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JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

EDITED BY

ZAFAR FUTEHALLY, J. C. DANIEL & P. V. BOLE

VOL. 67

Nos. 1, 2 and 3

Containing 3 graphs and 28 black-and-white plates,

2 photographs in text, 1 map, and 100 text-figures

Dates of Publication

Part 1, (pages 1 to 136) . ee 30-6-1970

Part 2, (pages 137 to 364) oe, ... 31-10-1970

Part 3, (pages 365 to 646) ee a 25-3-1971

Agents in England

WHELDON AND WESLEY LTD.,

Lytton Lodge, Codicote, Nr. Hitchin,

Herts, England

PRINTED AT LEADERS PRESS PVT. LTD., BOMBAY

1972

ALPHABETICAL LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

ABDULALI, HUMAYUN, A Catalogue of

the Birds in the Collection of the

Bombay Natural History Society-6.

Scolopacinae (part)

— , 7, Scolopacinae

(part) to Laridae a

—______—_—_—_§——§_§,On the occur-

rence of Swinhoe’s Snipe, Capella

megala (Swinhoe) near Bombay and a

note on its identification

——, Notes on Indian

Birds-11. On the Distribution of

Sterna fuscata Linnaeus in Indian

limits—A Correction

——_—_-___________—_.,An addition to

the list of Indian Birds. —The Mig-

ratory Jungle Nightjar, Caprimulgus

indicus jotaka Temm. and Schl.

——_—_____—_—_—,Notes on Indian

Birds-12. Extension of the southern

limits of the Eastern Stock Dove

(Columba eversmanni Bonaparte)

——_—__________—_—., and RoseErT B.,

GrusBH, A New race of the Black-

crested Baza Aviceda leuphotes

(Dumont) from the Andaman Islands

————_—_—__—_—_——————, and SHANTA,

Nair, Occurrence of ‘the Great Snipe,

Capella media (Latham), in Burma

and India AS Hig ee

AHMED, FAHIM, see RANADE, M.R.

AHUJA, K. K., see PATASKAR, R. D.

ALI, RAUF, Occurrence of Least Frigate

Bird (Fregata ariel iredalei Mathews)

in Bombay f

AMADON, DEAN, Taxonomic categories

below the level of genus : Theore-

tical and practical aspects

ANANTHAKRISHNAN, T. N., Trends | in

intraspecific sex-limited variations in

some mycophagous Tubulifera (Thy-

sanoptera) tee

BABu, C. R., The identity of Solanum

khasianum Cl. var. chaliericeaten

Sen Gupta (Solanacea)

BAL, D. V., see WaGcu, A. B.: “WAGH,

ARUN B.

BALAKRISHNAN, N. P., Nomenclatural

Notes on some Flowering Plants-II

—_—_—_____—__—___—, Studies in

Indian Euphorbiaceae—IV ...

BANERJI, M. L., and B. B., THAPA, Or-

chids of Nepal- 3 ;

BENNET, S. 8. R., The Taxonomic Status

of the Section Fissendocarpa (Haines)

Raven of the ee Genus

Ludwigia L. x wi ey

Page

Pathe)

108

110

331

351

137

109

609 |

oy)

299

139

iZ5

BENNET, 8S. S. R., Nomenclature of two

Indian Plants ...

BHARGAVA, R. M. S., The fecundity of

Heteropneustes fossilis (Bloch) oe

BHATNAGAR, R. K., The spider Lycosa

carmichaeli Graveley as a predator

of small frogs. .

BuatTt, V. S., Studies on the Biology

of some Freshwater Fishes...

Biswas, S. N. and R. PrRAsap, On the

occurrence of Buddleja davidii Franch

(Loganiaceae) in India ee

Basco, F., Aspects of the Flora, and

Ecology ‘of Savannas of the South

Indian Hills

BRAHMACHARY, R. ie B. Natives

and B. RAKSHIT, An attempt to de-

termine the food habits of the Indian

Rhinoceros

CAUGHLEY, GRAEME, Habitat. ‘of the

Himalayan Tahr, Hemitragus jemla-

hicus (H. Smith, 1826) :

CHAUDHARY, J. P., Johnson Grass,

Sorghum halepense—A new host of

Sugarcane Green Borer, Raphime-

topus ablutellus Zeller (Physitidae :

Lepidoptera) ...

DAKSHINI, K. M. M., Flora of Mothron-

wala Swamp Forest (District : Dehra

Dun, U.P., India) ve

DANIEL, Af C, The Tiger in ‘India :

An Enquiry—1968- -1969 oh

, The Nilgiri Tahr, Hemi-

tragus hylocrius Ogilby, in the High

Range, Kerala and the southern

Hills of the Western Ghats

| Das, DEBIKA and BHABESH PRAMANIK,

A Note on Chrysanthemum leucan-

themum Linn. Asteraceae :

Das, M. S., and B. H. PATNAIK, A new

host of the brinjal shoot and fruit

borer JLeucinodes orbonalis Guen

and its biology...

DavipaR, E.R. C., Wild Dog’s Courage

Rating Ay

— — a White Bison of

Manjampatti ...

Davis, T. A., Pre-foliation in ‘Seindap-

SUS officinalis Schott ee

Desal, J. H., The White Tiger ...

——_—__—_—., see SANKHALA, K. S.

Desal, M. H., see KULKARNI, A. R.»

DESFAYES, MICHEL, The Blackbird Tur-~

dus merula maximus in Nepal |

DESHPANDE, R. R., see RAWAT, R. R.

DHAMDHERE, SV: ‘see KAURAVA, A.S.

DHAWAN, RAJINDER. M.,

Page

358

583

589

194

359

522

558

103

aya

Stranding © :

of four Whales along "Goa coast.

vi LIST OF CONT RI BUT ORS

Page

between December 1968 to April 1970 = 327

FUTEHALLY, ZAFAR, 10th General As-

sembly and 11th Technical Meeting

of the International Union for Con-

servation of Nature and Natural

Resources ie a ae o' 30

— —, Peculiar accident to the

Butterfly, Delias eucharis Drury aa Stace LRG |

GARRILOV, E. I., and A. F. KovsHar,

Breeding Biology of the Himalayan

Rubythroat, — Erithacus _pectoralis

(Gould) in the Tien Shan ae 14

Guosu, R. B., On a newly recorded host

species of Dendrophthoe falcata (L.F.)

Ettingsh se res ise saat eySoe

—————., and R. PrRasapD, Cleome

rutidosperma DC. (Capparaceae)—

GONZALVES, ELLA A., and G. R.

SONNAD Aplanospore formation or

GOPALAKRISHNA, A., and A. MADHA-

VAN, Sex Ratio in some Indian Bats 171

GRUBH, ROBERT B., see ABDULALI,

HUMAYUN

GuPTA, B. M., Fishing methods for the

Spiny Eel Mastocembelus armatus in

Madhya Pradesh me eg PM Bs)

GUPTA, RAJENDRA, See SINGH, j. P.

Gupta, RITA, see MUKHERJEE, Paks

HALDER, D. D., Observations on the

food of young Hilsa ilisha (Ham.) of

rious to Pisciculture

KAHL, PHILIP M., Observations on the

breeding of storks in India and Ceylon

| KAPoorR, S. L., see HUSAIN, IBRAHIM

Kaurava, A. S., S.C. Opak and

S. V., DHAMDHERE, Studies on the

biology of Phytomyza_ atricornis

Meigen (Agromyzidae : Diptera)

| KHACHER, LAVKUMAR J., Notes on the

White-eye (Zosterops palpebrosa) and

White breasted Kingfisher (Halcyon

smyrnensis) i

KHOsHOO, T. N., see MUKHERJEE, Iva.

KovsHar, A. F., see GAVRILOV, E. I.

KRISHNAMURTHY, K. V., see SWAMY,

B. G. L.

_ KRISHNAN M., The estuarine crocodile

A new record for Assam aie sah rel aL Sa

the Hooghly estuarine system iyi O18 |

HEMADRI, K., see RAO, R.S.

HIMMATSINHI, Interesting Eagles in

Western India .. 330

,Grey headed Myna, Stur- -

nus malabaricus (Gmelin), in Kutch 332

HoimEs, J. R. S., Himalayan Tahr, He-

mitragus jemlahicus (H. Smith 1826)

HoMgI-MEHER, VY. M., Notes on some

peculiar cases of Phytogeographic

Distributions ... a a ey 81

—_—__—_—_———-, Analogous Bio-

climates and introduction of Econo-

mic Exotics 398 MUKHERJEE, Asit Kumar, Is the correct

HUSAIN, IBRAHIM §. and §.L. KAPoor

Some interesting plants from Luck-

Crocodilus porosus Schneider off the

Orissa coast

| KULKARNI, A. R., and M. H. Desat,

outcome of Parasitic attack ? 507 |

Tubers in Eriocaulon ritchieanum

Ruhl ah - ee my

—__-_____——, and P. V. MUDbDGAL,

Family Commelinaceae in Kolhapur

and its environs

KULKARNI, C. V., Spawning. “habits,

eggs and early development of Dec-

can Mahseer, Tor khudree (Sykes

_ Lancaster-Percy, S., An abnormal

Psidium mutation

| MADHAVAN, A., see GOPALAKRISHNA,

MAJUMDAR, N. C., Notes on Stellaria

saxatilis Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don,

Stellaria yestita Kurz and Stellaria

sikkimensis Hook. f.

MALLICK B., see BRAHMACHARY, R. t

MATHEW, K. M.,, The Flowering of the

Strobilanth (Acanthaceae) .

- MOHANASUNDARAM M., and C. Vv. SIVA-

in Bhutan it 106 |

KUMAR Swarming of Butterflies and

Moths ... ys ae pie ui

Mubaat, P. V., see KULKARNI, A. R.

| MUKHERJEE, P. K., and RITA GUPTA,

now and its neighbourhood 618 ©

HUSSAIN, S. A., Blackbuck, Antilope

cervicapra (Linnaeus) swimming... 106

JAIN, A. P., see PRAKASH, ISHWAR

JAIN, S. K., A rich but little known col-

lection of Indian Plants in U.S.S.R. 620.

JOGLEKAR, AsHA, and P. K. TALWaR,

The occurrence of Pennahia macro-

cephalus (Tang) (Pisces: Sciaeni-

_ NApDKERNY, N. T., Notes on some But-

dae) in Indian seas ... SD

JosepH, A. N. T., First record of Coe-

nomyia Latreille (Diptera : Coeno-

mylidae) from India ... 346 |

JULKA, J. M., On a Hymenopterous

Egg-parasite of Aquatic Bugs inju-

Field identification of Tephrosia

Pers.

name of the Mangrove Whistler :

Pahycephala cinerea (Blyth) or Pa-

chycephala grisola (Blyth) ?

MUKHERJEE, IvA, and T. N. KHOsHOO

Genetic- evolutionary studies on cul-

tivated Cannas.

MourtTny, T. S. N., The ‘occurrence of

the dog-faced water snake, Cerberus

rhynchops (Schneider) (Serpentes ; Co-

lubridae) around Madras

terflies in the collection of the Bom-

bay Natural History Society

_ NAGABUSHANAM, A.K., and K.V. RAMA-

Rao A review of the Taxonomy of

the Indian enoe-Pienes (ean Bat-

rachoididae)

Page

120

453

597

333

S73

134

616

510

133

135

574

(487

329

EIST

NAIR, SHANTA, see ABDULALI, HUMAYUN

NATARAJAN, A. V. and S. PATNAIK

Observations on the breeding ground

and development of the Chilka

Mullet Liza macrolepis (Smith)

NayaR, M. P., A Synopsis of the

Genus Ejisocreochiton Quisumb and

Merr. ...

NEELAKANTAN, K. fen The occurrence

of the Sanderling (Calidris albus) in

Kerala

NEUHAUSER, HANs N., ‘First Positive

record of Pipistrellus savii (Chirop-

tera : Vespertilionidae) from India ...

OpDAK, S. C., see KAURA, A.S.

PANDEY, N. D., DAYA RAM YADAVA,

and T. P.S. TeotrA, Growth Poten-

tial of Red hairy Caterpillar, Ams-

acta moorei Butler, in relation to

certain Food Plants

PANICKER, K, N., The Flight speed of

the House Crow, Corvus se neees

Vieillot ; a

PARRACK, Dwain W., “and “JAcOB.,

THOMAS, The Behaviour of the Lesser

Bandicoot Rat, Bandicota bengalen-

sis (Gray and Hardwicke) :

PATASKAR, R. D., and K. K. AHUIA,

Interesting Plants from Maharashtra

State

PATEL, R. J., On Chaetosphaeridium glo-

bosum (Nordst.) Klebahn from India

PATNAIK, B. H., see Das, M. S.

PATNAIK, S., see NATARAJAN, A. V.

PRAKASH, IsHwarR, and A. P. JAIN Eco-

Toxicology and control of Indian

Desert Gerbil, Meriones hurrianae

(Jerdon) a

PRAMANIK, BHABESH, see ‘Das, “DEBIKA

ae i, , see BISWAS, S. N. ; GHOsH,

RAJAGOPAL, A. S., Occurrence of the

snail Lymnaea (Galba) truncatula

(Miller) (Mollusca : Pulmonata) at

Malad, Bombay City—A new record

for Peninsular India

RAJAGOPALAN, P. K. Breeding beha-

viour and ” development of Rattus

rattus wroughtoni Hinton, 1919

(Rodentia : Muridae) in the labo-

ratory +... Ae oc Sed

—__——_——,, see Rao, K. RAMaA-

CHANDRA

RAJASINGH, IRENE V.—see RAJASINGH,

SIMON G.

RAJASINGH, SIMON G., and RAJASINGH,

IRENE V.,

Birds and Mammals eating the fruits

of yellow oleander (Thevetea

peruviana) : a ee i

RAKSHIT, B., see BRAHMACHARY, R. L.

RANADE, M. R., SAKUNTALA S. SHENOY,

and FAHIM, AHMED, Capture of a

Whale Shark Rhineodon typus Smith

Page

577

570

319

126

130

274

588 |

572 |

552 |

OFTEONTRIBUTORS

in Ratnagiri waters

Rao, K. KAMESWARA, Foraminifera. of

the Gulf of Cambay .

RAo, K. RAMACHANDRA, “A new record

of Br achydeutera longipes Hendel

(Diptera: Ephydridae) from West

Bengal ra: ae Le ae

Rao, K. V. RAMA, see A. K. NAGA-

BHUSHANAM. ;

Rao, R. S., and K. HEMADRI,

identity of peeereus lateriflora

Dalz. :

The

eS , ‘Nomen-

clatural notes on Indian Plants

Rao, T. ANANDA, A new locality record

of Cordiac renata Del in Piram

Island off South Saurashtra

Coast be Mee fs

and

A. R. K. Sastry, New distributional

records for coastal plants from

Andhra Pradesh i

Rao, T. RAMACHANDRA, and P. K.

RAJGOPALAN, Arthropod Fauna of the

nests of some common Birds in

Poona, India, with special reference

to Blood sucking Forms

RAO, V. VISWESWARA, A redescription

of Sirembo jerdoni (Day): (Pisces:

Brotulidae)

RATHorR, M. S., Notes on the Indian ;

sand skink Ophiomorus resis

(Blyth) a

RAVI, R., A new record Ge Cr otalari. ia

incana Linn. from south India

|, Lindernia angusti--

folia (Bent.) Whettst. (Scrophularia-

ceae)—A new record for south

India

Rawat, R. R., Sterility and abnormal

copulation behaviour in Agrotis in-

fusa (Boisol) (Agrotidae: Lepidoptera)

in relation to high temperature i

es, ~ and :R.-R.

DESHPANDE. An assessment of damage

and _ loss by Linseed Caterpillar

Laphygma exigua Hb.

| Roserts, T. J., A note on the Yellow

vii

Page

2337

259

345

355

357

128

614

414

114

334

132

611

596

344

Throated Marten, Martes flavigula ~

Boddaert) in West Pakistan .

SAHASRABUDHE, J. D., Abnormality in

the breeding behaviour of the Indian

Fruit Bat, Pteropus- giganteus ERR

teus (Brunnich)

SAMPATHKUMAR, R., Further studies on

the host range in Loranthus longiflorus -°

Desv.

a On the

production of adventitious roots from

the excised petioles of some

Angiosperms ..

SANKARANKUTTY,, G:, “Studies. on the

larvae of Decapoda Brachyura 1.

Xenophthalmus garthii Sankarankutty

321

550

360

Vill

SANKHALA, K. S., and J. H. Desai, Re-

productive behaviour of Browant-

lered deer 7 hee sh mid

SANKOLLI, K. N., The Thalassinoidea

(Crustacea, Anomura) of Maharashtra

SANTHAKUMARAN, L. N., Preliminary

* observations on the natural resistance

of sixty-nine species of Indian Timber

to Marine borer attack at Bombay ...

Sastry, A. R. K., see RAO, T. ANANDA

SATYAMURTI, S. T., A record of the

’ Tiger Bittern, Gorsachius melanolo-

phus (Raffles) from Karaikudi, Rama-

nathapuram District, Tamil Nadu ...

SAXENA, D. K. , Honey Bees and Wasps

as pests of Grape §

SCHALLER, GEORGE B., Observations on

the Nilgiri Tahr (Hemitr agus hylocri-

us Ogilby, 1838) a

SHAH, C. K., A note on the toadrush

Juncus bufonius L. from India

SHAH, J. D., Some observations on

distribution of alae dulcis Linn.

in India ae nen

SHENOY, S. SAKUNTALA, see RANADE

M.R.

SINGH, C. S., Studies on bottom living

Diatoms of a Freshwater Fish Pond

SINGH, J. P., and RAJENDRA, GUPTA,

- The Red Pumpkin Beetle Raphidopal-

pa foveicollis (Lucas) as a pest of the

Japanese Mint : aa a

, Chafer

beetle, Adoreiits sp. (Coleoptera:

Scarabaeidae) a new pest on guava in

India ‘

SINGH, VUJENDRA, Occurrence ‘of Cera-

topteris thalictroides (Linn.) Brongn.

in Rajasthan

SIVAKUMAR, C. V.,

DARAM, M.

SIVAPRAKASAN, mL E. , Amphipoda from

the East Coast of India-2...

SOANS, A. B., and J. S. SoAns, The

time of emergence and the periodicity

of occurrence of the Tiger Beetle,

Cicindela_ cancellata Dej. (Order:

Coleoptera, Family: Cicindelidae) ...

—_—_—_____________., Observations

on the mating behaviour in the Ant

Monomorium gracillimum Smith (Hy-

menoptera: Formicidae) an

SOANS, A. B., and Joyce S. SOANS,

Anemotactic response in the Firefly

Luciola sp. (Coleoptera: Lampyridae)

SOANS, J. S., see SoANS, A. B.

SOANS, Joyce S., see SOANS, A, B,

see MOHANASUN-

Page

430

443

£23

354

153

347

350

122

_ SURYANARAYANA,

| Tawar, P. K.,

| TEOTIA,

| THAPA,

_ THOMAS, JACOB, see PARRACK, DWAIN

DIST OF .CONTRIBOCT ORS

SONNAD, G. R., see GONSALVES, ELLA

STAIRMAND, D. A., Occurrence of the

Indian Skimmer or Scissorbill (Rhyn-

chops albicollis Swainson) in Salsette

Island

| STARKEL, LESZEK, Cause and ‘Effects

of a heavy rainfall in Darjeeling and

in the Sikkim Himalayas ...

SuRVE, V. G., The breeding of the

Indian Giant Soe Coe indica)

in captivity

M. ro. Plietesiat

species of Strobilanthinae (Acan-

thaceae) in the Western Ghats (India)

SWAMINATHAN, M. S., Agricultural

Research—Progress, Problems and

Prospects ibs

Swamy, B. G. L., ‘and K. V. KRISHNA-

MURTHY, Cyclonic damage to plant

tissues ... Apt ae aus si

see JOGLEKAR, ASHA

T. P. S., see PANDEY, N. D.

B. B., see BANERN, M. L.

TIKADER, B. K., Spider Fauna of India:

Catalogue and Bibliography

VAIDYA, VIDYADHAR G., The feeding

behaviour of Lemon Butterfly, Papilio

demoleus L.

VENKATAREDDI, B., T wo new records of

Araceae from the Upper Gangetic

Plain

| WaGu, AB. and D. v_ BAL, ‘Various

603 |

associates of Sessile Barnacles

Bombay waters

WaauH, ARUN B., and D. V. BAL, Dia-

metrically opposite result of human

activity on Barnacle populations

WHITAKER, ROMULUS, Slight reaction

from bites of the rear-fanged

snakes, Boiga ceylonensis (Gunther)

and Dryophis nasutus (Lacepede)

— , Cannibalism in

the Indian Rat Snake, Pryas mucosus

(Linnaeus) ae a AS,

——_—________-__—-—., Notes on

bites by the Saw-Scaled Viper, Echis

carinatus, in the Deogad area of

Ratnagiri District, Maharashtra

YADAVA, DAYA RAM, see PANDEY, N. D.

YIN, Tun, The Dugong, Dugong dugon

(Muller), in Burmese waters

, Record of the Himalayan

Monal Lophophorus impejanus

(Latham) in Burma if

Page

Sui

551

604

466

462

212

118

129

351

589

113

(114

3395

326

328

INDEX OF SPECIES

Note—Page reference in bold print refers to illustrations.

abdimii, Sphenorhynchus

Ablepharus ,

ablutellus, Raphinetopus-

abnormis, Spindasis

absus, Cassia

Acacia

acaulis, Crepis

———., Impatiens

acherusicum, Corophium

acicularis, Nitzschia

acmella, Blainvillea

aculeata, Lantana ©

aculestus, Gasterosteus ...

acuminata, Ehretia

—, Plumeria

acuminatus, Calidris

acuta, Sida

acuticauda, Sterna

". 450-452, 448

Page

117, 118

156, 158

296

acuticornis, Nesothrips 483, 484, 495, 499, 500

acutiflorum, Cirrhopetalum’

adenocarpa, Jurinea

Adoretus :

Adraneothrips

aegyptica, Sphex

aenariensis, Bolivina

Aerides a

affictitia, Macroglossa he

affine v. longiceps, Neidium

affinis, Cypselus

—-—-, Orchomenella

—-—-, Synedra

agama, Kleothrips :

agamemnon, Graphium

agelenoides, Hippasa

, Pirata

aglea aglea, Danaus

Agropyrum

Agrostistachys

ajax, Themeropis

——, Thelcticopis

alaicus, Ablepharus

alata, Laggera

, Leea

——, Paracaprella

, v. nepalensis, Terminalia

alba, ’Eclipta ae

, Eria

——., Plumeria

monte, Gygis

albicilla, Haliaeetus

albicollis, Rhynchops

albida, Crotalaria ;

albifrons albifrons, Sterna -

—_——.

“445, Ps 446

525

545

OSE 212/213

349

422

164

444, ie 452, 446

483

180

- 163, 164, 164

436, 439, 440

93, 362, 362

see -~ 149

101

298

330

298-571

son 180

297

albifrons saundersi, Sterna

sinensis, Sterna

albipinnes, Culicoides

albiventer, Petaurista

Albizzia ... Be

albus Calidris

alecto, Colias i‘

alexandrinum, Trifolium

alismoides, Ottelia

alliaria, Guarea ... on

, Hartighsea _ ...

alliarum, Dysoxylum

Allothrips

almana, Precis

alpestre, Dendrobium

alpina, Brassaiopsis

—_——., Euaraliopsis

alpinus alpinus, Calidris

centralis, Calidris

schinzii, Calidris

, Cuon :

Alternaria yas

amabilis, Azaleothrips sa

, Leptacanthus

—-—-—, Sonerila

amara, Albizzia ...

amaryllis, Balanus

Amblypharyngodon

americana, Mycteria

americanus, Oreamnos ..

Ammophila a

amoenum, Dendrobium

ampala, Katherinea ;

amphioxys vy. densestriata,

chia) 4.

amphitrite, Balanus

amplum, Bulbophyllum...

, Dendrobium ...

: Epigeneium

amplus, Pygothrips

anaethetus, Sterna

anaethetus, hs

antarctica, Sterna

fuligula, Sterna

anagallis, Lindernia

Anastomus

anceps, Dendrobium _ ...

andamanica, Araliopsis ...

aneus, Johnius

angulata, Melothria a

angustifolia, Lindernia ...

annandalei, Lycosa ee

annandeli, Sphaeroma ..

Hantzs- . ----

450, 451, 448

352, 590, 591

iho ts

.. 148

148, 151

see 488, ae

aes “306

S299

RAMS Sr, |

612, 613, 619

of 1, Gi 245D

140, 143, 142

er aey 60

575

fouiacS25

7611: -613, 612

2206

Page

annulatum, Dichanthium es ee 33

anolis, Nesothrips 5 Re 500

anomala, Cardanthera .., 7 oe 64

, Orchestia oe soe tn LOS.

’ Thalassina 235, 242-249, 243, 245

” squamifera, Thalassina 248

anomalum, Synnema ... sa oe 64

anomalus, Cancer (Astacus) Sen eee

anophelis, Culicoides... se ei PA

antennatus, Phlebotomus ae 421, 423

Anthocoridae ae 418, 424, 425

antiquitatis, Tichorhinus is 317

antiquorum, Colocasia Sti: 255, 256

aor, Mystus se af .. == 194

apetala, Sonneratia P a 437

aphaca, Lathyrus Ne. a Se MST

Aphanocapsa oe Ea fF S82

Aphodius a Ay: oe 21

aphyllum, Dendrobium | — ag te RA

——_, Limnodorum. . ae. 143

arabica, Acacia ... a ays 33, 454

Araliopsis Se Ra sph as 60

arborea, Careya 92, 436

——_——., Gmelina ey ae cent) 436

arboreum, Rhododendron oe 526, 527

ardeola, Dromas 287

Argas ve : 414, 418, 420, 421, 423

argentatus heuglini, Larus Maer |

mongolicus, Larus ... 292

argenteus, Anisochilus 525

argiades indica, Everes ... om Sot SESS

Argyrosomus... Ah a Sct aD

Argythamia mae 300

ariel, Fregata 569

—— iredalei, Fregata 569

aristata, Hygroryza 355

aristatum, Ischaemum .. 529

aristolochiae, Tros 349

arjuna, Terminalia eet 435

armatus, Mastocembelus 338

arnicoides, Ligularia... we Wes 61

—_———, Senecio ... al aa 61

armmottii, Doronicum _... a 44s 62

arquata arquata, Numenius ... a 51

orientalis, Numenius ... a 51

artemisifolia, Ambrosia Br 618, 619

articularis, Borreria ay. Se) SeTTSB

Artocarpus we git one 435, 439

Arundinella Hes oe AN egg 7 203

arvensis, Anagallis ‘ ae SP raiseer 4s))

———— haplocaly, Mentha s 123

v. piperascens, Mentha

re 123

asiatica, Toddalia is pie aie

asiaticus, Ephippiorhynchus .. ‘453, 458

————., Xenorhynchus .. 453, 457, 455

aspera, Leucas wi ae 362, 362

asperulata, Primula bl as a 62

asperum, Helictotrichon 529

v. polyneuron, Helictotrichon 525

astacina, Laomedia 235, 236, 240, 237, 240

ater ater, Hipposideros ... “171-175

athis, Alcedo te ic SLO

atlanta, Ocyale ... 219

INDEX OF SPECIES

Page

atrata, Nacaduba 189

atrax, Amblypodia ay 190

atricornis, Phytomyza ... 597, 598, 600

atropalpis, Pardosa ig feat oe

atropurpurea, Indigofera woe 80

attu, Wallagonia 194, 205

aurantia, Sterna 295

aureus, Phaseolus 478

auriculata, Cassia 412

WNiMettla. | Sono ant

aurota, Anaphaesis 349

australe, Acanthospermum oot) ELS

avana, Cardanthera a ay) ae 65

, Pedicularis, ... es a, 65

avanum, Synnema : .. 64, 65

vy. biplicatum, Synnema wet 65

avosetta, Recurvirostra .. 287

axillaris, Amischophacelus 616

, Cyanotis 616

, Petunia 393

axis, Axis ay eh ae 378, 563

Azaleothrips Hen eh a) 486, 490

baccata, Taxus wae a a BLA

baccifera, Ammannia ... ne Searing 3k,

Bactridothrips 493

balot, Quercus oie aN 325

balsamea, Adenosma ... aa sie 64

balsamica, Cardanthera a 64

v. thymus, Cardanthera ... 65

, Ruellia Be se we 64

balsamicum, Synnema ... oy 64

———_—_—— v. thymus, Synnema ing 65

barbata, Crotalaria ike 524

barbigera, Synnema __.... bg ne 64

Barbus. ... Me a Ay ing tot

Barleria ie, in Lies 488

barnesi, Lycosa ... 216

batatas, Ipomoea 362, 362

Batrachus ay, se «J 8339

batrachus, Clarius. oat Soe 584, 588

beddomei, Alysicarpus ... Hanae

i ’Anaphalis = 525

, Impatiens __... rE Ree tbs 25)

—_———., Salacia se eSB

bendula, Hoya ; i 93

bengalensis, Bandicota " 67-80, 68, 69, 70, 71

72, 73, 74 75, 76, 77, 78

benghalensis Commelina 617, 618

, Hiptage... Nan CE

benghalensis, Rostratula — 286

Berberis ... RA SZT

berenice plumbeomicans, ‘Nacaduba veoh thBO

bergii velox, Sterna ; eh eIeOd

bertheloti, Discorbina ... At 27

, Discorbis ‘ ‘27D: 272/273

bhagava, Daimio vid ie ae aT Loe

bhutanica, Pyrus is a by 59

, Sorbus of ue whe 59

bhutanicum, Sisymbrium i at 57

bhutanicus, Senecio ae Me BS 61

bicolor, Allothrips she a 484, 491

bicornutus, Thelcticopis Santee 213

——, Themeropis 213

bidens, Glossogyne 619

INDEX OF .SPECTES

Page

bidentata, Paradeutella ... 161, 162

biflora ,Micromeria ecamoan

biloba, Liparis Mineo

binata, Hardwickia BD 83, 85, 434, 438,

439, 82, 83

bipinnata, Desmostachya 118

biplicata, Adenosma _... nat ote 65

biplicatum, Synnema _... ay als 65

bipunctalis, Psarah 349

birmanica, Lycosa 216

—_——-—.,, Pardosa 216

bistriata, Lycosa 216

bistrigata, Arca ... 353

biternata, Bidens i 184

bitorquatus, Cursorius ... 290

bituberculata, Coenomyia a .. 346

Blastus... ne ee es a 87

Boiga wae bad 113

Bolivina ... 266

bombaiensis, Ventilago ... my i 92

bombayensis, Senecio: .:. “Ae ae 61

Bonnaya ... 611

bonnieri, Grandidierella | 157

Bosmina ... 582

boueanum, Nonion nolo) 272, 273

——, Nonionina ... 262

Bougainvillea 348, 462

bourneae, Actinodaphne _ 525

bouvieri, ‘Anisops : 120

bouvierii, Elaphrothrips 496

brachiata, Centaurium ... 357

Brachydeutera 345

brachyotus, Sonchus 184

bracteata, Eisocreochiton §7-89

, Moghania ie 182

bracteatus, Dolichos _... say a 93

bractescens, Eria te thee 149, 150

bradleyi, Hoplothrips ae aieu OO

brandisii, Randia 183

brasiliensis, Cerapus 159

—_——__-—, Cyrtophium 159

—-———~—., Ericthonius sot57, 159, 165

-—_—__—_—_-, Hevea Lg 4 398

—_—-——., Platophium ae 1 au SO

———-—, Podocerus ... sie 159, 165

———_- , Pyctilus a ond OT

Brassaiopsis 60

brassicae, Liriomyza : : 598

breviflora v. ciliolata, Pavetta ... 524

brevifolia, Sarcococca 527

brevisetosus, Le uaeeae 489

Brotula iy 114

brunnicephalus, Larus ines 292

buchanani, i ena 185

Buddleia ... ” he Ves O

bufonius, Juncus — ah oe 608, 608

Bulbochaete . -— ae At tOOT

Bulimina 266

bupleurifolius, Alysicarpus 181

burchelli, Equus .. 381

burmanicum, Eranthemum siascwitune wads <t@ 3

bursa, Bdellonyssus

414, 418,

——., Ornithonyssus .

| 420-422, 426, 428

buxifolia, Cotoneaster ...

caballus, Equus ...

cadornae, Pipistrellus

caesium, Acer

cairica, Ipomoea

cajan, Cajanus

Calanus

calcar, Rotalia

calcaratus, Phaseolus

Calliadne

callosa, Carvia nih

callosus, Strobilanthes ..

calomorpha, Nodosaria

calophyllifolium, Syzygium

calthaefolius, Senecio

calycina, Crotalaria

, Kydia

campanellata, Bankia

campestris, Eulophia

canadensis, Cervus

—____——., Ovis

cancellata, Cicindela

candicans, Crotalaria

candida, Tephrosia

candidum, Dendrobium

candolleana, Aplotaxis

—_—_—_———,, Saussurea ...

canescens, Viola

Canna ;

canorus, Cuculus”

canus canus, Larus ;

canutus canutus, Calidris

capense, Eranthemum

capensis, Vigna ...

cappa, Inula

caprae, Barleria ...

Capricornis bs

capsularis, Corchorus

Cardanthera

Cardiastethus

Carex: «i... ne

carinatus, Echis ..

carmichaeli, Lycosa

@arun) 5)... cat

caryophyllus, Eugenia ive

caspia caspia, Hydroprogne

catappa, Terminalia

catechu, Areca

catula, Lycosa on

caudatum, Desmodium

ceiba, Bombax se

celebensis, Dinothrips ....

centaurioides, Centaurium 2. |

’ Chironia Ge < er eee : Coe

Centurus

Cephaleuros aS

cephalus, Mugil ...

Cephonodes

cerasoides, Sie vetun

Cerberus ... i

Ceropegia

cervicapra, Antilope

ceylanica, Vernonia

ceylonensis, Boiga

526, 528

Page

317

319

323

362

~ 40, 478

ipia.2

” 506, 6

503, 5

582

72, 273

182

235

06, 607

05, 608

60, 61

181

” 482

xii INDEX’ OF SPECIES

Page

ceylonensis, Pipistrellus © 422

ceylonica, Nacaduba : eee 89

ceylonicus chrysothrix, Pipistrellus 171-175

chamaedryfolia, Verbena oly SS

champaca, Michelia 436

chaperi, Lycosa .. : = 216

chapmannii, Nepenthes | ee ae 65

chebula, Terminalia j 435, 438

Chela__... : 205

chelonoides, Steriospermum : . 434, 438, 439

Chiloschista Ae ; 66

chinense, Polygonum 531

chinensis, Albizzia 437

, Impatiens 529

—_———., Salacia ae Reet 615) 3)

Chlorophytum me 3 oe Bee 93

Chrysanthemum ; 348

chrysanthum, Dendrobium iat) 143, 142

chrysippus, Danais ea Ape 195 89

Chrysopogon a : cae DOM

Ciconia 454, 457

ciconia, Ciconia . 455-457

ciconia, Ciconia 461

ciliata, Toona 179

cinerea, Muscitrea da 112

———-—.,, Pachycephala ... 112, 113

-, Vernonia 183

cinereus, Ibis ae a 454

clarkei, Saussurea abe Be ee 61

clavatum, Dendrobium ... 141, 143

clavicornu, Impatiens 532

Cletodendron sue se son Ae

Cobresia ... ae vet, i 18

cochinchinensis, Salacia a 358

coeca, Polydora .. 352

Coenomyia 346

Coleochaete 130, 132

Colophyllum 462

colutea, Indigofera 127

colutes, Galega ... 127

comans, Coenomyia 346

Commelina a Ms 618

communis, Ricinus aah a, Be 40

compestris, Lytocoris 424

compta, Grubia ... ; 155

concanensis, Cyanotis ... 616

concolor, Hirundo 414, 415, 417, 419 ,420

conferta, Crotalaria Be 525

confervae, Chytridium ... 509°

confusa, Eria A ok 149,150

conica, Saussurea ne BE a 61

conica, Saussurea a a 61

uniflora, Saussurea bs. a 61

connatus, Senecio ay a es 61

consimilis, Stigmothrips 488

contortus, Heteropogon 531

convallarioides, Eria : rhe 149, 150

conyzoides, Ageratum ... ... 184, 362, 362

corchorifolia, Melochia an 178

cordata, Sida ; 178

Cordia _... ; 128

cordifolia, Rubia 183

————, Tinospora 177

Cordyline 257

Page

core, Euploea : eas .. 349

‘coriacea, Agrostistachys. 304,305

, Caesaria oe UID

coriaria, Caesalpinia 348,305

corniculata, Oxalis sh

cornigerus, Echinops oi SS

coromandelica, Lannea 180, 433, 435, 439

-coromandelicus, Cursorius 289

coronaria, Coelogyne hl ag @l5O

, Eria 149,150

coronatus, Eucamptopus- amp 2) a

Corophium et 156

corymbosa, Knoxia ha 183

_—— , Oldenlandia 183

Coscinodiscus.. by SSE

cracens, Polyphemothrips 484, 488, 490, abe

crassiceps, Elaphrothrips 489

crassum, Oedogonium ... 508

crenata, Cordia ... 128

, Impatiens 532

crenulata, Exoecaria AY ES26

Creochiton ey: ... 87,90

crepidatum, Dendrobium ... 141, 143,142 ©

Crepis -... wie ah O28

criantha, Digitaria. 559

Cribrinopsis Se 352

crinitus, Abelmoschus ... 178

crispa, Polystomella 4 264

crispum, Elphidium ” 264, 212273

cristata, Barleria 362cs, 362

cristata, Cyanotis 616

cristatum, Nymphoides F 355

Crotalaria Fe Aes He 93

crotalarioides, Polygala | 4 178

croceus, Colias Ne ae be eh MOT

cruenta, Sphacelotheca sh oa G74

crumeniferus, Leptoptilos APY 458,461

cruralis, Bunothrips is .. 488

cuculata, Ostrea . : 353

cucullata, Amischophacelus 616

———_—., Cyanotis 616

Culicoides ie 418, 421, 423, 424, 426, oa

culinaris, Lens ... bins Lh vest 69

cumingi, Ibla 353

cumini, Eugenia ... 440

, syzygium Le igh ? 436, 440

cuneifolia, Moniera 362

cupularis, Osbeckia 529

Curcuma . 3 93, 257

cursor cursor, Cursorius | eas 289

Cuscuta ... nee a si ee 93

cuspidata, Olea ... 325

cyanophlyctis, Rana 589

Cyclops ... a 582

Cyclotella 582

cylindrica, Imperata 118, 559

dabia, Bletia ie me aa 66

—-—, Eulophia ... oe, ve fas 66

Daedalacanthus ... ae igh APR AGS

Dalbergia : wed 560

dalbergioides, Ougenia .. ae ve PAST

' Pterocarpus one 434, 439

DNDEX WORF: SPE@DES Xilk

Page

dalhousieanum, Dendrobium ... Scalp WAP

dallatorensis, Elaphrothrips 484, 493

dalzellianus, Gastrochilus er 359

——_——_—,, Sarcochilus eg? ‘DS

dalzellii, Pimpinella Le oe Bee ues) sii)

damaris, Orinoma i Ae Fae ne Li ests,

Daphnia ae : sn Ae ah DOL

davidii, Buddleja oh i Eh ag,

debilis, Impatiens ne i eens,

decaisneana, Ceropegia aay Stee Dae

decapetala, Caesalpinia se eat OD

deccanensis, Isachne ... te ae. ROIS

deccanus, Pellonyssus 422

decidua, Capparis st; 85

Deionix Med 462

delavayi, Buddleja t ou360

demoleus, Papilio “118, 119, 349

Dendrobium 94, 139, 140, 147, 148

Dendrolycosa 214

densiflorum, Dendrobium ai 141, 143

denticulata, Tlex a3 at MORI S25

—————., Ventilago ... ayy peutnag 5)

denudans, Dendrobium oe 140, 144

deodara, Cedrus ve 437

depressula, Nonion 4263, oype 273

——_———., Nonionina.. is 263

Desmotrichum .. ine rete hSO.

devangiriensis, Bulbophyllum bbe a 66

Diadumene a uf : wes 3D

Diaphorothrips ... 488, 491

Diceratothrips ons 488, 492

dichotoma, Cordia eS ane pleas |,

dichroa, Ipomoea Fak Hi. as TSG

Dicrocephala_... a a, nan Ps)

didymus, Coronopus _... se Besa W/V

Dieffenbachia ; is RT Oy:

diemensis, Coryzichthys ae Pea 10343

difformis, Cardanthera ... ae ids 65

—, Ruellia es Ae eM 65

diffusum, Cnidium ae ay 2 eil26

, Ligusticum ... Ret ee 26

——--—., Siseli ... ie AN. Bp Peal WI)

digitata, Photis. ... ne a) 166

, Polytoca ae : 558, 559

Dinothrips oe ~ 488, 492, 501

dioica, Momordica we A 183

Dioscorea Bhs Se ia a 92

Dipterocarpus sat Me RA 6S)

Discorbis .. Ye aa Pg Del

disjunctus, Ericthonius . ae his .s ~ 159

disperma, Grewia aes has ES

Dissoura ... She ie ath, EGOS.

disyphonia, Guarea A ne es 58

divaricata, T abernaemontana ay Aig AOD

doltsopa, Michelia me .. 436

domesticus, Gallus 421

, Passer ‘414, 415, 417, 419 420

———— domesticus, Passer Page: PAI

dormeri, Pipistrellus —... oe 171-175

dorsata, Apis... 323, 503

dougalli korustes, Sterna 296

Dracaena ae 4 2h Ss teas 17)

Drosophila ae 1, ahs He 10

Dryophis ... a we or Hg maid © We)

Page

dubius, Leptoptilos 458, 461, 458, 459

dubyii, Androsace 62

dugon, Dugong eols 327

dulcis, Scoparia ... 222-226

Duranta 462

dussumieri, Austrobatrachus ee nal, uaa

, Batrachus ... .. 339-341, 343

———_——— ; Halophryne . 341, 340, 342

duthieanus, Rubus 58

—_—__—_—— y. tomentosus, Rubus EP 58

Ecacanthothrips .. 486, 488, aae 501

Echis oe 5, 336

edgeworthii, Leea fe ey s3 ~~ L80

—_—_—__—_——., Saussurea ... ae Ba 61

edulis, Canna ve . 397

Eisocreochiton 87-90

Elaphrothrips ~ 481, 488, 493

elatum, Calophyllum .. : 435, 439

eldi eldi, Cervus ... és i, 26 1 Va6

elegans, Vernonia at fn sve -- 361

ellioti, Euprosthenops 214

, Podophthalma ... 214

elliptica, Dichopsis 437

— , Habenaria 525

ellipticum, Palaquium p 437

elongatum, Sedum se Sisal ce 59

Elphidium : 983 ae ini 264

Entada ... wi ae ae oe 94

Enteromorpha : 352

Ephemerantha ie "139, 140, 147

Ephippiorhynchus ae - 458

Epigeneium : a "139, 140, 147

episcopus, Ciconia 453, 457

— , Dissoura : 453, 456

equisetifolia, Casuarina os 436, 440

Eranthemum ne shee roe ee 63

erecta; Eclipta’. ... He ah Ris, 93

—-—-, Hygrophila a, ate 65

Eria 94, 139, 148

eriaeflorum, Dendrobium 140, 144

Ericthonius wee a Se Papen kay |

eriocarpa, Ipomoea oes on Pier 53)

erubescens, Viburnum ... ue Re ye)

erythropus, Tringa as he Su; 53

esculentum, Lycopersicum _... oe O02

Euagrostistachys He ate s den « SO

Euaraliopsis ae - 5S

Eucalyptus 435, 439, 528

Eucamptopus set ene

eucharis, Colotis zat a Sipeen Sao

———., Delias ... Bs ad ie ENS

Eudorina ... re me ae ici S82

Eulophia ... ey ae a as 94

Euprosthenops sca 214

europaea, Olea ... 403

Eurya ee nae Wad 528

eversmanni, Columba ae on iba aok

Evippa_... Lia ss ate en | 2L4

excavata, Eria... ae we 149, 150

excelsa, Michelia in a » - 436

exigua, Laphygma ee she 344, 345

exstipulata, Aglaia uy er vie 57

exstipulatis, Euphora ... a ie 57

fabrei, Heteropoda nas : 212

XIV

Page

fagifolium, Glochidion 526

fairholmianus, Rubus ... 525

falcata, Dendrophthoe ... are 8).

falcatus, Nesothrips 483, 484,

488, 495, 500, 501, 499

falcinellus falcinellus, Limicola 284

————-— sibirica, Limicola shhh DOG

falconeri, Capra ... 384, 388

farnesiana, Acacia 182

fasciculata, Cyanotis : eS OLS

——— v. glabrescens, Cyanotis Bo GEG

fasciculatus, Rubus se 58

—-— y, tomentosus, Rubus 58

fasciventris, Cardiastethes 424

febrifuga, Soymida ; 412, 437

feisthamelii, pea 192

ferox, Rubus BY 58

ferrea, Mesua oe 435

ferruginea, Coenomyia .. 346, 347

—-—-——, Crotalaria 180

fici, Idiothrips 489

ficoidea, Telanthera 362, 362

ficus, Idiothrips be . 484

filiformis, Rhamnus : 58

——_—_——, Sageretia ar 58

filosa, Cymadusa : ee EDO

fimbriata, Ephemerantha 144, 147

~—, Habenaria eS

, Stictothrips . 489

Fimbristylis 529

Fissendocarpa ae 125

fissendocarpa, Jussiaea 126

flabellifer, Borassus 434, 438, 439, 488

flaccida, Canna .. 391- 394, 390

, Primula ite aa ae 63

flava, Ban 149, 150

flavescens, Memecylon ue ay lige; OS

flavigula, Martes vi 321-325

indochinensis, “Martes A eile P21

: peninsularis, Martes ade 321

flavisculatus, Culicoides 421, 424

fletcheri, Lycosa ... 216

flexile, Jasminum 362, 362

flexuosus, Senecio ae ae Beh 61

foetida, Passiflora 183

foina, Martes ae +t 322; 323

foliosa, Aplotaxis i ee ee 61

——~—., Saussurea ; 61

formosa, Crotalaria cs Pees:

formosensis karnyli, Nesothrips 484, 488

formosum, Dendrobium 140, 144

forrulacea, Polysiphonia 352

forskalaei, Commelina ... z 617, 618

forskohlii, Coleus 531

fossilis, Heteropneustes . 199, 583-588

foveicollis, Ree nee 123

Fragaria ... 528

fragrans, Polyalthia 437

fragrantissima, Gaultheria 531

frondosa, Mussaenda 361

frontalis, Plea 120

fructicosa, Woodfordia . 183

frutescens, Ichnocarpus — 185

fruticulosus, Abrus 181

INDEX “OF -SPECTES

Page

fulicarius, Phalaropus 285

fuliginosa, Sterna oo) £10

fulvus fulvus, Hipposideros a 174, 172

fungosus, Hoplothrips 483, 484, 488, "490,

495, 487

furfuracea, Eisocreochiton 87-89, 88

fuscana, Lycosa ane bi, ong EG

fuscata, Arundinella ... es 529, 531

, sterna : rat he ae tO

“nubilosa, Sterna 297

fuscipappa, Crepis 527

fuscus, Eptesicus 174

fuscus, Larus 292

fysonii, Vernonia ah 525

gaimairdi, Operculina 265, ‘240 273

galeata, Euxenura : eo) See

gallica, Tamarix 361

gallinacea, Echidnophaga ote) SADT

gallinago, Capella a 108, 109

— gallinago, Capella | 1280

gallinula, Gallinago 285

gamblei, Ascopholis 525

, Poa OT MES

gangene, Batrachoides 339, 340, 341, 343, 340

, Batrachus 5843

—, ’ Halophryne 341, 343, 340

gangeticum, Desmodium e 4 181

gardneriana, Dalbergia ... b U8824

garthii, Xenophthalmus 592, 593, 595, 3s,

garzetta, Egretta 454

Gastrochilus : ck 2) bee

gaudichaudil, Agrostistachys Mh 301, 303

Gaultheria ne es sa ZS

gaurus, Bos ae +83 ee, 378, 565

Gebiopsis Ao Hy wie ees

genei, Larus 293

geniculata, Garnotia ae 525

| Geranium é ne ae eis 18

gibba, Pinnularia

gibbosa, Zornia ...

gibsonii, Dendrobium

gigans, Kleothrips

Gen 450, 452, a

181

ee 141, 144

s, 481, 483, 484, "488,

492, 496, 500, 501, 482

gigantea, Calotropis 93

siganteus, Pteropus she's

giganteus, Pteropus .. 550, 551

Biles. Grandidierella ... su Por (ce)

glandulifer, Rubus a 58

glandulosa, Indigofera ... 180

—-—, Lysimachia ... 62

glareola, Tringa 55

glauca, Canna 391, 393, 390

—-——, Cassine ... 358, 361

glaucum, Agalma 60

—-——-, Heptapleurum 60

glaucippe, Hebomoia 349

globosa, Entosolenia 260

——_—-—-, Gomphrena us "362, 362

, Lagena . 260, 272273

’ Pila 2 455, 461

globosum, Chaetosphaeridium 130, 132, 131

globularis, Discorbina ... at 271

= -, Discorbis foc e lie 22 273

INDEX, OF SPECIES XV

Page

glochidiatum, Echinoglossum ... ee 63

—_—-—, Paracaryum sae ii 63

glumaceus, Alysicarpus ss TOME eh |

gobara, Dysoxylum ee i ak yr

, Guarea bee te is a7

, Hartighsea ee a o2 57

gomata, Ismene (Bibasis) ose ener 4

gouriana, Clematis ms 1h

gracile, Gomphonema 445, 449, 452, 447

gracillimum, Monomorium _... 350

grahamii, Senecio ae iti 61

graminifolia, Eria "149, 152, 151

graminifolium, Dendrobium _... 66

graminis, ee eS 484, 490, 495, 494

Grandidierella_... : cies iy cl

grandiflora, Notonia 54 hn SOL

, Portulaca ... 361, 362

grandis, Tectonia 361, 434, 438, 439

Ail, 440

grantil, Gazella ... 383, 389

granularis, Digitaria... $59

granulosa, Operculina ... 264, 22. 273

greeni, Elaphrothrips .... ia 496

griffithii, Adenosma _... any Bh 65

—, Brassaiopsis ... i aie 60

, Cardanthera ... Bs Su 65

, Euaraliopsis ... Hf aie 60

, synnema ate aan nite 65

grisola, Pachycephala ... ip OI) EF?

, Tephrodornis ... ae 112, 113

Grossera Hy ae “4g 299

grunniens, Batrachus ane eo 339, 341- 343

—, Batrichthys ... a5) Poy eae

-—, Cottus it 339, 343

guajava, Psidium an 134, 603

guttifer, Culicoides 421, 424, 426

—, Tringa ... ae Dp)

guttulatum, Hatha piiydliaa 1h ate 66

——_—_-—,, Cirrhopetalum ... Ae 66

gwatkinsi, Martes ‘ 527

Gyrosigma Be ah ie Aa ae kote} 2

Habenaria a i see 94

habilis, Sorghum Niles 118

Haemaphysalis 414, 418, 420, 421, 423

halepense, Sorghum 115, 118

Halophryne es sas nt waa Oa

hamiltoniana, Stellaria ... . 26-28

—_—_—_—_—_———_ y. sikkimensis, Stellaria | 28

hamiltonii, Dysoxylum .. We ot, a)

hampsoni, Heteropoda ee Ming, eo

Haplobrotula __... et Li, Supa Tat Hi I

Hardwickia atk 83-85

hasskarlii, Commelina ... By ee a OMe

hebanthum, Viburnum ... Ns AE tanta 28

hebraeus, Polistes a et pace teer |p|

hecabe, Eurema 319

hector, Tros ! 349

hedleyi, Nausitora 433

heliaca, Aquila 330

Heliconia Ay 257

helictus, Strobilanthes ae 503

Helminthosporium 474

hemitoechus, Dicerorhinus 317

Hemitragus bo 103, 104

Page

hemprichii, Larus Nes a see 1 2OE

Heracleum : uf 379

Heterocalyx 4 ee 300

heterocarpon, Desmodium eo PPT (to

heterocarpum, Dendrobium 140, 144

heterophyllus, Artocarpus 94, 434, 439, 440

heteroplatos, Gelidium 352

heteropoda ae Sided

hexagonolapis, Barbus (Lissochilus) cay.» ho

—______——-—., Lissochilus .... SOLO

hierta, Precis : 349

Hilsa A ere 582

himalaica, Saxifraga tee vs ae 59

himalaeyensis, Venonia ... 220

himalayensis, Hippasa ... ZlS

—_—_—_—-——., Lycosa PAI

himantopus ceylonensis, Himantopus 287

himantopus, Himantopus 286

Hippasa ... anh ae fe De

hircus, Capra... ve wis 378, 388

hirsuta, Artocarpus 435, 440

, serpicula ee)

hirsutissima, Oldeniandia_ 524

hirundo hirundo, Sterna 295

— tibetana, Sterna 296

hispidum, Acanthospermum 618

hissaricum, Polygonum oe nie 18

hohenackeri, Acacia 524

—_—_—___—-—., Pavetta 524

holmerae, Hippasa a Ah pp uaa 4)

honorei, Thoressa (Halpe) a 192

hookeri, Agrostistachys * 300, 301, 305

——-—, Sarcoclinium a

————., Sedum my te Ae 59

hookerianum, Heracleum me 524, 529

Hopea ... ma oe 435

Hoplandrothrips _ 486, "488, 490, 495

Hoplothrips 488, 490, 493, 501

hubli, Steatonyssus ane cata 472

hudsonius, Circus (Cyaneus) ... Re 10

hurrianae, Meriones _... i 422

hybrida indica, Chlidonias 293

——-— hybrida, Chlidonias . 294

hybridus cruentus y. paniculatus,

Amaranthus ve a seh WOL9

hylocrius, Hemitragus ... 365-389, 527

535-542, 366, 369, 370, 371

Hylopetes ; a oee

hypoleucos, Tringa Bes ve fie ap)

hyssopifolia, Ludwigia ... ne 126

hyssopioides, Lindernia 612

hystrix, Castanopsis 436,438

ibex, Capra 378, 384

ibis, ‘Ibis ... we 454

ichthyaetus, Larus 292

Idiothrips 488, 489

ilex, Quercus se eles

ilisha, Hilsa ; ee oa 578-582

Ilysanthes Lae one ia 5 Ol

Impatiens : Oe Merida |= 4

impejanus, Lophophorus .. 328-330, 329

Imperata : 3s see, S00

incana, Crotalaria 132; 133

XVi

impejanus, Quercus

incisa, Primula

, Verbena ...

indagatrix, Lycosa

indica, Aeschynomene ...

—-—-, Agrostistachys ...

longifolia, Agros-

—-—-, Alocasia

—-—-, Apis Kg

—-—-, cadizachit

, Canna

—-—-, ; Dillenia

—-—-, Fragaria

—-—-, Frerea

—-—-, Hyphaene

—-—-, Loyolaia

—-—-, Madhuca

— —-, Mangifera

—-—-, Melicope

—-—-, Motacilla

—-—-, Paracalliope

—-—-, Parhyalella

—-—-, Perenethis

—-—-, Potentilla

—-—-, Ratufa

—-—-, Reinwardtia

ee 7 peescneputbalg

—-—-, Vateria ‘

—-—-, Vicoa

indicum, Chrysanthemum

, Gnaphalium

, Seseli

, Solanum aa

, Trichodesma ...

indicus, Caprimulgus

——-— jotaka, Caprimulgus

, Hoplandrothrips

, Nesothrips

, Neurothrips

, Polynemus ee

, Polyphemothrips

, Tamarindus ee

, Uredothrips

inerme, Clerodendrum ...

infusa, Agrotis Mp

infuscatellus, Chilotraea

ingrata, Navicula

insigne, Bombax

insignis, Salmalia

insularis, Pinus

integrifolia, Artocarpus ..

——-———-, Holoptelea ..

-—-—, Mackenziea _

intermedia, Egretta

-—-—, Littorina

interpres interpres, Arenaria

interrupta, Pinnularia

inyacka, Parhyale

iphisia, Tylophora

iranii, Lycosa

indica, Agrostistachys i;

INDEX “OF ~ SP EGRESS

~ 299-301

300, 302

ae 300, 303, 304

5, 256

oo MONT 21508

.. 456, 462, 464

391, 393, 390

e 6(436

see 434, 439

433, 437, 440, 488

: TS

335

166

220

182

551

Lig

220

437

184

362, 362

. 184

126

186

185

seh), MOE

331,332

484, 490,

495, 494

483, 484, 493, 500

si 484, 489

sac QOn

488

. 456

488, 493

isa) OL9

596

; SALA)

445, “450, 447

... 434, 439, 440

.. 434, 438, 439

wscy 4, SOU

454

353

on ‘ih 56

445, 450, 452, 447

oH Rennie. os)

527

iridiflora, Canna

Isnardia ... oes

isora, Helicteres .

ixiocephala, Thelepaepale

jacobsoni, Dinothrips

jalapa, Mirabilis

jambolana, Eugenia

japonica, Conyza :

— —-—, Cryptomeria ...

; Bunya. %.

’ Ternstroemia ..

, Youngia

japonicum v. Major, Hypericum

javanica, Oenanthe i

javanicum, Thalictrum ...

javanicus, Leptoptilos

javensis, Steatonyssus

jayakari, Hemitragus

jehana, Tajuria ... ig

jemlahicus, Hemitragus

jenseni, Elphidium

jerdoni fairbanki, Garrulax

, Sirembo. . Fy:

jujuba v. fruticosa, Zizyphus

juncea, Crotalaria {

junciformis, Fimbristylis

Juncus aa :

Jussiaea Ae

kabandha, Priesneriana

kachinensis, Pyrus

, sorbus

kamrupi, Culicoides

karachiensis, Brachyodontes

kashmirianus, Senecio

Katherinea

kempi, Lycosa

Keratella

kergueleni, Lembos

keroula, Lanius ...

kewalramanii, Callianassa (Callichirus)

khashiensis, Triaeris

khasianum, Solanum

Solanum

khasianus, Senecio

khudiensis, Lycosa

khudree, Barbus (Lor) 3;

khudree, Tor 510-521,

kinabaluense, Creochiton

kirchbergensis, Dicerorhinus

klatti, Primula

kleiniana, Potentilla

Kleothrips eae

knuthiana, Lysimachia

kodaiensis, Crotalaria

koenigii, Murraya

kolus, Puntius

konkanensis, Drupa

krasskei, Navicula

kumaonensis, Rubus

kundaicus, Senecio

kunthiana, Isachne

schaeferi, Hemitragus

, Upogebia ( (Upogebia) ..

——yv. chatterjeeanum,

Page

..391, 393, 390

526

. 459, “461, 461

; Dew sy: eee

365

190

103- 106, 365, 388

sce), HOD

264, 272, 273

ue ie SO

... 114-117, 116

125

484, 488, 491, 493

609, 610

609-611

ts 62

woo ps ae

510; 513

514, 516, 517, 519

es 87, 89, 90

353

445, 450, 452, 447

523

532

kunthianum, Phlebophyllum

kunthianus, Strobilanthes

kurzii, Commelina ...

—-—-, Rubus

—-—-, Sonnerila

lactea, Glareola

lactuca, Ulva

Laelaps

Laematophilus:

laevis, Ehretia

Lagena

Lagenandra

Lagerstroemia

lagopoides, Aeluropus

lagopus, Ochroma

lakoocha, Artocarpus

lampas, Thespesia ape!

lanatum, Phlebophyllum

lanatus, Rubus 4 a)

lanceolaria, Blumea

lanceolata, Lagerstroemia

lankadiva, pHpuesicres

Lantana oF

Laomedia

laotica, Heterocalyx

Laphygma

lapponica lapponica, Limosa

larvata, Paguma a

lasiocarpum, Sisymbrium ...

lateriflora, Pimpinella

laticornis, Impatiens

latifolia, Ampelocissus

, Anogeissus

——, Bassia oie.

_—___—_—., Dalbergia

, Dichrocephala

—, Zizania ...

Laurentia

laurifolia, Syncarpea_

laurifolius, Cocculus

lavenia, Adenostemma

lawii, Anaphalis

lawsoni, Impatiens ..

, Senecio

lawsonii, Andrographis

——-—-, Strobilanthes

laxa, Stellaria ;

laxiflorum, Desmodium

laxum, Cynoglossum

lemonias, Precis

lentula, Heteropoda

leo, Felis oe

—- persica, Felis

Lepisma ;

leptocheir, Laetmatophilus.

Leptoptilos ... :

leptostachya, Gouania

leschenaulti, Rousettus

leschenaultiana, Cassia

leschenaultii, Dipsacus

, Pentapanax

—_____—_——., Vaccinium

lessingianus, Senecio

TN DEM OR SPECLES

Page

502, 606

379, 5 502-504

A Oley

743559

414, 421, 423

159, 161, 160

185

os 260

pan 93

... 462

. 614

398

433, 434, 438, 439

LTO

. 435

171, 174

348, 462, 488

es XVII

Page

leucanthemum, Chrysanthemum... 613, 613

leucocephala, Mycteria 453, 454

leucocephalus, Ibis 453, 454

leucopalpis, Pardosa 219

leucoptera, Chlidonias OS

leucorodia, Platalea .. 454

leucoryphus, Haliaeetus pu8330

leucostigma, Lycosa MOD,

leuphotes, Aviceda Shean ie)

andamanica, Aviceda i138

——_-—— leuphotes, Aviceda me 138

— syama, Aviceda ... liad

——__——., Baza : sae OS

limbata, Spirillina ... 270, 212,213

limbatum, Loxostoma 269, 272, 273

limniace, Danais st . 349

Limnoria 440

limonella, Zanthoxylum w487

limosa limosa, Limosa ; ee

melanuroides, Limosa ike

limpidus, Stigmothrips . 488

Lindernia 3 611-613

lindleyana, Carex 7.391

linifolia, Fissendocarpa . 126

, Jussiaea ... . 126

linneanum, Ecbolium 362, 362

lisarda, Penthema ... .. 186

livia, Columba Es ss ne) |

—— domestica, Columba w. 421

lividus, Andropogon 929,532

lobata, Urena Bers Is:

lobatus, Phalaropus : 285

lobelioides, Andrographis | 523

longicaudus, Paxillothrips.. Bi 492, 495

longicornu, Dendrobium ... 140, 145, 146

———_—— y. hirsuta, Dendrobium seo 4S

longiflora, Anotis ane Benge AS,

, Laurentia ue 29S

longiflorus, Loranthus : 360, 361

longifolia, Agrostistachys ... 303-305

———_——— genuina, Agrostistachys 301, 302

———-— , Asteracantha 362, 362

—-—_-—-—., Physalis cen, Oe

———-—., Pinus... .. 437

——-——, Polyalthia .. 488

—- —., Sarcoclinium .. 299

longifolium, Sarcoclinium 303-305

——— , Xylosma reel Ns

longimanus, Taphozous 171-175

longipes, Brachydeutera 345

lorenziana v. subtilis, Nitzschia “448, 450, 448

loriformis, Murdannia is £ OL7

loundesi, Hippasa ... PACD

Loxostoma ... 269

Loyolaia : 488, 491

lucidum, Trachelospermum . 185

lucidus, Ropalocarpus P34

lucifugus lucifugus, Myotis sabe al:

Luciola te : Sain 29

Ludwigia Se a AS

lunata, Unciolella ... OES

lunu-ankenda, Evodia LO

lutea, Striga tree Doll

= Viola... . 393

XViil INDEX. OF AS PPECTES

Lycosa Bae

lycosina, Hippasa ...

Lygaeus

lyra lyra, Megaderma

Machatothrips

mackenzieiil, Lycosa

macraei Callista

————., Dendrobium

————., Ephemerantha

macrantha, Machilus

macrocarpa, Asteriastigma

—, Hydnocarpus

—, Taraktogenos

macrocephalus, Argyrosomus

, Pennahia

—, Pseudosciaena

macrolepis, Liza

macrostachys, Daedalacanthus

—_—_—__—_—_—., Eranthemum

macrura, Sterna

maculatus, Pinnotheres

maculosum, Aerides

madagascariensis, Cryptostegia

madani, Lycosa ae

maderaspatana, Mukia

madrasana, Caprella

madraspatana, Hippasa

magnirostris magnirostris, Esacus

———_—— recurvirostris, Esacus

mahagoni, Swietenia :

mahensis, Acanthochitona...

major, Pinnularia

malabarica, Salmalia

malabaricum, Bombax

——_—__—-——, Dysoxylum

, Jasminum

malabaricus, Sturnus

—_—__—_—_—-, Vanellus

Malacothrips

Malaxis 3

malayensis, Chthamalus

malsara, Mycalesis

Malus

Maranta

marathaus, Oecobius

marginalis, Orbitolites

, sorites

marginata, Bulimina

, Lagena

Margosa te

marsupium, Pterocarpus dee

martensii, Talorchestia —

Martes

Martesia

masteri, Lycosa

mauritiana v. fruticosa, Zizyphus

maxima, Callianassa

maximus, Elephas .

mays, Zea

media, Capella

medica, Citrus

medicaginea, Crotalaria

meeboldii, Agrostistachys ...

ye aoe

‘447, 450, 448

94, 178, 459

. 436

220

265, 272, 273

266, 272, 273

261, 272, 273

627

~ 40, 117, 123

109, 280

oie eo

+ £80

303, 304

Page

meeboldii vy. coriacea, Agrostistachys 300, 301,

305

vy. meeboldii, Agrostistachys 300, 301

304, 305

————., Cynoglossum ... a: Per tos)

megala, Capella... aN seo ¥LOBSHZEO

megnae, Grandidierella_... ee mre 25 4

Meiothrips ... fs as ae ... 486

melanippus, Danais _ : be we B49

melanocephala, Threskiornis bias ... 454

melanolophus, Gorsachius aie sr tOT

melanopogon, Taphozous seth ATL TS

melanoxylon, Diospyros ... ie ... 436

meloagrestis, Cucumis As ve Mee fo)

melongena, Solanum a Bisa ... 601

Melosira _... 4 ae ae 55 OSL

menoni, Meiothrips. a Bs ... 488

merkusii, Pinus ae ee a nisin SOAS

merula maximus, Turdus ... se nel

mesophylla, Arundinella ... Bi aotoge

mexicana, Rotala ... as ei: eat}

micrantha, Saxifraga sah ie sal LOD

Microcystis ... a a. en) nt IDOL

Micropera ... : ane ... 66

microphthalma, Cymadusa dees (pp LoS OD

microphylla, Symplocos _... oh 1. 324

mimus mimus, Pipistrellus marmite Wal ei 17/S)

Mimusops ... a a ... 437, 462

minima, Capella... Bas aR: eel

— v. indica, Physalis ... ise nce VSO

minimifolia, Chiloschista ... Ba sea OO

minimifolius, Sarcochilus ... bs 66

minor, Pergularia : 362, 362

minutiflora, Aglaia A Se OM.

minutus, Calidris ... sae Ae eee.

, Larus ae Es te 2 293

mitella, Mitella ie: be ave Beane |

, Pollicipes ... aa Ne Re)

mitis, Brassaiopsis ... RRS lie Psa 0 8)

, Euaraliopsis ... wee aM erage; ()

modesta, Acacia... tt ne S29

modestus, Entrichocheles ... 235

mollissima, Cayratia 362, 363, 362

monbeigii, Sorbus ... me 59

monbeigil, Pyrus_... Re bbe aN |

mongholica, Stipa ... ee a MP O22

mongolus, Charadrius eh fe i 90

monnieri, Bacopa ... i ty A)

monococcum, Triticum ... is ... 479

monophylla, Eleiotis Le Ws DT

—__—____—, Glycine wr ory Bh al Wea

monosperma, Butea es su Ch bB2

Monostyla ... MN a ae 12 DOL

montana, Diospyros _ ae . ad LOS

—,Hemichoriste ... ar 358

—., Justicia ... 358, 359

montanum, Daedalacanthus ie sh t63

, Syzygium _.... sail se 24

montezumae, Pinus Bie eu se 398

monticola, Anplectrum ... ... 87, 89, 90

, Eisocreochiton ... 87-89, 89

moorei, Amsacta ... ae ane 40-44

Morinda ... ba ue bn ... 462

morinda, Picea ah ‘a. ath aya 7)

INVDEX OR SPECIES

Moringa

Morus

mosal mahanadicus, | Barbus (Tor) |

moschatum, Dendrobium ..

moschatus tetraphyllus v. pungens,

Abelmoschus

motorium, Desmodium

mucosus, Ptyas oe

mucroratus, Elaphrothrips

muelleri, Lysimachia

multiceps, Senecio ...

multiflorum, Jasminum

mungo, Phaseolus ...

munja, Saccharum ...

Murdannia .. ae

muricata, Ipomaea

Musa a

muscicola, Eria

Muscitrea

musculi, Steatonyssus ‘

mussuallah, Barbus (Tor) ...

mutica, Garnotia

Mycalesis

Mychenia

Mycteria

mysorense, Hypericum

Mystrothrips

Nacaduba

nais, Euthalia

nasturtium- aquaticum, Rorippa ..

nasutus, Dryophis ... ,

, Eptesicus

Natrix

nebularia, Tringa

neelgherrensis v. clarkei, Dendrophthoe ..

523, 529, 532

neelgherryana, Anaphalis sas

neglecta, Uraria

neilgherrense, Daphniphyllum

neilgherrensis, Strobilanthes

nellygherya, Argyreia

nemoricola, Capella

neo- barnesii, Impatiens

Neochrysocharis

Nepa *

neriifolia, Euphorbia

Nervilia

nervosa, Brachylepis.

, Justicia ...

nervosum, Eranthemum

——, Viburnum :

nervosus, Daedalacanthus

Nesothrips ...

Neurothrips

niger niger, Chlidonias ,

-——., Phalacrocorax

nigra Ciconia i,

nigroglandulifer, Saxifraga

nigro- punctata, Perinereis

nigrotibialis, Lycosa

nigrum, Solanum

nilagirica, Artemisia

——_—____—-, Michelia

nilagiricum, Rhododendron

Page

iva. 350

... 462

an OO

141, 145

A738

114

482: 484, 493, 496 |

pe nOe

ordss

40, 478

117, 118

257

“148, 152, 151

Bet le

. 422 |

Lies Oull

529

xix

Page

nilagiricus, Pogostemon {8323

nilghiriensis, Berberis wpe 2

Nilgirianthus ~3> 605

nilgirica, Impatiens see S23

nilgiriensis, Hippasa Se

nilgirina, Heteropoda er ies

nilgirriensis, Yungia wimnoeo

nilotica affinis, Gelochelidon ... 295

nilotica, Gelochelidon ... 294

2 nimala, Erebia FS, . 188

nippon, Cervus . 563

nitellarum, Coleochaete 130

nitida, Bolivina 268, 272, 273

, Discorbis ... 212, 2712, 213

———, Rotalina ae ee Die

niveus, Rubus OD

nobile, Dendrobium .. 141, 145

nobilis, Bolivina ROT Zi2, 2795

noctivagans, Lasionycteris... ss ... 174

nocturnum, Cestrum . 186

Nodosaria . 259

Nonion i ~ 2Oz

nordmanni, Glareola 290

se LBS

559, 560

w. 454

sgool

... 486

2 al 9G

; 189

LTT

524

483, 488, 491, 493,

500

. 218

186, 602, 603

184

"526

531, 532

norvegicus, Rattus .

67, 70, Pa 74, 75) 573

Notonecta "i205

Notonia — 62

notoniana, Anaphalis 523

nucifera, Cocos 94

nudiflora, Murdannia ; . 617

—_—_———- y. compressa, Murdannia 617

, Letrameles an 435, 439

nummularia, Zizyphus 179, 274-278

_ nummiularius, Evolvulus se 362

nutans, Primula 63

—_——., Rubus . 58

v. nepalensis, Rubus i: 38

, Saxifraga ... Ee,

nutaniflorus, Rubus : a 22 58

—______—— y, nepalensis, Rubus 58

oakleyi, Pardosa ne . 220

| Oberonia 2.94

| oblongum, Acer... .. 180

obovata, Carolineila GOS

, Primula ... .. 63

obscura, Ipomoea ... .» 362

obtusa, Symplocos ... «« 326

| obtusatus, Senecio ... 2 162

| occidentalis, Cassia.. so 182

S PINUS... . 398

—-- : Stephanothrips . 489

ocellatum, Geranium ol

ochropus, Tringa 54, 55

Ocyale 219

ocymoides, Borreria | ae 183, 531

odoratissima, Albizzia 433, 436, 438

—____—__—_ y. angustitolla, Coelogyne 525

odoratus, Lathyrus 2 ey £928)

Oecobius : . 220

oedicnemus harterti, ‘Burhinus . 288

indicus, “Burhinus . 288

— saharae, Burhinus. 288

Oedogonium ae 507- 509, 508

officinalis, Scindapsus 250, 258, 251

oleosa, Schleichera 435, 438, 439

XX INDEX VOL MSP BEES

Page Page

Oocarpon ... 125 | parviflora, Lagerstroemia 434, 439

oojeinensis, Ougeinia . 437 -—, Sageretia fi WS

ootacamundse, Piper . 524 | ———_-—, Vitis . 180

opaca, Carissa . 185 | parviflorus, Rhamnus US

Operculina ... . 264 | parvifolia, Mitragyna . 457

Ophiomorus . 334 |) — —, Pyrus ne,

Opius 601 —, Sorbus ... 459.

oppositifolia, ‘Sageretia ... 58 | pashia, Pyrus . 182

orbicularis, Coleochaete . 130 | Passiflora (S28

orbiculatum, Viscum } 524 | patrinii, Viola vu SHSOG

orbignyana, Lagena 262, 272, 273 Paxillothrips : 488, 492

orbonalis, Leucinodes 601-603 pectenicrus, Elasmopus 165

/_ —_—_——, Impatiens : 523 | pectinalis v. ventralis, Eunotia 445, 449, 446

orientalis, Hoplothrips 484, 490, 495 | pectinatum, Eriocaulon . 529

—_——_——, Siegesbeckia 4 . 184 | pe2ctinatus, Strobilanthes ... i 903

, Stictothrips .. 484 | pectiniformis, Vernonia 527

—» Strepterothrips ee 488, 495, 498 pectoralis Erithacus “14-25, 18, 19

= , Vespa fe Pe: Y 221 — bailloni, Erithacus 19

ornata, -Microhyla ra . 589 | ______. Pachycephala 8

, Rivea . 186 | Pediastrum ... 582

‘griffithii, Rivea . 186 | pedicellatus, Lyrodus 431

Ornithonyssus pale Gedingulate Acronychia ... 179

Oscillatoria ... 582 | pedunculatus, Senecio 62

oscitans, Anastomus - 454, 455: “461, 454, 455 | Pellonyssus ... : 414, 418, ‘420- 422, 426

Osyris e ote . 523 | Peltophorum ; iy, °° B48. 462

ovalifolia, Microtropis , 523 | pennata, Acacia . 182

oxystoma, Culicoides 421, 424, 426 | pentaphylla, Glycosmis eet We

Pachycephala 113 | —_—__—_, Tabebuia peeads (cy

pacificum, Nonion . 263, 272, 273 | Percnothrips ... 49)

pactolus ceylonicus, Nacaduba_ . ... 189 | Perenethis . 220

palea, Nitzschia nA 448, 450, 448 Peristylus 25 94

paleacea, Nitzschia 450, 451, 448 | perpusillum, Dendrobium 766

pallide-fusca, Setaria 559, 560 perroteti, Xylophis i '336

palmata, Brassaiopsis 60 | perrottetii, Cinnamomum ... ... 524

, Euaraliopsis 60) == Mieusteum: . 2532

palmatum, Panax aE .. 60 | perseoides, Mycalesis . 188

palniensis, Acrocephalus ... .. 525 | persica, Felis eee

—_———., Garnotia ... 525 | persimilis, Diagora 89

palpebrosa, Zosterops “2 333 | =) Drosopmila 2

paludosus, Pogostemon .. 523 | peruviana, Thevetia J5A2

palustris, Crocodilus .. 574 | perversa, Nodosaria 260, 272, 273

panchganiensis, Habenaria ... 93 | pes-caprae, Ipomoea 362

paniculata, Eria 149, 152 | pes-tigridis, Ipomaea "186, 362, 362

— -—, Murraya .. 179 | Petaurista ns nso

——-——-, Sabia ... ... 180 | Petunia ... 348

==, lerminalia 434,439 | phaeopus phaeopus, “Numenius Sed |

paniculatus, Amaranthus . .. 619 | —— variegatus, Numenius ... a oe

, Celastrus . 179 | phaeothrix, Eulalia 327,551

pantherina, Hippasa . 215 | phaseoloides, Pueraria nae P82

papillosus, Nilgirianthus 523 | phasma, Heteropoda msi) Va

Paracaprella... . 163 | philippinus, Ploceus 414, 415, 417, 419, 420,

parasiticus, Stercorarius 291 422

Pardosa . 219 | phipsoni, Lycosa eS

pardus, Panthera 574 —, Thalassius ZO

pareira, Cissampelos AT Phlaeothrips .-» 486

parishii, Daedalacanthus ... 63 | phlogiflora, Verbena sae S,

, Eranthemum 63 | Phoenix : 0 OL

paronychyoides, Alternanthera . 93 | pholis, Blennius sil ez)

parsia, Mugil . see 204 | Phylloscopus ride te)

parviceps, Sophiothrips “484, 488, 490 piceus, Blaptostethus el

parviflora, Artemisia ... 184 | picta, Uraria se Wes

a= -, Butea ... ... 182 | pictula, Lycosa 218

, Hopea 433, 434, 439 | pierardi, Dendrobium esi 145, 147

ne, Txora ..: S SO). | Pieris: :: a iO io2y

ENDEXTOR SPECIES

re Page

pikarhense, Piper ... Be, Sh ae

pilimana, Tritella ... ae iz, 3 162163

pinnata, Garuga ee 179

pinnatifida, Cardanthera ... 65

—__—__—__——, Glossogyne 619

——_———, Nomaphila ... 65

pinnatifidum, Adenosma ... 65

—_——_———., Synnema a 65

pinnatum, Kingiodendron... 434, 438, 439

Pinus i be 101

Piper aM 101

pisaurina, Hippasa_ sist fio: be

piscator, Natrix el 4

Pithecellobium LOM

planifolia, Vanilla ... 411

planifrons, Acacia ... 81, 82, 85, 86, 82

plantaginifolium, Bupleurum 24

Plantago f oe 10]

Platanthera 94

platycarpa, Atylosia 619

Pleunosigma 582

Poa... 18

Poinsettia Ka 350

polyacantha, Euaraliopsis 60

, Hedera 4723/°60

polyandra, Cynometra 436, 438

polyantha, Aglaia ... pitt as

polycephala, Madaractis iy aOR

polycephalus, Senecio 6255239529

polygama, Grewia ... ae wel 9

—__—_—_-, Olea 527

polygonoides, Alternanthera 93

polymorpha, Medicago -r.- 180

Polyphemothrips 489, 490

polyphyllum, Biophytum .. Se 25

polystachya, eens 435

polytes, Papilio a , eo 49

Polytoca 559, 560

pomarinus, Stercorarius Lo 2o

pomona, Catopsila sic -.. 349

pompilioides, Nonion 263, 272, 273

a -—-, Nonionina ... e t2G3

Pongamia : 462

populnea, Bucklandia 437

, Exbucklandia 437

Poria , iy AO

porosus, Crocodilus 573, 574, 573

Porpax a teed.

postrata, Moghania 182

Potentilla sa 528

praelongipes, Evippa_ 214

———_—_-——, Lycosa t Brea Ue:

pratincola maldivarum, Glareola 9 290

pratincola, Glareola . 290

Prestwichia ... us ae -<94~-420

Priesneriana a 488, 491

primigenius, Mammuthus | era

primulinum, Dendrobium 140, 145

primuloides, Androsace Grea O2

prionitis, Barleria 362, 362

-priscus, Bison is : wild

procer dallatorensis, Elaphrothrips . 496

procerum, Dysoxylum - WSIS

procumbens, Tridax 184

XX1

Page

productus, Elaphrothrips ... 482-484,.493, 496

prolifica, Lycosa Ae the ‘se DLS

prompta, Heteropoda eae

prostrata, Crotalaria ... 180

, Eclipta 93, 184

Prunus ov LO]

prurita, Mucuna et 4

Pseudagrostistachys . 299

pseudo-aperta, Carex 525

pseudolunaris, Eunotia 444, 449, an

pseudomontana, Curcuma

pseudoobscura, DEceopnre ee ve -

Pseudosciaena Ete . 575

Psidium 101, 133

psoraloides, Cyamopsis ee 26)

pterocaulon, Saussurea 60, 61

Ptyas 4 eeeaieliee

pugmeum, Eurynorhynchus 284

pugnax, Philomachus is ve a 285

pulchellum, Dendrobium ... wae ASE, 147

——-———., Eranthemum ... rr i263

pulneyensis, Pimpinella 525

——____—., Vernonia 23 oak .» 5325

pulvinata, Coleochaete .... rane boOz 132

pumilum, Dendrobium 66

punctata, Bolivina ... 266, 272, 273

punctipes, Lycosa ... . 218

pungens, Alternanthera 94

pungitius, Pygosteus 583

Punica : ; ca sve) LOL

punjabensis, Sergentomyia ww. 421, 423

purpurea, Camarotis Rina nem OO

—, Cyathocline 184

—, Tephrosia 135

purpureus, Sarcochilus 66

purpuria, Puccinia ... 474

purus, Laetmatophilus 161

pusilla, Impatiens ... 532

———-, Lindernia 612

pusiola, Lycosa 220

—_——., Pardosa 220

putus, Oecobius 221

Pycnonotus ... 308

Pygmaeothrips 486

Pygothrips ... 483

pykarensis, Ophiorrhiza o o24

| pyranthe, Catopsila 2 349

Pyrus 58, 59, 101

quadrangularis, Cissus a? 361, 362

quadrata, Lagena 261, aps 273

quadrifer, Lycosa Se ee Ls

quadrimana, Maera vein OS

Quercus ae 1, 440

quinqueloba, Prenanthes ue vo Gl

quinquelobus, Senecio peer 6 |

radicula, Nodosaria ict, 2S aI 2

radiosa, Navicula 445, 450, 452, 447

| rafinesquei, Corynorhinus p . 174

rama, Mycalesis 188

ramentacea, Eulophia 66

ramentaceum, Limodorum - 66

ramiflora, Microtropis 525

rangacharii, Eriochrysis 325

Raphanus vs 101

XXil

raphidocarpa, Carex -

rattus, Rattus os

‘wroughtoni, Rattus

Rauvolfia i

Ravenala A

recurvalis, Hymenia

recurvus, Loranthus

religiosa, Ficus

remora, Remora

reniformis, Ranunculus

repressa, Sterna

reptans, Ipomoea

resupinatum, Trifolium

reticulatum, Doronicum

reticulatus, Nilgirianthus ...

, Rubus

, SENECIO: ...

retusa, Bridelia

retusum, Desmodium

rex, Tyrannosaurus...

rhamni nepalensis, Gonepterys

Rhododendron .

rhomboidalis, Bolivina

rhomboidea, Triumfetta

Rhynchobdella

rhynchops, Cerberus a

ridibundus ridibundus, Larus

rigens, Heracleum ... :

ritchieanum, Eriocaulon

rivularis, Anemone

robusta, Grevillea ...

-, Heteropoda

-, Shorea

robustum, Eriocaulon

robustus, Nesothrips

rochi, Bankia

rodiaei, Ocotea

roemeri, Nodosaria

rohituka, Amoora ...

rosacea, Discorbina

——-—, Discorbis ...

rosmarinifolia, Leucas

rostrata, Schefflera

rostratum, Aerides

, Micropera

rothii, Rhynchosia ..

rotundatum, Bulbophyllum

—, Dendrobium ..

Epigeneium si

, Katherinea

, Sarcopodium

rotundatus, Cimex ...

rotundifolia, Primula

——, Rotala

rotundus, Cyperus ... rr

roxburghiana, Sanseviera ...

roxburghii, Centaurium

: , Erythraea

v. Saxatilis, Erythraea .

, Pinus Bey

—— ’ Primula ...

, salacia ..

—__———, Typhonium

roylei, Cynoglossum

elgse

1 ge lgere ree ere

”” 483, 484, 493, 500

cree ag 431

T NUD BX

Page

525

67, Les a. 76

552, 554-556

: 101

191

bis 526, S27

268, 272, 273

Bs ane i)

vee, 209

114, 574

sees

wa ool

134, 134

sae ao

. 361

213 |

Ail, 436, 439

529

398, 440

260, 272

. 435

271

271, 272, 273

523, 529

5360: |

358, 619

357, 619

358

431, 437, 527 |

_ 358

. 130

O Fs SS Pir Ciges

Page

rubicundus v. hohenackeri, Onthesichens ~-§23

rubiginosa, Evippa ee adi

rubra, Cordyline 257

rudolfi, Thais 353

| rufescens, Impatiens 523

, Strobilanthes 503

——_——., Uraria 181

ruficollis, Calidris ... 282

———--, Tringa 282

rufulus, Thelcticopis 213

, Themeropis 213

rugosa, ’ Primula : 63

rugosus v. thwaitesii, Rubus 524

russeliana, Raconda e ae 585, 588

russellii, Vipera ; 337

rusticola rusticola, Scolopax ab SS t

rutidosperma, Cleome meg Ade 2829

| Saccarum e ... 308

sagittifolius, Ranunculus ... 529

sahyadrica, Cyanotis 616

salacioides, Johnia ... 358

— , Salacia 358

salicifolia, Lysimachia ae ae OD

sambac, Jasminum : «wii 9) 36223962

sandvicensis sandvicensis, Sterna 298

sanguineus, Ecacanthothrips 482-484, 490, 495

santapaui, Justicia ... : 358

sapiens, Homo Boo:

Sarchochilus A 66, 359

Sarcoclinium ~299- 301, 303

Sarcopodium 139.

sardenta, Cymadusa 153, 155, 154

——-—-, Grubia . 153

sarmentosa y. dubyii, Androsace .. 62

vy. primuloides, Androsace 62

sativa, Avena ; Ag Sich 117

, Medicago ... ae 65 sv 23

, Oryza ue sats wae OR EZS

sativum, Pisum ; 123

saularis, Copsychus- 414, 415, “417, 419, 420

saulierei, Christisonia ; 525

savil, Pipistrellus 319, 320

—-— austenianus, Pipistrellus . 319

| —-— cadornae, Pipistrellus 319

| —+— caucasicus, Pipistrellus . 319

| saxatilis, Stellaria 26-29

——-—--— y, Sikimensis, Stellularia 28

sayi, Bembix 545

scaber, Elephantopus a af 362, 362

scandens, Frutex . 88

scapiflora, Impatiens SS2

scapiflorum, Murdannia +993

scariosa, Vernonia . se LA hGnG2

scariosum, Centratherum ae sev 62

-—, Decaneuron Je 62

sceleratus, Ranunculus ony

schilleriana, Diadumene Ro ES Wo 4

scholaris, Aistronia 458, 459

schottii, Typhonium sonlitit,. = -IQORESO

schreibersii, Miniopterus ... 174

schubarti, Amphilochus 165

scintilla, Rapala . 190

scolopacea, Eudynamys..... . $73

scrobiculata, Strobilanthes . 606

INDEX OF SPECTES

Page

scutata, Coleochaete 130

seemannii, Schefflera 60

seenghala, Mystus 194- Oth, 196, 198, 200, 201,

204, 208, 209

semecarpifolia, Alseodaphne 94

semialata, Moghania _ 182

semipalmatus, Limnodromus mat 56

——_-__—-——., Macrorhamphus ... 56

semiteres, Murdannia 617

Senecio a fd tun 62

senegalensis, Ephippiorhynchus .. 457, 458

Sepiaria, Ipomoea .. or 5 ... 362

Sergentomyia 5 418

sericea, Crotalaria .. 180

serpens, Viola 526

serpentina, Rauvolfia : 185

serratibranchis, LO heat 352

Sertularia 4 $352

sesban, Sesbania . 181

sessilifiora, Crotalaria . 180

sessilis, Alternanthera on 362362

, Pleocanthus BS ipa 1929 O29

, strobilanthes 503

Setaria_ Le 560

sexpunctata, Heteropoda a8 213

shallada, Erebia 188

shillongensis, Ischnothyreus 221

sikkimensis, Malus.. 58

, Pyrus.... 58

, otellaria 26-29

silenus, Macaca 541

simplex, Kleothrips 483

simplicifolia, Brassaiopsis ... 60

, Euaraliopsis... 60

sinensis, Pelopidas ... 192

sinhala, Nacaduba .. 189

Sirembo 2a a5 115

sisaparensis, Oldenlandia ... 524

sisparense, Pygeum ue se SDA

sissoo, Dalbergia 182, 435, 559

skua, antarctica, Catharacta sles e290

oo "lonnbergi, ‘Catharacta f40291

—— maccormicki, Catharacta in 291

Smilax a .. 488

smithiana, Picea ... 437

smyrnensis, Halcyon ee 818,

smythiesi, Heteropoda See 23

solanacea, Ardisia ... cS

—-———-, Vallaris .. ABS

Solanum ... 610

. Solitaria solitaria, Capella .. A299

soluta, Coleochaete e380

Sophiothrips ES 488, 490

sorghi, Sclerospora ne AGA

—-—-, Sphacelia . 474

—--—-, Sphacelotheca 474

sorghicola, Contarinia 474

Sorghum 474

Sorites 265

sororia, Eleiotis 127

speciosus, Costus . 02

spectabilis, Bougainvillaea | . 361

——— , Cheilosporum » 352

speltoides, ‘Aegilops . 479

XXil

Page

speoris, Hipposideros = As 171-175

sphaerophorum, Gomphonema “445, 449, 452

446

sphaerostachyus, Neuracanthus .. 92,93

Sphex av 545

spicata, Polycarpaea_ » S30

spinicarpa, Leucothoe . 165

spirata, Murdannia 617

Spirillina 270

spirocarpa, Acacia .. 82

Spirogyra ; 1a 582

splendens, Corvus taht “414, 415, 417, 419,

420- 422

spontaneum, Saccharum segs LAT TES

squamosa, Virgulina 266, 272, 273

squarrosa, Aegilops , .. 479

Sorbus ee . 39

Stagnatilis, Tringa ... ee

stauntoni, Dendrolycosa . 214

Steatonyssus . 422

| Stellaria Tee

Stellaris, Urticularia — . 355

stellato- pilosa, Stellaria 27, 28

stellulata, Andrographis 523

stenura, Capella 108, 279, 280

Steriospermum is ; )

stictocarpum, Carum se on 355-357

— v. hebecarpa, Carum 355-357

— , Trachyspermum 356, 357

stictophylla, Tricholepis ... 184

stictopyga, Lycosa ... lee 1S

| —_____——, Tarentula 218

Stictothrips .. 489

stigma, Barbus ie 205

Stigmothrips Gp i 486

stipulata, Albizzia ... ser 437

y. smithiana, Albizzia ... 182

stirpicola, Carbro .. ae . 546

stolidus pileatus, Anous 298

Strepterothrips ae 488, 489

striata, Lagena 261, 272, 273

—-——, Martesia 431, 433, 438

striatulus, Modiolus » ooo

strictus, Mimulus ... 177.

Strobilanthes 92. 94, 504- 506, 608

strumarium, Xanthium . 184

struthersii, Ibidorhyncha ... 287

stylosus, Senecio 62

suavis, Trichosma ... 150

subadnata, Navicula _ 445, 450, 452, 447

subflavus, Pipistrellus . 174

subminutus, Calidris . 283

subperversa, Nodosaria_ .. 260, 272, 273

subramanii, Tiarothrips 481, 484, 488, 492

495, 496, 500

subruficollis, Tryngites 488 . 285

subulata, Commelina ze 617

sudetica v. bidens, Eunotia 445, 449, 446

suffruticosa, Leucas a O82

sulcata, Festuca 18

sumatraensis, Capricornis .. 104, 384

sumatrana, Lycosa j

mathewsi, Sterna

a sumatrana, Sterna

XXIV

Page |

sumatrensis, Dinothrips 482, 484, See 495,

485

superba, Gloriosa ... 2

superciliosus, Tephrodornis: a2

Surirell : : : “382

sutherlandi, Lycosa - 219

sylvarum, Ornithonyssus oy: ri2a

synaptochir, Platophium ... aa lB is

—_—___—_———., Podocerus se og

Synedra ae x 582

Synnema _... 64, 65

tabularis, Chukrasia .. 437

tade, Mugil .. 588

talehsapensis, Nereis ; 352

tamu tamu, Heliophorus ... 190

tatarica, Saiga 31

tatensis, Lycosa 219

Tectona : 83

temminckii, Calidris 283

tenella, Impatiens fa : 523

tenellum, Bothriospermum 185

tenera, Sonerila = 182

tenuiflora, Galactia.. 127

tenuirostris, Calidris. 202

_______.—. worcesteri, Anous 298

tenuistriata, Uvigerina 269, 272, 273

Tephrosia ... Gli a 135

Teredo att, te ey: ais 398, 440

terek, Tringa ee i Re, ae)

testaceus, Calidris ... i 284

tetraspermum, Pittosporum 526

teucrioides, Verbena 393

Thais... : eo 353

Thalassina ... : 242

Thalassius ... %.. ime ae ... 220

thalictroidus, Ceratopteris... et Ba 355

Thalictrum ... ‘ ae: a hehe SYA

thebaica, Hyphaene 82

Themeropis .. 213

Thespesia 462

thomsoni, Argyreia... 186

Thrixspermum . 66

thymus, Adenosma Lipo. 5)

Tiarothrips ... 488, 492

tigris, Panthera pe 234, 374, 551

tilaefolia, Grewia . 437

tinctoria, Berberis : i 1420p ALS

—-, Indigofera ; 135

tintinnabulum, Balanus 352 353, 590, 591

tomentosa, Impatiens Seal OSG oe

—_—-—--—, Pavetta > SS

——-—--—, Rhodomyrtus B26

— -—, Terminalia 436, 440

tomentosum, CaN en 435, 439

tor, Tor Bs Pet 510, 511

tora, Cassia .. 33, 182

torvum, Solanum ee . 186

totanus eurhinus, Tringa ... 53

— totanus, Tringa 53

Trachispermum 356

Trachyspermum._.. nes 350

tragocamelus, Boselaphus : 563

transparens, Dendrobium... __ 140, 147, 146

ENDEX OF SP E CIES

Page

transvaalensis, Hoplothrips 483, 484, 488

490, 495, 487

Triaeris fa 22k

trianae, Sonerila_... na bite ie oe

triandra, Themeda . -o.) 1 S20ega2

triangulare Vv, congestum, Desmodium 181

Tribonema ... te . 3509

trichotoma, Swertia — 524

tricolor, Viola 393

tridactylus, Ophiomorus . 334

tridens, Laematophilus 161

trifida, Sopubia 531

triflora, Adenosma 65

————., Cardanthera 65

, Ruellia 65

triflorum, Desmodium 181

——, Synnema 65

trijuga, Schleichera 435, 438, 439

triquetra, Trianthema 614, 615

triquetrum, Desmodium ST

trispinosus, Batrachus 339-341

-—-,Halophryne ... 342

tristis, Acridotheres 414, 415, ‘417, 419- 422

Tritella : eG 2

tropicalis, Pinus... . 398

truncatula, Lymnaea (Galba) 0) 588

tuba, Ipomoea ake 614, 615

tuberculatum, Arisaema i) 524

tuberosa, Cyanotis .. ..- 616

turbinatus, Dipterocarpus . 435

—, Percnothrips . 491

turcicum, Helminthosporium 474

turgida, Cymbella ie . 447, 450, 452, 448

tylophorum, Arisaema . 524

typhoideum, Pennisetum ... 40

Typhonium .. 129

typus, Dispholidus .. 113

, Rhineodon.. 337

uliginosa, Adenosma 65

, Cardanthera 65

, Ruellia es 5 RHOS.

uliginosum, Synnema : ah iS

ulna subaequalis, Synedra_ “444, 449, 452, 446

umbellata, Androsace a} ie ee 8S

umbellatum, Bulbophyllum 66

uncinatum, Cynoglossum ... : wag 63

, Paracaryum ... isi S08) OZ

undulaefolia, Crossandra ... 362CS, 646, 362

undulata, Commelina A ets (GAT.

macqueenil, Chlamydotis . 330

undulatum, Pittosporum ... i e525

unguipes, Diaphorothrips ots 491

unicolor, Cervus in 374

unicornis, Rhinoceros 558

uniflora, Primula 63

, Saussurea is 61

~'y, conica, Saussurea 61

uniflorum, Bulbophyllum as 66

—___——., Sarcopodium ... 66

Ure dothrips a 488

urticaefolia, Leucas . 619

Uvigerina : 269

vadescens, Bolivina.. ; 268, 272, 273

vaginalis, ’Alysicarpus ooRE ; . 181

DND ER OR OS PEO ES. XXV

Page Page

vaginata, Arundinella spe 529 | vulgaris, Phaseolus aa AA nen 2

valida, Eunotia ee ... 444, 449, 452, 446 | walkeri, Gynura __... Bei oe bears atl 282

Vandellia ne iy : >; Olt -, Notonia ... a Be, sre 02

Varanus ues se: ae ... 34 | ———-,Senecio... es an EeKcOe

varia soccata, Atherigona ont ae ... 474 -, Sphaeroma ae 352, 353

variabilis, Buddleja ii ae ... 359 | wallaceana, Cymbella ee 447, 450, 448

vasica, Adhatoda ... ae ... 362,362 | wallichi, Amoora ... oe 2 43)

velutina, Chukrasia a Re, ... 437 | wallichii, Cirsium ... aa a ... 184

,Dalechampia __... due ... 524 | ——--—-, Strobilanthes _... oy as pO

venatoria, Heteropoda ___... 213 -, Wedelia ... ae ich Dera his!

veneta, Amphora ... a 447, 450, 448 | wardii, Daedalacanthus_... an wavhgos

Venonia a : ve . 220 | ———--, Eranthemum uN gi om

venulosa, Schefflera oe a . 183 | warscwiczii, Canna “is 391, 393, 390 .

veronicaefolia, Bonnaya ... ee ... 619 | wightiana, Anaphalis ae ihe ac Oe

verticillaris, Oldenlandia ... .. 527,529 | —————— ». hispida, Arundinaria Ae Peo)

verticillata, Adenosma ___... oH ... 65 | ——_——-—, Tlex weit i Aer in Le

——-—--—, Cardanthera ... a ... 65 | ————-—, Rapanea ie a ee eyo)

verticillatum, Synnema __... oe ee OS) -—, Scutellaria a a Ree 27

vestalis, Colotis .... ae: es ... 190 wightianus, Nilgirianthus ... oe ae 5

vestita, Stellaria ... ne 26-29 | ——-—-, Strobilanthes ar radae

vialis, Macroglossa Ws ee ... 349 | wightii, Dendrobium oe “fe sea 100

viarum, Solanum ... ih AP ts, OLO , Helichrysum ae ee cogeeo

viator, Pellonyssus ... us i ... 422 | ————, Meliosma ae a) 94020

——-—-, Steatonyssus ie a: fs IL] , Feucrium ae wee DEO Oe

vilardeboana, Discorbina ... 271 | wittrokiana, Viola ... Ede ; 393

—.___—__—., Discorbis.... Dns 272: 273 | wodier, Odina Le 433, 435, 439

villosa, Sterculina ... Pa 178 | wroughtoni, Lycosa te ahs . 219

Viola : at! Pe . 528 —_—_————,, Scotophilus ... ‘ 174

violacea, Mackenziea Une He ... 523 | X generalis, Canna ee 390- 393, 395

, Petunia ... ate Me ... 393 | X orchioides, Canna iter 390, 392, 393

virescens, Thelcticopis mi nt ... 213 | X hybrida, Petunia Lee Ses ... 393

—__——., Themeropis ae at ... 213 | ———_—_——,, Verbena oe a 2 393

virgata, Rhamnus ... a she ... 179 | X wittrokiana, Viola len a ine 2398

Virgulina... iy au) ... 266 | Xenophthalmus _... iN an Bn O92

viridiflora, Micropera Bu ne ... 359 | Xenorhynchus ne De ... 454, 458

viridiflorum, Aerides te sed ... 399 | xylocarpa, Xylia_... ie .. 434, 439

-——.,, Saccolabium ne . 359 | zamboange, Ampelisca _.... ee ... 164

viridiflorus, Gastrochilus ... 359 | zeylanica, Capparis f re ales

viridis v. turgidus, Pinnularia “447, 450, 447 | ——_———_ v. paludosa, Emilia ee a).

viscidula, Conyza ... ane 184 | —_——_—_, Nepenthes Pes oa sue OD

viscosa, Indigofera .. ae wid. eo , Plumbago : ee sss Oo

viscosum y. elata, Adenostemma . . 184 zeylanicum, Rhododendron A 526

vitta, Hasora aD wet 191 | zeylanicus, Fisseponen a 528, 529, 531

vivipara, Spirillina ... ae 270) D2: 273 \ Zingiber |... : me : EDOM,

vulgare, Hordeum ... a 117 | Zinnia ve ae bee ; 348

———-, Sorghum ... ee ~ 40, 118, 474 | Zizyphus _... ae aes 93, 276, 277

—, Triticum... We ae ... 117 | zonellus, Chilo Ane re . 474

vulgaris, Linaria_... .e a, eeeotl wyenema ..... we re ne < 131

Journal of the fe

Bombay Natural History Society

pede Vol. 67, No. 1

Editors

ZAFAR FUTEHALLY,

J. C. DANIEL & P. V. BOLE

APRIL 1970

Rs. 18 (Inland), sh. 30 (Foreign)

NOTICE TO CONTRIBUTORS

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lined. Both in zoological and in botanical references only the initial

letter of the genus is capitalized. The specific and subspecific names

always begin with a small letter even if they refer to a person or a

place, e.g. Anthus hodgseni hodgsoni or Streptopelia chinensis suratensis

or Dimeria blatteri.

4. Trinomials referring to subspecies should only be used where

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Banerji, M. L. (1958): Botanical Exploration in East Nepal.

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Titles of papers should not be underlined.

8. Reference to literature in the text should be made by quoting

the author’s name and year of publication, thus: (Banerji 1958).

9. Synopsis: Each scientific paper should be accompanied by

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EDITORS,

Hornbill House, Journal of the Bombay Natural

Shahid Bhagat History Society.

Singh Road,

Bombay 1-BR.

VOLUME 67, No. 1—APRIL 1970

Date of Publication: 30-6-1970

CONTENTS

TAXONOMIC CATEGORIES BELOW THE LEVEL OF GENUS: THEORETICAL AND

PRACTICAL AsPEcTS. By Dean Amadon roe si eu Ge ae 1

BREEDING BIOLOGY OF THE HIMALAYAN RUBYTHROAT, Erithacus pectoralis

(GOULD) IN THE TIEN SHAN. ra E. I. Gavrilov and A. F. Kovshar. a With

two plates) : ‘ 14

Notes oN Stellaria saxatilis BucH.-Ham. ex D. Don, Stellaria vestita KURZ

AND Stellaria sikkimensis Hook. f. By N. C. Majumdar ia 26

10TH GENERAL ASSEMBLY AND 11TH TECHNICAL MEETING OF THE INTERNATIONAL

UNION FOR CONSERVATION OF NATURE AND NATURAL RESOURCES. By Zafar

Futehally 4 cite sf ei ae he oie aa ai 30

GROWTH POTENTIAL OF RED HAIRY CATERPILLAR, Amsacta mooreit BUTLER,

IN RELATION TO CERTAIN FOoD PLANTs. By N. D. peneey, neve Ram

Yadava and T. P. S. Teotia .. eh ame ao af 40

CAUSE AND EFFECTS OF A HEAVY RAINFALL IN DARJEELING AND IN THE SIKKIM

HIMALAYAS. By Leszek Starkel. (With two text-figures) ie ee cs 45

A CATALOGUE OF THE BIRDS IN THE COLLECTION OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL

History Society-6. By Humayun Abdulali ris 52 Aa Me 51

NOMENCLATURAL NOTES ON SOME FLOWERING PLANTS—II. By N.P. Balakrishnan 57

THE BEHAVIOUR OF THE LESSER BANDICOOT RAT, Bandicota bengalensis (GRAY

AND HARDWICKE). By Dwain W. Parrack and Jacob Thomas. (With eleven

text-figures) sie ae ae aw s% ae ae ie, ae 67

NOTES ON SOME PECULIAR CASES OF PHYTOGEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTIONS. BY V. M.

Meher-Homji. (With two plates) om ae ae sue ? ; $1

A SYNOPSIS OF THE GENUS Elsocreochiton QUISUMB. AND MERR. “eh M. P. Nayar.

(With two plates) an De he ak it ees ee 87

OBITUARY:

Fr. H. Santapau,s.J... ae as Bs «i e ~ ae 91

REVIEWS:

1. The Twilight of India’s Wild Life. (G.S.R.) Be ss 96

2. The Malayan Nature Journal. Rain Forest Issue. vol. 22 (D. E. R. ee 97

3. The Clue Books: Insects and other small Animals without Bony

Skeletons. (S.F.) ae ee ae me a 98

4. The World of the Polar Bear. G. S. RY an ate 98

5. The Wealth of India: A Dictionary of Indian Raw Niateriale ae

Industrial Products. vol. VIIL (D.E.R.) .. : 100

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES:

Mammals: 1. Wild Dog’s Courage Rating. By E. R. C. Davidar (p. 102);

2. Habitat of the Himalayan Tahr, Hemitragus jemlahicus (H. Smith). By Graeme

Caughley (p. 103); 3. Himalayan Tahr, Hemitragus jemlahicus (H. Smith, 1826)

in Bhutan. By J. R. 5. Holmes (p. 106); 4. Blackbuck, Antilope cervicapra (Linnaeus)

swimming. By S. A. Hussain (p. 106).

Birds: 5. A Record of the Tiger Bittern, Gorsachius melanolophus (Raffles)

from Karaikudi, Ramanathapuram District, Tamil Nadu. By S. T. Satyamurti (p. 107);

6. On the occurrence of Swinhoe’s Snipe, Capella megala (Swinhoe) near Bombay,

and a note on its identification. By Humayun Abdulali (p. 108); 7. Occurrence of

the Great Snipe, Capella media (Latham), in Burma and India. By Humayun Abdulali

and Shanta Nair (p. 109); 8. Notes on Indian Birds-11. On the Distribution of

Sterna fuscata Linnaeus in Indian limits—A correction. By Humayun Adbulali

(p. 110); 9. The flight speed of the House Crow, Corvus splendens Vieillot. By K.

N. Panicker (p. 111); 10. The correct name of the Mangrove Whistler: Pachycephala

cinerea (Blyth) or Pachycephala grisola (Blyth)? By Ajit Kumar Mukherjee (p. 112)

Reptiles: 11. Slight reaction from bites of the Rear-Fanged Snakes, Boiga

ceylonensis (Gunther) and Dryophis nasutus (Lacépéde). By Romulus Whitaker

(p. 113); 12. Cannibalism in the Indian’ Rat Snake, Ptyas mucosus (Linnaeus). By

Romulus Whitaker (p. 114).

Fishes: 13. A redescription of Sirembo jerdoni (Day): (Pisces: Brotulidae).

(With a text-figure). By V. Visweswara Rao. (p. 114).

Insecta: 14. Johnson Grass, Sorghum halepense—A new host of Sugarcane

Green Borer, Raphimetopus ablutellus Zeller (Physitidae: Lepidoptera). By J. P.

Chaudhary (p. 117); 15. Peculiar accident to the Butterfly, Delias eucharis Drury.

By Zafar Futehally (p. 118); 16. The feeding behaviour of the Lemon Butterfly,

Papilio demoleus L. By Vidyadhar G. Vaidya (p. 1184; 17. On a Hymenopterous Egg-

Parasite of Aquatic Bugs injurious to Pisciculture. By J. M. Juika (p. 120); 18. Honey

Bees and Wasps as pests of Grape. By D. K. Saxena (p. 121); 19. Anemotactic

response in the Firefly, Luciola sp. (Coleoptera: Lampyridae). By A. B. Soans and

Joyce S. Soans (p. 122); 20. The Red Pumpkin Beetle Raphidopalpa foveicollis (Lucas),

as a pest of the Japanese Mint. By J. P. Singh and Rajendra Gupta (p. 123).

Botany: 21. The Taxonomic Status of the Section Fissendocarpa (Haines)

Raven of the Onagraceous Genus Ludwigia L. By S. S. R. Bennet (p. 125); 22.

Interesting Plants from Maharashtra State. By R. D. Pataskar and (Miss) K. K. Ahuja

(p. 126); 23. A new locality record of Cordia crenata Del. in Piram Island off South

Saurashtra Coast. By T. Ananda Rao (p. i28); 24. Cleome rutidosperma DC.

(Capparaceae)—A new record for Assam. By R. B. Ghosh and R. Prasad (p. 128);

25. Two new records of Araceae from the Upper Gangetic Plain. By B. Venkatareddi

(p. 129); 26. On Chaetosphaeridium globosum (Nordst.) Klebahn from India. (With

a text-figure). By R. J. Patel (p. 130); 27. A new record for Crotalaria incana Linn.

from south India. By N. Ravi (p. 132); 28. An abnormal Psidium mutation. By S.

Percy-Lancaster (p. 133); 29. Tubers in Eriocaulon ritchieanum Ruhl. (With eight

text-figures). By A. R. Kulkarni and M. H. Desai (p. 134); 30. Field identification

of Tephrosia Pers. By P. K. Mukherjee and Rita Gupta (p. 135).

JOURNAL

| | OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL

HISTORY SOCIETY

1970 APRIL Vol. 67 No. |

Taxonomic categories below the

level of Genus: Theoretical and

Practical Aspects

) DEAN AMADON

The American Museum of Natural History

Below the genus, only three systematic categories are in general

use and provided for in the International Rules of Zoological Nomen-

clature. These are the subgenus, the species, and the subspecies. The first

of these, the subgenus, is not regarded as very important by most syste-

matists. Furthermore, it is best discussed in connection with the genus.

Hence I shall give it no further mention here.

This leaves the species and the subspecies. I also wish to include a

category known as the superspecies, although it does not yet have the

usage it deserves (Amadon 1966b).

The species is the only taxonomic category that can be defined in

precise restrictive terms, rather than in general relative ones. The defini-

tion reads about as follows: ‘‘ A species is a freely interbreeding popu-

lation whose members do not interbreed with those of other populations”.

In other words, it is an intrinsically reproductively isolated population.

The few individuals of the Whooping Crane and the several hundred

orang-utans are examples of species. They don’t interbreed with other

cranes or apes, and if they did, would probably produce no offspring, or

only sterile hybrids.

The so-called higher categories, genus and above, are, on the other

hand, subjective and must be defined in relative terms. It is a fact that

there is a group of trees known as oaks, whose relationship is evident

and which may conveniently be grouped in a genus Quercus. Hence we

Z JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

may define the genus as a group of related species. But some species,

e.g., the ghinko tree, seem to have no close living relatives. We have to

leave this species in a genus of its own, a monotypic genus, and even in a

monotypic family and perhaps order. There are many such monotypic

genera; scores or even hundreds are recognized among birds alone, and

there are only 9000+ species of birds. Furthermore, there is great diff-

erence of opinion as to how closely a group of species must be related

if they are to be included in the same genus. Linnaeus used more inclusive

genera than is customary today. On the other hand, some “‘ genus split-

ters’ approach the point of having a genus for every species, which des-

troys the value of this category.

This subjective quality applies to all higher categories. There is as

much or more difference of opinion as regards the limits of families,

orders, and classes.

To return to the species, in most cases there is no difficulty about

recognizing one, at least as long as we stay in one place and consider

only the present time. To be sure, we do find some puzzlers. This is some-

times due to the fact that two perfectly good species are difficult to tell

apart by comparing them. Species thus similar are infrequent among

birds, though they occur, but are commoner in insects. A classic case is

Drosophila pseudoobscura and D. persimilis, two inter-sterile species, so

similar they can be separated morphologically only by slight statistical

differences in measurements. Such extremely similar sympatric species are

known as “ sibling species.” This is not a very good name because it

implies that, like human siblings, they are more closely related to each

ather than they are to other species. This is not necessarily the case. Two

sibling species may be less closely related genetically, or phylogenetically,

than are ones superficially less alike. Conversely, genetic differences

much below the species level may be as visible as day and night, for

example, colour phases or other morphs.

We encounter other difficulties in discriminating between species.

They stem from the fact, first convincingly demonstrated by Darwin, that

species are not fixed, immutable creations, but rather dynamic, evolving

populations that inevitably change with time and which often split into

two or more daughter species in somewhat the same way that an amoeba

divides into two. Even when a species does not subdivide, it changes with

the passage of millennia. If we could follow any species back far enough

in time, eventually the gap between ancestor and descendant would be

greater than that existing within the limits of any species today. Just how

long ‘“‘ back far enough”? may be varies tremendously. Many species

have evolved, we believe, in less than one million years, yet, judging from

fossils, some types have changed little in tens or hundreds of millions of

TAXONOMIC CATEGORIES 3

years. Just where to draw the species lines in fossil genealogies is an

arbitrary decision. In most instances the geological record is so inter-

rupted and fragmentary that the question is an academic one; in fact,

the paleontologist often must work with genera more than with species.

It is hardly necessary to add that many species became extinct, leaving no

close relatives.

Taxonomy seems to be somewhat like theoretical physics—there are

a few constants and many relatives. We may mention one other constant.

If we could reconstruct every living individual organism all the way back

to the primordial ooze, we would have a complete history of life and its

evolution on earth. But this will never be done. G. G. Simpson (1953:

109) estimates that there were 15,000,000 generations in the ancestry of

the horse back to the Eocene “‘ dawn-horse,”’ and 500,000 or 1,000,000

individuals per generation might be a modest estimate. It is worthwhile

bearing in mind, however, that phyletic taxonomy does represent the

attempt to trace an evolutionary genealogy that has been enacted down

to the last species, subspecies, and individual.

Viewed in this chronological or geological way, the species as a

category may seem to disappear—it merges imperceptibly with what went

before. Perhaps, however, this is to look at matters the wrong way. A

species, as we have seen, is a population of interbreeding living organisms.

From this point of view there are at any moment of time a certain num-

ber of species. But of Tyrannosaurus rex or the extinct Passenger Pigeon

we should assert not that they are but that they were species. We may

then conclude that of the species occurring 100 years ago or 100,000

years ago, such and such were ancestors of (or identical with) such and

such species of the present moment. Further, we need not go.

The taxonomist who works with present-day forms must often infer

species status from morphology. The paleontologist must always do so,

and usually from very fragmentary material. So fragmentary, in fact, that

he frequently cannot be sure whether he has before him remains of a

single species or of several allied ones. But since the paleontologist

presents the only direct evidence that we have of the course of evolution

during 99.99 per cent of its duration, he is heard with respect, however

scanty his evidence. And if he is obliged often to speak in terms of genera

rather than species, we may be sure that it was individual organisms

grouped into species that enacted the history he relates to us.

Species not only change in time, they may subdivide into one or

more daughter species. This process, which usually involves space as well

as time, is responsible for the existing proliferation of species, and is

best studied in contemporary forms. As noted above, we have little

difficulty with most species so long as we restrict ourselves to one locality

4 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

here and now. If we begin to trace species spatially, we sometimes run

into problems. The common Song Sparrow is a rather different looking

bird by the time we reach the coast of Alaska. The population on the

Aleutians is made up of birds perhaps three times the weight of the eastern

Song Sparrows, and of a duskier hue of plumage. Are they the same species?

In general, the answer is “‘yes” if a more or less continuous series of inter-

mediate interbreeding populations exist, as they do in this case. Gene

interchange can then occur, and a favourable mutation arising in one

area can spread throughout the range of the species. In a few cases it has

been shown in the laboratory that the geographical extremes in such

complexes are genetically incompatible. This is one criterion of the

species, but if gene interchange throughout a continuous intervening

population is possible, it is customary, though in some respects arbitrary,

to say that only one species is involved. So long as such genetic communi-

cation exists it is even possible that the extremes might again become

genetically compatible. If the range were cut in the middle, as so often

happens because of geological or climatological changes, the two terminal

populations would soon, no doubt, become completely self-contained

species incapable of exchanging genes with any others.

With such rare exceptions, however, if individuals of two populations

fail to produce hybrids or produce only sterile ones, we may be sure that

they belong to different species. The horse and the donkey are species;

they will mate but a sterile mule is the result. In nature, we may be sure,

there would be strong selection for horses that prefer horses and donkeys

that prefer donkeys! Those that could not tell kith and kin would leave no

fertile offspring and, further, would produce strong, healthy, long-lived

mules to compete with their parents for food.

But though sterility (almost) always proves specific status, the

reverse is not true. Many perfectly good species are interfertile. The

answer to this conundrum is that if two populations do not interbreed

under normal conditions in nature, they are separate species. They have

reached the level of distinctness that insures that each will go its own

separate evolutionary way from that time forth, forever, or until ex-

tinction. One oft-mentioned case is that of the Mallard and Pintail Duck.

They are species because they occur together in hundreds of thousands

over the entire northern hemisphere and hybrids are almost unknown in—

nature. But if we place a mixed pair of these ducks in a zoo, they will

mate, produce young, and the young are more or less fertile. In the wild’

these two species, and many others like them, are kept apart by certain

isolating mechanisms peculiar to each, in this case certain calls and court-

ship patterns. In the absence of a mate of the same species in captivity

these isolating mechanisms sometimes break down. The isolating mech-

anisms themselves in many cases, however, reflect selection resulting

TAXONOMIC CATEGORIES 5

from partial (or complete) sterility of the sort suggested above for the

horse and mule.

The kinds of isolating mechanisms that evolve are attuned to the

sensory equipment of the species concerned. A moth, for example, may

recognize its mate by odor; a mosquito by a precise response to the hum

produced by the wings, not merely of its own species, but of the opposite

sex of its species. In other cases, isolating mechanisms may be at least

in part more mechanical, one species of salmon spawning in the spring,

another in the fall, and so forth. In plants isolating mechanisms must all

be of this nature rather than behavioral. Either plants are cross-sterile

or they flower at different seasons; or the pollination is so achieved that

there is little or no chance for cross-pollination between related species.

It is easy to see how isolating mechanisms can be improved by

selection between interacting species, as suggested above for the donkey

and the horse. But it is very difficult to see how isolated populations can

arise within a freely interbreeding population, for their incipient dif-

ferences will be swamped out. One concludes that species in sexually

reproducing organisms must usually evolve in physical isolation. I men-

tioned the orang-utan above as an unquestionable example of a species.

In one sense it is a poor example, for there are two completely isolated

populations; one on Borneo, the other on Sumatra. These populations

have been kept apart for as long as these two islands have been apart

from each other and from the mainland, where the orang once occurred

also, as known from sub-fossil remains.

Although the orangs of Borneo and Sumatra are very similar, we

may be sure that if they could be bred in captivity as readily and rapidly

as fruit flies, it would be possible todemonstrate various genetic differ-

ences between the two populations. We may go further and say that if

these two populations are isolated long enough, they will become speci-

fically and eventually generically distinct.

The rate at which such isolated populations differentiate reflects the

selective milieu, and this in turn the constancy or inconstancy of the

environment: both the physical and the biotic environment. So far as we

can tell from fossil remains, some prolific insects have remained almost

the same for millions of years. On the other hand, the proboscideans—the

elephants and their allies—evolved rapidly, notwithstanding their long

generations and low birth rates.

A species may be broken up into isolated populations in two ways:

(1) either the physical environment “* moves,”’ as in the case of the orang-

utan, because of changes in sea-level, spread of deserts, etc., (2) or in-

dividuals of the species itself move; they straggle, fly, swim, walk, or

6 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

are blown to isolated habitats. Such events may be rare, but there is an

eternity of time.

Once isolated, the rate at which a population diverges depends on

many factors. Perhaps most important, as noted above, is the extent to

which the new environment is unlike the old, just so long as it is not so

strange that the species cannot live there at all. Size of population, genetic

constitution of the first colonists, especially when few in number, and

other factors also play a part.

As a result of this process of geographical speciation, many isolated

populations that appear to have formerly belonged to the same species

are now so distinct as to be, beyond much doubt, species. Such assem-

blages of once conspecific allopatric species were called superspecies by

Mayr and by Rensch, and the species that comprise them may be called

allospecies. The concept is a very useful one in evolutionary and bio-

geographical studies. I have suggested (Amadon 19665) the use of brackets

to designate such superspecies in nomenclature.

The frequent occurrence in the same area, that is, sympatrically, of

related species shows that even if, as we believe, species evolve as geo-

graphical isolates, they later do in hundreds of cases acquire overlapping

ranges. So far as the mechanics of this are concerned, it is the reverse of

the original isolating process. Either the environment changes, for

example, Sumatra and Borneo again become joined, or the creatures

themselves cross distributional barriers. Once two closely related former

isolates do come together, two things are necessary if they are to survive

and become sympatric species:

1. They must, while separated, have acquired isolating mechanisms

which keep them from interbreeding, at least to an extent that will im-

mediately swamp out their differences.

2. They must have acquired sufficiently different life requirements

to enable them to live together. As Gause argued and demonstrated, two

species with identical requirements cannot coexist. This is true in practice

even though one might quibble about it philosophically. Actually two

species will never be identical in requirements and in reproductive po-

tential (as would, for example, two colour phases of a single species).

Nevertheless, if two species are too similar in their requirements, one will

exclude or eliminate the other.

An isolated population cannot, of course, acquire isolating mecha-

nisms or ecological requirements that are directly adapted to enable

it to coexist later with species with which it is not then in contact. Hence

speciation occurs in vacuo and is, to that extent, an “‘ accidental ’”’ pro-

TAXONOMIC CATEGORIES 7

cess; but, as we Have seen, such accidents are inevitable in populations

isolated for a sufficient time.

When two forms do come together for the first time, they may still

compete to an extent that threatens their survival or interbreed to an

extent that weakens their genetic integrity. Strong selection will then be

set up, tending to increase the gap in their requirements and to make

their isolating mechanisms more effective. To emphasize the radically

different conditions that exist before and after two isolated populations

become sympatric, one might offer the following tabulation:

I. Allopatric (Isolated) Populations: Chance Evolution of

A. Potential Isolating Mechanisms

B. Potential Ecological Distinctions

II. Sympatric (Overlapping) Species: Selective Perfection of

A. Operative Isolating Mechanisms (Reinforcement)

B. Operative Ecological Distinctions (Morphological diver-

gence or “‘ character displacement ’’)

One may add the following points:

1. Some populations will have been isolated so long that even when

the resultant species first come together, they will be completely isolated

reproductively and so distinct ecologically as not to compete seriously.

2. While we are here concerned with the type of adaptive differ-

entiation that enables closely allied species to become sympatric, it must

be remembered that distantly allied forms may also compete, e.g., rabbits

and antelopes.

3. The opposite side of the coin “isolating mechanisms’”’ is “‘species

recognition mechanisms.’’ Even in a species living among distantly related

ones, there will be very precise adaptations to insure reproduction, which

in animals involves recognition of other individuals of the same species

by one sensory mechanism or another.

These questions of how isolated populations acquire differences and

how they interact following overlap of range are at the very root not only

of a speciation but also of efforts to understand the dynamics of the

ecological community. Such problems must be studied in the field, though

with assistance from the cages of the population geneticist.

The Subspecies question—About the turn of the century it began to

be evident to students of the better known groups of animals that hundreds

of taxa which were described as species have not really achieved that

status. For many of them it was shown that where their ranges meet, free

8 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

interbreeding and intergradation take place. Such form$ are not reproduc-

tively isolated, and even with the essentially morphological definition of the

species then in vogue, it was obvious to biologically oriented systematists

that they could not be species. In other cases, taxa not in contact were

nevertheless so similar that it was all but certain that they are not species,

even though many of them had been described as such in the early enthu-

siasm of naming and classifying. For example, the lions inhabiting India

have, in isolation, become a little different from those of Africa. But are

they a different species ? Surely most would agree in saying “‘no.”’

A solution to this dilemma that embodied both practical and theore-

tical advantages was to formalize the category known as the subspecies.

Taxa which have acquired recognizable characters, but which nevertheless

can be demonstrated or are assumed to be below specific status are called

subspecies, and names are applied to them under provisions introduced

into the International Code of Nomenclature. For example, the Indian

lion might first have been described as a species Felis persica, then later

regarded as a subspecies of the African lion, Felis leo, and thereafter called

Felis leo persica.

In subsequent years this concept of polytypic species as comprised

of subspecies gained wide acceptance, and is now almost universally used

in the better known groups, such as birds and mammals. In others,

such as insects, knowledge is just reaching the point where this concept

can be usefully applied. This polytypic species concept represented an

immense step forward. For example, one highly variable South Pacific

bird, Pachycephala pectoralis, which occurs on many islands, is now

treated as having eighty-odd subspecies. Only after we had associated all

of them in a single species, could we study this assemblage properly,

especially in relation to other true, genetically isolated, species of the same

genus.

The polytypic species concept also had a very salutary influence on

the genus concept. There is far less excuse for undue genus-splitting after

we have reduced our taxa, so far as possible, to bona fide units fitting

a “‘biological”’ species concept. Furthermore, the polytypic species concept,

as Mayr expounded in his 1942 book SYSTEMATICS AND THE ORIGIN OF

SPECIES, presented us with a variety of demonstrations that speciation

in sexually reproducing organisms ordinarily if not invariably takes

place as a result of spatial (—geographical) isolation of subpopulations

of a former species.

It is often true in science that concepts of great value are later modified

or even discarded. At the present time there is considerable criticism of

the subspecies concept. With a practical aspect of this criticism one must

express a certain amount of sympathy. The purely nomenclatorial aspect

TAXONOMIC CATEGORIES 9

of classification have never achieved the acceptance and stability once

hoped for. This is partly because nomenclature to some extent “got off

on the wrong foot,” particularly as regards the so-called Law of Priority.

We are certainly all willing and indeed eager to give due credit to pioneers

in our science. But I think the day is past when we should change a well

known name bestowed on a species or subspecies by John Doe in 1810,

merely because someone shows that Fred Doe described the same species

under a different name a few days earlier. I have suggested (1966a), as

have others before me, that all names of valid species and even subspecies

should be determined by committees of specialists and then listed as

Nomina Conservanda, thenceforth to be exempt from the vagaries of

purely nomenclatorial change. Of course, there would still be occasional

changes, e.g., if somone proves that the Luna Moth is only a morph of

the Cecropia Moth, we would lose one species. Further, there is no

reason why subspecies names should continue to have nomenclatorial

equality with species names. That they should not was first proposed by

I. Moore (1954) and later by me (op. cit.). By such a step a vast amount

of name changing could at once be eliminated.

Why there is so much opposition to such measures is puzzling.

I wonder whether those in opposition to the Fifty Year Rule which

implements Nomina Conservanda have really considered the fact that

other biologists may in desperation adopt really retrogressive alternatives,

e.g., by using common or vernacular names for species, as some plant

ecologists and amateur or semi-amateur ornithologists are already

doing.

There are, unfortunately, scientific as well as practical aspects to

the problem of achieving stability in the names of genera, species, and

subspecies. Genera, which I have discussed elsewhere (op. cit.) are not

within the scope of this discussion. As regards species and subspecies,

it is, in literally hundreds and thousands of cases, impossible to know

whether a particular taxon is a species or a subspecies. The Indian lion

may, after all, be a species. Even if we find that it interbreeds with the

African lion in a zoo, this does not prove that the two taxa are conspecific.

We need to know if there are isolating mechanisms in nature and that we

shall never know in this or thousands of other cases involving more or less

completely isolated taxa. Even dumping out a few African lions in the

range of the Indian one would not do, it would be an artificial situation,

in some ways analogous to that in a zoo. The only effective answer

would be a change in climate and a halting of human abuse of the land

in the Middle East that would enable the two populations to meet again

naturally. Then we could see what happens. Fortunately there are easier

cases to study.

10 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

Hence itis necessary to be arbitrary. It would not do to treat all com-

pletely isolated taxa as species. This was tried long ago and failed. Even

with forms whose ranges do meet, there is every stage of interaction from

smooth clines in one character (e.g., Bald Eagles gradually get a little

larger as one goes north from the southern United States to Alaska) to

ones that hybridize only rarely and are almost surely past the point of

no return on the path to becoming separate species.

Also, we now realize that almost all isolated or semi-isolated popula-

tions are different. Usually if we examine them carefully enough, we can

find at least slight average morphological distinctions; or if not, in those

amenable to laboratory analysis one can demonstrate genetic and cyto-

logical differences (see, e.g., Dobzhansky’s work on various western

U.S. populations of Drosophila).

Surely one cannot name every such slight population as a subspecies;

attempts to do just that have led to a reaction and to suggestions that the

entire subspecies concept in the formal sense of naming them be aban-

doned. Some have suggested that variation should simply be described in

geographical terms without employing subspecific names. However, in a

species with great variation, especially on many islands, to describe the

variation each time is out of the question; merely to list the subspecies

and their ranges does call attention to its extent. Further, under an

informal system we lose the international currency represented by Lati-

nized scientific names.

I am not enough of a prophet to know the ultimate fate of subspecies

and their terminology. I suspect, however, that the advantages outweigh

the disadvantages, but that only well differentiated populations will be

admitted, that is, ones so distinct that they must be recognized in one

way or another—either as races or as species. As Selander & Giller

(1963 : 234) have stated, to list such forms as subspecies (or species)

represents a considered taxonomic opinion as to their rank, and as such

is useful. It may or may not in the long run prove useful to indicate in

some other manner less well differentiated populations, as done by

Vaurie (1959, 1965), for example, by the use of symbols.

So long, however, as we continue to name geographical isolates of

very uneven degrees of distinctness, it is of some value to indicate ones

that seem to be approaching specific status. One way of doing this is by

the use of parentheses. For example, Circus (cyaneus) hudsonius would

mean that we think the form hudsonius (which happens to be the American

Marsh Hawk) to be a race of cyaneus (a related Eurasian hawk), but wish

to indicate that the two seem to be approaching the specific level of

distinctness.

TAXONOMIC CATEGORIES : 11

When a form is judged to be a species, though still capable of some

hybridization, it may be called a “‘semispecies”’; the latter is one kind of

allospecies or unit of a superspecies. Short (1969) has clarified the signi-

ficance and taxonomic treatment of the various kinds and degrees of

hybridization.

Quantitative Methods—From the above it is evident that species are

biological and (in animals) behavioral entities—self-contained, interbreed-

ing populations that do not cross significantly with other populations

(species). Furthermore, that there is little correlation between attainment

of species status and degree of morphological distinctness. Some perfectly

good species are virtually identical morphologically; other very distinct

populations are not species. One may also call attention tc the tremendous

morphological differences that are often found between different sex and

age stages of the same species, e.g., the larva and the imago of a butterfly.

It follows that there is no such thing as a “species character” in any

general sense of the term. In this respect species are like the abstractions

we know as “‘higher categories.’ After we have concluded that a popula-

tion is a species, we can then tell how it differs from other species, but

with no assurance that similar characters will define other species, though

ofcourse related species will be to varying degrees comparable.

These properties of the “‘biological species’? as Mayr called it are

worth emphasizing, even though in practice the taxonomist often must

work with morphological characters. He often knows nothing about the

reproductive potential of the organisms he is studying except what can

be inferred but concludes that if, after eliminating characters seemingly

associated with sex, age, season, etc., a series of specimens appear to be

like one another and unlike others, they probably comprise a species

(or, in some cases, subspecies). The “‘art’’ of the taxonomist consists in

his skill in using what he has learned about some species to help evaluate

less well known or new species.

To do this he uses, so far as possible, quantitative methods. As with

so many other fields of science, decisions are a matter of probability.

Probability involves statistics. One of the new aids of the statistician is

the computer. Some taxonomists, enamored of this new tool, have con-

cluded that they are ushering in a new era of “‘numerical taxonomy.”

But the only species we can be sure of are living species that we can

demonstrate to be self-contained genetic entities. From this point on

everything is inference. The computer can help us make inferences, but

no more than that. We have to learn by some other means that cater-

pillars are young moths, that a lioness is a female lion, or that fish are

ancestors of men. The taxonomist at all levels, but especially the species

12 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

level, must evaluate the significance of similarities and differences. Key

features do exist, and perhaps only one or two points in a series of

behaviour patterns will be critical in determining whether or not two taxa

interbreed. Others, even some aspects of reproductive behaviour, may

be less important.

The Species in relation to the total Biological Spectrum—Great and

spectacular advances have been made in biolagy in the past ten or fifteen

years. The genetic code has been cracked ; the nature and function of DNA

and RNA discovered. Molecular biology is quite understandably the

order of the day, and it does not much matter whether the molecules come

from a horse or a horse chestnut, for one triumph of molecular biology

is the demonstration that the genetic code is pretty much the same in all

living things.

This does not mean, as some would seem to conclude, that activity

should slow down or halt in all other branches of biology. The complexity

of the protein molecule is so great as to permit endless variation and

evolution. Not only do species differ but even individuals, as made familiar

by the problems involved in tissue and organ transplants, blood trans-

fusions, and so forth.

The structure, behaviour, and ecology of the hundreds of thousands

of species now living represent the end products of millions of years of

interaction and adaptation. The molecular biologist can tell us what

makes this possible, but he could never predict from his laboratory that

the biochemical processes he has discovered would, after a couple of

billion years, produce a man, a redwood tree, or a seventeen-year cicada.

** At the species level, more than any other, the general systematist

need not leave the final decision to either numerical (computer) taxo-.

nomists or molecular biologists. Specialists in these fields may be able

to corroborate but never to either refute or to precisely predict popula-

tion interactions as observed in nature’. (L. L. Short).

A comparison with the physical sciences is possibly worthwhile.

Today perhaps the most active branch of research is nuclear physics and

particularly investigation of the kinds and properties of ultimate particles.

States from coast to coast vie for the privilege of having a new half billion

dollar particle accelerator. But could a nuclear physicist reared in isolation

and neither shown nor told about the “‘starry firmament’ predict the

actual universe as known to the astronomer and cosmologist, even in

roughest outline, from his knowledge of nuclear physics ? Assuredly not.

It is doubtful, in fact, if he could predict that particles united in a certain.

way will produce a gas known as oxygen, in another way as hydrogen;

TAXONOMIC CATEGORIES 13

and that when combined in a certain manner, these two gases will form a

liquid that is good to drink !

I think we may conclude that those concerned with the evolution,

activities, and significance of species, including Homo sapiens, need have

no inferiority complex. They may turn to the molecular biologist to learn

what makes their subjects tick, and hope that he will turn to them to learn

what wonders DNA has wrought after two and a half billion years of

natural selection in a changing world.

I am indebted to Dr. Lester L. Short for numerous, valuable sugges-

tions.

This paper is based on a lecture given at the Summer Institute in

Systematics at the Smithsonian Institution, 1967.

REFERENCES

AMADON, DEAN (1966a.) : Another

suggestion for stabilizing nomenclature.

Syst. Zool. 15 : 54-58.

(1966b.) : The superspecies

concept. Syst. Zool. 15 : 245-249.

(1968) : Further remarks

on the superspecies concept. Syst. Zool.

17 : 345-346.

Mayr, Ernst (1942) : Systematics and

the origin of species. New York, Columbia

Univ. Press.

(1963) : Animal species and

evolution. Cambridge, Mass., Belknap

Press (Harvard Univ.).

Moore, IAN M. (1954); Nomenclatorial

treatment of specific and infraspecific

categories. Syst. Zool. 3 : 90-91.

SELANDER, ROBERT K., & DONALD

R. GILLER (1963) Species limits in the

woodpecker genus Centurus (Aves). Bull.

Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. 124 : 213-274.

SHORT, LESTER L. (1969) : Taxonomic

aspects of avian hybridization. Auk 86:

84-105.

SIMPSON, GEORGE G. (1951) : Horses.

New York, Oxford Univ. Press.

VAURIE CHARLES (1959) : Birds of the

Palearctic fauna. London, Witherby,

2 vols. 1959, 1965.

Breeding Biology of the Himalayan

Rubythroat, Lrithacus pectoralts

(Gould) in the Tien Shan’

E. I. GAVRILOV AND A. F. KOvVSHAR

Institute of Zoology, Alma-Ata, U.S.S.R.

(Communicated by Dr. Sélim Ali)

(With two plates)

The Himalayan Rubythroat [Erithacus pectoralis (Gould)] is a

characteristic species of the subalpine belt of the Tien Shan. Its biology

has not been satisfactorily studied hitherto. The section on the Rubythroat

ecology in BIRDS OF THE SOVIET UNION (Gladkov 1954) contains the laconic

phrase ‘‘ Information is wanting ’’ and the first nests were found only in

1957 (Vinokurov 1961). Fragmentary data on the Himalayan Rubythroat

biology can be found in some faunistic works (Yanushevich et al. 1960;

Leonovich 1962; Kovshar 1964, 1966). For this reason we consider it

useful to publish some information on the mode of life of this bird based

on observations made in Tien Shan (Zailyisky, Talassky and Kungay

Alatau ranges), and available published data.

The Himalayan Rubythroat is widespread in the Tien Shan, being

absent only in the western ranges of the Tien Shan—in Pskem and Ugam

ranges (Korelov 1956a). It is scarce in Talassky Alatau where it occurs

very sporadically, though in individual localities it is quite common :

five nests being found and nests of two or three pairs could not be located

in an area of 20 hectares in the upper course of the Kshi Aksu River.

Rubythroat may occur in Chatkal range (Yanushevich et al. 1960). In

Kirgizsky Alatau it is rare, seen approximately once in 10 days (Kuznetsov

1962a). It is uncommon in Sonkul, Moldotoo, Atbushi, Narym, Sary

1 These observations refer in particular to the subspecies bailloni (Severtzov) of

Russian and Chinese Turkestan, and northern Afghanistan. The race bailloni differs

from our nominate West-Himalayan pectoralis (Gould) clinally only in colour

saturation—the male averaging paler and less slaty above, the female more olive, less

brown. But the species is migratory and the winter quarters of bailloni imperfectly

known; it may well enter Indian limits. The breeding biology of the Rubythroat as

a species is also imperfectly known, and this paper makes a useful contribution

to the subject.—SA.

2 See also Baker, E.C.S., 1933. NIDIFICATION OF BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE,

2 :81-2. Eds.

BREEDING BIOLOGY OF THE HIMALAYAN RUBYTHROAT 15

Dzhaz, Terskay and Kungay Alatoo ranges, however, in individual

regions there are quite a few. In the Burgan-Su ravine (Narym range)

for example seven males were seen during one day in end June, 1954

(Yanushevich et al. 1960), and in the ravines of the Chon-kysyl-Su

(Terskay Alatoo) at least five or six birds (mainly males) during a day

trip (Stepanyan 1959). In Zailyisky Alatau, the Himalayan Rubythroat

is not more numerous than one to two pairs per kilometre. In individual

regions it is common and in some cases it can even be considered numerous

taking into account the general scarcity of birds in the mountains. In the

ravine of the Bolshaya Almatinka River, for instance, four pairs of the

Rubythroat were found living in an area of about 10 hectares in 1967;

this apparently being the maximum density in these regions. The species

is not numerous in the upper course of the Tekes River (Vinokurov 1961)

and very rare in Ketmen range : during two months only one singing

male was seen in this locality (Korelov 1956b). It has been found in a

number of places in Dzungarsky Alatau : on the southern slopes of the

central part of the Altyn-Emel range and in the upper part of the Usek

basin where it is common; also in the upper part of the Kok-Su and

Bolshoi Baskan basins and in the northern part of the Myn-Chukur

range. The Bolshoi Baskan basin is the most northern nesting place

of this species hitherto known (Koreyev & Zarudny 1906; Kuzmina,

in press). Thus the Himalayan Rubythroat is found in the western half

of Tien Shan everywhere; lack of information on its nesting in individual

ranges can be explained by the fact that the regions have not been explored

properly.

In Tien Shan the Rubythroat lives mainly in thickets of Juniper-elfin-

In Talassky Alatau range it lives at altitudes of 2500-2700 m. in the

luxuriant thickets of creeping juniper with admixture of honeysuckle

shrubs on comparatively gentle slopes covered with meadow herbage,

most frequently in the upper courses of rivers. In Kirgizsky Alatau

individual pairs nest even in mixed spruce forest in thick shrubs of bar-

berry, dog rose, honeysuckle and juniper, at an altitude of 2100 m. and

higher (Kuznetsov 1962b). In other ranges of Kirghizia it nests at altstudes

of 3000-3500 m. in intermittent thick brushwood of creeping juniper and

glades of subalpine meadows, leafy shrubs and individual spruce trees

(Stepanyan 1959; Yanushevich ef al. 1960). In Zailyisky Alatau, on the

northern slopes of the range, the Rubythroat nests at altitudes of 2500-

3000 m., sometimes even up to 3100 m. It lives here chiefly on the inter-

mittent juniper stands and subalpine meadows or steppe-like grass-

covered plots. Near the lower boundary of the nesting range (2500-2700 m.)

it affects juniper and spruce open woodland where individual spruce

groups alternate with luxuriant juniper thickets. In the central Tien Shan

the species chiefly inhabits the thickets of creeping juniper and caragana,

16 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

but in valleys having rock outcrops and covered with brushwood the

birds can be found as low as the upper! boundary of the spruce forest;

nests have been found here at altitudes of 2900-3300 m. (Vinokurov

1961). In Dzungarsky Alatau range the birds live in the thickets of creeping

juniper at altitudes of 1800-2400 m. (Koreyev & Zarudny 1906).

Thus in the Tien Shan the Himalayan Rubythroat lives chiefly in

the thickets of high-mountain brushwoods, mainly of juniper, and is

found only in small numbers in the upper part of the forest belt. It never

nests beyond the upper boundary of the juniper stand. Its altitude range

is 1800-3500 m., but in each discrete locality its vertical distribution

is not wider than 500 m. The wide vertical range in the Tien Shan in

general (1700 m.) is conditioned by climatic and floristic peculiarities of

the individual mountain ranges and depends mainly on their geographic

position and their exposure relative to the four cardinal points. To the

south in the Pamiro-Alai the Rubythroat also lives above the upper

boundary of the juniper-elfin wood, on luxuriant shrubless alpine meadows

and is not found in the forest belt (Ivanov 1940; Leonovich 1962; Popov

1959).

The Himalayan Rubythroat is a migratory bird. It appears in the

nesting sites after the snow has already melted on a substantial part of

the slopes. It ascends the mountains and is then very rarely met with in

the submontane regions and the plains. Only one occurrence of this

kind is known: a male found in the young strip of forest near the Chokpar

village of the Dzambul region on May 10, 1960. The birds do not con-

centrate during migration and are likely to fly by night.

Information on spring migration of the Himalayan Rubythroat is

lacking because of the bird’s unobtrusive behaviour during this period.

In the Kirgizsky Alatau range the species appears in late April or

early May (Kuznetsov 1962b). The first birds were observed in the Zail-

yisky Alatau on May 17, 1964, and on May 6, 1965. No further infor-

mation is available on the time of arrival of the Rubythroat on its breeding

grounds.

Immediately on arrival the males begin singing, choosing for this

the tops of juniper shrubs, the apices of small and big fir-trees, more

rarely stones or roofs of buildings; sometimes the male sings on the

wing. The song is loud and clear and cannot be drowned even by the

sound of mountain streams. When singing he drops his wings slightly,

raises (sometimes almost vertically) and spreads his tail or keeps it folded.

The bird turns his head in different directions resulting in the observer

1 There must be a misprint in the work cited; for ‘‘ the lower boundary of the

spruce forest ” read “‘ the upper boundary...”’’. One can hardly believe that Hima-

layan Rubythroat populate :the whole spruce forest belt.

BREEDING BIOLOGY OF THE HIMALAYAN RUBYTHROAT 17

hearing sounds of varying intensities. The biological significance of the

song lies not only in informing the female that the male is ready to breed,

but in “marking” individual territory as well. Usually the male chooses

some favourite situation at which he appears from time to time and

sings, proclaiming his ownership of the territory. One of the males whose

female was already laying eggs was observed singing during two hours

(from 10 to 12 a.m.) from 19 points, and moving irregularly over this

territory (an area of about one hectare). Most often he was singing from

one point at a distance of 50-60 m. from the nest. If any other male

entered the occupied site, the owner drove away the rival immediately.

One day when we were inspecting a nest containing nestlings, the male

drove off at once a neighbouring male that had come to investigate the

anxious cries of the owners though the birds themselves were greatly

excited by our intrusion.

Duration of singing from one point and its intensity vary, depending

apparently on a number of factors. At the beginning of the nesting cycle

(before hatching the young), in good weather, the males sing for as long

as 10 minutes from one place, and at short intervals. When feeding the

young, the males sing more seldom and the duration of the songs gets

shorter (one to three minutes). During rain or snowfall the singing ceases

but is resumed when the precipitation stops. Sometimes they sing when

it is drizzling. The duration of the song is shorter in the middle of the

day. The Rubythroat sings from early in the morning till dark ; on June 29,

1967, the last song was heard at 21.05 hours in the twilight. No singing

was heard at night. The calendar duration of the singing period is also

long : in the Zailyisky Alatau the latest singing was heard on July 12,

1965, and on July 13, 1967 (apparently it was not the last song), and in

the Talassky Alatau on August 4, 1960. This means that the vocal activity

of the males continues for 2.5-3 months.

The Himalayan Rubythroat begins nesting soon after arrival on its

breeding grounds. The participation of the sexes in nest-building is not

clear; apparently the nest is built by the female alone since we never saw

males fetching building material in their bills though we often saw them

during this period.

The nests are located on the ground in small hollows. Of the 28 nests

known at present in the Tien Shan, none was placed on a juniper shrub.

The Himalayan Rubythroat is undoubtedly a ground-nesting species,

therefore we consider the information of I. A. Abdusalyamov (1964) of

the bird nesting on shrub-branches to be erroneous’.

1 Not only the location but the shape of the nest as well as the description of

eggs have nothing in common with the nest and eggs of the species in question.

One can clearly see from the photo there given that the nest belongs not to Eritha

cus pectoralis but rather to some warbler (Sylvia sp. ?). t

18 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

More frequently the nests are located on the steppe-like slopes

near juniper-elfin wood or on small subalpine grass plots in thin juniper

stands. They are placed under the cover of tussocks of Festuca sulcata,

Carex, Cobresia or other plants, more rarely under the shelter of a stone.

Sometimes the Rubythroat nests under thin juniper shrubs growing

near thick juniper stands. The nests are placed both in the middle of a

juniper shrub and under its outlying branches. We never found nests in

large tracts of juniper stands. In the Talassky Alatau one nest was found

inside a “‘ hut ’’ made of rough last years stalks of Polygonum hissaricum,

and another was located on flat (practically horizontal) ground in high,

thick, Agropyrum sp.; it was fixed to vertical stalks of the grass. Out of

22 nests found in the Talassky, Zailyisky and Kungay Alatau and along

the upper course of the Tekes River, six nests were located under juniper

shrubs; one under a honeysuckle shrub; three under stones; five under

tussocks of Festuca sp.; four under tussocks of Carex, Cobresia, Poa

and Geranium; three under the cover of other grasses. The nests located

under the juniper shrubs cannot be seen, and the nests built under the

cover of grass are screened by hanging leaves and are not visible. Only

one nest (in the Talassky Alatau) could be seen well from above by a

horseman riding by at a distance of some metres.

The nests are of two types. The more typical is the covered ball-like

nest with the entrance on one side, very similar to a Phylloscopus nest.

The other type is a normal cup-like nest open at the top. There are many

variants intermediate between these two types: some nests have thin

covers, covers of others are only half-built; sometimes the back part of

the wall facing the slope is somewhat higher than others. Usually the

open nests are built in juniper shrubs and under stones, i.e. when an

effective roof is available, and the covered nests are built on the terrace

slopes under the shelter of grass. There are many exceptions and data

are still meagre to establish any correlation between the type of nest

and the factors determining it. It is possible that the height above sea-

level, the exposure of the slope and the time of building (beginning or

middle of the summer) play a definite part in this respect.

The nest is built completely of last year’s plants : for the outside

part of nest rather rough stalks and leaves are used, sometimes with

admixture of moss; the inner part is composed of finer and thinner

material. The transition from the outer layer to the inner one is gradual

and it is not always possible to separate them. A. A. Ivashchenko, who

at our request identified the building materials of seven nests, reported

that the birds had used 25 species of plants, the majority of the plants

were used as admixtures, Gramineae being the most numerous.

The nest is rather massive and loosely built. It is 110-190 mm. in

diameter (average of 9 nests 140 mm.), usually somewhat flattened on

J. BomBAy NAT. Hist. Soc. 67 (1)

Gavrilov: Himalayan Rubythroat PLATE I

Nesting site of the Himalayan Rubythroat

Above: Creeping Juniper, 2500 m. Talassky Alatau; Below: Upper

boundary of Fir wood with Juniper bushes, 2700 m. Kungay Alatau.

(Photos: A. Kovshar)

J. BomBAy NAT. Hist. Soc. 67 (1)

Gavrilov: Himalayan Rubythroat PLATE II

(1) Nest on steppe slope; (2) Nest with clutch under Juniper Bush;

(3) Male, and (4) Female with food for nestlings.

(Photos: E. Gavriloy)

BREEDING BIOLOGY OF THE HIMALAYAN RUBYTHROAT 19

both sides and with an oval cross-section; it is 66-140 mm. high (average

of 7 nests 113 mm.); diameter of nest-cup 55-90 mm. (average of 11 nests

72 mm.); depth 37-59 mm. (average of 7 nests 48 mm.). The entrance is

40-70 mm. wide and 35-60 mm. high.

The eggs are laid everyday. The full clutch consists of 4-6 eggs; of

12 full clutches nine comprised of four eggs, two of five, and one of six

eggs. The egg shell is smooth, slightly glossy, of greenish-blue colour.

The eggs are unicoloured or have small light rusty dots which form a

slightly visible ring on the blunt end. Of seven clutches two contained

unicoloured eggs and five of dotted eggs. 34 eggs measured 19.3-22.8 x

14.5-16.3 mm. (average 21.1 15.3 mm.). 16 slightly incubated eggs

weighed 2.0-2.85 g. (average 2.4 g.); hard set eggs weighed 2.3 gm. on

the average.

The eggs are incubated apparently only by the female. There are

records (Yanushevich et al. 1960) of the male also taking part in incubation

and possessing a brood patch, but we only observed females incubating

when we inspected the nests. The incubation period was not determined.

The hatchlings are blind, covered with light-grey almost white

down! about 2 mm. long growing in paired bunches on the back ulnar

bend, nape (nearly on neck) and on the vertex; the corners of the mouth

are white outside and yellow inside; mouth orange inside. Legs and bill

flesh-coloured, claws white. On the day of hatching they weigh 2.3 gm.

(three nestlings from one nest). The relationship between their growth

and other development is similar to that in the majority of song birds :

at first rapid increase in weight is observed, then the differentiation of

plumage with simultaneous stopping of growth of the body. First the

fine plumage of the abdominal part of the body appears, then the rusty

ends of the head feathers develop, and after that the tips of the wing and

tail quills appear. In nestlings weighing 15, 16.6 and 19.1 gm. the remiges

began unfolding only on the second day when they weighed 16.2, 17.3

and 20.1 gm. respectively and had wings 24-30 mm. long. The next three

days they did not increase in weight. Five nestlings in another nest weighing

approximately the same (18.0, 18.7, 18.9, 19.4 and 21.0 gm.) had

considerably larger wings (48-52 mm.) and were almost entirely covered

with feathers; when disturbed they jumped out of the nest and scattered

about hiding under stones and in thick grass.

The nestlings are fed by both parents. In the mornings on the first

few days the female broods them and then brings food equally with the

male. The degree of participation of male and female varies in different

pairs; thus in one nest (the Talassky Alatau) the male visited the nest

1 Information of A. A. Vinokurov (1961) that the nestlings of Erithacus pectoralis

bailloni Sev. are naked is erroneous. ;

20 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

much more frequently than the female (65 times against 40 of 105 total

fetchings). In another nest (the Zailyisky Alatau) the food was brought

entirely by the female (the male never came to the nest during three

hours of observation); ina third nest (Kungay Alatau) out of 37 food

trips the male made 21.

The frequency of feeding is as follows. In 18 hours of observation

during two days, the parents brought food 105 times to the nest containing

three half-feathered nestlings (the Talassky Alatau), during the same

period they carried off faecal sacs 30 times. The maximum number of

feeding per hour was twelve; the minimum two (average six). The

“‘ working ”’ day of this pair was about 16 hours, from dawn till 21.00

hours. During this time the birds brought to the nest about 100 portions of

food weighing aggregately about 30 gm. Each of three nestlings weighing,

16-20 gm. thus received about 10 gm. of food a day, i.e. somewhat more

than half their weight. In the Kungay Alatau the parents of four feathered

nestlings made 37 visits with food in four hours (from 12.00 till 16.00 hrs.)

and in the same time they removed seven faecal sacs.

In the Zailyisky Alatau E. V. Gvosdev observed a female fetching

food for four one-week old nestlings every three to five minutes (three

hours of observation), and in the Kirgizsky Alatau, according to the

data of A. A. Kuznetsov (1962b), a pair brought food to the nest every

two to five minutes.

They usually brought a single food item at a time, seldom two, and

only on one occasion four items were extracted from a nestling’s throat;

a looping caterpillar, a spider and two little molluscs.

The birds collect the food mostly on the ground, on stones or under

shrubs. They look for food within a radius of 150 m. from the nest, but

very often much nearer—within three to five metres. They are very

vigilant near the nest, especially the female. The arriving bird first alights

on top of a neighbouring shrub for a while, peeping anxiously around

and then jumps down to the ground and hops to the nest. If there is no

danger the male flies directly to the nest without stopping anywhere. When

carrying off a faecal sac the bird flies swiftly and without a stop, with

short rapid wing strokes it takes the capsule rather far away, not less

than 50 m., from the nest. When carrying no faecal sac the bird flies out

of the nest and alights on one of the neighbouring bushes or other pro-

truding object, and after looking about flies away as usual. The Ruby-

throat feeds its young mainly upon caterpillars, often pilose ones. In the

Talassky Alatau out of 81 food objects studied visually and according to

the method of A. S. Malchevsky and N. P. Kadochnikov! (1953) 48

1 Neck ligature and subsequent removal of food from the gullet.

BREEDING BIOLOGY OF THE HIMALAYAN RUBYTHROAT 21

represented Liparidae, Noctuidae, Geometridae and other caterpillars

(including 30 pilose ones), the remaining items being locusts (15), beetles

(6, including 4 Cerambycidae), lizards (Ablepharus alaicus, 6), Dermaptera,

white butterfly, ants and Diptera (Muscidae and Asilidae : nymphs,

pupae and imagines). Small and middle-sized Ablepharus lizards were

fed entire, like insects, but of the bigger ones only the tails were used.

In the Zailyisky Alatau 35 food objects represented caterpillars (15),

butterfly, beetles (5, including a small Tenebrionid), a spider, and the

lizard (Ablepharus alaicus). In the Kirgizsky Alatau range mostly cater-

pillars were brought to the nest, once a pilose one (Kuznetsov 1962b).

Thus in the different parts of its range in the Tien Shan, the Himalayan

Rubythroat feeds its young mainly on large caterpillars, including pilose

ones, and on a number of other invertebrates. Among vertebrates only

Ablepharus lizards are used. After leaving the nest the young birds some-

times eat honeysuckle berries (August, Talassky Alatau).

The food of adult birds during the breeding period differs markedly

from that intended for nestlings. In six stomachs examined in the Zailyisky

Alatau between May and July were found remains of at least 45 inverte-

brates including 26 imago beetles (in all stomachs), one beetle larva, three

noctuid caterpillars (in one stomach), two bugs of Lygaeus sp. (in one

stomach), six ants (in three stomachs), one representative of other Hyme-

noptera, four Asilidae (in one stomach), one spider. The beetles were

represented by Bruchidae, Jpidae, four Aphodius, six Elateridae, two

Tenebrionidae, two Curculionidae and Chrysomelidae. The contents of

14 stomachs of adult Himalayan Rubythroats from the kirgizsky part

of the Tien Shan (Peck & Fedyanina 1961) have been analysed. Most

frequently they contained ants (64%%) and remains of Curculionidae (57%).

Less frequently were found remains of other beetles (Tenebrionidae,

Lucanidae, Carabidae, Elateridae, Scarabaeidae, Coccinellidae), Heterop-

tera, Acrididae, caterpillars and molluscs. Seeds of Cruciferae and Poly-

gonaceae were found only in one of the stomachs.

Thus the nestlings are fed mainly on large soft objects, the adult

birds themselves living on smaller and coarse objects like beetles, ants

and their food is generally more diverse.

How long the nestlings stay in the nest is not definite. On June 16

a nest contained nestlings about two-days old which left on June 30, 1.e.

when more than 14 days old. Another nest on June 16, contained nestlings

with pinfeathers, which left the nest on June 27. Thus the young evi-

dently stay in a nest not less than 15 days. After leaving the nest the

young remain for some days in the immediate vicinity, but they do not

spend the night in the nest (two broods observed in the Talassky and

Zailyisky Alatau). They practically do not change in weight but their

22 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

plumage develops intensively especially the rectrices and wing-quills.

When they leave the nest they can only flop about, but in two-three days

they begin flying quite well. Thus one of the young weighing 19.4 gm.

on the day of leaving the nest was caught two days later with difficulty

at a distance of 20 m. from the nest; it could already fly 20-30 m.

Most probably the broods disperse very soon since we never saw a

strongly flying young being fed by its parents. This supposition is con-

firmed by the observation of a pair of birds in two nests which 14 days

after the young had fledged, had laid a fresh clutch of three eggs in a

new nest.

There is no information concerning the life of this species after the

breeding season is over because of the unobtrusive behaviour of the birds

at that time. There is little information on their departure. In the Zailyisky

Alatau, in the ravine of the Malaya Almatinka River, Himalayan

Rubythroats were met with in a thick aspen forest at an altitude of 1500 m.

at the end of August (Shulpin 1939). In the Talassky Alatau the birds

were still seen in the nesting sites on September 8 and 9, 1935 (Shulpin

1965). V. V. Shevchenko (1948) recorded that at the end of August,

just after the first snowfall, the Himalayan Rubythroat migrated down-

hill and could be met with in swamp thickets and in juniper stands in

ravines. Later, in September and October, especially in foul weather,

they could be seen in the submontane orchards. This record, however,

had not been confirmed by subsequent observations: during seven years’

work in this region one of the present authors has never met with this

species below the breeding range. In the Pamir, where the Himalayan

Rubythroats do not breed, they are occasionally met with in August

(Potapov 1966). Apparently the birds migrate in August, the last of

them leaving early in September. In winter the species is not found in

Tien Shan. The supposition of V. V. Shevchenko (1948) of their hiber-

nation in warm winters in the Talassky Alatau has not been confirmed

by facts.

The studies in the Tien Shan! have shown that the great majority of

females begin egg-laying in the last third of May. The breeding period of

the species is very long: fresh clutches can be found from the middle of

May till the middle of July, i.e. during two whole months. This is partly

due to the fact that the females do not start breeding simultaneously or

synchronously but the chief reason is the repeat clutches, caused by

destruction of nests and even second clutches. In 1967 a nest with slightly

incubated clutch found on June 25 was destroyed the next day; in 12 days

(on July 8) the same pair already had three fresh eggs (including one

1 The following term were taken into consideration: hatching—12 days, fledgling—

15 days. Cases where the fledglings were taken care of by their parents are

accounted as the nest (7 cases),

BREEDING BIOLOGY OF THE HIMALAYAN RUBYTHROAT 23

cuckoo egg) in a new nest at a distance of about 70 m. from the old one.

On June 16 another nest was found containing nestlings covered with

pinfeathers. On June 20 the female and the male were trapped and banded.

On June 27 the young left the nest and thereafter we often met the banded

male singing intensively in the neighbourhood. On July 11 we found

that the banded female had laid three eggs in a new nest built at a dis-

tance of 45 to 50 m. from the first one. Thus, there is no doubt that the

Himalayan Rubythroat breeds twice a year (i.e. it is double-brooded).

In our case the female began the second laying 44 days after the beginning

of the first oviposition (on May 26 and July 9). Of course not all pairs

bring up the first brood successfully and start breeding again. The des-

truction of nests results in repeat-nesting and accounts for the fact that

some birds bring up only one brood.

Number ooef

ne) Wi

—

1 Be ee Oa no |e

Me acy dc Oi ne COR hy

The breeding success of the Himalayan Rubythroat is shown by the

following data. In the Zailyisky Alatau an average clutch consisted of

4.3 eggs (7 nests) of which 3.7 hatched (4 nests). For the Tien Shan as

a whole these data are as follows: a clutch consists of 4.2 eggs (11 nests)

of which 4.1 hatched (10 nests) and 3.8 young fledged. Addled eggs and

eggs with dead embryos are found very seldom; addled eggs were

24 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

observed only twice in clutches of four (one addled egg in each nest).

Mortality among nestlings is not high; usually all the hatched nestlings

leave the nest and only occasionally does one die (the youngest ?).

The nests suffer destruction only rarely. Of nine nests under obser-

vation only two were destroyed; one containing strongly incubated eggs

was abandoned, while the eggs disappeared from the other. Apparently

it was a cuckoo’s doing in both cases. The first nest was abandoned by

the birds after the cuckoo (Cuculus canorus L.) had put its egg into their

nest removing one of Rubythroat’s. The other nest was found by us when

we observed a cuckoo thoroughly inspecting the slope near the nest; it

flew over from place to place and rested stopping every metre or so to

look around. The cuckoo was not searching for food, and the male

Rubythroat flew about it crying agitatedly. When the cuckoo flew away

we found a nest containing four eggs in this spot, but three of them dis-

appeared the next day. The owners naturally deserted the nest and

built a new one at a distance of about 70 m. from it. When we found the

second nest it contained two Rubythroat’s and one cuckoo’s eggs. In

the Zailyisky Alatau the cuckoo apparently lays its eggs in the nests of

the Himalayan Rubythroat quite often; of 14 nests of this species we

found the cuckoo’s eggs in three (21%). A nest containing a cuckoo

nestling has not yet been found.

The potential enemy of the Himalayan Rubythroat is the musteline

family: the marten and the stoat; however, we did not observe any nests

destroyed by these animals. One of the Rubythroat nests containing two

half-fledged nestlings was highly infected by Ornithonyssus sylvarum

mites.' The next day one of the nestlings was found dead while the other

seemed likely to share the same fate.

Thus the rate of destruction of the nests of this species is not high

which makes it possible for a part of the population to raise two broods

in a year.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors express their thanks to Dr. Salim Ali for correcting and

editing the manuscript and assisting in its publication. We are grateful

to Miss A. N. Terichova for translating the manuscript into English.

1 Identified by V. N. Senotrusova.

BREEDING BIOLOGY OF THE HIMALAYAN RUBYTHROAT 25

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V Knige “ Biologiya ptits”’.

SHEVCHENKO, V. VY. (1948): Ptitsy

gosudarstvennogo zapovednika Aksu-

Dzhabagly. Tr. zapov. Aksu-Dzhabagly,

vyp. 1.

SHULPIN, L. M. (1939): Ecologicheski

ocherk ornithofauny Alma-Atinskogo

zapovednika. Tr. Alma-Atinskogo zapov.,

vyp. 1.

aw eee east ( 1965): aMiatenialy 0

faune ptits zapovednika Aksu-Dzhabagly

(Talassky Alatau). Tr. zapovedn. Aksu-

Dzhabagly, vyp. 2.

STEPANJYAN, L. S. (1959): Ptitsy

Terskey Alatau, (Tien-Shan). Uchenye

sapiski Mosk. obl. pedagogich. instituta

im N. A. Krupskoj, t. 71, vyp. 4.

Vinokurov, A. A. (1961): K_ biologii

nekotorykh vorobjinykh ptits Zentrainogo

Tien Shanya. V sb. “ Materially po

nazemnym pozvonochnym Kazakhsta-

na’’. Tr. inst. zool. AN KazSSR, t. XV.

YANUSHEVICH, A. I., Tyurin, P. S.,

YAKOVLEVA, L. D., KYDYRALIEV, A. &

SEMENOVA, N. I. (1960): Ptitsy Kirgisii,

{2%

Notes on Stellaria saxatilis Buch.-

Ham. ex D.Don, Stellaria vestita

Kurz and Stellaria sikkimensis

Hook.f.

N. C. MAJUMDAR

Central National Herbarium, Botanical Survey of India, Howrah

__ Stellaria saxatilis Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don and S. vestita Kurz are

considered as conspecific. S. vestita Kurz is adopted as the correct name for

the resulting taxon. S. sikkimensis Hook. f. is re-established as a distinct

species.

D. Don (1825) established Stellaria saxatilis on the basis of Hamil-

ton’s collection from Nepal Himalaya. Later, Kurz (1873) recognised

S. vestita from China, and indicated its close affinity to the former

species. Hooker f. (1874) described S. sikkimensis from the Sikkim

Himalaya during the treatment of the family Caryophyllaceae for British

India and stated its affinity to S. saxatilis in the following words—“ Nearly

allied to S. saxatilis but less perigynous, more laxly hairy and cymes

much shorter peduncled and terminal.”

Very recently Mizushima (1963), while working on the Caryophyl-

laceae of the Eastern Himalaya collected by the Indo-Japanese Botanical

expedition of 1960, considered both S. saxatilis and S. vestita as conspe-

cific and rightly adopted Kurz’s binomial S. vestita as the correct name

for the resulting taxon, since S. saxatilis Buch.-Ham. ex Don must be

rejected because of the presence of the earlier homonym S. saxatilis

Scop. (1772). A little later, the present author, in his paper “ On the

Indian Alsinoideae—some new names and new combinations ”’ published

in 1965, reduced S. vestita Kurz to a variety under the new name S.

hamiltoniana Majumdar, which he proposed to replace the nomencla-

turally illegitimate name S. saxatilis Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don.

A critical study of the types of S. saxatilis and S. vestita revealed that

the two species are very similar except that the former has shortly petioled

leaves with acutely mucronate apex while the latter is characterised by

sessile leaves with acuminately mucronate apex (distinctly narrowed

upwards). However, the specimens of S. saxatilis from Bhutan show both

the above characters and form a connecting link between the two species.

Therefore the author quite agrees with Mizushima who united the two

species and adopted S. vestita Kurz as the correct name for this S. E.

Asiatic plant.

NOTES ON STELLARIA 27

Following Kuntze (1891), Majumdar (1965) reduced S. sikkimensis

Hook.f. to a variety of S. hamiltoniana Maj. However, a careful study of

the types of both S. vestita and S. sikkimensis reveals that it seems justi-

fied to maintain S. sikkimensis as a distinct species instead of maintaining

it as a variety of S. vestita. The distinguishing characters of the two are

as follows:

S. vestita

. Plants densely tomentose to

wooly with stellate hairs. Often

glabrescent.

. Leaves not ciliate.

. Flowers in axillary and terminal,

long-peduncled cymes.

. Bracts scarious.

. Sepals usually connate at base

into obconic tube. Fruiting

sepals 0.50 — 0.55 cm. long.

. Capsule 0.4 — 0.5 cm. long;

shorter or equalling the sepals.

. seeds tuberculate, 1.0 mm.

across.

S. sikkimensis

. Plants pubescent to villous with

simple, long, rigid hairs.

. Leaves ciliate with tubercle-

based hairs.

. Flowers solitary at each node of

the flowering branches forming

terminal, leafy, cymose panicle.

. Bracts foliaceous.

. Sepals quite free to the base,

Fruiting sepals 0.40 —0.45 cm.

long.

. Capsule 0.5 — 0.6 cm. long;

exceeding the sepals.

. Seeds nearly smooth, minutely

granulate, 0.6 -——- 0.7 mm.

across.

Stellaria vestita Kurz, in Journ. Bot. 11: 194, 1873; Mizushima in

Journ. Jap. Bot. 38: 153, 1963.

S. saxatilis Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don, Prodr. Fl. Nep. 215, 1825 (non

Scop. 1772); Wall. Cat. 634; Edgew. & Hook.f. in FI. Brit. Ind. 1:232,

1874; Gamble, Fl. Presid. Madras 1:62, 1915; Fyson, Fl. South Ind.

Hill-Stat. 41, 1932; Mizushima in Faun. Fl. Nep. Himal. 122, 1952.

S. laxa Merr. in Philipp. Govt. Lab. Bur. Bull. 29: 12, 1905 (non

S. laxa F. Behm. 1887).

S. stellato-pilosa Hayata, Fl. Mont. Formos. 58, pl. 2, 1908; Mater.

Fl. Formosa 37 (1911).

S. hamiltoniana Majumdar in Journ. Ind. Bot. Soc. 53: 142, 1965,

28 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

S. hamiltoniana Maj. var. vestita (Kurz) Majumdar Joc. cit. 142,

1965.

Type: D. J. Anderson, s.n. (Acc. no. 41131, CAL). Specimens

examined : (Herb. Cal.)

INDIA: Assam: Shillong, 1494 m., May 1911, J. H. Burkill &

S. C. Banerjee 15; Shillong, 1768 m., April 1886, C. B. Clarke 43447 A

(as S. saxatilis); Shillong, Jowai Road, March 1892, D. Prain, s.n. Acc.

no. 41134; Khasi hills 1220-1520 m., May-June, 1876 Kurz no. 192;

Shillong hill, 1828 m., May 1886, C. B. Clarke 43918 B (as S. saxatilis) ;

Khasi hills, West gorge at Dum pep, 1828 m., June 1911, 7. H. Burkill

& S. C. Banerjee 35186; Khasi hills, Simons, s.n., Acc. no. 41130;

Khasi hills, April 1894, G. A. Gammie 340.

BHUTAN: Ta Wollaokar, 1828—2134 m., without collector’s

name, 1770; Nanga valley, G. Sen Gupta 744.

NEPAL: Hamilton, Wall. Cat. 634 (as S. saxatilis) holotype (K).

CHINA: Yunnan: Momyen, D. J. Anderson, s.n., Acc. no. 41131, type

(CAL).

Distribution: India, China, Java, Indochina, Philippines.

N.B. Types of S. laxa Merr. and S. stellato-pilosa Hayata are not seen

by the author, but the synonyms are cited on the authority of Mizushima

(1963).

Stellaria sikkimensis Hook.f. in Fl. Brit. Ind. 1:230, 1874.

Stellularia saxatilis (Ham.) O. Kuntze var. sikkimensis (Hook.f.)

O. Kuntze, Revis. Gen. Pl. 1:55, 1891; Majumdar in J. Ind. Bot.

Soc. 44:142, 1965, pro syn.

Stellaria hamiltoniana Majumdar var. sikkimensis (Hook. f.) Majum-

dar, loc. cit. 1965.

Type : Herb. Griffith s.n. (K)

Specimens examined : (Herb. Cal.)

INDIA : West Bengal : Darjeeling, Herb. Griffith, s.n. holotype (K);

Kurseong, 1828 m., Oct. 1884, C. B. Clarke 36499 C; Sinchul, northern

face, S. Kurz, s.n., Acc. no. 40979; North of Sinchul, 2194 m.,

Aug. 1862, T. Anderson 961 ; Darjeeling 2133 m., Sept. 1872, J. S. Gamble

3810 A; Darjeeling 2133 m., July 1875, C. B. Clarke 26755 D; Phulloot,

3350 m., Oct. 1875, C. B. Clarke 25724 A;

BHUTAN : Do chu la, 3175 m., Sept. 1964, P. K. Hazra 446;

NOTES ON STELLARIA 29

SIKKIM : Without precise locality, S. Kurz, s.n., Acc. no. 40981,

40982 and 40983; without precise locality, G. King 930; without precise

locality, JT. Thomson, s.n. Acc. no. 40975 (two specimens on the same

sheet are S. vestita); G. King, s.n., Acc. no. 40985; Top of Tonglu, Oct.

1857, T. Thomson, s.n., Acc. no. 40973 and 40976 ; without precise locality,

Oct. 1871, G. King. 35; above Gangtok, 1980 m., July 1910, W. W. Smith

2960; E. Himalayas without precise locality, G. H. Cave 6745; without

precise locality, G. King 2008; La Chung, 2590 m., Aug. 1892, G. A.

Gammie, s.n., Acc. no. 40878, 40879 and 40880; Padmchen, 2438 m.,

Aug. 1910, W. W. Smith 4490.

Distribution : Eastern Himalaya : West Bengal, Sikkim and Bhutan.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The author expresses his deep gratitude to the Director, Royal Botanic

Garden, Kew, for kindly sending on loan the types of two species of

Stellaria, without which this study would not have been possible.

10th General Assembly and 11th

Technical Meeting of the Inter-

national Union for Conservation

of Nature and Natural Resources

ZAFAR FUTEHALLY

The 10th General Assembly and 11th Technical Meeting of the

International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources

took place at New Delhi from 24th November to Ist December 1969. It

was a memorable Assembly in many ways, particularly for India because

it was the first time that the IUCN Conference has been convened in Asia.

Between 1948 and 1966, General Assemblies were held in France, Bel-

gium, Venezuela, Denmark, Scotland, Greece, Poland, Kenya and

Switzerland.

India’s first physical contact with the IUCN was in November 1965,

when a strong delegation was on its way to Bangkok for a Regional

Conference to study conservation problems of South-east Asia. Information

about this is available in IUCN Booklet New Series No. 11. Taking

advantage of this occasion Mr. E. P. Gee, India’s tireless ambassador of

conservation, induced the Government of India to hold a Special Meeting

of the Indian Board for Wild Life at New Delhi on 24th November 1965.

The Proceedings of this meeting were published in Supplementary Paper

No. 17 of the IUCN Publications New Series. After this one-day meeting

at New Delhi, the delegates went to Bharatpur, and the always resource-

ful Peter Scott drew up a short practical plan to enable the full potential

of Bharatpur to be realised from the angle of tourism. Peter Scott’s

paper and the accompanying illustrations were published in this Journal

(63: 206-209). Unfortunately these suggestions have yet to be imple-

mented.

Every General Assembly centres around a principal theme. For

instance, the theme of the Lucerne Assembly in June 1966 was “‘ Towards

A New Relationship of Man and Nature in Temperate Lands’. The

discussions in the Technical Sessions were mainly concerned with the

damage caused by recreation and tourism in general to natural areas, the

ecological effects of introduced plant species and the ecological effects of

introduced animal species. The Proceedings of this Assembly are avail-

able in IUCN Publications No. 7, 8 and 9, New Series.

10TH GENERAL ASSEMBLY I.U.C.N. 31

The theme of the 10th General Assembly at New Delhi, appropriate-

ly, was ““The Environmental and Economic Values of the Conservation of

Nature’. The four Key-Note Addresses were given by Dr. Frank Fraser

Darling, Dr. C. D. Deshmukh, Prof. Roger Revelle and Prof. V. A.

Kovda. Dr. Fraser Darling, whose Reith Lectures over the BBC in

England in December 1969, made such an impression b »th in that country

and abroad, has been a close student of Indian ecology. On an earlier

occasion, when the Society was drawing up its Memorandum for sub-

mission to the Cow Protection Committee of the Government of India,

Dr. Darling had said, “‘ We should realise the wholly justifiable attitude

of considering the cow sacred in a situation which India must have re-

presented 2,000-3,000 years ago. She provided milk and dung, made

paths and consumed much obtrusive green growth. She was an animal

new to India and would need the greatest care in a period of adaptation.

Now, populations of men and cows are in totally different relation to the

deteriorated environment, and we know to our constant cost that atti-

tudes, rituals and conventions persist far beyond the biological and

social situations which brought them forth as erstwhile necessities of

living. There is here not so much a cultural lag in time, but a cultural

over-run’’. The Cow Committee of the Government of India unfortu-

nately disintegrated after a few acrimonious meetings, and one does not

know whether the views expressed by Dr. Darling will have any impact

on its thinking in future years. In his Key-Note Address to the Assembly,

Dr. Darling spoke about the ecological implications of nomadism, and

pointed to the damage done to the environment by a settled population

of human beings and cattle, and the need for constructive conservation

measures.

Prof. Kovda was concerned by new technological developments

which now have global implications. ‘“‘ Geochemical activity of man has

become universal throughout the planet, and technogenesis—a specific

peculiarity of the modern face of the earth’. He went on to say that

** Modern industry not only enriches substantially the biosphere with a

number of chemical elements, but transforms the natural geochemical

ratios of elements which cannot but tell on the biosphere....”

It was encouraging to learn from him, however, that in the USSR

wild life conservation has been making steady progress. As an example

he mentioned the Saiga antelope (Saiga tatarica). The species was at

one stage on the verge of extinction, due to intensive hunting, and in

1920 a few hundreds only were left in remote regions of Kalmikia and

Kazakhstan. Today, there are over a million animals and thousands of

animals can be safely shot every year for food and sport on a sustained

yield basis.

a2 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

Dr. C. D. Deshmukh gave a forthright account of the failure of the

Government of India to protect its forests and vegetation, and to give

due importance to conservation policies in general. He said that “‘ the

failure to conserve may be partly due to ignorance. In this politician-

ridden society of ours (all over the world) it is, however, largely due to

the triumph of the short-term over the long-term. The politician pacifies

his more ignorant voter at the cost of all the unborn’,

Dr. Deshmukh felt that measures necessary for economic develop-

ment could be reconciled with conservation in developing countries,

provided we try to solve our problems in an intelligent and creative way

without copying the attitudes of the West blindly. Starting, for instance,

with the premise that within the tropics where there is abundant sun-

shine, and where human labour is plentiful and cheap, large-scale planta-

tion of trees is a logical way of meeting our fuel and other construction

requirements, “‘the labour component of housing can be increased

considerably (i) by using bricks instead of cement concrete for both

floor and roof; (ii) by deferred payment of wages to the labour in respect

of the difference between rates for skilled and unskilled labour, 1.e., by

borrowing part of the value of the labour directly from the worker;

(iii) by supporting a large-scale housing programme for urban areas by

the systematic growing of fuel for brick-making (as well as for domestic

use), on waste and unproductive land.” I quote from Stein: ‘‘ Assuming

that trees grow 24 times faster in the tropics than in northern Europe

and that fossil fuel costs say 25 per cent more and labour costs only

1/5 as much (the figure is more likely 1/10), then the advantages are of an

order of 2.51.25 x4=15 times!” By linking housing construction—

brick-making and the growing of fuel for brick-burning into a mutually

supporting economic arrangement it becomes possible to envision a

profitable basis for both urban housing and large-scale reforestation on a

commercial basis. Moreover, the ready availability of alternative domestic

fuel will release animal manure for our fertilizer-hungry land. Leaves

could also be harvested as fodder. Thus, under tropical conditions, a

tree would be a cheap and efficient device for converting solar energy

into fuel”. The trouble in India, of course, has been that we have been

living not on our income but on our capital as far as trees are concerned.

The papers presented in the Technical Meetings of the Assembly

were divided into the following headings :

(1) ‘* Conservation of habitats, soil and water resources with

special reference to Montane regions and Nature Conservation as a

supplementary objective of productive and protective forestry”. In this

group of papers, two struck the writer as particularly important. Dr. K. P.

Mirinian of the USSR pointed out that once a forested region was denuded

10TH GENERAL ASSEMBLY I.U.C.N. 33

to a level below about 60 per cent, its capacity to prevent soil erosion

was almost negligible. In other words, we in India must recognise that

many of our areas which are included in the category of ‘forest’ are

not really performing their protective functions because their density is

not good enough. Another paper by R. S. Ambasht of Banaras Hindu

University provided valuable guidelines on the way erosion damage

can be measured, and suggested the importance of local vegetation for

protective purposes.

The second set of papers dealt with the effects of ‘‘ Pollution on

Natural Ecosystems ” and the third on “‘ Management and Breeding of

Wild Life Species, the Role of Zoos, and the Role of Birds in an Agricul-

ture economy’’. In his paper on Birds in India’s Agriculture Economy,

Dr. Salim Ali pointed out that although weaver birds, house sparrows,

etc. consumed substantial amounts of rice crops and cereals, this aspect

has been over-emphasised in the Indian scientific world, and it is forgotten

that they feed their young entirely on insects and worms, thus destroying

a great number of pests. Other beneficial roles are also ignored, e.g. their

pollinating, to a large degree, the Red Silk Cotton (which mainly provides

the wood for our safety matches). His remedy, in order to determine the

true status of birds in national economy, is ‘‘ Comprehensive life-history

studies of the individual species involved—their ecology, food . . . habits,

migrations. Analysis of stomach contents by itself is not enough’’.

The Second Session of the Technical Meetings was concerned with

Conservation of Terrestrial Communities under the International Biological

Programme. Two papers of great practical importance were the ‘ Ecological

impact of domestic stock on the Gir Forest’ by K.T.B. Hodd, and ‘A

Preliminary report on the ecology of domestic cattle in rural West Bengal’

by Dr. S. Odend’hal. Hodd, who stayed in the Gir Forest for nearly a

year for his doctorate thesis, established a number of exclosures in the

Gir to find out how soon and how well the vegetation revived if it was

saved from damage for a specific period of time. He found that after

only one year, the exclosure showed a high ratio of perennial grasses

such as Dichanthium annulatum, some recovery of soil porosity and

80 to 100 per cent land cover as compared with only 30 per cent in the

grazed areas. At the end of the growing season less than 300 kilos of dry

matter per hectare remained. As far as the regeneration of trees were

concerned, Hodd found that in the open areas only Acacia arabica was

able to survive, and, understandably, unpalatable herbs such as Cassia

tora were particularly abundant.

Everything that Hodd says points to the need for greatly reducing

the pressure of buffaloes and cattle from the Gir Sanctuary if it is to

34 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

become a satisfactory home for wild life, and regain its normal pro-

ductivity.

Odend’hal studied an area of 5.75 sq. miles in rural West Bengal to

determine the position of the cattle within the economy. In this small

area there were a total of 16,126 human and 3,759 heads of cattle, which

is a high ratio even for India. But the significant point seems to be that

there is enough straw produced from the paddy field to feed this large

cattle population. What is important of course is to be told what the

optimum ratios between humans and cattle and land should be, and

when the studies are completed, perhaps some definite information will

be available.

The Third Session was organised by the Survival Service Commission

and dealt with problems of threatened species. In a way this was the

most interesting part of the conference for the Indian audience for it

dealt with such live subjects as the future of the Asiatic Lion, the Indian

Tiger, the Great Indian Bustard, and other endangered species in India.

Dr. Salim Ali’s paper on the Great Indian Bustard suggests. ‘‘ In the

absence of a network of reliable local observers, most of this basic infor-

mation (on the Bustard) would have to be self-collected by mobile teams

of investigators. ... In spite of being totally protected by law, the Great

Indian Bustard continues to decline. To stay the rot there is a proposal

to create a Bustard sanctuary in the extensive grasslands of Gujarat

where a few birds still survive. But the practicability of this project will

need a thoroughgoing ecological investigation’.

Fr. H. Santapau, in his paper on “Endangered Plant Species and

their Habitats’ referred to the fact that forests near villages are constantly

being cut down, and many forests are threatened. Father Santapau made

a special plea for Indian orchids, which are exploited without any thought

being given to their perpetuation.

J. C. Daniel, submitted a review of the present status of endangered

species of Indian Reptiles. “‘ Lack of precise information makes the

assessment of the status of Indian reptiles difficult. However, on the

basis of data available on commercial exploitation of reptiles it appears

that the crocodiles, marine turtles, lizards of the genus Varanus and many

species of snakes need protection. Endemic reptiles restricted to certain

habitats are also in danger of extinction’.

The 4th Session of the General Assembly was conducted by the

International Commission on National Parks, and was concerned with

the National Park situation in South-east Asia with special reference to

the role, management and economic functions of National Parks in

densely populated non-industrial areas. One valuable Resolution which

10TH GENERAL ASSEMBLY I.U.C.N. 35

emerged from the discussions dealt with the definition of National Parks.

There have often been rather unconstructive debates at the meetings

of the Indian Board for Wild Life on this question, and it is to be hoped

that this Resolution of the IUCN will help in determining which areas

should be given National Park status and what should be the principles

underlying their management. The Resolution reads : ‘* Considering the

importance given by the United Nations to the national park concept,

as a sensible use of natural resources, and considering the increasing use

which has been made during these last few years in some countries of the

term “‘National Park” to designate areas with increasingly different status

and objectives, the 10th General Assembly of IUCN meeting in New Delhi

in November 1969 recommends that all governments agree to reserve

the term “‘National Park’’ to areas answering the following characteris-

tics and to ensure that their local authorities and private organisations

wishing to set aside nature reserves do the same:

A National Park isa relatively large area 1) where one or several ecosystems

are not materially altered by human exploitation and occupation, where

plant and animal species, geomorphological sites and habitats are of

special scientific, educative and recreative interest or which contains a

natural landscape of great beauty and 2) where the central authority of

the country has taken steps to prevent or to eliminate as soon as possible

exploitation or occupation in the whole area and to enforce effectively

the respect for ecological, geomorphological or aesthetical features which

have led to its establishment and 3) where visitors are allowed to enter

under special conditions, for inspirational, educative, cultural and recrea-

tive purposes.

Governments are accordingly requested not to designate as ‘“‘national park”’ ;

gly req p

1) a scientific reserve which can be entered only by special permission

(strict nature reserve)

2) anatural reserve managed by a private institution or a lower authority

(Provincial Park, etc.) without some type of recognition and control

by the central authority

3) a “‘special reserve” as defined in the Algiers Convention of 1968 —

(fauna or flora reserve, game reserve, bird sanctuary, geological o1

forest reserve, etc.)

4) an inhabited and exploited area where landscape planning and

measures taken for the development of tourism have led to the

setting up of “‘recreation areas’? where industrialization and urba-

nization are controlled and where public outdoor recreation takes

priority over the conservation of ecosystems (parc natural regional,

nature park, Naturpark, etc.). Areas of this description which have

36 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

been established as ‘‘ National Parks ’’ should be redesignated in

due course.”

The next Session of the Assembly, dealing with the reports and dis-

cussions of the Pre-Assembly Tours, was disappointing only for the

reason that the time devoted to it was so short. The Pre-Assembly Study

Tours related to the Periyar Wild Life Sanctuary, Sariska Wild Life

Sanctuary, Guindy National Park, Dachigam Sanctuary, the proposed

Bird Sanctuary-cum-Recreation area in the Salt Lake areas of Calcutta,

and the position of the Swamp Deer in the Kanha National Park. It is

to be hoped that all these reports will be quickly processed by the Centre

and the States, and that implementation will not be delayed, because in

these matters where the physical environment keeps changing so rapidly,

delay is often tantamount to rejection.

One Session of the Assembly was devoted to Conservation Education.

A Pre-Conference Working Party of the Education Commission of the

IUCN had met at Dehra Dun earlier, and the problems of Conservation

Education at school and college levels were discussed in a broad manner.

It is to be hoped that this will help in the production of suitable text-

books for use in our own country, for there is a serious shortcoming of

such material and without this conservation cannot become ‘popular,’

or be supported by the people at large.

The Tenth General Assembly passed as usual many resolutions. All

these are important, but we would like to draw attention to the following

ones, which deal with our specific problems. All of them are self-

explanatory, and are quoted without comment.

Periyar Wild Life Sanctuary: The resolution “urges the res-

ponsible authorities to integrate the various interests involved and place

them under the control of one senior administrator and to manage the

sanctuary on a planned basis’.

Grazing in Wild Life Reserves and National Parks: The Assembly

recognises that the penetration of domestic cattle into wild life reserves

is a major factor in the deterioration of wild life habitats. It resolved that

the Indian Government should take immediate steps to prohibit the

grazing of all domestic livestock within the boundaries of all wild life

reserves’.

The Asiatic Lion: It has been recognised that agricultural intrusion

and the general decline in the numbers of wild life is a major cause of the

reduction in the number of the Asiatic Lion, now restricted only to the

Gir. The General Assembly “requests the Government authorities con-

cerned to prevent any further encroachment into the sanctuary, and

10TH GENERAL ASSEMBLY I.U.C.N. ay

recommends that measures be taken to recover the land where cultiva-

tions have already intruded........ @

The Tiger: ‘The assembly was generally alarmed by the position

of the tiger in India, and generally in other countries. It decided quite

rightly that “‘in view of the grave threat to the tiger populations in the

countries where the animal occurs, due to direct and indirect methods of

destruction ... the Governments of these countries (declare) a

moratorium on killing of this animal until such time as censuses and

ecological studies ... reveal the correct position as regards population

trends ....”’ Only five States in India have completely banned the killing

of tigers, and others should follow suit immediately.

Calcutta Salt Lake Area: The assembly was greatly impressed

with the report of the study group on the Calcutta Salt Lake area, and

it strongly recommended to the Government of India “that early steps

should be taken to implement the conclusions of this report to establish

a bird sanctuary within a wider protected zone and to integrate it within

a regional plan’’.

Specialised Wild Life Department: In almost every meeting of the

Indian Board for Wild Life there has been discussion about the need for

a separate wild life department within the forest service to look after the

interests of wild animals and their habitats. This is a problem peculiar

not only to India but concerns almost every country of the world. The

assembly therefore passed an appropriate general resolution which said,

‘“‘having noticed that in many countries no specialised department exists

to conserve wild life...recommends to the various Governments

... (to) consider the possibility of organising separate departments of

wild life....”

The Final Session of the Assembly was organised by the Landscape

Planning Commission of the IUCN.

Looking back on the Conference in the light of the experience of those

held in other countries it must be acknowledged that the organisation by

and the hospitality of the Government of India left little to be desired.

The presence of the Prime Minister, Dr. Karan Singh, the Minister of

Tourism, and the Chairman of the Indian Board for Wild Life, and other

senior Ministers and Members of the Planning Commission at several

Sessions, both formal and informal, left the delegates with the quite justi-

fiable impression that conservation will in future form an important

item in the deliberations of the Government of India. It will, however,

be left to institutions like the Bombay Natural History Society, the Wild

Life Preservation Society of India, the World Wild Life Fund — Indian

National Appeal and others, to see to it that the resolutions which were

38 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

passed and which engaged the attention of the leading conservationists

of the world are implemented as quickly as possible. It has become

customary for the General Assembly to issue a Declaration or a Manifesto

on conservation, relevant for the time and for the occasion. At New Delhi

the following Declaration was passed on 29-11-1969.

Realising that the splendour of this earth derives from its sunlight,

its beautiful green cover, its inter-dependent fauna and flora, and from

the diversity of its landscapes and Realising that since the beginning of its

existence, the people of the earth, even when poor in material possessions,

have found life richly worth living because of these natural assets; and

Realising that man, himself a product of the evolutionary system, is

dependent on the stability and self-renewing properties of his environment;

Realising too, that the world’s population is growing at an alarming rate;

that economic development depends entirely on the utilization of natural

resources, that this utilization is carried out often with little attention to

the needs of renewal, that because of this, much of the earth, once well

watered and productive, 1s now impoverished and degraded ‘that once

abundant plant, animal and scenic resources, have been ravaged that

therefore the attainment of a high quality of living for all mankind now

depends upon the conservation and restoration of these dwindling re-

sources, and finally that the natural resources of the world are a heritage

on which the survival of future generations must depend.

We the members of the International Union for Conservation of Nature

and Natural Resources assembled at New Delhi in November 1969

Now declare again our fundamental purpose as an international

union of concerned States, Organization and individuals

To urge on all governments and people the adoption, as a basic

principle of development, the conservation and protection of long-term

values rather than exploitation for short-term gains

To foster sound environmental policies and to promote protection

of ecosystems, human environments and habitats of wild creatures from

abuse and damage

To encourage and assist in the making of co-ordinated legislation

and international conventions to govern the utilization and treatment of

soil, water, air, flora and fauna, to minimize pollution, and to protect the

landscape in general and ecosystems of special interest in particular and,

finally to urge upon all nations, action and support of those values which

make life possible and worthwhile.

An event which greatly pleased the Assembly, and the Bombay

Natural History Society in particular, was the award of the John C.

Phillips Medal to Dr, Salim Ali, The citation reads :

10TH GENERAL ASSEMBLY I.U.C.N. 39

‘Senior Statesman of conservation and distinguished scientist,

whose influence on conservation in his own continent has been great and

whose work and accomplishments are known and respected throughout

the world;

Most distinguished ornithologist and field naturalist in his own

country, whose published works have long been the basic and authorita-

tive references on the birds of his country and have established him in

the foreground of world ornithologists ;

Internationally recognized and respected leader in conservation,

whose efforts over the years have been a major factor in creating the

climate of acceptance in conservation matters and preservation of wild life

which exists in his own country today”’.

Growth Potential of Red Hairy

Caterpillar, Amsacta moore: Butler,

in relation to certain Food Plants

N. D. PANDEY, DAYA RAM YADAVA AND T. P. S. TEOTIA

Government Agricultural College, Kanpur

The larve of A. moorei were reared on eight natural food plants and

the growth response of the insect recorded. On the basis of survival

percentage of larve, percentage of adult emergence, pupal weight, size and

fecundity of moths, bajra was the most preferred food for A. moorei,

closely followed by urd. Castor was found to have a distinct retarding

effect on the normal rate of growth of A. moorei, resulting in a prolonged

larval period and also a relatively longer pupal period than in the case of

the other food plants. The larve failed to survive when reared on paddy,

sannhemp and arhar.

INTRODUCTION

The red hairy caterpillar, Amsacta moorei Butler, is polyphagous.

Fletcher (1914) recorded it on jowar, bajra, groundnut, castor, cotton

and pulses. It is also reported to attack cow pea, soyabean, maize, sann-

hemp and sorghum by Pruthi (1938) and Bindra & Kittur (1958). In view

of the wide range of host plants of this pest, it is important to know how

far the growth and development of the insect are influenced by the vari-

ous food plants. This paper is a report on the relative food value of

some of the important food plants of A. moorei which is an important

and widely distributed pest of crops in Uttar Pradesh.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

A gravid female moth of A. moorei was collected from the field on

27th July, 1964. It was kept in a glass jar and fed on 5 per cent sugar

solution soaked in cotton wool. The next day the moth laid eggs freely

on the glass jar. Four days after egg-laying the eggs hatched satisfactorily.

Immediately after hatching the tiny larve were carefully collected with

the help of a camel hair brush and 20 larvee were transferred to each

of the eight sets of 10.0 cm. petridishes containing clean and tender

leaves of the following food plants :

Maize (Zea mays), jowar (Sorghum vulgare), bajra (Pennisetum

typhoideum), castor (Ricinus communis), urd (Phaseolus mungo), arhar

(Cajanus cajan), paddy (Oryza sativa) and sannhemp (Crotalaria juncea).

GROWTH POTENTIAL OF AMSACTA MOOREI 41

The food was changed once in the morning every day. As the larve

grew older, they were transferred to bigger petridishes (15.0 cm. diameter).

The number of larvee becoming pup, the time taken to complete the

larval development and the larval weight at two intervals, viz., 6 and 12

days after hatching, were recorded.

After pupation, the pupz were transferred to separate glass jars

and their mouths covered with muslin cloth. Data on pupal period,

pupal weight after 4 days of pupation, percentage of adult emergence,

size and sex-ratio of the adults resulting from the larve reared on different

food plants were also recorded.

The emerging moths were separated into another set of glass jars

and fed on 5 per cent sugar solution. The data on the longevity and

fecundity of the moths and the incubation period of the eggs were recorded

for each set.

Twenty newly hatched larve of the same date of hatching were kept

in 10.0 cm. petridishes in identical sets, as before, and the leaves of the

same food plants were fed to them and the data recorded in the same

manner as described earlier. In this way the growth and development

of the insect on the different food plants were studied through two con-

secutive generations.

All tests were performed at room temperature prevailing at Kanpur

during July to September (Max. 86-102° F, Min. 83-88° F and Relative

humidity 50-92 per cent).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The effect of different food plants on the percentage survival of the

larve and the range of larval period is shown in Table 1. The growth

index figures obtained by dividing the percentage(n) of the larvee becoming

pupz by the average time (Av) taken to complete the development are

also given in the table.

TABLE 1

THE SURVIVAL PERCENTAGE, RANGE OF LARVAL PERIOD AND GROWTH INDEX OF A. moorei

IN RELATION TO THE TYPE OF FOOD SUPPLIED

Number | Number | Percentage) Range of | Average | Growth

1 of larve | of larve | of larve larval larval index

obser- (n) days in days

vation (Av)

Maize 40 8 20.0 15-16 1525 1.29

Jowar 40 10 25.0 15 15 1.66

Bajra 40 20 50.0 16 16 312

Castor 40 9 22.5 23-30 26.5 0.84

Urd 40 16 40.0 17-19 18 2.22

42 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

The Chi-square test for association of the type of food given and the

number of larvee pupated showed that the value of chi-square(x), which

is 12.408, is significant at 5 per cent level. The results, therefore, suggest

that the type of food has differential response to the survival percentage

of A. moorei larve. Bajra is the most preferred and maize the least. On

the basis of the growth index values also the development of larvee was

best on bajra, followed by urd, jowar, maize and castor in the descending

order. It would be seen, however, that while the percentage of larve

pupated was lowest on maize, castor resulted in the lowest growth index

value apparently because the larval period was considerably prolonged

on this food plant. The results also showed that the larve completely

failed to survive when reared on paddy, sannhemp and arhar.

Table 2 shows the effect of different food plants in inducing variation

in the larval weights. It will be seen from the table that the larval weights

on the sixth day after hatching although slightly less in the case of urd

and maize are practically identical in the case of jowar, bajra and castor.

But differences are observable among them on the twelfth day after

hatching. The results, therefore, suggest that the type of food has differen-

tial response to the gain in weight of larvee from six days onwards. During

this period the gain in weight in the case of bajra is highest and significantly

different from all others except castor; while it is lowest with maize

and urd which do not differ significantly from each other. However, no

definite correlation can be established between the gain in weight of

larve on different food plants and their growth index values.

TABLE 2

VARIATION IN LARVAL WEIGHT IN RELATION TO TYPE OF FOOD

Mean larval weight in gm.

Gain in weight

Food plant between the two

6 days after 12 days after | intervals in gm.

hatching hatching

Maize .. a i so 0.0128 0.1360 0.1232

Jowar .. oe sy ane 0.0165 0.1685 0.1520

Bajra .. ae Ke ue 0.0160 0.1915 0.1755

Castor .. 8G os ei 0.0160 0.1785 0.1625

Urd.. rf Me zt 0.0140 0.1505 0.1365

f = highly significant. CoDvat 5% =0.015

Table 3 shows the duration of the pupal period and the variations

in the pupal weights when the larve were fed on different food plants.

It would be seen from the table that the duration of the pupal life, though

only slightly variable, was shortest with bajra and longest with castor,

while jowar, maize and urd are found intermediate. The pupal period

GROWTH POTENTIAL OF AMSACTA MOOREI 43

was thus affected in much the same way as the larval period by the respec-

tive food plants. Further, the highest pupal weight is obtained with larve

fed on bajra and next in order came urd, castor, jowar and maize. The

pupal weight is thus apparently correlated with the growth index value

of the plant except in the case of castor.

TABLE 3

DURATION OF PUPAL PERIOD AND PUPAL WEIGHTS OF A. moorei IN RELATION TO THE

TYPE OF LARVAL FOOD SUPPLIED

Average pupal

Range of pupal | Average pupal weight after 4

Food plant period (in days) | period (in days) days of pupation

in gm.

Maize .. e Pd a 5-7 6.25 0.089

Jowar .. : i ni 6.00 0.097

Bajra ol sy ai 5-6 Ser 0.172

Castor .. Be: re sus 6-8 7.00 0.010

O77 Ce ; ‘i ce 6-7 6.70 0.160

The effect of different foods in inducing variation in percentage

emergence, size and sex-ratio of the adult moths is given in Table 4.

This table shows that the percentage of adult emergence is highest when

the larve are reared on bajra and lowest on jowar, while the remaining

can be arranged in the following descending order : Urd > castor >

maize. The percentage of adult emergence is thus affected by the respective

food plants in much the same way as the survival percentage of larve.

It is also seen from the results that the largest size is obtained if reared

on bajra and urd, followed by those fed on castor, jowar and maize.

These results show that the size of the moths as well as the pupal weight

are affected by the different food plants in the same way and that the

heaviest pupz are the producers of large-sized moths. The females

outnumber the males in the case of jowar, bajra and maize, but are equal

in number if reared on castor and urd.

TABLE 4

PERCENTAGE EMERGENCE, SIZE AND SEX-RATIO OF ADULT MOTHS OF A. moorei IN RE-

LATION TO THE TYPE OF LARVAL FOOD SUPPLIED

Mean size of male Mean size of female

im cm. in cm.

Percentage Sex-ratio

Food plant of adult male:

emergence| Body Wing Body Wing female

length expanse length expanse

Maize .. 62.5 1.4 225 1.43 2.66 1:1.50

Jowar .. 60.0 1.0 2°25 eS PAS | 1: 2.00

Rajra ..... 80.0 1.5 2.3 1.6 228) 1: 1.66

Castor .. 66.6 12 2.5 3 207 1:1.00

Urd me 75.0 F.5 205 15 2:8) 1: 1.00

RN iS SS SSI SS SS SG IS i i i erp eS

44 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

Table 5 shows the longevity and fecundity of the moths bred from

larve reared on different food plants, as also the incubation period of

the eggs laid by them. It will be seen that the female moths, when fed

on 5 per cent sugar solution, lived slightly longer than the males in all

cases. They lived longest when bred from larve reared on bajra and

shortest on castor. Marked differences are seen in regard to the number

of eggs laid by the females, the largest numbers of eggs being laid by the

moths raised on bajra, followed by urd, maize, castor, and jowar in the

descending order. The incubation period of eggs varied only slightly,

being longest in the case of moths raised on urd and shortest on castor.

TABLE 5

LONGEVITY, FECUNDITY AND INCUBATION PERIOD RECORDS OF A, moorei IN RELATION TO

THE TYPE OF LARVAL FOOD SUPPLIED

Average longevity in days Average Average

Food plant number of | incubation

eggs laid period in

J 9 per female days

Maize 3 0 5.0 349 3.0

Jowar rape eas ron 4.0 5.0 250 3.0

Bara, eae eee 4.0 6.0 312 3.0

Castor SLT Nee 4.0 4.5 324 2.8

Urd 3.0 5.0 448 305

Finally with regard to time for completing the life cycle, i.e., the

period from egg-laying to the emergence of moths, it will be seen that

it was 24.75 days with maize and bajra, 24.0 days with jowar, 28.25

days with urd, and 36.3 days with castor.

REFERENCES

BinpRA, O. S., & Kitrur, S.U., Indian Insects and other animals of

(1958): On the biology and control of the importance. Supdt. Govt. Press Madras,

red hairy caterpillar, Amsacta moorei pp. 369.

Butler (Arctuide-Lepidoptera) in Ma- Prutul, H. S., (1938): Report of the

dhya Pradesh. Vikram (Sci.) 5:62-72. Imperial Entomologist. Sci. Rep. Agri.

FLETCHER, T. B., (1914): Some South Res. Inst. New Delhi. pp. 113-128.

Cause and effects of a heavy

rainfall in Darjeeling and in the

Sikkim Himalayas

LESZEK STARKEL

Institute of Geography of the Polish Academy of Sciences, Krakow

(Poland)

(With two text-figures)

During his stay in Darjeeling in November and December 1968 the

author collected data relating to the catastrophic rainfall, which occurred

in this region between the 2nd and 5th October 1968, and amounted to

1091 mm. (fig. 1) at Kurseong. The present report is chiefly concerned

with the causes of this rainfall. Its effects will be dealt with more fully

in a separate paper.

In the monsoon climate of India the rainy season covers 4 to 6 months,

and usually lasts from May to September. The heaviest precipitation

is noted on the southern slopes of mountains (the monthly rainfall in

the Assam hills amounts to 2800 mm.). On the border of the Sikkim

Himalayas and in the neighbouring parts of Nepal and Bhutan, not

screened by hills, the annual rainfall is also abundant—of the order

of 2500-5000 mm. In Darjeeling the summer half of the year

receives 2852 mm. and in the winter half only 241 mm. From June to

September it rains almost every day (each month with 20-27 rainy days)

and 5 to 20 days with a rainfall exceeding 50 mm. During the 2-3

winter months, there is rarely rain. According to data for the years

1949 - 1968, the rainfall ranged from 2100 to 3900 mm. in this period

(fig. 1). Precipitation of catastrophic type occurs rarely, the heaviest

rainfall ina day was noted in Darjeeling in 1899 (493 mm.) and 1950

(454 mm.). Every 20 - 30 years in the course of a continuous 3 - 5 day’s

precipitation the amount of rainfall goes up to 1000 mm.

Precipitation is differentiated spatially. In the monsoon climate a

rain shadow is distinctly marked, for example, in the Assam-uplands,

Cherapunji receives 10869 mm.; whereas Shillong lying immediately

behind the interfluve, only 2253 mm. On the border of the Himalayas

46 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

there occurs an inversion of precipitation. While the stations at the foot

of mountains record 2000 - 3500: mm., Kurseong at an altitude of 1400 m.-

4052 mm., and Darjeeling lying on the ridge at an altitude of 2150 m.,

only. 3092 mm. In deep valleys the contrasts are still greater. During the

showers which occurred in 1950 between the 9th and 14th June, the amount

of rainfall varied from 275 to 1150 mm. ©

Changes in the discharge of rivers are the result of differences in

the annual course of precipitation and of the occurrence of heavy rainfall.

G. N. Dutt reports that the discharges of the River Gish, south of Kalim-

pong, with a drainage area of 62 square miles wooded in 42 per cent,

varied in 1952 from 3 m.3/sec. to 22270 m.3/sec. the maximum specific

run-off amounting therefore to 133. m.3/sec./km.?2

The information obtained by the author concerns part of the terrain

stricken with flood. The main ridge of the Himalayas in this part is the

Sikkim Himalayas culminating in the mighty Kanchenjunga massif

(8586 m.). In front lie the Darjeeling Hills with ridges ranging from 2000

to 3000 m. above sea-level, cut by valleys 1000 to 2000 m. deep. The

largest River Tista with a catchment basin of about 7500 sq. km. drains

the whole of Sikkim and is a tributary of Brahmaputra (in the last century

it flowed to the Ganges).

The lower step of the Himalayas is chiefly built of strongly folded

gneisses and mica schists of the Darjeeling series of medium resistance.

Along the edges of the mountains and in deep valleys the underlying,

weak, shales of the Daling series as well as sandstones, quartzites, and

shales of the Gondwana series are exposed on the surface, whereas on

the border of the lowland poorly cemented sandstones and shales of the

Siwalik series occur. The structure of the substratum and the consider-

able unevened slopes of rivers deepening their channels cause the ridges

of the Lower Himalayas to be generally narrow and rounded, the slopes

steep, inclined at 20 - 50°, straight or convex (undercut at the foot),

less frequently convex-concaye. They are dissected by numerous steep-

walled ravines and shallow gullies with bottoms covered with debris

scree, and diversified by old and new landslide channels. Despite their

steepness there developed on the slopes a waste cover of sandy loam

on gneiss 0.5-5 m. thick, absorbing large quantities of water, not

readily subject to wash-out but susceptible to mass movements. This

area was covered in the past by the jungle. Up to the height of 500 m.

it was.a tropical forest, from 500 to 2000 m. — a subtropical forest com-

posed of many species of trees, and from 2000 to 3600 m. above sea-level

— various vertical zones of temperate forest, higher with Rhododendron.

In the past century the forests were largely destroyed and their species

4 3440 CH ON

—

oRINGTONG

NAGRI FARM (4 wor hi )

1. Peaks;

7. automatic recorders.

2. rivers;

~~ ALIMPONG _

1209m/

asta

DARJEELING ~

A2be5m

Sonada

ere

Le \ \

\ Qy | =

‘ ore

; YN Pe

SILIGURI “

Darjeeling District

3. main roads; 4. boundaries; 5. pass; 6. rainfall;

NAGRi FARM

1158m q.s.l.

KALIMPONG

(ca 1200m a.¢.)

620

2" 1@ 20 2% & 8 1 6 20 me! @ wm 6 20 %» & 8

2.¥.68 3 3. %.68 : 4 X.68 1 2%.68

Fig. 2—Rainfall between 2 and 5 October according to automatic recorders, Nagri

Farm (From Dr. F. Rahman), Kalimpong (from Meteorological Office)

CAUSE AND EFFECTS OF HEAVY RAINFALL 47

composition underwent changes. It is only above the altitude of 2200 m.

that dense forest complexes have been preserved. Below 1800 m. about

30 - 50 per cent of the area is occupied by tea gardens established in the

nineteenth century.

Similarly as in the three preceding years the summer monsoon in 1968

was poor in precipitation (fig. 1), amounting only to 2000 mm., and the

daily rainfall exceeded 50 mm. only 6 times. Towards the end of Septem-

ber a storm front developed over the Bay of Bengal and after becoming

transformed into a deep depression it reclined on the Himalayas. On the

2nd October 1968, after a local afternoon rainfall, an uninterrupted rain

began to fall at about 8 p.m. It covered eastern Nepal, Darjeeling Hills,

Sikkim, and western Bhutan. Its intensity increased during 3rd Octo-

ber, rising to 15 - 20 mm. per hour on the night from the 3rd to the 4th.

Then it weakened but became stronger again in the afternoon of the 4th

October. Between 8 and 12 p.m. it reached its peak, amounting to 40 - 60

mm./hr. on the average. At daybreak the rain stopped altogether. The

automatic rainfall stations (fig. 2) give a clear picture of the course of the

intensity of the rainfall, while the other stations show the spatial diffe-

rentiation of its amount (Table ). The largest amount of rainfall was noted

TABLE

RAINFALL BETWEEN 2—5 OCTOBER 1968 IN DARJEELING REGION

Station For year 68) 2.x.68 3.x.68 4.x.68 | 2-5.x.68

Jalpaiguri .. ws ae 120.0 113.0 as 233.0

Nagri Farm 91.4 260.1 382.8 734.3

Nagri Farm/automatic rec. her O76 241.6 368.9 698.1

Kurseong St. Mey S

College .. ; -. 4878.5 152.0 301.0 638.0 1091.0

Rangtong T. E. .. .. 3197.8 151.1 209.5 241.0 601.6

Poobong T. E. 3975.1 110.0 255.0 400.0 765.0

Darjeeling Planters Club... 2651.2 93 35 210.3 303.3 607.1

Darjeeling Meteorol. Obs. | 85.0 215.0 275.0 575.0

Bannockburn T. E. . 2689.6 83.3 207.0 356.1 646.4

Chongtong T. E. .. ae above |

650.0

Kalimpong Meteorol. Obs. 73.4 257.8 465.1 796.3

Kalimpong automatic rec. . 71.1 261.3 456.1 788.5

on slopes of mountains exposed to the south at an altitude of 1000 - 1500

m. Kurseong recorded 1091 mm., and Kalimpong 796 mm. A smaller

amount of rainfall was noted by stations in deep valleys on the southern

slope (Nagri Farm 734 mm., Poobong 765 mm.), the lowest being recorded

on ridges (Darjeeling 575 mm., and 607 mm.) and in valleys in the rain

shadow (Bannockburn 646 mm.). The 60 hours’ rainfall was the last of

the summer monsoon, when the soil was already saturated with moisture

[in contrast to the rainfall of June 1950 — cf. (fig. 1)]. However, the

48 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

immediate cause of the sudden run-off of waters was the last accent of

heavy rain, when within 4 hours there fell 200 mm., and locally probably

still more. This.occurred on 4th October and according to eye-wit-

ness accounts at about 11 p.m. slopes began to slide down, while the

swollen rivers carried away bridges.

First of all the equilibrium of the circulation of water on slopes was

disturbed. The water infiltrating into the sandy soil could not penetrate

deeper into the unweathered rock and began.to flow junder pressure

grooving channels in the soil and gushing in the form of springs, giving

rise to mud and rubble sliding tongues denuding whole patches of slopes

of the weathering crust: Where the water infiltrated deeper along joints,

large rock slides 1 km. long and 20-30 m. deep were formed, being also

encountered in forests. The waters flowing in the bottoms of overgrown

ravines began to deepen them with the boulders they were carrying and

to undercut valley sides.

The waters gathered in the stream beds, which often were deepened

up to 8 m. in solid rock, or else were filled up in sections with alluvia (the

author observed thickness amounting to 12 m.). These beds had fre-

quently become three to five times wider. The force of the water was

evidenced by its carrying heaps of boulders 2 - 5 m. in diameter, some of

them even exceeding 10 m. The violent rise of waters included also the

large rivers. The level of the Tista was up to 24 m. higher than the average

(at Tista Bazar the author noted a high water mark 18 m. above its level

at the end of November). The observed velocity of the flood water

amounting to 20 km./hr., the mean transversal cross-section of the river

channel being 5,000 m?., permitted the calculation that at Tista Bazar

there flowed about 27,500 m.?/sec., which equals a specific run-off of

3.6 m.3/sec./km.”. According to hydrological data published in the

Calcutta press (Statesman), the River Kosi, draining eastern Nepal,

carried in the morning of the 5th October 1968, 91, 300 m.?/sec., which

corresponds to a specific run-off of 14.7 m.*/sec./km.”. The waters of

rivers flowing out on to the plains flooded vast areas, bringing about the

formation of new river channels and submerging fields and settlements,

or covering them with gravel and sand. c

The result of these heavy rains were geomorphological changes of

slopes and valley bottoms, as well as economic loss.

In the region of Darjeeling about 20 per cent of deforested slopes

became transformed through the degradation of the upper soil layer and

often of the whole waste cover, e.g. in the Poobong tea gardens out of

the 200.5 ha. of tea fields 26 per cent were destroyed and out of the 520

ha. of the total area of the settlement—18.2 per cent. The damage in

the forests was 10 times lesser. Thus, one can estimate (the aforestation

CAUSE AND EFFECTS OF HEAVY RAINFALL 49

of the catchment basin amounting to 30 - 50 per cent) that on the average

a l-metre thick layer of substratum was removed from 10 per cent of the

area, which equals a lowering of the whole terrain by 10 cm. in the course

of the considered heavy rain (degradation of the order of 100,000 m.°

per 1 km.”). Only an insignificant part of the material held on at the

base of slopes, while most of it was carried away by the swollen rivers.

The high undercuttings and deepening in the solid rock indicate that the

transport power of the rivers exceeded the usual supply from the slopes.

This is a characteristic trait of rivers of humid regions with uneven slopes

and of young mountains lifted by. tectonic movements. The compa-

rison with other catastrophes, especially with those of the years

1899. and 1950, permits the assumption that the deepening of valleys

and retreating of mountain slopes takes place above all during periods of

catastrophic rainfall, occurring once in 20-30 years and being some-

times connected in this region with earthquakes. The periods dividing

them are phases of carrying down the material to channels during normal

monsoon precipitation, and of intense chemical weathering preparing

the waste material which will be removed from the slopes during the

subsequent catastrophic rainfall. Worthy of note is that landslides formed

in 1950 did not generally undergo rejuvenation by 1968. The period of

18 years was too short for the development of a new soil layer.

The catastrophic rainfall caused great damage to the economy.

Apart from the fact that about 1,500 people had been killed (excluding

Nepal and Bhutan), hundreds of houses were destroyed, settlements

buried (e.g. Pul Bazar), scores of bridges carried away, including the

main bridge on the Tista on the road leading to Tibet, and in about 200

sections the high road and railway line from Siliguri to Darjeeling was

cut. Agriculture suffered losses difficult to retrieve. In the mountains

20-30 per cent of cultivated land (chiefly tea gardens) was destroyed,

and in the lowland, apart from the buried fields, irrigation appliances

were ruined.

The catastrophic rains recurring roughly every 20 years require a

regulation of the water circulation, chiefly by means of a skilful draining

of the waste cover on mountain slopes, which would preclude the de-

velopment of newly formed landslides and prevent future catastrophes,

as well as the construction of storage reservoirs at the outlet of all the

Himalayan valleys.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author wishes to express his sincere thanks for the help in

collecting material for this study to the following offices and persons: the

Meteorological Dept. of the Government of India, the Director General

50 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

of Observatories, Dr. F. Rhaman from the Tea Research Association in

Darjeeling, the Rector of St. Mary’s College in Kurseong, the Managers

of the Tea Estates belonging to the Darjeeling Tea Company, the Direc-

tor of Soil Conservation and the Divisional Forest Officer, Darjeeling

Forest Division. These investigations could be carried out thanks to a

grant of the Government of India, Council for Scientific and Industrial

Research, obtained within the framework of an agreement with the

Polish Academy of Sciences.

Dr. N. R. Kar of the Government College of the West Bengal

University was kind enough to give me the first introduction to the

area in November 1968 at a symposium organised by the Int. Geo-

graphical Congress at Darjeeling.

A Catalogue of the Birds in the

Collection of the Bombay Natural

History Society-6

Scolopacinae (part)

HUMAYUN ABDULALI

[Continued from Vol. 66(3) : 559]

This part deals with 218 specimens of 19 species and subspecies

up to No. 403 in IND. HANDBOOK (2: 297), up to Register No. 23299.

Miss Shanta Nair, Research Assistant, attended to measurements and

other routine work, and I am grateful for her assistance.

385 Numenius phaeopus phaeopus (Linnaeus) (Sweden) Whimbrel

6: 203

18: 107.9779 9 lo?

1 Bushire, Persian Gulf; 1 Baluchistan; 1 Kandla, Kutch; 1 Thana Creek,

1 Thana District, 1 Bhyander, 1 Versova, 1 Bombay, 2 Panvel, Kolaba;

1 Pulicat, Chingleput, Madras; 3 Long Island, Middle Andamans, 2 Car

Nicobar, 1 Camorta, 1 Great Nicobar.

Five of the seven from the Andaman and Nicobar Islands are

females, while eight of the ten males are from the west coast down to

about Bombay.

With the literature available I have been unable to decide if any of

them is variegatus (Scopoli).

386 Numenius phaeopus’ variegatus (Scopoli) (Luzon) Eastern

Whimbrel 6: 204

nil.

387 Numenius arquata arquata (Linnaeus) (Sweden) Curlew 6: 200

nil.

388 Numenius arquata orientalis C.L.Brehm (East Indies) 6: 202

11: 397.4% 592 30?

1 Amara, Iraq; 2 Bharatpur, Rajasthan ; 3 Kutch; 3 Kolaba District, Maharashtra;

1 Peking, China; 1 col. C.M. Inglis (=Bihar?).

All the specimens have almost unmarked axillaries and from the

literature available appear to be of this race.

[113]

o2 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

Wing Bill Tail

Jo 280, 295, 295 (280-297) 141, 142, 142 104-107

(137-139)

9 g 290-307 av. 300 135-190 av. 161 107-110

(300-314) (135-194)

The measurements include those of two females obtained near

Bombay in October (and not in the Society’s collection) which have

very short bills (135, 143).

389 Limosa limosa limosa (Linnaeus) (Sweden) Blacktailed Godwit

11:39719 39 9 5o?

3 Baghdad; 1 Rohtak, Persian Baluchistan; 1 Risalpur, N.W.F.P.; 1 Khara-

sheds Gujarat; 2 Nasik, 1 Panvel; 1 col. C.M. Inglis (=Bihar?); 1 Manipur,

ssam.

The females of this species are larger than the males, and this race

(wing 205-240; bill 88-126; tarsus 75-82) is accepted (FAUNA and IND.

HANDBOOK) as larger than melanuroides (wing 176-207, bill 77-95,

tarsus 66-73).

The five birds from Iraq and the north-west (1% 40?) are larger

than the four from the rest of India (lo 39 ?).

Wing 22131222, 224,230, 234 cf. 198, 211, 212, 215

Bill 102, 114, 116, 122, 127 cf. 103, 103, 104, 106

Tarsus 84, 85, 88, 90, 91 cf. 72, 75(2), 78

In the dry stage the former also have their bills more yellow, less

dusky.

The female from Nasik (No. 20147) measuring 198, 104, and 75

may well be of the next form. A larger series of correctly sexed specimens

from peninsular India is necessary!.

390 Limosa limosa melanuroides Gould (Port Essington, Australia)

Eastern Blacktailed Godwit 6: 207

2 0? Tientsin, China.

Wing 194, 209 (LaTouche in BIRDS OF EASTERN CHINA measures 3 females; 192,

211, and 228); bill (one only) 106 (LaTouche: 72.5, 78.5, 112); tarsus 62, 75.

391 Limosa lapponica lapponica (Linnaeus) (Lapland) Bartailed

Godwit 6: 252

4:1 97299 1o?

1 Kandla, Kutch; 1 Bhyander, 1 Thana, Bombay, 1* Rewas, Kolaba.

The female obtained on 8 December* is much greyer above than

the others (August-September).

1 After this was completed a 1 and a Q{shot out of a flock at Rewas, Kolaba

District, on 19 October 1969, were measured: wings 217 and 245, and bills 112 and

124 respectively.

[114]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION—6 53

392 Tringa erythropus (Pallas) (Holland) Spotted or Dusky

Redshank 6: 223

10:2977 59 2 30? 3 in summer plumage)

1 Aliabad, 12 m. SE. of Shiraz, Iran; 1 Khushdil Lake, Quetta; 1 Dodi, Malwa

Plateau, Bhopal; 1 Bogna, Shahjehanpur, U.P.; 3 Darbhanga, Bihar; 2 no

data, col. F.J.R. Field; 1 Tientsin, China.

Wing Bill Tarsus Tail

o'c' 166, 168 57, 58 57,57 66, 70

(158-168) (53-59) (53-59) (60-68)

9 9 164-169 av. 166.4 55, 56, 59 53-60 av. 56.6 63-68 av. 65.6

(166-177) (57-64) — el

393 Tringa totanus totanus (Linnaeus) (Sweden) Common Red-

shank 6: 221

394 Tringa totanus eurhinus (Oberholser) (Tso Moriri Lake’

15,000’, Ladakh) Eastern Redshank 6: 222

37: 10079 259 9 20?

2 Hawi Plain, 1 Samarrah, Iraq; 1 Turbat, 1 Shiraz, 1 Kuh-e-Khwaja, Hamun

Lake, Iran; 1 Rohtak R., near Sib, Persian Baluchistan; 1 Hajarganji, Balu-

chistan; 3 Bahawalpur, Punjab; 2 Kandla, Kutch; 1 Bassein, 2 Bhyander,

1 Hog Island, Bombay, 5 Belapur, Thana, 3 Panvel, 2 Rewas, Kolaba, 1 Rajapur,

Ratnagiri; 1 Karwar; 1 Point Calimere; 1 Chilka Lake; 3 Calcutta Market;

2 Andamans; 1 Car Nicobar.

There have been continued and considerable differences of opinion

regarding the races of the Redshank occuring in India. Oberholser

described eurhinus as larger than nominate totanus. Meinertzhagen said

that they were not separable, but described terrignotae from Koko Nor,

both races being said to winter in India. Stuart Baker (6: 220) accepted

this, but later authors synonymised terrignotae with eurhinus ! BIRDS OF

SOVIET UNION (3: 230) does not accept either eurhinus or terrignotae,

synonymising both with nominate totanus. In SYNOPSIS, both totanus

and eurhinus were said to occur all over India, but in IND. HANDBOOK

(2: 257) the occurrence of the nominate race in India is doubted.

The specimens available measure :—

Wing Bill Tarsus Tail

991 1153-166 av. 158 43-45 av. 44.2 47-52 av. 49.5 61-66 av. 64

(ex Vaurie 152- (from skull (49-51) (63-72)

165 av. 157.5) 45-51) :

259 9152-171 av. 160.4 42-50 av. 45 47-53 av. 49.9 59-71 av. 64.5

(2¢ 9 162,165) (from skull 51-54) — 7

All the specimens are in winter plumage and it is evident that the

grey sheen on freshly obtained specimens fades into the pale brown

of the older skins in a few years.

The measurements of the bill from feathers, 39-42, for Tringa

t. totanus aS in BR. HANDBOOK (4: 330) are sufficient to separate them

[115]

34 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

from the present specimens, but as the measurements are not repeated

by subsequent authors I presume they are not correct. A male obtained

at Point Calimere on 18th October 1969 has its wing 150, bill 37 (tip

broken), tail 63, and tarsus 44. The upper parts are darker and many

of the feathers tipped with pale rufous indicating that this is a juvenile.

Without material from Europe, it is not possible to offer any remarks

except to reiterate that (1) the birds from Mesopotamia do not differ

from the others in size or colour, (2) the half-dozen specimens identified

by Whistler and/or Ticehurst are all marked eurhinus, and (3) the others

do not appear to be different.

395 Tringa stagnatilis (Bechstein) (Germany) Marsh Sandpiper or

Little Greenshank 6: 216

8: 51739 9

1 Kandla, Kutch; 2 Panvel, 1 Dharamtar Creek, Kolaba; 1 Balugaon, Chilka

Lake; 3 Calcutta Market.

Wing Bill

Je 145 (132-139) 40, 40, 41, 43 (37-40)

@ 9 137, 140, 142 (133-143) 39, 40 (40-50)

The measurements in IND. HANDBOOK (2: 261) are from BRITISH

HANDBOOK and show some differences from those available.

396 Tringa nebularia (Gunnerus) (District of Trondhjem, Norway)

Greenshank 6: 225

23: 12794 109 9 lo?

1 Samara, 1 Azuzali, R. Tigris, Iraq; 1 Hamun. Lake, Seistan, 1 Bampur R.,

near Pahran, Persian Baluchistan; 1 Jaipur; 2 Vaghjipur, Mehsana; 1 Ahmeda-

bad; 1 Ghoti, Nasik; 2 Thana; 3 Bhyander, Bombay; 1 Chilka Lake;

1 Baghowni, 1 Banhar, Darbhanga, Bihar; 1 Kheri, Oudh; 3 Calcutta Market;

1 Bhugwada, Nepal; 1 Meping R., Paknampo, Siam.

Wing Bill Tarsus Tail

oc’ 177-205 av. 190 53-59 av. 55.6 58-67 av. 60 80-89 av. 82.3

(184-194) (50-56) (55-61) (68-80)

992. 183-201 av. 190.5 54-60 av. 56.7 59-63 av. 61.5 75-86 av. 79

(184-200) (53-59) — —

397 ‘Tringa ochropus Linnaeus (Sweden) Green Sandpiper 6: 215

39: 134919 219 9 So?

1 Sulaimaniyah, Iraq; 1 Duzdap, E. Persia; 1 Sib, 1 Geh, Persian Baluchistan;

2 Wana, Baluchistan; 2 Chitral; 1 Kalsi, 1 Muglib, Ladakh; 1 Banyar, Kashmir;

1 Kashmor, Upper Sind Frontier; 1 Punjab; 4 Delhi, 1 Keonthal; 1 Patan,

Jaipur; 3 Bombay; 1 Karwar; 1 Kumbum Valley, Kurnool Dist.; 1 Gondia,

Balaghat; 1 Baghowni, Tirhut ; 2 Cawnpore, 2 Meerut, 1 Kheri Dist.; 1 Karun-

prayog, Garhwal; 1 Calcutta Market; 1 Imphal, Manipur; 1 Prome, 1 Thayet-

myo, Burma; 3 Peking, China.

Wing Bill Tarsus Tail

ao 136-152 av. 142.7 31-37 av. 34 31-39 av. 34-3 52-61 av. 57

(136-148) (33-35) (32-34) (52-61)

99. 138-148 av. 143 33-36 av. 34.7 33-37 av. 34 55-62 av. 58

(142-153) (33-36)

[116]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION—6 35

398 Tringa glareola Linnaeus (Sweden) Spotted Sandpiper 6: 219

36: 139793 209 9 30?

2 Baghdad, Iraq; 1 Kajjarak near Shiraz, Iran; 2 Sib, Persian Baluchistan; 2 Harbuz,

c. 55 m. east of Panjgur, Kalat, Baluchistan; 1 Chitral, N.W.F.P.; 1 Ladak,

Kashmir; 1 Delhi; 1 Kutch; 1 Bardoli, Baroda, Gujarat; 1 Ghoti, Nasik,

4 Thana, 3 Kolaba; 2 Palnis; 2 Travancore; 1 Chilka, Orissa; 3 Calcutta

Market; 1 Meerut, 1 Nahrosa, Pilibhit, U.P.; 1 Margherita, Assam; 1 Anda-

mans; 3 Burma, 1 Peking, China.

SG) eg

Wing 122-134 av. 124.6 (iH 120-128) 122-132 av. 129 (tH 125-130)

Bill 28-32 (tH 25-29 ex BR. HANDBOOK) 27-31 (IH ex BR. HANDBOOK 25-31)

Sp. No. 19756 from Thana District, Bombay, is in abberrant plumage

being washed with greyish all over.

Two T. ochropus were listed under this species.

399 Tringa guttifer (Nordmann) (Okhotsk) Spotted Greenshank

io bil. 6; 226

400 Tringa terek (Latham) (Shores of the Caspian Sea about the

mouth of the Terek River) Terek or Avocet Sandpiper 6: 212

9:29 9739 9 40?

1 Kashgar, Chinese Turkestan; 1 Karachi; 1 Bhyander, Bombay ; 2 Rewas, Kolaba

Dist.; 1 Cannanore, Malabar; 1 Point Calimere; 1 Calcutta Bazar; 1 Betapur,

Middle Andamans.

The specimen from Cannanore is no doubt one of the two obtained

at this place on 12 December 1931, and noted in the Eastern Ghats

Survey (JBNHS 39: 255). It was later received on 6 December 1938 from

Major Phythian-Adams, then resident in the Nilgiris, and the entries on

the labels and in the Register were changed to read ‘‘ Cannanore,

Nilgiris, S.I., 6th Dec. 1938”.

Wing Bill Tarsus Tail

125-135 av. 130 43-52 av. 47 26-28 av. 27 47-52 av. 50

(126-141) (1 7'43-49, 2 9 44-52) (25-28) (47-56)

401 Tringa hypoleucos Linnaeus (Sweden) Common Sandpiper

6: 217

28:1097 97 119 9 7o?

1 Feluja, R. Euphrates, Iraq; 2 Chaharbar (Chah Bahar ?), Persian Gulf, 1 Fao,

1 Karun River, Persia; 2 Ashni R., 1 Chitral; 2 Chini, Simla Hills; 1 Chandigarh,

Punjab; 1 Karachi; 1 Bodeli, Gujarat ; 1 Bhyander, 1 Kurla, 1 Andheri, 1 Ghod-

bunder, 2 Bombay, 1 Rewas, Kolaba; 1 Karwar; 1 Edanad, Kerala; 1 Ceylon;

1 Rajora, 1 Bastar; 1 Baghowni, Bihar; 1 Rangpo, Sikkim; 1 Katchal,

Nicobars.

ores oe)

Wing 104-113 av. 109 (106-114) 103-114 av. 108.4 (111-119)

Bill 23-27 av. 24.1 (23-25) 23-27 av. 25.2 (24-26)

Tail 51-60 av. 54.8 (50-59) 53-61 av. 55.7 (50-59)

[117]

56 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

402 Arenaria interpres interpres (Linnaeus) (Gotland, Sweden)

Turnstone 6: 154

19:69:97 89 2 So?

2 Tanb Island, Persian Gulf; 1 Karachi; 1 Mandvi, 1 Kandla, Kutch; 1 Bandra,

1 Gorai, Bombay; 1 Rewas, Kolaba; 2 Cape Comorin (1 missing); 2 Chilka

Lake, Orissa; 1 Manipur, Assam; 1 Choldhari, 2 S. Sentinel Island, Andamans;

1 Papun, Burma; 2 Tientsin, China.

Wing oo 144-163 av. 151.6 (7H ex BR.HANDBOOK 147-157)

@ Q 142-159 av. 150 (HH. ex BR. HANDBOOK 146-162)

403 Limnodromus semipalmatus (Blyth) (Calcutta Bazar) Snipe-

billed Godwit 6: 210

2 o? (1, head only) Chilka Lake, Orissa.

Wing 181 (177-181); bill 81, 84 (77-87)

The statement in IND. HANDBOOK (2: 276) that it can be separated

in the field from a godwit by its conspicuously slenderer, longer bill is

no doubt in error, for the bill is appreciably shorter than that of the

Blacktailed (102-127) and no longer than in the Bartailed (o'71, ? ? 91,

99, 1 unsexed 82).

I may also draw attention to the fact that I have changed the type

locality from “‘ Madras ”’ to “‘ Calcutta Bazar’’. Jerdon first obtained a

specimen in the Madras Market and sent it to Blyth at the Indian Museum

at Calcutta, and it is in the first place misleading to indicate the type

locality as Madras. Some time later (1848), Blyth described the species

Macrorhamphus semipalmatus with Jerdon’s name as author. At the

same time he stated that the description was based on a fresh specimen

from the Calcutta Bazar. The authorship is correctly attributed to Blyth,

and the bird which formed the basis of the description, i.e. the bird

from the Calcutta Bazar, would be the type.

( to be continued )

[118}

Nomenclatural Notes on some

Flowering Plants—II

N. P. BALAKRISHNAN

Botanical Survey of India, Eastern Circle, Shillong

} During general studies on Indian flora, particularly of Bhutan

and Jowai areas in Assam, and also during his work at the Hartley Bota-

nical Laboratories, University of Liverpool (U.K.) in 1966-67, the author

noticed that names of many plants needed change if the rules in the

International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (1966) were strictly applied.

These notes mainly involve the rules of priority, invalid publication,

later homonyms and also the recent altered taxonomic concepts of some

genera.

BRASSICACEAE

Sisymbrium bhutanicum Balak. nom. nov. S. lasiocarpum Hook f.

& Thoms. in J. Linn. Soc. 5 : 163, 1861 (non F. Muell. 1858) et in

Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 1 : 148, 1872.

FLACOURTIACEAE

Taraktogenos macrocarpa (Bedd.) Balak. comb. nov. Asteriastigma

macrocarpa Bedd. Fl. Sylv. 2: t. 266, 1872 et Ic. t. 242, 1874; Gamble,

Fl. Pres. Madras 52, 1915. Hydnocarpus macrocarpa (Bedd.) Warb.

in Engler & Prantl, Pflanzenfam. 3. (6a) : 21, 1893; Gilg in Engler, Pflan-

zenfam. 21 : 409, 1925.

MELIACEAE

Aglaia exstipulata (Griff.) Balak. comb. nov. Euphora exstipulatis

Griff. Notul. 4 : 547, 1851. A. polyantha Bedd. Ic. Pl. Ind. Or. 1: 44,

1874. A. minutiflora Bedd. 1. c. t. 193, 1874; Hiern in Hook. f. FI. Brit.

Ind. 1 : 557, 1875.

Dysoxylum alliarum (Buch.-Ham.) Balak. comb. nov. Guarea

alliaria Buch.-Ham. in Edinb. Mem. Wern. Soc. 6 : 305, 1832. Hartighsea

alliaria (Buch.-Ham.) Voigt, Hort. Sub. calc. 136, 1845. D. hamiltonii

Hiern in Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 1 : 548, 1875.

Dysoxylum gobara (Buch.-Ham.) Merr. in J. Arn. Arb. 23: 173,

1942, Guarea gobara Buch.-Ham. in Edinb. Mem. Wern. Soc. 6 : 306,

1832. Hartighsea gobara (Buch.-Ham.) Voigt, Hort. Sub. Calc. 136, 1845.

1 Part I in J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 63: 327-331, 1967.

58 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

Guarea disyphonia Griff. Notul. 4 : 503, 1851, D. procerum Hiern in

Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 1 : 547, 1875,

RHAMNACEAE.

Sageretia parviflora (Roem. & Schult.) G. Don, Gen. Syst. 2 : 29,

1832. Rhamnus parviflorus Roem. & Schult. Syst. 5 : 295, 1820. Rhamnus

filiformis Roth, Nov. Sp. Pl. 153, 1821. Sageretia oppositifolia Brogn.

in Ann. Nat. Sc. sér. 1, 10 : 360, 1827; Lawson in Hook. f. Fl. Brit.

Ind. 1 : 641, 1875. Sageretia filiformis (Roth) G. Don, Gen. Syst. 2: 29,

1832; Raizada in Indian For. 94 : 450, 1968.

Zizyphus mauritiana Lamk. var. fruticosa (Haines) Seb. & Balak.

in Indian For. 89 : 525, 1963. Z. jujuba Lamk. var. fruticosa Haines,

For. Fl. Chota Nagpur 270, 1910 et Bot. Bih. Oriss. 195, 1921. Z. mauritiana

Lamk. var. fruticosa (Haines) Raizada & Saxena in Indian For. 92 : 326,

1966, nom. illeg.

ROSACEAE

Malus sikkimensis (Wenzig) Balak. comb. nov. Sorbus sikkimensis

Wenzig in Linnaea 38 : 58, 1874. Pyrus sikkimensis Hook. f. Fl. Brit.

Ind.,.2.:,373, 1878.

As treated by Hutchinson (Gen. Fl. Pl. 1 : 210, 1964) Malus

differs from Pyrus in styles being connate at base and fruits globose,

without or with very few grit cells.

Rubus duthieanus Balak. nom. nov. R. fasciculatus Duthie in Ann.

R. Bot. Gard. Calc. 9 : 39, 1901 (non P. J. Mueller, 1858).

Rubus duthieanus Balak. var. tomentosus (Cardot) Balak. comb.

nov. R. fasciculatus Duthie var. tomentosus Cardot in Le Comte, Notul.

Syst. 3 : 314, 1917.

Rubus glandulifer Balak. nom. nov. R. /anatus Hook. f. Fl. Brit.

Ind. 2 : 331, 1878 (non Focke, 1867).

Rubus kumaonensis Balak. nom. nov. R. reticulatus Hook. f. FI.

Brit. Ind. 2 : 331, 1878 (non Kerner, 1870).

Rubus kurzii Balak. nom. nov. R. ferox Wall. ex Kurz. For. FI.

Brit. Burma 1 : 437, 1877; Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 2 : 329, 1878 (non

Boenn. 1824).

Rubus nutantiflorus Hara in J. Jap. Bot. 40 : 327, 1965. R. nutans

Wall. ex G. Don, Gen. Syst. 2 : 528, 1832 (non Vest 1824); Hook. f. FI.

Brit. Ind. 2 : 334, 1878. |

Rubus nutantiflorus Hara var. nepalensis (Hook. f.) Balak. comb.

nov. R. nutans G. Don var. nepalensis Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 2 : 334, 1878.

NOMENCLATURAL NOTES ON SOME FLOWERING PLANTS 59

Sorbus bhutanica (W. W. Smith) Balak. comb. nov. Pyrus bhutanica

W. W. Smith in Rec. Bot. Surv. Ind. 4 : 265, 1911.

Sorbus differs from Pyrus in corymbose or paniculate flowers and

pinnate or ‘pinnately lobed leaves, as treated by Hutchinson (Gen. FI.

Pl. 1: 210, 1964).

Sorbus kachinensis (W. W. Smith) Balak. comb. nov. Pyrus kachi

nensis W. W. Smith in Rec. Bot. Surv. Ind. 6 : 100, 1914.

Sorbus monbeigii (Cardot) Balak. comb. nov. Pyrus monbeigil

Cardot in Le Comte, Notul. Syst. 3 : 352, 1918.

Sorbus parvifolia (Blatter) Balak. comb. nov. Pyrus parvifolia

Blatter in J. Indian Bot. Soc. 9 : 207, 1930.

SAXIFRAGACEAE

Saxifraga himalaica Balak. nom. nov. S. micrantha Edgew. in

Trans. Linn. Soc. 20 : 50, 1846 (non Fisch. ex DC. 1830); Clarke in

Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 2 : 394, 1878.

Saxifraga nigroglandulifer Balak. nom. nov. S. nutans Hook. f.

& Thoms. in J. Linn. Soc. 2 : 69, 1857 (non D. Don 1822; nec Adams

1834); Clarke in Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 2 : 393, 1878.

CRASSULACEAE

Sedum hookeri Balak. nom. nov. S. elongatum Hook. f. & Thoms.

in J. Linn. Soc. 2 : 98, 1858 (non Ledebour 1834); Clarke in Hook. f.

Fl. Brit. Ind. 2 : 419, 1878.

MELASTOMACEAE

Sonerila amabilis Kurz in J. As. Soc. Beng. 40 (2) : 53, 1871.

S. kurzii Clarke in Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 2 : 539, 1879.

Sonerila trianae Balak. nom. nov. S. amabilis Triana (in Trans.

Linn. Soc. 28: 76, 1871, nom. nud.) ex Clarke in Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind.

2 : 533, 1879 (non Kurz 1871).

S. amabilis Kurz (1871) is the earlier name for S. kurzii described

‘by C. B. Clarke in 1879 and hence treated here as the correct name.

Clarke’s binomial S. amabilis published in 1879 is not legitimate being

a later homonym of S. amabilis Kurz (1871) and hence a new name

S. trianae is proposed here.

60 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

ARALIACEAE

Euaraliopsis Hutch. Gen. FI. Pl.2: 80, 1967. Araliopsis Kurz,

Andaman Rep. App. 39, 1870, nom. nud. Brassaiopsis Clarke in Hook.

f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 2 : 735, 1879, p.p. (non Decne & Planch. 1854).

Hutchinson (1967) separated this genus from Brassaiopsis sensu

‘Clarke (1879) on the basis that the leaves of Euaraliopsis are digitately

lobed or partite and not compound as in Brassaiopsis Decne & Planch.

The following species also belong to this genus :— ,

Euaraliopsis alpina (Clarke) Balak. comb. nov. Brassaiopsis alpina

Clarke in Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 2 : 736, 1879.

Euaraliopsis griffithii (Clarke) Balak. comb. nov. Brassaiopsis

griffithii Clarke in Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 2 : 736, 1879.

Euaraliopsis mitis (Clarke) Balak. comb. nov. Brassaiopsis mitis

Clarke in Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 2 : 736, 1879.

Euaraliopsis polyacantha (Wall.) Balak. comb. nov. Hedera

polyacantha Wall. Pl. As. Rar. 2: t. 190, 1831. Panax palmatum

Roxb. (Hort. Beng. 21, 1814, nom. nud.) et Fl. Ind. ed. 2, 2 : 74, 1832.

Araliopsis andamanica Kurz in Andaman Rep. App. 39, 1870. Brassai-

opsis palmata (Roxb.) Kurz in J. As. Soc. Beng. 39 (2): 77, 1870; Clarke

in Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 2: 735, 1879. Euaraliopsis palmata(Roxb.) Hutch.

Gen. FI. Pl. 2 : 80, 1967.

This is the correct name for the lectotype species of this genus and

not E. palmata (Roxb.) Hutch.

Euaraliopsis simplicifolia (Clarke) Balak. comb. nov. Brassaiopsis

simplicifolia Clarke in Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 2 : 735, 1879.

Schefflera seemannii Balak. nom. nov. Agalma glaucum Seem. in

J. Bot. 4 : 25, 1866 (non S. glaucum Harms, 1894). Heptapleurum glaucum

(Seem.) Clarke in Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 2 : 728, 1879 (non Kurz 1877).

ASTERACEAE

Saussurea pterocaulon Decne in Jacquem. Voy. Bot. 95, t. 103,

1844. Aplotaxis candolleana DC. Prodr. 6 : 541, 1837. Jurinea adenocarpa

Ledeb. FI. Ross. 2 : 765, 1846. S. candolleana (DC.) Hook. f. Fl. Brit.

Ind. 3 : 372, 1881 (non Clarke 1876).

J. D. Hooker made the combination S. candolleana based on

Aplotaxis candolleana DC., the earliest name for this species. However,

NOMENCLATURAL NOTES ON SOME FLOWERING PLANTS 61

in 1876, C. B. Clarke had already described a species under the name

S. candolleana and hence Hooker’s name is a later homonym and not

legitimate. The next in priority is Saussurea pterocaulon Decne, which is

the correct name for this species.

Saussurea candolleana Clarke, Comp. Ind. 230, 1876 (non Hook.

f. 1881). S. clarkei Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 3 : 372, 1881.

J. D. Hooker (1881) described the species S. clarkei which happens

to be synonymous to the earliest published name, S. candolleana Clarke,

the latter being treated here as the correct name.

Saussurea conica Clarke, Comp. Ind. 224, 1876. S. uniflora Wall.

ex Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 3 : 366, 1881 (non Clarke 1876). S. uniflora

var. conica (Clarke) Hook. f. 1. c.

Saussurea conica Clarke var. conica, S. uniflora Hook. f. var.

conica (Clarke) Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 3 : 366, 1881.

Saussurea conica Clarke var. uniflora Balak. nom. nov. S. uniflora

Wall. ex Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 3: 366, 1881, excl. var. conica (non Clarke

1876).

S. uniflora Hook. f. (1881) is a later homonym and hence not

legitimate. S. uniflora Clarke (1876) is an entirely different species. How-

ever, S. conica Clarke is an earlier synonym of S. uniflora Hook. f. and

treated by J. D. Hooker as a variety of his species and here treated as the

correct name of S. uniflora Hook. f.

Saussurea edgeworthii Kitamura in Acta Phytotax. Geobot. 24:4,

1969. Aplotaxis foliosa Edgew. in Trans. Linn. Soc. 20 : 77, 1846. S.

foliosa (Edgew.) Hook f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 3 : 373, 1881 (non Ledeb. 1829).

Senecio bombayensis Balak. nom. nov. Doronicum reticulatum

Wight, Calc. J. nat. Hist. 7 : 156, 1847. S. reticulatus (Wight) Clarke,

Comp. Ind. 199, 1876 (non DC. 1837). S. grahamii Hook. f. Fl. Brit.

Ind. 3 : 347, 1881 (non Benth. 1857).

Senecio bhutanicus Balak. nom. nov. Prenanthes quinqueloba DC.

Prodr. 6 : 404, 1838. S. quinquelobus (DC.) Hook. f. & Thoms. in Clarke,

Comp. Ind. 209, 1876 (non DC. 1837) ; Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 3 : 353, 1881.

Senecio connatus Balak. nom. nov. Ligularia arnicoides DC.

Prodr. 6 : 314, 1837. S. arnicoides (DC.) Clarke, Comp. Ind. 207, 1876

(non Hook. & Arn. 1841); Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 3 : 351, 1881.

Senecio flexuosus Balak. nom. nov. S. calthaefolius Hook. f. FI.

Brit. Ind. 3 : 350, 1881 (non Maximov 1871).

62 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

Senecio kashmirianus Balak. nom. nov. S. pedunculatus Edgew.

in Trans. Linn. Soc. 21 : 74, 1846 (non Sch.-Bip. 1844); Hook f. FI.

Brit. Ind. 3 : 342, 1881.

Senecio khasianus Balak. nom. nov. S. obtusatus DC. Prodr. 6:

367, 1838 (non Pursh. 1814); Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 3 : 340, 1881.

Senecio multiceps Balak. nom. nov. Doronicum arnottii DC. in

Wight, Contr. Bot. 23, 1834; DC. Prodr. 6 : 322, 1838 (non S. arnottii

Hook. f. 1844). Madaractis polycephala DC. Prodr. 6: 440, 1838.

S. polycephalus (DC.) Clarke, Comp. Ind. 197, 1876 (non Ledeb. 1830);

Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 3 : 344, 1881.

Senecio stylosus Balak. nom. nov. Gynura walkeri Wight, Ic. PI.

Ind. Or. t. 1122, 1846. S. walkeri (Wight) Thwaites, Enum. Pl. Zeyl.

167, 1860 (non Arnott 1836). Notonia walkeri (Wight) Clarke, Comp.

Ind. 176, 1876; Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 3 : 337, 1881.

Jacobsen (Handb. Sukkulent Pflanzen. 2: 1026, 1954) reduced

Notonia to Senecio on the basis that the succulent nature is common

to both genera and that the ovate style tips of Notonia as compared to

the truncate nature in Senecio can hardly be relied upon for generic

distinction.

Vernonia ceylanica Balak. nom. noy. V. scariosa Arn. in Nov.

Act. Nat. Cur. 18 : 346, 1836 (non Poiret 1808); Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 3:

236, 1881. Decaneuron scariosum DC. Prodr. 7 : 264, 1838. Centratherum

scariosum Clarke, Comp. Ind. 4, 1876.

PRIMULACEAE

Androsace dubyii (Dergnac) Balak. comb. nov. A. primuloides Duby

in DC. Prodr. 8 : 51, 1844 (non Moench. 1802; nec D. Don. 1825);

Pax & Knuth in Engler, Pflanzenr. 22 : 183, 1905. A. sarmentosa var.

primuloides (Duby) Hook. f. in Curtis, Bot. Mag. t. 6210, 1876 et in FI.

Brit. Ind. 3 : 498, 1882. A. sarmentosa var. dubyii Dergnac in Kneucker,

Allg. bot. Zeitsch. 10 : 110, 1904.

Lysimachia knuthiana Balak. nom. nov. L. glandulosa Knuth in

Engler, Pflanzenr. 22 : 264, 1905 (non Edgew. 1846).

Lysimachia muelleri Balak. nom. nov. L. salicifolia F. v. Muell.

ex Benth. Fl. Austral. 4 : 269, 1868 (non Miller 1772\: Pax & Knuth in

Engler, Pflanzenr. 22 : 305, 1905.

Primula asperulata Balak. nom. nov. P. incisa Franch. in Bull.

Soc. Bot. France 33 : 69, 1886 (non Lamk, 1778); Pax & Knuth, I.c. 66.

NOMENCLATURAL NOTES ON SOME FLOWERING PLANTS 63

Primula flaccida Balak. nom. nov. P. nutans Delavay ex Franch.

Bull. Soc. Bot. France 33: 69, 1886 (non Georgi 1797); Pax &

Knuth, I.c. 94.

Primula klattii Balak. nom. nov. P. uniflora Klatt in Linnaea 37: 500,

1872 (non Gmelin 1805); Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 3: 492, 1882.

Primula roxburghii Balak. nom. nov. P. rotundifolia Roxb. FI. Ind.

ed. 2, 2: 18, 1824 (non Pallas 1776); Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 3: 483, 1882.

Primula rugosa Balak. nom. nov. Carolinella obovata Hemsl. in

Hook. Icon. PI. t. 2775, 1903. P. obovata (Hemsl.) Pax in Engler, Pflanzenr.

24: 47, 1905 (non Duby 1844; nec Huter 1873).

BORAGINACEAE

Paracaryum uncinatum (Benth.) Balak. comb. nov. Cynoglossum

‘uncinatum Benth. in Royle, Illus. 305, 1836. C. laxum G. Don, Gen. Syst.

4:356, 1838. C. roylei Wall. ex DC. Prodr. 10: 155, 1846. Echinoglossum

glochidiatum DC. Prodr. 10: 136, 1846. Paracaryum glochidiatum (DC.)

Benth. in Benth. & Hook. f. Gen. Pl. 2: 850, 1876; Clarke in Hook. f.

Fl. Brit. Ind. 4: 161, 1883.

ACANTHACEAE

Eranthemum L. Sp. Pl. 9, 1753. Daedalacanthus T. Anders. in Thw.

Enum. Pl. Zeyl. 229, 1864; Clarke in Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 4: 417, 1884.

Daedalacanthus T. Anders. is strictly synonymous to Eranthemum

L. as the type species of the former, D. montanum T. Anders. is synony-

mous to the type species of the latter, E. capense L.

Eranthemum burmanicum Balak. nom. nov. Daedalacanthus

parishii Clarke in Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 4: 421, 1884 (non E. parishii

Clarke 1884).

Eranthemum macrostachys (T. Anders.) Balak. comb. nov.

Daedalacanthus macrostachys T. Anders. in J. Linn. Soc. 9: 488, 1867;

Clarke in Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 4: 420, 1884.

Eranthemum pulchellum Andr. Bot. Repos. 2: t. 88, 1800 (non

Roxb. 1832). Justicia nervosa Vahl, Enum. 1: 164, 1804. E. nervosum

(Vahl) R. Br. Prodr. 1: 477, 1810; Santapau in Univ. Bombay, Bot.

Mem. 2:35, 1952. Daedalacanthus nervosus (Vahl) T. Anders. in J.

Linn. Soc. 9: 487, 1867; Clarke in Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 4: 418, 1884.

Eranthemum wardii (W. W. Smith) Balak. comb. nov.

Daedalacanthus wardii W. W. Smith in notes R. Bot. Gard. Edinh,

10: 174, 1918, . i

64 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

Synnema Benth. in DC. Prodr. 10: 538, 1846. Cardanthera Buch.-

Ham. (ex Voigt, Hort. Sub. Calc. 482, 1845, nom. nud.) ex Nees in DC.

Prodr. 11: 67, 1847; Clarke in Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 4: 403, 1884. Ade-

nosma Wall. Pl. As. Rar. 3: 75, 1832 (non R. Br. 1810).

The generic name Cardanthera taken by Voigt from a manuscript

name of Buchanan-Hamilton was not validly published by Voigt in 1845

as such his note does not fulfil any of the conditions set by article 41 of

the Code. The genus was validated only in 1847 by Nees von Esenbeck.

However, by this time Cardanthera Buch.-Ham. ex Nees became antedated

by Synnema Benth. (1846) and the latter name should be adopted as the

correct name.

Recently Raizada (in Indian For. 94: 431, 1968) published notes on

this change in generic name. It seems necessary to point out that some

of the species names listed by him are in neuter gender, while others are in

feminine gender. Synnemais a Greek compound word (syn: with, together ;

-nema: thread) in the neuter gender and Bentham (1846) attributed the

same gender to his genus, as obvious from the ending of the specific

epithet of the type species, S. avanum. According to article 23, the specific

epithet when adjectival in form and not used as substantive should agree

gramatically with the generic name. Hence all adjectival specific epithets

belonging to Synnema should be in neuter gender, ending in-uwm. It may

also be pointed out that Greek adjectives used as specific epithets show a

disconcerting array of nominative endings and hence it is usual practice

to give them the Latin endings,—a (f.), — us (m.) and um—(n.).

The following are the correct names of Indian species of Synnema:

Synnema anomalum (Blatter) Raizada in Indian For. 94: 451, 1968.

Cardanthera anomala Blatter in J. As. Soc. Beng. 26: 350, 1930.

Cardanthera anomala Blatter described from Bombay differs from

all species of Synnema in having only one fertile stamen with one stami-

node and just 10—12 seeds supported on curved retinacula, whereas

Synnema is characterised by 4 fertile stamens and many seeds on straight

retinacula. The type specimens, Hallberg 9766 and 9767 were collected

from Vihar Lake, Salsette Island and Tardeo in Bombay. Santapau

(Univ. Bombay, Bot. Mem. 2: 14, 1951) states that none of these speci-

mens are present in Blatter Herbarium. As authentic material of this

species is not available, it is not possible to decide now, whether it belongs

to Synnema or another genus.

Synnema balsamicum (L. f.) O. Ktze in Rev. Gen. Pl. 2: 500, 1891.

Ruellia balsamica L. f. Suppl. 289, 1781. Adenosma balsamea Spreng.

Syst. 2: 829, 1825. Cardanthera balsamica (L. f.) Clarke in Hook. f. FI.

Brit. Ind. 4: 404, 1884. S. barbigera O. Ktze, |.c. 500; Raizada, I.c. 451.

NOMENCLATURAL NOTES ON SOME FLOWERING PLANTS 65

Synnema balsamicum (L. f.) O. Ktze var. thymus (Nees) Balak.

comb. nov. Adenosma thymus Nees in Wall. Pl. As. Rar. 3: 79, 1832.

Cardanthera balsamica (L. f.) Benth. var. thymus (Nees) Clarke in Hook.

f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 4: 404, 1884.

Synnema biplicatum (Nees) Imlay in Kew Bull. 1939: 111, 1939.

Adenosma biplicata Nees in Wall. Pl. As. Rar. 3: 79, 1832, Pedicularis

avana Wall. ex Benth. Scroph. Ind. 52, 1835. Synnema avanum Benth.

in DC. Prodr. 10: 538, 1846; Raizada, I.c. 451. Cardanthera avana Benth.

ex Clarke in Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 4: 405, 1884. Synnema avanum Benth.

var. biplicatum (Nees) O. Ktze, Rev. Gen. Pl. 2: 500, 1891.

Synnema griffithii (T. Anders.) O. Ktze, Rev. Gen. Pl. 2: 500, 1891.

Adenosma griffithii T. Anders in J. Linn. Soc. 11: 454, 1870. Cardanthera

griffithii Clarke in Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 4: 404, 1884.

Synnema pinnatifidum (Dalz.) O. Ktze, Rev. Gen. Pl. 2: 500, 1891.

Nomaphila pinnatifida Dalz. in Kew J. Bot. 3: 38, 1851. Adenosma pin-

natifidum (Dalz.) T. Anders. in J. Linn. Soc. 9: 455, 1867. Cardanthera

pinnatifida (Dalz.) Clarke in Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 4: 405, 1884.

Synnema triflorum (Roxb.) O. Ktze, Rev. Gen. Pl. 2: 500, 1891.

Ruellia triflora Roxb. (Hort. Beng. 46, 1814, n.n.) Fl. Ind. 3:52, 1832.

Adenosma triflora Nees in Wall. Pl. As. Rar. 3: 79, 1832. Cardanthera

triflora (Roxb.) Clarke in Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 4: 405, 1884.

The combination, Cardanthera difformis (L. f.) Druce in Rep. Bot.

Exch. Cl. Brit. Isles 1916, Suppl. 2: 612, 1917 based on Ruellia difformis

L. f., made for this species is not correct as it is not a Synnema at all. The

description and the synonym, ‘ Nir—Schulli’ Rheede (Hort. Malab.

2:89, t. 46, 1679) given by Linnaeus f. indicate this to be Hygrophila

erecta (Burm. f.) Hochr. and not Synnema triflorum.

Synnema uliginosum (L. f.) O. Ktze, Rev. Gen. PI. 2: 500, 1891.

Ruellia uliginosa L. f. Suppl. 290, 1781. Adenosma uliginosa (L. f.) R. Br.

in Verm. Schrift. 3:298 1867. Cardanthera uliginosa Clarke in Hook. f.

Fl. Brit. Ind. 4: 403, 1884.

Synnema verticillatum (Nees) O. Ktze, Rev. Gen. PI. 2: 500, 1891.

Adenosma verticillata Nees in Wall. Pl. As. Rar. 3 : 79, 1832. Cardanthera

verticillata (Nees) Clarke in Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 4: 404, 1884.

NEPENTHACEAE

Nepenthes chapmannii Balak. nom. nov. N. zeylanica Chapm. in

Ceylon J. Sci. Sect. A, Bot. 12: 221, 1947 (non Rafinesque 1836).

66 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

ORCHIDACEAE

Bulbophyllum devangiriensis Balak. nom. nov. B. uniflorum Griff.

Notul. 3. 293, 1851 (non Hassk. 1844); Hook f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 5: 755,

1890. Sarcopodium uniflorum (Griff.) Lindl. Fol. Orch. 16, 1853.

Bulbophyllum guttulatum (Hook. f.) Balak. comb. nov. Cirrhopetalum

guttulatum Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind.5: 776, 1890. Bulbophyllum umbellatum

Lindl. in Edw. Bot. Reg. 30: t. 44, 1844 (non Lindley 1830).

Chiloschista Lindl. Fischer (in Gamble, Fl. Pres. Madras 1440,

1928) gives the spelling of this genus as Chilochista, but the original

spelling given by Lindley is Chiloschista.

Additional knowledge on the morphology of the genus Sarcochilus

(sensu Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 6: 33, 1890) indicates this genus to be hete-

rogenous composed of at least four distinct genera, Chiloschista, Micro-

pera, Thrixspermum and Sarcochilus (sensu stricto). Most recent authors

including Pfitzer (in Engler & Prantl, Pflanzenfam. 2(6): 216, 1889), J. J.

Smith (in Fl. Buitenz. 6: 533, 1905 et in Fedde, Repert. 32: 350, 1933)

and Santapau & Kapadia (Orch. Bombay 209, 1966) have accepted and

followed this division.

Chiloschista minimifolia (Hook. f.) Balak. comb. nov. Sarcochilus

minimifolius Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 6: 37, 1890.

Dendrobium perpusillum Balak. nom. nov. D. pumilum Roxb. FI.

Ind. 3: 479, 1832 (non Swartz 1805); Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 5: 713, 1890.

Dendrobium wightii Balak. nom. nov. D. graminifolium Wight, Ic.

Pl. Ind. Or. t. 1649, 1851 (non Willd. 1805); Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 5: 718,

1890.

Eulophia dabia (D. Don) Balak. comb. nov. Bletia dabia D. Don,

Prodr. Fl. Nep. 30, 1825. Limodorum ramentaceum Roxb. FI. Ind. 3:

467, 1832. E. campestris Lindl. Gen. Sp. Orch. 185, 1833; Hook. f. Fl.

Brit. Ind. 6: 4, 1890. E. ramentacea (Roxb.) Lindl. Gen. Sp. Orch. 185,

1833.

Micropera rostratum (Roxb.) Balak. comb. nov. Aerides rostratum

Roxb. Fl. Ind. 3: 474, 1832. Camarotis purpurea Lind]. Gen. Sp. Orch.

219, 1833. Sarcochilus purpureus (Lindl.) Benth. ex Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind.

6: 36, 1890.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I express my thanks to Dr. A. S. Rao, Regional Botanist, Botanical

Survey of India, Eastern Circle, Shillong for critically going through the

manuscript and suggesting valuable modifications,

The Behaviour of the Lesser

Bandicoot Rat, Bandicota bengalensis

(Gray & Hardwicke)

DwaAIN W. PARRACK AND JACOB THOMAS

(With eleven text-figures)

A study of the behaviour of 4 adult Lesser Bandicoot Rats, Bandicota

bengalensis, was conducted by observing their activity for 50 minutes

per hour, 24 hours per day for 28 days. The animals were studied in a

pen in which they could burrow freely. The amount of food removed

from the food containers was measured and the amount of food hoarded

was calculated. Measurements were also made of the amount of time

spent above ground, the number of trips to the food platform, the timing

of activity, and the number and types of social interactions.

INTRODUCTION

The lesser bandicoot rat, Bandicota bengalensis, is distributed

throughout most of India, East Pakistan, and parts of Burma (Biswas

& Tiwari; in press) and occupies both rural and urban environments.

In rural areas it is an agricultural pest, burrowing into bunds separating

farm plots and attacking standing crops. In cities this animal destroys

large amounts of stored food and seems to be replacing Rattus rattus

as the main urban rat. Records from the Plague Control Laboratory in

Calcutta show that between 1936 and 1965, B. bengalensis increased from

about 27 per cent to about 90 per cent of the rats captured in Calcutta

and Howrah (Seal & Banerji; in press). This displacement of R. rattus

represents a potential health hazard, as B. bengalensis has been reported

to be more susceptible to the plague bacillus than R. rattus (Nimbkar

& Deoras ; in press).

The success of this species in replacing R. rattus is coupled with its

high reproductive capacity. Southwick (in press) has compared the

reproductive patterns of several murid rodents and using Spillett’s

study of the bandicoots of warehouses in Calcutta and Howrah, showed

an annual production of 69.6 young per year per female in B. bengalensis,

as compared with 35.7 for R. norvegicus and 31.3 for R. rattus. Spillett

(1968) in his warehouse studies found that the average population

density for all 12 months of the year was .77 rats/square metre of ware-

house floor space. However, the captures greatly decreased during the

rainy months of July and August and when these two months are

excluded, the average density jumps to 8.5 rats/square metre of floor

space (personal communication).

68 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

There are few estimates of the amount of food lost to this bandicoot ;

Deoras (1966) and Spillett (1968) reported on the daily consumption

of caged animals. Patnaik (in press) has reviewed the estimates of daily

consumptions for Indian rats in general and reports estimates of 20, 25,

30 and 60 g./day, but it is not possible to know if any of these figures

are for B. bengalensis, or if they represent hoarding as well as actual

consumption. Pingale et al. have gathered somewhat more detailed

information for several species of murid rodents.

Little is known of the behaviour of this species. Deoras (1967)

has gathered information about their burrows, and Parrack (1966)

reported on the activity cycle of animals in activity cages, but almost

nothing is known of other aspects of the behaviour of this animal.

As Kavanau (1967) and others have pointed out, the relatively

sterile environment to which captive animals are often submitted tends

to distort their behaviour. Zoo animals, for instance, often develop

highly stereotyped behaviour which is completely foreign to their

behaviour in the wild. To avoid the distortion of the behaviour of the

bandicoots used in these studies, we have used a pen which, because

of its dirt floor, allows for burrowing (apparently a strong psychological

**need ’’ in these animals) and which allows considerable freedom for

running about. Six groups of bandicoots, usually 4 adults (2 males and

2 females) have been studied. The number of periods of observation

(50 minutes) varied from 6 to 24 in a 24 hour period. The present study,

using 24 periods/day, is intended as a base-line for other studies.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Two adult males (No. 33, weighing 245.8 gm.; No. 34, 211.4 gm.)

and two adult females (No. 35, 190.0 gm.; No. 36, 165.5 gm.) were

used in this study. All 4 animals had been trapped in a grain warehouse

in Calcutta and housed in individual cages for 3 days before the study

began. The animals were individually marked by clipping the hair in

different parts of the body. All were apparently healthy and neither

of the females showed signs of pregnancy. The animals were introduced

into the study pen simultaneously in order to avoid the effects of prior

occupancy. Detailed recording of the behaviour was begun at 17.00

hours, a few hours after introduction.

The pen was constructed of bricks, mortar, and plaster and measured

4 by 6 m. (fig. 1). The walls were sunk 2 feet beneath the surface of the

surrounding ground and 3 feet of additional dirt was put into the pen,

thus reducing the chances of the animals digging out. The floor of the

pen was laid off in 24, 1-metre squares with rows of half-buried bricks.

and the squares were identified by combinations of letters and numbers,

| CONTROL |

Fig. 1.

wwe”

OAYS

Bi.330%, Bisad, B..s59, GZ..s69

NOLE NO.

238 4 5 6 7 8B 9 10K 12 13 14:15 16 (7 18 19 20 21 22 23:24 25 26 27 28 29 50 5) 32 35 54 55 56 37 38 39 40 4)

oOOnFKteawnn -

r=)

1254 5 6 7 6 9 10 12 15 14 16 16 17 IB 19 20.21 2223 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33.34.35 36 37 38 39 4041

Fig. 2

BEHAVIOUR OF LESSER BANDICOOT RAT 69

The pen was roofed with wire mesh to prevent the entry of birds and

predators. At night the pen was lighted with 4, 60-watt, clear light bulbs.

A covered feeding platform was placed in square B-2 which had been

bricked-in to prevent holes being dug directly beneath the platform.

A large mirror was hung on the wall behind. the feeding platform so that

the observers could see the animals which were hidden by the platform.

A water dish was placed in square B-3 and in square B-4 there were

caged food dishes (inaccessible to the rats) which were used as controls

for changes in the weight of food due to relative humidity. Each burrow

was marked with a stake bearing a number.

Supplies of rice, wheat, and dal (Lens culinaris) were put into the

food dishes and weighed at 17.00 hours and at 06.00 hours each day.

The observational ‘‘ day ” began at 18.00 hours and ended 24 hours

later. In the present study observations were made 50 minutes/hour,

24 hours/day for 28 days. The study was conducted during the winter

(13 January to 10 February, 1968) during which time there was almost

no rain and the average daily maximum and minimum temperatures

were 78.8 F and 58.0°F respectively.

Observations were made from a shed at one end of the pen, one

observer recording the activity of one male and one female, a second

observer recording the behaviour of the other 2 animals. The observers

“traded” rats several times per day and the working hours of the

observers were shifted to prevent individual bias in recording.

Collective food consumption was recorded twice per day and the

following data were recorded for each rat: number of squares entered,

number of trips to food and water, number of entries into and exits

from each burrow, time above ground, time spent in digging and

grooming, and the number and type of social interactions. The data

were transferred to punched cards and tabulated on an IBM 407

tabulator.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Social Rank

In this study, as well as in others yet to be completely analysed, the

animals began a series of fights within 5 minutes after being introduced

into the pen. The fighting often was associated with the digging of holes.

One animal would begin digging only to have another attempt to displace

him, or her, from the hole. Within 15 or 20 minutes the dominant animal

was identifiable by the observers because of his aggressiveness and the

number of times the others moved away from him.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

The larger male, No. 33, very quickly established himself as the

dominant and the smaller male, No. 34, was clearly the subordinate.

Aspects of the dominance and subordinance of the males will be considered

later. It is difficult to assign a rank to the females, as they had much less

social interaction than male. The fact that 35 9 outweighed 36 2 by

almost 25 g. suggests that she had a physical advantage over the latter.

Further, she occupied the most favourable hole (under the food platform)

and visited the food more often than did 36 2. Also, she was much more

inclined to fight, initiating some 15 fights (as compared to 17 initiated

by 33% and 1 by 36 ). Her weight, the location of her burrow, the

number of her visits to food, and her aggressiveness might be indications

that she out-ranked the other female.

Barnett (1958) distinguished three ranks of males in laboratory

colonies of wild Rattus norvegicus : (1) ‘“‘alpha’’ males, which were larger

than the others, were aggressive, displayed no hesitation in moving in the

cage, and always gained weight; (2) “‘beta’’ males, which ranked below

the “‘alpha’’ but above the “‘omegas,”’ had been defeated by the “‘alphas’’

in combat but did not develop “shock’’ and always gained weight; (3)

‘‘omega’’” males, which were continuously persecuted, moved about

more slowly, had poor condition of the fur, lost weight, and often died

of “‘shock.”’

In the present study the two males showed mixtures of character-

istics of all three ranks. The dominant male (33) was like Barnett’s “‘alphas”

in that he was larger, more aggressive, and moved freely about the pen.

However, he lost weight (20.3 gm.). The subordinate male (34) resembled

Barnett’s “‘omegas’’ in being continuously harassed by the dominant,

moving more slowly (Table 2) and in losing weight (15.4 gm.). However,

the fact that he survived the 28 days of persecution would seem to classify

him as a “‘beta’’.

Food Consumption

The animals used in this study almost always emptied the food

dishes after each of the two daily fillings. The food supply, therefore, was

not unlimited, but it was more than adequate, since excavation of the

burrows at the end of the study revealed a considerable amount of rotting

food. During the 28 days of the study, a total of 4,398 gm. of food was

removed, a daily average of 162.9 gm. of 40.7/gm./rat/day. These figures

lie somewhere between the minimal requirements and the amount they

would remove given an unlimited supply.

Grain warehouses often have, what to the rats, are limitless supplies

of food. In a study of 8 penned bandicoots Parrack (in press) found

EIGHTS

CHASES

MOUNTS

FIGHTS

\ 33C

V 34.0

APPROACHES

Mihi: apie » hyn

BEHAVIOUR OF LESSER BANDICOOT RAT 71

that given an unlimited supply the rats removed a daily average of 67.4

gm./rat and calculated that this amount was about 5 times the amount

actually consumed.

Deoras (1967) reported a daily consumption of 12.8 gm./rat/day

and Spillett (1968) reported about 11 gm./rat/day. These figures are for

the amount actually eaten and do not include hoarding. Our own studies

(in press) of adults in individual cages which allowed no hoarding showed

an average consumption of 14.9 gm./rat/day (34 rats; x body wt. =216.7

gm.). The discrepancies in these three reports are probably due to indivi-

dual variations in the physiology of the rats, the body size of the rats,

the season of the year, and the duration of captivity.

If the average of the three reports (12.9 gm. rat/day) is taken to be

fairly reliable estimate of actual food consumption, the animals in the

present study were probably consuming 32 per cent and hoarding 68

per cent of the total amount removed from the food containers.

General Comparison of Individuals

During the course of the study the males lost weight and the females

gained. Table 2 summarizes several types of activity for the entire study

period. In most of these activities there is a strong difference between

the sexes. In terms of the total number of squares entered, the males were

much more active than the females, with the dominant male (No. 33)

entering almost 7 times as many squares as the least active female. The

number of squares entered is also associated with the initial weight

of the animals, the heaviest animal (330) being the most active, the

lightest (36 2 ), the least active.

TABLE 1

CHANGES IN BODY WEIGHT DURING THE 28 DAYS OF THE STUDY

Rat No. Initial wt. (gm.) | Final wt. (gm.) | Change (gm.)

‘| 2B yee gia amma aa 245.8 225.5 arg

annoit aoc be , 211.4 196.0 ae Se

B52 Jo telus vilab ay, 190.0 229.5 e305

369 165.5

1953 | 1-298

Overall average body wt.=207.4 gm.

The subordinate male spent more than twice as much time above

ground than did the dominant male. It seems likely that he was prevented

from entering the burrows by the dominant. Not only did the subordinate

72 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 67 (1)

male spend more time above ground, he moved about less rapidly than

the other 3 animals, entering only 1.7 squares/minute above ground, as

compared with 5.4 for the dominant and 7.6 for 35 9. Female 35 and

the dominant male made frequent trips to the food platform (both more

than 3000 times), while 34 & and 36 2 went much less often. The sub-

ordinate male did much more wandering per trip to food (21.6 squares/

trip) than did the others. The 2 females had taken up residence in burrows

near the food platform and confined most of their movement to food

gathering, hence they entered only 2.2 (352) and 3.1 (36 9) squares

per trip. Female 35, who occupied a hole under the food platform, visited

the food dishes on an average of every 17 seconds (.3 min./trip) when

she was above ground, while female 36, occupying a hole slightly further

away, returned to the platform every 38 seconds (.6 min./trip). The sub-

ordinate male returned to platform on an average of every 12.5 minutes in

contrast to the dominant male who returned after average intervalsof

1.6 minutes.

Grooming : Neither of the females was observed grooming. Male 33

groomed for a total of 9 minutes and male 34 for 20 minutes. Grooming

as a displacement activity has been reported for several rodents and

Barnett (1958) describes it in R. rattus. Displacement activities occur

when the expression of a drive is blocked or frustrated. That the males,

rather than the females, groomed in this study and that the subordinate

male groomed much more than the dominant, suggests that at least some

of the grooming observed here was a displacement.

Digging : The amount of time of observed digging was not related

to sex or rank. It is known that most, if not all, of the burrows were

interconnected, and as the burrows were extensive, much of the digging

must have been done when the animals were invisible to the observers.

Trips to water : The timing of the trips to the water container reflected

the general pattern of activity, that is, during those hours when the animals

entered many squares, there was an increase in the number of trips to

water. Most of the trips fell between 18.00-24.00 hours and 06.00-09.00

hours, the times in which the food platform was visited more frequently.

There was, however, no correlation between the daily total of squares

entered and the daily total of trips to water.

Diurnal activity : Although bandicoots are generally nocturnal, they,

like R. norvegicus (Calhoun 1962), will become active during the day

time under undisturbed conditions. Of the total time spent above

ground by all 4 animals about 35 per cent was during the day time and

about 48 per cent of the trips to the food platform took place during the

day-light hours.

TOTAL

120]

100 Ir

HO ‘|

O===0 .. .. APPROACHES

| @- wg { AGGRESSIVE

ENCOUNTERS

le«, @ 3 4 5

4 DAY PERIODS

Fig. 6

_ BEHAVIOUR OF LESSER BANDICOOT RAT 73

Use of Burrows

Forty-one holes were dug by the rats during the 28 days of the study.

The usage of these holes (as indicated by the number of times the animals

entered or left them) was far from uniform. No entries were recorded for

2 of the holes after they had been dug. On the other hand, some of the

holes were entered well over a thousand times. Fig. 2 gives a history of

the occupancy of the holes which has been simplified by considering only

those holes which were entered 10 or more times in a day by an individual

rat. The records of entries and exits were so nearly identical that only

the entries will be considered.

The most striking characteristic illustrated by fig. 2 is that the females

tend to settle down very quickly to occupying one hole, while the males

are more inclined to change burrows. On day 2, female 35 began frequent-

ing hole No. 3 (under the food platform, fig. 1) which she occupied through-

out the remainder of the study. In the 26 days of her occupancy she made

a total of 3,983 entries of which 3,310 (83 per cent) were into that hole.

The other female (36) established herself in hole No. 5 on day 6 and used

it as a residence for the rest of the 28 days even though on days 19, 20,

and 23 she was generally inactive and entered the hole less than 10 times.

She was somewhat less active than 35 making a grand total of 2,348

entries ; 1,943 (82 per cent) of which were into hole number 5. The domi-

nant male occupied several holes. On day 6 he began frequenting No. 4

and deserted it on day 14. His second major hole was No. 19 which he

occupied from day 11 through day 28. Twenty per cent of his 4,060 entries

was to hole No. 4 and 44 per cent was to hole No. 19. Hole No. 30 was

less often visited by him and accounted for only 5 per cent of his total

entries. The subordinate male never established a permanent residence.

His longest residence was for 3 days (hole No. 8) after which he was dis-

placed by 33 o&. He was likewise displaced from holes No. 4 and 30.

The difference in the males’ total number of entries is striking, with 4,060

for 33 o and only 616 for 34.

Social Interactions

The following social behaviour were recorded : fighting, chasing,

bumping, genital sniffing, mounting, pelvic thrusting, and approaching

and following. Chasing differed from following in that the former was

slower than the latter. Approaching is defined as an interaction in which

one animal comes toward another and in which no other type of interaction

(fighting, mating, etc.) results. Bumping is used to describe the striking

of one animal with the hip of another. The other terms are self-explanatory.

No occasion of what Barnett (1958) called “‘amicable’” behaviour in

R. rattus were seen in this study,

74 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

Categorizing of most of these behaviours into headings such as

Aggressive and Sexual is straight forward ; Aggressive behaviour involving

fighting and bumping and Sexual involving genital sniffing, mounting and

pelvic thrusting. Some behaviours, however, are less easily categorized.

Chasing, for instance, could conceivably be aggressive or sexual in moti-

vation and it seemed logical to consider all chasing as aggressive except

for the questionable case of a male chasing a female. As it turned out,

there were no cases of a male chasing a female. Approaching, like chasing,

could conceivably be of sexual or non-aggressive motive. However, it

seems likely that most of the cases of approaching were aggressive. This

will be discussed later.

In this analysis attention is focused on the number and type of inter-

actions initiated (so far as the observers could determine) by the indivi-

dual rat. The number of interactions initiated by each rat varied a

great deal: 33 initiated a total of 597, while the next most active

animal, 35 @, initiated only 66. Female 36 was still less active with 20

interactions, and the subordinate male throughout the 28 days of the

study was seen initiating only one action, a single approach to 35 9.

Figures 3 and 4 summarize the interactions of the 4 animals. Of the

597 interactions of 33 o& the majority (81 per cent) were either chasing

or approaching the subordinate male. It seems likely that approaching in

this case was aggressive, since the timing of the approaches and of the

clearly recognisable forms of aggression (fighting, chasing) were almost

mutually exclusive (fig. 2). Incidents of clearly recognizable aggression

by 33" against 34 o& tended to occur on a 24 hour cycle, in the morning

between 06.00 and 09.00 hours when the subordinate male made most of

his trips to the food. This is taken to mean that during most of the “‘day’’

34’s trips to food could be intimidated by a mere approach by 33 a,

but that when hunger drove him to the food platform, more violent

forms of aggression resulted (figs. 9, 11).

Relatively little actual fighting occurred. Of the 33 fights recorded

17 were started by 33 o, 15 by 35 9, and 1 by 36 9. Twenty of the 33

fights involved 34 o& who, therefore, did somewhat more fighting than

any of the other 3 animals. The females chased only the males, not each

other, and 36 2 bumped 33 o 10 times.

The subordinate male was not seen in any sexual activity. Similar

observations were made by Calhoun (1962) on penned Norway rats

(R. norvegicus) in which some low ranking males showed no sexual

behaviour and in which highly dominant males sometimes held territories

containing several females.

DAV S

27 25 23 2t 19 17 15 3 th 8S F § 8

HOURS :

168 20 22 24 2 4 6 8 10 !2 14 16 18

oAY S

27 25 23 21 19 17 1 13 41 9 7 S 38

16 2022 242 4 6 § 10 12114 16 18

HOURS

Fig. 7

= HOURS

; 8 20 22 242 4 6 B 10 12 14 16

SAVa

'¢c¢ sz 6 tt & St 4 6 12 &@ G2 22

1 € GZ 6W St St 2 Gl te SZ Szaz

SAWQG

(18 20 22242 4 6 B 0 12 6 tt

HOURS

Fig. 8

BEHAVIOUR OF LESSER BANDICOOT RAT 75

The dominant male sniffed the genital region of 36 2 18 times and

attempted to mount 9 times, but in 8 of these the female either kicked

him off or moved away. Only once was successful mounting and pelvic

thrusting observed (day 6) in the case of this female. Female 35 was

somewhat more receptive. He sniffed her genital region 5 times, succeeded

in positioning his feet on her back 4 times and displayed pelvic thrusting

twice (both on day 25). Neither of the females was obviously pregnant

at the end of the study.

The relationship of social rank of males, and the number of off-

spring sired is one which should be considered in campaigns of chemo-

sterilization of rats. Calhoun (1962) showed in R. norvegicus high ranking

males were more sexually active and the present study indicates that the

same is true in bandicoots. If dominant males were shown to be more

easily given the chemosterelant (either by their being more easily trapped

or more willing to take bait), the task of chemosterilization might be

made easier. If, on the other hand, low ranking and sexually inactive

individuals were more easily trapped or more willing to take the bait,

the task would be made more difficult.

The interactions of the females were, for the most part restricted

to a few squares, chiefly the squares in which their burrows or the food

platform were located. The males, on the other hand, had interactions

scattered over a much larger area of the pen. Of the 330 approaches by

33 &| to 34 o& for which the location was noted, the majority occurred

in squares B-2 (food platform), B-4, A-6 (hole No. 4), C-6, D-6 (fig. 1).

Chases were less common, with 115 of known location. These most

frequently occurred in B-2 (food platform), A-3 and A-6 (hole No. 4).

The locations of 11 fights are known: 5 took place in B-2 (food platform),

3 in B-4, and the remaining were scattered with single fights in 3 different

squares.

Cycles of Activity

G. H. Wang (cited in Richter, 1965) showed that R. norvegicus

females in activity cages have a 4-day cycle of wheel-running and that

this cycle is associated with the oestrus cycle, ovulation occurring just

before the peak of wheel-running. One of the female bandicoots used

in the present study (35) displayed a rather well developed 3-day cycle

in the number of squares entered (Table 3), which possibly reflects the

oestrus cycle of this species. In her record there are five 3-day periods

and one period of 6 days. The other female (36) was much less consistent

with peaks of activity being separated by 2 to 6 days. The males showed

peaks separated by 2 to 5 days, the most common being 4 days.

76 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 )

During the first 10 days of the study there were 4 occasions when

the peak of activity of one of the females coincided with the peak of one

of the males, but during the remaining 18 days the peak of activity of the

males were synchronized with each other. If the 3-day cycles shown by

36 ¢ were actually reflections of her oestrus cycle, a degree of synchrony

between her and the males might be expected. This, however, was rarely

the case. Calhoun (1962) reported an increase of fighting among male

R. rattus when females were in heat, but in the present study fighting

showed no pattern comparable to the 3-day cycle of 35 9. The cause

of her cycle is unknown.

Changes in Behaviour

During the course of the study several aspects of behaviour changed

considerably. While the amount of time above ground for the females

remained low and constant throughout the 28 days, the males spent

increasing amounts of time above ground (fig. 6). The subordinate male

during the last two 4-day periods remained above ground about 80

per cent of the time and was often seen sleeping in the food platform when

the dominant male was underground. Although the increase in the

dominant’s time above ground could have been caused by a number of

factors, it is difficult to avoid the impression that he was remaining above

ground in response to the subordinate. The subordinate could not escape

from the area, as he might have done in a warehouse or field, and he was

physically and behaviourally capable of surviving the persecution by the

dominant. This seems to have lead to increasing amounts of time above

ground and to an increase in the amount of harassment. As shown in

fig. 6, the amount of aggression (here defined as fighting and chasing)

increased 11-fold from the first to the last 4-day period. As mentioned

earlier, approaches seem to be of aggressive motivation. If fighting,

chasing, and approaching are considered as one, the total amount of

aggression increased 13-fold during the study.

In addition to changes in the amount of time spent above ground

and the amount of aggression there were changes in the daily patterns of

activity. Figs. 7 and 8 summarize in a simplified fashion the daily activity

(number of squares entered) of male 33 and female 35 for 28 days. These

two animals were more regular in the timing of their activity than were

the other two; however, the patterns of the two males were very similar to

each other, and the same is true for the females. The females throughout

most of the study displayed two peaks of activity, the first during the

early hours of the night, 18.00-20.00 hours, the second in the morning,

06.00-07.00 hours. These peaks are associated with the weighing of the

food at 17.00 and 06.00 hours. Female 35 lived in a burrow under the

food platform and seems to have become active in response to the dis-

turbance. The other female, living a short distance away, was not so

Hrs.

CzFYFILNA “SBS

QFYFILNA “SOS

GFYFILNI “SOS

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AGGRESSIVE ENCOUNTERS

C3FIYFALNI “SOS

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Fig. 10

BEHAVIOUR OF LESSER BANDICOOT RAT 77

regular in her response. The males also showed an early evening peak,

but this declined during the last week of the study. Their morning peak

was well developed, although not as uniform as that of the females.

During the last half of the study the males had a third peak which occurred

in the middle of the night, 24.00-03.00 hours.

10.

SUMMARY

. The amount of food removed from the food dishes by the 4 bandi-

coots far exceeded the amount they consumed. Roughly 68 per cent

of the food removed was hoarded in the burrows.

The females spent much less time above ground than did the males.

Each female occupied a single burrow throughout most of the 28

days of the study, while the males tended to change burrows and

to use none as intensively as did the females.

The subordinate male, unable to leave the pen, spent more time above

ground than did the dominant male.

The great majority of social interactions were initiated by the domi-

nant male, and most of his interactions were aggressive and were

directed toward the subordinate male.

The amount of aggression increased with the passage of time.

Most of the aggression occurred near the food platform.

. The subordinate male was in no sexual activity at all.

The females had two daily peaks of activity, one in the early evening,

one in the morning, both probably associated with the disturbance of

weighing the food.

The males had a peak of activity in the middle of the night in addition

to peaks in the early evening and morning.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This investigation was supported by United States Public Health

Research Grant No. TW-00141-05 from the National Institutes of Health.

78 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

REFERENCES

BARNETT, S. A. (1958): An analysis

of social behaviour in wild rats. Proc.

Zool. Soc. Lond. 130(1): 107-152.

CALHOUN, J. B. (1962): The ecology

and sociology of the Norway rat. U. S.

Public Health Service Pub. No. 1008.

288 pp., Washington.

DeEorAS, P. J. (1966): Some observa-

tions on the probable damage caused by

rats in Bombay. Indian J. Ent. 28(4):

543-547.

KAVANAU, J. L. (1967): Behaviour of

captive white-footed mice. Sci. 155

(3770): 1623-1639.

NimpkKaR, Y. S. & DEoORAS P. J.

(in press).

PARRACK, D. W. (1966): The activity

cycle of the lesser bandicoot rat, Bandicota

bengalensis. Curr. Sci. 35(21): 544-545.

PINGALE, S. V., KRISHNAMURTHY K.

& RAMASIVAN T. (1967): Rats. Foodgrain

Technologists’ Research Association of

India, Hapur. 91 pp.

RICHTER, C. P. (1965): Biological

clocks in medicine and_ psychiatry.

Charles C. Thomas, Springfield, Illinois.

108 pp.

SPILLETT, J. J. (1968): The ecology of the

lesser Bandicoot-Rat in Calcutta.

Bombay Natural History Society and

Johns Hopkins University.

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Notes on some peculiar cases of

Phytogeographic distributions

V. M. MEHER - HOMII

Institut Francais, Pondicherry

(With two plates)

INTRODUCTION

The flora of a place is above all the result of phylogenesis which has

bestowed to the area a certain number of species through the evolutionary

history. The prevailing climate acts as a sieve of big dimension permitting

only those species of the allotted stock to thrive whose tolerance range

fall within the limits imposed by the climate. Soil factors act as a sieve of

finer dimension operating further selection in the fraction passed on by

the climate. Biotic factors, mainly man and his domesticated animals

introduce a further check on the vegetation. Man’s action has been on

the destructive side mostly, but even when protective like the silvicultural

treatments, it is at the expense of a large number of species that a couple

of economic ones are favoured. He and his cattle have degraded the

optimum stages of the natural vegetation which are as a rule forests to

thickets or savannas. He also plays an important role in extending the

areas Of species, intentionally or accidentally.

BIOTIC FACTORS

Anthropogenic

The accidental introduction may be illustrated at least with reference

to three species.

(1) Capparis decidua (Forsk.) Pax—The distribution of Capparis

decidua is discontinuous. It is spread over Northern Tropical Africa,

Egypt, Arabia, Persia and West Pakistan; in India it covers Rajasthan,

Northern Gujarat and the Deccan from Julwania up to Bijapur. After a

considerable discontinuity it reappears in the extreme south-east part

of the Peninsula. Its introduction in this south-east corner via the ship

route from Africa may be a possibility as is also suggested by the

distribution pattern of Acacia planifrons.

(2) Acacia planifrons-W. & A. (Plate 1) The Umbrella Thorn

Tree is distributed mainly over the semi-arid area of south-east corner

82 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

of India near Tuticorin and Pamban in Tirunelveli and Ramanathapuram

districts and at a few localities in Madurai and Coimbatore districts.

It is found also in Bellary but is planted there. After a long discontinuity

in the Peninsular India, the species is encountered near Porbandar

(Kathiawar) which is and which was a port of some importance in the

past like Tuticorin. Morphologically the species is closely allied to

A. spirocarpa Hochst. ex A. Rich. of North-East Africa and Arabia

(Fyson 1919; Viart 1963). The Map shows the distribution of

A. planifrons.

Marco Polo during his return from China (1291-1295), visited a

part of India. One of his observations was concerning the flourishing

horse trade between the ports of south Arabia (notably Aden) and Cail,

a port of south India which has presently disappeared but which was

at the mouth of the Tambraparani River in Tirunelveli District (Hambis

1955; Viart 1963).

Annually about 10,000 horses were imported. A good number of

these perished due to lack of care and had to be replaced. Marco Polo

notes that the Sultans of the Arabian and the Persian Gulf ports received

considerable revenues because of this commerce. This trade continued

for a long time even in the hands of Portugese after the Arabs. Panikkar

(1958) also reports that the Portugese supplied persian horses to the

Vijayanagar Empire.

This important trade route between Arabia, Africa and the above

mentioned ports of India may be responsible for the accidental intro-

duction of the species in India where over centuries it has emerged as a

species only slightly distinct from the African-Arabian member.

(3) Hyphaene indica Becc. The Indian Doum Palm has been

reported from the sandy coast of Daman, Diu and near Bombay (Seshagiri

Rao 1963, 1964; Abraham 1969). Hence the endemic occurrence of the

species in the erstwhile Portugese territories is a noteworthy feature.

Besides, H. indica has close morphological affinities with H. thebaica

(L.) Mart. of Africa.

This peculiar genus of branched palm is concentrated in Africa,

Madagascar, and Arabia with as many as 30 species (Willis 1967).

H. indica seems to be a case of early introduction on the west Coast of

India.

Anamalous Distribution

The discontinuous patchy distribution of Hardwickia binata Roxb.

in peninsular India is a puzzle.

Hardwickia binata is encountered on acid parent rock, genissic

complex, sandstone or quartz in the plateau region of Andhra Pradesh,

(4oyinp :Soloyd )

‘peddoy jou uayM 901} 94} Jo sduvlvadde ‘Adouvo padeys

[eWIOU 34} SION “jsatOJ uadoO UI DJOWIG DIYIIMpsDT -BJOIQUIN SIVSTIN}OvIVYS S}I YM suosfiudjd DIIDIP

J. BoMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. 67 (1)

Meher-Homji : Phytogeographic Distributions PLATE II

LEGEND

QQ Hardwickia binata

Albizia amaro

Hordwickio binato

Albizia amara

Acacia planifrons

Hyphaene indica

150

Above: Hardwickia binata (foreground) in tree-savanna. Note its

deformed shape due to lopping and hacking. Below: Distribution of

Acacia planifrons, Hyphaene indica, Hardwickia binata and Albizia

amara

NOTES ON PHYTOGEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION 83

Mysore State and Salem District of Tamil Nadu. After a long disconti-

nuity it reappears in the Malegaon Desh, the Satmala and the Satpura

ranges of the Deccan trap country and in a few parts of the Vindhya

and Mahadeo ranges (Map).

Another remarkable feature of its distribution is its complete

absence in the Western Ghats. It occurs on the east-west oriented

Satmala, Satpura, Mahadeo and Vindhya ranges but is conspicuous by

its absence in the north-south oriented Sahyadris. It is found in dis-

continuous patches in NE-SW oriented hills of Eastern Ghats (in Andhra

Pradesh and Tamil Nadu) and near Haveri, Harihar, Chitradurga, Hiriyur

and Tumkur (Mysore State) just to the east of the Western Ghats.

Rainfall range is 500 to 1200 mm. spread over a period of 4 to 6

months in the areas of Hardwickia but the distribution of the species

has not been satisfactorily correlated with climatic and soil conditions.

It is not uncommon to come across statements like “‘ the distribution

of Hardwickia is curious and not readily explicable,” “‘ distribution of

Hardwickia cannot be logically explained ’’ in the Working Plans.

Brandis (1911) noted that Hardwickia binata most commonly grows

on sandstone, and if found on trap, as in south Berar, the rock is rich

in veins of quartz.

According to Champion (1936) this species is the most characteristic

of shallow hard gravelly soils over trap but occurs on a variety of other

rocks though then more mixed with other trees.

In Satpura division of Chhindwara district Hardwickia occurs on

sandstone with underlying marl,—a reddish, soft and crumbling material

intermediate between rock and soil (Working Plan).

Mahabale & Karnik (1958) considered Hardwickia forests of the

Satpura range in Maharashtra to be edaphic climax because they are

found only in a few definite localities on recent alluvial formations.

They further reported that calciferous soils inhibit its good growth

whereas black soils with higher percentage of silica favours better growth.

Pataskar & Seshagiri Rao (1965-66) are of the opinion that in the

Dhulia District Hardwickia is conspicuous on the leached out soils.

Bhatia (1959) on the other hand states that Hardwickia occurs on

the calcareous soil in Madhya Pradesh and that it grows well on the

black cotton soil. He describes a Tectona-Hardwickia forest on limestone

in the Nimar division.

Karnik (1955) observes that the belt of Hardwickia in the Satpura

range of Khandesh is associated with cherty or gritty soil. Pebbles of

84 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

white, yellow or red quartz and scanty and stunted nature of the grass

growth are enumerated as the special features of the Hardwickia soil.

In the Working Plan of North and East Khandesh Division (1958)

it is stated that the soil carrying Hardwickia forest is hard, gravelly or

gritty with admixture of pebbles of quartz crunching under feet.

Because of its general association with skeletal soil, Hardwickia

forests have been called as an edaphic type; however, we have observed

this species on deep black soil in Andhra Pradesh.

From the foregoing it may be seen that contrasting views have been

expressed as to the edaphic requirements of the species; this is because

every study has been on a local scale and not covering the entire distri-

bution range of Hardwickia.

Mall (1968) comparing the forest of Daultapur (in Dewas division

at a distance of 113 km. from Bhopal) with that of Kalakund (in Mhow

range about 40 km. from Indore) finds that Hardwickia is totally absent

in the former. He attributes this difference to historical factor asserting

that there is no significant difference in soil characters of the two forests.

We would like to emphasise here the role of human interference

and grazing.

In the Working Plan of the Buldana sub-division (W. Berar Dn.)

it is stated that there has been no reproduction in Hardwickia forests

for at least 20 years. Seeding may not be good each year but it has been

abundant every 3 to 5 years. After each seeding, a number of seedlings

come up but they are all destroyed in the summer. It may also be added

that Hardwickia does not coppice like other trees of the deciduous forest.

Grazed areas show indications of reproduction having been killed

back by browsing or badly hacked about by graziers. Burning and

grazing are quoted as the devastating biotic factors in the Hardwickia

forests by Champion & Seth (1965). Cattle and goats are fond of Hard-

wickia leaves and the trees in the vicinity of villages are badly lopped

and hacked for fodder (Plate I and II). Great is the utility of the tree in

dry years like 1966 when it was chiefly responsible for feeding the herds

in absence of grasses, in some drought-stricken parts of Madhya Pradesh

(Pers. Comm., D.N. Pateria, D.F.O., Khargon). In short, unassisted

Hardwickia eidhice itself extremely slowly. :

There is some natural regeneration of this species by seeds in E.

and N. Khandesh divisions as also in Satpura division, Chhindwara

District where the site factors are favourable. Hardwickia resists fire but

- NOTES ON PHYTOGEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION 85

the growth for the first few years is very slow. (Working Plan for the

Satpura forests of East and North Khandesh Divisions, 1958).

Natural regeneration is again very poor in Dewas division. There is

also a dearth of younger age classes due to past selective working, though

Hardwickia represents over 50 per cent of the trees in the overwood.

We too have observed that the seedlings of Hardwickia are practically

lacking in many of the open forests and tree-savannas where there are

big old trees of the species. Does this lack of natural regeneration mean

that the. areas where Hardwickia exists to-day will in course of time be

replaced by other species when the old trees will have completed their

life span? The gradual disappearance in patches may explain the dis-

continuous distribution of the species.

Working Plan of Buldana division makes a note that in the folds

of hills and along many nalas teak reproduction is plentiful and it is

probable that teak may one day replace Hardwickia over greater part

of this type.

In the open forests of the Satpura and Satmala, Hardwickia is

generally gregarious towards the borders of the forests but not so in the

interior. Because of its very hard wood it is not so easy to fell. Whereas

the other species become the victim of axe at the forest margin, Hard-

wickia escapes the maltreatment. In the interior where the forests are

better protected not being easily accessible, other species have a fair

chance of survival and the abundance of Hardwickia is not so striking.

ROLE OF EDAPHIC FACTOR

That the soil factor can bring about discontinuous distribution is

shown by the range of Albizzia amara Boiv.

This species which is so common in the southern part of the

Peninsula disappears from Bijapur northwards over the black soils of

the Deccan trap zone. In this tract geology changes from gneissic complex,

quartzite, slate and sandstone to the Deccan trap.

It reappears in the Nasik, Dhulia, Jalgaon and West Nimar districts

(Map). In these areas it is associated with alluvial soils or with red

ferruginous soils derived from the trap on the hills but not with black

clayey calcimorph soils. Its acidophilous nature seems to explain its

discontinuous distribution.

SUMMARY

The role of biotic, especially anthropogenic factor, has been

emphasised to explain the discontinuous distribution patterns of Capparis

decidua, Acacia planifrons, Hyphaene indica and Hardwickia binata.

86 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

The discontinuity in the range of Albizzia amara may be correlated

to its acidophilous nature, eliminating it over the black calcimorph

soils of the Deccan trap.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I am thankful to Dr. P. Legris for having extended to me the facility

to tour the mapped area and to consult the forest working plans.

REFERENCES

ABRAHAM, V. (1969): A preliminary

survey on the flora of Trombay. Proc.

S$6th Indian Sci. Congr. Abstr. Pt. UI:

326-327.

BuaTiA, K. K. (1959): Teak bearing

forests of Old Madhya Pradesh. Indian

For. 85: 710-722.

BRANDIS, D. (1911): Indian trees.

CHAMPION, H. G. (1936): A preliminary

survey of the forest types of India and

Burma. Indian For. Rec. 1: 286

CHAMPION, H. G. & Setu, S. K.:

(1965): A revised survey of the forest

types of India. Dehra Dun.

Fyson, P. F. (1919): Acacia planifrons

W. & A. Bot. Bull. Presidency College,

Maaras. pp. 4-5.

Hampis, L. (1955): La description du

monde par Marco Polo. Paris 433.

KarRNnIK, C. R. (1955): A contribution

to biogeographical studies of Khandesh

with special reference to the Satpura

range. Bombay Geogr. Mag. 1: 65-72.

MAHABALE, T. S. & KARNIK C. R.

(1958): Ecology of Satpura forests,

Bombay State, India. J. Univ. Bombay

26 (pt. 5): 33-49.

Matt, L. P. (1968): Ecology of

Daultapur and Kalakund forests of

Madhya Pradesh. Proc. Symp. Recent

Adv. Trop. Ecol. 2: 398-406. ISTE.

Varanasi.

PANIKKAR, K. M. (1956):. Histoire de

l’Inde. Paris 396 p.

PATASKAR, R. D. & SESHAGIRI RAO,

R. (1965-66): Studies on the vegetation

of Toranmal ranges and surrounding

areas of Dhulia District, Maharashtra

State. Proc. 53rd Indian Sci. Congr. Pt.

IV: 267-268.

SESHAGIRI RAO, R. (1963): Hyphaene

indica Becc. along the West Coast of

India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 60(3):

761-763.

(1964): The Doum palms

in India. Principes J. Palm Soc. 8(2):

49-54.

ViaRT, M. (1963): Contribution a

étude de laction de homme sur la

végétation dans le Sud de l’Inde. Thése

Sci., Toulouse.

Wiis, J. C. (1966): A dictionary of

the flowering plants and ferns. Cambridge

Univ. Press. 7th ed. revised by H. K.

Airy Shaw.

A Synopsis of the Genus Fisocreochiton

Quisumb. & Merr. (Melastomataceae )

M. P. NAYAR

(With two plates)

A new species Eisocreochiton furfuracea Nayar, is described from

Borneo with illustrations. Anplectrum monticola Ridl. is transferred to

the present genus as Eisocreochiton monticola (Ridl.) Nayar. Creochiton

kinabaluense Heine is found to be conspecific with E. monticola (Ridl.)

Nayar. A key to the species so far known is also presented.

INTRODUCTION

The author has carried out a taxonomic study of several genera

in the family Melastomataceae at the Central National Herbarium,

Calcutta, the Herbarium, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, U.K. and the

Rijksherbarium, Leiden, Netherlands from 1960-68. The present paper

deals with the genus Dissochaeteae Quisumb. & Merr. belonging to the

tribe Dissochaeteae Triana.

Quisumbing & Merrill (in Philipp. Journ. Sc. 37: 177, 1928)

established the genus Eisocreochiton on the basis of specimen Ramos &

Edano Bur. Sc. No. 45610 from Luzon, Philippines. While describing

the type species Eisocreochiton bracteata, they observed that the inflores-

cence and vegetative characters agree with that of Creochiton B1. However,

since the “floral characters are totally different’? they assigned the

genus Eisocreochiton to the tribe Oxysporeae near Blastus Lour. The

genus Ejisocreochiton is closely allied to Creochiton, but differs in having

dorsally spurred and ventrally biappendiculate connective; whereas

in the genus Creochiton Bl. the connective is dorsally spurred and

ventrally inappendiculate. Quisumbing & Merrill (1.c. supra) wrongly

assigned the genus Eisocreochiton to the tribe Oxysporeae. Since the

genus Ejisocreochiton has baccate fruits, it belongs to the tribe Disso-

chaeteae; while the tribe Oxysporerae has capsular fruits.

The name Eisocreochiton is derived from Greek, ‘ Eiso ’=alike,

equal; ‘ creo’=fleshy; ‘ chiton’=an outer covering, in allusion to the

thick bracteoles covering the flowers. Ejisocreochiton=plants alike

Creochiton.

Of the three species so far known, the type species E. bracteata

Quisumb. & Merr. is endemic to the Island of Luzon in the Philippines.

88 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

The other two species E. monticola (Ridl.) Nayar and E. furfuracea Nayar

are both endemic to Borneo.

KEY TO THE SPECIES OF Eisocreochiton

I. Stamens 4:

II. Bracteoles oblong-ovate, 8-11 mm. long, 4-8 mm. wide, pale

green, thin; leaves when dry pale green, under surface of leaf

when young more or less covered with ferrugineous plumose

and stellate hairs, hairs deciduous and leaves glabrescent

.... E. bracteata

II. Bracteoles obovate, 5-6 mm. long, 3-4 mm. wide, dark brown,

thick; leaves when dry brown, under surface of leaf densely

covered with ferrugineous plumose and stellate hairs. ....

.... E. furfuracea

I. Stamens 8, four large and four small .... E. monticola

ENUMERATION OF SPECIES

1. Eisocreochiton bracteata Quisumb. & Merr. in Philipp. Journ. Sc.

ST lia, 1928: .

Distribution: Philippines, Luzon, Nueva Vizcaya Prov., Mt. Alzapan,

Ramos & Edano Bur. Sc. No. 45610 (isotypes K, BM)

2. Eisocreochiton furfuracea sp. nov. (Plate I)

_ Affinis E. bracteatae Quisumb. & Merr., sed bracteolis obovatis,

brunneis, minoribus, foliis subtus dense pubescentibus differt.

Frutex scandens. Rami subteretes, dense ferrugineo-plumoso-

furfuracei. Folia ovato-lanceolata, 4.5-6.52.5-3 cm., basi subrotunda

vel subobtusa, apice acuminata, margine integra, supra glabra, subtus

dense ferrugineo-stellata, coriacea, 3-5 mnervia, venulis transversis

indistinctis; petiolus 8-11 mm. longus, dense ferrugineo-plumoso-

hirsutus. Inflorescentia axillaris, racemosa, 3-7 cm. longa; bracteolae

obovatae, 5-6 x 3-4 mm., dense furfuraceae, brunneae; pedicellus 4-5 mm.

longus. Calycis tubus campanulatus, 2.5-3 mm. longus, stellato-furfur-

aceus, limbus truncatus. Petala 4, 2-2.5x2 mm. glabra. Stamina 4,

filamentis 1.5 mm. longis, antheris 2 mm. longis, connectivo non producto,

dorso in appendicem triangularem 0.8 mm. longam exeunte, in parte

ventrali in appendices duas 0.7 mm. longas exeunte. Ovarium calycis

tubo septis 4 adnatum, ‘ loculis ’ 4, usque ad quartem partem prolongatis ;

Stylus 2-2.5 mm. longus, glaber, stigmate inconspicuo. Bacca globosa,

stellato-furfuracea; semina numerosa, cuneata, 0.7-0.8 mm. longa. -

J. BoMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. 67 (1)

Nayar: Eisocreochiton PLATE I

Eisocreochiton furfuracea Sp. nov.

A. Habit. B. Bracteole. C. Stamen-side view. D. L. S. of calyx tube

J. BoMBay NaT. Hist. Soc. 67 (1)

Nayar: Eisocreochiton PLATE IT

Diarra EE er ss a Oe ee

ibang RET SI

. insan bite =a =

-d

Eisocreochiton monticola (Ridl.) Nayar comb. nov.

A. Habit. B. Large stamen-side view. C. Small stamen-side view.

SYNOPSIS OF THE GENUS EISOCREOCHITON 89

Typus lectus a Jacobs and locum Rajang, altit. c. 500 m. in dist.

Kapit, Sarawak in Borneo die 25 augusti anni 1958, et positus in Herb.

kew, Anglia, sub numero Jacobs 5293; Isotypus positus in Riksherbario

in urbe Leiden, sub numero Jacobs 5293.

_ Climber. Branches subterete, densely ferrugineous and plumose

furfuraceous. Leaves ovate-lanceolate, 4.5-6.5 x 2.5-3 cm., base subrotund

or subotuse, apex acuminate, margin entire, upper surface glabrous,

under surface densely ferrugineous and stellate, coriaceous, 3-5 nerved,

transverse venules indistinct; petiole 8-11 mm. long, densely ferrugineous

and plumose hirsute. Inflorescence axillary, racemose, 3-7 cm. long;

Bracteole obovate, 5-6 3-4 mm., densely furfuraceous and brownish;

pedicel 4-5 mm. long. Calyx tube campanulate, 2.5-3 mm. long, stellate-

furfuraceous, limb truncate. Petals 4, 2-2.5x2 mm., glabrous. Stamens

4, filament 1.5 mm. long, anther 2 mm. long, connective not produced,

dorsally ending in a triangular appendage 0.8 mm. long, ventrally ending

in two appendages 0.7 mm. long. Ovary concrescent with the calyx tube

by 4 septa, extra-ovarial chambers 4, descending to + of the ovary;

Style 2-2.5 mm. long, glabrous, stigma inconspicuous. Berry globose,

stellate-furfuraceous; Seeds numerous, cuneate, 0.7-0.8 mm. long.

Distribution: Borneo: Sarawak, Kapit Dist., Rajang, alt. below

500 m., 25 Aug. 1958, Jacobs 5293 (Holotype K, isotype L.)

E. furfuracea Nayar is allied to E. bracteata Quisumb. & Merr.,

but differs in the size and shape of bracteoles and in the nature of pube-

scence on the under surface of the leaf. In E. furfuracea the bracteoles

are obovate (5-6 mm. long and 3-4 mm. wide), dark brown and coria-

ceous ; whereas in E. bracteata the bracteoles are oblong-ovate, (8-11 mm.

long, 4-8 mm. wide), pale green and membranaceous.

3. Eisocreochiton monticola (Ridl.) Nayar, comb. nov. (Plate II).

Anplectrum monticola Ridley in Kew Bull. 1: 31, 1946. Type:

Brooks 50 (K). |

Creochiton kinabaluense Heine in Mitt. Bot. Staatssamml. Munchen 1.

Heft 6: 214, 1953. Type: J. & M.S. Clemens 32646 (Isotypes K,

BM)—Synon. nov.

Climber, about 13 m. in height. Branches subterete, furfuraceous and

lepidote, pilose, nodes usually 1-2 cm. apart. Leaves elliptic, 1-3.5x

0.7-1.5 cm., base cuneate, apex retuse, upper surface glabrous, under

surface sparsely puberulous, hairs deciduous, glabrescent, 3-nerved,

cross-venules distinct on the under surface; petiole 3-4 mm. long, furfur-

aceous. Inflorescence axillary, 3-5 cm. long, furfuraceous; bract elliptic

or obovate, 5-6 mm. long; bracteole obovate, 4 mm. long, furfuraceous ;

90 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY Vol. 67 (1)

pedicel 1-2 mm. long. Calyx tube campanulate, 2.5-3 mm. long, furfura-

ceous, limb sinuate. Petals 4, oblong-lanceolate, 2.5-3 mm. long,

acuminate. Stamens 8, 4 small and 4 large stamens; large stamens:

filament 1-1.5 mm. long, anther 2-2.5 mm. long, provided with a short

connective, dorsally ending in a triangular appendage, 1 mm. long and

ventrally ending in two linear appendages 1 mm. long; small stamens:

filament 0.5-0.8 mm. long, anther 1.5 mm. long, dorsally ending in a

minute tubercle and ventrally inappendiculate. Ovary 4-chambered, apex

of the ovary furfuraceous ; Style 4-5 mm. long, glabrous, stigma punctiform.

Berry globose, stellate-furfuraceous ; seeds numerous, cuneate 0.5-0.8.mm.

long.

Distribution : Borneo: Sarawak, Summit of Benkaran, Brooks

50(K); Gunong penrissen, Kuching Dist., 29 Apr. 1962, Ilias Pa’ie

S. 16371 (K); Sabah, Mt. Kinabalu, alt. 1166 m., J. & M. S. Clemens

32646 (K, BM); Colomban basin, alt. 1166 m., 14 Aug. 1933, J. & M.S.

Clemens 34455 (K); Tenompok, alt. 1666 m., 25 May 1932, 28616 A.

(K); Ibid., J. & M. S. Clemens 28616 (K).

While describing the type species Anplectrum monticola, Ridley

(in Kew Bull. 1:31, 1946) commented as follows: ‘This very curious plant

is quite unlike any other species in its densely set, small coriaceous leaves

and short axillary panicles.’’ Heine (in Mitt. Bot. Staatssamml. Munchen

1: heft 6:214, 1953) independently proposed the binomial Creochiton

kinabaluense for the same taxon on the basis of Clemens gatherings

(J. & M. §. Clemens 32646, 33951) from Sabah, Borneo. In the original

description of C. kinabaluense there is no description of the nature of

stamens and it is presumed that Heine erected this species basing on the

nature of bracteoles enveloping the flower buds and in the presence of

axillary panicles. Besides the bracteoles enveloping the flower buds, the

main generic character which distinguishes the genus Creochiton BI. is

the dorsally spurred and ventrally inappendiculate stamens. In this

taxon the stamens are dorsally spurred and ventrally biappendiculate.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I wish to express my gratitude to Sir George Taylor, Director,

Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, U. K. for all facilities during my stay

at Kew from 1961-67.

Obituary

FR. H. SANTAPAU, s.J.

(1903-1970)

The death of Rev. Fr. H. Santapau, s.J. on 13 January 1970 was a

grievous loss to Indian Botany, to the Bombay Natural History Society

and to his numerous friends and colleagues at the Society, in the City

of Bombay, and throughout the world.

Born at La Galera, Tarragona, Spain on 5 December 1903, Fr.

Santapau joined the Society of Jesus at the age of 16 and was educated

in Spain and London and took his Ph.D. in Philosophy at Rome in 1927.

In 1936 Fr. Santapau joined the London University but his studies were

interrupted by the war. He later joined the Imperial College in London

and took his Ph.D. in Botany based on his Flora of Khandala, worked

out during his two years (1946-48) at Kew Gardens.

Fr, Santapau reached India in 1928 and became one of the Professors

of Botany at St. Xavier’s in 1940. His botanical exploration of the

country of his adoption took him from the deserts of Baluchistan to the

rain forests of Assam and from the Darjeeling hills in the Himalayas

to the Nilgiri and Palni hills in the south. His vast collection of over

100,000 specimens is mainly housed at the Blatter Herbarium at Bombay.

He gave freely of his knowledge of Indian Botany and lectured to students

of universities throughout the country and was a recognised postgraduate

teacher in many of them. He was a ‘ Visitor ’ to the Universities of Delhi

and Poona. His contributions on Indian Botany which number over

350 include authoritative treatises on taxonomy of Indian plants such as

his floras of Khandala, Purandhar, Saurashtra and his papers on various

families of plants. His ‘ Orchids of Bombay State’ is another notable

contribution. Fr. Santapau had the rare ability to communicate with the

scientist as well as the layman with equal facility as is evident from his

book COMMON TREES published by the National Book Trust, India.

He was a fellow of the National Institute of Sciences of India and

was associated with numerous societies and scientific bodies. He was a

member of many committees of the Council of Scientific and Industrial

Research and was responsible for re-organising for the Government of

India, the Botanical Survey of India and retired as the Director of the

Survey in 1968.

Fr. Santapau’s association with the Bombay Natural History Society

dates back to 1944 when he joined as an ordinary member and was

92 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

elected to its Executive Committee the same year. He became an editor

of the Journal in 1948 (volume 48) and was elected Vice-President in

1954.

Fr. Santapau’s services to India and to Indian Botany were

recognised by the award of Padma Shri by the Government of India

and the Birbal Sahani Medal by the Indian Botanical Society. He was

made a member of the Order of Alphonso the Wise by the Spanish

Government.

His publications in the Society’s Journal are listed below:

1944 Ventilago bombaiensis Dalz. (with a plate). 44(3): 496- 498.

—— The flowering of Strobilanthes. 44(4): 605-606.

1945 New plant records for Bombay Presidency. 45(3): 445-448.

—— Curcuma pseudomontana Grah. 45(4): 618-623.

1946 An abnormal flower of Gloriosa superba Linn: (with a plate and a text figure).

46(1): 202-204.

— No pleat records for the Presidency of Bombay (II) (with a plate). 46(2):

77-381.

—— Abnormal flowering of Careya arborea Roxb. in Khandala. 46(2): 409-410.

oe erro in the numbers of floral parts in Jasminum malabaricum Wt. 46(3):

563-566.

1947 Notes on the Convolvulaceae of Bombay. 47(2): 337-355.

1948 Notes on the Solanaceae of Bombay. 47(4): 652-662.

—— The Genus Ceropegia—further comments. 47(4): 775-777.

1949 Artificial key to the Papilionaceae of Bombay Province. 48(2): 277-282.

—— Notes on the Gesneriaceae of Bombay. 48(3): 489-492.

—— The genus Ceropegia: still further comments. 48(3): 613-614.

1950 Notes on the Scrophulariaceae of Bombay. 49(1): 25-49.

—— Editorial note on the growth of herbarium specimens. 49(1): 135-136.

—— Notes on the Lentibulariaceae of Bombay. 49(2): 217-221.

-—— The flowering of Strobilanthes. 49(2): 320-321.

— A plea for the Preservation of Wild Plants. (with a plate). 49(3): 427-429.

—— Further remarks en the flowering of Strobilanthes. 49(3): 575-576.

1951 The genus Dioscorea in Bombay State. (with three plates). 49(4): 624-638.

— Newrecord for Frerea indica Dalz. in Bombay Province. 49(4): 801-802.

— Frerea indica Dalz.—A new record in Bombay. 50(2): 427.

—— A branched specimen of Costus speciosus Smith. 50(2): 427.

— Critical notes on the identity and nomenclature of some Bombay plants (with

two plates). 50(2): 305-312.

—— A note on Neuracanthus sphaerostachyus Dalz. (with two plates). 50(2): 428-430.

(Jointly with P. V. Bole).

1955

‘Neuracanthus sphaerostachyus Dalz.—Further comments.

OBITUARY 93

Contribution to the bibliography of Indian Botany. (Part I). 50(3): 520-548.

On a common species of Curcuma of Bombay and Salsette Islands. (with a

plate). 51(1): 135-139.

Contribution to the bibliography of Indian Botany. (Part II). 51(1): 205-259.

Notes on the Acanthaceae of Bombay. 51(2): 349-368.

Critical notes on the identity and nomenclature of some Bombay plants II.

The genus Zizyphus Mill. 51(4): 801-804.

The species of Crotalaria in Bombay. 51(4): 960-962.

Critical notes on the identity and nomenclature of some Bombay plants III.

Murdannia scapiflorum (Roxb.) Royle. (with two plates). 52(1): 137-141.

(Jointly with R. R. Fernandes).

The genus Murdannia in Bombay State. 52(2 & 3): 658.

New plant records for Bombay. (with two plates). 52(2 & 3): 661-663.

(Jointly with A. Randeria and R. R. Fernandes).

A new species of Chlorophytum from Salsette Island. (with a plate). 52(4):

897-900. (Jointly with R. R. Fernandes).

Alternanthera polygonoides R. Br. var. erecta Mart.—a new record for Bombay

State. (with a plate). 52(4): 957 (Jointly with G. P. Shrivastava).

Ney eae excursion to North Kanara, Bombay State, in May 1954. 53(1):

0-28.

Laurentia longiflora Endl. a new record for Bombay State. (with a plate).

53(1): 156-157.

The botanical exploration of Krishnagiri National Park, Borivli, near Bombay.

(with two maps, one coloured and two black-and-white plates). 53(2): 185-200.

(Jointly with A. Randeria).

New plant records for Bombay III. (with five plates). 53(2): 210-213. (Jointly

with C. Saldanha).

New plant records for Bombay IV. (with four plates). 53(2): 214-216. (Jointly

with several students).

Name changes of a few Bombay plants. 53(3): 499-500. (Jointly with D.

Panthaki).

Extensive loss of water by forest trees in the Dangs Forest. 53(3): 501.

Dolichos bracteatus Baker. 53(3): 501-502. (Jointly with D. Panthaki).

The name Hoya bendula. 53(3): 504.

Tobacco without nicotine. 53(3): 504.

The poisonous qualities of Calotropis gigantea R. Br. 54(1): 218.

Notes on Aerides maculosum Lindl. (with a_ text-figure). 541): 220-221.

(Jointly with Z. Kapadia).

Some new plants for the Dangs Forest, Bombay State. (with two plates). 54(1):

221-225. (Jointly with D. Panthaki).

Eclipta prostrata, E. erecta or E. alba: Which is the correct name? 54(2):

475-476.

Alternanthera paronychyoides St. Hil—A correction. 54(2): 476-477.

Habenaria panchganiensis—New name for a Bombay Orchid. 54(2): 478.

(Jointly with Z. Kapadia).

The genus Cuscuta in Bombay. (with a plate). 54(3): 707-713. (Jointly with

V. Patel).

Further notes on the Indian species of Curcuma (Zingiberaceae). 54(4): 966-

967.

The species of Lagenandra of Bombay and Madras. 54(4): 967-969.

54(4): 969-970.

(Jointly with G. L. Shah).

1959

1963

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

The phyllotaxy of Euphorbia neriifolia Linn. 55(1): 186-187. (Jointly with

G. L. Shah).

The coconut, Cocos nucifera Linn. Observations of the first English Jesuit

in India. 55(1): 188-189.

New plant records for Bombay-V. (with five plates). 55(3): 481-485. (Jointly

with R. R. Fernandes & Z. Kapadia).

Cryptostegia madagascariensis Boj.—A new record for Bombay. (with a plate).

55(3): 594-595. (Jointly with N. A. Irani).

The leaves of Alseodaphne semecarpifolia Nees. 56(1): 160.

Critical notes on the Orchidaceae of Bombay State. I—The genus Habenaria

Willd. (with six plates). 56(2): 188-203. (Jointly with Z. Kapadia).

Lectotypes of the species and varieties described by Blatter and Hallberg in

their ‘ Flora of the Indian Desert.’ 56(2): 276-281.

Salmalia malabarica and S. insignis in Bombay. 56(2): 364-365.

a Reval Botanic Gardens, Kew. By W. B. Turrill. (A Review). 56(3):

The flowering of Strobilanthes. (with a plate). 56(3): 677.

The leaves of Alseodaphne semecarpifolia Nees.—A correction. 56(3): 678.

Critical notes on the Orchidaceae of Bombay State. IJ. Platanthera L. C.

Rich. & Peristylus B1. (with four plates). 5711): 124-135. (Jointly with Z.

Kapadia).

The identity of the Entada plants from Bombay. 57(1): 238-240.

Critical notes on Orchidaceae of Bombay State. III. The genus Oberonia Lindl.

(with five plates). 57(2): 252-269. (Jointly with Z. Kapadia).

Artocarpus heterophyllus Lamk. (with a plate). 57(2): 447-449.

Critical notes on the Orchidaceae of Bombay State. IV. The genus Dendrobium

Sw. (with ten plates). 57(3): 491-510. (Jointly with Z. Kapadia).

Black colour in flowers: Is there such a colour in nature? 57(3): 701-702.

Critical notes on the Orchidaceae of Bombay State. V. Eulophia R. Br. and

Aerides Lour. (with five plates). 58(1): 53-67. (Jointly with Z. Kapadia).

Critical notes on the Orchidaceae of Bombay State. VI. Nervilia Gaud &

Malaxis Sw. (with three plates). 58(2): 332-350. (Jointly with Z. Kapadia).

New plant record from Bombay, Physalis longifolia Nutt. 58(2); 550-551.

[Jointly with G. L. Shah, Z. Kapadia (née V. Patel)]

New plant record from Bombay: Alternanthera pungens H.B.K. 58: 551-553.

(Jointly with G. L. Shah).

Critical notes on the Orchidaceae of Bombay State. VII. Eria Lindl. & Porpax

Lindl. (with three plates) 58(3): 595-607. (Jointly with Z. Kapadia).

Critical notes on the Orchidaceae of Bombay State. VIII. Some of the smaller

genera. (with six plates). 59(1): 154-172. (Jointly with Z. Kapadia).

Critical notes on the Orchidaceae of Bombay State. IX. Some of the smaller

genera (Continued). (with eight plates). 59(2): 382-404. (Jointly with Z.

Kapadia).

Gregarious flowering of Strobilanthes and Bamboos. (with a plate). 59(2):

688-695.

Critical notes on the Orchidaceae of Bombay State. X. Some of the smaller

genera (continued). (with two plates). 59(3) : 827-842. (Jointly with Z. Kapadia).

Critical notes on the Orchidaceae of Bombay State. XI—Some of the smaller

genera (continued). (with two plates) 60(1): 92-103.

OBITUARY 5)

—— Additions to the Flora of Bombay State: Grasses from Salsette Island. (Malad-

Madh Area). 60(1): 134-139. (Jointly with G. L. Shah)

1965, Further contribution to the botany of eat ae Forest, Gujarat. 62(2): 201-210.

(Jointly with G. L. Shah).

1969 A contribution to the Flora of Salsette Island, Bombay, (Malad-Madh Area).

66(3) : 430-442. (Jointly with G. L. Shah).

EDITORS

Reviews

1. THE TWILIGHT OF INDIA’S WILD LIFE. By Balakrishna

Seshadri. pp. 212 (24x16 cm.) with 58 illustrations and 5 Raps. London,

1969. John Baker Publishing Ltd. Price 52s. net.

__ There are two important points that Seshadri makes in his book:

THE TWILIGHT OF INDIA’S WILD LIFE which if seriously noted by the

powers that be, may yet save India’s wild life from becoming extinct.

The total area of all existing wild life sanctuaries and national parks

in India is approximately 4700 sq. miles. This is an insignificant percentage

of the total forest area of the country. Yet, these tiny pockets, the last

refuge of India’s vanishing wild life are far from inviolate. Grazing is

permitted in them. Commercial quality timber is grown and extracted

from them. Poaching is common, both by villagers allowed to live within

the sanctuaries and permitted to keep ‘crop protection’ guns and

affluent visitors (contractors and sometimes even Government officials).

All these not only disturb animal and bird life but also make their habitat

unsuitable. If grazing, and commercial exploitation of timber, and

poaching are not stopped soon in these wilderness areas they will have

nothing left to show except emaciated cattle.

The other point is that there has, sadly, been no effort made by the

Government to get the expert advice of conservationists while planning

projects (conservationists until very recently have been classified as

cranks and eccentrics) so that vast areas at dam sites and irrigation and

industrial projects have been thoughtlessly denuded of valuable forest

cover resulting not only in the extinction of several species of animals

along with their habitat but also in the washing off of the top soil leading

to serious erosion.

It is entirely practicable to plan towards control of further

despoliation. There are men and women in India who can do valuable

work to help this cause. It is their duty to make the Government aware

of the urgent need to take corrective action before it is too late.

Once it is accepted that conservation is essential the first step is

to provide effective management. Seshadri has listed 48 sanctuaries and

national parks. Of these only a handful have any sort of management.

The rest are neglected, and if neglected much longer, may cease to exist

except on paper.

I did not know that the Tons, or Govind Ballabh Pant Sanctuary,

created in 1955, in Tehri Garwal, is 368 sq. miles in area, that the Rishi-

ganga or Nanda Devi Sanctuary formed in 1939 in the Himalayas for

UREVIEWS 0.60 6 eas A 97

high elevation fauna is 250 sq. miles or that the Rajaji Srncgeted west

of the Corbett Park was 173 sq. miles.:

All these are bigger than the Conbett and Kanha National Parks

and what wonderful places they would be to visit if only we heard more

about them. Obviously, they are not as accessible as the better known

sanctuaries; not considered important, and so they languish. Poachers

and woodcutters will soon turn these beautiful forests into wasteland.

It is nothing short of criminal that we so callously neglect our most

wonderful heritage. Too late, as Seshadri says, will the people of India

realise that they have lost what nature took aeons to create.

G. S. RANGANATHAN.

2. THE MALAYAN NATURE JOURNAL. RAIN FOREST

ISSUE. Vol. 22 (1968-69). Parts 3 & 4. September 1969. pp. i-viii +99-

206 (25x16 cm.). Kuala Lumpur, 1969. The Malayan Nature Society,

P.O. Box 750, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Price M$ 10. Pes US $ 3.30/

£1-7-6 Sterling).

This special Rain Forest Issue of The Malayan Nature Journal

carries several papers of interest to botanists, foresters, and naturalists

generally. Among others may be mentioned a study by T. C. Whitmore

and C. P. Burnham of changes with altitude of forests and soils on granite

near Kuala Lumpur, another by J. A. Bullock and Khoo Bin Khong

of the formation of litter in tropical rain forest, a preliminary study by

J. B. Kenworthy of water balance in tropical rain forest in the Ulu

Gombak Forest Reserve, and a discussion by P. F. Burgess of ecological

factors in hill and mountain forest in Malaya with a description of the

rain forests at different heights. Among the shorter papers are a study

by J. L. Harrison of the abundance and population density of mammals

in Malayan lowland forests, an estimation by H. Elliott McClure of

bird population density in the primary forest of Selangor, and a description

by P. F. Burgess of colour changes in the Malayan forests in 1968-69.

On the practical side are papers by Paul Wycherley on forests and

productivity, and by J. A. Bullock on the productivity of the rain-forest

ecosystem.

As is usual with The Malayan Nature Journal, the papers are

illustrated with numerous well taken and well reproduced photographs.

D.. E.R

98 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

3. THE CLUE BOOKS: INSECTS AND OTHER SMALL ANIMALS

WITHOUT BONY SKELETONS. By Gwen Allen and Joan Denslow. pp. 61

(22.5 x20.5 cm.) with many illustrations by Derek Whiteley. London,

1969. Oxford University Press. Price 15s. net.

The Clue Books are a slim, square series for children between the

ages of eight and twelve. The other books in the series are ‘ Birds,’

* Bones,’ ‘ Flowers,’ and ‘ Trees.’

We have become used to a children’s natural history literature

which is out to charm the child, using lavish photographs and exotic

colour. The Clue Books fall in a different category. Most pages are in

sober black and white, although there are attractive and accurate colour

pictures as well. The book aims to capture the intelligent child by making

the whole business of insects an absorbing game, like a jigsaw puzzle,

and by showing him that he can win; he can find out what a particular

insect, found in the salad, actually is, discover its larvae and pupae,

and finally, he can keep it as a pet. It seems a more enduring method

than to merely enthrall him for a few moments by enormous shiny

pictures. In fact the book could be used to very good purpose by the

imaginative school-teacher. Although it is oriented to Britain and Europe,

it could be used for India with a little bit of pruning by an adult.

The first pages deal with ‘ What are Insects’ generally, illustrated

by line drawings and diagrams. The next pages deal with what the insect

(or ‘ other small animal without a bony skeleton ’) looks like under a

magnifying glass. Does it have wings but no waist? If so, turn to page 19.

On page 19 you learn something more, with another picture, and then

turn to the right page. In the next section, where there are colour pictures

dealing with various groups: Butterflies, Ants, Grasshoppers, etc. with

short trenchant notes on each such group. The last pages deal with

vivaria made out of jam-jars and daddy’s shoe-box.

SHAMA FUTEHALLY

4. THE WORLD OF THE POLAR BEAR. By Richard Perry.

pp. 195 (21.5 14.5 cm.) with 12 illustrations. London, 1966. Cassell

& Company Ltd. Price 30s. net.

How many people realise that the polar bear is not far from

extinction and that the total number currently is reckoned to be not

more than about 8,000 to 12,000. Considering the vast area of the northern

polar region which these animals inhabit it is dismal proof that no part

of this earth, however, remote from Civilisation, escapes the pernicious

influence of man,

REVIEWS 99

Richard Perry (who has also written a book on the Tiger) noting

that not much information was available in book form about polar

bears set out to rectify the deficiency and he has succeeded in putting

between the covers of his book a wealth of information in a systematic

manner. Observations about polar bears have been recorded since

890 A.D. and Perry quotes from over fifty sources from the earliest

times to the 20th Century.

A polar bear litter consists of one or two cubs, very rarely three.

A cub when born is | to 2 Ibs. in weight and a big adult male is 8 to 9 ft.

long and weighs about a thousand pounds (females are smaller). The

largest male recorded was 11 ft. long and weighed 1,800 Ibs.—about

as big as the Alaskan or Kodiak bear. Cubs are cast off after the first

spring when they are 15-16 months old although some stay longer even

up to the 3rd year. Polar bears are fertile up to 25 years and have a

maximum life span of 35-45 years.

The Polar bear is a powerful and indefatigable swimmer capable

of doing 120 to 180 yards per minute. About the only creature he fears

is the killer whale which may be the reason the polar bear, although

an excellent swimmer, avoids water if he can. He is also wary of the

Bull Walrus which may attain a length of 15 ft., a weight of 14 tons

and is equipped with 3 ft. long tusks weighing 10 lbs. apiece. The polar

bear is no fool.

Seals form the staple diet of Polar bears, mainly blubber, the flesh

being mostly left to Arctic foxes and ravens who are hangers on. In

addition, along with vegetable matter (during summer) they also eat

cast up marine animals, mussels, starfish, shrimps, and other crustacea.

They seldom catch fish. 156 lbs. of walrus blubber and meat has been

found in the stomach of a polar bear. This is about twice as much as

what a hungry tiger or lion can consume at one sitting. In captivity,

very much less suffices to feed a polar bear, the menu at one zoo being

10 lbs. of horse flesh, 3 Ibs. of butterfish, 3 lbs. mackerel and 4 to 5 Ibs.

of stale bread.

Polar bears are canny hunters and either when waiting patiently

near the blow holes of seals or swimming submerged towards an un-

suspecting seal on an ice floe, they exhibit great intelligence. When

frustrated, which must be fairly frequently, they vent their rage almost

in human fashion. A thwarted bear may jump up and down with fury,

smack the water, roar and toss snow. One bear smashed his paws against

a rock out-crop severely injuring them as subsequently discovered.

Polar bears also gambol and glissade down slopes with keen enjoyment.

100 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

The ice pack travels clockwise around the North Pole at about

2 miles per day and Polar bears are usually to be found on this, leaving

it for the mainland where they go to hibernate. Before hibernation they

eat moss to provide an internal obstruction referred to as ‘tappen’,

then stuff themselves with blubber which must keep them alive for

several months.

The dens constructed for hibernation are quite large and show

considerable SUES skill. Cane frequently, an entrance tunnel in

the snow leading to an ‘ ante room’ and an inner chamber at a slightly

raised level (to retain warmth) with a ledge between.

Estimates of Polar bear population vary between 6,000 to 17,000

and Perry thinks it may be 8,000 to 12,000. The replenishment rate

(excess of cubs over mortality) may not be adequate. The species,

therefore, is in danger of becoming extinct. The Russians were the first

to ban the killing of polar bears (in the late fifties?) and the Canadians

and Norwegians followed suit. The U.S. called an international meeting

in 1965 to discuss measures to protect the Polar bear..

The Arctic regions have a wealth of animal and bird life and Mr.

Perry has provided much interesting information not only about the

polar bear but also about the seal, walrus, muskox, arctic fox, wolf,

killer-whale, glaucous gull, kittiwake, skua and ptarmigan. It would be

wonderful to visit the fascinating world of the Polar bear. The next

best thing is to read about it.

~~ G.S. RANGANATHAN

—5. THE WEALTH OF INDIA: A DICTIONARY OF INDIAN

RAW MATERIALS AND INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTS. Vol. VIII:

Ph-Re. pp. xxx+394+ XII (27.5 21.5 cm.). 11 plates and 142 text-

figures. New Delhi, 1969. Council of Scientific & Industrial Research.

Price Rs. 70; 140s; $ 21.

Vol. VIII of the Raw Materials portion of THE WEALTH OF INDIA,

which follows its predecessor after an interval of two years and more,

keeps up the high standard of the series. During the interval the Editorial

Committee suffered a serious loss by the death of Dr. Baini Prasad.

Since then another eminent member of the Editorial Committee has

died, the Rev. Fr. H. Santapau. The reviewer trusts that their absence

from the Committee will not slow down the rate at which this valuable

encyclopaedia of India’s resources makes its appearance.

Several of the genera teeih with in this volume cover Regd ae of

common use or occurrence and furnish the layman with detailed and

REVIEWS 101

helpful information about familiar things, regarding the origin, procuring,

and uses of which his knowledge is limited and vague, for instance

Phoenix (date palms), Pinus (pines from which, besides commercial

timber, turpentine, and rosin, come the chilgoza seeds that we eat with

such relish), Piper (betel leaves, black pepper), Pithecellobium (Madras

Thorn, known among other vernacular names as vilayati imli, the fruit

of.which to our schoolboy palates was a delicacy), Plantago (isubgol),

Plumbago (a common garden plant, which besides other uses provides

a drug which we are told may be of use in the treatment of leucoderma

and baldness of the head), Prunus (almonds, apricots, plums, peaches,

cherries), Psidium (guavas), Pyrus (pears), Punica (pomegranates),

Raphanus (radishes), and many more. Deserving of special mention is

Rauvolfia, the source of a drug for a long time in use in Ayurvedic practice,

the value of which was realised by allopaths only in the last decade,

leading to a sudden drain on our wild-grown supply and to a hurried

search for practicable methods of establishing a cultivated supply. On the

zoological side attention may be drawn to articles on Prawns, Shrimps

& Lobsters, and on Porpoises & Dolphins, and on the minerals side on

Rare Earths, Quartz & Silica, and Phosphates.

One slight mistake has crept in, at page 165. The tree illustrated

in text-figure 57 is Plumeria alba, not Plumeria acuminata.

The index, giving the common English names as well as those in

the principal Indian vernaculars and also trade names, makes reference

easy for the layman.

DY E.R.

Miscellaneous Notes

1. WILD DOG’S COURAGE RATING

Wild dogs, Cuon alpinus (Pallas), have always been presented to the

world as intrepid, ruthless and wanton killers. Yesterday, I watched

an incident, which together with the encounter between a pack of dogs

and a herd of sambar hinds, I had reported earlier, leaves me in doubt

as to their courage rating.

A pack of wild dogs was hunting in and around ‘ Cheetal walk ’

our week-end home in the jungle in the low country in the Nilgiris.

I followed them unseen by working my way from one hide to another,

placed by me along the Sigur River.

From the first machan I could see 9 dogs; six of them were sub-

adults and were lolling about waiting for a lead, while 3 older dogs were

running up and down the far bank trying to pick up a fresh scent. As the

dogs went down stream, beyond sight, I got down from the machan and

got into another, which was 150 yards below the first. This machan

commands an excellent view of the river for nearly 300 yards. As I was

sitting there, I saw about half a dozen dogs at the water’s edge 100 yards

below, hesitating to get in. The river which usually holds about 6 inches

to a foot of water, had about 2 to 3 feet of water in it, after recent rains.

Just then a sambar stag carrying 20 in. antlers walked into the stream-bed

from my side of the river, almost opposite the spot where the dogs were.

Without hesitation it waded into the stream and made, in a leisurely

manner, for the section of the bank where the dogs stood. I was so sure

that the stag was being driven towards the waiting dogs that I fully

expected the rest of the pack to break cover behind the stag at any

moment. Instead, to my surprise a larger stag followed. Seeing the stags

making their way towards them, the dogs retreated. Shortly afterwards

I saw them cross the river 50 yards further down. There were 16 of them

and half of them had just grown out of their puppy-hood.

I remained to see if the retreat was designed to be a tactical move.

It was not.

The stags had moved up and were almost opposite me, on the far

bank. [I had them under observation for nearly an hour. They hung

about together and were joined by two hinds, who were obviously in

the area even when the dogs were operating there. They seemed to be

together, just in case.

Only some months previously we came across a very freshly killed

young sambar stag with 15 in. horns in the Moyar flume channel, about

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 103

5 miles from ‘ Cheetal walk.’ On seeing us the dogs fled. Watching the

dogs were a young sambar stag and 3 hinds, some 50 yards away.

This would show that wild dogs in our area do kill adult sambar,

but prefer not to if they can help it. It is also possible that sambar around

‘Cheetal walk’ have, out of necessity, learnt to gang up to defend

themselves, whatever the case, it is apparent that wild dogs have been

over-rated, so far as their courage is concerned.

““CANOWIE”

Coonoor-1, E.R.C. DAVIDAR

NILGIRIS,

October 12, 1969.

2. HABITAT OF THE HIMALAYAN TAHR HEMITRAGUS

JEMLAHICUS (H. SMITH)

The genus Hemitragus comprises three forms that are usually each

assigned specific rank. The morphological differences between them

may not be as great as that reported and subspecific distinction might

prove to be a better expression of relationship.

Previous reports on the habitat of the Himalayan tahr imply that

it is a forest dwelling species. In New Zealand its preferred habitat is

the zone above the tree line and below the permanent snow. A reappraisal

of habitat requirements in the Himalaya showed that tahr were observed

only above tree line, both in winter and summer. Previous reports

therefore appear to be in error. Habitat requirements in New Zealand

and the Himalaya are identical within the limits imposed by differing

plant communities. The error in previous descriptions of habitat may be

due both to confusion of the tahr with the serow (Capricornis) and to the

finding of male tahr wandering below their normal altitudinal zone.

The Himalayan tahr Hemitragus jemlahicus ranges from Kashmir to

Sikkim along the Himalaya (Wrenicke 1943, Bailey 1944, Ellerman &

Morrison-Scott 1951, Frenchkop 1955 and Das 1966). Prater’s (1934)

contention that it also occurs in Bhutan has not been confirmed!.

Pohle (1949) proposed a separate sub-species for the tahr of Sikkim,

differentiating this postulated form from that in Nepal on alleged

differences in horn spread and pelage. Apparently he was unaware of the

marked seasonal changes in pelage colour of tahr because he has compared

the winter pelage of Sikkim specimens with descriptions of summer pelage

of specimens collected farther west. Pohle does not make a good case for

morphological differences between tahr of Sikkim and Nepal. Neither

1 See the following note—Eds.

104 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

does Schaefer (1950) argue convincingly for geographic and genetic

isolation of the two populations. The sub-species is not recognised here.

Charles (1957) proposed that until more material becomes available

for detailed comparison, the three forms of Hemitragus (jemlahicus in the

Himalaya, hylocrius in southern India, and jayakari in eastern Arabia)

should be considered provisionally as races of the nominate form

Hemitragus jemlahicus. On zoogeographic grounds I suspect that sub-

specific rather than specific distinction of forms will prove to be the more

meaningful expression of their interrelationship. |

The habitat of Himalayan tahr has been described as thick forest

interspersed with rocky bluffs (Kinloch 1876, Blanford 1888, Ward 1922,

Burrard 1925, Prater 1934, Morris 1965) and Burrard (1925) stressed that

individuals “‘ never by any circumstances wander above the tree-line’’.

In contrast, its habitat in New Zealand, where it was introduced in

1904, is restricted almost entirely to the zone above tree-line (Anderson

& Henderson 1961, Christie & Andrews 1964, Caughley 1965, 1966).

Its altitudinal range of about 3,000-7,000 ft. in that country is ecologically

and climatically equivalent to 12,000-16,000 ft. in the Himalayas. Tahr

do occasionally descend below 3,000 ft. in New Zealand, but only as a

result of males wandering before the rutting season.

From March 1968 I spent a year in Nepal and was able to investigate’

this apparent paradox. Although all altitudinal zones from tropical to

frigid were investigated, tahr were found only in the region above tree

line at altitudes between 12,500 ft. and 16,000 ft. The greatest number of

observations were made between 13,000 ft. and 15,000 ft. and this range

was the same for both summer and winter. These observations suggest

that previous statements on the habitat of tahr in the Himalayas are

incorrect, and that habitat requirements in New Zealand and Nepal

are identical within the limits imposed by different vegetation types.

Two reasons for the confusion come to mind. Firstly, most of the

quoted reports on habitat appear not to be based on observation but are

repetitions without acknowledgement of observations made by Kinloch

(1876) and Burrard (1925). Both these men certainly shot. tahr in forest

but these animals are likely to be males wandering in winter. No report

is available of a female having been shot in forest.

Secondly, some reports of tahr in forest may have originated from

mistaken identity. The serow Capricornis sumatraensis is called “‘ tahr ”’

by several hill groups in Nepal, the “‘ th” form indicating a hard “t”’

and not the ‘‘ th’? of English useage. No ethnic group in Nepal uses

*‘ thar ’’ for Hemitragus: Brahmins and Chetris use “ jharal’’; Tamang

and Gurung use “ jharal,” “‘jharal-thar’’ and sometimes the Tibetan

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 105

*‘ yang ’’; and sherpas use “ reiwo.” This confusion of names may have

resulted in the occasional instance of serow being reported as tahr.

On the basis of observations reported here and those reported from

New Zealand, the published descriptions of the habitat of the Himalayan

tahr require amendment. In both winter and summer the habitat comprises

the zone of grassland between tree line and the permanent snow. In the

Himalaya this zone lies between 12,000 ft. and 17,000 ft. Occasionally

individuals will be found lower than this but such occurrences are at

variance with normal behaviour.

SCHOOL OF BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES,

UNIVERSITY OF SYDNEY,

SYDNEY, AUSTRALIA,

September 12, 1969.

GRAEME CAUGHLEY

REFERENCES

ANDERSON, J. A. & HENDERSON, J. B.

(1961): Himalayan Thar in New Zealand.

a Zeal. Deerstalkers’ Assn: Spec.

Pub. 2.

BaiLey, F. M. (1944): The Himalayan

Tahr (Hemitragus jemlahicus H. Sim.)

[Sic]) in Sikkim. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 45: 82-83.

BLANFORD, W. T. (1888): The Fauna

of British India including Ceylon and

Burma. Mammalia. London.

BURRARD, G. (1925): Big Game

Hunting in the Himalayas and Tibet.

London.

CAUGHLEY, G. (1965): Horn Rings

and Tooth Eruption as Criteria of Age

in the Himalayan Thar, Hemitragus

jemlahicus. New Zeal. J] Sci. 8: 333-351.

——, (1966): Mortality

Patterns in Mammals. Ecology 47:

906-918.

CHARLES, R.P. (1957): Morphologie

Dentaire du Thar et du Bouquetin

Espéces Actualles et Subfossiles des

eo Préhistoriques. Mammalia 21:

Curistig, A. H. C. & ANDREWS

J. R. H. (1964): Introduced Ungulates

in New Zealand. (a) Himalayan Tahr.

Tuatara 12: 69-77.

_ Das, S. M. (1966): Palaearctic Elements

in the Fauna of Kashmir. Nature 212:

1327-1330. ee DS

ELLERMAN, J. R. & MORRISON-SCOTT,

T. C. S. (1951): Checklist of Palaearctic

and Indian Mammals 1758 to 1946.

London.

FRENCHKOP, S. (1955): Sous-ordre des

Ruminants ou Sélénadontes, pp. 568-593.

In P.-p. Grassé (ed.) Traité de Zoology.

Paris. |

KINLOCH, A. (1876): Large Game

Hunting in Thibet and the Northwest.

London.

Morris, D. (1965): The Mammals.

London.

PoHLeE, H. (1949): Hemitragus jemla-

hicus schaeferi sp. n., dieostlichste Form

des Thars. Zool. Anz. 194: 184-191.

PRATER, S. H. (1934): The wild animals

of the Indian Empire and the Problems

of their Conservation. J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 37: 59-96.

(1965): The Book of

Indian Animals, second (revised) edition.

Bombay.

SCHAEFER, [E] (1950): uber den Schapi

(Hemitragus jemlahicus schaeferi). Zool.

Anz. 145: 247-260.

Warp, A. E. (1922): Game Animals

of Kashmir and the adjacent hill Pro-

vinces. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 23:

595-609.

WRENICKE, C. J. T. (1943): Occurrence

of the Himalayan Tahr (Hemitragus

Jemlahicus) in Sikkim. J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 44: 114-117.

106 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

3. HIMALAYAN TAHR, HEMITRAGUS UaMEA BaeUS

(H. SMITH, 1826) IN BHUTAN

In so far as neither S. H. Prater in his BOOK OF INDIAN ANIMALS

nor Ellerman & Morrison-Scott in their CHECKLIST OF INDIAN AND

PALAEARCTIC MAMMALS mention the presence of tahr in Bhutan, I wish to

record that this animal is present and not uncommon in the Chuka,

Gedu, Phutlibr areas of S. W. Bhutan on the Thimphu road, between

5,000 to 7,000 ft. above sea-level.

I had heard of its occurrence at Chuka a year ago, and I was given

some * poached’ tahr meat a few weeks ago. I myself was lucky to see

a young animal (sex unknown) with short horns, at Phutlibr on 27

October 1969 at midday in rocky jungle whilst I was watching birds

in a favourite haunt. The animal did not see me and approached head-on

to within less than ten yards when it stopped and, puzzled by my keeping

still, watched me for some ten seconds before taking fright.

My Bhutanese companion also saw the animal and stated its name

in Bhutanese to be ‘ Chara,’ similar to the Nepalese name of * Jharal.’

Its occurrence in Eastern Bhutan will be investigated and the subject

of a further letter if any reliable information comes to light.

BANK OF BHUTAN, J. R. S. HOLMES

PHUNTSHOLING, |

BHUTAN,

November 7, 1969.

4. BLACKBUCK, ANTILOPE CERVICAPRA (LINNAEUS)

SWIMMING

~ .On 16 December 1969, I was walking back to the Rest House at

about 5-30 P.M. after watching a large number of Blackbuck around the

observation tower at the Point Calimere Sanctuary. As I came near the

forest rest house, my way was blocked by a lagoon about 25 yards wide,

which was either a backwater fed by the sea or a drainage of the water

from the forest. I was looking for a safe place to cross it when a fisherman

coming from the opposite direction shouted a warning to me not to

cross where I was, as there was apparently a strong current at the junction

of the sea and the lagoon. As I crossed further up as he directed, I saw

him swimming across. It must have been quite deep. I started walking

towards the Rest House when I saw: a Blackbuck standing to my left

towards the sea. On seeing me he started to gallop along the shore,

until he came near the lagoon. He stopped momentarily, when he saw

his way cut off, but the next moment jumped into water and with two

characteristic leaps he was in the middle of the lagoon and promptly

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES | 107

went down. After a couple of seconds I saw his head bob up and he

Started swimming steadily till he reached the opposite shore. He shrugged

and sneezed a few times and bounded off out of sight. I am not aware

whether Blackbuck have been observed swimming before.

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY’S S. A. HUSSAIN

BirD MIGRATION STUDY CAMP,

POINT CALIMERE SANCTUARY,

TAMIL NADU,

January 4, 1970.

5. A RECORD OF THE TIGER BITTERN, GORSACHIUS

MELANOLOPHUS (RAFFLES) FROM KARAIKUDI, RAMANA-

THAPURAM DISTRICT, TAMIL NADU

In December, 1968, Prof. J. Samuel Raj, Head of the Department

of Zoology, Alagappa College, Karaikudi, brought to the Museum a

mounted specimen of a medium-sized bird more or less resembling a

Black Bittern. Since the species was not represented in the Museum

collection and as we were doubtful about its correct identity, we had it

sent to the Bombay Natural History Society, where it was identified as the

Tiger Bittern or Malay Bittern, Gorsachius melanolophus (Raffles). This is

quite an unusual record for this species since it had not been apparently

recorded earlier from eastern India, although there was one record from

the Nilgiris in the report of the Eastern Ghats Survey by Whistler and

Kinnear. The occurrence of this species in Tamil Nadu is therefore quite

unique and is worth reporting.

Prof. Samuel Raj who secured the specimen reports that the bird

was caught on the Alagappa College campus, Karaikudi, Ramanatha-

puram District, on 7 November, 1967, which was a rainy day. Due to

heavy rains, the bird is reported to have dropped down from a tree.

It was kept alive for a week and stuffed and mounted later on and finally

brought to the Madras Museum in December, 1968. Prof. Samuel Raj

reports that specimens of the Tiger Bittern are seen occasionally in and

around Karaikudi during November and December. The distribution

of this species is cited in Stuart Baker’s (1929) FAUNA OF BRITISH INDIA

6: 362 as “‘ Ceylon, the Malabar Coast to the Southern Bombay Presi-

dency, Assam, Manipur, Burma, South through the Malay States to

Sumatra, Java, Borneo and Formosa.”’

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I am grateful to Prof. J. Samuel Raj for having kindly donated the

specimen of this Bittern to the Madras Government Museum, where it

108 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

was hitherto unrepresented, and for furnishing the necessary information

on its locality, date of collection and the circumstances under which the

specimen was collected.

GOVERNMENT MUSEUM, ae S. T. SATYAMURTI

EGMOoRE, MADRAS-8, Director of Museums, Madras

December 1, 1969.

6. ON THE OCCURRENCE OF SWINHOE’S SNIPE, CAP-

ELLA MEGALA (SWINHOE) NEAR BOMBAY, AND A NOTE

ON ITS IDENTIFICATION

On 7th December 1947, while shooting with Dr. Salim Ali on the

lower portion (c. 300’) of Cathedral Rock, near Kalyan, Bombay, we

put up two snipe out of tall rushes on the edge of terrace paddy. In flight

they appeared much heavier and darker than either Pintail (C. stenura)

or Fantail (C. gallinago). We preserved the less damaged one, believing

it to be Swinhoe’s [C. megala (Swinhoe)] which has been recorded in

eastern and southern India but not so far north-west. It was sent to the

British Museum, but was identified by Sir Norman Kinnear as a Pintail

(C. stenura).

In the course of cataloguing the collection recently, I found this

specimen (No. 14938) listed among C. gallinago. The notes on the label

prompted me to re-compare this with the Pintails and, as the tail

(originally noted to have 22 feathers with the central pair in moult,

and a part of which is preserved) definitely lacked the more pin-like

feathers on the outside, I sent the skin to Dr. Dillon Ripley who agrees

that it is Swinhoe’s Snipe (C. megala).

This extends the accepted winter range of the species north-west of

Madras, Mysore, and Kerala.

In 1934, La Personne (JBNHS 37 : 734) stated that Swinhoe’s Snipe

could be distinguished from the Pintail by its bastard wing being 20 mm.

or longer as against 17 or less in the latter. Stuart Baker confirmed the

difference and suggested diagnostic limits of over 19 mm. for Swinhoe’s

and under 19 mm. for the Pintail. This is repeated in subsequent literature

including IND. HANDBOOK (2 : 285), but the spike-like and longest feather

in the bastard wing only measures 15-18 mm. in this and six other

specimens in the Society’s collection and does not appear to be any

longer than in the Pintail.

This species resembles the Pintail in the shape of the bill tip, the

barring on the underwing, and the absence of the broad white tips to the

secondaries, and the only consistent differences appear to be:

(a) the absence of the pinfeathers at the side of the tail,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES _. A 109

(6) aslightly longer wing (135-144, cf. 128-137), and

The last character does not appear to have been noticed before

but is very consistent. :

15, ABDUL REHMAN STREET, | HUMAYUN ABDULALI

BOMBAY-3,

January 9, 1970.

T.? OCCURRENCE OF THE GREAT SNIPE, CAPELLA

MEDIA (LATHAM) IN BURMA AND INDIA

- Only three records of the Great Snipe [Capella media (Latham)]

have been accepted from peninsular India and, though it is said to have

been obtained in Ceylon and the Andamans, it has not been recorded

from Burma. It may therefore be interesting to note that in the course

of cataloguing the Society’s collection, we found 9 birds of this species

listed as Capella gallinago (Linnaeus). Six of them are from Iraq and

Persia but, in addition to one from near Bangalore collected by Capt.

A. Boxwell on 28th October 1910 (the label now reads: “ Capt. A.

Boxall, 2 December 1910’) and which is one of the three records referred

to above, there are two more, from Walmer, Nilgiris, and Moulmein,

Burma.

The first of these two specimens was collected by Phythian-Adams

and is marked as received in November 1933. It was no doubt sent to

the Society as it appeared different from the Common Snipe but was

apparently marked C. gallinago by one of the Society’s assistants and the

identification not checked upon subsequently. This forms the fourth

record from India.

The Burmese bird was collected at Moulmein by W. A. W. Dawn

but the label bears no date. This also was marked as the Common Snipe

and has been overlooked for many years. Mr. Dawn was elected a

member of the Society on 28 February 1899, a fact which gives some

indication of the date of collection.

In addition to the longer wing the additional amount of white on

three of the outermost tail-feathers is very distinctive. The sketch in

IND. HANDBOOK (reproduced from BR. HANDBOOK) represents this correctly

but reference is made to the Key in the FAUNA which refers to the black

base to the feathers and implies that the distal portion is pure white and

without the black bars. The Key in IND. HANDBOOK (2 : 278) perhaps

needs another correction, for it specifies a wing under 150 mm. The

110 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

specimens available have their wings 138 (frayed)—150. The upper limit

would be larger in fresh birds. The tarsus is noticeably stouter than in

gallinago.

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, HUMAYUN ABDULALI

HORNBILL HOUSE, SHANTA NAIR

SHAHID BHAGAT SINGH ROAD,

BoMBAY-1 BR,

October 25, 1969.

8. NOTES ON INDIAN BIRDS-11. ON THE DISTRIBUTION

OF STERNA FUSCATA LINNAEUS IN INDIAN LIMITS—A

CORRECTION

At a monthly meeting of the Bombay Natural History Society held

on 4 July 1887 (JBNHS 2:286), reference was made to a Sooty Tern

Sterna fuliginosa, now S. fuscata, said to have been obtained by

W. F. Sinclair at Alibag, Kolaba District; this is noted as the only record

from the area in “* The Birds of Bombay and Salsette ’ (1939, JBNHS

40 :636).

In 1938, Salim Ali, Charles McCann and I collected numerous re-

mains of terns and their eggs on the Vengurla Rocks, off Malwan, south

of Bombay, and among them the smaller wings could be divided into two

groups, brown and grey. Salim Ali who compared our specimens with

specimens in the Society’s collection (1939, JBNHS 43:448) divided the

brown wings into two groups: (a) measuring 237 (2), 240, and 242 mm.,

which he identified as Sterna anaethetus, recorded there by Hume in

1875, and (b) 2 measuring 270 and 294, which he identified as Sterna

fuscata, making the only nesting record for the area, the next nearest

being from the Laccadives. It may be mentioned that the wings found

by us have not been preserved.

On 21 October 1947, I obtained 2 terns out of a loose party of 5 or 6

on wooden boxes and similar rubbish floating in a calm patch in the sea,

about a mile south of Bombay and 5 miles off the mainland. These were

identified as Sterna fuscata by Salim Ali.

When working out my first collection from the Andamans (1968), I

was unable to separate the material in Bombay into two species fuscata

and anaethetus, and one of the two just mentioned was sent to the Smith-

sonian Institution where they identified it as anaethetus. Presumably for

this reason this record is omitted from the INDIAN HANDBOOK, but a

reference is made to Sinclair’s specimen.

While cataloguing the collection (1969), the bird from Alibag seemed

to me to be no different from the several others accepted as anaethetus,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 111

and I requested the British Museum (Natural History) to send me re-

presentative specimens of both species. With this additional material in

hand, Salim Ali and I are agreed that we have no specimen of fuscata

in the Society’s collection, and that the bird collected by Sinclair is

anaethetus and not fuliginosa (fuscata) as originally recorded.

Judging from the material available, fuscata is larger (wing over 270)

than anaethetus and is separable from it by its much darker upper parts

and the white eye-stripe not continuing beyond the eye as it does in

anaethetus. The two wings from Vengurla Rocks, if correctly measured,

indicate that fuscata breeds there but, in view of the possibility of error

in ascertaining the correct measurements from broken wings separated

from the body, it is advisable to await a confirmation.

The 16 specimens of anaethetus available in Bombay from the Red

Sea to the Andamans and the Ceylon specimens obtained from the

British Museum cannot be separated into the three races now accepted

in the FAUNA and INDIAN HANDBOOK.

75, ABDUL REHMAN STREET, HUMAYUN ABDULALI

BOMBAY-3,

January, 30, 1970.

9. THE FLIGHT SPEED OF THE HOUSE CROW, CORVUS

SPLENDENS VIEILLOT

On 19 August 1969, I was going from Vellore to Arkonam (North

Arcot Dt., Tamil Nadu) in our departmental jeep for field work, when

near the village of Vallam, I noticed a pair of house crows flying in the

same direction as the jeep. As the trunk road was almost straight and

they were flying overhead parallel to the road, we kept pace with them

for nearly five kilometres. The speedometer of the jeep showed a constant

speed of 35 kilometres per hour. They were flying leisurely quite often

calling to each other and it appeared that this was their normal flight

speed as against the hurried flight when they are late to return to the

roosting place from feeding areas.

Care K. N. PANICKER

VIRUS RESEARCH UNIT,

C. M. C. HOspIrTAL,

VELLORE,

December 26, 1969.

112 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

10. IS THE CORRECT NAME OF THE MANGROVE

WHISTLER, PACHYCEPHALA CINEREA (BLYTH) OR PACHY-

CEPHALA GRISOLA (BLYTH)?

Blyth (1842, J. Asiat. Soc. Beng. 11: 799) was confused over the

identity of a female specimen supposed to be an example of Tephrodornis

superciliosus Swainson v. Lanius keroula Hardwicke and Gray. It differed

considerably from the male. Both specimens were collected together out

of a small party (from the neighbourhood of Calcutta). At a later date

he shot another female of 7. superciliosus and found that the male and

female were alike. The controversial female specimen could therefore be

isolated specifically and it appears that he could not place it with any other

species. The description laid down by him was as follows :-

“*. . « » no white whatever on the tail, which is besides shorter and

less rounded and the superciliary streak and dark colour of the ear-coverts

are also wanting.” He further pointed out “‘... the diversity in the tail

is so remarkable that I imagine few would incline to regard them specific-

ally the same.” This expression of doubt was cleared by him when a year

later (J. Asiat. Soc. Beng. 12: 180) he remarked, ‘‘The supposed variety

of Tephrodornis superciliosus, having no whitish line over the eye, nor

white on the exterior tail feathers may be designated T. grisola’’. In the

year 1847, Blyth described Muscitrea cinerea (J. Asiat. Soc. Beng. 16:

122) from Arakan, Burma. It was later found that Muscitrea cinerea was

the same as Tephrodornis grisola. The species name grisola has been

subsequently used by Jerdon (1862, BIRDS OF INDIA, 1: 411) Gadow

(1883, CAT. BIRDS BRITISH MUS. 8: 220), Oates (1890, FAUNA BRITISH INDIA,

Birds, 2: 31), Oberholser (1912, Smithson. misc. Collns. 60: 11), Stresemann

(1913, Novit. Zool. 20: 355), Baker (1924, 1930, FAUNA BRITISH INDIA,

Birds, 2: 484; 7: 190), Robinson (1927, THE BIRDS OF MALAY PENINSULA 1:

189) Delacour & Jabouille (1931, LES OISEAUX DE L’ INDOCHINE FRANCAISE

p. 208), Kuroda (1933, THE BIRDS OF THE ISLANDS OF JAVA 1: 151), Junge

(1936, Temminckia 1: 59), Riley (1938, Bull. U.S. nat. Mus. 172: 484-485),

Chasen (1939, THE BIRDS OF MALAY PENINSULA 4: 231), Smythies (1940,

THE BIRDS OF BURMA, p. 164). From the literature as far as available to me

I find that since 1940, the species name cinerea has been used by De Schau-

eusee (1940, Proc. Acas nat. Sci. Phil. 91: 409), Delacour (1947 BIRDS OF

MALAYASIA, p. 298), Glenister (1951, THE BIRDS OF MALAY PENINSULA,

SINGAPORE AND PENANG, Pp. 227), Smythies (1953, THE BIRDS OF BURMA,

p. 159), Ripley (1961 A SYNOPSIS OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA AND PAKISTAN, P.

440), Mayr (1967, CHECK-LIST OF THE BIRDS OF THE WORLD 12: 8), Ali &

Ripley (1968, HANDBOOK OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA AND PAKISTAN I: xlvi)

and others. Ripley, Mayr, and a few others explained that Tephrodornis

grisola was unidentifiable, hence the later name cinerea should be used.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 113

The genus Muscitrea has since been synonymised with Pachycephala

Vigors (1825, Trans. Linn. Soc. Lond. 14: 444). An examination of the

type specimen of Blyth’s Tephrodornis grisola (9, Botanical Garden,

Sibpur, near Calcutta), present in the Zoological Survey of India, how-

ever, leaves one without any doubt as to its correct identity—that it is

the same bird currently known as Pachycephala cinerea (Blyth). No

doubt Blyth’s (J. Asiat. Soc. Beng. 12: 180) description of Tephrodornis

grisola is vague and inadequate, but the species can be identified by

referring to the type specimen. Since the species name grisolais older than

cinerea and is identifiable, it should be resurrected. Such an action will

not violate Article 23b of the code.

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, AJIT KUMAR MUKHERJEE

CALCUTTA-13.

April 10, 1969.

11. SLIGHT REACTION FROM BITES OF THE REAR-

FANGED SNAKES BOIGA CEYLONENSIS (GUNTHER) AND

DRYOPHIS NASUTUS (LACEPEDE)

While handling a Cat Snake (Boiga ceylonensis, 750 mm.) which I

had collected from Khandala, it bit and held the middle of my left middle

finger, the snake’s whole mouth closed over the finger. There was slight

bleeding and after a few minutes the bitten area was swollen to the degree

of a moderate bee sting, accompanied by itching. These symptoms per-

sisted for about half an hour, the swelling gradually disappeared after

about two hours.

In April, while handling a Green Whip Snake (Dryophis nasutus,

680 mm.) it made a sudden jab at my face (which is a common habit of

this species) and made a quick bite on the tip of my nose. Immediately

blood started dripping and this continued for an unusually long time

(18 minutes). The nose tip is a very sensitive area and I experienced the

itchiness mentioned above, but only slightly noticeable swelling.

Species of Boiga and Dryophis in India grow to over six feet in

length, but the only danger from their bites would be to those rare in-

dividuals “‘ hyper-sensitive”’ to the venom (similar to the more com-

monly occurring allergy to bee and wasp venoms). The only rearfanged

snake considered dangerous to man occurs in Africa, the Boomslang

(Dispholidus typus).

C/o CHATTOPADHYAYA, ROMULUS WHITAKER

CHATEAU MARINE No. 6,

MARINE DRIVE,

BOMBAY,

March, 1968.

114 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

12, CANNIBALISM IN THE INDIAN RAT SNAKE PTYAS

MUCOSUS (LINNAEUS)

I am at present keeping a number of rat snakes of various sizes and

the water snakes Cerberus and Natrix together in a large pit with smooth

high walls to prevent escape. Periodically I put live frogs, live and dead

mice and rats in for the snakes, most of which thrive. Those that refuse

to eat I simply release as all these specimens are common. Yesterday I

noticed one of the rat snakes (8 feet in length) with a elongate bulge in

its body which was obviously a snake. Checking, I noted the absence of

a large Natrix piscator (44 inches and heavy-bodied). Today as I was

iooking into the pit I saw a seven foot rat snake seize a four foot snake

of the same species and attempt to swallow it. The small snake, however,

struggled fiercely and soon escaped. Later in the day I found a Cerberus

rhynchops nearly bitten in two, evidently by a large Ptyas. Ptyas mucosus

undoubtedly prefers mice, rats, frogs, and toads, but in the absence of

sufficient quantities will attack and devour other snakes including its own

kind. Deoras in SNAKES OF INDIA (1965) mentions snakes as part of the

widely varied diet of the Indian rat snake.

C/o CHATTOPADHYAYA, ROMULUS WHITAKER

CHATEAU MARINE NO. 6,

MARINE DRIVE,

BOMBAY,

January 8, 1968.

13. A REDESCRIPTION OF SIREMBO JERDONI (DAY):

(PISCES: BROTULIDAE)

(With a text-figure)

Five specimens of Sirembo jerdoni (Day) measuring 95 mm., 105

mm., 123 mm., 137 mm. and 145 mm. total length were collected during

April 1964 from boat seine catches on the Visakhapatnam coast. This

species has so far been recorded only from the Madras coast (Day 1888,

Menon & Rac 1963). There is one specimen in the collections of the

Zoological Survey of India, Indian Museum, Calcutta (Registered

No. 13202/1), also collected from Madras (in 1940). Until now this

species has not been assigned to its correct genus and the few earlier

descriptions are meagre (Day 1888, 1889). Hence, it is redescribed here

in detail under the relevant genus.

Day (1888) originally described this species under Brotula Cuvier

as B. jerdoni despite the absence of barbels on both jaws, a characteristic

feature of Brotula. His description is very brief and the counts for dorsal

fin rays (126) and anal fin rays (95) are much too high. No figure is given,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 115

but he stated that a coloured figure of this species was amongst Jerdon

and Elliot’s illustrations. Neither these illustrations nor Day’s type

specimen are traceable, but the colour pattern of this species is more or

less accurately described by Day.

Menon & Rao (1963), while discussing the systematic affinity of this

species, stated that a new genus should be erected to accommodate it,

since it differs from related brotulid genera in having the ventral fins

behind the eyes and the dorsal originating in front of the pectoral. How-

ever, no description was given and their specimen is not available for

examination. My observations on fresh specimens have shown that the

origin of the ventrals is below eyes, well before the posterior margin of

the orbit. The position of the origin of the dorsal fin does not seem to

have any generic significance in this group. The confusion regarding the

origin of the ventrals by Menon & Rao (1963) may be due to the fact

that their observations were limited to a single preserved specimen.

However, examination of the specimen of S. jerdoni in the Indian Museum

(text. fig.) also shows that the ventral origin is in front of posterior margin

of the orbit.

The absence of barbels on both jaws and the origin of the ventrals

below the eyes are characteristic of two genera, Haplobrotula Gill (Smith

1961) and Sirembo Bleeker (Gunther 1862, Norman 1939); the latter can

be distinguished from the former by (1) a single ray in each ventral fin

(2 in Haplobrotula), (2) the presence of scales all over head and (3) the

absence of spines on the preopercle and opercle. The characters of the

present species conform to those listed above and hence it is placed in

the genus Sirembo. The erection of a new genus as suggested by Menon

& Rao (1963) is not necessary.

| Sirembo jerdoni (Day)

D 89-92: A 61-63; V 1; P 23; C 10; Vert. 48 (13-35)

Body elongate, laterally compressed, tapering posteriorly. Greatest

body depth 5.6-6.6, length of head 4.2-4.6, distance from snout tip to

insertion of dorsal 4.8-5.0, to origin of anal 2.2-2.5, length of pectoral

8.0-9.0, all in total length. Snout 4.8-5.7, eye 3.4-3.8 and interorbital

distance 3.8-4.2 in length of head. Snout blunt with three pores on either

side; eyes covered by membrane. Mouth inferior, both lips with numerous

tubercles. Maxilla reaches to a little behind posterior margin of orbit.

Two rows of conical teeth in both jaws, the outer row a little enlarged;

villiform teeth on palatine in oblong patches and a single inverted V-

shaped patch on vomer. vise

116 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

A blunt spine at the superior corner of opercle. Four gill rakers on

lower arm of the first gill arch; five branchiostegals; pseudobranchiae

absent.

Lateral line in the upper half of body, single, distinct and complete.

Dorsal, caudal and anal fins continuous; dorsal originates before

gill openings; anal originates one-fourth length behind that of dorsal;

pectoral fins rounded, situated in the lower half of body; rays of all fins

unbranched and embedded in thin membrane; no spines in fins; ventrals

situated well before posterior margin of orbit, each a single ray, two-

thirds length of head.

Scales cycloid, covered by skin, present all over head and body; base

of pectoral scaly; no scales on fins.

; : Cais “ 5 P= —

eters SSS

= ian ee SSE

Sirembo jerdoni (Day), total length 145 mm., showing the

colour pattern.

Vent in advance of mid-point of total length; pyloric caecae 9 to 11;

vertebrae 48 (13 prehaemal and 35 haemal). Colour: Body light brown;

an oblique dark band from above snout across eye to the inferior corner

of opercle; one band between eyes dorsally, one transverse band behind

eyes which descends vertically on either side to some distance and then

runs back obliquely through the superior corner of opercle fading out

before anal origin. From nape two dark grey-brown bands run back

along the body on either side, the first along the dorsal base to the last

fifth of body and the second descending to the lateral line and running

along it to the base of caudal; the second band gives off a branch above

pectoral tip; this latter runs obliquely to above anal origin from where it

runs parallel to the second band and gradually fades away by about

middle of anal. In one specimen the two main bands are connected by a

short band above anal origin. The bands of the two sides have a common

origin dorsally in front of dorsal fin. Pectoral fin base slightly brown.

There are five discrete roughly semicircular blotches on the dorsal fin, the

first, third and fifth black in colour while the second and fourth are dark

grey. The last blotch ends at about two-thirds length of the fin. After the

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 117

fifth blotch the smaller specimens have one or more blotches but in

larger specimens there is a continuous black band in the lower half of

the fin up to tip of caudal. The anal fin has a broad black band running

all along its lower half to meet that of the dorsal at the tip of caudal fin.

The edge of anal fin may sometimes be lighter. The colour fades a little

in formalin preserved specimens.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am grateful to Dr. S. Dutt and Mr. P. J. P. Whitehead for valuable

suggestions. My thanks are also due to Professor P. N. Ganapati for

excellent facilities. To Dr. P. K. Talwar I am grateful for kindly examin-

ing the specimen of B. jerdoni in the Indian Museum for me and furnishing

necessary information. I am indebted to the Council of Scientific and

Industrial Research for the award of Senior Fellowship, during the

tenure of which this work has been carried out.

CENTRAL REGIONAL STATION, V. VISWESWARA RAO

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

JABALPUR, (M.P.),

May, 20, 1969.

REFERENCES

Day, F. (1888): Fish. India, Suppl. 804.

(1889): Fauna of British India,

Fishes. 2: 435.

GUNTHER, A. (1862): Catalogue of the

Acanthopterygian Fishes in the collection

of the British Museum. 4: 371-374.

MENON, A. G. K. & RAMA

RAO,

K. V. (1963): Notes on three rare fishes

from Madras. Ann. Zool. 4(5): 47-48.

Norman, J. (1939): John Murray

Expedition, Sci. Rept., Fishes. 7(1): 80.

SmitTH, J. L. B. (1961): The Sea Fishes

of Southern Africa. 4th ed., Central

News Agency Ltd., South Africa.

pp. 360-364.

14. JOHNSON GRASS, SORGHUM HALEPENSE—A NEW

HOST OF SUGARCANE GREEN BORER, RAPHIMETOPUS

ABLUTELLUS ZELLER (PHYSITIDAE: LEPIDOPTERA)

The green borer, Raphimetopus ablutellus Zell. is one of the major

pests of sugarcane in Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and Haryana States. It causes

dead hearts on young shoots from March to June. Besides sugarcane, it

has also been recorded on Saccharum spontaneum (Siddiqi & Singh 1959)

and Saccharum munja (Gupta 1959).

During 1962 and 1963 a survey was made to record its alternate

and collateral host plants in and around the Indian Institute of Sugarcane

Research Farm, Lucknow (U.P.) from March to June, when this borer

is found in serious form on sugarcane crop. Observations were made on

various Graminaceous crops and weeds like wheat (Triticum vulgare),

barley (Hordeum vulgare), oats (Avena sativa), maize (Zea mays), jowar

118 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

(Sorghum vulgare), kans or kahi (Saccharum spontaneum), Johnson

grass (Sorghum halepense), sarkanda (Saccharum munja), kush (Des-

mostachya_ bipinnata), bharuhi (Imperata cylindrica), motha (Cyperus

rotundus) and some unidentified weeds. In both years, young shoots of

Johnson grass were observed to be attacked by two species of sugarcane

borers, namely, Chilotraea infuscatellus Snellen and R. ablutellus, the

latter being the first record on this weed. Out of 15 per cent of the total

dead hearts found during June, 1963, 11 per cent were caused by R.

ablutellus alone. During this period, full grown larvae were observed

forming waterproof silken covering around their bodies in preparation

for diapause. The infestation from March to April was very low in this

grass and hardly 1 to 2 per cent shoots were attacked.

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY-ENTOMOLOGY, J. P. CHAUDHARY

PUNJAB AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY,

LUDHIANA,

May, 29, 1968.

REFEERNCES

GupTA, B. D. (1959): Insect pests of Biology of Raphimetopus ablutellus Zeller

sugarcane in India IV. The green borer, (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae), the green borer

Raphimetopus ablutellus Zeller. Indian of sugarcane in Uttar Pradesh. Indian

Sugar. 9(5): 269-271. J. Ent. 21(2): 132-136.

Siwpiar, Z. A. & SINGH, O. P. (1959):

15. PECULIAR ACCIDENT TO THE BUTTERFLY, DELIAS

EUCHARIS DRURY

The Common Jezebel (Delias eucharis Drury) is always about in

our garden at Andheri, Bombay, and on the morning of 7 September

1968 at 8 a.m. I found several of these alighting on a white Lantana

shrub, which was covered with flowers. One butterfly, however, appeared

to be struggling to get away from the flower, but its proboscis seemed to

be entangled in the blooms, and the antennae thickly covered with pollen.

Another of the same species came along, flitted over it for a while, and

passed along. I watched this situation for some time and then pulled

the butterfly away from the flower and placed it on the ground but it

could not fly. I had it examined at the Society and was told that it was

not damaged in any way. I wonder if any butterfly enthusiasts have ever

come across a similar situation.

32-A, JUHU LANE, ZAFAR FUTEHALLY

ANDHERI, BOMBAY-58,

September 9, 1968.

16. THE FEEDING BEHAVIOUR OF THE LEMON BUTTER-

FLY PAPILIO DEMOLEUS L.

A large number of observations on the feeding visits of Papilio

demoleus to flowers were recorded in the gardens attached to the Fruit

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 119

Experimental Station at Kirkee. The feeding time of these insects is

restricted to a few hours in the morning.

The number of such visits on the flowers of different plant families

were as follows

Convolvulaceae .. Mis a Re: 549

Geraniaceae oye mee me cay 764

Verbenaceae i as Bis of 488

Compositae a Se Me He 434

Caryophyllaceae .. “3 ae i 323

Scrophulariaceae }. a 3 107

Nyctaginaceae .. a a a3 13

With the exception of Nyctaginaceae (Apetalae) and Caryophyllaceae

(Polypetalae) these families belong to Sympetalae, in which the petals

are all united together. The nectaries are situated at the base of the fused

petals and are therefore well protected.

A very large number of visits were recorded on blue, violet and

purple shades. Next in preference were the purple-eyed and violet-eyed

white flowers. Then came the yellow and white flowers. Least preference

was shown to scarlet-red, pink, scarlet-red-eyed white and pink-eyed

white flowers.

These field observations substantiate the conclusions arrived at by

extensive experimentation (followed by statistical analysis) under the

controlled conditions of the cage with the help of the standardized Ostwald

coloured papers and the Bauman grey papers. They confirm :

(a) that these insects tend to prefer flowers with compactly arranged

and limited number of parts offering less contour (Vaidya

1958); and

(6) that they prefer for feeding blue and purple colours (Ilse &

Vaidya 1956).

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY, VIDYADHAR G. VAIDYA

UNIVERSITY OF POONA,

POoON~-7,

December 20, 1967.

REFERENCES

ItsE, D. & VatpyA. V. G. (1956): VaIDYA, V. G. (1958): Visual percep-

Spontaneous feeding response to colours tion in Papilio demoleus L., Ph. D.

in Papilio demoleus L. Proc. Indian Acad. Thesis submitted to University of Poona.

Sci. XLII, 23-31.

120 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

17. ON A HYMENOPTEROUS EGG-PARASITE OF

AQUATIC BUGS INJURIOUS TO PISCICULTURE

Parasitism by hymenopterous egg-parasites has been observed in a

few cases of aquatic insects. During our investigations on the biology of

aquatic bugs, a number of eggs of Anisops bouvieri Kirkaldy and Plea

frontalis (Fieber) collected from a temporary pond near Central Inland

Fisheries Research Institute, Barrackpore, were found to be infested by a

hymenopterous parasite, Prestwichia sp. (Family Trichogrammatidae).

Examination under the microscope of these eggs showed that some of

them had exit holes. Such eggs were discarded and only complete eggs

were selected for the determination of the number of parasites per host

egg. Fifty parasitized eggs of each species were dissected and the number

of parasites in each egg were counted. Results of these observations are

given in the Table below.

Number of parasites Number of host eggs

Anisops bouvieri Plea frontalis

1 5 50

2 20 af

3 19

4 6

In the laboratory freshly deposited eggs of Anisops bouvieri Kirkaldy

and Plea frontalis (Fieber), in the stems of aquatic plants, were exposed

to the attacks of the female parasite and her behaviour was observed.

She walked on the plant twigs, touching them with her antennae until

the host egg was located when she raised her body and thrust the needle-

shaped ovipositor into the host egg. While ovipositing, she quivered and

scratched the plant tissue with her legs. The process of egg-laying took

from 4-6 minutes.

The parasite takes about 11 days to complete its life-history at a

temperature ranging from 26.6°C to 32.2°C. Further studies on the

biology of these parasites would probably lead to evolving a suitable

method for the biological control of aquatic bugs preying upon fish fry.

It is noteworthy that the genus Prestwichia Lubbock is recorded for the

first time from India and the eggs of Anisops bouvieri Kirkaldy and Plea

frontalis (Fieber) are new hosts for the parasite.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author is grateful to Dr. B. S. Bhimachar, former Director,

Central Inland Fisheries Research Institute, for his guidance. Thanks

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 121

are due to Dr. D. S. Hill, Commonwealth Institute of Entomology,

London, for confirming the identity of the parasite.

CENTRAL INLAND FISHERIES J. M. JULKA!

RESEARCH INSTITUTE,

BARRACKPORE, WEST BENGAL,

January 29, 1969.

18. HONEY BEES AND WASPS AS PESTS OF GRAPE

Honey bees usually feed on nectar but, the Indian Honey Bee, Apis

indica F. and Wasps, Polistes hebraeus (Fb.) and Vespa orientalis Linn.

damage the ripening grape berries in Madhya Pradesh. A. indica has not

so far been reported as a pest of grapes as far as the author is aware.

Exotic varieties of grapes, particularly Perlette, Muscat, and Beauty

Seedless are the most promising varieties of economic importance in

Madhya Pradesh. They start ripening from the middle of May and the

fruiting season is almost over by the end of June. During 1962, 1963

and 1968, at Gwalior a single vine on an average bore 136, 147, and 183

bunches consisting of 2,441, 2,876 and 3,087 berries, respectively. The

berries of Perlette and Muscat are light greenish to light yellowish in

colour, seedless, sweet, having edible thin skin, tasty and of pleasing

texture. The normal sugar content of these fruits is 18 per cent with

acid at 0.8 per cent. They are the most preferred by A. indica followed

by Beauty Seedless that are purplish in colour whereas the seeded varieties

with inedible skin are comparatively less favoured and sour varieties

are least favoured. Hard inedible skinned varieties almost escape damage.

The percentage of damaged berries in Perlette and Muscat varieties

varied from 15.6 to 64.8 and 12.7 to 58.6 respectively, during 1962,

17.2 to 63.5 and 10.7 to 54.5 during 1963; and 18.7 to 70.3 and 13.5

to 62.7 during 1968. The infestation attains a peak during the first fort-

night of June. No varietal preference has been observed by wasps. The

bees and wasps make minute punctures on the ripe and ripening berries

only and feed on the pulp by gnawing the epicarp leaving the skin behind.

Such infested berries either remain on the bunch or fall to the ground.

During 1966 and 1967, the pests of grape vine at Jabalpur in Madhya

Pradesh were also surveyed. Thrips caused maximum damage during

the blossom and fruiting stage, adversely affecting fruit formation and

causing cracking and scab formation on grapes. Bees and wasps were

secondary minor pests on these cracked berries at Jabalpur. At Gwalior,

honey bees and wasps are major pests of grapes irrespective of thrips

infestation, and are a potential menace as well as a great setback to the

1 Present Address: Zoological Survey of India, 27, Chowringhee Road, Calcutta-13.

122 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

cultivation of grapes in this region. If the ripening bunches are not pro-

tected by paper bags, no ripe fruit can be harvested and even the cost of

cultivation cannot be realised.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author is thankful to Shri R. C. Srivastava, Chairman of

Horticulture, for permission to record observations and Director, Zoologi-

cal Survey of India, Calcutta, for the identifications. Partial use of data

collected along with Shri S. U. Kittur during 1962 and 1963 is duly

acknowledged. The author is indebted to Dr. R. R. Rawat, Chairman of

Entomology, for guidance and encouragement.

DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY, D. K. SAXENA

J. N. KrisHi VISHWA VIDYALAYA,

COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE,

GwWaALior, M.P.,

December 24, 1968.

19. ANEMOTACTIC RESPONSE IN’ THE FIREFLY,

LUCIOLA SP. (COLEOPTERA: LAMPYRIDAE)

Positive response to wind currents by insects has been observed

by many workers (Wheeler 1899; Fraenkel 1932; Kennedy 1939). Terms

such as anemotropism and anemotaxis have been applied to this behaviour.

In some cases, the positive reaction to air currents is closely linked up

with visual or olfactory stimuli (Fraenkel & Gunn 1961).

During the second week of May, 1968 fairly large numbers of the

firefly, Luciola sp. were seen flying around trees at night in the Malabar

Christian College compound. At night, around 9 p.m., about ten of

them flew into our room, evidently attracted by the electric light. An

electric ceiling fan was at that time, revolving at top speed in the room.

It was observed that the fireflies flying inside the room were frequently

knocked down by the blades of the fan. In order to find out whether

the flight orientation was in any way connected with the wind current

produced by the fan, the lights in the room were switched off and there

was total darkness. The course of flight of the fireflies could be easily

followed with the help of the bright flashes of greenish yellow light

produced by them. It was found that the insects persistently flew towards

the fan, directly against the strong wind current. This is a positive and

directional response to the wind current, which is apparently not connected

with any other stimuli and it may therefore be termed positive anemotaxis,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 123

This behaviour must be having some adaptive significance in nature

under certain conditions.

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY, A. B. SOANS

MALABAR CHRISTIAN COLLEGE, JOYCE S. SOANS

CALICUT 1, KERALA,

June 8, 1968.

REFERENCES

FRAENKEL, G. (1932): Die Wanderun- KENNEDY, J. S. (1939): The visual

gen der Insecten. Ergebnisse der Biologie, orientation of flying mosquitoes in still

6: 8. and in moving air. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond.

A. 109: 221-242.

& GuNN, D. L. (1961): WHEELER, W. M. (1899): Anemo-

The Orientation of Animals. Dover tropism and other tropism in insects.

Publications, Inc., New York. Arch. EntwMech. Org. 8: 373-381.

20. THE RED PUMPKIN’ BEETLE RAPHIDOPALPA

FOVEICOLLIS (LUCAS), AS A PEST OF THE JAPANESE MINT

The Red Pumpkin Beetle, Raphidopalpa foveicollis (Lucas), is a

serious pest of cucurbits and is very widely distributed all over India.

Besides cucurbits, it has been reported to damage the leaves of plants

such as Lathyrus odoratus L., Pisum sativum L., Medicago sativa L.,

Oryza sativa L., Zea mays L., Cyamopsis psoraloides DC., Trifolium

resupinatum L., french beans, Phaseolus vulgaris Linn, etc. The beetle

is reported here for the first time as causing damage to mint, Mentha

arvensis L. subsp. haplocaly Briq. var. piperascens Malinvaud. The

menthol in the leaves of this new host plant gives them a strong aroma

and bitter taste but does not deter the pest.

The Japanese mint, an important exotic aromatic plant, was initially

introduced on the farm of the Northern Zonal Centre of the Central

Indian Medicinal Plants Organisation, Haldwani (Nainital) and is now

grown as a cash crop in about three thousand acres in the Tarai tract

of Uttar Pradesh. Adult red pumpkin beetles, Raphidopalpa foveicollis

(Lucas) (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) were observed in groups of three

to six on leaves of Japanese mint in March-April 1967 and 1968 at the

farm of CIMPO, Haldwani, situated on Bareilly-Nainital Road about a

mile north of Pantnagar Railway Station. They fed on the underside of

the leaves and caused fairly severe damage. Initially the damage is mainly

to the palisade tissue in between the veins, causing transparent patches

on the infested leaves which are progressively holed. Unless large number

of such patches appear, the pest escapes detection while feeding on the

undersurface of the leaf and continues to damage it. Besides the leaves,

young growing apical and auxiliary buds are eaten. This, however,

124 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

retards growth only temporarily. In severely infested plots, the loss of

crop ranges from 15 to 20 per cent.

Even though the beetles were observed feeding on the foliage and

also pairing on the plants ; it is not yet known as to how far they complete

their development on this new host. However, the ease with which they

feed on this plant suggest, in addition to the pairing recorded on the

host, that the pest might be able to complete its life cycle on the Japanese

mint itself. The extent of damage caused afford sufficient justification

to classify it as a serious pest.

Control Measures: Spraying 0.02 per cent endrin at the rate of

about 1,000 litres per ha. in the early hours of the day effectively control

the pest. In this case, the crop should not be harvested within three

weeks of the date of spraying. Dusting 5 per cent malathion at the rate

of 2 kg. per ha. or spraying 0.1 per cent malathion at the rate of about

1,000 litres per ha. is also effective in reducing infestation.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors are thankful to Dr. R. L. Paliwal, Director (Research),

Experimental Station, and Dr. N. K. Anant Rao, Dean, College of

Agriculture, U.P. Agricultural University, Pantnagar and Director &

Scientist-in-Charge, Central Indian Medicinal Plants Organisation,

Lucknow, for their keen interest in the work. Thanks are also due to

Dr. A. P. Kapur, Director, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta-12, for

identifying the beetle.

DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY, J. P. SINGH

COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE,

U. P. AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY,

PANTNAGAR (NAINITAL) U.P.

CENTRAL INDIAN MEDICINAL RAJENDRA GUPTA

PLANTS ORGANISATION (CSIR),

NORTHERN ZONAL CENTRE,

HALDWANI,

(NAINITAL), U.P.

May 11, 1968.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 125

21. THE TAXONOMIC STATUS OF THE SECTION

FISSENDOCARPA (HAINES) RAVEN OF THE ONAGRACEOUS

GENUS LUDWIGIA L.

The taxonomy of the genus Ludwigia has been worked thoroughly

by Baillon (Hist. Pl. 6: 463, 1877), Munz (Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 71:

152-165, 1944 & Darwiniana 4: 179-284, 1952), Brenan (Kew Bull.

8: 163-172, 1953), Hara (J. Jap. Bot. 28: 289-294, 1953), and Raven

(Reinwardtia 6: 327-427. 1963). Baillon united the genera Jussiaea L.

and Jsnardia L. with this. But some authors including Munz did not

accept Baillon’s treatment in uniting Jussiaea with Ludwigia and

maintained the former as a distinct genus having stamens twice as many

as the sepals and the latter having stamens as many as the sepals. Brenan

convincingly showed the inconsistency of the above character and

followed Baillon in merging Ludwigia and Jussiaea; but selected the

name Jussiaea, which was contrary to rules as pointed out by Hara.

Raven in his synoptical treatment of the genus Ludwigia which includes

Jussiaea, Isnardia and Oocarpon Mich., recognises 17 sections; out of

them Fissendocarpa stands in an anomalous position without any close

relatives on account of its fruit and seed characters and destroys the

homogeneity of the genus Ludwigia. This is obvious from the following

remarks by Haines (J. As. Soc. Bengal n.s. 15: 312-314, 1919) and Raven.

Haines—‘“‘ The species with these peculiar fruits and dimorphous

seeds seem to merit a special section of the genus which I propose to

call Fissendocarpa.” “‘...on all these characters some botanists would

perhaps make a new genus.”

Raven—“ It has no relatives. ...The dimorphic seeds of this

species are very unusual.”

So in order to make the genus Ludwigia a homogenous one, the

section Fissendocarpa is here raised to generic status.

Fissendocarpa

Seeds dimorphous

Each locule with uniseriate seeds at the

proximal portion of the fruit and pluri-

seriate seeds at the distal portion.

In fruits uniseriate seeds at the proximal

portion are embedded in endocarp and

pluriseriate seeds at the distal portion

are free.

Ludwigia

Seeds not dimorphous

Each locule with either uniseriate or

pluriseriate seeds throughout the length

of the fruit.

In fruits all the seeds are free or all

embedded in endocarp.

Fissendocarpa (Haines) Bennet stat. nov.

Jussiaea sect. Fissendocarpa Haines in J. As. Soc. Bengal n.s. 15:

314, 1919.

126 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

Type species: Jussiaea fissendocarpa Haines I.c. 313=J. linifolia

Vahl.

Fissendocarpa linifolia (Vahl) Bennet comb. nov.

Jussiaea linifolia Vahl, Ecolog. Am. 2: 32, 1798.

J. fissendocarpa Haines lI.c. 313.

J. hyssopifolia G. Don, Gen. Syst. 2: 693, 1832.

Ludwigia hyssopifolia (G.Don) Exell, Garcia de Orta 5:471, 1957

Raven /.c. 385.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author thanks Dr. K. Subramanyam, Director of the Botanical

Survey of India for encouragement and Mr. A. N. Henry, Scientific

Officer of the Botanical Survey of India for suggestions.

BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, S.S. R. BENNET

CatLcutTtTa-14,

March 3, 1969.

22. INTERESTING PLANTS FROM MAHARASHTRA

STATE

During studies on the flora of Maharashtra State the species noted

below were recorded as little known or new to the State. Salient identi-

fication characters to their brief notes on distribution are given in

this paper.

APIACEAE (= UMBELLIFERAE)

1. Seseli diffusum (Roxb. ex Sm.) Sant. & Wagh in Bull. Bot.

Surv. Ind. 5: 108, 1963. Ligusticum diffusum Roxb. ex Sm. in Rees,

Cycl. 21: 11, 1812. Cnidium diffusum DC. Prodr. 4: 153, 1830. Seseli

indicum Wt. & Arn, Prodr. 371, 1834; C. B. Clarke in Fl. Br. Ind. 2:

693, 1879; Gamble, Fl. Madras 1: 561 (reprint).

Herb, annual, sub-erect, 8-20 cm. high, profusely branched from the

base; leaves pinnate ; umbels compound with linear bracts and bracteoles ;

corolla whitish pink; fruits subglobose with prominent ridges, densely

hairy, tip ending in two divaricating reflexed points.

Fls. & frts.: April-May. Loc.: Islapur along Penganga river bed,

Nanded District, Janardhanan 101320. (Occasional along river bed.)

The density of hairs on the fruit of this species varies considerably.

Clarke (/.c.) also indicates the occurrence of both glabrous and densely

hairy fruits with a wide range of intermediate forms.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 127

The present record from the drier parts of Central Maharashtra is

interesting, as it links up the distribution between eastern India including

Bengal and southern India covering Andhra Pradesh and Mysore State.

FABACEAE

2. Eleiotis monophylla (Burm.f.) DC. Mem. Leg. 7: 350, 1825;

Schindl. in Fedde. Repert. 311, 1928. Glycine monophylla Burm. f. FI.

Ind. 161, t. 50, f. 2, 1768. Eleiotis sororia DC. Mem. Leg. 7: 350, 1825;

C. B. Clarke in Fl. Br. Ind. 2: 153, 1876; Cooke, Fl. Bombay 1: 364

(reprint); Gamble, Fl. Madras 1: 333 (reprint).

Annual monsoon herb; stem about 1 m. long, weak, trailing, tri-

quetrous; leaf usually 1-foliate, stipulate, large, orbicular, rarely with a

pair of small, oblong-oblanceolate leaflets arising from the joint just

above the short petiole; thereby indicating the trifoliate character of

leaf; racemes auxillary up to 15 cm. long, fragile, flowers rosy purple;

pods small, boat-shaped.

Fils. & frts.: August-November. Loc.: Dhulia District; Ranipur,

Pataskar 926009; Unapdeo near hot springs, Pataskar 110115; Ratanpur

forest near Kansali, Pataskar 110262; Kotbandhani, Pataskar 110061.

This species, reported from Madras, Mysore, Andhra Pradesh in

the south and Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh in the north, has so far

not been recorded from Maharashtra State. Santapau (Jour. Bomb.

Nat. Hist. Soc. 48: 277, 1949) expresses doubts about its availability in

Bombay Presidency. It is, therefore, interesting that the present record

establishes the continuity of its distribution from south to north of India.

3. Galactia tenuiflora (Klein ex Willd.) Wt. & Arn. Prodr. 206,

1834; van Steenis in Reinwardtia 5(4): 431, 1961; Baker in FI. Br. Ind. 2:

192, 1876; Cooke, Fl. Bombay 1: 393 (reprint); Gamble, Fl. Madras 1:

251 (reprint).

Fls. & frts.: September-October. Loc.: Kondhibari ghat near Sakri,

Dhulia District, Pataskar 117519.

4. Indigofera colutea (Burm. f.) Merr. in Phil. Journ. Sci. 19:

355, 1921; Santapau, Fl. Saurashtra 131, 1962. Galega colutes Burm.

f. Fl. Ind. 172, 1768. Indigofera viscosa Lamk. Encycl. 3: 247, 1789;

Baker in FI. Br. Ind. 2: 95, 1876; Cooke, Fl. Bombay 1: 337 (reprint).

Fls. & frts.: August-October. Loc.: Dhulia District: Ranipur-

Nagzari, Pataskar 110062; Kansali hill forest, Pataskar 110237; Ranipur

River, Pataskar 11001.

128 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

The present record is from Dhulia District of Maharashtra State,

where the species is common.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors wish to express their grateful thanks to Shri R. S. Rao,

Regional Botanist, Betanical Survey of India, Western Circle, Poona-1

for encouragement and guidance in preparing this paper.

BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, R. D. PATASKAR

WESTERN CIRCLE, (Miss) K. K. AHUJA

7 KOREGAON ROAD,

Poona-l,

March, 6, 1969.

23. A NEW LOCALITY RECORD OF CORDIA CRENATA

DEL. IN PIRAM ISLAND OFF SOUTH SAURASHTRA COAST

A species of Cordia reported from Piram Island off Bhavnagar-

Gopnath shores in the gulf of Cambay on identification was found to be

Cordia crenata Del. Recently this species was reported from Nargoa

airport, Diu Island; Duthie reported it from Rajputana in 1911.

In Piram Island this plant was found growing along the margins

of the scrubland exposed to sea-influence. In the year 1962 the writer

also collected the same species under similar situations from Diu Island.

A look at its scattered isolated habitat would reveal that it is a new

intruder.

Piram Island: T. A. Rao 2061, 4.10.64; Diu Island: 7. A. Rao

1947(a), 22-11-1963.

ECOLOGY SECTION, T. ANANDA RAO

BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

76, LOWER CIRCULAR ROAD,

CALCUTTA-14,

May 1, 1969.

24. CLEOME RUTIDOSPERMA DC. (CAPPARACEAE)—A

NEW RECORD FOR ASSAM

C. rutidosperma DC., a native of West Tropical Africa, introduced in

Caribbean region, found in Malaysia and Burma, recently recorded for

India from West Bengal (vide, Mukherjee in Ind. For. Vol. 95(4):

237.1969.) and, is now recorded here for the first time for Assam.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 129

Cleome rutidosperma DC. Prod. 1: 241.1824; Jacobs in Fl. Males.

(Ser. 1) 6: 104. 1960.

An annual, erect to spreading, widely branched herb. Stem, petiole

and nerves underneath with sparse prickle-like, softish appendages.

Leaves on 2.5-4 cm. long petioles, ovate-elliptic with an acute or cuneate

base, subacute, thinly herbaceous, lateral ones 2-2.51-1.2-1.8 cm.

central leaflet 2.5-3cm. x1.5-1.8 cm. lateral nerves 6-9 pairs. Flowers

solitary, violet-blue; pedicels filiform, 2-2.7 cm. with minute whitish

gland-like sticky hairs. Fruits cylindric, tapering towards both ends,

4-5 cm. long, glabrous. Seeds yellowish symmetrical with a blackish

tcenre, obtuse concentric ribs and stronger cross-ribs.

Specimen examined: ASSAM. Gauhati, Satri Bari Road, A. C. Dut

979 (CAL).

INDIAN BOTANIC GARDEN, R. B. GHOSH

SIBPORE, HOWRAH.

CENTRAL NATIONAL HERBARIUM, R. PRASAD

CALCUTTA,

May 7, 1969.

25. TWO NEW RECORDS OF ARACEAE FROM THE UPPER

GANGETIC PLAIN

The following 2 species of Typhonium collected from Ramgarh-

Khusmi forest of Gorakhpur District of Eastern Uttar Pradesh, do not

seem to have been recorded from the Upper Gangetic Plain earlier, and

hence they are recorded here as being new to the area. The two species

have been grown in the Banaras Hindu University Botanical Garden,

where they have flowered and fruited again during the following year.

Typhonium schottii Prain. Tuberous herbs, 25-35 cm. high; tubers

2.5-4 cm., in diam.; leaves 8.5-11.5 cm. long, about as broad or much

broader than its length, triangular-hastate, appearing with the inflore-

scence, 3-partite, each segment with a bulbil at the base; lateral segments

unequal sided, 8-9.5 x 2.5-4.4 cm.; middle segment 8.5-10.5 x 6-7.2

cm.; petioles 18-24 cm. long; peduncles 5-6.5 cm. long (in fruit up to

10 cm. long). Spathe slender 12.5-13.5 cm. long, open; spadix 11 .5-12.3

cm. long, exerted, with a long barren appendage; appendage oblique at

the base; female flowers and male flowers well separated ; female flowers

at the base on a 3.5-4.5 mm. long portion; neutral flowers above the

female flowers, linear, yellow, spreading, 5-6 mm. long; male flowers at a

distance of 1.3-1.5 cm. above the neutral ones on a 1 cm. long portion,

reddish-purple; anthers sessile; berry ovoid, 7-8 x 4 mm, 1-seeded.

130 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

Flowers and fruits : June-July.

Specimens examined: Khusmi Forest, Reddi 1055 (BAN), common

in ‘ Sal’ forest undergrowth.

Typhonium roxburghii Schott. Geophytic herbs, 25-30 cm. high;

tubers 3-3.5 cm. indiam., with a number of adventitious roots arising

from the top; leaves 8-9 cm. long, about as broad or slightly broader

than its length, ovate, hastately sagittate, cordate at the base, sub-3-

lobed, with bulbils at the base; petioles 17-22 cm. long; peduncles 1.8-

2.3 cm. long. Spathe slender, 13.5-14.5 cm. long, 3-4 cm. broad at

the base, reddish-purple; apex rounded, somewhat twisted; limb open;

spadix 12 cm. long, exerted, with a barren appendage; appendage rounded

at the base; female and male flowers well separated; female flowers at

the base; neutral flowers above the female flowers, yellow, linear,

spreading, 5-7 mm. long; male flowers reddish-purple.

Flowers and fruits : June-July.

Specimens examined : Khusmi Forest, Reddi 1056 (BAN), common

in ‘ Sal’ forest undergrowth along with T. schottii Prain.

The description of both these taxa has been drawn from fresh living

material. The identification of both the specimens has been done at the

Central National Herbarium, Calcutta.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Thanks are due to Dr. A. C. Joshi, Vice-Chancellor, Banaras Hindu

University, for guidance and to the Keeper, Central National Herbarium,

Calcutta, for his help in the identification work.

DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY, B. VENKATAREDDI

BANARAS HINDU UNIVERSITY,

VARANASI,

June 20, 1969.

26. ON CHAETOSPHAERIDIUM GLOBOSUM (NORDST.)

KLEBAHN FROM INDIA

(With a text-figure)

Out of the five genera of the family Coleochaetaceae, five species

only of Coleochaete have been described so far from different parts of

India. All the five species Coleochaete nitellarum Jost., C. pulvinata A.Br.,

C. soluta (de Bréb.) Prings., C. scutata de Bréb. and C. orbicularis Prings.

have been reported for the first time from Gujarat by Patel (1966, 1968),

except C. scutata de Bréb. which was previously recorded from Ahmedabad

{

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 131

by Kamat (1962). As far as the author is aware, the taxon Chaetosphae-

ridium globosum (Nordst.) Klebahn is described here for the first time

from India.

Chaetosphaeridium globosum (Nordst.) Klebahn, showing the nature of the cells in

a cluster (x 690).

The material was collected by the author, in the last week of October,

1955, from a small pond near the railway line at Valavao, Baroda District,

Gujarat State. The plant grew as an epiphyte on Zygnema sp. The cells

are generally spherical, in clusters of irregular shape with mucilaginous

envelopes. Clusters with mature cells were also seen as free floating

with Zygnema filaments. Basal interconnecting tubes in the cells are not

apparent. Individual cell bear a long seta, Characteristic of the family

Coleochaetaceae. Seta is the axial cytoplasmic filament, the basal portion

of which is ensheathed by a short cylindrical gelatinous sheath. The

cells are uninucleate with a laminate parietal chloroplast containing a

single pyrenoid in it. Clusters are of about 60 » in width. The cells are

15.0 » in diameter.

132 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

The description and the dimensions of the species described here,

generally agree with those of Chaetosphaeridium globosum (Nordst.)

Klebahn.

DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY, R. J. PATEL

SARDAR PATEL UNIVERSITY,

VALLABH VIDYANAGAR,

GUJARAT STATE,

July 15, 1969.

REFERENCES

Kamat, N. D. (1962): Chlorophyceae Pulvirata A. Br. from Gujarat. J. Bombay

of Ahmedabad, India. Hydrobiologia 20: nat. Hist. Soc. 63: 222-224.

248-279. (1968): On _ Coleo-

chaete from Gujarat (India). Phykos

PATEL, R. J. (1966): Coleochaete 7(1 & 2): 90-97.

27. A NEW RECORD FOR CROTALARIA INCANA LINN.

FROM SOUTH INDIA

Crotalaria incana Linn. forming the subject of this note was collected

by me in June 1969 from the Museum compound, Trivandrum, Kerala

State. The specimen was identified at Kew (ref: H.2412/69) and is

preserved in the Herbarium, Sree Narayana College, Quilon. This South

American species, hitherto known to occur in India only in the Kumaon

hills, is an addition to the south Indian flora. Description given below

is based on fresh specimens.

Crotalaria incana Linn. Erect, annual white silky pubescent herba-

ceous shrub, 95 cm. or so high. Stem terete, white silky pubescent. Leaves

alternate, trifoliate, stipulate; stipules linear, subulate, hairy, deciduous,

about 4 mm. long; petioles c. 6.8 cm. long, subterete, pulvinate, silky

pubescent; petiolule pubescent; blade 7.7 c. 4.4 cm., soft, elliptic

to elliptic-obovate with an acute mucronate or obtusely acute mucronate

tip and a cuneate base, sparsely pubescent below, puberulous to glabrate

above. Flowers up to 30 in a terminal raceme 25 cm. or more long,

bracteate, bracteolate and shortly pedicellate; bracts linear subulate,

hairy, deciduous, about 6 mm. long; bracteoles narrow, hairy, 5 mm.

long; pedicels 3 mm. long. Calyx hairy outside, glabrous within, 1.3 cm.

long with a tube 3 mm. long and linear-lanceolate greenish-yellow lobes.

Corolla pale yellow, slightly exserted; standard pale yellow, round

elliptic 1.6 cm. long and 1.2 cm. broad ; wings yellowish hyaline, obliquely

linear oblong with a round tip; keel yellowish hyaline with a thick

brush of white hairs on the upper margin without. Stamens 10, mona-

delphous with dimorphous anthers. Ovary subsessile to sessile 5 mm.

long, 2 mm. broad, thick, white, silky hairy; style slender, linear, hairy

on the inner side; stigma slightly thickened; ovules many. Fruit

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 133

cylindrical, swollen, deflexed, silky hairy, 3.5 cm. long, 7 mm. wide,

sulcate above, up to 40-seeded; seeds angularly reniform, smooth,

greenish black with a light brown shade around the groove, 3-2.5 mm.

It is interesting to note that C. incana Linn, characteristic of the

Kumaon hills (about 5,000 ft. above sea-level), is now found at sea-level.

Equally interesting is the fact that the specimen collected by the author

is not the typical asiatic form. To quote Kew authorities, “* This is clearly

referable to Crotalaria incana L., although, as you correctly surmise,

is not the typical asiatic form. It is in fact an exact match with the forms

of this rather variable pan-tropical species which hails from S. America,

and your plant may well have been introduced either by accident or

design from that continent’.

The author wishes to express his sincere thanks to the Director,

Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, who has identified the specimen. The

author’s thanks are also due to Prof. N. A. Erady, Maharaja’s College,

Ernakulam, for valuable advice.

SREE NARAYANA COLLEGE, N. RAVI

PUNALUR, KERALA,

September 19, 1969.

28. AN ABNORMAL PSIDIUM MUTATION

In 1954 the writer as Senior Technical Assistant, National Botanic

Gardens, was in charge of malis engaged in lifting closely packed guava

seedlings for transplanting. Among the first batch lifted was one with

distinctive foliage, which was potted off; later on three more came to

light. They were all about 60 cm. in height. One of the strongest growing

was planted in a shrubbery border.

It was impossible to trace the source of these abnormal seedlings

as the fruit from which they were raised had been purchased in the

open market. There was every likelihood that the fruit responsible for

the abnormal seedlings was from a mutating branch in some orchard.

Had an entire plant shown the abnormal foliage and poor fruiting quality,

there is little doubt that it would have been uprooted.

By 1964 this guava had developed into a tall bush about 3.65 m.

in height, and as it bore several fruits was protected with a wire-netting

screen. Unfortunately this was not thief proof and the following year some

individual stripped the plant of all but a solitary fruit that was hidden

under a cluster of leaves. The fruit was artificially ripened, it was only

2.5 cm. in diameter. The flesh was nearly 2 cm. in diameter, of normal

guava flavour, not very sweet, and containing about 100 seeds;

germination took place in 6 weeks, but during adry spell, when a tube

well failed, these seedlings died.

134 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

The height of the abnormal guava plant at the time of making this

report is 3.65 m. In Psidium guajava two flower buds appear at the lower

end of young growth, two to three pairs, of leaves from the base. In the

abnormal specimen, however, terminal or side shoots, each bear on the

upper nodes 2-4 flowers, which, as a rule, do not fully expand. The growth

of the abnormal guava is more or less fastigate. The dry foliage of the

mutant normally does not fail but remains attached till removed by the

breeze or other mechanical method.

The summer of 1965 was very severe, and the fruits of the mutant

fell in large numbers. The first tree-ripened fruit was collected in August,

and a note was made of its characteristics: Diameter of fruit 5 cm. ; scent

very strong; flesh white, thickness of flesh 1.2 cm.; seeds large, but rela-

tively few; colour of skin pale greenish yellow. The following details refer

to the plant or its leaves: Bark greyish brown in colour, rough; leaf

cordate, apex finely pointed, pigmentation confined to the swollen veins

at the base of the leaf; petiole average 17 mm. long; leaf blade

33.5 < 30) mm:

LUCKNOW, S. PERCY-LANCASTER

November 1, 1969.

29. TUBERS IN ERIOCAULON RITCHIEANUM RUHL

(With eight text-figures)

Tuberiferous habit has not been reported in any member of Erio-

caulaceae so far. The plants of EF. ritchieanum collected from Radhanagari

and Pahanala (Kolhapur District, Maharashtra) were found to bear tubers

(fig. 1). The tuberiferous habit is a regular feature of all the plants of

this species growing in these two localities. The development and morpho-

logy of these tubers is described here.

Tuber primordia originate as axillary buds. Each primordium

srows vertically up to 5 mm. into a short axillary branch; its tip then

branches dichotomously into 2-4 branches (fig. 2); these turn down,

pierce through the subtending or adjacent leaf-base and enter into the

soil. Each branch tip then swells up to form a tuber (figs. 3, 4). The mature

tuber has an average size of 42.5 mm.; it is round (fig. 6), or bilobed

(fig. 5) in outline; its surface is covered with dense growth of unicellular

hairs (fig. 7). One or two buds (eyes) are found on the tubers. Mature

tubers are full of simple circular starch grains (fig. 8). Dried tubers germ-

inate readily in a petridish with a thin layer of moist soil. The plants

attain maturity within 45 to 60 days.

Tubers in Eriocaulon ritchieanum Ruhl.

Fig. 1. Entire plant with tubers (t). Figs. 2-4. Development of tuber producing branches

and formation of tubers. Figs. 5, 6. Mature tubers. Fig. 7. Unicellular hair on the

tuber. Fig. 8. Statch grains.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 135

The authors are thankful to Sir George Taylor, Director, Royal

Botanical Gardens, Kew, for confirmation of the specific identity and

to Dr. H. N. Moldenke, U.S.A., for his opinion.

BOTANY DEPARTMENT, A. R. KULKARNI

SHIVAJI UNIVERSITY, M. H. DESAI

KOLHAPUR, MAHARASHTRA,

October 31, 1969.

30. FIELD IDENTIFICATION OF TEPHROSIA PERS.

In the field it is difficult to identify the species of Tephrosia from other

plants in vegetative state. For example, the plants of Indigofera tinctoria

Linn. and Tephrosia purpurea Pers. look very similar in vegetative state.

To identify one from any other the following method has been tried

by us during botanical excursions and found useful. Take a leaflet of

any species: hold its apex and base and pull it apart; if it is a leaflet of

Tephrosia, it will always be cut in V-shaped manner. This is true even if

the leaflet is folded transversely and then pulled apart. This technique

has been tried by us on all the species of Tephrosia available here.

Other taxonomists are requested to try this method.

DEPT. OF BOTANY, P. K. MUKHERJEE

UNIVERSITY CAMPUS, RITA GUPTA

NAGPUR UNIVERSITY,

NAGPUR,

September 17, 1969.

PRINTED BY G. CLARIDGE & CO. LTD., CAXTON PRINTING WORKS

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TAXONOMIC CATEGORIES BELOW THE LEVEL OF GENUS: THEORETICAL AND

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BREEDING BIOLOGY OF THE HIMALAYAN RuBYTHROAT, Erithacus pectoralis,

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Nores ON Stellaria saxatilis BucH.-HAM. ex D. Don, Stellaria vestita

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101TH GENERAL ASSEMBLY AND 11TH TECHNICAL MEETING OF THE INTERNATIONAL

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GROWTH POTENTIAL OF RED HAIRY CATERPILLAR, Amsacta moorei BUTLER,

IN RELATION 10 CERTAIN Foop PLANTS. allt N. D. lt Hi Ram

Yadava and T. P. S. Teotia i

CAUSE AND EFFECTS OF A HEAVY RAINFALL IN DARJEELING AND IN THE Sr

HMa.ayas. By Leszek Starkel Ws we Ny ay hi ile

A CATALOGUE OF THE BIRDS IN THE COLLECTION OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL

History Society — 6. By Humayun Abdulali WH is ue HK

NOMENCLATURAL NOTES ON SOME FLOWERING PLANTs - IT. By N. P. Balakrishnan

THE BEHAVIOUR OF THE LESSER BANDICOOT RAT, Bandicota bengalensis (GRAY

AND HARDWICKE). By Dwain W. Parrack and Jacob Thomas... wi

NOTES ON SOME PECULIAR CASES OF PHYTOGEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTIONS. By V. M.

Meher-Homji ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee

A SYNOPSIS OF THE GENUS Ejisocreochiton QUISUMB. AND MERR. By M. P. Nayar

OBITUARY Mp ub th uit AN Hn) i ui Hh bi

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES ul a a Mi} ale kl Ale ee

102

Journal of the

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Editors

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J. C. DANIEL & P. V. BOLE

AUGUST 1970

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titles of journals or periodicals underlined (italics) and titles of books

not underlined (roman type), thus:

Banerji, M. L. (1958): Botanical Exploration in East Nepal.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 55 (2): 243-268.

Prater, S. H. (1948): The Book of Indian Animals. Bombay.

Titles of papers should not be underlined.

8. Reference to literature in the text should be made by quoting

the author’s name and year of publication, thus : (Banerji 1958).

9. Synopsis: Each scientific paper should be accompanied by

a concise, clearly written synopsis, normally not exceeding 200 words.

10. Reprints: Authors are supplied 25 reprints of their articles

free of charge. In the case of joint authorship, 50 copies will be

given gratis to be distributed among the two or more authors. Orders

for additional reprints should be in multiples of 25 and should be

received within two weeks after the author is informed of the acceptance

of the manuscript. They will be charged for at cost plus postage and —

packing. ies ‘a aS helio

) EDITORS,

Hornbill House, Journal of the Bombay Natural

Shahid Bhagat History Society.

Singh Road,

Bombay 1-BR.

VOLUME 67, NO. 2—AUGUST 1970

Date of Publication: 31-10-1970

CONTENTS

A NEW RACE OF THE BLACKCRESTED BAZA, Aviceda leuphotes (DUMONT), FROM THE

ANDAMAN IsLANDS. By Humayun Abdulali and Robert B. Grubh Hes og Sf

OrcHIDsS OF NEPAL—3. By M. L. Banerji and B. B. Thapa. (With nine text-

figures) at at ce as re ae Se.

AMPHIPODA FROM THE EAST COAST OF INDIA—2. By T. E. Sivaprakasam. (With

six text-figures) .. se 3 a AP i ot 453

Sex RATIO IN SOME INDIAN Bats. By A. Gopalakrishna and A. Madhavan .. 171

FLORA OF MOTHRONWALA SWAMP Forest (DISTRICT: DEHRA Dun, U.P.,

INDIA). By K. M. M. Dakshini #5 me oe ore TG

NOTES ON SOME BUTTERFLIES IN THE COLLECTION OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HIs-

TORY SocieTy. By N. T. Nadkerny .. ts ae ae 187

STUDIES ON THE BIOLOGY OF SOME FRESHWATER FISHES. By V.S. Bhatt. (With

eight text-figures) 194

SPIDER FAUNA OF INDIA: CATALOGUE AND BIBLIOGRAPHY. By B. K. Tikader 212

SOME OBSERVATIONS ON DISTRIBUTION OF Scoparia dulcis LINN. IN INDIA. By

J. D. Shah Ag is as ae or Ay PW

THE TIGER IN INDIA : AN ENQUIRY—1968-69. By J.C. Daniel .. ke eee. |,

THE THALASSINOIDEA (CRUSTACEA, ANOMURA) OF MAHARASHTRA. By

K.N. Sankolli. (With four text-figures). ae Ye 2» 235

PRE-FOLIATION IN Scindapsus officinalis ScHoTT. By T. A. Davis. (With a

text-figure). se x es se ae ey 2

FORAMINIFERA OF THE GULF OF CAMBAY. By K. Kameswara Rao. (With 37

figures in three plates). a * Aa us Bs A)

ECO-TOXICOLOGY AND CONTROL OF INDIAN DESERT GERBIL, Meriones hurrianae

(JERDON). By Ishwar Prakash and A. P. Jain af ake ..274

A CATALOGUE OF THE BIRDS IN THE COLLECTION OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY

SociETy—7. By Humayun Abdulali Ee ae 5 ame agh)

STUDIES IN INDIAN EUPHORBIACEAE—IV. By N. P. Balakrishnan. (With two

plates) es she Ls th Se Serre)

REVIEWS :

1. The Vanishing Jungle. (S.A.)_.. ie ae Pes {07 /

2. The Spotted Sphinx. (R.R.) a = Ee -. 309

3... The Kingfisher: (Z.F.) a a a ~~... ald

4. A Wealth of Wildfowl. (H.A.) .. © sé a +1310

5. The White Impala. (D.E.R.) - a, ais BR aes 1 A2

6. Indian Thysanoptera. (N.T.N.) .. ag ae lS,

7. Waterfowl in Australia. (H.A.) .. ie ot -. 314

8. Handbook of Fern Gardening. (A.J.A.) ve a reas Ne)

9. The Compleat Flea. (R.R.) ie a Ks pees Bh

10. Prehistoric Animals and their Hunters. (R.R.) a -. 316

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :

Mammals: 1. First positive record of Pipistrellus savii (Chiroptera: Ves-

pertilionidae) from India. By Hans N. Neuhauser (p. 319); 2. A note on the

Yellow Throated Marten Martes flavigula (Boddaert) in West Pakistan. By T

J. Roberts (p. 321) ; 3. The Dugong, Dugong dugon (Muller) in Burmese waters.

By Tun Yin (p. 326); 4. Stranding of four Whales along Goa coast between

December 1968 to April, 1970. By Rajinder M. Dhawan (p. 327).

Birds: 5. Record of the Himalayan Monal Lophophorus impejanus

(Latham) in Burma. (With a map). By Tun Yin (p. 328) ; 6. Interesting Eagles

in Western India. By Himmatsinhji (p. 330); 7. Notes on Indian Birds—12.

Extension of the southern limits of the Eastern Stock Dove (Columba eversmanni

Bonaparte). By Humayun Abdulali (p. 331) ; 8. An addition to the list of Indian

Birds—The Migratory Jungle Nightjar, Caprimulgus indicus jotaka Temm. &

Schl. By Humayun Abdulali (p. 331); 9. Greyheaded Myna, Sturnus mala-

baricus (Gmelin) in Kutch. By Himmatsinhji (p. 332) ; 10. Notes on the White-

eye (Zosterops palpebrosa) and Whitebreasted Kingfisher (Halcyon pera

By Lavkumar J. Khacher (p. 333).

Reptiles: 11. Notes on the Indian Sand Skink Ophiomorus tridactylus

(Blyth). By M.S. Rathor (p. 334) ; 12. Notes on bites by the Saw-Scaled Viper,

Echis carinatus in the Deogad area of Ratnagiri District, Maharashtra. By

Romulus Whitaker (p. 335). -

Fishes: 13. Capture of a Whale Shark Rhineodon typus Smith in Ratnagiri

waters. By M.R. Ranade, Shakuntala S. Shenoy and Fahim Ahmed (p. 337) ;

14. Fishing methods for the Spiny Eel Mastocembelus armatus in Madhya Pradesh.

By B. M. Gupta (p. 338); 15. A review of the Taxonomy of the Indian Frog-

Fishes (Family Batrachoididae). (With a photograph and a text-figure). By A.

K. Nagabhushanam and K. V. Rama Rao (p. 339).

Insects: 16. An assessment. of damage and loss by Linseed Caterpillar

Laphygma exigua Hb. By R.R. Rawat and R. R. Deshpande (p. 344); 17. A

new record of Brachydeutera longipes Hendel (Diptera: Ephydridae) from

West Bengal. By K. Ramachandra Rao (p. 345); 18. First record of Coeno-

myia Latreille (Diptera : Coenomyiidae) from India. By A.N.T. Joseph (p. 346) ;

19. The time of emergence and the periodicity of occurrence of the Tiger Beetle,

Cicindela cancellata Dej. (Order: Coleoptera—Family : Cicindelidae). By

A. B. Soans and J. S. Soans (p. 347) ; 20. Swarming of Butterflies and Moths.

By M. Mohanasundaram and C. V. Sivakumar (p. 348) ; 21. Observations on

the mating behaviour in the Ant Monomorium gracillimum Smith (Hymenoptera :

Formicidae). By A. B. Soans and J. 8. Soans (p. 350).

Crustacea: 22. Various associates of Sessile Barnacles in Bombay waters.

By A. B. Wagh and D. V. Bal (p. 351).

Botany: 23. On a newly recorded host species of Dendrophthéz2 falcata

(L.f.) Ettingsh. By R.B. Ghosh (p. 354) ; 24. Occurrence of Ceratopteris thalic-

troides (Linn.) Brongn. in Rajasthan. By Vijendra Singh (p. 354); 25. The

identity of Pimpinella lateriflora Dalz. By R.S. Rao and K. Hemadri (p. 355) ;

26. Nomenclatural notes on Indian Plants. By R. S. Rao and K. Hemadri

(p. 357) ; 27. Nomenclature of two Indian Plants. By S. S. R. Bennet (p. 358) ;

28. On the occurrence of Buddleja davidii Franch. (Loganiaceae) in India. By

S. N. Biswas and R. Prasad (p. 359) ; 29. Further studies on the host range in

Loranthus longiflorus Desv. By R. Sampathkumar (p. 360) ; 30. Onthe produc-

tion of adventitious Roots from the excised petioles of some Angiosperms. (With

a photograph). By R. Sampathkumar (p. 361).

JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL

HISTORY SOCIETY

en ES Ai oo

—.

-—————— cr EE

1970 AUGUST Vol. 67 No. 2

a ee

A new race of the Blackcrested Baza,

Aviceda leuphotes (Dumont), from

the Andaman Islands’

HUMAYUN ABDULALI AND ROBERT B. GRUBH

In February 1969 an attempt was made to visit Narcondam Island,

80 miles east of North Andaman Island. A party of three assembled

for the purpose at Port Blair, in the Andamans, but the arrangements

for the Narcondam trip went awry and H.A. returned a few days later

leaving behind Rex Pimento and R.B.G., both of the Bombay Natural

History Society, as there was still a chance of the trip to Narcondam

coming off. During their wait these two collected some 130 birds in

the neighbourhood of Port Blair and on some islands further south, on

which H.A. will report later. The present note concerns two specimens

of the Blackcrested Baza, Aviceda leuphotes (Dumont), a species not pre-

viously recorded from the Andamans, obtained by them at Wrightmyo

in South Andaman Island.

The specimens of Aviceda leuphotes already in the collection of the

Bombay Natural History Society are from India and Burma, and have

been assigned to the subspecies A. /. leuphotes (Dumont) (Type locality :

Pondicherry) and A. /. syama (Hodgson) (Type locality : Lower region

of Nepal) in accordance with their places of origin (1969, J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 65: 697). The present specimens differ strikingly from

the India and Burma specimens in :

(a) having a thin, and not broad, blackish-rufous bar across the

upper breast following the white ;

(6) this band being followed in the case of the male by only one

chestnut band and in the female by only two chestnut bands, leaving

the rest of the underparts unbarred ;

138. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

rufous than in the specimens from India and Burma, and

(d) the wings & 223, 2 224 being slightly smaller than in 45 birds

at the British Museum (Nat. Hist.) from northern and southern India,

Burma, Siam, Cambodia, and Malacca kindly measured for us by Mr.

D. J. Freeman of the British Museum (Nat. Hist.) as (excluding

one 220 mm. ) 224-251 av. 235°8 mm.

As regards (b) and (c) above, Mr. Freeman states that the material

available to him varies greatly in the amount of barring, and 3 of 4 birds

from Ceylon, which otherwise agree with A. /. leuphotes ae have pale

breasts, are virtually without barring.

The ¢ had testes 12 mm. and the 29 3 mm. ovaries, which fact together

with their behaviour suggests a courting pair and leaves little doubt that

this species, though so far overlooked, is resident in the Andamans.

On these differences, we separate the Andaman birds as:

Aviceda leuphotes andamanica subsp. nov.

Type and paratype: ¢ No. 23112 and 92 23113 in the collection of

the Bombay Natural History Society, obtained by Robert B. Grubh and

Rex Pimento at Wrightmyo, South Andaman Island, on 9th April 1969.

A list of specimens from the Andaman and Nicobar Islands received

from the Zoological Survey of India included specimen No. 23177

obtained in the Andamans and designated as Baza leuphotes. The

specimen itself was not traceable and no additional data are available

thereon.

In view of the limited amount of material available in Bombay, these

two specimens were sent to the British Museum (Nat. Hist.) and to the

American Museum of Natural History. We are grateful to Messrs

1. C. Galbraith and D. J. Freeman of the former institute and Dr. Dean

Amadon and Mrs. LeCroy of the latter for their comments and obser-

vations which have been of considerable help to us in deciding to des-

cribe a new subspecies.

Orchids of Nepal—3

M. L. BANERJI! AND B. B. THAPA 2

(With nine text-figures)

[Continued from Vol. 66 (3) : 583]

In this paper the species belonging to the genus Dendrobium and also

those of Epigeneium and Ephemerantha are accounted. The species of

the allied genus Eria, collected from Nepal, are also included in this part

of the series.

Schlecter estimated the total number of species of Dendrobium (in

the broad sense) at 900, and of Eria at 400, and these two genera to con-

stitute almost the whole of the tribe Dendrobium. However, recently

there have been some readjustments in the generic limits of Dendrobium,

and Summerhayes (Kew Bull. 1957) adopted the name Epigeneium

Gagnep. and discarded Katherinea Hawkes, and Sarcopodium Lindl.

considering that Epigeneium, Sarcopodium and Katherinea are congeneric.

Balakrishnan & Chowdhury [Bull. Bot. Surv. Ind. 8 (3 & 4): 312-318,

1966], however, feel that Epigeneium and Katherinea are two distinct

genera with clear differences. We have followed Summerhayes.

The genus Desmotrichum was established by Blume in 1825, but

Pfitzer (Pflanzfam. II, 6 : 173, 1889) treats it as a section of Dendrobium,

an arrangement accepted by Schlecter, J. J. Smith and Holttum although

Kranzlin in Pfreich. I: 343-358, 1910, had restored the genus. The

name Desmotrichum has been conserved as a genus of the Phaeophyta,

and P. F. Hunt & Summerhayes proposed a new name, Ephemerantha

for the orchid genus (see Taxon 10: 102, 1961). This genus is dis-

tinguished from Dendrobium by vegetative characters and the fuga-

ciousness of the flowers.

The characters of the tribe Dendrobium may be broadly given as

_. plants nearly all epiphytic, of sympodial growth, each branch of the

sympodium bearing one or more leaves, its stem thin or fleshy through-

out or fleshy in part, leaves of various shape, joined at the base ; in-

florescence usually lateral of one to many flowers, which sometimes

appear singly in succession from a small group of bracts ; lateral sepals

t University of Kalyani, Kalyani, W. Bengal.

* Horticultural Assistant, Indian Co-operation Mission, Kathmandu

[19]

140 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

more or less triangular in shape, their bases joined to the column-foot

forming a mentum ; petals either smaller or larger than the sepals, usually

thinner, lip more or less 3-lobed, the base often long and narrow, joined

to the end of the column-foot and sometimes partly to the sides of the

column-foot, often with longitudinal keels, column with distinct feet

which is often longer than the column, anthers usually attached at its

apex by the filament, pollinia 4 in two pairs, with or without caudicle,

rostellum small.

Dendrobium, Epigeneium and Ephemerantha all have 4 pollinia, with-

out caudicle, while Eria has 8 pollinia with short caudicles. ©

ARTIFICIAL KEY TO THE SPECIES OF Dendrobium

A. Inflorescence terminal or both terminal and lateral—

B. Stem simple or nearly so, often a small pseudobulb, flowers small. Petals ~

not broader than the dorsal sepal; side-lobes of lip strongly inciso-

serrate—

C. Racemes elongate, drooping, many flowered. Lip much shorter

than ‘the; sepalsan 7.0. sk ee eho eee eee denudans

CC. Racemes many flowered. Lip as long as the sepals... .eriaeflorum

CCC. Racemes short, erect, 3-5 flowered. Lip shorter than the sepals....

aN fa acee treet GS Vals ac iental Oe eae ata Oe waists aie eae enema,

BB. Stem rather short, tufted, suberect. Flowers solitary or racemose, often

large—

C. Mentum as long as the dorsal sepal. Mid-lobe small, orbicular,

fringed, disk with 3 wrinkled ridges................ longicornu

CC. Mentum half as long as the dorsal sepal. Mid-lobe retuse, apiculate,

disk with: \2 ‘ cidges<.i8'.%% Ih. aed Ek ee ee formosum

AA. Inflorescence lateral on the stem or pseudobulb—

B. Stem flattened ; leaves shortly ensiform, distichous, imbricating. Flowers

on the leafless extremities of the branches, minute, greenish...... anceps

BB. Stem tufted, elongate, stout or slender, distichous. Flowers usually large

in lateral pairs, fascicles or racemes—

C. Mentum short, conical or rounded. Lip not calceolar—

D. Petals as narrow as the sepals or narrower. Lip narrower than

broad. Flowers 2°5-3:0 cm., fragrant........ ‘. .candidum

| .

DD. Petals as narrow or narrower than the sepals. Lip as broad

as long. Flowers c. 6 cm. in diam............ primulinum

DDD. Petals broad. Lip narrower than broad—

E. Flowers 1-3 on a short peduncle. Lip recurved, base with

Sides GNCUrVed .-s0.. oie ee ee ee Se heterocarpum

EE. Flowers in pairs. Lip clawed, base convolute. .transparens

[20 ]

ORCHIDS OF NEPAL—3 141

EEE. Flowers 2-3 on a short peduncle. Lip clawed, undulate

SUSLiaeor of cater om ool ch conteltapiar st ollaltal alt cf af opie sie, ebis. vf oF als! elidel 6. oie amoenum

DDDD. Petals much broader than the sepals. Lip as broad as long or

broader—

E. Flowers solitary or 2-3 on a short peduncle or simple pedi-

celled. Margin of lip entire or slightly erose—

Lip orbicular, hairy inside. Flowers c. 5 cm. in diam.

Soke Reprinted Stade Pes "dbs dune Dyess one. DICFQTAL

Lip broadly ovate, pubescent, margin wavy. Flowers

SS Cha 100 GAT aes ss ees OS so ahd ah crepidatum

Lip broad, ovate, pubescent, base slightly convolute.

Flowers 6-7 Cia: in diami.y Sci... s fas ee. so nobile

BE. Flowers 5-12 in a raceme, large. . 0.2.2. pulchellum

CC. Mentum short. Lip not calceolare. Stem often swollen at the

very base—

/ D. Stem terete—

E. Lip orbicular, margin fimbriate, 2 brownish spots... . gibsonil

EE. Lip with a small convolute base, pale yellow, disk deep red

Sen a coe NOR ttre Out Sis cike Wh we OEE clavatum

EEE. Lip clawed, orbicular, margin toothed, with 2 deep red spots

SPAR aR eee, ee NC iy ie ots 2, eee a. SCRE USANLNUM

DD. Stem clavate, flowers crowded on decurved racemes. Lip large,

funnel-shaped; Very “hairy... ob. 3.2./.8 one cee densiflorum

CCC. Mentum short. Lip calceolar, fimbriate with 2 purple blotches.

Blowers lett yellow 00% oo. he Po ed Rin oe moschatum

Dendrobium alpestre Royle, Ill. Himal. 370, t.83, 1839; F.B.I. 5:

715, 1890.

Flowers reddish-white ; sepals ovate-lanceolate ; petals oblanceolate,

mentum short and obtuse, lip lanceolate, side-lobes serrate, mid-lobe

small, crisp, disk with 2 lamellae. Collected from Talmuga at 2300 m.

D. amoenum Wall. ex Lindl. Gen. et Spec. Orch. 78, 1830; F.B.I..

5: 738, 1890; Limnodorum aphyllum Roxb. Pl. Corom. 1: 34, t.41,

1795; Dendrobium aphyllum (Roxb.) C. E. C. Fischer in Gamble, FI.

Madras Pres. 1416, 1929 (Fig. 1).

Flowers white with violet tips and lip purple, scented ; sepals oblong-

lanceolate, obtuse ; petals larger, ovate, mentum conic and stout ; lip

shortly clawed, ovate, obtuse, undulate, purplish, base yellow. Flower-

ing in April and May ; distributed between 900 to 1800 m. Collected

from Nagarjung, Godavari, locality unknown (Herklott).

[21]

142 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

=f Of LA)

——_

LiF

fe g

ham

SSS

Fig. 1. Dendrobium amoenum Wall. ex Lindl.; 2. D. anceps Sw. ; |

3. D. chrysanthum Wall. ex Lindl. ; 4. D. crepidatum Lindl,

[22]

ORCHIDS OF NEPAL—3 143

D. anceps Swartz in Vet. Acad. Handl. Stockh. 246: 1800; F.B.I.5:

724, 1890; King & Pantl., in Ann. Roy. Bot. Gard. Calc. 8: 41, t.54,

1898 ; Hara in Fl. Eastern Himal. 431, 1966 (Fig. 2).

Flowers c. 1°2 cm. long, greenish ; mentum longer than the sepals ;

lip oblong, faintly 3-lobed, membraneous, margins stiff and crisp.

Flowering during June or earlier; distributed in the subtropical belt.

Collected from Hitaura, locality unknown (Herklott).

D. candidum Wall. ex Lindl. Bot. Reg. 1838, Miscl. 54, 1838 ; F.B.I. 5:

735, 1890 ; King & Pantl., 49, t.63, 1898 ; Hara, 431, 1966.

Flowers 2°5-3°0 cm., fragrant, whitish or with little purplish shade ;

sepals and petals subsimilar, linear-oblong, obtuse, mentum rounded ;

lip ovate-lanceolate with cuneate base, side-lobes narrow, mid-lobe

ovate, obtuse, disk with a long callus. Flowering during March and

April, and again in September and October, distributed between 1500

to 2100 m. Collected from Manichur and Daman.

D. chrysanthum Wall. ex Lindl. Gen. et Spec. Orch. 80, 1830; F.B.I. 5:

747, 1890 (Fig. 3).

Flowers about 5 cm. across, fleshy, bright yellow; sepals broad,

petals orbicular, fimbriate, mentum broad, crested ; lip clawed, orbi-

cular, margin toothed with 2 deep red spots (F.B.I. mentions one spot,

but our specimens had two spots). Flowering during June and mid-

September ; distributed at 900 to 1800 m. Collected from Pokhra,

Dhankutta.

D. clavatum Wall. ex Lindl. in Paxton Fl. Gard. 2: 104, 1850; F.B.I.

5: 746, 1890.

Flowers glossy, large, yellow; sepals linear-oblong, petals much

broader, suborbicular, mentum short ; lip with a small convoluted base,

pale yellow, disk deep red. Flowering during May and June; distri-

buted between 1500 to 1800 m. Collected from Godavari.

D. crepidatum Lindl. in Paxton Fl. Gard. 1 : 63, t.45, 1850-51 ; F.B.I.

5: 740, 1890; King & Pantl., 48, t.66, 1898 (Fig. 4).

Flowers about 3°5 cm. across, yellow, waxy with purple pedicels ;

sepals oblong, obtuse, petals obovate, mentum short, obtuse; lip

_ clawed, broadly ovate, retuse, pubescent, margin wavy, base deeper

yellow. Flowering during April and May ; distributed between 300 to

900 m. Collected from Hitaura, locality unknown (Herklott).

D. densiflorum Lindl. ex Wall. Pl. Asiat. Rar. 1 : 43, t. 40, 1830; F.B.I.

5: 748, 1890; King & Pantl., 56, t.79, 1898 ; Hara, 432, 1966.

Flowers about 5 cm. across, yellow ; sepals obtuse, petals broader,

erose, mentum large, sub-globose ; lip large, funnel-shaped, retuse in

[ 23]

144. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

front, very hairy inside, edge not fringed, deeper yellow. Flowering

during April and May ; distributed between 900 to 1500 m. Collected

from Bajrabarahi, Pokhra, Dhankutta, locality unknown (Herklott).

D. denudans D. Don, Prodr. Fl. Nep. 34, 1825 ; F.B.I. 5: 715, 1890.

Flowers white with reddish veins on the lip, rarely yellowish ; sepals

long, slender, dorsal sepal with 3 nerves and lateral sepals with 5

nerves ; petals long and slender, 1-nerved ; mentum incurved ; lip much

shorter than the sepals, brownish, side-lobes serrate, mid-lobe small,

disk with 2 lamellae. Flowering during August and September ; dis-

tributed between 1500 to 2100 m. Collected from Chandragiri,

Sundarijal, Sheopuri, and Suryabinak.

D. eriaeflorum Griff. Notul.3 : 316, 1851; F.B.I.5 : 715, 1890; King &

Pantl., 44, t.61, 1898 ; Holttum, Rev. Fl. Malaya 1 : 308, 1953; Hara,

432, 1966.

Flowers greenish-yellow : sepals lanceolate ; lip as long as the sepals,

side-lobes serrate, mid-lobe undulate, purple veined, mentum incurved,

obtuse, disk with longitudinal crest. Flowering in March. Collected

only once from Lamidanda at 1900 m. |

D. formosum Roxb. FI. Ind. 3: 485, 1832 ; F.B.I. 5: 721, 1890.

Flowers large; sepals oblong-lanceolate, acuminate ; petals much

larger, about 4 cm. in diam., sub-orbicular, undulate, mentum half as

long as the dorsal sepal, conical ; lip 7 cm. long, broadly obovate, entire,

side-lobes rounded, mid-lobe retuse, apiculate, disk yellow, with two

ridges from the base to the middle. Flowering during May and June:

well distributed in the tropical belt. Collected from Trisuli, Hitaura,

locality unknown (Herklott).

D. gibsonii Lindl. in Paxton, Mag. Bot. 5: 169, 1838; F.B.I. 5:

746. 1890. | : .

Flowers small c. 3°5 cm. across, orange-yellow ; sepals sub-orbicular,

petals broader, entire, mentum short ; lip suborbicular, margin everted

and fimbriate, 2 brownish spots, hairy. Flowering during April and May ;

distributed between 900 to 1050 m. Collected from Dhankutta.

This species has a strong resemblance to Ephemerantha fimbriata (BI.)

Hunt & Summerhayes, but differs in having smaller flowers, petals not

erose, lip not deeply fimbriate. The flowers are not fugacious.

D. heterocarpum Wall. ex Lindl. Gen, et Spec. Orch. 78, 1830 ; F.B.I.

5 : 737, 1890; King & Pantl., 53, t. 74, 1898 ; Holttum, 287, 1953.

Flowers c. 6 cm. across, ochraceous-yellow or creamy-yellow, highly

fragrant ; sepals linear-oblong, acute, petals ovate-lanceolate, acuminate,

mentum large, conical, lip ovate-lanceolate, recurved, base with incurved

[ 24]

ORCHIDS OF NEPAL—3 145

sides, yellowish, disk with 2 purplish spots. Flowering during March and

April ; distributed in the tropical belt. Collected from Sundarijal, near

Tokha, locality unknown (Herklott).

D. longicornu Lindl. Gen. et Spec. Orch. 80, 1830; F.B.I. 5: 720,

1890 ; King & Pantl., 46, t. 64, 1898 ; Hara, 432, 1966 (Fig. 5).

Flowers faintly yellowish ; sepals lanceolate, acuminate, not keeled,

petals narrower, acuminate, mentum slender, funnel-shaped, straight

and as long as the dorsal sepal, side-lobes of the lip rounded, mid-lobe

small, orbicular, yellow inthe middle, fringed disk with 3 wrinkled rid-

ges. Flowering during September and October ; distributed from 1200 to

2400 m. Collected from Chandragiri, Sheopuri, Godavari, and locality

unknown (Herklott). A few specimens were collected from Shankhoo

areac. 1350 m. which had the lip densely fimbriate, and probably belonged

to var. hirsuta.

D. moschatum Sw. in Schrad. Neues. Journ. 1: 94, 1805; D. calceo-

laria Carey ex Hook. Exot Fl. 184, 1828 ; F.B.I. 5 : 744, 1890.

Flowers 6-8 cm. across, light yellow with purplish lines ; sepals elliptic-

oblong, petals broader, mentum stout ; lip cup-shaped, margin broad,

incurved, fimbriate, 2 large purple blotches. Flowering during June and

July ; distributed at 900 to 1200 m. Collected from Hitaura, locality

unknown (Herklott).

D. nobile Lindl. Gen. et Spec. Orch. 79, 1830 ; F.B.I. 5: 740, 1890;

King & Pantl., 51 t. 71, 1898 ; Holttum, 291, 1955 ; Hara, 432, 1966.

Flowers 6-7 cm. across, in groups at the nodes, purple above and

white below; sepals linear-oblong, obtuse, petals much broader ; lip

subsessile, broad, ovate, pubescent, margin recurved, base slightly con-

volute, deep purple at the base. Flowering during April and May ; distri-

buted at 1500 m., and collected from Dhankutta. F.B.I. gives the colour

of the flower as variable, but as our collection has been from only one

locality, we are unable to comment on this.

D. pierardi Roxb. in Hook. f. Exot. Fl. t. 9, 1828; F.B.I. 5: 738, 1890;

King & Pantl., 51, t. 72, 1898 ; Holttum, 292, 1953 ; Hara, 433, 1966.

) Flowers 5 cm. across, purplish ; sepals oblong-lanceolate, sub-acute,

- petals broader, oblong, mentum short ; lip orbicular, hairy throughout

_ inside, base purple, light shade of yellow all over. Flowering during

_ Aprilto June and even July ; distributed from 600 to 1200m. Collected

‘ _ from Deorali to Narkata, Dhunibesi, Pokhra, and Chatra.

D. primulinum Lindl. in Gard. Chron. 400, 1858; F.B.I. 5: 735,

1890 ; Holttum, 293, 1953. |

Flowers lilac, c.6 cm. in diam. ; sepals and petals subequal, 5-6 mm.

wide, linear-oblong, obtuse ; lip 3 cm. in diam., large, pubescent, base

[ 25 ]

Fig. 5. Dendrobium longicornu Lindl.; 6. D. transparens Wall. ex Lindl.

[ 26]

ORCHIDS OF NEPAL—3 147

short and convolute, margins ciliated, purplish. Flowering during April

and May ; distributed between 600 to 1200 m. Collected from Hitaura. .

This species is very similar to D. pierardi.

D. pulchellum Roxb. ex Lindl. Gen. et Spec. Orch. 82, 1830; Holt-

tum, 293, 1953 ; D. dalhousieanum Wall. F.B.I. 5 : 743, 1890.

Flowers large, c. 10 cm. in diam., yellowish ; sepals oblong, acute,

petals much broader, mentum crimson, tip and sides densely glandular-

villous, disk with 2 lamellae which are slightly fringed. Flowering during

July and August ; distributed from 1200 to 1800 m. Collected from

Tarebhir area.

D. transparens Wall. ex Lindl. Gen. et Spec. Orch. 79, 1830; F.B.I.

5 : 738 ; 1890 (Fig. 6).

Flowers purplish or whitish with a shade of purple ; sepals lanceolate,

acute, petals broader, ovate, mentum conical ; lip clawed, elliptic-oblong,

base convolute, lobes obtuse, purple, pubescent, 2 blotches. Flowering

_ during April and May, or even June; distributed from 200 to 1350 m.

Collected from Goarigaon to Chanipur, Bhainsa, Dhunibesi, Pokhra,

locality unknown (Herklott).

Ephemerantha Hunt & Summerhayes

The genus is distinguished from Dendrobium principally in the

fugaciousness of the flowers and secondarily on vegetative characters.

Ephemerantha macraei (Lindl.) P. F. Hunt & Summerhayes in Taxon,

10: 105, 1961 ; Dendrobium macraei Lindl. Gen. et Spec. Orch. 75, 1830;

F.B.I. 5: 714, 1890; King & Pantl., 61, t. 86, 1898; Hara, 432, 1966;

Callista macraei (Lindl.) O. Ktz. Rev. Gen. Pl. 655, 1891.

Flowers creamy-white, fugacious ; sepals and petals erecto-patent,

linear-lanceolate, acute, mentum short, side-lobes of lip sprinkled with

red, oblong, mid-lobe small with 2 lobules, crenulate, disk with 2 crests.

Flowering during June and July ; distributed between Hea to 2400 m.

Collected from Godavari.

Hunt & Summerhayes consider this species to be quite different from

E. fimbriata (BI.) Hunt & Summerhayes, and Narayanaswami (Journ.

Ind. Bot. Soc. 25: 215, 1946) has discussed the TOES of macraei

and fimbriatum.

Epigeneium Gagnep.

_ Rhizome elongated, pseudobulbs numerous, moniliform, monophyl-

lous; inflorescence solitary terminal; flowers large, sepals subequal,

spreading, dorsal sepal adnate to the column, lateral sepals large, attached

[27]

148 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

laterally to the foot ; petals narrower, adnate to the sides of the column ;

‘lip panduriform (fiddle-shaped), oblong, base cuneate, side-lobes erect,

mid-lobe obovate to obcordate ; column short, foot long ; pollinia 4 in 2

pairs.

ARTIFICIAL KEY TO THE SPECIES OF Epigeneium

Leaves 10-12 cm. long. Flowers with a shade of purple, 7-8 cm. in diam. ; mid-

lobe: rhomboid ‘and: thick... igen. ee eee te ua eee ee ee amplum

Leaves 5:5-9:'0 cm. long. Flowers chestnut-brown, 4:0-4°5 cm. in diam. ; mid-lobe

orbicular Sand: “thins Pe Pe ee se ee rotundatum

Epigeneium amplum (Lind!.) Summerhayes in Kew Bull. 1957 (2): 260,

1957 ; Dendrobium amplum Lindl. Gen. et Spec. Orch. 74, 1830; F.B.1. 5:

711, 1890 ; Hara, 431, 1966 ; Bulbophyllum amplum Reichb. f. in Walp.

Ann. 6: 244, 1861; Katherinea ampala (Lindl.) Hawkes, Balak. &

Chowdhury in Bull. bot. Surv. Ind. 8 (3 & 4) : 312, 1966 (Fig. 7).

Flowers large 7-8 cm. in diam., white to dull green with a shade of

purple ; sepals lanceolate, acuminate ; lip sessile, side-lobes short, mid-

lobe broad, rhomboid, acute, crenulate, thick, purplish ventrally and

purple spotted dorsally, disk with 3 lamellae. Flowering during May and

again during October and November; distributed between 1200 to

1800 m. Collected from Sheopuri, Thokha, and Sundarijal area.

E. rotundatum (Lindl.) Summerhayes in Kew Bull. 1957 (2) : 264, 1957 ;

Sarcopodium rotundatum Lindl. Fol. Orch. Sarcopod, 2. 1853; Bulbo-

phyllum rotundatum (Lindl.) Reichb. f. in Walp. Ann. 6: 244, 1861 ;

Dendrobium rotundatum (Lindl.) Hk. f. in Fl. Brit. Ind. 5: 712, 1890;

Katherinea rotundatum (Lindl.) Hawkes, Balak. & Chowdhury in Bull.

bot. Surv. Ind. 8 (3 & 4) : 312, 1966.

Flowers 4'0-4°5 cm. in diam., pale chestnut-brown ; sepals and petals

erect, acute, fleshy ; lip sessile, side-lobes small, mid-lobe large, orbicular

and thin, 3 lamellae on the base. Flowering during April and May ;

distributed at 1800 m. Collected from Mahadeophedi to Katonje. |

Eria Lindl.

Long stem-like pseudobulbs. Flowers not large nor showy, flower-

structure as in Dendrobium, but the base of the lip not forming a spur

by uniting with the edges of the column-foot ; pollinia 8 with caudicles.

ARTIFICIAL KEY TO THE SPECIES OF Eria

A. Pseudobulbs ovoid or depressed. 2-3 leaved, leaves membraneous. Scape

longer than the leaves, filiform. Flowers very small, glabrous ; lip narrow,

lanceolate and slightly dilated in the middle.................... muscicola

[ 28]

ORCHIDS OF NEPAL—3 149

“AA. Stem tall, terete, leafy. Leaves distichous, long, narrow, having crystalline

concretions. Flowers minute, woolly in subterminal spikes, lateral sepals

short, broad, mid-lobe of lip bilobed and crenulate............ paniculata

AAA. Pseudobulbs short or long, 1-noded forming a fleshy stem or crowded on the

_ creeping rhizome. Flowers small or medium sized, glabrous or pubescent,

rarely woolly in lateral or subterminal spikes or racemes—

B. Flowers small or minute in dense spikes, sub-globose, pilose..........

RRS ONE OTR A ane eae ae, SW See ree convallarioides

BB. Flowers small or medium-sized, many-flowered spikes—

C. Flowers sessile or subsessile—

D. Mentum rounded, lip short........ poe rey graminifolia

DD. Mentum nil; lip short, yellow and pink............ excavata

DDD. Mentum rounded ; lip oblong, yellow and red............ alba

CC. Flowers pedicelled, bracts large—

D. Side-lobes of lip incurved and with 3 thick ridges. Flowers

Coe SRCUIE LIM AGIA es. ote, Sa ele, og LORE. confusa

DD. Side-lobes of lip rounded. Flowers c. 1:5 cm. in diam......

Pea eae er a. IMIG wigs lest. bractescens

DDD. Side-lobes with 2 thick ridges between them. Flowers c.

Depa Uitte ete CI ATIN crs to ce tek ttetae sg cee. Gobet Be Baten o Beads coronaria

“a Nes Pseudobulbs usually large. Leaves one or few, often loaded with crystalline

concretions. Flowers in terminal or subterminal spikes, woolly or dense

white tomentose, yellow with purplish markings.................... flava

Eria alba Lindl. Gen. et Spec. Orch. 67, 1830; F.B.I. 5: 795, 1890.

Flowers white, sepals ovate-lanceolate, 3-5 nerved, glabrescent, petals

linear-oblong, 3-nerved, mentum rounded ; lip oblong, broadly clawed,

_ side-lobes pointed forwards, obtuse, mid-lobe yellow and red, disk with

2 ridges between the side-lobes. Flowering time probably August.

Collected from Dana at c. 1450 m.

EK. bractescens Lindl. Bot. Reg. 27, Miscl. 18, 1841 ; F.B.I. 5 : 796, 1890;

King & Pantl., t. 166, 1898 ; Holttum, 388, 1953.

Flowers light pink, glabrous, puberulous; lateral sepals ovate-

lanceolate, falcate, acuminate, petals linear-oblong, 5-nerved, mentum

conical, side-lobes deeper pink, rounded, mid-lobe creamy and papillose.

Flowering during August and September ; distributed between 1500 to

1800 m. Collected from Rhingmo to Jubing and Suryabinak.

B29 Ie

150 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

E. confusa Hk. f. in Hook. Icon. Pl. 19, t. 1850, 1889 et F.B.I. 5: 796,

1890.

Flowers whitish; sepals broadly ovate-oblong, obtuse, 5-nerved.

pubescent, petals elliptic-lanceolate, 3-5 nerved; lip obovate, side-lobes

incurved, 3 thick ridges, mid-lobe orbicular, thick. Flowering during

April and May ; distributed between 1200 to 1800 m. Collected from

Bajrabarahi. This species has a strong resemblance to E. bractescens.

E. convallarioides Lindl. Gen. et Spec. Orch. 70, 1830; F.B.I. 5: 791,

1890.

Flowers greenish-yellow, subglobose, pilose ; sepals very broad, 5-7

nerved, petals 3-nerved, mentum rounded; lip cuneate with a broad

warted tip. Flowering during September and October ; distributed at

about 1800 m. Collected from Sheopuri, Godavari, and Sundarijal.

F.B.I. gives the colour of the flowers as white or straw-yellow, but in

all our material the colour was greenish-yellow.

E. coronaria (Lind|.) Reichb. f.in Walp. Ann. 6: 272, 1861;*King &

Pantl., 124, t. 172, 1898, Hara, 433, 1966 ; Coelogyne coronaria Lindl.

Bot. Reg. Miscl. 83, 1841 ; Trichosma suavis Lindl. Bot. Reg. t. 21, 1824 ;

F.B.I. 5 : 827, 1890.

Flowers whitish or yellowish, sweet smelling ; sepals ovate-lanceolate,

petals oblong, lip sub-sessile, streaked, with purple and yellow in the

middle, disk with 2 ridges, slightly deeper yellow b.tween the side-lobes,

mid-lobe with 5 clear and 2 faint ridges. Flowering during October and

November ; distributed between 1500 to 2000 m. Collected from |

Okhaldunga and Sundarijal areas.

E. excavata Lindl. ex Hk. f. Icon Pl. t. 1846, 1889, et Gen. et Spec.,

Orch. 67, 1830 (p.p.) ; F.B.I. 5: 795, 1890; King & Pantl., 124, t. 171,

1898 ; Hara, 434, 1966.

Flowers dull yellow ; sepals ovate-lanceolate, falcate, petals 5-nerved,

mentum nil ; lip short with 3 central ridges, yellow, side-lobes pink with

purple nerves, mid-lobe large, obovate. Flowering during June ; col-

lected from Sheopuri c. 1800 m. ;

E. flava Lindl. Gen. et Spec. Orch. 65, 1830; F.B.I. 5: 801, 1890 ; Hara

434, 1966.

Flowers light yellow with purple markings on the lip ; sepals ovate-

lanceolate, 9-nerved, obtuse, petals obtuse, 3-nerved, mentum sub-

cylindric ; lip thick, puberulous, side-lobes short. Flowering during

Apriland May, but in the orchid-house of the garden it sometimes flowers

in December also, probably due to the plants being fully exposed to bright

sun and the effect of temperature ; distributed at 450 to 750m. © Collected

from Hitaura and Dhunibesi.

[ 30 |

ORCHIDS OF NEPAL—3 151

Fig. 7. Epigeneium amplum (Lindl.) Summerhayes ; 8. Eria graminifolia Lindl. :

9. Eria muscicola Lindl.

[31]

152. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

E. graminifolia Lindl. in Journ. Linn. Soc. 3 : 54, 1859 ; F.B.1. 5: 794,

1890 ; King & Pantl., 119, t. 164, 1898 ; Hara, 434, 1966 (Hie. 8).

Flowers white, glabrous ; lateral sepals ovate-lanceolate, 3-5-nerved,

petals linear-lanceolate, acute, mentum rounded ; lip short ; side-lobes

oblong, recurved and with a short ridge, mid-lobe orbicular. Flowering

during June and July ; collected from Sheopuri, c. 1800m. The spread-

ing and recurved side-lobes are very characteristic of this species.

E. muscicola Lindl. in Journ. Linn. Soc. 3:47, 1857; F.B.I. 5: 789,

1890 ; Hara, 434, 1966 (Fig. 9).

Flowers very small ; sepals lanceolate, finely acuminate, lateral sepals

falcate, petals narrowly lanceolate, mentum rounded ; lip narrow, lanceo-

late and slightly dilated in the middle. Flowering during April and May to

distributed between 1200 to 1500 m. ‘Collected from Lamidanda and

Dhankutta.

E. paniculata Lindl. in Wall. Pl. Asiat. Rar. I: 32, t. 36, 1829; F.B.J.

3% 789, 1590:

Petals elliptic, obtuse, mentum rounded ; lip suborbicular, side-lobes

oblong, mid-lobe bilobed and crenulate, disk thick. Flowering during

Apriland May ; distributed at 750 to 1200 m. Collected from Dhunibesi

and Bajrabarahi.

(to be continued)

[32]

SA Sts oy

Amphipoda from the East Coast of

India—2

Gammaridea and Caprellidea

T. E. SIVAPRAKASAM

Zoological Survey of India, Southern Regional Station, Madras

(With six text-figures)

[Continued from Vol. 66 (3) : 576]

Cymadusa sardenta (Oliveira)

(Fig. 13)

Grubia sardenta Oliveira, 1953, p. 365, pls. 25-26.

Material: MHare Island, Tuticorin: | male from algae growing on

a wooden pole.

Length: 10mm.

Description: Male: Head less than twice as long as Ist segment.

Eyes small, oval, colourless in alcohol (was probably red). Lateral

lobes only slightly produced. Body broadly curved, with grey or violet

patches and dots all over the body and appendages.

Antenna 1 as long as body, with short setae. Peduncle reaching

end of 4th peduncular joint of antenna 2. Ist joint as long as 2nd and

thrice that of 3rd, lower margin with a spine at 1/3 its length and another

subterminal. Flagellum nearly 4 times as long as peduncle, with 53

joints. Accessory flagellum 2-jointed, 2nd being minute. Antenna 2

less than 2/3 as long as antenna |. Peduncle as long as flagellum with

long, dense, plumose setae on both the margins ; 4th joint a little longer

than the 5th. Flagellum with short setae, with 33 joints.

Mandible: Molar well-developed, reniform. Primary cutting

plate with 6 teeth and the accessory with 5. Spine row with 8 spines.

3rd joint of palp a little longer than 2nd, thrice as longas Ist, inner margin

apically with about 10 long setae. Maxilla 1: Inner plate very short,

with 6 long setae on inner margin. Outer plate with 9 apical spines.

Z [31]

154. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NAILURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

Si)

Ut.

rae

522

Coes ~. am

Ro ere

——a

wP>:

Ws"

ned

14. MM. (A.F.G )

04 MM. (8,¢,0,€)

Fig. 13. Cymadusa sardenta (Oliveira). Male: A, head ; B, mandible ; C, maxilla J; ,

D, maxilla 2; E, maxilliped ; F, gnathopod 1 ; G, gnathopod 2.

[32] Ce

OO ll

AMPHIFODA FROM EAST COAST OF INDIA 155

2nd joint of palp thrice as long as Ist, with 11 spines on apical and inner

margins and an oblique row of 6 long setae onlower aspect. Maxilla2:

Inner plate about half as broad as outer, both with long plumose setae

apically and oninner margin. Maxilliped : Inner plate extending beyond

base of Ist palpar joint inner margin and apex setose. Outer plate not

reaching end of 2nd palpar joint, with 4 long setae at the apex and 16 spines

on inner margin decreasing in length from the apex. 2nd palpar joint

twice as long as Ist, inner margin with long setae ; 3rd joint narrower

distally with long setae on both margins ; terminal joint with 6 stout

setae on inner margin.

Gnathopod 1 much longer than gnathopod 2 but slender. Side plate

oval, conically produced in front, with a fine row of setae below. 2nd

joint narrow, as long as 5th joint, front margin with 2 angular ribs which

are distally produced into two small, rounded lobes. 3rd joint half as

long as next, front margin elevated into a rounded lobe. 4th joint hind

margin distally produced into a conical, pointed lobe. 5th joint un-

usually long, constricted at the base and widening distally ; hind margin

serrate, with dense setae, front margin with 8 sets of setae. 6th joint about

2/3 as long as 5th, densely setose, constricted at the base and widening

distally. Palm shorter than hind margin, oblique, slightly concave,

defined by a spine at posterior angle. Dactylus narrow, nearly straight,

longer thanthe palm. Gnathopod 2 : Stout, densely setose with plumose

setae. Side plate quadrate, rounded below. 2nd joint densely setose,

longer than the 6th, front margin 2-ribbed and distally produced slightly.

3rd joint 2/3 as long as next, front margin with a notch near the base.

4th joint only slightly produced distally. 5th joint about half as long as

6th, both margins densely setose. 6th joint large, oval, densely setose.

Palm oblique, shorter than hind margin, with a flat-topped tooth near the

hinge of dactylus, followed by a concave portion and a pointed tooth

defining the palm. Dactylus stout, strongly curved.

Peraeopods, uropods and telson as in C. microphthalma.

Remarks: The specimen closely agrees with the description and

figures of C. sardenta given by Oliveira (1953), the differences being

insignificant. The antennae are much longer, the flagella with more joints,

otherwise similar. The inner plate of maxilla 2is much narrower. 2nd

palpar joint of maxilliped longer, twice as long as Ist. 6th joint of

gnathopod 2 of male is broader, palm with a flat-topped tooth near the

hinge of dactylus which is not found in Oliveira’s specimen. This struc-

ture is, however, not of any systematic value (Schellenberg 1928: 668).

The present material is only half the length of the type which was 20°5 mm.

in length.

I believe that Grubia compta Pearse (1912, p. 376, fig. 6, not Smith)

from Florida should be referred to this species, though Barnard (1955)

(334

i156. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

unites it with Cymadusa filosa. Pearse’s figures are strikingly similar to

the present specimen, though the gnathopods are wrongly labelled.

Distribution: Rito de Janeiro, Brazil. This is the first record of this

species from India.

Family COROPHIDAE

Genus Corophium Latreille

Corophium acherusicum Costa

(Fig. 14)

Corophium acherusicum Bate, 1862, p. 282 ; Della Valle, 1893, p. 364, pl. 1, fig. 11,

pl: 8; figs. 17, 18, 20-41 ; Stebbing, 1906, p. 692 ; Chevreux & Fage, 1925, p. 368,

fig. 376 ; Schellenberg, 1925, p. 191 ; 1928, p. 672; Shoemaker, 1934, p. 24;

1947, p. 53, figs. 2-3 ; 1949, p. 76 ; Crawford, 1937, p. 617, fig. 2 P. (literature) ;

Barnard KH, 1940, p. 482 ; Reid, 1951, p. 269 ; Barnard JL, 1955, p. 37 ; Nayar,

1959, p. 43, pl. 15, figs. 14-20.

Material: Visakhapatnam harbour : 4 females from algae growing

on wooden rafts.

Length. 2:4 iam

Remarks: All the specimens studied are females. They have the

characteristic features given by Crawford (1937). Antenna | : Ist joint

of peduncle with 4 spines on the inner margin and 5 on the lower, the

basal ones being slightly curved. Antenna 2: 2nd joint of peduncle

with 3 distal spines on the pointed lobe, 3rd joint with 2, 4th joint with 7

spines on lower margin arranged 2, 2, 2, 1 and Sth joint with 2 single

spines equidistantly placed on lower margin. Gnathopod |: Side plate

conically produced, with 3 long, apical setae. Dactylus with a tooth

on the inner margin. Gnathopod 2: Dactylus with one or two teeth

on inner margin.

One specimen had the spines on antenna 2, joint 4, arranged as 1,

2, 2, 1 on the right and 1, 3, 2, 1 on the eft. Spines on joint 5 were

arranged 2, 1 on both sides. |

Distribution : Cosmopolitan in tropical and temperate seas. Pre-

viously recorded in India from the Krusadai Island in the Gulf of Mannar

and presently from the Andhra coast.

[ 34]

AMPHIPODA FROM EAST COAST OF INDIA 137

Genus Grandidierella Coutiere

Grandidierella bonnieri Stebbing

Grandidierella bonnieri Stebbing, 1908, p. 120, pl. 6; Barnard KH, 1935, p. 299,

figs. 12d & 13b; 1951, p. 708; 1955, p. 7; Schellenberg, 1938(4), p. 215;

Shoemaker, 1948, p. 11, fig. 3 ; Nayar, 1959, p. 38, pl. 14, figs. 1-5.

Grandidierella megnae Chilton, 1921, p. 548, fig? 10 ; Stephensen, 1933(a), p. 434,

Unciolella lunata Schellenberg, 1928, p. 669, fig. 207 (not Chevreux).

Material: Tuticorin: Several specimens from a saltwater pond in

Hare Island. Devipattinam : 2 males and 2 females from algae on the

sea shore. Tondi: Several specimens. from a brackish water canal.

Point Calimere: Several specimens from the Kodiakkarai swamp.

Kovelong : Several specimens-from the Buckingham Canal. Madras :

Several specimens from the Adyar estuary and the Buckingham Canal.

Ennore estuary : Several specimens from filamentous algae and oyster

shells. Pulicat Lake : Several specimens from the lake, mud pools and

salt pans.

Length: 8mm.

Distribution: India, Philippines, Suez Canal, South Africa, Brazil,

Bogaire Island, Caribbean sea, West Indies and Cuba.

Grandidierella gilesi Chilton

Grandidierella gilesi Chilton, 1921, p. 552, fig. 11 ; 1925, p. 537; Barnard KH,

1935, p. 300 ; Schellenberg, 1938(a), p. 93 ; Nayar, 1959, p. 40, pl. 14, fig. 6.

Material: Pinnakayal: 1 female and 2 males from the tanks of a

saltwater pumping station. Tuticorin: 1 male and 1 female from a

saltwater pond in the Hare Island. :

Length: 7mm.

Distribution: India, Tale Sap (Thailand) and Philippines.

Genus Ericthonius Milne-Edwards

Ericthonius brasiliensis (Dana)

Pyctilus brasiliensis Dana, 1853-55, p. 976, pl. 67, figs. 5 a-h.

Ericthonius brasiliensis Stebbing, 1906, p. 671; 1910, p. 463; Walker, 1909,

p. 343; Kunkel, 1910, p. 100, fig. 39 ; 1918, p. 163, fig. 49; Chilton, 1923,

p. 242, figs. 1-5 ; Chevreux & Fage, 1925, p. 353, fig. 360 ; Schellenberg, 1925,

p. 187; 1926(b), p. 384; 1928, p. 668; 1931, p. 257; 1935, p. 233; 1938(a),

p. 90; 1938(b), p. 217 ; Stephensen, 1927, p. 136; 1942, p. 402 ; Barnard KH,

1937, p. 173 ; 1955, p. 8 ; Shoemaker, 1935, p. 249 ; 1941, p. 188 ; 1942, p. 48;

[35 ]

158 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

US RORY

Fig. 14. Corophium acherusicum Costa. Female: A, antenna 1, side view; B, —

antenna 1, dorsal view; C, antenna 2; D, gnathopod 1; E, gnathopod 2; F, peraeopod 1;

G, peraeopod 4; H, peraeopod 5; J, urus.

[ 36 ]

> py eal

AMPHIPODA FROM EAST COAST OF INDIA 159

Rudwick, 1951, p. 153; Reid, 1951, p. 267; Barnard JL, 1955, p. 37; 1959,

p. 39; Pillai, 1957, p. 60, figs. 14 (3-7) ; Nayar, 1959, p. 42, pl. 15, figs. 1-13.

Ericthonius brasiliensis Sexton, 1911, p. 218; Chevreux, 1911, p. 262; 1925,

p. 391 ; Chevreux & Fage, 1925, p. 353, fig. 360 ; Pirlot, 1939, p. 68, 77.

Cerapus brasiliensis Bate, 1862, p. 267, pl. 45, fig. 8.

Ericthonius disjunctus Stout, 1913, p. 658.

Material: Pamban: 1 female from seaweeds. Kovelong : 2 females

and 3 males from sponges. Madras harbour : Several specimens from

ascidians.

Length: 4mm.

Distribution : Cosmopolitan in tropical and temperate waters.

Family PODOCERIDAE

Genus Podocerus Leach

Podocerus brasiliensis (Dana)

Platophium brasiliense Dana, 1853-55, p. 838, pl. 55, fig. 9.

Podocerus brasiliensis Stebbing, 1917, p. 447; Barnard KH, 1925, p. 366;

1935, p. 305; Schellenberg, 1928, p. 674; 1938 (a), p.94; 1938 (b), p. 217;

Rudwick, 1951, p. 153, fig. 3: Barnard JL, 1953, p. 87 ;-4955,p.. 39; 1959,

p. 39; Nayar, 1959, p. 45, pl. 15, figs. 21-26.

Podocerus brasiliensis Della Valle, 1893, p. 329; Stebbing, 1906, p. 704; Reid,

19515 pp. 267,

Cyrtophium brasiliense Bate, 1862, p. 274, pl. 46, fig. 6.

Platophium synaptochir Walker, 1904, p. 296, pl. 8, fig. 52.

Podocerus synaptochir Stebbing, 1906, p. 741; Walker, 1909, p. 343; Barnard

KH, 1916, p. 279. .

Material: Pamban: 1 male and 1 female from seaweeds. Madras

harbour : Several specimens from ascidians, sponges and polyzoans on

the concrete blocks.

Length: 4mm.

Distribution : Cosmopolitan in the tropical and temperate seas,

Genus Laetmatophilus Bruzelius

Laetmatophilus sp.

(Fig. 15)

Material: Kovelong: 1 female from the washings of ascidians.

Length: 2mm.

Description: Female: Head about twice as long as Ist segment.

Eyes protruberant, rounded and dark, Body depressed and broad, the

bar]

160 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

short and narrow pleon being folded beneath. Body segments trans-

versely grooved, not markedly keeled. Side plates small.

Antennae long, subpediform and densely setose. Antenna 1: A

little shorter than antenna 2 ; Ist joint of peduncle short and stout, front

margin distally ending inatooth. 2nd joint longer than the 3rd. Flagel-

lum as long as 3rd joint, with 3 joints of which Ist is twice as long as the

2nd, 3rd very short. Antenna 2 robust, 2/3 as long as body. 2nd and

3rd joints of peduncle short, 5th longer than 4th. Flagellum with 2

Fig. 15. Laetmatophilus sp. Female : A, antenna 1 ; B, antenna 2; C, gnathopod 1; D,

gnathopod 2; E, peraeopod 1 ; F, peraeopod 5; G, urus.

[38 ]

AMPHIPODA FROM EAST COAST OF INDIA 161

joints, Ist joint 2/3 as long as 5th joint of peduncle, 2nd very short.

Mouth parts typical of the genus.

Gnathopod |: Side plate very narrow. 5th joint as long as 6th,

hind margin produced into a setiferous lamellar lobe. 6th joint widest

at the middle, palm undefined. Dactylus stout, with averted point.

Gnathopod 2 much longer than the preceding, with stout setae. 4th

joint distally produced into an acuminate projection. 6th joint large,

oval. Palm oblique, about 13 times as long as hind margin, defined by

a small dentiform projection, followed by a concave space and the rest

tubercular. Dactylus stout, longer than palm.

Peraeopods similar in size and structure. 2nd joint shorter than Sth.

Joints 5-7 well-developed. Peraeopods 2-4 missing. Pleopods feebly

developed. Uropod 1 well-developed and spinous. Outer ramus sub-

equal to peduncle, half as long as inner ramus. Uropod 2 rudimentary,

represented by a curved lobe with a short apicalseta. Uropod 3 wanting.

Telson semi-circular in shape.

Remarks: From a single female it is difficult to fix the identity of

this specimen. Of the 7 species of Laetmatophilus so far described, the

female is not known of L. tridens and L. leptocheir and among others the

present specimen is very near to L. purus Stebbing.

Suborder CAPRELLIDEA

Family CAPRELLIDAE

Genus Paradeutella Mayer

Paradeutella bidentata Mayer

(Fig. 16)

Paradeutella bidentata Mayer, 1890, p. 29, pl. 1, figs. 35-36; pl. 3, figs. 36-41 ;

Dl Ss figs.-34=35: pl. 6, figs. 12-25; 1903. p. 145 3 1904, p. 225 ; Ray; 1927,

p, 125, pl. 15, figs. 2 a-b.

Material: Pamban: 3 females from seaweeds growing on rocks

under the railway bridge.

Length: 45 mm.

Remarks : This species seems to be very localised as all the previous

records, as well as the present one, refer to material collected from the

Gulf of Mannar.

Distribution ; Ceylonese and Indian coasts of the Gulf of Mannar.

[39]

162 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

“4

0°8 MM.

Fig. 16. Paradeutellu bidentata Mayer. Female: A, front part of animal; B, gnathopod 2;|

C, peraeopod 5.

| Genus Tritella Mayer

Tritella pilimana Mayer

(Fig. 17)

Tritella pilimana Mayer, 1890, p. 31, pl. 1, fig. 37, pl. 3, figs. 48-50, pl. 5; fig.

50, pl. 6, fig. 9 & ply 7, fig: 7; 1903, p48, pl. 2, fig...

[40 ]

AMPHIPODA FROM EAST COAST OF INDIA 163

0'8 MM.(A-E)

04 MM.(F )

Fig. 17. Tritella pilimana Mayer. Male: A, front part of animal; B, antenna

1; C, antenna 2; D, gnathopod 2; E, peraeopod 5. Female: F, gnathopod 2.

_ Material: Kovelong: 34 specimens from the hydroids and poly-

zoans growing on ascidians. Madras harbour: 3 females from poly-

zoans growing on concrete blocks.

Length: 6mm.

Remarks : These specimens closely agree with Mayer’s (1890,

1903) figures of this species first described from California. I am, how-

ever, doubtful of the identification, considering how these slow-moving

animals could be distributed over such a long distance existing between

California and India.

Distribution: California. This is the first record of this species

from India. i

Genus Paracaprella Mayer

Paracaprella alata Mayer

(Fig. 18)

Paracaprella alata Mayer, 1903, p. 67, pl. 2, figs. 40-41 & pl. 9, fig. 73.

Material: Madras: 28 specimens from polyzoans growing on

sponges washed ashore at Marina beach,

[41]

164 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

Length: 42 mm.

Remarks : The specimens closely agree with the figures and des-

cription of this species given by Mayer (1903). I was not able to examine

the mouth parts as the specimens were collected in a semi-dried con-

dition. The specimens are also similar to Giles’ (1888) Caprella mad-

rasana, but his figures are not good. Mayer did not refer to this paper

and it is possible that P. alata may have to be united with this species.

Distribution: Sydney, Australia. This is the first record of this

species from India, |

0°38 MM.(A)

04 MM. (B-E) |

Fig. 18. Paracaprella alata Mayer. Male: A, front part of animal; B,

gnathopod | ; C, gnathopod 2 ; D, peraeopod 5. Female : E, gnathopod 2.

NOTES ON ECOLOGY

The amphipods studied here are mostly littoral, collected from in-

tertidal and shallow waters. Some are estuarine, brackishwater and

terrestrial, collected from the sea-shore, estuaries and nearby ponds and

canals. The littoral species were found clinging to seaweeds, free or

attached to the rocks or washed ashore. Some species were also found =

in association with other invertebrates. Orchomenella affinis was collec-

ted from the washings of nudibranchs. Ampelisca-zamboange was

[42]

AMPHIPODA FROM EAST COAST OF INDIA 165

found in the cavities of sponges. Amphilochus schubarti was found in

the debris formed on compound ascidians. Leucothoe spinicarpa lives

among algae as well as sponges and holothurians. Maera quadrimana

was also found on holothurians. Llasmopus pectenicrus was found

among zoantharian colonies and also among the arms of crinoids. Lem-

bos kergueleni:and Cymadusa microphthalma were found in the cavities

of sponges. Ericthonius brasiliensis and Podocerus brasiliensis were

collected from the washings of both sponges and ascidians. The cap-

rellids were found clinging to polyzoan and hydroids growing on sponges

and compound ascidians. The association of these amphipods with

other invertebrates appears to be purely a chance occurrence and has

not developed to the extent of commensal or semiparasitic relationship

as they were also collected from seaweeds and the present observations

do not indicate such a relationship.

Among the terrestrial amphipods, some talitrid and hyalid amphi-

pods were collected from the sea-shore and on the banks of brackish-

water and freshwater canals and ponds, two or three miles away from

the sea-shore. Hurley (1959) applied the term *supralittoral’ to the

amphipods of the sea-shore zone generally called sandhoppers. These

are still dependent on sea-water for their distribution though their feed-

ing and breeding may be performed on land. The term ‘terrestrial ’

was used for those which are entirely independent of sea-water. In the

sense of these terms, there are only supralittoral amphipods and no ter-

restrial ones in the present collection. Orchestia anomala was collected

from under stones at the high tide mark, around saltwater ponds and

also around a freshwater pond about a mile away from the sea-shore.

Talorchestia martensii was collected from the tidal edge, the sea-shore

and the banks of brackishwater and freshwater ponds and canals. Par-

hyale inyacka was collected from the intertidal waters as well as from

under stones and jumping about at the tidal edge.

The change from marine to terrestrial environment is one of the

important steps in the evolution of the Amphipoda. Carter (1931) says

that the majority of terrestrial animals have reached the land by way of

freshwater rather than directly from the sea. Pearse (1929) and Edney

(1954) believe that the route to land was across the littoral zone rather

than by way of estuaries and swamps. I think that both these routes

are possible, though there are no truly terrestrial species in the present

collection to prove this. 7. martensii appears to have taken to land

through the estuaries, though they are not still independent of water.

It occurs in all the zones from the littoral area to the freshwater.

O. anomala on the contrary, appears to have taken up land life through

the sea-shore. It occurs under the stones on the sea-shore and also around

freshwater ponds near the sea-shore.

[ 43]

166 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION

The interpretation of distributional data is an extremely complicated

affair. The importance of a group of animals for zoogeographical con-

clusions depends on the volume of our knowledge of the group, the faci-

lities for their dispersal and the barriers in their way of dispersal

(Mahendra 1939). It is also necessary to consider the distribution of as

many groups as possible before arriving at conclusions (Nicholls 1933).

Our knowledge on the Amphipoda is far from complete. In this paper,

distributional data are given for each species based on published infor-

mation which are not necessarily complete.

The number of amphipod species known from India is not large and

a large part of the Indian coasts remains to be explored for their amphi-

pod fauna. Moreover, our knowledge of this group of animals from the

rest of the Indo-Pacific area is rather meagre. These animals are also

likely to be introduced from one country to another by ships whose

bottom with their algal growth is an ideal habitat for them. In view of

these points, no definite zoogeographical conclusions can be reached

from the present study. However, the amphipod fauna of India has its

closest affinity to that of Ceylon and other islands and countries border-

ing the Indian Ocean. In the present collection of amphipods, there

are 9 cosmopolitan species. Apart from these there are 12 species which

are nearly cosmopolitan (or are irregularly distributed and hence not of

any importance in the present discussion). This is largely due to lack

of knowledge of this group in several areas. 18 species are distributed

in the Indo-Pacific Ocean. The maximum number of 19 species are

restricted to the Indian Ocean. 3 species are known only from India,

namely, Paracalliope indica, Parhyalella indica and Photis digitata, but

it cannot be said whether they are truly endemic since our knowledge of

this group of animals in the rest of the Indo-Pacific area is, as already

pointed out, rather scanty.

SUMMARY

The present paper is the second and concluding part of a systematic

study of the Amphipod Crustacea of the east coast of India. A total

number of 32 species belonging to seven gammaridean families and a

caprellidean family are dealt with here, of which 16 species are recorded

for the first time from India. The ecology of these amphipods is dis-

cussed. A discussion on the geographical distribution shows their

close affinity to the Amphipoda of the islands and countries bordering

the Indian Ocean.

[44 ]

AMPHIPODA FROM EAST COAST OF INDIA 167

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Bot. Afr. 32 (1) : 122-138, 29 figs.

SEXTON, E. W. (1911): The Amphi-

poda collected by the ‘ Huxley ’ from the

north side of the Bay of Biscay in August,

1906. J. Mar. biol. Ass. U.K. 9 (2):

199-227, pl. 3.

SHOEMAKER, C. R. (1921): Report on

the amphipods of the Barbados-Antigua

Expedition of 1918. Univ. Iowa Studies

nat. Hist. 9 (5): 1-102.

(1933) : Two new genera and

six new species of Amphipoda from Tor-

tugas. Pap. Tortugas Lab. 28: 247-

256, 8 figs.

(1934): The Amphipod

genus Corophium on the east coast of

America. Proc. biol. Soc. Wash. 47:

22-32.

————. (1935): The amphipods of

Porto Rico and the Virgin Island.

Scientific Survey of Porto Rico and the

Virgin Islands, N.Y. Acad. Sci. 15 (2):

229-253, 5 figs.

(1941): On the names of

certain Californian amphipods. Proc.

biol. Soc. Wash. 54: 187-188.

— (1942): Amphipod crus-

taceans collected on the Presidential

cruise of 1938. Smithson. misc. Coll.

169

101 (11): 1-52, 17 figs.

SHOEMAKER, C.R. (1945): The Amphipod

genus Photis on the east coast of North

America. Charleston Mus. Leaf. 22:

1-17, 5 figs.

———— (1947): Further notes on

the amphipod genus Corophium from the

east coast of America. J. Wash. Acad.

Sci. 37 (2) : 47-63, 12 figs.

—— (1948): The Amphipoda of

the Smithsonian-Roebling Expedition to

Cuba in 1937. Smithson. misc. Coll.

110 (3): 1-15, 3 figs.

———— (1949): The Amphipod

genus Corophium on the west coast of

America. J. Wash. Acad. Sci. 39 (2):

66-82, 8 figs.

(1956): Observations on

the genus Parhyale. Proc. U.S. nat. Mus.

106 : 345-358, 4 figs.

SIVAPRAKASAM, T. E. (1966) : Amphi-

poda from the east coast of India. Part 1.

Gammaridea. J. Mar. biol. Ass. India

8 (1) : 82-122.

STEBBING, T. R. R. (1888): Report

on the Amphipoda collected by H.M.S.

Challenger during the years 1873-76.

Rep. on the Sci. Res. of the voyage of

H.M.S. Challenger, Zool. 29: 1-1737,

212 pls., (3 vols.)

———— (1899): Amphipoda from

the Copenhagen Museum and_ other

sources. Part 2. Trans. Linn. Soc. Lond.

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(1906) : Amphipoda I. Gam-

Das Tierreich 21: 1-806, 127

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— (1908)): The fauna of

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Lower Bengal. Part IX. A new species

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119-123, pl. 6.

— (1910): General catalogue

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maridea.

figs.

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33 figs.

—— (1927): Rivideret Forteg-

nelse over Denmarks Arter of Amphipoda

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Caprellidae]. Vidensk. Medd. dansk.

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[47]

170 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

Amphipoda. Faune des Colonies Fran-

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brackishwater Amphipoda from Bonaire,

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64: 415-436.

————— (1933b): Amphipoda from

the marine salines of Bonaire and

Curacao. ibid. 64: 437-446.

(1935a): Terrestrial Tali-

tridae from the Marquasas. Bull.

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————— (19356): Indo-Pacific Ter-

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—_———— (1942): The Amphipoda of

with

Zool. Jb. System.

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3 (1-4) : 1-525, 78 figs. (1935-1942).

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————— (1948): Amphipods from

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84.

(1913): Studies in Laguna |

Amphipoda. Zool. Jb.

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poda with notes on additional species of

System. 34:

[ 48 |

Tromso Mus. Skrifter

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Amphipoda from Andaman Isles. Rec.

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to the Malacostracan Fauna of the

Mediterranean. J. Linn. Soc. (Zool.)

28 : 290-307, pl. 27.

———— (1904): Report on the

Amphipoda collected by Professor Herd-

man at Ceylon in 1902. Report to Govt.

of Ceylon on Pearl Oyster Fisheries in

the Gulf of Mannar 2 (17) : 229-300, 8 pls.

——_——— (1905) : Marine Crustaceans,

XVI. Amphipoda. Fauna & Geogr.

Maldive Laccadive Archs, 2 (1): 923-

932, pl. 88.

(1909): Amphipoda Gam-

‘maridea from the Indian Ocean, British

East “Africa and the Red Sea. Trans.

Linn. Soc. London (Zool.) Ser 2, 12 (4):

323-344, pls. 42 & 43.

— (1916): Edriophthalma

from South America. Ann. Mag. nat.

Hist., Ser. 8, 17 : 344-346, 1 fig.

— & Scorr, A. (1903):

Decapod and _ sessile-eyed Crustaceans

from Abd-el-Kuri. Nat. Hist. of Sokotra

and Abd-el-Kuri, pp. 216-232, pls. 14A

& B.

WEBER, M. (1892) : Susswasser-Crus-

taceen des Indischen Archipels, nebst

Bemerkungen uber die Susswasser-

Fauna in Angemeinum. Zool. Ergebn.

einer Reise in Neiderl. Ost-Indien 2:

528-571.

Sex Ratio in some Indian Bats

A. GOPALAKRISHNA AND A. MADHAVAN

Department of Zoology, Institute of Science, Nagpur

INTRODUCTION

The determination of accurate sex ratio in bats is rendered difficult

because most of the species live in sexually segregated colonies through-

out the year except during the season of copulation. Hence, records of

the sex ratio in these animals can be valid if sufficient number of speci-

mens are collected at random throughout the year from several colonies

at frequent intervals. The data so far available from the literature on the

subject indicates that there is an uneven sex ratio with the females out-

numbering the males in most species of bats (Wimsatt 1945 ; Gopala-

krishna 1947, 1955; Ramakrishna 1951 ; Pearson ef al. 1952; Abdulali

1949; Ramaswamy 1962; Brosset 1962 a, b, c; 1963). Taphozous

melanopogon and Hipposideros lankadiva (Abdulali 1949) appear to be

the only two exceptional species in which the males exceed the females.

This paper presents data pertaining to the sex ratio of the following

species of bats : Rousettus leschenaulti (Desmaret), Taphozous longimanus

(Hardwicke), Megaderma lyra lyra (Geoffroy), Hipposideros fulvus

fulvus (Gray), Hipposideros speoris (Schneider), Hipposideros ater ater

(Templeton), Pipistrellus ceylonicus chrysothrix (Wroughton), Pipis-

trellus mimus mimus (Wroughton) and Pipistrellus dormeri (Dobson).

The specimens belonging to all these species, except Taphozous longi-

manus, were collected from various places in Marathwada in Maha-

rashtra. The specimens of Taphozous longimanus were collected in and

around Nagpur in Vidarbha, Maharashtra. In all the cases collections

have been made for at least two consecutive years, and in some cases for

three or four years. In most species all the calendar months of the year

are represented by one or more collections. In those species having a

sharply defined breeding season many collections were made during the

breeding season when the males and the females live together.

Table | gives the monthwise collections of the specimens of all the

species studied here. Infants of the two sexes are included under separate

columns with respect to each species. This will not only give a clear

picture of the sex ratio at different ages of life of the animals, but will

indicate the months of the year when the young are carried by lactating

mothers. Details of the breeding habits and associated phenomena are

published elsewhere.

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SEX RATIO IN SOME INDIAN BATS Le

OBSERVATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS

Since random collections have been made from different colonies.

in all the seasons for two or more years, and since the numbers of speci-

mens collected are reasonably large in most of the species, the con-

clusions drawn from the collection should be valid. A study of Table |

indicates that in all the species studied, there is a very wide disparity in

the numbers of the males and females, and in every case the females out-

number the males. If the number of males in each species is calculated

to a common denominator of one thousand females, then the number of

males per one thousand females in each species is as in Table 2.

TABLE 2

NUMBER OF MALES PER ONE THOUSAND FEMALES IN THE ADULT STAGE

No. of males per

Species 1000 females

Rousettus leschenaulti 4 ap ILs ¥# 788

Taphozous longimanus - a ite a re 343

Megaderma lyra lyra .. ge 5 ig b 577

Hipposideros fulvus fulvus a +3 \ bs. 467

Hf. speoris.. psf es a 2 314

H. ater ater ne Nae ine “ ag 386

Pipistrellus ceylonicus chrysothrix & f 2 390

P. mimus mimus az zs a ons a 505

P. dormeri he ns ste ie Ae. 349

Note :—The numbers are corrected to the nearest whole number.

Although in most cases the number of young recovered may not

warrant a definite conclusion regarding the sex ratio during infancy, it is

noteworthy that in the case of Rousettus leschenaulti and Pipistrellus

ceylonicus chrysothrix, where a large number of young of both the sexes

were collected, there is almost a balanced sex ratio during juvenile life.

Even in the other species, except Taphozous longimanus, the sex ratio of

the juveniles is reasonably even, and at any rate, the disparity in the adult

sex ratio is not reflected at the younger stage of life. This leads to the

conclusion that during the growth period there is a preferential mortality

of the males resulting in an abnormal adult sex ratio in these bats.

An interesting feature is that, except in the case of the three species of |

Pipistrellus, all other species studied had a single young in each litter,

and in most cases only once a year. Rousettus leschenaulti produces

two litters in the year (Gopalakrishna & Chaudhari, in press), and Tapho-

zous-longimanus breeds throughout the year in quick succession (Gopala-

krishna 1954, 1955).

It is interesting to compare the present findings with the data of

earlicr workers on the subject. Wimsatt (1945) working on some

174. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

American species of bats (Myotis lucifugus lucifugus, Pipistrellus sub-

flavus, Eptesicus fuscus and Lasionycteris noctivagans) indicated that in the

summer colonies the females were preponderant and in the hibernating

winter colonies there were more males. Since there were differences

in the proportions of the two sexes in different colonies, no definite con- —

clusion could be arrived at regarding the sex ratio in these species. An

abnormal sex ratio with females far outnumbering the males was shown

by one of us (1947) in Scotophilus wroughtoni, and by Ramakrishna

(1951) in the Indian vampire bats. Pearson et al. (1952) have shown that

whereas there is a balanced sex ratio among the juveniles of Corynorhinus

rafinesquei, the counts of adults gave conflicting results. Abdulali (1949)

recorded the sex ratio in 28 species of Indian bats, and showed that in all

the species except two (Taphozous melanopogon and Hipposideros lanka- —

diva) the females outnumbered the males. In the two exceptional species

there were more males than females. About European species of bats

Brosset (1963) stated, “ Recent researches have shown that the social life

of the European species covers a short part of the sexual cycle.’ After

copulation the males and females live separately. Consequently it is

not possible to determine the accurate sex ratio in these animals. He

further stated that in Miniopterus schreibersii in France the sex ratio is

equal at birth, but among the adults the females outnumber the males.

Brosset (1962 a, b, c and 1963) has noted an unbalanced sex ratio with

females more numerous than males in many Indian species of bats.

From the foregoing it is evident that in almost all the species of bats

the females outnumber the males. Perhaps even in the exceptional

cases, if collection of specimens are made all round the year, the females

may turn out to be more than the males. The fact that in most cases

there is an annual breeding cycle with a single young in the litter indi-

cates that bats have a low fecundity. Since, in most cases, where valid

data are available, there is a balanced sex ratio among the juveniles, the

uneven sex ratio in the adult stage can only be due to the preferential

mortality of the males during the growth period. This leads one to the

conclusion that the higher mortality of the males among the bats may be

an adaptation for effecting an economy to bring about an increase in the

potential reproductive population by reducing the number of males in the

adult population.

SUMMARY

1. The sex ratio in the following species of bats have been worked

out on the basis of frequent collection of specimens at random from

different colonies for at least two consecutive calendar years—Rousettus

jeschenaulti, Taphozous Tlongimanus, Megaderma lyra lyra, Hipposideros:

SEX RATIO IN SOME INDIAN BATS

175

fulvus fulvus, H. speoris, H. ater ater, Pipistrellus ceylonicus chrysothrix, P.

mimus mimus and P. dormeri.

2. In all the cases there is an unbalanced sex ratio in the adult with

females far outnumbering the males, whereas the sex ratio is even during

the juvenile life.

3. The present findings are compared with those of earlier workers.

4. Itis concluded that the uneven sex ratio in the adults is dueto the

preferential mortality of the males during the growth period.

REFERENCES

ABDULALI, H. (1949): Sex ratio in

Indian bats. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

48 ; 423-428.

BrosseT, A. (1962a) : The bats of cen-

tral and western India. Part [. ibid. 59:

1-57.

———-— (19625) : do. Part I.

ibid., 59 : 584-624.

————-—— (1962c) : do. Part III.

ibid. 59 : 707-746.

———-— (1963): do. Part IV.

‘bid. 60 : 338-355.

GOPALAKRISHNA, A. (1947): Studies

on the embryology of Microchiroptera—

Part I. Reproduction and _ breeding

seasons in the South Indian vespertilionid

bat, Scotophilus wroughtoni (Thomas).

Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci. 26 : 219-232.

———— (1954): Breeding habits of

the Indian sheath-tailed bat, Taphozous

Beans (Hardwicke). Curr. Sci. 23:

60-61.

———— (1955): Observations on

‘the breeding habits and ovarian cycle in

the Indian sheath-tailed bat, Taphozous

longimanus (Hardwicke). Proc. Nat.

Inst. Sci. India 21 : 29-41,

GOPALAKRISHNA, A. & CHAUDHARI,

P. N.: Studies on the reproduction in

Megachiroptera—Part I. Observations

on the breeding habits and associated

phenomena in_ the Indian fruit-bat

Rousettus leschenaulti (Desmaret). (in

press)

PEARSON, O. P., KororD, M. R. &

PEARSON, A. K. (1952): Reproduction

of the lump-nosed bat (Corynorhinus

rafinesquei) in California. Jour. Mammal.

33 : 273-320.

RAMAKRISHNA, P. A. (1951): Studies

on reproduction in bats. I. Some aspects

of reproduction in the Oriental vampires,

Lyroderma lyra lyra (Geoff.) and Mega-

derma spasma (Linn.). Jour. Mysore

Univ., B 11: 107-118.

RAMASWAMY, K. R. (1962): Studies

on the sex cycle of the Indian vampire

bat, Megaderma lyra lyra (Geoffroy).

Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci. India 27 : 287-307.

Wimsatt, W. A. (1945): Notes on

breeding behaviour, pregnancy, and par-

turition in some vespertilionid bats of

the Eastern United States. Jour. Mam-

mal. 26 : 23-33.

Flora of Mothronwala Swamp Forest

(District: Dehra Dun, U. P., India)

K. M. M. DAKSHINI

Department of Botany, University of Delhi, Delhi-7

The Mothronwala swamp forest lying at the foot of the Himalayas in

the Dehra Dun district, U.P., India, was selected for a detailed study of its

flora. During the study 367 species of flowering plants and ferns were

collected of which 356 are angiosperms and_11 ferns. These are listed.

INTRODUCTION

The ‘ Mothronwala Swamp Forest’ occupies a compact area between

30°15’ 40” and ‘30° 16” 45%N. ‘and 78° ft" and’ 78° 2! 1578. and ties

south-east of Dehra Dun ata distance of 15 km. near the military town-

ship of Clement Town. The forest lies at an altitude of 600m. above

sea-level and occupies an area of approximately 30 acres.

Kanjilal (1901)' drew attention to this swamp forest and mentioned

few plant species represented in the forest. A reference to the Mothron-

wala forest is found in the ‘ Flora of Upper Gangetic Plain’ by Duthie

(1903-22) and in the ‘ Flora of Chakrata, Dehra Dun, and Saharanpur

Divisions’ by Kanjilal (1956), whercin this locality has been named in

respect of certain plant species. Besides this, there is no systematic

account of the flora of this region.

Therefore, in order to obtain a complete collection of the flowering

plants and ferns found inthe forest, and also to understand the vegetational

composition of the forest this study was undertaken. |

Dakshini (1960a & b, and 1965) has given details of topography of

the forest, climate, soil, and vegetation and hence those details have not

been included here.

The vegetation is very dense and the cover remains as such almost

throughout the year, but still with the seasons the vegetational composi-

tion and denseness varies. The forest lies in the monsoon belt in the

Dun valley with an annual rainfall reaching 2500 mm., most of which is

received during the months July-September. The effect of rainfall is

clearly seen in the phenomenal increase in vegetation density during the

1 KANJILAL, V. (1901): Swamp forest in Dehra Dun, N. W. Province. Indian

For, 27 : 228-230,

FLORA OF MOTHRONWALA SWAMP FOREST 177

rainy season. There is a direct correlation between heavy rainfall and

abundance of vegetational components. The heavy rainfall of July is

followed by the dense cover of August. This relationship is particularly

' noticeable on the ridges and slopes which are more exposed to drought

and other adverse factors and are thus sparsely covered during the non-

rainy days.

METHODS

Collections of plant species were made at regular intervals throughout

the year. The data presented here are based on the collections over a

period of three years. These specimens have been carefully studied in

the field and in the laboratory and descriptions drawn and also habitat

(not reported here) and phenological features recorded for each species.

The plant species have been arranged according to their sequence in

FLORA OF BRITISH INDIA (Hooker, 1872-1897).

All the specimens collected during the present study are deposited in

the herbarium of Northern Circle, Botanical Survey of India, Dehra

Dun, U.P., India. Field numbers are indicated in the present commu-

nication within brackets after the name of each species.

In all 367 species belonging to 72 of families were collected and are

listed here.

SYSTEMATIC ENUMERATION OF FLOWERING

PLANTS AND FERNS

RANUNCULACEAE

Clematis gouriana Roxb. ex DC.

(8082 ; 8085)

Fiowers and _ fruits—September

to December.

Ranunculus sceleratus Linn. (3912)

Flowers and _ fruits—September

to February.

Associated with Mimulus strictus.

MENISPERMACEAE

Tinospora cordifolia Miers (8058)

New leaves—June/July ; Flowers

—March/April.

Cocculus laurifolius DC. (8097)

Flowers—April to June.

Cissampelos pareira Linn. (7247 ;

S515)

Flowers—February/March.

Decoctions from root and leaves

are used by local people to

check diarrhoea.

CRUCIFERAE

Rorippa nasturtium-aquaticum

(Linn.) Hayek (3975)

Flowers and fruits—Late January

to April.

Vegetative portions are used by

local people for making curry.

Coronopus didymus (Linn.) Sm.

(5486)

Flowers and fruits—December to

March,

178 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

CAPPARIDACEAE

Capparis zeylanica Linn. (3957)

Flowers—April/May.

VIOLACEAE

Viola canescens Wall. (8015)

Flowers—February/ March.

BIXACEAE

Xylosma longifolium Clos. (3939 ;

5475)

Flowers—December to March;

Fruits—April to May.

POLYGALACEAE

Polygala_ crotalarioides Buch.-

Ham.iex DE G541)

Flowers—May/June.

DIPTEROCARPACEAE

Shorea robusta Gaertn. (3978)

Flowers—March/April.

MALVACEAE

Sida cordata (Burm. f.) Borss.

(3980)

Flowers—March to May.

S. acuta Burm. f. (7244)

Flowers and fruits—August/Sep-

tember.

Urena lobata Linn. (3919 ; 6249)

Flowers—August to October ;

Fruits—December to February.

Variation in size and shape of

leaf common,

Abelmoschus crinitus Wall. (7250)

Flowers—August to October.

A. moschatus tetraphyllus (Roxb.

ex Hornem.) var. pungens

(Roxb.) Hochr. (7280) |

Flowers—August/September ;

Fruits—December/January.

Thespesia lampas (Cav.) Dalz.

& Gibs. (7245)

Flowers—August/September ;

Fruits—November/December.

Kydia calycina Roxb. (6262)

Flowers—Late July to October.

BOMBACACEAE

_ Salmalia malabarica (DC.) Schott

& Endl. (12488)

Flowers—February/March.

STERCULIACEAE

Sterculia villosa Roxb. (8023)

Flowers—March/April ; Fruits—

June/July.

Helicteres isora Linn. (7227)

Flowers—June to August ; Fruits

—QOctober/November.

Melochia

(7300)

Flowers—August/September.

corchorifolia Linn,

TILIACEAE

Grewia disperma Rottl. ex Spreng.

(7268)

Flowers—June to

Fruits—November,

September ;

FLORA OF MOTHRONWALA SWAMP FOREST 179

G. polygama Roxb. (7252)

Flowers—August/September.

Triumfetta rhomboidea Jacq. -

(7277)

Flowers and fruits—August/Sep-

tember.

Corchorus capsularis Linn. (7241)

Flowers and fruits—August to

October.

LINACEAE

Reinwardtia indica Dum. (3949)

Flowers—Late February to June.

MALPIGHIACEAE

Hiptage benghalensis (Linn.) Kurz

(3943 ; 8025 ; 8049)

Flowers—April/May ;

May/June.

Fruits—

GERANIACFAE

Geranium ocellatum Jacq. (8028)

Flowers—March/April.

OXALIDACEAE

Oxalis corniculata Linn. (5521)

Flowers and fruits—July to

October.

RUTACEAE

Toddalia asiatica (Linn.) Lamk.

(3952)

Flowers—March/April ; Fruits—

April/May.

Acronychia pedunculata (Linn.)

Miq. (5500 ; 5592 ; 6265)

Flowers—August/September ;

Fruits—December,

Glycosmis pentaphylla (Retz.)

Corr. (6235)

Flowers—September/October and

March/April.

Murraya_ paniculata = (Linn.)

Jack (8038)

Flowers—March to May.

M. koenigii (Linn.) Spreng,

(3917)

Flowers—March to

Fruits—April to July.

May ;

Citrus medica Linn. (8021)

Flowers—January/February ;

Fruits—April to June.

BURSERACEAE

Garuga pinnata Roxb. (8051)

Flowers—April ;

July.

Fruits—June/

MELIACEAE

Toona ciliata Roem.

Flowers—March/April.

CELASTRACEAE

Celastrus paniculatus Willd. (8025)

Flowers—April/May.

RHAMNACEAE

Ventilago denticulata Willd. (5496)

Flowers—December/January.

Zizyphus nummularia (Burm.f.)

Wt. & Arn. (8800 ; 5593)

Flowers—July to September;

Fruits—November/December.

Rhamnus virgata Roxb. (3908)

Flowers—March to May;

Fruits—November to January.

180- JOURNAL; ‘BOMBAY (NATURAEAATST. SOCTELY AV or 67. (2)

Gouania leptostachya DC. (5498 ;

3054)

Flowers—July/August ;

Fruits—December/January.

AMPELIDACEAE

Vitis parvifolia Roxb. (8093)

Flowers—April/May.

Ampelocissus latifolia (Roxb.)

Planch. ($516 °~5577 : “77266 :

8053 ; 8080) 3

Fliowers—August/September ;

Fruits—October/November.

LEEACEAE

Leea alata Edgeworth (5564)

Flowers—August/September.

L. edgeworthii Santapau (5543)

Flowers—July/August.

SAPINDACEAE

Acer oblongum Wall. ex DC.

(8089)

New leaves—October to January.

SABIACEAE

Sabia paniculata Edgew. ex Hook.

f. & Thoms. (8007)

Flowers—January/February.

Leaves infected with

Cephaleuros sp.

ANACARDIACEAE

Lannea coromandelica (Houtt.)

Merrill (3962)

Flowers and furits—April/May.

LEGUMINOSAE

Crotalaria prostrata Rottl. ex

Willd. (6272)

Flowers—August/September ;

Fruits—October.

C. ferruginea R. Grah. ex

Benth. (6241)

Flowers—August ;

Fruits—September/October.

C. albida Heyne ex Roth.

(395075 7298)

Flowers—July/August ;

Fruits—September.

C. calycina Schrank (7253)

Flowers—August.

C. sessiliflora Linn. (8071)

Flowers—September/October.

C. sericea Retz. (6258 ; 7279)

Flowers — August/September ;

Fruits—October. :

C. medicaginea Lamk. (6224 ;

12350)

Flowers—August.

Medicago polymorpha Linn.

(8030)

Flowers and fruits—Late

February to April.

Indigofera glandulosa Willd.

(5588)

Flowers and _ fruits—August/

September.

I. atropurpurea Buch.-Ham. ex

Roxb. (3940)

Flowers and fruits—March/

April.

FLORA OF MOiHRONWALA SWAMP FOREST 181

Millettia auriculata Baker

(5523 ; 8060)

Flowers—May/June ;

Fruits—July to September.

Tephrosia candida DC. (5494)

Fruits—December.

Sesbania sesban (Linn.) Merrill

(6223)

Fruits—September.

Zornia gibbosa Span. (6270)

Flowers and fruits—September/

October.

Aeschynomene indica Linn.

(6239)

Flowers and fruits—August/

September.

Uraria picta Desv. (7231)

Flowers—July/August ;

Fruits—September.

U. neglecta Prain (7295A)

Flowers—August/September.

U. rufescens (DC.) Schindl.

(7295)

Flowers and Fruits—August/

September.

Alysicarpus

(6240)

Flowers—August/September.

vaginalis DC,

A. bupleurifolius DC. (7230;

7260)

Flowers and fruits—August/

September.

A. glumaceus ( Vahl.) (6275)

Flowers—September/October.

Desmodium triangulare var.

congestum (Prain) Santapau

(7296)

Flowers—August/September.

D. caudatum (Thunb.) (12487)

Flowers—July to September ;

Fruits—November.

D. triquetrum DC, (7248)

Flowers and fruits—August to

October.

D. laxiflorum DC. (7229 ; 5594)

Flowers—July/August ;

Fruits—October.

D. gangeticum DC. (3974;

8047)

Flowers and fruits—March to

June.

D. retusum (I. Don) Swert.

(7295B)

Flowers—August/September.

D. heterocarpon (Linn.) (8077)

Flowers and fruits—July to

October.

_D. triflorum DC. (6274 ; 5538)

Flowers—May/June ;

Fruits—October.

D. motorium (Houtt.) Merrill

(8797)

Fruits—October/November.

Abrus fruticulosus Wall. ex

Wight & Arn. (7281)

Flowers—August/September.

Lathyrus aphaca Linn. (3934)

Flowers—February/March.

182 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

Mucuna prurita Hook. (8779)

Fruits—October/November.

Butea monosperma (Lamk.)

Taubert (8022)

Flowers—March/April.

B. parviflora Roxb. (8083)

Fruits—November/December.

Pueraria phaseoloides Benth.

(6222)

Flowers—August/September.

Phaseolus calcaratus Roxb. (6220)

Flowers—August/September.

Vigna capensis Walp. (7273;

8061)

Flowers—August/September.

Rhynchosia rothii Benth. ex Ait-

chison (6221)

Flowers—August/September.

Moghania bracteata (Roxb.) Li

(6218)

Flowers—August/September.

M. semialata (Roxb.) Mukerjee

(6215 ; 8079)

Flowers—August/September ;

Fruits—October.

M. postrata (Roxb. f.) Mukerjee

(6241)

Flowers—August/September.

Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. (3976)

Flowers—April.

Caesalpinia decapetala (Roth.)

Alston (3922)

Flowers—February/ March.

Cassia occidentalis Linn. (6256)

Flowers—September/October.

C. tora Linn. (7237)

Flowers—June/July.

C, absus Linn. (8062 ; 7251)

Flowers—June/July.

C. leschenaultiana DC. (5589)

Flowers—August/September.

Acacia farnesiana Willd. (3963)

Flowers—February/April.

A. pennata (Linn.) Willd. (8088)

Fruits—November/December.

Albizzia_stipulata Boiv. var.

smithiana Prain (8042)

Flowers—March/April.

ROSACEAE

Rubus niveus Thunb. (5503)

Flowers—May/June.

Potentilla

(3933)

Flowers—March/April.

indica (Andr.) Wolf

Pyrus pashia Buch.-Ham. ex D.

Don (3918)

Flowers—Late January to March ;

Fruits—August/September.

MYRTACEAE

Syzygium cerasoides (Roxb.)

Chatterjee et Kanjilal f. (8044)

Flowers—April/May.

MELASTOMACEAE

Sonerila tenera Royle (8064)

Flowers—September/October.

FLORA OF MOTHRONWALA SWAMP FOREST 183

LYTHRACEAE

Ammannia baccifera Linn. (3929)

Flowers—March/April.

Rotala rotundifolia Koehne (3941)

Flowers—March/April.

Note: Variation in the length

of stamens and style common-:.

R. mexicana Cham. & Schlect.

(6273)

Flowers—September/October.

Woodfordia fruticosa (Linn.) Kurz

(3986)

Fruits—May/June.

PASSIFLORACEAE

Passiflora foetida Linn. (5567)

Flowers—July/August.

CUCURBITACEAE

Momordica dioica Roxb. ex Willd.

(8058)

Flowers—June.

Cucumis melo Linn. var, agrestis

Naud. (7246)

Flowers—August/September.

Mukia maderaspatana (Linn.)

Roem. (7299)

Flowers-—September.

UMBELLIFERAE

Oenanthe javanica (Blume) DC.

(3988)

Flowers—May/June.

ARALIACEAE

Schefflera venulosa (Wt. & Arn.)

Harms (8017)

Flowers—February.

RUBIACEAE

Oldenlandia

(8011, 8090)

Flowers—January/February.

corymbosa = Linn. |

Randia brandisii Gamble (5522 ;

7267)

Flowers—April to June.

Knoxia corymbosa Willd. (7271)

Flowers—August/September.

Pavetta tomentosa Roxb. ex Rees

(5488)

Fruits—December.

Coffea bengalensis Roxb. (5495)

Fruits—December/January.

Borreria ocymoides DC, (7270)

Flowers—August/September.

B. articularis (Linn. f.) F.N.

Wils.

Flowers—August.

Rubia cordifolia Linn. (5491)

Flowers—August.

COMPOSITAE

Vernonia cinerea Less. (7239;

8066)

Flowers and.

October.

fruits—July to

Note: Trifid stigma is also com-

mon,

i184. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

Adenostemma lavenia (Linn.) O.

Ktze. (6246)

Flowers—September/October.

A. viscosum Forst. var. elata

Hook. f. (8067)

Flowers—October.

Ageratum conyzoides Linn. (3903)

Flowers—Throughout the year.

Note: Trifid stigma is common.

Cyathocline purpurea (D. Don)

O. Ktze. (3987 ; 3959)

Flowers—March to June.

Conyza japonica Less. (5534)

Flowers—May to July.

C. viscidula Wall. ex DC. (3924,

3960, 8098)

Flowers—March to May.

Blumea lanceolaria (Roxb.) Druce

(3961)

Flowers—March/April.

Gnaphalium indicum Linn. (8094)

Flowers-——February/March.

Inula cappa DC. (6293)

Flowers—October/November.

Vicoa indica (Linn.) DC. (3993;

6259)

Flowers—September/October.

Xanthium strumarium Linn. (6243)

Flowers—June/July.

Siegesbeckia orientalis Linn.

(6279)

Flowers—October/November.

Eclipta prostrata (Linn.) Linn.

(3997 ; 5505)

Flowers—Throughout the year.

Blainvillea acmella (Linn. f.)

Philipson (7274)

Flowers—August/September.

Wedelia_ wallichii Less. (3998;

5585)

Flowers—August/September.

Bidens biternata (Lour.) Merr. &

Sherff. (7237)

Flowers—July to September.

Tridax procumbens Linn. (7228)

Flowers—July to September.

Artemisia parviflora Buch.-Ham.

ex Roxb. (7255)

Flowers—July to September.

A. nilagirica (Clarke)

(6234 ; 6248)

Flowers—September/October.

Echinops cornigerus DC. (7254)

Flowers—August/September.

Cirsium wallichii DC. (3964)

Flowers—March/April.

Pamp.

Tricholepis stictophylla Clarke

(5540, 8798)

Flowers—November.

Youngia japonica (Linn.) DC.

(3946)

Flowers—March to May.

Crepis acaulis (DC.) Hook.

ff (537) |

Flowers—June/July.

Sonchus brachyotus DC. (3948)

Flowers—March/April.

FLORA OF MOiHRONWALA SWAMP FOREST 185

PLUMBAGINACEAE

Plumbago zeylanica Linn. (3956)

Flowers—March/April.

PRIMULACEAE

Androsace umbellata (Lour.)

Merr. (3942 ; 8006)

Flowers—January to March.

Anagallis arvensis Linn. (8029)

Flowers—March/April.

MYRSINACEAE

Ardisia solanacea Roxb. (3906)

Flowers—April to June; Fruits

ripen—February/March.

EBENACEAE

Diospyros montana Roxb. (8034)

Fruits—March/April.

OLEACEAE

Jasminum multiflorum (Burm. f.)

Andr. (3905 ; 8013)

Flowers—January to April.

APOCYNACEAE

Carissa opaca Stapf. ex Hains

(3926)

Flowers—March to June.

Rauwolfia serpentina

Benth. ex Kurz (5573)

Flowers—August to early Sep-

tember.

Tabernaemontana _ divaricata

(Linn.) R. Br. ex Roem. &

Schult. (3923)

Flowers—March/April.

Vallaris solanacea (Roth.) O.

Ktze. (8027)

Flowers—November ;

Fruits—March/April.

Trachelospermum lucidum (D.

Don) K. Schum. (3953 ; 8073)

Flowers—March to May ;

Fruits—October/November. .

Ichnocarpus frutescens (Linn.) Ait.

(6263)

Flowers—October.

ASCLEPIADACEAE

Cryptolepis buchanani Roem. &

Schult. (8045)

Flowers—April/May.

BORAGINACEAE

Cordia dichotoma Forst. f. (3938 ;

8095)

Flowers — February/March;

Fruits—March/April.

Ehretia acuminata R. Br. (3939 ;

3967)

Flowers—March.

E. laevis Roxb. (8037)

Flowers—Late March/April.

Trichodesma indicum (Linn.)

Lehm. (3990)

Flowers—April to June.

Cynoglossum meeboldii Brand.

(7235)

Flowers—July to September.

Bothriospermum tenellum Fisch. &

Mey.

Flowers—March/April.

186 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

CONVOLVULACEAE

Rivea ornata Choisy (7294)

Flowers—August/September.

R. ornata Choisy var. griffithii

Clarke (5476)

Flowers—November.

Argyreia thomsoni

Craib. (6213)

Flowers—August/September.

(Clarke)

Ipomaea muricata (Linn.) Jacq.

(6250 ; 7278)

Flowers—August to October.

I. pes-tigridis Linn. (6264)

Flowers—August to October.

I. eriocarpa R. Br. (6216)

Flowers—August/September.

I. dichroa (Roem. & Schult.)

choisy (6216A)

Flowers—September/October.

SOLANACEAE

Solanum nigrum Linn. (3947)

Flowers—February to May.

S. torvum Sw. (5509)

Flowers—May/June.

S. indicum Linn. (5554)

Flowers—May to August.

Physalis minima Linn. var. indica

Lamk. (7236 ; 7297)

Flowers and Fruits—July to

September.

Cestrum nocturnum Linn. (5487)

Flowers—Different seasons.

(to be continued)

Notes on some Butterflies in the

Collection of the Bombay Natural

History Society

N. T. NADKERNY

Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay

_ Among the nearly 2500 species, subspecies and races of butterflies in

the Indian region, the Society’s collection has about 1100 species, sub-

‘species and races constituting hardly 45 per cent of the total. A very

large number of the west Himalayan species and many of the plains

species are not fully represented. The Lycaenids, Hesperids and Satyrids

are poorly represented constituting about 38, 20 and 43 per cent res-

pectively of the known species. While examining the specimens in this

comparatively small collection it was found that some were collected

- from places which fall far beyond their distributional area as indicated

by Evans (1932), Talbot (1939 and 1942), and Wynter-Blyth (1957). In

the list below the habitat mentioned by these authors is given as distri-

bution and the total number of specimens present is given with their

locality of collection. It will be seen that quite a few which were

supposed to be only Himalayan or north Indian have been caught

in central and south India and vice versa. Specimens collected from

such places do not show any differences in characters from those collected

in the known habitat.

Family DANAIDAE

1. Danaus aglea aglea Cr. Glassy Tiger

15: 1 Bombay, August ; 3, Nilgiris, January, July, October ; 5 Goa, Sep-

tember-October ; 4 N. Kanara, January, July, September, October; 1

Cannanore ; 1 Ceylon, No date.

Distribution : Ceylon ; S. India up to Poona ; Himalayas from, Kachin

east to Assam ; Bengal ; Burma.

Best (1951) considers it as rare in Bombay and available only in August

especially at Powai. We collected one at the Malabar Hill, Bombay, in

September, 1959. |

188 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

Family SATYRIDAE

2. Mbycalesis perseoides (M.) Burmese Bushbrown

4; 2 Manipur, Jan. ; 2 Pachmarhi, Oct.

Distribution: Burma, Pegu Yomas, Chindwin, where it is said to be

common.

A considerable westward extension of the known distribution.

3. Mycalesis rama (M.) Singalese Bushbrown

2: Both at Kallar, Nilgiris, Aug.

Distribution: Ceylon.

This species has not been recorded in India so far, as far as lam aware.

4. Mycalesis malsara M. Whiteline Bushbrown

11: 3 Palni Hills, July ; 3 Karwar, Jan., Apr., Aug. ; 5 Burma, Feb., Mar.,

Sept.

Distribution : Kumaon, Bengal, Sikkim, Assam ; Rangoon.

Species of Mycalesis are not known to migrate and the occurrence of

this Himalayan form in the western Ghats shows similarity in its distri-

bution to vertebrate species of Himalayan affinity occurring in the

Western Ghats. It is possible that this rare species breeds sparsely in

‘these places and is uncommon.

5. Orinoma damaris Gr. Tigerbrown

5: 2 Nilgiris, May ; 1 Sikkim, May ; 1 Assam, May ; 1 Burma, Oct.

Distribution: Kangra to Assam and Burma.

This species which was known from the Himalayas is now recorded

from the Nilgiris.

6. Erebia nirmala M. Common Argus

4: 2 Assam (Garsa and Nag Tibi), July ; 2 Nilgiris, July.

Distribution: Himalayas, Kumaon, Murree, Kangra, Kashmir, Chitral.

Reported only from the Western Himalayas. Itis now reported from

Assam in the east and Nilgiris in the south for the first time.

7. Erebia shallada Lang. Mountain Argus

3: 2 Assam (Nag Tibi), No date ; 1 Kulu, July.

Distribution: Chitral, Kashmir, Kumaon—N.W. Himalayas. Eastern

range is now extended to Assam.

BUTTERFLIES IN THE SOCIETY’S COLLECTION 189

Family NyMPHALIDAE

8. Diagora persimilis (Westw.) Siren

2: Both in Palampur (Punjab), July.

Distribution: Simla to Assam, Orissa, Sikkim to Shan _ States,

Palampur is far to the west of the recorded habitat.

9. Penthema lisarda (Doub.) Yellow Kaiser

1 Mansi (Burma), April.

Distribution: Sikkim to Assam and Chin Hills.

Mansi extends the eastward distribution.

10. Euthalia nais (Forst.) Baronet

13: 3 Khandesh, Dec.; 8 Nilgiris, June to Oct.; 1 Telligheri, Mar,; 1

Pachmarhi, no date.

Distribution : South India, Dehra Dun to Sikkim, Konkan, Saurashtra,

Madhya Pradesh and Ceylon.

Though not notedin or near Khandesh so far, it seems to be acommon

species all over India.

Family LYCAENIDAE

11. Everes argiades indica W.B. Tailed Cupid

5: 1 Palni Hills, July ; 1 Kangra, Sept. ; 2 Gund, May ; 1 Gunderbal, May.

Distribution : Chitral to Kumaon to Burma, Sikkim, and Bhutan.

Another instance of a Himalayan form occurring inthe Western Ghats.

12. Nacaduba ceylonica Fr.(—sinhalaOrm.). Pale Ceylon 6 Lineblue

11: 6 Karwar, June and Aug. ; 2 Kodaikanal, Oct.; 1 Darjeeling, Oct. ; 2

Manipur, May.

Distribution: Ceylon.

Cantlie (1962) has called this species N. sinhala Orm. as N. atrata

(the original name) is invalid and ceylonica Fruh. is a homonym because

of page priority of N. pactolus ceylonicus Fruh. as pointed out by Corbet.

(The underside of the various specimens is not uniform, some have pale

lines, some are deep and a few of medium depth. This is not attri-

butable to localities as this variation is found in examples collected even

from the same locality. These specimens may have to be re-examined.)

13. Nacaduba berenice plumbeomicans WM. & DeN. Rounded

_ 6 Lineblue

4; 4 Karwar, Mar., Aug., Oct,

1909 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

Distribution : Assam, Andamans and Tayoy to S. Burma.

Nacaduba species love moist forests and the occurrence of the species

at Karwar possessing similar environment as the recorded habitat is

another instance of discontinuous distribution mentioned earlier.

14. Heliophorus tamu tamu Koll. Powdery Green Sapphire

5: 1 Dangs (Gujarat), July ; 3 Gund, May ; 1 Cheena, Apr.

Distribution: Kumaon to Naga Hills, Nepal, Sikkim.

Dangs is far south of the recorded range. It is very rare in the Dangs,

Only one specimen was obtained.

15. Amblypodia atrax Hew. Dark Brokenband Oakblue

2: 1 Ranikhet ; 1 Burma. No dates.

Distribution: Shan States, Burma.

The occurrence at Ranikhet is a considerable extension of the westward

range.

16. Spindasis abnormis M. Abnormal Silverline.

3: 1 Lonavla, Oct. ; 2 Coonoor, Mar.

Distribution : Coonoor, Coorg, S. India.

According to Evans, S. India includes Lonavla but the species has

not been recorded beyond Nilgiris and Coorg. Bean (1968) collected

them at Lonavla only recently.

17. Tajuria jehana M. Plains Blue Royal

‘ 9: 4 Poona, July, Sept. ; 1 Jabalpur, July ; 3 Nilgiris, June, Oct. ; 1 Karwar,

* Dec:

Distribution: S. India, Ceylon, Simla to Bengal. K. Cantlie (1962)

includes Bombay, Dehra Dun and Lucknow under this head. Jabalpur

therefore is almost in its distributional area.

18. Rapala scintilla DeN. Scarce Slate Flash

5: 1 Kallar, Nilgiris, Aug. ; 1 Calcutta, Nov. ; 1 Sikkim, no date ; 2 Manipur

Sept., Oct.

Distribution : Nepal, Sikkim to Assam and Burma.

This is another example of a Himalayan species occurring in the South.

Family PIERIDAE

19. Colotis vestalis (Butl.) White Arab |

11: 1N. Kanara, no date; 8 Karachi, June, Oct.; 1 Kutch, no date; 1

Unao, no date. ;

BUTTERFLIES IN THE SOCIETY’S COLLECTION 191 :

Distribution: Baluchistan to Saurashtra, Punjab, Rajputana, Uttar

Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh. Talbot (1939) mentions Western India

but no locality south of Saurashtra is noted. N. Kanara may now be

taken as the southernmost point of the distribution of this species,

20. Colias croceus (Four.) (=alecto L.) Dark Clouded Yellow

24: 1 Dakuri (U.P.), no date; 3 Nilgiris, July, Aug.; 4 Assam, Apr.: 2

Sikkim, May ; 7 Chitral, Apr. to July ; 3 Murree, Apr.; 4 Kashmir, Apr.,

June.

Distribution: Baluchistan to N. Punjab, Kumaon, Sikkim, Assam,

N. Burma, Nepal and Bombay.

Bombay is mentioned by Talbot (1939) and is the only place south of

the Himalayas where this butterfly is found. Nilgiris now constitutes

the southernmost locality for this species.

21. Gonepteryx rhamni nepalensis Doub. Common Brimstone

13: 1 Nilgiris, July ; 4 Chitral, Sept. ; 8 Murree, Apr.

Distribution: N. Waziristan, Baluchistan, Himalayas, Hills of N.E.

India and Burma. 3

Another spzcies found in the Nilgiris hitherto supposed to be met

with only in the north. The males collected from Nilgiris and Murree

are fairly deep yellow as against the description given by Evans (1932)

and Wynter-Blyth (1957) as sulphur yellow.

Family HESPERIIDAE

22. Daimio bhagava M. Common Yellowbreast Flat

7: 5 Nilgiris, Jan., July, Nov. ; 2 Burma, Sept., Oct.

Distribution : Bombay to C.P., Sikkim to Burma, Andamans.

Wynter-Blyth (1946) mentions this as a very rare species at Kallar in

Nilgiris.

23. Hasora vitta Butl. Plain Banded Awl

8 : 2 Dharwar, no date ; 5 N. Kanara, Mar., Aug. ; 1 Manipur, Oct.

Distribution: Kanara, Sikkim to Burma, Orissa.

A slight extension from N. Kanara to Dharwar.

24. Ismene [Bibasis] gomata M. Pale Green Awlet

2 : Both in Burma, July, Oct.

Distribution : Kanara, Sikkim to Assam, S. India ; China ; Malaya etc,

So far it has not been reported from Burma,

(192 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

25. Thoressa (Halpe) honorei DeN. Madras Ace

5: 1 Belgaum, Oct. ; 4'N. Kanara, Jan., Feb., Sept.

Distribution: Nilgiris, Palnis, N. Kanara, Trichinopoly.

Some slight extension from N. Kanara to Belgaum.

26. Pelopidas sinensis M. Large Branded Swift

8: 2 Poona, Oct. ; 2 N. Kanara, Jan. ; 3 Kallar, Jan. ; 1 Loimwe, May.

Distribution: Kangra to Assam, Shan State, Bengal, Ceylon, Palnis,

Nilgiris, Coorg, N. Kanara.

Poona, though fairly near to Kanara is about 300 km. north of it

and the other places are farther still.

27. Notocrypta feisthamelii (Boisd.) Spotted Demon

10: 4 N. Kanara, Aug., Sept.; Oct., 1 Coorg, Oct., 2 Naga Hills, Aug.,

1 Maram, Oct., 1 Manipur, Apr., 1 Ranikhet, no date.

Distribution : Murree to Assam and Burma.

This butterfly loves thick jungles and breeds in grass, ginger, palms

and cardamom. Both Coorg and N. Kanara abound in such areas.

REMARKS

Lepidopterists from time to time have collected butterflies from

various places in India e.g. Bombay, Nilgiris, Palni Hills, Nepal etc. but

these collectors generally did not come across the species mentioned

above in the respective areas, except for Best (1951 and 1955) who collec-

ted most of the species mentioned and shown here as new to Bombay.

Most of the species mentioned are rare even in localities mentioned

as their habitat. It is remarkable that a number of species supposed to

be Himalayan in distribution occur in the Nilgiris, but have remained

unnoticed so far. Some species that are common in the Himalayan

region seem to be breeding in the Nilgiris though sparsely and in certain

pockets only, giving a discontinuous distribution, lending support to

the hypothesis propounded by Hora (1949), that the similarity of the

flora and fauna of Ceylon, the Western Ghats, the Satpuras etc., to that

of the Himalayas and Malaya point to their same origin and affinities.

It seems probable that some of the butterflies appear in certain loca-

lities occasionally and unless they are caught at that time remain com-

pletely undetected. Spindasis abnormis M., for instance, a rather rare

species breeding in Lonavla (Western Ghats) year after year in small

numbers and for brief periods is not met with generally in Khandala,

only a few kilometres away or even in other areas of Lonavla with the

same topography and climate and with the same food conditions. It is

BUTTERFLIES IN THE SOCIETY’S COLLECTION 193

possible, therefore, that most of the species mentioned above are very

rare and are not seen in spots commonly visited by collectors visiting for

short periods during holidays. Unless a sustained effort is -made,

throughout the year and for some years it may not be possible to have a

correct idea of the fauna of a particular area.

REFERENCES

Evans, W. H. (1932): Identification

BAILEY, F. M.

of Indian butterflies. Bombay nat. Hist.

Butterflies from Nepal.

(1951): Notes on

J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 50 : 281-298.

BEAN, A. -E. (1968): Occurrence of

_Spindasis abnormis M. on Western Ghats.

ibid. 65: 618-632.

Best, A. E. G- (1951): The Butter-

flies of Bombay and Salsette. ibid. 50:

331-339.

sr en(l 955)»:

Bombay and Salsette—Additions.

53 : 282-284.

CANTLIE, KEITH (1962): Lycaenidae

portion of Evans Identification of Indian

Butterflies. Revised. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc., Bombay.

Butterflies of

ibid.

Soc., Bombay.

Hora, S. i (1949) : Satpura Hypo-

thesis of the distribution of Malayan

Fauna and Flora to Peninsular India.

Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci. India 15 : 307.

TALBOT, G. (1939, 1947): Fauna of

British India including Ceylon and

Burma. Butterflies. Vols.I and II. London.

WYNTER-BLYTH, M. A. (1957): But-

terflies of the Indian Region. Bom. nat.

Hist. Soc., Bombay.

———., (1946): Butterflies of the

Nilgiris. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

45: 47-61.

‘Studies on the Biology of some

Freshwater Fishes

Part IV. Mystus seenghala (Sykes)'

V. S. BHATT

National Institute of Oceanography, B-7 Hauz Khas Enclave,

New Delhi-16 :

(With eight text-figures)

The length frequency distribution of Mystus seenghala does not show any

modes corresponding to year classes, excepting in one of the quarters (July-

Sept.) when an indication of 6 modes was obtained. Size at first maturity in

both sexes was about 50 cm. Seasonal changesin gonads were fairly regular and

peak ripeness was attained in April, followed by spawning in May and June.

Seasonal changes in gonad-weight confirmed spawning months as May and

June. Ova diameter frequency distribution from December to May showed

that there is a single batch of eggs in the ovary and each individual spawns

only once during the year. The ‘ K’ values did not show any relation with

the maturation of gonads and spawning. The condition factor seemed to be

governed by the feeding intensity of the fish. The main food of Mystus seen-

ghala consists of forage fish, fish-fry, fingerlings, crabs, shrimpsetc. The

intake of food varies from season to season. Maximum feeding occurs in

July after the spawning and minimum from April to June.

INTRODUCTION

Mystus seenghala, a well known food fish of India, mainly occurs in

rivers, their tributaries, irrigation channels and seldom in ponds. It has

been reported from all parts of India and also from Burma (Day 1878).

The fish attains a fairly large size, the largest specimens being well above

ametreinlength. The fishery of this species has already been described

by Saigal & Motwani (1961) who rank this fish as only next to ‘ Hilsa ’

in commercial importance in the Ganga River system. At Aligarh,

where the fish mostly comes from the River Jamuna, this species is not

as economically important as the major carps. Perhaps even among

the catfishes, it ranks only next to Wallagonia attu and Mystus aor in

abundance.

— a i a es

1 This work was carried out in the Department of Zoology, Aligarh Muslim Uni-

versity, Aligarh, U.P., incontinuation of the series I-III published earlier by Qayyum &

Qasim (1964) in this journal,

STUDIES ON BIOLOGY OF SOME FRESHWATER FISHES 195

Earlier work on this fish includes comments on the life history, breed-

ing and feeding (Khan 1924 & 1934; Raj 1940; Chacko & Kuriyan 1948 ;

Saigal & Motwani 1961). This paper deals in detail with the various

aspects of its biology.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Samples were obtained from the Aligarh fish market towards the end

of every month, over a period of 16 months, from Sept. 1962 to Dec.

1963, and examined. All specimens were measured and weighed. The

gonads of each fish were dissected out, weighed and assigned a proper

stage of maturity. The entire gut from each fish was taken out and the

food items contained in it were listed.

LENGTH FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION

The length frequency of the total number of 616 fishes has been

plotted in Fig. 1 ona quarterly basis, after pooling the values of various

duplicate months. It can be seen from the figure that the various modes

in the length frequency histograms are not well defined. This may be

because the samples do not give a true composition of the population

due to selective fishing or perhaps the rate of growth of the fish is less

than the range in the size of various age groups. However, the histo-

gram of the quarter, July-Sept. (Fig. 1) gives an indication of 6 modes,

probably corresponding to 6 years. The progression of these modes

cannot be easily followed’ in subsequent quarters.

BREEDING

Maturity stages :

The classification of gonads into five maturity stages [I, immature

virgins ; II, maturing virgins or recovered spents ; III, ripening ; IV, ripe’

and V, spent was made according to the scheme given earlier (see Qayyum

& Qasim 1964)]. The maturity stages were defined arbitrarily on the

basis of shape, colour, size and weight of the gonads. For correct

identification of the five maturity stages in each sex, a little practice was

found to be essential. Stages I and II in both sexes could easily be con-

fused unless examined carefully under a microscope. Stages III and IV

in females could also be confused, for in M. seenghala the ovaries do not

enlarge to such an extent as to occupy the entire body cavity as has been

found in other fishes (Qayyum & Qasim 1964). Here the ripe ovaries

hardly occupy about one-half of the body cavity. |

196 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

NUMBERS

TOTAL FREQUENCY

60 ?

APR, MAY & JUN

320

JAN, FEB & MAR

—

ie)

—-—

OCT, NOV & DEC

JUL, AUG & SEPT

5 25 50 75 100 125

LENGTH (CM )

Fic. 1. Length frequency distribution of M. seenghala. Each histogram is based

on the pooled samples of various months,

STUDIES ON BIOLOGY OF SOME FRESHWATER FISHES 197

Size at first maturity :

The size of the fish in relation to various maturity stages is given in

Table 1. It can be seen from the table that all fishes up to 50 cm. be-

longed to stage I. No fish in this group was recorded beyond stage II.

In 45 cm., however, two males at stage V were found. This shows that

the maturity in males is attained when they are about 45 cm. in length.

In females all fishes below 50 cm. were at stage I and the higher stages

of maturity were seen only when they reached more than 50 cm. in length.

It, therefore, appears that males mature at a length smaller than the

females. When these length groups are compared with the length fre-

quency histograms, they correspond to the II mode (July-Sept. in Fig. 1)

indicating that both sexes mature in their second year of life. This is

in contrast to other fishes reported earlier (Qayyum & Qasim 1964)

which mature in the first year of life.

Sex-ratio :

In all, 614 fishes were sexed during the course of this investigation.

Of this number, 311 were males and 303 were females. It can, there-

fore, be concluded that the distribution of males and females in the

population is fairly equal and that they have a ratio of almost 1:1.

The maximum size recorded of the male was 91°5 cm. while that of the

female was 120°5 cm.

Sex-dimorphism :

Although all fishes were sexed after an internal examination, the

males could be distinguished externally from the females during the

breeding season by the presence of a small stout projection at the genital

_ opening which is lacking in females.

Cycle of maturation and depletion of gonads :

Fishes falling in various maturity stages have been shown in Fig. 2.

It would be seen from the figure that the immature virgins (stage I)

are found throughout the year. The occurrence of this stage through-

out the year indicates that M. seenghala does not spawn in its first year

p of life.

The second stage (maturing virgins) is seen in all the months except

in May when the fishes are generally in the next higher stages of maturity

(stages III & IV).

The ripening stage (stage III) often appears in females as early as

January and continues to increase till April (Fig. 2). However, after

April there is a sudden fall in stage III, for in May most of the fishes

become predominantly ripe. The appearance of ripening females as

early as in January suggests that the fish is likely to spawn much earlier

_ than the other cat-fishes where stage III has been reported much later

i198 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

(Qasim & Qayyum 1961). In males, however, the ripening stage is

only seen in March and generally not before. In May no ripening

males were seen while the females did occur in small numbers at stage ITI.

Ripe females first appeared in March and their maximum. percentage

was recorded in May (Fig. 2). In June also a small percentage of

females outwardly showed ripe ovaries but these did not appear to be

FEMALE

Oo A OO

Oo Oo O

PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL

ao @

20-5

JF MUACM SS 9D ASS SOnNdD 3 FMEA. (My AS SOL NUD

Fic. 2. Percentage of M. seenghala at each of the five stages of maturity of different

months of the year. ee

STUDIES ON BIOLOGY OF SOME FRESHWATER FISHES 199

truly ripe. In the latter case the gonad weight to body weight ratio was

much lower than in the former. Probably these egg-bound females are

either partially spent or perhaps belong to a category where the ova are

in a stage of reabsorption as described in carps and H. fossilis (Hora 1945;

Sundararaj 1959). The ripe males, on the other hand, showed a strange

distribution. In May their percentage suddenly became maximum,

In June no ripe males were seen, but in July a few males had ripe testes.

A small percentage of spent fishes (stage V) was observed during May

and June (Fig. 2).

Summing up the distribution of various maturity stages, it seems that

the stage I (immature virgins) is found throughout the year. The stage

IL is also seen throughout the year except in May and the ripening stage

(stage III) occurs from January-May. The ripe stage (stage IV) is seen

from March to May (as the ripe females found in June are egg-bound

fishes) and the spent (stage V) in May and June. It can, therefore, be

concluded that the spawning in Mystus seenghala starts in early May and

ends by early June. At Allahabad, Saigal & Motwani (1961) have

reported the occurrence of eggs of this fish in May while from Banares,

Satyanesan (1960) reported that the fish spawns in April. From

these findings it seems that the spawning in this fish is not synchronized

with the cycle of monsoon as has been reported in many other species

(Qasim & Qayyum 1961). The spawning season being confined to May

and June suggests that M. seenghala breeds during the hottest months of

the year.

Seasonal changes in gonad weight:

The gonads of both sexes were weighed and their weight was ex-

pressed as a percentage of body weight in each month. Since the gonad

weight in the immature fishes did not fluctuate much from season to

season, their weights were excluded from the analyses. The mean

gonad weight/body weight ratio of all fishes measuring 45 cm. and

above were plotted in Fig. 3. The values show that the peak weight in

females occurs in April and thereafter it shows a sudden fall. This

abrupt fall in gonad weight obviously indicates the onset of spawning.

It is interesting to note that the minimum gonad weight/body weight

ratio is obtained in August although the spawning is over by June. This

is because of the presence of egg-bound females in July and August which

do not spawn. The testes, on the other hand, reach peak weight in May

which falls more abruptly in June.

The weight of ovaries attaining highest values earlier than the testes

signifies an early maturity in females which is in contrast to the feature

reported in Blennius pholis (Qasim 1957), where males reach peak matu-

rity earlier than the females. In B. pholis early maturity happens because

of the males taking the initiative in spawning by early occupation of

200 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

nesting sites. In M. seenghala where males have also been reported to.

take part in parental care (Raj 1940; Saigal & Motwani 1961), the

initiative towards spawning seems to be taken by the females.

The above findings on the rise and fall of gonad weight confirm that

the spawning in this fish starts from early May and continues till about

June. This conclusion, however, does not seem to agree with the obser

FEMALE

1.0

GONAD WI AS PERCENTAGE OF BODY WYT.

SEP OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV

1962 1963

Fic. 3. Seasonal variation in gonad weight as percentage of body-weight of

M. seenghala.

vations of Satyanesan (1960) made at Banares where the spawning phase

in this fish lasted from March to May. Satyanesan (1960) drew this

conclusion by a study of seasonal histology of the pituitary and gonads.

STUDIES ON BIOLOGY OF SOME FRESHWATER FISHES 201

“Spawning frequency :

For the study of periodicity in spawning, the ovaries were treated in

the same way as has been described earlier (Qayyum & Qasim 1964).

The percentage frequencies of oocytes from fishes depicting typical

conditions have been shown in Fig. 4 from December to May.

=’ oO

o- oO

FREQUENCY

PERCENTAGE

45 65 85 [65 125 +45 (65

DIAMETER OF OOCYTE (MM.,)

Fic. 4. Size frequency distribution of intra-ovarian eggs of M. seenghala from

December to May. Stippled areas show small, immature eggs which were not

measured.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

202

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STUDIES ON BIOLOGY OF SOME FRESHWATER FISHES 203

As can be seen from the figure the development of eggs starts in the

month of December. In January the batch of eggs, likely to be spawned,

becomes differentiated from the original stock of smaller and yolkless

cells. In February (Fig. 4, C) the oocytes become larger in size and

in March (Fig. 4, D) they attain almost maximum diameter. The maxi-

mum size of eggs as indicated in the figure refers to those fishes which

were altnost ripe. In April (Fig. 4, E) there was practically no increase

in the egg-size except that the eggs become more uniform and get

organized into a single batch. In late May when the fishes were spent

(Fig. 4, F) there were no eggs left in the ovaries.

The ova diameter frequency clearly shows that there is only one

batch of eggs produced every year and that each individual spawns

only once in the breeding season which commences in May.

Condition factor ‘

‘The ‘K’ values of both males and females were calculated from the

conventional formula,

W x 100

The immature fish did not show much change in their K eaues

throughout the year and these were, therefore, omitted from the analysis.

The mean values which are based on mature fish only have been given in

Fig. 5. It can be seen from the figure that the values of K do not corres-

pond to the cycle of spawning. A comparison of the K values of both

sexes with the seasonal changes in gonad weight will reveal that the

maximum weight of gonads is found in March and April which corres-

ponds to almost minimum values of K. The three peaks in K values

occurred during October, February and July when the gonad weight was

considerably low. These findings leave little doubt that the K values in

this fish have no correlation with the maturation of gonads and that

there is hardly any indication of the onset of spawning from the seasonal

changes in the condition factor. This is in contrast to many opinions:

held in literature that the seasonal changes in the condition factor are

largely related to the spawning cycle (see Qayyum & Qasim 1964).

_ A ccomparison of the seasonal changes in the K values with the rate of

feeding (Fig. 8) will reveal that the rise and fall of the condition factor |

agree closely with the feeding rhythm. In February, April and May ~

when feeding is low, the K values are also low and similarly in July,

August and November. the high rate of feeding corresponds with high

values of condition factor.

Many earlier authors have found that a relationship of K with the

size of fish indicates the onset of maturity of the fish. In sucha relation-

ship the point of inflexion on the curve showing a diminution of K with

204 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol..67 (2)

increasing length gives an indication. of the length at which sexual maturity

is attained (Qayyum & Qasim 1964). Sarojini (1957) found it applicable

to Mugil parsia by using ‘K,,” values. In M. seenghala the K values -of

various length groups are given in Fig. 6. It can be seen from the figure |

that there is no indication of a secondary fall in the large size-groups.

.580

= 64

x i A

Le)

.500

A60

420

Fic. 5. Seasonal changes in the condition factor ‘K’ of both sexes of —

M. seenghala. Females (continuous line), males (broken line).

VALUE

MEAN ‘kK?

ro. 45 35" 35. 9 45 ° 55 65 78 85; 95 105 HS 125

LENGTH (CM) .

Fic. 6. Mean condition factor ‘ K’ of M, seenghala at different lengths of females.

(continuous line) and of males (broken line).

SEPT

STUDIES ON’ BIOLOGY OF SOME FRESHWATER FISHES 205

The general trend in the K values is of a fluctuating nature which gives

no clue whatsoever, to the onset :o&maturity.

Foop ‘AND, FEEDING HABITS

No account is ‘available on the food of this fish. The present investi-

gation covers a period of 16 months during which time 567 guts were

examined. The method of estimation was the same as used earlier

(Qayyum & Qasim 1964), — on

A serious difficulty was encountered during the alee of food of

M. seenghala because the fish when caught, generally everts its stomach

probably because of the jarring it receives from the fishermen. This was

more commonly found in larger fishes, ranging between 75 em. to 115 cm.

The eversion of stomach is not normally done by the fish itself unless it is

manhandled badly, for only the injured fishes had their stomachs everted.

From the analysis, therefore, all. Such fishes which had their stomachs

everted were excluded.

The food of M. seenghala is composed mainly of fish including fish-

fry, fingerlings and small forage fishes. Fish-fry and fingerlings were

mainly of carps. Often the fish-fry of cat-fishes were also seen in the

gut and on one occasion a fish (female) contained a fingerling of its

own kind. Despite the fact that the males are known to exhibit parental

care and they are always in close vicinity of the young ones, none of them

was found to contain any young fish of its own species. The percentage

occurrence of fingerlings and fish-fry is given in Table 2 along with the

other food items. It will be seen from the table that the fingerlings and

fish-fry occurred only from May to January. This period corresponds

with the breeding seasons of most of the freshwater fishes of Northern

India (Qasim & Qayyum 1961).

Forage-fishes in the gut show a regular ar somewhat steady occur-

rence. These included Barbus stigma, Chela sp., Amblypharyngodon sp.,

Rhynchobdella sp., Wallagonia attu and Ophicephalus sp. The presence

of big scales of large-sized carps shows that Mystus seenghala attacks

large-sized fishes and probably snaps up portions of their body.

— Crabs and shrimps are also found in the guts. Shrimps were generally

more common than the crabs.

Among the terrestrial insects, dragon-flies and may-flies were quite

common. The aquatic insects were represented by Notonecta and Nepa

_ sp. Dragon-flies and their nymphs often occurred abundantly. The

other items of food (Table 2) were of negligible importance as these

occurred in very small proportions.

According to Price. (1963) the food items composing the volume or

frequency of 10% or more-in the guts can be taken as significant

food items. If the various food items are judged on this basis, the main

206 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

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STUDIES ON BIOLOGY OF SOME FRESHWATER FISHES 207

food item of M. seenghala will be fish and prawns. Figure 7 gives the

percentage occurrence of the main categories of food in various months

of the year. It will be seen from this figure that some food items have a

higher percentage (more than 10%) in some months and these, therefore,

could be termed as important items of diet. The occurrence of minor

- food items in the gut seems a matter of chance. The unidentified food

in the guts occurs commonly in the form of semi-digested food remains.

Jts regular occurrence with a high percentage (Table 2) indicates that

probably the food is digested fairly quickly after ingestion.

Seasonal variation in food :

The intake of food items is subjected to significant variation from

season to season. This variation, to a large extent, seems correlated

with the breeding season-of other fishes (Qasim & Qayyum 1961). Fish

fingerlings are generally abundant in rivers and ponds during the post-

monsoon months (post-breeding season of most of the fishes) and there-

fore, their appearance in the guts of Mystus seenghala corresponds with

their availability in the environment. A gradual decline of these food

items from the guts during subsequent months suggests a decreasing

effect of predation on them as probably they become too large to remain

susceptible to be seized by Mystus seenghala.

Sand and mud increase in the gut (Fig. 7) with the development of

‘ gonads. The sand wasfound to be more regular in males. It has

already been reported earlier that this. fish spawns in breeding pits and

that the males guard the larvae and nourish them on some sort of white

scum produced by their own bodies during the breeding season (Raj

1940 ; Saigal & Motwani 1961). Probably a greater occurrence of sand

and gravel in males (parents) signifies that while guarding the young ones,

the males (parents) feed mainly on debris and do not go about hunting

for fish and other organisms, leaving the larvae unguarded. Active

feeding in M. seenghala starts in July and continues till about November.

From then onwards there is a cessation of feeding. In brief, the phase of

active feeding lasts during monsoon and post-monsoon months. During

the winter months feeding goes on at a moderate level but during summer

months (April-June) the intake of food is much reduced (Fig. 8). The

same feature is reflected from the percentage of empty guts in each month

(Fig. 8).

Karekar & Bal (1958) have correlated the feeding intensity with the

maturity stages in Polynemus indicus. According to these authors feed-

ing slows down with the growing maturity stages, particularly in females

and when the fish reaches the final stages of maturity, feeding is con-

siderably reduced... It rises again after the spawning is over. Similar

features seem to be true in M. seenghala where feeding decreases with the

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

208

“syJUOUI JUSIOYIP UT pypySuaes “JW Jo POO} JO SOIIOS9}¥V9 UIVW JO sDUdTINDDO a8ejueosed oy} ZuIMOYsS swe1ZOSTE] Sie ‘OL " mee

1) ae 296) c96) 296!

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| a

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| . GOO4 OFI4ILNIGINA ai

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STUDIES ON BIOLOGY OF SOME FRESHWATER FISHES © 209

maturation of gonads. It becomes minimum in May and June when the

gonads are fully ripe and the parents are guarding the young fishes.

TOTAL WEIGHT OF FOOD AS PERCENTAGE OF BODY WF

PERCENTAGE OF FISH WITH EMPTY GUTS

fe ete me ee oe Oe Ee Re Sie dO Oe Fe

Vv wi Soh qk Sa kD Os. O

Bbvolaieniud OURS ares S! 255 ara Biot et ahizand

1962. 1963

Fic. 8. Seasonal variation in the rate of feeding of M. seenghala. Total weight

of food of adolescent and older fishes as percentage of. body weight (continuous

line) and percentage of empty guts (broken line).

SPAWNING OF Mystus seenghala IN IMPOUNDED WATERS

AND AN INDIGENOUS METHOD OF FISHING

An interesting method of fishing was observed in Bahawalpur village

in Dist. Farrukhabad, U.P. This village is situated near the River Ganga

on the banks of a lake which gets connected with the river during the

monsoon months. This lake stretches a few miles in length but is only

30-40 metres broad. During the post-monsoon months it gets discon-

nected from the river and in summer months (April-June), the water of

the lake separates off into a number of ponds. Some of these ponds are

fairly deep and perennial in nature with a lot of fishes including Mystus

seenghala in them. Enquiries with the local fishermen showed that

210 “JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

M. seenghala makes pits in these ponds where it spawns. It is quite usual

for the local fishermen to catch this fish along with its brood (newly

hatched larvae). In such pits the fish is known to spawn freely, com-

mencing from April onwards. The spawning of M. seenghala in im-

pounded waters, much earlier than other cat-fishes (see Qasim & Qayyum

1961), seems rather surprising and obviously demands _ further

investigation.

Taking advantage of the breeding habits of this fish in pits, the fisher-

men of that village have designed an extraordinary method of fishing of

Mystus seenghala. As the fish is a bottom dweller, the fishermen gene-

rally disturb it at the bottom by using a thick rope with small stones

hung as sinkers all along its length. The rope is held by three persons,

two at either end, and the third at about the middle. Generally two or

three persons follow the man in the middle, maintaining a distance of

about 2-3 metres. The two persons holding the ends of the rope go to

the far ends of the pond and then begin to drag the rope forward. The

third man at the middle also moves in the same direction, keeping the

rope slightly above, so that the sinkers do not touch the bottom. The

fish when disturbed by the other sinkers, apparently rushes and tries to

escape at about the middle of the rope. Thus the escaping fishes are soon

trapped in country-made hand-nets called ‘ tapars’ by the persons follow-

ing the rope. The fishermen use this method exclusively for Mystus

seenghala and generally no other fish is caught by this method probably

because M. seenghala has a different behaviour and breeding habit. The

method is interesting not because it has an advantage over the conven-

tional drag-net, commonly used by fishermen in such remote areas, but

because cf the depressed condition of the village fishermen who are

too poor to own a regular drag-net, and an ingenious contrivance of

this nature perhaps makes an ideal substitute for the drag-net.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I am extremely grateful to Dr. S. Z. Qasim for supervising this work

which formed a part of my Ph.D. thesis to the Aligarh Muslim

University, Aligarh, and for much help in the preparation of this paper.

STUDIES ON BIOLOGY OF SOME FRESHWATER FISHES 211

REFERENCES

CHACKO, P. I. & KuRIAN, G. K.

(1948): A survey of fisheries of the

Tungabhadra River. Proc. Indian Acad.

Sci. 28B (5): 166-176.

Day, F. (1878): The fishes of India.

Vols. I & II. William Dawson & Sons

Ltd., London.

Hora, S. L. (1945): Symposium on

the ‘ Factors influencing the spawning of

Indian carps’. Analysis of factors in-

fluenaing the spawning behaviour of

carps. Proc. nat. Inst. Sci. India 11:

303-318.

KAREKAR, P. S. & BAL, D. V. (1958) :

The food and feeding habits of Polynemus

indicus (Shaw). Indian J. Fish. 5 (1):

77-94.

KHAN, H. M. (1924) : Observations

on the breeding habits of some freshwater

fishes in Punjab. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 29: 958-962. 5

———— (1934): Habits and habitats

of food fishes of the Punjab. ibid. 37:

655-668. —

Price, W. J. (1963) : The study of the

Food Habits of some Lake Erie Fish.

Bulletin of the Ohio Biological Survey,

Ohio State University, Ohio 2 (1): 1-89.

Qasim, S. Z. (1957): The biology of

Blennius pholis L. (Teleostei). Proc. zool.

Soc. Lond. 128: 161-208.

——, & Qayyum, A. (1961) : Spawn-

ing frequencies and breeding seasons of

some freshwater fishes with special refer-

ence to those occurring in the plains of

northern India. Indian. J. Fish. 8 : 24-43.

Qayyum, A. & Qasim, S. Z. (1964) :

Studies on the biology of some freshwater

fishes. Parts I-III. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 61: 74-98 ; 330-347 ; 627-650.

RAJ, B. S. (1940) : The extraordinary

breeding habits of cat-fish, Aoria (Mac-

rones) aor (Ham.- Buch.) and A. (Mac-

rones) seenghala (Sykes). Proc. 27th

Indian Sci. Congr. (Madras) Part III,

Abst. 156.

SAIGAL, B. N. & MotTwant, M. P.

(1963) : Studies on the fishcry and

biology of commercial catfishes of the

Ganga River system, I. Early life-history,

bionomics and breeding of Mystus

(Osteobagrus) seenghala (Sykes). Indian

J. Fish. 8 (1) : 60-75.

SAROJINI, K. K. (1957): Biology and

fisheries of the grey mullets of Bengal.

I. Biology of Mugil parsia Ham. with

notes on its fishery in Bengal. Indian

J. Fish. 4: 160-207.

SATYANESAN, A. G. (1960) : Correla-

tive cyclical changes in the pituitary and

gonads of Mystus seenghala (Sykes) and

Barbus stigma (Cuv. & Val.). J. zool.

Soc., India 12: 175-190.

SUNDARARAJ, B. I. (1959) : A study of

correlation between the structure of the

pituitary gland of the Indian catfish

Heteropneustes and the seasonal changes

in the ovary. Act. anat. 37: 47-80.

Spider Fauna of India: Catalogue _

and seas nied

B. K. TIKADER

Zoological Survey of India, 8, Lindsay Street, Calcutta-16

[Continued | Ase. Vol. 66 (3) : 499]

Family HETEROPODIDAE

Genus HETEROPODA Latreille 1804

124. Heteropoda fabrei Simon 1885. Bull. Soc. Zool. France 10 :

32). te, LO,

Distribution : India : Ramnad, Trichinopoly.

Type: BMNH.

125. Heteropoda hampsoni Pocock 1901. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

13 : 495. :

Distribution: India : Ootacamund.

Type: BMNH.

126. Heteropoda lentula Pocock 1901. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 13 :

496.

Distribution: India : Travancore, Tinnevelly.

Type: BMNH.

127. Heteropoda nilgirina Pocock 1901. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 13:

495.

Distribution :- India : Nilgiri Hills.

Type: BMNH.

128. Heteropoda phasma Simon 1897. Mem. Soc. Zool. France 10:

258.

Distribution: India: Himalayas, Kasauli, Jaunsar, Mundali. |

Type: MNHN.

129. Heteropoda prompta Cambridge 1885. Araneidea, Second

Yarkand Exp. p. 71.

Distribution: India: Himalayas, Murree, Jaunsar, Deota,

Konain,

Type: BMNH.

SPIDER FAUNA OF INDIA 213

130. Heteropoda robusta Louis 1924. Rec. Indian Mus, 26: 66,

fig. 2a.

Distribution: India : Siju cave, Garo Hills, Assam.

Type: ZSI. ,

131. Heteropoda sexpunctata Simon 1885. Bull. Soc. Zool. France 10:

14, fig. 11.

Distribution: India : Thana, Poona, Khandesh, Bellary.

Type: MNHN.

132. Heteropoda smythiesi Simon 1897. Mem. Soc. Zool. France 10:

259.

Distribution: India : Dehra Dun.

Type: MNHN.

133. Heteropoda venatoria (Linn.) 1766.

Aranea venatoria Linn. 1766. Syst. Nat. 12 : 1035.

Distribution: India; Ceylon ; Burma.

Pype-

Genus THEMEROPIS Koch 1875

134, Themeropis ajax (Pocock) 1901.

Thelcticopis ajax Pocock 1901. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 13 : 488.

Distribution: India : Ootacamund.

Type: BMNH.

135. Themeropis bicornutus (Pocock) 1901.

Thelcticopis bicornutus Pocock 1901. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 13 : 489.

Distribution: India : Naga Hills, Nagaland.

Type : BMNH.

136. Themeropis rufulus (Pocock) 1901.

Thelcticopis rufulus Pocock 1901. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 13 : 488.

Distribution: India: Nilgiri Hills.

Type: BMNH.

137. Themeropis virescens (Pocock) 1901.

Thelcticopis virescens Pocock 1901. ‘J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 13 : 488.

Distribution : India: Trivandrum, Kerala State.

Type: BMNH.

214. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

Family LYCOSIDAE

Genus DENDROLYCOSA Doleschall 1859

138. Dendrolycosa stauntoni Pocock 1900. FAUNA BRIT. INDIA

Arachnida, p. 247.

Distribution : India : Bangalore, Mysore.

Type: BMNH.

Genus EUCAMPTOPUS Pocock 1900

139. Eucamptopus coronatus Pocock 1900. FAUNA BRIT. INDIA

Arachnida, p. 245.

Distribution : Tinnevelly, S. India.

Type: BMNH.

Genus EUPROSTHENOPS Pocock 1897

140. Euprosthenops ellioti (Cambridge) 1877.

Podophthalma ellioti Cambridge 1877. Proc. Zool. Soc. London : 567, fig. 6.

Distribution: India: Chingleput, S. India.

Type: BMNH.

Genus EVIPPA Simon

141. Evippa praelongipes (Cambridge) 1870.

Lycosa praelongipes Cambridge 1870. Proc. Zool. Soc. London : 822, fig. 6.

Distribution: Punjab, Assam. :

Type: BMNH.

142. Evippa rubiginosa Simon 1885. Bull. Soc. Zool. France 10: 11.

Distribution: India: Assam.

Type: MNHN.

Genus HIJPPASA Simon 1885

143. Hippasa agelenoides (Simon) 1884.

Pirata agelenoides Simon 1884. Ann. Mus. Genova 20: 334.

Distribution: India: Dehra Dun, U.P., Nilgiri Hills, Malabar ;

Burma.

Type: MNHN.

SPIDER FAUNA OF INDIA 215

144. Hippasa himalayensis Gravely 1924. Rec. Indian Mus. 26:

593, fig. la. 5

Distribution: India: Darjeeling, Sevok, Pashok, Kalimpong.

Typé: ZSI.

145. Hippasa holmerae Thorell 1895. spIDERS OF BURMA, p. 218.

Distribution: India: Kalimpong, Darjeeling ; Burma.

Type: BMNH.

146. Hippasa loundesi Gravely 1924. Rec. Indian Mus. 26: 594, fig. le.

Distribution: India : Shevaroy Hills.

Pype. sl, :

147. Hippasa_ lycosina Pocock 1900. FAUNA BRIT. INDIA Arachnida,

pm. 250;

Distribution: India : Poona, Nasik, Satara (Maharashtra).

Type: BMNH.

148. Hippasa madraspatana Gravely 1924. Rec. Indian Mus. 26: 595,

fig. 1j.

Distribution : India : Madras city.

Type: ZSI.

149. Hippasa nilgiriensis Gravely 1924. Rec. Indian Mus. 26: 593,

fig. Id.

Distribution: India: Nilgiri Hills.

Type or ZSK.

150. Hippasa pantherina Pocock 1899. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 12:

2S :

Distribution: India: Trivandrum (Kerala), Madras, Orissa,

West Bengal, Maharashtra ; Sikkim ; Ceylon.

Type: BMNH.

151. Hippasa pisaurina Pocock 1900. FAUNA BRIT. INDIA Arachnida,

p. 250. |

Distribution : India : Bangalore (Mysore), Poona (Maharashtra),

Siripur, Saran (Bihar).

Type: BMNH.

216 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

159:

134.

154.

159.

156.

fig. 4b.

ibs.

158:

160.

Genus LYCOSA Latreille 1804

Lycosa annandalei Gravely 1924.

Distribution: India: Madras city, Ootacamund, Multan

(Punjab), Siripur, Manbhum (Bihar), Sibsagar (Assam),

Manipur, Salt Lake (Calcutta), Berhampur court, West Bengal.

Type: ZSI. .

Lycosa barnesi Gravely 1924. Rec. Indian Mus. 26: 599, fig. 3b.

Distribution : India : Dhoni Forest, South Malabar.

Type a ZS |

Lycosa birmanica (Simon) 1884.

Pardosa birmanica Simon 1884. Ann. Mag. Stor. Nat. Genova 20 : 333.

Distribution: India: Western Ghat, Orissa, Punjab, U.P.,

Bihar, Calcutta, Darjeeling (West Bengal) ; Burma.

Type: MNHN.

Lycosa bistriata Gravely 1924. Rec. Indian Mus. 26 : 600.

Distribution : India : Bangalore, Bandipur, Mysore, Madras city,

Birbhum district, West Bengal, Calcutta, Darjeeling.

Type: ZSI.

Lycosa carmichaeli Gravely 1924. Rec. Indian Mus. 26: 604,

Distribution: India: Darjeeling, Kathgodam, U.P., Assam ;

Bhutan frontier.

Type: ZSI.

Lycosa catula Simon 1885. Bull. Soc. Zool. France 10 : 457.

Distribution: India : Coimbatore, Shevaroy Hills.

Type: MNHN.

Lycosa chaperi Simon 1885. Bull. Soc. Zool. France 10: 8.

Distribution: India: Wagra-Karoor near Guntakal, Bellary

district.

Type: MNHN.

Lycosa fletcheri Gravely 1924. Rec. Indian Mus. 26 : 606, fig. 4f.

Distribution: India: Punjab, Simla; N.W.F. Province.

Type: ZSI.

Lycosa fuscana Pocock 1901. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 13: 485.

Distribution: Yndia: Poona, Maharashtra.

Type: BMNH. IAS

161.

484.

te2:

fig. 3g.

163.

164.

165.

166.

167.

168.

fig. 4h.

SPIDER FAUNA OF INDIA 217

Lycosa goliathus Pocock 1901. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 13:

Distribution : Undia : Satara district, Maharashtra.

Type: BMNH.

Lycosa himalayensis Gravely 1924. Rec. Indian Mus. 26: 603,

Distribution: India: Singla, Ghumti, Pashok, Soom, Kalim-

pong, Sonarpur, Assam.

Type: ZSI.

Lycosa indagatrix Walcknear 1837. Ins. Apt. 1: 339.

Distribution: India: Pondicherry, Bellary, Eastern Ghats,

Shevaroy Hills, Chingleput, Madras ; Ceylon.

Type > 2

Lycosa iranii Pocock 1901. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 13: 485.

Distribution: Yndia : Poona, Maharashtra.

Type: BMNH.

Lycosa kempi Gravely 1924. Rec. Indian Mus. 26: 602,

ane

Distribution: India: Darjeeling, Mangaldai, Assam; Bhutan.

Type: ZSI.-

Lycosa khudiensis Sinha 1950. Rec. Indian Mus. 48 : 22, fig. 1d.

Distribution: India : Manbhum, Bihar.

Type: ZSI.

Lycosa leucostigma Simon 1885. Bull. Soc. Zool. France 10: 10.

Distribution: India: Trivandrum, Madras city, Barkuda

Islands, Birbhum district, West Bengal, Calcutta, Siripur,

Bihar.

Type: MNHN.

Lycosa mackenziei Gravely 1924. Rec. Indian Mus. 26: 606,

Distribution: India: Bangalore, Mysore; Siripur, Bihar ;

Calcutta.

Type: ZSI.

218 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

169. Lycosa madani Pocock 1901. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 13 : 486.

Distribution: India: Cochin, Bangalore, Barkuda Islands,

Chilka lake, Eastern Ghats, Siripur, Bihar.

Type: BMNH. |

170. Lycosa masteri Pocock 1901. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 13: 484,

Distribution : India : Satara district, Maharashtra.

Type: BMNH.

171. Lycosa nigrotibialis Simon 1884. Ann. Mus. Genova 20: 330.

Distribution: India: Bangalore, Poona, Khandala, Bombay,

Katihar, Bihar, Birbhum district, West Bengal, Calcutta,

Darjeeling, Kalimpong, ree and Garo Hills, Assam,

Bhutan ; Burma.

Type: MNHN.

172. Lycosa phipsoni Pocock 1899. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 12: 751.

Distribution: | India: Bombay, Satara, Kanara, Nasik,

Maharashtra.

Type: BMNH.

173. Lycosa pictula Pocock 1901. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 13 : 486.

Distribution: India: East Khandesh, Maharashtra.

Type: BMNH.

174. Lycosa prolifica Pocock 1901. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 13 : 485.

Distribution : (ndia : Poona, Maharashtra.

Type: BMNH.

175. Lycosa punctipes Gravely 1924. Rec. Indian Mus. 26 : 603, fig. 31.

Distribution: India: Bangalore, Lucknow, Mirzapur, Siripur,

Bihar, Calcutta, Berhampur, West Bengal.

Type: ZSI. | |

176. Lycosa quadrifer Gravely 1924. Rec. Indian Mus. 26 : 608, fig. 4k.

Distribution: India: Parambikulam, Kerala State; Ceylon.

Type: ZSI.

177. Lycosa stictopyga (Thorell) 1895

Tarentula stictopyga Thorell 1895. SPIDERS OF BURMA, p. 232.

Distribution: India: Calcutta, Darjeeling, Garo Hills, Kalim-

pong, Bangalore, Siripur, Bihar, Mawplong, Khasi Hills.

Type: BMNH.

SPIDER FAUNA OF INDIA 219

Lycosa sumatrana Thorell 1890. Ann. Mag. Stor. Nat. Genova

178.

10: 136. |

Distribution: India : Bangalore, Mysore, Ootacamund, Madras

city, Bombay, Siripur, Bihar, Birbhum district, West Bengal,

Calcutta, Darjeeling, Garo Hills, Assam ; Nepal and Bhutan.

Type: BMNH.

179. Lycosa sutherlandi Gravely 1924. Rec. Indian Mus. 26: 606,

fig. 4g. |

Distribution: India: Darjeeling, Pashok, Singla, Kalimpong.

Type: ZSI.

180. Lycosa tatensis Tikader 1964. Rec. Indian Mus. 59: 265, fig.

6a, b.

Distribution: India : Tate, Central Himalayas.

Type: ZSI. |

181. Lycosa wroughtoni Pocock 1899. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 12:

751.

Distribution : India: Bulsar, Gujarat.

Type. BMNH. |

Genus OCYALE Audouin 1826

182. Ocyale atlanta Audouin 1826. SAV. DESCR. EGYPTE, ARACH. p. 150.

Distribution: India: Barkuda Island, Chilka Lake, Orissa,

Siripur, Saran, Bihar ; Ceylon.

Type: ?

Genus PARDOSA Koch 1847

183. Pardosa atropalpis Gravely 1924. Rec. Indian Mus. 26: 610,

fig. Sb.

Distribution: India: Bangalore, Mysore, Nilgiri Hills, Madras

city, Chilka Lake, Orissa.

bype. 3. Zl:

184. Pardosa leucopalpis Gravely 1924. Rec. Indian Mus. 26: 610,

fig. 5d. |

Distribution: India: Madras city, Barkuda Island, Chilka Lake,

Orissa; Cevlome oy) wt epee : negit

Type: ZSI.

220 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

185. Pardosa oakleyi Gravely 1924. Rec. Indian Mus. 26: 610, fig. 5c.

Distribution: India: Ootacamund, Nilgiri Hills, Siripur, Saran,

Bihar. |

Type: ZSI.

186. Pardosa pusiola (Thorell) 1891.

Lycosa pusiola Thorell 1891. K. Sven. Vet. Adad. Handl. 24: 65.

Distribution: India : Darjeeling ; Ceylon.

Type: BMNH.

Genus PERENETHIS Koch 1878

187. Perenethis indica (Simon) 1897.

Tetragonophthalma indica Simon 1897. Bull. Mus. Paris p. 295.

Distribution: India: Poona ; Karachi.

Type: MNHN.

Genus THALASSIUS Simon .1885

188. Thalassius phipsoni Cambridge 1898. Proc. Zool. Soc. London,

p. 3), digs.

Distribution : India : Mahim, Bombay, and Dorun.

Type: BMNH.

Genus VENONIA Thorell 1895

189. Venonia himalayaensis Gravely 1924. Rec. Indian Mus. 26:

608, fig. 41. 7

Distribution: India : Darjeeling.

Type: ZSI.

Family OECOBIIDAE

Genus OECOBIUS Lucas 1846

190. Oeccobius marathaus Tikader 1962. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.,

59 : 684, fig. 2a, b.

Distribution : India : Poona, Maharashtra.

Type: ZSI.

SPIDER FAUNA OF INDIA Zt

191. Odccobius putus Cambridge 1876. Proc. Zool. Soc. London, p. 544,

pl58, figs 1. | |

Distribution: India: Calcutta, Poona, Madras; Lahore;

Egypt ; Tripoli; Yemen ; Tanganyika.

Type: BMNH.

Family OONOPIDAE

Genus ISCHNOTHYREUS Simon 1892

192. Ischnothyreus shillongensis Tikader 1968. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 65 : 257, figs. 1-5.

Distribution: India: Shillong, Assam.

Type: ZSI.

Genus TRIAERIS Simon 1891

193. Triaeris khashiensis Tikader 1966. Current Science 35: 520,

figs, 1-3.

Distribution: India: Shillong, Assam.

Type: ZSI.

(to be continued)

Some observations on distribution —

of Scoparia dulcis Linn. in India’

-- J. D. SHAH

Post-Graduate Dept. of Botany, Bhagalpur University,

Bhagalpur (Bihar)

Scoparia dulcis L. a member of tribe Gratioleae and family Scro-

phulariaceae is an undershrub with small white flowers and little cap-

sules full of minute seeds. The plant is distributed throughout the

tropical regions of both the hemispheres. Pennel (1935) reports that it

is a widespread weed of lowland tropical America, occurring in waste —

places and cultivated ground, specially where sandy. It occurs through

the Florida peninsula to southern Georgia, and along the Gulf coast to

southern Louisiana. Pennel (1943) further observes that the genus

Scoparia has about 20 neotropical species, of which Scoparia dulcis is

adventive to the old world tropics ; it is one of the commonest tropical

weeds. ‘ Scoparia dulcis Linn. is the only species occurring in- our area

(India) ’ (Chatterjee & Bharadwaj 1955). It is a weed of cultivated and

waste lands.

According to Ridley (1930) S. dulcis was first described in 1753 by

Linnaeus from specimens collected in Jamaica and Curacao ; it is un-

doubtedly of South American and West Indian origin. Linnaeus did

not give the etymology of the name, but it is evidently from the Latin

Scopae, meaning broom, an allusion to the habit of the plant (Pennel

1935).

Ridley (1930) reports that ‘J. Rotheram, a pupil of Linnaeus, who

died in 1804, has writtenin his copy of Linnaeus “‘ Species Plantarum ”’,

a manuscript note to the effect that the plant was used in Guinea, West

Africa, as a drug for venereal diseases’. This shows that the plant had

arrived in Guinea much before 1804; ships connected with the slave

trade might have carried the plant from South America. Loureiro saw

this plant in Indo-China in 1773, perhaps brought by Jesuit missionaries

asa drug. The plant was found by Robert Brown in Australia in Shoal

Waterbay on the north-east coast in 1802. From Hong Kong the plant

was reported in 1853 and 1856, and was used by natives as a drug for

consumption. The earliest record of this plant from Malay Peninsula |

1 Experimental work was done at the Department of Botany, Banares Hindu

University, Varanasi,

DISTRIBUTION OF SCOPARIA DULCIS L. 223

is 1884. The Malayans call it ‘ TeMacao’ (Macao Tea), implying that

it came from China (Ridley 1930).

Ridley (1930) visualises two secondary centres of dispersal of this

plant. Scoparia dulcis first migrated from West Indies to Africa in the 18th

century ; then the Jesuits, either accidentally, or in cattle fodder or as

a drug, carried it from South America to the Philippines and from there

through cattle to Malay Archipelago and Malay Peninsula and to China.

The cause of its absence in India in the earlier part of the 19th century

may be due to the fact that there was no cattle trade from either Africa

or Malaya to this country.

S. dulcis was reported in India in 1845 by Voigt at Serampore (Fischer

1921), though Fischer (1932) himself in the list of the specimens at Kew

Herbarium observes that Thompson collected the plant in July, 1843,

at Moradabad in the United Provinces (now Uttar Pradesh).

Fischer (192la) remarked : ‘apparently this little plant has spread

from Serampore since 1845. It has extended throughout the peninsula

in suitable localities ; have met with it in Ganjam, Coimbatore and

Malabar. It is increasing in the localities occupied in abundance and it

may well become a pest. Itis an introduced species that has run wild

in the moist western deciduous forest only’. Fischer in 1925 reported

the plant on Lushai Hills.

Hooker (1885) observes: ‘though now a super-abundant Bengal

plant according to Mr. Clarke, it was unknown in Roxburgh’s time and

occurs in no Indian herbarium except Clarke’s. Voigt mentions it

(1845) as found about Serampore, whence probably it has spread quite

recently ’.

Blatter & Hallberg (1918) noted the great rapidity with which this

tropical American plant has spread over large areas of India. They also

mention that * Dalzell and Gibson in their BOMBAY FLORA (1861) do not

mention the plant’. In 1918 the plant was to be found all over Bombay

Island.

It is called a Bengal plant, perhaps because of its dispersal from

Bengal. Whatever may be the exact date and place of its first report,

it is certain that this plant had come to India by the middle of the

nineteenth century.

In the later part of the nineteenth and the early part of the twentieth

century the plant became abundant ; in less than fifty years the plant

spread to nearly all the provinces of India. Cooke (1903-1906) says that

‘this weed, a native of tropical America, is becoming naturalised in many

parts of India, notably in |Bengal.’ . Woodrow (1897) reports having

found it in a salt swamp near Bombay. Duthie (1903-1920) writes :

~‘ often met with as a-weed of cultivated ground, more specially in the

Sub-Himalayan tracts of Rohilkhand and North Oudh’.

Kirtikar & Basu (1918) do not mention the plant in their INDIAN

224 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL GIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

MEDICINAL PLANTS (1918 edition), but the 1935 edition says : ‘In India

it is used in infusion in ague. In Guiana every part of the plant is used

as anemetic. Asa gargle the plant is used as a cure for toothache. A

decoction of the root is given in blennorrhagia and in excessive menstru-

ation. The root is considered astringent, mucilaginous. The Antnanka

of Madagascar use an infusion of the leaves in stomach troubles. In

Guinea, it is considered diuretic and is a popular remedy for children.

On the Gold Coast, the twigs are pounded and mixed with Guinea grain

or hire (a white clay) and with water, the liquor being drunk to cure sore

throat.’ Nath & Banerjee (1948) extracted ‘ antimellitus principle ’ from

fresh Scoparia dulcis plants and have used with success the decoction of

the plant for the cure of diabetes.

It is interesting to observe that this plant came to India in the middle

of the nineteenth century, and within about fifty years has become a weed

throughout India. What special characteristics the plant possesses that

it has become so abundant ?

With a view to examine the potentialities of the plant with regard to

its reproductive capacity both sexual and vegetative the following

experiments were conducted.

Field observations:

Number of fruits per plant, number of seeds per capsule and weight

per seed were recorded from plants of Scoparia dulcis collected from

different localities in Varanasi. The data have been given in the Table.

TABLE

Number of .

Weight of each

Capsules per :

plant Seeds per capsule seed in mg.

418 aT 4:2

590 203 1°5

507 221 4°5

471 280 cS

339 200 5°0

370 230 32

Average 449 235 3:3

Seed output=449 x 235= 105515

100 seeds were put between moist filter papers on 12th February-

1964, and after 6 days 95 seeds had germinated. Thus the percentage

germination was 95%.

DISTRIBUTION OF SCOPARIA DULCIS L. 225

The reproductive capacity (Salisbury 1942) may be indicated as

Seed output x percentage germination.

100

Accordingly the reproductive capacity of Scoparia dulcis

= W023 <2 = 10023925 or 100239.

The seedlings were seen in nature in the month of July and August;

plants attain their normal size within two or three months. After flowering

and fruiting the capsules dehisce and the seeds are dispersed by wind.

In nature very small plants also bear fruits and these plants were

found to have sprouted from underground parts perennating under the

soil. The vegetative propagation of S. dulcis takes place by sprouting of

axillary buds ; one single piece of underground stem may give rise to one

or more aerial shoots.

The plant is equipped with very efficient method of dispersal and high

reproductive capacity. This sexual method of propagation is supple-

mented with perennation and regeneration of vegetative parts under the

soil which also gives rise to adult fruiting plants.

DISCUSSION

Salisbury (1942) has shown that Linaria vulgaris Mill., a member of

Scrophulariaceae possesses the capacity of reproduction by seeds and

regeneration by vegetative means. Heis of the opinion that though the

viability of the seeds is low, yet its local abundance is due to prolific means

of vegetative multiplication by adventitious shoots from the roots. The

latter fact has been confirmed in the same plant by Bakshi & Coupland

(1960). Shah (1966) has shown in the case of Bacopa monnieri that seeds

are not the effective means of reproduction but the regeneration of a

single node or a single leaf with an axillary bud has facilitated the plant

for migration from coastal sea shores to inland fresh water. Thus

Scoparia dulcis possesses both efficient migratory mechanism with high

viability of seeds supplemented by regeneration by vegetative means ;

these may be the causes of the widespread distribution of the plant in

India within a short period of time.

SUMMARY

Scoparia dulcis Linn., a member of the family Scrophulariaceae,

is distributed throughout the tropical regions of both the hemispheres.

A historical sketch of its distribution has been attempted. The plant

was first reported in the middle of the nineteenth century in India and

226 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

within fifty years it has become a common weed. The widespread distri-

bution and local abundance of S. dulcis can be explained by the efficient

migratory mechanism, high reproductive capacity and prolific method

of regeneration by vegetative means. |

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author acknowledges with grateful thanks the valuable guidance

and help of Prof. R. Mishra, F.N.1., Head of the Department of Botany,

Banares Hindu University, Varanasi. The facilities provided by Rev.

Father H. Santapau, Director, Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta,

to see the herbarium sheets at the National Herbarium, Calcutta, is

acknowledged with thanks.

REFERENCES

BAKSHI, T. S. & COUPLAND, N. T. KIRTIKAR, K.R. & BAsu, B.D. (1918) :

(1960) : Vegetative propagation in Linaria

vulgaris. Canadian J. Bot. 38 : 243-249.

BLATTER, E. S. J. & HALLBERG, F.

(1918) : New Indian Scrophulariaceae and

some notes on the same order. J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 25 : 426-427.

CHATTERJEE, D. & BHARADWAJ, R. C.

(1955): Revision of Scrophulariaceae

of the Upper Gangetic plain and adjoin-

ing areas. Excerpt from the Bulletin

of the Bot. Soc. Bengal 9 (2): 127-153.

CookE, T. The flora of the Presidency

of Bombay. Reprinted by Bot. Sur.

Ind., Calcutta. 1958. IT.

DuruHiE, J. F. Flora of Upper Gan-

getic Plain and adjacent Siwalik and

Sub-Himalayan tracts, Vols. I-III. Re-

printed by Bot. Sur. Ind., Calcutta.

FISCHER, C. E. C. (1921): Scoparia

dulcis Linn. J. Indian Botany 2: 57.

———— (1921): Flora of the Anai-

malais. Rec. Bot. Sur. India. 9(1): 127.

———— (1925): Flora of Lushai

Hills. ibid. 10 (2): 116.

———— (1932): Scoparia dulcis Linn.

J. Indian Bot. Soc. 11 : 348.

Harnes, H. H. (1921-1925) : Botany of

Bihar and Orissa. London.

Hooker, J. D. (1872-1897): The Flora

of British India, Ashford, Kent.

Indian Medicinal Plants, Allahabad. .

———— (1935): Indian Medicinal

Plants (2nd. Ed.), Allahabad.

NatTH, M.C. & BANERJEE, S.R. (1943) :

New antidiabetic principle (amellin)

occurring in nature. I. Biochemical pro-

perties. II. Effect on Glycosuria and

Hyperglycemia in cases of human dia-

betes. Ann. Biochem. Exp. Med. 3: 2.

62, 63-84.

PENNEL, F. W. (1935): The Scie:

phulariaceae of Eastern North temperate

America. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia

Monograph 1: 108.

(1943): The Scrophularia-

ceae of the Western Himalayas. ibid.

5: 1-1963.

RIpLey, H. N. (1930): The dispersal

of Plants throughout the World.

SHAH, J. D. (1966): Studies on the

growth and development of Bacopa

monnieri (L.) Penn.—a medicinal herb.

Thesis accepted for Ph.D. degree, Banares

Hindu University, Varanasi.

SALISBURY, E. J. (1942) : The Repro-

ductive Capacity of Plants. London.

Wooprow, G. M. (1897): Plants ofa

Bombay Swamp. J. Bombay. nat. Hist.

Soc. 11: 88-94.

The Tiger in India: An enquiry—

1968-69

J. C. DANIEL

Curator, Bombay Natural History Society

The status of the tiger in India is a cause for anxiety to conservatio-

nists. Though definite data are not available that the population has

gone down in numbers, the progressive deforestation of most of the tiger

habitats and available information of uncontrolled and unethical shooting

and other methods of killing justify this anxiety. No information is

available on the status of the species in the various states of the Union.

Estimates of the total population based on conjecture, for example the

estimate of 4000 tigers made by the late Mr. E. P. Gee, are undesirable

as they are likely to be interpreted as the actual position. The tiger has

adapted itself to live in all but the extreme life zones in the country and

the population in the various zones would vary according to the environ-

mental conditions ; knowledge of the situation in one or two life zones

cannot be used as a basis for estimating the position in other areas and

such statements on the tiger population become meaningless. _

A census is very necessary but beyond the capacity of a single indi-

vidual to undertake considering the vastness of the tiger habitat in the

country. However, it was felt, that information on the position of the

tiger in the various states could be immediately obtained through a

questionnaire circulated among the field staff of the Forest Departments

at the level of foresters, who.are the most likely to see tigers or their tracks.

The Chief Conservators of Forests of the various states were approached

and those of the States of Maharashtra, Gujarat, Mysore, Andhra

Pradesh, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Assam, Madras, and W. Bengal

very kindly agreed to circulate among their field staff, a questionnaire

seeking information on the tiger/tigers in their range or beat and whether

their information is based on sighting or tracks, whether resident or Visi-

tors, if visitor cause for migration, and information on when a tiger was

last seen and when a tiger was last shot in the area. Completed question-

naires covering either the whole or part of the States of Maharashtra,

Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal and Assam

were received and the data obtained are discussed below :

228 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

Maharashtra

Out of the 26 Civil districts in Maharashtra completed questionnaires

were received from 12 districts only covering 18 forest divisions (Table 1).

Tigers probably occur in the Ghat areas of Kolhapur, Satara, and Poona

districts and in the 4 Vidarbha districts of Buldana, Amaravati, Nagpur,

and Yeotmal. How far the data obtained represent the true pcsition is

discussed in the concluding part of this note. Where it was once well

known the tiger has now become almost extinct or has disappeared.

TABLE |

POPULATION ESTIMATES OF TIGERS IN FOREST DIVISIONS OF -MAHARASHTRA

Number of

Civil District Forest Division tigers

reported

Ratnagiri Sawantwadi 5

Kolaba Kolaba 15

Thana Thana 6

Nasik East Nasik 1

West Nasik 13

Dhulia North Dhulia 4

West Dhulia 0

Jalgaon East Khandesh 4

Yawal 4

Aurangabad Aurangabad 0

Nanded Nanded i

Akola Akola 9

Wardha _ Wardha .9

Chandrapur East Chanda 32

Bhamragad 33

West Chanda TS

South Chanda 8

Bhandara Gondia 17

Total 267

Madhya Pradesh .

The information obtained is not complete coming from only 5 out of

43 Civil districts and covering six forest divisions (Table 2). This is

unfortunate as Madhya Pradesh still has some of the best tiger habitats in

the country and a report covering the whole state is essential for precise

estimates of the total population.

THE TIGER IN INDIA; AN ENQUIRY

Not

TABLE 2

POPULATION ESTIMATES OF TIGERS IN FOREST DIVISIONS IN MADHYA PRADESH

Number of

Civil District Forest Division tigers

reported

Betul West Betul 14

Raigarh Jashpur 9

Sehore West Bhopal 17

Mandla North Mandla 3

South Mandla Whew

Seoni South Seoni 18

Total 139

Rajasthan

The reports from five forest divisions of Rajasthan cover five out of

the 26 Civil districts and represent probably all the available tiger habitat

in the State (Table 3). The tigers of Rajasthan represent the western

limits of the population in the Gangetic Plain at the present time.

TABLE 3

POPULATION ESTIMATES OF TIGERS IN FOREST DIVISIONS IN RAJASTHAN

Number of

Civil District Forest Division tigers

reported

Ajmer Ajmer 0

Bharatpur Bharatpur 4

Jhalawar Jhalawar 3

Bundi Bundi 6

Tonk Sawaimadhopur 7,

totale 20

Uttar Pradesh

The reports received cover 16 out of the 54 Civil districts and 31

forest divisions and appear to represent almost all areas in the State

holding the tiger (Table 4). It is noteworthy that the tiger is restricted to

the districts bordering the Himalayas and districts in the south and east

230 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

bordering tiger habitats in Madhya Pradesh and Bihar. The districts

adjoining Nepal appear to have the largest population.

TABLE 4

POPULATION ESTIMATES OF TIGERS IN FOREST DIVISIONS IN UTTAR PRADESH

Fstge. Number of

Civil District Forest Division tigers

reported

Varanasi Varanasi 10

Jhansi Bundelkhand- 2

Banda 6

Lakhimpur Kheri North Kheri a2

South Kheri 39

Pilibhit Pilibhit 50

Gorakhpur Gorakhpur 15

Gonda North Gonda 74

South Gonda 0

Bahraich Bahraich 28

Garhwal Landsdowne 23

Kalagarh 18

Corbett Nat. Park 50

Bijnor Landsdowne if.

Bijnor Plantation 5)

Jaspur (W) 6

Pauri Garhwal Landsdowne 6

Kalagarh 4

Nainital Ramnagar 39

_ Tarai & Bhabar 16

Haldwani 20

Pilibhit 8

Rampur Rohilkhand 3

Dehradun Dehradun (East) 12

Dehradun (West) 10

Sahranpur Siwalik 13

Allahabad Allahabad 0

Mirzapur North Mirzapur 4

Varanasi 2

Dudhi 4

Son 2,

Total:..528

West Bengal

The three civil districts of North Bengal appear to hold the majority

of the tigers in West Bengal (Table 5). There are eps a few in the

Midnapur and 24-Parganas districts. -

THE TIGER IN INDIA: AN ENQUIRY 231

TABLE 5

POPULATION ESTIMATES OF TIGERS IN FOREST DIVISIONS IN WEST BENGAL

Ate Number of

Civil District. Forest Division Tigers

reported

Jalpaiguri Cooch Behar 17

Jalpaiguri 1

Darjeeling Kalimpong 12

Cooch Behar Cooch Behar 23

Total 53

Assam

The reports from the 18 forest divisions of 10 civil districts cover all

the major tiger habitats in the State (Table 6). Districts on the north

bank of the Brahmaputra appear to hold the majority of tigers.

TABLE 6

POPULATION ESTIMATES OF TIGERS IN FOREST DIVISIONS IN ASSAM

Number of

Civil District Forest Division Tigers

reported

Mizo Hills Mizo Hills iy!

Kamrup : Wild Life 6

South Kamrup 15

Sibsagar Kaziranga © 30

_ Sibsagar 170

Garo Hills Garo Hills 1

Darrang Darrang 158

North Kamrup 52

Goalpara North Kamrup 5

Goalpara West 0

Kachugaon 3

Goalpara East 5

Hathigaon 5

Cachar Cachar 1

United Khasi and United Khasi and

Jaintia’ Hills Jaintia’ Hills 5

Lakhimpur District Dibrugarh 19

Digboi 42

Nowgong Nowgong 15

Total 516

232 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

Other States

Some isolated responses were received from other states. In

Himachal Pradesh, the Nahan Forest Division of Sirmur District reports

a tiger (Table 7). This is apparently the limit of the western distribution |

of the species in India.

The Secretary of the High Range Game Associations (Kerala) lists

4 tigers as occurring in the Kanan Devan Tea Concession area of the

Anaimalai Hills. A member of the Society in Adilabad District, Andhra -

Pradesh, feels that there are perhaps 12 tigers in the Nirmal Forest

Division of the district.

TABLE 7

POPULATION ESTIMATES OF TIGERS IN FOREST DIVISIONS IN OTHER STATES

Number of

States Civil District Forest Division - tigers

Aoi sry moteomieiGi: o-ohiet poate PHA reported

HIMACHAL PRADESH Sirmur Nahan : 3 1

KERALA Anaimalai 4

ANDHRA PRADESH Adilabad Nirmal 12

Totals: 417

TABLE 8

TOTAL POPULATION ON THE BASIS OF THE QUESTIONNAIRE

Maharashtra 267

Madhya Pradesh 139

Rajasthan 20

Uttar Pradesh 528

West Bengal 53

Assam 516

Himachal Pradesh, Kerala and Andhra

Pradesh 17

Total 1540

DISCUSSION

The main difficulty in assessing the data obtained through the question-

naire is that unless the person evaluating the information has personal

knowledge of the areas covered by the reports it is impossible to have an

accurate assessment. For instance, in a Forest having four beats one

tiger may be reported by each of the four beat officers and it would be

THE TIGER IN INDIA: AN ENQUIRY 233

impossible without personal knowledge to determine whether one or

more than one tigeris involved. However, the study of the reports shows

that in the majority of cases the officials concerned have reported con-

servatively and avoided exaggeration. It is difficult to accept the large

numbers reported from one area on the basis of tracks, as it is extremely

unlikely that the person reporting has the knowledge to separate tracks

with that amount of accuracy. I am also unable to accept the figures of

30 tigers for Kaziranga and 50 for Corbett National Park. Similarly,

-I view with considerable scepticism the estimate from the Western range

of Darrang Division, Assam, which reports 100 tigers, all non-resident

visitors ! The estimates for Darrang and Sibsagar districts require very

cautious interpretation. The majority of the replies received speak of

visits during particular months of the year and reports of resident tigers

are few. 2

This note was circulated in draft form among persons with experience

of conditions in various parts of Maharashtra State. Opinions expressed

suggest that it is very unlikely that 15 tigers occur in Kolaba District

and possibly leopards are meant. It was also suggested that resident

} tigers are unlikely in the districts of Thana, Kolaba, Nasik, Ahmednagar,

Poona, Satara and Kolhapur. According to Mr. G. V. Bedekar of the

Society’s Executive Committee a census on 1961-62 showed a total of

467 tigers in the State. It is quite likely that the data obtained from the

various states may need considerable revision when examined by

knowledgeable persons in those states.

In view of the difficulties in assessing the data the information

obtained can only be considered as giving a clue to the total population

of the tiger in India. The number of tigers in the States of Maharashtra,

Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal and Assam

totals 1523 in the areas covered by the completed questionnaires ; the

excess listed is perhaps countered by the animals existing in areas from

which information was not obtained. Tigers do not occur in Punjab,

Haryana and Kashmir and even if half the number for the six states for

which data are available, are added to the total to cover tigers in the States

of Gujarat, Mysore, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa,

N.E.F.A., Nagaland, and Manipur, the total still remains below 2500.

This is by no means a conservative figure.

The tiger should be considered a species in danger of extinction and

should be protected against both shooting and the poisoning of its kills

with zinc phosphide, endrin, folidol, and other insecticides, which along

with deforestation were given in the completed questionnaires as the

main reasons for their decline. The trend is for the population of tigers

in different parts of the country to become isolated. Shooting of tigers

is banned in some states but without a ban on the shooting of its food

234 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

spécies, the tiger will come into conflict with human interests and will be

exterminated. :

It is essential that serious efforts be made to obtain precise infor-

mation on the tiger. All forest officials of the cadre of foresters and

rangers in the tiger habitat should be asked to maintain a diary of sight-

ing records in their area and the information so-obtained should be

evaluated every three months by a senior official of the State Forest

Department and independently by a very senior forest official of the all

India cadre who should be enabled to visit all tiger habitats in the country

to evaluate reports and form his own estimates.

The Thalassinoidea (Crustacea,

Anomura) of Maharashtra

K. N. SANKOLLI,?

Marine Biological Research Station, Ratnagiri

(With four text-figures)

Though Thalassinoidea to which mud-lobsters or ghost-shrimps

belong, has been accepted as a distinct superfamily of Decapod crustacea,

there have been contradictory opinions regarding its taxonomic status.

Alcock & Anderson (1894), de Man (1925 and 1928) and Holthuis

(1956) have included it in Macrura, while Borradaile (1907), Calman

(1909), Balss (1927 and 1957) and Barnard (1950) are of the opinion that

it belongs to Anomura. Gurney (1938) working on the larvae of Thalas-

sinoidea and Nephropsidea, suggests separation of Thalassinoidea into

two groups, a Homarine and an Anomuran. In the present study,

however, the changes effected by Calman (op. cit) have been followed in

the inclusion of Thalassinoidea in Anomura.

In India, studies on Thalassinoidea have been mainly maeeeten

with reference to the deep sea forms (Miers 1884; Henderson 1893 ;

de Man 1887-88; Alcock & Anderson 1894; Anderson 1896 ; Alcock

1901 ; Borradaile 1907 and Kemp 1915). Comparatively much less work

has been done on the coastal forms : on the east coast, Southwell (1906)

deals with Thalassinids from Ceylon ; Gravely (1927) while working on

the fauna of Krusadai Island, deals with 1 species of Callianassidae

which he refers to subgenus Calliadne (=Gebiopsis) ; Chopra (1933)

discusses the taxonomic position of Entrichocheles modestus in the family

Axiidae. On the west coast, Pillai (1954) deals with Callianassa maxima

in brief and Sankolli (1963) deals with the occurrence and natural history

aspect of Thalassina anomala. Thus practically no work has been done

on the intertidal forms along the west coast and more especially along

the Maharashtra coast.

In Maharashtra, the superfamily Thalassinoidea is represented by 4

species belonging to 3 families, collected from intertidal areas. Of these

one species, Laomedia astacina de Haan is a new record to India and two

1 Present Address :—-Marine Zoology & Fisheries Div., Dept. of Zoology, Kar-

natak University, Dharwar-3, Mysore State.

236 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

species, Callianassa (Callichirus) kewalramanii and Upogebia (Upogebia)

kempi are new to science.

SS — 2 ne ly ee eee PY Datla Site a Ne

Identification of the present material is mainly Me on de Man

(1888, 1927, 1928a & b).

KEY TO THE FAMILIES OF THALASSINOIDEA

I. No linea thalassinica; both movable and fixed antennal thorns present

though sometimes minute ; abdominal pleura large.............. Axiidae

II. Linea thalassinica present (except in Callianidea) ; fixed antennal thorn want-

ing, scale (movable thorn) reduced to a flattened vestige or wanting ; abdo-

minal pleura usually small.

1. Sutures on both the rami of uropods ; abdominal pleura of good size..

ge 8 we eli p's Entice MSs Seek Oar Ce Uti, aoe a cr a ks Se a Laomediidae

2. No:sutures on uropods ; abdominal pleura small.

(a) Second leg chelate or simple ; no podobranchs on legs; third to

sixth abdominal Meo broad ; antennal scale present as a

vestige.”. Gur ae ee epi aise Callianassidae

(b) Second leg sub-chelate ; podobranchs on first to third legs; all

abdominal appendages narrow ; no vestige of antennal scale..

Fd oval d fy RIROE Lal ee GAR ale atch es EES Ge eee Thalassinidae

Family LAOMEDIIDAE

Remarks: This family contains 2 genera and in Maharashtra, it is

represented by a single genus Laomedia.

Genus Laomedia de Haan

1. Laomedia astacina de Haan (Figs. 1-2).

Laomedia astacina, de Haan, 1849, p. 165; Ortmann, 1892, p. 51; Borradaile,

1903, p. 540 ; Kamita, 1957, pp. 105-106 ; Sakai, 1962, pp. 27-34.

Carapace (Fig. 1, a): Rostrum fairly long reaching nearly to the

middle of the penultimate joint of the antennal peduncle ; provided

with 3 minute teeth on either lateral margin near the tip. Length

more or less equal to breadth at base. Antennal angles fairly well-

developed. No tubercles or hairs on carapace except for short hairs

on the antennal and maxillary margins. Cervical groove distinct,

dividing the carapace into two equal parts, the anterior and the

posterior.

Linea thalassinica is rather well-developed. The eyes reach slightly

more than 3 the length of the rostrum.

tdi sieve

THALASSINOIDEA OF MAHARASHTRA ae

tt see

Fig. 1. Laomedia astacina de Haan. a—anterior part of animal (legs etc. not shown),

b—antenna, c—mandible, d—first maxilla, e—second maxilla, f—first maxilliped,

-&—second maxilliped.

238 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

Antennule (Fig. 1, a): The basal segment falls short of reaching the

rostrum. The penultimate joint is almost half the length of the ultimate

joint.

Antenna (Fig. 1,b): The antenna consists of 5 segments and a flagel-

lum. The peduncle extends slightly beyond the antennular peduncle,

whereas in the Japanese specimens, it extends well beyond the antennular

peduncle as figured by Sakai (1962). The coxopodite shows the opening

of the antennal gland. The 2nd segment is divided into two parts and

these two parts are clearly seen in the outer-lateral view of the peduncle.

The inner part distally bears the scale which is triangularly oval and the

outer part bears the antennal thorn which is not that well-developed as

the scale or scaphocerite. The 3rd segment which is hardly seen in the

dorsal view, is situated latero-ventrally. The 4th segment is slightly

longer than the last segment. The antennal peduncle is stouter than the

antennular peduncle.

Mandible (Fig. 1,c): The cutting edge of the ventral plate is provided

with 9 unequal teeth and that of dorsal has 3 teeth. The palpis 3-jointed.

First maxilla (Fig. 1, d): The lower endite is broad and more or less

rounded, the upper endite is almost as broad as the lower and the palp is

well-developed with its tip deflexed.

Second maxilla (Fig. 1, e): Both its endites are bilobed, the

upper lobe of the lower endite being verysmall. The palpis long, narrow

and does not reach the inner margin of the upper lobe of the upper endite.

The scaphognathite is large with a convexity near the distal half on the

outer margin. The posterior end bears about 11 very large setae which

are minutely spinulose distally except at the tip portion where it is naked.

There are several bent hook-like projections present on the inner margin

and. a few such projections are also present on the anterior portion of the

inner margin.

First maxilliped (Fig. 1, f): The endites are separated by a distinct

notch, the palp is well-developed and has a broad, roughly triangular

lobe at its distal end. The exopod is well-developed and has a flagellum

whichis almost as long as the non-flagellated portion and is sub-divided

into several joints.

Second maxilliped (Fig. 1, g): It is normal in shape, with. well-

developed endopod and exopod. A small, elongated epipod and a single _ |

podobranch are present.

Third maxilliped: The dactylus is longer than the propodus and the

propodus in turn is slightly longer than the carpus. The merus is longer

THALASSINOIDEA OF MAHARASHTRA 209

than the dactylus and the ischium is longer than the merus and is provided

with about 12 teeth onits inner margin. The exopod almost reaches the

middle of the merus and is segmented in the distal part.

Pereiopods: The first pair of legs is equalin size and shape and much

stouter than the second pair.

Cheliped (Fig. 2,a): The ischium is short (as long as the fixed finger)

and bears about 18 or more minute and fine teeth almost all along the

posterior margin. The merus is shorter than the propodus and its

anterior marginis plain. The posterior margin is provided almost along

the proximal half with several minute and fine teeth of which the proximal]

ones are more prominent than the remaining ones. The carpus is about

~ 4 the length of the merus and its inner upper surface is armed in its distal

half with small rounded tubercles, of which the distal ones are more

prominent. The propodus is longer than broad and is about 1.3 times

the length of the merus. The fixed finger is almost as long the ischium

and its cutting edge is provided with several minute teeth of which the

proximal 3rd to 7th are larger. The dactylus is more than 4 the length

of the propodus and its upper surface is traversed by a thin, longitudinal

ridge, which begins near its articulation with propodus, runs a short

distance obliquely outwards and then joins the anterior margin. The

cutting edge is armed with 2 blunt, tooth-like processes at the proximal

portion and then onwards there are several minute teeth more or less

uniformly arranged. In the Japanese specimens (Sakai 1962), none of

the segments bear tubercles or spines.

Fingers cross each other.

Second leg (Fig. 2, b): It is simple, non-chelate. The dactylus is

narrow and less than 4 the length of the merus. The propodus measures

about 14 the length of the dactylus and the carpus is nearly 4the length

ofthe merus. None of the segments bear any spine or tubercle.

Third leg (Fig. 2,c): The dactylus is slender, though slightly broad

near the base. Miunute, elongated tooth-like spines are arranged com-

pactly along its posterior margin on the dorsal surface. The propodus is

broader than the dactylus and is about twice the length of the latter.

The carpus is nearly 2 the length of the propodus and the merus is

nearly as long as the dactylus and propodus combined.

Fourth leg (Fig.2,d): Itis very similar to the third leg. The dacty-

‘lus is twice the length of the propodus and the carpus is slightly more

than $ the length of the propodus. The merus is nearly 3 times the length

of the dactylus, |

240 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

Fifth leg: The dactylus is absent. The propodus is nearly as |

long as the merus and the carpus is almost 3 the length of the merus. a

e f \

Fig. 2. Laomedia astacina de Haan, a—first leg, b—second leg, c—third leg,

d—fourth leg, e—first pleopod, (telson with uropods.

Abdomen: It is normal in shape and is about 14 times the length of

the carapace. The pleura are well-developed. The first segment is the

smallest, the 6th is more than 11 times the Ist, and the 2nd to the 6th

are more or less equal in size, but the Ist and the 6th are slightly narrower,

ee Tn

THALASSiINOIDEA OF MAHARASHTRA | 241

Pleopods (Fig. 2,e): The Ist abdominal segment does not bear

pleopod and there are 4 pairs of pleopods present on the 2nd to Sth

segments. Each pleopod consists of a long and stout basal stalk and

sabre-like, membranous endopod and exopod. The endopod and exo-

pod are more or less of the same size and shape and are slightly larger

than the basal stalk.

Uropods and Telson (Fig. 2, f): The protopod of the uropod bears

3-4 microscopic blunt teeth on its posterior margin facing the endopod.

The exopod and endopod are quite similar in shape—roughly oval,

though endopod is slightly smaller than the exopod. The anterior

- margin of either ramus is convex and terminates distally in a distinct

notch from where the convex distal margin begins. From this lateral

notch starts a very thin, wavy horizontal ridge which bears several minute

but prominent teeth and extends almost beyond the ? area of the ramus.

The exopod bears on the lateral notch 3 minute teeth of which the one

near the junction of the distal and anterior margins is larger than the

remaining two. There are 14-16 such teeth on the horizontal ridge of the

exopod. Inthe endopod there are two minute teeth on the lateral notch

and about 10 teeth on the horizontal ridge. No mid-longitudinal suture

was observed.

Telson (Fig. 2,f): Itis longer than broad with its lateral and posterior

_ margins convex, the posterior margin being more convex than the lateral.

There is on either side a shallow notch at the junction of the posterior and

lateral margins. There are no teeth, tubercles, spines or carinae on the

telson.

MATERIAL

A single specimen (male) was collected at the edge of Karla creek

(Ratnagiri) while digging for Thalassina anomala (Herbst).

ines

Length of carapace=8'00 mm. , a

Length of abdomen=13°5 mm. Total length=21.5 mm.

Variation :

The Japanese specimens as described by Sakai (1962) differ from the

single Ratnagiri specimen in the following :

— Rostrum has 5 lateral teeth ; all the joints of the chelipeds are smocth

with no tubercles or teeth ; in the abdomen, the 6th segment is more than

3 times the Ist segment, the 2nd and 3rd are larger than the 6th, and the

4th and 5th are more or less of the same size ; no lateral notch on the rami

of the uropods, protopodite without tubercles, a mid-longitudinal suture

on the rami ; no lateral notch on the telson.

242 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

DISTRIBUTION : Tokyo Bay; Rukuoka, Amakusa; Kagoshima; —

Iriomote-jima, Ryukyu ; Schuan, Korea.

This species is recorded for the first time from India.

Family THALASSINIDAE Dana

The family is monotypic.

Genus Thalassina Latreille

2. Thalassina anomala (Herbst) (Figs. 3-4).

Cancer (Astacus) anomalus Herbst, 1804, p. 45 ; Thalassina anomala de Man,

1915, p. 445 ; 1928 b, p. 5; Sankolli 1963, p. 600.

Carapace: As observed by de Man (1928 b), there are considerable

variations in the armature of the carapace, chelipeds and the anterior

margin of the sterna of the second to fifth abdominal segments of

T. anomala. He has given fairly substantial account of these variations —

in the 22 specimens of the species, examined by him. However, whether

these variations occur due to sex, size, season or locality have not been

ascertained. As such studies from this viewpoint were extended to 70

specimens collected by me over a period of 44 years. Though recorded,

it is considered superfluous to include here an elaborate description of

all the characters much less specimenwise in all the 70 specimens

examined by me. However, an account of the range of variations in

each of the characters is furnished as under :

The rostrum is triangular, with a slight median furrow and extends to

the distal end of the last but one segment of the antennular peduncle. Its

lateral.margin is dentate. The teeth are small, broad and their number

varies from minimum of 8-9 and maximum of 14-20 on either side in

males, and from 3-6 to 17-19 in females.

The eyes are small and the cornea is generally antero-laterally placed

and not dilated, but in a few cases, it is anteriorly situated. |

The gastric region is practically smooth except for a few punctae

situated anteriorly and several rugae-like irregular depressions posteriorly

on the sides (Fig. 3a & b).

The cervical groove is deep and armed with 2-12 spine-like tubercles.

_ The cardiac region which extends from Ist cervical groove to the

4th transverse furrow in front of the posterior spine, is divided into

anterior and posterior (P.C.R.) portions by the 3rd transverse furrow

or the 2nd cervical groove. |

The anterior cardiac region, in turn, is further divided into anterior

(A.A.C.R.=A,+A,) and posterior (P.A.C.R.) portions by the 2nd

transverse furrow. The anterior portion of the anterior cardiac region is

THALASSINOIDEA OF MAHARASHTRA 243

again divided into two halves (A, and A,) by the Ist transverse furrow.

The A, region is armed with 1-2 spines on either side and a few punctae.

Generally the Ist transverse furrow is distinctly visible. In two males,

however, the furrow was very indistinct and A, region was provided with

5 spines. The A, region is also armed with spines which vary from 0-4

on either side, though 2 seems to be the common number. The 2nd

—antecardiac regne,

II Cegre « Ist ‘Cer groove (C gre)

IV Tr. fr PeCeoRo

Linea thalassini ca

(Lethe)

Posterior Bent of l.the

§ pine (P.5.)

A AeC RS Gastric regne

Oblique ridge

of posterior

spine —

(Obere)

Line 'q!?

PS.

Oblique ridge

of PeSe

Thalassina anomala (Herbst) (Diagrammatic)

Fig. 3. a. Dorso-lateral view of anterior part of body, b. Dorsal view of anterior

part of body.

transverse furrow is generally-indistinct. A.P. (=P.A.C.R.), i.e. the

posterior portion of the anterior cardiac region, is provided with 0-10

small spines, except in a male, 124 mm. long, which had 14 such spines.

The posterior cardiac region (P.C.R.), presents a lot of variations in

its armature. There are 0-9 spines which are blunt to sharp and some

-punctae or irregular depressions. It is very rarely smooth.

244 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

The posterior spine (P.S.) region shows 0-4 tubercles which are blunt

to sharp with irregular depressions.

The oblique ridge on either side of the posterior spine is armed with

3-4 sharp, erect spines, with their tips bent anteriorly.

The lower half of the branchial region (Br.r.) is studded with minute,

sharp tubercles and in the anterior half, the tubercles become more sharp

and prominent. The upper half between the J/inea thalassinica and the

oblique ridge (Ob.r.) is provided with sharp spines which are fairly larger

than those on the lower half. The remaining middle area of the branchial

region is almost smooth with minute punctae. The oblique ridge is

provided with 11-18 sharp, long spines.

The hepatic region is armed with granular but acute tubercles along

its anterior border and the remaining part of its surface is smooth.

The antennal margin, situated between the lines ‘b’ and ‘d’ bears

5-15 small spines to irregular tubercles and the region between these two

lines, is quite smooth.

The front between the rostrum and the line ‘b’ is armed with 2-6

acute spines of which the one nearest to the rostrum is generally much

larger than the remaining ones, though sometimes it is twice as large as

the others.

Chelipeds (Fig. 4, g): The chelipeds are equal, subequal and similar

or often unequal and dissimilar, the right or left being larger.

Dactylus: Its upper surface is smooth with a few punctae in the

middle ; the upper border is often minutely dentate. The upper inner

margin is armed almost to the tip with 24-28 compressed, small teeth,

decreasing in size distally. A row of minute granules is present on the

inner surface, more or less parallel to its cutting edge and a broken row

of 3-5 unequal, minute tubercles present on the proximal half near the

upper inner margin and is often armed with a large blunt tubercle at its

base. Between this row and the cutting edge, which is armed with 24-26

unequal teeth, the proximal 1-3 of which are larger, there are 2-3 unequal

but large, blunt tubercles proximally. The blunt tubercles are very large

in larger specimens.

Propodus: The outer surface is studded entirely with small granules

which are quite prominent in the lower half and near the carpal arti-

culation ; the surface is smooth near the articulation with the dactylus.

The upper inner margin is provided with 13-23 compressed teeth, which

decrease in size distally. The upper outer border is armed with about

30-48 sharp teeth which are often depressed and quite low in larger speci-

mens, and decrease in size distally. A row of 37-41 much depressed flat

tubercles is present on the mid-lateral surface; this row sometimes

as ies i

a ao A hae ig

5" ad qh ee, te whore? «ae 2

PAGE SD PENSE 6 BETAS

THALASSINOIDEA OF MAHARASHTRA 245

“q

Fig.4, Thalassina anomala (Herbst).-a—mandible, b—first maxilla, c—second

— maxilla, d—first maxilliped, e—second maxilliped, /—third maxilliped, g—cheli-

ped, A—second leg, i—third leg, j—fifth leg, kR—first pleopod of male, /—second

“pleopod of male. m—first pleopod of female, second pleopod of female,

246 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

practically fades away near the distal margin. The outer lower margin is

armed with 24-34 compressed teeth all along upto the base and not to the

tip of the fixed finger. The inner surface is covered with fairly large

conical tubercles in its lower proximal portion and with finely granulated

tubercles on the rest of the area, as on the outer surface. There are two

parallel rows, on the inner surface, of well-developed conical tubercles

running near and along the outer lower margin, these two rows finally

uniting into one near the distal + and continuing almost to the tip of the

fixed finger. There is generally, a semicircular row of 4-14 tubercles at

the base on the inner side of the fixed finger but in very few specimens

this row is absent. The outer surface of the fixed finger is practically

smooth in my material. The oblique row of 12-13 tubercles on the outer

surface of the fixed finger, as mentioned by de Man (1928b), is not present

in my specimens.

The fixed finger is + to 4 the length of the dactylus and its cutting

edge is armed with 11 low, flat teeth of which the proximal 1-3 are larger

in many specimens.

In males, the proportion of length to breadth of palm was 1°37: 1

and in females it was 1°56: 1.

Carpus : The upper inner border is armed with 6-12 teeth of which

the distal teeth are larger. The outer surface is almost smooth

except for granular tubercles in the distal portion along the outer lower

margin. There is, sometimes, a row of 2 small and 2-3 slightly larger

tubercle-like teeth on the upper half of the outer surface, almost parallel

to the upper inner margin. The inner surface, sometimes, has in the

middle 4-5 granular tubercles, otherwise it is generally smooth.

Merus: The upper margin has generally 14-18 acute, small teeth of

which the distal 3-4 are larger, though in a few specimens, the number of

teeth was 24. The outer lower margin is armed with 14-23 spines, 15-18

appears to be the common number ; the distal 3-8 are generally larger.

The mid-ventral line is fringed with long setae and armed with 3-9 unequal

spines, 3-6 being the common number. The inner lower margin is with

21-24 low, short teeth which decrease in size distally.

Ischium: Its mid-ventral surface is armed with 5-9 unequal spines

of which generally the distal 3-5 are thick and strongly developed. These

spines are edged on the outer side with long setae as in the merus.

Smaller cheliped: In all the specimens examined, it does not differ

much from the major cheliped except for the smaller size and the length of

the propodus which is 1°53 times its breadth.

Second leg (Fig. 4, h): It is subchelate. The propodus is highly

flattened with its lower distal portion forming the chelate structure with |

a = :

ee ee ae ee ee

THALASSINC:DEA OF MAHARASHTRA 247

the dactylus. The basi-ischial joint is armed with 6-11 unequal spines of

which the distal 1-2 are the largest. The upper margin of the merus is

provided with 5-8, unequal anteriorly bent sharp spines and its lower

border is smooth. This segment of the second leg is much broader

than the corresponding segment of the remaining legs.

Third leg (Fig. 4, 1): The merus bears on its anterior margin 3-17

unequal spines, 6-11 (6-9 common) on outer posterior margin, of these

the distal ones are larger than the rest. The inner posterior margin has

3-4 unequal tooth-like spines, the distal ones being larger. The basi-

ischial joint has 3-9 spine-like tubercles, though 2-3 is the common

number. The coxopodite is provided with 3-6 spine-like tubercles in the

mid anterior margin.

Fourth leg: The anterior margin of the merus is provided with 3-10

small spines ; the inner posterior with 7-12 unequal spines. The outer

posterior border bears 4-9 unequal spines. The basi-ischium is armed

with 2-7 unequal spines. The coxopodite has 3-9 spine-like tubercles

arranged along the mid-anterior portion, the number of tubercles rarely

reaching up to 12.

Fifth leg (Fig. 4, }): The merus has on its anterior margin 2-9 un-

equal spines or teeth and 2-8 very small teeth on its inner posterior margin.

Its outer posterior margin is provided with 2-7 small, unequal teeth.

_ The basi-ischium does not bear any spines or teeth. The coxopodite

bears 3-9 unequal spines on its posterior margin.

Abdomen: In length the 4th abdominal tergum is 1°40 times its

breadth. The lateral ridge of the second segment has 6-10 granular

tubercles which are often indistinct. The lateral ridge of the third seg-

ment is less developed and in the subsequent segments this ridge becomes

less and less prominent than that of the first segment and is provided with .

punctae. The pleural margin of the second to sixthabdominal segments

is generally distinctly tuberculate, though sometimes with rudimentary

tubercles.

The sternum of the second abdominal segment is provided at the

middle with a single prominent and rather sharp tubercle which is either

anteriorly or ventrally directed and the side tubercles are entirely absent.

The median tubercle of the third segment is somewhat blunt and the side

tubercles are generally absent but in one specimen (male, 124 mm.) a

single distinct tubercle was present on the left anterior margin. In the

fourth and fifth segments, the median tubercles though prominent, is

posteriorly directed and the side tubercles are absent, but in the specimen

mentioned above i.e. male, 124 mm., the fifth sternum has 2 distinct tuber-

Cles on either anterior margin. In the sixth segment, the median tubercle

248 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

is almost invariably absent, though in a male, 141 mm. there is a promi-

nent tubercle just on either side of the middle and also in a female,

120 mm., a single very small tubercle is present on the middle. The side

rubércles are usually absent but in a male, 150 mm., there is onetubercle —

present on either anterior margin and in another male, 138 mm., 2-3

minute indistinct tubercles are present on the right anterior margin only. —

Antennal scale: Itis generally absent but in a female (120 mm. long),

a triangular, well-developed, movable, entire antennal scale was present

on the right side only. The scale extended beyond the distal end of the

last but one segment of the antennal peduncle. On the left side, however,

the scale was found to be completely broken. Also ina male (145 mm. —

long), a partially broken scale was observed on the left side only, Whereas —

on the right side it was altogether broken. ;

de Man (1928b, p. 9) remarks regarding a young male (116 mm. foley

from the mouth of the river Barito, that the specimen presented, perhaps, —

on each antennal peduncle, a scaphocerite. But he could not observe —

it with certainty. Also regarding var. squamifera he expresses ‘.. .. it

must be left to the later researchers to examine whether characters of this

variety are indeed constant so that the possession of the scaphocerite ;

constantly coincides with the characters of the sternal ridges.’ Ofcourse, —

the knowledge of squamifera is based on 4 specimens only—1 male and 3 —

females. Hence, it is possible that the presence or absence of the antennal

scale may not be a reliable character in separating out the var. squamifera —

from the typical species T. anomala, as per above observations. |

MATERIAL :

About 70 specimens were collected from the following localities :

Karla and Mazgaon (Ratnagiri) ; Vengurla (Ratnagiri District) and

Versova (Bombay suburban). 4

The males ranged from 86 to 155 mm. ; non-ovigerous females from

95 to 143 mm. and ovigerous females from 150 to 160 mm.

[have seen colonies of mounds of 7. anomala in the mangrove

swamps off Karla, Mazgaon and Vengurla in Ratnagiri District and in |

Versova and Port Navha in the Bombay suburban area, The detailed —

observations on the ecology of this animal is dealt with elsewhere |

(Sankolli 1963).

Only once, a few (3) berried females were collected in the month of |

October 1963. Thereafter, I have not been able to collect berried |

females. 7

Remarks :

This study reveals that variations are individual rather than due _

to sex, size, season or locality. ;

THALASSINOIDEA OF MAHARASHTRA 249

Also, the presence or absence of antennal scale or scaphocerite appears

to be a variable character and probably it is not a reliable taxonomic

character.

DISTRIBUTION: Mergui Archipelago ; North Coast of Nias; Sumatra ;

Indonesia ; Singapore; East China‘ Sea; Philippines ; British New

Guinea ; New Guinea; North West Australia; New Britain; Fijj

Islands ; Samoa Islands.

(to be continued)

Pre-foliation in Scindapsus

officinalis Schott

: .T..- A. DAVIS.

Indian Statistical Institute, Calcutta-35

(With a text-figure)

INTRODUCTION

This brief paper deals with the way the lamina and the petiolar sheath

of the araceous ever-green climber, Scindapsus officinalis, are rolled in the

bud. The relationship of the ptyxis of one leaf to that of its immediate

neighbouring leaves has also been studied.

Scindapsus officinalis, a tropical Himalayan weak-stemmed shrub is

distributed from Sikkim eastwards along West and East Bengal, Burma

and the Andaman Islands.

Hooker (1894) described this species as having astem as thick as the

little finger. The leaves are green. The peduncle is solitary, terminal

and much shorter than the petiole. The spathe is about 4-6 inches long,

green outside and yellow within. The spadix is as long as the spathe,

greenish yellow and it elongates in fruit. The stigma is elongated but the

fruit is hemispheric. The few berries that ripen are fleshy. The seed is

ovate-cordate.

One of the varieties of Scindapsus officinalis, commonly known as

Money Plant, is a popular ornamental plant on account of its variegated — |

jeaves with entire and/or incised margins. Its capacity to thrive even

under partial shade for long periods makes it an deal drawing

room plant. The presence of numerous nodal and internodal climbing

roots enables the plant to be a successful epiphyte on large trees.

ASYMMETRY OF THE LEAVES

The leaves of Scindapsus officinalis are clearly alternate and are more

or less distichous on shoots that creep firmly ona wall or similar support.

But when the slender branches hang, as many of them do gracefully in

large plants, the leaves are spread out in all directions. Where the leaves

are arranged in two rows, every third leaf falls on the same row, as may be

PRE-FOLIATION IN SCINDAPSUS OFFICINALIS SCHOTT 251

\\\ \i\ \y

YY N

. \

Scindapsus officinalis Schott

252 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

expected. There is a prominent petiole which is conspicuously sheathed

at its lower three-fourths of the length. When young, the sheath encloses

the immediate younger leaf, and the free margins of the sheath overlap

each other. In some leaves, this overlapping is clockwise (left-handed),

and in others,counter-clock wise (right-handed) (Fig. 1B & A respectively).

The lamina is obovate to cordate and the area of one half is slightly

greater than that of the other. The rolling of the lamina while in bud is

either convolute or involute. Convolution may be either left-handed or

right-handed. The directions of the overlapping of the sheath and the

convolution of the lamina are determined by holding the leaf vertically

with its lamina over the petiole. Where it rolls left-handed, the sheath

of the same leaf overlaps right-handed, and vice versa, where the lamina

has right-handed convolution. But when the lamina is involute, the

overlapping of the sheath is rather difficult to predict since in some such

leaves, the overlapping is left-handed and in others, right-handed. The -

tip of the sheath on one margin grows beyond the level of that on the

other margin. Ifthe leaf sheath overlaps right-handedly, its right margin

happens to be longer compared to that of the other (Fig. 1C). If the

sheath is left-handed, its left margin becomes longer (Fig. 1D). Leaves

showing left convolution, involution, and right convolution are repre-

sented by L, I and R of Fig. 1 respectively.

OBSERVATIONS

50 shoots from three large Scindapsus officinalis plants growing on

huge mango trees at the premises of the Indian Statistical Institute,

Calcutta, were labelled and the type of the ptyxis on the 627 leaves

produced on them during 75 days commencing from the first of May

1965 were studied, The data are presented in Table 1, a-c.- On an

average, a shoot produced about 12°5 leaves during the 75 days of the

pre-monsoon period. That is, a leaf was produced almost every six

days. During the monsoon months of July-September, the rate of leaf-

production is much greater.

Table 1, a-c gives data on the sequence of production of left- and right-

convoluting as well as involute leaves in the individual plants. Plant 3

produced equal numbers of left- and right-convoluting leaves, while for

plants 1 and 2, the lefts are greater although the differences are not

statistically significant. The occurrence of involute leaves seems to vary

from plant to plant. Plant 1 has the highest proportion (53°33 %)

followed by plants 2 and 3 with 23°11 and 18°30 percentages respectively.

Since the data were collected simultaneously from three plants standing

close to each other, one plant showing a very high proportion of involute

—_———_—_——_—_—_——_——— ——_—__—__——

PRE-FOLIATIGN IN SCINDAPSUS OFFICINALIS SCHOTT 253

leaves has to be regarded as a peculiarity of this individual. As the

data relate to a short period, it is not known whether the proportion of

leaves showing involute and convolute ptyxis would vary significantly

with season.

A perusal of the data suggests that among the convoluting leaves,

there is a tendency for a leaf with left-handed convolution to be followed

or preceded by one with right-handed convolution. To verify this, the

type of each leaf in relation to its immediate older one was determined.

The data are presented in Table 2.

TABLE la

Scindapsus officinalis :; PRE-FOLIATION (PLANT 1)

- Shoot Directions of rolling of laminae L RI Total

feces | ota el Eon Ol oP ek Teor kyr Tat 18 ° 20

De ORS Tl RI. R. 33— 6

Se wk ee ig Re ee ded he Ral ob eb Ee Talk. Ts 3310 16

eee lee) We ele ee ep eel = ean Re yer eg a Ie

Seo ls Rel, (Rio be Re ERR] 45 1] 10

Geek eR wi ew el Eee Re be Re Bb Ftd I 64 8 18

aU eRe eetieled:. ale oy Tl eee i bb) Peo 52% 92-16

See Re te oR ea ORe Pak ear |) bh Rok RB BS ie ia kt UY

Total 32 24 64 120

TABLE 15

Scindapsus officinalis ; PRE-FOLIATION (PLANT 2)

Shoot Directions of rolling of laminae ER Total

1 LRIL LIL LIL RIL RIL RIL 9 4— 13

2; Reg lcepleas eae I, PL Ro lo | so | Dee! 12

3 yee bee Ra de he RE. MRO -ReER 61°62 14

4 PeR LD Rob RE Ri ESR | oR 6 6 — 12

5 (AR Wales eae Roe wR oR PI R:| i Mee es 14

6 Ree bop Re We Re Bld RE LT] ao De 5S 14

a) R LIL LIR Li R LR E)L R 75— 12

8 Rote ak | RR eLwRe Tw Re TL Tir. or Res) Wigs: 16

9 Se eas oe eRe keds Po Ded ioe 6; sao A]

10 ROR eR ia RHE Ld | 5 4— 9

11 nie) Reba Re Tp ial T sR: Yaa 12

12 IpeeReie: Raine. Ree Re eR ee RR: | 6 6 — 12

13 | gpa 54 1 es 8 | 3 2— 5

14 Pie Me ee heer Tek RVR GRE ORS. 6 «7 18

15 Poi Re Pak Re LR E |<] 6 4 6 16

Total 82 68 46 196

254. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL GIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

’ TABLE 1c

Scindapsus officinalis :- PRE-FOLIATION (PLANT 3)

Shoots Directions of rolling of laminae L RI Total

1 L¢RI Rl! Ro LTR LR E ROL ie, 6 6— 12

2 RL R dT LR ODA aa le ie a) Sel 18

3 L R|L-I |i R/-L-R|L RIL RIE RIE R eB teed 16

4 LL ROLL Rak eR ARs dR Pe RG SiGe 15

52) NE RA ILs eR | Bema ue | yi es 7

6 L RIL RR EAR RR LR 5 JT— i2

i, R LR LIRR LR 2 RoE R 5 6— 11

8 CLR ER ae 4 3— 7

9 Te Rah: Sele (RE ea a ee Ras oleae ol 6 4 4 14

10 L RIE Raw Te SR Ro Re as ee 32H6: 675 16

iI Ls Ree as aR Rae le Roe RG) de OE Fas 8 17

12 TOR Re Roa Seas ee eRe ae 5 5— 10

13 L RL Ree Rae 44— 8

14 j Red epi) Bie Pees FIP etd a De | 3 4 3 10

15 ReL YR Ea Re Ree a Ral eRe le aE 6.56 5 17

16 Le RIT 2b aa) RES er aR aa 204049 15

17 Ls ARS ele Re alc a) AR ae Re ae (hee Pogo 15

18 I ARolds OReaE eR Te 4 3— |

19 oy ARS PL eRe ae peas 43— ‘|

20.8 Roe RA es eR SL elsy Mle al oe Ie rans |e, Gy i4-5 15

Die ee aRGe BRe |e aol alee Re alas ale 6) 34 10

22 Re RE Ra Rae 3 4— u

23 pf URi as Red ARs a Reale aR ole sae eo 6 6 2 14

240 | BRE Ry LR ala: 3 4— WI

25 R RIR RILORIR RIP Rit L 26 Ved 13

26 R RIL RIL ; 23— 5

2a, R ae Re dea eR 3 3— 6

Total 127 A277 3 |

L—leaf with left-handed convolution. |

R—leaf with right-handed convolution,

I—leaf having involute lamina. |

TABLE 2

Scindapsus officinalis : PtTyxts OF LEAVES

Second leaf

First leaf er rs Total

Left Right Involute

Left convolution 20 155 | 44 219

Right convolution 150 A41\ 34 } 205

Involute 47 16 90 153

Total Dig 192 168 S77

PRE-FOLIATION IN SCINDAPSUS. OFFICINALIS SCHOTT — 255

The hypothesis that the ptyxis of the first leaf and that of the second

leaf are statistically independent is rejected since the x* value with 4

degrees of freedom turns out to be 330°80. Therefore, a left-handed

lamina is followed or preceded by a right-handed one in a significant

number of cases. However, in the case of involution, there is greater

chance of a leaf to be an involute if the immediate older one is already

involute. Data relating to the involuting leaves were tested to find out

whether the involutes that were followed or preceded by a left-handed

convolution were greater than those that followed or preceded by a right-

handed convolution. It was found that the LI or IL were occurring more

frequently than the RI or IR, and statistically significantly. The fre-

quency of an involute leaf following another involute leaf is significantly

more than a left- or right-convoluting leaf following an involute

leaf.

Since the sheath and the lamina of the same leaf roll oppositely, it was

considered necessary to study the condition of the sheaths of leaves

having involute laminae. A number of leaves from different shoots of

two plants were examined in March 1967. It was seen that if a left-

convoluting leaf having a right-handed sheath (which is generally the

rule) is followed by an involute leaf, the latter leaf will have left-handed

sheath, and vice-versa if it follows a right-convoluting leaf. In a shoot

where many consecutive involute leaves are produced, the sheath shows

more or less a left followed or preceded by a right-handed overlapping.

However, it is not always steady, and some leaves moved erratically.

DISCUSSION

The ptyxis in Scindapsus officinalis varies considerably. The ten-

dency that a left-convolution (of lamina) is followed or preceded by a

right convolution, or vice versa may be attributed to the distichous nature

of the leaves. This situation is similar to that found in many grasses

where the leaves are distichous and their laminae show a right followed or

preceded by a left convolution. In some other species of Araceae such

as Colocasia antiquorum or Alocasia indica, all the leaves of a shoot show

more or less the same kind of convolution as evidenced by the data

collected on many plants, a small portion of which is presented in Table 3,

256 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

TABLE 3

Pryxis IN Alocasia indica

Shoot Convolution of lamina of consecutive leaves Total

1 LL | Liiva p on eee 15

2 RR RRIRRIRRRRRRRRR ee

BOD GL EES, Ee WR) ie eee 13 ihe

4 RE RRIRRRRRRRRRRR 1 a4

| | |

Total BE” ail

Though a shoot maintains more or less the same type of convolution

throughout, the individual shoots in a clump of Colocasia antiquorum

show either left-handed or right-handed convolution as per data collected

on 19 clumps at Calcutta during 1967 and presented in Table 4.

TABLE 4

Colocasia antiquorum ; LEFT- AND RIGHT-HANDED SHOOTS PER CLUMP

Convolution of shoots

Clump —

Left Right (L+R) (L—R)

1 7 Bel 10 4

2 3 4 if |

3 9 6 15 3

4 5 4 9 1

5 4 5 9 —1

6 5 3 8 2

7 3 6 9 ~3 |

8 4 3 7 1

9 3 4 if —1

10 3 3 6 —

11 6 2 8 4

12 a 5 5 —5

13 3 4 7 ~1

14 1 6 qi —5

15 4 3 “t i

16 3 4 i ~1

17 4 3 7 1

18 5 4 9 I

19 if 1 8 6

Total We 73 152 6

x ; = 0-207

PRE-FOLIATION IN SCINDAPSUS OFFICINALIS SCHOTT 287

The left- and right-handed shoots in a clump are distributed more or

less in the ratio 1: 1.

In the case of Dieffenbachia sp. (Araceae), the leaves are arranged in

two spirals and they run clockwise in one shoot and counter-clockwise

in another. In a shoot having a left-handed foliar spiral, the ptyxis of

the lamina is always right-handed, and vice versa, in a shoot with right-

handed foliar spiral. However, in many species of Cordyline and

Dracaena of Agavaceae, where the shoots show clear spirality like Dieffen-

bachia, in a left-handed shoot, the ptyxis is invariably left-handed, and

right-handed if the shoot has right-handed foliar spiral. However, in

the case of Cordyline rubra, 18°69 per cent of the shoots have their foliar

spiral and ptyxis veering along opposite directions (Davis & Ghosh 1969).

An examination of the rolling of the leaf sheath and lamina in these 18°69

per cent of Cordyline rubra showed that the leaf sheath always rolls in

accordance with the foliar spiral, but only the lamina portion gets reversed.

This ‘ abnormality ’ in the case of C. rubra seems to be the general rule in

‘Scindapsus officinalis, because in a leaf with left convolution, the sheath

always shows right convolution and vice versa. Where the lamina is

involute, it is difficult to predict the direction of the sheath even though

there is a tendency for the odd numbers of leaves of a shoot to bear one

kind of overlapping of sheath, and the even numbers the opposite kind.

In some Scitaminous species of Musa, Canna, Maranta and Ravenala,

though the leaves are two-ranked, the ptyxis of the lamina is always right-

handed (with about 5 per cent reversals in Ravenala). Insome species of

Heliconia, Curcuma and Zingiber of the same family, a left-convoluting

leaf is followed or preceded by a right-hander as a general rule.

SUMMARY

The leaves of Scindapsus officinalis are alternate and arranged more or

less distichously. Both the leaf sheath and the lamina roll in the bud

stage. The lamina either convolutes or involutes. Convolution may

be either left-handed or right-handed. The margins of the leaf sheath

overlap either clockwisely or counter-clockwisely. If the lamina con-

volutes clockwisely, its sheath will overlap counter-clockwisely, and vice

versa, if the lamina convolutes counter-clockwisely. The sheath of an

involuting leaf may overlap either clockwisely or counter-clockwisely.

In the three large Scindapsus officinalis plants from where data were

collected, the leaves showing right-handed and left-handed ptyxis were

observed to produce almost equally. One plant produced a higher

percentage of involute leaves than in the others. There is a strong ten-

dency that a leaf with left-handed ptyxis is followed or preceded by a

258 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

right-hander. Also the probability of a leaf to be involute if it follows

an involute leaf is very high. ;

The drawing is by Mr. S. K. De, Senior Scientific Assistant of the

Indian Statistical Institute.

REFERENCES

Davis, T. A. & GHOosH, S. S. (1969) : Hooker, J. D.(1894) : Flora of British

Foliar spiral and ptyxis in Cordyline India VI. L. Reave and Co., London.

rubra. Proc. Nat. Inst, Sci. B., 35: 267-272.

Foraminifera of the Gulf of Cambay

K. KAMESWARA RAO

National Institute of Oceanography, Bombay

[Continued from Vol. 66 (3) : 596]

(With 37 figures in three plates)

Genus Nodosaria Lamarck 1812

Nodosaria calomorpha Reuss (Fig. 32)

Nodosaria calomorpha Brady, 1884, vol.9, p.497, pl.61, figs. 23-27 ; Brady, Parker &

Jones, 1888, vol. 12, p. 223, pl. 44, figs. 1, 4 ; Cushman, 1913, 71 (3), p. 48, pl. 25,

fig. 6.

Description: Test straight with usually three chambers ; first

chamber subglobular, later chambers slightly oval in outline. Wall

smooth and translucent. Aperture entosolenian and situated at the

centre of the tip of the ultimate chamber without a neck.

Length: 0°41 mm.

Locality: Station A.

Distribution : North Pacific, Hawaiian Islands, Ki Islands, Philip-

pine Islands, Arabian Sea and Atlantic.

Nodosaria radicula (Montagu) (Fig. 33)

Nodosaria radicula Williamson, 1858, p. 15, pl. 2, figs. 36-38 ; Sethulekshmi Amma,

1958, ps 53, ple 2, fig. 79.

Description: Test elongate with two to five chambers; initial

chamber larger than the succeeding ones and with a blunt spine. Wall

calcareous and marked with conspicuous longitudinal costae. The last

formed chamber drawn into a neck with a round aperture at the end.

Length: 0°40 mm.

Locality: Station A.

Distribution : British Isles and Arabian Sea.

[14]

260 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

Nodosaria roemeri (Neugeboren) (Fig. 34)

Nodosaria roemeri Brady, 1884, vol. 9, p. 505, pl. 63, fig. 1 ; Cushman, 1913, 71(3),

p. 55, pl. 24, figs. 4-6.

Description: Test elongate with a few chambers; later chambers

slightly inflated. Sutures slightly oblique. Wall calcareous and smooth.

Eengih: (0°37 mm:

Locality: Station A.

Distribution: Hawaiian Islands, Midway Islands and near Guan,

and Arabian Sea.

Nodosaria perversa Schwager (Fig. 35)

Nodosaria perversa Brady, 1884, pl. 64, figs. 25-27, p. 512 ; Cushman, 1933, 161(2),

p. 13, pl. 3, figs. 13-15 ; Dakin, 1906, vol. 5, p. 235.

Description: Test elongate with the initial chamber provided with a

slight blunt spine, ultimate segment drawn into a short and narrow neck,

primordial chamber small and later formed chambers increasingly larger. |

Surface of the test marked with numerous longitudinal parallel costae.

Aperture radiate.

Length: 0°38 mm.

Locality: Station A.

Distribution: Indo-Pacific Region, and Ceylon coast,

Nodosaria subperversa Cushman (Fig. 36)

Nodosaria subperversa Cushman, 1917, vol. 51, p. 655 ; Cushman, 1921, 100, vol.

4°). 208; pl: 37mg. 3:

Description: Test long with a few chambers, primordial chamber

slightly larger than the subsequently formed ones. Sutures distinct.

Wall smooth but marked with fine longitudinal striations. The ultimate

chamber without a neck. Aperture terminal.

Length: 0°55 mm.

Locality: Station A.

Distribution: Pacific Ocean, east coast of Mindanao and Arabian

Sea.

Genus Lagena Walker & Jacob 1798

Lagena globosa (Montagu) (Fig. 37)

Entosolenia globosa Williamson, 1858, p. 8, pl. 1, figs. 15, 16; Lagena globosa

Brady, 1884, vol.9, p.452, pl. 56, figs. 1-3 ; Dakin, 1906, vol. 5, p.234 ; Cushman:

1913, 71(3), p. 3, pl. 4, fig. 2 ; 1923, 104(4), p. 20, pl. 4, figs. 1,2; 1933, 161(2)

Pi 3 pl.4, figs. 10 a, b ; Sethulekshmi Amma, 1958, p. 54, pl. 2, fig. 80.

FORAMINIFERA OF THE GULF OF CAMBAY 261

Description : ‘Test nearly spherical, apertural end slightly produced.

Wall smooth and translucent. Aperture slit-like with an entosolenian

neck.

Length: QO 27mm.

Locality: Station A.

Distribution: North Pacific, off Chatham Islands, Honolulu,

Tropical Pacific, Philippines, Ceylon coast, off Gulf of Mannar, Arabian

Sea, Atlantic and British Isles.

Lagena marginata (Walker & Boys) (Fig. 38)

Lagena marginata Brady, 1884, vol. 9, p. 476, pl. 59, figs. 21-23; H. B. Brady,

Parker & Jones, 1888, vol. 12, p. 222, pl. 44, figs. 27, 29, 30, 32; Cushman, PASS

KG) speciapl.22uese I-71) 1921 100; vol. 40 p82 > 1933; 161(2): 1. 17,.pl: 4:

figs.9 a,b, 11, 12, 14-16 ; pl.5, figs.2.a,b, 4a, b,6a, b, 8, 9; Sethulekshmi Amma,

1958. p. 56; pla ll, fig..85:.

Description: Test more or less globular, compressed, rounded at

both ends. Apertural end slightly narrow. Periphery with a marginal

keel. Aperture entosolenian.

Length: 0°18 mm.

Locality: Station B.

Distribution : North and Eastern Pacific, Hawaiian Islands, off Japan,

Arabian Sea, Atlantic and British Isles.

Lagena striata (d’Orbigny) (Fig. 39)

Lagena striata Brady, 1884, vol. 9, p. 460, p1.57, figs. 22, 24; Cushman, 1913, 71(3),

Palo ple 7. tes. 4s 531921100) vols 4, p..177; 1933, 16! (2), p. 32, pl. 8, figs.

11, 13 ; Sethulekshmi Amma, 1958, p. 56, pl. 2, fig. 86.

Description: Test oval with an elongated neck at the apertural end.

Wall marked with numerous fine longitudinal costae starting from the

aboral end of the test to the base of the neck. Wall calcareous and

translucent.

Length: 0°23 mm.

Locality: Station B.

Distribution: North Pacific, off Philippines, Red Sea, Arabian Sea,

Atlantic, and British Isles.

Lagena quadrata (Williamson) (Fig. 40)

Lagena quadrata Williamson, p. 11, pl. 1, figs. 27, 28 ; Brady, 1884, vol. 9, p. 475,

pl. 59, figs. 3, 16; Bagg, 1908, vol. 34, p. 142; Cushman, 1913, 71(3), p. 35, pl. 14,

fig. 9 ; Sethulekshmi Amma, 1958, p. 58, pl. 2, fig. 89.

[16]

262 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

Description: Test ovate, periphery with a marginal keel. Wall

smooth and tease Aperture entosolenian; apertural orifice

slit-like.

Length: 0O'12 mm.

Locality: Station B.

Distribution: North Pacific, off Hawaiian Islands and between

Guam and Yokohama, Arabian Sea, Atlantic and British Isles.

Lagena orbignyana (Seguenza) (Fig. 41)

Lagena orbignyana Brady, 1884, vol. 9, p. 484, pl. 59, figs. 1, 18, 24, We Brady.

Parker and Jones, 1888, vol. 12, p. 222, pl. 44, fig. 20 ; Dakin, 1906, vol. 5, p. 234 ;

Cushman, 1913, 71(3), p. 42, pl. 19, fig. 1.

Description: Test oval in outline with _a prominent marginal keel

having within a secondary kee!. Surface of the test smooth with large

pits. Aperture slit-like with an entosolenian neck.

Length: 0O'14 mm.

Locality: Station A.

Distribution: Tropical Pacific, off Levuka, Fiji, off Ceylon coast,

Arabian Sea and British Isles.

Family NONIONIDAE

Genus Nonion Montfort 1808

Nonion boueanum (d’Orbigny) Hada (Fig. 42)

Nonionina boueana Brady, 1884, vol. 9, p. 729, pl. 109, figs. 12, 13 ; Dakin, 1906,

vol. 5, p. 240; Nonion boueanum Daniel, 1949, p. 71, fig. 114 ; Cushman, 1933,

161(2), p. 42, pl. 10, fig. 3 ; Sethulekshmi Amma, 1958, p. 21, pl. 1, fig. 32.

Description: Test circular in outline, chambers numerous, involute,

nine to fifteen chambers in final whorl. Sutures depressed and curved

towards the umbilicus ; umbilicus slightly depressed and filled with

granular material. Wall calcareous, smooth and _ finely punctate.

Aperture a curved slit lying at the base of last chamber.

Diameter: 0°30 mm.

Locality: Station A.

Distribution : Pacific, China Sea off Hong Kong and Tawi Tawi,

off Japan, Red Sea, Mauritius, Kerimba Archipelago, Gulf of Mannar off

Ceylon coast, and Indian seas.

[17]

FORAMINIFERA OF THE GULF OF CAMBAY 263

Nonion pompilioides (Fichtel & Moll) (Fig. 43)

Nonionina pompilioides Brady, 1884, vol. 9, p. 727, pl. 109, figs. 10, 11 ; Millet,

1904, p. 601 ; Bagg, 1908, vol. 34, p. 164 ; Cushman, 1914, 71(4), p. 25, pl. 17,

fig. 2. Nonion pompilioides Cushman, 1933, 161(2), p. 41, pl. 10, figs. 1, 2 :

Ganapati & Satyavati, 1958, p. 108, pl. 3, figs. 83, 84.

Description: Test circular with several chambers, the final whorl of

ten chambers. Peripheral margin rounded. Sutures limbate and

distinct. Wall with coarse perforations. Aperture a curved slit lying at

the base of the last chamber.

Diameter: 0.37 mm.

Locality: Station C.

Distribution : North Pacific, Bering Sea, off Japan, Hawaiian Islands,

between Hawaiian and Midway Islands, between Guam and Japan, and

Indian seas.

Nonion pacificum (Cushman) (Fig. 44)

Nonion pacificum Cushman, 1933, 161(2), p. 44, pl. 10, figs. 9 a, b.

Description: Test circular, compressed with a few chambers, eight

chambers in the final whor!; chambers involute. Peripheral margin

rounded. Wall calcareous, smooth and finely foraminated. Aperture

a long slit at the base of last chamber.

Diameter: 9°14 mm.

Locality : Station D.

Distribution: Pacific Ocean and Arabian Sea.

Nonion depressula (Walker and Jacob) (Fig. 45)

Nonionina depressula Brady, 1884, vol. 9, p. 725, pl. 109, figs. 6, 7 ; Brady, Parker &

Jones, 1888, vol. 12, p. 229, pl. 43, fig. 25; Bagg, 1908, vol. 34, p. 164; Cush-

many HOt 74). ps 235 pls 17; fig. 3.

Description: Test circular with ten to twelve chambers in the final

whorl, chambers slightly inflated, sutures depressed. Peripheral margin

lobulated. Umbilical region slightly depressed and filled with a clear

granular shell material which extends outward along the sutures.

Aperture a narrow curved slit lying at the base of last chamber.

Diameter: 0°12 mm.

Locality: Station D.

Distribution: North Pacific, off Hawaiian Islands, off Japan and

between Japan and Guam, and Arabian Sea.

| [18]

264 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

Genus Elphidium Montfort 1808

Elphidium -crispum (Linnaeus) (Fig. 46)

Polystomella crispa Brady, 1884, vol. 9, p. 736, pl. 110, figs. 6, 7; Cushman, 1914,

71(4), p. 32, pl. 18, fig. 1. Elphidium crispum Cushman, 1933, 161(2), p. 47,

pl. 11, fig.4 a, b.; Elphidium macellus Gnanamuthu, 1943, No. 2, pt. 5, p. 16,

Elphidium crispum Daniel, 1949, p. 74, figs. 115-116; Sethulekshmi Amma.

1958p22 ply ietiess:

Description: Test biconvex, circular in shape with numerous

chambers. Sutures slightly raised and distinct with retral processes which

extend between the sutures. Peripheral margin acute, umbonal region

raised. Aperture consists of numerous pores on the apertural face of last

chamber.

Diameter : 0°29 mm.

Locality: Station A.

Distribution: Pacific, Atlantic, British Isles, Mediterranean, Gulf

of Mannar, and Indian seas.

Elphidium jenseni (Cushman) (Fig.47)

Elphidium jenseni Cushman, 1933, 161(2), p. 48, pl. 11, figs. 6, 7.

Description: Test flat, many chambered. Peripheral margin with a

slight keel. Sutures slightly raised with retral processes which bridge the

gap between sutures, the areas between the sutures somewhat depressed,

umbilical region with slight projections.

Diameter: 0°38 mm.

Locality: Station A.

Distribution: In Pacific Ocean from Fiji Islands, Marshall Islands

and Landrone Islands, off Australia, and Arabian Sea.

Family CAMERINIDAE

Subfamily Camerininaé

Genus Operculina W@Orbigny 1826

Operculina granulosa (Leymerie) (Fig. 48)

Operculina granulosa Brady, 1884, vol. 9, p. 744, pl. 112, figs. 6, 7, 9, 10 ; Cushnias,

1933, 161(2), p. 56, pls. 14, 15, 16, figs. 1-3; Sethulekshmi Amma, 1958, p. 19,

pl.1, fig. 29, a, b,c; Ganapati & Satyavati, 1958, p. 108, pl. 4, fig. 92.

Description: Test compressed, bilaterally symmetrical, the final

whorl composed of numerous chambers. Sutures evenly curved. Wall

Bae!

FORAMINIFERA OF THE GULF OF CAMBAY 265

ornamented with beads or bosses along the suture lines and usually con-

centrated at the centre space and scattered in the interspaces. Aperture

at the base of last chamber.

Diameter: 0°40 mm.

Locality: Station C.

Distribution : Pacific Ocean, Honolulu, Red Sea, Ceylon, and Indian

seas. :

Operculina gaimairdi d’Orbigny (Fig. 49)

Operculina gaimairdi Cushman, 1921, vol. 4, No. 100, p. 375.

Description: Test strongly compressed with an adult coil of about

fifteen chambers with a large central area. Sutures marked with beads

with interspaces smooth.

Diameter : 0°32 mm.

Locality: Station A.

Distribution: Philippines, in the vicinity of Jolo, Sulu Archipelago,

Siasi, Tawi Tawi group; between Burias and Luzon, in the Gulf of

Davao and Arabian Sea.

Family PENEROPLIDAE

Subfamily Orbitolitinae

Genus Sorites Ehrenberg 1838

Sorites marginalis (Lamarck) (Fig. 50)

Orbitolites marginalis Carpenter, 1883, vol. 7*, p. 20, pl. 3, figs. 1-7, pl. 4, figs. 1-5 ;

Cushman, 1917, 71(6), p. 92, pl. 38, figs. 1-2. Sorites marginalis Cushman, 1930,

104(7), p. 40, pl. 18, figs. 1-4 ; Sethulekshmi Amma, 1958, p. 28, pl. 1, fig. 41.

Description: Test circular in shape with numerous chambers in a

single plane, the primordial chamber opens into the second chamber,

followed by numerous chambers arranged spirally in one plane. Each

chamber divided into numerous small chamberlets having connections

with the adjacent ones of previous and following annular chambers.

Wall smooth. Apertures numerous along the periphery of the test.

Diameter : 0°31 mm.

Locality: Station C.

Distribution: North Pacific, Hawaiian Islands, Red, and Arabian

Seas, coast of Madagascar and Mediterranean Sea.

* Rep. Voy. Challenger, Zoology.

[20]

266 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

Family BULIMINIDAE

Subfamily Bilis |

Genus Bulimina d’Orbigny 1826

Bulimina marginata d’Orbigny (Fig. 51)

Bulimina marginata Brady, 1884, vol. 9, p. 405, pl. 51, figs. 3-5 ; Cushman, 1911,

71(2), p. 83, text-fig. 136 a, b ; 1922, 104(3), p. 91, pl. 21, figs. 4-5 ; Sethulekshmi

Amma, 1958, p. 44, pl. 2, fig. 66 a, b.

Description: Test oval in outline, many-chambered, tapering, later

chambers more inflated than the earlier ones ; lower margin of each

chamber provided with spines or crenulations. Wall calcareous, smooth,

and opaque. Aperture slit-like situated at the inner face of last chamber.

Length: 0°16 mm. ee ;

Locality : Station D. |

Distribution: Atlantic, Gulf of Mexico, Gulf of Southern Ocean,

Mediterranean, Adriatic, British Isles, Arabian Sea and North Pacific.

Subfamily Virgulininae

Genus Virgulina d@Orbigny 1826

Virgulina squamosa d’Orbigny (Fig. 52)

Virgulina squamosa Brady, 1884, vol. 9, p. 415; Cushman, 1911, 71(2), p. 91,

text-fig. 145 ; Sethulekshmi Amma, 1958, p.45, pl. 2, fig. 67.

Description: Test elongate, thin and tapering towards the initial

end with few obliquely arranged chambers. Peripheral margin some-

what lobulated. Sutures slightly depressed. Wall calcareous, smooth,

punctate and translucent. Aperture loop-shaped. |

Length: 0°22 mm.

Locality: Station B.

Distribution: Atlantic, Mediterranean, Red Sea, Antarctic, Arabian

Sea and North Pacific.

Genus Bolivina d’Orbigny 1839 |

Bolivina punctata d’Orbigny (Fig. 53)

Bolivina punctata Brady, 1884, vol. 9, p. 417, pl. 52, figs. 18, 19 ; Cushman, 1911,

71(2), p. 32, text-fig. 53 ; 1921, vol. 4, No. 100, p. 136, pl. 26, fig. 5.

[21]

FORAMINIFERA OF THE GULF OF CAMBAY 267

Description: Test very long, compressed, tapering and many cham-

-bered with a blunt apical end. Sutures somewhat depressed. Wall

smooth and finely punctate. Aperture an elongate slit situated at the

inner margin of last formed chamber.

Length: 0°44 mm.

Locality: Station D.

Distribution: North and Eastern Pacific, Hawaiian Islands, off

Japan, Gulf of Mannar off Ceylon coast, and Indian seas.

Bolivina nobilis Hantken (Fig. 54)

Bolivina nobilis Brady, 1884, vol. 9, p. 424, pl. 53, figs. 14, 15 ; Chapman, 1895,

p. 24; Cushman, 1911, 71(2), p. 39, text-fig. 64 ; Sethulekshmi Amma, 1958,

p. 45, pl. 2, fig. 68.

Description : Test elongate, compressed and tapering with a blunt

apical end, chambers numerous, slightly inflated. Test wall about

half portion from the apical end covered with many fine longitudinal

costae, the other half smooth and finely punctate. Sutures depressed.

- Aperture oval in outline placed at the apertural face of last chamber.

Length: 0°28 mm.

Locality: Station D.

Distribution: North and South Pacific, Hawaiian Islands, Philip-

pines, Arabian Sea, Mediterranean and British Isles. '

Bolivina aenariensis (Costa) (Fig. 55)

Bolivina aenariensis Brady, 1884, vol. 9, p. 423, pl. 53, figs. 10, 11; Cushman,

1911, 71(2), p. 44, text-fig. 71. |

Description: Test compressed and tapering with many chambers,

the apical end with or without a spine and when there is no spine it is

usually blunt. Sutures depressed. Wall covered with two or more

- longitudinal thickenings or costae. Aperture long slit-like with a lip

placed on the apertural face.

Length: 0°25 mm.

Locality: Station C and D.

Distribution: North Atlantic, West and North-west of Ireland,

North Pacific, off Philippines, off Japan, coast of California, Hawaiian

Islands and Arabian Sea.

[22]

268 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

Bolivina vadescens Cushman (Fig. 56)

Bolivina vadescens Cushman, 1942, 161(3), p. 15 ye 5, fig.4 ; Ganapati & Satyavati,

1958, p. 109, pl. 4, fig. 99.

Description: Test long and many chambered, later formed sheinabees

somewhat inflated. Peripheral margin rounded. Sutures sigmoid and

distinct. Wall smooth and finely foraminated. Aperture loop- -shaped,

situated at the base of ultimate chamber.

Length: 0°22 mm.

Locality: Station_C.

Distribution: Tropical Pacific Ocean, Fiji, Levuka, Viva Anchorage,

Makemo Lagoon, Paumotu Islands, Rotonga, Guam Anchorage,

Landrone Islands and Indian seas. |

Bolivina rhomboidalis (Millett) (Fig. 57)

Bolivina rhomboidalis Cushman, 1922, 104(2), p. 44-; 1942, 161(3), p. 19, pl. 6, figs. 7,

Description: Test triangular and longer than broad ; seven chambers

on one side and six on the other side excluding the primary chamber,

later chambers increasing in size as added. Periphery obliquely truncate.

Sutures oblique and distinct. Wall smooth. Aperture long, situated at

the inner wall of last chamber. :

Length: 0°41 mm.

Locality : Station C. a

Distribution: Pacific Ocean, Hawaiian Islands, Malay Archipelago

and Arabian Sea.

Bolivina nitida Brady (Fig. 58)

Bolivina nitida Brady, 1884, vol. 9, p. 420, pl. 52, fig. 30 a, b; Cushman, 1942,

161G), pi 25,‘pl.:7, fig: 'S:

Description: Test long, compressed, tapering towards commence-

ment with a few broad and flattened chambers. Peripheral margin

rounded and subcarinate. Sutures limbate, distinct and obliquely set ;

a narrow band of clear shell material at the sutures and around the peri-

phery. Aperture long, narrow slit placed obliquely extending almost

the whole length vf the inner margin of last chamber.

Length: 0°25 mm.

Locality: Station D.

[23]

FORAMINIFERA OF THE GULF OF CAMBAY 269

Distribution: Tropical Pacific, Eastern Mancoeur Island, Bass

Strait, off Raine Island, Torres Strait, East of Wollongong off Australia

and Arabian Sea. :

Genus Loxostoma Ehrenberg 1854

Loxostoma limbatum (Brady) (Fig. 59)

Bolivina limbata Brady, 1884, vol. 9, p. 419, pl. 52, figs. 26-28 ; Cushman, 1911

71(2), p. 47, fig. 78 a, b, c. (in text). Loxostoma limbatum Cushman, 1942,

161(3), p. 35, pl. 10, fig. 1. Loxostomum limbatum Ganapati & Satyavati, 1958,

p. 109, pl. 4, fig. 102. |

Description: Test somewhat twisted, longer than broad and com-

pressed with biserially set chambers, later formed chambers inflated and

broader than long. Sutures distinct and limbate. Wall smooth and

coarsely perforated. Aperture an elongate slit at the terminal end of

last chamber.

Length: 0°25 mm.

Locality: Station C.

Distribution: Indo-Pacific, West Indies and Indian seas.

Subfamily Uvigerininae

Genus Uvigerina d’Orbigny 1826

Uvigerina tenuistriata Reuss (Fig. 60)

Uvigerina tenuistriata Brady, 1884, vol. 9, p. 574, pl. 74, figs. 4-7 ; Chapman, 1895,

p. 35 ; Cushman, 1913, 71(3), p. 95, pl. 42, fig. 4.

Description: Test cylindrical in shape, longer than broad, with a

narrow apical end. Wall ornamented with numerous distinct longi-

tudinal costae, the last formed chamber often without costae. Aperture

with a phialine lip at the terminal end of a short neck. .

Length.: 0°34 mm.

Locality : Station C.

Distribution ;: North Pacific, off Philippines and Arabian Sea.

[ 24]

270 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

Family ROTALIDAE

Subfamily Spirillininae

Genus Spirillina Ehrenberg 1841

Spirillina vivipara Ehrenberg (Fig. 61)

Spirillina perforata Williamson, 1858, p. 92, pl. 7, fig. 202. Spirillina vivipara

Brady, 1884, vol. 9, p. 630, pl. 85, figs. 1-5 ; Dakin, 1906, vol. 5, p. 237;

Cushman, 1915, 71(5), p 3, pl.1, figs. 1,2; Sethulekshmi Amma, 1958, p. 63

pl. 3, fig. 96.

Description: Test planispiral, flat, the first formed coils narrow

compared to the later formed ones. Sutures depressed and distinct.

Peripheral margin round. Wall with large perforations. Aperture

circular at the end of the tube.

Diameter: 0°13 mm.

Locality : Station B.

Distribution: Arctic, North and South Atlantic, North and South

Pacific, Indian and Southern oceans, Mediterranean and Red seas, Ceylon

and Arabian Sea.

‘Spirillina limbata Brady (Fig. 62)

Spirillina limbata Brady, 1884, vol. 9, p. 632, pl. 85, figs. 18-21 ; Dakin, 1906,

vol. 5, p. 237 ; Cushman, 1915, 71(5), p. 5, pl. 2, figs. 1,2 ; 1931, 104(8), p. 8,

pl. 2, fig. 2 a, b ; Sethulekshmi Amma, 1958, p. 63, pl. 3, fig. 97.

Description: Test planispiral with both faces somewhat flattened or

slightly concave. Peripheral margin square. Sutures slightly raised

because of the presence of a ridge of shell substance. Test wall finely

foraminated. Aperture more or less compressed lying at the end of the

tube. ;

Diameter: 0°27 mm.

Locality: Station A.

Distribution: North and South Pacific, North and South Atlantic,

Mediterranean, Ceylon coast and Arabian Sea.

wpe PD AAS

oe aa a ee re

FORAMINIFERA OF THE GULF OF CAMBAY 211

Subfamily Discorbinae

Genus Discorbis Lamarck 1804

Discorbis globularis (d’Orbigny) (Fig. 63)

Discorbina globularis Brady, 1884, vol. 9, p. 643, pl. 86, figs. 8, 13. .Cushman,

1915, 71(5), p. 11, pl. 9, fig. 4; 1931, 104(8), p. 22, pl. 4, fig. 9 a-c; Sethulekshmi

Amma, 1958, p. 66, pl. 3, fig. 101 a, b.

Description: Test planoconvex, chambers numerous. All the

chambers visible on the dorsal side but only those of the last whorl of

about five chambers on the ventral side. Sutures depressed and distinct.

Peripheral edge round and carinate. Test wall with coarse perforations.

Aperture an elongate slit on the ventral side of inner edge of ultimate

chamber. |

"Diameter: 0°19 mm.

Locality: Station C.

Distribution: Yndo-Pacific region, North Pacific, Atlantic, British

Isles, Western Europe, Eastern channel of Korean Strait.

Discorbis rosacea (d’Orbigny) (Fig. 64)

Discorbina rosacea Brady, 1884, vol. 9, p. 644, pl. 87, figs. 1, 4 ; Dakin, 1906, vol. 5,

p. 238 ; Cushman, 1915, 71(5), p. 13, fig. 13; Gnanamuthu, 1943, p. 20, pl. 4,

fig. 16 ; Sethulekshmi Amma, 1958, p. 65, pl. 3, fig. 100 a, b.

Description: Test many chambered, dorsal side conically convex,

ventral side flat or slightly concave. Sutures depressed and distinct.

Test wall finely foraminated. Umbilical region on the ventral side filled

_ by a thickening of shell substance. Aperture a large elongate opening

situated at the inner margin of last chamber.

Diameter: 0°23 mm.

Locality : Stations A & C.

Distribution: North Pacific, Atlantic, Faroe Islands, shores of

Shetland, Ceylon coast and Indian seas.

‘Discorbis vilardeboana (d’Orbigny) (Fig. 65) |

Discorbina vilardeboana Brady, 1884, vol. 9, p. 645, pl. 86, figs.9, 12 ; pl. 88, fig. 2 ;

Dakin, 1906, vol. 5, p. 238 ; Bagg, 1908, vol. 34, p. 157 ; Cushman, 1915, 71(5),

p. 14, pl. 9, fig. 2 ; Sethulekshmi Amma, 1958, p. 67, pl. 3, fig. 103 a, b.

Description: Test planoconvex with numerous chambers, the outer

whorl with five to seven chambers. Peripheraledge rounded. Sutures

somewhat depressed and distinct. Wall finely foraminated. Aperture

26}

272 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL GIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

an arched slit situated on the ventral side of test lying close to the um-

bilical region.

Diameter: 0°27 mm.

Locality: Station A.

Distribution : North Pacific, Hawaiian Islands, Laysan Island, Japan,

Atlantic, Ceylon coast and Arabian Sea.

Discorbis bertheloti (d’Orbigny) (Fig. 66 a, b)

Discorbina bertheloti Brady, 1884, vol. 9, p. 650, pl. 89, figs. 10-12 ; Brady, Parker &

Jones, 1888, vol. 12, p. 227, pl. 46, figs. 7, 8; Dakin, 1906, vol. 5, p. 238;

Cushman, 1915, 71(5), p. 20, pl. 7, fig. 3.

Description: Test planoconvex, compressed, periphery acute and

slightly carinated. Dorsal side of test somewhat flat, ventral side convex.

Outer whorl of five to seven chambers. Sutures depressed. Wall

punctate. Aperture a narrow slit situated ventrally at the inner edge

of ultimate chamber. :

Diameter: 0°22 mm.

Locality : ’ Station A.

Distribution: North Pacific, Chatham and Laysan islands, off Guam,

Japan, Philippines, Ceylon coast and Indian seas.

Discorbis nitida (Williamson) (Fig. 67)

Rotalina nitida Williamson,-1858, p. 54, pl. 4, fiz. 106-108. Discorbis nitida

Cushman, 1931, 104(8), p. 26, pl. 6, fig. 1 a-c ; Sethulekshmi Amma, 1958, p. 70,

pl. 3, fig. 109.

Description: Test trochoid, many chambered with a little more than

two coils, final whorl composed of about six chambers. Peripheral

margin with a distinct keel. Sutures slightly depressed below and flush

with the surface above. Wall smooth, finely foraminated and trans-

parent. Aperture on the ventral side at the base of the final chamber.

Diameter: 0°14 mm.

Locality : Station D.

Distribution: Atlantic, European coast, British Isles and Arabian

Sea.

[27]

i ‘sting se

J. BoMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. 67 (2) PLATE IV

Kameswara Rao: Foraminifera

(AO

Figs.32-35,37,42,43.

___0.25mm_,

Fig.36.

‘ 0.1mm ;

Figs. 38-41,44-46,

Fics. 32-46 : 32. Nodosaria calomorpha ; 33. Nodosaria radicula; 34. Nodosaria roemeri ;

35. Nodosaria perversa; 36. Nodosaria subperversa; 37. Lagena globosa; 38. Lagena

marginata; 39. Lagena striata; 40. Lagena quadrata; 41. Lagena orbignyana; 42.

Nonion boueanum ; 43. Nonion pompilioides ; 44. Nonion pacificum ; 45. Nonion depressula ;

46. Elphidium crispum.

J. BOMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. 67 (2) PLATE V

Kameswara Rao: Foraminifera.

somes

RAEI.

Veena

yop

0.2mm

Figs. 47-51,53,54

po Ome

Figs.52,55,57

0.1mm

Fig. 56

Fics. 47-57: 47. Elphidium jenseni; 48. Operculina granulosa; 49. Operculina gaimairdi;

50. Sorites marginalis; 51. Bulimina marginata; 52. Virgulina squamosa; 53. Bolivina

punctata ; 54. Bolivina nobilis ; 55. Bolivina aenariensis; 56. Bolivina vadescens; 57. Bolivina

rhomboidalis.

J. BoMBAy NaT. Hist. Soc. 67 (2) PLATE VI

Kameswara Rao: Foraminifera.

Figs.59,60,62,64,65,68.

' 0.1mm ;

Figs.58,61,63,66,67.

Fics. 58-68 : 58. Bolivina nitida; 59. Loxostoma limbatum; 60. Uvigerina tenuistriata

61. Spirillina vivipara ; 62. Spirillina limbata ; 63. Discorbis globularis ; 64. Discorbis rosacea

65. Discorbis vilardeboana; 66. Discorbis bertheloti—a, dorsal view ; b, ventral view ; 67.

Discorbis nitida ; 68. Rotalia calcar.

wewe

FORAMINIFERA OF THE GULF OF CAMBAY Pa)

Subfamily Rotaliinae

Genus Rotalia Lamarck 1804

Rotalia calcar (d’Orbigny) (Fig. 68)

Rotalia calcar Brady, 1884,vol. 9, p. 709, pl. 108, fig. 3, fig. 4?; Dakin, 1906, vol. 5,

p. 239; Cushman, 1915, 71(5), p. 69, pl. 28, fig. 2, pl.29, fig.2. Sethulekshmi

Amma, 1958, p. 73, pl. 3, fig. 113 a, b; Ganapati & Satyavati, 1958, p. 110, pl. 5,

figs. 118, 119. ;

Description: Test many chambered with both faces of the test

convex, all chambers visible on the dorsal side and on ventral side only

those of the last whorl. The outer whorl consists of ten chambers.

Sutures limbate. Peripheral margin of each chamber drawn into a

pointed end. Test wall finely foraminated. Aperture a narrow slit

between periphery and umbilicus on ventral side.

Diameter : 0°28 mm.

Locality: Stations A & C.

Distribution : North Pacific, Hong Kong Harbour, Cebu, Philippines,

Ceylon coast and Indian seas.

(to be continued)

[28]

Eco-toxicology and Control of Indian

Desert Gerbil, Meriones hurrianae

(Jerdon)

VI—One-Shot Baiting Technique

ISHWAR PRAKASH AND A. P. JAIN

Animal Studies Division,

Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Jodhpur

INTRODUCTION

The idea behind the one-shot baiting technique is to impregnate a

single unit of bait material with the lethal dose of a poison and then to —

mix it with unpoisoned ones in a particular proportion. This mixture —

is then used for control operations. The unpoisoned materials providea

built-in prebaiting system and, thus, by providing poisoned and un-

poisoned baits together, the cost and time of prebaiting is saved simul-

taneously. Gooding (1961) tried one-shot baiting method for the control

of wild rabbits in Western Australia by incorporating the lethal dose of

Sodium mono-fluoroacetate (1080) in a single oat grain by the vacuum :

impregnation process and then using these in the field for killing rabbits

after mixing with unpoisoned ones in the ratio of 1 lethal oat : 99 un-

poisoned oats. In the present study, instead of using any foodgrains as

the medium for poisoning the desert gerbil, air-dried fruits of Zizyphus ;

nummularia (ber) were used as the baiting material. This material was:

chosen-on the basis of our earlier studies on the intake of seeds of various __

plant species by desert gerbils (Prakash, Purohit & Kametkar 1967).

METHODS - |

For finding out the acceptability of air-dried fruits of Zizyphus num-

mularia (ber) to desert gerbils in the field where other foods are also

available to them, 5 ber were placed near each of ten active burrow

openings of these animals. Their consumption was watched from a |

distance with the help of binoculars. The burrow openings were checked _

at hourly intervals and the unconsumed fruits were counted. Al

The air dried ber were soaked in solutions having different concen- — |

trations of 1080 poison to make each ber lethal with 1 mg. to 3 mg./kg. |

PRO. ach aes iy

+ er 8 A

ECO-TOXICOLOGY & CONTROL OF INDIAN DESERT GERBIL 275

dosages. One ber each having a different concentration of the poison

was given to sets of ten gerbils for each concentration and their mortality

was observed.

Before mixing the poisoned fruits with unpoiscned ones, it was

checked if the desert gerbils can distinguish between the two. One ber

of each type was given together to each of 10 desert gerbils in captivity

and their preference was noted.

For determining the proportion in which the unpoisoned ber should

be mixed with poisoned ones, they were mixed in the ratio of 1:4, 1:9

and 1:14 and were tried in the laboratory as well as in the field. In

the field each proportion was tried in replications of four in units of ten

active burrows. Population estimation of desert gerbils both before and

after the one-shot baiting operation was made by the burrow closing-

opening technique (Prakash 1963).

RESULTS

_ Acceptability of ber fruits in the field: It was observed with the help

of binoculars that the gerbils started feeding on the pulp of the berry as

soon as they came out of the burrows. They did not eat the seeds at the

beginning but later on a majority of them were eaten. Out of 50 ber

placed near ten burrow openings, 72 per cent were consumed within an

hour and all were consumed within a four hour duration. These obser-

vations indicated that the air-dried ber are quite acceptable to the desert

gerbils.

_ Distinguishing capability of desert gerbils: One each of air-dried,

unpoisoned ber and poison-soaked ber were given to 10 desert gerbils in

individual cages to see if they can differentiate between the two. It was

found that the consumption of poisoned ones was more than the others,

probably, due to availability of moisture in them. Since the desert

gerbils were not able to differentiate between the two, it was safe to mix

unpoisoned ones (prebaiting) and poisoned ones (poison baiting).

Incorporation of lethal dose in a single ber: 1001 air-dried ber absorb

25 cc. of water in 24 hours. Therefore, the requisite amount of poison

according to the dosage with which a ber has to be made lethal should be

incorporated in 25cc. of water. In an earlier study (Prakash, Fitzwater &

Jain 1969), it was found that by administering the various dosages of

1080 by stomach tubes, its LD;, for desert gerbil was 0°6 mg./kg.

Keeping this in view, ber were soaked in solutions having 1080 to impreg-

nate 1, 1°5, 2 and 3 mg./kg. dosage in every ber. One each of poison-

1 Average Weight 32 gm,

276 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

impregnated ber of various dosages was given to 10 desert gerbils in indi-

vidual cages. The per cent kill and hours of death are presented in

Table 1. Although 100 per cent kill was observed when desert gerbils

fed ber having 1°5 mg./kg. dosage of 1080, hours to death extended up

to 48 hours but when ber were soaked to impregnate them with 3 mg./kg.

dosage, this time was reduced to 24 hours, the kill being 100 per cent.

Hence, this dosage was selected for further trials.

TABLE |

THE PER CENT KILL AND HOURS TO DEATH OF DESERT

GERBILS WHEN FED ON 1080 IMPREGNATED ber

Dosages of 1080 (mg./kg.) No. of animals % kill Hours to death

in which ber was soaked tried

1 10 80 18-48 hrs.

1-5 10 100 30-48,

2°0 10 90 -30-48 ,,

3°0 10 100 24

PROPORTION OF LETHAL AND UNPOISONED BER, AND KILL RATIOS

In the Laboratory: Poisoned Zizyphus fruits with 3 mg./kg. dosage

were mixed in three proportions with ordinary fruits: 1:4, 1:9 and

1 : 14 and each proportion was tried on ten desert gerbils. The results

are shown in Table 2.

TABLE 2

KILL PER CENT AND HOURS TO DEATH OF DESERT GERBILS WHEN FED ON

POISONED AND. UNPOISONED ber IN VARIOUS PROPORTIONS

Proportion of lethal No. of animals % kill Hours to death

and ordinary ber tried

1:4 10 90 24 hrs.

1:9 10 80 24 ,;

1:1

> 14 10 40 24

It is obvious that the per cent kill decreased with the increase inthe

proportion of unpoisoned ber in the one-shot baits in as much as that the

kill was only 40 per cent where 1 : 14 proportion of lethal and non-lethal

ber was tried. But in all the trials the rodents died within 24 hours which

further indicates the feasibility of impregnating the 3 mg./kg. dosage in

each ber.

Ri eeHE

ECO-TOXICOLOGY & CONTROL OF INDIAN DESERT GERBIL 277

In the Field: Results of field trials indicate that per cent kill of

desert gerbils was highest when lethal and unpoisoned ber were mixed in

the ratio of 1: 4(Table 3). The per cent kill of desert gerbils decreased

with the increase in the proportion of unpoisoned fruits which is in con-

formity with the results of experiment done in the laboratory. The

per cent kill values were transformed to the Arcsin scale and analysis of

variance was carried out but it was found that the differences between the

per cent kill due to lethal ber mixed with various proportions of

unpoisoned ones were not significant. However, the maximum kill was

observed in the ratio 1 : 4 and therefore, it will be appropriate to use this

proportion for field operations.

TABLE 3

SHOWING PER CENT KILL OF DESERT GERBILS IN FIELD WHEN POISON BAITING

WAS DONE WITH ONE LETHAL Zizyphus FRUIT IN VARIOUS PROPORTIONS OF

ORDINARY ONES

EEO

Habitat Proportions of lethal and unpoisoned

Zizyphus fruits and kill per cent

1:4 hg) 1:14

I 80 70 90

II 90 80 60

Ill 90 70 50

IV 70 80 50

Mean 82°5 75:0 62°5

EGONOMICS OF THE METHOD

~The shrub, Zizyphus nummularia ‘grows abundantly throughout the

desert region and the farmers can collect berries without incurring any

expenditure. The labour involved will be meagre as compared to other

methods (Chitty 1954; Prakash 1963 ; Srivastava 1966 ; Narayangowda

1966 and Batra 1966) which require prebaiting for 2-5 days before poison-

baiting for 1-3 days: as in one-shot baiting technique, both prebaiting

and poison-baiting are done simultaneously. The cost of poison required

for poisoning 100 desert gerbils per hectare will be only one Paisa. Sardar

Singh (1966) described the cost of anti-rat measures with various poisons

and by fumigation to be ranging from Rs. 0.62 to 15°78 per hectare.

Comparing these figures, the one-shot baiting technique will prove to be

the cheapest among the ones in vogue in India.

Pingale (1966) mentioned that about 300 gm. of food grains

are required for the control of each rodent. The one-shot baiting method

278 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

does not require any food grain for pre- or poison-baiting as it is based

on a wild growing fruit which is quite palatable to desert gerbils. Thus

this method will save a large amount of food grains for human consump-

tion which would have otherwise been utilised for baiting rodents. How-

ever, the poison 1080 is very toxic and, therefore, it should be used with

great care and should be handled only by trained personnel.

This method also opens avenues for trying different wild fruits for

baiting various rodent pests in India.

SUMMARY

One-shot baiting technique for the control of the Indian desert gerbil,

Meriones hurrianae Jerdon, is described. The method utilizes the fruits

of wild Zizyphus nummularia and does not involve any requirement of

food grains. In this method, air-dried fruits of Z. nummularia are soaked

in solution of Sodium mono-fluoroacetate (1080) impregnating a

3mg./kg. dosage in every fruit so as to make every one of them lethal to

desert gerbil. The lethal fruits are mixed with unpoisoned ones in the

proportion of 1: 4 and are placed inside the burrows of desert gerbils in

fields.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Thanks are due to Dr. G. C. Taneja, Director and Shri C. P. Bhimaya,

Ex-Director, for taking keen interest in the study ; and to Shri H.

P. Sharma, Junior Scientific Assistant for assistance.

REFERENCES

BATRA, H. N. (1966) : Results of rat rodent of desert grassland. Gosam-

control operations in Intensive Agri-

cultural Districts Programme. Proc.

Indian Rodent Symp. pp. 139-143.

Cutty, D. (1954): Control of rats

and mice. Oxford, Clarendon Press.

GoopiInc, C. D. (1961): One-shot

baiting—A recent development in rabbit

poisoning technique. Rabbit Control

Symp. Perth 2: 1-9.

NARAYANGOWDA, S. D. (1966): A

Short note on rodent control in Kolar

district, Mysore State, as part of the

plague control operations. Proc. Indian

Rodent Symp. pp. 291-299.

PINGALE, S. V. (1966): Studies on

development and control of rat popu-

lations. ibid. (In press).

PRAKASH, ISHWAR (1963) : Destructive

vardhana X1: 15-18.

PRAKASH, ISHWAR, PUROHIT, K.G. &

KAMETKAR, L. R. (1967) : Intake of seeds

of grass, shrub and tree species by three

species of gerbils in Rajasthan desert.

Indian For. 93: 801-805.

————., Firzwater, W. D. & JAIN,

A. P. (1969) : Toxic chemicals and baits

for the control of two gerbils, Meriones

hurrianae Jerdon and Tatera indica Hard-

wicke. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 66:

500-509.

SINGH, SARDAR (1966): Organisation

of Field rat control and its economics.

Proc. Indian Rodent Symp. pp. 305-314.

SRIVASTAVA, A. S. (1966) : Evolution,

development and standardisation of a

technique for the eradication of field

rats. ibid. pp. 283-290.

— ee ee ee - aa

A Catalogue of the Birds in the

Collection of the Bombay Natural

History Society—7

Scolopacinae (part), Phalaropinae, Rostratulidae,

Recurvirostridae, Dromadidae, Burhinidae, Glareolidae,

Stercorariidae, Laridae

HUMAYUN ABDULALI

ees from Vol. 67 (1): 56]

404 Capella solitaria solitaria (Hodgson) (Nepal) Eastern Solitary

Snipe 563257

15: 4.68. 3: 228-0?

3 Chitral, N.W.F.P.; 1 Patiala, 1 Dharmsala, Kangra ; 1 Srinagar, 1 Dabbian,

Lidar Valley, 1 Puga Valley, Rupshu ; 1 Mussoorie, 1 Almora ; 1 Lachung, N.

Sikkim ; 2 Balipara, 1 Shillong, 1 Manipur.

Wing Bill Tarsus Tail

$2 159-169 av.165 65-74 av. 70°6 32-35 av. 33°7 68-75 av. 71:6

(153-169) . (67-77) (c. 28-38) (55-63)

405 Capella nemoricola (Hodgson) (Nepal) Wood Snipe 6: 255

M21 Ss. 2-99. -1l.0?

1 Thana, 1 Talegaon, Poona; 1 Almora, U.P.; ee, Khasia Hills ; 1 Kaliawa, 7 Taung-

gyi, Upper Burma, 1 Burma.

The measurements differ from those in FAUNA quoted in INDIAN

HANDBOOK.

Wing Bill Tarsus Tail

38 139-152 av. 145 64-72 av. 67°5 35-38 av. 36 49-62 av. 54

(133-141) (61-67) (c. 30-36) (63-74)

406 Capella stenura (Bonaparte) (Sunda Islands) Pintail Snipe

6 : 263 |

B= 9 SS'C10 OP: 80?

3 Bombay, 2 Thana, 1 Panvel, Sisal: 2 Karwar, 1 Bangalore; 1 Gudalur,

Nilgiris; 1 Muthukuzhi, 5 Tenmalai, 1 Thekkady, Periyar Lake, Kerala; 1 Bakhri,

Monghyr, Bihar ; 1 Birbhum, 1 Calcutta Market, Bengal; 1 Khetri, Assam ;

2 Andamans ; 2 Sagaing, Upper Burma, | Klongyai, S.E. Siam.

5S of them (Bombay, Panvel, Ratnagiri, Assam, and Burma) are

_ isabelline in colour with varying degrees of markings on the upper parts.

[119]

as.

280 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

Another from Bangalore (No. 14952) has the markings all over very much

paler than in the norma! plumage.

bd oo

Wing 128-139 av. 132 129-137 av. 133°7

(125-134) - (130-138)

Bill 56-65 av. 61 59-71 av. 63°7

(57-61) (59-64)

Tarsus 30-33 av. 31°6 32-36 av. 33°9

) (3 2 32-36)

Tail 44-50 av. 47 46-50 av. 47°3

($2 45-52)

In some specimens the bill is appreciably longer than accepted in

IND. HANDBOOK quoting from Stuart Baker.

407 Capella megala (Swinhoe) (Between Takoo and Peking, China)

Swinhoe’s Snipe 6: 264

8 1375 22 20?

1 Malangad, 1 Thana, Bombay; 1 Walmer, Nilgiris; 2 Tindivanam, S.I.; 1 Tharra-

wady, Lower Burma;1 Ampang, near Kuala Lumpur, Malaya; 1 Temple of

Heaven, Peking, China.

Wing Bill Tarsus Tail

be 135-144 av. 140 64(3), 66 33-37 av. 35°5 51-60

(128-139 Baker, (59-74 ; 61-72) (c. 32-34 ; 33-35 5 (52-57 ; 55-62)

142-151 La Touche) . 37, 38)

See Miscellaneous Note, JBNHS 67: 108. One more specimen,

obtained in 1952 and put aside for confirmation, was discovered after

the publication of this note. Except fora5l mm. tail, the measure-

ments are within the limits indicated in my note.

408 Capella media (Latham) (England) Great Snipe 6: 261

9: 1g:4 22, 407

1 Basra, Mesopotamia; 5 Katunak, near Shiraz ; | Bangalore; 1 Walmer, Nilgiris;

1 Moulmein, Burma.

Wing Bill Tarsus Tail

$2 138 (frayed)-150 av. 143°7 60(2),62,66 32-40 av.36 50-57 av. 54:2

(139-150) (57-69) (3 33-37) (3 51-59)

See Miscellaneous Note JBNHS 67: 109.

409 Capella gallinago gallinago (Linnaeus) (Sweden) Common or

Fantail Snipe LiF tg 6: 259

35:11 gs 18 22 60? (2 albinoids) :

1 Hawi Plain, Samara, 1 Mesopotamia; 2 Shiraz, 1 Arabistan; 1 Chitral,

1 N.W.F.P.; 1 Darazpur, Ambala, Punjab ; 2 Kohistan, 1 Pithora, Sind; 1

Jaipur ; 1 Dhari, Amreli, 1 Kaira District ; 4 Nasik Dist. ; 2 near Bombay, 3

Thana, 2 Panvel, 1 Alibag, Kolaba ; 2 Karwar, 1 Bangalore; 3 Bakhri, Monghyr;

1 Calcutta Market ; 1 Prome Dist.; 1 Bangkok. .

No. 14951 (Bangalore) and 19434 (Bombay) are albinoid with a buffish

wash all over, generally similar to the albinoid C. stenura.

| 120]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION—17 281

Wing Bill - Tarsus Tail.

83 129-136 av. 132 64-71 av. 66°5 31-34 av. 32°7 57-65 av. 59°7

(128-138) (60-71°5) (29-33) . (53-61)

@©@ 128-137 av. 133°4 62-72 av. 63 31-36 av. 33°3 53-60 av. 55°6

(130-140) (64-73)

The outermost tail feathers are tipped with white Gustead of brown)

in 7 of the 11 males and in only one of the 18 females.

41@ Capella minima (Briinnich) (E. Christians6, Denmark) Jack Snipe

6: 265

20:4336. 14 92 2 0? (1 albinoid, 1 melanistic)

1 Thar and Parkar ; 1 Ambala, Punjab ; 1 Chaduva, Kutch; 1 Jaipur; 1 Kaira

District ; 2 Ghoti, 3 Thana; 1 Kalianpur, Cawnpur, 6 Meerut; 1 Tirhut,

1 Bakhri, Monghyr ; 1 no locality, albinoid.

Wing Bill Tarsus Tail

3d 111, 114, 115, 116 38, 39, 39,41 = 23, 23, 24, 24 47, 48, 49, 49 ©

(108-117) (39-41) (23-25) (46-51)

QQ 106-113 av. 108 38-43 av. 40°6 23-25 42-52 av. 47

~ (107-115) (40-43) — —

411 Scolopax rusticola rusticola Linnaeus (Sweden) Woodcock 6 : 252

15:733 8 2@ (also 2 pairs wings only, 1 Chitral and 1 Assam)

(a) 2 Bandar-e-Gaz, near Astrabad, Caspian Province ; 1 Birjand, Persia; 1 Kilia,

1 Drosh, 2 Chitral, N.W.F.P. ; 1 Katha Dist., Upper Burma.

(b) 2 Simla, 1 Palanpur ; 1 Ootacamund, Nilgiris ; 2 Lobha, Garhwal; 1 Temi,

West Sikkim ; 1 Laitlyngkot, Assam, 1 Chin Hills.

The material available falls into two distinct groups which I have

listed separately above. The birds in group (a) are paler above, while

those in group (b) show darker and more pronounced barrings with the

pale interspaces less white. The rufous on the upper tail coverts is also

appreciably deeper thaninthe western birds. Keeping both sexes together

they measure | ;

Wing Bill Tarsus Tail

(a) 193-207 av. 200°7 69-80 av. 74°5 36-41 av. 38°7 74-87 av. 82

(b) 192-197 av. 195 72-81 av. 76 36-41 av.38 71-85 av. 81

(184-208) (67-80) (34-38) (71-82)

Except for one bird from the Chin Hills, group (a) lies west of group

(b). The pair of wings from Assam are notice phy darker than any of the

others.

_ I would have been inclined to consider recognition of Hodgson’s

indicus from Nepal and/or Koelz’s ul/imus from Sangau, Lushai Hills,

had not both forms been so positively ignored in recent literature. I

trust that somebody with more material available for examination will

examine this matter more closely. .

10 ie int

282 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

412 Calidris canutus canutus (Linnaeus) (Sweden) Knot 8 : 698

2:12 10? Point Calimere, Thanjavur Dist., Tamil Nadu.

Though there is a single record for Ceylon, these specimens obtained

by the B.N.H.S. Bird Ringing Camp considerably extend the known

range of this species.

413 Calidris tenuirostris (Horsfield) (Java) Eastern Knot 6: 243

1Q Muthupet, Thanjavur Dist., Tamil Nadu.

Wing 178 (165-185) ; bill 44 (39-47); tarsus 34 (34-38) ; tail 66 (63-69).

This bird obtained by the B.N.H.S. Bird Ringing Camp is also a

valuable record. The map in IND. HANDBOOK (2 : 291) appears to indi-

cate that there are many records from the east coast, but I cannot

trace any earlier ones. Jerdon’s record for Madras may refer either to

this species or canutus (Whistler, JBNH'S 39 : 258)

414 Calidris albus (Pallas) (Coast of the North Sea) Sanderling 6 : 231

A Bag Ok ae 2

1 Charbar, 1 Tanb Island, Persian Gulf ; 1 Karachi ; 1 Gorai, Bombay.

Wing 119, 121, 121, 123, (¢2 117-130)

Bill 22, 23, 24, 27, ($ 2 23-29)

Tarsus 23, 25(3) (62 22-26)

Tail 47, 47, 48, 52, (3 2 46-55)

415 Calidris ruficollis (Pallas) (Southern Transbaikalia) Eastern

Little Stint poctenrers ae |

3:1 2 Chilka Lake, Orissa; 13 1 9, Osaka, Japan. :

Sp. No. 14793 collected by Maj. H. J. Walton at Chilka Lake on 10th

June 1902 is marked Tringa ruficollis but being indistinguishable in

colour from Calidris minutus has remained under that name. However,

its 112 mm. wing and 21 mm. bill from feathers are both noticeably larger

than in minutus (90-102 and 17-20). Though presumably recorded from

the Andaman and Nicobar Islands (JBNHS 61: 519)! and ‘ occasional

specimens appear to be found in India, west of the Bay of Bengal’

(Blanford 4 : 274), I cannot trace any specific published records from the

Indian continent, whence it is omitted in the SYNOPSIS. In IND. HANDBOOK |

(2: 301) it is said to have been recorded from Rameshwaram Island |

Tamil Nadu. |

: |

416 Calidris minutus (Leisler) (Hanau am Main, Germany) Little |

Stint 6: 234 |

63:2788 2692 100? 7 |

2 Baghdad; 3 Pushtkuh Khasan; 1 Baluchistan; 1 Chitral; 4 Kandla, Kutch; |

25 Bombay, 7 Thana, 6 Kolaba ;.1 Pt. Calimere, Tamil Nadu ; 3 Chilka Lake, |

. Orissa; .1 Meerut, U. P.; 4 Darbhanga, 2 Bakhri, Bihar; 2 Calcutta Market;

1 Henzada, Burma. | : |

1 See also JBNHS 64: 162.

[ 122]

are a er a

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST, SOCIETY COLLECTION-~-7 283

417 Calidris temminckii (Leisler) (Hanau am Main, Germany)

Temminck’s Stint 6 : 237

D666. 9.29)..60?

2 Mesopotamia; 1 Ladak; 1 Sind ; 6 Bombay ; 1 Cawnpore ; 2 Calcutta Market ;

1 Rajputee, 3 Monghyr, Bihar ; 2 Burma ; 2 China.

418 Calidiis subminutus (Middendorff) (Western slopes of the Stanovoi

Mountains and mouth of the Uda) Longtoed Stint 6 : 236

8:25d 699

1 Bakhri, Monghyr District, Bihar ; 1 Calcutta Market; 4 Port Blair, Andamans ;

1 Hsipaw, Shan States, 1 Kyethe, Prome District, Burma.

Wing 3d 87,91 29 89-98 av.92°6 (32 87-95)

Bill g217-20 av. 19 (17-19)

419 Calidris acuminatus (Horsfield) (Java) Asian Sharptailed Sand-

piper 6 : 239

Dee ae FO?

1 Tientsin, China, 4th May 1901 ; | Osaka, Japan.

420 Calidris alpinus alpinus (Linnaeus) (Lapland) Dunlin 6: 241

nil.

421 Calidris alpinus centralis (Buturlin) (Yakutsk, eastern Siberia)

BLISS 9.29202

1 Abadi, 1 Amara, 1 Sheik Saad, 1 Hawi Plain, Mesopotamia; 1 Charbar,1 Sanauch,

Persian Gulf; 4 Pasni, 1 Baluchistan; 2 Karachi; 1 Kandla, Kutch ; 2 Salsette,

Bombay, 1 Panvel, 4 Rewas, Kolaba ; 1 Calcutta Market.

Wing Bill Tarsus Tail

bd 112-119 av. 116 31-38 av.33 22-28 av. 24:5 44-51 av. 48°5

Ticehurst (Sind) 112-121 29-36 24-27 _—

BR. HANDBOOK 111-116 28°5-31 vi 23-29 48-52

ene) 114-122 av. 116°4 31-38 av.34 24-26 47-55 av. 50

Ticehurst (Sind) 116-123 34-39 25-27 —

BR. HANDBOOK 116-119 31-34°5 23-25°5 =

Stuart Baker referred only to the nominate form from Indian limits.

Later Buturlin (1932, Alauda 4: 265) when describing centralis suggested

that it (centralis) may winter in India. Witherby (BR. HANDBOOK 1940)

did not accept this form as separable from the nominate, but Ripley and

Sdlim Ali (SYNOPSIS & IND. HANDBOOK) have again, with no definite identi-

fications, agreed that it may occur in India.

The measurements of the present series as also those of the birds

from Sind measured by Ticehurst are generally larger, particularly as to

the wing and bill, than those of C. a. alpinus and of C. a. centralis (which

presumably does not differ in size from C. a. alpinus) ; also, none of the

specimens in the present series shows ‘a brownish, and not white outer

web to the outer secondaries’ as is said to occur in centralis. Martti

Soikkeli [On the variation in bill-and wing- length of the Dunlin (Calidris

284 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 63 (2)

alpina) in Europe (1966, Bird Study 13: (3) 256-259)] considers the mean

‘bill-lengths over a large number as 31°4:mm. in males and 34:2 in females,

and stresses the existence of a 3°9 + 0:2 mm. difference in size between

the bill measurements of sexes. This difference does not show in Indian

material. Oat

It could appear that this matter requires a closer snare with

4 oe pee ay

more material, particularly from eastern India. I have for the moment

queried the subspecific identification of both the races. IND. HANDBOOK

(2 : 310) has a typographical error in quoting Hartert’s measurements of

the wing of the race (sakhalina) showing 177-123 instead of 117-123.

EL Calidris alpinus schinzii (Brehm) (Ragen, Germany) Dunlin

1 3 in breeding plumage, Rossiten.

422 Calidris testaceus (Pallas) (Holland) Curlew-Sandpiper 6 : 224

13° 5°68 72 Ooo tio?

4 Kandla, Kutch ; 1 Bassein, 3 Gorai Washi, Bombay ; 2 Chilka Lake, Orissa ;

1 Calcutta Market ; 2 Tientsin, China.

. Wing Bill _ Tarsus. Tail

— Se 125-133 33-40 29-33 43-57

(124-137) (37-45 from skull) (28-32) (43-52)

Of the seven in breeding plumage the two from Tientsin appear

darker above than the others.

423 Eurynorhynchus pygmeum (Linnaeus) (Eastern Asia) Spoonbilled

Sandpiper 6: 232

nil.

424 Limicola falcinellus falcinellus ononp et (Denmark) Broad-

billed Sandpiper 6: 245

nil.

425 Limicola falcinellus sibirica Eves (Siberia and China) Basten

Broadbilled Sandpiper 6: 246

41:5gg 392 302 (No. 14862 Dharamtar Creek, missing)

2 R. Rohtak, near Sib, Persian Baluchistan; 1 Pasni, Baluchistan ; 1 Karachi;

5 Salsette, Bombay, 1 Rewas, 1 Dharamtar Creek, Kolaba.

Wing _ Bill Tarsus a: Tail

SS 99-107 av. 103°4 28-32 av.29°6 21-22 35-39 av. 37°4

22 105, 106, 110 31, 31, 34 228 28iges 36, 38, 38

($2 101-113 30-36. . 20-23 35-42)

Seven (Sth August to Ist September) are in breeding plumage. Two

obtained near Bombay on 5th. and. 28th August appear darker above

than the others, suggesting the nominate race, which would make others

obtained in the same area in different years sibirica. Without definitely

[ 124] ,

— a, ae

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST, SOCIETY COLLECTION--7 285

named specimens in similar plumage, the subspecific identity will have to

remain undetermined.

The bird from Karachi collected by J. A. ae in 1877, was listed

as-a Jack Snipe (Gallinago gallinula)!

425a Tryngites subruficolis (Vieillot) (Paraguay) Buffbreasted

Sandpiper. _ eae

426 Philomachus pugnax (Linnaeus) (Soutient Sweden) Ruff 6: 228

87:24 ss ASL (8 by wing size)

1 Western Europe; 2 Baghdad, 1 Mesopotamia ; 1 Sib, Persian Baluchistan ;

1 Baluchistan; 1 Sind ; 3 Ambala; 1 Bahawalpur ; 1 Delhi; 4 Bharatpur, 3 Jaipur ;

~ 1. Gwalior, M.P. ; 4 Nasik, 1 Bhyander, Bombay, 2 Panvel, 1 Alibag, Kolaba ;

1 Gundlupet, A cone: ; 1 Baghowni, 1 Tirhut, 1 ee ae 1 Gonda,

2 Kalianpur, Cawnpur ; 2 Calcutta Market.

peat hok:, 2 cas Wing - Mo Bilt Tarsus Tail .

WSS. - © = 179-194 av. 185°5 33-40 av.35 46-50 av.48 63-71 av. 66

So FAUNA - -173-190 _ 30-36 2 46-50 . 78-89*

- $$ BR. HAND. 186-198 34-38 45:5-52 61-68 -

12 29 144-157 av. 152 29-32 av. 30°3 37-43 av.40 50-59 av. 54

O° FAUNA 150-166 29-31 41-44 64-70

29 BR. HAND. 149°5-163 29°5-33 —_ —

The wing measurements of the males and females appear mutually

exclusive, and two of each sex which do not fit in have been excluded as

being presumably wrongly sexed. The only male from Europe is in

breeding plumage and has the bill appreciably larger than in the-others

(40 mm. cf. 33-36 av. 34°8). Part of this disparity may be due to reces-

sion of the feathering on the forehead.

The tail measurements for both sexes, reproduced in IND. HANDBOOK

from the FAUNA, appear to be completely out.

427 Phalaropus fulicarius paar (Hudson aS Grey aaah

§: 248

ties

i Phalaropusl lobatus (Linnaeus) (Hudson Bay) ads Phalarope

1G 249

So-3ac- 5 99 10?

1 Sib 3630’, Persian Baluchistan ; 1 Gane 3200’, 2 Manguli2500’, 2 Drakalo 4000’,

- Baluchistan ; 1 Chitral, N.W.F.P. ; 1 Bhavnagar, 1 off Rann of Kutch. —

Wing Billie wines) Tarsusas ee ais: ©

33 103, 108, 111 23, 24 20, 21-22. 44, 48, 50.

(106-110). (20-24) (19-20). (43-47)

29 105-111 av.106°8 20-24 av. 21:5 19-21 av. 19: * a a av. ous 4

(112-118) (20-25) —

The measurements in IND. HANDBOOK (2 : 325) reproduced from BR.

286 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

HANDBOOK (4: 222) indicate that the female is larger, but the present

small series does not support this.

429 Rostratula benghalensis benghalensis (Linnaeus) (Asia) Painted

Snipe 6:45

40:1633 1822 60? (2 pull.).

1 Rawalpindi, 1 Campbellpore, 4 Ambala, Punjab; 1 Thar Parkar, Sind;

1 Bharatpur; 1 Jhansi, C.P.; 7 Thana, 7 Bombay, 5 Panvel; 2 Karwar,

N. Kanara; 5 Darbhanga, Bihar; 2 Calcutta Market; 1 Prome District,

Burma ; 2 Japan.

Two in female plumage are marked 3, but are probably wrongly sexed.

430 Himantopus himantopus himantopus (Linnaeus) (Southern Europe)

Indian Blackwinged Stilt 6: 193

27: 1566 1022 20? 41 chick):

1 Amara, 1 Beled (?), Mesopotamia ; 1 Charbar, Persian Gulf; 1 Homa Lake,

Persia ; 1 Hajergang, Baluchistan ; 1 Gyantse (13,000’ ), Tibet ; 5 Pithoro, Sind ;

1 Kharirohar, 1 Mandvi, Kutch ; 1 Patan, Jaipur; 1 Delhi; 1 Dabka, Gujarat ;

3 Bombay ; 2 Thana ; 4 Tamarakulam 1100’, Palnis ; 1 Wangalu Tank, Nellore,

A.P.; 1 Kanpur.

3d ee

Wing 211-249 av. 235°5 215-242 av. 228

(240-253 ; 32 222-253) (222-240)

(ceylonensis 233-249) (ceylonensis 230-234)

Bill 57-69 av. 63 60-71 av. 65

(60-69) (54-69)

(ceylonensis 62-74 from skull) (ceylonensis 64°5-70 from skull)

Tarsus 108-136 av. 123°5 108-126 av. 120°5

(115-145) —

(ceylonensis 110-124) (ceylonensis 107-120)

Tail 76-89 av. 82°7 76-89 av. 79°5

(80-90) His

-(ceylonensis 73-85) (ceylonensis 73-80°5)

In 1951 (JBNHS 49 : 789-790), when recording the nesting of the stilt

near Bombay, I drew attention to the fact that both parents had white

heads (which were common in photographs of nesting birds in India and

elsewhere)—a character on which Whistler had described ceylonensis

from Ceylon. The race is accepted in IND. HANDBOOK (2: 331)

presumably for the same character.

Dementiev in BIRDS OF SOVIET UNION (1969, English translation, 3 : 309)

refers to the black tones growing purer and the head whiter, with age, and

this may be the correct explanation.

The distributional map in IND. HANDBOOK also excludes H. h. himan-

topus from an unnecessarily large area in western India,

[ 126]

77 Sie

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HiST. SOCIETY COLLECTION--7 287

431 Himantopus himantopus ceylonensis Whistler (Kalawewa, Ceylon)

Ceylon Blackwinged Stilt

nil.

No specimens are available in our collection and, in an attempt to

clarify the position mentioned under the nominate form, I requested the

British Museum (Natural History) to lend me material from Ceylon.

They have been good enough to send me 4 specimens which do not differ

from Indian birds in size and colour, except that the 3 adults (9 24 July,

gd 12 November, and 2 5 December) have almost pure white heads

against only two (both Kutch, g 12 March, and 2 28 July) among the

Indian specimens listed above.

One of the females is blackish, metallic green above, and, like Indian

birds, this character does not appear to be confined to the males.

The juvenile with its wings and bill not yet fully grown shows dark

grey on the head.

432 Recurvirostra avosetta Linnaeus (Italy) Avocet Gpp)95

8:43¢ 12 30?

2 Amara, Iraq ; | Bassein, 1 Bhyander, Thana ; 3 Kolaba ; 1 Tirhut, Bihar.

Wing | Bill Tarsus Tail

ao 220, 2215 225,232 85, others broken 89, 91(2), 95 81(2), 83, 90

2 yy) si 81 76

(S¢ 220-235 84-91 c. 84-90 86-96)

None of the specimens show a jet black head, as dark as the colour

on the wing ; the darkest was collected on 23 September, the others

November to February.

433 Ibidorhyncha struthersii Vigors (Himalayes) Ibisbill 6: 196

6:1g¢ 12 40? 2imm. without black heads and chins.

1 Peshawar Valley, N.W.F.P.; 1 Garhwal, U.P. ; 1 Sikkim ; 1 Dafla Hills, Assam ;

1 Kashgar 4400’, 1 Peking Market, China.

362 Wing 234, 235, 243, 248 (230-245)

Bill 70, 72, 73, 84 (68-80)

_ Tarsus 46, 48, 49, 51 (c. 47-49)

434 Dromas ardeola Paykull (India) Crab Plover 6:94

5:3 gs 2°99. |

1* Warba Island, 1 Buna Is. Persian Gulf ; 2 Pt. Calimere, Thanjavur Dist., Tamil

Nadu, 1 N. Button Island, Middle Andamans.

Wing Bill Tarsus

$3 220(3)* (202-225) 59, 62, 64* (55-61) 90, 92, 95* |

: 88-100

Qe 209, 215 (201-216) 55, 58 (54-56) 90, 91

Tail

63, 66*, 70)

64-76

08,735 J

[ 127]

288 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

435 Burhinus oedicnemus saharae (Reichenow) (Tunis) Persian Stone

Curlew OS EL TG gg.

4:18 30?

1 Lake Akkakurf, 1 (No. 14051) Shat-el-Adhain, R. Tigris, Iraq; 1 Frontier of

Arabistan (Khuzistan) ; 1 Gili (Jau) 190 m. southwest of Kalat, Baluchistan.

These birds are pale and rufcus above, being very distinct from those

from India under indicus. In addition to their larger wing 230, 236, 250,

252 (IH 228-244) cf. 206-222 av. 213 (1H 203-222), they differ in having

the white edge to the first primary noticeably longer (62-75 mm.).than in

Indian birds (25-5 av. 36). , :

The specimen from Gili is the easternmost record of saharae and the

material available does not support the statement in IND. HANDBOOK that

this form is resident in Kutch and Gujerat.

This race is actually paler and more buff than indicus and the key in

IND. HANDBOOK (3 : 1) appears to err in stating that it is Jess buff.

436 Burhinus oedicnemus indicus (Salvadori) (Himaiayas, i.e. north

India) Indian Stone Curlew ~ OG Te

1235667652 9)) Mo?

1 Bharatpur, Rajasthan; 1 Bhuj, 1 Nadiad, Gujerat; 1 Sanchi, Bhopal,

1 Gonda, M.P.; 1 Bulandshahr, U.P. ; 1 East Khandesh, 1 Karjat, Kolaba ;

2 Bellary, 1 Salein, Tamil Nadu ; 1 a

The birds from Kutch and Gujerat show tinges of rufous but are cer-

tainly very different from saharae. I would have included them with

harterti (2) but, being appreciably smaller (wings g 223 9 210) and lacking

the large white border to the first primary, they are for the moment left

with this form. The male from Bharatpur (wing 221) is typical indicus.

EL Burhinus oedicnemus harterti Vaurie (Kafir Qala, northeastern

Ve northeastern Iran)

is) to Cu tov

; Shat-el-Adhain (No. 14052), 1 Sheik Saud. Viceapdinetie 1 Shustar, Iran.

These differ from birds listed under saharae in their upper parts being

darker and very similar to indicus, except that two have larger wings (230,

245) and longer white edges to the primary (63, 75). The third, a male

from Sheik Saad has a 217 mm. wing and also a small 30 mm. white edge

to the first primary. The Mesopotamian birds were both obtained in

October and may well be winter migrants.

437 Esacus magnirostris recurvirostris (Cuvier) (Nepal) Great Stone

Plover 6:80

6:33¢ 3 29. a

1 Indus River, 1 Madhupur, Punjab; 1 Mandvi, Kutch : 1 ae: U.P

1 Daspalla, Orissa ; 1 Panvel, Kolaba, Maharashtra.

[ 128]

eee

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION—7 _ 289

Oe tree si he Wes ches sees Bille 24) Tail

“SQ . 258-273 av.263 72-78. av. 74 112-119 av. 115

aie 052-273) ~ (14-87) | mae

The. pelted appearance of the billis greatly accentuated by the shape

of the lower mandible. The Shape of the whole bill is different from

that-cf the nominate form.

438 Esacus magnirostris magnirostris (Vicillot) (Australia) Australian

Stone Plover | 6:81

1 2 North Button Island, Ritchie’s Archipelago, ee

Wing 270 (266-277) ; bill 77 (76-82) ; tail 113 ; tarsus 81 (80-84).

439 Cursorius cursor cursor (Latham) (Kent) Creamcoloured Courser

6:85

- 11:586 522 10? Gjuv.).

1 Felujah, R. Tigris, Mesopotamia ; 1 Shaiba, Saudi Arabia ; 1 Shuster, S. Persia ;

2 Pirandar, 2000 ’, c. 190 m. SSW. of Kalat, 1 Chad, 5350’, 58 m. south of Kalat,

1 Kojdar, 27°48’ N.; 66°36’ E., Baluchistan; 1 Harunabad, Bahawalpur,

Punjab ; 1 Khavda, Kutch, | Palanpur, | Patan, Mehsana, Gujerat.

In addition to traces of barring on the back and the absence of grey

on head, the four juveniles have white tips to the inner primaries, which

are all black in the adults.

Among the adults the single specimen from Mesopotamia appears

paler above than any of the others. It may be worth noting that Vaurie

(1965 p. 452) accepts bogolubovi Zarudny as the form visiting our area, but

the description of this form in BIRDS OF SOVIET UNION (3: re does not

agree with any of the specimens. |

Wing | Bill Tarsus ae Val

Sh 156, 164, 165 BR ae 32558509 60, 64, 66

CH 160-171)

92 158, 160,162,164 23, 25(2), 26 53; D200, 37. 63(2), 64, 65

(1H 162-166) : i

($2 150-171 21-26 55-60 58-72)

440 Cursorius coromandelicus (Gmelin) (Coromandel Coast) Indian

Courser Whe 6: 66

P2029 33° 8 99 SFO: Te (2 juve e

1 Jullunder, 2 Ambala, Punjab ; 4 Kutch; 1 Karaghoda, 1 Rajkot, 1 Kodinar,

1 Deesa_;.1 Sinnar, Nasik, 1 Atgaon, Thana, 1 Andheri, Salsette, 1 Kirkee, Poona:

1 Dharwar, Mysore; 1 Bina, C.P.; 1 Rajputtee, Chupra, 2 Baghowni, Tirhut,

Bihar.

Pees ce Wines 22000 fu BHP. Cs. - . Tarsus io Pal poo

38 137-151 av. 146°4 19-22 av.20. 49-55 av.51°6 50-61 av. 54

92 147-162 av. 155°5 19-21 av. 20°6 48-58 av. 52°7 55-61 av. 57

(mz ¢9,143-163 23-30 (from 49-57 45-64]

skull)

( 129]

290. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

Some specimens have darker heads than others but it is not possible

to associate this with sex, season, or place of origin. No. 14092 a female

from Kutch is a partial albino, having most of its wing quills white and

paler underparts.

441 Cursorius bitorquatus (Blyth) (Eastern Ghats) Jerdon’s Courser

| 6: 88

nil.

442 Glareola pratincola pratincola (Linnaeus) (Austria) Collared

Pratincole | 6: 89

1122636 12°92 2708:

2 Sera Tigris, 2 Feluja, Euphrates, Mesopotamia; 2 Ahwaz, Iran ; 1 Peshawar ; 1

Karachi ; 2 Coimbatore ; 1 no locality.

443 Glareola pratincola maldivarum J. R. Forster (Open sea in the

latitude of the Maldive Islands) Large Indian Pratincole 6: 90

SS ae eo?

3 Bhavnagar, Gujerat; 2 Bhyander, Bombay ; 1 Haphlong, Cachar; 1 Car

Nicobar ; 1 Mandalay, Burma.

Though Vaurie (p. 453/4) treats maldivarum as a separate species from

pratincola it is not easy to tellthem apart. In my Nicobar paper (JBNHS

64: 163) I referred to differences in the colour of the shaft of the first

primary, but I am afraid this was in error, and this is not an infallible

index.

444 Glareola lactea Temminck (Bengal) Small Indian Pratincole 6 : 92

24:833 1322 30? (4 juveniles*).

2 Madhopur, Gurdaspur, Punjab ; 1 Bulandshahr, U.P.; 1 Calcutta Market * ;

2 Nasik, 3 Panvel*, 4 Khangaon, Dhond, Maharashtra ; 3 Godavari Delta,

Andhra; 2 Chupra, Bihar ; 2 Orissa ; 1 Margherita, Assam ; 1 Prome, 2 Chindwin,

Burma.

The males (153-162 av. 156°5) have slightly larger wings than the

females (142-158 av. 149°5).

Three juveniles shot out of one flock have varying traces of spots on the |

throat and are greyer, less sandy above than the others. The last

character may be due to foxing, for those most recently obtained are the

greyest.

EL Glareola nordmanni Fischer (Steppes of southern Russia)

20? Feluja, R. Tigris, Mesopotamia.

These specimens constitute the only records of this species from Iraq—

see Marchant (1963) Bull. B.O.C. 83 : 52.

445 Catharacta skua antarctica (Lesson) (Falkland Islands) Antarctic

Skua

anil:

[ 130] ~

‘

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION— ‘7 = 291

446 Catharacta skua lonnbergi Mathews (New Zealand Seas) Brown

or Great Skua.

14 Malwan Coast, Ratnagiri Dist.

Wing c. 400 (397-400) ; bill 53 (53-58) ; tarsus 70 (70-79) ; tail 145 broken.

This was separated from antarctica ‘ by its much larger size : wing

433 mm.’ ; I cannot reconcile this with the specimen, which is accepted

as of this race both in SYNOPSIS and INDIAN HANDBOOK (3: 19).

446a Catharacta skua maccormicki (Saunders) (Possession Island,

Victoria Land) South Polar Skua.

1 0? Udipi, South Kanara.

Wing 377 (1H 390-410) ; bill 49 (IH 47-52) ; tarsus 59 (IH 62-66) ; tail 152.

This specimen which is the only record from India was ringed in the

Antarctic as of this race (JBNHS 62 : 565) but the wing and tarsus are

smaller than indicated for this race in IND. HANDBOOK (3: 18). It is

noteworthy that one of the Ceylon specimens originally identified as

maccormicki was said to be antarctica (SYNOPSIS p. 138) but is now again

listed in this group.

447 Stercorarius pomarinus (Temminck) (Arctic regions of Europe)

Pomatorhine Skua or Jaeger 6: 98

nil.

448 Stercorarius parasiticus (Linnaeus) (Coast of Sweden) Richardson’s

Skua

nil.

449 Larus hemprichii Bruch (Red Sea) Sooty Gull 6: 104

4:346¢ 19.

2 Aden, 1 Muscat, Arabia ; 1 Astola Is., Persian Gulf.

Wing Bill Tarsus Tail

SS 315, 336, 347 48, 49, 51 \3 595.55 112, 129

OSI | 45 51 114

( ¢ 320-348 43-48 50-58 139-159)

450 Larus argentatus heuglini Bree het Somaliland) Yellowlegged

Herring Gull 6: 107

5:13 4222 Bombay Harbour.

All are in adult plumage with all-white tails and yellow bills with very

- faint markings towards the tip. They are a darker grey above than the

adult under the next form. Birds in immature plumage are possibly

included in the latter.

Wing Bill Tarsus Tail

1g 440 59 64 169

4292 410, 422, 434(2) 51(2), 55,62 62(2), 65, 66 159, 163, 165, 167

(3 ¢ tH 415-450 49-63 62-77 158-180)

[131]

292. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

451 Larus argentatus mongolicus Sushkin (Uriug-noor, NW. Mongolia)

Pinklegged Herring Gull 6: 109

: 7 (part)

Adult 3: 1g Bombay Harbour; 1 2 off Bombay; 10? Chitral, N.W.F.P.

_ Immature 8:4g¢ 3 22 10? (These may include specimens of other races).

1 near Kiti, 1 Karachi, Sind ; 1 Bombay, 4 Bombay Harbour, 1 off Bombay.

Those in adult plumage have the upper parts a lighter grey than in

the last. The bird from Chitral is the palest, has the outer primary

moulting and a short (51 mm.) and slender bill. No. 20879 collected off

Bombay, (Wing 401 + moulting, 61, 68, 165) is light grey above but has a

greenish-yellow bill marked with black towards the tip and with central

tail feathers not pure white but as in 3rd winter birds of the nominate race

(BR. HANDBOOK 5 : 92).

Wing Bill Tarsus Tail

Adult ¢ 422 59 66 167

Imm. ¢3 441, 447,465,466 53, 54,57,58 ~ 67, 68,69, 70 157, 169, 174, ie

Adult 2 401 moulting 61 68 165

Imm. 22 412, 415, 424 51, 52, 54 61, 64, 65 146, 154,159 -

(1H ex Stegemann BL Dn eee

ad. and imm.

435-480 av. 462 — 63-75 Hee

There is considerable variation in size and colour. The grey adults

of these two races were listed under L. fuscus while three specimens of

L. ichthyaetus and one bird yet unidentified (No. 14188 Bushire) were

included in this species. In the dry stage all the specimens appear to

have yellowish legs and feet rather than pale fleshy pink or bluish as

required in Vaurie (1965 p. 472). Asis generally admitted, further su

of this. group is necessary.

452 Larus fuscus fuscus Linnaeus (Sweden) Lesser Blackbacked Gull

6: 107

As mentioned above, the specimens listed under this species have been

found to be adults of Larus argentatus of two races. i

453 Larus ichthyaetus Pallas (Caspian pea) te NESE Gull

Oa: 101

7:16 292 40 ) (3 with black heads and all white tails). _

2 Bhavnagar, Gujerat ; 1 Trombay Is., Bombay ; 1 Kedra, Kanara ;3 Kerala.

- While many wing tips are broken, the largest isa ¢ from-Trivandrum,

Kerala, in non-breeding plumage which measures 461 cf. 475-510 ae

HANDBOOK 5 : 76). se Sie.

454 Larus brunnicephalus Jerdon (West coast of Indian Peninsulel # |

Brownheaded Gull es 6:103

18:8d$ 422 602 (5 brown-headed ; 4immature; with brown band on tail), |

1 Sheik Saad; 1 Bagor, Indus River ; 1 Kutch ; 1 Nasik, 4, Bombay, 1 Ratnagiri, |

[ 132]

eet wa NE

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION--7 293

_ 1 Honavar ; 1. Cannanore ; 1 Kayamkulam, 1 Neendakara, Kerala ; 1 Orissa ;

1 Tirhut, 2 Darbhanga, Bihar ; | Benares, U.P.

The immature birds with brown bands on the tail have chit primaries

all-black and do not show the ‘ mirror’ which identifies the adults.

455 Larus ridibundus ridibundus Linnaeus (European seas—England)

- Blackheaded Gull ts 6: 102

22:935 822 50? (8 immature, with band on tail).

1 Holland; 4 Sheik Saad ;2 Muscat ; 1 Persia ;2 Chitral ; 1 Kashmir ; 11 Bombay.

The measurements of the wings and culmen are slightly larger than in

IND. HANDBOOK (eX. BR. HANDBOOK). |

Wings & 293-325 av. 308 (1H 295-315, one 320).

| 53 @ 287-330 (fresh) av. 298°5 (1H 285-302).

Culmen ¢ 32-37 av. 35°8 (1H 31-36).

30-37 av. 33°7 (1H 29-33).

As in brunnicephalus the immature bird has a brown bar across the

tail, but in this species the pattern of the immature primaries is similar to

that of the adult. :

456 Larus genei Breme (Sardinia) Slenderbilled Gull 6 : 106

9:23¢ 322 40? (4 adults, with all-white tails).

1 Euphrates ; 5 Persian oe 1 Baluchistan ; 1 Bhavnagar, Gujerat ; 1 Greater

_ Bombay.

In the FAUNA, the wings of both sexes are said to be 280-316. Inthe

small number available, the males have slightly larger wings, 302-310,

than the females, 287-295. In both sexes the tails 104-122 are smaller

_ than the FAUNA measurements 119-144.

457 Larus minutus Pallas (Rivers of Siberia and in Russia=Berezovo,

Tobolsk, Siberia) Little Gull :

nil.

EL Larus canus canus Linnaeus (Sweden) Common Gull

—3:238 12 Sheik Saad, R. Tigris, Mesopotamia.

Wing 360, 369, 370.

458 Chlidonias hybrida indica (Stephens) (Cawnpore, India) Indian

Whiskered Tern . 6: 111

P2059 .566 .5 99 -602-*.,

1 (Sp. No. 14197) R. Euphrates, Ricoatanin.: 1 R. Rhotak, near Sib, Persian

Baluchistan ; 1 Hazariganj, Kalat, Baluchistan; 1 Kashmir ; 1 Delhi ; 1 Bharatpur,

1 Kandla, 1 Bhuj, Kutch; 1 Powai, Bombay, 1 Belapur, Thana; 1 Edanad,

Kerala; 1 Balugaon, Chilka, 2 Samastipur, Orissa; 1 Gorakhpur, U.P.; 1 Calcutta

- Market ; 1 Upper Burma, 2 Kyithe, Prome Dist.; 1 N. China.

¥ (lg, 2.9; 30 2) in breeding plumage with black caps and bellies are

dated from ‘ April’ to 15 August. 4 obtained between 19 September

[ 133]

294. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

and 28th December have brown markings on the back and presumably

indicate a juvenile phase.

Wing Bill _ Tarsus Tail

GS 221-231 av. 224 29-32 av. 30°5 21-23 av. 22 71-85 av. 77

(221-229) (32-37)* (22-23) (76-81)

OO 221), 223 26(2), 28(2) 20, 21(3) 76-84 av. 80

(213-219) ~ (32-36) (20-23) (77-80)

* These measurements are from the skull. The unsexed bird from Bharatpur

(October) has a 232 mm. wing.

EL Chlidonias hybrida hybrida (Pallas) (S. Russia, S. Volga and

Sarpa Lake). , |

1 3 Sheik Saad, Mesopotamia

This Sp. No. 14199 in non-breeding plumage has its wing larger (243)

than another in breeding plumage from Mesopotamia listed under C. h.

indicus. The latter has the tips of both first primaries blown off, but

judging from the second primary (221 mm.) would have been under 230.

It is possible that indica is resident and the nominate form a non-breeding

migrant.

459 Chlidonias leucoptera (Temminck) (Coasts of the Mediterranean)

Whitewinged Black Tern

4:233 20? (2 in breeding plumage, 30 April and 27 July).

2 Somaliland ; 2 Mesopotamia (one male marked shot on nest).

Wing 207, 208, 209 Bill 21, 22, 23,24 Tarsus 19(3),20 Tail 66, 69, 70, 74

(3 2 1H 192-210) _ GH 23-24) (1H 19-22) (IH 67-75)

459a Chlidonias niger niger (Linnaeus) (near Uppsala, Sweden) Black

Tern |

nil.

460 Gelochelidon nilotica nilotica (Gmelin) (Egypt) Gullbilled Tern — |

6: 117

26:1233 822 60? (5 with black caps).

1 Lake Akkakurf, Iraq; 1 Warba Is., 1 Bubiyan Is., Persian Gulf; 3 Mandvi, 1

Kandla, Kutch ; 2 Ghoti, Nasik, 1 Padgha, Thana, 7 Salsette, Bombay, 1 Pushpir

Is., 1 Arnala Is., off Bombay, 1 Panvel, 2 Rewas, 1 Rewdanda, Kolaba; 1

Edathur, 1 Neendakara, Kerala ; 1 Calcutta Market.

In an earlier note (1958 JBNHS 55: 169-170) I had referred to some of

the birds in the collection being smaller than indicated for the nominate ;

form, and suggested that they were affinis (Horsfield), type locality Java.

The five birds with black caps obtained between 26th March and 29th

May from Bombay and westwards are larger than the others, with white

[ 134]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION—7 295

heads, and are compared with three from near Calcutta presumably

affinis q.v.

Wing Bill Tarsus Tail

32 With black caps 315-330 av. 320 36-39 av. 37°8 32-33 116-133 av. 125

Others 298-324 av. 34-40 av. 37°4 30-33 110-133 av. 119

306°5

affinis 293, 295,300 34, 38, 38 29; 32,33 110, 110, 114

Without topotypical material of both races we can only assume, not

unreasonably, that most of the specimens represent an intermediate

population. —

461 Gelochelidon nilotica affinis (Horsfield) (Java) Javan Gullbilled

Tern 162118

3:2 22 10? Khajir Bheri, Salt Lake, east of Calcutta. .

See remarks under 460.

462 MHydroprogne caspia caspia (Pallas) (Caspian Sea) Caspian Tern

| 7 6-115

Lae MeO OSES lat 0

2 Warba Is., 1 Persian Gulf; 1 Manchar Lake, Sind.

463 Sterna aurantiaJ.E.Gray (India) Indian River Tern 6: 125

Se oor eos. DO?

1 Chandigarh, 1 Mubarikpur, Punjab ; 2 Indus Delta, Sind ; 1 Bodeli, Baroda ;

1 Seoni, 1 Saugor, M.P.; 1 Poona, Maharashtra ; | Nellore, A.P.; 2 Shahje-

hanpur, Kheri, U.P. ; 2 Prome, Burma.

Wing Bill Tarsus Tail

33 260-290 av.275 39-42- av. 40°6 20-21 134-215

2 276 38 20 200

($2 260-280 39-43 c. 20-22 178-228)

464 Sterna hirundo hirundo Linnaeus (Sweden) European Common

Tern 6: 130

So Og 4120" 162?

1 Somaliland ;2 Hindia Barrage, 1 Basra, 1 Sheik Saad, Mesopotamia ; 2 Warba

Island, Persian Gulf ; 1 Sib, Rohtak R., Persian Baluchistan.

Five of these were listed under Sterna repressa, from which they can

be separated by their longer wings and white, not grey, upper tail. Two

immature birds (Nos. 14284 and 14286) have pale grey upper tail coverts.

The broken wing tipsin one and the shortest wings (255) in the other to-

gether with the absence of definitely identified juvenile skins of repressa

renders their identification uncertain, unless the white underparts are a

certainly diagnostic character (Cave & MacDonald 1955, BIRDS OF SUDAN,

—p..159).

[ 135 ]

396 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

465 Sterna hirundo tibetana Saunders (Tibet) Tibetan Common Tern

~~ 6: 130

Zrii 1:2) tor : }

2 Kashgar, 1 Yarkand, China.

These birds differ from the nominate form in being slightly darker

above, and by a distinct greyish tinge below cf, white in the latter.

466 Sterna dougallii korustes (Hume) (Andaman Islands) Roseate or

Rosy Tern 6: 132

1 2 North Button Island, Middle Andamans.

bi ”

Len A ee

466a Sterna macrura Naumann (Island Nordstrand and coast —

of West Schleswig) Arctic Tern

nil,

467 Sterna repressa Hartert (Fao, Persian Gulf) Whitecheeked Tern

3 6: 128

Se1g7 738 2S re? :

2 Dora Island, 1 Kubhai Island, 1 Persian Gulf ; 1 Ratnagiri, Maharashtra.

Wing Bill Tarsus Tail

32 235-244 32-35 19(5) 124, 133, 136, 140, 141

(227-254) (36-38) (c. 19-21) (124-154)

468 Sterna sumatrana sumatrana Raffles (Sumatra) Eastern Black- |

: 6:39

naped Tern 3

gig tae 5 OOO? North Button Island, Middie Andamans.

469 Sterna sumatrana mathewsi Stresemann (Aldabra Islands, type © |

from Ie Piquart) Western Blacknaped Tern

nil.

470 Sterna acuticauda J. E. Gray (Cawnpore, India) Blackbellied : |

Tern 6: 127

17° 830° 8 22 10276 with white underparts).

1 Ghaggar, 1 Madhopur, Punjab; 3 Delhi; 1 Saiat, Kaira, Gujerat; 2 Nellore, ;

| Godavari Delta, A.P.; 1 Golapalli, Bastar State, 1 Kymore, M.P.; 1 Daspalla,

Orissa ; 2 Meerut, 1 Nahrosa, Pilibhit, U.P. ; 1 Henzada, 1 Burma.

Wing Bill Tarsus Tail

Sg 228-242 av. 235 37-42 av. 38°5 14-15 123-163

O9 228-235 av. 233 33-36 av. 35 14-15 116-167

($2 221-240 | 32-40 c. 15-16 145-152)

The three birds with white underparts are dated Ith August and

22nd December (2), while those with black bellies are on various dates

between 14th August (moulting) and 6th April. .

Philippine Brownwinged Tern 6: 141

[ 136]

A471 Sterna anaethetus anaethetus Scopoli (Panay, Philippine Islands) _

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST, SOCIETY COLLECTION—7 — 297

472 Sterna anaethetus fuligula Lichtenstein (Red Sea) Red Sea Brown-

winged Tern 6: 142

nil.

473 Sterna anaethetus antarctica Lesson (Mauritius and Calcutta)

Southern Brownwinged Tern

i :idd | 2 295.7 oi?

1 Muscat, 4 Persian Gulf; 3 Bandra, 1 Colaba, 1 Bombay, 3 Bombay Harbour ;

1 Alibag, Kolaba ; 1 Ross Island, 1 off Narcondam, Andamans.

There has been confusion regarding the identity of some of these

specimens. I am also unable to separate the three races accepted from

our area (Abdulali, /BNHS 67: 110).

474 Sterna fuscata nubilosa Sparrman (India Orientalis) Sooty Tern

6: 144

nil.

475 Sterna albifrons albifrons Pallas (Holland) Little Tern 6: 135

15 25:68. 6.92 40?

1 Somaliland ; 3 Mesopotamia; 1 Boonah Is., Persian Gulf; 1 Karachi ; 2 Kandla,

1 Jamnagar, 1 Bhavnagar ; | Bombay Harbour ; 4 Rewas, Kolaba.

476 Sterna albifrons saundersi Hume (Karachi, Sind) Blackshafted

Ternlet 6: 138

1 es Ars ens OS Bat FO

2 Karachi ; 4 Kandla, Kutch, 3 Pirotan, Gulf of Kutch.

477 Sterna albifrons sinensis Gmelin (China) Whiteshafted Ternlet

6: 136

GS Oo 3 ee. |

4 Uttan Washi, 2 Bhyander, Salsette, Bombay.

478 Sterna bergii velox Cretzschmar (Red Sea coasts) Large Crested

Tern 6: 120

ii 9 gg 20? . ()* fledgling 3).

1 Berbera, Somaliland ; 1 Muscat, 1 Quishim Is.,1 Persian Gulf ; 2 Astola Island,

off Mekran Coast ; 1 Karupadanna, Cochin, | Travancore,2 Kalyamkolumbur,

Kerala ; 1 Baliapanni Atoll, Laccadives (fledgling *).

It is curious that the nine sexed specimens are all males. The two

with all-black heads were obtained on Astola Island on 17th July 1906.

One of them being marked ‘Breeding’. The fledgling from the

- Laccadives was collected on 22 October, while the others in winter

plumage (with the black of the head speckled with white) are between

25 November and 29 May.

11 [ 137]

298 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

479 Sterna bengalensis bengalensis Lesson (Coasts of India) Indian

Lesser Crested Tern 6: 124

14:733 692 10?

1 Somaliland; 1 Buna Is., Persian Gulf ; 3 Versova, Salsette, 6 Bombay Harbour ;

1 Neendakara, Kerala ; 2 N. Button Is., Middle Andamans.

Three specimens obtained on 10th April (2) and 20th June have all-

black heads. The others 7th February [through March (2), April (2),

May (4)] to 29th May have black heads varyingly marked with white,

and white foreheads.

No. 14252 a male from the Persian Gulf has one wing 320 mm., the

other damaged and much shorter.

480 Sterna sandvicensis sandvicensis Latham (Sandwich, Kent,

England) Sandwich Tern 6: 119

2 la

1 Texel, Holland (juv.) ; 1 Samarrah (?), Persian Gulf.

481 Anoiis stolidus pileatus (Scopoli) (Philippines) Noddy Tern 6: 145

4°) 2-3 0w

3 Ormara, Mekran Coast, Baluchistan ; 1 Laccadives.

482 Anous tenuirostris worcesteri (McGregor) (Cavilli Island, Sulu

Sea) Whitecapped Noddy

nil.

483 Gygis alba monte Mathews (Seychelles) Indian Ocean White Tern

nil.

484 Rynchops albicollis Swainson (India) Indian Skimmer 6: 150

5:3g3 222 (* without head).

1 * Hyderabad, Sind ; 3 Bulandshahr, U.P. ; 1 Padung, Prome Dist., Burma.

Though most of the specimens are in poor condition and cannot be

correctly measured, the males appear to have appreciably larger wings,

bills, tarsi, and tails than the females.

(to be continued)

[ 138]

Studies in Indian Euphorbiaceae—IV'

The Genus Agrostistachys Dalz. in India,

Burma and Ceylon

N. P. BALAKRISHNAN

Botanical Survey of India, Eastern Circle, Shillong

(With two plates)

INTRODUCTION

The genus Agrostistachys Dalzell (1850) aptly so named for its

inflorescence resembling the graminaceous spikes was based on A. indica

collected from an unspecified locality in northern parts of Western Ghats

‘in peninsular India. From the southern parts of the Western Ghats,

Wight (1852) described the monotypic genus Sarcoclinium based on S.

longifolium. Baillon (1858) and Mueller Argoviensis (1866) treat these

two genera separately. However, in 1880 Bentham united the two

genera, reducing Sarcoclinium as a section of Agrostistachys. This has

been followed by J. D. Hooker (1887) and Pax (1890). In DAS PFLANZEN-

REICH, Pax & Hoffman (1912) raised Sarcoclinium to the subgeneric

level when they monographed Agrostistachys.

While this genus is quite distinct and isolated in Euphorbiaceae, its

systematic position is rather obscure and comparatively difficult to assess.

It is obvious that this genus belongs to the subfamily Crotonoideae as

treated by most authors. Pax & Hoffman (1931) place it under the

subtribe Irregulares of the tribe Chrozophoreae. The closely related

genera are Pseudagrostistachys Pax & Hoffm. and Grossera Pax, both

natives of Africa and differing from the former in the presence of epise-

palous glandular disk and from the latter in the presence of pistillodes in

male flowers. The subgenus Agrostistachys differs, from subgenus Sarco-

clinium in the spikes being short, bracts closely imbricate and male bracts

l-flowered. The present study indicates that the earlier arrangement of

Pax & Hoffman (1912) of Sarcoclinium as a subgenus of Agrostistachys

to be appropriate.

Agrostistachys consisting of about 11 species is confined to the tropical

and subtropical regions of southeast Asia. Apparently the genus is of

East Malaysian origin, having its greatest diversity in the eastern parts

+ Part III in Bull. Bot. Surv. India 10: 245 (1968)

300 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

of Malaya. This genus is represented by three species and two varieties

in India, Burma and Ceylon. <A. hookeri and A. meeboldii var. coriacea

are endemic to Ceylon whereas A. meeboldii var. meeboldii is endemic to

southern parts of Western Ghats in peninsular India. A. indica var.

indica has a wide range of distribution in peninsular India, Ceylon, Indo-

China and Malaya. A. indica var. longifolia is endemic to southern Burma.

The specimens studied and cited in this paper are from three herbaria

of the Botanical Survey of India, namely, Central National Herbarium,

Calcutta (CAL), Southern Circle Herbarium, Coimbatore (MH) and

Western Circle Herbarium, Poona (BSI) and also from the herbarium of

Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew (K). I thank the Keepers of these herbaria

for their valuable help.

Agrostistachys Dalzell in Hook. Kew J. Bot. 2:41, 1850; Muell.

Arg. in DC. Prodr. 15 (2) : 725, 1866 ; Benth. in Benth. & Hook. f. Gen.

Pl. 3 : 302, 1880 ; Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 5 : 405, 1887 ; Pax in Engler &

Prantl, Pflanzenfam. 3 (5): 43, 1890; Pax & Hoffm. in Engler, Pflanzenr.

57 : 98, 1912, et in Engler & Harms, Pflanzenfam. ed. 2, 19C ; 96, 1931.

-Sarcoclinium Wight, Ic. Pl. Ind. Or. 5: 24, t. 1887-1888, 1852 ; Muell.

Arg. l.c. 726, 1866 ; Baillon in Adansonia 11: 93, 1873. Argythamia

sect. Agrististachys Post & Kuntze, Lexicon 43, 1904. Heterocalyx

Gagnep. Not. Syst. 14 : 33, 1950.

Glabrous shrub or small tree. Leaves alternate, shortly petioled or

subsessile, entire or serrate, denticulate, coriaceous, pinnately nerved,

stipulate. Flowers dioecious, in axillary or supraxillary bracteate racemes

or spike which are solitary or clustered ; bracts concave, striate, rigid.

Male flowers : small, few or many within each bract, subsessile or shortly

pedicelled. Calyx globose, splitting into 2-5-valvate lobes. Petals 5,

rarely 6-8, shorter than calyx lobes or equal. Disk 5-glandular, epise-

palous, alternate with petals. Stamens 8-13, biseriate, outer epipetalous,

filaments nearly free, tips subulate ; anther-lobes pendulous from the

glanduliferous thick connective, free below, longitudinally dehiscing.

Pistillode usually large, entire or 2-3-fid. Female flowers : solitary in each

bract ; pedicels long. Calyx 5- or rarely 4-fid, lobes narrow, more rigid |

than male calyx. Petals longer than calyx lobes, deciduous. Disk of

5 glands, thick. Staminodes 0. Ovary 3-celled ; style bifid, spreading ;

ovules one in each cell. Capsule of 3 two-valved cocci, crustaceous or

sub-fleshy. Seeds sub-globose ; testa crustaceous, shining, ecarunculate ;

albumen fleshy ; cotyledons broad, laterally flat.

Type species: A. indica Dalzell.

Distribution: About 11 spp.; Peninsular India, Ceylon, Burma,

Malaya, Indo-China, and Philippines.

STUDIES IN INDIAN EUPHORBIACEAE—IV 301

KEY TO THE SPECIES OF Agrostistachys

1. Spikes short ; bracts closely imbricate,

male= bracts’ I-floweted’.. 20.5.0... ss Pt nger eee: Subg. Agrostistachys

2. Secondary nerves less than 15 pairs ;

margins of leaves spinulose-dentate.......... la. A. indica var. indica

2. Secondary nerves more than 16 pairs ;

margins of leaves distantly denticulate,

MOC EESIUMALOS ey. eae ee tee aot eve, cowtarsae we 1b. A. indica var. longifolia

1. Spikes elongate ; bracts distantly

placed, male bracts. many-flowered..........0....0.2..0008. Subg. Sarcoclinium

3. Stipules small, less than 1 cm. long,

broadly triangular.

4. Capsules about 13 mm. wide............ 2a.A.meeboldii var. meeboldii

4. Capsules about 8 mm. wide........ 2b. A. meeboldii var. coriacea

3. Stipules large, more than 5cm. long, lanceate, attenuate.............

3. A. hookeri

Subgenus I. AGROSTISTACHYS. Genus Agrostistachys Baill. Etud.

Gen. Euphorb. 318, 1858. Section Euagrostistachys Hook. f. Fl. Brit.

Ind. 5 : 406, 1887 ; Pax in Engler & Prantl, Pflanzenfam. 3, 5 : 43, 1890.

Subgenus Euagrostistachys (Hook. f.) Pax & Hoffm. in Engler, Pflanzen-

fam. ed. 2, 19c : 96, 1931.

Spikes of both sexes axillary or supra-axillary, serially glomerate like

short spines; bracts densely imbricate, 1-flowered, lowermost bracts

sterile. Pistillode entire.

1. Agrostistachys indica Dalzell in Kew J. Bot. 2 : 41, 1840 ; Dalz. &

Gibs. Bombay FI. 232, 1861 ; Muell.-Arg. in DC. Prodr. 15 (2) : 726,

1866 ; Beddome, Ic. Pl. Ind. Or. 1 : t. 241, 1874 ; Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind.

5: 406, 1887; Trimen, Handb. Fl. Ceyl. 4: 55, 1898; Talbot, Trees

Bomb. ed. 2, 313, 1902 et For. Fl. 2 : 477, 1911 ; Pax & Hoffm. in Engler,

Pflanzenr. 57: 103, 1912 ; Gagnep. in Lécomte, Fl. Indoch. 5 : 466, t.

57, ff. 7-11 et. t. 58, ff. 1-2, 1926 ; Gamble FI. Pres. Madras 1317, 1925 ;

ibid Reprint ed. 921, 1957; Cooke, Fl. Pres. Bombay 2: 605, 1906;

ibid Reprint ed. 3: 102, 1958; Bor, Man. Ind. For. Bot. 179, 1953 ;

Airy Shaw in Kew Bull. 14: 47, 1960. A. /ongifolia ssp. genuina Muell-

Arg. in DC. Prodr. 15 (2) : 726, 1866. A. gaudichaudii sensu Hook. f.

Fl. Brit. India 5 : 406, 1887 (non Muell.-Arg. 1866). Heterocalyx laotica

Gagnep. in Not. Syst. ed. Humbert. 14 : 33, 1950.

Stout shrub, 1-2 m. tall, occasionally reaching up to 3 m. high, gla-

brous, except flowers ; branches tough, marked with scars of petioles and

stipules. Leaves numerous, crowded, alternate, elliptic-oblong or oblong-

lanceolate, spathulate, narrowed or cuneate at base, acuminate or bluntly

caudate at apex, coarsely and sharply serrate with incurved spinulose

teeth or minutely denticulate at margins, 12-48 cm. long, 4-15 cm. wide,

coriaceous, glabrous ; secondary nerves 8-18 pairs, arched, prominent,

302 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

tertiaries reticulate, faint ; petioles 2-6 cm. long, broad at base ; stipules

ovate-lanceolate, subulate, acuminate, early deciduous, + 1 cm. long.

Spikes of both sexes axillary or supra-axillary, glomerate, clustered to-

gether, shorter than petiole, 7-15 mm. long, terete or slightly compressed ;

bracts distichous, densely imbricate, ovate-acute, + 4 mm. long, +

3 mm. wide, finely serially ciliate outside and margins, basal bracts of

each spike sterile ; flowers of both sexes solitary in axils of each bract,

pedicellate. Male flowers: sepals 5, membranous, ovate-lanceate ;

petals 5-8, white, rounded or subquadrate, lanceolate to obovate, equa]

to sepals ; disk glandular, large, 5-lobed ; stamens 8-13, anthers apiculate ;

pistillode simple, undivided. Female flowers: solitary for each spike,

pedicels with 3-5 scale-like sterile bracts at base ; ovary glabrous or

minutely puberulous, disk cupular covering the base of ovary ; styles 3,

each bifid. Capsules + 1 cm. in diameter, 3-lobed, glabrous, reddish-

brown, seeds globose, smooth, pale brown, -+ 6 mm. in diameter.

Distribution: Peninsular India (Western Ghats), Ceylon, Burma,

Indo-China and Malaya.

la. var. indica.

Agrostistachys indica Dalzell in Kew J. Bot. 2:41, 1840. TYPE:

Dailzell s.n.! A. longifolia ssp. genuina Muell.-Agr. l.c. Heterocalyx

laotica Gagnep. |l.c. TYPE: Kerr 20895 (K !).

Leaves elliptic-oblong, acute at base, sharply spinulose-dentate at

margins, 12-40 cm. long, 4-15cm. wide : secondary nerves 15 or less pairs.

Flowering and Fruiting : February-May.

Distribution : Peninsular India (Western Ghats), Ceylon, Indo-China

and Malaya. |

Specimens examined : CEYLON: Without locality, Alston 261 (K) ;

without locality, Gardner 781 (CAL); Central Provinces, Gibson 2156

(CAL) ; without locality, Thwaites CP 2156 (K) ; without locality, Walker

30 (K). KERALA: Wynaad, Beddome s. n. (K); Travancore, Bourdillon

16 (CAL, K); 53 (MH); 526 (K); Attapadi, Malabar, Fischer 2798

(CAL, K) ; Devicolam, Travancore, Meebold 13467 (CAL). Tamit NADU :

Coimbatore Dist., Paralai, Barber 4053-(CAL, K, MH); Anamalais,

Beddome s. n. (K, MH); Anamalais, Beddome 80 (CAL); Ayyamalai,

Fischer 4051 (CAL); Akkamalai, Joseph 15540 (MH). Madurai Dist.,

High Wavy Mountain, Blatter & Hallberg 909 (CAL); High Wavy

Estate, Gopalan s. n. (MH). Tirunelveli Dist., Kannikatti, Barber 420 |

(MH) ; Tirunelveli, Beddome s. n.(MH) ; Tirunelveli, Bourdillon s. n.

(CAL); Ichikuzhi, Henry & Chandra Bose 19914 (MH); Naterikal,

Hooper & Ramaswami 38572 (K) ; 38641 (CAL) ; Naterikal, no collector’s

name 14471 (MH). Mysore: Without locality, Dalzell s. n. (Type in :

STUDIES IN INDIAN EUPHORBIACEAE—IV 303

CAL, K); Bababudan Hills, Law s. n. (CAL); Jog Falls, Puri 2083

(BSI) ; Madanad, Coorg, Puri 31778 (BSI); Concan, Stocks & Law 59

(CAL) ; Yellehole, Agumbe, Sundara Raghavan 86467 (BSI) ; Barakana,

Agumbe, Sundara Raghavan 97256 (BSI) ; Belgaum, Talbot 4003 (BSI) ;

N. Kanara, Talbot s. n. (BSI). NO LOCALITY: Herb. Wight, Wallich

7452 (CAL, K) ; Wight 2610 (CAL).

1b. var. longifolia Muell.-Arg. in DC. Prodr. 15 (2) : 726, 1866.

TYPE: Helfer 4921! A. longifolia (Muell.-Arg.) Kurz, Prelim. Rep.

Veg. Pegu, App. A: 111, App. B: 79, 1875 et For. Fl. Brit. Burma 2:

377, 1877. A. gaudichaudii Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 5: 406, 1887; Bor,

Man. Ind. For. Bot. 179, 1953 (non Muell.-Arg. 1866). A. indica ssp.

longifolia (Muell.-Arg.) Pax & Hoffm. in Engler, Pflanzenr. 57 : 107, 1912.

Leaves subentire, minutely denticulate, spathulate, oblanceate,

attenuate and narrowed at base, 24-48 cm. long, 5-11 cm. wide ; secondary

nerves 16-18 pairs. (Plate I).

Flowering and Fruiting: February-April.

Distribution : Endemic to south Burma.

Specimens examined: BURMA: Tenasserim, Helfer 4921 (Type in

- CAL, K); Island of Mergui, Tenasserim, Proudlock 51 (CAL); Heinze,

Russell 1953 (CAL) ; Valley of Sidi Chang, Tavoy, Russell 133 (CAL) ;

Tavoy, Sungyi 911 (CAL).

Subgenus II. SARCOCLINIUM (Wight) Pax & Hoffm. in Engler, Pflan-

zenr. 57: 99, 1912. Genus Sarcoclinium Wight, Ic. Pl. Ind. Or. 5: 25, t.

1887-1888, 1852 ; Baillon, Etud. Gén. Euph. 309, t. 11, ff. 17-18, 1858;

Muell. Arg. in DC. Prodr. 15 (2): 726, 1866. Agrostistachys sect.

Sarcoclinium (Wight) Benth. in Benth. & Hook. f. Gen. Pl. 3: 303,

1880 ; Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 5: 406, 1887; Pax in Engler & Prantl,

Pflanzenfam. 3, 5 : 43, 1890.

Spikes of both sexes axillary, solitary or fasciculate, elongate ; bracts

distantly arranged, male bracts many-flowered, female bracts single-

flowered, pistillode 2-3 fid.

2. Agrostistachys meeboldii Pax & Hoffm. in Engler, Pflanzenr. 57:

100, 1912 ; Gamble, FI. Pres. Madras 1318, 1925; ibid Reprint ed. 922,

1957; Bor, Man. Ind. For. Bot. 179, 1953. Sarcoclinium longifolium

Wight, Ic. Pl. Ind. Or. 5: 24, t. 1887-1888, 1852; Thwaites, Enum. Pl.

Zeyl. 279, 1861 ; Muell. Arg. in DC. Prodr. 15 (2) : 727, 1866 ; Beddome,

For. Man. 205, t. 23. f. 1, 1873. A. longifolia (Wight) Benth. ex Hook. f.

Fl. Brit. Ind. 5 : 407, 1887, excl. var. malayana et var. latifolia (non Kurz,

1875) ; Trimen, Handb. FI. Ceyl. 4:56, 1898 ; Talbot, Trees Bombay, ed.

2. 313, 1902 et For. Fl. 2 : 478, 1911; Cooke, Fl. Pres. Bombay 2: 605,

1906 ; ibid Reprint ed, 3 : 103, 1958 ; Bourdillon, For. Trees Travancore

304. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

341, 1908 ; Pax & Hoffm.1.c. 100, 1912. A. coriacea Alston in Trimen,

Handb. FI. Ceylon 6 (Suppl.) : 265, 1931.

Large shrub or small tree, 3-6 m. high ; branches terete, stout, gla- -

brous, marked with scars of petioles and stipules ; bark thin, dark, resi-

nous ; wood pale brown, moderately hard. Leaves numerous, crowded

at the ends of branches, oblanceolate, spathulate, shortly or obtusely

acuminate at apex, narrowed and gradually tapering into the petiole,

entire, glabrous, coriaceous, leathery, 14-30 cm. long, 3-9 cm. wide ;

secondary nerves 10-15 pairs, arched, prominent beneath; petioles

broad at base, 5-15 mm. long; stipules -+_ 2 mm. long, ovate, acute,

coriaceous, caducous. Spikes of both sexes axillary, solitary, 8-14 cm.

long, shorter than leaves ; rachis rigid, subglabrous ; bracts distantly

placed, ovate, denticulate at margins, -- 2 mm. long. Male flowers

3-5 in each axil of bract ; pedicels 2-3 mm. long ; sepals 2-3, entire or

lobed, acute, broad at base; petals 5, ovate, denticulate at margins,

subacute to obtuse at apex ; disk 5-glandular ; stamens 10, 5 within the

disk, 5 outside, anthers apiculate; pistillode 2-cleft. Female flower

solitary in axil of each bract: sepal 5, free, ovate-acute to lanceolate-

acuminate ; petals 5, ovate, obtuse, entire ; staminodes 5, subulate ;

disk cupular, covering the base of ovary, entire; ovary puberulous ,

styles 3, each bifid. Capsale depressed-globose, + 6 or + 8 mm. long,

+ 8 or + 13 mm. wide, rugulose, minutely pilose or subglabrous; seeds

oblong, subglobose, 5-6 mm. in diameter.

Distribution : Western Ghats of Peninsular India and Ceylon.

2a. var. meeboldii. Agrosiistachys meeboldii Pax & Hoffm. l.c. Sarco-

clinium longifolium Wight, l.c. TYPE: Wight 2612! A. longifolia

(Wight) Benth. ex Hook. f. l.c. 1887 (non Kurz 1875).

Leaves 14-30 cm. long; capsule + 13 mm. wide, + 8 mm. long.

(Plate II).

Flowering : August-October ; Fruiting : December-February.

Distribution : Western Ghats of Peninsular India.

Specimens examined: KERALA: Wynaad, Malabar, Beddome s.n.

(MH) ; Wynaad, Gamble 15428 (CAL, K) ; Calatoorpoly, Travancore,

Lawson 102 (CAL, K); Udumbansholay, Travancore, Meebold 13079

(CAL). TamiL NApDu: Monica, Anamalais, Barber 3875 (CAL, MH);

Poonachi, Anamalais, Barber 8441 (MH); Anamalai Hills, Beddome 95

(CAL) ; Iyerpadi, Anamalais, Fischer 3713 (CAL) ; Sispara Ghat, Nilgiris,

Gamble 14465. (CAL, K); Kannikatti, Tirunelveli Distt., Jacob s.n.

(MH) ; Courtallam, Wight 2612 (Type in CAL, K) ; Naterikal, Tirunelveli

J. BompBay NAT. Hist. Soc. 67 (2) PLATE |

Balakrishnan: Genus Aerostistachys.

Agrostistachys indica var. longifolia

| Fig. 1. Flowering twig; 2. ¢ spike: 3. bract; 4. ¢ flower, with bracteoles ;

5. ¢ flower, spread out; 6. petal; 7. stamen; 8. 2 flower; 9. petal; 10. fruit;

11. seed.

J. BoMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. 67 (2) PLATE II

Balakrishnan: Genus Agrostistachys.

Agrostistachys meeboldii var. meeboldii

Fig. 1. Flowering twig; 2. part of male spike; 3. ¢ flower; 4. the same, spread

out; 5. stamen; 6. Q flower; 7. part of fruiting spike; 8. mature fruit: 9. seed.

STUDIES IN INDIAN EUPHORBIACEAE—IV 305

Distt., no collector's name 14513 (MH) ; Anamalais, no collector’s name

83564 (MH). Mysore: N. Kanara, Talbot 1600 (BSI, CAL).

_ 2b. var. coriacea (Alston) Balak. stat. nov. Sarcoclinium longifolium

sensu Thwaites, Enum. Pl. Zeyl. 279, 1861 (non Wight et auctt. plnr.),

A. longifolia sensu Trimen, Handb. FI. Ceylon 4 : 56, 1898 ; Pax & Hoffm.

in Engler, Pflanzenr. 57: 100, 1912 (non Kurz 1875). <A. coriacea

Alston in Trimen, Handb. FI. Ceylon 6 (Suppl.) : 265, 1931. TYPE:

Thwaites CP 596 A !

Leaves 10-20 cm. long ; capsule + 8 mm. wide, + 6 mm. long.

Distribution ; Endemic to Ceylon.

Note: This variety differs from var. meeboldii in having smaller

leaves and smaller fruits only. These differences do not justify a specific

rank.

Specimens Examined: CEYLON: Gardner 785 (CAL, K); Hills

of Kandy, Macrae 46 (K) ; Thwaites CP 596 A, B (Type in CAL, K) ;

Walker s.n. (CAL, K) ; Wallich 1318 (K).

3. Agrostistachys hookeri (Thw.) Benth. in Benth. & Hook. f. Gen.

PI. 3: 303, 1880 ; Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 5 : 406, 1887; Trimen, Handb.

Fl. Ceylon 4: 54, 1898 ; Pax & Hoffm. in Engler, Pflanzenr. 57: 103,

1912; Alston in Trimen, Handb. FI. Ceylon 6 (Suppl.) : 264, 1931 ;

Abeysundere & Rosayro, Checklist For. Trees Brit. Emp. 4: 26, 1939.

Sarcoclinium hookeri Thw. Enum. Pl. Zeyl. 4 : 279, 1861; Baillon, Etud.

Gén. Euph. 310, t. 11, ff. 17-18, 1858 ; Muell.-Arg. in DC. Prodr. 15 (2):

727, 1866. TYPE: Thwaites CP 3429 A !

Moderate-sized tree, 8-10 m. high; branches thick, glabrous.

Leaves subsessile, oblanceolate, spathulate, minutely glandulose-denti-

culate or subentire, cuneate to attenuate at base, shortly acuminate at

apex, coriaceous, 55-66 cm. long, 10-15 cm. wide ; secondary nerves 35-50

pairs, spreading horizontally, straight or slightly curved, prominent

beneath ; petiole thick, very broad-based, 5-20 mm. long ; stipules lan-

ceate, acuminate, broad at base, rigid, 3-6 cm. long, striate, brown,

subpersistent. Male flowers: unknown. Female flowers: Spikes

30-50 cm. long, equal to or shorter than leaves, slender, rigid, glabrous;

bracts distantly placed, ovate-lanceolate, -+- 3 mm. long ; pedicels solitary

in each bract axile, + 1:5 cm. long, articulate near middle, spreading

laterally ; calyx-lobes 4, minute, + 1°5 mm. long, triangular, subequal,

puberulous at margins ; disk 4-lobed ; ovary sparsely tomentose ; styles

3, thick, short, 2-fid up to middle ; branches emarginate, bifid. Capsule

sub-baccate, -+- 2 cm. wide, + 1°3 cm. long, trigonous, black ; cocci

obtusely angled ; seeds brown, subglobose, + 1°5 cm. in diameter.

306 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

Distribution: Endemic to Ceylon.

Note: This species known only from the type collection is charac-

teristic in having very large leaves and stipules. The male flowers are

still unknown.

Specimens Examined: CEYLON: Thwaites CP 3429 A,B,C. (Type

in CAL, K). |

Reviews

|. THE VANISHING JUNGLE. By Guy Mountfort. pp. 286

(16X24 cm.). Illustrated with coloured and black-and-white photo-

gtaphs by the author, Eric Hosking and others. London, 1969. Collins.

Price 63s. net.

As the subtitle explains this is the narrative of the two expeditions

to Pakistan under the auspices of the World Wildlife Fund in order to

make a first hand assessment of the present status of the varied and

once prolific wildlife of the two wings of Pakistan. The expeditions,

under the author’s leadership, were undertaken at the invitation of

the Pakistan Government, with full official co-operation and the active

participation of knowledgeable naturalists residing in Pakistan.

Apart from his fame as joint author of A FIELD GUIDE TO THE

BIRDS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE Guy Mountfort is best known to Nature

Conservationists throughout the world for his share in saving the

Coto Donana in southern Spain as a Nature Reserve from threatened

disintegration, and for his studies of the wildlife problems of Jordan

in 1963 and 1965 and the recommendations which led to the creation

of the Azraq Desert Nationa! Park and to other far reaching measures

for the preservation of the wildlife of that country. His present

recommendations also seem to have received full approval of the

Pakistan Government. Some of them have already been implemented

and it is to be hoped that others, for the creation of sanctuaries for

species endangered through the rapid industrialization of the country

and the destruction of their natural habitats, will also bear fruit. It

is unfortunate that the book saw the light just as President Ayub

Khan was quitting the political scene. It was from the President’s

personal interest and wholehearted co-operation that further adequate

implementation of the recommendation was confidently expected. One

can only hope that his successors wil) endorse the wisdom of the

measures proposed and do everything possible to put them through

with vigour and efficiency. Indeed, the status of several of the more

spectacular species such as the Markhor, Ibex and Shapu in West

Pakistan, and the tiger and most of the cats in East Pakistan seems

to be extremely precarious and becomes increasingly imperilled by

the absurdly high prices currently offered for their skins in the world

market. Unless such action as recommended by the survey team is

initiated immediately, it may be in one human generation or less that

308 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

some of these interesting animals become extinct. To those familiar

with the sordid story of the near-vanished Blackbuck on the sub-

continent this may not sound such a fanciful prediction.

The narrative accounts of the expeditions are of absorbing interest

as one would expect from the author of PORTRAIT OF A WILDERNESS

and of A RIVER, and A DESERT. They describe the country, its human

and animal inhabitants and their habitats, the descriptions of the

Cholistan Desert and Punjab Salt Range of West Pakistan, and the

Chittagong Hill Tracts of the eastern wing being the most fascinating

and vivid. The book is fully and appropriately illustrated with some

remarkable coloured as well as black-and-white photographs mostly

the author’s and Eric Hosking’s') They are of an excellence that is

inseparable from the work of this gifted nature photographer. Among

several other photographs the two I find especially commendable are

of a Lagger Falcon at p. 52 by the author himself, and of an adult

tigress at p. 212 by George Schaller—the latter amongst the finest

pictures of a wild tiger I have seen. At the same time I am con-

strained to observe that some imexplicable slip seems to have occurred

in captioning the lower photo at p. 220 as a Red Junglecock. It is

most definitely not that bird; the large comb, the loosely dangling

lappets and squamated plumage all belie its identity! |

There are also some other slips of fact and proof reading which

could easily have been avoided; thus on p. 46 Saccharum bengalensis

is referred to as a tall tree, and on p. 5! as a tall grass (on p. 114

spelt Saccarum). In the former case Ficus bengalensis is obviously

meant. On p. 72 Pycnonotus spelt with an i. On p. 113 hearing

of the song of the Malabar Whistling Thrush is mentioned; however,

East Pakistan is entirely out of the range of that species.

The four Appendixes giving the expeditions’ observations on the

mammals of Pakistan, a list of amphibians and reptiles, a list of

birds observed in Pakistan, and Notes on Photography (by Eric Hosking)

are of great usefulness. A selected Bibliography precedes the index.

Incidentally Corbett’s famous book is entitled MAN-EATEKS OF KUMAON

and not India as mentioned in the bibliography!

Apart from these minor though unfortunate blemishes the book

makes a valuable, timely, and highly readable contribution to the topic

of nature conservation in the Indo-Pakistan subcontinent and will

appeal to every lover of Nature.

Sens

REVIEWS 309

2. THE SPOTTED SPHINX. By Joy Adamson. pp. 224 (24x 16:5

em.). With numerous black and white photographs, and 14 coloured

plates. London, 1969. Collins & Harvill Press. Price 45s. net.

How wonderful Joy Adamson is. It is a unique achievement to

keep the affection and trust of a cheetah living in the wild, so that

she will take you to see her new-born cubs, sitting and waiting

patiently when you cannot go as fast as she can. Readers of the

Elsa books will know that it 1s not easy to rehabilitate a young carni-

vore, and this book makes it quite clear that to do it successiully

you have to arrange your life to suit the animal. Mrs. Adamson and

her assistants walked miles every day in difficult country, carrying

meat for Pippa and her cubs. who might be anywhere in a wide

territory, and who might not even be hungry. She also helped the

cheetah family through several illnesses, deticked them and fed them

vitamins, and worried endlessly over them. Her reward was the

knowledge that Pippa instead of being a pet was living a free, full,

and independent life, and a great deal of information about cheetah

behaviour which could not have been obtained in any other way.

A few miles away from Mrs. Adamson her husband George has

his camp, where he is rehabilitating lions, as described in BWANA

GAME. ‘There is a difference between them. One feels that Mr.

Adamson is accepted by the lions as a lion, and his camp is the

headquarters of the pride. Mrs. Adamson’s is the even greater achieve-

ment of a friendship on equal terms between a human being and a

wild animal, a relationship she had once before, with Elsa the lioness.

Pippa did not care for the camp and seldom visited it. She was also

much more secretive and less demonstrative than the lions in her

affection. Altogether, lions have much more personality than cheetahs.

But cheetahs grow on one the more one looks at the magnificent

photographs that illustrate this book. They are such elegant iong-

legged cats, whether jumping, running, climbing, or merely sprawled

on the ground; the cubs are charming and grew into leggy juveniles.

Those slender legs seem to be the cheetah’s weak point. Sprains and

fractures were frequent in Mrs. Adamson’s cheetah family. Al-

together, the mortality among Pippa’s cubs was very high: two of her

four litters were lost soon after birth. A Jittle leopard cub called

Taga makes a brief but memorable appearance.

Those of us who lack the capacity to live as Mrs. Adamson does,

but who enjoy living her life vicariously, will hope for another book

continuing the story of Piopa, who remains in many ways, the spotted

sphinx of the title.

RoR:

310 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

3. THE KINGFISHER. By Rosemary Eastman. pp. 159

(21-514 cm.). With four colour, and four black and white plates

and a map. London, 1969. Collins. Price 30s. net.

Out of the 84 existing species of Kingfishers in the world, only

one Alcedo athis is found in Europe and England. In India we have

a dozen species including Alcedo athis. They are, as everyone will

admit one of the most attractive group of birds, but because they

nest in tunnels excavated by themselves in mud banks, not much

has been known of their nesting behaviour in the early stages after

the young are born. The husband and wife team of Ron and Rose-

mary Eastman, by means of assiduous observation and ingenious

photography on the river Test around their home in Hampshire, have

produced a fascinating book in which they reveal the intimate secrets

of the life of the Common Kingfisher. To give one example their

photographs indicate that the final part of the dive inside the water

is executed with eyes closed. Obviously to get a photograph of this

nature an artificial tank was built inside the river, in the territorial

area most favoured by the pair under observation. The recording was

done at 300 Frames per second, and the camera focussed at a depth

of about 14 inches in the water. The results are magnificent. Apart

from the photographs of under-water dives, there is a unique photo-

graph of kingfishers mating, of a youngster with its black feet (as

against the red of the adults) and tiny white spot at the end of its

bill; of a female with its rose coloured under-mandible, the only

distinguishing external feature between the sexes.

To photograph young nestlings inside the nest Ron removed the

natural earthen ceiling of the tunnel and replaced it with a plywood

substitute. The next day in full sunlight the ceiling was removed by

slow stages and the six young were photographed. Surprisingly the

parents did not appear to be unduly disturbed by this unusual

situation.

The remarkable film produced by the Eastmans ‘The Private Life

of the Kingfisher’ has proved ‘one of the most sought after of all

natural history films’, and since then the Authors have an assignment

for the BBC for a ‘Private lives’ series which is eagerly awaited.

Vp 3

4. A WEALTH OF WILDFOWL. By Jeffery Harrison.

Illustrated by Pamela Harrison. Introduction by Peter Scott. pp. 176

(17X21:'5 cm.), with many illustrations. London, 1967. Andre

Deutsch Limited. Price 3Qs. net.

REVIEWS 311

This is the eighth of a series of “Survival Books’ published along

with television documentaries on wildlife. The name of the author,

together with an introduction by Peter Scott and illustrations by

Pamela Harrison, promises a wealth which certainly exists.

This book primarily deals with conditions in the United Kingdom,

but the main problems of providing ducks, geese, and swans with

secluded breeding and safe feeding grounds apply not only to all

parts of the world but also to all forms of wildlife. The damage

done by the reclamation of large areas of marsh-land, and by the new

sportsman (supplemented in India by the crop-protection licence-holder)

who ‘shoots at anything that flies caring nothing for the law’, is

accentuated by that caused by nuclear testing, electric powerlines, and

lead shot (one pellet swallowed is said to be sufficient to kill a bird).

Rapidly deteriorating conditions in the early fifties have been checked

by the ‘marriage’ between the wildfowlers and the conservationists

which appears to have been achieved in the United Kingdom. The

book examines. in detail the earlier efforts, the negotiations, and the

present successful collaboration.

Normal duck-shooting in India is different from wildfowling, but

twenty years ago every largish village pond in the Konkan near Bombay

held a few migrant duck and almost every snipe shoot produced a teal

or two flushed out of some secluded piece of water. The duck

population here (and perhaps all over India) was never so concentrated

as it appears to be in the United Kingdom (22,000 birds in Greater

London in the cold weather) but the same reasons, drainage and the

new sportsman, have changed conditions so that a duck is now rarely

seen except on the larger lakes and rivers.

The book goes into great detail, listing the food known

to be taken by the different species at different times of the year.

One method of preserving the whole alimentary tract for the

identification of its food is given in some detail. The author suggests

that plans for new reservoirs should be conditional on shallow areas

being set aside as reserves. In India, one can only hope for the

-early removal of the ‘hard-core conviction that all sportsmen are

villains’; unless this happens, the ‘marriage’ which is so essential for

conservation cannot be achieved.

This book should be read and studied by all interested in or

associated with wildfowl or any other form of wildlife, for it has

the pattern and knowledge which can only be exhibited by one who

is a personal example of the ‘marriage’ within himself.

H. A.

312 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

5. THE WHITE IMPALA: THE STORY OF A GAME RANGER.

By Norman Carr. pp. 190 (2114 cm.). One coloured and 17 half-

tone illustrations. One map. London, 1969, Collins. Price 36s. net.

The author spent his early childhood in. a British concession at

the mouth of the Zambezi River, where his imagination was fired by

travellers’ tales of hunting in the interior of Africa. As a schoolboy

in England he took little interest in scholastic studies, in the opinion

of his headmaster failing to attain even the ‘abysmally low standard’

he set himself. On rejoining his parents on a tobacco farm in what was

then Nyasaland he set out on the long longed-for hunting adventures,

and by the age of twenty had accounted for his fiftieth elephant;

he frankiy confesses that much of this was pure poaching, and it is

probable that many an elephant for the destruction of which he was

rewarded with the ground tusk could really not be tracked back to

a ‘garden’ which it had raided. Fortunately, before he had gone

long in this career he was called to responsible work, work entirely

to his heart, by being appointed Elephant Control Officer in the

I.uangwa valley in northern Rhodesia (now Zambia). As was to be

expected, he entered on his duties with enthusiasm and in his very

first season shot 200 elephants! After an interruption of five years

of military service during the Second World War he resumed duty

in the newly-established Game Department and, as not unusually

happens, his impelling motive imperceptibly changed from the urge

to kill to an interest in the animals themselves, both big and small,

and he found himself making observations of natural history interest and

thinking in terms of control by the establishment of extensive

sanctuaries at safe distances from human cultivation. After a_ spell’

as Game Warden, he finished up as a professional Hunter, in which

capacity he inaugurated his ‘wilderness trail’, his name for walking

tours in which a white hunter conducts a party of four or less.

tourists in a non-hunting round of the game reserves.

With his background, the author has much of interest to tell the ~

reader. I find it difficult, however, to accept his story of the wonder-

ful African porters who carried his baggage on erect outstretched

arms and walked across flooded streams with ‘their heads completely

immersed’. I am also unable to figure out from his map how, on

his way to report for military duty, his direct route from the Congo-

Tanganyika border was a trek ‘due west’ to Mpika, the headquarters

of the District Commissioner.

The book concludes with a chapter on wildlife control in which

the author points out that conservation of habitat is as important as

conservation of wildlife, meaning animal life thereby, and that pro-

REVIEWS | 313

per wildlife management may actually involve a regular ‘cropping’. of

wildlife and thus provide an additional source of income.

Several good photographs of wild animals add to the attraction

of the book. )

D.E.R.

6. INDIAN THYSANOPTERA. By T. N. Ananthakrishnan.

pp. 171 (24x16 cm.) with 10 plates and 38 text-figures. New Delhi,

1969. Publications and Information Directorate, C.S.I.R. (Zoological

Monograph No. 1). Price Rs. 26; 52s.; $ &.

Books on Indian entomology are few and ihose written by

H. M. Lefroy, T. B. Fletcher, C. F. C. Beeson, T. V. R. Avyar and

others, though very useful have become dated and are also of general

nature. The Indian Fauna volumes (Insects) mainly give descriptions

of adult insects. Only a very few exceptions such as Vol. V on

Moths, by Bell & Scott give life history and description of immature

stages. The Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, therefore,

has done well in deciding to publish comprehensive monographs on

important subjects in zoology. The selection of Thysanoptera for the

first monograph is fortunate as there is no comprehensive compilation

on this group though a very large number of papers have been

published by various authors in a number of periodicals. The

extremely small insects of this order cause extensive damage to agri-

cultural and horticultural plants but the insects themselves are not

casily detected by laymen till the damage is done. The book will

fill a badly needed want in this field for college students, research

workers and the modern farmer.

The book is divided into six sections. The first deals with bio-

nomics in which ecology, variations in the population according to

the climatic and topographic conditions, their habit of deforming plant

tissues in a variety of ways, predation etc. are described and their

imsect enemies are mentioned. The second deals with taxcnomy,

including a general survey of the work so far done and keys to the

two main suborders, super families, families, subfamilies, tribes and Indian

genera. The keys are not quite clear. For instance out of the four

families in Terebrantia mentioned by the author, genera of only two

are described probably because there are practically no species in

India belonging to the other two families. If so this should have

been mentioned. Similarly under the suborder Tubulifera the arrange-

ment of genera is not made under each subfamily as is done in Tere-

314. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

brantia-—Thripidae. ‘These two suggestions, IT hope, will. be kept in

mind for the next edition.

General morphology is dealt with in the 3rd section and re-

production and development forms the 4th section. The 5th section

in which structural diversity in natural populations of thrips is dis-

cussed is very interesting. According to the author the differences in

individual adaptability to environments are brought about by diverse

gene patterns. How this works and variability is brought about even

in the sane species and populations is discussed. The sixth describes

economic importance of thrips in relation ta agriculture and horti-

culture, and important species of crop pests are mentioned. |

The book includes an useful appendix containing a classified list

of species of Indian Thysanoptera as well as an exhaustive list of

references. A number of good illustrations enhance the value of the

book. )

N.T.N.

7. WATERFOWL IN AUSTRALIA. By H. J. Frith, Chief,

Division of Wild Life Research, C.S.I.R.O. pp. xxi+328 (16x24 cm.)

with many illustrations. Sydney, 1967. Angus & Robertson Ltd.

Price $10.00.

Of the 23 species of Waterfowl in Ausiralia, two are introductions

(Mallard and Mute Swan) and two strays (Shoveller and Garganey) the

other 19 being resident with no regular breeding or non: beeediae

migrants unlike other parts of the world. |

A chapter is devoted to each species and the amount of in-

formation offered is in marked contrast to the little we know in our

country about our birds! The crop contents of several hundreds of

each species have been examined in detail and the proportion of

vegetable and/or animal food in different parts of the vear is indicated,

associating this with the change in water-level which appears to be the

main factor controlling the inland, but often extensive, movement of

waterfowl. Call notes of some of the species are expressed in sono-

grams, while banding has been carried te such a great extent that,

though a lake may appear to hold the same number of birds at

different times, it is possible to state whether it consists of the same

birds or there has been a change in individuals. |

As in other Australian groups, the waterfowl include strange and

exceptional species ike Bless swans, the musk duck, and the magpie

geese.

REVIEWS 315

_ Excellent photographs of birds in their natural habitats accompany

the text, including one of swans flying across in which neck-bands

placed on them for purposes of individual recognition: are visible.

The bibliography at the end contains 101 titles, including 16 by

the author himself who is conducting researches into the biology of

the different species on behalf of the ESERO. as Chief of its

Division of Wild Life Research.

While the book may not be of particular interest to the average

sportsman or bird-watcher in India, it contains a great deal of in-

formation (including some on the Cotton Teal, a race of which is

resident in Australia) and is indispensable as a work of reference on

any study of waterfow!. It can only be hoped that scme attempts

at such studies, which were obviously in close collaboration with

sportsmen, will be taken up in India before it is too late.

H.A.

8. HANDBOOK OF FERN GARDENING. By P. Kachroo.

pp. 39 (23:75X16 cm.) with 12 plates & 15 text-figures. New Delhi.

1968. Indian Counci! of Agricultural Research. Price Rs. 4.

The Indian Council of Agricultural Research is devoting consider-

able attention to gardening and has published several books dealing

with various garden plants.

This book like Prof. Kachroo’s ROCK GARDENING IN THE HILLS is

meant for the amateur gardener who takes an interest in the nature

of the plant material with which he deals. The chapters on potting

and culture are specially useful.

A large number of garden ferns are described with some very

good drawings, and photographs, which make identification quite easy.

One only wishes there were a few more drawings, as some of the

more difficult varieties to identify are not illustrated.

At the end is a glossary of botanical terms which should be most

useful. :

A.J.A.

9. THE COMPLEAT FLEA. By Biendan leehane. pp. ibe

(21-5 13-5 cm.). With 8 halt-tone plates and 7 illustrations in the text.

London, 1969. John Murray. Price 25s. net.

T his delightfully written little Book: is the oo of a writer’s

Peccasion with fleas, which developed. after he shared a. flat with. them

316 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

in Dublin. Few people can feel an affection for these pests—even

Mr. Lehane admits his fondness grew with absence; but fleas are

fascinating as compared with other parasites. In the first place they

are complicatedly and beautifully adapted to their way Of life; and in

the second, they are so active that catching them needs concentration

and skill and has something of the excitement of the chase. Anyone

who has hunted down and despatched animal fleas (the human variety

now having been banished from polite society by hygiene and D.D.T.)

will recognise the expression of quiet satisfaction and absorption of |

the lady in the picture reproduced opposite page 39 who is about to

crack a flea between her fingernails. The time was, however, when it

was considered no disgrace to have fleas, and a poet could address

a peem to his lady’s fleas without feeling that they detracted at all

from her charms. Fleas provided entertainment in flea circuses and

they had their supporters—in Aesop’s fables fleas play a firmly moral

role—, but William Blake expressed most people’s feelings when he

painted the ghost of a flea as a muscle-bound man with talons and

a bowl for collecting blood.

Scientific study began comparatively late. Robert Hooke made a

detailed engraving of a flea in 1665, and van Leeuwenhoek examined

them under his microscopes and refuted the theory of spontaneous

generation on their behalf. It was not tili 1898 that a Japanese

scientist, Ogata, suggested that rat fleas carry plague to man, and

1910 when the Plague Commission confirmed that this was the main

method of transmission. Mr. Lehane also touches briefly on more

recent work on fleas, especially that of the Hon. Miriam Rothschild

on the complicated life-history of the rabbit flea. :

The style is so easy that one tends to overlook the amount of

scholarship that has gone into the writing of this little book. There

is a lot here to amuse and delight scientist and non-scientist alike.

R.R.

10. PREHISTORIC ANIMALS AND THEIR HUNTERS. By

I. W. Cormwail. With illustrations by M. M. Howard. pp. 214

(21:5X16 cm.). 29 drawings. London, 1968. Faber and Faber.

Price. 42s. net.

This is a book on prehistory with a difference. There are many

books on prehistoric man, and others on the evolution of the animals

we know today as well as their extinct relatives and ancestors. This

one is about the environment of early man, and his relationship with

REVIEWS 317

the animais of his time. Jt was a changing environment, and adapt-

ability was at a premium for survival. During successive glaciations

the ice at the poles extended, and the temperate zones shrank; while

in the interglacial pericds the ice retreated and the climate became

warm and temperate. Early man competed with the cave lion and

the cave bear for his home, while the forests and plains of the

northern hemisphere supported a rich mammalian fauna. The most

spectacular species in what is now Europe were probably the bison

Bison priscus, the mammoths Mammuthus primigenius and others, the

woolly rhinoceros Tichorhinus antiquitaits and other species of rhino-

ceros. The earliest hominids, the Australopithecines, seem to have

lived on small animals like snakes, lizards, and rodents, which they

could kili with their simple tools. Their defence against ihe large

predators depended on agility and cunning. The earliest cutting tools

are attributed to another hominid, Homo habilis. These made man

a big game hunter, able when in groups to attack even the big carni-

vores. After this, man continued to nerfect his killing and trapping

techniques. He also became a domesticator of some useful species

He probably did not contribute very greatly to the extinction of the

great mammals of his time. He was certainly aware of the necessity

of the survival of the species he most commonly used for food. The

weil known cave paintings of human beings and animals are believed

to be part of magic rites to ensure fertility of both man and animals.

Nevertheless there are instances of wholesale slaughter. The upper

Palaeolithic people of Solutré drove herds of the wild horse Equus

caballus over a steep cliff, as evidenced by the numerous remains at

the foot of the cliff. Similarly, accumuiated remains in Magdalenian

deposits show where man camped at strategic sites along the routes

of migrating reindeer and killed large numbers of them.

However, men were not then numerous enough to seriously

endanger the existence of species. The major factor which led to the

disappearance of many species must have been changes in climate

and biotope. Many species were so well adapted to particular bio-

topes, and so restricted to them, that their presence in a particular

place at a particular time can be used as an indicator of the prevailing

climate. Thus, of three contemporary rhinoceros species, Tichorhinus

antiguitdtis was confined to arctic tundra, DicerOrhinus hemitoechus

to grassland, and D. kirchbergensis to deciduous forest. There are

also mysteries. such as why horses should have become extinct in the

New World, when they migrated successfully to survive the glacial

periods of the Old World. Mcdern man is endangering many animal

species by being so numerous as tc destroy biotopes but, the first

time in the history of the world, he has the knowledge and the

318 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

technology at his command io preserve other species. It remains to

be seen whether he will make use of his unique opportunity.

The illustrations add greatly to the enjoyment of this fascinating

book, and are a tribute not only to Mr. M. M. Howard but alse

to the accurate observation and skill of the primitive artists.

R.R

Miscellaneous Notes |

Ee eiksT POSITIVE RECORD OF PIPISTRELLUS SAVII

(CHIROPTERA: VESPERTILIONIDAB) FROM INDIA

The only records of the Sind Bat, Eptesicus nasutus (Dobson), from

the Indian subregion are from localities in what is now West Pakistan

(Siddiqi 1969:9) and from a specimen identified by Tate (1942 :275)

from ‘Amballa, Siwalik Hiuils’ (Ambala, Punjab, India; 30°19’ N,

76°49’ E.). Jn conjunction with a study of the bats of Afghanistan,

I have re-examined the specimen on which Tate’s record is based,

and find it to be incorrectly identified. Based on comparisons with

specimens available to me in the Field Museum of. Natura! History,

Chicago, IlJ., U.S.A., and with descriptions in the literature, I have

determined that the bat is a Savi’s Pipistrelle, Pipistrellus savii (Bona-

parte). The subspecific category cannot be determined with certainty

but skull profile and measurements (Table) suggest alliance with P. s.

cayucasicus (Satunin). The bat is preserved as skin and skull, number ~

5147, in the collections of the Museum of Comparative Zoology

(MCZ), Cambridge, Mass., U.S.A. It was collected by M. M. Carleton

and was received by the MCZ in January, 1875 (ters comm., oe

Barbara Lawrence, Curator of Mammals, MCZ).

re Two subspecies questionably related to P. savii have been reported

from India by Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951:170), P. (2) s. cadornae

Thomas and P. (?) s. dustenianus Dobson. Hill (1962:133) regards

cadornae as a distinct species, P. cudornae.- The relationship of

dustenianus to P. savii has yet to be satisfactorily determined. Eller-

man & Morrison-Scott (op. cit.) also question the relation of cau-

casicus to P. sayti. My conclusion that caucasicus is properly allied

to typical P. savii is based on the similar morphology of the penis

and baculum. of. the two forms. Thus, P. savii—may--definitely be

recorded from India, and F, nasutus should be removed uum the

faunai list. 4

320 JOURNAL; BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

TABLE

MEASUREMENTS IN MM. OF Pipistrellus savii FROM AMBALA, INDIA

EXTERNAL MEASUREMENTS FROM DRY SKIN

oreatm 22) eS ea ae Seana eae 3677 “Total. length, skull Sy e44% 14:2

2nd-"metacarpale tsk ee eee 33:2 Condylobasal length........ 13°9

3rd: metacarpal. ce... 2-4 te Sea 34°8 . Zyzomatic- swidth ai...) ee. 9°3

3rd digit, ist phalanx ...2t ace sce 12°9 Interorbital constriction...... 3°8

3rd digit 2nd phalanke. er (oe eee 11°2- Breadth of brain case..%%...%. <2 6°8

4th metacarpal... .......... Pe ee 3387. SO-MF t hais Pe eae eee eae 4°5

4th digit, Ist’ phalanke «2 ver wei. Facee L196" WC 2G ee ee ee ee 4°6

Ath digit, 2nd phalanx... 9. ....0.035./,8°2" MMos te a Sy Faag wes is oh 6:0

Sth metacarpal: .Nis saee atom ee ee 3398) -SCAMe oes Sele he ee a ee 5°4

Sth ‘digit “Ist phalanxa.ce eo ae S77 {Mandible *.. teat ae 10°3

Sth. digit.2nd phalank.wea. sees Ree 6°4

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank Miss Barbara Lawrence of the Museum of

Comparative Zoology and Dr. Joseph Curtis Moore of the Field

Museum of Natural History for the privilege of examining pertinent

specimens, and for their contributions to this note. Financial support

for these studies was provided by a William H. and Stella M. Rowley

Fellowship and a Karl P. Schmidt Fund grant from the Field Museum

of Naturai History.

DIVISION OF MAMMALS, HANS N. NEUHAUSER'*

Fie_tD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HIsTory,

Cuicaco, ILLinors, U.S.A., ~

April 14, 1970.

REFERENCES

ELLERMAN, J. R. & Morrison-Scorr,

T. C. 8S. (1951) : Checklist of Palaearctic

and Indian Mammals 1758 to 1946.

British Museum, London.

Huu, J. E. (1962): Notes on some

insectivores and bats from Upper Burma.

Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. 139: 119-137.

Sippiar, M. S. U. (1969): Fauna of

Pakistan. Agricultural Research Coun-

cil, Government of Pakistan, Karachi.

TATE, G. H. H. (1942): Review of the

Vespertilionine bats, with special atten-

tion to the genera and species of the

Archbold collections. Bull. Am. Mus. Nat.

Hist. 78 : 221-297.

1 Present address:

Georgia, U.S.A,

Department of Zoology, University of Georgia, Athens,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 321

2. A NOTE ON THE YELLOW THROATED MARTEN

MARTES FLAVIGULA (BODDAERT) IN WEST PAKISTAN

Since this animal is partly diurnai in its activities, and like other

members of the ‘Mypstelinidae’, is quite bold and fearless of man,

it would seem a suitable subject for the amateur naturalist to study.

Despite this in §. H. Prater’s BOOK OF INDIAN ANIMALS it is stated

that nothing has been recorded of their breeding habits, and it is

evident that much still needs to be learned about its biology.

_ During the late 1950s and early 1960s this beautiful animal could

often be seen in the more secluded parts of the Murree Hills in

West Pakistan. It is distressing therefore to record that during eight

days spent at Dunga Gali in the Murree Hills in early April 1970

that no trace of the Yellow Throated Marten was observed by the

author even thovgh localities were searched where one could

previously count on seeing them. [In early April human disturbance

is minimal in this area, particularly as the local hill-folk remain in

their winter residences lower down the hillside until there is sufficient

spring growth of vegetation to support their grazing and browsing

livestock. It would appear therefore that in the more accessible

forested areas of the Himalayas ihat the Yellow Throated Marten is

already under pressure from increased human interference and hunting

and that the few observations which the author has been able to

collect about this species may be worth publishing.

Five subspecies were recognized (Ellerman & Morrison-Scott 1951).

Races occurring in Indonesia and Malaya are undoubtedly characterised

by darker and richer coloration of the fur particularly the yellow fur

along the sides of the throat and neck. All the forms occurring in

West Pakistan territory belong to the nominate race. After examin-

ing between seventy and eighty skins in the possession of fur traders,

in Peshawar, Rawalpindi, and Murree, it is only possible to state that

there is considerable colour variation amongst the West Pakistan

specimens. But on average there is rather more cream or silver tipped

guard hairs extending over the shoulders and upper part of the back

as compared with the specimens of Marites f. peninsularis & M. f.

indochinensis which the author has been able to study in the British

Museum collection. It has also been noticed that sub-adult specimens

from West Pakistan have a more uniformly brown ccat over the

shoulders and a less grizzled effect from pale tipped hairs. Generally

the central part of the throat and upper breast is almost pure white

whilst it deepens to rich cream and even bright canary-yellow in

some West Pakistan specimens at the upper edge of the throat.

Besides the above comments it is interesting to note the degree

322°, JOURNAL, BOMBAY: ‘NATURAL’ HIST? SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

to which this member of the genus Martes has modified the- family

characteristics so as to adapt itself to a sylvatic existence. Compared

with the eight marten species occurring throughout the northern hemi-

sphere, M. flavigulu has the longest tail. Obviously an extremely

useful balancing device for tree climbing. Also the limbs are

comparatively long and the fore-legs extremely powerfully developed

compared to other mustelinedae which again is a valuable adaption

for an arborial existence. Though M. flavigula appears relatively

clumsy and slow when it gallops across the ground, the tremendous

muscles in its fore-arms give it astonishing agility in trees. The

author once observed an adult Yellow Throated Marten run. swiftly

down a straight and vertical tree trunk. A feat which is surely. un-

usual considering its size and weight and even rivals the ability of

monkeys in this respect. It is further worth recording that even in

the northern Himalavas of West Pakistan, where snow often persists

until the end of April, and the temperatures are particularly cold at

night, that M. flavigula does not develop a thick under-fur or wool.

This is in sharp contrast to M. foina which is more an inhabitant of

drier barren mountainous areas. The explanation presumably lies in

the ability of M. flavigula to find well protected and snug tree hollows

for sleeping during the winter months. A specimen killed March 30th,

in Dunga Gali; when there was still deep snow there had no under-

fur and surprisingly thin fur on the belly. It is also worth noting

that this specimen which was an adult female and appeared of normal

size, measured twenty-five inches from nose-tip to root of tail and

nineteen inches in tail length. These measurements are slightly above

the maximum given for the species by Prater (op. cit.). Perhaps one

could infer from this that the average size of specimens inhabiting

the north-western part of the Himalayas is considerably above the

measurements given in THE BOOK OF INDIAN ANIMALS. This female

specimen when fresh killed weighed seven-and-a-half pounds. |

Feeding Habits:

These have already been described by earlier writers (Pocock and

Prater op. cit.). M. flavigula.is a bold and fearless hunter, capable

not only of killing domestic chickens, but also newly born deer of the

smaller species as well as wild birds and squirrels. In West Pakistan

Flying Squirrels (Petaurista and Hylopetes spp.) undoubtedly form an .

important part of their diet as they invariably occur in the same

forest areas. However, M. flavigula evidently has-‘a distinctly sweet

tooth, and besides being extremely fond of ripe-fruit and honey, it

also shows an ability to adapt its diet to whatever food is seasonally

abundant. In mid-June in the outer Himalayan range the berries of

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 323

the ill-scented Viburnum, (Viburnum nervyC@sum), are ripe and_ this

bush dominates the forest understory. These dark purplish berries

form the bulk of the diet of the martens at this season. Adult

animals have been observed on several occasions clambering all over

such bushes and pulling the bunches of berries to their mouth with

one paw and feeding thus for prolonged periods. In the Murree Hills

in late July a certain species of cicada emerges from the forest litter

to hatch out into the winged adult. In the process it climbs up any

suitable shrub or tree trunk for the larval skin to dry out and crack

open. A young female Yellow Throated Marten shot at this season

was found to have the stomach full of the partly digested remains of

cicadas. M. flavigula normally finds its food within the forest limits

but at certain seasons it descends to the lower, open cultivated orchards

when these are bearing ripe fruit. In July 1965, a specimen was

killed robbing the ripe laden apricot trees in village Malach at 6000

feet and approximately one-half mile below the timber line. This

happened at night showing that they are not exclusively diurna! in

feeding habits. They have been reported also as stealing apples in

October but such reports have to be treated with caution since Paguma

larvata and Martes foina do occur in the same area, and the local

hill-folk do not always distinguish between these species. In the

forest itself wild hill bees build nests in tree hollows during late June

and July and it is wel! known by the iocal hill people, that M. flavigula

is passionately fond of honey and successfully robs such nests. The

author once observed a marten enter a tree hole which was obviously

occupied by bees, at about five pm. in early July. The hole was

located high up in a Sycamore tree (Acer caesium). Despite watching

for about ten minutes, the marten did not re-emerge though there

was evidence of bees coming and going to the entrance of the hole.

No definite conclusions can be made from such an cbservation but it

seems likely that the marten is not afraid of being stung and that it

was trying to dig out and reach the honey-comb. A story recounted

to the writer by a German engineer is worth recording. This gentleman

was a very keen hunter of both big and small game. One autumn

whilst hunting in the outer ranges of the Murree foot-hills, at about

3000 feet elevation, he shot a Yellow Throated Marten. He put the

animal in his knapsack which was slung on his back. Due to the

anal glands possessed by this species there is always a distinct and

slightly foetid odour emanating froma dead specimen. The ability of

Hymenoptera to find food by scent is well known. The savage plain’s

-bee (Apis dorsata) occurs in that locality, and some of these bees

apparently recognized. the smell of their traditional enemy. At any

tate the gentleman was suddenly and viciously attacked by a swatm

324. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

of bees. He rolled on the ground to escape and ultimately rushed

into a nearby creek and plunged into the water. Apparently he fell

unconscious and later reached home with difficulty (Major Albert M.

Gsells pers. comm.)

Breeding Biology:

The Mustelidae are known in many cases to exhibit delayed

implantation of the ovum (WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES 1969).

In some instances it is difficult to understand the exact value or bio-

logical significance of such a phenomenon. However, for several

species of the genus Maries the period of gestation has been observed

to last from 220-290 days (Walker 1964). With only two exceptions, —

the author has always observed that the Yellow Throated Marten

spends its active hours hunting alone. Pairs do not appear to form

any lasting bond relationship. A young family of three martens was

observed to be attended exclusively by one adult which was presumably

the mother. However, on two occasions one in late July and the

other in early August, two adult martens were observed together. On

August 10th one marten was observed excitedly chasing a second

animal and making quite a loud chattering noise. This was the

occasion already described when one animal was observed swiftly but

sure-footedly running down a completely vertical tree trunk. Both

animals ignored the observer and were not hunting. It would be

reasonable to associate such behaviour with courtship or breeding

activity in view of al! the other observations of single animals. The

female marten killed on March 30th, already referred to earlier, was

found to contain two well developed but completely naked foetuses.

Presumably they would have been born sometime around the middle

of April and the above slender evidence would seem to support the

supposition that M. flavigula mates in late July and early August and

at least in the northwest Himalayas the young are born in April.

Such a long period of gestation also suggests delayed implantation of

the ova.

One year, I was fortunate to discover at Dunga Gali a den and

family of three young martens in early July. At this time they were

well grown, and only slightly smaller than the parent which would

also seem to suggest birth in mid-Apri! at least in this region. Up

to about July 28th, they remained in the vicinity of the den which

was located in a deep fissure in the bowl of a yew tree (Taxus baccata).

This was approximately one furlong from the nearest frequented foot

track and on a very steep forested slope. The three young were

extremely playful and inquisitive and also remarkably vocal. It is im-

possible to transcribe in words the variety of squeaks, grunts and

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 325

chattering noises which these young martens made when they were

playing together. In fact it was their calls which revealed their

presence. The top of a square cut tree stump near the den was a

favourite platform for sun basking and waiting for the mother’s arrival.

Twice the adult parent was observed in mid-July accompanied by

the three young, foraging for insects, birds’ nests etc., in both instances

within about one-and-a-half furlongs of the den. On two occasions

when watching the young the parent appeared but if she (?) had

brought food for them she was too wary to reveal the fact and had

presumably catched her prey before showing herself. The female has

four teats, two of these in the inguinal region. Prater and Walker

refer to litter sizes of up to five young (loc. cit.). But a smaller

number would appear to be more usual for M. flavigula,

Distribution:

Most of the above observations were made in the Murree Hills.

_ The Yellow Throated Marten has also been observed in Swat Kohistan

Where it is not uncommon as Well as Dir and in the southern portion

of Chitral. It is also well known to the local hill people in the lower

part of the Kaghan Valley (District Hazara) and of course the Murree

Hills as already mentioned. All these areas are characterised by

temperate evergreen forest. Though primarily a sylvatic animal and

having its centre of origin presumably in the more tropical forests

of southeast Asia, it is obviously very adaptable and can also survive

in stunted sub-tropical sclerophyllous forest in foothill zones. Thus,

it has been seen not only in regions such as Kahuta and the Lehtrar

Valley north of Rawalpindi but also in the Kalah Cheetah Hills of

Campbellpur District where the dominant species are Olea cuspidata

and Acacia mOdesta which only grow to 10 or 12 feet height. It has

also been recorded in stunted oak forest (Quercus balot), in southern

Chitral. Such ilex oak country represents the extreme west of its

known range and perhaps not un-coincidentally the western limit of

Petaurista albiventer (the Large Red Flying Squirrel).

ROBERTS COTTON ASSOCIATES LTD., T. J. ROBERTS

KHANEWAL,

WEST PAKISTAN,

May 9, 1970

326 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

REFERENCES

ELLERMAN, J. R. & MORRISON-SCOTT, PRATER, S. H. (1965): The Book of

T. C. S. (1951) : Checklist of Palaearctic Indian Animals. Revised Edition 1965.

and Indian Mammals. British Museum. _ Bombay Natural History Society.

London. WALKER, E. P. (1969): The World

Pocock, R. T. (1939): Fauna of of Mammals Vol. II. Johns Hopkins

British India—Mammalia Vol. II. Press, Baltimore.

Taylor & Francis Ltd., London.

3. THE DUGONG, DUGONG DUGON (MULLER) IN

BURMESE WATERS

In 1964 and 1965 two. dugongs were caught in the nets of the

Lampi State Fisheries, Mergui Archipelago. Both were males.

In 1965 and 1966 dugongs were recorded only from Manaung

township, Kyaukpyu district, Arakan division, along the Burma coast.

On 24 August 1965 a male dugong was caught near Akyab in

the Arakan sea. It was brought from Akyab to Rangoon and. arrived

at the Zoological Gardens on 27 August. It. died on 3rd November

1965.

A female captured in the can atelh waters off Cheduba Island, about

three or four miles from the Arakan coast on 26th October 1966, was

brought from Akyab to Rangoon by boat and arrived at the Zoological

Gardens on 2nd November 1966. It died on 25th March i967. A

large male was reported to have been trapped in’a fishing net in the

same area where the female was caught, but had to be released as

it was too strong and would have dragged the fishing net away.

Another male caught by a fisherman of Zayatkon village in Cheduba

township off the sea coast of Cheduba Island in January 1970

arrived at the Zoological Gardens on 15 January 1970. It died on

20 February 1970. A female dugong caught by the same team in

February 197C, arrived at the Zoological Gardens on 13 February 1970.

It was still alive on 26 February 1970, the date on which I recorded —

this note *

Method of Capture:

In Burma dugongs are not caught deliberately for food. They

are usually caught along with fish during beach fishing. Sometimes

when the dugong is observed, fishermen leave the fish to catch the

dugong as it brings in more cash, Occasionally dugongs are caught

on request from the Management Board, Zoological Gardens, Rangoon.

1 Died on 30 Aug. 1970.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 327

-. According to the Director of Fisheries, Burma (U Tint Hlaing)

and Head of the Marine Biology Section, Moulmein College, Moul-

‘mein (U Kyaw Myint) who have tasted the flesh cooked in different

ways, the flesh is said to be tender and of good eating. The fat

smells of cod liver oil, like many of the other marine mammals. The

fat melts at 72°C.

As in the Gulf of Mannar (Prater 1965, BOOK OF INDIAN ANIMALS:

316) the flesh is highly esteemed by the villagers from Arakan coast.

They say the flesh is better than pork.

25, INYA MYAING RoaD, TUN YIN

~RANGOON, —

UNIVERSITY P.O.,

BURMA,

February 26, 1970.

4. STRANDING OF FOUR WHALES ALONG GOA

COAST BETWEEN DECEMBER 1968 AND APRIL, 1970

This paper records the stranding of four specimens of baleen

whales along Goa coast during a period of 16 months. I have not

seen stranded whales along Goa coast between August 1964 to

November 1968 and enquiries made at various fish landing centres

along the coast reveal that there have been very few occasions when

whales have been washed ashore during the last 50 years. The months

when the four specimens of whale were stranded along Goa coast

are listed below:

Distance from

Month Place Panaji and Length

direction

December 1968 Mandrem 20 Km. North 15:00 metres

February — 1969 Baina 12 Km. South 14°85 ,,

January 1970 Canacona 30 Km. South. FS3e85- 50.

April 1970 Candolim 10 Km. North WSe50r Mi

The stranding at Candolim was on first April, 1970, Candolim is

a fishing village about 12 Km. north of Panaji. The specimen was

seen on 32 April 1970, when putrification had already reached an

advanced stage. Since it was not possible to drag the whale to Panaji

it was decided to: bury it at Candolim for extracting its skeleton

for keeping at the National Institute of Oceanography at Panaji... Its

328 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

weight was estimated to be approximately 25 tons. The following

measurements of the specimen were taken:

Total length (tip of lower jaw to tip of flukes) a eo OU in.

Length from base of flipper to tip of lower jaw .. 400 ,,

Length of flipper ei eesacce

Ratio of flipper length to total length pen) Wg |

Total number of ventral grooves e467

The ventral grooves extended far behind the flipper reaching as

far as the anal region.

The exact coloration could not be ascertained because of the de-

composed nature of the specimen. However, on the shoulder region

the skin was dark grey whereas on the ventral side near the flippers

it was white. Flippers were pale black in colour and the frayed baleen

plates were blackish grey and fluke greyish blue in colour. Nasal

opening was triangular.

The stomach was everted indicating that the specimen had vomitted

prior to death. The sex could not be determined. However, the

specimen appeared to be immature.

The ratio of flipper length to the total length of the specimen was

1:9 which identifies it as Bolaenoptera physalus.

All the four specimens are approximately of the same length which

suggests that they belong to the same year class which probably migrate

in the cold season from November to April along the coast,

The author is thankful to Dr. P. V. Dehadroi, Scientist, N.I.O.

Panaji for critically going through the manuscript.

RESEARCH LABORATORY, RAJINDER M. DHAWAN

DIRECTORATE OF FISHERIES,

PANAJI, GOA,

May 1, 1970.

5. RECORD OF THE HIMALAYAN MONAL

LOPHOPHORUS IMPEJANUS (LATHAM) IN BURMA

(With a map)

Three rare pheasants, two cocks and. a hen arrived at the Zoo-

logical Gardens, Rangoon, from Putao on 27 June 1969. They were

identified as the Himalayan Monal Lophophorus impejanus. No

mention of the presence of this monal in Burma, is made in Smythies

BIRDS OF BURMA. I sent photographs to Mr. Philip Wayre, Hon.

re at “

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 329

Director, The Ornamental Pheasant Trust, England, and author of

A GUIDE TO THE PHEASANTS OF THE WORLD and he confirmed the

identification. The three Monals were trapped on Hpungan Pass—-

Latitude 27° 30’, Longitude 96° 48’, 3072 metres (Map). Extracts

from a letter dated 9 February 1970, which I received from Mr. Wayre,

are quoted below.

‘I am quite sure that this constitutes an extension of this bird’s

range, the eastern limit of which was previously believed to be the

‘Mishmi Hills. I have checked all the literature and can find no

reference to its occurrence east of those hills other than in the mountains

of south-western Sikang.

96°| 40’ Te eae | | “97°71 30!

27° | 27°

Chulam TAWAI | mae

x Pass a Kumjawng P

3258 ai LaDy

gt Man_Namsai

Nampak ‘gy 1632

Hpungan Pass ,) 3072

3043

ie uae

“SANKAUNG\_a\ Manse

1948 LY

‘Kyen alawn ! “403

wis i -~--PTORPUTAO

(FORT HERTZ)

at—~

Man Hoangnam

Lang

~Chaukan Pass x 2433 peor ote

\, ‘a

~ vf =

NC ~ +x9878. HPAUNGMA BUM

TAWANG BUM . Dolam P

i ERS cy ay

27500 i

330 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

The disttibution according to Vaurie BIRDS OF THE PALAEARCTIC

FAUNA is Fastern Afghanistan (Nuristan and Safed Koh) and North

West Frontier Province, eastward through the Himalayas to Bhutan

and north-eastern Assam (Mishmi Hills) and neighbouring southern

Tibet to south-western Sikang. [Pome and southern Chamdo to the

valleys of Po Yigrong and Po Tsangpo, to at least the region of

Showa Dzong, or to about 95° 30°E. long.].

25, InyA MYAING ROAD, TUN YIN

UNIVERSITY P.O., . :

RANGOON,

February 20, 1970.

6. INTERESTING EAGLES IN WESTERN INDIA

While scanning through my notes recently I found that I had some-

how failed to report three occurrences of interesting eagles in Kutch.

One of them was Pallas’s Fishing Eagle Haliaeetus leucoryphus

(Pallas), seen by me in the cold weather of 1947-48 near Ganga Nal

(a tidal creek 3-4 miles west of Mandvi).

The second and the most interesting discovery was that of the

White-tailed Sea Eagle Haliaeetus albiciila (Linnaeus) in 1949-50 near

Mundra (about 30 miles south of Bhuj). A solitary individual was

sitting on an earthen mound when I saw it while trying to catch up

with and collect a Houbara Bustard Chlamydotis undulata macqueenit

(J. E. Gray) wounded by me. I do not remember whether I bagged

the Houbara, but I now certainly regret my folly in not at once trying

to collect ihe eagle at that time for only a single record of it in India

is apparently made (Ali & Ripley, HANDBOOK OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA

ANL: PAKISTAN, Vol. 1, page 286). When I went back to the place

where I had seen this extremely rare sea eagle it had disappeared and

I failed to spot it again.

In December 1966 I saw an Imperial Eagle Aquila heliaca Savigny.

This too is a rare visitor in Kutch having been recorded by Sir

Geoffrey Archer, but others, including the Salim Ali’ survey, have

not come across it (Ali, BIRDS OF KUTCH, vide Appendix B—page 172).

1 Reported from Pung Bet, Little Rann and Kaira Dist. in ‘ The Birds of Gujarat’,

JBNHS 52 : 397, by Salim Ali—Eds.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 331

It was sitting right in the middle of the Bhuj-Mandvi_ road,

approximately 8 miles from Bhuj, eating a hare which was left behind

when it flew off as I got very near the bird in my jeep.

Buus, KUTCH, | HIMMATSINHJI .

March 31, 1970. z

7. NOTES ON INDIAN BIRDS—12. EXTENSION OF

THE SOUTHERN LIMITS OF THE EASTERN STOCK

DOVE (COLUMBA EVERSMANNI BONAPARTE)

The Eastern Stock Dove (COlumba eversmanni Bonaparte), a winter

migrant to India, is known to occur as far south as Darbhanga, Bihar,

in the east but on the western side it has not been noted south of

Ambala and Ludhiana in the Punjab.

The Society’s collection includes a @ No. 12903, obtained at

Gwalior, C.J., by C. Marie on 9 March 1903, with the label marked

‘Very large flocks on peepal’.

I also find in my notes on a three-day visit to Bharatpur, Rajasthan,

in October 1951, a reference to some pigeons ‘very like the Blue

Rock (C. livia) but slightly smaller and all with pure white rumps.

In pairs and in parties of 15/20 in open. Once put out of tree’. Upon

my return, I identified them as C. eversmanni but omitted to

record them.

It would appear that this bird is found further south than accepted,

though it is uncertain if this is only occasional or happens every year.

The white rump (really croup or lower back) is very distinctive.

75, ABDUL REHMAN STREET, HUMAYUN ABDULALI

BOMBAY-3,

April 10, 1970.

- 8. AN ADDITION TO THE LIST OF INDIAN BIRDS—THE

MIGRATORY JUNGLE NIGHTJAR, CAPRIMULGUS

INDICUS JOTAKA TEMM. & SCHL.

- On the night of 28th April 1970, we left Port Blair, Andamans,

by a police launch for Narcondam Island, 160 miles north-east. At

about 5 a.m. the following morning, I came on deck and was surprised

to see a dark dove-sized bird flying low over the water about 30

yards away. The white spots on the wings suggested a nightjar but

332. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

the thought was dismissed as absurd, and desperate attempts were

made to place it among the birds likely to be met far out at sea.

As nothing plausible suggested itself, I obtained the Captain’s approval

and rushed down for my gun. When I returned, the bird had shifted

over to the other side of the boat. As it dropped to my shot it was

evident that it was a nightjar. e

In Bombay we identified the bird as a Jungle Nightjar, Capri-

mulgus indicus, but it differed from hazarae Whistler & Kinnear

(Abbottabad, Hazara, Himalayas) and appeared to be C. i. jotaka

Temm. & Schl. (type locality: Japan). In the absence of material for

comparison, the specimen (c“, wing 214) was sent to the Smithsonian |

Institution at Washington, where Mr. Bond has kindly confirmed

that it is ‘a good example of jotaka’. |

This race is a well known migrant from Japan and China to the

Malay Peninsula and further east, but this is the first record from

the Andamans, in fact the first record from India.

75, ABDUL REHMAN STREET, HUMAYUN ABDULALI

BoOMRAY-3, .

June 25, 1976.

9. GREYHEADED MYNA, STURNUS MALABARICUS

(GMELIN) IN KUTCH

I saw the Greyheaded Myna for the first time in Kutch on 31st

December, 1969. Four of these birds alighted on the bare twigs of

a small tree in the Vijaya Vilas Plantation (Mandvi) so close to me

that I did not even have to use my field glasses to observe them

during the few moments they stayed there before flying on to a

banyan tree nearby.

There is no specific mention of its distribution or occurrence in

the BIRDS OF SAURASHTRA (R. S. Dharmakumarsinhji), however, I

happened to see a pair of these Mynas: busy carrying nesting materials

into a hole in a casuarina tree at Wankaner in July 1967. One bird

(what appeared to me to be the female of the pair) had, in contrast

to its partner, a rather pale coloured plumage. Except for the head,

neck and the primaries along with tail feathers which were grey, it

was pale grey all over the rest of its body with a diffusion of a

faint ferruginous wash particularly noticeable under the wings, on the |

breast and downwards to the abdomen. This of course is not very |

unusual for abnormally’ coloured individuals are sometimes to be |

seen in this species.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES ; 58)

-I may also mention here that I observed a Forest Wagtail Motacilla

indica Gmelin once again in Kutch. It was seen by me at Vijaya

Vilas on 3lst December 1969. My first observation of this wagtail

in this district was at Bhui in 1967 (JBNHS 65 (1):225).

Brus, Kurcu, | HIMMATSINHII

January 19, 1970.

10. NOTES ON THE WGHITE-EYE (ZOSTEROPS PALPEBROSA)

AND WHITEBREASTED KINGFISHER

(HALCYON SMYRNENSIS)

Last December I had an opportunity of exploring the mangrove

flats near Jamnagar along the Gulf of Kutch and found white-eyes

to be very plentiful and confiding. This reminded me of a noté

appearing in Ticehurst’s BIRDS OF SIND [/bis 1923:22-23] of an isolated .

colony in mangroves off Karachi (W. Pakistan). It seems probable

that White-eyes affect mangrove forests all along the west and as

these extend to Karachi the little bird had an uninterrupted range

which later was disturbed by the destruction of mangroves by man.

It may be interesting to compare Karachi specimens with those from

mangrove forests near Bombay on the one hand, and with specimens

from the mangroves of Jamnagar as well as of other parts of coastal

Saurashtra and Gujarat.

_ White-eyes seem to go fairly high in the tina ais I have seen

at over 7,500 ft. a number of White-eyes at Vashishta near Manali,

both in cultivation and in Oak forests. This may well be an altitudinal

record for this little bird. i? Hehe

I have always considered the Whitebreasted Kingtisher as a plains

bird possibly going up some of ihe major valleys to about 3,000’ and it

was therefore a surprise to have one advertising its territory at over

7,500 ft. in Oak and spruce forest just above the terraced cultivation

of Vashishia Village. s

MENact, | LAVKUMAR §. KHACHER

Kutu VALLEY, ae

HIMACHAL PRADESH,

May 11, 1970.

334 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

11. NOTES ON THE INDIAN SAND SKINK OPHIOMORUS

~TRIDACTYLUS (BLYTH) ,

The skink, Ophicm°rus tridactylus inhabits sandy desert regions

of Western Rajasthan, India, where 90 per cent of the rain (100 mm.

to 400 mm.} falls during the monsoon (July to September). May and

June are the hottest months with the mean maximum temperature at

40:5°C. In association with heat waves, 50°C. has also been recorded.

Dust storms are not infrequent. The desert is dominated by sand

dunes, but rocky outcrops occur at Jodhpur, Barmer, and Jaisalmer.

Localities from which Ophiomorus was collected (1964-68) were Ganga-

nagar, Hanumangarh, Raisingnagar, Suratgarh, Sadulpur, Churu,

Jhunjhunu, Pilani, Ratangarh, Sikar, Lunkaransar, Bikaner, Shergarh,

Pachpadra, Balotra, Shiv, Barmer, Gadra Road, Munabau, Sundra,

Kolayat, Bap, Phalodi, Pokran, Mohangarh, Nagaur, Ramgarh, Jai-

salmer, Devikot, Hindumal Kot, Osian and Jodhpur.

The skinks can be coltected abundantly from the month of

February to May after the cold weather and September to November

after the monsoon. The skinks leave zig-zag tracks while moving

under sand. These tracks always conimence from a bush and can be

followed to their apex and if a finger is lightly pressed into the sand.

at this point the presence of the lizard can be felt by its slow move-

ment under the sand. If a sieve is then shoved into the sand the

lizard can be lifted out. This is the best way of collecting this

slippery lizard, if the tail is not to snap. On the sand dunes, the

skinks normally venture out soon after dusk and cease their activity

before dawn. In captivity the skinks were in a state of torpor in

late December and January. In March a few among the captive skinks

moulted, the skin peeling off in flakes. Dead specimens of other

terrestrial lizards are found on the road, crushed by vehicles but

Ophiomorus has not been sighted so far in this condition.

The coloration of the skin is creamy or pale brown on the dorsal

side and the belly is whitish yellow. The dorsal side of the lizard

is studded with distinct Jongitudinal series of pigment spots. In some —

cases, the spots get intermingled, so that only a broad band of faint,

diffused spots, is formed.

The tail length varies individually in relation to the snout vent

length. A few specimens had regenerated tails. }

The maximum snout vent length is 95 mm.; tail 70 mm. The

greatest body diameter at the middle of the body is 25 mm.

MAHARISHI DAYANAND COLLEGE, M. S. RATHOR

SRI GANGANAGAR,

RAJASTHAN,

July 12, 1969.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 335

12. NOTES ON BITES BY THE SAW-SCALED VIPER,

ECHIS CARINATUS IN THE DEOGAD AREA OF

RATNAGIRI DISTRICT, MAHARASHTRA

_ Dr. M. R. Nene, a general practitioner who has a clinic in the

village of Jamsande, a few miles from Deogad town, has treated

over 300 cases of Echis bite since 1955. During the heavy monsoon

that this coastal area receives, the viper Echis carinaius becomes the

most abundant terrestrial snake. Some of the points of interest and

brief case histories noted down during an informal interview on July

24, 1969, are given below.

The village people of Deogad Taluka, seem more inclined to see a

doctor in the event of a snakebite than in other areas of Maharashtra

and India. Except where a medical doctor becomes well-known for

successfully treating snakebites, the people generally cal! upon a local

‘medicine man’ or holy man to try to save the victim. The annual

collection of Echis in this area for Haffkine Institute’s serum production

programme has helped create this awareness. Out of 300 bites there

have been 4 deaths--each time these were cases when the victim

came or was brought 4 to 7 days after the bite, when loss of blood

and associated complications had brought him to the critical point.

Patients usually died of heart failure after continual hemorrhage for

days. Patients that recovered from severe systemic symptoms were

treated for anemia.

The oldest patient was 65 years, youngest 2 years; average 20 to

40 years, more males than females. Most bites occurred from July

to October; September being the month of most bites. Eighty-five

per cent of bites were in daytime; bites used to be higher at night

when the road was a simple dirt road, pointing to the Viper’s habit

of lying in loose sand or dirt. Ninety per cent of bites were on the

feet, ten per cent on hands. Most bites occurred as labourers cut

grass, piled stones and worked on crops: a few bites occurred in

homes. Most patients came within 1-2 hours after the bite; of these,

most had come straight to the doctor without seeking any local cure.

Others came 1-7 days later, usually after trying local remedies, and

occasionally after trying other medical doctors. Ninety per cent of

the patients came with some sort of tourniquet, usually too. tight.

Dr. Nene does not employ or recommend mechanical measures such

as cut/suction to try to withdraw venom from the site of bite.

Early symptoms of Echis carinatus bite include: fang-punctures

leaking blood; localized oedema (80%) 6 to 7 inches up the extremity;

Severe pain (burning at site of bite in all) ascending up to upper

extremity in most; pain in glands in armpit (this may be severe even

336 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

' When iocal swelling is very slight or absent). After 1 hour there

may be sharp ‘lightning’ pains up the arm (or leg). Ten to twelve

hours after the bite, bleeding from the gums is a common systemic |

symptom. Later, blood in urine, feces, sputum. In later stages of

Severe erivenomation, anal and vaginal bleeding may occur. In a.

lethal bite, in from 12 hours to one or more weeks, pulse may become

feeble, blood pressure drops to unrecordable and the patient expires.

In two fatal cases convulsions preceded death. - :

Dr. Nene treats every snake bite case as an emergency. When

symptoms of envenomation are manifest in a victim, he makes a slow

intravenous injection of Haffkine Polyvalent Antivenin Serum. He

keeps syringes of cortisone and adrenalin prepared for the possibility

of allergic reaction to the horse serum. Anaphylaxis is a hazard of

intravenous injection of any horse serum without prior testing for

patient sensitivity. Dr. Nene says that five per cent of the patients

showed moderate to severe ailergic reaction, including urticaria, shock

symptoms. He has observed no allergic shock in patients receiving

intramuscular horse serum injections.

Case histories: (a) 20 year old male worker came after 7 days,

hemorrhaging moderately. He had been treated with antivenin (intra-

muscular) one day following the bite and sent home by another doctor.

Efforts of village medicine men at stopping bleeding from various

sites failed. Antivenin was immediately injected intravenously and the

man went into allergic shock. He was treated for shock for 14 hours

and again antivenin was injected. The man recovered in one day.

(b) Male worker came on 4th day after bite, bleeding profusely;

blood in urine, anal bleeding etc. Antivenin, Vitamin K, Calcium

Gluconate were administered. Patient recovered in 16 hours, except

for anemia. :

After treatment with sufficient doses (1 to 3 vials) Taser cuide

pain and bleeding cease rapidly. Swelling remains for 3 to 4 days.

In the 300 cases of Echis bite there were only 3 known cases of

necrosis. These were very slight cases, involving sloughing of tissue

near the fang marks. No other complications (except anemia, some=

times acute) following recovery from bites were noted. No Lee

mortems in fatal cases. ;

Dr. Nene has treated 6 Russell’s Vapeu! bites, 5 proved fatal:

He feels that the time factor is far more critical in this species than

others because of quantity of venom injected and the rapid massive

clotting action of one of the venom constituents, which results in

rapid death by heart failure. He aiso feels that the titer of the

Haffkine Polyvalent Antivenom Serum to this venom may be lower

than desirable, or may be slow in its neutralising effect on Vipera

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES | - 337

russellii venom. Two. cobra bites during the 14 year period were

treated successfully. |

Though we have no additional data, such as how many snake-

bite victims in the area did not come to the doctor, it appears that

Echis carinatus bites are fatal only in cases of exceptional envenomation

and only after a matter of days after the bite (less than 2% of the

300 in tins study). This points to death by complications of, rather

than direct envenomation. |

C/o CHATTOPADHYAYA, ROMULUS WHITAKER

CHATEAU MARINE No. 6,

MARINE DRIVE,

BomMBAY-20,

August 1, 1969.

13. CAPTURE OF A WHALE SHARK RHINEODON TYPUS

SMITH IN RATNAGIRI WATERS

On 11 May 1965, a large shark was landed at Mirkarwada, Katna-

giri. The fish was identified as Rhineodon typus Smith based on its-

characteristic colour pattern and three longitudinal ridges. on either

side of the mid-dorsal region. The tish was caught in 13 fathoms in

nylon gill nets, and was towed ashore.

This is the first record of the species from eanaeit Rechidit

of the capture of the Whale shark Rhineodon typus off the coast of

India has been considered as a matter of interest, as these large fish

occur rather rarely. Prater (1941) reviewed the data of the occurrence

of the species from Indian waters. Since then, there have been a

few additions, Kulkarni (1948) from Bombay, Chacko & Mathew

(1954) from Malabar coast, Kaikini et al. (1959) from Mangalore, and

Gopalan (1962) from Veraval, Gujarat State. Silas & Rajagopalan

(1963) who reported it from Tuticorin have suggested a proforma for

collecting detailed information whenever records of the Whale sharks

are made. Information on the lines suggested by them is given below.

The measurements are in millimetres.

Pict Melee Cin teeretary rye suche tee tials orale shale c's al cs sla itie wefe'a seenewhy LOO

Stamel ancap emetineee gs Wil tacty cine sc 15 4.3) sols wee obo are! oof 4000

1D Saal Lier aked tl eee iA a ae ell Cn a PO ta 1380

Gish OH WOMy rhe roe eA PA Ws, odie elas Sth ble ola: ¥ ache Miane 1000

NNAIGLbllee Ole OUUEy. frye cls coke stare he s,s 04 sia Biciere are coohohoweage s 820

Werticalu here lntiOlr al St AOnSAlesiiys s+» s .%, «0, eye's che eet sgh aus 460

Nettica hele itiolezmd: COTSAN oy sr... oie. ss os ole.e'8 ees ve cop's 230

Length of caudal along upper margin........ bh ang ears ~e- 1480

338 = JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL UIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

Shout to ist. dorsal. | Rese as OD, Ph ae 2380

Snout to 2ndudofsale.s. sni% min eee. . ee eee eee 2380

Snout.to pectoral 5; cs Gius Mette reek eet eke Seek eee 1120

Interspace between: Ist & 2nd dorsal... 2.2.5.6. 560

Interspace between 2nd dorsal & caudal................ 460

Length of * pectoral. 2.3 ee Son te eee 920

Lengthvof istdorsals. Rahat 2k ce Re ee 660

Length. of: ;2nd dorsalis, cs he. chee ict wise oh ee 280

“Diameterof orbits... 0). ane eee 40

dnterorbital,~ “distance.<\ caer. oe ee eee eee 900°

The weight was about 900 kg. It was a male. Two sucker fishes

(Remora remOra) were collected from the pectoral fins of the fish. No

external parasitic copepods were observed.

ACKNOWI EDGEMENTS

We are grateful to Dr. C. V. Kulkarni, Director of Fisheries, for

his encouragement and to Dr. H. G. Kewalramani, Senior Scientific

Officer, for his help in going through the manuscript and making

helpful suggestions.

MARINE BIOLOGICAL RESEARCH ple: M. R. RANADE

STATION, SHAKUNTALA S. SHENOY

RATNAGIRI, FAHIM AHMED

March 6, 1970.

14. FISHING METHODS FOR THE SPINY EEL

MASTOCEMBELUS ARMATUS IN MADHYA PRADESH

The Spiny Eel frequents: very weedy waters and hides among the

weeds or in holes and crevices on the bank during the day. The

latter habit is used in catching the eel. At Bhopal, the method used

is to dig a small outlet at the edge of the water and cover it with stones.

After three to four days a triangular hand net is kept at the mouth ~

of the outlet and the fish frightened into it by stamping on the stones

covering the outlet. Another method is to drop into the water cow

dung-filled gunny bags with a few holes in them. The eel is said to

be attracted into the bag by the dung but is unable to escape owing

to the dorsal spires becoming entangled. Pots with holes are also

left in the water and removed after a few days, trapping the fish

sheltering in them. In north Madhya Pradesh, hollow bamboos with

the internode bored at one end are used in the same manner. The

eel is also caught with hook & line using shrimps, earthworms and

tadpoles as bait.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 339

! wish to thank Dr. R. D. Gaur of M.V.M. College, Bhopal, for his

useful suggestions.

Asst. FISHERY OFFICER, B. M. GUPTA

GANDHI SAGAR DAM,

MANDSAUR, M.P.,

March 9, 1970.

15S. A REVIEW OF THE TAXONOMY OF THE INDIAN

FROG-FISHES (FAMILY BATRACHOIDIDAE)

(With a photograph and a text-figure)

INTRODUCTION

During a general study of marine fish collections in the Zoological

Survey of India, we had the opportunity to study eleven specimens of

Indian Frog-fishes (Family Batrachoididae) collected from the following

localities: Mangalore area (5 specimens); Tellicherry (1); Calicut (1);

_ Bombay (3) and Calcutta (1). In the course of the work it became

apparent that the taxonomy of these forms needed revision.

SYSTEMATIC ACCOUNT

Linnaeus (1758) described from East Indian seas, CCttus srunniens

characterized by two dorsal spines in the first dorsal fin. Linnaeus

does not mention the presence of any pore in the axilla of his speci-

men. Bloch and Schneider (1801) included Cottus grunniens L. in the

genus Batrachus. Hamilton (1822) described Batrachoides gangene

from the estuaries of the River Ganges. Valenciennes (in Cuvier &

Valenciennes 1837) described Batrachus dussumieri from the Malabar

coast and B. grunniens from the West coast of India. Giinther (1861)

described Batrachus trispinosus from the seas of Bombay, Singapore

and Penang, basing his account on Valenciennes’ description (op. cit.)

of B. grunniens. Day (1878) recognized two species of the Frog-

fishes from Indian seas, namely, Batrachus grunniens (L.) and B.

gangene (Ham.), the former with a pore in the axilla and the latter

without a pore in the axilla. Menon (1963) synonymised B. gangene

(Ham.) with B. grunniens (L.), and B. trispinosus Giinther with B.

dussumicri Val.; the former without a pore in the axilla and the

latter with a pore in the axilla. However, even though B. grinniens

340 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

(L.) and 'B. gangene (Ham.) may agree in the absence of a pore in

the axilla, yet they differ in the number of dorsal spines—which are

of taxonomic significance—-since the former possesses two dorsal spines

and the latter has three dorsal spines in the first dorsal fin. Thus,

these two species cannot be considered as being synonymous. Menon

(Op. cit.) also synomymized B. dussumieri Val. and B. trispinosus

Ginther on the basis of both species possessing a pore in the axilla.

We have found the following additional reasons for this. ‘The gill-

covers bear four backwardly directed spines, two on the opercle and

two on the sub-opercle (Photo, fig. 1); the last spine is often indistinct

and sometimes only two opercular spines are visible. The sub-

opercular spines are sometimes hidden under thick skin, if the skin

is dissected the two sub-opercular spmes are seen clearly (Text-fig. 1:

a, b, c). It may be noted that Dr. M. Blanc, Museum National

D‘Histoire Naturelle, Paris (pers. comm.), states that the type-specimen

of Batrachus dussumieri Cuv. et Val. (n° A 4748-—— Bombay—

Dussumier) possesses 3 spines on the left gill-covers and four spines

on the right gill-covers. Thus, the gill-cover spines appear to be of

’ little taxonomic significance by themselves.

5 cm.

Fic. 1: H. dussumieri (Val.), 155 mm. total length, ‘collected from the Malabar

coast. i four gill-cover spines are clearly visible after dissection.

Fic. 2: H. gangene (Ham.), Z.S.1., F. 2066, 195 mm. total length, collected by

F. Day on Calcutta,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES | 341

According to Valenciennes (Op. cit.), B. dussumieri possesses ‘villi-

form bands of teeth’ on the palatines. Our specimens, collected from

the type-locality, exhibited the following arrangement of the teeth:

In a specimen of 10C mm. tota! length, two rows of conical teeth are

present in both the jaws, the inner rows being incomplete towards the

distal ends of the jaws; there are three rows of conical teeth at the

symphysis-region in each jaw and an irregular single row of conical

teeth on the vomer and palatines. In a larger specimen measuring

170 mm. total length, two rows of conical teeth are present in the

upper jaw and there is a single row in the lower jaw; there are three

rows at the symphysis-region in each jaw. In the upper jaw, the outer

row of teeth and m the lower jaw, the inner row of teeth, are

irregularly longer, in the symphysis-region. ‘The vomer carries an ir-

regular row of conical teeth and a posterior row of regularly arranged

conical teeth of similar size. The palatines bear a single row of short,

stumpy, caniniform teeth, anteriorly these teeth appear to be grouped

into one set of 2-3 teeth on each palatine. The gap separating the

palatine from the vomerine-teeth, is much reduced in the larger speci-

men relative to the condition seen in the smaller specimen. The

above description indicates that ‘villiform bands of teeth’ on the palatines

do not occur in B. dussumieri Val., and the arrangement agrees in

general with the teeth-pattern seen in B. trispinOsus Giinther (Text-

M&ui2, 22D): 7

We have provisionally assigned the two valid species Batrachus

dussumieri Val. and Batrachus gangene (Ham.) to the genus Halo-

phryne Gill 1863, following the arrangement suggested by De Beaufort

(1962). :

A brief systematic account of the two Indian species, along with

a simple key for their identitication, is given below:

KEY TO THE VALID INDIAN SPECIES OF THE GENUS Halophryne

1.. A pore in the pectoral axilla. Gill-opening much wider than the pectoral

DAS Cree ee cass. so wes oe, Meo ute wae 4 oh Halophryne dussumieri (Val.)

2. No axillary pore. Gill-opening shorter than the pectoral base............

I Oats Na Ser Nah bs: shes MUR RN RR A Ret mT Cae Halophryne gangene (Ham.)

Halophryne dussumieri (Val.)

1837. Batrachus grunniens Valenciennes (in Cuvier et Valenciennes), Hist. Nat. Poiss.

' 12, p. 466 (nec. L.).

1837. Batrachus dussumieri Valenciennes (in Cuvier et Valenciennes), Hist. Nat.

Poiss. 12, p. 477 (Type-locality : Malabar Coast). ;

1861. Batrachus trispinosus Giinther, Cat. Fish. Brit. Mus, 3, p. 169 (Type-locality :

Seas of Bombay, Penang, and Singapore).

342 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

1878. Batrachus grunniens Day, Fish. India, p. 269, pl. 59, fig. 1 (nec. L.).

1889. Batrachus grunniens Day, Faun. Brit. Ind. Fish. 2, p. 229, fig. 83 (nec. L.).

1955. Batrachus grunniens Munro, The Marine and Freshwater Fishes of Ceylon, p. 285,

pl. 56, fig. 832 (nec. L.). . |

1962. Halophryne trispinosus De Beaufort, The Fishes of the Indo-Australian Archipe-

lago 11, p. 186.

1963. Austrobatrachus dussumieri Menon, LABDEV, J.S.T. 1.

TEXT-Fic.1. Dissected gill-covers showing the opercular and sub-opercular

spines in H. dussumieri (Val.) collected from the Malabar Coast.

(a) A specimen of 98 mm. total length. )

(b) A specimen of 132 mm. total length. Note the reduced sub-opercular spine.

TEXT-Fic. 2. Teeth arrangement in H. dussumieri (Val.) collected from the

Malabar Coast (Note the difference with growth).

(a) A specimen of 100 mm. total length.

(6) A specimen of 170 mm. total length.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 343

MATERIAL: (5), 145 to 170 mm., total length, Mangalore area, Coll. K. V. Rama

Rao and K.V. Surya Rao, 22.12.1964 ; (1), 170 mm., total length, Tellicherry,

Coll. K. V. Rama Rao and K. V. Surya Rao, 30.12.1964 ; (1), 100 mm., total

length, Vellayial, Calicut, Coll. K. V. Rama Rao and K. V. Surya Rao, 7.1.1965 ;

(3), Z.S.I., F. 1805-1807, 45°0 to 125 mm., total length, Bombay, Coll. F. Day.

Distribution: Persian Gulf, coasts of India, Ceylon, Malay Penin-

sula; inhabits seas and estuaries.

Remarks: McCulloch (1929) and Herre (1953) considered Batra-

chus dussumieri Cuvier et Valenciennes to be identical with Cory-

zichthys di€mensis (Lesueur); but this is untenable since the former

has a pore in the axilla, which the latter lacks.

Halophryne gangene (Ham.)

1786. Cottus grunniens Bloch, Ausland. Fische 2, p. 157, Taf. 179 (nec. L.).

1801. Cottus grunniens Bloch and Schneider, Syst. Ichth., p. 43, (nec. L.).

1822. Batrachoides gangene Hamilton, Fishes of the Ganges, p. 34, 365, pl. 14, fig. 8

(Type-locality : Salt estuaries of River Ganges).

1861. Batrachus grunniens Gunther, Cat. Fish. Brit. Mus. 3, p. 168 (nec. L.).

1878. Batrachus gangene Day, Fish. India, p. 270, pl. 60, fig. 1.

1889. Batrachus gangene Day, Faun. Brit. Ind. Fish. 2, p. 229.

1962. Halophryne gangene De Beaufort, Fishes of the Indo-Australian Archipelago

11, p. 188.

1963. Batrichthys grunniens Menon, LABDEV, J.S.T. 1.

MATERIAL: (1), Z.S.I., F. 2066, 195 mm., total length, Calcutta, Coll. F. Day.

Distribution: Madagascar, Muscat, Persian Gulf, coasts of India,

Siam, Indo-China, Straits of Malacca, Penang, Philippines; inhabits

seas and estuaries.

Remurks: TDay’s (1878, pl. 69, fig. 1) illustration, which is labelled

as Batrachus grunniens, is actually that of Halophryne eangene;

further, the shape of the head of the specimen is not properly shown,

hence a photograph of his original specimen has been taken by us

(Photo, fig. 2).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful to the Director, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta,

for facilities. Our indebtedness to Dr. A. G. K. Menon, Superinten-

ding Zoologist, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta, is gratefully

acknowledged for making available the specimens of Frog-fishes

deposited in the National Zoological collections. Our thanks are also

due to Dr. M. Blanc of the Museum National D’Histoire Naturelle,

344. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

Paris, for kindly making available data on the type-specimen of

Batrachus dussumieri Cuvier et Valenciennes.

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

8, LINDSAY STREET,

CALCUTTA-16,

24 October, 1968.

A. K. NAGABHUSHANAM

K. V. RAMA RAO

REFERENCES

BLocH, M. E. & SCHNEIDER, J. G.

(1801): Systema ichthyologiae, Berlin,

(1878): Fishes of India.

Wm. Dawson & Sons, Lond., pp. 269-270.

———— (1889) : The Fauna of British

India, including Ceylon and Burma

Fishes. London 2 : 228-230.

De BEAUFORT, L. F. (1962): The

Fishes of the Indo-Australian Archipel-

ago. Leiden 11 : 185-190.

GILL, T. (1863) : Descriptive enumera-

tion of acollection of fishes from the

western coast of Central America. Proc.

Acad. Nat. Soc., Philadelphia, p. 170.

GUNTHER, A. (1861): Catalogue of

the Actinopterygian fishes in the collec-

tions of the British Museum. Cat. Fish.

Brit. Mus. 3 : 166-177.

HAMILTON, F. B. (1822): An account

of the fishes found in the River Ganges

and its branches. Edinburgh, pp. 34,

35 and 365, pl. 14, fig. 8.

HerRRE, A. W. (1953): Checklist of

Philippine fishes. Research Report 20,

Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S. Dept. of

Interior. p. 820.

LINNAEUS, C. (1758):

Naturae Ed. 10, p. 264.

McCuL.ocu, A. R. (1929) : A Check-

list of the fishes recorded from Australia.

Mem. Austr. Mus. 5 : 359.

Systema

MENon, A. G. K. (1963): Taxonomy .

of the Indian Frog-fishes (Fam. Batra-

choididae). LABDEV, J.S.T., Kanpur, 1.

VALENCIENNES, A., (in Cuvier et Valen-

ciennes) 1837. Hist. Nat. Poiss. 12:

466-474.

16. AN ASSESSMENT OF DAMAGE AND LOSS BY

LINSEED CATERPILLAR LAPHYGMA

EXIGUA HB.

Laphygma exigua Hb. (Noctuidae: Lepidoptera) is a destructive

polyphagous pest in Jndia causing serious damage to linseed, peas,

lentil, lucerne etc. every year. However, no quantitative work has been

done on the extent of loss caused by the pest to these crops. A

study was, therefore, undertaken at Jabalpur to assess the extent of ©

loss by the pest to linseed during 1967-68 when the crop was infested

by this pest alone.

The experiment was done on 64 pairs of plants in 8 rows, each

In each pair there was one treated and one

row having 16 plants.

untreated plant. Row to row and plant to plant distances were |

metre and 0-5 metre respectively. Sowing was done in the last week

of December, 1967, and the pest infestation started in the last week

of January 1968. The infestation developed fast and reached its

maximum in the 2nd and 3rd weeks of February when there were

about 18 to 27 larvae per plant (untreated), usually found feeding |

gregariously in the webbed apical portions of plants. The larvae fed

on the leaves, apical growing poinis and flower buds and thus checked

the height and capsule formation in plants. Spraying schedule on

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 345

treated series of plants consisted of 4 sprayings with a mixture of

0:02% endrin-+-0-03% dimethoate (Rogor) emulsions, applied at

weekly intervals starting from the Ist week of February. Spraying

was done with a baby sprayer on plants in alternate rows. The other

rows were left untreated. Drift of spray was prevented by using tin

sheets in between rows. When the plants attained maturity and

stopped vegetative growth the height of the individual plants was

recorded. During harvesting, each individual pliant was kept in

separate bag with a label of its plant number. The number and weight

of capsules of each plant were recorded. The data were subjected

to statistical analysis and are given in the Table.

TABLE

hygma INFESTATION ON THE HEIGHT AND YIELD OF LINSEED PLANTS

EFFECT OF Lap

Total height Total no. of Total weight

Specifications of plants capsules of capsules

(in cm.) (in gm.)

In 64 treated plants ter 3641 - 5247 404°12

In 64 untreated plants... 3057 2800 224°28

- Difference as 584 2447 179°84

Calculated ‘ t’ value sas S252? 8:09* 10°09*

*Highly significant at 1% level

The above data show that the pest Laphygma exigua reduced the

plant height and yield significantly. The percentage reduction due to

the pest in plant height and in the number and weight of capsules

was 16:0, 46°6 and 44:3%, respectively.

DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY, R. R. RAWAT

J. N. KRISHI VISHWA VIDYALAYA, R. R. DESHPANDE

JABALPUR-4 (M.P.),

July 6, 1968.

17. A NEW RECORD OF BRACHYDEUTERA LONGIPES

HENDEL (DIPTERA: EPHYDRIDAE) FROM WEST BENGAL

Wirth (1964)! recorded the occurrence of the species Brachydeutera

longipes Hendel from Chabau, Assam, Coimbatore and Nedugadu, S.

India, and from Delhi. The species has not been reported elsewhere

1 WirtH, W. W. (1964): <A revision of the shore flies of the genus Brachydeutera

Loew (Diptera : Ephydridae). Ann. ent. Soc. Am. 57 (1) : 3-12, 20 figs.

346 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

in India. During examination of a collection of shore flies, I came

across a few examples of this species from W. Bengal.

MATERIAL EXAMINED: 1 ex., Calcutta, coll. A.P. Kapur, 14.3.50. 10 exs.,

Chinsura, W. Bengal, coll. M. Ghosh & K. D. Chatterjee, 11.6.65.

Remarks: Frons, scutum and scutellum rust red, base of scutellum

and facial keel brownish instead of dull-green as noticed by Wirth.

Three lateroclinate fronto-orbitals, the anterior one very weak.

Distribution: India to the Philippines, Taiwan, and Japan.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I thank Dr. A. P. Kapur, Director, Zoological Survey of India,

and Dr. A. N. T. Joseph, Officer-in-Crarge of Diptera section, Zoo-

logical Survey of India, for permission to examine the material.

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, K. RAMACHANDRA RAO

CALcuTTA-12,

May 24, 1968.

18. FIRST RECORD OF COENOMYIA LATREILLE

(DIPTERA: COENOMYIIDAE) FROM INDIA

Coenomyia Latreille, a Holarctic genus, is represented by three

species in the world, namely, Coenomyia ferruginea (Scopoli), Coeno-

myia comans Enderlein and Coenomyia bituberculata Enderlein.

During a recent faunistic survey of Kameng Frontier and Subansiri

Frontier Divisions, NEFA (April-May, 1966), I collected 7 examples

of Coenomyia ferruginea. The genus Coenomyia is recorded here from

India for the first time. |

MATERIAL EXAMINED: 3 33, 3 292, Tawang (3200m.), Kameng Frontier Division,

NEFA, 27.IV.1966. 1 3 from the same locality on 28.4.1966.

Remarks: of Dark, thorax with white hairs. Abdomen with

black and white hairs; second tergum with grey quadrate spots bearing

short white hairs; third with blackish brown hind margin, with or

without median and !fatera! markings of the same colour; third, fourth |

and fifth with the same colour pattern, but the blackish brown markings

more distinct and covering larger area; venter dark brown to orange.

Q Frons with hairs. Abdominal segments posteriorly orange, other-

wise Orange masked with fuscous. | ;

Besides exhibiting strong sexual dimorphism, the specimens. of

Coenomyia ferruginea showed the following individual variations :

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 347

Male specimen (Z.S.I. Registration No. 4220/H6). Compound

eyes not contiguous but separated by less than the breadth of median

ocellus. Female specinien (Z.S.I. Registration No. 4222/H6). Frons

bulges out, interfrontalia separated from parafrontalia by two distinct

grooves; wing with posterior cross-vein incomplete.

Distribution: Holarctic Region.

_ The boundaries of Palearctic and Oriental regions are not sharply

defined and as is well-known there is an intermingling of fauna from

both the regions over the Himalayas. The present record of Coenomyia

ferruginea, a Holarctic species, in Kameng Frontier Division of NEFA,

is yet another example of this.

ACKNGWLEDGEMENTS

I am grateful to Dr. A. P. Kapur, Director, Zcological Survey of

India, Calcutta, for permission to study the material and to Sri K. S.

Pradhan, Superintending Zoologist, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta,

for encouragement. |

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, A. N. T. JOSEPH

CALCUTTA-12,

May ie 1969.

i9. THE TIME CF EMERGENCE AND THE PERIODICITY

OF OCCURRENCE OF THE TIGER BEETLE, CICINDELA

CANCELLATA DE]. (ORDER: COLEOPTERA—

FAMILY: CiCINDELIDAE)

Cicindela cancellata Dej. is a fairly common tiger beetle, occurring

almost all over India. In Kerala State, it is quite common, particularly

in coastal regions and is generally found in sandy areas. It escapes

general attention because of its protective coloration which blends very

well with the background, on account of a colour pattern involving’

sandy-cream and black on the elytra. These beetles and their larvae

are active predators and have been observed in the field to feed mostly

on small ants and sometimes on other small insects such as small

nymphs of grasshoppers and leafheppers.

The authors have been studying the bionomics of these beetles in

the field and in the laboratory for about three years. Observations

in the Malabar Christian College Compound, Calicut, have shown

348 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

that these tiger beetles are not found at all, from November to March.

During the remaining period of the year they are found all over the

place and several generations are passed through, and towards the

close of this period, around the end of October, the individuals in

the pupal stage enter into a stage of dormancy and remain so for

about four months. Every year, the first emergence of the adult tiger

beetles takes place soon after the first or second shower around March

or April. The first emergence in the field was observed in the third

week of March in 1966. in the first week of April in 1967 and in the

second week of March in 1968. But in all these cases, it was observed

that the emergence took place soon after the first rains.

The population of the tiger beetles then gradually increases and

reaches the peak during the months of July, August and September.

Then their numbers steadily decline and eventually reach zero level

around November or December. During the period November to

March, the population levels of the prey insect species may therefore

show a rise in the absence of active predation by these voracious tiger

beetles and their larvae, unless this component of environmental

resistance is imposed on them by some other predaceous species.

Grateful acknowledgement is made of a grant from the University

Grants Commission to one of the authors (A.B.S.) for the study of

tiger beetles.

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY, : A. B. SOANS

MALABAR CHRISTIAN COLLEGE, J. S. SOANS

CALiIcuT-1, KERALA,

April 29, 1968.

20. SWARMING OF BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS

Swarms of butterflies and moths were attracted to the trees of ©

Caesalpinia coriaria Willd. in flower, during September-October, 1969,

in and around Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu. The most unusual feature

about this phenomenon was, that the insects went straight to the flowers

of C. cOriaria even when these trees were surrounded by other flowering

plants like Lantana, Zinnia, Chrysanthemum, Bougainvillea, Petunia,

Peltophorum, Marg0osa etc. A few butterflies were flying about

Lantana, Zinnia and Chrysanthemum, but thousands were seen

resting, feeding or flying about the C. coriaria trees. The following

species of butterflies and moths resting on the trees were collected

and identified:

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 348

NYMPHALIDAE

_ Precis hierta (Fabricius).

2. P. lemonias (Linnaeus).

A ose WA Fs

19.

ay.

21.

22.

. P. almana (Linnaeus).

DANAIDAE

. Euploea core (Cramer).

. Danais chrysippus (Linnaeus).

. D. melanippus (Cramer).

. D. limniace Cramer.

PAPILIONIDAE

. Tros hector (Linnaeus).

. T. aristolochiae (Fabricius).

. Papilio polytes Linnaeus.

. P. demeleus Linnaeus.

. Graphium agamemnon (Linnaeus).

PIERIDAE

. Colotis eucharis (Fabricius).

. Anaphaeis aurota (Fabricius).

. CatOpsila pyranthe (Linnaeus).

. C. pomona (Fabricius).

. Eurema hecabe (Linnaeus).

. Hebomoia glauctppe (Linnacus).

SPHINGIDAE

Macroglossa vialis Bull. (M. affictitia Bull.).

Cephonodes sp. —

PYRALIDAE

Hymenia recurvalis C.

Psarah bipunctalis F.

Apart from the Lepidopteran insects, a few wasps were also noticed

on the trees, but no honey bees. No caterpillars of these insects

350 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

were found in the surrounding areas. It is possible that the insects

are attracted by the sweet strong fragrance of the flowers of C. cOriaria

to feed on the honey produced by them.

Wynter-Blyth (1957) in his book BUTTERFLIES OF THE INDIAN

REGION (p. 42) has reported that butterflies are attracted to the trees

of Buddleia in the Himalayas and Poinsettia and Moringa at lower

elevations. The present report is probably such a phenomenon.

COIMBATORE, M. MOHANASUNDARAM

January 20, 1970. C. V. SIVAKUMAR

21. OBSERVATIONS ON THE MATING BEHAVIOUR IN

TRE ANT MONOMORIUM GRACILLIMUM SMITH

(HYMENOPTERA: FORMICIDAE)

- MonOmorium eracillimum. Smith is a small dark brownish-red ant,

about 2 mm. in length and is a very common household pest, nesting

in the ground or floor and in the crevices of walls. On June 16,

1968, at about 5 p.m. when the weather was cloudy and slightly

rainy, the authors found large numbers of workers and alate males

and females of MOnomorium gracillimum just outside the opening

of the nest in the ground floor of the Malabar Christian College

building. Evidently, the colony was- going through the process of

swarming. Some workers and winged reproductives were collected

in a tube and were transferred into an artificial nest in the laboratory,

for observation. The ants were fed with honey and dead housefiies.

The next morning, the winged males and females were observed mating.

Within the artificial nest, the alate forms showed no tendency to

fly. The mating behaviour under conditions of captivity which could |

easily be observed eee the transparent top-cover of the nest, is

as follows:

An alate male (4 mm.) is much smaller than an alate female

(75 mm.). The alate male approaches the female from behind and

strokes the tip of its gaster with its antennae and front pair of legs.

The female starts walking about and is closely followed by the male

in tandem fashion. The male then grasps and holds firmly the

posterior half of the gaster of the female. with its three pairs of

legs. The thoracic part of the male now comes to lie on the dorsal

side of the gaster of the female. The gaster of the male is then

bent downwards almost at right angles, at the pedicel, to the longi-

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 351

tudinal axis of its body and the edeagus is in turn directed at

right angles to’ the position of the gaster, almost horizontally and

inserted into the vagina of the female. During copulation, the

anterior half of the gaster of the female is stroked by the antennae

of the male. Other alate males also try to climb over the

copulating male to have access to the female but they slip and drop

down. The female mostly keeps walking about slowly, carrying the

copulating male on the dorsal side of its gaster. The male and the

female separate after about fifteen minutes.

DPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY, A. B. SOANS

MALABAR CHRISTIAN COLLEGE, J. S. SOANS

CaLicuT-1,

June 21, 1968.

22. VARIOUS ASSOCIATES OF SESSILE BARNACLES

IN BOMBAY WATERS

INTRODUCTION

Numerous instances of associations ranging from simple com-

mensalism to total parasitism and symbiosis are to be abundantly found

in literature.. Majority of these associations occur in the crowded littoral

and sublittora! zones as there is’ often competition for space. Cirri-

pedes, being a major sedentary component of the biota and occupying

a great deal of area, contribute towards such relationships to a great

extent. These relationships, it is reported. range from sea-weeds to

whales, numbering about 2000 species of living organisms. In_ this

account an attempt has been made to compile the list of organisms that

were found associated with the balanomorphs found around Bombay.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Collections of sessile barnacles were made at random and brought

to the laboratory. The associates from the shells were removed

carefully, narcotised, if necessary, so as to obtain them in fully

extended state and then preserved, 1O4

352. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

OBSERVATIONS

Organisms ranging from algae to mollusca found associated with

barnacles are described below.

The algal associates included Ulva lactuca Linn., EnterOmorpha

sp., Laurentia sp., Polysiphonia forrulacea, Suhr, Gelidium hetero-

platos and the calcareous form Cheilosporum spectabilis. All the

algae were associated with Balanus tintinnabulum.

Fairly good number of sponges were found covering the shells of

Balanus amaryllis at Chowpatty. This association was not observed

at any other locality. Further classification of these sponge specimens

is yet to be completed. Among the coelenterates associated with

barnacles were Sertuiaria sp., Cribrinopsis sp. and Diadumene schil-

leriana (Stoliczka). Forms of Sertularia sp. were found as dense

colonies anchored on B. fintinnabulum shelis. The lattter two, the

ActinOzoans, were associated with B. amaryllis shells. The forms of

CribrinOpsis sp. were characterised by light pink column covered with

weakly developed red verrucae on its distal one-third region. These

forms were of quite common occurrence. The occurrence of Diadu-

mene along with barnacles has been previously recorded by Annandale

(1907) and Bhatt (1°59).

The errantian polychaetes included Nereis talehsapensis (Fauvel).

These worms were small, thin and tapered posteriorly and showed

certain differences in the teeth compared to Fauvel’s description

(Fauvel 1932). In addition, forms of Perinereis nigro-punctata Horst

were also cbserved and some had the characteristic colour pattern on

the dorsal surface of anterior segments. These polychaetes were

associated with B. tintinnabulum and B. amaryllis.

The sedeniary pclychaetes consisted of Polydora coeca Oersted

and DasychOne serratibranchis Grube. The former were found in

great number at Chowpatty forming a distinct zone below that of

B. amphitrite. Sometimes a few segments of their bodies, especially

the anterior, were found among the clusters of barnacle shells. It is

reported that this form bores into coral rocks and shells. Sinular

activity by them as regards barnacle shells may occur. ‘The latter

form viz. D. serratibranchis were found occasionally, attached to B..

amaryllis shells collected at Cuffe Parade and Chowpatty.

The crustacean associates included isopods. amphipods and cirripedes.

Of the isopods, two species occurred Sphaeroma walkeri Stebbing and —

S. annandeli Stebbing. Both were abundant among the shells of B.

amphitrite. The boring nature of S. annandeli has been earlier proved

by Erlanson (1936) and Pillai (1955). The mandibles of these forms

have a cutting edge, formed of two, well-separated and powerful teeth. |

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 353

Between their cutting edge and the strong molar is a series of small

spines. As regards §. walkeri its boring nature is doubtful and con-

tradictory opinions have been expressed by various workers. Ganapati

& Nagabhtshnam (1955), Srinivasan (1955) and Palekar (1957)

have regarded it as a wood or rock borer. However, Calman (1919),

Baker (1928), Pillai (1955) and Bhatt (1959) do not consider it a

borer. Amphipods beionging to suborder Gammaridea were abundantly

associated with all the species of balanomorphs. Among the cirri-

pedes, [bla cumingi was found attached to B. tintinnabulum at Bandra.

Darwin (1854) arid Hiro (1937) had similarly found these forms

attached to Pollicipes mitella and Mitella mitella respectively. In

India, however, they have been recorded so far as attached to rocks

only (Patil 1951; Daniel 1956; Bhatt 1959).

The molluscan associates included the shells of Acanthochitona

mahcensis Winckworth; Littorina intermedia Phil., Drupa konkanensis

Melvill, Thais sp. (probably rudolphi), Arca bistrigata Dunker, Modiolus

striatulus Linn., Brachyodontes karachiensis Melvill and Ostrea

cuculata. In addition, the egg cases of some molluscs were also

found attached to barnacle shells.

CONCLUSION

The exact relationship of these organisms is not known and hence

they have been grouped under the broad heading of associates. Most.

of the relationships might have originated fortutiously. However,

more complex relationships are possible.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful tc Dr. N. K. Panikkar. Director, Indian Programme

of the International Indian Ocean Expedition, (at present the Director,

National Institute of Oceanography, Panajt-Goa), for his keen interest

and constant encouragement in the investigations and its further

pursuance. One of us (ABW) gratefully acknowledges the award of

fellowship by the Indian Nationai Committee on Oceanic Research,

CSIR, New Delhi. ,

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF OCEANOGRAPHY, A. B. WAGH

PANAJI,

GOA, Do ¥. BAL

K#RTLt COLLEGE,

‘BOMBAY-28,

February 14, 1970,

144

354.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

REFERENCES

ANNANDALE, N. (1907): The fauna of

brackish ponds at Port Canning, Lower

Bengal. Part IlI. Rec. Indian Mus. 1:

46-74.

BAKER, W. H. (1928): Australian

species of the Isopod family Sphaeromi-

dae (contd.) Trans roy. Soc. S. Aust.

3: 49-61.

Buatr, Y. M. (1959): A study of

intertidal organisms. Ph. D. _ thesis,

University of Bombay (Unpublished).

CALMAN, W. T. (1919): Marine

Boring Animals. British Museum (Nat.

Hist.) Economic Series No. 10.

DANIEL, A. (1956): The cirripedia of

the Madras coast. Bull. Madras Goyt.

Mus. New Ser Nat. Hist. VY (2) : 1-42.

Darwin, Ch. (1854): A monograph

on the sub-class cirripedia, Balanidae,

Verrucidae, etc. Roy. Soc. London.

ERLANSON, E. W. (1936): A preli-

minary survey of marine boring organisms

in Cochin harbour. Curr. Sci. 4:

726-732.

FAuveEL, P. (1932): Annelida Poly-

chaeta of the Indian Museum, Calcutta.

Mem. Indian Mus. 12 : 1-262.

GANAPATI, P. N. & NAGABHUSHNAM,

R. (1955): Crustacean wood borers of

Visakhapatnam harbour. Curr. Sci.

24 : 200.

Hiro, F. (1937): ‘Studies ‘on ‘cirri-

pedian fauna of Japan II. Mem. Coll.

Sci. Kyoto, XII (B) : 385-478,

Pityal, N. K. (1955): Wood boring

Crustacea of Travancore. I. Sphaero-

midae. Bull. Res. Inst. Univ. Travancore,

ser. € 4: 127-139,

PALEKER. 'V. °C... €1957) > Marine

Organisms injurious to submerged

timber Inst. Sci. Mag. Bombay 25

(1956) : 41 : 46,

——~— & BAL, D.V. (1957): Stray occur-

rence of Crustacean Wood borers in

Bombay Waters. J. Timber Dryers’

Preservers’ Ass. 332-3.

PatiL, A. M, (1951) Fauna of

Karwar—Part I.

Soc. 50: 128-139.

SRINIVASAN, T. K. (1955) Crustaceans in

relation to underwater timber structures.

Curr. Sere24 :342.

J. Bombay nat. Hist.

23. ON A NEWLY RECORDED HOST SPECIES OF

DENDROPHTHOE FALCATA (L.F.) ETTINGSH

During a random survey of phanerogamic parasites in the Indian

Botanic Garden, Calcutta, [ noted an infestation by the very common

flowering parasite, Dendrophithde falcata (L.f.) Ettingsh. on RoOpalo-

carpus lucidus Boj. This host species appears to be a new record

and may be added to the hosts of the parasite, which now number 331.

BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, R. B. GHOSH

INDIAN BOTANIC GARDEN,

SIBPORE,

HOWRAH,

July 4, 1969.

— ee se

[See note No. 29 which concerns the same species but under a synonym—

EDs. |

24. OCCURRENCE OF CERATOPTERIS THALICTROIDES

(LINN.) BRONGN. IN RAJASTHAN |

During the course of a botanical exploration of south-eastern part

of Rajasthan, the author made extensive collections of ferns and fern

allies. The fern Ceratopteris thaliciroides (Linn.) Brongn., has not

been reported earlier from any locality in Rajasthan, and its

| MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 353

occurrence at Kelwarah (Kotah District) is a new locality record for

the species.

The plant is quite common along the margins of Kelwarah’ tank

and in rice fields. The tank is jarge, and is situated on the south-

western side of Baran-Shahabad road near Kelwarah village. The

plant community of the tank includes Ceratopteris thalictroides (Linn.)

Brongn., Nymphoides cristatum (Roxb.) O. Kuntze, Nymphaea stellata

Willd., Hyegrorvza aristata Nees, Ottelia alismoides Pers. and Utricularia

stéllaris Linn.

Ceratopteris thalictroides (Linn.) Brongn. is an annual, aquatic or

marshland, light green fern: young plants rooted in mud; Fronds di-

morphic. Hindi--Pani Ka Kardla, V. Singh 74430.

The specimens have been deposited in the Herbarium of the

National Botanic Gardens, Lucknow.

NATIONAL BOTANIC GARDENS, VIJENDRA SINGH

LUCKNOW, ! : Junior Research Fellow

June 30, 1969.

25. THE IDENTITY OF PIMPINELLA LATERIFLORA DALZ.

Dalzell (1861) described Pimpinella lateriflora based on specimens

collected from ravines in the Deccan, but unfortunately he left no her-

barium specimen of his new species.

Clarke (1879) maintained Pimpineila lateriflora Dalz. as a distinct

species, but indicated that he had not seen the type and his description

was after Dalzell and Gibson. At the same time he also described

a new species, Carum Stictocarpum, together with a variety, hebecarpa.

based on other specimens collected from Concan by Stocks and Law.

Now, if the description given by Dalzell for P. lateriflora and

that of Clarke for Carum stictOcarpum are compared they are seen

to be identical except for the fruits which vary from granular to

hispidulous hairy and the leaves from bipinnate to ternate. The

relevant characters as given by the authors are presented below:

Carum stictocarpum — Pimpinella lateriflora

1. Plants glabrous or minutely hairy. Plants puberulous.

oe Stem 1-3 ft., erect. Stem 1-14 ft. high ; erect.

3. Leaves 2—pinnate, ultimate seg- Leaves ternate, leaflets twice ternately

ments of the lower cauline leaves divided, lobes of the lower leaves

narrowly linear-lanceolate, upper lanceolate, of the upper linear, all

often with linear segments. acute and mucronate, ’

356 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

4. Bracts 3-6, nearly linear ; bracteoles Involucre (bracts) of 3-7 subulate leaflets ;

4-8, linear-lanceolate (4’’). involucel leaves (bracteoles) similar,

about 7, as long as pedicels. _

5. Pedicels 8-20 in number (4-3’’). Umbels (pedicels) 3-10 in number.

6. Fruits minutely pubero-punctate, Fruits densely covered with small gra-

ultimately shining, yellow, the nular tubercles.

dots microscopical (or hispidulous

sometimes densely so and fuscus

in the var. hebecarpa).

Cooke (1903), however, records both Pimpinella lateriflora and Carum

stictocarpum for peninsular India. But in a note under the former

species, which has been included on the authority of Dalzell and

Gibson, he states that he has neither seen a specimen nor has the

species been found by any other collectors, though it is supposed to

be common in ravines in the Deccan. _

Meanwhile, Wolff (1927) separated Clarke’s species from the genus

Carum Linn. and placed it under the genus Trachispermum Linn.,

now spelt Trachyspermum (nom. cOns.). He also retained Pimpinella

lateriflora in spite of his statement that he has not seen the original

or any other well-authenticated specimen of the same.

Santapau (1953) is the first worker to point out that his specimens

listed under Trachyspermum — stictocarpum, may. also belong to

Pimpinella lateriflora except for a few minor characters. He also

writes that ‘In Sedgwick’s copy of Cooke’s Flora (now available in

BLAI{—Bombay) there is a marginal note against Pimpinella lateri-

flora: Hallberg says there is no such plant. This is Carum stictocarpum.’

With this background and with the extensive studies and collections

made by us along the ravines and the ranges of the Sahyadris and

adjoining hills, it is evident, as stated by Dalzell, that this is the only.

species under the genus which is common in Deccan ravines with pink

flowers and. fruits with granular tubercles but, however, with a few

more variations. The size of the plant varies from a few centimetres

to one metre and the colour of the flowers from white to pink or

tinged with lilac and the fruits are granular otherwise glabrous and

shining or sparsely to densely hispidulous hairy. The latter character,

namely the hispidulous condition of fruits which is now found to be

quite unstable, might have induced Clarke to describe even a variety

hebecarpa. With such understanding of the taxon both on the basis

of field studies and also herbarium material, it may safely be concluded

that Trachyspermum stictocarpum together with its variety hebecarpa

is conspecific with Pimpinella_ laterifiora.

Under the normal procedure, the narne Carum stictocarpum would

have become superfluous, had not the specific epithet Jateriflora of

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 357

Dalzell been preoccupied by an European species, Pimpinella lateriflora

Link (En. Hort. Berol. 1:285, 1821 descr.). Hence the next available

epithet, stictocarpum of Clarke is accepted for this taxon and the fuil

svnonymy is as follows:

Trachyspermum stictocarpum (C.B.Cl.) Wolff in Pfreich. 43:89,

1927, (Trachispermum); Santapau in Rec. Bot. Surv. Ind. 16 (1): 125,

1953. Carum stictocarpum C.B.Cl. in Fl. Brit. Ind. 2:681, 1879;

Cooke, Fl. Pres. Bomb. 1:564, 1903. C. stictocarpum var. hebecarpa

C.B.Cl. Lc. 682; Cooke lc. Pimpinella lateriflora Dalz. in Dalz. &

Gibs. Bomb. FI. 106, 1861, non Link (1821); C B Clarke I.c. 689;

Couke I.c. 567. Trachyspermum stictOcarpum var, hebecarpa (C.B.C1.)

Wolff, /.c., Santapau Lc."

As no specimen of Dalzell is available and no type of whatever

kind is located at Kew or in any other herbaria as far as we are aware it

may be appropriate as per rules to select a neOtype for Pimpinella

lateriflora Dalz. As such, the following specimen collected from the

type locality region in general, is designated as Neotype and deposited

in CAL. The duplicates of the same are being distributed to various

World herbaria.

Neotype: Shivneri fort, Junnar in Poona district (Maharashtra

State), Hemadri 104346 on 1-11-64.

The authors wish to express their thanks to Dr. Bakhuizen van den

Brink, Rijksherbarium, Leiden, and to the Director, Royal Botanic

Gardens, Kew, for their useful comments and suggestions on this subject.

BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, R. S. RAO

WESTERN CIRCLE, K. HEMADRI

POONA,

April 19, 1969.

1° Pimpinella dalzellii P. K. Mukh. nom. nov. in Ind. For. 95 (8) : 567, 1969 is a

superfluous name for Trachyspermum stictocarpum.’

26. NOMENCLATURAL NOTES ON INDIAN PLANTS

The following new combinations are proposed for two taxa:

(1) Centaurium centaurioides (Roxb.) Rolla Rao et Hemadri comb.

noy. ChirOnia centaurioides Roxb. (Hort. Beng. 16, 1814, nom. nud.,

‘centauroides’ Fl. Ind. 1:584, 1832 (‘centaureoides’). C. brachiata Willd.

ex Criseb. Gen. et Sp. Gentian, 145, 1839. Erythraea roxbureghii D.

Don in Lond. & Edinb. Phil. Mag. & Journ. Sci. 8:77, 1836: G. Don,

pyst. 42200; .105/- Wt; Ic t, 1325, 1848;_C. B. ‘Clarke in, Fl, Brit.

358 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL GIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

Ind. 4: 102, 1883; Cooke, Fl. Pres. Bomb. 2:190, 1904; Gamble, FI.

Madras. Pres. 876, 1923. Centaurium roxburghii (D. Don) Druce in

Rep. Bot. Exch, Club. Brit. Isl. 4:614, 1916 (1917); Santapau in Rec.

Bot. Surv. Ind. 16(1):181, 1953. Erythraea roxburghii var. saxatilis

C. B. Clarke I.c. 104.

(2) Salacia salacioides (Roxb.) Rolla Rao et Hemadri comb. noy.

Johnia salacioides Roxb. (Hort. Beng. 5, 1814, nom. nud.) Fl. Ind.

1:.172, 1820 & 1:168, 1832; DC.. Prodr...1:571,.1824.. Salacia rox-

burghii Wail. [Cat. no, 4217, 1831, nom. nud.] ex Wt. & Arn. Prodr.

105, 1834; Lawson in Fl. Brit. Ind. 1:627, 1875. _ :

Critical study of the Wallichian sheets and other materiai cited as

synonyms under this species by Lawson and Wight & Arnott has

clarified the following points:

(a) Only Wallich’s Cat. nos. 4217 & 4217c and Roxburgh’s Ic. no.

1520, belong to the present species. (b) ? Indeterminata Wall. Cat.

no. 4291 belongs to Cassine glauca (Rottb.) O. Ktze. and not the present

taxon as doubted by Lawson (I.c.). (c) The taxon in question is mostly

confined to Assam forests, extending up to lower Fagu in Bhutan

(A. H. Haines 1048 on 1-2-1905,0p). (d} Salacia roxburghii of Dalz.

et Gibs. (Bomb. FI. 33, 1861) from Ramghat of Western Ghats is

definitely a misidentification and possibly represents Saiacia beddomei

Gamble (Kew Bull. 1916:133, 1916). (e) Salacia cochinchinensis

Lour. and S. chinensis Linn. indicated by Lawson (l.c.) as doubtful

synonyms do not belong to this taxon but are distinct species by

themselves.

BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, R. S. RAO

WESTERN CIRCLE, K. HEMADRI

Poona-l,

May 27, 1969.

27. NOMENCLATURE OF TWO INDIAN PLANTS

1. Justicia santapaui Bennet nom. nov.

J. montana (Nees) T. Anderson in J. Linn. Soc. 10:509, 1867;

Clarke in Hooker’s Fl. Brit. Ind. 4:525. 1885; Santapau in Univ.

Bomb. Bot. Mem. 2:85, 1951, non Roxb. (1805). |

Hemichoriste moniana Nees in Wall. Pl. As. Rar. 3:102, 1832 &

in DC. Prodr. 11:367, 1847.

The epithet montana cannot be used for this plant under Justicia

as used by T. Anderson and followed by others, because of the earlier

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 359

name Justicia montana Roxb. (Pl. Corom. 2:t 176, 1805) for an

entirely different plant. As there is no other validly published name

for this species, it is here named after Dr. H. Santapau, whose con-

tributions to Indian botany are valuable.

2" Darzell: “Gn Hooker's’ - J, “Bot. 3: 282; 1851): described > an

Orchidaceous species Micropera viridiflora from Western India. In

1859 Lindley (J. Proc. Linn. Soc. Bot. 3:36) transferred Dalzell’s

species to Saccolabium under the name SaccOlabium viridiflorum and

in 1891 O. Kuntze (Rev. Gen. Pl. 2:661) made a combination Gastro-

chilus viridifiorus based on SdaccOlabium viridiflorum Lindley. Cooke

in 1907 (Fl. Pres. Bomb. 2:697) transferred Dalzeil’s species to Sarco-

chilus, but the name is a latter homonym of Sarcochilus viridiflorus

(Thw.) Hooker f. (FI.. Brit. Ind. 6:385, 1890), which was based on a

different type, 4érides viridiflorum Thwaites (Enum. 4305 1864) which

occurs in Ceylon. So, for Dalzell’s plant under Sarcochilus, Santapau

(Kew Bull. 498, 1948) gave the new name Sarcochilus dalzellianus.

Then in 1962 Santapau & Kapadia (J. ‘Bomb. nat. Hist. Soc. 59:842)

made the combination Gastrochilus dalzeilianus, based on Sarcochilus

dalzellianus Sant., because they thought the name Gastrochilus viridi-

florus (Lindl.) O. Ktze. is applicable to .another plant and not for

Dalzell’s plant. The correct name and citation for Dalzell’s plant

under Bogieunie should be

Gastrochilus viridiflorus (Dalz.) O. K ze: Rev; Gen! Pl 2: 661, 1898.

Micropera viridiflora Dalz. in Hooker’s J. Bot. 3: 282, 1851.

BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, S. S. R. BENNETT

CaLCuUTTA-14,

May 21, 1969.

28. ON THE OCCURRENCE OF BUDDLEJA DAVIDII

FRANCH. (LOGANIACEAE) IN INDIA

Buddleja davidii Franch, a native of China, perhaps introduced long

aco for cultivation in gardens as an ornamental plant, is now

naturalized in Simla and other Himalayan hill-stations. This is the

first report of its occurrence in wild state from India. A concise

description is given.

Buddieja davidii Franch. in Nouv. “Arch. Mus. Paris Ser 2 ( to): 65%

1887-88; Marquand in Kew Bull. 196, 1930; Backer & Bakh. f. in

Fl. Java 2:212, 1965. 8B. variabilis Hemsl. in Journ. Linn. Soc. Bot.

26:120; 1389,

360 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

Erect shrubs, 1 m. to 3 m. tall. Stem slender, .subterete or

obtuse-angular, often narrowly margined, glabrous except for the densely

pubescent or tomentose young tops. Leaves opposite, usually with a

pair of inter-petiolar, ovate-suborbicular, entire to dentate, 0-3-0-8 cm.

long auricles, sub-sessile or on short petioles formed by narrowing leaf

base, oOvate-lanceolate or elliptic-lanceolate-oblong, with a narrowed

acute or rounded base, narrowed upwards into an acute apex,

entire-serrate, glabrous above on maturity, white tomentose beneath,

5-21 X 1-5-6 cm. long. Bracts linear-subulate, 0-3-0-5 cm. long, usually

hairv. Pedicels 0-1-0-15 cm. long, pubescent. Calyx 0:25-0-3 cm. long,

divided jess than halfway down. glabrate or hairy, lobes ovate-lanceolate,

acute. Corolla 0-8-1 cm. lorig, tube erect, glabrous without, patent-

hairy within, lobes 4, obovate-rounded, crenate-dentate. Anthers

sessile, inserted at the middle of corolla-tube, linear, 0-8-1 mm. long.

Ovary glabrous. Style clavate. Capsule linear-narrowly oblong, acute,

glabrous, 0-6-1 cm. long. Seeds 0-5-0-8 mm. long.

A common shrub of cold weather and usually found along the

hill tracks.

Flowers and fruits: July-November. :

Specimen examined: HIMACHAL PRADESH, Simla, Jakku hills, Kanai

Lal Mali 38 (CAL).

This taxon is closely allied to Buddleja delavayi Gang.—also a native

of China, but this is easily recognizable by the longer and narrower

leaves. longer inflorescence and bigger fruits.

CENTRAL NATIONAL HERBARIUM, S. N. BISWAS

BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, R. PRASAD

HowrRAH-3,

August 6, 1969.

29. FURTHER STUDIFS ON THE HOST RANGE IN

LORANTHUS LONGIFLORUS DESV.

It is of particular interest to note that all the species of host plants,

hithertofore recorded for L. longiflorus, belong to the families of dicoty-

ledons. Monocots in general do not seem to be susceptible to loran-

thaceous parasites.

In the present investigation, ten more new species of host plants

have been recorded by way of experimenta! observations. Six of these

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES | 361

species belong to five families already reported, while the remaining

constitute four more new plant families. Thus there are now totally

on record 68 species of host plants, coming under 32 dicot families. |

Experiments conducted by allowing the seeds of the parasite to

germinate on branches of different new host-species indicate clearly

that at least some of them are not susceptible to the parasite. While

some monocots have also been tried, nene of the seeds grew to attain

maturity. Although invariably all the seeds germinate within a fort-

night to produce small green leaves and a massive haustorium, the

fate of the parasite is decided only when the haustorium penetrates

the host tissue. One of the most important factors determining the

further growth of the parasite is the osmotic pressure-relationship

between the host and the parasite. The study of the osmotic

concentration of the host and the parasite is well under way, and this

would throw much light on the host-parasite relationship.

The following are the new experimental host species for L. longiflorus:

Tamarix gallica L. (Tamaricaceae), Cassia glauca Lamk. (Caesal-

pinaceae), Terminalia catappa L. (Combretaceae), /x0ra parviflora

Vahl (Rubiaceae), Mussaenda frondosa 1... (Rubiaceae), Vernonia

elegens Gardn. (Compositae), Tabebuia pentaphylla Hemsl. (Bignoni-

aceae), Tectona grandis L. (Verbenaceae), BOugainvillaea spectabilis

Willd. (Nyctaginaceae), and Grevillea robusta A. Cunn. (Proteaceas).

It may be concluded from the foregoing observations that nowhere

in the study of angiospermic parasites has there been such a wide

range of host plants affected by a single parasitic species and that

there is a possibility of this parasite attacking many more species oi

host plants.

BOTANY DEPARTMENT, R. SAMPATHKUMAR

ANNAMALAL UNIVERSITY,

AANNAMALAINAGAR,

May 31, 1969.

[See Note No. 23 which gives the total number of hosts known so far for this

species—EDs. ]

30; ON THE PRODUCTION GF ADVENTITIOUS ROOTS

FROM THE EXCISED PETIOLES OF SOME ANGIOSPERMS

(With a photograph)

Previous observations indicate that the production of foliar roots

is common in Acanthaceae and Labiatae. The present investigation

includes 33 new species of plants, belonging to 13 angiospermic families,

as listed below :-—

Portulaca grandiflora Lindl. (Fig. 1), Cissus quadrangularis Linn.

362 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

(Fig. 2), Cayratia moljlissima Gagnep. (Fig. 3), Eclipta alba Hassk..

(Fig. 4), Chrysanthemum indicum Linn. (Fig. 5), Notonia grandiflora

DC., Ageratum ccnyzoides Linn. (Fig. 6), Elephantopus scaber Linn.

(Fig. 7), Jasminum sambac Ait. (Fig. 8), J. flexile Vahl (Fig. 9), Per-

gularia minor Andr. (Fig. 10), Ipomoea cairica (Linn.) Sweet, Ipomoea

batatas Poir. (Fig. 11 & 11A), J. Sepiaria Koen., I. reptans Poir. (Fig. 12

& {2A), 7. Obscura Ker-Gawl., I. pes-tigridis Linn. (Fig 13), I. pes-

caprae Sweet., Evolvulus nummalarius Linn. Moniera cunetfolia Michx.,

Adhatcda vasica Nees. (Fig. 14), Barleria prionitis Linn. (Fig. 15), B.

capraé Sweet., Evolyulus nummularius Linn. Moniera cuneifolia Michx.,

Ecbolium linneanum Kurz (Fig. 18), Asteracantha longifolia (L.) Nees

(Fig. 19)., Lantana aculeata Linn. (Fig. 20), Leucas aspera Spr. (Fig.

21), Mirabilis ialapa Linn. (Fig. 22), Alternanthera sessilis (L.) DC.

(Fig. 23), Telanthera ficoidea Mog. (Fig. 24), Gomphrena globosa Linn.

(Fig. 25), and Sansviera roxburghiana Schuit. f.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 363

While in majority of cases, the cut ends of the petioles were planted

in moist soil, a few leaves were also left in glass containers with tap

water. Prior to the production of adventitious roots, a massive callus

(Fig. 11A) at the cut-ends of the petioles is formed in many cases,

while in others no such tissue appears. In a few cases, aerial shoots

(Fig. 12A, 16, & 17A) also appear from the callus so differentiated,

and these shoots may be successfully grown into mature individuals.

In the case of Cavratia mollissima Gagnep. (Fig. 3), root tubers are

also produced.

BOTANY DEPARTMENT, R. SAMPATHKUMAR

ANNAMALAI UNIVERSITY,

ANNAMALAINAGAR,

July 11, 1968.

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CONTENTS}

A NEW RACE OF THE BLACKCRESTED BAZA, Aviceda leuphotes (DUMONT), FROM

‘THE ANDAMAN ISLANDS. By Humayun Abdulali and Robert B. Grubh.. 137

ORCHIDS OF NEPAL—3. By M. L. Banerji and B. B. Thapa ye .. 139

AMPHIPODA FROM THE East Coast of INpDia—2. By T. E. Sivaprakasam .. 153

SEX RATIO IN SOME INDIAN Bats. By A. Gopalakrishna and A. Madhavan... 171!

FLORA OF MOTHRONWALA SwAmP Forest (District : DeHRA Dun, U.P., INDIA).

By K. M. M. Dakshini_.... ba ie ae 16

NOTES ON SOME BUTTERFLIES IN THE COLLECTION OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL

History Socirty. By N. T. Nadkerny ae a Od

STUDIES ON THE BIOLOGY OF SOME FRESHWATER FIsHES. By V. S. Bhatt .. 194

SPIDER FAUNA OF INDIA : CATALOGUE AND BIBLIOGRAPHY. By B. K. Tikader.. 212

SOME OBSERVATIONS ON ‘DISTRIBUTION OF Scoparia dulcis LINN. IN INDIA. By J.

D. Shah Ne 43 oe ns 5 a ey

THE TIGER IN INDIA: AN ENQUIRY—1968-69. By J. C. Daniel .. er 94 |

THE THALASSINOIDEA (CRUSTACEA, ANOMURA) OF MAHARASHTRA. By K. N.

Sankolli a as as a a wie a0

PRE-FOLIATION IN Scindapsus officinalis ScHotT. By T. A. Davis. . 1250

FORAMINIFERA OF THE GULF OF CAMBAY. By K. Kameswara Rao.. 239

ECO-TOXICOLOGY AND CONTROL OF INDIAN DESERT GERBIL, Meriones hurrianae

(JERDON). By Ishwar Prakash and A. P. Jain... he .. 274

A CATALOGUE OF THE BIRDS IN THE COLLECTION OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HIs-

TORY SOcIETY—7. By Humayun Abdulali ie oh PTL.

SruptEs IN INDIAN EUPHORBIACEAE—IV. By N. P. Balakrishnan.. .. 299 :

REVIEWS .. es si A Cy ha vag On ;

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES te bys oH Bs =<. .319

Sourtial: of the

Bombay Natural | History Society

lo, 54

'O.

Vol. 67, No. 3

Editors

ZAFAR FUTEHALLY

J. C. DANIEL & P. V. BOLE

DECEMBER 1970

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VOLUME 67, NO. 3—DECEMBER 1970

Date of Publication : 25-3-1971

CONTENTS

OBSERVATIONS ON THE NiLGIRi TAHR (Hemitragus hylocrius Ogilby, 1838). By

George B. Schaller. (With two plates and four text-figures) d

GENETIC-EVOLUTIONARY STUDIES ON CULTIVATED CANNAS. By Iva Mukherjee

and T. N. Khoshoo. (With eleven figures)

ANALOGOUS BIOCLIMATES AND INTRODUCTION OF EcoNomic Exotics. By V. M.

Meher-Homji. (With nine text-figures)

ARTHROPOD FAUNA OF THE NESTS OF SOME COMMON BIRDS IN POONA, INDIA, WITH

SPECIAL REFERENCE TO BLOOD SUCKING FORMS. By T. Ramachandra Rao and

P. K. Rajagopalan

PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS ON THE NATURAL RESISTANCE OF SIXTY-NINE SPECIES

OF INDIAN TIMBER TO MARINE BORER ATTACK AT BomMBAY. By L. N. Santha-

kumaran. (With a text-figure)

STUDIES ON BOTTOM-LIVING DIATOMS OF A FRESHWATER FISH POND. By C.S. Singh.

(With three plates)

OBSERVATIONS ON THE BREEDING OF STORKS IN INDIA AND CEYLON. By M. Philip

Kahl. (With five plates) i a

CYCLONIC DAMAGE TO PLANT TissuEs. By B. G. L. Swamy and K. V. Krishna-

murthy. (With two plates containing eight text-figures)

AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH—-PROGRESS, PROBLEMS AND PROSPECTS. By M. S.

Swaminathan. (With four text-figures)

_ TRENDS IN INTRASPECIFIC SEX-LIMITED VARIATIONS IN SOME MYCOPHAGOUS TUBULI-

FERA (THYSANOPTERA). By T. N. Ananthakrishnan. (With six text-figures

and three graphs)

THE FLOWERING OF THE STROBILANTH (ACANTHACEAE). By K.M. Matthew, s.J.

APLANOSPORE FORMATION OR OUTCOME OF PARASITIC ATTACK? By Ella A.

Gonzalves and G. R. Sonnad. (With a plate)

SPAWNING HABITS, EGGS AND EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF DECCAN MAHSEER, Tor

khudree (SYKES). By C. V. Kulkarni. (With five text-figures)

ASPECTS OF THE FLORA, AND ECOLOGY OF SAVANNAS OF THE SOUTH INDIAN HILLS.

By F. Blasco

THe Nitciri TAHR, Hemitragus hylocrius OGILBY, IN THE HIGH RANGE,

KERALA AND THE SOUTHERN HILLS OF THE WESTERN GHATS. By J. C. Daniel

REVIEWS :

1. Enjoying Ornithology. (S.A.)

2. The lives of Wasps and Bees. (D.E.R.)

3. Supplement to the glossary of Indian Medicinal Plants. (S.R.

AMLADI)

4. The wild mammals of Malaya and offshore islands including

Singapore (H.A.) Ys : ;

5. Warne’s Natural History Atlas of Great Britain. (S.F.)

Indian fossi! Pteridophytes. (P.V.B.)

A dictionary of botany. (P.V.B.)

390

398

414

430

443

453

462

466

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :

Mammals: 1. Abnormality in the breeding behaviour of the Indian Fruit Bat,

Pteropus giganteus giganteus (Brunnich). By J. D. Sahasrabudhe (p. 550):

2. The White Tiger. By J. H. Desai (p. 551); 3. The breeding of the Indian

Giant Squirrel (Ratufa indica) in captivity. By V. G.Surve (p. 551) ; 4. Breeding

behaviour and development of Rattus rattus wroughtoni Hinton, 1919 (Rodentia :

Muridae) in the laboratory. (With a text-figure). By P. K. Rajagopalan

(p. 552): 5. An attempt to determine the food habits of the Indian Rhinoceros.

By R. L. Brahmachary, (Miss) B. Mallik and B. Rakshit (p. 558) ; 6. Reproduc-

tive behaviour of Browantlered Deer. By K. S. Sankhala and J. H Desai

(p. 561) ; 7. ‘ White Bison’ of Manjampatti. By E. R. C. Davidar (p. 565).

Birds: 8. Occurrence of least frigate bird (Fregata ariel iredalei Mathews) in

Bombay. By Rauf Ali (p. 569); 9. The occurrence of the Sanderling (Calidris

albus) in Kerala. By K. K. Neelakantan (p. 570) ; 10. Occurrence of the Indian

Skimmer or Scissorbill (Rynchops albicollis Swainson) in Salsette Island. By

D. A. Stairmand (p. 571); 11. The Blackbird Turdus merula maximus in

Nepal. By Michel Desfayes (p. 571) ; 12. Birds and Mammals eating the fruits

of yellow oleander (Thevetia peruviana). By Simon G. Rajasingh and Irene

V. Rajasingh (p. 572).

Reptiles: 13. The estuarine crocodile, Crocodilus porosus Schneider off the

Orissa Coast. (With a plate). By M. Krishnan (p. 573); 14. The occurrence

of the Dog-Faced water-snake, Cerberus rhynchops (Schneider) (Serpentes :

Colubridae) around Madras. By T. S. N. Murthy (p. 574).

Fishes: 15. The occurrence of Pennahia macrocephalus (Tang) (Pisces:

Sciaenidae) in Indian Seas. By Asha Joglekar and P. K. Talwar (p. 575):

16. Observations on the breeding ground and development of the Chilka Mullet

Liza macrolepis (Smith). By A. V. Natarajan and S. Patnaik (p. 577) ; 17. Ob-

servations on the food of young Hilsa ilisha (Ham.) of the Hooghly estuarine

system. (With a text-figure). By D.D. Halder (p. 578) ; 18. The fecundity of

A fossilis (Bloch). (With three text-figures). By R. M.S. Bhargava

(p. 583).

Mollusca: 19. Occurrence of the snail Lymnaea (Galba) truncatula (Miller)

(Mollusca : Pulmonata) at Malad, Bombay City—A new record for Peninsular

India. By A. S. Rajagopal (p. 588).

Arachnida: 20. The spider Lycosa carmichaeli Graveley as a predator of smal!

frogs. By R. K. Bhatnagar (p. 589).

Crustacea: 21. Diametrically opposite result of human activity on Barnacle

populations. (With a text-figure). By Arun B. Wagh and D. V. Bal (p. 589) ;

22. Studies on the larvae of Decapoda Brachyura 1. Xenophthalmus garthii

Sankarankutty. (With two text-figures). By C. Sankarankutty (p. 592).

Insecta: 23. Sterility and abnormal copulation behaviour in Agrotis infusa

(Boisd) (Agrotidae : Lepidoptera) in relation to high temperature. By R. R.

Rawat (p. 596) ; 24. Studies on the biology of Phytomyza atricornis Meigen (Agro-

myzidae: Diptera). By A.S. Kaurava, S. C. Odak and S. V. Dhamdhere

(p. 597) ; 25. A new host of the brinjal shoot and fruit borer Leucinodes orbonalis —

_Guen, and its biology. By M. S. Das and B. H. Patnaik (p. 601); 26. Chafer

beetle, Adoretus sp. (Coleoptera : Scarabaeidae) a new pest on guava in India. By

J.P. Singh and Rajendra Gupta (p. 603).

Botany : 27. Plietesial species of Strobilanthinae (Acanthaceae) in the Western

Ghats (India). By M. C. Suryanarayana (p. 604) ; 28. A note on the toad rush,

Juncus bufonius L.from India. (With a plate). By C.K. Shah (p. 608) ; 29. The

identity of Solanum khasianum Cl. var. chatterjeeanum Sen Gupta (Solanaceae).

By C.R. Babu (p. 609) ; 30. Lindernia angustifolia (Benth.) Wettst. (Scrophularia-

ceae)—A new record for south India. (With a plate). By N. Ravi (p. 611):

31. A note on Chrysanthemum leucanthemum Linn. (Asteraceae). (With a

plate). By (Miss) Debika Das and Bhabesh Pramanik (p. 613) ; 32. Newdistri-

butional records for coastal plants from Andhra Pradesh. By T. Ananda Rao

and A. R. K. Sastry (p. 614) ; 33. Family Commelinaceae in Kolhapur and its

environs. By A. R. Kulkarni and P. V. Mudgal (p. 616) ; 34. Some interesting

plants from Lucknow and its neighbourhood. By S. Ibrahim Husain and

S. L. Kapoor (p. 618) ; 35. A rich, but little known collection of Indian Plants

in U.S.S.R. By S. K. Jain (p. 620).

AN APPEAL 2

ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Tein NER AT HISTORY Seem FOR THE YEAR

1969-70 a

STATEMENT OF ACCOUNTS OF THE Bote, Noe EioEy SocmIny

MINUTES OF THE ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING

623

625

631

643

Editorial

This issue of the Journal is a Father Santapau Commemorative

number. Soon after his death in January. 1970, it was decided that

a Special Issue be published in his memory, and an attempt made to

make it one of high quality.

We are grateful to the many contributors who responded to our

appeal and who have written for this special number. An obituary of

Fr. Santapau appeared in the April 1970 issue of the Journal, but we

cannot help referring again to the great loss the Society and natural

History in general have suffered because of his early death. His en-

thusiasm was infectious, and one of the projects which was discussed

at almost the last Executive Committee meeting which he attended

was the preparation of a book on Indian Wild Flowers. There is

.great need for such a book to stimulate interest in our country-side,

and nothing suitable is available. Would some of our readers, who are

in a position to contribute towards such a project, please write in?

At the Tenth General Assembly of the International Union for

Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources which was held in

November, 1969, in New Delhi, Fr. Santapau spoke strongly for the

preservation of our flora, and referred among other areas to the Gir

Sanctuary where pressures of domestic cattle and human encroachment

were destroying the unique habitat. Fr. Santapau was the Principal

Scientist of the ecological studies in the Gir which are now under way.

He spoke of an earlier incident where the Maldharis of the Gir had

stated that “It the Minister of Forests of Gujarat did not give them

sufficient concessions in the Sanctuary they would change the Minister.”

Politics reigns supreme in our country (as it does in others) but recently

there has been considerable re-thinking in India and elsewhere on the

need for the validation of development projects on an ecological basis.

The environment continues to be under great pressure from every

side, and it is only by the vigilance and understanding of the citizens

that our natural resources can be maintained in the way they should

be, and exploited only on a sustained yield basis.

As a Special Memorial to Fr. Santapau it has been decided to re-

commend to the Government of Maharashtra that an area of evergreen

forest in Khandala be renamed after him. The Government of

Maharashtra have shown an interest in this proposal, and it is hoped

that a floral sanctuary will come into being soon.

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JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL

HISTORY SOCIETY

a a

1970 DECEMBER Vol. 67 No. 3

Observations on the Nilgiri Tahr

(Hemitragus hylocrius Ogilby, 1838)

GEORGE B. SCHALLER

New York Zoological Society

(With two plates and four text-figures)

The Hemitragus wild goats differ in appearance from those belonging

to the genus Capra in that males have no beard and the short horns of

males and females differ only slightly in size (Lydekker 1898). Three

species of tahr are generally recognized. The Arabian tahr (1. jayakari)

occurs in the mountains of Omanin Arabia and its habits remain unknown

(Fitter 1968). The Himalayan tahr (H. jemlahicus) ranges along the

southern slopes of the Himalayas from Kashmir to Bhutan (Burrard

1925), and the Nilgiri tahr (H. hylocrius) is confined to the hills of south

India. Various aspects of the biology of the Himalayan tahr have been

studied in New Zealand where the species has been introduced (Anderson

& Henderson 1961 ; Caughley 1965, 1966), but information on the Nilgiri

tahr, or ‘ ibex’ as it is known locally, consists chiefly of hunting accounts

(Shakespear 1862 ; An Old Shikarri 1880; Hawkeye 1881 ; Hamilton

1892 ; Pollock 1894; Russell 1900; Fletcher 1911; Stockley 1928)

or of brief descriptions of encounters with the animal (Hornaday 1885 ;

Brown 1960 ; Bassett 1964 ; Willet 1968). The limited knowledge about

the Nilgiri tahr has been summarized by Blandford (1888-91) and Prater

(1965). Information about it is needed because its limited distribution

~ and low numbers have qualified it for inclusion into THE RED BOOK of the

world’s threatened species (Fisher et al. 1969). To gather data on the

Status, distribution, and biology of the Nilgiri tahr, I spent September 26

to November 14, 1969, in south India. |

366 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

The Nilgiri tahr is a stocky goat in which both sexes have a short,

coarse pelage and a bristly mane a few centimetres long, incontrast to the

male Himalayan tahr which has a long, shaggy mane on the shoulders,

throat and chest. The pelage of subadults, females, and young males is

dusky brown to grey-brown in colour except for a whitish abdomen

and a dark brown band that runs down the length of the back. There is

also a conspicuous dark spot just above the carpal joint or knee. The

horns curve sharply backwards and are about 30 cm. long in females

(Plate 2). The front of the horn of the Nilgiri tahr is almost flat with

the keel confined to the inner edge, whereas the horn of the Himalayan

tahr has a prominent keel in front (Fig. 1).

Front

Outside Inside

A B

O 2 4

a he 9k BY

Fig. 1. Cross-sections of tahr horns, taken near the base, showing characteristic

shape ee (A) the Nilgiri tahr and (B) the Himalayan tahr.

Adult males are handsome creatures, weighing an estimated 80-100 kg.

and standing about 100 cm. tall at the shoulders, considerably larger than

the females. Their pelage is dark brown, almost black, except for their

grizzled white lower back, sides, and sometimes also the rump, a feature

responsible for their being called ‘saddlebacks’ by sportsmen. The

sides of the neck, too, are often grey. The abdomen and throat are white,

and a pale streak runs from each ear down the side of the muzzle and a

light-coloured ring surrounds each eye. The spot above the carpal joint

is white, rather than black as in the other animals. Their horns are up

to about 40 cm. long and some 22 cm. in circumference at the base, both

longer and more massive than those of females (Plate 2).

OBSERVATIONS ON THE NILGIRI TAHR 367

DISTRIBUTION AND NUMBERS

The Nilgiri tahr is known only from the hills of southern India,

ranging ‘from the Nilgiris to the Anaimalais and thence southwards

along the Western Ghats...’ (Prater 1965). Unlike the Himalayan

tahr which lives for at least part of the year among brushy ravines and

on forested slopes (Garhwali 1911), the Nilgiri tahr prefers open terrain,

cliffs and grass-covered hills, a highly discontinuous habitat largely con-

fined to altitudes of from 1200 to 2600 m. Tahr probably occupied all

suitable areas in the past, but hunting and habitat destruction have deci-

mated them to such an extent that they now exist only in a few isolated

sites. I was not able to check all possible tahr localities in the short time

available to me, and, instead, devoted most effort to censusing the animals

in the two main areas where they occur, devoting 15 field days to the Nilgiri

Hills of Tamil Nadu (Madras), and 19 days to the High Range of Kerala.

Two days were also spent in the Anamalai Hills in Tamil Nadu, but for

information on other areas I depended on correspondence with local

sportsmen and tea planters.

Nilgiri Hills. The Nilgiris rise abruptly from the plains to a lofty

tableland some 1800 sq. km. in size. The lower slopes are densely

covered with forest, particularly with wet evergreen forest on the Western

side, surmounted often by sheer granite cliffs towering to the plateau above

(Plate 1). The uplands consist of a large expanse of steeply rolling hills

at an altitude of about 2000 m. Grass covered most of the hills in recent

times, except for patches of stunted evergreen forest, the ‘sholas’,

confined to ravines and sheltered slopes. But in the past few years most

of the area has either been cultivated or converted into wattle and

Eucalyptus plantations. It is probable that forests covered much of the

plateau in the past, with grasslands only in boggy hollows and on steep

slopes. Annual fires during the dry seasons in January and February

and grazing by domestic buffalo belonging to the original inhabitants, the

Todas, pushed back the forests slowly (Jeyadev n.d.) until only patches of

it remained when the first Europeans penetrated the areas between 1812

and 1819 (Fletcher 1911).

‘In former times, that is about fifty years ago, the Ibex appears to

have roamed at will in vast herds over all the grassy uplands of the higher

plateau of the Nilgiris...’ (An Old Shikarri 1880). By 1879, however,

hunting had reduced the tahr to such an extent that their number

* probably did not exceed a dozen head all told’ according to Phythian-

Adams (1939). This estimate may be too low for Russell (1900) found

herds readily in 1886 and 1888. By the end of the century the tahr sur-

vived largely along the western edge of the plateau, an area remote from

human habitation where the huge cliffs and inclement weather (up to

368 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

750 cm. of rain a year) protected them from the casual hunter. In

addition, the Nilgiri Wild Life Association, formed in 1877, interested

itself in the species and afforded it protection. By 1927, about 400 tahr

were thought to exist in the western Nilgiris (Phythian-Adams 1927),

and by the late 1930’s ‘not less than 500’ (Phythian-Adams 1939),

The Nilgiri Wild Life Association conducted the first census of the tahr in

1963. The area in which they occur was divided into 4 sections and 4

teams of 2 men each counted the tahr over a period of 4 days (Davidar

1963a). ‘ The tahr actually seen and counted amounted to 292... So

it can be safely estimated that there are about 400 tahr in the Nilgiris ...’

(Davidar 1963b). The various figures suggest that the size of the tahr

population had remained relatively stable or declined only slightly in the

past 40 years, although a few small herds, such as one near Glen Morgan

(Davidar 1963b), had disappeared. Davidar, however, wrote to me in

March, 1970: ‘I have been chasing them .. . for the last 16 years and I

can assert with certainty that they have increased during this period.’

Most tahr in the Nilgiris inhabit the western escarpment from Nilgiri

Peak south to the Bangitappal and Sispara Pass area, a continuous stretch

of terrain about 37 km. long (Fig. 2). I spent a week searching for tahr in

the northern third of this range, between Nilgiri Peak and Pichal Bettu,

and found a total of 63 different animals. The tahr confined their

activity to the cliff faces and grasslands immediately adjoining them, a

strip 1 km. or less in width, as indicated by repeated sighting of animals

or their sign such as droppings and resting places. It is thus unlikely

that any large herds were overlooked. In the census conducted by

Davidar (1963a) a total of 79 tahr were recorded in the same area. I did

not visit the central third of the tahr’s range, but Davidar (1963a) found

66 animals there.

The hills along the southern third of the escarpment are rockier and

more rugged than those farther north with the result that an area of about

50 sq. km. has remained free of forest plantations. A week of searching

along all bluffs and major ridges revealed a total of 113 tahr, as compared

to 112 reported by Davidar (1963a) from the same area. Most animals

were along the escarpment where they were easy to spot, but a few smal]

herds were inland as well. Considering the excellent visibility and the

fact that in all cases except one a herd was located after finding fresh sign,

it seems likely that the count was fairly complete. A small population of

about 35 animals existed near the Chembar River slightly to the east of

the Sispara area in 1963 according to Davidar (1963a). I did not visit

the site.

The similarity in the1963 and 1969 counts in 2 areas indicates that the

tahr population has remained stable during the past 6 years and numbers’

about 300 animals in the Nilgiris as a whole.

OBSERVATIONS ON THE NILGIRI TAHR 369

76° Ue

-- = —

NILGIRI

HILLS

11°

KERALA

loz

PERIYAR

9°

; Oo

CEYLON TRIVANDRUM

Fig. 2. The hill ranges of south India, drawn along the 1000 m. contour line

showing the precise locations at which tahr were seen in 1969 or known to have occurred

in 1967 and later. Other small populations existed in the Anamalai and Palni hills

and possibly elsewhere but it was not possible to obtain detailed information on these

in the time available for the survey.

370 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

High Range. A gap of about 100 km. separates the tahr in the Nilgiris

from those in the High Range and Anamalai Hills to the south. The

High Range with its deeply dissected valleys, massive peaks, and towering

crags is ‘surpassingly grand, and incomparably beautiful ’, in the words

of Hamilton (1892), one of the first visitors to the area in 1854: Tea.

plantations now cover the valleys, leaving indigenous forests only on the

steep slopes, but the cliffs and grassy plateaus above an altitude of 2000 m.

still provide suitable tahr habitat. The Eravikulam area, also known as

Hamilton’s Plateau, a private shooting reserve owned by the Kanan

Devan Hills Produce Company, contains the largest tahr population in

the High Range (Plate 1). Protected from poachers, pastoralists, and

agriculturalists since 1895 by the High Range Game Preservation Asso-

ciation, as well as by the cliffs that border the 80 sq. km. plateau on 3

sides, the tahr there have remained relatively undisturbed inrecent years.

Fire and slash-and-burn cultivation by the Muduvars, who occupied the

area sometime after the 14th century (Thurston 1909) are probably

responsible for the little forest that is left on the plateau.

The Eravikulam area, including Rajamallay and Anamudi Peak, was

divided into 7 blocks for census purposes. Each day I searched for

tahr along all cliffs and ridges in one block. Visibility in the open, un-

dulating hills was so good that animals were sometimes seen with

binoculars or spotting scope from 1 to 2 km. away. Only the clouds

which usually settled against the cliffs by noon hampered the census work.

Undisturbed herds moved little from day to day, making it unlikely that

animals were counted twice by shifting from one block to another. How-

ever, disturbed herds may flee as far as 3 km. without stopping, and care

must be taken not to duplicate such animals inacount. A total of 439

tahr were seen. In addition, fresh sign indicated the presence of another

herd but I was unable to find it in the clouds that engulfed the hills at

the time. The total number of tahr in the reserve was thus about 500.

Mr. Gouldsbury told me that small herds of a dozen or so each occur

on Tertian’s Plateau, Karinkulam, and Periavurrai. All 3 localities are

small plateaus separated only by a valley from each other or from the

Eravikulam Reserve.

Anamalai Hills. The Anamalai Hills border the High Range to the

north without an intervening physical barrier. Hawkeye (1881) saw

tahr in these rugged, grass-covered hills in herds of hundreds and Hornaday

(1885), too, found them ‘ quite abundant’. In 2 days of searching for

tahr within an area of some 40 sq. km. bordering the Eravikulam Reserve,

only one herd numbering about 25 animals was seen. Human distur- .

bance in that area is great and includes a road, tree plantations, and,

according to my guide, much poaching. K. Mathew, Divisional Forest

Officer, told me that a number of tahr occurred in the Parambikulam

J. BomBay NAT. Hist. Soc. 67 (3) PLATE |

Schaller : Nilgiri Tahr

Above: Typical tahr habitat in the north-western part of the Nilgiri Hills. Below: The Eravik alam

Reserve in the High Range as viewed from Anamudi Peak. The distant ridge lies in the

Anamalai Hills. Tahr remained mainly along the cliffs such as those in the foreground.

(Photos : Author)

J. BomBay NaT. Hist. Soc. 67 (3) Piate Ii

Schaller: Nilgiri Tahr

«ove : Nilgiri tahr watching the observer alertly. In the centre is an adult female; the animals

on the right and left are yearlings almost 2 years old. Below : A saddleback male grazes on @

steep slope. His grey saddle, the greyish neck, and spot above the knee are clearly visible.

(Photos : Author)

OBSERVATIONS ON THE NILGIRI TAHR 371

Sanctuary in the western part of the Anamalais in 1967. R. Steele, a

tea planter, wrote to me that tahr could still be seen in several areas in

the hills.

Palni Hills. H.H. the Raja of Pudukkotai noted that ‘there are still

a few Nilgiri Tahr left in the Palni Hills, may be there are about a 100 to

150 on the whole roaming about the cliffs ’ (letter, 1970). I was unable

to obtain more information through correspondence and my time was too

limited for a visit to the area.

Other areas. Tahr probably occurred as far south as the Ashambu

Hills in the past’. A few animals possibly survive in the Periyar Sanctuary

and surrounding areas. K. Mathew told me that tahr were wiped out

in the sanctuary, but M. C. Jackson, a tea planter at Vandiperiyar, wrote

that a friend of his encountered 2 tahr there in 1967.

Summary. A total of 640 tahr was seen during the visit to south

India and other information raised the known number of animals to at

least 1000 of which 300 were in the Nilgiris, 530 or so in the High Range,

and most of the remainder in the Anamalai and possibly the Palni Hills.

However, a precise estimate of the total number of Nilgiri tahr surviving

in the wild cannot be made until the status of the species has been deter-

mined in the Anamalai and Palni Hills as well as in the region lying to

the south of the High Range. |

POPULATION DYNAMICS

While censusing, each herd was counted and when possible classified

into adults (2 years old and older), yearlings (1 to 2 years) and young

(0 to 1 year). Adult males were divided into 3 age classes according to

size and pelage colour : saddlebacks, dark brown males lacking a saddle,

and light brown males of the same size and colour as females. Himalayan

tahr can be accurately aged by the conspicuous growth rings on the horns

which are laid down each winter other than the first (Caughley 1965).

Rings were not readily discernible on free-living Nilgiritahr, but 6 mounted

heads, which judging by horn size belonged to dark brown males or

saddlebacks, all had 5 to 7 faint growth rings. There is, of course, no

evidence that the Nilgiri tahr grows one ring a year like its Himalayan

relative, but I would assume that such males are at least 5 years old.

Yearlings, which at the time of the study were almost 2 years old, were

about 1/4 to 1/3 smaller in size than an adult female and their horns were

1Jn April, 1970, J. C. Daniel of the Bombay Natural History Society visited the

hills south of the High Range and was told by various informants of 14 localities

where tahr are still said to occur, i

372 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

more slender than those of adults. Most young, nearly one year old,

had straight or slightly curved horns some 7 to 12 cm. long.

POPULATION COMPOSITION. Of 176 tahr seen in the Nilgiris, 164 were

classified. One herd of 7 disappeared in fog before I could find out

the age and sex of the animals, and 6 others separated from a large

herd during acount. I was unable to classify all animals in the High

Range, except the dark brown males and saddlebacks. The figures for

light brown males, females and subadults are, therefore, based on a

sample of herds totalling 260 tahr.

In the Nilgiris, 21° of the population consisted of adult males of

which 9% were saddlebacks (Table 1). Adult females comprised 34%

TABLE 1

COMPOSITION OF THE TAHR POPULATION IN THE NILGIRIS AND HIGH RANGE

Sex and Age Class

Nilgiris High Range

7% 7%

Saddleback oal 11:0

Dark brown male 5433 4:2

Light brown male V2 4°2

Adult female 34:2 33°6

Yearling 18°9 17°3

Young 25°6 29°6

and subadults (yearling and young) 45%, indicating a vigorous popu-

lation with good reproduction. The figures for the High Range were

similar to those of the Nilgiris with adult males at 19%, of which 11%

were saddlebacks, adult females at 34%, and subadults at 47% (Table 1).

If it is assumed that dark brown males and saddlebacks are over 5 years _

old and that there are at least as many adult females of similar age in

the population, then 25-30% of all animals were 5 years old and older and -

25-30% were 2 through 4 years old. Female Himalayan tahr in New

Zealand may reach an age of 17 years though only 3% exceed 12 years

(Caughley 1966). The ratio of 2 males to 3 females indicates either an

unequal sex ratio at birth or a higher death rate among males than females

at some time during the life cycle. I was unable to sex most young with

precision, but a count of 31 yearlings in the Nilgiris, for example,showed |

that 11 were males and 20 were females. Although these figures do

not differ statistically in a significant manner froma 1: 1 ratio, they do

suggest that more females than males may already be present among

OBSERVATIONS ON THE NILGIRI TAHR 373

subadults. Phythian-Adams (1927) found that ‘ the does outnumber the

bucks by some 20 to 1 ’, but he does not give the basis for his statement.

REPRODUCTION. Published information onthe reproductive biology of

the tahr is confusing. Stockley (1928) noted that ‘ kids may be dropped at

any time ofthe year ’, and An Old Shikarri (1880), Willet (1968) and others

made similar statements. On the other hand, Kinloch (1926) and Prater

(1965) wrote that most young are bornat the beginning of the hot weather,

presumably in March, and Lydekker (1898) stated that parturition is in

June and July. If births occur throughout the year, then young of all

sizes would be expected in the population. Of 133 young classified (and

many other seen) all but three were of approximately the same size, indi-

cating a sharp birth peak. The young were large, with conspicuous

horns up to 12 cm. long, and many adult females were heavily pregnant

in November. From this evidence, I would judge that most young are

born during the cool season between December and February. One

young in the Nilgiris was less than a month old in October and another

was perhaps 2 months old, indicating that occasional births occur in

other months as well. With a birth peak from December to February

and a gestation period of 6 months (Fisher ez al. 1969), the main rut

would be in June, July, and August, mostly during the south-west

monsoon, rather than in December and January as stated by Stockley

(1928).

The Nilgiri tahr has 2 teats (unlike the Himalayan tahr which has 4,

two of them rudimentary). Stockley (1928), Kinloch (1926), Prater

(1965) and others noted that one young is the rule, and this was my im-

pressiontoo. Sterndale (1884), on the other hand, stated that tahr usually

have twins. Yearling females were not visibly pregnant at the age of

nearly 2 years, suggesting that most tahr had their first young at the age

of 3 years.

MormTALity. Generally the per cent of yearlings entering the adult class

of a stable population roughly equals the per cent of adults disappearing

through death or emigration. About 18% of the tahr comprised year-

lings (see Table 1). The Nilgiri population was thought to have remained

stable in the past years, and the High Range one showed no striking

fluctuations during the 1960’s although Gouldsbury (pers. comm.) felt

that it was increasing slowly. Thus, in the Nilgiris at least, annual adult

mortality might be as high as 18%. Mortality of young was low.

Assuming that each adult had one young early in 1969, then 76% of the

females in the Nilgiris and 88% in the High Range raised one offspring

almost to the age of one year. If production and survival of young was

as high in 1968 as in 1969, then the difference between the percent of

yearlings and young gives an indication of mortality between the two age

374 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

classes. The Nilgiris showed a 44% drop in number, the High Range

27%. Although these figures are based on several] assumptions, they do

suggest that many yearlings and perhaps as many as 1/6 of the

adults die each year, there being no evidence of large-scale emigration.

Possible causes of death include disease and predation.

Disease. No sick tahr were seen. Rinderpest is said to have deci-

mated the High Range population long ago (Gouldsbury, pers. comm.),

and lame animals are sometimes encountered in April, a time of year

when foot-and-mouth disease is prevalent in local cattle, according to my

guide, a tribal Muduvar. The remains of only one tahr, an adult female,

were found in many miles of hiking. However, sick animals probably

retreat to the cliffs and fall into the dense brush below when they die.

Predation. Tahr share their habitat with several potential predators.

Jackal (Canis aureus) possibly kill newboin young on occasion. To

obtain some idea of jackal food habits, 119 sets of droppings from the

High Range were examined and the results in Table 2 show that small

TABLE 2

FREQUENCY OF OCCURRENCE OF FOOD ITEMS IN 119 JACKAL DROPPINGS,

HIGH RANGE

Food items Frequency of

occurrence (%)

Small rodent 94°4

Lizard and snake 29°4

Crab 10°0

Insect 6°7

Seed 5°8

Sambar 2:5

Hare 0°1

Snail 0:1

Fay ras)

SE CC

rodents provided most food during October and November. The sambar

hair in the droppings undoubtedly represented carrion. Thyagarajan (1958)

once observed wild dogs (Cuon alpinus) hunt tahr and on this

basis assumed that predation is ‘the most important factor operating

against their survival’. Wild dogs are rare, however, and packs visit an

area only at long intervals. Observers both in the Nilgiris and High Range

told me that sambar (Cervus unicolor), not tahr, are the main prey of

wild dogs in the hills. Davidar (pers. comm.) once watched a leopard

(Panthera pardus) stalk tahr unsuccessfully. I saw only one set of tracks

of this uncommon cat. One tiger (Panthera tigris) frequented the

Bangitappal area of the Nilgiris and two the Eravikulam Reserve during

OBSERVATIONS ON THE NILGIRI TAHR 375

my visit. All 10 tiger droppings which I found contained sambar re-

mains and one also crab shells. In sum, all these predators are now rare

to uncommon, and there is no evidence that they have any controlling |

influence on the tahr populations.

Saddlebacks may be legally hunted but only a few are shot each year.

The average annual kill in the Nilgiris between 1912 and 1938 was 4°6

(Phythian-Adams 1939) and between 1940 and 1966 it was 2°3 (Davidar

1968). An average of only 1°9 animals per year were shot in the High

Range between 1958 and 1969. Hamilton (1892), who in 1854 was the

first European to hike through the Eravikulam area, found that tahr

‘were extremely wild, which was accounted for from their having been

lately harassed by hill men, the Moodowas, who had constructed across

one of their runs, a barrier of stout bushes, forming a strong hedge, with

weak places ten or twelve feet apart ; across which a strong running noose

was firmly secured. The ibex were then driven up to these barriers and

were ruthlessly snared and shot.’ Hawkeye (1881) and Thyagarajan

(1958) describe similar methods of killing in the Anamalai Hills. Ilegal

hunting has undoubtedly been responsible for the extirpation or drastic

reduction of tahr in most of their former habitats, and the remaining

populations are still subjected to a certain amount of it. Recently, for

example, a High Range police official shot 2 tahr that had come near a

road, and Davidar told me that several poachers were encountered in the

Bangitappal area shortly after my visit there.

This discussion about possible causes of mortality provides little

precise information about the factors which actually influenced the tahr

populations, and it is obviously important to monitor the animals

throughout the year to find out if disease, for instance, affects them at

certain times.

HERD STRUCTURE

Tahr are social animals which usually associate in groups of two or

more individuals. One adult female was seen alone as were 3 different

dark brown males and 5 saddlebacks, but such animals were uncommon.

_ Groups can be divided into mixed herds, consisting of females and sub- |

adults, and, on occasion, also of males, and into male herds composed

solely of males. :

Herd size. My observations, as well as those in the literature, indicate

that tahr seldom occur in mixed herds exceeding 50 individuals. Sterndale

(1884) mentioned herds with 60, 65, and 120 animals, Kinloch (1926)

with 60 and 90, and Fischer (1915) one with at least 86. Twenty-three

_ mixed herds counted during the census work varied in size from 6 to 104 -

376 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

animals with an average of 23 (Fig. 3). A total of 9 different male herds

were tallied, and these varied from 2 to 12 animals each with an average

Ods5:

Mean

5 6

re)

z 4

O O Oo O O Oo

— %) Ww - (op) —

| i l i ‘ \

N — -- — = ©

N + wo © @)

No. animals in herd

Fig. 3. The size of 23 mixed tahr herds.

Herd composition. Mixed herds characteristically contain light brown

males, females, and subadults, but dark brown males and saddlebacks

are only sporadic members (Table 3). At the time of my study, some

large young and yearlings tended to form their own group, remaining —

either at the periphery of a mixed herd or becoming widely separated

from it. For example, one herd consisting of a yearling female and 5

young was at least 3 km. from the nearest adults. Young also left their

mothers and attached themselves to other animals when herds split with

the result that some contained 2 to 3 times as many young as adult

females whereas others had few or no young.

Tahr herds may change in composition from day to day as they split

and. join without obvious pattern. For instance, one herd of 34 was

joined by 2 dark brown males and 3 females in the course of a day. A

herd of 43 split into herds of 16 and 27. When encountered again the

following day 38 animals were together. Of these a saddleback left

OBSERVATIONS ON THE NILGIRI TAHR 377

alone, 29 crossed a deep valley, and 7 females and a light brown male

moved in the opposite direction.

TABLE 3

COMPOSITION OF SOME TAHR HERDS IN THE NILGIRIS AND HIGH RANGE

Female

Male

Saddleback Dark Light Yearling | Adult Yearling Young Total

brown brown ae ee ee

2 1 1 2, 6

1 5 6

2 6 8

2 3 3 8

1 2, 1 6 4 14

1 4 10 15

2D 3 12 7 10 34

1 1 2 2 17 3 8 34

1 1 6 1 16 4 9 38

1 D. 3 5 12 a 9 39

Dark brown males and saddlebacks enter and leave mixed herds

intermittently on their own volition. When not in a mixed herd such

males are alone or in male herds (Table 4). In the Eravikulam area the

TABLE 4

COMPOSITION OF SOME MALE HERDS IN THE

NILGIRIS AND HIGH RANGE

Saddleback Dark brown Total

——— eee

2 Z

3 3

Dis 2

3 8) 6

u {|

4 5 9

i a ee

378 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

~males tended to congregate. Whereas mixed herds were scattered along

the cliffs, 30 of the 69 dark brown males and saddlebacks in the reserve

were in the western corner. The fact that males leave mixed herds has

been noted frequently (Hamilton 1892 ; Willet 1968), but opinions differ

as to the season when they do so. Stockley (1928) felt that the separation

occurs in the cold season and Kinloch (1926) that it happens in the hot

season. Each dark brown male and saddleback seen in the Niigiris and

High Range was classified according to whether he was alone, in a male

herd or in a mixed herd. Table 5 shows that during the first half of

TABLE 5

PER CENT OF MALES SEEN ALONE, IN MALE HERDS, AND IN MIXED

HERDS DURING OCTOBER

No. males ~ % Males alone % Males in % males in

Date in sample male herds mixed herds

Sept. 30-Oct.16 .. 31 19 29 sy

October, when I worked in the Nilgiris, about half of the males associated

with mixed herds, and that during the second half, when I was in the

High Range, over 3/4 of the males were alone or in male herds. My

sample for November is too small to include in Table 5, but only one of 9

mixed herds contained a dark brown male or saddleback. The largest

males in an ungulate population usually do most of the mating (see Geist

1966 ; Schaller 1967), and the highest per cent of dark brown males

and saddlebacks would, therefore, be expected around mixed herds during

the rut from June to August. Afterwards, when few females come into

cestrus, the males associate only casually with them. Mixed herds which

one day included a saddleback frequently lacked one the next day, con- —

firming the transitional nature of the contacts. Anderson & Henderson

(1961) found that ‘apart from the rutting season, which extends from

late April to early July, the sexes range separately ’ in the Himalayan

tahr of New Zealand. Transitional contacts between mixed herds and

males are also found in many other species of hoofed animals such as the

gaur (Bos gaurus) and axis deer (Axis axis) in India (Schaller 1967), the

ibex (Capra ibex) in Switzerland (Nievergelt 1967), the wild goat (Capra

hircus) in Pakistan (Roberts 1967) and the bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis)

in Canada (Geist 1968).

Light brown males, estimated to be 2 to 4 years old, did not become

solitary or join male herds, in contrast to young Capra ibex males which

may join male herds at the age of 2 and:3 years (Nievergelt 1967).

OBSERVATIONS ON THE NILGIRI TAHR 379

BEHAVIOUR

The behaviour of undisturbed tahr was observed for 53 hours, often

from | km. or more away to reduce the chances of being detected by the

animals. However, the erratic winds frequently carried my scent to

them, and this, together with clouds that often obscured the cliffs, made

prolonged observations difficult. Nor were October and November

the most auspicious times for recording behaviour. The bonds bet-

ween females and their young were essentially broken, and the rut was

finished. For example, my observations on sexual behaviour were

limited to males twice sniffing the vulva of urinating females and curling

their lip up afterwards. :

General behaviour. Fletcher (1911) and other observers stated that

tahr are active mainly in the early morning and late afternoon, but

Kinloch (1926) also found them feeding at midday. An Old Shikarri

(1880) noted that they are active at all hours, an observation which

agrees with what I saw. Herds gave the impression of being restless as

feeding and rest periods of varying lengths followed each other. Fre-

quently one animal in a herd began to graze and all others joined within

10 minutes. They remained active for perhaps 30 to 45 minutes and

then lay down again one at a time. To find out if tahr follow some

general daily pattern of activity, I recorded the number of animals graz-

ing and not grazing every 5 minutes in each undisturbed herd. The 6

points in each 1/2 hour period were lumped and expressed as per cent

of animals feeding in Fig. 4 which is based on 10,968 activity obser-

vations. Most tahr fed until about 08.00 hours. There was a sharp

drop in activity between 08.00 and 08.30 hours and then about 2/3 of

the animals rested at any one time until 10.30 hours. After that and

until 14.30 hours at least half the tahr fed, followed by a slight drop in

activity between 14.30 and 15.30 hours. A second feeding peak occurred

after 16.00 hours. Phythian-Adams (1950) stated that tahr remain on

the cliffs at night.

In October and November, when green forage was plentiful through-

out their habitat, the tahr fed mostly on or near cliffs. Grazing herds

moved either as a fairly compact unit or loosely scattered over the slope.

Occasionally they travelled to another site in single file with an adult

female in the lead and saddlebacks usually in the rear. The animals

were silent except on one occasion when I heard several bleats. Green

grass was the tahr’s principal food during the period of study. In addi-

tion the leaves of a shrub (Strobilanthes kunthianus), of an Umbelliferae

(Heracleum sp.) and a wattle (Acacia sp.) were also eaten. Between

January and March, after the dry grasses have been burned and before

the first April showers produce a growth of new grass, tahr are said to

380 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

browse along the edge of the thickets and the bases of the cliffs. Some

patches of soil on steep slopes had been extensively pawed by tahr and

these possibly represented saltlicks.

100

= 60

gq, 40

oO ro) oO oO row >)

mM mm nN nm

0 i i ti n is

uy “>

2 8 ras ro) vo) °

2 © S) ov < ©

ro) = =

Time of day

Fig. 4. Per cent of tahr grazing at various times of day, 06.00 to 17.00 hours.

Herds usually rested along the rim of the escarpment or on the cliff

ledges. They reclined either with legs tucked under the body or more

often with one or both forelegs stretched out in front of them and some-

times with the hindlegs extended to one side as well. Many chewed

cud, at the rate of about 3 chews per 2 seconds. Occasionally one rose

and scratched its head or neck with a hindfoot or its upper back witha

tip of the horn.

Undisturbed herds remained in the same area for long periods. A

herd encountered on a cliff one day could usually be found in the general

locality or even in the same spot on subsequent days. One population

of about 135 tahr, divided into 3 or more herds, was always found along

the same 5 km. stretch of cliffs between October 22 and November 12, |

Female Himalayan tahr have distinct home ranges (Caughley 1966).

Gouldsbury told me that tahr wander away from the precipices in search — )

of food during the dry season and that they tend to take shelter from the

high winds and lashing rain on the eastern side of the plateau during

the south-west monsoon. The casual joining and parting of animals

OBSERVATIONS ON THE NILGIRI TAHR 381

and the readiness with which herds flee long distances into terrain

occupied by others indicates that tahr have no territory in the sense of

an area exclusively used by a group or individual, at least during October

and November.

Agonistic behaviour. Aggressive contacts between animals were

uncommon. Sometimes one hooked another lightly with a horn when

the herd was bunched up after a disturbance. On 6 occasions a tahr

walked to a reclining one, jabbed it with a horntip in the flank, and,

after it moved, appropriated the resting site. Five of these instances

involved a female replacing a young and one a light brown male replac-

ing a yearling male. On 2 occasions, when a yearling male jabbed a

yearling male and a light brown male, respectively, the recipient did not

relinquish its resting place.

Fights between two tahr were observed 53 times. Eighteen (33 %)

of these involved the side butt. The animals stood parallel and facing

the same direction and in unison jerked their head sideways rapidly

once or twice thereby clashing their horn against one of the opponent’s.

They were never seen to push with shoulder and hips in such situations

as feral goats do (Geist, pers. comm.). The head-on butt was used in

22 (42%) of the interactions observed. Two tahr faced each other, a

metre or less apart, lowered their heads abruptly and one or both lunged

so that the horns met with a crash. Usually one of the combatants ~

struck predominantly with one horn while the other caught the blow

between his horns, a method of striking also used by American moun-

tain sheep (Geist 1966). Most contacts were brief, one or two clashes,

and were seldom preceded or followed by other interactions. On one

occasion a light brown male mounted a saddleback before they fought,

in contrast to bighorn sheep where the dominant characteristically

mounts a subordinate one (Geist 1968).

The shoulder push was used in 13 (25%) of the fights observed, and

the actions were more prolonged than the other types of combat. Two

animals characteristically stood parallel and facing in opposite direc-

tion, then pushed each other, shoulder to shoulder, often circling rapidly

as they didso. Once two males kneeled and circled in a fighting pattern

reminiscent of that used by zebra (Equus burchelli) as described by

Klingel (1967). As the animals turned, they jabbed each other gently

or vigorously in the side, flank or occasionally the abdomen with the

tip of one horn. Sometimes they stopped, faced each other and butted

head-on before circling again. Twice one animal hooked the other

into the lower part of the neck during a pushing interval. Occasionally

a tahr pawed the ground with a foreleg before or after the fight or assumed

the hunch posture (see below). This method of fighting is similar to

otle described by Geist (1964) in the American mountain goat (Oreaim-

382. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

nos americanus): ‘ They fight keeping side by side while moving about

one another. Goats, strike up and sideways with their head, driving

the horns into the opponent’s body region.’

The fourth type of combat, rearing up, was not observed in its full

form during the study, possibly because it is used primarily by males

during the rut. Hutton (1947) saw one fight on August 3: A young

male stamped his forefeet when approached by a saddleback. They

looked at each other from a distance of about 10 m. and both stamped

their forefeet and nodded their heads. Then ‘the two animals almost

simultaneously reared up on their hindlegs and seemed to “‘ dance ”’ in

front of each other, while keeping their distance and circling. Suddenly

they would close in and bring their heads together with a resounding

crack’. After half an hour of combat the saddleback rammed the other

male in the shoulder thus ending the fight. He then approached a

female and mated with her. On one occasion, a light brown male

kneeled on his forelegs and rubbed his horns in the grass with lateral

motions. Suddenly he reared up on his hindlegs with his chin tucked

in and turned slightly to one side and the forelegs drawn close to the

body. Facing him was another light brown male with his head averted.

On another occasion, a female snorted and lunged at another female

with both forelegs off the ground in a manner similar to that used by

fighting mountain goats (Geist 1965).

The type of fighting, as well as the frequency with which each type

was used, varied with the age and sex of the tahr (Table 6). Males,

females and subadults all butted from the side or head-on, both with

animals of their own age and sex and with others. The shoulder push

TABLE 6

NUMBER OF ANIMALS IN EACH SEX AND AGE CLASS INVOLVED IN VARIOUS

TYPES OF FIGHTING, BASED ON 106 COMBATANTS

Approx. Side butt Head-on Shoulder

Sex and Age Class composition Vy butt % Push %

of mixed

herds in %

Saddleback andd.b.male .. > 8°3 0 3°8

Light brown male a 6 5°6 29°5 ea

Female TS. re 38 41°7 13°6 0

Yearling i 20 ib 36°1 43:2 61°5

Young fe 8) 8°3 —# 1356 0

OBSERVATIONS ON THE NILGIRI TAHR 383

was not observed among females and young, and of 16 sexed yearlings

involved in that type of combat all were males. Either the larger or

the smaller of two participating males initiated the shoulder push.

Once, for instance, a yearling jabbed a light brown male repeatedly

in the side, abdomen and flanks before the latter responded, and

they then circled shoulder to shoulder. On another occasion, a light

brown male initiated the fight with a yearling male. Dark brown

males and saddlebacks fought seldom, but light brown males were

involved in head-on butts and shoulder pushes (but not side butts) much

more frequently than would be expected from their number in the

population. Females side-butted as often as expected but used the

head-on butt little and shoulder push not at all. Yearlings fought

often by all three methods and young seldom. A ranking of the classes

based on the relative frequency of fighting would place light brown

males at the top, followed in decreasing order by yearlings, females,

dark brown males and saddlebacks, and young.

Two additional kinds of behaviour were associated with aggression.

On 8 occasions an animal was seen to rub its horns and face either up

or down on a sapling or laterally on the ground, sometimes for as long

as one minute. Two animals kneeled on their frontlegs while doing so.

The behaviour occurred in 2 females, 3 yearling males, a dark brown

male, and 2 light brown males, and only in the last was it seemingly

directed at a particular individual. In one of these instances, the male

rubbed his head on the ground in front of a reclining saddleback. He

then jabbed the saddleback in a hindleg, wedged a hoof between the

horns and pulled. The saddleback ignored the gesture. Rubbing in

tahr appeared to be analogous to similar behaviour among deer, such as

the wapiti, Cervus canadensis, (Struhsaker 1967) and antelope, such as

the grant’s gazelle, Gazella granti, (Walther 1965). The actions un-

doubtedly leave both visual and olfactory signals of the animal’s presence

in the environment.

A conspicuous posture termed the ‘hunch’ was observed 16 times,

twice in females, the others in yearling and adult males. The animal

hunched its back and arched its neck down, sometimes with the nose

merely pointing forward but often with it perpendicular and almost

touching the ground or pointing back between the legs. The ears were

laid back, and the animal walked or trotted with a stiff gait, the legs

bunched beneath the body. This display is strikingly similar to one

_ described by Geist (1965) in the mountain goat : ‘ The male erects itself

by stretching front and hind legs until they are straight and stiltlike.

The back is arched upwards ; the belly is drawn in ; the neck is arched

down...’ Occasionally a tahr displayed in no particular circumstance

or it briefly combined the behaviour with other patterns. One dark

brown male, for example, separated by 60 m. from the herd, hunched

384. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

his back, then rubbed his horns in a shrub. The hunch is also seen

during interactions between males. Once two light brown males met

on a narrow ledge. Each arched its back before pushing gently with

the shoulders. On other occasions a light brown male approached a

yearling male in a hunch before they butted head-on, and two yearling

males walked parallel and 5 m. apart in a hunch after fighting. One

dark brown male approached a reclining saddleback with his back

arched. The saddleback rose and walked broadside slowly past the

other male in a hunch, displaying his striking profile. The hunch makes

the animal conspicuous, and it may be hypothesized that it serves to

intimidate an opponent, that it is a substitute for fighting, similar to the

displays described in numerous other hoofed animals (Walther 1960/61 ;

Geist 1966 ; Schaller 1967). |

Paleontologists suggest that the caprids evolved from rupicaprids

of which the American mountain goat and serow (Capricornis suma-

traensis) are living examples. The tahr appear to be a link in many

physical characters between the two groups, as Geist (in press) has

pointed out, and various aspects of their agonistic behaviour are thus of

interest when compared with Capra on the one hand and with the rupi-

caprids on the other. ‘ Mountain goats do not fight head to head...’

(Geist 1964), but tahr and Capra ibex (Nievergelt 1967) do so. On the

other hand, the distinctive shoulder push of the tahr has not been des-

cribed for Capra, although feral goats push with shoulders and hips

when standing parallel (Geist, pers. comm.), but mountain goats possess

an analogous pattern in which they circle and jab the opponent around

the ventral region. Tahr also rear up on their hindlegs, a typical method

of fighting in such goats as Capra ibex (Walther 1960/6la) and Capra

falconeri (Roberts 1969). This behaviour does not occur in the moun-

tain goat (Geist 1964). Lateral displays of one form or another are

found in antelopes, deer, gaur, and other hoofed animals on such diverse

groups that the pattern is undoubtedly an old one in the evolution of

aggression (Geist 1966). Capra ibex and Capra falconeri, too, show a

lateral display (Walther 1960/1961b), although it is not well-developed, |

possibly because the large horns of these species have assumed the dis-

play function. The hunch of the tahr is so similar to the lateral display

of the mountain goat that it suggests a rupicaprid origin. The Nilgiri

tahr thus retain-a number of distinct aggressive patterns which reflect

their ancestry. Their method of butting is characteristic of sheep and

goats in general, their pushing and hooking into the posterior part of

the opponent as well as their lateral display point to a rupicaprid relation-

ship, and their distinct way of rearing up is a typical caprid trait.

Anti-predator behaviour. Although I did not see tahr respond to

predators, some of their reactions to my presence were probably typical

OBSERVATIONS ON THE NILGIRI TAHR 385

of their anti-predator behaviour in general. The preferred habitat of

the tahr, the cliffs broken by grassy ledges, affords the animals protec-

tion from predators and it was probably for this reason that they were

usually found near precipices and that their behaviour was oriented to-

ward them. Mixed herds were encountered 44 times and 36 of these

were on or within 0°5 km. of the cliffs bordering the Nilgiri and Hamilton’s

plateaus. Of the remaining 8 herds, 5 were on inland cliffs and only 3

were more than 0°5 km. from a precipice. Solitary males and male

herds, too, frequented the vicinity of cliffs although they ventured inland

more readily than did mixed herds. During one census, 14 out of 29

males seen singly and in groups that day were over 0°5 km. from a cliff,

and on another day a herd of 12 rested on a gentle slope some 1°5 km.

from the escarpment. Animals disturbed by man characteristically

bunched up and ran to the nearest cliff. On three occasions, however,

tahr left the protection of a cliff and fled across rolling terrain for two or

more kilometres. While tahr on a cliff quickly detected the approach of

a person below them, they were less alert to potential danger from above

and it was often possible to creep close to them in that fashion.

‘A sentinel is invariably posted to watch over the slumber of the

herd...” (Fletcher 1911), and Kinloch (1926) and others made similar

statements. The ‘sentinel’ is usually said to be a female. In 7 out of

24 resting mixed herds observed, one animal (5 females, 2 saddlebacks)

stood or reclined conspicuously above the others and would have fitted

the popular definition of sentinel. However, such animals achieved their

isolated position usually by accident rather than choice. On two occa-

sions a female reclined while the herd continued to graze. The other

animals passed and finally rested on the slope below leaving a ‘ sentinel ’.

Of course, an animal in a prominent position is more likely to spot a

potential source of danger before the others and it thus functions as a

sentinel without the need to imply that the behaviour is purposeful.

The general restlessness of herds also helped them to detect danger.

With one or another animal almost constantly shifting position or grazing,

it would have been difficult for a predator to approach undetected.

Although tahr seemed to have good eyesight they used their acute sense

of smell rather than vision to detect danger in most instances, and even

if the source was clearly visible they sometimes verified it by scent before

responding with flight. The animals often smelled me downwind at

distances of from 200 to 300 m. On the other hand, I crept upwind on

several occasions to within 10 m. of them while they were out of sight

below the rim of a precipice, and once I walked slowly in full view to

within 20 m. of aresting saddleback before the wind shifted and he scen-

ted me. On another occasion, 15 tahr came to within 20 m. of me as I

reclined on an open slope. At first they whistled and stamped their

386 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

feet, but after several minutes some lay down and chewed cud seemingly

oblivious to me. After 30 minutes the wind shifted and they bolted.

Tahr communicated the presence of danger to others by sound and

by several gestures. If danger was imminent or obvious, tahr merely

fled, an action which elicited similar behaviour in the rest of the herd.

The alert posture with body held rigid as the animal stared with raised

neck in a certain direction drew the attention of the others and they too

then looked there. In addition two auditory signals enhanced the alert

posture. One was foot-stamping. The tahr stamped a forefoot on

the ground with a thump one or more times. Once a female leaped into

the air several times in succession on the same spot and brought both

forefeet down in unison after she detected me 50m.away. A conspicuous

signal was the whistle, described by Hamilton (1892) and others, a pier-

cing sound made by expelling the air forcefully through the nostrils.

Whistling was prevalent when tahr detected danger but seemed uncer-

tain about its nature or location. Tahr seldom whistled after seeing or

smelling me clearly, but they occasionally did so after a glimpse of me,

particularly if I was upwind. Usually one or two members of a herd

whistled in a particular situation. One saddleback, after detecting my

presence 30 m. away in fog, gave 4 whistling snorts, sounds which seemed

intermediate between the aggressive snort and the whistle. If one animal

whistled, the others jerked to attention. For example, 33 tahr fled

30 m., looked around, then resumed grazing after one animal whistled

once. On another occasion, 104 tahr rested on a slope. When one

whistled, two-thirds of the animals leaped up. Members of one herd

briefly looked around when hearing the alarm bark of a sambar nearby,

but they did not respond to the 4 deer that walked through the herd,

passing within 2 m. of some tahr, a few minutes later.

CONSERVATION

With possibly fewer than 1500 tahr in existence, 800 of them in two

restricted localities, the species is in obvious danger of extinction. What

can be done to insure its survival in the wild? Sometime in the future

it would be desirable to stock tahr in the ranges once occupied by them,

for, considering the slow and erratic rate of natural dispersal among

wild goats under ideal conditions, it seems unlikely that tahr will re-

colonize their former habitats much today. But for the present, the

most urgent task is the preservation of existing herds. The tahr in the

Nilgiris, confined to a narrow strip of land along the western escarpment,

have lost most of their habitat to forest plantations. Only the hills

south of Bangitappal remain relatively undisturbed, and it would be

commendable if the Tamil Nadu Forest Department reserved this road-

OBSERVATIONS ON THE NILGIRI TAHR 387

less area not only for the animals but also for visitors to enjoy. Roads

have been or are being built into most parts of the tahr’s range making

access easy. Constant vigilance must be maintained to prevent poach-

ing both by labourers in the plantations and hunters from the towns.

The Eravikulam Reserve in the High Range is a magnificent piece of

hill country, an area which in some future year would make an excellent

national park for those who like to hike, fish, and observe wildlife. The

tahr there have for many years been managed well by the High Range

Game Preservation Association, and it would obviously benefit the

species to have this organization continue with its jurisdiction over the

area.

The tahr is still shot on licence as a game animal in the Nilgiris and

on special permission from the owners in the High Range. It might be

argued that such a rare animal should be fully protected. However,

as Davidar (1963b, 1968) has pointed out, the number of animals shot

is negligible and to eliminate such hunting would actually be detrimen-

tal to the tahr. The animals survive in the Nilgiris and High Range

only because the local wildlife associations have protected them for

years for sporting purposes. In areas where tahr have not had the

benefit of such private initiative, where they have had to rely solely on

the protection afforded by the state government, they have either been

wiped out or reduced to a few scattered herds. The revoking of shoot-

ing rights would eliminate whatever interest the wildlife associations

have in the animal and the resulting increase in poaching and habitat

destruction might well tip the balance of the species from tenuous security

to extinction.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

My visit to south India was sponsored by the New York Zoological

Society. The Bombay Natural History Society, particularly Mr. J. C.

Daniel, helped me in various ways. In south India I was particularly

grateful to Mr. E. R. C. Davidar and Mr. J. C. Gouldsbury both of

whom shared their extensive knowledge of tahr with me, received me

most hospitably, and in general helped to make my visit rewarding and

enjoyable. The Kanan Devan Hills Produce Company and the High

Range Game Preservation Association generously permitted me to stay

in their bungalow in the Eravikulam Reserve, and the Tamil Nadu

Forest Department and Nilgiri Wildlife Association allowed me to visit

the tahr in the Nilgiris. Dr. V. Geist kindly read the manuscript

critically,

388 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

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*‘ GARHWALI’ (1911) : Seventeen years’

shikar in the Himalayas. The Asian.

Sept. 28, Dec. 16.

Geist, V. (1964): On the rutting

behaviour of the mountain goat. J.

Taylor & Francis,

Mammal. 45(4): 551-568.

(1966): The evolution of

horn-like organs. Behaviour. 27(3-4):

175-214.

(1968): On the interrela-

tion of external appearance, social be-

haviour and social structure of mountain

sheep. Z.f. Tierpsych. 25 : 199-215.

(in press) : Mountain sheep :

a study in behaviour and of evolution.

University of Chicago Press, Chicago,

Records of

R. H. Porter,

HAMILTON, D. (1892):

sport in Southern India.

London. ;

* HAWKEYE.’ (1881): Game. Higgin-

botham and Co., Madras.

HORNADAY, W. (1885): Two years

in the jungle. Kegan Paul, Trench and

Co., London.

Hutton, A. (1947): The Nilgiri tahr

(Hemitragus hylocrius). J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 47(2) : 374-376.

JEYADEV, T. (no d.): Working plan

for the Nilgiris Forest Division for the

period Ist April 1954 to 31st March

1964. Forest Department, Madras.

KINLocH, A. (1926): The Nilgiri tahr

(Hemitragus hylocrius). J. Bombay nat.

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KLINGEL, H. (1967): Soziale Organi-

sation und Verhalten freilebender Step-

penzebras. Z. f. Tierpsych. 24 : 580-624.

LYDEKKER, R. (1898): Wild oxen,

sheep, and goats of all lands. Rowland

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NIEVERGELT, B. (1967): Die Zusam-

mensetzung der Gruppen beim Alpens-

teinbock. Z. f. Saugetierkunde. 32(3):

129-144.

PHYTHIAN-ADAMS, E. (1927): Game

preservation in the Nilgiris. J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 32(2): 339-343.

——— (1939): The Nilgiris Game

Association—1879-1939. ibid. 41(2):

384-396. 3

—— (1950): Jungie memories,

Part VII. ibid. 49(3) : 418-426.

PoLLock, A. (1894): Sporting days in

Southern India. Horace Cox, London.

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Indian animals. Bombay Natural History

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OBSERVATIONS ON

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THE NILGIRI TAHR 389

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Genetic-evolutionary studies on

cultivated Cannas

VII: Taxonomic treatment and horticultural

classification

IvA MUKHERJEE AND T. N. KHOSHOO

National Botanic Gardens, Lucknow, India

(With eleven figures)

In order to evaluate the garden cannas taxonomically, their characters

were Charted against those of the elemental species. It became clear that

the cultivars neither resolve round a pattern of their own nor around any of

the elemental species. As expected they show an intricate mixture of charac-

ters of different elemental species, and together constitute a ‘syngameon’.

Accordingly, more for an utilitarian and routine horticultural purpose all

the garden cultivars need to be included in two synthetic hybrid species,

C. X generalis Bailey and C. X orchiodes Bailey. Such a treatment is not

only sound taxo-genetically, but also avoids inordinately long names that

the two synthetic species are expected to get under international rules of

nomenclature for cultivated plants. Indian cultivars of canna have been

classified horticulturally more to fulfil a purpose in the garden than to stress

discrete botanical differences of qualitative character which are in fact want-

ing in the cultivars.

INTRODUCTION

From an analysis of phenotypic variation, breeding, pollination and

meiotic systems and parallelism between natural and induced mutations

(Mukherjee & Khoshoo 1970 a-d; Khoshoo & Mukherjee 1970a), a

reasonably well integrated and coherent picture of the origin and evolu-

tion of the ornamental cannas has emerged (Khoshoo & Mukherjee

1970b). The variation pattern thus unravelled needs to be expressed

in the traditional taxonomic units so as to express genetic relationships

as accurately as possible. Furthermore, the cultivars of ornamental

cannas grown in Indian gardens need to be horticulturally classified to

fulfil a purpose in the garden rather than stress discrete botanical

differences, "

J. BOMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. 67 (3)

Mukherjee & Khoshoo: Cultivated Cannas

Elemental species of ornamental Cannas.

mig. 1. C. glauca Linn. ; Fig. 2. C. indica Linn. ; Fig. 3. C. iridiflora Ruiz & Pav. ;

Fig. 4. C. warscewiczii A. Dietr. ; Fig. 5. C. flaccida Salisb.

J. BOMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. 67 (3)

Mukherjee & Khoshoo : Cultivated Cannas

Horticultural classification of canna cultivars.

Fig. 7. Self coloured, Pink Satin; Fig. 8. Bicoloured, Prince of Wales; Fig. 9.

Spotted, Queen Elizabeth; Fig. 10. Blotched, Rajaji; Fig. 11. Margined, Star of

India.

GENETIC-EVOLUTIONARY STUDIES ON CANNAS 391

TAXONOMIC TREATMENT

It is adequately clear that ornamental cannas have arisen from the

five different elemental species, namely C. glauca Linn. (Fig. 1), C. indica

Linn. (Fig. 2), C. iridiflora Ruiz & Pav. (Fig. 3), C. warscwiczii A. Dietr.

(Fig. 4) and C. flaccida Salisb. (Fig. 5), ail belonging to the Subgenus

Canna, Sect. Trialatae and Subsect. Glaucae, Coccineae (or Indicae),

Elatae and Achirida (Kranzlin 1912). The variation pattern of these

botanical species was charted using such characters of rhizome, leaf,

inflorescence and flower upon which their taxonomic delimitation is

based. Against this background characters of 45 well recognised cul-

tivars of ornamental cannas were also charted (Fig. 6).

As is evident from the scatter diagram, no discrete groups of culti-

vars bound by some common qualitative character combinations are

recognizable. In other words, the cultivars neither resolve round a

pattern of their own, nor around any of the basal species, but most of

them have height less than 150 cm., length/breadth ratio of leaf ranging

from 1°5 to 3 and have an intricate mixture of characters of different

elemental species which is the result of extensive hybridization associated

with their origin (Khoshoo & Mukherjee 1970b). Most of the cultivars

represent, what may be called, ‘macro-recombinants’. The entire

collection, except those cultivars in which C. flaccida is involved, consti-

tutes more or less a homogamic and clonal hybrid complex (sensu Grant

1953) in which different components are predominantly diploid, meioti-

cally normal and often retaining sexual mode of reproduction but always

vegetatively reproduced. The entire complex is a ‘ phylogenetic reti-

culum’ or a ‘syngameon ’ (sensu Grant 1957).

A full-fledged species more often has an ecological, morphological,

chromosomal and genetical distinctness and such a concept cannot be

applied to synthetic taxa like the ornamental cannas. In comparison to

the elemental species, the garden cannas have been much transformed

and have developed large flowers with many fancy colours at the expense

of reduction in vigour. This has happened to many cultivated plants

including ornamentals like hyacinth (Darlington, Hair & Hurcombe

1951) and pansy (Mukherjee & Khoshoo 1969). Furthermore, not much

intersterility has developed between them and their elemental species,

It is, therefore, apparent that for reasons more than one, the usual con-

cept of species cannot be applied to ornamental cannas although they

are distinguishable from the elemental species, on account of their height,

leaf length/breadth and flower size and colour.

Bailey (1947) has classified garden cannas in two species which though

apparently distinguishable (Table 1) are not always so in practice, because

of some intergrading types. Our investigations (Khoshoo & Mukherjee

1970a) have shown that C. X generalis Bailey includes Crozy cannas

392. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

which are diploid, interchange heterozygotes and autotriploids, while

C. X orchiodes Bailey includes Italian cannas derived from the crosses

320

300

C.glauca

C. indica

C.iridiflora

C.warsewiczii

C.flaccida

DIPLOIDS

ASYNAPTIC DIFLOIDS

AUTOTRIPLOIDS

260

Pee = Sa we ale

240

SEG-ALLOTRIPLOIDS

220

on Mt ie kOkOROMOROMG)

RANGE

200

160 -¢- 3

140 $-

RHI ZOME TUBEROUS

RHIZOME STOLONIFEROUS

HEIGHT (cms.)

LEAF GREEN

LEAF BRIGHT-GREEN

LEAF PURPLE

ao:

(20 $6 e J

ol | BEY.

LEAF OBLONG

LEAF BROAD-OBLONG

ond

LEAF ELLIPTIC

INFLORESCENCE LAX

INFLORESCENCE DENSE

INFLORESCENCE PENDULOUS

FLOWER YELLOW

FLOWER SULPHUR YELLOW

FLOWER RED

FLOWER ROSE

FLOWER SCARLET

00000666 AVVO9 G9 OO

2 3 4 )

LEAF RATIO Ys

Fig. 6. Scatter diagram depicting the morphological diversity in 45 garden

cultivars using important characters distinguishing the elemental species.

between C. X generalis and C. flaccida. These are asynaptic non-seeded

diploids and allo- or segmental allotriploids. All these are totally sterile

because C. flaccida appears to be at a cenospecific level with the other

GENETIC-EVOLUTIONARY STUDIES ON CANNAS 393

four species and also with Crozy cannas. The ideal situation perhaps

was to classify the cultivars around the variation pattern of the elemental

TABLE |

COMPARISON OF THE CHARACTERS OF C. X generalis AND C. X orchiodes.

Character C. X generalis Bailey C. X orchiodes Bailey

Flower

Diameter Medium to large, less than Very large, 12°5 to 21 cm.

12:5) cm:

Colour Many Bright yellow to deep red.

Striped or splashed. Not pink

or clear white.

Petals Narrow, erect or ascending Reflexed after about the first

day.

Tube About 1:25 cm. long, not About 2°5 cm. or more,

longer than sepals much longer than sepals.

Staminodia Narrow to. broad, mostly Broad and soft with flowing

erect or strongly upright, well outline, lip funnel-form at the

separated in outline base.

Cultivars Crozy, Gladiolus or French Italian, Iris, Orchid or Giant

Dwarf cannas flowered cannas.

species, but, as indicated above (see Fig. 6), this cannot be done pre-

cisely. In spite of some intergrading types, the classification of orna-

mental cannas into two synthetic ‘ horticultural ’ species as proposed by

Bailey (1947) appears to be essentially sound because it is genetically

correct, utilitarian and takes care of the mode of ancestry and the mor-

phological transformation that has taken place in the cultivars over. the

years. Since both the species are of hybrid origin, the rules of the Inter-

national Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants (1961) demand

that they be designated by their parents. Following this, C. X generalis

Bailey is actually C. glauca Linn. X C. indica Linn. X C. iridiflora Ruiz

& Pav. X C. warscwiczii A. Dietr., while C. X orchiodes Bailey is (C.

glauca Linn. X C. indica Linn. X C. iridiflora Ruiz & Pav. X C. warsc-

wiczii A.Dietr.) X C. flaccida Salisb. In view of such long and cumber-

some names it may be useful to designate the two synthetic species simply

as C. X generalis Bailey and C. X orchiodes Bailey. Of course, such a

treatment is good more for the routine horticultural, than for taxo-

genetic purposes.

This procedure has also been followed in the case of several orna-

mentals like Verbena X hybrida Voss. (V. chamaedryfolia X V. phlogi-

flora X V. incisa X V. teucrioides ; Bailey 1909), Viola X wittrokiana

Gams (V. tricolor X V. lutea; Mukherjee & Khoshoo 1970), Petunia X

hybrida Hort. (P. axillaris X P. violacea ; Bailey 1947), etc. all of which

are of hybrid origin having been developed by man for purposes of

ornamental novelty.

394. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

HORTICULTURAL CLASSIFICATION

The flowers of most of the botanical species of Canna are too small

to make an effective floral display. The notable exception is the night

flowering C. flaccida. However, garden cannas flower almost throughout

the year and have a good deal of variability that has emerged from the

extensive interbreeding with the result they can no longer be classified

by the characters distinguishing the five elemental species involved in

their origin. Furthermore, a horticultural classification is not intended

to stress botanical differences but to resolve cultivars into convenient

groups to fulfil a purpose in the garden.

Depending upon the origin of garden cannas, horticulturists recog-

nize two groups : Crozy, Gladiolus or French Dwarf cannas and Giant,

Orchid, Iris or Italian cannas. The former have a relatively dwarf

habit, dense inflorescences and a wide range of colour in flowers in com- |

parison to the latter which are bigger in size with larger flowers in fewer

colours. Percy Lancaster (1957) increased the number of such groups

to six, namely Normal, Dreadnought, Pygmy, Bouquet, Miniature or

Hyacinth flowered and Candelabra. However, his classification does

not take care of all the heterogeneity that exists in cannas which, because

of the considerable variability in size and colour, suits almost all tastes

and situations. Since flowers are not sufficiently durable, garden cannas

are not good as cut flowers. However, they are very useful in different

formal and informal schemes ranging from an ideal bedding plant for

landscaping public parks for bold mass effect, to planting them singly

or in very small clumps in a hardy border or amongst shrubbery (Bailey

1909 ; Buckley 1968). Therefore, height is one of the important con-

siderations, as taller varieties (80-150 cm.) are selected for back rows

or as centre pieces in circular beds and dwarf varieties (50-80 cm.) for

the front rows of a border ora bed. Next to height, the colour of foliage,

whether green or purple, is also effective. Finally, the colour and size

of flowers is very important and offers considerable range. Five cate-

gories are recognizable. These are : Selfs which have the same colour

in all petaloid staminodia (Fig. 7), Bicoloured with a different colour

in the lip or inner staminodium (Fig. 8), Spotted (Fig. 9), Blotched

(Fig. 10) and Margined where margins of staminodia are of a different

colour (Fig. 11). Based on the width of staminodia, cultivars can be

classified into two groups: Broad (5 to 7 cm.) and Narrow (3 to 5cm.)

A classification taking care of most of these characters was first sug-

gested in Gardener’s Chronicle (Anonymous 1893), later adopted by Bailey

(1909) and is still by far the best. Using this, important canna cultivars

grown in India have been classified here for the first time. As is the case

in most other ornamentals, in garden cannas also there exist too many

horticultural names. The obvious reason is that from time to time

GENETIC-EVOLUTIONARY STUDIES ON CANNAS 395

horticulturists have given new fancy names to the original varieties

perhaps to boost their sales.

With the help of Mr. S. Percy Lancaster, a veteran horticulturist of

India, attempts were made to check the names, as far as possible. Most

of the cultivars with unfamiliar names are generally the hybrids raised

by his father Mr. Percy Joseph Lancaster between 1889 and 1904 and by

him at the (Royal) Agri-Horticultural Society, Alipore, Calcutta (Khoshoo

1966).

A. C. X GENERALIS Bailey (cRozy, GLADIOLUS or FRENCH DWARF CANNAS)

I. Tall varieties (80-160 cm).

1. FOLIAGE GREEN

(i) Narrow Staminodia (3 to 5 cm.)

(a) Self coloured :

‘Aida’, ‘Electra’, ‘Sir John Anderson’, ‘ Ariel’, ‘ The Queen’,

‘ Nerissa ’, ‘ City of Portland ’, ‘ Oriole’, ‘ Mamie ’, ‘ Excelsior’.

(6) Bicoloured :

Primary hybrid II, * Doris’, ‘ King Alfred ’, ‘ Sangri La ’, ‘ Eureka ’,

‘Charmion ’, ‘ Prince Philip ’, ‘ Sirius’, ‘ Dainty Maid ’, ‘ Lorelei 2

‘ Anarkali’.

Primary hybrid IV, ‘ Goldilocks’, ‘Arjun’, ‘Queen Elizabeth’,

‘Fair Maid’, ‘ Colette’, ‘ Edith ’, ‘ Claire’.

(d) Blotched :

‘Dragon’s Tongue’, ‘ Matchless’.

(e) Margined :

Primary hybrid I, ‘ Aristrocrat’, ‘Orange King’, ‘Queen Mab’.

(ii) Broad staminodia (5 to 7 cm.)

(a) Self coloured :

‘Plume’, ‘ Pink Satin ’, ‘ Alison’, cv. 204, ‘ Lord Reading ’, ‘ Gloria ’,

‘Diana’, ‘ Afler Glow ’, ‘ Florence’.

(b) Bicoloured :

‘President’, ‘Cherub’, ‘ Olive’, ‘Dream’, ‘ Isobel’.

‘Percy Lancaster’, ‘ Goliath’, ‘ Jehangir’.

(d) Blotched :

‘Daphne’.

(e) Margined :

cv. 153, ‘ Rosamund Coles’, ‘ Louis Cayeux ’, ‘ Yellow Gal’, ‘ Car-

mine King’.

396 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

2. FOLIAGE PURPLE

(i) Narrow staminodia (3 to 5 cm.)

(a) Self coloured :

Primary hybrid III, ‘ Bridal Veil’, ‘Ai Petzi’, ‘Brocade’, ‘ Lord

Buddha’.

(b) Bicoloured :

‘Barbara’; * Julia 2:

‘ Rajaji’, ‘Bo Peep’.

(ii) Broad staminodia (5 to 7 cm.)

Self coloured :

‘Sun Set’, ‘ Stromboli’, ‘ Atom bomb’, ‘ Raj Mahal’.

Il. Dwarf varieties (50 to 80 cm.)

1. FOLIAGE GREEN

(i) Narrow Staminodia (3 to 5 cm.)

(a) Self coloured :

‘ Janet’, ‘ Professor Thacker’, ‘ Soldier Boy ’, cv. 3, ‘ Perfection’,

‘Golden Standard’.

(b) Bicoloured :

‘Imperator’, ‘ Sweet Heart’, ‘ Morning Glow ’.

‘Gladiator’, ‘ Louise’, ‘ Ethel’, ‘ Heart’s Desire’, ‘ Aileen ’.

(d) Blotched :

‘Striped Queen’.

(e) Margined :

cy. 196, ‘ Star of India’, ‘ Masterpiece’.

(ii) Broad Staminodia (5 to 7 cm.)

(a) Self coloured :

‘Sans Souci’.

(b) Bicoloured :

‘Enchantress’, ‘ Angel’s Robe’.

2. FOLIAGE PURPLE

(i) Broad Staminodia.

Self coloured :

‘Black Knight’, ‘ Aga Khan’, ‘ Rose Queen’.

B. C. X ORCHIODES Bailey (ITALIAN, IRIS, ORCHID Of GIANT FLOWERED CANNAS)

I. Tall varieties (80-160 cm.)

1. FOLIAGE GREEN

(ii) Broad Staminodia

(a) Self coloured :

‘Bharat ’, ‘ Wintzer’s Colossal’, *‘ Indiana’.

GENETIC-EVOLUTIONARY STUDIES ON CANNAS 397

(b) Bicoloured :

‘New Red’, ‘ Flaccida-type’.

‘Queen of Italy’.

ll. Dwarf varieties (50-80 cm.)

1. FOLIAGE GREEN

(i) Narrow Staminodia (3 to 5 cm.)

(a) Self coloured :

‘Trinacria Variegata’.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Our thanks are due to Mr. S. Percy Lancaster, ex-Senior Technical

Assistant for help with the names of the cultivars, to Director, Royal

Botanic Gardens, Kew, for lending authentic herbarium material of the

five elemental species and to Mr. A. K. Sen Gupta and Mr. 'S. S. Rana

for preparing the illustrations.

REFERENCES

ANONYMOUS (1893) : The florists’ can-

nas. Gdnr’s. Chron. Oct., 7 : 432.

Bamey, L. H. (1909): Cyclopedia of

American Horticulture. Macmillan

Company, New York.

——— (1947): Manual of culti-

vated Plants. Macmillan Company, New

York. Son

BuckLey, A. R. (1968): Majestic

Cannas. Gdnr’s. Chron. March, 15 : 163.

DARLINGTON, C. D., Harr, J. B. &

Hurcomse, R. (1951): The History of

the Garden Hyacinths. Heredity 5:

233-252. ms

GRANT, V. (1953) : The role of hybridi-

zation in the evolution of the leafy

stemmed gilias. Evolution7 : 51-64.

— (1957): The plant species in

theory and practice. The species prob-

lem, E. Mayr. Ed. Amer. Assoc. Adv.

Publ. 50 : 39-79.

KuosHoo, T. N. (1966): Percy Lan-

casters—Doyens in Indian Horticulture.

Indian Hort. 10: 13-14.

KuosHoo, T. N. & MUKHERJEE, I.

(1970a) : Genetic-evolutionary studies on

cultivated Cannas. III: Variation in

Meiotic system. La Cellule. (In Press).

KuHosHoo, T. N. & MUKHERJEE, I

(1970b) : Genetic-evolutionary studies on

cultivated Cannas, VI: Origin and evo-

lution. Theoret. Appl. Genet. 40:

204-217.

MUKHERJEE, I. & KHoSHOO, T. N.

(1969): The origin and evolution of

gardenpansy. The Nucleus. 12 : 178-186.

———— (1970a): Genetic-evolu-

tionary studies on cultivated Cannas.

I: Variation in phenotype. Proc. nat.

Inst. Sci. 36B. (In Press).

(1970b): Genetic-evolu-

tionary studies on cultivated Cannas.

II: Pollination mechanism and_ breed-

ing system. ibid. (In Press).

(1970c): Genetic-evolu-

tionary studies on cultivated Cannas.

IV: Parallelism between natural and

induced somatic mutations. Rad. Bot.

10 : 351-364.

— (1970d): Genetic-evolu-

tionary studies on cultivated Cannas.

V. Intraspecific polyploidy in starch

yielding Canna edulis. Genet. Iber. (In

Press).

Percy LANCASTER, S. (1957): Canna.

Bull. nat. Bot. Gdns. Lucknow. No. 3.

Analogous Bioclimates and

introduction of Economic Exotics

V. M. MEHER-HOoMII

Institut Francais, Pondicherry

(With nine text-figures)

The methods generally used to derive the climatic analogies are reviewed

and the results obtained by Thornthwaite’s system by previous workers are

critically analysed. The bioclimatic methods of Gaussen are developed to

establish the homoclimatic counterparts of the stations of the dry tracts of

the Indian sub-continent.

INTRODUCTION

Bioclimate may be defined as the climate in relation to life. One of

the aims of applied bioclimatology is to establish the analogous climates

of the world for the exchange of economic plants. The need for the

introduction of more food-, fruit-crops and those providing raw materials

for industries is at the moment more pressing than ever.

Although India is rich in timber species, introduction of some woods

of special quality is desirable. For instance, the wood of Ocotea

rodiaei Mex. is very uSeful in sub-marine construction as it resists the

attack of the marine worm Teredo. Ochroma lagopus Swartz. has a

very light wood used in the construction of aeroplanes. Both these

species are natives of tropical America and they may be successfully

tried in suitable parts of peninsular India. This part of the sub-con-

tinent suffers from the scarcity of conifers too ; trials of pines of S.E.

Asia and Central America (Pinus merkusii Jung., P. insularis Endle.,

P. tropicalis More., P. occidentalis Swartz., P. montezumae Lamb. etc.)

may yield encouraging results.

It is on record that an economic species has become better established

in the country of its introduction than in its indigenous area. Zanzibar

is the principal producer of the clove (followed by Penang, Madagascar

and Indonesia) though the original home of the clove tree [Eugenia

caryophyllus (Spreng.) Bullock and Harrison] is the Moluccas. The

rubber tree (Hevea brasiliensis Muell) transported from S. America to

Malaysia, helped towards the unemployment problem. The local labour

being insufficient, it brought about migrations from India and China.

ANALOGOUS BIOCLIMATES 399

One can go on multiplying examples of such economic plants which may

be profitably introduced in the Indian sub-continent with its wide range

of climates (see Meher-Homji 1963).

Attempts made to derive the homoclimates may be grouped into

three categories :

(1) Physical and meteorological methods using climatic formulae,

indices and coefficients.

(2) Diagrammatic representations, examples : hydrothermic figure

(Raunkiaer 1908), clima-diagram (Chaptal 1933), agro-climate diagram

(Azzi 1954), hythergraph (Taylor 1920a, b), ombrothermic diagram

(Bagnouls & Gaussen 1953) and the modified version of the latter * klima-

diagramme ’ (Walter 1955a, b).

(3) Biological criteria to reflect the climatic analogies : (a) floris-

tic (systematic, floral elements) ; (5) ecological (hydrophyte, xerophyte

in relation to water ; megatherms, microtherms for temperature ; helio-

phyte, sciaphyte for light) ; (c) vegetational [growth-forms of Humboldt

(1805) and Grisebach (1884) ; life-forms of Raunkiaer (1908), physiog-

nomy and structure]. Of all these biological criteria, only the vegetation

types based on the characteristics of physiognomy and structure are

shown to reflect the climatic similitudes (Meher-Homji 1963).

In the first category may be cited the formulae of Transeau (1905),

Penck (1910), Koppen (1900, 1918), Lang (1920), de Martonne (1926)

and Thornthwaite (1933, 1948) among others. Only the later work

of Thornthwaite has been frequently used to derive the climatic homo-

logies; Nuttonson (1947a, b, c, 1951) has used it to seek climatic ana-

logies between parts of Asia, Europe and North America; Melwyn

Howe (1960), Kaushik et al. (1969) and Subrahmanyam & Sastry

(1969) have applied the method to establish the homoclimatic counter-

parts of certain stations of India.

COMMENTS ON RESULTS OBTAINED BY THORNTHWAITE’S METHOD

None of the above formulae have given absolutely satisfactory results

to explain the vegetation types of India (Bharucha & Shanbhag 1957;

Meher-Homji 1963, 1967).

Some analogies are Adee ble in the works of the followers of

Thornthwaite’s system.

(1) Melwyn Howe (1960) on the homoclimes within the British

Commonwealth.

~ (a) In the prehumid climate with little or no water deficiency

(Ar), certain tropical stations of India and Ceylon, Ootacamund and

Rangalla for example, are shown to have the same formula (B’, a) as

Buxton (England) and Clayoquot (British Columbia), stations having

a temperate climate.

400 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

In the opinion of this author, the altitude of Ootacamund may com-

pensate the latitude factor for the temperature, at least partly, but not

for the photoperiod.

(b) In the humid climate (Bir) with little or no water deficiency,

it is surprising to see a dry station like Karachi placed together with

Gauhati (India), Kuala Lumpur (Malaysia) and Belize (Honduras).

Peshawar having an irregular regime of rains are classified together

(A’ a’).

(2) Kaushik et al. (1969) on the homoclimates of the arid and semi-

arid zones of India.

(a) Sri Ganganagar is equated to Dera Ismail Khan, Khushab and

Lyallpur (arid Ed, second megathermal climate A’ 2’).

However, the last two stations have 10 months dry and 257 to 266

biologically dry days. Sri Ganganagar has 11 months dry with 280

dry days and Dera Ismail Khan 12 months dry with 300 biologically

dry days, according to the classification of Bagnouls & Gaussen (1957).

Further, the ratio of the cold season (Nov. to March) precipitation

to that of the hot season (May-Sept.) is 1 : 3-4 for Sri Ganganagar and

Khushab, whereas 1:5 for Lyallpur and 1:2 for Dera Ismail Khan ;

this low ratio suggests an irregular regime for Dera Ismail Khan (62 mm.

of winter and spring rains ; 137 mm. of summer rains). For the remain-

ing stations, the ratios indicate a tropical tendency.

(b) In the third megathermal (A’ 3) type, Sirsa and Hissar (a2’)

are compared to Sibi, Multan, Montgomery, Jacobabad, Sukkur of

West Pakistan and Insalah of Algeria.

The contrasting points are:

—Hissar has an annual average rainfall of 425 mm. but Tacobabadl

Sukkur and Insalah receive less than 100 mm. and Sibi 117 mm.

—Hissar has 9 months dry with 237 biologically dry days ; except-

ing Montgomery (11 months dry), the remaining stations experience a

dryness of 12 months (with over 290 days biologically dry). Insalah

may not receive any rain certain years and is classified as true desertic

by Emberger, Gaussen et al. (1962-63) with over 355 dry days. Hissar —

on the other hand is shown as subdesertic with tropical régime.

Tropical tendency is also observed for Multan, Montgomery, Jacob-

abad and Sukkur but not for Sibi having 64 mm. of summer precipi-

tation against 59 mm. of winter and spring (irregular régime).

1 Thermic amplitude i.e. the difference between the mean temperature of the hot

test and the coldest months is very low (about 4°C) for the altitudinal stations of

south India ; it is about 15°C for the stations of temperate latitude. On the other

hand, the diurnal range of temperature is very important for the tropical montane

stations.

ANALOGOUS BIOCLIMATES 401

Bela, Ormara, Hyderabad (W. Pakistan), Wadi Halfa and Bilma are

placed together.

OMBROTHERMIC DIAGRAMS

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ANALOGOUS BIOCLIMATES 403

As a matter of fact, Wadi Halfa (Sudan) and Bilma (W. Africa)

have a true desertic climate with 360 biologically dry days like Insalah

(Emberger, Gaussen etal. 1962-63). Ormara shows mediterranean tendency

with 117 mm. (i.e. 76% of total rainfall) in winter and spring, and just

20 mm. (13%) in summer. Jodhpur comes near Hissar—subdesertic

with tropical tendency (9 months dry, 262 dry days).

Were it not for the régime, the olive tree (Olea europaea L.) of the sub-

desertic parts of North Africa (with mediterranean climate) would thrive

in the dry parts of Rajasthan.

(d) In the fifth megathermal class (A’ 5), the analogy pointed out

between Bellary and Aden is too far fetched. Bellary has an annual

average rainfall of 509 mm. whereas Aden receives only 44 mm.

(3) Subrahmanyam & Sastry’s (1969) climatic analogues for the dry

zone of India.

(a) Nagpur is classified in the category of dry sub-humid climate

(C,) having no adequacy of moisture at any time of the year (C, d) but

Seoni situated in the vicinity of Nagpur is placed in the category of

large summer water surpluses (C,; W.). However, the total of the ave-

rage April-October rainfall is hardly about 100 mm. more for Seoni

(1278 mm., as against 1180 mm. of Nagpur).

The differences in the temperature of these months are also not marked.

At Seoni the mean monthly temperature varies from 24°C (October)

to 32°C (May) and at Nagpur from 26°5°C (Oct.) to 35°3°C (May).

Besides the vegetation in the Nagpur-Seoni tract is of the same type,—a

dry deciduous teak forest.

(b) Visakhapatnam and Coimbatore are both classified together

in the semi-arid climate (Dd, A’ 4, a’ 9), though the former has 962 mm.

of annual rainfall and 6 months dry and the latter only 590 mm. and

as many as 9 months dry.

Jaffna of Ceylon (tropical dissymetric), Halfeka, Cyprus (Mediter-

ranean) and Cambridge, England (temperate-atlantic) in the class C, S,

(large winter water surplus) is unfortunate.

BIOCLIMATIC METHODS

One of the simplest methods to bring out analogous climates would

be to compare the curves of mean monthly precipitation and tempera-

ture of various stations on a graph. The greater the resemblance in

the graphs, the more analogous would be the climates. Some examples

are provided in Figs. 1 to 8. The similarity in the pairs of diagrams is

striking ; the diagram on the left belongs to a station of the Indian sub-

continent, that on the right is a station of another country.

404. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

These graphs are in fact the ombrothermic diagrams of Bagnouls &

Gaussen (1953). The abscissa bears January as the first month for the

stations of the northern hemisphere but July for the southern hemis-

phere. Thus the stations are rendered comparable between the two

hemispheres. The dry period is also depicted on the diagram by hatches

according to the definition of these authors that a month is dry when

its average precipitation (in mm.) is less than twice its mean tempera-

ture (in °C): P<2T. The precipitation and temperature values are

the results of the averages of several years and so of course the inter-

yearly variability which may be important in certain cases is not con-

sidered. Another disadvantage of comparison of climates by diagrams

is that only relatively few stations show a strict similarity in the preci-

pitation and temperature curves. Therefore analogy by means of diag-

rams alone is not possible and there arises the need of a classification.

Bagnouls & Gaussen’s (1957) classification of biological climates is

presented in a diagrammatic form by this author in Fig. 9. Within the

framework of this broad classification based mainly on the rhythms of

precipitation and temperature, a further climatic analogy may be reached

by resemblances in the temperature, rainfall and length of the dry season

classes.

The factor of temperature is indicated by the letter (t). Gaussen

(1949) distinguishes 6 principal classes of temperature on the basis of

the mean temperature of the coldest month (m) of the year which is a

limiting factor for the vegetation, or of the hottest month (M) of the

year. The values of the classes of temperature modified from those of

Gaussen are given below:

ty > M<10°€

tips ca 0. ats Se

5 > M=10°C. m=—S'C

ts > —5<m<0°C

[ed Oa WEG ele

ta -10=—m= 15; €

tg nu 3 lS) =m 22036

te > m>20°C. Mean annual <30°C

t, : Mean annual > 30°C

The factor of precipitation is designated by the letter ‘S’ andits values

as modified from the scale of Gaussen (l.c.) are:

S4 : > 3000 mm. of annual precipitation

Sig: 2500 to 3000 mm. of annual precipitation

Se 5; 2000: to, 2500 G3 alle 4 oe 4

Sargict 210 1500.to 2000 47; eae tind. bs

S$, = 4250/0 15008. 15 ean

ANALOGOUS BIOCLIMATES 405

Ss, : 1000 to 1250 mm. of annual precipitation

Sa rub SU tool OOO Bea se om

Sen 2 OUUtO 750. wee ey es al

Ss e250 10 S00 ee een ae x

Sere a LOU Lor 2 Oi esr are a

Se : Sele ae 2) Swern ie

The dry period is indicated by the letter ‘X’. The dryness is expressed

in number of dry months (P<2T). The values ofthe classes of ‘X’ are:

Xy : 1 month dry

Mie 12 months dry

Xo aie is +

Xo 3 : 4 ) 99

Xz > ike ieee Rs

CE Ri Geary -

X4 7 fee ee a

Mics eie .o ” »

X; ae Owens es

Depend | Onin 7

Xe : 11 to 12 months dry

In the cold climates, the frost period should also be taken into account.

Results obtained with reference to the dry tract of the Indian sub-continent

The above bioclimatic methods are applied here to bring out those

stations of the world which have climates analogous to the stations of

the dry tracts of the sub-continent (Table 1). Evidently the dry bio-

climates fall within several categories (desertic, subdesertic with tropi-

cal, mediterranean, irregular régimes ; mediterranean and tropical accen-

tuated types with 7 to 8 months dry) as may be seen in Table 1.

In the first column of this Table is presented the bioclimate accord-

ing to the biological classification of climates of Bagnouls & Gaussen

(1957) and in the second column the value of each ecological factor.

Stations and their respective countries figure in columns 3 and 4. Lati-

tude, longitude form columns 5-6. The latitude factor is of particular

interest as a representative of the photoperiod ; it may account both

for the intensity and duration of light. In the last column is presented

the vegetation type of the station according to Champion (1936) for the

stations of the Indian sub-continent and according to Schimper & Von

Faber (1935) and Dansereau (1957) for the other stations.

Stations falling within the same biological climate (or bioclimate)

imply a general analogy. Further precision is given by the values of

the temperature, precipitation and the length of the dry season classes

pointing out the degrees of similitude.

406 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

TABLE 1

BIOCLIMATES OF THE STATIONS OF THE DRY TRACTS OF THE INDIAN SUB-CONTINENT

AND STATIONS HAVING ANALOGOUS BIOCLIMATES IN THE WORLD

Value of

Bioclimate each :

ecological Stationt Country Latitude Longitude Vege-

factor tation

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)

Hot desertic t, Sg Xg Nokkundi W. Pakis- 28°49’N 62°45’E Desert

with medi- tan

terranean ‘ Helwan UAR 29°52 NG 43 20d f.

tendency - Abbasia . th 30° S“N: 31° A7E Lf

(winter pa As Sal- Iraq 30° S’N 44° 3’E Semi-

rains) man desert

iiig 16 Oe Lima Peru 12° 05’S. 77° 03’W__ Desert

te Ss;5 X¢ Massaoua Erytrea 15°36’N 39° 27’E x

Hot desertic ts3;4 Ss1g Xe El Paso USA 31° 47’"N_ 106° 30’W a

with tro- ee Mendoza Argen- 32° 53’S_ 68° 50’W a

pical ten- tina

dency Fe Gilgit Kashmir 35°55’N_ 74° 23’E i

(Summer

rains)

t, Ssr6 Xe Baha- W.Pakis- 29° 24’N 71° 47’E a

walpur tan

Rs Khanpur aa 28° 39’N 70° 41’E ve

an Multan BA 30° 12’N 70° 31’E Thorn

forest

ta Se Xe Aas = 28° 17’N_ 68° 27’E Desert

tays-Ssig6 Xe Las Bela s 26° 14’°N_ 66° 19’E i

tips Se. Ne) OUKKUF ue 27° 47’N_ 68° 54’E .

2 Fort Mauri- 22° 41’N_ 12° 42’W -

Gouraud tania

t; OG Ne ‘Haya Tchad 18° 00’N__17° 10’W a3

Largeau

Hot desertic ts;4 Ss;¢ Xe Puerto- Argen- 43° 15'S.) 65° 22’W__ Desert

rains with- Madryn tina

out sea- 95 Las Vegas Nevada, 36° 10’N 115° 10’W ,,

sonal USA

rhythm t, Se GXeis Alice= Australia 23° 38’S 133°37’E Scrub

Springs

tz Ssr¢ Xe Metlaoui Tunisia 34°20’N 8° 22’E Desert

ne Ouled- Algeria 34°25’°N = 55° 04’E Fr

Djellal

bs Sibi W.Pakis- 29° 33’N 67° 53’E *

tan

i Panjgour ms 26° 58’N_ 64° 06’E a

wa Dera $s 31° 49’N 70° 55’E -

Ismail

Khan

“A Tucson Arizona, 32°15’N 110°57’'W _ ,,

USA

af ee Australia 30° 45’S 121° 3’E Scrub

t, Ss Xg Swakop- S.W. 22° 42’S__ 14° 32’E__— Desert

mund Africa

ANALOGOUS BIOCLIMATES

407.

PT EI TEE I PTL LE ELIE EE SSE LP SE OE SLY 2 SED EE SE TPR SSE SATO,

Value of

each

Bioclimate ecological

factor

(1) (2)

te Ss Xe

tajs Se X¢

t; Ss Xe

Hot-sub- tsj4 S. Xs

desertic

with medi- tsa Se Xe

terranean

tendency ,

ty Sse Xs

ts S56 Xsre

ta Sse Xe

t, Ss a

tars Sore Xsv6

tals Ss/e Xe

ts Ss) 6 X56

Hot sub-de-

sertic with t3,4 Ss

tropical

tendency

tore Ss/ 6 »

t, Sars X;

ts S; Xs

Xs5/6

Station! Country Latitude

(3) (4) (5)

Mossa- Angola £52. 12°S

medes

Taman- Algeria 22° 50’N

rasset

Yuma Arizona, 32° 45’N

USA

Port Mauri- | 20° 56’N

Etienne ‘tania

Aden Arabia 12° 46’N

Lamba- Peru 6° 43'S

yeque

Krasno- USSR 40° 09’N

vodsk

Dalban- W.Pakis- 28° 54’N

din tan

Zahedan Iran 29° 30’N

Beer- Israel 31° 15’N

sheba

Almeria Spain 36° 50’N

Baghdad Iraq 33° 20’N

Alexan- UAR 31° 12’N

dria

Broken Australia 31°57’S

Hill

Jéricho Jordan 31°%-527Ni

O’okiep S.Africa 29° 36’S

Punta Tor- Chili 29° 5548

tuga

Ormara W. Pakis- 25° 15’N

tan

Pasni = 25° 16’N

Iranchere Iran 21° 13’°N

Souakin Sudan 19° 0O7’N

Bannu W.Pakis- 33°00’N

tan

Santa Argentina 26° 41’S

Maria

Agra India 27° 10’N

Cata- Argentina 28° 29’S

marca

Fort Tuli Rhodesia 21° 52’S

Rehoboth S.West 23° 19’S

Africa

Hissar India 29° 10’N

Lyallpur W.Pakis- 31° 26’N

tan

Khushab = 32° 18’N

Omaruru_ S. West

Africa

Longitude Vege-

(6)

12° 09’E

Se Sl B

114° 36’W

17° 03’W

45° 3’E

Toe 54°W

52,999 E

64° 26’E

60° 52’"E

34° 43’E

2° 26’W

44° 20’E

Oe our

141° 30’E

35728 E

17° 52’E

TAS 22 .W

64° 39’E

63° 28’E

60° 42’E

37° 20’E

70° 36’E

66° 40’W

78° 02’E

65° 44’W

29° 12’E

iWin Nee

65° 44’E

73° 04’E

72° 22’E

21° 35’S Jf 18° 13’E

tation ©

(7)

Desert

99°

Semi-

desert

Desert

Steppe

Scrub

Semi-

desert

Scrub

Desert

Scrub

Desert

Semi-

desert

Dry sub-

tropical

forest

Scrub

Thorn

forest

Scrub

Savanna

Scrub

Thorn

forest

Scrub

408

Hot

Bioclimate

(1)

desertic

without

seasonal

rhythm

each

ecological

factor

(2)

tz S; Xe

te Ssr6 Xe

tars Sa X5

tars Sals Xs

tars Ss Xs

9°

ters Ss X56

tals Ss Xs/6

tals S56 Xe

5 Sais Xs

ts Ss X516

sub- tsa S; Xs5

Value of

Sri

Station?

(3)

Gan-

ganagar

Mont-

gomery

Arequipa

Mazatlan

Kotah

Ajmer

Jaipur

Main-

puri

Jam-

nagar

Jodhpur

Barmer

Bikaner

Bhuj

El-Fasher

Hydera-

bad

Badin

Karachi

Kidal

Diourbel

Baroma

Lome

Fort

Lamy

Deesa

Bellary

Elobeid

Abécher

St. Louis

Joco-

Capelo

Dwarka

Tulear

Nouak-

chott

Khar-

toum

Roswell

Country

(4)

India

W.Pakis-

tan

Peru

Mexico

India

Sudan

W.Pakis-

tan

Sudan

Senegal

Mozam-

bique

Togo

Tchad

India

Sudan

Tchad

Senegal

Angola

India

Mada-

gascar

Mauri-

tania

Sudan

New

- Mexico,

USA

W.Pakis-

tan

Latitude

(5)

29 SN

30° 39’N

16° 22’S

235 124N

25° 11’N

26° 27'N

26°55 aN

27° 14’N

22° 29'N

26° 18’N

25° 45’N

28° O1’N

23° 15’N

137°28N

2D) 204N

24° 38’N

24° 48’N

18° 26’N

14° 50’N

16° O'S

6° O7’N

12° 10’N

24° 14’N

15° 09’N

Mere TUE i)

13° 49’N

16° O1’N

8° 48'S

22° 22'N

23° 20'S

18° O7’N

Std a3 7aN

33° 24’N

S12 9aN

Longitude

(6)

73°93 E

73° 08’E

71 33'E

-106° 25’W

TS” WE

74° 37'E

13° 0E

79° 03’E

70° 04’E

73° O1E

Ae 230

73° 18’E

69° 48’E

Dies pall Ves

68° 25/E

68° 54’E

66° 59’E

1° 227E

16° 09’W

33° 12°E

1° 14’E

14° 60’E

12° 9218

76° 51’E

25> 216E

20° 51’E

16° 30’W -

13° 1378

69° 05’E

43° 41’E

15° 56’W

32° 33°E

104° 33’W

69° 27’E

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

Vege-

tation

(7)

Desert

Thorn

forest

Desert

Scrub

Thorn

forest

Thorn

forest

Scrub

Thorn

forest

Semi-

desert

Savanna

Thorn

forest

Scrub

99 4

Savanna

9% y)

Thorn |

forest

Scrub

Semi-

desert

Desert

Steppe

Dry sub-

tropical

forest

ANALOGOUS BIOCLIMATES 409

Fane eR IRE MIN ART eh

Value of

amobim

each

Bioclimate ecological Station' Country Latitude Longitude Vege-

factor tation

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)

Dry-Sub-

tsa Ss Xs516 Miran- W. Pakis- 33°57’N 70° 07’E tropical

shah tan forest

tla Ramee iow yAulis Algeria 32° 45’N 0° 35’W Semi-

Sefra desert

te eS eis Lahore W.Pakis- 31°35’N 74° 20’E Thorn

tan forest

od Peshawar 34° O1’N 71° 35’E Dry sub-

tropical

forest

~ St. Luis- Mexico 22° 9’N 101°01’W Scrub

Potosi

- Cool- Australia 30°57’S 121° 10’E xf

gardie

ts ‘Ssig Xe Phoenix Arizona, 33° 28’N 112° O’W Semi-

USA desert

tere OR OX Ghinda __ Erytrea 15° 26’N 39°07’E Scrub

ts Sars Xs Coimba- India 11°00’N 76° 58’E Thorn

tore forest

Ue aR Os Bardera Somalia 2° 30’N 42° 53’E Scrub

Mediterra- 3,4 Ssrg Xa El-Kan- Algeria 31° 13’N 32° 43’E Semi-

nean tara desert

accentua- AJ Matmata Tunisia 33° 37’N =9° 54’E_ ‘Scrub

ted

(7-8

months es Teheran Iran 35° 42’N 51° 25’E Semi-

dry) desert

“ Santa- Argentina 50° 1’S 68° 32’W_ Steppe

Cruz

ty4 Ss Xs Wana W.Pakis- 32° 18’N 69° 44’E Dry sub-

tan tropical

forest

if Dizfoul Iran 32° 25’N 48° 35’E Semi-

desert

tg) ry Ss) 6 X4) 5 Deitr-es- Syria 35° 20’N 40° 11’E Scrub

Zor

AS Kalat W.Pakis- 29°02’N 66° 35’E Dry sub-

tan tropical

forest

bo Quetta Fe 30° 10’N_ 67° O1’E es

a Chaman oe 30° 55’N_ 66° 28’E

- Fresno Califor- 36° 41’N 119° 47’W Semi-

nia, USA desert

i. Kerman Iran 30° 03’N 57° 02’E Ba

Ps Sar- Argen- 45° 35'S. 69° 4"W_ Steppe

miento tina

Tropical ts S, Xa5 Soalala Madagas- 16°04’S 45°20’E Savanna

accentua- car

ted (7-8 os Maroua Came- 10°35’N_ 14° 20’E =

months roons

dry) a Kaolack Senegal 14°02’N 16° 04’W 35

. Kayes Sudan 14° 25’N_ 11° 34’W Bs

is Pamban India 9° 16° Ni an (9015- Bs obhorn

forest

* Quixer- - Brazil 5° 12’S 39° 18’W_ Scrub

410 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

Value of

each

Bioclimate ecological Station! Country Latitude Longitude Vege-

factor tation

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)

ts Sas X4 Ahmed- India 19°05’N 74°55’E Thorn

nagar forest

ae Sholapur is 17° 40’N 75° 54’E a

cs Poona re 18°°32’N-. 7351 E a

Mf Bijapur a8 16° 49°N’ 75° 43%E rs

si Gulburga a 17°21’N 76° 51’E «

i Raichur at 16° 124N 77-01 Ke

* Kurnool ie 15°50’N_ 78° 04’E ip

i Gadag a 155.250N) ge Soc “ts

A Hydera- - 17°26’ N 78°27’ E ie

bad (Dn)

ah Miraj oy 16°49’N 74°41’E ue

a Renti- eH 16° 33’N 79° 33’E Ns

chintala

5 Betioky Mada- 21° 30’S 44°26’E Scrub

gascar

ts Sars Xafs Matam Senegal 15°38’N 13°13’W Savanna

= Segou Sudan 13° 30’N_ 6° 15’W nh

bs Dohad India 22° 50’N 74°16’E Thorn

forest —

5 Rajkot Ne 22° 18’N_ 70° 50’E 55

. Veraval fe 20755° N 707228 3

a Bhav- a 21° 45°N” 72° 128

nagar

a Malegaon mn 20° 33’N_ 74° 32’E 5

- Ahmeda- i 23 024N Vai 2eore

bad

- Auranga- 19° 53’N 75° 20’E

bad

te Sas Xa5 Niamey Nigeria 13°30’N 2°06’E Savanna

Meso- thon DXaie Aligarh India 27°53’N_ 78° 04’E Thorn

tropical forest

accentuated tg Sais Xa Bulawayo Rhodesia 20°9’S 28°40’E Savanna

(7-8 months

_ dry) s Monter- Mexico 25°40’N_ 100° 18’W Scrub

rey

ip Zacatecas Xi: 22° 58’N___ 102° 19’W zB

ow | Salta Argen- 24° 47’S 65° 25’W a

tina

ta Sars Xays New India 28° 35’N 77° 12’E Thorn-

BS Delhi forest

Léon Mexico 21°7’N~ 101°41’W Scrub

t, Ss X, Mahala- Bechuana- 23°6’S 26° 40’E as

pya land

WAS She Ane Wind- S.West 22° 34S WWAi2zZe pas

hoek Africa

1The stations of the Indian sub-continent are in italics.

The Climatological Tables of Observatories in India, World Weather Records—

Smithsonian Misc. Publications and Annales des Services Météorologiques de la

France d’ Outre-Mer are the main sources of the climatic data.

ANALOGOUS BIOCLIMATES 411

It ensues from this Table 1 that the vegetation in the hot desertic

climate is predominantly of a desertic type, 30 out of 34 stations pos-

sessing this type, the remaining few having semi-desert, scrub or thorn

forest. More than half the number of stations in the hot subdesertic

climate have either thorn forest (22 stations) or its physiognomically

allied type the scrub (17 stations). The difference between thorn forest

and scrub is mainly one of the nomenclature. The remaining types

are desert, semi-desert, savanna and steppe.

In the mediterranean accentuated climate, there are 5 stations having

semi-desert, 4 having dry subtropical forest and 2 each having steppe

and scrub. In the tropical and meso-tropical accentuated type there

are 21 thorn forest stations, and 8 each of savanna and scrub. The

difference in the land-use may account for the existence of thorn forest

in India and savanna in Africa under the same bioclimate. In other

cases the soils may intervene in deciding the vegetation.

CONCLUDING REMARKS

Further work on analogous bioclimates is in progress. It is essen-

tial to recognise stable and unstable climates and the variability in the

climatic elements of the latter type where the climate of a given year

may not be comparable in rainfall amount, régime and distribution to

that derived from the figures of averages.

It may also be remembered that bioclimate is only a part of the com-

plete ecology of a species. For the introduction of exotics, a study of

the total ecological requirements of the species is indispensable. This

includes not only the edaphic factors but also the biotic ones. The

vanilla orchid (Vanilla planifolia Andrews) when planted in the Reunion

Island grew well but did not fructify naturally in the absence of the

pollinating insect from its native Central America.

In the framework of climate, the critical factor involved in deter-

mining the area of a species may not be an apparent one. For instance,

teak (Tectona grandis L.f.) has quite a broad amplitude for the rainfall

conditions : 750 to 2500 mm. of annual rainfall, length of dry season

of 4 to 8 months and mean temperature of the coldest month from 15

to over 20°C ; yet it is absent on the Coromandel coast where con-

ditions well within these amplitudes are obtained. However, the season

of occurrence of rains in this belt is quite peculiar (dissymetric) and teak

disappears from those regions of southern India where May and/or

June rains are very poor (Legris & Meher-Homji 1968).

In the distribution of sal (Shorea robusta Gaertn.) the crucial fac-

tor is the timely arrival of rains for the germination of seeds which have

a very short period of viability. Nursery practices overcome such

difficulties in artificial plantations.

412 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

Finally, the soil factor may intervene to compensate the climate

and may result in imparting a wide distributional range to the species.

Cassia auriculata L. thrives on the black clayey cotton soils of the semi-

arid Deccan where annual rainfall is of the order of 700 mm. with 7

to 8 months dry. In the coastal region of Tamil Nadu with a more

humid climate (rainfall over 1000 mm. ; 6 months dry), C. auriculata is

encountered on the less water retentive sandy loamy soils. Soymida

febrifuga Juss. occupies wet sites (valleys) in a dry region like Sariska

in N.E. Rajasthan ; in humid tracts of Orissa and Bihar it grows on

eroded localities. In the mediterranean climate of France, the holly

oak (Quercus ilex L.) is indifferent in its edaphic requirements but in

the wetter atlantic climate it occurs only on calcareous soil which pro-

vides a dry substratum, and on warmer southern slopes.

REFERENCES

Azz, G. (1954): Ecologie agricole.

J. Balliére et fils, Paris.

BAGNOULS, F. & GAuSSEN, H. (1953):

Saison seche et régime xérothermique.

Documents pour les cartes des produc-

tions végétales. t. III, vol. I, art 8, 47 p.

Toulouse.

(1957): Les climats biologi-

ques et leurs classification. Ann. de

Géogr. 355: 193-220.

BHARUCHA, F. R. & SHANBHAG, G. Y.

(1957) : Precipitation effectiveness in rela-

tion to the vegetation of India, Pakistan

and Burma. Bot. Mem. No. 3, Univer-

sity of Bombay.

CHAMPION, H. G. (1936): A prelimi-

nary survey of the forest types of

India and Burma. Indian For. Rec. 1:

1-286.

CHAPTAL, L. (1933): La

tation graphique des climats.

Assoc. Géogr. fr.

DANSEREAU, P. (1957) : Biogeography.

An ecological perspective. The Ronald

Press Co., New York.

DE MaArTONNE, E. (1926): Aréisme

et indice d’aridité. C.R.Acad. Sci. 182:

1395-1398.

EMBERGER, L. & GAUSSEN, H. ef al.

(1962-63): Carte bioclimatique de la

Région Méditerranéenne. Recherche

sur la zone aride, 22. Unesco, Paris;

FAO, Rome.

GAUSSEN, H. (1949): Projects pour

diverses cartes du monde au 1/1.000.000.

La carte écologique du tapis végétal.

Ann. Agron. t. 19: 78.

GRISEBACH, A. (1884): Die Vegeta-

tion der Erde. Bd. I und II. Leipzig.

Humso.tpt, A. (1805): Essai sur la

géographie des plantes. Paris.

représen-

Bull.

KAUSHIK, R. C., KAUL, R.N. & Sus-

RAHMANYAM, V. P. (1969) : Homoclimes

and introduction of trees and shrubs with

special reference to the arid and semi-

arid zone of India. Indian For. 95(5) :

283-292.

KOpPEN, W. (1900): Versuch einer

Klassification der Klimate vorsugs-

weise nach ihren Bezeihungen zur Pflan-

zenwelt. Geogr. Zeitschr. 6: 593-611 ;

657-679.

(1918) : Klassification der

klimate nach Temperature, Nieder-

schlag und Jahresverlauf. Peterm.

Mittel. 64 : 193-203 ; 243-248.

LANG, R. (1920): Verwitterung und

Bodenbuildung als Einfuhrung in die

Bodenkunde. Stuttgart, Schweizer-

bartsche verlagobuchlgd. 123 p.

Lecris, P. & MEHER-Homiyl, V. M.

(1968) : Vegetation maps of India. Symp.

Recent Adv. Trop. Ecol. 1: 32-41.

Varanasi.

MeHER-Homyl, V. M. (1963): Les

bioclimats du sub-continent Indien et

leurs types analogues dans le monde.

Trav. Sect. Sci. Tech. Inst. Fr. Pondi-

cherry, 7(1-2): 1-386.

———— (1967): On delimiting arid

and semi-arid climates of India. Indian

Geogr. J. 42: 1-6.

MELWYN Howe, G. (1960) : Homo-

climes within the British Commonwealth.

pngian J. Met. & Geophys. 11(3): 223-

NutTonson, M. Y. (1947a) : Ecologi-

cal crop geography of Greece and its

agroclimatic analogues in North America.

American Inst. of Crop. Ecol. Intern.

Agro. Climatol. Series, Study no. 5,

Washington.

ANALOGOUS

Nuttonson, M. Y. (1947b): Ecological

geography of Czechoslovakia and its

agro-climatic analogues in North

America. ibid. Study no. 3.

= (1947c) : Ecological crop

geography of China and its agro-climatic

analogues in North America. ibid.

Study no. 7.

———— (1951): Ecological crop

geography and field practices of Japan.

Japan’s natural vegetation and agro-

climatic analogues in North America.

ibid.

Penck, A. (1910): Versuch einer

klimaklassification auf physiologischer

grundlage. Sitz. Ber. Phys. Math. KI.

Preuss Akad. Wiss. Berlin, 236.

RAUNKIAER, C. (1908): Livsformens

Statistik Som Grundlag for biologisk

plantgeographi. Botanisk Tidsskr. 29(1).

SCHIMPER, A. F. W. & Von FABER,

F. C. (1935): Pflanzengeographie auf

physiologischer Grundlage. Fischer, Jena.

BIOCLIMATES 413

SUBRAHMANYAM, V.P. & SAstry, C.V.S.

(1969): Climatic analogues for the dry

zone of India. Trop. Ecol. 10(1) : 34-44.

TAYLOR, G. (1920a): Australian Mete

orology. Oxford.

———— (1920b): Agricultural clima-

tology of Australia. Quart. Jour. Royal

Meteor. Soc. 46.

THORNTHWAITE, C. W. (1933): The

climates of the earth. Geogr. Rev. 23:

433-440.

———— (1948): An approach to-

wards a rational classification of climate.

Geogr. Rev. 38 : 55-94.

TRANSEAU, E. (1905): Forest centres

of Eastern America. The American

Naturalist 39.

WALTER, H. (1955a): Die Klima-

gramme ais Mittel zur Beurteilung der

Klimaverhaltnisse fur Okologische, vege-

tationskundliche und landwirtschaftliche

Zwecke. Ber. der deutschschbotan.

Gesellschaft.

(1955b) : Klimadiagramm-

karte der Turkei. Ulmer Vlg. Stuttgart.

Arthropod Fauna of the nests of some

common birds in Poona, India, with

special reference to blood sucking forms

T. RAMACHANDRA RAO AND P. K. RAJAGOPALAN

Virus Research Centre, Poonat

A study of the arthropod fauna of the nests of six common birds of

Poona was made. The number of nests examined were : 56 Corvus splen-

dens, 35 Ploceus philippinus, 14 Acridotheres tristis, 4 Passer domesticus,

4 Hirundo concolor and one Copsychus saularis. All the arthropods

collected were classified and the frequency of their occurrence and

number collected were recorded. The blood sucking forms received |

special attention. Those collected were: Mites:—Ornithonyssus bursa,

and a new species of Pellonyssus of the family Dermanyssidae and two

species of Laelaps of the family Laelaptidae ; Ticks :—one species each

of Haemaphysalis and Argas ; Diptera :—Four species of Culicoides and

one species of Sandfly (Sergentomyia); one louse and two species of

anthocorid bugs.

The factors governing the association of these blood sucking forms

and the avian hosts are discussed. Mites were the most abundant among

the arthropods collected. While crow nests harboured both the common

species, viz. O. bursa and Pellonyssus, weaverbird nests did not, except

for a solitary specimen, have Ornithonyssus.

INTRODUCTION

It is well known that nests of birds harbour a rich and varied arthropod

fauna. Though naturalists including those in India, have often been

attracted by them there have been till recently few studies exclusively

)

devoted to them. Most of the observations of the fauna of bird nests ©

have been stray ones made in connection with the habits of the birds —

concerned. Woodroffe (1953) made an outstanding contribution to the |

subject by his study of the insects and mites in the nests of some birds

in Great Britain and by presenting a useful bibliography. He has also |

critically reviewed the important work of Nordberg (1936) in Finland,

which had been completely overlooked by other workers. A brief but

very informative review has also been made by Rothschild & Clay

(1952): i

While nests of birds offer to the zoologist an interesting ecological |

niche to study the inter-relationships between birds, their ectoparasites |

1 The Virus Research Centre was, jointly maintained by the Indian Council of

M edical Research and the Rockefeller Foundation at the time this study was made.

ARTHROPOD FAUNA OF BIRD NESTS 415

and other nest-inhabiting fauna, they provide the medical research workers

with a convenient place to look into for the probable arthropod vectors

of diseases of man and animals, particularly of those diseases in the epide-

miology of which birds have a role. The observations recorded in this

paper were made in the course of a wider study of the ectoparasites of

birds in connection with virological investigations in India.

The main objective of these studies was to determine the blood suck-

ing arthropods associated with birds and their fledglings within their

nests. While the other arthropods collected were also enumerated and

preserved there was neither time nor immediate necessity to embark upon

a detailed taxonomic study of allthe forms. It has however been possible

to sort out the fauna at least up to orders but in the case of blood sucking

forms the identifications have been made up to species wherever possible.

As it is believed that this is the first systematic study of its kind on the

nests of Indian birds the data collected are deemed worthy of presentation

though they may fall short of the requirements of a thorough ecological

investigation. The work was done mainly during the year 1953 and has

hitherto remained unrecorded. Subsequently nests of several species

have been examined from time to time and the findings of the previous

study generally confirmed.

The authors gratefully acknowledge the help given by Mr. B. S. Lamba

in the collection of the nests and their transportation to the laboratory.

Dr. J. A. Kerr, the then Director, and Dr. Harold N. Johnson the then

Virologist at this Centre made many useful suggestions for which thanks

are due to them.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The material consisted of 56 nests of Corvus splendens (the Common

House Crow); 35 of Ploceus philippinus (the Baya or the Common Weaver-

bird) ; 14 of Acridotheres tristis (the Common Myna) ; 4 of Passer domes-

ticus (House Sparrow) ; 4 of Hirundo concolor (the Dusky Crag Martin)

and one of Copsychus saularis (the Magpie Robin). The studies were

carried out mainly between May and November 1953 and were supple-

mented by a few observations in 1954. The nests were collected in and

around Poona City and brought to the laboratory in bags or sheets of

plastic cloth well sealed to prevent the escape of arthropods. Data

recorded for each nest included the date, the name of the tree, or a

description of the location, the number of eggs or fledglings found and their

approximate age. Ona few occasions more than one nest located on the

same tree have been handled as one nest.

On arrival at the laboratory the nests were pulled apart and processed

the same day in Berlese funnels which were specially designed for the

purpose. The funnels were made of bright new tinplate and had an upper

416 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

diameter of 18 inches and a length of 24inches. They tapered down to a

diameter of one inch at the bottom which had a stem 2 inches long

and one inch in diameter. A grid made of 1/4 inch galvanised

wire netting was fitted inside the funnel at its middle height. Over the

funnel was a 150 watt electric bulb with a polished conical reflector made

of tinplate. Three such funnels were mounted on a wooden stand.

Conical glass flasks of one litre capacity were sealed with adhesive tape

and paraffin to the stems of the funnels to receive the arthropods which

would crawl away from the nests when the light was turned on. The

apparatus was kept functioning for 24 hours but the first collecting flask

was replaced by a new one at the end of the first two hours. It was the

general experience that the vast majority of the arthropods collected by

this method were found in the flasks within the first two hours. The

arthropods were chloroformed and examined immediately after the

removal of the flasks from the funnels. All the blood sucking arthropods

were immediately separated, identified and those which could be used for

virological studies were made into pools for inoculation into mice.

Adequate samples were however retained for further identifications. The

remaining material was preserved either in spirit or mounted on slides as

found necessary.

No special descriptions of the nests are necessary as they were typical

of the nests of the birds studied. Regarding the Iccation of the nests 13

crow nests were on Banyan trees, 18 on Tamarind trees and 10 on Neem

trees and the rest on five other kinds of trees. Sixteen weaverbird nests

were on Babul trees and five on Toddy palms. Twelve myna nests were

in holes in stone road bridges or in stone walls and two in holes in trees.

All the sparrow nests were in holes in a stone bridge.

Of the 56 nests of crows, eight were deserted, 15 had one to five eggs,

two had an egg and two fledglings each and the remaining had one to four

fledglings. Among the 35 weaverbird nests, 12 were deserted, eight had

one to four eggs and the remaining one to four fledglings each. One myna

nest was deserted and 13 had one to three fledglings each. Two sparrow

nests had three fledglings each and one had three eggs each and one had

three eggs and one fledgling.

All the weaverbird nests examined contained one or more small lumps

of clay inside. This is a well known feature but there was no evidence of

any larvae of beetles being stuck into them. It may be recalled that there

is popular belief among some naturalists that the Baya uses the mud for

sticking light producing larvae of beetles.

RESULTS

The data collected are summarised in Tables 1, 2 and 3. Table1

provides information on the number of nests of each kind of bird

ARTHROPOD FAUNA OF BIRD NESTS 417

examined and the months during which they were examined. Table 2

provides information on the blood sucking arthropods collected and

Table 3 gives the data on all arthropod groups collected and the number

of times they were found.

TABLE 1

NUMBER OF BIRD NESTS EXAMINED, POONA

a 3 © 3

S < 3 = S a8

enn 2s eS 2 Sty) Pe ee eS

28 ss < 5 § = 8 Ne

5 5 S8 55 as =s R5

0 A, x A ss S)

1953

May a 7

June 28 2 ©,

July 25 5 aa

August ee sa 6 3 1

September oe 13 1 ae 3

October cite 15 ves at hy

November ie Z es ss i 1

1954

February os as Ee Fi

April 3 ae: a ys

November we 5

Total 56 35 14 4 4 1

From the point of view of sheer numbers mites, particularly parasitic

mesostigmatid mites, were the predominating group of arthropods in the

nests of all birds except the House sparrow. From the point of view of

frequency of occurrence Coleoptera and Diptera share the pride of place.

Whether numerical abundance or frequency of occurrence should be

used as the criterion for determining the dominance of any group is

generally a moot question but for the purpose of this study it seems best

to grade the groups according to both. The order of abundance of the

major groups may be represented as follows :

Nests of House Crow __ Nests of Weaverbird Nests of Myna

_ Numbers Frequency Numbers Frequency Numbers Frequency

Mites Diptera Mites Coleoptera Mites Coleoptera

Diptera Coleop- Psocop- Hemiptera Coleop- Mites

tera tera tera

Coleoptera Mites Hemiptera Mites Diptera Diptera

418 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

Hymenoptera Psocoptera Diptera Psocoptera

Psocoptera Hemip- Hymenop- Hymenoptera

tera tera

Collembola Lepidoptera

Lepidoptera Collembola

TABLE 2

BLOOD SUCKING ARTHROPODS COLLECTED IN NESTS OF THREE SPECIES OF BIRDS

Corvus Ploceus Acridotheres

Nests of splendens Philippinus tristis

Total number of nests examined 56 35 14

DIPTERA

Culicoides spp.

No. of times found .. & 34 11 2

Total found aS 198 88 3

Maximum No. found in any nest.. 47 21 2,

Sergentomyia sp.

No. of times found .. es 4

Total found - 4

Maximum No. found in any nest.. 1

HEMIPTERA

Anthocoridae

No. of times found .. at 14 De

Total found sis 73 281

Maximum No. found i in any nest.. 18 51

ACARINES

Ornithonyssus bursa

No. of times found .. ny 19 1 6

Total found a 13,742+ 1 709+

Maximum No. found i in any nest. . 10,000++ 1 400+

Pellonyssus sp.

No. of times found... - 13 29 5

Total found ee 212s 15,876+ 464+

Maximum No. found in any nest... 1500+ 10,000+ 200+

Laelaptidae

No. of times found .. ve Sg 2; yD,

Total found ae he 300+ 10

Maximum No. found i in any nest.. a 200+ 9

TICKS

Haemaphysalis sp. es ste ve 1 5

Argas sp. at 5. Wake ne 1 :

In the nests of House sparrows the most abundant group was Collem-

bola followed closely by mites.

419

ARTHROPOD FAUNA OF BIRD NESTS

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ARTHROPOD FAUNA OF BIRD NESTS 421

The blood sucking forms will be first considered in detail followed by

a general review of the fauna. The blood sucking arthropods found

were :—

Mites Dermanyssidae Ornithonyssus bursa(Berlese), Pellony-

ssus Sp. N.

Laelaptidae Laelaps spp. Two species.

Ticks Ixodidae Haemaphysalis sp. (once only).

Argasidae Argas sp. (once only).

Diptera Psychodidae Sergentomyia punjabensis (= Phle-

botomus antennatus Sinton).

Ceratopogonidae Culicoides oxystoma.

C. guttifer.

Culicoides (Trithecoides) flaviscutatus.

Wirth & Hubert 1959 (formerly

included under the Culicoides

anophelis group on the basis of

the presence of 3 spermathecae,

and subsequently the group has

been studied and a new species

established).

Culicoides sp. undet.

Anoplura Genus and species indet (once only).

Hemiptera: | Anthocoridae Blaptostethus piceus Aabr. and

(Provisionally included) Cardiastethus sp.

Ornithonyssus bursa (formerly known as Bdellonyssus bursa) is the

well known tropical fowl mite having a wide distribution in the tropics

of both eastern and western hemispheres. In and around Poona it occurs

in good numbers in coops of domestic chicken. Fonseca (1948), in his

monograph on Macronyssidae (now family Dermanyssidae) lists Gallus

domesticus, Columba livia domestica, Passer domesticus domesticus

‘Hibou’ a bird, and Homo as the recorded hosts of which Gallus and

Homo are recorded as hosts in India. Strandtmann & Wharton (1958)

add the bandicoot and ‘ hen, turkeys, wild birds and wood thrush’ to

the host list. The present study therefore adds Corvus splendens and

Acridotheres tristis to the host list for the species. Apart from the finding

of these mites in the nests they have been collected directly off the bodies

of the birds themselves.

_ It is interesting that while 19 out of 56 crow nests and six out of 14

myna nests harboured O. bursa, except for one solitary specimen this

422 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

mite was not found in any of the 35 weaverbird nests examined. Even

the solitary specimen might have been accidentally introduced. This

is remarkable considering the findings that this species is very widely

distributed in and around Poona and that weaverbird nests harbour large

numbers of another mite of the same family. The largest number found

in any nest was conservatively estimated as 10,000-+ in a crow nest

examined on June 29, 1953. Usually all the developmental stages were

found in the nests and a good proportion of adults and protonymphs

had taken fresh blood meals.

The species of Pellonyssus (formerly included under Steatonyssus)+

found in the nests seem to be a new one and is being recorded here for the

first time. It is being separately described?. Only four species of

‘ Steatonyssus’ (as understood earlier) had hitherto been recorded from

India, viz. Pellonyssus viator Hirst (=Steatonyssus viator) from Cypselus

(= Micropus) affiris, the Indian Swift, from Calcutta; Steatonyssus

javensis (Oudemans) from an unknown host, probably a bat, from

Khandala some 45 miles NW of Poona City ; Steatonyssus hubli Hire-

gaudar & Bal, from a bat, Pipistrellus ceylonensis, in the Deccan, and

Steatonyssus musculi, from a mammal (probably a bat) in Bombay

(Strandtmann & Wharton 1958). The present records of Corvus splen-

dens, Acridotheres tristis and Ploceus philippinus as hosts are new for the

genus Pellonyssus. It is significant to note that for a common species,

Pellonyssus has not been taken at any time in the coops of domestic

chicken.

Pellonyssus sp. was found in 13 crow nests, 29 weaverbird nests and

five myna nests. On two occasions it was associated with O. bursa in

crow nests and on four occasions in myna nests. It was the sole repre-

sentative (except for the solitary specimen of O. bursa mentioned above)

of Dermanyssidae in weaverbird nests. The maximum number found

in any nest was approximately 10,000-++ in a weaverbird nest examined

on October 8, 1953. This species was comparatively more numerous

than O. bursa wherever it occurred. All developmental stages were

usually found and a good proportion of adults and protonymphs were

found to have taken fresh blood meals. 7

Laelaptidae are characteristically parasites of mammals and their

occurrence in the nests of birds calls for special comment. There was

not a single specimen of this family in the nests of crows. They were

found in only two weaverbird nests collected on the same day and in two

1 The genus Pellonyssus was erected in 1956 (Claude & Yunker 1956) separating

it from Steatonyssus on the basis of differences in the shape of the female sternal plate

and the male chela. Pe/lonyssus are primarily ectoparasites of birds, and Steatonyssus

of mammals, particularly chiropterans.

2 Proposed to be named P. deccanus Rao. Thanks are due to Dr. F. Da Fonseca

of Instituto Butantan, Sao Paulo, Brazil, for pointing out that this is a new species, ~

ARTHROPOD FAUNA OF BIRD NESTS 423

myna nests. A few deserted weaverbird nests were collected on

November 5, 1954, long after the nesting season for the bird.

B. S. Lamba who collected the nests immediately noticed that one of them

contained a few young mice. The nest was brought to the laboratory

and when examined was found to contain inside a secondary nest of field

mice. Nine live young mice with a large number of mites crawling on

their bodies were taken out. The nest itself yielded about 200 mites all

of most probably Laelaps sp. Another nest collected later in the day by

one of the authors (TRR) also contained a secondary mouse nest and

though there were no live mice in it, yielded about 100 laelaptid mites.

The single myna nest from which nine laelaptids were collected was located

in a hole in a stone bridge, and had two fledglings. In all the three cases

the mites showed evidence of having taken blood meals. While in the

case of weaverbird nests one may infer that the mites had fed on mice

there was no evidence for a similar opinion in the case of the myna nest.

But the location of the myna nests was such that mice might have nor-

mally frequented them and it may be that the laelaptid mites there had been

introduced by the visiting mice. The specific identifications of the

laelaptids have not yet been made. Two species seem to be present.

Among ticks only one engorged specimen of a nymph of Haemaphy-

salis sp. was found in the nest of a weaverbird and one Argas sp. in the

nest ofacrow. Several Haemaphysalis species have been collected on birds

in and around Poona by us and therefore the finding of only one speci-

meninthenestis surprising. The specimen has not been well preserved

and specific identification is not possible. Argas spp. are not quite com-

mon round about Poona though they have been occasionally collected

in chicken houses. Several unsuccessful special searches for Argasidae

were made in the holes and crevices and under bark of trees on which

birds roost at night. The scarcity of Argasidae in the nests is therefore

not unexpected.

The Phlebotominae found consisted of only four specimens, two males

and two females, one each in four crow nests. All belong to the recum-

bent haired group of sandflies and the males have been identified as

Sergentomya punjabensis (formerly known as P. antennatus). Large

numbers of sandflies have sometimes been collected in the hollows and

crevices of trees in and around Poona, and their occurrence in the nests

may be accidental.

Culicoides spp. were the sole representatives in the nests of blood

sucking Diptera. Twenty-seven males and 171 females were found in

1 The authors are grateful to Dr. R. A. O. Smith at that time of the All India Insti-

tute of Hygiene, Calcutta, for examining representative slides and confirming the identi-

fications of Culicoides. He was of the opinion that the single specimen of the fourth

species found in a crow nest may be a new species. It has perfectly clear wings and is

unlike the only other species with clear wings described from India, C. albipinnes (now

Known as C. kamrupi).

424 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

34 crow nests, 27 males and 61 females in 11 weaverbird nests and no males

and three females in two myna nests. The species found were :

C. oxystonia in 17 crow nests and two myna nests.

C. guttifer in 16 crow nests and seven weaverbird nests.

C. flaviscutatus in one crow nest [formerly included under C.

anophelis because of the presence of three

spermathecae. Subsequently this group

has been studied and several species with

three spermathecae have been discovered.

Sen & Dasgupta (1959) have recorded 33

species of Culicoides in India].

Culicoides sp. indet.

It is noteworthy that C. oxystoma did not occur in weaverbird nests

at all. In crow nests C. oxystoma and C. guttifer were found together

on eight occasions. Many of the females had taken fresh blood meals

and though the suspicion is strong it cannot be stated that all of them had

fed on the birds in the nests.

Anthocoridae formed the majority of Hemiptera collected in the nests.

They are a cosmopolitan group of bugs some of which are well known to

occur in bird’s nests. The two forms found in the present studies were

Blaptostethes piceus and Cardiastethes sp.1 They were found in 14 crow

nests, 25 weaverbird nests. All developmental stages were found and

the maximum number found was 83 in a weaverbird nest. In general

appearance they were bright pinkish in colour and many of them had a

bright pink fluid in their abdomen. Whether it was blood or whether the

colour of the fluid was merely a secondary effect of the general coloration

of the body cannot be stated. The members of this family are mainly

predators on mites but at least one species, the cosmopolitan Lytocoris

compestris is definitely known to bite human beings and ‘suck’ blood

(Imms 1951; Rothschild & Clay 1952 ; and Woodroffe 1953). There-

fore the Anthocoridae are for the present provisionally included in the

blood sucking arthropods.

A solitary specimen of Anoplura was found in the nest of a myna

which has not yet been identified. As sucking lice are rarely, if ever,

found on birds its presence in the nest may be accidental.

1 The identification of the two species of Anthocoridae has been kindly made by

Dr. W. E. China of the British Museum. He says that Blaptostethes piceus var pal-

lescens has been recorded from Bombay and that Cardiastethes sp. may be a new species

or a small race of the European species, the Palaearctic C. fasciventris (Garbl). The

authors are most grateful to Dr. China for these comments.

ARTHROPOD FAUNA. OF BIRD NESTS 425

Arthropods other than the blood sucking forms have not been studied in

detail and only brief notes regarding each group will be given below.

The non-parasitic mites found were :—

Mesostigmata .. Uropodina ; once in myna nest and thrice in

sparrow nest. They were quite abundant

on a couple of occasions.

Fedrizzina ; once in myna nest.

Others; thrice in crow nests.

Trombidiformes .. Cheyletidae ; twice in crow nests.

Smaridiidae ; thrice in crow nests.

Others ; five times in crow nests.

Sarcoptiformes .. Tyroglyphidae ; once in crow nest.

Oribatei ; five times in crow nests, thrice in

myna nests and twice in sparrow nests.

Hydrachnellae .. Once in crow nest.

Others .. Once in weaverbird nest.

Generic identifications have not been made. Some are predators

and some scavengers attracted to the nests by the other fauna. Uro-

podina and Oribatei were the only two groups found in any appreciable

numbers.

Collembola: None was found in the weaverbird nests but some

numbers commonly found in other nests. In one sparrow nest over a

thousand were collected.

Thysanura: ‘They were rare and Lepisma sp. was the only form.

Orthoptera: They were rare but over hundred were collected from 2

sparrow nest. They were almost entirely members of the Blattidae.

Dermaptera: Forficulidae were found on two occasions in crow

nests and once in myna nest.

Psocoptera: ‘They were abundantly found in crow and weaverbird

nests.

Hemiptera: Apart from the Anthocoridae already referred to the

only other family found was Pentatomidae, in 16 crow nests and six

weaverbird nests.

Embioptera: They were rare having been found only twice in crow

nests and in a magpie-robin nest.

426 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

Lepidoptera: Adults of Microlepidoptera were found on four

occasions in crow nests. Larvae of Lepidoptera were common.

Coleoptera: They were rich both in number and variety. Both

adults and larvae were frequently found. No identifications of adults have

been made but among the larvae commonly found were Chrysomelidae,

Dermestidae, Coccinellidae and Buprestidae.

Diptera: They were quite abundant in crow nests. The majority

of the adults of Diptera other than Culicoides were members of Psycho-

didae and Chloropidae. Psychodinae occurred in 22 crow nests and two

myna nests. Chloropidae (‘Eyeflies’) were found in 14 crow nests.

Neither of these families was represented in weaverbird nests. The

larvae found mainly consisted of Muscidae, Calliphoridae and a few

Psychodidae.

Hymenoptera: They consisted mainly of ants.

Myriapoda: Only three centipedes and one millipede were found in

sparrow nests.

Arachnids other than mites and ticks : They were comparatively rare.

Pseudoscorpions occurred only in four crow nests, two myna nests and

one sparow nest. Spiders were found twice in weaverbird nests and 16

times in crow nests. One crow nest had a scorpion.

DISCUSSION

The primary objective of this study was the determination of the

blood sucking arthropods associated with the common birds in their

nests in and around Poona. It was established that two species of

dermanyssid mites, viz. Ornithonyssus bursa and Pellonyssus sp., and two

species of Culicoides, viz. C. oxystoma and C. guttifer are very frequently

associated with the birds studied. The other blood sucking arthropods ©

except the anthocorid bugs which are provisionally included among them,

were too few to merit comment.

While both the species of mites and both the species of midges men-

tioned above were found in the nests of House crows and mynas, O.

bursa and C. oxystoma were not found in the nests of weaverbirds.. This

may either be due to a real difference in the host parasite relationship or

to causes connected with the environment and habits of the birds.

Furthermore extensive studies would be needed to answer this question.

The occurrence of mites in the nests was expected but the frequent

presence of Culicoides was somewhat of a surprise. They cannot be

regarded as accidental visitors for they were present in 47 of the 112 nests

ART HROPOD FAUNA OF BIRD NESTS 427

examined. The presence of both males and females leads one to the

question whether their occurrence in the nests was merely due to the faci-

lities offered by the nest material for breeding or to a direct attraction

exerted by the birds. So little is known of the biology of this group of

midges in India that one hesitates to dwell on this question at any length.

Mention may be made in this connection of the suspected role they play

in the transmission of the virus of Blue tongue of sheep and African

horse sickness both of which have occurred in India.

The anthocorid bugs were found in 39 nests. This group has received

practically no attention from medical entomologists considering the fact

that at least one member of the family is known to suck blood and that

they are frequently found in the nests of birds. It would be worthwhile

to study their habits in greater detail and explore the possibility of their

being connected with the dissemination of disease producing organisms.

Notable for their complete absence in the nests studied were members

of Siphonaptera (fleas), Cimicidae (‘ bed-bugs’) and Hippoboscidae

(louseflies) all of which have been reported frequently as occurring in

the nest in other countries. Fleas are apparently not common para-

sites of birds in and around Poona as no flea has been collected on any

of a good number of wild birds examined (VRC unpublished data),

though Echidnophaga gallinacea has sometimes been found in chicken

houses.

Cimicidae are known to occur in the nests of some birds in India.

Reference may be made to the interesting observation by Abdulali (1942)

on the occurrence of Cimex rotundatus in the nests of swifts and terns

in the Vengurla Rocks off the southernmost coast of Bombay State.

Hippoboscid flies were quite frequently found by the authors on the

bodies of crows and mynas in and around Poona and their total absence

in the nests is noteworthy. These flies have the habit of leaving the body

of the host within a matter of seconds after the bird is knocked down by

gun shot and very quick action was usually necessary on the part of the

collector to put the knocked down bird into the collecting bag in order

to secure the flies. But in the case of nests there is no possibility of such

a quick escape of the flies as the nests were collected and secured in the

collecting bag intact. Therefore the complete absence of hippoboscid

flies in the nests would indicate that the flies do not parasitize the fledg-

lings as readily as they do the adult birds. As no pupae of the louseflies

were also found in the nests perhaps the birds become infested elsewhere.

The total absence of Mallophaga and feather mites in the nests also

calls for comment. All the species of birds examined in and around

Poona have been infested by Mallophaga and several families of feather

mites. Sometimes the infestation is quite heavy particularly in the case

of the crows. It is well known that these groups of parasites rarely

428 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

leave the bodies of the hosts but one would have expected that a few of

them would stay away from the birds and be found in the nest material.

An ecologist would like further to analyse the arthropod fauna of

nests either quantitatively to determine the constancy of occurrence and

dominance of any group and ‘ fidelity of association between the several

groups of nidicoles’ or qualitatively to classify them as ectoparasites of

birds, scavengers, predators and parasites, accidental visitors and so on.

Interesting and profitable as such studies are, the data collected in the

present investigation are not detailed enough for the purpose.

The studies were all made on nests collected during daytime. There

is no doubt that the nests are visited by several types of arthropods at

night notably by mosquitoes and sandflies. Strictly speaking they should

also be included in the lists of arthropods found in the nests, but classi-

fied as visitors rather than as regular members of the fauna.

Several pools made from mites and Culicoides found in the nests

were inoculated into mice but no pathogenic virus was isolated. Much

significance need not be attached to this negative finding as it is well

known that a virus isolation in nature would require an enormous amount

of effort at the appropriate time. Neither O. bursa nor any species of ©

Pellonyssus has yet been definitely incriminated anywhere as a vector of

any virus disease though the former has long been suspected in view of

its close association with domestic poultry. None of the pools of Culi-

coides processed have yielded any virus though their role in the epide-

miology of some virus diseases (Blue tongue, African horse sickness) is

known. Because of their association with birds they deserve more

attention than they have received hitherto. |

Mention may, however, be made here of the isolation of Sindbis virus,

from a pool of Ornithonyssus bursa collected from domestic chicken in

a place in Kanara District (formerly in Bombay State and from Novem-

ber 1956 in Mysore State) (Shah e¢ a/. 1960). The mere isolation from

arthropods does not, however, confirm its status as a vector.

REFERENCES

ABDULALI, H. (1942): The terns and

Edible-nest swifts at WVengurla, West

Coast India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

43(3) : 446-451.

CLARK, G. M. & YUNKER, C. E.

(1956): A new genus and species of

Dermanyssidae (Acarina : Mesostigmata)

from the English sparrow, with obser-

vations on its lifecycle. Proc. Helmin-

thol. Soc. Washington 23: 93-101.

FonseEcA, F. DA (1948) : A monograph

of the genera and species of Macronys-

sidae Oudemans, 1930 (Synon : Liponys-

sidae Vitzthum, -1931). Proc. Zool. Soc.

Lond. 118 (2): 249-334.

HIREGAUDAR, L. S. & BAL, D. V.

(1956) : Some ectoparasites of bats from

India. Agra Uni. J. of Res., (Science)

5(1) : 1-134.

Imus, A. D. (1951): A general text

book of Entomology. Metheun and

Co. Ltd. London.

NorDBERG, S. (1936): Biologisch-

oiklogische Untersuchungen Uber die

Vogelnidicolen. Acta Zoologica Fennica,

21, Helsingfors (In German).

ARTHROPOD FAUNA OF BIRD NESTS

KorTHSCcHILD, M. & C.ay, T. (1952):

Fleas, Flukes and Cuckoos. A study of

bird parasites. Collins. St. James Place,

London.

SEN, P. & Das Gupta, S. K. (1959) :

Studies on Indian Culicoides (Cerato-

pogonidae: Diptera). Ann. Ent. Soc.

Amer. 52: 617-630.

SHAH, K. V., JOHNSON, H. N., RAo,

T. R., RAJAGOPALAN, P. K. & LAMBA,

B. S. (1960) : Isolation of five strains of

429

Sindbis virus in India. Ind. J. Med.

Res. 48 : 300-308.

STRANDTMANN, R. W. & WHARTON,

C. V. (1958) : Manual of Mesostigmatid

mites. Contribution No. 4 of Institute

of Acarology, College Park, USA.

WooprorfFE, C. E. (1953): An eco-

logical study of the insects and mites of

certain birds in Britain. Bull. Ent. Res.

44 : 739-772.

Preliminary observations on the

natural resistance of sixty-nine Species

of Indian timber to Marine Borer

attack at Bombay

L. N. SANTHAKUMARAN

Wood Preservation Centre, Central Institute of Fisheries Education,

Bombay-58

(With a text-figure)

INTRODUCTION

Destruction of timber constructions in sea water by marine wood

borers being well known and universal in occurrence, problems pertain-

ing to protection of timber in marine environments have engaged the

attention of scientists from very early times. It is known that certain

species of timber possess a high degree of resistance to the destructive

activity of wood borers, though none of them has absolute immunity

to their attack. Several investigators have studied the natural dura-

bility of different kinds of timber in a bid to select the right type for

marine constructions (Atwood & Johnson 1924 ; and Wangaard 1953,

in America; Gonggrijp 1932; Spoon & Loosjes 1946; Bavandamm

1948, 1949 ; and Roch 1955, in Europe ; Wilson 1941, and Johnson &

Moore 1950, in Australia ; Thomas 1933, in Malaya ; Edmondson 1955,

in Hawaii Islands ; Bianchi 1932 and 1934, in Indonesia ; Scott 1932,

in Burma ; and Fforde 1931, in Africa). In India some of the earliest

studies on this subject are those of Troup (1909), Messent P. Glynn

(1920), Pearson (1932) and Howard (1948). Observations of Nair —

(1956) in Madras harbour and Kayamkulam backwaters (Kerala), of

Nagabhushanam (1960) in Visakhapatnam harbour and of Balasubra-

manyam & Menon (1963) in Cochin harbour are recent contributions

in this field.

The durability of timber varies considerably in different localities on

account of variations in species of borers and their abundance. Salinity

and temperature usually act as limiting factors on the activity and dis-

tribution of these pests and the rapid reaction of borers, especially ship-

worms, to even slight change in conditions, results in varying perform-

ance of a timber species in different localities. It is, therefore, neces-

sary to study the life of the same species of timber in different regions.

RESISTANCE OF INDIAN TIMBER TO MARINE BORERS 431

The work of Nair (1956) and of Balasubramanyam & Menon (1963)

include only very few species of timber and that of Nagabhushanam

(1960) is confined to the east coast of India. The present paper gives a

preliminary report on the resistance of sixty-nine species of Indian tim-

ber to marine borers in Bombay waters.

MATERIAL AND METHOD

Panels of sixty-nine species of timber, studied in the present work,

were received from the Forest Research Institute & Colleges, Dehra

Dun. These panels, 30 cm. x 3°8 cm.x3°8 cm. were arranged as ‘ lad-

ders ’, each containing 10 panels, by tying them with 5 mm. diameter

nylon rope threaded through holes bored at each end (Fig. 1). The

distance between two adjacent panels was about 7°5 cm. Seven such

‘ladders ’ (one of them containing 11 panels as Bombax ceiba Linn. and

Pinus roxburghii Sargent have been procured from two growing areas,

making the total number of panels 71) were firmly secured to a pair of

long slotted iron bars. The whole set was then suspended on sufficient

length of mild steel chain so that the panels were always five feet below

the extreme low tide level. The frame was properly weighted so as to

anchor it in position.

The test site—the Burmah-Shell Jetty at Trombay—provides typical

marine conditions which are influenced only by the south-west .mon-

soon. Intensive borer activity and heavy settlement of foulers have

been noticed in this place, both marked by seasonal variations. The

test panels were immersed on 15th March 1967, and were removed to

the laboratory for final inspection and assessment of destruction on 16th

December 1967, after a period of nine months’ continuous submergence.

No periodic examination of the panels was made during the course of

the studies. However, the panels were taken out and scraped clean of

the foulers at intervals of two months so as to allow access to borer

larvae tothe timber surface. This was actually found necessary because

of the heavy settlement of barnacles, completely covering the panels and

giving them a sort of mechanical protection from borer infestation.

During final assessment in the laboratory the panels were cleaned well

and the number of borer holes was carefully counted and recorded.

(In cases where more than 300 borers could be counted, the number

has been expressed as ‘numerous’). The panels were later cut open

into halves and the extent of internal destruction was roughly assessed

by visual examination.

RESULTS

The important borers encountered during the present study are

Bankia campanellata Moll & Roch, Lyrodus pedicellatus Quatrefages,

Bankia rochi Moll and Martesia striata Linnaeus. Of these B. rochi

432 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

p E ; :

! u—4

5% ba.

be——y

ep -

”

Fig.1:- DESIGN OF THE EXPERIMENT

30cm

NYLON

ROPE

PANEL

TEST

RESISTANCE OF INDIAN TIMBER TO MARINE BORERS — 433

and M. striata were found to settle only in very small numbers. One

specimen of Nausitora hedleyi Schepman was also collected from a panel

of Albizzia odoratissima Benth.

Data on incidence of borers on different panels, the extent of damage

caused to them expressed in percentage, localities from where the panels

were procured and the common names of timber species are given in

Table 1. The table shows that while none of the sixty-nine species

escaped attack of borers, 21 species suffered destruction below 20%,

11 of them between 21 to 50% and the remaining 27 species over 50%

destruction. Family-wise distribution of resistant species of timber is

given in Table 2.

DISCUSSION AND SUMMARY

1. Observations on natural durability of sixty-nine species of Indian

timber, belonging to 30 families are included in this report. Even though

the duration of observation may be insufficient for a definite evaluation

of the life of many species, the studies enable elimination of non-resis-

tant varieties and screening out promising ones, worthy of consideration

for further studies. A scrutiny of Table 2 reveals that Moraceae and

Leguminosae contain some species which are highly resistant to borer

attack.

2. The durability of any untreated panel is very much influenced

by the time of the year at which it is exposed to borer-attack. In other

words, it depends upon seasonal variations in the intensity of borers

available to carry out destruction. Earlier studies have revealed that

in the present locality the peak settlement of borers and the consequent

destruction of a panel are maximum during July-August anda panel of

Mangifera indica Linnaeus, immersed during this short period alone,

suffered 58% destruction (Santhakumaran, unpublished). Hence it

is justifiable to believe that, although the duration of the experiment was

nine months starting from March, the non-durable species might have

suffered heavy destruction even within a much earlier period, that is to

say, months before the study was terminated in December. More-

over, the highly vulnerable species had only few, small, live specimens

in the burrows showing that the early settlers had already perished when

the timber was exhausted due to overcrowding.

3. Ascrutiny of the data, given in Table 1, indicates that there is no

definite correlation between the number of borer hols and the inter-

nal damage caused to the timber panels. For example, although the

species of Artocarpus lakoocha Roxb. (272 borers), Hopea parviflora

Bedd. (numerous) and Lannea coromandelica (Houtt.) Merr. (= Odina

wodier Roxb., numerous) have harboured large number of borers, the

destruction of timber is only about 2%, 5%, and 18% respectively. On

434 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

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435

RESISTANCE OF INDIAN TIMBER TO MARINE BORERS

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TABLE |

PARTICULARS OF TIMBER SPECIES AND EXTENT OF DESTRUCTION CAUSED BY BORERS IN PRELIMINARY TRIALS AT BOMBAY

Borer entry holes on

State from panels Extent

No. Timber species Family Trade name which ———— d of Rem

= lamage

procured Ship | Mere oy

worms | fartesia °

1. Madhuca indica (Gmel.) Sapotaceae Mahua Orissa 151 3 ia) Many pits

(= Bassia latifolia Roxb.)

2. Terminalia paniculata Roth. Combretaceae Kindal Tamil Nadu 83 2 1:0

3. Artocarpus lakoocha Roxb. Moraceae TaEsorh or West Bengal 272 3 2-0 Pits only

jarhal

4. Artocarpus heterophyllus -do- Kathal Tamil Nadu 160 1 2:0 Pits only

Lamk. (=Artocarpus inte-

grifolia L.f.)

5. Kingiodendron pinnatum Leguminosae Piney -do- 72 5 20

(Roxb.) Harms. (=Hard-

wickia binata Roxb.)

6. Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb. -do- Bijasal -do- 145 1 2-0 Pits only

7. Xylia xylocarpa Taub. __5do- Trul -do- 98 Nil 20

8. iSteriowpermum chelonoides _ Bignoniaceae Padri West Bengal 85 2 40

DC.

9. Hopea parviflora Bedd. Dipterocarpaceae Hopea Coorg Numerous Nil 5:0 Pits only

10. Borassus flabellifer Linn. Palmae Palmyra Palm Bihar 103 2 70

or Tari

11. Lagerstroemia parviflora Lythraceae Lendi Orissa 152 4 8:0 Pits only

Roxb.

12. slerocereEs dalbergioides Leguminosae Padauk Andaman 190 10 8-0

Roxb.

13. Tectona grandis Linn. f. Verbenaceae Teak Tamil Nadu 181 6 11-0 Superficial small

tunnels

14. Ulmaceae Kanju Bihar 203 7 11-0 Many pits

Holoptelea integrifolia

Planch.

Dalbergia latifolia Roxb

Calophyllum elatum Bedd.

(=Calophyllum tomento-

sum Wt.)

Artocarpus sp.

Schleichera oleosa Oken.

(=Schleichera trijuga

Willd.)

Lannea coromandelica

(Houtt.). Merr. (= Odina

wodier Roxb.)

Eucalyptus sp.

Tetrameles nudiflora R. Br.

Aphanamixis polystachya

(Wall.) Parker (=Amoora

rohituka W. & A.)

Amoora wallichi King

Dipterocarpus sp.

Terminalia chebula Retz.

Hopea sp.

Artocarpus hirsuta Lamk.

Bridelia retusa Spreng.

Terminalia arjuna (Roxb.)

W. &A.

Dipterocarpus turbinatus

Gaertn. f.

Lagerstroemia lanceolata

Wall.

Dalbergia sissoo Roxb.

Anogeissus latifolia Roxb.

Mesua ferrea Linn.

Leguminosae

Guttiferae

Moraceae

Sapindaceae

Anacardiaceae

Myrtaceae

Datiscaceae

Meliaceae

5 -do-

Dipterocarpaceae

Combretaceae

Dipterocarpaceae

Moraceae

Euphorbiaceae

Combretaceae

Dipterocarpaceae

Lythraceae

Leguminosae

Combretaceae

Guttiferae

Rosewood

Poon

Kusum

Jhingan

Maina

Pitraj

Amari

Myrabolan or

Hararh

Aini

Kasi

Arjun

Teli Gurjan

Benteak

Shisham

Axlewood

Masua or

Tronwood

Bombay

Tamil Nadu

-do-

Uttar Pradesh

Bombay

Uttar Pradesh

Andaman

Tripura

West Bengal

Mysore

West Bengal

Tamil Nadu

“Coorg

Uttar Pradesh

Bihar

Manipur

Bombay

Punjab

Tamil Nadu

Mysore

103

Numerous

173

163

254

183

Numerous

171

265

102

195

226

266

‘Numerous

-do-

ann

Nil

Tunnels at right

angle to the

grain

One of the ends

of the panel

worn out due

to abrasion

One huge tunnel

One end severely

damaged

Numerous small

pits

Ends severely

damaged

a eee

(©) 149 104 ‘KIFIOOS “ISIH TYMYALYN AVAWOE “IVNUNOL Feb

SYaYOd ANIMVW OL YAIWIL NVIGNI JO FONVISISTY

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

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RESISTANCE OF INDIAN TIMBER TO MARINE BORERS

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Borer entry holes on

| State from panels Bulent

No. Timber species Family | Trade name which Shi damage Remarks

procured P 5 oy

worms Martesia °

35. Terminalia alata Heyne ex Combretaceae Laurel Vindhya Numerous 1 58.0

Roth. var. nepalensis Pradesh

(Haines) Fernandez

(=Terminalia tomentosa

W. & A.)

36. Gmelina arborea Linn. Verbenaceae Gamari Bombay -do- 4 58:0

37. Careya arborea Roxb. Myrtaceae Kumbhi Tripura -do- Nil 58:0

38. Diospyros melanoxylon Ebenaceae Ebony Bombay -do- 1 60°0 Three huge tun-

Roxb. nels

39. Dillenia indica Linn. Dilleniaceae lea or Assam -do- 6 60:0

alta

40. Bombax ceiba Linn. Bombacaceae Semul Dehra Dun 227 8) 65:0 80% destruction

(=Bombax malabaricum DC.) inapanel from

Kutch

41. Albizzia sp. Leguminosae Madhya 115 2 67:0 Twelve large

Pradesh tunnels

42. Albizzia odoratissima Benth. -do- Kalasiris Uttar 89 3 68°0 Five huge tun-

Pradesh nels

43. Michelia champaca Linn. Magnoliaceae Champ West Bengal Numerous 1 68-0.

44. Michelia doltsopa Bush. -do- Champ -do- 220 2 68-0

Ham. ex DC. (=Michelia

excelsa Blume)

45. Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels Myrtaceae Jamun Madhya Numerous 3 70:0

(= Eugenia jambolana Lam.) Pradesh

46. Dysoxylum malabaricum Meliaceae White cedar Tamil Nadu Numerous 4 70:0

Bedd.

47. Cynometra polyandra Roxb. Leguminosae Ping Assam 194 8 70°0

48. Castanopsis hystrix ADC. Cupuliferae Hingori -do- 187 3 72:0

49. Shorea robusta Gaertn. f. Dipterocarpaceae Sal Mindhya 260 3 72:0

rades}

$0. Casuarina equisetifolia Forst. Casuarinaceae Casuarina Bombay Numerous 2 75-0

51. Chukrasia velutina Wt. &

mn. (= Chukrasia tabu-

faris A. Juss.)

52. Cryptomeria japonicaD.Don Taxodiaceae

53. Palaquium ellipticum (Dalz.) Sapotaceae

Engler. (= Dichopsis elli-

ptica Bth.)

54. Grewia tilaefolia Vahl Tiliaceae

55. Zanthoxylum limonella Rutaceae

(Dennst.) Alston.

56. Soymida febrifuga A. Juss. Meliaceae

57. Mimusops sp. Sapotaceae

58. Ougeinia oojeinensis (Roxb.) Leguminosae

Hochreut (= Ougeinia

dalbergioides Benth.)

59. Albizzia chinensis (Osbeck) -do-

Merr. (=Albizzia stipulata

Boiy.)

60. Mangifera indica Linn. Anacardiaceae

61. Pinus roxburghii Sargent Coniferae

(=Pinus longifolia Roxb.)

62. Exbucklandia populnea

(R. Br. ex Griffith) R.W.

Brown (=Bucklandia po-

pulnea R.Br.)

Hamamelideae

63. Cedrus deodara (Roxb. ex Coniferae

Lambert) G. Don

64. Machilus macrantha Nees Lauraceae

65. Polyalthia fragrans (Dalz.) Anonaceae

Bedd.

66. Picea smithiana (Wall.) Coniferae

Boiss (=Picea morinda

Link).

67. Vateria indica Linn.

68. Sonneratia apetala Ham.

69. Salmalia insignis (Wall.)

Schott & Endl. (=Bom-

bax insigne Wall.)

Dipterocarpaceae

Lythraceae

Bombacaceae

Chie! Mysore Numerous 3 75:0

Suji West Bengal -do- Nil 75-0

Pali Mysore -do- 5 78-0

Dhaman Tamil Nadu 290 4 80:0

Mullilam Kerala Numerous Nil 80:0

Rohini Bombay 239 4 80:0

Andaman Numerous 5 80-0

Sandan Uttar -do- 1 80:0

Pradesh

Siris Andhra -do- Nil 80:0

Pradesh

Mango Assam -do- 4 85:0

Chir Kashmir Numerous 4 85-0

Pipli West Bengal -do- 1 90:0

Deodar Kashmir -do- Nil 90-0

Machilus Kerala -do- 1 92:0

Gauri Coorg -do- 3 92-0

Spruce Himachal -do- 6 94-0

Pradesh

Vellapine Kerala -do- Nil 95°0

Keora West Bengal -do- Nil 96°0

Semul Andaman -do- 2 97-0

Seven huge -tun-

nels

95% destruction

in a panel

from Dehra

Dun

The species are arranged in the order of decreasing resistance to borers.

9fb

SYFYOd ANIYVW OL YAMWIL NViGNI JO FON¥ LSISTY

Ler

438 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

the other hand, species Jike Albizzia odoratissima Benth, Castanopsis

hystrix A.DC., Cynometra polyandra Roxb. and Albizzia spp. have less

than 200 borers, whereas their damage was found to be 68%, 72%,

70% and 67% respectively. In the case of A. odoratissima, 92 borers

accomplished 68% destruction. The larvae of shipworms show no

special attraction to any timber and their settlement on a timber sub-

stratum is only accidental and influenced by the fouling accumulation.

Hence it is possible that a test panel receives a large number of larvae,

but the number of successful borers and their depth of penetration

depend on the natural durability of that particular species of timber.

In many cases, like Terminalia chebula Retz. and Tectona grandis Linn. f.

only a few superficial tunnels were noticed and the holes were mere

pits indicating unsuccessful penetration resulting in low percentage

destruction compared to the number of entry holes. The number of

borer holes as a criterion for grouping the results has been used by many

workers (Purushotham & Santhakumaran 1962), but such expressions

do not offer any satisfactory means for comparative studies. Splitting —

open the panel and assessing the internal damage by visual examination

are essential for this purpose. If continuation of the test is needed,

X-ray photography can be used.

4. The incidence of M. striata appears somewhat higher on panels

comparatively unmolested by shipworms (Table 3). In most of the

resistant panels, the destruction is mainly caused by large specimens of

M. striata and the shipworms are present either as numerous pits or as

a few superficial tunnels. Similar behaviour has been noticed by

Edmondson (1955). Moore (1947) noted that no timber is naturally

resistant to Martesia attack, although it may resist teredinids and crus-

tacean borers. Spoon et al. (1946) also state that Martesia is capable

of attacking hard woods.

5. Of the twenty-one species which were found to possess some

degree of resistance to borer attack, many like Kingiodendron pinnatum

(Roxb.) Harms. (=AHardwickia binata Roxb.), Steriospermum chelo-

noides DC., Borassus flabellifer Linn., Schleichera oleosa Oken. (=S.

trijuga Willd.), Artocarpus lakoocha Roxb. and Holoptelea integrifolia

Planch. are not presently used in marine constructions (Appendix 4, Jour-

nal of the Timber Dryers’ and Preservers’ Association of India, 7(2), 1961).-

It may be mentioned in this connection that K. pinnatum (= Hardwickia

binata Roxb.) is sometimes used as a substitute for teak, in planking ~

for cargo barges built at Kakinada (Paul B. Zeiner & Kjeld Rasmussen

1958). It, however, cracks when cut into thin planks and in spite of

its durability, this might restrict its use in fishing vessels. Timber species —

most commonly used at present for marine construction generally belong~

to the largely non-resistant varieties. The present studies indicate the~

possibility of substituting these non-durable species with bettertimber |

RESISTANCE OF INDIAN TIMBER TO MARINE BORERS 439

in constructional work. Troup (1909), while ‘discussing the resistance

of Indian timber, has mentioned that A. /akoocha and Madhuca indica

(Gmel.) (=Bassia latifolia Roxb.) are borer resistant. The present

TABLE 2

FAMILYWISE DISTRIBUTION OF RESISTANT SPECIES OF TIMBER

; : Percentage

No. Family Species Alte ncion

1. Anacardiaceae Lannea coromandelica (Houtt.) Merr. 18-0

(= Odina wodier Roxb.)

2. Bignoniaceae Steriospermum chelonoides DC. 4:0

3. Combretaceae Terminalia paniculata Roth. 1:0

4. Datiscaceae Tetrameles nudiflora R.Br. 20:0

5. Dipterocarpaceae Hopea parviflora Bedd. 5:0

6. Guttiferae Calophyllum elatum Bedd. 13:0

(=Calophyllum tomentosum Wt.)

7. Leguminosae Dalbergia latifolia Roxb. 12:0

Kingiodendron pinnatum (Roxb.) 2.0

Harms.

(=Hardwickia binata Roxb.)

Pterocarpus dalbergioides Roxb. 8:0

Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb. 2°0

Xylia xylocarpa Taub. 2:0

8. Lythraceae Lagerstroemia parviflora Roxb. 8:0

9. Moraceae Artocarpus heterophyllus Lamk. 2:0

(=Artocarpus integrifolia L.f.)

Artocarpus lakoocha Roxb. 2°0

Artocarpus Sp. 13:0

10. Myrtaceae Eucalyptus sp. 18-0

11. Palmae Borassus flabellifer Linn. 7-0

12. Sapindaceae Schleichera oleosa Oken.

(=Schleichera trijuga Willd.) 15-0

13. Sapotaceae Madhuca indica (Gmel.) |

(=Bassia latifolia Roxb.) 1:0

14. Ulmaceae Holoptelea integrifolia Planch. 11:0

15. Verbenaceae Tectona grandis Linn. f. 11:0

INCIDENCE OF Martesia ON DIFFERENT SPECIES OF TIMBER

TABLE 3

Number of ite:

Range of destruction timber species =a

| Range Almber Average

0 to 20% 21 nil to 10 84 4-00

21 to 50% 11 1 to 6 32 2:9i

Sto 77 20 nil to 88 56 2°80

76 to 100% 17 nil to 6 40 2°35

results support this statement. Pearson (1932), has listed, Shorea

robusta Gaertn. f., Terminalia alata nepalensis (Haines) Fernandez

Number of Martesia

440 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

(=T. tomentosa W. & A.), Tectona grandis Linn. f., Steriospermum spp.

as suitable for harbour work. However, the first two species have shown

no borer resistance in the present study.

6. A comparison of the results given in this report with that of

Nagabhushanam (1960) shows that most of the timber found resistant

in Bombay, are badly damaged in Visakhapatnam harbour, probably

due to increased activity of Martesia (in Trombay this borer is never

found to settle in Jarge numbers). This is again in accordance with the

observations of Spoon et al. (1946) and Moore (1947).

7. Balasubramanyam & Menon (1963), found the performance of

Terminalia alata nepalensis (=T. tomentosa) much better than Artocar-

pus hirsuta Lamk., in Cochin waters. In this study, it was noticed that

while the former had reached a destruction of 58%, the latter showed

only 33% damage. The destruction suffered by the various species

tested at Cochin was far less than the corresponding values obtained at

Bombay, even though the duration of immersion in Bombay was only

9 months and that in Cochin was about 15 months.

8. Seven species reported in this paper, namely Mangifera indica

Linn., Casuarina equisetifolia Forst., Cryptomeria japonica D. Don,

Bombax ceiba Linn., Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels [=Eugenia jambolana

Lam., E. cumini (L.)|, Tectona grandis Linn. f. and Artocarpus hetero-

phyllus Lamk. (=A. integrifolia L.f.), have been studied in Hawaiian

waters (Edmondson 1955) with almost identical results. The first five

species are quickly damaged by marine borers in both the localities.

Panels of M. indica were badly damaged in Kayamkulam within 3 months

(Nair 1956). As for T. grandis the period of destruction in Hawaii

ranged from 3 months to 3 years, whereas in Bombay it suffered only

11% damage in 9 months. However, as mentioned by Edmondson

(1955), there is always too much inconsistencies in the performance of

teak samples. Kuriyan (1952) has found teak absolutely free from any

attack during 365 days of continuous immersion at Krusadai, whereas

Nair (1956) noticed light attack in 6 months at Kayamkulam (Kerala).

A. heterophyllus was badly damaged by Teredo and Limnoria within five

months at Hawaii. In the present study it has undergone only 2% des-

truction. It may be due to variation in the repellant factors. However,

more study is required to substantiate the present result.

9. Opinions differ as to the exact phenomenon that can be accoun-

ted for the natural durability of wood in marine conditions. Many

of the foreign timber, which were accredited with great natural dura-

bility, have been found to possess certain poisonous chemicals

Moll (1948), while discussing the factors responsible for the resistance

of wood against borers, attributes it to the presence of ‘beberine’ in

Green-heart [ Ocotea rodiaei(R. Schomb.) Mez.], turpentine oilin Turpen-

tine (Syncarpea laurifolia Ten.) tannins in Oak (Quercus spp.) and resins

RESISTANCE OF INDIAN TIMBER TO MARINE BORERS 441

in some pine wood. He also correlates the density and hardness of

wood to their resistance. However, according to Gonggrijp (1932),

Amos & Dadswell (1948), and Edmondson (1955), the silica content

of the wood play an important role in their borer resistance. But the

inconsistent behaviour of timber samples having different quantities

of silica content tends to make it apparent that silica content is of little

effect and the poisonous inclusions separately or combined with density

and hardness of wood may be the important factors.

Further studies on natural durability, with particular reference to

species of the more resistant families, are in progress.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The above work was carried out in the Central Institute of Fisheries

Education, Bombay, under the scheme for the ‘ Protection of Timber

against the attack of Marine Organisms ’ sponsored by the Wood Preser-

vation Branch of the Forest Research Institute & Colleges, Dehra Dun.

The author is deeply indebted to Shri K. H. Alikunhi, Director & Re-

search Guide, (Central Institute of Fisheries Education, Bombay) for

guidance and encouragement during the course of the investigations and

also for critically going through the manuscript. I also wish to express

my sincere thanks to Dr. A. Purushotham, Director of Biological Re-

search, Forest Research Institute & Colleges, for kindly supplying the

timber panels used in the test. The facilities offered by M/s. Burmah-

Shell Refineries for immersing the test panels from their Jetty at Trom-

bay are gratefully acknowledged.

REFERENCES

Amos, G. L. & DADSWELL, H. E.

(1948) : Siliceous inclusions in wood in

relation to marine borer resistance.

Jour.Counc. Scient. Indust. Res.(Australia)

21(3) : 190-196.

Atwoop, W. G. & JOHNSON, A. A.

(1924): Marine structures and_ their

deterioration. Rept. Comm. Marine

Piling Invest., Nat. Research Council,

Washington.

BALASUBRAMANYAM, R. & MENON, T.R.

(1963): Destruction of boat building

timbers by marine organisms in the Port

of Cochin, Part I—Raft tests. J. Mar.

biol. Assoc. India 5(2) : 294-309.

BAVENDAMM, W. (1948) : Die naturliche

Dauerhaftigkeit des Holzes. Holz-

Zentralbl. (Stuttgart) 74(32) : 263-264.

———— (1949): Tests on the natural

resistance of wood, particularly of tropi-

cal wood, to fungi, termites and marine

borers. Commonwealth Scientific and

Industrial Research Organisation, Divi-

sion of Forest Products, Australia-1.

BrANCHI, A. T. J. (1932): Nadere

gegevens omtrent de aantasting van

Nederlandisch-Indische houtsoorten door

paalworm en andare in zee -en_ brak-

Se reoue dieren. Mededeelingen

van het Boschbouwproefstation j

25 : 101-147. Mane any

(1934) : The resistance of some

Netherlands East Indian timbers against

the attack of shipworms (Teredo). Fifth

Pacific Sci. Congress (Canada, 1933)

Proc. 5: 3903-3906. /

EpMonpson, C. H. (1955) : Resistance

of poecs eae borers in Hawaiian

waters. Bull. Bernice P. Bis

ee ene hop Museum

FFORDE, F. C. (1931) : Sea water tests

of timbers of Kenya Colony. Rep. Comm.

(Deter. Structures). Inst. Civil Engin.

(London) 12: 14-16.

442

Gonccrup, J. W. (1932): Gegevens

betreffende een onderzoek naar Neder-

andsch-Indische houtsoorten, welke

tegen den paalworm bestand zijn, Mede-

deelingen van het Boschbouwproefstation,

25: 1-99.

Howarp, A. L. (1948): A manual of

the timbers of the world: their charac-

teristics and uses. IIIrd ed., (London).

IREDALE, T., JOHNSON, R. . OC

MCNEILL, F. A. (1932): Destruction of

timber by marine organisms in the

port of Sydney. Rep. Maritime Service

Board of New South Wales : 1-148.

JoHNSON, R. A. & Moore, D. D.

(1950): The natural resistance of timber

to marine borer attack: Western

Australia timbers. Port of Sydney Jour.

SQ) 59-972

Kurivan, G. K. (1952) : Notes on the

attachment of marine sedentary orga-

nisms on different surfaces. J. Zool.

Soc. India 4: 157-171.

MEssENT, P. G. (1920): Bombay

Rep. Comm. (Deter. Structures) Inst.

Civil Engin., (London) 1 : 214-219.

MoLL, F. (1948): Naturliche dauer-

haftigkeit des Holzes. Holz-zentralbl

(Stuttgart), 74(21) : 163.

Moore, D. D. (1947): Destruction of

timber by marine borers. Martesia

striata. Port of Sydney Jour. 1(3):

74-75.

NAGABHUSHANAM, R. (1960) : Resist-

ance of Indian timbers to attack by marine

borers. Journal of the Timber Dryers’

and Preservers’ Association of India

6(1) : 1.

Nair, N. B. (1956): Resistance of

certain untreated Indian timbers to

marine borer attack. Jour. Sci. Industr.

Res. 15C(12) : 282.

PEARSON, R. S. & Brown, H. P.

(1932): Commercial timbers of India.

Govt. of India, Central Publication

Branch, Calcutta.

PURUSHOTHAM A. & SANTHA-

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

KUMARAN, L. N. (1962): Table giving

details of replies received from various

organisations regarding panel tests on

timber species in sea waters. Journal of

the Timber Dryers’ and Preservers’ Asso-

ciation of India 8(3) : 12-31.

RocH, F. (1955): Die Terediniden

Ost-und Westindiens der Hollandischen

Museum—Sammlungen zu Amsterdam

ung Leiden. Zool. Mededeelingen 34(8) :

1252

ScoTT, C. W. (1932): Tests in the

Rangoon river on the damage by marine

borers to various woods, including

Burma Teak and British Guiana Green-

heart, creosoted and untreated. Burma

Forest Bull. 28: 1-10.

Spoon, W. & LoosjgEs, F. R. (1946):

Onderzoek naar de duurzaamheid tegen

paalworm van eenige tropische hout-

soorten. Overgedrukt uit het weekblad

* De Ingenieur’ 32: 1-8.

THomMas, A. V. (1933): Tests on the

resistance to marine borer attack of some

Malayan timbers untreated and treated

with preservatives. Malayan Forester

2(4) : 179-182.

Troup, R. S. (1909): Indian woods

and their uses, Indian Forest Mem. Econ.

Products, Calcutta Ser. 10): W+

CCXVIII.

WANGAARD, F. F. (1953): Tropical

American woods for durable waterfront

structures, report of marine borer con-

ference (1952), sponsored by the William

Clapp Laboratory and the Marine

Laboratory, University of Miami, Sec-

tion T: 1-25.

WILSON, H. B. (1941): Resistance of

Australian timbers to attack by marine

borers. Jour. Counc. Scient. Indust. Res.

(Australia) 14(4): 263-265.

ZIENER, PAUL, B. & RASMUSSEN,

KJELD. (1958): Report No. 1 to the

Government of India on fishing boats.

FAO Report No. 945.

Studies on bottom-living diatoms

of a freshwater fish pond

C. S. SrncH?

Central Inland Fisheries Research Sub-Station, Cuttack (Orissa), India

(With three plates)

INTRODUCTION

Bottom-flora of ponds, dominated mainly by diatoms, have a

direct bearing on the production of bottom feeding fishes, since they

form the food of these fishes directly, or indirectly through zooplankters

which feed on the algae. They also serve as indicators of the soil and

water conditions at the bottom of the water body. Very little work has

been done on the soil diatoms of India and, in particular, of fish ponds.

Much work pertaining to the bottom living algae and their distribution in

relation to physico-chemical conditions has been done by Round (1953,

~ 1955, 1957, 1960). A preliminary taxonomic study of the soil diatom

flora of Kolhapur was made by Gandhi (1956). In view of the scanty

information available on the soil diatom flora of ponds in India, an

attempt has been made to study the diatom flora of a fish pond

with special reference to their taxonomy and seasonal fluctuation in

relation to certain chemical factors of bottom soil] and water. The data

obtained are presented here.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The samples for the present investigation were col/ected at monthly

intervals from April 1966 to March 1967 from the Barang fish farm.

Barang (20° 20’ N. 85° 50’ E.) is situated at a distance of 12 km. from

Cuttack in Orissa State. To collect the bottom soil and water an Ekman

dredge and a locally made water sampler of one litre capacity respectively

were uSed. To provide the medium for the growth of bottom algae

_ Sufficient quantity of water and soil were collected. Pond water was

filtered twice with Whatman filter paper No. 44 to make it free from

living organisms as far as possible and also to supply the dissolved mineral

nutrients required for the growth of soilalgae. Different experimental

1Present address: Dept. of Biological Sciences, School of Basic Sciences &

Humanities, U.P. Agricultural University, Pantnagar, Dist. Nainital, India.

444. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

jars were set up with double filtered pond water and soi] to assess the

diatom population. In these jars, a set of four slides fitted in cork were

inserted in such a way that the free ends of the slides touched the soil at

the bottom of the jars.

The qualitative and quantitative estimation was made following the

method suggested by Sladeckova (1962) by examining the diatoms which

appeared in area of 2450 mm. on each slide and also by counting the

diatom remains obtained by cleaning and boiling a sample of the soil

used in the experimental jars in a mixture of sulphuric acid and nitric

acid. After washing, the diatom remains were mounted in styrax

on slides and all the species in each sample were recorded. For obser-

vations on seasonal fluctuations average counts from three sets were

taken. The arbitrary terms like abundant, common, present, rare and

absent were used to denote the percentage of organisms recorded ranging

from 76 to 100 ; 51 to 75 ; 26 to 50; 1 to 25 and zero respectively.

In all, 10 genera representing 25 species of diatoms and their seasonal

fluctuations in relation to certain chemical features of water and soil are

described. The water samples were analysed for pH, phosphate, silica

and nitrates following the methods given in ‘ Standard methods for the

examination of the water and waste water ’ A.P.H.A. (1965), and the soil

according to the methods given by Piper (1950). The classification as

given by Hustedt (1930) has been followed.

SYSTEMATIC LIST

1. Synedra affinis Kitz.

F. Hustedt in A. Pascher’s Die Stsswasserfl. Mitteleuropas 10:

159-160, f. 184, 1930. (Text-fig. 1)

Length—110, ; breadth—4-5 p ; striations—12-13 in 10p.

2. §. ulna (Nitz.) Ebr. var. subaequalis Grun. Li

Van Heurck, Syn. Dist. t. 38, f. 8, 11, 12, 13, 23 t) 39, tb, ose

(Text-fig. 2)

Length—113-116 » ; breadth—4-5 p ; striations—12-14 in 10 p.

3. Eunotia pseudolunaris Venkt. in Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. (B), 10:

311, £..53, 61, 1939.” (M@lext-fe; 3)

Length—129-199 » ; breadth—4-5 p ; striations—15-18 in 10m.

4. KE. valida Hust. in A. Pascher’s Die Sisswasserfl, Mitteleuropas

10: 178, f. 229, 1930. (Text-figs. 4, 5, 6)

Length—35-64 » ; breadth—3-6 » ; striations—12-16 in 10.

10.

PT:

12.

LS:

14.

15,

BOTTOM LIVING DIATOMS | 445

E. pectinalis (Kitz.) Rabh. var. ventralis (Ehr.) Hust. ibidem 10:

182, f. 241, 1930. (Text-fig. 7)

Length—36-40 yu ; breadth—9-10 p ; striations—| 1-12in 10yz.

E. sudetica O. Mill. var. bidens Hust. ibidem 10: 182, f. 243, 1930.

(Text-fig. 8)

Length—40-48 p ; breadth—6-9 » ; striations—12-13 in 10p.

Neidium affine (Ehr.) Cleve var. longiceps (Greg.) Cleve F. Hustedt, |

ibidem 10: 244, f. 318, 1930. (Text-fig. 9)

Length—30-45 » ; breadth—7-8; striations—22-24 in 10, and

clearly punctate.

Gomphonema sphaerophorum Ehr.

F. Hustedt, ibidem 10 : 372, f. 695, 1930. (Text-fig. 10)

Length—38-58 » ; breadth—8-10 ; striations 13-14 in 10yz.

G. gracile Ehr.

F. Hustedt, ibidem 10 : 376, f. 702, 1930. (Text-fig. 11)

Length—61-75 uw ; breadth—9-10 p ; striations—11-13 in 10p.

Navicula radiosa Kitz. Van Heurck, Syn. Diat. t. 7, f. 20, 1881.

(Text-fig. 12)

Length—41-45 uw ; breadth—6-7 p» ; striations—12-14 in 10.

N. ingrata G. Krasske in Arch. Hydrobiol. 33 : 528, t. 11, f. 17-18.

_ 1938 et in F. Hustedt, Die Kieselalgen 7 (3) : 137, f. 1270, 1930-

1932. (Vext-fig. 13)

Length—33-35; breadth—9-10,;. striations—24-26 (faintly

visible) in 10.

N. subadnata Hust. in Rabenhorst’s Kryptogamen-flora 7 (3:2):

233, f. 1354, 1932. (Text-figs. 14-15)

Length—9-10, ; breadth—5S p ; striations—22 in 10y.

N. krasskei Hust. in A. Pascher’s Die Susswasserfl. Mitteleuropas

10: 287, f. 481, 1930. (Text-fig. 16)

Length—6-15; breadth—4-6p ; striations—38-40 (very faintly

visible) in 10 pu.

Pinnularia interrupta W. Smith

F. Hustedt, ibidem 10 : 317, f. 572, 1930. (Text-fig. 17)

Length—49-52 uw ; breadth—8-10 ; costae—10-12 in 10p.

P. gibba Ehr.

F. Hustedt, ibidem 10 : 327, f. 600, 1930. (Text-fig. 18)

Length—S0-71 » ; breadth—7-12 uw ; costae—10-12 in 10 yn.

446 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

PTT

var.

9. Neidium affine (Ehr.) Cleve

7. E. pectinalis (Kttz.) Rabh.

10. Gomphonema_ sphaerophorum Ehr.

2. S. ulna (Nitz.) Ehr. var. subaequalis Grun.

4-6. E. valida Hust.

ventralis (Ehr.) Hust. 8. E. sudeticaO. Mill. var. bidens Hust.

Text-figs. 1-10. 1. Synedra affinis Kitz.

var. longiceps (Greg.) Cleve.

Eunotia pseudolunaris Venkt.

BOTTOM LIVING DIATOMS _— 447

16. P. major W. Smith, Syn. Brit. Diatom. 1: 54, pl. 17, f. 162, 1853.

(Text-fig. 20)

Length—96-98 » ; breadth—18-19, (in middle) and 13-14, (to-

wards ends) ; costae—9-10 in 10 wu.

17. P. viridis (Nitz.) Ehr. var. turgidus Singh in Proc. nat. Acad. Sci.

(B) 32 : 239, f. 28, 29, 1962. (Text-fig. 19)

| Length—60-62 p ; ; breadth—15-16p ; costae—9-10 in 10h.

18. Amphora veneta Kitz., F. Hustedt in Pascher’s Die Sitisswasserfl.

Mitteleuropas 10, p. 345, f. 631, 1930. (Text-fig. 21)

Length—20-25 u ; breadth—4-6 » ; striations—10-12 in?10y.

19. Cymbella turgida (Grog.) Cleve, Van Heurck, Syn. Diat. tas f 12

1881. (Text-fig. 22)

ene te 41; breadth—10-11y ; striations—6-7 in 10p.

ayy

= =I cy

wo | Se =.

oF AS —4

0) Z Sa a

Fi} —¥

oe IS —¥

1S —h

= i —F

1S, oa —

Za: =o.

— —H v

PS =s

ES | A =

i 2 é

iB =i

— Ck +

F = Ca —

Cir 4 ——

= — ERED *

> ' “<-sg —H

SARE; |

‘: = ) Es —H

— s

ia |) SS —F

Ki a

| ard 4 FH

} oo Hl SH cH

‘ S =i

Re | Se i

f> | Sa —

=a i

| J

| Zi =

i i

i ED 7

if Se

b Sy

: S

SYN ORS.

Sih mes

es aa

Text-figs. 11-19. Gomphonema gracile Ehr. 12. Navicula radiosa Kitz. 13. N. ingrata

(3. Krasske 14-15. N. subadnata Hust. 16. N. krasskei Hust. 17. Pinnularia interrupta W.

>mith 18. P. gibbaEhr. 19. P. viridis (Nitz.) Ehr. var..turgidus Singh. -

20. C. wallaceana Hust., A. Schmidt. Atl. Diatomaceenk: t. 379, f. 12,

1874-1934. (Text-fig. 23)

Length—65-68 » ; breadth—13-15 1 ; striations—7 in 10.

448 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

21. Nitzschia palea (Kitz.) W. Smith, Cleve-Euler, Diat. Schwed.

Finn. 5: 90, f. 1504 a-b, 1951-55. (Text-figs. 24, 25)

Length—16-25; breadth—3-44; keel punctae—12 in 10 ee

striations—28-30 in 10.

22. N. lorenziana Grun. var. subtilis Grun., A. Schmidt. Ati.

Diatomaceenk. t. 335, f. 6-8, 1874-1934. (Text-figs. 26, 27)

Length—110-145 » ; breadth—6-7 u ; striations—22-24 (very faint)

in 10p.

——

aes |

Panratae

POO YIN

Text-figs. 20-30, 20. Pinnularia major W. Smith. 21. Amphora veneta Kiitz. 22. Cym-

bella turgida Gee) Cleve. 23. C. wallaceana Hust. 24-25. Nitzschia palea (Kutz.) W. Smith.

26-27. N. lorenziana Grun. var. subtilis Grun. 28. N. acicularis W. Smith. 29. N. paleacea Grun.

30. Hantzschia amphioxys (Ehr.) Grun. var. densestriata (Fout.) Cleve.

449

BOTTOM LIVING DIATOMS

amas air alg a oe “ie ta ae get eent dageur sede a euigclaegs ie: ale 5 ri — aflandb "6

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450 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

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BOTTOM LIVING DIATOMS 451

23. N. acicularis W. Smith, F. Hustedt loc. cit. 10: 423, f. 821, 1930.

(Text-fig. 28)

Length—30-36 4; breadth—3-4; keel punctae—15 in 10,4 ;

striations—invisible.

24. N. paleacea Grun., A. Schmidt At/. Diatomaceenk. t. 349, f. 14,

1874-1934. (Text-fig. 29)

Length—14-16; breadth—4-5; keel punctae—10-12 in 10p;

striations—invisible.

25. Hantzschia amphioxys (Ehr.) Grun, var. densestriata (Fout.) Cleve

in Cleve—Euler, Diat. Schwed. Finn. 5 : 49, f. 1419 n-p, 1951-55.

(Text-fig. 30)

Length—30-34u; breadth—S-64; keel puncte—small 8-9 in

10 » ; striations—19-23 (very faint) in 10p.

TABLE 2

SEASONAL RANGES IN SOME PHYSICO-CHEMICAL CONDITIONS OF BOTTOM SOIL AND

WATER OF A POND AT BARANG DURING APRIL 1966 TO MARCH 1967

Period Soil Water

pH Phos-_ Silica Nitrate pH Phos- Silica Nitrate

phate | phate

ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm

April- 6°5 4°5 16°0 29 TO: ~- 70305 9-0 0°04

June to to to to to to

5°6 18-0 3:0 0:06 10°5 0:05

July- 65 5°8 18:0 3°0 70 ~=0°08 12:0 0:07

September to to to to to to

6:0 20°0 3°05 0-1 15:0 0:09

Octoher-- GS: 4:4. 140 724.” 2 0°04: «90... 0°03.

_ December to to to i to to to

4°5 1520) ices 225 0:05 925 0:04

January- 6.5 5:0 14-0 2°5 6:8 0:06 11:0 0:05

March to to to to to to

5c5 es 2°6 0°07 ies 0:06

_ DISCUSSION

Variations in number of diatoms were phate throughout the year,

which is evident from. the above data... Similar observations. were: re-

corded ~ by other workers like Lund (1942), Round (1957, 1960).

However, Table 1 shows comparatively more diatoms during the months

452 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

of October, November and December. During this period the abundant

forms were Gomphonema sphaerophorum, G. gracile, and Navicula radiosa

and common forms were Synedra affinis, S. ulna var. subaequalis, Eunotia

valida, Navicula subadnata, N. krasskei, Pinnularia interrupta, P. gibba,

Cymbella turgida and Nitzschia acicularis. Their presence coincided. with

considerable reduction in phosphate, silica and nitrate values, (Table 2).

It is a well known fact that nitrate is essential in the synthesis and main-

tenance of protein, carbohydrates and fats in plant cells and that diatoms

are capable of reducing nitrate to nitrite in ponds (Reid 1966).

Phosphate is often considered to be the most critical single factor in the

operation of energy transfer system during metabolism of cells and is

normally required in a very small amount. Silica is equally important

in the formation of frustules of diatoms. It is evident from the present

investigations that during the months of October, November and

December when the phosphate, silica and nitrate contents are at their

minimum, the cell number increases (Tables 1 & 2). It clearly indicates

the inverse relationship between the diatoms and the chemical factors

mentioned above. Pearsall (1923) has also observed that when diatoms

come up in large numbers, nitrates and silica get depleted. My observa-

tions agree with the conclusions drawn by Patrick (1948), Round (1960),

Singh (1964) and Reid (1966).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author wishes to express his gratitude to Dr. M. T. Philipose for

suggesting the problem, encouragement and for helpful suggestions

in the preparation of the manuscript. Thanks are due to Dr. V.G.

Jhingran, Director, for providing necessary facilities and valuable sugges-

tions.

REFERENCES

ANONYMOUS (1965) : Standard methods

for the examination of water and waste

water. American Public Health Associa-

tion, 1965, New York : 796 p.

GANDHI, H. P. (1956): A preliminary

account of the soil diatom-flora of Kol-

hapur. J. Indian bot. Soc. 35 : 402-408.

HustTEpDT, Fr. (1930): Bacillariophyta

(Diatomaceae) in A. Pascher, Die Szss-

wasserflora Mitteleuropas 10: 1-466.

Jena.

PATRICK, R. (1948) : Factors affecting

the distribution of diatoms. Bot. Rey.

14: 473-524.

PEARSALL, W. H. (1923): A theory of

diatom periodicity. J. Ecol. 11 : 165-183.

_Preer, C. S. (1950): Soil and plant

analysis. University of Adelaide, 368 p.

ReIp, G. K. (1966): Ecology of Inland

waters and Estuaries. Reinhold Publish-

ing Corporation, New York, pp. 176-

02.

Rounp, F. E. (1953): An _ investiga-

tion of two benthic algal communities in

Malham Tarn, Yorkshire. J. Ecol. 41;

174-197,

(1955): Some observations

on the benthic algal flora of four

small ponds. Arch. Hydrobiol.50:111-135.

———— (1957, 1960): Studies on

bottom-living algae in some lakes of the

English lake Districts. J. Ecol. 45: 133-

148 ; 342-360, 1957 ; 48: 529-547, 1960.

SINGH, C. S. (1964): Seasonal fluc-

tuation in diatom population. Internat.

Tropical Ecol, 5: 42-51.

SLADECKOVA, A. (1962) : Limnological

investigation methods for the periphyton

community. Bot. Rev. 28 : 286-350.

Observations on the breeding of

Storks in India and Ceylon

M. PHILIP KAHL

Dept. of Ornithology, American Museum of Natural History,

New York

(With five plates)

This paper reports on some observations made on breeding storks in India

and Ceylon during August-October 1966, August-December 1967, and January

1968. Observations are reported on breeding dates, behaviour, ecology,

morphology, and taxonomic relationships of the six species nesting in this area.

Based on these studies I would recommend the following changes from the

classification given by Peters (1931): Ibis leucocephalus to Mycteria leuco-

cephala ; Dissoura episcopus to Ciconia episcopus ; Xenorhynchus asiaticus to

Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus.

INTRODUCTION

The Indian subcontinent contains six breeding species of storks

(Ciconiidae). In number of breeding species it is surpassed only by

Africa, which contains eight. My visits to India in August-October

1966 and August-December 1967 and to Ceylon in December 1967-

January 1968 were part of a continuing study of the ecology and com-

parative behaviour of the storks of the world.

In India, breeding storks were studied principally in and near the

Keoladeo Ghana Sanctuary at Bharatpur, Rajasthan ; inthe Brahmaputra

flood-plain of central Assam; and at Periyar Sanctuary, Kerala. In

Ceylon, I studied storks at Wilpattu National Park and, briefly,

at Kalamatiya Lagoon, on the south-west coast.

In this paper I have followed the nomenclature of Peters (1931) but

have suggested changes where I feel that new evidence warrants them.

STORKS OF INDIA AND CEYLON

Ibis leucocephalus Painted Stork

An abundant nester at Bharatpur, where several thousand pairs breed

in years of adequate flooding. In 1966 and 1967 egg-laying began in

late August after the monsoon rains and water froma nearby reservoir had

flooded the nesting and feeding areas, and fish had moved into the shallow

454 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

water. Most nests were built.in low ‘ babul’ trees (Acacia arabica),

growing in shallow water. Here Painted Storks nest in close association

with a variety of other water birds (Plate I) such as Anastomus oscitans,

Threskiornis melanocephala, Platalea leucorodia, Egretta garzetta, E.

intermedia, and Phalacrocorax niger. The breeding colonies at the

Keoladeo Ghana have been previously described by Ali (1953).

Whenever one member of a pair of Painted Storks, returns to the nest

after an absence, the bird and its mate greet each other with a version of

the ‘ Up-Down’ display, shown in a variety of forms by all species of

storks. Both birds point their bills upward, gape them widely open,

and utter a weak, hissing scream of 1-2 seconds duration, which sounds

much like the ‘ fizz’ produced by uncapping a carbonated beverage.

The head and neck are then moved downward and from side to side

(Plate 1); during the downward motion, the vocalization is repeated once

or twice at 2-3 second intervals. Between vocalizations—during which

the bill is gaped open—single, double, or triple audible snaps of the bill

are given in rapid succession. However, the Painted Stork does not

produce a irue prolonged clattering sound during the greeting display—

as do some other storks, such as Ciconia, Dissoura, Xenorhynchus, and

Leptoptilos. True clattering in the Painted Stork is heard only during

copulation and, occasionally, in short bursts during other courtship dis-

plays and during intra- or interspecific fights.

Behaviour patterns observed in the Painted Stork were qualitatively

similar to homologous patterns shown by the Yellowbilled Stork (Jbis

ibis) of Africa, the Milky Stork (/bis cinereus) of south-east Asia, and the

Wood Stork (Mycteria americana) of the Americas (details to be published

separately). Their agreement in behaviour, coupled with morphological

similarities, confirms their close relationships, and I believe that they

should be united under one genus. The genus Mycteria has priority

and, thus, the scientific name of the Painted Stork would become Mycteria

l-ucocephala (Pennant).

Anastomus oscitans Asian Openbill Stork

Another abundant colonial species at Bharatpur, found breeding in

the same trees as the previous species but generally beginning to nest

several weeks earlicr. In 1966 some Openbills laid eggs in early August

and many had completed clutches by the third weekin August. In 1967

both the monsoon flooding and egg-laying occurred about 10 days later.

Apparently Openbills begin breeding only after flooding increases the

availability of their food supply by bringing the Pila snails out of esti-

vation (Saxena 1956). At Wilpattu National Park, Ceylon, Openbills

were just starting to nest, but had not yet laid eggs in the nests that I saw,

in late December 1967. Extralimital observations were also made in

the large breeding colony at Wat Pai Lorm, near Bangkok, Thailand,

J. BomBay NAT. Hist Soc. 67 (3) PLATE [

Kahl : Storks

Above : A typical nest-tree at the Keoladeo Ghana colony, containing nests of the Painted and

Openbill Storks. Below : The “‘Up-Down”’ greeting display, being given by a pair of Painted

Storks, The male is on the right. Note erection of upper-back feathers and drooping of undevr-tail

coverts.

(Photos ; Author)

- Sen Se

(ong oppo.

9}0U) SUI}EQNSUI J[elUsJ :SsuIpUR}S sv, “INd}e1eyg ‘AIeN}JOURS

BueYL) OdPP[OIY 9} 1B SOU AI9Y} Je SYIOIG poyoouyovyg jo lied v

I] LV 1g

BREEDING OF STORKS 455

where nests in all stages—from eggs to large, nearly-fledged young—

were found in early February 1968.

The large fresh-water snail, Pila globosa, is a favourite food of Open-

bills. I agree with Ali & Ripley (1968 : 96) that the gap in the bill is not

meant for crushing snails. The techniques used by Anastomus to extract

molluscs from their shells—generally without extensive damage to the

shell—is the subject of another paper (Kahl, in press, a). Briefly, the

bird wedges the thin tip of the lower mandible under the operculum of

the snail and, apparently, severs the snail’s columellar muscle, frecing the

body from the shell. Usually the operculum is snipped off by the tip of

the bill, but in the case of small snails, the body may be swallowed with

the operculum still attached.

At the beginning of the breeding season, adult Openbills are imma-

culate white, with black primaries, secondaries, scapulars, and tail, and

with bright, deep-pink legs. Soon after the eggs are laid the white plumage

turns a dirty grey, apparently through a change in the individual feathers

(without a moult), and the legs fade to a duller pink.

_ Inthe nests at Bharatpur that I was able to follow closely, both parents

shared the duties of incubation and feeding of the young. On several

occasions a parent was seen to regurgitate a quantity (estimated at

100-200 cc.) of water and drool it over the eggs. Whether this was mainly

to cool the eggs or to maintain a proper humidity is not known.

Hume & Oates (1890 : 225) recorded that Openbill nests are somehow

wetted by the parents but apparently did not see them regurgitate water

into the nest ; they hypothesized that such moisture aided in fermentation,

which in turn added warmth for incubation. Watering of the eggs has

been noted in the African Openbill and several other species of storks

(Kahl, unpub. notes), and in the lapwing, Vanellus malabaricus (Jayakar &

Spurway 1965), although in the latter species the water was carried in the

belly feathers rather than being regurgitated.

The ‘Up-Down’ greeting display of the Openbill (Plate II) is

remarkably similar to that in the Painted Stork (described above). The

neck is much more strongly arched forward, and the vocalizations are

rather loud, oft-repeated, low-pitched and hollow honking sounds,

approximately 0°5 second in duration and uttered about once per second.

It is perhaps appropriate here to point out that the photograph of

Anastomus oscitans reproduced in Thomson’s (1964) NEW DICTIONARY OF

BIRDS (Plate 28) and labelled ‘greeting display’ is actually a head-

rubbing comfort movement ; it was correctly captioned when originally

published in Huxley (1962). During the ‘ Up-Down’ display the Open-

-bill does not throw its head all the way over onto the back, as does the

White Stork (Ciconia ciconia) nor does it clatter. During the hundreds

‘of hours that I spent observing Openbills during two breeding seasons, I

never heard true bill-clattering given during a ritualized display. During

456 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

copulation the male beats his bill rapidly back and forth against the bill

of the female and produces a clattering sound ; however, here the clat-

tering comes from the contact of the two bills, rather than from a rapid

opening and closing of the bill as in the other storks.

Dissoura episcopus Whitenecked or Woollynecked Stork

This stork is widespread, if uncommon, as a breeder in northern India

but does not nest in colonies. During 1966 and 1967 I located three

active nests within a 50 km. radius of Bharatpur and another at Sholaka,

approximately halfway between Bharatpur and New Delhi. From the

ages of the young in the nests, I calculated that egg-laying in this area had

occurred in early or mid-July. At Periyar Sanctuary, Kerala, I found

a nest in mid-December 1967 that, judging by the parents’ behaviour,

probably contained eggs. Dr. Salim Ali (personal comm.) once saw a

nest with large young at Periyar during the month of February.

The nests I found were of medium bulk, approximately 1 m.in diameter,

and composed of sticks and small branches. They were placed in the

tops of ‘ Neem’ (Azadirachta indica) and ‘ Imli’ (Tamarindus indicus)

trees and were from 10-20 m. above the ground.

Half-grown nestlings resemble adults in pattern, except that they lack

the purple iridescence on their wings and breast and have white feathers

on the parts of the face that are bare plumbeous skin in the adults.

Few social displays were seen in wild birds, probably because most

nests were found late in the season after the young were well grown.

Furthermore, my observations on a number of species of storks suggest

that in the tropics the solitary-nesting species probably mate for life,

and, thus, are less demonstrative at the nest with a ‘familiar’ mate ;

whereas colonial-nesting species probably choose a new mate each

season, and, thus, tend to display more. This hypothesis is based partly

on the fact that solitary species often return to the same nest in successive

years, and are frequently seen in pairs even outside the breeding season.

In colonial species, there is much shifting about of females, from

nest to nest, during pair-formation, and such a system would seem in-

compatible with a permanent pair-bond. Moreover, it is unlikely that

many colonial storks reclaim the same nest in successive seasons, because

few of the flimsy structures survive from one year to the next. From

ringing data we know that the White Stork (C. ciconia) of Europe—

normally a non-colonial species—often remates with the same partner

for many seasons ; in this species the attraction seems to be mainly to the

nest, rather than to the individual mate, per se (Schuz 1938: 578),

The question of the duration of the pair-bond in the various storks will,

of course, remain open until it can be demonstrated through extensive

ringing operations. Such a programme would seem highly desirable—and

BREEDING OF STORKS 437

feasible—at the Keoladeo Ghana Sanctuary, especially among the

colonial species.

I did witness an ‘ Up-Down.’ display in a pair of Whitenecked Storks

in the Dehiwela Zoo, Colombo, Ceylon, in December 1967. This

display and the accompanying high-pitched, whistling vocalizations were

strikingly similar to the ‘ Up-Down’ of Abdim’s Stork (Sphenorhynchus

abdimii) of Africa, and also showed affinities with the Maguari Stork

(Euxenura galeata) of South America, and the White Stork (C. ciconia)

and Black Stork (C. nigra) of Europe ; details of these displays will be

published elsewhere. Based on these observations, as well as other

behavioural and morphological similarities, I propose that all of these

genera be included in the genus Ciconia. Thus, the scientific name of the

Whitenecked Stork would become Ciconia episcopus (Boddaert) ; such a

nomenclature has already been adopted for episcopus by Ripley (1961)

and Ali & Ripley (1968).

Xenorhynchus asiaticus Blacknecked Stork

This species was observed at length only in the vicinity of Bharatpur,

where I found two nests in 1966 and seven nests (occupied by at least five

different pairs)in 1967. The massive solitary nests, about 2 m. in diameter

and 1-1°5 m. deep, were placed in the crowns of ‘ Peepul’ (Ficus reli-

giosa) or ‘Kadum’ (Mitragyna parvifolia) trees, usually in flooded

woodlands. A nest with at least one young about two weeks old was

found on 15 October 1966, indicating that egg-laying had occurred in

early September. In 1967 a few nests were visited by Blacknecks in late

August and early September, but egg-laying in most pairs probably was not

until late September or October. The rains were more prolonged in

1967 and flooding was more extensive ; perhaps these ecological condi-

tions caused the delay in the initiation of breeding.

Several times I saw Blacknecked Storks regurgitate a large quantity

(1-2 litres) of water and drool it over the contents of the nest (presumed

to be eggs). On one occasion a bird drank 21 times in the marsh, flew

back to the nest, and regurgitated the water over the platform. Watering

the eggs has also been observed in the closely related Saddlebill Stork

(Ephippiorhynchus senegalensis) in Africa (Kahl, unpubl. notes).

To my knowledge the Blacknecked Stork is exclusively a solitary nester.

Pairs of birds were frequently seen together before nesting began, and I

think it highly likely that they remain mated for life.

Most pairs watched were quite undemonstrative at the nest, seeming

to pay scant attention to the comings and goings of their mate. However,

I did witness and take motion-pictures of the spectacular greeting

display—homologous to the ‘ Up-Down’ in other storks—on several

occasions, This display was described by Hume & Oates (1890 : 266)

and has apparently not been recorded since. Hume’s observations were

458- JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

of birds on the ground, away from the nest, but I saw it performed only

by pairs in trees, usually on nest-platforms. The birds stood erect,

facing each other, with their wings widely spread and the tips of one

bird’s wings nearly touching those of the other. They fluttered

their wings rapidly (c. 3-4 times per second) and clattered loudly while

holding their bills in the normal position, about 30-45° below the

horizontal.

Unlike the other Indian storks, the sexes of the Blacknecked can be

distinguished at a glance. The male has a dark brown iris, whereas:

the female has a bright lemon-yellow iris, which contrasts sharply with the

black feathers of the head (Plate IJ). In this sexual dimorphism, as well

as in numerous other aspects of morphology and in general behaviour,

the Blacknecked Stork shows very close affinities with the Saddlebill

Stork (Ephippiorhynchus senegalensis) of Africa. I believe that the two

should be considered congeneric. Both genera were described on the

same page of Bonaparte (1857) ; however, the name Ephippiorhynchus

appeared first on the page and, thus, has priority (Mayr, Linsley & Usingér

1953 : 222) over Xenorhynchus. Therefore, the scientific name of the

Blacknecked Stork would become Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus (Latham).

Leptoptilos dubius Greater Adjutant Stork

Non-breeding individuals or small flocks were seen at Bharatpur in

August 1966 and near New Delhi in August 1967. However, the only

nest (Plates IIIf & IV) found was in the Kaziranga Wildlife Sanctuary,

Assam, in November-December 1967. This is apparently the only record

in this century of L. dubius breeding within the borders of India

(Ali & Ripley 1968 : 107).

The Kaziranga nest was in the crown of a ‘ Satian’ tree (Aistronia

scholaris) about 27-30 m. high, growing in a small forest at the edge of an

elephant-grass savannah (Plate III). The nest was in the highest tree

within 500m. When.found on 27th November 1967, it contained two

young approximately 30-35 days old, indicating that the eggs had been

laid in late September.

Most behaviour patterns of the adults at the nest and of non-breeding

wild birds, as well as of captives observed in the New Delhi and Calcutta

Zoos, were closely similar to those of the Marabou Stork (L. crumeniferus)

which was extensively studied in Africa (Kahl 1966a). However, the

‘Up-Down’ greeting display was an exception. In the Marabou’s

‘ Up-Down ’, the bird throws its head vertically upward, utters a series

of high-pitched squeals and lower-pitched, cow-like ‘moos’; and then

points its bill downward and clatters loudly. The homologous display in

dubius is similar in form and vocalizations, except that the clattering is

done upward ; as the head is lowered toward the normal position, all

clattering ceases before the bill has reached the horizontal.

J. BomBAY NAT. Hist. Soc, 67 (3) PLATE III

Kahl : Storks.

Nest-tree of L. dubius in Kaziranga Wildlife Sanctuary, Assam. The nest is at the top of

the main trunk. (Rings around trunk are a ladder used by climbers to trim branches

surrounding nest for an unobstructed view.)

(Photo : Author)

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BREEDING OF STORKS 459

Since the ‘ Up-Down’ display appears to be of major importance in

the maintenance of the pair-bond in all storks, I doubt that dubius and

crumeniferus would freely interbreed even if sympatric. Therefore, I

would reject the suggestion of some authors (e.g. Meinertzhagen 1951)

that they be considered conspecific. I do feel that dubius and crumeniferus

are closely enough related to be considered a superspecies (Amadon 1966).

Although my observations on dubius were incomplete, judging from

the behaviour I did see and the behaviour of its close relative crumeni-

ferus, I would question the statement made by Beker (1935: 447), and

reiterated by Ali & Ripley (1968 : 107), that the ‘courtship dance’ of

dubius is similar to that of the Blacknecked Stork. The behavioural

repertoires of these two species are really quite different. A more com-

plete discussion of the behaviour of the Adjutants is presented elsewhere

(Kahl, in press, b).

Leptoptilos javanicus Lesser Adjutant Stork

In late November 1967 approximately 36 active nests of javanicus

were found in the Laokhowa Reserve, near Nowgong, Assam. Most of

the nests contained nestlings 30-75 days of age, indicating that egg-laying

took place between mid-August and late September.

The nests were scattered in a loose colony—with 1-6 nests per tree—

over several hectares of second-growth forest. Most were in the tops of

‘Satian’ (Aistronia scholaris) and ‘ Simul’ (Salmalia malabarica) trees

15-20 m. high. The structures were rather flimsy platforms of sticks,

0°7-1 m. in diameter, lined with smaller twigs and green leaves.

The Lesser Adjutant is reputed to be less of a scavenger than its larger

cousin, dubius (Ali & Ripley 1968: 108). My observations of food

brought to the nest tend to confirm this, although, like crumeniferus in

Africa (Kahl 1966b), dubius may also bring a significant proportion of

live prey to its young. Food given to javanicus nestlings was fed by re-

gurgitation and consisted of fish, frogs, and rats. Most of these items

were probably captured alive in nearby marshes and fields. However,

the tremendous odour given off by one large rat brought to a nestling in a

nest only 8 m. from my observation platform indicated that it had been

picked up dead. Both adults fed the nestlings in the nests that I watched.

Several times I witnessed parents regurgitating water to nestlings

(Plate V). Watering the young has been observed in several other species

of storks (Kahl 1966b, & unpubl. notes) and may be related to the peculiar

mechanism for thermoregulation that all storks possess. Birds of this

_ family commonly excrete a dilute urine onto the bare portion of the leg ;

the evaporative cooling produced by this liquid apparently aids in the

prevention of hyperthermia (Kahl 1963). Thus, nestling storks require

more water than do other species that do not employ polyuria as a thermo-

regulatory device.

460 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

The majority of behaviour patterns observed in Lesser Adjutants

were Closely similar to those of the Greater Adjutant. The ‘ Up-Down’

greeting display incorporated an upward clattering (Plate V), similar to

dubius (see above) and quite different from crumeniferus in Africa.

Vocalizations heard during displays of javanicus were hoarser and more

rasping than those given by dubius. I did not find javanicus to be more

shy than dubius (at least at the nest), as has been previously reported

(Ali & Ripley 1968 : 108).

Since the observed behaviour of the two species appeared similar, one

wonders what factors serve as isolating mechanisms to prevent inter-

breeding in areas, such as Burma, where the two Adjutants nest together

in large mixed colonies (Smythies 1953). Perhaps there are important

differences in the displays which function during courtship and pair-

formation (Kahl, in press, b), or perhaps the morphological differences

between the two species are sufficient to prevent the formation of hybrid

pairs.

In appearance, the two Adjutants are generally similar, but there are

a number of discreet differences that are most apparent during the breed-

ing season (cf. Plates IJ & IV). Both Adjutants have dark blue-black

upper parts in non-breeding plumage. The back and wings of dubius

take on a noticeably paler, almost powder-blue, colour during the breed-

ing season and the greater secondary coverts become a very light grey,

forming a contrasting light band down the wing that is conspicuous when

the bird is standing or in flight. In javanicus the upper parts remain a

dark, slaty, blue-black in the breeding plumage, and only the inner 4-5

greater secondary coverts are very narrowly edged with white. The

median secondary coverts (not the greater coverts, as is widely stated in

the literature) have oval copper-coloured spots, approximately 20 mm.

long, near their tips.

In breeding plumage both Adjutants possess well-developed, fluffy

under-tail coverts, which are spread and drooped conspicuously during

social displays. In javanicus these coverts are pure white, but in dubius

they grade from white at their base to dark smoky-grey at their tips.

Furthermore, the heads and necks of the two species differ significantly.

The bill of dubius is more massive, often with a slightly decurved culmen ;

that of javanicus is slimmer and slightly recurved. The forehead of dubius

is covered with dark encrustations, having the appearance of scabs of

dried blood, whereas javanicus has a smooth, light yellowish-tan frontal-

plate. The neck of dubius is largely unfeathered and has at its base in

front a large air sac that can be inflated to a length of 20-30 cm.

Although I did not observe it, I think it probable that this throat-sac in

dubius is displayed prominently during courtship, as is the similar sac of

crumeniferus (Kahl 1966a). A large, pendant throat-sac is lacking in

Javanicus.

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BREEDING OF STORKS

461

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The field work was done under research grants from the National

Geographic Society, Washington, D.C., and this paper was written while

the author was a Chapman Research Fellow at the American Museum of

Natural History, New York.

I am very grateful to Dr. Salim Ali for encouragement and advice

throughout the study.

Without the benefit of his wide experience with

Indian birds this project would have been much more difficult.

I am

also indebted to P. Abeyesundere (Colombo), E, P. Gee (Shillong),

P. C. Gogoi (Nowgong), Hukum Singh (Bharatpur), and to the officers

and staffs of the Departments of Forestry of Rajasthan and Assam and

the Kaziranga Wildlife Sanctuary, respectively, for helpful information

and field assistance.

My wife, Doris, assisted greatly in the preparation

of the manuscript and in many other ways during the course of the field

work.

REFERENCES

ALI, S. (1953) : The Keoladeo Ghana

of Bharatpur (Rajasthan). J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 51: 531-536.

——— & Rrptey, S. D. (1968) :

Handbook of the Birds of India and

Pakistan. Vol. 1. Bombay: Oxford

Univ. Press.

Amapon, D. (1966) : The superspecies

concept. Syst. Zool. 15: 245-249.

Baker, E. C. S. (1935): The nidifi-

cation of birds of the Indian Empire.

Vol. 4. London: Taylor & Francis.

BONAPARTE, C. L. (1857) : Conspectus

generum avium. Tom. 2. Leiden:

E. J. Brill.

Hume, A. O. & Oates, E. W. (1890):

The nests and eggs of Indian birds.

Second Edition. Vol. 3. London:

R. H. Porter.

Hux.ey, J. S. (1962): The Openbill

Stork, Anastomus oscitans. Ibis 104:

4142:

JAYAKAR, S.D. & SpuRWAY, H. (1965) :

The Yellow-wattled Lapwing, Vanellus

malabaricus (Boddaert), a tropical dry-

season nester. II. Additional data on

breeding biology. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 62 : 1-14.

KAHL, M. P. (1963) : Thermoregula-

tion in the Wood Stork, with special

reference to the role of the legs. Physiol.

Zool. 36: 141-151.

(1966a) : Comparative etho-

logy of the Ciconiidae. Part 1. The

Marabou Stork, Leptoptilos crumeniferus

(Lesson). Behaviour 27: 76-106.

(1966b) : A contribution to

the ecology and reproductive biology of

ferus) in East Africa. J.

the Marabou Stork (Leptoptilos crumeni-

Zool. 148:

289-311.

———— (in press, a): Food and

feeding behavior of Openbill Storks. J.

f. Ornith,

——— (in press, b): Comparative

ethology of the Ciconiidae. Part2. The

Adjutant Storks, Leptoptilos dubius

(Gmelin) and L. javanicus (Horsfield).

Mayr, E., LINsLey, E. G. & USINGER,

R. L. (1953): Methods and _ principles

of systematic Zoology. New York:

McGraw-Hill.

MEINERTZHAGEN, R. (1951) : Some

relationships between African, Oriental,

and Palaearctic genera and species. Jbis

93 : 443-459.

Perers, J. L. (1931): Check-list of

birds of the world. Vol.1. Cambridge,

Mass.: Harvard Univ. Press.

RripLey, S. D. (1961): A Synopsis of

the Birds of India and _ Pakistan.

Bombay. Bombay Natural History

Society.

SAXENA, B. B. (1956) : Some observa-

tions on the ecology and behaviour of the

common Indian apple-snail, Pila globosa

(Swainson). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

53 : 733-736.

Scutiz, E. (1938): Uber Biologie und

Okologie des Weissen Storchs (Ciconia

c. ciconia). Proc. Internat. Ornith.

Congr. 8: 577-591.

SMYTHIES, B. E. (1953): Birds of

Burma. Edinburgh: Oliver & Boyd.

THOMSON, A. L. (1964): A new dic-

tionary of birds. London: Nelson.

Cyclonic damage to Plant Tissues

B. G. L. Swamy anp K. V. KRISHNAMURTHY

Presidency College, Madras 5

(With two plates containing eight text-figures) .

Following a cyclone in Madras the foliage of certain trees and shrubs

exhibited marked symptoms of decay and defoliation. In Azadirachta indica

the margins alone suffered decay while the remaining part of the lamina con-

tinued to function normally. A histological study of such leaflets indicates

that the exposed cells of the lamina proliferate into wound tissue which contri-

butes towards the reconstitution of a new margin. During this process the

mechanism of regeneration is very similar to that described for leaf tissues.

subjected to artificial surgery.

On 3-xi-1966, the coastal regions of Madras City and neighbour-

hood suffered one of the worst cyclonic ravages. According to the

official meteorological reports there was 61 mm. rainfall during 12

hours with a wind velocity of 120 km. per hour. In the city of Madras

several trees were uprooted, branches mutilated, and the growing parts

of many arborescent and shrubby plants that were directly exposed

to the cyclone, damaged. é

Various types of pathological reactivity were noticed on different

genera of plants. In most of the relatively large, thin, simple leaved

plants the lamina was subjected to severe degrees of tearing, the torn

parts eventually dropping away. In Minmusops and Thespesia the leaves

turned uniformly yellow and got abscissed within 24 hours after the

cyclone. In quite a number of genera possessing small or large simple

leaves like Cletodendron, Duranta, Lantuna, Bougainvillea, Morinda,

etc., discoloration of the leaf margin was noticed immediately after the

cessation of the gale; the leaves, however, remained intact on the

trees for varying periods from one to two weeks. In the leaves

of Colophyllum, Morus and pongamia the discoloration associated with

desiccation extended centripetally throughout the laminal surface sub-

sequent to which abscission followed. Discoloured lesions appeared

as endemic spots on the leaves of Lagerstroemia.

The reaction exhibited by taxa possessing compound leaves belongs

to a different category. In Peltophorum and Deionix the leaflets ab-

scissed following discoloration while the gale was at its peak. In

Azadirachta indica A. Juss. the margins of the leaflets to a distance

CYCLONIC DAMAGE TO PLANT TISSUES 463

of 2 to 4 millimetres suffered discoloration associated with necrosis of

the constituent cells. The first sign of discoloration and necrosis was

noticed at the apex of the leaflet, soon spreading in the basipetal direc-

tion along the margins. At the optimum level of affectation the

concerned area showed from outside (a) a blackish colour of. lighter

intensity merging into a darker pitch of the same colour and (b) a

lighter green zone immediately adjoining the colour of the normal

leaflet (Fig. 2). Separation of the affected area occurred. interior to

the light green zone. The affected area began drying up a day after

the cyclone; on the next day it separated itself off from the lamina

in the form of a dry, papery membrane. The most surprising pheno-

menon, however, is that the residual leaflets remained on the tree as

long as the newly produced leaves or older leaves borne on that side

of the tree which was not directly hit by the cyclone. In other. words,

in spite of the damage the residual leaflets appeared to carry on

normal function. These leaflets simulate the shape of the normal

ones obviously because of the discoloured zone which runs nearly

parallel to the outline of the leaflet (cf. Figs. 1 & 3).

When the residual leaflet continues to take part in the metabolic

activities, one naturally suspects a mechanism to ‘heal’ the exposed

margins. The following account is concerned with a study of this

phenomenon.

‘HEALING’ PROCESS

In the normal leaflet the adaxial palisade tissue stops short of the

extreme margin. Beneath the hypodermis along the margin is a nest

of cells, the primary walls of which show thickenings similar to the

collenchyma cells (Fig. 4). It is from this margin to a depth of 2 to

4 mm. that becomes affected. The zone ‘A’ deteriorates at a very

rapid rate and as such the histological changes in this zone prior

to decay could not be studied. In zone ‘B’ the first indication of

the decay is seen in the slight enlargement of the mesophyll cells;

the palisade cells increase slightly along the narrow diameter and

the spongy cells increase in surface area. As a consequence, the cell

alignment becomes disturbed more conspicuously in the spongy part

of the mesophyll (Fig 5; cf. cells in ‘B’ zone with those in ‘L’). The

chloroplasts lose their typical green colour and the capacity to retain

biological stains and the nucleus conspicuously shrinks in size

exhibiting a rather amorphous structure. |

With the decay being initiated in the zone ‘B’, the adjacent palisade

cells begin to divide by walls parallel to the surface of the lamina.

464. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

Although the width of this tissue exhibiting division from the zone ‘B’

varies slightly at different leaves of one and the same leaflet. on an

average measures 300 microns. It is not all the cells of this tissue that

undergo division and the largest number of cells show only one

division wall particularly in the interior. Towards the edge, however,

two or three walls could be seen in many cells which in turn undergo

a division or two by walls at right angles to the surface. These cells

enlarge and re-align themselves (see arrow in Fig. 6). In the spongy

part of the mesophyll the exposed cells divide by walls parallel to the

exposed surface. A larger number of divisions occur in these cells

than in those of the palisade tissue and the thus formed tissue appears

relatively more compact presenting a semblance of seriation (Fig. 7).

It is quite possible that a few of the deep-seated cells of the spongy

mesophyll also may initiate one or two divisions.

The newly produced cells of the spongy mesophyll sector soon

lose their seriate arrangement partly due to slight enlargement and

partly due to de-differentiation as oil secreting idioblasts (Fig. 8). A

few of these cells also show the accumulation of tannin materials as

in the norma] tissue. It is noteworthy that the newly formed surface

cells fail to develop cuticular deposits on their outer faces. On the

other hand, their surface is covered over by the cutinised debris of

zone ‘B’ (Figs. 7 & 8).

DISCUSSION

A generalized sequence of events leading to the reconstitution of

the exposed margin of the lamina following the decay of the true

margin of the leaflet of Azadirachta involves (a) division of the

superficial parenchyma cells by walls parallel to the surface resulting

in (b) a provisional seriate arrangement of the derivative cells and

is normally associated with the unaffected part of the lamina, like the

secretory idioblasts and tanniferous cells. This sequence of events is

not very different from that seen in the wound healing phenomenon

in the dicotyledonous tissues. The degree of morphological expression

of the phenomenon in the present case, however, is rather feeble.

With particular reference to the leaves of Dicotyledons the histo-

logical responses observed in the present case are somewhat similar

to the condition described by Wylie (1930). He recognizes two zones

in the affected tissues, pseudocicatrice and cicatrice. In the pseu-

docicatrice region the cells collapse as such (due to the loss of water

from the exposed surface according to the author) and in the cicatrice

SUIT[eJ OY} Ise yoyeoT “| ‘31

"UIZIVUE Poyaye OY} JO uOIvsedes pue UONLIOIIN}EG ‘7 ‘SI

#] XSoInSy [Py) ‘yzed poyerorojop ayy Jo AemMe

"JOYLS] [RULION “[ “SI: ¢€ OF] SAUNOIY

esewep ouojoha : AWIeMS

(€) L9 ‘00G “LSIP{ “LVN AVEWOg ‘f¢

ro “—— ——— a

J. BomBay NAT. Hist. Soc. 67 (3)

Swamy: Cyclone damage

Ficures 4 to 8: Fig. 4. Transection of the marginal part of a normal leaflet.

Fig. 5. An early stage in the onset of pathological condition. For explanation of

*“L’,°B’ & ‘A’ seetext. Fig. 6. Cell divisions in the palisade and spongy mesophyll

layers in the region ‘L’. Arrow points to the divisions in the palisade layer. Figs.

7 & 8. Progressive stages in the reconstitution of the new margin of the leaflet. (All

figures x 630).

The stippled cells represent tanniferous cells or oil secreting cells.

CYCLONIC DAMAGE TO PLANT TISSUES 465

region the cells become dilated. It is the latter cells that divide and

contribuie to the wound tissue. In the present case the pseudocicatrice

region may be identified with margin of the leaflet that appears

dark in colour. If the dilation of cells is taken to be a criterion for

identifying the cicatrice zone, it would correspond to the pale streak

area in the affected leaflet. However, divisions are not noted in the

cells of this area; after dilation, there is a gradual loss of protoplasts

and the cells collapse persisting as debris along the reconstituted margin.

On the other hand, the cells that contribute towards the differentiation

of wound tissue are those that lie in immediate contact with the latter

debris. This difference between Wylie’s observations and that of ours

may possibly be due to the artificiai surgery and natural injury

respectively. However, the generality of the wound healing pheno-

menon in either case remains the same.

Vhe totipotency of parenchyma cells in dicotyledons is becoming

increasingly evident through recent experimental studies. The paren-

chyma cell appears to retain its morphological designation as long as it

remains in contact with its neighbouring cells in a given tissue or

structure. In the present case the palisade cells and the spongy meso-

phyll cells continue to retain their morphological identity as long as

the lamina remains uninjured. The moment injury occurs, wound

tissue proliferates alike from both palisade cells and spongy mesophyll

cells of this area; after dilation, there is a gradual loss of protoplasts

to differentiate into cell types of the same morphological category,

they do differentiate into other cell types associated with the leaf tissue,

such as secretory idioblasts and tanniferous cells.

REFERENCE

Wy ik, R. B. (1930) : Cicatrization of

foliage leaves. 1. Wound responses of

certain mesophytic leaves. Bot. Gaz.

90 : 260-278,

Agricultural Research—Progress,

Problems and Prospects

M. S. SWAMINATHAN

Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi

(With four text-figures)

LANDMARKS IN AGRICULTURAL EVOLUTION

Taking world agriculture as a whole, the selection of plants suitable

for domestication from the extensive wild flora and _ their subsequent

improvement through conscious or unconscious breeding, the con-

version of geological deposits into soils and planned efforts to conserve

and provide water to crops have been the major components of

progress until the 17th century. The next significant advance came

with the introduction of cereal-legume rotations and addition of

nutrients in the form of fertilizers in the 18th and 19th centuries.

The beginning of this century marked the re-discovery of Mendel’s

laws of inheritance and the use of the principles of genetics in the

tailoring of plants adapted to the changing physico-chemical, biological,

technological, economic and social components of the environment. This

development in turn triggered rapid progress in industrial activity

related to agriculiure, particularly those relating to fertilizers, pesticides

and other agricultural chemicais, machinery and post-harvest techno-

iogy. A few of the significant landmarks of this recent evolutionary

phase are indicated in Table 1 (adapted from Witwer 1969).

Countries which have taken advantage of these scientific developments

are today faced with the problem of surpluses of farm and animal

produce, while those which neglected them are fighting for food self-

sufficiency.

FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TOWARDS COMPARATIVE STAGNATION

IN AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIVITY IN JNDIA

During the first half of this century more and more food and

milk were being produced respectively from less and less land and cow

population in several countries of the world. In contrast, productivity

remained stagnant in many of our important food crops during this

AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH 467

period, although a rise in total production occurred due to an increase

in the area both under cultivation and under irrigation. Organised

TABLE 1

SOME SIGNIFICANT MILESTONES IN AGRICULTURAL ADVANCE IN THE 20TH CENTURY

Approximate year of

Milestone widespread use

‘Hybrid Maize ee 1933

Chlorinated hydrocarbons for insect control at 1945

Minimum tillage i 1945

Foliar feeding ae 1945

Direct application of anhydrous ammonia ae 1947

Hybrid Sorghum ie 1957

Chemical weed control oe 1958

_ Systemic. biocides se 1959

Dwarf wheat on 1961

Dwarf rice ; ne 1965

~ Opaque-2 Maize na 1965

_Gossypol-free cotton seed ue 1969

Hybrid barley es 1969

scientific efforts in agriculture began with the establishment of the

Indian Agricultural Research Institute in 1905 at Pusa in Bihar

Research, however, did not make an appreciable impact on production

except in crops like sugarcane, largely due to the absence of the

developmental substrate essential for research results to strike roots.

Research, particularly in the fields of plant breeding and plant

protection, did, however, help to minimise the fluctuations in production,

excepting those caused by the weather, in crops like wheat and rice.

Developments in the post-independence era such as the initiation of

the Community Development programme, national extension net-work,

irrigation projects, fertilizer factories, and finally the Intensive Agriculture

District programme provided the stimulus for a radical reorientation of

agricultural. research policies and goals. The High-yielding Varieties

programme and the National Demonstration programme generated the

feed-back relationship between agricultural scientists on the one hand

and extension agencies and farmers on the other, which is vital for

a dynamic research programme. :

REORIENTATION OF RESEARCH GOALS

Half of a scientist’s difficulties are over once the problem needing

solution is clearly formulated. The widespread awareness now in

evidence of the role of science in promoting agrarian prosperity has

in turn led to a re-examination and reorientation of research pro-

468 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

grammes. For exampie, the following are some of the major

research goals in cross breeding set for themselves by the scientists

of the Indian Agricultural Research Institute:

(a) Enhancement of the content of oral contraceptive principles like Diosgenin

present in some plants, so as to help in population control programme.

(b) Combining yield with the genetic upgrading of the quality and quantity of

proteins present in cereals, pulses, tuber crops and other food as well as

fodder and feed crops, so as to contribute towards the elimination of

protein-calorie malnutrition.

potential of farms of small size through a series of multiple and mixed

cropping systems, based on choices and alternatives from an economic

standpoint and on sound principles of ecology from the scientific stand-

point.

(d) Achieving stability of production as well as improvement in yield in areas

characterised by low and uncertain rainfall and adverse environmental

problems such as flood or alkalinity or salinity.

(e) Development of strains in the major agricultural and horticultural plants

which would help to achieve the yield potential theoretically possible under

a given environment.

(f) Breeding varieties of crops which can stimulate the development of industries

in areas characterised by poverty and population pressure, such as the

monoculture rice belts.

(g) Upgrading the quality and yield of industrial crops such as fibre, sugar and

oilseed crops.

(h) Development and use of genetic techniques for accelerating the pace of

breeding for better yield and quality in perennial crops such as fruit and

forest trees, plantation crops such as tea, coffee, rubber and pepper, and

palms like coconut and arecanut.

(i) Tailoring varieties in appropriate plants to the specifications of the food

industry and of the export market.

(j) Collection and conservation of gene pools.

DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-YIELDING VARIETIES

Exploitation of F, hybrid vigour as in mainze, Sorghum and pear!

raillet, the introduction of a plant type possessing a dwarf and non-

lodging habit and photo-insensitivity as in wheat and rice and

population improvement procedures as in maize and Sorghum have

been the major genetic mechanisms employed so far in developing

crop varieties which respond well tc good soil fertility and manage-

ment. In many of the currentiy available high-yielding varieties, the

total dry matter production is similar to that of the earlier tall

varieties, but the harvest index (i.e., the ratio of grain to total dry

matter) is far better resulting in higher yield. A further improvement

in yield potential can come about if a substantial improvement in

total dry matter production together with a high harvest. index can

AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH , 469

-be achieved. For achieving this, conceptual models of different crop

plants (termed ‘ideotype’ by Donald 1968) based on a synthes’s of

knowledge from morphology, physiology, biochemistry, climatology,

ecology and pathology would have to be constructed and used in

plant breeding programmes. |

Some of the selection criteria that will form the basis for the

development of new varieties in the future are given in Table 2. In

TABLE 2

CHARACTERISTICS OF CROP IDEOTYPES

Hybrid vigour or additive gene action.

Early Maturity.

High photosynthetic ability.

Low photorespiration.

Photo-insensitivity.

High response to nutrients.

Multiple resistance to insects and diseases.

Better protein quantity and quality.

Synchronised development of inflorescences.

Crop canopies that can retain and fix a maximum of CO,.

SOowmiannhRwn—

—

our country endowed with abundant sunlight, a major criterion of

new varieties should be improved phytosynthetic capability, which

can be achieved through selection of plants having better light-

receiving systems, leaf surface characteristics most conduc.ve to CO, up-

take, low perogisome or CO,—phororespiration and low CO, compensa-

tion points. The ideotvpes drawn up for wheat by Donald (1968) ard

Asana (1970) are given in Fig. I.

How HIGH CAN BE THE YIELD OF HIGH-YIELDING VARIETIES?

During a 12-hour day length, about 500 calories/Cm? of radiat'on

are received on earth. Of this, only 222 Calories/Cm? are in the

visible part of the light spectrum and thus useful for photosynthesis.

If all this energy. is converted into dry matter by plants, 77 g/m°/day

-can be obtained, which is equivalent to 770 Kg/ha/day (Loomis,

Williams & Duncan 1967). Theoretically, therefore, there is a

possibility of producing 281.0 tonnes/ha. of dry matter during a year,

provided the photosynthetic rate is not limited by other factors like

carbon dioxide, water and nutrition. If a harvest index of 0.5 can

be reached, we can get an economic yield of about 140-5 tonnes per

hectare per year. The potential yield per day, the h‘ghest yield

obtained in any National demonstration or trial and the average yie'd

of some of the major cereals, millets. pulses. oilseeds and tuber crop;

are indicated in Figs. 2 to 4. The data used for constructing these

figures are given in Table 3. It would be obvious from this data that

470 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

while we work towards realising the theoretical potential, we have a

long way to go before our average yield attains a respectable relation-

WHEAT IDEOTYPES

SS Suse

—S

DONALD ' ASANA

(1968) > ot ~~ (1970)

Fic. 1. Conceptual models of the wheat plant developed by Donald (1968) for

maximum productiom and by Asana (1970) for unirrigated conditions. Donald has

suggested a uniculm habit with leaves which will not shade each other, while Asana

has proposed horizontal leaves for intercepting and retaining dew, a branched ear and

a deep root system. ‘Such ideo mines are based on considerable research i in production

physiology. ;

ship with the highest yield already reached in the country. The

potential for the future is’ immense, since the maximum yield of the

economic product obtained so far in’ any multiple cropping system

is only about 20 tonnes per hectare per year in contrast to the theore-

tical possibility of about 140 tonnes /ha/year. The scope for research

on enhancing the production potential is particularly great in pulses,

oilseeds and tuber crops (Figs. 3 & 4).

471

PEARL MILLET

POTENTIAL

d pear! millet.

3. HIGHEST IN INDI

t. THEORETICAL

4. AVERAGE ,,

THEORETICAL

POTENTIAL

HIGHEST IN INDIA

AVERAGE IN INDIA

, Maize an

YIELD POTENTIAL &

REALISATION

MAIZE

wheat

1ce

AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH

YIELD POTENTIAL AND REALISATION

The actual and potential yields in r

RICE:

Fic. 2.

01 X AVO/VHNWS

LENTIL

AVERAGE

PEAS BEANS

DRY DRY

PULSE CROPS —

V3dMOD

WVYONDV19

SNOOW

Q34SNI1

Qa aSidvu

OIL SEED CROPS

Note the

Iseeds and pulse crops.

mm Ol

The actual and potential yields

Fic. 3.

enormous scope for improvement.

472 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

AGRONOMY FOR HIGH YIELDS

The agronomic practices adopted will determine whether or not

the yield potential of a variety wili be realised. Some of the new

TABLE 3

AVERAGE & HIGHEST PRODUCTIVITY REPORTED IN INDIA

CEREALS & MILLETS

{

: | | Q/Ha. | Vegetation | Cal/ Cal/

cteps | PNETSSS Wy ereuesa dwar: _ Period | Ha 10° a x 108

| |

Rice ao” 670 100°00 3520 120 35°20 2298

Maize 28 113 110°00 3630 90 59298 4°43

Wheat fir7 7163 3440 120 24°64 = 2°05

Sorghum Dez 98-00 3550 130 34°79 2°67

Bajra 3°8 67°10 3270 130 21°94 1°68

| |

| | Cal/Ha

| Q/Ha. | Veg. |Cal/Ha) ,:

Crops Av. | Highest ae -| Period | 10° Edible ee

| | | | |

Potato .. 80°0 411:00 840 120 34°52 95% 2502

Tapioca .. 130°0 480-00 1530 300 73°44 85% 2°44

Sweet-Potato s. ~98°O °372700 1140 135 42°40 87, 3°14

Yam ae, , 5820 -be190200 1130 135 21°47 eA 1°59

irends in agronomy are listed in Table 4. The photo-insensitive

nature of the new varieties makes it possible to think and plan de

TABLE 4

RECENT TRENDS IN AGRONOMIC RESEARCH

High plant density.

Weed-free environments.

Minimum tillage.

Controlled release of fertilizer and bacterial fertilizers.

Foliar feeding.

Use of low cost anhydrous ammonia as a nitrogen fertilizer.

Soil moisture control through irrigation and alteration of structure and per-

meability.

CO, fertilisation.

Co-ordinated pest and disease control.

Aerial application of fertilizer, pesticides and agricultural chemicals.

Soo NAAR

—

novo on such problems as sowing dates and seasons. For example, the

new hybrids of maize give much higher yield during the rabi season

AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH. 473

779

than during kharif, wherever the temperatures during rabi are not too

low. for maize (Table 5).

YIELD POTENTIAL AND REALISATION

1. THEORETICAL 2. POTENTIAL

3. HIGHEST RECORDED IN INDIA = 4. AVERAGE IN INDIA

a6)

euiz

POTATO TAPIOCA SWEET POTATO YAM

Fic. 4. Actual and potential yields in some tuber crops. The potential for

improvement is very great in these crops also.

TABLE 5

MEAN PERFORMANCE OF CERTAIN MAIZE VARIETIES

DURING RABI & KHARIF SEASON OF 1965, 1966 AND 1968 AT HYDERABAD

Mean Grain Yield Kg./Ha

Variety 7 Kharif | Rabi Percentage of Kharif

| l

Local An 5359 5181 96°7

Deccan He 5624 7848 139°5

| Ganga-2 7 5642 5937. 105:2 Based on one year data

Ganga 101 ae 4632 5872 126°8

Amber v5 4881 SOT ale 7 ) Based on two years

| Jawahar ss 5219 8280 8 158°7 Data

An important aspect of the agronomic practices should be the

| ‘breeding’ of soils suited for sustained high productivity. This would

involve simultaneous attention to the physical, biological, chemical

and topographical facets of soil fertility. Intensive agriculture based

on modern plant breeding without coincident steps in soil breedinz

474 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

would result ultimately in agricultural disaster than agricultural pro-

gress. Unfortunately, there has been little realisation of this position

so far.

PEST AND DISEASE: CONTROL. :

It is practically impossible to breed a variety possessing resistance

to all pests and diseases as well as high yield and quality. This is

both due to the wide variability occurring within the pest and

pathogen — populations as well as due to various forms of negative

relationships existing in the plant with regard to mechanisms of

resistance. For example, rusts of wheat survive best in the host plant

when the cells contain high sugar. In contrast, pathogens like

Alternaria and Helminthosporium grow better when the level of sugar

in the cell is low. Herice, what is needed in every crop plant is the

development of a co-ordinated strategy of control, involving an

appropriate admixture of genetic, chemical and agronomic approaches.

Diseases and pests, which ‘can be avoided by simple agronomic

procedures such as a change in the date of sowing, are best eradicated

in- this manner. With the rapid development of the seed industry,

seed-borne diseases can be controlled through seed treatments. Genetic

“control will be the method of choice, where usable sources of resist:

ance are readily available and where a disease or pest is very wide-

spread in its occurrence. The approaches likely to give the best

TABLE 6

CO-ORDINATED DISEASE'& PEST CONTROL IN ‘Sorghum vulgare

Strategy of Control

Disease/pest Casual Agent Gencic Chemi- Agro-

Vo cal nomic

Sugary disease Sphacelia sorghi — +- +

Downy mildew Sclerospora sorghi + — +

Grain smut Sphacelotheca sorghi — =F Se

Loose smut Sphacelotheca cruenta — a —

Leaf rust Puccinia purpuria + + ss

* Leaf blight , Helminthosporium turcicum ++ —- _

Shoot fly Atherigona varia soccata — — ae Sah

Stemborer Chilo zonellus + - —

, Midge Contarinia sorghicola — = ae

results in Sorghum are indicated in Table 6. Such exercises will have

to be done in each crop.

AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH . EWA. 475

_. DEVELOPMENT OF AN ECOLOGY-CUM-ECONOMICS, BASED MULTIPLE

CROFPING ‘CAFETERIA’ SYSTEM.

_ Multiple or relay cropping would help to increase the income

and employment potential of holdings of small size.. However, the

intensive exploitation of land and unscientific crop rotations could.

lead to very undesirable consequences. There should, therefore, be

some ground rules in the introduction of multiple cropping patterns.

Among these are:

. (1) No two crops sharing in common the same pests and diseases

should be grown in succession.

(2) One crop should be deep rooted and another with more

Shallow roots, so that different layers of the soil can be tapped for

nutrients. Varieties of crops also differ in rooting pattern and if a

deep-rooted crop like cotton is grown during kharif, a wheat variety

like Sonalika or Sharbati Sonora suffers less from micro-nutrient

deficiency than Kalyan Sona which also taps nutrients from the lower

layers of the soil.

(3) Attention to the restoration of soil fertility through the

cultivation of at least one leguminous crop should find place in the

rotation. If the stalks of maize are not needed for feeding cattle.

their incorporation in the soil beips to improve soil structure. _On the

above lines we should evolve for each agro-climatic areas, a multiple

cropping ‘Cafeteria’ with a wide choice of alternative crops from which

the farmer can choose an appropriate combination suited to his needs

and input-mobilizing ‘potential and the demands of the market

(Table 7).

TABLE 7

BREEDING VARIETIES FOR A MULTIPLE CROPPING ‘ CAFETARIA’ AT DELHI

Late December/

Mid-April/ Mid-June Late June-Sept. October-December Mid-April

Green Gram Maize Potato Wheat

(Pusa Baisakhi) (Ganga-5 Jawahar (Kufri Alankar (Sharbati Sonora,

Cow Pea Sorghum Vegetables Barley

(Phalaguni) (C.S.H.1) Mustard (Suphala (K 15/96-1, |

_ DS-17 M) BDH-4)

Pearl Millet Oats

(H.B.1, H.B.4) : (Kent Early:

Russian)

Cotton, Fodder Vegetables

Crops

Rice (B.C.5 and

B.C.6)

476. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

Multiple cropping is a very potent instrument for improving the

economic position of a farmer with a small holding and for banishing

under-employment and unemployment. Studies in the Agricultural

Economics Department of the Punjab Agricultural University have

clearly shown that the employment potential of agriculture can be

greatly enhanced by double cropping in lands with irrigation facilities.

Studies have also revealed that in the Ludhiana District, there has

been an appreciable increase in real income among all classes of farmers,

big, medium and small, as well as among landiess labour. This is

not true in many other 1.A.D.P. districts where the farming techno-

logy has not become as advanced as in the Punjab. In as much as

69 per cent of our work-force will depend upon agriculture for employ-

ment even by 1981, the social significance of a technological up-

grading of the employment potential of our cropping systems is obvious. :

In addition to the economic and sociological advantages of multiple

cropping in irrigated areas this tool, if deployed scientifically, can

also become a powerful method of minimising the incidence of pests

and diseases. Examples of a multiple cropping system based only on

economic considerations and of one on the ecology-cum-economics

concept and analyse their biological implications follow. With water

becoming available in many of the River Valley Projects, there is a

great temptation to grow two or three crops of rice one after the

other. Even in summer, paddy cultivation is becoming popular but

already it is clear that where summer paddy is grown pests like

jassids become serious in the succeeding kharif paddy crop, as was

observed in parts of Bihar last year. Conversely, in some parts of

Bihar where a mono-culture of tobacco was formerly adopted there

was a serious incidence of oradbanche. . When tobacco was introduced

into a multiple cropping system involving crops like wheat and maize,

the orubanche menace began to reccede.

ENHANCING THE YIELD AND INCOME OF UNIRRIGATED AGRICULTURE

Recent research has shown that apart from the limitations imposed

by Jow and uncertain moisture levels, the missing links in elevating

and stabilizing yields of rainfed agriculture have been the non-

availability of crop varieties of suitable duration and growth rhythm,

poor plant population, absence of attention to rectifying the defects

in soil structure, improper tillage, lack of application of nutrients and

plant protection procedures and poor storage and marketing. In

addition, problems like fragmentation of holdings and lack of organised

supply of inputs made the few steps taken in the past in the field

AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH 477

of soil and moisture conservation even less effective than they might

have otherwise been. :

Much progress can be achieved in rainfed farming if a new

technology is introduced, comprising of the following components:

(1) land consolidation and soil conservation, (2) improvements in tillage

leading to better soil structure and root penetration, (3) addition of

organic matter in the form of plant residues with a view to improving

the physical and biological characteristics of the soil, (4) adoption of

water-harvesting procedures. resuiting in storing as much of the

precipitation as possible: for the use of crops, (5) addition of plant

mutrients through deep placement of fertilizers and foliar feeding,

if necessary by aircraft, (6) improving the biological fixation of

nitrogen through the use of efficient strains of rhizobia, particularly

those which are tolerant to salt and use of pelleted bacterial cultures

for buffering the bacteria against acidity and alkalinity, (7) the

introduction of photo-insensitive and quick maturing crops which are

less affected by drought, (8) replacement of a single long duration

crop with a series of double and mixed crop rotations from which

the farmer can be advised to adopt the one which is most suited to

the likely weather pattern during a season and to giving him the

maximum income, (9) popularisation of crops like Soyabean, high-

protein maize, macaroni wheat, short-duration varieties of castor and

cotton and perennial crops like cashewnut, oil palm and dates which

can form the base for small scale food industries and export earnings,

(10) popularisation of high-yielding fodder grasses and high protein

bajra, and (11) genetic upgrading of the non-descript cattle population

by an extensive programme of artificial insemination using superior

breeds particularly European breeds, acclimatised in the tropical parts

of Australia. While the above would constitute the major ingredients

of an immediate action plan. a systematic survey and development of

ground water resources should be continued so as to further increase

the income potential of agriculture in the dry areas. A book entitled

A NEW TECHNOLOGY FOR DRY LAND FARMING has been published recently

by the Indian Agricultural Research Institute, which gives ‘details of

the research carried out in this field.

BANISHING MALNUTRITION

The major contributions of agricultural research in this field are

the following: i

(a) Genetic upgrading Of protein quality in staple grains:

It is now possible to upgrade the quality of proteins in cereals,

millets and other food crops very considerably by genetic techniques.

478 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

Composite varieties of maize possessing protein properties nearly similar

to that of milk are now under multiplication (Table 8). High protein

varieties of rice and wheat as well as a highly nutritive new cereal,

Triticale, are under development. A great merit of this approach is

TABLE 8

IMPROVEMENT OF THE AMINO-ACID COMPOSITION OF MAIZE BY THE INCORPORATION

OF OPAQUE-2 & FLOURY-2 GENES OF AMINO-ACID/100g. PROTEIN

Yellow Yellow White

Ganga-3 Opaque-2 Floury-2 | Opaque-2

Protein % 10°3 10°6 11°6 15

Glutamic Acid me 23°3 20°6 19:9 18°3

Lysine 5 1:6 3°5 4-1 4:2

Leucine Ah L742 11°4 11°6 10°7

Isoleucine 3°9 4:0 3°6 4:3

that a dent on the malnuirition problem can be easily made without any

special educational effort.

(b) Increasing the production of pulse crops:

New short-duration and high-yielding varieties of the major pulse

crops such as Cajanus cajan, Phaseolus aureus and Phaseolus mungo:

have been developed, so that pulse crops can find a place in the

rotations in irrigated areas. Much of the area under pulses is rain-

fed and for these areas both better varieties and suitable methods of

applying rhizobial cuitures have been developed.

These crops have received very little scientific attention so far.

In recent years, severa] new varieties and hybrids have been developed

and released in vegetable crops. If these are grown with an integrated

schedule of pest control, the production can go up substantially.

Research on fruit tree improvement through the development of good

rootstock, new varieties and better management practices is now

receiving serious attention. The new mango varieties developed at

IARI offer great promise. A Demonstration orchard with plants

raised on dwarfing root stocks and dwarf hybrid varieties is being

developed at the IARI to show how the new plant type can facilitate

good orchard management. Though the demonstration plot has been

named ‘Orchard of the 21st Century’, it is hoped that such orchards

will become common in our country by 1980.

AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH 479

(d) Increasing animal production:

It is well known that India is the largest reservoir of under-utilised

cows in the world. The problem of improving animal productivity

has two aspects, one relating to increasing the production of fodder

and feed and the other to the genetic upgrading of the milk-yielding

potentiai of our breeds and more particularly of non-descript cows

and buffalces. With regard to the fodder problem, the main emphasis

should be on the development of high-yielding-cum-high quality

fodder crops, so that the supply of concentrates to animals, becomes

unnecessary. Maize and millets should also be increasingly used as

animal feeds.

A new approach to the rapid genetic upgrading of the milk yield-

ing potential of cows is the use of ‘tropicalised’ versions of European

breeds in our artificial insemination programmes. The value of this

approach has become apparent from the results of the cross-breeding

experiments carried out at [ARI between Sahiwals and Friesians from

Australia. India should sponsor a Collecting Team of Animal

Genetics to the tropical parts of Australia, Latin America and Africa,

for collecting European breeds introduced 2 to 3 centuries ago and

which have undergone selection for adaptation to tropical climate.

The expense involved in sending such a “Tropicalised European breed

Collecting Expedition’ will result in a big pay-off.

NEED FOR EXPLOITING SYNERGETIC INTERACTIONS

If agricultural research is to be effective in canalising the powerful

tools of modern science for eradicating hunger and poverty, the most

important need is achieving synergetic interactions among scientists

working in different disciplines on the one hand and among scientists,

extension workers and political and administrative leaders on the other.

Synergy or the mechanism which makes the whole something very

much more than the sum of the parts, has been the most potent

principle involved in evolutionary advance and is the only mechanism

which can help a poor Nation to realise its economic aspirations. To

cite one example of the use of this principle in evolution, our important

cereal, breed wheat, has three parents, Triticum monococcum, Aegilops

speltoides and Aegilops squarrosa which are individually poor plants

but collectively make the king of cereals. Harnessing and maximising

such synergetic effects should be the primary goals of our agricultural

research and development policies.

480 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi. 67 (4)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The data in Figures 2, 3, & 4 were constructed with the help of

Dr. S. K. Sinha, Plant Physiologist, IARI.

Data on the seasonal

influence on maize yield are from All-India Co-ordinated Trials, while

the data on amino-acid content in maize were provided by the Quality

Laboratory of IARI headed by Dr. A. Austin.

REFERENCES

AsAnaA, R. D. (1970) : A New Techno-

logy for Dry Land Farming—ZJndian

Agricultural Research Institute, New

Delhi. pp. 55-63.

DonALD, C. M. (1968): The design

of a wheat ideotype. Proc. 3rd Inter-

national Wheat Genetics Symposium,

Canberra. pp. 377-387.

Loomis, R. S., WiILLiAMs, A. W. &

DuNncAN, W. G. (1967): Community

Architecture and the productivity of

terrestrial plant communities. In

harvesting the Sun, Photosynthesis in

Plant Life. pp. 291-308.

WITWER, S. H. (1969): Agriculture

for the 21st Century. Proc. 19th Annual

National Potato Utilization Conference,

Michigan. (In Press).

Trends in intraspecific sex-limited

variations in some mycophagous

Tubulifera (Thysanoptera)

T. N. ANANTHAKRISHNAN

Entomology Research Unit, Loyola College, Madras-34

(With six text-figures and three graphs)

The saprophytic fungus habitat forms an important ecological niche

inhabited by a proportionately large number of thrips species, more

predominantly the Tubulifera, which appear to have established them-

selves quite successfully in this zone. Seldom are they found alone, but

are mostly gregarious, providing an unique opportunity to study species

associations, in particular their dynamics, often revealing an unbeliev-

ably large degree of intraspecific diversity. In order to be able to recog-

nise and interpret these variations which are more often confined to only

the male sex, consistent field work coupled with years of experience are

vital, in particular to avoid the risk of adding to our already long list of

synonyms. Variations are magnified to a very large extent by the high

incidence of heterogony or allomorphosis or absolute size allometry of

adults, making the morphological definition of the species very difficult,

A finely intergraded series is more often noticeable in populations of such

species and the two extremes are often referred to as the minor or gynae-

coid males and the major or oedymerous males. Oedymerism as defined

earlier (Ananthakrishnan 1966) involves the development of bizarre

forms with strikingly enlarged parts affecting mostly the structure and

armature of the forelegs and incident changes in thoracic structure, while

gynzcoidism results in opposite traits, with weakly developed forelegs

having armature highly reduced and wanting and resembling the females

in general make up. This does not result in reproductive incompata-

bility as it has been observed in the rearing of Tiarothrips subramanii

(Ramakrishna) and Kleothrips gigans Schmutz in the laboratory, that the

gynzcoid males were freely engaged in copulation as much as the normal

and cedymerous males.

The possibility that an odd gynaecoid or an cedymerous male on

which a species is based, might only be one of the morphs of the highly

variant males cannot be ignored. Many Oriental and African species of

the genus Elaphrothrips Buffa have been described on such uniques.

The most striking heterogonic character in this genus is the nature of the

482 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

foreleg armature, in particular the sickle-like bristle, absent in the gyne-

coid males. In some species as Elaphrothrips mucronatus Priesner and

E. productus Priesner further heterogony is shown in the degree of develop-

ment of the 7th and 8th abdominal segments which may be as long as

wide in the gynzcoid males and to more than twice as long in the ceedy-

merous males. Again, examination. of large series of Dinothrips suma-

trensis Bagnall has confirmed Priesner’s earlier suggestion (1959) that

D. jacobsoni Karny, D. celebensis Bagnall and D. sumatrensis Bagnall

are only the gynecoid, intermediate and cedymerous forms of one species

Fic. 1. The gynzcoid, ceedymerous and intermediate forms of Kleothrips gigans.

A. Gynecoid male, B. Normal male, C. agama phase, D. Oedyme-

rous male, FE. Male genitalia.

D. sumatrensis (Fig. 2). Similarly Ananthakrishnan (1961) working

with large populations of Ecacanthothrips sanguineus Bagnall concluded

that several species mostly based on uniques or a few isolated specimens

are all synonymous with E£. sanguineus. Characters adopted in the erec-

tion of such species based on body colour, proportions of the head, the

structure of the forefemora and tibia, the coxal prolongations in the

VARIATIONS IN MYCOPHAGOUS TUBULIFERA 483

-males, the number and position of the foretibial tubercles and even the

number of sense cones on antennal segment 3, as well as the number of

accessory setae on the forewings, were found to be very inconsistent in

view of the enormous range of variation exhibited by individuals of a

-population. Again Ananthakrishnan (1969) on the basis of examination

of large populations of Kleothrips gigans Schmutz, has indicated that

K. simplex (Bagnall) may be the gynecoid form, while K. agama Priesner

hitherto considered to be distinct is only a phase in cdymerism of the

species (Fig. 1 & Graph 1). This is also the case observed in Elaph-

Head length including production

N. falcatus

120 : a a ag a. a se ee

130 4 #5 ;

6 7 8 9 200 | Zr 3) A Sg 7g 2) S00 Ni area yal oe

Forefemoral length

GrarPH 1. Relation between forefemoral length and head length in the males of

some species of Nesothrips.

rothrips mucronatus, E. productus, etc. where also two distinct phases

exist in edymerism, viz. one with foretarsal tooth thin and straight and

the other where it is more stout and beak-like. The fact that the males

of a species show maximum cedymerism need not imply the development

of a strong armature as in Pygothrips Hood, some species of Nesothrips

Kirkaldy as N. indicus Ananthakrishnan, & N. robustus Ananthakrishnan.

On the contrary the cdymerous males cf several species like Nesothrips

falcatus Ananthakrishnan, N. acuticornis (Hood), Ecacanthothrips san-

guineus, Hoplothrips fungosus Moulton, H. transvaalensis, etc., reveal a

wide variety of structures like coxal spines, forefemoral teeth and spines,

foretibial teeth, excessively developed foretarsal teeth, lateral or median

484. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY,: Vol. 67 (3

meso- or metanotal processes and tooth-like prolongations on cheeks

below eyes totally unknown in the gynecoid forms, leaving therefore

an enormous gap between the two extremes (Fig. 3). Naturally the

patterns of development differ in the males of different species or species

groups. Two closely allied species may possess almost similar charac-

teristics among the females, but the pattern of edymerism, will vary as

in Nesothrips falcatus and N. acuticornis, N. indicus, N. robustus and

N. formosensis karnyi Priesner. Ananthakrishnan (1968) indicates that

in the assessment of allomorphosis three indices may appear significant

for species comparison in relation to growth diversity, viz. HL/FL,

HW/FW, TL/FL and only in cases lacking of specialisation of the fore-

legs there are very close similarities between the two sexes, whereas in

those mycophagous species showing sex limited diversity, not only are

the allomorphic indices substantially different in the two sexes, but also

very much different among the two extreme variants (Table 1). Inciden-

TABLE 1

ALLOMORPHIC INDICES

a te

HL/FL HW/FW TUEL

G O G O G O

Species

ion)

SzosoooosoSocoooCSCOSoOSCOSCOCSOS

Azaleothrips amabilis

Hoplandrothrips indicus

Hoplandrothrips graminis

Ecacanthothrips sanguineus

Hoplothrips fungosus

Hoplothrips transvaalensis

Hoplothrips orientalis

Sophiothrips parviceps

Strepterothrips orientalis

Idiothrips ficus

Stictothrips orientalis

Neurothrips indicus

Polyphemothrips cracens

Allothripsb icolor

Nesothrips falcatus

Nesothrips acuticornis

Nesothrips indicus

Nesothrips robustus

Nesothrips formosensis karnyi

Kleothrips gigans

Tiarothrips subramanii

Priesneriana kabandha

Dinothrips sumatrensis

Pygothrips amplus

Elaphrothrips dallatorensis

Elaphrothrips mucronatus

Elaphrothrips productus

AAR

Nn Ww

ABRNONNEKONWON

BARSR IAL SS Ss

NINWCAUNUCKROAR

ANOWNONOADHOOOS

ANNABRKRERRARIA

\O We Nn

AMAA DH & vo

Ww WM OO

Lo)

RNVAAW

BARE ROR

1F)

WORWANANROONONOWOAROUALR

=mord

AAD =

tee OOt se ooroorooeororesoooorore

NNN ICOOCORMOH AIH OIA

IAA~IW

e e . e e . ° ° e e

Nor

OO = = Ge a VEE SSeS ee ee HS ORV

SerPoeoeeooeeoeoeerseoeoooooosoesosoe

UWBRACHONUONK OOH

COON BR O~ 100.0 YN CODD N60

NO~YWNOND AOD NC

HAO

Note : HL/FL—Head length/Forefemoral length ; HW/FW Head width/Fore-

femoral width ; TL/FL—Foretibial length/Forefemoral length ; G—Gynecoid ; O—

Oedymerous. eagA

The index refers to the ‘ Maximum’ viz. between the Gynecoid and Maximum

Oedymerous forms so far known. | Geta!

VARIATIONS IN MYCOPHAGOUS TUBULIFERA 485

N ty

Fic. 2. A, B Gynecoid and cedymerous male of Elaphrothrips mucronatus.

‘C,. D. Gynecoid and cedymerous male of Dinothrips sumatrensis.

486 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

tally mention may also be made of mycophagous Tubulifera wherein

such recognisable and significant variations are absent as in several

Urothripids, species of Adraneothrips Hood, Stigmothrips Anantha-

krishnan, Malacothrips Hinds, Meiothrips Priesner etc.

THRIPS FAUNA OF THE SAPROPHYTIC FUNGAL ZONE

Among the Phlaeothripini some species of Hoplandrothrips Hood,

Azaleothrips Ananthakrishnan, Phlaeothrips Haliday, Malacothrips Hinds,

Ecacanthothrips Bagnall, Pygmaeothrips Karny, etc. frequently occur, but

Head length including production

300 400 "$00 €90 700 800 900 1000 (100 (200 ‘300

Forefercoral length

GRAPH 2. Relation between the forefemoral length and the head length in the males

of Tiarothrips, Kleothrips and some species of Elaphrothrips.

species of Phlaeothrips Haliday, Malacothrips Hinds, Mystrothrips Pries-

ner, Adraneothrips Hood, Stigmothrips Ananthakrishnan and Pygmaeo-

VARIATIONS IN MYCOPHAGOUS TUBULIFERA 487

Fic. 3 A, B. Gynecoid and cedymerous male of Hoplothrips fungosus.

C, D. Gynecoid and wedymerous male of Hoplothrips transvaalensis.

488 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

thrips Karny do not present remarkable sex-limited diversities as the fore-

tarsiare usually unarmed in both sexes, Hoplandrothrips Hood, Ecacantho-

thrips Bagnall and to a limited extent Strepterothrips Hood, Neurothrips

Hood and J/diothrips Faure exhibit profound variation. The Plectro-

thripini appears exceptional in having females of the major and minor

types, differing very significantly. The Hoplothripini also include such

genera as Hoplothrips Serville, Sophiothrips Hood, frequently abounding

in the fungal niches, with extreme specialisation shown by the males of

many species of Hoplothrips Serville. The best examples of such struc-

tural diversity are met with among the Megathripinae including in it a

welter of species, showing variants of many types. Species of Elaphro-

thrips Buffa, Dinothrips Bagnall, Paxillothrips Ananthakrishnan, Tiaro-

thrips Priesner, Kleothrips Schmutz, Nesothrips frequently reveal such

remarkable diversities, while others like Allothrips Hood, Loyolaia Anan-

thakrishnan, Priesneriana Ananthakrishnan, Diceratothrip Bagnall,

Diaphorothrips Karny and Uredothrips Ananthakrishnan show this feature

to a restricted degree. Among the Diceratothripina the genus Macha-

tothrips Karny shows more diversity in the females in view of this sex

possessing the heavily armed forefemora. Bunothrips cruralis Anan-

thakrishnan, a Hoplothripine species also shows more diversity in the

females. It may be emphasised that all the species in a genus say like

Nesothrips need not necessarily develop identical patterns of diversity,

requiring therefore absolute caution before concluding on the identity

of the species. .

Coming to the nature of species associations in this zone, field studies

show that monophagous species among saprophytic fungus feeders are

rare and Tiarothrips subramanii feeding in large numbers on the dried

fungus infested leaves of Borassus flabellifer is a typical example. Kleo-

thrips gigans Schmutz may be said to be oligophagous in the restricted

sense as it abounds invariably in the decaying sheaths and leaves of

Areca catechu in the company of swarms of Stigmothrips limpidus Anan-

thakrishnan and Meiothrips menoni Ananthakrishnan as well as in the

dried leaves of Mangifera indica especially in forest areas, being found

along with Meiothrips menoni and _ Stigmothrips consimilis Anan-

thakrishnan. Frequently associated with the polyporous fungi (Poria

sp.) usually on the dry fungus infested twigs of Barleria sp. are Poly-

phemothrips cracens Ananthakrishnan, P. indicus (Ananthakrishnan) and

Hoplothrips fungosus Moulton, while similarly infested jasmine twigs yield

considerable material of Sophiothrips parviceps Hood and Hoplothrips

fungosus. Polyalthia longifolia twigs have yielded Uredothrips indicus

Ananthakrishnan, Pygothrips amplus Faure, Priesneriana kabandha(Rama-

krishna) and Hoplothrips transvaalensis (Hood) ; twigs of Lantana harbour

plenty of Nesothrips formosensis karnyi Priesner and Urothripids while

the dry twigs of Smilax offer plenty of material of Nesothrips falcatus

VARIATIONS IN MYCOPHAGOUS TUBULIFERA 489

Ananthakrishnan, laphrothrips crassiceps Bagnall, Stephanothrips

occidentalis Hood & Williams, Diceratothrips brevisetosus Anantha-

krishnan & Jagadish, etc.

KEY TO MALES OF MYCOPHAGOUS TUBULIFERA BASED ON

GYNA£COID-GEDYMEROUS TRAITS

1. Maxillary stylets slender, thinner than labial palps,

rarely moderately thickened as in Polyphemoth-

rips ; B2 of abdominal segment IX short (Phlaeo-

thripinae) Oi.

Maxillary stylets broad, band-like thicker than

labial palps ; B2 of [IX abdominal segment mostly

subequal with the rest (Megathripinae) 12

2. Forewings Stictothripine, cedymerous males with-

out profound modification. Body strongly reti-

culate 3

Wings not Stictothripine, usually parallel-sided.

Oedymerous males often showing profound diver-

sity 6

3. Antenna 7-segmented 4

Antenna 8-segmented : 5

4, Head elongate ; cedymerous males with forefemora

much elongate and stout, foretibia at apex with

a strong tooth, foretarsal tooth strong and curved

and mesonotum with distinct lateral spines. An- ;

tenna 7-segmented, segment 3, short, flat. Strepterothrips Hood

(S. orientalis Anantlia-

krishnan)

‘Head about as long as wide; edymerous males

with simple forelegs and tibial tooth and meso-

thoracic spur absent. Antennal 7 much smaller

than 6 ; 3 and 5 whitish. Idiothrips Faure

(J. fici Bhatti)

5. Abdominal segment X long and cylindrical, anal

setae several times longer than tube. Forefemora

of edymerous males, long and stout i.e. heavy,

foretarsal tooth strongly developed. Wings not

reticulate Neurothrips Hood

(N. indicus Anan.)

Tube and anal setae normal ; forelegs of cedymerous

males not long and heavy as in Neurothrips, al-

most showing slight enlargement of forefemur. ‘

Wings clearly reticulate. Stictothrips Hood

S.fimbriata (Anan.)

6. Wings comparatively narrow, with a feeble con-

striction at middle 7

Wings not narrow, uniformly parallel-sided 9

490

10.

Ji.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

Cheeks smooth, head reticulate, body setae short,

expanded. Oedymerous males with forefemora

heavy as in Neurothrips and foretarsal tooth

strong.

Cheeks with strong spines often on warts ; weakly

reticulate. Oedymerous males with strongly deve-

loped pronotum and forelegs strongly armed

Sense cones on antennal segment 3 arranged in a

ring. Forefemora of cedymerous males very

much wider than head, with a strong tooth at

base and apex ; outer margin concave, with nume-

rous long hairs. Forecoxae considerably pro-

longed in the cedymerous.

Sense cones on 3 normal. Forefemora in cedyme-

rous males with 2 or more subapical teeth, fore-

tibia with a tooth at base of inner margin and one

at apex. Foretarsal tooth strong.

Head dorsally not convex, without cheek pouches,

antenna 8-segmented

Head dorsally convex, with cheek pouches, antenna

7-segmented

Small forms, with cedymerous males having exces-

sively enlarged pronotum, head more elongate

and cheeks with concavity, forefemora very long,

foretibia short and foretarsal tooth strong.

Small and large forms showing several degrees of

cedymerism. Pronotum heavy in oedymerous

males with forefemora moderately to exceedingly

long, foretibia short, foretarsal tooth strong ;

forefemora at apex rarely and foretibia with one

or more teeth at middle or apex; sometimes

cheeks prolonged sidewards tooth-like ; evidence

of negative allometry in some species, relating to

anteroangulars.

Maxillary stylets moderately thick, cedymerous

males with forefemora carrying a posterior pro-

longation and with 2 large humps one at base and

apex of inner margin. Foretibia with a strong

tubercle at apex.

Azaleothrips Anan.

(A. amabilis Anan.)

Ecacanthothrips Bagnall

(E. sanguineus Bagnall)

Hoplandrothrips Hood

[H. indicus (Ramk. &

Marg.)

H. graminis Anan. ]

Sophiothrips Hood

S. parviceps (Hood)

Hoplothrips — Serville

H. fungosus Moulton

H. transvaalensis Hood

H. orientalis (Anan.)

Polyphemothrips

Schmutz

(P. cracens Anan.)

VARIATIONS IN MYCOPHAGOUS TUBULIFERA 491

12. Antenna 7-segmented 13

Antenna 8-segmented 14

13. Males invariably, apterous; antennal 3 without

sub-basal ring. Oedymerous males with mode-

rately enlarged forelegs. Maxillary stylets not

‘V’ like. Allothrips Hood

(A. bicolor Anan.)

Antennal 3 with a distinct subbasal ring ; maxillary

stylets V like. Forelegs in cedymerous males,

heavier. Percnothrips Anan.

(P. turbinatus Anan.)

14. Head not or very little produced 15

Head distinctly produced 19

15. Head slightly produced, cheeks incut behind eyes ;

cedymerous males with heavy, elongate forefe-

mora. Tube heavy. Loyolaia Anan.

(L. indica Anan.)

Cheeks normal. Head not produced 16

16. Head dorsally convex. Antennal 3 with a distinct

sub-basal ring. Forefemora of cedymerous

males, concave along inner margin. Priesneriana Anan.

[ P. kabandha (Ramk. &

Marg.) ]

Head normal, segment 3 of antenna without sub-

basal ring. Forefemora of cedymerous males

not concave at inner margin. 17

17. Maxillary stylets distinctly ‘V’ like, edymerous males

with diverse patterns ; with the development of

~ coxal and femoral strong chitinous spines, fore-

tibial teeth and excessively long foretarsal tooth

and metanotal process (N. falcatus) or less specia-

lised but with lateral mesothoracic spurs, and

metanotum at base with numerous teeth (N. acuti-

cornis) Or more simple, only with heavy fore-

femora, often concave at inner margin in cedyme-

rous males (N. indicus, N. robustus and N. formo-

sensis karnyi) Nesothrips Kirkaldy

Maxillary stylets not ‘V’ like and cedymerous males

more simple}. 18

18. Foretibia at apex with a strongly developed tooth

~ in normal and cedymerous males and reduced to

a hardly recognised tubercle in gynecoid males.

Tube longer than head. Diaphorothrips Karny

(D. unguipes Karny)

ci ere ene en ee a end

1The genus Machatothrips Karny has forefemora with a series of 4-5 dark

chitinous teeth, absent in the males.

492. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol: 67 (3)

19.

20.

PAE

22;

Tube shorter than head, more parallel-sided, not

heavy ; sete on abdominal segment IX normal ;

foretibia unarmed. Oedymerous males with

heavy forefemora, postocellar setae distinct.

Mesothorax at sides with a fork or peg

Mesothorax without lateral processes

Mesothorax with a distinct fork, wanting in gyne-

coid males. Oedymerous males with very

strongly developed forefemora with strong spines ;

foretibia with numerous denticles on inner mar-

gin and foretarsal tooth very strong.

Mesothorax with a strong peg in the cedymerous

males, hardly recognisable in gynzcoid males.

Otherwise cedymerous males as in Dinothrips

Head production in cedymerous males excessively

developed, 4°5-5 times as long as in gynécoid

males and as long or a little longer than head.

Antennal segment 3 very long, sides strongly and

asymmetrically sinuate, with deep concavities and

carrying strong setae at apex. Forefemora stout,

strongly armed with spines and foretarsal tooth

very long and strong ; gynecoid males with short

head production, often shorter than head ; 3rd

antennal segment weak, sides not sinuate and

without strong setae at apex. Forefemora weak

as also the foretarsal tooth.

Head production in ceedymerous males not exces-

sively developed, much shorter than head

Head production not parallel-sided, broader in

front ; antennal 3 with clubbed apex. Forefe-

mora in cedymerous males excessively enlarged

and with a forked chitinous tooth at apex of inner

margin; foretarsal tooth strongly developed ;

forefemoral and foretarsal teeth absent in gyne-

coid males.

Head production usually parallel-sided, antennal

segment 3 not clubbed at apex ; forefemora at

apex in eedymerous males with a sickle-like bristle;

genal bristles and those on forelegs very strongly

Diceratothrips Bagnall

Dinothrips Bagnall

(D. sumatrensis Bagnall)

Paxillothrips Anan.

(P. longicaudus Anan.)

Tiarothrips Priesner

T. subramanii (Ramk.)

Kleothrips Schmutz

( K. gigans (Schmutz) 1

VARIATIONS IN MYCOPHAGOUS TUBULIFERA 493

developed; gynzcoid males with weak forefemora,

thin foretarsal tooth and without sickle-like

bristle. - Elaphrothrips Bufta

(E. dallatorrensis Bagnall

E. mucronatus Priesner )

E. productus Priesner

[Since sending the note for publication, the megathripine genus Bactridothrips has

been discovered, with the males bearing a pair of long processes on the VI

abdominal segment and. the VIL & VIII segments with a tooth on either side. |

PATTERNS OF DIVERSITY AMONG MALES

The simplest type occurs in such species as Nesothrips indicus, N.

robustus, Priesneriana kabandha, Pygothrips amplus, Uredothrips indicus

etc. with minimal effects on the morphs where the cedymerous males

804

605

40;

Foretarsal tooctn

0 Sa re a aa) a ee

7 : a a

Foreferncral length

GRAPH 3. Relation between forefemoral length and foretarsal tooth in the males

of some species of Nesothrips.

develop strong forelegs, with stout forefumora and a moderately stout

foretarsal tooth, without developing any other structural complexities.

This pattern has been referred to by Ananthakrishnan (1968) as simple,

monophasic or unitary. When, however, such cdymerous traits as

above are coupled with the development of additional features such as

494 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

Fic, 4 A, B. Gynecoid and cedymerous male of Hoplandrothrips graminis.

C, D. Gynecoid and cedymerous male of Hoplandrothrips indicus.

VARIATIONS IN MYCOPHAGOUS TUBULIFERA 495

forefemoral or tibial teeth, or horns on the head below eyes, or lateral or

median meso- or metanotal processes, the pattern of cdymerism is

referred to as multiple or polyphasic. Not all the known cedymerous

forms of species develop this complete multiple pattern, enabling a further

division of the multiple type into unidirectional and multidirectional

categories. Multiple or polyphasic patterns therefore involve not only

pronounced development of several parts and varying with species or

Species groups. it also results in the development of certain additional

structures only in the extreme cdymerous individuals not known in the

normal males. Typical examples of Indian species known to develop

the multi-directional patterns—Ecacanthothrips sanguineus, Hoplandro-

thrips graminis, H. indicus, Tiarothrips subramanii, Dinothrips sumatrensis,

Paxillothrips longicaudus, Nesothrips acuticornis and Nesothrips falcatus,

the latter species showing the maximum degree of cedymerism and its

effects in spite of its smaller size. In Hoplandrothrips as seen in H.

indicus and H. graminis (Fig. 4), the cdymerous males develop very

strong forefemora, with 2 or 3 subapical teeth. a basal or apical foretibial

teeth, longer prothoracic bristles, in particular the anteroangulars as well

as strong cheek setae. LEcacanthothrips sanguineus closely related to

Hoplandrothrips shows a profound gap between the gynecoid and edy-

merous forms, the gynecoids being exceedingly feeble in general make up,

lacking a strong pronotum, cheek setae, strong femora and teeth, weak

tarsal tooth and absence of coxal prolongation. Further they develop

tibial tubercles beyond middle of foretibia, a feature lacking in normal

and cdymerous males and present only in the females. In the cdy-

merous males the outer margin of the forefemora at base, tends to be

clearly concave and is fringed with a cluster of fine hairs. This concavity

becomes progressively reduced, along with the size and number of the

fringing hairs as we proceed down the series to the gynecoid. Striking

variations between the various forms are also confined to the distribution

of the red pigment, the number of sense cones, the size of antennal seg-

ments and in the number of double fringes. Strepterothrips orientalis

and Polyphemothrips cracens also appear to show the multidirectional

patterns to a limited extent (Fig. 5).

A further feature of importance is the degree of diversity in the

macropterous, brachypterous and apterous males co-existing in a

population and which to an untrained eye is liable to lead to misidenti-

fication of the species when recorded independently from different habitats.

In species of Hoplothrips such as H. fungosus, H. transvaalensis, H.

orientalis and others, the prothorax is smaller in the winged forms, their

ocelli and eyes enlarged and the sense cones also much longer. The

head may be variable in form in apterous males, with diversity in the

degree of development of horn-like projections below eyes. They are

wanting in the gynecoid males where the head may be a little longer than

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

496

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TABLE 2

INTRASPECIFIC DIVERSITY IN THE MALES OF SOME MYCOPHAGOUS TUBULIFERA

Characters Elaphrothrips E. mucro- E. procer _E. greeni(=E. Tiarothrips Kleothrips Dinothrips

productus natus dallatorensis bouvierii) subramanii gigans sumatrensis

Total body length (in mm.) 4:8-8°37 3°6-8°5 3°7-6:0 4:9-7:9 4-S7-6:98 7:04-10°5 6:05-7°60

Total head length 481-775 450-589 558-713 330-720 592-960 543-651

Total production length 86-186 55-93 62-171 176-768 176-320 176-768

Width across eyes 241-326 210-264 248-326 233-279 240-336 341-434

Width across cheeks 217-264 202-217 233-248 233-264 176-240 310-388

Width at base. 225-264 217-248 248-264 279-326 240-336 310-388

Eyes length (width) 93-155 93-124 108-140 108-124 171-202 140-155

(70-93) (62-78) (70-78) (78-93) (93-124) (108-140)

Postoculars 100-195 125-133 150-233 45-70 93-155 140-155

Production setae 73-200 100-138 150-186 Nil 108-202 =

Cheek setae 78-132 28-88 40-124 47-78 62-93 78-108

Antennal segments length

(width)

3 217-371 186-372 171-233 194-341 320-960 288-480 279-341

(35-47) (40-58) (35-38) (43-50) (35-47) (47-62) (47-62)

4 202-318 186-326 140-202 171-310 158-268 256-416 202-248

(31-35) (38-47) (38-40) (43-50) (31-47) (55-62) (55-62)

5 155-263 171-264 124-171 155-248 125-218 216-320 202-248

(31-35) (38-47) (35-38) (38-40) (31-47) (47-55) (47-55)

6 108-155 108-171 93-116 101-155 99-140 155-217 155-186

(23-25) (28-31) (28-30) (28-31) (31-39) (31-35) (47-49)

7 78-93 70-93 62-78 70-93 55-70 93-101 108-124

(20-23) (24-25) (23-25) (24-25) (24-31) (23-26) (31-34)

8 62-78 62-78 55-62 62-86 78-82 78-93 78-93

(15-16), (16-18) (15-16) (15-18) (16-18) (16-19) (15-18)

Longest seta on 3 cantennal 68-155 63-223 48-75 88-202 34-260 60-70 78-108

segment

> on 4 75-140 63-194 53-63 50-163 62-140 60-70 78-108

aay 5 cones on 3 55-65 40-45 43-63 24-31

Tenth SAessatntcone oe 171 333 171-217 171-264 186-264

Width at base (apex) 171-217 186-202 263-310

(62-93) (78-93)

Prothorax length 203-372 217-357 248-388 217-341 240-434

Width (anterior) 214-310 233-379 279-295 310-357 264-388

Width (posterior) 341-496 372-527 419-558 388-512 434-620 527-806

Anteroangulars 65-75 63-70 60-108 18-33 72-144 76-93

Midlaterals 80-85 75-90 100-113 47-78 78-108 141-124

Postangulars 63-75 88-103 88-125 47-18 93-108 186-233

Epimerals 113-135 80-120 125-163 100-113 88-176 202-233

Prothorax length 558-853 496-775 651-961 217-341 240-434 791-930

Mesothorax, width ~ 465-721 496-667 605-853 496-698 620-930 744-1100

Metathorax, width 465-713 481-713 605-853 496-698 620-930 729-1115

Forefemora length (width) . 403-698 403-667 465-791 388-713 512-1280 481-806

(108-326) (124-310) (124-310) (124-310) (140-279) (144-224) (171-419)

Foretarsal tooth length 25-124 33-108 25-70 55-116 70-155 =192 47-148

Forewings, length 1504-2279 1519-2557 1318-1442 1612-2434 1318-1860 2077-2945 2062-2634

Basal wing bristles 93-135 48-171 58-88 100-160 43-58 86-220 108-155

85-124 83-132 63-75 88-125 43-70 86-242 155-202

150-178 153-233 158-200 170-250 55-85 127-239 202-310

Double fringes 24-38 30-46 25-29 45-52 27-30 40-77 42-56

Abdomen width at base 434-574 450-682 481-651 574-698 512-677 496-698 651-960

at middle 327-481 341434 388-527 403-589 357-574 403-620 574-868

across VII 210-295 217-327 233-310 295-310 264-326 264-388 526-403

across 1X 171-233 171-279 170-233 148-264 186-233 202-326 248-310

Setae on IX Bl 388-636 388-558 341-388 465-574 233-310 465-543 775-853

B2 496-690 419-605 310-341 419-589 233-341 465-543 775-853

B3 388-590 388-558 336-388 388-465 233-310 465-543 775-853

Tube, length 388-620 403-698 357-496 419-620 388-589 510-880 589-790

Width at base 93-108 93-155 93-124 140-155 93-124 140-171 155-202

at middle 78-108 78-108 62-108 93-108 70-93 108-140 108-155

at apex 47-18 62-78 47-10 78-82 55-62 78-93 78-93

Anal setae, length 124-540 295-512 248-310 311-512 233-310 465-543 465-512

(§) 49 8A “ALAIOOS “LSIH TRYOLYN AVKEWNOP “T¥NYNOL 96h

VYAITAIAL SNOOVHdUOOKW NI SNOLLVINVA

L6r

498 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

~) a

Vice

west

n cap a UE

eer Neel

—_

C, D. Gynecoid and cedymerous male of Polyphemothrips cracens.

VARIATIONS IN MYCOPHAGOUS TUBULIFERA 499

Fic. 6 A, B. Gynecoid and edymerous male of Nesothrips falcatus

C, D. Gynzcoid and edymerous male of Nesothrips acuticornis.

500 JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

its greatest width near the middle of the cheeks, while in the cdymerous

males the head may be 1°6-1°8 times as long as wide as in H. bradleyi

Hood. So also the median apodeme of the prothorax in the gynecoid

males is short and weak and long and heavy in the cdymerous forms.

It may also be stated that the shape of the pelta differs considerably both

in the apterous and macropterous males as well as in gynecoid and

oedymerous males and hence is apt to be misleading when only one of

the variants is taken into consideration.

The species of the genus Nesothrips, however, present a combination

of simple growth patterns and multiple unidirectional and multidirectional

patterns. The spectacular examples is N. falcatus where the cedymerous

males develop (1) highly elongate and broadened forefemur, forecoxa

and forefemora with very strong curved chitinous hook-like structures,

mid-coxae also with a chitinous tooth, foretibia very short and with an

apical strong tooth and foretarsal tooth excessively long as compared

with the gynecoid, (2) anteroangulars extremely long, (3) development

of a median metanotal process reaching the pelta. Next in complexity

is N. acuticornis where the forefemora is moderately enlarged but com-

paratively larger than the gynecoid, sides of mesothorax with well

developed spurs and most important of all isthe development of a

strongly dentate posterior margin of metanotum not known in

gynecoid (Fig. 6). The other species of Nesothrips like N. robustus,

N. indicus, etc. show only a simple pattern with the development of only

a heavy forefemora and stronger tarsal tooth in cdymerous males

(Graphs | & 2). Hood (1935) refers to Nesothrips anolis with the excessively

massive pronotum with downwardly pointing coxal prolongations and

stout cheek setae in the edymerous males.

Ananthakrishnan (1967-68) has indicated the multiple trends involved

in the development of the cdymerous males in Kleothrips gigans and

Tiarothrips subramanii wherein significant differences exist with regard

to the nature of the head process and 3rd antennal segment in the cedy-

merous forms. While in Kleothrips gigans the 3rd antennal segment and

the head ‘process do not keep pace with each other during the transition

from the gynecoid to the cedymerous, a remarkable change is noticed in

Tiarothrips subramanii wherein both the 3rd antennal segment and head

process grow at various rates, in most cases go hand in hand. The

3rd antennal segment is normally as long as head process passes from a

weak, straight-sided condition to an almost monstrous proportion double

the head length and strongly corrugated, asymmetrical sides strongly

armed with long bristles.

Thanks are due to the U.S. Department of Agriculture for the award

of a PL 480 grant during the tenure of which this work was done.

VARIATIONS IN MYCOPHAGOUS TUBULIFERA

501

REFERENCES

ANANTHAKRISHNAN, T. N. (1961):

Allometry and speciation in Ecacantho-

thrips Bagnall. Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash.

74 : 275-280.

(1965) : Polymorphism and

the Taxonomy of Thysanoptera. Bull.

Ent. 6 : 57-61.

— (1967): Structural diversity

and variation range in Thrips popula-

tions. Bull. Nat. Inst. Sci. India 34:

371-374.

(1967) : Allomorphic growth

patterns in some Tubulifera (Thysano-

ptera). Indian J. Ent. 29 (1): 61-64.

(1967): On the multiple

effects of cedymerism in Nesothrips

falcatus Ananthakrishnan. Curr. Sci.

Bangalore 36 (22): 610-611.

——— (1968): Patterns of struc-

tural diversity in the males of some

Phlaeophilous Tubulifera (Thysanoptera).

ine Soc. Ent. Fr. (N.S.) 4(2) : 413-

18.

(1968) : Allomorphic growth

patterns in relation to sex-limited poly-

morphism in some mycophagous Tubull-

fera (Thysanoptera). OTA RY

Bangalore 37(20): 577-578.

———— (1969): Indian Thysanop-

tera CSIR Zoological Monograph—1 :

102-117.

———— : Kleothrips gigans Schmutz

—A study in intraspecific diversity. Bull.

Ent. (in press).

Hoop, J. D. (1935): Some new or

little known Thysanoptera of the family

Phlaeothripidae. Rev. de. Ent. 5(2):

175-187.

(1937) : Studies in Neotro-

pical Thysanoptera—V. Rev. de. Ent. 7:

498-506.

(1950): A new Hoplothrips

from Cuba. Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash. 63:

139-146.

———— (1952): Brazilian Thysanop-

tera—VI. Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash. 65:

77-80.

— (1955): A new AHoplothrips

(Thysanoptera) from Florida. Florida

Ent. XXXVUUE (1): 27-32.

PRIESNER, H. (1959): On the genus

Dinothrips Bagnall. IDEA. 12: 53.

The Flowering of the Strobilanth

(Acanthaceae)

(Strobilanthinae sensu Bremekamp)

K. M. MATTHEW, S.J.

St. Joseph’s College, Tiruchirapalli

‘Strobilanthes’® popularly refers to a large group of gregarious

shrubs characterized by outbursts of profuse flowering at fairly regular

intervals of 3 to 14 years, mostly of 4 to 7 years, and the plants (with some

exceptions) dying off after dispersal of the seeds. Bremekamp (1944)

used the term ‘ plietesials ’ for such monocarpic plants that take several

years to reach maturity before flowering. This growth form is not rare

in the tropics and subtropics.

In India this group occurs on the hills and at the foothills ; more

abundantly in the south, especially on the Nilgiris and Palnis. This

noteworthy group of plants attracted the special attention of the first

explorers of the Indian flora. The plants grew so densely that the seed-

lings of the forest trees could hardly survive under them. Schemes

of organized eradication of these plants were considered imperative for

efficient forestry (Gamble 1888 ; Osmaston 1904). As to their occur-

rence in India, Clarke (1888) refers to 146 species, and Gamble (1924)

to 46. Fyson (1932) refers to only 19, but all occurring above 1500 m.

on the south Indian hills. Several of the species have been illustrated

by Wight (1838-53 ; 1840-50; 1846-51), Beddome (1869-74), Fyson

(1932) and Robinson (1935).

The present paper deals with : (1) a survey of published data regarding

the periodicity of flowering ; (2) the possible cause of the special manner

of flowering ; (3) the taxonomy of the group. An exhaustive bibliography

is given since the main purpose of this paper is to stimulate research on

this plant group.

The best known in south India is Strobilanthes kunthianus (Nees) T.

And. (=Phlebophyllum kunthianum Nees) famous for the copious,

fragrant blue flowers (ranging from pale lilac blue to deep purplish blue)

at regular intervals of 12 years. These flowerings were such a landmark

in the lives of the hill tribes in former days that they used to recall the

main events of their lives with reference to the flowerings they had wit-

nessed. The kurinjimalar (‘ flower of the hills’) of the Tamil classics

probably refers to this plant. The recent flowerings provoked more than

FLOWERING OF STROBILANTH 503

usual interest on account of publicity through newspapers and radio, and

drew crowds to the hills.

Nine consecutive flowerings at regular intervals of 12 years between

1838 and 1934 on the Nilgiris are mentioned by Robinson (1935) ; as for

the Palnis, Matthew (1959) has recorded five such flowerings betwecn. 1910

and 1958. With the general flowering of 1970, there is an impressive

record of 12 consecutive flowerings at regular intervals of 12 years for

south India.

Formerly when large tracts of land were covered by this plant, the

years of flowering attracted numerous swarms of honey bees. The rock

bee (Apis dorsata) and the common honey bee (Apis indica) used to

migrate in large numbers to regions of flowering ; Robinson (1935) has

recorded certain interesting facts and figures regarding the number of

hives of bees seen at Kodaikanal. The season of dispersal of seeds was

reported to have caused mass migration of jungle fowls from the foothills

on the Nilgiris. These, however, are a memory of the past, with the area

under the plant fast diminishing owing to denudation of virgin land for

cultivation. The flowering of 1958, and more so that of 1970, was con-

spicuous for the absence of such visitors.

In 1970, the mass flowering at Kodaikanal started about February with

the close of winter and came to a peak in April-May. Though confined

largely to isolated patches, the flowering was still impressive in the

Shembaganur, Poombarai, Vembadi and Berijam areas. Robust speci-

mens exceeded 2 m. tall (Matthew 11457) ; plants in flower as small as

9 cm. tall were recorded too (Matthew 11459 a). Stunted plants are the

rule at altitude above 2000 m. exposed to incessant wind. Matthew

11458 had completely white flowers.

Among the other species with published data are S. rufescens T. And.

(C. W. A. B. 1895) ; S. sessilis Nees (J. L. L. McG. 1895 ; Murray 1896) ;

S. wallichii Nees (A. S. 1895 : Osmaston 1904) ; S. callosus Nees (Fagan

1896 : Santapau 1944, 1950a, b, 1951; Murray 1896): S. pectinatus

T. And. and S. helictus T. And. (Osmastcon 1904) ; and S. neilgherrensis

Bedd. (Bowden 1950).

There are several questions that need to be answered as regards these

plants. Even in the case of S. kunthianus (Nees) T. And. where the evi-

dence for the 12-year cycle of flowering is fairly certain, there are dis-

cordant data that should be considered. Among many such reports,

Gamble (1888) speaks of intervals of 4-6 years ; Fyson (1932) of 7-12

years. The present author himself has noted stray flowers of S. kunthianus

(Nees) T. And. almost every year between two mass flowerings ; these

stray blossoms being more abundant in the year preceding the mass

flowering. In fact the undue publicity given to the flowering of 1969 on

the Palnis was of sucha one ! Much of the published data on the flower-

ing seem to be uncritical especially in the case of species other than S.

504. JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST.. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

kunthianus (Nees) T. And. where the correct identity of plants itself

might have been uncertain. Such data should be carefully sifted in the

light of ample and accurate field study.

Another source of error could be that such reports of mass flowerings

pertain only to small areas. The following is such a one that the present

author studied. On September 17, 1960 (1958 was the year of the

previous mass flowering), he observed a region between milestones 38-4

and 37-2 of the Goschen Road near the Astrophysical Observatory,

Kodaikanal, when many plants were in flower. There seemed to have

been plants of at least four different stages of development here : (1) those

in flower then ; (2) an equal number of plants not going into flower that

year ; (3) those that had flowered in 1958 and preserved as dry twigs ;

(4) some plants 10-15 cm. tall, uniform in size with seedlings from the

seeds of the 1958 mass flowering abundant in places where general

flowering occurred in 1958. Among those in flower, there was a notable

degree of variation in size: the biggest were up to 3 m. tall with

a maximum internodal diameter of 2 cm. (Matthew 1693); a few plants

as small as 20 cm. tal] with just 3-4 flowers each (Matthew 1691) ; the

majority of plants of intermediate size, 1-1.5 m. tall (Matthew 1692).

Cases like this, probably caused by special ecological factors, may

not be rare, and might account for reports of aberrant flowerings.

There has been little study on the possible causes of this type of

flowering. The study of the physiology over the maturing years of these

plants may throw light on the Jong intervals of flowering. Why and how

is the flowering hormone released in such abundance? Why do the

plants die after flowering ? How is their nutritional physiology affected ?

Is the report of the production of large number of tyloses generally veri-

fied, and if so, has it anything to do with the death of the plants? Do all

the viable seeds germinate simultaneously during the year following their

dispersal ? Can seeds be kept viable for several years, so that if some of

these could be germinated and planted out every year for 11 consecutive

years, flowering thereafter should occur every year ?

Careful field studies with special reference to factors like rainfall,

temperature, exposure, etc. and in the laboratory over a period of several

years on the hills are necessary to answer these questions ; may be this is

one of the problems to be studied 1 in a future botanical laboratory on the

hills.

Finally, the taxonomy of the group should be worked out in the light

of answers to these questions. Data from cytology, anatomy, histology,

embryology and biochemistry are yet to come ; pollen morphology has

proved diagnostic and has been effectively used by Bremekamp (1944),

probably after Radlkofer (1883). Whereas Indian floras treat

* Strobilanthes’ in a broad sense, Bremekamp (1944) has split the sub-

FLOWERING OF STROBILANTH 505

tribe Strobilanthinae into 54 genera. In this sense, the genus Strobilanthes

does not occur in India.

A comprehensive Indian monograph on the group is an urgent need,

especially since Bremekamp (1944) had not sufficiently studied Indian

material. Such a work will be difficult but prove to be a landmark in

Indian botany.

In conclusion it should be pointed out that this type of gregarious and

periodic flowering so much talked of inthe Strobilanthinae is after all not

so. rare in nature. Bamboos flower gregariously and on'y once in their

lifetime ; several forest trees, as certain members of Dipterocarpaceae,

do not seem to flower regularly every year.

For an observant botanist.

our forest trees may prove to be matter for fruitful study.

Whereas laboratory studies are essential in knowing our plants better,

careful field studies are equally important.

Maybe a plea for intensified

and improved field studies is truly appropriate to commemorate

Fr. Santapau whose death occurred in a year of mass flowering.

The author thanks Prof. B. G. L. Swamy for useful suggestions.

REFERENCES

ANDERSON, T. (1867) : An enumeration

of the Indian species of Acanthaceae.

J. Linn. Soc. 9: 465-475.

A. S. (1896) : Flowering of Strobilan-

thes in Jaunsar. Ind. For. 22: 182.

BEDDOME, R. H. (1868-74): Icones

Plantarum Indiae Orientalis. Madras.

BENTHAM, G. & Hooker, J.D. (1876):

Genera Plantarum 2(2): 1065.

Bowpen, E. (1950): The flowering of

Strobilanthes. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

49: 576.

BREMEKAMP, C. E. B. (1944):

Materials for a monograph of the

Strobilanthinae (Acanthaceae). Verh.

Nederl. Akad. Wet. 11 40 (1): 1-306,

tt. i-iv.

CLARKE, C. B. (1884): in Hooker, J. D.

Flora of British India 4: 429-477.

C. W. A. B. (1895): Flowering of

Strobilanthes in Burma. Ind. For. 21:

47-48.

FAGAN, R. S. (1896): Flowering of

Strobilanthes in Bombay. Ind. For.

D2 2 tS2e

Fyson, P. F. (1932): The Flora of the

South Indian Hill Stations. Madras,

pp. 443 - 453.

GAMBLE, J. S. (1888): The Nilgiri

‘ Strobilanthes’. Ind. For. 14: 153-

158.

————— (1924): Flora of the

Presidency of Madras, 6 : 720-732.

J. L. L.-McG. (1895): Flowering of

Strobilanthes. Ind. For. 21: 462.

KapapiA, G. A. (1950) : Strobilanthes

callosus Nees at Junagadh in Saurashtra.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 49 : 321-322.

LiInDAU (in Engler & Prantl 1895):

Die Naturlichen Pflanzenfamilien 4(3b) :

300.

MATTHEW, K. M. (1959): The vege-

tation of Kodaikanal grassy slopes.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 56: 387-422.

Morris, R. C. (1958): Flowering of

Strobilanthes. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

557-185:

Morray, H. (1896): Flowering of

Strobilanthes in Bombay. Ind. For. 22:

262.

Nees, C. G. von E. (1847) in Wallich,

N. Plantae Asiaticae Rariores 3 : 84-89,

1832, & in Candolle, A. P. de Prodro-

mus systematis naturalis regni vegeta-

bilis 11 : 177-196.

OsMASTON, B. B. (1904): Strobilan-

thes and natural reproduction. Jnd.

For. 30: 195-196.

R. M. (1894): Seeding of Strobilan-

thes on the Nilgiris. Ind. For. 20: 130.

RADLKOFER, L. (1883) : Ueber den sys-

tematichen werth der pollen-beschaffen-

heir bei den Acanthaceen. Sitz. K.

Bayer. Akad. Wiss. 13(2): 256-314.

RoBINson, M. E. (1935): The flower-

ing of Strobilanthes in 1934. J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 38: 117-122, tt. 1-8.

SANTAPAU, H. (1944): The flowering

of Strobilanthes. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 44: 605-606.

506 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

— (1950a): The flowering of

Strobilanthes. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

49 : 320-321.

—— (1950b) : Further remarks on

the flowering of Strobilanthes. J. Bom-

bay. nat. Hist. Soc. 49 ; 575-576.

=~, (195) 3) Ther Acanthaceae

of Bombay. Bot. Mem. Univ. Bombay,

2: 36-50.

(1952): The flowering of

Strobilanthes in Khandala J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 50: 430-431.

——=— ,,(1960a) *:) Notes ion” the

flowering of Carvia callosa Bremek. ibid.

56: 676-677.

—— (1960b) : The flowering of

Strobilanthes ibid. 56 : 677, t. 1.

——— (1960c): The Carvi plant

ee igare Rev. 'Bombay 10 (11) : 38-40,

bi, 2ihh

(1962) Gregarious flower-

ing of Sirobilanthes and Bamboos.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 59 : 688-695.

WiGHT, R. (1838-53): Icones Plan-

tarum Indiae Orientalis. Madras.

(1840-50) : Illustrations of

Indian Botany Madras.

——_—— (1846-51) : Spicilegium neilg-

herrense. Madras.

Aplanospore formation or outcome

of Parasitic Attack ?

ELLA A. GONZALVES AND G. R. SONNAD'!

(With a plate)

The formation of ovoid, ellipsoid or irregularly-shaped aplanospores

by the protoplast of the cells of several of the larger species of Oedo-

gonium, and occasionally in Bulbochaete, has been mentioned by Tiffany

(1930) in his monograph on the Oedogoniales (p. 21). Earlier, he

(Tiffany 1926) had stated that when filaments are attacked by fungal

parasites, single aplanospore-like structures might be observable in the

cells. Handa (1928), too, noticed what he called ‘akinetes’ in Oedo-

gonium, due to withdrawal of the protoplast from the c2ll wall and

its rounding in two masses within a cell, each mass having a wall

around it. As the material was collected from the Southern Shan

States of Burma at an elevation of 4615 ft.. Handa inferred that a

high altitude, with its accompanying low temperature, might have

been conducive to the production of such akinetes in Oedogonium.

Fritsch (1935) in a footnote on p. 301 opined that Handa’s record of

such stages was questionable, owing to the possibility of the presence

of a parasite.

A phenomenon similar to the one recorded by Handa (1928) was

seen by Randhawa (1937) in the cells of a fertile species of Oedogonium.,

except that in Randhawa’s material, the protoplast aggregated in a

single obovoid mass within the cell and not in two masses. The

mass was usually surrounded by a thick wall, but in recently divided

cells the wall was thin.

According to Randhawa (1937), it is incorrect to refer to these

accumulations of protoplasm as akinetes, for the latter, as he states,

‘are usually produced by the transformation of whole cells by the

secondary thickening of the cell wall’ and not, as in these cases, within

the parent cell. He rightly maintained that as his specimens were

collected from the plains of the Punjab, the formation of such masses

could not be attributed either to high altitude or to low temperature

conditions. Moreover, as he did not find any fungus parasitizing the

1 The junior author has, unfortunately, not lived to see the publication of this paper,

his untimely death having occurred a short time ago.

508 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

alga, he held that the masses were, in all probability, zoospores, which,

for some reason, had been unable to escape from the cells and had

jost their flagella and developed thick walls around themselves. He,

therefore, regarded them as aplanospores. Islam & Sarma (1963) also

found such spore-like structures in the cells of two terrestrial species

of Oedogonium. They, too, regarded them as aplanospores, as they

did not observe any evidence of fungal attack.

During a survey of the Oedogoniales of the Karnatak, the authors

colected specimens of Oedogonium crassum [(Has.) Wittr.] Hirn,

from Narendra Tank, Dharwar. Examination showed that the alga

was growing vigorously, but in the cells of a few filaments, the proto-

plast had withdrawn from the cell wall and had assembled in the

cenire of the cell (Fig. 1, a). Some cells had, however, two, or

even three. such masses (Fig. 1, b, c). The masses were globose

or somewhat oblong, each being surrounded by a thin or a fairly

prominent membrane. They varied in size, the globose ones being

28-38 j, in diameter, the oblong ones being 28-37 uw by 40-50 x.

To observe the condition of these filaments more closely, the material

was grown in a trough in the laboratory. Lapse of a brief period

showed a large percentage of the filaments manifesting this condition,

while vegetative growth had slowed down considerably.

The manner in which two masses arose in a cell was either by

division of the original protoplast into two, followed by rounding of

the daughter protoplasts, or by the migration of the contracted proto-

plast of a cell through a central pore in the transverse wall into an

adjacent cell in which massing of the protoplast had already occurred

(Figs. 1, 2, m). The cell containing two masses would thus be flanked

by an empty cell on one side (Fig. 1, b). Occasionally, the two masses

in a cell moved into adioining cells to the right and left of them

respectively.

Occurrence of three masses was due either to a cell containing

two masses becoming the recipient of the contracted protoplast of

a neighbouring cell or to a cell with one mass receiving the contents

of ihe cells on either side of it.

Treatment with iodine revealed the presence of starch in some of

the masses, but most of them had little or no starch; instead, such

masses assumed a reddish-orange colour. The nucleus, too, was un-

detectable and in many of the masses, several scattered vacuoles or one

large central vacuole appeared.

The condition observed here appears to be similar to that recorded

by Handa (1928) and by Randhawa (1937), but it is possible that

massing of the protoplast in this instance is due to the attack of an

endophytic chytrid. Sparrow (1943) described the Olpidium type of

J. BomBay NAT. Hist. Soc. 67 (3)

Ella A. Gonzalves: Oedogonium

Fic. 1. Aggregationof protoplasts in one (a), two (6) and three (c) masses within

a cell.

Fic. 2. Migration (m) of protoplast from one cell into an adjoining cell through

an Opening in the transverse wall.

APLANOSPORE FORMATION OR PARASITIC ATTACK? 509

thallus in the Chytridiales to be spherical or ellipsoidal and capable

of being carried away over distances as the result of cytoplasmic

movement of the host. Moreover, transparency of the vegetative part

of its thallus may render unsuspect the presence of the parasite within

the cells of the host.

The movements of the protoplasmic masses could thus be due to

the presence of a fungal thallus within the contracted protoplast.

Scherffel (1925) records that Tribonema, attacked by Chytridium

confervae, reacted by concentration of the plasma in the region of

the infection tube, while the host nucleus travelled from its original

position to the point of infection. Wall material was then secreted in

order to check the attack of the parasite. It is likely that the

occurrences here are similar. When the tube formed by the encysted

zoospore of the chytrid penetrated into the algal cell, the protoplast

probably separated from the wall and secreted a membrane around

itself to stop, perhaps, the incursion of the parasite. However, after

the parasite established itself within the protoplast, it attacked and

destroyed the nucleus. It also utilized the stored food material, viz.

starch, which, as infection proceeded, was reduced in the cell.

Thus, the adscription of the term ‘aplanospcres’ to such structures

as have been described here, and by previous investigators, will be

Open to question, unless convincing supporting evidence of the

liberation, germination and further development of these spore-like

structures is forthcoming

REFERENCES

HAnDA, M. R. (1928) : Akinetes in a

species of Oedogonium. J. Indian bot.

Phycomycetes. Waverley Press,Balti-

more M. D., 785 pp.

Soc. 7: 15-16.

RanpDHAWA, M. S. (1937): A note

on aplanospores in a species of Oedogo-

nium. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. 4 : 97-107.

SCHERFFEL, A. (1925): Beitrage zur

Kenntnis der Chytridineen I. Arch.

Protistenk. 53: 1-58.

Sparrow, F. K. (1943): Aquatic

TIFFANY, L. H. (1926): The filamen-

tous algae of northwestern Iowa, with

special reference to the Oedogoniaceae.

Trans. Amer. micr. Soc. 45 : 69-132.

(1930) : The Oedogoniceae,

a monograph including all the known

species of the genera Bulbochaete, Oedo-

cladium and Oedogonium. Columbus

Ohio, 253 pp.

Spawning habits, eggs and early

development of Deccan Mahseer,

Tor khudree (Sykes)

C. V. KULKARNI

(With five text-fieures)

LNerRO DAC TA ON

Mahseers, a group of large Indian carps, are well known as excellent

game fish in India, comparable to similar sport fish elsewhere in the

world. They had attracted the attention of angler naturalists like

Thomas (1897) Skene-Dhu (1918) Macdonald (1948) etc., who wrote

on the natural history and the special traits of the fish from the

anglers’ point of view. Hora (1939, 1941, 1942) wrote several articles

on the taxonomy, distinguishing characters of the species, races and

colour varieties of Mahseers of India and Burma. Hora & Nazir

Ahmed (1946) described the spawning habits of Katli Mahseer of

Assam and Nazir Ahmed (1948) described the early stages of the

Copper Mahseer, Lissochilus hexagonolepis. David (1953) dealt with

the bionomics and some early stages of the Mahanadi Mahseer,

Barbus (Tor) mosal mahanadicus. Recently Karamchandani ef al.

(1967) gave an account of fishery and biology of Tor tor (Hamilton)

from Narmada River, Madhya Pradesh. Several other notes on Mah-

seers are also available, nevertheless, very little is known about the breeding

habits and early development of the Deccan Mahseer, Tor khudree

(Sykes). [ had recently an opportunity to study the breeding habits

and early development of this fish (7. khudree) at lake Walwhan of

the Tata Hydro-Hlectric Power Supply Co., near Lonavla, Dist. Poona.

The lake has a water spread of about 800 ha. and a maximum depth of

17 m. Despite the usual difficulties of obtaining mature brood fish

at the righi time, eggs and early stages were obtained by stripping

ripe males and females and by fertilising the eggs artificially. A

descriptive account of this work is given.

BREEDING SEASON OF Jor khudree

It is well known that the breeding season of Indian carps is, but

for slight variations, more or less common namely during the early

part of the monsoon season. Mahseers, though belonging to the same

SPAWNING AND DEVELOPMENT OF DECCAN MAHSEER la}

family, appear to have, according to published accounts, a varied

breeding season. Day (1872), Beavan (1871) & Skene-Dhu (loc. cit.)

believed that Mahseers breed several times in a year including monsoon

inonths. Thomas (1897) recorded their breeding at intervals during

post-monsoon months. Macdonald (1948) states that ‘the Putitor

Mahseer is said to spawn three times in the year. In the Punjab, ihe

three spawning seasons are (1) January-February (2) May & June

(3) July to September.’ Nazir Ahmed (loc. cit.) observed the breeding

season of Assam Mahseer to extend from April to October with a

peak in August and September; whereas David (loc. cit.) states that the

Mahanadi Mahseer breeds after the monsoon between November and

January. He adds that ‘in Barbus (Tor) khudree and Barbus (Tor)

mussuallah spawning takes place in November in the Cauvery system’.

Karamchandani (loc, cit.) records that breeding season of Tor /0r

commences in July-August and continues up to December. From the

above records, it would be seen that there are different observations

largely indicating that the spawning season is not limited to a short

period of one or two months like in other major carps but is a pro-

longed one. However, the observations made at Lonavla (Walwhan

Lake) during July and August 1970 indicate that these two months,

or more precisely a period of a month or so in these two months

represents the spawning period. Records of fish caught from the above

lake with the help of gillnets operated in the spawning area are as

under : —

Tey GRY eas NEARS BS ECS a ee Rn A

No. of fish Condition of

Date caught od se) fish

31-vu-70 30 20 Oozing—18

spent—2

10 Oozing—nil

full—9

spent—1

3-viI-70 9 5 All ripe

4 3 ripe (loaded)

1 spent

8-vilI-70 17 11 7 ripe

4 spent

6 2 half spent

4 spent

21-vit-70 21 17 15 spent

2 half spent

4 2 spent

2 half spent

27-vitt-70 26 22 12 spent

10 half spent

4 3 spent

1 half spent

eee en ener enna eee ee

512. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

It will be seen from the above catch details that the last tew days

of July and the first week or ten days of August was the spawning

period for the year 1970. Connecting this with the meteorological

conditions such as rainfall and the resulting changes in the lake levels,

it would be seen that out of the yearly (monsoon season) rainfall of

4285 mm. (160 in.) about 1825 mm. (73 in.) fell up to July 31, 1970,

When the spawning activity appears to have set in. At this time the

lake level rose from 6-62 m. (21-7 fi.) on 3-vi-70 to 8:5 m. (27:89 ft.)

and the temperature of water fell to 24°C. This rise in the level en-

abled the mature fish to approach some of the streams which flow

into the lake. Level areas at the confluence of these streams with the lake

were inundated and provided spawning beds, though the actual spawn-

ing activity with the usual commotion could not be seen. Rainfall in

the lake area commenced from 4-vi-70. The stimulus of rainfall and

dilution of lake water can therefore be said to have commenced from

that day and to have activated the gonadotropic hormone secretions

Stage by stage. Actual flooding and low temperature of water triggered

the spawning activity. Early part of monsoon of 1970 was rather weak

at Lonavla and this might have delayed the normal onset of breeding

activity at the lake. Even then from the number of ripe fish caught

on 31-vii-70, it can be surmised that the activity had already started.

The area where netting was done receives water from three hill streams

expected to attract breeding fish. Though the number of fish caught

appears to be small, taking into consideration the depth and extent

of the main lake, the shallow small area of water fished and the length

of the net used, the catch indicates fairly enhanced activity of the

Mahseers. On 8-viii-70 large females (3 Kg.) in half spent condition

were obtained. It is probable that the half spent condition may be

due to their being caught in a gillnet where they usually strugele for

their life before they are removed and kept in a conditioning net.

During this struggle they may have shed their eggs. Half spent

condition after removal from the net is, therefore, considered as ripe

and full. However, the catches in the second fortnight of August 1970

indicate that although adult fish were caught, most of them were spent.

The spent condition indicated that spawning was over. Whether the

same fish has another spell of spawning has to be examined in future.

However, from the details gathered so far. a fortnight or two between

late July and early August seem to be the peak breeding period of

Mahseer in Walwhan and also its adjoining Shirawta Lake.

Two of the females caught on 8-viii-70 which were in ripe condition,

though actually half spent, were stripped and the eggs fertilised with

the help of milt of the males caught with them. About 10,000 eggs

SPAWNING AND DEVELOPMENT OF DECCAN MAHSEER _ 513

were thus obtained, the fertilization being about 90%. It was probably

for the first time in India that sucha large number of eggs of Mahseer

were obtained by stripping, fertilised successfully and grown to fry and

fingerling stage excepting Nazir Ahmed’s (loc. cit.) initial effort with

the Copper Mahseer of Assam on a smaller scale. For the Deccan ~

Mahseer, this is the first time that the eggs, post larvae and fry, are

obtained and described.

DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERS OF MALE AND FEMALE MAHSEERS

Sexual differentiation of Mahseers is not quite apparent to an un-

trained eye. Coloration in all fins is uniformly bluish in both sexes

and the body pale golden yellow and abdomen white. However, the

pectoral fin of the male is comparatively longer, reaching the seventh

scale below the lateral line. Its outer ray is pointed, straight and its

inner margin also almost straight. The pectoral fin of the female is

short, reaching below the fifth or sixth scale of the lateral line and its

inner margin is concave. Its fin membrane is thicker than in the male

and its outer ray is bent inwards. Apart from the bulkiness of the

abdomen giving rise te an arched ventrai profile, another distinguishing

feature of the female is that the base of the anal fin projects out of

the profile line, while the profile is comparatively straight or less

arched and the base of the anal fin does not very much project out

of the prcfile line in the male. Fine tubercles are sometimes present

on the gill cover below the eyes in the male but this character is not

always reliable. Similarly the roughness of the pectorals in the males

is only slightly felt and requires considerable experience.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE DECCAN MAHSEER. TOr khudree (SYKES)

Egg & Embryo:

The eggs of Tor khudree are distinctive in as much as they are not

colourless like those of Catla, Rohu, etc. but are bright lemon yellow

verging on golden brown. They resemble eggs of Puntius kolus but

are larger than the latter. The perivitelline space is small and they

absorb only a small quantity of water. The egg is about 2:5 mm. in

diameter when freshiy laid and increases in size to 3:2 mm. after

absorption of water. Unlike egg of other carps, they are comparatively

heavy and demersal, and they are also not soft and smooth like other

carp eges but tough and somewhat rough to touch. They resemble

514. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

trout eggs but are smaller in size and comparatively lighter in weight.

Figure ja illustrates a freshly laid egg, heavily yolked and without oil _

globules. Figure 1b indicates an egg three hours after fertilization.

Figy I:

Eggs of Mahseer, Tor khudree (Sykes)

a: Newly laidegg. b: Egg, three hour after fertilization. c: Egg, 24 hours after

fertilization.

d: Egg, 48 hours after fertilization.e: Egg, 58 hours after fertilization,

SPAWNING AND DEVELOPMENT OF DECCAN MAHSEER | 515

It shows a cap of protoplasm gathered at one pole of the egg forming

a blastodisc.

After 24 hours (Fig. Ic), the embryo develops further and becomes

comma shaped; the cephalic portion can be distinguished but the optic

lobes are not clear. The head as well as body of the embryo are

closely: attached to the yolk. There is no visible movement of the

embryo.

After 48 hours (Fig. 1d), the head as well as the tai! portion of

the embryo are prolonged and they are distinctly seen raised on the

surface of the yolk which is now comparatively reduced in size. Twiiching

movements of the embryo are seen but they are slow and occur after

an interval of two or three minutes. The movements at this stage are

not jerky as in the Rohu or Catla eggs. Outline of the eyes and the

lens are seen but no pigment in the eyes is yet visible.

After about 58 hours, there is not much apparent change in the embryo

but the body becomes more defined and clearer, and the head well-

defined. The sclerotic ring and the iens are seen but without pigment.

Movement of the embryo within the egg has now become more frequent

and vigorous than in the previous stage. This movement is so force-

ful that it makes the egg roll if kept in a flat petrie dish.

After 60 hours the eggs hatch and at the time of hatching, the

actual rupture of the egg membrane takes place by the lashing move-

ments of the tail, which bends below the abdomen and then straightens

out. Out of the three eggs watched in this way. two hatchlings came

out normaliy and without difficulty but the third had its large yolk

sac and head entangled in the ege membrane. This is due to the

relatively large yolk sac which may prove to be a handicap leading to

a sizeable mortality in natural hatching.

The second batch of 14 eggs observed hatched out between 60 and

72 hours and the third batch of 16 eggs between 72 and 80 hours. It can

be thus assumed that under laboratory .conditions where water is

aerated and changed occasionally and the ambient temperature i$

largely constant at 29°C, and water temperature 27°C. the hatching

period is 60 to 80 hours. In nature, if the conditions are more favour-

able, the period may be shorter, but in all probability this may not be

the case, with the variations in day and night temperatures, depending

on.whether the eggs are deposited in shallow or deep waters and

whether they are lumped together or spread out.

Hatchling :

The first post-larva or the earliest hatchling of the Mahseer (Fig. 2)

is about 9 mm. in total length and has a large, prominent, yellow,

516 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

yolk sac divided into two lobes. Its anterior part is larger (c. 2.8 mm.

in length) and more rounded than the posterior (c. 2:5 mm. in length)

which is elongated. The eyes are formed, the eyeball and the outer

0 eee ws

ae core at 5303

ges ge hae

Fig. 2. a: Lateral view of a newly hatched post-larva (hatchling)

of T. khudree (Sykes). b: Dorsal view of the same,

ring can be seen but there is no pigment. The otocysts can be seen

in live specimens. The heart pulsates at about 100 to 105 beats per

minute. A few colourless blood corpuscles: could be seen. The aorta

is also formed. Except for the colour of the yolk sac, ihe post-larva

is colourless. A continuous embryonic fin fold starts dorsally from

the middle of the two lobes of the yolk sac and proceeding back-

wards round the caudal portion, ends ventrally near the posterior

margin of the yolk sac. Pectoral is seen as a minute bud. No traces

of fin rays are seen at this stage in any fin area.

The pest-larva remained quiescent on its side at the bottom of

the tray and moved in jerky manner, vibrating its tail only when

slightly disturbed.

Three day old post-larva :

Total length 11 mm. Rests on its yolk sac ventrally and with

the dorsal finfold pointing upwards (Fig. 3). Towards the end of

the third day, it moved more frequently than before but remained at

the bottom, though a few occasionally swam momentarily upwards in

the usual jerky manner and again settled on the bottom.

SPAWNING AND DEVELOPMENT OF DECCAN MAHSEER _ 517

A significant development at this stage is the appearance of pigment

in the eyeball and melanophores on the dorsal side of the eye. On

7 ox WO La eves ae ey we Ae ae x

ie is ea -) -~ a reed AGEL gases Le elite i

ee os weet SE SATCU eet gee

Fig. 3. Three-day-old hatchling of T. khudree (Sykes).

both sides of the dorsal fin fold there are black chromatophores. The

pectoral fin now develops. Gill covers are well defined and gill

filaments are seen. The jaws are formed. In living specimens, the

black eyeball has a golden ring surrounded by black chromatophores

Otocysts are clearly marked. The pulsating heart can be clearly seen

and the bleod corpuscles have become distinctly red in colour. The

two portions of the yolk sac appear to be losing their distinctness by

reduction of the constriction between them and merge into a long

but anteriorly enlarged yolk sac. The dorsal finfold is extended or

produced upwards at the place of origin of the dorsal fin. Fin rays

on the lower lobe of the caudal fin make their appearance. The anal

opening develops.

Six day old post-larya :

Total length of fry 12 mm. (Fig. 4). Though there is not much

increase in total length, the structural development has gone fairly

Jia gce ee ew ee.

3 Py ea

Fig. 4. Six-day-old hatchling of 7. khudree (Sykes).

apace. In addition to the pectorals, the dorsal fin is clearly de-

marcated from the original fin fold and as many as ten rays in the

formative stage are visible. The caudal fin lobes are marked out and

518 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

full 19 fin rays could be counted. The anal fin lobe is discernible

but without fin rays. Anal opening and a part of the anal track is

visibie. A fin fold has developed on the posterior portion of the

yolk sac but anterior to the anal opening. ‘The constriction between

the anterior and posterior portions of the yolk sac had completely

disappeared and the latter becomes a continuous fusiform structure.

The eyes have become prominent and bright. Chromatophores

lave appeared on the head and slightly behind the eyes. A double

row of small pigment spots is seen on either side of the dorsal fin,

between the lateral line and dorsal profile line. Small chromatophores

occur on the body also. A distinct congregation of chromatophores

forming a black spot or a blotch is seen on the base of the caudal fin.

Anterior to and above the yolk sac and below the vertebral column,

an air bladder develops which when viewed from above, appears oval.

This is seen only in living specimens. The jaws are constantly in

motion.

The fry at this stage (12 mm.) is erect but not free swimming and

prefers to remain at the bottom when not disturbed. In a net, they

prefer to remain huddled together. This habit may lead to heavy

mortality either due to lack of oxvgen in the corners where they

congregate or to a prowling predator getting a large number of motion-

less fry settled in one place at a time.

On the &th day. the fry commenced swimming but they preferred

to move on the side walls of the net, probably simulating the adult

habit of trowsing on submerged rocks. The behaviour could also

be interpreied as disinchnation or inability to swim freely in the open

waters. The sedantary habit accompanied by occassional jerky move-

ments for about 8 days may make the fry an easy prey to predators

who may be attracted by the movements and the comparatively large

size of the fry.

Eleven dav old fry:

At eleven days. the fry becomes a free swimming individual

and feeds on Moina, small Daphnia and Cyclops. It has not progressed

much as far as its length is concerned, it being only 13.5 mm. in total

length. in addition to the concentration of chromatophores on the

head, a row of elongated or dash-like chromatophores are seen along

the lateral line and also on the caudai rays and the ventral line between

the anal opening and the caudal fin. The caudal blotch is distinct and

somewhat triradiate when viewed under.a microscope. The volk sac

is not yet fully absorbed. The air bladder continues to grow in size.

About 38 vertebrae could be counted in a living specimen.

SPAWNING AND DEVELOPMENT OF DECCAN MAHSEER _ 519

Further progress in fin formation is seen in the appearance of a

small bud representing the pelvic fin, a small finfold yet continuing

on its anterior and posterior side. A finfold at the base of the caudal

is also persistent. The caudal is now distinctly forked and anal fin

has developed seven rays. Dorsal has ten fin rays and is situated

almost midway between the base of the caudal and the top of the

snout. but slightly in advance of the pelvic fin bud. The dorsal profile

is rounded; the ventral being almost straight except at the yolk sac

portion.

Twenty day old fry:

The 20-day old fry (Fig, 5). is an actively moving individual about

26 mm. in total lengih. It continues to feed on Moina, Daphnia, etc.

The bodv is covered with small chromatophores but as they are spars:

Gavs old fry of T. kludree (Sykes).

and small, the generat colour of the fry appears yellowish. No

chromatonhores are seen on the abdomen and below the head, the

area appearing clear white. Small elongated chromatophores are formed

on the caudal and dorsal fin rays but in the case of the anal, they are

situated on the basal portion of the first two branched rays only. They

are absent on the pelvic and pectoral fins. The caudal blotch is quite

prominent and its triradiate form has changed into somewhat oblong

form with broken margin.

The yolk sac has disappeared and the ventral profile is almosi

straight The dorsal profile continues te be arched. It becomes more

pronunently arched on fixation in formalin. Along with other fins,

the pelvics are also well developed. The anal has 8 fin rays. They

are simple but branched only at the terminal portion. Dorsal has

eleven rays. The first undivided ray is just developing, the second

and third undivided rays are clearly seen. Other rays are branched

520. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

only at their terminal portion. In the pelvics also, the first ray is

rudimentary the second undivided and the rest branched terminally.

The fry is thus well developed in all respects. In an unhealthy or

ill fed fry, the chromatophores are more dense and consequently the

fry looks blackish in colour and not yellowish as in the case of healthy

ones. Similarly the rate of development may also change in un-

favourable conditions.

PISCICULTURAL POSSIBILITIES

The present observations indicate that if ripe males and females

could be cbtained at the right time. stripping and artificial fertilization

are not difficult. The eggs being tough and hard and the hatching

period being long, (60 to 80 hours), transportation of eggs over long

distances is feasible in properly designed trays or boxes ‘as in the

case of trout eggs. Compared to Catla, Rchu etc. there is less mortality

in the eggs after fertilization. Similarly the hatchlings and fry seem

to be hardy. Although the critical quiescent period is very long, nearly

7 to 8 days after hatching, mortality is fairly low if proper care is

taken and hatchlings are not allowed to lie or rest on muddy surfaces.

Further, as the quantity of yolk is fairly jarge, the hatchlings at the

time they become free swimming, are large enough to take Moina,

small Daphnia, etc. The hatchlings being more than 12 mm., when

they become free swimming, there is hardiy any spawn stage. They

can be said to emerge as fry only. After four days, thev take finely

macerated hard boiled egg albumen. Thus raising of fry is not difficult,

but the long hatching and quiescent period is not conducive to large

Output unless a lot of space and other facilities are available.

Apart from the unguestionable utility of Mahseer for lakes in

which angiing is practised, the fish being goad eating, it can be grown

in ponds and may add to the list of culturable species in tropical and

especially sub-tropicai waters where other species of Mahseer are

known to thrive. It is reported that large numbers of Mahseer fry

can be collected from rivers and streams of Himachal Pradesh. From

Narmada also fry are collected in Madhya Pradesh. David (loc. cit.)

reports occurrence of large number of fry in Mahanadi and records a

growth of 170 to 200 mm., in natural ponds in four months. However,

further observations on the food of juveniles and their rate of growth

are necessary.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am grateful to Shri §. Moolgackar of Tata Engineering and Loco-

motive Company and the authorities of Tata Hydro-Electric Company

for giving me opportunities to carry out the above observations at their

lakes and for other facilities. My grateful thanks are also due to

Shri Alikunhi, Director, Central Institute of Fisheries Education,

Versova, for giving very willing co-operation, laboratory facilities and

for the micro-photographs,

REFERENCES

AHMED, Nazir (1948) : On the spawn-

ing habits and early development of the

Copper Mahseer, Barbus (Lissochilus)

hexagonolapis McClelland. Proc. Nat.

Inst. Sci. India. 14: 21-28.

BEAVAN, R. (1877): Handbook of

fresh water fishes of India.

Davip, A. (1953): Notes on the

bionomics and some early states of the

Mahanadi Mahseer. Journ. Asia. Soc.

Sci. 19(2): 197-209.

Day, F. (1873) : Report of fresh water

fish and fisheries of India and Burma.

Hora, S. L. (1939) : The game fishes

of India. VIII. The Mahseers or the

large scaled barbels of India. J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 41 : 272-285.

———. (1941): The game fishes of

India XIV. The black Mahseer with

notes on other colour varieties. ibid. 42:

803-815.

————. (1942): The game fishes of

India XV. On the specific identity of

Sykes’ species of Barbus from the Deccan.

ibid. 43 : 163-169

— & Misra, K. S. (1938): Fish

of Deolali, Part III, ibid. 40: 20-38.

& Nazir AHMED (1946):

Culture of Katli, Barbus (Lissochilus)

hexagonolapis McClelland in Darjeeling,

Himalayas, Fish Dev. Pamphlet No. 3,

Directorate of Fisheries, West Bengal.

KARAMCHANDANI, S. J. et al. (1967) :

Biological investigations on the fish and

fisheries of the Narbada river, Bulletin

10. Central Inland Fisheries Research

Institute, Barrackpore, West Bengal.

MacDonaLp, A. St. J. (1948) : Cir-

cumventing the Mahseer and _ other

sporting fish of India and Burma. Bom-

bay nat. Hist. Soc. Bombay.

SKENE-DHU (1918): The angler in

Northern India, Allahabad.

THomas, H. S. (1897): The Rod in

India.

Aspects of the Flora, and Ecology of

Savannas of the South Indian Hills

F. BLAsco

Institut Francais, Pondicherry

Two biological criteria enable us to characterise the high plateaux of

south India above an altitude of 1700-1900 m, : the floristic peculiarities

and the different types of savannas.

These high plateaux are essentially covered with savannas, generally

shrubby or bushy, fundamentally different from those of lower elevation.

These are grassy formations, usually dense and low, often traversed by

fire. Their physiognomy, floristic composition and dynamism are deter-

mined by the biotic factors and different types of soils and climates.

Their climate may be classified amongst the tropical humid or sub-

humid types, locally sub-dry (< 1000 mm. rainfall, 3 to 4 months dry),

with a moderately cool season (mean temperature of the coldest month

between 10 and 15°C) with some days of frost per year (from December

to March). These winter months are either dry or only slightly humid.

At this altitude all the soils form part of the group of leached ferrallitic

soils.

At least four types of altitudinal savannas developing on firm ground

may be recognised. They are described.

ASPECTS OF THE FLORA

At these altitudes I have encountered 356 indigenous and spon-

taneous species which are not found at lower altitude. Most of these

are endemic because 223 species are known only in the ‘ montane stage’

of south India ; 17 are also known in northern India, particularly in the

Himalayas ; 52 are also reported in Ceylon whereas 36 extend to different

countries of Asia. Therefore, most of the typical species of the ‘ montane

stage’ have a limited geographic distribution because 275 species out of

380 are localised in the hills of south India and Ceylon.

Another peculiarity is that this typical flora is herbaceous. Out of 380

species, 201 are endemic herbs, 44 are undershrubs. Out of 223 endemic

species, 92 are herbaceous and 37 undershrubs or hemixyles. Many of

these are savanna species. In this article I have limited myself :to the

montane flora of the Nilgiris and Palni.

FLORA AND ECOLOGY ‘OF SAVANNAS §33

(a) Species probably endemic in the montane stage of the Nilgiris

Taking into account the multiplicity of the dispersal mechanisms of

the species (see Razi 1950, 1954) and the proximity of the Palni and

Anaimalai, the abundance of the endemic in the montane domain of the

Nilgiris is surprising even without counting varietics and subspecies.

82 species (66 Dicots and 16 Monocots) are exclusively confined to this

region. All of these are cited below to enable future research workers

to bring further precision.

Dicotyledons

ACANTHACEAE !. debilis Turcz.

Andrographis lawsoni Gamb. regia ts PASC

ne I, lawsoni Hk. f.

A. lobelioides W. 3

A I. neo-barnesii C. Fisch.

. Stellulata Cl. ae

nf ! I. nilgirica C. Fisch.

Leptacanthus amabilis (Cl.) Brem. ie

I. orchioides Bedd.

Phlebophyllum — lanatum (Nees) |

I. rufescens Benth.

some I. tenella Heyne

Nilgirianthus papillosus (T. And.) —

Brem.

Pleocanthus sessilis (Nees) Brem.

Mackenziea violacea (Bedd.) Brem.

LABIATAE

Nilgirianthus wightianus (Nees) “¢#¢as rosmarinifolia Benth.

Brem. Orthosiphon rubicundus Benth. var,

hohenackeri Hk. f.

pero Pogostemon nilagiricus Gamb.

P. paludosus Benth.

Sche fflera rostrata Harms Teucrium wightii Hk. f.

ASCLEPIADACEAE

BERBERIDACEAE

Brachylepis nervosa W. & A.

Berberis nilghiriensis Ahrendt.

CAPRIFOLIACEAE

Viburnum hebanthum W. & A.

CELASTRACEAE

Microtropis ovalifolia W.

GERANIACEAE

Biophytum polyphyllum Munro

Impatiens beddomei Hk. f.

COMPOSITAE

Anaphalis neelgherryana DC.

A. notoniana DC.

Helichrysum wightii Cl.

Senecio kundaicus Fisch.

S. lawsoni Gamb.

S. lessingianus Cl.

S. polycephalus Cl.

Yungia nilgirriensis Bab.

524. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

CONVOLVULACEAE

Argyreia nellygherya Choisy.

EUPHORBIACEAE

Dalechampia velutina W.

GENTIANACEAE

Swertia trichotoma Wall.

PAPILIONACEAE

Alysicarpus beddomei Schindl.

Crotalaria barbata Grah.

C. candicans W. & A.

C. formosa Grah.

Dalbergia gardneriana Benth.

PIPERACEAE

Piper pikarhense C.DC.

P. ootacamundse C.DC.

HYPERICACEAE

Hypericum japonicum Thunb.

var. major Fys.

RUTACEAE

Melicope indica W.

SYMPLOCACEAE

Symplocos microphylla W.

UMBELLIFERAE

Bupleurum plantaginifolium W.

Heracleum hookerianum W. & A.

LAURACEAE

Cinnamomum perrottetii Meissn.

ROSACEAE

Pygeum sisparense Gamb.

Rubus rugosus Sm. var. thwaitesii

Focke

RUBIACEAE

Oldenlandia hirsutissima O. Kze.

O. sisaparensis Gamb.

Ophiorrhiza pykarensis Gamb.

Pavetta breviflora DC. var. ciliolata

Gamb. mae

P. hohenackeri Brem.

LORANTHACEAE

Dendrophthoe neelgherrensis Van.

Tieghem. var. clarkei Hk. f.

Loranthus recurvus Wall.

Viscum orbiculatum W.

MELASTOMACEAE

Memecylon flavescens Gamb.

MIMOSACEAE

Acacia hohenackeri Craib.

MYRTACEAE

Syzygium montanum Gamb.

Monocotyledons

AROIDEAE

Arisaema tube: culatum C. Fisch.

A. tylophorum C. Fisch.

FLORA AND ECOLOGY OF SAVANNAS 525

CYPERACEAE Helictotrichon asperum (Munro)

~- Bor var. polyneuron C. Fisch.

Eriochrysis rangacharii C. Fisch.

Garnotia geniculata Santos

Isachne deccanensis Bor

ERIOCAULACEAE Poa gamblei Bor

Ascopholis gamblei C. Fisch.

Carex pseudo-aperta Boeck

Eriocaulon pectinatum Ruhl

FE. robustum Steud.. ORCHIDACEAE

Cirrhopetalum acutiflorum A. Rich.

EINE Coelogyne odoratissima Lindl. var.

angustifolia Lindl.

Arundinaria wightiana Nees Habenaria fimbriata W.

var. hispida Gamb. Liparis biloba W.

The Nilgiris appear as an important centre of speciation in south

India, next only to Travancore and Tirunelveli.

(b) Species probably endemic in the montane stage of the Palni

I have counted 18 species, 15 Dicots, 3 Monocots :

Two trees : Actinodaphne bourneae Gamb., Pittosporum undulatum

Vent ; seven small ligneous species: Crotalaria conferta Fys., C.

kodaiensis Deb and Biswas, Rubus fairholmianus Gardn., Vernonia

pulneyensis Gamb., V. fysonii Cald., Anaphalis beddomei Hk. f., Aniso-

chilus argenteus Gamb.; eight herbs: Acrocephalus palniensis Muk.,

Anotis longiflora Hutch., Emilia zeylanica Cl. var. paludosa Gamb.,

Pimpinella pulneyensis Gamb., Christisonia saulierei Dunn., Garnotia

palniensis Santos, Carex raphidocarpa Nees and Habenaria elliptica W. ;

and one climber : Melothria angulata Chak. .

Endemism in the montane stage of the Palni (18 species) and Anaimalai

(13 species) is therefore very low compared to that of the Nilgiris. This

leads us to the conclusion that many of the species formedin the ea

have not left this massif.

The explanation seems to be that the anemochores appearing on: the

Nilgiris have only a very slight chance of reaching the hills lying further

south as the dominant winds blow from the south-west. It is also

probable that there are among them neo-endemics which have not yet

migrated southwards. As a matter of fact there is no ecological barrier

between different localities in the montane stage of south India and Ceylon:

(Legris & Blasco 1969). A number of trees, mostly zoochore, are known

from all these hijls and high altitude of Ceylon; examples are Jlex

wightiana Wall., I. denticulata Wall., ‘Microtropis ramiflora Wt., Casearia

coriacea Thw., Syzygium calophyllifolium Walp., Viburnum erubescens

Wall., Vaccinium leschenaultii Wt., Rapanea wightiana Mez.,. Olea poly-

526. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HiST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

gama Wt., Symplocos obtusa Wt., Excoecaria crenulata Wt., Pittosporum

tetraspermum W. & A., Meliosma wightii Planch., Michelia nilagirica

Zenk: ete. Lh

None of these extend up to the Himalayas.

(or stage) of south India.

The classical example is that of Rhododendron, the ea Sie: races of

which, sub-species or species of south India and Ceylon (R. nilagiricum

Zenk. and R. zeylanicum Hort. ex Loud.) differ slightly from the

Himalayan type (R. arboreum Sm.).

The other ligneous species Berberis tinctoria Lesch. and Cotoneaster

buxifolia Wall., have ecology and distribution similar to that of Rhodo-

dendron. For the herbaceous species, the distribution is yet wider.

Fragaria indica Andr., Potentilla kleiniana W. & A. Viola patrinii DC.,

V. serpens Wall., Thalictrum javanicum Bl. are the Asian orophytes occur-

ring beyond the limits of Indian territory.

Origin of species in south India

I shall only mention those species like Eurya japonica Thunb., Evodia

lunu-ankenda Merr., Ternstroemia japonica L. encountered in different

countries of Asia which have a sufficiently vast ecological amplitude to

reach the montane stage in south India. As they also occur at lower

altitude, they are not characteristic of montane stage.

On the other hand, some Asiatic trees and shrubs not large in number

(Glochidion fagifolium Hk. f., Daphniphyllum neilgherrense Ros., Penta-

panax leschenaultii Seem., Rhodomyrtus tomentosa Wt.) are typical of the

montane stage.

The theories proposed till now to explain the presence of these species

requiring cool climate in south India envisage large topographic or cli-

matic changes which to this author do not appear indispensable for the

explanation.

It is tempting to think that the Pleistocene glaciation, probably felt

in the Himalayan region, favoured the North-South migration of a part

of the subtropical flora. It has also been pointed out that ‘the various

stations at which a particular species is found at present, once formed

part of a continuous range of distribution of the species.... In the

regions in between the stations it has died out due to topographical

changes leading to climatological variations’ (Hora in Croizat

1968, p. 544).

These two hypotheses do not easily apply to the species considered

here. Firstly because the continuity of the Eastern Ghats if at all it

existed, dates from the Tertiary. Beyond a few million years many

species of Angiosperms would have evolved or disappeared. In this

FLORA AND ECOLOGY OF SAVANNAS 527

hypothesis (Zeuner 1958, p. 392; Kremp 1969) the theory of physical

continuity cannot be retained for the species presently common to south

India and Himalayas.

As for the recent large thermic fluctuations (Jess than 100,000 years)

if they took place, why should the southward migration of Rhododendron

and Berberis have been permitted and not of Fagacee and Conifers ?

This remark is as much valid for Quercus incana Roxb., and Pinus rox-

burghii Sargent, for example, which occur side by side in the same zone in

Western Himalayas. One may add other important instances, particularly

the genus Pieris (Ericaceae) totally absent inthe south. Ifthe Himalayan

Fagaceae, Betulaceae and Conifers do not occur spontaneously on the

south Indian hills it is because they never came there. Their recent

introduction by man shows that the habitat is well suited to these species.

In the regions where the physical continuity of the mountains really

existed, the Conifers, Fagaceae, Betulaceae, Ericaceae etc... are very

abundant at equal latitude. This is the case of the southern extremity of

the Annamitic Range in South Viet Nam.

Finally, concerning the land connections between India and Ceylon

it is the belief to-day that the last separation is recent (about 10,000 years)

but the real disappearance of the Gulf of Mannar would date from the

commencement of the Pleistocene and there is nothing to prove that there

was in its place a high mountain. Anyway neither the paleoclimatology

nor the present ecological conditions explain the presence of the Ceylonese

species in the Nilgiris having jumped over all the other hills of south India

including the Palnis ; such is the case of Oldenlandia verticillaris O. Kze.,

Vernonia pectiniformis DC., Crepis fuscipappa Benth., Olea polygama

Wt., Tylophora iphisia Dene., Ceropegia decaisneana Wt., Scutellaria

wightiana Benth., Sarcococca brevifolia Stapf etc. (I shall not raise the

question of polytopism here. In spite of appearance, the Himalayan

milieu beyond 27°N is very different from that of the Ceylon mountains

near the equator so that the genesis of identical species in the two cases

should be an uncommon phenomenon).

The argument that cites the mammals presently common to Nilgiris

southern Hills and Himalayas does not seem conclusive. Martes

gwatkinsi Horsfield, the Nilgiri marten, is a species capable of moving

down to 900 m. and even lower elevations. The same is the case with

Hemitragus hylocrius Ogilby, the Nilgiri Tahr.

Under such conditions it seems logical to explain the presence of species

common to Ceylon, south India and Himalayas by their actual means of

dispersal rather than by palaeogeographic hypotheses. A more likely

explanation may be given by examining the means of dispersal of south

Indian species having definite Himalayan affinities.

Seeds of Rhododendron arboreum Sm. are remarkably adapted to vast

displacements. Extremely numerous, minute, flattened, oblong, provided

§28 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

with a tuft of hairs at each extremity, they are susceptible to long transport

thanks to wind and birds.

In Berberis tinctoria Lesch. much appreciated by the hill thrushes

(Zoothera) and in Cotoneaster buxifolia Wall. the dispersal of the seeds is

usually of endozoic type as in most of the species of Fragaria, Potentilla,

Viola,. Thalictrum, Eurya, Osyris, Passiflora, Gaultheria etc. \n. Crepis

and. Dicrocephala the means is essentially epizoic.

All these species and almost all the plant species common to south

India and Himalayas behave as vigorous pioneers, particularly apt to colonise

the deforested lands of the montane domain. This characteristic behaviour

of the species recently naturalised in a habitat quite different from that

of their origin weakens the hypothesis of vestigeal species.

(d) Conclusion

The typical species of the montane stage of south India are essentially

herbaceous endemics or are known in Ceylon also. A less important group

comprises species extending up to the Himalayas. As a matter of fact

these are the herbaceous orophytes known in different countries of S.E.

Asia. In spite of vast discontinuities in areas, this group probably does

not represent a vestige of an ancient epoch having completed their migra-

tion step by step. An examination of the possible mechanisms of dis-

persal of these species shows the floristic exchanges between the Himalayas

and the Nilgiris as recent or. sub-contemporary. Unfortunately, we yet

know very little about the seasonal movements of some 350 species of

migratory birds actually knownin India. The migration study project

undertaken in March 1970 at Srinagar by the Bombay Natural History

Society may help to bring to light new explanations towards the modern

flora of the mountains. of Peninsular India.

MAIN SAVANNA TYPES AND THEIR ECOLOGY

These hill plateaux may be characterised by their vegetation types,

both ligneous and herbaceous. I shall deal with principal herbaceous

types which by far occupy the largest area.

(1) Chrysopogon zeylanicus—Arundinella spp. type

This formation is characterised and easily recognised by the domi-

nance of Chrysopogon zeylanicus Thw. It is a voluminous Graminee,

with narrow, rigid leaves left ungrazed by the cattle. Its development

in south India and Ceylon is. linked to the working of the soil by man.

Presently, these savannas essentially cover all the areas of old planta-

tions of Eucalyptus, Acacia or other vegetable crops.

1 Ridley (1930) and Olson (1968) give data on this type of dispersal.

FLORA» AND ECOLOGY OF SAVANNAS ~\’ 529

In the Nilgiris, they are well represented on the Wenlock Downs.

Vast stretches are encountered in the Mukurti region. ESN

fuscata Nees of low size is often abundant.

In the Palnis, the valleys around Kodaikanal (Gites! Koniar,

Kumbar etc.) include good examples of this savanna. Here Arundinella

vaginata Bor is co-dominant with Chrysopogon zeylanicus Thw.

In Ceylon, particularly on the Horton Plains, the type grows under

a climate more humid than that of south India notably from December

to April. Principal grasses are C. zeylanicus Thw. and. A. villosa Arn.

Grasses generally common to all these savannas but rarely dominant

are Eulalia phaeothrix (Hack.) O. Ktze., Themeda triandra Forsk., Andro-

pogon lividus Thw., Ischaemum aristatum L. etc. In depressions, with

increasing hydromorphy of the soils, Helictotrichon asperum (Munro)

Bor becomes very common, especially in the Palnis ; in Ceylon it is

Garnotia mutica Fanowsky.

Marked floristic differences are noted according to the regions. For

the Nilgiris I have enumerated 60 endemic Dicots and 13 endemic Mono-

cots above 1800 m. The floristic wealth of this hill reflects also in the

flora of the savanna. Pleocanthus sessilis (Nees) Brem., Leucas rosmarini-

folia Benth., Heracleum hookerianum W. & A., Senecio polycephalus Cl.,

Anaphalis neelgherryana DC. etc. impart a floristic character unknown in

the Palnis. Besides, many of the savanna species of the Nilgiris tolerate

hydromorphic soils. Examples are Anemone rivularis Ham., Impatiens

chinensis L., Serpicula hirsuta W. & A., Dipsacus leschenaultii Coult.

frequent in the savannas of Avalanche in the Nilgiris but practically

unknown, in the same savanna type of the Palnis.

The abundance of hygrophytic species is yet more marked in Ceylon

where one notes numerous Carex, Fimbristylis, Ranunculus sagittifolius

Hk., Osbeckia cupularis Don, Oldenlandia yerticillaris O. Kze. etc.

Bioclimate : The temperature conditions vary little from one place

to the other in aJl savannas of high plateaux. Therefore it is not the

temperature factor that plays the role determining the main formations.

Low temperatures, varying between —1 to —9°C, were registered under

savannas for some days during the period December to March at sun-

rise. The diurnal thermic amplitude between 6 a.m. and 2 p.m. is very

high in winter, often above 35°C.

The high annual rainfall of Ceylon (> 2000 mm.) and Nilgiris

(> 1800 mm.) permits the development of hygrophytes even on the

slopes. On the other hand, in the Palnis where rainfall in these savannas

is of the order of 1400 mm., hygrophytes are rare or absent.

Soils : Table 1 gives the results of chemical analysis of a soil col-

lected under Chrysopogon zeylanicus Thw. from the Palnis.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

530

"[PAQ] SIY} 3B S}OOI BUIAT] OU A][eoovId aie s104, “prumy Apueysuos ({/¢ YA ¢ ‘1) aBues0 WYSI] “uozII0Y AoXkv[o Apuesg = g

‘TIos Alp-11e Jo %cE sjuosoidai [eraj}wwu AYSOI A1eUOIEIOUO Ssof 10 dIOW ING [eTIO}eUL suUesIO SUIUTe}UODS ‘UOZIIOY A[OAVIDN =qy

"UO LIUSIAIO [eUdIOJOId

INOYWA SJOO1 SNOISWNU suIvIJUOD ‘snolod AJoA ‘oInjonsys AUS ‘uy “(T/T UA ¢ ‘L) UMOIQG ylep “UOZIIOY d1UeSIO sORJINS =[ VY

| | | |

Gl eeore to ieee Sl ocr 08) €0o tho Ec | Osyeal Cac lege Sr Grew louee erate ee Iv | oz—

H { , | i |

a fo wn | es Sees gles | eae eto hare yn Oba |paa= Eve! ry ms [Sag

Pap eee eet ce | el ere es Paes | eee

: ~ | 98 Oar A om D a oO a N =

Eales hae | Qi s s = | 3 6 5 9

: oR o6 ee oo) ee 2. Ss eC & ¥ 3

o baits oF | A 3 a | o ak to | .

| Sf | 32 : Ieee See | eee eee oe) cc

(ieee ee 5 | ee J = = <

o. 2 | | eons 8 Fons 6.

s | | ie | 2

Sy | | | |

@ |

fone | ws QO] /*9 "WH |

o1Ue3IO suones ajqeasueyox| | sysAyeue JeoruRyooy]

| aIavL

FLORA AND ECOLOGY OF SAVANNAS 331

(2) Eulalia phaeothrix—Arundinella fuscata low savanna type

Dense and continuous grassy formation without trees or shrubs

particularly well represented in the Pulavachiar valley in the Palnis.

Eulalia phaeothrix (Hack.) O. Ktze. and Arundinella fuscata Nees are

the dominating species of this type which differs from the preceding type

essentially by the absence of working of the soil by man (which explains

why Chrysopogon zeylanicus Thw. has not been able to penetrate) and

by higher number of foggy days (probably 180 per year at least).

Moreover, soil profiles usually show under Al horizon a A12 layer

of bulky structure in a wet state.

The absence of plantations till recent years is an indication that

fire runs through these savannas almost every year. Shrubs have dis-

appeared except Rhododendron nilagiricum Zenk. and Gaultheria frag-

rantissima Wall. in the hollows. Hypericum mysorense Heyne, Vacci-

nium leschenaultii W. so common in the Cfhrysopogon savannas are

totally absent. L

The atmospheric humidity and the presence of Al2 soil horizon

with high water retentive capacity may explain the presence of species

usually seen in humid depressions: Ranunculus reniformis Wall.,

Impatiens tomentosa Heyne., Heracleum rigens Wall. Gard., Carex lindle-

yana Nees etc....

These savannas are among the most stable types of the plateaux.

No distinct trace of dynamism has been noted in the sense that no lig-

neous element has been observed,

(3) Heteropogon contortus—Arundinella mesophylla type

These are the formations on highly eroded soils well developed under

a sub-dry climate of the interior depressions of the Palnis. Good

examples are those of Mannavanur.

Characterised by a high density of the tufts of Heteropogon contor-

tus (L.) Beauv. and Arundinella mesophylla Nees closely mixed together,

these savannas are rich in species having a large range of distribution :‘

Coleus forskohlii (Poir.) Briq., Polygonum chinense L., Micromeria biflora

Benth., Sopubia trifida Ham., Striga lutea Lour., Polycarpaea spicata

W. & A., Borreria ocymoides DC. etc.

In spite of its awns, H. contortus (L.) Beauv. is easily browsed by

cattle. Ifthe grazing rotation is very short and if the cutting is followed

by sheep grazing then there is considerable deterioration of the pasture

marked by a rapid development of wooly Composite like Anaphalis

lawii Gamb. and Laggera alata Sch. Bip. which are not grazed by cattle.

It is necessary to maintain a strict check on the rational use of the pas-

tures of this region where cattle-breeding is gaining importance.

The bioclimates of these regions may be characterised by annual

532. JOURNAL; ‘BOMBAY NATURAL. AIST. ‘SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

rainfall of 1000 mm. with 2 to 3 months dry (December to February or

January to March.)

The soils unlike those previously described have a thin surface horizon,

littered with fragments of altered rock. The following Table 2 gives

its essential characteristics. |

(4) High rainfall savannas

These are encountered only in the southern and western parts of

the Nilgiris which are extremely windy and rainy during the S.W.

monsoon. The Western Catchment for example at 2400 m. alti-

tude is one of the most rainy regions of S.E. Asia and probably also

of the tropical mountains. Mean annual rainfall usually exceeds

5000 mm. ; figures of 2000 to 4000 mm. in one single month—July or

August—are not rare. In the Upper Bhavani and Arikayampuzha,

fall of 6056 mm. was recorded between June Ist and July 31st 1959

and 5200 mm. during the same period in 1961. Fundamental trait of

this climate is the extreme violence of winds and summer rains, the

erosive power of which are considerable.

Soils of the regions are often reduced to lithosols in which the finer

fraction is that which remains imprisoned within the network of the

roots of grasses. These soils become very dry after the cessation of

rains.

The vegetation is characterised by a herbaceous cover, more or

less discontinuous because of rocky outcrops. Three woody species

are met with in a stunted form: Rhododendron nilagiricum Zenk..,

Ligustrum perrottetii A.DC. and Syzygium calophyllifolium Walp.

A number of small shrubs or chamaephytes are encountered which are

absent in the Palnis : Strobilanthes wightianus Nees, S. lawsonii Gamb.,

Teucrium wightii Hk.f., Leucas suffruticosa Benth., Anaphalis ° neel-

gherryana DC., A. wightiana DC., Andrographis lawsoni Gamb. etc....

The, grasses well adapted to maintain themselves in these regions

are Themeda triandra Forsk. and Isachne kunthiana Miq. During the

rainy season a number of Jmpatiens spp. may be collected : J. tomen-

tosa Heyne, I. crenata Bedd., J. acaulis Arn., J. clavicorny Turcz.,

I. pusilla Heyne, I. scapiflora Heyne, etc.....

The ecology of this type of savanna is not conducive to the growth

of trees. Low winter temperatures, violence of winds and rains result-

ing in soils poor.in.fine materials render the working and afforestation

of this part of the Nilgiris a:difficult task.

Under similar ecological conditions I have located at Lispara in the

Nilgiris, another savanna type where Andropogon lividus Thw. is very

abundant. However this type occupies a small area.

Such are the general characteristics cf the main savanna types of

these hills. Every study concerning the dynamism of the indigenous

FLORA. AND. ECOLOGY OF SAVANNAS.

533

TABLE 2

| merely

ie | N/o) & pt es

loo eae H

8 : apart

o) | Co ae a ;

| eo | 8 30 Ql

EKG 9 : 2

‘OW O)S. eos = =

‘ws QO] /"9 “UI oe = Te

Ayloe des asueyoxy =

‘W3 QOT/'9 WI 3g - he

suones sjqvosuryoxe jwioy,, | ms >

| ales lnGlent

2 UN o | o oS

Oo. am Se ee ae

8 = = sf oe

vo A igh bake ° °

Shir eety cae fie eS

oO | loa) fon) lo“)

= BN | A ~ S

cS &

we H |

y '

| 7 = oo

HH “| + | Q S

seas TOK a DR

ION Hd] + | <t <t

Bs Secon tren

c‘7/10°H Hd| | va va

UIUL Z Ss | sr ‘SS

2 ONCHROG ely 2 2

7) ~~

e7k8 ge) Whee OEE the

3 27 Sales

foe)

= :

c \O CN

a 70T OFT HIS OUT | oS BS

2 ae a a ©

| MZ OVO ALT | co i. us

fae) \O —

Jouleherry SSG ds) ots | ae +

suozoH | & ee 2)

ra aes

wd yydaq | 7 1 “7 z 5

534

trees and shrubs,

distribution of flora, land-use etc.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

must take into

account the sub-divisions of the savannas of the high plateaux into four

groups, described above.

REFERENCES

AGRAWAL, S. C., & MADAN, U. S,

et al. (1961): Ecological studies in the

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Biasco, F. (1970): L’étage montag-

nard tropical dans le Sud de I’Inde.

C.R. Acad. Sc. Paris. t. 270, 496-497.

Bor, N. L. (1938): The vegetation of

the Nilgiris. Jndian Forester 64: 600-

609.

Cowan, J. M. (1936): The Rhodo-

dendrons of Ceylon, South India and

Manipur. Notes of the R. Bot. Garden

Edinburgh, 19 : 157.

CroizaT, L. (1968): The biogeo-

graphy of India: a note of some of its

fundamentals. Proc. Symp. Recent Adv.

Trop. Ecology. Varanasi, India. Part IT,

pp. 544-590.

Domros, M. (1970): Frost in Ceylon.

Arch. Met. Geoph. Biokl.; Ser B, 18:

43-52.

GupTa, R. K. (1960): Ecological

notes on the vegetation of Kodaikanal.

J. Indian Bot. Soc. 39 : 601-607.

Houtmes, C. H. (1951): The grass,

fern and savanna of Ceylon. Jmp. For.

Inst. Oxford. Paper 28, N° 95.

Lecris, P. (1963): La vegétation de

Inde: Ecologie et Flore. Trav. Sect.

Sci. et Tech. Inst. fr. Pondichéry. 6:

590 pages.

(1969) :

Inst.

Tech.

& Brasco, F.

Variabilité des facteurs du climat.

fr. Pondichéry. Trav. Sect. Sci.

7 > fasc. 1, 940p. is figures:

MATHEW, K. M. (1969): The exotic

flora of Kodaikanal, Palni Hills. Records

of the Botanical Survey of India 20:

nih. 2417p.

MEHER-Homyl, V. M. (1965): Ecolo-

gical status of the montane grasslands

of South Indian Hills. A phytogeo-

graphical reassessment. Indian Forester

91(4) : 210-215.

(1967) : Phytogeography of

South Indian Hill stations. Bull. Torrey

Bot. Club 94(4) : 230-242.

OLSON, S. & BLum, K. E. (1968):

Avial dispersal of plants in Panama.

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vegetation of the Nilgiri Plateau. Indian

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Razi, B. A. (1950): A contribution

towards the study of the dispersal

mechanisms in flowering plants of

Mysore. Ecology, 31 n° (2): 282-286.

(1954) ; Some observations

on the plants of the south Indian hill

tops and their distribution. Proc. Nat.

Inst. Sci. India 21 : 79-89,

RIDLEY, H. N. (1930): The dispersal

of plants throughout the world. 744 p.

Ashford, Kent.

Wurte, R. O. (1964): Grassland and

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The Nilgiri Tahr, Hemitragus

hylocrius Ogilby, in the High Range,

Kerala and the southern hills of the

Western Ghats

J. C. DANIEL

INTRODUCTION

Reports in the press that the Kerala Government was considering

the possibility of nationalising the tea industry in the State, and

the fact that amendments to the Kerala Land Reforms Act of 1963,

permitted the State Government to take over all privately owned, un-

cultivated land, for distribution to settlers caused considerable anxiety

about the future of the Nilgiri Tahr in the Eravikulam area of the

Kanan Devan Hills Produce Co. Ltd’s concession in the High Range

of Kerala.

The World Wildlite Fund, indian National Appeal, and Bombay

Natural History Society, deputed me to visit the High Range to discuss the

situation with the Tea interests and others concerned in the manage-

ment of the area and to submit a report on the latest position

Accordingly, I visited the High Range in tie 2nd week of April, 1970,

and also took the opportunity of doing a rapid spot survey of the

position of the snecies in the hills in the extreme south of the Western

Ghats.

THE NILGIRI TAHR IN THE HIGH RANGE, KERALA

The road from Cochin to Munnar in the High Range of Kerala

gives an instructive ilustraton to what happens to fertile primary

forests in densely populated areas. One can hold no illusion that

any forested area will survive up to the 4,000 ft. contour or perhaps

even higher elevations. The major traffic is timber trucks taking the

spoils to the lowlands. The denuded hills are planted over with

tapioca by the new settlers and the ground deprived of its cover is

so burned by the scorching stun that to travel through is to experience

536 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

furnace heat till one gets well up on to the hills. We reached Munnar

on the evening of the 12th.

On 13th morning, Mr. M. R. P. Lappin, .a embet of the High

Range Game Preservation Association teok me ‘to the Eravikulam

Sanctuary On MHamilton’s Plateau. The road to the Sanctuary

becomes a track when it leaves the highest level of tea, and climbs

up by numerous hairpin bends till it reaches the plateau. It has to

be negotiated either on foot or more excitingly on motor-cycle as we

did. Once on the plateau the track runs over gently rolling hills

covered with grass and with sholas of varying size in their folds. En

route Mr. Lappin fished for trout at a newly made impoundment.

Introduced trout which thrive at these elevations is one of the successes

of the High Range Game Preservation Association, and trout fishing

is an attractive feature of the Sanctuary. Our first sighting of Tahr

was unexpected, a herd of 80+ grazing into view over a hill as we

reclined on the grass waiting for the oike to cool down. Later by

careful stalking Mr. Lappin was able to get a part of the herd to

graze to within about 40 ft. of us. A female then saw us, stamped

and whistled an alarm which took the herd to the Ee of the hill

before it stopped to look back.

The Eravikulam hut of the Association is foe in ‘a valley

almost near the centre of the sanctuary and overlooks. a sluggish

stream plentifully stocked with trout. The hut had been damaged

some time earlier by elephants and the repaired hut is now surrounded

by an elephant moat. Accompanied by a Muduvan watcher I walked

to the western boundary of the Sanctuary which overlooks a deep

valley, densely clothed with forest, silent except for the booming

call of the Nilgiri Langur. On our way to the boundary we saw three

more herds of Tahr 50+, 30+ ‘and 30+ in strength. On the way

back to the hut, we saw two elephants feeding near a poo! in a

narrow valley of the Sanctuary. Almost all the dropping of jackals

seen contained tightly packed, shiny, elytra of a beetle. A casual

search in the shola behind the hut while Mr. Lappin angled, yielded

a small specimen of Xylophis perrotett, Perrotet’s Dwarf Snake. The

genus is endemic to the hills of south India and the species is said

to be common above 5,000 ft. Birds were not much in evidence in

the shola. though many Paini Hills Laughing Thrush [Garrulax jerdoni

fairbanki (Blanford)] were heard. We drove back in the evening. and

the last and the most impressive sighting I had of the tahr, was of a

phalanx of them seen through swirling mist as they lined Le skyline

on the ‘crest‘of a hill. |

On 14th morning we visited the Rayjamallay Sanctuary » area and

within a quarter of a mile from the Sanctuary gate saw a fairly large

THE NILGIRI TAHR IN THE HIGH RANGE, KERALA 537

herd of females and young on the hill side. The herd ignored our

vehicle and while some rested, others continued ‘to graze desultorily

until a dog accompanying its master to town, chased them over the

hill. At Rajamallay as in other parts of the tahr habitat excellent

views of the valleys are obtained from certain points on the escarp-

ment and with luck one may be able to see gaur or elephant feeding in

the. valleys. One forest plantation practice of the Kanan Devan Hills

Produce Co. Ltd., which can be useiully copied elsewhere (at

least in forests which. still hold wildlife) is the planting of eucalyptus

with adequate spacing between trees to permit undergrowth. All

plantations of eucalyptus that I saw in the Company’s land in the

High Range had fairly dense undergrowth of lantana which I under-

stand provides good cover for sambar and other animals. If this

planting policy is adopted one would not have the sterile plantations

of eucalyptus seen in Government forests.

The status and habits of the species in the Eravikulam area of the

High Range in Kerala have been excellently described by George Schailer

(see pp. 365-389 of this Journal). This report is limited to consideration

of the present position, and the future of the Eravikulam area which

holds in a well protected and administered setting not less than one-

third but probably aaif the total world population of the Nilgiri Tahr.

In view of the difficulty of protecting the tahr in other areas of its

distribution this is the only population which can be expected to survive

if continuity of the protection it now receives is assured.

Eravikulam where the majority of the tahr live is approximately

32 sq. ml. in area forming about 1/7th of the total! concession area

of 215 sq. ml. of the Kanan Devan Hills Produce Co. Ltd. It is

largely a plateau above 6,500 ft. elevation and has within its boundaries

Anaimudi (8841 ft.) the highest point in the subcontinent south of

the Himalayas. The area is largely isolated from the surrounding

country on all sides by precipices. ‘The rainfall is extremely heavy

during the south-west monsoon averaging about 300 inches. During

this season the whole area is swathed in dense fog and gale force

winds are usual. Some sections of the plateau receive rains from

the north-west monsoon also. From November to February heavy

frost occurs and most areas of the plateau experience drought from

February tc May. The soil is poor and the plateau is predominantly

under a coarse variety of grass with a few sholas in well protected

folds of the hills. There is no evidence of human colonisation at

any time. |

From the time the concession was obtained over 70 years ago

the area has been retained as a game preserve by the Company and

is a unique example of the geography of the High Range before it

538 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

was commercially exploited. The Company pays an annual tax of

about Rs. 40,000 on this land which is of commercially no interest

to it and the Company deserves the highest commendation for

practising a policy of conservation and being prepared to pay for

it. |

The administration of the area is in the hands of the High Range

Game Preservation Association whose membership is restricted to the

managerial cadre of the Company but includes some senior Govern-

ment officials of the district as honorary members. The Association

appoints and pays the game watchers at Eravikulam and other areas

within the company’s concession. The members of the Association

police the sanctuary and other game areas. The funds for the Associa-

tion are from membership subscriptions and donations, mainly from the

Company. Shooting is very strictly cortrolled and has been negligible

over the past few years. Since 1936 the Rajamaliay part of Eravikulam

which includes Anaimudi Peak has been a sanctuary.

The advantages of the present arrangement is that the executive

functions and the whole organisation are controlled by a single

authority, the Company. For the past 70 years this arrangement has

worked successfully and the 500 odd tahr which live at Eravikulam

and the untouched sholas are sufficient evidence of its success.

The major flaw in the arrangement which could be fatal as far as

the tahr is concerned, is that the organisation depends entirely on

the existence of the Company. If there is a radical change in the

management and its policies or if the industry is nationalised, the

whole organisation would collapse. The executive authority, the High

Range Game Preservation Association is so much an arm of the

Company from which it obtains its members and its funds that it

would immediately become impotent if company support is withdrawn.

The Company is quite aware of this position and at the meeting

of the High Range Preservation Association at Munnar on 14th April

which I attended, the Senior Manager of the Company expressed the

Opinion that the Company may agree to the suggestion mooted at

the meeting that the Company present the Eravikulam area to the

Indian Nation in the form of a trust for the preservation of the Tahr

and its habitat. The Indian Board for Wild Life, the State Board for

Wild Life, the World Wildlife Fund—Indian National Appeal, and

the Bombay Natural History Society to be represented on the Board

of Trustees in addition to the nominees of the Company. The High

Range Game Preservation Association to continue as Executive

authority. Such an arrangement was considered as the best long term

solution. Every effort should be made to process this arrangement as

THE NILGIRi TAHR IN THE HIGH RANGE, KERALA 539

early as possible to ensure abiding permanency to the area and the

tahr.

The most urgent need is publicity. Once the Sanctuary area

becomes well known and is visited by people it will be difficult if not

impossible for the area to be used for any other purpose. A film

of the Sanctuary and its animals should therefore have the highest

priority.

As conditions are at the moment, the Eravikulam area should

be considered as a strict wildlife Reserve and maintained as such.

However it may be necessary in the future to open the area to the

genuinely interested tourist.

The available and necessary facilities are:

Access: The Sanctuary is open from December to April which is

also fortunately the main tourist season. Munnar is about 90 miles

from Cochin Airport or approximately 34 hrs. drive from Cochin and

a tourist planning to visit Periyar can easily visit the High Range

en route to Periyar a 60 mile drive through the Cardamom Hills. Those

who have limited time can visit the Rajamallay area of the Sanctuary

where sighting of the tahr is more or less certain.

The Eravikulam area needs to be seen more leisurely and requires

a minimum of two days. The track from Upper Vagavurai Tea

Estate is not wide enough for 4-wheeled vehicles and must be kept as

it is to preserve the primeval wildness of the Sanctuary. I would

stress that it would not be to the advantage of the Sanctuary to widen

this path. The alternative to walking the eight miles to the hut is to

ride a horse or a motor-cycle. From all aspects three-wheeler motor-

cycles prepared out of fairly powerful machines and capable of taking

two persons in addition to the driver would be the most economical.

One of the points which would need careful consideration if a

trust is formed is permanent access facilities to the Sanctuary through

Upper Vagavurai Estate.

Accommodation: At Eravikuiam, the beautifully situated hut can

accommodate six people. A glassed-in sun porch would be a wel-

come addition. Other items which could make life more pleasant

are windmills to run a pump for filling the overhead tank for existing

and to be built toilet facilities and to run a dynamo for charging

batteries for the lighting.

Wildlife Viewing: While there is little or no difficulty in seeing

tahr when with the expert local guides, the other animals which live

in the Sanctuary such as the gaur, elephant, sambar, barking deer,

wild boar and the occasionai tiger or panther shelter in the sholas

and are not easily seen. It may be possible to entice the ungulates

540 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

to the edge of the shola with properly situated saltlicks and to watch

from hides.

Staff: The Eravikulam Sanctuary has the unique advantage over

other Indian Sanctuaries in that it has available for employment, the

Muduvans who are expert woodsmen. As the original inhabitants of

the High Range and on account of their reliability and honesty they

deserve every opportunity for employment that the Sanctuary offers.

The Sanctuary has so far had the dedicated services of the members

of the High Range Game Preservation Association but if the proposals

that have been made in this note are to be successfully implemented

a full time warden and a small permanent establishment would be

necessary.

On 16 April, I attended by invitation, the meeting of the State

Board for Wild Life which was held at Periyar Wild Life Sanctuary,

with the State Minister for Forests, Shri Ravindran in the Chair. Mr.

J. C. Gouldsbury, Chairman, High Range Game Association, very

ably presented the case for retaining the Eravikulam area for its

present objectives, and he was unanimously supported. The

Minister and C.C.F. were also extremely co-operative and the former

stated that he would immediatejiy take up the matter with the depart-

ments concerned.

I met His Excellency the Governor of Kerala on the 18th and

conveyed the Society’s and the World Wildlife Fund’s (Indian

National Appeal) thanks for his interest and assistance.

THE NILGiIRi TAHR IN THE SOUTHERN HILLS OF THE

WESTERN GHATS

The first part of my objectives in the south was completed on

the 18th. From the 19th to 25th, I travelled north through the towns

at the foot of the hills along the eastern face of the Ghats from the

Aramboly Gap to Srivilliputur arid; omitting the Palni Hills, to Pollachi

east of the Anaimalais. I collected information on the occurrence of

the tahr and wherever possible visited the hills for a personal check.

The status of the tahr in the extreme south of its range, unlike

its position in the Nilgiris (Tamil Nadu), and the High Range

(Kerala), is little known. There are no Wild Life Associations and

hardly any organised hunting. Earlier reports (Webb-Peploe 1947;

JBNAS 46: 642) mention the animal as common on the grassy slopes

of the higher hills in the extreme south of the Peninsula. I had

planned to enquire at villages at the foots of the hills, starting from

the southern tip of the Ghat and moving north along the eastern face

THE NILGIRI TAHR IN THE HIGH RANGE, KERALA 541

of the hills, checking wherever possible the correctness of the data.

I was however unable in most cases to verify the information obtained

owing to the limited time of six days available to me. Almost all

the tahr grounds are (fortunately for them), away from roads and

require at least a three-day stay for a 24-hour visit.

Rising precipitously from the plains and reaching heights of over

3,000 ft. within 3 to 4 miles of the plains, the eastern face of the

Ghats with its escarpments with nearly vertical drops of 1000 to

2000 ft. and grass-covered tops make ideal tahr country. The

watershed ridge rarely falls below 4000 ft. The information received

covers the area of hills lying between c. 8° 20’ and 9° 35’ latitude.

The number of localities of the hill forest divisions within this area

where tahr are definitely said to occur are: Mahendragiri Hills

(c. 8° 20’ to 8° 25’ N., highest elevation 5427 ft.) 3; Kalakkadu Hills

(c. 8° 25’ to 8° 32’ N., highest elevation 6002 ft.) 2; Singamapatti and

Papanasam Hills (c. 8° 32’ to 8° 50’, highest elevation 6132 ft.) 3;

Kuttalam Hills (c. 8° 50’ to 8° 57’, highest elevation 5237 ft.) 2;

Kadayanellur Hills (c. 9° 5’ to 9° 15’, highest elevation 5876 ft.) 2;

Sivagiri Hills (c, 9° 15’ to 9° 25’, highest elevation 5385 ft.) ?; Sri-

villiputur Hills (c. 9° 25’ to 9° 35’, highest elevation 6624 ft.) 2.

For reasons mentioned earlier, I was able to check personally only

two out of the 14 localities. However I believe the information is

correct and also that the tahr occurs in many more areas than are

listed. For a thorough survey, a stay of at least a fortnight in each

area is necessary. From the information I obtained and from personal

observation it was evident that as long as the tahr areas remained

isolated and inaccessible, the tahr survived but once roads were laid

they were exterminated. The Kalakkad Hills are an excellent example

of an undisturbed area and have the potential of becoming a fine

sanctuary. In addition to the tahr, all the larger mammals are fairly

common. It is also the area in. which the Lion-tailed Macaque

(Macaca silenus) is still found in some numbers. J would strongly

recommend that this area be converted into a Sanctuary. However,

if it is to retain its present wealth of wildlife, roads should not be

laid and the sanctuary named and retained as a primary wilderness.

I feel that immediate efforts should be made to protect the tahr

of Varaiaddu Mottai above the Upper Kodayar Dam in Tirunelveli

Dt., Tamil Nadu. The area holds the remnant of the herds which

had lived in the locality. The facilities now available if utilised

properly will make the area famous for the viewing of tahr, an animal

usually very unlikely to be seen by visitors owing to the precipitous

nature of its habitat. At Kodavar, the road overlooks the tahr

habitat and if the animals are left undisturbed, seeing them from the

542 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

road can be more certain. If full protection can be assured they can

be habituated to stay in easily seen areas by baiting them with salt

‘licks. At the moment ihe road is used for poaching and the animals

are also poached by people coming up from the base of the hill. The

twelve animals, (10 9 and 2 kids) that we saw were very nervous and

fled as soon as they saw us. Development activities on all sides have

more or less isolated the tahr on the hiil and unless steps are taken

without any delay they wili be exterminated.

For obvious reasons T have not given specific details of tahr

localities. I would be glad to give them to anyone who can find

the time, and the money to do a thorough Survey of the tahr in the

Kanyakumari and Tirunelveli and other districts of Tamil Nadu. The

High wavys, Painis, and other hills to the north should also be

immediately surveyed. It may be that about half the tahr population

is found outside the Nilgiris and the High Range.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am very grateful to His Excellency the Governor of Kerala for

giving me a patient hearing; to the Minister of Forests, and the Chief

Conservator of Forests, Keraia, for the invitation to attend the meet-

ing of the State Wild Life Board; to Mr. M. R. P. Lappin and Mr.

J. C. Gouldsbury for their generous assistance during my visit to the

high range; and to the State Wild Life Officer, Tami! Nadu, for

various assistance.

I am indebted to Mr. J. J. Bland who very generously helped me

during my visit to Manjolai. Finally I would thank Mr. S. A. Hussain,

Research Assistant at the Society, who drove the vehicle under most

trying conditions and was always willing and helpful.

The financial assistance of the WWF, Indian National Appeal

which made this visit possible is gratefully acknowledged.

Reviews

1. ENJOYING ORNITHOLOGY. By David Lack. pp. 264

(2113.5 cm.). London, 1965. Methuen & Co. Ltd. Price in U.K.

SOs net:

This is a collection of radio talks and articles written from time

to time for the author’s own enjoyment and for those with a general

interest in natural history but without the leisure or facilities for keep-

ing abreast with significant trends and developments in the field of

scientific ornithology. Of the four parts comprising the book the

first, dealing with Migration is perhaps the most fascinating. It

describes in a way that a layman can understand, Dr. Lack’s pioneering

studies of bird migration by means of high power radar. While it

is not yet possible to identify with absolute certainty the species of

bird moving across a radar screen, its identity can be determined with

tolerable accuracy by an integrated analysis of the size of the image,

its speed of travel, the composition of a flock (whether densely packed

or straggly) and so on, co-ordinated with weather reports from

different points along the direction of travel and visual observations

from the ground. Radar studies of migrating birds have helped to

reveal a number of facts hitherto unknown and unsuspected, which

would be impossible to learn bv any of the orthodox methods of

migration study. Even at a height of 2000-4000 ft. birds are often

out of sight of an observer on the shore or on a ship, and thus a

major part of the movement is missed when relying solely on vision.

On the other hand when, due to abnormal weather conditions, the

birds are forced te fly low a misleading picture of their abundance

or of what is really taking place is apt to be projected. Radar

confirms that in fine weather migrants head in a constant direction

over the sea (without any landmarks as guide) supporting the experi-

mentally established finding that they navigate by the sun and stars.

In bad weather, with strong cross winds, the migrants often get drifted

off course, but here again radar has shown that such drifted birds

somehow manage to re-orientate themselves; recoveries of ringed birds

prove that they eventually succeed in reaching their goals. How this

is achieved is not known at present, but radar lends support to the

experimentally deduced hypothesis that migrants possess an innate

sense of direction; the mechanism of this sense is as yet not under-

stood. True, ring-recovery evidence is so far lacking that drifted

juvenile birds on their first autumn migration can re-determine their

544. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

course towards the normal winter quarters of the population, and it is

perhaps too much to assume that they are able to locate an area

where they have never been before purely by this innate sense of

direction. Nevertheless, as the author points out, “One must beware

of rejecting a hypothesis because it seems to ask too much of a

biological mechanism’. The chapters concerned with migration study

by radar indicate the vast advances made and the almost limitless

possibilities of this technique for probing ever deeper into the mysteries

of bird migration aided by the increasing refinements and sophistication

in the design of radar equipments. Radar data properly analysed

and co-ordinated with weather reports, visual records, ring recoveries

and laboratory experiments promise to unravel a number of the

pervading mysteries, or at least to bring the solutions considerably

nearer.

The chapter ‘Swifts at Home’ is a broadcast résumé of the intensive

Studies of the author and his wife on swifts nesting in the tower of

Oxford University Museum, earlier published in The /bis and else-

Where. It reveals many aspects of swift biology not known, suspected

or described before, e.g. that in bad weather when the parents cannot

procure a sufficiency of aerial insects, the nestlings are capable of

surviving for several days without food. This they can do hecause

of a number of special adaptations— ability to store up fat when food

is plentiful, and to lie cold and torpid in an unattended nest (virtually

hibernate) for severai days without dying. Lack also deduces that

When on their long migrational journeys-—up to 6600 miles between

N. Europe and Africa—swifts must roost on the wing, especially over

the sea. This would seem a unique achievement for any bird,

particularly for one with the swift’s long narrow wings totally un-

suited for motionless soaring. One cannot help wishing for some

direct confirmation of this seemingly impossible feat.

There is a chapter on Darwin’s Finches of the Galapagos, the

birds which provide the classical example of the way in which Natural

Selection works to evolve new species and subspecies in isolation.

Included among this differentially adapted group is the unique tool-

using finch which skewers out grubs from within holes and crannies

in trees by means of a cactus spine or twig held in the bill.

Other topics include illuminating accounts of British Pioneers in

Ornithological Research, Bird Artists and The Edward Grey Institute,

Oxford. The last part of the book has an amusing Ornithological

Examination Paper (with answers in an Appendix) and a clever and

amusing skit on the intrepid and all-too-ready tribe of species-makers

entitled An Undiscovered Species of Swift—a bird which the inspired

reader may recognize as clearly belonging to the Hoodwink family!

REVIEWS 545

All the chapters are highly readable and informative as one has learnt

to associate with the writings of this versatile author.

Though becoming somewhat of a hotch potch in the latter part, the

book fulfils its purpose admirably—-making ornithology more enjoyable.

S.A.

2. THE LIVES OF WASPS AND BEES. By Christopher

Andrewes. pp. 204 (225x135 cm.). 16 half-tone plates. London,

1969. Chatto & Windus Ltd. Price 35s.

This book is intended to interest the general reader in the study

and observation of wasps and bees as an alternative to that of the

lepidoptera. A conscious effort has therefore been made to avoid

technical language and to keep the narrative as simple as possible.

In the main, species which occur in Europe and North America are

dealt with. There are references, however, to tropical species, e.g.

Sphex egyptica parasite of the migratory locust. The females of this

Species accompany the migrating hosts, during periods of halt hurriedly

make, store, and complete as many burrows as thev can and then,

leaving their work as it stands at the moment, move on with the

locusts to carry on their work elsewhere. Strange to say, the males

of this species have not yet been found, giving rise to speculation

whether the species is parthenogenetic.

In a series of short chapters a brief account is given of the life

of these insects, with special emphasis on differences in behaviour and

habits between different species and even between populations of the

same species in different regions. The literature on the subject is freely

drawn upon and a large number of interesting observations and

deductions are brought together in the book. For instance, one

usually thinks of the male wasp’s duty as completed when he has

mated, but we read here of an American species in which the male

does household chores and guards the home in the absence of his

mate—it must be admitted, however, not very efficiently! And it is

intriguing to read about the Amméphila which has learnt the use of

tools. She uses a stone as a hammer to make a secure closure of

her burrow, unlike the Sphex who pounds with her head to seal the

entrance and Bembix sayi who uses the tip of her abdomen for the

purpose. The accompanying photograph shows a stone several times

bigger than the wasp’s head and, evidently, much more effective as a

hammer. Or, take the spider-hunting wasps. One drags her victim

long distances and takes the risk of having it stolen while she is

546 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

engaged in making the burrow to receive it. Another avoids the

danger by first finding a burrow it can rifle and then making her own

burrow to put the stolen victim into. A third enters the spider’s hole,

overcomes and paralyses the spider, places her egg on it, and walks

out to search for her next victim. And a fourth places her egg on

a temporarily paralysed spider and leaves it to develop on the body

of the spider, which recovers from its temporary paralysis and lives

long enough to see the development through. As an instance of

insect industriousness when the urge is on may be cited the Crabro

stirpicola which is said to have been observed digging continuously at

its burrow for forty-two hours on end with only one ten-minute break.

A short bibliography and an index complete the book.

D.E.R.

3. SUPPLEMENT TO THE GLOSSARY OF INDIAN

MEDICINAL PLANTS. By R. N. Chopra, I. C. Chopra and

B. S. Varma. pp. xii+119 (25:55X16 cm.). New Delhi, 1969.

Publications and Information Directorate. Price Rs. 14.00; 28s.;

$ 4.50.

The authors must be complimented for bringing out this volume,

which, though small in size, is replete with a great deal of useful

information and references on Indian Medicinal Plants. The plants

have been arranged in an alphabetical order according to their generic

names for ease of reference. Most of the plants mentioned here have

been already included in the Glossary of Indian Medicinal Plants

published in 1956, but the present volume deals with all the work

done on them from that time till 1964. The reviewer feels that

references upto 1968 at least could have been included particularly

because this volume has been published in 1969. It would have served

to make the work more up-to-date.

The supplement enumerates, in addition to those in the older

Glossary, a number of plant species which were not described before.

These are marked with an asterisk and can therefore be easily spotted.

An index of Regional, Trade and Language Names and an index of

Chemical Constituents at the end of the book further enhances its

usefulness. Zé

It is seen from page iv that the 1932 edition of THE MEDICINAL AND

POISONOUS PLANTS OF SOUTH AFRICA by Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk was

consulted by the authors, whereas a new, revised and enlarged edition

of the same has been in circulation since 1962.

REVIEWS 547

The price of the volume, which is available in hard cover, is en-

couragingly low at Rs. 14 per copy and no one interested in the

subject of Indian Medicinal Plants should be without one.

S. R. AMLADI

4. THE WILD MAMMALS OF MALAYA AND OFFSHORE

ISLANDS INCLUDING SINGAPORE. By Lord Medway. pp. xix+

127 (19X 26:5 cm.). With fifteen coloured plates by Mazli Matsom

and Hamidah Suhaimi. London, 1969. Oxford University Press.

Price M. $ 30.

Ever since Wallace’s classic THE MALAY ARCHIPELAGO (1883) the

mention of Malaya immediately arouses interest among zoologists and

naturalists. Though this book covers only the Malay Peninsula and

the islands immediately offshore, excluding those further east, it is an

extremely useful book for anybody interested in the mammals of

South Eastern Asia.

117 of the 200 species recorded from Malaya are illustrated on

15 plates. The pictures are not particularly attractive, but are clear

and diagnostic enough to identify most, except perhaps the bats and

rats. Out of 78 species of bats, only 38 have been illustrated.

The naturalist in India, while noting the absence of some of our

common forms like the antelope and the jackal will be struck by the

fact that in contrast to single forms in Penisular India, Malaya with

its much smaller area has in several instances more than one species

in the same genus or family, e.g. two pig, two bison, two porcupines,

two moonrats, two mousedeer, two rhinoceros, etc.

Each species is separately referred to and, in addition to details

for identification, a summary of whatever other information is available

regarding habits, breeding season, food, etc. is given.

I think this a very useful book addressed to the layman and at

the same time containing most of the information that is available

for the scientific worker. It is evident that as in India, the animal

life has been little studied and it is hoped that this book by a very

versatile naturalist will arouse more interest and help to fill in the

many gaps in our knowledge,

H.A.

548 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

5. WARNE’S NATURAL HISTORY ATLAS OF GREAT

BRITAIN. By Arnold Darlington. pp. 112 (25x19 cm.). With

many illustrations by Charles King. London, 1969. Frederick Warne

& Co. Lid. (Price 355. chat eye met:

This is another superb natural history book which is aimed at

intelligent children but would be equally rewarding for adults. The

book describes in order the main habitats of Great Britain, namely,

sand dunes, sandy heathlands, acid moorlands, chalklands, limestones,

and clays. In each section there is first.a simple but informative

write-up which covers, at a simple level, and helped out by diagrams

the entire ecology of the habitat, i:e. the relationship between the

soil, the creation of the soil, the plants, the insects and finally the

birds. Reading these sections will give any child a close and vivid

understanding of the interrelation between all natural forms. The

next also describes changes in environment over a historical time—

what did the Romans find in these areas? The book, therefore, un-

assumingly promotes ecological understanding rather than just ‘love of

nature’, and this is why it would be a good idea for Indian children

though it deals with Britain. The written pages are followed by

attractive colour illustrations on the common plants, insects and birds

of the particular habitat, to aid identification on picnics.

At the end of the book are a series of coloured maps of England

denoting habitat. There is a bibliography and a final section which

aims to make a conservationist of the young reader, by giving advice

on field study and experiments.

S.F.

6. INDIAN FOSSIL PTERIDOPHYTES. By K. R. Surange.

pp. viiit209 (24-5X15:5 cm.), with 1 coloured plate and 101 figures.

New Delhi, 1966. Council of Scientific and Industrial Research.

Price Rs. 23; 46s.; $8.

This is the fourth botanical monograph published by the CSIR,

New Delhi. In this highly useful publication, Dr. K. R. Surange,

Director, Birbal Sahni Institute of Palaeobotany, Lucknow, has collated

information on Indian Pteridophyte fossils known since 1828. The

monograph has indeed many points of excellence which are worthy of

emulation by authors of botanical papers. The language is precise

and free from unnecessary verbosity and the facts are presented in a

very lucid and unbiased manner,

REVIEWS 549

The last chapter gives a valuable comparative account of the

Indian fossil pteridophytes with those of the southern hemisphere, and

adds to the utility of the publication. The quite extensive bibliography

will prove useful to research workers in Palaeobotany. The photo-

graphs and illustrations are excellent for which the technicians concerned

deserve compliments. There can be little doubt that this handy

monograph with its very high production values will be a great boon

to palaeobotanists in India and elsewhere. It is sincerely hoped that

many similar monographs will emerge from the CSIR in the service

of Indian Botany. |

P.V.B,

7. A DICTIONARY OF BOTANY. By George Usher. pp.

v+404 (21-514 cm.). London, i966. Constable and Company Ltd.

Price 50s,

Mr. George Usher, who is the senior Biology Master at Bedstone

School, Bucknell, Shropshire, U.K., has compiled this dictionary. to

meet the needs of University students and Grammar School pupils in

Botany. He has taken a broad view of the subject and has in-

corporated terms used in soil sciences. biochemistry and statistics.

This work should certainly fulfil the needs of students for whom

it is meant and is indeed useful for all those who are interested in

the study of Botany. Considerable amount of modern as well as the

classical data are incorporated.

The problems of Plant-taxonomy as the author has pointed out

in the preface, are so immense that in a work of this type the informa-

tion cannot be completely given. Even so, the author has given

the views of important authorities.

As the author had anticipated, quite a few slips have crept in

this great undertaking but it would be futile to mention them in a

review as they are not of great consequence. These slips are

of the nature of repetitions, missing the correct sequence, mis-spellings

during composition etc. In a dictionary, these slips may appear un-

pardonable to some, but they do not really impair the value of the

work. It is hoped that the next edition will be more carefully proof-

read.

But for its high price, the dictionary is a commendable reference

work for the Indian students of Botany. There is no doubt that it will

find a place in all college libraries teaching courses in Biology and

general liberal education.

P.V.B.

Miscellaneous Notes

1. ABNORMALITY IN THE BREEDING BEHAVIOUR

OF THE INDIAN FRUIT BAT, PTEROPUS

GIGANTEUS GIGANTEUS (BRUNNICH)

Earlier authors (Marshall 1947; Moghe 1951), who studied the

reproductive activities of the Indian fruit bat, Pteropus giganteus

giganteus tecorded that this species has a sharply defined breeding

season. In Ceylon this species conceives from early December until

early January, and the young ones are delivered in May or early in

June (Marshall op. cit.). In Central India copulation occurs some

time in September, and pregnancies in progressively advanced stages

occur up to about the end of January or early February (Moghe op. cit.).

Evidently there seems to be a slight variation in the breeding habits

of this species in different geographical localities.

While making collections of the specimens of this species for

embryological studies I noted the following peculiarities so far not

recorded for this bat. Among the four pregnant females collected on

January 31, 1968 one was in very late pregnancy, one in mid-pregnancy

and two in very early pregnancy carrying just implanted embryos.

Among the five females collected on January 22, 1970 four were in

late stages of pregnancy, and one was in very early pregnancy with

an unimplanted blastocyst in the uterus. These facts indicate that

the different females in the same colony copulate at different times

in the year, and hence, they carry different stages of pregnancy on

a given date. One pertinent fact needs mentioning. In the specimens

of this species reared in captivity in the T.ondon Zoo, births were

recorded on the following dates—January 14. January 31, February 6,

February 14, March 18, March 24, May 8, June !4, December 4,

and December 19, (Baker & Baker 1936). The present observations

show that even in nature Pte*opus giganteus giganteus may not have

as sharply defined a breeding season as mentioned by earlier authors.

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY, J. D. SAHASRABUDHE

‘INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE,

NAGPUR,

June 14, 1970.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 551

REFERENCES

BAKER, J. R. & BAKER, Z. (1936):

The seasons in a tropical rain forest (New

Hebrides). Part I[I—Fruit bats (Ptero-

pidae). J. Linn. Soc. London 40:

123-141.

MarSHALL, A. J. (1947): The breed-

giganteus) of Ceylon, Proe. Linn. Soc.

London 159 : 103-111.

Moacue, M. A. (1951) : Development

and placentation of the Indian fruit bat,

Pteropus giganteus giganteus (Brunnich).

Proc. Zool. Soc. London 121: 703-721,

ing cycle of an equatorial bat (Pteropus

2. THE WHITE TIGER

Mohan, the grand patriach of white tigers died on the night of

18 December, 1969, at the age of 19 years.

First seen by the Maharaja of Rewa in May, 195! in Rewa forests

as one of four cubs. He was captured on 27 May 1951 when he was

about 9 months old.

When Mohan attained maturity he was mated to an ordinary

coloured tigress ‘Begum’ of the same age captured on 28 November

1952 from the same forests. The first litter produced on 10 April

1955, had normal coloured cubs. One of these cubs ‘Radha’ was

mated with Mohan and gave birth to four white cubs on 30 October

1958, initiating the race of white tigers. Today there are 33 white

tigers in the world—11 cf which are in Delhi Zoo alone and six

at Govindgarh Palace, Rewa.

DIRECTOR, J. H. DESAT

‘DELHI ZOOLOGICAL PARK,

New Deut,

December 22, 1969.

3. THE BREEDING OF THE INDIAN GIANT SQUIRREL

(RATUFA INDICA) IN CAPTIVITY

In 1966, His Highness the Chhatrapati Maharajasaheb acquired

from the North Kanara jungles for his private Zoo a pair of

young Indian Giant Squirrel [Raltufa indica (Erxleben)] commonly

known in these parts as Malabar Squirrel and in Marathi ‘Shekra’.

The squirrels have thrived in captivity since then and after three

years they bred for the first time on the Ist of August 1969

and gave birth to one young (male). The squirrels are kept in

a semi-circular cage with a radius of 21 ft. and root height 10 ft.

They made a nest of dried grass (hay) in a wooden box 1°6” x1’ 6"

552. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

x 1’8”), which had been installed in the cage. The young one is

alive and has grown up well.

The same pair has again given birth to another young (male) in

the same cage and box this year on 22-iv-1970. ‘This time mating

was also observed between 7th to 10th February 1970. This young

is also growing up satisfactorily.

The breeding of these squirrels in captivity is we think an unusual

occurrence.

OFFICER-IN-CHARGE, V. G, SURVE

New PALACE Zoo,

KOLHAPUR,

September 11, 1979.

4. BREEDING BEHAVIOUR AND DEVELOPMENT OF

RATTUS RATTUS WROUGHATON! HINTON, 1919

(RODENTIA: MURIDAEB) IN THE LABORATORY

(With. « text-figure)

Rattus rattus wroughtoni was the commonest species of rat found in

trapping operations in the moist deciduous forests of Sagar and Sorab

Taiuks of Shimoga District, Mysore State (Boshell & Rajagopalan

1968'). A colony of these rats was maintained in the laboratory

in connection with the studies on the natural cycle of Kyasanur

Forest Disease virus and the observations made, during these

studies, on the breeding behaviour and development of this rat, are

recorded in this communication.

MATERIAI. AND METHOD

Rodents were trapved in the forest using ‘Sherman’ traps (aluminium

folding traps, 9” x 34” x3”) and ‘pakoda’ (a mixture of gram flour and

onion fried in oil), as bait and brought to the field laboratory. Adult

female rats were kept in individual cages made of thick GI wire mesh

(12” x18” X24”) with straw bedding. The standard laboratory mouse

boxes (10”°X7”X5”) with paddy husk bedding were also found

satisfactory. Wild caught males with scrotal testes were provided one

a 5

1 BOSHELL, M. J. & RAJAGOPALAN, P. K. (1968) : Small rodents and shrews in the

Sagar-Sorab area, Mysore State, India. Population studies: 1961-1964. Ind. J.

Med. Res. 56 (4): 527-540.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 553

for each female. Whenever fighting was noticed, the male partner was

changed for another male. Apparently pregnant females were

separated in individual boxes for daily observation. The female and

the babies when born were weighed once a week. The rats were

fed on a commercial animal diet and water was provided from a

dripping bottle with a nozzle. The cages (or boxes) were changed

every three or four days and provided with fresh bedding.

OBSERVATIONS

A great variation in the behaviour of the individual rats was

observed. In all cases, the male partner was not readily accepted by

the female and fighting ensued, the female being the aggressive one.

Out of 44 females kept under observation, only 17 littered. Laboratory

breeding was more successful when the same female and male, which

had copulated once, were used. Only in two instances, the female

accepted a fresh male. It seems probable that there is a selection of

individuals among the wild population which can readily breed in

captivity. Actual process of copulation or littering was not observed,

though the pairs were seen in a huddled posture inside the cage.

Breeding performance «nd litter size:

As stated above, only 17 females cf the 44, littered in captivity.

The others did not, even though the males were changed periodically.

Eight females littered orly once, twa females twice, three females thrice,

two females five times, one female seven times and another female

eight times (Table 1). There appeared to be no seasonal variation in

the breeding of these rats in the laboratory, as litters were born in all

months of the year. The number of babies in a litter varied from one

to five, though three or four babies in a litter are most common. (Of

the 46 litters observed, 22 had three babies and 14 had four babies).

There were more males than females among the babies born in the

laboratory. In nine cases, all the babies in the litter were males and

only in three cases all were females. Of the 145 babies born, 23 were

either eaten up by the mother or died and hence could not be weighed

or sexed. Of the remaining 122 babies, 56 were males and 56 were

females. During the first week after littering, the babies were in-

variably protected by the mother. The mother became agitated when

disturbed and in some cases ate up the babies.

Oestrus cycle und gestation period:

From Table 1, which gives the data on the littering of 17 rats,

it was possible to calculate the gestation period. The normal procedure

554. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

followed was to isolate the feniale after pregnancy was observed. In

one case (Rat no. 26} the male partner was removed only on the day

TABLE 1

BREEDING OF Rattus rattus wroughtoni INLABORATORY—LITTER SIZE, SEX

COMPOSITION AND BIRTH WEIGHT OF BABIES BORN

Litter Date Litter | Sex of babies | Average birth

Sl. Rat SSS

No. | No. delivered size M | F ! weight in gm.

1. 2 1 28-v-1965 3 3 0 95

2: 3 1 3-11-1965 3 1 2 4°5

34 =; 2 14-1x-1965 4 2 2 4°3

4. is 3 19-1-1966 3 1 2 a2

wt ee 4 15-1v-1966 4 3 1 52

6. es 5 23-vill-1966 4 2 Da 5:1

ais 9 1 27-1x-1965 3 2, 1 7°6

8. 12 1 21-1-1965 3 1 2 4°4

9. sh 2 6-v-1965 3 2 1 295)

10. 16 1 8-1v-1965 3 3 1 S73

i a D 29-1x-1965 4 2, 2) 4:9

12, 17 1 25-vit-1965 3 2 1 9°9

13. 18 1 29-1v-1965 5 3 2D, 4:4

14. c 2 9-vin1-1965 1 1 1 6:0

1S. ss 3 24-x-1965 4 1 3 5:0

16. a 4 3-1-1966 4 2 2 6:0

ve ie 5 1-11-1966 3 2 1 5:0

18. ae 6 30-v-1966 1 1 — 6:0

19. A a 3-vul-1966 4 1 3 6:2

20. 21 1 25-1-1965 3 2 1 6°8

21k be 2 21-1x-1965 3 1 2, 4°8

D2: ie 3 13-xu1-1965 4 2 2 5:0

25. 26 1 28-vil-1965 4 2 D 4°6

24. ¥ 2 16-x11-1966 2 2 — 5:0

2% - 3 17-1-1966 5 3 2 4°6

26. te 4 24-11-1966 4* — — 4°6

Dike a 5 26-11-1966 ily — — 10°6

28. 3 6 20-1v-1966 Bh — — 4°6

29. 8 I 8-vI-1966 3* — — 6'°6

30. ae 8 21-vu1-1966 4* — — Bes

31. Zi 1 22-vill-1965 3* — — 4°9

32. - DB 17-x1-1965 3* — 5:0

33. a 3) 27-1-1966 3 1 2) 3°4

34. * 4 29-11-1966 3 1 2, 6°5

35. ne 5 9-1x-1966 2 D — Les

36. 34 1 22-x1I-1965 3 — 3 6°6

37: Sif, 1 10-vu1-1965 5 23 3 5:0

38. > 2 31-1-1966 3 2 1 a2

39. cs 3 6-v1I-1966 3 3 — 6°8

40. 38 1 17-vi-1965 2 — 2 4°5

41. 40 1 24-11-1966 4 yy 2 5°8

42. a y 28-11-1966 2% — — 6:0

43. . 3 25-1v-1965 3 3 — 5°6

44. 41 1 1-11-1966 4 — 4 6:0

45. 42 1 15-1v-1966 1 1 — 6:0

46. 43 1 7-vi-1966 3 2 1 4:3

* Babies eaten up by mother 1-3 days afterwards ; hence not sexed. Mean weight

of a new-born baby=5'1 gm., Median=5°4 gm., Standard deviation=1°46,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 555

the female had littered (on 26 March 1966). On 20 April 1966, the

same rat littered again, though no male was provided in between this

period. It appears that copuiation must have taken piace on 26 March

immediately postpartum and almost at the same time with parturition.

The gestation period is therefore calculated as 25 days.

Early growth and development:

The information on growth and development was based on the

observations made on 136 rats born in the laboratory. At birth, the

babies weighed between 4:3 and 10:6 grams. The’ mean weight of

the new-born baby was 5.1 gm. + 1:46. Only one baby weighed

10°6 gms., and was the only individual in the litter. The babies were

naked at birth with eyes closed and sexing was possible after weaning

only. The weaning time varied from 4 to 10 weeks though the majority

were weaned when they were 6-7 weeks old (Table 2). The majority

of the rats were weaned when they attained a weight of 30-50 gms.

TABLE 2

AGE AND THE WEIGHT AT THE TIME OF WEANING OF Rattus rattus wroughtoni

YOUNG ONES

————

Age in weeks at the No. of rats

time. of weaning

4 2

>) 3

6 24

i 34

8 16

9 3

10 4

Weight range in gm.

at the time of

weaning

20-25 9

25°1-30 4

30°1-35 DT,

35°1-40 15

40°1-45 19

45°1-50 10

50°1-55 0

55°1-60 4

60°1-65 0

65:1-70 3

Maximum weight at weaning—65°6 gm.

Minimum weight at weaning=20'2 gm.

TRAL HIST. SOC . 67 (3

556 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES S57]

Nine babies weaned when they weighed between 20-25 gms. and three

of them when they weighed over 65 gms.

Table 3 presents the data on weight and survival of rats at different

age intervals. It is possible that under laboratory conditions, though

no malformations were noticed the rate of growth may not approxi-

mate what actually happens in nature. In the laboratory, the birth

weight of the newborn baby nearly doubled within a week. Until

the rats were 35 weeks of age, the weight gradually increased and

became stationary after that (Figure 1). After the 50th week the

FIG. 1

WEIGHTS (ARITHIMETIC MEANS) OF LABORATORY REARED

160 RATTUS RATTUS WROUGHTONI

150

100

WEIGHT IN GMS.

0 10 20 30 40° 50 60 70

AGE IN WEEKS

rats started losing weight and only one rat was alive at the end of 53rd

week and this survived for another 18 weeks. While no _ precise

information is available on the life span of these rats in nature, in

another field study, two wild caught females (whose ages were not

known at the time of capture) were kept alive for 710 days and 562

days in the laboratory. Even though factors like predators and

£3

558 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

competition are eliminated in the case of a iaboratory reared rat, other

artificial conditions like restriction of their movements inside a cage

and a probable physiological fatigue resulting from captivity conditions

and an artificial diet have to be considered.

VIRUS RESEARCH CENTRE, P. K. RAJAGOPALAN

Poona-l,

April 24, 1970.

5S. AN ATTEMPT TO DETERMINE THE FOOD

HABITS OF THE INDIAN RHINOCEROS

The great Indian one-horned rhinoceros, Rhinoceros unicornis has

been noted to feed chiefly on grass but no exact record is available.

It was therefore attempted to actually observe the grass species

nibbled by rhino at Jaldapara National Park, North Bengal and to

identify the remains of vegetable material in the dung with the help

of microscope slides, a technique proposed by Drs. Skoog and

Gogan' at Serengeti for studying zebra.

Our study was carried out during a fortnight in the pre-monsoon

season (last part of May) in 1970.

It was very difficult to approach the rhino and observe exactly

what it was eating. The small number of animals and the nature

of the vegetation at Jaldapara render direct observation difficult.

Much of the forest area even in this season was covered by 10-20 feet

tall grass. However, it was at last possible to observe two rhinos at

different places while actually feeding on Polytoca digitata, locally

known as Bhutta (maize) grass. Both tender (thin stemmed) and

bigger, thick stemmed (diameter 6-7 mm. when dried) plants were

eaten. Moreover, following the regular tracks of rhinos, spots were

found where the animals had extensively grazed. On one or two

occasions we reached spots apparently immediately after the rhino had

passed by, for the cropped grasses lying about were very fresh. The

absence of Other grazers such as deer, gaur, buffalo etc. in the vicinity

renders it almost certain that these feedings were by the rhino. it

was also likewise evident that the rhino does not feed on fern.

Twelve undigested stems from 4 different dung heaps of rhino were

collected. The length of these was in the range 2°5-4-8 cm. When

brought to the laboratory, 8 of these were in a stage permitting

sectioning after a 24 hour treatment with NaOH. These sections

stained with saffranin were compared with similar sections of grass

samples collected. ‘The most important result of the whole study is

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 0

the discovery that this method is quite workable and as such it should

be extremely useful to collect a large number of such undigested stems.

This is indeed a simple matter in the field because dung heaps are

easily reached and hundreds of samples may be collected from a

single heap.

Of the 8 stems studied microscopically, two were Polyioca and

5 were identical, (a dicotyledonous species) while one was not very

clearly recognizable. It is most interesting that a substantial part of

the remains point at a non-grass species. In the Calcutta Zoo, how-

ever, the rhinos are frequently given Ficus religtosa and F. bengalensis

and other leaves which the animals consume. Some of the local people

at Jaldapara maintain that occasionally the rhinos eat non-grass

species. The following table sums up the findings.

Foop PLANTS OF THE INDIAN RHINOCEROS

Microscopic

examination

of remains

of dung

Alleged

by local

| people

| Observed

Observed traces of

feeding

Sample actual feeding

Polytoca

digitata + -f-

Digitaria

granularis

Imperata

cylindrica oe ate

Setaria

pallide-fusca

Fimbristylis

junciformis i;

Unidentified aie

Unidentified

Dicot species “|.

Mychenia +

Dalbergia sissoo “7

Polytoca digitata and Imperata cylindrica are found in extensive

areas of the Jaldapara. The former has been recorded as a fodder

grass’, while Imperata cylindrica (Locally known as ‘Ulw’ or ‘ilu’)

is very well known as thatch grass and also as a common fodder

grass and very extensive, though indirect. evidence for feeding on

this by rhino were available. Digitaria granularis is a very short grass

which generally does not grow in dense forest or in taller grasses”.

Within this limited growth area (as we also verified) it was extensively

consumed. (A related species D. criantha imported from S. Africa

contains HCN when drying up and mav form a source of danger

560 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

for the browser). The other species mentioned were also of minor

importance because of their limited distribution. Of these Setaria

pallide-fusca is known to make good pastures near Bombay”. F. junci-

formis (Bindi Muthi in Santali language") is a non-grass (Cyperacede)

though monocot sample.

The most interesting finding is the occurrence of a dicot or non-

grass species in the dung. This might be identified by sectioning the

common flora samples of the area such as Dalbergia which were not

collected in this study.

In conclusion, it has been proved that our attempt, especially the

microscopic identification of faecal remains, was in the right direction

and a second, more comprehensive attempt covering Kaziranga, the

great stronghold of the Indian Rhino is likely to enable us to learn

the food habits of this endangered species.

Another phase of work will be the estimation of protein contents

and certain other chemical tests of the important food sample.

Now that the Baradabari area of the former National Park has been

taken over by the Military, the sanctuary should be compensated by

acquiring another block of equivalent area to be chosen after a survey

of the ecological needs. such as the requisite vegetation for food and

shelter. The effect of fire on vegetation should be carefully studied.

Stringent measures should be taken to check poaching.

There also arises the question of competition with other species

for food. The tame elephants were observed to feed on Polytoca and

Setaria but there is no sizeable resident herd of wild elephant. /mperata

or thatch grass is likely to be a coveted item for the various her-

bivores including domestic buffalo in adjacent villages. Mychenia

was observed to be eaten by local deer species. The number of

domestic buffalo and deer in the area observed by us did not seem

to us to be a potential source of danger as competitors for a limited

food supply.

We thank the Forestry Department, West Bengal for co-operation

at all levels and the staff of Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta for

identifying the grass.

INDIAN STATISTICAL. INSTITUTE, R. L. BRAHMACHARY

CALCUTTA, (Miss) B. MALLIK

August 11, 1970. B. RAKSHIT

REFERENCES

1S$xooc, R. O. & GOGAN, P. JR. 3 Bor, N. L. (1960) : The Grasses of

(1969): Annual Report of Serengeti Burma, Ceylon, India and Pakistan.

Research Institute, E. Africa. Pergamon Press.

2 Nrropi, NALINI (1955): Studies on * PRAIN, D. (1963) : Bengal Plants II.

Asiatic Relatives of Maize. Ann. of Botanical Survey of India.

Missouri Bot. Gard. 42: 103.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 56]

6. REPRODUCTIVE BEHAVIOUR OF BROW-

ANTLERED DEER

INTRODUCTION

Thamin deer or Browantiered deer, Cervus eldi eldi (McClleland),

is found only in a small area of Manipur in eastern India. It is

estimated that only about one hundred of these deer now exist in

nature in Keibul Lamjao Wild Life Sanctuary of Manipur (Gee 1960)

It is one of the threatened species of the sub-continent (Talbot 1960).

Published records on breeding pattern of this deer in nature are

almost non-existent. The secretive nature of the deer and the fact

that the animal lives in floating islands in swamps in nature makes it

very difficult to collect information on its breeding behaviour in the

wild. It may be mentioned that Browantlered deer have done well

in captivity in various parts of the world. Gee (1960) states that

several fawns were born at Woburn, Abbey, U.K.; four fawns were

born during 1922-25 in the Regents Park Zoological Garden, U.K..,

nine fawns were born in Vincennes Zoological Garden of Paris and

many fawns were born in Alipore Zoological Garden, Calcutta.

According to Asdell (1946), Cervidae are seasonally monestrous.

Cheatum & Morton (1942) state that the length of estrous cycle is

about 28 days. The same authors conclude that the estrous period

lasts a maximum of thirty-six hours and the period, a female will

receive a Stag, lasts only about a day. Prater (1965) indicates that

the stags shed their antlers in mid-August and are clear of velvet by

the end of December, the rut develops between March-April and after

a gestation period of 239 to 256 days, usually one fawn is born in

October. Gee (1960) mentions that the stags shed their antlers in

late June, the rutting season is between February and March and

the fawns are born in October and November.

The paper presents the results of the study of breeding pattern

of the Browantlered deer conducted in Delhi Zoo from 1962 to 1969.

It is hoped that the reproductive data will enhance the biological

knowledge about the species and help in its preservation.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

The Delhi Zoological Park received a pair of Browantlered deer

in August, 1962 as a present from Manipur State, India. The deer

were kept in an open moated and grassed enclosure of about 1-5

acres. The deer were given one kilogram of concentrates daily and

562 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

five kilograms of green fodder. In addition, they had an access to

the green grass in the enclosure. The stag had complete access to

the doe for mating all the year round. The deer were watched

regularly. A total of eight fawns were born during 1963 and 1968.

The stags drop their antlers in iate June and beginning of new

antlers in velvet take place within three to four days (Table 1). The

stags are in full velvet during the month of July. The antlers

become clear of velvet in late November. The antlers are very

handsome and characteristic of the species. In profile, they seem

almost circular. The antlers sweep in one continuous graceful curve

from the tip of the browtine to the point of the beam. The number

of terminal tines. varies from two or three to as many as eight or

ten (Prater 1965). The antlers at the maximum measure 102 cm.

(42 inches) (Gee 1960). In the Dethi Zoological Park. the shed antlers

were measured each year and recorded. The number of tines varied

from three to five on each antler (Table 1).

TABLE |

ANTLER SEQUENCE OF BROWANTLERED DEER

it yee

Date of | | | Antlers | Chasing

of aati tines | of velvet of velvet’ or

antlers | velvet | mating

| | |

i : | {

1 26-vi-65 91 cm. 343 30-vi-65 3-vii-65 23-xi-65 3-iii-65

2 25-vi-66 Oe 3+3 28-vi-66 I1-vii-66 21-xi-66 2-iii-66

3 28-vi-67 Pisa: 4+4 2-vil-67 3-vii-67 22-xi-67 — 1-iii-67

4 28-vi-67 96.4% Sion I-vii-68 4-vil-68 23-xi-68 —.2-i1i-67/*

10-iv-68

5 29-vi-68 935, 33 2-vii-68 6-vii-68 = 24-xi-68

6 26-vi-69 2 as 5+5 29-viil-69 1-vii-69

A peculiar behaviour of the stag which came to the Zoo in 1962

is during rut, it chases the females and even injures them (two females

on 1.3.1967 and 2.3.1967).

Due to the secretive nature of the deer, out of eight successful mat-

ings that took place during 1963 and 1968, only one mating on

10.4.1968 was actually observed. Four other mating dates were esti-

mated from the behaviour of the dominant male and the females.

On two occasions the females were injured by the male during chase

and on other two Gecasions the male was observed chasing the female

throughout the day and it was ascertained that the mating would

take place on that day. The gestation period were calculated from

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 563

the estimated date of breeding and the date of parturition. The

average gestation period was found to be 240-4 days with a minimum

of 236 days and a maximum of 244 days.

TABLE 2

BREEDING, FAWNING AND GESTATION PERIOD OF BROWANTLERED DEER

IN DELHI ZOOLOGICAL PARK

Estimated — See EN 4 shee

stimated | : o.of| sition |

S. No date of | Date of u08 lrawns | of herd | Remarks.

: parturition | period

mating | in days born a os: |

| | M | F

| |

1 18-x-63 ie I I 1D

2, ae 12-xi-64 ae 1 1 3

3 3-11-65 29-x-65 240 | | i3 One male died

on 2-xii-65 due

to injuries,

4 2-i11-66 26-x-66 238 i Z 3

5 oe 27-x-66 As | 2 4

6 1-i11-67 23-x-67 236 1! 3 4

i 2-ii1-67 1-xi-67 244 | 3 5

8 10-iv-68 10-xii-68 244 i 3 5 One female died

(Actual on 13-i-1968.

mating

observed)

Average 240°4 Present 2 3.5 One female died

herd on 2-vi-1969.

com-

position

In all the eight cases. the does dropped single fawn. Eight fawn-

ing dates were recorded with the earliest fawn dropping on 18.x.1963

and the latest on 10.x11.1968.

On an average the fawn of the browantlered deer were observed

to be slightly larger than those of the Axis deer (Axis axis), Sika

deer (Cervus nippon) and smaller than those of nilgai (Boselaphus

tragocamelus) (Tables 3 & 4.)

DELHI ZOOLOGICAL PARK, K S. SANKHALA

New DELHI. J. H. DESAT

November 3, 1969.

564. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 565

REFERENCES

ASDELL, S. A. (1946): Patterns of status of the Browantlered deer of

mammalian reproduction. Comstock Manipur. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

Publishing Company. Ithaca: 314, 338. 57: 597-617.

CHEATUM, E. L. & GLENT MORTON PRATER, S.H. (1965): The book of

(1942) : Technique used in determining Indian Animals. Bombay Natural

the period of rut among white-tailed deer | History Society, pp. 316.

of New York State. Trans. Seventh N. TALBOT, L. M. (1960): A !ook at

Amer. Wildlife Conf. 334-342. threatened species. Oryx 5 (4 & 5);

GEE, E. P. (1960): Report on the 147-326.

7. “WHITE BISON’ OF MANJAMPATTI

The ‘White bison’ of Manjampatti have intrigued me right from

the time I first heard of them. But first hand news eluded me, until

I met early this year when he visited India, Mr. J, L. H. Williams

who was the first to report on the occurrence of this ash coloured

gaur in the Manjampatti Valley in the journal (vide JBNHS 66: 605).

He had seen a fair number of them in his day and my talks with him

rekindled my interest in them to the extent of making a trip to the

‘White bison’ country in an effort to obtain coloured photographs

of the animal.

My talks with Mr. J. Wilson, the District Forest Officer, Coimbatore

South within whose jurisdiction Manjampatti falls was not very en-

couraging and gave me a hint of what to expect. He said he had

toured the area extensively as forest working plan Officer between

1962 and 1964 and never came across a single abnormal coloured

gaur. He also told me that even after assuming charge of the district

earlier this year he had not seen one. Sco much so he said that he even

contemplated writing a note titled ““White bison’, fact or fiction?’.

But by then my plans had been made and I decided to go ahead

with my trip. When I reached Amaravathi Nagar just over 5 Km.,

off the Udumalpet-Munnar road | met Mr. Arumugham, the forester

in charge of the Manjampatti and adjoining forest beats with a note

from the D.F.O. and explained to him my mission. During his 2

years or so in the area, he said he had never seen an off coloured

gaur and confessed that he had not heard of the existence of one

within his jurisdiction. He lined up his guards and watchers and

questioned then closely. They were positive that they had not come

across a gaur Other than a normal coloured one and much less a

white one.

The non-officials in the area proved to be more observant.

Mr. M. A. S. M. Muthuswamy, a leading agriculturist and well known

sportsman of Udumalpet. who has a small holding off the Udumal-

566 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

pet-Munnar Road on the Kerala side of the border and who uses

the Ghat road frequently told me that he had seen a herd of 4 ‘White

bison’, which he described as greenish grey in colour, on several

occasions some years previously. He also told me that he saw a

fine, greenish grey bull in a herd of normal coloured gaur at

Kamanuthu. just off the Munnar ghat road in the Kombu beat on

the Tamil Nadu side of the border last winter. His brother,

Mr, Padmanabhan whom I questioned separately said he had also

seen a herd of 5. Even without my asking him he pointed at a very

pale green window in his house and said ‘That colour mixed with

a bit of grey’. At Amaravathi Nagar, a dhoby who goes to the

Kamanuthu area to collect firewood said that he had also seen an

ash coloured bull there, the previous winter, confirming Mr, Muthu-

swamy’s story. Mi. A. J. Packianathan a senior master of the Sainik

Schoo] at Amaravathi Nagar said he saw in the same area four ash

coloured gaur by themselves some distance away from the road in

1965. He has been taking his school boys on Jong treks through the

jungles, twice a year, annually from 1962 onwards and had never seen

an ash co!toured gaur before or since. Koolayan (Shorty) a cattle-

man of the Malasar tribe who keeps cattle at Kumulam Patti over-

looking the northern slopes of Manjamalai and part of the northern

slopes of Mudian Malai and who has a grandstand view of all gaur

movement in the area said he saw only one strange. coloured gaur in

January last year among the thousands he had seen. When I questioned

him about the colour of the animal he jerked his thumb at my grey-

ing G.I. provision tin and said ‘Like that’. H.H. The Raja of Pudu-

kottai who is familiar with the Madurai or Kodaikanal side of the

Palni bills wrote to say that he saw one ‘White’ bull gaur beyond Kukal

in a place called Koilan Alai this year and that in the past 30 years

he had seen about half a dozen of them. in normal coloured gaur

herds. From these descriptions I guess that the colour of the animal

may be best described as ‘wet ash’. Enquiries on the Kerala side

showed that the forest staff and others there had not even heard of

such an animal.

As the jungle around Kamanuthu being more open in June (when

I paid my visit) and do not hold gaur then, we decided to concentrate

on the more thickly wooded Mudian Malai Manjamalai-—-Varavandi

area.

Local guides and porters to transport our stuff were recruited

from Talinji (locally, Dhalinji). They met us at the Pambar settle-

ment on the Kerala side of the border, a distance of a little over

2 Km. from the Chinnar check post. up the Munnar ghat road. We

crossed the Pambar at this point and were in the ‘white bison’ country

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 567

of Williams. We found out that two of the guides were in Williams’

party and had guided other Europeans to see the ‘White bison’. They

told us that they had not seen a ‘White bison’ in the last 15 or 20

years. They admitted quite frankly that this was partly due to the

fact that there was no occasion for them te go looking for gaur.

The place. has changed considerable since Williams set foot there.

Administratively the whole valley, generally referred to as the Man-

jampatti valley, has been brought under the jurisdiction of the

Coimbatore South forest division with the transfer ot Kukkal and

Kudiraiyar blocks from the Madurai forest division. The Pulayar

of Talinji, of whom there are about 80 families, with a head count

of about 400, or at least the bulk of them are no longer living in

thatched huts but have been settled by the tribal ‘Welfare’ department

of Government in horrid lines with cracked bulging walls, topped with

undulating illfitting tiled roofs.

The hand of the Tamil Nadu Electricity Board is in evidence

everywhere. They are blasting and drilling all around Talinji to

determine the best locations for the several. tunnels, dams and power

houses which are expected to be built under the upper Amaravathi

Hydroelectric Scheme. Some parts of the jungle are said to hold

Naxalites and others, rice smugglers. Except for some deer and

elephants during the agricultura! season there is nothing there.

Manjampatti is only a place name today, the Pulayars there having

abandoned their homes because of malaria and trouble from elephants

and have moved to Talinji and other places. Instead, there is a small

2 man station of the hydrometric survey. The area between Man-

jampatti and Talinji is disturbed and it is only beyond Manjampatti

that wild life occur. The senior laskar at Manjampatti told me that

he has been there for nearly 4 years except for short breaks and that

although he has seen quite a few gaur during his stay there he is

yet to see one which could be described as odd.

I had taken with me from the Nilgiris an experienced shikari

(guide) well versed in the use of field glasses. At every camp we

split, and each taking a local guide combed every bit of the area

around. There was a fine drizzle almost throughout our stay which

encouraged animal movement throughout the day. Manjampatti was

a dismal failure. Although we searched the slopes of the hig’

mountains which ringed the valley and the lesser valleys and gullies

thoroughly we failed to locate a single gaur.

The Mudian Malai slopes were more productive. In two days we

saw 111 gaur in 7 herds and | was a young solitary bull. In a large

herd I had a glimpse of a young reddish brown cow and two more

light coloured young animals as they stampeded after getting my scent.

568 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

The locals call these ‘sevelais’ or reds. My attempts to make furthet

contact with this herd proved futile.

At our last camp at Mukuttu we had three parties out searching

the northern slopes of Manjamalai and Mudian Malai and the thick

jungles below. We saw altogether 67 gaur—3 solitaries and 5 herds

and signs of many more in the jungle. While we were there

Koolayan took me to a popular salt lick where we spent an evening.

As dusk fell a small herd of 5 gaur, a young bull and 4 cows visited

the salt lick. One young cow was a ‘sevelai’. It was rich chestnut,

the colour of a barking deer, on the sides and the rest of the exposed

parts of the body were slightly darker. Koolayan said that ‘sevelais’

are not as rare as the ash coloured ones and several are seen in

those parts.

One possible reason for the depletion of the ‘White bison’ stock

is the foot and mouth disease which, | believe, makes regular rounds

of these jungles and proves fata! in the case of the gaur. Apparently

the incidence of the disease was greater on the smaller number of

‘White bison’. The occurrence of the ‘sevelais’ (Reds) would go to

show that there is definitely a tendency for colour variation among

the gaur of the Manjampatti valley. Therefore the appearance of an

ash coloured bison now and then should not be a cause for surprise.

But whether they would continue to patronise the vallev once the

upper Amaravathi Project gets gomg is doubtful.

All camping in this elephant infested area is appropriately done in

caves. There are half a dozen of them situated at convenient intervals.

At Mudian Malai we camped at Puli Alai (tiger cave), the cave

Williams refers to in his note. It is so placed half way up a deep

gully that to reach it an elephant would have to be an acrobat. The

approaches to the alai or cave at Mukuttu is barred by precipitous

rocks on two sides and smocthly worn slippery slide rocks guard the

other two. The ones at Duvanam, where the Amaravathi tumbles into

the reservoir in an impressive fall and at Manjampatti are so low and

deep that even if an elephant lay on its side it cannot reach the

occupants.

As regards other forms of wild tife. spotted deer seem to favour

the light jungle around Talinji and Manjampatti, unmindful of the

disturbance. Sambar occur in fair numbers on the slopes. Pigs are

plentiful. Barking deer could be heard now and then. After a lapse

of some years there is news of tigers—-some were seen crossing the

Munnar Ghat road recently. Panthers and bears are not so scarce, but

they are by no means common. Strangely, there are no wild dogs.

It is understood that the Tamil Nadu forest department is planning

to build an expensive rest house at Manjampatti to enable visitors to

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 569

see the “White bison’. They would be well advised to locate the

bungalow on the Mudian Malai slopes we!l away from the din and

bustle of the hydroelectric project area, where people could go and

relax and see at least some of the other forms of wild life of the

Valley.

At least in the matter of opening up of roads and the building of

rest houses beiter co-ordination between the Forest Department and

the Electricity Board is essential. It is but proper that the Electricity

Board should submit the immediate as well as long range plans of

their projects to the concerned Ferest authorities in whose areas they

operate.

It is ironical that 1 who went to the Manjampatti Valley to be

enlightened about the ‘White bison’ had the unenviable task of trying

to convince the incredulous locals that such an animal shares their

valley with them. My object in going there was to make survey and

if possible, obtain photographic record of the ‘White bison’. And

I had to return without positive proof. My only consolation is that

in a survey of this nature a negative report is better than none.

I am indebted to the Bombay Natural History Society and the

Dorabji Tata Trust for sponsoring the trip. I acknowledge with

gratitude the assistance rendered by Mr. J. Wilson, the district forest

Officer and his helpful staff.

‘CANOWIE , E. R. C. DAVIDAR

Coonoor-1.

NILGIRIS,

July 18, 1970.

8. OCCURRENCE OF LEAST FRIGATE BIRD (FREGATA

ARIEL IREDALEI MATHEWS) IN BOMBAY

On 4 June, 1970, a Least Frigate Bird, Fregata ariel, in juvenile

plumage was found exhausted on a beach north of Bombay. 18° 55/N.,

72° 50’E. On its wings were two plastic wing-tags bearing the serial

number A-04.

Information now received from the British Trust for Ornithology

indicates that this bird was tagged as a nestling on Aldabra Island,

Indian Ocean (09° 22’S., 46° 28’E.) on the 18th April 1969. It was

present there up to 29th August 1969.

This is the third record of this species from India, the first being

of Ferguson from Trivandrum, 1904, and the second of Humayun

Abdulali from Bombay 1960 (J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 57: 668) though

570 JOURNAL, BOMBAY, NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , WV ol.367 (G3)

at least six examples have been taken on the west coast of Ceylon,

also during the monsoon months (INDIAN HANDBOOK 1:49).

The map distance between the points of ringing and recovery in

this case is c. 4400 km.

The bird is at present in the private aviaries of the Maharaja of

Jamnagar. It is still rather weak, and it is proposed to release it out

at sea when it recovers, after marking it with the Society’s ring.

Patt HitL, BANDRA, RAUF ALI

Bomsay 50-AS,

August 25, 1970:

9. THE OCCURRENCE OF THE SANDERLING

(CALIDRIS ALBUS) IN KERALA

The Sanderiing does not so far seem to have been recorded from

anywhere in Kerala State (see SAlim Ali BIRDS OF KERALA, 1969: 126).

I am sending you one wing of a sanderling shot on Dharmadam

beach (11°45’N., 75°30’E.) on 24th November, 1968. Unfortunately,

the specimen could not be skinned or sexed.

This bird was with two others of the same species in the midst

of a large flock of Sandplovers (most probably Charadrius mongolus).

paddling in the receding waves and feeding busily. Even from a

distance the little group of Sanderlings stood out, because of their

strikingly pale coloration, in that large gathering of Sandplovers. In

their feeding movements they were more active than the Sandplovers.

On our next visit to the beach (21-xii-68), we saw four Sanderlings,

again in the midst of a very large flock of Sandplovers.

I found that the black shoulder-paich, mentioned in some books

as an important field mark, did not show up at all when the birds

ran about feeding. Only when they stretched their wings did the

black patch become evident.

I am grateful to my friend and colleague, Sri N. P. Vijayaraghavan

for shooting the Sanderling for closer scrutiny.

PRINCIPAL, K. K. NEELAKANTAN

Govt. BRENNEN COLLEGE,

DIHARMADAM,

KERALA,

May 25, 1969.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Sid

10. OCCURRENCE OF THE INDIAN SKIMMER OR

SCISSORBILL (RYNCHOPS ALBICOLLIS

SWAINSON) IN SALSETTE ISiLAND

At just on sunrise on 29th August 1970, I was watching egrets

and herons on an open expanse of water of the Chedda Salt Pans

along the Bombay Eastern Expressway when I saw two Skimmers

(Rynchops albicollis Swainson) flying low and ploughing their lower

mandibles through the placid water. 1 watched these birds for over

ten minutes before they departed over the Expressway in the direction

of Trombay. I again watched two Skimmers on the evening of 30th

August over the same stretch of water and next morning, just at day-

break and for about twenty minutes thereafter, there were three

Skimmers there.

On the evening of 3lst August I was accompanied by Mr. Humayun

Abdulali and we watched two Skimmers in precisely the same area

keeping together and working up and down, quite ciose to the road. On

the evening of 6th September I noted three Skimmers at the same place.

IND. HANDBOOK Vol. 3 indicates that this bird is usually found on

large rivers but has also been recorded on ‘estuaries and inshore coastal

waters (Bombay once)’. I understand that ‘Bombay’ in this instance

refers to Alibag, Kolaba District, where one was obtained in March

1890. From Mr. Abdulali I learn that on 16th November 1940

he observed several flocks ranging from 10/50 birds flighting up

Dharamtar Creek, Kolaba District, across the harbour, in the manner

of gulls, and on the following day saw several flocks working up one

of the smaller creeks. He was also informed by Mr. A. R. Haselet,

then a member of the Society and a keen fisherman. that he had

seen some in Dharamtar Creek in November 1950.

My records appear to be the first from Salsette Island and the

few observations confirmed that the birds are most active, at least

visible in this particular place, at dawn and dusk.

CaRE MERCANTILE BANK LTD.., D. A. STAIRMAND

52/60 M. G. Rob,

Bomsay-!,

September 8, 1970.

11. THE BLACKBIRD TURDUS MERULA MAXIMUS

IN NEPAL

While searching the literature on Himalayan birds, it came as a

surprise to me to find out that the Blackbird Turdus merula maximus

had never been recorded in Nepal. Its nearest occurrence to this

country is Chini in the Sutlej Valley (Waite, H.W., 1962, JBNHS

572. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

59 : 962) and Garhwal (Whymper, S. L.. 1911, ibid, 20: 1158), thus leaving

a gap of about 1000 km. between the latter locality and Sikkim whence

reported by Meinertzhagen (/bis 1927:578). The species has also

been recorded at Karia (Tibet), 40 km. east of Mt. Everest (Kinnear,

N.B., Ibis 1922:507 and Hingston, R.W. 1927, JBNHS 32:322). As

early as 1911 Whymper (oc. cit.) remarked: ‘It is curious that the

existence of this bird should have been overlooked in these parts, as

it is fairly common and much in evidence, both from its frequenting

the open and from its rattling alarm call.’

In central Nepal I observed this unmistakable species on two

occasions in 1964: on 14 June at the headwaters of the Tadi Khola

River at c. 4200 m. before reaching the Gosainkund Pass, and on 16 June

near one of the Gosainkund lakes at c. 4300 m. in boulder-strewn

alpine meadows. In both instances the birds (two males) were feed-

ing on mud and sand by a stream. They were quite shy, the flight

distance bemg some 40 or 50 metres, and disappeared by flying low

and fast over the ground and plunging behind a cliff. The species

was mentioned incidentally by me in the /bis 1965:400. The scarcity

of the Blackbird in the central Himalayas seems to be attributable to

its preference for a drier biotope; it is common both in Kashmir and in

south western Tibet.

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. MICHEL DESFAYES

WASHINGTON, D.C. 20560,

U.S.A..,

August 19, 1970.

12. BIRDS AND MAMMALS EATING THE FRUITS OF

YELLOW OLEANDER (THEVETIA PERUVIANA)

Previous records of birds and mammals eating the fruits of Yellow

Oleander (Thevetia peruviana), published in this Journal are, Koel

(50: 943-944), Grey Hornbill (51:738), Common Myna (52:207),

Brahminy Myna, Redwhiskered Buibul (60:457), Bat (38:808) and

Rat (59: 947).

In this paper we record that goats and domestic fowls also eat the

fleshy mesocarp of the unripe and the ripe fruits of Yellow Oleander

(Thevetia peruviana) fallen on the ground. More than half a dozen

goats daily feed on the leaves and the fruits of the Yellow Oleander

in the compound of our house without showing any ill effect. The

goats usually spit the seeds, but occasionally a few seeds are swallowed

but these seeds are spat out during regurgitation (It is an effective

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Gah

method of dispersal of seeds). Only a few individuals and not all

domestic fowls in this area have the habit of eating this fruit. The

unripe fruits with latex do not poison them.

Koel (Eudynamys scolopacea) is the only bird which is add-cted

to this fruit. In all other cases the occasional individuals observed to

eat this fruit shows that they had developed this habit accidentally.

Many more stray instances of birds and mammals eating this fruit

are likely to come to our notice in future.

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY, SIMON G. RAJASINGH

MADRAS CHRISTIAN COLI EGE,

TAMBARAM, MADRAS-59.

‘LALGUDI COTTAGE’, IRENE V. RAJASINGH

S/8, STAFF COLONY,

‘TAMBARAM. Mapras-39,

July 20, 1970.

(Dr. S.R. Amladi, M.D. of the Topiwalla National Medical College, comments—

‘The note by Mr. Simon Rajasingh and Irene V. Rajasingh is very interesting

since it reveals that there may be a species difference in withstanding the effects of the

glycosides of the plant.

The references available to me certainly assert that the plant is poisonous especi-

ally to human beings. Mody in his TEXTBOOK OF MEDICAL JURISPRUDENCE AND

TOXICOLOGY (1969) states ‘ The plant is highly poisonous & contains as active princi-

ples two glycosides: thevetin and cerberin. Both these glycosides reside in the milky

juice which exudes from all parts of the plant.’

In large doses they are heart poisons, but in minute amounts they are heart

tonics; in fact, thevetin has been used successfully in the treatment of heart disease in

man. Species difference in the actions of these glycosides is not surprising as the

Rat (Rattus norvegicus), which is a common animal used in our laboratories, is

highly resistant to their actions, and requires nearly fifty times the fatal dosage for

man.—Eds. |

13. THE ESTUARINE CROCODILE. CROCODILUS POROSUS

SCHNEIDER OFF THE ORISSA COAST

(With a_ plate)

Vhitarkanika is an island in the Bay of Bengal, off the Chandbali

coast in Orissa and originally belonged to the Raja of Kanika, who

introduced sambar, chital and other wild animals into the island long

ago. I understand that steps are being taken to proclaim this a

sanctuary. If this is done, it will be the only estuarine sanctuary. of

its kind in the country, for I understarid that it is distinct in flora.

fauna and terrain from the mangrove forests of the Sunderbans.

14 nae ae |

574. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

I had, in the course of two trips in a motor-boat (a huge vessel

—no slim launch) mere glimpses of two crocs basking on the bank

and a longer look at the largest of them, of which I took 2 photo-

graphs. I thought the big one was at least 16 feet long. Having no

authority on reptiles with me, I looked up Crocodilus porosus in

Methuen’s REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS OF THE WORLD by Hans Hvass.

In it I find this note on the creature: ‘12-14 ft., exceptionally to

20 ft. Found from the east coast of India and Ceylon, through

Indonesia and Northern Australia to the Fiji Islands . . . more marine

than any of the other crocodiles . . . one of the most dangerous of all

the crocodilians.’ The s!lustration by Wilhelm Eigener shows a cro-

codile that is less broad-snouted than the one in my picture in a top

view~—as in my picture but otherwise very similar. This means nothing

as the artist prebably had never seen the animal.

I stick to my estimate of 16 feet. I have, long ago, seen some

crocodiles (Crocodilus palustris) in the Cauvery around Srirangapatna

in Mysore which were provably as leng or even may be a few inches

longer, but they were slimi by comparison. What impressed me greatly

about this animal in my pictures was its tremendous bulk, rather than

its length. Even one of the smaller crocs seen (may be about 10 ft.

long) was bulky. I could not see the third one clearly enough to esti-

mate size, as it was in the water.

The pictures, taken from a boat going fast and vibrating fearfully,

are not sharp. To get a good picture of the estuarine crocodile at

Vhitarkanika, one needs a well camouflaged and seaworthy sail-boat

and a week of patrolling the narrow canals between the islands.

Vhitarkanika should certainly be a valuable sanctuary for cro-

codiles and water monitors if their hunting here can be effectively

stopped---both are getting steadily rarer.

PERUNKULAM HOusg, M. KRISHNAN

EDwWarpD ELLIOT Roap,

MYLAPORE, MADRAS-4,

October 14, 1970.

14. THE OCCURRENCE OF THE DOG-FACED WATER-

SNAKE, CERBERUS RHYNCHOPS (SCHNEIDER)

(SERPENTES : COLUBRIDAE) AROUND MADRAS

Further to the localities recorded by Whitaker (1969) for this snake

around Bombay, it may be noted that this species is equally abundant

on the Madras coast and in estuaries around the city.

1 WHITAKER, R. (1969): The Dog-Faced watersnake (C. rhynchops) in the

Bombay area & Notes on its habits. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 66 (2) : 386.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES $75

In the course of local collection trips about 10 examples of this

species were collected from various localities as Adayar and Ennore

estuaries, Cooum River and Kovelong beach.

The records of this species around Bombay and Madras indicate

its wide distribution along the Indian coast.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am thankful to Dr. A. P. Kapur, Director and Dr. K. Reddiah,

Supdg. Zoologist of Zoological Survey of India for providing the

necessary facilities for this work.

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, T. S. N. MURTHY

SOUTHERN REGIONAL STATION,

Mapras-4, Tami, Napu,

August 31, 1970.

15. THE OCCURRENCE OF PENNAHIA MACROCEPHALUS

(TANG) (PISCES:SCTAENIDAE) IN INDIAN SEAS

During our studies on the taxonomy of Sciaenids of the Hooghly

estuary, two specimens of Pennahiu macrocephalus (Tang), hitherto un-

reported from Indian Seas, were determined. This species has been

previously reported only from South and East China Sea (Chu, Lo

& Wu i963). Subsequently, we came across five more examples of

this species from ithe Orissa and Madras coast in ihe collections of

Zoological Survey of India.

Tang (1937) described the species under Pseudosciaena Bleeker.

Subsequent workers (Lin 1940; Chu, Lo & Wu 1963) assigned it to

Argyrosomus de la Pylaie. The assignment of this species to either

of these genera is considered inappropriate sinct Pseuwdosciaena 1s a

junior synonym of Argyrosomus (Trewaves 1965) and the air bladder

appendages in this species are not divided into a dorsal and a ventral

limb as in the type species of Argyrosomus. Tht species is, therefore,

treated under the gents Pennahia Fowler, 1926. As the present report

is the first record of occurrence of Penrahia macrocephalus (Tang) in

Indian waters, a description of the species is given below:

Pennahia macrecephalus (Tang)

Johnius aneus Fowler, 1933, p. 376.

Pseudosciaena macrocephalus Tang, 1937, p. 70, pl. 1, fig. 2.

Argyrosomus macrocephalus Lin, 1940, p. 250, fig. 4; Chu, Lo & Wu, 1963, p. 59

fig. 34. .

Dy 24-25; A. Tl--7 2 Po. 15-173 Le 8, 50-52 5 Ws tr 7-8/1 1-12 > G.R® 6-712.

$76 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

In percentage of standard length: depth of body 33-3-41-1; head

length 33-6-37:5; snowt length 7-7-11-:3; eye diameter 10-5-12:2; inter-

orbital distance 9-5-11-3; postorbital distance 16-3-19-7; length of lower

jaw 13-3-15-6; length of maxilla 16-1-19-2; pectoral fin length 25-2-30-2;

pelvic fin length 20:0-22:0 and length of second anal spine 10-3-12:2.

Body oblong, ccmpressed. Mouth terminal, oblique; maxilla

extends to hind edge of pupi!. Pores: snout with 3 pores; lower jaw

with 3 pairs of pores at symphysis, anterior and posterior pairs incon-

spicuous. Teeth: Villiform in both jaws: outer row of upper jaw and

inner row of lower jaw of distantly placed enlarged teeth. Scales: on

head and anterior part of body cycloid; on posterior part of body weakly

ctenoid. Fins: Dorsal shallowly incised, 3rd spine the longest. Second anal

spine stout, 2/3rd of first anal ray. Caudal cuneate. Air bladder:

Carrot shaped Otolitbini type with 18 pairs of arborescent diverticula.

Sonific muscles absent in the two mate specimens examined.

Colour in alcohol:

Grayish on back and upper half of body, lower half silvery. Tips

of spinous dorsal, upper half of soft dorsal and caudal dusky. Opercle

with a bluish blotch; pectoral axil dark.

MATERIAL

No. 11371, 1°88 mm.S.L. ; Hooghly ; 18.12.1885 ; J. Barnett.

No. 6061/2. 1, 126mm. S.L. ; Hooghly ; 5.11.27 ; Capt. Park.

No. 12107. No. 12108, No. 12110, No. 12128- 4, 90-115 mm. S. L. ; Orissa ; Marine

Survey.

No. F 1136/2, 1, 182mm. S.L.; Portonovo; 22.1.57; A. G. K. Menon. (Madras).

Remarks:

Our specimens agree well with Lin’s (1940) and Chu, Lo & Wu’s

(1963) description of this species except in having a lower dorsal count

(X.124 wvs. “Xal-27),

The authors are thankful to Dr. A. P. Kapur, Director, for his

encouragement and to Dr. A. G. K. Menon, Superintending Zoologist.

Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta for helpful suggestions in the

preparation of this note.

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, ASHA JOGLEKAR

27, JAWAHARLAL NEHRU ROAD, P. K. TALWAR |

CaALcuTTaA-13,

July 23, 1969,

~MISCELLANEOUS NOTES os

REFERENCES

Gi; CYS. LO ey. cowie be

(1963): A study on the classification

of Sciaenoid fishes of China, with des-

Cription of new genera and species.

Shanghai Fisheries Institute China : 59-60.

Fow er, H. W. (1933): Contribution

to the biology of Philippine Archipelago

and adjacent regions. Bull. U.S. Nat.

Mus. (100) 12: 376.

South China Sea.

Res. Sta. 1 (2) : 250.

*TANG, D. S. (1937): A study of

Sciaenoid fishes of China. Amoy Mar.

biol Bulls Zi 270; plots hg 32.

TREWAVAS, E. (1965): Review of the

article by Chu, Lo & Wu (1963). ‘A

study on the Sciaenoid fishes of China,

with description of new genera and

J. Hong Kong Fish.

LIN, S. Y. (1940): Croakers of the species.’ Copeia’2: 253-254.

* Not consulted in original.

16. OBSERVATIONS ON THE BREEDING GROUND AND

DEVELOPMENT OF THE CHILKA MULLET LIZA

MACROLEPIS (SMITH)

Liza macrolépis, known Socally as ‘Dangla’, forms a commercial

fishery in Chilka Lake. In growth and size the fish can be grouped

among the larger muilets. The present observations on the breeding

ground of ‘Dangla’ would therefore be of interest from the point of

view of both conservation and development of the fishery of this species.

The occurrence of “‘Dangla’ eggs was first noted in the tow net

collections made on 27th November 1964 at about 10.30 hrs. on the

right bank of the outer channel near lakemouth. An examination of

the eggs revealed the characteristic large oil globule and unsegmented

yolk. Since these are important features cf mullet eggs and as mature

specimens of L. macroiepis and M. cephaltts occurred predominantly

in the catches of outer channel during this period an attempt was made

to collect the running ovary of these species.

On 28.x1.64 at about 94.00 hours it was possible to collect the

oozing Ova from a specimen of L. macrolepis captured at lakemouth.

The oil globule was already formed in the oozing ova and _ they

resembled in appearance and other details the eggs in tow net collec-

tions made on 27.xi.64. The eggs appeared to swell very little after

fertilisation. There is, thus, little doubt that the “tow net eggs’ belonged

to L. macrolepis. As eggs in the early and late stages of development

occurred at lakemouth as well as up to 2 miles interior of outer channel

it may be assumed that lakemouth and inshore areas of sea proximal

of lakemouth form the breeding zone of this species. The findings

of Jhingran (1958) and Jhingran ef al. (1963) on the seaward migration

of ‘Dangla’ and its likely breeding ground near lakemouth were thus

confirmed.

The present findings indicate that ‘Dangia’ spawn at about midnight.

The total period of embrvonic development may be around 26 or 27

578 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

hours. The hatching, like spawning, appears to be from a couple of

hours before midnight to two or three hours after midnight. The

developing eggs collected from plankton were straw coloured and

unsculptured, with the characteristic single, large oil globule. The

egg measured 0°677 to 0-732 mm. and the oi! globule 0-292 to 0:347 mm.

The newly hatched Jarva measures 1:519 to 1:556 mm. The myo-

tomes are 24, the irunk myotomes forming 11 and taii myotomes 13

including the unsegmented terminal mesoderm. The larvae survived

up to six days in the laboratory and the six-day old larva measured

2:342 mm.

The ‘Dangla’ fishery of Chilka !.ake showed considerable fluctuations

in the range 27-299 m. tonnes (Jhingran & Natarajan 1965) during

1957-1965 period and this is, in no small measure, due to vagaries in

recruitment. As recruitment and egg production are related and as

the breeding of ‘Dangla’ is around the lakemouth and inshore areas

of sea proximal to lakemouth, it is to be emphasized that breeders

should not be unduly exploited, as dene now, particularly in the outer

channel during November-January.

We are grateful to Dr. B. S. Bhimachar for evincing keen interest

in these investigations and Dr. V. G. Jhingran for his valuable

suggestions.

CENTRAL INLAND FISHERIES A. V. NATARAJAN

RESEARCH SUB-STATION’, S. PATNAIK

HAZARIBAGH,

January 4, 1969.

REFERENCES

JHINGRAN, V. G. (1958) : Observations Bull. No. 1, Central Inl. Fish. Res. Inst.,

on the seaward migration of Mugil Barrackpore (India).

cephalus Linnaeus from Chilka lake for & NATARAJAN, A. V. (1965) :

breeding. Curr. Science 27: 181-182. Final Report on the fisheries of the Chilka

—— (1963): Report on the Lake (1957-1965). Bull. No. 8 Central.

fisheries of Chilka Lake (1957-1960). Inl. Fish. Res. Inst., Barrackpore (India).

17. OBSERVATIONS ON THE FOOD OF YOUNG AILSA

ILISHA (HAM.) OF THE HOOGHLY ESTUARINE SYSTEM

(With a text-figure)

INTRODUCTION

The ‘Indian Shad’ Ailsa ilisha (Hamilton), forms a rich commercial

fishery in the Hooghly estuary. Althongh considerable knowledge has

been gained by various workers on the different aspects of the biology

—— ——————$

1The investigations were carried out under the auspices of the Chilka Investi-

gation Unit of Central Inland Fisheries Research Institute, Balugaon, Puri (Dist.),

Orissa, ime?

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Loe

and fishery of the species (Pillay & Rosa 1963). Little work has been

done on the food and feeding habits of juveniles of the species.

Chacko and Ganapati (1949) have listed the different organisms that

occurred in the stomach of the adult specimens of Hilsa from the

coastal waters of East Godavari District (Andhra Pradesh). They

found the stomach of !50 specimens, examined from the Godavari

River, to be empty. Hora & Nair (1940 a, b), Pillay & Rao (1962)

and Halder (1968) have worked on the food of young Hilsa tlisha.

This study was undertaken with a view to aScertain the variations in

the intensity of feeding as well as in the composition of food among

the different size groups in different zones and in different seasons,

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The material for the present investigations was obtained from the

River Hooghly and its wibutary, the Rupnarayan. Regular fortnightly

random samples were collected from 22 sampling centres (Text-fig. 1)

for a period of three years, 1962-64. A total of 1640 specimens of

Hilsa ilisha, in the size range of, 20 to 200 mm. total length were

analysed. Total length was taken from the tip of the snout to the end

of the lower lobe of the caudal fin. The fish. in fresh condition, were

either directly obtained from Shore-seines (Chatberjal) and bag nets

(Behundijal) or from local fish market. The specimens were preserved

in 5%, formaldehyde, and the stomach contents were analysed by the

numerical method, ie. the total number of each food items was

expressed as percentage of the total number of organisms present in

the stomach (Hynes 1950 and Pillay 1952) for different years, zones

and lengths. This method is considered as an improvement over other

numerical method. In order to improve the accuracy of the analysis.

a Sedgwick—Rafters’ plankton counting cell was also used. From the

gut contents, | cc. of random sample was uniformly taken in a sed-

ewick—Rafters’ plankton counting cell, and individual species were

identified and counted. When sand, debris and other unidentifiable

materials (digested and semidigested) occurred in the guts, their

respective percentages were recorded by eye-estimation method. The

quantities of debris and unidentifiable matter were grouped in one as

miscellaneous items.

rooD HABITS

_ As will be seen from Table 1, the young hilsa measuring 20-120.mm.

in total length were observed to feed actively on zooplankton

maximum 68% followed by average 50% phytoplankton in: addition

580 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

to appreciable quantitics of decaying organic matter and sand particles.

Whereas, in fishes measuring 120-160 mm. in length, the food was

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MAP OF THE HOOGHLY ESTUARINE SYSTEM ALONG WITH ITS TRIBUTARY

THE RUPNARAYAN , SHOWING AREA OF INVESTIGATION AND COLLECTION CENTRES

mainly constituted ty phytoplankton followed by zooplankton, decaying

matter and sand particles. In specimens measuring 160-180 mm..

neither zooplankton nor phytoplankton were encountered. But, since

581

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

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582 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

in both the bordering classes (14-i6 cm. and 18-20 cm.) zooplankton

and phytoplankton were noticed in the guts, it is likely that their non-

occurrence in this middle class (16-18 cm.) may be due to inadequate

sampling. In the length range 180-200 mm., zooplankton formed the

main food followed by debris and phytoplankton.

The zooplanktons encountered in the gut contents, in the order

of their dominance, were copepods (Calanus and Cyclops), cladocerans

(Bosmina, Daphnia and other Cladoceran eggs) rotifer (Keratella, Mono-

styla and Keratella eggs) and ostraccds.

The following phytcplankters were encountered, mentioned in the

order of their dominance: diatoms (Coscinodiscus, Synedra, Cyclotella,

Melosira, Pleunosigma, Gyrosigma, Surirell), bluegreen algae (Micro-

cystis, Aphanocapsa, Oscillatoria) and green algae {Spirogyra, Pedi-

astrum and Eudorina).

The fluctuation in the intensity of feeding of the fishes (expressed

as %, of fullness of the gut) during the different years and different

zones is shown in Table 2.

The peak intensity of feeding was noticed during the year 1962 in

all the zones and the same pattern was observed to a certain extent

in 1963 also. However, feeding was very poor during the year 1964,

as the stomach was found empty in 77:82% and food materials in

traces in 4:30% cases.

DISCUSSION

Hora & Nair (1940 a, b), concluded that young Hi/sa feed at the

bottom as sand grains were encountered in the stomachs. Pillay &

Rao (1962), inferred from their studies on Hilsa from Godavari estuary

that the species is a bottom feeder during the entire period of its iife,

especially from 43 mm. stage onwards and they have also assumed that

Hilsa feeds at all depths. Halder (1968), concluded from his studies

on the food habits of young Hilsa ilisha in the freshwater zone (around

Nabadwip) of the Hooghly estuary that the young ones of the species

feed at all depths. The present study further confirms this observation

not only in the freshwater zone but also in the tidal zone (up to

Diamond Harbour) of the estuary where the young Hilsa feed at all

depths.

It is evident from the above studies that the young of Allsa is

dominantly a zooplankton feeder up to 120 mm. in length followed by

a dominance of phytoplankton in the next two size groups ie. (120-

160 mm.) and vice versa in size groups (180-200 mm.),

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 583

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am greatly indebted to Dr. V. G. Jhingran, Director, Central

Inland Fisheries Research Institute, and Dr. V. R. Pantulu for their

guidance and encouragement during the course of this investigation.

My grateful thanks are also due to Shri P. Datta for valuable suggestions

and Dr. V. Gopalakrishnan for critically going through the manuscript

and Shrimati Surya Kumari Raju for analysing the gut contents.

CENTRAL INLAND FISHERIES

RESEARCH INSTITUTE,

BARRACKPORE,

August 2, 1969.

D. D. HALDER

REFERENCES

CuHacko, P. I. & GANAPATI, S. V.

(1949): On the bionomics of Ailsa

ilisha (Ham.) in the Godavari. Madras

Univ. J. 18: 16-22.

HA.LperR, D. D. (1968) : Observations

on the food of young Hilsa ilisha (Ham.)

around Nabadwiv, in the Hooghly

estuary. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 65

(3) : 796-798.

Hynes, H. B. N. (1950) : The food of

the freshwater sticklebacks (Gasteros-

teus aculestus and Pygosteus pungitius),

with a review of methods used in the stu-

dies of thefood of fishes. J. anim.

Ecol. 19 (1): 36-58.

Hora, 8S. L. & Narr, K. K. (1940a) :

Further observations on the bionomics

and fishery of Indian Shad, Hilsa ilisha

(Ham.) in Bengal Waters. Rec. Indian

Mus. 42 (1): 35-50.

———— (1940b): The jatka fish of

Eastern Bengal and its significance in

the Fishery of the so-called Indian Shad,

Hilsa ilisha (Ham.) Rec. Indian Mus. 42

(4) : 553-555.

PILLAY, T. V. R. (1952): A critique

of the methods of study of food of fishes.

J. Zool. Soc. India, 1 (2) : 185-200.

PILLAY, S. R. & Rosa, JR. (1953):

Synopsis for biological data on the hilsa,

Hilsa ilisha (Ham.) 1822. Fao. Fish.

Bio. Synops. 25: 64.

& Rao, K. V. (1962):

Observations on the biology and fishery

of the Hilsa, Hilsa ilisha (Ham.) of River

Godavari. Proc. Indo-Pacific. Fish.

Coun. 10 (2): 37-61.

18. THE FECUNDITY OF HETEROPNUESTES FOSSILIS

(BLOCH)

(With three text-figures)

INTRODUCTION

Fecundity or the repreductive potential can be defined as the number

of ova shed during a particular spawning season (Pillay 1954). The

study of fecundity is important in the fishery exploitation, especially

in freshwater fishes which are now bred artificially in impounded waters

by injecting pituitary hormone. Since fecundity bears a definite

relationship with total length, body-weight and ovary-weight of fishes,

584 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

its knowledge can be utilized for the selection of female breeders and

thereafter for the estimation of survival of eggs also.

Heteropnuestes fossilis (Bloch) is a common freshwater fish. The

mature specimens for investigation were collected from Killa Fish Farm

at Cuttack (Orissa) during the years 1962-63. In all 35 mature ovaries .

were studied. The ovary of H. fossilis is brown in colour and the

Ova are green and round. ‘The diameter of ova varies from 0:4545 mm.

to 1:3635 mm. In a mature fish the ovary occupies about three-

fourth of the body cavity. The ovaries from freshly killed specimens

were preserved in 5% formalin for a few days. The formalin hardened

ovaries were weighed afier wiping them with a filter paper and from

each ovary three samples of 1 gm. each from different regions were

taken. teased on a slide and the mature ova thus liberated were

counted. A mean of the three sampics was iaken foi estimating the

number of ova which was then computed for the whole ovary. In

one fish the total number of ova of a complete cvary was counted

for testing the accuracy of ithe method employed and gave a close

approximation. The observed fecundity varied from 2,843 to 44,724

in fishes ranging from 164 mm. to 307 mm. in length examined during

the present study. In Clarius batrachus. another catfish, the average

number of ova is 11,012 approximately for a fish of average length

31-5 cm. and weight 251-6 gm. (Mookerjee & Mazumdar 1950).

The fecundity was studied in relation to three parameters viz.

(1) Total length of fish (2) Body weight of fish and (3) Ovary weight.

The method of least squares was followed for all the calculations.

RESULT 4NE DISCUSSION

A. Fecundity—Total length relationship:

Fig. 1 shows the relationship between fecundity and total length

of fish. The fish were grouped in the range of 10 mm. and the

equation followed was F =CL" wihere F, C and L represent the

fecundity, a constant and the length respectively while n is an ex-

ponent showing the relation between the two variables. In H. fossilis

the equation comes to be— F = 10-® K 96472-65681

This relationship seems to be of a cubic nature as indicated by the

parabolic curve (Fig. 1) which means that the fecundity increases at

the rate less than the third power of the total length (2:65681) as

suggested by Simpson (1951). —

The correlation-coefficient ‘r’ between the two parameters was 0:9569,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 585

B. Fecundity—Body weight relationship:

The relationship between these two variables is linear as observed

from the graph in Fig. 2. To consider this relationship the fishes

were grouped in the rauge of 10 gm. and the equation followed was

F=a+bW where F is the fecundity and W is the mean body weight

OSG Gee

| |CAL.VALUES x*x

Beek DeevnGies a

z 3

e 5

~ |

2 30]

Z 55|

nS”

5 20

Oo 15

£ 10}

S35. 17 9 Oy ellos ne OD 2 Oo, (25-2 Oa PSS

TOTAL LENGTH OF FISH (iN mm.)

FIG. 1,

of fish in gm. A similar method was followed by Varghese (1961)

while calculating the fecundity of Raconda russeliana (Gray). By

substituting the values of the constants a and b the equation can be

written as-—

F= 1040-49149 + 207-27833 W.

The value of ‘r’ was found to be 0:96536.

C. Fecundity-~Ovary weight relationship:

In this case the ovary weights were grouped at an interval of

586. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67° @)

5 gm. The equation F=a--bW’ was used and after substituting the

values of the constants the equation obtained was—

F= 4117-7915 + 1298-1000 W’.

The graph in Fig. 3 indicates a linear relationship similar to that

obtained by Qasim & Qayyum (1963) in some freshwater fishes.

CAL.VALUES x*~x

OBS-VALUES --

NO.OF OVA CIN THOUSAND)

OL |

26 46 66 86 106 126 146 166 !86 206

BODY WEIGHT (CIN gms)

FIG. 2.

The value of ‘r’ was 9°9925.

In H. fossilis, therefore, the relationship of fecundity was found to

be curvilinear with total length and linear with body weight and ovary

weight for which the values of correlation coefficient ‘r’ were 0-9569,

0-:96536 and 0:9925 respectively. It seems that ovary weight of fish

is more accurate in estimating the fecundity ihan the other two para-

meters discussed above. However, it is not practicable to consider the

ovary weight in live specimens, therefore, the body weight (rt —0:96530)}

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 587

could be taken as the next best index. Qasim & Qayyum (op. cit.)

also drew the same conclusion.

CAL VAEUVES, “x x

OBS-VALUES -« -

NO.OF OVA(IN THOUSAND)

re) A ee tS ul6n. SON 2a Oi a2uso6. 40

WEIGHT OF OVARY (IN &ms.)

FIG. 3.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author wishes to express his gratitude to Shri K. H. Aliknnhi,

now Director, Central institute of Fisheries Education, Bombay for

his guidance and to Dr. §. Z. Qasim, Scientist, National Institute of

Oceanography, Ernakulam, Cochin for critically going through the

manuscript.

CENTRAL INLAND FISHERIES, R. M. S. BHARGAVA'

RESEARCH SUB-STATION,

CUTTACK,

Aucust 5, 1970.

pa ees

* Present address : National Institute of Oceanography, Panjim (Goa).

588 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

iIREFERENCES

MOooKERJEE, H. K. & MAZUMDAR,

S. R. (1950): Some aspects of the life

history of Clarius batrachus (Linn.)

Proc. Zool. Soc. Bengal 3 (1) 71-84:

Pituay, T. V. R. (1954): The biology

Qasim, S. Z. & Qayyum, A. (1963) :

Fecundities of some freshwater fishes.

Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci. India 29 : 373-382 .

Smupson, A. C. (1951): The fecundity

of Plaice Fish. Invest. Series II. 17 (5).

VARGHESE, T. J. (1961) : Observations

on the biology of Raconda russelliana

(Gray). Ind. J. Fish. 8 (1): 96-106.

of the Grey Mullet, Mugil tade (Forskal)

with notes on its fishery. Proc. Nat.

Inst. Sci. India 20: 187-217.

19. OCCURRENCE OF THE SNAIL LYMNAEA (GALBA)

TRUNCATULA (MULLER) (MOLLUSCA : PULMONATA)

AT MALAD, BOMBAY CITY—A NEW RECORD

FOR PENINSULAR INDIA

The pulmonate snail Lymnaea (Galba) truncatula (Miller) is a

palaearctic species, distributed all over Europe including Iceland and

extending through Asia to Kamchatka. Except Kashmir, it has not

been reported from any other part ot India.

The material studied consists of two examples of LZ. truncatula

collected from S. K. P. A. Talaw at Malad, North Bombay (19° 12’N;

72> SO).

Although according to Huhendick (1951)! the distribution of this

species in Africa seems to be the result of transportation by migrating

birds, regarding the present record, further studies will be necessary to

dletermine what factors are responsible for its occurrence at Malad,

North-West Bombay. The present find is of interest as a new locality

record for the species, beins reported for the first time from Peninsular

India, extending the southern limit of the range of the species in Asia

tO dat. 197 120N;

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

{ am thanktul to the Director, Zoologica! Survey of India, for

affording facilities. My thanks are also due to Dr. K. K. Tiwari,

Deputy Director, and Dr. A. Daniel, Superintending Zoologist, Zoo-

Jogical Survey of India, for many useful suggestions and to Dr.

K. Manohar, Mulund, Bcmbay, for sending the specimens for identifica-

tion, with the necessary collection data.

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, A: S:

CALCUTTA, ©

June 2, 1969.

RAJAGOPAL >

' HUBENDICK, B. (1951): Recent Lymnaeidae. Their variation, taxmonoy, nomen-

oats and distribution. Kung]. Svenska Vetens. Akad. Handl., Stockholm. 3:

-225.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 589

20. THE SPIDFR LYCOSA CARMICHAELI GRAVELEY

AS A PREDATOR OF SMALL FROGS

During my field trips in connection with studies on Amphibian

Fauna of Dehra Dun District, I have observed on several occasions

the interesting case of predation of small frogs, Micrehyla ornata Dum.

& Bibr., and juvenile Rana cyanophivyctis Schn. by the spider Lycosa

carmuchaeli Graveley. Spiders have not so far been recorded as

predators of amphibians rather the reverse. |

Both the frogs and the spider are common around stony banks of

rivers, road side ditches and pools. The spider is fairly large and is

quite capable of hunting small frogs. Rana cyanophlyctis Schn. when

mature starts eating its previous predator, but Microhyla ornaia Dum.

& Bibr. adults have not so far been observed feeding on the spider.

I am grateful to Dr. B. K. Tikader of Zoological Survey of India,

for identifying the spider and to Dr. Asket Singh for providing ihe

facilities etc.

NorTHERN REGIONAL STATION, ; R. K. BHATNAGAR

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA. Assistant Zoologist

13 SUBHASH Roapb,

DEHRA DUN,

September 1, 1970.

21. DIAMETRICALLY OPPOSITE RESULT OF HUMAN

ACTIVITY ON BARNACLE POPULATIONS

(With a text-figure)

There are quite a few instances in environmental research studies,

of barnacle populations in intertidal region being affected due

to human activity or pollution (Mileikovsky 1968; Naylor 1965;

Persoone & de Pauw 1968; Rzhepishevsky 1963; and Smyth 1968).

This note communicates one more instance of similar type. The

pecuiiarity of this record, however, is that the ecological factor altered

as a result of dredging activity, has different, almost diametrically

opposite, effect on two populations of sessile balanomorphs.

During the survey of the west coast of India (Maharashtra region)

made in the period 1962-1965, Station Vijaydurg (16° 34’N., 73° 20:5’E.)

could be visited on two oecasions. During the first survey in 1962,

locality ‘A’ (Fig. 1) had populations of Chthamalus malayensis Pilsbry

$90 JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

and Balanus tintinnabulum L. whereas locality ‘B’ had a population of

moderate-sized B. amphitrite Darwin forms.

fy: LOCALITY “A”

BATTERY RUINS

VIJAY DURG OR VAGHOTAN RIVER

vod

QW La

fis

—

IEE

In 1963, as a part of the port development project of the Govern-

ment, work was initiated to construct a landing jetty at locality “B’ and

to dredge the bottom between localities ‘A’ and “B’. The dredged

material was being deposited in the area that was lying opposite to

locality ‘A’. As a result, at least apparently, of this double activity

the balanid fauna of both these localities presented an aitogether

different picture when they were visited again in 1964. The locality

which had fairly good population of large shelled B. tintinnabulum

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 39}

was completely devoid of it. There were only a few empty shells.

Similarly, the population of Ch. malayensis had shifted position from

sea-facing to land-facing surfaces of the rocks. The density of the

population had also become poor.

As compared to this, the piers of the landing jetty that was under

construction had abundant population of B. amphitrite with the basal

diameter of their shells admeasuring more than 15 mm, (average

diameter at other iccalities being 6-10 mm.).

The probable explanation that can be offered to explain this

phenomenon under the situation when ail physico-chemical factors

except the suspended matter in the water, are apparently unchanged,

is that it must have resulted due to dredging of the harbour and

subsequent abrupt increase in the suspended matter in water. Locality

‘A’, that falls under the category of highly-exposed, so far as wave-

action is concerned, must have had the maximum effect, especially

the shearing effect of waves. As a result, entire population of B.

tintinnabulum must have been eradicated and displacement of Ch.

malayensis population must have taken place.

Paradoxically, as it may appear, the population of B. amphitrite

situated at site ‘B’ that falls under the category of sheltered tocality

due to its disposition, had this ecological change to its advantage.

The increased amount of suspended matter has provided abundant

food material for these forms without any harmful effect of wave

action, unlike those of locality ‘A’. The resultant effect was the

abundance of B. amphitrite forms with large-sized shells.

This explanation, though tentative, appears to be the only plausible

one, that can explain the variation in the abundance of barnacle

populations. It will certainly be interesting to pursue similar faunstic

studies and the variation in their populations. It should prove: heipful

in better understanding of the population dynamics of the respective

biotic region and the ecology of near-shore waters as a whole.

We are grateful to Dr. N. K. Panikkar, Director, Indian Programme

of the International Indian Ocean Expedition (presently Director.

National Institute of Oceanography, Panaji-Goa) for his keen interest

and constant encouragement in the investigations. One of us (ABW)

gratefully acknowledges the award of fellowship by the Indian National

Committee on Oceanic Research, C.S.IL.R., New Delhi.

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF OCEANOGRAPHY, ARUN B. WAGH

PANIIM,

GOA,

KirTr COLLEGE, D. V. BAL

BoMBAY-28,

February 13, 1970.

ao2

JOURNAL W BOMBAY) NALTORAL 'AISP SOCIETY .y Viol S07 (3)

REFERENCES

MILEIKOVSKy, S. A. (1968): The in-

fluence of human activities on breeding

and spawning of littoral marine bottom

invertebrates. Helgolander wiss. Meere-

sunters. 17 : 200-208.

NAYLor, E. (1965): Effects of heated

effluents upon marine and estuarine

organisms. Adv. Mar. Biol. 3: 63-104.

PERSOONE, G. & DE Pauw, N. (1968) :

Pollution in the harbour of Ostend

consequences. Helgolander

Meeresunters. 17: 302-320.

*“RZHEPISHEVSKY, I. K. (1963): Pro-

pagation of barnacles-balanides on the

east Murman Coast. (Russ.). Diss.

Dalnie Zelentzi, Murman, Institute of

Marine Biology Academy of Sciences of

the USSR, Murmansk.

SMYTH, J. C. (1968): The fauna of a

polluted shore in the Firth of Forth.

WISS.

Helgolander wiss. Meeresunters. 17:

216-223.

(Belgium) Biological and hydrographical

22. STUDIES ON THE LARVAE OF DECAPODA

BRACHYURA 1. XENOPHTHALMUS GARTHI]I

SANKARANKUTTY

(With two 1ext-figures)

INTRODUCTION

ihe Indo-Pacific region is known for its faunistic richness and a

recent assessment by Serene (1968) has put the total number of species

of Brachyura at 2500, of which, according to him, more than 1000,

may be found within the Indo-Malayan region. However, the larval

stages of a great majority of these have not been studied and with the

available information, one may not be able to proceed very far in

the identification of brachyuran larvae from plankton samples. This

was very evident when I made a preliminary examination of the

brachyuran larvae from the International Indian Ocean Expedition

which contains a large number of zoeae and megalopae collected from

different parts of the Indian Qcean. As has already been advocated

by Provenzano (1967), only a long term rearing programme of larvae

from known parents, as is currently being pursued in the laboratories of

the United States, can assist in the identification of larvae from. the

plankton samples. It was with this objective that the present work

was initiated and further studies along similar lines is contemplated

as and when ovigerous specimens become available. This paper

describes the first zoeal stage of Xenophthalmus garthit Sankarankutty

obtained through laboratory rearing. For the iirst time, the description

of the first zoeal stage of an interesting and rare genus, Yenophthalmus

White, is given here.

a cr en rer ne ee Rae Ne a ot NR halal ea et het th ei at

* Not referred in original.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 593

MATERIAL AND METHODS

An ovigerous female of Y. garthii was collected on 23 October

1968 from Cochin backwater and kent alive in an aerated sea water

aquarium. The eggs when examined soon after collection revealed

advanced stage of development of larvae within the egg case. The

larvae were released on 28th October and a sample of larvae was

preserved in 5% neutralised formalin. Description of first zoeal stage

is given below.

DESCRIPTION OF ZOEA |

(Figs. | & 2)

Larvae measure about 0-9 mm. in length and 0-7 mm. between

tips of dorsal and rostral spines. Carapace (Fig. 1, A) with dorsal,

0.2 mm

Fic. 1. Zoea 1 of Xenophthalmus garthii :—A. Zoea in lateral view, B. Abdo-

men in dorsal view. C, Maxilliped 1. D. Maxilliped I,

594. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

rosiral and lateral spines; rostral and dorsal spines subequal and

longer than lateral; dorsal only slightly curved; lateral projecting

laterally and slightly downwards, its base broad and compressed dorso-

laterally. Eyes not free from carapace. Carapace with a pair of hairs,

one on either side slightly behind dorsal spine. Abdomen (Fig. 1, B)

of five segments and telson; second and third segments with a pair

of triangular lateral projections in the middle; second, third and fourth

segments of same length and width: fifth segment as long as preceding

ones but widening towards the distal end and its lateral distal end in

the form of incurved lobe with pointed tip. Telson very long (more

than twice the basal width), bicornate, its basal part broad, middle

part constricted and distal end wide formed by the long tapering fork

enclosing three pairs of setae between the fork, innermost pair of setae

being smooth and slightly shorter than outer subequal pairs. Antennule

Fic. 2. Zoea I of Xenophthalmus garthii:—A. Maxilla. B. Maxillule.

C. Antenna. D. Antennule.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 525

and antenna shorter than rostral spine. Antennule (Fig. 2, D) having

a narrow fairly long basal lobe bearing a short spinule and two long

subequal aesthetes. Protopodite of antenna (Fig. 2, C) prickly and

shorter than pointed exopodite. LEndopodite of maxillule (Fig. 2. B)

bearing four subequal terminal setae, its basal segment unarmed; basal

endite having five setae of varying size and coxal endite carrying four

dissimilar setae. Scaphocerite of maxilla (Fig. 2, A) having four

feathery setae; endopodite bearing three dissimilar setae on its distal

part and two dissimilar setae on its basal part: coxal endite with four

and basal endite with eight setae. First and second maaillipeds

biramous and functional, each carrying four swimming setae on its

exepodite. Endopodite of first maxilliped (Fig. 1, C) five-segmented,

second segment longest, first longer than rest, third shortest and

terminal longer than fourth; first segment bearing two setae, second

and third with one long seta and terminal segment with two distal

setae and another in the middle. Endopodite of second maxilliped

(Fig 1, D) three-segmented; first and second segments subequal, latter

bearing a seta, third segment almost three times as long as first two

and having four setae. Third maxilliped and _ pereiopods not

represented.

As the larvae described here were examined after preservation. the

pattern of distribution of chromatophores is not given.

DISCUSSION

The description shows that the larva of X. garthii is of a generalised

brachyuran type having all the spines of carapace, a well developed

antenna, abdominal armature and forked telson. Larvae of the family

Pinnotheridae so far described are known to have either all the spines

of carapace or the lateral spines may be absent or all the spines

of carapace may be absent (Costlow & Bookhout 1966). The shape

of telson is also a variable character, for example, telson may be

forked or trilobed (Gurney 1942). Although the larvae of X. garthii

can be included among those in the family Pinnotheridae on account

of the different types of larvae encountered within the family, the

better developed antenna, the characteristic shape of fifth abdominal

segment and telson are sufficiently diagnostic of the larva described

here?

596 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

INDIAN OCEAN BIOLOGICAL CENTRE,

+ am grateful to Dr. N. K. Panikkar for the guidance and en-

couragement I received from him.

C. SANKARANKUTTY

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF OCEANOGRAPHY,

| ERNAKULAM,

COCHIN,

March 14, 1969,

REFERENCES

CostLow, J.D. Jr. & BooKkHouT, C.G.

(1966) : Larval stages of the crab, Pinno-

theres maculatus under laboratory condi-

tions. Chesapeake Sci. 7: 157-163.

GuRNEY, R. (1942): Larvae of deca-

pod Crustacea. Ray Soc. London.,

pp. 306.

advances in the laboratory culture of

decapod larvae. Symposium on Crusta-

cea, Pt. Ul, Marine Bio. Ass. India.,

pp. 940-945.

SERENE, R. (1968): The Brachyura of

the Indo-West Pacific region. UNESCO—

Singapore (Mimeograph).

PROVENZANO, A. J. JR. (1967): Recent

23. STERILITY AND ABNORMAL COPULATION

BEHAVIOUR IN AGROTIS INFUSA (BOISD) (AGROTIDAE:

LEPIDOPTERA) IN RELATION TO HIGH TEMPERATURE

While studying the biology of Agrotis infusa (Boisd), the famous

‘Bogong moth’ (an important cutworm pest in South-eastern Australia)

to determine the effect of temperature on fecundity and fertility of

moths, many pairs were found unable to mate successfully and to lay

fertile eggs when they were reared or were kept (with 20% sucrose

solution as food) at temperatures of 29-8°C and above. The high

temperature during imaginal life had more influence than that during

rearing in producing sterility and abnormal copulation. In _ the

former case, most of the males were sterile, being unable to complete

spermatogenesis. In many cases copulation failed to occur. In some

cases copulation started but the male was unable to transfer the

spermatophore fully into the bursa copulatrix of the female and

usually remained attached to the female by the partly everted spermato-

phore. In some cases, when the male did separate itself from the

female, part of the tubular neck remained permanently everted out

of the female genitalia. Such females laid only a few infertile eggs

because of the failure of sperms to reach the spermatheca from the

bursa-copulatrix. Exceptionally, however, when more than one

spermatophore were inserted in the female during copulation and at-

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 597

least one was deposited completely in the bursa, fertile eggs were laid

by such a female. The highest nuniber of spermatophores found in

a female was three, normally, however, a fertilized female contained

only one spermatophore.

Out of the four females each confined with two maies at 34°C,

none laid any eggs. Mating failed to occur at this temperature and

dissection of females after death showed that the ovaries contained

only a few degenerate eggs and there was no fat body. Out of the

nine females, each kept with two males at 29-8°C, two fatled to oviposit

and the remaining seven laid only a few infertile eggs. In some of

these mating was unsuccessful as seen by the partly everted spermato-

phore through the female genitalia: in all others, mating failed to

occur as revealed by the absence of spermatophores in the bursae

of the dead females.

When’ the, “earlier stages of the “pest. were reared at different

temperatures and the adults were kept in pairs at an optimum

temperature of 22°C with food, all females that developed at 16°C

and 22°C laid fertile eggs but those which developed at higher

temperatures of 26°C and 29:8°C laid 30% and 66% infertile eggs.

respectively.

High temperatures during rearing and particularly during imaginal

life have been found to produce sterility and to result in increased

percentage of infertile eggs in other Lepidoptera and this has been

expiained as due to degeneration of eggs and exhaustion of fat bodies

in females and retardation of spermatogenesis in males.

DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY, R. R. RAWAT

J. N. Krisar Vishwa VIDYALAYA, |

JABALPUR-4.

August 17, 1970.

24. STUDIES ON THE BIOLOGY OF PHYTOMYZA

ATRICORNIS MEIGEN (AGROMYZIDAE: DIPTERA)

Taskhir Ahmed & Gupta (1941)' have reported Phytomyza

atricornis Mg. as a polyphagous pest feeding on over 72 species from

13 plant families.

During the first week of December 1966 large number of leaves

of ihe Pea crop were found infested by the leaf miners, Phytomyza

1AHMED, T. & Gupta, R. L. (1941): The Pea leaf miner, Phyvtomyza atricornis

(Meigen) in India. Indian J. Ent. 3: 37-49.

598 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

atricornis M., and Liriomyza brassicae Riley at the central Research

farm, Gwalior. This opportunity was availed of to study the biology

of P. atricornis in detail.

Nature and extent of damage:

The first indication of damage seen on the leaves was numerous

punctures made by the female with her ovipositor. These punctures

later changed into prominent protuberances. In some cases the

intensity of these punctures was so high that the tender leaves in

freshly sprouted plants etiolated, while in plants growing in dry areas

they withered. The larvae mined ihe ieaves by eating through the

mesophyll, leaving the two epidermal layers intact. In case of severe

infestation the leaves withered away while flowering and fruiting was

considerably reduced.

The intensity of attack was noted on fifty leaves at a time during

February and March 1967. The data coliected during four observations

on the number of punctures and larvae and pupae per leaf revealed that

they varied from 12 to 18 and 6 to 8 respectively. Percentage

infestation varied from 40 to 74.

Mating:

Mating occurred 3 to 5 days after emergence of adults. During

copulation the female semained stationery, while the male with its

wings closed, sat lightly over the female holding her first abdominal

segment with the first pair of legs and the mid-abdomen with the

last pair of legs. A single act of copulation took a maximum of

90 minutes and a minimum of 15 minutes,

Pre-oviposition and oviposition:

The female made punctures with her ovipositor by tilting her

abdomen over the hind legs, turning the abdomen tip downwards, and

bringing the ovipositor vertically on to the leaf surface. It then

pierced the leaf tissues, stretched the ovipositor obliquely, revolved

it under the epidermis by thrusting it repeatedly forming a triangular

blotch at the point of entry of ovipositor. The eggs were deposited

singly.

From the second week of January to the middle of March, 6

pairs of adults were kept under observation for studying the pre-

copulation and oviposition periods and fecundity per female. The

precopulation period ranged from 3 to 5 days. The female started

laying eggs soon after copulation. The oviposition period varied from

3 to 6 days, the maximum being in the fourth week of January. It

decreased to 3 days during March due to rise in temperature. The

number of eggs per female varied from 87 to 203.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 599

Incubation period and hatching:

From about the middle of January to middle of March, 6 batches of

50 eggs were kept under observation and 86 to 94% of them hatched.

There seemed to be a slight decrease in hatching as the temperature

rose. Similarly the incubation period varied between 3 and 7, increase

in the atmospheric temperature decreasing the incubation period.

During hatching the chorion was broken at the side by the thrusting

movement of the head of the larva inside the egg.

Larval and pupal periods:

The larval and pupal periods recorded in 6 cases from third week

of January to third week of March varied from 6 to 10 and 5 to 12

days respectively.

Life cycle and longevity of adults:

The period required for one life cycle varied from 15 to 28 days.

The longevity of male and female varied from 2 to 8 days and 4 to

18 days respectively. The males lived longer when kept with the

females.

Sex ratio:

On examining 20 laboratory bred specimens in each month from

January to March for their sex it was found that in January males

and females were equal in number while the males outnumbered the

females in February and March.

STAGES OF GROWTH

Ege:

Average of 10 eggs—Length 0-36 mm., breadth 0-15 mm., oval,

colourless, somewhat translucent, surface smooth, sensitive to drought

as it is laid in leaf tissues.

Maggot:

FIRST INSTAR: Average of i0 maggots—Length 1:33 mm., breadth

0:35 mm., Metapneustic, white, smoothly cylindrical tapering at the

anterior end. Cephalic region with circular pits (sense organs), pair

of antennae and maxillary palpi, mouth hooks each with two teeth.

Body eleven-segmented.

SECOND INSTAR: Average of 10 maggots—Length 1:78 mm..

breadth 0:58 mm. Amphepneustic, pale yellowish, chitinized ventral

plate bearing smoky brown trophic organs.

600

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THIRD INSTAR: Average of 10 maggots—Length 3-25 mm., breadth

0-90 mm., colour somewhat brown. Enteroventral surface of head

divided into two plates, each bearing antennae and maxillary palpi.

the latter with ten sensory papillae, terminal three much longer than

the rest. Chitinous labial plate light brown.

Pupa:

Average of 10 pupae—-Length 2:09 mm., breadth 0°9 mm. Long

oval and pale yellow when fresh, attains reddish brown or dark brown

colour at the time of emergence of adult. Segments well defined,

both the anterior and posterior spiracles prominent.

Adult:

Average of 10 adults of each sex—-Length 3-2 mm. and 2:8 mm..,

breadth 9-0 mm. and 8-7 mm. of male and female respectively. Inter-

orbital space and ventral region of face yellow, two sub-equal superior

and one to two inferior orbital setae. third segment of antenna

quadrate, slightly longer, colour black. Mesonotum black with a light

grey bloom; pleural sutures narrowly vellow; femora, tibiae and tarsi

dull black; wings hyaline, halteres yellow.

Natural enemies:

During the course of the study a larval eulophid parasite, Neo-

chrysocharis sp. and a pupal braconid parasite, Opius sp. were recorded.

The extent of parasitisation by these parasites were 2 to 84% and

40% respectively.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors record their grateful acknowledgement to the Director,

Commonwealth Institute of Entomology, London, for the identification

of the parasites. We are also gratetul to Dr. R. S. Bhat, the then

Principal, Agriculture College, Gwalior. M.P. for providing facilities.

AGRICULTURE COLLEGE. A. S. KAURAVA

Gwazior, M.P.., Ss. C. ODAK

May 8, 1968. S. V. DHAMDHERE

25. A NEW HOST OF THE BRINJAL SHOOT AND FRUIT

BORER LEUCINODES ORBONALIS GUEN, AND

{TS BIOLOGY

Leucinodes orbonalis Guen. is generally considered a serious pest

of brinjal (Solanum melongena L.) in which it bores the shoots

and fruits. It has alse been recorded attacking many other plants.

602 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

We observed the pest boring the shoots and fruits of tomato

(Lycopersicum esculentum Miller) in Bhubaneswar. The infestation of

the winter crop in 1964 was 5 to 10%. As it was the first record

of Leucinodes orbonalis on tomato, it was thought worthy to study

the life history of the insect, and to compare its biology and life

history with that on the weed Solanum nigrum and on brinjal.

A large number of larvae of Leucinodes orbonalis were collected

from the field and reared to adult stage in the laboratory, in specially

designed breeding cages, containing potted brinjal plants. After

mating. the female moth laid eggs on the plant inside the cage. The

newly hatched larvae were taken from the plant by a camel hair brush

and reared on fruits of brinjal, tomato and Solanum nigrum. Newly

hatched larvae when released on the fruits, hide below the calyx by

webbing externally and then bore inte the fruits to develop inside.

As the larvae grows, it cannot accomcdate itself in the fruit of Solanum

nigrum. Therefore it comes out and webs 3-4 such fruits together

and feeds on them by remaining inside the web. Damaged fruits were

replaced from time to time, by fresh ones.

When full grown, the larvae come out of the fruit to search for

a suitable site for pupation. Such larvae were released inside 4”

diameter petri dishes loosely fitted with a plain paper base and covered

with a lid. The larvae moved below the paper base and spun cocoons

and pupated. The moths which emerged remained confined inside

the petri dish.

Newly hatched larvae bore into brinja!, tomato and Solanum nigruni

fruits in 30, 13 and 3 minutes respectively. The average length of

larval period was 12, 13 and 15 days and pupal period was 11, 11 and

10 days respectively. Variations in the growth of the insect on the

three hosts was noticed while rearing. The respective full grown

larvae measured 16:0-20:0 mm., 16-0-20:0 mm. and 10:0-13:0 mm. in

length and 2°5-4:0 mm., 2:5-3-5 mm. and 2:0-2'5 mm. in breadth.

Cocoons spun by the full grown larvae reared on brinjal and tomato

were of the same size 16:0-20-0 mm., 6:0-8-0 mm., but Cocoons from

Solanum nigrum were 8:0-10:0 mm., 3:5-4:0 mm. The length of the

pupae formed inside the respective Cocoons was 8:0-13:0 mm., 3-0-

13-0 mm. and 8-0-10:0 mm. and breadth 2-5-3-5 mm., 2:5-3-0 mm., and 2-0-

2:5 mm. Colour and texture of the Cocoons of Leucinodes orbonalis

is black and leathery on brinial, dull black, thin and papery on tomato,

and ashy, thin and papery on Solanum nigrum. Average wing expansion

of the moths from brinjal and tomato was equal— 18-0-22:0 mm.

in the male and 20-0-24-0 mm. in the female. Male and female moths

from Solanum nigrum had a wing expansion of 17:0-19:0 mm. and

17-0-20:0 mm. respectively. A difference in the fecundity of the moths

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 603

was also noticed. Female moths reared from brinjal, tomato and

Solanum nigrum laid on an average 152, 113 and 38 eggs. All the

eggs were equally viable and hatched after an incubation period of

6 days. The total life cycle of Leucinodes orbonalis Guen. on the

respective hosts was 27, 28 and 29 days. During the course of the

study the average minimum and maximum laboratory temperatures

were 79:5°F and 82:0°F and the relative humidity was 89%.

Tomato and Solanum nigrum are thus suitable alternate hosts of

the brinjal shoot and fruit borer Leucinodes orbonalis Guen. Though

the growth of the borer on Solanum nigrum is poor. However, it

completes its life cycle on this host also. Moths from Solanum nigrum

which were smaller in size with reduced wing spread laid far less eggs

in comparision to the moths from the two other hosts. This shows

that the size and vigour of the moths are correlated with their fecundity.

ORISSA COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, M. S. DAS

BHUBANESWAR, B. H. PATNAIK

July 12, 1968.

26. CHAFER BEETLE, ADORETUS SP. (COLEOPTERA:

SCARABAEIDAE) A NEW PEST ON GUAVA IN INDIA

Guava (Psidium guajava J.) is an important fruit crop in India, the

State of Uttar Pradesh being the largest grower with approximately

9,840 hectares under it and accounting roughly for over one-third of

the entire guava crop of the country (Hayes 1961). Adult Chafer

beetles Adoretus sp. (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) were recorded feeding

on its leaves in the Himalayan foothills in Uttar Pradesh. The

infestation was mainly during the monsoon season and thereafter and

the damage was fairly serious. We presume that this is the first

record of the pest on guava in India.

The adult Adoretus sp. is about 11 mm. long and light greenish-

brown in colour. They are strictly nocturnal and usually solitary.

They feed on the foliage, causing in the beginning small irregular

holes, usually starting from the middle of the infested lamina and

extending outwards towards the margin. A large number of irregular

holes 2 to 4 mm. in diameter is thus formed on the guava leaves.

Depending upon the degree of damage to the foliage. the pest reduces

the yield, and in serious cases the number of fruits is substantially

lowered.

604. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

Control Measures:

Spraying with 0:02 per cent endrin at the rate of 5 litres per

mature tree, in the early hours of the night, effectively controls the

pest. This application is recommended particularly for trees which

are not bearing. For trees bearing fruits, spraying 0-05 per cent

DDVP, i.e. 1 mi. of Nuvan 100, mixed in 2 litres of water at the

same rate is recommended.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are thankful io Dr. R. L. Paliwal, Director (Research),

Experiment Station, and Dr. N. K. Anant Rac, Dean, College of

Agriculture, U. P. Agricultural University, Pantnagar, as well as the

Director and Scientist-in-charge, Central Indian Medicinal Plants

Organization, Lucknow for their keen interest in their work. Thanks

are also due to Dr. A. P. Kapur, Director, Zoological Survey of India,

Calcutta-12, for identifying the beetle.

DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY, J. P. SINGH

COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE,

U. P. A. U., PANTNAGAR.

CENTRAL INDIAN MEDICINAI. RAJENDRA GUPTA

PLANTS ORGANIZATION (CSIR),

HALDWANI, NAINITAL (U. P.),

October 15, 1968.

27. PLIETESIAL SPECIES OF STROBILANTHINAE

(ACANTHACEAE) IN THE WESTERN GHATS (INDIA)

Biennial or perennial plant species flowering or fruiting only once

in their life-cycle are usually termed “Monocarpic’, as for instance,

Agave & Yucca. If such monocarpic species form compact communities

in a homogenous habitat with a synchronous and mass flowering

followed by fruiting and simultaneous termination of life-cycle on a

mass scale such species are usually termed as ‘Plietesials’.

Various species of bamboos are well known for their gregarious

flowering only once at the end of their life-cycle ranging from 40

years or more. A similar plietesial habit characterises certain members

of the family Acanthaceae. The term ‘plantae plietesiae’ was coined

by Bremekamp (1944) specially to describe certain species of ‘Strobilan-

thinae’ of the Acanthaceae. Clarifying the term, he writes of these

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 605

plants as follows: ‘A majority of the Strobilanthinae are monocarpic

Hes they flower but once and die when they have ripened their fruits.

Several of these are known to grow gregariously, often covering large

tracts in the undergrowth of the forest with uniform mantle of foliage

and flowering after intervals of several years simultaneously and in

profusion. Already at the time of flowering the leaves are shed and

during the comparatively long period required for the ripening of the

capsules, the naked shoots lend the site a peculiar wintry aspect, and

_as the forest so long as the plants were in flower was filled with the

humming of the bees, it is now the scene of the depredations of the

numerous frugivorous birds’. ‘As the term “perennial” is usually

reserved for polycarpic plants whose aerial parts regularly die down

and as there exists apparently no name for monocarpic plants of the

kind most often met with in the Strobilanthinae, I have introduced fcr

them in my latin descriptions the term “piantae plietesiae” 1., plants

living several years. As it seems desirable to have also a common

name for plants showing this growth form, which in tropical and sub-

tropical regions are by no means rare, I propose to call them in future

“Plietesials”.’

The flowering rhythm’ in the plietesial members is set in the following

way: the species have a vegetative phase of a fixed number of years,

characteristic to individual species. At the end of this phase, the

members of a species in a compact community flower simultaneously.

This is followed by fruit setting and dispersal of seed. All the plants

in the community then perish en masse. The seed shed by these plants

germinate during the next monsoon and start the vegetative phase,

thus completing the cycle.

Some members of the tribe Strobilanthinae are almost endemic in

Peninsular India and Ceylon and are extensively distributed in the

Western Ghats in India. The available literature, however, presents

a very scanty information as regards the life-cycles of individual species

of this group. Bremekamp (loc. cit.) states with regard to the flowering

periods of these plietesial species, that the available literature is either

incomplete or unreliable, particularly in case of genera like Nilgiri-

anthus.

The Central Bee Research ieenieate with the help of its regional

Agricultural Laboratory, Mahabsaleshwar (Maharashtra), has been

studying some of the local members of the Strobilanthinae, since 1952.

Recently these studies have been extended to its regional stations in

' Castle Rock (Mysore State) and Nilgiri and Palni (Tamilnadu) areas.

All these laboratories are fortunately located in the Western Ghats, where

a number of the plietesial Strobilanthinae are endemic. It has been

thus possible to record and confirm in successive years the flowering

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 607

rhythms of several of these species. The information from earlier

reports by various botanists, augmented by actual field observations

made by this Institute from 1952 to 1969 have been summarised in

the Table.

It will be seen from the table that in so far as it concerns the

Mahabaleshwar Plateau, the intervals between successive flowerings are

as indicated above. Though stich intervals between successive flowerings

of the species seem to be fixed, it appears that the compact communities

of the same species may flower about an year eariler or later in

different localities, while preserving, at the same time, the fixed intervals

as above. For instance, Carvia callosa and Thelepaepale ixiocephala

have flowered in Mahabaleshwar in 1968, but the same species

have flowered in 1967 at Castle Rock!. This situation possibly explains

the earlier reports of flowering of these species during consecutive

years in spite of their plietesial habit. in fact Talbot (1911, 1949) does

refer to some of the above species as annually flowering. :

In the course of his observations on some of the above species

distributed in Khandala and Mahabaleshwar, Santapau (1943, 1950,

1951, 1952, 1959, 1960, 1962 and 1967) has inferred that there might

not be any fixed rhythm with definite intervals in these species, or

When they showed such intervals, the reasons for such flowering

behaviour were obscure. He had observed more or less stray

flowering of isolated plants in successive years. Quite apart from

the stray cases, repeated observatiens at the Mahabaleshwar Laboratory

do suggest a remarkable tendency for general, synchronous, mass

flowering at fairly fixed intervals as indicated in the table.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am grateful to Dr. G. B. Deodikar, Director, Maharashtra

Association for the Cultivation of Science Research Institute, Poona-

4 and Shri C. V. Thakar, Dy. Director, Central Bee*Research Institute,

K. & V.I. Commission, Poona-4, for guidance, encouragement and

help; to Shri R. P. Phadke and Shri K. K. Kshirsagar of this Institute,

for their valuable information and help and to Shri. C. S. Bhambure,

Apiculture Institute, Mahabaleshwar, and Shri M. C. Mittal of this

Institute for help in the field.

CENTRAL BEE RESEARCH M. C. SURYANARAYANA

INSTITUTE,

839'/1 SHIVAJINAGAR,

Poona-4,

December 18, 1969.

!Barlier records of flowering which tally with the year 1967 in the | 8-year sequence

i ae in the table, were found to be from the same region : North Kanara (Talbot

9] °

608

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

REFERENCES

BREMEKAMP, C. E.B. (1944) : Materials

for a Monograph of the Strobilanthinae

(Acanthaceae). Verh. neder. Akad.

Wetensch. Afd. Nat. Tweede Sec. 41 (1):

1-306.

CooKE, TH. (1905): The Flora of the

Bombay Presidency. vol. 2, pp. 442-

449. Rep. Govt. of India, Calcutta.

FYSON, P. FP. (@1915):> The Flora “of

the Nilgiri and Pulney Hill Tops (above

6,500 ft.). vol. 1, pp. 310-314.

GAMBLE, J. S. (1924): Flora of the

Presidency of Madras. vol. 2, p. 726.

Rep. Govt. of India, Calcutta.

McCann, C. (1943): The flowering

of Strobilanthes callosus Nees. J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 44: 143-144.

Rosinson, M. E. (1935): The flower-

ing of Strobilanthes in 1934. ibid. 38:

117-122.

SANTAPAU, H. (1943): The flowering

of Strobilanthes. ibid 44 : 605-606.

(1950): The flowering of

Strobilanthes. ibid 49: 320-321.

———— (1951): The Acanthaceae of

Bombay. Univ. Bombay bot. Mem. 2.

———— (1952): The flowering “of

Strobilanthes in Khandala. J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 50 : 430-431.

——— (1959): The flowering of

Strobilanthes. ibid. 56: 677

———— (1962): Cee flower-

ing of Strobilanthes and Bamboos. ibid.

59 : 688-695.

— (1967): The Flora’ of

Khandala on the Western Ghats of

India. Rec. Bot. Surv. India 15 (1):

197-199. ;

TALBoT, W. A. (1911): Forest Flora

of Bombay Presidency and Sind. vol. 2

Govt. of Bombay, Poona.

(1949) : The trees,shrubs and

woody climbers of the Bombay Presi-

dency. 3rd edn. Govt. Photozinco-

graphic Press, Poona.

28. A NOTE ON THE TOAD RUSH, JUNCUS BUFONIUS L.

FROM INDIA

(With a plate)

Hooker (1894) described 26 species of the genus Juncus from

India. Most of them are from alpine and sub-alpine Himalayas and

Assam and a few from drier parts of India. Juncus bufonius L. has

been reported in northern India from the plains to 13,000 ft. in the

Himalayas and in the south from Madras (Gamble & Fischer 1956).

There is no report of its occurrence in any part of Western India.

The plant was recently collected by my students J. N. Patel,

K. S. Sobti and I. A. Patel from the different sites ranging from

Sadra to Sarkhej from the saline bed of River Sabarmati (Herbarium

sheet numbers 1518 dated March 2, 1970 and 659 dated February

11, 1970). The description and figures will familiarize botanical

collectors with its identity.

Juncus bufonius L.

Slender, dwarf, elegant. (Fig. 1) annual with tufts of leafy branched

fertile stems from a fibrous root-stock. Flowers markedly pro-

trandrous, in small cymes (Fig. 2). The partial inflorescence is an

J. BoMBay NAT. Hist. Soc. 67 (3)

Shah: Juncus bufonius

Fics. 1-4. Juncus bufonius L. External morphology. Fic. 1. Plant body x1.

Fic.2. Part of inflorescence x4. Fic.3. Diagram of an open flower x8. Fic. 4.

Monadelphous stamens x 25. (a, anther; br. bract ; st. stigma).

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES ~ 609

axillary raceme. Each flower subtended by a membranous bract and

two bracteoles. Perianth six lobed, the three outer lanceolate

and the three inner broadly ovate with hyaline margins. Anthers six,

two-celled, basifixed and introrse, opening lengthwise and arising

exactly opposite the perianth lobes. Filament with a single reduced

vascular- bundle and radially arranged air spaces. The cells contain

abundant starch grains. The filaments fuse at the base to form a

united structure, enabling all six anthers to be removed in one bunch.

The stamens are thus monadelphous (Fig. 4). Gynoecium tri-carpellary.

The ovary is unilocular with three parietal placentae, each bearing an

indefinite number of ovules arranged in severai irregular rows. The

placentae are fertile only at the sides but in some preparations, it

develops ovules all round. The ovarian chamber does not show a

transition from axile to parietal placentation as reported by Buchenau

(1892). The placental epidermis is glandular and consists of radially

elongated cells. The rudimentary style is capped by six stigmatic

lobes which are beset with thickly studded papillae (Fig. 3). Some

instances with only three stamens in a flower and four parietal placentae

are also met with. The fruit is a loculicidal dehiscing capsule. The

perianth segments appear glumaceous and surround the capsule.

BOTANY DEPARTMENT, : C. K. SHAH

‘GUJARAT UNIVERSITY,

AHMEDABAD-9, |

April 20, 1970.

REFERENCES

BUCHENAU, F. (1892): Uber die (1956): Flora of the Presidency of

Bestaubungs-Verhaltinisse bei den Jun- Madras, 3 Vols. Reprinted, Ed. Calcutta.

caceen. Jb. Wiss. Bot. 24: 363-424. Hooker, J.D. (1894) : Flora of British

GAMBLE, J. S. & FISCHER, C. E. C. India, VI, London.

129: THE IDENTITY OF SOLANUM KHASIANUM CL. VAR.

CHATTERJEEANUM SEN GUPTA (SOLANACEAE)

Sen Gupta (Bull. Bot. Surv. Ind. 3:412-415. 1961) established a

variety, chatterjeeanum, based on the material collected by Subra-

manyam (10413) from Nilgiris in Madras State, under Solanum khasi-

anum Cl., a species described from Khasia Hills in Assam, but, now

known to be distributed also in Burma and China (Sen Gupta, loc. cit.

413); distinguished from the tvpical variety by not less than eight

characters which are more or less constant; and stated further that

intermediates often do occur.

610 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

In the course of studies on the flora of Dehra Dun, I collected

specimens of a Solanum from plants growing in waste places near habita-

tional sites, which are rightly comparable to the specimens identified

and described as Solanum khasianum Cl. var. chatterjeeanum Sen

Gupta. But a critical study of the specimens with the help of Dunal’s

monographic account of the genus (in DC. Prodr. 13:240-241. 1852),

however, reveals that these specimens belong to a species of southern

Brazil, namely SOlanum viarum Dunal, the identity of which was

confirmed by Mr. C. V. Morton of Smithsonian Institution, Washington,

D.C. (personal communication). Further study on the type of Solanum

khasianum Cl. var. chatterjeeanum Sen Gupta proves beyond doubt

that §. khasianum var. chatterjeeanum is nothing but S. viarum Dunal,

which might have been accidentally introduced into India during late

thirties or early forties of this century. Therefore, $. khasianum Cl.

var. chatterjeeanum Sen Gupta should be treated as a synonym of

S. viarum Dunal, the correct name for this S. American species now

naturalized in various parts of India. The relevant synonymy and

references are as follows:

Solanum viarum Dunal in DC. Prodr. 13:240. 1852.

§. khasianum Cl. var. chatterjeeanum Sen Gupta in Bull. Bot. Surv.

Ind. 3:412-415. 1961, syn. nov.; Maity in Journ. Bomb. nat. Hist.

Soc.62 7323-327, 196s:

Sen Gupta (loc. cit.) was right in ascertaining its affinity to S.

khasianum Cl. among the Indian species, though distinguished from

S. khasianum by eight characters. There is no doubt that among

the Indian species of Solanum, S. viarum Dunal is very closely allied

to S. khasianum Cl. which is also probably of S. American origin, but

the two taxa can be distinguished by the following differences which

are tabulated below:

S. viarum Dunal

1. Stem, petioles, pedicels and caly-

ces patently short-hairy with dirty white or

greyish-white 0°03-0°04 (-0.05) cm. long,

gland-hairs mixed with a smaller number of

0:01 cm. long glandular hairs.

2. Stem aculeate with stout compres-

sed hooked or strongly recurved 0°4-0°5

(-0°7) cm. long prickles mixed with short

straight slender 0°2-0°25 cm. long prickles.

3. Leaves sinuate—lobed with ovate

triangular subobtuse or subacute lobes,

softly glandular—tomentose mixed with a

smaller number of stellate hairs on the

lower surface.

S. khasianum Cl.

Stem, petioles, pedicels and calyces

patently long-hairy with yellowish-

brown or greyish-brown 0°3-0°5 cm. long

glandular hairs mixed with a_ few

0:15 cm. long gland hairs.

Stem aculeate with straight or slightly

curved unequal prickles.

Leaves pinnatilobed to-fid with ovate—

lanceolate, acute lobes, pilose with long

simple hairs on the upper surface, pubes-

cent beneath with long simple hairs

mixed with a smaller number of stellate

hairs,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 61!

4. Calyx aculeate, lobes 0'17-0°2 (-0°25) Calyx unarmed or aculeate, lobes

cm. long during anthesis. 0°7-0°8 cm. long during anthesis.

5. Corolla-lobes lanceolate, acuminate. Corolla—lobes ovate lanceolate, sub-

acute.

6. Ovary pubescent. Ovary glabrous.

7, Seeds 0°22-0'25 cm. across. Seeds 0°3-0°32 cm. across.

It is very difficult to ascertain how, where and when it gained

foothold on Indian Soil, but the fact that it has not been included

in any of the standard Indian floras coupled with the non-existence of

collections prior to 1938, suggests its introduction during World War II,

probably along with some imported articles. As far as I am aware,

this plant has not been reported from Asia and, hence this may be

the first record of its appearance in Asiatic mainland. It is now

widely naturalized in Assam, W. Bengal, Bihar, Orissa, Madras and

Uttar Pradesh in India and also in Sikkim.

Specimens examined:

INDIA: Madras. Nilgiri Dt., Devarshola, alt. 1075 m., Subramanyam

10413 (A-holotype of S. khasianum Cl. var. chatterjeeanum Sen Gupta

—(CAL). Uttar Pradesh. Dehra Dun, Hathibarkla near Bindal-bridge,

C. R. Babu 34694 (BSD, CAL).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author wishes to express his grateful thanks to Mr. C. V4

Morton, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. for confirming the

identity of this plant and to Dr. §. K. Mukherjee for his encouragement

and valuable suggestion in the preparation of this paper.

CENTRAL NATIONAL HERBARIUM, C. R. BABU

HOWRAH-3,

December 29, 1969.

30. LINDERNIA ANGUSTIFOLIA (BENTH.) WETTST.

(SCROPHULARIACEAFE)—A NEW RECORD

FOR SOUTH INDIA

(With a _ plate)

Lindernia Allioni, at present containing, as currently accepted, the

genera Vandellia L., Bonnaya Link and Otto. and Ilysanthes Rafin.

was hitherto known to have only twenty representative species in south

India. Lindernia angustifolia (Benth.) Wettst., found by the author

612 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL GIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

to occur widely in paddy fields at Punalur, Kerala State, is an

addition to the south Indian representatives of Lindernia All.

Though Rev. Dr. Cecil J. Saldanha of St. Joseph’s College, Bangalore,

has collected this plant from Puttur, South Kanara, Mysore and

Ettakote, Cannanore, Kerala and described it in his Ph.D thesis en-

titled “Taxonomic Revision of the Scrophulariaceae of the Western

Peninsular India’ (Vol. I, Pages 40, 165, 193-195; Vol. IT, Part II, Plate

33) submitted to the University of Bombay in 1963, there is no published

record of this plant for south India. This species has so far been

reported in India only from the subtropical Himalayas, Kumaon,

Sikkim, Chota Nagpur, Assam, Bengal and the Khasia mts. (Hooker,

FLORA OF BRITISH INDIA 4:282-283. 1885 and S. K. Mukherjee: ‘A

Revision of the Indo-Burmesz species of Lindernia Allioni’ in Journ.

Indian. Bot. Soc. 24: 127-134. 1945). -.

Fresh specimens of Lindernia angustifolia (Benth.) Wettst, were

first collected by the author from Punalur in November 1968 and

preserved in the Herbarium, Sree Narayana College, Quilon, Kerala

State. It was found growing in paddy fields along with other species

of Lindernia namely L. pusilla (Willd.) Boldingh., L. anagallis (Burm.

f.) Pennell. and L. hysscpicides (L.) Haines. escription and sketches

given here are based on fresh specimens. |

Lindernia angustifolia (Benth.) Wettst. Diffuse or sparsely branched

glabrous annual aquatic herbs. Stem erect, sometimes rooting at the

lower nodes, succulent or slender, 4 gonous, up to 55 cm. long. Leaves

opposite, sessile, exstipulate, linear-oblong to linear-lanceolate with a

retuse tip, glabrous, rather thick, entire or obscurely toothed, mid vein

impressed above, lateral veins obscure, to 3:5 cm. long and 8 mm.

broad. Flowers solitary, axillary, long pedicelled and ebracteolate;

sepals 5, free to the base, linear-lanceolate, glabrous with obscurely.

toothed margin, 3 to 5 mm. long; fruiting sepals about 1/3 as long

as the capsule; corolla 2 lipped, 8 to 12 mm. long, 35 to 5 mm.

wide at the mouth, yellow towards the base, pink brown in the

middle, white towards the lobes, with an yellow round blotch on the

palate, glandular hairy outside, glabrous within; tube cylindric; upper

lip 2 fid lower larger, broader, spreading and 3 lobed, lobes imbricate;

stamens 4, all perfect, 2 posterior with appendaged anthers inside the

tube, 2 anterior in the throat of the corolla, the glabrous filament

having a linear blunt appendage towards the base, anthers divergent,

connivent in pairs; ovary — 2 mm. long, + 1 mm. broad glabrous

with a small yellowish cupular gland mostly waiting on the posterior

side, ovules many, style slender, glabrous + 3 mm. long, stigma

prominent, 2 lamellate. Capsule linear, septicidal, 1 to 1-5 cm. long

J. Bompay naT. Hist. Soc. 67 (3)

Ravi: Lindernia angustifolia

1. Plant. 2. Flower. 3. Sepal. 4. Corolla cut open showing stamens.

5. Gynoecium. 6. Fruit. 7. Seed.

J. BomBAy NAT. Hist. Soc. 67 (3)

Das & Pramanik: Chrysanthemum leucanthemum

, _ Chrysanthemum leucanthemum Linn. — ,

A. habit; B. disk flower; C. disk flower split open; D. anther; E. marginal flower.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES . , 693

and 2:5 mm. wide with the pedicel equalling or exceeding the leaves:

Seeds many, small and rugose.

. Lindernia angustifolia (Benth.) Wettst. is very similar to L. ana-

eallis (Burm. f) Pennell. in floral structure, the flowers being quite in-

distinguishable. -But the latter can be easily identified by its pro-

cumbent stem, rooting at nodes and shortly petiolate, ovate, obscurely

crenate, toothed, leaves.

I am grateful to Rev. Dr. Cecil J. Saldanha who helped i in. pre-

paring this note. I thank the Regional Botanist, Southern Circle,

Botanical Survey of India, Coimbatore, for information on the south

Indian species of Lindernia All.

DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY, N. RAVI

SREE NARAYANA COLLEGE,

QUILON, KERALA STATE,

S. TNDIA,

December 30, 1969.

31. A NOTE ON CHRYSANTHEMUM LEUCAN-

THEMUM LINN. (ASTERACEAE)

(With a plate)

During the floristic survey of Darjeeling district in May, 1966,

we came across some Specimens of Chrysanthemum leucanthemum Linn.

(Compositae), growing in Senchal lake area. The original habitat of

this species as recorded by Linnaeus (1753) is Europe; A. Gray

(1884) noted in from North America, which was corroborated by Gleason

(1963). Raizada (1959) first listed this species from Mussoorie in the

Indian sub-continent, followed by Gupta (1967). Our collection. from.

Darjeeling district extends its distributional area to Eastern Himalayas.

As the description of this plant is not available in Indian Floras, the

diagnostic characters and a plate is provided to facilitate identification.

Chrysanthemum leucanthemum Linn. Sp. Pl. 2:888. 1753; Gray;

Synopt. Fl. North America 1:2:365. 1884; Raizada in Indian For.

85:679. 1959; Gleason, Illus. Fl North. U.S. & Adj. Canada 3:385.

1963; Gupta, Seasn. Fl. Ind. Summ. Res. Mussoorie Hills 137. 1967.

Erect or decumbent, ascending, perennial herbs, with a rhizomatous

root-stock, 30-60 cm. tall. Stems simple or branched. Basal leaves

long-petioled, obovate-spathulate, rounded or obtuse at apex, higher

ones sessile with a narrowed, semi-amplexicaul base, ovate-oblanceolate

or lanceolate-oblong, obtuse or rounded at apex, dentate to pinnati

614 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

lobed-pinnatifid, glabrate or glandular-hairy, becoming smaller upwards.

Heads terminal, solitary, on 3-5 cm. long peduncles; involucral bracts

3-seriate, membranous, lanceolate-oblong, scarious-margined, often

suffused with reddish-brown, obtuse, 0-3-0:-5 cm. long; marginal flowers

ligules; disk flowers 2 0.4-0.5 cm. long, with yellow, 3-lobed,

tubular corollas; achenes terete, 10-ribbed, glabrous; pappus wanting

or of a crown-like membranous rim in marginal achenes; receptacle

flat, slightly raised, pitted, glabrous, 0-5-0-6 cm. across.

Specimens examined:

West Bengal, Darjeeling, Senchal Lake, 22.5.66, D. Das 135 (CAL);

N.W. Himalayas, Mussoorie, Happy valley, 17.5.58, J. C. Sen Gupta

2012, (CAL).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We are grateful to Sri S. P. Banerjee, Botanist, Central National

Herbarium, for his valuable advice.

CENTRAL NATIONAL HERBARIUM, (Miss) DEBIKA DAS

Howrau-3, BHABESH PRAMANIK

August 11, 1969.

32. NEW DISTRIBUTIONAL RECORDS FOR COASTAL

PLANTS FROM ANDHRA PRADESH

During ecological studies on the vegetation of coastal Andhra Pradesh,

Aeluropus lagopoides (L.) Trin. ex Thw., Ipomoea tuba (Schlit.) G. Don

and Trianthema triquetra Rottl. ex Willd. were collected which have not

been recorded earlier from Andhra Pradesh. The specimens cited below

are deposited in CAL.

Aeluropus lagopoides (L.) Trin. ex Thw.

Gamble (Fl. Madras Pres. 3 : 1276, repr. ed. 1957) reports the occur-

rence of this species along both the coasts, without mentioning precise

localities. Recently, Rao & Mukherjee (1965) reported this species as

a new record from Midnapore and Kakadwip coasts in West Bengal.

The occurrence of this species in alkaline area in the backshore of

Kakinada and Uppada in the coastal Andhra Pradesh is of interest.

These collections from the eastern coast of India indicate that this saline

grass is now more widespread in eastern coast than previously recorded,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 615

It thus points out the earlier range of distribution of this species along the

eastern coast of India.

Kakinada: 2.10.69, T. A. Rao 7266 ; Uppada : 5.10.69, 7. A. Rao

7324.

Ipomoea tuba (Schlecht.) G. Don

The occurrence of this species in south India was first recorded from

Rameshwaram Island (Rao 1964). The present report of this species

from Coringa tidal forests in A.P. not only extends the range of distri-

bution of this species further north along the east coast, but also links

up its distribution between Sundarbans and Rameshwaram Island,

suggesting its possible occurrence in the tidal forests of Mahanadi

estuaries in Orissa State.

Coringa tidal forest: 3.10.69, 7. A. Rao 7287.

An extensive climber in the tidal forest ; usually abundant where the

brackish water influence is less.

Trianthema triquetra Rottl. ex Willd.

Gamble (FI. Madras Pres. 1 : 389, repr. ed. 1957) records the occur-

rence of this species in the coastal districts of Carnatic from Sriharikota

(near Pulicat Lake) southwards, and inland up to Coimbatore. Rao

et al. (1967), reported this species as a new record for Kakadwip, in

West Bengal. The present report of this species from coastal Andhra

Pradesh extends its distributional range into a new area.

Uppada: 5.10.69, 7. A. Rao 7316.

A fairly common herb with many prostrate branches growing on

loamy soil in the backshore.

BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, T. ANANDA RAO

76, ACHARYA JAGADISH BOSE ROAD, A. R. K. SASTRY

CALCUTTA-14,

May 18, 1970.

REFERENCES

Rao, T. A. (1964) : Ipomoea tuba (Schle- Midnapur coast in West Bengal State.

cht) G. Don from Rameswaram Island— Curr. Sci. 34: 589-590.

a new distributional record for South ——., BaAnerseEE, L. K. &

India. Bull. bot. Surv. India 6 : 307. MUKHERJEE, A. K. (1967) : Some plant

——— & MUKHERJEE, A. K.(1965): — records for. West Bengal. Sci. & Cult.

Distribution of some plants along 23-125,

616) JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST. -SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

33, FAMILY COMMELINACEAE IN-KOLHAPUR AND

ITS ENVIRONS |

In spite of the luxuriant vegetation of Kolhapur and its environs only

stray references are found to the plants of this region in the regional and

Indian floras and hence it was decided to revise the different flowering

plant families of this region. The work was initiated in 1967 and by now

members of Commelinaceae, Eriocaulaceae and Cyperaceae have been

fully revised and others are under investigation.

This note gives an account of the family Commelinaceae found in

Kolhapur and surrounding places like Pahnala, Gagan bavada,

Radhanagari and Katyayani.. The. different species collected are being

grown in the departmental garden to follow the morphological changes.

if any, undergone by these under uniform conditions of cultivation.

The identification and nomenclatural changes are confirmed by consult-

ing herbarium of B.S.I., Western circle,. Poona... The herbarium speci-

mens and carpological collections are deposited in the herbarium ou

Shivaji University, Botany Department, Kolhapur.

The family is represented by 17 taxa belonging to four genera and

15 species in this region. The details of the species collected are

as follows. (numbers given in brackets refer to herbarium specimens

deposited in the University herbarium).

Cyanotis tuberosa (Roxb.) Schult. f. Common in grasslands of

Kolhapur (256), Pahnala (500) and Gagan bavada (670). June-October.

C. concanensis Hassk.. (C. sahyadrica Blatter) Gagan bavada (675,

676), along slopes of fort. July-September.

C. cristata (L.). Don. Marshy places in Kolhapur (259) and Pahnala

(510). July-September. x! 3

C. fasciculata (Heyne ex Roth.) Schult.f. On moist rocks -in-

Kolhapur (261), Pahnala (512) and Radhanagari (710). August-

September.

| C, fasciculata (Heyne ex Roth.) Schult.f. var. glabrescens C.B. Cl.

Pahnala (514) on moist rocks. August-September.

Amischophacelus axillaris (Linn.) Rolla Rao et Kammathy (Cyanotis

axillaris (L.) Roem. and Schultz.) Common in moist black soils and rice

fields in Kolhapur (265) and Kagal (268). July-October.

A. cucullata (Roth.) Rolla Rao et Kammathy (Cyanotis cucullata

(Roth.) Kunth.). Moist shady places in Kolhapur (271, 275). July-

October.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 617

Murdannia semiteres (Dalz.) Santapau. -Along road sides and moist

places in Kolhapur (278), Katyayani (280) and Pahnala (520). July-

September.

M. nudiflora (L.) Brenan. Common in moist places and marshy

areas of Kolhapur (282), Pahnala (516) and Gagan bavada (678). July-

September.

M. nudiflora var. compressa C.B.Cl. Flowers rose coloured. Gagan

bavada (679, 680), along with M. nudiflora.

M. spirata (L.) Bruckn. Common in moist soils of Kolhapur (284),

Katyayani (286), Pahnala (518), Gagan bavada (685, 686) and Phonda

ghats (850). July-September.

M. loriformis (Hassk.) Rolla Rao et Kammathy. An undergrowth in

forests and grass lands of Radhanagari (712, 715). August-September.

Commelina benghalensis Linn. Common in fields, along canals and

bundhs in Kolhapur (289), Katyayani (291), Kagal (293) and Pahnala

(520). June-October.

C. forskalaei Vahl. Weed in fields. Kolhapur (295), Katyayani

(297) and Pahnala (522). duly; Oeveber.

C. hasskarlii C.B. Cl. Common in marshes of pools, ponds and are

of Kolhapur (300) and Kagal Lake (305). June-March.

C. subulata Roth. Weed of rice fields and other marshes. Kolhapur

(310, 312). July-August.

C. undulata R. Br. (C. Kurzii C.B. Cl.) Pahnala (525, 527), in grass-

lands and forest floors along with grasses. July-October.

During this study along with the normal blue flowered plants of

Murdannia spirata those bearing scarlet coloured flowers (petals) were

also collected from Gagan bavada. ‘The two populations of this species

grew together at Gagan bavada. The two types are being cultivated

separately for the last three years and they have maintained the distinct-

ness in their flower colour. Plants with blue flowers have all the fila-

ments bearded, whereas those with scarlet flowers have filaments of only

fertile stamens bearded.

Underground cleistogamous. flowers are recorded in Commelina

forskalaei by Barnes (1946) and Maheshwari & Maheshwari (1955).

Repeated collections of the plants of this species from different localities

of Kolhapur did not reveal the presence of such flowers. Probably, as

Maheshwari & Baldev (1958) have pointed out, a number of external

factors, particularly the water content of the soil in which the plants grow,

618 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

might be determining the production of cleistogamous flowers in this

species.

The authors are thankful to Rolla Seshagiri Rao, Regional Botanist,

B.S.I., Western circle, Poona for his help in confirmation of the identi-

fication of many species.

BOTANY DEPARTMENT,

SHIVAJI UNIVERSITY,

KOLHAPUR,

March 30, 1970.

A. R. KULKARNI

P. V. MUDGAL

REFERENCES

BARNES, E. (1946) : Some observations

on South Indian Commelinas ; Two new

species of Commelina from South India.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 46 (1) : 70-89.

lina forskalaei Vahl and C. benghalensis

L. Phytomorphology 5 (4) : 413-422.

MAHESHWARI, S. C. & BALDEV, B.

(1958): A contribution.to the morpho-

logy and embryology of Commelina

forskalaei Vahl. Phytomorphology 8

(3, 4) : 277-297.

MAHESHWARI, P. & MAHESHWARI, J.

K. (1955): Floral dimorphism in Comme-

34. SOME INTERESTING PLANTS FROM LUCKNOW AND

ITS NEIGHBOURHOOD

Kapoor (1962) published a comprehensive list of plants of Lucknow

District in an endeavour to revise Anderson’s (1859) catalogue. Later

Sharma (1964) supplemented Kapootr’s list by recording 13 more plants.

The present paper includes some more species gathered at Lucknow or

its neighbourhood. A few of these, like Ambrosia artemisifolia Linn.

and Dichrocephala latifolia DC. are particularly noteworthy from their

distribution and occurrence in the Upper Gangetic Plain. The speci-

mens are lodged in the herbarium of the National Botanic Gardens,

Lucknow.

1. Acanthospermum australe (Linn.) O. Kuntze (A. hispidum DC.).

Compositae.

Butler Palace Compound, Ram Singh 2286; University, D. D.

Awasthi 2929.

It was reported as a new record for Upper Gangetic Plain from

Ajmer-Merwara by Raizada & Sharma (1962) and one of our sheets

(Awasthi 2929) was incidentally cited by them. It is now being observed

to be getting more and more frequent within this area and has perfectly

established itself.

The identity and nomenclature of this plant needs correction. The plant is

Acanthospermum hispidum DC. Prodr. 5 : 522, 1836; but this is not A. hispidum auct.

e.g. Blake in Contrib. U.S. Nat. Herb. 1921, which is identical with A. australe (L.)

O. Kuntze. The plant found in many parts of India is A. hispidum DC., and not A

australe (L.) O.K.—EDS.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 619

2. Amaranthus hybridus Linn. subsp. cruentus (L.) Thell. var. paniculatus

(L.) Thellung (A. paniculatus Linn.). Amaranthaceae.

Lucknow, Hira Lal 9596 ; Near garden Well, S. L. Kapoor 20461.

It is commonly cultivated in gardens, parks and private houses and

is seen frequently as an escape.

3. Ambrosia artemisifolia Linn. Compositae.

Daliganj, Hira Lal 99050.

Panigrahi & Kar (1966) recorded it as a new find for India from

Khasi & Jaintia Hills, Assam. As far as the authors know it has not so

far been recorded for the Upper Gangetic Plain.

4. Atylosia platycarpa Benth. Papilionaceae.

Kursi Road, U.S. Misra 4848 ; Garden compound, Ram Nath 51492.

Duthie (1903, Vol. 1, p. 213) recorded it only from Saharanpur and

Saugor.

5. Centaurium roxburghii (G. Don) Druce (Erythraea roxburghii G.

Don). Gentianaceae.

Reported by Anderson (1859), excluded by Kapoor (1962). This

collection confirms its occurrence.

6. Clerodendrum inerme Gaertn. Verbenaceae.

Lucknow, P. C. Kanjilal s.n.

It is cultivated and is occasionally an escape.

7. Dichrocephala latifolia DC. Compositae.

Kursi, K.M. Balapure & Party 89120.

Our specimen was collected just outside the administrative boundary

of Lucknow District ; it is included here as Duthie recorded it only from

Dehra Dun.

8. Glossogyne bidens (Retz.) Alst. (G. pinnatifida DC.). Compositae.

Barkhurdarpur Tehrwa, S. L. Kapoor & Party 42358. This was re-

ported by Anderson (1859) but was kept as doubtful by Kapoor (1962).

9. Leucas urticaefolia R. Br. Labiatae.

Banthra, U.S. Misra 2828.

It is rare in our area.

10. Lindernia anagallis (Burm.) Penn. (Bonnaya veronicaefolia Spr.).

Scrophulariaceae.

Near Kukrail Reserved Forests, Hira Lal & Janki Prasad 24281.

Anderson (1859) recorded it from Lucknow but Kapoor (1962) kept

it as doubtful. It does occur here in moist situations.

620 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

11. Swietenia mahagoni Jacq. Meliaceae.

Shivaji Marg, S. Ibrahim Husain 65698; Trilok Nath Marg, S.

Ibrahim Husain 76687.

Cultivated on roadsides.

12. Trifolium alexandrinum Linn. Papilionaceae.

Near Bhadruk, Ram Singh 399.

It is cultivated in the suburbs of Lucknow and is frequently seen as an

escape near cultivated area.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are thankful to the Director, National Botanic Gardens, Lucknow

for herbarium facilities and to Dr. L. D. Kapoor for going through the

manuscript.

NATIONAL BOTANIC GARDENS,

LUCKNOW,

November 4, 1969.

S. IBRAHIM HUSAIN

S. L. KAPOOR

REFERENCES

ANDERSON, T. (1859): Notes on the

flora of Lucknow with catalogues of the

cultivated and indigenous plants. J. As.

Soc. Bengal 28 (2): 89-120.

Durtuie, J. F. (1903-1911): Flora of

the Upper Gangetic Plain and of the

adjacent Siwalik and Sub-Himalayan

Tracts. Calcutta.

Kapoor, S. L. (1962) : On the botany

of Lucknow District. J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 59: 862-896.

PANIGRAHI, G. &. Kar, S. K. (1966) :

The family Compositae in Assam and

North East Frontier Agency. Bull.

bot. Surv. India 8 : 229.

RAIZADA, M. B. & SHARMA, V. S.

(1962) : New plant records for the Upper

Gangetic Plain from Ajmer-Merwara.

Indian For. 88 : 364.

SHARMA, P. C. (1964): A note on the

flora of Lucknow District. Bull. bot.

Surv. India. 6: 101.

35. A RICH, BUT LITTLE KNOWN COLLECTION OF

INDIAN PLANTS IN U.S.S.R.

During a recent visit to the U.S.S.R., I visited the Botanical Institute

of the Academy of Sciences of Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic, .at

Kiev. There is a large herbarium (KW) attached to this institute, with

about one million sheets and believed to be one of the biggest herbaria

in U.S.S.R. |

The herbarium is rich in Ukrainian plants. In addition to the general

herbarium, there are some old collections which have, so far, been kept

separate as special herbaria. Notable among these are the herbaria of

‘N. S. Turczaninow, I. F. Schmalhausen, A. S. Rogowicz, W. S. J. G.

Besser and J. E. Gilibert. | , ef

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 621

Turezaninow’s (1796-1864) herbarium is very rich in Indian plants,

and I believe, it is the second biggest collection of Indian plants in the

U.S.S.R. ; next only to the herbarium of the Komarov Botanical Institute

at Leningrad (LE).

The Turczaninow herbarium is reported to have about 52,000 speci-

mens, comprising several thousand species.

The collections in this herbarium are mostly of the nineteenth century.

They are listed in a catalogue which runs into three bound volumes. It

was prepared about 100 years ago, and much of it was written by

Turcezaninow himself. The species are listed more or less according to

De Candolle’s system of classification. The grasses are listed in volume

3, pages 194-277. The catalogue, however, seems to be incomplete.

The collection is remarkably rich in Wallichian specimens ; and for

some genera examined by me, more or less complete series was present.

As I had only limited time at my disposal, I could consult material of

only a few grass genera of the Rottboellineae, Maydeae, and Chlorideae.

The following Wallichian specimens were present in the tribe Rottboel-

lineae :—

Wallichian Catalogue numbers: 8868, 8869, (A, B), 8870 (C),

8871 (D, E, F), 8872, 8873 (B), 8874 (B, C), 8875 (E, F, G), 8876, 8877

(B, C), 8879 (B, E, F, H), 8880 (B, C). That is, except 8878, all numbers

from 8868 to 8880 were present. In the Maydeae, I found 8623 (A, E,

F, G, H and K), 8624 (C, E, F, G), 8625, 8627 (A), and 8630 (D).

This abundance of Wallichian sheets suggests that the set was perhaps

received here from an institution where the Wallichian material was first

made into sets and distributed.

Other collectors, whose material seems to be present in large numbers

are: W. Griffith, (Assam, etc.), B. Heyne (India orientalis), R. F,

Hohenacker (PI. India Or., S. India-Nilgiris), J. D. Hooker (Khasia, etc.),

G. S. Perrottet (Nilgiris), T. Thomson (Punjab, Mysore, Carnatic,

Nilgiris) and R. Wight (India Or., Bihar, etc.).

These are all unmounted specimens, kept loose on sheets or between

blotting sheets with their labels lying loose on sheets. All the folders,

that I saw, had material of one species within one folder ; but in several

cases, collections of one species from different localities, (even from

different countries) were kept within one folder. As the specimens are un-

mounted, and the labels are loose in the folders, there is a chance of error

by mixing of labels. The folders are about 60 x45 cm., i.e. much larger

than usual species or genus covers (which are about 4428 cm.). The

sheets inside the folders vary from normal size (441 x 26 cm.) to very

large (+ 56x40 cm.). The specimens are generally in good condition.

Turczaninow was a senior officer in Siberia and held administrative

posts. He travelled very widely, and also sent his junior officers on tours

to different parts of the country, and obtained plant specimens through

622 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

them. Turczaninow had wide exchange relations and received speci-

mens from different parts of the world, and in exchange, he sent plants of

Siberia, Ukraine, and other regions of Russia. He was a keen naturalist

and had published many botanical works, among ihem the ‘ Flora

of Baikal’ is well known in the U.S.S.R. and outside. He had described

many new taxa of plants, some of these occur in India, namely Zizania

latifolia Turcz. and Stipa mongholica Turcz.

After retirement, Turczaninow went to Kharkhov, and gave all his

collections to the herbarium there. He spent all his pension in purchase

and exchange of specimens.

Dr. A. I. Barbarycz who is in charge of the herbarium said that in

1943, during the Second World War, the Nazi armies took away the entire

herbaria from various institutions in Ukraine to some place in east

Germany and that after the war, they were recovered from Poznan, in

Poland. When the material was located, much of it was in very bad condi-

tion, even soaked in water and about one hundred bundles were so wet

that they had to be abandoned. These were mosily Ukrainian plants.

The material was broughi to Kiev, and since then, it has stayed there.

The collection is very valuable to Indian botanists and the material

has remained practically untouched for more than a century. The

Russian scientist Prof. Bobrovto offered to try to arrange to send speci-

mens on study loan if desired.

The scientists at the institute at Kiev are busy with the preparation of

Flora of the Republic, and other routine work, and have not been able to

give attention to the Indian material. They plan to mount those speci-

mens and if possible keep a separate Indian section in the herbarium.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am grateful to Dr. A. I. Barbarycz for facilities of working in the

Kiev herbarium, and to other botanists who made themselves available

for discussion. I am grateful to the Academy of Sciences of U.S.S.R. ;

Director, Botanical Survey of India; and the Ministry of Education,

Government of India, for giving me the opportunity of visiting the

U.S.S.R. under the Indo-Soviet Scientific and Cultural Exchange

Programme.

BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, S. K. JAIN

CALCUTTA,

December 4, 1969.

AN APPEAL

WORLD WILDLIFE FUND

Indian Nationai Appeal

Perhaps one of the most conspicuous lacks of the conservation set-up

of this country has been that there was no channel, so far, through which

a layman could involve himself in the conservation movement, even if he

wanted to. The most he could do was to persuade a friend to subscribe

to the Journal. As a result, we have had a growing body of people

(including members of the Society) who have an urgent concern for

natural life, and would like to help in its preservation, but are powerless

to do so, short of becoming ecologists themselves.

The Indian National Appeal of the World Wildlife Fund offers an

opportunity to the layman for more personal involvement in the country’s

conservation programmes. The WWE which is primarily concerned with

raising money, for specific conservation projects, has its headquarters at

Morges, Switzerland, and operates through ‘ National Appeals’ (fund-

raising organisations) in various countries. National Appeals are already

in operation in Britain, U.S., Germany, Austria, Italy, S. Africa and some

other countries. The money raised by these Appeals is largely used for

wildlife projects in the country of origin. The projects can be anything

from ecological surveys and park management to setting up a chair for

conservation in a university. From 1962 to 1967, over $79,500 were

raised by the WWF altogether, to support 183 different projects, the

world over.

The Indian National Appeal was launched in New Delhi in November

1969 at the occasion of the IUCN General Assembly. His Highness the

Maharaja of Baroda is the International Trustee, and Zafar Futehally is

the Honorary Secretary.

Our object, of course, is only to raise money and then try to make sure

that we grant it to the most urgent causes in the nature conservation field.

Our first project is a survey of the Great Indian Bustard by Shri R. S.

Dharmakumarsinhji, which should lead to the creation of a sanctuary

for this bird by the Gujarat Govt. We have already produced a pamphlet

on the bird written by Shri Dharmakumarsinhji, which is available on

request.

Examples of other projects supported by WWE International or the

Indian Appeal are: a breeding programme for the Swamp Deer in

Kanha National Park; a study of the White-Winged Wood Duck

624. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

in Assam, which would lead to protection measures; a similar

study of the Nilgiri Tahr ; a snake park for Madras ; and a bridge for a

Sanctuary in Nepal.

The response from business houses to the Appeal, so far, has been

most encouraging. The Tata Group has given us Rs. 30,000 guaranteed

for two years, Godrej and Co. have furnished our office at Hornbill

House free of charge, Imperial Chemicals (India) have donated Rs. 10,000

a year for five years, and Selvel have donated hoardings. Various other

companies have sponsored literature etc.

We are of course anxious for individual donations, which can be sent

to the World Wildlife Fund, Hornbill House, Shahid Bhagat Singh Road,

Bombay 1. Youcan also help greatly becoming a Member of the Appeal.

The fee is Rs. 10 annually and it entitles you to receive our Newsletter

and other literature regularly. ;

HONORARY SECRETARY

World Wildlife Fund

Indian National Appeal.

ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY

SOCIETY FOR THE YEAR 1969-70

EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE

President

Dr. P. V. Cherian, Governor of Maharashtra

Vice-Presidents

Major-General Sir Sahib Singh Sokhey, 1.M.s. (Retd.)

Dr. Salim Ali, D.Sc., F.N.1I.

Rev. Fr. H. Santapau, s.J.

Hon. Secretary ex-officio

Mr. Zafar Futehally

Hon. Treasurer

Mr. J. D. Kapadia, I.c.s. (Retd.)

Member

Secretary, Ministry of Education, Govt. of India

Elected Members

Mr. Humayun Abdulali

Mr. G. V. Bedekar, I.c.s. (Retd.)

Prof. P. V. Bole

Mr. S. Chaudhuri

Mr. R. E. Hawkins

Dr. C. V. Kulkarni, M.sc., Ph.p.

Mr. Duleep Maithai

Dr. A. N. D. Nanavati, M.D.

Mr. D. J. Panday

Mr. D. E. Reuben, I.c.s. (Retd.)

ADVISORY COMMITTEE

Mr. H.G. Acharya .. 4 Me .. Ahmedabad

Mrs. Jamal Ara ef. asi H, .. Ranchi

Mr. F. C. Badhwar, O.B.E. } .. New Delhi

Sir Chintaman Deshmukh, Kt., C.1.E., I.C.s. (Retd,) .. Hyderabad

Mr. A. K. Ghosh, I.Cc.s. (Retd.) sit .. New Delhi

Mr. M. Krishnan .. ne a, .. Madras

Mr. M. J. S. Mackenzie 4 hes .. Assam

Dr. N. K. Panikkar, M.A., D.Sc., F.N.I. i .. New Delhi

Mr. P. D. Stracey, 1.F.s. 9 af .. New Delhi

626 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

HONORARY SECRETARY’S REPORT FOR THE YEAR 1969

MEMBERSHIP |

The total of the Ordinary Membership which had shown a tendency

to remain more or less static near 700 showed a small but encouraging

increase during the year. The total membershipin good standing on our

December 1968 is given below :

1968 1969

Life Members ae es 151 163

Ordinary members 2 ie 677 823

Forest Department Nominees he 63 68

Student Members eK ae 1 4

Honorary Members ae at 2 2

894 1060

In addition, we have to receive subscription from 148 ordinary

members. Efforts are being made to persuade them to continue their

membership. The meagre membership of the Society is perhaps a

reflection of the general apathy towards nature in this country. The

Society’s membership is in effect a barometer of the interest it has been

able to create among educated people, and there is large scope for en-

rolling new members. Our existing members must play a part in this

sphere. During the year 102 members joined as against 23 resignations

and 5 deaths.

THE SOCIETY’S PUBLICATIONS

Journal: Three numbers of the Journal were published during the

year: Vol. 65(3) and Vol. 66 Nos. 1 and 2. The 717 pages include 8

articles each on birds and botany, 10 on invertebrates other than in-

sects, 6 on mammals, 4 on insects, 2 on fishes and one on wildlife. The

90 Miscellaneous Notes covered all aspects of Natural History.

Among the articles, it is difficult to pick out any as particularly out-

standing. However, some from the subjects which they discussed, were

of unusual interest. Instances are: ‘The Birds of Sind’ by J. O. Wright

& D. A. Holmes which reviews the status of the birds of the plains of

Sind 45 years after the publication of the first comprehensive account of

the avifauna. Fr. A. E. Bean’s investigation of the ‘ Occurrence of

Spindasis abnormis on the Western Ghats’ is an excellent example of

contributions made by the devoted amateur to any discipline of Natural

History. The Society’s continuing interest and anxiety on the status of

A.G.M. 1969-70—PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS 627

wildlife in India is reflected in the wildlife survey reports by Spillett which

draw attention to the failure in the management of a national asset. The

report by Schaller on the status of the Kashmir Stag highlights the impor-

tant and urgent problems threatening the survival of the species. Other

articles of particular interest are ‘The Elephant (Elephas maximus) in

U.P.’ which describes a census of the population, ‘The Spider Fauna of

India’ which is the first collation and systematic catalogue of Indian

spiders and the ‘ Food-habiis of Water birds of the Sundarbans, 24 Par-

ganas, W. Bengal, India’ a detailed study of the food habits of water-

birds.

Books: The year saw three more of our popular publications THE

BOOK OF INDIAN ANIMALS, BUTTERFLIES OF THE INDIAN REGION and INDIAN

MOLLUSCS going out of print. A third edition of the BOOK OF INDIAN

ANIMALS will appear in 1970. However, reprinting of the other two

books in the near future appears unlikely as the Society is unable to lock

up a considerable amount of its capital in slow selling publications.

The publication of the 2nd and 3rd volumes of the HANDBOOK OF THE

BIRDS OF INDIA AND PAKISTAN, a publication which is sponsored by the

Society, adds two more volumes to the definitive literature on Indian

avifauna. Excellent progress is being maintained and the subsequent

volumes are expected at short intervals of time. The manuscript of

FAUNA VOLUME for the Maharashtra Gazetteer was completed and handed

over. Its publication is expected shortly.

The Society with financial assistance from the Rockefeller Founda-

tion published ‘The Ecology of the Lesser Bandicoot Rat in Calcutta’

by Juan Spillett. The book records 15 months observation on the

Bandicoot rat which is apparently the dominant species among the des-

tructive rodents in the Calcutta environs.

The Society’s Journal is an indispensable reference Volume for any

study of the Oriental fauna and the unavailability of many of the earlier

issues is a constant source of frustration to serious researchers. Arrange-

ments have now been completed with M/s. Swets Zeitlinger of the

Netherlands for printing photo-offset editions of the out-of-print volumes.

Under the nature education scheme of the Society, and with financial

assistance received from the Seth Purshotamdas Thakurdas & Divaliba

Charitable Trust, the Society published a booklet on nature (MAZE MITRA)

prepared by its Nature Education Organiser. The booklet which is

printed in Marathi and Gujarathi is for free distribution to school

children in Maharashtra and Gujarat.

GENERAL

Bird Migration Study: As we reported last year, the bird ringing

camps are now organised on an all year basis. During the migratory

season camps were held at Bharatpur in Rajasthan and Point Calimere

628 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

and camps were run at Mahableshwar and Daulatabad during the non-

migratory season for ringing resident species.

Satisfactory results were obtained and in summary the camps ringed

38,594 birds of over 150 species, and recoveries gave an overall pic-

ture of the area of origin of the migrants. Much information was also

obtained on the movements and habits of resident birds. We are grate-

ful to the MAPS Organisation and the Smithsonian Institution for their

generous financial support.

Conservation: An effort was made to obtain information on the

status of Crocodile species in various parts of the country. The

attempt produced very little constructive information apart from draw-

ing attention to the fact that crocodiles have disappeared or have not

been noticed in a large part of their former habitat.

A similar enquiry on the status of the Tiger indicated an alarming

decline in their number.

The Society was instrumental in arranging an expert to advise the

Government of Maharashtra on the planning of the proposed National

Park at Borivli in the Bombay suburban area.

The Indian Board for Wildlife which met after 4 years at Delhi under

the Chairmanship of Dr. Karan Singh, the Minister for Tourism, is now

taking a more active approach to conservation problems than in the

past. In this connection we would also refer to the concern and interest

of the Prime Minister in the conservation programmes of the Govern-

ment.

The IUCN General Assembly at Delhi between 24 November and 1

December was the major conservation activity during the year. Many

useful resolutions and projects relating to Indian conservation needs were

formulated and the Society is pressing for the speedy implementation

of the resolutions and action on the projects.

DONATIONS

Sdlim Ali-Loke Ornithological Research Fund: During the year we

received donations from:

N. H. Wadia Charity Fund .. Rs. 1,000°00

Dr. Salim Ali As .- Rs. 6,000°00

Rs. 7,000°00

Appeals were sent to many trusts and persons who were thought to

be in a position to contribute to the Corpus of the fund. There was

A.G.M. 1969-70—PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS 629

only a single response. The contributions received so far are mainly

from a few donors.

Lady Peng McNiece bed Rs. 20,939°40

Dr. Salim Ali 5 Rs. 19,000°C0

Executive Committee

Members (2) ae Rs. 2,500°00

Members (5) a Rs. 1,021°96

Others 3: Rs. 1,416°62

Interest earned ne RS. e452

Rs. 49,089°50

Auditorium : The Cactus Club donated a chair for the auditorium.

RESEARCH STUDIES

Gir Project: Members may recall that last year we had reported

on the plans for a Wildlife and Ecology research station in the Gir.

The project received the Government of India’s approval, and research

is now in progress.

Andaman Islands: A further trip was made to the Andaman Islands

in February 1969, the object being to visit the isolated Narcondam

Island and observe the rare Narcondam Hornbill. This was achieved

though the period of stay at Narcondam was less than 24 hours.

University Department : The recognition of the Society as an insti-

tute for field Ornithology was renewed for a further period of three

years. We have three research students, two registered for M.Sc. and

one for Ph.D.

NATURE EDUCATION SCHEME

The scheme now in its 22nd year, continues its activities in Bombay,

Poona and adjacent areas for creating interest in nature among school

children.

LIBRARY

During the year 319 books were added to the Library. Among these

34 were received for review, 12 purchased and 273 donated by members

and others. Our thanks are due to the donors and to the publishers who

have sent us review copies.

630 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

January :

February :

March ;

April :

June:

September :

November :

December :

MEETINGS & EXHIBITIONS

Photos by Morarjit, P.R. & Films of Thakore?.

Exhibition? of ‘ Fish on Stamps’.

Peter Jackson®—Wildlife of Africa.

Kenworthy, J. B.2—Fire and the balance of Nature.

Peter Jordan?—The Ecology of Timberwolf in North

America and some suggestions for Ecological Studies in

the Gir Sanctuary.

P. J. Deoras?—Rat Problem in Bombay.

Film?—No Room for Wild Animals.

Exhibition of flowering Orchids?.

Film?—Serengeti shall not die.

G. B. Schaller?>—Some Observations on Indian Wildlife.

Raniitsinh?—Indian Wild Life.

Weldon Gratton?—Planning a National Park.

O. A. Hoeg*?—Birds of Norway.

REVENUE ACCOUNTS

The financial position of the Society continues to be difficult as will

be evident from the statements of accounts.

ADDITIONS TO THE COLLECTIONS

During the year 415 specimens were added to the collections :

Mammals i 9

Birds mi 301 7346

Reptiles .. hie ak

Amphibians eek,

STAFF

The Committee wishes to record its appreciation of the willing co-

operation of the entire staff in the activities of the Society.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The Committee’s thanks are due to Mr. M. J. Dickins who continues

to look after the Society’s interests in the United Kingdom.

1 Exhibition.

2 Film Show.

8 Talk.

631

A.G.M. 1969-70—PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS

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642 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

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MINUTES OF THE ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY HELD AT

HORNBILL HOUSE, SHAHID BHAGAT SINGH ROAD,

BOMBAY 1, ON FRIDAY, 18TH SEPTEMBER, 1970,

AT 6-30 P.M., WITH MR. R. E. HAWKINS IN THE CHAIR.

APPROXIMATELY 30 MEMBERS WERE PRESENT

Before the meeting commenced, the Chairman referred to the sad

death of Fr. Santapau, and said that in his death the Bombay Natural

History Society has suffered an irreparable loss. Apart from his emi-

nence in botany, Fr. Santapau took the keenest interest in the activities

of the Society, and was closely associated with it for the last 20 years.

The Chairman said that the Society was trying to establish a small

floristic sanctuary in the Khandala Ravine, an area where Fr. Santapau

had done much botanical work. It was hoped that the Government of

Maharashtra would accept the recommendation made by the Society for

the creation of this sanctuary.

Members stood in silence for a minute as a mark of respect to

Fr. Santapau. .

The Chairman then asked the Honorary Secretary to make any com-

ments he wished on the Annual Report before any questions were asked

about it. The Honorary Secretary said that there had been a small

though welcome increase in the membership from 894 to 1060. Of the

148 members who had paid their subscription in 1968, but had not done

so in 1969, a few were expected to pay. Regarding the 23 resignations,

it was unfortunate that even institutions like the Marathwada University,

the Salar Jung Museum and other institutions of learning had discon-

tinued their membership. The Society would try and have these member-

ships reinstated.

The Honorary Secretary stated that he would like to make a comment

on the Borivli National Park established by the Government of Maha-

rashtra in Bombay. This was a most imaginative step, and one which

would be of the greatest benefit to the citizens. However, it was un-

fortunate that a film city was being built up in a portion of the Park, and

this would detract from the park values. Representation had been made

in this connection to the Government but apparently it was not possible

at this stage to go back on this scheme. Government, however, had

indicated that they were acquiring further forest land on the southern

side of the Bassein Creek, and this would add a large area of forest to

the Park. The Honorary Secretary said that at the present time when

the resources of Government were limited, and when there were so many

demands on them it was natural that only those schemes were put

through which provoked strong public support. It was, therefore, most

important for members of the Bombay Natural History Society and others

to get more vocal, and put forward their demands more vigorously.

644. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

The Chairman then asked the meeting if there were any questions to

be asked on the report. No questions were asked, and Mr. G. V. Bedekar

proposed and Mr. D. E. Reuben seconded that the report be adopted.

The report was unanimously adopted.

The Chairman then asked the Honorary Treasurer to present the

accounts for the year. The Honorary Treasurer answered the questions

that were asked and Mrs. Khan proposed and Prof. Bole seconded that

the accounts be unanimously adopted. The accounts were unanimously

adopted.

The Chairman then stated that the panel of names proposed by the

Executive Committee for 1970-71 for election may be taken as approved

by the meeting since no alternative names had been suggested.

EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE

President

Nawab Ali Yavar Jung, Governor of Maharashtra

Vice-Presidents

Major-General Sir Sahib Singh Sokhey, 1.M.s. (Retd.)

Dr. Salim Ali, D.Sc., F.N.I.

Mr. R. E. Hawkins

X= i

Hon. Secretary AE OUTEHD

Mr. Zafar Futehally

Hon. Treasurer

Mr. J. D. Kapadia, I.c.s. (Retd.)

Member

Secretary, Ministry of Education, Govt. of India. ;

Elected Members

Mr. Humayun Abdulali

Mr. G. V. Bedekar, 1.c.s. (Retd.)

Prof. P. V. Bole

Mr. S. Chaudhuri

Dr. C. V. Kulkarni, M.Ssc., Ph.D.

Mr. Duleep Matthai

Dr. A. N. D. Nanavati, M.D.

Mr. D. J. Panday

Mr. G. S. Ranganathan

Mr. D. E. Reuben, 1.c.s. (Retd.)

MINUTES OF THE A.G.M. OF THE B.N.HS. 645

ADVISORY COMMITTEE

Mr. H. G. Acharya

Mrs. Jamal Ara

Mr. F. C. Badhwar, 0.B.E.

Sir Chintaman Deshmukh, Kt., C.1.E., I.C.S. s. (Retd.)

Dr. A. P. Kapur Be cue

Mr. M. Krishnan

Dr. S. K. Mukherjee

Dr. N. K. Panikkar, M.A., D.SC., F.N.I.

Mr. R. C. Soni, I.F.S.

Mr:.P. D. Stracey,, IFS. (Retd.)

Ahmedabad

Ranchi

New Delhi

Hyderabad

Calcutta

Madras

Calcutta

Panaji

New Delhi

The meeting then formally terminated with a vote of thanks to the

Chair.

After the meeting there was a slide-show of the colour transparencies of

Mr. Ranjit Sinh, Mr. E. P. Gee and others. The slide show was followed

by a display of two films by Mr. E. P. Gee—on the Kanha National

Park and on the Manas Sanctuary.

646 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

ERRATA

“Volume 67 (2), August 1970, page 362, add: ‘cristata L. (Fig. 16).

Crossandra undulaefolia Salisb. (Fig. 17 & 17A).’ between 5th and 7th

lines below the photograph.”

Field Work Grant

The Society is in a position to financially assist individual

projects in field work in Vertebrate Zoology. including collecting,

and would be glad to consider applications for specific proposals.

Apply in detail to the Honorary Secretary.

PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY C. E. KOSHY AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS,

10 CHURCH ROAD, VEPERY, MADRAS—25-3-1971. C1977

EDITORS: ZAFAR FUTEHALLY, J. C. DANIEL & P. V. BOLE

THE SOCIETY’S PUBLICATIONS

Birds

The Book of Indian Birds, by S4lim Ali. 8th (revised) edition. 66 coloured and

many monochrome plates. Rs. 25

(Price to: members Rs. 20)

Snakes

Identification of Poisonous Snakes. Wall chart in English, Gujarati, and Marathi.

Rs. 16

(Price to members Rs. 8)

Miscellaneous

Picture Postcards of 12 representative Indian Birds (In colour) per set Rs. 2°50

Glimpses of Nature Series Booklets :

1. Our Birps I (with 8 coloured plates) in Hindi, and Marathi, Rs. 0°80

Kannada. Rs. 0°62

2. Our Birps II (with 8 coloured plates) in Hindi. Rs. 0°62

3. Our BEAUTIFUL TREES (with 8 coloured plates) in Hindi and Marathi. Rs. 0°62

4. Our Monsoon PLANTs (with 8 coloured plates) in English,

Gujarati, Hindi, and Marathi. Rs. 0°80

5. Our ANIMALS (with 8 coloured plates) in English, Gujarati,

Hindi, and Marathi. Rs. 1°25

Back numbers of the Society’s Journal. Rates on application.

Correspond with:

The Honorary Secretary,

Bombay Natural History Society,

Hornbill House, Shahid Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay 1-BR.

Agents in England :

Messrs Wheldon & Wesley Lid.,

Lytton Lodge, Codicote, Near Hitchin,

Herts, England.

The Society will gratefully accept back numbers of the Journal, particularly

numbers prior to Vol. 45, from members who may not wish to preserve them.

TERMS OF MEMBERSHIP

Life Members pay an entrance fee of Rs. 5 (25p.) and a life membership fee of

Rs. 600 (Inland), £45°50 (Foreign).

Ordinary Members pay an entrance fee of Rs. 5 (25p.) and an Boreal subscription of

Rs. 36 (Inland), 43 (Foreign).

Members residing outside India should pay their subscription by means of orders:

on their Bankers to pay the amount of the subscription to the Society in

Bombay on the Ist January in each year. If this cannot be done, then the sum of

43°00 should be paid annually to the Society’s London Bankers—The National &

Grindlays Bank Ltd., 23 Fenchurch Street, London E.C. 3.

The subscription of members elected in October, November, and Decsiiber

covers the period from the date of their election to the end of the following year.

CONTENTS

OBSERVATIONS ON THE NILGIRI TAHR (Hemitragus hylocrius OGILBY, 1838). By

George B. Schaller mi

GENETIC-EVOLUTIONARY STUDIES ON CULTIVATED CANNAS. By Iva Mukherjee

and T. N. Khoshoo

ANALOGOUS BIOCLIMATES AND INTRODUCTION OF ECONOMIC ExoTics. By V. M.

Meher-Homji

ARTHROPOD FAUNA OF THE NESTS OF SOME COMMON BIRDS IN POONA, INDIA, WITH

SPECIAL REFERENCE TO BLOOD SUCKING FORMS. By T. Ramachandra Rao

and P. K. Rajagopalan

PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS ON THE NATURAL RESISTANCE OF SIXTY-NINE SPECIES

OF INDIAN TIMBER TO MARINE BORER ATTACK AT BOMBAY. By L. N. Santha-

kumaran

STUDIES ON BOTTOM-LIVING DIATOMS OF A FRESHWATER FISH POND. By C.S. Singh

OBSERVATIONS ON THE BREEDING OF STORKS IN INDIA AND CEYLON. By M. Philip

Kahl

CYCLONIC DAMAGE TO PLANT Tissues. By B. G. L. Swamy and

K. V. Krishnamurthy ae

AGRICULTURAL IRESEARCH—PROGRESS, PROBLEMS AND Prospects. By M. S.

Swaminathan

TRENDS IN INTRASPECIFIC SEX-LIMITED VARIATIONS IN SOME MYCOPHAGOUS TUBULI-

FERA (THYSANOPTERA). By T. N. Ananthakrishnan

THE FLOWERING OF THE STROBILANTH (ACANTHACEAE). By K. M. Matthew, S.J.

APLANOSPORE FORMATION OR OUTCOME OF PARASITIC ATTACK? By Ella A.

Gonzaives and G. R. Sonnad

SPAWNING HABITS, EGGS AND EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF DECCAN MAHSEER, Jor

khudree (SYKEs). By C. V. Kulkarni

ASPECTS OF THE FLORA, AND ECOLOGY OF SAVANNAS OF THE SOUTH INDIAN HILLS.

By F. Blasco

THE Nitciri Tanr, Hemitragus hylocrius OGILBY, INTHE HIGH RANGE, KERALA

AND THE SOUTHERN HILLS OF THE WESTERN GHATS. By. J. C. Daniel

REVIEWS .. te

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

AN APPEAL is ag

ee ee ees s

ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BomBAy NATURAL History SOCIETY FOR THE YEAR

1969-70 bee

oe se ee oe

STATEMENTS OF ACCOUNTS OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL History SOCIETY

MINUTES OF THE ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING

365

390

398

414

507

510

22,

535

543

550

623

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