iris dark brown, edges of eyelids lemon

yellow, maxilla black but brown on base, mandible very pale horny,

legs and feet brownish horny, claws horny, pads white.

MEASUREMENTS (in flesh): Wing 232, tail 155+, biil 33 mm.

Its crop contained no animal matter, but was distended with freshly

swallowed plant material. The bulk of this food consisted of green

leaves of Spirdea sp. (Rosaceae), Herpetospermum caudigerum (Cucur-

bitaceae) and young circinate leaves of fern of the Order Filicales in

approximately equal quantities, moderate quantity of green leaves of

Thalictrum chelidonii (Ranunculaceae), and a few fronds of fern of the

Order Filicales. Most of the leaves were swallowed whole or nearly so,

and two of the fern fronds were about 9°5 cm. long. There was also a

quantity of leaf fragments, bits of tender shoots, petioles and leafbuds,

_all apparently belonging to plants named above.

I am thankful to the authorities of the British Museum (Natural

History), London, for their courtesy in extending me facilities to examine

their material. I amindebted to; Mr, J. Delacour for kindly comparing

my specimen with the material at the American Museum of Natural

History, New York; Shri S. S. Saha of the Zoological Survey of India

for his generous assistance in this work; Shri V. S. Agarwal of the Botani-

cal Survey of India for kindly identifying the plant material; and to

Shri A. K. Karmakar, Artist, Zoological Survey of India, for the pre-

paration of the coloured sketch.

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, |

INDIAN MUSEUM, BISWAMOY BISWAS

CaALcuTta-13,

September 18, 1967.

7. OCCURRENCE OF THE LITTLE CRAKE, PORZANA

PARVA (SCOPOLI), IN BOMBAY

In 1939 (Birds of Bombay Island & Salsette, J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 40 : 629), we referred to the Little Crake, Porzana parva (Scopolli),

_as an aberrant cold weather straggler to our area based on a specimen

obtained at Malabar Hill, Bombay, by A. H. A. Simcox.

We mentioned however that the specimen listed in the old card cata-

logue of the Society’s collection prepared by Mr. N. B. Kinnear had not

been seen (presumably being untraceable).

218 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

It was probably this uncertainty which prompted Ripley (1961)! to

ignore this southern-most record and to restrict them to ‘ A few win-

tering records for West Pakistan in Sind and Baluchistan, and Gilgit’.

The specimen (B.N.H.S. Col. No. 13878, 9, 27 Nov. 1914) has now

been rediscovered, having been listed among Baillon’s Crake, Porzana

pusilla (Pallas). It is admittedly very similar to this species but the

larger wing 98 (85-96 in P. pusilla), the absence of the white edge to the

first primary and to the tips of the wing coverts, the buff-coloured breast

and under-parts, the faint traces of black barring on the flanks and

under-tail coverts, the structure of the wing, and comparison with speci-

mens from Iraq, leave no doubt that the bird was correctly identified.

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY,

HornsBiLL House, APOLLO STREET, SALIM ALI

BomBay-1, HUMAYUN ABDULALI

September 27, 1967.

8. SOUTHWARD EXTENSION OF THE RANGE OF THE

SLENDERBILLED GULL (LARUS GENEI BREME)

The Slenderbilled Gull (Larus genei Bréme) is known to breed at

Las Belas in Baluchistan and in parts of Sind, and as a non-breeding

visitor to the shores and tidal creeks of Sind. The southern-most records

are from Bhavnagar in Kathiawar where Dharmakumarsinhji obtained

a specimen on 4 December 1948 (BNHS Collection No. 14176) and

referred to it in his BIRDS OF SAURASHTRA (1955 p. 213). Dr. Salim Ali

does not mention this bird in BIRDS OF KUTCH (1945) nor ‘The Birds of

Gujarat’ (1954, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 52: 375), and Ripley’s SYNOPSIS

leaves the first distribution unchanged.

It may therefore be worthwhile recording that on 4 December, 1957,

I collected one (BNHS Collection No. 21330) in Manori Creek, Salsette,

Bombay, and have subsequently seen them in small parties and obtained

specimens on 28 December 1960 and 9 January 1964, in the same area

(Manori and Arnala Island). It would appear to be a fairly regular

winter visitor to the Bombay coast. It is perhaps not better known

because, not being a scavenger like the other gulls, it keeps out more

atsea. The 3specimens obtained by me and also the one from Bhavnagar

are all in immature plumage, having dark subterminal bands to the tail.

ST. XAVIER’S HIGH SCHOOL, BR. A. NAVARRO, s.J.

BOMBAY,

May 6, 1967.

1 Ripcey, S. D. (1961) : Synopsis of the Birds of India and Pakistan.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Pag)

9, SAP SUCKING BY INDIAN WOODPECKERS

(With a photograph)

Readers will be interested to see the accompanying photograph of

an apple tree (Pyrus malus) in the middle of a lawn, taken at the Chasme

Shahi Gardens in Srinagar (5000 feet), Kashmir, on 21 July 1967. The

lines of dark spots represent small holes dug into the bark in rings round

the stem at regular intervals of a few inches along the whole height.

The first impression was that this was the work of an idle schoolboy, but

this was dismissed in consideration of the magnitude of the work, its

commencement at almost ground level, and its extension far out of his

reach. We were discussing the possibility of its being a woodpecker,

when a gardener joined in and confirmed our suspicions. I had a vague

recollection of having seen a photograph of such holes and the name of

the American Sapsucker was suggestive, but I could not recall any re-

ference to sap-sucking in India, The HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS

220. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

(1938, 2 : 277 and 285) refers to rare instances in Britain of Picus viridis

(doubtfully) and Dryobates major (certainly) ringing trees with series of

regularly-spaced pits after the fashion of the American Sapsuckers

(Sphyrapicus). In Indian literature I have only been able to find

A. E. Osmaston’s note ‘ Curious habits of Woodpeckers in the Kumaon

Hills’ (1916, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 24: 363-366). As this would

not be easily accessible to most members, I reproduce portions of it :

‘Those who know the hill forests of Garhwal may have noticed at

one time or another rows of small neat holes made in lines across the

stems of trees. They may be seen at any height up to at least 30 feet

from the ground and the rows are nearly always quite horizontal. Each

row consists of perhaps a dozen holes, half an inch or so apart, and the

rows may be any distance down to a few inches one above the other.

Often the distance apart is repeated with remarkable accuracy and in

this case the rows are not separated as a rule by more than 6 to 8 inches.

The holes themselves are more or less rounded and about + to } inch

across in section and they invariably pierce through the bark to atleast

half its thickness, but never in any circumstances enter the woody tissue

beneath.

For the last few years I have been endeavouring to discover what it is

that forms these holes and why they are formed. A general answer to

the first question is fairly easily given.

The holes are undoubtedly formed by woodpeckers. The species of

woodpecker responsible for this work of art.and what this objective may

be are questions not so easily disposed of.

If these holes be examined it will be found that they only occasionally

show signs of recent attack. In by far the majority of cases the holes

have been made some months or years previously and do not show any

obvious signs of having been tampered with since. Such holes may

extend only half way through the bark, but more frequently they extend

right down to the delicate cambium layer separating the cortical from the

woody tissue. Again, some of them will be found empty whilst others

will contain a core of secondary growth tissue which may have completely

filled up the lower half of the original cavity. This tissue is usually soft

and spongy and sometimes tinged green. Where no such core of

secondary tissue is present the bottom of the hole may contain a soft

fungal growth which is usually white.

In some cases, however, the holes show signs of a recent visit. This is

recognised by evidence of a fresh incision into the secondary growth

tissue at the base of the cavity.’ |

Osmaston goes on to list separately the trees most frequently

(including Pyrus pashia) and occasionally attacked such trees being found

between 6000 ft. and 10,000 ft. but usually between 6500 ft. and 7500 ft.

He had no evidence that any of the eight possible species of woodpeckers

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 221

listed by Blanford makes the holes or that any other does not. He notes

that the Rufousbellied Pied Woodpecker Hypopicus hyperythrus (which,

incidentally, Ripley calls a sapsucker in the SYNOPSIS) systematically

visits such holes and suggests that this is one, if not the sole, perpetrator.

When concluding, Osmaston suggests that the holes are made horizon-

tally (he does not refer to rings round the stem?) merely because the

bird finds it more convenient to work sideways rather than upwards or

downwards.

My first impression also was that the boring was for insects, but I am

inclined to think that the distance between the rows is an index of the

size of the bird—each row serving as a foothold for working on the next.

The bark of the apple trees on which I found this pitting was smooth,

unlike the rough bark on which woodpeckers usually hunt for insect food.

The possibility that strikes me is, therefore, that the woodpecker starts

the pecking at a level where some foothold is available and then works

upwards using each ring of pits as a foothold for making the next ring.

Osmaston’s suggestion about H. hyperythrus being the maker of such pits

is strengthened by its having a brush-like tip to its tongue, but as regards

the locality in which I noticed the pitting I do not know if this species

could have been responsible as it is not mentioned for this area in Bates &

Lowther’s BREEDING BIRDS OF KASHMIR (1952), the woodpeckers listed

being Picus squamatus, Dryobates himalayensis and Dryobates brunnei-

frons, the last of which I noticed in the neighbourhood.

75, ABDUL REHMAN STREET,

BOMBAY-3, 7 HUMAYUN ABDULALI

October 11, 1967.

10. OCCURRENCE OF THE HOUSE MARTIN, DELICHON

URBICA (LINN). IN SAURASHTRA, GUJARAT

On 3 April 1967, Y. S. Shivrajkumar of Jasdan and myself were

walking in the evening on the dam of the Jasdan tank when we saw quite

Clearly the House Martin (Delichon urbica), a single bird, hawking with

swallows, crag martins, and swifts. The House Martin had a forked tail

and was easily recognizable by the long white patch on the rump

and upper tail coverts and also its pied head pattern. We looked up

‘Birds of Gujarat’ by Salim Ali (1954)1 in which he mentions this bird

1 J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 52 : 375.

222. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

at Navsari. Our sighting of the House Martin must be the second

record for its occurrence in Gujarat.

Dit BAHAR, R. S. DHARMAKUMARSINHSI

BHAVNAGAR,

April 12, 1967.

[This is a rare and sporadic winter visitor from the Himalayas, chiefly

on the western side of the Peninsula. In addition to Gujarat, as above,

has been recorded from Maharashtra (Prakasha on Tapti R.,

W. Khandesh; Sinhgadh near Poona), Madhya Pradesh (Sehore), Mysore

(Haliyal near Londa; Belgaum; Shimoga), Madras (Coimbatore ;

Nilgiris, between Ootacamund and Coonoor), and there is a specimen

labelled ‘ Travancore’ in the British Museum collection. Apparently

the eastern-most record is from Bilaspur, c. 22°N., 82°E.—Eds.]|

11. WIRE NESTS OF REDVENTED BULBUL PYCNONOTUS

CAFER (LINNAEUS)

On 14 October 1967, I came across three nests of Redvented Bulbul,

Pycnonotus cafer (Linnaeus) with 10-15 day old fledglings, in the

Hadapsar Industrial Estate at Poona. Two of these nests which were

located in the large compound of a factory manufacturing electric motors

and fans etc. were partially constructed out of fine copper wire (S.W.G.

34) generally used for winding of rotor and field coil of stator of electric

motors. Almost 50% of the nest lining of these nests was done with

this wire, which had apparently been picked from the heaps of discarded —

Wire pieces in the compound.

So far only House Crows (Hume 1889 :9 ; Baker 1932 : 16 ; Dewar

1929 : 27-28 ; Lamba 1963: 125) and Doves (Walsh 1924: 1055-1056)

have been recorded to incorporate metallic wires and strips in the nest

structure. The belief (Lamba 1967: 154) that these unusual materials

are used as an easily available substitute for the normal nesting materials

and comparative scarcity of the same in the nesting area is amply streng-

thened by this find.

WESTERN REGIONAL STATION,

1182/2, F.C. ROAD,

POoNa~-5S, B. S. LAMBA

October 17, 1967.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

223

REFERENCES

Hume, A. O. (1889): Nests and eggs

of Indian birds. 1.2nd Ed. R.H. Porter,

London.

BAKER, E. C. S. (1932): Nidification

of the Birds of the Indian Empire. 1.

LAMBA, B. S. (1963) : The Nidification

of some Common Indian birds. Part I.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 60 : 121-133.

— (1967) : Some Indian Corvi-

dae, a contribution to their breeding

biology. Unpublished.

Taylor and Francis, London.

Dewar, D. (1929): Indian Birds

WALSH, W. P. P. (1924): Wire nests.

Nests. Thacker Spink and Co., Bombay.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 29 : 1055-1056.

12. CETTIA MONTANA VERSUS C. FORTIPES

(AVES: SYLVIINAE)

In Vol. 60 : 683, Dec. 1963 of this Journal, Biswas advocates changing

the name Cettia fortipes to C. montana on grounds of priority. Ripley,

in his supplement immediately following (p. 687-689), does not mention

the point. It would thus appear that neither of these authors, nor the

several others consulted by Biswas, is familiar with the facts in this case.

Earlier, Delacour had also used montand in a revision of Cettia in

1943. I, and doubtless others, called his attention early in 1946 to the

fact that it is preoccupied ; he published a correction (Auk 64: 129,

1947), unfortunately without giving a bibliographic citation of the rather

obscure first publication of the name.

The fact is that the name Sylvia montana Horsfield, 1821, given to a

Cettia, is a homonym of the little-known Sylvia montana Wilson, 1812

(American Ornithology 5: 113, pl. 44, fig. 2). It is thus still-born and

can never be revived, even though Wilson’s bird has never been satis-

factorily identified. It has been considered a doubtful synonym of

Dendroica virens (Gmelin) by Ridgway (United States National Mus.

Bull. 50, part 2: 784, 1902), or a ‘lost species’ of Wood Warbler

(Parulidae). In view of Wilson’s care and accuracy, and of the strange

hybrids and freaks in this family of birds that have recently been

captured, it is not unthinkable that Wilson may have drawn certain of

his plates from abnormal specimens or hybrids.

Be this as it may, the name Cettia fortipes (Hodgson), 1845, should

stand, and the changes suggested by Biswas (loc. cit.) should not be made.

Another of Biswas’ points (loc. cit., lines 13-12 from bottom) is not

invariably correct. The type locality of a form is not automatically ‘ the

place of origin of the first specimen (type)’. If an author has specimens

from various places, all are equivalent cotypes unless his description or

comments eliminate some from consideration as cotypes, or unless he

designates one or more types. Biswas is correct, however, that the

224 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

locality of a mere sighting is ineligible, except in those rare cases where a

species is described with no specimen in hand.

APARTADO POsTAL 19-138,

Mexico 19, D.F., ALLAN R. PHILLIPS

MEXIco,

July 1967.

Dr. Biswas whose comments were invited writes:

When the homonymy between Sylvia montana Wilson, 1812, and

Sylvia montana Horsfield, 1821, was discovered both nominal species

had been transferred to different genera and there was no danger of

confusion since at the time of discovery of the potential homonymy the

two species are no longer included in same genus.

In his revision, Delacour (Jbis 85 : 27-29, 1943) used the name ' Coe

fortipes for the species and montana as the subspecific name of the Javan

population. I have not seen Delacour’s correction referred to, but

apparently he did not think much about it, for in 1949, while giving mea

copy of his Cettia paper, he himself changed fortipes to montana as the

specific name (on p. 27 of the paper) and told me that montana was

older. And, I find that even in the recent comprehensive work of Vaurie

(BIRDS OF THE PALEARCTIC FAUNA : Passeriformes, pp. 223- 224, 1959),

Cettia montana Horsfield has been retained. Ripley verbally informed

me that he followed Delacour’s paper.in using the name Cettia fortipes

for the species.

Regarding the second point, that is, about type-locality, my point is

indeed invariably correct, for the place of origin of ‘ the type’ (=type

specimen=holotype) must necessarily be its type-locality. What

Dr. Phillips says is also correct, but only in regard to syntypes from

different localities, which does not arise here, for all the ‘ first specimens ’

(=syntypes) of Graminicola bengalensis were taken in Cachar.

B. BISWAS

[We might add that in a subsequent letter Dr. Phillips draws attention

to Vaurie’s using the name Cettia montanus in his BIRDS OF THE PALEARCTIC

FAUNA and ‘It now occurs to me that, by failing to mention Vaurie, I

perhaps implied that the oversight was original with Biswas rather than

general ’—Eds. |

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES | : 225

13. SOME BIRD RECORDS FROM KUTCH

This morning while driving along a kuchha motor road outside Vijaya

Vilas Palace, I saw and shot from a little pond a Sheld-duck [Tadorna

tadorna (Linnaeus)]. As you will observe the only specimen mentioned

in the BIRDS OF KUTCH was obtained by Col. C. B. O’Brien who evidently

shot it at a tank near Bhachau in 1921. So this is the second specimen

obtained in Kutch so far. Both the bill and the legs were pale pink.

Therefore, I presume, it was a female.

The other bird I noticed in the compound of Sarad Bagh Palace,

Bhuj, on November 25, was the male of the Paradise Flycatcher Terpsi-

phone paradisi (Linnaeus). It tallied with the description given on page

162 of the BIRDS OF KUTCH.

PALACE,

Buus (KUTCH), MAHARAO OF KUTCH

December 4, 1966.

14. SOME INTERESTING MIGRANTS IN KUTCH

On December 11, 1966, I went up to the Laeja Creek, 8 miles west of

Mandvi, to watch the waders and in the middle of the creek I saw a soli-

tary Indian Skimmer (RhAynchops albicollis Swainson). I have seen this

bird only once before in August 1947 in the same place (1956, J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 54: 190).

In addition to the Paradise Flycatcher [Terpsiphone paradisi

(Linnaeus)] seen by H. H. Maharao Saheb in the Sarad Bagh garden in

Bhuj last November, I saw one in Mandvi on December 10, (also male).

Although this bird is rare in Kutch I have seen it on many occasions,

mostly in the Vijaya Vilas Palace grounds at Mandvi.

The other rare visitor seen by me on December 18, was the White-

browed Fantail Flycatcher (Rhipidura aureola Lesson) at Vijaya Vilas.

I have seen this flycatcher only once before in Rapar (Rav).

This year also I was lucky enough to add one more bird to the Kutch

list. On January 10, I came across the Forest Wagtail (Motacilla indica

Gmelin) in my own compound at Bhuj. Only one bird was observed by

me which seems to have taken up its residence in my garden here, for I

saw the bird again today. This bird is not at all shy and allows a very

Close approach. Though very like the other wagtails in its general

appearance, unlike the others, which move their tails vertically, this one

moves it horizontally and with this movement of the tail its whole body

also appears to sway gracefully. ,

BHUJ,

KuTCcH, M. K. HIMMATSINHSJI

January 16, 1967.

226.

~15.. RECOVERY OF RINGED BIRDS

Ring No.

and Species

C-1471

Anas crecca

C-1580

Anas crecca 3

C-2585

Anas crecca 3

C-342

Anas crecca 3

C-1366

Anas crecca 6

C-1466

Anas crecca 8

C-2526

Anas crecca & (?)

C-2563

Anas crecca 0 ?

C-2607

Anas crecca 6

C-2658

Anas crecca 3

C-2692

Anas crecca &

C-2848

Anas crecca

C-2849 »

Anas-crecca $

—

C-2852

Anas crecca $

19.10.1966. do. -

“23:10,1966 do.”

23.10.1966. do.

Date and place of

ringing

Date and place of |

recovery

JOURNAL, BOMBAY .NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (1)

Remarks

10.10.1966. Bharatpur, + 30.4.1967. Altaisk Reported — by

Region near Kuchuk Bird Ringing

Rajasthan (c. 27° 13’

Ni; (32,8)

12.10.1966. do.

19.10.1966. do.

6.2.1964. Manjhaul,

Monghyr Dist., Bihar

(c..25° 23° N., 86° 30°

| he Few oy

8.10.1966. Bharatpur,

Rajasthan (c. 27° 13’

IN 7532 ES)

10.10.1966. do.

15.10.1966. do.

18.10.1966. do.

19.10.1966. do.

20.10.1966. do.

23.10.1966: do.

~ 26.3.1967.

-. “naisk Region,

(335 230° N., 827, 266

E,)

4-2: 19.3:1967. or Madjik

S.S.R., near Dushanbe

(38° 35’ N., 68° 47’ E.)

S.S.R., near Suzak

(40° 57’ N., 72° 55’ E.)

+ 12.5.1967. Yakutian

A.S.S.R., Aldan Dist.,

near Chulman (c. 56°

50°N.,: 124° 537\B:)

+ 18.3.1967. Kazakh

S.S.R., Dzhambul Re-

gion, near Furma-

novka (c. 44° 18’ N,, .

A IZOS551 EB.) Ae

+ 8.4.1967. Uralsk Re-

gion, near Uralsk. (c.

51° 17OIN., 31° 238.)

+ 26.3.1967. Alma

Atinsk Region, near

- Sarkand (c. 45° 24’ N.,

1D 58 Ee?)

+ 18.3.1967.

bul Region,

150 km. north from

the town of Dzhambul -

+ 8.5.1967. . Sverd-

lovsk Region, near

Taborg (c. 58° 31’ N.,

64° 36’ E.) -

+ 22.4.1967. Kusta-

near

Uritskoe (c.53° 207-N.,

65° 30’ E.)

+ 30.4.1967.

Region, near

kovo (c. 52° 13’ N., 81°

Altaisk

24) E.)

+ 4,5,1967.

Region, near Yautla

E56 40’ N., 64° 26’

3) = "

+ 7,5.1967. Tomsk Re-

gion, near Molcha-

novo;.(cs. 57°, 357 |N.,

ARO Eye ee

+ 7.5.1967.. Krasno-

yarsk Region, near

Achinsk (c. 56° 17’ N.,

90° 30’ E.)

Kirghizian

Dzham-.

about

do.

Meini- ~

Kurgan do.

‘do. © #48

Centre, Mos-

cow, U.S.S.R.

Id@y V33)

do.

do. ?

do.

do. -- |

do. Ce

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

RECOVERY OF RINGED BIRDS—(contd.)

Ring No.

and Species

Date and place of

ringing

C-2853

Anas crecca $

C-2913

Anas crecca 0?

C-2983

Anas crecca $

C-2522

Anas crecca 6

C-2646

Anas crecca 6

C-2711

Anas crecca 3

(juv.)

C-2984

Anas crecca & (?)

C-339.

. Anas crecca 3

C-1352

Anas crecca 3

C-2623

Anas crecca 6

C-2666

Anas crecca 3

C-2938

Anas crecca &

C-119

Anas crecca &

23.10.1966. Bharatpur,

Rajasthan (c. 27° 13’

IN woes)

24.10.1966. do.

19.1.1967. Naopara,

Chiika Lake (c. 19° 28’

& 19° 56’ N., 85° 86’

io ai)

15.10.1966. Bharatpur,

Rajasthan (c. 27° 13’

Ny 70° S24E.)

19.10.1966. do.

20.10.1966. do.

19.1.1967. Naopara,

Chilka Lake (c. 19° 28’

& 19° 56’ N., 85° ou

6.2.1964. Manjhaul,

Date and place of

recovery

+ 11.4.1967.

zian S.S.R., Osh Re-

gion, near Guicha

(c. 40° 19’ N., 73° 28’

E.)

+ 6.3.1967. Dzinam-

bul Region, near Mik-

hailovka (c. 43° 00’ N..,

Die Sie Es)

+ 7.5.1967. Near Kras-

noyarsk (c. 56° 00’ N.,

92°) 527 Ee)

+ 22.4.1967. Karag-

andinsk Region, near

Kievka (50° 18’ N.,

(AS SM)

+ 5.5.1967.

birsk Region

+ 3.6.1967. Tyumen

Region, near Tarko-

sale (64° 47’ N., 77°

40’ E.)

Novosi-

+ 5.5.1967. Krasno-

yarsk Region, near

Shushenskoe (53° 20’

NS 9 Da Ee)

7.5.1967. Altai Region,

Monghyr Dist., Bihar near Rubcovsk (51°

(ci, 25, 23 '(N.. 86° 30;

; E.)

6.10.1966. Bharatpur

19.10.1966. do.

_ 25.10.1966. Bharatpur

18.2.1964.

Monghyr Dist., Bihar

(c. 25° 23’ N.,. 86° a"

Manjhaul,

30’ N., 81° 11’ E.)

18.9.1967. Grkutsk Re-

gion near Kazachin-

skoe (56° 17’ N., 107°

350.)

+ 5.9.1967. Semipaia-

tinsk Region, Ayaguz

District, Sasyk-kul’-

Lake (46° 14’ N., 81°

00’ E.)

+ 21.4.1967. Kara-

ganda Region (c. 50°

Sie Na 702072 Es)

29.9.1967. Altai Region

near Altaiskoe (51°

SWINGS 852 Ln. B)

0.8.1967. Irkutsk Re-

gion near Nizhnjaja

Karelima (57° 58’ N.,

107° 51’ E.)

227

ECTS

Remarks

Kirghi- Reported by

Bird Ringing

Centre,

Moscow,

U.S.S.R.

do.

228 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (1)

RECOVERY OF RINGED BIRDS (contd.)

SSS REE Se cos a

Ring No. Date and place of Date and place of Remarks

and Species ringing recovery

C-427 28.11.1964. do. 4.3.1967. Andizhan Re- Reported by

Anas crecca $ gion near Andizhan Bird Ring-

(40° 48%.N.;:72° 22’ ing Centres

E.) Moscow,

U.S.S.R.

C-2534 15.10.1966. Bharatpur 29.9.1967. Karagan- do.

Anas crecca & (?) disk Region near Abai

a Karabas (49° 30’ N.,

72° 48’ E.)

C-2600 19.10.1966. do. 23.9.1967. Tselinograd do.

Anas crecca 3 Region, Tselinograd

Dist., Aizegul Lake

(50° 22" N:, 717 18’ EB.)

C-2643 19.10.1966. do. 0.9.1967. Karagan- do.

Anas crecca § (?) dinsk near Karabas

(49> 3070N:,, 72° - 487

EF.)

C-2656 19.10.1966. do. 5.9.1967. Novosibrisk do.

Anas crecca @ (?) Region

C-2787 22.10.1966. do. 0.9.1967. Kurgan Re- do.

Anas crecca 8 gion near Petukhoro

(55° 03’ N., 67° 30’ E.)

C-2928 25.10.1966. do. 29.9.1967. Alma-Ata do.

Anas crecca @ (?) Region near Aksu (45°

39° Ni? 79" 307 E.)

C-3600 SL L967 do: 16.12.1967 Sitapur Reported by

Anas crecca & Dist., U.P., 30 miles Mr Chandra

from Lucknow Bhan Singh,

Sitapur

C-2829 20.10.1966. do. 20.12.1967. Gangiri, Reported by

Anas crecca & (?) Aligarh (c. 27° 29’ N., Rajendra

W229" -B.) Behari Lal

Sharma

BoMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY,

HoORNBILL HOUSE, EDITORS

BomsBay-l, .

January 25, 1968.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 229

16. NOTES ON TWO SPECIES OF HEMIDACTYLUS

(GEKKONIDAE: REPTILIA) IN BHUBANESWAR

The observations described below were made in Bhubaneswar, Orissa.

One of the two common domestic species in the new town of

Bhubaneswar is Hemidactylus brooki. The other is almost certainly H.

Jeschenaulti. In our house, the latter species seems the commoner by

far, but this may be due to the fact that H. brooki is more shy. The

numbers of ‘ groups’ of eggs found of the two species are the same ;

however, the number of eggs found of H. leschenaulti are almost twice as

many as for H. brooki.

OVIPOSITION

Twelve ‘ groups’ of eggs were found from 1964-66, 11 in our house

and 1 in the laboratory, situated in the Agricultural College. A ‘group’

of eggs consists of those found simultaneously at the same spot. All the

eggs were found in dark places, most commonly in drawers and some-

times in distribution boxes of electrical connections. Eggs of H. brooki

were found between April 9 and August 29; those of H. leschenaulti

between April 4 and July 7. (Most copulations were observed in the

month of May). Table 1 gives the dates of collection and hatching of

the eggs. It is clear that eggs hatch in pairs. This suggests that they

are laid in pairs as has been stated previously as a generalisation about

geckos (Goin & Goin 1962, p. 268). What is striking is that the periods

between the pairs of hatches is fairly constant for H. leschenaulti, varying

from 9 to 13 days. The only similar period obtained for HAH. brooki

was 29 days. In H. leschenaulti therefore, it would seem reasonable to

infer that the eggs of one group are laid by a single female who returned

to the same laying place as successive pairs of eggs became ready to be

laid.

This observation does not seem to be generally known. Smith (1935,

p. 27) for instance, suggests that groups of eggs found together are the

layings of several different females. The above data make this inter-

pretation unlikely. The period between consecutive layings of a female

H. leschenaulti would seem to be about 11 days in this population. There

are not enough data to provide similar evidence for H. brooki.

However, if in the latter species also a female returns regularly to the

same place for laying, the interval between consecutive layings is pro-

bably considerably longer in H. brooki. This I infer from the much

longer periods recorded between collection of eggs and the first hatch

in H. brooki (average 26 days) compared with those for H. leschenaulti

- (average 11 days). The average number of eggs per group is 2:3 for H.

brooki and 4:0 for H. leschenaulti. The bigger average for H. lesche-

er Oe a

SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST.

230

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 231

naulti would be expected if H. brooki laid eggs after longer intervals.

The maximum period between the collection of an egg and its hatching

is 39 days for H. brooki and 32 days for H. leschenaulti.

The eggs of both species are very variable in size. Table 2 shows

the sizes of the largest and smallest eggsin each group. The small

TABLE 2

EXTREME SIZES OF EGGS IN DIFFERENT GROUPS

No. of

Group eggs Largest egg Smallest egg

Al. brooki

4 4 ‘86x °*76 St 79) X 21269)

5 2 “S45e 275 "84x +74

8 4 1:18 x 1:02 S80 eS

10 2 “88x -76 Oh 76

H. leschenaulti it

a 187 x16 ‘80x ‘68

if 3 ‘85x +76 83 x °74

11 6 1°:12x1:10 1°16 x 1:04

5 1:20x1:06 1:14 x 0°96

variation in size within a group compared to the variation in the species

also suggests that a group of eggs is laid by a single female. Darwin

(1882, p. 260) and many subsequent authors have remarked on the idio-

syncratic quality of hen’s eggs. However, much more data will be neces-

sary before this inference is given statistical precision.

MOVEMENTS

In order to observe the movements of an individual gecko, I first

tried painting individuals with different colours of nail varnish.

However, the application of the nail varnish almost always induced the

lizard to moult it off within 2 or 3 days, so that this method was not

successful. *

1 However, in Calcutta, though the nail varnish was sloughed off as quickly as in

Bhubaneswar, marking did provide some striking observations. There, in a first

floor flat, I had started the routine of catching geckos anywhere in the flat and then

releasing them at a fixed place. From these observations, I got the impression that

usually during the winter, geckos tended to return as quickly as possible to the place

where they were captured. This included a gecko which was released at a spot diago-

nally across the flat from where it was captured, and had returned to the place of capture

in about 12 hours. In the part of the year when they were sexually active however

they tended to remain in the room where they were released. In the Calcutta popula-

tion I have also observed cannibalism, breaking up of a copulation by a third individual

leading to vicious fighting, and licking of the genitalia by both sexes after copulation.

| have not, however, been able to find out what species the Calcutta population was.

232 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

I have, however, been fortunate enough in Bhubaneswar to find

several individuals of H. leschenaulti with deformities of the tip of the

tail which are very good distinguishing marks. 4 different individuals

have so far been so distinguished. The first had a tail which was forked

at the tip. The second hadadouble bend at the tip which is, therefore,

S-shaped. The third had the tip deflected to the left and the fourth to

the right. However only the two former have so far provided data

enough to test statistically. Observations on Gecko 1 were started on

21/iv/64, and it has not been seen since 2/viii/65. Observations on

Gecko 2 were started on 26/viii/64 and were continued till 3/ii/67.

Every time a gecko was seen, the time and the place where it was ob-

served were recorded. These observations were then arranged accord-

ing to date. This series was then divided into three roughly equal por-

tions for each gecko separately. Results are shown in Table 3. The

TABLE 3

OBSERVATIONS ON MOVEMENTS OF TWO INDIVIDUALS OF H. leschenaulti

Gecko 1 Room(s)

Period A C B,D ‘Total

8/1-5/2 1 16 4 21

17/2-11/5 6 7 6 19

25/5-25/11 15 3 2 20

4290)

Gecko 2 | Room(s)

Period C ADE Total

9/1-19/2 26 0 26

13/2-15/6 18 8 26

16/6-24/12 17 9 26

x ,®=10°94

letters A to E each refer to a particular room. The value of X? in Table

3 for Gecko 1 should be interpreted with caution due to the small

numbers. However, the probability of obtaining such a value is so small

(P < 0°001) that we can safely infer that there is a difference in the pro-

portions of observations in different rooms during different parts of the

year. In the case of Gecko 2 also the difference is significant (P < 0°01).

Further, since the two latter periods do not show any difference, we can

group them into one period. If we do this we get a 2x2 table with

x =10°9 (P <0°091). Interpreting this biologically we see that during

January and February these lizards are very conservative in their move-

ments, whereas later in the year, that is roughly when they are sexually

J. BoMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. 65 (1)

Tikader : Ophisaurus gracilis

> $ %S ‘ * oF

: ees eee x

ee & ts SF

Ophisaurus gracilis (Gray) on natural habitat

Ophisaurus gracilis (Gray) on hand

(Photos: Mrinal Kanti Sen)

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 233

active, they range over a wider area. From available data, I cannot

clearly state what their behaviour is immediately after their breeding

season is over. However, during this period Gecko 1 frequented a

different room than it did during the winter. Geckos | and 2 both

spent the winter of 1965-66 behind a cistern in a bath room and were

often seen together.

GENETICS AND BIOMETRY LABORATORY,

GOVERNMENT OF ORISSA, | S. D. JAYAKAR1

BHUBANESWAR-3,

September 23, 1967.

REFERENCES

Darwin, C. (1882): Animals and W. H. Freeman and Company, San

plants under domestication, Vol. 1. Francisco and London.

John Murray, London. SmiTH, M. (1935): Fauna of British

GOIN, COLEMAN, J. & GOIN, OLIVE, B. India. Reptilia 2.

(1962) : Introduction to Herpetology.

17. OBSERVATIONS ON THE LIMBLESS LIZARD

OPHISAURUS GRACILIS (GRAY) FROM SHILLONG, ASSAM

(With a plate)

The limbless lizards of the genus Ophisaurus are uncommon and

only one species, Ophisaurus gracilis (Gray), occurs in India. This

beautiful snake-like lizard was first described by Gray (1845) from Khasi

Hills, Assam. I collected nearly half a dozen specimens of the limbless

lizard Ophisaurus gracilis (Gray) from Shillong. The animal (locally

known as naingbaen) hides under logs and stones during the day and

comes out after sunset in search of food, mainly insects and worms.

It is quite harmless, and makes no attempt to bite when handled. It

is sluggish, and shams dead when handled. The measurements of the

largest specimen in my collection are as follows : snout to vent 185 mm. :

tail 284 mm., and girth 38°50 mm. (Plate, figs. 1, 2).

I am thankful to Dr. A. S. Rao, Regional Botanist, Botanical Survey

of India, Eastern Circle, Shillong, for a live specimen of limbless lizard

for my study. 7

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

EASTERN REGIONAL STATION, B. K. TIKADER

SHILLONG-4 (INDIA),

November 8, 1967.

eae

A RIT A RR SP

? Present address: Instituto di Genetica, Universita di Pavia, Pavia, Italy.

234. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

18. PAROXYURICHTHYS LATERISQUAMATUS (M. WEBER):

FIRST RECORD FROM INDIAN WATERS

(With a photograph)

Paroxyurichthys Bleeker, 1876 is so far known from two species,

Paroxyurichthys typus Bleeker and P.-laterisquamatus (M. Weber) (vide

Koumans, 1953) from Ambon and New Guinea. A single well pre-

served specimen of Paroxyurichthys laterisquamatus was recently dis-

covered in a collection of gobiids by Shri G. Ramakrishna, from the

Mahanadi estuary in November, 1962. The other gobiids in the same

collection were Butis butis (Hamilton), Periopthalmus yulgaris Eggert,

and P. barbarus (L.).

This is the first record of Paroxyurichthys laterisquamatus (M. Weber)

from Indian waters. The distinguishing characters together with varia-

tions observed in the present specimen are given below :

Paroxyurichthys laterisquamatus (M. Weber)

Oxyurichthys laterisquamatus M. Weber, 1908, Nova Guinea 5, Zool. 2; 271.

(type loc : New Guinea) ; Fowler, 1928, Mem. B. P. Bishop Mus. 10 : 415.

Paroxyurichthys laterisquamatus Koumans, 1953, Fish. Indo-Austr. Arch. 10: 51.

Material: One, 45 mm. total length; Khira Gachha-Madeli,

Mahanadi estuary, c. 8 km. west of Fisheries Bungalow ; 11-11-1962 "

G. Ramakrishna ; Zoological Survey of India, Reg. No. F. 521/9/2.

Paroxyurichthys laterisquamatus (M. Weber)

bis

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 235

Description :

DViis De bk ld;,Ail.10 ; P. 16:51. 1. a 60.

Body elongate, compressed, height 6°9 in total length. Head 4°5

in total length. Eye diameter 4:0 in head length, interorbital about half

eye diameter. Snout equal to eye diameter. Mouth oblique, lower

jaw prominent. Maxillary extends to below posterior half of eye.

Teeth small, in 3 rows in both jaws. No canines. No teeth on vomer.

Tongue weakly convex in front. Head scaled behind eye. Scales of

cheek and opercle cycloid. Scales of body ctenoid posteriorly, cycloid

anteriorly. The rays of all fins are very prolonged. Ventral fins

united, oblong. Caudal fin long, pointed and as long as head. Colour

light brown. Fins hyaline.

The specimen differs in certain details from Koumans’ description

(1953). The eye is larger and the maxillary is longer extending to the

posterior half of the eye.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors are thankful to the Director, Zoological Survey of India

for encouragement and to Dr. A. G. K. Menon, Superintending

_ Zoologist, Zoological Survey of India for his helpful suggestions in the

preparation of this note.

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, P. K. TALWAR

CALCUTTA, T. K. SEN

May 5, 1967.

19. MURAL-THOONDI, A GEAR FOR HALFBEAK FISHES

(With a text-figure)

The mural-thoondi is an indigenous gear for the capture of halfbeaks

in the Gulf of Mannar and Palk Bay (Mandapam area). Capture by

this gear is so ingenious as to be worthy of record.

The main part of the gear consists of a miniature sailed raft made up

of two parallel pieces of wood about 40 mm. in length and a transverse

piece over which paimyra leaves are fixed vertically and serve as a sail.

A long line with about 30-40 hooks (text-fig.) is attached to the raft.

The hooks are baited and the raft is allowed to drift with the wind.

When the halfbeaks are hooked the line is pulled back to the shore and

relaid. Polychaetes (Nereis, Heteronereis), and Balanoglossus, dug

236 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

out from the sandy shore, are generally used as bait on these lines. Bet-

ween 20 to 30 fish are caught in a single operation during a good fishing

Lis

HAN

Mural-thoondi

day. The species commonly caught by this gear are Hemirhamphus

far (Forsk.) and Hyporhamphus quoyi (C. & V.).

CENTRAL MARINE FISHERIES

RESEARCH INSTITUTE, P, K, TALWAR

MANDAPAM CAMP,

July 6, 1967.

20. A NOTE ON THE USE OF CROTON TIGLIUM LINN.

SEED AS A FISH POISON IN PONDS!

(With a photograph)

Several plants growing wild or in a state of cultivation are reported

to be reputed fish poisons (Chopra et al. 1949). Though these plants have

been used for catching fish from streams and ponds, hardly any scientific

study has been made on their use as fish poisons. During the years 1960-

1 Published with the kind permission of the Director, Central Inland Fisheries

Research Institute, Barrackpore, West Bengal; presented before the 53rd annual

session of the Indian Science Congress, 1966,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES ao)

64 the author was engaged in studies in the use of several plants occurring

in Assam for eradication of unwanted fishes from nursery ponds.

Studies on three plants viz. Millettia pachycarpa (Bhuyan 1967), Millettia

piscidia (Bhuyan & Vijayalakshmanan, in preparation) and Croton

tiglium have been completed and a summary of the results with the

last plant reported (Barrackpore, C.I.F.R.I., 1964-65 ; Bhuyan 1966).

Croton tiglium Linn. plant.

Age—9 months old.

Maximum height attained—165 cm.

Starts flowering in January.

Seeds and oil of Croton tiglium are widely used as fish poisons (Chopra

et al. 1958 ; Nadkarni 1954; Babu 1965). It is commonly available in

Assam (local name Konibin) and N.E.F.A. (local names Engosinam and

Kusere) and is frequently used by tribal people for killing fish in streams

and ponds. According to Hora & Pillay (1962) powdered croton seeds

are used by Chinese fish culturists for eradication of unwanted fishes

from nurseries before stocking of spawn and fry. The seed kernels of

238 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (i)

Croton tiglium contain two toxic proteins or ‘toxalbumins’ (Chopra et

al. 1956) which ‘are essentially blood poisons’ (Chopra ef al. 1949).

Babu (1965) reported results of his laboratory studies on the use of seeds

of Croton tiglium as a fish poison. Results of field trials with C. tiglium

carried out by the author are briefly reported in the present note.

Field applications of the poison were made in six ponds of 0°025-0°035

hectare water spread, with 0°3 to 0°78 metre depth, and under water

temperatures ranging from 20 to 35°5°C. The ponds had either a |

natural stock of common miscellaneous fishes or they were stocked with

them prior to the experiment. The requisite quantity of seed powder

was taken in a fine markin cloth bag, kept soaked in water in a bucket

for about half an hour and by repeated squeezing of the bag a milky

emulsion was obtained. This was diluted and sprayed uniformly on the

ponds which were then netted repeatedly with a fine mesh drag net for

thorough mixing of the poison. Three doses, 4:0, 4:7, and 5°3 p.p.m.

including the non-toxic seed coat which accounts for about 25% of the

total weight (corresponding doses of seed kernel powder alone being 3:0,

3°5, and 4:0 p.p.m. respectively) were tried, with two replicates for each

concentration. The results are given in the Table.

TABLE

LENGTH CONCENTRATIONS OF Croton tiglium SEED POWDER FOR ERADICATION

OF COMMON FRESH-WATER FISHES IN PONDS

Concentrations

p.p.m.

Temperature - Species of fishes killed within

range °C 3 to 6 hours of exposure

4-0 22°5-33:5 |

(3.0) | neus, Cirrhinus mrigala, Clarius batra-

| Chus, Colisa fasciata, Esomus danrica,

i Glossogobius giuris, Labeo gonius, Labeo

| rohita, Macrognathus aculeatum, Mystus

bleekeri, M. seenghala, M. tengara, Nandus

| nandus, Notopterus notopterus, Ompok

bimaculatus, Ophicephalus punctatus,

Oxygaster bacaila, Puntius sophore,

Rasbora elanga, and Wallago attu.

°7 20:0-22'3 All the above plus Cyprinus carpio, Hetero-

5 j pneustes fossilis, and Ophicephalus gachua.

3 20°3-25°0 -do-

- (4:0)

As may be seen from the Table, 4 p.p.m. of the seed powder

(i.e. 3 p.p.m. seed kernel powder) was sufficient to eradicate most of the

common fresh-water fishes including the larger predators like Wallago

attu ‘and Mystus.seenghala within three to six hours. With a slightly

higher concentration of about 5 p.p.m. of the seed powder even hardy

Amblypharyngodon mola, Anabas_testudi-~

ee ee

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 239

air breathers like Ophicephalus gachua and Heteropneustes eas were

eliminated.

~ The action of the poison on the fishes is not violent. The affected

fishes came to the surface, showed occasional convulsive movements and

gradually died. The fishes could not be revived when transferred to

fresh water immediately after they are affected. The doses applied did

not kill prawns and insects like notonectids, coleopterans or hemipteran

bugs. Though zoo-planktons were killed they were found to develop

again about a week after treatment. The poison caused no adverse

changes in the physico-chemical conditions of water. The toxicity of

the poison was not affected by low temperatures.

According to Babu (1965) fishes like Ophicephalus spp., Anabas,

Tilapia and Heteropneustes are killed within about 3 hours by 4 p.p.m.

of the seed powder and within about 64 hours by 3 p.p.m. and toxicity

persists only for 72 hours with 4 p.p.m. However, the present field

studies indicate that about 5 p.p.m. was necessary for complete eradi-

cation of all fishes commonly found in ponds and the toxic effect of such

a dose persists for 3-4 days.

Thus the seeds of C. tiglium provide a useful fish poison which unlike

root poisons, can be collected without destroying the plant. The plant

under favourable conditions bears fruits when about two years old and

continues to yield for several years. From a full grown plant about

8-10 kg. of fruits can be collected every year which will give about

_ 3-3°5 kg. of seeds. This will be sufficient for clearing six nurseries each

of 0:02 hectare water spread, with an average depth of 1 metre.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author is grateful to Mr. K. H. Alikunhi for guidance in this

work and to Dr. M. T. Philipose and Mr. S. parareswatau oe help in

ee eecrion, of this note. ei

POND CULTURE UNIT, - B. R. BHUYAN!

CENTRAL INLAND FISHERIES RESEARCH INSTITUTE,

JOYSAGAR, ASSAM,

February 8, 1966.

—- me pe i

= Present Address :—Regional Research Laboratory, Jorhat, Assam.

240

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (i)

REFERENCES

ANONYMOUS’ (1964-65): Annual Re-

port, Central Inland Fisheries Research

Institute (Mimeo).

BABU, N.(1965) : Observations on the

toxicity of the seed of Croton tiglium

Linn. on predatory and Weed Fishes.

Sci. & Cult. 31 (6) : 308-310.

BHUYAN, B. R. (1966): Studies on

the use of seeds of Croton tiglium Linn.

as a poison for clearance of predatory

and weed fishes from nursery ponds.

Proc. Indian Sci. Congr. 53 (3): 381-

382 (Abstract).

CHoprA, R. N., BADHWaR, R. L. &

GuHosH, S. M. (1949) : Poisonous Plants

of India. p. 19. Govt. of India Press,

Calcutta.

———.,, CuHoprRa, I. C. & Kapur,

LL. Dd. (1958) : Indigenous Drugs of

India. p. 578. U.N. Dhar Pvt. Ltd.,

Calcutta 12.

—— (1956): Glossary of Indian

Medicinal Plants. p. 82 C.S.I.R. (India).

Hora, S. L. & Pittay, T. V. R. (1962) :

Hand Book of Fish Culture in the Indo-

Pacific Region. p.399. F.A.O. of U.N.

———— (1967) : Eradication of un- Rome.

wanted fish from ponds by using indi- NADKARNI, K. M. (1954): The

genous plant fish poisons. Sci. & Cult. Indian Materia Medica. 399. 3rd

33 (2) : 82-83. ed. Popular Book Depot, Bombay 7.

21. NOTES ON ANIMAL RELATIONSHIPS : DROMIID

CRABS, CRYPTODROMIA TUBERCULATA PILEIFERA

ALCOCK, 1899 SHELTERING BENEATH COMMENSAL

SPONGES

Whilst collecting marine fauna in the inshore regions of Great

Nicobar Island during February-May 1966, an interesting animal associa-

tion between dromiid crabs and hemispherical commensal sponges was

observed. The details of this association together with some experi-

mental observations are presented in this note.

The inshore region of Great Nicobar Island is mainly coralline inter-

spersed with sandy patches and rock boulders. The coral reefs abound

in madreporarian corals and harbour an extremely rich fauna including

sponges. Among the sponge fauna, there were a number of small

hemispherical forms, ranging in diameter from 15 mm. to 18 mm. on

corals exposed in the intertidal region during low tide.

As the apparent movements of these sponges attracted attention these

were picked up, and it was found that each hemispherical sponge shel-

tered a small crab underneath. On examination the crab was seen hold-

ing the sponge as a cap by means of the last two pairs of ambulatory legs.

In addition to the specimens examined and experimented upon in

the field, the following material was brought to Calcutta for study:

No. of sets Stn. No. Collection No. Date Locality

l.. One 1 221 6.3.66 From low tide re-

gion of Camp-

bell Bay. |

2. Two 10 776 2.4.66 From low tide re-

gion of Casua-

rina Bay.

CM Sib 20 L122. 15.4.66 From low tide re-

gion of Shiv-

dutt Bay. —

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 241

Following Alcock (1901) and Buitendijk (1950), the crabs have been

identified as Cryptodromia tuberculata pileifera Alcock, 1899, belonging

to the family Dromiidae. The carapace of the largest specimens (male

and female) are 8°5 mm. long and 10°5 mm. broad. The older collec-

tions of Z.S.I. comprise pceiaers from Port Blair, Great Cocos Islands

and Little Andaman Island. ;

The sponges are all encrusting forms Edens to the family Suberi-

tidae. |

OBSERVATIONS

The following observations have been made in the field-laboratory :

Three sets of animal association obtained on 2-4-66 from Casuarina

Bay were left in separate bowls containing sea-water. At the bottom of

the bowl some sand and pieces of corals and rock were arranged to

simulate conditions of the inshore region at low tide. The sponge caps

were carefully dislodged from the crabs and the associates were released

in the same containers. Within two hours the crabs had covered them-

selves with the detached caps, in all the three bowls.

In a second series of experiments where specimens of denuded Crypto-

dromia were released into large tanks containing sea-water along with

_live encrusting sponges and were not provided with removed sponge

caps, it was observed that the crabs broke off pieces of live sponges and

held them by their last two pairs of legs over their backs pressed close

to their carapace.

In a third series of experiments where these specimens of Crypto-

dromia were released into tanks containing simple ascidians, empty

bivalve shells, encrusting sponge etc. it was noticed that the crabs did not

use the material other than encrusting sponges for protecting their

carapace. |

REMARKS

These observations reveal that these dromiid crabs prefer any en-

crusting sponge for protective purposes, because the sponge may even-

tually spread over the entire carapace. According to Alcock (1902)

and Hyman (1940) the members of the family Dromiidae have the habit

of sheltering under small animals such as sponges, ascidians, and empty

valve of lamellibranch shells. In the case of Cryptodromia tuberculata

pileifera Alcock it is probable that it covers itself only with ay ay

available species of encrusting sponge.

242 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

This type of bipartite relationship between sponges and crabs is pro-

bably mutually beneficial. Because of the disagreeble taste and odour

as well as the bristly spiculation, sponges are seldom eaten by other

animals (vide Hyman 1940) and therefore are of benefit to the crabs for

shelter and protection. The sponges, however, are benefited to a limited

extent only. Being sedentary in habit they get the advantage of being

carried from place to place and also obtain oma particles of food scat-

tered about by the crab.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors are grateful to the Director, Zoological Survey of India,

for facilities to undertake this work and to various members of Z.S.I.

party for helping in the collections and observations. Thanks are also

due to Dr. K. K. Tiwari and Shri. A. S. Rajagopal for going through the

manuscript.

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, A. DANIEL

CALCUTTA, V. K. PREMKUMAR

August 19, 1967.

REFERENCES

Atcock, A. (1889): Materials for a BuITENDIIK, A. M. (1950): On a

Carcinological fauna of India. No. 5. small collection of Decapoda. Bra-

The Brachyura Primigenia or Dromiacea. chyura, chiefly Dromiidae and Oxyrhyn-

J. Asiat. Soc. Bengal 68 : 1-104, 123-169. cha, from the neighbourhood of

(1901): Catalogue of the Singapore. Bull. Raffles Mus. 21:

Indian Decapod Crustacea (Pt. 1, Fasc. 59-82. :

1), Calcutta : 1-80. HyMaNn, L. H. (1940): The Inverte-

(1902): A Naturalist in brates: Protozoa through Ctenophora.

Indian Seas. London. New York and London.

22. GREGARIOUSNESS AND MIMICRY DURING COCOON

STAGE BY THE BUTTERFLY EUREMA HECABE (L.)

In the month of August 1965 at Shillong, I observed that almost all

Acacia mollissima Willd. and Albizzia sp. trees were heavily infested by

whitish green caterpillars, subsequently identified as the larvae of Eurema —

hecabe (L.).

Within a month’s time the attacked plants were completely defoliated

by the caterpillars and just after complete defoliation, the caterpillars

Started to make their leaf-like cocoons on the naked leaf midribs of the

host-plant. The cocoons were arranged serially and hung by their stalk

in such a way on the midribs that they looked like the leaves of the plant.

The size and shape of the cocoons were nearly the same as that of the leaf

of the host plant.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES ; 243

I counted more than a hundred cocoons hanging in a small infested

branch. It was a beautiful example of: gregariousness and mimicry by

butterfly cocoons.

- ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

EASTERN REGIONAL STATION, B. K. TIKADER

SHILLONG-4, ASSAM,

July 23, 1966.

23. ON THE SEASONAL FLUCTUATIONS AND BIOLOGY

OF ANAPHOTHRIPS FLAVICINCTUS (KARNY) ON PANICUM

MAXIMUM IN MADRAS

(With six text-figures)

Studies on Anaphothrips flavicinctus, one of the common grass infest-

ing species in south India and often called the ‘ wheat thrip’ in other

parts, are limited to its taxonomic position (Schmutz 1913, Karny 1919,

Shumsher Singh 1942), its bionomics in relation to the wheat plant

(Patel & Patel 1953) and alary polymorphism (Ananthakrishnan 1961).

In view of their occurrence in considerable numbers on Panicum

maximum, the guinea grass throughout the year, an attempt was made to

observe their fluctuations in density, in relation to variations in climate

involving temperature, relative humidity, rainfall and wind velocity for

a period of two years, 1965-67.

For the purpose of estimating the density of the population 40 sweeps _

were taken as the unit of a count with each sweep not overlapping the

preceding one (Cederholm 1963). Relative humidity was measured by

using a hair hygrometer and the temperature with a standard centigrade

thermometer, with both the instruments placed within the rows of grasses

at the time of collection. Wind velocity and rainfall were obtained from

the Meteorological Observatory, Nungambakkam, very near the site of

investigation. The thrips collected alive were narcotised with ether

vapour, counted and subsequently on activation, released on to the host.

For studies of their life cycles, the individuals were reared on pot plants

_ in the laboratory.

Both sexual and parthenogenetic modes of reproduction occur in

_ this species. Larvae hatched from random eggs were reared and on

becoming adults, the sexes were isolated and both types of reproduction

| studied. Adults were observed to mate 36-48 hours after emergence

| and copulation lasts for about five minutes. The first batch of eggs is

| laid 2-4 days after copulation. The time taken to lay a single egg ranges

244 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

from 5-10 minutes. Prior to oviposition, the female moves its antennae

and abdomen in various directions, the abdomen subsequently arching

upwards, introducing the ovipositor into the leaf tissue at an angle, and

laying the eggs parallel to the veins. The parthenogenetic female was

observed to have a longer oviposition period and often laid more eggs than ~

the fertilised female. Presumably the increased longevity of the

parthenogenetic female is the causal factor. The rate of oviposition

during the months of January-February is 7-8 for the first 3-4 days and

gradually decreases and oviposition is completed after 6-8 days. On the

other hand oviposition records during the months July-August, reveal

that the adults have a comparatively shorter longevity during this period

and the oviposition rate is correspondingly higher. The oviposition

period was also less and rate of oviposition per day high. This appears

to be an adaptation to cope up with the increased temperature during

these months.

TABLE 1

OVIPOSITION RECORDS FOR 1966

_ temper- repro- position tion position | eggs per| eggs female

ature duction | period | period | period day laid longevity

January-February

25-28°C Sexual 2-3 6-8 6-8 3-7 20-47 16-21

days days days

25-28°C Partheno- 3-4 9-10 6-9 4-8 41-56 18-23

genetic days days days

33-36°C Sexual 1-2 4-5 4-5 5-13 25-52 11-14

days days days days

33-36°C Partheno- 2-3 5-6 6-7 9-13 54-65 13-16

genetic days

Egg mortality in either type of reproduction was almost as high as |

50% and heavy mortality (50%) also occurred in the first instar |

larvae. All the parthenogenetically reproduced offspring were females _

and in the case of sexual reproduction, 92% were females. |

Duration of Instars at different temperatures

As in the case of the oviposition records, the duration of the various |

larval instars fell within the same range in both the sexual and partheno- |

genetically reproducing individuals, but it was influenced by temperature.

The duration was observed to be shorter in the individuals reared in |

July-August when the average temperature was higher.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

D Fanavusd wif,

a fe

Saray 20 Ons

‘o

(a) Fluctuations in relation to Temperature

Graph I.

1966-67

500

450

400 -

Q mwoeve vdW3 TT

tad)

La)

3 8 8

Sdtyn 7 10 ON

x - °

‘oe — ara EG wel oe vere eu a

Graph TI. (5) Fluctuations in relation to Temperature

246

No or TwRPs

Noe or Tories

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

9 o 63

1965- 66 PO aes st

cA *,

f00 x A 79

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RHX#

RAY

247

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he nog

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Graph III. (5) Fluctuations in relation to rainfall

248 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

TABLE 2

DURATION OF LARVAL INSTARS IN 1966

(Average temperature 25-28°C)

Duration in days

No.

S.No. Stage

| observed Maximum Minimum

January-February

1 Egg | 27 9 5

2 Ist instar 14 3 Z

3 Lind”. .; 11 6 4

4 Prepupa 12 D 1

5 Pupa 10 4 3

July-August

(Average temperature 33-36°C)

1 Egg 21 6 3

2. Ist instar {2 3 2

3 IInd _,, 12 5) 3

40 Prepupa 11 1 1

5 Pupa 11 3 1

An analysis of the density of thrips populations for the two years

shows that in both the years the number of thrips was highest (400-450)

during the months February-April, when the temperature range was

31-34°C, relative humidity 72-75% and rainfall is insignificant. There

was a distinct fall in number (125-250) in both the years during the months

May and June when the temperature range was 36-38°C, the relative

humidity 59-67°%. The number again showed an increase in July-August

1965 (300) when the temperature, humidity and rainfall were the same as

in February-April, but it was practically negligible for the corresponding

period in 1966 due to regular and increasing amounts of rainfall

(150-250 mm.). During the months November-December the counts,

were almost nil in both the years due to heavy rainfall (450-550 mm.)

high relative humidity (80-90) and low temperature (28-29°C). As such

the optimum conditions appear to be a temperature, range of 31-34°C,

relative humidity 72-75%, and insignificant rainfall.

LOYALA COLLEGE,

MADRAS-34 T. N. ANANTHAKRISHNAN

August 8, 1967. A. JAGADISH

REFERENCES

ANANTHAKRISHNAN, T. N. (1961): PATEL, N. G. & PATEL, 2 es (1953) :

Proc. 1st Zoological Congress, Jabalpur. Indian J. Ent., 15 (3) : 251

CEDERHOLM (1963): Opuscula Ento- SHUMSHER SINGH (i943) Ne ds

mological Supplementum 22: 215 pp. Ent. 4 (2): 17-18,

Karny (1919) : Marcellia 9°: 115, - .

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES - 249

24. FURTHER DATA ON HOST-PLANTS OF LAC INSECTS

(TACHARDIIDAE, HOMOPTERA)

An additional list of host-plants of lac insects has become necessary,

in view of the delay between the original submission of the supplementary

(world) list of lac-hosts in 1963 and its publication in the previous issue

of the Journal [Vol. 64 (3): 488-511] in 1968, despite two revisions in

1964-65 and additional corrections on the proof. This list comprises

more records of lac host-plants from India which I have comeacross

since we submitted the main list. Further, the nomenclature of some lac-

hosts has been revised in accordance with recent literature by Maheshwari

(1963), Raizada (1966) and Santapau (1967).

1. Abrus precatorius Linn. (Leguminosae). Lac cells were observed

on it, while the shrub twined on a lac-inoculated Butea monos-

perma, at Rajnagar, Madhya Pradesh (Mehra & Gokulpure 1967,

pp. 695, 703).

2. Acacia planifrons W. & A. (Leguminosae). Lac bearing tree of

Travancore (Barker 1921, p. 8). |

3. Alchornea tiliaefolia | Muell.-Arg. (Euphorbiaceae). Laccifer

(now Kerria) chinensis (Mahdihassan) was found in small colonies

with good encrustations of lac on it, in Mungpu forest and ad-

joining areas in Darjeeling District, West Bengal (Ghose 1963,

pei25): :

4. Atylosia scarabaeoides Benth. (Leguminosae). It was found

carrying sparse and small cells of aghani lac at Jhalda, West

Bengal (Das Gupta & Mehra 1967, pp. 332, 336).

5. Combretum ovalifolium Roxb. (Combretaceae). New lac-host

recorded from Rajnagar, Madhya Pradesh ; the shrub rested on

a lac-inoculated Butea monosperma (Mehra & Gokulpure 1967,

pp. 695, 701).

6. Hardwickia pinnata Roxb. (Leguminosae). Lac bearing tree of

Travancore ; only one specimen of lac seen on it. Locally called

as ‘acha’ (Barker 1921 ; p. 10).

7. Hemidesmus indicus Sch. (Asclepiadaceae). New _lac-host

recorded from Compt. 109, Madhya Pradesh ; the shrub was

- twining round a lac-inoculated Zizyphus xylopyra Erne &

Gokulpure 1967, pp. 696, 701).

8. Marlea begoniifolia Roxb. (Alangiaceae). Syns. Alangium

chinense (Lour.) Harms; A. begoniifolium (Roxb.) Baill. It

is one of the recorded hosts of the Indian lac insect.in Assam

| [vide, WEALTH OF INDIA, Raw materials, 6 (L-M), 1962, p. 304].

9. Vitis sp. (Vitaceae). New lac-host found at Bamhani and Katangi,

Madhya Pradesh (Mehra & Gokulpure 1967, pp. 696, 701).

10. V. latifolia Roxb. [=Ampelocissus latifolia (Roxb.) Planch.]

250 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

(Vitaceae). New lac-host recorded from Rajnagar, Madhya

Pradesh ; the vine was climbing a Butea monosperma (Mehra &

Gokulpure 1967, pp. 696, 701).

The nomenclature of certain earlier known lac host-plants, given in

Roonwal-Raizada list, has recently undergone changes. These plants,

with their new name first, are noted below, in order to make the list more

useful.

LEGUMINOSAE

1. Acacia nilotica (Linn.) Del. subsp. indica (Benth.) Brenan Syn. A.

arabica (Lamk.) Willd.

2. A. polyacantha Willd. Syn. A. suma Buch.-Ham.

3. A. sinuata (Lour.) Merr. Syns. A. concinna DC., A. rugata Merr.

MORACEAE

4. Ficus virens Ait. Syns. F. Jacor auct. non Buch.-Ham., F. infectoria

Roxb., F. lucescens Blume.

5. FF. microcarpa Linn. f. Syns. F. benjamina auct. non Linn., F. retusa

auct. non Linn.

DIPTEROCARPACEAE

6. Shorea roxburghii G. Don. Syns. S. talura Roxb., S. robusta Roth

non Gaertn f.,.S. laccifera Heyne ex Wall., Vatica laccifera W. & A.

(Kashyapa 1961, pp. 543-544).

RUTACEAE

7. Pleiosperonium alatum (Wall. ex W. & A.) Syn. Limonia alata Wall. -

ex W. & A.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The library help received from Botanical Survey of India, Eastern

Circle, Shillong, is gratefully acknowledged. |

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, | | '

EASTERN REGIONAL STATION, |. ~ R. K. VARSHNEY

SHILLONG-4, | i

November 30, 1967,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

REFERENCES

BARKER, S. G. (1921): The Shellac

‘industry and _ its possibilities in

‘Travancore. Bull. Dept. Indus. Govt.

Travancore, No. 7.

Das Gupta, J. M. & MEHRA, B. P.

(1967) : Recorded and unrecorded lac-

hosts from West Bengal. Indian Forester,

93 (5).

GuHosE, S. K. (1963): Lac insects

(Lacciferidae, Hemiptera) from West

Bengal. Indian Agric. 7 (1 & 2).

KaSHYAPA, G. (1961): Shorea talura

Roxb., a synonym of S. roxburghii

G. Don. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.,

58 (2).

MAHESH WARI, J. K. (1963) : The Flora

MeuRA, B. P. & GOKULPURE, R. S.

(1967) : Recorded and unrecorded lac-

hosts from Madhya Pradesh. Indian

Forester 93 (10).

PRASAD, U. N. & MEHRA, B. P. (1967) :

A new record of rangeeni lac on Grevillea

robusta A. Cunn. (Fam. Proteaceae)

from Namkum,_ Ranchi. Indian

Forester, 93 (6). [Vide, No. 119 in the

main list].

RaIzADA, M. B. (1966) : Nomencla-

tural changes in Indian plants. Indian

Forester 92 (5).

SANTAPAU, H. (1967): The flora of

Khandala on the Western ghats of India.

3rd_revised ed. Rec. Bot. Surv. India

of Delhi. Council of Scientific and

16 (1).

Industrial Research, New Delhi.

25. PARASITES, PREDATORS AND OTHER NATURAL

ENEMIES OF SUGARCANE PESTS IN MAHARASHTRA

Sugarcane is one of the major commercial crops extensively grown

in Maharashtra State, in an area of about 3°75 lakh acres. Forty-four

species of pests including borers, fulgorids, coccids, etc. have been re-

corded to infest the crop and they are a serious menace to its successful

cultivation. Of these, the internal feeders are very difficult to control

with modern pesticides. Attempts are therefore being made in various

countries for their successful control through large scale use of their

natural enemies, thereby saving huge annual losses.

A beginning in this direction has already been made in India and

various workers have recorded several natural enemies of sugarcane

pests in States like Mysore, Bihar, Madras, etc. Krishnamurti &

Usman (1954) have described about 20 different parasites on sugarcane

pests while Gupta (1954), and Gupta & Awasthi (1956) have given a brief

account of the parasites of sugarcane pests recorded in north India.

Butani (1958) has listed about 99 species of parasites and predators

recorded on the pests of sugarcane throughout India. A brief account

of about 40 natural enemies recorded in Mysore State with details of

their alternate hosts, time of occurrence, the percentage parasitization

etc. is given by Shivashankara Sastry & Appana (1958). Besides

recording the natural enemies, attempts for large scale multiplication of

the promising species with a view to controlling the noxious pests, have

also been made. (Puttarudriah & Usman 1958, Puttarudriah & Sastry

1958, Subramaniam 1937, Tirumala Rao et al. 1954).

However, in Maharashtra, the use of these natural enemies in con-

trolling harmful pests of sugarcane has not been fully exploited except

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

252

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256 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

for the attempts made for large scale multiplication of Trichogramma

minutum Riley and Tetrastichus sp. egg and pupal parasites respectively,

for the control of sugarcane borers (Bagal & Patel 1952 ; Anonymous

1958). It was, therefore, felt necessary to carry out detailed survey of

the major sugarcane growing areas of the State and record natural ©

enemies of the pests of sugarcane crop. The information regarding the

host-range, locality, period of occurrence etc. of the various species

recorded is given above in a tabular form which would be useful in under-

taking further work on successful utilization of some of the promising

natural enemies in controlling these pests.

ENTOMOLOGY SECTION,

COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE,

POONA-5),

May 17, 1967.

REFERENCES

Anonymous (1953 & 1958): Annual

progress report of scheme for studies of

sugarcane pests, Walchandnagar, by

Govt. of Maharashtra.

BaGAL, S. R. & PATEL, G. A. (1952):

Sugarcane stem borer and its control by

use of Trichogramma parasites, Farmer

Bombay 3 (8) : 1-2.

BuTaNnl, D. K. (1958): Parasites and

predators recorded on sugarcane pests.

in India. Indian J. Ent. 20 (4) : 270-282.

CHERIAN, M. C. & ISRAEL, P. (1937) :

Studies on Elasmus zehnteneri F. a para-

site of sugarcane white moth. Madras

Agric. J. 25 (9) : 273-279.

Gupta, B. D. (1954): A note on the

scope of biological control, of sugarcane

pests. The second biennial, conference

of sugarcane Research and Development

Workers, India. By Indian Central

Sugarcane Committee, New Delhi: 229-

233:

— & AwastTuHI, P. N. (1956):

Recent advances in sugarcane entomo-

logy in India. Indian sugar 5 : 541-548.

KRISHNAMURTI &- USMAN (1954):

Some insect parasites of economic im-

portance noted in Mysore State. Indian

J. Ent. 16 (4) : 327-344.

ManI, M. S. (1939): Description of

new records of some known Chalcidid

and other hymenopterous parasites from

India. op. cit. 1 (1 & 2) : 68-99.

NARAYANAN, E. S. & KUNDANLAL

(1953) : Studies on Chalcid egg parasite

of Pyrilla sp. occurring in Delhi. op.

cit. 15 (3) : 173-179.

—_—_——, SuspBA RAO, B. R. & Kaur,

R. B. (1957): Some known and new

records of parasites of sugarcane scale

insects from India. op. cit. 19 (2):

144-146.

PUTTARUDRIAH, M. & CHANNA BAS-

VANNA, G. P. (1956): Some beneficial

coccinellids of Mysore. J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 54 (1) : 156-159.

& (1957) : Some

insect predators of aphids in Mysore.

Mysore Agric. J. 32 (3-4) : 158-161.

— & SHIVASHANKARA SASTRY

(1958): Studies on the biology of

Tetrastichus ayyari R. with attempts to

utilize it in the control of sugarcane

borers. Indian J. Ent. 20 (3): 189-198.

— & Usman, S. (1958): Brief

notes on recent investigations on some

beneficial parasites in Mysore. Mysore

Agric. J. 33 (2) : 76-79.

SHIVASHANKARA SASTRY & APPANA, M.

(1958) : Parasites and predators of some

common insect pests of sugarcane in

Visvesvarayya canal tract, Mandya —

District, Mysore State. op. cit. 33 (3):

143-153.

SUBRAMANYAM, T. V. (1937) : Prelimi-

nary experiment on mass production of

Trichogramma parasite for control of

sugarcane borers in Mysore. Indian J.

Agric. Sci. 8 (1) : 149-155. —

STEBBING, E. P. (1903): Predaceous

coccinellidae of Indian region. Jndian

Museum Notes 6 (1): 47-62.

TIRUMALA RAO, LEELA Davin, V. &

MoHAN Rao, K. R. (1954): Attempts

at the utilization of Chilocorus nigritus

F. in Madras State. Indian J. Ent.

16 (3) : 205-209.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 2

26. A NEW SPIDER OF THE GENUS JISCHNOTHYREUS

SIMON (FAMILY OONOPIDAE) FROM INDIA

(With five text-figures)

The spiders of the family Oonopidae are little known in India and

the genus Ischnothyreus Simon, has not been reported previously from

India. While examining a spider collection from Shillong, I came across

a new species of spider of the genus Ischnothyreus, which is described

here.

The type specimen will in due course be deposited in the National

Zoological Collections, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta.

Ischnothyreus shillongensis sp. nov.

General : Cephalothorax reddish-brown, legs and abdomen green.

Total length 2°80 mm. Carapace 1°20 mm. long, 1:10 mm. wide ;

abdomen 1°70 mm. long, 1:00 mm. wide. }

Cephalothorax : Slightly longer than wide or nearly as long as wide,

‘clothed with fine hairs. Middle of cephalothorax high and sloping both

sides. Eyes six and pearly white but posterior median eyes less white

than others, arranged in two rows, posterior median eyes smaller than

others. Ocular area provided with conspicuous black patch. Clypeus

moderate. Chelicerae vertical, boss absent, double row of hairs beside

promargin, tooth and denticle absent (fig. 4). Sternum heart-shaped,

longer than wide, clothed with fine hairs, mid-anteriorly with a longi-

tudinal black mark. Legs clothed with fine hairs and a few spines.

Femora and tibiae of I and II legs with three and four robust ventral

spines respectively.

Abdomen: Nearly elliptical, clothed with hairs. Anterior side

provided with small conspicuous scutum (figs. 1 and 2). Ventral side

slightly lighter than dorsal, and anterior portion up to epigastric grooves

with a_ scutum (fig. 2). Epigyne as infig. 3. Male smaller than female.

Male palp as in fig. 5.

Holotype: One female, paratype two females and allotype one male

in spirit.

Type-locality : Shillong Peak, Shillong, Assam, India. Coll.

Shyamrup Biswas, 6.4.1967.

_ This species appears to be closely related to Ischnothyreus omus

Suman described from Hawaii Islands. However, Ischnothyreus shil-

_longensis differs from I. omus by the structure of the male palp and female

epigyne. The dorsal scutum of J. shillongensis is smaller than that of

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

258

5 wan

hee £5

Figs. 1-5. Ischnothyreus shillongensis sp. nov.

2. Lateral view of female, legs omitted

5. Male palp.

)

tted

4. Lateral view of chelicera

Dorsal view of female, legs om

3. Epigyne

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 259

I. omus. The cephalothorax of J. shillongensis is reddish-brown but in

I. omus the cephalothorax has a pair of large brown patches behind

the eyes.

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

EASTERN REGIONAL STATION, B. K. TIKADER

SHILLONG-4 (INDIA),

16 December, 1967.

REFERENCES

Locket, G. H. & MiuLuipce, A. F. TIKADER, B. K. (1966) : A new species

(1951): British spiders. Ray Society of spider of the genus Triaeris Simon

London. 1: 76. (Family Oonopidae) from India.

SUMAN, T. W. (1965): Spiders of the Current Science 35 (20) : 520.

family Oonopidae in Hawaii. Pacific 3 ;

Insects 7 (2) : 225-242.

27. ON THE ABUNDANT OCCURRENCE OF DESMOPTERUS

GARDINERI TESCH 1910, (THECOSOMATA : MOLLUSCA),

IN THE INDIAN OCEAN

(With a map)

The genus Desmopterus was created by Chun in 1888 to include a

single species D. papilio. This species is known to have a wide range of

distribution from 35°N to 40°S latitudes in the Atlantic and Indian

Oceans (Meisenheimer 1905 ; Tesch 1910, 1946).

Tesch added a new species, D. gardineri in 1910, based on a single

specimen collected near the Chagos Archipelago (Map) during the Percy

Sladen Trust Expedition (Tesch 1910). D. gardineri is distinguished

from D. papilio by the form and arrangement of the muscle bands of the

two fins. In both species the muscle bands run in two main directions,

at right angles to one another. But in D. gardineri, the muscle bands

are distinctly broader and clearly separated from one another, in

contrast to D. papilio.

Since 1910, the only noteworthy collections reported on from the

Indian Ocean are the Dana collections of 1928-30 Tesch (1946, 1948).

He was unable to find examples of either species of Desmopterus in the

Indian Ocean stations, and only one record of D. papilio from the

Atlantic (vide p. 41, Tesch 1948). The present author has been unable

to trace any published record of D. gardineri from the Indian Ocean or the

Other oceans of the world, since the date of original description.

The studies now in progress in the Indian Ocean Biological Centre,

| Ernakulam, (Kerala), on the Thecosomata (Opisthobranchiata, Order

260 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

Thecosomata: Mollusca) of the International Indian Ocean Expedition

Collections, have revealed that both species of Desmopterus occur over

wide areas of the Indian Ocean. Though D. gardineri is less abundant

than D. papilio, it has been recognized in 32 stations out of the 395

stations examined so far (Cruises of Argo and Anton Bruun). It was

identified in ten stations in the Bay of Bengal, fivein the Arabian Sea and

seventeen in the south-west region of the Indian Ocean as depicted in

the Map, extending as far as 32°S latitude. Areas of relatively greater

abundance may be mentioned as the central part of the Bay of Bengal,

the east coast of Somalia and the north-west coast of Madagascar (Map).

The number of specimens of D. gardineri estimated till now, totals 125

and the largest number from a single haul, (20 individuals) was in a

station in the Bay of Bengal. A fuller account of the systematics, mor-

phology and distribution of Desmopterus and other pelagic Thecosomata

will be published elsewhere.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author expresses his gratitude to Dr. N. K. Panikkar and Prof.

John McGowan for encouragement and sincere thanks to Mr. L. R.

Kasturirangan for offering suggestions.

INDIAN OCEAN BIOLOGICAL CENTRE,

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF OCEANOGRAPHY, M. SAKTHIVEL

ERNAKULAM-6, ;

September 27, 1967.

REFERENCES = |

MEISENHEIMER, J. (1905): Pteropoda. ———— (1946) : The Thecosomatous

Wiss. Ergebn. der. Deut. Tiefsee expedi- Pteropods. I. Atlantic. Dana Rep. |

tion ‘ Valdivia’. 9 : 1-314. 28 : 1-82.

TescH, J. J. (1910): Pteropoda and (1948) : The Thecosomatous |

Heteropoda. Report Percy Sladen Trust Pteropods. ii. Indo-Pacific Dana Rep.

Expedition. iii. Trans. Linn. Soc. Lond. 30: 1-44. .

Zool, (2) 14: 165-189. |

28. ADDITIONS TO THE FLORA OF BOMBAY

Najas marina Linn. Sp. Pl. 1015, 1753 incl. var. 8 et ¥ ; Rendle, |

Trans. Linn. Soc. II, Bot. 5: 389, t. 39, f. 1-30, 1899; Hutchinson, _

Fam. Fl. Pl. 2: 561, f. 356—A-H, 1959 ; Duthie, Fl. Upper Gang. |

Plain 2:376, 1960 (reprinted); Prain, Bengal Pl. 2:847, 1963 —

(reprinted) ; de Wilde, Fl. Males. 6 (2): 163, 1962. Najas major All. |

Fl. Ped. 2 : 221, 1785; Hook. f. Fl. Brit. India 6 : 569, 1893 ; Haines, |

Bot. Bihar & Orissa 3 : 892, 1961 (reprinted). a

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 261

Slender, dichotomously branched herbs rooting at lower nodes ;

internodes 1°5-4:0 cm. long, glabrous or with scattered spinous teeth.

Leaves 10-15 <0°7-1:0 mm., linear, flat, somewhat fleshy ; apex blunt or

acute ; spinous teeth brown, 4-8 on each margin and a few on back ;

sheath 2:0-2°5 x3°0-3°9 mm., with one to two inconspicuous teeth on

each side. Spathe of male flowers 4:01:75 mm. Anthers 4-celled.

Female flowers espathaceous, 1°9-3°9 mm. long. Seeds 2°5x1°5 mm.

brown, elliptic, somewhat asymmetrical.

Occasional, in brackish water at Nal Sarovar, North Gujarat (R.J.P.

without number, dated 1-2-1965) and in fresh water of Mahi River near

Galteshwar, Central Gujarat (M.H.P. without number, dated December,

1966), mixed with N. minor All.

Flowers and fruits : December-February.

Distribution ; Cosmopolitan, according to Duthie.

Critical notes: It differs from N. minor All. as follows (adapted

from Prain) :—

- Dioecious ; leaf teeth large, few, back of leaf and internodes with

Similar teeth. -anthers,4-locularis o.oo ea bs Smee es ees N. marina

Monoecious ; leaf teeth rather numerous, back of leaf usually with-

Outstecther anthers Wlocular si... ee elas Ge uns eee snins a8 N. minor

Eupatorium odoratum L. forma squarrosum Koster f. in Blumea

7 (1): 290, 1952.

Annual herbs 30-60 cm. tall, sometimes up to 90 cm. high ; stem and

branches terete, faintly striate, glabrous or sparsely hairy in older parts,

thinly pubescent in younger. Leaves 4:0-6°0<0°8-2'5 cm., ovate-

lanceolate, entire or slightly crenate, faintly three lobed near base,

sparsely hairy and minutely gland dotted beneath, petiole 7:0-10°0 mm.

long, with a few scattered hairs. Heads homogamous, 6:0-10°0 mm.

long, cylindrical, in terminal corymbs. Bracts 3-5 seriate, those of inner

series longest, 2°0-7°0 x 0°5-1'0 mm., linear glabrous but for appressed

minute scales on back, prominently 3-5 nerved from base, nerves dark-

green ; apex obtuse or subacute ; base rounded ; margins entire, hairy

in upper part. Flowers pale bluish-purple. Pappus uniseriate, scabridly

hairy, as long as corolla. Corolla 4:5-6:°0 mm. long. Achenes

2°0-3°0 mm. long, triquetrous, obconical, black, glabrous or sparsely

hairy on angles.

The plant is a native of warmer parts of America, introduced as an

ornamental hedge plant in V.P. College garden where it is now found

wild (Shah 13048). In August 1966, one of us also found a few plants

in the forests of Chhotaudepur, East Gujarat (M.H.P. without number),

probably an escape. 7

Flowers and fruits: Mostly during monsoon, sometimes March-

April.

262 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

Trigonella uncata Boiss. & Noé, Diagn. Ser. II 2 : 12.

Diffuse herbs 20°0-30°0 cm. long; stem and branches slender,

glabrous, faintly striate. Leaves trifoliate, alternate ; rachis 1:2-1°5 cm.

long, hairy in younger parts, almost glabrous in older; leaflets 3,

terminal one largest, all 2°0-4-0 x 1:3-3°0 mm., sessile or shortly petio-

lulate, obovate, inciso-serrate in upper half, glabrous above, appressedly

hairy beneath, cuneate at base ; stipules 3°0-4°0 mm. long, glabrous,

deeply cut into 3-5 subbulate segments. Flowers yellow, 4-6, in axillary

capitate racemes ; peduncle 3°0-5:0 mm. long, sparsely hairy, ending in

a sharp awn. Pods 5°6 x 1°5-2°0 mm., Blabrous, linear, curved, shortly

beaked. Seeds 4-6.

Rare ; a small patch seen in sandy loam soil in Mahi River bed near

Timba Road Station in Panchmahal District, East Gujarat (M.H.P.

without number).

Distribution: Arabia, then ranging eastwards from Jordan, through

Iraq, Iran, Baluchistan and N.W. India as a native. The present report,

therefore, gives an additional locality of its distribution in India.

The authors are deeply thankful to The Director, Rijksherbarium,

Leiden, for the identification of the first two plants and to The Director,

Kew Gardens, England, for the identification and usefulinformation on

the distribution of the last plant.

DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY, G. L. SHAH

SARDAR PATEL UNIVERSITY, | R. J. PATEL

VALLABH VIDYANAGAR, ; M. H. PATEL

GUJARAT STATE,

May 24, 1967.

29. THE SPIRALITY OF MAIN STEM AND ITS

RELATIONSHIP TO THAT OF OFF-SHOOTS IN

EUPHORBIA ANTIQUORUM LINN.

(With a text-figure):

The stem of some euphorbiaceous species twists either clockwisely

(left-handed) or counter-clockwisely. This twisting is easily perceivable

in stems bearing one or more wings, grooves, rows of leaves or spines.

This brief report shows how the twisting of the main stem and that of the

first order of off-shoots in Euphorbia antiquorum are related. In this

species, the stem is a succulent cladode which bears three or four wings,

each wing possessing pairs of spines at intervals and small caducous _

leaves. In many varieties of E. antiquorum the stem does not show any

twisting, but in-one variety, very common in south India, twisting of the |

stem is clearly noticeable (Fig. 1). Data were collected in January 1965

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 263

from a population of this variety in a village near Coimbatore, south

India.

BR) WK Y

Sloe Ne

S \ \Wig f

~~ ~ NN. yi it

NAW!

z wp th?

\y* —

INSS Q

BSN

SSS

Fig. 1. Right- and left-twisting stems of Euphorbia antiquorum

1,500 main stems were examined of which two per cent showed a

reversal of the twisting from one type to the other. A fraction of these

Showed double reversals as seen in Table 1.

TABLE 1

Euphorbia antiquorum : NATURE OF MAIN STEM

Left-handeds .. 748

Right-handeds pean 992

Left turning right Pee)

Right turning left is, i,

Left to right to left as 3

. Right to left to right cil al)

| EB U¥o1al .. 1.500... ee

“ x $ ove ey o.. Peg MPa, ~ | eael, ap. ees vo gt.

264. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

50°88 per cent of the regularly twisting stems were left-handers. A

further 200 main stems were cut randomly from a further lot of plants.

As mentioned, the stem has either three or four wings at the “ internodal ’

region. Out of the 200 plants, 58 had four wings each and the rest three.

The stem may produce one branch each from a wing, and so a four-

winged stem may have four off-shoots although in many they may be

reduced to 3, 2, 1 or nil. Similarly, a three-winged stem may have less

than four or no off-shoots. The few stems producing no off-shoot were

excluded. Very rarely a wing produced more than one off-shoot. In

Table 2 details of the off-shoots produced from the 200 main stems are

given.

TABLE 2

Euphorbia antiquorum : No. OF OFF-SHOOTS PER ‘ INTERNODE ’

(ALL WINGS) OF 200 MAIN STEMS

| Number of off-shoots

Main stem 4-winged stems : | 3-winged stems

Spiral No. 4 3 2 1 Total | 4 3 2 Ll * Total

3 : : Tame a Se pe:

Left 117 fe 22 10 5 — ST. a Si ='.24 4 80

Right 83 | J2 § = 1 21 | — 4 #15 4 62

lee

Total 200 tout | 200 | : 34 5 awe n5Q. |e OA wero aes 142

Like : main stems, the off-shoots also showed asymmetry by twist-

ing either clockwisely or conversely. A smaller percentage of these off-

shoots, however, did not show any twisting and they were recorded as

neutrals. From the 200 plants, 572 off-shoots were examined for their

spirality and the data are given in Table 3.

TABLE 3

Euphorbia antiquorum: DIRECTION OF OFF-SHOOTS OF 200 PLANTS

OFF - SHOOTS

Mai : :

age imei: Right: Neutral:

stem

observed % observed wh observed WA Total yA

Left 243 71°26 qe 21°11 26 T62) . 341 100°00

Right 66 28°57 145 62°77 20 8°67 =. 231 100°00

L+R 309 54°02 217 37°94 46 8°04 572 100°00

aaa

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 465

To find out whether there is a correlation between the kinds of twist-

ing of the off-shoots and of the main stem, the observations were split

up for the 4-winged shoots and 3-winged shoots and are presented in

Table 4.

TABLE 4

Euphorbia antiquorum : ASYMMETRY OF OFF-SHOOTS IN

. RELATION TO MAIN STEM

Spiral of Nature of off-shoots

main stem

| off-shoots Wit aM aGasna ha ao

| Left Right Neutral Total

4-winged off-shoots (Total 198)

, observed stee LOO 16 12 128

Left ) percentage Set te, 7A cea (4 12°50 9.38 100°00

\ percentage on all

. shoots ae eo Oe 4°69 3792 37°54

‘ observed - Alea baa (S, 47 10 70

Richt percentage eo gL B8S7 67°14 14°28 100°00

1g percentage on all |

shoots 2 5°63 20°35 4°33 30°30

3-winged off-shoots (Total 374)

ee , observed .. 143 56 14 213

Left ) percentage ta OF 14 26°29 6°57 100-00

eit percentage on all

| shoots .. 41°94 16°42 4°11 62°46

/ observed se? D3 98 10 161

meh | percentage bee 6325925)», 60:87 6°21 100-00

‘Right \ percentage on all

| shoots ». 22°94 42°42 4°33 69-70

The expected values for all the groups have been calculated and given below :

Off-shoots

Main stem. —-

: L R N Total

Lef; observed we 243 72 26 341

as { expected wise 210 129:365 27°423

ie) observed sa 66 145 20 231

Right erecoed "| 124-788 87-634 19°783

Total .. 309 217 46 572

arr EE EE LT ES

x =109°522

17A

266 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (i)

The value of %? is highly significant both at the 5% and 1% levels,

which clearly demonstrates the positive dependence of the off-shoots

on the main stems with regard to the type of twisting. Similar values

for the data relating to the 4-winged stems and 3-winged stems as given

in Table 4 were calculated and in each case, the X,? value turns out to be

highly significant even at the 1 % level.

4-winged off-shoots—X’?= 71°314

3-winged off-shoots—X ?= 147-984

There is an interesting analogy to the above situation. In Cordyline

rubra of Agavaceae, the leaves are arranged in two spirals, both of them

running either clockwise or counter-clockwise in a shoot. The lamina

is convolute in bud, rolling either clockwise or converse. Ina shoot with

right-handed foliar spiral, about 81 per cent of the léavés have right-

handed convolution. In a left-spiralled shoot, on the other hand, the

convolution in about a similar percentage is left-handed(Davis & Ghosh,

in press). However, in Dieffenbachia sp., the foliar spiral and convolution

of the lamina in a plant move oppositely. In Pothos scandens, a leaf of

left convolution is generally followed by a leaf of right convolution, and

rarely by one with involute rolling (Davis, in press).

Help received from-Mr. Cyril Selvaraj of the Agricultural College.

Coimbatore in collecting the data is gratefully acknowledged.

Crop ScIENCE UNIT,

INDIAN STATISTICAL INSTITUTE, T. A. DAVIS

CALCUTTA-35, | ic

November 20, 1967.

Davis, T. A. & Guosu, S. S. :. Foliar Davis, T. A.: Pre-foliation in ‘Pothas

spiral and ptyxis in Cordyline rubra. scandens Linn. (In press).

~Hueg. ex. Kunth. (In press). Poa Aeny

30. NOTES ON BOERHAVIA

"While visiting a local Municipal Hospital on 17 December 1966 I

collected a Boerhavia growing on waste land in its compound. -— It

attracted my attention for two reasons, it was extraordinarily tall (about

| metre) and had conical fruits.

-On careful examination in the Blatter Herbarium, the specimen

matched with specimens of two species viz. Boerhavia erecta Linn. and

Boerhavia punarnava Saha & Krishnamurthy. Our B. punarnava speci-

mens have been collected from the type locality by Mr. B. Shrinivasan

and B. erecta specimen were received in exchange from Dr. L. H.

Shinners, Southern Methodist University, Dallas, Texas, U.S.A.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 267

In order to confirm the specific identity of this erect Boerhavia from

Bombay a duplicate herbarium specimen was sent to Dr. Shinners. He

confirmed its identity as Boerhavia erecta Linn. and commented that

it was an American weed and had perhaps found its way to India with

food grain imports. He also directed my attention to its reference in

the Flora of Java, Vol. 1 (1963) by C. A. Backer, and that Linnaeus,

although he wished to honour the Dutch Botanist ‘ Boerhaave ’, spelt it

originally with only one a, explaining that he considered this to be better

latin.

Dr. Shinners’ remarks indicate that Boerhavia punarnava Saha &

Krishm. and Boerhavia erecta L. are synonymous.

Blatter Herbarium also contains two specimens of this species

(Boerhavia erecta L.) collected on 20 January 1958, by Dr. S. K. Wagh

from Cuddapah (though identified as Boerhavia crispa Heyne).

This led us to examine further the Indian species of Boerhavia. We

obtained Boerhavia collections from the various Indian herbaria on loan

and I give below a key for the five Indian species which are very distinct.

KEY BASED ON THE CHARACTERS OF FRUITS:

ae raM MAU AUSELN OHCIM CIS) Soe yyaln, Pa cenaree ete € one ocd. Nov'e'e.c aoe + & of o/avdiw ve aeons B

B. Fruit linear- oblong. eotands numerous along the 5-

TAGS htee Te OM Se ha es Ste ee BOLE? -....l B. chinensis

B. Fruit club-shaped with only five glands forming crown at

UE LO Ps Pe, weime we as fe: Bee see aes 2 2B. verticillata

A. Fruits without FOMPET DCIS RO I SC ea Re oi SM hc ti C

C. Fruit obconical with five distinct ridges and furrows.

Ne Ms UERKCIe CUyeecaty Wee ca ieee agg s srSie 5 G2 wei Spee werecta

GC, emi exate oblons with five distinct ridges and furrows

Me ee eR ee aie Eee vig Main te eeead a2 D

D. Fruits glabrous. Pedicels glabrous, thin and elon’

Sabet aa sue Gales 8. Sb as dese. 4 B. elegans

D. Fruit pubescent, pedicels hairy and not elongated....

Ret oeeee es SR McNeal asia ates, Pisa ats ore > B. diffusa

KEY BASED ON VEGETATIVE AND FLORAL CHARACTERS :

A. Erect or semi-erect herbs. Inflorescence terminal or axillary

SCLC Sag wi sfjuia ih sper tyne Phas ine a Be oes eevee oes 3 1 B. erecta

- A. Prostrate or scandent herbs. Inflorescence terminal or axillary

Parle Be ain ies ioes Saree tia Gls Siz aod ORE Bald ans bedi eghvars ve B

_. B.. Pedicels thin, elongated and glabrous........ 2 B. elegans

B. Pedicels pubescent, not elongated,..... ae 3 B. diffusa

268 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

A. Scandent or climbing herbs. Inflorescence umbels or whorled

PACEMES $).-.[255Rs Das es el ee se Oe C

C. Flowers 3-8 in an umbel at the end of the peduncle......

sis Ups AGAR AO eR eee Seca ae ees 4 B. chinensis

C. Flowers arranged in whorls on a peduncle..............

dele ARE ee ae ee 5. B. verticillata

I have been unable to locate reliable herbarium specimens of the

following two species:

1. Boerhavia fruticosa Dalz.

2. Boerhavia crispa Heyne

Herbarium specimens marked Boerhavia fruticosa Dalz. from

Talbot’s collection, received from Central National Herbarium, Calcutta,

turned out to be Siegesbekia orientalis L. a composite.

Boerhavia crispa Heyne does not seem to be represented in any Indian

herbarium, according to replies to our specific requests.

BLATTER HERBARIUM,

St. XAVIER’S COLLEGE, M. R. ALMEIDA

BomBay-1,

November 30, 1967.

31. THREE NEW PLANT RECORDS FOR WEST BENGAL

During field collections undertaken in connection with ecological

studies on the vegetation of West Bengal Coast, a few interesting plants

were obtained, of which three were found to be new records.

Cyperus arenarius Retz. Obs. 4: 9, 1786; Clarke in Hk. f. Fl. Brit.

Ind. 6 : 602, 1893 ; Prain, Beng. Pl. 2 : 860, 1963 (repr. ed.). _

A perennial rhizomatous sedge growing on sandy clay soil and sand-

dune habitat at Digha and Higli. It is a sand binder sometimes found

in association with Indigofera glabra Linn., Gisekia pharnaceoides Linn.

and Borreria articularis (L.f.) F. N. Will. Its frequent occurrence shows —

that it is now more or less widespread in the coastal sandy areas of W.

Bengal. vs |

Digha: A. K. Mukherjee and L. K. Banerjee 4450, 24-8-1966 ;

T. A. Rao 4087, 25-2-1965 ; Higli, A. K. Mukherjee 4491, 25-8-1966.

Portulaca tuberosa Ron (Hort. Beng. 91, 1814, nom. nud.) FI.

Ind. 2 : 464, 1832.

A perennial succulent herb with a fusiform root, and Sate flowens

The plant grew on moist sand at Digha coast; hitherto it was

not recorded from W. Bengal. The increasing frequency of its collec-

tion along the Indian coastal areas would seem to indicate that this species

is now well established all along the coast,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 269

Digha coast: A. K. Mukherjee and L. K. Banerjee 4454, 24-8-1966.

Syzygium ruscifolium (Willd.) Sant. & Wagh in Bull. bot. Surv. India

5: 109, 1963. Myrtus ruscifolius Willd. Sp. Pl. 2: 970, 1800. Eugenia

bracteata Roxb. ex DC. Prodr. 3 : 264, 1828 ; Duthie in Hk. f. Fl. Brit.

ind. 2: 502; 1879 > Prain,, Bens. Pl,.1 : 357, 1963 (repre ed.):

A hardy perennial shrub, common in dry situations on sand-dune

habitats, characterised by rusty-villous peduncles, white flowers and

orange-red berries. It is common along the eastern side of Sagar Island

growing in association with Dodonaea viscosa (Linn.) Jacq., and Excoe-

caria agallocha L. ; also found growing near inland sand dunes and sandy

plains near Contai. In India it isreported from Sylhet, plains of south

India, and also near the sea in Orissa. The occurrence of this plant in

West Bengal at Sagar Island and Contai indicates the range of its distri-

bution throughout West Bengal-Orissa coastal belt.

Sagar Island: Dhablat, A. K. Mukherjee and L. K. Banerjee 5914

April, 1967 ; Contai, T. A. Rao 4064 (a), 25-2-65.

BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, A. K. MUKHERJEE

CALCUTTA-14, L. K. BANERJEE

September 25, 1967.

32. TETRALOCULAR FRUITS IN CLEISTANTHUS

COLLINUS (ROXB.) BENTH. EX HOOK. F.

(With a photograph)

The fruits in the genus Cleistanthus Hook. f. are described as trilo-

cular by J. D. Hooker (Hook. f. in Hook. Ic. Pl. 8, t. 779, 1848) while

erecting the genus on the basis of an African species, Cleistanthus poly-

stachyus Hook. f. According to Pax & Hoffmann (Pflanzenfam. 19C:

34, 1931) the genus Cleistanthus Hook. f. is distinguished from Bridelia

Willd., its closest ally, by its trilocular capsules and from the genus

Godefroya Gagnep., another close ally, by the divided styles and trilo-

cular capsules. In J. D. Hooker’s FLORA OF BRITISH INDIA (5 : 274-282,

1887) all the species of Cleistanthus Hook. f. are described as having

trilocular fruits except C. ferrugineus (Thwait.) Muell.-Arg. which is

described as having tetralocular, rusty tomentose, capsules. It isa

Ceylonese plant.

Tetralocular fruits in Cleistanthus collinus (Roxb.) Benth. ex Hook. f.

have not been reported hitherto. There are no specimens of C. collinus

(Roxb.) Benth. with tetralocular fruits either in the Madras Herbarium

(MH) or in the Central National Herbarium (CAL). Specimens of

270. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

Cleistanthus collinus (Roxb.) Benth. ex Hook. f.—(Subba Rao 19787)

collected from Cheedipalem, Visakhapatnam Dt., Andhra Pradesh and

deposited in the Herbarium of the Southern Circle (MH), Coimbatore

are noticed to have tetralocular glabrous capsules together with trilo-

cular glabrous capsules (all tetralocular fruits deeply lobed) on the same

plant (cf. photograph). This condition was observed on several trees

of Cleistanthus collinus (Roxb.) Benth. in that locality.

Tetralocular fruits in Cleistanthus collinus (Roxb.) Benth. ex. Hook. f.

My thanks are due to the Director, Botanical Survey of India and

Regional Botanist, Southern Circle, Botanical Survey of India for their

kind encouragement and facilities provided and to the Keeper, Central

National Herbarium for comparing the tetralocular specimens under

reference with the specimens at Central National Herbarium.

SOUTHERN CIRCLE, 3

BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, G. R. KUMARI

COIMBATORE, Lp

August 1967.

‘MISCELLANEOUS NOTES x, 271

33. ALGAE OF SIMLA

During a botanical excursion to north India, the author collected a

few algae from Simla on 5 and 6 November, 1966. Simla is situated

at 31°6’N., 77° 10’E. The altitude ranges from 2200 to 2450 metres.

January is the coldest month with a mean temperature of 5°C and the

mean temperature of June, the warmest month, is 20°C. The average

rainfall for the whole year is 180 cm. The period of greatest rainfall

is from June to October.

These algae have been collected from Simla, on way to the Glen, and

from Mushobra, a place 10 km. away from Simla. Algae could be col-

lected from a few places only as most of the collection spots like cata-

racts, dripping rocks, road side pools and puddles were dry. There was

only one pond with an area of 15 sq.m. at Mushobra. This pond yield-

ed 54 taxa belonging to 20 genera.

In this paper 78 taxa belonging to Chlorophyceae, Charophyceae,

Xanthophyceae, Euglenophyceae and Cyanophyceae are recorded.

CHLOROPHYCEAE

- |. -Pandorina morum (Muell.) Bory.

Rare. Ina pond, Mushobra.

2. Gloeocystis gigas (Kuetz.) Lagerheim

In a pond, Mushobra.

3. Pediastrum tetras (Ehrenberg) Ralfs y. tetraodon (Corda) Raben-

horst

Very rare. In a’‘pond, Mushobra.

4. Coelastrum microporum Naegeli

Common. Ina pond, Mushobra.

5. Trochiscia zachariasii Lemm.

Common. Ina pond, Mushobra.

6. Scenedesmus bijuga (Turp.) Lagerh. v. alternans (Reinsch)

Hansgirg ;

Common. Ina pond, Mushobra.

7. §. brasiliensis Bohlin.

Rare. Ina pond, Mushobra.

8. SS. denticulatus Lagerheim

Planktonic in a reservoir, Simla. ~

272

alkoe

10.

12:

13.

14.

15.

16.

17:

19.

20.

22.

23%

24,

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (1)

S. dimorphus (Turp.) Kuetzing

In a pond, Mushobra.

Ankistrodesmus falcatus (Corda) Ralfs

Rare. Ina pond, Mushobra.

Selenastrum westii G. M. Smith

Rare. Ina pond, Mushobra.

Botryococcus sudeticus Lemmermann

In a reservoir, Simla.

Stigeoclonium tenue (Agardh) Kuetzing

Attached to water pipes in a reservoir, Simla.

Protococcus viridis C. A. Agardh

On moist earthen walls of houses, Mushobra.

Cladophora glomerata (L.) Kuetz.

Attached to sticks, stones in a reservoir, Simla.

Oedogonium nanum Wittock. Tiffany

Epiphytic on Cladophora filaments in a water reservoir, Simla.

Only female filaments were observed.

Cylindrocystis brebissonii Menegh.

In a pool, Glen, Simla.

Pleurotaenium ehrenbergii (Bréb.) De Bery

Rare. Ina pond, Mushobra.

Closterium acerosum (Schrank) Ehrenberg

In a pond, Mushobra.

C. dinae Ehrenberg.

In a pond, Mushobra.

C. dinae Ehrenberg y. arcuatum (Bréb.) Rabenhorst

In a pond, Mushobra.

C. idiosporum W. et G. S. West

In a pond, Mushobra.

C. kuetzingii Bréb.

In a pond, Mushobra.

C. leibleinii Kuetzing

In a pond, Mushobra.

Cells much shorter (up to 100 y» long).

26,

28.

ao;

30.

Spl

a2.

33%

34,

35:

36.

38.

39:

40.

MISCELLANEOUS, NOTES 273

C. rectimarginatum Scott et Prescott v. maius Kamat

In a pond, Mushobra.

C. venus (Kuetzing) Brébisson

In a pond, Mushobra.

Cosmarium abbreviatum Racib. f. pygmaeum Missik.

In a pond, Mushobra.

C. laeve Rabenhorst

In a pond, Mushobra.

C. meneghinii Bréb.

In a pond, Mushobra.

C. punctulatum Bréb. v. rotundatum Klebs

Submerged mucilaginous masses in a reservoir, Glen, Simla.

C. regnellii Wille

Abundant. Ina pond, Mushobra.

C. regnesi Reinsch

In a pond, Mushobra.

C. subretusiforme W. et. G. S. West v. maiums Kamat

In a pond, Mushobra.

C. succisum West v. hyalinum Skvortzow

In a pond, Mushobra.

C. undulatum Corda v. minutum Wittrock

In a pond, Mushobra.

Euastrum verrucosum Ehrenberg

In a pond, Mushobra.

Staurastrum dickiei Ralfs

In a pond, Mushobra.

S. muticum Brébisson

In a pond, Mushobra.

S. orbiculare Ralfs v. depressum Roy et Bisset

Common. Ina pond, Mushobra.

Sphaerozosma granulatum Roy et Bisset

In a pond, Mushobra.

274. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

CHAROPHYCEAE

41. Chara corallina Willd.

Abundant in a pond, Mushobra. Plants comparatively far

more delicate than those found in Maharashtra State.

Mosquito larvae were present in abundance very close to

these plants.

XANTHOPHYCEAE

42. Tribonema bombycinum (C. A. Agardh) Derbes et Solier

In a streamlet, Simla. On dripping rocks, Mushobra.

43. Vaucheria sessilis (Vauch.) De Condolle

Common. On shaded moist soil, slopes, Simla, Mushobra.

EUGLENOPHY CEAE

44. Euglena oxyuris Schmarda

Common. Ina pond, Mushobra.

45. E. sanguinea Ehrenberg

In a pond, Mushobra.

46. E. spirogyra Ehrenberg v, abrupte-acuminata Lemmermann

In a pond, Mushobra.

47. Phacus curvicauda Swirenko

In a pond, Mushobra.

48. P. orbicularis Hiibner

In a reservoir, Glen, Simla.

49. P. polytrophos Pochmann

In a pond, Mushobra.

50. P. triqueter (E.) Duj.

In a pond, Mushobra.

51. P. unguis Pochmann

In a pond, Mushobra.

52. Trachelomonas cylindrica E. sec. Playfair

In a puddle, Glen, Simla,

53.

54,

«55,

56.

58.

59:

60.

61.

62.

63.

64.

65.

66.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES a a

T. dybowskii Drez.

In a pond, Mushobra.

T. hispida (Perty) Stein emend. Deflandre

In a pond, Mushobra.

T. subverrucosa Deflandre

In a pond, Mushobra.

T. volvocina Ehrenberg

In a pond, Mushobra.

CYANOPHYCEAE

Aphanothece castagnei (Bréb.) Rabenhorst

On moist soil, on bark of trees, Simla, Mushobra.

A. microscopica Naegeli

On dripping rocks, Mushobra.

Merismopedia elegans A. Br.

In a pond, Mushobra.

M. punctata Meyem

In a pond, Mushobra.

Oscillatoria corakiana Playfair v. nongranulata Kamat

In a pond, Mushobra.

QO. formosa Bory ex Gomont

In gutters, Glen, Simla.

O. mougeotii Kuetzing

Forming a dark blue-green layer on submerged soil in a pond,

Mushobra.

O. prolifica (Grev.) Gomont

In a pond, Mushobra.

O. proteus Skuja

On moist soil near the pond, Mushobra.

O. pseudogeminata G. Schmid

In a pond, Mushobra. In the mucilaginous masses of other

algae, Simla.

276 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

67.

68.

69.

70.

71.

74.

735:

76.

O. quadripunctulata Briihl et Biswas y. unigranulata R. N. Singh

f. ahmedabadensis Kamat

In a pond, Mushobra.

O. rubescens DC. ex Gomont

Common in gutters, Simla.

On wet bricks, Mushobra.

O. tenuis Ag.

Common. Ina pond, Mushobra.

Lyngbya allorgei Fremy

Adhering to submerged iron pipes, Glen, Simla. On moist

soil, Simla,

The filaments are slightly broader (up to 4°35 broad) than those

in the type.

L. antarctica Gain

Cement gutters, Simla.

L. lachneri (Zimmermann) Geitler

Adhering to submerged iron pipes, Glen, Simla.

In cement gutters, Simla.

L. martensiana Meneghini

Adhering to submerged iron pipes, Simla.

L. nordgardhii Wille

Embedded in mucilaginous masses of Aphanothece, Simla.

Microcoleus vaginatus (Vauch.) Gomont v. vaucheri (Kuetz.)

Gomont

On moist soil, Simla.

Schizothrix pallida (Naegeli) Geitler

Thallus woolly, reddish brown; filaments curved, branched,

22-30-50 « broad, sheath yellowish brown to _ reddish

brown, distinctly stratified, at the ends pointed, outside even,

with 1-4 trichomes, coloured violet by chlor-zinc-iodide ;

trichomes not constricted at the cross-walls, blue-green, not

tapering at the ends, cells 9-9°6 u broad, 7-8 long, end cell

bluntly conical. :

On dripping rocks, Mushobra.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES ; 277

77, Cylindrospermum musicola Kuetzing ex Born. et Flah.

Blue-green mucilaginous masses on slopes, Glen, Simla.

78. C. stagnale (Kuetz.) Born. et Flah.

On moist soil, Glen, Simla.

BOTANY DEPARTMENT, |

COLLEGE OF SCIENCE, N. D. KAMAT

NAGPUR,

April 12, 1967.

Gleanings

Elephant Birth

KYH Magazine, published by the Shikar-Safari Club (11681

San Vincente Blvd., Los Angeles, Calif. 90049) carries in

its Winter 1966 Conservation Issue an interesting account by

Salvation Army Brigadier Young of an elephant birth witnessed by

him in Kruger National Park. The expectant mother with the ‘birth

bag’ already protruding from her vagina and with a young female

in attendance was about 200 yards away from the rest of the herd.

Groaning loudly while she laboured she busily churned up the soil

into a large patch of loose sand. Within five to ten minutes the

first twin dropped, covered with ‘white/yellowish mucus and blood.’

While the baby lay still the mother cleaned off the mucus and blood

by squirting it with the sand. In another 20 minutes or so the

second twin arrived, and was cleaned in like manner. Meanwhile,

the attendant female circled around keeping off the vultures which

had quickly gathered. Shortly thereafter the young ones got up on

their feet, unsteady and stumbling at first and requiring the mother’s

help. Finally, with the babies under her and trying to suck, the

mother cleaned herself with the useful sand.

Karatasi Yenye Habari, Winter 1966, Conservation Issue, p. 40.

Behaviour Patterns of Onagers

In a paper based on observation of Onagers in the Badkhyz

Reserve in south-eastern Turkmenia extending over a period of three

years, A. O. Solomatin reports the interesting fact that lactating

females avoid water of a salinity exceeding 10 grammes per litre.

The important watering places for Onagers are freshwater basins.

In summer the feeding grounds are generally within 10 to 15 kilo-

metres of their water supply; this limit may extend to as much as

20 to 30 kilometres in Autumn, and even more later.

A. O. Solomatin: Visitations of Sources by Onagers and

Behavioural Patterns on the Watering Places. 1967, Bulletin of

Moscow Society of Naturalists. Biological Series, Vol. 72 (4), pages

25-35.

GLEANINGS 279

An unusual mammal breeding pattern

Experimenting with a pair of tree shrews from south-east Asia,

Robert Martin, of the Zoology Department, Oxford, has discovered

an unusual breeding pattern. Two nests are used; the mother and

her mate occupy one, while the young ones are left unattended in

the other from birth the mother visiting them for a few minutes

just after dawn every second day for one month to feed them.

Owing to this discovery he has been able to breed successfully from

them in Oxford. As the mother continues to feed the young ones

even after they have been handled by humans, this discovery opens

up many possibilities for laboratory purposes.

P. D. Rodgers: The Rearing of the Shrew. New Scientist,

30 March 1967, 33 (538) :661.

Insect Control by Use of Sex Pheromones

Lyle K. Gaston and others of the Department of Entomology,

University of California, report a first success in the use of artificial-

sex-phermone concentration to inhibit orientation in mate-seeking

insects. The experiment was carried out over six nights with ten

virgin female cabbage looper moths (Trichoplusia ni) in a trap at

the centre of a “‘pheromone-baited’ area, the site of which was varied

at random every second night. Whereas in the control area 600

metres away, the site of which was similarly varied every second

night, 102 males were caught, no male was caught in the ‘pheromone-

baited’ area. Experiments are in progress to determine the minimum

concentration of pheromone necessary to inhibit male-to-female

orientation.

Lyle K. Gaston, H. H. Shorey, and C. A. Saario: Insect

Population Control by the Use of Sex Pheromones to _ inhibit

Orientation between the Sexes. Nature, 18 March 1967, Vol. 213,

No. 5081, p.1155.

The States of Sleep

In a paper dealing with the states of wakefulness and sleep in

cats Michel Jouvet divides sleep into light sleep and what he calls

paradoxical sleep. In light sleep the muscles retain some tension

and the cat is easily wakened. After ten to twenty minutes of light

sleep there follows paradoxical sleep, which is marked by complete

relaxation of the muscles and is not readily disturbed; the name is

explained by the fact that this state is associated with movements

280 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

of the eye and other parts of the body and with cortical activity,

such as are generally associated with a state of wakefulness. The

author discusses the processes and structures involved and puts

forward the hypothesis that the raphe system in the brain stem is

responsible for light sleep and operates through serotonin, and that

the control for paradoxical sleep operates through adrenalin and is

located in the locus coeruleus lower down the brain stem. Round-

the-clock recordings have shown that cats spend about 35% of the

time in a state of wakefulness, 50% in light sleep, and 15% in

paradoxical sleep. Systematic examination in the laboratory suggests

that paradoxical sleep does not occur in the lower animals, for

example the reptiles, and rises in the scale through birds and the

lower mammals to the higher mammals: hunting species seem to

enjoy a higher proportion of paradoxical sleep as compared to total

sleep than do the hunted species,

1967, Michel Jouvet: The States of Sleep. Scientific American.

Vol. 216, No. 2, pp. 62-72.

Co-operative Bird Ringing )

In the ‘hope of inducing readers elsewhere to get together and

form small bird-ringing groups, to co-operate with work being done

at Bird Observatories and to provide individual ornithologists with

Opportunities for original work that they would not otherwise have

had, B. S. Nau describes in a stimulating paper the origin and

development of the Rye Meads Ringing Group and mentions some

of its achievements during its short existence of about ten years.

The group must be small enough for the individual members to keep

personal touch with each other and yet large enough for work to

proceed continuously; about thirty seems to be a suitable number.

Ringing will be confined to a restricted area and careful records kept

in rather more detail than is usual. It is not sufficient to keep the

records; they must be studied within the group. Mr, Nau discusses

how the necessary enthusiasm for the successful launching and

running of such a group can be worked up.

1967, B. S. Nau: Co-operative bird ringing. Bird Study, Vol. 14,

No. 1, pp. 1-9.

Notes and News

Field Work Grant

Arising out of a donation made by Mr. Humayun Abdulali, the

Society has at its disposal Rs. 1200 for assisting naturalists,

amateur or professional, engaged in field studies (including collecting

trips) preferably in vertebrate zoology. Applications, giving particulars

of the work proposed and the extent of the assistance required, are

invited. Applications should be addressed to the Honorary Secretary,

Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House, Bombay 1-BR.

Book of Indian Birds—Eighth Edition

For over two decades the BOOK OF INDIAN BIRDS by Salim Ali has

remained an indispensable field guide for every one who wishes to

enjoy the rich and varied bird life of the sub-continent. The eighth

edition, now in press, retains all the features of its immediate

predecessor and in addition describes and illustrates eight more

birds bringing the number of species of the commoner birds of the plains,

foothills, inland waters, and the sea-coast, described and _ illustrated,

to 264. Copies will be available by mid-1968.

Announcement

DIPLOMA IN RESOURCES ECOLOGY

Banaras Hindu University, India announce the institution of a

one-year Diploma course in Resources Ecology with effect from August

1968. The course is designed to train prospective and in-service

personnel engaged in landscape and range management, utilization

and management of biological and other resources, and nature con-

servation. The Institute will serve as the International Centre for

Training in Resources Ecology.

The duration of the course shall be two semesters. The candidates

must hold a B.Sc. (Pass or Honours) degree with any of the two

following subjects: Botany, Zoology. Geography and Geology.

The details of the course can be had from Professor R. Misra,

Chairman, International Committee for Education and Training in

Resources Ecology, and Head of the Department of Botany, Banaras

Hindu University, Varanasi-5, India, to whom the applications for

admission must reach before July 15, 1968.

—o

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10 CHURCH ROAD, VEFERY, MADRAS—31-5-1968. C8108

EDITORS: H. SANTAPAU, ZAFAR FUTEHALLY & J. C. DANIEL

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Grindlays Bank Ltd, 26 Bishopsgate Street, London E.C. 2.

The subscription of members elected in October, November, and December

covers the period from the date of their election to the end of the following year.

CONTENTS

A REpPoRT ON Witp Lire Surveys IN SOUTH AND West INDIA. November-

December 1966. By J. Juan Spillett

Heteromysis zeylanica TATTERSALL (CRUSTACEA: MYSIDACEA), AN ASSOCIATE |

OF MADREPORARIAN CORALS IN SOUTH INDIAN WATERS. By

N. Krishna Pillai Ws Sh a ae sa

RECORDS OF RARE FISHES OF THE FAMILY CHAETODONTIDAE FROM BOMBAY. By

B. F. Chhapgar and J. K. Jatar a Ee Z

PREFERENCE OF CASTOR VARIETIES FOR FEEDING AND OVIPOSITION BY THE LEAF-

HOPPER, Empoasca flavescens (F.) (HOMOPTERA, JASSIDAE) WITH PARTICULAR

REFERENCE TO ITS HONEYDEW EXCRETION. By S. Jayaraj 4s 4A

OBSERVATIONS ON AGE AND GROWTH OF Tachysurus sona (Ham.). By Vijai D.

Singh and M. S. Rege se b ie

ALGAE OF ALIBAG, MAHARASHTRA. By N. D. Kamat

THE BIOLOGY OF THE WHITEWINGED GROSBEAK, Mycerobas carnipes HODGSON,

IN KAZAKHSTAN. By I. A. Dolgushin, E. I. Gavrilov, and E. F. Rodionov

Coccips (COCCOIDEA : HEMIPTERA : INSECTA) AFFECTING FRUIT PLANTS IN BIHAR

(INDIA). By S. Mohammad Ali

SEA ANEMONES (ACTINIARIA) OF BOMBAY. By Arun Parulekar

THE NESTING ACTIVITIES OF THE VESPOID POTTER WASP Eumenes campaniformis

esuriens (FABR.) COMPARED WITH THE ECOLOGICALLY SIMILAR SPHECOID

Sceliphron madraspatanam cae waiagiec sais By S. D. Jayakar

- and H. Spurway ee eo“

A CATALOGUE OF THE BIRDS IN THE COLLECTION OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL

History Sociery—1. By Humayun Abdulali nt sie 5

REVIEWS .. ve HS a oS “ ae

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES che oe Af es wg

» GLEANINGS 50 55 >. 4 »s oe

NOTES AND NEws_... 4 x ie eas ~ —

ANNOUNCEMENT af if an a 3 5

105

a Oe ee

a ee

Journal of the.

Bombay Natural History Society

| Vol. 65, No. 2

Editors

H. SANTAPAU, 8.1.,

ZAFAR FUTERALLY, & J. C. DANIEL

AUGUST 1968

Rs. 18 (Inland), Sh. 30 (Foreign)

NOTICE TO CONTRIBUTORS

Contributors of scientific articles are requested to assist th

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3. All scientific names to be printed in italics should be under-

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letter of the genus is capitalized. The specific and subspecific names

always begin with a small letter even if they refer to a person or a

place, e.g. Anthus hodgsoni hodgsoni or Streptopelia chinensis suratensis

or Dimeria blatteri.

4. Trinomials referring to subspecies should only be used where ~

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Banerji, M. L. (1958): Botanical Exploration in East Nepal.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 55 (2): 243-268.

Prater, S. H. (1948): The Book of Indian Animals. Bombay.

Titles of papers should not be underlined. ,

8. Reference to literature in the text should be made by quoting

the author’s name and year of publication, thus: (Banerji 1958).

9. Synopsis: Each scientific paper should be accompanied by

a concise, clearly written synopsis, normally not exceeding 200 words.

10. Reprints: Authors are supplied 25 reprints of their articles

free of charge. In the case of joint authorship, 50 copies will be

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| _ EDITORS, , |

Hornbill House, fy Journal of the Bombay Natural

Shahid Bhagat History. Societal 4

Singh Road, | ; :

Bombay 1-BR.

Date

VOLUME 65, NO. 2—AUGUST 1968

of publication: 6-11-1968

CONTENTS

THE ECOLOGY OF THE LION-TAILED MACAQUE [Macaca silenus (LINNAEUS)|—A

*Pmotr Stupy. By Yukimaru Sugiyama.

text-figure)

Hedychium longipedunculatum, A NEW SPECIES OF ZINGIBERACEAE FROM SUBAN-

sIRI DistRICT, NORTH EAST FRONTIER AGENCY. By A. R. K. Sastry and

D.M. Verma. (With a plate)

“A REPORT ON WILD LIFE SURVEYS IN SOUTH AND WEST INDIA. November-

December 1966. By J. Juan Spillett.

NEPAL BIRDS : SUPPLEMENT TO BISWAS’ LIST.

(With two plates, a map, and a

(With two plates and three maps)

By R. L. Fleming

THE SCIAENIDAE OF THE COASTAL WATERS OF VISAKHAPATNAM. By S. Dutt and

V. Thankam. (With a plate)

NOTES ON THE THYSANOPTERA COLLECTED DURING WESTERN AND SOUTHERN INDIA

SURVEY, 1962, WITH A REVIEW OF THE THYSANOPTERA COMPLEX OF THE Hosts.

By K. V. Lakshminarayana ..

THE YELLOW-WATTLED LAPWING, Vanellus malabaricus (Boddaert), A TROPICAL

DRY-SEASON NESTER. III. Two further seasons’ breeding. By S. D. Jayakar

and H. Spurway. (With two plates and two text-figures)

FLORA OF THE BHILLANGNA VALLEY OF THE ERSTWHILE TEHRI-GARHWAL STATE.

By A. C. Dey, M. R. Uniyal, and V. Shankar

ON THE OCCURRENCE OF Triops mavliensis (TIWARI), NOTOSTRACA (CRUSTACEA),

IN THE OKHAMANDAL REGION OF SAURASHTRA (INDIA). By S. V. Shanbhag

and N. B. Inamdar.

(With four text-figures)

A CATALOGUE OF THE BIRDS IN THE COLLECTION OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL

History SocietyY—2, Anseriformes. By Humayun Abdulali. (With a text-

figure)

THE NILGIrRi WILD LIFE ASSOCIATION AND STATUS OF WILD LIFE IN THE NILGIRIS.

By E. R. C. Davidar.

(With two plates)

ON THE RELATION BETWEEN AGE AND LINEAR MEASUREMENTS OF THE PEARL OYSTER,

Pinctada vulgaris (Schumacher), OF THE GULF OF KutTcH. By K. R.

Narayanan and M. S. Michael.

AN INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF INDIAN SPIDERS.

(With a text figure)

REVIEWS :

Wer eos

Population Studies of Birds.

The Metabolism of Insects.

Ecological Methods. (R.R

Common Insects of India.

Avian Myology. (A. De)

(R. M. Naik)

(Almas Rizvi)

«NT. N.)

(With four text-figures)

By T. V. Subrahmanyam

283

293

296

326

335

348

369

384

408

418

431

444

453

462

467

468

469

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES:

1. Sphaerias blanfordi (Thomas, 1891) from Himalayan Region of Uttar

Pradesh: An Addition to the Chiropteran fauna of India. By H.R. Bhat (p. 471).

2. Some observations on the Golden Langur Presbytis geei Ms. Khajuria Gee.

By Philip Wayre (p.473). 3. Breeding habits of the Field Rat Millardia meltada

(Gray). By O. S. Bindra and Prem Sagar (p. 477). 4. New records of Mam-

mals from Rajasthan, India. By Biswamoy Biswas and R. K Ghose (p. 481).

5. On the food habits of cormorants in the breeding season. By A. R. Sengupta

and R. L. Brahmachary (p. 483). 6. Greyheaded Lapwing Vanellus cinereus

(Blyth): New record for Rajasthan. By B. Robert Grubh (p. 484). 7. On

the occurrence of the Blackshafted Little Tern (Sterna albifrons saundersi Hume).

near Bombay. By A. Navarro, s.J. (p. 484). 8. Parental instincts in Koel,

Eudynamys scolopacea (Linnaeus). By Dhruv Dixit (p. 485). 9. Blackcapped

Kingfisher Halcyon pileata (Boddaert) at Bharatpur, Rajasthan. By B. R.

Grubh, J. D. Panday and P. B. Shekar (p. 486). 10. Crows and companionship.

(With a text-figure). By Dhruv Dixit (p.487). 11. The Waxwing, Bombycilla

garrulus (Linnaeus), in Nepal. By Robert L. Fleming Jr. (p. 488). 12. Exten-

sion of Range of Isabelline Chat Oenanthe isabellina (Temminck). By Humayun

Abdulali and R. J. Pimento (p. 489). 13. Greywinged Blackbird Turdus boul-

boul (Latham) at Bharatpur, Rajasthan. By B. R. Grubh, P. B. Shekar and J. D.

Panday (p. 490). 14. The Green Alga, Spirogyra sp. in the diet of the White-

backed Munia, Lonchura striata (Linn.). By N. G. Pillai (p. 490). 15. Occur-

rence of the snake Typhlops diardi Schlegel in the Dun Valley. By R. K. Bhat-

nagar (p. 491). 16. Unusual behaviour of two male rat snakes Ptyas mucosus

(Linn.). By A. K. Bhattacharya and R. K. Bhatnagar (p. 492). 17. A note on

the food and feeding habits of Tor Mahseer, Tor tor (Hamilton) from River Nar-

mada. By V. R. Desai and S. J. Karamchandani (p. 493). 18. A case of albi-

nism in Heteropneustes fossilis (Bloch). By M. C. Baruah (p. 495). 19. On the

introduction of Phasla jal, a gill net, for catching Hil/sa in the Ganga and

Yamuna near Allahabad. (With a text-figure). By R. K. Saxena and Ravish

Chandra (p. 496). 20. Food habits of the Bull Frog Rana tigerina (Daud.).

By A. K. Joshee (p. 498). 21. Notes on animal relationships : Hyperiid

amphipods Phronima colletti Bovallius and Phronima sedentaria (Forskal) in-

habiting empty ‘ Tests’ of pelagic tunicates. By A. Daniel and K. V. Surya

Rao (p. 501). 22. Note on Mastigochirus quadrilobatus Miers, an anomuran

(Crustacea : Decapoda) new to India. By R. Sarojini and R. Nagabhushanam

(p. 502). 23. Forms of Danaus chrysippus L. By D. G. Sevastopulo (p. 503).

24. Studies on some passalids (Coleoptera) of Kerala—I. Biology of Pleu-

rarius brachyphyllus Stoliczka. (With a plate). By A. Joseph (p. 505). 25. Notes

on the taxonomy and other aspects of certain species of Aphids in India. By

S. Kanakaraj David, S. G. Rajasingh and K. Narayanan (p. 508). 26. On a

new Flagellate, Trichomitus hyderabadensis sp. nov. from the frog, Rana tigerina

(Daud.). (With five text-figures). By R. Krishnamurthy (p. 513). 27. A note

on the occurrence of Dioscorea orbiculata Hook. F. in India. (With a plate). By

A.R. K. Sastry (p. 517). 28. Some infraspecific Taxa of the Panicum coloratum

L. complex. By P. P. Jauhar (p. 518). 29. Additions to the flora of Pavagadh

Hill, Gujarat State. By S. J. Bedi, S. D. Sabnis and R. P. Bhatt (p. 522). 30.

Occurrence of Aeginetia indica L. var.alba Santapau. By K. M. Vaid (p. 525).

AN APPEAL Aye iy *. ys eihe

ANNOUNCEMENT

NoTEsS AND NEWS

526

527

530

JOURNAL

Pe eoy ED TEE)

BOMBAY NATURAL

HISTORY SOCIETY

1968 AUGUST Vol. 65 No. 2

The Ecology of the Lion-tailed Macaque

[Macaca silenus (Linnaeus)|—A Pilot

Study

YUKIMARU SUGIYAMA

Laboratory of Physical Anthropology, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan |

(With two plates, a map, and a text-figure)

INTRODUCTION

- The Lion-tailed Macaque (Macaca silenus) is a medium-sized

macaque. An average adult male weighs 6°8 kg. in body weight, and

52 cm. in head-and-body length, and 35 cm. tail length, and female 46 cm.

in head-and-body length and 27 cm. in tail length (Blanford 1888, Napier

& Napier 1967). Owing to its unique dark grey or brownish grey

whisker or ruff, and black coat it was sometimes separated from the

genus Macaca (Sanderson 1957).

This pilot study was undertaken to investigate the present distri-

- bution of the species, its ecology and social organisation in the natural

habitat. Though the data obtained were few owing to the shortness

of the study period and the difficulty of observation of this animal, the

author presents them as the study of lion-tailed macaques has not

progressed since the time of his survey, in spite of many efforts. The

field work was divided into two parts ; 10 days in September, 1961, and

I month in February, 1962, on the distribution survey trip’ and

2 months between January 5 and February 27, 1963, on a rather inten-

sive field study.

+ The distribution survey trips were made with Dr. S. Kawamura, Dr. M. D.

Parthasarathy and Mr. K. Yoshiba, members of the Japan-India Joint Project in

Primates Investigation. ,

284. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

DISTRIBUTION AND POPULATION

It is said that lion-tailed macaques occur from 14°N to the southern

limit of the Western Ghat Mountains in south-west India (Blanford 1888).

But hunting for their meat and beautiful coat or fur has considerably

-reduced their distributional range.

The author and his colleagues saw populations of lion-tailed macaques

in only 4 regions namely, Nilgiri Hills, Anaimalai Hills, Cardamom |

Hills and in the vicinity of Periyar Lake. They are restricted to

mountain ranges between 800 m. and 1300 m. in height lying between 9°

30’ and 11° 30’N (Map). The habitat is mainly evergreen or semi-

evergreen forest of more than 20 m. high trees. No information on

populations north of 11° 30’ N was obtained. Judging from the

vegetation type of the present habitat of this species, there may be no

lion-tailed macaques except in the above mentioned regions and a few

regions which the author could not visit. Even in these regions the

population of lion-tailed monkeys is very small.

Estimating from the impression of the author’s survey, the wild

population of this species is less than 1000 head and there is the possi-

bility that the wild population of lion-tailed macaques will become

extinct.

STuDY AREA AND HOME RANGE OF TROOPS

Observations on wild lion-tailed macaques were made at Panniar,

High Range, Kerala State, on the western face of the ridge which marks

the State border of Kerala and Madras. The area has steep hills covered

by evergreen forests of trees about 30 m. high with planted cardamom

(Elettaria cardamomum) on the forest floor (Plates I & II). The field

work was frequently disturbed by wild elephants, snakes and leeches.

In the centre of the study area, two troops of lion-tailed macaques

lived and had overlapping home ranges. No other troop of this species

was seen in the area. There may have been some small populations of

the species but the author saw only these two troops in the Cardamom

Hills. Other than the troops, some solitary males were observed in the

study area and nearby forests.

The home ranges of the troops during the study period were about

2 km. each (Text-fig.).

TROOP ORGANIZATION AND INTERTROOP RELATIONSHIP

Troop sizes were 16 and 22 as shown in Table 1. Both troops had

more than one adult male and adult female each, and had adolescent

animals of several generations. The sex ratio, of adult male to adult

female, was 0°375 and 0°363.

Bat lal

(4oyinp : ojoyd)

‘pjoys puke puvjsseis Aq pdJoAOO st ureyUNOUI ysiq oy)

pue ydess0j0yd sy} JO om]090 oY) UT sar] ToATY Jeluued oy], *jsosJoy rewueg ayy

onbeseyp pojiej-uory : ewedrsng

aN ee =

at (G31 11110) i

“OWT}ABP 9Y} UI Usd AUWLOO]S SI ysoJOJ IeIUUe_ 94} JO IOTIOUT

ees Dyid aT IORIS Yo ATU @) dade Poe anbeory, poyie}-uorq : BUBAISNS

II 3LV1d Se ay (Z) $9 “D0S “LSIH “LYN AVAWOg ‘f¢

ECOLOGY OF LION-TAILED MACAQUE | 285

Large adult males led in each troop. It was noted that an adult

male kept at some distance ahead of the others when the troop was

to Munnar

’ to Madras

’ é

4 N J

U Ps * 4

’ /

\ 4

v +? Qlw0

er mm ee, cae a e’ Chundal

am we” me 4 a4

1400 we ua

- ‘ . 7

y % ae

, Panniar Estate of

a e

»... A300 fy

ae Q Rapa

Sao fo :

b 4 \ ash

J) P Ae yo

. H |

1300 She 1 / : | \ Pettivara

‘ e , \ f, a | y Z "ye

\I [ y het ~~ 1700

‘es. 10004 ae /

S if 2

e / P

1280 Na a a “ Talakulam

Nis : A yie

\ \ a

\ Fal

‘S 4

‘

me Mm

1100 ec

Peamewer" 1700

AA |

Bagrig

1000 \,

nos ‘

225

G ‘

‘\

‘ 1 km , to Pirmed

Home Ranges of Troops | & 2 in the Panniar Area

Chair circles show home ranges and numbers (1000-1700) altitude in metres

travelling and adult males were in the lead and in the rear when the troop

was moving fast (Table 2). As the overlapping part of the ranges of the

two troops had many food trees during the study period both troops

frequently came to them, and contact between the two troops was observed

many times. They were antagonistic and troop 2 was dominant.

When they came near, large adult males in each troop displayed by

whooping loudly but no direct fighting was seen. Usually, troop 1

| ‘ moved away after a short time of vocalization. Occasionally both

286. JOURNAL; BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (2)

troops stayed near for a long time without trouble among peripheral

animals, :

TABLE 1

COMPOSITION OF LION-TAILED MACAQUE TROOPS

Full Full

grown Sub- grown Sub- Juve- Inf-—

Age-sex class adult adult adult adult nile ant Baby Total

re) 3 e 2

Estimated age >6 4-6 =>6 4-6 2-4 0°5-2 —0O*5yr.

Troop 1 2 L* iT 1* 3 2 0 16

Troop 2 2 2 10 1 4 0 3 22

* Killed by hunters during the study period.

Though, usually members of a troop travelled together, sometimes

some members of a troop temporarily moved away from the main group.

Troop 1 occasionally divided into two, each containing about half the

number and with adult males in both. Unfortunately I could not deter-

mine whether or not a subgroup had the same animals on different

occasions. Mating couples were often observed more than 100 or 200 m.

from their troop. Temporary division of a troop is rarely seen in

TABLE 2

SOME EXAMPLES OF PROCESSION ORDER

Troop Date/Time Order Remarks

1 Feb. 25, 10.00 FAQ, FAQ, FA9, F43, FAG+Inf, FA? An infant was

FAS Juv, Juv, Juv, FA, FA3 mis-recorded.

1 Feb. 25, 14.20 FAdg, FA, FA, FAG+Inf, FAS, Juv,

Juv, FAS, FA, Juv, FA°+Inf. FAg.

2 Feb. 12,10.33 FAg, FAS, FA2, YAS, FAd, YAS, A??,

. Juv ?, A2?, ?, Juv?, FAQ, FA2+Bab,

FAG, Juy, FAG + Bab, Juv, FA? + Bab,

FA?, YAd ?

ps Feb. 26, 11 . 30 BAe heb FA?+Bab, Juv, FA, Las Juv,

FA, YA? ?, YA¢, FAS ?, FA, F

Juv, Juv, FAS, FA, FA, a

Bab, YAS.

macaque troops, although a subordinate male and its spouse commonly

mate at a place where no other member of the troop can observe them

(Itani & Tokuda 1958, on M. fuscata and Sugiyama, unpublished, on

ECOLOGY OF LION-TAILED MACAQUE — |

M. radiata). (n lion-tailed macaque, males of mating couples which

move away from the troop were not large and might be subordinate ones.

A few animals that had noticeable characters were identified from

others and some data on the permanent social relation among troop

members-were obtained.

FEEDING BEHAVIOUR

The only important food for lion-tailed macaque during the study

period was a kind of chestnut-like fruit (species unknown), from one

of the dominant trees in the forest. After picking an unripe ‘ chestnut’,

they cracked it with the teeth and fingers spending about ten or more

minutes on this, before eating. In addition to this fruit, they ate other

fruits, nuts, flowers and young buds of many kinds of trees, insect larvae

living under tree-bark, pith of cardamom stem and so on.

MOVEMENT

Lion-tailed macaques were very shy and moved to the top of high

trees whenever the author was observing them. However, if he hid

behind a tree or rock they sometimes came down to the ground and

marks of feeding were also seen on the ground. They travelled through

trees even when undisturbed and mainly stayed on trees when feeding and

resting. Generally macaques travel long distances on the ground, though

some usually stay on the tree when they feed or rest. Lion-tailed

macaques apparently are more arboreal than most other macaques in

the natural habitat.

VocAL COMMUNICATION

The whooping display is divided into several emphatic phases and,

in this point, resembles the whooping of the Nilgiri Langur (Presbytis

johnii). Whooping as.a threat display is common in the gibbon (Hylo-

bates) (Carpenter 1940), the langur (Presbytis) (Sugiyama et al, 1965)

and the howling monkey (Alouatta) (Carpenter 1934) but is rare among

macaques. This kind of vocalization was uttered as a threat against a

kite flying overhead as well as threat display against the neighbouring

troop. Vocalization was mainly by adult males but a rather defensive

one was uttered against the author by an adult female. I was struck.by.

the resemblance of the whooping call to human vocalization and once

when I imitated the call from behind a tree, a large adult male was de-

ceived and looked around as if he was searching for an enemy or com-

petitor.

When lion-tailed macaques feed or rest undisturbed and scattered

through the forest, members keep in touch by a muttering or murmuring,

288 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

call [It corresponds to A-1 of the vocal list of M. fuscata (Itani 1963)].

This was also copied by the author and replied by animals. Call and

response were continued for nearly one hour when he was discovered by

an animal. : |

Ten kinds of vocalization were classified ; alert, threat or attack against

a troop member, whooping display (mentioned above), female’s scream,

juvenile’s scream, infant’s squeal, long distance communication between

troop members during travel, short distance communication (mentioned

above), male’s call during sexual excitement and female’s love call.

There may be some more kinds of vocal communication.

BREEDING ACTIVITY

On 12 occasions between January 14 and February 26 sexual behaviour

or cestrous females were observed. These were extensive mutual groom-

ing, embracing by the mating couple, love call by an cestrous female to

a male, male’s examination of the vulva of an estrous female etc. As

mentioned earlier, many mating couples were found far from their troop.

Four copulations were observed on January 14, February 13, 16 and 21.

The copulatory behaviour was similar to that of other macaques (Tokuda

1961-62). The sexual skin surrounding the anus and vulva of an estrous

female may or may not be swollen.

TABLE:3-

EsTIMATED BIRTH DATE OF NEW-BORN BABIES

Estimated birth date Found on i )

Jan. 1-5 Jan. 8

Jan. 18 ' Jan. 18

Jan. 25-31 Jan. 31

During the study period, 3 new-born babies were seen (Table 3).

The new-born baby has brown hair and pale-pink skin. One month

after birth, the skin becomes pale-brown and gradually darkens the hair

finally turns black, and only the whisker or ruff remains brown or grey.

Combining the data of sexual activity and birth, though the inference

is limited to data from two months’ observations, it appears that there

is no restricted mating season in the lion-tailed monkey. :

INTERSPECIES RELATIONSHIP

The higher hills of over 1500 oe to the east and north of the study

area had, only grasslands and shola forests (Plate I). The shola

forests held a large population of the Nilgiri langur (See Tanaka 1965,

ECOLOGY OF LION-TAILED MACAQUE 289

for Nilgiri langur, and Poirier 1968, for shola forests). The lion-tailed

macaques did not react to the loud whooping of the Nilgiri langurs.

Sometimes mating couples and solitary Nilgiri langurs wandered in-

to the range of the lion-tailed monkey. Two of them followed the troops

of lion-tailed monkeys but the latter were not aggressive. The Nilgiri

langur is similar in colour except for the head.

In the study area bonnet macaques (Macaca radiata) lived within the

range of lion-tailed macaques troops. Smaller in size but with a larger

troop size (about 30 head) the bonnet macaque is more terrestrial and 1s

commoner in dry deciduous forests and the vicinity of the villages in

drier areas. In the study area it was as arboreal as the lion-tailed macaques.

Troops of both species were not overtly antagonistic. A troop of bon-

net macaque moved among lion-tailed macaques and sometimes even

travelled following the latter. Lion-tailed macaques usually did not

react to the appearance of bonnet macaques but sometimes moved away

slowly from them. Although smaller, bonnet macaques were dominant.

A similar interspecies relation existed between the bonnet macaque

and the Hanuman Langur (Presbytis entellus) in the dry-deciduous forests

and roadsides of Dharwar, Mysore State (Sugiyama 1967). The Hanu-

man langur eats far more leaves than fruits, and bonnet macaque more

of fruits and insects. In the study area the food habits of the bonnet

macaque and the lion-tailed macaque were nearly the same.

HUMAN INFLUENCE

Though a native tribe of the Nilgiri Hills, Nyakanmar, catch and

eat monkeys (Kawamura, paper presented at Primates Research Confe-

rence, 1964) the tribals, Muduvans, in the study area, do not harm them, but

hunters from elsewhere come to kill lion-tailed macaques. During the

study period, a young adult male and a young adult female that might

have separated from troop 1 were shot by hunters on January 24, 1963.

_ Human persecution has made them extremely wary and shy in their

natural habitat.

Tigers (Panthera tigris) and leopards (Panthera pardus) may be poten-

tial predators of the lion-tailed macaque but their influence on its wild

population must be negligible.

DISCUSSION

In most parts of India monkeys maintain high population in their

natural habitat without much fear of man and field study of monkeys

are easier in India than in any other country. The lion-tailed macaque

is, however, constantly harassed and has become very shy and has taken

to living in high forests, For saving the,wild population of this beautiful

290 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

monkey from extermination, special and strong methods of preservation

are necessary.

In general appearance the lion-tailed macaque differs from other

macaques. However, though troop size is smaller and the sex

ratio, adult male/adult female, lower than in some other kinds of

macaques, the social organization and most of the behaviour patterns of

lion-tailed macaque troops resemble other macaque societies (Kawai

1964, on M. fuscata ; Southwick & Siddiqi 1966, on M. Mulatta ; Sugi-

yama 1963, and Simonds 1965 on M. radiata).

The lion-tailed macaque is more arboreal than other macaques.

However, even bonnet macaque, that are rather terrestrial in drier areas,

were arboreal in the study area. Arboreal-terrestrial ratio as a species

specific character must be largely modified by adaptation to the environ-

ment. The restriction of the present habitat of the species to high and

dense forest, is perhaps related to the influence of human agency.

It was suspected that there is no restricted mating season in lion-

tailed macaques of the study area and, if it is correct, it is similar to the

sexual seasonality of the Hanuman langur (Jay 1963 ; Sugiyama et al.

1965) and the bonnet macaque (Simonds 1965 ; Sugiyama, unpublished)

of the Deccan Plateau. There must be similar environmental influences

on sexual activity.

There is little evidence of permanent subgroup organization as in

troops of other macaques in a stable situation. Separation movements

of some animals from a troop of lion-tailed monkeys which the author

observed might be the beginning of subgroup formation similar to the

first stage of the troop division that is seen in the Japanese monkey,

M. fuscata (Sugiyama 1960). On this point more intensive observations

on the social organization of the lion-tailed macaque are necessary.

Vocal intimidation between neighbouring troops, using whooping

display is rarely seen in macaques. Neighbouring troops of Japanese

monkeys and bonnet macaque usually keep away from each other and

avoid direct contact, and so in the vocal list of macaques the whoop-

like vocalization is absent. It is interesting that the whooping of lion-

tailed macaque is similar to that of the Nilgiri langur belonging to a

separate subfamily that lives in the same habitat as the lion-tailed macaque

at Panniar. Resemblance in the body colour of the lion-tailed macaque

and the Nilgiri langur is also important. Native people who frequently

work in the forest distinguish one from another, but other people quite

often do not know that there are two kinds of ‘ black monkeys with

brown whisker’ in their forest. Similar resemblance can be seen in

the general appearance of the black ape (Cynopithecus niger) and the

moor monkey (M. maurus). Are these resemblances the result of adap-

tation to the same or similar environment ?

Similar to the interspecies relation between the Hanuman langur and

ECOLOGY OF LION-TAILED MACAQUE 291

the bonnet macaque that belong to separate sub-families, the Colo-

binae and Cercopithecinae, that of the lion-tailed and bonnet macaque’

belonging to the same genus and having allied feeding habits was little

antagonistic, though two neighbouring troops of the same species were

antagonistic. This means that antagonism between troops may not

necessarily occur from competition for the same food spread throughout

the forests, but may be due to other common forces also ; for example,

sexual desire. Two males of different species need not fight for a female

as they are not competitors on this matter, and minor interspecies

difference in behaviour patterns and action-reaction system which release

fear or anger may not fully raise the excitement of an animal of another

species. In African forests closely allied species live in harmony in the

same habitat, same range, same layer and even same branch of a tree

(Haddow 1952-53). The explanation for coexistence of closely related

primate species is not differences in feeding habits alone.

As discussed above the lion-tailed macaque has many common charac-

ters with other kinds of macaques on one hand and some common

characters with some species of different genera on the other. For

answers on the phylogenetical relationship with other species of maca-

ques and the ecological relationship with other primate species living

in India, the ecology and social habits of the lion-tailed macaque in its

natural habitat must be studied more extensively and intensively.

SUMMARY

The present distribution range and the wild population of the lion-

tailed macaque is very small and their exterminationis likely unless strong

action for preservation is taken. -Two troops of lion-tailed macaques

of Panniar forest, High Range, Kerala State, were antagonistic to each

other but their home ranges overlapped. Troop size, composition and

organization showed the standard type for macaques but vocal intimi-

dation between neighbouring troops by whooping display was charac-

teristic. In January and February sexual behaviour as well as birth of

new babies were observed and no limited mating season was believed to

exist.

In the same range there were troops of bonnet monkeys which were

dominant but the two species were not very antagonistic. In the higher

mountains close to the range of lion-tailed monkeys there were Nilgiri

langurs whose body colour is close to that of the lion-tailed macaque.

Lion-tailed macaques were not aggressive to solitary Nilgiri langurs who

wandered in its range.

292

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The data on the distribution of the lion-tailed macaque were given

by the Bombay Natural History Society and its members.

Mr. J. C.

Scott, Mr. P. G. S. Hall, Mr. M. George and many persons gave me their

help at the study areas. I would like to extend my thanks to these

persons and the organization.

REFERENCES

BLANFORD, W. T. (1888) : Mammalia.

In: The Fauna of British India, Taylor &

Francis, London.

CARPENTER, C. R. (1934): A field

study of the behavior and social relations

of howling monkeys. Comp. Psychol.

Monogr. 10 (48) : 1-168.

——— (1940): A field study in

Siam of the behaviour and social relations

of the gibbon, Aylobates lar. Comp.

Psychol. Monogr. 16 (5) : 1-212.

Happow, A. J. (1952): Field

and laboratory studies on an African

monkey, Cercopithecus ascanius schmidti

Matschie. Proc. zool. Soc. London.

122 (II) : 297-394.

ITrANI, J. & TokuDA, K. (1958):

Koshima no saru (Monkeys on Koshima

islet). _Kobunsha, Tokyo : 242 pp.

ITANI, J. (1963): Vocal communi-

cation of the wild Japanese monkey.

Primates, 4 (2) : 11-66.

Jay, P. (1965): The common langur

of north India. In: I. DeVore ed.,

Primate Behavior, Holt-Rinehart, New

York : 175-196.

Kawal, M. (1964): Nihonzaru no

seitai (Ecology of Japanese monkeys).

Kawade, Tokyo : 274 pp.

Napier, J. R. & Napier, P. H. (1967) :

A handbook of living primates. Acade-

mic Press, London : 456 pp.

Porer, F. E. (1968): Analysis of a

Nilgiri langur (Presbytis johnii) home

range change. Primates 9 : (in press).

SANDERSON, I. T. (1957) : The monkey

‘kingdom. Hamish-Hamilton, London :

200 pp.

Stmonps, P. (1965): The —_ Bonnet

Macaque in south India. In: I. DeVore

ed., Primate Behavior,

New York : 197-249.

SouTHwick, C. H. & Smpiar, M. R.

(1966) : Population changes of rhesus

monkeys in India, 1959 to 1965. Pri-

mates, 7 (3) : 303-314.

SuGIyaMA, Y. (1960) : On the division

of a natural troop of Japanese monkeys

Holt-Rinehart,

at Takasakiyama. Primates 2 (2):

109-148.

— (1963): Preliminary report

on _ the social life of bonnet

monkeys. Proc. Joint Meet. Anthr.

Soc. Nip. & Jap. Soc. Ethn. \8 Sess. :

63-65.

———-—, (1967) : Social organisation of

Hanuman langurs. In: S. A. Altmann

ed., Social communication among_pri-

mates, Univ. Chicago Press, Chicago :

221-236.

——————, YOSHIBA, K. & PARTHA-

SARATHY, M. D. (1965): Home range,

mating season, male group and intertroop

relations in Hanuman langurs. Primates,

6 (1) : 73-106.

TANAKA, J. (1965) : Social structure of

Nilgiri langurs. Primates, 6 (2): 107-

122

TokubaA, K. (1961-62) : A study on the

sexual behavior in the Japanese monkey

troop. Primates, 3 (2) : 1-40.

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Distribution of Lion-tailed Macaque

Hedychium longipedunculatum, a new

species of Zingiberaceae from Subansiri

District, North East Frontier Agency

ALR. K. Sastry? and D. M. VERMA

Botanical Survey of India, Eastern Circle, Shillong

(With a plate)

During a botanical exploration of Subansiri District, in May 1966,

a frequently occurring epiphytic Hedychium in flower, attracted atten-

tion. Apart from herbarium specimens, live plants of this were also

gathered and grown in the crotch of a Cinnamomum tree, along with

other epiphytes like Vaccinium and some orchids of the same area, in

the ‘ woodlands ’ experimental garden, Shillong. In this almost natural

habitat, the Hedychium flourished and bloomed again in May, 1967.

A detailed study of the live and dry specimens strongly suggested it

being a new species. A follow-up study at the Central National Her-

barium, Calcutta, confirmed this, and incidentally revealed two earlier

undescribed collections of identical material from Naga Hills also.

Accordingly, based upon all the material, the new species is described

here.

Hedychium longipedunculatum sp. nov.

Affine H. densifloro Wall., a quo differt foliis ellipticis, pedunculo

longissimo, spicis floralibus multo brevioribus, bracteis corollae tubo

brevioribus, staminodiis spathulatis, ovario dense villoso, antherarum

cellulis ad basin divergentibus.

Epiphyticum. Rhizoma repens, pallide, griseo-viride extus, pallide

viridescenti-luteum intus, paulum aromaticum. Radices tuberosae.

Caules annui, 25-40 cm. alti, glabri. Folia alterna, 4-6 numero, in-

feriora sessilia, superiora petiolata ; petiolis 3-16 mm. longis, vaginatis;

ligula 0°5-2 cm. longa, membranacea, ad apicem. biloba, glabra ; lamina

4-23 x 1'5-10 cm., elliptica vel oblongo-elliptica, acuta ad basin, ad

apicem abrupte spiraliter caudato-acuminata ; acumine ad 2°5 cm. longa ;

1 Present address : Central Botanical Laboratory, Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta,

294 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

marginibus integris, hyalinis ; facie utraque glabra, viridescente supra,

pallide purpurea infra ; nervo medio distincto, haud alte canaliculato

supra, eminenti infra ; nervi laterales plures, arcuatisursum. Pedunculi

5-14 cm. longi, paulum curvati, glabri; rachis pilosa ; spicula 4-6 cm.

longa, densiflora ; bracteae uniflorae, 11. mm. longae, 7 mm. latae ad

basin, triangulares, convolutae, 9-1l-nerviae, glabrae, 2 mm. calyce

breviores, obtusae ad apicem; bracteolae 6x4 mm., ovatae, acutae,

membranaceae, leniter 3-nerviae, hirsutae extus, glabrae intus. Flores

3 cm. longi, cremei, fragrantes. Calyx tubulosus, partim bractea in-

clusus, 11 mm. longus, oblique ad os divisus, 7-9-nervius, dense villosus

extus, glaber intus, membranaceus, duplici fasciculo capillorum longo-

rum ad apicem: Corollae tubus calyci aequilongus, glaber extus, vil-

losus intus ; laciniae 3, 16 x 3 mm., lineari-lanceolatae, 3-nerviae, pallide

rubro-brunneae maculatae, (emphatice cum siccae), convolutae, acutae

ad apicem. Staminodia bina, 17 mm. longa, 7 mm. lata, petaloidea,

spathulata, cremea, paulum crassa, obscure nervosa. Labium alte

bilobum distincte unguiculatum; ungue 5X2 mm.; lamina fere

elliptica, divisa fere usque ad basin ; lobis 10x 3 mm. , oblongis, obtusis.

Stamen unicum ; filamentum 15 mm. longum, 2 mm. crassum, labio

incumbens ; anthera 7 mm. longa, bicellularis ; cellulae ad basin diver-

gentes ; connectivum 2°5 mm. latum. Ovarium 3 mm. diam., subglo-

bosum, obscure triangulare, dense villosum, triloculare; placentae

axiles ; stylus filiformis, 3°3 cm. longus ; stigma paxilliforme ad antherae

apicem, 1 mm. latum, truncatum, ciliatum. Capsula 1°5 cm. diam.,

subglobosum, triangulare, pilosum; valvulae ternae, patentes, carnosae,

aurantiacae intus ; semina 3x 1 mm. ellipsoidea, levia ; arillus carnosus,

nitenter ruber. Mort ane | F | HH.

Holotypus, A. R. K. Sastry 45509 A, lectus ad Amjee, ad 1220 m.

alt. in Subansiri districtu 22-5-1966, positus in Herbario Nationali

Centrali (CAL) ; isotypi, A. R. K. Sastry 45509 B-H in herbario Kan-

jilal ad Shillong (ASSAM).

Hedychium longipedunculatum sp. nov.

Allied to H. densiflorum Wall., but differs in its elliptic leaves ; very

long peduncle, but much shorter flowering spikes ; bracts shorter than

corolla tube ; spathulate staminodes ; densely villous ovary and anther

cells divergent at base. |

Epiphytic. Rhizome creeping, pale greyish-green outside, light

greenish-yellow inside, slightly aromatic. Roots tuberous. Stem

annual, 25 - 40 cm. tall, glabrous. Leaves alternate, 4-6, lower sessile

upper petioled ; petiole 3-16 mm. long, sheathed ; ligule 0°5-2 cm. long,

membranous, 2-lobed at apex, glabrous; lamina 4 -23x1°5-10 cm.

elliptic or oblong-elliptic, base acute, apex abruptly, spirally caudate-

Sastry : Hedychium longipedunculatum

Hedychium longipedunculatum Sastry et Verma

1. Habit. 2. Plant. 3. Flower. 4. Bract. 5. Bracteole. 6a. Calyx. 6b. Calyx

split open. 7. Lateral corolla segment. 8. Dorsal corolla segment. 9. Staminode.

10. Lip and Stamen. (A.R.K. Sastry 45509 G.)

A NEW SPECIES OF ZINGIBERACEAE 295

acuminate.; acumen up to 2'5 cm.'‘long ; margins entire, hyaline ; sur-

faces glabrous, greenish above, light pinkish-purple beneath ; midrib

distinct, shallowly grooved above, raised beneath ; lateral nerves many,

arched upwards. Peduncle 5-14 cm. long, slightly curved, glabrous ;

rachis hairy ; spike 4-6 cm. long, dense flowered ; bracts 1-flowered, -

11 mm. long, 7 mm. broad at base, triangular, convolute, 9-11-nerved,

glabrous, 2 mm. shorter than calyx, apex obtuse ; bracteoles 6 x 4 mm.,

ovate, acute, membraneous, faintly 3-nerved, hirsute without, glabrous

within. Flowers 3 cm. long, creamy yellow, fragrant. Calyx tubular,

partly enclosed by the bract, 11 mm. long, obliquely split at mouth,

7-9-nerved, densely villous without, glabrous within, membranous, with

2 tufts of long hairs at apex. Corolla tube as long as calyx, glabrous

without, villous within ; segments 3, 16x3 mm. linear-lanceolate, 3-

nerved, light red brown dotted (distinct when dry), convolute, apex

acute. Staminodes 2, 17 mm. long, 7 mm. broad, petaloid, spathu-

late, creamy, slightly thick, obscurely veined. Lip deeply 2-lobed, dis-

tinctly clawed ; claw 5x2 mm.; lamina nearly elliptic, divided near to

the base; lobes 10x3 mm., oblong, obtuse. Stamen single, filament

15 mm. long, 2 mm. thick, resting on the lip; anther 7 mm. long, 2-

celled ; anther cells divergent at base ; connective 2°5 mm. broad. Ovary

3 mm. in diameter, sub-globose, obscurely 3-angled, densely villous,

3-celled ; placentation axile ; style filiform, 3°3 cm. long ; stigma peg-

like at anther tip, 1 mm. broad, truncate, ciliate. Capsule 1°5 cm. in

diameter, sub-globose, 3-angled, hairy without ; valves 3, spreading,

fleshy, orange coloured within ; seeds 3x 1 mm. ellipsoid, smooth ; aril

fleshy, bright red. ,

N.E.F.A.: SUBANSIRI District: Amyee, c 1220 m., 22-5-1966,

A. R. K. Sastry 45509 A (Holotype—CAL) ; A. R. K. Sastry 45509 B-H,

H in fr. (Isotypes—ASSAM) ; Begi—Amjee, 12-5-1966, A. R. K. Sastry

45222 in fl.; Hapoli vicinity, 28-5-1966, A. R. K. Sastry 45584 in fl.

(Paratypes—ASSAM).

NAGA HILLS: July 1844, Anon., s.n., (CAL, Accn. No. 466858) in

fl.; Konoma Hill, (7500’, c 2500 m.), 19-5-1895, G. Watt 11609 in fl.

(Paratypes—CAL).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful ; to Rev. Fr. H. Santapau, Director, Botanical Sur-

vey of India, Calcutta, for kindly rendering the description into Latin ;

to Dr. A. S. Rao, Regional Botanist, for encouragement and critical

suggestions and to Dr. S. K. Mukerjee, Keeper, Central National Her-

barium, Calcutta, for loan of specimens.

A Report on Wild Life Surveys

in South and West India

November-December 1966

J. JUAN SPILLETT

Wild Life Sanctuaries in Mysore State

(With two plates and three maps)

(Continued from Vol. 65 (1) : 46)

I. INTRODUCTION a Ms A Ne et OF

II. GENERAL ACCOUNT OF THE SURVEY ie ot x S29

III. THE RANGANATHITTU BIRD SANCTUARY 2k me a 2a

Introduction ree Mi Seo ae Binet) |

Visitor Facilities .. we . wi os 8308

Fauna « m4 ef ie cemaOd

Discussion ae My oe i, .. 301

IV. THe NAGERHOLE WILD LIFE SANCTUARY ys Sk .o. 303

Introduction ie s ie Lae .. 303

Visitor Facilities .. < ud ae .. 304

Habitat ci ae ay a .. 306

Flora os i ia a .. 306

Fauna a Ne “ft ae .. 309

’- Discussion is a a et .. 309

-—V. THE VENU GopAL WILD LIFE PARK (BANDIPUR SANCTUARY) joo ene

Introduction “e he ee re ci Se

Visitor Facilities .. oe fe - te i

Habitat rs eo Bie Hu ». 1 B16

Flora 2K Ny ie. Ah 4) 316

Fauna Vs i wh ss 2No3i8

Discussion i Bi S a i 38

VI. THE CHAMARAJANAGAR WILD LIFE PRESERVE .. Py Ra: 7 |

VU. OTHER WILD LiFe SANCTUARIES IN MysoORE STATE ne as

VIII. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .. aie Ae yah ony tiles Se oe (SOE

REFERENCES see as “a ES se Ooo

TABLES AND MAps

Table 1. Species composition of the natural moist deciduous forests in the

Nagerhole Wild Life Sanctuary in Mysore State. oe Om

Table 2. Species composition of the mixed dry deciduous forests of Bandipur

Sanctuary in the Venu Gopal Wild Life Park in Mysore State .. 317

WILD LIFE SURVEYS IN SOUTH AND WEST INDIA 297

Table 3. Names of some of the mammals inhabiting the Venu Gopal Wild Life

Park (Bandipur Sanctuary) and the forests in the western part of

Mysore State Re es Ms Me ee eos

Table 4. Some of the more common birds observed in November 1966 in the

Venu Gopal Wild Life Park in Mysore State i ae) 1320

Map 1. Map of the wild life sanctuaries in Mysore State an L B24

Map 2. General map of the Nagerhole Wild Life Sanctuary in Mysore State 324

Map 3. General map of the Venu Gopal Wild Life Park, including the

Bandipur Sanctuary in Mysore State a : 325

lL INTRODUCTION

The princely state of Mysore, which became a part of the Indian

Union after Independence in 1947, was world renowned for its abund-

ance of wild animals. Primarily due to the numerous royal shoots for

tiger and other big game, there was a state-wide interest in wild life.

This led to the enactment of the Mysore Game and Fish Preservation

Act of 1901, which helped to prevent the indiscriminate destruction of

the State’s wild life, and resulted in the organization of perhaps the first

game or wild life staff in India. The Maharaja of Mysore, a devoted

wild life enthusiast, was the first chairman of the Central Indian Board

for Wild Life, which was organized in 1952. A Mysore State Wild Life

Board to advise the State Government on matters pertaining to wild

life preservation also was established in 1952. The Chief Minister is

the chairman of this committee which meets annually, whereas the

Central Board only meets every other year. Mysore became an inte-

grated State in 1956 and the Mysore Wild Animals and Wild Birds’ Act

was enacted in 1963 to establish a uniform code for wild life for the

integrated State.

- The State’s first wild life sanctuary was established in 1931 and con-

sisted of a 35-square-mile area near Chamarajanagar in the District of

Mysore. It was later realized that this sanctuary was too small to con-

stitute a complete ecological unit. Therefore, the area was reverted

back to the status of a wild life preserve and in 1941 a much larger area

to the west was set apart as the Venu Gopal Wild Life Park, which in-

cludes the well-known Bandipur Sanctuary. |

The large islands of Devaraja, Ranganathittu and Gandehosahalli, as

well as a number of smaller islands in the Cauvery River, were consti-

tuted as Bird Sanctuaries in 1940. The Jager Valley and Baba Buddin

Wild Life Sanctuary in Chikmagalur District was established in 1941.

1 This survey “was officially sponsored by ‘the World Wildlife Fund, Morges,

Switzerland. The project was also assisted by The Johns Hopkins University and its

Center for Medical Research and Training, Calcutta and Baltimore, Maryland (U.S.A.).

Mr. E. P. Gee, member of the Indian Board for Wild Life, made the necessary arrange-

ments with the Government of India and the Forest Department of Mysore, both of

which extended the fullest co-operation. a :

298 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

The Dandeli Wild Life Sanctuary in North Kanara District, which was

originally in the State of Bombay, was established in 1945. The Nager-

hole Wild Life Sanctuary in Coorg District, which was originally the

Class ‘C’ State of Coorg, was established in 1955. Both the Dandeli

and Nagerhole wild life sanctuaries came under the jurisdiction of Mysore

when it became an integrated State in 1956 (Map 1). Mysore has the

potential for presenting perhaps the best system of wild life sanctuaries

and parks of any state in the Indian Union.

II. GENERAL ACCOUNT OF THE SURVEY

Two delegates from the Mysore Forest Department met me upon

my arrival in Bangalore the evening of November 22, 1966. Because

it was late and I planned to take the early morning train to the city of

Mysore, we only briefly discussed the wild life situation in Mysore State.

Mr. Monnappa, Wild Life Officer of Mysore, and members of his staff

met me upon my arrival in the station of Mysore on the morning of

the 23rd. The afternoon was spent visiting the Ranganathittu Bird

Sanctuary and other points of interest in the vicinity of the city of Mysore.

We travelled to the Nagerhole Wild Life Sanctuary, approximately

50 miles north-west of Mysore, the morning of November 24. The

afternoon was spent touring some of the sanctuary’s interior roads by

jeep. The entire day of the 25th was spent on elephant back west of

the Nagerhole Forest Rest House. The following day we were accom-

panied by Mr. Syed Hussain (Coorg Divisional Forest Officer) to Thithi-

mathi and also visited the Hebballa Elephant Camp, which is located

on the banks of the Lakshmantirtha River in the heart of the Nagerhole

Sanctuary. We then returned to Mysore via Hunsur.

Mr. Monnappa and I travelled to Chamarajanagar on November 27,

where we met Mr. Alva (Chamarajanagar Divisional Forest Officer).

Mr. Alva accompanied us on a tour of the Biligirirangan Hills and the

Chamarajanagar Wild Life Preserve, which are located south-west of

the town of Chamarajanagar. It has been proposed that this area be

constituted as a wild life sanctuary, a distinction which it well deserves.

The natural beauty and the wild life of this area are worthy of note and

could readily establish it as an outstanding tourist attraction. In

addition, the basic amenities for visitors, such as forest rest houses and

a good network of roads, are present already and the establishment of

the area as a wild life sanctuary and major tourist attraction would in-

volve relatively very little capital investment. We returned to Chama-

rajanagar that night and Mr. Monnappa and I then continued on to

the Venu Gopal Wild Life Park, arriving at Bandipur early the morning

of the 28th. | : we

November 28 was spent inspecting the Venuvihar Forest Rest House,

located on the summit of a 4,769-foot high hill along the northern boun-

WILD LIFE SURVEYS IN SOUTH AND WEST INDIA 299

dary of the Venu Gopal Wild Life Park and adjacent to the Venu Gopal

Temple. We also inspected a number of the tiger blocks north of the

Park and toured some of the roads inside the Park and the Bandipur

Sanctuary. -

We toured the Park roads east of the Bandipur Forest Rest House

the morning of the 29th and then spent the afternoon on elephant back

to the west. Mr. Alva arrived from Chamarajanagar that evening

and we discussed at length the problems confronting wild life in this area

and some of the possible means by which the true value of wild life in

both Mysore State and in India might be realized.

Mr. Monnappa accompanied me to the Mudumalai Wild Life Sanc-

tuary in Madras State on the morning of November 30th. Mudumalai

adjoins both the Venu Gopal Wild Life Park in Mysore State and an

outstanding wild life area in Kerala State, which also has been proposed

as a wild life sanctuary. With the establishment of the adjoining wild

life sanctuary in Kerala, the Venu Gopal-Mudumalai-Kerala areas

would constitute one of the most complete ecological units in India

dedicated to the preservation of wild life. This completed my brief

tour of some of the wild life areas in Mysore State.

Ill. THE RANGANATHITTU BIRD SANCTUARY

INTRODUCTION

The Ranganathittu Bird Sanctuary was established in 1940 and is

the oldest existing wild life sanctuary in Mysore State. It received its

name from the 66-acre Ranganathittu Island in the Cauvery River near

the village of Palahalli, which is 12 miles north of the city of Mysore

and two miles upstream from the railway station at Srirangapatna.

Besides a number of lesser islands in the vicinity of Ranganathittu, also

included in the sanctuary are the islands of Gandehosahalli and Devaraja.

The two islands of Gandehosahalli are located about 8 miles downstream

from Srirangapatna and include a total area of 86°23 acres. The 15-

acre Devaraja Island is 6 miles upstream from Ranganathittu and about

three-fourths of a mile downstream from the Krishnarajasagar Dam.

Devaraja is a denuded island, which is submerged frequently by waters

released ffom the Krishnarajasagar Dam. The major islands, includ-

ing Ranganathittu, serve primarily as resting sites for birds, whereas the

vast majority of the sanctuary’s water birds nest on the lesser islands

along the southern side of Ranganathittu. Therefore, although the

Sanctuary includes a total area of over 167°39 acres, nesting water birds

may be observed only on a few small islands adjacent to Ranganathittu.

300 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi. 65 (2)

VISITOR FACILITIES

A metalled road, which is about three-fourths of a mile long, leads

from the Paschimavahini-Krishnarajasagar Highway to the south bank

of the Cauvery River. The turn-off is well-marked with an impressive

sign, which both advertises and depicts the sanctuary’s bird life. A

‘ pergola’ or observation platform is located at the end of the road on a

point overlooking the river and a footpath extends upstream along the

south bank. From this well-camouflaged path, visitors may readily

observe the nesting water birds and their young on the small islands

about 75 feet off-shore. There is also an observation tower on the

south side of Ranganathittu Island, but the birds can be observed better

from the path on the opposite bank of the river.

A Forest Department Forester and a Watcher are stationed at Pala-

halli to guide or assist visitors to the sanctuary. A double boat (Plate I)

and a coracle (a round, basket-like boat) are also provided. How-

ever, visitors are not permitted to approach the nesting birds closely.

When disturbed, the parent birds fly away and the young birds are often

attacked by crows and some fall out of their nests and either drown in

the river or eventually starve.

There are no rest house facilities at the Ranganathittu Bird Sanctuary,

but there are a number of good hotels in the city of Mysore. A first

class hotel also is located below the Krishnarajasagar Dam, which is

the site of the beautiful Brindavan Gardens. Coloured lights are played

upon the numerous fountains in the garden on Wednesday, Saturday

and Sunday evenings. As a result, the gardens have become a notable

tourist attraction.

The nearest airport to Ranganathittu is at Bangalore, 86 miles north-

east of the city of Mysore. The two cities are connected by both fre-

quent train and bus services. The journey takes about four hours by

meter-gauge train, but first class express buses take less than three hours.

The Government Tourist Department also conducts bus tours of Mysore

and its environment. Although Ranganathittu presently is not in-

cluded in their itinerary, it is hoped that in the future it will be. Most

of the tours pass near the sanctuary and at least a brief visit could be

arranged very easily. |

Major attractions within the vicinity of Ranganathittu include the

Brindavan Gardens, which have been mentioned previously, the one

and one-fourth mile long Krishnarajasagar Dam, which is constructed

entirely of cut stone, and the 50-square-mile Krishnarajasagar Lake.

Srirangapatna is an island in the Cauvery River about two and one-

half miles below Ranganathittu. It served as the capital of the Mysore

Rajas from 1610 until 1799 when Tippu Sultan died in the final battle

with the British. Within the fort on Srirangapatna is a Hindu temple

WILD LIFE SURVEYS IN SOUTH AND WEST INDIA 301

(Sri Ranganath), which is over 500 years old, and a Muslim mosque

(Juma Masjid). By climbing the minarets of the mosque one is able to

view an impressive panorama of the fort and the surrounding country-

side. Other attractions include Tippu Sultan’s summer palace which is

located outside the fort, and the mausoleum (Gumbaz) where he is

buried, which is situated near the lower end of the island where the two

forks of the Cauvery River rejoin.

Fauna

Water bird nesting activity begins in the Ranganathittu Bird Sanc-

tuary by late May and is followed closely by egg laying. Hatching,

which coincides with the main monsoon season, generally begins by

mid-June. There are two monsoons in this area ; the south-west mon-

soon, which begins in June and lasts until September, and the north-east

monsoon, which lasts from October until December. The young birds

are full-fledged by the end of November and most of the birds then leave

the sanctuary. Although a few birds are present throughout the year,

the best time to observe the sanctuary’s birds is between June and October.

Most common among the nesting water birds are: openbill storks,

white ibis, little and cattle egrets, darters or snake-birds, paddy birds or

pond herons and spoonbills. Night herons, river terns, lapwings,

curlews, sandpipers, and other water birds, as. well as several species of

migratory waterfowl also are present. Numerous species of lesser birds,

particularly the passerines, may be observed in the trees and bushes along

the banks of the Cauvery. Nearby Srirangapatna is considered a Blue

Rock Pigeon Preserve. There are numerous pigeon nests in the old ruins

of the fort and particularly on the minarets of the mosque. This species

is considered by many as the forerunner of our domestic pigeon.

A large colony of giant fruit bats or ‘ flying foxes’ (Pteropus gigan-

teus) also roosts in the large trees of a small island opposite the

sanctuary’s pergola. Although their numbers vary considerably during

the year, I counted over 500 bats during our visit on November 23rd.

These huge bats have an average wingspread of approximately three feet.

They present an impressive spectacle, particularly to foreign visitors,

when in the evening they drop from the branches and silently wing their

way into the surrounding countryside to forage for food during the night.

DISCUSSION

The primary reason the water birds utilize the small islands in the

Cauvery River for nesting sites undoubtedly is the protection they

afford from man and predatory animals. Another factor which attracts

them to this particular area is the abundance of food in the surrounding

302. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

agricultural lands. The sanctuary’s birds feed extensively upon insects

and aquatic organisms, many of which are harmful to crops. Their

droppings or guano also help to maintain the fertility of the surrounding

fields. Thus, the presence of these birds results in incalculable benefits

to the economy of this area. Apart from aesthetic values, an additional

benefit and potential source of revenue which has not yet begun to be

realized, is the development of Ranganathittu as a major tourist attrac-

tion.

Ranganathittu Island has a fairly luxuriant tree growth along its

' margins. However, most of the island is severely overgrazed by domestic

livestock from near-by villages. As a result, it is for the most part a

barren area with only sparse scrubby vegetation. Herders, who accom-

pany the livestock on the larger islands of the sanctuary, also disturb

whatever birds that attempt to colonize them and have contributed to

the almost complete absence of wild life in these areas.

Areas set aside and constituted as wild life sanctuaries should be

maintained in as natural a condition as possible. It is to be hoped that

the Government of Mysore will shortly take steps to ensure that this is

done at the Ranganathittu Bird Sanctuary. Besides benefiting the people

of the State as a whole, the surrounding villagers eventually would receive

much greater benefits from the sanctuary than they presently receive

from the grazing of some of their livestock within its confines. With-

out the disturbance by villagers and their livestock I believe that many

of the water birds would eventually utilize some of the larger islands for

nesting sites. Primarily this would be desirable for two reasons:

(1) Greater numbers of water birds could reside in the sanctuary, which

would benefit the surrounding agricultural lands and make the sanctuary

an even greater attraction. (2) The nesting colony would not be as

subject to the havocs of flood waters caused by heavy rains or the opening

of the gates at the Krishnarajasagar Dam. Further, other birds such as

peafowl, jungle fowl and partridges, which the Forest Department has

attempted to introduce upon these islands with little success, would

probably take hold and thrive if they were left undisturbed and sufficient

natural cover and food were available. |

A major problem confronting the nesting water birds of Ranganathittu

is flooding. When there are exceptionally heavy monsoon rains the gates

on the Krishnarajasagar Dam are opened, often with devastating effects

upon the nesting colonies. This practice should be discouraged and an

effort made to release excess waters from the dam as slowly as possible.

Devaraja Island, about three-fourths of a mile below the dam, is almost

completely barren of vegetation because of this practice. Also, on

several occasions the entire season’s production of young water birds

has been destroyed by the sudden rush of waters released from the dam.

It is realized that the protection of the dam is of primary importance, but

WILD LIFE SURVEYS IN SOUTH AND WEST INDIA 303

Ranganathittu’s birds also should receive consideration and often with

a little foresight their destruction could be lessened, if not averted

completely. |

The manner in which the Forest Department has established and

maintained Ranganathittu is highly commendable. This is particularly

true when it is realized that this is done on a very limited budget and that

the Department presently realizes no revenue what so ever from this

sanctuary. I was especially impressed by the path along the south

bank of the river, which is well maintained and constructed in such a way

that visitors may readily observe the nesting colony of birds without

disturbing them. However, for the most part, the surrounding fields

encroach upon the sanctuary to the extent that there is room for little

more than a path along the bank of the river. Additional land in this

area should be constituted as a part of the sanctuary. If nothing else,

at least a few additional feet along the path should be acquired to help

give it a park-like appearance. Space also is needed in the vicinity of

the pergola to provide parking, particularly for buses. A small picnic

area likewise would be desirable. Further, it is suggested that the Forest

Department charge a very nominal fee to those visiting the sanctuary.

Besides helping to provide funds for the maintenance of the sanctuary,

this would perhaps impress upon visitors the value of wild life sanctuaries

and the fact that many people would be willing to pay much to have the

opportunity to see a spectacle such as the birds of Ranganathittu.

IV. THE NAGERHOLE WILD LIFE SANCTUARY

INTRODUCTION

The 111-square-mile Nagerhole Wild Life Sanctuary, which was

originally in the State of Coorg, was established on July 19, 1955 by noti-

fication from the Chief Commissioner of Coorg. Included in the sanc-

tuary are parts of three reserved forests: Arkeri, Hatgat and Nalkeri.

The Thithimathi-Anechowkur road forms the northern boundary,

demarcated forest lines the eastern and western boundaries and the

Kerala State line the southern boundary (Map 2).

The Hunsur Divisional Forest Office and the Divisional Forest Officer

in charge of the Nagerhole Sanctuary are located at Hunsur, 28 miles

west of the city of Mysore. Hunsur also serves as a timber depot for

forest operations in this area. Regretfully, the sanctuary is devoted

primarily to the production of forest produce. Approximately 20,000

acres of the sanctuary presently are devoted to teak (Tectona grandis)

plantations and about 2,000 acres of teak plantation are included in the

sanctuary’s “sanctum sanctorum. Also, 90 acres have been planted

304 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL GIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

with Eucalyptus and the parasitic Sandalwood (Santalum album) has

been mixed with teak on 136 acres. Soil conservation schemes, which

primarily involve the planting of trees on barren areas, were initiated in

1963 on an additional 1,080 acres in the sanctuary.

There are 12 villages in the Nagerhole Sanctuary. Nine of these are

inhabited by tribal people resettled here by the Social Welfare Depart-

ment and one of these villages is located in the sanctuary’s 5-square-mile

sanctum sanctorum. The total population of these villages exceed 4,000

people and their cultivated lands inside the sanctuary approximate 500

acres.

Livestock grazing supposedly is excluded from the sanctuary’s

sanctum sanctorum. However, with this exception, the entire sanctuary ©

is open to the free and unrestricted grazing of domestic livestock. It is

estimated conservatively that between 1,500 and 2,000 head of cattle

and buffalo graze in the sanctuary on a year round basis. Other animals

are seasonally grazed in the sanctuary or graze while passing through

the area.

The western side of the sanctuary is bordered by extensive coffee

plantations. Additional pressures are exerted upon the sanctuary,

particularly from this side, for livestock grazing, firewood and other

forest produce by those living along its borders. Although there are

some beautiful areas of natural forest in the interior, travelling through

the sanctuary from Murkal to Kutta or along the northern boundary,

one gains the impression that the Nagerhole Wild Life Sanctuary is little

more than an extensive teak plantation intermingled with forest villages.

VISITOR FACILITIES

Forest rest houses are located conveniently in the Nagerhole Wild

Life Sanctuary at Murkal, Nagerhole and Thithimathi. The Murkal

Forest Rest House is located along the eastern border and provides 4

suites (2 double and 2 single) with all facilities, i.e., bedding, cook, etc.

Murkal is 18 miles south-west of Hunsur via a black-topped road and is

served by daily bus service. Also located at Murkal are a Forest

Department sawmill, seasoning kiln, carpenter training school and a

carpentry section where furniture is manufactured.

The Nagerhole Forest Rest House is 12 miles south-west of Murkal and

provides 2 double suites with all facilities, Six of the 12 miles of road

between Murkal and Nagerhole are black-topped and the other 6 are

metalled. Nagerhole, which means ‘ cobra stream’ in Kanarese, may be

reached by bus from Mercara via Gonegopal and Kutta, a total distance

of 58 miles. There are some beautiful sylvan areas to the south and

east of the Nagerhole Forest Rest House. These may be visited on riding

WILD LIFE SURVEYS IN SOUTH AND WEST INDIA 305

elephants, which are provided for visitors at Nagerhole by the Forest

Department.

A small rest house with one suite, but no services, is available at

Kalhalla, mid-way between Murkal and Nagerhole. The Thithimathi

Forest Rest House with 2 double suites and all facilities is located along

the northern boundary of the sanctuary. It is 22 miles west of Hunsur

and 30 miles from Nagerhole via Kutta and Gonegopal.

There is an almost continuous forest belt along the eastern slopes

of the Western Ghats in Mysore. However, the average width of this

belt is only about 5 miles. In addition to the aforementioned forest

rest houses in the Nagerhole Sanctuary, small forest lodges are located

at approximately 8-mile intervals along the entire length of this forest

belt. These are linked with fair-weather roads and may be used with

prior permission from the Divisional Forest Officer in the area concerned.

However, these lodges are for the most part unfurnished and only a

few have modern facilities.

A site of particular interest for visitors to the Nagerhole Sanctuary is

the Hebballa Elephant Camp located in the heart of the sanctuary along

the north bank of the Lakshmanathirtha River. Although a 16-mile

road runs north from Nagerhole to the Lakshmanathirtha, the camp is

on the opposite side and the river can be forded by jeep only during the

dry season. Therefore, the camp is generally reached by a metalled road

from Thithimathi, a distance of 8 miles. The best time to visit Hebballa

is before 08.00 in the morning when the elephants are taken into the

forests to work or to graze or after 05.00 in the afternoon when they are

brought back to the camp for the night.

Elephant kheddas (the driving and capturing of wild elephants

in stockades) were formerly conducted at roughly 5-year intervals at

Kakanakote. The kheddas are located along the north bank of the

Kabini River, about 15 miles south of the Nagerhole Forest Rest House.

After the khedda some of the captured elephants were then brought to

Hebballa for training. However, due to the construction of a dam on the

Kabini the backwaters of which will shortly inundate the khedda area,

_ the final khedda operations were scheduled for the early part of 1967.

Elephants for the training camp will now be caught by pit method in

other areas between November and April on alternate years. There

were 55 domestic elephants in the Nagerhole Sanctuary during my visit.

Most were being used for forest operations, although a few were receiving

their final stages of training at Hebballa. Thirty-five elephants were

Stationed at Hebballa, 11 at Nagerhole and the remaining 9 elsewhere

in the sanctuary. There were no elephants in the early stages of training,

Therefore, the large ‘ kraals ’ or pens at Hebballa were empty. However,

it was very interesting to observe the elephants working in the forests

bathing in the river and so forth,

306 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

I was also informed that the mahseer (Tor tor) is ‘ common’ in parti-

cular stretches of the Cauvery, Kabini and Lakshmanathirtha rivers, as

well as the Tunga, Bhadra, and Sharavati. This game fish is noted for

its fighting ability and for the remarkable size which it often attains. A

121 pound mahseer is the record for this species in Mysore. Van

Ingen and Van Ingen taxidermists in the city of Mysore also have an

impressive collection of mahseer teeth, as well as other wild life speci-

mens which are well worth making arrangements to see.

HABITAT

Flora

The Western Ghats are a narrow chain of hills running north and

south along the western side of Mysore State, extending from Madras

and Kerala in the south to Maharashtra in the north. They attain a

maximum height of 8,000 feet in the Nilgiri Hills, but rarely exceed 5,000

feet in the western part of Mysore. Most of the forest areas and wild

life sanctuaries of Mysore are located along their eastern slopes.

Although the forests of this region vary somewhat with altitude and other

factors, the natural moist deciduous forests remaining in the Nagerhole

Wild Life Sanctuary are more or less typical for much of the Western

Ghat region of the State(Table1l). Rainfall for most of this region varies

between 60 and 70 inches per annum and occurs primarily between June

and September, during the south-west monsoon.

Economic advisors claim that a modern nation must perpetually

maintain an average of at least 1:0 acre of forest per person in order to

maintain a basically sound national economy. ‘The total area of Mysore

State is 74,122 square miles, of which 18°4°% or 13,575 square miles are

classified as forest lands. However, many areas classified as forests are

in actuality little more than barren wastes. Presently there is less than

0°54 acre of so-called forest lands per capita in India as a whole and

only 0°46 acre per capita in the State of Mysore ! Nevertheless during

recent years more and more forest lands, which are for the most part

submarginal for agricultural use, have been cleared for crops. As

these lands are eventually depleted they become deserts or barren wastes

which are of little or no economic value. Jn addition, accelerated erosion

upon these lands often results in the devastation of rich agricultural

lands below and reforestation of these once prime forest areas becomes a

slow and costly process. Therefore, the present trend should be

reversed. India drastically needs an extensive and well-planned

programme of reforestation and the emphasis should be placed on in-

tensive rather than extensive agricultural land use.

WILD LIFE SURVEYS IN SOUTH AND WEST INDIA 307

TABLE 1. SPECIES COMPOSITION OF THE NATURAL MOIST DECIDUOUS FORESTS IN

THE NAGERHOLE WILD LIFE SANCTUARY IN MysORE STATE

Local or Common Name Scientific Name Percent of Stand or Remarks

TREES

Mathi Terminalia tomentosa 40%

Teak Tectora grandis 30

Rosewood Pterocarpus marsupium 5

Honne Lagerstroemia lanceolata 5

Nandi Terminalia tomentosa 5

Uluve Terminalia paniculata 3

Thadasalu Grewia tiliaefolia DI

Arasinatega Adina cordifolia 1

Noga Cedrela toona 1

Nelagodda Garuga pinnata 0°5

SHRUBS :

Seeme Seege Lantana camara common

Desmodium pulchellum common in moist areas

Kowri Helicteres isora present

Mandalamari Cipadessa fruticosa present

CLIMBERS :

Strangler Fig Ficus sp. fairly common

Muthaga hambu Butea superba present

Kadavave hambu Spatholobus roxburghii present

Seege Kaye Acacia concinna present

Note :

1. Allof the bamboo (Bambusa arundinacea) in the sanctuary flowered and died in

1965. Therefore, it presently does not enter into the sanctuary’s floral composition.

2. Species listed as comprising the natura! shrubs have been replaced to a great

extent since 1960 by Eupatorium glandulosum.

3. Grasses and herbs were not identified.

Two methods of forest operation are used at present in the forests of

the Nagerhole Sanctuary : (1) Selective cutting, which involves primarily

the harvesting of mature trees in natural forests. (2) Clear felling, where

entire forest blocks are cleared and then usually burned prior to planta-

tion planting. The planting of teak is becoming increasingly common,

although the planting of fast growing species such as Eucalyptus also is

being advocated. The fast growing or soft wood species are in demand

primarily by the paper pulp and rayon mills. Dead bamboo, which is

being collected from the sanctuary, presently is being supplied to Kerala.

Big bamboo (Bambusa arundinacea) generally constitutes a conspi-

cuous part of the sanctuary’s floral composition. However, practically

all of the bamboo in this area flowered, set seed and then died in 1965.

It is claimed that this occurs every 40 to 50 years, after which is takes a

few years for the seeds to germinate and establish the species once more.

As a result of the 1965 bamboo die-off, there is at present a scarcity of

fodder for elephants and to some extent for gaur in the sanctuary.

308 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

Theoretically pure stands of the same age and species of trees are

desirable for efficient forest operations. However, in practice, planta-

tions of pure teak present a number of major problems. Perhaps most

important of these are: (1) the deterioration of soil and the lowering of

site quality, and (2) the production of a lower quality of timber. Teak

seedlings are intolerant of weeds and other plant growth. Thus, they

are cultivated for at least the first three years after planting. After the

canopy becomes established, there is little undergrowth and little accumu-

lation of humus. Therefore, erosion often is very much in evidence.

Also, due to increased competition from weeds and increased vulnerability

to insects and other parasites generally the growth of pure stands of

teak is retarded and the quality of the timber decreases.

An introduced plant (Lantana camara) formerly was an undesirable

component of many teak plantation areas. However, since 1956 in

many parts of Mysore it has been replaced to a great extent by the intro-

duction of the even less desirable Eupatorium glandulosum. ‘This shrub-

like weed has woody stems, grows to a height of over 8 feet and appears

to be unpalatable to almost all forms of endemic wild life. Its winged

seeds, dispersed by wind, germinate and spread like wild-fire in disturbed

open areas, such as along roadsides, plantations, and so forth. It was

first noticed in the Nagerhole Sanctuary in 1956, but did not become a

major problem until about 1960. Because of the presence of Eupatorium,

the growth of teak has been retarded greatly in many plantation areas and

in some cases a good number of the teak seedlings have died. The

Forest Department presently is waging a costly and what appears to be

futile battle in attempting to control this weed.

The Forest Department presently weeds its teak plantations by hand

three times during the first year, twice in the second, and once during the

third year and then hopes that the stand is established well enough to

hold its own thereafter. Tending, thinning and the cutting of climbers,

however, is needed at various intervals before the tree crop may be

harvested at an age of between 80 and 100 years. The point is this, such

a crop may be devastated at any time during its 80 to 100 year rotation

period and practically the entire investment may be lost. A natural

or mixed crop of trees generally lessens this vulnerability, although to

some extent it may complicate the forest operations.

The Forest Department should note that Eupatorium is almost com-

pletely absent in the natural forests of the sanctuary and a parasitic

growth (Loranthus sp.) of teak is much more in evidence in plantation

areas than in natural forests. Because of two moths, Hyblaea puera

a defoliator and Hapalia machaeralis a leaf skeletonizer, the trees in

many of the teak plantations of Nagerhole were almost completely defo-

liated at the time of my visitin November. Little growth can be expected

from trees in such a state even under ideal climatical conditions.

WILD LIFE SURVEYS IN SOUTH AND WEST INDIA 309

Epidemic outbreaks of such pests also are more prevalent and more

serious in pure rather than mixed stands.

Fauna

The mammalian fauna of Nagerhole is very similar to that of the

Venu Gopal Wild Life Park (see Table 3). In fact, elephant and perhaps

gaur appear to have seasonal movements or migrations between the two

areas. Just what effect the construction of the dam on the Kabini River,

the impounded waters of which will cross their migratory route, remains

to be seen. |

Mammals observed during my visit to the Nagerhole Wild Life

Sanctuary include the following : chital (33), gaur (14), Malabar squirrel

(6), numerous common ljangur and a small bright coloured squirrel,

which may have been a flying squirrel. All but one of the male chital

observed had shed their antlers recently or had antlers in velvet. Chital

often keep company. with the common langur, which drop leaves and

fruit from the trees upon which the chital feed. Seven of the gaur were

adult males. One was a magnificent beast with an estimated horn spread

of about 38 inches, even though the tips of both horns were broken.

A solitary bull, which we met on the trail while returning to camp one

evening, challenged our elephant and rather than calling the old fellow’s

‘ bluff’ we finally made a detour and let him rule the trail. The bird

life of Nagerhole also is similar to that of Venu Gopal (see Table 4). One

_ exception is that peafowls appear to be very rare in Nagerhole, while

relatively common in Venu Gopal.

DISCUSSION

A ‘ sanctum sanctorum’ may be defined as an area maintained in as

natural a state as possible—free from the encroachment of man.

Originally a 5-square-mile “sanctum sanctorum’ was established in the

Nagerhole Wild Life Sanctuary. This area surrounds the Nagerhole

Forest Rest House, east of the Murkal-Nagerhole road. However, this

so-called ‘ sanctum sanctorum ’ has been repeatedly desecrated. About

2,000 acres or over 3/5’s of the area is devoted to teak plantations and a

village has been located here. The entire area is disturbed almost con-

tinually by forest operations. Presently it is proposed that the ‘sanctum

sanctorum ’ be enlarged to include a 35-square-mile area south and east

of the road between Murkal and Nagerhole, and although there are some

teak plantations along the road, after the mature trees have been removed

the area be kept inviolate for 30-35 years.

I realize that the revenue from the sanctuary’s forest produce is

considerable, Nevertheless I would like to suggest that a core area of

310 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

at least 5 square miles be perpetually maintained in its natural state and

the plantations be excluded from the surrounding forests of this core

area for at least 35 square miles, although the mature trees or the forest

produce of this surrounding area may be systematically exploited.

Because of the forest villages and the numerous labourers who enter

from the coffee plantations to the west, poaching is a major problem in

the Nagerhole Wild Life Sanctuary. Jeeps and lorries, especially those

that ply the roads at night, contribute to the problem of wild life con-

servation. The stealing of forest produce is a fairly common practice.

It appears that the most logical steps to curtail such violations would

be the following: (1) Resettle elsewhere the tribal villagers residing in

the sanctuary. Or, if this is not possible, at least consolidate the villages

so that illegal activities within the sanctuary may be minimized. The

Social Welfare Department is advocating that crop protection guns be

issued to the tribal colonies which it has established in the sanctuary.

If this is permitted, Nagerhole would no longer justify the name of ‘ Wild

Life Sanctuary.’ (2) Both establish and publicize rules and regulations

prohibiting unauthorized personnel to enter the forests of the sanctuary.

Only bona fide visitors or those engaged by the Forest Department should

be allowed off the sanctuary’s main roads. (3) Vehicles should be prohi-

bited from travelling on the sanctuary’s roads at night. Periodic checks

should be made of all vehicles leaving the sanctuary.

Domestic livestock grazing in the Nagerhole Wild Life Sanctuary,

except in areas adjacent to villages, does not appear as yet to be excessive.

Nevertheless, now is the time for definitive measures to be taken to

ensure that this sanctuary does not become a victim of the almost uni-

versal practice in India of overgrazing. All too many of this nation’s

wild life sanctuaries and areas once abundantly rich in wild life have been

almost completely devastated by this abuse, often within the space of

a few short years. By no means whatever should livestock grazing be

permitted in an area designated as a ‘sanctum sanctorum.’ In fact, a

sanctuary devoted to the preservation of wild life ideally would have no ©

domestic livestock whatsoever within its confines. However, if it is

not possible to maintain an area inviolate to such use, grazing and live-

stock numbers at least should be controlled so as to ensure that suitable

forage is produced on a sustained yield basis. There is no excuse for

land abuse through overgrazing by domestic livestock. Proper land

management will benefit both the wild life and the livestock, as well as

the people concerned and the nation as.a whole. |

WILD LIFE SURVEYS IN SOUTH AND WEST INDIA 311

V. THE VENU GOPAL WILD LIFE PARK

BANDIPUR SANCTUARY)

IN TR O@DUC TION

The 22-square-mile Bandipur Sanctuary, which forms a part of the

310-square-mile Venu Gopal Wild Life Park, is undoubtedly the best

known of the wild life areas in Mysore State. This notable park was

established in 1941 and the Bandipur Sanctuary was constituted as its

‘sanctum sanctorum’—an inviolate sanctuary within a sanctuary.

The northern and eastern boundaries of the Park are formed by demar-

cated forest lines. The Park extends to the Kabini River on the west

and the southern boundary is formed by a number of streams and the

Kerala and Madras State lines (Map 3). The adjoining portion of Kerala,

which is in the Wynaad District, also has been proposed as a wild life

: sanctuary. With the necessary action being taken by the State of Kerala,

this tri-State region could become one of the most notable, as well as most

extensive, wild life conservation areas in India.

The village of Bandipur is the main tourist centre in the Venu Gopal

Wild Life Park.. It is situated on the main road midway between the

city of Mysore and Ootacamund, approximately 50 miles from either

place. The nearest airport is at Bangalore, 86 miles north-east of the

city of Mysore. The journey from Bangalore to Mysore may be made

by bus or train and frequent buses are available to Bandipur from either

Mysore or Ootacamund. A truck, which seats 12 passengers, and two

riding elephants are provided at Bandipur by the Forest Department to

take visitors into the sanctuary. Visitors with their own vehicles must

be accompanied by a member of the staff before they are permitted on

the Park’s roads.

Over 80 miles of Forest Department roads connect the waterholes,

salt licks and game paths within the 22-square-mile Bandipur Sanctuary.

The remainder of the Park is served by an additional 80 miles of fair-

weather roads. A network of fair-weather roads also connects the

Venu Gopal Park with the Nagerhole Wild Life Sanctuary north of the

Kabini River. During the dry season one may travel on forest roads all

the way from Bandipur to Nagerhole, a distance of approximately 70

miles, and forest lodges are situated conveniently at 8 to 10-miles intervals

along the entire route.

The wild life seasonally migrates from Venu Gopal to the lower or

greener areas in Kerala and the Mudumalai Wild Life Sanctuary in

Madras. Most of the larger mammals, such as elephant and gaur,

generally leave the Park during November and December. Depending

upon the onset of the south-west monsoon rains, they generally begin

their return journey in late May or early June.

312 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

The best time to see wild life in Venu Gopal or the Bandipur Sanctuary

is from late June through October, which is the rainy season. Never-

theless, the Sanctuary is open and accessible throughout the year and

generally some wild life may be seen all the year round. If a visitor is

disappointed in the number of wild animals seen in Bandipur area, he

may always visit the adjoining Mudumalai Wild Life Sanctuary. The

poorest time to see wild life in Venu Gopal is the best time to see wild

life in Mudumalai and vice versa.

Bandipur is the only village within the confines of the Venu Gopal

Wild Life Park. This village was formerly little more than a forest camp

in which were located quarters for the Park staff and forest rest

houses for visitors. The Social Welfare Department, however, recently

established a tribal village and has constructed school buildings at

Bandipur. There is little work available inside the Park for the more.

than 200 tribal people presently living at Bandipur. Also, there are

schools four miles north and five miles east of Bandipur, which are both

outside the Park. It is regrettable that the Socia! Welfare Department

has intruded upon the Park, especially when facilities such as schools in

nearby areas could have been utilized and when the people resettled here

must be maintained on welfare.

The Mysore State Wild Life Board has moved that a township be not

established at Bandipur and that the tribal people be resettled elsewhere

outside the Park. Action on the Board’s proposal is pending and it is

to be hoped ‘that measures will soon be taken to correct the present

situation. The buildings thus vacated could be utilized to accommodate

the ever-increasing numbers of visitors to Bandipur. For example, in

1963 the Bandipur Sanctuary had a total of 2,521 visitors, but in 1965

there were 5,406. An even greater increase in the number of visitors

could be realized if suitable facilities were made available so that bus

tours could be regularly scheduled to the Park and large groups could be ~

accommodated.

Domestic livestock grazing is not permitted in the Bandipur Sanctuary.

Inroads are being made, however, in the northern part of the Park by

ever-increasing numbers of livestock. Herders are encroaching

deeper and deeper into the Park. As a result, the northern part of the

Park is already severely overgrazed and almost completely devoid of wild

life. Now is the time to take definitive measures to ensure that Venu

Gopal does not meet the same fate as all too many other wild life sanc-

tuaries in India. Limits and boundaries must be set and defined, as well —

as strictly maintained. Also, number of livestock must be controlled

in those areas where grazing is permitted. Otherwise, the Venu Gopal

Wild Life Park faces a very bleak and barren future and very shortly it

may become almost impossible to maintain even the Bandipur Sanctuary —

inviolate to the cancerous blight of overgrazing.

WILD LIFE SURVEYS IN SOUTH AND WEST INDIA 313

Domestic livestock grazing in the vicinity of Bandipur village also is

a problem. This would be reduced considerably if the tribal people

inhabiting the village were resettled elsewhere. Nevertheless, measures

should be taken to control grazing in this area and to maintain livestock

numbers at a minimum. Hundreds of head of decrepit, mangy and

famished cattle are driven regularly through Venu Gopal to Kerala,

where they are slaughtered. These animals supposedly, are restricted

to the main road and are not permitted to remain inside the Park over-

night. However, the passage of these animals causes a disturbance

inside the Park, and possessing daily grazing licences, it is not uncommon

to observe them grazing inside the forest, and all along the roadsides.

One group was observed to spend the night on the southern boundary

of the Park, near the State border at Kakkanahalla. Permitting of such

cattle to graze should be discontinued.

In addition to habitat destruction, the poisoning of wild life also has

become associated during recent years with domestic livestock grazing

in many parts of India. Villagers have found that certain pesticides are

very effective for killing wild animals. Generally these pesticides are

distributed to farmers by the Agriculture Department for the control of

insects. However, they are often used for purposes other than that

which they were intended. When a domestic animal dies or is killed by

a large carnivore such as a tiger, the carcass is often sprinkled with toxic

materials. ‘Folidol’, for example, is both tasteless and odourless, as

well as extremely toxic. Therefore any animal feeding upon a bait

containing this chemical usually dies a very agonizing death within a few

hours.

Two tigers (a male and a female) were killed by a poisoned bait along

the northern boundary of the Venu Gopal Wild Life Park in October,

1965. The skin of the tigress is presently on display in one of the forest

rest houses at Bandipur. The hide of the male had spoiled before the

carcass was found. A leopard was similarly killed on Chamundi Hill

outside the city of Mysore in 1963, and a few tigers were poisoned in the

Chennagiri area in the Shimoga District of Mysore in 1962. In all

these cases the culprits were not traced, nor did the owners come

forward to claim the poisoned carcasses. No prosecution, therefore,

could be attempted. Besides these confirmed reports, there are un-

doubtedly many more cases where pesticides have been used to poison

wild life in Mysore and other states. Measures must be taken soon to

_halt such practices or an important part of India’s once rich wild life

heritage may become extinct in perhaps less than a decade.

Sixteen tiger blocks, varying in size from 50 to 100 acres each, are

maintained north of the Venu Gopal Park. Prior to 1962 an average of

5 or more tigers were shot each year on these blocks. However, with

the widespread use of toxic pesticides, only one tiger has been shot in this

314. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

entire area since 1962. Mysore once was world renowned for its vast

numbers of tigers and its elaborate tiger shoots. But in 1965 even the

Maharaja of Mysore, who is also the Governor, had to go outside the

State in order to bag a tiger.

The mating season for tigers in the Venu Gopal Park is during

November and December. The Park staff claimed that in former years

tigers frequently could be heard roaring during these months. However,

no roaring of tigers has been heard in the Park since 1964. Not even

pug marks had been observed in the Park during the months prior to

my visit in November, 1966.

Immediate steps should be taken to ensure that toxic materials are

used only for the purpose for which they were originally intended.

Farmers should be given specific instructions as to the use of all pesti-

cides made available to them, as well as severe penalties imposed upon

those who misuse them. Also, whenever possible, materials which are

less toxic to wild life should be used in preference to highly toxic ones.

In fact, less toxic pesticides are often superior in all ways to the more

toxic ones presently being used in India. For example, Malathion is

considered superior in many ways to the more toxic Enderin and Parathion.

Enderin in considered so highly toxic that in many modern countries

its distribution and use are prohibited. Finally, pesticides should be

treated with additives that give them both a distinct odour and an

undesirable taste. This would help to protect both man and beast, as

pesticides also have been used in an ever-increasing number of homicides

in India.

VISITOR FACILITIES

Visitor activities in Venu Gopal generally centre at the village

of Bandipur and the Bandipur Sanctuary, although there are forest lodges

situated throughout the Park. The four Forest Rest Houses at Bandipur

(2 with 3 suites and 2 with 2 suites) provide full board and lodging and

can accommodate a total of 20 people. The Forest Department plans

to provide additional facilities in the near future so that groups of up to

50 people may be accommodated at Bandipur. Reservations for accom-

modation may be made through either the Divisional Forest Officer,

Mysore Division, Mysore, or the Wild Life Officer in Mysore.

Besides the rest houses at Bandipur, there are nine forest lodges in or

near the Venu Gopal Wild Life Park. Although some of these lodges

are fully furnished, boarding and other facilities are not provided.

Others provide only shelter and some of the basic amenities for visitors

wishing to remain inside the Park. Forest lodges are situated at the

following locations: Gopalswami Betta along the northern boundary,

Chammanhalla on the western edge of the Bandipur Sanctuary, Mulehole

tf ae.

WILD LIFE SURVEYS IN SOUTH AND WEST INDIA 315

on the bank of the Nugu River on the State border near the southern

boundary of the Park, Kalkere and Choudahalli near the south-

western limits in the interior, Gundre in the south-western corner of the

Park near the Kabini River, Chiekbergi in the centre of the Park,

Hediyala along the central part of the Park’s northern outskirts on the

Sunnadabegur-Hunsur road, and Begur on the banks of the Kabini

River near the north-eastern corner of the Park.

The Venuvihar Forest Lodge is located at Gopalswami Betta, a hill

station 13 miles north-west of Bandipur. The lodge has two fully fur-

nished suites, but other facilities are not provided. The Venu Gopal

Temple, from which the Park received its name, is adjacent to the lodge.

Venu Gopal literally means flute—(Venu), Krishna (Gopal). Krishna

is one of the major Hindu deities or gods. A priest is stationed at the

temple and people frequently come here to worship. The lodge and

temple are situated on top of a 4,769-foot hill, which offers visitors an

impressive panorama of the Park, the 8,000-foot Nilgiri Hills to the

- south and the lowlands to the north. There are a number of paths leading

from, the lodge, a pleasant juniper grove, and during certain seasons the

surrounding hills are covered with the blossoms of wild flowers.

The Chammanhalla Forest Lodge is 11 miles west of Bandipur.

Although it is in need of renovation, it provides shelter and some of the

basic amenities for visitors. The Mulehole Forest Lodge is 18 miles

west of Bandipur and the Forest Department has proposed that it be

renovated and established as a tourist centre similar to Bandipur.

Mulehole is on the main road between Gundlupet and Calicut and is

reached easily from either Mysore or Ootacamund.

The Kalkere Forest Lodge is 10 miles west of Mulehole, the

Choudahalli Forest Lodge another nine miles, and the Gundre Forest

Lodge an additional eight miles or a total of 27 miles west of Mulehole.

The Hediyala Forest Lodge is 16 miles north of Mulehole and is located

outside the Park’s boundaries. The Begur Forest Lodge is eight

miles north of Choudahalli or nine miles north of Gundre and also is

outside the Park.

There are a number of machans or observation towers overlooking

water holes or salt licks in the Bandipur Sanctuary. Some of these are

constructed so that visitors may spend the night in them in relative com-

fort. Inside the sanctuary, about a mile west of Bandipur next to the

Tavarekatte Tank, is a well laid-out tiger block with a comfortable hide.

A bare sandy road surrounds the block and whether or not a tiger is

inside the block can be determined by examining the road for pug marks.

Some excellent results were obtained in photographing tigers from the

hide in this block in years past. However, with the introduction. of

toxic pesticides outside the sanctuary and the accidental burning of the

AB,

316. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

block by those removing the bamboo, which died in 1964, there has been

little evidence of tiger in this area during the past two years.

HABITAT

The terrain consists primarily of rolling hills covered with open or

park-like dry deciduous forests. The altitude varies between 3,100 feet

(945 metres) above sea-level along the Moyar River on the southern

boundary to 4,769 feet (1,454 metres) at the Gopalswami Betta Hill

Station along the northern boundary. Bandipur village is 3,366 feet

(1,026 metres) above sea-level. Temperatures vary from a monthly

minimum mean of 60° F. (15°6° C.) in January to a monthly maximum

mean of 95° F. (35°0° C.) during April and May. April and May are

also the driest and the poorest months to observe wild life. Late June

through October (the rainy season) is the best time to see wild life in

Bandipur. Total rainfall averages about 35 inches per annum, most of

which occurs during July, August and September.

Flora

The trees of Bandipur Sanctuary are spaced in a relatively uniform

manner and form an open, pole-type, mixed dry deciduous forest with a

maximum height of between 50 and 60 feet. Visibility varies between 100

and 200 yards and the understory is mostly grasses with a few scattered

shrubs. The grass attains a height of three to six feet and controlled

burning by the Forest Department is done each year between the third

week of December and the second week of January. This prevents the

dry grass from becoming a major fire hazard during the drier months of

the year and also helps to return the nutrients from the unpalatable dry

grass to the soil.

_ Eupatorium glandulosum, the noxious weed that has taken over much

of the Nagerhole Wild Life Sanctuary to the north, has not yet invaded

the Bandipur area. However, its counterpart, Lantana camara, is fairly

common. A breakdown of the dominant tree species in the forest of

Venu Gopal is given in Table 2.

Both species of bamboo in the Park (Bambusa arundinacea and Dendro-

calamus strictus) flowered during July and August 1964 and then died.

Big bamboo usually flowers every 40 to 50 years, while small bamboo

flowers every 10 to 20 years. It was claimed that normally about 60%

of the bamboo in the Park is big bamboo and the remaining 40% small

bamboo, but there were only scattered sprouts present during my visit.

After the die-off, the bamboo presented a fire hazard. Therefore the

Forest Department decided to sell the dead bamboo to the rayon mills

in Kerala. However, besides causing considerable disturbance, the

So fj Ps

WILD LIFE SURVEYS IN SOUTH AND WEST INDIA 317

workers removing the bamboo accidently set fire to the area. Conse-

quently, rather than realizing a profit the Forest Department suffered a

considerable loss. As a result, parts of the sanctuary which were for-

merly under bamboo, such as the Tavarekatte Tiger Block west of

TABLE 2

SPECIES COMPOSITION OF THE MIXED DRY DECIDUOUS FORESTS OF BANDIPUR .

SANCTUARY IN THE VENU GOPAL WILD LIFE PARK IN Mysore STATE

: Local or ees Percent of Stand

English Name Ranarése Name Scientific Name (Estimated)

TREES :

Axlewood Dindaga, Dindal, Azxogeissus latifolia 60%

Bejjalu

Teak Tega, Sagavani Tectona grandis 5

wan Bende Kydia calycina 5

————_———_______— Jalari Shorea talura 5

Wild Gooseberry Nelli Phyllanthus emblica 3-4

— Challe (fruit) Cordia myxa 2

Doddi Mymenodictyon 2

excelsum

Bobbinwood Yethyaga, Yethaga Adina cordifolia 2

— Muthuga Butea monosperma 2,

Alale Terminalia chebula 2,

Hunnal (Hunal) Terminalia 2

paniculata

Mathi Terminalia tomentosa 2

—_____—. Kakke Cassia fistula Z,

Rosewood Beete Dalbergia latifolia 1

———— Nelagodda, Godda Garuga pinnata 1

(fruit tree)

Jamun tree Nerale Eugenia jambolana 1

ter —— Jagalaganti Diospyros montana 1+

| (edible fruit)

—— Tadusalu, Tadsal Grewia tiliaefolia 1

: (bark eaten by

elephants)

Kuli, Sivani (fruit) Gmelina arborea 1

Kadusige (fodder) Acacia intsia 1

-—$$$ Basavan apuda Bauhinia racemosa 1

Silk Cotton Buruga Salmalia malabaricum 1

—<—<—<—— $$ Tare Terminalia belerica 1

UNDERSTORY :

Big Bamboo Bombu Bambusa arundinacea 1

Small Bamboo Kiribidaru Dendrocalamus strictus 1

we Seema-seege Lantana camara common

Note :

1. Both the big and small bamboo flowered and died during the fall of 1964.

Therefore, the numerous shoots present were considered as a part of the understory.

2. Grasses, herbs, and shrubs were not identified.

Bandipur, have been replaced by weeds and dense thickets of Lantana

camara.

318 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

Fauna

The fauna of the Venu Gopal Wild Life Park is notable both for its

diversity and abundance. Although the mammalian fauna is similar to

that of much of the Western Ghat region, in India one rarely sees greater

concentrations of wild animals than in Bandipur and the adjoining

Mudumalai Wild Life Sanctuaty. Herds of 20 or more gaur, the largest

and most impressive of the world’s wild bovines, are common. The

forest dwelling sambar may be encountered in groups of up to a dozen,

Whereas generally they are considered a somewhat solitary animal.

Groups of over a hundred chital may be observed even in the vicinity of

the forest rest houses at Bandipur (Plate I). Wild elephant, parti-

cularly solitary males, are observed by most visitors (Plate II). It appears

that Venu Gopal serves as a breeding ground for most of the large

mammals of this region. This is due perhaps to the Park’s relative

immunity to the disturbances of man. Some of the mammals inhabiting

Venu Gopal and the forests in western Mysore are given in Table 3.

TABLE 3

NAMES OF SOME OF THE MAMMALS INHABITING THE VENU GOPAL WILD LIFE

PARK (BANDIPUR SANCTUARY) AND THE FORESTS IN THE WESTERN PART OF

Mysore STATE

Local or Relative

English Kanarese Scientific Abundance

Tiger Hebbuli Panthera tigris rare

Leopard or Panther Kiruba Panthera pardus rare

Jungle Cat Kadubekku Felis chaus,. frequent

Striped Hyena Kathekiruba Hyaena hyaena rare

Wild Dog or Dhole Seelunayi Cuon alpinus occasional

Jackal Gullenari | Canis aureus common

Indian Fox Kankanari Vulpes bengalensis frequent

Little Indian Civet Punagina bekku Viverricula indica occasional

Mongoose Mungusi Herpestes spp. common

Sloth Bear Karadi Melursus ursinus rare

Wild Boar Kadhandi Sus scrofa common

Sambar Kadave Cervus unicolor common

Chital or Spotted Deer Saraga Axis axis common

Barking Deer or Khankuri or Muntiacus muntjak —_ infrequent

Indian Muntjac Kadukuri

Mouse Deer or Burkanabekku or Tragulus meminna frequent

Indian Chevrotain Burka

Chousingha or Four- Chyale Tetracerus rare

horned Antelope quadricornis

Gaur or Kati Bos gaurus common

Indian ‘ Bison ’ or Kadukona aa

Indian Elephant Ane Elephas maximus common

Common Hare Mola Lepus nigricollis frequent ©

Indian Porcupine Mulluhandi Hystrix indica common

Small Travancore Haranabekku Petinomys frequent

Flying Squirrel - fusccapillus |

Giant or Kendalilu (Karrat) Ratufa indica common

Malabar Squirrel |

Common Langur Musiya Presbytis entellus common

Bonnet Macaque Kapi _ Macaca radiata _ common along the

ss Oak co te Ire eR tie | SRT DREEUR o Coe A ecstasy pes: ‘road from Mysore,

but not inside- the

Park.

J. BOMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. 65 (2) PLATE I

Spillett : Wild Life Surveys

Two female spotted deer or chital in the vicinity of the Bandipur

Forest Rest House in the Venu Gopal Wild Life Park in Mysore State.

The Cauvery River, site of the Ranganathittu Bird Sanctuary.

The double boat is provided for visitors by the Forest Department.

(Photos : Author)

J. BOMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. 65 (2) PLATE II

Spillett : Wild Life Surveys

A solitary tusker in the forests of the Bandipur Sanctuary of the

Venu Gopal Wild Life Park in Mysore State.

(Photo : Author)

WILD LIFE SURVEYS IN SOUTH AND WEST INDIA 319

- The possibility of seeing the much maligned dhole or Indian wild dog

is better perhaps in Venu Gopal than anywhere in India. This beauti-

ful, bright red animal runs in packs and is infamous for wantonly attack-

ing almost any animal which it may encounter, including even tiger

according to some claims. Because of its notoriety the dhole has been

persecuted unmercifully throughout India and as a result has become

exceedingly rare. Although I have visited a good number of India’s

wild life areas, I had the unforgettable experience of seeing the dhole

_ for the first time during my visit to Venu Gopal.

: We were travelling along the roads in the Bandipur Sanctuary the

morning of November 29 when we suddenly heard the repeated belling

and squeals of sambar. Two adult females and a fawn of about two

months were standing in a couple of feet of water in the middle of an

artificial waterhole or tank. A pack of about 15 dhole had surrounded

the tank and their heads kept bobbing up through the high grass as they

attempted to observe their prey, Although the wild dogs appeared to

be very excited, they did not utter a sound. Upon seeing us the sambar

bolted, but they had no more than reached the bank before one of the

dogs was upon the fawn and pulled it down into the grass. The fawn was

emitting high pitched squeals and the two does repeatedly belled nearby.

Still we heard no sound from the dholes. We ran towards the fawn,

which was kicking and struggling in the grass. When the wild dogs

saw us, they immediately took flight and the last we saw of them were

their black-tipped tails as they bounded through the grass. The fawn

had only a few superficial wounds, but was too weak to stand. There-

fore, we took it back to Bandipur with us. Withina short time it appeared

to have fully recuperated and was released back into the forest the

following day.

The bird life of the. Venu Gopal Park also is abundant and diversified.

Water birds such as ducks, egrets and herons are found in some of the

tanks. but the vast majority of the birds in the Park are perching

or passerine. forms. Some of the more common or obvious birds which

I observed during my visit are listed in Table 4.

DISCUSSION

~The Venu Gopal- Wild Life Park and the Bandipur Sanctuary consti-

tute one of India’s outstanding wild life attractions. The Forest Depart-

ment and the Park staff are to be commended for their management and

development of this notable area. Granted there are problems to over-

come and much to be done before the Park will begin to realize its full

potential. _The Forest Department and those concerned are aware of —

these, but oftentimes:they lack the means and/or the support to accom-

320 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

plish the desired goals involved in the conservation of this great nation’s

wild life resources.

TABLE 4

SOME OF THE MORE COMMON BIRDS OBSERVED IN NOVEMBER, 1966 IN THE

VENU GOPAL WILD LIFE PARK IN Mysor_E STATE

English Name

Cattle Egret

Little Egret

Lesser Whistling Teal

Spotbill Duck

Common Pariah Kite

Brahminy Kite

Grey Partridge

Jungle Bush Quail

Red Spurfowl

Grey Junglefowl

Peafowl

Redwattled Lapwing

Green Pigeon

Blue Rock Pigeon

Ring Dove

Spotted Dove

Parakeets

Crow-Pheasant

Spotted Owlet

Whitebreasted Kingfisher

Bluecheeked Bee-eater

Green Bee-eater

Blue Jay or Roller

Common Gray Hornbill

Goldenbacked Woodpecker

Golden Oriole

Racket-tailed Drongo

Common Myna

Jungle Crow

Redwhiskered Bulbul

Whitecheeked Bulbul

Scientific Name

Bubulcus ibis

Egretta garzetta

Dendrocygna javanica

Anas poecilorhyncha

Milvus migrans

Haliastur indus

Francolinus pondicerianus

Perdicula asiatica

Galloperdix spadicea

Gallus sonneratii

Pavo cristatus

Vanellus indicus

Treron phoenicoptera

Columba livia

Streptopelia decaocto

Streptopelia chinensis

Psittacula ssp.

Centropus sinensis

Athene brama

Halcyon smyrnensis

Merops superciliosus

Merops orientalis

Coracias benghalensis

Tockus birostris

Dinopium benghalense

Oriolus oriolus

Dicrurus paradiseus

Acridotheres tristis

Corvus macrorhynchos

Pycnonotus jocosus

Pycnonotus leucogenys

The mixed dry deciduous forests of the Bandipur area are of little

commercial value for timber. Although they are of some value for

firewood, demands for such products can be met from forest areas closer

to market or by the planting of fast growing species on submarginal

lands. Therefore, it has been proposed that the Park’s ‘ sanctum

sanctorum ’—the Bandipur Sanctuary—be enlarged from 22 square

miles to 60 square miles. This would include the entire portion of the

Park east of the Gundulupet-Calicut road. It has been further proposed

that the Mulehole Forest Lodge, which then would be on the western

end of the sanctuary, be renovated and established as a tourist centre

similar to Bandipur.

The best time for observing wild life in Bandipur is during the rainy

season, However, it is during this season that it is most difficult to travel

WILD LIFE SURVEYS IN SOUTH AND WEST INDIA 321

the fair-weather roads in the Sanctuary. Thus it has been proposed

that the major roads in the Sanctuary, as well as the main forest road from

Bandipur to the Nagerhole Wild Life Sanctuary, be metalled. I would

not suggest tar roads or that major thoroughfares be developed, but

only that two metalled tracks be constructed. Grass in the centre, as

well as along the sides of such roads, would present a natural setting

while helping to minimize maintenance. Concrete aprons also should

be provided at stream beds wherever possible.

The construction and maintenance of a good network of all-weather

roads also would result in increased use of the Park’s forest lodges.

Plans should therefore be formulated for the renovation and maintenance

of these. Additional accommodations likewise are needed at Bandipur.

I would suggest that the present forest rest houses be maintained as

first class facilities, but that a dormitory be provided for the accommo-

dation of large groups. The attractions and amenities of Bandipur

should be extensively advertised through posters, pamphlets, and so

forth. Arrangements also should be made through the Tourist Depart-

ment to provide regularly scheduled bus tours to Bandipur. Care,

_ however, should be taken to avoid commercialism within the Park.

The Mysore and Madras Forest Departments have jointly approved

the construction of a dam on Kakkanahalla, which forms a part of the

boundary between the Bandipur and Mudumalai sanctuaries. The im-

pounded waters would form about a 1-mile-square lake. This would

provide a source of water for wild life and perhaps would encourage

animals to remain in this area the yearround. Although fair numbers of

chital and sambar remain in Bandipur throughout the year, most of the

other animals move out of the Sanctuary when the streams and artificial

water holes become dry.

Major problems presently confronting the Venu Gopal Park and its

wild life are : The establishment of a tribal colony at Bandipur, increased

_ pressures upon the Park from domestic livestock grazing, and the use of

pesticides for poisoning wild life. These have been discussed at some

length in the Introduction. Poaching does not appear to be a major

problem in the Park. This perhaps is attributable to the wise practice

of not allowing vehicles on the Park’s roads unless they are accompanied

by a member of the staff. The checkpoint on the Mysore-Madras line

along the main road passing through Bandipur also probably helps to

deter illicit activities.

VI. THE CHAMARAJANAGAR WILD LIFE PRESERVE

Chamarajanagar was established in 1931 as Mysore’s first wild life

Sanctuary. However, with the establishment of the Venu Gopal Wild

Life Park in 1941, the status of Chamarajanagar was reverted to that of

322 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

a wild life preserve. It has since been realised that Chamarajanagar

forms a very important link in the chain of wild life sanctuaries: extending

along the southern and western boundaries of Mysore State. Thus, the.

Forest Department has. proposed that a wild life sanctuary westin be

established in this area.

Mr. P. M. Monnappa accompanied me from Mysore to Chamarhjae

nagar, a distance of 38 miles, onthe morning of November 27. En route

we passed through Somnathpur and saw the impressive Hoysala

Temple. We were met in Chamarajanagar by the Divisional Forest

Officer, Mr. Alva, who accompanied us on a tour of the proposed wild

life sanctuary.

I was much impressed with what the Chamarajanagar area has to

offer. East of the town of Chamarajanagar the Biligirirangan Hills

suddenly jut out from the plains below. Winding up into the hills on

a well-constructed road, one passes from a scrub forest into a dry deci-

duous forest, to a moist deciduous forest and from there into a semi-

evergreen forest. In addition, pure stands of evergreen forest were

observed along the streams and on the slopes near the crests of some

of the higher hills.

We stopped briefly at Kyathadeveraguda, which is situated in a

saddle of the Biligirirangan Hills 18 miles east of Chamarajanagar.

There are two large rest houses at Kyathadeveraguda : a Forest Rest

House with three suites, reservations for which can be obtained by

writing to the D.F.O. in Chamarajanagar, and a Public Works Depart-

ment Rest House with four suites. The view from both rest houses is

magnificent. The green plains, bejewelled with numerous shimmering

tanks, extend north and west to the horizon. One can even see the

Kabini River and Chamundi Hill in the distance. To the south and

east are rows of verdant, mist covered hills. (a5 OF)

The Biligiri Ranganaswamy Temple is 12 miles east of Kyathadeve-

raguda. This approximately 900-year-old temple is located on a rocky

pinnacle, which has a sheer face with a drop of several hundred feet. A

modern sericultural research station is located in the forests below.

Also en route from Kyathadeveraguda to the Biligiri Temple one passes

the ancient Gangadeswara Temple, which is situated along a forest

stream and is inhabited by a troop of bonnet macaques.

The Government is attempting to establish the Biligiri Ranganaswamy

Temple as a tourist centre. Electric power lines were brought through’

the forest in 1966 and several rest houses have been built adjacent to the

temple. The forest roads on both sides of the temple are being metalled

and a new road is being constructed from Yalendur to the north-west.

The establishment of a true wild life sanctuary in this area, adjoining

Chamarajanagar Wild Life Preserve, would greatly add to the attrac-

tion of the Government sponsored tourist centre at the Biligiri Rangana-

WILD LIFE SURVEYS IN SOUTH AND WEST INDIA 323

swamy: Temple. In addition to the rest houses.already mentioned, there

are forest lodges located in the proposed sanctuary area at Beduguli

and Budipadaga. The area is served by a good network of roads, which

are being maintained and improved. Also, what is most important is

that the area has the potential of becoming one of India’s outstanding

wild life sanctuaries.

The Biligirirangan Hills form a natural passageway for elephant

herds moving to and from the hill areas to the east and the Bandipur and

Mudumalai wild life sanctuaries to the west. . J. P. Sanderson recognized

this fact and it was here in the mid-1800’s that he developed the khedda

method for capturing wild elephants. The dense forests, lush grass,

and numerous plots of bamboo also make this area a rendezvous site

for elephant, as well as a choice habitat for gaur, sambar, chital, and

other wild life species. Even during our short visit we saw gaur, chital,

and sambar while driving along the main roads.

The Forest Department’s proposal to establish Chamarajanagar and

Biligiri Ranganaswamy Temple Forests as a wild life sanctuary should be

enacted as soon as possible. Not only should this approximately 40-square-

mile area be constituted as such, but it should also be maintained as an

inviolate wild life sanctuary—a true sanctum sanctorum in which people

may enjoy nature in as much a pristine state as possible. Most of the

forests in this area are of relatively little commercial value, especially

when compared to the revenue potential from tourism. Therefore, there

is little justification for continued forest operations or other forest ex-

ploitation. It is further suggested that the Government and the Forest

Department jointly sponsor the development and publicity of both the

Government Tourist Centre at the Biligiri 2 SSIES Temple and

the proposed wild life sanctuary.

VII. OTHER WILD LIFE SANCTUARIES IN MYSORE STATE

THE DANDELI WILD LIFE SANCTUARY

The almost 73-square-mile Dandeli Wild Life Sanctuary was

established in 1945 in what was then a part of the State of Bombay, but

which is now the North Kanara District of Mysore. The sanctuary,

however, has been extensively exploited for forest produce and further

disturbed by manganese mining operations. The nearest railway sta-

tions are located at Dharwar, about 40 miles from the sanctuary, and at

Belgaum, which is about 50 miles away. Buses which pass through the

sanctuary, may be taken from these points. There are four forest

rest houses in the sanctuary, each with two double suites.

324. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

THE JAGER VALLEY AND BABA BUDDIN WILD LIFE SANCTUARY

The 88-square-mile Jager Valley and Baba Buddin Wild Life Sanc-

tuary in the south-western part of the Chikmagalur District was consti-

tuted in 1941. The sanctuary includes the backwaters of the Bhadravati

Dam, for which the surrounding horseshoe-shaped Baba Buddin hills

form the catchment area. The nearest railway station is at Kadur, 51

miles from the sanctuary. Bus services are available from Kadur to

Chikmagalur, a distance of 24 miles, but arrangements must be made for

a private vehicle to travel the remaining 27 miles to the sanctuary. There

are two forest rest houses inside the Sanctuary, but they are in need

of repair.

3 It has been recommended by the Forest Department that Jager Valley

and Baba Buddin be included in a newly proposed sanctuary—the

Bhadra Wild Life Sanctuary. The proposed sanctuary would encom-

pass a total of 289 square miles in the Chikmagalur and Shimoga Districts

and would centre at the Bhadra and Tunga dams.

Islands in the impounded waters of these dams offer potential nesting

sites for the waterfowl which inhabit this region. The Muthodi area in

Chikmagalur District, which is included in the sanctuary, is noted for

its herds of gaur. Other animals of note are wild elephants, chital,

sambar and tiger.

Visitor facilities already present in the area include forest lodges at

Umblebyle Burz, Sukalhatti, Kesare and Muthodi. These are said to

be in need of remodelling and the addition of sanitary facilities. Cater-

ing services also are lacking at present. After the sanctuary has been

established, the Forest Department further proposes that two launches

be made available for visitors to visit the islands and from which to view

wild life along the shores of the reservoirs formed by the two dams.

This method of observing wild animals has proved very successful .in the

Periyar Wild Life Sanctuary in Kerala. Two jeeps and a lorry also

are to be provided for the use of visitors.

The forests of the proposed Bhadra Sanctuary would consist of both

tropical moist deciduous and tropical dry deciduous forests with frequent

plots of bamboo. Although forest produce would continue to be ex-

ploited, plans entail the establishment of an approximately 25-square-

mile sanctum sanctorum. |

VIII. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I wish to thank Mr. N. S. Kaikini (Chief Conservator of Forests)

and the Forest Department of Mysore for their gracious hospitality and

kind assistance during my tour of some of the State’s wild life areas. I

particularly want to thank Mr, P. M. Monnappa, Wild Life Officer, who

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accompanied and assisted me throughout my 8-day tour, November

22 to 30, 1966. Mr. Monnappa has been associated with the State Wild

Life Unit since 1954 and is a member of the game staff for the royal

palace. His profound knowledge of wild life and the problems con-

fronting Mysore’s wild life resources, as well as his patience in answering

“my many questions, were invaluable in the compilation of this report.

Thanks also are given to the other Forest Department personnel who

assisted with this survey and who were so hospitable to me. Regret-

fully they are too numerous to mention individually here.

REFERENCES

ANonyMous (1965): Wild life sanc- Bird Sanctuary, Mysore District.

tuaries in India. Government of India. | Forest Department, Mysore State. 4 pp.

Department of Tourism, New Delhi. ——-—— (1964): The Bandipur Sanc-

84 pp. tuary in Venu Gopal Wild Life Park.

————. (1964): The Ranganathittu Forest Department, Mysore State. 5 pp.

(to be continued)

Nepal Birds: Supplement to Biswas’ List.

R. L. FLEMING

A comprehensive list of birds from Nepal by B. Biswas of the

Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta, appeared in the Journal of the

Bombay Natural History Society from August, 1960 to December, 1963.

Biswas. recorded 772 species and sub-species found in Nepal from 1821

to 1959. From the latter year onward, I have continued the study of

birds in this country. ‘ Notes on Nepal Birds’ by Fleming and Traylor,

published by the Field Museum in Chicago, appeared in 1961. The.

next volume, ‘ Further Notes on Nepal Birds,’ by the same authors, came

out in 1964. Our third publication is due this year, 1968.

Since 1959 we have added 56 species and sub-species new to the

Nepal list. Specimens of these birds, with one or two exceptions, are

in the Field Museum in Chicago. We have gone over the excellent list

of Biswas and are only able to make three or four corrections or additions.

The following data may be helpful to those who have copies of

the Journal but do not have our publications from the Field Museum.

Someone asked me, after my initial visits to Nepal, beginning in

1949, ‘ How many kinds of birds are there in Nepal?’ ‘ About 700,’ I

replied. This seemed high as Hodgson’s list, according to Ripley’, was

only 563. However, these additions bring the total almost to 830

birds collected, plus authentic sight records of a score or more others.

A great deal of information has been gathered in recent years on

birds of this part of the world. We are glad to be able to contribute a

little to science in our study of the birds of Nepal.

Our list is as follows :

Sarkidiornis melanotos (Pennant). Comb Duck

Some twenty-five birds flew out of a large pond near Dhanghari

in the south-western terai. I had seen one there fourteen years before.

(December, March)

Buteo vulpinus vulpinus (Gloger). Desert Buzzard

We collected this species in Kanchanpur District, fifteen miles west of

Dhanghari. (January)

1§. D. Riptey: ‘Peerless Nepal—A Naturalist’s Paradise,’ National Geogra-

phic Magazine, Vol. XCVII (1), January, 1950: 1,

NEPAL BIRDS; SUPPLEMENT TO BISWAS’ LIST 327

Aquila ‘pomarina hastata (Lesson). Lesser Spotted Eagle

Upon re-examining the skin labelled A. clanga, Traylor showed that

it was really the smaller of two similar eagles. The larger bird was

recorded by Hodgson but this species is new to the Nepal list. We

took it both in the eastern and western terai. (Winter)

Francolinus francolinus melanonotus Hume. Assam Black Partridge

A closer inspection by Traylor of skins from central Nepal showed

that they were closer to the Assam race than to the western one. Our

more recent specimen came from the Rapti Dun. (February)

Lophura lJeucomelana hamiltonii (J. E. Gray). Whitecrested Kalij

Pheasant. (No. 128 on Biswas’ list)

Our initial record of this bird was a sight record only. Fourteen

years later (1965) we got specimens in far western Nepal where it is quite

common, ranging as low as 1000 feet to above 6000 feet. (April)

Rallus aquaticus indicus Blyth. Water Rail

Ripley did not include Nepal in the area of this rail but he did list

nearby East Pakistan. The only time we came across it was on the

lower reaches of the Kosi in south-eastern terai. (November)

Rallina eurizonoides nigrolineata (Gray). Banded Crake

This race, now listed by Ripley in his syNopsis as R. e. amauroptera

(Jerdon), only turned up once and that was in a small, wet area just west

of Hitaura in the Rapti Dun in June.

Vanellus cinereus (Blyth). Greyheaded Lapwing

A fall and winter visitor to Kathmandu Valley, this fairly uncommon

Species at times were with redwattled lapwings. One we last collected

was solitary, on a sand bank along the Rapti River.

Calidris subminutus (Middendorff). Longtoed Stint

> Listed for areas east of Nepal in the SYNOPSIS, two or three were with

many Temminck’s stints on their northern migration along the Bagmati

River, Kathmandu Valley in May.

Larus argentatus ssp. Herring Gull

Ripley has named:the coastal areas of India and China as the range

of herring gulls but to find a pair in Kathmandu Valley was rather un-

usual. Reported in Pavo, March, 1965. (November)

Columba palumbus casiotis (Bonaparte). Wood Pigeon

Only once have we come across the wood pigeon and that time a large

flock was eating food in a heavily wooded area on the southern rim ot

Kathmandu Valley at 7400 feet. (February)

328. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

Streptopelia orientalis orientalis (Latham). Northern Rufous Turtle

Dove |

A bird of Tibet, Sikkim and Bhutan. A pair occupied a little grove

at Kapan in Kathmandu Valley along with several S. 0. meena. (October)

Streptopelia tranquebarica tranquebarica (Hermann). Red Turtle —

Dove

Biswas pointed out that this race had not been collected from far

western Nepal, so we made it a point to secure them from the south-

western terai. As Biswas and others surmised, these represent the

western race extending into Baluchistan. (March)

Tyto capensis longimembris (Jerdon). Grass Owl

Although within the wide range of this owl, it had never been reported

from Nepal before. Our specimen was only a few weeks old, brought

in by Tharus to make medicine. We were in the Rapti Dun in November

and the men said they had come across the river from the Nawalpur

District.

Otus scops sunia (Hodgson). Scops Owl

For ten years we had been hearing a whistle at night—dash dot dash

—throughout the Nepal terai and foothills. It was not until we collected

a little red owl at the foot of the hills in Jhapa District did we identify

the species. It was well after dark before it would tune up, but this

particular one began half an hour before nightfalland R. L. Fleming, Jr.

got it. (February)

Otus bakkamoena gangeticus Ticehurst. North Indian Collared

Scops Owl |

The only time we have found this race was when we put up a mist

net across a dry ravine and beat the bushes along the banks. The place

was in the far eastern ferai in winter.

Caprimulgus asiaticus asiaticus Latham. Indian Nightjar

It is not often that when his plane is delayed, one can get a new bird

record for the country. The call of this nightjar was so different and so

persistent that the task was aneasy one. What anideal birthday present !

(March 22nd)

Megalaima virens marshallorum Swinhoe. Great Himalayan Barbet

Our west-central birds were magnifica, but those in far western Nepal

are of this race. (October)

Megalaima australis cyanotis (Blyth). Blue-eared Barbet

Here was an example of another of those bird calls we had heard

several years before but had remained a puzzle: Ripley included Sikkim

NEPAL BIRDS: SUPPLEMENT TO BISWAS’ LIST 329

in its range so it was not surprising to find it in the far eastern terai.

It was in forested areas at the base of the hills, usually practically in-

visible at the top of tall trees. (February)

Indicator xanthonotus xanthonotus Blyth. Honeyguide

It was Dr. Herbert Friedmann who alerted us to expect this species

in Nepal. We located it on cliffs as indicated in Chinese literature several

hundred years ago. The place was above Bigu near the Tibetan frontier

in East No. 2. A second area was along the Kali Gandak River in

Baglung District above Dana. In far north-western Nepal one would

expect to find the western race of honeyguide. (November ; December)

Picus squamatus squamatus Vigors. Scalybellied Green Wood-

pecker

Evidently data gathered by Polunin, Lowndes and Proud of this

fairly common species, were all from sight records. We collected it on

the Gandak-Kosi watershed ridge at 10,000 feet in May.

Picus canus sanguiniceps Baker. Blacknaped Green Woodpecker

Specimens we first found in west-central Nepal were designated as

sanguiniceps=gyldenstolpei. Later those taken in far western Nepal were

the western race. (October)

Dendrocopos himalayensis himalayensis (Jardine and _ Selby).

Himalayan Pied Woodpecker

We came across this species in lower Doti District in 1951 but did not —

collect it until we returned to Doti District eight years later. It was not

at all common as it is farther west around Mussoorie, U.P., India.

(October)

Dendrocopos canicapillus semicoronatus (Malherbe). Eastern Nepal

Pygmy Woodpecker

Darjeeling and Sikkim, the western limit of this race of woodpecker,

Should now be extended to include far eastern Nepal. In the forested

areas of Jhapa District it is a common bird. (January)

Chrysocolaptes festivus festivus (Boddaert). Blackbacked Wood-

pecker

Ripley records this species as far north as Dehra Dun, U.P. and east

to Bihar and West Bengal. Our specimens were taken in the far western

terai about half way between Dehra Dun and Bihar. It is another record

in Nepal. (March)

Alauda arvensis dulcivox Brooks. Skylark

_ . This large, western skylark in the syNopsis is listed as no nearer than

Kashmir or western U.P. R. L. Fleming, Jr., took one out of a flock

330 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

of some twenty-five south of the Gosainkund Lekh, Central Nepal, in

December. We have also found three other races of A. gulgula, wintering

in Nepal. They never sing here, only utter a repeated * chirp.’

Alauda gulgula gulgula Franklin. Indian Skylark

- Our early specimens collected before 1957 were not identified as to

race. Subsequently, these and further specimens include this nominate

race as well as /hamarum and inopinata. (November, February, March)

Hirundo daurica japonica Temminck & Schlegel. Japanese Striated

Swallow

The Swallows, like skylarks, are great wanderers. Ripley places

West Bengal in its winter range. Our specimen was from the Rapti Dun,

Central Nepal, in January.

Delichon urbica urbica (Linnaeus). House Martin

Here is another species rather far from its usual range. The SYNOPSIS

cites its range as western India in winter. Our bird was taken in the

foothills of far western Nepal, in company with hundreds of other

martins, most of which we believed to have been D. n. nipalensis. (April)

Lanius cristatus cristatus Linnaeus. Brown Shrik

Biswas omitted this species from his list. It has been collected

throughout the feraiin winter. An occasional bird in Kathmandu Valley

in the cold season. |

Corvus macrorhynchos levaillanti Lesson. Jungle Crow

As Biswas indicated in his list, No. 772, because of lack of material

he could not identify terai races of C. macrorhynchos. From specimens

we gathered in the far eastern terai, Traylor has assigned them to the

above race. It was a common bird, gathering around our camp and

neighbouring houses. (January) :

Corvus macrorhynchos culminatus Sykes. Jungle Crow

Traylor has assigned specimens from the south-western terai, to this

race on the basis, again, of bill measurements. Also, the base of the

feathers of terai jungle crows is grey, not white like C. m. intermedius

of the foothills and higher elevations. (March)

Dendrocitta formosae occidentalis Ticehurst. Himalayan Tree Pie

Our far western Nepal birds proved to be the western race of tree

pie with the larger wing. Baitidi is not a great distance east of Almora,

the eastern limit cited by ‘Ripley, therefore not an unexpected addition

to the Nepal list. (October) a

NEPAL BIRDS: SUPPLEMENT TO BISWAS’ LIST 335i

Bombycilla garrulus ssp.? (Linnaeus). The Waxwing

When R. L. Fleming, Jr., returned from the Kosi-Gandak water-

shed ridge with two waxwings (December, 1967), this was a most unusual

find. The SYNOPSIS lists it as a rare straggler in Baluchistan and West

Pakistan based on Stuart Baker’s account of specimens obtained in

Bannu and Kohat in 1906 and 1907. These two females (out of a flock

of four) have no chestnut on the crest ; the back is an earthy brown ;

the breast is earthy grey, paler grey on the abdomen and greyish white

on the inner flanks. Wing 114-116. There are no known races. To

complete the identification, comparative material is necessary.

Irena puella sikkimensis Whistler & Kinnear. Eastern Fairy Bluebird

Having seen the fairy bluebird in Assam and its being recorded in

the syNopsis from Sikkim, we were on the lookout for this species.

Twice when we thought we had found it in Nepal, it turned out to be the

sunny sheen on the Hair-crested Drongo, Dicrurus h. hottentottus

(Linnaeus). However, we located the bluebird in Jhapa District in the

lower foothills a little west of the Mechi River. (February)

Spelaeornis longicaudatus (Horsfield & Moore) Longtailed Wren-

Babbler

The specimen we collected in far eastern Nepal looked like a small

scaly-breasted wren-babbler with a combination on the breast of both

light and dark colour phases. Not on our list for Nepal, we were pleased

to add this rather inconspicuous species to our number. (March)

Garrulax rufogularis occidentalis (Hartert). Kashmir Rufouschinned

Laughing Thrush 3

We saw only a single pair of this western race of laughing thrush.

It was only a few miles from the Kumaon border. (October)

Pteruthius xanthochloris occidentalis Harington. Green Shrike-

Babbler

Ripley gives the extreme eastern range of this race in Naini Tal. We

collected this western race in Doti District. It was the only one we saw.

(October)

Minla strigula simlaensis (Meinertzhagen). Stripethroated Siva

There are numerous records of the siva taken from central-west

eastward. When we compared our birds taken in far western Nepal,

they proved to be the western race. (April)

Heterophasia capistrata. capistrata (Vigors). Blackcapped Sibia

We found both eastern and western races of sibia in Nepal.

H. c. nigriceps (Hodgson) extends from western to central eastern Nepal,

332 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65

with H. c. bayleyi in eastern Nepal. The western race was formerly

called H. c. pallida Hartert. (April) :

Muscicapa superciliaris superciliaris Jerdon. Whitebrowed Blue

Flycatcher 3

A common flycatcher, we noted that all we examined had

the well-defined supercilium in contrast to the eastern race in which it

is slight or lacking. (March, April)

Cettia fortipes pallidus (Brooks). Western Strongfooted Bush

Warbler

Only a single bird showed itself during our travel in far western

Nepal. Its rather loud call disclosed its presence in a thicket along a

stream. (April) 2

Bradypterus tacsanowskius tacsanowskius (Swinhoe). Chinese Bush

Warbler

A rather rare bird, it was not reported closer than Bhutan. It is

one of the occupants of extensive reed beds in northern Jhapa District

where it is difficult to see. We found only one. (February)

Acrocephalus agricola brevipennis (Severtzov). Paddyfield Warbler

Biswas omitted this species from his list although also collected by

both Hodgson and Koelz. Ours was from Jhapa District in February.

Acrocephalus concinens (Swinhoe). Bluntwinged Paddyfield Warbler

Another species collected a long way from its usual range. One

race is in the Kashmir area with another in Assam and a third from

China. Revisiting the reed beds of northern Jhapa District with mist

nets we were able to collect this bird for the first time in Nepal. (February)

No. 597 on the list is now Seicercus xanthoschistos jerdoni (Brooks)

rather than S. x. xanthoschistos.

Phylloscopus tytleri Brooks. Tytler’s Leaf Warbler

Good fortune was with us when a warbler we took from a group in

an oak tree in Dandeldhura District, West Nepal, was one whose eastern

range is Uttar Pradesh. It is certainly uncommon in Nepal. (April)

Phylloscopus fuscatus weigoldi Stresemann. Dusky Leaf Warbler

Dr. Weigold, a grand old man in his 80’s, may be glad to know that

the race of dusky warbler named after him has been found in Nepal.

The synopsis indicates that it extends to southern Tibet and Bhutan.

We netted it in the reeds of northern Jhapa District in February.

NEPAL BIRDS: SUPPLEMENT TO BISWAS’ LIST 333

Phylloscopus cantator cantator (Tickell). Blackbrowed Leaf Warbler

Our specimen, secured by R. L. Fleming, Jr., was one of a fairly large

group of small birds in the foothill forests. It had previously been

recorded beyond the eastern border of Nepal. PP. c. cantator is the nine-

teenth leaf warbler we have taken in this country. (February)

Turdus ruficollis ruficollis Pallas. Redthroated Thrush

Listed from Bhutan and Assam, this eastern race occasionally visits

Nepal. Mrs. Proud had seen them. One was hopping in a shady lane

in Pokhara Town, West Nepal, in spring. There were several in the

party from which we took two in East No. 2, at 11,000 feet in November.

Parus melanolophus Vigors. Crested Black Tit

Listed by the syNopsis for Kumaon this species is another one would

expect to find in far western Nepal.. It was not common as it is in the

north-western Himalayas. (October)

Aegithalos concinnus iredalei (Baker). Western Redheaded Tit

The race for most of Nepal listed by Biswas, No. 657, except those of

the far west, should now be A. c. rubricapillus Ticehurst. Our birds with

the larger wing are those of the western race which we collected in Baitidi

District. (October)

Anthus spinoletta (Linnaeus). Water Pipit

Races of this species have been recorded from Uttar Pradesh and

Sikkim. Our bird was in dry fields in the western end of Pokhara Valley

in December.

Arachnothera longirostris longirostris (Latham). Little Spiderhunter

The SyNopsis places this species as near to Nepal as Assam and East

Pakistan. It is fairly common along the base of the hills and the Mechi

River in far south-eastern Nepal, in groves and forested areas in the

vicinity of Loranthus and wild banana trees. (February)

Ploceus philippinus burmanicus Ticehurst. Eastern Baya

Recorded from eastern Bihar, this race is quite common in the eastern

terai. We usually found them in grassy areas around villages.

(January, February)

Lonchura malacca atricapilla (Vieillot). Blackheaded Munia

Biswas lists the western race from central Nepal. We add the eastern

race, taken in Jnapa Town. These were in a large flock of both black-

headed and spotted munias. (February)

334. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

Carpodacus rubicilla severtzovi Sharpe.

Great Rosefinch

As reported in Pavo, March, 1965, we acquired a specimen of this

species through Mr. G. B. Gurung, a member of the Diesselhorst team

which collected in 1962. Ripley records the bird as near as Gyantse.

We now know it also reaches Khumbu, south of Mt. Everest.

Emberiza fucata fucata Pallas.

(August)

Greyheaded Bunting

Ripley did not include this race in his syNopsis though it has been

reported by Vaurie from Bengal.

Here is another bird we netted in

reed beds near the Mechi River in Jhapa District. (January)

REFERENCES

Biswas, B. (August, 1960-December,

1963): The Birds of Nepal. J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 57: 278-308, 516-546 ;

58: 100-134, 441-474, 653-677; 59:

200-227, 405-429. 807-821; 60: 173-200,

388-399, 638-654.

FLEMING, R. L. (1963): Two new

records for Nepal. Pavo, The Indian

Journal of Ornithology, 1: 126-127.

—— (1964): Further Notes on

Nepal Birds. Fieldiana Zool. 35:

489-558.

FLEMING, R. L. & TRaAyLor, M. A.

(1961) : Notes on Nepal Birds. ibid 35,

(8) : 447-487.

—_—— & — (1964) : Further

Notes on Nepal Birds. ibid 35,

(9) : 443-487.

RAND, A. L. & FLEMING, R. L. (1957) :

Birds from Nepal. ibid 41, (1): 1-218.

Rrtey, S. D. (1961): A Synopsis of

the Birds of India and Pakistan. Bombay

Natural History Society, Bombay.

—_ ane 2

The Sciaenidae of the coastal

waters of Visakhapatnam

S. DuTT AND V. THANKAM

Department of Zoology, Andhra University, Waltair

(With a plate)

Thirteen species of the family Sciaenidae, popularly known as drums, —

grunters, croakers or jew fish, are caught practically throughout the year

- in the coastal waters of Visakhapatnam, where they constitute a minor

but valuable fishery by indigenous craft and gear. Most of the catches,

- mainly by boat seine, are of small to medium-sized specimens.

One of the earliest Indian records of sciaenids is from Visakhapatnam,

by Russell (1803), who described 6 species. Blyth (1860) recorded 9

species and Day (1878) described 27 species from India. Lloyd (1907)

described 5 species of Sciaena and 1 of Otolithus. Chaudhuri (1923)

recorded Sciaena coibor and Umbrina indica from Chilka Lake. Pillay

(1929) reported 3 genera and 7 species from Travancore. Fowler (1933)

recognised 8 genera under Sciaenidae and described 53 species from India.

Jacob (1948) reported 7 species of Sciaenidae from west coast of the old

Madras State. Munro (1955) described 17 species from Ceylon.

Seshappa (1956) recorded Johnius hololepidotus for the first time from

Indian waters.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The material for the present work was collected in the fishing villages

of. Visakhapatnam, from catches in coastal waters by boat seine and

gill net. The linear measurements are based on specimens preserved in

5% formalin. The body proportions and length of air bladder described

for the various species in the text, are given as percentage of standard

length. The size range of the specimens examined refers to the standard

length.

OBSERVATIONS

The sciaenids are characterised by a fairly elongate body, covered

with cycloid and/or ctenoid scales, with a spinous dorsal consisting of

ten spines and a soft dorsal having a feeble spine and a varying number of

336 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. “SOCIETY, Vol.” 65. (2)

rays ; the two dorsals are not completely separated. Anal fin of two

spines (first spine short) and 7 rays much shorter than soft dorsal.

Caudal truncate, emarginate or pointed: but never forked. Jaws equal

or sub-equal. Air bladder present, physoclistous.

Thirteen species of sciaenids belonging to five genera are described

from the coastal waters of Visakhapatnam, in the western part of the Bay

of Bengal.

KEY TO GENERA

la. ‘Solid. sbarbel. on. chin... ko cea Ge eee ee eee Dendrophysa

1b. No barbel on chin

2a. Caniniform teeth present ; caudal pointed

3a. Lower jaw prominent, no pores on chin................ Otolithes

3b. Lower jaw shorter than upper, chin with pores........ Otolithoides

2b. No caniniform teeth ; chin with pores

4a. Soft dorsal and anal covered with small scales............ Johnius

4b. Soft dorsal and anal naked, only bases

coveted “withs scalesis;. aun. aoe mee ne PR I an Nibea

Genus JOHNIUS Bloch

Bloch, 1739, Naturges. Ausland. Fische,7: 132. Type J. carutta Bl.

Bleeker (1863) split the genus into Johnius and Pseudosciaena, the

latter distinguished by an inner row of enlarged teeth on the lower jaw,

absent in the former. According to Weber & De Beaufort (1936),

Pseudosciaena has also terminal mouth and oblique cleft whereas Johnius

has inferior mouth and horizontal cleft. However, Fowler (1933) and

Munro (1955) have treated Pseudosciaena Bleeker as a synonym of

Johnius Bloch.

General characters

Lower jaw equal to or slightly shorter than upper. Chin usually

with conspicuous pores, no barbel under symphysis. Gill rakers short.

No caniniform teeth. Spinous dorsal with ten spines and soft dorsal

with one spine and 23-31 rays and anal fin with two spines and 7 rays.

Pectoral rays 14-20. Of the 13 species of sciaenids from the coastal

waters of Visakhapatnam 5 belong to genus Johnius.

KEY TO THE SPECIES OF Johnius

ta: Lateral line broad and conspicHOuse 0%. << usc atte eee ota oe carutta

1b. Lateral line narrow

2a. Six dark brown vertical bands. Carrot-shaped air bladder

with 16-18 caecae bd Gael LT aa ek Ck i OT CME A SD BORN reece erresr ee re .AReCUS

SCIAENIDAE OF VISAKHAPATNAM S57

- 2b. No bands.

3a. Air bladder hammer-shaped with caecae. No dark spot

on pectoral axilla.

4a, Depth 31°57-33°34. Air bladder with 13-14 caecae..........

3b. Air bladder carrot-shaped. No caecae; instead 2

horn-like projections anterolaterally ; A dark spot on

Pectoral axilla w. Fi) JRE Lanes oe tale HLS 8 axillaris

1. Johnius earutta Bloch

Johnius carutta Bloch, 1793. Naturgesch Ausland. Fische. 7: 133, pl. 356

(Type locality : Tranquebar).

Diagnosis: D.X-+I 26-29, A. II 7, P. 14-17, V.I 5, Vert. 25.

Depth 28-89 to 29°72 ; head 32:00 to 33°54; snout 9-80 to 10:00 ;

eye 7°81 to 9°80. Upper jaw overlaps lower. 5 pores on chin. A row

of pores-across snout. Lateral line broad and conspicuous and curves

gradually to below end of anal fin behind which it runs straight. G.R.

3-5+7-10. Scales on head, cheeks and suborbitals cycloid and on body

ctenoid.

Colour : Purplish brown ene light brown below. First dorsal dark,

other fins with grey edges.

Air bladder (Plate, 1): The air bladder of J. carutta is hammer-shaped,

having 14-15 caecal outgrowths with very small branches except the last

two caecae which are undivided. The number of caecae is not equal on

both sides ; in the 122 air bladders examined there was a difference of +1

on one side. Last caecum extends behind pointed posterior end of air

bladder. Length of air bladder 37:48 to 44°87.

The size of the 158 specimens examined ranged between 54:7 mm.

and 175:0 mm. |

2. Johnius aneus Bloch

Johnius aneus Bloch, 1793, Naturgesch Ausland. Fische. pt. 7: 135, pl. 257

(Type locality : Malabar).

Diagnosis: D.X-+I1 23-25, A.II 7, P. 15-17, V.I 5, Vert. 25.

Depth 33:08 to 34°76 ; head 35°56 to 37°36 ; snout 7:96 to 8°35 ; eye

8°42 to 8:98. Upper jaw overlaps lower. Chin with 5 pores. Oper-

‘culum with 2 spines. Anal originates below 12th to 14th dorsal ray.

G.R. 4-7+-9-14. Scales on head, preopercle and cheek cycloid, on body

‘¢tenoid. Pectorals about as long as head without snout,

338. =JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

Colour : There are 6 dark brown vertical lines on the sides of the body,

of which 2nd and 3rd extend below lateral line.

Air bladder (Plate, 2): Day (1878) described the air bladder of J. aneus

as an oval structure having about 30 lateral processes, but the present

study, based on the examination of 80 specimens, shows that the number

of caecae is only 16-18. The anterior caecae are shorter than in the other

species of Johnius but posteriorly the caecae are elongated and the last

2 to 4 caecae are much longer than the rest. The pointed posterior end

of air bladder extends beyond last caecum. Length of air bladder 37.18

to 45:45.

The 93 specimens examined ranged between 25:7 mm. and 187:0 mm.

3. Johnius dussumierii (Cuv. & Val.)

Corvina dussumieri Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1830. Hist. Nat. Poiss. 5: 119 (Type

locality : Malabar).

Diagnosis: D.X-+I 26-30, A. TI 7, P. 15-18, V.I 5, Vert. 25.

Depth 31°57 to 33°34; head 31:20 to 33:11; snout 7:14 to 7:32;

eye 8°19 to 8°87. Lower jaw shorter ; 5 pores on chin ; opercle with two

flat weak spines, preopercle with two or three small spines. Scales

cycloid on head and operculum, ctenoid on body. Lateral line slightly

arched to below middle of soft dorsal. Origin of anal below middle of

soft dorsal. Caudal rounded. First ventral ray filamentous and pro-

longed. G.R. 4-7+ 10-14.

Colour: Dark brown above, lighter on sides ; ventral side whitish.

Spinous dorsal black ; soft dorsal and caudal grey.

Air bladder (Plate, 3): Glistening white. Anterior side bulges laterally

into rounded prominence. Caecae 13 to 14, last caecum undivided, does

not extend behind pointed posterior end of air bladder which extends a

short distance behind vent. Length of air bladder 37°15 to 37°18.

A total of 107 specimens between 44:1 mm. and 141:0 mm. were

examined. Occurs practically throughout the year.

4. Johnius belengerii (Cuv. & Val.)

Corvina belengerii Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1830. Hist. Nat. Poiss. 5: 120.

(Type locality : Malabar).

Diagnosis: D.X-+I1 28-29, A. Il 7, P. 17, V.1I 5, Vert. 25.

Depth 32°32 to 33°80 ; head 31°62 to 34°56 ; snout 7°86 to 7°95 ; eye

8:20 to 8°86. Free border of snout deeply quadrilobate. Chin with 5

pores, G.R. 3-7+9, short, Scales ctenoid except on snout and below

SCIAENIDAE OF VISAKHAPATNAM 339

eye where they are cycloid. Origin of anal below 12th dorsal ray.

Length of pectoral equals head length excluding snout. First ventral

ray with filamentous prolongation. A blotch on operculum.

Colour: Brown above, white below. Spinous dorsal, anal and ventrals

with dark edge. Pectorals pale yellow.

Air bladder (Plate, 4): Shape of air bladder more or less similar to that

of J. carutta and J. dussumierii but number of caecae 14 to 15. Length

of air bladder 38°62 to 39°36.

Rare. Only 2 specimens were obtained in June, measuring 56 mm.

and 102 mm.

5. Johnius axillaris (Cuv. & Val.)

Corvina axillaris Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1830, Hist. Nat. Poiss.5: 113 (Type

locality : Malabar).

Diagnosis: D.X+1 25-29, A. IL 7, P. 15-18, V. 1 5, Vert. 24.

Depth 34°69 to 35°92, head 32:97 to 38-00; snout 7:91 to 7:92 ; eye

7°91 to 8°42. Lower jaw slightly shorter than upper. A median pore

below mandibular symphysis and two slit-like pores on each side of it.

Scales on head and opercle cycloid and on body ctenoid. G.R. 9-12

19-23.

Colour : Brownish-grey above, white on ventral side. A black axillary

spot which extends considerably above base of pectoral. Upper two-

thirds of spinous dorsal, black and first half of soft dorsal, dark.

Air bladder (Plate, 5): The air bladder of J. axillaris has the most glis-

tening colour. The anterior rectangular part tapers gradually to

posterior end which is pointed. Caecae absent, instead, anterolaterally

arise two unbranched horn-like processes directed forward. The entire

surface of the air bladder is covered by a thin layer of white fatty sub-

stance, whereas in the air bladder of other sciaenids, where caecae are

present, only the caecae are covered with this fatty substance. Length

of air bladder 33°34 to 51°63.

A total of 445 specimens between 20°5 mm. and 135°0 mm. were

examined. Juveniles between 20 mm. to 30 mm. occur in large numbers

from March to May.

Note: This species possesses all the characters of genus Johnius Bloch,

1793 defined by Trewavas (1964: 110) except that it lacks the paired

series Of arborescent appendages on the air bladder (vide Discussion),

340 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

Genus NrBeA Jordan & Thompson

Jordan & Thompson, 1911, Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. 39: 244, 246. Type Pseudo-

tolithus mitsukurii Jordan & Snyder.

Snout prominent, with four pores at tip arranged in a transverse row

of three above a median pore. Chin with five conspicuous pores. No

barbel. Preopercle edge serrated or crenulate. Scales on body ctenoid.

Can be distinguished from Johnius in that only the bases of soft dorsal

and anal are covered by scales.

KEY TO THE SPECIES OF Nibea

la. Five broad black oblique bands on body with two longitudinal rows

of black spots* on. dorsal ‘side. Nee oec6 Sau cat Pe Bice cue eeenerae maculata

1b. No bands or spots.

2a. Depth 33°02-37'23. Dark spot behind each dorsal spine and

ray forming black line along dorsal fin. Air bladder carrot-

shaped with 17-20 caecae...... ie gustbuay patctece Atolaie: hearts nie ea euene ee soldado

2b. Depth 31°43-31'78. No dark spot behind dorsal spine. Air

bladder hammer-shaped with 16-17 caecae................ s... Sina

1. Nibea maculata (Bloch & Schneider)

Johnius maculatus Bloch & Schneider 1801. Syst. Ichth. : 75.

Diagnosis: D.X-+I1 22-24, A. II 7, P. 16-18, V.I 5, Vert. 25.

Depth 30°46 to 32:08 ; head 31°34 to 32°66 ; snout 8°06 to 8°52 ; eye

8°60 to 8:71. Lower jaw shorter than upper. Transverse row of 4

pores across snout, 1 below mandibular symphysis and 2 more on either

side. G.R. 4-5+-7-9. i |

Colour: An important diagnostic character is the presence of 5 inter-

rupted broad black bands running vertically : the first arising on the nape

passes backward and downward and terminates abruptly after crossing

lateral line ; the second, commencing opposite fifth to seventh dorsal

spines, passes obliquely downward and terminates above middle of

ventral fin ; the third arising below second and third dorsal rays or bet-

ween the two dorsal fins, runs parallel to second band ; the fourth band

commences below centre of second dorsal and descends to the lateral line

and the fifth runs parallel to it below last few dorsal rays. In addition,

2 rows of black spots run along the dorsal surface. Fins are grey with

small irregular black spots.

Air bladder (Plate, 6): The air bladder of NV. maculatahas a more glis-

tening silvery colour than that of other species. The 16 or 17 caecae are

close together, very short and much branched, The last caecum is also

SCIAENIDAE OF VISAKHAPATNAM 341

branched. The air bladder suddenly tapers at the posterior end which is

without caecae. Length of air bladder 36°48 to 37:25.

This is rather uncommon in the coastal waters of Visakhapatnam.

Only five specimens between 58 mm. and 122 mm. were obtained.

2. Nibea soldado (Lacépéde)

Holocentrus soldado Lacépéde, 1802, Hist. Nat. Poiss. 4: 344, 389. (Type

locality : Cayenna, East Indies).

Diagnosis: D.X-+I 23-26, A. II 7, P. 15-17, V.1I 5, Vert. 25.

Depth 33-03 to 37:23 ; head 34-97 to 36°56 ; snout 9°60 to 10°05 ; eye

6°33 to 7:26. Jaws more or less equal. Preopercle distantly denticulate,

opercle with two weak spines. Scales on head cycloid and on body

ctenoid. Lateral line strongly arched to below middle of soft dorsal and

straight above hind edge of anal. Origin of anal below 9th or 10th dorsal

ray. G.R. 4-7-+ 10-14. |

Colour: Brownish-grey above, whitish below. Fins pale yellow.

Spinous dorsal with dark margin, dark spot on membrane behind each

dorsal spine and ray forming a black line along dorsal fin.

Air bladder (Plate, 7): Caecae 17 to 20. Branches of caecae slender

and long ; type of branching different from that of others ; last caecum

undivided. In some specimens the number of caecae on both sides is

equal, in others a difference of 1 is noted. Length of air bladder 34°18

to 43°93.

A total of 145 specimens between 32°5 mm. and 190°0 mm. were

collected between October and June in small numbers.

3. Nibea sina (Cuv. & Val.)

Corvina sina Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1830, Hist. Nat. Poiss. 5: 122. (Type

locality : Pondicherry, Malabar).

Diagnosis: D.X-+I 26-29, A. II 7, P. 15-19, V.1 5, Vert. 25.

Depth 31°43 to 31°78; head length 31:78 to 32°86; snout 8°18 to

8°67 ; eye 6°63 to 7:12. Jaws more or less equal. 4 big and 2 small

pores on chin. Anal origin before middle of soft dorsal. Origin of

spinous dorsal above that of pectoral. 3rd and 4th dorsal spines longest.

Opercle with 2 flat spines and preopercle with 2 or 3 small spines. Scales

on head and opercle cycloid and on body ctenoid. G.R.5-7--11-15.

Colour: Brown above, silvery with gold reflections below. Spinous

dorsal black, other fins grey. Ventrals white,

342 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

Air bladder (Plate, 8): Air bladder resembles that of J. carutta,

J. dussumierii and J. belengerii but caecae 16 to 17. Anteriorly, air

bladder is attached to depressions on 2nd, 3rd and 4th vertebrae. Length

of air bladder 42°22 to 43°40. |

Number of specimens examined 60, between 35 mm. and 190 mm.

Genus DENDROPHYSA Trewavas, 1964

Type : Umbrina russelli Cuvier, 1830

This genus resembles Johnius, but can be distinguished by the presence

of a solid barbel below chin. Lower jaw shorter than upper jaw. The

genus was created by Trewavas (1964) to include three species of Indo-

West Pacific sciaenids described by earlier workers under Umbrina. or

Sciaena.. Two of them occur at Visakhapatnam. ;

KEY TO THE SPECIES OF Dendrophysa

la. Barbel robust, equals half diameter of eye, scales on head and body cycloid,

dorsal fin rays 23 to 26. Air bladder with 14-15 caecae. Posterior end of

air ‘bladder’ dons and ‘pointed. 6F 2.0.9 4 een ee eee dussumierii

1b. Barbel small, scales on head cycloid and on body ctenoid. Dorsal fin rays 27

to 31. Air bladder with 11 caecae. Last caecum extends behind blunt

posterior end.of air bladder. ic ech. y.0). tek ee ee er macroptera

1. Dendrophysa dussumierii (Valenciennes)

Umbrina dussumierii Valenciennes, 1833, Hist. Nat. Poiss. 9:481. (Type

locality : Coromandel).

Diagnosis: D.X+I 23-26, A. TI 7, P. 16-17, V.1I 5, Vert. 25.

Depth 29:22 to 31:32 ; head 29°62 to 30°36 ; snout 8°32 to 8°68 ; eye

7°62 to 8:02. Upper jaw overlaps the lower; chin with 5 pores. A robust

barbel equal to half eye diameter. Scales on head and body cycloid.

2nd, 3rd and 4th dorsal spines with filamentous prolongation, 2nd and

3rd the largest, almost as high as body, the 4th slightly shorter. G.R.

3-48-10.

Colour : Dark brown, with metallic reflections below. Spinous dorsal

dark, other fins black except ventral which is yellow.

Air bladder (Plate, 9): Hammer-shaped with 14 to 15 caecae. The

posterior part is long and pointed. Last one or two caecae on either

side undivided. Length of air bladder 37°82 to 38°02.

A total of 22 specimens between 47°5 mm, and 163°0 mm, were

examined, |

_SCIAENIDAE OF VISAKHAPATNAM 343

2. Dendrophysa macroptera (Bleeker)

Umbrina macropterus Bleeker, 1863, Nat. Tijds. Nederland. Indie, 4 : 254. (Type

locality : Priaman, Sumatra).

Diagnosis: D.X-+1 27-31, A. I 7, P. 14-18, V. 1 5, Vert. 25.

Depth 28°42 to 30:06; head 27°36 to 30°49 ; snout 8°89 to 10°30;

eye 6°97 to 7°41. A symphysical barbel shorter than pupil with a barbel

pore and with 2 conspicuous pores on either side of the median one.

Scales on head, opercle and cheeks cycloid and on body ctenoid. G.R.

3-5-++-8-10.

Colour: Brown above, light brown below. A dark mark on opercle.

Fins yellowish, dotted with brown.

Air bladder (Plate, 10): Hammer-shaped with 11 caecae on either side.

Third caecum is shorter and more branched than others ; it arises behind

the anterior bulged part of bladder unlike in Johnius carutta, J. dussu-

mierii, J. belengerii, Nibea sina and Dendrophysa dussumierii in which it

arises on the posterior part of the bulged part. Last caecum is branched

and extends behind body of air bladder. Length of air bladder 36°84 to

45°82.

48 specimens between 60 mm. and 190 mm. were examined.

Genus OTOLITHOIDES Fowler

Fowler, 1933, Bull. U.S. Nat. Mus. 12: 364. Type Orolithus biauritus Cantor.

Lower jaw slightly shorter than upper ; 6 pores on chin, 2 of them

smaller than others. Teeth in narrow villiform bands in both jaws;

in upper jaw, the outer row is constituted of 4 strong caniniform teeth,

which are seen even when the mouth is closed. Only a single speci-

men of one species of Otolithoides : O. brunneus (Day) was observed in the

catches.

1. Otolithoides brunneus (Day)

Otolithus brunneus Day, 1873, Journ. Linnean Soc. London, [1 :524. (Type

locality : Bombay).

Diagnosis: D.X+I1 26,A.Il 7, P.18,V.I 5S.

Depth 27:75 ; head 28°46 ; snout 7°32; eye 7:25. Body shape resembles

that of Otolithes argenteus but lower jaw is shorter than upper. All the

generic characters are present. Height of soft dorsal gradually increases

to last ray. Caudal pointed. Anal origin below 8th dorsal ray. G.R.

3+9.

344. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

Colour: Brownish above, with gold reflections below.

Air bladder (Plate, 11): Caecal outgrowths 25-26. Like width of air

bladder, length of caecae also decreases gradually toward posterior end.

Anteriorly air bladder is oval and caecae are longer than width of air

bladder. Posteriorend is bluntly pointed. Length of air bladder was

54 mm. in the specimen of 174 mm. standard length.

Genus OTOLITHES Oken

Oken, 1817, Isis, p. 1782. Type Johnius ruber Bloch.

The genus is characterised by the presence of conical teeth in both

jaws. Lower jaw prominent. Second dorsal fin long. Body more

elongated than in Johnius and Dendrophysa. Caudal truncate or pointed.

Of the three species of Ofolithes recorded from Indian waters, 2

species occur along Visakhapatnam coast, O. ruber and O. argenteus.

KEY TO THE SPECIES OF Ofolithes

la. G.R. 8+16, Anal origin below 16th dorsal ray, air bladder with

25-26 much ‘branched: caecaeles. 2... occu oe eee tne ee ee ruber

1b. G.R. 4-7+9-12, Anal origin below 12th dorsal ray, air bladder

with’ 30-35: [email protected] nea einge un nieiei eevee nee argenteus

1. Otolithes ruber (Schneider)

Johnius ruber Schneider, 1801, Syst. Ichth.:75, pl. 17. (Type locality :

Tranquebar).

Diagnosis: D.X-+-I 28, A. II 7, P. 17, V.15.

Depth 29°68 ; head 28°96 ; snout 8°42; eye 6:26. The caniniform

teeth, so characteristic of the genus were missing perhaps because of

struggle in the boat seine in which it was caught. Lateral line curves

to above middle of anal. Anal origin below 16th dorsal ray. G.R.

8+16.

Colour: Light brown. Spinous dorsal with black edge, soft dorsal

and anal with grey edges. Other fins yellow.

Air bladder (Plate, 12, 12A and 12B). Day (1878) described the air

bladder of O. ruber as having 34 lateral processes ; the single specimen

examined had only 25 caecae on one side and 26 on the other. Each

caecum, is divided into 3 branches of which the main branch extends

perpendicularly to the lateral margin of the air bladder. From this

main branch are given off one dorsal and one ventral branch. Standard

length was 148 mm. and length of air bladder 71 mm.

Rare. The single specimen collected in May measured 148 mm.

| SCIAENIDAE OF VISAKHAPATNAM 345

2. Otolithes argenteus Cuy. & Val.

Otolithes argenteus Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1830, Hist. Nat. Poiss., 5: 62.

(Type locality : Batavia, Malabar, Malacca).

Diagnosis: D.X-+I1 27-31, A. II 7, P. 14-16, V. 1 5, Vert. 25.

Depth 23°14 to 28°34 ; head 30°79 to 31°98 ; snout 6°76 to 8°37 ; eye

5:23 to 7°43. Lower jaw prominent. Operculum with 2 spines. No

pores either on snout or on chin. Teeth in upper jaw in villiform band ;

anteriorly one or two strong, curved long caniniform teeth, the outer the

largest. In mandible on each side, a strong curved symphysical

caniniform tooth placed between the 2 upper ones. Second anal spine

weak. Dark blotch on opercle. G.R. 4-7+9-12. , |

Colour: Brown with silvery reflections, darker along back. Edge of

dorsal dusky ; other fins yellowish.

Air bladder (Plate, 13, 13A, 13B and 13C): Anterior part of air bladder

is oval ; caecae 30 to 35. The number of caecae on the two sides may

be equal or there may be a difference of + 1 on one side. The caecae

are arranged close together with little space between. Each caecum is

much branched and one cluster of branches of each caecum is folded on

to the dorsal side of the air bladder. The branching of the caecae in-

creases with growth. Length of air bladder 35-22 to 49-02.

84 specimens between 44-1 mm. and 255-0 mm. were examined.

TABLE [|

MERISTIC DATA OF SCIAENIDS

Species | Dorsal Pectoral | Gill rakers | Vertebrae

Johnius carutta .. M+] 26-29 14-17 3-5-+7-10 25

J. aneus Mss X-+I 23-25 15-17 4-7+ 9-14 25

J. dussumierii bet CV 26-80 15-18 4-7-+10-14 25

J. belengerii X-+I 28-29 17 3-7++9 short 25

J. axillaris X+J] 25-29 15-18 9-12-+ 19-23 24

Nibea maculata X-+I 22-24 16-18 4-5+-7-9 25

N. soldado X-+I 23-26 15-17 4-7-+- 10-14 25

N. sina X-+I 26-29 15-19 5-7-+11-15 25

Dendrophysa du ssumierii X-+I 23-26 16-17 3-4+ 8-10 25

D. macroptera se :X+127-31 14-18 3-5+8-10 25

Otolithoides brunneus .. W%+I1 26 18 5+9 —

Otolithes ruber ah we XE EQS 17 8+16 —

O. argenteus ay X-+I 27-31 14-16 4-7+-9-12 25

Note.—The number of spines and rays in anal and ventra! fins is constant in all the

species and specimens examined : II 7, and I 5 respectively.

346 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

DISCUSSION

Structure of Air Bladder and its relevancy to phylogeny and classification :

Trewavas (1962, 1964) has stated that the primary divisions of the

family Sciaenidae may be based on the ground plan of the air bladder

where this is complex, ‘ complex’ to mean such species in which the air

bladder has arborescent appendages.

Our studies on thirteen Indo-West Pacific sciaenids which occur at

Visakhapatnam on the east coast of India (western part of Bay of Bengal)

indicate the need for circumspection in accepting entirely Trewavas’

grouping of sciaenid species on the basis of the structure of the air bladder

and its relevance to phylogeny and classification :

1. Six species of three different genera—three species of Johnius :

dussumierii (Cuvier), belengerii (Cuvier) and carutta Bloch, one of

Nibea : sina (Cuvier), and two of Dendrophysa : macroptera (Blkr.) and

dussumierii (Val.) possess hammer-shaped air bladders with arborescent

appendages (Tribe Otolithini). If Trewavas’ principle were to be strictly

applied, then on the basis of similarity of air bladder, N. sina (and the

two species of Dendrophysa) would have to be considered closer to the

above three species of Johnius than to the other two species of Nibea

(vide 2 below) ; the above three species of Johnius would be closer to

N. sina and the above two species of Dendrophysa than to J. aneus Bloch.

2. Six other species of four genera : one of Johnius: aneus Bloch,

two species of Nibea : maculata (Schn.) and soldado (Lac.), one of Oto-

lithoides : brunneus (Day) and two species of Otolithes : ruber (Schn.)

and argenteus Cuvier have carrot-shaped air bladders with arborescent

appendages. Again, if Trewavas principle were to be applied, these two

species of Nibea (as also Otolithoides brunneus and the two species of

Otolithes) would have to be considered closer to J. aneus than to N.

sina. J. aneus would be closer to the above species than to the other

three species of Johnius (vide supra).

3. Johnius axillaris (Cuvier), 1830 possesses all the characters of

genus Johnius as defined by Trewavas (1964: 110) except that the air

bladder lacks arborescent appendages. Since she states that her

definition of Johnius ‘ excludes species with gas bladders of a different

pattern’ i.e. species with air bladder lacking arborescent appendages,

we would have to remove J. axillaris from the genus and from tribe

Otolithini and place it in tribe Sciaenini or perhaps with genus Larimus

because the simple air bladder of J. axillaris bears two (horn-like) out-

growths anterolaterally as in Larimus (vide Trewavas, 1962: 168, fig. 1A).

But probably Trewavas no longer recognises her tribe Otolithini (which

she created to include Johnius, Otolithes, Argyrosomus, Dendrophysa

“SnajuasiD °C JO SYjMOISINO [LISED IOII9}SOd oY} JO SUO “DET f SnajuaS1v ‘CE JO SI[JMOII\NO [ed9"d S[PPIUI Oy) JO sO "GEL § Snajussi0 ‘CO

JO SYMOISINO [ed9ed IONIO\Ue OY} JO UO “WET <§ Snajuasiv ‘°C *E] ‘ 4aqgn4'C JO SYJMOIIINO [ed9"d IOLIN}SOd ot} JO 80 “ATI < 4agnt °C jo

SYIMOIZjINO [LIOLD O[PPI OY} JO SU“ WI * 4aqns sayiyoIO “ZI { Snauunaqg saployjyoIQ *{{ ‘v4ajdosovu °q “OL é Ildanunssnp vsdydoipuaq *6

‘dds oepiuaviog oy} Ul Jsppe]q Ire 94} JO oIMjoNI\s [eIoUIH

(Z) $9 ‘90S “ISI}] “LVN AVaWOg ‘f£

met a Se ee ‘ sae —————

SCIAENIDAE OF VISAKHAPATNAM 347

and other genera having air bladders with arborescent appendages)

because Trewavas and Yazdani (1965) state that * the large and, diverse

subfamily Otolithinae’ (p. 249) is the ‘ group ranked as a Tribe,by

Trewavas in 1962’ (p. 249, footnote).

SUMMARY

Thirteen species of Sciaenids under five genera are recorded from

coastal waters of Visakhapatnam. For the first time an attempt to

distinguish the various species of Sciaenidae of Visakhapatnam coast on

the basis of differences in the general structure of the air bladder has been

made. Separate keys are given for various genera and species.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors are grateful to Prof. P. N. Ganapati, M.A., D.Sc., F.N.L.,

F.Z.S.1., F.A.Sc. for excellent facilities and encouragement.

REFERENCES

BapaT, S. V. & Bat, D. V. (1950):

The food of some young fishes from

Bombay. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. 35:

78-92.

*BLEEKER, P. (1863): Nederland

Tijdschr. Dierk.

*BLyTH (1860): Journ.

Bengal.

CHAUDHURI, B. L. (1923): Fauna of

Chilka Lake. Mem. Indian Mus. 5 (2):

724-726.

Cuu, K. Y. (1956): A review of

Sciaenoid Fishes of Taiwan. Report

Inst. Fish. Biol. Min. Econ. Affairs Nat.

Taiwan Univ. 1 (1): 13-44, 5 pls.

enw, Yo Ex Lo,-Y. Li & Wu E. L,

(1963): A study of the classification. of

sciaenoid fishes of China, with descrip-

tion of new genera and species pp. 1-il,

1-100, pls. i-XL (English summary pp.

83-94) Shanghai Fisheries Institute.

Day, F. (1878) : The Fishes of India,

London, I: 181-197, 2: 43-47 (Reprint

Ed., 1958).

Fowier, H. W. (1933): Contribu-

tions to the biology of the Philippine

Archipelago and adjacent regions. U.S.

Nat. Mus. Bull. 100 : 351-412.

Jacos, P. K. (1948): Sciaenids of the

west coast of Madras. J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 48 (1): 118-124.

Jones, F. R. H. & MarsuHat, N. B.

(1951): The structure and functions of

the teleostean swim bladder. Biol. Rev.

28 : 16-83.

Lioyp, R. E. (1907) : Contributions

Asiatic. Soc.

* Not referred to in the original.

to the fauna of the Arabian sea. Rec.

Indian Mus. 4 (1): 1-12.

Munro, I. S. R. (1955): The marine

and fresh water fishes of Ceylon.

Canberra, Dept. Ext. Affairs.

PittAy, R. S. N. (1929) : Fishes from

Travancore waters. J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 33 : 347-379.

RUSSELL, P. (1803) : Descriptions and

Figures of Two Hundred Fishes.

London.

SESHAPPA, G. (1956): Occurrence of

Johnius hololepidotus (Lacépéde) in

Indian waters. Curr. Sci. 15: 121-122.

SRIVASTAVA, P. N. (1955): Morpho-

logy and histology of the air bladder of

certain Sciaenoid fishes with the descrip-

tion of a new type of ear air bladder

connection. Proc. nat. inst. Sci. India.

21: 74-78.

TREWAVAS, E. (1962): A basis for

classifying the sciaenid fishes of tropical

west Africa. Ann. Mag. nat. Hist. 5:

167-176.

(1964): The sciaenid fishes

with a single mental barbel. Copeia,

12 107-117.

——— & YAzDANI, G. M. (1965):

Chrysochir, a new genus for the sciaenid

fish Otolithus aureus Richardson, with

consideration of its specific synonyms.

Ann. Mag. nat. Hist. 8: 249-255.

WesBerR, M. & De BEAuFoRT, L. F.

(1936) : The fishes of the Indo-Australian

archipelago, Leiden, 7: 481-547.

Notes on the Thysanoptera collected |

during western and southern India

Survey, 1962, with a Review of the

Thysanoptera complex of the Hosts

K. V. LAKSHMINARAYANA

Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta

(Communicated by Dr. B. Biswas)

ParRT I

I. INTRODUCTION

The author, while surveying some hilly and forest tracts in Kerala,

Madras, Maharashtra, and Mysore States as Liaison Officer to

Dr. E. S. Ross of National Geographic Society & California Academy

of Sciences’ Entomological Expedition to Tropical Asia during February-

April 1962, collected many species of insects in their natural state. The

collections include a good number of Thysanoptera from several host

plants, some of them new records to India and others collected on pla

hitherto not recorded as hosts.

The majority of Thysanoptera are phytophagous and a few predatory.

Most of them may be found on the surface feeding on the soft tissues of

flowers, shoots, and leaves; others live in galls on the plant body produced

by the reaction of the plant to the presence of the insect. According to

Mani (1964) ‘ the thysanopterous galls are predominantly leaf galls but

some remarkable bud galls and unique stem and flower galls are also

known’. Though the insects are found inside the galls, in fact these

‘insects remain external to the surface of the leaf and are gradually en-

closed in a cavity by a folding movement of the leaf margin, which pro-

duces the fold galls or roll galis. Sometimes button-shaped pouch galls

are also produced. The gallicolous forms may be either primary gall-

formers or ‘ inquilines ’ residing in the galls of other species of thrips or

other insects. Another interesting feature of some of them is that,

though they can stimulate the production of galls, they still behave as.

inquilines and stay in the galls of other species. Many species are steno-

phagous and are confined to a few related species of hosts with host pre-

‘THYSANOPTERA FROM WESTERN & SOUTHERN INDIA _ —349

ferences ; a few others have a wide latitude of hosts, i.e. they are poly-

phagous. The feeding may be confined to specific parts like leaves,

petals, etc., or it may be non-specific and extend to different parts of the

same plant or different parts on different hosts. Markkula’s (1953)

classification of hosts in the case of aphids is applicable to Thysanoptera.

According to him the hosts may be true hosts (brutwirte), pseudohosts

(scheinwirte), or non-hosts (nichtwirte). True hosts are those plants or

parts of plants on which the species develop and reproduce attaining

normal age. They may be primary, or secondary ; and permanent, or

temporary (on which, during a period of host-suitability, e.g., during

an outbreak or a seasonal peak on the permanent host, a sequence of

two to three generations develop), or accidental hosts (on which rarely

and sparsely one generation may develop). Pseudohosts are plants on

which a few nymphs may be borne which, however, do not attain maturity.

Non-hosts are plants on which no reproduction or development takes

place, but on which the longevity of the insect may be extended by a few

more days.

_ The habits and behaviour of phytophagous species is as important

as their identification. The observations presented below may be useful

for both pure taxonomists and applied workers. The literature on

Thysanoptera is scattered and probably inaccessible for an applied

entomologist and the changes that have been made in the nomenclature

often confuse him. Hence, in addition to remarks and important

synonymies under each species, a review has been given on the Thysano-

ptera complex of each host species recorded during the survey.

This paper has been arranged in two parts. Part I comprises the

Introduction; Review of Literature; Localities of collections; List

of species collected; List of their hosts and Notes on the species

collected. Part Il comprises the Thysanoptera complex of the host

plants recorded during the present survey.

II. Review oF LITERATURE

The earliest work on Indian Thysanoptera dates back to Newman

(1856) who described the two species Idolothrips halidayi and Phlaeo-

thrips anacardi, followed by one species by Kieffer (1908). We owe our

knowledge on Indian Thysanoptera chiefly to Bagnall, Hood, Karny,

Moulton, and Priesner, who described many new species from material

sent to them for identification by Indian institutes or workers.

Ramakrishna Ayyar (hereafter referred as Ramakrishna), the pioneer

Indian worker, brought many species of Indian thrips to light, particularly

of southern and western India. Later contributions were made by

Margabandhu, Shumsher Singh, and Seshadri, either independently or

along with other workers. Ananthakrishnan added much to our

350 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

knowledge since Ramakrishna, and published many papers including

several on new genera and species. Stray papers have been published

by Patel & Patel, Bhatti, Lakshminarayana et al., Stannard &

Ushakumari, etc. References on the earlier work on Indian

Thysanoptera have been well summarised by Ramakrishna &

Margabandhu (1940) and Margabandhu & Ananthakrishnan (1953).

An exhaustive review on the subject is not within the scope of the present

paper, hence, only those papers that have been cited here are given under

references. References of taxonomic importance are listed under each

species ; others are given at the end.

Jif. LOCALITIES OF COLLECTIONS

The Thysanoptera collections have been made in the following loca-

lities. The altitude is given in metres above mean sea-level.

Kerala : Munnar [1565 m.|

Madras : Coimbatore ; Kodaikanal [2125 m.];. Madras:

Mt. Stuart (Top-slip) [760 m.]; Ootacamund

(Ooty) [2678 m.]

Maharashtra: WHadpsara ; Mahabaleshwar [1461 m.] ; Poona.

Mysore : Jog (Gersoppa) Falls [258 m.]

IV. List OF SPECIES RECORDED

Species recorded during the survey are arranged alphabetically.

Those recorded for the first time in India are marked with a dagger [f+].

Those new to the National Zoological Collections of the Zoological

Survey of India are marked with an asterisk [*].

1. Aeolothrips collaris Priesner

2. Anaphothrivs flavicinctus (Karny)

3. Dendrothripoides ipomeae Bagnall

*4. Haplothrips ganglbaueri Schmutz

5. H. schultzei Priesner

6. Haplothrips sp.

7. Mallothrips indicus Ramakrishna

*18. Pnigmothrips medanensis Priesner

9. Retithrips syriacus (Mayet) .

10. Rhipiphorothrips cruentatus Hood

*11. Taeniothrips nigricornis Schmutz

*12. Thrips kodaikanalensis Ananthakrishnan & Jagdish

13. Thrips Usothrips) orientalis Bagnall

“Ate

THYSANOPTERA FROM WESTERN & SOUTHERN INDIA — 351

V. Host SPECIES

The collections were made on the following host plants :

1. Anacardiaceae Mangifera indica L.

2. Araceae Pothos scandens L.

3. Combretaceae Terminalia sp. near marbellarica Roxb.

4. Compositae Artemisia scoparia Waldst. & Kit.

(Marathi : gazara)

5. Convolvulaceae Ipomoea campanulata L.

6. Gramineae Triticum vulgare Vill.

Th -do- Zea mays L.

8. Hypericaceae Hypericum mysorense Wight & Arn.

9. Leguminosae Sesbania grandiflora Pers.

10. Melastomaceae Tibouchina semidecandra Cogn.

11. Meliaceae Azadirachta indica A. Juss.

12. Moraceae Ficus religiosa L.

13% -do- Ficus sp. ? (Marathi : chatranz)

14. Oleaceae Jasminum mesnyi Hance [J. primulinum

Hemsl. |

15. Rosaceae Rosa spp.

16. Solanaceae Datura suaveolens Humb. & Bonpl.

GE -do- Solanum wighiii Nees

18. Thymelaeaceae Lasiosiphon eriocephaius Decne.

19, Verbenaceae Petraea volubilis L.

VI. NOTES ON SPECIES

Notes on the thrips recorded are given under each species. The

families are arranged following Priesner’s (1949) classification in alphabe-

tical sequence. The subfamilies, genera, and species are also arranged

under each family in alphabetical sequence. Under each species the

first reference and only the more important synonymies are listed. The

subfamilies included here are from different sources. All the specimens

except where otherwise stated have been preserved in alcohol. The

Zoological Survey of India has been abbreviated as Z.S.1. The

collector’s name has been abbreviated as K. V. L. Narayana for brevity.

Family AEOLOTHRIPIDAE Uzel

Genus Aeolothrips Haliday 1836

Aeolothrips collaris Priesner

1919 Aeolothrips fasciatus var. collaris Priesner, S.B. Akad. Wiss. Wien., 128,

p. 119 (March).

1919 A. fulvicollis Bagnall, Ann. Mag. nat. Hist., (9) 4, pp. 253-254 (October).

1942 A. fasciatus L., Shumsher Singh, Indian J. Ent., 4, pp. 112-114.

1948 A. collaris Priesner, Bull, Soc. Fouad Ent., 32, pp. 323, 324, 335 & 338.

1964 A. collaris Priesner, Bhatti, Bull. Ent.,5, pp. 17-18.

352 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

Material: On Wheat (Triticum vulgare Vill.) (Reg. No. 3452/H8-2 exs) ; on

Artemisia scoparia Waldst & Kit. (2) (Marathi : gazara), (Reg. Nos. 3453/H8-

2 exs. & 4251/H8-1 ex.). Hadpsara, 9.11.1962, K.V.L. Narayana coll. |

Notes: The Z.S.I. has material from Manali to Kote, ‘ on broad leaves

(?) in streams’, Dr. A. P. Kapur coll.

Bagnall (loc. cit.) described this species as A. fulvicollis from material

collected on Verbascum flowers at Kanpur (India, A.D. Imms coll.).

Priesner (loc. cit.) described collaris as a variety of A. fasciatus Linn., and

recognised fulvicollis as a form of collaris (loc. cit.) ; thus the latter has

precedence over the former. Ramakrishna (1928) recorded it on Mango

flowers at Pusa (Bihar, D.P.S. coll.) ; Ramakrishna & Margabandhu

(1931) on Saccharum officinarum ; Shumsher (loc. cit.) recorded it from

Delhi under A. fasciatus Linn., on Brassica campestris var. dichotami

and var. sarson (Cruciferae), Lathyrus odoratus, L. sativus flowers ; and

Medicago sativa leaves ; Patel et al. (1953) recorded it on leaves and. leaf

sheaths of S. officinarum and flowers of Allium cepa (onion) in January

from Poona, very near to Hadpsara from where the present collections

were made. Recently Bhatti (loc. cit.) discussed the taxonomic status of

A. collaris and A. fulvicollis with two new records on Centaurea cyanea

and Citrus spp. from Hoshiarpur (Punjab).

Both wheat and gazara,a compositae fodder crop, are two new hosts

recorded during this survey. On the former the thrips were confined to

the central shoots; on the latter it was found on young leaves and on

flowers. Incidentally, I may mention that on both hosts it was found in

association with another species, Anaphothrips flavicinctus (Karny).

Family THRIPIDAE Uzel

Subfamily Heliothripinae? Karny

| Genus Retithrips Marchal 1910

Retithrips syriacus (Mayet)

1890 Heliothrips syriacus Mayet, Insects de la Vigne, p. 451.

1910 R. syriacus (Mayet) Marchal, Bull. Soc. Ent. d’Egypte, p.7.

Material: On leaves of Ficus religiosa L. (Reg. Nos. 3456/H8-3 exs., 4266/H8-

3 exs.; and 4310/H8-several exs.; 4199-4200/H8-1 ex. each (on slides),

Coimbatore, 14.11I.1962, K.V.L. Narayana coll.

Notes: In the National Zoological Collections one slide (Reg. No.

1458 /H8) containing material from Bapatla (A.P. ) on cotton, June 1932,

A. R. Seshadri coll., is available.

. Shumsher Singh (1942) raised this subfamily to family rank.

THYSANOPTERA FROM WESTERN & SOUTHERN INDIA 353

Seshadri & Ananthakrishnan (1954) first reported this species from

India on cotton leaves from Cuddalore (E. R. G. Menon coll.), Bapatla

(K. R. Mohan Rao coll.) and grape vine from Chingelpet (E. R. G. Menon

coll.); on leaves of Cassia auriculiformis and Acalypha indica from

Madras (T.N.A. coll.). Ananthakrishnan (1954 b) states that it is a

polyphagous, cosmopolitan species, with special preference to castor

and cotton leaves, and recorded two additional hosts, Pomegranate and

Bauhinia. This, author (1956) also worked out the host preferences as

well as its incidence on castor.

During the present survey another host, Ficus religiosa has been

recorded. The heavy incidence and the presence of all stages indicate

that this is a true and definitive host.

Genus Rhipiphorothrips Morgan 1913

Rhipiphorothrips cruentatus Hood

1919 R. cruentatus Hood, Insec. Inscit. menst., 7, p. 94.

Material: On Rosa spp., Hadpsara, 9.11.1962 (Reg. Nos. 3454/H8-10 exs. ;

4250/H8-24 exs.); on Terminalia sp. near marbellarica Roxb., Jog Falls (258

m.s.!.), 18.11.1962 (Reg. Nos. 4192-4193/H8-1 ex. each (on slides) and 4265/H8-

2 exs.), K.V.L. Narayana coll.

Notes: Hood (loc. cit.) described this species from material collected

. on grape vine from Coimbatore and careya leaves from Ceylon. Karny

(1926) recognised this species from Ramakrishna’s collections from

calotropis flowers, grape vine, and rose leaves from Coimbatore, Lannea

coromandelica (Odina wodier) from Palur (Madras), and Syzygium

cuminii (Eugenia jambolana) from Maddur (Mysore State). Ramakrishna

(1928) on tender leaves of grape vine from Coimbatore, Vijayawada

[Bezwada : Andhra Pradesh], and S. cuminii from Bangalore and Lyallpur

(Pakistan) ; Rahman et a/. (1937) gave a list of host plants and worked

out its biology ; Ramakrishna & Margabandhu (1939b) in addition to the

above, reported it on Punica granatum, Terminalia arjuna, Mangifera

indica, Prosopis spicigera from Lyallpur ; grape vine from Madura and

Travancore also (1931). Patel et al. (1953) in addition to 7. arjuna

recorded it on T. catappa at Anand ; Psidium guyava and Punica granatum

‘from Poona ; rose and grape at Nasik and Poona respectively. Lakshmi-

Narayana et on (1961) while recording it on grape vine (Vitis vinifera)

and country almond (7. catappa) from Bapatla; Rosa spp. at Araku

valley (Andhra Pradesh), also recorded two new hosts, Cashew and

Eucalyptus spp., at Bapatla.

During the present survey another species of Terminalia was recorded

‘as a host. This, like other Terminalia spp., is a true host. Heavy

“Incidence of this species on rose at Hadpsara was noted at the time of my

354. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

visit. Hitherto, this species was reported to attack only the leaves ;

during the present survey severe attacks on flowers were also observed.

Subfamily Panchaetothripinae Bagnall

Genus Dendrothripoides Bagnall, 1923

Dendrothripoides ipomeae Bagnall

1923 D. ipomeae Bagnall, Ann. Mag. nat. Hist., (9) 12, p. 625.

Material: On Ipomoea campanulata L., Madras, 8.1V.1962 (Reg. Nos. 3457/

H8-3 exs. and 4311/H8-7 exs.), K. V. L. Narayana coll.

Notes: Inthe Nationa! Zoological Collections one slide is available with _

details as Ipomoea leaf, Trivandrum, Aug. 1955, T.N.A. coll. (Reg. No.

1784/H8). Bagnall (loc. cit.) described this species on Ipomoea staphy-

lina from Maddur (Ramakrishna coll.). Ramakrishna (1928) also

mentioned its occurrence at Maddur (Mysore).

No other host plant has been recorded so far and I. campanulata

is anewrecord. As this is a common hedge plant in south India, it is

possible that this species can be met with in other regions as well.

Subfamily Thripinae Karny

Genus Anaphothrips Uzel, 1895

Anaphothrips (Neophysopus) flavicinctus (Karny)

1912 Euthrips flavicinctus Karny, Marcellia, 1, p. 115.

1919 E. citricinctus Bagnall, Ann. Mag. nat. Hist. (9) 4, p. 270.

1931 A. flavicinctus (Karny), Ramakrishna & Margabandhu, J. Bombay. nat.

Hist. Soc. 34 (4), p. 1036.

Material: On Zea mays (Reg. Nos. 3448/H8-7 exs. & 4246/H8-13 exs.) ; wheat

(Reg. Nos. 3449/H8-3 exs. ; 3450/H8-2 exs. and 4309/H8-3 exs.); and Arte-

misia scoparia Waldst & Kit. [Marathi: gazara] (Reg. Nos. 3451/H8-8 exs.;

4252/H7-3 exs.), Hadpsara, 9.11.1962, K. V. L. Narayana coll.

Notes: This species is represented in the National Collections from

Shahjhanpur, on sugarcane, 20.1J1.1956, O. P. Singh coll., (Reg. Nos.

1583-1587/H8), and from Madras on guinea grass, Nov. 1955, T. N.

Ananthakrishnan coll., (Reg. No. 1781/H8) (on slides).

Originally described by Karny (loc. cit.) from Java. Bagnall (loc.

cit.) described the same as Euthrips citricintus from one female collected

on Arrowroot leaves from Taliparamba (Ramakrishna coll.). Rama-

krishna (1928) also recorded it on Sorghum vulgare shoots from

Coimbatore; Ramakrishna & Margabandhu (1931) on Pennisetum

typhoideum from Koilpatti (Madras) ; Shumsher Singh (1942) on paddy

THYSANOPTERA FROM WESTERN & SOUTHERN INDIA 355

leaf sheaths, Pennisetum spicatum, Saccharum officinarum, Triticum

aestivum leaves, Zea mays (Gramineae), Lawsonia inermis, and tobacco

flowers from north India. Patel et a/. (1953) reported from many places

in erstwhile Bombay Presidency, namely on P. spicatum from Viramgam

and Detroz in September 1950, on leaves and leaf sheaths of Sorghum

vulgare from Poona, Nasik, Anand, Baroda, Detroz, and Borivili in

post-monsoon and early winter months; on TJ. aestivum at Poona,

Bombay, and N. Gujarat ; on Zea mays and other grasses from Poona

and N. Gujarat. In addition, they recorded it on Avena sativa and

Echinochloa stagnina at Poona; on leaves of Cynodon dactylon, Eleusine

coracona from Poona and Anand ; on tobacco, tomato, leaf sheaths

of Canna indica (Cannaceae), and flowers of Lagasca mollis (Lobeliae),

all from Poona. Ananthakrishnan (1960) recorded it on grasses at

Coonoor (5500 ft.) and Shembaganur, Kodaikanal (5000 ft.). Accord-

ing to the latter author this is one of the commonest species of grass-

inhabiting thrips exhibiting alary polymorphism with macropterous,

brachypterous, and apterous forms. Ananthakrishnan (1961) while

recording the degree of incidence of this species on Andropogon pertusus

and Panicum maximum states that it has special preference for guinea

grass (P. maximum) over other grasses.

One more host, gazara has been recorded now in addition to the

already known hosts, i.e. wheat and maize. While on maize and wheat

it was found mostly on the tender leaves particularly the central shoots,

on gazara it was collected both on tender leaves and on flowers. Further,

it was found associated in both cases with Aeolothrips collaris Pr.

Genus Taeniothrips Amyot & Serville, 1843

Taeniothrips nigricornis (Schmutz)

1913 Frankliniella nigricornis Schmutz, S.B. Acad. Wiss. Wien., 122, p. 1020.

1922 Taeniothrips longistylus Karny, J. Siam Soc., 16, p. 99.

1925 T. longistvlus Karny, Bull. Ent. Res., 16, p. 125.

1926 T. longistylus Karny, Mem. Dep. Agric. India, Ent., 9 (6) pp. 196.

Material: On Azadirachta indica A. Juss. (Neem), Poona, 7.1I.1962 (Reg.

Nos. 3443/H8-3 exs. & 4253/H8-4 exs.) ; on Sesbania grandiflora Pers., (Reg.

Nos. 3444/H8-8 exs. & 4249/H8-8 exs.) ; on Hypericum mysorense Wight &

Arn., Kodaikanal (2125 m.s.1.), 28-29.11I.1962 (Reg. Nos. 4261/H8-1 ex.;

4262/H8-7 exs. and Reg. No. 4201/H8-1 ex. 2). (on slide), K.V.L. Narayana

coll.

Notes: The present collection is a new addition to the National Zoo-

logical Collections.

Ramakrishna & Margabandhu (1939a) recorded this species on

Mimosa pudica flowers from Wynaad Hills (2000 ft.). They consider

356 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

the possibility of the specimens of 7. Jongistylus described by Karny

also belonging to this species only. 7. Jongistylus was noted on flowers

of red gram (Cajanus indicus), Sann hemp (Crotalaria juncea), shoots of

neem (Melia azadirachta= Azadirachta indica), lucerne flowers from

Coimbatore, and cowpea (Vigna catiang) from Taliparamba (Malabar).

Ramakrishna (1928) also recorded it on groundnut flowers from

Bangalore ; Moulton (1928) on an unidentified plant from Buldana

(Berar, H. S. Rao coll.), and Ramakrishna (1934b) on sandal shoots are

other records. Bhasin et al. (1958) also listed Azadirachta indica as a

host of 7. longistylus.

Two new hosts have been noted during the present survey,

Sesbania grandiflora Pers. (Leguminoseae) and Hypericum mysorense

Wight & Arn. (Hypericaceae), in addition to neem. On neem it was ~

collected from the underside of the leaves ; on Sesbania and Hypericum

from flowers. The beautiful Hypericum flowers were badly infested at

the time of my visit. All the flowers had wilted due to desapping. Both

plants can also be classed as true hosts.

Genus Thrips Linnaeus, 1761

Thrips kedaikanalensis Ananthakrishnan & Jagadish

1966 T. kodaikanalensis Ananth. & Jagadish, Ent. Tidskrift 87. 1-27 : 85-99.

Material: On Datura suaveolens Humb. & Bonpl. (Solanaceae), Munnar,

(1565 m.s.1.), 20. 111.1962, (Reg. Nos. 4194-4196/H8-3 exs.) (on slides) & (Reg.

No. 4263/H8-12 exs.); on TVibouchina semidecandra Cogn., Kodaikanal,

28.111.1962 (Reg. No. 4264/H8-5 exs), K. V. L. Narayana coll.

Notes: Originally recorded on an unidentified host plant.

According to Dr. Ananthakrishnan (personal communication) this

is one of the most common species of thrips in south India. Tibouchina

semidecandra Cogn. and datura may be classified as true hosts in view

of the abundance of the specimens as well as symptoms of attack on these

hosts.

Thrips (Isothrips) orientalis (Bagnall)

1915 isoneuroiiyins orientalis Bagnall, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., (8) 15, p. 593, pl.

32, fig: 1.

1926 Isoneurothrips orientalis Bagnall, Karny, Mem. Dep. Agric. India, Ent.,

9 (6), p. 197, pls. 17-18, figs. 1 & 8.

1940 Isothrips Priesner, Bull. Soc. Fouad Id’ Egypte, p. 54.

Material: On Jasminum mesnyi Hance [=J. primulinum Hense] Ootacamund

[Ooty]; (2678 m.s.1.), 11.111.1962, (Reg. No. 3458/H8-12 exs,; 4247/H8-3

exs.), K, V. L. Narayana coll, we

THYSANOPTERA. FROM WESTERN & SOUTHERN INDIA: 357

Notes: The National Zoological Collections had a slide (Reg. No.

124/H8) of this species under Isoneurothrips orientalis Bagnall on Jasmine

flowers, Coimbatore, 1923, T.V.R. coll.

Bagnall (loc. cit.) described this species from material collected on a

white flower from Mt. Matanga, Sarawak (G. E. Bryant coll.). Unfor-

tunately, the specimen studied by Bagnall was imperfect. Hence, Karny

(loc. cit.) redescribed it after studying several specimens from flowers of

Morinda tinctoria and Jasmine in Ramakrishna’s collections from

Coimbatore. Ramakrishna (1928) also mentioned it on Jasmine.

Ramakrishna & Margabandhu (1939a) recorded it from Bombay and

Poona. Priesner (loc. cit.) created a new subgenus Jsothrips under genus

Thrips L., with I. orientalis Bagnall as the type of the subgenus. Patel

et al. (1953) also recorded it on Jasmine from Poona and it was also listed

by Mathur er al. (1960a) on Jasminum spp.

It is believed that J. mesnyi is a new host species, as it is a rare

plant and perhaps the earlier records are all on the usual ornamental

- varieties only.

Family PHLAEOTHRIPIDAE Uzel

Subfamily Cryptothripinae Karny

Genus Mallothrips Ramakrishna, 1928

Mallothrips indicus Ramakrishna

1928 M. indica Ramakrishna, Mem. Dep. Agric. India Ent., 10 (7), pp. 308-310,

fig. 31.

Material: On Ficus sp., Mahableshwar (1461 m.) 14.11.1962 (Reg. Nos.

3455 /H8-1 ex. ; 4248/H8-4 exs.), K.V.L. Narayana coll.

Notes: The Z.S.I. collections include two slides, one co-type slide

(Reg. No. 424/H8) with 2 exs. Eugenia sp. from S. India, T.V.R. coll.,

and another on Eugenia sp., Kanpur, Ramakrishna coll.

Ramakrishna (1928) described the new genus and species from

material collected by him in leaf galls of Syzygium cuminii (Eugenia

jambolana) from Coimbatore and identified them from specimens col-

lected by D. S. Chaudhury also from Kanpur on the fruits of the same

plant (?) (Ramakrishna 1934a). Ananthakrishnan et a/. (1965) while

recording this species on EF. jambolana from Tirupati (A.P.) &

Pondicherry, state that it has been hitherto believed to make galls on

Eugenia leaves but the actual gall producer is a psyllid. The adults

gain entry when the galls are dried and cracked.

The present record is from pouch galls also made by a psyllid on “thie

dorsal lamina of Ficus leaves.

358 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

Subfamily Haplothripinae Karny

Genus Haplothrips Amyot & Serville, 1843

Haplothrips ganglbaueri Schmutz

1913 A. ganglbaueri Schmutz, S.B. Akad. Wiss. Wien., p. 1034.

1916 A. ganglbaueri Schmutz, Karny, Mem. Dep. Agric. India, Ent., 9 (6), pp.

217, fig. 18, pl. 21, Gig. 1).

1933 Haplothrips sp. Priesner, Rec. Indian Mus., 25 (4), p. 355.

Material: On Petraea volubilis L., Poona, 6.11.1962, (Reg. Nos. 3445/H8-3

exs. ; 4308/H8-1 ex.) ; on Solanum wightii Nees, Poona, 8.11.1962 (Reg. Nos.

3446 /H8-5 exs. ; 4312/H8-4 exs.), K. V. L. Narayana coll.

Notes: This species is new to the National Collections. Karny (1926)

Studied this species collected by Ramakrishna on a wild plant at

Coimbatore. Ramakrishna (1928) recorded it on Jasmine flowers

from Kollegal. He observed the occurrence of apterous and

brachypterous forms also. Priesner (loc. cit.) dealt in detail with the

species of Haplothrips from Indo-Malayan region and mentioned that

this species occurs chiefly in Japan, Sumatra, and Krakatov Island.

The two hosts, Petraea volubilis L. (Verbenaceae) and Solanum

wightii Nees (Solanaceae), are two new hosts recorded now. On both

only the flowers were attacked. The infestation on Petraea was very

heavy. The thrips as well as aphids present at the time of the author’s

visit almost desapped the blue flowers and they turned brown and

scorched.

Haplothrips schultzei Priesner

1910 AH. aculeatus Schultze, Zool. anthropol. Erg. Porschungor Westl. O. centr.

Sud-afrika., 4, pp. 147-174.

1921-22 Haplothrips sp. Priesner, Treubia, 2, p. 17, fig. 7.

Material: On Mango, Poona, 8.11.1962 (Reg. No. 3442/H8-1 ex.), K. V. L.

Narayana coll.

Notes: This species is represented in the National Collections as H.

aculeatus F. collected on Cyperus sp. from Hokuto, Formosa, 5.XII.26,

Takahashi coll. (Reg. No. 132/H8-on slide).

Only a single example was collected on sweeping mango inflorescence.

Obviously, this host should be considered as nichtwirte (non-host),

THYSANOPTERA FROM WESTERN & SOUTHERN INDIA — 359

Haplothrips sp.

1843 Haplothrips Amyot & Serville, Hist. Ins. Hemipt., p. 640.

1918 Haplothrips (Synonymy notes) Hood, Mem. Qd. Mus., 6, p. 126.

1921-22 Haplothrips (studies) Priesner, Treubia, 2, pp: 1-20, 7 figs.

1921-22 Priesner’s Haplothrips studies, Karny, Treubia, 2, pp. 21-36.

1933 Haplothrips (Indo-Malayan studies) Priesner, Rec. Indian Mus., 35 (3),

pp. 347-369. \

Material: On Lasiosiphon eriocephalus Decne., Mahabaleshwar (1461 m.),

14.11.1962 (8 exs. and 2 exs. on slide not registered), K. V. L. Narayana coll.

Notes: The National Zoological Collections have slides of H. aculeatus

F. (now H. schultzei Pr.) on Cyperus from Formosa, R. Takahashi coll.

(Reg. No. 132/H8) ; H. ceylonicus Schmutz, from Buldana (Berar) H. S.

Rao coll. (Reg. No. 85/H8) ; H. euphorbiae Pr., on Euphorbia hirta from

Kallar, T.N.A. coll. (Reg. No. 2581/H8); H. gowdeyi (Franklin)

on lantana blossoms from Honolulu, Hawaii, O. H. Swezey coll., and

Haplothrips sp. on Peach, J. P. Chatrath coll.

Priesner (loc. cit.) gave a brief account on this genus and in 1933 dealt

with, in detail, the Indo-Malayan species. Karny (1926) discussed many

species of Haplothrips from India. Ramakrishna (1928) stated that this

genus is represented in India by numerous species and includes the com-

monest among tubulifera found in flowers. He added that some of them

are so very closely related to each other that it is often difficult to separate

them.

It was not possible to identify the specimens under report as they are

badly damaged. However, it may be mentioned that they inhabited

flowers.

Genus Pnigmothrips Priesner, 1953

Pnigmothrips medanensis Priesner

1953 P. medanensis Priesner, Treubia 22, pp. 357-380.

Material : On Pothos scandens L., Mt Stuart [Top-slip] (760 m.s.1.), 17.111.1962

(Reg. Nos. 4197-4198/H8-2 99 exs. (on slides) (Reg. No. 4267/H8-12 exs.),

K. V. L. Narayana coll.

Notes: This species is a new addition to the National Zoological

Collections and also a new record from India.

Priesner (loc. cit.) described it as a new genus and species, from

Sumatra (SE. coast) Batang Serangan Virgin forest, December 1923,

in leaf galls (herbarium No. 23), L. Fulmek coll. According to this

author, this genus comes close to Eugynothrips differing by the slightly

enlarged fore femora of both sexes, the unarmed fore tarsi of the male,

and the shape of the head and the contracted neck (hence Pnigmothrips).

360 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

The present material was collected in leaf galls on Pothos scandens

L. (Araceae). The leaves are folded over the mid rib on the epiphyllous

side, crumpled, twisted, and mottled badly. The infestation was so

heavy, that bunches of leaves were drooping and hanging loosely due to

desapping and gallformation. Old infested leaves finally become yellow

and brittle.

PART II

VIL. THYSANOPTERA COMPLEX OF THE RECORDED HOST PLANTS

The Thysanoptera complex of the host plants recorded during the

present survey is discussed hostwise arranged alphabetically according

to families.

ANACARDIACEAE

Mangifera indica L.

Bagnall (1919) mentioned Aeolothrips fulvicollis Bagnall (now A.

collaris Pr.) on mango flowers. Karny (1926) identified Haplothrips

ceylonicus Schmutz from Ramakrishna’s collection at Coimbatore.

Ramakrishna (1928) recorded Ramaswamiahiella subnudula Karny as

well as H. ceylonicus Sch. at Coimbatore and Anakapalli (A.P.). He

also described Liothrips kiriti from mango leaves. Ramakrishna et al.

(1939a) described Oxyrrhinothrips beharensis Ramk. & Marg., now

Thrips (Oxyrrhinothrips) beharensis (Ramk. & Marg), and recorded

(1939b) Rhipiphorothrips cruentatus Hood on mango leaves and Podothrips

javanus Priesner on mango inflorescence from Coimbatore. Patel et al.

(1953) recorded Scirtothrips dorsalis Hood at Anand. Mathur & Singh

(1960b) in addition to the above also listed Heliothrips haemorrhoidalis

(Bouche) and Selenothrips rubrocincta (Giard) on leaves.

Haplothrips schultzei Priesner now recorded at Poona was found on

mango inflorescence. In the light of Markkula’s classification of host

plants this plant may be classified as Nichtwirte or non-host.

ARACEAE

Pothos scandens L.

_ Only two species are hitherto known to be associated with this plant,

namely, TJetradothrips folliperda (Karny), (Eothrips folliperda Karny),

and Mesothrips melinocnemus Karny from Taliparamba, causing leaf

galls. Ramakrishna (1928) states that in the case of the former species

THYSANOPTERA FROM WESTERN & SOUTHERN INDIA 361

the foliage often suffers very seriously. The leaf rolls up longitudinally

and its colour gradually changes to a sickly yellow ; in the later stages

the galled leaf becomes brittle. Ananthakrishnan et al. (1965) recorded

Gynaikothrips pallicrus Karny from Pothos scandens leaf galls along with

the gall maker Tetradothrips folliperda (Karny) and Mesothrips melino-

cnemus Karny from Moodbidri near Mangalore (Mysore State).

Pnigmothrips medanensis Priesner, now recorded for the first time

from India, also produces galls on the leaves. The leaf folds on the

epiphyllous or axial side over the mid-rib, and becomes twisted, yellowed,

and brittle. It may be mentioned that the yellowing is gradual. This

plant in view of the heavy infestation appears to be a true host.

COMBRETACEAE

Terminalia sp. near marbeliarica Roxb.

No record of any species on this host is available. However, there

are records on closely allied species. Karny (1926) described Rhyncho-

thrips pallipes from Travancore collected by Ramakrishna in Megatrioza

hirsuta C. (Psyllidae) gall on Terminalia sp.,and Gynaikothrips. interlo-

catus Karny from the same locality and from psyllid galls. Ramakrishna

(1928) in addition to the above, mentioned Androthrips flavipes Schmutz

inside psyllid galls on Terminalia spp. He also described Rhipiphorothrips

karna on a related species T. catappa, from Malabar. Ramakrishna &

Margabandhu (1939b) reported the occurrence of R. cruentatus Hood on

T. arjuna. Patel et al. (1953) and Lakshminarayana et al. (1961)

recorded the latter species on T. catappa at Anand and Bapatla respec-

tively. The latter species of thrips is now recorded on Terminalia sp.

near marbellarica Roxb., during the present survey.

COMPOSITAE

Artemisia scoparia Waldst. & Kit. [Marathi: gazara]

No record of any species on this fodder crop is available. Two

species, Aeolothrips collaris Priesner and Anaphothrips (Neophysopus)

flavicinctus Karny, were found infesting both the tender leaves as well as

flowers at Hadpsara (Maharashtra).

CONVOLVULACEAE

Ipomoea campanulata L.

No species has been recorded on this host plant.

Bagnall (1923) described Dendrothripoides ipomeae from a pened

host J. staphylina from Maddur. Ramakrishna (1928) recorded the

above species as well as Taeniothrips (Physothrips) minor (Bagnall) on

I, staphylina. Ramakrishna et al. (1939b) recorded Frankliniella

362 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

sulphurea Schmutz on Convolvulus flowers at Lyallpur, which is ex-

tremly polyphagous (Ananthakrishnan 1960). Patel et al. (1953) also

recorded the latter species on Ipomoea sp. and Achaetothrips mundus

(Karny) on sweet potato (U. batatas) at Poona. Mathur et al. (1960a)

listed Frankliniella persetosa Karny and Thrips japonicus Bagnall on

Ipomoea sp. si

GRAMINEAE

Tricticum vulgare Vill. and Zea mays L.

Ramakrishnothrips jonnaphilla (Ramakrishna) has been recorded

on Zea mays at Guntur (A.P.) by Ramakrishna (1928). Anaphothrips

flavicinctus (Karny) has been recorded on Zea mays cobs as well as Tri-

ticum aestivum by Shumsher (1942). Patel et al. (1953) recorded it on

Zea mays from Poona and N. Gujarat as well as on T. aestivum both

from the latter locality as well as Bombay. They also recorded A.

(Dantabahuthrips) sacchari Shumsher on Zea mays.

During the present survey Aeolothrips collaris Pr. has been recorded

on wheat (T. vulgare Vill.) for the first time along with A. flavicinctus

(Karny) at Hadpsara near Poona. The infestation was mostly confined

to the central shoots on both plants. They can be safely included under

true hosts.

HYyPERICACEAE —

Hypericum mysorense Wight & Arn.

No record of any thrips species is known from this host plant. The

plant is an ornamental one growing 4-6 ft. with fine yellow flowers,

extending from Konkan to Palni Hills at 3000-5000 ft.

Taeniothrips nigricornis (Schmutz) recorded during the present survey

from Kodaikanal is the only known species on this host plant, which

can be rightly included under true host category.

LEGUMINOSAE

Sesbania grandiflora Pers.

Karny (1926) recorded Eurhynchothrips ordinarius (Hood) from flowers

of this plant. Ramakrishna (1928) recorded Heliothrips indicus Bagnall

in addition to E. ordinarius on a related species, S. aculeata, and described

Brachythrips dirghavadana on another closely allied species, S. aegyptiaca.

Ananthakrishnan (1954b) described Perissothrips aureus from Rama-

krishna’s collections on S. aegyptiaca. Mathur et al. (1961) also listed

B. dirghavadana Ramk. and E. ordinarius (Hood) on S. aegyptiaca and

THYSANOPTERA FROM WESTERN & SOUTHERN INDIA — 363

S. grandiflora respectively, the former on the foliage and the latter on

flowers. !

Thus the present record of 7. nigricornis (Sch.) adds one more species

associated with S. grandiflora. Infestation was confined to the flowers

only. This is a true host for this species.

MELASTOMACEAE

Tibouchina semidecandra Cogn.

No thrips has so far been recorded on this plant and Thrips kodai-

kanalensis Ananth. & Jagadish recorded now is the first known species

from this host. Most of the flowers were dried up due to desapping,,

which is clearly seen on the petals.

MELIACEAE

Azadirachta indica A. Juss.

-Karny (1926) and Ramakrishna (1928) recorded Heliothrips haemor-

rhoidalis (Bouche) on the shoots of neem (Melia azadirachta) at

Coimbatore. The latter also noted Dicaiothrips (now Elaphrothrips

Buffa.) on Melia indica (now A. indica) from Dehra Dun (Champion coll.).

Bhasin et al. (1958) listed the above species only. Taeniothrips nigri-

cornis Sch., recorded during the present survey, has been collected on the

underside of the leaves, though on other plants it was collected from

flowers. A new host record for this common pest.

MORACEAE

Ficus religiosa L. and Ficus sp.

So far only two species of thrips, Dichaetothrips beesoni Moulton

(Moulton 1928, and Mathur et al. 1959) and Dendrothripiella (Projecto-

thripoides) pandai Shumsher (Shumsher 1942) were recorded on this host.

But many records from related hosts are known. Karny (1926) described

Mesothrips apatelus from Ficus retusa and mentioned two more species,

Gynaikothrips uzeli Zimm. and G. elegans Zimm. He also des-

cribed varieties of Androthrips flavipes Schmutz on the same host.

Ramakrishna (1928) mentioned G. elegans Zimm. on different species of

Ficus ; G. uzeli Zimm. on F. retusa ; Androthrips flavipes Sch. in leaf

‘galls of F. retusa along with G. elegans, and described Brachythrips

dirghavadana from retusa leaf galls; G. malabaricus from rolled banyan

leaves..(F.. indica) ; and. Mesothrips bhimabahu on.-retusa leaf galls.

Ananthakrishnan: (1951, 1960) recorded Gigantothrips ochroscelis

364 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

Priesner on F. heterophylla and Cercothrips tibialis (Bagnall) on F.

bengalensis. Mathur et al. (1959) listed the above species on different

Ficus plants as well as two more species, Leptothrips constrictus Karny

and Mesothrips jordani on F. benjamina. Ananthakrishnan et al.

(1965) recorded Androthrips flavipes Sch., in galls on Ficus sp. pro-

duced by Gynaikothrips flaviantennatus Moulton and in the leaf galls

of F. benjamina produced by G. uzeli Zimm. from Calicut, Agumbe

Ghat Road, and Courtallum with peak incidence during January-

March; Arrhenothrips dhumrapaksha Ramk. from Agumbe Forest

Ghat Road (Mysore) in the leaf fold galls on F. retusa in galls resembl-

ing that of G. uzeli Zimm. ; the latter species from Burliar (Nilgiris),

Courtallum, and Agumbe Forest Ghat Road; G. malabaricus from

rolled tubular galls on Ficus sp., from Yercaud (Salem) and Guindy

(Madras); G. moultoni Ramk. from Salem on Ficus sp.; Liothrips

hradecensis Uzel on F. benjamina galls along with G. uzeli and A.

flavipes from Courtallum and Mesothrips ae Zimm. in leaf galls on

Ficus sp. at Courtallum.

The present record of Retithrips syriacus (Mayet) (of all stages) is

a new record on F. religiosa and this plant could well be considered as a

true host.

During this survey Mallothrips indica Ramakrishna, hitherto known

from Syzygium spp. (Eugenia) was recorded in psyllid galls on Ficus spp.

OLEACEAE

Jasminum mesnyi Hance. [=J/. primulinum Hems!l.]

This plant is an evergreen twiggy shrub, a native of Yunnan,

extensively cultivated throughout the Tropical and Sub-tropical parts of

the world. The flowers are solitary and primrose yellow in colour.

It is not known in the wild state in India but only grown as an ornamental

plant for its large scentless flowers, which appear from March to May.

The collections were made in the Botanical Gardens, Ooty. Being a rare

plant no record of any species on this particular host is available. How-

ever, records from other common cultivated varieties are available as

follows :

Karny (1926) noted Haplothrips ceylonicus and Thrips (Isothrips)

orientalis Bagnall on jasmine flowers. Ramakrishna (1928) recorded

Frankliniella sulphurea Schmutz, H. ganglbauveri Schmutz, and T. (J)

orientalis Bagnall on jasmine. Ramakrishna et al. (1939a) recorded

the last species on jasmine, and also another species Dendrothripiella

Jasminum, from jasmine. Ananthakrishnan (1953, 1954a) recorded H.

veroniae Pr. and Eothrips aswamukha Ramk. on jasmine leaf galls

(M. S. Mani coll.). Mathur et al. (1960a) also listed T. (J) orientalis

THYSANOPTERA FROM WESTERN & SOUTHERN INDIA — 365

Bagnall and T. florum Sch. on jasmine flowers. The former is now re-

corded for the first time on J. mesnyi flowers.

ROSACEAE

Rosa spp.

Bagnall (1918, 1926) described Haplothrips tenuipennis and Thrips

melaneurus on rose from Darjeeling. Karny (1926) mentioned

Rhipiphorothrips cruentatus Hood. Ramakrishna (1928) recorded

Taeniothrips (Physothrips) andrewsi Bagnall and T. brunneicornis

(Bagnall), 7. (Physothrips) lefroyi Bagnall, and Thrips florum Sch. Rama-

krishna et al. (1939a) recorded Frankliniella sulphurea Schmutz.

Shumsher Singh (1945) described Taeniothrips rhopalantennalis on rose

(M. S. Mani coll.). Ananthakrishnan (1953) identified Thrips florum Sch.

from specimens collected by K. K. Nayar, from Trivandrum ‘ causing

galls on leaves of rose ’ and states that this is the first record of the species

on this plant causing galls. He (1960) recorded this species on Rosa

spp. at Ooty ; T. tabaci Lind. and T. melaneurus Bagnall on Rosa bankia

at Kodaikanal. Mathur et al. (1960c) also listed the above species.

Lakshminarayana et al. (1961) recorded R. cruentatus Hood on Rosa

spp. at Araku Valley (A.P.).

During the present survey R. cruentatus Hood was found infesting

and feeding on rose flowers, in addition to the leaves.

SOLANACEAE

Datura suaveolens Humb. & Bonpl.

Popularly known as Angel’s Trumpet, this handsome shrub growing

to a height of 10-15 ft. and native of Mexico is grown in Indian gardens

for its 8-12 inch long sweet-scented, drooping flowers. It blooms during

the hot season. So far, no thrip species is recorded on this host.

Only two species are hitherto recorded on closely related species,

Karny (1926) and Moulton (1929) recorded Frankliniella sulphurea

Sch. on datura flowers. Ramakrishna (1928) recorded Tryphacto-

thrips rutherfordi (Bagnall) on datura flowers and Ramakrishna et_al.

(1939a) recorded F. sulphurea Sch. on D. fastuosa. Mathur et al. (1959)

listed 7. rutherfordi (Bagnall) on datura flowers.

Thrips kodaikanalensis Ananth. & Jagadish is now recorded for the

first time on D. suaveolens.

366 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2}

‘Solanum wightii Nees

No thrips is known to attack this plant and the present record of

Haplothrips ganglbaueri Sch., on both flowers and leaves, is the first

record.

THYMELAEACEAE

Lasiosiphon eriocephalus Decne.

This small tree or much-branched shrub (1°8-3°0 m.) is found in open

forests on the hills of the Deccan and Western Ghats from Konkan south-

wards to Kerala, Nilgiris, Palnis, and Tinnevelly Hills at altitudes of

1200-2100 m. ; with small yellow flowers densely arranged on a terminal

inflorescence. It yields a fibre useful in paper technology and serves as

a fish poison. It causes dermatitis to human beings and ft is of

considerable medical importance also.

No Thysanoptera has so far been recorded on this plant and the only —

known record is the present case of Haplothrips sp. As the specimens

are all damaged, they could not be identified further.

VERBENACEAE

Petraea volubilis L.

No Thysanoptera has been recorded on this plant. Heavy infestation

of Haplothrips ganglbaueri Sch. and aphids completely desapped the

flowers, which appeared scorched. This is the only known case of thrips

infestation on this plant.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

~ Tam very much indebted to Dr. M. L. Roonwal, Director, Zoological

Survey of India, for giving me an opportunity to survey western and

southern India, and Shri K. S. Pradhan, Superintending Zoologist, for

encouragement and help during the work. I am deeply grateful to

Dr. T. N. Ananthakrishnan, Director, PL. 480 Thrips Scheme, Loyola

College, Madras, for his help in the identification of the thrips material,

and to the Director, Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta, for the identi-

fication of some of the host plants mentioned in this work.

THYSANOPTERA FROM WESTERN & SOUTHERN INDIA

367

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Indian J. Ent., 13 (2) : 193.

——— (1953): Notes on some

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[1952].

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(1954, b): New and little

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——_——~ (1956) : On the incidence of

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Madras (S. India). Zool. Anz., 157:

33-35.

— (1960): Thysanopiera from

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578, 6 figs.

(1961): A review of some

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description of news species. ibid., 58

(2) : 420-423, 1 fig.

———— & JaGavisy. A. (1966):

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——— & RAMAMURTHI, B. N.

(1965): Gall-inhabiting Tubuliferous

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——— (1926): Brief descriptions of

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BHASIN, G., ROONWAL, M. L. &

SINGH, B. (1958): A list of Insect pests

of forest plants in India and adjacent

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————— (1926): Studies on Indian

Thysanoptera. Mem. Dep. Agric. Indian

Ent. 9 (6): 187-239, 8 pls.

KieEFFER, J. J. (1908) : Descriptions de

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Marecellia 7 : 149-167, 4 figs., 3 pls.

LAKSHMINARAYANA, K. V., KRISHNA-

MOORTHY, C. & DHARMARAJU, E. (1961):

Further Additions to the Host Index of

Thysanoptera from Andhra Pradesh.

Andhra Agric., J. 8 (6): 291-294.

MANI, M. S. (1948) : Cecidozoa and

Zoocécidea from India. J. Asiatic. Soc.

Bengal (Sci.) 14 (2).

——— (1964): The Ecology of

Plant galls. Dr. W. Junk publ., Hague.

1-434, 164 figs., 9 pls.

MARGABANDHU, V. & ANANTHA-

KRISHNAN, T. N. (1953) : Annotated list

of Indian Thysanoptera (Supplement).

Indian J. Ent. 15 (3) : 183-190.

*MARKKULA (1953): Biologischoko

logische Untersuchunpen tiber die Kohlbl-

attlaus, Brevicoryne brassicae (L.) (Hem.,

Aphididae). Ann. Soc. zool.-bot. Fenn.

Vanamo, 15 (5) : 1-113.

MatTHur, R. N. & SINGH, B. (1959) :

A list of insect pests of Forest plants in

India and the adjacent Countries. Indian

For. Bull. Ent. (N.S.) 171 (4): 1-165.

(1960, a) ibid. 171 (5): 1-91 [1959].

(1960, b) ibid. 171 (6): 1-148 [1959].

(1960, c): ibid. 171 (7): 1-130 [19304

(1961) : ibid. 171 (8): 1-88 [1960].

MouLtTon, D. (1928) : New Thysanop-

ee from India. Indian For. Rec. 13 (6) :

1-8.

(1929) : Thysanoptera from

India. Rec. Indian Mus., 31 (2) : 93-100,

2 figs.

NEUMAN, E. (1856): Characters of

two undescribed species of Thrips Linn.

Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond., 3 : 264-267.

PATEL, N. G. & PATEL, G. A. (1953):

Host plants, distribution and abundance

of Thrips (Thysanoptera) of Bombay

State. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 51 (3):

597-607.

PRIESNER, H. (1949) : Genera Thysano-

pterorum with keys for the Identification

of the Genera of the order Thysanoptera.

eos Soc. Fouad, I er Entom., 33: 31-

157;

RAHMAN, H. A. & BHARDWay, N. K.

(1937) : The Grape vine Thrips (Rhipi-

Phorithrips cruentatus Hood) (Thripidae :

Terebrantia : Thysanoptera). Indian J.

Agric. Sci., 7 : 633-651, 3 pls.

RAMAKRISHNA AYYAR, T. V. (1928):

A contribution to our knowledge of the

Thysanoptera of India. Mem. Dep.

Agric. Indian Ent. 10 (7): 217-316, 33

figs., 2 pls.

———— (1934a): Notes on Indian

Thysanoptera with descriptions of new

species. Rec. Indian Mus. 36 (4): 491-

498, 2 pls.

*_ (1934, b): Entomological

investigations on the spike disease of

Sandal (21). Thysanoptera. Indian For.

Rec. 20 (4): 12 pp. |

~_——— & MARGABANDHU, V. (1931):

Notes on Indian Thysanoptera with brief

descriptions of new species. J. Bombay

nat, Hist. Soc. 34 (4) : 1029-1040.

* Original not seen.

368

RAMAKRISHNA AYYAR, T.V. & MARGA-

BANDHU V. (1939a): Notes on new and

known Indian Thysanoptera. Rec. Indian

Mus. 41 (1): 21-33.

——— & ———_—- (1939b) : Notes on

some Indian Thysanoptera with descrip-

Hone of new species. Indian J. Ent. 1 (3) :

5-48.

—— (1940) : Catalogue of

Indian Insects. Mem. Dep. Agric. Indian

Ent. 25: 1-64.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. -65 (2)

SESHADRI, A. R. & ANANTHAKRISHNAN,

T. N. (1954): Some new Indian Thy-

sanoptera—I. Indian J. Ent. 16 (3):

210-226, 5 figs. ”

SINGH, SHUMSHER (1942): A contri-

bution to our knowledge of Indian Thy-:

sanoptera. Indian J. Ent. 4 (2) : 111-135,

2 figs. :

———— (1945) : Studies on the Syste-

matics of Indian Thysanoptera-Tere-

brantia. Indian J. Ent. 7 (1-2) : 147-188.

The Yellow-wattled Lapwing,

Vanellus malabaricus (Boddaert),

a tropical dry-season nester

III. Two further seasons’ breeding

S. D. JAYAKAR! AND H. SPURWAY?

Genetics and Biometry Laboratory, Government of Orissa,

Bhubaneswar-3, Orissa, India

(With two plates and two text-figures)

INTRODUCTION

In two previous papers (Jayakar & Spurway 1965 a and b—hence-

forth referred to simply as a and b respectively) we have presented data

on the breeding biology of Vanellus malabaricus (Bod.) collected in

Bhubaneswar, Orissa, during the two years 1963 and 1964. This paper

adds and discusses the data collected during the years 1965 and 1966.

We have followed Ripley (1961) in accepting Bock’s (1958) submer-

gence of genera relevant to this discussion in Brisson’s genus Vanellus.

However, the generic names used in the publications which we cite will

be given.

However, the species here considered differs considerably from

several previously described. For comparison with the well known

Palaearctic Vanellus vanellus (L.) we rely on a recent account by

Nethersole-Thomson (1961) which we will refer to henceforth as N-T,

and for the South African species V. armatus (Burchell), classified in

‘the genus Hoplopterus, on Hall (1959 and 1964).

DESERTION AND ESTABLISHMENT OF TERRITORIES

Nesting activities have rapidly disintegrated with the beginning of the

monsoon in mid-June. This is not an abrupt date in this part of India.

No month is entirely without rain, and sufficient rain falls in a satis-

factory year for rice planting to have begun before the rain due to the

Present-address : 1 Institute di Genetics, Universita di ‘dae Pavia, Italy,

* Habshiguda-16, Hyderabad-7, A.P

370 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

wind called the monsoon. With the increasing rain in June, birds who

have not reared a brood have continued to lay. These late clutches not

only have not hatched, but usually disappear within a few days, though

in 1966 a clutch of 4 persisted 19 days the last egg being laid between

17°35 on 25/vi and 08°52 on 26/vi, and the clutch disappearing

between 18:04 on 15/vii and 12°58 on 16/Vvii.

The parent birds with their full grown, flying, but mottled, chicks

disappear from their territories (Plate I, Fig. 1 shows a 21 day old chick,

not yet flying). Small flocks, some of which are too large to be family

parties have been seen into July in the gardens described in a and b.

From this time until the latter half of September, malabaricus is

absent or much rarer in the locality studied (see map in D).

During this time they could always be found on the waste land defi-

nitively outside the town, in flocks of not more than 12 individuals. This

is a major difference from vanellus of which flocks of 200 have been

counted (N-T) in the breeding area, but outside the breeding season.

The flocks of armatus may reach 40, and, from Hall’s map (1959, p. 118),

seem to be concentrated in a smaller and more urban area than the

breeding pairs. Hall writes of flocks ‘ dispersing’ to breed.

The distances moved by an individual malabaricus, though regular

in time, are perhaps too small for the species to qualify even as a local

migrant, whereas vanellus is a typical migrant wintering over the old

world roughly as far south as the Tropic of Cancer (Baker 1929). This

important difference between the two species seems an ecological adapta-

tion.

From mid-September such flocks of malabaricus have returned to

the study area in increasing numbers. The number of individuals in

a flock have steadily decreased as the breeding season approached. In

January, the earliest month in which eggs have been recorded, 3 birds

have been observed together without any display. The area exploited

for breeding seemed to become divided into territories solely by the

disappearance of this third bird, and immediately after the reduction of

a group to two, copulation, scrape making, agonistic behaviour and

laying began at once. No common ground was observed to exist

between which and their several territories the several pairs could move

freely, as described by Howard (1920) for vanellus.

These processes are surprisingly undemonstrative. The species nests

within 27 m. of the house, and has been watched sufficiently often at

sufficient hours and seasons to be certain that there is no aerial display

like that of vanellus (N-T) which has given that species and by extension

the whole subfamily one of its English names.

~ No agonistic behaviour to separate males nor courtship to hold

females within a territory has been observed. Very few scrapes have

been recognised with certainty which were never used for eggs. How-

YELLOW-WATTLED LAPWING, TROPICAL DRY-SEASON NESTER 371

ever, there was once in 1965 a gap of 38 days between our recognising a

scrape and our first finding an egg in it, although the pair concerned

(No. 13) hadin the intervening period made, laid, and lost eggs in,

another scrape. Courtship of unmated females by the making of several

scrapes which are displayed, or in which the males display, only one of

which is selected and used, as is performed by vanellus (N-T) and armatus

(Hall 1964) is not important, at least in this population of malabaricus.

That courtship has not been observed may be because pairs have

been relatively permanent (5b and below) though N-T implies that when

male and female vanellus return to a territory which they themselves

have held and used during a previous season, they arrive separately, and

the male courts the female, among others, like a stranger.

AREA AND PERSISTENCE OF TERRITORIES

In 1964 (b) 2 territories were entirely in the area under observation,

in 1965, 4 and in 1966, 2. We have previously described (b) how and

why the perimeter of a territory has altered during a season, as the

birds literally lost interest in parts of it because their activities were

concentrated elsewhere.

Territorial boundaries have, so far, always been surrendered by

default, and not after one or more displays of agonistic behaviour.

The average area surrounded by these 8 maximum perimeters is

4:10-+0°54 hectares, or just over 10 acres. Hall (1959) calculated the

minimum area of territory for the Cape Spurwing V. armatus as follows,

‘No nests have been found simultaneously occupied by pairs closer

together than c. 400 yards. Thus the minimum territory size may be

estimated at 40,000 square yards’. How he obtains the latter figure is

not explained. We would calculate as follows. Assuming theoretically

a grid of nests all equidistant from each other, with each territory being

a regular hexagon with the nest as the centre as shown in Fig. 1, the area

x? ./3

of each territory in this figure would be 7 where x is the distance

between two proximate nests. ?

Though we know that malabaricus nests tend to be at the edge of

territories, we have graphed (Fig. 2) the distances between contem-

poraneous nests, from our 1964 and 1965 maps (nests were not mapped in

1966). This gives a multimodal histogram. Most of the largest dis-

tances on the extreme right are those in which another nest could be

reasonably considered as being between the two considered. This is

biologically not meaningful. The smallest distance, on the extreme left,

is the only one recorded in 1963. It is included because it is an extreme

value. There was a natural boundary, a hedge, between the two nests

(map in a). The other two distances in the left-most group had only

372 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

kutcha roads (or bridle paths) between them. However, these paths

may have been used sufficiently to have imposed boundaries accepted

by the birds. Taking therefore the next mode, i.e.. the interval 120-125 m.,

its mid point is at 112°5. Taking 112°5 as x we obtain the minimum

Text Fig. 1 (see text).

territory size for malabaricus as 1°10 hectares, or 2:7 acres. Nesting

armatus adults may fly long distances to feed, whereas vanellus has

communal feeding grounds close to its nesting territories. The terri-

SY 19.63 (| 1964 | 1965 YJ ANOTHER NEST IN. BETWEEN

Wiz] 3 14"

2” 13°

pebbled

Text Fig. 2. Distribution of distances (in m.) between contemporaneous nests :

in 1964, 1965 and 1966.

YELLOW-WATTLED LAPWING, TROPICAL DRY-SEASON NESTER 373:

tories of malabaricus, which: we believe they do not leave, once

established, are a little smaller than those of armatus and larger than those.

of vanellus. Even in the dry season insect life is extremely rich in ek

area, some parts being carpeted with termite galleries. .

Nesting pairs have been numbered serially continuing the series from.

year to year so that a number represents a pair-season and, when in doubt,

during a season. We have renumbered (6)—so the figures for these are

almost certainly too high. However, we have excellent evidence that

some of the birds were the same individuals who had occupied the same:

area in previous years, recognised mainly by wattle and resting wing:

characters such as are discussed in a. One male in particular was re-

cognisable as he had (1) a damaged right leg, which was held at an angle.

when he was standing, caused a limp when walking, and dangled in

flight ; (2) a cleft in his wattle ; and (3) a broad black band on his left

flank and none on his right. This male has now occupied the same

territory with, perhaps minor alterations of boundary in three seasons,

1964 when he was numbered 6, 1965 when he was numbered 12 and 1966

when he was numbered 21. The female of pairs 6 and 12 was probably

the same individual (on wing pattern). After his chick had hatched in

1965 this female, 12, disappeared and was not seen for the rest of the:

season. Male 12 reared at least one chick to flying, single-handed. This

is exceptional in malabaricus though N-T states it to be frequent in

vanellus. The female of pair 21 in 1966 was recognisably different.

The location of territories can be constant for several years even when

_ thesé were occupied by different pairs. A single pair numbered 3 in

1964 and 10 in 1965 used a territory extending over two gardens (see map

in b) which was almost the same as that held by a different pair 1 (see

map in a) in 1963, except that in 1964 and 1965 the territory extended

through the roughly east-west hedge which in 1963 had been the scene of

boundary display and even fighting between pairs | and 2. In 1966 a

third pair (17) held a territory which coincided with that held in 1964

and 1965 except that the area south of the hedge was further enlarged and

nests. were made in it for the first time.

Such constancy is probably because a territory is determined be the

presence of a certain number of amenities. Of these, the water source,

a garden tap has been discussed in a and b. Such a water source can

usually be found in a malabaricus territory. It is possible that the

various water supplies introduced in the area for byline have acaa an

attraction to a Speciest: : Se : :

nhs BREEDING ECONOMY | i

—_ nests have 1 now been. observed which: consisted of ait dna

clods of soil (Plate I, Fig. 2), not of the more usual, oavel or in (Plate

WH; -Fig; 3)..:

374. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi. 65 (2)

The earliest date on which an egg has been found was in 1965 on 20/i.

The average maximum and minimum temperatures that year for 15 days

with this date as midpoint were 28°3° C and 17°3° C. During the breed-

ing season the maximum and minimum air temperatures rise to about

40° C and 30° C. The soil temperatures on which the birds actually

incubated rise to over 60° C (5).

We have found no eggs contradicting the description made in a,

though slight differences in ground colour and the amount of spotting,

are, as would be expected, characteristic of females. Though all these

eggs have been laid on typical bright red lateritic soil we have not yet

found the erythristic ‘phase’ which Baker (1929) considers to be an

adaptation to this habitat, and which in mixed populations he considers

associated with a capacity to select the ground for a scrape so that the

eggs laid in it will be cryptic.

The distribution of the records of clutch size is shown in Table 1.

Four is the maximum and also the commonest class. We consider c/4

represents a complete clutch as is commonly observed in plovers.

However, if 6°3% of clutches are c/5 as N-T has observed in his popula-

tions of vanellus, their absence in a sample of 36 is not significant,

especially if, as N-T suggests, they are produced by one or more geno-

typic variants.

For the 7 completed clutches which we have timed completely the

laying took 5 days, i.e., the 4th egg was laid 4 days after the Ist. The

interval of 2 days between consecutive eggs has occurred between any

2 of the series. However, the 4th clutch produced by pair 12 (12’ ’ ’)

consisted of 2 eggs on 13/v and 14/v/65, 3 on 15/v and 16/v while the

4th egg was only laid on 17/v, i.e., 6 days was the minimum period over

which it could have been laid.

Table 1 also shows the fate of the eggs. After an incomplete clutch

has been lost, the scrape has, with one exception, been deserted.

Table 2 shows the timing of clutch replacement. The figures in the

body of the table show the number of days between the loss of the

first clutch and the laying or finding of the Ist (or for the 3 figures in

brackets the finding of 2 eggs) of the immediately replacing clutch.

A line over the figures indicates that the lost clutch was complete, a

line below that the replacement clutch was judged complete, for this

table, by the birds ceasing laying. The lowest value for this interval

when the first clutch was complete is 7 which is, however, a bracketed

figure, i.e., a female can recommence laying after 6 or conceivably 5

days. However, this figure was exceptional and 8 or 9 are more usual.

The exception was, perhaps significantly, the same clutch 12’ ’ ’—the

later ovipositions of which were unusually drawn out. When the

first clutch was incomplete’ the female delayed much less, probably

only long enough to select a new nest site, In such cases the new

J. BompBay NAT. Hist. Soc. 65 (2) PLATE I

Jayakar : Yellow-wattled Lapwing

Fig. 1. Chick from nest V.m. 21—age 21 or 22 days.

[labelled 3]

Fig. 2. Nest V.m. 17’—a typical nest lined with pebbles.

[labelled 4]

J. BOMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. 65 (2) PLATE II

Jayakar : Yellow-wattled Lapwing

Ris

Fig. 3. Nest V.m. 23—an atypical nest lined with

clods of dried earth. [labelled 2]

Fig. 4. Nest of Vanellus indicus (V.i. 1) containing one egg.

[labelled 1]

YELLOW-WATTLED LAPWING, TROPICAL DRY-SEASON NESTER 375

scrape was barely recognisable when the first egg was laid in it. The

interval on the one occasion when the same scrape was immediately

reused was 3 days. After these short intervals the replacing clutch

never contained more than the number of eggs necessary to complete

the lost clutch, that is to say the two clutches together never contained

more than 4 eggs. Therefore these clutches seem produced by the

Same ovarian cycle as the lost clutch. These supplemental clutches

may therefore be added to those judged completed, even if they, in

their turn, have disappeared before this can be confirmed by the

subsequent behaviour of the parents. In the light of this added con-

sideration we have in Table 1 divided clutches containing less than 4

eggs into those judged incomplete and those judged complete.

TABLE |

incomplete clutches completed clutches

CP hele tis TS AV sd ee eared

No. clutches Me Stns 3 2 I 3 5 19° = 36

No. eggs lost toe | 4 6 1 4 8 28jiai. 52

No. taken by predators .. 2 = 7

No. found broken ae | 2 1 4.

No. deserted. Pat bi a 8

No. hatched rt 30) 0 0 0 2 5 35 42

No. flying ie 1 2 11 14

(113)

As Table 1 reveals the majority of eggs simply disappear. How-

ever, we have seen 7 eggs taken by predators or being eaten by them

close to the nest. These were a snake Zamenis sp. and the two common

crows Corvus macrorhynchos Wagler and C. splendens Vieillot. We

suspect there may be other predators, especially during the night.

We have also found vestiges of at least 5 broken eggs suggesting the

crumbs left by marauders. Eight eggs were found deserted in the nest,

or it was judged that this would have happened if they had not been

collected earlier. The deserted egg classed as belonging to an in-

complete clutch represents the one uncertain classification. This,

the only egg of family 18, and found on 6/ii might not be the first egg

of an incomplete clutch but an addled egg of a clutch of which others

had hatched just before it was discovered, but, if so, this egg must

have been laid about 5/i, i.e. 15 days earlier than an egg has yet been

found.

When comparing the hatchability of the different sized clutches,

it is necessary to omit the 15 incomplete clutches, for, these were in-

complete precisely because ey were lost before they were completed.

376 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

“There is. then no significant difference between the supa success

of 2, 3 or 4 egg clutches. |

On three occasions a fresh clutch was laid after the previous one

had hatched. The intervals between the last hatch and first egg of

the subsequent clutch were 35, 40 and 62 days. During the two shorter

intervals the parents were leading the chicks of the first clutch, but

during the longest intervals these must have died about 40 days before

the new eggs were found. This long functionless delay was made

by the same pair who delayed 34 days after a completed clutch had

disappeared before starting a new one (Table 2). This was pair 17

TABLE 2

c/4 c/3 c/2 c/2

8 (7) 14.34) 9

c/4 ——— —— —_- —

Replacement 8

clutch c/3 —

9 (3) 2

c/1

explanation in text.

who, in 1966, occupied the territory which included our own garden. It

was therefore entirely available for supervision, so these two delays

cannot be explained away by assuming that clutches had been missed.

On one occasion (in 1964 by pair 3—see b), young were reared from

two clutches during the same season. This has been recorded for armatus

(Hall 1964) but is assumed never to occur in vanellus, thus simplifying

demographic calculations (Lack 1954),

On only three occasions have eggs been laid in a scrape not newly

made during the previous few days : in 1964 when those of pair 7 (per-

haps pair 4), c/4 was found on 13/5 in the scrape from which the eggs

of pair 4 had been found missing on 19/ii (6) ; in 1965 when pair 13 laid

on 4/iv in a scrape first recorded on 25/11 after having laid and lost one

clutch elsewhere in the intervening period ; and when pair 10 laid an egg

on 12/vi in the same scrape from which an incomplete c/3 had been lost

on n 9/vi.

Tn 1966, 7 eggs were marked with Indian ink, Only 2 hatched, being

iaia. on -26/iv and 28/iv, and hatching on 25/v and 26/v respectively.

YELLOW-WATTLED LAPWING, TROPICAL DRY-SEASON NESTER ‘377

Adding these to the 17 other eggs which have hatched in clutches of

which we are sure of the laying date of all the eggs and assuming that

eggs in a clutch hatch in the order they were laid :

2 have hatched in 30 days

ws ; 6 99 29 29 29 29

6 29 29 a) 28 99

5 56 29 99 2d 29

All 4 eggs have hatched in 5 clutches ; the interval between the hatch-

ing of the first chick and the removal of the last egg shell was, for pair 1,

23 hours 10 min. (d) ; the interval between the day of first finding a chick

(often more than 1) and the nest emptying was, for four nests (2, 7, 11

and 13’) 1 day, and for one (5) 2 days. However, 3 days intervened

between the first and the last hatch of the 3 surviving eggs of clutch 6’.

These intervals are less than the 4 days between the Ist and 4th lay, con-

firming b that some synchronisation of hatching exists. We have also

confirmed that this synchronisation is not achieved by delaying in-

cubation, as it seems to be by species in colder habitats.

On three occasions we have found eggs outside their scrapes. On

two they were found returned next day but in each scrape the appropriate

number of eggs failed to hatch and were abandoned in the nest suggesting

they had been killed by exposure. The third egg was collected, and

after unsuccessful incubation an embryo was found in it at the develop-

mental stage to be expected on this hypothesis. All these further data

confirm our previous observation (a and b) that the environmental

temperatures demand that the parents shade the eggs and sometimes cool

them in other ways.

Table 1 also shows the hatching and flying success in the 3 breeding

seasons 1964-66. The proportion of all eggs which hatched was +42,

(or 37%) and the proportion of completed clutches 42 (or 42%). Only

14 (33 %) of these chicks are known to have flown. The overall breeding

success is thus either 12% or 14%.

Table 3 includes the same data arranged according to years.

Fourteen young were therefore produced in the three seasons 1964-66

pair-seasons, and the breeding success seems to be declining. This

is emphasised, and perhaps explained, by other data presented in this

table. In 1964 some members of the first and last clutches that were

found hatched. In 1965, 27 days elapsed between the discovery .of the

first egg and the laying of the first clutch that was successful. This clutch

was the 5th found. Similarly 3 clutches during 20 days were found

after the last that was even partially successful. These 2 intervals have

become even greater in the 1966 season, as have the proportion of in-

complete to completed clutches. Three of these incomplete clutches in

1966 and the extension of the laying season were due to pair 17 who

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (2)...

378

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YELLOW-WATTLED LAPWING, TROPICAL DRY-SEASON NESTER 379

-produced 5 clutches, and have previously been discussed because of in-

explicable delays in producing fresh clutches.

_ The two clutches watched in 1963 are included in this table. They

were doubtless selected for breeding success.

TABLE 4

ee)

wh)

month ae 1 6

No. incomplete clutches 1 2 I [ _ 3

No. eggs a 6 23 29 25 19 11 (113)

Average size clutch NE 220s G353 SD We NOON et SLO. DD

% hatch bs 0 22. 62 36 42 0

% flying i — ie, 14 16 11 —

Table 4 shows the laying-hatching-flying data arranged by calendar

months. There are probable errors in this table due to the convention

adopted that if a clutch is neither seen laid nor hatched it is included in

the month it was discovered, whereas if a clutch hatched we are then

reasonably certain that it was laid 27-30 days before. From the table

it appears that eggs laid in March have the best chance of success. This

peak would be even more pronounced if the eight 1963 eggs, all laid in

-March, were included.

INCURSION OF V. indicus

The redwattled lapwing V. indicus is usually discussed and compared

_with malabaricus, and they have been again reunited in the genus Vanellus.

They provide an excellent demonstration of the rule that two closely

related species will possess different ecological requirements. Table 5

gives extracts from six authorities. It is interesting how they disagree

in detail, and also with some of our previous statements in the present

paper. However, there is complete agreement that indicus is a species of

damper, and more cultivated land, than malabaricus. This ecological

difference is quite obvious in and around Bhubaneswar. We agree with

Ali (1961) concerning indicus being found in forest glades but we disagree

with this implication that it is not found in larger groups than 2. Flocks

of the 2 species have been seen feeding together, but keeping separate.

However, here indicus is often found nesting in dry paddy fields, where

what are obviously breeding pairs are conspicuous throughout the dry

weather. All nests found by us, previous to 1966, were found in such

_ terrain. The nest described Py Naik et al. (1961) i in western India was

also in such a field.

However, in 1966, on 5/vi (the monsoon a started on 28/v) a

‘pair were seen on the typical rocky waste ground just behind the

4 |

380

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

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YELLOW-WATTLED LAPWING, TROPICAL DRY-SEASON NESTER 381

house (see map in 5). On 8/vi the scrape and one egg (Plate II, Fig. 4)

were found in the area WNW of the road at the top of that map. A pair

was seen near the scrape, but observations were made during the late

afternoon when incubation could not be expected. The second egg was

first seen on 11/vi and the 3rd on 13/vi. On 12/vi, and on 15/vi in the

morning no birds were seen attending the nest, but one was present in

the evening of the latter day. Therefore incubation did not seem to have

begun. On 16/vi afternoon the eggs were found destroyed, egg-shell

being scattered around up to 8 m. away. Small stones were piled in the

nest and a small pit 15 cm. deep and 15 cm. diameter had been dug on its

edge. Both birds came and screamed at the observers. They were seen

on 17/vi, but then left the area. }

Compared with the laying of malabaricus eggs this clutch took a long

time, and we do not know if it was completed, in the sense used in this

paper.

These dates are late inthe season, and typical of * pioneers ’, i.e., birds

which have failed to establish, or maintain themselves, in an area of their

more usual ecological niche, and make a belated attempt in a suboptimal .

marginal environment.

From the quotations listed in Table 5, it could be suggested that the

preference of indicus for ploughed land implies a greater tolerance

(especially as Baker and Whistler both note a preference to the ballast

of the railway lines) than malabaricus for human nearness. Perhaps

humans even provide some more positive attraction for indicus. The

human activity on this study area has been steadily increasing since 1963,

but only in respect of building and the making and use of kutcha roads.

This land has not been ploughed nor has any increased water supply

been made. We make this suggestion but knowing the species and the

terrains we are sceptical of it. The indicus pair observed nested in the

most undisturbed part of the study area. Almost all paddy fields during

the dry months, February to May, are less visited by humans than either

‘the gardens in which birds are continually disturbed by the gardeners, or

the waste land that is used as a short cut.across a State Capital, both of

which are chosen by malabaricus.

DISCUSSION

The conclusions of our earlier papers have not been overturned, but

some changes are appearing in the population.

Is this species breeding successfully—however-success is defined ?

Fortunately a recent review of mortality and fertility in birds of this group

has appeared (Boyd 1962). On immediate reading of this, after the first

draft of this paper was completed, our impression is how little we have

to offer for comparison. And one point may not have been sufficiently

382 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

emphasised. Many, perhaps most, European workers consider that they

study a more or less discrete breeding colony of their chosen species of

charadriid. These are not judged to be iso/ates in the genetical sense,

but it is considered worthwhile to consider, and if possible to measure,

both the return of young to them, and also other immigration. Our

population of malabaricus is defined by its study area, which is deter-

mined by human considerations, mainly the area which can be surveyed

critically from the roof of our single storied house, but this is complicated

by both the screening value of the vegetation in the various neighbouring

gardens, and by whether these are for public or private reasons available

for us to examine on the ground. Uninterrupted, and known to be

exploited, malabaricus habitat extends towards the north and west.

There are more territories to the north-east and east of our waste land

than we are able to survey, and in all directions throughout the new and

old cities, malabaricus pairs are known to breed.

Returning to the comparison with Boyd’s data, we know nothing

of the mortalities, including the several important subdivisions of these,

which have been obtained by ringing data. However, our tables provide

three of his parameters for the estimate of fertility. (Unfortunately three

are insufficient for the estimate), Over the 3 years 1964-66, Boyd’s ec,

the mean number of eggs laid per female per year, has been 43° or 5°65,

which is within Boyd’s range for Palaearctic species and well below the

maximum for V. vanellus itself, i.e. though verbal description suggests

that the performance by malabaricus for clutch replacement is greater

than for Palaearctic species, this is not borne out by the figures. For

malabaricus, Boyd’s u, the fraction of eggs laid which hatch, is ;“2, or

0-37. Only one value for u given in Boyd’s table is lower than this.

Boyd’s v, the fraction of hatched young which fly, is, for malabaricus,

44 or 0°33 which is a value lower than any Boyd has recorded. We have

no idea of the other relevant parameters, namely the age at first breeding,

and the mortality before this.

However, breeding success has altered from year to year. Though

from the two criteria of the number of pairs recorded in the area (which is — |

a maximum, and we do not know how critical), and the number of chicks

flying, the most successful year was 1965, this was achieved at the expense

of a much greater waste of eggs thanin 1964. This wastage was probably

the cause of the extension in time of the egg laying period. When the

monsoon broke, there were still pairs who had not yet raised a clutch or

had raised only one, and that several months before. Itis easy to suggest

‘that these late clutches have a poor prognosis for hatching because they

are laid in suboptimal ecological conditions, the terrain being damp.

Also. the delay between the laying of the first egg and the laying of the

first successful egg can be explained similarly. At this time, which is

-ayinter and comparatively cold, it is probable that alternative food supply

for various predators. is rarer than later in the season.

YELLOW-WATTLED LAPWING, TROPICAL DRY-SEASON NESTER 383

The period between the first clutch and the first successful clutch, and

that between the last successful clutch and the last clutch were both

increased in 1966, which also, by the other criteria, was less successful

than previous years. °

Thus it seems that the study area is deteriorating for yellow-wattled

lapwings. Whether this is correlated with the arrival in the area, very

late in the season, of one pair of the ecologically different closely related

redwattled lapwing is unknown.

The obvious explanation of this deterioration, but not necessarily the

correct one, is the increasing human activity in the area. This is both

activity, gangs collecting stones, building roads and culverts, and people

going to and from their places of work, and also the destruction oF the

habitat by building, but more the former than the latter. |

SUMMARY

A maximum of 22 pair-seasons of Vanellus malabaricus have been

observed in the not yet built upon ground in the centre of Unit 5

Bhubaneswar New Capital and the adjacent approaches to the Raj

‘Bhavan of Orissa. The activity of this species continues to be conspi-

cuous, but the breeding success during the years 1964 to ’66, suggests

that the environment is deteriorating. V. indicus entered the area for

the first time, late and ineffectually, in 1966,

REFERENCES

Aut, SALIM. (1961) : The Book of Indian adaptations. Zool. Jd. Syst. Bd. 92:

Birds. 6th ed. Bombay Natural History 53-72

Society, Bombay. ————— & — (19655). The

Baker, E. C. S. (1929): Fauna of yellow-wattled lapwing Vanellus mala-

British India. Birds VI. Taylor and = baricus (Boddaert), a tropical dry-season

Francis, London. nester. II. Additional data on breeding

‘Bock, W. J. (1958): A generic review biology. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

of the Plovers (Charadriinae, Aves). 62: 1-14.

Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool.,

No. 2.

Harvard 118: JERDON, T. C. (1864): The Birds of

India. Ill. George Wyman, Calcutta.

Boyp, H. (1962): Mortality and ferti-

lity of European Charadrii. Jbis 104:

368-387.

HALL, K. R. L. (1959) : A study of the

blacksmith plover Hoplopterus armatus

in the Cape Town area. I. Distribution

and Breeding data. Ostrich 30: 117-126.

—————. (1964) : A study of the black-

smith plover Hoplopterus armatus in the —

Cape Town area. MII. Behaviour.

ibid 35 : 3-16.

Howarp, H. E. (1920): Territory in

Bird Life. Murray, London.

Henry, G. M. (1955) : A Guide to the

Birds of Ceylon. Oxford University

Press, London.

JAYAKAR, S. D. & SpurRway, H.

(1965a): The yellow-wattled lapwing,

a tropical dry-season nester [Vanellus.

malabaricus (Boddaert), Charadriidae].

1. The locality and the incubatory

Lack, D. (1954): The Natural Regu-

lation of Animal Numbers. Oxford at

the Clarendon Press.

Nalk, R. M., GeorGE, P. V. & Dixit,

Durvuv, B. (1961): Some observations

on the behaviour of the incubating Red-

wattled Lapwing, Vanellus indicus

indicus (Bodd.). J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 58 : 223-230.

NETHERSOLE-THOMPSON, D. (1961):

The Breeding Behaviour and Breeding

Biology of the Lapwing in The Birds of

the British Isles by D. A. Bannerman.

10: 265-274. Oliver and Boyd, Edin-

burgh and London.

RreLcey, S. D. (1961): A Synopsis of

the Birds of India and_ Pakistan.

Bombay Natural History Society.

WHISTLER, H. (1949): Popular Hand-

book of Indian Birds. 4 ed. revised by

N. B. Kinnear. Gurney and Jackson,

London and Edinburgh,

Flora of the Bhillangna Valley of the

erstwhile Tehri-Garhwal State

A. C, Dey,? M. R. UNIYAL? AND V. SHANKAR?

This paper gives an account of a collection of plants from the Bhillangna

Valley of Tehri-Garhwal, made during the years 1963 to 1965 during which

nearly 1400 specimens of 410 species were collected. The area covered

by this study includes river valleys, glacier beds, mountain slopes and

meadows ranging in altitude between 600 and 4200 metres.

INTRODUCTION

The Bhillangna Valley derives its name from the Bhillangna River

which runs through the entire length of the valley. The Bhillangna

River originates from Khatling Glacier, is fed in its course by Kshirganga

near Mahsar Tal and Balganga at Baunr, and finally meets the Bhagirathi

River at Tehri. Tehri-Garhwal, of which the Bhillangna Valley is a

part, lies entirely within the Himalayan ranges between 30° 20-30°50 N,

and 78°35-78°55 E and covers an area of about 1000 sq. miles. It is

surrounded by Ramain and Bashahr in the north, Tibet inthe east, Paurj

Garhwal in the south and Dehra Dun in the west. The region consists

of a series of ridges separated by narrow valleys running north-east to

south-west, and radiating from the lofty peaks bordering Tibet.

Burrard & Hayden (1907) divided the Himalayas into three zones ;

the greater Himalayas, the lesser Himalayas and the Siwaliks. The

area selected for exploration lies in the former two zones. The Greater

Himalayan ranges are composed of granite and crystalline rocks and are

characterized by the presence of snowy peaks, the average height of which

exceeds 6500 m. The lesser Himalayan ranges are made of sedimentary

rocks such as slate, quartzite, conglomerate and limestone and their

altitude ranges between 1800 m. and 3000 m.

From climatic point of view the Bhillangna Valley can be divided into

three zones similar to Hooker’s three climatic zones of Western Himalayas.

1. Tropical Zone: Extends up to an altitude of 1500 m., the lower

limit of snow-fall during winter. Annual rainfall 203 to 228 cm. The

1 Survey of Medicinal Plants Unit, Govt. of India Project, P.O. Gurukula Kangri

(Hardwar).

* Botany Department, College of Science, Gurukula Kangri (Hardwar).

FLORA OF THE BHILLANGNA VALLEY 385

temperature rarely falls below freezing point, and in May it rises to 40°56°C

or above. The monsoon starts about the middle of June and lasts up

to the end of September. Mist increases the humidity to saturation

point, In autumn due to continuous sunshine the humidity decreases.

Spring is the hottest season of the year.

2. Temperate Zone: Extends from 1500 m. to 3600 m. the upper

limit of trees. Here the temperature is lower and precipitation less with

considerable portion of it received as snow. The annual precipitation

falls as rain. Autumn is characterized by sunshine and low humidity.

During winter the temperature falls below—11°11°C. In spring the tem-

perature rises and the humidity is very low.

3. Alpine Zone: The alpine zone is above 3600 m. Here winters

are cold and growing season for plants is short. Spring and autumn

seasons are practically eliminated. Precipitation is very small and mostly

in the form of snow. Winters are characterized by heavy snow-fall.

This zone is characterized by large spreading meadows.

Recently R. K. Gupta (1956) gave a brief description of the flora of

Tehri-Garhwal. In Bhillangna Valley he confined his studies to Mahsar

Tal, Sashsar Tal, Chandrabadni and Ghansali, from where he described

' about 250 plant species. A greater part of the valley, however, remained

unexplored.

This paper presents a fairly comprehensive account of the flora of

_Bhillangna Valley. An extensive exploration of the valley was under-

taken by the authors during 1963, 1964 and 1965 during the months of

March, April, May, June, July, August, September and October.

Eighteen localities situated in river valleys, glacier beds, mountain slopes

and meadows, scattered over an area of about 680 sq. miles, were covered

during the course of study. Most of the area was covered on foot.

There is a motor road from Tehri to Ghansali. From Ghansali onwards

there are no proper means of communication and therefore the whole

journey from Ghansali to Ghuttu, and from Ghuttu to Rupagali (Ponwali

route), and from Ghuttu to Kalayani (Mahsar route) was performed on

foot. On the Ponwali route, Gawana (2100 m.) was the last village.

On the Mahsar Tal route, Gangi (2700 m.) was the last inhabited spot

above which we came across large meadows. In Gangi people live on

phapru (Fagopyrum esculentum), alu (Solanum tuberosum), marcha

(Amaranthus paniculatus) and their chief domestic animals are goats,

rarely cattle. Being a country of widely varying topography a large

variety of plants of different climatic zones were collected. At altitudes

above 3000 metres snow covered peaks were a common feature and

alpine herbs like species of Caltha, Potentilla, Primula and dwarf Rhodo-

dendron were blooming. The valley is important from the point of view

386 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

of medicinal plants. About 20 species of medicinal plants are exported

from here to the markets of Hardwar, Dehra Dun and Delhi. In recent

years the importance of the valley has further increased due to its suita-

bility for the cultivation of medicinal plants. Sandoz Ltd. selected

Matia, near Ponwali (3240 m.) for the cultivation of an important species

of medicinal plant, Podophyllum hexandrum from which Podophyllin,

an alleged cure for cancer, is obtained. Ponwali and Matia have been

considered suitable for the cultivation of Mee nes important medicinal

plant, Nardostachys jatamansi.

410 species of plants belonging to 90 families were collected during

the study. The Table gives a summary of the collections made.

TABLE

Families Genera Species

Dicotyledons a 79 276 362

Monocotyledons a 8 ii! 41

Gymnosperms iy, 3 5 i

In the detailed enumeration the following procedure has been adopted.

To facilitate easy reference the order of the families of flowering plants

is the same as in Hooker’s FLORA OF BRITISH INDIA (1872-97). Every

effort has been made to bring the nomenclature up-to-date. All the

specimens included in the list are preserved in the herbarium of the Survey

of Medicinal Plants Unit, Gurukula Kangri Vishwavidyalaya, Dist.

Saharanpur. Brief mention is made of the locality and altitude of

occurrence of each species.

List OF PLANTS COLLECTED DURING 1963-65

RANUNCULACEAE

Aconitum falconeri Stapf Aquilegia pubiflora Wall. ex Royle

Ponwali, Rajkhark, 3000- | Gangi 2700 m. ;

3600 m. ; Uniyal 3134 & 3602. Uniyal 781 & 3851.

A. heterophyllum Wall. Caltha palustris Linn.

Ponwali 3000 m. ; Ponwali 2700 m. ;

Uniyal 1646, 1490 & 3601. Uniyal 898, 665 & 1240.

A. laeve Royle ) Clematis buchananiana DC.

Ponwali 3300 m. ; Dey 1265, Ghuttu 2100 m. ; Uniyal 1680,

FLORA OF THE BHILLANGNA VALLEY

C. barbellata Edgew.

Ponwali 3300 m. ; Saxena 895.

C. nepaulensis DC.

Ponwali 2800 m. ; Saxena 1253.

Delphinium denudatum Wall. ex

Hook. .

Indrola 1200 m. ; Uniyal 704.

D. vestitum Wall. ex Royle

Tali 3300 m. ; Uniyal 605.

Paeonia emodi Wall.

Margaon 2100 m. ;

Uniyal & Saxena 1208.

tas

Ranunculus hirtellus Royle

Ponwali 2800 m.; Uniyal 1213.

R. laetus Wall. ,

Ghuttu 1600 m. ; Dey 1206.

Thalictrum alpinum Linn.

Tali 3600 m. ; Uniyal 882.

T, javanicum B1.

Ponwali 3300 m. ; Uniyal 1487.

T. foliolosum DC.

Alaknanda Range 2400 m. ;

Uniyal 3600.

T. reniforme Wall.

Ponwali 2800 m. ; Uniyal 3672.

MAGNOLIACEAE

Michelia champaca Linn.

Cultivated at Ghuttu 900 m. ;

Dey 1321.

Schizandra grandiflora Hook.

fede Dit

Ghuttu 2700 m. ; Uniyal 1098.

MENISPERMACEAE

Cissampelos pareira Linn.

Indrola 900 m. ; Uniyal 3335.

Cocculus laurifolius DC.

Ghansali 900 m. ; Uniyal 3358.

Stephania glabra Miers.

Ghansali 900 m. : Uniyal 721.

BERBERIDACEAE

Berberis asiatica Roxb.

Ghuttu 1800 m. ; Saxena 486.

B. chitria Lindl.

Mataya 2700 m. ; Uniyal 441. |

B. coriaria Brand. |

Ponwali 2800 m, ; Uniyal 683,

B. lycium Royle

Ghansali 900 m. ; Uniyal 576.

Podophyllum hexandrum Royle

Ponwali and Rajkhark 3000 m., ;

Uniyal 1097 & 3832.

388. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

PAPAVERACEAE

Meconopsis aculeata Royle

The Himalayan blue poppy, at Tali 3600 m.: Uniyal 3122.

FUMARIACEAE

Corydalis govaniana Wall. C. cornuta Royle

Ponwali 3000 m. ; Uniyal 3326. Ponwali 2800 m. ; Uniyal 3440.

C. ramosa Wall. ex Hook. f. Fumaria indica Pugsley ;

Mataya 2800 m. ; Uniyal 1774. Chamba 1600 m. ; Uniyal 493.

VIOLACEAE

Viola biflora Linn. V. serpens Wall.

Gangi-Kalayani 2400 m. ; Ghuttu 1800 m. ; Uniyal 681.

Saxena 1183.

CRUCIFERAE

Barbarea vulgaris Br. Erysimum hieracifolium Linn.

Tali-Rajkhark 3300 m. ; Kalayani 2700 m. ; Uniyal 1335.

Uniyal 816. : ,

Eutrema primulaefolium Hook.

Capsella bursa-pastoris Medic. f. & Th.

Ponwali 3000 m. ; Uniyai 1360, Tali 3600 m. ; Uniyal 1277.

Cardamine impatiens Linn. Megacarpaea polyandra Benth.

Ghuttu 2400 m. ; Saxena 797. Tali 3600 m. ; Uniyal 864.

FLACOURTIACEAE

Flacourtia indica Merr.

Ghonti 900 m. ; Uniyal 3655.

POLYGALACEAE

Polygala abyssinica R. Br. P. crotalariodes Buch.-Ham.

Chamba 1600 m. ; Dey 1048. Gangi 2100 m. ; Saxena 798.

P. chinensis Linn. P. persicariaefolia DC.

Ghansali 900 m. ; Uniyal 1604. Ghansali 900 m. ; Uniyal 1605, |,

FLORA OF THE BHILLANGNA VALLEY 389

CARYOPHYLLACEAE

Sagina procumbens Linn. Stellaria decumbens Edgew.

Mataya 2100 m. ; Uniyal 3890. Tali 3600 m. ; Saxena 1287.

Silene griffithii Boiss. S. latifolia Benth.

Mataya 2700 m. ; Saxena 1378. Duphand 2100 m. ; Uniyal 639.

S. inflata Benth. S. media Linn.

Duphand 2100 m.; Uniyal Mataya 2400 m. ;

3436. Uniyal & Dey 1226.

S. venosa Aschers.

Gangi 2700 m. ; Uniyal 1450.

HYPERICACEAE

Hypericum dyeri Rehder. H. oblongifolium Choisy.

Duphand 2100 m. ; Saxena 1336. Chamba 1600 m. ; Uniyal 551.

H. elodeoides Choisy. H. perforatum Linn.

Ponwali 3300 m. ; Uniyal 1491. Banchuri 1600 m.; Uniyal 717.

H. hookerianum Wall.

Ponwali 3000 m. ; Uniyal 3310.

MALVACEAE

Abutilon graveolens Wt. & Arn. Sida cordifolia Linn.

Tehri 700 m. ; Uniyal 3690. Ghuttu 1000 m. ; Uniyal 3664.

Hibiscus cannabinus Linn. S. veronicaefolia Lamk.

Ghuttu 1200 m. ; Dey 1327. Ghuttu 1200 m. ; Dey 1327.

TILIACEAE

Grewia sapida Roxb.

Ghansali 900 m. ; Uniyal 751.

LINACEAE

Reinwardtia indica Dum.

Banchuri 1600 m. ; Uniyal 3883.

390. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

GERANIACEAE

Geranium ocellatum Camb. G. wallichianum Sweet |

Ghansali 900 m. ; Uniyal 583. Mataya 2100 m. ; Uniyal 3884.

BALSAMINACEAE ~ |

Impatiens cristata Wall. Oxalis acetosella Linn.

Ponwali 3300 m. ; Saxena 1104. Mataya 2400 m.; Uniyal 1259.

I. macrophylla Gaertn.

Ponwali 3300 m. ; Saxena 1104.

RUTACEAE

Aegle marmelos Corr. Toddalia aculeata Pers.

Ghonti 950 m. ; Uniyal 3885. Ghansali 900 m. ; Uniyal 735.

Murraya paniculata Jack. Zanthoxylum alatum Roxb. |

Ghansali 900 m. ; Saxena 738. Ghansali 900 m. ; Uniyal 575.

Skimmia laureola Sieb. & Zucc.

Ponwali 2800 m. ; Uniyal 678.

AQUIFOLIACEAE

Tlex dipyrena Wall.

Gaja 1200 m. ; Uniyal 550.

~ CELASTRACEAE

Celastrus paniculata Willd. E. pendulus Wall.

Banchuri 1200 m.; Uniyal 708 Saord 2100 m. ; Uniyal 715.

or 3628.

E. tingens Wall.

Euonymus hamiltonianus Wall. Duphand 2100 m. ; Dey 1209.

Duphand 2700 m. ; Uniyal 686.

RHAMNACEAE |

Helinus lanceolatus Brand. R. triqueter Wall.

Duphand 2700 m. ; Uniyal 663. © Ghuttu 1200 m.; Uniyal 1320.

Rhamnus purpurea Edgew. R. variegatus Roxb.

Ponwali 3000 m. ; Uniyal 888, =. Indrola 900 m. ; Uniyal 707,

FLORA OF THE BHILLANGNA VALLEY 391

VITACEAE.

Leea edgeworthii Santapau

Vitis lanata Roxb.

Ghansali 900 m. ; Uniyal 751.

Duphand 2700 m. ; Uniyal 1309.

ACERACEAE

(Sapindaceae)

Acer caesium Wall. ex Brandis

Duphand 2700 m. ; Uniyal 1309.

HIPPOCASTINACEAE

(Sapindaceae)

Aesculus indica Colebr.

Cardiospermum halicacabum Linn.

Gangi 2400 m. ; Uniyal 790.

Indrola 900 m. ; Uniyal 3644.

STAPHYLEACEAE

(Sapindaceae)

Staphylea emodi Wall. ex Brandis

Gangi 2400 m. ; Uniyal 825.

ANACARDIACEAE

Lannea coromandelica (Houtt.) R. parviflora Roxb.

Merr.

Tehri 600 m. ; Uniyal 422.

Ghansali 900 m. ; Uniyal 755.

R. wallichii Hook. f.

Ghansali 900 m.; Uniyal 1642

& 1335.

Pistacia integerrima Stew.

Ghonti 900 m.; Uniyal 446 &

3025:

Rhus cotinus Linn.

Ghansali 900 m. ; Uniyal 577.

CORIARIACEAE

Coriaria nepalensis Wall. .

Banchuri 1600 m. ; Uniyal 1723.

392

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

CAESALPINACEAE

Bauhinia vahlii W. & A.

Ghansali 900 m. ; Dey 1376.

Caesalpinia sepiaria Roxb.

Ghansali 900 m. ; Uniyal 721.

Cassia leschenaultii Wall.

Ghuttu 1500 m.; Saxena 1141.

C. laevigata Willd.

Ghansali 900 m. ; Uniyal 761.

PAPILIONACEAE

Atylosia scarabaeoides Benth.

Ghuttu 1300 m. ; Uniyal 1079°

Crotalaria albida Heyne ex Roth.

Ghuttu 1500 m. ; Uniyal 641.

Desmodium microphyllum (Thunb.)

DC.

Ghuttu 1200 m. ; Saxena 778.

Lathyrus luteus Baker

Gangi 2400 m. ; Uniyal 1161.

Lespedeza stenocarpa Maxim.

Ghansali 900 m. ; Saxena 1062.

Lotus corniculatus Linn.

Gangi 2700 m. ; Saxena 858.

Indigofera gerardiana Wall.

Ghonti 900 m. ; Uniyal 707.

I. dosua Buch.-Ham.

Ponwali 3000 m. ; Unival 3867.

Thermopsis barbata Royle

Tali 3600 m. ; Saxena 827.

Trigonella gracilis Benth.

Tali 3600 m. ; Uniyal 876.

T. emodi Benth.

Ponwali 3000 m. ; Uniyal 3306.

Piptanthus nepalensis D. Don

Mataya 2800 m. ; Uniyal 3103.

Uraria neglecta Prain

Ghansali 900 m. ; Uniyal 2079.

U. picta Desv.

Ghansali 900 m. ; Uniyal 786.

Vicia tenera Grah.

Gaja 2100 m. ; Uniyal 598.

ROSACEAE

Agrimonia eupatorium Linn.

Gangi 2400 m. ; Saxena 847.

Cotoneaster obtusa Wall. ex Lindl.

Maghu 3300 m. ; Uniyal 685.

C. bacillaris Wall.

Duphand 2400 m.; Uniyal 3398.

Deutzia staminea R. Br.

Ghansali 900 m. ; Uniyal 580.

Fragaria vesca Linn.

Ponwali 2700 m. ; Saxena 1221.

Geum elatum Wall.

Tali 3600 m. ; Uniyal 874.

FLORA OF THE BHILLANGNA VALLEY

G. urbanum Linn.

Kalayani 2400 m.;

1188.

Saxena

Potentilla kleiniana Wt. & Arn.

Poibagi 2100 m. ; Dey 1121.

P. sibbaldi Wall.

Ponwali 1700 m. ; Saxena 1224.

P. microphylla D. Don

Tali 3600 m. ; Saxena 869.

P. gerardiana Lindl.

Ponwali 2700 m. ; Uniyal 1303.

P. atrosanguinea Lodd.

Tali 3600 m. ; Uniyal 878.

P. fulgens Wall.

Poibagi 2100 m. ; Uniyal 3452.

Prunus cerasoides D. Don

Ghuttu 1500 m. ; Dey 1119.

Prunus cornuta Wall.

Mataya 2700 m. ; Dey 1111.

P. padus Linn.

Ponwali 2700 m. ; Saxena 1248.

Pyrus pashia Buch.-Ham.

Ghonti 900 m. ; Uniyal 647.

P. lanata D. Don

Poibagi 2700 m.;

Saxena 1237.

Uniyal &

Rubus niveus Thunb.

Ghansali 900 m. ; Uniyal 578.

R. ellipticus Sm.

Ghansali 900 m. ; Uniyal 576.

R. paniculatus Sm.

Poibagi 2700 m. ; Uniyal 1236.

Rosa sericea Lindl.

Poibagi 2700 m. ; Uniyal 687.

R. moschata Mill.

Ghansali 900 m. ; Uniyal 584.

Sorbus foliolosa (Wall.) Spach.

Poibagi 2400 m. ; Saxena 1251.

Spiraea bella Sims.

Gangi 2400 m. ; Uniyal 813.

S. vestita Wall.

Poibagi 2400 m. ; Uniyal 1446.

SAXIFRAGACEAE

Bergenia ciliata (Roxb.) Raizada

Poibagi 2400 m. ; Uniyal 1683.

B. ligulata Engl.

Maghu 2700 m. ; Uniyal 674.

B. Stracheyi Engl.

Rupagali 3800 m. ; Uniyal 1670

& 3847.

Deutzia straminea R. Br.

Ghuttu 1500 m. ; Dey 1128.

Hydrangea anomala D. Don

Ponwali 3000 m. ; Uniyal 664.

H. altissima Wall.

Kalayani 2700 m. ; Uniyal 806.

Parnassia nubicola Wall. ex Royle

Mataya 2900 m. ; Uniyal 1502.

Ribes alperstre Wall. ex Decne

Khatlingh 3900 m.; Uniyal

1425. -

Saxifraga diversifolia Wall.

Tali 3600 m. ; Uniyal 1499,

394. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

CRASSULACEAE

Sedum trifidum Linn.

Ponwali 3000 m.; Uniyal 1509.

DROSERACEAE

Drosera lunata Buch.-Ham.

Gangi 2400 m. ; Saxena 1150.

LYTHRACEAE

Punica granatum Linn. Woodfordia fructicosa Kurz.

Indrola 800 m. ; Uniyal 642. Ghansali 900 m. ; Uniyal 586.

ONAGRACEAE

Hartmania rosea G. Don

Banchuri 1500 m. ; Uniyal 620.

| COMBRETACEAE

Terminalia chebula Retz. T. belirica Roxb. i

Sarana 900 m. ; Uniyal 1322. Sarana 900 m. ; Uniyal 3886.

CUCURBITACEAE

Bryonopsis laciniosa (Linn.) Naud. ‘Trichosanthes bracteata (Lam.)

Ghonti 900 m. ; Uniyal 3624. Voigt. |

Ghansali 900 m. ; Uniyal 1324.

UMBELLIFERAE

Angelica glauca Edgew. B. maddeni C.B.C.

Rajkhark . 3300 m.; © Uniyal Ponwali 2700 m. ; Uniyal 1439.

3607. |

Centella asiatica (L.) Urb.

Bupleurum lanceolatum Wall. Ghonti 900 m. ; Uniyal 3170. .

Gangi 2400 m. ; Uniyal 3421.

FLORA OF THE BHILLANGNA VALLEY Ses

Heracleum candicans Wall. S. vaginatum Clarke

Ghuttu 1500 m. ; Uniyal 623. Tali 3600 m. ; Uniyal 3608.

Sanicula europaea Linn. Trachelospermum falconeri (Clarke)

Kalayani 2700 m.; Saxena Wolff.”

1190. Ghuttu 1200 m. ; Uniyal 3818.

Selinum wallichianum (DC,)

Raizada & Saxena

Ponwali 3000 m. ; Uniyal 3114.

ARALIACEAE

Hedera nepalensis K. Koch. Schefflera venulosa (W. & A.)

Banchuri 1500 m.; Uniyal 2010. _Harms.

age Ghansali 900 m. ; Uniyal 747.

Pentapanax parasiticum Seem.

Poibagi 2100 m. ; Uniyal 1657.

CORNACEAE

Cornus macrophylla Wall.

Banchuri 1500 m. ; Uniyal 713.

CAPRIFOLIACEAE :

Lonicera angustifolia Wall. Viburnum cotinifolium D. Don

Poibagi 2400 m. ; Dey 1224. Mataya 2800 m.; Saxena &

; Uniyal 1130 & 1270.

L. purpurascens Hook. f. & Th.

Ponwali 3300 m. ; Saxena 1101. VY. nervosum D. Don

; Rajkhark 3300 m. ; Uniyal 1276.

L. quinquelocularis Hardw.

Gangi 2400 m. ; Uniyal 621. V. mullaha Buch.-Ham. ex Don

Ghuttu 1500 m. ; Uniyal 1662.

RUBIACEAE

Hymenopogon parasiticum Wall. Randia dumetorum (Retz) Lam.

Poibagi 2100 m. ; Uniyal 1116- Ghansali 900 m. ; Uniyal 1326.

Pavetta tomentosa Roxb. ex Sm. R. tetrasperma Roxb.

Ghuttu 1500 m. ; Uniyal 1699. Tehri 600 m. ; Uniyal 426.

396 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

Rubia cordifolia Linn. |

Banchuri 1500 m. ; Uniyal 525.

Uncaria pilosa Roxb.

Ghuttu 1500 m. ; Uniyal 1137.

Wendlandia exserta DC...

Ghuttu 1500 m.; Uniyal 555.

VALERIANACEAE

Nardostachys jatamansi DC.

Tali 3600 m. ; Uniyal 1194.

Valeriana pyrolaefolia DC.

Maghu 3000 m. ; Uniyal 676.

V. jatamansi Jones

Ponwali 2700 m.; -‘Uniyal &

Saxena 484 & 682.

DIPSACACEAE

Dipsacus inermis Wall.

Kanatal 2100 m. ; Dey 1553.

Morina longifolia Wall.

Ponwali 3000 m. ; Uniyal 1779.

COMPOSITAE

Ageratum conyzoides Linn.

Ghansali 900 m. ; Saxena 769.

Ainsliaea aptera DC.

Ponwali 2700 m. ; Uniyal 1666.

Aster asperulus Nees

Poibagi 2100 m. ; Uniyal 1123.

A. molliusculus Wall.

Chamba 1200 m. ; Uniyal 726.

Conyza stricta Willd.

Ghonti 900 m. ; Uniyal 582.

Cyathocline lyrata Cass.

Poibagi 2100 m. ; Dey 1086.

Dichrocephala chrysanthemifolia

DC.

Gangi 2100 m. ; Saxena 1157.

D. latifolia DC. :

Poibagi 2100 m. ; Uniyal 1224.

Gerbera kurzeana Braum. & Asch.

Tali 3660 m. ; Uniyal 1268.

G. lanuginosa Benth.

Tehri 900 m. ; Uniyal 1234.

Gnaphalium luteoalbum Linn.

Poibagi 2400 m. ; Uniyal 1224.

Inula cuspidata Clarke

Ghonti 900 m. ; Uniyal 718.

Saussurea albescens Hook f. & Th.

Poibagi 2400 m. ; Uniyal 1665.

S. obvallata Wall.

Rupagali 4000 m. ; Uniyal 1489.

S. roylei C. B. Cl.

Ponwali 3300 m. ; Uniyal 1455.

Senecio chrysanthemoides DC.

Ponwali 2700 m. ; Uniyal 1201.

FLORA OF THE BHILLANGNA VALLEY 397

S. nudicaulis Buch.-Ham. Taraxacum officinale Wigg. |

Ghansali 900 m. ; Uniyal 581. Ponwali 3000 m. ; Uniyal 1671.

Sphaeranthus senegalensis DC. Tragopogon gracilis D. Don

Ghansali 900 m. ; Saxena 730. Gangi 2100 m. ; Saxena 1156.

Solidago virga-aurea Linn. Vicoa indica DC.

Ponwali 3300 m. ; Uniyal 1506. Ghansali 900 m. ; Uniyal 763.

Tanacetum longifolium Wall.

Tali 3600 m. ; Saxena 1275.

CAMPANULACEAE

Campanula colorata Wall. Cyananthus lobatus Wall. ex Benth,

Ghuttu 900 m. ; Uniyal 770. Ponwali 3000 m. ; Uniyal 1488.

C. latifolia Linn.

Ponwali 3000 m. ; Uniyal 1501.

ERICACEAE

Cassiope fastigiata D. Don Rhododendron anthopogon D. Don

Tali 3600 m. ; Uniyal 821. Tali 3600 m. ; Uniyal 1296.

Gaultheria nummulariodes D. Don RR. arboreum Smith

Mataya 2400 m. ; Saxena 1099. Ghuttu 1600 m. ; Uniyal 1134.

G. trichophylla Royle R. campanulatum D, Don

Mataya 2400 m. ; Saxena 1098. Rajkhark 3300 m. ; Uniyal 1286.

Lyonia ovalifolia (Wall.) Drude. R. lepidotum Wall.

Ghuttu 1800 m. ; Uniyal 1227. Tali 3600 m. ; Saxena 819.

PLUMBAGINACEAE

Plumbago zeylanica Linn.

Ghansali 900 m. ; Uniyal 573.

PRIMULACEAE

Androsace lanuginosa Wall. A. rotundifolia Hardw.

Poibagi 2400 m. ; Uniyal 684. Gangi 2100 m. ; Uniyal 1455.

398 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

A. umbellata Merr. L, lobelioides Wall.

Chamba 1500 m. ; Saxena 1047. Ghansali 900 m. ; Uniyal 749.

Lysimachia alternifolia Wall. ex L. pyramidalis Wall.

Roxb. Ghansali 900 m. ; Uniyal 749.

Tali 3800 m. ; Saxena 772. ;

Primula petiolaris Wall.

L. chenopodioides Wall. ex Hook. f: Poibagi 2500 m. ; Dey 1256.

Gangi 2100 m. ; Saxena 1142.

P. stewartii Wall.

L, japonica Thunb. Tali 3300 m. ; Uniyal 862.

Gangi 2100 m. ; Saxena 1147.

MYRSINACEAE

Maesa indica (Roxb.) Wall.

Ghansali 900 m. ; Saxena 732.

SYMPLOCACEAE

(Styraceae)

Symplocos chinensis (Lour.) Druce

Ghuttu 1500 m. ; Uniyal 695.

OLEACEAE

Jasminum dispermum Wall. J. pubescens Willd.

Ghuttu 1800 m.; Uniyal 1112. Ghansali 900 m. ; Saxena 688.

J. humile Linn. Syringa emodi Wall. ex D. Don

Ghuttu 1800 m.; Uniyal 1112. Ponwali 3000 m. ; Uniyal &

Saxena 678 & 1235.

J. officinale Linn.

Ponwali 1800 m. ; Uniyal 1218.

APOCYNACEAE

Carissa opaca Stapf. Vallaris heynei Spreng.

Ghuttu 1200 m.; Uniyal 1076. | Indrola 900 m. ; Uniyal 705.

FLORA OF THE BHILLANGNA VALLEY | 399

ASCLEPIADACEAE

_Asclepias curassavica Linn. Hoya longifolia Wall.

Ghuttu 1500 m.; Uniyal 1093. Ghansali 900 m. ; Uniyal 699.

Cryptolepis buchanani R. & S. Marsdenia roylei Wight.

Indrola 900 m. ; Uniyal 3678. Ghuttu 1500 m. ; Uniyal 1118.

Cynanchum glaucum Wall. Tylophora govanii Decne.

Poibagi 2400 m. ; Saxena 1208. Ghuttu 1500 m. ; Uniyal 1619.

C. vincetoxicum Pers.

Poibagi 2400 m. ; Uniyal 1252.

GENTIANACEAE

Gentiana carinata Griseb. Swertia alata Royle

Tali 3600 m. ; Saxena 861. Ponwali 3000 m.; Uniyal 3620.

G. pedicellata Wall. } _ §. angustifolia Buch.-Ham.

Gangi 2100 m.; Uniyal 799. Ghuttu 900 m.; Uniyal 1620.

Halenia elliptica D. Don S. purpurascens Wall.

Ponwali 3000 m.; Uniyal 1486. Banchuri 1800 m.; Uniyal 3644.

BORAGINACEAE

Cynoglossum micranthum Desf. Lindelofia spectabilis Lehm.

‘Ponwali 3300 m.; Dey 1325. Tali 3600 m.; Saxena 885.

C. wallichii D. Don Macrotomia benthami DC.

Ponwali 3000 m.; Uniyal 1415. Tali 3600 m.; Saxena & Uniyal

ey f 863.

Hackelia_ glochidiata (A. DC.)

Brand. Trichodesma indicum R. Br.

Ponwali 3000 m.; Uniyal 3876. Sarana 900 m.; Uniyal 696.

CONVOLVULACEAE

Evolvulus alsinoides Linn. I. purpurea Lam.

Tehri 600 m.; Dey 1072. Ghuttu 1800 m.; Uniyal 1207.

Ipomoea hederifolia Linn.

Ghansali 900 m.; Saxena 742.

400 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

SOLANACEAE

Datura stramonium Linn.

Ghuttu 1500 m.; Uniyal 4280.

Nicandra physaloides Gaertn.

Ghuttu 1800 m.; Uniyal 1144.

Solanum nigrum Linn.

Ghonti 900 m.; Uniyal 4269.

S. verbascifolium Linn.

Ghansali 900 m.; Uniyal 1312.

Nicotiana dahacam Linn.

Ghansali 900 m.; Uniyal 768.

Withania somnifera Dunal.

Tehri 700 m.; Uniyal 4229.

Physalis minima Linn.

Indrola 900 m.; Uniyal 4270.

ARISTOLOCHIACEAE

Aristolochia dilatata N.E. Brown

Gangi 2400 m.; Uniyal 852.

SCROPHULARIACEAE

P. gracilis Wall. ex Benth.

Mataya 2700 m.; Uniyal 3387.

Hemiphragma heterophyllum Wall.

Ponwali 3000 m.; Saxena 661

& Uniyal 1269. ;

Picrorhiza kurroa Benth.

Rajkhark, Ponwali 3300-3600 m.; '

Uniyal 1667 & 3843.

Lagotis glauca Gaertn.

Tali 3600 m.; Saxena 865.

Scrophularia himalensis Royle

Ghuttu 1500 m.; Saxena 1300.

Mazus surculosus D. Don

Ghansali 900 m.; Saxena 756.

Veronica javanica Bl.

Kalayani 2400 m.; Saxena 1180

Lathraea squamaria Linn.

Tali 3600 m.; Uniyal 672.

Pedicularis bicornuta Klotz

Mataya 2400 m.; Saxena 1465.

. GESNERIACEAE

Didymocarpus sabalternans Wall.

Gangi 2400 m.; Saxena 782.

Didissandra lanuginosa C. B. Cl.

Ghuttu 1200 m.; Saxena 725.

FLORA OF THE BHILLANGNA VALLEY 401

ACANTHACEAE ©

Adhatoda vasica Nees Rungia pectinata Nees

Indrola 900 m.; Uniyal 3682. Ghonti 900 m.; Uniyai 650.

Barleria cristata Linn.

Pteracanthus alatus (Wall. ex Nees)

Ghansali 900 m.; Uniyal 1606. Brem.

Gangi 2100 m.; Saxena 1371.

VERBENACEAE

Callicarpa macrophylla Vahl Premna barbata Wall. ex Shauer.

Ghansali 900 m.; Uniyal 729 Sarana 900 m.; Uniyal 1068.

& 588.

P. latifolia Roxb.

Clerodendrum serratum Spreng. _ Ghuttu 1500 m.;Saxena 3892.

Sarana 900 m. ; Uniyal 1616 &

697.

Pygmaeopremna herbacea (Roxb.)

Moldenke

Sarana 900 m.; Uniyal 3871

LABIATAE

Ajuga bracteosa Wall. Micromeria biflora Benth.

Pukhar 1200 m.; Dey 1063. Ghuttu 1500 m.; Uniyal 680.

A. parviflora Benth. Prunella vulgaris Linn.

Mataya 2700 m.; Uniyal 1206. Gangi 2400 m.; Uniyal 1176.

‘Anisomeles indica Ktze. Roylea cinerea (D. Don) Baill.

Ghansali 900 m.; Saxena 777. Pukhar 1200 m.; Uniyal 1083.

Calamintha umbrosa Benth. Salvia plebeia Br. ,

Chamba 1200 m.; Uniyal 580. Ghuttu 1500 m.; Saxena 752 &

1229.

Lamium album Linn.

Duphand 2700 m.; Uniyal 1250... Teucrium royleanum Wall.

Ghonti 900 m.; Uniyal 710.

Leucas lanata Benth.: = 6) CMO or

Ghonti 900 m.; Uniyal 649. Thymus serpyllum Linn.

Sahshratal 3800 m.; Uniyal

3 | 1376. ie :

Ghonti 900 m.; Uniyal 651, 7

L. mollissima Wall.

402 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

PLANTAGINACEAE

Plantago major Linn.

Ponwali 3000 m.; Uniyal 1283.

AMARANTHACEAE

Alternanthera sessilis R. Br.

Ghansali 900 m.; Uniyal &

Saxena 733 & 775.

Aerva sanguinolenta (L.) Blume

Ghuttu 1200 m.; Uniyal 1084.

Celosia argentea Linn.

Ghansali 900 m.; Uniyal 759.

POLYGONACEAE

Fagopyrum cymosum Meis.

Ghuttu 1500 m.; Uniyal 1073.

Polygonum amplexicaule D. Don

Gangi 2400 m.; Uniyal 1178.

P. capitatum Buch.-Ham.

Ghuttu 1500 m.; Saxena 1085.

P. chinense Linn.

Gangi 2400 m.; Saxena 788.

P. nepalense Meis.

Ghuttu 1500 m.; Uniyal 1091.

P. sphaerostachyum Meis.

Ponwali 3500 m.; Uniyal 890.

P. vaccinifolium Wall. ex Meis.

Ponwali 3000 m.; Uniyal 1505.

Rheum emodi Wall.

Khatling 4000 m.; Uniyal 3880.

Rumex hastatus D. Don

Ghansali 900 m.; Uniyal 585.

(

PIPERACEAE

Peperomia tetraphylla (G. Forst.) Hook. & Arn.

Ghansali 900 m.; Saxena 736.

LAURACEAE

Cinnamomum tamala Nees

Indrola 1000 m.; Uniyal 701.

Litsea umbrosa Nees

Gangi 2100 m.; Saxena 800.

Machilus gamblei King

Poibagi 2100 m.; Uniyal 714.

FLORA OF THE BHILLANGNA VALLEY 403

THYMELEACEAE

Daphne papyracea Decne.

Poibagi 2100 m.; Uniyal 1288.

Wickstroemia canescens Meis.

Mataya 2400 m.; Uniyal 1388.

ELAEAGNACEAE

Elaeagnus umbellata Thunb.

Kalayani 2400 m.; Uniyal 1181.

LORANTHACEAE

Scurrula elata (Edgew.) Dans.

Parasitic on Lynoia ovalifolia ;

Ghuttu 1500 m.; Saxena 1253.

Viscum nepalense Spreng.

Parasitic on Loranthus sp. on

Quercus incana, at Poibagi

: : 2100 m.; Uniyal & Saxena

Taxillus vestitus (Wall.) Dans. 1222 & 1655.

Parasitic, growing on rocks, at

Ghuttu 1500 m.; Uniyal 1656.

SANTALACEAE

Osyris wightiana Wall. ex Wight

Ghansali 900 m.; Uniyal 728.

EUPHORBIACEAE

Andrachne cordifolia Muell.-Arg.

Ghuttu 1200 m.; Uniyal 744.

Euphorbia pilosa Linn.

Poibagi 2400 m.; Uniyal 1103.

E. royleana Boiss.

Ghonti 900 m.; Dey 1059.

Glochidion velutinum Wight

Ponwali 3000 m.; Uniyal 1065.

Mallotus philippinensis Muell.-Arg.

Ghonti 900 m.; Uniyal 890.

Phyllanthus parvifolius Ham.

Ghuttu 1800 m.; Uniyal 1654.

Sarcococca saligna Muel.-Arg.

Ghuttu 1500 m.; Uniyal 1094.

URTICACEAE

Celtis tetrandra Roxb.

Ghonti 900 m.: Uniyal 724,

Debregeasia hypoleuca Wedd.

Ghuttu 1500 m.; Dey 1229.

404 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

Ficus clavata Wall. Pilea scripta Wedd.

Ghuttu 1500 m.; Uniyal 1058. _ Gangi 2100 m.; Saxena 791.

F, palmata Forsk. Trema politoria Planch. |

Ghuttu 1500 m.; Uniyal 1059. Ghuttu 1200 m.; Uniyal 1087.

Maoutia puya Wedd.

Ghansali 900 m.; Saxena 1323.

JUGLANDACEAE

Engelhardtia spicata BI.

Pukhar 1200 m.; Uniyal 1133.

MYRICACEAE

Myrica nagi Thunb.

Banchuri 1500 m.; Uniyal 721.

BETULACEAE

Alnus nepalensis D. Don Carpinus viminea Lindl.

Poibagi 2400 m.; Uniyal 1110. Mataya 2400 m.; Saxena 1114.

Betula utilis D. Don

Tali 3800 m.; Uniyal 3878.

FAGACEAE

Quercus incana Roxb. Q. semecarpifolia Sm.

Banchuri 1500 m.; Uniyal 3800. Ponwali 3000 m.; Uniyal 1221.

SALICACEAE

Salix elegans Wall. ex Anderss. S. tetrasperma Roxb.

Rajkhark 3300 m.; Uniyal Ghuttu 1800 m.; Uniyal 4271..

4270. aon ‘

ORCHIDACEAE

Calanthe tricarinata Lindl. _* Cephalanthera ensifolia Richard

Gangi 2400 m.; Saxena 1186, Tali 3600 m.; Uniyal 668. -

FLORA OF THE BHILLANGNA VALLEY

Cypripedium cordigerum D. Don

Tali 3600 m.; Uniyal 6669.

Dendrobium alpestre Royle

Ghuttu 1800 m.; Uniyal 3620.

Eulophia campestris Wall.

Ponwali 3000 m.; Uniyal 664

& 892.

E. herbacea Lindl.

Pukhar 1500 m.; Uniyal 1318.

Eria alba Lindl.

Gangi 2100 m.; Uniyal 783. :

Habenaria intermedia D. Don

Ghuttu 1800 m.; Uniyal 794.

405

Herminium monorchris Br.

Ghuttu 1500 m.; Uniyal 1311.

Luisia teretifolia Gaud.

Ghansali 900 m.; Uniyal 700.

Microstylis muscifera (Lindl.)

O. Kuntze

Ponwali 3000 m.; Uniyal 3617.

Orchis latifolia Linn.

Ponwali 3000 m.; Uniyal 833 &

3345,

Pholidota articulata Lindl.

Pukhar 1500 m.; Uniyal 3885.

Vanda parviflora Lind].

Ghonti 900 m.; Uniyal 590.

SCITAMINACEAE

Roscoea procera Wall.

Gangi 2100 m.; Uniyal 1349.

R. alpina Royle

Poibagi 2100 m.; Uniyal 3875.

Curcuma angustifolia Roxb.

Ghuttu 1500 m.; Uniyal 3640.

HYPOXIDACEAE

Hypoxis aurea Lour.

Ghuttu 1500 m.; Uniyal 1152.

TRIDACEAE

Iris ensata Thunb.

Gangi 2400 m.; Saxena 795.

DIOSCOREACEAE

Dioscorea deltoidea Wall.

Ghuttu 1500 m.; Uniyal 1100.

406

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

LILIACEAE

Allium stracheyi Baker

Kinkoliya Khal

Uniyal 3894.

3600: =m.;

A. govanianum Wall.

Tali 3600 m.; Uniyal 3852.

Asparagus curillus Buch.-Ham.

Ghonti 900 m.; Uniyal 448.

A. gracilis Royle

Indrola 900 m.; Uniyal 703 &

1089.

A. filicinus Buch.-Ham.

Gangi 2400 m.; Uniyal 3894.

Disporum pullum Salisb.

Ghuttu 1500 m.; Uniyal 1118.

Fritillaria roylei Hook.

Mataya 2800 m.; Saxena 658.

F, cirrhosa D. Don

Ponwali 3000 m.; Uniyal 1188.

Lilium polyphyllum D. Don

Ponwali 3000 m.; Uniyal 1459.

L. roseum Wall.

Banchuri 1500 m.; Uniyal 4228.

Nomocharis

Balf, f.

Tali 3600 m.; Uniyal 879.

oxypetala (Royle)

N. nana (Klotzsch.) E. H.

Tali 3600 m.; Uniyal 3879.

Polygonatum cirrhifolium Royle

Gangi 2400 m.; Uniyal 763 &

3876.

P. verticillatum All.

Ponwali 3000 m.; Uniyal 616.

Smilax aspera Wall.

-. Indrola 1000 m.; Uniyal 616.

S. parvifolia Wall.

Ghuttu 1500 m.; Uniyal 694.

Trillium govanianum Wall.

Ponwali 3000 m.; Uniyal 662.

JUNCACEAE

Juncus membranaceus Royle

Ponwali 3000 m.; Uniyal 889.

ARACEAE

Arisaema tortuosum Schott.

Ghuttu 1800 m.; Uniyal 784.

Gonatanthus pumilus (D. Don)

Engl. & Krause. :

Mataya 2400 m.; Uniyal 1307,

Remusatia hookeriana Schott.

Mataya 2100 m.; Uniyal 716.

FLORA OF THE BHILLANGNA VALLEY 407

TAXACEAE

Taxus baccata Linn.

Ponwali 3000 m.; Uniyal 872 & 1266.

PINACEAE

Abies pindrow (Royle) Spach. Pinus excelsa Wall.

Ponwali 3000 m.; Saxena 873. Ganwali 2100 m.; Uniyal 4273.

Pinus roxburghii Sargent Cedrus deodara Loud.

Ghonti 900 m.; Uniyal 618. Gangi 2400 m.; Uniyal 435.

CUPRESSACEAE

Juniperus communis Linn. J. recurva Buch.

Kinkolya-khal 3600 m.; Uniyal Khatalingh 4200 m.; Uniyal

4228. 4275.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors wish to express their thanks to Dr. C. Dwarkanath,

Adviser, I.S.M. Govt. of India, Ministry of Health & Family Planning,

for providing necessary facilities to carry on the above work. Grateful

acknowledgement is also made to Dr. H. O. Saxena, Forest Botanist,

State Forest Institute, Jabalpur, M.P., for the identification of certain

plants and to the authorities of the Botany branch, F.R.I., Dehra Dun,

for herbarium and library facilities provided.

REFERENCES

Gupta, R. K. (1956): Botanical Hooker, J. D. (1875-97): Flora of

explorations in Bhillangna Valley of British India, Vols. 1-7, Kent, England.

ErstwhileTehri-Garhwal State. J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 53 : 581-594 ; 54 : 878-886.

On the occurrence of Triops mavliensis

(Tiwari), Notostraca (Crustacea), in the

~ Okhamandal Region of Saurashtra ©

(India) |

S. V. SHANBHAG AND N. B. INAMDAR

Department of Zoology, Institute of Science, Bombay

(With four text-figures)

INTRODUCTION

Like other Branchiopods, Triops is an archaic genus that has been

evolutionarily stagnant since the Triassic period. Because of its rare

occurrence, discontinuous distribution, variable sex ratio and peculiar

mode of reproduction, it has attracted considerable attention. In India,

‘major work on this group was done by Gurney (1925); Mahabale (1939),

Tiwari (1952, 1954, 1956) and Karande & Inamdar (1959). Very little

is known about the distribution of these forms, and information about

their reproduction is also scanty. Till now Triops has been collected

from nine different localities in India. They were first recorded from

Gandharbar (7000 ft.) in Kashmir by F. Smith in 1907 and identified by

Gurney (1925) as Apus cancriformis Schaefer. Kemp (1911) recorded

this species from Kashmir, Sarghodha (now in Pakistan) and Bulund-

shahar (U.P.).

_ Triops also occurs in Panchgani (4378 ft.) in Maharashtra State.

These were identified by Gurney (1925) as Apus asiaticus Gurney and

were thought to be similar to those collected from Central Asia and

Baghdad. Later, Tiwari (1952) redescribed the forms collected from

Panchgani as a new species Apus orientalis Tiwari. |

Triops is also recorded from Ahmedabad (Gujarat) by Mahabale

(1939) who described them as Apus cancriformis Schaefer.

Sixteen female specimens of a Triops species collected at Mavli

(Rajasthan) were described by Tiwari (1952) as a new species Apus may-

liensis Tiwari. A single specimen of Triops recorded by Chacko (1950)

from Tirunelveli (Madras) was later identified by Tiwari (1952) as Apus

OCCURRENCE OF TRIOPS MAVLIENSIS IN SAURASHTRA 409

sudanicus Brauer. Finally, Mathur & Sindhu (1956) recorded an un-

identified species of Triops from Pilani (Rajasthan).

. During recent visits to Port Okha (Gujarat) in June 1966 and August

1966, specimens. of Triops, together with other Branchiopods, were

collected from shallow freshwater ponds. Collections were made from

three distinct places, namely, Okha town proper, Gopi village (12 miles

from Okha) and Poshetra village (23 miles from Okha). These specimens

‘were identified as Triops mavliensis (Tiwari), and have revealed a few

facts. about the biology of this species, including the morphology of the

male, which have not been recorded before.

OBSERVATIONS

The area from which collections were made was a coastline of coralline

‘rocks with occasional very shallow ponds. The depth of these ponds

does not exceed four feet. The annual rainfall of this region is 4 to 20

inches. The rainy months are from late June to September, the peak

being in July and August. For most part of the year the ponds are dry,

but with the onset of monsoon, they are filled and remain so for five to

six weeks.

" PINDARA |

Fig. 1. Map of Okha and surrounding places from where Triops were collected.

Two visits to the area were made on 30 June and 15 August of the

year 1966, and specimens of Triops, together with other Branchiopods,

were collected from freshwater ponds. Places of collection are indicated

410 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (23

in Fig.1. During the first visit 141 males and 238 females were collected,

while during the second visit 21 males and 56 females were obtained.

The occurrence of Triops at high altitude led to the belief that the

factors affecting their distribution are correlated with heavy rainfall,

characteristic soil condition and low temperature. Barnard (1929) has

also expressed similar views with regard to the South African species of

Triops. However, our present collections were made from shallow ponds

over coralline rocks, where climatic conditions are quite different from

those prevailing at high altitudes. It is, therefore, obvious that the

nature of soil, rainfall or temperature, are not the principal governing

factors in the distribution of Triops. |

The occurrence of Triops at sea-level has been recorded previously

by Gurney (1907), Weldon (1909) and Balfour-Browne (1948) but this

is the first record in India, at sea-level.

Phyllopods, except one species of Branchipus and one species of

Limnetis (both cave-dwelling and blind) are not found in underground

waters or wells. However, while collecting Triops from Poshetra (Fig. 1),

from a flooded well, we also collected other Phyllopods namely Eocy-

zicus sp. and Streptocephalus simplex (Gurney).

MORPHOLOGY

The morphology of fifty-five females and fifty-three males were studied

in detail, and compared with the description given by Tiwari (1952) which

was based on only sixteen female specimens. The results are sum-

marised in Tables 1 to 4.

TABLE |

Triops mavliensis (Tiwari)—-FEMALE

Tiwari’s Our

observations observations

Total body length =f 8°8 to 15°8 mm. 8:00 to 22°50 mm.

Apodal segments a 8 to 10 8 to 10

Sulcal spines as 36 to 44 36 to 54

Exposed segments behind sinus ie 20 to 24 15 to 26

Post-genital segments iy 25 10 27 24 to 29

Movable segments 4 36 to 39 35 to 41

With the exception of the above variation in measurements and

number, our specimens agree in general with the description of the female

by Tiwari (1952).

Table 2 shows the distribution of morphological variations in the

female.

OCCURRENCE OF TRiOPS MAVLIENSIS IN SAURASHTRA 411

essences ewes

SS=S[LNPIAIPUT [VIOL ¢ € L ST ST L Z S[eNPIAIPuy

Ip Or 6£ S¢ LE 9¢ Se yoquinN SUSIE ]QvAOW|

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6G. 82 ie 97 SZ v7 soquinyy S}UBLUBag [eIUSS-s0g

NE AI EI LR I A A tl A nn a a a CS OE FE OL A SS

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TZ ATAVE

412, JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol.. 65 (2)

Males were collected in fairly large numbers. There is, however, a

clear distinction between the two Sexes in this species, as in many others.

The males are yellowish brown in colour while the females are light green.

This character is clearly seen when the specimens are fresh. The cara-

pace (Fig. 2) is ovalinthe female. This character is distinctive in females

TRIOPS MAVLIENSIS

DORSAL VENTRAL

Cllrs

ANS

1 YORE:

. 4 ase

*~ - Pa

x RNY. - ia

(cs . : a Vee s

wk ve tx XN % reed eS "4

De = hoa : FY hte

Res SpRtie em Ases ©

aT te gy te

ASCHAY

oe se

FEMALE

Fig. 2. Dorsal and ventral views of female Triops mavliensis (Tiwari).

because of the curvature in the mid-dorsal region. In the male, how-

ever, the carapace (Fig. 3) is almost flat, thus appearing more or less

circular. The shape of the carapace as well as the colour are often

variable, and hence cannot be accepted as dimorphic characters. A

more dependable dimorphic character, according to our observations, is

the armature of the telson. The spines on the dorsal surface of the

telson are more or less similar in both the sexes. The armature of the

ventral side, however, differs in the two sexes (Fig. 4). In the male, the

ventral median spines and the post-marginal spines are short, stout and

brown (due to chitinous material) whereas in the female they are slender,

weak and yellowish. This difference, though not seen in other species

of Triops, is very distinctly seen in this species. Out of the 238 females

OCCURRENCE OF TRIOPS MAVLIENSIS IN SAURASHTRA 413

enna n nen eases SS SSS SSS SSS SSS SSS SSS SSS SSSA ;

€S=S[ENplIAIpuy [BIOL | g 6 8 ¢ cl Cc € v C0 s[enprAIpuy

67 8¢ ce 97 SZ VC €¢ (44 1Z 0¢ 6l 8] AOquINN S}USWUBIG posodxy

ES =S[ENPIAIpUy [BIOL 8g 62 OI S[ENprIAIpuy

cy ct II Joquinny SsyUNWUBIg epody

uoljngisig AAIDABYD

ADOTOHAYOW] NI SNOLLVINVA JO NOLLNGRELSIGQG “AIVIA—(HIPMIL) sisuatjanut sdons y

¢ IIEVE

414 - JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2).

in our first lot, there were 5 females (with brood pouch) which had a

yellow and circular carapace characteristic of the male, but their telson

-APUS MAVLIENSIS

itd icone VENTRAL

MALE

Fig. 3. Dorsal and ventral views of male Triops mavliensis (Tiwari).

showed the distinctive female characteristics. The furcal spines also

differ in the two séxes to a certain extent, They are slender and

yellowish in the female, and are shorter and brownish in the male.

This distinction requires careful examination.

The characteristics of the male of Triops mavliensis (Tiwari) are as

follows.

TABLE 4

Triops mavliensis (Tiwari)—MaL.e.

Total body length ai 9°50 to 21.00 mm.

Apodal Segments ve Litto’. 13

Sulcal spines ue 38ito 51

Exposed segments om 18. to 28

In all 53 males were examined out of a:collection of 162. Table 3

shows the distribution of variation in morphology of the male.

OCCURRENCE OF TRIOPS MAVLIENSIS: IN: SAURASHTRA 4145

| SEX RATIO:

The sex ratio is considered to be variable in Triops and males are said

to be rare amongst European species. Main (1953) records that males

ARMATURE OF TELSON

MALE j

FIG. 2@

RSAL | |

DORSAL cee pili

Fig. 4. Armature of telson of male and female specimens of Triops mavliensis

Tiwari).

DMS—Dorsal median spines.

PFS—Prefurcal spines.

PMS(D)—Posterior marginal spines—dorsal.

PMS(V)—Posterior marginal spines—ventral.

STS—Setal spines.

VLS—Ventro lateral spines.

VMS—Ventro median spines.

are abundantly found in Australian species. As far as Indian species are

concerned Tiwari (1954) has recorded that males are not so rare in Triops

416 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

orientalis (Tiwari) while they are said to be rare in Triops cancriformis

(Schaefer). The sex ratio in Triops mavliensis (Tiwari) in our collection

works out at 37:5 % males to 62°5% females. The occurrence of males

decreases towards the end of the monsoon. |

APODAL SEGMENTS

The number of apodal segments is found to be highly variable in the

Australian species of Triops (Main 1953) while in Indian species it is

fairly constant (Tiwari 1954). This conclusion applies also to Triops

mavliensis (Tiwari) which has been described in this paper. The number

of apodal segments is 8 to 10 in females and 11 to 13 in males.

SYSTEMATIC POSITION

Longhurst (1955) considers the armature of the telson in different

species of Triops as of great taxonomic importance, and basing his

analysis on this he considers 7. /ongicaudatus (LeConte), T. australiensis

(Spencer & Hall), 7. cancriformes (Bosc) and T. granarius (Lucas) to be

the only valid species of Triops. In his opinion T. orientalis (Tiwari) and

T. mavliensis (Tiwari) are synonymous with 7. granarius (Lucas). The

differences in these two species are, according to Longhurst (1955), due

to geographic distribution. He further adds that there is a strong cor-

relation between the spine pattern of the telson and the geographic dis-

tribution of these forms, but none with the sex. Ifthis conclusion is based

on the samples of 7. mavliensis (Tiwari) sent to Longhurst from the

Zoological Survey of India, then they are based only on the study of

females. In our collection we examined a large number of males also,

and found that there does exist a correlation between the telsonic spines

and sex in this species. He explains the different pattern of telson in

T. mavliensis (Tiwari) as due to immaturity of specimens, but our samples

contained mature females possessing brood pouches with eggs, and their

telson still differed from the general pattern described for 7. granarius

(Lucas). We therefore feel that T. mavliensis (Tiwari) is a valid species.

OCCURRENCE OF TRIOPS MAVLIENSIS IN SAURASHTRA 417

REFERENCES

BALFOUR-BROWNE, F. (1948): Redis-

covery of ise, cancriformis. Nature

162 : 116.

BARNARD, K. H. (1929): -Contribu-

tions to. the Crustacean fauna of South

Africa. Aan:.S. African Mus. 29 : °181-

270.

CuHacko, P. I. (1950) : Occurrence of *

the Fairy Shrimp Apus in a temple ‘tank

in Tirunelveli District, Madras. J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 49 : my

Fox Munro, H. (1949): On -Apus—"

its rediscovery in Britain, nomenclature

and habits. Proc. Zool. Soc. London

119 : 693-702.

GURNEY, R. (1907) : Apus cancriformis

in Great Britain. Nature 76 : 589.

(1925): Some Asiatic Spe-

cies of Apus. Rec. Indian Mus. 27:

439-442. ean

KARANDE, A. A. & INAMDAR, N. B.

(1959) : Observation on the taxonomic

characters of Apus orientalis (Tiwari).

J. Bambay nat. Hist. Soc. 56 : 215-225.

Kemp, S. & Watton, S. J. (1911):

East Asiatic species of Apus. Rec. Indian

Mus. 6: 351.

- LonGHursT, A. R. (1955): The re-

production and cytology of the Notos-

1-57,

‘Notostraca.

traca (Crustacea Phyllopoda). Proc.

Zool. Soc. London 125: 671-680.

(1955).2-A Review. of the

Bull. British’ Mus.-3 (A):

» MAHABALE, _T. S. (1939) : * On the

Notostraca.

MCCuTEERCE of Apus in Gujarat, Western

India. Curr. S¢i. 8: 471.

MAIN; A. (1953) : Sex ratio and varia-

tion in Apus australiensis (Spencer &

Hall), W. Australian Nat. 4: 34-39.

MATuHur, S. W. & SINDHU, N. (1956) :

Occurrence of Apus (Crustacea Notos-

traca) in Pilani (Rajasthan). J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 54 : 961-962.

TIwaRt, K. K. (1952) : Indian Species

of the genus Apus (Crustacea, Branchio-

poda) with description of two new species.

Rec. Indian Mus. 49: 197-206.

——-——— (1954): On sex ratio and

variability of Apodal segments in Apus

(Phyllopoda, Crustacea). J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 52: 641-644.

—_—___—. (1956) : Reproduction of

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

53 : 491-492.

WELDON, W. F. R. (1909) :

bridge . Natural

Crustacea.

in Cam-

History Series 4,

A Catalogue of the Birds in the

Collection of the Bombay Natural

History Society—2

Anseriformes

HuUMAYUN ABDULALI

[continued from Vol. 65 (1) : 199]

This instalment covers 459 specimens of the Anatidae (Ducks,

Geese, and Swans) up to Register No. 22981. Though it is probable

that more ducks than any other kinds of birds are shot every year

in India, good series of several species of duck are not available. No

special efforts have been made to obtain such specimens and many of

them, particularly of the swans and geese, are heads and roughly

prepared skins sent by sportsmen either for identification or for

confirmation of records. It is hoped that members, particularly

in northern India, will keep this in mind and try and preserve specimens

to establish the correctness, of some of the records and to make

the collection more complete. Small series of the resident species

(Spotbill, Nakta, Cotton Teal, etc.) from different parts of the country

would also be of value. Arrangements for skinning birds for the Society

exist at New Delhi, Calcutta, and of course in Bombay, and offers from

other places can also be examined.

75 Branta ruficollis (Pallas) (Lower Ob, Southern Russia) Siberian

Redbreasted Goose 6 : 407

nil,

Stuart Baker and Mandy both saw this species on the Brahmaputra

in Assam, but no specimen appears to have been obtained in India.

Vaurie (p. 93) omits it for our area.

EL Anser fabalis fabalis (Latham) (Great Britain) Bean Goose

2:1 3,19 Denmark.

76 ? Anser fabalis middendorffi Severtzov (Oudskoi Ostrog) Bean

Goose (of which one form is the Pinkfooted Goose) 6 : 404. —

nil.

[19]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION—2 419

77 ? Anser fabalis rossicus Buturlin (West Siberian Tundra) Tundra

Bean Goose :

nil.

Neither subspecies has been definitely recorded from fae limits,

though the former was reported from Burma (FAUNA 6 : 404)

77a Anser fabalis neglectus Sushkin (East Russia) Sushkin’s Goose

| 6 : 403

Specimen No. 15292 0? Imphal, Manipur, Assam, recorded as Anser

neglectus, has the wing 467, tarsus 70, and bill 63. The bill has a black

tip to both upper and lower mandibles, and the black at the base of the

upper mandible extends beyond the nostrils.

According to BR. HANDBOOK (3: 197) ‘A. f. neglectus has a slender

pink bill and pink feet and may be a fairly frequent individual variation

or localized in a breeding area not yet discovered ’.

In a footnote Ripley (p. 25) refers to Sushkin’s Bean Shei

A. f. neglectus, being recorded from Assam, and adds that. this is

now considered merely a colour phase of the mixed population

fabalis rossicus, presumably referring to two subspecies fabalis and

rossicus.

78 Anser fabalis brachyrhynchus Baillon (France) Pinkfooted Goose

1 § Denmark (Reg. No. 22171). 401

Wing 433; bill 49 ; tarsus 70

There appears to be no satisfactory evidence as yet for the occurrence

of this bird in Indian limits, the last ‘authentic’ record being a

wrongly identified Anser albifrons from Bikaner (see Apa

JBNHS 63 : 198).

79 Anser albifrons albifrons Beapouy (North Italy) Whitefronted

Goose 6 : 399

5 : 4 heads only ; 1 immature.

3 Mesopotamia ; 1 Imphal, Manipur ; | Bikaner, Rajasthan.

The last specimen (Reg. No. 15293) was originally identified as

A. f. brachyrhynchus.

80 Anser erythropus (Linnaeus) (North Sweden) Lesser Whitefronted

Brose 6 : 401

ba: 8S Lo?

1 Mesopotamia Gesaieied’ as albifrons) ; 1 Bahwalpur, West Punjab.

81 Anser anser rubrirostris Swinhoe (Shanghai) Greylag Goose 6 : 398

15:13 492 100? 2albinoid; 2 pull. ; 6 heads and necks.

2 Mesopotamia ; 4 Shiraz, Persia (2 adults with clipped wings and 2 pull.) : 1 Kabul

River, Peshawar; 1 Punjab; 2 Kashmir (albinoids) ; 2 Sind; 1 Mandvi

gesich ?) ; 2 no data,

[ 20]

420 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

In the absence of any suitable range of specimens, it is not possible

to name any of them racially. The two white birds, both from Kashmir,

include No. 15297 from Haigham Jheel, Srinagar, which was recorded

as Anser hyperboreus (=caerulescens) and the present identification has

resulted in the removal of this species from the Indian list (see Abdulali,

JBNHS 63: 198).

82 Anser indicus (Latham) (India) Barheaded Goose 6 : 405

62366 19,20? 1 pull*

] Chitral* ; 2 Jabalpur, M.P.; 2 Crawford Market, Bombay; 1 Tungabhadra,

Mysore.

83 Anser caerulescens caerulescens (Linnaeus) (Hudson Bay) Snow

Goose

Specimen No. 15297 which is an albinoid A. a. rubrirostris was re-

corded as A. hyperboreus Pallas. This species is now removed from the

Indian list (see Serial 81 above). ' |

84 Cygnus columbianus bewickii Yarrel (Yarmouth, England) Bewick’s

or Whistling Swan 6 : 381

6:1¢ 50? 1juv.* ; 2 juv. heads; 1 leg only.

1 $§ Denmark; 1 Mardan, N.W.F.P.; 2 Dora Momin, Kabul River; 1 leg, Jacobabad;

1 Rajpur, Delhi*. :

There has been much confusion regarding the identification of some

of our swans and geese, mainly due to lack of definitely identified mate-

rial for comparison. A few specimens recently received in exchange

from the Copenhagen Museum have permitted a more critical examination

and I. hope that my readjustments are correct. The two heads (juv.)

obtained by Col. Magrath on the Kabul River in Peshawar District in

1910 were named Cygnus cygnus and are recorded in the FAUNA under

this name. Their bills, from gape 88 and 94, compare better with the

three others of this form (83, 85, and 88) rather than C. cygnus [101,

102, 105 (2)] and the yellow of the bill does not extend as far forward as

the nostrils. The tops of their heads are also more like the juvenile of

this species rather than of cygnus.

The label on the Jacobabad leg is marked C. jankowskii, while it was

recorded by Stuart Baker as bewickii JBNHS 23 : 456: |

85 Cygnus columbianus jankowskii Alpheraky (Ussuriland) 6 : 382

2 Nig Sw Ost

1 Campbellpur, Attock, Punjab ; 1 Kutch.

The wings measure 530 and 550, against 545, 505, and 512 in bewickii;

the bills from gape are about equal to the last form but the feathers of

the forehead commence further back and the bills measure 107 and 99

against 86-90(2) in the others,

[21]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION—2 421

Though there is an apparent difference in the size of the bill, it may

be noted that Vaurie (1965 : 107 footnote) confirms the earlier finding

of Tugarinov (1941, Fauna USSR., Ptitsy, 1, pt. 4, p. 117) that this is

not a valid race.

86 Cygnus cygnus (Linnaeus) (Sweden) Whooper Swan 6 : 380

4:13 10? 2heads only; | grey plumage.*

1 Denmark ; 1 Khetri, Jaipur, Rajasthan* ; 1 River Beas, Punjab ; 1 Sind (2).

Except for Hodgson’s specimens from Nepal (1829) these specimens

appear to cover all known Indian records of this species.

87 Cygnus olor (Gmelin) (Russia) Mute Swan 6 : 383

7:13 12 50? limm.; 4 heads only.

1 Denmark ; 1 Persian Gulf ; 1 Persia; 1 N.W.F.P. ; 2 Punjab ; 1 Sind.

The two from Persian Gulf and Persia have their tarsi 78 and 85

against 102 in the g from Denmark.

88 Dendrocygna javanica (Horsfield) (Java) Lesser Whistling Teal,

Tree Duck 6: 411

21:73$ 892 60? Ich.

2 Rajputana; 1 Gwalior; 2 Kymore, M.P.; 6 Bombay, 1 Bombay Market;

1 Karwar ; 1 Ceylon; 2 Darbhanga, 2 Baghowni, Bihar; 1 Calcutta Market,

Bengal; 1 Goalpara, 1 Sylhet, Assam.

One from Sylhet, Assam, has an irregular band of white across the

breast continuing on to the shoulders of the wing and including the

primaries. Fresh skins are much darker above than old ones, the black

of the head fading into brown. Young birds have a more greyish

wash and are less brown below.

A specimen of D. fulva (now bicolor) though correctly named on the

label was listed with this species.

89 Dendrocygna bicolor (Vicillot) (Paraguay) Large Whistling Teal

6: 413

13 Calcutta Market (5 Nov. 1899).

90 Tadorna ferruginea (Pallas) (Tartary) Ruddy Sheld-duck, Brah-

miny Duck 6: 416

8:445 299 20? Ich.

1 Amara, Iraq; 1 Aliabad, Shiraz, Iran; | Parman, Ladak* ; 1 Ghoti, 2 Bombay

Market, Maharashtra; 1 Kheri, 1 Pilibhit, U.P.

The bills (from feathers) are smaller than indicated in the FAUNA:

[4 So 41-46 av. 44 (58-68) ; 2 92 39-42 av. 40°5 (54-60)]

[22]

422 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

91 Tadorna tadorna (Linnaeus) (Sweden) Common Sheld-duck 6 ; 414

15:2¢¢ 322 .100? Severalinimmature plumage. |

1 Norway ; 1. Baghdad* ; 1 Basra, Iraq; 1 Aliabad, Shiraz, Tran ; 2 Balachistant

2 Sind; 1 Jamnagar, Gujarat; 1 Baghowni, Bihar; 1 Calcutta, l Calcutta

Market, Bengal ; 2 Burma ; 1 Tientsin, China.

As in the last species, the bills are smaller than indicated in the FAUNA.

92 Anas angustirostris Menetries (Lenkoran, Transcaspia) Marbled

Teal ct 6:: 445

TMS 93' 29" 2.0" 9 |

2 Iraq ; | Ferozepur,.Punjab.; 5 Sind ; 2 Gujarat ; i-dhirtpedn fees iabace snes

In this small series, the wings are smaller than suggested by the

FAUNA : 6 3d 197-208 av. 203 (206-215); 3 22 198-200 av. 199 (198-210).

93 Anas acuta (Linnaeus) (Sweden) Pintail | } 4 6 : 437

17:6gg 892 39? 3 albino.

1 Mesopotamia : ; 1 Persian Gulf; 1 Shiraz, Iran; 1 Chitral, N.W.F.P.; 1 Sind ;

1 Kutch; 1 Gujarat; 1 Panvel, { Nasik, Maharashtra; 1 Bihar; 3 Calcutta.

Market, 1 Gangpur State, Bengal ; 2 Assam ; | Tsingtaw, China.

Some of the females have unmarked underparts while others are

heavily spotted. Specimen No. 15441 (Calcutta Market) is a partial

albino with greatly reduced markings washed with pale brown on the

upperparts. Two other albinos (No. 15443-4) show some differences —

in the proportions of their bills, but all the measurements are within the

range noted for the species.

i Anas crecca crecca Linnaeus (Sweden) Common Teal 6: 431

13 gg 5922 20? 1 head only*.

1 ean Germany ; 2 Mesopotamia; 1 Iran; 1 Quetta, Baluchistan* = 3 Sind ;-

2 Chitral; 1 Kashmir; 1 Delhi ; 2 Calcutta Market ; 3 Ghoti, Maharashtra ; 2

Burma ; 1 Peking, China. : .

*The head displays gynandromorphism, in the form of the rufous

and green eye-patch of the breeding male on one side and the female

or winter plumage on the other (see Salim Ali, JBNHS 44 : 127-130).

An excellent character by which it appears possible to separate this

species from Anas querquedula is that the shafts of the a are

brown against pure white in querquedula. |

95 Anas formosa Geore! (Lake Baikal, Siberia) Baikal or Clucking

Teal. (6 : 433

(SSS 1292160?

1 Dungagali, N.W.F.P.; 1 Bhimasar, Kutch ; 1 Juhar, Ahmedabad ; 1 Bankipur,

Patna, Bihar ; 4 Assam ; 2 Tientsin, 1 Peking, China. |

One in female plumage was registered under Anas querquedula and

another under Nettion albogularis, both from Assam, . ei

[23]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY: NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION-—2 423

~The legs and feet of all the specimens appear as if they were originally

red or orange.

The trivial name means ‘pretty’ from the Latin formosus (Delacour

& Scott, WATERFOWL OF THE WORLD 2: 103) and the name Formosa

Teal, often applied to this species, is unwarranted.

96 Anas gibberifrons albogularis (Hume) (Andamans) Grey Teal

435

Roo 66 (eee Lo?

3 Port Blair, South Andamans ; 4 Betapur, Middle Andamans.

For remarks on validity of Fleming’s /eucopareus from North Reef

and Middle Andaman Islands, see Abdulali 1967 (JBNHS 64 : 154).

97 Anas poecilorhyncha poecilorhyncha Forster (Ceylon) Spotbill

Duck . : 6: 421

~—9:23d 292 So? talbinoid.

1 Sirsa, Punjab; 3 Bharatpur, Rajasthan; 2 Daman, Gujarat; 2 Nasik,

Maharashtra ; 1 Upper Assam.

Wing 253-291; bill 55-61.

According to the FAUNA, the young are like the adults but i no red

spots on the bill. Specimen No. 25356 from Sirsa, Punjab, has dis-

tinct red spots though it is not yet fully grown—bill 47 (next smallest

measurement : 52) and wing 246 (248). The rump is also paler than

in the adults and the head slightly but distinctly streaked—both ap-

parently good characters of juvenility as supported by specimens of

other races, Mr. M. J. S. Mackenzie of Chabua, Lakhimpur, Upper

Assam, informs me (in epist.) that he had seen traces of red spots in

three-week chicks.

~The feathers of the forehead terminate in a point in some birds and

in a short straight line in others. It has not been possible to associate

this character with age or sex, but an examination of a larger and cor-

rectly sexed series may perhaps explain it.

98 Anas poecilorhyncha haringtoni (Oates) (Shan States) 6 : 423

9+ 1 3 1 Q ko?

8 Taungyi, Southern Shan States ; 1 Fort Stedman, Burma.

This race was separated from the nominate form mainly because of

the absence of the red spots and the shorter bill. The latter character

is omitted in the FAUNA, but the specimens available, mostly unsexed,

ee wings 248-274 and bills 50-56.

- The fleshy spots at the base of the bill are distinctly present in some

Specimens, though now they all appear black, and not red. In the

BIRDS OF BURMA, p. 551, it is stated that the position of the different

races in Burma is not clear. Hopwood (JBNHS 18 : 498) said that all

but one of a dozen shot on the Upper Chindwin had black patches at

{24 ]

424. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

the base of the bill while the exception (15th February) was pure orange.

At the end of October in the same place 4 had orange patches with black

centres. Is it possible that in Burma the colour changes seasonally?

There is no evidence or suggestion that this is so in Indian birds. In

preserved specimens also, the red spots are distinct in the oldest skins.

99 Anas poecilorhyncha zonorhyncha Swinhoe (NINERS, China) Grey

sts 6 : 422

"1S 2 OF

; Pasighat Sadiya, Frontier ; 2 Chabua, Upper Assam (see JBNHS 63 : 438-440).

100 Anas platyrhynchos Linnaeus (Sweden) Mallard 6 : 419

PEt Coie eo:

4 Chitral, N.W.F.P.; 1 Sind; 1 Bombay Market ; | Upper Chindwin; 1 Bhamo,

Burma ; 1 Tientsin, China.

While the wing measurements are in keeping with those in the FAUNA

and BR. HANDBOOK the bills in both sexes appear to be larger than sug-

gested therein :

766 53-60 av.56 (50-57 FAUNA; 50-56 HANDBOOK)

2 99 52-53 av. 50°5 (44-55; 43-52)

This is confirmed to some extent by Ticehurst (Birds of Sind, Ibis

1923 : 446) who measured ‘males 50-60°5 (mostly 54-58), females

47-55”.

In addition to the above, the collection includes a specimen (No.

15473) from Srinagar, Kashmir, which is very like a drake mallard but

has a spatulate beak, and a green-purple speculum. It is marked asa —

hybrid between a mallard and a shoveller.

101 Anas strepera strepera (Linnaeus) (Sweden) Gadwall 6: 426

16:10¢¢ 492 20? 1 juv.* 2; 1 albino.

6 Mesopotamia and Persian Gulf ;31 Shiraz*, Iran ; 3 Sind ; 1 Gujarat ; 3 Kolaba,

1 North Chanda, Maharashtra ; 1 Saran, Bihar.

The males are noticeably larger than the females, and have their

wings 257-275 av. 268. These measurements are nearer those in the

BR. HANDBOOK (3 : 244) 260-282 than in the FAUNA 270-285, The albino

from Basra, Iraq, marked 2 (wing [230), has her bill proportionately

larger (44) and narrower (14) than in any of the others. ©

Specimen No. 15384 from Kashmir marked as a hybrid gadwall/

mallard is not included above?.

102 Anas falcata Georgi (Asiatic Russia) Falcated Teal 6 : 424

20:93¢ 592 60? 1 head only.

$3 wing 243-266 av. 253; bill41-47 av. 44.

1The five hybrid ducks in the collection are being separately reported o

Dr. J. Harrison in a later issue of the Journal. : hea 5 d on by.

[25]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION--2 425

92 wing 226-259 av. 238; bill 37-43 av. 40.

~ 1 Rawalpindi, 1 Jullundur, 3 Karnal, Punjab; 1 Sind; 1 Delhi; 4 Roorkee,

1 Gonda, 1 Jogwala Jheel, Lhaskar, U.P.; 2 Calcutta Market; 1 Imphal,

Manipur, | Chabua, Upper Assam ; 2 Peking, 1 Tientsin, China.

In Birds of Mesopotamia, JBNHS 28: 331, a bird shot by Thornhill

but not preserved is mentioned but the record is omitted in recent lite-

rature. H.S. Wood in MILESTONES OF MEMORY (1950) p. 145 refers to

one shot in Mesopotamia during World War I; I do not know if this

is the same or another instance.

The collection contains two other birds (No. 15474 Imphal, Assam,

and 15479 Calcutta Market) which are similar to the males of this species

except that bills widen at the tip to varying extents and are 55 and

53mm.long. One of them is marked in Salim Ali’s handwriting ‘ Bronze-

capped Teal-Shoveller hybrid—Identified by E. C. Stuart Baker, who

cannot explain the presence of chestnut on wings (His letter d/26.6.26) ’.

This letter is not now available.

103 Anas penelope Linnaeus (Sweden) Wigeon 6 : 429

25:12¢6 792 60? 1 albinoid.

1 Germany ; 1 Mesopotamia ; 3 Iran; 2 Chitral, N.W.F.P.; 3 Punjab; 6 Sind;

2 Nasik, 1 Panvel, Maharashtra; 1 Delhi; 1 Roorkee, 1 Dhanari, U.P.;

2 Calcutta Market ; 1 Upper Burma.

_ The males have wings larger (248-261 av. 254) than the females

(232-244 av. 238) but their bills are 32-37 and 31-36 both averaging 33,

A male from Roorkee, U.P., (No. 15403), is a partial albino having

pale brown markings on the upper surface and being all white below.

104 Anas querquedula Linnaeus (Sweden) Garganey 6 : 439

22:1033 692 60?

2 Rawalpindi, Punjab; 2 Sind; 2 Bharatpur; 2 Daman, Gujarat; 4 Ghoti,

2 Bombay, Maharashtra ; 4 Calcutta Market; 1 Alleppy, Kerala; 2 Lower

Burma ; 1 Yarkand, China.

Specimen No. 15456, unsexed, from Daman, Gujarat, has its bill

from feathers 39 mm. long and which is very similar in shape to that of

A. crecca as which it was originally registered. It has, however, blue

shoulders and white shafts to the wing quills which render the present

_ identification fairly certain.

105 Anas clypeata Linnaeus ers organ Shoveller 6: 442

~18:8g9 899 2 0?

2 Mesopotamia ; 1 Persian Gulf ; 2 Chitral, N.W.F.P.; 1 Srinagar, 1 Garampani,

Kashmir ; 1 Sind ; 2 Kharaghoda, Gujarat ; | Rex Rajputana ; 5 Nasik,

. Maharashtra ; 2 Calcutta Market.

_-Five males: with white upper breasts (24th December, January (2),

March and ‘ April-August’) are apparently in breeding plumage but,

though the sides of the head and neck are glossed with green, this colour

[26 ]

426 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2).

is absent at the top of the head. According to the FAUNA the whole

head and neck is glossy green, but Delacour (WATERFOWL OF THE WORLD

2: 187) says “head metallic green, blackish on the crown, the face and

the foreneck’.

106 Rhodonessa caryophyliacea (Latham) (India) Pinkheaded Duck:

6: 390

Ba oo Oto?

| Palia, north of Kheri District, U.P. (1921); 1 Darbhanga, Bihar (1903);

1 Alipore Zoo (1897); 1 Calcutta Market (1899); 1 Sinju Kulag, Mandalay

District,-Upper Burma (1909).

Burma is excluded from the range of this species, now believed to be

extinct, in the SYNopsis, but the above specimen was recorded (JBNHS’

19 : 264) and there are earlier records from Arakan and Bhamo.

107 Nettarufina (Pallas) (Caspian Sea) Redcrested Pochard 6:448

177 Gee Le oO!

1 Persian Gulf; 1 Mesopotamia ; 1 Shiraz, Persia; 1 Rawalpindi, N.W.F.P. ;

5 Sind ; 1 Ahmednagar; | Vizianagram, south India ; 1 Rajputta Saran, Bihar ;

2 Calcutta Market ; 1 Gauhati, Assam ; 2 Mandalay, Burma.

The bill in some specimens, particularly males, appears to taper more

prominently than in others.

108 Aythya ferina (Linnaeus) (Sweden) Common Pochard 6 : 450

153 836 5.52.20? 3

1 Mesopotamia; 1 Rawalpindi, N.W.F.P.; | Tho Rajputana ; 1 Indore,

Central India ; 1 Saugor, Madhya Pradesh ; 2 Saran, Bihar ; 3 Nasik, 2 Thana,

1 Bombay Harbour, Maharashtra ; 2 Calcutta Market.

Wing Bill.

& 200-215: 'av. 207. (210-225) 47-52. av.49 (43-50

2 199-201 av. 200 (200-213) 45-47 av. 46 -50)

109 Aythya nyroca (Guldenstadt) (S. Russia) White- ered Pochard

6 : 453

16° 68 529) 40;?

3 Persian Gulf; 1 Aliabad, Iran; 1 Nowshera, N.W.F.P.; 1 Larkana, Sind; 1

Ghoti, Nasik, 1 Greater Bombay, Maharashtra ; 1 Saugor, Madhya Pradesh ;

1 Meerut, U.P. ; 3 Calcutta Market ; 3 Assam.

The bills in 6 males measure 38-43 av. 41 (4 females 39-42 av. 40)

against 27- 30 in the FAUNA and 40-43 in BR. HANDBOOK (3 : 292).

Specimen Nos. 15529 (Calcutta Market) and 15332/3 (Imphal, Assam)

differ in having no. pure white on the underparts, this being replaced by

a greyish brown, many of the feathers (almost entirely in one) having

whitish margins. The only bird sexed, a male, shows signs of typical

reddish brown-on the head and upper breast. This is apparently a sub-

adult plumage of which there does not appear to be any mention in the

standard literature available to us.

a oe

BIRDS .IN. BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION—-2 427

110 Aythya baeri (Radde) (upper Salbatch Plain, middle Amur

River, Siberia) Baer’s Pochard 6: 454

4:393 192.

2 Calcutta Market ; | Manipur, Assam ; | Peking, China.

The males have their wings 208 (2) 209 (208-240), and the female

198 (193-215) and the bills 46-47 (2) in the males and 41 in the female,

against 39-42 in the FAUNA, presumably for both sexes.

In addition to the dark head, both sexes are noticeably larger than

A. nyroca.

Specimen No. 15534, a female from Patao, Upper Burma, listed

in this species is paler all over and has been identified as N. fuligula by

Dr. Ripley to whom it was sent.

111 Aythya fuligula (Linnaeus) (Sweden) Tufted Duck 6 : 458

5 63gd 999 20?

1 Pithoro, Sind; 1 Viramgam, Gujarat ; 2 Bharatpur, Rajasthan ; | Agra, U.P. ;

1 Gwalior ; 2 Ghoti, 2 Thana, | Ratnagiri, Maharashtra; I Jeypore, Orissa ;

2 Calcutta Market ; | Patao, Upper Burma, | Prome District, Burma ; 1 Tientsin,

China.

112 Aythya marila marila (Linnaeus) (Lapland) Scaup Duck 6: 456

Pel SLO?

1 Imphal, Manipur ; | Ahmednagar, Maharashtra.

The male from Imphal (No. 15539) has its wings 203 (g¢ 220-230 ;

2 210-220. BR. HANDBOOK 3 : 307) and the other, which is very similar in

appearance, 215 mm. The vermiculations on the upper surface are

also vestigial and very different from those shown in the plate in BR.

HANDBOOK. Accordingly both were sent to Dr. Ripley, who confirms

that they are of the nominate form.

113. Aix galericulata (Linnaeus) (China) Mandarin Duck 6: 394

2:14 12 Imphal, Manipur, Assam. 7

This pair, which were among 4 birds shot and recorded in JBNHS

37 : 490 are omitted in the SYNOPSIS.

Both birds have larger wings, § 244 (223-240) and Q 225 (170-197)

than indicated in FAUNA though Delacour (1959, THE WATERFOWL OF

THE WORLD 3: 106) measures females 217-230.

114 Nettapus coromandelianus coromandelianus (Gmelin) (Coromandel,

India) Cotton Teal 6 : 392

2615.65. 822 30? | albino*. 1 juv.

2 Kutch; 1 Ahmedabad, 2 Daman, Gujarat ; | Dhar, Central India ; 9 Thana,

1 Khandala, Maharashtra ; 1 Saugor, | Kanker, Madhya Pradesh ; 1 Yellapur,

N. Kanara; 1*Madras; | Baghowni, Bihar; 2 Calcutta Market, Bengal;

1 Kheri, U.P.; 1 Ataran, | Little Tenasserim, Burma.

i [ 28 ]

428 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

The males have wings (153-172 av. 162) slightly larger than the

females (151-160 av. 156°6) but the bills in both sexes range from 21-24

barely averaging larger in the males.

Blanford (4 : 433) referred to a summer-winter plumage in males, but

Stuart Baker described the former as an adult plumage and made no

reference to seasonal changes. From the series available there can be

little doubt that the ‘ final’ plumage with black breast band, vermicula-

tions at the sides, and black undertail coverts represents a breeding

plumage acquired in March/ April and discarded by December or pro-

bably earlier. At this time only the white patch and the green on the

wings separate them from the females.

A young male (19th February) is very like a female while another

(3rd March) has acquired a little green on the upper-parts.

115 Sarkidiornis melanotos melanotos (Pennant) (Ceylon) Nakta,

Comb Duck 6 : 385

13: 5 33 (3 by size and plumage) 592 30?

2 Sind; 1 Mahikanta, 2 Bhuj, Kutch, Gujarat; | Dhar, C.1.; Handa, M.P. ;

3 Nasik, 1 Kolhapur, Maharashtra ; 1 Baghowni, Bihar; 1 Calcutta Market.

The measurements, particularly of the bills, differ from those in the

FAUNA :

Wing Bill

3 335-370 av. 353 (339-406) 52-60 av. 55 (63-70)

116 Cairina scutulata (S. Muller) (Java) Whitewinged Wood-Duck

6 : 387

10:4¢3 392 30?

1 Dibrugarh, 2 Sadiya, 2 Chungki, Manipur, 5 Burma.

In the small series some of the measurements are a little different

from those in the FAUNA : .

Wing Bill

g 321-375 av. 343 (363-401) 59-66 av. 62 (58-66)

2 315-341 av. 329 (305-356) 58-61 av. 59

In view of the general paucity of information regarding the breeding

habits of this bird (only one egg is referred to in NIDIFICATION) the follow-

ing from Wood’s SHIKAR MEMORIES (1934, p. 183) may be worth quoting :

‘Close to one of the deserted tanks in heavy forest [near Dimapur,

Sibsagar, Assam—H.A.], I saw an old tree bare of everything and in it

there were six nests of the Wood-duck. Several were sitting at the time.

Those eggs would be worth a lot of money now ! ’

[29]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION-—-2 429

117 Clangula hyemalis (Linnaeus) (Northern Sweden) Longtail or

Old Squaw Duck

2:13 12 (by plumage).

1 Chaman, Baluchistan ; | Drig, Larkana, Sind.

_ The male’s wing is 211 against 219-236 in BR. HANDBOOK (3 : 323).

118 Bucephala clangula clangula (Linnaeus) (Sweden) Goldeneye Duck

6 : 460

6:13 592 (4 by piumage).

1 20 miles from Babylon; | Margil, Basra, Mesopotamia ; | Kalabagh, Mianwali,

1 Jhelum, Punjab ; 1 Roorkee, U.P. ; 1 Tientsin, China.

The five females have their wings 189-202 av. 195, slightly smaller

than 197-213 in FAUNA and 197-210 in BR. HANDBOOK (3 : 313).

119 Méergus albellus Linnaeus (Mediterranean Sea near Smyrna) Smew

. 6 : 466

15:4¢¢ 722 40?

2 Mesopotamia; 1 Shiraz, Iran; 5 Sind; 1! Gujarat; ! Meerut, U.P. ;

1 Monghyr, Bihar ; 3 Peking Market, 1 North China.

Among the females and unsexed specimens some appear to have

smaller wings (under 180 mm.) and bills (25-26) than others (wings 180-

204 ; bills 28-30). Though more of the smaller ones appear to be from

the east, I cannot associate them with any character of plumage or

Separate areas as would permit me to suggest a subspecific separation.

Larger series may perhaps be examined to advantage.

120 Mergus merganser merganser Linnaeus (Sweden) Goosander,

Common Merganser 6: 469

B22 266 19.

2 Peking, 1 Tientsin, China.

dd wing 280-283.

*121 Mergus merganser comatus (Salvadori) (Native Sikkim)

7:53 (2 by plumage) 12 *2 heads only.

*| Dadapur, Ravi River, Punjab; 1 Marshalong nr. Leh, 12,000’, Kashmir; *3

Garhwal, U.P.; 1 Gangpur, Bihar; 1 Goalpara, Assam.

The ¢ wings 278-300 do not differ from those of the Chinese birds

listed as of the nominate race, but the bills are distinctly different in shape

(see sketch) and shorter. The latter is best indicated by a measurement

from the notch in the feathering at the base—60-65 av. 61°4 against 68

and 69 in the others, which are also stouter.

Of the two females available, the head and the grey upper parts of

the Garhwal bird are paler than those of the Chinese.

As this agrees more closely with Vaurie’s version (pp. 140-142) of

comatus rather than *orientalis Gould (accepted in FAUNA and SYNOPSIS

but which Vaurie merges with the nominate form), | am accepting the

Himalayan birds as comatus.

[ 30 ]

430 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi: 65 (2)

The bird from the Ib River, a tributary of the Mahanadi, was shot, by

the Ruler of Gangpur on 31 December 1958, out of a flock of some

—— aay. a ee

PIL he

3 aa See ra

fifteen birds. D’Abreau, JBNHS 38, p. 116, referred to one shot on

the Mahanadi in the adjoining Raipur District, indicating that this

species occurs further south than is generally accepted.

122 Mergus serrator Linnaeus (Sweden) Redbreasted Merganser

6 : 473

lo? No. 15598 Ormara, Mekran. Wing 218 (moulting); bill 55. —

2 females of Mergus merganser from China and Garhwal were listed

under this species. As well illustrated in BR. HANDBOOK (3 :.337) the

nostril is nearer the base of the bill than in M. merganser and this appears

to be a useful and reliable character.

123 Oxyura leucocephala (Scopoli) (Probably from northern Italy)

Whiteheaded Stifftailed Duck | 6 : 463

16j2.3 66-292 AL o?, :) tpull*

*1 Bahm-i-Shur Lake, Fars, Iran; 1 Kashgar, China ; 5 Baluchistan ; 3 N.W.F.P. ;

5 Punjab ; 1 Sind.

Wing Bill

355 162-164 av.163 (160-168) 45-47 av. 46 (46-49)

2 29 157-158 av. 157 (150-157) 43 (2) (45-47)

100? 150-158 42-47

(to be continued)

13t4

The Nilgiri Wild Life Association

and Status of Wild Life

in the Nilgiris

BR Co DAVIDAR

(With two places)

[NG RO DU C ELON

The Nilgiri Wild Life Association, for a long time known as the

Nilgiri Game Association, was formed in Ootacamund in 1877 by a band

of keen sportsmen, who feared that the indiscriminate shooting and

fishing that was then taking place would exterminate all game and fish in

the Nilgiris unless immediate action was taken. The stated objects were

‘ the preservation and management of the existing wild life in the Nilgiris

District and the adjoining areas included under Madras Act IT of 1879

and the introduction and preservation of other birds, animals and fish.’

Beginning with restrictions upon themselves in the form of close seasons

etc., the founders urged the Government to bring in legislation aimed at

preserving game and fish. As a result, in 1879 the Government

of Madras passed the Nilgiris Game and.Fish Preservation Act, the first

piece of legislation of its kind in India.

Almost from the start this body was associated with the regulation

and management of shooting. In 1926 the management of the rainbow

trout fishery, started at the Association’s instance, was also entrusted to

its care. And with that the Association had grown to its full stature.

In the December 1939 issue of this Journal (41 : 384-396), the late Lt.

Col. E. G. Phythian-Adams, from whom I took over as Hon. Superin-

_tendent of the Association in 1958 and continued till January 1964,

reviewed the work of the Association. In the 90th year of its existence

it is time that its position is reviewed again. These notes are written

with this object.

CONSTITUTION

The holders of season shooting licences and until recently annual

trout fishing licences of the Nilgiris automatically become members of

the Association during the currency of their licences, On an average

432 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

there are 150 such members in a year. But with the taking over by

the Government Fisheries Department of the trout fishery and the

imposition of new restrictions prohibiting the issue of shooting licences

to persons holding licences for other Forest Divisions in the State the

membership is expected to drop to about 50. Besides, there are

Honorary Members, most of them officials. The Collector of the

Nilgiris is the President and the District Forest Officer, Nilgiris Divi-

sion, is the Honorary Secretary. The affairs of the Association are

managed by a committee consisting of not more than 24 members

assisted by an Honorary Superintendent elected from among the

members. Thus, although the Association is a private body, Govern-

ment interests are fully protected and there is happy co-operation between

officials and non-officials at the district level, which is most essential for

successful wild life preservation,

~ FENANCES

The money obtained from the scale of shooting and until recently

trout fishing licences is made over to the Association by Government

and is the chief source of revenue. Rent from Game Huts, boat hire

charges, profits on sale of maps, etc. are the other sources. With the

loss of the income from the sale of trout fishing licences, the Associa-

tion’s finances are in a delicate position. Fortunately the Association

is in a position to exist for a decade or two on its investments.

ACTIVITIES

The Association maintains a staff of game watchers for the protec-

tion of wild life and fish and generally assists the Forest Department

in the enforcement of game laws. This includes prevention of offences

and detection thereof when committed. It maintains two Anti-Poaching

gates in the low country’ to prevent motor car poaching, and pays

rewards for the detection of crime.

It advises on the formulation of wild life and fish preservation rules

and regulations, taking into consideration local conditions.

It runs an office for the convenience of resident and tourist sports-

men, which assists in the screening and issue of licences, maintains

statistics and records, and has a small library. It prepares and sells maps,

issues booklets on shooting, and publishes a printed report annually.

’ The Nilgiris are made up of two plateaux. The upper plateau, with an ele-

vation of 6000-8000 ft. above m.s.1., is referred to in these notes as the ‘ plateau ’,

the lower plateau with an average elevation of 3000 ft. as the ‘low country ’, and

the slope between the two plateaux as the ‘ slopes’.

THE NILGIRI WILD LIFE ASSOCIATION 433

It acts as a liaison between the Forest, and Revenue OBA aga in this

field at the district level.

The Association owns and maintains two game huts on the plateau,

and plies a boat on the Mukerti Lake. It conducts census operation

whenever necessary, and assists in research. It maintains a register of

professional shikaris and regulates their profession. It pays rewards for

the destruction of vermin, and has instituted prizes in Forest Colleges

to promote the study of wild life and wild life preservation consciousness.

It maintains certain tracks and approaches.

The Association represents wild life and shooting interests on the

State Wild Life Board, and wild life and fish interests in the local tourists

advisory committee. Its most important activity is the prevention of

poaching through the activities of honorary Game Wardens and sports-

men, whose mere presence in the jungles is a deterrent to the poacher,

both official and non-official. It acts generally as a watch dog jin all

matters connected with wild life management and preservation.

These are some of the more important of the Association’s activities.

STATUS OF WILD LIFE

Elephant. Elephants are strictly protected and only those that are

proscribed are allowed to be shot by licence holders. Such proscrip-

tions are quite rare although about half a dozen people are killed by

elephants every year. Solitary bulls raid crops and get peppered with

buck shot, protection not extending to private lands, and when the

wounds fester these pain-maddened beasts turn on their human tormen-

tors. Fortunately in most cases this fit of madness passes with the

healing of the wound. But solitary elephants are best avoided at all

times. Elephants are found in the low country. But there have been

rare cases of stragglers visiting the plateau by the Sispara Pass for very

brief periods. As regards its status, there are more elephants now than

there were 2 to 15 years ago, probably more than at any time before

in living memory. Not all this increase is due to migrations from

Mysore and Kerala as some people believe. The number of calves in

each herd would show that there is really an explosion of elephant

population. Unless some thing is done to check their numbers the

Nilgiri elephants are-going to make themselves a thorough nuisance.

_ Gaur. Confined to the low country and the slopes. Gaur are on

the increase. The country around Mudumalai in the Sanctuary being

more favourable, more are found there. Shootable bulls, that is bulls

whose horns have a span of 33 inches and above or a girth of 18 inches

and above, are not easy to find in the shooting area except on the difti-

cult slopes,

434. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

There are some herds on the southern slopes both above and below

Mettupalayam which falls within the area covered by the Nilgiris game

licence. With the loss of shooting territory around Mudumalai

efforts are being made to popularise this area to shooting and thus

better preserve the wild life in the area. Already these efforts are bearing

fruit.

Sambar. Writing in the December 1939 issue of the Journal Lt. Col.

Phythian-Adams, wrote: ‘ Though a fair number are to be found

in the low country the great majority are on the plateau where

they have so increased in spite of ravages of tigers, panthers, and wild

dogs....’. Alas, the position of the sambar on the plateau is far from

satisfactory today. Except in a few pockets where there are between

half a dozen to a dozen animals, the sambar is very scarce. Estate

labour with dogs killed quite a few. But poachers could not have

accounted for all the missing sambar, for poaching never get out of

hand in the Nilgiris as in the other districts. How they could have

disappeared even from areas where no poaching took place is a mystery.

However, it is comforting to know that there are more sambar on the

plateau today than there were a few years ago. As soon as there is an

appreciable increase, wild dogs invade the plateau from the low country

in numbers and bring down the population. In 1960 there was such

an invasion and in one bay of the Pykara Lake alone 14 sambar skulls

were recovered. It is hoped that the new wattle plantations of the

Forest Department on the plateau will provide more cover for the

sambar and help it to some extent to make a come back. But this

would depend upon the extent of grassland left for it to feed upon. In

the low country sambar are definitely on the increase. But shootable

herds continue to be shy and come out late in the evening and retire

before dawn, when they cannot be legitimately shot.

A 443-incher, a record for the Nilgiris, was shot on the plateau in

1952. | |

The bag limit on an annual licence has been further reduced from

two to one. The size limit remains at 28 in. |

Chital. This species has recorded a spectacular increase. Herds

of a hundred or more are not uncommon. In 1939 Lt. Col. Pythian-

Adams wrote: ‘The great majority of the stags shot come from the

Mudumalai Forest’. Mudumalai is now in the heart of the wild life

sanctuary of that name, but the concentration has moved east and

large herds are now found around Masinigudi and Anaikatty. Stags

with antlers of 35 in. and 36 ins. are obtained every year. 37 in. and

38 inches are by no means rare. This shows that the chital has improved

not only in numbers but in quality also. Until about the end of the

last century a 324} in. head was considered a prize (vide SPORT ON THE

J. BOMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. 65 (2)

Davidar: Nilgiri Wild Life Association

Wild Tusker in Bamboo—Sigur

(Photos : Author)

J BompBay NaT. Hist. Soc. 65 (2)

Davidar: Nilgiri Wild Life Association

Nilgiri Rainbow Trout on spawning bed—Avalanche

(Photos : Author)

PLATE [I

THE NILGIR! WILD LIFE ASSOCIATION 43

NILGIRIS by F. W. F. Fletcher). A close season is observed between June

and October and, during part of the open season, many of the stags

are in velvet and cannot be shot. Two stags are allowed on an

annual licence, but to prevent over-shooting the rule imposes a 30-day

interval between the shooting of the Ist and the 2nd stag. Some

culling may have to be done in the not distant future by sacrificing a

few old does periodically in the larger interests of the species.

Nilgiri Tahr. The 1963 census (vide April 1963 issue of the Journal)

revealed that there are not less than 300 animals living on the cliffs along

the western face of the plateau. This stock was built from the few

that were left at the end of the last century.

Only * saddle backs’ are allowed to be shot and their numbers vary

from year to year. No spectacular heads have been obtained in recent

years.

Roads have been formed under the Kundah Hydro-Electric Scheme

right in the heart of the tahr country and thousands of workmen are

living and working on the scheme in places where the tahr was the sole

inhabitant. This is only a passing phase. After the project is com-

pleted only a skeleton maintenance staff will remain and peace will

return. But the real danger to the tahr lies in the wattle and blue-

gum plantations of the Forest Department which are spreading their

tentacles far and wide and in many places right up to the verge of the

cliffs. Depriving the tahr of its feeding grounds will certainly not be

in the interests of the preservation of the animal. The Association

has been trying hard for the reservation of a belt of grass along the

cliff line, but the assurances given to it are repeatedly broken. The

future of the tahr will depend upon what is left to it to eat.

Blackbuck. There were not many of these antelopes at any time.

In 1951 a state-wide ban was placed on the shooting of these animals.

Once the sportsmen lost interest even the few that were left vanished

from their old haunts around Masinigudi, Moyar and Kargudi. Being

partial to cultivation they must have fallen victims to the crop protec-

tion gun. A few are said to lead a precarious existence in the scrub

jungle between the Bhavani and Moyar Rivers above the Bhavanisagar

Reservoir. Here is a species which could be and ought to be reintro-

duced.

Barking Deer. This deer locally known as the ‘jungle sheep’, is

more partial to the plateau than to the low country. The conditions

on the plateau are so unsettled because of the work on the Kundah

Hydro Electric Project and the extensive wattle plantations of the

Forest Department that these deer venture out of the security of the

Sholas only late in the evening thus making it difficult to assess their

436 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

status. The cover provided by the new wattle plantations it is hoped

will help the barking deer to propagate its species provided enough

grassland is left unencroached. It is doubtful if this will be done.

The bag limit has been further reduced to two on an annual licence

and to one on a monthly licence.

Four-horned Antelope. The few that occur in the low country are

found chiefly in the light jungle above the Moyar Canyon. They are

now protected. One of their enemies is the ‘ sportsm2n’ who cannot

distinguish between the four-horned antelope and the barking deer !

Tiger. With the depletion of the vast sambar population on the

plateau and on account of the disturbed conditions prevailing there

few tigers are resident on the plateau. In the low country they are

maintaining their strength. The vast area of sanctuary and the tem-

porary protection now afforded them throughout the district there ought

to be more tigers. In fact this does not appear to be the case although

poisoning of tigers is not practised on a large scale. There have been

only a few suspected cases. Particularly in the case of the larger

canivore unless a realistic policy is adopted the ‘ protection’ afforded

them is likely to act to their detriment. Payment of compensation

during the closed period would be a right step in this direction.

Nilgiri Tigers have a deeper coat and are prettier. Except for a

very heavy tiger shot a few years ago there is no record of outsize tigers.

Tigers, panthers, and bears were classed as ‘game’ only recently.

The shooting of these animals is now prohibited altogether.

Panther. There are more panthers in the low country than on the

plateau. But they are by no means numerous and are very elusive.:

Black panthers are seen occasionally.

Bear. As in the case of gaur, the best bear country falls within the

sanctuary and those that are in the shooting area live in difficult country

along the slopes and are rarely met with during the day.

Hyena. These animals are not classified as game. Except for a

few stragglers on the plateau hyenas mainly occur in the low country

around Masinigudi and Anaikatti. Even there they are not nume-

rous and are seldom seen except at ‘ kills’.

Pig. The pig population fluctuates. For some years they go on

increasing then for some unknown reason their numbers go down.

They are equally at home in the low country as well as on the plateau.

They are also not classified as game and consequently there is no bag

limit.

Wild dog. This animal seldom takes up permanent residence on

the plateau, Some years they do not visit the plateau at all. They are.

THE NILGIRI WILD LIFE ASSOCIATION 437

numerous in the low country and do considerable damage living mostly

on young deer, ;

Small game. There are fewer jungle fowl in the plateau today

chiefly because the natural sholas are either being destroyed or replaced

with bluegum and wattle plantations. Some of the famous wood-

pigeon sholas have also vanished. So far as the winter visitors namely

woodcock and snipe are concerned there has been no appreciable

change. But with the exodus of the resident European sportsmen

who were chiefly interested in small game there are fewer pursuers of

game birds now.

‘In the low country ee and jungle-fowl have gore aced as compared

with a few years ago. Peafowl have registered a larger increase.

PROBLEMS FACING WILD LIFE

Among the many problems faced by wild life, indiscriminate slaughter

on and around private lands continues to be the gravest.

Next on the list are the arm-chair conservationist and the unrealis-

tic policy of the Government in closing of forests to shooting to placate

him without affording special protection to wild life in the area resulting

in wholesale slaughter.

Disturbed conditions prevailing | in the various hydro-electric pro-

ject areas, population pressures, increasing demands made on forest

lands, denudation of forests, disturbance of natural conditions and

forests by the planting of bluegum wattle and other such exotics on

a. massive scale, use of insecticides and pesticides, harmful to wild

life, excessive cattle grazing and consequent soil erosion,. and better

transport facilities have not been conducive to the preservation and

propagation of wild life. In spite of these handicaps wild life in the

Nilgiris has not done too badly and in the case of certain species has

shown a marked increase thanks to the wild life preservation con-

sciousness and sportsmanship roused by the Association.

FISHING

Experiments in trout culture began as early as 1863 and continued:

at great expense to the Association and.to private persons. But until

1906. when on the suggestion of the Association, the services of Mr. H. C:

Wilson as Fish Conservator were obtained from Ceylon, it was still in

the experimental stage. Mr. Wilson introduced the rainbow trout in

preference to the brown trout and, in 1909, built a hatchery at Avalanche

for its culture. By 1911 he had placed the Nilgiri trout fishery on a

sound footing.

438 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

In 1926 the Association resumed control of the trout: fishing on the

plateau and managed it till 1965. It discontinued running the hatchery

jn 1956 as by that time every trout stream was overstocked with small

trout. The main problem then was finding food for the trout.

Since then the conditions have changed. With the implementation

of the Kundah Hydro-Electric Scheme and the extension of the Pykara

Hydro-Electric Project almost all the trout streams have been dammed

or are in the process of being dammed. The miles of spawning

_ beds in every stream are now deep down under water and are useless

and artificially hatched out and bred trout have assumed importance

once more. As the Association could not run the hatchery with its’

slender resources it was made over to the Government Fisheries Depart-

ment in 1958. A modern hatchery with a larger capacity is necessary

if the trout fishery is to remain an attraction.

With the changed conditions the pattern of fishing has also changed.

Fly fishing which was the only authorised method of fishing is being

replaced by spinning. Wet-fly fishing is practised or rather anglers

are compelled to practise this art in the few streams that are left and

in the upper reaches of reservoirs.

For the first few years after each dam is built water backing up

behind the dam floods fields and forests and thus provides more food

for the trout and helps it to put on weight rapidly. It is then that the

sport is at its best. But, once the food supply is exhausted, the fish

start going back, and the loss of spawning grounds soon starts telling

upon their numbers as well. 3 : : .

The Fisheries Department’s idea of the introducing’ mirror carp into

every likely water would have ruined the trout fishery altogether had

not the, Association got the Government to agree to the reservation of

certain top level reservoirs exclusively for trout.

Every summer the reservoirs are almost drained dry and many trout

are lost in this manner.

To compensate for the lost trout streams, the Association success-

fully introduced trout into every stream on the plateau capable of hold-

ing trout.

As in the case of game preservation, fish is also best preserved by

associating anglers in the management of the fishery, particularly in a

delicate sport fishery like the trout fishery which cannot stand much

abuse. What the Association achieved with the expenditure of a few

thousand rupees the Fisheries Department is unable to do in spite of

spending enormous sums of money,

THE NILGIRI. WILD LIFE ASSOCIATION 439

CONCLUSION

The experiment in associating the sporting public through the Asso-

ciation in wild life and fish preservation and preservation through well-

regulated shooting and fishing has proved an immense success as a

survey of the wild life and trout position in the Nilgiris as compared to

other similar areas in south India would show.

Unless the problems facing the Association and wild life and fish

preservation are appreciated and timely assistance rendered, the future

for both is none too bright.

440 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

| TABLE | /

BiG GAME SHOT BETWEEN THE YEARS 1940-1966

Licences .

= %. g < 2 E

6 8.8 6 8b. 8 Sb 2 Fo ees

GasO 2) Bure Goat ee ere

1940-42 6817. 13: 8 AS gis 46° 6 205

42-43 By Ome! es aes 9 60° 27.20" Bien 24

43-44 $) DSi ne Bri 6 ADA Be 6244-38. 2795

44-45 518 15a SH ae oe ea 71 5167 ee ede

P5AG? glee! Crean Vee Geen 28 86 46 47 25 36

4647 oc 110 A 3) Ee NG 92S Se tol an sone

A7-4B 2 AD 9G ASE Da ae 90s Too eo ee

48-40 OL OUTS so Ok Dine 34° S400 (95/9130 tae

49-50 5.9 9 VIS 6.105 15% at 99 21a Oe

5051... 7 9-47 92 6 40 58a eo eo oe

51-52 413 16'-2 Cs 5.8 A> 4ot ie, dom tg

BOER Ue cA bilk a ents an aC uD ea 30°. 89. 23.0 Oe mt e

53-54 ie ete uae 8 TP V82 eh eee

54-55. 4,5 S83 10) A 3 a 2 Re ee ee

55-56 5 CDi Mee aa eG 16 GC M0l? ah aes

56057 ee A 16 OS = Se Oe ee

57-58 3 4/322 CORR Ma hari 72, Oe Hi oe eae bieic

58-59 2) HARD G4 G6. 1 Me 30h SOT ioe es

59-60 5 2S 40°6 Cu 4 oe (31997 fe) donaon ita

60-61 ae Shh ie Chetek spit 16 C 109 32 6 |

61-62 3 12 46 C 1: ab 12 Ge 1935 eese ra

62-63 2.44) 98 Re CA aelore oO a Makes 8

63-64) cI 326 3 1 Soe Os ie ae 2

64-6505 0 As O90. Cs Ca nes ane

65-66 4 1 OAR Ge Nee ne

“T Nom: Ceclosed, ee eat ee

44}

THE NILGIRI WILD LIFE ASSOCIATION

‘pasojo=9

0c v2 2) 2) € Ol O€ OV rl (4S ai (K6 OL 09 9¢ cS vs 99-S9

cl 6C ©) oS) e (G6 CY 8P O£ 18 81 9C Sl 08 l€ O08 tL 69-9

cE LC 2) 2) Oo OS $8 6£ EC LSI LO¢E 6P CV fe 6cl OP Col = GE p9-€9

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442 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

TABLE III

VERMIN DESTROYED AND OFFENCES REPORTED BETWEEN THE YEARS 1939-1984

VERMIN DESTROYED

Z 2 =

Be oe ee wee

jolt) S is) ise) m=

Year re} = 6 S = iB zs of

eal ee 5 $ > a Z . o 83 < s0

= a ) a 5 =

Se go 8 6 8 8 eee

Se ee = OS aa ee eee oe eee

1939-40 38 13 if 14

40-42 37 10 4 Ly bs 8 3

42-43 11 4 3 66 16 11 4

43-44 18 2 — 46 i oi oe ye 5 2

44-45 9 1 a 8 D 3 af a , 7

45-46 20 9 3 5 ‘| es 10 17 2

46-47 10 6 5 5 11 1 3 6 20 3

47-48 13 9 5 Poy ee 2 2 i a

48-49 14 ee 225 2300" 2 4 1 6 2 9 1

49-50 17-0. 3429 26 21 49 1 oe 1 7 =) 2

50-51 1G * 53 9 8 19 1 1 2 5 8 I

51-52 PA ety 3 2 ps 24 1 1 1 1 3 a

52-53 Qe One Goes ty * 3 8 1

53-54 5. 30) eal 15° 330 2 ov a6 6 2

54-55 Gre 23 6 Die 23 1 5 4 5 8 44

55-56 3 36 ake S82 p) 8 6 4 7 1

56-57 20°38 12 Vo iS {5 2 6 5 5 8 7

57-58 6 40 9 26. = 2 1 2 4 2 oie ete

58-59 9 12 8 LVS AT Z 2 2 5 te

59-60 10532 4 Sar) a A 1 6 Pen valle

60-61 11 15 3 6 6 | | » oe 14. - ag

61-62 & \ 19 3) 5 + em, 3 12°.

62-63 6} 8 1 1 4 5 2 Lb. 42

63-64 Ore 2s 3 5 60 6 3 Benne ©

POACHING AND VERMIN

Poaching can never be rooted out entirely. But the existence of the Associa-

tion and the activities of its members and staff and, of course, the Forest and

Fisheries staff help to keep it within bounds. Poaching by licence-holders and |

officials is not as serious as in other districts. Motor car poaching has been ©

brought under control since the erection of the anti-poaching gates. Poaching —

cases are dealt with through the Forest Department and the courts. In deserving

cases rewards are paid. |

Rewards are paid for the destruction of vermin and their numbers are thus

kept in check.

THE NILGIRI WILD LIFE ASSOCIATION 443

TABLE IV

FISHING RETURNS BETWEEN THE YEARS 1939-1964 '

lb. 2Ibs. 3lbs.» 41bs. 5 ibs, © Put

Meer biliedl, Shs hey Oh ORS Pr aaa

over over over over over turne d)

1939-40 3847 321 82 6 1870

40-41 4237 220 30 1 me 7 2268

41-42 5392 213 20 Ae a BY 2943

_ 42-43 4578 229 24 cn ai Be 2693

43-44 5269 291 47 5 ; 2082

44-45 3202 202 64 5 3125

45-46 4112 Dis 38 8 3648

46-47 4010 156 21 nt BY Ye 2811

47-48 5366 216 24 2) ae st 2911

48-49 2869 244 23 2 ; 1278

49-50 3493 141 8 756

50-51 2655 146 18 3 587

51-52 2950 102 A 1118

52-53 2563 88 4 2 me ) 515

53-54 1972 108 5 a she a 423

54-55 1985 143 75) 11 ant hy 732

55-56 1432 141 35 27 12 hd 473

56-57 1973 146 56 32 17 11 771

57-58 3801 75 50 5 2 Ne 1547

58-59 2505 67 34 4 1 , . 1449

59-60 2812 82 11 4 1 1417

60-61 2573 143 29 19 11 9 1703

61-62 2153 184 76 45 24 8 1362

62-63 2613 421 78 40 13 5 1542

On the relation between age and linear

measurements of the Pearl Oyster,

Pinctada vulgaris (Schumacher), of the

Gulf of Kutch

K. R. NARAYANAN AND M. S. MICHAEL

Fisheries Research Station, Government of Gujarat, Jamnagar

(With four text-figures)

INTRODUCTION

The coral reefs along the northern coast of Jamnagar District,

Gujarat State, yield good quantities of Mother of Pearl Oysters. Their

systematics have not been worked out in detail so far, but they have

been provisionally identified as Pinctada vulgaris (Schumacher), which

name is used in this paper. Regular pearl fisheries have been conduc-

ted in the area and records are available from the year 1913. The authors

are not aware of detailed investigations on the oysters from this locality

except by Gokhale et al. (1954), who studied the age, growth rate

and approximate age of pearlformation. In the present study an attempt

is made to relate the age of the oysters (as represented by the annual

growth rings) with the linear measurements, like length, breadth, hinge

length, thickness, and hinge width and to examine the dependability of

these measurements in assessing the age of the oysters.

PREVIOUS WORK

Hornell (1922) found that ‘ the growth rate of the Indian oysters is

distinctly retarded after the third year, the life conditions being more

favourable to the young than the old ’, and that * the hinge line is shallow

at first but with increasing age, becomes deeper and gutter-like’. ‘ Its

depth and width are our best indications of the age of the oyster’. Cahn

(1949) reports that Yamagouchi working on the developmental history

of the Japanese Pearl Oyster, Pinctada martensii observed that the growth

rate is fast up to the fourth year, after which it is retarded. Devanesan &

Chidambaram (1956) also observed that the rate of increase in the

AGE AND LINEAR MEASUREMENTS OF THE PEARL OYSTER 445

measurements is great in the young oysters and decreases with age and

that the number of growth rings cannot be accepted as a key for deter-

mining the age of the oysters, as * these concentric curving lines are too

closely set in the young and are generally abraded in the adult’. How-

ever, Rao (1951) had used such rings in ascertaining the age of Katelysia

opima (Gmelin). According to him, the rings are ‘ disturbance rings,

‘caused by the cessation of growth, which may be due to drop of salinity

of sea water’. Gokhale et al. (1954) found that the rings are formed

annually on the shells of the oysters and hence used them as indicators

of age of oysters and that the thickness gave more consistent data than

other measurements. Though Hornell (1922) had recommended the use

of hinge width and hinge depth measurements in aging oysters, these two

measurements, it appears, have not been studied by other authors except-

ing Tranter (1958), who observed that the Australian Pearl Oyster, Pinc-

tada albina (Lamarck), attained maturity at a heel depth of 0°5 mm.

Alagaraja (1962) studied the length-weight relation of pearl oysters of

the Gulf of Mannar but has not indicated the relationship between age

and thickness or hinge.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The material used is the data on length, breadth, hinge length, hinge

width, thickness, and the growth rings of pearl oysters reared in the Pearl

Oyster Park and the sea-water tank at Sikka, by the Department of

Fisheries, Gujarat State. In addition, measurements of about a thousand

oysters collected at random during the survey conducted by the Fisheries

Research Station, Government of Gujarat, Jamnagar, in 1964, have also

been incorporated.

The authors have followed the terminology, as adopted by Devanesan

& Chidambaram (1956) Length is the actual depth of the animal

Fig. 1 H : Hinge; T-T1 ; Thickness ; W-W1 ; Hinge width.

jand indicates the longest distance between the hinge line and the

| outer margin of the valves. Breadth is the maximum distance, along the

446 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

antero-posterior axis of the body and corresponds to the actual length of

the animal. Thickness, the maximum distance between the external

surfaces of the two valves. The hinge length is the actual length of the

animal along the hinge line, and the hinge width, the maximum distance

between the edges of the two valves at the hinge (Fig. 1).

The measurements, excepting hinge width, were measured with vernier

callipers and the hinge width with a pair of dividers. All linear measure-

ments are in millimetres.

DATA ANALYSIS

The weighed mean of the length, breadth and hinge length of the

valves were worked out age-wise and are shown in Table 1.

TABLE |

Age in years Length Breadth Hinge length

1 44°05 42°14 38°42

2 61°68 58°93 55°45

3 76:20 67°66 62°00

4 81°62 74°32 66°09

5 85°15 T1735 69°37

6 86°65 80°50 72°44

7 86°67 76°70 69°84

It is apparent from the table that the length, breadth and the hinge

length increase with age. The rate of increase is rapid up to the third

year, but retarded subsequently and is negligible after the sixth year. This

might be due to the lessening of the metabolic rate of the animal with

increasing age (Fig. 2). These observations agree generally with those

of Hornell (1922), Cahn (1949), Devanesan & Chidambaram (1956) and —

Gokhale et al. (1954). However, Hornell’s contention that the lessen-

ing of the rate of growth is due to encrustations has not been accepted

by Gokhale et al. (1954). Our observations support the views of the

latter since the oysters studied were periodically checked and cleaned of

encrustations at regular intervals. |

The thickness and hinge width were correlated with the annual growth |

rings, as shown in Tables 2 and 3. |

As can be seen from Table 4, the age-wise increase in thickness and |

hinge width are more or less uniform, though not constant (Figs. 4 and |

5). There is no retardation in the increase of these measurements at any |

particular stage, unlike in length, breadth and hinge length. |

92.

Be.

él.

60,

52.

48,

iy,

ko.

MERSUREMENTS {IN IN.M.-

TE AND LINEAR MEASUREMEN

a hs t

' P roy

ea Tl 0m bed i

——,= LENGTH

TS OF THE PEAR

{

(

Tul nee yaa) a

Abas

be Bee

rat

~--— - BREADTH

o—e - HINGE LENGTH

AGE IN YEARS

Fig. 2

L OYSTER 447

448 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 65 (2)

TABLE 2

CORRELATION BETWEEN AGE AND THICKNESS

Number of oysters of the age group

J URGRIGES [p= a eos

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

19 11 = —= ats pee oe a 11

20 30 — = aus ae <n Hie 30

21 64 29 — -- — = za 93

2) Dy 60 — — — — --- 111

23 15 30 26 — — — — 71

24 12 15 32 — — —. = 59

25 9 50 Al 40 a ae ae 140

26 8 12 q5 41 15 — — 151

2h 2 11 51 34 16 -— — 114

28 5 7 49 32 25 — — 118

29 — 6 30 25 19 12 — 92

30 —- — 26 24 Dy. 15 24 116

31 = — 15 18 28 13 12 86

32 — — 8 8 18 9 9 52

33 — — 1 4 15 ) 16 43

34 — = — — 11 6 20 37

35 — — — —_ 6 3) 13 24

36 — — — — — 5 12 17

37 — — —_ — — 6 9 15

38 -- —- —— — — 4 9 13

39 — — — —- aa —- 7 )

Total 207 220 354 226 180 82 131 1,400

DISCUSSION

Gokhale et al. (1954) estimated the life span of the pearl oysters of the

Gulf of Kutch as seven years, though a few individuals survive to the

eighth year. According to Hornell (1922) and Cahn (1949), the Indian

pearl oyster and the Japanese pearl oyster live for five and eight years

respectively. We have not been able to collect oysters of the age of eight

years or more, but two specimens collected from Kalumar Reef in

October, 1964, had annual growth rings indicating that they were above

eight years of age.

From Table | it is seen that the growth rate of oysters, as denoted by

the increase in the length, breadth and hinge length in relation to age, is

not uniform. It fluctuates and at a certain stage the growth is either

retarded or stopped. The rate of variation in different age groups is

also very wide. Variations in the growth rate occur within the year, as

oysters grow vigorously from November to February and growth is

arrested during summer. In Fig. 2, the measurements of length, breadth

and hinge length are plotted against age. |

AGE AND LINEAR MEASUREMENTS OF THE PEARL OYSTER 449

Our observations show that length, breadth and hinge length are not

very dependable in estimating the age of oysters, as the shell is subject

to great wear and tear. In the case of thickness and hinge width, the

growth rate in relation to age, is uniform and is not much affected by

erosion in older shells. Figures 3 and 4 show that the thickness and

hinge width are more or less proportionate to the age of the oysters and

hence are more dependable.

33,

THICKNESS IN 222. %%.

2 AGE IN YEARS

Fig. 3

450 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2).

Taking two points from each of the straight lines of Figures 3 and 4,

an Equation of Straight Lines? could be arrived at, which was found to

satisfy the other points of the graphs. When two points were taken

TABLE 3

CORRELATION BETWEEN AGE AND HINGE. WIDTH

Number of oysters of the age group

Hinge: width: (esa ee Peer emnUaN cir ianss ur rg ray ee)

—

1 7 — _— a mee lat aes 7

2 99 42 — = at dee wos 141

3 89 99 94 — -—— — — 282

4 12 65 125 70 — -— — 272,

5 — 11 97 112 55 — — O55

6 — 3 38 19 105 37 9 211

fl — — — 15 18 35 51 119

8 — — a 10 1 7 49 67

9 — — — — 1 2 18 (21

10 noe a ee: a — 1 4 5

Total ‘207 220 354 226 180 82 131 1,400

2 TABLE 4

Age Thickness Hinge width

1 21°9 2°50

2 23°6 3°25

3 26°0 4°20

4 27°8 5:00

5 30°0 5°80

6 32:2 6°70

7, 33°8 7°66

from Fig. 2 and they were applied to the Equation of Straight Lines, it

was possible to arrive at a formula, 2a -+- 20 = t, where a is age in years,

t thickness in millimetres and 2 and 20 constants.

a A a

— = eee

X—X?=y—y"

and y? is —=-

x*—x? =y?—y?

2 From Tables 2 and 3, the weighted mean of thickness and hinge width at the end.

of every year were calculated which are shown in Table 4,

1 An equation of straight lines passing through two given points x1, x?, and y?

oe ges

AGE AND. LINEAR MEASUREMENTS ‘OF THE PEARL OYSTER 451.

Similarly, when two points were taken from Fig. 4 and applied to the

equation, the formula was 10a + 20 = 12 w, where a is age in years,

w hinge.width in millimetres and 10 and 20 constants, .

HINGE WIDTH IN 721,72,

4 5 é

AGE-IN NEARS

Fig. 4

SUMMARY

1. The growth rate of the pearl oysters, as denoted by the increase

in length, breadth and hinge length, is not proportionate to age. It

fluctuates and is retarded after the sixth year.

2. The increase in thickness and hinge width is more or less uniform

» in relation to age. When the readings were plotted on graph, they gave

straight lines. The equation of straight lines could be applied to these

graphs and two formulae could be arrived at, one correlating age with

thickness and the other age with hinge width.

3. The thickness and hinge width of pearl oysters are more depend-

able for estimating age of the oysters than length, breadth and hinge

length.

452. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors are very thankful to: Shri C. R. Easwaran, Research

Officer, Fisheries Research Station, Jamnagar, for facilities, and guid-

ance in the preparation of this paper ; to Shri S. B. Mani, Dy. Director

of Fisheries, Government of Gujarat, Ahmedabad, for literature and for

kindly going through the paper ; to Shri K. V. Nawathe, Director of

Fisheries, Gujarat State, Ahmedabad, for kindly scrutinising the paper.

REFERENCES

ALAGARAJA, K. C. (1962): Observa-

tions on the length-weight relationship

of pearl oysters. J. Mar. biol. Ass.

India 1962, 4 (2): 198-205.

CAHN, A. R. (1949): Pearl culture in

Japan. U.S. Department of Interior,

Fish and Wild Life Service, Fishery Leaflet

357, November 1949.

DEVANESAN, D. W. & CHIDAMBARAM, K.

(1956): Results obtained at the Pearl

Oyster Park, Krusadai Island, Gulf of

Mannar, and their application to pro-

blems relating to Pearl Fisheries in the

Gulf of Mannar, Part I. Contribution

from the Marine Fisheries Biological

Sato Krusadai Island, Gulf of Mannar,

No. 4.

GOKHALE, S. V., EASWARAN, C. R. &.

NARASIMHAN, R. (1954): Growth rate

of the pearl oyster, Pinctada pinctada,

in the Gulf of Kutch, with a note on the

Pearl Fishery of 1953. J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 52 (1): 124-136.

Horne, J. (1922): The Indian Pearl

Fishery of the Gulf of Mannar and Palk

Bay. Madras Fisheries Bulletin No. 16.

Rao, K. V. (1951): Studies on the

growth rate of Katelysia opima (Gmelin).

Section II of Proceedings of the Indo-

Pacific Fisheries Council, 1951,

TRANTER, D. J. (1958) : Reproduction

in Australian pearl oysters (Lamelli-

branchia). 1.Pinctadaalbina (Lamarck) :

Primary Gonad Development. Aust. J.

Mar. Freshw. Res. 9 ; 135-143.

An Introduction to the Study of

Indian Spiders

T. V. SUBRAHMANYAM

(With a text-figure)

INTRODUCTION

It is a pity that owing to ignorance man fears many harmless creatures

and neglects their study. One such neglected group of animals is the

spider. From the earliest times man has had an aversion for spiders.

The conception that spiders are highly poisonous, noxious and ugly is

purely prejudice. Scientists have proved that but for a few exceptions,

spiders are generally harmless to man. Apart from the question of

poison, acquaintance with spiders reveals that they form as fascinating

a group as birds or butterflies. ‘ Among the wonders of Natural History

few things are more remarkable than is the multitude of these small many-

legged animals, often of beautiful structure, striking habits, and complex

life-histories, yet seldom obtruding themselves upon our notice.’ Their

external morphological characters, their protective adaptations and

coloration, their habits—all present such a range of complexity and

variety that they really form engrossing subjects for study.

Consequent upon the general dislike for spiders many species of

spiders in this country still remain unnamed. Regarding the ecology

of Indian spiders we have but a few notes. There is therefore much

scope in this field and in a tropical country like India, rich in all kinds of

fauna and flora, there can never be any shortage of specimens. The

systematist with the assistance of reference books and a microscope can

with some trouble identify and draw up a list of all the available species ;

but his chief difficulty lies in the fact that he has few named collec-

tions of species for comparison. Further in order to fully appreciate the

economy of nature, the ecology of spiders should be studied more

enthusiastically.

The province of this paper is primarily to recommend spider collec-

tion for those who are interested in field natural history. The aim is to

describe the external characters, habits, and habitat of the common

spiders met with in this country, to indicate the localities where the different

genera abound, to suggest some methods of capturing them and finally

454. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

to sort them out and preserve them. This work is not intended for

advanced systematists but for providing a guide to budding arachnologists.

- EXTERNAL MORPHOLOGY OF SPIDERS

A short account of the external morphology of spiders and the chief

characteristics of the more common families are given below.

Spiders form a distinct Order Araneae under the Class Arachnida.

The body of a spider can be easily distinguished by the presence of a

constriction separating the anterior cephalothorax from the posterior

abdomen. On the upper surface of the cephalothorax, near the middle

region, a depression is noticeable termed median fovea and radiating from

this towards the sides are certain lines called the radial striae. The head

or the cephalic region or caput forms the anteriormost part and is gene-

rally more elevated than the thorax. The caput normally bears eight

eyes (in some cases 6 and in a few cases 4). The eyes are arranged in

two rows an anterior and a posterior, of two laterals and two medians.

The row may be straight or curved with convexity backward (procurved)

or convexity forward (recurved). The four median eyes together are

called the median quadrangle. The arrangement and disposition of the

eyes are of distinct taxonomical value. The ventral side of the cephalo-

thorax is protected by a plate called the plastron or sternum usually

notched at either side for the reception of the legs which are eight in

number. The legs are seven-jointed, consisting of a coxa, trochanter,

femur, patella, tibia, metatarsus and tarsus ending in a bunch of hairs

the ungual tuft and in two or three claws. If three claws are present the

ungual tuft is generally absent: In some species which have a spinning

plate or cribellum the metatarsus, especially of the 4th pair of legs, posses-

ses a comb-shaped set of hairs called the calamistrum.

The other appendages of the cephalothorax are the chelicerae and

the pedipalps. The chelicerae or the mandibles consist of two joints :

(1) the basal segment or paturon articulated immediately below the

clypeus (the anterior edge of the head region), and (2) the distal joint, the

fang or the unguis which folds against the lower side of the paturon along

a groove which is toothed. The paturon contains a poison gland.

The pedipalps are six-jointed and in general shape and architecture

resemble a dwarf leg minus the metatarsus. The coxa is usually fur-

nished with a process, the maxilla. In the males, however, the tarsus of

the pedipalp develop into a remarkable copulatory apparatus called the

palpal organ which presents different designs in different species and is

of great systematic importance.

The abdomen differs remarkably in shape in the different groups of

spiders although generally it is oval, globular or cylindrical. The in-

tegument that covers the abdomen is generally smooth and flexible but

AN INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF INDIAN SPIDERS 455

in some cases thickened and drawn into spines or tubercles. On the

ventral side of the abdomen are the openings of the respiratory, alimentary

and genital systems and the spinnerets. ‘The spinning mamillae or the

(

a i eo S 4 ogee

ound, ge 3 |

‘ We mh

_ A. Ventral side of the posterior end of a Dictynid Spider: 1. Anterior

spinnerets; 2. Posterior spinnerets; 3. Median spinnerets; 4. Anal papilla;

5. Cribellum.

B. 4th leg of a Dictynid Spider: 1. Coxa; 2, Trochanter; 3. Femur;

4, Patella; 5. Tibia ; 6. Meta-tarsus ; 7. Tarsus; 8. Calamistrum.

C. Terminal portion of a spider’s leg showing 2 claws and ungual tuft.

D. Profile of an Arachnomorphic spider showing horizontal articulation of

the paturon with the cephalothorax. f

E. Profile of a Mygalomorphic spider showing vertical articulation of the

paturon with the cephalothorax.

F. Veniral side of the cephalothorax of a spider: 1. Maxilla; 2. Clypeus;

3. Palp; 4. Sternum.

G. Dorsal side of the cephalothorax ofa spider: 1. Palpal organ of a male;

Z Unguis; 3. Paturon; 4. Caput showing eyes; 5. Radial striae; 6. Median

ovea.

spinnerets are normally six in number, two superior, two median and

two inferior. The number, however, shows reduction in some families.

The spinnerets and the nature of the vulva in females are also

of taxonomical value. Those spiders having a calamistrum possess in

addition to the six spinnerets an extra spinning organ in the form of a

double sieve plate, the cribellum, already referred to. |

There is marked sexual dimorphism in spiders, the females being

larger than the males. The female lays a large number of eggs all en-

closed in a cocoon. The cocoons of different species differ widely in

Shape, size, and colour. The eggs hatch and give rise to spiderlings.

There is no metamorphosis as in the case of insects.

Spiders are cosmopolitan. No part of the world is without a spider

population. Spiders as a Class occur in all climes and under all cir-

456 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

cumstances. Exposed to bright sunshine, hunting on the open ground,

concealed in dark crevices and holes of trees, adventurously jumping

after prey along walls and fences, silently sitting confined to webs stret-

ched along tree branches, under stones and decaying rubbish, and in the

corners of shelves or inside less frequently handled office box files. For

the far and wide distribution of spiders their habit of dispersal by the

‘ rope-trick ’ or ‘ gossamer’ must be mainly responsible. Apart from

this the wonderful adaptability of these creatures must be another reason.

In the words of Savory ‘ their distribution is much more nearly that of a

creature able to fly than that of a terrestrial animal, as a spider must

properly be considered’.

CLASSIFICATION AND DISTINCTIVE FEATURES OF THE

COMMON FAMILIES

Spiders are conveniently divided into two groups the Mygalomorphae

and the Arachnomorphae. In Mygalomorphic spiders the paturon is

articulated with the cephalothorax in a vertical plane, the unguis closing

backwards. In Arachnomorphic spiders the articulation of the paturon

with the cephalothorax is in the horizontal plane and fang closes inwards.

Under each of these groups there are a number of families.

MYGALOMORPHAE

Most of the members are medium, and large-sized spiders of dull

_ brown or black colour living on the ground under stones or in specialized

burrows.

A. Spiders with coxa of pedipalp haying a large ne process

and six spinnerets

Family Aty pidae. The analtubercle well removed from the posterior

spinnerets. Chelicerae without rastellum. Strongly built spiders with

smooth integuments. Legs stout but with weak spines and three claws.

They live in burrows on the ground.

B. Coxa of pedipalp without maxillary process and spinnerets

limited to four

Family Ctenizidae. Mandible provided with rastellum. Poste-

rior mamillae short or moderately long, anterior ones situated close to-

gether. Tarsus without ungual tuft but with three claws. Eyes form a

compact group on an eminence. They live in silk lined burrows under

stones. Some of them are trap-door spiders.

AN INTRODUCTION YO THE STUDY OF INDIAN SPIDERS 457

Family Dipluridae. Differs from the above in having no ras-

tellum. Legs with three claws. Posterior spinnerets long and the an-

terior ones situated wide apart. Medium-sized spiders without burrows

or holes but closely woven webs as residences.

Family Barychelidae. Medium-sized spiders with mandibular

rastellum. Tarsus with ungual tuft and two claws. Spinnerets four or

two in number and the extreme segments of the posterior spinnerets very

short. They are all buriowing forms.

Family Theraphosidae. Medium or large-sized spiders differ-

ing from the previous family in the absence of the mandibular rastellum

_ and in having the extreme segments of the posterior spinnerets long and

slender. The body is hairy, the claws and tarsi having a bifid appear-

ance. The eyes are set on a distinct tubercle. They are nocturnal in

habit living under stones or holes in trees where they weave a slight web.

ARACHNOMORPHAE

A. Spiders with cribellum and calamistrum

Family Filistidae. Ocular group compact. Palpal organ of male

simple. Legs normal. Abdomen with short spinnerets : anterior pair

thick and separated from others. Medium-sized spiders found under

Stones, bark of trees, dry leaves. Webs of close texture of an irregular

tubular nature.

Family Urocteidae. Ocular group compact. Carapace roun-

ded in front and on sides and emarginate behind. Mouth parts weak.

Legs short and strong and nearly of equal length. Tarsus with three

claws. Abdomen large and depressed, truncate in front and oval be-

hind. Anterior spinnerets short, separated by a colulus. Posterior

Spinnerets long and jointed. Anal papilla large and hairy. Small

Spiders spinning slight webs under stones or in holes of walls.

Family Eresidae. The four median eyes form a small quadrangle ;

_ anterior laterals on the sides of the head ; posterior laterals far removed

_ from the rest of the eyes and situated high up on the posterior portion of

the head. Cephalic region of the carapace broad and elevated. Clypeus

low. Mandibles flattish in front. Maxillae inclined obliquely inwards.

Fang groove weakly toothed. Legs short, strong and thick, three clawed

and weakly spined. Abdomen oval, spinnerets with cribellum. Medium-

sized spiders. Webs irregular and sticky. Indian genus Stegodyphus

of social habits.

458 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL.HIST. SOCIETY; \Vol:-65 (2)

Family Psechridae. .Head moderately elevated. Clypeus: high,

mandibles short and strong, toothed below. ‘Legs long and slender: with

ungual tufts.and three clawed.: The first two pairs much longer:than the

rest. Abdomen oval or cylindrical. Cribellum ‘large.. »Fairly ‘large

spiders weaving somewhat en ae webs and hanging within i in an in-

verted position.

Family Uloboridae.. tacvaees set. on tubercle. :. GHriehoen

elongate. First pair of legs longer than-the rest... Tarsus without ungual

tufts. Abdomen rounded or oval. Anal papilla long and conically

acuminate. Small or medium sized spiders Veo a regular orb- web.

Common among rafters of outhouses.

Family Dictynidae. Eyes in two: aa or: slightly curved

transverse lines. Cephalothorax oval;:head broad and.convex. Legs

strong and three clawed without: ungual:tufts. Anal papilla short and

semi-circular. Small spiders spinning untidy webs on leaves and twigs.

General colour variable,

B. Spiders without, cribellum and calamistrum

Family Sicariidae. Spiders with,six eyes, Cephalothorax ,with-

out median fovea, Palpal organ of malesimple. Legs weak, abdomen

oval or rounded. Small spiders found on leaves, under stones or in. out-

houses.

Family Dysderidae. Spiders with six eyes. Cephalothorax

rather flat. Maxillae long and scopulate. Palpal organ simple. | Legs

strong ; sternum, excavated along its border for the reception of legs.

Abdomen oval or cylindrical, Indian genus Ariadna, common under —

stones and loose soil.

Family Palpimanidae. Small'spiders with the first pair of legs

enormously developed and thick and usually employed for sina Tarsi

pedunculaté and almost clawless.

Family Zodariidae, Small spiders — with posterior — spinnerets |

absent or much shorter than the anterior. Tarsi three clawed. ‘Abdomen |

ornamented with dots or patches.

Family H ersillidae. Eyes Horniett Carapace as wide as long, la

head region round but narrow infront. Thoracic fovea and radial striae

well marked. Legs long and spiny with three claws ; third pair shorter. |

Abdomen: short and oval with posterior spinnerets tole and slender— |

hunting spiders common on tree trunks and walls, EOBE 1610

| .

= i

AN INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF INDIAN SPIDERS 459

Family Pholcidae. Anterior median eyes small, others large form-

ing a group on either side of the head. Cephalothorax flat and round

with fovea well defined. Mandibles untoothed. Legs very thin and

long, with spines. Abdomen round oval or sub-cylindrical ; spin.

nerets short and sub-equal. Sedentary spiders weaving untidy webs in

corners and ceilings of outhouses.

Family Theridiidae. Strikingly resembles the following family

but generally small-sized forms with rounded abdomen. Members

possess a comb of spines on the tarsus of the fourth pair of legs. Webs

are irregular and not perfect orbs.

Family Argiopidae. Lateral eyes on the sides of head typically

close together away from the median quadrangle. Mandibles strong and

toothed but variable in size and shape. Legs show great variation in

different genera. Abdomen also highly variable but spinnerets normal

and rosette-like behind abdomen. Sedentary spiders spinning geomet-

rical orb-webs. ,

Family Thomisidae. Eyes are normal. Mandibles weak and

weakly toothed. Legs strong, 2nd and 3rd pairs shorter. Abdomen

prominent, oval, flat, triangular or pentagonal. Generally called

‘ crab-spiders ’. |

Family Lycosidae. Eyes of posterior row recurved and large ;

anterior ones usually small, compact, and directed forwards. Man-

dibles strong and powerfully toothed ; pedipalp with short maxillary pro-

cess. Carapace elevated and narrow in front. Legs strong and spiny,

Jast pair longer. Abdomen long oval with spinnercts sub-equal. Power-

ful, hunting, ground spiders.

Family Sparassidae. Median eyes form a normal quadrangle.

Carapace as wide as long ; clypeus low. Tarsal claws armed with teeth.

Abdomen sub-oval.

Family Clubionidae. Median eyes arranged in a recurved cres-

cent. Carapace flat usually wider than long. Clypeus suppressed ;

maxillae project forward and not inclined on the labium. Mandibles

powerful and toothed. Legs strong and spiny with scopulate tarsi ;

tarsal claws unarmed. Abdomen oval with anterior spinnerets in con-

tact.

Family Oxyopidae. Eyes form a compact sub-circular group ;

anterior line recurved and posterior procurved. Carapace oval and

elevated. Mandibles long and weakly toothed. Legs strong and spiny.

Abdomen oval in front and tapering behind.

460 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

Family Attidae. Anterior median eyes very large ; eyes of posterior

line forming a square on the sides of the head. Head region large and

raised. Legs strong; tarsi with ungual tufts and 2 claws. Abdomen

oval but sometimes narrow behind. Common jumping spiders.

SOME HINTS TO SPIDER COLLECTORS

Although spiders are ubiquitous there are some difficulties for the

collector to detect and catch them mainly because of their habits, diver-

sity of form, colour and behaviour, calculated to deceive and surprise.

- There are spidersnearly as bigas a small bird (Nephila maculata) and those

as small as mites (Oonopids) ; spiders gorgeously coloured as well as in-

significantly dull ; sedentary spiders with magnificent webs and also vaga-

bonds without residence ; social spiders and cannibalistic ones ; skilful

hunters (Lycosids), jumpers (Attids), excellent mimics, expert architects

and specialised swimmers. The different species of spiders with their

protective adaptations evade their enemies so well that unless the

collector is astute and enthusiastic it is difficult to catch them.

The equipment necessary for the collection of spiders is simple. A

cylindrical glass jar (2 to 24in. diameter and 6 in. high) containing some

spirit and provided with a proper lid, a pair of forceps with flat ends, a

muslin kerchief and a small net like the one usually employed by butterfly

collectors, are enough for spider collection.

Sedentary spiders resting on walls, leaf blades, tree-trunks or in the

webs can be caught in the jar by holding it open beneath them and by

tapping the spiders into it with the lid. Running and vagabond species

like lycosids and attids can be caught by throwing a kerchief over them

and carefully holding them with the hand in the folds, transfer them into

the jar. Small spiders residing among grass and herbage can be caught

in the net by sweeping it sideways. Shake a tree branch vigorously, and

spiders living there will be thrown off and will attempt to climb up by

their threads when it is easy to tap them into the jar. In handling spiders

the use of forceps must as far as possible be avoided as the brittle limbs

give way easily.

GROUPING AND IDENTIFICATION

Spiders being collected in spirit, are already killed and the collector

has only to sort them out. With the assistance of literature on the subject

and with an ordinary lens, it would not be very difficult to group the collec-

tion into the principal families. Put the specimens into separate tubes

(flat-bottomed) with labels containing information regarding date and

place of collection and the collector’s name. Close the mouths of the

tubes with tissue paper. Immerse all the tubes in a big Kilner-jar con-

AN INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF INDIAN SPIDERS 461

taining dilute spirit or a mixture of glycerine and formalin. Spirit is

generally preferred as formalin hardens the specimens. Before closing

the Kilner-jar, see that all spider tubes are well under the spirit level.

For identification of the specimens and for placing them under proper

genera and species, the student will have to consult some standard sys-

tematic reference book such as the FAUNA volume on Arachnida by

Pocock. It should, however, be borne in mind that since this book was

published certain families have been revised and supplemented by other

authors. Moreover, many families are altogether omitted in this work

and the species dealt with under the different families are limited, being

possibly based on the actual specimens examined by Pocock during his

study. Therefore for a comprehensive study this book is inadequate.

There is still much work to be done on Indian attids, theridiids and

several other families. Dr. F. H. Gravely, late Superintendent of the

, Government Museum, Madras, contributed several papers on Indian

lycosids, ctenids, sparassids, selenopids and clubionids. These papers

appeared in the Records of the Indian Museum, Calcutta, during the years

1921 and 1924. Other contributors on Indian spiders are Rae Sheriffs,

Dayal, and more recently, Tikader. Literature on extralimital species

should also be consulted for grouping Indian species. Cecil Warburton’s

chapter on spiders in the Cambridge Natural History Series, Savory’s

BIOLOGY OF SPIDERS, Thoreli’s SPIDERS OF BURMA, Ellis’s SPIDERLAND,

Comstock’s COMITY OF SPIDERS etc. are books which should be read by

every spider collector.

In order to bring the list of spiders occurring in this vast country up-

to-date, more workers are required and it is believed that the spider

enthusiasts will receive necessary assistance and encouragement from

our Universities, Natural History Museums and the Zoological Survey

of India.

(to be continued)

Reviews

1. POPULATION STUDIES OF BIRDS. By David Lack.

pp. v+341 (2416 cm.), Oxford, 1966. Clarendon Press. Price 63s.

The author’s earlier work THE NATURAL REGULATION OF ANIMAL

NUMBERS appeared in 1954. In the same year, Andrewartha and

Birch put forward their views in their book THE DISTRIBUTION AND

ABUNDANCE OF ANIMALS. Since then numerous critiques of both

views have appeared. More recently, in 1962, Wynne-Edwards

advocated evolution through group selection, in his book ANIMAL

DISPERSION IN RELATION TO SOCIAL BEHAVIOUR. Moreover, in the last

two decades definite, though slow, progress has been made in the field,

and so, the present book has come none too soon.

The book is based mainly on the long-range detailed studies of

13 species of birds, made by different teams, or individual workers,

in England (9 studies), tropics (2 studies), Germany (1 study) and New

Zealand (1 study); 11 minor studies relevant to the major ones are

also used. Lach species is discussed separately, in most cases in a

chapter, or a part of it. However, one does not miss the continuity

from one chapter to the next, as the book is carefully planned and

the chapters are interwoven with the numerous themes reoccurring

in many chapters and the author’s scholarly exposition of Nicholson’s

theory of population dynamics. The following account, largely in the

author’s own words, will give an idea of the numerous problems

discussed in the book.

Discussing the role of territory, the author is not blinded by an

ever-growing list of functions attributed to the territory. “The terri-

torial behaviour of most species of birds is generally considered to

assist in pair-formation, while in many of them a wide spacing of

the nests presumably assists their concealment from nest-predators:

defence of a nesting site similarly, ensures safe breeding for hole-

nesting species. Hence there seems no need to postulate any additional

function of territory. Nevertheless, in various species any owners of |

territories that die are rapidly replaced, so territorial behaviour plays _

some role in breeding dispersion. But both the nature and the |

functions of this role are still obscure, and the seemingly obvious lf

view that territorial behaviour limits numbers in relation to the food |

supply requires more critical study than it has yet received’ {p. 279). |

REVIEWS 463

The author’s earlier view that ‘the breeding seasons of single

brooded species have normally been evolved so that they lay their

eggs at such a time that their young hatch in the most favourable

period for raising them, usually when their food is most abundant’

(p. 272), has been modified in this book. Several examples cited

indicate that the food available to the laying female may be a chief

proximate factor determining the time of egg laying. “Murton found

that the gonads of the Wood Pigeon are in breeding condition for

longer each year than the period in which laying actually takes place.

and he concluded that the main proximate factor inducing laying was

the food supply. . ... A long potential breeding season, with

food as the proximate factor inducing laying, is presumably what has

enabled the Wood Pigeon to adapt its breeding season so successfully

to man’s grain harvest’? (p. 179). For the Bullfinches in England,

Newton showed that the main diet in the spring prior to breeding

is buds, ‘but they turn to fresh seeds when these become available

in late April. Probably this is what determined the start of breeding

in early May, because buds contain comparatively little nutriment,

and seeds might well be needed before the hens can form eggs. Also

when Newton provided eight hens in outdoor aviaries with seeds, six

of them laid eggs in mid-April, a fortnight before he found any eggs

in the nearby woods’ (p. 188). In the Pied and Collared Flycatchers,

‘there is a correlation similar to that found in the Great Tit between

the preceding spring temperatures and the average date of laying each

year, but these ftlycatchers are migrants which arrive on their breeding

grounds only in late April, so do not themselves experience most of

the temperatures in guestion. Hence they presumably respond either

to the appearance of fresh green vegetation or to their insect foods,

both of which appear earlier in a mild than a cold spring’ (p. 29).

The data presented in the book largely substantiate the author’s

view ‘developed especially for birds, that the reproductive rate (in

particular, the number of eggs in the clutch) has been evolved through

natural selection to correspond with that number which, on average,

gives rise to the greatest number of surviving offspring’ (p. 3).

The clutch-size, however, is subjected to phenotypic modifications.

Such modifications during the course of a breeding season may be

‘adapted to the subsequent food requirements of the young. In the

Great and Blue Tits, Pied and Collared Flycatchers, Swift and

Kittiwake, clutches tend to be largest at the start of the season and

thereafter to decline, and there is eviclence that these species find it

harder to raise young later than earlier in the season. In the Black-

bird, Song Thrush and Robin. on the other hand, clutches laid in

the middie of the season are larger than those either earlier or later:

464 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 63 (2)

correspondingly, the food available for these species in woods is more ~

plentiful in mid-season, end this is also near to the time when the

davs are longest’ (p. 274). The clutch size in the Great, Blue and

Coal Tits is inversely correlated with the population density. This

variation in the Great Tit (and also in other tits) is ‘presumably adapted

to the food situation for the nestling tits because, other things being

equal, it is harder for a parent to find food for its young when there

are more than few Great Tits searching for it? (p. 28). ‘Similarly

in the Great Tit, Blackbird, Yellow-eyed Penguin and Kittiwake,

older females lay rather larger clutches than those breeding for the

first time and are also rather more efficient in raising young’ (p. 274).

The clutch size is affected by the feeding condition at the time of

egg laying. This is so in the Cuckoo, though it is ‘a special case

because it is a brood parasite’ (p. 6). There are circumstantial

evidences that in gallinaceous birds, ‘clutch-size is affected by the

amount of food available to the female during or just before laying

These findings do not mean that the food available to the hen

birds at the time of isying is the sole factor affecting the clutch-size

of gallinaceous birds. Hereditary factors must also be involved, at

least in determining the size of the eggs, and hence the amount of

food needed for each, and probably also in determining the limits

between which the clutch-size of each species can be modified by

the food supply at the time of laying’ (p. 6 and 7). ‘Finally, in the

Tawny Owl, Short-eared Owl. anc Bullfinch, larger clutches are laid

When their main food, woodland mice. field voles and certain seeds

respectively, is more abundant than in other years’ (p. 274).

Certain modifications in clutch-size are non-adaptive. The Great

and Blue Tits and the Pied and Collared Flycatchers tend to lay smaller

average clutches when the breeding season starts later. This is

apparently not correlated tc the amount of food supply available for

the young.

There are some exceptions to the author’s view on the clutch-

size. In the Glaucous-winged Gull, on Mandarte Island, British

Columbia, “as in nearly all other species of Larus, the normal clutch |

is three, but Vermeer showed that, at least in one year, the parents |

were able to find enough food to raise four, five or even six young, |

and the proportion of young Jost in these large broods was similar

to that in broods of three ... Possibly, however, the present situation

on. Mandarte Island is unusually favourable for the feeding of the

Glaucous-winged Gull, as it is increasing rapidly, which is attributed

to the food supplies unintentionally provided by mankind on city |

refuse dumps’ (p. 247). Similarly, in the Gannet, ‘more young survived |

REVIEWS 465

per brood from artificially made up broods of twice the normal size

than from broods of normal size...” (p. 251).

Following Skutch, a number of workers have maintained that the

clutch-size for several tropical species is far smaller than the number

of nestlings the parents can feed. ‘Snow argued that, since the Black

and White Manakin can obtain all its food in under 10 per cent of

the day, the female should in the course of the whole day be able

to find much more food than is needed for herself and two nestlings.

He therefore agreed with Skutch that the reason that such species

have evolved a clutch of two cannot be because two is the greatest

number of young which they can feed. Instead Skutch suggested and

Snow agreed, that if there were more than two young, the parent

would have to bring food more frequently and would therefore be

in greater danger of revealing the nest to predators’ (p. 170). The

author, on the other hand, thinks it likely that ‘predation is not the

main factor which has led to the evolution of a clutch of two in

manakins, and that further study should be made to determine whether

two might be the largest number of young for which the parent can

find enough food. Admittedly fruits are abundant during the breeding

season, but they are not a satisfactory dict from which to form

proteins . . . Snow found many more remains of fruit than insects

below nests with young, but fruit is more likely to leave remains than

insects, so insects perhaps comprise more of the nestlings’ diet than

he thought. Hence the critical factor limiting brood-size might be the

time taken by the female to find insects, but this needs testing .. .’

(e171).

The author’s interpretation of the adaptive significance of asyn-

chronous hatching in raptorial and other birds, that ‘all the food goes

to the first-hatched and largest nestlings until they are satisfied’ and

that ‘if the food is plentiful the youngest then receives enough’, but

‘it food is sparse it is not wasted on young that would die anyway’

(p. 223), is extended to the asynchronous hatching in the White Stork.

‘The position is more complex in the White Stork than in other species

with asynchronous hatching because nestling sometimes dies, not of

starvation, but through being thrown out of the nest, or even killed

and eaten, by one of its parents which Schiiz (1957) named “chronism”

after the titan Chronos who ate all save one of his offspring’

(p. 223). It is possible that ‘parent Storks kili primarily such

nestlings as do not respond adequately to them because they were

already weak from starvation, in which case the parents merely acce-

lerate deaths that would occur anyway, and thus ensure that food

will not be wasted on a dying chick’ (p. 224).

466 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

Most of the species considered in the book breed at the age of

one or two years. But, ‘in the White Stork and in those sea birds

discussed here, breeding starts at an age varying between two and

seven years or more, depending on the species. There is neither

evidence for ‘the view of Wynne-Edwards (1955, 1962) that such

deferred maturity has been evolved throvgh group-selection in long-

lived species to reduce the number of young and so prevent over-

population,’ nor for the author’s alternative view that, “in such species,

breeding is difficult and individuals which try to breed when younger

than the normal age leave, on the average, fewer not more surviving

young than those which start later’ (pn. 275). )

The data on adult mortality seem to fit with the author’s view

that ‘the higher the reproductive rate the higher the annual mortality,

. a simple consequence of population balance through density-

dependent regulation of the mortality’ (p. 275). Food shortage is the

main density-dependent mortality factor. In some species there is

positive evidence for the limitation of numbers by food outside the

breeding season. “The correlation between the number of Wood

Pigeons alive in early March and the availability of clover indicates

that the number of birds remaining alive on the area keeps close to

that which the declining quantity of focd can support. This happens

because there is direct competition of food in the feeding flocks, and

one individual not infrequently displaces another from an item which

it has found, with the result that some of the displaced individuals,

presumably those in the social hierarchy fail to get enough food and

die’ (p. 187). ‘A peck-order is of survival value both to those higher

and to those lower in the order, for thcse higher because they obtain

food with very little fighting, and for those lower because it saves them

wasting time on fights which they would anyway lose, and _ their

energies can be conserved for searching elsewhere’ (p. 276). The

Quelea, one of the two tropical species considered in the book, ‘may

be limited in numbers by its food suppiy. It need not. of course, be ©

so limited throughout the year, and during much of the year the small

seeds of wild grasses which it prefers are abundant. As already

mentioned, it is primarily when these small seeds become sparse in the

later part of the dry season that the Queleas turn to larger seeds,

including human crops. But the time when food becomes really scarce

for them, at least in Nigeria, is in early rains, at the end of June and

through July, since in this period all the wild seeds that are !eft on |

the ground start germinating’ (p. 157).

The appendix at the enc of the book gives a chapter-wise summary

of the NATURAL REGULATION OF ANIMAL NUMBERS which is now out of

print, and 22 pages of discussion on the alternative views, mainly of

= iy

REVIEWS 467

Andrewartha and Birch and Wynne-Edwards, on population dynamics.

The bibliography contains 467 titles referred to in the book. Illustra-

ations include 31 graphs and charts and 27 excellent line drawings

of the species discussed in the book.

An elegant exposition of a large and important literature on bird

population makes this a standard reference book for ecologists and

ornithologists. The author’s focus on the slow rate of progress in the

field. emphasizes a need to attract scientists of diverse disciplines

towards population studies. Handling of some of the problems, such

as, the factors involved in starting and terminating the egg laying and

modifying the clutch-size, adaptive significance of clutch-size in tropical

birds and the relative efficiency of the young and old parents in raising

their brood, which are not conclusively established, should yield quick

results in the hands of experimental zoologists. To these workers, the

meticulously collected information on a few species of birds and the

objective analysis of different points of view should be of great

use. Finally, ornithologists concerned about the paucity _ of

imaginative reading material on Field Ornithology for graduate train-

ing, will find what they want in this book,

R. M. NAIK

2. THE METABOLISM OF INSECTS. By Darcy Gilmour. pp.

ix +195 (21X14 cm.). Edinburgh/London, 1965. Oliver & Boyd.

University Reviews in Biology. Paper Back. Price 15s. net.

THE METABOLISM OF INSECTS by Darcy Gilmour is a welcome

addition to the literature in biochemistry. It is valuable in that different

aspects of insect metabolism are treated in a very precise manner,

and the book should be of great value to students at the post-graduate

level.

The book is divided into nine main chapters dealing with energy

metabolism (two chapters), carbohydrate metabolism, lipid meta-

bolism, metabolism of insecticides, metabolism of amino acids,

metabolism of some N-cyclic compounds, protein metabolism, and the

control of metabolism. Each chapter is further divided under several

subheadings.

In the chapters on energy metabolism the author discusses, among

other topics, sources of energy, catabolism of carbohydrate, oxidation

of fat, oxidation of amino acids, terminal oxidation, and anzrobic

phase of energy metabolism. The chapter on carbohydrates deals

with different kinds of carbohydrates utilised by insects in their diet

and storage of food and in the formation of cuticle, Various enzymes

468 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

involved in the metabolism of monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, and

polysaccharides (chitin etc.) are discussed. Storage polysaccharides

and glycoproteins or mucins, which perform a variety of structural

and lubricating functions, are dealt with in detail.

The section dealing with fats describes the storage of fats, meta-

bolism of fatty acids and glvcerides, synthesis and hydrolysis of

glycerides, transport of fat, and conversion of fat into carbohydrates.

Hydrocarbon derivates of physiological importance with special

reference to the behaviour of insects, designated as pheromones, and

the role of other lipid derivatives secreted by insects for defence pur-

poses are discussed under the subheading ‘Pheromones’. ‘he chapter

on insecticides deals with important insecticides, their action, and the

mechanism of detoxication developed by insects to resist their effect.

The short concluding chapter is devoted to the reviews of control

mechanism and hormonal ccnirol of the metabolism of the whole

insect. Regulation within the cell, between cells, and between in-

dividuals of the same species is also discussed.

References are few compared to the volume of the data reported.

Additional references in appropriate places would be of great help

to students for the detailed study of particular topics. References

at the end of each chapter rather than collectively at the end of

the book would have been more convenient.

ALMAS RIZVI

3. ECOLOGICAL METHODS: witH PARTICULAR REFERENCE TO

THE STUDY OF INSECT POPULATIONS. By T. R. E. Southwood. pp.

xvilit+391 (23X15 cm.). London, 1966. Methuen & Co. Ltd.

Pricé’ 75s. netiin “U.K. only:

Research workers tend to work in compartments. Medical ento-

mologists seldom know what agricultural entomologists are doing, and

vice versa. To a non-ecologist a book like this is especially use-

ful as a guide ‘to developments in other fields, and as a source of

ideas which can be adapted to his own field,

By and large ecological methods have not been applied to the

study of insects of medical importance. A few of the techniques

used have been adapted. For example. the Rothamsted suction trap

for sampling a unit volume of air has been adapted by Lumsden for

mosquitoes on a living host. No work has, however, been done on

the efficiency of the modified trap under different conditions, nor

has it been used very much.

There is an interesting chapter on marking and capture-recapture

techniques, which ought to be read by everyone concerned with

REVIEWS 469

problems of absolute population densities. The simple ‘Lincoln index’

was first used on ringed and recaptured birds, and was applied to tsetse

fly populations by Jackson in 1933. Since then it has become a very

sophisticated tooi.

There is necessarily a great deal of mathematics in the book. The

basic principles are explained very clearly. however, and the sampling

methods described are of interest to all kinds of entomologists.

Re UR:

4. COMMON INSECTS OF INDIA. By N. P. Kalyanam. pp.

x+136 (21:5X14 cm.) Bombay. Asia Publishing House. Price

RS! 12:

Books on insects in India are few whether they deal with

economic or systematic entomology, though insects play such an

important part in the daily life of man. Books and publications on

the subject. therefore, are very welcome and should be encouraged.

This book is an introductery effort about information on _ insects.

It gives, in brief, a fairly good idea regarding the division of this

class into different orders and families and a few important insects

of economic importance in each. The large number of illustrations

help the reader in identification. However, a few suggestions for in-

corporation in the next edition. may not be out of place.

The size is important and a scale by the side of each illustration

would be more useful than metitioning it in the text.

While describing a family, the name of one important insect of

that family is mentioned above the family name, giving the impression

that only that insect is dealt with, whereas actually the whole family

is described.

Descriptions in some cases are too brief. By adding a few words

in some of them at least, much more information cculd be given,

e.g. where there is sexual dimorphism as in the case of most species

of Lampyridae (male winged, female wingiess). Similarly brilliance

in the coloration of Aspidomorpha (p. 114) deserve mentioning:

E. fabia has a green band in the middle of the forewing etc.

N.T.N.

5. AVIAN MYQLOGY. By J. C. George and A. J. Berger: pp.

xii +500 (15X24 cm.), 247 illustrations. London and New York,

1966. Academic Press. Price $18-06,

470 JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

_ The joint endeavour of J. C. George, a pioneer in comparative

histochemistry, and A. J. Berger, an outstanding worker on the mor-

phology of avian muscles, has resulted in the producticn of a much-

needed treatise on avian myology. The book not only covers almost

all the modern topics in the study of avian musculature, but brings

out also the previous shortcomings in this branch of study and the

complicated problem of nomenclature of bird muscies.

Two aspects are broadly treated in the book. The first and the

major one, is a review of the work done on the histochemistry of

avian muscle fibres, specially those of the breast muscles; the second

deals with the anatomy of the various muscles of birds. The book

concludes. with suggestions on the trends of evolution of the avian

pectoral muscles deduced from histochemistry and biochemistry.

Though apparently a synopsis of the authors’ researches on avian

muscles, the book is, nevertheless, an excelient guide for advanced

students of avian myologyv, especially for those interested in its

modern aspects. It covers such tonics as morphology, histology, histo-

chemistry, histophysiology, biochemistry jand evolution of flight

muscles. In fulfilling a task of this magnitude, certain lapses are

bound to creep in, many of which are due to lack of information,

for which the authors are not to blame. The book, however, could

have been more useful to the beginners if the authors had given a

complete and thorough picture of the avian muscles. A major short-

coming of the treatise is perhaps the lack of detailed skeletal account

both in the text and in illustrations: tubercles, ridges, etc., essential

for the study of muscle-insertions. ‘The description of the two major

pectoral muscles similarly suffers from lack of detailed anatomical

account. Equally disappointing is the absence of references to other

minor pectoral muscles and the tendon-complex inserting on the

humerus. Among the other short-falls, some errors in the zoological

names of birds, omission of a few text-references in the bibliography,

and lack of a key to the biochemical abbreviations often used, need

mention. Illustration of the wing- and leg- muscles, and of histology

are good, but those of the jaw-muscles could have been better.

Functional morphclogy, especially of the jaw-muscles—and a much:

studied topic of avian mvology in recent years—has been entirely

avoided in the book. Not even the excellent bibliographies at

chapter ends satisfy a reader interested in this topic.

However, AVIAN MYOLOGY is a milestone in an extremely difficult

and little-known field of avian biology. The reviewer is certain that

for many years to come the book would remain a standard reference

to students of ornithology, especially those of avian myology.

A. DE

Miscellaneous Notes

1. SPHAERIAS BLANFORDI (THOMAS, 1891) FROM

HIMALAYAN REGION OF UTTAR PRADESH: AN

ADDITION TO THE CHIROPTERAN FAUNA OF INDIA

Blanford’s Fruit Bat, Sphaerias blanfordi (Thomas, 1891) was first

described under the genus Cynopterus F. Cuvier, 1824, on the basis of

specimens collected in Karen Hills, Burma. The genus Sphaerias was

created by Miller (1906) to include this single species which has some

remarkable morphological differences from other members of the genus

Cynopterus. Tate (1947) studied additional material of this species

from. Mt. Angka in northern Siam and included Thailand in its distri-

bution. The same distributional records for this species have been given

by Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951) and the species has not so far

been recorded in India.

In all 15 males and 39 females of this species were collected by the

author during recent tours inthe Himalayan region in Uttar Pradesh,

in connection with a survey of haematophagous arthropods. The bats

were trapped in Japanese mist nets which were set up near fruit orchards,

edges of forests, and wheat fields. Skins and skulls of three males and

six females were preserved for study. In addition, skulls of two males

and four females were also prepared. The species was identified after

a study of these preserved skins and skulls. Other specimens recorded

here were identified by comparing them with the preserved material.

Detailed collection data are as follows : 2 29° from Dharchula in Kali

Valley, alt. 1070 m., Pithoragarh District, on 17 and 18 March 1967,

skin of one and skulls of both the bats preserved ; 3 99 from Kotera

near Dharchula, alt. 1130 m., on 19 and 20 March 1967, skulls of all the

three preserved ; 1 ¢ and 2 992 from Kataithbara near Bageshwar in

Sarju Valley, alt. 920 m., Almora District, on 23 March 1967 ; 4 3¢ and

11 99 from Kuiti near Tejam, alt. 1220 m., Pithoragarh District, on 3

and 4 April 1967, skin and skull of one female preserved; 2 ¢¢

at Gwaldam on Nandakeshri road, alt. 1920 m., Chamoli District on 9

April 1967, skin of one and skulls of both preserved ; 1 2 from Deosari

- range forest near Gwaldam, alt. 1980 m., on 12 April 1967 ; 4 2° from

Guliyo at Gopeshwar, alt. 1070 m., Chamoli District, on 27 May 1967,

skin and skull of one female preserved ; 2 3¢ and | 2 from Tejam in

eastern Ramganga Valley, alt. 1070 m., Pithoragarh District, on 13

September 1967, skin and skull of the female preserved ; | 2 from Lilam

— in Johar Valley, alt. 1830 m., Pithoragarh District, on 17 September 1967 ;

JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (2)

472

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 473

2 29 from Dummer in Johar Valley, alt. 1680 m., Pithoragarh District,

on 25 September 1967, skin and skull of one specimen preserved ; 4 3g

and 4 @@ (three adults and one juvenile) from Girgaon, alt. 1980 m.,

Pithoragarh District, on 27 September 1967, skins and skuils of one male

and one female preserved ; 2 29 (juvenile) from Kapkot in Sarju Valley,

alt. 1130 m., Almora District, on 30 September 1967; 1 3 from Dhakuri

in Pindar Valley, alt. 2710 m., Almora District, on 2nd October 1967,

skin and skull preserved ; 3 29 (one adult and two juvenile) from Khati

in Pindar Valley, alt. 2290 m., Almora District, on 3 October 1967 ; and

1 g and 3 992 from Loharkhet in Sarju Valley, alt. 1920 m., Almora

District, on 10 October 1967.

It is interesting to note that the bat Sphaerias blanfordi was met with

only in the interior valleys during the survey at elevations between 800

and 2710 metres while the other species of fruit bats namely Cynopterus

sphinx, Eonycteris spelaea and Rousettus leschenaulti were collected from

outer valleys and lower elevations. However, their populations were

found mixed with Sphaerias blanfordi at elevations between 800 and 1000

metres between the Himalayan high ranges and the foot hills.

VIRUS RESEARCH CENTRE,

WELLESLEY ROAD, H. R. BHAT

POONA I. :

January 8, 1968.

REFERENCES

MILLER, G. S. (1906): Twelve new ELLERMAN, J. R. & Morrison-Scorrt,

genera of bats. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washing- YT. C.S. (1951): Checklist of Palaearctic

ton 19 : 83-86. and Indian Mammals 1758 to 1946.

Tate, G. H. H. (1947) : Mammals of British Museum, London: 810.

Eastern Asia. New York. Macmillan :

366.

2. SOME OBSERVATIONS ON THE GOLDEN LANGUR

PRESBYTIS GEEI (MS. KHAJURIA) GEE

INTRODUCTION

The author and his wife stayed in the Manas Wild Life Sanctuary

from 25 March to 13 April 1967 and during this time they spent six days

observing a troupe of Golden Langurs Presbytis geei in the forest on the

Bhutan side of the Manas River. _

DESCRIPTION OF HABITAT

_ The jungle in this area falls within the type known as tropical moist

deciduous (Champion 1938). The trees are high, up to 150 feet, and the

Canopy is almost closed, dominant species being deciduous. Climbers

474 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

are numerous and the shrub layer beneath the trees is dense in patches,

elsewhere the forest floor is covered with fallen leaves which at this time

of the year are dry and brittle. A feature of this type of forest is that

the trees undergo a leafless period during the dry season at the end of .

which new leaves or flowers are produced in a sudden rush. Some trees

burst into flower while still leafless especially Erythrina, Salmalia and

Cassia fistula. The leafless period was just ending and many trees were

in flower when the following observations were made.

HABITS

Size and composition of population

The study area consisted of a comparatively small part of the forest

surrounding the Manas Bhutan camp and probably did not exceed one

square mile. It was difficult to count the exact number of langurs living |

in the area due to the thickness of the overhead canopy in some places

and the speed with which the monkeys made off when approached. It

is known that there were not less than twenty nor more than thirty-five

individuals present.

Sometimes virtually all the langurs in the area would congregate in

certain trees where food was plentiful. However, such large groups were

wary and when approached the langurs would dash off through the trees —

in several directions. There appeared to be two main groups of eleven

and seven animals and these formed the basis of our observations.

Both groups were presided over by a dominant adult male and

in the larger group some quarrelling was observed between the largest

male and another almost as big. On one occasion during a fight the

larger drove his opponent almost to ground level within a few feet of the |

observers.

Two adult females in the larger group each had a baby clinging to |

her body between her front legs, while one female in the smaller group

was carrying a very young baby. The rest of the animals in both groups

consisted of females without young, or sub-adults.

Breeding season

The largest of the three babies seen was still being carried by its mother |

though it would sometimes leave her and climb about on its own, even |

jumping small distances from bough to bough. Once it ran to the end of |

a bough and, faced with a long leap to the next tree, went through all the |

movements the langurs make when working up for a big jump.

Grasping a branch on each side with their hands they rock backwards —

and forwards, finally launching themselves by pulling forwards with their |

arms while springing with their hind legs. Adults can cover enormous |

distances, in the region of 20 feet from tree to tree, although dropping |

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 475

almost as far in the process. On this occasion the young langur decided

the gap was too wide and ran back to its mother who jumped with it

clinging beneath her body.

The youngest baby was still very small, it never left its mother and

was quite easy to overlook when the female was climbing about in the

trees. She spent much time grooming it, sitting in an upright position

on a bough with the baby in her lap while she carefully combed its fur

with her long fingers. At other times she would hold it to her breast to

suckle. The age of this baby was estimated to be between one and two

months and the breeding season of the Golden Langur would therefore

seem to fall between December and February.

Feeding habits

The langurs were active from shortly after dawn throughout the

hours of daylight but they invariably spent from 14 to 2 hours resting

during the heat of the day. Towards noon the group would congregate

high up in a tall liana-draped tree, there they would sit huddled in the

shade of the creeper. During their siesta they remained very still and

were often well hidden ; at this time they would allow the observers to

walk beneath the tree and no amount of hand clapping, shouting, or

hurling of small stones would make them move.

When they awoke the langurs dispersed amongst the trees and re-

commenced feeding until dusk when they settled down for the night,

usually high up in a liana covered tree. According to the forest depart-

ment staff they sometimes moved down to the river to drink during the

afternoon, lapping the water or licking the rocks which in places are rich

in minerals. This behaviour has been described by Gee (1964) but was

not seen during the present study and may depend upon what other source

of water is available to the langurs. At this season of the year they

feed largely upon the succulent cherry-like buds and flowers of the

‘Balu’ tree, Dillenia pentagyna.

The langur’s normal posture when feeding is to sit on a bough hold-

ing it firmly with one or both hind feet, its long tail hanging down and

both hands free to pluck the leaves or flowers which are then transferred

to its mouth, or a spray of foliage may be pulled down and eaten straight

off the twig. When adopting the first method the langur often plucks

a single petal most daintily. The animal is always careful to retain its

grasp on a bough with its feet or hands.

During this study (25-31 March) the Golden Langur was seen to feed

on the following :—

Dillenia pentagyna .. buds and flowers

Careya arborea

Bombax ceiba

476 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

Bauhinia vahlii aac leaves

An unidentified climber, possibly of the Legu-

minosae .. leaves

Mode of progression

When moving through the tree tops the langurs make use of

horizontal boughs whenever possible, running along them on all fours or

occasionally, when circumstances allow, running in an upright position

but grabbing the vegetation on either side in their hands. In each case

the long tail is used as an aid to balance. Their method of leaping from

tree to tree has been described above. During its flying descent the

animal adopts what is virtually a sitting position in the air with its feet

and arms thrust out in front ready to seize the next bough and its long

tail streaming out behind. At times such leaps are prodigious and quite

often the animal only manages to grab the tip of a bough or hanging

strand of creeper in one hand to dangle in space before getting a grip

with its other hand. At such times it will travel short distances by

brachiation but this is not its normal method of progression.

Members of a group almost invariably followed one another along

an exact course when on the move, often queuing upto leap across a gap,

If followed for a considerable time a group would become very strung

out, the adult males and females carrying babies being left far behind

by the nimbler sub-adults. Even under these conditions each individual

followed the same route.

If suddenly alarmed a group dispersed in every direction but once the

danger was over they reassembled. Such behaviour evidently has

survival value in the event of an attack by a predator.

Once they became used to the presence of the observers the langurs

would permit us to move about quietly beneath the trees without taking

fright although they always showed signs of nervousness if we stood

directly beneath them, then they would defecate and urinate. Since

alarm would have caused them to flee it would seem that this behaviour

was merely the result of nervousness though the accuracy at times might

suggest that it was a conscious act on their part.

Voice

The most commonly heard utterance of the Golden Langur was a low-

pitched, fast repeated wr-ur-ur-ur- usually made when quarrelling or

mildly disputing food or right of way. This noise is of low intensity

and not unlike the ‘ whickering’ of the European Badger Meles meles.

If suddenly alarmed the langurs uttered a harsh bark of anger, this was

always a double note agh-agh repeated at intervals.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES ay 477

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author is especially grateful to Mr. E. P. Gee for all his help and

advice which made the expedition to the Bhutan Manas Sanctuary

possible. He also wishes to acknowledge with gratitude the assistance

given by the staff of both the Bhutan and the Assam Forest Departments.

DIRECTOR,

NORFOLK WILDLIFE PARK, | PHILIP WAYRE

GREAT WITCHINGHAM,

NorwitcH, U.K.

March 21, 1968.

REFERENCES

CHAMPION, H. (1938): A preliminary GeE, E. P. (1964): The wild life of

-survey of forest types of Indiaand Burma. India. Colins. London.

Ind. For. Rec. (N.S.) 1.

3. BREEDING HABITS OF THE FIELD RAT MILLARDIA

MELTADA (GRAY)

INTRODUCTION

Of the 91 species of rats and mice found in India, at least 25 occur

in the Punjab (Deoras 1964). Among the field rats found around

Ludhiana, Millardia meltada (Gray) is very common and comprised 50

per cent of the rats collected during September-November. It is

abundant, and along with other species of rats, causes serious damage to

important field crops like wheat, gram, sugarcane, groundnut etc.

Previously, efforts to breed Tatera indica, another important species, in

captivity for studies on its biology did not meet with success due to its

cannibalistic habits (Singh 1961). Cannibalism was a problem in

M. meltada also, but during the period of this study it was possible to

reduce cannibalism to a low level in this species by giving special food ;

and the results of the study on its breeding habits in captivity are

presented in this paper.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Twenty new born young with their mothers were dug out from fields

_ during March to May, 1965. These were kept in breeding cages measur-

“ing 45x<3022°5 cm. made of strong wire netting. The bottom of

each cage was provided with a sliding metal tray for collecting faeces and

urine. To provide darkness and privacy the cages were painted black,

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

478

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 479

placed on racks and curtained. They were fed on gram flour enriched

with multivitamins, ostocalcium and sugar at the rate of 2, 2 and 10 per

cent, respectively. The quantity of food and water provided was always

in excess of their requirements and food was renewed every day. The

mother rats were removed as soon as their young started feeding on

flour bait. Only 15 (7 males and 8 females) of the 20 young survived

up to 2 June, 1965, when pairing was done. Thus, 7 pairs were

made and the extra female was discarded. In 6 out of the 7 pairs, siblings

were paired. Each pair was placed ina cage of the dimensions mentioned

above. The young produced by each pair were allowed to remain in

the same cage until they started feeding on the flour bait, when they were

separated and placed in a different cage.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Out of the seven pairs, one pair died on 23 July, 1965, without

producing a single litter. The breeding records of the remaining 6 pairs

are presented in Table 1. The young born in captivity to rats of first

generation in the month of August were paired in the month of October,

and their breeding behaviour is given in Table 2.

TABLE 2

BREEDING IN SECOND GENERATION Millardia meltada IN CAPTIVITY

Date of litter Number of

Sr. No. Date of birth Date of pairing production young in the

litter

tT: 23.8.65 23.10.65 15.4.66 4

2; 21.8.65 23.10.65 18.4.66 6

Breeding Seasons: As seen in Table 1, litters were produced in two

breeding periods: (i) from March to May and (ii) from August to

October. These findings are in agreement with those of Deoras (1964)

who maintains that in Bombay rats breed mainly during the hot months,

one peak being during August to October and the other during March

to May. This is also supported by the findings of Singh (1961) who

found that in the field, the young of Tatera indica are available with their

mothers in the months of March to May and again in October to

November.

Number of litters and young per litter: In each breeding period

M. meltada reproduced 1 to 4 times—a female produced a maximum of 3

litters during March to May and 4 litters during July to September,

480 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

Thus, the number of litters in an year may range from 2 to 7. This

observation is similar to that of Burton (1962) who reported that in a

year Rattus rattus and Rattus norvegicus produced 5 to 6 litters and 6

litters, respectively.

TABLE 3

APPROXIMATE GESTATION PERIOD IN THE FIELD RAT, Millardia meltada

Sr. No. Date last litter Date next litter SE Geo:

f. 23.8.65 16.9.65 24

2. 14.8.65 18.9.65 ates

3; 26.3.66 15.4.66 20

4. 26.3.66 16.4.66° 21

5), 26.3.66 6.5.66 41

6. 9.4.66 20.5.66 41

of 15.4.66 6.5.66 21

8. 28.7.66 18.8.66 21

9. 7.8.66 29.8.66 22

10. ; 29.8.66 26.9.66 28

11. 18.8.66 10.9.66 23

12; 10.9.66 1.10.66 21

During this laboratory study the 6 pairs produced 93 young in 27

litters and the number of young ones per litter varied from 1 to 8, the

average being 3°44; whereas in field collections each of 6 litters contained

5 to 8 young, the average being 6. These numbers are quite comparable

with 7 to 8 young per litter in case of R. norvegicus (Perry 1945) and 6

young per litter in case of R. rattus (Watson 1951). In all cases, the

females gave birth to the young at wan This finding is in line with

that of Snell (1941). |

Gestation period: Mating was not observed because it might be occurr-

ing at night or for extremely short intervals if it occurred during the day.

Also no chemical pregnancy tests were carried out to determine the gesta-

tion period. However, the data presented in Table 3 indicate that the

minimum period elapsing between the dates. of production of two con-

secutive litters was 20 days. This means that the gestation period was

20 days or even shorter than this. This is comparable with the figure

(21 days) given by Clegg & Clegg (1963) for rats in general and 20 to 26

days in R. norvegicus and 21 to 30 days in R. rattus reported PY Burton

(1962).

Maturity : Out of the 20 field collected young the 6 females that were

used for the study of breeding habits, produced their first litter after 158,

127,.111, 335, 108 and 116 days respectively and considering that the

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 481

gestation period is about 20 days, the probable time taken to attain

sexual maturity in these six cases works out to 138, 107, 91, 315, 88 and

96 days, respectively. Thus, in case of young born in the months of

March to May the time taken to attain maturity varied from 3 to 43

months with the result that irrespective of the month of their birth all

the 6 females born in the March to May breeding season produced their

first litter during August the same year. However, there was one excep-

tion wherein the female. produced its first litter only after 334 days or

11 months (Table 1). The two females born in the laboratory during

August and paired in October produced their first litter in the following

Aprili.e. after a period of 215 and 220 days or approximately 7 months

(Table 2).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors are thankful to Dr. A. S. Atwal, Professor and Head

of Department of Zoology-Entomology, for his keen interest in this study,

and to the Indian Council of Agricultural Research for financing the

Project—* Co-ordinated Scheme for Research on the study of habits and

methods of control of field rats ’, under which this work was carried out.

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY,

PUNJAB AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY,

LUDHIANA.

January 3, 1967.

-O. S. BINDRA

PREM SAGAR

REFERENCES

Burton, M. (1962): Systematic Dic-

tionary of mammals of the World.

Museum Press Limited. London, 307 pp.

CLEGG, P. C. & CLEGG, A. C. (1963) :

Biology of an Mammal. Heinemann.

London, 437 p

DEORAS, ]e ae (1964) : Rats and their

control, a chapter in Entomology in

India. Entomo. Soc. India, New Delhi,

529 pp.

Perry, J. S. (1945) : The reproduction

of the wild brown rat. Proc. zool. Soc.

SINGH, B. (1961) : Studies on the bio-

logy, habits and control of the field rat

(Tatera indica). Unpublished Thesis,

Punjab University, Chandigarh.

SNELL, GEORGE, D. (Ed. by) (1941):

Biology of the laboratory mouse.

Dover Publications Inc. New York,

497 pp.

Watson, J. S. (1951) : The rat problem

in Cyprus—A report of investigations

made in carob growing areas. Colonial

Res. P. Publ. (London), 9 : 1-66.

London 115 : 19-46.

4. NEW RECORDS OF MAMMALS FROM RAJASTHAN,

INDIA

Since the publication of the recent authoritative literature on the

distribution of Indian Mammals by Pocock (1939, 1941), and Ellerman &

Morrison-Scott (1951), several new records of mammals have been made

by Prakash (1956, 1957, 1959, 1961, 1963a, 19635, 1964) and Agrawal

(1967) from Rajasthan. The recent mammalian collections made in

Rajasthan by various parties of the Rajasthan Desert Survey of the

Zoological Survey of India include examples of two species of mammals,

482 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

which are yet unreported from that State. While the detailed taxonomic

discussion on this material will be considered in a later paper, we have

thought it worthwhile to publish the new mammalian records hereunder.

Pipistrellus mimus mimus Wroughton. The Indian Pygmy Pipistrelle

(Chiroptera : Vespertilionidae).

Material examined: 10 33 (2 subad.), 6 992 (2 subad.) and 2 unsexed from

Nagaur District (Gudha, Lihora, Nawa) ; April and August, 1958.

According to Wroughton (1918) and Ellerman & Morrison-Scott

(1951), it occurs over a wide territory from Ceylon to Kathiawar in the

south, and in the north from Kumaon to western Burma, and Annam

in the east. The present material appears to constitute the first report of

this subspecies from Rajasthan.

Herpestes edwardsi nyula Hodgson.

(Carnivora : Viverridae).

Material examined : 1 2 from Marwar District (Pali) ; December, 1956.

According to Pocock (1941) and Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951)

Herpestes edwardsi ferrugineus Blanford occurs in Rajasthan which is its

eastern limit. Westward it occurs up to Iraq through parts of north-

western India, Sind, Baluchistan and Iran. The present specimen of

H. e. nyula which has so far been known from Kutch to Bengal south of

the river Ganga and Nepal to Assam north of that river (Pocock, 1941,

Ellerman & Morrison-Scott, 1951), constitutes the first authentic record

of this subspecies from Rajasthan.

Examples of H. e. ferrugineus in the collection of the Zoological Survey

of India are from the northern, north-western and western parts of

Rajasthan, while nyula is known from the south-eastern region.

The Indian Grey Mongoose

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

INDIAN MUSEUM,

CALCUTTA=13.

February 22, 1968.

BISWAMOY BISWAS

R. K. GHOSE

REFERENCES

AGRAWAL, V. C. (1967) : New mammal

records from Rajasthan. Labdev J.

Sci. & Tech., India, 5 : 342-344.

ELLERMAN, J. R. & MORRISON-SCOTT,

T. C. S. (1951) : Checklist of Palaearctic

and Indian mammals. London (British

Museum).

Pocock, R. I. (1939, 1941) : The fauna

of British India. Mammalia, 1, 2.

London.

PRAKASH, I. (1956) : A list of mammals

of Rajasthan desert. J. Bengal nat. Hist.

Soc. 28: 1-17.

———— (1957): Additions to the

list of mammals of Rajasthan desert.

ibid. 28: 169-170.

-—_—— (1959) :_ Checklist of, the

mammals of Rajasthan desert. Univ.

Rajasthan Studies, Biol. Sci. 4: 30-56.

(1961): New mammal re-

cords and zoo-geography of mammals in

the Rajasthan desert. Proc. Indian Sci.

Congr., 47 (3) [1960]: 488-489.

(1963a): Taxonomic and

biological observations on the bats of the

Rajasthan desert. Rec. Indian Mus..

59 [1961] : 149-170.

— (19635): Taxonomical and

ecological account of the mammals of

Rajasthan desert: Ann. Arid. Zone,

Jodhpur, 1: 142-162.

———— (1964): Taxonomical and

ecological account of the mammals of

Rajasthan desert. ibid. 2: 150-161.

WROUGHTON, R. C. (1918) : Summary

of the results from the Indian Mammal

Survey of the Bombay Natural History

Society. Part 1. J. Bombay nat. Hist,

Soc, 25; 17-58,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 483

5. ON THE FOOD HABITS OF CORMORANTS IN THE

BREEDING SEASON

Every year a good number of Cormorants (Phalacrocorax sp..,)

Night Herons (Nycticorax nycticorax), and Anhingas (Anhinga

melanogaster) assemble in the trees within the Calcutta Zoological

Gardens for nidification. Night Herons seem to be permanent residents

while cormorants and anhinga frequent the garden only during breed-

ing season. The cormorants begin to assemble in the beginning of May.

The population attains a peak during the breeding months from June to

September. By the end of October most birds leave although some are

Seen even in early December. We had the opportunity of examining the

nest loads of dry fish and stomach contents of young birds when a few

branches had to be cut down, thus bringing down hundreds of nest and

young ones.

On the basis of this examination it is evident that the birds consume

a lot of fish which forms their main food during the season. The follow-

ing fishes could be identified.

1. . Tilapia (67% of total)

2. Major carps (27% of total)

3. Ophicephalus (6% of total)

Very small fishes were found in the crops of very young birds. The

biggest fish brought were in the weight range 23-32 gm.

The highest values of weight are given below :—

Tilapia 31 gm.

Labeo rohita ee.

Ophicephalus 32 ,,

These data show that Tilapia forms the major item of consumption

during breeding season perhaps because this species is plentiful and is

a surface-dweller. It is well known that tilapia breed at a very rapid rate

so that ultimately we have a very large number of very small fish which

are not of marketable size. Various schemes have been suggested for

Weeding out its excessive number. In nature cormorants may act as

such balancing agents.

We are deeply grateful to Sri R. K. Lahiri, Superintendent, Calcutta

Zoo Gardens for his sincere co-operation.

ZOOLOGY DEPARTMENT, A. R. SENGUPTA

BRAHMANANDA KESHAB CHANDRA COLLEGE,

BoN-HOOGHLY,

CALCUTTA-35.

INDIAN STATISTICAL INSTITUTE,

CaALcuTTA-35. R. L, BRAHMACHARY

September 10, 1967.

484 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

6. GREYHEADED LAPWING VANELLUS CINEREUS

(BLYTH) : NEW RECORD FOR RAJASTHAN

I saw three Greyheaded Lapwings along with Wood Sandpiper, and

Redwattled Lapwing at the water’s edge within the Ghana Sanctuary,

Bharatpur (27° 13’N., 77° 32’E.) on 20 January 1968. The known winter

range of this migrant, in the Indian region, is Kashmir, Bihar, Assam,

East Pakistan and the Andamans. )

The birds were seen at 4.30 p.m. in bright light, through field glasses

at close quarters. All the features including the colour of the irides

could be clearly noted. The pectoral band was considerably dark in one

individual, and in another it was very faint.

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY,

HORNBILL HOUSE, B. ROBERT GRUBH |

BOMBAY. dat

March 23, 1968.

[Winter visitor. Quite common in Assam, Manipur, and East

Pakistan ; also in Kathmandu Valley, Nepal. Occurs in N. Bihar, and

stragglers recorded in Kashmir, Dehra Dun, and the Andaman Islands.

A large proportion of our visitors are young birds without the pectoral

band (Salim Ali & Ripley, HANDBOOK)—Eds, ]

7. ON THE OCCURRENCE OF THE BLACKSHAFTED

LITTLE TERN (STERNA ALBIFRONS SAUNDERSI

HUME) NEAR BOMBAY

In 1964 [Races of Sterna albifrons Pallas in India and Pakistan

(J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 61 : 440-446)], Humayun Abdulali had refer-

red to the absence of records of the Blackshafted Little Tern Sterna

albifrons saundersi Hume, south of the Gulf of Kutch.

~ On 10 April 1967, I saw several Little Terns in Dharamtar Creek,

Kolaba District, a few miles south of Bombay, and the two specimens

obtained are of this race, presumably on their way towards their breed-

ing grounds around Karachi.

All three races sinensis (breeding), albifrons and saundersi have n now

been recorded from our area.

St. Xavier’s HicH SCHOOL, ~ A, NAVARRO, s.J.

BOMBAY.

January 9, 1968,

i ik i a ae

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 485

“8. PARENTAL INSTINCTS IN KOEL EUDYNAM YS

SCOLOPACEA (LINNAEUS)

On 25 July 1965 at about 4.45 p.m. I located a crow’s nest on a neem

tree on the outskirts of Rajpipla thickly overgrown with trees. The

river Karjan was about a furlong from the tree with the nest. To have

a better view of he nest I climbed on a higher branch of a nearby banyan

tree.

The nest was occupied by an adult crow (Corvus splendens) which

perched on the edge of the nest, facing me and thus obscuring my

view of the nest’s interior. Another adult crow was perched on a

nearby branch. This evidently was the parent pair. :

- At 5.15 p.m. the bird away from the nest gave a low Caa....rr....

aww and flew off in the direction of the river. After a minute or two the

bird on the nest also flew off in the same direction, perhaps to quench

their thirst in the river.

In about a couple of minutes I heard a flutter of wings above my head

and saw a female koel (Eudynamys scolopacea). It had something in its

beak, probably an insect. I paid no further attention to her presence.

- [saw through my binoculars that the crow’s nest held four nestlings

of which one was slightly larger and already had some feathers. As I

watched the nest the koel approached it very cautiously, and was soon

on its edge. The insect still held in its beak was now identified as a

grasshopper. The nestlings reacted to her approach with outstretched

necks and wide open beaks.

The koel cautiously scanned the surroundings for the sudden approach

of the rightful owners of the nest and being satisfied of its safety fed the

largest nestling and started pecking at the other nestlings. It also started

pushing them to the edge of the nest, with perhaps the intention of throw-

ing them out of the nest. The frightened nestlings started calling, rls

Koel nestling was also pushing the crow nestlings off the nest.

The cries of the nestlings brought the furious parents and the koel

busy attacking the crow nestlings was caught redhanded. The crows

pounced upon the koel and all three went tumbling down the branches

and somehow, the koel managed to escape and fled from the scene with

one of the crows in hot pursuit, while the other returned to the nest and

Started inspecting the nestlings. After being satisfied it settled down in

the nest, preening its feathers and setting them right after the rough fight.

After a while, the other crow returned, evidently after a fruitless pursuit.

I kept watch on the same nest for three more days, but De unusual

occurred,

My observations indicate that the koel may have a certain amount of

instinctive desire to feed its young,

486 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

I also feel that the adult koel’s efforts to throw off the crow nestlings

was an extension of the instinct in koel nestlings to do away with other

nestlings and eggs in their nest. This conclusion has added support

as it has been observed that when a koel lays its eggs in the host nest, she

also removes other eggs from the nest. It has been observed and re-

corded that koel do feed their offsprings that have left their nest.

This incident also definitely shows that the koel shows some interest

in parental care, and is not completely devoid of the instinct of parental

Cane:

Several problems require answers. Does the koel recognise its young

after the long period of incubation? Whether the young was her own

or the nest was a completely different one and the koel acted merely in-

stinctively ? Did the koel keep track of the nest in which she laid her

egg so that she could recognise her young after hatching? Whether the

male has any trace of parental instinct ? |

I am sure, these questions will encourage readers to be on the look-

out for crows and the koel.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am indebted to the University Grants Commission for awarding a

research grant which made this work possible. I am also indebted to

Dr Salim Ali, for his suggestions. Thanks are also due to the Secre-

tary, Adiwasi Kelavani Mandal, Rajpipla, for offering all possible help.

DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGY,

M.R. ARTS AND SCIENCE COLLEGE, DHRUV DIXIT

RAJPIPLA. |

July 23, 1967.

REFERENCES

LamBaA, B. S. (1963): The nidification Lownpbes, D. G. (1952): Does the

of some common Indian Birds—Part 1. adult cuckoo ever assist in feeding its

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 60 (1) : 121-133. offspring? ibid., 50 (4) : 945.

9. BLACKCAPPED KINGFISHER HALCYON PILEATA

(BODDAERT) AT BHARATPUR, RAJASTHAN

During the Bombay Natural History Society’s Bird Migration Study

Project (1967-68) at Ghana Bird Sanctuary, Bharatpur (27° 13’N., 77°

32’E.) a Blackcapped Kingfisher was caught in our net on 9 Feb. 1968.

This specimen was preserved and bears Reg. No. 22931 of the Society’s

bird collection, Another bird was seen in the same area later,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 487

This bird is usually seen along the coasts and has not been recorded

so far inland in western India though in the east it is known from Monghyr

(Bihar) on the Ganges and eastern Assam.

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY,

HORNBILL HOUSE, B. R. GRUBH

BOMBAY. J. D. PANDAY

March 23, 1968. P. B. SHEKAR

10. CROWS AND COMPANIONSHIP

(With a text-figure)

On the evening of 29 December 1965, I and my friend Rojer Finzel

of the American Peace Corps stationed at Rajpipla were sitting on the

terrace of my house when we saw an unusual sight, a crow (Corvus

splendens) with a broken_upper beak as in the text-figure.

Brokes,

“Pperbeak

Beh

rem

oe Ae

We were wondering as to how it would feed itself. After watching

it for a while I decided to take its photograph, and -went!into the house

but on returning with the camera I was disappointed to notice that the

crow had flown off.

On the morning of 31 December at about 7.30 a.m. I saw the bird

again. It was trying to feed itself by bending its head to one side and

scooping the food with the lower beak. It failed several times in its

efforts to secure the food but in the end managed to place it on the lower

beak and tilting its head upwards as birds do to drink water, swallowed

the food with slow jerky movements.

When it was trying again to pick up another bit a couple of crows

nearby came and started feeding it. This led me to the hasty conclusion

488 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

that the bird was young but more careful observation confirmed that it

was an adult. This indicates a sympathy towards a crippled member of

the flock. However, a more plausible explanation could be that this

bird lost its upper beak as a nestling and the pair that had fed it as a

nestling continued to feed it considering its helplessness.

I shall be very much interested in any similar incident recorded.

DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGY, :

M.R. ARTS AND SCIENCE COLLEGE, DHRUV DIXIT

RAJPIPLA. |

July 23, 1967.

11. THE WAXWING, BOMBYCILLA GARRULUS

(LINNAEUS), IN NEPAL

The Waxwing, Bombycilla garrulus (Linnaeus), has been reported in

southern Asia from Quetta and Bannu in extreme western Pakistan

(Ripley 1961 : 319). Recently I undertook a study trip with members

of the Natural History Society of Woodstock School, Mussoorie, U.P.

to the Gosainkund Lekh region. north of Kathmandu. On the morn-

ing of 16 December 1967, Mr. Robert Waltner, Staff Advisor to the

Society, reported seeing a solitary ‘ waxwing-like’ bird near our camp

at Thare Pate Puchari. Later the same day I found a flock of four wax-

wings perched in the top of a bare tree at c. 3660 m. (12,000 feet) ele-

vation ; two were collected.

These birds were in association with Whitewinged Grosbeaks,

Mycerobas carnipes (Hodgson), and Blackthroated Thrushes, Turdus

rujicollis Pallas, in a mixed forest of Juniperus, Rhododendron, Magnolia

and Abies. The only note heard was the familiar high ‘ zeeee zeeeee’

given when the birds. were about to fly. The ventriculi of the two birds

contained whole juniper berries (probably of Juniperus recurva, see

Stainton, 1964 : Appendix E). Measurements of the specimens were :

RLF 2131 : 2, wing 116 mm.; RLF 2132: 9, wing 114 mm.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Dr. R. L. Fleming, Sr., helped greatly in making arrangements for.

our trip. I also wish to express my thanks to the officials of the Foreign

Office and Forest Department of His Majesty’s Government for per-

mission to trek and collect in Nepal.

OFFICE OF ECOLOGY,

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, ROBERT L. FLEMING Jr.

WASHINGTON, D.C. 20560.

December 23, 1967.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 489

REFERENCES

Ripetey, S. D. (1961): A Synopsis of STAINTON, J. D. A. (1964) : Notes on

the Birds of India and Pakistan. Journeys in East Nepal, 1964. Mimeo-

Bombay. graphed.

12. EXTENSION OF RANGE OF ISABELLINE CHAT

OENANTHE ISABELLINA (TEMMINCK)

On 5 November 1967 we obtained, in open scrub by the side of

Matoba Tank near Yewat, Dhond Taluka, Poona, a bird which by

appearance and behaviour seemed to be a Desert Wheatear (Oenanthe

deserti), except that when once it settled under a ‘Tarwad’ (Cassia auri-

culata) bush its upright stance suggested a pipit rather than a chat. Upon

closer examination it proves to be a female Isabelline Chat, Oenanthe

isabellina (Temminck).

O. isabellina is accepted as a common migrant through the north-

west. Butler (1880) in A CATALOGUE OF THE BIRDS OF THE SOUTHERN

- PORTION OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY, says: ‘ Rare. Occurs as a strag-

gler about Nagar. I have no other record of its occurrence within the

region’. Blanford (1890) accepts it as far south as Ahmednagar

(Nagar), slightly north of the present locality, but this is omitted in sub-

sequent literature, the southern limit being given as a line from North

Gujarat, east through Sehore (Bhopal) to Banares, in Ripley’s SyNopsis.

This also (correctly) ignores a female deserti collected by Salim Ali

at Bhyander, Thana District, Bombay, and listed (BNHS Reg. No. 2587)

under O. isabellina.

In the hand, the heavier bill, the longer tarsus (29 mm.), the white

(and not buff) upper-tail coverts, and the generally bulkier appearance

clearly separate isabellina from female deserti and some of these differ-

ences may be noticeable in the field. The male deserti is of course quite

different.

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY,

HORNBILL HOUSE, HUMAYUN ABDULALI

Bomsay-1. 7 R. J. PPMENTO

November 13, 1967.

1 BLANFORD, W. T. & OATES, E. W.: The Fauna of British India. Birds 2 : 77.

490 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 @

13. GREYWINGED BLACKBIRD TURDUS BOULBOUL

(LATHAM) AT BHARATPUR, RAJASTHAN

We saw a male Greywinged Blackbird in the Ghana Bird Sanctuary,

Bharatpur (27° 13’N., 77° 32’E.) in the afternoon of 25 February 1968.

The bird, which settled on a low tree, was not shy and could be approach-

ed as near as 25 feet. Its black plumage with prominent grey patch

running from part of the wing coverts to the inner secondaries, and the

finely barred abdomen, together with reddish orange bill and yellow eye

lids leave no doubt as to its identity. It was seen on three successive

days in the same area.

This species has not been recorded south of the Punjab Salt Range

where it is noted as ‘ occasionally straggling in winter’ by Ripley (1961).

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, B. R. GRUBH

HORNBILL HOUSE, P. B. SHEKAR

BOMBAY. J. D. PANDAY

March 23, 1968.

REFERENCE

Ripcey, S. D. (1961): A Synopsis of Bombay Natural History Society,

the Birds of India and Pakistan: 532, Bombay.

14. THE GREEN ALGA, SPIROGYRA SP. IN THE DIET

OF THE WHITEBACKED MUNIA, LONCHURA

STRIATA (LINN.)

On the morning of 9-1x-1967, while crossing a rice field in process of

conversion into a housing site in the eastern outskirts of Ernakulam, my

path lay over uneven ground thrown into a series of hollows and dep-

ressions which were filled up during the recent rains. As I neared one

of them in which the water had nearly dried up, a small party of white-

backed munias suddenly flew down from their perch on the nearest tele-

graph wire and were seen to peck at the green algae which had formed on

its exposed moist bed. From where I stood hardly 6 feet away, I could

clearly see a green strand of the alga in the beak of the bird nearest to

me, slowly being swallowed. The other birds hopped about on the

sandy bottom, pecking at the green mass and seemingly enjoying them-

selves. However, before I could continue with my observation, the

sound of approaching footsteps disturbed the birds and sent them scurry-

ing from their meal.

The green alga struck me as rather an unusual item in the diet of this

munia, which along with others of its tribe, is known to feed chiefly on

seeds and grains. Whether or not this choice of food is commoner than

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 41

just accidental, only further observations willshow. Perhaps some of the

readers of your esteemed Journal may have had a similar experience ?

The algal slime found in the depressions was identified as Spirogyra sp.

with an admixture of diatoms by Prof. S. Iyer, Head of the Department

of Botany, The Maharaja’s College, Ernakulam, to whom my. grateful

thanks are due.

* BELLE-VUE ’ |

DEWAN’S RoabD, N. G. PILLAI

ERNAKULAM.

November 13, 1967.

15. OCCURRENCE OF THE SNAKE 7YPHLOPS DIARDI

SCHLEGEL IN THE DUN VALLEY

I collected two specimens of Typhlops diardi Schlegel from (Reg.

No. V229) Dharmawala Forest Block, Timli Forest Range, Dehra Dun

Forest Division, Dehra Dun District. on 9 March, 1963, and a female

(Reg. No. V 230) from a drain near Garhi Cantonment, Dehra Dun, on

10 June, 1964. The species has not been recorded earlier from the

Western Himalayas.

The specimens show some variation in the lepidosis from that given

by Smith (1935) FAUNA OF BRITISH INDIA, Reptilia and Amphibia, 3 : 52

“eye distinct, usually in the ocular shield, the lower edge of which is

wedged in between 3rd and 4th labial’. The eyes are distinct in the

ocular shield and the lower edge of the ocular is not wedged in between

3 and 4 supralabials, but the ocular touches the 4th supralabial.

The female specimen contained 9 fully developed eggs of 4-7 mm.

size. It appears that the egg laying season commences in tne in the

Dun Valley.

~ Smith (op. cit.) gives the range of T. a diardi as ‘ Bengal, Assam,

Burma and French Indo-China north of lat. 16°’. The present record

of the species from Dun Valley considerably extends the western range

of the species.

NORTHERN REGIONAL STATION, | | i ‘|

ZOOLOGICAL SuRvVEY OF INDIA, , |. ...... R.K. BHATNAGAR

DEHRA DUN.

May 26, 1966.

492 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

16. UNUSUAL BEHAVIOUR OF TWO MALE RAT

SNAKES, PTYAS MUCOSUS re

On 8 May, 1966 we saw two Rat Snakes, Ptyas mucosus (Linn.)

twined around each other, on a grassy patch of land at Rajpur. Though

a crowd had gathered around them the snakes remained twined with

the fore-body raised approximately 2 to 3 feet above ground and sway-

ing to and fro. When first observed, we thought that the snakes were

mating, but the everted hemipenis disproved this assumption. Later

the snakes were shot by one of us (A.K.B.) but by the time we could

bring a collection bag the watching crowd had started a fire to ward off

the supposedly bad omen! However, the specimens were saved and

later deposited in the Northern Regional Station of the Zoological Sur-

vey of India, Dehra Dun.

Neither Smith (1935) nor Wall (1906) have reported such unusual

behaviour in the species. However, Abdulali (1941) who has observed

similar behaviour, states ‘ the chances are that the males were -fighting

but no attempt was made to bite each other. It might be interesting to

examine other pairs of snakes apparently in coitus’. Though the snakes

we saw were swaying their bodies and occasionally hissing, yet no

attempt was made to bite or to tighten the coils around each other.

This behaviour is certainly unusual and apparently rarely seen, otherwise

there would certainly have been numerous reports in the Journal.

I/C 14 SuRVEY PARTY,

4, CONVENT ROAD, DEHRA DuN. A. K. BHATTACHARYA

NORTHERN REGIONAL STATION,

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, R. K. BHATNAGAR

* RUSHMI’, 13-SUBHASH ROAD,

DEHRA Dun.

June 2, 1966.

REFERENCES

ABDULALI, H. (1941): Rat-snakes WALL, F. (1906): A popular treatise

fighting. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. on Common Indian Snakes. Part IJII.

42 : 666. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 17: 259-

SmiTH, M. oN (1935): Fauna of British 273.

India : Reptilia Se 59:

[The exact significance of this behaviour known as ‘ combat dance’

is not clear. It is thought that it may be due to sexual or territorial

rivalry. This behaviour, though well known among some rattle-snakes

(Crotalidae) and an Australian elaphid, has been recorded only for the

rat snake among Indian snakes.—EDs.]

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 493

17. A NOTE ON THE FOOD AND FEEDING HABITS

OF TOR MAHSEER, TOR TOR (HAMILTON) FROM

RIVER NARMADA!

Tor tor (Hamilton), popularly known as Tor Mahseer is one of the

game fishes of India. This species ranks first in the commercial catches

of River Narmada near Hoshangabad and constitutes about 28:0% in

the total landings and 47:0% in the carp fishery. It attains a maximum

length of 4 feet (Hora 1940 and MacDonald 1948), but the largest speci-

men recorded from River Narmada at Hoshangabad measured 2 feet

and 10 inches. As, in recent years, the culture of Mahseer fry in con-

fined waters has been attempted for sport fishing and cultural purposes,

knowledge of the natural food of Mahseer is essential. Though Hora

(1940), Codrington (1946) and MacDonald (1948), among others have

contributed on the bionomics and natural history of Tor Mahseer,

detailed information on its food and feeding habits are so far lacking.

Detailed observations on the food of this fish were therefore made at

the Narmada Tapti Unit of the Central Inland Fisheries Research In-

stitute at Hoshangabad. A preliminary statement of there observations

is given in the present note.

The gut contents of 577 specimens (size range : 200-790 mm.) of this

fish were analysed by eye estimation and occurrence method.

The fish mainly subsists on macrovegetation (48°5 %), algae (14° 5 YA):

molluscs (10°5 %) and insects (8°3%). The macrovegetation comprises

a variety of submerged plants like Vallisneria including its seeds (8°7 %),

various kinds of grass (6°9%), Naias (2°5%), Ceratophyllum (1:2%),

Hydrilla (0°4°%), unidentified plants (1:6 %), twigs (2°4%), roots (0°3%)

and digested plant matter (24:°5°%). These items form the bulk of gut

contents throughout the year. The algal food is formed by the filamen-

tous and branched algae like Spirogyra (8°9 °%), Chara (2°5°%), Pithophora

(08%), Mougeotia (0°6%), Zygnema (0°5°%) and unidentified semi-

digested algae (1'2%). The molluscs are represented by Corbicula

striatella (7:7°%), Indonaia caerulea (0'2°%) and Parreysia favidens (0°1°%)

among pelecypods (8:0°%) and Viviparus bengalensis (2:0%) and Mela-

noides (Tarebia) lineatus (0°5°%) among gastropods (2°5%). The aquatic

insects which comprise mostly bottom dwelling insect larvae are rep-

resented by orders Trichoptera, mostly caddisworms (3°7%) ; Diptera,

mostly Chironomus larvae (2°1%) ; Ephemeroptera, only nymphs (0°6 %) ;

Odonata, Dragonfly nymphs (0°4°%) ; Hemiptera, adult water bugs and

1 Published with the permission of the Director, Central Inland F ehdnes Betearcd

Institute, Barrackpore (via Calcutta).

494 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

water boatmen (0°4%) ; and Coleoptera, both adults and larvae (0° yale

The digested insect matter made up 1.0% in the gut contents.

Besides these principal food components, the other items which are

incidentally taken by the fish while feeding at bottom are fish remains

consisting of bones and scales (0:2 °/), miscellaneous animal matter com-

prising crabs, crustacean appendages and centipedes (0°2%), debris con-

sisting of cloth, paper, stone and charcoal pieces (7°9%) and sand and

mud (7'8%). Smaller quantities of sand are also contributed by the

crushed cases of caddisworms. The presence of fully and semi-digested

plum fruit, (2°1°%) in some of the guts is attributed to totes of fish by

the fishermen to lure them to fishing grounds.

It feeds voraciously from November to June (av. gastrosomatic

index : 4:23). The feeding intensity of this fish is poor from July to

October (av. gastrosomatic index : 1°78) which coincides with its breed-

ing season. |

The composition of the diet of Tor Mahseer clearly indicates

that it is a marginal bottom feeder and is mainly herbivorous (macro-

vegetation and algae : 63:0 %) and carnivorous to alesser degree (molluscs

and insects: 18°8%) in feeding habits. Hora & Mukerji (1936) also

stated that Tor Mahseer [Tor tor (Hamilton) Barbus tor (Hamilton)]

feeds ‘ preferably on filamentous algae and water plants ’.

The protrusible and suctorial mouth of the fish and the presence

of large quantities of sand, mud and debris (15°7%) in the guts are

suggestive of bottom feeding habits. The marginal shallow portions of

river bed where the water current is feeble are densely covered with sub-

merged rooted vegetation and algae which invariably harbour insects,

molluscs and other biota. While ‘ grazing’ at the river bottom, the fish

ingests macrovegetation and algae, along withinsects and molluscs dwell-

ing among them, and other bottom biota. :

On the basis of herbivorous feeding habits of ‘ Katli’, Barbus (Lis-

sochilus) hexagonolepis, Saha & Sen (1956) have indicated its utility in the

biological control of submerged aquatic vegetation in ponds. Since Tor

Mahseer feeds extensively on underwater rooted vegetation and algae

in its natural habitat, it is regarded as a true herbivore and could be used

for the biological control of submerged weeds. Being a native species,

the possibilities of using Tor Mahseer for successful biological control

of weeds in ponds are worth exploring in India and intensive studies may

be undertaken to evaluate its suitability as an effective weed control agent.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

| The authors are extremely grateful to Dr. B. Ss. Bhimachar and Dr..V.

G. Jhingran for their encouragement during thé course of this. study and

Less

Narmaba-Tapti UNIT,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

495

to the Director, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta for the identifi-

cation of molluscs from River Narmada.

CENTRAL INLAND FISHERIES |

RESEARCH INSTITUTE,

HOSHANGABAD (M.P.)

February 25, 1964.

V. R. DESAI

S. J. KARAMCHANDANI

REFERENCES

CODRINGTON, K. De. B. (1946):

Notes on the Indian. Mahseers J. -

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 46 : 336-344.

HordA, S. L. (1940) : The Game fishes

of India Pt. IX—The Mahseers or -

large-scaled Barbels of India. ibid 41 :

518-525.

— & MoukeruI, D. D. (1936):

Fish of the eastern Doon, United Pro-

vinces Rec. Indian Mus. 38: 133-146.

Darjeeling District

cumventing the Mahseer and _ other

‘sporting -fish in India and Burma.

~ Bombay.

SAHA, K. C. & Sen, D. P. (1956):

Biological control -of submerged aquatic

vegetation in pond fisheries by culture

of ‘Katli? [Barbus (Lissochilus) hexa-

gonolepis|, a hill stream fish’ of

(West Bengal).

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 53 : 726-729.

MacDonatp, A. S. J. (1948): Cir-

18. A CASE OF ALBINISM IN HETEROPNEUSTES

, FOSSILIS (BLOCH)

An immature albino specimen of Heteropneustes fossilis (Bloch) was

obtained from a pond at Joysagar Fish Farm, Assam in the month of

April, 1965. The entire body of the fish was white with a bluish patch

on either side of the body behind pectoral fin. The colour of the eyes,

even in living condition of the specimen was also white. Each eye had

a slightly dark ring at the periphery caused probably by the colour of the

internal tissue; The albino measured 131 mm. in length and weighed

14:6 gm. Abnormality neither in external nor internal organs of the

albino was observed.

Albinism in fish is uncommon and has been described only in a few

cat fishes and in an eel. Hora (1926) has recorded partial albinism in

Magur, Clarias batrachus (Linn.). Other instances of albinism are

recorded by Dean (1923) in Clarias angularis and Silurus sp. and by

Aitkin (1937) in Ietalurus punctatus. Jones & Pantulu (1952) have

‘described albinism in the-freshwater eel, Anguila bengalensis. Gupta &

Bhowmic (1958) recorded an albino Arius jella Day. The occurence of

albinism in Heteropneustes fossilis (Bloch) forms another record of this

phenomenon among cat fish so far recorded in India.

RESEARCH OFFICER,

FISHERIES RESEARCH STATION,

JOYSAGAR, ASSAM. :

November 15, 1966,

M, C, BARUAH

496 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

REFERENCES

AITKIN, W. W. (1937); Albinism in JONES, S. & PANTULU, V. R. (1952):

Ictalurus punctatus. Copeia: 64. A remarkable case of albinism in Anguila

DEAN, B. (1923): A bibliography of bengalensis. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

fishes. American Museum of Natural 51 (1) : 285-286.

History, New York: 393. GupTA, P. D. & BHOowmic, R. M.

Hora, S. L. (1926): An albino Magur, (1958): An interesting case of Albinism

Clarias batrachus (Linn.). Jour. proc. in Arius jella Day, from India. Sci. and

Asiatic. Soc. Bengal. 22: 131. cult. 24 (6) : 283.

19. ON THE INTRODUCTION OF PHASLA JAL, A GILL

NET, FOR CATCHING HILSA IN THE GANGA AND

YAMUNA NEAR ALLAHABAD

(With a text-figure)

A detailed account of the fishing nets and traps employed in a section

of the middle reaches of the Ganga River System, during 1963 has been

given by Saxena (1966). At that time he reported, that gill net was not

used in this stretch for catching Hilsa, although major carps and cat-

fishes were being caught with gill nets, such as Tiar and Gochail. Jones

(1959 a & b) while describing fishing gears used for the capture of Hilsa,

has also not recorded this gear. The net described here has been recently

introduced in the Ganga and Yamuna near Allahabad reportedly during

1964. Lightness, convenience for operation, better yield with less effort

are the advantages of this net. Probably because of these, the net has

gained popularity in this region within a very short period, in spite of

the high initial cost owing to nylon being used in its fabrication. The

cost of the net comes to approximately fifty rupees.

Made of nylon twine of varying thickness, a single piece of the net

commonly known as Phasla Jal, has 280-300 meshes across and 40-50

meshes in depth. The head rope, usually 1-2 mm. in thickness and

made of either nylon or cotton, measures 15°62 m. in length. Floats,

made of several thin reeds joined together and measuring 13°5 cm. in

length and 4 mm. in diameter, are tied to the head rope at intervals of

38°5 cm. leaving about 10 meshes free in between every two floats.

Usually one mesh is left free along the length of the float (Figs. 1 and

2). Two to three such pieces are usually joined together in operation.

The most common mesh sizes encountered are 8°5 cm., 9°0 cm. and

10°5 cm. (stretched). Sometimes pieces of different mesh sizes are also

combined together for catching different size groups. The net is quite

often dyed blue probably as a camouflage. A notable feature of the

net is the complete absence of the bottom rope and sinkers.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 497

~ Two men and a small boat (dongi) are required to operate this net.

The net is payed out across the river where the current is sluggish. Ascen-

—> 8 a 35 cM iw HEAD Rope

wf. YY NV AVAVATANAVAYATATG'

: |

Fig. 1. A single piece of Phasla Jal.

Fig. 2. Showing arrangement of floats and meshes.

tne or descending Hilsa trying to pass through the body of the net get

gilled. Often they get enmeshed in the net due to its loose lower margin.

The enmeshed fish are taken out immediately, so that the effective catch-

ing area of the net is not reduced for subsequent catches. Phasla is

operated throughout the year except during the monsoon months, when

fast currents prevent its operation. The net is operated both in the

Ganga and Yamuna where the required depth and current occur during

the greater part of the year. The net is usually operated during night.

Phasla Jal of bigger mesh-size (19:0-20:00 cm.) and made of thicker

nylon fibre is used for catching major carps and catfishes. Phasla Jal

resembles the Tiar of Ganga, Rangoon-vala of ae, SESE of

Madras and Amyaw-paik of Burma.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors are thankful to Shri H. P. C. Shetty, Senior Research

Officer for his kind help in the preparation of this note.

CENTRAL INLAND FISHERIES

RESEARCH INSTITUTE, R. K. SAXENA

30, PANNALAL ROAD, RAVISH CHANDRA

ALLAHABAD-2.

September 21, 1967,

498 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

REFERENCES

SAXENA, R. K. (1966) : eee Indo- _ (Hamilton)] in theindian region. J.

Pacif. Fish. Coun. 11 (2): -71. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 56: 250-75;

JONES, (1959) : Dames methods 423-48.

for the Padiie Shad [Hilsa ilisha

20. FOOD HABITS OF THE BULL FROG

RANA TIGERINA (DAUD.)

A good deal of literature is available on the natural food of the Indian

Bull Frog, Rana tigerina (Daud). The reported observations could be

conveniently put under two heads, direct observations while feeding and

those based on examination of gut contents. Aitken (1895), Gostling

(1895), Whiffin (1895), Sundera Raj (1915), Davidson (1916), Zutshi

(1926), McCann (1933), Rao & Cherian (1940), Dharmakumarsinhji

(1940), and Bhaduri (1945) have made direct observations while Chibber

(1911), Agharkar (1912), Mullan (1912), Mahendra (1929), Iswar Prakash

(1953), and Wadekar (1963), studied the gut contents. The direct obser-

vations give us knowledge of the food, the feeding mechanism, defence

of the prey, etc., but considering the food factor direct observations are

usually isolated cases of unusual rather than normal food, whereas the

records of the gut contents show the overall picture of the general diet.

The present data is based on the gut-contents of frogs made avail-

able for dissections to students. The data is based on material collected

from 100 selected frogs received during the period of 14th July 1961 to

29th August 1961. After killing with chloroform, the frogs were

weighed, sexed and frogs with enlarged belly were dissected out to collect

the stomach contents. Frogs showing even little stomach contents were

taken into account.

The major contents of the stomach of R. tigerina are tabulated below.

The species appears to be polyphagous.

DISCUSSION

Out of the 100 frogs dissected for their stomach contents 64 were

females and 36 males. Frogs with their stomach contents weighed bet-

ween 80 and 313 gm. with an average weight of 144 gm. It was ascer-

tained that the frogs were locally collected from the Greater Aaa

area.

It appears from the above data that land crabs, insects and juvenile

frogs are the major food items. Land crabs are regarded as one of the

major pests of paddy (Kadam ef a/. 1960) and are known at some stages ©

of their life to feed on rice seedling both before and after transplanting.

They also cause damage by forming holes in the embankments of fields.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES } 499

Material y,

Invertebrates

4. Earthworm

ii. Land slug

iii. Snail

iv. Land Crab (cither

complete or in

parts) and a

marine crab

v. Prawn | |

INSECTS ..

vi. Beetle

Orthopterous insects

Plant bug

Caterpillar _

Rat-tailed maggot

Beetle larvae -

OTHER ARTHROPODA

Centipede

Spider

Vertebrates .

vii. Fish

viii. Frog

ix. Tortoise

_ x, Lizard

xi. Snake

xii. Shrew

xiii. Rat

Plant

Frequency

(0) , >

. Occurrence/

100

Number of

animals recovered Species

in good condition |

Many oe

14 Vaginula sp.

6 Ariophanta sp.. and

Planorbis sp.

5 complete and many

parts —_ especially

the chelae

Paratelphusa mce-

Canni and Gecar-

cinucus —_jacque-

montii

exoskeleton

3 entire of elytra Oryctes rhinoceros,

only Cerambicid bee-

) tle, Cybister sp.

(water beetle)

6 entire and many Periplanata

ameri-

parts cana, — Grylotalpa

sp. Cricket (Gryl-

lidae)

26 —

a) wa4

17 Larva of Eristaljs

tenax

1 zoe

3 Scolopendra sp.

1 i 2

2 heads and dorsal —

spine

11 mostly in the —

form of loose ske-

leton

1 skull —

1 | Calotes versicolor

3 Natrix stolatus

1 with skin DP Suncus murinus:

1 young with skin

leaves, grass blades ek

petioles etc.

500 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

Crabs are taken by adult bull-frogs in the months of July-August.

Wadekar (1963) has no record of crabs as food of R. tigerina.

The general diet consists of a variety of insects and their larvae. In

one instance a frog had taken as many as 20 plant bugs.

A marine crab, prawns and marine fish heads recorded here are not

natural food. Frogs may have eaten these when thrown out as kitchen

refuse.

Seventeen out of 100 frogs had taken vertebrate animals. The three

small snakes were possibly recently hatched young.

Vegetable-matter in the form of leaves, grass blades, algae etc., were

found in 23 frogs.. Other material noted were rice husk, match sticks,

charcoal pieces, marble, a legume and a spiny fruit, bidi-stubs, some

animal faeces, and stones of various shapes and sizes, This material is

taken while grabbing the food perhaps with jaws rather than by the use

of the tongue. McCann (1933) states that anything not edible is at once

ejected. This is notin conformity with the present observation. In cases

Where the material is undigestible and large enough to obstruct its pass-

age through the pylorus, it may be vomitted out later by reverse peris-

talsis but no discrimination seems to be made by the ete Boe edible

and non-edible during feeding.

This frog is in great demand from educational institutions within the

country for studying it as a type animal, and its legs are exported. In

1961 about 35-40 tons of frog legs were exported from India (Indian Trade

Journal 1962). In Kerala where processing of frog legs is done on a

large scale, the earnings for 1960-1963 is given as Rs. 51.66 lakhs for

8.85 lakh Kg. frog-legs (Rukmini Devi 1964). The situation demands

that the natural breeding be supplemented by rearing this frog in cap-

tivity.

Food of juvenile frogs consists largely of eS (Jameson & Rose

1956) and that of tadpoles mainly the different species of algae (McCann

1933, Kamat 1962). Knowledge of the specific food habits during tad-

pole, juvenile and adult stages of the bull frog may help as a primary

step in frog breeding in captivity.

~ ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Observations were made in the Biology Dept. of Ruparel College,

Matunga, Bombay-16. My thanks are due to Dr. P. S. Gharse and

Dr. (Mrs.) M. P. Rangnekar for encouragement.

BIOLOGY DEPARTMENT, a

M.V. COLLEGE OF SCIENCE, AwK, JOSHEE

ANDHERI, BOMBAY-69. 7

June 5, 1967,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

REFERENCES

AGHARKAR, S. P. (1912) : The diet of a

Bull-frog (Rana eer J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 21 (2):

AITKEN, E. H. (1896) : ee of the

Bull-frog. ibid., 21 (2):

ANONYMOUS (1962): iad °r rade Jour.

(Dept. Commercial Intelligence and

Statistics) 19th May 1962.

ARUNDALE, RUKMINI Devi (1964):

aie and views. Animal Citizen 1 (4):

Buapuri, J. L. (1945): The Indian

Bull-frog (Rana tigrina Daud.) a menace

to fishery. Sci. and Culture 11 (4):

205-206.

Curpser, H. M. (1911) : The food of a

Bull-frog. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

20 (3) : 865.

‘Davipson, N. (1916): Food of the

as (Rana tigrina). ibid. 25 (1):

152.

DHARMAKUMARSINHJI, R. K. (1940):

Frog eating a snake. ibid. 42: 200.

GOSTLING, D. (1895) : The food of the

Bull-frog. ibid. 10 (1): 150.

IsHWAR PRAKASH (1953): Addition

to recorded food items of the Bull-frog

(Rana tigrina). ibid. 51 (3): 750.

JAMESON, D. L. & Rose, M. M. (1956) :

KapamM, M. V., BHAT & PATEL, G. A.

(1960) : ‘Crop pests and how to fight

them ’, Dir. Pub. Govt. of Maharashtra,

Bombay.

Kamat, N. D. (1962) : On the intestinal

contents of tadpoles and algae of small

ponds. Curr. Sci. 31: 300-301.

MAHENDRA, B. C. (1929) : Do frogs

eat snakes? J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

33 (3) : 724.

MCCANN, C. (1933) : Notes on Indian

Batrachians. ibid. 36: 161.

MUuLLAN, J. P. (1912) : The food of a

Gepepel (Rana tigrina). ibid. 21 (4):

Rao, Y. R. & CHERIAN, M. C. (1940) :

Control of the rice grass-hopper, I.

Indian Farming 1 a 433-436.

SUNDERA RAJ, (1915): Bull- pie

and rat snake. ie “Bombay nat. Hist,

Soc. 23 (4) : 789.

WADEKAR, U. L. (1963): The diet of

the Indian Bull-frog (Rana _tigerina

Daud.). ibid. 60 (1) : 263-268.

WHIFFIN, J. D. rae peas of the

Bull-frog. Eee 9 (3):

ZUTSHI, B i906): “in Bull-frog

(Rana tigrina Daud swallowing a rat.

ibid. 31 (1) : 228

Food habits in juvenile frogs. Copeia

1956 (4) : 261.

21. NOTES ON ANIMAL RELATIONSHIPS : HYPERITD

AMPHIPODS PHRONIMA COLLETTI BOVALLIUS AND

PHRONIMA SEDENTARIA (FORSKAL) INHABITING

EMPTY ‘ TESTS’ OF PELAGIC TUNICATES

During the 35th cruise of the USSR Research Vessel Vityaz in the

eastern sector of the Indian Ocean in 1962 some interesting animal rela-

tionships of two species of phronimid amphipods, Phronima colletti

Bovallius and P. sedentaria (Forskal) inhabiting the empty ‘tests’ of

pelagic tunicates Salpa sp. and Doliolum sp. respectively were observed,

which are reported here.

1. Phronima colletti Bovallius. 10 young forms measuring 1-5 mm.

in total length attached to the wall of the empty test of Salpa sp. measur-

ing 9 mm. in length, were collected at Vityaz Station no. 5224 on 10-ix-1962

(02° 00’ N., 91° 33’ E., depth 0-200 m.). These phronimids were attached

in a single group and composed of individuals of the same instar. The

characteristic shape of the carpus in the fifth peraeopod is distinctly dis-

cernible (vide Stephenson, 1924).

2. Phronima sedentaria (Forskal). An adult female measuring

30 mm. was obtained within the empty test of Doliolum sp. measuring

502 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

31 mm. collected at Vityaz Station no, 5185 on 27-vii-62 (24° 34’ S.,

108° 20’ E., depth 0-200 m.). |

In: the literature there are records of adults and juveniles of P. seden-

taria (Forskal) inhabiting the empty mantles of pelagic tunicates (Chev-

reux & Fage 1925, Mogk 1927, Barnard 1932, 1937, and Nagabhushanam

1960). However, there appears to be no record of the young forms of

P. colletti Bovallius inhabiting the empty mantles of tunicates. More-

over, the duration of stay of the young instars and the size attained within

the mantle-cavity by the species of the genus Phronima other than P. seden-

taria (Forsk.), is not known. Therefore it is considered worthwhile

recording, this interesting relationship, and the measurements of the

adult and juveniles obtained. More information on the stages at which

the juveniles desert the mantle in the different species of the genus

Phronima would be worth recording.

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, A. DANIEL

CALCUTTA-16. K. V. SURYA RAO

July 7, 1967.

REFERENCES

BARNARD, K. H. (1932) : Amphipoda. NAGABHUSHANAM, A. K._ (1960):

‘ Discovery’ Reports 5: 1-174. Observations on some pelagic tunicates

——__—— (19 37): Amphipoda. ‘John in coastal waters of the Bay of Bengal.

Murray Exp.’ Sci. Rep., 4 (6): 131-201. J. Mar. biol. Ass. India, 2 (2): 2.

CHEVREUX, E. & Face, L. (1925): STEPHENSON, K. (1924): Hyperiidea-

Amphipodes. Faune de France 9 : 1-488. Amphipoda (Pt. 2. Paraphronimidae,

Mock, H. (1927): Die: Phronomiden Hyperiidae, Dairellidae, Phronomidae,

der Deutschen Sudpolar Expedition, Anchylomeridae)—Dan. Ocean | Exp.

1901-1903. Deutsch. Sudpol. Exp. 19. 1908-1910 to Mediterranean and. adjacent

Zool. 11: 125-144. Seas, 2 D. 4: 71-149.

22. NOTE ON MASTIGOCHIRUS QUADRILOBATUS

MIERS, AN ANOMURAN (CRUSTACEA : DECAPODA)

NEW TO INDIA

Mastigochirus quadrilobatus Miers is an anomuran which has not

been reported from India so far. During the course of our study on

the systematics of the anomuran fauna of Waltair- coast, 10 specimens

of M. quadrilobatus were collected from Lawson’s Bay area, Waltair.

In this paper a short account of the diagnostic features of M. qa

Jobatus is given. |

Mastigochirus quadrilobatus Miers 1879

Diagnosis. Frontal margin with two submedian lobes flanked by

a lateral lobe which is round and projects slightly beyond the median

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES — 503

lobes. Lateral margin with submarginal series of short transverse. seti-

ferous pits. Antennules and antenna short, third maxilliped rather

slender. First pair of legs very long and very slender with the last cou

especially greatly elongated and multiarticulate. .

Measurement. Carapace length les sma

__. Distribution. Philippines.

- Our thanks are due to Dr. Janet Haig of California for her sugges-

tions and to Prof. P. N. Ganapati for kindly giving facilities.

ZOOLOGY DEPARTMENT,

MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, R. SAROJINI

AURANGABAD. R. NAGABHUSHANAM

March 16, 1968.

23. FORMS OF DANAUS CHRYSIPPUS L.

I was interested to learn from J. P. Donahue’s ‘ An Annotated List of

the Butterflies of Delhi’ (1967, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 64: 40) that

an example of f. alcippoides Moore had been caught there fairly recently

and that he considered it only a matter of time before f. dorippus Klug

turned up also. In my twenty-four years collecting in India—in the

Punjab, the United Provinces and Bengal—I never saw an example” of

either form. I did, however, have the good fortune to rear an example

of the far rarer f. amplifascia Talb. from a chance found larva in, Calcutta,

Talbot recorded only five known specimens of this form, not including

mine, and, for those who are unacquainted with it, it can be described

briefly as having the white spots of the pre-apical band extended inwards

along the interspaces to the discocellular.

Although there are constant differences between the Waren: Asiatic

and Australian races of chrysippus in the pre-apical markings of the

forewing and in the extent of the white in the hindwing of ff. alcippus

Cr. and alcippoides Moore, | consider that there are basically four forms,

- namely :

chrysippus L., with black and white pre-apical marking in the fore-

wing and en hindwing.

dorippus Klug, with no black and white pre-apical marking in the

forewing and brown hindwing.

alcippus Cr., with black and white pre-apical marking in the fore-

wing and white hindwing.

albinus Lanz., with no black and white pre-apical marking in the

forewing and white hindwing,

504 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

and the varying proportions of these four forms in the various parts of

the species’ enormous range has always intrigued me.

In Asia chrysippus is the predominant form, with dorippus and alcip-

poides rare, although I believe dorippus is commoner at Aden. In

Australia, I believe, only the chrysippus-like form occurs.

In Africa, chrysippus is the predominant, if not the only, form in the

extreme north (Egypt) and south (South Africa). In Rhodesia, formerly

Southern Rhodesia, both dorippus and alcippus occur rarely. In the

inter-tropical zone there is a most interesting gradation. On the east

coast dorippus is the predominant form, with chrysippus and albinus

occurring rarely, I have never seen alcippus. Going inland and west-

ward first chrysippus becomes more common in comparison with dorip-

pus and then alcippus begins to appear. Going still further west, dorip-

pus and albinus slowly fade out until in Uganda chrysippus and alcippus

are the main forms. Then chrysippus decreases until on the West Coast

alcippus is the prevalent, if not the only, form occurring.

As chrysippus is a protected species in all its forms, the varying pro-

portions can hardly be due to differences in selective predation, and are,

presumably, caused by reaction to climatic differences.

I have been unable to work out the local genetics with any degree of

certainty due to the very heavy losses from parasitisation by a Tachinid

that presumably lays its eggs in the tormentum on the underside of the

leaf of the food-plant. The three imagines that emerged from a small

number of ova laid by a chrysippus female were all dorippus, as was the

sole imago from a brood from an albinus female. This would seem to

indicate that dorippus is dominant to chrysippus, and probably to albinus,

results in conformity with the proportions in nature. But if the brown

hindwing gene is dominant to the white, why should alcippus be the —

prevalent form on the West Coast of Africa, and why should dorippus

be so rare in Asia?

I have since discovered that feeding larvae with Calotropis flowers

and not with leaves prevents the Tachinid infestation.

MompaSA. 7 D. G. SEVASTOPULO

November 17, 1967.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES | | 505

24. STUDIES ON SOME PASSALIDS (COLEOPTERA)

OF KERALA~—I. BIOLOGY OF PLEURARIUS —

BRACHYPHYLLUS STOLICZKA?* —

(With a plate)

INTRODUCTION

The Passalidae are a small family of rare beetles, of about 800 known

species found in the tropical regions of America, Indo-Australia, and

Ethiopia. Some species have attained a certain degree of social orga-

nisation, which is very rare among Coleoptera. The grubs and adults

are capable of stridulation, a feature associated with its social habits.

Many species are incapable of flight even though their wings are fully

developed. Almost all passalids are lignicolous and are e borers of felled

timber.

Apart from some general information on passalids, no detailed study

is available on the life history of any particular member of this interest-

ing family. Hence investigations on the biology and bionomics of three

“species of passalids commonly found in the high ranges of Kerala; namely

Pleurarius brachyphyllus Stol., Basilianus indicus Kuwert., and Basilianus

neelgherriensis Perch., were undertaken. The present paper reports the

data on P. brachyphyllus. These studies were conducted at Vattayar, a

hill station in the Kottayam District of Kerala, SOULE at 3500 ue above

sea-level.

_ MATERIALS AND METHODS.

Specimens were collected from felled logs or fallen timber which were

suspected to contain the beetles. Infested wood could be detected by

the presence on them of small entry holes plugged with faecal pellets and

wood powder. For studying the life history, the eggs were reared in the

laboratory in small metal containers. Wood powder premasticated

by the adults was supplied, moistened, to the grubs as food. Such wood

powder was collected from the galleries of the beetle in infested timber in

the field. The containers were cleaned and fresh wood powder supplied

frequently. The pupa was left undisturbed, especially during the early

pupal period, to avoid injury. The rearing vessels were closed light-

proof to simulate conditions in the field where the insect bred within dark

galleries inside timber.

‘ 1 Part of thesis submitted to the University of Kerala, for the award of the ni ve

egree.

$506 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

BIOLOGY

Mating and Oviposition: Mating lasts from 2 to 6 hours. The mating

pairs were seen moving about, the female beetle carrying its partner on

its back or dragging it behind. For oviposition the female goes to the

deeper tunnels and lays a single egg at a time. In the laboratory the

female burrows deep into the wood dust for laying eggs. The number of

eggs laid by a female varies from 5 to 9, laid at intervals of 6 to 8 days.

In the field the eggs were found buried in the wood powder on the floor

of the tunnels. Maximum number of eggs were collected from the field

during the rainy season (June to August).

Egg: (Fig. 1) The egg is spherical or ovate and 4mm. in diameter.

The chorion is leathery, dark brown to black in colour and the surface

honeycomb patterned. A high degree of moisture is necessary for the

eggs to survive and develop. Eggs kept in dry wood dust shrivel up.

Under laboratory conditions the egg requires 28 to 34 days for hatch-

ing. (Vide Table). At the time of hatching a U -shaped slit appears

on the chorion and the grub forces its way out through this.

Grub: The newly hatched grub is 8 mm. long and is milky white.

After a few hours it starts feeding on the wood powder produced by the

adult. It does not feed on artificially made wood powder. The first

instar grub attains a length of 29 mm. and a thoracic width of 4°6 mm.

(Fig. 3). The arrangement and distribution of the long hairs on the body

of passalid grubs are of taxonomic importance. In P. brachyphyllus

there are, two long brown hairs behind each antennal base, three long

hairs on the prothoracic depression, a pair of hairs on the meso and meta

terga, a pair of lateral hairs on the first 2 abdominal segments, a pair of

lateral and a pair of dorsal hairs on the third to ninth abdominal terga and

14 circum-anal hairs in a whorl on the tenth segment and a pair on the

ninth sternum. |

Two elongated, oval brown dorsal spots are present, on the meta

tergum of the first instar grub. As in the case of other passalid grubs,

here also the third pair of legs (Fig. 7) are stumpy, conical, and the border

lined with 5 sub-marginal black teeth, which help in stridulation.

There are three larval instars. The duration of the first instar He

nearly 50 to 60 days.

All the long hairs, except those behind the antennal base and circum-

anal region, are clavate and short in the second and third instar grubs

(Fig. 6). The meta tergal ‘ dorsal spots’ are absent in these stages. The

second instar grub (Fig. 4) attains a length of 35 to 37 mm. The dura- |

tions of second and third instars are 54 to 65 days and 80 to 90 days reés-

pectively. The third instar grub (Fig. 5) measures 48 to 52 mm. long

and 10 mm. broad across thorax. As it nears pupation the grub turns

pale and becomes white at the time of pupation. Erie

yay)

J. BomBAY NAT Hist Soc. 65 (2)

Joseph : Pleurarius brachyphyllus Stoliczka

For captions, see overleaf.

P. brachyphyllus Stol.

1. Eggx6.; 2. adult headx6; 3. I instar grubx1°5; 4. II instar grubx1°5;

5. Ill instar grubx1'2; 6. filifom and clavate hairs of II instar grub; 7. Third leg

of the grub X20 ; 8. pupa ventral view x 1°5 ; 9. pupa dorsal view x1°5; 10. Maxilla

of the adultx 12; 11. labrum of adult x12; 12. Adult beetle x 12.

Abbreviations

Ant: antenna. Ap.s.: apical spine. Can. Canthus. Car: Cardo. C. tr : Central

tubercle. Dr. dep : dorsal depression. Dr.s: Dorsal spot. E: Eye. Fr. r: Frontal

ridge. Gal: galea. In. tr: Inner tubercle. Lac: lacinia. Mx. p: Maxillary palp.

O. tr: Outer tubercle. Pa. r: Parietal ridge. S. ap. s : Sub-apical spine. S.oc.r.; Sub-

Occipital ridge. Sti: stipes.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 507

TABLE

DURATION IN DAYS OF DIFFERENT STAGES OF

P. brachyphyllus REARED IN THE LABORATORY

j |

SI. No. | Egg | I instar | IL instar | IIL instar Pupa

1 32 51 65 82 28

Z 30 50 62 86 26

3 28 61 54. 9] 31

4 29 47 58 8] BI)

5 32) 50 56 83 27

6 34 54 61 94 29

vi 31 60 59 $1 30

8 33 55 58 79 32

9 30 56 59 94 27

10 32 59 Wie 88 25

11 28 55 60 82 28

12 29 35 62 85 30

Average 30°7 54°3 59°3 85°5 28°7

Pupa: (Figs. 8 & 9) Pupation takes place within a loose case of

agglutinated wood powder. Pupa is 40 to 45 mm. long and 15 mm.

broad across thorax. The general colour of the pupa is white at first,

then straw white and later pinkish brown. The pupal period lasts 25

to 32 days. )

Adult : (Fig. 12) The newly emerged beetle is soft and reddish brown

With velvety yellow hairs. In about 40 days it becomes hard and deep

black. Stoliczka (1873) and Gravely (1914) described the adult of

P. brachyphyllus. Features not covered by them are given here.

Shiny black, hard, and with yellow velvety hairs on the plueral side

and legs. Female measures 40 to 45 mm. long and 18 mm. broad. In

the same colony males are 3 to 6 mm. smaller than females. An interest-

ing feature of this beetle is the presence of slight cephalic asymmetry ;

the left outer tubercle is slightly larger than the right (Fig. 2) the left

antero-lateral corner of the labrum is longer than the right, (Fig. 11) and

the left mandible slightly bigger than the right. Lacinia (Fig. 10) in

P. brachyphyllus has one apical spine and one sub-apical spine ; in all

other species examined only the apical spine is present.

In the forests of Kerala this beetle has been collected from almost all

species of felled soft timber. It first bores a few inches transversely and

then constructs long tunnels along the long axis of the timber. A fully

colonised trunk shows the presence of a number of longitudinal tunnels

inter-connected by transverse tunnels. The masticated wood powder

produced while tunnelling serves as food for grubs. The beetles reared

in the laboratory survived up to one year. asad

508 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

DISTRIBUTION

P. brachyphyllus is confined to India, having been previously recorded

from Puduthottam, Anamalai, Nilgiris and Kerala forest area, between

altitudes 1500 and 4500 ft. above sea-level.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Thanks are due to Dr. C. C. John, former Vice-Chancellor of the

University of Kerala, for guidance. Thanks are also due to Dr. M. R.

G. K. Nair, Professor of Entomology, Agricultural College and

Research Institute, Vellayani, Kerala for his interest in the work, and

for the help rendered in the preparation of this paper.

LECTURER IN ENTOMOLOGY,

MEDICAL COLLEGE, A. JOSEPH

TRIVANDRUM.

October 5, 1967.

REFERENCES

GRAVELY, F. H. (1914) : An account of STOLICZKA, F. (1873) : A contribution

the Oriental Passalidae based primarily towards a monograph of Indian Passali-

on the collection of the Indian Museum. dae. Jour. As. Soc. Bengal, 42 (2):

Mem. Indian Mus. 3 (4) : 177-353. 149-162.

25. NOTES ON THE TAXONOMY AND OTHER ASPECTS

OF CERTAIN SPECIES OF APHIDS IN INDIA

Current work on the taxonomy, biology and food plants of aphids in

various parts of the world, has led to changes in the names of many of

the species. In view of this, the names of some of the aphids have to be

revised. Attention is here drawn to names that can be used for the

- Indian forms of these aphids. Notes are also added on the food plants

and other aspects of these aphids.

1. Therioaphis trifolii (Monell) 1862.

Pterocallidium maculatum Buckton sec. David 1957-58 a.

The lucerne aphid has been studied intensively in recent years especially

as a new introduction into north America. Hille Ris Lambers & van

den Bosch (1964) reviewed the taxonomic studies of various workers.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 509

They concluded that the length of the body hairs and antennae, the number

of rhinaria on antennal segment III, the sclerotic pattern on the abdomen,

and production of sexual forms are variable. Hence the aphid on

lucerne called Therioaphis trifolii (Monell) or spotted alfalfa aphid, and

the one on clover named Pterocallidium maculatum (Buckton) or yellow

clover aphid, are the same and should be named Therioaphis trifolii

(Monell).

This aphid occurs on lucerne, Medicago sativa, all over India except

in the extreme south (Madras and Kerala). It evidently prefers colder

regions or seasons for its normal life.

2. Meéelanaphis donacis (Passerini) 1882.

Longiuniguis donacis (Passerini) sec. David 1957-58b.

In a study of the generic characters of Melanaphis van der Goot and

Longiuniguis van der Goot, Hille Ris Lambers (1966-67) states that the

former produces wax when alive but is otherwise indistinguishable from

the latter. Since this species produces wax on the body, it has to be in

Melanaphis van der Goot.

In India this species is known only from the south where it lives on

_ Arundo donax on the hills as well as the plains.

3. Melanaphis (Longiuniguis) sacchari (Zehntner) 1898.

Longiuniguis sacchari (Zehntner).

As mentioned for the previous species, Hille Ris Lambers states that

Longiuniguis van der Goot can at best be considered a subgenus of

Melanaphis van der Goot since this species does not produce wax. Hence

the common sorghum and sugarcane aphid has to be called Melanaphis

(Longiuniguis) sacchari (Zehntner).

4. Méelanaphis (Longiuniguis) indosacchari (David) 1956b. New

combination.

Longiuniguis indosacchari David.

This is a dark brown aphid which feeds on sugarcane leaves. It has

been found to be widespread in south India.

5. Schizaphis rotundiventris (Signoret) 1867.

Toxoptera cyperi van der Goot 1917, new synonymy.

Toxoptera piricola Matsumura 1917.

Toxoptera punjabipyri Das 1918.

Since Das (1918) described Toxoptera punjabipyri on Pyrus sp., this

aphid has not so far been met with on this plant in India. In Japan,

however, this species is commonly known and the Indian name has been

considered a synonym of piricola Matsumura (Tao 1963). An allied

form, Toxoptera cyperi van der Goot, has been found to be widespread in

India. It is now known that this aphid has Pyrus sp. as its primary host

510 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

and Carex sp. or Cyperus sp. as secondary hosts. Eastop (1966) men-

tions that this species has forms with long or short femoral hairs and

that rotundiventris Signoret may be the oldest name in the complex.

Hille Ris Lambers, in private correspondence, informed the author, that

in spite of small differences, the aphid on Pyrus sp. and Cyperaceae may

be the same. If this view is accepted, cyperi van der Goot, piricola

Matsumura, and punjabipyri Das will become synonyms of rotundiventris

Signoret.

Das (1918) recorded this aphid on Pyrus sp. in the Punjab and on

Cyperus sp. from Punjab to Bengal. David (1957-58a) noted it on

Cyperus rotundus in south India. The present record is on Pyrus com-

munis (pear) in Amritsar, the Punjab (coll. O. S. Bindra, 6.11.67).

6. Macrosiphoniella pseudoartemisiae Shinji 1933.

Many species of Macrosiphoniella del Guercio occur commonly on

species of Artemisia all over India. In recent collections this aphid was

noted in Kashmir (Verma 1965). Present records are from Dehra Dun

(22.1X.66, coll. S. K. David) in the central regions of Himalayas, and

Kalimpong (12.X.66, coll. K. Narayanan) in the eastern Himalayas.

The important characters of this species are that the tibiae are pale

jn the middle, no scleroites at the base of dorsal hairs, antennal hairs

short, about 3 the basal breadth of antennal segment IJJ, which segment

in apterae have about 10 rhinaria in a line, and the last rostral segment

is about 2 of the second joint of the hind tarsus.

7. Macrosiphoniella yomogifoliae Shinji 1922. )

This is another species of Macrosiphoniella del Guercio occurring in

India on Artemisia. There appears to be no previous record of this

species in India since the one recorded under this name in south India

(David 1957-58b) has since been discovered to be another species. This

species is now recorded in Dehra Dun (23.1X.66, coll. S. K. David) on

Artemisia vulgaris. |

The important characters of this species are that the tibiae are com- __

pletely black, there are no scleroites at the base of dorsal hairs, antennal

segment III is wholly black, hairs on it-about equal to the breadth of the

segment, the apterae have about 10 rhinaria on it in a jumbled fashion,

and the last rostral segment is about 14 the second joint of the hind

tarsus. 7

8. Dactynotus (Uromelan) minutus (ven der Goot) 1918.

Dactynotus (Uromelan) dravidiana David 1956b, new synonymy.

_ Dactynotus (Uromelan) dravidiana David was described from speci-

mens collected on Vernonia cineria in Coimbatore in south India. Mac-

rosiphum minutus van der Goot was described from Ceylon on Vernonia

sp. Dr. D. Hille Ris Lambers has informed the senior author that since

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 311

the description of the latter agreed with the former and as the food plant

is Vernonia in both, he and Dr. V. F. Eastop were of the opinion that it

may be a synonym of the latter. Hence the south Indian species should

be named Dactynotus (Uromelan) minutus (van der Goot). So far this

species is known only from south India and Ceylon.

9. Myzus ornatus Laing 1932.

This is an aphid which has attained some importance since it is able

to transmit several virus diseases of plants. Though Bérner (1952) and

Heinze (1961) synonymised it with portulaccae Macchiati, their con-

clusion has not been accepted by other workers.

This aphid was recorded in the Nilgiris in south India (David 1956a)

and in western Himalayas (David 1958a). Present records are from

Salvia in Kodaikanal in south India (24.XII.66, coll. S. G. Rajasingh),

on grass in Simla in the central region of Himalayas (27.11.67, coll.

K. Narayanan) and on a weed in Srinagar in Kashmir in the north-western

Himalayas (22.11.67, coll. K. Narayanan).

10. Myzus (Nectarosiphon) persicae (Sulzer) 1776.

This is a well known aphid from its ability to transmit many virus

diseases of various plants. The alate forms of this aphid have a charac-

teristic dark path on the dorsum of the abdomen. Ina recent collection

of this species taken on potato in the Nilgiris, all the three alate forms

lacked this sclerotic patch. Dr.D. Hille Ris Lambers, in private corres-

pondence, informed the senior author that this condition occurs occa-

sionally and is suspected to be due to an early infection of an entomo-

genous fungus.

11. Micromyzodium filicium David 1958b.

There has been no mention of this species since it was first described.

It appears to be endemic to Nilgiris in south India where it lives on a

large number of plants in conservatories. Present collections include

the following additional food plants in Ootacamund. Adiantum tinc-

tum, Lastrea sp., Pityrogramme peruviana, Pteris critica and Strepto-

carpus sp. It occurs all through the year.

12. Phorodon (Diphorodon) cannabis Passerini 1860.

Phorodon cannabis Passerini.

Das (1918) pointed out that this species differs from other species of

Phorodon Passerini in the presence of capitate hairs on the head, antennae

and dorsum, the corrugated pattern on the abdominal tergites and slightly

swollen cornicles. Bérner (1939) separated this species under the sub-

genus Diphorodon, ar

512. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

This aphid is known in India from the north-west region on Bhang,

Cannabis sativa, on which it is monophagous. The present record is

from Bhunga, the Punjab (20.xi.65, coll. D. R. C. Bakheita).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors are grateful to Dr. D. Hille Ris Lambers for his guidance

in this study. Thanks are due to the Professor of Zoology-Entomology,

Punjab Agricultural University, Chandigarh, for some of the aphids sent

in for study, and to Dr. Louise M. Russell of the United States National

Museum for critical comments on the paper. This research has been

financed in part by a grant made by the United States Department of

Agriculture under P.L. 480.

MADRAS CHRISTIAN COLLEGE,

MADRAS.

June 20, 1967.

S. KANAKARAJ DAVID

S. G. RAJASINGH

K. NARAYANAN

REFERENCES

BOrnER, C. (1952) : Europae Centralis

Aphides. Mitt. Thuring. Bot. Gesellsh.

Beiheft 3: 1-488. ‘

Das, BISHAMBER (1918): The Aphi-

didae of Lahore. Mem. Indian Mus.

6 : 135-274.

Davip, S. K. (1956a): Additions to

the aphid fauna of India. J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 53 : 479-482.

——— (1956b): Notes on south

Indian Aphids. I. Descriptions of new

species. Indian J. Entom. 18:1: 1-9.

(1957-58a) : Notes on South

Indian Aphids. III. Lachninae to

Aphidinae. ibid. 19: 171-180.

——__—— (1957-58) : Notes on South

Indian Aphids. IV. Aphidinae con-

tinued. ibid. 19: 289-299.

— (1958a): Aphids capable of

infesting potato in India and their rela-

Honship to the crop. South Indian Hort.

: 67-71.

(19585): A new genus and

three new species of aphids from India.

Indian J. Entom. 20: 175-180.

Eastop, V. F. (1966): A taxonomic

study of Australian Aphidoidea

Comers) Australian J. Zool. 14: 399-

592.

Goor, P. VAN DER (1917) : Zur kenntnis

der Blatlause Javas. a la Faune Indes

Neerland. 1. Fasc. 3: 1-301.

— (1918) : Aphididae of Ceylon.

Spolia Zeylanica 11 : 40: 70-75.

HEINZE, K. (1961): Systematik der

Mittleeuropaischen Myzinae. Beit. zur.

Entom. Band 11: NR 1/2: 24-96.

HILLE Ris Lampers, D. (1966-67):

New and little known members of the

aphid fauna of Italy (Homop. Aphid.)

Estrato dal Boll. di Bachicoltura serie

Ils V2, 1-32,

———— & VAN DEN Bosc, R. (1964) :

On the genus TJherioaphis Walker 1870

with descriptions of new species. Zool.

Verhand. 68.

LaInG, F. (1932): A new aphid pest

of violets. Entomologist 68 : 52-56.

MATSUMURA, S. (1917) : A list of Aphi-

didae of Japan with descriptions of new

species and genera. J. Coll. Agric.

Tohoku Imp. Univ. Sapporo 7: 351-414.

MoneELL, J. (1882): Notes on Aphi-

didae. Canad. Entom. 14: 13-16.

PASSERINI, G. (1860): Aphididae

Italicae hucuque observatae Arch. Zool.

Anat. Fifiol. Modena, 2 : 129-212.

SHINJI, G. (1922): New species of

Japanese aphididae. Dobuts. Zasshi

34 : 531-534.

———— (1933): New species of

Japanese aphididae. ibid. 45: 237-302.

SIGNORET, V. (1867): Notice sur on

Homoptere peu connu. Ann. Soc. Ent.

France. 1867 : 371-380.

Suutzer, J. H. (1776): Abgekurzte

Geschichte des Insekten. Wéinter-thur.

Aphiden. : 98-105.

TAo, C.C. (1963) : Revision of Chinese

Macrosiphinae (Aphid. Homop.) Pi.

Pro. Bull. Taiwan, 5: 162-205.

VeRMA, K. D. (1965) : First record of

two species and males of Lipaphis pseudo-

brassicae Davis and Protrama penecaeca

Strovan (Homop. Aphid.) Indian J.

Entom. 28 : 277.

ZEHNTNER, L. (1898-1901) : De plan-

tenluizen van het Suikerriet. Arch.

Java Suiker Industrie VIII: IX.

a “s

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 213

26. ON A NEW FLAGELLATE, TRICHOMITUS

HYDERABADENSIS SP.NOV. FROM THE FROG,

RANA TIGERINA (DAUD.)

(With five text-figures)

Numerous interesting flagellates were collected during a survey of

the intestinal flagellates of amphibians of the Hyderabad region, carried

out by the author during the period 1960-63. One of these, belonging

to the genus Trichomitus Swezy, 1915 (Order Trichomonadida, Kirby,

1947; Family Trichomonadidae Chalmers & Pekkola, 1918 emend.

Honigberg, 1963 ; Subfamily Trichomonadinae Chalmers & Pekkola,

1918 emend. Honigberg 1963) is described in this communication.

The slides used in the study were stained with Heidenhain’s Iron

Haematoxylin after fixation in Schaudinn’s fluid or with Giemsa’s stain

after fixation in methanol. The drawings were made with a camera

lucida, at a magnification of about x 2000.

Trichomitus hyderabadensis sp. nov.

The parasite is fusiform in shape, having a broad and rounded ante-

rior end and a somewhat narrower tapering posterior end (Figs. 1, 4, 5).

The maximum breadth of the body is attained near the junction of the

anterior and mid-third of the body (Figs. 2, 5).

The blepharoplast is a large and conspicuous granule situated about

1-2 « behind the anterior extremity. It gives origin to the mastigont

elements comprising of three anterior flagella, a posterior flagellum, two

accessory filaments, a costa and an axostyle (Figs. 1, 5).

The three anterior flagella are of the same diameter but are unequal

in length, the longest measuring a little more than the body length

(Figs. 1, 2, 4,5). While a majority of the parasites examined had only

three anterior flagella, there were a few organisms in which there was a

fourth anterior flagellum which was much shorter than the others (Fig. 3).

The posterior flagellum, running along the outer border of the undulating

membrane and becoming free posteriorly, has a long trailing portion

reaching up to about one-and-a-half times the length of the body (Figs.

1-3). In addition to the posterior flagellum, the undulating membrane

is bordered by an accessory filament, which is of the same thickness as

the flagellum (Figs. 1, 5) and runs up to the posterior end of the mem-

514 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

brane. Besides, there is an additional filament running between the

costa and the accessory filament (Figs. 1, 5). This secondary filament

is slightly thinner and shorter than the accessory filament. The undulat-

ing membrane extends almost up to the posterior end of the body and is

thrown into four to seven folds. The folds: show a gradual transition

from the anterior to the posterior end, being short and shallow to begin

with but large and deep posteriorly (Figs. 1, 3).

PLATE.

Trichomitus hyderabadensis sp. nov. _-

The costa is slightly thicker than the flagellum and runs a somewhat

curved course, extending up to the posterior end of the undulating mem-

brane (Figs: 2, 5). It is almost equidistant from the axostyle as well as

the undulating membrane. |

The axostyle is well developed and has its anterior portion expanded

to form a spoon-shaped capitulum (Figs. 1, 2, 3), while the remaining

portion is uniform in. diameter throughout its course inside the body

(Figs. 4,5). At the posterior end it emerges out of the body and tapers

to a pointed tip (Figs. 2, 3). The axostylar spike shows a range of

2°06-7°20 in length, with an average of 4°55 «. The axostyle does not

possess either a swelling or periaxostylar chromatic granules at the point

of its emergence from the posterior end of the body. :

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 15

try

The nucleus, situated lateral to the spoon-shaped capitulum, is large

and ovoidal and has a central endosome.

Neither a pelta nor a cytostome could be observed in the organism.

The dimensions of the parasite are shown in Table 1.

TABLE 1

DIMENSIONS OF Trichomitus hyderabadensis

CRD DE OB ELIS SE OIE EN TBE LEE LLL)

Minimum Maximum Average

Particulars , :

CP ne mei Cer Ons)

Length of body (excluding spike) .. 12°85 22:11 ». 16°45

Maximum width of body - 5°14 13°88 8°56

Length of anterior flagellum I e: 9°25 20°05 15:09

Length of anterior flagellum IT ie 13°37 221i 18°46

Length of anterior flagellum III a 16°97 26°73 20°81

Length of free posterior flagellum .. 12°34 25°19 17°54

Size of nucleus we 2°06 x 4‘11x 3°13 x

1°54 ‘i 3°60 2°44

DISCUSSION

Flagellates of this genus have been recorded from. many amphibia

by several workers. Honigberg (1953) gives a comprehensive account

of the structure, synonymy and host-list of the common form, Tricho-

mitus batrachorum (Perty). The present parasite is distinguished from

that species by the absence of the pelta, by the fusiform as contrasted

with the ovoidal shape and by its fairly large size. According to

Honigberg (1953), the strain of 7. batrachorum from Rana measures

8:5 -14:5%4:5-13:°0u (average 11°57:5«) and the strain from Bufo

measures 8°5 - 21:0 4'5 - 200m (average 12°5x9'0u). As against this,

the present organism measures 12°85 - 22°1]u«5:14- 13°88 (average

16°45 x 8°564).

Among other species of the genus, T. ul/meri Gabel (1954b) comes

nearest to the present form in not having a pelta, a cytostome or para-

costal granules, but is much smaller in size and has an extremely long

trailing flagellum, about two-and-a-half times the length of the body.

In the absence of the pelta, the new organism also resembles 7. rotunda

Hibler et a/. (1960), but differs in its jorger size and in the presence of

unequal anterior flagella.

A comparison of the body dimensions of the new species with other

species reported so far (Table 2) shows it to be distinctly larger than any

of them.

The type specimens are deposited in the Protozoology Section of the

Zoology Museum, Marathwada University, Aurangabad,

516

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

TABLE 2

COMPARATIVE DIMENSIONS OF THE VARIOUS SPECIES OF THE GENUS Trichomitus

Species

T. batrachorum (Perty) Honigberg, 1953

T. wenyoni Wenrich & Nie, 1949

T. marmotae (Crouch) Gabel, 1954

T. ulmeri Gabel, 1954

T. rotunda Hibler et al. 1960

T. hyderabadensis sp. nov.

Length Breadth

8°50-14°50 4°50-13:00

(11°50) (7°50)

4:00-8°80 3°00-5°50

(5°80) (3°64)

5°20-10°50 3°30-7°10 &

(7°53) 5°11)

4:00-9:00 1:00-4:00 #

(5°78) (3°18)

6°83-11°40 & 4°56-7°41 &

12°85-22°11 & 5°14-13°88

(16°45) (8°56)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author is grateful to Dr. S.S. Qadri, Reader in Zoology, Osmania

University, Hyderabad, for his guidance and advice, and to Dr. S. Mehdi

Ali, Professor of Zoology, Marathwada University, Aurangabad, for pro-

viding laboratory facilities and for his keen interest in this work.

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY,

MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY,

AURANGABAD.

September 6, 1967.

R. KRISHNAMURTHY

REFERENCES

GABEL. J. R. (1954a) : The morphology

and taxonomy of the intestinal protozoa

of the American wood chuck, Marmota

pOreE Linnaeus. J. Morph. 94: 473-

549.

(19545) : A new protozoan,

Paratrichomonas ulmeri (Mastigophora),

from the American wood chuck, Mar-

mota monax Linnaeus. J. Tennessee

Acad. Sci. 29: 260-265.

Hrscer, C. P. et al. (1960) : The mor-

phology and incidence of the tricho-

monads of swine, Tritrichomonas suis

(Gruby and Delafond), Tritrichomonas

rotunda n. sp., and Trichomonas buttreyi

n. sp. J. Protozool. 7: 159-171.

HONIGBERG, B. M. (1953): Structure,

taxonomic status and Host list of Tritri-

chomonas __batrachorum (Perty). J.

Parasit. 39: 191-208.

(1963): Evolutionary and

systematic relationships in the flagellate

order Trichomonadida Kirby.

J. Protozool. 10 (1) : 20-63.

WENRICH, D. H. & Nig, D. (1949):

The morphology of Trichomonas wenyoni

(Protozoa, Mastigophora). J. Morph.

85 : 519-531,

J. BompBay NAT. Hist. Soc. 65 (2)

Sastry - Dioscorea orbiculata

wiper

wer ae: 4

sf Se

ARKS Del

D. orbiculata Hook. f. 3 plant. a. Habit. b. Dendroid & stellate hairs

(highly enlarged). c. Fl. bud. d. Sepal. e. Petal. f. Stamen. Inset map

at top indicates the present distribution.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 517

27. A NOTE ON THE OCCURRENCE OF DIOSCOREA

ORBICULATA HOOK. F. IN INDIA

(With a plate)

A rare Dioscorea collected from Palin in Subansiri District was found

to be D. orbiculata Hook. f., as per literature references cited here.

D. orbiculata Hook. f., is so far known to occur only in Sumatra

(Asahan), Malay Peninsula (Puket to Johore) and Perak (see inset map),

The present discovery of this species in Subansiri, offers a new distri-

butional locality outside the Malaysian region, suggesting the phyto-

geographic affinities of these areas. Even though the intervening area

gives a discontinuous distribution for this species, it is likely that further

exploration will bring out the presence of this species in these areas.

Incidentally, it may be noted that Deka 16932 from Jeypore in Lakhim-

pur Dist., Assam, with distinctly stellate-dendroid pubescent flower buds

with oblong anthers, appears more likely to be this species rather than

D. pyrifolia Kunth var. ferruginea Prain et Burk. (Panigrahi & Naik

Bull. Bot. Surv. India 8 (1) : 89, t. 1, 1966).

Dioscorea orbiculata Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 6 : 292, 1892; Prain &

Burk. in Ann. R. Bot. Gard. Calc. 14 : 411, t. 145, 1938 ; Burk. in FI.

Mal. 4 : 334, 1951.

Stems, wiry, twining to the right, brown tomentose when young,

becoming glabrescent except at nodes; tomentum stellato-dendroid

hairy. Leaves opposite or alternate, orbicular-ovate to ovate-cordate,

acuminate, c. 13°5<8°5 cm., 7-nerved, glabrous above, deciduously floc-

cose tomentose except in the nerve axils beneath ; petiole up to 9 cm.

long, pulvinate, densely hairy. Male Fl. spikes whorled on long leafless

inflorescences or in leaf axils, up to 4 cm. long, 20-25-flowered,

densely dendroid hairy. F/. buds globose, c. 2 mm. in diameter, stellate

and dendroid hairy ; bracts ovate-acuminate, c. 1 mm. long, stellate

hairy, base auriculate partly girdling the axis ; sepals 3, broadly ovate,

cupular, c. 1°5 mm., brown stellate hairy outside, apex obtuse, petals 3,

oblong-ovate, c. 1 mm. long, apex bluntly acute ; stamens 6, filaments

0-5 mm., anthers 1 mm., oblong ; pistillode short, conical.

On humid densely forested hill slope of the Khru River, c. 1400 m.

alt., near Palin. Rare.

INDIA: N.E.F.A.: Subansiri Dist.: Palin vicinity, 15-5-1966, A. R. K,

Sastry 45292, fl. (ASSAM).

518 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

My sincere thanks are due to Dr. A. S. Rao, Regional Botanist,

Botanical Survey of India, Eastern Circle, Shillong, for critical sugges-

tions.

BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, .

EASTERN CIRCLE, A. R. K. SASTRY

SHILLONG.

November 15, 1967.

28. SOME INFRASPECIFIC TAXA OF THE PANICUM

COLORATUM L. COMPLEX

Panicum coloratum L. is a complex taxon comprising several distinct

forms having chromosome numbers 2n= 18, 36, 32 and 54 (Joshi, Patil &

Manchanda 1959 ; Patil, Vohra & Joshi 1961), which are poorly under-

stood taxonomically and phylogenetically. The author (Jauhar 1963)

studied 8 tetraploid (2n=36) and two hexaploid (2n=54) forms of this

grass in considerable detail from the standpoints of morphology (both

vegetative and floral), foliar epidermal patterns, chromosome behaviour

during meiosis and pollen characters with a view to utilize this information

for assessing precisely their taxonomic status and understanding evolu-

tionary trends in them. From these studies it was convincingly shown

that P. coloratum constitutes a heterogeneous assemblage, the range of

variation present in it transgressing specific limits. In view of this, the

10 types of P. coloratum were classified into six distinct groups which are

remarkably uniform within themselves and strikingly different from one

another. The hexaploid group was elevated to a specific rank and named

as Panicum nehruense Jauhar et Joshi (Jauhar & Joshi 1966).

From among the tetraploid types one was named as Panicum simpli-

ciflorum Jauhar et Joshi (Jauhar & Joshi 1965) primarily on the basis

of its typically simple, raceme-type panicle because it lacks some of the

key characters of Panicum coloratum (see Jauhar 1967). The remaining

four groups with J/21n=36 chromosomes have been retained under

P. coloratum and given infraspecific ranks ; they have been designated

as varieties. |

Some salient diagnostic features of the four varieties are described

below :

P. coloratum var. subglabrum Jauhar var. nov.

Gramen perenne, moderate altum, caespitosum, erectum, tetra-

ploideum (2n=4x=36), rarius superne ramosum. Culmi 104-120 cm.

alti, 5-8-nodi ; nodi et partes inferiores internodorum paulum pilosi et

debiliter tincti pigmento brunneo, Folia et foliorum vaginae sparse

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 519

pubescentes ; folium secundum 18-30 cm. longum, 0°5-0°8 cm. latum>

Ligula fimbriata, ciliolata, ad 1 mm. longa. Panicula effusa et bene

ramosa, 15-23 cm. longa, 12-16cm. lata. Spiculae acutae, flaccidae, ad

glumas tinctae colore pallide purpureo, 3:0-3°3 mm. longae. Gluma

inferior ad. 1:5 mm. longa, l-nervia, rarius nervis 1-2 inconspicuis addi-

tivis praesentibus. Nervi in glumis et in inferiore lemmata (i.e. in flore

staminato) alte conspicui. Lemma superius nitens, semi-coriaceum.

Oriundus ex Australia, typus, P.P. Jauhar 1, positus in herbario sec-

tionis botanicae in Instituto Indico Agriculturae ad New Delhi ; isotypi

ponendi in herbario ad Dehra Dun, et ad Calcuttam.

Panicum coloratum L. var. subglabrum Jauhar, var. nov.

Medium tall, moderately caespitose, erect-growing, tetraploid

(2n=4x= 36), perennial grass rarely branched above. Culms 104-120 cm.

tall, 5-8 noded. Nodes and lower parts of internodes slightly hairy and

feebly tinged with light brown pigment. Leaves and leaf-sheaths sparsely

pubescent ; second leaf 18-30 cm. long and 0°5-0°8 cm. broad. Ligule

fimbriate, ciliolate, up to 1 mm. long.

Panicle effuse and well-branched 15-23 cm. long and 12-16 cm. broad.

Spikelets acute, flaccid, suffused with light purple pigment at the glumes,

3:0-3°3 mm. long. Lower glume up to 1°5 mm. long, 1-nerved, rarely

1 or 2 additional, faint nerves also present. Nerves on the glumes and

lower lemma (lemma of the staminate floret) highly conspicuous. Upper

lemma, glossy, semi-coriaceous.

The type was originally obtained from Australia. Type. P. P. Jauhar

1, deposited in Herbarium Botany Division, Indian Agricultural

Research Institute, New Delhi ; isotypes, to be deposited in Herbaria at

Dehra Dun and at Calcutta.

Panicum coloratum var. subcompositum Jauhar var. nov.

Gramen perenne, nanum, foliosum, molle, tetraploideum (2n=4x= 36)

habitu erecto patenti, rarius ramoso supra. Culmi 90-105 cm. longinodis

5-8 ornati ; spatia internodalia glabra, sulcata. Folia brevia, lineari-

lanceolata, fereacuminata, glabrescentia, pilis nonnullis interdum ramosis

ad marginem in parte basali laminae ; margines repandi, nervi medii

vix conspicui ; folium secundum 14-20 cm. longum, 7-12 mm. latum.

Vaginae foliorum puberulae vel sparse hirsutulae. Panicula brevis,

compacta vel semicompacta, 12-17 cm. longa, et 8-10 cm. lata. Spiculae

propinquae, 2°8-3°2 mm. longae, acutae; gluma inferior ad 1:3 mm.

longa, univervia, apiculata, marginibus apicalibus serratis; g/uma

superior et lemma inferius (i.e. in flore staminato) 6-8 nervia, marginibus

520 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

apicalibus conspicue serratis. Palea inferior (i.e. in flore staminato)

binervia, cuspidata, marginibus conspicue serratis. Lemma superius

semi-coriaceum, interdum inconspicue nervosum.

Typus, P.P. Jauhar 3, primo ex Jodhpur obtentus, positus in herbario

sectionis botanicae Instituti Invest. Agric. ad New Delhi ; isotypi depo-

nendus in Herb. ad Dehra Dun et ad Calcutta.

Panicum coloratum L, var. subcompositum Jauhar var. nov.

A dwarf, leafy, tender, tetraploid (2n=4x=36), perennial grass with

erect open growth habit, rarely branched above. Culms 90-105°0 cm.

tall, terete, 5-8-noded; internodes glabrous, sulcate. Leaves short,

linear-lanceolate, almost acuminately pointed, glabrescent, a few

branched hairs scattered on the basal portion of the lamina margin ;

leaf-margins repand ; mid-rib less conspicuous ; second leaf 14-20 cm.

long and 7-12 mm. broad. Leaf-sheaths puberulous or sparsely hirsu-

tulose.

Panicle short, compact to semi-compact, 12-17 cm. long and 8-10 mm.

broad. Spikelets closely spaced, 2°8-3°2 mm. long, acute. Lower

glume up to 1°3 mm. long, I-nerved, apiculate, apical margins serrated.

Upper glume and lower lemma (lemma of the staminate floret 6-8 nerved),

apical margins and tip conspicuously serrated. Lower palea (palea of

the staminate floret) 2-nerved, cuspidate, margins conspicuously serrated.

Upper lemma semi-coriaceous, sometimes inconspicuously nerved.

The type was originally obtained from Jodhpur. Type, P. P. Jauhar

3, deposited in Herbarium Botany Division, Indian Agricultural

Research Institute, New Delhi; isotypes to be desposited in Herbaria

at Dehra Dun and at Calcutta.

Panicum coloratum var. glaucum Jauhar var. nov.

Gramen perenne, procerum, glaucum, robustum, macrophyllum,

tetraploideum (2n=4x=36), habitu erecto-patenti. Culmi 120-140 cm.

longi, nodis 6-9, rarius ramosi supra. Nodi eminentes et glabri. Folia

coriacea, glabra, glauca nervo medio valide conspicuo ; folium secundum

23-35 cm. longum, 7-11 mm. latum. Ligula 1:4-1:6 mm. longa, ciliolata.

Panicula 22-32 cm. longa, 16-21 cm. lata, alte effusa et ramosa.

Spiculae 3:3-3°6 mm. longae, subacutae vel acutae, venetae colore.

Gluma inferior ad 1:6 mm. longa, nervo uno conspicuo ; nervis in glumis

et inferiore lemmate conspicuis ; g/uma superior et lemma inferius 8-11-

nervia, fere cuspidata ; Jemma superius coriaceum, leve, nitens. Stig-

mata alte plumosa, colore alte chermesino. Antherae aurantiacae.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Sat

Typus, P. P. Jauhar 4, initio ex Jodhpur obtentus, positus in herbario

sectionis botanicae Instituti Investigationis Agricolae ad New Delhi ;

isotypi deponentur in herbario ad Dehra Dun et ad Calcutta.

Panicum coloratum L. var. glaucum Jauhar var. nov.

A procerus, glaucous, robust, macrophylous, tetraploid (2n=4x= 36)

perennial with erect, open, growth habit. Culms 120-140 cm. tall, 6-9

noded, rarely branched above. Nodes prominent and glabrous. Leaves

coriaceous, glaucous, glabrous, mid-rib very conspicuous ; second leaf

23-35 cm. long and 7-11 mm. broad. Ligule 1-4-1°6 mm. long, ciliolate.

Panicle 22-32 cm. long, 16-21 cm. broad, highly effuse and branched.

Spikelets 3:3-3°6 mm. long, sub-acute to acute, sea-green in colour.

Lower glume up to 1°6 mm. long with one conspicuous nerve. Nerves

on the glumes and lower lemma conspicuous. Upper glume, as the lower

lemma, 8-11 nerved, almost cuspidate. Upper lemma coriaceous, smooth

and glossy. Stigmas highly plumose, deep carmine in colour. Anthers

orange-chrome in colour.

The type was originally obtained from Jodhpur. Type, P. P. Jauhar

4, deposited in Herbarium Botany Division, Indian Agricultural

Research Institute, New Delhi; isotypes to be deposited in Herbaria

at Dehra Dun and at Calcutta.

Panicum coloratum var. glabrum Jauhar var. nov.

Gramen perenne, gracile, alte caespitosum, glabrum, dense fasci-

culatum, tetraploideum (21“=4x=36). Culmi 80-100 cm. alti, 6-13

nodi. Folia angusta, glabra, acuminata; nervo medio inconspicuo ;

folium secundum 12-18 cm. longum, 0°3-0°6 cm. latum ; foliorum vaginae

glabrae. Ligula 1:2-1°4 mm. longa, fimbriata. Panicula semieffusa,

11-19 cm. longa, 10-14 cm. lata. Spiculae 2°6-3°0 mm. longae, acumina-

tae, flaccidae. Glumae et lemma inferius fortiter nervosa, apicibus

minutim serrulatis. Lemma inferius multo longius palea inferiore.

Lemma superius leve, nitens, semicoriaceum. Stigmata plumosa,

* Aster ’-purpurea.

Typus, oriundus e page Toddapur prope Delhi et probabiliter ex

_ Australia in Indiam ad latus anno 1958, positus in sectione botanica

Instituti Indici Agriculturae ad New Delhi sub numero P. P. Jauhar 7.

Panicum coloratum L. var. glabrum Jauhar var. nov.

| A slender, highly caespitose, glabrous, densely tufted, tetraploid

(2n=4x=36), perennial. Culms 80-100 m. tall, 6-13 noded. Leaves

522, JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

narrow, glabrous, acuminately pointed ; mid-rib inconspicuous ; second

leaf 12-18 cm. long and 0°3-0°6 cm. broad. Leaf-sheaths Be

Ligule 1:2-1:4 mm. long, fimbriate.

Panicle semi-effuse, 11-19 cm. long and 10-14 cm. broad. Spikelets

2°6-3°0 mm. long, acuminate, flaccid. Glumes and lower lemma

strongly nerved, with minutely serrulated apices. Lower lemma much

longer than the lower palea. Upper lemma smooth, glossy, semi-

coriaceous. Stigma plumose, aster-purple.

The type was originally collected from Todapur Village (Delhi)

and probably belongs to the collections obtained from Australia in 1958.

Type, P. P. Jauhar 7, deposited in Herbarium Botany Division, Indian

Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author expresses his sincere gratitude to Dr. A. B. Joshi and

Dr. M. S. Swaminathan, for their valuable advice during the course of —

this study. His grateful thanks are also due to Prof. H. Santapau for

his valuable suggestions regarding the nomenclature of the taxa studied

and for rendering the diagnoses into Latin.

DIVISION OF GENETICS, Y,

INDIAN AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH INSTITUTE, _ P. P. JAUHAR

New DELHI.

November 18, 1967.

REFERENCES

JAUHAR, P. P. (1963): Cytotaxonomic complex. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 62

investigations in the genus Panicum L. (2) : 320-322.

Ph.D. Thesis, Postgraduate School, —_——— & ———— (1966): A new

Indian Agricultural Research Institute, species of Panicum L. Bull. bot. Surv.

New Delhi. India 8 (1) : 97-99.

———— (1967) : A comparative study JosoH1, A. B., Pati, B. D.v“&

of the morphological characters and epi- MANCHANDA, P. L. (1959) : Chromo-.

dermal patterns of Panicum —simplici- some numbers in some grasses. Curr.

florum Jauhar et Joshi and of P. colo- Sci. 28 : 454-455. .

ratum L. N.Z. Jl. Bot. (in press). PaTiL, B. D., VoHRA, S. K. & JOSHI,

Lh ey Josu1, A. B. (1965): A. B. (1961) : Chromosome numbers in

A new species of Panicum coloratum L. some plants. Curr. Sci. 30: 393-394.

29. ADDITIONS TO THE FLORA OF PAVAGADH HILL,

GUJARAT STATE

The flora of Pavagadh by Chavan & Oza (1965) lists 500 angiosperms |

as occurring either at the foot of the hill or on the hillitself. Subsequently —

Shah & Inamdar (1965) published a fresh list of 26 plants, either not —

reported earlier or with new observations. Chavan, Bedi & Sabnis |

(1966) recorded a few more plants. =} |

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 523

All these additional lists were of plants occurring near to the tracks

leading to the top of the hill. The fact that even short trips of one or two

days duration could add so many plants not reported in the flora of

Pavagadh, prompted the authors to undertake a programme of explora-

tion of the more inaccessible parts of the hill. The authors during their

recent trip collected the following plants, which are not reported by

earlier workers.

TILIACEAE

1. Triumfetta pilosa Roth.

Not common ; noted near Machi and on way to Bhadra Kali temple.

Flowers yellow. (BEDI 4506, 4507).

MIMOSACEAE

2. Mimosa pudica Linn.

A Few specimens noted on the slopes near Machi Holiday Camp.

(BEDI 4516).

COMPOSITAE

3. Glossocardia linearifolia Cass.

Often seen growing in open grassy places near Bhadra Kali temple

and steep rocky slopes near it. Plants are much stunted. (BEDI 4464).

ASCLEPIADACEAE

4. Ceropegia candelabrum Linn.

A twining perennial herb, with lemon-sized tubers. Flowers in

lateral, umbellate cymes. Not common ; seems to be restricted in distri-

bution. Collected from a very steep rocky slope near Machi; often

noted twining round Euphorbia neriifolia which are the common plants

on the steep slopes (BEDI 4546).

GENTIANACEAE

5. Canscora concanensis C. B. Clarke

A small (5-10 cm.) annual, erect herb. Calyx strongly four-winged.

Not common ; noted on open grassy places on Machi plateau and near

an old palace on way to Bhadra Kali temple. (BEDI 4536, 4537).

524 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

CONVOLVULACEAE

6. Ipomoea pes-caprae (Linn.) Sweet

It appears that this species has been recently introduced and is grow-

ing very well near Holiday Camp Canteen, producing flowers and fruits.

(BEDI 4481).

MARTYNIACEAE

7. Martynia annua Linn.

A Mexican plant becoming naturalised at various places. Fairly

common near the foot of Pavagadh hill, especially near the S.T. bus stop.

(BEDI 4436)

8. Securinega virosa (Roxb. ex Wills.) Pax & Hoffm.

A large unarmed shrub. Often noted growing on steep hill slopes

(BEDI 4642)

ARISTOLOCHIACEAE

9. Aristolochia indica Linn.

Restricted in distribution ; twining on Carissa congesta, by the side

of fort walls near Machi. (BEDI 4567, 4568).

DIOSCOREACEAE

10. Dioscorea daemona Roxb.

Not common ; seen near the origin of river Vishwamitri. (BEDI

4476, 4477).

HYPOXYDACEAE

11. Curculigo orchioides Gaertn.

A few plants noted under the shade of Carvia callosa along the banks

of Vishwamitri. (BEDI 4418).

12. Ophioglosum nudicaule Linn.

A few specimens noted on the fort walls on way to Bhadra Kali

temple. (BEDI 4570).

DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY, S. J. BEDI

FACULTY OF SCIENCE, S. D. SABNIS

M. S. UNIVERSITY OF BARODA, R. P. BHATT

BARODA,

January 10, 1968.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 525

30. OCCURRENCE OF AEGINETIA INDICA L. var.

3 ALBA SANTAPAU

In the note on * Aeginetia indica L. var. alba Santapau: A New Record

for Northern India’, (J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 61 (2): 471-472), I

had stated that ‘As soon as the plant shows signs of multiplication,

herbarium specimens will be collected for record’.

Additional information is now being provided that sufficiently large

number of plants of the white-flowered variety have now been seen in the

New Forest area and specimens collected on 17-9-1967 for record. These

have been incorporated in the Dehra Dun Herbarium (F.R.I.) under

Reg. Nos. 5412/143048, 143049, 143050, 143051.

In addition, colour photographs have also been taken to show the

colour differences between the typical purple-flowered species and the

white-flowered variety.

New Forest P.O.,

DEHRA DUN. K. M. VAID

December 14, 1967.

An Appeal

Salim Ali—Loke Ornithological Research Fund

The amount at the credit of the Salim Ali—Loke Ornithological

Research Fund, established in 1965 with an initial donation of

Rs 10,000, now stands at Rs 36,374:60. There is still far to go

before the Fund becomes operative, as the rules governing it provide

that no grant or award may be made till the corpus reaches Rs 1,00,000

and, thereafter, the corpus shall not be allowed to fall below

this sum. The provision is necessary to ensure continuing encourage-

ment of research and to assure research workers that where

observations are necessary over a prolonged period financial aid will

be forthcoming throughout the period. There is much work to be

done in India, and the Bombay Natural History Society is anxious

to be in a position, as early as possible, to assist such research.

We appeal to our readers and wellwishers to contribute freely

themselves, and tc bring our appeal to the notice of other persons

and institutions likely te contribute. We are grateful to the donors

who have already come forward with their generous contributions,

and hope that they will attempt to persuade others. persons and

institutions, to help the Saciety to reach its goal.

Donations should be made to the Bombay Natural History

Society for credit to the Salim Ali—Loke Ornithological Research

Fund, and should be addressed to: The Honorary Secretary,

Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House, Shahid Bhagat

Singh Road, Bombay 1-BR.

Intending donors are informed that the Bombay Natural History

Society is an institution established for a charitable purpose within the

meaning of sub-section (5) of section 80 G of The Income-Tax Act,

1961 (43 of 1961) and donations to it will qualify for rebate of tax

under the provisions of that section.

Announcement

Jawaharlal Nehru Fellowship

As one of the methods of utilising the funds at their disposal in

a manner appropriate to the many-faceted personality of the late

Jawaharlal Nehru, the Trustees of the Jawaharla! Nehru Memorial

Fund have decided to establish a number of Fellowships to encourage

and assist original work of an outstanding character ‘in every discipline

—the sciences as well as the humanities’. The broad outlines of the

scheme are set out in the announcement printed below, which was

published by the Trustees on the third death anniversary of Jawaharlal

Nehru. The Bombay Natural History Society has been included among

the institutions through which applications for Fellowships may be routed

to the Trustees.

No time limit has been prescribed; applications may be filed at

any time, subject to the limitation that at any one time there shall

not be more than twenty-five Fellows. For the present, eligibility for

a Fellowship is confined to Indian citizens for work to be done within

India. Applications are not required to be in any specified form,

but should include:

1. Particulars of the project proposed to be undertaken,

2. The bio-data of the applicant,

3. His experience in the field of specialisation chosen, and

4. Particulars of original work done by him, accompanied by

copies of publications, if any.

The Bombay Natural History Society will be glad to consider

_ for recommendation to the Trustees, applications from members and

non-members, relating to Natural History subjects. Correspondence

should be addressed to: The Honorary Secretary, Bombay Natural

History Society, Hornbill House, Shahid Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay

1-BR.

Eligibility

The Fellowships are open to scholars in every discipline—the

Sciences as well as the humanities—and also to categories of people

who are capable of creative activity but are not normally covered

by existing schemes, such as writers, journalists, artists and civil

servants. The only criterion is that they should possess proven

528 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

capacity for outstanding work, and a real desire to pursue a creative

project such as writing a book, monograph, paper, or to explore new

possibilities in their chosen field, or to bring their previous training

and experience up-to-date. As Jawaharlal Nehru said, ‘Man today,

as never before in human history, has to live with change as a

permanent partner in his activities and his institutions’. This applies

even to the most brilliant scholars who frequently need periods, which

they can devote entirely to the enrichment of their intellectual capital

particularly in view of the speed with which every discipline is

developing in this nuclear age. The absence of adequate facilities in

our country for such periodical intellectual “capital formation’ is certain

to condemn us to perpetual dependence on more advanced countries.

While it will not be desirable to lay down any age restrictions, efforts

will be made to ensure an adequate number of men and women in

their thirties or forties, so that the Fellowships will result in a long

period of creativity which would be of benefit to the country. The

Fellowship is open, for the present, to Indian citizens and they will

have complete freedom to work at places of their choice within India.

Selection

Great importance is attached to the selection of the first Fellows,

as they will set the standard for the future. The Jawaharlal Nehru

Fellows will be nominated by a Selection Committee consisting of

distinguished persons in different fields appointed every two years by

the Jawaharlal Nehru Memorial Fund. The strength of the Selection

Committee will not exceed seven, including the Secretary of the Fund

who will be an ex-officio member. The Selection Committee will

evolve its own mode of procedure. and will try to ensure that the

widest possible spectrum of creative talent is involved in_ these

Fellowships.

The Fellows

The number of Fellows at a given time shall not exceed twenty-

five, but in view of the necessity to maintain the highest standards of

excellence the Selection Committee need not feel compelled to reach

the maximum number. The duration of the Fellowships will vary

between one and two vears according to the requirements of each

individual case. |

ANNOUNCEMENT 529

The Stipend

The Fellows will be paid a stipend equivalent to one and a half

times the emoluments drawn by them at the time of selection, subject

te a ceiling of Rs. 3,000/- per month. For non-salaried persons the

Selection Committee will have discretion to fix the stipend within the

ceiling. The Fellows, will be provided secretarial assistance if

necessary and can also undertake travelling to pursue their work.

Their actual expenses on these two items and other contingencies will

be met by the Fund subject to a maximum of Rs. 10,000/- per annum

for each Fellow.

General

The present scheme of Fellowships represents the core of an idea

which is expected to develop and receive elaboration subsequently.

It should not be regarded as closed and final, and the intention is

that there should be enough flexibility to adapt it to changing national

requirements. Such a scheme, in which money is spent in furthering

the creative activity of talented Indian rather than on brick and

mortar, is well suited to the memory of a man whose love for his

country was unique and abiding.

Notes and News

Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan

Volume 1 of the HANDBOOK OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA AND PAKISTAN,

the ten-volume work on which Dr. Sdlim Ali and Dr. Dillon Ripley

have been engaged for many years past, is announced for publication

by the Oxford University Press in August, price Rs. 90. This first

volume contains a number of general introductory articles and

describes 224 forms. There are 18 coloured plates, 47 distribution

maps, one physical map and many figures in the text.

THE HANDBOOK OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA AND PAKISTAN is more than

a revision of E. C. Stuart Baker’s FAUNA volumes. Modelled on the

HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS by Witherby and others, it aims to

describe the 1200 species of birds which, in nearly 2100 forms, are

at the time of compilation to be seen in the Indo-Pakistan sub-

continent. Complete life-histories are not attempted and the HAND-

BOOK confines itself to recording concisely what is known of the

distribution, habits, breeding biology, diet, voice, etc. of the birds in

the subcontinent. In this first volume more than half the birds are

illustrated in colour, and with the help of these colour plates and

the systematic keys that have been provided, the bird-watcher and

the scientific ornithologist shovld be able to identify most of the

birds they see and all those that they handle. Distribution maps are

given for many of the migratory and spatially restricted forms.

Under the auspices of the Bombay Natural History Society, and

with generous assistance fron: the Government of India and friends

in the United States, work on this project has been in progress for

many years. Volume 2 (Megapodes to Crab Plover) is in the press.

Volume 3 (Stone Curlews to Owls) has been written, and later volumes

are in active preparation.

Fauna Preservation Society of London: Subscription in India

Arrangements have now been made for members of the Fauna

Preservation Society who live in India and are unable to send money

abroad to pay their annual subscriptions into a special FPS account

in Bombay which has been opened on the Society’s behalf by the

Bombay Natural History Society. These accumulated subscriptions

of Indian members will be used to pay for wildlife conservation

projects in India, and Indian members will have the satisfaction of

NOTES AND NEWS : 531

knowing that their subscriptions will directly benefit the wildlife of

their own country.

Please send subscriptions to the Honorary Secretary, Bombay

Natural History Society, Hornbill House, Shahid Bhagat Singh Road,

Bombay 1-B.R., clearly marked FAUNA PRESERVATION SOCIETY. |

XV International Ornithological Congress

Under the patronage of His Royal Highness

The Prince.of The Netherlands

SECOND ANNOUNCEMENT

The dates for the Congress have been determined as follows:

The Hague 30 August—5 September 1970 (inclusive).

Congress Fee: Full Members Dutch Guilders 150,--

Associate Members Dutch Guilders 100

Membership of the Congress is open to all ornithologists over the

age of 18 years. Full members are entitled to attend all functions of

_ the Congress and to receive the Proceedings.

Wives, husbands and children over the age of 18 of full members

to attend all functions, but not to receive the Proceedings.

Restriction of the number of memberships is nof considered.

After a formal opening on the Sunday evening, 30 August, the

rest of the week will be devoted to scientific meetings. These will

consist of Plenary Sessions in the mornings and Sectional Sessions in

the afternoons. Some of the Plenary Sessions will have the character

of a Symposium on well advanced or promising fields of ornithological

research; at others recent advances in selected fields of ornithology

will be reviewed. Forum discussions in the afternoon will give the

opportunity to pay additional attention to the subjects treated in the

morning. At the Sectional Sessions short, offered papers will be read.

Part of the afternoon sessions will be devoted to special or specialists’

_ meetings.

In addition there will be exhibits, a whole-day excursion on

Wednesday and film shows in the evenings.

There will be ample opportunity for informal contacts, but no

excursion before or after the Congress will be organized.

The Congress will meet in the new buildings of the Netherlands

Congress Centre, where all meals (except breakfast) will be served and

where each night coffee sheps and bars will be open. Accommodation

532 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

will be arranged in hotels in the vicinity or on caravan or camping

sites, if desired,

Along with the application form a list of hotels with prices will

be supplied.

Application forms with full details can be obtained from (note

new address):

The Secretary-General,

XV International Ornithological Congress,

C/O Netherlands Congress Centre,

10, Churchillplein,

The Hague,

The Netherlands.

Completed forms must be returned to the above address not later

than 1 May 1970, at which date registration for membership will be

closed.

Those wishing to contribute papers for the Sectional Sessions,

exhibits or films are requested to apply for the appropriate application

Sheets as early as possible and to have these returned not later than

1 December 1969, after which date unfortunately no papers or films

can be accepted, as scrutinizing, section allocation and production of

the Abstracts Volume require considerable time.

2 August, 1968 Pror. Dr. K. H. Voous,

Secretary-General

PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY C. E. KOSHY AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS

10 CHURCH ROAD, VEPERY, MADRAS—6-l 1-1968. C8649

EDITORS: H. SANTAPAU, ZAFAR FUTEHALLY & J. C, DANIEL

Abt?

THE SOCIETY’S PUBLICATIONS

Mammals

The Book of Indian Animals, by S. H. Prater. 2nd (revised) edition. 28 plates in

colour by Paul Barruel and many other illustrations. Rs. 30

(Price to members Rs. 25)

Birds —

The Book of Indian Birds, by Salim Ali. 8th (revised) edition. 66 coloured and

many monochrome plates. Rs. 25

(Price to members Rs. 20)

Snakes

Identification of Poisonous Snakes. Wall chart in English, Gujarati, and th

S ’

_ (Price to members Rs. 8).

“Miscellaneous .

Butterflies of the Indian Region, by M. A: es a With 27 ealoured ata 45

monochrome plates. __Rs.

(Price to members Rs. 22, 50)

Indian Molluscs, by James Hornell. With a coloured and many monochrome plates,

and text-figures. Rs.

(Price to members Rs. 4.50)

Picture Postcards of 12 representative Indian Birds (In colour) per set Rs. 2°50

Glimpses of Nature Series Booklets :

1. Our Birps I (with 8 coloured plates) in Hindi, and Marathi. Rs. 0°80

is Kannada Rs. 0°62

2. OuR BirRDs II (with 8 coloured plates) in Hindi. Rs. 0°62

3. OUR BEAUTIFUL TREES (with 8 coloured plates) in Hindi, and eran

4, Our MONSOON PLANTS (with 8 coloured plates) in English, Gujarati, Hindi,

and Marathi. Rs. 0°80

5. Our ANIMALS (with 8 coloured plates) in English, Gujarati, Hindi, and

Marathi. Rs. 1°25

Back numbers of the Society’s Journal. Rates on application.

Correspond with :

The Honorary Secretary,

Bombay Natural History Society,

Hornbill House, Shahid Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay 1-BR.

Agents in England :

Messrs Wheldon & Wesley Ltd,

Lytton Lodge, Codicote, Near Hitchin,

Herts, England.

The Society will gratefully accept back numbers of the Journal, particularly

numbers prior to Vol. 45, from members who may not wish to preserve them.

TERMS OF MEMBERSHIP

Life Members pay an entrance fee of Rs. 5 (5sh.) and a life membership fee of

Rs. 690. (Inland), £ 45-10-0 (Foreign).

Ordinary Members pay an entrance fee of Rs. 5 (Ssh.) and an annual subscription of

Rs. 36. (Inland), 43 (Foreign).

Members residing outside India should pay their subscription by means :of

orders on their Bankers to pay the amount of the subscription to the Society in

Bombay on the Ist January in each year. If this:;cannot be done, then the sum of

43-0-0 should be paid annually to the Society’s London Bankers—The National &

_Grindlays Bank Ltd, 26 Bishopsgate Street, London E.C. 2.

The subscription of members elected in October, November, and December

- covers the period from the date of their election to the end of the following year.

CONTENTS

THE ECOLOGY OF THE LION-TAILED Macaque [Macaca silenus (Linnazus)]—

A Prot Stupy. By Yukimaru Sugiyama coh a

Hedychium longipedunculatum, A NEW SPECIES OF ZINGIBERACEAE FROM SUBANSIRI

DIsTRICT, NORTH East FRONTIER AGENCY. By A. R. K. Sastry and D. M.

Verma aye ve as ; ae Kis

A REPORT ON WILD Lire SURVEYS IN SOUTH AND WEST INDIA. November-Decem- —

ber 1966. By J. Juan Spillett

NEPAL BiRDs ; SUPPLEMENT TO Biswas’ List. By R.L. Fleming .. ss

THE SCIAENIDAE OF THE COASTAL WATERS OF VISAKHAPATNAM. By S. Dutt and

V. Thankam :

NOTES ON THE THYSANOPTERA COLLECTED DURING WESTERN AND SOUTHERN

INDIA SURVEY, 1962, WITH A REVIEW OF THE THYSANOPTERA COMPLEX OF

THE Hosts. By K. V. Lakshminarayana

THE YELLOW-WATILED LAPWING, Vanellus malabaricus (Boddaert), A TROPICAL

DRY-SEASON NESTER. III. Two further season’s breeding. By S. D. Jayakar

and H. Spurway *: “S 2

FLORA OF THE BHILLANGNA VALLEY OF THE ERSTWHILE TEHRI-GARHWAL STATE.

By A.C. Dey, M. R. Uniyal and V. Shankar

ON THE OCCURRENCE OF Triops mavliensis (TIWARI), NOTOSTRACA (CRUSTACEA),

IN THE OKHAMANDAL REGION OF SAURASHTRA (INDIA). By S. V. Shanbhag

and N. B. Inamdar ae ; Bu ce

A CATALOGUE OF THE BIRDS IN THE COLLECTION OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL

History Socrery—2 Anseriformes. By Humayun Abdulali..

THE Nitciri WILD LIFE ASSOCIATION AND STATUS OF WILD LIFE IN THE NILGIRIS.

By E. R. C. Davidar -

ON THE RELATION BETWEEN AGE AND LINEAR MEASUREMENTS OF THE PEARL

Oyster, Pinctada vulgaris (Schumacher), OF THE GULF OF KutcH. By K.R.

Narayanan and M. S. Michael Ks

AN INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF INDIAN SPIDERS. By T. V. Subrahmanyam. .

—

REVIEWS ..

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

AN APPEAL

ANNOUNCEMENT

Nores AND News... e

ee ee

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348

369

384

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a pee oe arte ee ee eg, Ree ee

Journal of the

ombay Natural History Society _

Vol. 65, No. 3

Editors

H. SANTAPAU, 3.J.,

ZAFAR FUTEHALLY, & J. C. DANIEL

DECEMBER 1968

Rs. 18 (Inland), sh. 30 (Foreign)

NOTICE TO CONTRIBUTORS

Contributors of scientific articles are requested to assist the

editors by observing the following instructions.

1. Papers which have at the same time been offered for publica- |

tion to other journals or periodicals, or have already been published

elsewhere, should not be submitted.

2. The MS. should be typed (double spacing) on one side of a

sheet only, and the sheets properly numbered.

3. All scientific names to be printed in italics should be under-

lined. Both in zoological and in botanical references only the initial

letter of the genus is capitalized. The specific and subspecific names

always begin with a small letter even if they refer to a person or a

place, e.g. Anthus hodgsoni hodgsoni or Streptopelia chinensis suratensis .

or Dimeria blatteri.

4. Trinomials referring to subspecies should only be used where

identification has been authentically established by comparison of

specimens actually collected. In all other cases, or where identification

is based merely on sight, binominals should be used.

5. Photographs for reproduction must be clear and show good

contrast. Prints must be of a size not smaller than 8°205:60 cm.

(No. 2 Brownie) and on glossy glazed paper.

6. Text-figures, line drawings, and maps should be in Indian ink,

preferably on Bristol board.

7. References to literature should be placed at the end of the

paper, alphabetically arranged under author’s name, with the abridged

titles of journals or periodicals underlined (italics) and titles of books

not underlined (roman type), thus:

Banerji, M. L. (1958): Botanical Exploration in East Nepal.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 55 (2): 243-268.

Prater, S. H. (1948): The Book of Indian Animals. Bombay.

Titles of papers should not be underlined.

8. Reference to literature in the text should be made by quoting

the author’s name and year of publication, thus: (Banerji 1958).

9. Synopsis: Each scientific paper should be accompanied by

a concise, clearly written synopsis, normally not exceeding 200 words.

10. Reprints: Authors are supplied 25 reprints of their articles

free of charge. In the case of joint authorship, 50 copies will be

given gratis to be distributed among the two or more authors. Orders |

for additional reprints should be in multiples of 25 and should be

received within two weeks after the author is informed of the acceptance

of the manuscript. They will be charged for at cost plus postage and

packing. aS ean Pa yi

- >. . EpITors,

Hornbill House, ; | Journal of the Bombay Natural |

7 History Society. |

Shahid Bhagat

Singh Road,

Bombay 1-BR.

VOLUME 65, NO. 3—DECEMBER 1968

Date of publication: 28-5-1969

CONTENTS

THE BirDs OF SIND: A Review. By D. A. Holmes and J. O. Wright. (With a

map) tk be

Pseudodissochaeta : A ‘New Gutes OF Reto tice By M. P. Nayar.

(With a map and four text-figures)

FEEDING HABITS OF THE FISH Megalops cyprinoides HeonssoNee IN THE (oon

BACKWATERS, MADRAS. By Thavamani J. Pandian. (With three text-

figures)

Eco-TOxICOLOGY AND onion! OF INDIAN DEStRT Saat) Mreriones ndiphanae

(JERDON). By Ishwar Prakash :

ON A NEW SPECIES OF SEA ANEMONE FROM Mieanase tet ioe By Decark

Parulekar. (With four text-figures) :

OBSERVATIONS ON THE BREEDING BIOLOGY OF FINN’S BAYA (Ploceus AoateR eins

HUME) IN THE KUMAON TERAI. By V.C. Ambedkar. (With a plate)

MorE ADDITIONS TO THE CRAB FAUNA OF BOMBAY STATE. By B. F. ape

(With two plates)

OCCURRENCE OF Spindasis Apes (Mooney. Cana cE eon Gaon, ON

THE WESTERN GHATS. By A.E. Bean, ssJE. (With eight plates and two text-

figures)

A REPORT ON WILD cee SomvEre IN SOUTH A AND WEST adn By J. Jian Spillet!

(With four plates and two maps) mh

Two NEW SPECIES OF Iseilema ANDERSS. FROM INDIA. By Murty R. ppaleri

and U. Satyavathi. (With a plate)

SOME WILD-SHOT DUCK HYBRIDS FROM THE INDIAN Shine ania, By Pinies

Harrison and Jeffery Harrison. (With four plates) :

Two NEW PHyYTOSEID MITES FROM EASTERN INDIA (ACARINA: Puy TOsHiDAe).

By S. K. Bhattacharyya. (With six text-figures)

SAND DUNE FLORA OF WESTERN RAJASTHAN. By K.C. Kanodia ioe R. K. Gon

A CATALOGUE OF THE BIRDS INTHE COLLECTION OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL

History SocieTy—3, Falconiformes. By Humayun Abdulali . .

A NEW BEGONIA FROM EAST NEPAL. By C.R. Rao. (With a plate)

AN INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF INDIAN SPIDERS. By T. V. Si Geahinatiyandk

(With fourteen text-figures) .

Rhododendron santapaui sp. Nov. FROM Sia eh Distwicr, N. E. FE. A., Tapia!

By A. R. K. Sastry, S. K. Kataki, Peter Cox, Patricia Cox, and P. Hutchi-

son. (With two plates)

REVIEWS :

1. The Bird Faunas of Africa and its Islands. (S.A.)

2. Khumbu Himal. (S. A.) i 4:

3. Flowering Shrubs. (D.E. R.)

4. Figs of Hongkong. (P. V. B.) i sie

5. Handbook of Rock Gardening on the Hills. (D.E. R.)

6. Introduction to Agricultural Botany in India. (P. V.B.) ..

7. Salinity and Aridity—New Approaches to Old Problems. (P. V. B.)

8. Of Predation and Life. (G.S.R.) i

9. The Territorial Imperative. (D. W. P.)

10. Tracks. (D.E.R.) ;

11. Mimicry. (D.E.R.)

12. Galapagos. (Z. F.) re

13. Pesticides and Pollution. (Z. F.)

533

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581

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753

754

757

758

759

760

762

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :

1. Taxonomic status of Rousettus seminudus (Gray) : (Chiroptera: Ptero-

pidae). By Y.P. Sinha (p. 764). .2. Notes on Barking Deer, Muntiacus muntjak

(Zimmermann). By Charles McCann (p. 767). 3. The Nilgiri Tahr, Hemitragus

hylocrius Ogilby. (With two plates). By John Willet (p. 769). 4. The Great

Indian Rorqual Balaenoptera musculus (Linn.) near Pasni (Mekran Coast), West

Pakistan. By M.S. U. Siddiqi (p. 772). 5. Rednecked Grebe Podiceps grisei-

gena (Boddaert) again sighted in West Pakistan. By C. D. W. Savage (p. 773).

6. Cotton Teal Nettapus coromandelianus (Gmelin) and Water Snake. By

A. A.A. Fyzee (p. 773). 7. Extension of Range of the Large Indian Kite Milvus

migrans lineatus (Gray). By Humayun AbdulaliandJ. G. Nair(p. 774).

8. The chick of the Red Spurfowl Galloperdix spadicea (Gmelin). (With a plate).

By Humayun Abdulali (p. 774). 9. A further note on the distribution of Cuculus

canorus Linnaeus. By George F. Neavoll (p. 775). 10. Occurrence of the Euro-

pean Bee-eater Merops apiaster Linnaeus, at Mettur Dam, Salem District,

Madras. By Monisha Basu Roy (p. 776). 11. Territory in the House Crow,

Corvus splendens Vieillot. By B. S. Lamba (p. 777). 12. The Brown

Flycatcher, Muscicapa latirostris Raffles in Kutch. By M. K. Himmatsinhji

(p. 778). 13. New wintering locality of the Spotted Bush Warbler

Bradypterus thoracicus (Blyth). By J. R. S. Holmes, M.B.o.u. (p. 779).

14. Dust bathing by Common Baya (Ploceus philippinus). By (Mtrs.)

Usha Ganguli (p. 780). 15. Some new bird records for Delhi. By Peter

Jackson (p. 780). 16. Some new bird records for Nepal. By Biswamoy Biswas

(p. 782). 17. Recovery of ringed birds. By Editors (p. 784). 18. Oxyurich-

thys jaarmani Weber (Gobiidae : Pisces), A rare Gobioid from Indian Waters.

(With a text-figure). By P. K. Talwar (p. 794). 19. Observations on the food

of young Hilsa ilisha (Hamilton) around Nabadwip, in the Hooghly Estuary.

By D.D. Halder (p. 796). 20. On the mechanism of escape by a moth from acci-

dental drowning. By A. B. Soans and J. S. Soans (p. 798). 21. Etiella

zinckenella Treitschke (Lepidoptera : Phycitidae) as a Pod Borer of Lentil in

the Punjab. By G. S. Sandhu and G. C. Verma (p. 799). 22. Gregariousness

and Mimicry during the cocoon stage by the Butterfly Eurema hecabe (L.). By

D. G. Sevastopulo, F.R.E.S. (p. 800). 23. Insects attracted to light in the Dangs,

South Gujarat. By N. T. Nadkerny and E. M. Shull (p. 800). 24. Persistent

vitality in Bee-hole Borer Moth Duomitus leuconotus Wilk. By D. E. Reuben

(p. 801). 25. Preference of castor varieties for feeding and oviposition by the

Leafhopper Empoasca flavescens (F.) (Homoptera, Jassidae). By D. G. Sevasto-

pulo, F.R.E.S. (p. 802). 26. Observations on a mode of food-capture by Dragon-

flies. By A. B. Soans and J. S. Soans (p. 803). 27. Dicraeia stylosa Wight

(Podostemaceae)—A new record for Bombay. By B. Venkatareddi (p. 803). |

28. Observations on the host range in Loranthus longiflorus Desv. By

R. Sampathkumar and J. Kunchithapatham (p. 804). 29. Nomenclature notes

on the genus Sonerila Roxb. (Melastomataceae). By M. P. Nayar (p. 805).

30. Anthriscus scandicina (Weber) Mans. (Apiaceae) : A new record for India.

By C. R. Babu (p. 807). 31. Anew name in Campanula Linn. (Campanulaceae). |

By C. R. Babu (p. 808). 32. Gnetum ula Brongn. from Rayalaseema, Andhra

Pradesh—A new record. By K. V. M. Rao and K. R. Rao (p. 809). Ye |

ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY FOR THE YEAR

1967-68 das of Be “a a ..) OLE

STATEMENT OF ACCOUNTS OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY .. 816

MINUTES OF THE ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING AY re . on) OLE

JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL

HISTORY SOCIETY

1968 DECEMBER Vol. 65 No. 3

The Birds of Sind: A Review

D. A. HOLMES AND J. O. WRIGHT

(With a map)

It is 45 years since a comprehensive account of the birds of the former

province of Sind (West Pakistan) was published. Since then, the environ-

ment of the alluvial plains of Sind has been considerably altered by a very

extensive spread of irrigation canals, agricultural development and increase

in population. These changes are still occurring.

An up-to-date review of the avifauna of the alluvial plains is presented,

to indicate changes in status that have resulted from the new environment.

The review is based on amateur observations by the authors, who were resi-

dent in the province for three years. Most noticeable of the changes is the

decline of many of the larger, ‘ wetland ’ species, which is likely to continue.

In contrast, it can be assumed that the population of many passerines has

increased, while a few species, such as the Koel and Common Indian Nightjar,

have extended their range.

The former province of Sind in West Pakistan has an area of

53,000 sq. miles. About half of this forms part of the great sandy waste

of the Thar Desert. The western margins are mountainous, rising to

over 7000 feet, while the Arabian Sea and a wide tidal zone form the

southern boundary. This review is concerned mainly with the great

alluvial plains of the River Indus, which comprise over 20,000 square

miles of Sind. The climate is arid and hot, and the plains are barely

penetrated by the monsoon. Within this area average annual rainfall

ranges from 3 inches in the north to 8 inches in the south. In the north,

summer temperatures often exceed 120°F., while frost is sometimes

experienced in winter. Temperatures in the south are moderated by

the SW winds which blow throughout the summer months. Thus the

[1]

534. JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

plains have a desert climate, and their fertility is dependent upon irri-

gation from the Indus.

In the middle of the last century, only about 800 square miles, or

4 per cent, of the plains received sufficient irrigation water to permit

cultivation. By 1921 this area had increased about four-fold. The

first barrage across the Indus was built at Sukkur in 1932, and two more

have been added since, so that virtually all the plains are now within

irrigation command, a 25-fold increase. It can truly be said that the

face of Sind has been changed, and mostly within the last 35 years. In

fact, however, less than 15,000 square miles is under cultivation, for

- while new land is being reclaimed, other land is lost through water-

logging and salinity. Nevertheless huge expanses of formerly mono-

tonous scrubby desert have been replaced by a lush fertility that would

have appeared inconceivable 40 years ago. The main crops grown are

rice and cotton in summer, and wheat in winter. Accompanying these

developments, the population has nearly doubled, from 34 million in

1931 to 6 million in 1961, and 80 per cent of this is rural. At the same

time the network of roads has expanded proportionally, so that all

parts of the plains are now readily accessible.

It is 45 years since a comprehensive review of the birds of Sind was

published (Ticehurst 1922-1924), and this pre-dates the great develop-

ments that have occurred. A number of workers, notably Eates

(1937 et seq.), have contributed short notes to show some of the changes

in the avifauna that were occurring, but time is now ripe for a fresh

attempt at a review to be made. The authors were stationed in Sind

for three years, from 1963 to 1965, and in the course of carrying out soils

and agricultural surveys travelled extensively over the alluvial plains

(although not penetrating far into the surrounding regions of sand and

rock desert, and tidal mudflats). Ornithology was, however, only a

spare time activity, and specimens were not collected, so that inevitably

there are gaps in the field identification of some of the more difficult

groups. The work of Ticehurst still remains the standard reference to

the Sind avifauna, but it is hoped that the review below illustrates the

more important changes in distribution that have occurred in some

groups.

Without statistical evidence, it is of course impossible to review

changes in population quantitatively. For example, the statement that

a particular species is ‘common and widely distributed in cultivated

areas ’, in both 1922 and 1965, assuming this statement to have the same

general meaning, would totally fail to reveal the increase in population

that must have occurred. Many of the endemic species that are adapted

to or tolerant of a well-populated, agricultural environment must have

increased, although the extent cannot be assessed. At the same time,

many winter visitors, whether they have increased in numbers or not,

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THE BIRDS OF SIND: A REVIEW $35

are dispersed over a much greater area, and thus may give a false impres-

sion of reduced numbers.

However, special attention must be paid to those groups that are

dwindling, in some cases drastically. The larger *‘ wetland’ birds are

those most affected, for example the storks and ibises, and these are

perhaps the wilder birds that would be expected to suffer most from the

enormously increased disturbance by man. Readers of Ticehurst’s

notes will be struck by the impression he gives of sheer numbers, in

some species that are now nearly extinct in Sind. We should stress,

however, that we rarely penetrated the wild ‘no-man’s zone’ between

land and sea that forms the southern boundary of the province, and there

is evidence that this remains the last stronghold in Sind of some rem-

- nant populations.

As a result of the changes in the water regime, wetland habitats

may have actually increased, and changed in distribution. Within the

canal areas, there are over 900 square miles of swampy and flooded

land, although over half of this is only seasonally wet. This figure does

not include the great Sind lakes, such as Manchar and Kalri, and the

wide area between the flood protection bunds of the Indus, a large pro-

portion of which is flooded each summer. The rise in water-tables has

meant that many natural depressions, often formerly used for rice crops,

are now swampy, or have become jheels. Such jheels are especially

common in the plains south of Hyderabad (e.g. Muradani Dhand, in

Tatta District) and in some districts in the north, west of the Indus

(e.g. Habibkot, near Sukkur). In addition, pools of waste irrigation

water, often very saline, as well as the rice fields in late summer and the

partially dry beds of seasonal canals in winter, form ideal habitats for

waders. The larger lakes are mostly distributed around the margins

of the plain : Haleji, Hadeiro, Jhol and Kalri are a notable group near

Tatta. Haleji and Kalri are now fresh-water storage lakes, but the

seepage zones outside their containing bunds often have shallow saline

pools that are more like the waters of Hadeiro and Jhol. Manchar Lake

near Sehwan is well known, but its area has diminished since floods

have been controlled. In the east, there are several lakes, some of them

deep, lying between the sandhills at the edge of the Thar Desert, but we

could only visit one or two of them. With future development, the

acreages of surface fresh-water storage areas is likely to be increased,

but artificial drainage may drastically diminish the natural jheels and

swampy areas.

The list that follows is placed in the order of Ripley (1961). The

notes are concerned mostly with distribution and status with particular

reference to the alluvial plains, and bracketed negative records are in-

cluded where appropriate. Place-names are shown in the sketch map.

[3]

536 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

Podiceps cristatus (Linnaeus). Great Crested Grebe

Ticehurst saw this bird on the coast, but never inland in Sind, and

mentions only one inland record, at Manchar Lake in January in the

last century. Ripley does not name West Pakistan in its wintering range.

Our only records are inland, at Hadeiro, in the summer of 1965. There

was a party of 4 on May 23, which had increased to 10 on June 27.

[Podiceps caspicus (Hablizl). Blacknecked Grebe

We never saw this Grebe, but Ticehurst saw them at Manchar Lake,

and Roberts (1967) reports seeing several at Kandhkot in February 1965.]

Podiceps ruficollis (Pallas). Little Grebe

Common and generally distributed resident. Seen on the nest near

Hyderabad in early July.

Pelecanus sp. Pelicans

Pelicans were only observed in the extreme south of Sind, where

flocks of up to 150 occur on some lakes (e.g. Muradani), and along the

coast. Both the White (P. onocrotalus) and Dalmatian (P. philippensis)

occur, but were not always specifically identified. They are winter

visitors, extreme dates being October 10 and February 28 (compare

Ticehurst ; November 30 and March 5), except for a party of 25, believed

to be White Pelicans, present at Hadeiro as late as May 23 in 1965. 7

Phalacrocorax sp. Cormorants

All three species of cormorants occurring in India are very common

in Lower Sind, and outside the breeding season, numbers on lakes where

there is extensive flooded tamarisk, such as the Kalri seepage zone, run

into thousands. The Indian Shag (P. fuscicollis)-and Little Cormorant —

(P. niger) are often difficult to distinguish at a distance, and like Ticehurst

we cannot be sure of the distribution of the Shag in Upper Sind, where

the Little Cormorant is probably more widespread than the other two

species. ;

Anhinga rufa (Daudin). Darter

Common and widely distributed in small numbers, and not neces-

sarily confined to the larger jheels as stated by Ticehurst, for we have

met it in pools in inundated forests etc. ,

Ardea cinerea Linnaeus. Grey Heron

Ardea purpurea Linnaeus. Purple Heron

Both species are common residents, but the Purple Heron, which

is usually seen in two’s or three’s near reed beds, is the more widely

distributed bird.

[4]

THE BIRDS OF SIND; A REVIEW 537

Butorides striatus (Linnaeus). Little Green Heron

Due to its secretive crepuscular habits, this heron was seen infre-

quently but it must be a common bird of the seasonally inundated

swamps and forests along the river, where most of our records were

obtained. On rare occasions, however, they can be seen at the open

water edge in broad daylight. In the field, this bird never struck either

of us as having the green gloss to the plumage from which it is named.

In late June, a nest with 2 eggs was found in a back-water near Sukkur,

in a dense acacia bush overhanging the water.

Ardeola grayii (Sykes). Pond Heron

Very widely distributed, favouring small ponds and wet thickets, but

also occurring commonly in the mangrove swamps at Karachi. Small

breeding colonies were found near Sukkur in late May and June, in

canal-side Dalbergia trees, and in a Cattle Egret colony.

Bubulcus ibis (Linnaeus). Cattle Egret

A very common bird of the irrigated tracts, generally in parties or

small flocks. Ticehurst found it far commoner in Upper Sind than

further south, but this is no longer true following the spread of irrigation

supplies to Lower Sind.

In the breeding season they are rarely seen far from their breeding

colonies. One such colony of several hundred nests was located in the

riverain forests just above Sukkur on May 25, 1964, with up to 5 or 6

nests in some trees, and some of these already contained well-grown

nestlings. Several sitting birds were noted without the buff nuptial

plumes. The breeding season would appear to be earlier here than over

northern India generally, and may depend on the Indus inundation

rather than on the monsoon which barely reaches Sind. In the heat

of the day, parents were seen to fly to and fro from the river, apparently

bringing water in the down of their breasts to the nests or chicks.

Egretta alba (Linnaeus). Large Egret

Widely although thinly distributed, and usually seen singly, or in

two’s or three’s. A few also frequent the tidal mudflats and mangroves.

[Egretta intermedia (Wagler). Smaller Egret

We have probably overlooked this egret, as Roberts reports having

seen it quite commonly at Kandhkot.]

Egretta garzetta (Linnaeus). Little Egret

Generally distributed but probably not as numerous as the Cattle

Egret. A few nests were found in the Cattle Egret colony in May, and

others were seen later in early July.

[5]

538 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

Egretta gularis (Bosc). Indian Reef Heron

A very common bird along the coast, where the majority are dark

phase birds (although white phase birds are apt to be mistaken for other

egrets). Ticehurst notes that they only occasionally stray a little way

inland, but we saw two’s or three’s with surprising regularity in wet,

saline districts in Lower Sind, and on three occasions at Hyderabad.

Two were seen at Sehwan in August, nearly 200 miles up the river, but

Roberts has seen over two dozen captive birds with the fishermen on

nearby Manchar Lake.

Nycticorax nycticorax (Linnaeus), Night Heron

Common and widely distributed in waterlogged districts, especially

in the south. Muradani in February contained at least 500 birds in the

flooded tamarisk, the majority being immature. Being crepuscular,

they can be easily overlooked, but their harsh croaks in the dusk reveal

the birds flighting overhead to their feeding grounds.

[Ixobrychus minutus (Linnaeus). Little Bittern

According to Ticehurst, who only once saw it himself, the Little

Bittern is a permanent but uncommon and local resident. We never

saw it, although constantly looking for it, but Roberts saw a female at

Manchar Lake in December 1966.]

Ixobrychus cinnamomeus (Gmelin). Chestnut Bittern

This is the most widely distributed of the small bitterns, occurring

quite commonly in reed beds, but also occasionally in wet thickets beside

canals etc., and is probably resident. Like the other bitterns, it is over-

looked unless dusk or dawn watches are kept over reed beds, although

the patient observer hidden in the reeds even by day is sometimes re-

warded. A short view of a bird in flight, the most usual view, is generally

sufficient for identification, for the upper parts appear a uniform chestnut-

brown (richer in the male), without streaking, and with no black on the

wing. Underparts are paler, with a dark mid-ventral streak in the male.

Ixobrychus sinensis (Gmelin). Yellow Bittern

This bittern is more confined to reed beds than the previous bird,

although these need not be large. All our records are between May

and August, so it is possibly a summer visitor. Even from a short view

in flight, the uniform tawny-buff plumage with black primaries is quite

distinctive. !

Dupetor flavicollis (Latham). Black Bittern

The Black Bittern is more local than the previous two forms; we

found them to be quite common at Jamraohead and around Sujawal,

but have only scattered records elsewhere. Ticehurst himself never

[6]

THE BIRDS OF SIND: A REVIEW 539

saw it, but presumed from earlier records that it was a resident bird,

although our records are all between May and August. It appears rather

larger than Ixobrychus, and being apparently all black, it can readily be

mistaken in the late dusk, for other black water birds flying over the

reeds. A closer view reveals yellow sides to the throat.

._ Botaurus stellaris (Linnaeus). Bittern

A winter visitor to reed beds, seen occasionally near Sukkur, and

once at Jati, in December and February.

Ibis leucocephalus (Pennant). Painted Stork

Our only record is of two at Manchar Lake in August 1965.

Although it may still be quite common in the tidal zone it has decreased

drastically, as Ticehurst found it ‘common wherever there are jheels of

any size’ in Central and Lower Sind, ‘ usually in small flocks of a dozen

or so’. They formerly bred in the East Nara District.

[Anastomus oscitans (Boddaert). Openbill Stork

We never found the Openbill Stork, although Ticehurst considered

it to be a ‘ fairly common bird in the “‘ watery ” parts of Sind... . round

the edges of most jheels of any size’, breeding in the East Nara District.]

[Ciconia episcopus (Boddaert). Whitenecked Stork

The only record for Sind is of one at Sukkur in 1879. Neither

Ticehurst nor we recorded it.]

Ciconia ciconia (Linnaeus). White Stork

Ticehurst considered that the White Stork was a rather uncommon

winter visitor. It is certainly scarce now, although one or two are

occasionally seen in winter in Lower Sind (we also saw 2 at Sujawal as

late as May 9). However, the presence of a flock of over 300 in a jheel

near Ladiun in November suggests that they may still visit the delta

zone quite commonly.

Ciconia nigra (Linnaeus). Black Stork

The decline of the Black Stork seems to have been in progress early

in the century, as Hume in the last century met vast numbers along the

Indus, whereas Ticehurst only saw it occasionally. We have only three

records, all of single birds in November and February.

Xenorhynchus asiaticus (Latham). Blacknecked Stork

A very sparse resident along the sand banks of the Indus; we have

also seen it along the coast, and a family party of one adult and three

“immatures at Manchar Lake in August (our most northerly record).

[7 |

540 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

Ticehurst considered it to be not uncommon in the better-watered parts

of Central and Lower Sind.

[Leptoptilos dubius (Gmelin). Adjutant

Like the Black Stork, the Adjutant had already declined prior to

Ticehurst’s time, for neither he nor we have seen it in Sind. ]

Threskiornis melanocephala (Latham). White Ibis

Ticehurst states that this “is pretty common on the inland waters,

and on some jheels large flocks are to be met with’. It bred in the

East Nara District. It is now apparently confined to the delta, where it is

still said to breed. Apart from 2 birds south of Badin, our only record is

of a flock of about 200 on a jheel near Ladiun in November 1965.

Pseudibis papillosa (Temminck). Black Ibis

A solitary bird seen along a tree-lined canal near Sukkur in September

1964 is poor comparison to Ticehurst’s statement that ‘the Black Ibis

is very common in the better-watered parts, and large flocks may be

met with around most jheels ’. Occasional birds may still breed in the

delta, although we failed to see it at Ladiun.

Plegadis falcinellus (Linnaeus). Glossy Ibis

This ibis does at least seem to be still maintaining its distribution in

Lower Sind, where flocks of 300 or 400 are occasionally met with feeding

in irrigated fields or around undisturbed jheels. Small parties were

seen regularly in the seepage zone of Kalri Lake. Our most northerly

records are from Manchar Lake. Nevertheless numbers have declined

very considerably since Ticehurst’s time.

Platalea leucorodia Linnaeus. Spoonbill

The Spoonbill is still quite common in Lower Sind, and parties of

20 or 30 were seen throughout the summer at Kalri or Hadeiro, with

numbers increasing to over 100 on some lakes in winter. Still this does

not bear comparison with the ‘serried ranks’ and ‘ vast concourse’

described by Ticehurst, constituting ‘ one of the ornithological sights

of Sind.’ We never saw the spoonbill north of Hyderabad.

Phoenicopterus roseus Pallas. Flamingo

Flamingos can be seen at most seasons in Lower Sind (we have no

records north of Hyderabad), notably at Kalri Lake and adjacent jheels,

or in small parties scattered along the desolate coastline adjoining the

Rann of Kutch. There is no better or easier place to watch them than

from the high bund of Kalri Lake, as they roost or feed desultorily in the

seepage zone below you,

[8]

THE BIRDS OF SIND: A REVIEW 541

During 1965, we kept a tally of numbers at the three lakes of Kalri,

Jhol and Hadeiro, and from about a hundred at Kalri Lake in February,

numbers rose steadily to an estimate of some 2,500 at the three lakes on

May 30. Numbers then dropped slowly, to less than a hundred in

August, when they may have been shifting back to their assumed origin

in the Rann of Kutch to breed. Less than 50 per cent of these birds were

in adult plumage, although the proportion of adult birds increased as the

numbers dwindled. There is a possibility that some flamingos in winter

are visitors from a more northerly breeding ground.

[We never identified the Lesser Flamingo (Phoenicondias minor)

amongst these flocks. |

[Anser spp. Geese

There is no doubt that wintering geese have declined very con-

siderably, and perhaps quite recently, and when questioned local wild-

fowlers will comment on this. We ourselves never saw any, but Greylag

(A. anser) are said to be still common in some years on the coast. A

wildfowl survey of the sub-continent is currently being undertaken by

—C.D.W. Savage, under the auspices of the Wildfowl Trust (1965).]

[Cygnus spp. Swans

_ Stragglers of all three species have been recorded from Sind, although

we have no records or reports of any.]

Dendrocygna javanica (Horsfield). Lesser Whistling Teal

This duck was considered by Ticehurst to be a permanent resident,

but apart from flocks of 50 to 100 in Tatta District in November, all

our records were between May and September. Some may well be over-

looked in the packs of winter wildfowl, and probably a fair number do

over-winter, especially in the south. However, one of their main

summer strongholds is the great stretch of inundated riverain forests

that extend along the length of the Indus, and as these forests are only

flooded in summer, the bird is here a summer visitor, (although it is

scarce in Upper Sind). They arrive in the second half of May, and for a

few weeks can be seen each evening in fair numbers, before they become

dispersed over their summer territories.

[We never identified the Large Whistling Teal (D. picia?) amongst

these parties, although a few might be expected. |

-Tadorna ferruginea (Pallas). Ruddy Sheld-duck

This is now a scarce winter visitor, and certainly rarer than formerly

as Ticehurst considered it ‘much commoner in Upper than in Lower

Sind ’,

[9]

542 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

Tadorna tadorna (Linnaeus). Common Sheld-duck

This is also scarce, and we only saw them a few times on Kalri Lake,

in very small numbers. However, they are reported to be not uncommon

in Lower Sind in some winters.

Anas angustirostris Ménétries. Marbled Teal

According to Ticehurst, this was formerly a pretty common duck

on shallow-water jheels in Central Sind, and some may have bred

occasionally at Manchar Lake. J.O.W. saw several pairs at a small

jheel at Tando Musti Khan, near Khairpur, in March 1965, and these

may well have been breeding. Local wildfowlers reported that they

were year-round residents, to be found only on this particular jheel.

Anas acuta Linnaeus. Pintail

This is one of the commonest ducks that visit the Sind jheels, as

indeed it was in Ticehurst’s day, numbering over a thousand on many

jheels.

Anas crecca Linnaeus. Common Teal

The Common Teal is nearly as common as the Pintail, and some

wildfowlers suggest that it may be the commonest wildfowl in Upper

Sind.

Anas poecilorhyncha J. R. Forster. Spotbill Duck

The Spotbill is apparently resident in Lower Sind, where flocks of

20-50 birds may be encountered at almost any season, while some jheels

may have 50-100 birds in winter. We never saw it in Upper Sind.

Anas platyrhynchos Linnaeus. Mallard

The Mallard is widely distributed, although not very abundant. It

prefers shallow water and fairly dense cover, and totals in the reed beds

and rushes around suitable jheels probably run into several hundred.

Anas strepera Linnaeus. Gadwall

To quote Ticehurst, ‘ taking Sind as a whole the Gadwall is out-and-

out the commonest duck’, in numbers that were ‘incredible’. It now

appears to be rare over most of Sind, although it is a duck that tends to |

be overlooked. This species has probably suffered the most noticeable _

decline of any duck in Sind. ee

Anas penelope Linnaeus. Wigeon hia

Not as common as the Pintail and Teal, but a few jheels in the south

may hold well over 500 Wigeon. In 1965, they remained at Kalri Lake

well into April, and there were 5 drakes at nearby Jhol on May 16,

(10]

THE BIRDS OF SIND: A REVIEW 543

Anas querquedula Linnaeus. Garganey

The Garganey is mainly a passage migrant, passing through Sind

from mid-September to mid-November, and again from mid-February

to mid-April. At these seasons they are fairly common. Probably a

few over-winter, and in 1965 a pair was seen at Jhol on May 16.

Anas clypeata Linnaeus. Shoveller

The Shoveller is an abundant winter visitor, and although not as

common as the Pintail and Common Teal, some jheels may hold well

over 500 birds. Two drakes were seen at Khairpur as late as June 1 in

1964, and two remained until the end of May at Jhol in 1965,

Netta rufina (Pallas). Redcrested Pochard

This duck is now generally very scarce, and has clearly decreased

since Ticehurst’s time. However, it may still be quite common in some

years on deeper jheels around Larkana and Kandhkot, and in the desert

fringe east of Sanghar. In 1964, J.O.W. saw two drakes near Sukkur as

late as June 7.

Aythya ferina (Linnaeus). Common Pochard

This is the commonest of the diving duck, and large sheets of water

may hold flocks of up to 500 birds. However, numbers have probably

declined slightly, since Ticehurst records ‘ vast flocks ’.

Aythya nyroca (Gildenstadt). White-eyed Pochard

Although probably overlooked, this pochard has declined drastically,

as Ticehurst found it “ one of the most universally distributed and numeri-

cally abundant species ’, and Salim Ali (1928) thought it to be the com-

_ monest duck at Manchar Lake. Perhaps only in some years, quite large

numbers are still found on some jheels. Several were seen near Sukkur

at the end of May in 1964, with one duck as late as June 7.

Aythya fuligula (Linnaeus). Tufted Duck

The Tufted Duck is slightly less common than the Common Pochard,

but favours the same deep, open water. 5 birds were seen at Kalri Lake

on August 1, 1965.

Nettapus coromandelianus (Gmelin). Cotton Teal

Apparently Ticehurst never himself saw this duck in Sind, and it is

certainly rare and local, perhaps confined to Lower Sind. Our only

record is of a party of 8 at Sujawal in May 1965. Sujawal District is

probably the stronghold of several of the endemic wildfowl. C.D.W.

Savage (personal communication) reported them at Haleji Lake in July,

and in some winters it is reported to be quite widely distributed in south-

west Sind,

[11]

544 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

(Sarkidiornis melanotos (Pennant). Nukhta

We ourselves never found the Nukhta, but it is reported to be still

a sparse resident along the Indus, and possibly around Sujawal, in Lower

Sind.] |

[Mergus albellus Linnaeus. Smew

Roberts reports that one or two have been recorded lately at Nagler

and near Sanghar, but we never saw it. |

Mergus merganser Linnaeus. Goosander

Our only record of sawbillsis of a female, believed to be of this species,

seen by J.O.W. on the Indus at Sukkur in February 1965.

Elanus caeruleus (Desfontaines). Blackwinged Kite

This is one species that may have benefitted from the agricultural

development of Sind, for it was formerly rather uncommon. Itis nowa

widely, although thinly, distributed resident in the cultivated districts.

Milvus migrans (Boddaert). Black Kite

Abundant in towns and villages. Numbers increase in winter, when

the Blackeared race (M. m. lineatus) is also encountered.

Haliastur indus (Boddaert). Brahminy Kite

Widely distributed in small numbers near water, including the canals.

Accipiter badius (Gmelin). Shikra .

Accipiter nisus (Linnaeus). Sparrow-Hawk

The two are treated together, as we could never be certain of their

separation in the field. The Shikra is the resident bird, and young were

heard in the nest near Sukkur at the end of May. The Sparrow-Hawk

is a winter visitor. They are thinly distributed in well-timbered culti-

vated districts.

Buteo rufinus (Cretzschmar). Long-legged Buzzard

There is an urgent need for a comprehensive field-guide to Indian

birds of prey, and the buzzards and eagles especially present considerable

problems to the amateur in the field. The Long-legged Buzzard is the

only buzzard that we have certainly identified, and is quite a common

winter visitor, affecting desert, cultivation and jheels alike, as noted by

Ticehurst.

Butastur teesa (Franklin). White-eyed Buzzard-Eagle

Common resident, especially in well-timbered cultivated districts.

[12]

THE BIRDS OF SIND: A REVIEW 545

Nisaetus fasciatus (Vicillot). Bonelli’s Hawk-Eagle

According to Ticehurst, this was a common resident of the Indus

inundations and jheels. We have only few records, but may well have

over-looked it, for Roberts suggests that it may be not uncommon.

[We never identified the Booted Hawk-Eagle (Hieraaetus pennatus) in

Sind. |

[Aquila heliaca Savigny. Imperial Eagle

Roberts has recorded this eagle at Manchar Lake and in the tidal

creeks at Karachi, as well as in the Khirtar Hills, but we never certainly

identified it.]_ |

Aquila rapax (Temminck). Tawny Eagle

The Tawny Eagle is the most widely distributed eagle in Sind, and

certainly the commonest resident, favouring cultivation, including quite

dry areas. Immatures are common in May.

[ The Steppe Eagle (Aquila nipalensis) was not identified, but may be

a winter visitor to jheels.|

Aquila clanga Pallas. Greater Spotted Eagle

This is a common winter visitor to jheels, and a few may be resident.

Eates (1937) has described the status of this and other eagles in Sind. At

the end of November, 1963, a small scale migration was apparently in

progress near Jati.

Haliaeetus leucoryphus (Pallas). Pallas’s Fishing Eagle

Thinly distributed on the larger jheels and on the Indus. Nestlings

are present in February.

Torgos calvus (Scopoli). Black or Pondicherry Vulture

[This should not be confused with the Black Vulture (Aegypius

monachus) of Europe, named Cinereous Vulture in Ripley. |]

This vulture, which according to Ticehurst was fairly common in the

canal areas, has now nearly deserted Sind, for our only record is of one

seen by D.A.H. at Jati in December 1963.

Aegypius monachus (Linnaeus). Cinereous Vulture

A winter visitor in small numbers to Karachi.

Gyps fulvus (Hablizl). Griffon Vulture

One or two may generally be seen with Whitebacked Vultures at most

- Carcases and roosts, and it is a common visitor to the Karachi rubbish

tips, although it probably does not breed in the plains.

[13]

546 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 63 (3)

Gyps bengalensis (Gmelin). Indian Whitebacked Vulture

West Pakistan is erroneously omitted from the range of this vulture

in Ripley, (see Waite, 1962) but it is in fact the most widely distributed

vulture in Sind, in the plains and adjacent desert areas. They breed

colonially in winter, perhaps commencing in October, while a few may

still be breeding in June.

Neophron percnopterus (Linnaeus). Egyptian Vulture

Very common, especially around towns and villages. Nesting has

been observed, on tombs, in May, but numbers decline in Upper Sind in

summer.

Gypaetus barbatus (Linnaeus). Bearded Vulture

Found only in the Khirtar Range, where Roberts has seen it in

January as low as 1800 feet. (In the Bolan Pass, on the road to Quetta,

J.O.W. has seen them below 1000 feet in winter.)

Circus sp. Harriers

Harriers are common winter visitors to Sind, from about mid-

September to mid-April. The Marsh Harrier (C. aeruginosus) is the

commonest, frequenting jheels, but the great majority are female or

immature ; very few adult males were seen, although one was present at

Kalri Lake on April 17. The other harriers are less easy to identify, but

the Pale (C. macrourus) and Montagu’s (C. pygargus) would appear to

be commoner than the Hen Harrier (C. cyaneus). [We never saw the

Pied Harrier (C. melanoleucos).]

Circaetus gallicus (Gmelin). Short-toed Eagle

Probably rare and local, and only definitely seen twice, in desert

scrub near Karachi and over a swamp near Jati.

(Spilornis cheela Crested Serpent Eagle

Never seen by us, and Ticehurst knew of only two records in Sind.]

Pandion haliaetus (Linnaeus). Osprey

A common winter visitor to the Indus, jheels, and the coast, a few

birds remaining until early May.

Falco biarmicus Temminck. Lanner Falcon

A rather sparse resident, in cultivation and desert scrub, and even

sometimes on the outskirts of towns. The only form identified by us

is the Laggar Falcon (F. 6. jugger).

Falco peregrinus Tunstall. Peregrine Falcon

A winter visitor in small numbers, generally to jheels.

(ie

THE BIRDS OF SIND: A REVIEW 547

Falco subbuteo Linnaeus. Hobby

One record only, of a fine male on a low, barren jebel at Hyderabad

on April 23.

[We did not find the Merlin (Falco columbarius) which must be only

a rare visitant. |

Falco chicquera Daudin. Redheaded Merlin

Resident in small numbers in cultivated areas, perhaps commoner

in Upper than Lower Sind.

Falco tinnunculus Linnaeus. Kestrel

A not uncommon winter visitor, favouring desert scrub, sides of

jebels etc. One near Karachi on September 29 is the earliest arrival

date.

[Ammoperdix griseogularis (J. F. Brandt). Seesee Partridge

Not recorded by ourselves, but presumably still occurs in the Khir-

tar hills, together with the Chukor Partridge (Alectoris graeca).|

Francolinus francolinus (Linnaeus). Black Partridge

Common and widely distributed in the damp and wooded areas,

but perhaps not as abundant as in Ticehurst’s day.

Francolinus pondicerianus (Gmelin). Grey Partridge

Commoner than the Black Partridge. It prefers drier land, even

desert scrub, although we have flushed them from trees in the forests at

Sukkur when these were flooded.

Coturnix coturnix (Linnaeus). Common Quail

We did not find Quail common, although doubtless large numbers

are overlooked unless they are beaten up. Our scattered records are

all from mid-September to mid-April, and as Ticehurst suggests, the

majority are likely to be passage migrants. We heard the calls in Sep-

tember and February, but Ticehurst points out that they can be heard

at any season.

[We have no records of the Rain Quail (C. coromandelica).|

Pavo cristatus Linnaeus. Common Peafowl

Originally introduced into Sind, it appears to be common in the

wild state only in S.E. Sind (approximately east of a line from Shah-

dadpur-Hyderabad-Badin).

[We have no record of Bustard-Quails (Turnix sp.).]

Grus grus (Linnaeus). Common Crane

Cranes are now rather uncommon winter visitors, and our records

are all from south of Hyderabad, of small parties around jheels or on

[15]

548 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

the coast, or on migration in September and March. Probably they

are still common on the coast, but have apparently declined consider-

ably. The only cranes identified have been of this species, but doubt-

less the Demoiselle Crane (Anthropoides virgo) occurs also. [The Sarus

Crane (Grus antigone) and Great White Crane (G. leucogeranus) must

now be only vagrant to Sind.]

Rallus aquaticus Linnaeus. Water Rail

A rare winter visitor, our only record is of several near Sukkur on

November 11, 1964.

Porzana sp. Crakes

Crakes are seen quite commonly in reed beds in winter, but only

rarely with a sufficiently good view for identification. Both the Little

Crake (P. parva) and Spotted Crake (P. porzana) were identified in the

Sukkur area. [Ticehurst also records Baillon’s Crake (P. pusilla) in

Sind. ]

Amaurornis phoenicurus (Pennant). Whitebreasted Waterhen

A common resident of irrigated districts, especially the wetter areas,

favouring especially the shallow swampy sides of canals, breeding through

the summer.

Gallicrex cinerea (Gmelin). Water Cock

The Water Cock or Kora was previously known from a very few

records only, and Ticehurst did not find it. During our first two years,

we had only one unconfirmed record, near Sujawal in Lower Sind, in

June 1963. However, on June 6, 1965, we saw two males in the same

area, and subsequently we found them throughout June and July at |

virtually every swamp we visited in Lower Sind, often in some numbers,

until our field trips ceased in August. The most northerly record was

at the barrage at Hyderabad. Only on one occasion was a solitary

female seen, the rest all being noisy and aggressive males.

It is not possible to define its status from these records, but prob-

ably it is increasing sharply in Lower Sind, as a summer visitor (in num-

bers that vary from year to year). Visits to the same swamps in 1965

prior to June failed to reveal any. However, local people are familiar

with the bird, under the name ‘ tubar ’.

Gallinula chioropus (Linnaeus). Moorhen

Quite a common and generally distributed resident, although Ticehurst

found it rather scarce in Central and Lower Sind.

Porphyrio porphyrio (Linnaeus). Purple Moorhen

Widely distributed and very common in jheels with plentiful reeds

[ 16]

THE BIRDS OF SIND: A REVIEW 549

and rushes, especially where lotus lilies are growing. They are readily

flushed with much clattering of wings and reeds, while any sudden noise

will set them off in a raucous clamour. There appears to be some local

movement, perhaps as a result of variations in water levels.

Fulica atra Linnaeus. Coot

An abundant winter visitor to open jheels. We did not see the vast

herds of Coot that Ticehurst recorded, although Kalri Lake has several

thousands in winter. Ticehurst states that they do not breed in Sind,

and his latest date was May 5. However, small numbers certainly over-

summer, and a few may well breed.

[Bustards

Bustards seem to be declining rapidly, and we saw neither bustards

nor the Lesser Florican (Sypheotides indica), which was formerly a rains

visitor. The Great Indian Bustard (Choriotis nigriceps) was formerly

not uncommon in the east of Sind, and Roberts reports that one was

shot in recent years near the Rajasthan border. However, we had

several reports that the Houbara (Chlamydotis undulata) still arrives in

Sind in small numbers in September. ]

Hydrophasianus chirurgus (Scopoli). Pheasant-tailed Jacana

Common on shallow jheels with plentiful rushes, lotus etc.

Haematopus ostralegus Linnaeus. Oyster catcher

A winter visitor to Karachi harbour, a few over-summering.

Vanellus leucurus (Lichtenstein). Whitetailed Lapwing

A fairly common winter visitor to marshes and margins of jheels

throughout Sind. Most had left by the end of March.

[Vanellus vanellus (Linnaeus). Lapwing or Peewit

Not recorded by us, but according to Roberts it is a common visitor,

at any rate in some years, to Kandhkot in Upper Sind. We have no

knowledge of the Sociable Lapwing (V. gregarius) in Sind. |

Vanellus indicus (Boddaert). Redwattled Lapwing

Widely distributed throughout the irrigated and damper parts of the

province. Young chicks were seen as far apart as late-March and late-

August.

Vanellus malabaricus (Boddaert). Yellow-wattled Lapwing

Ticehurst states that this lapwing is virtually unknown in Sind out-

side the drier areas of Lower Sind and the Karachi area, where it is a

2 [17]

‘550 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

summer visitor. We have only seen it at Landi, near Karachi, in sum-

mer, in small numbers along the margins of the cultivated Malir valley,

and adjacent desert scrub. It especially favours fallow fields. )

Pluvialis squatarola (Linnaeus). Grey Plover

A winter visitor in comparatively small numbers, to the coast and

occasionally to jheels inland in Lower Sind. A few over-summer on

the coast in winter dress. |

Pluvialis dominica (P. L. S. Miller). Eastern Golden Plover

Our only records of Golden Plovers are of a party of 8 at Jhol as

late as May 16, 1965, and a few at Hadeiro on May 23. All had left by

May 30. Some of these had attained breeding plumage, and appeared

to be of this form, and not P. apricaria, which is known from only very

few records in Sind. Ticehurst found P. dominica uncommon, and his

latest date was March 12.

Charadrius leschenaultii Lesson. Large Sand Plover

A common winter visitor to the coast, it is less common than

C. mongolus, and was not identified among the parties of the latter bird

inland.

Charadrius hiaticula Linnaeus. Ringed Plover

Our only record of this rare coastal visitor was of a solitary a at

Jhol on May 16, 1965, well seen at close range.

Charadrius dubius Scopoli. Little Ringed Plover

A winter visitor and very common passage migrant, bie some

(C. d. jerdoni) are resident along the Indus sand banks.

Charadrius alexandrinus Linnaeus. Kentish Plover

A common resident, favouring especially the coast, but also the sandy

shores of the Indus and canals, and saline flats surrounding jheels.

Breeding was suspected on the coast in April, and at Jhol in May.

Charadrius mongolus Pallas. Lesser Sand Plover

As stated by Ticehurst, this is one of the commonest, if not the com-

monest, wader wintering on the coast, but, according to him, unknown

in the rest of Sind. In the spring of 1965, there was a sizeable passage

through the more saline jheel margins of Lower Sind. On May 16,

it was the commonest wader at Jhol, mostly in moult, but with a few

in full breeding plumage. On May 28, there was a party of 30 in a

saline mud-flat by the road to the barrage at Hyderabad. Numbers

were declining by May 30, with some 50 at Jhol and 100 at Hadeiro,

and the last seen was one at Hyderabad on June 12. These records —

[18]

THE BIRDS OF SIND: A REVIEW 551

were during a period of inland passage of several species of coastal

waders.

Numenius phaeopus (Linnaeus). Whimbrel

A visitor to the coast, mostly as a passage migrant, we have seen one

at Kalri Lake as early as July 18.

Numenius arquata (Linnaeus). Curlew ' |

A common winter visitor to the coast, and to jheels near the coast,

where flocks of a hundred or more may be seen, but rather scarce and

local elsewhere in Sind.

Limosa limosa (Linnaeus). Blacktailed Godwit

An abundant winter visitor to jheels, where flocks of hundreds, or

even thousands, are encountered in suitable terrain. Several hundreds

were present at Kalri, Jhol and Hadeiro lakes in the second half of

May, 1965 (with most birds having only limited amounts of the summer

dress showing through). At the end of June, there was still some 150

on these waters, but less than a quarter of that in July ; numbers were

rising again by mid-August.

Limosa lapponica (Linnaeus). Bartailed Godwit

A winter visitor to the coast, but neither Ticehurst nor we saw it

inland. However, Roberts has a record from Kandhkot.

_. Tringa erythropus (Pallas). Spotted Redshank

A common winter visitor. It is strange that Ticehurst found it very

rare in Lower Sind, as it seems now to be just as common as further

north, and occasionally figures as one of the commonest waders at

shallow, reedy jheels. They become scarce later in April, but the few

that stay around, through to late-May, are in fine summer plumage.

Tringa totanus (Linnaeus). Common Redshank

A fairly common winter visitor, widely distributed in rather small

numbers. Apart from a few on the coast, our extreme dates are August |

and May 15.

Tringa stagnatilis (Bechstein). Marsh Sandpiper

It was not until early March, 1965, that we became aware of this

species, and from then to about mid-April, they were seen commonly,

in parties of 30 or so, and sometimes numbering up to 200 along about

a mile of the nearly dry Pinyari Canal. Odd birds linger through to

June, and the return migration commenced at the end of July. It would

appear to be more of a passage migrant than a winter visitor.

[49]

552. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

Tringa nebularia (Gunnerus). Greenshank .

A common and widely distributed visitor, especially on passage.

They are met with in groups or small parties, although combined num-

bers may be quite high on any one stretch of water. Very few remain

through June, but in 1965 the return passage was heard to commence

on July 20, (during a night thunderstorm).

Tringa ochropus Linnaeus. Green Sandpiper

A very common visitor, with one or two birds to be found round

every patch of stagnant water. Probably a greater number are passage

migrants than winter visitors, and in Lower Sind at least, they are never

as common as the Wood Sandpiper. Very few birds remain through

May, although we were very surprised to find a flock of some 40 at

Habibkot, near Sukkur, on June 26; the return passage is well under

way by mid-July, although they are not widespread until August.

Tringa glareola Linnaeus. Wood Sandpiper

A winter visitor, and very abundant passage migrant ceeuen April

to about the third week of May, and early August to about October,

when the margins of jheels and the rice-fields are alive with their ringing

calls. However, the spring passage was noted to be much less prominent

in Upper Sind. We have no records of birds over-summering, but in

1965 the first arrivals were heard with the Greenshank on July 20.

Tringa terek (Latham). Terek Sandpiper

A common winter visitor to the coast, which we never found inland.

Tringa hypoleucos Linnaeus. Common Sandpiper

A widely distributed visitor, in comparatively small numbers, from

the end of July to mid-May, on rivers and open margins of jheels. They

are very common in the mangrove swamps at Karachi, resting on the

mangroves or on boats at high tide.

Arenaria interpres (Linnaeus). Turnstone

A winter visitor to the coast, Ticehurst states that it is unknown

inland in Sind. We did, however, find solitary birds in breeding plum-

age, at Jhol on May 16 and at Hyderabad on May 28, during the period

of inland passage of coastal waders already referred to. :

Capella gallinago (Linnaeus). Fantail Snipe

Very common winter visitor. [We have no records of the Pintail

Snipe (C. stenura), which is recorded by Ticehurst.]

Capella minima (Briinnich). Jack Snipe

Winter visitor, less common than the previous species.

[20]

ae,

THE BIRDS OF SIND: A REVIEW 533

‘Scolopax rusticola Linnaeus. Woodcock

Recorded by Ticehurst as a very rare straggler ; we have no records.

[Calidris tenuirostris (Horsfield). Eastern Knot

- We have no records of this winter visitor to the coast, but Roberts

states that it is not uncommon near Karachi, up to late-April.]

Calidris albus (Pallas). Sanderling

A winter visitor to the coast, which we rarely visited, but a few were

seen near Karachi on May 23, in various plumage phases.

Calidris minutus (Leisler). Little Stint

Calidris temminckii (Leisler). Temminck’s Stint

These two stints are treated together, being confusing in the field

unless carefully separated. Both are abundant in winter and on passage

on the muddy edges of pools and jheels. Quite large flocks are en-

countered at times of passage (e.g. 500 on a pool near Hyderabad on

May 15, and already 100 there“on July 27). From the end of March,

stints are beginning to develop summer plumage.

Calidris alpinus (Linnaeus). Dunlin

A common winter visitor to the coast, where odd birds over-summer

(some in summer plumage) ; they are not very common inland, although

we saw small parties in Lower Sind in May (latest date, May 30); on

May 23 at Hadeiro, they were one of the commonest small waders, in

tight, noisy, high-flying flocks of up to 100 birds, mostly in summer

dress. Like many waders, they tend to keep together in these wild little

flocks in April and May.

Calidris testaceus (Pallas). Curlew-Sandpiper

Like the Dunlin, these are met with inland in Lower Sind on passage,

in May (latest date, May 28) and August (earliest date, July 27). These

passage birds are nearly all in summer plumage. A few over-summer

on the coast in winter dress.

[Limicola falcinellus (Pontoppidan). Broadbilled Sandpiper

We have no records of this coastal wintering species. ]

Philomachus pugnax (Linnaeus). Ruff

Comparatively few over-winter, but on December 15, there was a

party of several hundred at a small pool near Jati. They are more

commonly seen on passage, from mid-August to October, and late-

February to mid-April, generally in small parties, and never in breeding

[21]

554. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 65 (3)

plumage. Our latest date is April 18, considerably earlier than most

waders, and they are later to arrive in the autumn.

Phalaropus lobatus (Linnaeus). Rednecked Phalarope

According to Ticehurst, a common winter visitor to the seas off

Sind, and regular inland on autumn passage, but he adds that ‘ on spring

passage they naturally do not halt ’, and he only saw one inland at that

season. We saw a few at Hyderabad in September, whereas there was

a sizeable inland passage in May 1965. There were 28 at Hadeiro on

May 23, 20 at Hyderabad on May 28, and up to 80 at Jhol on May 30

(but none at Hadeiro). Many were in breeding dress. They were

very tame, allowing a close approach as they swam in circles in shallow

water.

Rostratula benghalensis (Linnaeus). Painted Snipe

A rather rare and local bird, our few records are all in May and

June, when several were seen around shallow jheels or in flooded grass

in the riverain areas at Sukkur and Hyderabad. An adult male with

four well-grown chicks was seen on June 5, but none were seen there

after June 12. Roberts has seen it at Manchar, and regularly at Kandh-

kot, in winter.

Himantopus himantopus (Linnaeus). Blackwinged Stilt

A very common winter visitor, from August to May, with many also

resident. They are seen in parties or occasionally flocks of a hundred

or more, and are widely dispersed over the small jheels and even village

ponds. A concentration of some 200 in the seepage zone at Kalri Lake

on June 27 suggests that some over-summering birds do not breed, but

most in summer are spread out in their territories. In May, birds were

seen incubating on small mud mounds in a drying-up pool at Hyderabad,

and a family of 4 young chicks was seen there on June 12. The families

are fully grown and becoming dispersed by mid-July. —

Recurvirostra avosetta Linnaeus. Avocet

According to Ticehurst, this is a winter visitor and passage migrant,

and apart from a solitary bird on June 22, his extreme dates are August

28 and May 24. However, since it breeds in the Great Rann of Kutch,

it is perhaps not surprising that we found large flocks in the Tatta area

in the summer of 1965. In fact there were some 620 at Hadeiro on

May 30, and a few on adjacent waters. At the end of June and July,

numbers were down to about 100 at Kalri, Jhol and Hadeiro (but 38

were seen near Larkana on June 25), and only solitary birds were Pre:

sent in August. By contrast, we have few winter records ! | !

[22]

THE BIRDS OF SIND: A REVIEW 555

_ [Dromas ardeola Paykull. Crab Plover

~ Like Ticehurst we did not find this species, although there are records

from the coast. ]

Burhinus oedicnemus (Linnaeus). Stone Curlew.

Apparently a resident bird, we have few records, although they are

readily overlooked and may, in fact, be quite common in the sandy,

tamarisk areas along the Indus. There were apparently two pairs

present on an island just below Sukkur barrage in the summer of 1964,

although we could never establish that they were breeding. The only

other record-is of one in February at Sann, on the Indus below Sehwan.

Esacus magnirostris (Vicillot). Great Stone Plover

As stated by Ticehurst, this is probably a rare resident bird along

the sandy islands of the Indus, and on the coast. We only saw them

twice (3 at Sukkur in June, and 1 at Ghizri Creek, Karachi, in April),

but probably many more would be found if more of the Indus was

readily accessible.

[Cursorius cursor (Latham). Creamcoloured Courser

We never saw this courser, which would appear from Ticehurst’s

notes to be a not uncommon winter visitor. ]

Cursorius coromandelicus (Gmelin). Indian Courser

A fairly common but local resident in Lower Sind, we never found

any in Upper Sind. In the south, their favourite haunts are rather bare,

stoney desert scrub (although, as Ticehurst comments, their distribution

is patchy), or, east of the Indus, on rather sandy fallow or uncultivated

land. They are usually seen singly or in very small parties, and a chick

was seen near Badin in late-May.

Glareola pratincola (Linnaeus). Collared Pratincole

According to Ticehurst, a summer visitor from March to September

in Lower Sind, with breeding colonies around the Tatta lakes and the

eastern Nara. We saw none at the former locality, but they were quite

common in June along Sir Creek (south of Jati), and between Manchar

Lake and Sehwan (although the latter birds had deserted the area by

August 14). They may well have been breeding in these localities,

Wandering birds were also seen in June near Hyderabad and Sujawal.

The Sind birds are presumed to be G. p. pratincola.

Glareola lactea Temminck. Small Indian Pratincole

This bird is common enough along the Indus, although Ticehurst

rarely saw it, but is apparently a summer visitor, as apart from a few at

Hyderabad in October, our records are confined to late March to late-

[23]

556 . JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

June. In 1964, they were common on the Indus at Sukkur in May and

June, but had vanished by July 1, when the river had risen. Their

behaviour along the Sukkur waterfront at dusk reminded us rather of

bats. At Hyderabad, a colony of about 100 birds was found on the

sand banks below the barrage on March 30, where there had been none

on February 9. At the end of March, a nest with one egg and another

with two chicks were found. By the end of April, they appeared to

have finished breeding, the birds were more dispersed, the river was

rising rapidly, and no juveniles could be found.

(to be continued)

[24]

-Pseudodissochaeta: A new Genus of

Melastomataceae

M. P. NAYAR!

Industrial Section, Indian Museum, Botanical Survey of India,

Calcutta-13

(With a map and four text-figures)

The genus Pseudodissochaeta is proposed for the homogeneous group of

species, namely, Pseudodissochaeta assamica (C.B.Cl.) Nayar, P. subsessilis

(Craib) Nayar, P. /lanceata Nayar and P. septentrionalis (W. W. Smith) Nayar,

belonging to the tribe Dissochaeteae of the family Melastomataceae. They

are small trees or shrubs having eight equal or subequal isomorphous stamens

which are dorsally appendiculate and ventrally biauriculate. The genus com-

prises four species extending from N.E. India through Upper Burma, southern

China, North Thailand, N. Vietnam to Hainan. The new combinations are

P. assamica (C. B. Cl.) Nayar, P. subsessilis (Craib) Nayar and P. septentrionalis

(W. W. Smith) Nayar. <A new species P. lanceata Nayar is described from

Hainan.

INTRODUCTION

_ The family Melastomataceae comprises about 220 genera and 5300

species and is mainly confined to the tropical and subtropical regions,

avoiding deserts, and attaining prolific growth in the rain forest regions

between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn. More than

one half of the world’s genera (about 120) and two-thirds (about 3353)

of the total number of species are confined to the New World. The

melastomataceous flora of Asia consists of 65 genera and about 1300

species. The author has carried out a taxonomic study of several genera

in the Family Melastomataceae. The present paper deals with the

new genus Pseudodissochaeta belonging to the tribe Dissochaeteae Triana

of the family Melastomataceae.

Pseudodissochaeta gen. nov.

_ Pertinet ad Dissochaeteas Triana, affinisque Dissochaetae Blume, a

qua tamen differt habitu erecto, connectivo vix producto, staminibus

ventraliter biauriculatis.

e Present address: Central National Herbarium, Botanic Garden P.O., Howrah-3,

558 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

Frutex erectus. Rami subteretes vel angulati vel quadrangulares,

subglabri vel setosi. Folia opposita, lanceata vel oblongo-lanceata,

ad basin subrotundata vel imaequaliter auriculata, ad apicem acumi-

nata, ad ‘margines minute denticulata vel serrata, supra glabra vel juve-

nilia minute brunneo-puberula, subtus ad nervos furfuracea vel parce

setosa, 5-7 nervia, chartacea vel membranacea, petiolata vel subsessilia.

Inflorescentia terminalis vel axillaris, glabra vel parce furfuracea ; flores

in paniculas terminales vel cymas laterales multifloras vel paucifloras

dispositi. Bracteae parvae, subulatae. Calycis tubus campanulatus,

limbo obscure -4-lobato vel subtruncato. Petala 4,-ovata vel ovato-

oblonga. Stamina 8, aequalia vel subaequalia ; antherae linearifal-

catae vel subulatae, breves vel elongatae, 1-porosae, connectivo ad basin

vix producto, antice 2-auriculato et postice calearato. Ovarium calycis

tubo fixum per septa transversa 8, ‘loculis 8’ usque ad dimidium vel

basin descendentibus. Stylus filiformis, glaber, stigmate punctiformi.

Bacca subglobosa, glabra vel parce furfuracea. Semina plura, ovoidea

vel subcuneata. 7 :

SPECIES TYPICA SEQUENS.

Erect shrub. Branches subterete or angular or subquadrangular,

subglabrous or hairy. Leaves opposite, lance-shaped or oblong-lan-

ceate, base subrotundate or unequally auriculate, apex acuminate, margin

minutely denticulate or serrate, upper surface glabrous and when young

minutely brownish puberulous, under surface along the nerves fur-

furaceous or sparsely setose, 5-7 nerved, chartaceous or membranaceous,

petiolate or subsessile. Inflorescence terminal or axillary, glabrous or

sparsely furfuraceous ; flowers in terminal panicles or lateral cymes,

few or many flowered. Bracts small, subulate. Calyx tube campanu-

late, limb obscurely 4-lobed or subtruncate. Petals 4, ovate or ovate-

oblong. Stamens 8, equal or subequal, anther linear-falcate or subulate,

1-porose, connective basally scarcely produced, dorsally calcarate and

ventrally 2-auriculate. Ovary adherent to the calyx tube by 8 septa,

extra-ovarial chambers 8, all descending to the middle or to the base of

the ovary. Style filiform, glabrous, stigma punctiform. Berry sub-

globose, glabrous or sparsely furfuraceous. Seeds numerous, ovoid or

subcuneate. : |

TYPE SPECIES: Pseudodissochaeta assamica (C.B.Cl.) Nayar..

The genus Pseudodissochaeta is proposed for the homogeneous group

of species i.e. P. assamica (C.B.Cl.) Nayar, P. subsessilis (Craib) Nayar,

P. lanceata Nayar and P. septentrionalis (W. W. Smith) Nayar. They

are erect shrubs belonging to the tribe Dissochaeteae having eight equal

or subequal stamens, hardly produced connectives which are dorsally

calcarate and ventrally biauriculate, and having eight extra-ovarial

Distribution of genus Pseudodissochaeta Nayar

HE | P. lanceata, Nayar

4 P. subsessilis Craib)Nayar|

| P. na | !

[se | P. septentrionalis

(W.W. Synith) Nayar

90° 1G0°

Map. Distribution of genus Pseudodissochaeta Nayar.

A NEW GENUS OF MELASTOMATACEAE 59

chambers descending to the middle or to the base of the ovary. Whereas

the allied genus Dissochaeta Bl. are climbers having 4 equal, or 8 equal

or unequal stamens which are dorsally calcarate and ventrally bisetose.

_ Distribution: North-east India, Upper Burma, South China, North

Thailand, Laos, N. Vietnam and Hainan. (Map)

KEY TO THE SPECIES OF Pseudodissochaeta

1. Inflorescence in terminal branched many-flowered panicles ; leaves lanceate

or oblong-lanceate, 10-20 « 2°5-6°5 cm.

2. Connective not produced, branches quadrangular, calyx tube ribbed :

3. Anther 5'5-6 mm. long; flowers 6°5-8 x 3-3°5 mm.; leaves 5-7

nerved, cross-venules distinct and close, leaf mainly glabrous, nerves

on the under surface sparsely setose, leaves shortly petioled, petiole

MOtmorerthan -d MIM. 1ON—. |) cab cis wee oc ele owe ete P. assamica

3. Anther 2°5-3 mm. long; flowers 4°5x2°5 mm. ; leaves 3-5 nerved,

cross-venules distinct and distant, leaf mainly glabrous, nerves on

the under surface softly pubescent, leaves subsessile, petiole not

MOLE ailaaineo eT TONES eas «My siclc ole pikes Sie che eos og: P. subsessilis

2. Connective shortly produced, 0°5 mm. long, branches subterete, calyx

tube not ribbed, leaf distinctly petiolate, petiole 8-10 mm. long. .P. lanceata

1. Inflorescence in terminal and axillary few-flowered cymes, leaf ovate-lanceate

or /) elliptic-lanceate,).G°5-8 X2°5-3°S) CM is le ed eee P. septentrionalis

DESCRIPTION OF SPECIES

1. Pseudodissochaeta assamica (C.B.Cl.) Nayar comb. nov. (Text-

fig. 1.) Anplectrum assamicum C.B.Cl. in Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 2:

546, 1879 ; C. B. Clarke in Journ. Linn. Soc. Bot. 25: 23, 1889;

Kanj.: &, Das, ‘Fl. Assam .2: 303, 1938. Type: India, C. B.

Clarke 42323 (Holotype K, isotypes K, E, BM, CAL). Diplectria

_assamica (C.B.Cl.) O. Kuntze, Revis. Gen. Pant 1 : 246, 1891.

Distribution : North-east India and North Burma.

InpiA. Assam: Muneypore, alt. 255 m., 30 Nov. 1885, C. B. Clarke

42323 (K, E, BM, CAL) ; Siboaga Dist., Desai Reserve, alt. 350 m.,

24 Dec. 1912, Kanjilal 2026 (CAL) ; Khasi hills, Herb. Kurz s.n.

(L); Margodda, G. Watt 11906 (E); Akha hills, Jan. 1890,

Dr. King’s Collector 71 (CAL); Upper Dihing Reserves, 8 Jul.

1959, Panigrahi 18812 (ASSAM) ; Naga hills, Griffith [Kew Dist.

No. 2285 (K)]; sine loc. Herb. Nuttal (K). BHUTAN: Herb.

Griffith 2285 (CAL) ; ibid. Herb. Griffith 2018 (K, BM) ; Dupha

hills, 11 Dec, 1874, Lister 71 (CAL); Digboi, Mar. 1935,

560 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

Mrs. D. E. Bernard M.D. 36 (BM). BuRMA. Upper Burma:

Nam Tamai Valley, alt. 1000 m. 27 Aug. 1938, R. Kaulback 95

(BM) ; valley of the Mali Hka, alt, 333 m.-1666 m., 17 Aug. 1937,

><) av.

y Nes

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Dy A OR

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cH 4 2

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yee

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fer

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mevsr eee:

hemes

SY AN ty

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Ny)

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Fig. 1. Pseudodissochaeta assamica (C.B.Cl.) Nayar.

A. Habit. B. Petal. C. Stamen—side view. D. Stamen-ventral view.

Kingdon-Ward 12818 (BM) ; Kachin State, Hpuginhku, path side

of Hpuginhku River, Sumprabum sub. div., alt. 1666-2000 m., |

31 Dec. 1961, J. Keenan, U Tan Aung, & W. Tha Hla 3110 (K); |

Kajen hap, alt, 1000 m., Feb, 1912, S. M, Toppin 6199 (CAL).

A NEW GENUS OF MELASTOMATACEAE S61

In 1879 C. B. Clarke (in Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 2 : 546, 1879) des-

cribed the species Anplectrum assamicum and assigned it to the list of

doubtful species. However, in 1889 C. B. Clarke (in Journ. Linn. Soc.

25: 23, 1889) emended the description and remarked as follows: ‘I

described imperfectly this plant in Hook. f. Fl. Brit. India ii p. 546 from

Griffith’s Kew Distribution No. 2285 which has no flowers. As the

genera Anplectrum and Dissochaeta are diagnosed by the appendages

at the base of the anthers I placed the plant in Anplectrum with doubt.

But since I have seen the plant in full flower alive the doubt is rather

increased ; for it will not go either into Anplectrum or Dissochaeta unless

the characters of one of these genera be widened.’ It is seen that the

generic limits of the two genera have not been widened but instead approp-

riately reduced on the basis of the depth of the extra-ovarial chambers

and on the nature of the stamens and staminal appendages. On this

basis Bakhuizen van den Brink jr. (in Meded. Bot. Mus. & Herb. Rijks.

Univ. Utrecht 91: 41,1943) separated the genera Diplectria Reichenb.

and Neodissochaeta Bakh. f. from the genus Dissochaeta Bl. Anplec-

trum assamicum differs from the genus Anplectrum A. Gray (Backeria

Bakh. f.) in the nature of the extra-ovarial chambers and the stamens.

In Backeria the extra-ovarial chambers are confined to the upper one-

fourth of the ovary and the four fertile anthers are ovoid and inappen-

diculate. While in this taxon the extra-ovarial chambers descend to

the base of the ovary and the stamens are fertile and linear-falcate and

the connective dorsally ends in an appendage and ventrally ends in two

auricles. In the nature of the extra-ovarial chambers this taxon is

allied to Dissochaeta Bl\., but differs in the nature of staminal appen-

dages.

2. Pseudodissochaeta subsessilis (Craib) Nayar comb. nov. (Text-

fig. 2.) Allomorphia subsessilis Craib in Kew Bull. 1913 : 69, 1913;

Idem, Fl. Siam Enum. 1: 686, 1931. Type: Siam, Kerr 2427

(Holotype K, isotypes BM, E)

Small tree, about 45 m. high. Branches quadrangular, nodes,

leaf-axils and petioles pilose pubescent. Leaves opposite, subsessile,

14-18°5 x 3-4-2 cm., oblong-lanceate or lanceate, base unequally auri-

culate, apex acuminate, margin minutely denticulate, upper surface

minutely brownish puberulous when young, glabrous later on, lower

surface mainly glabrous, nerves on the lower surface softly brownish

pubescent, 5-nerved, cross-venules distinct, chartaceous ; petiole 1-2 mm.

long. Inflorescence paniculate, terminal, 18-28 cm. long, peduncle

quadrangular, sparsely brownish pubescent ; flowers 4-merous, pedicel

subangular,.0°8-1 mm. long, softly brownish pubescent ; bracteole 1-2 mm.

long. Calyx tube campanulate, 3-35 mm. long, glabrate, 8-ribbed,

shortly 4-dentate. Petals 4, 2°5-3x3 mm. Stamens 8, subequal, fila-

562 =JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

ment 2 mm. long, anther 2°5-3 mm. long, connective not produced, —

dorsally ends in a thick short appendage 0°4 mm. long, ventrally ends in

Fig. 2. Pseudodissochaeta subsessilis (Craib) Nayat. a

A. Habit. B. Stamen—side view. . |

two auricles 0°3 mm. long. Ovary concrescent with the calyx tube by |

8 septa, extra-ovarial chambers 8, all descending to the middle of the |

ovary. Style 5-7 mm. long, filiform, glabrous, stigma hardly con-

spicuous. Berry subglobose, 6x5 mm., glabrous. Seeds cuneate,

0:5 mm. long, numerous. 4

Distribution: North Thailand and Laos.

THAILAND. Maharat : Doi Wao, alt. 300-900 m., Kerr 2427 (K, E,

BM); Doi Tiv (Nam), alt. 300 m., Kerr 5042 (BM, K); Dai pha

Ngua, near Ban Pa Kuei, alt. 1030 m., Garrett 134 (K, BM);

A NEW GENUS OF MELASTOMATACEAE 563

Nan nam Muk, alt. 320 m., Winit 1768 (K) ; Lampang ni Katrid,

Winit 1895 (K). ;

Laos. Wiengeham, Barikhane, alt. 200 m., 28 Mar. 1932, Kerr 20779

(K, BM); 50 miles north of Vientiane, alt. 650 m., Nov. 1956,

L. G. Holliday D. 11 (BM).

‘Craib established the species Allomorphia subsessilis on the basis of

specimen Kerr 2427. The genus Allomorphia Bl. comes under

the tribe Oxysporeae characterised by its capsular fruits. Kerr

2427 are without fruits though they are otherwise good specimens.

While studying the herbarium sheets of Allomorphia subsessilis Craib

at Kew, it was noted that the specimen Winit 1768 has well developed

baccate fruits; whereas the genus A//lomorphia has capsular fruits. How-

ever, Craib (in Fl. Siam Enum. 1 : 686, 1931) assigned the specimen

Winit 1768 to A. subsessilis and it is presumed that he might have over-

looked the presence of baccate fruits. A. subsessilis Craib is transferred

to the newly proposed genus Pseudodissochaeta because of its baccate

fruits, characteristic stamens, the degree of concrescence of the ovary

with the calyx tube and the nature of its habit.

3. Pseudodissochaeta lanceata sp.nov. (Text fig. 3).

Arcte affinis P. assamicae (C.B.Cl.) Nayar, sed ramis subteretibus,

petiolis longioribus, calycis tubo haud costato, connectivo 0°5 mm.

longo differt.

Frutex. Rami juveniles subquadrangulares, subglabri, adulti teretes.

Folia \anceata, 12-20 x 3-6°5 cm., rotundata vel obtusa ad basin, acumi-

nata ad apicem, ad margines serrata, glabra, 5-nervia, venulis transversis

haud conspicuis, membranacea; petioli 8-10 mm. longi. Jnflores-

centia paniculata, 25-35 cm. longa, sparse puberula, pedunculi angulares,

compressiusculi, puberuli ; flores tetrameri; bracteae 0°83 mm. longae,

parvae ; pedicelli 3-4 mm. longi, puberuli. Calycis tubus campanulatus,

5-5°5 mm. longus, sparse puberulus, limbo subtruncato. Petala 4,

ovato-oblonga, 6-73 mm., apice obtusa, alba (teste — collectore).

Stamina 8, aequalia, filamentis 4°5-5 mm. longis, antheris lanceato-

falcatis, 6-7 mm. longis, rostratis, l-poris, connectivo 0°5 mm. longo,

dorso in calcar 0°8-1 mm. longum producto, in parte ventrali in auri-

culas duas 0°8 mm. longas exeunte. Ovarium calycis tubo fixum per

septa transversa 8, loculi 8, usque ad basin ovarii producti. Stylus

filiformis, 9-10°5 mm. longus, glaber, stigmate punctiformi. Fructus

ignotus. |

_ Typus: Hainan, Hong. Herb. No. 406 (K).

Shrub. Branches terete, when young subquadrangular and sub-

glabrous. Leaves lanceate, 12-20 3-6°5 cm., base rounded or obtuse,

apex acuminate, margin serrate, glabrous, 5-nerved, transverse venules

not Sena membranaceous ; petiole 8-10 mm. long. Inflores-

564 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

cence paniculate, 25-35 cm. long, sparsely puberulous, peduncle angular

and somewhat compressed, puberulous; flowers 4-merous ;. bracts

Seukhonn o

rye nage VA | |

Fig. 3. Pseudodissochaeta lanceata sp. nov.

A. Habit. B. Stamen—side view. C.L.S. of Calyx tube.

0°8 mm. long, small; pedicel 3-4 mm. long, puberulous. Calyx tube

campanulate, 5-5°5 mm. long, sparsely puberulous, limb subtruncate.

Petals 4, ovate-oblong, 6-73 mm. apex obtuse, white (ex collector).

Stamens 8, equal, filament 4°5-5 mm. long, anther lanceate-falcate,

6-7 mm. long, rostrate, 1-porose, connective 0°5 mm. long, dorsally

A NEW GENUS OF MELASTOMATACEAE 565

ends in 0°8-1 mm. long appendage and ventrally ends in two 0°8 mm.

long auricles. Ovary concrescent with the calyx tube by 8 septa, extra-

ovarial chambers 8, all descending to the base of the ovary. Style fili-

form, 9-10°5 mm. long, glabrous, stigma punctiform.

Distribution : Hainan.

HAINAN. Hong Ta, July 1893, Hong. Herb. No. 406 (Holotype K)

This species is closely allied to P. assamica (C.B.Cl.) Nayar, but

differs in having subterete branches, unribbed calyx tube, comparatively

long petioled leaves and shortly produced connective (0°5 mm. long).

P.lanceata Nayar is endemic to the island of Hainan, whereas P. assamica

occurs in N.E. India and Upper Burma.

Merril and Chun (in Sunyatsenia 5: 144, 1940) appropriately sug-

gested that ‘ Anplectrum sp.’ enumerated in Lingnam Sc. Journ. 5 : 138,

1928 based on Hong. Herb. No. 406 is apparently a representative of

some other genus.

4. Pseudodissochaeta septentrionalis (W. W. Smith) Nayar comb. nov.

(Text-Fig. 4) Oritrephes septentrionalis W. W. Smith in Journ.

As. Soc. Beng. N. S. 7: 69, 1911; Type: Burma, Macgregor

751 (Lectotype E). Medinilla caerulescens Guillaum. in Lecomte,

Fl. Indo-China 2: 921, 1921; Craib, Fl. Siam. Enum. 1: 699,

1931. Medinilla caerulescens Guillaum. var. nuda Craib, Fl. Siam:

Enum. 1: 699, 1931; Type: Siam, . Kerr 5787 (Holotype K,

isotype BM). Anplectrum yunnanense Kranzl. in Viert. Nat. Ges.

moricn 76: 153, 1933) Type; Yunnan, \China,, Henry 11705

(Isotypes K, E). Medinilla septentrionalis (W. W. Smith) Li in

Journ. Arn. Arb. 25: 38, 1944.

Shrub about 3 m. in height. Branches terete, glabrous, sparsely

puberulous at the nodes. Leaves ovate-lanceate, 6°5-8 cm. x 2°5-3°5 cm.,

base obtuse or subcuneate, apex acuminate, acumen 1°2-1°8 cm. long,

margin distantly serrate, glabrous on the upper and lower surface,

5-nerved, 3 prominent nerves and 2 faint marginal nerves, membran-

aceous ; petiole 5-7 mm. long. Inflorescence in terminal or axillary cymes,

3-4°5 cm. long, main axis slightly compressed, glabrous excepting at

the nodes ; bracts minute, 0°2 mm. long ; pedicel 1-2 cm. long. Calyx

tube campanulate, 5-6 mm. long, sparsely ciliate, deciduous, bristles

1°5 mm. long, otherwise glabrous, 8-ribbed, limb undulate. Petals 4,

oblong, 5-5°53°5-4 mm. Stamens 8, subequal, filament 6-6°5 mm.

long, anther linear-falcate, 7-8 mm. long, apex acuminate-attenuate,

l-porose, connective shortly produced 0°4 mm. long, dorsally ends in

a triangular appendage, 0°6 mm. long and ventrally ends in two small

auricles, 0°5 mm. long. Ovary concrescent with the calyx tube by 8

3 f

566 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

5 a =| Be ea fn

ANAWMMO

Fig. 4. Pseudodissochaeta septentrionalis (W. W. Smith) Nayar.

A. Habit. B. Stamen—side view. C. L.S. of Calyx tube.

A NEW GENU§ OF MELASTOMATACEAE 567

septa, extra-ovarial chambers 8, all descending to the base of the ovary.

Style 9-11 mm. long, filiform, glabrous, stigma punctiform. Berry

globose-ovoid, 6-7 4-5 mm., glabrous. Seeds minute, 0°6 mm. long,

numerous.

Distribution ; Upper Burma, S. China, N. Thailand and N. Vietnam.

BurMa. S. Shanan, Macgregor 751 (E). CHINA... Yunnan ; Szemao,

alt. 1666 m., Henry 11705 (K, E); Szemao & Mengtze, alt.

1666 m., Henry 11705 A (K, E) ; ibid. alt. 1333 m., Henry 11705 B

(K, E); ibid. Henry 11705 C (K, E, BM); hills around Lung

fan, alt. 2000 m., Forrest 27163 (E, K); 5s. /. alt. 2000 m., Aug.

1885, Forrest 26642 (E). THAILAND: Rachasima: Korat, Kao

Lem, alt. c. 1000 m., 11 Jan. 1925, Kerr 9932 (K, BM); ibid.

Put 3569 (K) ; Udawan: Dan sai, Pu Lom lo, alt. c. 1200 m.,

Kerr 5787 (K, BM) ; Maharat : Nan Do Pu Ka, alt. c. 1300 m.,

25 Feb. 1921, Kerr 4913 (K, BM); Chiengamai: Doi Nang ka,

Put 3401 & 3761 (K). N. VieETNAM. Tonkin: Sai Wong Mo

Shan, Long Wgong village, Tsang 30462 (K); ibid. Lung wan

village, Tsang 30024 (K); ibid. near Chut Phai, Tsang 29118 &

29163 (K) ; Chuk Phai, Tsang 27021 (K) ; N.E. of Mon cay, Pac-

sa and vicinity, Tsang 26929 (K).

W. W. Smith (1911) included Oritrephes _ septentrionalis, in

Oritrephes Ridley, a Malayan genus of the tribe Oxysporeae characterised

by their capsular fruits. The species has baccate fruits and should

belong to the tribe Dissochaeteae. Guillaumin’s (1921) Medinilla caer-

ulescens was later found to be conspecific with Smith’s Oritrephes

septentrionalis and Kranzlin (1931) proposed a new binomial Anplectrum

yunnanense for the same taxon. The fact that different botanists inde-

pendently assigned the same taxon to the following genera i.e. Oritrephes,

Medinilla and Anplectrum, indicates the difficulty in determining its

taxonomic position. Though Li (in Journ. Arn. Arb. 25 : 38, 1944)

followed Guillaumin in assigning this taxon to Medinilla, it is interesting

to note his comments: ‘it is somewhat anomalous in the genus.’

In the genus Medinilla the extra-ovarial chambers descend to the

middle of the ovary, whereas in this taxon the extra-ovarial chambers

descend to the middle or to the base of the ovary. However the nature

of its habit, and its characteristic staminal appendages indicate that it

should appropriately find its place in the new genus Pseudodissochaeta

Nayar.

568 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I wish to express my gratitude to Sir George Taylor, Director, Royal

Botanic Gardens, Kew, for all facilities during my stay at Kew from

1961-67. I am indebted to the authorities of the following Herbaria

for their hospitality during my visits and for the loan of herbarium

specimens: The Herbarium, Royal Botanic Gardens, Edinburgh ;

Rijksherbarium, Leiden ; The British Museum (Nat. Hist.), London.

My thanks are also due to the Director of the Botanical Survey of India,

Rev. Fr. Dr. H. Santapau for his encouragement.

Feeding habits of the fish Megalops

cyprinoides Broussonet, in the

Cooum backwaters, Madras

THAVAMANI J. PANDIAN!

Zoological Research Laboratory, University of Madras,

Madras

(With three text-figures)

The feeding of the fish, Megalops cyprinoides seems to be concentrated on

a few key species so that within the community only the populations of these

species suffer predation. Changes in feeding succession in relation to size

are related not only to food preferences but also to availability of food.

Feeding intensity, as assessed from the stomach contents, was more or less

uniform throughout the year. It varied between 0°7 and 0°8% body weight.

Because of the uniform temperature conditions prevailing in the tropics,

temperature effects on feeding intensity seems to be less pronounced. A

single peak observed during the monsoon months is attributed to a greater

abundance of food in the environment. In some months, the fish stops

feeding during the day time and probably temperature fluctuations may

have some bearing on the feeding periodicity.

INTRODUCTION

It is well known that the fishes feed intensively during spring and

summer in temperate waters (Allen 1940). This fact has been related

to the abundance of food supply by Hardy et al. (1936) and later by

Ricker (1937) to the combined effect of food supply ana temperature. In

tropical waters of India, however, temperature is uniformly higher than

the maxima in higher latitudes and the seasonal differences are less

marked ; rather uniform organic productivity prevails throughout the

year (Ramamoorthy 1953 ; Bogorov 1960). To what extent such rela-

tive uniformity in food supply and temperature conditions influence

the intensity of feeding has received very little attention. The present

paper reports on the feeding habits ofa tropical fish, with special reference

to the factors influencing the feeding intensity.

1 Present address: Zoology Department, University of Bangalore, Bangalore,

570 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Megalops cyprinoides Broussonet (Elopidae) was collected from the

River Cooum, Madras, which is a shallow canal of 50 metre width and

2 metre depth, receiving in its course sewage effluents. It reaches the

sea close to the University Laboratory. Most of the year it is separated

from the sea by a sand bar. With the onset of monsoon, the water

level rises and the sand bar breaks, thus allowing the stream to flow

into the sea in late October or early November for a period of about

3 to 5 weeks. During the rest of the year the Cooum is more or less

stagnant. For topographic and hydrographic details consult Ganapati

(1964).

M. cyprinoides is distributed from Madagascar to the East Indies.

The juvenile fishes migrate into the backwaters of the east coast of

India, where they grow up to 300 to 400 gm. in weight but do not attain

maturity in these waters of low salinity (Job & Chacko 1947), and are

said to return to the sea. Larger fishes weighing 600 gm. or more,

have not so far been observed in the backwaters. The fish is available

in the Cooum backwaters in large numbers throughout the year.

The food and feeding habits of the fish were studied from July 1963

to June 1964 by analysing the stomach contents of 403 specimens measur-

ing 4:3 cm. to 31-7 cm. in standard length. Specimens were collected in

the early hours of the morning with a cast net operated from a cata-

maran which could catch about 30 to 40 individuals within an hour or

so. The fishes were brought to the laboratory, weighed and volume of

stomach contents in relation to the size of the fish was determined. The

various food contents were then analysed qualitatively and quanti-

tatively and the volume of different food fractions was measured by the

displacement method (see Hynes 1950; Pillay 1951).

OBSERVATIONS

Crustaceans, insects and fishes formed the major food items of the

fish M. cyprinoides. The crustaceans included, copepods Cyclops bicolor,

cladocerans, Daphnia sp. and the prawn, Metapenaeus monoceros and

insects, corixid bugs, Micronecta scutellaris and Notonecta sp., aquatic

beetles Dysticus sp., midge larvae and pupae of Chironomus sp., and

nymphs of Platycenemus sp. Fish included the fry of Chanos, Elops

and Therapon and the juveniles of Mugil and the adults of the genera

Barbus, Gambusia and Mystus. Other items of minor importance were

the eggs of crustaceans and rotifers and a number of species belonging

to the genus Brachionus. Stray occurrences of megalopa larvae of brach-

yuran crabs and the malacostracans Cirolina and Grandierrella were

also recorded, especially during the rainy season. Table 1 gives the

FOOD ORGANISMS (%.)

FEEDING HABITS OF MEGALOPS CYPRINOIDES 571

seasonal variations in the Composition of different food fractions

(Fig. 1). The year can be arbitrarily divided into three periods namely,

JUL SEP NOV JAN MAR MAY

Fig. 1. Monthly variations in the food composition of Megalops

cyprinoides collected from July ’63 to June ’64 in the

Cooum backwaters, Madras.

Key : 4——A = Crustaceans ; 0....0 = Insects

x—— x = Fishes ; @—o—o—o@ = Miscellaneous

Rainy (August to November), Cold (December to March), and Hot

(April to July) Seasons with temperature characteristics of 27°, 25°,

and 30°C. respectively. The different food fractions characteristic of

a period (expressed in % of total food) have been considered as basic,

secondary and incidental food (Nikolsky 1963). It may be seen from

Table 2 that intensive feeding at any given period centred around a few

‘key species only. This observation conforms with those of Shorykin

(1939) and Darnell (1961), who have shown that in a community only

a few species suffer heavy losses from predatory fishes.

In the present investigation, only fishes measuring 4°5 to 31°7 cm.

in length were available for study. A comparison of the food com-

position of different size groups indicates that there was no marked

difference in the food preference in relation to size of the fish. The

smallest M. cyprinoides found in the Cooum backwaters were 4°5 cm.

in length; these were feeding mainly on planktonic organisms and

Chironomus and rarely on the fish Gambusia, A similar observation

572 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

has been reported in the case of larval and juvenile tarpon Megalops

atlantica by Harrington & Harrington (1960).

TABLE 1

MONTHLY VARIATIONS IN THE PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF MAJOR FOOD ITEMS OF

Megalops cyprinoides COLLECTED FROM THE COOUM BACKWATERS

Food

Month Crustaceans Insects Fishes Miscellaneous

& Year (%) CA) (%) (%)

July °63 54°64 45°36 — —

Aug. °63 46:90 43°00 — 10°10

Sep. °63 31°94 60°24 5°77 224

Oct. °63 45°18 16°12 28°61 10:08

Nov. °63 (51°76 10°60 21°98 15°66

Dec. °63 6°43 48-11 43-92 1°54

Jan. °64 17°40 79°80 2°80 _

Feb. °64 APD 66°08 24°80 1°30

Mar. °64 3°93 79°80 13°41 2°80

Apr. °64 64°31 32°45 —— 3°24

May ’°64 : 275:03 24:97 — as

June °64 76°67 23:33 — =

TABLE 2

SEASONAL VARIATIONS IN THE FOOD COMPOSITION OF Megalops cyprinoides

Basic food Secondary food Incidental food

Period (25 to 75% (Sito 25% (less than

of total) of total) 5% of total)

Aug. to Nov. Micronecta, Cyclops, Dysticus,

(Rainy Season Metapenaeus Elops, Chanos, Brachionus

Temp -27°€.) Therapon

Dec. to Mar. Chironomus— Gambusia, Barbus, Notonecta

(Cold Season larvae & pupae . nymphs of Platy-

Temp. 25°C.) cenemus |

Apr. to. July Cyclops Micronecta, Brachionus _

(Hot Season Ostracods

Temp. ae

-- For a period of isouts seven “weeks during Ae rainy season ae the

middle of October till the early. December), when the sand. bar between |

the Cooum and the sea breaks, a large variety of larval and juvenile

forms of marine animals migrate into the Cooum, thereby increasing

the quantity and variety of food organisms available (Panikkar &

Aiyar 1939). To ascertain if. there was selective feeding among the

different size groups on these food organisms, the data obtained for. the

FEEDING HABITS OF .MEGALOPS CYPRINOIDES agi)

months of October, November, and .December have been pooled ‘to-

gether. Four size groups, with a size range of 4:3-9°9 cm., 10°0-

14°9 cm., 15°0-24°9 cm., and 25°9-30°3 cm. were averaged and the mean

sizes obtained were 8°3, 12°5, 17:0, and 27°7 cm. in length, respectively,

(Table 3). It can be seen from Figure 2 that with an increase. in size,

there is a marked preference towards fish-food. Insects and crustaceans,

which formed more than 35% each in the first and second size groups,

are correspondingly reduced in the third and fourth size groups. Thus,

with increasing size, the fish passes through the feeding succession :

crustaceans —> insects — fishes. Similar feeding succession has also

been observed for carnivorous fishes like Esox lucius (Hunt & Carbine

1951). Difference in food preferences among the different size groups

may be an adaptation for an effective utilization of the increased

range of food supply (Nikolsky 1963).

The different food items of M. cyprinoides were arbitrarily divided

into microfauna comprising planktonic organisms and macrofauna

consisting of prawns, insects and fishes. There was a remarkable in-

crease in the macrofauna components eaten during the period, Septem-

ber to March, accompanied by a corresponding decrease in microfauna

(Table 4; Fig. 3). These changes can be attributed to the ease with

which the prey can be captured. For instance, fully ripe females of

‘Mystus and Barbus were often eaten in October and December, res-

pectively, but were absent in the stomach in other months, although

they were present in the Cooum. As the gonads ripen Mystus (Pandian

in press) and Barbus females, become sluggish and are perhaps easily

caught during October and December. The frequent occurrence of

jsopods and amphipods in the stomach of the fish only during Novem-

ber and December and not in other months, indicates that they move

to the surface from the muddy bottom because of flooding.

. TABLE 3

FOOD PROGRESSION IN DIFFERENT SIZE GROUPS OF Megalops cyprinoides

COLLECTED FROM OCTOBER TO DECEMBER 1963 IN THE COOUM BACKWATERS

Size group Total Crusta- Insects Fishes Miscella-

(body ‘ual examined — ceans (7%) Caioigata Car neous (%)

8-3 10 52923 iS? 18°10 17°10

"b2+5 32... \, 42:92 36625 11-30. ee

L7-0. ws) 33531 21eSY 40°54 4°56.

7 Ke “4: 11°45 Wi SoS —

34:80

_. During the. month of May, 14 individuals collected had empty

stomachs, but their.intestines were more or less gorged with food. The

574. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

absence of food in the stomach of the fishes collected during this period

is probably due to their feeding at night, and the food having passed

FISHES

CRUSTACEANS

Food organisms (Js)

... INSECTS

MISCELLANEOUS.

Se 0 enna

= .

eee (0 15 20 25 -3e

Standard length of fish (cm)

Fig. 2. Food progression in different size groups of Megalops

cyprinoides collected from October to December 1963

in the Cooum backwaters, Madras.

into the intestine at the time of collection (6 a.m.). This assumption is

supported by the observation that collections made during the night

(11 p.m.) during this period showed stomachs full of copepods, ostracods,

corixid bugs etc. Similar results were recorded until the end of June.

The plankton collection made in the area during the day revealed that all _

the items consumed by the fish at night were present in the plankton, —

FEEDING HABITS OF MEGALOPS CYPRINOIDES

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‘376 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

Therefore, it may be inferred that the fish did not feed during the day not —

because of the non-availability of food, but for some other reasons,

which are not clear owing to lack of data on turbidity of water, diurnal

migrations of planktonic organisms and other factors. In Canadian

waters, cessation of feeding due to higher temperature during the day and

resumption of feeding during the night by the juveniles of Salmo salar

has been reported by Hoar (1942). :

The amount of food consumed by M. cyprinoides varied during the

different months of the year (Table 4; Fig. 3). Feeding intensity,

was low in July (0°318 % body weight), and increased steadily throughout

the rainy season reaching a maximum of 1°:784% body weight in

December. It declined (0°742% body weight) in January, but again

increased to 0°991°% body weight in February and remained at about

0°8°% body weight throughout the summer months. The fish fed inten-

sively from October to December. In other months, the intensity of

feeding was more or less uniform ; the variations being within a range of

0-7 to 08% body weight.

TABLE 4

MONTHLY VARIATIONS IN THE AMOUNT OF FOOD CONSUMED, OCCURRENCE

FREQUENCY OF MICROFAUNA, CONDITION FACTOR OF Megalops cyprinoides

AND CHANGES IN SURFACE TEMPERATURE OF THE COOUM BACKWATERS

Month & Total Food con- Occurrence Condition Tempera-

Year examined sumed (% frequency factor (K) ture of the

body wt.) of micro- Cooum (°C.)

fauna (%)

duly, 63 11 0°318 90-90 1-4540°15 28°5

Aug. °63 39 0°683 79°61 1:50+0°10 26°5

Sept. °63 AD) 0°392 37°19 15440714 29>

Oct. °63 38 0°908 15°79 1°5324:0°15 21>

Nov. °63 39 1:246 20°51 1:55+0°19 24°5

Dee. ; 763 32 1-784 0°00 1°59+0°17 24°5

Jan. °64 . 44 0°742 20°45 1°57+0°14 24°0

Feb. °64 33 0:991 15°38 1°53 +0°15 24°5

Mar. °64 30 0°558 ~ 20°00 1°47+0°07 25°3

Apr. 7°64 34 0°780 58°00 1:48 +0.04 28°0)

May °64 22 0-799 85°00 1°46+0°08 a)

June *64 20 0°785 100-00 1°5240°08 325

Intensive feeding, as during the monsoon period from October to

December may be accompanied by a change in growth of the fish. The

mean condition factor of M. cyprinoides as seen from Table 4, steadily

increased throughout the rainy season, reaching a maximum of 1°59 © |

in December. It then declined gradually during the cold. season and

remained more or less low during the hot season. Further, Figure 3

shows that the trends obtained for the condition factor and the feeding

FEEDING HABITS OF MEGALOPS CYPRINOIDES 577

intensity are almost parallel to each other, indicating the effect of fluctua-

tions in the food supply, not only on the consumption of food but also

its resultant effect on the growth of the fish.

During the period of rapid growth, fishes and insects formed a major

proportion of the diet of M. cyprinoides. Hunt & Carbine (1951) showed

that an acceleration of growth of the fish Esox Jucius is associated with its

change over to fish diet. The selection of larger food organism by M.

cyprinoides during the period October to March (Table 4) is significant

as it helps the fish in cutting down the energy expenditure by capturing

fewer prey (see also Allen 1935; Nikolsky 1963). During this period

the condition factor of the fish was more than 1°5 (Fig. 3). Moreover,

Pandian (1967b) showed that the conversion rates of protein and total

food in M. cyprinoides is faster in individuals fed on Gambusia affinis

than those fed on Metapenaeus monoceros. In the present study, the

growth rate of M. cyprinoides, as indicated by the condition factor, is

faster during the rainy season when Gambusia and other small fishes

formed the main food than during the pre-monsoon period when Meta-

penaeus and other crustaceans were taken. During summer, the fish

feeds less and in most cases ostracods formed an important food source.

They were, however, not easily digested, since most of the ostracods

observed from the rectal content were intact with bivalved carapace.

Gerking (1962) reported that ostracods were found similarly in the lower

part of the intestine of Lepomis macrochirus. Apparently, ostracods

so common in the stomach of M. cyprinoides during the summer months

have little food value to the fish, and this may account for the relatively

lower value of the condition factor during these months.

DISCUSSION

It is seen that the quantity of food consumed by M. cyprinoides

was more or less uniform except for a marked increase during the

period October to December. Although previous studies, Job (1940),

Vijayaraghavan (1950, 195la, b, 1953) and Kuthalingam (1955a, b,

1956a, b) have been limited to the species composition and to the seasonal

changes of the diet of a number of coastal water fishes of Madras, their

data indicates a similar feature as has been observed in the present study.

A point to be noted is that the intensity of feeding, observed in M.

cyprinoides is not as pronounced as one finds in temperate fishes. It is

known that the intensity of feeding is influenced by the food supply,

temperature, and reproductive cycle of the fish (Ricker 1946). In the

present study, feeding habits refer to immature forms since mature M.

cyprinoides do not occur in the brackish waters of the Cooum. There-

fore, nothing can be said of the influence of breeding cycle on the feeding

rhythm. The surface water temperature of the Cooum is quite high and

578 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

varies from 24° to 32°C. seasonally. Whereas, in temperate waters

very low winter temperature may reduce or even stop feeding in fishes

(Moffett & Hunt 1943 ; Ricker 1946), tropical fishes like M. cyprinoides

enjoy relatively constant and warm temperature conditions and it appears

that temperature has no bearing on the intensity of feeding in M. cypri-

noides. Therefore, increase in feeding intensity observed from October

to December in the fish is attributable to the changes in food supply

in the habitat, because of the breaking of the sand bar at the mouth of

the river.

M. cyprinoides of. 1 gm. weight when fed on prawn Metapenaeus

monoceros in the laboratory consumed 9°2% body weight/day and with

increasing size of the fish, the feeding rate decreased to 1°8% body weight/

day in 150 gm. individual, (Pandian 1967a). Considering this fact, the

quantity of food (0°8 to 1.8% body weight) consumed by the fish collected

in the Cooumis low. One of the possibilities seems to be that fishes feed

more than once in the natural habitat. In fact it has been recently em-

phasized that intensity of feeding must be based not only on the quantity

of food found in the stomach at the time of observation but also on the

rate of digestion (Bajkov 1935) and on the frequency of feeding (Darnell &

Meierotto 1962). In view of the difficulties in making continuous

observations over a period to count the frequency and the limitations

encountered in applying the data obtained for digestion rates in the

laboratory to the fishes collected in the Cooum, the present study has

been confined to the observations on the stomach contents alone.

Finally, it can be seen that it is more important to study the efficiency

and rate at which the food ingested is converted for growth in natural

habitat by the fish than to consider the various aspects influencing the

frequency of feeding and digestion rate. Allen (1940, 1941, 1951) and

Benson (1953) have combined studies, such as those mentioned above, in

relation to the condition factor. The changes observed for feeding inten-

sity and those of condition factor of M. cyprinoides were parallel to each

other. It is assumed that the results obtained for intensity of feeding

based on the stomach contents are reasonably reliable and that additional

effects due to changes in digestion rate and frequency of feeding would

not alter the main trends observed.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This paper formed part of a Ph.D. thesis submitted to the University

of Madras. Thanks are due to Prof. G. Krishnan and Dr. S. V. Job

for guidance. I am indebted to Prof. O. Kinne, Director of the Bio-

logische Anstalt Helgoland, Hamburg, for offering valuable criticism

and improving the manuscript. I also thank my colleagues Miss

FEEDING HABITS OF MEGALOPS CYPRINOIDES

579

D. J. Colbourn and Dr. A. B. Wagh for their help. Fellowship awarded

to me by the CSIR, India, is gratefully acknowledged.

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migration of the perch (Perca fluviatilis)

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273.

(1938) : Some observations

on the biology of the trout (Salmo trutta)

in Windermere. ibid. 7: 333-349.

———— (1940): Studies on the bio-

logy of the early stages of the salmon

(Salmo salar): 1. Growth in the river

Eden. ibid. 9: 1-23.

— (1941): Studies on the bio-

logy of the early stages of the salmon

(Salmo salar): 3. Growth in the Thurso

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295.

(1951): The MHorokiwi

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Baskov, A. D. (1935): How to esti-

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fish under natural conditions. Trans.

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BENSON, N. G. (1953): Seasonal flu-

ctuations in the feeding of brook trout

in the Pigeon river, Michigan. ibid.

83 : 76-83.

Bocorov, B. G. (1960): Perspectives

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plankton and of the number of genera-

tions of different latitudes. In: Pers-

pectives in Marine Biology, Ed. by

A. A. Buzzati—Trquerso, Uni. Calif.

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DARNELL, R. M. (1961): Trophic

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based on studies of Lake Pontochartrain,

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, & MEreROTTO, R. R. (1962) :

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TON, E. S. (1960): Food of larval and

young tarpon, (Megalops

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associated fishes in Peterson’s Ditches,

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of fishes. J. Ani. Ecol. 19: 36-58.

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— & CuHacko, P. I. (1947):

Rearing of salt water fish in fresh waters

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Food and feeding habits of juvenile and

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— (1955b) : The food of horse-

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416-417.

— (1956a): The food of two

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PANDIAN, T. J. (1967a) : Intake, diges-

tion, absorption and conversion of food

in the fishes Megalops cyprinoides and

EE a striatus. Mar. Biol. 1:

16-32.

———— (1967b): Transformation of

food in the fish Megalops cypriroides.

ibid. 1 : 61-65.

———— (in Press): Feeding and re-

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Indian J. Fish.

580

PANIKKAR, N. K. & ATIYAR, R. G.

(1939): Observations on ‘breeding in

brackish water animals of Madras. Proc.

Ind. Acad. Sci. (B), 9 : 343-364.

Pittay, T. V. R. (1951) : A critique on

the methods of study of food. J. zool.

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RAMAMOORTHY, S. (1953) : Hydrobio-

logical studies in the Madras coastal

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163. Ae

RIcKER, W. E. (1937) : The food and

food supply of sockeye salmon

(Onchorhynchus nerka Walbum) in Cultus

Lake, British Columbia. J. Biol. Bd.

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— (1946) : Production and uti-

lization of fish populations. Ecol.

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (3)

SHORYKIN, H.A. (1939): The food and

food relationships of some _bentho-

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shenisrybkas puskono moria. Food

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VIJAYARAGHAVAN, P. (1950): Food

factor and migration of a few fishes of

the Madras coast. J. Madras Uni. (B)

19 : 59-68. ite ee

———— (195la) : Food of the ribbon

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—————. (1951b): Food of rainbow

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———— (1953): Food of sardine of

Madras coast. ibid. 23: 29-39. .

Eco-Toxicology and Control of

Indian Desert Gerbil,

Meriones hurrianae (Jerdon)

V. Food preference in the Field during Monsoon

ISHWAR PRAKASH

Animal Studies Division, Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Jodhpur

Food preference of the Indian Desert Gerbil, Meriones hurrianae (Jerdon)

during monsoon is described by identifying the unconsumed plant species

lying near their burrow openings and from field observations with bino-

culars. A comparison of the occurrence of unconsumed plant species with

that in the surrounding plant communities revealed that the Desert Gerbils

chiefly feed on grasses in the monsoon season. Economic losses by the Desert

Gerbil are discussed.

INTRODUCTION

An earlier study of the stomach contents of the Indian Desert Gerbil,

Meriones hurrianae (Jerdon) had revealed that normally their food con-

sists of seeds but during the rainy season they thrive more on shoots,

leaves and flowers of plants that are readily available (Prakash 1962).

Only a few plant species could, however, be identified from the stomach

contents since they were thoroughly masticated. Recently, during field

observations, it was noticed that while consuming plants, the rodents

leave identifiable portions near their burrow openings during the mon-

soon season, the main flowering season for herbs in the desert. This

study is aimed at finding the preference for various herbs and to

estimate their loss under field conditions.

METHODS

Plant remains were identified and the number occurring near each

burrow opening was recorded. In one plant community observations

were taken around 20 to 30 burrow openings. The composition of the

vegetation was studied by line intercept method and frequency of occur-

rence of each species was compared with the frequency of occurrence of

that species found unconsumed near gerbil burrow openings. If the latter

582. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

was more than twice its occurrence in the surrounding vegetational com-

munity, that species was regarded as ‘most preferred’; if less than

twice ‘preferred’, if less than its occurrence in the community but

not less than 50 per cent ‘less preferred’, and if less than 50 per cent

then ‘not preferred’. Each of the above four palatability class was

awarded the numerical scores of 4, 3, 2 and 1, respectively. To find

out the palatability index of various food species the numerical scores

denoting the various palatability classes were added for species occurring

in more than two communities and an average was found out.

Observations were also made with a 10x40 binoculars on gerbils

feeding on various identified plant species.

All these observations were made during the monsoon season at

Maulasar in a fenced area of 72 hectares. This area lies in a tract with

an average annual rainfall of 400 mm., in the Nagaur District of Western

Rajasthan.

OBSERVATIONS AND DISCUSSION

I. Observations on unconsumed plant species lying near Desert Gerbil

burrow openings

The observations were taken in four plant communities found in the

area. :

(a) Cenchrus ciliaris—Cyperus arenarius—Eleusine compressa—

Phaseolus trilobus community

This community was situated on a low lying sandy plate and the

species comprising this community had a frequency of 75 per cent in the

transects. The other species in this community having a frequency of

50 per cent were Justicia vahlii, Digitaria adscendens, Tephrosia purpurea,

and Boerhavia diffusa. Cenchrus ciliaris, although forming 14:0 per

cent of the vegetation in this community, constituted 69°2 per cent of

plant species found unconsumed near burrow openings (Table 1). It

was the most preferred species. Cyperus arenarius and Aristida adscen-

sionis although having a low per cent of incidence in nature (0°66 and 2:0

per cent only) yet formed 7:7 per cent of the gerbil food indicating a high

preference for these. Eleusine compressa on the other hand formed 10°6

per cent of the community and formed only 7°7 per cent of the rodent

diet. It is worth noting that the plant Phaseolus triolobus and those

having 50 per cent frequency were completely absent from the gerbil

menu indicating that they are unpalatable to gerbils. This may alsobe ~

due to the higher availability of Cenchrus ciliaris which forms the majority

of the gerbil food in this plant community. 92°2 per cent of the food

species were grasses (Poaceae).

(b) Digitaria adscendens—Perotis hordeiformis—Brachiaria ramosa—

Eragrostis ciliaris community.

ECO-TOXICOLOGY AND CONTROL OF INDIAN GERBIL _ 383

The community was found on a stabilised sand dune. The four

species forming this community had a frequency of 83°3 per cent and the

TABLE |

PER CENT OCCURRENCE OF UNCONSUMED PLANT SPECIES NEAR GERBIL BURROW

OPENINGS AND IN NATURE, AND THEIR PALATABILITY CLASSES IN THE

PLANT COMMUNITY(a)

Per cent occurrence

Palatability

Unconsumed plant classes

species near in nature

| burrow openings

Plant species

Cenchrus ciliaris 69°2 14-0 most preferred

Eleusine compressa hel 10°6 less preferred

Aristida adscensionis | 2'0 most preferred

Cyperus arenarius qe 0°66 most preferred

Digitaria adscendens 3°8 2°6 preferred

Eragrostis ciliaris 3°8 0°66 most preferred

others having a frequency of 66°6 per cent were: Tribulus terrestris and

Justicia vahlii ; and those having a frequency of 50 per cent were : Cyperus

TABLE 2

PER CENT OCCURRENCE OF UNCONSUMED PLANT SPECIES NEAR GERBIL, BURROW

OPENINGS AND IN NATURE, AND THEIR PALATABILITY CLASSES IN THE

PLANT COMMUNITY(b)

Per cent occurrence

, Palatability

Plant species Unconsumed plant classes

species near in nature

burrow openings

—y =

Digitaria adscendens 21°3 3 less preferred

Cenchrus ciliaris 18°6 1°8 most preferred

Brachiaria ramosa 8:0 9°5 less preferred.

Eragrostis ciliaris 8:0 6°5 preferred.

Aristida adscensionis 8:0 6:0 preferred

Dactyloctenium aegyptium 8°0 5) most preferred

Eragrostis cilianensis 6°6 1°8 most preferred

Cenchrus biflorus Bes: 0°6 most preferred

Tribulus terrestris 2.6 12°0 not preferred

Tragus biflorus 2.6 3°0 less preferred

Glinus hirta 2°6 1°8 preferred

Cucumis callosus 2°6: 0°6 most preferred

Perotis hordeiformis 1:3 10°7 not preferred

Cyperus arenarius 1°3 3°0 not preferred

Boerhavia diffusa 1°3 0°6 most preferred

Cenchrus setigerus 1°3 0°6 most preferred

584. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

arenarius, Heliotropium marifolium, Cenchrus biflorus, Tragus racemosus,

Aristida adscensionis and Corchorus sp. In this community Cenchrus

ciliaris in spite of having a low (1°8 per cent) occurrence in nature consti-

tuted 18°6 per cent of the food species, while Digitaria adscendens, which

had the maximum occurrence of 17°3 per cent in nature, constituted 21°3

per cent of the rodent menu (Table 2), showing that the former species

is more preferred. Onthe other hand, the occurrence of Tribulus terres-

tris was 12°0 per cent in nature and it constituted only 2°6 per cent of

gerbil food. Brachiaria ramosa and Perotis hordeiformis having higher

frequency were rated as less preferred and not preferred, although their

occurrence percentages were 9°5 and 10°7 respectively. Some of the

species having higher frequency of occurrence in the community were not

eaten. 89:0 per cent of the gerbil food in this community comprised of

grasses.

Justicia vahlii community.

The plant community occurred on an inter-dune sandy plain. The

first two species in this community had 100 per cent frequency in the

transects, and the latter two had 83°3 per cent frequency. Fragrostis

cilianensis and Tragus biflorus had a frequency of 66°6 per cent. In this

community Cenchrus ciliaris formed 25°5 per cent and Eragrostis cilia-

nensis 8°5 per cent of the gerbil food in spite of being only 4 and 0°5

TABLE 3

PER CENT OCCURRENCE OF UNCONSUMED PLANT SPECIES NEAR GERBIL BURROW

OPENINGS AND IN NATURE, AND THEIR PALATABILITY CLASSES IN THE

PLANT COMMUNITY(C)

Per cent occurrence

: Palatability

Plant species Unconsumed plant | _ classes

species near in nature

burrow openings

Cenchrus ciliaris 25:5 4:0 most preferred

Cyperus arenarius 17:0 24°5 less preferred

Digitaria adscendens 8°5 14:0 less preferred

Aristida adcensionis 8°5 2°0 most preferred

Eragrostis cilianensis 8°5 0°5 most preferred

Cynodon dactylon 6°3 2°0 most preferred

Polycarpaea corymbosa 6°3 1d most preferred

Eragrostis ciliaris 4°2 4°5 less preferred

Tragus biflorus 4:2 4°5 less preferred

Eleusine compressa 4:2 0°5 most preferred

Trichodesma indica oa 2°5 less preferred

eae Eee ee

per cent respectively in nature (Table 3), indicating that they are most

preferred by the desert gerbils. Cyperus arenarius and Digitaria adscen-

ECO-TOXICOLOGY AND CONTROL OF INDIAN GERBIL _ 585

dens have a higher occurrence (24°5 and 14:0 per cent respectively) in

nature as compared to that in the gerbil food (17°0 and 8°5 per cent

respectively) and both the species are rated as ‘less preferred’. Pulicaria

wightiana and Justicia vahlii, though predominantly occurring in nature,

did not at all occur as gerbil food. In this community, grasses formed

73'1 per cent of the gerbil food.

(d) Pulicaria wightiana—Justicia vahlii—Polycarpaea corymbosa—

Sporobolus helvolus community.

This community was situated on the flat top of a sand dune. All

the four species forming the community had 100 per cent frequency in

the transects. Aristida adscensionis and Convolvulus microphyllus had

75 per cent frequency. All the dominant species of the community were

absent from the gerbil food except a low (4°5 per cent) occurrence of ~

Sporobolus helvolus as against 17°5 per cent (Table 4) incidence in nature

which shows that the species was not preferred by gerbils. Cenchrus

ciliaris, the occurrence of which is maximum in the gerbil food, was

absent in this community and the desert gerbil showed lesser selectivity

TABLE 4

PER CENT OCCURRENCE OF UNCONSUMED PLANT SPECIES NEAR THE BURROW

OPENINGS AND IN NATURE, AND THEIR PALATABILITY CLASSES IN THE

PLANT COMMUNITY(d)

Per cent occurrence

Palatability

Plant species Unconsumed plant classes

species near

burrow openings

in nature

Brachiaria ramosa 227 4:0 most preferred

Perotis hordeiformis 13:5 4:0 most preferred

Cenchrus biflorus 9:0 4:0 most preferred

Aristida adscensionis 9-0 3°2 most preferred

Convolvulus microphyllus 9:0 2°4 most preferred

Sporobolus helvolus 4°5 17°6 not preferred

Fimbristylus barbata 4°5 332 preferred

Digitaria adscendens 4°5 0°8 most preferred

Boerhavia diffusa 4°5 0°8 most preferred

Glinus hirta 4°5 0°8 most preferred

Tragus biflorus 4°5 0°8 most preferred

in preferring various food species when compared to other communities

in which it was present. Perotis hordeiformis, rated not preferred in

community (b) was rated as most preferred. Moreover, all the species

except Sporobolus helvolus and Fimbristylis barbata were rated as most pre-

ferred. It appears, therefore, that in the presence of the choicest species,

the rodents do not show selectivity in choosing their food. In this

community 89°0 per cent food comprised of various species of grasses,

586 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

IJ. Palatability Index of various plant species

Table 5 shows that out of the seven species which occurred as food

item in more than two communities, the first six belong to family Poaceae

which indicates that the Indian Desert Gerbil, Meriones hurrianae

_ TABLE 5

PALATABILITY [INDEX OF UNCONSUMED PLANT SPECIES OCCURRING IN MORE

THAN TWO COMMUNITIES, AS RATED BY DESERT GERBILS

Plant species Family No. of communities |Palatability

in which occurred Index

Cenchrus ciliaris Poaceae 3 4:0

Aristida adscensionis Poaceae 4 3:7

Eragrostis ciliaris Poaceae 4 3-0

Digitaria adscendens Poaceae 4 27

Brachiaria ramosa Poaceae 3 2°6

Tragus biflorus Poaceae 3 2°6

Cyperus arenarius Cyperaceae 3 23

mainly feeds on grasses. Cyperus arenarius (Cyperaceae) was the only

non-grass species to occur in this hierarchy of preference but it is rated

lowest as compared to other six grasses. All these grasses are palat-

able to livestock.

Ill. Field observations on Desert Gerbil food

Observations with binoculars revealed that the gerbils fed mostly

on shoots, leaves and inflorescence of plants. In an earlier study

(Prakash 1962) on the examination of stomach contents it was found

that during monsoon season the occurrence of these plant parts increased

whereas in other seasons, seeds formed their main food. The follow-

ing plant species were observed being consumed by the gerbil.

Family POACEAE

Cenchrus ciliaris

Cenchrus setigerus

Cenchrus biflorus

. Aristida adscensionis

. Digitaria adscendens

. Eleusine compressa

. Cynodon dactylon

. Eragrostis ciliaris

. Eragrostis cilianensis

WONINDKNRWNE

ECO-TOXICOLOGY AND CONTROL OF INDIAN GERBIL 587

10. Dactyloctenium aegyptium

11. Brachiaria ramosa

12. Perotis hordeiformis

13. Tragus biflorus

Family CARYOPHYLLACEAE

14. Polycarpaea corymbosa

Family CyPERACEAE

15. Cyperus arenarius

Family ZYGOPHYLLACEAE

16. Tribulus terrestris

Family MOLLUGINACEAE

17. Glinus hirta

Family CUCURBITACEAE

18. Cucumis callosus

19. Citrullus colocynthis

Family NYCTAGINACEAE

20. Boerhavia diffusa

Family CONVOLVULACEAE

21. Convolvulus microphyllus

Out of 21 species eaten by the Desert Gerbil, 13 were grass species

and most of the plants observed being fed on by the gerbil are those

which were found unconsumed near gerbil burrow openings. Thus,

besides consumption there is also perhaps a larger amount of destruc-

tion through the cut and unconsumed material.

IV. Economic consideration

In the desert tract, where the study was conducted, the density of

Desert Gerbil was estimated to be 477 per hectare. Considering that a

gerbil consumes about 6 gm. feed per day (Prakash & Kumbkarni 1962),

their annual requirement will be 1044 kg./hectare: ; assuming that their

number will be maintained at this level all the year round.

1 The cost of this fodder al be about Rs. 225,68 per hectare at the rate of

Rs. 20.00 per quintal,

588 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

The figures of the estimated forage production in this tract during

1963-64 and 1964-65 are summarised in Table 6 (Ahuja, Personal com-

munication). Comparing the gerbil depredation and forage produc-

tion figures, it will be observed that hardly any fodder will be left for

TABLE 6

FORAGE PRODUCTION (AIR DRIED) PER HECTARE AT MAULASAR

Forage production (air

dried) per hectare, kg.

Forage species er ET a

1963-64 1964-65

1. Edible grasses ; High perennials (Cenchrus spp.) 332 196

Low perennials (Eleusine compressa, Cynodon 31 8

dactylon, etc.)

Cyperus spp. 25 8

Annuals (Aristida spp., Cenchrus biflorus, Digitaria 822 307

adscendens, Tragus biflorus etc.)

Total edible species 1210 519

2. Non-edible species 159 S15

Total forage production 1369 834

livestock, particularly when the estimate of the gerbil consumption

does not include the destruction they do merely by cutting the grasses

to reach the inflorescence. The rodents also destroy the vegetation by

damaging their roots by tunnelling and expose the loose soil excavated

from these tunnels to wind, thus affecting grass growth. All these fac-

tors in their turn affect the establishment of good pastures for proper

livestock industry which largely depends on these pastures. It is, there-

fore, essential that control operations are to be visualised while planning

improvements to rangelands. |

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Thanks are due to Dr. P. C. Raheja, Director (Retd.) and to Shri

C. P. Bhimaya, Director, Central Arid Zone Research Institute, for

providing facilities, for encouragement and helpful suggestions ; to

Shri K. C. Kanodia, Systematic Botanist, for identifying most of the

plant species ; to Shri L. D. Ajuha, Livestock Officer, for providing the

ECO-TOXICOLOGY AND CONTROL OF INDIAN GERBIL = 5389

data on forage production ; and to Sarvashri Bajrang Lal Sain and Hari

Prasad Sharma for assistance during the field work.

REFERENCES

PRAKASH, I. (1962): Ecology of ger- Indian desert gerbille, Meriones hurrianae

billes of the Rajasthan desert, India. (Jerdon). I. Feeding behaviour, energy

Mammalia 26 : 311-331. requirement and selection of bait. J.

————, & KUMBKARNI, G. C.. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 59 ; 800-806.

(1962) : Eco-toxicology and control of

On a new species of sea

anemone from Maharashtra, India

ARUN PARULEKAR

Senior Research Fellow (C.S.1.R.), Bombay Natural History

Society, Bombay-1

(With four text-figures)

Anthopleura panikkarii a new species of intertidal sea anemone from

India is described. Detailed notes on ecology, external morphology and

anatomy are given.

The paper describes a new intertidal sea anemone collected from

Vengurla Port, Ratnagiri (Mirkarwadi) and Bandra Point, Bombay,

along the coast of Maharashtra, India, during 1966-68. It was first

identified as the Japanese species, Anthopleura midori (Uchida 1958),

which has been reported from Bombay by Parulekar (1968). However,

observations on a large number of living specimens showed it to be an

undescribed species. The new species is named after Dr. N. K. Panikkar,

in recognition of his valuable contributions to actinian research in India.

Anthopleura panikkarii sp.nov.

(Text-figures 1-4)

Material : Holotype (Reg. No. P 1858/1) in the collections of the

Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta, collected at Vengurla Port (15°

51'N., 73° 37’E.), Maharashtra, India in April 1967. Paratypes : Five

specimens collected from Vengurla Port, Ratnagiri; Bandra Point,

Bombay (Maharashtra) and Kalangut (Goa). These will also be

deposited in the collections of the Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta. — |

Diagnosis: Actiniidae with well-developed basal disc, column with

adhesive verrucae arranged in more or less distinct longitudinal rows,

especially, in its upper part. Marginal spherules (acrorhagi) present.

Sphincter weak or strong, restricted to circumscript. Tentacles simple,

hexamerously or irregularly arranged, their longitudinal muscles ecto-

dermal or meso-ectodermal. Numerous perfect mesenteries, all the

stronger ones, fertile. Retractors of the strong mesenteries diffuse,

A NEW SEA ANEMONE FROM MAHARASHTRA 591

sometimes restricted. Younger mesenteries growing from the basal

disc upwards. Cnidom: Spirocysts, basitrichs, holotrichs, microbasic

p-mastigophores.

Description

General features: A medium-sized anemone found firmly attached

to sheltered side of rocks, in the upper marginal zone. Some speci-

mens inhabit crevices of rocks. The characteristic feature of this

actinian is the presence of green verruciform suckers on its column.

In its habitat, the anemone frequently bears gravel and shell-fragments

on its body. When contracted, it is cone-shaped, with an irregularly

spreading base.

Text-fig. 1: Anthopleura panikkarii sp. noy. : Showing the habitat.

Size: Shape and dimensions variable, depending on the state of

expansion. A well-expanded specimen, is about 40 mm. in height and

27 mm. in width. The size-range for the species, based on measurements

of 30 specimens, is as follows: length of column 10-40 mm. ; dia-

meter of column 9-28 mm. ; diameter of oral disc 7-32 mm. ; diameter

of basal disc 5-30 mm.

Colour > Column brick-red with dirty-green verruciform suckers,

$92. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol, 65 .(3)

Marginal spherules pinkish or flesh-coloured. Tentacles uniformly

blood-red, Oral disc red with greenish tinge. Basal disc flesh-coloured.

Basal or pedal disc: In live specimens, firm, well-developed and

more or less irregular in outline when contracted, and rounded, when

expanded. Rounded or oval in a well-preserved specimen. It is only

in a contracted living specimen that its diameter is greater than that of

the column or oral disc.

Column: It assumes different shapes, depending on the state of

contraction or expansion. When contracted, it becomes cone-shaped

or dome-like with upper part thickly covered by verruciform suckers.

In a fully-extended condition, the anemone is pillar-like with narrow

basal part and broad distal part. When elongated, the column is long

and cylindrical, its height being more than twice the diameter. The

gravel and shell-fragments are borne only on the upper part. Ectoderm

cells are cylindrical and vesiculated. Endoderm cells rather low, cylin-

drical and filled with black granules. Verrucae : The column is studded

with papillated verruciform suckers, arranged in 96 longitudinal rows

swollen and cone-shaped in a fully expanded live specimen! but long and

papillose in preserved ones. They are densely set in the upper part,

but are sparse near the base. The uppermost suckers, are the largest,

possessing a pit in the centre. In a contracted specimen, the suckers

near the oral disc form a dense ‘ Papillose collar ’, thus completely con-

cealing the acrorhagi. In young anemones, the verruciform suckers —

are seen only in the upper part of the column. Acrorhagi or Marginal

spherules : The upper limit of the column is marked by the presence of

acrorhagi or marginal spherules, which are pinkish or flesh-coloured in

the living anemone. Ina well-grown anemone, they are lobed in appear-

ance. The number varies from individual to individual but in a well-

grown specimen, there are 48 of them. The basal part of the acror-

hagi is vacuolated and slightly glandular, but the distal part is closely

set with long spirocysts.

Oral disc and Tentacles: Rounded to oval in shape, with diameter

more or less equal to that of the column but always more than that of

the basal disc. An elliptical mouth, with two siphonoglyphs, marks the

centre of the oral disc. Tentacles arranged in 5 cycles in a hexamerous

plan of 6+6-+-12+24+48—96. Broad at the base and gradually taper

towards the tip. Nearly equal in length except for the outermost cycle,

which are slightly shorter. Tentacles of the two inner cycles are, during

expansion, held in an upright position while the others, especially, those

of the outermost cycle (Vth) are either curved, outwards or downwards,

Muscles of the tentacle are ectodermal and sparsely branched. Endo-

dermal muscles with numerous foldings, occur in the oral disc, Marginal

A NEW SEA ANEMONE FROM MAHARASHTRA 593

sphincter (Text-fig. 2) well-developed, almost oval in shape asymmetri-

cally circumscribed, pedunculate pinnate, with numerous foldings.

Text-fig. 2: Anthopleura panikkarii sp. nov.: Marginal sphincter in radial

section. :

. Mesenteries: WHexamerously arranged in four cycles of 6+6+12+

24=48 pairs, of which two are directives (Text-fig. 3). The first two

cycles are perfect. All mesenteries, except directives are provided with

_ Text-fig. 3: Anthopleura panikkarii sp. nov.: Mesenterical arrangements

(diagrammatic).

filaments, and are fertile. They have well-developed longitudinal muscles,

which are diffuse, circumscribed. The muscle pennons of the directives

594. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

give rise to a number of foldings (Text-fig. 4). The muscle foldings of

the first and the second cycle of mesenteries are narrow with a long ex-

tension possessing shallow foldings. Those of the third cycle are rather

Text-fig. 4: Anthopleura panikkarii sp. nov. : Sections of mesenteries.

circumscribed, and of the fourth often crescentic. In the lower part,

the parietobasilar and the basilar muscles are well-developed. :

Cnidom: The distribution and size (in microns) of nematocysts, |

are as follows :— |

Tentacles :— |

Spirocysts ay £ 2 4 282252 x 2'1-3°5

Basitrichs ee > ee 18241 9°69 21 |

Body-wall |

Basitrichs 4 # 2 79-155 X 14-22 |

Holotrichs oF es :. 12°6-16 x 1°4 |

Microbasic- p-mastigophores.. 7. 15°4-19+6 x 25823°5 i

Acrorhagi

Basitrichs ei fs .. 9°8-16°8 X 1°4-2°1

Spirocysts ie Bi .. 14°0-23°8 x 2°1-2°8

Holotrichs as -- 36°4-53°2 x 2°4-5°6

A NEW SEA ANEMONE FROM MAHARASHTRA 595

Septal filaments

Basitrichs wi gt .. 15°4-19°6 x 2°8-3°5 \

Microbasic p-mastigophores 3 .. 17°5-19°6X3°5-4:2

Microbasic p-mastigophores ke .. 26°6-29°4 x 2°8-4°2

Remarks: This actinian closely resembles, Anthopleura midori,

the ‘Green Sea Anemone’ of Japan, described by Uchida (1958). They

resemble in habitat, presence of green verruciform suckers, similar type

of mesenterial arrangement etc., but differ in coloration, structure of

marginal sphincter in section, presence of acrorhagi in all stages of

growth and the distribution and size of nematocysts.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author is deeply grateful to Mr. J. C. Daniel, Curator, Bombay

Natural History Society, for providing research facilities and taking in-

terest in this work. Thanks are due to the Council of Scientific and

Industrial Research for award of a research fellowship.

REFERENCES

PARULEKAR, ARUN (1968): Sea Ane- Tohoku Imperial Univ. XII Nr.3 : 281-317.

mones (Actiniaria) of Bombay. J. & Muramatsu, S. (1958) :

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 65 : 138-147. Notes on some Japanese Sea Anemones

UcuibA, TOHRU (1938): Report on the J. Fac. Sci. Hokkaido Univ. Series VI

Biological Survey of Mutsu Bay. 33. Zoology III (i): 111-119.

Actiniaria ‘of Mutsu Bay. Sci. Rep.

Observations on the Breeding Biology

of Finn’s Baya (Ploceus megarhynchus

Hume) in the Kumaon Terai

V. C. AMBEDKAR

(With a plate)

The observations presented here were made during three field trips to

Rudrapur, Kumaon terai, Dist. Nainital, in 1961, 1962 and 1963. It was

ascertained that Finn’s Baya has two distinct breeding periods, the first, May

to middle of July, the second in August-September. The observations show

that in the first period the birds build their nests on tree-tops, and in the

second low down among Typha reed-beds standing in water. Clutch-size,

incubation and nestling periods, and nesting success were studied for the

first time. Finn’s Baya is a polygamous species practising successive poly-

gamy. The male alone builds the nests while the female is almost wholly

responsible for the domestic duties. Mud-blobs were observed in the nests

as in those of other Indian weavers ; their significance remains obscure.

INTRODUCTION

In recent years, particularly after the re-discovery of the Finn’s Baya

(Ploceus megarhynchus) in Kumaon terai (Ali & Crook 1959), there has

been considerable interest on two aspects of the biology of this endemic

Indian weaver bird, namely the taxonomy of the species (Abdulali 1952,

1954, 1960), and the unusual breeding habits. This paper is a report

chiefly on some quantitative aspects of the breeding biology of the bird.

The field work was carried out during the breeding seasons of 1961,

1962 and 1963 in Kumaon terai, District Nainital, Uttar Pradesh, under

the direction and active participation of Dr. Salim Ali.

Three other weavers namely the Common Baya (Ploceus philip-

pinus), the Blackthroated Baya (P. benghalensis) and the Striated Baya

(P. manyar) also breed in the same area. The selected study area had

all the four species breeding so that it might be possible to assess the

ecological niche of each species.

STUDY AREA

Rudrapur was selected as the base for the study as the town stands in

the midst of the terai, and is well connected by roads with Moradabad,

BREEDING BIOLOGY OF FINN’S BAYA P. megarhynchus 597

Rampur and Bareilly. The following villages were visited during field

trips : Haldwani, Fatehpur (Bhabar area), Lalkua, Bilaspur, Ghadarpur,

Sitarganj, Sultanpur (Terai area) all situated within a radius of fifteen

miles of Rudrapur.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The field work mainly consisted of direct observations of nests and

birds, using 6 x 30 prismatic binoculars. Birds, both adult and nestling,

were marked with aluminium rings of the Bombay Natural History

Society, and coloured celluloid rings for individual identification. Adults

were caught with nylon mist nets. Weights of the young and eggs were

taken by a spring balance. The colonies were visited early in the morning

and observations were continued till late in the evening but for a short

. break at mid-day.

FIELD CHARACTERS

Finn’s Baya differs from other weaver birds by its larger size and bill

although in non-breeding plumage differentiation from the Common

Baya in the field is not always certain. In breeding plumage the male is

brilliant golden yellow with black wings. The black beak is decidedly

larger than that of other weaver birds. In some males the vent area is

white and can be clearly seen from a distance, one of the characters on

which the eastern race is separated from the western race by Abdulali

(1960). The female is in general coloration pale yellow with dark-brown

wings. The males utter a harsh twit twit during flight from one place to

another. Very often they descend on cart-tracks, and even on asphalted

roads to pick up grains, spilt during transport. The birds appeared to

be very fond of hemp seeds. The females, just prior to the breeding

season, usually move in separate flocks of their own sex.

TABLE |

396 oe

Wing 69 - 79 mm. 66 - 73 mm.

Weight — 34-40 gm. 30 - 34 gm.

Juvenile males are very similar to the females but can be identified

in the field by the call note which is similar to that of adult males. The

juvenile males move in flocks of their own, which do not intermix with

the breeding population as observed also in the Common Baya (Ali

1931, Ambedkar 1964).

Amongst the breeding males, at least one or two males have a com-

plete black breast-band (BNHS Ring No. AB 1808), which is quite

unusual.

598 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

ECOLOGY

Habitat |

The breeding birds frequent the swampy area of the terai, a belt

10-12 miles in width with extensive luxuriant growth of elephant grass

(Imperata), and other grasses, dotted with Salmalia malabarica and

Sheesham (Dalbergia sisoo) trees. Patches of bulrushes (Typha) occur °

along ditches, ponds and swamps. Insects are abundant and various

species of insect-eating birds are characteristic of the area. Warblers of

the genera Cisticola, Prinia, Acrocephalus are extremely common, and

their call notes very frequently heard.

In 1961, between 1 July and 20 August, I men twenty-one bree-

ding colonies of Finn’s Baya on trees, and the total number of nests

counted was about eight hundred. The trees being isolated or well

spaced-out in the grassland, I feel that I counted all the colonies within

a radius of fifteen miles. The trees selected for nesting were : Salmalia

malabarica, Sheesham (Dalbergia sisoo), Mango (Mangifera indica), and

Flame of the Forest (Butea monosperma). A colony on a dead Salmatia

near the fish culture pond at Rudrapur was observed in 1961 and again

in 1962 and suggests that Finn’s Baya uses traditional nesting sites as

observed in the Baya (Ali 1931, Ali & Ambedkar 1956, 1957, and

Crook 1960). ,

Although almost all the colonies were located away from human

habitations, yet there was one extraordinary nesting colony observed

right in the centre of Sultanpur village, about six miles from Rudrapur

on the Rudrapur-Ghadarpur road on 14 July, 1961. A leafy banyan tree,

(Ficus bengalensis), about fifty feet high was selected, not only by Finn’s

Bayas but also by the Common Baya, the Pied Myna (Sturnus contra) and

the Drongo (Dicrurus adsimilis), for nesting. The uppermost stratum of the

tree was occupied by Finn’s Baya with fifty completed nests. The nesting

was nearly completed by mid-July since many nests looked deserted and

were being constantly visited and inspected by a flock of the White-

throated Munia (Lonchura malabarica). Female Finn’s Bayas, still feed-

ing young, collected insects from elephant grass about a hundred yards

from the tree. The second stratum was selected for nesting by the

Common Baya which had nearly seventy completed nests. Breeding was

in full swing and there was constant traffic of birds bringing food for the

growing young and nesting materials for construction of new nests. All

these were collected from the different patches of grassland in the neigh-

bourhood. Apparently Finn’s Baya and the Common Baya do not

compete for food and nesting materials. The third stratum was selected —

for nesting by a pair of Drongos (Dicrurus adsimilis) which had three

younginthe nest. And the last and lowest portion of the foliage canopy,

BREEDING BIOLOGY OF FINN’S BAYA P. megarhynchus 599

about ten feet above the ground, held a nest of the Pied Myna (Sturnus

contra), apparently incubating. The entire colony was benefited by the

alertness and fearlessness of the drongos, who constantly drove off

crows (Corvus splendens) and pariah kites (Milvus migrans) approaching

the tree.?

Detailed observations on the nest construction and breeding be-

haviour of Finn’s Bayas breeding on tree-tops were provided by

Salim Ali & Crook in 1959 who stated that ‘but for the builders

in attendance among the tree-top, one would have hardly thought of

looking for a nest colony in such a situation, or recognised such com-

pletely unorthodox structures as nests of an Indian weaver bird’. The

nests were described as ‘ unlike those of any other Indian weaver. They

are large globular structures, untidily but firmly woven with long strips

of coarse grass, and the entrance is at one side near the top. Often a

porch-like projection surrounds the entrance forming a small papilla

as Often seen in munia’s nests. The structures are usually firmly knotted

to upright twigs which are often worked into the fabric and also sup-

port the body of the nests from below. Occasionally the nests are slung

sideways on to a twig or two so that the nest chamber hangs free below

it. In no case, however, are the nests truly suspended from fine single

- twigs as is normally the case with the Common Baya (Ploceus philip-

pinus) (Ali 1931)’.

' During field trips to the Kumaon terai I observed nesting colonies

mainly on tree-tops in July (1961), prior to the monsoon, and in reed

beds after the rains had properly set in (1962, 1963). The nesting

colonies observed in reed beds were recorded for the first time in the

Kumaon terai as described here.

C. V. O’Donel (Baker 1926, 1934) observed the breeding of Finn’s

Baya [since described as a new subspecies, Ploceus megarhynchus sali-

malii Abdulali (1960)] in Bhutan Duars in the year 1912 and described

its nesting habitat as ‘a vast area of grass more or less intermixed with

scrub’. Salim Ali & Crook (1959) also observed some half-completed

nests and structures in reeds standing in water in Kumaon terai but they

considered these as the work of first year juveniles merely ‘ doodling’

with nesting materials. Further they remarked that they did not see

any females visiting these nests. | :

1 [ visited the same tree on 3 September, 1968, and except for Finn’s Baya, all

the other ‘ tenants’ were in occupation. Perhaps the absence of Finn’s Baya is due to

the absence of elephant grass from the surrounding area Which is now under cullti-

vation. — : Hen tay Svar eine) Sy

600 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

BREEDING BEHAVIOUR |

In 1962 an active reed bed colony was located near Rudrapur at the

end of July. The dates of the various stages of this colony (Fish Culture

Pond Colony) were as follows : 3

TABLE 2

Establishment of the Colony 26 - 30 July

Nest construction 1- 6 August

Egg-laying 5-12 August

Hatching 18 - 24 August

Feeding the young 18 August - 3 September

Young leaving the nests 29 August '

End of nesting activities 4-8 September

Colony site

The colony was located in a reed bed adjacent to the Fish Culture

Pond on the Rudrapur-Phoolbagh road about one mile from Rudrapur.

The reed bed of Typha reeds was roughly half an acre in area. Some of

the Sheesham trees along the adjacent main road were occupied by the

birds in May and June, but none were active in August after the rainy

season had properly set in. In the centre of the reed bed, dead and

dry, upright, bulrush (Typha) stems were available for nesting; for the

inspection of the nests one had to wade through knee-deep water.

Although fresh leaves and stems were readily available yet the birds

selected dry, stiff, upright stems for the construction of their nests.

Other similar colonies were observed in the vicinity of Rudrapur in

1962 and 1963 which suggests that the breeding of Finn’s Baya in reed

beds once the rains have set in, is a regular feature.

Nest Construction

The male Finn’s Bayas,-who were the first to arrive on the nesting

site, started to construct nests after plucking off the green flexible leaves,

leaving behind stiff, bare stems of the Typha. The females did not help

the males at this stage, but their hidden presence nearby could be detes-

ted by the display of the males.

The nest was rather loosely constructed of coarse long, green and

flexible strips of elephant grass. Unlike the Bayas’ nest, the nests were

not pendant but attached firmly to the upright stalks of Typha. The

general structure and stages in nest construction are remarkably similar

to that of the Quelea nests of Africa (Morel, Morel & Bourliere 1957,

Collias & Collias 1964).

Following are the stages of nest construction :

(1) Crescent shape

The male Finn’s Baya, after the selection of Typha stems tied two or

three dry upright stems with a few strands of coarse grass, like a waist

J. BomBAy NAT. Hist. Soc. 65 (3)

’s Baya

Inn

Ambedkar

up of reed bed nests.

Close-

Ali

; Below

Photos :

A reed bed nest colony

Above

)

Sdlim

(

BREEDING BIOLOGY OF FINN’S BAYA P. megarhynchus 601

belt, just a few inches above water level, in such a way that the upper

free ends came closer together. Then he started the construction of the

nest at about 8-14 inches above the belt. By knotting one or two stems

and picking the loose end with his beak from the third stem he con-

structed a bridge-like structure. After adding more material to this

structure it became a firm bed of grass on which he could stand to con-

struct the main body of the nest.

(2) Initial Ring with Pouch

This is the most important stage in the nest construction. It forms

the base of the nest, and it is at this stage that the prospecting females

visit the colony and the nests for inspection (Ali 1931) and, if approved,

appropriate them for laying the eggs. After the first stage of nest con-

struction the male immediately started on the next stage—the ‘ Ring

with Pouch’. By adding more strands the male made a ring-like struc-

ture, and with shaping movements he prepared a ball-like pouch which

hung down in the opposite direction to the entrance. By repeatedly

adding more material he made a nest with a wide entrance. At this

stage also as in other Indian weavers, he added the mud-blobs, within

the nest, whose function still remains unknown. As soon as the female

arrived he acknowledged her presence with a joyous twit-twit-twit, and

often jumped in the air to greet her and then both came back to the nest,

the male landing on the outer wall of the nest, the female within the ring.

Copulation often occurred at this stage, if the female permitted.

(3) Complete nest with wide entrance

This is the stage when more vigorous activity to complete the nest

took place. Pilfering of materials from other nests was a common

sight in the colony. More strands were added to thicken the outer wall

of the nest. The male brought lining material particularly Typha floss

which was readily available in the colony. Unlike other weavers this

lining was plastered all along the entire inner wall of the nest but more

profusely at the bottom of the egg chamber. The floss lining along the

entire inner wall probably serves as insulation and for keeping out the

rain. After weaving and interlacing more nesting materials, the outer

‘structure presented a coarse crisscross appearance, the entrance of the

nest was narrowed down to permit entry of a single bird only. This

was the final stage in the nest construction which took roughly between

three and five days to complete. The shape of the completed nest was

oval with a high lateral entrance. In some cases two entrances were

seen. The female spent much time now in the nest and started laying.

The male went on to construct a second nest often attached to the first -

one, in effect converting it into a composite double or multi-chambered

structure. These functional composite nests, commonly to be seen in

602 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65: (3)

Finn’s Baya colonies, are unique among the Indian weaver birds. In the

above colony I observed a compound nest which consisted of seven nests

belonging to two males. The entire structure was built on ten dry Typha

stems. The nests were not inter-connected, each unit being quite in-

dependent, with separate entrances. Other instances of this kind in

ploceidae are known in the case of the Black Buffalo Weaver of Africa

(Chapin 1954, Crook 1964, Collias & Collias 1964) and the giant and

spectacular compound nests of the Sociable Weaver (Philetairus socius)

of South Africa (Friedmann 1950).

In this reed bed it was noted that the nests, which were at the centre

of the colony, were very active attracting other birds to build nests around

the centre and particularly near the compound nests. The compound

nests probably acted as the centre of social stimuli and no doubt served

to orientate prospecting females. The peripheral nests always remained

undeveloped.

The average weight of the dry nests was found to be 66°8 gm.

One of the basic differences in the breeding biology of Finn’s Baya

from that of the other Indian weaver -birds seems to be that if the nests

of. Finn’s Baya are removed then they abandon the colony site and move

elsewhere, whereas other weavers even after repeated destruction of the

nests, build again and again at the same site.

Clutch-size

Table 3 shows the average clutch-sizes of Finn’s Baya for the years

1959, 61, 62 and 63. To understand the frequency of the clutch-sizes,

data from Ali & Crook (1959) are also incorporated here for compari-

son. The average clutch-size in the tree-top nests was 2°3 in 1959 and >

2°5 in 1961 ; in the reed bed nests it was 2°6 in 1962 and 2°3 in 1963.

TABLE 3

CLUTCH-SIZE

Year Number of eggs in clutch Total

1 2 3 4 5 6

1959* 4 Di ae 6

1961 1 4 3 te 1 9

1962 3 8 23 10. 5 49

1963. 2 3 5 os 10

6 19 33 10 6 74

_ * Data:collected by Sglim Ali'& Crooks: 2°

Dae

BREEDING BIOLOGY OF FINN’S BAYA P. megarhynchus 603

Out of 74 clutches observed, 33 clutches or 44°6% had 3, while 19.

clutches or 25'°6% had 2 eggs each. The average clutch-size in the four

years was 2°4 which is decidedly lower than that of the Common Baya

recorded as 3:2 in the Poona area (Ambedkar 1964). Moreau (1944)

has observed that in various other bird families e.g. Podicipidae,

Falconidae, Sylviidae and also Ploceidae there is a tendency for the

larger members of the same family to lay smaller clutches.

Due to the short periods of my stay at Rudrapur in all three years

it was not possible to collect data on the clutch-sizes and to study various

other aspects of the tree-top nests versus reed bed nests in any one year

to determine if there was a difference in clutch-sizes laid in two entirely

different periods of the same year and in the different situations. It is

possible that in the terai the available food in different months of the

year, and the different nesting sites, have some bearing on the clutch-

sizes. Repeat clutches have not been recorded during the investigation.

Egg weight

The eggs were laid daily, mostly in the morning. The first egg was

laid in the Colony on 5th August 1962 before 7.30.a.m. This egg was

observed in a nest where the males were building their nests in close

contact which formed the compound nests. Probably the females were

attracted first to these compound nests due to two possible factors (1)

social stimuli received through the courtship activities of the males (2)

safety from predators.

The weights of the fresh eggs were determined for the first time in

1962. The heaviest egg was 3°1 gm. and the lightest weighed 2°1 gm.

The average weight was 2°7 gm. It is a common tendency in Finn’s

Baya for the second egg to be heavier than the first as shown in Table 4.

TABLE 4

WEIGHT IN GMS. OF IST AND 2ND EGGS OF A CLUTCH

No Ist egg 2nd egg

1 2°8 2°9

2 2°1 22

3 2°6° 2°8

4 26 33 3°0

5 2°6 2°8

_Mean ; AES i, 254 2°74

It is, at the present state of muiowibdee not possible: to explain the

significance of this consistent difference in weights.

604 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

Incubation

Incubation is performed by the female alone, as in other Indian weaver

birds. The nests were well insulated due to interior lining of the entire

inner wall of the nests. In view of this insulation of the nests and high

atmospheric temperature, it was not surprising to see the extreme irregular

movements of the females which sat on the eggs for a few minutes rang-

ing from ten seconds to eight minutes. There was constant inward and

outward traffic of the females in the Colony and the Colony appeared

to be most lively and active at this stage and the next stage of the breed-

ing cycle. Incubation usually started from the first egg, and here the

period was reckoned from laying of the first egg to its hatching.

Night brooding was carried out only by the females entering the nests

before sunset. The eggs were inspected each morning for hatching.

The data in Table 5 show that the most frequent incubation period was

14 and 15 days.

TABLE 5

‘ INCUBATION PERIOD

Incubation period No. of clutches

(days)

13 7

14 10

15 10

16 8

Average for 35 clutches—14°5

It is interesting to note that Finn’s Baya has a shorter incubation

period, 14°5 days than that of the Common Baya 16°5 days (Ambedkar

1964).

Nestling period

The female Finn’s Baya broods the young during night in the same

way as she incubates the eggs. She rarely stays in the nest after the 3rd.

or 4th day of hatching. The young are mostly fed on insects collected

only by the female from the neighbouring area. The male usually does

crows. Throughout the day he perches on the nests singing and chir- —

ruping. Feeding by regurgitation is common for the first two or three

days and thereafter the female brings morsels large enough for the young —

to swallow. In some cases the feeding instinct was observed to be

present also in the males. On 3rd September, 1962, the male who was

guarding the nest, fed the. young with insects brought by the female,

BREEDING BIOLOGY OF FINN’S BAYA P. megarhynchus 605

The female passed on the food to the male to deliver it to the young.

She was making continuous foraging trips.

The first young hatched in the colony was on 18th August afternoon.

Almost all the eggs hatched between 18th August and 24th August, in

a week’s time. This was the most active part of the breeding cycle and

the birds were constantly going out of the Colony in flocks for collect-

ing food and bringing new materials for adding to the nests. The nest-

ling period of Finn’s Baya is between 12 and 17 days as shown in Table 6.

TABLE 6

Days after hatching No. of young flew off

12 7

13 |

14 13

15 9

16 I

17 1

42 Total

Se ee eS

Based on forty-two observations, the mean, maximum and mini-

mum nestling period was recorded. Twenty-four young flew off suc-

cessfully when they were 13 and 14 days old. The mean period was

14-5 days. From available data it is considered as the shortest nestling

period among the Indian weaver birds.

Nesting success

Nesting success may be defined as the ratio of young that flew from

the nests to the number of eggs laid. In the Fish Culture Pond Colony,

out of 79 eggs laid, 55 eggs hatched (69°6%) and 42 young flew off suc-

cessfully (53°1%). This high nesting success can be attributed to the

following three factors (1) safe nesting site (2) very short breeding cycle

(3) abundant food supply.

»- The breeding activities at this colony ended on 4th Sept., i.e., 39 days

after commencement.

_ PREDATORS

No predators were observed in the Colony (Dr. Salim Ali’s obs.)

except parties of House Crows and Jungle Crows, whose efforts towards

predation were unsuccessful. The crows were driven off by the male

Finn’s Baya as they attempted to enter the colony. They foundit difficult

606 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65: (3)

to stand on Typha stems these being too thin to grasp. Thus it appears

that such sites are more protective than the tree-top sites, which are more.

vulnerable. In August 1963 a mixed party of House Crows and Jungle

Crows raided a colony, which was situated on a Sheesham tree. -

made repeated attempts to enter the colony, and finally one crow

managed to pull out a nestling about eight days old through the entrance

of a nest. After carrying-it to the ground he plucked out the feathers

with his powerful beak. Other crows joined the first one and. ote was — |

a keen tussle to snatch the nestling.

No nest of the Tree-mouse (Vandeleuria oleracea) was * sbsgived with- ie

in those of Finn’s Baya’s, though in the Kumaon terai, the mouse was*

noted in the nests of the Common Baya, Blackthroated Baya and Striated ,

Baya.

At the roosting place, in a dense Typha reed patch, Finn’s Bae

were often observed roosting around a Crow-pheasant (Centropus

sinensis). As the crow-pheasant changed his roosting place, the entire

flock of Finn’s Baya followed and settled around him. Possibly the

presence of the crow-pheasant gave the birds a sense of safety ?! Crook

(1964) reported that the males attack or at least make feints at snakes and

human beings.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I wish to express my indebtedness to Dr. Salim Ali for his helpful

advice, criticism and constant encouragement. His supervision and

inspiration have been invaluable. I am grateful to the University of

Bombay for financial support during the years 1962 and 1963. Without

it, it would not have been possible to undertake the study. The trip to

Rudrapur in 1961 was supported by Sir Dorabji Tata Trust grant received

through the Bombay Natural History Society.

REFERENCES

ABDULALI, H. (1952): Finn’s Baya

(Ploceus megarhynchus). J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 51 (1) : 200-204.

———— (1954): More notes on

Finn’s Baya (Ploceus megarhynchus).

ALI, SALIM, AMBEDKAR VJIAYAKUMAR C.

(1956): Notes on the Baya’ Weaver

Bird, Ploceus. philippinus. J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 53 (3): 381-389..

—- (YY ——.

They.

(1957) : Further

ibid 57 (2): ae -601.

1960) : A new race of Finn’s

Baya (Ploceus megarhynchus). ibid. 57

(3) : 659-662.

ALI, SALIM (1931) : The nesting habits

of the Baya (Ploceus pElinpians): ibid

34 (4) : 947-964.

notes on the Baya Weaver Bird Ploceus

Dhilippinus Linn. ibid 54 (3) : 491-502.

& Crook, J. H. (1959):

Observations on Finn’s Baya (Ploceus

megarhynchus Hume) rediscovered in

the Kumaon ‘terai, 1959. ibid 56 (3):

457- 483. a es ie

1 More likely collective precaution—Eds,

BREEDING BIOLOGY OF FINN’S BAYA P. megarhynchus

AMBEDKAR, V.C. (1964) : Some Indian

Weaver Birds.

Bombay.

BAKER, STUART, re C. (1926): Fauna

of British India, Birds 3 : 69-70. Taylor

& Francis, London.

(1934) : The Nidification of

the Birds of the Indian Empire. 3: 4.

Taylor & Francis, London.

CuaPIn, J. P. (1954) : The birds of the

Belgian Congo, Part IV. Bull. Amer.

Mus. Nat. Hist. 75 B: 1-846.

CoLuias, N.E. & COLLIAS, lele(Ge (1964) :

Evolution of nest building in the weaver-

birds (Ploceidae). Univ. California pub.

Zool. 73 : 1-162.

Crook, J. H. (1960): Studies on the

Reproductive Behaviour of the Baya

Weaver (Ploceus philippinus) (L). J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 57 (1) : 1-44.

University of Bombay,

607

Crook, ' J. H- (1964) : The Evolution of

social organisation and visual communi-

cation in the Weaver birds (Ploceinae).

Behaviour Supplement X.

FRIEDMANN, H. (1950) : The breeding

habits of the Weaver Birds. A study

in the biology of Behaviour Patterns.

Smiths. Inst. Ann. Report : 293-316.

MoreEAu, R. E. (1944) : Clutch-size :

a comparative study with special re-

ference to African birds. Jbis., 86 :

286-348.

More, G., MOREL, Y. & BOULIERE, F.

(1957) : The ” Blackfaced Weever Bird

or Dioch in West Africa. An ecological

ae eD J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 54:

811-825.

More additions to the crab fauna of _

Bombay State

B. F. CHHAPGAR

Taraporevala Marine Biological Station, Bombay

(With two plates)

Taxonomic accounts of the Brachyuran fauna of the Bombay coast:

have been given in previous issues of this Journal (Chhapgar 1957, 54:

399-439, 503-549 ; 1958, 55 : 582-585 ; 1961, 58 : 529-531). Collections

of crabs made subsequent to these publications have revealed the occur-

rence of several new distributional records. A taxonomic description

of eleven such forms is given below.

| Tribe DROMIACEA

Subtribe DROMIIDEA

Family DROMIIDAE

Genus Conchoecetes Stimpson

Conchoecetes artificiosus (Fabricius) ; |

(Plate I) |

Dromia artificiosa, Fabricius, Ent. Syst. Suppl. : 360 (1798).

Conchoecetes artificiosus, Henderson, Trans. Linn. Soc. London (Zool.) (2)5:

407 (1893) ; Alcock, Journ. As. Soc. Bengal 65 : 151 (1896); Alcock, Catal.

Ind. Deca. Crust. 1 : 41 (1901) ; Chopra, Rec. Ind. Mus. 35 : 28 (1933) ; Barnard,

Ann. S. Afr. Mus. 38 : 308 (1950).

A female from Bombay represents the present collection.

length of carapace .. ae ied Samm:

breadth of carapace aa .. 16mm.

The carapace is flat and pentagonal. The front is cut into three teeth,

the middle being smaller and on a lower plane. There are two teeth on |

the lateral borders of the carapace—one immediately behind the cervical —

groove, the other behind the branchial groove.

The claws are massive, with two tubercles at the distal end of the outer —

surface of the wrist, and two on the palm near the fingers,

MORE ADDITIONS TO THE CRAB FAUNA OF BOMBAY STATE 609

_. The third. pair of legs are shorter than the first two pairs,’ but are as

stout. They end in huge, talon-like dactyli. The last pair ends in tiny,

claw-like dactyli. The sternal grooves of the female reach the level of

the bases of the first pair of legs.

The crab protects itself by holding a valve of a bivalve mollusc over

it. : |

Distribution: East coast of Africa to Japan and Australia.

Tribe OxYSTOMATA

Family LEUCOSIIDAE

Subfamily LEUCOSHNAE

Genus Leucosia Fabricius

Leucosia pallida Bell

~ Leucosia pallida, Bell, Trans. Linn. Soc. London (Zool.) 21 : 285 (1885) ; Alcock,

~~ Journ. As. Soc. Bengal 65 : 222 (1896); Sankarankutty, J. Mar. biol. Assoc.

India 4(1) : 154 (1962).

A female from Bombay represents the present collection.

The carapace is roundish. The true postero-lateral margins of the

carapace are beaded up to the level of the second pair of walking legs.

The posterior border is straight, and has toothed outer angles. The

thoracic sinus is Y-shaped, there being six to seven granules in a row in

the tail of the Y ; three to four of these granules are large and pearl-like.

The front is tridentate and anteriorly distinctly concave in the midline.

The arms of the claws have 7 to 9 pearly tubercles arranged in two

rows. The hand is more than # as broad as long and has its outer border

strongly keeled. The abdomen is four-segmented. ;

Colour greyish. There are two pairs of pale spots in the gastric

region, and two brown spots in the posterior part of the carapace.

This species has been previously recorded from the Andaman Islands

as well as the Persian Gulf.

Leucosia vittata Stimpson

_ Leucosia vittata, Stimpson, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad. 159 ip Alcock,

Journ. As. Soc. Bengal 65 : 232 (1896).

- A female from Bombay is in the present collection.

The carapace is hexagonal, and is conspicuously longer than broad.

The front ends in three horizontal prongs. The-thoracic sinus has no

610 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

granules. -Its outer branch encroaches into the antero-lateral borders

of the carapace, causing a sharp emargination.

The body is blackish, with flame-coloured stripes.

It has been previously recorded from the Andaman Islands.

Leucosia longifrons as Haan

(Plate I)

Leucosia neocaledonica, A. Milne-Edwards, Nouv. Archiv. du Mus. 10 : 40 (1874).

Leucosia longifrons var. neocaledonica, Alcock, Journ. As. Soc. Bengal 65 : 218

(1896). .

A male from Bombay is in the present collection. It measures :—

length of carapace .. es .. 23mm.

breadth of carapace es .. 20mm.

The true postero-lateral borders are beaded only as far as the level of

the first pair of walking legs. The tail of the Y-shaped thoracic sinus

bears a row of six to seven large pearly granules, in line with the milled

epimeral edge of the carapace. The front is triangular.

Both the borders of the upper surface of the arm in the. chelipeds

bear a row of tubercles. Proximally there is also a patch of 6-8 coales-

cent granules, and five isolated ones. On the inner border of the wrist

is a row of four granules. The inner edge of the hand bears several such

rows. 3 |

The meropodites of the legs have three rows of gee gs The pro-

podites are keeled.

The anterior male. abdominal appendages are beat at right angles at

the tip to form a spirally twisted, spooned hook, bearing hairs. Just

below the hook is a knob.

Colour greyish. On the gastric region are two large ocelli with

small white centres and very broad red outer rings. Around the

posterior half of the circumference of the carapace are six reddish spots.

The legs are banded red. The fingers of the claw have their basal halves

red, and the distal halves white.

Alcock records this species from the Persian Gulf, Karachi, and Palk

Straits.

Genus Nursia Leach

Nursia abbreviata Bell

(Plate I)

~ Nursia abbreviata, Bell, Trans. Linn. Soc. London (Zool.) 21: 308 (1855) ; Alcock,

Journ. As. Soc. Bengal 65 : 184 (1896).

Numerous specimens, of both sexes, were collected from Worli and

Mahim (Bombay). A large male measures :—

length of carapace .. a .-10 mm.

breadth of carapace a ..12 mm.

J. Bompay nat. His7. Soc. 65 (3) PLATE I

Chhapgar: Crab Fauna

gece

tre

25 MM.

0.5 MM

a. Conchoecetes artificiosus, dorsal view. b. Leucosia longifrons, dorsal view. c. Myra

fugax, dorsal view. Nursia abbreviata. d. Dorsal view of crab. e. Tip of Ist left abdo-

MTinal appendage of male.

PLATE II ;

J. BomBay NAT. Hist. Soc. 65 (3)

Chhapgar: Crab Fauna

a. Rhynchoplax prox. octagonalis, dorsal view. Sphaerozius nudus. b. Dorsal view of

crab. c. Ist left abdominal appendage of male. d. Tip of same, enlarged. Actaea obesa. |

e. Dorsal view of crab. /f. Ist-left abdominal appendage of male. g. Tip of same, |

enlarged. Portunus hastatoides. h. Dorsal view of crab. i. Tip of 1st left abdominal |

appendage of male.

SRE aes aaa

MORE ADDITIONS TO THE CRAB FAUNA OF BOMBAY-STATE 611

_ The carapace. is depressed, with thin borders cut into seven lobes.

It has only two ridges across it—one running laterally from border to

border, and a longitudinal one from-the front. The front is eee reeanctly

tridentate.

The arm of the claws is trigonal, with Bra nulas dees The wrist and

hand have a dorsal beaded ridge.

The tip of the anterior male abdominal appendages is shaped like a

trident.

__. This. species has been Cre notiela econded from Karachi. the Coro-

mandel Coast Gulf. of Mannar, and Gulf of Martaban.

Genus Myra Leach

Myra fugax (Fabricius)

(Plate I)

ig Leucosia fugax, Fabricius, Ent. Syst. Suppl. : 351 (1798).

Myra fugax, Leach, Zool. Miscell. 3:. 24; Alcock, Journ. As. Soc. Bengal

65 : 202 (1896) ; Ihle, Siboga Exped. Rep. 39 : 256 (1918) ; Chopra, Rec. Ind.

Mus. 35 : 39 (1933) ; Barnard, Ann. S. Afr. Mus. 38 : 373 (1950) ; Sankaran-

kutty, J. Mar. biol. Ass. India 4(1) : 154 (1962).

Numerous specimens, of both sexes, were obtained from trawl catches

off ieee in 25 fathoms. A large male measures :—

length of carapace (without posterior spine) oa) OT am’

'-- length of posterior spine Ad ey. 13 hs 8 mm.

breadth of carapace =i a ie aeaelle da aelany.

length of cheliped cis pehee Sone san asl

_ The carapace is broadly oval, with three sharp spines—one at each

end of the posterior border, and a long one in the middle line above the

posterior border. The front is broadly bidentate. The carapace has a

broad notch in the antero-lateral borders between the hepatic ‘and

branchial regions. The side-walls of the hepatic region form a facet,

behind which the lateral borders are marked by a beaded line.

The anterior abdominal appendages are straight and end in a claw-

like tip almost hidden in a brush of setae. . as

The chelipeds are long and slender. The hand is much longer than

the fingers. : |

~ Colour pinkish.

Distribution: Indo- Pacific, from East Africa to ere Australia,

612 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

Tribe BRACHYGNATHA

Subtribe OXYRHYNCHA

Family HYMENOSOMIDAE

Genus Rhynchoplax Stimpson _

Rhynchoplax prox. octagonalis Kemp

(Plate IT)

Rhynchoplax octagonalis, Kemp, Rec. Ind. Mus. 13 : 256 (1917).

Two females from the crevices of a sponge were collected at Cuffe

Parade, Bombay. The length of carapace of the larger one is 2°5 mm.

The specimens agree with Kemp’s (1917) description of R. octagonalis,

collected from Marmagoa, in the shape of the carapace and other general

characters, but differ in the following characters :—

The long, sharp procurved tooth is situated between the bases of the

first and second pairs of walking legs, rather than above the bases of the

first leg. The walking legs are slenderer and less hirsute. The anterior

border of their meri has no tooth. There is a stout recurved tooth close

to the tip of the dactylus in the first pair of legs. Four minute denticles

are present on the dactyli of the second and third pairs of legs.

Elamena sindensis Alcock

C. Sankarankutty, on page 347 of his paper ‘On Decapoda Brachyura

from the Gulf of Mannar and Palk Bay ’, published along with the other

papers read at the Symposium on Crustacea held by the Marine

Biological Association of India in 1966, states Elamena sindensis to be a

new record for the Indian region. It appears that he has not seen my

paper published in this Journal, volume 55 (3), 1958, where I have des-

cribed E. sindensis on page 582.

Subtribe BRACHYRHYNCHA

Family PORTUNIDAE

Subfamily LUPINAE

Genus Portunus ~

Portunus hastatoides Fabricius

(Plate IT)

Portunus hastatoides, Fabricius, Ent. Syst. Suppl. 368 (1798):

Neptunus (Hellenus) hastatoides, Alcock, Journ. As. Soc. Bengal 68 : 38 (1899).

Neptunus hastoides, Chopra, Rec. Ind. Mus. 37 : 477 (1935).

Hellenus hastatoides, Barnard, Ann. S. Afr. Mus. 38 : 158 (1950).

Numerous specimens, of both sexes, were collected from trawl catches

off Bombay in 25 fathoms. A large male measures :—

length of carapace oh i oo) 2.) oe

breadth of carapace (excluding lateral spines) 33 mm.

MORE ADDITIONS 70 I'HE CRAB FAUNA OF BOMBAY STATE 613

The carapace is flat, the front being cut into four teeth. The antero-

lateral borders are cut into nine teeth, the last being much longer than

the others. The postero-lateral angles of the carapace are spiniform.

The hands of the chelipeds are almost as massive as the arms. There

are two spines near the distal end of the posterior border of the arms.

The distal half of the borders of the meropodites of the last pair of legs

is finely serrulate.

The anterior abdominal appendage is abruptly bent in its distal half,

with a few hairs near the tip.

Colour fieshy brown. There is a brownish black patch on the tips

of the dactyli of the swimming legs.

This species occurs from, Zanzibar to Japan, having also been recorded

from the east coast of India and the Andaman Islands.

Family XANTHIDAE

Subfamily MENIPPINAE

Genus Sphaerozius

Sphaerozius nudus (Milne-Edwards)

(Plate 1)

Actumnus nudus, Milne-Edwards, Ann. Soc. Entomol. France 7: 265 (1867) ;

de Man, Journ. Linn. Soc. London (Zool.) 22:49 (1887-88) ; Alcock, Journ.

As. Soc. Bengal 67 : 207 (1898).

Sphaerozius nudus, Balss, Rec. Ind. Mus. 37: 46 (1935).

Numerous specimens, of both sexes, were collected from the wreck

of the 8.8. RAMDAS, (which sank on the 17th July, 1947, with a loss of

more than 700 lives) when it was salvaged on Ist April, 1957, and re-sunk

off Butcher Island (Bombay harbour). A large male measures :—

length of carapace .. he seep Oanarin,

breadth of carapace ei sie), 2a faa

This species is distinguished by the bare, convex carapace with four

broadly triangular teeth on the antero-lateral borders, not including the

outer angle of the orbit. There are two arched rows of pearly granules

on either side of the gastric region.

The chelipeds are unequal, with the upper and outer surfaces of the

wrist and hand studded with tubercles. The thumb has a broad tooth

proximally.

Colour yellowish grey, fingers of chelipeds dark brown with white

tips.

614. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

The anterior abdominal appendages are sinuous, with the truncate

tip bearing numerous spinules.

Balss has discussed the systematic position of this crab.

This species has been previously recorded from Pondicherry, the Gulf

of Mannar, and Mergui. :

Subfamily ACTAEINAE

Genus Actaea

Actaea obesa Milne-Edwards

(Plate II)

Actaea obesa, Milne-Edwards, Nouv. Archiv. du Mus. 1: 272 (1865); Alcock,

Journ. As. Soc. Bengal 67 : 145 (1898).

Numerous specimens, of both sexes, were collected from the wreck of

the 8.S. RAMDAS.

This species can be distinguished by the convex carapace being

covered with granules, and not with tubercles. The areolation of the

carapace is extremely faint anteriorly, due to the fineness of the grooves ;

itis absent from the posterior third of the carapace. The lobulation of

the antero-lateral borders is also indistinct, especially in the first lobe.

The length of the carapace is slightly more than two-thirds its breadth.

_ There are a few hairs on the carapace and legs.

length of carapace .. fs Sei ek oD oot

breadth of carapace Vs 2) 4950 mama,

The anterior abdominal appendages are arched, with a transparent

horny tip. There are many recurved spinules and a few long hairs near

the tip.

This species has been previously recorded from Bombay.

Family PINNOTHERIDAE

Subfamily XENOPHTHALMINAE

Genus Xenophthalmus White

Xenophthalmus pinnotheroides White

- Xenophthalmus pinnotheroides, White, Ann. Mag. nat. Hist. 18: 178 (1846);

Henderson, Trans. Linn. Soc. London (Zool.) 5 : 394 (1893) ; Rathbun, K. Dansk.

Vid. Selsk. Skr. 7(5) : 338 (1910) ; Tesch, Siboga Exped. Rep. 39 : 272 (1918).

Xenophthalmus pinnoteroides, Alcock, Journ. As. Soc. Bengal 69 : 332 (1900).

Numerous specimens, of both sexes, were collected from Chowpatty,

Bombay.

MORE ADDITIONS TO THE CRAB FAUNA OF BOMBAY STATE 615

Anterior part of carapace and legs hairy. Carapace 13 times as

broad as long. Epistome absent. Orbits are longitudinal slits, parallel

to each other, in the carapace. Palp of external maxillipeds spirally

twisted, rod-like, the propodite being at right angles to the carpopodite,

and the dactylus being again perpendicular to the propodus.

Propodite of first pair of walking legs as broad as long, distorted—

the originally ventral side being turned dorsally. Third pair of legs as

long as, or longer than, twice the carapace length.

Anterior abdominal appendages long, obtuse at the tip, the latter with

a group of slender spines.

Distribution : Hong Kong, Indonesia, Thailand.

I had given a key for the identification of the marine crabs of the

(then) Bombay State, on pages 524-530 of volume 54, no. 3, of this

Journal. Additional records of crabs from Bombay, published by me

since then, have necessitated modifications and/or additions to this

key at various places. A revision is, therefore, attempted here. The

numbers referred to in it are those found in the original key—new inser-

tions being indicated by letters, so as to avoid confusion.

6. Merus of external maxillipeds more than half the length of the ischium

measured along the inner border (Leucosiinae) on oe A

Merus of external maxillipeds half or less than half the length of the

ischium measured along the inner border (Iiinae) ae

Arcania septemspinosa

A. Carapace convex, subcircular or oval Se nae a B

Carapace broad and polygonal .. ne Nursia abbreviata

B. Chelipeds massive, posterior border of carapace smooth ee C

Chelipeds slender, posterior border of carapace with three petaloid

spines .. c et a uy: Myra fugax

C. Front narrow. Exopodites of external maxillipeds narrow, with the

outer margins straight (Leucosia) i ne ee D

Front broad. Exopodites of external maxillipeds broad, their outer

borders forming a semicircle (Philyra) ae a KN 9

D. Carapace much longer than broad.. Mes “fe Oy E

Carapace as broad as long a as Leucosia sima

E. Thickened epimeral edge of carapace not visible in all its extent when

viewed dorsally Aa Ae He ee ay F

Thickened epimeral edge of carapace completely visible wken viewed

dorsally .. ae ae at: a We G

F. Outer edge of hand keeled Sa bee Leucosia pallida

Outer edge of hand not keeled a Leucosia longifrons neocaledonica

616

Tit

13;

IES}

22:

36.

42.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

Thoracic sinus deep... ts ah Leucosia vittata

Thoracic sinus shallow ae je Leucosia pubescens

Last pair of legs shorter than the first two pairs me ae H

Last pair of legs longer than the first two pairs. . Pseudodromia integrifrons

Carapace convex Bis Bt ts Dromia dormia

Carapace flat and pentagonal ea at Conchoecetes artificiosus

Carapace flat, weakly calcified. Male genital openings on last thoracic

sternite (Hymenosomidae) ae ve in mt J

Carapace not flat, strongly calcified. Male genital openings on fifth

coxopodites ne ath ae ie a 14

Carapace with a honeycomb pattern he Rhynchoplax octagonalis

Carapace without a honeycomb pattern (Elamena) a oe K

Tips of dactyli of legs biunguiculate Au Elamena cristatipes

Tips of dactyli of legs triunguiculate RE Elamena sindensis

Eyes without true orbits. Eyestalks very short or obsolescent, con-

cealed beneath a supra-ocular spine or sunk in the sides of a large

rostrum .. an ee he ie Bt L

Orbits partly defined. Postocular process present, hollowed for the

partial retraction of the short eyestalks (Pisinae) +h Ae 16

Orbits complete enough to entirely conceal the cornea dorsally Ks 17

Eyestalks long ae ee ae Achaeus lacertosus

Eyestalks short (Acanthonychinae) aA AS aH M

Rostrum simple ae Pa site Menaethius monoceros

Rostrum bifid Hy ah ee Acanthonyx limbatus |

Teeth on antero-lateral borders equal in size. . Ai Scylla serrata |

Last tooth on antero-lateral borders enlarged in the form of a large

spine (Portunus) hs Me ge ie oe N-

Posterior angles of carapace rounded ie ue Le 23),

: Se e |

Posterior angles of carapace spiniform ay Portunus hastatoides |

Fingers of chelipeds with broad, hoof-like extremities Etisus laevimanus

Fingers of chelipeds pointed ay es de SY, P |

Carapace granulate .. Be a Actaea obesa |

Carapace tuberculate .. i sk Actaea savignyi |

Basal antennal joint not reaching the front (Menippinae).. zi, Q |

Basal antennal joint broadly in contact with front Ks Ne 43 |

All the antero-lateral teeth broad, triangular. . Sphaerozius nudus |

Anterior antero-lateral teeth broad, anteriorly acuminate, last one

narrow and carinated 2 Ses Myomenippe hardwickii

MORE ADDITIONS TO THE CRAB FAUNA OF BOMBAY STATE 617

47.

54.

Small crabs living as commensals, mostly in bivalve molluscs (Pinno-

therinae) x? + oa ove an 48

Free living crabs ie Ay ae fe bh R

The orbits are narrow chinks situated dorsally with their long axes at

right angles to the anterior border of the carapace

‘ Xenophthalmus pinnotheroides

Orbits normal, transverse hg a éy, e. 49

Front 1/5th to 1/6th the greatest breadth of the carapace. . ote Ss

Front less than 1/15th the greatest breadth of the carapace a 55

Two oblique granular ridges on the inner surface of the palm of the

larger male cheliped.. 5 ae! Gelasimus annulipes

Only one oblique ridge on the inner surface of the palm of the larger

male cheliped ies Eu .. Gelasimus inversus sindensis

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author is thankful to Dr. K. K. Tiwari, of the Zoological Survey

of India, for confirmation of identification of some of the crabs, and to

Dr. C. V. Kulkarni, Director, and Dr. H. G. Kewalramani, Senior

Scientific Officer, Department of Fisheries, Maharashtra State, for

critically going through the manuscript.

Occurrence of Spindasis abnormis

(Moore), (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae)

on the Western Ghats

A revised Description, including Male Genitalia and

Notes on early Development

| A. E. BEAN, SSJE

Society S. John the Evangelist, Marston Street, Oxford

(With eight plates and two text-figures)

Both sexes of Spindasis abnormis Moore are redescribed. Examination

of male genitalia establishes this as a good species. The egg, and the egg-

larva with its ant relationship, are described for the first time. Field notes

are given on the biology of this butterfly. Much further research,

especially of the early stages, ought to be undertaken.

INTRODUCTION

Between 1951 and 1964 I was most fortunate in capturing nineteen

examples of the rare butterfly Spindasis abnormis (M.),in two places on the

Western Ghats, Maharashtra State. Previously there had been a total

of only three males and six females available in the BM (NH), the Hope

Department, Oxford, and the Bombay Natural History Society. This

species. Mr. G. E. Tite has done dissections of the male genitalia, and

with the generous permission of the authorities of the British Museum —

(Natural History) I am able to reproduce his drawings here. Mr. Tite’s —

work, and that of Sir Keith Cantlie, seemto establish this Spindasis form —

as a good species. The egg has been found for the first time. Un-

happily the resulting larva only survived a few days. It was of great

the genus that have been studied. One hopes that this paper will help

someone to work out the full life history.

DESCRIPTION

Sir Keith Cantlie sent me a passage from De Niceville (1890 : 355)

who quotes the original description by Moore of the male, made from

J. BomsBay Nat. Hist. Soc. 65 (3) PLATE I

Bean: Spindasts abnormis

is Be

Above ; Post-monsoon Male. Upperside showing clear shade on lower and

central areas of forewing.

(Photo: F. L. Wain)

Below: Spring Male. Upperside showing dusting of light scales on forewing.

(Photo: W. McM. Wait)

J. BomBay NAT. Hist. Soc. 65 (3) PLATE II

Bean : Spindasis abnormis

Above: Post-monsoon Male. Underside showing complete markings.

(Photo: F. L. Wain)

Below : Spring Male showing reduced markings.

(Photo: W. McM. Watt)

Sete Mae ae

OCCURRENCE Ql SPINDASIS ABNORMIS ON THE W. GHATS 619

what seems must be the type specimen now in the BM (NH)?. But in

view of the material now available I venture to offer the following in

greater detail: (See Plates I, I] and IV for the male; Plate III for the

female).

MALE:

Upperside. Forewing, c. 15 mm., dusky violet brown. Spaces la, 1b, 2 base of

3 and lower part of cell between origins of v3 and v4 covered with scales of dull

greenish blue, seen as shot with rich dark blue when held at a certain angle, and shin-

ing green at another angle. In DSF examples upf blue area may be sprinkled with

light scales. In two examples (my S/Nos. 1745 and 1768) the irroration is very notice-

able, largely obscuring the greenish blue, and so reducing the shot or shining colours

at other angles. Dcv darkened. An obscure dark mark mid cell. Marginal line

blackish brown, obscure but continuous. Cilia sullied white, hint of pale blue at

tornus. Hindwing spaces 7 and 8 greyish brown, grading to a lighter shade towards

the termen, often flushed with yellowish. Pre-costal cell bare, of a darker greyish

brown. All cells, and spaces 1c to 6, overlaid by greenish blue scales, seen at different

angles as on F. Spaces la and 1b ochreous, clothed with long white hairs. Marginal

line as on F but obsolescent in 8 and 7, wider from 6 down. In one WSF example

(my S/N 2210) there is an irregular ochreous brown border of approximately 1 mm.,

inside marginal line from apex to lobe. Lobe dull ochreous brown, with a few

ochreous scales, anally dark brown to a variable extent prominently so in WSF

examples. In most cases a very slight touch of silver on the lobe. Tail at v.1b, 3 mm.,

blackish, orange at base, white tip. Tail at v2, 1 mm., sprinkled with a few orange

scales, white tip. Between tails the marginal line is indicated by a variable amount

of dark brown sometimes touched with silver scales. Cilia greyish brown often

variegated in shade, with a hint of light blue at the tornus.

Underside. Forewing light ochreous with scattered bluish-grey inconspicuous

scales, but these are denser in spaces la and 1b. In DSF the ground colour shade

appears paler and seems to have more red in it. Costa shaded brokenly blackish-

brown from near base to apex. A sub-basal band of conjoined brown spots bearing

silver spots from costa across cell terminating at origin of v2. A central band of

conjoined brown spots bearing silver spots from mid-costa directed towards the tor-

nus, ending at vl. Discal markings, a quadrate spot in 9 and 10, silver centred.

Postdiscal markings, a striga from space 9 to 6, and another striga in 4. Submarginal

markings, brown dots in 1b to 5, those in 4 and 5 slightly silvered, at least in the

example S/N 2222 in coll.BNHS. This also has a query-shaped apical mark touched

internally with silver in 6. The submarginal markings vary greatly and tend to

obsolescence in the DSF. Some of the WSF examples, including that illustrated

(Plate II, above) and the BNHS specimen more faintly, (Plate IV, above) show a double

row of submarginal spots. A marginal line on termen, blackish brown, often ill-

defined especially in DSF. Hindwing, ground colour as F. Obscure basal spots in

7, cell, 2, and on vila, often absent, even in WSF. A central band of narrow con-

joined brown strigae, bearing silver spots, from mid-costa to v1 above the lobe of

the tornus. A discal band of similar strigae bearing silver spots from costa to v4.

A postdiscal band of brown strigae from v7 to v4, after which it becomes darker brown

until it meets the central band and also a line in 1b above the lobe. Traces of a sub-

marginal line in some specimens. A marginal line from v6 to v2. Tail at v1b, turn-

ing through yellow to blackish, white tipped. Tail at v2 blackish. The marginal

line between the tails is indicated by a line broader and richer brown than the line

between v6 and v2. A sparsely silvered patch above the marginal line between the

1 Then known as Aphnaeus abnormis Moore. See Moore 1883, p. 526.

620 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

tails. Lobe; greenish, dark blue and rich brown scales on a ground of yellow and

pinkish. A small tuft on inner side of lobe. The description of the lobal area is

made from the well-marked WSF,S/N 2222 in coll. BNHS (Plate IV, above); the mark-

ings here tend to complete obsolescence, especially in DSF. In 1b a chevron-shaped

brown line with silver spots from the dorsum near vla, ending not far from the central

and postdiscal bands. The chevron points roughly to the junction of the central band

with the costa. Cilia, greenish externally, then olive brown ; internally, at base, like

ground colour of wings. Antennae. Club gradual. Above, club purplish, iridescent ;

sheathed by shaft to expose 8 segments. Shaft inconspicuously annulated with white.

Below, club velvety, light blue, sheathed by shaft to expose 10-11 segments. Shaft

has chevron-shaped white marks at joints. Thorax, above purplish brown, darker

than wings, iridescent. Scapular hairs light greenish-blue, pubescent. On segment

2 there are some longer and coarser white and whitish hairs, and more such on seg-

ment 3. Below, concolorous with wings. Abdomen, above purplish brown, some

iridescent blue scales. At sides, reddish, this colour usually extending well up to-

wards the dorsal surface. Below, as wings.

Eyes and legs: similar to those of other species of the genus.

Male Genitalia (See Plates V, VI, VII, and VIII.)

Mr. G. E. Tite writes : ‘The Spindasis abnormis genitalia are, I find, a little diffi-

cult to draw in a way that shows clearly the various parts ; the valves are an amazing

mixture of twists and curves, and the anellus is joined up with the valves by a quantity

of diaphanous tissues, very difficult to see, and not possible to reproduce on paper.

In order to overcome this I have made two preparations ; one is separated into three

parts, the uncus, the aedeagus, and the valves with the saccus ; the other is kept in-

tactie:

Mr. Tite’s work on the genitalia seems to establish this as a good species, and that

it cannot be an aberration of some Spindasis form as suggested, but without reasons

given, by Evans (1932).

The nearest on genitalia to this species would, on general grounds, appear to be

Spindasis maximus Elwes from Burma. When, however, the parts are dissected out

the relative difference in each species of the size of the aedeagi asicompared with the

valves is striking. There are also the following clear differences.

S. abnormis S. maximus

Uncus : Central U-shaped gap narrow. U-shaped gap much wider; this

could be due to pressure in

dissection, but in Mr. Tite’s

Opinion this was not so.

Aedeagus : Bears a solid looking organof No such organ, but an area in in-

cylindrical shape covered with terior of vesica is covered with

blunt points. Length 2°29 mm. short, sharp spines. Length

2°36 mm.

Valves : (i) Viewed from inside, as in (i) The outline referred to is con-

plate VI(a), the outline from tinuous but slightly wavy.

tip to ventral edge is sharply See plate VI (b).

broken by a right-angled

step.

(ii) Dorsal edge of valve is at right (ii) Dorsal edge of valve makes

angles to tip. an S-shaped curve with the

tip.

(iii) The bridge connecting the val- (iii) The bridge has a wide U-

ves inside has a narrow, | shaped cleft.

deep U-shaped cleft.

OCCURRENCE CF SPINDASIS ABNORMIS ON THE W. GHATS 621

It seems to be characteristic of both abnormis and maximus that the tips of both

uncus and valves are folded and twisted over in an intricate manner.!

FEMALE :

_ The following description is from my two females, S/Nos. 1496 and 1750, slightly

expanded from De Niceville’s description, (loc. cit. 355) :—

Upperside : forewing, 16-17 mm., WSF the smaller, shining plumbeous silvery.

Dark ochreous brown border, widening on costa from about 1 mm. to about 2 mm.

near apex. At apex about 4 mm., narrowing again towards anal angle which it just

turns. Veins darkened by shade similar to that of border, especially in the WSF

example. Darkening of dcv and mid-cell as male. Hindwing, below v6 of the same

plumbeous silvery as F. Above v6, lightish ochreous, darkened towards bases of

spaces 6 and 7. Precostal cell bare and darker. Dcv darkened, more broadly in the

WSF example. Veins as on F. Marginal line easily seen, as no other border except

obscure ochreous brown patch at apex. De Niceville’s accurate description helped

me to see that the lobes of my two females are slightly redder than those of the males.

In the WSF example the colour of the lobes extends to near vla. In De Niceville’s

description there is a footnote that the silvery shade resembles that on the upperside

of females of the forms now Known as Spindasis nipalicus M. and S. nipalicus sani

DeN. Underside as in male. Sides of abdomen ochreous, (cf. male).

EGG

, The egg was light brown the day after being laid, and the next day

turned darker. The empty egg shell, stillin position on moss-covered

bark, is mounted with S/N 1997 in my collection. In shape it is a sphere,

flattened but not extremely, at the poles. Diameter 1 mm., depth, from

‘Sto ‘6 mm. These measurements include the surface sculpture. The

depth cannot be given precisely, because of the hole in the top where the

larva emerged.

The surface of the egg is netted by cells of irregular squarish and

hexagonal shapes. So far as can be seen the cells are roughly equal in

area. However, the egg mentioned below (p. 626), is presumably of the

same species and being unbroken it shows cells decreasing slightly to-

wards the micropyle. The cell walls rise fairly sharply as shown at top

| left in Text-fig. 1. When looked at from above, with more or less top

lighting, the cell walls seem band-like, as shown in the right central area

in the figure. The junctions of the cell walls form slightly raised knobs

“many of which have a slight pit on top. The bottoms of the cells are

shallowly scored by coarse, irregular pitting. The inside of the shell,

seen through the emergence hole, is light brown and polished, showing

at certain angles a beautiful green iridescence.

-EGG-LARVA

On 3.ii1.1964 the newly hatched larva had green mid-segments and was

jred elsewhere. A pair of permanently everted dorso-lateral organs were

| clearly seen on somite 8 of the abdomen. The head was always visible

| 1The BM/NH slides of abnormis are listed ‘G. E. Tite, 1965-655’ and ‘656’

| Prepared from males in the coll. with my S. No. 1751 & 2307—A.E.B.

att oe oe

622 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL GIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

and never drawn into the first thoracic segment as in most Lycaenidae,

and this is probably characteristic of the genus. From above, the sides

® aN

Wear

Text Fig.

Spindasis abnormis M.

Egg shell (diagrammatic)

of the body were parallel. The whitish hairs which clothed the body

were long and shiny. i

On 6.iii.1964 the length was about 1°5 mm. and colour changes had

occurred. The head was now dark brown, and as far as I could make out

the thorax also. I noticed that the lateral hairs sloped towards the

support. The larva was so closely appressed to its support that only the

upperside could be examined, the sides being practically concealed.

While the larva was alive I failed to locate the exact position of the

dorsal organ, and did not manage to see the ants drinking from it. I

cannot at present detect it in the dead specimen either. It is probably

hidden in a crease of somite 7, caused by the anal end turning up some- |

what after death. |

Also, I cannot now be sure of the exact location of the paired organs

on somite 8 which were easy to seein life. In the figure I have indicated —

small processes which I believe to be these organs at either end of a kidney-

shaped darkened area, representing what is apparently a hardened |

surface. I have not attempted to show all the abundant hairs, but have |

tried to show the club-like setae or tubercles which are present at the sides |

of somite 7 of the abdomen and 1 and 3 of the thorax. :

Until more material is obtained it will probably be impossible to |

describe the larva more fully. A detailed description of the larva of

S. vulcanus F. unsurpassed since, is in Bell (1919) : 473 ff. |

OCCURRENCE OF SPINDASIS ABNORMIS ON THE W. GHATS 623

DATA OF AVAILABLE MATERIAL

Collection

1. BM(NH)

We fe

13. Bean

14. BM(NH)

15. Hope Depart. in

coll.H.C. &R.

Winkworth

16. BM(NH)

18. Bombay NHS

19. BM(NH)

20. oa

pl. A

22. Bombay NHS

ZS. Sf) 99

24. Hope Depart.coll.

1 (ee Oot amin 6

Winkworth

25. BM(NH)

26. ss

‘27. Bean

28. BM(NH)

29. Bean

30. Dept. of

Entomology,

Michigan State

University

31. A. J. Sharman,

A Dallington Green,

Northampton, Eng.

32. Muséum National

Paris

33. Bean

Locality &

Sex altitude Date

3 (type) Coonoor, n.d.

e coll. Moore Nulgiris

2 (type) Nilgiris, n.d.

6200 ft.

Nilgiris im. di

e coll. Watson

Nilgiris March,

1892)

3 (809) W. Ghats 29-x-61

c. 750 m.

3d (810) », c. 750 m. 5-xi-61

3 (1489) Bae 17-x-63

3 (1745) as 8-11-64

3 (1751) ic hag 22-11-64

3 (1752) oh ciae 22-11-64

3 (1749) sarehi? 23-ii-64

3 (1765) ae 29-11-64

3 (1766) eaten 29-11-64

3 (1768) senate, Se 29-11-64

6 Clt77) rae As 29-11-64

3 (2209) be ies 4-x-64

3 (2210) Se ae 4-x-64

Gr 222) La ae 11-x-64

3 (2289) Cor 26-x-64

3 (2307) ca ee 27-x-64

Q Nr. Poona, n.d.

Purandhar

9 Coonoor, -1ii-1927

Nilgiris

Q Coonoor, -1i1-1927

Nilgiris

2 Coonoor, -iii-1932

Nilgiris

2 Coonoor, 16-iv-1934

Nilgiris

@ (2498) W. Ghats 7/10-v-1951

' c. 1300 m.

2 (1496) », 750m. 17-x-1963

2 (1750) in a 23-ii-1964

ob (2663) + ie 11-x-1966

S (2668) Bh . 15-i-1967

a (2675) 34 3 28-i-1967

3 (2674) » 9» 28-i-1967

@ (2874) »» ¢. 1300 m. 3-iv-1967

Collector

Lindsay

not given

A. E. Bean

Mrs. E. M.

Harvey

J. Florence

Note :—The female type in BM(NH), listed No. 2 above, is apparently that des-

cribed by De Niceville (loc. cit., 355) ‘from a single example in Mr. G. F.

. Hampson’s collection ’.

specimen.

Unfortunately this is not actually noted under the

624. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 65 (3)

FIELD OBSERVATIONS

The following is based entirely on notes made while the facts were

fresh in the mind ; it is hoped they are of some value in filling out the

picture of this species in the field. The numbers given for reference

below are the serial numbers from the first column of the above list.

They are followed in brackets by the serial numbers on the data labels of

my specimens.

26 (2498) is my first caught, and through inexperience not identified

until 1957. It is a ragged female example taken at flowers of Vitex

negundo Linn., which are especially attractive to Lycaenids and also to

bees and wasps. It is the only one I found in the regions during the

month of May.

5 and 6 (809 and 810) are males taken ‘ basking’ on leaves in the

hot sun at about 14.00 hrs. They seem to have similar habits to male

S. lohita M. which I found flying in the same favourite spots on this

Text Fic. 2.

Spindasis abnormis M.

Egg larva x 50

particular hill. They arrive as if from nowhere, dash back and forth and

around the trees, and then may pitch suddenly on a leaf or else go off

without settling. In this case one sat about twelve feet up a Terminalia

tree, and the other on a low bush in the * basking ’ clump.

All my males, about which there is nothing particular to say below,

were caught ‘ basking’. My reason for inverted commas here is given

below (p. 628) under Field work. They were often about 15-20 feet up,

and hard to see because of the cryptic undersides, especially in the dry

season against yellowing Terminalia leaves. Almost the only way of

locating them is to try and follow their tantalizing preliminary dartings

before they settle. They may, when really settled, open their wings

displaying the shot blue as a stab of colour in the sunlight. In this

J. BomBay nat. Hist. Soc. 65 (3) Pracn al

Bean: Spindasis abnormis

Above : Spring Female. Upperside ; Below : Underside.

(Photos: W. McM. Wait)

J. BompBay nat. Hist. Soc. 65 (3) PLATE LY

Bean : Spindasis abnormis

Above : Post-monsoon Male. Underside. Western Ghats, October 1964 ;

Below : Typical Ghat country.

(Photos: W. McM. Wait)

OCCURRENCE OF SPINDASIS ABNORMIS ON THE W. GHATS 625

position the hind-wings are mostly covered by the forewings. When

there is a good view of the underside one’s excitement increases, for

abnormis has a distinctive pale look below, quite unlike /ohita with its

broad sienna, almost crimson, strigae.

In connection with the male habit of ‘ basking’ the following is of

interest: On 29.11.1964 at about 15.30 hrs. I was about to leave the

ground with one male secured, when another, and, as it turned out, at

least two others arrived in quick succession and in a rather different

manner from those observed when the sun was high. By this time most

of the ‘ basking’ clump was in shadow on account of the hill summit

behind me ; but the sun still lit up a four-foot Randia bush in front of

the trees. The first arrival halted on the Randia. I could see it was

abnormis and felt sure it would not stop long, so I disregarded the fear-

some spines and made a stroke just above the insect, the only hope in the

circumstances, and it worked. As soon as I was ready again another

appeared, and I managed to get it in the same way. A third turned out

to be unsuspecting, for though it left the bush while I was trying to aim,

it settled in a much easier position on the Jambul behind. I have

observed S. lohita behaving in the same kind of way as these abnormis

in order to get the last of the sun. My impression was that they

came from a roughly westerly direction, probably from the summit.

[References are to 12 (1765), 13 (1766), 14 (1768) and 15 (1777)].

The WSF female, 27 (1496), was pointed out to me by my colleague

Father Wain as it sat drinking from the flowers of Celosia argentea Linn.

at about 13.00 brs. The sky had clouded over from 11.00 hrs. and

thunder was about.

The DSF butterflies also come to flowers ; I took the males 9 and 10

(1751) and (1752) at or around the flowers of Colebrookia, a scrubby

plant with persistent flowerheads, very attractive to several kinds of

Lycaenids during its short flowering season. When it was getting past

its peak I took the male 12 (1765) nearby at flowers of Zizyphus rugosa

Lamk.

In the fine weather after the monsoon of 1964 a specially interesting

tree, Dalbergia came into flower, and was very attractive to Lycaenids

for about five days. The male 20 (2307) came to this tree at about

11.00 hrs.; I have never seen an abnormis earlier in the day. Spindasis

vulcanus F., and S. lohita also came to this Dalbergia, along with a female

Tajuria cippus F., and both male and female Anthene lycaenina lycaenina

Felder, in good numbers. This particular Shisham or Rosewood tree

was growing on the side of a steep nullah where it would have got less

attention from woodcutters and was able to flower.

Egg laying

On 22.11.1964, I saw a female evidently egg-laying on a Terminalia

626 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

about ten feet from the ground. She was clinging to a small moss-

covered side branch, from which there were lateral stems carrying leaf-

buds about to open. She was well concealed by the underside pattern, —

but as she probed delicately about with her abdomen her perching angle

changed somewhat and showed she was there. The movement would

not have been likely to attract a bird or lizard, as it was very like that of an

insecure leaf in the wind. 7

After about a minute she left the tree, fluttered around the

Colebrookia without pausing for a drink, and made off. I wished her

well, climbed the tree and cut off the small branch. But I could not find

an egg on the leaf buds. I cut the buds off and took them to the house ;

I scrutinized them outside and in, and still no egg. Next day I was able

to return as it was Sunday afternoon. There was the branch, exactly

where I had put it down when looking at the buds. There were the side

shoots, with traces of the buds. And there, below the junction with the

stem of one of these side shoots, was an egg on the bark among moss.

I reflected that I might well have flung the branch from me instead of

putting it down. As I had seen no Spindusis eggs of any kind before I

was not prepared for looking at bark, though of course this is just where

such great ant-lovers might be expected to lay. I report the circum-

stances, in no doubt myself that this was the egg I had watched an un-

mistakable abnormis laying the day before.

A week after this adventure I was again on the spot, and depressed

to find the whole area had been burnt by grass cutters and several trees

and much undergrowth were affected. After a long search I found an

egg, apparently identical with that found on 22 March, on the same tree

trunk. It was slightly marked, as if by fire, over the micropyle area and

did not hatch. It is mounted in my collection, S/N 1998.

Young larva, and ant relationship

On 3.i1i1.1964, the larva emerged from the egg after an interval of

nine days, whichis exceptionally long for butterflies in the latitude ; I

do not remember any of the admittedly few tropical Lycaenidae I have

studied in the early stages taking more than three days. The larva

emerged from the top of the egg and did not consume the rest of the shell.

The larva went readily to the young leaves of a Terminalia, taken from

the tree on which it had been found. However, on no occasion did I

actually see it eating these leaves, for it is not always so easy to make out

what a tiny Lycaenid larva is doing. Quite probably, even if it did eat

the leaves, it may have nibbled also the lichen on the stems provided and

the moss from the stem on which the egg had been found. I had to use

stems of Terminalia brought to Poona from the Ghats and kept in damp

earth. In order to prevent the foodstuffs drying up I had to keep the

larva in damp conditions also. In Poona, in March, this meant approxi-

—— <7

+ Baas as

OCCURRENCE OF SPINDASIS ABNORMIS ON THE W. GHATS 627

mately airtight conditions, so I rigged a cage from a glass lamp chimney

of moderate size, bedded in damp earth and closed at the top by a glass

plate. The food kept fresh, there was not much condensation, and I

do not think the well-being of the larva was affected.

I placed two Cremastogaster ants from the Poona garden into the

cage. Immediately they began to fuss around the little larva. I was

greatly relieved at this, for when getting the egg I had seen no ants on the

tree trunk. Later I did find tiny ants everywhere on this trunk, but

missed my opportunity of taking a sample.

The larva was very active for short periods. It evidently did eat the

Terminalia leaves, making holes as far through as the lower epidermis.

Since in the cage the leaves were not in position relative to the ground

which they would have held when on the tree, it remains uncertain

whether the larva ate from the surface which happened to be above, or

always from the actual upper surface.+

After a period of activity it rested, either below a leaf or more often

in a crack of the bark, where it was very hard to see. I observed it

stayed in a crack for several hours. I kept thinking I had lost it, but

learnt to look for the glint of the dorsal hairs.

4-iii. Towards evening the larva hid among moss on the bark, the

drier of the two samples given.

5-iii. The larva was still on the bark, with the two ants continually

moving around it and all over the stems. I noted that it seemed to be

eating the dry moss. It looked healthy, and when it did decide to move,

which was not often, it did so in a quick, determined manner, the very

opposite of the sluggish behaviour of most Lycaenid larvae.

I became worried about the ants getting enough nourishment from the

secretions of this tiny larva, so I supplied sugar solution, but did not notice

them drink it. The ants remained in a state of such complete fascina-

tion by the larva that even when I was holding the stem and brushing

them off while I looked for the larva they were most unwilling to leave.

The larva continued to be very difficult to locate, pressing itself right

into the contours of the bark. Its colour and pattern were also highly

protective, and being only about 2 mm. long, a strand of moss could

hide it from view.

During the afternoon of this day the larva apparently settled down to

change its first skin.

6.111. I noted the changes in colour given above (p. 622). The ants

were continually fussing around with waving antennae, even when the

larva went under the moss in the early afternoon. I know now that I

ought to have left it alone and not looked for it; its presence during

| tetirement for the moult was well indicated by the ants. However, the

1I expect my observation is at fault; see Bell’s statement, in Hinton (1949).

628 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

fact is I looked for it again that evening; and placed it oa an Entada leaf

which I had added to the now not so fresh Terminalia. It ate some of

this for there were droppings, and signs of eating on.the originally whole

leaflets of the Antada. Unfortunately the last of these moves and

searchings must have resulted in injuring it. Next day I found it dead

on the upper surface of the leaflet where it had rested the night before.

Field Work

The places where one encounters the Spindasis group are almost

exclusively the tops of hills and lower eminences below the tops, where

the males play and chase one another ; and at the flowers of some trees

instance, one sees the species more characteristic of the plains, S. vulcanus,

S. ictis Hew and S. elima M., coming to flowers, especially garden Celosia

and others of that type, also Poinsettia and Ageratum. But for the true

hill species, S. lohita and S. abnormis as well as other genera such as

Pratapa, one must locate the ‘ basking’ trees. Otherwise one may

tramp a long way on the hills without due reward. :

It is important also to carry extensions to one’s net handle, however, —

kutcha as my apparatus certainly was, but it usually worked. I had °

three male bamboos each about 4’ 6'’ long. I carried No. 1 in my left

hand where it served also as a walking and steadying stick and yet did

not prevent me from controlling the net-bag. The eighteen-inch net-

handle had a ferrule to take the top end of No. 1. A suitable ferrule can —

be got from inside a cycle pedal. As necessary I could add Nos. 2 and

3, which had ferrules from old sea-fishing rods. I carried extensions 2

nd 3 on slings over the shoulder ; I did not get into such a pickle as_

might be imagined.

The sort of place to look for is the head of a nullah on the hillside,

from about 10.00 to 11.00 hrs. until 15.30 or so, according to the time of _

year. Spindasis do not seem to come early, but Iraota, Pratapa and Zezius

do. These, and others, all like the breeze blowing up the nullah, which

makes a chosen green leaf in the sunshine a pleasant place for an active —

butterfly to sit on, often with wings half open. I cannot call this basking |

in the strict sense. Lycaenid butterflies, anyway, do not stay long in |

scorching heat yet they often sit on a favourite perch for several minutes, |

even a quarter of an hour or longer. What I think they are enjoying —

is a cool vapour-bath ; the hot wind which tries the collector is tempered _

for the butterfly by passing through green leaves.

Nearly every nullah offering such conditions may have ‘ basking |

popular with the butterflies, and used by their kind year after year |

Male Spindasis only are found in this way, though of course when the |

food plant is near there is the chance of a female. |

_ J. Bompay Nat. Hist. Soc. 65 (3)

Bean: Spindasis abnormis

PLATE

(5)

Uncus

(a) Spindasis abnormis ; (b) Spindasis maximus

[amore ea ww enmw fet T4819

sound eyjeriuad jje@ 40} aje25

| 0

Siuiougo sisopuids : uesg

IA aLVId (€) $9 ‘00S “LSIL{ “LVN AvaWOg ‘f

OCCURRENCE GF SPINDASIS ABNORMIS ON THE W. GHATS 629

Of the two types of catching ground—hilltops and flowers—the

latter are least profitable, no doubt because there are never a great many

flowers of the right sort on the Ghats in their present denuded condition.

A garden in or adjoining the jungle might be ideal, as for instance at

Vihar and Kanheri near Bombay where I caught S. Johita. But for

S. abnormis certain trees and clumps on the hills are the places to find.

CONCLUSIONS

1. The material dissected by Mr. Tite shows that this is a good

species by genitalia, which are unlike those of the other species of the

genus. §. maximus is nearest by genitalia, but the resemblance is super-

ficial. It is quite different by facies, and apparently by range.

2. Spindasis abnormis on the Western Ghats appears in a spring

and summer, or ‘dry season’ form, and in a post-monsoon or ‘ wet-

season’ form. I looked for it without success throughout the colder

months. I did not go up the hill during the rains, though I would

have been ready to do so during the breaks which occur if I had not been

occupied with Nacaduba pactolus elsewhere ; several workers are called

for, especially when free time is limited.

The range of variation is similar to that of the rest of the genus, the

WSF dark with clear markings, the DSF lighter and with obscure mark-

‘ings. The only striking difference from other Spindasis is the irroration

of light scales on the forewings of some spring examples of the male.

I do not know a parallel to this ; such colouring is usually seen in females,

for instance those of ictis and schistacea M'. The female of abnormis

is typically distinctive, and there does not appear to be much variation.

3. The first example from the Western Ghats is Mrs. Harvey’s,

listed no.21 in the Table. When I learnt of hercapture after identifying my

own first specimen (No. 26, p. 623) I got the impression that the species is

a high or medium level insect as in the Nilgiris. Thus Coonoor in the

| Nilgiris is just below the 2000 metre line, Purandhar on the Ghats reaches

1390 m., and my first locality is of a similar altitude. It was therefore

interesting after 1960 to find the butterfly, at its most numerous so far,

considerably lower down on the Ghats in a second locality.

4. Itis a question whether abnormis has simply been overlooked in

the spot where I found it not uncommon, or whether it is increasing

throughout its range—so far as that is known. I would say it is quite

| likely to have been overlooked. In former days collectors in India

| tended to go to the Himalayas or the Nilgiris for leave ; where they went

| after butterflies in their usually scanty spare time apart from leave was

+ Thave since received a ¢ S. nipalicus nipalicus M. from Mussoorie (May) which

Shows such an irroration.

630 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

largely a matter of chance and opportunity. Thus they may not have

collected very often in the place I happened to be able to visit frequently.

If, on the other hand, there has been a general increase, one might be

able to connect it with cyclic fluctuations over considerable periods.

Obviously far more information is required, but it can be noted that the

first unfortunately undated, material was probably taken about a century

ago, when from the fewness of existing specimens it seems to have been

a very great rarity.

In either case information about status will be well worth obtaining.

If anyone came across it in numbers, especially in a well demarcated area

which the butterflies would not be likely to leave, a count should be made

if at all possible. The method is described in Ford (1945, pp. 270-275)

and consists of marking with cellulose paint and subsequently releasing

a number of the insects. The proportion recaught on several successive

days gives a mathematical basis for estimating the total population.

5. The early stages would be of the greatest interest if worked out.

If I had another chance I would try and leave the larvae alone with their

attendant ants on a growing seedling of the food plant. As long as the

ants showed by their engrossed behaviour that the larvae were present

I would try and restrain my curiosity about their progress while they were

in hiding, at least until after successful rearings.

The following on two common species of the genus is quoted from

Hinton (1949), p. 142 as it would help anyone who got larvae :

‘The immature stages of several oriental species have been des-

cribed by De Niceville (1890), and Bell (1919, 26 : 473-484). So far

as known, the larvae are all attended by ants. They all at least in their |

later instars, have numerous setae with disc-like or star-shaped apices.

The dorsal and lateral organs are always present. The lateral organs |

open at the end of short cylindrical tubes, and from the apices of these

the usual membranous tube can be exserted. The ants attended the |

larvae as soon as the latter hatch, and the larvae appear to be dependent |

upon the ants to a considerable extent. S. vulcanus F. is attended by |

Pheidole quadrispinosa Jord. and Cremastogaster sp. When the larvae |

are partly grown they make little cells for themselves in any crevice OF |

hollow they can find on the leaf surface, fastening the edges of the cell |

with silk and lining the inside thickly if somewhat slovenly (Bell). |

The cells are sometimes formed of two leaves spun together. These cells |

are more or less permanent, the larvae going outside to feed but being *

attended by the ants outside as well as in the cells. Sometimes several !

larvae of very different sizes will be found in the same cell (De Niceville). |

They feed on the undersides of the leaves, always leaving the upper:

cuticle intact even when they are full grown. The pupa is attached by |

both a cremaster and a girdle, usually inside the larval cell.

Spindasis lohita Horsf. is tended by Cremastogaster sp. which builds |

snsvopoy (q) : oInjeue jeUEs ojQ]dwWo0s ayy (v)

(9) snuuxpout sisppuids (v)

‘

: Siuldouqgv sisppuidg :urag

IA Stvid SL cee ese RRS AE CE Ea aA — — oS ete : ied i oe

ee ee a ee ae ae a a

PLATE VIII

J. BOMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. 6§ (3)

(5)

i] a Fee

ee s® 8 o4e% gto a,

«_ahn

e wee

. eee? .

Seo%ewvweecvsce

Spindasis abnorm

Bean

Valves

imu.

ndas.

nine

arm

OCCURRENCE OF SPINDASIS ABNORMIS ON THE W. GHATS 631

temporary sheds over them. Usually three or four larvae are in the same

shelter. When young, they are found on dead, dry leaves on which they

feed without damaging the upper cuticle, although if given young and

tender leaves they will eat these. When the larvae are full grown, they

make cells for themselves by loosely spinning the edges of a leaf together.

Green (1902) found that in Ceylon the larvae lived on Acacia and Gre-

villea in special shelters built by Cremastogaster. The ants drove them

out each night to feed and brought them back into their shelters each

morning. The larvae may pupate in their shelters or in some crevice.

The pupa is attached only by a cremaster.’

6. Ihave noticed that the butterflies of the genus, bach I have only

observed in Maharashtra, appear at fairly well marked periods ; spring,

hot weather, rains and autumn. It looks as if they are able to key-in

their metamorphosis with the ant situation and perhaps with the plant-

lifetoo. They may delay their developmentin any of the stages, even the

egg, as observed in this single case of S. abnormis. If such delay is

normal I can think of no other reason except the need of desirability of

the seasonal generations being well marked.

7. Itis when one has the privilege of encountering a very rare butter-

fly that one realizes the gaps in one’s knowledge of the daily routine even

of common ones, particularly lycaenids. Their occupations consist,

no doubt, of sleeping, drinking, playing—often with pugnacity—, court-

ship, mating and egg-laying. Of these six or seven activities I only know

anything about two—drinking and playing—in the case of S. vulcanus

and S. lohita which occur commonly on the same hill as S$. abnormis.

If they had been rare I should undoubtedly have gathered more

information.

There is some excuse, for time is a great factor, and the work always

takes far more time than one can give. The solution is, of course, to

have more workers on the same specialized line. Moreover, field obser-

vation is intrinsically more difficult than with larger animals; where

butterflies—particularly small, quick ones like Lycaenids—are concerned

and what they are doing at any moment, are problems which must often

remain a mystery. Anyone who has gone after them knows that they

__ arrive and are off, and field observation has to be curtailed by the

- necessity of catching a reasonable number. Still, Iam glad to have spared

an egg-laying abnormis ; I hope I would always do so, for they can usually

be recognized without catching.

Finally, I hope that the peculiar difficulties in the field study of the

" fascinating Lycaenid group will spur others, on as difficulties ought to

do. Jam unlikely ever to be able to revisit India‘; this makes me all the

1 But I had a short happy visit in 1967—-AEB.

632 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

more ready to give exact local information, through the Bombay Natural

History Society, to anyone who intends to work out more completely the

life history of Spindasis abnormis.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I thank Sir Keith Cantlie for much good advice throughout, and in

particular for condensing and clarifying my descriptions of the adult

insect. I found his note (1963) very helpful in introducing me to the

male genitalia of the genus. The authorities of the BM (NH) allowed

Mr. G. E. Tite to make dissections and drawings of S. abnormis and

S. maximus male genitalia. JI am extremely grateful for their permission

to reproduce them here, adding ‘considerable importance to this article.

I would like to thank Mr. Tite himself for his beautiful work and

for the passage quoted on p. 5, from one of his letters to me. He was

most illuminating in his quite considerable correspondence on the subject,

without which I could not have written the section on genitalia. Col.

C. Cowan helped much in obtaining exact data from the BM (NH)

material in the Zoological Museum, Tring, where the Lycaenidae

are housed. I owe a great debt of gratitude to the Curator and Staff

of the Bombay Natural History Society for every facility and encourage-

ment ; and similarly to the Hope Professor of Entomology, Oxford,

and his Staff, especially to Mr. D. Whiteley and Mr. I. Lansbury, the

last named measuring the egg forme. IJ thank the Rev. W. McM. Watt,

and my colleague, the Rev. Father F. L. Wain, for the excellent photo-

graphs. The latter, as always, helped me by encouragement and advice

under a variety of circumstances, not least in many happy days on the

magnificent hills of India. I thank Mr. N. D. Riley of the BM (NH) for

confirming my identifications of the first three specimens of S. abnormis

specimens caught.

REFERENCES

BELL, T. R. D. (1919) : The Butterflies Forp, E. B. (1945): Butterflies. |

of the Plains of India. J. Bombay nat. Collins, London.

Hist. Soc. 26 : 473 ff. GREEN, E. E. (1902) : On carnivorous

~ CANTLIE, SiR KEITH (1963): Genitalia Lycaenid larvae. Entomologist 35: 202. |

of the butterfly genus Spindasis Wallen- HINTON, H. E. (1949): Myrmecophi- |

gren. ibid. 60: 466-468. lous Lycaenidae and other Lepidoptera— —

DE NICEVILLE, L. (1890): The Butter- a Summary. Proc. S. Lond. Ent. and

flies of India, Burma and Ceylon. Vol. nat. Hist. Soc. (1949-50): 111-175.

III. Calcutta. Moore, F. (1883): Descriptions of |

cation of Indian Butterflies. Bombay zool. Soc. Lond.: 521-535

. Evans, W. H.. (1932): The Identifi- new Asiatic Diurnal Lepidoptera. Proc.

‘ Natural History Society, p. 276 sah,

A Report on Wild Life Surveys

in South and West India

November-December 1966

J. JUAN SPILLETT

(With four plates and two-maps)

[Continued from Voi. 65 (2): 325]

Wild Life Sanctuaries in Madras State *

I. THE MupUMALAI WILD LIFE SANCTUARY Bo cA O34

Introduction. . Ay. ae ii ae -. 634

Visitor Facilities We we ons be oF" 635

Habitat .. ws rae cd oa 86637

Florais.% ee Me ie ve .. 638

Fauna”... ey A at es .. 639

Other Attractions .. a Ae a 1642

Discussion. . ae ot His ms .. 643

II. THE VEDANTHANGAL WATER-BIRD SANCTUARY .. es .. 646

Introduction. . 2 Ea a ae .. 646

Habitat bg ies i Pe xs .. 647

Birds Bal bey ae ees 4 ../ 648

Visitor Facilities ae i ae a: we 65k

Ill. THE Guinpy DEER PARK Ns ae a ~s 1653

Introduction. . ar <7 ee wie 53,693

Children’s Corner... eine on ve oe OO4

Flora and Fauna on me ae he »» 655

TV. OTHER WILD LIFE SANCTUARIES IN MADRAS STATE a0) 3 658

The Point Calimere Wild Life Sanctuary ute i .. 658

Top Slip Wild Life Sanctuary .. on iF #.. 659

The Manjampatti Valley Wild Life Sanctuary .. a .. 660

The Kodaikanal Hills or Kukkal Wild Life Sanctuary .. .. 660

The Muthukuzhivayal Wild Life Sanctuary .. Fil .. 661

The Mundandurai Wild Life Sanctuary a ns 3 662

V. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS eh at ae ae .. 662

VI. REFERENCES .. As ee 4% Le .. 663

1 This survey was officially sponsored by the World Wild Life Fund, Morges,

Switzerland. The project was also assisted by The Johns Hopkins University and its

Center for Medical Research and Training, Calcuttaand Baltimore, Maryland (U.S.A.).

Mr. E. P. Gee, member of the Indian Board for Wild Life, made the necessary arrange-

ments with the Government of India and the Forest Department of Madras, both of

which extended the fullest co-operation,

634 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 65 (3)

TABLES AND MAPS

Table 1. Dominant Plant species of the moist deciduous forests of the

Mudumalai Wild Life Sanctuary in Madras State .. .. 639

Table 2. Names of some of the animals inhabiting the Mudumalai Wild Life

Sanctuary in Madras State .. . fh .. 641

Table 3. Birds inhabiting the Vedanthangal Water-Bird Sanctuary in

- Maduranthakam Taluk of Chingleput District in Madras State .. 650

Map 1. General map of the wild life sanctuaries in Madras State .. + 608

Map 2. General map of the Mudumalai Wild Life Sanctuary is .. 668

I. THE MUDUMALAI WILD LIFE SANCTUARY

INTRODUCTION

I arrived at the Abhayaranyam Forest Rest House in the Mudumalai

Wild Life Sanctuary, from Bandipur, on the morning of November 30,

1966. Bandipur, in the Venu Gopal Wild Life Park in Mysore, is 10

miles from Abhayaranyam.

The 125-square-mile Mudumalai Wild Life Sanctuary in the north-

western corner of the State is the largest and best known sanctuary in

Madras. It is located in the Gudalur Division of the Nilgiri District

and borders both the States of Mysore and Kerala (Map 1). The tri-

state area including the Mudumalai Sanctuary, the adjoining Bandipur

Sanctuary in the Venu Gopal Wild Life Park of Mysore, and a wild life

area in Kerala, which has been proposed as a wild life sanctuary, com-

prises the most complete ecological unit dedicated to the preservation of

wild life in India.

In 1940 a 23-square-mile sanctuary, adjoining an area in Mysore

State which was constituted as the Bandipur Sanctuary in 1941, was

established as the Mudumalai Wild Life Sanctuary—the first true wild

life sanctuary in Madras State. The sanctuary was extended to 114

square miles in 1956 and an additional 11 square miles have since been

included.

Mudumalai includes the Mudumalai and Segur ranges of the Nilgiri

Division. A Range Officer from the State Wild Life Organization is

assigned to each of these ranges. A third Range Officer is in charge of

statistics and wild life studies within the sanctuary. Additional per-

sonnel assigned to the sanctuary from the State Wild Life Organization

include : a clerk, three peons, ten Forest Guards, 18 Forest Watchers,

a Watcher-cum-Cook and a sweeper. These men are charged with the

responsibility of protecting the sanctuary’s wild life, attending or assist-

ing visitors, and maintaining the sanctuary’s interior roads, salt licks,

observation towers and other facilities. In addition to the sanctuary’s

wild life staff, regular Forest Department personnel, including two terri-

WILD LIFE SURVEYS IN SOUTH AND WEST INDIA _ 635

torial Range Officers, are in charge of all forest operations within the

sanctuary. Mudumalai also is composed of several forest blocks. The

centrally located Mudumalai and Teppakadu Blocks, the Benne Block

on the western end of the sanctuary adjoining Kerala, and the Moyar

Block on the eastern end adjoining Mysore are the main wild life areas.

The dense forests and luxuriant vegetation in most of Mudumalai

contrast markedly with the dry deciduous forests of the adjoining Venu

Gopal Wild Life Park. Much of Mudumalai receives between 50 and

80 inches of rainfall per year as compared to about 35 inches in Venu

Gopal. The verdant vegetation of Mudumalai presents a more varied

_ habitat for wild life than the open forests of Venu Gopal, but the thick

undergrowth also makes wild life observation or photography much

more difficult. The Moyar River, which forms the natural boundary

between Madras and Mysore States, is the most important source of

water in the sanctuary. There are a number of other streams, but most

of these, such as the Kakkanahalla and Avarahalla, dry up during the

summer.

VISITOR FACILITIES

Visitors to the Mudumalai Sanctuary are requested first to check

with the Range Officer at the sanctuary’s headquarters in Kargudi.

Kargudi is along the main Ootacamund-Mysore road, 40 miles from

Ooty and 60 miles from Mysore. The Mysore-Madras State border is

five miles to the north-west and Bandipur, the headquarters for the

Venu Gopal Wild Life Park, an additional five miles to the north

(Map 2). Daily bus services between Ooty and Mysore pass through

the sanctuary and upon request will stop at Kargudi or the nearby

Abhayaranyam Forest Rest House. The nearest railway station is at

Ooty and the nearest airport is at Coimbatore, 52 miles south-east of

Ooty.

There are 45 miles of fair-weather roads within the sanctuary, along

which motoring may be done except during the rainy season. The

Forest Department provides a truck to take visitors around the sanc-

tuary. An 18 passenger bus also was purchased in 1966 for visitor use,

but a number of the sanctuary’s roads must be widened before it may be

used on them. Six machans or observation towers have been built at

salient points overlooking salt licks and water holes. Visitors may

remain in these and observe wild life in relative comfort. However, the

best manner in which to view wild life in Mudumalai is from elephant

back. Riding elephants from the elephant camp about one and one-

half miles east of Abhayaranyam are provided for visitors upon prior

request. With care, visitors on elephant back may approach near to

herds of gaur and’other wild animals without disturbing them,

636 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

There are three Forest Rest Houses in Mudumalai: Abhayaranyam,

Kargudi and Masinigudi. All provide modern amenities, including

refrigerators and catering. A cook is attached to each and both vege-

tarian and non-vegetarian meals are served. However, for prolonged

visits it is suggested that visitors bring their own provisions. Reser-

vations for accommodation and food, as well as elephant rides or trans-

portation within the sanctuary, may be made through either the Divisional

Forest Officer in Ootacamund or the State Wild Life Officer, c/o Chief

Conservator of Forests, Central Office Buildings, 81 Mount Road,

Madras-6. :

The Abhayaranyam Forest Rest House is located along the main

Ootacamund-Mysore road about one-halfa mile west of the sanctuary head-

quarters at Kargudi. Itis the most modern of the sanctuary’s rest houses

and even has a darkroom for the use of camera enthusiasts. Two double

suites are provided which will accommodate a total of five people. The

present cook and caretaker is exceptional and the food and services

excellent. The Kargudi Forest Rest House is situated on the crest of a

hill a little over one-half a mile north of the sanctuary headquarters. It

has a beautiful sylvan setting and provides a good view of much of the

sanctuary. Two large double suites, which may accommodate up to

three persons each, and an extra bedroom are provided here. It belongs

to forest operators of the Forest Department rather than to the wild life

organization as does Abhayaranyam. The Masinigudi Forest Rest

House is located on the eastern end of the sanctuary. This rest house

has three suites. Although it is well-maintained, it is located near a

fairly large village and does not provide the atmosphere of the Kargudi

or Abhayaranyam rest houses.

Plans have been submitted and accepted by the State Wild Life

Organization for the construction of a ten-room dormitory, and the

estimated cost is Rs. 50,000. Construction is to be completed in 1968.

The proposed rest house is much needed for the ever-increasing num-.

bers' of visitors to the Mudumalai Sanctuary. With their completion

and the availability of accommodation for large groups or regularly

scheduled tours, the number of visitors should increase even more rapidly. —

A total of only 640 visitors were recorded for Mudumalai in 1960. How- —

ever, by 1965 the number was almost 4000, an increase of well over 600

per cent. Likewise, only 18 foreign visitors were recorded in 1960, but

a total of almost 600 in 1964. The total number of visitors to the sanc- |

tuary between 1960 and June 1966, as reported by the Forest Depart-

ment, was 17,656 including 1578 foreign visitors. When transportation —

and other expenses incurred in travelling are considered, to and from

the sanctuary as well as expenditures for food and other facilities within

the sanctuary, the revenue realized by the State and Nation from the

Mudumalai Sanctuary is considerable. Conservatively estimated, the —

J. Bompay nat. Hist. Soc. 65 (3) BEATE “f

Spillett : Wild Life Surveys

Segur River Falls near the western boundary of the Mudumalai Wild Life

Sanctuary.

| (Photo: J. J. Spillett)

J. BOMBAY, NAT. ‘Elisi.7S0c:65(3) PLATE If

Spillett : Wild Life Surveys

Above : Chital near the Abhayaranyam Forest Rest House, Mudumalai Wild

Life Sanctuary.

(Photo: J. J. Spillett)

Below: The Gaur or Indian “Bison’’,a common inhabitant of the Mudumalai

Sanctuary.

(Photo: M.A. Badshah)

WILD LIFE SURVEYS IN SOUTH AND WEST INDIA 637

current revenue from Mudumalai’s wild life probably exceeds Rs. 4

lakhs per annum. Further, this is realized with very little capital in-

vestment and represents only a small portion of the sanctuary’s potential

as a revenue earner.

HABITAT

The Mudumalai Sanctuary consists primarily of undulating forest-

covered hills nestled at the base of the Nilgiri Hills. The Nilgiris attain

a height of 8000 feet and form the skyline to the south and west of the

sanctuary. The altitude of the Mudumalai Sanctuary varies between

3000 and 3800 feet (914-1158 m.) above sea-level.

The overall average annual rainfall is approximately 56 inches

(1422 mm.), although rainfall varies greatly in different parts of the

sanctuary. For example, much of the Benne Block receives about 80

inches of rainfall per year, most of which falls during the south-west

monsoon between June and September. Kargudi, on the south-eastern

side of the Mudumalai Block, receives an average of about 50 inches

perannum. The Moyar Reserve, however, receives only about 35 inches

per year. And, most of the rainfall in the eastern part of the sanctuary

falls during the north-east monsoon between October and December.

Therefore, as would be expected, the vegetation likewise varies greatly

in different parts of Mudumalai.

December and January are the coldest months. Monthly minimum

and maximum mean temperatures for these months are respectively

3) F. (12°8° C.). and 70° F. (21°1° C.). The hottest months are April,

May, and June, prior to the onset of the south-west monsoon rains.

Monthly maximum and minimum mean temperatures for these months

are respectively 90° F. (32°2° C.) and 75° F. (23°9° C.).

February, March and April are the driest months, although the dry

season for most of the sanctuary extends from October until late June. -

The sanctuary staff burn the dry grass and undergrowth each year

between December and January, along block lines, fire lines, State

boundary, and around residential buildings. This improves visibility

and permits the growth of succulent vegetation. Therefore, the best

time to observe wild animals in Mudumalai is between mid-February

and late June. In contrast, the best time to observe wild animals in the

adjoining Venu Gopal Park is between June and October, during the

rainy season. The vegetation in Mudumalai, however, is greener and

presents a more tropical luxuriance in October and November. This is

pleasing to the eye, but also it is discouraging not to be able to observe

the wild animals.

The entire sanctuary is exploited for forest produce. There are a

number of teak plantations, primarily in the Benne Block, and a plan-

638 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

tation of Eucalyptus in the Masinigudi area in the eastern part of the

sanctuary. The planting of bamboo for the rayon mills in Kerala also

has gained prominence during the past five years. Bamboo shoots are

planted at 39-feet intervals and the plantings have a three-year rotation

period. Such plantings probably are beneficial for gaur and elephant, as

well as other wild animals that feed extensively upon bamboo.

The major part of the sanctuary still consists of more-or-less natural

forests. All, however, are worked intensively for forest produce.

Timber extraction includes both clear felling and selective cutting.

Exploitation of minor forest produce is likewise of importance in the

sanctuary. This includes the collection of wild honey, antlers, poocha-

kottai or soap nut (Sapindus emarginata), a type of moss used as a food

condiment, gallnut for medicinal use from Terminalia chebula and T.

belerica, and edible fruits from such trees as the tamarind (Tamarindus

indica). Kurumbars, tribal hill people, collect most of the minor forest

produce through the Co-operative Department and under lease from the

Forest Department. Kurumbars also comprise most of the labour force

employed by the Forest Department at Mudumalai. With the excep-

tion of the Moyar Block at the eastern end, domestic livestock grazing

inside the sanctuary consists of about 200 animals belonging to employees,

such as the Kurumbars.

Flora

The flora of Mudumalai is noticeably varied in different parts of the

sanctuary. Generally speaking, the forests vary from dry deciduous

scrub on the eastern end to dry deciduous and then moist deciduous with

more and more intermingled evergreen species as one progresses further

west. There are also a fair number of swampy areas in the northern

part of the sanctuary.

The tree growth in the Masinigudi area on the eastern end is santa

with thorny undergrowth and short grass. Species of Acacia and

Albizzia predominate in this section. The scrublands merge into rela-

tively open dry deciduous forests with somewhat stunted trees of such

species as Shorea talura and Anogeissus latifolia as well as species of

Acacia and Albizzia.

The forests of the Mudumalai Block also are deciduous. However,

they grade from dry deciduous into primarily moist deciduous forests.

Here the trees attain impressive heights and the undergrowth is much

more dense. Ferns, vines and rank grasses are common. Characteristic

tree species include: Terminalia tomentosa, T. belerica, T. chebula,

Anogeissus latifolia, Schleichera oleosa, Gmelina arborea, Lagerstroemia

lanceolata, Pterocarpus marsupium and so forth. Dwarf date palms

(Phoenix acaulis) predominate in some forest belts and in the vicinity of

the swampy areas near the Madras-Kerala border.

WILD LIFE SURVEYS iN SOUTH AND WEST INDIA 639

The Benne Block consists of an admixture of evergreen and moist

deciduous forests. Big Bamboo (Bambusa arundinacea) is common

throughout the sanctuary wherever there is sufficient moisture. Accord-

ing to M. Krishnan, the bamboo flowered gregariously in 1959 in the

Benne Block. Some of the bamboo along the Madras-Mysore boun-

dary also flowered in 1964, as did most of the big and small bamboo in

the adjoining Venu Gopal Wild Life Park. However, most of the bamboo

inside the sanctuary appears to have completely regenerated and gives

many of the forests a luxuriant light-green appearance.

Roughly two-thirds of the forests of the Mudumalai Sanctuary are

moist deciduous. The other one-third is primarily dry deciduous. An

overall estimate of the per cent composition of the dominant species in

the moist deciduous forests of the sanctuary is given in Table 1.

The flowering of many of the forest trees in Mudumalai takes place

about March.

TABLE 1

DOMINANT PLANT SPECIES OF THE MOIST DECIDUOUS FORESTS OF THE MUDUMALAI

WILD LIFE SANCTUARY IN MADRAS STATE

Estimated

per cent of Stand

English Tamil Scientific

TREES OR CANOPY:

Teak Thekku Tectona grandis 20

Laurel Mathi (Kanarese), Terminalia tomentosa 10-15

Karimarudu

Axlewood Namai Anogeissus latifolia 15

Rosewood Eetti Dalbergia latifolia 10

Ven-teak Venthekku Lagerstroemia lanceolata 10

—— Vendai Kydia calycina 5

Other Tree Species — — 10

Big Bamboo Perumoongil Bambusa arundinacea 15

SHRUBS :

Lantana Oonichedi Lantana camara very common

Indian Laburnum Konnai Cassia fistula common

Fauna

The fauna of the Mudumalai Wild Life Sanctuary is both varied and

abundant. Perhaps nowhere else in India may greater numbers of chital

or spotted deer (Plate IT) be observed than in the Masinigudi area on the

eastern end of the sanctuary. Visitors may observe as many as 2000

deer while motoring along the roads of this area during the morning or

evening. Asa rule the animals are in groups of more than 30, and herds

of over 100 are not unusual, except during the dry season (January-

June) when they are scattered in small groups. One of the Range Officers

stated that on several occasions he has observed that the much maligned

Indian wild dog or dhole is afraid of large groups of chital, as well as of

640 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

man. They only attack small groups or solitary animals. Further, he

claims he twice observed chital being pursued by wild dogs which came ,

close to and stood by humans until the wild dogs had gone.

Mudumalai is also noted for its abundance of gaur or Indian ‘ bison’.

This impressive beast is the largest and undoubtedly one of the most

stately of the world’s wild bovines or oxen (Plate IJ). It generally is

associated with the sanctuary’s moist deciduous forests and the ease with

which a herd can melt silently into the forest is amazing. Herds of over

50 gaur are not uncommon and herds numbering more than 80 have

been reported. Wild elephants (Plate III) are generally encountered by

visitors to the sanctuary. Herds of 30 or more are observed not in-

frequently, but smaller groups or solitary males are the general rule.

Diurnal mammals, such as the common langur, the bonnet macaque

and the brightly coloured giant or Malabar squirrel, are common and

seen by almost all visitors.

Other mammals which are relatively common in various parts of the

sanctuary may or may not be observed. These include such animals as

sambar, barking deer or muntjac, mouse deer or Indian chevrotain, wild

boar, blacknaped hare and Indian porcupine. Although rarely seen

during the day, the last two are commonly observed at night. The

Nilgiri langur is not found in the sanctuary. However, while travelling

between Mudumalai and Ootacamund in September 1965, I observed

a troop in the forests above Gudalur, less than 15 miles west of Abhaya-

ranyam. Although not uncommon in Mudumalai, visitors may be con-

sidered lucky if they observe large carnivores, such as tiger, leopard or

panther, dhole or Indian wild dog and sloth bear. The latter is actually

an omnivore and feeds primarily on insects, fruits, and so forth. How-

ever, some visitors have reported three of these four species during a

one or two-day visit and others have observed all four during a more

extended visit. |

A species of ‘ flying’ lizard (Draco sp.) is reported to be fairly com-

mon in some parts of the sanctuary, such as in the vicinity of Abhaya-

ranyam. I searched for this reptile on several occasions, but was never

lucky enough to observe it. Although called a ‘ flying’ lizard, it is in-

capable of flight. It glides from tree to tree in the same manner as the

_* flying’ squirrels, which also are represented in Mudumalai.

Python, the largest of India’s snakes, and monitor lizards (Varanus

sp.) are seen occasionally in Mudumalai, but crocodile is observed very

rarely along the Moyar River. The Indian rat snake, however, is com-

mon and frequently encountered along the sanctuary’s roads. Iobserved |

one specimen, which was approximately eight feet long, just east of the

Abhayaranyam Forest Rest House. ‘Some Large Reptiles of Madras —

State’ are described and illustrated in a Forest Department booklet of

that name by M. A. Badshah, the State Wild Life Officer. Some of the

WILD LIFE SURVEYS IN SOUTH AND WEST INDIA 641

animals inhabiting the Mudumalai sanctuary, including some of the

more common or impressive reptiles, are listed in Table 2.

Mudumalai is a paradise for the bird watcher. A detailed check-list

of birds has been compiled by M. A. Badshah, and the check-list made

available to visitors. A latest check-list is under print with photographs

of some rare birds. February through June is the breeding season for

most of the birds in Mudumalai and the best time for bird watching or

hearing their songs, as well as for observing other wild animals in the

sanctuary. A check-list for these also should be made available to

visitors and their observations systematically recorded in the visitors’

book.

TABLE 2

NAMES OF SOME OF THE ANIMALS INHABITING THE MUDUMALAI WILD LIFE

SANCTUARY IN MADRAS STATE

Mugger

een inane amma mmr lea d

Relative

English Tamil Scientific Abundance

Indian Elephant Yanai Elephas maximus common

Gaur or Indian Kattu erumai Bos gaurus common

* Bison ”

Sambar Kudoo marn Cervus unicolor frequent

Chital or spotted Pullj marn Axis axis common

Deer

Barking Deer or Kart ardu Muntiacus muntjak infrequent

Indian Muntjac

Four-horned Ante- Nangu kombu marn Tetracerus quadricornis infrequent

lope or Chousingha

Mouse Deer or Sarugoo marn Tragulus meminna frequent

Indian Chevrotain

Wild Boar Punri Sus scrofa frequent

Blacknaped or Muyal Lepus nigricollis frequent

Common Hare

Indian Porcupine Mullampunri HAystrix indica common

Giant or Malabar Anil Ratufa indica common

Squirrel

Small Travancore Parakum anil Petinomys fuscocapillus frequent

Flying Squirrel

Common or Grey Korangu Presbytis entellus common

Langur .

Bonnet Macaque Korangu Macaca radiata frequent

Indian Pangolin Alangu Manis crassicaudata rare

Tiger Puli Panthera tigris infrequent

Leopard or Panther Chiruthai Panthera pardus infrequent

Jungle Cat Kattu poonai Felis chaus =

Leopard Cat —_———————____ Felis bengalensis infrequent

Striped Hyena Kaluthai puli Ayaena hyaena rare

Indian Wild Dog or Chennai Cuon alpinus infrequent

Dhole

Otter Neer nai Lutra sp. rare

Jackal Naree Canis aureus frequent

Indian Fox Kulla naree Vulpes bengalensis as

Little Civet Punugu poonal Viverricula indica Ee

Stripe-necked Keeree Herpestes viticollis ——

Mongoose

Sloth Bear Karadee Melursus ursinus infrequent

Python Malai Pambu Python molurus infrequent

Indian Rat Snake Sarai Pambu Ptyas mucosus common

Monitor Lizard. Udumbu Varanus monitor rare

‘Flying ’ Lizard — Draco dussumieri frequent

Marsh Crocodile or Mudalai Crocodilus palustris rare

642 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

An unusual, but outstanding and oftentimes beautiful feature of

Mudumalai is its abundant insect life. During some nights in April

entire areas in the sanctuary are illuminated by the flashing luminescence

of fire flies. Although these small creatures are present and noticeable

during much of the year, only during particular seasons do they become

so apparent. Not to be overlooked are the sanctuary’s numerous species

of intricately-coloured butterflies.

The spiders, which spin their giant webs between the trees, and the

mounds of the termites also form a conspicuous part of the sanctuary.

I was intrigued particularly by the colourful patterns of some of the

spiders and spent the better part of one afternoon photographing these

beautiful creatures. Many display intricate designs of bright yellow or

reds on a black background and some attain relatively large sizes, span-

ning more than five inches across both the body and legs.

Good numbers of fair-sized fish inhabit the Moyar River below

Kargudi. The tribal people working in the sanctuary were having

exceptionally good luck one evening during my visit. Although I was

not acquainted with the species which they caught, I watched them catch

a number of fish weighing up to three pounds and they claimed that they

were very good eating.

OTHER ATTRACTIONS

The exquisite flora and fauna are, of course, the outstanding attrac-

tions of the Mudumalai Wild Life Sanctuary. Nevertheless, there are

a number of scenic or other attractions in or near the sanctuary, which

I think deserve major consideration. The elephant camp near Teppa-

kadu, which is on the eastern side of the river about a mile; from

Kargudi, is of special interest. It is claimed that more, elephants have

been born in captivity here than anywhere in India. About 20 elephants

are stationed at the camp or at nearby camps in the sanctuary’s forests.

Most are used for timber work, although a few are made available for

visitors to ride.

Some of the mahouts take pride in demonstrating the abilities of their

charges. These highly intelligent beasts will bow, ‘salaam’, pick up

delicate objects with their versatile trunks and appear in many cases to

be able to do almost anything their mahouts ask of them. Many res-

pond correctly to over 30 commands. These are given vocally, by leg

and foot signals, or through prodding with a small stick. The mahouts

are not allowed to use ‘ ankus’ or force to make these huge animals do

their bidding. A small calf or two usually may be found in the camp.

Their inadroit movements and apparent uselessness of their trunks con-

trast notably with those of their parents.

East of the main Ootacamund-Mysore road near the Madras-Mysore

WILD LIFE SURVEYS IN SOUTH AND WEST INDIA 643

border in the Moyar Block is a loop road. This passes through rela-

tively open forests. The Forest Department recently built a spur road

from it to an observation point overlooking the falls and gorge of the |

Moyar River. The falls are estimated to be approximately 500 feet high.

The deep rocky gorge and the surrounding forests, coupled with the

cascading waters, present a truly magnificent spectacle.

An equally impressive sight is presented by the Segur River Falls

(Plate I). The Segur River rises in the Nilgiri Hills to the south and

flows along the eastern boundary of the sanctuary before tumbling an

estimated 700 feet into the Moyar River Gorge. The Segur River and

its two spectacular falls are located outside the sanctuary and at present

may be reached by passing through the village of Hundiuyur and then

following a jeepable cow path. An effort should be made to include

the falls within the sanctuary. A suitable road leading to the obser-

vation point overlooking them also should be constructed. The nearby

village of Hundiuyur, which has about 500 inhabitants, likewise should be

relocated elsewhere so that the scenic grandeur of one of nature’s finest

displays may be preserved in its natural setting. This area presently is

under the jurisdiction of the Revenue Department, which leases the land

to the villagers for approximately Rs. 6 per acre per year. The rocky

soil is unsuitable for agriculture and rightfully should be returned to

- forest.

The Nilgiri Hills to the south and east provide a magnificent setting

for the Mudumalai Sanctuary. The steep slopes of this range, with the

exception of frequent outcroppings of rock, are covered primarily with

grass. They are frequently covered with mist and thin clouds trailing

across their face add to their majesty. Particularly in the early morn-

ing, they are often cloaked in deep blues or purples—reminiscent of the

colours used in many paintings of mountain scenery, but which are colours

not commonly seen in natural settings. The winding journey up the

steep slopes from Gudalur, 10 miles south-west of Kargudi, to the hill

station of Ootacamund on the summit of the Nilgiris is an unforgettable

experience. It may be uncomfortably warm at the beginning of the trip,

but almost invariably one will be searching for a sweater or jacket while

winding back and forth up the mountainsides, which are covered with

tea plantations that appear like neatly trimmed hedges.

DISCUSSION

The timber resources of the Mudumalai Wild Life Sanctuary are

under the jurisdiction of the Forest Department. The State Wild Life

Officer is in charge of all the wild life sanctuaries in the State. It is

realized that the forest products of Mudumalai provide a valuable source

of revenue. However, the wild life in a wild life sanctuary should re-

ceive major consideration.

644. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

It is illogical at present to advocate the cessation of all forest opera-

tions within the sanctuary. But, on the other hand, whenever possible

such operations should be planned and executed in the manner least

detrimental or in a manner that will least disturb the sanctuary’s wild

life. For example, there is little justification for the establishment of a

forest camp along the Kakkanahalla on one of the main migratory routes

for wild life between Mudumalai and the Venu Gopal Wild Life Park in

Mysore. This camp easily could have been located elsewhere where it

would have interfered less with wild life movements. Extensive arti-

ficial plantings of trees, particularly exotic species such as Eucalyptus,

should be discouraged within the sanctuary. Natural forests in this area

are very productive and when properly managed probably will produce

almost equal to plantation areas, if the additional expense and labour for

the latter are taken into consideration. Extensive single species plant-

ings often result in soil deterioration and a lower quality of timber, as

well as form a biological desert as far as many species of wild animals

are concerned. |

The entire Mudumalai Sanctuary is subject to forest exploitation.

The establishment of key areas solely for wild life, which are maintained

inviolate to the depredations of man, has proven successful in a number

of Indian wild life sanctuaries. The Bandipur Sanctuary or ‘ sanctum

sanctorum ’ of the adjoining Venu Gopal Wild Life Park is a notable

example. At least a token area, perhaps 10-square-miles, also should

be set apart in Mudumalai as a true refuge for wild life. And, such an

area should be maintained in as natural a state as possible.

A basic essential in the development and proper management of a

wild life sanctuary is a good staff. Regretfully I have found relatively

few such men in the sanctuaries that I have visited in India. More often

than not those administering wild life areas have not been able even to

identify many of the animals under their jurisdiction, let alone give

factual information concerning their natural history.

Forest Department personnel should be encouraged to learn about

wild life. Those who demonstrate a genuine interest in wild life should

be given further opportunities. to develop these interests. Wild life

management is a technical profession and proper training, as well as

interest and dedication, is needed by those entering this field. Openings

for personnel qualified to manage wild life resources should be made

available in the Forest Department and specifically in the State Wild

Life Organization. Such positions also should be given the status they

deserve and personnel who prepare themselves for such occupations

should be sufficiently reimbursed.

There are at least 11 villages within the Mudumalai Sanctuary : six

- in the Masinigudi area and five in the Mudumalai Block. - The estimated

inhabitants for these villages total approximately 10,000 people, of which

WILD LIFE SURVEYS IN SOUTH AND WEST INDIA 645

about 4000 live in the village of Masinigudi. Large numbers of people

near or within the confines of a sanctuary are not compatible to the

preservation of wild life. Although villagers may be law-abiding, their

presence in large numbers almost invariably results, either directly or

indirectly, to the detriment of wild life. These detrimental effects often

take the form of habitat destruction through agricultural use of the land

or overgrazing by domestic livestock.

There are over 500 acres of land devoted to agriculture ane over 2000

head of livestock grazed for very nominal fees in the Masinigudi area of

the sanctuary. Grazing fees are: adult cows, Re. 0.50/year ; adult

buffalo, Re. 1.00/year and sheep, Re. 0.25/year. Goats are prohibited.

Large numbers of both domestic livestock and wild ungulates, parti-

cularly chital, in this area have resulted in severe overgrazing. Measures

should be undertaken to reduce the numbers of both classes of grazing

animals and then to maintain their numbers in balance with the grazing

capacity of the area.

The rest of the sanctuary is relatively little disturbed by agricultural

practices or by domestic livestock grazing. Hopefully it will remain this

way. However, approximately 500 head of cattle per week pass through

the sanctuary travelling from Mysore to Kerala for slaughter. These

cause a disturbance, although measures have been taken to insure that

they remain on the main roads and do not enter the sanctuary’s forests.

The Forest Department also requires that all the animals be inoculated

to help prevent the spread of disease.

Poaching is not considered by the Forest Department to be a major

problem in Mudumalai. However, with nearby areas open to shooting,

both to the east and to the west, and with the number of vehicles that ply

the roads through the sanctuary at night, it appears that poaching may

be more of a problem than is realized. This was further suggested during

my visits to the Masinigudi area on the eastern end of the sanctuary.

Among the chital of that area, I observed a sex ratio of from four to

five adult females for every adult male, whereas in a sanctuary where the

animals are protected a sex ratio closer to 1 : | would normally be ex-

pected. Admittedly it is a mere conjecture on my part that poaching

may be a factor, but I think it does deserve further investigation.

Overall the facilities and services provided for visitors to Mudumalai

are excellent. The Forest Department and particularly the State Wild

Life Organization are to be commended. It is hoped that a few sug-

gestions, however, may help to make the Mudumalai Sanctuary even

more attractive for visitors. Because of the dense vegetation in many

parts of Mudumalai the viewing of wild animals and their photography

is difficult. Therefore, as previously suggested by Mr. E. P. Gee of the

Indian Board for Wild Life, I think the creation of ‘a few grassy areas or

maidans of, say, 200 or 300 yards in width, in suitable areas accessible to

646 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (3)

visitors, where wild life could be viewed in the open, as at Kanha in

Madhya Pradesh ’ should be considered.

I was informed both during my September 1965 and December 1966

visits to Mudumalai that the roads in the western part of the sanctuary

were impassable. Therefore, I still have not had the opportunity of

visiting much of the Benne Block or the northern part of the sanctuary.

If at all possible, these roads should be maintained so that visitors are

not restricted primarily to the main road or the roads in the somewhat

atypical Masinigudi area. Nevertheless, as in the Venu Gopal Wild

Life Park, it would be well to permit visitors on these roads only when

accompanied by a member of the sanctuary staff.

Some excellent pamphlets concerning wild life are already made avail-

able to visitors by the Forest Department. It is further suggested that

additional literature, namely, appropriate postcards, check-lists for

mammals and birds, books on Indian birds and animals, etc., also be

made available. These, as well as those presently distributed free of

charge, could be sold at nominal prices in the forest rest houses or at the

sanctuary headquarters in Kargudi. Standard books on mammals and

birds are available in the rest houses for the use of visitors. Wild life

picture postcards are under print.

A number of complaints concerning the inefficiency of the present

system for making reservations in Mudumalai were noted in the visitors’

book. Iwas also informed and personally witnessed in 1965 that visitors

without reservations may be turned away from an almost empty Forest

Rest House. This is because reservations are not made at the sanctuary,

as they should be, but in Ootacamund. The first notice that the staff

often has is when visitors arrive with their reservations. Thus, members

of the staff do not dare provide accommodations for visitors without

reservations for fear that those with reservations might arrive later and

be upset by the inconvenience that may result. There are daily bus and

mail services between Ootacamund and the sanctuary, as well as tele-

phone service. Therefore, there is no reason why bookings for reser- _

vations cannot be made more efficiently at the sanctuary’s headquarters —

and the D.F.O. in Ooty then notified, instead of the other way around. |

Other suggestions have been made in the main text of the Mudumalai |

section of this report. Some of the general suggestions given for the —

Vedanthangal Water-Bird Sanctuary (P. 653) also apply equally well to. |

Mudumalai. |

I. THE VEDANTHANGAL WATER-BIRD SANCTUARY __

INTRODUCTION a |

Nesting colonies of water-birds near villages in south India have been

protected by villagers since ancient times. Thus the preservation of such |

colonies has become a part of the traditional culture of many of the rural

WILD LIFE SURVEYS IN SOUTH AND WEST INDIA 647

people in this part of India. The nesting colony of water-birds near the

village of Vedanthangal in the north-western part of the Maduranthakam

Taluk of Chingleput District in Madras State is perhaps the most spec-

tacular of these colonies. It is perhaps also the oldest bird sanctuary in

south India. Although only officially recognized and maintained by

the Government as a sanctuary since 1936, Vedanthangal has been essen-

tially a sanctuary for water-birds for more than a century and a half.

Documentary evidence clearly indicates that the villagers of Vedanthangal

have actively safeguarded the colony at least since 1790.

The Vedanthangal Sanctuary is a prime example of wild life conser- |

vation by the local people through their understanding of some of the

true values of wild life. It further demonstrates that an enlightened

public will take the measures necessary to preserve and protect the natural

resources under their jurisdiction—if they but understand some of the

benefits to be derived by so doing.

HABITAT

Vedanthangal is 400 feet (122 metres) above sea-level and less than

30 miles inland from the Bay of Bengal. Rainfall averages approxi-

mately 45 inches (1143 mm.) per annum, most of which falls during the

north-east monsoon between September and December. The south-

west monsoon is only of minor importance. The hottest months are

April to June, when maximum temperatures often exceed 100° F.

(37°8° C.). The coolest months are December and January, when the

minimum and maximum average monthly temperatures are respec-

tively 65° F. (18°3° C.) and 80-85° F. (26°7-29°4° C.).

The countryside surrounding Vedanthangal is flat, comprised prim-

arily of rocky plains interspersed with scattered bushes and trees. There

are frequent low-ridged hillocks and tanks or small lakes dotting the

landscape. The latter are used for irrigation, although these low-lying

areas are subject to extensive flooding during the heavy rains of the

north-east monsoon.

The combination of agricultural lands and seasonal inundation in this

region generally provides a plentiful supply of food for the water-birds

of Vedanthangal. This undoubtedly is one of the primary reasons why

such large numbers of birds gather here during the breeding season.

Another important factor is that the approximately 74-acre Vedan-

thangal Tank, which comprises the sanctuary, is the only one in this

tegion that provides a compact grove of trees suitable for nesting. This

grove, which is more or less centrally located in the Vedanthangal Tank,

consists of about 500 Barringtonia acutangula trees. This species with-

Stands seasonal water-logging quite well. The trees form a compact

Srove with an almost contiguous canopy 15 to 20 feet high, which occu-

648 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

pies approximately half of the area of the tank and offers a suitable nest-

ing site for water-birds.

The Forest Department has been attempting to amemlent the numbet

of trees in the grove inside the tank. One thousand Barringtonia seed-

lings were planted in 1966. The tank is dry approximately four months.

each year. However, with the arrival of the monsoon some of the seed-

lings were soon inundated and eventually died.

A bund or dam along the western side of the sanctuary impounds

the water of the tank. A path bordered by trees and bushes runs along

the top of the bund. The dominant tree species here are : Siris (Albizzia

lebbeck), Babul (Acacia arabica), Alingi (Alangium lamarcii), and Palmyra

(Borassus flabellifer), which are interspersed with a thick undergrowth

of Cane (Calamus rotang). The water-birds do not inhabit the trees

along the bund, but these trees both help to protect the tank and provide

suitable habitat for other species of birds.

A cyclone, with winds exceeding 100 m.p.h., hit much of the eastern

part of Madras State on November 3, 1966. Although the Vedanthangal

bund luckily was not damaged, many of the trees along it were broken

or uprooted. Much of the path was still in a mess during my visit a

month later. About 70 tanks in the Maduranthakam Taluk in which

Vedanthangal is located were damaged by this cyclone. As a result,

many of these tanks did not contain water at the time of my visit. It was

feared that the lack of water in surrounding areas would adversely affect

the water-birds of Vedanthangal, as well as the 200 villages that ars

dependent upon these tanks for irrigation water.

The richness of the agricultural fields irrigated from the Vedanthangal —

Tank bear testimony to the manurial potency of the sanctuary’s waters.

The droppings of the birds nesting in the middle of the tank fall into the

water, most of which eventually reaches the farmers’ fields. The tank

water contains high fertilizing properties. Even the silt, which is scraped

up from the tank’s bottom by the villagers during the dry season, is highly

valued as a fertilizer for crops. The sanctuary’s birds also help to con-

trol many agricultural pests, such as insects. Therefore, not only is the

bird colony benefited by the protection afforded by the local villagers,

but the villagers are benefited in return. This demonstrates that man

and wild life may live together in harmony and that both may be

mutually benefited. i

Birds

Depending upon the onset of the north-east monsoon rains, water-

birds begin to arrive at Vedanthangal in late September or early October.

The birds continue to arrive up until November, during which time they

are commonly observed bringing sticks and other nesting materials to the

colony from surrounding areas. The arriving birds progressively colo-

J. BomBay NAT. Hist. Soc. 65 (3) Pre id

Spillett : Wild Life Surveys

Above: A solitary tusker; Below: A herd of elephants — Mudumalai Sanctuary.

(Photos : M.A. Badshah)

J. BompBay NAT. Hist. Soc. 65 (3) PLATE IV

Spillett : Wild Life Surveys

Above : Juvenile Openbilled Storks in nesting colony, Vedanthangal Sanctuary ;

Below: Flamingos at Point Calimere Sanctuary.

(Photos : M. A. Badshah)

WILD LIFE SURVEYS IN SOUTH AND WEST INDIA 649

nize the available trees surrounded by water in the approximately 74-acre

tank. The trunks of the trees nearest the bund, which is on the western

side of the sanctuary, are the first to be submerged and hence colonized.

Nesting, hatching and the feeding of young continue from the onset

of the breeding season until the young are fledged. The season usually

is over by April. The birds then depart and the tank dries up. Although

difficult to determine accurately, it has been estimated that at the height

of the breeding season there are generally between five and six thousand

water-birds in the sanctuary, including both adults and young.

No trees are colonized exclusively by a single species, although certain

species predominate in particular areas. For example, the majority of

the night herons appear to inhabit the southern corner of the colony, the

openbilled storks (Plate IV) and grey pelicans predominate in the tops

of many of the trees; egrets and spoonbills commonly are observed in

the lower branches near the water. However, for the most part the colony

presents a conglomeration or hodgepodge of whites, greys, and blacks.

The peripheral trees on the sides of the grove inside the tank are used

little for nesting, but serve as roosting trees.

According to M. Krishnan, night herons, little egrets, little cormorants

and shags are the most numerous species of water-birds nesting at

Vedanthangal. Openbilled storks, grey herons, spoonbills, cattle egrets,

white ibises, medium egrets and pond herons follow, more or less in that

order. Darters or snakebirds are present in lesser numbers and large

egrets and large cormorants are relatively rare. Only two or three

pairs. of large cormorants normally nest at Vedanthangal. M. A.

-Badshah also claims that spottedbilled or grey pelicans have been

observed to nest at Vedanthangal, and that fifty pairs of grey pelicans

nested during the 1966-67 season.

Besides the water-birds that regularly nest in the trees at Vedanthangal,

the dabchick or little grebe and the Indian moorhen also nest in the

vegetation surrounding the tank. Nesting water-birds, visiting water-

- birds and scavenger or predatory birds which may be observed at

Vedanthangal are listed in Table 3. In addition, numerous species,

mainly perching or passerine birds, inhabit the trees along the bund and

the vegetation surrounding the tank. A partial list of these includes :

golden oriole, blackheaded oriole, blue jay or roller, pied crested cuckoo,

goldenbacked woodpecker, Mahratta or yellowfronted pied woodpecker,

weaver birds, Indian pitta, several species of wagtails, Indian courser,

red-and yellow-wattled lapwings, hoopoe, Indian robin, king crow, bee-

eaters, baybacked shrike, koel, purple sunbird, crow-pheasant, white-

bellied drongo, crimsonbreasted barbet, several species of doves,

partridges, and so forth.

650 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

TABLE 3

BIRDS INHABITING THE VEDANTHANGAL WATER-BIRD SANCTUARY IN

MADURANTHAKAM TALUK OF CHINGLEPUT DISTRICT IN MADRAS STATE

English Tamil Scientific Remarks

NESTING WATER-BIRDS:

Little Cormorant Neer-Kaakkai Phalacrocorax niger abundant

Shag a a P. fuscicollis abundant

Large Cormorant 4 A P. carbo rare

Darter or Snakebird Paambu-thaara Anhinga rufa frequent

Little Egret Vellai-Kokku or Egretta garzetta abundant

Ven-Kokku

Medium Egret Fe *e E. intermedia common

Large Egret spapes E. alba rare

Cattle Egret Maatu-Kokku or Bubulcus ibis common

Unni-Kokku

Pond Heron or Paddy Madayaan or Ardeola grayii common

Bird Kuruttu-Kokku

Night Heron Vakka ; Nycticorax nycticorax abundant

Grey Heron Naarayana-patchi or Ardea cinerea common

Narayaan

Openbilled Stork Neghthat counts Anastomus oscitans - common

aaral

Spoonbill Mamptivaayan or Platalea leucorodia common

Manvetti-vaayan

White Ibis Arivaal-mookkan Threskiornis melano- common

cephalus

Indian Moorhen Kaanaankozhi Gallinula chloropus frequent

Dabchick or Little Grebe ———-————-—-——__ Poddiceps ruficollis —

VISITING WATER-BIRDS :

Spottedbilled or Grey Pelecanus philippensis frequent

Pelican

Painted Stork Ibis leucocephalus rare

Plovers Charadrius spp. common

Spotted Sandpiper Tringa glareola

Common Sandpiper T. hypoleucos —EEEe

Little Stint Calidris minutus frequent

Blackwinged Stilt Himantopus

himantopus common

Avocet Recurvirostra avosetta rare

Stone Curlew Burhinus oedicnemus rare

Curlew Numenius arquata infrequent

Purple Moorhen Porphyrio porphyrio = ——————

Whitebreasted Waterhen Amaurornis

Phoenicurus

Coot Fulica atra common

Common or Green Anas crecca common

winged Teal

See or Bluewinged A. querquedula common

Pintail A. acuta frequent

Shoveller A. clypeata frequent

Grey or Spotbill A. poecilorhyncha frequent

Comb Duck or Nukta Sarkidiornis melanotos frequent

SCAVENGERS OR PREDATORS :

House Crow | Corvus splendens abundant

Common Pariah Kite Milvus migrans common

Brahminy Kite ad - Haliastur indus common

White Scavenger Vulture Neophron percnopterus common

Short-toed Eagle Circaetus gallicus rare

Marsh Harrier Circus aeruginosus common

Kestrel Falco tinnunculus infrequent

Note.—Numerous species of perching or passerine birds, many of which nest at

Vedanthangal, also may be observed in ac vegetation and trees surrounding the

Vedanthangal Tank,

WILD LIFE SURVEYS IN SOUTH AND WEST INDIA 651

VISITOR FACILITIES

The Vedanthangal Water-Bird Sanctuary is located 51 miles south of

the city of Madras. The nearest airport is at Meenambakkam, near

Madras, and the nearest rail head is at Karunkuzhi on the Madras-

Villupuram main line, five miles east of the sanctuary. It should be

noted that only passenger trains, not mail trains, stop at Karunkuzhi.

However, both stop at Chingleput, which is 16 miles north of

Vedanthangal. Bus services are available from both locations to the

sanctuary, as well as to or from Madras. There are buses between

Madras and Chingleput every half hour and regular bus service from

Chingleput to the sanctuary and back every hour. On every Sunday

during the season a special tourist bus runs between Madras and

Vedanthangal. For those travelling by private vehicle from Madras,

the turn-off from the main road at the 43rd milestone (the Grand Southern

Trunk or GST Road) is well-marked by a large sign telling about the

sanctuary eight miles to the east. Nearby points of interest include the

archaeological finds at Mahabalipuram and the famous historic temple

at Tirukalikundram. ?

The season for observing the nesting water-birds at Vedanthangal is

_ dependent upon the commencement, extent and duration of the north-

east monsoon rains. Generally speaking, however, the season extends

from September-October through March-April, the best months being

November, December and January. The sanctuary is open to visitors

throughout the season free of charge. The only restrictions are that

visitors may not enter the tank or molest the birds. The best time to

Visit the sanctuary is from 4 o’clock in the afternoon onwards. Large

flights of birds return to the sanctuary shortly before sunset and the

Visitor on the bund then has the sun behind his back, which gives him a

clear view of the sanctuary’s activities. There is also a peak of activity

in the early morning, but the sun is then opposite the observer on

the bund.

The Collector of Chingleput officially recognized Vedanthangal as a

sanctuary and sanctioned the first government funds towards its main-

tenance in 1936. Although the Government has managed and pro-

tected the sanctuary since that time, it was not until 1960 that steps were

taken to develop this area for the enjoyment of the general public. Since

then a tar road leading to the sanctuary has been built and a parking

lot provided below the bund. Vehicles, including large buses, are

accommodated easily in the parking lot. Recently public rest rooms, an

observation platform and an observation tower have been constructed

along the bund on the western side of the sanctuary. Visitors may

observe the activities of the sanctuary’s birds from either the observation

platform or tower, as well as from the tree-lined path on top of the bund.

652. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

The U.S. Consul-General in Madras used his good offices in procuring

a telescope from the American Museum of Natural History, New York,

through the courtesy of Mr. and Mrs. Dyer, which has been permanently

mounted in the tower for the use of visitors.

A Forest Rest House also was recently constructed approximately

one-halfa milefromthesanctuary. The Forest Department provided both

the funds and the plans for this Rs. 1,11,000 building, which was built

by the Public Works Department. This rest house will provide four first

class double suites and a canteen for visitors and was scheduled to be

opened during the early part of 1967. The procedure for securing reser-

vations for these suites had not been decided upon at the time of my visit.

In addition, there is a Public Works Department Rest House at

Karunkuzhi, seven miles from the sanctuary. No catering arrange-

ments are provided, but reservations for this bungalow may be obtained

through the District Collector at Chingleput.

A Forester and a Watchman are stationed at Vedanthangal by the

Forest Department to assist visitors and to protect the sanctuary. The

Vedanthangal Tank also provides water for irrigation to the nearby

agricultural lands. ‘This water passes through two sluices along the bund

and two Government Watchers are charged with their supervision. It

is imperative that sufficient water remains in the tank during the nesting

season to protect the water-birds and their young. A recent notification

issued by the Government of Madras also prohibits the shooting of water- |

birds within a radius of 20 miles of the sanctuary from August | through

May 31 each year.

I was amazed by the number of visitors, particularly bus-loads of

students, during my visit to Vedanthangal on Sunday, December 4,

1966. As to be expected, most visitors come to the sanctuary on

week-ends. Nevertheless, the Forester stationed at Vedanthangal in-

formed me that there were over 5000 visitors the previous day, which

was Saturday, and prior to our departure that night he claimed that over

10,000 visitors were tallied that day ! This clearly demonstrates that

the general public is interested in wild life—if the basic facilities are

provided first so that wild life may be observed and enjoyed in relative

comfort and at nominal cost. It also provides a unique opportunity

to educate the public to the values of wild life and the dire need for

wild life conservation in India.

It is true that many of those visiting die sanctuary do not fully appre-

ciate what they see or are able to identify correctly more than

a few of the species of birds observed. But their presence indicates a

genuine interest in wild life and it behoves the Forest Department and

more specifically the Wild Life Organization to provide for their edu-

cation in wild life conservation. Therefore, the following general sugges-

tions are presented: (1) An illustrated board depicting the species of

WILD LIFE SURVEYS IN SOUTH AND WEST INDIA 653

water-birds commonly observed at Vedanthangal should be erected

near the bund. This would help visitors at least to identify many of the

birds which they see. (2) Booklets, pamphlets, and other information

concerning Vedanthangal, as well as other wild life sanctuaries in

Madras and in India, should be made available at minimal cost to

visitors. The booklet, «se vrepanrHaNcaL SANCTUARY FOR WATER-BIRDS by

M. Krishnan, which was published by the Madras State Forest Depart-

ment in 1960, and THE BOOK OF INDIAN BIRDS by Salim Ali, published

by the Bombay Natural History Society, are worthy of special note.

General information concerning Vedanthangal and other sanctuaries

also should be distributed through the Tourist Department. Efforts

should be made to conduct regularly scheduled tours of such areas under

the direction of well-qualified guides. Commercialism, however, should

be avoided in wild life areas. (3) Forest Department personnel stationed

in wild life sanctuaries should be very carefully chosen, as well as given

instruction in the basic principles of wild life conservation. For example,

the Forester and Watcher stationed at Vedanthangal should not only

have a genuine interest in wild life, but should be able to identify the

sanctuary’s plants and animals, describe their life histories and impor-

tance, and know the history of the area. In short, they should be able

to present or conduct meaningful lectures or tours of the sanctuary and

to answer correctly visitor’s questions. (4) Finally, accurate obser-

vations concerning the sanctuary and its wild life should be continuously

recorded. Changes in population densities of different species, numbers

of visitors to the sanctuary and so forth should be kept on record and

made available to the public. Scientific investigations oi wild lite by

qualified personnel also should be encouraged.

_ I. THE GUINDY DEER PARK

INTRODUCTION

Among the larger cities of India and perhaps of the world, Madras

iS unique in having an extensive natural park within its limits. This is

the Guindy Deer Park, which includes the Children’s Corner. The area

comprising Guindy was the private property of Gilbert Ricketts during

the early part of the 19th century. This property and his private. resi-

dence (Guindy Lodge), which is the present Raj Bhavan, were purchased

by the Madras Government after his death in 1817. The residence served

as a week-end resort and a country residence for the Governor of Madras

from 1825 until 1947. It then became the permanent residence for the

Governor. : fi

The late A. J. John, then Governor of Madras, offered to relinquish

the bulk of the 1262-acre estate. While approving of this offer, the

654 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

Prime Minister of India, the late Jawaharlal Nehru, expressed the hope

that the Government of Madras would preserve the park, improve it

and arrange for its use as a public park with a portion marked out as a

Children’s Corner. The governor retained 300 acres as a part of the

Raj Bhavan. Also, 407 acres were set aside for an Institute of Higher

Technology, which has since been established under the supervision of

the West German Government. The remaining 555 acres were set

apart as a Deer Park and came under the jurisdiction of the Forest

Department in March 1958.

Of the 555 acres supposedly devoted to the Deer Park, 76 acres are

occupied by the Kattankollai and Applankulam tanks, 14 acres by the

Children’s Corner and 10 acres by a riding school built by the Riding

Club of Madras. Five riding trails utilized by riding clubs occupy

between 30 and 40 acres. The Park’s nine miles of roads occupy appro-

ximately another 40 acres. And, 20 acres have been allotted for the

establishment of a Research and Demonstration Centre for the State

Silviculture Division.

Only 395 of the Park’s present 555 acres in actuality are devoted to a

true Deer Park as proposed in the Government Order Ms. No. 3911,

Food and Agriculture, dt. 29.11.58 and approved by Government Order

Ms. No. 387, Food and Agriculture, dt. 2.2.59. Additional proposals,

such as for the construction of a golf course inside Guindy Park, also

have been presented and are now pending.

Guindy Park has not only been desecrated and diverted from the

objectives for which it was originally intended and sanctioned by the

Government, but ever increasing pressures are being exerted upon the

Guindy Deer Park.

Children’s Corner

Fourteen acres in the north-eastern corner of the Guindy Deer Park,

adjoining the Gandhi Memorial, have been set apart and constituted as a

Children’s Corner. Work was begun in January 1959 and the Children’s

Corner was inaugurated on April 14 of the same year by the late

Jawaharlal Nehru. The Children’s Corner has a two-fold objective :

(1) It should serve as a recreational park and garden, and (2) it should

help young people to develop an abiding interest in wild life and nature

study. In the words of Jawaharlal Nehru, the aim of the Children’s

Corner is to help children and young folk to learn ‘ about this beautiful

world of ours, about flowers and trees and birds and animals and.

How easy it is to make friends with them and with everything in Native!

if you go to them affectionately and with friendship’.

In keeping with the objectives for the Children’s Corner, the trees

and shrubs in this area have been labelled with their common and scienti-

fic names. A platform has been constructed around the base of a large

WILD LIFE SURVEYS IN SOUTH AND WEST INDIA 655

banyan tree to serve as an open air theatre for programmes, particularly

for presentations during the annual Wild Life Week. A nature library

for children with books on animals, birds, insects, and so forth has been

established in the park. Although most of these books are in English,

jt is hoped that volumes in the children’s native tongue will soon be made

available. Four aviaries for birds and 13 enclosures for animals have

been constructed. A special effort has been made to keep species of

birds and animals which children may handle and with which they may

-become intimately acquainted. Free pony rides are given to children

on Saturday and Sunday evenings and elephant rides were inaugurated

in June of 1966. Ten camp sites also afford camping facilities for school

children and college students. Additional recreational facilities in the

Children’s Corner include : a midget train that runs on Saturday and

Sunday evenings, a playground with a merry-go-round, swings, bars,

see-saws, sand piles and so forth.

It is sincerely hoped that in the development of the Children’s Corner

the primary objectives in the establishment of this park will always

be borne in mind. India has perhaps a greater wealth in floral and faunal

species than any other nation in the world. A special effort should be

exerted to help the young people of this great nation to become acquainted

with, to appreciate, and above all to understand the value of their wild

life heritage. There is no need to introduce exotic plants or animals

from other countries into the Children’s Corner or Guindy Park.

African lions and zebras, South American llamas and monkeys,

and North American pumas and raccoons may be seen in almost any zoo

in the world. But many of the once abundant plants and animals in

India regretfully are becoming increasingly rare. Further, the endemic

flora and fauna of this region would not only present a varied and specta-

cular display, but also something unique and worthy of note throughout

the world.

An indication of the popularity of the Guindy Deer Park and the

Children’s Corner is presented by the number of visitors tallied by the

gatekeepers during the months prior to my visit. In July 1966 there

was a total of 28,330 visitors, 35,500 in August, 24,000 in September and

31,920 in October. This is a grand total of almost 1,20,000 during this

four-month period. Members of the State Wild Life Organization sta-

tioned at Guindy include a Ranger, two Foresters, a Forest Guard and

eight Watchers.

-Flora and Fauna

The Guindy Deer Park represents a thorny scrub jungle, typical for

much of the southern arid zone of India. Although modified to some

extent, the endemic flora of the Park has been remarkably well preserved

656 JOURNAL,. BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

for over a century and a half and represents one of the most natural areas

to be found in this part of Madras State.

There are more than 30 naturally occurring species of trees represented

in Guindy Park. Exotic tree and shrub plantings, however, have taken

place inside the Park during recent years. A 47-acre plot was recently

ploughed and planted with grass to provide fodder for deer. Although

it has been the intention in most cases to augment the food supply of the

native animals and to attract greater numbers of birds to the Park, I

am of the opinion that both the flora and fauna of the Guindy Deer Park

should be maintained in as natural a state as possible. Guindy is sup-

posedly a Park, not a farm nor an orchard. Therefore, in so far as

possible, it should be maintained in its natural state.

Originally the Park area was a waterless tract, but two bore wells atl

_a number of tanks have been recently constructed. Water troughs and

salt licks have been scattered throughout the Park to provide for the

animals within its confines. These encourage the animals to remain

inside the Park. Particularly during the dry season, animals are

prone to wander outside where they are extremely vulnerable.

One of the reasons for Guindy’s modification is the ever increasing

demand upon the Park for uses other than those for which it was

intended. For example, over 1500 people, mostly workers at the Raj

Bhavan, live within the Guindy Park. Members of the Raj Bhavan

staff are allowed to graze 52 head of cattle within the Park. They

are likewise permitted to collect dry fuel from the Park two days each

week. The Riding Club of Madras and the Madras Polo and Riders

Club are permitted to use the Park for riding horseback, over 100 horses

are allowed on Guindy’s roads and paths and a riding school was built

recently inside the Park. All of these activities modify both the floral

and faunal composition of the Guindy Deer Park, as well as distract

from its aesthetic values. You cannot have your cake and eat it too.

It must be decided once and for all—Is Guindy going to be maintained

as a TRUE Park, as was originally proposed and approved by Govern-

ment orders? Or, is Guindy gradually going to be diverted from its

original objectives and eventually become just another exploited area

and a park only in name ?

The Guindy Deer Park presently contains perhaps the largest. herd

of blackbuck. existing in the Indian Union. According to the July

. 1966 census, it was estimated that there are over 700 head of blackbuck

in the Park. This typically Indian animal is found in no other country

in the world and India was once renowned for the large herds of this

beautiful beast that roamed its plains from the Punjab in the north to

Cape Comorin in the south. Regretfully, however, these herds have

been decimated and in areas where herds of over a hundred were com-

‘mon less than a decade ago, it is now a rarity to see even a single animal,

WILD LIFE SURVEYS IN SOUTH AND WEST INDIA 657

In addition to blackbuck, it is estimated that there are approximately

1400 head of chital or spotted deer in the Guindy Deer Park. These

beautiful animals likewise are a typically Indian species. Less conspi-

cuous mammalian species include bonnet macaques, civet cats, common

mongoose, hares and various rodents. The bird life is both numerous

and varied. Peafowl and black partridge also have been introduced

recently into the Park.

Large predators have been excluded from the Guindy Deer Park.

Although dogs, which prey upon blackbuck and chital, occasionally

breach the approximately 8-foot-high fence surrounding the Park, there

are no natural checks to balance the numbers of ungulates in the Park

with their available food supply. As aresult, numbers of blackbuck and

chital have increased until the entire Park has been severely overgrazed.

The presence of domestic livestock and other disturbances also have

contributed to the lowering of the area’s carrying capacity. It is im-

perative that measures soon be taken to reduce and to maintain the

Park’s ungulate populations at a level compatible with the natural supply

of forage. This should be undertaken by the State Wild Life Organi-

zation and done in a scientific manner. Periodically numbers of animals

should be determined accurately, as well as the carrying capacity of the

area, and excess animals then systematically removed.

Twelve head of white blackbuck were introduced into the Guindy

Park in 1956. Only ten of these animals remain, however, I observed

a number of crosses between these and the naturally occurring blackbuck

in Guindy. Such animals are a curiosity and should be displayed in a

zoological garden, not in a natural park such as Guindy. An effort

should be made to remove these animals so that only native stock will

remain inside the.Park.

The Guindy Deer Park is confronted with a number of major pro-

blems, which must be overcome. Nevertheless, it is both a unique and

impressive area worthy of repute. The fact that this Park is located

within the confines of one of India’s largest cities, readily accessible to

literally millions of people, makes it even more noteworthy and impera-

tive that it be preserved for future generations. A noted journalist and

fellow countryman, Mr. Bill Ballantine, recorded in the Visitor’s Book

that the Guindy Deer Park is * Without doubt one of the most pleasant

animal parks of India, if not in the world’. May it so remain !

658 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi. 65 (3)

IV. OTHER WILD LIFE SANCTUARIES IN MADRAS STATE

THE POINT CALIMERE WILD LIFE SANCTUARY

It has been proposed that 4272 acres (6°7 sq. miles) in the Kodiakadu

Reserved Forest in the Thanjavur District be constituted as the Point

Calimere Wild Life Sanctuary. The major attraction of this area. is

the large concentrations of flamingos and other migratory water-birds,

which gather here primarily during the winter months. With the excep-

tion of the Great Rann of Kutch, nowhere in Asia may such large

numbers of flamingos be seen.

Roughly half of the proposed sanctuary would consist of tidal

swamps, ideal habitat for flamingos (Plate IV) and other water-birds.

This part of the proposed sanctuary is located in what is known as the

Great Swamp. Until 1963 the Great Swamp included over 73,000 acres

of relatively virgin swamplands. However, 34,000 acres were then set

apart for the extraction of salt and the manufacture of subsidiary

products. In order to protect this area and preserve the thousands of

birds that inhabit it, it is imperative that action be taken as soon as

possible to establish and maintain the remaining part of the Great Swamp

as an inviolate wild life sanctuary.

The rich and varied bird life in the proposed sanctuary includes

such species as: flamingo, whistling teal, shoveller, pintail, tufted

pochard, redcrested pochard, curlews, greenshank, redshank, ruff,

golden and grey plovers, godwit, blackwinged stilt, whimbrel, oyster-

catcher, avocet, brownheaded and blackheaded gulls, terns, and

so forth.

The best season to see migrant birds at Point Calimere is between

November and March. Reliable sources claim that it is not uncommon

to see more than 10,000 flamingos during this season, although only about

1000 reside here throughout the year. It is further estimated that as

many as 50,000 water fowl (ducks and geese) winter here, as well as

25-30,000 shore birds, such as plovers, stilts, and so forth. There are,

of course, also a good number of resident bird species, which may be

seen throughout the year. |

The other half of the proposed sanctuary would consist of a dense

dry-evergreen forest, which formerly was known as the Kodiakkarai

Deer Sanctuary. This is the only forest area in the District and, although

severely overgrazed by domestic livestock, the exploitation of other

forest produce has been halted since 1962. Vegetation consists mainly

of the following species : Mimusops hexandra, M. littoralis, M. elangi,

Memecylon edule, Salvadora persica, Maba buxifolia and so forth.

It is estimated by the Forest Department that the proposed sanc-

tuary presently contains over 1000 head each of blackbuck, chital or

WILD LIFE SURVEYS IN SOUTH AND WEST INDIA 659

spotted deer, and wild boar!. Other mammals include jackal, civet

cats, mongoose, various rodents, etc. There are, however, no large

predators.

Point Calimere is accessible by both train and bus. The nearest

airport is at Tiruchirappalli, approximately 105 miles west of the sanc-

tuary. There is also an airstrip that may be used by private or char-

tered plane at Thanjavur, 70 miles from the sanctuary. The Point

Calimere railway station is near a Forest Rest House. The Great Swamp

is to the west of the station and the Kodiakkarai Forest to the east. The

rest house provides two double suites and reservations may be obtained

from the State Wild Life Officer, c/o Chief Conservator of Forests,

Central Office Buildings, 81 Mount Road, Madras-6. Point Calimere

has been constituted as a Wild Life Sanctuary in Govt. Order

MS No. 1821 Agriculture, dated 13-6-1967. The State Wild Life Orga-

nization has stationed a Range Officer, two Foresters and a Forest Guard

here and the sanctuary has had approximately 1000 visitors per year

for the past three seasons.

Top Syip WILD LIFE SANCTUARY

A 27,457-acre (42°9 sq. ml.) area consisting of Top Slip, Grass Hills

and Attakatty in the South Division of the Coimbatore District, adjacent

to the Kerala border, has been approved by the Government of Madras

for a wild life sanctuary. Development of the sanctuary is pending

upon the completion of the Parambikulum Aliyar hydroelectric project,

which includes the blasting of rock tunnels in this area. A wild life

sanctuary already has been constituted in the adjoining portion of Kerala

State.

The nearest railway station is at Pollachi, about 30 miles north of

the sanctuary. The nearest airport is an additional 30 miles north of

Pollachi at Coimbatore. Two rest houses, one belonging to the Forest

Department and the other to the Public Works Department, are located

in the sanctuary. Both have two double suites and provide full faci-

lities. Reservations may be obtained from the District Forest Officer,

Coimbatore South Division, Pollachi, Coimbatore District.

The forests in this area vary from deciduous to semi-evergreen to ever-

green, depending primarily upon elevation. Evergreen forests are confined

primarily to the upper reaches of the Punachi Range, although there are

a few compact isolated patches in the Palakadavu, Ulandi and Mount

Stuart blocks of the Tunakadavu Range. Semi-evergreen forests adjoin

the evergreen portions and deciduous forests predominate on the lower

1 See also ‘ The Point Calimere Sanctuary, Madras State—May 1967’. J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 64; 512-523 (1968)—Eds.

660 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

Slopes. Mammals inhabiting the sanctuary include elephant, gaur,

sambar, chital, barking deer, mouse deer or Indian chevrotain, leopard,

dhole or Indian wild dog, wild boar, Nilgiri langur and common langur.

THE MANJAMPATTI VALLEY WILD LIFE SANCTUARY

The Government of Madras has approved a proposal for establish-

ing a wild life sanctuary in the Manjampatti, Kukkal and Kudiraiyar

areas of the Udumalpet Range in the south-west corner of the Coim-

batore District. This sanctuary will include approximately 16,836 acres

(26°3 sq. ml.) and was established primarily for the protection of the

‘ash-coloured ’ bison or gaur, whichis considered by some to be a lighter-

coloured race and a special feature of this area. Other large mammals

inhabiting the sanctuary are elephant, chital, sambar, four-horned

antelope, wild boar, sloth bear, tiger, panther and so forth. The sanc-

tuary is at present completely undeveloped. The area is inaccessible by

modern means of transportation and no facilities are available for visitors.

The Forest Department, however, proposes to construct a road into

the area as soon as possible.

Dry deciduous forests predominate along the base of the hills in the

Lower Punachi and Tunakadavu blocks in the Punachi Range (adjoin-

ing Sethumadai), but are confined to the upper reaches of the hills in

the Udumalpet Range. Intermingled with the forests are vast stretches

of grassland, encompassing numerous and compact patches of evergreen

trees. ‘ The forest is usually found in patches in the more sheltered sites

on rolling grassland, at the heads of streams, the folds of converging

slopes, in wrinkles, hollows, concave declivities and depressions.’

Thorn forests predominate in the eastern portion of the Pollachi

Range and over a large portion of the Udumalpet Range. These are

open and low forests between 20 and 30 feet in height in which thorny

species, such as Acacia, predominate. There isan ill-defined understorey

of smaller trees and large shrubs, which are mostly spiny and with other

xerophytic characters. There is little undergrowth and the soil mantle

is Shallow.

THE KODAIKANAL HILLS OR KUKKAL WILD LIFE SANCTUARY

The Government of Madras is also considering a proposal for the

establishment of a wild life sanctuary in the north-west corner of the

Madurai District. Included in the sanctuary will be parts of the Truttar

Valley in the Kodaikanal Range, the Velancombair and Kudiraiyar

valleys in the Palni Range, the Kombais in Bodinayakkanur, as well

as parts of the Thevaram, Ayyakudi, Kannivadi and Rettayampadi

Ex-Zamindari forests. .

WILD LIFE SURVEYS IN SOUTH AND WEST INDIA 661

The elevation of the proposed sanctuary varies between 2500 and

3000 feet. Forests consist primarily of a dry deciduous type, which

has been somewhat retarded by frequent fires and poor soil conditions.

A gallnut type of forest predominates on the upper slopes of the Palni

hills in the Kodaikanal Range. Mammals inhabiting the area include

elephant, gaur, sambar, chital, barking deer or muntjac, four-horned

antelope, wild boar, tiger, leopard, sloth bear, jackal, Nilgiri langur,

Malabar squirrel and flying squirrel.

There are no facilities for visitors to the sanctuary area at present.

Private vehicles must be utilized from Kodaikanal. Problems confront-

ing the proposed sanctuary include poaching, overgrazing by domestic

livestock and exploitation of forest produce. Most of the villagers in

this area have guns and restrictions on domestic livestock grazing are

non-existent. Such matters should be considered carefully and steps

taken at least to minimize their deleterious effects prior to the establish-

ment of a wild life sanctuary in this area.

THE MUTHUKUZHIVAYAL WILD LIFE SANCTUARY

The establishment of a wild life sanctuary along the southern border

of the Tirunelveli District in southern Madras was contemplated by

Government Order MS. No. 1211, Food and Agriculture, dt. 23-3-60.

At present, however, the establishment of this sanctuary has been de-

ferred, due to disturbances caused by the construction of a hydro-

electric project in this area.

An old palace (Muthukuzhi) was formerly used by the Dewan of

Travancore and members of the royal family as a health resort. The

palace is reached by a seven-mile bridle path from Balamore Estate.

The 29-mile road leading from Balamore Estate to Nagercoil passes

through the Virupuli Reserved Forest of the Azhagiapandiapuram Range

for a distance of 12 miles. Here there are steep slopes and deep valleys.

The region generally receives over 100 inches of rainfall between May

and November and the more gentle slopes in the area are utilized for

raising rubber, teak, and softwood plantations.

There are a number of swamps in the vicinity of Muthukuzhi. Vege-

tation up to the Balamore Estate is typically a dense moist deciduous

forest with a dense and impenetrable undergrowth of cane, thorny

creepers, reeds and thorny evergreen shrubs. The vegetation between

Balamore and Muthukuzhivayal, which is at an elevation of 4000 feet

above sea-level, consists of grasslands dotted with shola, reminiscent, of

the downs near Ootacamund. Large mammals inhabiting the area in-

clude elephant and gaur in appreciable numbers, sambar, chital, four-

horned antelope, wild boar, tiger, leopard, dhole or Indian wild dog and

fion-tailed macaque.

662 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

THE MUNDANDURAI WILD LIFE SANCTUARY

The Mundandurai Wild Life Sanctuary, also called the Mundan-

durai Tiger Sanctuary, consists of 1,39,094 acres (217 sq. ml.) in the

south-western part of the Tirunelveli District in southern Madras. The

nearest railway station is 10 miles from the sanctuary at Ambasamudram.

Bus service, frequent lorries or private vehicle may be taken from there

to the sanctuary. The nearest airport is at Madurai, a distance of about

130 miles. A Forest Rest House with two suites and all facilities pro-

vided is located in the sanctuary and overlooks the Thambaraparani River.

The Papanasam Reservoir and hydroelectric project and a number

of tribal settlements are located inside the sanctuary. The sanctuary’s

dry deciduous forests also are fully exploited for forest produce, such as

firewood and beedi leaf (used for rolling cigarettes). The areais reported

to be overgrazed by domestic livestock and subject to much disturbance,

although the interior parts of the sanctuary supposedly are relatively

little disturbed. The State Wild Life Organization has established a

number of salt licks and is attempting to develop some of the sanctuary’s

scenic sites, as well as construct roads into the interior areas.

The dry deciduous forests in this area are intermingled with nume-

rous thorny shrubs, as well as some bamboo in the more moist areas.

Animals consist of tiger, leopard, dhole or Indian wild dog, sloth bear,

sambar, chital, barking deer, mouse deer or Indian chevrotain, wild boar,

Nilgiri langur and lion-tailed macaque, as well as numerous birds.

V. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I wish to thank Mr. T. Jeyadev (Chief Conservator of Forests) and

the Forest Department of the State of Madras for their co-operation

and assistance during my visit to Madras between November 30 and

December 7, 1966. Special thanks go to Mr. M. A. Badshah (State

Wild Life Officer) and Mr. C. Pavithram (Acting State Wild Life Officer

during my visit) for their hospitality and assistance, as well as providing |

most of the information contained in this report. Range Officers K. R.

Srinivasan and C. S. Hemachandran kindly accompanied and assisted

me during my visit to the Mudumalai Wild Life Sanctuary. Particular.

thanks also goes to M. Krishnan and his wife for their hospitality during

my visit to their home. Mr. Krishnan has commendably presented the

cause of wild life conservation to the public. His factual and well- |

illustrated booklets ‘The Vedanthangal Sanctuary for Water-Birds ’, |

and ‘ The Mudumalai Wild Life Sanctuary ’ were of much assistance in |

compiling this report. |

The State Wild Life Organization for Madras is to be highly com-

mended for its active interest in the preservation of wild life and for its |

notable accomplishments thus far, both in developing and helping the |

public to become aware of some of the State’s outstanding wild life areas. |

sé

J. BOMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. 65 (3)

: ANDHRA PRADESH F

WILD LIFE MAP OF vad /

MADRAS STATE. ee

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beet A GUINDY PARK

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WILD LIFE SANCTUARY |SYMBOL| BEST,SEASON|

{ MUDUMALAI FEB.-MAY

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STATE BOUNDARY esacasso ese ivicrate ee

JAN.-SEPT.

STATE HIGHWAYS S227: POINT CALIMERE NOV.-MAR.

RAILWAY LINE KODIAKKARAI

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MUTHUKULIVAYAL

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FEB.-MAY

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Figure 8. General map or the wild life sanctuaries in Madras State.

lS II RS LITE LE SS NR SSE ASR SCRE RR SEE EA A SA NS SY ON AY EE A ee oT

RD ee IETS as UCTS YOM EEL NTE ROE

WILD LIFE SURVEYS IN SOUTH AND WEST INDIA

663

VI. REFERENCES

Aut, SALIM (1961): The book of

Indian birds. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.,

Bombay. 158 pp.

ANonyMous-) (1959): Guindy Deer

Park and Children’s Corner. 6 pp.

Madras Forest Department.

———— (1965): Wild life sanc-

tuaries in India. Department of

Tourism. Government of India. New

Delhi. 84 pp.

BADSHAH, M. A. (1962) : Checklist of

birds of Madras State. (mimeo) 21 pp.

———-— (1963): Some large reptiles

of Madras State.

Dept., 15 pp.

Madras State Forest

(1966): Proposed — sanc-

tuaries in Madras _ State.(typewritten)

4 pp

(1966) : Note regarding for-

mation of Guindy Park Reserved Forest

ROAD: METALLED

UNMETALLED.

CART TRACK

FOREST REST HOUSE

“i Fa

ry 2

\* ABHAYARANYAM

and Children’s Corner, Guindy. (mimeo)

7 pp

(1966): Water-Birds Sanc-

tuary at Vedanthangal, short description.

(mimeo) 2 pp.

————— (1966): Mudumalai Wild-

life Sanctuary. (mimeo) 7 pp.

GEE, E. P. (1956) : The management of

India’s wild life sanctuaries and national

parks. Part III. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 54 (2): 453-466.

KRISHNAN, M. (1959): The Mudu-

malai Wild Life Sanctuary. Madras

State Forest Dept. 31 pp.

——— (1960): The Vedanthangal

Sanctuary for Water-birds. Madras

State Forest Dept. 25 pp.

PRATER, S. H. (1965) : Book of Indian

animals, 2nd ed., Bombay Natural

History Society. :

MULUUMALA] WILD LIFE SANCTUARY

0 9 WES 4

scaLe: | { }

& =

mova, po aee * POWER

bo HOUSE

SRrenork

GURUVEY GAUNDAN oon, ay

MOYAR RF.) sae”

yee

’

AVARAHALLA RB.F.

Figure 9, General map of the Mudumalai Wild Life Sanctuary in

Madras State.

(Concluded)

Two new species of /seilema Anderss.

from India

Murty R. UPPULURI AND U. SATYAVATHI

Department of Botany, Andhra University, Waltair, India

(With a plate)

Two new species of Jseilema Anderss. are described. A key to the

species of Jseilema found in the Indian subcontinent and Burma is given,

followed by an enumeration of the species.

INTRODUCTION

The genus Iseilema was established by Andersson in Nov. Act. Soc.

Sci. Uppsala, ser. 3, 2:250, 1856, and separated from Anthistiria (Themeda

Forssk.) to which it bears a superficial resemblance in the unit of the

inflorescence. The unit of the inflorescence in both these genera is

characterised by the fact that the fertile spikelet or spikelets are sur- —

rounded by an involucre of four homogamous spikelets. Within the

involucre are found in Jsei/lema a solitary stipitate female or herma-

phrodit espikelet with two developed male or vestigial spikelets, seated on

pedicels. In Themeda the hermaphrodite spikelets may be 1-3 in num-

ber ; when more than one, each of the lower is accompanied by a male |

pedicelled spikelet, while the terminal has two pedicelled male or sterile

spikelets. A far more fundamental difference is the method of dis-—

persal of the fruits. In Themeda the inner false raceme breaks up leav-

ing the involucral spikelets intact and each female or hermaphrodite

spikelet is furnished with a sharp callus which is covered with stiff re-

trorse hairs : obviously adapted to carriage by the fur of animals or the

clothes of humans. Anyone who has experience of grass jungle will .

testify to the plague Themeda fruits can be—they can work their way

through clothing and even puncture the skin. In Jsei/lema on the other

hand, the pedicelled spikelets may fall from their pedicels but the rest of —

the complex falls entire, the point of abscission being below the fused

pedicels of the involucral spikelets. This obviously is adapted to dis-

persal by wind though there is a slight possibility that the awns may

become entangled in the fur of animals. The genus Jsei/ema is further

distinguished by the peculiar shape of the hermaphrodite or female

melee

_ J. Bomsay NAT. Hist. Soc. 65 (3)

Murty : New species of Iseilema

Figs. 1-8. Iseilema hubbardii sp. nov.; 9-18. Iseilema

venkateswarlui sp. nov.

1. A raceme showing the involucral and inner spikelets; 2. Central and the

two rudimentary inner pedicelled spikelets; 3 & 4. Glumes of the involucral spike-

lets; 5,6,7 &8. Glumes of the central spikelets; 9. A raceme showing the in-

volucral and inner spikelets; 10. Central and the two inner pedicelled spikelets ;

{1 & 12. Glumes of the involucral spikelets ; 13 & 14. Glumes of the inner pedi-

celled spikelet ; 15, 16, 17 & 18. Glumes of the central spikelets.

TWO NEW SPECIES OF ISEILEMA 665

spikelet, the tip of which is drawn out into a tail. In addition this spike-

let is seated upon a stipe which is fused to the bases of the pedicels of the

pedicelled spikelets. 3

The units of the inflorescence in Jseilema are seated on a short peduncle

enclosed in a firmly compressed, spathe-like sheath with a reduced blade

or without a blade. The whole of this structure, spathe and raceme,

often breaks off at the node and this may be an additional adaptation to

dispersal by wind. Sometimes the margins of the sheath are decorated

by tubercle-based stiff hairs which might ensure that the structure became

attached to the fur of a passing animal.

The number of species in the genus Iseilema is twenty-five, not in-

cluding the two species described as new in this paper, of which all except

two are annuals, often prostrate at the base and sending up flowering

shoots from the rooting nodes. The two perennial species are

I. thorelii A. Camus and I. holei Haines. The former has been collected

in Siam and the latter in the State of Bihar. These two species are ex-

tremely similar in appearance and may eventually have to be merged,

when the former name will have priority. It may be mentioned here,

that there is only one gathering of J. holei at Kew, although it is said

to be common in the forests of Palamau in Bihar. |

Of the twenty-five species so far described, fourteen are native to

Australia, six to India, two to Siam, two to the Sunda Isles and one to

Cambodia. Unless I. holei and J. thorelii are the same species, not a

single species of one area is found in any other (Bor, personal communi-

cation).

Two new species for India have recently been found and _ their

descriptions are as follows.

Iseilema hubbardii Murty, sp. nov.

I, anthephoroidi Hack. affinis sed ab ea spiculis involucralibus pedi-

cellisque longioribus, spiculis pedicellatis ad squamas vestigiales redac-

tis satis distincta. |

Gramen annuum. Culmi primo basi prostrati nodis radicantes,

demum erecti, 25-40 cm. alti, leves glabrique, teretes, pallidi vel pur-

purascentes, foliosi. Foliorum laminae planae, lineari-acutae, usque

15 cm. longae, 3-4 mm. latae, plurinerves, glabrae, sed marginibus basin

versus pilis e tuberculis ortis sparse instructae ; culmorum vaginae plus

minusve compressae, striatae, leves glabraeque, superiores cymbiformes,

dilatatae, laminis brevibus instructae ; ligulae membranaceae, denti-

culatae. Spiculae involucrales ¢, 7-9 mm. longae, 1°5 mm. latae, lan-

-ceolato-oblongae parum acuminatae; pedicelli 1:25-1:5 mm. longi,

infra spiculas 1 mm. lati, marginibus ciliati; stamina 3; antherae

_ 3-3°5 mm. longae ; gluma inferior spiculae aequilonga, 7 nervis, dorso

666 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

plana, vel inter nervos depressa, marginibus inflexis ciliata ; gluma supe-

rior navicularis, 3-nervis, hyalina; lemmata paleaeque plerumque

desunt, si adsunt hyalinae. Spicula centralis stipitata ; stipa 1 mm.

longa, apice pilis usque 3 mm. longis instructa; gluma inferior elliptico-

caudata ; pars elliptica 3 mm. longa, leviter carinata, marginibus cari-

naque ciliatis ; pars superior angusta 4 mm. longa, conspicue viridi-

nervata; gluma superior similis sed brevior; anthoecia ad basin hyali-

nam 4 mm. longam aristae redacta ; palea hyalina 4 mm. longa ; arista

c. 18 mm. longa ; columna torta castanea, 7-9 mm. longa. Spiculae

pedicellatee ; pedicelli graciles, flexuosi; spiculae ad squamas minutas

redactae.

Iseilema hubbardii Murty, sp. nov.

Allied to I. anthephoroides Hack., but differs in the length of the

involucral spikelets and their pedicels and in the extreme reduction of

the inner pedicelled spikelets to rudimentary scales.

Prostrate annual herb, rooting at the nodes, 25-40 cm. tall. Stem

round, and purple or white. Involucral spikelets 7-9 mm. long x 1°5 mm.

wide, lanceolate-oblong, somewhat acuminate ; pedicels 1°25-1°5 mm.

wide below the spikelet, ciliate on the margins. Stamens 3, anthers

3mm. long. Central spikelet stipitate, 7-8 mm. long of which 3°5 mm.

form the beak ; stipe 1 mm. long, pilose at the tip ; lower glume ellip-

tic-oblong in the lower half, ridged on the dorsal surface, rounded on

the margins, appressed hairy towards the base of the beak, pilose on the

margin, 7-nerved ; upper glume similar in shape, 3-nerved ; both nar-

rowed into the beak ; lower floret absent ; upper floret female ; lemma

4 mm. long, very narrow, produced into a perfect awn, palea a hyaline

scale,.4 mm. long. Grain elliptic in outline, dorsally compressed,

embryo ? the length of the grain. Awn 18 mm. long, column twisted,

chestnut, 9 mm. long, bristle straight, scabrid. Pedicelled spikelets

consist of reduced scales seated on-very slender pedicels. (Figs. 1-8).

Holotype collected in the University campus of Ujjain, Madhya

Pradesh, India by Murty on 22 November, 1966 under the field number

IAU 3 and deposited in the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, England.

Two isotypes bearing the same number are also deposited at Kew.

The specific epithet is given in honour of Dr. C.E. Hubbard, ex-Deputy 3

Director, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, for his unique contribution to

the systematics of the Gramineae as also in this particular genus.

Iseilema venkateswarlui Satyavathi, sp. nov.

Cum I. anthephoroide I. hubbardiique comparanda sed a primo spicula

stipitata glumis involucralibus breviore, ab. altero spiculis pedicellatis

evolutis instructa, distinguitur, ! 3 .

TWO NEW SPECIES OF ISEILEMA 667

Gramen annuum. Culmi basi decumbentes, nodis radicantes, demum

erecti, usque 40 cm. alti, teretes, virides vel purpurascentes, leves glab-

rique. Foliorum laminae lineares, acutae, usque 12 cm. longae,

2-3 mm. latae, planae, marginibus scaberrimae, basin versus pilis e

tuberculis ortis sparse instructae, utrinque glabrae ; vaginae striatae,

plus minusve carinatae ; ligulae membranaceae, brevissimae, fimbriatae.

- Spiculae involucrales 3, 5°5-7°5 mm. longae, 1°25-1°5 mm. latae, basi

umbonatae, marginibus inflexis longe ciliatis ; pedicelli 1-1°25 mm.

longi, 1°25 mm. lati, marginibus ciliati ; gluma inferior oblongo-acuta,

viridi nervata dorso plana, apice viridinervata ; gluma superior brevior,

3-nervis, hyalina ; lemmata paleaeque ut videtur desunt ; stamina 3 ;

antherae 3 mm. longae. Spicula centralis stipitata, foeminea, elliptico-

caudata, stipa brevissima inclusa vix 5 mm. longa; pars elliptica 3 mm.

longa ; gluma inferior spiculae ambitu similis, membranacea, marginibus

inflexis, marginibus ciliata; gluma superior brevior, 3-nervis. An-

thoecia singula ; lemma 2-3 mm. longum, angustum, ad basin aristae

redactum ; palea hyalina, parva: arista 18 mm. longa ; columna torta,

9mm. longa, castanea. Spiculae pedicellatae ; pedicelli ciliati, 4-4°5 mm.

longi; spiculae 5°5 mm. longae, masculinae, glumae anguste elliptico-

lanceolatae, pleurumquejvacuae.

Iseilema venkateswarlui Satyavathi, sp. nov.

Related to J. anthephoroides and I. hubbardii, but differs in the rela-

tive lengths of the involucral spikelets and the central hermaphrodite

spikelet.

Prostrate annual herb, rooting at the nodes, 30-40 cm. tall. Stem

round and purple or white. Involucral spikelets 6°5-7°5 mm. long x 1°25-

1:5 mm. wide, oblong-acute, markedly umbonate at the base ; pedicels

1:25 mm. long, 1-1:25 mm. wide at the apex, densely ciliate on the outer

margins ; stamens 3, 3 mm. long. Central spikelet almost sessile,

5°5 mm. long of which 3°5 mm. are elliptic and the remainder beak ; in

some racemes beak longer than lower elliptic portion ; lower and upper

glumes similar in nervation and indumentum to those of I. hubbardii ;

lower floret empty ; upper floret female ; lemma and palea similar to

those in J. hubbardii. Pedicelled spikelets present, glumes 5°5 mm.

long ; anthers present, pedicels 4-4°5 mm. long (Figs. 9-18).

Holotype collected at Lam Farm, Guntur, Andhra Pradesh, India,

by Satyavathi on 26 September, 1966, and deposited at the Royal Botanic

Gardens, Kew, under the field number IAG 4. Two isotypes bearing

the same number are also deposited at Kew.

- The species is named after Professor J. Venkateswarlu under whose

supervision this work was carried out, | :

668 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 65 (3)

KEY TO THE INDIAN AND BURMESE SPECIES

A stout perennial with culms up to 120 cm. tall; leaf-blades up

to 45 cm. long ; ultimate spatheoles markedly glandular on

the keels... bei es ay .. J. holei

Annuals with much shorter culms and leaf-blades ; ultimate

spatheoles glandular or not:

Leaf-blades obtuse-apiculate at the tips, spinulose-scabrid

on the margins towards the tips An .. I. argutum

Leaf-blades linear-acute or linear-acuminate not spinu-

lose-scabrid on the margins towards the tips :

Pedicelled spikelets absent altogether or much re-

duced Ke - .. I. hubbardii

Pedicelled spikelets present :

Stipitate spikelets shorter than and hidden by

the involucral spikelets es .. I. venkateswarlui

Stipitate spikelets projecting beyond the tips of

the involucral spikelets :

Glandular tubercles present on the keels of the

spatheoles and often on the nerves of the

lower glumes of the involucral spikelets .. J. prostratum

Glandular tubercles not present on the keels of

the spatheoles or only very rarely and then

pedicels of the involucral spikelets as broad

as long :

Pedicels of the involucral spikelets slender,

longer than broad at .. I. laxum

Pedicels of the involucral spikelets almost

as broad as long .. I. anthephoroides

ENUMERATION OF THE INDIAN AND BURMESE SPECIES

1. Iseilema holei in Haines Bot. Bihar and Orissa 1055, 1924. Dis-

tribution: Bihar.

2. Iseilema argutum Anderss. in Nov. Act. Soe Sci. Upsal. Ser. 3,

2: 252, 1856. Anthistiria arguta Nees ex Steud. Syn. Pl. Glum. 1 : 401,

1855. Distribution: Burma.

3. Iseilema hubbardii Murty. Distribution: Ujjain, addins Pradesh.

' 4, Iseilema venkateswarlui Satyavathi. Distribution : Andhra Pradesh.

5. Iseilema prostratum (Linn.) Anderss. in Nov. Act. Soc. Sci.

Upsal. Ser. 3, 2:251, 1856. Andropogon prostratus Linn. Mant. 2:304,

1771. Cymbopogon glandulosus Spreng. Pug. 2:14, 1815. Anthistiria

prostrata (Linn.) Willd. Sp. Pl. 4: 901, 1806. A. wightii Nees ex Steud-

Syn. Pl. Glum. 1 : 400, 1855. Iseilema wightii Anderss. in Nov. Act,

TWO NEW SPECIES OF ISEILEMA 669

Soc. Sci. Upsal. Ser. 3, 2:251, 1856. Distribution : Throughout India,

Burma.

6. Iseilema laxum Hack. in DC. Monogr. Phan. 6 : 682, 1889. Dis-

tribution : South India and Ceylon.

7. Iseilema anthephoroides Hack. in DC. Monogr. Phan. 6: 683, 1889.

Distribution : ' South India, Maharashtra.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We express our sincere thanks to Professor J. Venkateswarlu for

guidance and for providing facilities. We are deeply indebted to

Dr. N. L. Bor of Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, for his generous help in

the preparation and revision of the manuscript, for the Latin diagnosis

and for his keen interest and constant encouragement. Our thanks are

also due to the Director, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew for identifica-

tions and to the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, New

Delhi for financial assistance.

Some Wild-shot duck hybrids

from the Indian Subcontinent

—

JAMES HARRISON AND JEFFERY HARRISON

(With four plates)

At the request of Mr. Humayun Abdulali, who is working on the

collection of bird skins belonging to the Bombay Natural History Society,

we have been asked to report on five duck hybrids.

Three of these had been identified respectively as Falcated Duck x

Wigeon ; Mallard x Shoveller and Mallard x Pintail. We are in full

agreement with these identifications. The two other hybrids had been

identified originally by the late Mr. E. C. Stuart-Baker as Falcated Duck

x Shoveller, but there is a note to the effect that he had been unable to

account for the plumage features of the wings. In our opinion these two

specimens are in fact hybrids between the Baikal Teal and the Shoveller.

Hybrids involving the Baikal Teal have only been recorded once.

This was with an American Green-winged Teal Anas crecca carolinensis

in captivity conditions (Sibley 1938). These two specimens are there-

fore of exceptional interest. One further hybrid, now in the British

Museum (Natural History) collection had been recorded as a hybrid

between the European Green-winged Teal, Anas crecca crecca, and the

Baikal Teal (J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 40 : 334), but after examining this —

specimen, we consider it to be a Teal x Pintail, Anas acuta.

Our findings on all these specimens are as follows :—

Shoveller Anas clypeata x Baikal Teal Anas formosa. (Plates J, IJ and IIT)

No. 15479, Bombay Natural History Society.

27th January, 1900 ; Calcutta Market. 3 by plumage.

No. 15474, Bombay Natural History Society.

18th March, 1915. Manipur, Assam. 3 by plumage.

Both these specimens present features of considerable interest. On

plumage characters they are presumptive males, although neither had

been anatomically sexed. Both are broadly of the same type.

The character which immediately strikes one and about which there

can be no doubt is that on one side the parentage must be Shoveller, in

view of the pronounced Shoveller-like bill, and it is certainly safe to

assume the Northern Shoveller, Anas clypeata,

J. BomBay NAT. Hist. Soc. 65 (3) PLATE I

Harrison : Hybrid Ducks

Shoveller (Anas clypeata) * Baikal Teal (Anas formosa).

(Photo: Pamela Harrison)

J. BomBay NAT. Hist. Soc. 65 (3) Prare 4g

Harrison : Hybrid Ducks

Shoveller (Anas clypeata) x Baikal Teal (Anas formosa).

(Photo : Pamela Harrison)

, WILD-SHOT DUCK HYBRIDS FROM INDIA 671

The parentage on the other side of the cross is not so evident and

raises speculative issues, but we believe it was a Baikal Teal and not a

Falcated Duck, as was thought by E. C. Stuart-Baker.

Description.

Head and neck : Both specimens present a curious facial pattern, which

is quite foreign to the normal morphology of the Shoveller. In place of

the glossy-green head of the drake Shoveller, both birds have acquired

whitish-cream side panels, extending from the lores, cheeks, sides of

face and gular areas, down the front of the neck, which is divided from

the breast by a glossy-green collar. There is a tendency for the white

to extend upwards as a crescent in front of the eye, which is most marked

in No. 15474.

This area deserves close scrutiny. In the adult drake Baikal Teal,

the same cream-coloured side panel is present, extending from the lores

to the root of the neck. The gular region, however, is black and this

extends halfway down the neck. The cheeks are divided by an oblique

black line running from the eye slightly backwards to the black of the

throat. The cream panel is thus divided into an anterior and posterior

part producing a striking ‘ bridled ’ effect.

If we examine these two hybrids closely, minimal traces of these

characters can be seen, showing as small black flecking on the chin and

in the gular region and, more significantly, as traces of the ‘ bridled ’

pattern.

The crowns are bronze-coloured and the nape and back of the neck

a metallic-green, which extends round the front of the lower neck as

a narrow ring, as already mentioned.

Under-parts : There is a basic departure from both parent species in the

characters of the breast, which is a rich chestnut, heavily barred with

dark sepia. In No. 15479 this pattern extends onto the upper flanks.

This type of plumage is rather similar to that of the drake Australian

Shoveller A. rhynchotis rhynchotis. The flanks are pale chestnut, finely

vermiculated with dark grey, and are therefore intermediate between

the parent species. The lower breast and belly are creamy-white and

the lower belly vermiculated with pale grey barring. The undertail

coverts are black with a trace of white at the base of the tail.

Upper-parts: The mantle is brownish with coarse transverse sepia vermi-

culations. The rump is dark sepia and the uppertail coverts. black

with metallic green reflections. The tail feathers are pale brown with

whitish margins, the central pair being darker.

Wing : The wing coverts are modified between the two parent species.

The lesser and medium coverts are greyish-blue, while the greater coverts

are broadly edged with bright chestnut, a characteristic of the drake

672 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

Baikal Teal. The speculum is green. The tertials show bluish-grey

outer webs derived from the Shoveller, but the scapulars, particularly in

No. 15474 show pale brownish margins, clearly derived from the Baikal

Teal. The primaries are sepia.

The beak was obviously black in life and the legs, feet and webs

orange, as in the Shoveller.

Measurements in mm. ¢

No. 15479 No. 15474

Wing (chord) Ry Ss a 254 252

Bill-length 63 * Mis 6 32°5 55

» greatest width a ae a 20 2?

Tarsus ie Re oe ce 373 37

Tail ee es ie wi 81 et

Discussion: We have described elsewhere certain hybrids involving

the Shoveller, Wigeon, Pintail and European Green-winged Teal, in which

striking facial patterns have been produced. In their basic characters

these are closely similar to the present two hybrids, although they are

clearly quite different in many other respects. (Harrison: 1963, 1964,

1966.) :

We believe these to be expressions of reversionary evolutionary

trends, providing evidence of phylogenetic relationships. In these cases

we have postulated that the Baikal Teal could well be one of the most

ancestral of the duck species and it is of much interest to note in a hybrid

involving this species, the same basic facial pattern is dominant.

The overlap areas in the breeding ranges of the two parent species

lie in extreme eastern Siberia surrounding the Sea of Okhotsk. The

Shoveller is a common winter visitor to the Indian subcontinent, whereas

the Baikal Teal is rare.

Falcated Duck Anas falcata x Wigeon Anas penelope (Plate IV)

No. 22244, Bombay Natural History Society.

No date. Imphal, Manipur. Shot by Captain W. R. P. Williams ¢ ad.

by plumage.

This bird was identified on the original label as a hybrid involving

these two species by Salim Ali, an identification with which we. are in

full agreement.

The specimen is an excellent example of a true intermediate between

the two parent species. In general, the head and neck pattern is largely

derived from the Falcated Duck, whereas the remainder of the bird is

largely Wigeon.

Description.

Head and neck : The chin and throat are white ; the crown and cheeks

are rich chestnut, merging to a bright metallic green behind the eyes,

J. BomBay nat. Hist. Soc. 65 (3) PLaTE III

Harrison : Hybrid Ducks

Shoveller (Anas clypeata) x Baikal Teal (Anas formosa).

(Photo : Pamela Harrison)

J. Bompay nat. Hist. Soc. 65 (3) PLATE IV

Harrison : Hybrid Ducks

Falcated Duck (Anas falcata) x Wigeon (Anas penelope).

(Photo : Pamela Harrison)

WILD-SHOT DUCK HYBRIDS FROM INDIA 673

which joins behind the crown and extends to the upper neck. The

feathers of the nape are full, but there is no such ‘ crest’ as in the Fal-

cated Duck. The whole of the lower neck is a dull blackish-green.

The white spot on the forehead, immediately adjoining the upper man-

dible of the Falcated Duck, is represented by a pale chestnut one in the

hybrid.

Under-parts : The breast is vineous, the lower breast and belly white and

the flanks finely vermiculated in white and grey, the under-tail coverts

black, bordered with white anteriorly, all of which is virtually identical

to a drake Wigeon.

Upper-parts : The whole of the upper-parts are vermiculated with grey

and white with a pale brown wash, the vermiculations being coarsest

at the base of the neck and becoming progressively finer towards the

central upper-tail coverts. The lateral coverts are black. The tail,

which is pointed, is pale sepia, the four central feathers being rather

darker. Only one feature is obviously derived from the Falcated Duck

and that is the small black lateral margins to some of the scapulars.

Wing : This is also intermediate in character between the parent species.

The wing coverts are predominantly white, merging to grey, the white

being rather less extensive than in a drake Wigeon. The speculum is

black with metallic green reflections. The primaries are sepia, paler

on the inner webs. The narrow tertials are much more elongated than

those of a Wigeon, reaching to within an inch of the tips of the primaries,

and are slightly down-curved, but not so sickle-shaped as in the drake

Falcated Duck. The outer webs are black, bordered strongly with

white and the inner webs sepia.

The beak is also intermediate in size and shape between the parent

species.

Measurements inmm :

Wing (chord) ae 268

Bill-length np 41°5

», greatest width Ay 16

Tarsus avs 38

Tail be 78

Discussion : :

This is the first record of a wild-bred hybrid between these two

species, which we have been able to trace.

Like the two Shoveller x Baikal Teal hybrids, the overlap areas in

the breeding ranges of these two parent species would appear to lie in

extreme eastern Siberia surrounding the Sea of Okhotsk. Whereas the

Wigeon is a common winter visitor to the whole Indian subcontinent,

the Falcated Duck is a most unusual straggler. It is probable there-

674. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

fore that this hybrid had covered somewhere in the-region of 4,000 miles

to reach Manipur.

Mallard Anas platyrhynchos < Shoyeller Anas clypeata

No. 15473 : 31—xii—1912. Bombay Natural History Society.

December 1911, Srinagar, Kashmir.

This bird was shot during a cold spell and was originally in the

collection of M. J. Kennard. Unfortunately it is now rapidly disinte-

grating.

This specimen was not sexed, but is a male in full plumage. It is

an intermediate type of hybrid, with Shoveller features tending to pre-

dominate.

Desictiption.

Head and neck : The beak is predominantly Shoveller in shape, but slightly

broader at the base and less broad at the tip. The lamellae at the sides

of the upper mandible are present, but are less well developed than in

the Shoveller. Looking at the specimen, it is obvious that the majority

of the beak was black in life, but there is a paler band around the tip,

which was probably greenish-yellow in life. The nail was dark.

The head and neck are a uniform blackish colour, with bright metallic

blue-green reflections. These are now separated from the body, but it

seems certain from the remaining feathers in this BION that there was a

narrow white neck ring, as in a drake Mallard.

Under-parts: There is a chestnut breastshield as ina drake Mallard, and

this is extended downwards centrally to the mid-point of the belly. The

rest of the under-parts are pale grey, finely vermiculated with sepia, while

there is a chestnut suffusion over the front half of the flanks. The chest-

nut colour on the belly and flanks is clearly derived from Shoveller. The

upper and undertail coverts are black and in front of the undertail coverts

on the side there is a whitish patch. The tail itself is unfortunately

missing.

Upper-parts : The whole of the upper-parts are sepia, becoming progres-

sively darker over the rump, which merges with the black uppertail

coverts. The feathers between the shoulders have narrow buff edges.

Wing : The whole of the shoulder is a dull bluish-grey, the tips of the

greater wing-coverts forming a broad white bar along the inner margin

of the speculum. This is predominantly green, with only a trace of blue

reflection at certain angles. There is a narrow white outer margin. The

tertials are sepia, the outer vanes being dark on the upper half, merging

to bluish-grey along the lower half and tips. The long scapulars area

uniform dark sepia, with a narrow bluish-white central line along the

lower half of the shafts. awe

WILD-SHOT DUCK HYBRIDS FROM INDIA 675

The wing pattern therefore is predominantly Shoveller, only made

rather duller through Mallard influence. The legs and feet were obviously

orange in life.

Measurements inmm. :

Wing one I 276

Bill-length Bi 63

5, greatest width " 31

Tarsus Ap 44

Tail ne Missing

Discussion :

The breeding range of these two species overlap very widely, extend-

ing to the north of the whole Indian subcontinent and it is likely there-

fore that the hybridisation took place in this region.

Mallard Anas platyrhynchos x Pintail Anas acuta.

No. 15384 Bombay Natural History Society.

24th May, 1915, Kashmir. Collected by M. J. Kennard. 3 by plumage.

This specimen is a typical intermediate hybrid between these two

species and is a first year bird in transitional plumage, now rather ‘ foxed ’.

Description.

Head and neck : These are in moult and are generally flecked with dark

brown feathers, some of which show green reflections on the back of the

neck. The crown is dark brown, streaked with sepia, as in the Pintail.

A white neck-ring is developing.

Under-parts: The breast-shield is very pale chestnut, merging to white on

the lower breast, which in turn merges to grey on the rest of the belly.

The flanks are finely vermiculated grey and white, with a few typical

juvenile feathers still present. The undertail-coverts are black, sharply

bordered with white in front and at the sides.

Upper-parts : These are generally sepia, finely vermiculated with grey and

white between the shoulders and extending down over the scapulars.

Many of the dark sepia mantle and rump feathers have the narrow pale

transverse bars, typical of juvenile Pintail feathers, as have some of the

tertials. The first year tertials are pale sepia with dark centers and are

finely vermiculated with grey and white on the outer veins, showing

Pintail influence.

Some of the upper tail coverts are black with green reflections, but

most are dark sepia with the pale brown edges of retained juvenile

feathers. Most of the tail feathers are also juvenile, pale brown with

whitish edges, the central ones being elongated and pointed, indicative of

Pintail influence. The first year feathers are greyish-brown with broad

~ whitish edges.

676 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

Wing : The wing coverts are greyish-brown with the very narrow pale

edges of a first year bird. The greater coverts are tipped with bright

chestnut to form the anterior margin of the speculum, as in the Pintail.

The speculum is metallic green, broadly edged posteriorly with a band

of black and then white. The primary coverts are greyish-sepia and the

primaries, darker sepia with paler inner vanes. The wing is thus typically

intermediate between the parent species.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are most grateful to the Bombay Natural History Society and in

particular to Mr. Humayun Abdulali for allowing us to examine these

five most interesting hybrid ducks. We are also very grateful to the

British Museum (Natural History) for loaning us the supposed hybrid

between the Green-winged Teal and the Baikal Teal. We must also

thank Dr. Pamela Harrison for the photographs illustrating this work.

REFERENCES

Harrison, J. M. (1964) : Further com-

ments on hybridisation between the

European Wigeonand Northern Shoveller.

Bull. B.O.C., 84 : 30-39.

AES EEE HARRISON, J. G.

(1963): A Gadwall with a white neck

ring and a review of plumage variants in

wildfowl. Bull. B.O.C., 83 : 101-108.

HARRISON, J. M. & HARRISON, J. G.

(1966) : Remarks on two European

Wigeon X Northern Pintail hybrids. Bull.

B. O. C., 86: 8-11.

SIBLEY, C. G. (1938) : Hybrids of and

with North American Anatidae. Proc.

9th Int. Orn. Congress. 1938 : 327-335. .

Two new Phytosetid Mites from.

Eastern India (Acarina: Phytosetidae)

S. K. BHATTACHARYYA

Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta

(With six text-figures)

Until recently no attention has been paid to the phytoseiid mites in

India. In 1960 Chant described Typhlodromus (Amblyseius) salebrosus,

T. (A.) assamensis, Typhlodromus (Typhlodromus) fleschneri, and T. (T.)

rickeri. Narayanan & Kaur (1960) described 7. (A.) delhiensis and

T.(A.) indicus. The same year, Narayanan, Kaur & Ghai (1960) recorded

or described T. (A.) fallacis (Garman), T. (A.) ovalis Evans, T. (A.)

asiaticus Evans, T. (A.) orientalis, T. (T.) bakeri (Garman), T. (T.) con-

fusus, Phytoseius macropilis (Banks), and P. minutus. Later Narayanan

& Ghai (1963) also recorded and described the following species asso-

ciated with malformation of mango trees: J. (T.) roshanlali, T. (T.)

rhenanus (Oudemans), and 7. (T.) nesbitti (Womersley). During the

present study, small collections of acarina have been made in the pro-

vince of West Bengal, India. In these collections two species were found

to be new to science and are described herein, based on females only :

Typhlodromus (Amblyseius) amitae sp. nov., and Phytoseius (Dubini-

nellus) indicus sp. Nov.

The type material is deposited in the Collections of the Zoological

Survey of India, Calcutta.

Typhlodromus (Amblyseius) amitae sp. nov.

FEMALE. Dorsal shield Uength 0°304 mm. ; width 0°208 mm.) with

17 pairs of setae i.e., 9 pairs lateral, 6 pairs dorsal, and 2 pairs median

series (Fig. 1). Setae L4 0°064-0:072 mm., L9 0°208-0°220 mm. and

M2 0:068 mm. long and whip-like. Setae LI, L2, L3, L5, L6, L7 and L8

0:032, 0:008, 0°004, 0°008, 0°012, 0°014 and 0°012 mm. long respectively.

Setae D2, D3, D4, and M1 equal in length (0°004 mm.). Setae DI vary-

ing in length (0°024-0:028 mm.). Both D5 and D6 0:008 mm. long.

All sacral setae : Sl and $2 0°012 mm. in length and lying on interscutal

membrane. | 3

Sternal shield with usual pairs of setae and posteriorly concave.

Metasternal seta lying on discrete platelet. Genital shield wedge-shaped,

678 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

truncate posteriorly, and with a pair of marginal setae. Ventri-anal

shield (long 0°092 mm.; wide 0°060 mm.) vase-shaped, with lateral

Typhlodromus (Amblyseius) amitae sp. nov.

Fics. 1-3. Female: 1. dorsum, L1-9 setae of lateral series, DI-6 setae of dorsal

series, MI-2 setae of median series, Sl-2 sacral setae ; 2. part of posterior venter ;

3. genu, tibia and tarsus of leg IV.

TWO NEW PHYTOSEIMD MITES Mote

margins constricted (Fig. 2) and forming a waist, then flaring to make

shield to be widest opposite anus, and bearing 3 pairs of pre-, 1 pair of

par-and a post-anal setae. Four pairs of setae present on interscutal

membrane surrounding ventri-anal shield. Two pairs of metapodal

plates present. Post-stigmatal extension of peritrematal shield slightly

encircling coxa IV ; and peritreme anteriorly extending on to dorsum

and almost meeting in mid-line.

Legs with ambulacra. Leg IV with macrosetae (Fig. 3).

MALE. Unknown. .

Locality: The holotype female, and two paratype females on

Hibiscus sp. (lower side of leaves, mainly by the midrib), Sitala, Sonarpur,

24 Parganas District, West Bengal, Dr. S. K. Bhattacharyya, 18-5-1963.

Remarks: Similar to T. (A.) schusteri Chant, 1959, but differing in

the relative lengths of some lateral setae (L3 half the length of L2), to-

gether with the shape of the ventri-anal shield.

This species is named after the author’s sister Miss Amita Bhatta-

charyya, who helped me in making collections.

Phytoseius (Dubininellus) indicus sp. nov.

FEMALE. Dorsal shield (length 0°260 mm. ; width 0°136 mm.) with

15 pairs of setae, i.e. 8 pairs lateral, 3 pairs dorsal, and one pair each of

median, anterior sublateral, verticals, and clunals (Fig. 1). Setae L2,

D1-D3, M1 and clunals short and simple ; L4 short and slightly serrate ;

the remaining setae stout and serrate. Measurements of setae as

follows: verticals 0°020 mm., D1 0:008 mm., D2 0:006-0:012 mm.,

D3 0:010-0°012 mm., MI 0:008 mm., L1 0°022 mm., L2 0°010-0°012 mm..,

L3 0°026-0:028 mm., L4 0°010 mm., L5 0°060-0:068 mm., L6 0:060-

0:068 mm., L7 0°048-0°052 mm., L8 0:052 mm., clunals 0°008 mm., and

anterior sublaterals 0°030-0°032 mm: |

Sternal shield wider than long, with normal 3 pairs of setae. Meta-

sternal seta situated on discrete platelet.» Genital shield broad, truncate

posteriorly, with a pair of marginal setae. Ventri-anal shield longer

than wide, with 3 pairs of pre-anal setae in addition to a pair of par-

and a post-anal setae (Fig. 2). Two pairs of setae present on inter-

scutal membrane ; ventrocaudal setae serrate and long. Metapodal

plates not discernible. Peritreme almost reaching to vertical seta.

Chelicera of this unique specimen not drawn.

Macrosetae of genu, tibia, and basi-tarsus of leg IV 0:012 mm.,

0-032 mm., 0-018-0:020 mm. long respectively (Fig. 3).

MALe. Unknown.

Locality: The holotype female from Hibiscus sp. leaf, Sitala,

Sonarpur, 24 Parganas District, West Bengal, Dr. S. K. Bhattacharyya,

--18-5-1963.

680

Remarks :

= <<

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

P. (D.) indicus sp. nov. is closely related to P. (D.) inter-

medius Evans & Macfarlane, 1962, (also see Denmark, 1966) but is dis-

Phytoseius (Dubininellus) indicus sp. nov.

Fics. 1-3. Female: 1.

dorsum, LI-8 setae of lateral series, D1-3 setae of dorsal

series, A. S. anterior sublateral seta, V vertical seta, C clunal seta ; 2. part of pos-

terior venter ; 3. genu, tibia and tarsus of leg IV.

tinguished from the latter by :

seta L2 not serrated and the presence of

macrosetae on tibia, tarsus and basi-tarsus of leg IV.

REFERENCES

CHANT, D. A. (1960) : Descriptions of

five new species of mites from India

(Acarina: Phytoseiidae, Aceosejidae).

Canadian Ent. 92, 1 : 58-65.

Denmark, H. A. (1966): Revision of

the genus Phytoseius Ribaga, 1904

(Acarina : Phytoseiidae). Florida Dept.

Agric. Bull. 6 : 1-105.

Evans, G. O. & MACFARLANE, D.

(1962): A new mite of the genus Phyto-

seius Ribaga (Acari: Mesostigmata).

Ann. Mag. nat. Hist. 13 4: 587-588.

NARAYANAN, E. S., & KaAur, R. B.

(1960) : Two new species of the Genus

Typhlodromus Scheuten from India |

(Acarina : Phytoseiidae). Proc. Ind. Acad.

Sci. 51.B : 1-8.

———, ——— & Gual, 5S. (1960) :

Importance of some taxonomic characters

in the family Phytoseiidae Berl., 1916 |

(Predatory mites), with new records and

descriptions of species Proc. nat. Inst. Sch

India, Biol. 26 6B : 384-394.

& GHAI, S. (1963): Someg

new records and a new species of mites |

associated with malformation of mango.

trees in India. ibid. 29 5B : 533-546.

Sand dune flora of Western Rajasthan

1. Systematic list of trees, shrubs and herbs

Kire: KANODIA AND R. K. GUPTA

Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Jodhpur

INTRODUCTION

About 60% of the arid region of Western Rajasthan is sandy and a

major portion of this is occupied by sand dunes. These dunes are

found mostly in Bikaner, Churu, Barmer, Jaisalmer and Jodhpur dis-

tricts, though scattered patches are also met in Pali, Jalore, Sirohi,

Jhunjhunu and Sikar districts.

The pioneering work of Blatter & Hallberg (1918-1921) on the ‘ Flora

of Indian Desert’ mentioned several ecological formations. A bio-

logical spectrum was given by Das & Sarup (1951). Sankhala (1951)

enumerated the list of plants under various life forms. Agharkar (1952),

Sarup & Bhandari (1958) and Joshi (1958) dealt with some ecological

aspects of Bikaner. In eastern Rajasthan, Nair & Joshi (1958) contri-

_ buted to the sand dune ecology of Pilani and its neighbourhood. Recently

Shankarnarayan et al. (1965) worked out the dune ecology of Osian, but

very little study has been made in other regions. The present studies

are aimed at making a preliminary record of the flora of some of these

sand dunes, based on the plants collected during our surveys.

PHYSICAL FEATURES

Dunes are mainly of three types, longitudinal, transverse and para-

bolic. While the longitudinal dunes are parallel to the direction of the

prevailing winds, transverse dunes are formed on account of obstruction

in the path of prevailing winds. The old system consists of dunes of

high relief, while those of new system are still in the evolutionary stage and

are called embryonic dunes. The windward slope of these dunes is very

gentle and quite often cut by short streams, and subjected to wind scour-

ing, while the leeward side is mostly steep.

CLIMATE

Low, erratic, annual rainfall, seasonal and diurnal fluctuations of

temperature and intense solar radiation are characteristic climatic

682 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

features of sand dune ecosystem. Scorching heat with dust storms during

the summer months and biting cold with dew, mist, and fog during winter

months modify the vegetation to a great extent.

The rainfall occurs mainly during July-September. The tem-

perature conditions also vary like the rainfall. Maximum temperature

is generally recorded during May when hot winds, Loo, blow but the

nights are almost always pleasant. Minimum temperature in Bikaner

and Jaisalmer districts goes down in winter to freezing and even

below freezing point, resulting in heavy frost or dew formation on the

dunes. Wind velocity is minimum during November (4:0-5°8 km./hr.)

but goes on increasing up to June when it is maximum (12°0-31°0 km. /hr.),

Humidity is minimum during the period October to March and begins

to rise from May onwards and is maximum during August.

VEGETATION

Plants are conservative in their selection of habitat, water require-

ments etc. and thus may be called indicators of habitats. Every keen

naturalist has the experience as to how plants behave differently on

various habitat types. Some plants select only the leeward side of the

dune, while others may be present on the crest, and still others in the

interdune areas and at the base of dunes.

Crests of sand dunes which are active, support plants like Panicum

antidotale, P. turgidum, Calligonum polygonoides, Tephrosia falciformis

and Cyperus arenarius. Sand dune tops, where small sand dunes are

aggregated, species like Cyperus arenarius and Aristida funiculata are

among the first arrivals and are followed by Dipterygium glaucum, Teph-

rosia falciformis and Capparis decidua.

On the slopes, the windward side has a better vegetation than the

leeward side. Various plants like Cenchrus spp., Aristida spp., Lasiurus

sindicus, Crotalaria burhia, Tribulus terrestris, Enicostemma verticillatum,

Arnebia hispidissima, Gisekia pharnacoides, Indigofera cordifolia, Calli-

gonum polygonoides occupy this region. The leeward side, due to the

steep slopes sometimes followed by heavy runoff, supports only a few —

very hardy species, with least water requirement like Aerva pseudo-

tomentosa, Leptadenia pyrotechnica etc. There is a profound difference

in the composition and frequency of different species found on the two

sides of the dunes.

Base of the dune and interdunal areas support luxuriant vegetation

with good growth of plant species due to the accumulation of water from

the surrounding areas. The common species encountered are Teco-

mella undulata, Prosopis cineraria, Farsetia hamiltonii, Polygala eriop-

tera, Polycarpaea corymbosa etc. Mollugo cerviana, Cyperus arenarius,

Aristida adscensionis, A. funiculata, Cenchrus biflorus are some of the

SAND DUNE FLORA OF W. RAJASTHAN 683

pioneers, which are followed by species like Cenchrus ciliaris, C. prieurii,

C. pennisetiformis, Lasiurus sindicus, Panicum antidotale, Panicum tur-

gidum, Aerva persica, A. pseudo-tomentosa, Crotalaria burhia and

Leptadenia pyrotechnica which firmly hold the sand. particles in the

mesh of their root system.

List OF SPECIMENS COLLECTED

Plants enumerated in the list have been collected from sand dunes

in W. Rajasthan and are preserved at the herbarium, Central Arid Zone

Research Institute, Jodhpur. Nomenclature of plants is according to

latest findings. Flowering season and life forms for each plant have

been indicated.

CRUCIFERAE

Dipterygium glaucum Decaisne

6-10 dm. tall, perennial, erect undershrub, with yellow flowers.

Common on the windward side of dunes. Fls. Aug.-Nov. (Chamae-

phyte).

Farsetia hamiltonii Royle

3-4 dm. tall, sub-erect, annual herb with pink to white flowers. Often

seen at the base of dunes and the interdune areas. Fls. Aug.-Nov.

(Therophyte).

CAPPARIDACEAE

Capparis decidua (Forsk.) Edgew.

2-4 m. tall, deciduous, spiny shrub; when protected often attains

tree-size. Flowers yellow. Common on the windward side and top of

the dunes. Fls. Jan.-Aug. rare plants up to Oct. (Phanerophyte).

Cleome gynandra Linn.

3-4 dm. tall, erect, annual herb with yellow flowers. Mostly found

around the base of dunes and in interdune areas. Fls. Aug.-Dec.

(Therophyte).

Cleome viscosa Linn.

2-4 dm. tall, erect, annual herb with yellow flowers. Found mostly

at the base of dunes and in the interdune areas. Fils. July-Nov,

(Therophyte). |

684. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 65 (3)

POLYGALACEAE

Polygala erioptera DC.

2-3 dm. tall, erect to sub-erect, annual herb with pinky-mauve or

yellow flowers. Found on the base of the dunes and interdune area.

Fls. Aug.-Noy. (Therophyte). |

CARYOPHYLLACEAE

Polycarpaea corymbosa (L.) Lamk.

1°5-2°5 dm. long, erect, annual herb with white flowers having a pinkish

tinge. Common on interdune areas and leeward side of the dunes,

Fls. Aug.-Nov. (Therophyte).

MALVACEAE

Sida ovata Forsk.

5-6 dm. tall, erect, perennial undershrub with pale-yellow flowers.

Frequent on the interdune areas. Fls. Aug.-Nov. (Chamaephyte).

STERCULIACEAE

Melhania denhamii R.Br.

About 1 m. tall, bushy perennial with yellow flowers. Frequent on

hill-side dunes. Fils. Aug.-Dec, (Chamaephyte).

TILIACEAE

Corchorus depressus (Linn.) Christensen

1°5-2°0 dm. long, prostrate, perennial herb with yellow flowers. Fre-

quent on interdune areas. Fls. Aug.-Nov. (Chamaephyte).

C. tridens Linn.

3-4 dm. tall, erect, annual herb with yellow flowers. Frequently on

the windward side of dunes. Fils. Aug.-Nov. (Therophyte). .

Grewia tenax (F orsk.) Fiori

1:0-1°5 m. tall shrub with yellow flowers. Frequent on hill-side

dunes. Fls. July-Nov. (Nanophanerophyte).

ZYGOPHYLLACEAE

Fagonia cretica Linn.

1:5-2°0 dm. tall, spiny undershrub with pink flowers, rarely white.

Common on interdune areas and hill-side dunes. Fis. July-Nov,

(Therophyte). | |

SAND DUNE FLORA OF W. RAJASTHAN 685

Tribulus alatus Del.

1-3 dm. long, sub-erect, prostrate, annual herb with yellow flowers.

Common on the windward side of the dunes and also on the top of

stabilized dunes. Fls. Aug.-Dec. (Therophyte).

T. terrestris Linn.

2-4 dm. long, prostrate-suberect, annual herb with yellow flowers.

Common on the windward sides and top of the stabilized dunes. Fils.

Aug.-Dec. (Therophyte).

SIMAROUBACEAE

Balanites aegyptiaca (Linn.) Del.

3-4 m. tall, thorny shrub with greenish-white flowers. Common

on hill-side dunes. Fils. April-Sept. (Phanerophyte).

CELASTRACEAE

Maytenus emarginata (Willd.) Ding Hou

3-4 m. tall, deciduous, thorny tree with white flowers. Common on

the hill-side dunes and interdune areas. Fls. Oct.-March (Phanero-

phyte).

RHAMNACEAE

Zizyphus nummularia (Burm. f.) Wight & Arn.

1-2 m. tall, bushy shrub, sometimes large like a tree with greenish

white flowers. Common on hill-side dunes and interdune areas. Fils.

Sept.-March (Nanophanerophyte).

FABACEAE

Crotalaria burhia Buch.-Ham. ex Benth.

0°5-1°5 m. tall, erect, perennial shrub with yellow flowers. Common

on the leeward and windward sides and on interdune areas. Fis.

Oct.-March (Chamaephyte) |

Indigofera caerulea Roxb.

4-6 dm. tall, erect, perennial shrub with pinkish flowers. Frequent

on the interdune areas. Fis. Aug.-Jan. (Chamaephyte).

I. cordifolia Heyne ex Roth. |

_ 15-25 cm. long, prostrate to sub-erect, annual hee sath bright red

flowers. Common on interdune areas and the windward slopes of

dunes. Fils. Aug.-Dec. (Therophyte).

686 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

I. hochstetteri Baker

3-4 dm. long, sub-erect, annual herb with pink flowers. Common

on interdune areas. Fls. Aug.-Dec. (Therophyte).

I, linifolia (L.f.) Retz.

2-3 dm. long, prostrate, annual herb with bright red flowers. Com-

mon on the hill-side dunes and frequent on the windward slopes and

interdune areas. Fls. Aug.-Dec. (Therophyte).

I. linnaei Ali

1:0-3°0 cm. long, prostrate-suberect, annual herbs with pink red

~ flowers ; frequent on windward side of stable sand dunes, interdune

areas. Fls. Jan.-March (Therophyte).

Phaseolus trilobus (L.) Ait.

3-6 dm. long, erect-climbing, annual herb with yellow flowers. Fre-

quent on the windward side of dunes and also on cultivated dunes. Fils.

Aug.-Nov. (Therophyte).

P. aconitifolius Jacq.

3-6 dm. long, suberect-climbing, annual herb with yellow flowers.

Frequent on cultivated dune slopes. Fls. Aug.-Noy. (Therophyte).

Tephrosia falciformis Ramaswamy

6-9 dm. tall, erect, perennial herb with pinkish violet or rosy flowers.

Common on top of sand dunes, and on the windward and leeward sides.

Fils. Aug.-Nov. (Hemicryptophyte).

T. purpurea (L.) Pers.

4-6 dm. tall, erect, perennial herb with pink-violet flowers. Common

on the windward side and interdune areas. Fls. Aug.-Nov. (Hemi-

cryptophyte).

T. villosa (Linn.) Pers.

4-6 dm. tall, erect, perennial undershrub with pinkish violet flowers.

Frequent on the windward slope of the dunes. Fls. Aug.-Dec. (Hemi-

cryptophyte).

MIMOSACEAE

Acacia jacquemontii Benth.

1:5-3 m. tall, bushy shrub with yellow flowers in globose heads.

Frequent on the slopes of the dunes, Fls, Jan.-June (Phanerophyte).

SAND DUNE FLORA OF W. RAJASTHAN 687

A. nilotica (Linn.) Delile ssp. indica (Benth.) Brenan

3-5 m. tall, thorny tree with yellow flowers in terminal heads. Com-

mon in the interdune areas only, not on the dunes. Fils. Sept.-May

(Phanerophyte).

A. senegal (L.) Willd.

3-6 m. tall, prickly tree with white flowers. Common on top of hill-

side dunes. Fils. April-May (Phanerophyte).

Prosopis cineraria (Linn.) MacBride

3-6 m. tall, spiny tree with yellow flowers in spikes. Common on the

top, slope and base of dunes and in interdune areas. Fls. Oct.-

May (Phanerophyte).

P. juliflora (Sw.) DC.

2°5-4 m. tall, spiny tree with yellow flowers. Completely naturalised

in the area, native of Mexico.- On interdune areas especially. Fils.

Oct.-May (Phanerophyte).

CUCURBITACEAE

Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Schrad.

1-2 m. long, annual, trailing herb with yellow flowers. Common

on the windward slopes, interdune areas and sandy hummocks. Fils.

Sept.-Dec. (Therophyte).

Cucumis myriocarpus Naud.

1-2 m. long, annual trailer or climber with yellow flowers. Common

on the windward slopes and tops of dunes. Fils. Aug.-Oct. (Therophyte).

C. pseudo-colocynthis Royle

1-1°5 m. long, annual trailer or climbing herb with yellow flowers.

Common on slopes and base of dunes. Fils. Aug.-Oct. (Therophyte).

Mukia maderaspatana (L.) M. Roem.

1-2 m. long, climbing, annual herb with yellow flowers. Frequent

on shrubs and trees in the interdune areas and on the windward slopes.

Fls. Aug.-Oct. (Therophyte).

MOLLUGINACEAE

Gisekia pharnaceoides Linn.

1°5-2°5 dm. tall, erect, annual, psammophytic herb with white flowers.

Common on the windward slopes and interdune areas. Fls. Aug.-Nov.

(Therophyte). :

688 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

Mollugo cerviana (L.) Ser.

1-2 dm. tall, erect herb with greenish-white flowers. Common

on tops of dunes and interdune areas. Fls. Aug.- Nov. (Therophyte).

M. nudicaulis Lamk.

2-3 dm. tall, erect, annual herb with white flowers. Frequent on the

windward slopes and interdune areas. Fls. Aug.-Nov. (Therophyte).

Trianthema govindia Buch. Ham. ex DC.

3-4 dm. long, prostrate, annual herb with dark red flowers. Com-

mon on slopes and interdune areas. Fls. Aug.-Nov. (Therophyte).

RUBIACEAE

Borreria articularis (L.f.) F.N. Will.

2-3 dm. tall, erect to decumbent, annual herb with pinkish-white

flowers. Common on interdune areas. Fls. Aug.-Nov. (Therophyte).

COMPOSITAE

Echinops echinatus Roxb.

3-5 dm. tall, erect, annual, spiny herb with white flowers. Frequent

on interdune areas. Fls. Feb.-June (Therophyte).

Pulicaria angustifolia DC.

3-4 dm. tall, erect, annual herb with yellow flowers. Common on

interdune areas and sandy hummocks. Fils. Aug.-Dec. (Therophyte).

P, wightiana (DC.) Benth. ex Clarke

4-8 dm. tall, sub-erect, woody, perennial herb with yellow flowers.

Common on interdune areas. Fls. Aug.-Dec. (Chamaephyte).

SALVADORACEAE

Salvadora oleoides Decaisne

8-15 m. tall, evergreen tree with white flowers. Common on all

types of dunes and interdune areas. Fils. Feb.-April (Phanerophyte).

ASCLEPIADACEAE

Calotropis procera (Ait.) R. Br. |

— 1-1'5 m. tall, erect, perennial herb with violet flowers. Common.

on dunes and interdune areas, Fils. Sept.-Dec. (Chamaephyte).

SAND DUNE FLORA OF W. RAJASTHAN L gga

Leptadenia pyrotechnica (Forsk.) Decaisne

1-2 m. tall, much branched, leafless, perennial bush with pale yellow

flowers. Common on the windward side and top of the dunes and on the

interdune areas. Fls. Aug.-Dec. (Nanophanerophyte).

GENTIANACEAE

Enicostemma hyssopifoliium (Willd.) Verdoon

2-4 cm. tall, erect, decumbent, perennial herb with yellow flowers.

Frequent on windward side of hill-side dunes. Fls. Aug.-Oct. (Hemi-

cryptophytes).

BORAGINACEAE

Arnebia hispidissima (Lehm.) DC.

| 2-3 dm. tall, erect, strigose, perennial undershrub with yellow flowers,

Frequent on all types of dunes. Fls. Oct.-Jan. (Cryptophyte).

Sericostomma pauciflorum Stocks

2-3 dm. tall, erect, perennial undershrub with white flowers. Com-

mon on hill-side dunes. Fils. Oct.-Jan. (Chamaephyte).

CONVOLVULACEAE

Convolvulus microphyllus Sieb. ex Spreng.

3-4 dm. tall, sub-erect or climbing, annual herb with pinkish white

flowers. Sometimes on interdune areas. Fils. Aug.-Nov. (Therophyte).

Evolvulus alsinoides (L.) L. : |

1°5-2°0 dm. long, prostrate, annual herb with blue-purple flowers.

Frequent on dune slopes. Fls. Aug.-Dec. (Therophyte).

Ipomoea sindica Stapf.

4-8 dm. tall, climbing, annual herb with white flowers. On ene

vated dunes. Fils. Aug.-Oct. (Therophyte). |

I. pes-tigridis Linn. |

1-1°5 m. long, twining or spreading, annual, hispid herb with white

or pinkish white flowers. Frequent on hedges in interdune areas.

Fls. Sept.-Oct. (Therophyte).

SOLANACEAE

Lycium barbarum Linn.

1-2 m. tall, spiny, perennial shrub with white flowers. Common

on all types of dunes and on interdune areas. Fls. Oct.-March

(Phanerophyte).

690 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

Solanum surattense Burm. f. .

3-4 dm. tall, erect, much branched, perennial under-shrub with

pinkish purple flowers. Frequent on dune slopes and interdune

areas. Fls. June-March (Chamaephyte).

OROBANCHACEAE

Cistanche tubulosa Wight

3-5 dm. tall, erect perennial herb with pinkish-violet flowers. Root

parasite on Salvadora. Fils. Nov. (Cryptophyte).

BIGNONIACEAE

Tecomella undulata (Sm.) Seem.

2-3 m. tall, deciduous tree with yellow or orange red flowers. Com-

mon on interdune areas. Fils. Jan.-March (Phanerophyte).

PEDALIACEAE

Pedalium murex Linn.

1°5-4 dm. tall, erect, much branched annual with yellow flowers.

Frequent on dune slopes and interdune areas. Fls. Aug.-Oct. (Thero-

phyte).

ACANTHACEAE

Blepharis linearifolia Pers.

1°5-3 dm. long, sub-erect, perennial herb with violet-blue flowers.

Frequent on hill-side dunes. Fils. Aug.-Sept. (Cryptophyte).

VERBENACEAE

Clerodendrum multiflorum (Burm. f.) Retz.

1-2 m. tall, perennial shrub with white flowers. Frequent on dune

slopes and often used in hedges. Fils. Aug.-Nov. (Nanophanerophyte).

LABIATAE

Leucas cephalotes (Roth.) Spreng.

3-6 dm. tall, erect annual with white flowers. Common on interdune

areas and near fields. Fls. Aug.-Oct. (Therophyte).

SAND DUNE FLORA OF W. RAJASTHAN 691

NYCTAGINACEAE

Boerhavia diffusa Linn.

6-10 dm. long, trailing, prostrate, perennial herb with pink flowers.

Frequent in interdune areas. Fls. Major part of the year (Hemi-

cryptophyte).

AMARANTHACEAE

Aerva persica (Burm. f.) Merr.

5-10 dm. tall, erect, perennial herb with greenish white flowers.

Common on leeward and windward sides of dunes, also on interdune

areas. Fils. Aug.-Dec. (Hemicryptophyte).

A. pseudo-tomentosa Blatt. & Hall.

8-15 dm. tall, erect perennial with greenish white flowers. Common

on the windward and leeward sides of dunes. Fils. Aug.-Dec.

(Hemicryptophyte).

Digera alternifolia (L.) Aschers.

3-4 dm. tall, erect, annual herb with pink or rosy flowers. Frequent

in interdune areas. Fils. April-Dec. (Therophyte).

Pupalia lappacea (L.) A. Juss.

1-1°5 m. tall, straggling, perennial herb with pale green flowers.

Frequent in interdune areas. Fils. Aug.-March (Hemicryptophyte).

POLYGONACEAE

Calligonum polygonoides Linn.

1°5-2°0 m. tall perennial, leafless shrub with pink flowers. Common

on dune tops and interdune areas. Fls. Feb.-June (Nanophanerophyte).

EUPHORBIACEAE

Euphorbia clarkeana Hook. f.

1-2 dm. long, sub-erect, annual herb with greenish white flowers.

Frequent in the interdune areas. Fils. Aug.-Sept. (Therophyte).

E. granulata Forsk.

1°0-1°5 dm. long, prostrate, annual herb with pink flowers. Frequent

on stabilised dunes. Fl. and Fr. Oct.-Feb. (Therophyte).

CYPERACEAE

Cyperus arenarius Retz.

1-2 dm. tall, erect, perennial sedge. Common on the top of sand

dunes and sandy hummocks. Fls. Aug.-Dec. (Cryptophyte).

692 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

C. bulbosus Vahl.

2-3 dm. tall, erect, rhizomatous sedge ; spikes brown-red. Frequent

in the interdune areas. Fls. Aug.-Dec. (Hemicryptophyte).

C. conglomeratus Rottb.

2-3 dm. tall, erect, perennial, rhizomatous sedge. Spikelets white.

Common on windward slopes and interdune areas. Fls. Aug.-Dec.

(Hemicryptophyte). Ti

C. rotundus Linn.

2-4 dm. tall, erect, perennial, rhizomatous sedge with dark-red spike-

lets. Frequent on interdune areas and base of dunes. Fls. Aug.-Dec.

(Hemicryptophyte). |

POACEAE

Aristida adscensionis Linn.

3-5 dm. tall, erect, annual grass. Common on the windward and

leeward slopes and interdune areas. Fils. Sept.-Jan. (Therophyte).

A. funiculata Trin. et Rupr.

3-6 dm. tall, erect annual. Common on the dune slopes and inter-

dune areas. Fils. Sept.-Jan. (Therophyte).

A. hirtigluma Steud. ex Trin. et Rupr.

3-5 dm. tall, erect, annual. Common on dune slopes and interdune

areas. Fls. Sept.-Dec. (Therophyte).

A. pogonoptila (Jaub. et Spach.) Boiss.

3-6 dm. erect, tufted perennial. Common on the slopes and top of

dune. Fils. Sept.-Feb. (Hemicryptophyte).

Cenchrus biflorus Roxb.

1-3 dm. tall, sub-erect, annual grass. Common on loose sands and

hummocks and dune tops. FI. Aug.-Jan. (Therophyte).

C, ciliaris Linn.

1-3 dm. tall, sub-erect, biennial or perennial grass. Common on

dune slopes and in interdune areas. Fils. Aug.-Jan. (Hemicrypto-

phyte).

C. pennisetiformis Hochst. ex Steud.

4-6 dm. tall, erect, perennial, tussocky grass. Common on. dune

slopes of mobile sand dunes. Fils. Sept.-Feb. (Hemicryptophyte).

SAND DUNE FLORA OF W. RAJASTHAN 693

C. prieurii (Kunth) Maire

2°5-4°5 dm. tall, sub-erect, annual grass. Common on dune slopes

and on interdune areas. Fils. Sept.-Feb. (Therophyte).

C. setigerus Vahl

2-4 dm. tall, erect, perennial grass. Common on dune slopes and on

interdune areas. Fils. Aug.-Jan. (Hemicryptophyte).

Cymbopogon jwarancusa (Jones) Schult.

6-10 dm. tall, erect, perennial, tussocky grass. Common on dune

slopes and on interdune areas. Fis. Aug.-Nov. (Chamaephyte).

Dactyloctenium aegyptium (L.) P. Beauv.

3-5 dm. erect, stoloniferous, perennial grass. Common on dune

base and stabilized sand dunes. Fils. Aug.-Feb. (Therophyte).

Eragrostis ciliaris (L.) R. Br.

1°5-2°5 dm. tall, erect grass. Frequent on interdune areas. Fils.

_ Aug.-Dec. (Therophyte).

E. tenella (L.) P. Beauv.

3-4 dm. tall, erect, annual grass. Frequent in the interdune areas.

Fis. Aug.-Nov. (Therophyte).

E. tremula Hochst. ex Steud.

3-4 dm. tall, erect, annual grass. Frequent in interdune areas and

on sandy hummocks. Fls. Aug.-Nov. (Therophyte).

Lasiurus ecaudatus Saty. et Shank.

6-10 dm. tall, erect, perennial, tussocky grass. Common on dune

slopes and interdune areas. A good sand binder. Fils. Aug.-Dec.

(Therophyte).

Panicum antidotale Retz.

1-1°5 m. tall, erect, perennial grass. Very common on the crest and

leeward slope of the dune. A good sand binder. Fls. Aug.-Dec.

(Chamaephyte).

P. turgidum Forsk.

1-1°5 m. tall, erect, perennial, tussocky grass. Common on the top

and dune slopes. Fis. Aug.-Nov. (Chamaephyte).

Perotis hordeiformis Nees apud Hook. et Arn.

2-4 dm. tall, erect, annual grass. Common on the interdune areas.

Fls. Aug.-Dec. (Therophyte).

694 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

STATISTICAL es OF SAND DUNE FLORA

‘Out of 58 families, -226 genera and 440 species recorded as iadiaen am

in Western Rajasthan, 35 families covering 62 genera and 93 species are

available from sand dunes of the area. Of these the families having

two or more genera are : Cruciferae (2), Capparidaceae (2), Tiliaceae (2),

Zygophyllaceae (2), Papilionaceae (4), Mimosaceae (2), Asclepiadaceae

(2), Convolvulaceae (3), Solanaceae (2), Amaranthaceae (2) and

Gramineae (8), while only the following families are represented by four

or more species : Papilionaceae (11), Mimosaceae (5), Cucurbitaceae (4),

Ficoideae (4), Convolvulaceae (4), Amaranthaceae (4), Cyperaceae (4)

and Gramineae (17). The maximum number of genera and species are

that of Gramineae (8 and 17) in this land-form. Family Compositae

with 33 species, which comes next in rank to Gramineae in the flora of

Western Rajasthan, lags behind in the dune flora and so also is the

case with Cyperaceae.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors are deeply indebted to Sri C. P. Bhimaya, Dr. P. C.

Raheja, present and ex-Directors respectively, Central Arid Zone

Research Institute, Jodhpur and Dr. B. B. Roy, Head of the Division

of Basic Resource Studies of the Institute, for his interest and encourage-

ment, and for suggestions to improve the manuscript. Thanks are also

due to Sri P. Rakhecha for providing assistance in recording the

rainfall data.

REFERENCES

AGHARKAR, S. P. (1952) : Plant ecology

of the Rajputana Desert. Bull. nat. Inst.

Sci. 1 : 246-247.

Biswas, K. & Rao, R. S. (1953):

Rajputana Desert vegetation. Proc. nat.

Inst. Sci. India 19 : 411-421.

BLATTER, E. & HALLBERG, F. (1918-

21): The flora of Indian Desert.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 26: 525-531,

811-818, 968-987 ; 27 : 40-47, 270-279,

506-519.

Das, R. B. & Sarup, S. (1951) : The

Biological Spectrum of the Indian Desert

Flora. rs Rajput. Studies, Bio. Sci.

1951 : 36-42

Josut, M. C. (1956) : Plant ecology of

Bikaner and its adjacent areas in com-

parison with rest of Western Rajasthan. -

J. Ind. bot. Soc. 35 : 495-511.

. (1958) : A. preliminary survey

of the sand dune vegetation of Pilani and

its neighbourhood. ibid 37 : 310-327.

KING, G. (1879) : Sketch of the Flora

of Rajputane. Ind. For. 4 : 226-236.

Nair, N. C. & JosuHI, M. C. (1957) :

Sand dune vegetation of Pilani and

neighbourhood. J. Ind. bot. Soc. 36:

599-617.

PRAMANIK, S. K. & HARIHARAN, P. S.

(1952) : The climate of Rajasthan. Proc.

Symp. on Rajput. Desert : Proc. nat. Inst.

Sci. India: 167-178.

RAHEJA, P. C. & SEN, A. K. (1964) :

Resources in Prospective ; Recent Deve-

lopments in Rajasthan — ‘Souvenir Vol.

pp. 28.

RoLLaA, R. S. & Kanopia, K. C.

(1962-63) : Studies on the vegetation

and Flora of Jodhpur Division. Annals _

35-60.

of Arid Zone 1: 16-46; 2:

‘Note on the

SALISBURY, E. J. (1925) :

“edaphic. succession in some dune. soils

with special reference to. the. time: factor.

J. Ecol. 13° 322-328. >

SAND DUNE FLORA OF W. RAJASTHAN

SALISBURY, E. J. (1952) : Downs and

Dunes—Their plant life and its en-

vironment. Bell & Sons, London.

SANKHALA, K. S. (1951) : Enumeration

of flowering plants of North Western

Rajasthan.

Sci. : 43-56.

SHANKARNARAYAN, K. A.

Flora of Luni Basin—Habit

(1963) :

forms.

Report, Division of Basic Resources and.

Human Factor Studies, Govt. of India,

Jodhpur : 86-93.

et al. (1965) : Ecology of dune

Univ. Rajput. Studies, Bio. ..

695

vegetation at Osian, Rajasthan. J. Ind.

bot. Soc. 64 : 37-50.

SmITH, G. G. (1957): A guide to sand

dune plants of South Western Australia.

Austr. Nat. 6: 1-18.

“WALTER, H. (1964): The role of

ecology in the development of tropical

and subtropical regions. Tenth Inter-

“national bot. Congr. 69-80.

WARMING, E. (1909): Ooecology of

plants. An introduction <0 the study of

Plant Communities, Oxfcrd.

A Catalogue of the Birds in the

Collection of the Bombay Natural

History Society—3

Falconiformes

HUMAYUN ABDULALI

[Continued from Vol. 65 (2) : 430]

The first volume of the HANDBOOK OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA AND

PAKISTAN was published (July 1968) after the manuscript of this part

had been got ready for the press. An attempt has been made to in-

corporate in the text necessary references to the HANDBOOK. Measure-

ments cited in the text are generally from the FAUNA; where such

measurements are reproduced in the HANDBOOK, it has not been con-

sidered necessary to substitute a reference to the HANDBOOK. Measure-

ments preceded by the letters IH are taken from the HANDBOOK.

The serial numbers in the HANDBOOK are identical with those

in the SYNOPSIS, and so a separate reference was not found necessary.

As some of the buzzards and eagles are difficult to identify, even

down to species, it is possible that in spite of every care some of the |

specimens in the collection are incorrectly identified. It is hoped that

it will be possible at some future time to examine them once more along

with additional material from the Indian Region and some reliably

identified specimens for comparison.

This part deals with 846 specimens including all up to Register

No. 23041.

124 Elanus caeruleus vociferus (Latham) (Coromandel Coast)

Black-winged Kite 5: 1259

28:15 391199 20? (9juv.)

2 Chitral, N.W.F.P.; 2 Ambala, 1 Bahawalpur, 1 Wazirabad, Punjab; 1 Delhi;

1 Gwalior ; 3 Gujerat ; 2 Nasik, 3 Bombay, 1 Thana, 1 Ratnagiri, Maharashtra ;

1 Coorg, Mysore ; 1 Orissa ; 1 Bulandshahr, U.P.; 1 Nepal ; 3 Tirhut, Bihar ; _

2 Imphal, Assam ; 1 Henzada, Burma.

The females are not very appreciably larger than the males but

specimens from the neighbourhood of Bombay and southwards have

slightly smaller wings and tails than those from the north. The few

[32]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION—3 697

larger specimens included among the southern birds may well be

non-breeding migrants.

Wing Tail

(1H 260-276) (1H 116-124)

Tnorthern 3d 267-282 av. 274 118-123 av. 121

2southern do 251, 266 115, 116

6 northern &9 273-281 av. 276.5 122-126 av. 124.6

3 southern 2° 262, 265, 273 116, 118, 121

3northern $3 juv. 25 2525 273 123, 124, 132

2southern $d juv. 240, 270 120, 129

3 northern 99 juv. 262, 273, 276 128, 132, 133.

It appears very curious that some, both male and female, in juvenile

plumage, in addition to having wings as large as adults, have even

longer tails.

125 Aviceda jerdoni jerdoni (Blyth) (Malacca) Blyth’s Baza 5: 174

1° Kurseong. Wing 338.

126 Aviceda jerdoni ceylonensis (Legge) (Near Kandy, Ceylon)

Seli5

nil.

127 Aviceda leuphotes teuphotes (Dumont) (Pondicherry) Indian

Blackcrested Baza Ss iit

10? Coonoor. Wing 230, wing tip 68.

128 Aviceda leuphotes syama (Hodgson) (Lower region of Nepal)

5:1940? (1 fragmentary)

1 Bastar, M.P. ; 1 Nepal ; 2 Darjeeling ; 1 Upper Burma.

With the material available, it is not possible to separate the races, so

the specimens are listed in accordance with the distribution in SYNOPSIS

and IND. HANDBOOK. Deignan (Auk 1948 : 248) indicates that the northern

birds syama (Nepal, Assam, north Burma, and parts of China) migrating -

south to Siam, Malaya and possibly Ceylon, have a longer wingtip

(80-87) than the southern residents. In the present series the wingtip

is 60 (Upper Burma), 72, 76, 85, 95 (Bastar, M.P.). The last relates to

avery damaged wing and may be incorrect.

129 Pernis ptilorhyncus orfentalis Taczanowski (Eastern Siberia)

Honey Buzzard OS 168

1 0? Chin Hills, Burma.

This one unsexed specimen, a very ragged ee (No. 12712) obtained

in November (wing 444), differs from all the others in the brown of the

underparts extending on to and replacing the grey on the undersurface

[33]

698 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

of the tail. The specimen was sent to Dr. Amadon who thought it was

of this race. al

Orientalis was included in the FAUNA as a race of apivorus. In this

specimen and in a ¢ ruficollis (No. 12708, Wazirabad, Punjab), the

outer webs of the primaries are emarginated from the second to the

fifth (and not the sixth as in the other Pernis available), a character of

apivorus (Vaurie 1965: 145). In the course of recent correspondence

Dr. Amadon said: ‘As to the wing emargination, I suspect that it

varies ’. : .

In IND. HANDBOOK, in addition to a general statement that it is an

uncommon winter migrant to northern India, it is said that it has

occurred as far south as Ceylon, and reference is made to a record

in Loris. This is a mere quotation from ‘ Bird Club Notes’ which

reads: ‘Specimen obtained at Mannas’, with nothing to show how

and by whom this difficult identification was made. More recently

Phillips records one from the Maldives (JBNHS 60 : 569). Vaurie, 1962,

Amer. Mus. Novitates 2111, p. 6, refers to specimens from Margherita,

Assam, and Bengal.

130 Pernis ptilorhyncus ruficollis Lesson (“‘Patrie inconnue” = Bengal)

Honey Buzzard 5: 167

24:10 66 792 70? 12 adults (underparts brown) ; 9 juvenile (underparts ‘inte

with dark streaks) ; 1 all white below ; 2 barred.

2 Ambala, 1 Hissar, 1 Wazirabad, 1 Rater Punjab; 2 Radhasaie

N. Gujerat ; 2 Bhuj, Kutch ; 1 Chikalda, Berar ; 1 Thana, 1 Khandala, 1 Bombay,

Maharashtra ; 1 Karwar, Mysore ; 1 Coonoor, 1 Ootacamund, 1 Palnis, Madras ;

1 Vizagapatnam, A.P.; 1 Agra, 1 Shahjehanpur, U.P. ; 1 Bihar (?) ; 1 Calcutta ;

1 Godavari, Nepal ; 1 no data.

Only one of the specimens available is separable as orientalis and the

wings, though larger than indicated in the FAUNA, are within the limits

of this race in Vaurie (1965 : 149) : :

10 gS 377-447 av. 402 (Vaurie 366-450 av. 401°3)*.

799 386-425 av. 403 (Vaurie’ 387-432 av. 410).

i * The range in the IND. HANDBOOK, 382-417, appears to be in error. 2

There is considerable variation in the. plumage of apparently adult

birds and it has been customary to suggest thatthe species is polymor-

phic, some being all brown below and others almost white: ‘Stuart-

Baker stated that all ruficollis.when fully adult assume an all-brown

plumage. “Kirke Swann (MONOGRAPH OF BIRDS OF PREY 2: BB), also

indicates no colour differences between the sexes. It is, however, ‘note-

worthy that only one of the eight all-brown (kite-like) birds (with broad

black and grey bars-on the tail) ‘which-have: been - sexed-is marked a

females are white below with streaks on thé breast and ‘with narrowly.

[34].

‘BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION—-3 699

barred tails. All.the females have the pale bands on the tail more dis-

tinctly crossed by wavy lines, which are almost absent in the males.

The largest-winged (447) male, from Karwar, is a very pale (almost

white) rufous below, while two others (one 3, one unsexed) show brown

barring on the breast which appears to be a stage towards the all-brown

underparts, which latter together with the grey around the head I am

inclined to accept as the plumage of the adult male.

131 Milvus milvus milvus Coymmacus) (South Sweden) Kite |

nibs)

429

1 Sheikh Saad, 1 Shaiba, 1? Mesopotamia ; 1 Kalat, Baluchistan.

The races of this species have been difficult to determine. The Meso-

potamian birds were identified as of the nominate form by Ticehurst but

in the summary of the specimens examined by him (JBNHS 28 : 425):the

sexes differ from those on the present labels. Only No. 12465 from

Kalat has a distinctly whitish head with black streaks. It has no white

under the primaries, as in /ineatus :

Wing 443, 458, 461, 463.

133 Milvus (migrans) govinda Sykes (Dukhun) Pariah Kite 5: 121

19:583 79270? (2 pull., 1 chick).

4 cha ae 1 Gir, 1 Bhavnagar, Gujerat ; 1 Panchgani, 10 Bombay, Maharashtra ;

1-Nilambur, Kerala; 1 Vizagapatnam, A.P.; 1 Jainagar, 1 Baghowni, Bihar :

1 Mussoorie, U.P.

There are many differences in colour between the specimens and it is

possible that a well-collected series would explain some of them. Hine

SEXES do not show much difference in size :

Wing 4 33 420-446 av. 436 6 99° 419-444 av. 431: 5)

Tail (233- 262 av. 249 243-276 av. 249

IND. HANDBOOK refers to its occurrence in the Andaman fatatide but

I have already (JBNHS 61 : 506) indicated that this is probably based

on birds carried down by boat.

134 Milvus (migrans) lineatus (Gray) (China) B Blackeared Kite Sis 134

9:6gd 29910?

1 Yarkand; 1 Chitral; 1 Simla; 1 Rtinaten: 1 Bhayanded Bae bay: 1 eats

1 Bhimashanker, Poona, Maharashtra ; et Annandapuram, Shimoga, Mysore ;

1 Burma.

<+ Wing 6 do 471-507 av. 487 299471,477..0 0 ine

The two females from Srinagar (No. 12470) ond abe (No. 19049)

are smaller than the males and may well be govinda as originally marked

[35]

700 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

on the labels. They are included here for the white patches under the

wings. The specimen from Shimoga, Mysore, is the southernmost

record of this species (JBNHS 65 : 774)

135 Haliastur indus indus (Boddaert) (Pondicherry) Brahminy Kite

5: 118

17:49 109230? (8 in adult plumage). |

2 Punjab ; 1 Kronthal; 1 Bhavnagar, 1 Baroda, Gujerat ; 2 Bombay, 1 Panvel,

Maharashtra ; 3 North Kanara ; 2 Kerala ; 1 Tiruchirapalli, Madras ; 1 Nepal;

1 Siliguri ; 1 Calcutta.

The white feathers of the head, nape, and breast have black shaft

streaks. In 7 adults obtained between 16 January and 25 May, the

feathers of the nape are worn at the tips, leaving bare shaft tips in some

cases almost an inch in length ; in three others collected in August,

September, and November these feathers are normal :

Wing 2 go 373, 380 (1H 359-394) 6 29 379, 390, 397, 403, 404, 408 (1H 379-403)

These notes and measurements include two specimens which are not

in the collection.

EL Accipiter gentilis gentilis (Linnaeus) (Dalscarlian Alps) Goshawk

5: 145

1 2 Pottenstein, Germany.

136 Accipiter gentilis schvedowi (Menzbier) (Transbaikalia) 5 : 146

nil.

137 Accipiter badius cenchroides (Severtzov) (Lower Syr-Darya ;

Russian Turkestan) Central Asian Shikra 5: 150

4:1 juv., 3 99

1 Shiraz, Iran (wing 201); 1 Ziarat, Persian Baluchistan (190); 2 Bombay

(220, 223).

The two females from Bombay (Nos. 12630 and 12645) were taken

in October and November and, together with the one from Ziarat, are

separable from the others by the paleness of the upper parts. The first

two were named cenchroides by H. G. Deignan when he examined them

in Bombay many yearsago. The juvenile male from Shiraz is no different

from others (dussumieri) from India. Though cenchroides is accepted

as larger than dussumieri the wing measurements overlap to a great

extent and, except for the above specimens, I am listing all the specimens

from Indian limits as dussumieri. The two specimens from Bombay

extend the known range of this race.

With a series of breeding birds, it may be possible to determine two

separate groups but I am unable to do anything with the present series.

138 Accipiter badius dussumieri (Temminck) (Bengal) Shikra 5: 149

69 :34 34 309950? oie

1 Kalat, Baluchistan ; 1 Wana; 1 Bhagat State, N.W.F.P. ; 3 Simla, 1 Pathankot, |

1 Jagadhri, 1 Patiala, 2 Ambala, 1 Jullunder, 2 Chandigarh, 1 Chamba;

[ 36]

BIRDS iN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION--3 701

1 Wazirabad ; 1 Delhi; 1 Jodhpur, Rajasthan ; 2 Kutch, 1 Jasdan, 7 Bhavnagar,

1 Anand, 1 Cambay, 1 Palanpur, Gujerat; 1 Melghat, Berar; 1 Saugor; 9

Bombay, 1 Kihim, Kolaba, 2 Khandala, 1 Ratnagiri, 2 Satara, 1 Nagpur,

Maharashtra ; 2 North Kanara, Mysore; 1 Palni; 1 Jamestown, Kanyakumari,

1 Madras ; 1 Kumili, 1 Edanad, Travancore, Kerala ; 2 Cuddapah, A.P.; 2

Bastar, M.P.; 1 Berbera, 1 Nayagarh State, Orissa ; 1 Tirhut, Bihar ; 1 Meerut,

2 Kanpur, 1 Bulandshahr, U.P. ; 1 Goalpara, 1 South Sylhet, Assam.

As indicated under the last species it is not possible to isolate any

size or colour in this large series. The wings of two groups north and

south of Bombay measure :

Males Females

Bombay and (6) 182-204 av.187 (10) 187-214 av. 202

southwards

Northern (19) 173-216 av. 187 (9) 191-219 av. 211

The seven males (4 north, 3 south) in adult plumage (grey above) have

wings 174-186 av. 183.

The specimens from Assam and porter India agree with these

rather than poliopsis (Burma) and nominate badius (Ceylon) respectively.

139. Accipiter badius badius (Gmelin) (Ceylon) 5: 147

1 2 Anigalli, Ceylon, wing 202.

This differs from the other shikras from peninsular India in having

the brown barring on the underparts as dark as in those from Burma.

Two females in similar phases from Kumili, High Range, Kerala, and

the Palnis are better grouped with dussumieri though a third from James-

town, Kanyakumari District, is almost as dark as the Ceylon bird. A

male from Edanad, Travancore, also agrees with dussumieri.

140 Accipiter badius poliopsis (Hume) (Northern Pegu) 5: 151

7:288 49910?

1 Pyawbe, 1 Seinban, Mandalay ; 1 Thani Chaung, Sandoway, 1 Ngaphaw, Prome ;

1 Toungoo, 1 Mindon, Thayetmyo ; 1 (col. J. P. Cook 1913) ? Burma.

Wing 3d 29

2 juveniles 220 * 204 *

2 adults, brown above ~ 216, 225

with grey heads

2 adults, all grey above 203 196 *

The three birds marked with an asterisk appear to be wrongly sexed.

In the juveniles the tail has only four dark bands; in the others the

barring on the underparts is a deeper rufous and the sides of the head

are concolorous with the crown instead of being tinged with brown or

ashy as in the other races. As indicated under 138, the two specimens

from Assam agree with dussumieri rather than this form.

141° Accipiter badius butleri (Gurney) (Car Nicobar) — 5.7 151

nil.

[37]

102 JOURNAL,.-BOMBAY-. NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 @)

“142. Aecipiter badius obsoletus (Richmond) (Katchal) - 5: 152

‘1 juv. $¢ Camorta, ‘Central Nicobars. ‘Wing 166 (192), tail 128 (157), 5th primary

- longest.

_ This specimen has more of a. rufous wash both above and below than

any other in similar plumage, and resembles a juvenile of A. virgatus.

The irides were-noted by the collector as orange-yellow though the type

specimen had them crimson. ‘The subspecific identification is based on

the proximity of the type locality of this race.

143 Accipiter soloensis (Horsfield) (Java) Horsfield’s Goshawk 5: 153

nil. ; i | gh

The Andaman Islands are included in the range of this species

(IND. HANDBOOK) but I have been unable to trace the evidence.

144 Accipitr trivirgatus indicus eee (Nepal) Crested Gotnue

si Si: yee

jae 2 99 20?

1 Palkonda, 1 Lamnaeeniel 4 Wibaneeen District : 1 (col. C. M. inti) u Bihar

292 wing 255,267 (238-267) tail 202, 204.

20? 217, 222 (g 224-237) 172-179.

145 Accipiter trivirgatus peninsulae K oelz Srey N. rte

10°: 6 33° 4 99 (1 2 pull.).

1 Anantgiri, Vizagapatam ;.1 Devonellikottah 0), 8 Palnis.

— Though the sexes of this species are said to be similar in the FAUNA,

Mayr (Am. Mus. Novit. 1415, 1949) states that including the juvenile (in

which the sexes are similar) there are three distinct plumages. All the

specimens do not appear to be correctly sexed but, accepting birds with

dark grey heads contrasting sharply with the rest of ae Upp EE parts as

males, the specimens measure: - .

Wing — Seige “Tail

635 195-220 av.207 155-172 av. 165

392 220-232 av.226 174-182. av. 177

The male from Anantgiri. was named indicus by Whistler (JIBNHS

38 : 434) before peninsulae was described. It has a slightly paler and

greyer head.and a paler and more unbroken patch of earthy brown on

the. upper breast than the Series from the. Palnis but, as Mayr (loc. cit y

states that indicus i is darker than peninsulae, I prefer to leave this here.

A. fresh series from the eastern Ghats around Vizagapatam would be of

interest.

Teena. ihe anit. limnit of this race is North ‘Kanan Be

not Khandesh, an error in the FAUNA which was corrected by Whistler

(JBNHS 38 : 433). but. was Tepeated in-the syNopsis and is now. porerg:

ted in IND. HANDBOOK,

i 38 ]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION--3. 703

-146: -Accipiter trivirgatus layardi. (Whistler & Kinnear). (Gillymally,.

Peak Forest, Ceylon) ~~ y Pata APO TAO

nil.

EL Accipiter nisus nisus

499

3 Iraq, 1 South Persia.

Though this race is omitted from Indian literature, it may be worth-

while drawing attention to Vaurie (1965-: 168) who refers to its occur-

rence in Baluchistan. In series, they are darker than nisosimilis and

mneasure’:* SS CE ea aur ast

pee Wing 236-242 av. 238.75

Tail 173-176 = av. 173.75.

147 Accipiter nisus nisosimilis (Tickell) (Marcha, Borabhum) Sparrow-

Hawk - 5: 156

— 19:10 dg 9QP -(S imm. gd). : Seed LF 3

~ 1 Amara, 1 Sulaimaniyah, Iraq; 1 Shiraz; 2 Boya, 1 Chaman, Baluchistan ;

2 Chitral ; 1 Kutch ; 1 Cambay, 1 Rajpipla, 1 Surat Dangs, Gujerat ; 1 Belgaum,

Mysore; 1 Munchacholy Swamp (J. P. Cook 1891=South India ?) ; -2 Palni

Hills, Madras; 1 Meerut ; 2 Peking, China. ae

No. 22283 from the Palnis is very heavily frayed above and paler than

melaschistos, though the 185 mm. tail suggests that race (q.v.).

148 Accipiter nisus melaschistos Hume [Interior of Himalayas. Res-

tricted to Kotegarh (Simla Hills) N.W. Himalayas] 5: 158

15:843 799 (1 pull., 1 juv.) ieee

12 Simla Hills ; 1 New Delhi ; 1 Wada, 1 Kalyan, Bombay.

When naming nisosimilis, Tickell (1833, Journ. Asiat. Soc. Bengal

2 : 571) mentioned no measurements and laid down the description of

a single male obtained at Marcha, Borabhum. This form, however, is

now accepted as slightly larger and paler than the European nisus.

Hume’s description of melaschistos is more exhaustive, but he com-

pared his specimens with European birds, and made no reference to

nisosimilis. His measurements of the wings and tails of the specimens

examined. by him exceed .those determined by subsequent workers. An

adult female is said to have a 221 mm. tail; while:the largest available

is 188 ; a young male wing is measured as 248 mm. against 216 in. the

largest and one can only assume that they were handled in a different

manner.! Perio! avon boi iii eileuby wakiniags G2!

The type locality of melaschistos has been accepted in recent Jite-

rature (IND. HANDBOOK and -Vaurie’s PAEEARCTIC: BIRDS 1965) as-‘ the

epee ee

2 After this went to the press, I received specimens from the Smithsonian

Institution, said to be melaschistos including two females collected at Szechwan, China,

Mopin-Tibetan border, and Tinjujre, E. Nepal, which are almost black above and

have longer tails, 204 and 195 respectively. They appear appreciably different

from -all-the others available in Bombay, and agree more closely with the original

description. -This matter. will. require further, examination, as the series from the

Simla’: Hills: appears to be “neither -melasehistes nor. nisosimilis. .. The~ subspecific

grouping under serials: 147: and 148 may, therefore; please be ignored. ~ HA... ...0 2

[$91 -

704 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

interior of the Himalayas’. In the first description (My SCRAP BOOK

ON INDIAN OOLOGY AND ORNITHOLOGY OR ROUGH NOTES, 1869 : 128) these

words are used in a general manner but Hume specifically stated that

the only two specimens which he obtained were near Simla. In the

FAUNA (1929, 5: 158) Stuart Baker refers to Hume’s second note in

Ibis for 1869 (which is not available to me) and gives the type locality

as ‘ Kotegarh (Simla Hills—H.A.), N.W. India’. In spite of the fact

that Hume (loc. cit. p. 124) refers to a Capt. Thompson assuring him

that ‘two pairs of the true Sparrow Hawk breed yearly in Anandale,

just below Simla’ it would be advisable, as supported by the facts de-

tailed below to accept the restriction of the type locality of melaschistos

to Kotegarh, Simla Hills.

The collection includes 10 birds (7 $3: 3 99) from the Simla Hills and

the adult males can be separated from the other (nisosimilis) males by

their bright rufous under-parts in which the bars across the breast are

‘fused’ and scarcely visible. The upper-parts are much darker, almost

slaty black.

The three races measure :

Males

Wing Tail

nisus (BR. HANDBOOK 190-205) (BR. HANDBOOK 135-154)

nisosimilis 197-213 av. 203 (204-216) 137-154 av. 146 (151-161)

melaschistos 201-216 av. 211 (212-219) 145-172 av. 159

Females

Wing Tail

nisus 236-242 (BR. HANDBOOK 230-240) 173-176 (BR. HANDBOOK 166-176)

nisosimilis 227-248 av. 240 (243-257) 171-184 av. 175 (183-207)

melaschistos 236-257 av. 245 (245-260) 180-188 av. 184

149 Accipiter virgatus kashmiriensis Whistler & Kinnear (Murree) .

Besra Sparrow-Hawk

5:483 192 Qad. dd, 1 ad. 9, 2 juv. 3d).

3 Simla, 1 Ranikhet, 1 Koti State 7000’.

The two adult males are paler above than those of the next race.

Wing oo 164, 166 (IH 165-169) ; tails 124, 127 (ta 127°5-130).

Wing 2 201 (tH 196-207) ; tail 157 (mH 153-160).

150 Accipiter virgatus affinis Hodgson (Nepal) 5.: 16)

233

1 Karuprayag, Garhwal; 1 Nepal. Wings 162, 163 ; tails 125, 131.

151 .Accipiter virgatus besra Jerdon (Soonda Jungles, south India)

5: 159

6:2.36392 10?

1 Bhavnagar, Gujerat ; 1 Salsette, Bombay ; 3 Palni Hills, Madras ; 1 no data.

The two males have wings 150, 150 and tails 113, 114. The 2 from.

Bhavnagar (wing 185, tail 142) which was recorded as besra agrees in.

[40]

w |

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION..3 705

size with the adult female (by plumage) from the Palnis, but it is a juve-

nile and much paler in colour and appears to be of a northern race.

152. Accipiter virgatus gularis (Temminck & Schlegel) (Japan) Eastern

Sparrow-Hawk Temes LOZ

4:2 46 2 99 (2 juvenile).

2 Middle Andamans, 1 South Andaman ; 1 Camorta, Central Nicobar.

The pair from Middle Andamans (wing ¢ 150, 2 187) in adult plum-

age have a broad mesial stripe (contra IND. HANDBOOK), while the other

two in juvenile plumage (South Andaman ¢ wing 159 and Camorta 9

185) have a fine mesial stripe. This difference in the width of the gular

stripe does not show in the other races.

153: Buteo rufinus rufinus (Cretzschmar) (Upper Nubia etc.) 5 : 137

Longlegged Buzzard

26:118679280? 10ad. with unbarred tails.

15 with brown tails, barred.

1 with brown unbarred tail.

1 Amdia Barrage, Euphrates, 1 Sheik Saud, Mesopotamia, 1 Gumazgi, 51 miles

west of Turbat, 1 South Persia, 2 Meirhum, Persian Gulf ; 1 Quetta, 1 Miranshah,

Kohat Dist., N.W.F.P., 1 Shali Peak, Bhajja State, 1 Keonthal State, N.W.

Himalayas, 1 Kashmir, 1 Rawalpindi; 1 Wazirabad, 1 Simla, 1 Bahawalpur

Town, 1 Ambala, 1 Mooltan, Punjab ; 1 Delhi; 1 Thar Parker, 1 Shah Hassan

Manchar Lake, Sind; 1 Tilwara, Jodhpur, 1 Kharagodha, 1 Bhavnagar,

Kathiawar ; 1 Rajaputla, Chupriah ; 1 Sarun, Bengal; 1 no data.

These specimens have all been listed under this species but without

certainly identified material, it is not possible with the literature avail-

able to confirm or deny the identification. Apart from the differences

in colour, the measurements of several specimens are either too large

(5 gd Nos. 12588, 12598, 12600, 12603 and 12608. Wing 435-478

cf. 3 415-431 and 2 428-487 in FAUNA and Vaurie) or too small (2 3d

Nos. 12594 and 12609, wing 390, 407, 2 22 Nos. 12605 and 19092, wing

405, 365).

154 Buteo hemilasius Temminck & Schlegel (Japan) Upland Buzzard

5: 140

1 ¢ Tibet. Wing 477, tail 235 (Sp. No. 12613, Collected by F. M. Bailey and

probably the basis of Kinnear’s note, JBNHS 19: 523). See also JBNHS

21: 182 and NIDIFICATION 4: 99.

This specimen was identified by Dr. Amadon.

155: Buteo vulpinus vulpinus (Gloger) (Africa) Desert Buzzard 5 : 142

4:246¢20? (Nos. 12610, 12611, 12612, 19065).

1 Bandar-e-Gaz, Astrabad, Caspian Province ; 1 Simla; 1 Abor Country, Mishmi

Hills; 1 col. by J.P. Cook in 1913=Burma (?) Wings 355, 370, 397, 430 ; tails

190, ——, 207, 216.

1 See footnote on p. 706 below.

706 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (3)

.1561 Buteo buteo DURAIMEDS: Hume (Thayetmyo, Upper Pegu) Buz-

zard. ties Ui eB teas

nil.

157 Butastur teesa (Franklin) (Ganga-Narbudda) White-eyed Buz-

zard-Eagle , 5: 104

23:73 149220? (3-imm. with streaked underparts including one with

ie white. head and no gular stripe).

1 Qasrquand, Persian Baluchistan ; | Khojdar, Persia ; 1 Rodkan, w. Kale 1

Kilkaur, Baluchistan; 1 aewentodk Rajputana; 1 Gir,1 Patan, 1 Ajwa, 1 Cambay,

3 Bhavnagar ; 2 Bombay, 3, Thana; 1 Raipur, Melghat, 1 Jabalpur’; 2 Meerut,

1 Kanpur ; 1 Narhar, Darbhanga, Bihar.

The measurements of wings and tails are slightly larger than in the

FAUNA, with the birds from Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh appear-

ing smaller than the others. There is no material from southern India

for comparison :

Wing Tail

733 283-310 av. 297 (278-296) 161-180 av. 171 (151-169)

14.99 287-318 av. 297-5 (294-314) 151-176 av. 159

An unsexed juvenile (No. 19621) from Bassein, Thane, piknbay

with a white head, measures wing 308 and tail 187.

The females’ wings are about the same size as those of the males, but

their tails and tarsi measure slightly less. |

As most books indicate that this species does not extend beyond

Baluchistan, it may be mentioned that it has been recorded as far west

as Jask in the Gulf of Oman.

EL Butastur liventer (Temminck) (Java) Rufouswinged Buzzard-Eagle

222: 1 Oheme, Prome District, 1 Atran, Burma. " 8+ 106

158 Spizaetus nipalensis nipalensis (Hodgson) (Nepal) Hodgson’ S

Hawk-Eagle 3 5: 89

6:132 9930? (2 adult 22)

1 Wazirabad, Gujranwala, Punjab; 1 Marnavli 7600’, 1 Bhadrawah 9000’, 1

Kashmir ; 2 Chin Hills, Burma.

The species is separated from Spizaetus® cirrhatus and limnaeetus by

the feathering on the tarsus extending on to the mid-toe.

~The wings measure 424(0?)-480 (2) (475-502 FAUNA. 440-480 adult

3 & C pe Ibis 1953 : 496) and tails 275-310 Gere,

aeapahennncbnman bm

See I ~ a

1 Some of these identifications may need revision—H:A.

[42]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT, HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION—3 701

2: ‘Spizaetus nipalensis kelaarti Legge (Ceylon) Legge’ 's Hawk-Eagle

3: 91

4 4 Palni Hills, south India. Wing 412, tail 276.

Salim Ali (BIRDS OF TRAVANCORE COCHIN, 1953, p. 302) refers to a

male with a 402 mm. wing. Though treated with doubt by Amadon

(loc. cit.) and synonymised by Vaurie (1965: 181) with the nominate

form, this is retained in IND. HANDBOOK. The little evidence available

indicates a smaller bird in the south. —

160. Spizaetus (cirrhatus) limnaeetus aang (Java) Changeable

Hawk-Eagle SiS)

3:2g¢10? (1 juv., all white below).

2 Darbhanga, Bihar ; 1 Jalpaiguri, Bengal.

This is distinguished from the next species by the absence of any

crest. The upper parts are pale as in immature cirrhatus.

Wings 365, 392, 395 (400-438) Tails 246, 254, 260.

The smallest bird is in juvenile plumage. No specimen in the dark

phase is available.

161 Spizaetus cirrhatus cirrhatus (Gmelin) (India) Crested Hawk-

Eagle 3: 8)

15:6g93 422 50? (5 juveniles).

1 Dediapada, 1 Juna, Rajpipla ; 1 Khandala, 2 Ratnagiri, 2 Karwar ; 1 Palkonda

Hills, Cuddapah ; 1 Chatrapur, Ganjam, 1 Vizagapatam District; 1 Sepaya

Sevan, Bihar ; 1 Kheri, Oudh, 1 Gonda, 2 Dehra Dun.

The original reference is not available but according to Baker the

nominate form cirrhatus with India as the type locality was described

by Gmelin on page 274 of SYSTEMA NATURAE (1788), while ceylanensis

from Ceylon was described on the following page. :

In the SYNOPSIS (and the IND. HANDBOOK) the latter is not accepted

as different, but the type locality for the nominate form is changed to

Ceylon. I do not understand under what provision the change of type

locality has been made. If Baker is correct in his statement that

the description of S. c. cirrhatus preceded that of S. c. ceylanensis,

I presume the former would take priority over the latter (which would

at most be its junior synonym) and would retain its type locality.

Wing do 383, 388, 397, 405, 420 (405-430; tH 351-442).

Tail $¢ 260, 261, 267, 283, 285 (280-290 ; tH 229-285).

Wing 9° 413, 440; imm., 395, 432 (448-462; na 353-462).

Tail 99° 285, 292 ; imm. 269, 281 (tH 266-300).

161a Spizaetus cirrhatus ceylanensis (Gmelin) (Ceylon) $186

1d adult, Ceylon. Wing 351 (353-383) ; tail 223 (227-260). |

This race was described for its smaller size, and the single specimen

supports Amadon (Jbis 1963: p. 493). The white order to the crest is

_more prominent than in other specimens.

p43),

408 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (3)

162 Spizaetus cirrhatus andamanensis Tytler (Port Blair, South

Andaman Island) 5: 88

nil.

163 Hieraaetus fasciatus fasciatus (Vieillot) (Montpellier, France)

Bonelli’s Hawk-Eagle 5.97

7:43329210?

1 Ormara, Baluchistan ; 1 Bahawalpur; 1 Fatehpur, Rajasthan ; 1 Mehsana, 1

Baroda ; 1 Akalkot, Sholapur ; 1 Baghowni, Darbhanga, Bihar.

The specimens available measure slightly less than indicated in the

FAUNA, and are corrected in IND. HANDBOOK.

Wing Tail

4 $$ 453-495 av. 468 (1H 458-520) 243-260 av. 252 (1H 246-266)

2 22 470, 495 (1H 490-550) . 255 (tH 254-285)

However, the key on page 265 of IND. HANDBOOK is copied from the

FAUNA and still shows a minimum wing of 480. .

The streaking on the underparts varies appreciably and one male

and a female are much darker below. Both this and the next species

can be separated from Spizaetus, by the primaries exceeding the secon-

daries by more than the length of the tarsus.

As the occurrence of this species in Assam and East Pakistan is

queried (IND. HANDBOOK | : 266) it may be mentioned that Woods, in

SHIKAR MEMORIES (1934) p. 30, gives its Manipuri name as Koruk-Cowbee

and states that it takes winged duck.

164 Hieraaetus pennatus (Gmelin) (No type locality given) Booted

Hawk-Eagle D219

12:7395922 (6 adult, 6 juv.). }

1 Chitral, N.W.F.P., 1 Jammu, Kashmir ; 1 Simla ; 1 Patan, Mehsana ; 2 Bombay,

1 Thana, 1 Ratnagiri ; 1 North Kanara ; 1 Benares ; 1 Bihar ; 1 Bhutan Duars.

The birds in adult and juvenile plumage do not differ in size and

measure :

Wing Tail

7 $3 375-390 av. 380 (370-412) 189-205 av. 198 (188-192)

5 22 370-415 av. 391 (tH 385-423) 190-220 av. 204 (IH 204-225)

All the specimens from peninsular India have been obtained between

November and March, and presumably represent non-breeding migrants.

165 Lophotriorchis kienerii kienerii (E. Geoffroy) (Himalayas) Rufous-

bellied Hawk-Eagle 5: 80

3:1¢1910? (1 3 juvenile).

1 Anaimalai Hills, Travancore ; 1 Coonoor ; 1 Yellambellary, south India.

Wing ¢ juv. 384, 2 398, 0 ? 372 (go about 380, 2 405-433).

Tail 9 juv. 185, 2 207, 0? 202 (3 about 204, 2 228-242).

The measurements of these southern birds are a little smaller than those

indicated in the FAUNA which are reproduced in IND. HANDBOOK (1 : 272).

[44]

BIRDS iN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION--3 709

166 Aquila chrysaetos daphanea Severtzov (Russian ‘Turkestan,

Mongolia, Himalayas, etc.) Golden Eagle 5 : 68

6:34661220? (3 imm.* with white in tails).

1 Quetta, Baluchistan ; 2 Chitral, N.W.F.P.; 1 Kishinjunga Valley, Kashmir ;

1 Simla, 1 Wazirabad, Punjab.

The measurements differ from those in the FAUNA and IND. HANDBOOK.

333 Me) 20?

Wing 610*, 622*, 660 (630-655) 617 (660-700) 615*, 670

Tail 311*, 324, 360* (315-335) 328 (350-365) 333*, 380

Tarsus: 117,. 117,118» (89-95) 118 (95-105) —_ —

167 Aquila heliaca heliaca Savigny (Upper Egypt) Imperial Eagle

| 5 : 69

12:44669220? (4 juv. streaked below).

1 Belad, Tigris; 1 Fateamah, Persia; 1 Lahore, 1 Wazirabad, 1 Hoshiarpur ; 2

Pithora, 1 Sind; 1 Little Rann of Kutch; 1 Bhavnagar; 1 Goona, C.I.; 1

Kurseong, Darjeeling.

The tail is barred in adults, and unbarred in juveniles. Before the

buff nape patch is acquired, the all-brown bird is difficult to separate

from nipalensis, for the measurements are not as distinctive as indicated

in most literature and overlap to a great extent.

3 Wing 2

heliaca 542, 565, 570, 570 (575-600) 575-620 av. 603 (605-630)

nipalensis 560, 570, 580 (510-595) 550 (602-625)

Tail ,

heliaca 262, 265, 274, 276 (253-270) 263-289 av. 280 (253-270)

nipalensis 265, 282, 289 (250-290) 252 (250-290)

Tarsus

heliaca 95, 100, 100, 104 (91-95) 100-107 av. 104 (91-95)

nipalensis 90, 90, 93, 98 (85-89) 83, unsexed 99, 103

168 Aquila rapax vindhiana Franklin (Vindhya Hills, Central India)

Tawny Eagle ae

30:11 G5 15.9940?

1 Gidar,1 Hazariganj, Kalat, Baluchistan; 3 Hyderabad, Sind; 1 Lahore, 1 Ambala,

4 Wazirabad, Punjab ; 1 Fatehpur, U.P.; 2 Godwara, 1 Jodhpur, Rajasthan ;

1 Kutch; 3 Palanpur, 1 Mehsana, 1 Dabka, 1 Cambay, | Rajpipla, Gujerat ;

2 Greater Bombay, 1 Lonavla, 3 Panchgani, Maharashtra ; | Gwalior, Madhya

Pradesh.

As is well known, the birds show great differences in plumage. The

present specimens can be divided roughly into two groups, pale (13)

and dark (16). They measure :

Pale Dark

i bd Wing

(14 500-535 ; Vaurie 490-540 av. 520)

480-539 av. 505 475-498 av. 488

33 Tail (tH 242-258)

230-247 av. 241°6 221-246 av. 233

12 [45 ]

710 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

2° Wing

(tH 510-560 ; Vaurie 510-550 av. 530)

500-533 av. 515 508-530 av. 520

29 Tail GH 242-285)

236-250 av. 242°5 . 234-262 av. 248

Though the number available is admittedly small, it is curious that

the pale males, which represent a juvenile plumage as per Vaurie p. 184

(contra FAUNA loc. cit.), have slightly larger wings and tails than the

dark (adult) males. The dark females average larger and in series

are darker than the adult males.

Of the 4 specimens with unbarred tails, only one is in adult plumage

(dark), while of the 7 with distinct caps of brown or rufous, 6 are pale,

suggesting that the barred tail and the concolorous head and back are

adult characters.

EL Aquila rapax orientalis Cabanis (near Sarepta, SE. Russia).

20?: 1 Basra, 1 Kut, Mesopotamia.

Both have large oval nostrils and measure :

No. 12303 Basra Wing 520 Tail291 Tarsus 94

12306 Kut 538 260 83

Both were named Aquila rapax albicans Rupp. (Type locality Simen

Province in Abyssinia) by Sclater (JBNHS 28 : 421) which race is not

now accepted. No. 12306 has been identified as orientalis by Mr. Bond

and I am leaving both under this name.

169 Aquila nipalensis nipalensis (Hodgson) (Nepal) Steppe Eagle.

, | 5 : 10

824-6392 29 20? (1 head only).

1 Sera, Tigris ; 1 Hissar, 1 Wazirabad, 1 Dharamsala Cantt.; 1 Pung Bet*, Little

Rann, Kutch ; 1 Gwalior ; 1 Gonda, U.P. ; 1 no data.

Several specimens have very distinct buffish wing bars, which is an

immature character (BR. HANDBOOK 3: 43), lacking in heliaca. The

measurements of the specimens are compared to those of heliaca above,

and shown to overlap to a great extent.

3 Specimen No. 12290 (Little Rann of Kutch) has its breast streaked

with buff and is very similar to the juvenile of heliaca [wing 550 (570

fresh), tail 276, tarsus 92]. It was obtained on the same day as an un-

doubted heliaca, but I am leaving it under this species, as it has been so

identified by Salim Ali and Meinertzhagen.

170 Aquila clanga Pallas (Russia and Siberia) Greater Spotted Eagle

5:74

9:6992,30? (3 spotted juvenile).

1 Baghdad ; 1 Ormara, Las Belas, Baluchistan ; 1 Gujranwala, Punjab ; 1 Bharatpur,

Rajasthan ; 1 Kaira, Gujerat ; 2 Lake Beale, Nasik, Maharashtra ; 2 Rajputtee

Chupra (Saran), Bihar.

[46 j

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION—3_ 711

692 Wing 500-540 (FAUNA 542-565, BR. HANDBOOK 500-550); tail 230-272

(240-260) ; tarsus 97-106 (103-106).

In IND. HANDBOOK, the measurements of four Indian females are elven as: wing

514-545 ; tail 242-272.

This and the next species can be separated from the other Aquila by

their round (and not elongated or ear-shaped) nostrils. The two from

Rajputtee Chupra have ‘ roundish’ nostrils and have been identified by

C. H. Donald. Others listed as A. nipalensis rapax are very similar. It

is also difficult to separate this species from hastata except by size—this

is generally larger, but the wing and tail measurements are said to over-

lap. In the absence of any other character, I have for the moment

transferred a spotted bird from Ormara to clanga leaving the sexed

specimens in both species, curiously all females (there is no sexed male

of either species !), in two distinct size groups.

171 Aquila pomarina hastata (Lesson) (Bengal) Lesser Spotted Eagle

5275

5:39220?, heads only*

1 Gonda*, 1 Gorakhpur*, U.P.; 1 Tirhut, | Binburn, Bihar (?); 1 Kalyan,

Thana, Maharashtra.

19 from Tirhut is a fledgling with pale longitudinal specks on the

head, contra 10 1: 283.

2 22 wing 470, 475 (493-508) ; tail 208, 234 (230-248) ; tarsus 93, 93 (100-104).

172 Ictinaetus malayensis perniger (Hodgson) (Nepal) Black Eagle

5: 83

4:243¢20?

2 Darjeeling, Bengal; 1 Nilgiris, Madras; 1 Wynaad, Kerala.

The four specimens do not vary appreciably in the size of their wing

(550-570) and tail (294-309) but two (1 0? Wynaad, 1 3 Darjeeling)

have their bill smaller (27 mm. from cere) than the other two—(30 mm.

1 $ Darjeeling, 1 0 ? Nilgiris).

In IND. HANDBOOK (1: 284) it is implied that north of Goa along the

Western Ghats only sight records exist, from Bombay and Jambughoda

in Gujerat. While there can be no doubt that some of these records

are good, it may be worthwhile drawing attention to a specimen which

was shot at Virar, a little north of Bombay, the head and legs of which

were identified at the Society (JBNHS 41 : 899).

172a Haliaeetus albicilla (Linnaeus) (Sweden) Whitetailed Sea Eagle

5: 110

nil.

This species is a winter visitor to our area extending to the Punjab,

North West Provinces (Uttar Pradesh), and Sind. It was omitted in the

SYNOPSIS but is included in IND. HANDBOOK where it is spoken of as a

casual winter visitor to West Pakistan (Baluchistan, Sind, NWF. Province)

and of which there is only one reliable record from India (Kulu, Donald).

L47 |

712. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

173 Haliacetus leucogaster (Gmelin) (Prince’s Island, Indonesia)

Whitebellied Sea Eagle Pee i ||

Bl Ss 20)2, (1 juv.*).

1 Chatrapore, Ganjam, A.P.; i* Port Blair, Andamans ; 1 Campbell Bay, Great

Nicobar.

174, Haliaeetus leucoryphus (Pallas) (Lower Ural River) Pallas’s Fishing

Eagle a

O37 6S 2°02 3 in adult plumage.

1 Kashmir ; 1 Wazirabad, 1 Bahawalpur, Punjab ; 1 Saran, | Tirhut, 1 Baghowni,

1 Lowa Chupra, Bihar ; | Kurseong, Bengal ; | no data.

175 Icthyophaga ichthyaetus ichthyaetus (Horsfield) (Java) Greyheaded

Fishing Eagle 5: 114

42209207 |

1 Kissenganga (Kashmir ?) ; | Melghat, Berar ; 1 Narhora, Madhubani, 1 Nawada

Lake, Champaran, Bihar.

No. 1247, a 2 fledgling taken at Narhora, Madhubani, by C. M.

Inglis, has the feathers of the head heavily marked with short streaks of

buff, a pale buff chin, and brown under-parts streaked with buff.

176 Icthyophaga ichthyaetus plumbeiceps Baker (Trincomalee, Ceylon)

Ceylon Greyheaded Fishing Eagle 5 : 156

nil.

177. Icthyophaga nana plumbea (Jerdon) (Northwestern Himalayas)

Himalayan Greyheaded Fishing Eagle eM |

1 ¢ Balasun 2000’, near Darjeeling, Bengal.

178 Torgos calvus (Scopoli) (Pondicherry) Black Vulture 3729

10? Gazipur, U.P.

179 Aegypius monachus (Linnaeus) (Arabia) Cinereous Vulture 5:79

1 0? Hoshiarpur, Punjab.

180 Gyps fulvus fulyescens Hume (Gurgaon, Punjab) Griffon Vulture

3 ee iri ||

1o? Kurla, Bombay. (February 1893).

This specimen, evidently a straggler, is, the southern-most record of

this species.

181 Gyps himalayensis Hume (Himalayas from Kabul to Bhutan)

Himalayan Griffon Vulture (32 13

nil. , |

[48 ]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION—3 — 713

182 Gyps indicus indicus (Scopoli) (India) Indian Longbilled Vulture

S16

3: :1o0? 2 nestlings.

1 nestling, Karnala, Panvel, Kolaba Dt. ; 2?

The young in the nest are in colour similar to the adults which can be

separated from immature bengalensis (yet without white backs or under-

wings) by the longer cere.

183 Gyps indicus jonesi Whistler (Margala Range, Rawalpindi Dist.)

Sah

nil.

184 Gyps indicus tenuirostris G. R. Gray (Kahtmandu, Nepal) 5:17

nil.

185 Gyps bengalensis (Gmelin) (Bengal) Whitebacked Vulture 5: 19

8:449d3 9210? (1 nestling).

6 Bombay & Salsette, 1 Panvel, Kolaba Dist. ; 1 Gazipur, U.P. :

The nestling is almost as dark as the adult, but with no white on the

rump or under-wings. The breast is prominently streaked with white.

Nos. 12092 and 22697 were listed as G. indicus, but they are very similar

to others in the brown, sub-adult plumage of this species, in which I

have seen it breeding. The number of tail feathers is not 14, but this

character does not show even in the adult bengalensis available, and I

am, for the moment treating them as of this species on the basis of their

shorter ceres.

186 Neophron percnopterus percnopterus (Linnaeus) (Egypt) Egyptian

or Scavenger Vulture S922

187 Neophron percnopterus ginginianus (Latham) (Gingee, Coromandel)

Poe 728)

4:1829210? (1* immature 9).

1 north of Ornach, Baluchistan; 1 Datta Kehl, N.W.F.P.; 1 Lolab Valley,

Kashmir ; 1 Simla*.

Wings 3 455 22 455, 460 02 485 (474-506 ; ginginianus 443-482).

Tail 235, 235, 220, 230 (205-263 ; ginginianus 228-251).

Culmen 58, 62, 59, 66 (58-65 ; ginginianus 72-85 ?).

According to the distribution usually accepted, these birds should

all be of the typical race, but the measurements are closer to those of

ginginianus and the bills in all the adults are bright yellow. Whistler

(Ibis 1922 : 414) and Paludin ON THE BIRDS OF AFGHANISTAN (1959 :77)

have referred to these incongruities regarding size (Punjab) and colour

but in the absence of any material from further south, it is not possible

_ to determine to what race or races these specimens belong. IND. HAND-

BOOK (1: 311) suggests the possibility of both races occurring together

and interbreeding over marginal areas.

[49 ]

714. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

188 Gypaetus barbatus aureus (Hablizl) (Province of Gilan, northern

Persia) Bearded Vulture or Lammergeier 5:26

13:43¢ 19280? (2, heads only) (6 ad. 5 juv.).

1 Quetta (? Museum) ; 2 Chitral ; 2 Bhadarwar, Kashmir ; 3 Simla Hills, 1 Eastern

Himalayas ; 4 no data (2, heads only).

The three males in adult plumage measure :

Wing 777, 805, 820 ; tail 470, 542, 493 ; tarsus 93, 93, 104.

189 Circus cyaneus cyaneus (Linnaeus) (Vicinity of London, England) -

Hen-Harrier 3: fo8

11:59649920? (Gad. 3d 1 ad. 9).

1 Astrabad, Caspian Province ; 1 Bampur, Persian Baluchistan ; 1 Murghab, Herat,

Afghanistan ; 1 Gyantse, Tibet ; 1 Datta Kehl, Waziristan ; 1 Gilgit, Kashmir ;

1 Simla, 1 Patiala ; 3 Peking, China.

The notch in the outer web of the 5th primary separates this from

macrourus and pygargus. Thirteen specimens were wrongly listed under

these three species.

Wing adog6:337, 341, 347 ad.2 388

Tail 211, 218, 220 244

Tarsus 67, 69, 69 qs

190 Circus macrourus (S. G. Gmelin) (Voronezh, Southern Russia)

Pale Harrier 5: 123

34:20 66 1192930? (juv. 5 dd, 4 29).

3 Randa Tanhat, Yemen; 1 Sulaimaniya, 4 Mesopotamia; 2 Shiraz; 1 Chitral ;

1 Boya, N. Waziristan ; 1 Wazirabad, 1 Jagadhiri, Punjab ; 1 near Manchar Lake,

Sind ; 1 Delhi ; 1 Sunda Hills, Jaswantipura Dist., Rajputana ; 3 Cutch ; 1 Dohad,

1 Nadiad; 1 Pasola, E. Khandesh, 1 Nasik, 2 Bombay, 2 Thana, 2 Jeypore,

Vizagapatnam ; 1 Meerut ; 1 Baghowni, Tirhut ; 1 Calcutta Market; 1 no data.

Wing Tail Tarsus

15 ad. do 327-350 av. 338 (332-360) 197-213 av. 204 62-73 av. 65

(201-221) (66-70)

These include 8 birds in which the heads are yet brown and not grey.

5 juv.dd 322-334 av. 330 200-213 av. 209 65-70 av. 68°5

Tad. 92 362-381 av. 371 (tH 345-386) 226-241 av.233. «65-75 av. 71 (67-78)

(IH 229-247)

4 juv. 22 352-370 av. 363 220-244 av. 232 71-75

The Pale and Montagu’s Harriers differ from the other three species

in lacking the notch on the outer web of the 5th primary. In this species

the coverts normally conceal the notch in the outer web of the 2nd

primary, which remains exposed in Montagu’s. If the coverts are not

fully grown (?), the longer tarsus is distinctive.

191 Circus pygargus (Linnaeus) (England) Montagu’s Harrier 5: 130

8:549 3 92 (2 adult gd).

1 Murghab, Herat ; 1 Kronthal State ; 1 Belapur, Ahmednagar, 2 Nasik, 1 Talegaon

Poona, 1 Andheri, Bombay ; 1 Jubbulpore, M.P.

$3 Wings ad. 355, 385 ; juv. 334, 348, 356 (344-395).

[50]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION—3 — 715

29 357, 367, 369 (344-395).

$$ Tails ad. 210, 222 ; juv. 205, 208, 209 (243-241).

29 215% 216,.227.

3d Tarsus ad. 57, 58, juv. 55, 56, 57 (55-65)

99 57, 58, 61.

This species can be separated from macrourus by the primary coverts

falling short of the notch in the outer web of the 2nd primary, and by the

shorter tarsus.

192 Circus melanoleucos (Pennant) (Ceylon) Pied Harrier S132

8: 734 (2 by plumage) 1 9* (missing).

1 Rajputee Chupra, | Baghowni, Tirhut, 1 Narkhar, Madhubani ; 1 Upper Burma,

3* Prome District ; 1 no locality (collected by F.J.R. Field=U.P. ?).

dS Wings 345-363 av. 353 (344-367).

3d Tails 196-218 av. 206 (197-217).

dS Tarsus 71-75 av. 73 (76-80).

As in C. cyaneus the 5th primary is indented on the outer web. Two

C. cyaneus in female plumage were listed under this species which has a

larger tarsus.

193 Circus aeruginosus aeruginosus (Linnaeus) (Sweden) Marsh

Harrier | 5: 134

27:17 43 (1 by plumage) 6 9240? (10 ad. gd with grey wings and tail, 6

sub-ad. with pale heads, 1 juv. all brown,

with pale nape).

1 Amara, 2 Lake Akkarkuf, 1 Basra, Iraq; 1 Magos, 1 Gumazzi, 51 miles west

of Turbat, 1 Kaftarok, 11 miles east of Shiraz, Iran; 1 Chitral, 1 Wana,

S. Waziristan ; 1 Shah Hassan, Manchar Lake, 1 Sufi Talao, Pithora, 1 Dadin

Larkana, Sind; 1 Cutch; 1! Gwalior; | Bassein, 1 Karanja Is., Bombay ;

2 Kanara, 1 Mysore; | Gondia, C.P.; 2 Baghowni, 1 Saran, Bihar; 2 Prome,

1 Henzada, Burma ; 1 no data. .

Wing

10 ad. 364-399 av. 384 (385-405 ; BR. HANDBOOK 375-415) 6 sub-ad. 379-415 av. 393.

4 ad. 395-422 av. 407 (390-430 ; BR. HANDBOOK 390-420)

2 juv. 418, 423

Tail

10 ad. 210-227 av. 216 (234-245 ; BR. HANDBOOK 210-230) 6 sub-ad. 213-231 av. 222.

4 ad. 219-255 av. 231°5 (238-258)

2 juv. 233, 240

Tarsus

33 10 ad. 76-84 av. 81°5 (80-85) 6 sub-ad. 80-87 av. 83.

FL GS 4 ad. 81-87 av. 84 (85-90) 2 juv. 84, 86.

The males average a little smaller than the females, but it is curious

that the sub-adults, with pale caps similar to the females, are larger than

[51]

716 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi. 65 (3)

the adults. This is possibly due to incorrect sexing. One specimen

with a grey tail was marked female but has been measured with the males.

There is great variation in the tone of brown but I am unable to separate

any as spilonotus.

194 Circus aeruginosus spilonotus Kaup (Asia) =o We YS

nil.

195 Circaetus gallicus gallicus (Gmelin) (Astrakan, South Russia)

Short-toed Eagle | 5: 93

15:736 69220? (3 juveniles).

1 Wazirabad, 1 Madhopur, Punjab; 1 Kuno, Gwalior; 1 Deesa, 2 Baroda, 1

Daman ; 1 Ghoti, Nasik, 3 Thana, 1 Bombay ; 1 Ootacamund ; 1 Fatehpur, U.P. ;

1 no data.

Wing 33 510-533 av. 520 (520-536) 292 508-554 av. 536 (530-571)

Tail 248-284 av. 277 (252-288) 268-295 av. 270 (287-330)

Tarsus 83-94 av. 89 (92-97) 87-101 av. 93

In this small series, the barring on the underparts appears more

prominent in the females than in the males. The three juveniles show

white on the head and are on the upperparts slightly paler than the others, |

though they agree with them in their measurements.

Two males are pure white below except for fine shaft streaks on the

chin and upper breast.

196 Spilornis cheela cheela (Latham) (Lucknow) Crested Serpent

Eagle 5: 96

13:639 59220? ( 1 juvenile 9).

1 Patiala, Punjab; 1 Bhavnagar; 1 Malwa, C.I.; 1 Hoshangabad, M.P.;

1 Baghowni, Darbhanga, Bihar ; 1 Dehra Dun, 2 Salukapur, 1 Almora ; 1 Nepal ;

1 Kurseong, Bengal ; 2 Assam.

The nominate race can be differentiated from southern melanotis

by the barring on the upper breast, the black chin, and the almost-white

pale bar on the tail. This type occasionally occurs in the normal range

of melanotis and represents either an individual variation or a non-

breeding migrant. Nos. 12406 from Bhavnagar and 22376 from

Hoshangabad, both males are two such instances, which have been noted

as far south as Mysore (JBNHS 44: 21).

On the whole the males appear to have their underparts paler than the

females and are also slightly smaller.

Wing Tail Tarsus

6 33d 445-500 av. 476 255-309 av. 287 96-113 av. 104

32 (468-507) (295-315) (100-102)

This race is slightly larger than the southern melanotis. :

[52]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION--3 717

197 Spilornis cheela melanotis (Jerdon) (At the foot of the Nilgiris)

5: 98

15:5 46662940? (2 dd, 2 22 juveniles).

1 Palanpur, 2 Gir ; 2 Ratnagiri; 2 North Kanara; 1 south India; 1 Tenmalai,

Travancore ; 2 Vizagapatam ; | Bastar, M.P.; 1 Badrawa, 1 Berbera, | Chilka.

The brown upper breast and the grey band on the tail separate this

from the northern race. The black chin is also absent.

The adults measure : 7

Wing Tail Tarsus

3d 415, 419, 439 DIS 2585275 95, 100, 108

92 425, 431, 457, 465 264, 274, 275, 302 95, 99, 102, 107

198 Spilornis cheela spilogaster (Blyth) (Ceylon) 5: 100

nil. :

199 Shpilornis cheela burmanicus Swann (Jobin, Thayetmyo, Burma)

5: 99

Pais sien ye

Wing Tail Tarsus

36 Tonokmaw, Prome 447 260 98

2 Akyab 472 283 102

These two specimens could well be included with the nominate form

which they resemble in the barring on the lower parts, the pale patch

on the tail, and the dark chin (Akyab).

200 Spilornis elgini (Blyth) (South Andaman Island) Andaman

Serpent Eagle | 5: 103

1 2 Mannarghat, South Andamans.

Wing 380 tail 218 tarsus 80.

As indicated in my Andaman paper (JBNHS 61 : 509), this appears

to be very distinct from the paler Serpent Eagle davisoni which occurs

in the same area, and must be placed in a separate species.

200a Spilornis cheela davisoni Hume (Neighbourhood of Port Blair)

5: 103

2 92:1 Bakultala, Middle Andamans, 1 Pochang, South Andamans.

Wing 393, 393 ; tail 235, 245 ; tarsus 80, 82.

But for its smaller size, this form appears to be very similar to |

melanotis. In IND. HANDBOOK it is synonymised with elgini.

201 Spilornis cheela minimus Hume (Camorta, Nicobar Islands)

5:102

nil.

202 Spilornis cheela klossi Richmond (Pulo Kunyi, Great Nicobar

Island) 5 : 102

nil.

[53

718 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

203 Pandion haliaetus haliaetus (Linnaeus) (Sweden) Osprey 5:3

9 5 3d 4 ele) \

1 Shaiba, Arabia ; 1 Tanb Island, Persian Gulf ; 1 Cashmere* : 1 Bahawalpur State ;

1 Chilka Lake, Orissa ; 1 Madhubani, 1 Tirhut, Bihar ; 1 Dehra Dun 4 no i

Wing Tail Tarsus

5 $3 460-490 av. 474 187-215 av. 201 59-61 av. 60

(452-495) (191-223) | (59-65)

4 22 470-491 av. 481 205-215 av. 210 58-65 av. 62

(468-508) (204-220)

IND. HANDBOOK adds the following measurements :—

233 481-481 201-210 —

392 482-537 200-251 60-61

* Only one specimen (No. 12082) has a complete brown band across the breast.

204 Milicrohierax caerulescens caerulescens (Linnaeus) (Asia = Bengal)

Redthighed Falconet 352

8:13492 *30? juveniles.

1 Nepal ; 3 Darjeeling, Bengal ; *4 Assam.

The male measures—wing 100, tail 59 and the females—105-114 ay.

110°5 and 57-67 ay. 61. The 3 juveniles, which are not dated, were

probably collected at the same time by C. M. Inglis. The breast is

whitish, but not quite white as the Burmese race.

Ripley has changed the long-standing English name of Redlegged

to Redbreasted. The first name was misleading for it is the thighs, and

not the legs, that are so coloured. I think it would be best to associate

the distinctive term with that part which varies in colour in the different

species, aS has been done by Smythies in THE BIRDS OF BURMA.

EL Microhierax caerulescens burmanicus Kirke-Swann (Thayetmyo)

Burmese Redthighed Falconet 5:53

32 09207

1 Kungulthana ; 1 Mt. Victoria ; 1 Taunggyi, S. Shan States.

The white breast and smaller size, wing: 94, 96, 101 (tails 55,

55, 61) distinguish them from Indian birds. The one bird marked as a

female has the smallest wing and may have been wrongly sexed.

205 Microhierax melanoleucos (Blyth) (Assam) Whitethighed Falconet —

5:54

pA aaron I

1 Haflong, Cachar, 1* Margherita, Lakhimpur, Assam.

The measurements of the male are not included in the FAUNA, and

the single specimen appears to be slightly smaller than the females:

Wing 108 (111-117), tail 66 (71-73), tarsus 20 (22).

As my measurements differed from those of the same specimen in

IND. HANDBOOK, I have rechecked mine. |

206 Falco biarmicus cherrug J. E. Gray (India) Saker or Cherrug

Falcon 5: 39

3° 26611 2

1 Baghdad, Iraq ; 1 Ahwaz, Iran ; 1 Waynabad, Kashmir.

2g Wing 334, 365 (348-370) ; tail 186, 195 (190-200)

12 Wing 410 (390-412) ; tail 222 (207-210).

[54]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION—3 719

207 Falco biarmicus milvipes Jerdon (Umballa, India) Shanghar

Falcon 5:41

Bre Onto, 2,

1 Kashgar, China ; 1 Ladakh, Kashmir.

Wing 334 9, 363 ($d 340-351, 92 374-435)

Tail 186 2, 190 (188-236)

208 Falco biarmicus jugger J. E. Gray (India) Laggar Falcon 5 : 37

18:73 (2 by size) 11 99 (1 by size)

(1 * @ pullet, 2 d¢ 6 92 juveniles)

1 Dandar, W. Kolwa, 1 Chuttok, 95 miles south of Kalat, Baluchistan ; 2 Bhong,

Bahawalpur, | Jhelum, Punjab; 1* Bela Island, Kutch, 1 Deesa, Palanpur,

1 Dabka, Baroda ; 1 Jaswantpura, Rajputana ; 1 Mandu, Dhar State, C.I.; 2

Mira Road, Salsette, 1 Wada, Thana, 1 Bombay ; 2 Tirhut, 1 Rajputee Chuprah,

Bihar ; | Fatehpur, U.P.

IND. HANDBOOK has this as a race of F. biarmicus but Vaurie (1965)

leaves it as a separate species as has been customary.

In this series the males and females fall into two size groups in which

there is no overlap in the size of the wings. Three unsexed birds are

placed according to their size. The adults are no larger than the juve-

niles and their measurements are grouped together :

Wing Tail Mid-toe without claw

7 33 313-326 av. 319 162-182 av. 169 44-46 av. 45

(305-328) (167-175)

10 22 331-369 av. 354 173-201 av. 193°6 44-51 av. 48

(323-364) (169-198)

In IND. HANDBOOK (1 : 346), the measurements are :—

bd 316-335 164-183

92 «357-370 186-210

According to the literature available, the sexes are similar. Whereas

in the juveniles the sexes only differ in size, in the five adult males the

white of the chin and breast extends to the lower belly which is marked

with fine dark streaks, while in the four adult females the white is res-

tricted to the chin and upper breast, the lower parts being brown as

in the juveniles. In the pullet, the head is heavily marked with pale

buff and the tail is more broadly tipped with white than in any of the

others.

209 Falco peregrinus japonensis Gmelin (flew on board off Japan) Pere-

grine Falcon (5 : 32 as F. p. calidus)

14:9 gg 5-99 (5 ad. grey above)

1 Baghdad ; 1 Wazirabad, 1 Punjab; 1 Kutch; 2 Bombay, 1 Kihim, Kolaba; 1

at sea between Bombay and Aden ; 1 North Kanara ; | Malabar Coast; 1 Kon-

dakarla, Vizagapatam ; | Bihar ; 1 Peking, China ; 1 no data.

The subspecific identity of the real peregrine wintering in India still

appears uncertain. Jerdon and Blanford noted it as peregrinus and

[55]

720 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol.°65 (3)

the specimen from Kihim, Kolaba District, was said to be of the nomi-

nate form by Whistler, working in England in the mid-thirties. Stuart

Baker said they were calidus, and this is confirmed by Vaurie in 1965.

Ripley has called them japonensis. With the material available, it is

impossible to express any opinion, but I am leaving them as in the

SYNOPSIS and IND. HANDBOOK. This group includes all the specimens

which have their underparts white, excluding those either deep rufous

below with dark heads and cheeks (peregrinator) or a paler rufous below

with rufous on the nape and on the cheeks (babylonicus).

While they all fit into compact groups, this arrangement leaves no

juveniles of peregrinator, and it is possible that some adjustments are

necessary.

Specimen No. 12113 was taken at sea between Bombay and Aden,

and is possibly the bird listed in Blanford (3 : 416) as peregrinator.

Specimen No. 12114 a juvenile female from Peking, China, is left

among the peregrines as originally marked, but it differs from all the

others in the first primary on one side (it is broken on the other) being

shorter than the third and in all the tail feathers being unbarred brown

as in F. jugger. However, it has the heavy cheek stripe of peregrinus

and the bill (27 mm.) and mid-toe (58 mm.) are too large for jugger,

which further does not appear to have been recorded in China.

The measurements of the 3 races are :—

Wing Tail Tarsus

3d japonensis

309-319 av. 138-159 av. 48-54 av. (49-51)

(297-316 calidus) (134-145, BR. HANDBOOK

130-158) |

babylonicus

270 122 48

(273-284) (126-135) (45-46)

peregrinator

274, 285, 289 1205 277 138 47, 49, 52

(265-295) (128-162) (48-50)

22 japonensis

344-362 av. 354 162-169 av. 167 51-58 av. 54

(344-379)

babylonicus

319, 324, 329 148, 156, 158 52, $4, 55

(320-338) (151-158) (53-55)

peregrinator ,

333 153 54

(312-342)

[56 ]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION—3 721

210 Falco peregrinus babylonicus P. L. Sclater (Oudh) Redcapped

Falcon 3 : 36

4:14 3 29 (one by size).

1 Ambala, Punjab ; 1 Radhanpur, | Gujerat ; 1 no data.

The three females were mixed up with the other peregrines, but all

have a varying amount of rufous on the nape and on the cheeks. The

measurements are tabled under the preceding form.

211 Falco peregrinus peregrinator Sundevall (Indian Ocean, off the

Nicobar Islands) Shahin or Indian Peregrine 5: 34

4:3 $4 (one by size) 1 9.

2 Simla Hills, 1 Bokloh, Punjab ; 1 Karnala Fort, Pen, Kolaba.

The last bird which was evidently breeding is the darkest rufous on

the underparts and smaller than the other two from the Punjab—wing

274, cf. 285, 289 ; tail 121, cf. 127, 131. Other details of measurements

are tabled under japonensis. :

212 Falco subbuteo subbuteo Linnaeus (Sweden) Hobby 5: 42

11:2 $3 8 92 1 0? chick (4 juvenile 99).

1 Azizeih, Tigris, Mesopotamia ; 1 Chitral ; 3 Simla, NW. Himalayas ; 1 Mashobra,

Koti State ; 4 Bombay ; 1 Tiddin, Burma.

Wing Tail

3h 257, 271 (245-265) 131, 139 (129-142)

O2 261, 262, 265, 269 (273-280 ~— 115, 131, 136, 136 (146-148)

BR. HANDBOOK 265-280)

The two males show almost no sign of barring on the tail. In the

adult females the collar is more pronounced than in the males, which

are also more completely grey above.

213 Falco subbuteo centralasiae (Buturlin) (Baimgol, LET Bi) 5): 42

- 19 Langar, Yarkand.

Specimen No. 12153 is slightly paler above than the other females

and also has a larger wing 276 (277-236). The original label indicates

a weight of 8°3 oz. 7

214 Falco severus rufipedoides Hodgson (Nepal) Indian Hobby 5: 47

3:16 292 (one by size) |

1 Bhutan Duars; | Sibang, Darjeeling; 1 Tegu, Lohit Valley.

_& Wing 205 (211-219) Tail missing (94-95) |

29 240, 247 (237-248) 112, 114 (105-112)

215 Falco severus severus Horsfield (Java) Burmese Hobby 5: 45

5:3 gd (one by size) 292 (by size)

1 Cachar, Assam ; 1 Pokkoku, Upper Burma ; 1 Pegu, 2* Thaung Valley, Amherst,

Burma.

$3 Wing 216*, 218, 222 (not available in FAUNA or in IH) Tails 90, 95*.

92 «yg «=: 233*, 243 (am 221-245°5) Tails 108*, 109 (mi 95-115),

The two from Thaung Valley though not sexed are marked as shot

off a nest on the same day and are no doubt a pair. The birds north of

the Brahmaputra are said to be paler on their underparts (rufipedoides)

[57]

722 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

but I am unable to see any differences in the small number available

which are now separated entirely by their places of origin.

216 Falco concolor Temminck (Senegal etc.) Sooty Falcon

2 $3 Both with rufous on underparts, obtained from Muscat Museum.

These specimens were found listed with Falco subbuteo.

217 Falco columbarius insignis (Clark) (Fusan, Korea) Merlin 5: 49

218 Falco columbarius christianiludovici Kleinschmidt (Caucasus) 5 : 50

422383292" (hadult gy:

2 Wazirabad, Punjab ; 2 Peking, China.

The two birds from the Punjab, one of which died in captivity, though

originally correctly identified as to species were listed under Falco tin-

nunculus and F. chicquera. The subspecific identification is difficult, but

the Punjab female is slightly paler than that from Peking. It is prob-

able that the Punjab birds are christianiludovici and those from China

are insignis.

219 Falco chicquera chicquera Daudin (Bengal) Redheaded Merlin

3.3.47

21:10 33 (2 by size) 11 99 (2 by size) (1 pullet, 2 juvenile).

1 Waziristan, 1 Chaklala, N.W.F.P.; 1 Wazirabad, 1 Sadhoki, Gujranwala, 1

Dhulkot, Ambala ; 1 Delhi; 1 Gwalior ; 1 Radhanpur, 1 Kutch, 1 Ahmedabad ;

1 Thana, | Kolaba; | Palghat, Kerala; 3 Tirhut, 1 Darbhanga, Bihar; 1

Upper Burma ; 3 no data.

Wing Tail

3h 194-204 av. 199 (1H 190-207) 120-132 av. 126 (iH 124-137)

29 221-236 av. 227 (IH 220-232) 143-155 av. 150 GH 148-156)

The two juveniles have their heads darker than the adults. The

females are a clearer grey above than the males.

220 Falco vespertinus amurensis Radde (Amur) Redlegged Falcon 5 : 58

Seago <

1 Ambarnath, Thana, Maharashtra ; 2 Cachar.

EL Falco naumanni naumanni Fleischer (Southern Germany) Lesser

Kestrel

333

1 Katunak, 8 miles south of Shiraz, Iran; 2 Ruauda, Tanhat, Yemen, Arabia

(Philby 1940).

These three birds are distinctly paler, both above and below, than

those listed pekinensis, and have been identified as C. naumanni naumanni

by Whistler. The Iraq and Persia specimens under 221 were recorded

(JBNHS 28 : 420) as of the nominate race, but cannot be separated from

birds from Manipur and Orissa which are presumably pekinensis. Both

races are accepted in Western Asia in Peters (1 : 298) but Vaurie (p. 234)

does not recognise pekinensis.

[58 ]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION--3 — 723

221 Falco naumanni pekinensis Swinhoe (Near Peking, China) Lesser

Kestrel 5 : 66

10:6455 4 $9.

4 Felujah, 2 Sulaimaniyah, Iraq; 1 Persepolis, Persia; 2 Balasore, Orissa ;

1 Manipur.

Specimen Nos. 12265, 12266, and 12267 collected by C. R. Pitman

are all in male plumage. Except for the date ‘25-6-1917’ on two of

them, there are no other data. In ‘The Birds of Mesopotamia ’

(JBNHS 28 : 420) reference is made to 3 females and a male collected

by Pitman at Felujah between 8 and 16 April 1917. A fourth bird of

this species in female plumage also bears the date * 25-6-1917’ and was

collected by Pitman. The date of Pitman’s other specimens show that

he was in Mesopotamia on 25 June 1917 and, though the sexes are wrongly

quoted, the present specimens which do not bear any field or original

(?) labels are no doubt identical with those referred to in the above-

mentioned paper as of the nominate race. Two females were incor-

rectly listed as Cerchnis tinnunculus.

222 Falco tinnunculus tinnunculus Linnaeus (Europe, restricted Sweden)

Kestrel 5:61

223 Falco tinnunculus interstinctus McClelland (Assam) 5:61

83:38 dd 4092 50?

2 Sheik Saad, 1 Amara, 2 Baghdad, 1 Razani, 1 Shatt-el-Adhain, | Hit, 1 Tobbat,

Mesopotamia ; 4 Mishim, 1 Tagoira, Persian Gulf ; 2 Shiraz, 1 Shustar, Persia ;

1 Quasarquand, Persian Baluchistan; 1 Boya, 2 Quetta, 1 Wana, 2 Chitral,

N.W.F.P.; 1 Kashmir ; 14 Simla, 1 Keonthal, 1 Patiala, 1 Dakuri (?) 8900’,

1 Bahawalpur, 1 Ludhiana, 1 Delhi; 1 Joshinathi, 1 Chamoli, Garhwal, U.P. ;

1 Kaira, 1 Dwarka, 2 Cambay, | Baroda, Gujerat ; 3 Nasik, 3 Bombay, 2 Thana,

1 Kolaba, 1 Poona, 3 Khandala, 2 Panchgani, 1 Malwan, 1 Sawantwadi; 1

Coonoor, 1 Kurnul, 2 Madras; | Baghowni, Tirhut, | Rajputtee, Saran; 1

Phalut, Darjeeling; 1 Dimapur, 1 Imphal, Manipur; 2 Upper Burma, 1

Yarkand, 2 Peking, China.

‘The two from Peking are both males, one in first year and the other

in adult plumage. The former is as dark as objurgatus but with a duskier

and more smoky effect. The adult can be compared with others from

India. With the material and literature available, I am unable to sepa-

rate interstinctus from tinnunculus in the large series.

Five of the females including specimens collected by Jones and Capito

have grey heads and cannot be distinguished from males ; this is a charac-

ter not accepted for the nominate race.

Three females from Panchgani and Madras (2) collected in March,

January, February are exceptionally red above.

224 Falco tinnunculus objurgatus (Baker) (Ootacamund, Nilgiris)

Indian Kestrel 34165

8:44¢6399 10?

2 Bhimashankar, 1 Lohgarh Fort, Poona ; 4 Kodaikanal, 1 Palnis.

These birds can be picked out from the large series by their darker

colour both above and below. The three males from the Palnis in

different plumages, differ from the others in having rufous thighs, a

character not visible in any of the others of this and other races.

(to be continued) [59]

A new Begonia from East Nepal

C. R. Rao

Botanist, Soil Conservation Research Demonstration &

Training Centre, Chatra (Nepal) '

(Communicated by Prof. P. V. Bole)

(With a plate)

Begonia tribenensis sp. nov.

Affinis B. modestiflorae Kurz, differt tamen inflorescentia breviore

ramosioreque, foliis omino orbicularibus, solitariis vel binis e tubere ;

caulibus aereis nullis.

Herba tuberosa generatim folio solitario. Tuber solitarium, oblon-

gum, 6-9 mm. diam., brunneum. Radices rarae, graciles, 2-3 cm.

longae. Folia 10°5 cm. diam. orbicularia, nervis palmatis et praecipuis

in medio furcatis ; petioli 2°5 cm. longi, rosei. Flores masculi: Sepala

2;7 mm. longa, carinata, glabra, marginibus subundulatis, nervis 8-10.

Petala 2};7x4 mm. alba, obovata, marginibus subundulatis, 3-nervia.

Pistillodium nullum. Stamina 28, monadelpha, clavata, paulum in-

aequalia, filamentis brevibus, antheris 1 mm. longis, bilocularibus,

pollinis granis linearibus. Flores feminei: ignoti. Fructus: Capsula

tribus alis ornata quarum una apiculatior ; alae 1°3 cm.x6 mm. loculi

3, singuli divisa placenta ornati ; tepala papillosa.

Typus, Rao 342 A. lectus in via a Barakshetra ad Tribeni ad altit.

130 m. in dist. Sunsari in Nepalia orientali die 6 julii anni 1963 et

positus in BLAT. Rao 342 B, isotypus positus in herbario Begoniarum

Asiaticarum Professoris E. Irmscher ad Hamburgum in Germania Occi-

dentali. Paratypi, Rao 832 A, 832 B, lecti eodem in loco die 30 julii,

1967, positi in BLAT.

Begonia tribenensis sp. nov.

Allied to B. modestiflora Kurz, but differs in having shorter and more

branched inflorescence, leaves all orbicular ; usually one or two from a

tuber. Absence of an erect leafy stem.

Mostly single-leaved tuberous herbs. Tuber single, oblong 6-9 mm.

diam., brown. Roots few, thin, 2-3 cm. long. Leaves 10°5 cm.

J. BoMBay NAT. Hist. Soc. 65 (3)

Rao: Begonia

Begonia tribenensis sp. nov.

A NEW BEGONIA FROM EAST NEPAL 725

in diam., orbicular, palmately veined, main veins forking midway ;

petiole 2°5 cm. long, pinkish. Male flowers : Sepals 2:7 mm. long, keel

Shaped, with slightly wavy margins, glabrous, veins 8-10. Petals

2;7x4 mm. obovate, white, margin slightly wavy, veins 3. Pistillode

absent. Stamens 28, monadelphous, clavate, slightly differing in

length ; filament short; anthers 1 mm. long, dithecous with linear

pollen grains. Female flowers: not seen. Fruit three-winged capsule ;

one wing more apiculate than others, wing 1°3 cm.x6 mm. trilo-

cular, each locule with a divided placenta ; tapels with papillae. (Plate).

Very rare, on rock-cut surfaces, in shade. Flowering: June-July ;

Fruiting : August-September.

Rao 342 A from Barakshetra to Tribeni (2130 m.) Sunsari District,

East Nepal, 6th July 1963 is the Holotype (Blatter Herbarium) ; Rao

342 B Isotype, Professor E. Irmscher’s herbarium of Asiatic Begonias,

Hamburg, W. Germany. Rao 832 A, 832 B Paratypes, Blatter Her-

barium, Bombay. |

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Iam deeply indebted to the Ministry of Food & Agriculture, Govt. of

India, for facilities of work ; to Dr. S. K. Mukerjee, Keeper, Central

National Herbarium, Howrah, for scrutinising the type material; to

Dr. E. Irmscher, Hamburg, W. Germany, for his critical analysis ; to

Rey. C. Saldhana, St. Joseph’s College for the latin diagnosis and com-

ments ; and to all the staff members of Blatter Herbarium, St. Xavier’s

College, Bombay, for unfailing help in every way.

An Introduction to the Study of

Indian Spiders

T. V. SUBRAHMANYAM

(With fourteen text-figures)

[Continued from Vol. 65 (2) : 453]

HABITS AND HABITATS OF COMMON INDIAN SPIDERS

Mygalomorphic Spiders

Mygalomorphic spiders can be distinguished at once by the peculiar

articulation of their chelicerae, somewhat squarish and prominent cepha-

lothorax, transverse median groove, leg-like palpi and general sepia or

brown colour of the body. The Indian mygalomorphs are but poorly

known as these spiders are, without exception, nocturnal and remain

concealed in their shelters, under stones and rubbish or holes by the

buttress roots of trees, during the day. Many live in special burrows

lined with silken thread. Some are mere wanderers hiding amidst

debris or under stones. Some live in simple excavations lined or unlined

Fig. 1

A typical mygalomorph Trap door spider

with silk (Fig. 1). Others have deeper holes containing silk tubes which

remain open or are closed by trap-doors.

AN INTRODUCTION TC THE STUDY OF INDIAN SPIDERS — 727

Arachnomorphic Spiders

Any open garden or meadow in the country side, margins of rivers

or lakes, with thick vegetation fields and scrub jungles are all excellent

places for collecting spiders.

Family Filistidae. Cribellate spiders represented by the genus

Filistata. The general colour is brownish or yellow. The eyes are

compact, the integument is smooth and the legs somewhat: long and

tapering. These spiders are found in termite runs on tree ‘trunks and

under bark of trees ; also in the deserted nests of Dictynids.

Family Urocteidae. The family is represented by the genus

Oecobius. Members of this genus are small spiders weaving patches

of webs under stones or in holes and angles of walls. In habit they

resemble Dictynids and can be caught likewise. They feed on small

ants and insects. The spider circles round and round the prey and

completely winds it with silk before sucking the juice.

‘Family Eresidae. The large untidy webs of the Indian colonial

-eresids are a common feature along fences, over bushes or attached to

extremities of tree branches. These webs resemble shapeless masses of

‘bath sponge or irregularly folded white rags. From the central per-

“manent web, extensions are often made in the form of loose nets or

sheets. Hundreds of medium-sized spiders can be seen on the outskirts

of a nest especially towards the evening, industriously moving about,

‘some engaged in repairing the snares, others dragging their prey. The

threads constituting the nest as well as the sheet are highly sticky and

any bee or fly coming into contact with them can never escape. The

nest is hollow within and is reinforced by a number of silken strands

closely wound along with dry leaves and carcasses of dead flies. A

number of holes on the surface lead into the nest. When disturbed

‘the spiders immediately withdraw through the holes into the nest.

The fertilized female deposits her cocoon inside a small nest formed

of a few strands. On hatching the young ones enlarge the initial nest

-and the colony increases in number and size from fresh broods. ‘ As

‘the younger generations grow up the older members die or some of

them go off to found another colony ’.

For collection, pull the entire nest and after tearing it shake over

the open spirit jar ; you are sure to obtain enough specimens.

The only genus found in India is Stegodyphus and four or five species

have been recorded. Of these the most widely distributed species is

Stegodyphus sarasinorum. Members of this species are greyish white

With a median white line on the abdomen. Males are darker and smaller.

The size of the female is about 10 mm. and the first pair of legs measure

as much as the body length. This species is common in Kerala, Mysore,

728 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

Madras and in western India. An allied species Stegodyphus socialis

slightly larger in size with the abdomen shiny yellow above and black

below has been recorded from south India, particularly Bangalore.

Two other species recorded from western India are S. mirandus and

S. pacificus. Both are large forms measuring 20 mm. in length. The

former has its carapace and limbs blackish covered with olive black

hairs and abdomen bronze-black above and golden red at the side and

below. The latter is yellowish red, clothed with greyish hairs, legs

banded black and abdomen with a pair of irregular longitudinal black

bands above and at sides.

Family Psechridae. Represented by the Genus Psechrus char-

acterised by the extraordinary length of the first two pairs of legs. P.

alticeps is the common species found in the damp jungles of Kerala.

It is a fairly large spider brownish in colour with long slender legs. It

spins a large, irregular web attached to trees or rocks and sits in the

centre in an inverted position. By the tapping method the spider can

be made to drop into the jar but if your approach is not quick the spider

escapes. |

Family Uloboridae. Represented by the Genus Uloborus. Several

species are included in this genus but a somewhat large one U. geniculatus

(Fig. 2) is very common especially below the thatched roofs of the out-

houses and stables in Kerala districts. U. geniculatus is a pale brown

species, with a tapering abdomen and thin long legs carrying distinct

black spines at the joints. The eyes are set on tubercles. The web is

circular like that of Argyopids with a beautiful flocculent lace-like centre.

Family Dictynidae. Represented by the genera Dictyna and

Amaurobis. Members of the genus Dictyna are small-sized spiders.

Some of them are brownish in colour while some are bright green with

whitish mid-dorsal line on the carapace and lateral lines on the abdomen.

They weave patch like webs of irregular strands on grass and herbage

or in the angles of walls. When disturbed they scurry away. In view

of their small size you cannot straightway tap them into the jar. The

best way will be to gently pluck the leaf on which the animal rests and

to transfer both into the jar. In the case of small forms found in corners

of walls, moisten a piece of cotton with spirit and press it gently over the

spider. The latter adheres to the cotton and it can be easily deposited

into the jar.

Some forms spin untidy webs on leaves and twigs round about their

lair. ‘ The lair is usually concealed in one or two curled leaflets of the

common jungle shrub Clycosmis ’.

Family Sicariidae (Scytodidae). A small group of six-eyed

spiders usually with weak legs and slow, halting, movements. Members

AN INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF INDIAN SPIDERS 729

-of the genus Scytodes are common in India. They are small spiders

measuring 8 to9 mm. inlength. On the carapace there are five or seven

longitudinal dark lines and on the abdomen there are 3 or 4 transverse

Fig. 2

Uloborus geniculatus and its web

black lines. They generally live among foliage by spinning together a

few leaves.

Family Dysderidae. Represented in India by one genus Ariadna.

Often found under stones and on loose soil where they spin long tubes

of soft, but usually tough white silk. The cephalothorax is rather flat

and abdomen long oval ; integument is smooth and soft.

Family Palpimanidae. Characterised by the great develop-

ment of their anterior legs—generally used more for feeling than for

locomotion—are represented by the genus Saracellus—a bright orange

red spider found under stones or tree trunks. Members are small

measuring only from 3 to 5 mm.

Family Zodariidae. Medium-sized or small spiders with tarsus

having 3 claws. Hermippoides arjuna is a medium-sized, round, black

spider spotted white. Sufficia cingulata is a minute spider of 2°5 mm.

running about among dead leaves. Storena bilunifer is a medium-sized

730 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

dark brown species with conspicuous ochraceous marking on abdomen,

Found among soil and stones under shady trees in jungles.

Family Hersiliidae. Represented by the species Hersilia savignyi,

(Fig. 3) very common on the trunks of avenue and jungle trees. The

colour of these spiders matches that of the tree trunk and they closely

adhere to the tree trunk with spread-out legs thereby concealing their

presence. The collector can detect them by their prominent spinnerets.

At the sight of man the spider moves sideways and when chased circles

around the tree trunk and disappears into some crevice. It is very

difficult to catch a hersiliid by tapping. By spraying a strong insecticide

like ‘ flit’ you can make the spider fall down. It can also be caught

in the fold of your kerchief.

Hersiliids feed on moths and ants and smaller spiders. I have once

noticed the common Garden lizard Calotes versicolor preying on a

hersiliid. As in other hunting spiders the web is also made of a few

threads woven irregularly in the form of a patch over fissures of tree

bark. The cocoon is generally laid in holes and crevices of trees. '

‘ | Hi Weer"

| \ pet | A/T B

! Ni \( Hh Re Ay

| INN iy J He

mh ( tl 1 Sy (I Lf

XS ‘ Gk

—_ —_

I “4 vif]. » \\

EATON

Fig. 3

Hersilia savignyi A pholcid spider with cocoon

Family Pholcidae. The Indian Pholcids (Fig. 3) comprises of

four well-known genera : Pholcus, Artema, Smeringopus and Crossopriza.

They are very common in unfrequented corners of roofs and rafters of |

outhouses, in caves and hollows of trees etc. Their exceedingly thin

and long legs, prominent abdomen, expansive, untidy webs and the

inverted position in which they suspend themselves, are all characteristi¢

AN INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF INDIAN SPIDERS 731

of this family. In habits all the four genera are alike. The shape of

the abdomen, however, shows great variation. In Artema the abdomen

is fairly round, in Crossopriza short, oval, but prominent posteriorly

above the spinnerets, and in Smeringopus and Pholcus, cylindrical. On

the web being touched, the spiders oscillate their body up and down

like the garden harvestman (Phalangidae) and try to escape by running

or even:shamming death. They can be easily tapped into the jar but

one should do so with care as their legs are extremely brittle. Cocoons

are Spherical and are generally carried in the mouth.

Family Theridiidae. A large but heterogeneous group contain-

ing many small-sized spiders. In many important points of structure

they agree with Argiopids but their webs are always irregular. Theridiids

are common both in corners of houses and among foliage (Fig. 4).

Fig. 4

Therid spider and its web

Some curl up dead leaves or construct an inverted wine-glass like silken

tube for their shelter. Several forms belonging to the genus Argyrodes

are commonly parasitic on the circular snares of Epeirid spiders between

the rays of which they spin their own irregular webs. Theridiids are

timid and shy and they can be easily secured by tapping.

Families ,Tetragnathidae and Argiopidae. In these two

families of orb-weaving spiders we come across several interesting and

curious genera which present great variation in size, shape, coloration

and habits. Some species are so small that they cannot be studied

without a lens. On the other hand there is the well-known species

Nephila maculata whose body-length measures more than 2 inches,

732 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

Most of the members weave plain, circular snares suspended vertically,

obliquely or horizontally among plants and shrubs or between branches

of trees. These orb-webs vary considerably with different genera.

Some webs are small with a few radii and spirals ; some are large orna-

mented in the centre with silken lace work and zig-zag lines (Argiope) ;

some have a diametrical line of debris (Cyc/osa) and some are perfect

domes with accessory reinforcements and suspensions (Cyrtophora).

Some genera, e.g., Araneus, Tetragnatha etc. are nocturnal in habits,

whereas Argiope, Cyrtophora, Nephila, Leucauge etc. remain in their

webs permanently and get away from them only when disturbed. In

species like Nephila sexual dimorphism is ‘ greatly pronounced’. There

are long legged forms and short legged ones. Smooth skinned, prettily

coloured species and also those with hard integuments drawn into spines,

tubercles, and prominences. Altogether in view of such wide variations

the collection of Tetragnathids and Argiopids is difficult in some cases

and easy in others.

The more important genera that are commonly found in Bombay

and other districts in western India (including Kerala) are Tetragnatha,

Orsinome, Eucta, Leucauge, among Tetragnathidae and Nephila, Argiope,

Cyrtophora, Cyclosa, Araneus, Herennia, Ordgarius, Gasteracantha

among Argiopidae.

The Tetragnathidae are moisture loving spiders which resemble each

other in general structure and habits. They are common among plants

and hedges especially on vegetation fringing pools, tanks and wells and

among grass and herbage growing in water-logged localities.

The extraordinarily developed chelicerae, the cylindrical abdomen

and the long, slender legs stretched fore and aft in linear fashion dis-

tinguish the genus Tetragnatha. Generally nocturnal, the spider leaves

its orb-web during the day and hides on the underside of a leaf or grass

blade. At dusk, however, it comes out of its hiding place, repairs and

reinforces the web with fresh threads and occupies the centre.

There are about ten species of Tetragnatha recorded from India and

Tetragnatha gracilis (Stoliczka), T. mackenziei Gravely, T. mandibulata

Walck., T. viridorufa Gravely, and T. cochinensis Gravely are commonly

found in western India.

The disposition of the eyes, the nature of the chelicerae and the

arrangement of the spines over them vary widely in the different species

and are of taxonomical value.

T. gracilis has its lateral eyes prominent and the fangs and the mandi-

bles comparatively short. The ‘total length (carapace and abdomen)

does not exceed 12 mm. Common in jungles, and even during the dry

months of April and May they are found in large numbers on the wither-

ing twigs of garden plants. One peculiar habit of this species is that it

constructs its web on either side of a small twig, the twig itself forming

AN INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF INDIAN SPIDERS _ 733

a diametrical reinforcement of the web. The colour of the spider

invariably matches that of the twig and it is difficult to spot the creature

‘when it sits stretched along the twig. But as these spiders are chiefly

nocturnal they can be seen towards sunset actively repairing the old or

constructing new webs around the small terminal branches of plants.

It appears that this species prefers plants with sparse leaves to those

with thick foliage for the construction of the webs.

<In T. mackenziei the abdomen is greyish and carapace and legs

yellowish green.

T. mandibulata (Fig. 5) is another common species found on plants

overhanging pools and tanks. The spiders generally hide under grass

blades or along twigs, stretching their legs in the characteristic

tetragnathid fashion. Fully grown specimens measure 13 mm. The

fangs are well developed and provided with two small teeth. The general

colour is brownish yellow.

Fig. 5

Tetragnatha mandibulata

T. viridorufa is a nocturnal species found among leaves and twigs

of jungle trees. The abdomen is long and tubular, more or less squarish

in cross section. The sides of abdomen are coloured green whereas the

dorsal side and legs are reddish brown. Males and females do not

differ much in size. While mating they grasp each other by their

chelicerae. The female tucks her abdomen towards her mate while the

latter injects the sperms into her orifice applying his right and left palpal

organs alternately during the act of copulation,

734 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

T. cochinensis has a slender but long body measuring about 12 mm.

A common species found usually hiding under plantain leaves is

Eucta javana Thorell (Fig. 6). It has a pair of weakly toothed chelicerae,

long slender legs and a very remarkable abdomen produced behind the

spinnerets into a long tapering ‘tail’. Ariamnes similans recorded from

Calcutta resembles E. javana in general shape but its tail and abdomen

are green in colour with silvery and yellowish brown markings. The

general colour of £. javana is pale brown.

Orsinome marmorea Pocock resembles E. javana but has a rounded

abdomen. About the habits of these spiders Dr. Gravely states

‘O. marmorea spins large and more or less horizontal webs between rocks

above rapidly running streams at an altitude of about 1500 ft. in the

Cochin Ghats. Several webs are usually grouped together ; often they

are stretched above waterfalls. When the spiders are disturbed they

fall into the water, which washes them away. When they reach a rock

they cling to it, and remain an inch or two below the surface till danger

is over. Males and females were sometimes found together in the middle

of a web with their heads in contact. Presumably they were pairing

but I had not time to investigate this fully ’.

The genus Leucauge includes several interesting species measuring

6 to 12 mm. in length. All of them possess a row of long hairs on the

femur of the 4th pair of legs. The body is beautifully coloured with

shining silver over a greenish black background. They are chiefly grass

spiders building oblique or horizontal webs and sitting at the centre in

an inverted position. They are mostly diurnal and their mating habits

are similar to those of Tetragnatha. Cocoons are long and egg-shaped

and are attached to leaf blades or leaves on which the spider sits.

The following species are recorded from India: Leucauge fastigata

(Simon) ; L. tessellata (Thorell) ; L. celebesiana (Walck.) ; L. ventralis

(Thorell) ; L. culta (Cambr.) ; L. decorata (Blackwall) ; and L. bengalensis

(Gravely). :

In Bombay L. decorata (Fig. 6) is found in large numbers in shady

places among bushes and herbage. The abdomen has a pair of black

coloured tubercles, or shoulders at the anterior end. The posterior

end of the abdomen is also black. Rest of the dorsal side, and the flanks

are silvery with a few longitudinal black stripes. In fresh specimens

_the silver tint is sometimes mixed with an additional pubescent tinge

of yellow giving it a golden appearance. On the ventral side the anterior

portion is bright green and posteriorly there are silver dots over a black

background. Legs and carapace are light green, striped black at the

joints. The spinnerets, claws, and the hairs on the legs are, black.

Chelicerae are brownish yellow. |

The Argiopidae includes some large-sized forest dwelling forms of —

the genus Nephila, Under this genus four species are recognised but

AN INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF INDIAN SPIDERS 735

the one commonly found in western Indian jungles, especially during

the rainy months, is Nephila maculata or the Giant Wood Spider (Fig. 7).

WA Me

Fig. 6

Leucauge decorata Above: Different types of abdomen of Leucauge sp.

Below: Eucta javana

The female is verily a giant among spiders, with a body measuring more

than 2 inches in length and #? inch in breadth. When the legs are

stretched fore and aft they cover a length of about 6 to 7 inches. The

abdomen is an elongate, truncated cone, black with longitudinal yellow

stripes on the dorsal side or orange patches on the ventral side. The

spinnerets are prominent and form a brown rosette. Above this there

is a deep red rosette. Legs are also black, decorated with yellow dots

at the joints. Mandibles are brownish-black or reddish. Males are

insignificantly small and dull-coloured. In no other group of spiders

is the disparity in size between the sexes so greatly marked. The web

of the female is a giant wheel with a hub, radii and spirals, geometrically

woven within strong boundary lines attached between trees. The spider

generally sits in the centre of the web. To catch a Nephila is not very

difficult. With a long hook pull the web and down comes the spider.

Being a slow runner it can be seized in the folds of a kerchief and dropped

into the spirit jar. Mating and other habits of N. maculata are

elaborately described by Hingston (1922)?.

1 Hingston, R. W. G. (1922) The Snare of the Giant Wood Spider (Nephila

maculaia). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 28; 642-649, 911-923 ; 29; 70-76,

736 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

N. malabarensis Walck. (Fig. 8), is common in Malabar but rare in

Bombay. This species stands between N. maculata and Araneus. The

Fig. 7

Nephila maculata Gasteracantha brevispina

total length of this species is only 25 mm. The abdomen is oval with

orange or yellow dots. Spinnerets stout and black and carapace is

slightly raised and reddish in colour. Sternum V shaped and yellow.

Legs—femur and tibia yellowish, tarsi blackish covered with fine hairs,

joints striped black and brown. The first pair of legs about four times

as long as the carapace whereas in Nephila maculata it is about six times

as long. The spiders construct expansive orb-webs obliquely suspended

at the angles of tree branches or on the exterior angles of country houses.

Like Araneus, during daytime they remain concealed but at dusk come

out to the centre of the web. The webs are permanent structures not

renewed every night as in the case of Araneus.

Fig. 8

Nephila malabarensis Gasteracantha remifera

The genus Argiope is the most important genus under Argiopidae.

Some eight species are recorded from India and they differ little in

habits. They are found in large numbers soon after the rainy months,

sitting head downwards in the centre of their splendid orb-webs. The

webs are vertically suspended over fences and vegetation, The spider

papeiowales >

AN INTRODUCTION TO THE- STUDY OF INDIAN SPIDERS 737

stretches its legs in the form of a letter X along four rays of the web.

At least two of these rays are ornamented with flossy zig-zag bands.

The size and shape of the abdomen and the colour design on it vary

with different species although as a rule, in all cases the abdomen can

be described as truncate in front and tuberculated at the sides

posteriorly.

Argiope pulchella Araneus hiding in a leaf

In A. pulchella (Fig. 9) which is the commonest species met with in

Bombay, the abdomen is pentangular and banded alternately with brown

and yellow. In A. catenulata the abdomen is truncate oval and orna-

mented with round spots instead of bands.

The male Argiope is considerably smaller than the female and is of

a uniform brown colour. One or two males are often seen in the centre

of their small webs built on the upper outskirts of the female web.

The cocoon of an Argiope is somewhat pentagonal in shape and

slightly yellowish in colour. It is generally attached to the upper side

of the web. Eggs hatch in about three weeks.

The commonest genus of Argiopidae, and the most abundant on

trees and vegetation is Cyrtophora. This genus is closely allied to

Araneus, but differs from the latter in some structural details and habits.

Araneus, (Fig. 9) as a rule, has a round or oval abdomen and normal

and strong legs. In Cyrtophora the abdomen is longer than wide and

provided with four tubercles on the back. The abdomen is beautifully

decorated with silver markings on a greenish black background, and

slightly produced beyond the spinnerets. The legs are thinner and

738 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

longer than in the case of Araneus and further, they are coloured green.

Araneus iS nocturnal in habit and its snare is a plain orb-web woven

afresh every evening and destroyed early in the morning. Cyrtophora,

on the other hand, is diurnal and its web is a complicated structure of

a permanent nature.

Although two or three species of Cyrtophora are recorded C. cicatrosa

is the commonest of them all. This species is of gregarious habits,

several of them build their webs in the same place, each member with

its individual web remaining a separate entity. The web of C. cicatrosa

can be described as a perfect dome of fine mesh-work suspended hori-

zontally in the midst of a clumsy, irregular tangle of supporting threads

(Fig. 10). The irregular threads are woven first and over these the radii

of the orb are built and then the spirals. From time to time inter-

radials and inter-spirals are laid which account for the fine and closely

woven appearance of the web. The work of raising the centre of the

web is done before the completion of the spirals. Cyrtophoran webs

are described by Dr. Gravely thus *“ Members of the genus Cyrtophora

are remarkable for the extreme complexity of their webs which are

probably more elaborate than those of any other spider. Instead of

all the radial strands extending outwards from the hub, with interspaces

consequently much wider near the periphery than near the centre, addi-

tional strands are inserted so as to produce a web of exceedingly fine

and uniform mesh. Nor is this all, for these webs are supported in a

horizontal position by an extensive network with the help of which the

centre of the circle is more or less greatly raised above the periphery,

thus forming a sort of tent or dome’.

The spider remains at the centre of the dome in an inverted position.

The cocoons are egg-shaped. Eggs are laid in a small silk sheet some-

what greenish in colour, about an inch long and half an inch wide.

The sheet is rolled in the form of an oval cocoon and suspended vertically

right above the centre of the dome. Sometimes several cocoons are

noticed serially suspended one above the other, but these do not belong

to one and the same spider. The lowest one is the property of the

spider living in the central web. Why the other spiders should deposit

their cocoons in the same place where the first spider has placed hers,

is baffling.

The genus Cyc/osa includes several small species, measuring $ inch

and less in length with colour varying from jet black to fine silver. They

have all the characteristics of typical argiopids but can be distinguished

by the raised nature of the caput separated by a groove, the two or more

prominences on the abdomen and a line of debris arranged diametrically

across their vertically suspended orbs (Fig. 11). Their webs are common

in bushes, sometimes near the webs of other spiders. In Malabar their

webs are a common feature among the foliage of mango trees.

gees

AN INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF INDIAN SPIDERS 739

The immense genus Araneus (= Epeira) includes many common forms

for the most part more or less nocturnal and having the same general

Gass

Fig. 10

Cyrtophora cicatrosa and its web

form and coloration as the common European garden spider of the

same genus. The colour is often variable, the structure of the vulva

affording the safest means of identification. Members are common

740 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

among plants and herbs. The best time to collect them is at dusk when

they come out to spin their webs. With sunrise they dismantle the

| m Wyant aN ZEA

) Mage

Fig 214

Cyclosa confraga and iis web

radials and spirals and keep a few radials, the hub and boundary lines

alone intact. I have several times noticed Araneus eating their webs.

During daytime Araneus remains concealed in a crevice, curled up

leaf, or a special shelter built by it near its orb-web. The cocoon is

white and flat, and generally placed near its hiding place. The mother

invariably sits over its cocoon presumably as a protection.

Genus Herennia is another arboreal genus distinguished by the flat

pentagonal abdomen with sharply defined lateral edges. HA. ornatissima

is the common species found in Malabar. The abdomen is yellowish,

ornamented with black spots. The carapace is blackish with yellowish

margin. Legs are long and yellowish. Its orb-web is generally spun

close to tree trunks.

Members of the genus Ordgarius have habits similar to those of the

above or Argiope. The abdomen in this case is very prominent with

a large protuberance on either side. The carapace is convex, armed

above with a few symmetrically placed tooth-like tubercles. Two species

have been recorded, O. hobsoni and O. sexspinosus. In the former the

posterior end of the abdomen is rounded and in the latter it is tubercular

and conical. 3

The genus Gasteracantha includes medium-sized spiders easily recog-

nised by their peculiarly shaped abdomen covered with hard integument,

AN INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF INDIAN SPIDERS 74\

and the comparatively short legs. Abdomen varies in shape, and the

hard integument is drawn into spines of varying sizes in the different

species. Some ten species of Gasteracantha are recorded, and in habits

they all agree with each other. G. brevispina (Fig. 7), G. remifera

(Fig. 8) and G. arcuata are very common in Malabar. They build small

orb-webs in a vertical plane among low plants and sit in them through-

out the day. The spines of G. arcuata and G. remifera are exceptionally

long. Their dull colour and the long spines and integument protect

these spiders from their enemies.

Family Thomisidae. Field spiders dependent on plants and

bushes. Some of them are beautifully coloured. Members are com-

mon inside flowers. The one species commonly found in Bombay is

yellow or orange coloured with pentagonal body. The eyes are curiously

arranged on a ridge. The abdomen posteriorly presents a laminated

appearance. The tarsus of the first pair of legs which are used in’

gripping the prey are strongly spined.

Family Lycosidae. Hunting spiders of dull brownish general

colour. An abundant group common on the ground in open fields,

water-logged low-lying pastures and moist debris. Hippasa, Pardosa

and Lycosa are the three important genera. Lycosids move about in

a zig-zag manner and are difficult to collect. The common Hippasa

pantherina (Fig. 12) unlike the other lycosids builds a conical tubular

web in holes and natural crevices at the bases of trees. They generally

sit at the mouth of their webs but retreat into their holes at the first

sign of danger. For capturing them it is necessary to scoop out the

entire tubular nest.

Fig. 12

Hippasa pantherina Peucetia viridiana

742 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL: HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

Family Sparassidae. A cosmopolitan family. Many species

occur on tree trunks, under logs, stones, underside of leaves, in moist

debris, in unfrequented corners of houses, in the nooks of almirahs

and shelves etc. The common large House Spider found on walls and

behind photo-frames, carrying a round biscuit-like cocoon, Heteropoda

venatoria (Fig. 13) belongs to this family. Many other heteropodids

are either of outdoor or cavernicolous in habits. Palystes flavidus

(a green species) and Olios tener (light cei are commonly sciatth:

among leaves.

ORE

Fig. 13) ,

Heteropoda venatoria

Fainily Cc lubioni fda €. Common ini ‘bushes residing in curled a

leaves. Some are also found among dead leaves and debris and inside

fissured bark at-bases. of ts ees,

Family Oxyopidae. >. group of grass spiders easily detected by

their conical abdomen, strongly spined legs, and raised head. Two

species of the genus Peucetia, P. elegans and P. viridiana (Fig. 12) the

former with abdomen yellowish brown with white streaks and the latter

greenish’ dte very Common among herbage and ears of grass.

AN INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF INDIAN SPIDERS 743

Family Attidae. Jumping spiders of medium size presenting dif-

ferent coloration and forms. They occur everywhere. On tree-tops

and trunks, along walls and fences, on open ground, inside houses,

sometimes inside garden flowers, and in hundreds of other places. Genus

Plexippus (female brown and male ornamented with blackish design

on the carapace and abdomen) is very common on walls. Many arboreal

Fig. 14 |

Ant mimicking attid Plexippus sp. Scorpion mimicking attid —

forms are protectively coloured in metallic blue or green. Some are

excellent mimics. In one species the abdomen is elongate and thin and

the first pair of legs enormously developed so that it resembles a minia-

ture scorpion. The famous ant mimic spider Myrmarachne is included

in this group. Attids can be easily recognised by the protuberant

anterior median eyes directed forwards and the elevated cephalothorax.

Rhododendron santapaui sp. nov. from

Subansiri District, N.E.F.A., India

A. R. K. Sastry 3, 8S. K. KATAKI?, PETER Cox, PATRICIA Cox,

AND P. HUTCHISON 3

(With two plates)

A new species of Ericaceae, Rhododendron santapaui, is described from

Subansiri, North East Frontier Agency.

Rhododendron santapaui sp. nov.

Affinis R. kawakamii Hayata, a quo differt forma et apice foliorum

subverticillatorum ; inflorescentia 2-flora ; ovario dense lepidoto ; capsula

multo longiore, lepidota. does

Frutex epiphyticus, 0°5-1°5 m. altus ; ramuli graciles, 'patentes,

teretes, scabridi ; rami juniores dense lepidoti, squamis albidis, circu-

laribus c. 0°25 mm. in diam., deciduis, internodia 3-8°5 cm. longa ;

cataphylla 1-2 infra folia, c. 5 mm. longa, subulata, lepidota, decidua.

Folia subverticillata, 8-12 (15) in verticillo, subsessilia, elliptica vel

elliptico-lanceolata, 2-4°5<0°5-2°0 cm., coriacea, ad basin attenuata,

ad apicem acuta-subobtusa, breviter apiculata ; folia juniora utrinque

dense lepidota ; folia matura supra nigro-viridia, rugulosa, subtus albo-

Virentia, sparsim infra brunneo-punctato-lepidota, ad margines integra,

hyalina, recurva cum sicca; costa eminente, supra impressa, subtus

porcata; nervi laterales 3-4-jugi, supra impressi, subtus obscuri ;

petioli c. 3 mm. longi. Jnflorescentia terminalis, umbellata, 2-flora,

bracteata ; bracteae plures, ciliatae, 5-8 x 3-6 mm., exteriores parvae,

ovato-lanceolatae, longe aristatae, interiores magnae, deltoideae, cupu-

lares, glumaceae, cuspidatae ; pedicelli 1-2 cm. longi, graciles, leviter

arcuati, dense lepidoti. Alabastra albida, pyriformia, c. 12 mm. longa.

Calyx patelliformis, 1:5 mm. longus, 2 mm. latus, extus dense lepidotus,

undulate 5-dentatus, persistens. Corolla cereo-candida, carnosa, cam-

panulata, 1°5-2°5 cm. lata ad os, tubo 3°5-8 mm. longo, 3-6 mm.

diam., sparsim extus lepidoto, intus glabro, piloso ad faucem ; lobis 5,

sparsim lepidotis extus, rotundatis vel late oblongis, 6-8 5-8 mm.,

1 Central Botanical Laboratory, Botanical Survey of India, 76 Lower Circular

Road, Calcutta-14.

2 Kastern Circle, Botanical Survey of India, Shillong-3.

3 Sandyhall, Glendoick, Perthshire, Scotland.

a) a

J. BomBay NAT. Hist. Soc. 65 (3) PLATE I

Sastry : R. Santapaui

Rhododendron santapaui sp. nov.

J. Bombay NAT. Hist. Soc. 65 (3) PLATE II

Sastry : R. santapaui

Rhododendron santapaui sp. nov.

a. Habit. b. Flower. c. Bracts: outer and inner. d. Stamen. e. Pistil.

f. Capsule, dehisced. g. Scales on the lower surface of leaf, enlarged.

(a-e A. R. K. Sastry 45720; f. A. R. K. Sastry 42112A.)

RHODODENDRON SANTAPAUI SP. NOV. : 745

subacutis vel obtusis, erecto-patentibus gradatim evadentibus reflexis.

Stamina 10, subaequalia, 12 mm. longa, exserta ; filamenta albo-pubes-

centia ad medium ; antheris eburneis, oblongis, 2°5 mm. longis, 2-poris

ad apicem, poris brunneo-annulatis. Ovarium ovoideum vel ovato-

oblongum, 52°5 mm., 5-porcatum, dense lepidotum; stylo crasso,

5 mm. longo, declinato, sursum leviter ampliato, glabro; stigmate

truncato ; disco annulari, 10-lobato, glabro. Capsula oblonga, 3 cm.

longa, gracilis, stricta, parietibus tenuibus praedita, 5-valvis, sparsim

_ lepidota, longe pedicellata; pedicellis capsula longioribus.

Holotypus, A. R. K. Sastry 45720, lectus ad Begi in distr. Subansiri,

ad alt. c. 1540 m. die 23 maii, 1966, positus in Herbario Nationali

Centrali (CAL). Paratypi, A. R. K. Sastry 42112 A-C, lecti inter

Saling-Hakhetari in dist. Subansiri, ad alt. c. 2300 m., die 21 apr. 1965,

positi in Herbario Kanjilal ad Shillong (ASSAM).

Rhododendron santapaui sp. nov.

Allied to R. kawakamii Hayata, from which it differs in the shape

and apex of the subverticillate leaves ; 2-flowered inflorescence ; densely

‘scaly ovary ; much longer, scaly capsule.

Epiphytic twiggy shrub, -0°5-1°5 m. high ; twigs slender, spreading,

terete, scabrid ; young shoots densely scaly ; scales white, circular, c.

0°25 mm. in diameter, deciduous ; internodes 3-8°5 cm. long ; cataphylls

1-2 below the leaves, c. 5 mm. long, subulate, scaly, deciduous. Leaves

subverticillate, 8-12(15) in a whorl, subsessile, elliptic or elliptic-

lanceolate, 2-4°5 x 0°5-2'0 cm., coriaceous ; base attenuate, apex acute—

subobtuse, shortly apiculate; young leaves densely scaly on both

sides ; old leaves dark green, rugulose above, pale green, sparsely brown

punctate-scaly beneath ; margins entire, hyaline, recurved when dry ;

midrib prominent, impressed above, ridged beneath ; lateral nerves 3-4

pairs, impressed above, obscure beneath; petiole c. 3 mm. long.

Inflorescence terminal, umbellate, 2-flowered, bracteate ; bracts many,

ciliate, 5-8 x3-6 mm., outer small, ovate-lanceolate, long aristate,

imner large, deltoid, cupular, glumaceous, cuspidate ; pedicels 1-2 cm.

long, slender, slightly curved, densely scaly. Flower buds white, pyri-

form, c. 12 mm. long. Calyx saucer-shaped, c. 1‘5 mm. long, c. 2 mm.

broad, densely scaly outside, undulately 5-toothed, persistent. Corolla

waxy-white, fleshy, campanulate, 1:5-2°5 cm. wide at mouth; tube

3°5-8 mm. long, 3-6 mm. in diameter, sparsely scaly outside, glabrous

inside, pilose at throat ; lobes 5, sparsely scaly outside, rounded or

broadly oblong, subacute, or obtuse, 6-8 mm. x 5-8 mm., erect

gradually becoming reflexed. Stamens 10, subequal, c. 12 mm. long,

exserted ; filaments white-pubescent in the middle; anthers creamy,

oblong, c. 2°5 mm, long, 2-pored at apex; pores ringed in brown,

746 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

Ovary ovoid or ovate-oblong, c. 5X2°5 mm., 5-ridged, densely scaly ;

style stout, c. 5 mm. long, declined, slightly enlarged upwards, glabrous ;

‘stigma truncate; disc annular, 10-lobed, glabrous. Capsule oblong,

c. 3 cm. long, slender, straight, thin-walled, 5-celled, sparsely scaly,

long pedicellate ; pedicel as long as capsule.

Holotype, A. R. K. Sastry 45720, collected from Begi, c. 1540 m.

alt. in Subansiri district, on 23 May, 1966, is in the Central National

Herbarium (CAL). Paratypes, A. R. K. Sastry 42112 A-C (A & Bin

fruit, C in flower) collected in between Saling-Hakhetari, c. 2300 m. alt.

in Subansiri district, on 21 April, 1965, are in the Kanjilal Herbarium,

Shillong (ASSAM).

This new species is dedicated to Rev. H. Santapau, as a token of

our regard and appreciation of his devoted service in the cause of taxo-

nomic research and promotion of floristic exploration in India.

This rare epiphytic species was first collected in late fruiting stage

(Sastry 42112 A & B, C & H 459) from Subansiri during April 1965

by a joint expedition of Botanical Survey party of A. R. K. Sastry and

S. K. Kataki and the 3-member British team of Peter & Patricia Cox

and P. Hutchison. The latter have noted this find in their account of

the expedition in THE RHODODENDRON AND CAMELLIA YEAR BOOK

(1966: 73). Alive plant (Sastry 42112 C) was introduced into: the

‘Woodlands > Compound, Botanical Survey of India, Eastern Circle,

Shillong, and flowered during September, 1965. A preliminary study

‘showed this to be a new species, allied to R. kawakamii Hayata from

Formosa. On a subsequent exploration during May, 1966, a careful

search for more plants of this species yielded just two in the vicinity of

Begi, which were introduced and reared in ‘ Woodlands’ in as near a

natural habitat as possible (except for its epiphytic nature). One of

these flowered during July, 1967 (45720), enabling confirmation of the

earlier tentative inference of its being a novelty. In the meanwhile

Mr. Peter Cox also reported in a letter that plants of this species intro-

duced in 1965 into his garden in Glendoick, Perthshire, flowered about

September, 1967.

Flowering in this plant is a protracted process, the young flower

buds covered with bracts appearing in October, 1966, and ultimately

flowering in July, 1967. The bracts fall off, revealing the white pear-

shaped flower buds which later on open into a waxy white campanulate

corolla, with the prominently ringed anthers protruding in its centre.

The corolla lobes later become reflexed and after anthesis the entire

corolla readily drops off. Though lacking the flamboyance of large

flower trusses of other Rhododendrons, this midget shrub with its young

shoots pinkish in contrast to the older dark green foliage and the gemi-

nate waxy white, starry flowers, holds promise of an elegantly ornamental

Rhododendron,

RHODODENDRON SANTAPAUI SP. NOV. 747

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We sincerely thank Prof. H. Hara, Tokyo University, for his kind

and prompt supply of the type photograph and the original description

of R. kawakamii Hayata ; Mr. R. H. Davidian, Royal Botanic Gardens,

Edinburgh, for scrutiny and confirmation ;,and Dr. S. K. Mukherjee,

Keeper, Central National Herbarium, for preliminary comparison. We

are indebted to Rev. Fr. H. Santapau, Director, Botanical Survey of

India, for the Latin translation and to Dr. A. S. Rao, Regional Botanist,

Shillong, for his valuable suggestions. 7

Reviews

1. THE BIRD FAUNAS OF AFRICA AND ITS ISLANDS. By

R. E. Moreau. pp. viii+424 (15x25 cm.), with numerous maps, tables

and photographs. Academic Press, London & New York, 1966,

Price 100s. 3

This is a comprehensive ecological geography of Africa based on

the bird faunas inhabiting the various climatic and vegetational zones,

interpreted mainly in the light of geological evidence, whose value in

recent years has been so vastly enhanced by radiocarbon and other

dating techniques. The author’s personal experience and intimate

familiarity with African birds and natural environments, and his erudi-

tion and power of incisive analyses, have combined to make the book

a truly classical achievement. The multifarious factors relating to the

different physical features and habitats and their characteristic bird

faunas are critically analysed, the general discussion in the book resting

mainly upon the composition of families and the number of species in

each. It is postulated that most of the present-day genera probably

already existed by the Pleiocene, but many species may have been

different. The absence of bird fossils in Africa, as elsewhere, is the

greatest handicap in ageing species. Though the continent has been

one of the most stable land masses of the earth, vast ecological changes

have evidently occurred here repeatedly within the last 20,000 years due

to alternation of glacial and interglacial periods and consequent vicissi-

tudes in climate.

The twenty chapters cover a very comprehensive range of topics :

the geography and environments of Africa and past history of the con-

tinent, followed by descriptions of the bird faunas of Mediterranean

and Saharan Africa, the composition and affinities of the Ethiopian as

compared with extra-Ethiopian bird faunas, the montane and lowland,

forest and non-forest bird faunas, etc. Two chapters—one dealing with

bird migration within the Ethiopian region (chiefly controlled by the

rainy season and food supply) and the other, the Immigrant Palaearctic

Bird Fauna—are of special interest and fascination. The former is

reminiscent of much of the local migratory movements that take place

within our own area—the Indian subregion. As regards Palaearctic

migration, the view formerly held that birds to and from southern Africa

avoided the hazardous Sahara crossing by flying along the coasts or

along the narrow corridor of the Nile Valley is fast being dispelled. .

There is accumulating firsthand evidence now of regular migration on

REVIEWS 749

a broad front, at all longitudes, over more than a thousand miles of the

inhospitable waterless Sahara desert—even by water-birds. This again

is in conformity with what we are realizing in India today in the case

of the High Himalayas, 6nce postulated as an impassable barrier for

central Asian migrants—thus somewhat discounting the ‘ river-valley

route ’ theory which formerly held sway.

The penultimate three chapters discuss the bird faunas of Mada-

gascar and the other east coast islands of Africa, and the subject of

insular avifaunas in general. The final chapter admirably sums up the

author’s views and conclusions, chapter by chapter.

Moreau’s contributions on African ornithology are all characterized

by refreshing originality and ecological approach, by their thought-

provoking and suggestive quality, and the fascinating way in which he

marshalls, analyses and synthesizes his data. The present book is an

epitome of these virtues, though it must be admitted that to one un-

familiar with the physiography of Africa it often makes rather heavy

going ! To appreciate its excellence, the help of a good physical map

of Africa at the reader’s elbow for ready and constant reference is indis-

pensable. Numerous distribution maps of Africa interpolating forest

types and various bird species, and tabulated lists analysing the presence

or absence of bird families in the compared regions, help to clarify the

topics discussed; the several excellent photographs, especially in

Chapter 1, of typical African biotopes will bring home to the Indian

reader a graphic realization of the close similarity that exists between

African environments and many of his own.

S. A. -

2. KHUMBU HIMAL, Volume 2: Beitrage zur Okologie der

Vogel zentral-und ost-Nepals. By Gerd Diesselhorst. With 40 black-

and-white photographs and figures, and a loose folding map. pp. 420

(26x19 cm.). Universitatsverlag Wagner Ges. M.B.H., Innsbruck-

Miinchen, 1968. Price DM 36.00, US $ 9.00.

There was a long hiatus in the ornithology of Nepal after Hodgson

ended his two decades of classical collection in 1843 or thereabout.

For nearly a century thereafter Nepal virtually remained a closed book

to outsiders and only the advent of a more liberal regime permitted an

upsurge of the pent-up interest in the avifauna of the country. Within

the last two decades or so the birds of Nepal have enjoyed the special

attention of a succession of competent investigators, among whom

Mrs. Desirée Proud, Walter Koelz, Dillon Ripley, Biswamoy Biswas,

‘and Robert L. Fleming deserve particular mention. The significant

contributions on Nepal ornithology by Ripley, Fleming (jointly with

750 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 65 (3)

Rand and Traylor), and Biswas went a long way in bringing the post-

Hodgsonian record up-to-date. The volume under review is a further

addition to the basic literature on Nepal avifauna though it covers

more particularly only the Sherpa province, of Solu and Khumbu in

NE. Nepal and the central and south-eastern parts of the kingdom.

The basis of the present report is one of the series of German scientific

expeditions under the ‘ Research Scheme Nepal Himalaya’ undertaken

to study the ecology of this selected area in its widest aspects—glaciology,

geography, meteorology, botany, zoology, and ethnography. The entire

project, spread over a six-year period (1960 to 1965), was planned and

organized by Prof. Dr Walter Hellmich of Miinich (who is also the general

editor of the various volumes), and sponsored by the Fritz Thyssen Foun-

dation. The ornithological party led by Dr Gerd Diesselhorst was in

the field for about nine months between February and November 1962,

and collected and/or acquired some 2000 bird skins in all. The main

body of the report is in German, but a useful English summary at the

end gives the general background for those not too proficient in the

language, and indicates the main topics dealt with—Climate, Past and

Present Vegetation, Vegetational Zones, Forest Fauna, Non-Forest

Fauna, Alpine Fauna, Altitudinal Distribution, Bird Populations, Breed-.

ing Seasons, Moult, and Migration : in other words the complete ecology

of the birds of Nepal.

The opening chapter introduces the country and its physiography,

giving reference to recent ornithological investigations, the itinerary of

the Diesselhorst expedition, description of the various collecting localities,

and analyses of the bird life by vegetational and altitudinal zones and

on zoogeographical considerations—percentages of components of the

avifauna as Palaearctic, Oriental, and so on. The systematic list which

follows covers 31 families and some 361 forms. Valuable data are

provided particularly on Habitats and relating to the specimens collected,

such as the state of gonads and plumage, moult, and in many cases the

stomach contents and weights. Therefore it seems all the greater pity

‘that measurements have been omitted. It is not often that opportunities

are vouchsafed for handling such fine series of authentically sexed speci-

mens particularly of proved breeding birds. Measurements, it is felt,

_ Calls of birds transcribed on paper usually only accentuate the in-

adequacy of this method for those who have never actually heard them.

Moreover, the same call rendered by a German-speaking and an English-

speaking observer often tend to be so vastly different that the two versions

are difficult to reconcile even for those familiar with the call. Tape-

recording is of course the only answer, but how to co-ordinate tape-

recordings in a meaningful way with printed text for the layne ds a

problem that continues to defy solution, : .

REVIEWS at 751

Among the bits of new information tucked away here and there in

the text is the first definitive proof concerning the breeding biology of

the Indian Honeyguide, Indicator x. xanthonotus, of which nothing was

definitely known. A specimen collected by the author on 7 May had

a mature ovary with a distended oviduct indicating that the bird had

laid. An unshelled egg in the oviduct and enlarged ovarian follicles

further suggested that probably five is the total number of eggs laid by

the bird. The Honeyguide is believed to be brood-parasitic on barbets,

but no first-hand information as regards its breeding biology in India

is available.

_ Happily the nomenclature employed in the list is agin that of

Ripley’ S SYNOPSIS, our latest checklist, to which Indian ornithologists

are gradually becoming acclimatized. Two notable departures are

Casmerodius for Egretta in the case of the Large Egret, and Cecropis

for, Hirundo in that of the Redrumped Swallow. Whatever may have

been considered the overriding claim of these names over the ones

adopted in the sYNopsis and generally understood, they will certainly

help to confuse the lay reader !

‘The report is, in many ways, a model of what such reports should

be. It will stand as a very useful reference source and a welcome

addition to the existing literature on Nepal ornithology. The illustra-

tioris of biotopes typical of the various altitudinal zones are purposeful

‘and well chosen. Many of the photographs are superb, and all ‘are

excellently reproduced in the text though the art paper on which it is

printed throughout makes the volume rather weighty and inconvenient

to handle without a rest.

SA...

3. FLOWERING SHRUBS. By B. P. Pal and S. Krishnamurthi.

pp. xiii+155 (21x13 cm.). 41 plates, in colour and monochrome. New

Delhi, 1967. Indian Council of Agricultural Research. Price Rs. 20.

_.FLOWERING SHRUBS, by B. P. Pal and S. Krishnamurthi, belongs to a

series of books on ornamental gardening now under publication by the

Indian Council of Agricultural Research. Dr. Pal, at one time Director

of the Indian Agricultural Research Institute and an ornamental horti-

culturist by predilection, and Dr. Krishnamurthi, who retired from ser-

vice as Director of Agriculture, Madras, come to the task with ample

qualifications. 7

: ..The authors confine themselves to enumerating a number of orna-

mental plants suitable for growing in Indian gardens, giving brief parti-

culars about them, such as their origin and distribution, a general des-

‘cription, information about methods of propagation, hints regarding

7152 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

cultivation, &c. They say nothing about gardening processes, assuming

that their readers will either be acquainted with them already or have

access to books dealing with the subject ; this was perhaps inevitable in

a book of this size.

About 90 plants are dealt with under their specific or generic names,

but numerous other species are referred to in the text, making probably

more than 200 in all. Anyone wishing to put a splash of colour into his

garden, therefore, has a plentiful selection of plants to choose from.

There are 41 illustrations, all but 5 of them in colour. I would have

wished for many more illustrations, even if only line drawings, to in-

dicate not only the form and nature of the inflorescence but also the

shape and size of the plant itself, information that is very important when

one is planning a garden. The reproduction of colour, unfortunately,

leaves much to be desired.

For quick reference, Appendix I lists among other points : flower

colour, season of flowering, and method of propagation. A second

appendix lists the English and regional names.

D.E. R.

4. FIGS OF HONGKONG. By Dennis S. Hill. pp. viii+130

(17°5x24°5 cm.) with 178 diagrams and 65 plates. Hongkong 1967.

Hongkong University Press. Price HK $60.

This is a most informative book on Ficus species of Hongkong and

is based on data collected by the author during his entomological re-

searches on Fig-wasps for about three years in Hongkong. Both the

insects and the host trees were studied in great detail by the author from

systematic and ecological stand-points. This necessitated keeping many

plants under regular observation and examining many samples of figs

in making the insect collection. In total, several hundred fig samples

were examined from nearly two hundred different plants, during 3 year

period.

It was found that each species of Ficus had its own species of Agao-

nidae in its figs. A preliminary examination of the wasps found, in-

dicated that the vast majority were completely host specific.

This book embodies the thesis for Ph.D. degree submitted by the

author. It gives the objective of the work—the systematic and ecological

study of the Figs and Fig-wasps of Hongkong ; the methods used and a

general account of the genus Ficus together with a list and key to. the

species of Ficus occurring in Hongkong. Each species and variety,

following the treatment of celebrated E. J. H. Corner—an internationally

‘renowned authority on the systematics of the genus Ficus, is described

under the headings—habit, habitat and distribution, with the help of

REVIEWS | 753

excellent drawings, pie-diagrams and distribution maps. Phenological

observations are given very carefully and vividly. The insects recorded

or reported earlier or absence of such records are clearly indicated.

Photographs of each species of Ficus together with comparative diagrams

of fruits and leaves of all the species together at a glance, provide very

useful data for identification. Synonymy given in a tabular form—not

quite traditional—does serve the purpose quite adequately. Two of the

chapters give synoptic reviews of Fig-wasps in general and in Hongkong

in particular.

There is an extensive bibliography of 337 references covering most

of the important literature of figs and fig-wasps. This is undoubtedly

an ideal model for similar studies in many other regions where figs are

distributed. It is of special significance to India where similar careful

studies of figs can be undertaken. It is an inspiring work for those who

would like to undertake studies of interdependence of plants and insects.

BP. Vi.B.

5. HANDBOOK OF ROCK GARDENING ON THE HILLS.

By P. Kachroo. pp. 90 (20x14 cm.). New Delhi, 1968. Indian

Council of Agricultural Research. Price Rs. 5.20.

This book, meant for the amateur gardener, consists for the major

part of a descriptive list of plants for the rock garden, preceded by ten

short chapters dealing in general terms with the subject of rock gardening.

{Some useful hints are given under the chapter-headings: Planting and

Care.] The list is very comprehensive. A short description is given of

each plant, with particular attention to the size of the plant, the time of

flowering, and the nature and colour of the flowers, together with occa-

sional gardening hints. The illustrations, in colour and monochrome

and line drawings, are well chosen to give an idea of the foliage and

inflorescence. _ | ; |

D. E. R.

6. INTRODUCTION TO AGRICULTURAL BOTANY IN INDIA.

Vol. I By G. V: Chalam and J. Venkateswarlu. pp. xiv-+460 (16 x 24 cm.)

with 68 line drawings and 45 photographs. Bombay, 1965, Asia Pub-

lishing House. Price Rs. 34.

As Dr. M. S. Swaminathan in his excellent introduction to this pub-

lication states, it is but appropriate to express our gratitude to Dr. G. V.

Chalam and Prof. J. Venkateswarlu for the trouble they have taken to

754. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

provide the student: and the research worker a-window into. the fascinat-

ing world of agricultural botany. The book-is blessed by the Central

Minister of Agriculture in an appropriate foreword and dedicated to

Dr. B. P. Pal— the doyen of Agricultural Botany in India’ as a-token

of regard for his significant contributions to agricultural. botany. |

The first three chapters of the volume explain the process of repro-

duction in plants, principles of genetics with .reference to plant. breed-

ing and plant breeding procedures in general. This very valuable in-

remaining seven chapters deal with cereal crops like Rice, Wheat, Barley,

Oats, Maize, Sorghum, Bajra, Ragi and other millet crops... Each ‘crop

is treated comprehensively dealing with morphology, anatomy, floral

biology, physiology and genetics of various varieties under. cultivation

in India.. At the end of each chapter, important references.on the topics

treated in the chapter are listed for research workers. . The topics. are

very well illustrated by line drawings which are well conceived and care-

fully executed. The photographs are also clearly reproduced. |

This volume thus presents excellent—undoubtedly the best so far—

consolidated botanical account of a very important section of agricultural

cropsin India. Considering the importance of agriculture in our country,

this publication fulfils a sorely felt lacuna. This book must.be read by

all students of Botany as well as by others in order to understand the

complexities of the problems of crop improvement in India. Indeed

this publication is the most welcome addition to the literature on agri-

cultural botany and the authors and publishers deserve: our congratula-

tions for bringing it out. 7

The second volume dealing with Oil seeds, Pulses, Fibres, Spices and

Tubers announced to be published in 1966 is anxiously awaited.

oP VoBr

7. SALINITY AND ARIDITY—NEW APPROACHES. TO- OLD

PROBLEMS. Edited by H. Boyko. pp. viti+408 (17°5x24°5 cm.).

Frontispiece and 37 figures. The Hague, 1966. Dr. W. Junk Publishers.

Price $16.65. Dutch Florins 60.

_ This publication is the 16th Volume of MONOGRAPHIAE BIOLOGICAE

published under the general ceroieyle of P. van Ove by the samé

publishers.

The arid and semi-arid areas cover Ree niaee one- thitd of the landa mass

of our globe. With aridity is generally associated saline soil and saline

waters, but the problem of salinity is not restricted to arid zones alone.

This book embodies some experiences in productivising deserts and

browing of plants by irrigation: with sea water.. ‘The experiments

REVIEWS Sem TE NADS ogg 5

described in the book show that tolerance of most plant species is raised

several times if the soil, is dune sand. Salt water of high concentration

and in some cases even sea water can be used to productivise vast areas

of shifting dunes and other sand covered areas. A few examples from

the many described in this book show the possible economic and social

influence of these experiments. Of interest to us in India are the results

achieved with wheat and also experiments with various plants in Israel.

This book is divided in three parts. Part I—General—contains-3

articles. The first gives an introduction, a summary and an outlook

on Salinity and Aridity by Dr. H. Boyko, an authority of world renown

on desert ecology, who has been connected with UNESCO and other

international bodies. The second article is a review of Vegetation and

Salinity by V. J. Chapman, another international authority on the subject -

of physiology and distribution of plants of saline regions. - The third

article by P. C. Raheja deals with a survey of soils and land use which

ends with a very optimistic picture of improving saline soils. All these -

articles contain very valuable lists of references. ah

Part II contains nine articles on principles and experimental. work.

The first article deals with ecological principles of plant growing -by

irrigation with saline water and the second with observations on plant

growth under saline conditions. Six more articles in this part deal with

experimental work in Israel, India and W. Germany. The last article

in this part is a summary of the UNESCO-WAAS symposium held in

Rome in September 1965. ,

Part III of the book contains a study of plant and animal life in a

salt lake region in Utah, USA. This is followed by an index of plant

and animal names and agricultural products.

This publication, an excellent production, leaves one with a feeling

ofthe stupendous task that still remains to be accomplished to solve the

problems of population pressures on the saline and arid land mass on

the surface of our earth. One cannot help feeling that it would be more

beneficial for us to direct more man-power and finance to this work

rather than land some one on the moon. a

(Pi y

8. OF PREDATION AND LIFE. By Paul L. Errington. pp.xii+

277 (15°5X23°5 cm.). With numerous drawings. Iowa 1967. Iowa

State University Press.

The author’s observations relate largely to bobwhite quail, grouse and

muskrats of North Central U.S.A. which he studied over several de-

cades, but it appears reasonable that the conclusions he reaches must

apply equally to life and predation in general. . Pye :

756 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

Cyclic population explosions have been recorded among snowshoe

hares, grouse, muskrats, meadow mice etc. These follow periods when

food is plentiful and weather conditions favourable. Similarly, severe

winters affecting food supply, diseases, floods etc. seriously reduce the

population. However, most species of animal life that do suffer such

depletion have the resilience to recoup in numbers in a fairly short time.

The increase in population in a territory which can provide cover

only for a certain number results in territorial fights and the have-nots

deprived of shelter, and consequently exposed, become easy prey for

predators. The effect of predation is marginal on a population that has

adequate habitat.

Overcrowding leads to a rapid decline in the birthrate. Overcrowded

muskrat females produced one litter in a breeding season compared to

four litters under ideal conditions. Muskrats. which are generally tole-

rant, during these population explosions become highly irritable, and

even cannibalistic.

‘Most predators are adapted to exploit a wide variety of prey. The

Horned Owl for example is not averse to taking a young fox or acat when

it has not succeeded in finding more innocuous prey and that predators

have to work quite hard for a living will be evident from Gustav Rude-

beck’s observations in southern Sweden. For the bird-hunting European

Sparrow Hawk, he recorded a total of 22 victims taken in 500 completed

attacks and attempts at seizure. |

The relative scarcity of predators is illustrated by a study made in

an area of southern Michigan which showed ninety-six hawks of six

species and sixty-three owls of four species that had below them in the

‘Pyramid of numbers’ about 360,000 small to medium sized mammals

and birds.

Through in-built population control mechanisms and predation,

nature maintains a balance. This balance is upset when there is human

interference leading to the destruction of cover resulting in the exposure

and consequent extermination of various species of birds and mammals.

Sentimental animosity to certain predators, like for example wolves

which play an important role in controlling the Caribou population in

northern America, has led to their mass destruction by employing air-

craft to drop poisoned bait in remote areas. Golden Eagles, although

legally protected are nevertheless subject to persecution even in Scan-

dinavia where people are so conservation-minded. No predator is so

numerous as to be a menace to justify such senseless persecution. Fan-

ciful ideas of transferring species to regions where they are exotic have in

many instances been harmful to the native species.

An interesting opinion that the author expresses concerns his doubt

whether biological control on a large scale will be as successful as it is

convincingly shown to be in some controlled experiments.

REVIEWS | 757

Dr. Errington quite rightly deprecates the tendency to justify the

existence of this or that species solely on economic grounds and feels that

it is a public responsibility to safeguard what can be saved of wilderness

areas before the great push of humanity.

This informative book would have been more readable if the statis-

tics in it, of which there is a fair amount, could have been presented in

tabular form instead of being narrated which makes it somewhat soporific.

The pen ink illustrations are quite attractive.

GS, R.

9. THE TERRITORIAL IMPERATIVE. By Robert Ardrey.

pp. 390. Delta book (paper back) TM 755118. New York, 1968. Dell Co.,

Inc. Price $ 2.45.

Mr. Ardrey’s first career was writing plays. Later he was sent to

Africa to write a series of magazine articles and while there became in-

terested in discoveries made by anthropologists on the early evolution

of man and his ancestors. The result was his first book, AFRICAN GENE-

sis, in which he drew not only from information gathered by anthro-

pologists studying fossils, but also by zoologists studying live animals.

His interest continued and deepened and resulted in the publication of

THE TERRITORIAL IMPERATIVE which bears the subtitle A Personal inquiry

into the Animal Origins of Property and Nations.

He has read a great many books and papers dealing with animal

behaviour and attempts to put this information together in a way which

demonstrates his thesis on the origin of property and nations. It has been

said by some reviewers that he has an economic or political axe to grind.

That is so. It is also true that at times he allows his strong feelings on

the subjects to mar the objectivity and continuity of his argument. And

occasionally he becomes overwhelmed by his sense of the dramatic, or

the humorous, and loses the sympathy of the critical reader.

But the book should not be dismissed merely because of these faults.

His ideas are interesting and provocative.

His thesis is this: Man’s behaviour, since he is an animal, is basically

that of other animals (this idea is not far from that of Sigmund Freud,

although he reached different conclusions). Further, Ardrey continues,

one of the basic behavioural traits of most higher species is territorialism

and this traitisshared by man. Territorial animals defend an area against

intrusion by members of the same species. The size of the territory, the

duration of its defence, and the number of individuals involved in the

defence vary greatly from species to species. The male Uganda Kob,

for instance, defends only a small area of a few hundred square feet, and

that only during rut. Some primates, such as the howler monkeys, live

758 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (3)

in bands which occupy and defend larger areas On-a more or less per-

manent basis.

The Darwinian idea of males competing with other males for mates

has been modified (as discussed by Wynne-Edwards in his ANIMAL DIS-

PERSION IN RELATION TO SOCIAL BEHAVIOUR). It is now generally recog-

nized that males, be they Uganda Kob or robins, are competing for a

territory, a space which contains, or will contain, a female, or as Ardrey

puts it, they are ee for real-estate:

_Ardrey sees man’s territorialism expressed on the individual level

(‘my house’, ‘ my farm,’ ‘ my coat’), on the family or group level, and

finally on the national level. Modern nations have Le counter part

in some species of primates. — Mi

...-Along with man’s innate. fesFitérlakismn te displaced: man’s ebay

innate tendency to intrude upon his neighbour’s territories;. the biological

basis of war. Like several other people who have thought about the

subject, Ardrey believes that if-a trait is innate; or instinctive; we cannot

tid ourselves of it: The only hope is to offer alternative outlets for

man’s aggressive tendencies. He calls for tire ritualization of v war ‘so

that it becomes harmless.

~~ Even the most vociferous’ critics ‘of Ardrey will admit that there are,

if fiothing else, parallels between the behaviour of other animals and man

‘regarding territory. The real question is, of ‘course, is ‘man actually

‘territorial 7 ~Ardrey is ‘convinced that he is and he has, I believe, voiced

an opinion, no matter how shaky his logic might’ be at tintes; which

‘has been held nebulously ‘and silently by many ethologists for the last

‘decade or 80. When I look at the jealousy with which I guard my desk,

my home, my family, my nation, I suspect’man is territorial. Pérhaps

| Ardrey’ S book will help’ to stimulate more e intensive examinations of the

question.

w ‘ e e é

Seal Ci le) al ! i ty sed ae F ‘ 4 ae

% = . - al ae hein : eh A Sie Nat Bes

10. TRACKS. By E. A. R. Ennion and N. Tinbergen. pp. 63

(28X21 cm.). With numerous photographs | and drawings. : Oxford,

1967. Oxford Wales sibs. Press. Price 25s. net, U.K.

The title TRACKS, in its ‘brevity. and clarity, is in keepitig’ with the

: brevity and clarity ‘of the text that accompanies the beautiful photo-

graphs of Professor Tinbergen and the delightful coloured drawings of

Dr. Ennion that help to make them more readily ‘intelligible: A’ fore-

taste of the feast i in store is given by the natterjack toad Painfully’ sci aiw-

ling his picturesque ‘tfail across the dust cover: ~

4 One, cannot watch” animals—I use thé term in its’ ‘widest Serise—all

the time arid in‘all places.” This book shows how much oné Cait, Tearn of

REVIEWS Ba “. -9§9

their doings and of their ways by merely studying the little traces they

leave behind them in their movements, in the day and particularly during

the night.

Less than 30 words ee to give meaning to a trail across a Ging:

rippled sandflat and help us to picture exactly how it was formed by a

gait we all know, a rabbit hopping slowly along. About 40 words, aided

by a coloured drawing, bring to life the track of a rabbit moving quietly

forward and scared away by a sudden alarm. A similar track left by

an oystercatcher on wind-rippled sand indicates a change of direction of

the wind since the ripples were formed. Sometimes the drawing alone

suffices and words are unnecessary (pages 24 and 25).

This is a book that should be in the hands of all young persons, to

rouse their interest in nature and, if they are already interested, to guide

them towards intelligent observation. And it should be carefully perused

by every grown-up also.

D. E.R.

11. MIMICRY IN PLANTS AND ANIMALS. By Wolfgang Wickler. Tran-

slated from the German by R. D. Martin. World University Library

pp. 153 (19x12cm). With 52 illustrations. London, 1968. Weidenfeld

and Nicolson. Paperback. Price (in UK only) 16s net.

Since Henry Bates in 1862 first formulated his ideas on the pheno-

menon of mimicry, the concept of mimicry has been much developed.

In addition to Batesian mimicry, the mimicking of a protected by an un-

protected form of life, we now speak of Millerian mimicry where two

or more protected forms resemble one another, Mertensian mimicry in

which a deadly form mimics a less dangerous form, and aggressive or

Peckhammian mimicry. Or mimicry may be of an unprotected form,

for example certain trematode larvae mimic a water-flea in order to be

swallowed by a fish and so continue their cycle of life. In another form

of mimicry the male of an African Cichlid fish, by means of a pattern of

eggs on its anal fin, induces the female to swallow water in which he has

spawned and so to fertilise unfertilised eggs which she has already taken

into her mouth for brooding. The subject is vast and full of compli-

cations and- overlapping. The -signals by which deception is effected

may be of various kinds, visual; acoustic, tactile, behavioural. Mimick-

‘ing may even be by a group, for example a group of Fulgorid bugs mimics

an inflorescence, or a collection of marine worms a sea-anemone. -In a

mimicking species the males may: be non-mimetic and at the same time

‘the mimetic females: may be polymorphic and modelled upon more than

‘one protected species.-- Several signal transmitters may mimic a com-

760 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

mon model or models, the mimicry being Batesian at one end and

Peckhammian at the other. Several signal receivers may be involved,

each responding to a different signal or combination of signals. Often

it is difficult to decide which is the signal receiver concerned, and to deter-

mine which of the signal transmitters is the model and which the mimic.

These are only some of the possibilities. Hence, it is difficult to estab-

lish the theory by rigid proof and mimicry is still a matter of controversy.

The subject, together with the allied phenomenon of camouflage or

cryptic colouring, is discussed by the author in all its complexity, and the

manner in which the phenomenon may have evolved is considered.

Numerous illustrative and instructive examples are cited and an account

is given of the research done towards establishing the theory. The

book is tough reading for the layman but is intensely rewarding. The

text is accompanied by numerous good illustrations.

D. E.R.

12. GALAPAGOS. ISLANDS OF BIRDS. By Bryan Nelson. pp. xx+338

(23 x15 cm.). 57 Photographs in 24 plates, a map and numerous text-

figures. London, 1968. Longmans, Green and Co. Ltd. Price 50s.

A trained birdwatcher can spend his time usefully anywhere. The

seemingly unco-ordinated movements of flocks of sea birds wheeling

over the ocean, or the peculiar postures adopted by individuals when

they settle on land are all pointers which lead him along the road of

discovery. He does not know in the beginning, whether the data he

is collecting can be assembled into an integrated essay at the end of his

study, or whether it will be an unconnected series of observations. The

more perspicacious the observer, the less his observations will be wasted,

and everything he sees will become grist to the mill of his keen mind.

This is the feeling one gets while reading this entertaining and scienti-

fically written account of the birds of the Galapagos islands. Eighteen

months of arduous work on a waterless island could only be sustained

if the author knew that he was doing something valuable, and adding

substantially to the existing knowledge of world ornithologists.

Many naturalists would be incapable of doing the work they do

unless they were both emotionally and physically supported by their

wives during their expeditions, and Bryan Nelson acknowledges that

without the aid of a wife who was ‘field assistant, cook, secretary,

companion and critic’ he could not have continued his work for so

long on an uninhabited, waterless Galapagos Island. So dry is this

place, surrounded by the oceans, that mocking birds were very often

seen pecking at the cloaca of boobies, and blood drinking by these

REVIEWS Cu 761

passerines showed how short they were of liquids. The plight of the

ornithologist couple can be imagined. |

The Sulidae, gannets and boobies, are a family belonging to a large

order Pelecaniformes (Pelicans, boobies, gannets, cormorants, darters,

tropic birds, frigates). This book deals mainly with the redfooted,

white, bluefooted and Peruvian boobies, but there are most interesting

accounts of other birds like albatrosses, gulls, mocking birds as well.

The author’s erudition sits lightly upon him, but his easy style cannot

entirely conceal the arduous grind which these studies must have involved.

Banding, weighing, measuring, recording hundreds of nestlings before

breakfast every morning, waiting for hours on end to see how often the

nestlings are fed and handling unpleasantly oily gannet nestlings, can

become unbearable chores after the initial excitement of the first few

days are over. The author’s capacity to sketch as ably as he writes is

a great asset. Many situations which can be conveyed to the reader

by a sketch cannot adequately be expressed in words: for example

‘A male red-foot momentarily aggressive to the female, eliciting slight

withdrawal ’, ‘ Blue-foots mutual sky pointing’; ‘frigate up-ending a

white booby’. A few strokes of the pencil give an excellent represen-

tation of a Galapogos hawk carrying off a Darwin finch, while a dozen

sketches, of the waved albatross and white boobies, and swallow-tailed

gulls reveal their courtship patterns and threat postures in just one

double page each. These sketches make the book lively and interesting

in a way which the fine writing alone could not have done, and this

again goes to show how many qualities a naturalist must have before

he can produce a really worthwhile book.

The most interesting part of a book of this nature, at least to this

reviewer, are the generalisations, the formulating of ecological principles,

the determining of the relationship between birds and their specific

environments. Why has the Redfooted Booby for instance, evolved

into an arboreal bird in spite of its webbed feet ? Was it because of its

short tarsi which makes it easier for it to hop on branches rather than

progress on the ground? What is the advantage of whiteness to a sea

bird ? Apparently it is less visible to fish than a dark form, but then

why have dark forms survived at all, and are the dark forms predo-

minantly nocturnal or crepuscular in their hunting habits ?

Being surrounded by vast numbers of gannets and boobies the author

had an excellent opportunity to see the differences in their habits, and

to find out which of these species were better adapted to their harsh

environment. In spite of the so called abundance of the seas there were

‘days when a young booby had to wait five days before its parents returned

from their foraging expeditions (This incidentally means that the author/

wife had to keep between them a round-the clock vigil for 5 days to see

what was happening.) The death rate is absurdly high and in one case

762 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VWol. 65 (3)

92% of the eggs failed to produce an adult bird. The author suggests

that the lack of food is responsible for nature’s harsh scheme of keeping

only so many birds alive in any particular area.

Bryan Nelson has set a standard of ornithological writing which not

ny will be able to achieve. . :

Zk.

13. PESTICIDES AND POLLUTION. By Kenneth Mellanby.

pp. 221 (22x15 cm.) 14 illustrations. London, 1967. Collins.

Price 30s net.

The problem of pollution of the air, water and land has received,

as it should, increasing attention during the last decade. Rachel Carson,

apparently, overstated, the case against synthetic chemicals, but there is

no room at all for complacency, and in arriving at a balanced view, this

book, written by the Director, of the Nature Conservancy’s, Monks:

wood Experimental Station, will play a valuable part. :

It is cheering to learn that the Oxygen content of the air is so high

that smoke, dust and overcrowding cannot lead to'serious consequences

for the human race. The housewife will be driven to desperation by

soot blackening curtains and furniture, and white sheep will become

black around smoke infested industrial zones, but the damage does not

go any deeper than this. The 2111 recording instruments spread. over

Britain indicate that in heavily industrialised areas about 2 Ibs. of grit

and dust fall on every square yard. In rural areas the figure may be

less than a tenth of an ounce. Sulphur dioxide produced by burning

oil is more of a health hazard, but the worst offender is the 3000 tons

of lead emitted with the exhaust gas of cars in Britain.

Carbon dioxide is another gas which can cause serious damage. At

the present rate of burning of ‘fossil fuels’ the Co, content of the

atmosphere may be raised by 25%, and this may have the catastrophic

consequence of melting the polar ice cap and submerging a great part

of the land surface of the world. Not enough is yet known, however,

about this factor, to justify an alarmist view. An interesting side effect

of pollution of the atmosphere by man is the evolution of melanic races

of moths which are adapting themselves to their new dark environments.

The Peppered Moth (Bison betularie) is a case in point.

As far as wild life is concerned, generally, man has to be more bavartil

with keeping the water from contamination for the quantity of oxygen

in water is much less than in the air, and any damage has deleterious

effects on all aquatic forms. |

_ Though atomic radiation is a factor which has caused the atest

concern to the human race in recent years, it appears from what: the

REVIEWS 763

author writes that the present quantities of radio-active pollution is on

a very small scale compared even to the intensity of solar radiation.

In terms of rads the total radiation from cosmic, rays, from rocks, and

from within the. body amounts to. about 0°1000, while the radiation

from atomic explosions and waste disposal amounts to only °0016.

The author discusses in a very convincing’ manner the effects of

pesticides and insecticides on various forms of wild life, and on the

environment in general, and pleads for more scientific research as well

as for more positive action by all citizens to arrest the growing pollution

of our environment. | '

Zak.

Miscellaneous Notes

1. TAXONOMIC STATUS OF ROUSETTUS SEMINUDUS

(GRAY): (CHIROPTERA: PTEROPIDAE)

INTRODUCTION

The Indian Fulvous Fruit Bat, Rousettus leschenaulti (Desmarest,

i820) and the Ceylon Fruit Bat, R. seminudus (Gray, 1870) are very

difficult to separate. Jerdon (1874), Dobson (1876) and Blanford

(1891) considered them as conspecific. On the other hand, Andersen

(1912), Wroughton (1918), Tate (1943) and Ellerman & Morrison-

Scott (1951) treated them as separate species. Recently, Brosset

(1962, p. 10) was uncertain of their correct taxonomic status and

wrote, in reference to R. leschenaulti, ‘conspecific with Rousettus

seminudus.’ 7

In an attempt to settle the taxonomic status of R. seminudus, I

made a thorough study of all the specimens of these two species

available in the Zoological Survey of India and my findings are

presented below.

MATERIAL

The following material was examined :—

Rousettus leschenaulti: 9 33, 7 22 (preserved in spirit) and 8 dd, 6 99 (skins

from India and Burma. ;

Rousettus seminudus : 1g, 2 99 (preserved in spirit) and 1g, 13 99 (skins) from

Ceylon. )

OBSERVATIONS

Rousettus leschenaulti and R, seminudus are said to differ from

each other on coloration, amount of fur on the nape and shoulders,

length of the forearm and the presence or absence of the upper first

premolar.

Coloration :

According to Gray (1870), in R. seminudus the coloration of the

upper side is chestnut brown (grey brown of R, leschenaulti), and

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 765

that of the upper chest white, tower chest and belly pale brown (fulvous

ashy of R. leschenaulti).

In the dry skins of both species, however, the coloration of the

upper side varies from yellowish brown to dark brown and that of

the underside wood brown. As the coloration observed by the

earlier authors and myself do not agree with one another, it seems

that this variation may be individual or due to sex, age, season, age

of skin, etc.

Amount of fur on the nape and shoulders:

Andersen (1912) stated that the nape and shoulders are semi-

naked in R. seminudus, but in R. leschenaulti the fur in these regions

is not unusua!ly scarce.

An examination of my specimens reveals that the amount of fur

on the nape and shoulders is variable, and that semi-naked nape and

shoulders are found in specimens of both species.

Lensth of the forearm:

The length of the forearm in R. seminudus has been given as

79-85 mm., and that of R. leschenaulti 80:5-87°5 mm. (Andersen

1912). However, as may be seen from the measurements given by

Andersen (1912) and those of my specimens (Table), there is

complete overlap in the length of the forearm of the two species,

The Table also shows that there is no difference in the measurements

of other external characters of the two species.

Upper first premolar :

Andersen (1912) found that the upper first premolar was present

in the adult of R. leschenaulti but absent in that of R. seminudus.

Although Wrouvhton (1918) did not say anything about this tooth in

R., seminudus, Phillip (1935) found it present in his specimens of this

species. From an examination of my specimens, however, I find that

this tooth is present in all my examples of both the species except in

one of R. seminudus (Z.S.1. Reg. No. 16684, 9, Kandy, C. P., Ceylon)

and one of R. leschenaulti (Z. S. 1. Reg. No. 17952, co, Kumaon,

U. P., India).

Furthermore, the shape and size of the skulls of the two do not

differ and their cranial measurements (Table) are exceedingly close.

From the above cbservations it is clear that there is no character

by which the two species can be separated from each other.

Rousettus seminudus (Gray 1870) should, therefore, be considered a

synonym of R. leschenaulti (Desmarest 1820),

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

766

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ACKNOWLEDLGEMENTS

IT am grateful to. the Director, Zoological Survey. of India, for

facilities for this work.

I am also greatly indebted to the Bombay.

Natural History Society, for lending me their material of R. seminudus

for study, and to Dr. B. Biswas for kindly going through the manu-

Script and offering valuable suggestions.

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

8, Linpsay STREET, CALCUTTA-16,

November 20, 1967.

Y. P. SINHA

REFERENCES

ANDERSEN, K. (1912): Catalogue of

the chiroptera in the British Museum. I,

Megachiroptera. British Museum,

London.

BLANFORD, W. T. (1891): The fauna

of British {ndia. Mammalia. Taylor

and Francis, London.

BrosskT, A. (1962) : The bats of Central

and Western India. Part I. J. Bombay

nat, Hist. Soc. 59 : 1-57.

Dosson, G. E. (1876): Monograph

of the Asiatic Chiroptera. Indian

Museum, Calcutta.

ELLERMAN, JR. & MorrIison-SCoTT,

F.C. S. (1951) : Checklist of Palaearctic

Gray, J. E. (1870): Catalogue of

monkeys, lemurs and fruit-eating bats.

British Museum, London.

JERDON, T. C. (1874) : The mammals

of India. John Wheldon, London.

PuHILLips, W. W. A. (1935): Manual

of the mammals of Ceylon. Colombo

Museum, Colombo.

TATE, G. H. H. (1943) : Pteropodidae

(chiroptera) of the Archbold collections.

Bull. Am. Mus. nat. Hist., 80: 331-347.

WROUGHTON, R. C. (1918) : Summary

of the results from the Indian Mammal

Survey. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 25:

547-598.

and Indian mammals. British Museum,

London,

2 NOTES ON BARKING DEER. MUNTIACUS

MUNTJAK (ZIMMERMANN)

In the July-August issue (1967) of Hornbill Newsletter some

comments on the coloration of newly born barking deer aroused my

interest and brought back to mind: some observations, of nearly fifty

years ago! In the distant past I frequently observed and collected

barking deer in several parts of India and frequently kept them as

- In the Western Ghats my observation go back many years, in the

Naga Hills, Assam and: Northern Burma (Chindwin Expedition, 1935),

the base of the Himalayas and in some areas of southern India my

observations were more restricted in time. |

Normally, the Muntjac is a.solitary animal ae the ene part of

the year, both by day and by night, but the sexes come together for

a short interval during the breeding season. I have seen family

768 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

parties composed of a pair of adults with one, rarely two, young

(one young at a birth appears to be more normal) moving round

together. While in Burma in 1935 1 shot a specimen in January (1935)

at Nanyasaik which, I discovered later, contained a well advanced

foetus. A couple of days later I secured a fine male with excellent

antlers for Burma—I believe, just short of the record head. At the

time I was sitting under a fruiting Banyan Tree (Ficus bengalensis)

waiting for specimen to ‘turn up’, this method I always found the

most profitable when co!lecting specimens whether mammals or birds

when time was available instead of crashing through the jungle.

Barking Deer appear to be more crepuscular or even nocturnal in

their habits, seldom moving round during the day unless disturbed.

When on the prowl, for specimen at night with a powerful electric

headlight, I have frequently put them up in the beam of the torch,

their eyes glowing like large rubies. For a time they would stare,

inquisitively, trying to discover the source of light, then, with a sudden

loud bark dash away—warning the whole neighbourhood. On

occasion the anima's would just slink away noiselessly and vanish

into the darkness. In addition to the well-known bark Muntjac

produce a faint, but distinct whistle, like some other deer do; lastly,

there is the controversial ‘clicking’ sound which some observers suggest

is produced) by the canine teeth; my own belief is that this last sound

is made by the tongue on the palate for I have heard it made by

captive animals when I have been quite near, the jaws were not

moved at the time the sound was uttered, however, the point still

needs further investigation and observation.

I have had many young Muntjac brought to me by villagers and.

also caught by the ‘Kathkaris’ when out with them hunting—young

of all ages, but never have I seen spotted young. The large foetus

obtained during the Chindwin Expedition is probably available and

could be examined. Young deer and antelope are frequently very difficult

to determine and could, at times, be easily confused, particularly when

secured in the absence of the adults.

Spotting, as is well-known, is a disruptive colouring and. occurs

under varied conditions in adults or young (or both) of many species

which inhabit the spangled light of open jungle or dense grass country.

The behaviour of animals displaying such patterns is generally in

keeping with their colouring—‘sudden freezing’ when alarmed. How-

ever, camouflage is a complex subject and I do not propose to discuss

it at length here—it is best understood by those who have experienced

it and understood the biotics of the animals so protected.

However, it must be remembered that the Muntjac and the Four-

horned antelope (Tetraceros) frequently border one another’s terrain

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 769

and the identity of the young presents a problem. Likewise the

muntjac and chital frequently become close neighbours and here again

the uninitiated could frequently confuse the young in the absence of

the parents.

The Muntjac also inhabits the same terrain as the Sambar (Cervus

unicolor): in both these animals, as far as my own experience goes

the newly born are not spotted. However, the young of these two

could not possibly be confused because of size and texture of hair.

Spotting in dense forest dwellers would tend to endanger the young

and expose them more readily to predators. Without labouring the

subject any further, I believe that the newly born young of the

Muntjac are unspotted. I have not observed anything to the contrary.

The photograph of two young taken at Khandala, W. Ghats in May

of 1918 supports my view the young are immaculate at birth in the

_ W. Ghats. 3

8, Kiwi STREET,

HERETAUNGA, CHARLES McCANN

NEW ZEALAND,

March 20, 1968.

3. THE NILGIRI TAHR, HEMITRAGUS

HYLOCRIUS OGILBY

(With two plates)

The Nilgiri Tahr is found in the high hill ranges of south India,

the main area being the Nilgiris, Anaimalais, and the Western Ghats

south to Cape Comorin, at elevations of 4,000-8,000 feet. In the Nilgiris

they are now more or less confined to the south-west edge of the

Kundahs from Sispara Pass along the edge of the escarpment north

to Mukurti and Nilgiri Peaks.

Here an almost sheer ciiff drops 2,000-3,000 feet down from the

plateau of rolling grass covered hills to the thick jungle clad

valleys below. In the early morning small herds of Tahr numbering

anything up to twenty, may be found grazing on the grassy slopes at

the edge of the escarpment, and if left undisturbed may lie up on

these hills throughout the day and continue feeding again in the late

afternoon. However, if they are disturbed they will quickly move

over the edge of the escarpment, scrambling and leaping down the

steep gullies to lie up on some sheltered ledge below. In areas where

770 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST.-SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

there is continued disturbance it is rare to find them lying on the

high ground during the day. These herds consist of young males,

females and kids of all ages as there is no set breeding period, the

kids being dropped throughout the year. The old ‘Saddlebacks’

are solitary animals, preferring to feed and lie-up on-their own away

from the main herds, particularly during the hot season. |

The exact status of the Tahr is somewhat uncertain. In 1963 the

Nigiri Wild Life Association carried out a, survey in the Nilgiris and

arrived at an estimate of 400 animals, and since that time they

believe they have at least held their own, and that there might have

been a slight increase in numbers. A rough estimate of just over

4000 has also been made for the other areas of this range. These

figures may be inaccurate, and it seems essential that an up-to-date

census should be undertaken to establish their true status so that

appropriate action can be taken to ensure their survival.

At the present time they are reasonably safe in certain areas of

their range in the Nilgiri Hills. Approach from the south and west

is practically impossible due to the steep escarpment with its thick

jungle clad lower slopes, whilst from the plateau itself a four to

five hour walk keeps out those who like to poach from car or jeep,

and so there is little poaching in these areas. The few ‘Saddlebacks’

taken out under licence by sportsmen have little impact on the herds,

and their reports on what they seé are of great value to the Nilgiri

Wild Life Association. Unfortunately this state of affairs is not

likely to last long. In the last few years dams have been erected

in the Nilgiris for irrigation and hydro-electric schemes. New

villages created for the construction gangs and their families remain

in spite of the work having been completed. A policy of afforestation

of the hills with wattle and eucalyptus is altering the habitat, and

far worse, forest roads are being extended nearer and nearer tahr

areas.

In one area I visited, planting had reached the agit of the

escarpment, spoiling the tahr feeding grounds. Whilst on our way

we passed over one hundred people constructing a toad to within

half-a-mile of this area where temporary hutments had been erected.

The only hope for the survival of tahr in these areas is to persuade

the State Government and Forest Department to leave a belt of

grassland along the edge of the escarpment and to keep the areas

as inaccessible as possible.

For us to see the tahr to their best avenge: in January 1968.

‘afrangements had been made to camp in one of the more remote

tahr areas. We drove out from Ootacamund, passing Emerald Lake

and on to Avalanche, where a further lake has recently been damméd,

J. BompBay nat. Hist. Soc. 65 (3) PLATE I

Willett : Nilgiri Tahr

Above : Shola Forests below Tahr habitat ; Below : Typical Tahr country.

(Photos: J. A. Willett)

J. Bompay Nat. Hist. Soc. 65 (3) Prare; Tt

Willett : Nilgiri Tahr

Above: A tahr ‘sentinel’; Below: A herd on the grazing grounds.

(Photos: J. A. Willett)

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 774

the surrounding countryside either being under cultivation or planted-

up with wattle. Soon we came to the end of the track where we

were met by our Shikari “Old Joe’ and his helpers. Loading our

equipment on their heads we moved off in single file down a narrow

track and soon left the wattle behind. The country consisted of grass

covered rolling hills, with dense woods running up the steeper and

more sheltered valleys. ‘These sholas afford cover for the black

Nilgiri langur, sambar and muntjac. At one point we found some

old pug marks of a tiger, and were told by “Old Joe’ that one had

been seen in the area about ten days previously though they are

now comparatively rare. After a three hours walk, camp was

pitched in the lea of a shola and some.trout were caught and cooked

for supper. As we set off in the cool of the dawn a reddish tinge

in the sky was soon giving way to brighter light, and by the time

we reached the.edge of the escarpment the tops of the hills seemed

ablaze in the first red rays of the morning sun whilst three thousand

feet below the jungle was still hidden in mists. We spotted our first

tahr grazing near the edge of the cliff and as he had sighted us

he soon moved off out of sight. After a stiff climb we located a

herd of fourteen dozing in the sun, whilst three hundred yards beyond

another group was still grazing. Eventually they moved up and lay

down with the others. There were no ‘Saddlebacks’ present, though

‘there were several younger bucks, and does with kids of varying

ages. :

On a rock overlooking the abyss below an old doe was acting

as sentinel always alert for any approaching danger. After a couple

of hours they got up and started grazing again, and whilst some of

the younger kids playfully chased each other round a rock, two older

bucks sparred together, gently butting their heads, and then suddenly

rearing up to strike out at each other with their forelegs.

Gradually the herd drifted past us and disappeared from view

over the edge of the escarpment. Moving down to get another view

of them I must have been winded by them as suddenly they dashed

past only twenty yards away, leaping on to a rock and away up the

hill as hard as they could go. It was a wonderful experience to see

them so close, and to visit such glorious country before it is completely

ruined by advancing civilization. 7

"MANOR FARM, : : | his Efe

BISHOPSTONE, ~~ JOHN WILLET

SEAFORD, SUSSEX, IATA al

October 21, 1968.

772, JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

4. THE GREAT INDIAN RORQUAL BALAENOPTERA

MUSCULUS (LINN.) NEAR PASNI (MEKRAN

COAST), WEST PAKISTAN

A specimen of Great Indian Rorqual was stranded about 5 miles

west of Pasni in June, 1967. The scattered bones of the skeleton

(a few missing) were brought to Karachi by the staff of the Zoological

Survey Department in their Launch TJalash from Pasni with the

assistance of the Provincial Fisheries Department staff stationed at

Pasni. The skeleton is being articulated (the missing bones being

made and fitted) and will be put for display in the Natural History

Museum of the Department at Karachi.

The various measurements of the skeleton are as follows :—

Length of entire skeleton «4 00"

Length of skull without maxilla and mandible ei Me be

Length across Zygomatic arch se Oe ee

Length of ramus of lower jaw PP Ale tro’

Radius of ramus otgits (23 Ae

Length of coronoid process then! “cual 2

Length of Rib—(maximum) vagy LO%

No. of Ribs cyignnel i)

No. of vertebrae aes if

Previous records from West Pakistan: |

Murray ? had indicated that a skull (17’-8” in length and 7’ across

Zygomatic arch) of the Indian Rorqual was stranded on Clifton

beach in 1879.

In 1965, through the courtesy of the Provincial Fisheries Depart-

ment at Pasni, the Zoological Survey Department was able to collect

some pieces of skeleton of an Indian Rorqual from Juddi (near

Pasni), Mekran Coast. The length of ramus of lower jaw is 10°

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to express my sincere thanks to Mr. Zahid Hussain,

Deputy Director of Fisheries, West Pakistan, Pasni, and other staff

of the Provincial Fisheries Department as well as the officers, staff

and crew of the Zoological Survey Department for their co-operation

and assistance rendered in several ways.

DIRECTOR,

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY DEPARTMENT, M. S. U. SIDDIOI

GOVERNMENT OF PAKISTAN,

KARACHI,

September 20, 1968.

1 Murray, J. A. (1884): The Vertebrate Zoology of Sind, P. 41.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES VT

LoS)

5. REDNECKED GREBE PODICEPS GRISEIGENA

(BODDAERT) AGAIN SIGHTED IN WEST

PAKISTAN

With reference to our sighting of the Rednecked Grebe (1967), it

is interesting to record that two birds of this species were sighted

on Nammal Lake in the Punjab Salt Range on September 24, 1967.

They were studied at a hundred yards range through a powerful

telescope. One was in almost full summer plumage while the other

was half into winter plumage though stil! having white cheeks and

throat.

It is interesting to note that this species was first recorded in

Afghanistan on September 17, 1966 (one bird in summer plumage)

at Kargah Lake near Kabul (Niethammer 1967). Also two grebes

im winter plumage believed to be of this species had been seen at

the same place on February 10, 1966 (loc. cit.).

WILDFOWL SURVEY,

11-F GULBERG, Cc. D. W. SAVAGE

‘Post Bac 704,

LAHORE, WEST PAKISTAN,

March 8, 1968.

REFERENCES

NIETHAMMER, VON G. & NIETHAMMER, SAVAGE, C. D. W. (1967): Rednecked

J. (1967) : Neunachweis fiir Afghanistans Grebe Podiceps griseigena (Boddaert)

Vogelwelt. Journal fur Ornithologie sighted in West Pakistan. J. Bombay

108, Heft 1, (1967). nat. Hist. Soc. 64(3) : 555-557.

Houmes, J. R. S., Roperts, T. J. &

6. COTTON TEAL NETTAPUS COROMANDELIANUS

(GMELIN) AND WATER SNAKE

On January 4, 1968, at about 5 p.m. in the evening IJ visited the

village pond at Kihim (Taluka Alibag, Kolaba District). It is a

comparatively small pond, circular in shape, with a diameter of perhaps

a hundred yards. It contains some weeds all round and a great many

white water-lilies. ‘There was a variety of bird life on it, including

a couple of jacanas, dabchicks, coots and a few sandpipers. There

were also 5 or 6 whistlers and 4 cotton teals.

- Watching the cotton teal, I found them playing about with some-

thing that swam in the water. Using my binoculars (Zeiss, Deltrintem,

8 by 30); I saw a water snake swimming round to each one of them,

and as they ducked or swam away, he went to the others in turn.

He made almost a full circle and then disappeared.

774. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

I wonder if any of your readers has observed wildfowl playing

about with water snakes in this fashion; and whether they fraternize

with any living things other than their own species.

‘BOMBAY, A. A. A. FYZEE

January 24, 1968.

7. EXTENSION OF RANGE OF THE LARGE INDIAN

KITE MILVUS MIGRANS LINEATUS (GRAY)

Ripley in the synopsis (1961, p. 43) refers to the Large Indian

Kite [Milvus migrans lineatus (Gray)| as wintering in the plains, but

does not indicate its southern limits, It has been known to occur

around Bombay, and Koelz (1942; J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 43:29)

obtained 3 females (wings 459, 491, 510) at Londa near Castle Rock,

North Kanara, between 7 January and 13 March 1938.

A few years ago, the Virus Research Centre at Poona sent to

the Society a number of bird skins obtained in Mysore. We now

notice that they include a male (wing 503) of this form obtained at

Annandapuram, Shimoga District, Mysore, on 22 February 1960, by

P. K. Rajagopalan of the Virus Research Centre.

Though North Kanara is now in Mysore, the present record is a

small southward extension of the known range of this bird which is

not included in Sdlim Ali’s BIRDS OF MYSORE.

BOMBAY NATURAL History SOCIETY.

TIORNBILL HOUSE, HUMAYUN ABDULALI

SHAHID BHAGAT SINGH ROAD, BOMBAY, J. G. NAIR

April 27, 1968.

8. THE CHICK OF THE RED SPURFOWL

GALLOPERDIX SPADICEA (GMELIN)

(With a plate)

As the chick of the Red Spurfowl Galloperdix spadicea (Gmelin),

_ does not appear to have been described, the following may be of

interest : —

On the evening of 20 May 1968, while we were walking home

from Dhobi’s Waterfall, Mahableshwar, 4000’. Western Ghats, one

of the boys (Azeem Sheikh) in the party drew my attention to a bird

lying among dry leaves in the gutter by the side of the road. An

examination revealed two downy chicks, obviously of a game bird,

lying on their sides and kicking in the air. When picked up they

J. BomBay NAT. Hist. Soc. 65 (3)

Abdulali

Red Spurfowl

Right, Red Spurfowl

om™m

past

z 6

[ we

oO &

(oY 8)

= 3

irs

(oa

bh]

om”

ate

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 1s

were incapable of standing on their legs and spasmodically threw

back their heads in the way that diseased poultry chicks do. They

were not much more than a day old, and though we took them home,

for no parent was visible, they did not feed or survive. The

specimens have been preserved in the collection of the Bombay

Natural History Society and bear Nos. 22947 and 22948.

No Grey Junglefowl chick is available for comparison, but accord-

ing to Stuart Baker (FAUNA 5: 300) it is similar to the Red Junglefowl

(see figure), which he describes as having ‘a broad central plum-brown

streak from crown to tail and a streak of the same colour through the

eye’ (FAUNA 5:297), except that ‘the lateral bands (are) almost white

and the sides and lower parts dull grey’.

The present specimens have no markings on the head which is

cinnamon-brown. There is a dark sepia-brown band over 10 mm.

wide, along the whole back, bordered by pale cream-coloured stripes

about half the width on both sides. These are again edged with

_ thinner lines of dark sepia-brown on the sides. The wing stubs and

an undefined band across the upper breast are similar to the head,

while the chin and underparts are paler tinged with yellowish. This is

so different from the Grey Junglefowl Chick as described by Stuart

Baker above that I take these to be chicks of the Red Spurfowl.

This also serves to warn us that game birds are subject to diseases

afflicting domestic poultry—see note in Journal, 51:747-748.

75, ABDUL REHMAN STREET,

BoOMBAY-3, | HUMAYUN ABDULALI

July 3, 1968.

Note

Since writing this note I have seen the following description of

'a ‘chick by Sykes (1832) Proc. zool. Soc. London p. 154, which has

so far been overlooked.

Pullus. Fusco-ferrugineus, vittis tribus dorsalibus latis, intermedia

saturate rufo-brunnea, lateralibus flavescenti-albidis. H. A.

9. A FURTHER NOTE ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF

CUCULUS CANORUS LINNAEUS

I heard the unmistakable call of the cuckoo (Cuculus canorous

Linnaeus) in a lovely teak forest near Sathanpalli, Khanapur Block,

Adilabad District, Andhra Pradesh on July 24, 1968.

446 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

Sathanpalli is just north of the Godavari River, east of Nirmal,

and is at about the same latitude as the Abdulali record of 1954?

in adjacent Maharashtra. According to Ripley, (SYNoPsIs, 1961) the

C. c. canorus Linnaeus form may occur in the hills of neighbouring

Madhya Pradesh and Orissa but to my knowledge this is the first

record of the bird in northern Andhra Pradesh in non-wintering

range.

“TREETOPS’,

MEDCHAL, ‘GEORGE F. NEAVOLL

HYDERABAD DISTRICT,

ANDHRA PRADESH,

August 4, 1968.

10. OCCURRENCE OF THE EUROPEAN BEE-EATER

MEROPS APIASTER LINNAEUS, AT METTUR DAM,

SALEM DISTRICT, MADRAS

While working out a small collection of birds from Salem District,

Madras, made in February 1952 by Dr. K. K. Tiwari of the Zoological

Survey of India, I found two specimens of. the European Bee-eater

(Merops apiaster Linnaeus) from the Mettur Dam area. The

specimens, both adult females, were taken on 20 February 1952.

Standard literature on Indian avifauna does not include southern

india within the range of the species. The present record would,

therefore, extend its range as far south as Mettur Dam area in

Madras State.* !

1 am thankful to the Officer-in-Charge, Bird Section, Zoological

Survey of India, for providing facilities, to study the material.

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

INDIAN MUSEUM, MONISHA BASU ROY

CALCcUuTTA-13,

June 24, 1968.

1°J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 52 : 210.

2 These are more correctly, vagrants—Eds.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES ' 777

11. TERRITORY IN THE HOUSE CROW,

CORVUS SPLENDENS VIEILLOT

During the past four years, 1964 to 1967, I had an opportunity

to study the territorial behaviour of House Crow, Corvus splendens

Vieillot in and around Poona. As many as 67 pairs (4 of them ringed

ones) were observed for the purpose of this study. It was observed

that in the case of House Crow :— )

1. The territory is claimed after the nesting site has been selected.

2. The occupation of territory is announced by the mere

presence of one or both of the pair.

3. Courtship and copulation usually takes place inside the

territory.

4. Most of the food is obtained from outside the territory.

5. The territory is defended by both sexes by warning note,

pursuit and attack.

6. Territory is occupied and defended during the breeding

season only. |

7. A well-marked social defence system is employed whereby

several nesting pairs of the neighbourhood join the defence efforts of

a threatened pair against predators.

8. The territorial limits (area of defence) vary according to tis

type of intruder. Intruders like others of the species and sex and

small harmless birds of the other species are permitted to come

up to a couple of metres without any show of hostility. Many a

times a House Sparrow, Passer domesticus was observed to perch

within a few centimetres of the nest proper while the owner (s)

sat inside the nest. Raptors are assaulted on sight when within 50

to 60 metres of the nest and are chased as far away as 200 to

300 metres. Koel is attacked even when heard within 100 metres of

the nest and is pursued till the pursuers are convinced of their

inability to catch up with the offender. Other intruders like human

beings, monkeys and carnivora are attacked only when they try. to

qlimb the nesting tree and are not left in peace till they put 200 to

300 metres between themselves and the nest, or reach a place of

shelter.

It follows Fiexetore that ihe House Crow, Corvus splendens

Vieillot : — |

(i) Sustains a territory which is intermediate between types

B and C of Hinde’s (1956 : 342) classification. It is therefore suggested

that one more category may be added in between Hinde’s types B

7178 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

and C to cover such birds who occupy large nesting territories with-

in which courtship, copulation and nesting takes place but which do

not furnish most of the food.

(ii) Occupies and defends it after the pair’s selection of the

nesting site, employs warning note, pursuit and assault as the chief

means of defence. Defends it mainly for nesting site, nest, eggs and

brood only. The main functions of the territory in Corvus splendens

is to afford protection to nest, eggs and young, that is, the

functions proposed by Nice (1933), Mayr (1935), Lack (1935),

Noble (1939) and Tinbergen (1939).

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

WESTERN REGIONAL STATION,

1182/2, F. C. Roap,

Poona-5,

November 16, 1967.

B. S. LAMBA

REFERENCES

HINDE, R. A. (1956): The Biological

Nice, M. M. (1933): The Theory of

significance of ‘the territories of birds.

Territorialism and its Development. In

Ibis, 98 : 340-369.

Lack, D. (1935): Territory and Bale

gamy in a Bishop-bird, Euplectes horde-

acea hordeacea (Linn.). Ibis, 1935:

817-836.

Mayr, E. (1935): Bernard Altum and

the territory theory. Proc. Linn. Soc.

N.Y., Nos. 45-46 : 24-38.

‘Fifty years Progress of American Orni-

thology 1883-1933’, Lancaster, Pa:

89-100.

Nosie, G. K. (1939): The Role of

Dominance in Social Life of Birds. Auk.

TINBERGEN, N. (1939) : The behaviour

of the Snow Bunting in Spring. Tran.

Linnaean Soc. N.Y. 5: 1:95.

12. THE BROWN FLYCATCHER, MUSCICAPA

LATIROSTRIS RAFFLES IN KUTCH

Once again I had the good luck to come across a new bird in

Kutch and that too in the same place where I have seen most of

the other new birds; the grounds of Vijaya Vilas Palace, Mandvi.

On November 21 and 22, 1967, I saw the Brown Flycatcher

(Muscicapa latirostris Raffles) in the garden which surrounds the

palace. On both occasions only one bird was observed. At first

slance an inexperienced observer could easily mistake it for the Red-

breasted Flycatcher (Muscicapa parva Bechstein) a regular winter

visitor in Kutch which is met with in all suitable localities. Obviously

the Brown Flycatcher is an extremely rare visitor in this part of the

country, Dharmakumarsinhji (BIRDS OF SAURASHTRA; 428) does not

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 779

make any reference to its occurrence in Saurashtra but says it was

recorded by Littledale at Saran (Dungarpur State, now in Rajasthan)

and that it is presumably resident in the Dangs (Gujarat). It appears

that, at least up to the time the BIRDS OF SAURASHTRA was published,

this bird does not seem to have been firmly recorded in Saurashtra.

JUBILEE GROUND,

BuHuJ, KUTCH, M: K. HIMMATSINHSI

April 12, 1968.

13. NEW WINTERING LOCALITY OF THE SPOTTED

BUSH WARBLER BRADYPTERUS THORACICUS

(BLYTH)

On 24 November 1967 whilst netting migratory birds in the

phragmites reed beds at Nalbani, North Salt Lakes, Calcutta, with

Mr. S. S. Saha & Mr. D. K. Ghosal, a Spotted Bush Warbler,

Bradypterus thoracicus (Blyth) was collected. It is of interest that this

constitutes the first Calcutta area record and appears to be the only

record of the species’ occurrence away from the Himalayan foothills

on ‘Sylhet, E. Pakistan which Ripley in his SYNOPSIS states to be its

Winter range. The bird was therefore inexplicably some 300 miles

south of its usual wintering areas.

The Spotted Bush Warbler is a great skulker and the specimen was

virtually pushed into the net by chevying it along with the hands from

only two or three feet away. This may account for its not having

been collected before although netting) has been carried out fairly

regularly in this area since 1962.

Since the above record, two other specimens have been caught at

the same locality (on 28 January 1968) indicating that the species is

not necessarily scarce. On no accasion, however, has the bird been

observed in the field prior to its being caught in the nets.

Measurements (in mm.) of the birds collected and now in the Indian

Museum, Calcutta, are as follows :—

24.xii.67 14, wing 54, tail54, bill14. Primaries 2nd=10th

26.i.68 13, wing 52°5, tail 49°5, bill14. Wing tip—2—

Wing-tip damaged.

26.1.68 1 3, wing 51°3, tail 52. bill 13°5. Primaries 2nd=—11th.

(on the latter two birds the spots on the chest are more pronounced).

I wish to record my appreciation for the help of Dr. B. Biswas

of the Zoological Survey of India, India Museum, Calcutta. for his

confirming the identification of the above specimens,

780 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 65 (3)

Bradypterus thoracicus (Blyth) is illustrated in Salim Ali’s BIRDS

OF SIKKIM.

'THE CHARTERED BANK,

CaALcuTTa-1, J. R. S. HOLMES, M.8.0.v.

March 26, 1968.

14. DUST BATHING BY COMMON BAYA

(PLOCEUS PHILIPPINUS)

Recently, going through the chapter on Feather Maintenance in

A NEW DICTIONARY OF BIRDS, I came across a statement by K. E. L.

Simmons, who, while writing of Dusting says, ‘Dusting is also found,

for example, in sparrows (Passerinae—-but not in other Ploceidae).

On the afternoon of May 4, 1962, Julian Donahue and I had gone

out along Agra Canal beyond Okhla to watch a large wagtail roost

which Julian had discovered the previous evening. Stopping the car

on the road, we spotted a family of Bustard Quails. The land was

parched and dotted with dry Zizyphus bushes and other kinds of

thorny bushes, clump of grass and a few keekar trees.

A few Common Bayas (Ploceus philippinus) were ane in the

dust. Others were feeding on some kind of seeds from the ground.

Dust bathing by the Common Baya has since. been corroborated

by Mr. S. K. Kanjilal from Lucknow.

32, CHHATRA MARG,

DELHI-7, (MRS.) USHA GANGULI

August 28, 1968.

15, SOME NEW BIRD RECORDS FOR DELHI

On 2 June 1968 I found the Collared Pratincole (Glareola pratincola

maldivarum) nesting on the grasslands on the south-western side of

the dried-up Najargarh jheel, about 20 miles south-west of Delhi.

This is the first nesting record we can trace for Delhi, although

the Pratincole has been seen in every month of the year.

There were many Pratincoles in the area, some flying and others.

standing or sitting on the| ground. As I drove my car slowly towards

one it suddenly rose and threatened the car with outstretched wings.

I then found two eggs resting on the ground in the short grass.

There was little sign of the bird having hollowed the ground at all,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 781

Investigation disclosed some six nests in the vicinity, and there

were probably more spread over the area. I was able to bring my

car within six feet of sitting birds to take photographs.

A week later Mrs. Usha Ganguli accompanied me to the spot and

we found more nests. Pairs were occasionally displaying. The

males, which we noted were distinctly darker at the lores and fore-

head, approached the females bowing low and then circling as though

hollowing out a nesting place. The females were rather indifferent

and usually moved away. It appeared that only females sat on the

nests.

Dr. Dillon Ripley in the SYNOPSIS OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA AND

PAKISTAN says the Pratincoie breeds irregularly in India, East Pakistan

and Ceylon. My impression is that they regularly haunt the Najafgarh

area during the hot weather and it is possible that they breed there

regularly.

The eggs were strongly marked in the fashion of the Redwattled

Lapwing (Vanellus indicus),

On, June 23 Mrs. Ganguli and I found a number of chicks a few

days old. They were very active, and generally ran away when

approached. But the smaller ones would crouch and become almost

invisible because of their protective speckled down.

A few House Crows (Corvus spiendens) which flew over the area

were harried by the Pratincoles.

The area is also favoured for nesting by the Indian Courser

(Curscrius coromandelicus), and I have regularly seen pairs with young

in May and June there.

In passing I might also mention the presence of six Blackbuck

(Antilope cervicapra), females and young, near some pools on the

dried up jheel—seldom seen nowadays and a sad reminder of the

herds which once roamed the area.

Two other new records for Delhi were established in May when

I was out with Mrs. Ganguli and Mr. Holmes. Among the waders

feeding on 4 May where a sewage drain runs into the bed of the

Jumna about one mile below Okhla weir we spotted Terek Sandpiper

(Tringa terek). It kept apart from the Stints (Calidris minutus and

C. temminckii) and its yellow legs showed up well. The upturned

bill could only be seen when it was favourably positioned for light

and background. Both here and at other wader resorts we saw fair

numbers of Curlew-Sandpipers (Calidris testaceus) in breeding plumage.

Breeding between Finland and Lake Baikal and the Caspian Sea

at the mouth of the Terek River, Terek Sandpiper is recorded as

wintering in coastal and tidal areas of South Asia, and so it is

interesting to have found it in the centre of India,

782 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

On 5 May Mrs. Ganguli, Mr. Holmes and I were at Pindwala

jheel near Najafgarh when we saw the White-winged Black Tern

(Chlidonias leucoptera) in the company of Whiskered Terns (C.

hybrida). This Tern is a winter straggler which Ripley says has been

recorded from Calcutta, Tripura, East Pakistan, South Andamans,

Ceylon, Burma, Bombay and Saurashtra.

A few years ago Dr. Salim Ali raised the possibility that some

herons we saw at Shamaspur jheel, west of Najafgarh, might be the

Great White-bellied Heron (Ardea insignis), which has a range from

Nepal and Sikkim terai eastwards to Assam, ‘East Pakistan, North

Burma and Arakan. This year Mrs. Ganeguli, Mr. Holmes and I saw

several of these herons again at Shamaspur, and from the bright

white of the breast and belly and the distinctly larger size than the

Grey Heron (A. cinerea), which was also to be seen, we concluded

that they were almost certainly A. insignis.

27 PRITHVIRAJ ROAD,

NEw DELHI, PETER JACKSON

July 9, 1968.

[The record of the Terek Sandpiper, largely a littoral species in

India, is particularly interesting. It has been supposed to be a purely

coastal migrant along the western and eastern seaboards of the

Peninsula, and until quite recently had evidently not been met with

far inland. The above record, and that of one netted and ringed in

Bharatpur, Rajasthan, in October 1966 suggest that odd birds may

now and again get mixed up with migrating flocks of other small

waders and get carried along with them overland. Birdwatchers will

please note to examine inland flocks of stints and spotted sandpipers

more critically, especially the early arrivals and late departures.

Whether this is an occasional occurrence or a more or less regular

happening, but so far overlooked, needs to be established—-Eds.]

16. SOME NEW BIRD RECORDS FOR NEPAL

While going through the manuscript notes on birds collected in

Nepal by the late Lt.-Col. F. M. Bailey, British Envoy Extraordinary

from 1935 to 1938, I found records of examples comprising several

species previously unreported from Nepal. Since the publication of

the instalment of “The birds of Nepal’ series in which those notes

have been fully utilized (see Biswas, 1963, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

60: 388, note), will take some more time, it is thought worthwhile

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 783

to publish the new records in the mean time. Numbers as in Ripley’s

SYNOPSIS, 1961.

58. Dupetor flavicollis flavicollis (Latham). Black Bittern.

WESTERN NEPAL : TARAI: Kanchanpur dist., Bilauri: 1 ¢ (5 Feb. 1937).

The Black Bittern is already known as resident in the Indian

territories adjacent to Nepal.

119. Mergus albellus Linnaeus. Smew.

WESTERN NEPAL : TARAI: Kanchanpur dist., Bilauri: 1 9 (22 Jan. 1937).

Lt.-Col. Bailey observed several Smews in mixed flocks of teals

and pintails on a lake at Bilauti.

The Smew is a sparse winter visitor to both eastern and western

Uttar Pradesh, not fur from western Nepal.

329. Rallus striatus albiventer Swainson. Bluebreasted Banded

Rail.

EASTERN NEPAL : TARAI: Morang dist., Haraincha: 1 3 (16 Feb. 1938).

This rail is already known as resident in the Indian territories

adjacent to Nepal.

1543. Locustella certhiola rubescens Blyth. Eastern Grasshopper

Warbler.

EASTERN NEPAL : TARAI: Morang dist., Kosi River : 1 3 (12 Feb. 1937).

1544. Locustella lanceolata (Temminck). Streaked Grasshopper

Warbler.

EASTERN NEPAL : TARAI: Morang dist., San Pakwa: 1 3 (23 Feb. 1938).

The specimen was found ‘in tall marsh grass’.

Both these grasshopper warblers are known as regular winter

visitors in the plains of northern Bengal, not far from Morang

district of Nepal.

1581. Phylloscopus griseolus Blyth. Olivaceous Leaf Warbler.

CENTRAL NEPAL : NEPAL VALLEY : Kathmandu (c. 1372 m.): 1 3 (13 Apr. 1938).

This leaf warbler has earlier been recorded on passage in the

Kumaon Himalaya (Mussoorie and Almora in Uttar Pradesh) in

March, April and October.

‘From the notes it is further found that he had also collected a

female Greyheaded Lapwing, Vanellus cinereus (Blyth), ‘in a fallow

rice field’ at Gauchar, Kathmandu, Nepal Valley, on 6 April 1937,

and a female Chinese Bush Warbler, Bradypterus t. tacsanowskius

(Swinhoe), ‘in very thick forest? at San Pakwa, Morang district.

J84. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

eastern Nepal tarai, on 23 February 1938. These two species have,

however, been already recorded for Nepal by Fleming and Traylor

(1964, Fieldiana, Zool., 35:519, 541) on the basis of collections made

by Mrs. Proud in 1959 and Dr. Fleming in 1961.

CALCUTTA, BISWAMOY BISWAS

June 17, 1968. : |

17. RECOVERY OF RINGED BIRDS

Ring No. | Date and place of | Date and place of

and species | ringing | recovery Remarks

B-4633

Philomachus 26.10.1967. Bharatpur, Mid. Dec. 1967. Moga Reported by

pugnax 3 Rajasthan (c. 27° 13’ Ferozepur Dist., Pun- Cadet A. S.

Nai/ 7S B20 BD jab. (c. 30° 58’ N., 74° Gill

37’ E.)

AB-15004

Philomachus 24.10.1967. do. 10.1.1968. Kasrak vill- Reported by

pugnax 2 age, Katra P.O., Shah- Harbax Singh

jahanpur Dist., U.P. D.S.P., Shah,

(c. 28° 2’ N., 79° 40’E.) jahanpur U.P.

C-4527

Anas crecca @ 1.12.1967. do. 15.12.1967. Agra, Bich- Reported by

puri Station (c. 26° Trilokpal

45’ N., 77° 26’ E.) Singh

B-16096

Philomachus 31.3.1967. Mitpukur, 5.5.1967. Yakut A.S.S.R., Reported by

Pugnax 0? 24 Parganas Dist.,16 near Nyurba (c. 63° Bird Ringing

km. east of Calcutta. 20’ N., 118° 21’ E.) Centre, Mos-

(622° 34 ING. Soe 22, cow, U.S.S.R.

Ee.)

C-4409

Anas crecca 8 30.11.1967. Bharatpur, 11.2.1968. Gurdaspur Reported by

Rajasthan (c. 27° 13’ Dist., N. Punjab A. §8. Sooch,

IN phd Bev) (c.32° 3’ N.,75° 25’E.) Pharmacology

Dept., Medi-

cal College,

Amritsar

F-2369

Anas \ 20.11.1967. do. 3.2.1968. Near River Reported by

clypeata 0? Sutlej, Amritsar Dist. Kashmir

(c. 31° 10’ N., 74° 30’ Singh, Amrit-

E.) sar

C-4288

Anas crecca @ 24.11.1967. do, 24.22.1968. Gorakhpur, Reported by

U.P. (c. 26° 45’ N., 83° Mohan Singh,

2205.) Gorakhpur

B-1602 !

Philomachus 3.10.1965. do. 20.2.1968. Hasanpur Reported by

pugnax 0? Village, Kanayta, Mora- Fazal Shah

dabad Dist. (c. 28° 44’ Khan, Hasan-

Ni... 78" 177 Ee) pur

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 785

RECOVERY OF RINGED BIRDS—(contd.)

Ring No. Date and place of Date and place of Remarks

and. species

F-3161

Anas acuta 2

C-4975

Anas crecca °

F-3425

Fulica atra o ?

AB-14809

Philomachus

pugnax @°

AB-13368

Tringa glareola 0? 6.10.1967.

C-2543

Anas querquedula 2 16.10.1966.

C-2657

Anas crecca $

C-3483

Anas crecca

C-3557

Anas crecca 3

C-3643

Anas crecca 3

C-3692

Anas crecca 2

ringing

recovery

14.12.1967. Bharatpur,

Rajasthan (c. 27° 13’

IN il 3 2 ka)

1.1.1968. do.

21021967. do.

26:10 1967; do.

do.

19.10.1966. do.

28.10.1967. do.

3011-1967. do.

Sal PalO Te do.

6.11.1967. do.

22.2.1968. Shankerpur

Lake, Fatehpur, Bara

Banki Dist. (c. 25° 43’

N., 80° 38’ E.)

14.3.1968. Saidu Sharif,

Swat State : W. Pakis-

tan. (c. 34° 40’ N., 72°

6’ E.)

5.4.1968. Amritsar

City (c. 31° 38’ N., 74°

53a)

31.3.1968. Satellite

Town, Sargodha, W.

Pakistan (c. 32° 4’ N.,

72° 43’ E.)

23.4.1968. Salorijhalpar,

Samundri, Lyallpur Dt.,

W. Pakistan (c. 30°

50’ N., 72° 39’ E.)

+ 10.9.1967. Kazakh

S.S.R., near Vozvy-

shenka (c. 54° 28’ N.,

70° 56’ E.)

+ 25.10.1967. Tyumen

Region, near Nizhne-

vartovsk (c. 60° 56’

N., 76° 39’ E.)

+ 8.3.1968. Uzbek S.S.R.

near Ilich (c. 40° 52’

N., 68° 30’ E.)

+ 2.3.1968. Samar-

kand Region, near

Dzhuma (c. 39° 44’ N.,

66° 35’ E.)

+ 10.1.1968. Tashkent

Region, Chirchik River

(40° 62’ N., 69° 19’ E.)

+ 3.3.1968. Tadjik

S.S.R., near Ordzhoni

Kidzeabad (c. 38° 33’

N., 68° 58’ E.)

Reported by

Naresh Singh,

Wildlife

Warden, (P

& S) U.P.

Reported by

Veterinary

Officer, West

Pakistan

Reported by

Tarlok Singh,

Amritsar

Reported by

Mian Khizar

Hussain

Reported by

Amram

Reported by

Bird Ring-

ing Centre,

Moscow,

U.S.S.R.

do.

786

RECOVERY OF RINGED BIRDS—(conid.)

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

Ring No. |

and species |

C-4730

Anas crecca §

C-4819

Anas crecca 2

F-1384

Anas acuta 2

F-3698

Anas clypeata 0?

F-4949

Anas clypeata §

F-5248

Anas acuta

66-300

Sarkidiornis

melanotos 0?

C-4848

Anas crecca 2

C-435

Anas crecca 2

C-1252

Anas querque-

dula 3

Date and place of

ringing

3.12.1967. Bharatpur,

Rajasthan (c. 27° 13’

IN ee ee)

10.12.1967. do.

17.10.1966. do.

31.12.1967. do.

16.2.1968. do.

26.2.1968. do.

4.1.1968. do.

13.12.1967. do.

28.11.1964. Manjhaul,

Monghyr Dist., Bihar

(025212377. N;, 86-30,

E.) ee

13.10.1965.

Rajasthan (c. 27° 13’

ING IT coe ka)

Bharatpur, + 0.9.1967.

Date and place of

recovery

+ 11.3.1968. Kazakh

S.S.R., Kyzyl Orda

Region, near Dzala-

gash (c. 45° 08’ N., 64°

44’ E.).

+ 0.3.1968. Tadjik S.S.R.

near Regar (c. 38°

330 NE 68° 1472)

+ 11.3.1967. Kazakh

S.S.R. Dzhambul

Region, near Dzham-

bule(c, 422.527 Ne 71°

20’ E.)

+ 20.3.1968. Tadjik

S.S.R., near Asht (c.

40° 41’ N., 70° 21’ E.)

+ 10.3.1968. Samar-

kand Region, near

Aktash (c. 39° 55’ N.,

65° 55’ E.)

+ 14.3.1968. Kazakh

S.S.R., Alma-Ata

Region, near Chund-

zha (c. 43° 30’ N., 79°

27’ E.)

12.2.1968. Sahaswan,

Budaun Dist. U.P.,

India (C2) 285° 27 Ni:

19° 7 -E.)

8 .5.1968. Mastuj, Chit-

ral, Peshawar, W. Pakis-

tan (c: 362-157. Neo /2>

35’ E.)

+ 5.9.1967. Buryatian,

A.S.S.R., the mouth

of the Selenga-delta

Se 20’ N., 106° 30’

BE;

Tyumen

Region, near Yaluto-

rovsk (c. 56° 40’ N.,

66° 19’ E.)

Remarks

Reported by

Bird Ringing

Centre,

Moscow,

U.S.S.R.

do.

Reported by

Mir Hafeez

Ali

Reported by

Israrud - Din.

Sr. Lecturer,

Dept. of Geo-

graphy, Uni-

versity of

Peshawar, W.

Pakistan

Reported by

Bird Ringing

Centre,

Moscow,

U.S.S.R.

do.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 787

RECOVERY OF RINGED BIRDS—(contd.)

Ring No.

and species

C-1493

Anas querque-

dula 3

C-1628

Anas querque-

dula 3

C-3096

Anas querque-

dula imm.

C-3258

Anas querque-

dula °

C-3424

Anas crecca 3

C-3875

Anas crecca

C-3973

Anas crecca &

C-4036

Anas querque-

dula 3

C-4116

Anas crecca 3

C-4117

Anas crecca 3

C-4141

Anas crecca 3

C-4397

Anas crecca 3

Date and place of

ringing

Date and place of

recovery Remarks

10.10.1966. Bharatpur,

Pi Pon ey:

Rajasthan (c.

INSTT: 32 ES)

11.10.1966.

7.10.1967.

13.10.1967.

27.10.1967.

TAT1967.

9.11.1967.

10.11.1967.

12.11.1967.

13.11.1967.

30.11.1967.

do.

+ 13.5.1968. Tomsk Reported by

Region near Teguldet Bird Ringing

co 57° 21’ N., 88° 07’ Centre,

E.) Moscow,

U.S.S.R.

+ 12.5.1968. Tomsk do.

Region, near Francev-

skii (c. 57° 40’ N., 86°

24’ E.)

+ 8.5.1968. Tomsk do.

Region, near Krivo-

sheino (c. 57° 24’ N.,

83° 56’ E.)

+ 11.5.1968. Tomsk do.

Region near Tomsk

(e. 56° 30’ N., 84° 58’ E.)

+ 14.4.1968. Semipala- do.

tinsk Region, near

Kokpekty A 48° 45’

N., 82° 24’ E.)

+ 11.5.1968. Tyumen do.

Region, near Hizhne-

vartovskoe (c. 60° 55’

Ns 1093940 Es)

+ 9.3.1968. Tashkent do.

Region, near Chirchik

ie 30’ N., 81° 30’

+ 5.5.1968. Altai Region, do.

near Tyumentsevo (c.

53% 200 N.,.31- 73070 EB.)

+ 5.5.1968. Tomsk do.

Region, near Zyryan-

skoe (c. 56° 50’ N.,

86° 38’ E.)

+ 7.5.1968. Tyumensk do.

Region, near Tobolsk

eee 16’ N., 68° 18’

+ 3.5.1968. Krasnoy- do.

arsk Region, near

Eniseisk (c. 58° 27’

Ne, 92712" BE.)

+ 4.5.1968. Krasnoy- do.

arsk Region,near Kem-

chug (c. 56° 12’ N., 91°

Le 8)

788

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol.

RECOVERY OF RINGED BIRDS—(contd.)

Ring No.

and species

C-4605

Anas crecca $

C-4607

Anas crecca &

C-4643

Anas crecca 3

C-4886

Anas crecca 2

C-5574

Anas crecca 2

F-1767

Anas clypeata 0?

F-1931

Anas clypeata 3

F-2584

Anas clypeata 3

F-2840

Anas penelope 3§

F-2919

Anas acuta 3

F-5261

Aythya ferina 3

Date and place of

ringing

Date and place of |

recovery |

65 (3)

Remarks

6.12.1967. Bharatpur,

Rajasthan (c. 27° 13’

N., FB B,)

6.12.1967. do.

21.12:1967. do.

4.3.1968. do.

17.10.1967. do.

2 t L967: do.

25.11.1967. do.

52 Ore do.

8.12.1967. do.

26.2.1968. do.

+ 9.5.1968.

+ 17.4.1968. Altaisk

Region, near Kosikha

(¢. 55522) N84 4

E.)

+ 10.5.1968. Tomsk

Region, Vasyugan

River (c: 58°077 Nu.

TT 00" EY)

+ 10.5.1968. Krasno-

yarsk Region, near

Kezhma (c. 58°) 00’

N., 101° 06’ E.)

+ 14.5.1968. Tuva

A.S.S.R., near Tora-

Khem *(e.:52? 29’ N:,

96° 09’ E.)

+3.5.1968. Novosibirsk

Reg., near Severnoe

SG 56° 22° N., 78° 20%

+ 5.5.1968. Tomsk

Region, near Kozhev-

nikovo (c. 56° 17’ N.,

84° 00’ E.)

+ 9,.5.1968. Krasno-

yarsk Region, near

Uzhur (c,.55" 18" N:.

89° 49’ FE.)

+ 9.5.1968. Tomsk

Region, near Kozhev-

nikovo (c. 56° 17’ N.,

84° 00’E.)

Irkutsk

Region, near Bratsk

(C5648 NOL Ae

E.)

+ 3.5.1968. Tyumen

Region, near Repo-

lovo (c. 60° 40’ N.,

69° 45’ E.)

+ 6.5.1968. Tomsk

Region, near Kozhev-

nikova (c. 56° 17’ N.,

84° 00’ E.)

Reported by

Bird Ringing

Centre,

Moscow,

U.S.S.R.

do.

TAPE LN IT TNT LT TS a LT SD EE TE I EE TELE TOT CE TS LET ATS: PT BS ER ERE TF a LE NEA TD

RECOVERY OF RINGED BIRDS—(conid.)

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

789

Ring No.

and species

F-5322

Aythya fuligula 2 26.2.1968. Bharatpur,

Rajasthan (c. 27° 13’

N., 77° 32’ E.)

F-5342

Anas clypeata 0 ?

C-4632

Anas crecca

AB-14641

Philomachus

pugnax &

B-4071

Philomachus

pugnax 3

B-4078

Philomachus

pugnax 3

B-4223

Philomachus

Pugnax 3

C-1223

Anas crecca 2

C-3038

Anas querque-

dulao?

C-3537

Anas crecca 3

C-3540

Anas crecca 2

—

Date and place of

ringing

26.2.1968.

6.12.1967.

25.10.1967.

28.9.1967.

29.9.1967.

9.10.1967

8.10.1965.

28.9.1967.

29.10.1967.

do.

Date and place of

recovery

+ 7.5.1968. Tomsk

Region, near Anasta-

sievka (c. 56° 48’ N.,

83° 32’ E.)

+ 9.5.1968. Tomsk

Region, near Kozhev-

nikovo (c. 56° 17’ N.,

84° 00’ E.)

23.5:1968s ) Shot on

Astor River, Kashmir

(C235 920 Nes 145 526

E.)

+ 22.5.1968. Yakutian

A.S.S.R., near Nyurba

(64,632) 150 Ne Ss

00’ E.)

+ 29.5.1968. Yakutian

A.S.S.R., near Ten-

keli, the Tenkeli River

ee 14’ N., 141° 00’

+ 17.5.1968. Tyumen

Region, near Surgut,

(C261. 467, Ne 785 28%

E.)

+ 0.5.1968. Yakutian

A.S.S.R., near Ust-

Kuigu (c. 70° 00’ N.,

135° 38’ E.)

+ 13.5.1968. Tyumen

Region, near Nizhne-

vartovskoe (c. 60° 55’

N. 76° 40’ E.)

+ 20.5.1968. Tomsk

Region, near Rybinsk

ee 25’ N., 84° 42’

+ 20.5.1968. Krasno-

yarsk Region, near

Turukhansk (c. 65°

48’ N., 88° 00’ E.)

+ 4.5.1968. Krasno-

yarsk Region, near

Kansk (c. 56° 15’ N.

Remarks

Reported by

Bird Ringing

Centre,

Moscow,

U.S.S.R.

do.

Reported by

Mr. Khan,

Contractor,

Gilgit Agency,

W. Pakistan

Reported by

Bird Ringing

Centre,

Moscow,

U.S.S.R.

do.

95° 42’ E.)

790

RECOVERY OF RINGED BIRDS—(contd.)

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

Ring No.

and species

C-3896

Anas crecca 6

C-4115

Anas crecca 3

C-4175

Anas crecca 6

C-4185

Anas crecca 2

C-4889

Anas crecca 2

C-5145

Anas crecca $

C-5163

Anas crecca 2

C-5277

Anas crecca

F-1813

Anas acuta 3

F-1839

Anas acuta 3

F-1870

Anas acuta 0?

‘Date and place of

ringing

7.11.1967. Bharatpur,

Rajasthan (c. 27° 13’

N., 773265.)

12.11.1967. do.

14.11.1967. do.

1419677 AU do!

21.12.1967. do.

4.2.1968. do.

1.3.1968. do.

23.10.1967. do.

25.10.1967. do.

26.10.1967, do.

Date and place of

recovery

+. 12.5.1968. » Tomsk

Region, near Kurgasok

oo. O17 N:;"805 507

+ 5.5.1968. Krasno-

yarsk Region, near

Kansk (c. 56° 15’ N.,

95° 42’ E.)

+ 14,5.1968. - Irkutsk

Region, near Cherv-

yanka (c. 57° 41’ N.,

99° 30’ E.)

+ 16.3.1968. .Fergana

Region, near Altyar

(es 40° 23°N2, 71° 305

E.)

+ 23.5.1968. Yakutian

A.S.S.R.,Lenskii Dist.,

near Orto-Nakhara

: Remarks

Reported by

Bird Ringing

Centre, |

Moscow, © :

U.S.S.R...

do.

do:

‘do.

(c. 60° 48’ N., 114° |

12’ E.)

+ 1.5.1968. Tomsk

Region, near . Asino

(c. 57° 04" Ni? 86° 08" =

E.)

+ 16.5.1968. Irkutsk

Region, the Kochengu

River ‘(c. 56° 007 N.3

1037517 EB.)

+ 16.5.1968. Jakutsk

Region, Lenskii Dist.,

near Khamra (c. 60°

£3" Ni d14° 09% By)

+ 15.5.1968. Irkutsk

do.

do. ie

near Kondratievo (c. «

57. 24 ON: 98; 107 E:)

+ 14.5.1968. Tomsk

Region, near. Parabel,..-.'.

(ex 581 AS" IN Oke 27,

E.)

+ 24.5.1968. Yakutian

A.S.S.R.,. near -Mirnyi

(CC G25 So aN aol

43°52):

do.. --~3

(AAR TE STR AAT PRE RETO | LET CE OES TOL NT NE PPE OE PE OIE OL RET TT a ES a Pa ES TE a a aE

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

RECOVERY OF RINGED BIRDS—(contd.)

Ring No. Date and place of

and species ringing

F-2218

Anas acuta § 10.11.1967. Bharatpur,

Rajasthan (c. 27° 13’

No 77 32 EB)

F-2957

Anas clypeata 39.12.1967.

F-3402

Anas clypeata § 23.12.1967.

F-3412

Aythya fuligula 3 23.12.1967.

F-3993

_ Anas clypeatao? 12.1.1968.

F-4249

Anas acuta $ 24.1.1968.

F-4336

Fulica atra 0? 29.1.1968.

F-4556

Aythya fuligula § 5.2.1968.

F-5071

Aythya ferina § 20.2.1968.

F-5251

Anas acuta ~ 26.2.1968.

F-5257

Anas acuta 3 26.2.1968.

F-5340 ‘ 5 \

Anas clypeata 2 . 26.2.1968.

F-5389 ae

Aythya fuligula@ 27.2.1968..

do.

do.’ .

do.

Date and place of

recovery

+ 9,3.1968. Samar-

kand Region; near Gal-

lyaaral (c. 40° O1’ N.,

67° 34’ E.)

+ 14.5.1968. Tomsk

Region, near Kolpa-

shevo (¢: 58° .21’ N.,

82° 56’-E.)

+ 17.5.1968. do.

1S, 11968. =. do.

+ 10.5.1968. Tomsk

Region, near Tomsk

(65-56 S307 NG 85

01’ E.)

+ 10.5.1968. Tomsk

Region, near Aleksan-

drovskoe (c. 56° 46’

IN.) 85° 227 E.)

+ 14.5.1968. Tomsk

Region, near Kolpu-

shevo (c. -58° 21’ N.,

82. 567 Es)

Sel So Oa GO:

+ 23.5.1968. Tyumen

Region, Berezovo

Dist., near Ustrem (c.

64° 18’ N., 65° 26’ E.)

-+- 10.5.1968. Tyumen

Region, near Nadym

(C.69 385 IN. (Zs

45’ E.)

+ 10.5.1968. Tomsk

Region, Parabel Dist.,

near Visokii Yar (c.

3648 Ne Sl? Zi. E.)

+ 17:5.1968. - Tomsk’:

Region, near Kolpa-

shevo (c. 58° 21’ N.,

82° 56’ E.)

+ 12.5.1968. Tomsk

Region, near Malcha-

novo (c. 57° 35’ N., 83°

45’ E.)

791

Remarks

Reported by

Bird Ringing

Centre,

Moscow,

U.S.S.R.

do.

; do.

do.

‘do.

do.

792. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

RECOVERY OF RINGED BIRDS—(contd.)

Ring No.

and species

F-5678

Anas clypeata 2

F-3191

Fulica atra o?

AB-9228

Tringa

glareola 0?

B-1659

Philomachus

pugnax 3

C-2695

Anas crecca 6

C-3323

Anas crecca 6

C-3672

Anas crecca 3

C-3992

Anas crecca 3

C-4285

Anas crecca 3

C-4734

Anas crecca &

Date and place of

ringing

3.3.1968. Bharatpur,

Rajasthan (c. 27° 13’

N:3 77" 32)

15:42 1967:

9.10.1966.

7.10.1965.

20.10.1966.

16.10.1967.

5.11.1967.

9.11.1967.

24.11.1967.

8.12. 1967.

do.

do,

do.

Date and place of

recovery

+ 8.5.1968. Krasno-

yarsk Region, Eniseisk

Dist., near Makovs-

koe (c. 58° 12’ N., 90°

527:E)

-+- 0.1.1968. Nabishah

Lake, Bhalwal Tehsil,

Dist., Sargodha, W.

Pakistan (c. 32° 4’ N.,

72° 43’ E.)

+ 8.6.1968. Krasno-

yarsk Region, near

Igarka (c. 67° 28’ N.,

86° 34’ E.)

+ 18.5.1968. Yakutian

Remarks

Reported by

Bird Ringing

Centre,

Moscow, .

U.S.S.R.

Reported by

Mian Muham-

mad Amir

Reported by

Bird Ring-

ing Centre,

Moscow,

U.S.S.R.

do.

A.S.S.R., Ust, Aldan —

Region, Aldan River

(62637 18" Nant 3ie

00’ E.)

+ 29.2.1967. Turkme-

nian S.S.R., near Mary

(Co 37 37) Nao

49’ E.)

+ 0.3.1968. Syr-Dariya

Region, near Gulistan

(c: 40° 30°. Nt" 687

45’ E.)

+ 14.6.1968. Krasno-

yarsk Region, near

Norilsk (c. 69° 20’ N.,

88° 14’ E.)

+ 29.4.1968. Novasi-

birsk Region, near

Verkhnyaya Krasno-

yarka (c. 56° 22’ N.;

71. 36" E.)

+ 12.5.1968. Tomsk

Region, near Kolpa-

shevo (c. 58°21’ N.,

82° 56’ E.)

+ 8.5.1968. Tomsk

Region (c. 56° 75’ N.,

85° 15’ E.)

do.

| do.

do.

RECOVERY OF RINGED BIRDS—(contd.)

Ring No.

and species

C-5109

Anas crecca 3

F-1117

Anas acuta 3

F-4200

Aythya

fuligula oO?

F-4416

Anas acuta 3

F-5058

Anas acuta 2

F-5355

Aythya ferina ?

F-4951

Fulica atra 0?

F-5500

Anas clypeata 3

C-3712

Anas crecca 3

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Date and place of —

ringing

29.1.1968. Bharatpur,

Rajasthan (c. 27° 13’

N.s 779 32° EB.)

18.10.1965. do.

23.1.1968, do.

31.1.1968. do.

19.2.1968. do.

26.2.1968. do.

16.2.1968. do.

28.2.1968. do.

6.11.1967. do.

Date and place of

recovery

+ 15.5.1968. Irkustsk

Region, near Kirensk

(C57 46°..N.37 1087,

08’ E.)

+ 15.5.1967. Tomsk

Region, near Alek-

sandrovskoe (c. 56°

46’ N., 85° 22’ E.)

+ 15.5.1968. Tomsk

Region, near Pod-

gornoe (c. 57° 47’ N.,

82°38” E:)

+ 16.5.1968. Tomsk

Region, Surgut Dist.,

near Sytomino (c. 61°

20’ N., 71° 20’ E.)

+ 30.4.1968. Omsk

Region, near Krutinka

eit OOO N.; 71° 3

+ 0.2.1968. Surkhan-

Dariya Region, near

Termez (c. 37° 11’ N.,

67° 18’ E.)

+ 15.4.1968. Kazakh

S.S.R., Karaganda

Region, southern coast

of Balkash Lake (c. 46°

85’ N., 75° 00’ E.)

+ 20.4.1968. do.

16.8.1968. Bairwar Vill-

age, P.O. Jatara, Dist.

Tikamgarh, MP. (c. 24°

45’ N., (8° 507 Bay >

BomBay NATURAL History SOCIETY, _

HornBILL HOusE, Sid

SHAHID BHAGAT SINGH RoaD,

Bompsay-1,

October 17, 1968.

793

Remarks

Reported: by

Bird Ringing

Centre,

Moscow,

U.S.S.R.

do.

Reported by

Dhani Ram

Singh, M.P.

EDITORS

794. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

18. OXYURICHTHYS JAARMANI WEBER (GOBIIDAE:

PISCES), A RARE GOBIOID FROM INDIAN WATERS

(With a_ text-figure)

Koumans (1941) reports two species of Oxyurichthys from Indian

waters namely, O. microlepis (Bleeker) and O. tentacularis (C.V.).

Scale

2¢cm.

Text-Fig. Oxyurichithys jaarmani Weber

During my studies on the taxonomy of the fishes from the Orissa

coast, a specimen of Oxyurichthys collected from the Mahanadi

estuary on 15 March, 1964 by Sri. N. V. Subba Rao of the Zoological

Survey of India was determined as O. jaarmani Weber. This species

has so far been recorded only from the estuary of the Lorentz River.

New Guinea (Koumans 1953), its type locality. The present com-

munication records the occurrence of this rare gobioid for the first

time from Indian waters.

Oxyurichthys jaarmani Weber

a (Text-fig.)

Oxyurichthys jaarmani Weber, 1913, Nova Guinéa, 9(4), p. 601; Koumans, 1953,

Fishes Indo Australian Archipelago, 10, p.40. _ ;

Oxyurichthys jaarmani Fowler, 1928, Mem. B.P. Bishop Mus., 10, p..415.

MATERIAL: 1, 78 mm. in total length ; False Point (Mahanadi estuary, Orissa) ;

15 March, 1964; N. V. Subba Rao ; Zoological Survey of India Reg. No. F 5531.

~. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES } 5 795

Description; | | Sy tame f |

D. VI+1-10; A. I i1; P. 21::L. 1. 28: Ltr: 7; Gillrakers 1+-4.

Depth of body 4:1; length of head 3:5; both in standard length.

Eye diameter 3-9 in head; interorbital 4-0 in eye diameter.

Mouth cleft nearly horizontal, iaws subequal. Maxilla extends to

level of anterior third of eye. Interorbital pores indistinct. No ocular

tentacles.

Single row of fine canniform teeth in upper jaw, in three rows in

lower jaw. Palate and tongue edentate.

_ Gill openings moderately restricted, open laterally somewhat below

a level from lower edge of pectoral base; isthmus moderate. Géill-

takers well developed.

Squamation well developed on body; absent on head, median pre-

dorsal and on breast before BoE scales ctenoid, smaller and less

ctenoid anteriorly. :

Dorsals prominent; anal similar to second dorsal. Anal originates

below the second dorsal ray. Pectoral longer than head and pelvic.

‘Caudal long, pointed; longer than head.

~ Colour in alcohol—brownish, the vertical and paired fins dusky

black. A conspicuous dark vertical band below the eye and indistinct

dark blotch on caudal base. Reddy

Remarks: The specimen from the Mahanadi estuary differs from

the original and subsequent descriptions of this species (Weber 1913;

Fowler 1928, and Koumans 1953) in having a lesser number of scales

in the lateral series, greater body depth and considerably smaller eye.

Another variation noticed is that the interorbital pores are indistinct

in the present specimen. However, in the absence of significant

differences in the meristic counts, morphometric proportions and

coloration, the Mahanadi specimen cannot be treated as a separate

subspecies in spite of the geographical separation.

I am thankful to Dr. A. P. Kapur and Dr. A. G. K. Menon,

Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta for their encouragement and

interest during the course of this study.

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

(CALCUTTA, P. K. TALWAR

December 8, 1967.

REFERENCES.

Fow er, H. W. (1928): The Fishes of & Beaufort. The Fishes of the Indo-

Oceania. Mem. B.P. Bishop Mus., 10: ee Archipelago, 10: 39-50

415. Leiden

Koumans, F. P... (1941): Gobioid WEBER, M. (1913): Susswasserfische

Fishes of India. Mem. Indian Mus. aus neiderlandisch sud und nord neu

13(3) : 220- ae Guinea. Nova Guinea, 9 (4): 601,

————— (1953): Gobioidea in Weber

796 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 65 (3)

19. OBSERVATIONS ON THE FOOD OF YOUNG

HILSA ILISHA (HAMILTON) AROUND NABADWIP,

IN THE HOOGHLY ESTUARY

Although considerable knowledge has been gained on different

aspects of the biology and fishery of Hilsa ilisha, (1963) not much

is known on the food and feeding habits of the young Hilsa.. Hence,

an attempt was made to make a detailed analysis of the food of the

young Hilsa ilisha around Nabadwip in the Hooghly estuary.

The material for the present investigations was obtained from the .

freshwater zone of the Hooghly in and around Nabadwip during March

to June, 1966. 649 specimens of the young of Hilsa ilisha in the

size range of 65 to 200 mm. (total length) were collected from regular

fortnightly random samples and analysed for their gut contents. The

fish in fresh condition, were either directly obtained from shore-

seines (Chat Berjal) or from the Nabadwip fish market. They were

preserved in 5% formaldehyde and the gut contents were analysed by

the ‘Occurrence’ method, though it has some limitations. As the

observations were of preliminary nature, other methods like volumetric

analysis which could have pin-pointed the ‘real optimal food’ for the

species, were not tried.

The relative abundance of various food items present in the gut

contents of the young Hilsa has been found to be crustacea 26°71%,

sand particles 23-50%. debris 18-39%, digested matter 15-49%, diatoms

13-35%, algae 050%, animal tissue 0:04°% and bivalve larvae 0:01%.

The data relating to monthwise fluctuations in the intensity of feeding

as well as prevalence of various food items are presented in Table 1,

TABLE 1

PERCENTAGE PREVALENCE OF VARIOUS FOOD ITEMS DURING DIFFERENT MONTHS

Crus- Sand- Debris Diges- Diatoms Algae Bivalve Animal

tacea _— parti- ted larvae tissue

matter

cle

(%) (%) (A) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%)

March 36°54 "6 (21:16) @.14758)) 1.22.72 321 1°69 0°04 =0°06

April 28°86 27:95 22°93 14:32 5-82 0:03 0:05 0:04

May Nil 23-331) 57-50) 1447 5-00

June 0:30 500 3°55 10.00 81:15

ARE OL ME YT A or a IE UC)

from which it will be observed that marked variations in the intensity

of feeding of the young Hilsa are evident during this period of four

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 4

months. Pillay & Rao (1962) have observed that from January to

March feeding of young Hilsa of the river Godavari appears to be

fairly intensive with the peak in February and March. They also

observed that from April to July hardly any specimen was found to

have eaten much food as most of them had empty stomachs or had

only traces of food. The present observations reveal that, in the case

of Hooghly young Hilsa, feeding appears to be fairly intensive in

March and April. Monthwise percentage composition of the different

degrees of fullness of stomachs is given in Table 2.

TABLE 2

MONTHLY FLUCTUATIONS IN THE INTENSITY OF FEEDING

Bt Biter

Full 3th Full ? Full + Full Traces Empty

(%) CA) Cr) CA) (% (7%)

Marchi): «, 18:57 5°71 17°86 17°86 11°43 28°57

April DvD Bat 55 473 20°00 7°63 5°82 27°27

May es x A 0°93 1°85 aaah 94°45

June fee 12.70 hs 4°76 17 3:97 75°40

Hilsa is generally considered a plankton feeder, though Hora &

Nair (1940 a & b) inferred that young Hilsa feed at the bottom, since

sand grains were found in the stomachs. Pillay & Rao (1962) have

concluded that Hilsa feeds at the bottom during the entire period of

its life from at least 43 mm. stage, but they have also assumed that

Hilsa feeds at all depths, as sand. grains, debris, planktonic organisms

etc. are found in appreciable quantities.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author is greatly thankful to Dr. V. G. Jhingran, Director,

for his keen interest and encouragement, to Mr. V. R. Pantulu, who

constantly guided the investigations and to Dr. V. Gopalakrishnan for

kindly going through the manuscript.

(CENTRAL INLAND FISHERIES

RESEARCH INSTITUTE, D. D. HALDER

BARRACKPORE,

Via, CALCUTTA,

August '16, 1968.

‘798

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

REFERENCES

Hora, S. L. & Na, K. K. (1940a) :

Further observations on the bionomics

and fishery of the Indian Shad,. Hilsa

ilisha (Ham.) in Bengal waters. Rec.

Indian Mus. 42(1) : 35-50.

& (1940b): The

Jatka ean, of Eastern Bengal and its~

significance in the fishery of the so-called

Indian Shad, Hilsa ilisha (Ham.) in Bengal

waters. ibid 42 (4): 553-555.

review of methods used in studies of the

eee of fishes. J. animal Ecol. 190).:

- PILLAy, S. R. & Rosa yr. ick (1963) :

Synopsis of biological data on Hilsa,

Hilsa ilisha (Ham.), 1822. FAO Fisheries

Biology Symposium No. 25.

+--+, & “Raoy -K. | V2./01962):

Observations on the biology and fishery

of the Hilsa, Hilsa ilisha (Ham.) of River

Hynes, H. B. N. (1950): The food of

freshwater sticklebacks (Gasterosteus

aculeatus and Pygosteus pungitius), with a

Godavari. Proc. Indo-Pacific Fish. Coun.

10(2) : 37-61.

FROM ACCIDENTAL DROWNING is

The use of surface tension of water and the hydrophobe and water

repellant properties of the cuticle and cuticular processes by various

aquatic insects for locomotion, and suspension from the surface film

and for respiration under water has been explained by Wigglesworth

(1966)' who has also mentioned that terrestrial insects make use of

surface forces in order to cling to surfaces too smooth to provide a

firm hold for the claws.>

Terrestrial insects, under certain circumstances, may also take

advantage of the above factors for their survival, as observed in the

following case. A small unidentified moth, about a centimetre in

length was found on the surface of water contained in a shallow

vessel, about ten centimetres in diameter. The moth obviously, must

have fallen into water accidentally. Its behaviour on the water surface

‘was interesting. ‘The insect was seen walking a few steps on the

surface film and suddenly: jumping and vibrating the wings,

apparently trying to take off. It repeatedly fell back on water but

remained on the surface without any active effort on its part. The

moth finally succeeded after a jump, flew for a short distance and

landed on the ground a few centimetres ‘away from the vessel. - The

moth was caught and examined and no trace of water!-could be found

on jany part of the body.

The above observation shows how a terrestrial insect. can - “take

advantage of the surface tension of water and the hydrophobe pro-

perties of the cuticle to escape from accidental foe i cca,

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY,

MALABAR CHRISTIAN COLLEGE,

CALICUT 1, KERALA,

March 25, 1968.

+ Wigglesworth, V. B. (1966) :

« B. SOANS

J. S. SOANS

Insect Physiology. London,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 799

21. ETIELI.A ZINCKENELLA TREITSCHKE

(LEPIDOPTERA: PHYCITIDAE) AS A POD

BORER OF LENTIL IN THE PUNJAB

Etiella zinckenella T. was first reported in India in the beginning

of this century as a pest of horse gram (Dolichos biflorus Linn.),

cowpea (Vigna catiang Walh.), red gram (Cajanus cajan Sprengi.)

and sannhemp (Crotalaria juncea L.) (Fletcher 1914). Mitra (1944),

Singh & Sohij (1957) reported it as a pest of pea pods.

Recently the insect was observed doing serious damage to the

pods of lentil (Lens esculenta Moench.) at the Punjab Agricultural

University Farm, Ludhiana, and this is the first record of damage

done by this insect to lentii crop in India.

The adults of E. zinckenella are greyish brown with distinct pale

white band along the coastal margin of the fore-wing and a transverse

ridge of raised scales near the base. The hind wing is semi-

transparent and light in colour. The eggs are laid at the time of

flowering near the calyx and on hatching the larvae bore into the

pods and feed on the developing grains. Usually one larva is present

per pod. A single larva attacks a number of pods before it is full-

srown. The larvae are green in colour and turn pinkish-brown near

maturity. Full grown larva measures about 1:0-1-25 cm. After attain-

ing maturity, the larvae leave the pods, enter the soil and spin silken

cocoons about 2 cm. to 3 cm. deep in the soil. The cocoons are

covered with particles of soil.

Maximum damage to the lentil crop was done when the pods

were nearing maturity. All the seeds in the infested pods were

destroyed and such pods contained small larval faecal pellets and

were found webbed together in clusters. Twelve to fifteen per cent

pods of the crop was damaged by this insect. The larvae were

parasitised by Bracon sp., Tetrastichus sp. and Pterornalid sp.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors are thankful to Dr. B. R. Subbarao for the

identification of the parasites of E. zinckenella T.

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY-ENTOMOLOGY,

PUNJAB AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY, G. S. SANDHU

LUDHIANA, G. C. VERMA

March 8, 1968.

800 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 65 (3)

REFERENCES

FLeTcuer, T. B. (1914): Some South (Pisum sativum) Curr... Sci., 13(12:)

Indian Insects and other animals of 312-313.

importance, pp. 429, Govt. Press, SincH, S. & Sout, G. S. (1957): A list

Madras. of insect pests of economic importance

Mitra, P. K. (1944): A note on inthe Punjab. Govt. Agric. Coll. Mag.

Heliothis armigera Hub. asa pest of pea 4(3): 19-34.

22. GREGARIOUSNESS AND MIMICRY DURING

THE COCOON STAGE BY THE BUTTERFLY

EUREMA HECABE (L.)

I would refer to B. K. Tikader’s note under the above heave

(1968, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 65 (1): 242).

E. hecabe does not spin a cocoon and this term should be replaced

by ‘pupa’ wherever it occurs. !

Apart from the Hesperiidae, or ‘Grypocera, the only butterfly larvae

that spin cocoons are the genus Parnassius and the Satyrid Eumenis

semele L.

MOMBASA, D. G. SEVASTOPULO, F.2.E. Ss.

July 24, 1968.

23.. INSECTS ATTRACTED TO LIGHT IN THE

DANGS, SOUTH GUJARAT

While going through the specimens collected at light in the Dangs

and reported in this Journal 61 (2): 271 and 64 (2): 256 and now

in the collections of the Society, it was noticed that through oversight

three species of butterflies, collected in August-Sept, 1961 were not

included in the lists published. They are:

1. Anaphaeis aurota Fab. (Pieridae)

2. Colotis calais Cr. (Pieridae) and

3. Heliophorus tamu tamu Koll (Lycaenidae).

This note is of special interest because while the first two species

are common in this area the third Heliophorus, is being noted for

the first time so far south. All the species of Helicophorus: are found

only in the Himalayas or at the foot of that range. Finding one of

the species so far south is of great interest. PAT RAIN

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY,

Hornsitt House, | N. T. NADKERNY

SHAHID BHAGAT SINGH RoaD, E, M, SHULL

BoMBAY-1,

September 19, 1968,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES S01

(24. PERSISTENT VITALITY IN BEE-HOLE BORER MOTH

DUOMITUS LEUCCNOTUS WLK.

At page 447 of Vol. 63 of the Journal Mr, Thomas Gay reports a

case of persistent vitality in the Hooded Grasshopper Teratodes

monticollis. I report here a similar case which I came across a few

days ago in the bee-hole borer moth Duomitus leuconotus Wik.

I caught the moth on the trunk of a Cassia renigera in my garden

in the first week of this month, holding itself in a vertical position

with its head uppermost. I took it to be a newly emerged imago

and, as: it was about 8 o’clock on a damp dull morning, guessed that

it was not ready to fly. Placing my hand close against the trunk

just in front of the moth I nudged gently at its head. The moth

‘moved forward and settled on my right forefinger, which I held

vertically thereafter so that the moth resumed its former vertical

position. Coming into the house, I got out my killing bottle from

the back of a book cupboard, opened it, and closed it over the moth.

In between, I exhibited the moth to my wife and my daughter for

their due admiration. All this was done slowly and deliberately, so as

not to disturb the moth unduly. Altogether, I must have had the

moth under my observation for at least ten minutes. Throughout

this time, neither I nor my wife nor my daughter noticed anything

unusual about the moth; it behaved as any recently emerged moth

might have done. I was surprised therefore, when I opened the

killing bottle two or three days later, to find the abdomen of the

moth missing.

My killing bottle closes with a well-fitting lid, and was not

touched by anyone in the intervening period. So there was no

possibility of anything having got at the moth after its capture. The

conclusion seems unavoidable therefore that that the moth had no

abdomen when I caught it. It is difficult to say what the loss of

the abdomen was due to; possibly, it was caused by a lizard or some

other predator which was disturbed before it could destroy the moth

entirely. It is clear, however, that the loss of the abdomen did not

prevent the rest of the body from behaving as it would otherwise

have done; so much so, that all three of us who saw it took it to

be an undamaged specimen jit to be sent to the Society for its

collection. |

Unfortunately, it did not strike me at the time to look for the

discarded pupal case. I did so about six days later and found a

fresh’ one protruding from an exit hole within a couple of feet of

the place where I caught the moth. This was the oniy pupa skin to

be seen, except for a very old pupal case which was too old to be

802. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

considered. So it is possible that my guess about the moth being

newly emerged was correct.

Mr. N. T. Nadkerny at the Society’s office, who kindly verified my

identification, agrees with me that this is a case of persistent vitality

similar to the one described by Mr. Gay.

65 PALI HILL,

BANDRA, BoMBAY 50-AS, D. E. REUBEN

September 13, 1968.

[An instance of persistent vitality is given by M. A. Wynter-

Blyth in his article ‘The Nilgiris Revisited’ in vol. 48 (1949) of this

Journal. Writing on the Nilgiri Tiger Beetle (Cicindela aurofasciata)

preying on the longicorn, beetle (Dorysthenes montanus), he states that

‘It is no uncommon sight to see one of these longicorns (which, if

helpless against their enemies, are at least tenacious of life) walking

briskly about though entirely disembowelled’—-Eds.]

25. PREFERENCE OF CASTOR VARIETIES FOR

FEEDING AND OVIPOSITION BY THE LEAFHOPPER

JASSIDAE)

I was very interested in S. Jayaraj’s paper under this title (1968,

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 65 (1): 64-75) as some years ago Dr. V. G. L.

van Someren recorded that the larva of Charaxes etesipe Godt.,

(Lepidoptera, Rhopalocera) efesipe, would only eat the green-, or white-,

stemmed variety of Castor, and preferred to starve rather than eat

the red-stemmed, although, both varieties were considered to belong to

the same specieg by the Kew authorities. This is particularly strange

as the larva of this subspecies also feeds on other Euphorbiaceae such

as Phyllanthus, Tragia and Croton, whilst the larva of ssp. tavetensis

Roths. feeds on Leguminosae, such as Afzelia and Cassia (Caesal-

pinaceae), Dalbergia (Papilionaceae) and Entada (Mimosaceae).

With a monophagous larva such selectivity is understandable, but not

when a larva feeds on several species of plant.

Has Mr. Jayaraj noticed any correlation between acceptability and

stem colour?

MomMBaSA, | D. G. SEVASTOPULO, F.R.E.S. .

July 24, 1968. ;

2 69 wos 4a. 0: MISCELLANEOUS ‘NOTES 803

26..:-OBSERVATIONS ON A MODE OF FOOD- |

CAPTURE BY DRAGON FLIES

Dragon flies are active predators known for their habit of capturing

their prey on the wing. They feed on other small insects and it is

generally known that these prey-species belong to orders Odonata,

Diptera, Hymenoptera and Coleoptera (Hobby 1934). In the Malabar

‘Christian College compound, certain Aeschnid dragonflies (un-

identified) are: generally found resting on an extensive patch of grass,

in the evening after about 6 p.m. On May 10, 1968, there was a

swarm of alate termites which came out earlier than usual, before

crepuscular period. The dragonflies which were resting on the grass

then started capturing the termites flying over the grass one by one,

in-an interesting manner. The dragonfly suddenly made a swift flight,

taking the course of an arc or almost a semi-circle and seized the

termite, flying at a height of 1-3 metres above the grass. The

position of the body of the dragonfly was nearly horizontal during

the capture of prey. After food capture, the flight was continued as

a. deep dive back to grass on which the dragonfly rested again a:

ate the prey.

_. The above observation. shows that the resting dragonflies can also

- dapture flying prey species of insects by suddenly darting at them

accurately. and that order Isoptera also should be added to the list

iof the. orders of the prey insect species of dragonflies.

.. DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY, ,

MALABAR CHRISTIAN COLLEGE, A. B. SOANS

~CALIcuT-1, KERALA, JOYCE S. SOANS

June 5, 1968.

REFERENCE

Hossy, B. M. (1934): The prey of

British Dragonflies. Trans. ent. Soc.

S. England. 8 : 65.

27. DICRAEIA STYLOSA WIGHT (PODOSTEMACEAE)—

A NEW RECORD FOR BOMB ey oo

The genus Dicracia Thou. ( =Dicraeia Tul.) with about 13 species

_ Occurs in parts of S. America, S. Africa, India and Ceylon. During

a: botanical exploration of Sakarpathar-Ambavane region on the

Western. Ghats of India, Poona District, Maharashtra State, in the

-yéars 1962-65, a species of Dicraeia, namely D. stylosc was collected.

804. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 65 (3)

This species has not been included in T. Cooke’s THE FLORA OF THE

PRESIDENCY OF BOMBAY, and has not been reported by subsequent

workers from the presidency. Hence, its occurrence in the Sakarpathar-

Ambavane region is considered as « new record. This species has

so far been reported from Malabar Hills, Anaimalais, Nilgiris, south

Kanara to Travancore. The present report extends its distribution

further north along the Western Ghats.

Dicraeia stylosa Wight, Icon. t. 1917, f. 2, 1852; Willis in Ann. R.

bot. Gard. Peradeniya 1:225, 1902; Engl. in Engl. & Prantl, Nat.

Pflanzenfam. 18a: 51, f. 42, 1930; Subramanyam, Aq. Angiosp. 47.

f. 31, 1962. Podostemon stylosus Benth. in Benth. & Hook., Gen.

Pl. 3: 112. 1880; Hook. f. Fl. Brit. India 5:64, 1886.

Aquatic herb, submerged. Stems very long, ramous, compressed.

Leaves 4, subulate, imbricate, distichous; the exterior pair smaller; the

interior pair obtuse, subcuspidate, nearly equalling and sheathing the

spathe at base. Flowers bisexual, zygomorphic. Stamens 2, filaments

united below. Staminodes 2, linear, stigmas pubescent long. Ovary

ovoid, 2-celled. Capsule 6-8-ribbed.

This species grows in freshwater streams, with the thallus freely float-

ing from an attached base, exogenously branched, resembling in habit

some of the seaweeds like Fucus. The taxon has been observed growing

in association with other Podostemons like---Griffithella hookeriana

(Tul.) Warm. and Podostemon subulatus Gardn., and occurs in fairly

Jarge abundance. The species is characterised by the long stigmas.

Flowering and fruiting: September-November. .

Specimens examined; Rajni near Saltar (Ambavane), Reddi

99153A (BSD); Polarahwada near Tiskari (Ambavane), alt. 1100 m.,

Reddi 101036 (BSI).

DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY,

BANARAS HINDU UNIVERSITY, B. VENKATAREDDI

VARANASI-5,

June 20, 1968.

28. OBSERVATIONS ON THE HOST RANGE IN

LORANTHUS LONGIFLORUS DESV.

Previous reports on the loranthaceous parasites (Fischer 1926,

Sambandam 1966) seem to justify in unambiguous terms that there is

no specificity in the selection of host plants for Loranthus longiflorus

Desy. The present authors have observed, in addition to previous

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES $05

record (Sambandam 1966), a few more species of host plants which

were found parasitized by L. longifiorus, as listed beiow:

Annona squamos« Linn., Crateva réligiosa Forst., Oncoba spinosa

Linn., Gossypium arboreum, Thespesia populnea Cav., Berrya ammonilla

Roxb., Grewia tiltifolia Vahl, Citrus aurantium Linn., C. medica L.,

Ochna squarr0sa Linn., Azadirachta indica A. Juss., Cedrela toona

Roxb., Sweitenia mahagoni Linn., Melia azedarach Linn., Moringa

oleifera Lam., Cassia siamea Lam., Bauhinia tomentosa Linn.,

Anogeissus acuminata Wall., QuisSqualis indica Linn., Punica granatum.

Ixora coccinea J.inn., Hamelia patens, Morinda tinctoria Roxb.,

Mimusops elengi Linn., M. hexandra Roxb., Bassia latifolia Roxb.,

Achras sapota Linn., Nyctanthes arbor-tristis Linn., Thevetia neriifolia

Juss., Cordia rothii R. & §., Spathodea campanulata Beauv., Stereo-

spermum chelonoides DC., Dolichandrone falcata Seem., D. rheedii

Seem., Crescentia cujete Linn., Vitex negundo Linn., Premna latifolia

Roxb., Lantana aculeata Linn., Putranjiva roxburghi: Wall., Trema

orientalis Bl., Holoptelea integrifolia Planch.

It would appear, from the foregoing list of host plants, that no-

where in the study of angiospermic parasites has there been such a wide

range of host plants affected by a single parasitic species.

DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY,

ANNAMALAI UNIVERSITY, R. SAMPATHKUMAR ~

ANNAMALAINAGAR, | J. KUNCHITHAPATHAM

May 20, 1968.

REFERENCES

Fiscuer, C. E. C. (1926): Lorantha- combinations of Loranthus longiflorus

ceae of Southern India and their host Desv. and host species. Annimalai

plants. Rec. Bot. Sur. India 11(1): 159-195. Univ. Agric. Mag. 63-64

SAMBANDAM, C. N. (1966) : Some new

29. NOMENCLATURE NOTES ON THE GENUS SONERILA

ROXB. (MELASTOMATACEAE)

1. Sonerila khasiana C. B. Clarke in Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 2:539,

1879; Cogniaux in DC. Monogr. Phan. 7:514, 1891; Stapf in Ann.

Bot 62309, 1892; C.F. €. Fischer.;in. Kew Bully .1:99,,.,1932;

efcim), Rec, Bot: Sur, Indy 12:2, 96; 1938). Type:).. Hooker. &

Thompson 2027 (K). Gdssebeerie khasiana (C. B. Clarke) O. Kuntze,

Rev. Gen. Plant. 1:245, 1891. Sonerila villosa C. E. C. Fischer in

Kew Bull. 199, 1932 et in Rec. Bot. Sur. Ind. 12:2, 96, 1938. Type:

W. J. L. Wenger 323 (K). SYNON. NOV. mY

806 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

Distribution:

Inp1A: Assam, Khasia hills, Mamloo, Kalapani, alt. 1333-1666 m.,

5 ‘Aug. 1850, Hooker & Thompson 2027 (K); Ibid., sine loc. et alt.

4 Sep. 1850, Hooker & Thompson s. n. (K, CAL); Khasia, C. B. Clarke

21494 (K); Ibid., Vale of Rocks, alt. 1666 m., 21 Sept. 1886, C. B.

Clarke 45454 (K, CAL); Jaintia hills, Jarin, alt, 1333 m., 20 nov.

1872, C. B: Clarke "18329 (K);°.S. Lushai, : alt.°1333° m::; Sept: 1931,

Wenger 345 (K); Ibid., from Lungleh to 70 miles south, alt. 833-

1333 m., July-Aug. 1931, Wenger 323 (K); Naga hills, Paona, alt.

2000 m., 2 Sept. 1935, Bor 6261 (K).

Sonerila villosa C. E. C. Fischer from Lushai hills closely matches

S. kKhasiana C. B. Clarke in the nature of its habit, leaves, flowers

and capsule. According to Fischer S$. villosa differs from S.

khasiana in having white villose pubescence in the stem, petiole, —

peduncle and pedicel and in having smaller flowers. In S. khasiana,

it is seen, there are villose and glabrescent forms. Since there is

variation in the size of flowers and since pubescence is not a stable

taxonomic character in this taxon, it is proposed to reduce S. villosa

C, E. C. Fischer to a synonym of S. khasiana C. B. Clarke.

This species is closely allied to S. violaefolia Hook. f. in the nature

of its habit and leaves though S. violaefolia is a more robust species.

Stapf (in Ann. Bot. 6:310, 1892) stated that the flowers and capsule

of |S. violaefolia are similar to those of §. khasiana. The capsule in

S. violaefolia is obconic with thick wall, prominent ribs and con-

spicuous valves, whereas in S. khasiana the capsule is oblong or

campanulate with thin wall, faint ribs and inconspicuous valves.

2. Sonerila prostrata Ridl. var. johorensis (Hend.) Nayar comb.

et stat. nov. Sonerila johorensis Hend, in Gard. Bull. Straits Settlements

4:411, 1929. Type: Holttum 17500 (SING).

Henderson stated that this taxon is closely allied to S. prostraja

Ridl., but differs in having larger leaves, anthers and petals..

It is seen that in several taxa in the genus Sonerila, there is wide

range of variation in the length of stamens. Stapf (in Ann.

Bot. 6:291, 1892) established that the length of anthers could not be

used safely as a character for the delimitation of species in Sonerila.

Since there is variation in the size of leaves, it is proposed to reduce

S. johorensis Hend. toa variety of S. prostrata Rid].

3. Sonerila matangenis Ridley in Kew Bull. 1:35, 1946.

Distribution: . .

BORNEO: Sarawak, Mt. Matang, 14 Feb. 1892; Haviland \C49Y

(Type, K); sine loc., Ridley s. n. (K). ,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 807

In the original description, the number of stamens is mentioned as

four. On dissecting the flowers, it is seen that there are only three

stamens and the anthers are inappendiculate. It is presumed that

Ridley’s description of the number of stamens was based on an ab-

normal flower.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I wish to express my gratitude to Sir George Taylor, Director, Royal

Botanic Gardens, Kew, for all facilities during my stay at Kew

1961-67. My thanks are also due to Rev. Fr. Dr. H. Santapau,

Director, Botanical Survey of India for his encouragement.

‘INDUSTRIAL SECTION,

‘INDIAN MUSEUM,

_ BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, M. P, NAYAR

1, SUDDER STREET,

CaLcuTta-13,

April 30, 1968.

30. ANTHRISCUS SCANDICINA (WEBER) MANS.

(APIACEAE): A NEW RECORD FOR INDIA

Anthriscus scandicina (Weber) Mans. a native of Europe, introduced

and naturalized in North America (Mathias & Constance in N. Amer.

Fl. 28B:115, 1944-45) is now recorded for the first time in India

from Dehra Dun. A detailed description with presently accepted

nomenclature and critical notes is given here.

Anthriscus scandicina (Weber) Mans. in Fedde, Report. 46: 309.

1939. Caucalis scandicina Weber in Prim. Fl. Hol. 23. 1780. Scandix

_anthriscus Linn. Sp. Pl. 275. 1753. Chaerophyllum anthriscus (Linn.)

Crantz, Class. Umbell. 76. 1767. Anthriscus vulgaris Pers. Syn. Pl.

1:320. 1805 (non Bernh. 1800). Myrrhis anthriscus (Linn.) Lag.

Amen. Nat. 98. 1821. Anthriscus scandix (Scop.) Arch. Fl. Brand.

1:260. 1860. (non Bieb. 1808). A. anthriscus (Linn.) Karst. Deuts.

Fl. 857. 1882. Myrrhodes anthriscus (Linn.) Kuntze, Rev. Gen. 1:

268. 1891. Cerefolium vulgare (Pers.) Bubani, Fl. Pyren. 2:411.

1900. Chaerefolium anthriscus (Linn.) Schinz. & Theil. Viert. Nat.

Ges. Zurich 53:554, 1909.

Erect, much branched, foetid, more or less hispid, annual herbs,

8-15 (-30) cm. tall. Stems terete, striate. Leaves 3-4 pinnate,

808 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

basal ones long petioled, 6-10 cm. long (incl, petiole), upper ones

reduced to sheaths, hispidly hairy; sheaths scarious-margined, ciliate;

petioles hispidly hairy, grooved above, 1-5-4 cm. long; ultimate leaflets

ovate-oblong, pinnatifid into ovate rounded, ciliate, mucronulate,

hispid, of 0-15-0:2x0-1 cm. segments. Umbels compound, leaf-

opposed, subsessile or width 0:06 (0:2) cm. long peduncles; rays 3-4

(-6), longer than the peduncles, glabrous, 0-3-1 (-2) cm. long. In-

volucral bracts 0 or rarely one linear-subulate, ciliate, 0-3-0°5 cm.

long; involucels 4.5, entire, linear-lanceolate, acuminate, ciliate longer

than the pedicels 0:18-0:2 (-0:25) cm. long. Flowers 3-5, white,

pedicels glabrous, 0-1-0-3 (-0°8) cm. long; Calyx limb obscure.

Petals 5, white, ovate-oblong, emarginate due to inflexed obtusely

apiculate tip, 0-05 cm. long. Stamens 5, filaments linear, glabrous,

0:03-0:04 cm. long, anthers ovoid. Ovary hispid, styles 2, very short.

Fruits ovoid-oblong, beaked, hispid with uncinate, bristly hairs or

tubercles, 0:3 (-0-4) (incl. beak) x0-2-0°3 cm.; primary ridges obscure,

secondary ones absent or obsolete.

Flowers & Fruits: April-June.

Specimens exarnined: UTTAR PRADESH: Dehra Dun. Kanpur (near

Survey of India), C. R. Babu 35225 (BSD): Very rare. on waste

places.

It is not possible to ascertain when and how . this plant was

introduced into India.

CENTRAL NATIONAL HERBARIUM, | 1 | mee

BOTANICAL SURVFY OF INDIA, | | _C. R. BABU

‘Howrau, aaa Apo as

April 25, 1968.

315, A NEW NAME IN CAMPANULA LINN.

(CAMPANULACEAE) |

Campanula wallichii nom. nov. |

C. canescens. Wall. (Cat. no. 1289, 1829, nom. nud.) ex De.

Prodr. 7:473, 1828 (non Roth, 1827), Hook.-f. & Thoms. in Journ.

Linn. Soc. 2:23, 1857: Boiss. Fl. Orient. 3:934, 1875; Clarke in Fl.

Brit. Ind. 3:439, 1881; Trimen, Handb. Fl. Ceylon 3:60, 1895;

Duthie, Fl. Upp. Gang. Plain. 1:499, 1905; Gamble, Fl. Presid.

Madras... 739, 1921; Haines... Bot.,.Bih. .&, Oris. 4-503, (1927:

C. benthamii Wall. (Cat. no. 1289, 1829, nom. nud.) ex DC. Prodr.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES. .... IRMA OL. sae

7:473, 1838 (pro syn.). Céphalostigma spathulatum Thwaites, Enum.

Pl. Zeyl. 422, 1864 (non Campanula spathulata Sibth. & Sm. 1806).

Type: Wallich 1289 (CAL-isotype).

Distribution: India, Burma and Afghanistan.

The widely accepted binomial Campanula canescens Wall.

ex DC. (1838) for this plant is unfortunately a later homonym

of C. canescens Roth (1827) which is Phyteumy canescens (Roth)

Walds. & Kitaib, and should be rejected according to Art. 64 of the

International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (1966). The next

name C. benthamii Wall. is also invalid, as it is a nomen nudum.

The specific name spathulatum from Cephalostigma spathulatum

Thwaites, is not available either for the present plant, as the specific

name has already been used previously for three different plants in

the genus Campanula Linn. Since there is no other published epithet

for this plant, the author proposes the above new name, C.

wallichii, for this interesting plant. The author’s basis for the

rejection of C. canescens Roth is the information given in the index

Kewensis 401, 1895.

BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

HOwRAH, Cc. R. BABU

April 25, 1968.

32 GNETUM ULA BRONGN. FROM RAYALASEEMA,

ANDHRA PRADESH—A NEW RECORD

Gnetum ula Brongn. (G. scandens Brandis) was found growing

abundantly, as a liana, reaching the tops of trees in the Savarala-

kuppadadi forest of Chittoor District during February 1968. The

Saveralakuppadadi is a deciduous forest of Seshachalam hill range

with patches of evergreen vegetation. Since Gnetum ula is recorded

so far only from western and some parts of the eastern coast of India,

its occurrence in Rayalaseema forms a new distribution for this

interesting taxon.

The luxuriant growth of male and female plants with cones in

different stages of development attracted attention from a distance at

the time of collection. For a full description of this plant, see

Bharadwaja (1957)

A number of male and female plants were collected and examined

and it was found that this taxon is in conformity with that of Gnetum

ula Brongn, of Bharadwaja (1957),

810 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (3)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors thank Dr. I. M. Rao, Professor of Botany for en-

couragement. and Dr. K. Subramanyam, Botanical Survey of India for

going through the manuscript.

DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY,

S. V. UNIVERSITY, K. V. M. RAO

TrrupPATI (A. P.), K. R. RAO

March 25, 1968.

REFERENCE

BHARADWAJA, R. C. (1957): Genus

Gnetum Linn. in India, Pakistan and

Burma. J. Indian bot. Soc. 36 : 408-420.

ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY

SOCIETY FOR THE YEAR 1967-68

EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE

President

Dr. P. V. Cherian, Governor of Maharashtra.

Vice-Presidents

Major-General Sir Sahib Singh Sokhey, I.M.s. (Retd.)

Dr. Salim Ali, D.sc., F.N.I.

Rev. Fr. H. Santapau, s.J.

Hon. Secretary

Mr. Zafar Futehally

Hon. Treasurer —

Mr. J. D. Kapadia, I.c.s. (Retd.)

Member

Secretary, Ministry of Education, Govt. of India

Elected Members

Mr. Humayun Abdulali

Mr. G. V. Bedekar, I.c.s. (Retd.)

Prof. P. V. Bole

Mr. S. Chaudhuri

Mr. R. E. Hawkins

Dr. C. V. Kulkarni, M.sc., Ph.p.

Mr. Duleep Matthai

Dr. A. N. D. Nanavati, M.D.

Mr. D. J. Panday

Mr. D. E. Reuben, I.c.s. (Retd.)

ADVISORY COMMITTEE

Mr. H. G. Acharya ..

Mrs. Jamal Ara

Mr. F. C. Badhwar, 0.B.E.

Sir Chintaman Deshmukh, Kt., C.1.E., I.C.S. (Retd.)

Mr. E. P. Gee, M.A., C.M.Z.S.

. Mr. M. Krishnan

_ Dr. N. K. Panikkar, M.A., D.Sc., F.N.I.

Dr. Baini Prashad, D.Sc., F.N.I.

Mr. P. D. Stracey, I.F.s.

Lt.-Gen. Sir H. Williams, C.B., C.B.E., M.LC.E., M.LE.

9 @

ex officio

Ahmedabad

Ranchi

New Delhi

Shillong

Madras

New Delhi

Dehra Dun

New Delhi

)

812 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 65 (3)

HONORARY SECRETARY’S REPORT FOR THE YEAR 1967

MEMBERSHIP

At the beginning of the year there were :

Ordinary Members oe .. 1,133 (746 paid)

Life Members hee Say ee

Forest Department Nominees. . 8 fe)

Student Members ats ae 2

Honorary Members sf ft! 2

Total 1,466

Since several of these members had delayed making payment we sent

out letters to all Ordinary Members who were in arrears and to all Life

Members to bring the records up-to-date. On the basis of information

and payment received at the end of the year the Membership posiiion

is as follows:

Subscription received from Ordinary Members ) 567+-53 for the

for the current year } previous year

Confirmed Life Members ae eis

Forest Department Nominees me ne 33

Student Member iW ra f 1

Hono.ary Members .. i fe 2

Total 761

THE SOCIETY’S JOURNAL

Four numbers of the Journal were published during the year,

Vol. 63(2) and (3) and Vol. 64(1) and (2). The 860 pages include 9

articles on botany, 8 on birds, 7 on insects, 4 on fishes, 3 on mammals,

2 each on wild life and crustacea and 1 on other invertebrates. The

88 miscellaneous notes published in these numbers cover all aspects of

Indian Natoral History.

We have entered into an agreement with a firm in Sweden for

microfiche reproduction of out-of-print issues of the Journal.

During the year the Society started a Newsletter HORNBILL with the

object of keeping closer contact with members. The response from

members has been satisfactory and with their assistance we hope to

continue this effort.

GENERAL

Bird Migration Study : During the year we received financial assist-

ance from the Smithsonian Institution and the Migratory Animal Patho-

A.G.M. 1967-68—PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS $13

logical Survey of the U.S. Army. With this assistance it has been

possible to enlarge our activities and to run camps continuously during

the migratory season.

Camps at two locations were held during the year. A pilot survey

camp in January at Chilka Lake (in association with the Genetics and

Biometry Laboratory, Bhubaneswar, Orissa) ringed 887 birds of 33

species. The camp at Bharatpur commenced operations by mid-Sep-

tember and ringed over 13,000 birds by the end of the year.

During the year we received information on the recovery in Russia,

Pakistan and India of 74 birds bearing our rings (4 species of ducks, 3

waders and 2 passerines).

Additions to the collection: ‘During the year 662 specimens were

received as additions :

Mammals .. ba Se ae, 24

Birds a Ag % ho 547

Reptiles and Amphibians + a 85

Insects and other Invertebrates... ms 6

Wild Life Preservation: We are continuing with our efforts to

preserve the forests around Bombay and to see that the Bird Sanctuary

at Karnala is quickly brought into being. Our representatives on the

Indian Board for Wild Life and the various State Wild Life Advisory

Boards keep us informed about government policies and the Society

continues to play a constructive role in these matters. Close contact

is also being maintained with the International Union for Conservation

of Nature and Natural Resources and World Wildlife Fund.

PUBLICATIONS

The Society is now in the awkward position of not having financial

resources to reprint its popular publications which have gone out of

print. Applications made to several sources both governmental and

non-governmental have not been effective. However, we have in press

a revised 8th edition of the BOOK OF INDIAN BIRDS. This has been made

possible by the generous assistance of Lady McNeice who has arranged

for overdraft facilities to help the Society with this publication.

DONATIONS

Sdlim Ali/Loke Ornithological Research Fund: During the year we

received donations from : a

Dr. Salim Ali — .. Rs. 1,000.00

Lady McNeice .. Stg. £1,000

Shri Asaf A. A. Fyzee .. Rs. 100.00

Lt. Col. H. Williams ee Rs, ¢ > 102300

Shri Duleep Matthai .- Rs. 500.00

18A

814. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

We thank them for the generous assistance. Letters were sent to

members and others inviting donations to increase the corpus of the

Fund.

Furniture: A donation of $100 was received from Mr. E. W. Mudge

towards Chairs for the Auditorium.

RESEARCH STUDIES

Bhutan Bird Survey: In February/April 1967, Dr. Salim Ali accom-

panied by assistants from the Society surveyed the bird fauna of another

area of Bhutan. A representative collection of Birds totalling 456

specimens was made. The collection will be reported on in a later issue

of the Journal. The assistance rendered by Mr. J. D. Panday is grate-

fully acknowledged.

Herpetological Survey: Collections were made from various loca-

lities in the Nilgiris and some very interesting material was obtained.

Birds and Agriculture: The Council of Scientific and Industrial

Research have approved the research project for assessing effect of

birds in relation to Agriculture. We hope to commence work in 1968.

NATURE EDUCATION SCHEME

The scheme is now in its 20th year and continues its activities in

Poona and adjacent areas for creating interest in nature among school

children. :

LIBRARY

During the year 76 books were added to the Library. Among these

25 were donated by the Haffkine Institute, Bombay. Other donations

were 3 and 2 books were purchased and 46 received for review. Our

thanks are due to the donors and to the publishers who have sent us

review copies.

MEETINGS

On 10 February, R. S. Dharmakumarsinhji spoke on ‘ Modern

immobilisation techniques for wild life’? ; on 9 May a party was held

in honour of Mrs. and Dr. S. D. Ripley ; on 27 September Dr. E. B.

Fanibunda spoke on ‘Close-up photography of Nature subjects’ ;

on 26 October Sir Landsborough Thompson spoke on ‘A New Dic-

A.G.M. 1967-68—PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS 815

tionary of birds’ ; on 29 November under the joint auspices of Bombay

S.P.C.A. & Bombay Natural History Society Mr. Zafar Futehally spoke

on * National Parks of America—some lessons for India’ ; on 13 Decem-

ber Lord Fermoy of the World Wildlife Fund spoke on ‘ Impressions

of conservation programmes in Pakistan ’.

EXHIBITIONS

Between 27 February and 4 March an exhibition of Bird paintings

by Shri Deoki Nandan Sharma was held; on 18 March the Orchid

Club of Bombay in association with the Bombay Natural History

Society held an exhibition of flowering orchids; between 6 and 12

November an exhibition of ‘ Wildlife photographs’ by Mr. M. Krishnan

was held ; between 11 and 17 December 1967 an exhibition of stamps by

Mr. D. R. Mistry depicting butterflies was held.

REVENUE ACCOUNT

The financial position of the Society continues to be difficult, and

the all round increase in costs has put severe strain on even routine

activities.

STAFF

The Committee wishes to record its appreciation of the willing co-

operation of the entire staff in the activities of the Society.

{ A

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The Committee’s thanks are due to Mr. J. L. Bernard who continues

to look after the Society’s interests in the United Kingdom.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 65 (3)

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SLaIAORY

L96I daquiacag ¢ papa dvax ay) sof junosop stuaudog puv sidiaroy

MINUTES OF THE ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY HELD AT

HORNBILL HOUSE, SHAHID BHAGAT SINGH ROAD,

BOMBAY 1, ON FRIDAY, 19TH JULY 1968, AT 6.15 P.M.,

WITH DR. SALIM ALT, D.sc., F.N.1., IN THE CHAIR

(1) The Honorary Secretary’s report for the year ending 3lst

December, 1967, having been previously circulated to members, was

taken as read and was adopted.

(2) The Balance Sheet and Statement of Accounts presented by the

Honorary Treasurer were approved. |

(3) The following were elected as members of the Executive and

Advisory Committees for the year 1968-69:

EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE

President

Dr. P. V. Cherian, Governor of Maharashtra

Vice-Presidents

Major-General Sir Sahib Singh Sokhey, I.M.S. Gea )

Dr. Salim Ali, D.Sc., F.N.I.

Rev. Fr. H. Santapau, s.J.

Hon. Secretary ex-officio

Mr. Zafar Futehally

Hon. Treasurer

Mr. J. D. Kapadia, 1.c.s. (Retd.)

Member

Secretary, Ministry of Education, Govt. of India

MINUTES OF THE A.G.M. OF THE B.N.HS. 827

Elected Members

Mr. Humayun Abdulali

Mr. G. V. Bedekar, I.c.s. (Retd.)

Prof. P. V. Bole

Mr. 8S. Chaudhuri

Mr. R. E. Hawkins

Dr. C. V. Kulkarni

Mr. Duleep Matthai

Dr. A. N. D. Nanavati, M.D.

Mr. D. J. Panday

Mr. D. E. Reuben, I.c.s. (Retd.) :

ADVISORY COMMITTEE

Mr. H. G. Acharya hie Kf .. Ahmedabad

Mrs. Jamal Ara .. me ae .. Ranchi

Mr. F. C. Badhwar, 0.B.E. .. New Delhi

Sir Chintaman Deshmukh, Kt., C.1E., 1.c.S. (Retd. se New Delhi

Mr. M. Krishnan oe .. Madras

Dr. N. K. Panikkar, M.A., D.SC., F.N.I. .. .. New Delhi

Dr. Baini Prashad, D.Sc., F.N.I. ces .. Dehra Dun

Mr. P. D. Stracey, I.F.s. ee ea . New Delhi

Lt. Gen. Sir H. Williams, C.B., C.B.E., M.I.C.E., M.I.E. New Delhi

(4) Films received from the British High Commission at Bombay,

were shown.

(5) The meeting terminated with a vote of thanks to the British

High Commission, for the films and to the Chairman of the meeting.

PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY C. E. KOSHY AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS,

10 CHURCH ROAD, VEPERY. M4ADR4S—-28-5-1969. C9289

EDITORS: H. SANTAPAU, ZAFAR FUTEHALLY & J. C. DANIEL

“

‘

}

‘

THE SOCIETY’S PUBLICATIONS

Mammals

The Book of Indian Animals, by S. H. Prater. 2nd (revised) edition. 28 plates in

colour by Paul aoe and many Ne: illustrations. Rs. 30

% (Price to members Rs. 25)

> ke . Birds | :

The Book of Tedian Birds, by Saélim Ali. 8th (revised) edition. 66 coloured and

_ many monochrome plates. Rs. 25:

(Price to members Rs. 20)

ate Snakes

Identification of Poisonous reat aan ors in English Gujarati, and et

ee Te on, oh Bae eyo Ss :

(Price to members Rs. 8) 3

_ Miscellaneous

Butterflies of the Indian Region, by M. A. Wynter-Blyth. With 27 coloured aa 45

- monochrome plates. Rs. 28

(Price to members Rs. 22.50)

Indian Molluscs, by James Hornel!. With a coloured and many monochrome plates,

and text-figures. Rs. 6

(Price to members Rs. 4.50)

Picture Postcards of 12 representative Indian Birds (In colour) per set Rs. 2°50

Glimpses of Nature Series Booklets :

1. Our Birps I (with 8 coloured plates) in Hindi, and Marathi. Rs. 0°80

Kannada Rs. 0°62

2. Our Birps II (with 8 coloured plates) in Hindi. Rs. 0°62

3. OUR BEAUTIFUL TREES (with 8 coloured plates) in Hindi, and Marathi Rs. 0°62

4. Our Monsoon PLANTS (with 8 coloured plates) in English,

Gujarati, Hindi, and Marathi Rs. 0°80

5. Our ANIMALS (with 8 coloured ee) in English, Gujarati, :

Hindi, and Marathi. Rs. 1:25

Back numbers of the Society’s Journal. Rates on 1 application.

Correspond with :

The Honorary Secretary,

Bombay Natural History Society,

Hornbill House, Shahid Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay 1-BR.

Agents in England: ~-

Messrs Wheldon & Wesley Ltd.,

Lytton Lodge, Codicote, Near Hitchin,

Herts, England.

The Society will gratefully accept back numbers of the Journal, particularly

numbers prior to Vol. 45, from members who may not wish to preserve them.

TERMS OF MEMBERSHIP

Life Members pay an entrance fee of Rs. 5 (5sh.) and a life membership fee of

Rs. 600. (Inland), £45-10-0 (Foreign).

Ordinary Members pay an entrance fee of Rs. 5 (5sh.) and an annual subscription of

Rs. 36. (Inland), £3 (Foreign).

Members residing outside India should pay their subscription by means of orders

on their Bankers to pay the amount of the subscription to the Society in

Bombay on the Ist January in each year. If this cannot be done, then the sum: of

4£3-0-0 should be paid annually to the Society’s London Bankers—The National &

Grindlays Bank Ltd., 26 Bishopsgate Street, London E.C. 2.

The subscription of members elected in October, November, and Deceuiber

covers the period from the date of their election to the end of the following year.

CONTENTS.

- ¢ i ?

Tue Birps oF SIND: A Review. By D. A. Holmes and J. O. Wright

Pseudodissochaeta : A NEW GENUS OF MELASTOMATACEAE. By M. P. Nayar..

FEEDING HABITS OF THE FISH Megalops cyprinoides BROUSSONET, IN THE COOUM

BACKWATERS, MApDRAS. By Thavamani J. Pandian ..

Eco-ToxICOLOGY AND CONTROL OF INDIAN DESERT GERBIL, Meriones hurrianae

(JERDON). By Ishwar Prakash

ON A NEW SPECIES OF SEA ANEMONE FROM MAHARASHTRA, INDIA. By

Arun Parulekar

OBSERVATIONS ON THE BREEDING BIOLOGY OF FINN’s Baya (Ploceus megarhyn-

chus HUME) IN THE KUMAON TERAI. By V. C. Ambedkar

MORE ADDITIONS TO THE CRAB FAUNA OF Bompay State. By B. F. Chhapgar..

OCCURRENCE OF Spindasis abnormis (Moore), (LEPIDOPTERA : LYCAENIDAE)

ON THE WESTERN GHATS. By A. E. Bean, SSJE

A REPORT ON WILD LIFE SURVEYS IN SOUTH AND West INpIA. By J. Juan Spillett

TWO NEW SPECIES OF Iseilema ANDERSS. FROM INDIA. By Murty R. Uppuluri

and U. Satyavathi

SoME WILD-SHOT DUCK HYBRIDS FROM THE INDIAN SUBCONTINENT. By James

Harrison and Jeffery Harrison

Two NEW PHYTOSEID MITES FROM EASTERN INDIA (ACARINA : PHYTOSEIIDAE).

By S. K. Bhattacharyya

SAND DUNE FLORA OF WESTERN RAJASTHAN. By K. C. Kanodia and R. K.

Gupta

A CATALOGUE OF THE BIRDS IN THE COLLECTION OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HIs-

TORY SOCIETY—3, FALCONIFORMES. By Humayun Abdulali

A New BEGONIA FROM EAST NEPAL. By C. R. Rao ..

AN INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF INDIAN SPIDERS. By T. V. Subrahmanyam

Rhododendron santapaui sp. nov. FROM SUBANSIRI DistrRIcT, N.E.F.A., INDIA.

By A. R. K. Sastry, S. K. Kataki, Peter Cox, Patricia Cox, and P.

Hutchison is = sg <a He ie

REVIEWS

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HiSToRY SOCIETY FOR THE “YEAR

... 1967-68 | a vi Be Tie an oe

STATEMENTS OF ACCOUNTS OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HIsToRY SOCIETY i

MINUTES OF THE ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING ~ fe eee. a

333

337

569

581

590

596

608

618

633

664

670

677

681

696

724

726

744

748

764

8il

816

826

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