_ N H

O >sv^ *“M q

!1 LIBRARIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOlinillSNI^NVINOSHilWS ^S3 1 d Vd E

f~* °zl r" *?> —■

rn ^ W 5 — 2 rn _ ._

)N NOlinillSNI NVINOSH1IWS S3 lavaan LIBRARIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTli

C/) &L — 2. . (/)

x </>:

co ^

o

z 4*L«r

s > 'sr- s ^ >

n" LIBRARIES SMITHSONIAN__INSTITUTION NOIXnXllSN|2NVINOSHims</,S3l ava*£

00 — 00 = . (O

in NouruusNi NviNOSHiiws saiavaan libraries smiths^nian_jinstituti

2 z f~ z r-

'

m - rn

— t/) — co fz; co

3 LI. B RAR I ES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOllfllllSNI NVIN0SH1MS S3 I d Vd 8

5 ’* ^ ^ ^ z * co 2 co

< — <

o

CO

X

H

o

w/'Jf*- £

s -'.ST > 'VKS22S' 5 >■ I

n NoixniiisNi_ nvinoshii ws^5 s 3 1 ava a llZLI B RAR I EsXmITHSONIAN^INSTITUTI

« , . Z \ V> _ = (O -

UJ XaSTItITX m. \k. UJ Xa^tit(7Jn. ~ i.i Z

~i 2 — 1 2 ^ 2

1 LIBRARIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOlinillSNI NVIN0SH1IWS S3 1 dVd

2 1“ 7 r-

^.D.c> rr '^5^ rn £ N^olu^ ro

IN NOlinillSNrNVINOSHJLIWS S3 I dVd 9 ll“LI B RAR I ES ^SMITHSONIAN ~INSTITUTI

CO Z . __ CO z » . CO ' Z V <

< Xv'SOvTx 2 < _«'sX . IS <1- XX

I ^

> 5 | -Sj^ 5 _

T LIBRARIES SMITHSONIAN*" INSTITUTION NOlinillSNI NVINOSHlIWsXs I a Va

“ CO — CO — 00

UJ XaSVA?\ x&X x LlI

CO

c

(Z

O '.^ _ V-w^ O nKs^®7 “• o xisS®7 m

^ ^ 2 i -y i

BRARIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOlifUllSNI NVINOSHillMS S3iavaan LM

5 _ <- ... z r

H

, m -m tn

u> ± & \ z

DIXfUliSNI NVIN0SH1IINS S3 I HVaa II LI B RAR I ES SMITHSONIAN “INSTITUTION Nc

< ^vf5pA^X 2 , < *s5v .V 2 ^ 5J

Z

o

C/5

X

OT 2 5 ~

B RAR I ES^SMITHS0NIAN_INSTITUTI0N%0linillSNI_NVIN0SHllWsa>S3 I a V a 9 IT

LI

0 _

HiOlllSNI 'tsl V l&IOSHXI SAIS SSiavaan^UBRARI ES^SMITHSONIAN^INSTITUTION^NO

1 ^ r~ z f~ z

° °

70 fe/fc V

I > = "

m XW £ ~ m

BRARIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOliniliSNI “nVINOSHIIWS^SB I a Va 9 IT LI

^ Z r CO 2 GO "*

s < Av 3£ 2

Ifi

u)

* v,

> '"2252^ s ^ >■" ' I >- 5

■<- {/) **" 2 cn

!iniilSNI_ NVINOSH1IIAIS S3 IdV^ail LIBRARIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION N0

z \ 40 . ^ oo

3RARIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOliniliSNI NVIN0SH1IWS S3IUVU8I1 LI

CD

TO

o|s*» -dpol

— w £: — f/) \ Z co

iinmsNi nvinoshiiws ssiavaan libraries Smithsonian institution nc

^ zi Z CO CO

< s ,< , 2 ^ y. 2

I

co

O

3 R A R I ES "SMITHSON IAN ^ INSTITUTION NOliniliSNI NVINOSHlIWS^Sa 1 ava 8 11* Ll

tn W — a, -

CO

Journal of the

Bombay Natural History Society

O , S Jy'::

~’7 j

Vol. 68, No. 1

Editors

ZAFAR FUTEHALLY

J. C. DANIEL & P. V. BOLE

APRIL 1971

Rs. 18 (Inland), 30sh. (Foreign)

NOTICE TO CONTRIBUTORS

Contributors of scientific articles are requested to assist the

editors by observing the following instructions :

1. Papers which have at the same time been offered for publica-

tion to other journals or periodicals, or have already been published

elsewhere, should not be submitted.

2. The MS. should be typed (double spacing) on one side of a

sheet only, and the sheets properly numbered.

3. All scientific names to be printed in italics should be under-

lined. Both in zoological and in botanical references only the initial

letter of the genus is capitalized. The specific and subspecific names

always begin with a small letter even if they refer to a person or a

place, e.g. Anthus hodgsoni hodgsoni or Streptopelid chinensis suratensis

or Dimeria blatteri.

4. Trinomials referring to subspecies should only be used where

identification has been authentically established by comparison of

specimens actually collected. In all other cases, or where identification

is based merely on sight, binominals should be used.

5. Photographs for reproduction must be clear and show good

contrast. Prints must be of a size not smaller than 8*20 x 5*60 cm.

(No. 2 Brownie) and on glossy glazed paper.

6. Text-figures, line drawings, and maps should be in Indian ink,

preferably on Bristol board.

7. References to literature should be placed at the end of the

paper, alphabetically arranged under author’s name, with the abridged

titles of journals or periodicals underlined (italics) and titles of books

not underlined (roman type), thus :

Banerji, M. L. (1958): Botanical Exploration in East Nepal.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 55 (2) : 243-268.

Prater, S. H. (1948) : The Book of Indian Animals. Bombay.

Titles of papers should not be underlined.

8. Reference to literature in the text should be made by quoting

Jhe author’s name and year of publication, thus : (Banerji 1958).

9. Synopsis : Each scientific paper should be accompanied by

a concise, clearly written synopsis, normally not exceeding 200 words.

10. Reprints : Authors are supplied 25 reprints of their articles

free of charge. In the case of joint authorship, 50 copies will be

given gratis to be distributed among the two or more authors. Orders

for additional reprints should be in multiples of 25 and should be

received within two weeks after the author is informed of the acceptance

of the manuscript. They will be charged for at cost plus postage and

packing.

Editors,

Hombill House, Journal of the Bombay Natural

Shahid Bhagat History Society.

Singh Road,

Bombay 1-BR.

VOLUME 68 No. 1— APRIL 1971

Date of Publication : 15-9-1971.

CONTENTS

A note on P ter opus (Chiroptera : Pteropidae) from the Andaman Islands.

ByJ. E. Hill .. .. .. .. .. 1

Foraminifera of the Gulf of Cambay. By K. Kameswara Rao. {With 16

figures in two plates ) . . . . . . . . . . 9

Maturation and Spawning of Bregmaceros mcClellandi (Thompson). By

Arun Parulekar and D. V. Bal. {With a plate and three text-figures ) . . 20

Orchids of Nepal — 4. By M. L. Banerji and B. B. Thapa . . . . 29

Food-Habits of water-birds of the Sundarban, 24-Parganas District, West

Bengal, India — II. By Ajit Kumar Mukherjee. {With two text-figures) . . 37

A Review of the Recovery Data obtained by the Bombay Natural History

Society’s Bird Migration Study Project. By D. N. Mathew. {With

a text-figure ) . . . . . . . . . . 65

Eco-Toxicology and Control of Indian Desert Gerbil, Meriones hurrianae

(Jerdon). By Ishwar Prakash, G. C. Taneja and K. G. Purohit . . 86

The Thalassinoidea (Crustacea, Anomura) of Maharashtra. By K. N.

Sankolli. {With four text-figures) .. .. .. ..94

Random notes on Birds of Kerala. By M. C. A. Jackson . . . , 107

Studies on the freshwater and amphibious Mollusca of Poona with notes

on their distribution — Part II. By G. T. Tonapi. {With twenty-one

figures in four plates) .. .. .. .. ..115

A Catalogue of the Birds in the Collection of the Bombay Natural

History Society — 8. By Humayun Abdulali . . . . . . 127

The nesting of Pareumenes brevirostratus (Saussure), involving a primitive

form of co-operation. By S. D. Jayakar and H. Spurway . . . . 153

Triops granarius (Lucas) (Crustacea : Branchiopoda) from Tamil Nadu,

and a Review of the Species from India. By P. J. Sanjeeva Raj. {With

two text-figures) . . . . . . . . . . . . 161

Pteridophytic Flora of Kodaikanal. By S. S. Bir and Surinder Mohan

Vasudeva . . . . . . . . . . . . 169

Some Aspects of Bio-Ecology of Podagrica orbiculata (Motsch.) (Coleop-

tera : Chrysomelidae) as a pest of Abelmoschus esculentus at Sehore

(M.P.). By R. R. Rawat and R. K. Singh. {With two text-figures) . . 196

Asymmetry in Palm Leaves. By T. A. Davis, S. S. Ghosh and A. Mitra.

{With nine text-figures) .. .. .. .. .. 204

Reviews :

Miscellaneous Notes :

Mammals : 1 . A note on the birth of a Golden Cat (Felis temmincki) in cap-

tivity. By L. N. Acharjyo (p. 241).

Birds : 2. Occurrence of the Flamingo in interior Maharashtra. By S. M.

Ketkar and Lincoln Gray (p. 241) ; 3. Occurrence of the Barheaded Goose,

Anser indicus in Jasdan (Gujarat). By Shivrajkumar Khachar (p.242) ; 4. Note

on breeding of Ruddy Shelduck, Tadorna ferruginea (Pallas) at Delhi Zoological

Park. By J. H. Desai (p. 243) ; 5. The Pied Myna, Sturnus contra (Linnaeus)

in Bombay. By N. J. George (p. 243) ; 6. Recovery of a Spotbill Duck {Anas

poecilorhyncha) in U.S.S.R. {With a map). By (Miss) Shailaja S. Somane

(p. 244) ; 7. Baya Weaverbird Nesting on human habitations. {With eight

figures in two plates). By T. A. Davis (p. 246) ; 8. Recovery of ringed birds.

By Editors (p. 249).

Reptiles : 9. Testudo elegans in Western Rajasthan. By Ishwar Prakash

(p. 273) ; 10. The catching of snakes. By Romulus Whitaker (p. 274).

Fishes : 11. New locality records of Horaichthys setnai Kulkarni, from Nar-

mada and Tapti Rivers. By S. J. Karamchandani and P. K. Pandit (p. 278).

Mollusca : 12. On two Doridacean Nudibranchs (Mollusca : Gastropoda),

from the Gulf of Kutch, new to the Indian Coast. By K. R. Narayanan (p. 280).

Crustacea : 13. Biometrical comparison between Balanus tintinnabulum L.

and Balanus amaryllis D. ( With three text-figures). By Arun B. Wagh and

D. V. Bal (p. 282).

Insecta : 14. A possible explanation of the peculiar accident to the Butterfly,

Delias eucharis Drury. By E. M. Shull (p. 286) ; 15. A cure for wasp sting.

By Humayun Abdulali (p. 287); 16. A simple and convenient artificial nest

for maintaining an ant colony in the laboratory. By A. B. Soans and J. S.

Soans (p. 288) ; 17. A case of intergeneric competition and replacement in the

Ants, Oecophylla smaragdina Fabricius and Anoplolepis longipes Jerdon

(Hymenoptera : Formicidae). By A. B. Soans and J. S. Soans (p. 289).

Coelenterata : 18. A new sea Anemone, Crihrinopsis robertii, (Endomyaria :

Actiniidae) from Maharashtra and Goa Coast. ( With three text-figures ). By

Arun H. Parulekar (p. 291).

Botany: 19. Caralluma edulis (Edgew.) Benth. & Hook: A new record

for India. {With a plate). By M.M.Bhandari (p. 296) ; 20. Arthraxon dec-

canensis sp. nov., A new grass from India. {With a plate). By S. K. Jain

(p.297) ; 21. A new grass from India Arthraxon junnarensis sp. nov. ( With a

plate). By S. K. Jain and Koppula Hemadri (p. 300) ; 22. The Taxonomic

status of the genus Pongamia Vent. (Papilionaceae). By S. S. R. Bennet

(p. 302)

Notes and News . . . . . . . . . . . . 305

Announcement . . . . . . . . . . . . 306

JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL

HISTORY SOCIETY

1971 APRIL Vol. 68 No. 1

A note on Pteropus (Chiroptera:

Pteropidae) from the Andaman Islands

BY

J. E. Hill

Department of Zoology , British Museum ( Natural History)

A small collection of specimens of Pteropus from the Andaman Islands

confirms the view that P. tytleri Mason, 1908 should be considered a sub-

species of P. melanotus, and that P. satyrus Andersen, 1908 from the

outlying island of Narcondam is also subspecifically related to melanotus

rather than to P. hypomelanus with which it had been provisionally associ-

ated hitherto, being linked to tytleri from the principal islands of the

Andamans by specimens from the geographically intermediate island of

Barren. Parallelism in colour variation is demonstrated between P.

melanotus frpm the Nicobar and Andaman Islands and P. hypomelanus

geminorum from the islands of the Mergui Archipelago.

Two indigeneous forms of Pteropus are listed currently from the

Andaman Islands, namely P. tytleri Mason, 1908, described from Rutland

Island and considered to occur throughout the major part of the archipe-

lago, and P. satyrus Andersen, 1908 from the outlying island of

Narcondam. Although the genus has long been known to occur in the

Andamans, relatively few specimens have been obtained, ever since

Mason (1908) made the first critical examination of Andamanese examples,

recognising tytleri but with the exclusion of satyrus , described almost

concurrently and of which Mason was clearly unaware. The current

classification of the two forms is based on the classic monograph of the

Megachiroptera by Andersen (1912) who placed tytleri in the melanotus

group with melanotus from the Nicobar Islands, niadicus from Nias

Island, off Sumatra, modiglianii from nearby Enggano Island and natalis

from Christmas Island, south of Java, and who associated satyrus with

the hypomelanus group, widely distributed throughout Indo-Australia.

i JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL tilST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (?)

Chasen (1940 : 24*? considered the purely Malaysian members of the

melanotus group to be subspecies of melanotus with the comment (p. 29)

that although ‘ from P ter opus melanotus to natalis is a long stretch ....

the appearance of the intervening forms provides sufficient grounds to

justify the use of a trinomial.’ Following this lead, Ellerman &

Morrison-Scott (1951 : 96) and later Hill (1968 : 3) listed tytleri as a

provisional subspecies of melanotus. Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (p. 95)

thought that from descriptions satyrus was very close to hypomelanusf

of which they listed it as a provisional subspecies, a course subsequently

adopted by Hill (p. 2). The relationships of the two forms are thus

sufficiently uncertain that it is of considerable interest to report material

obtained during successive visits by Mr. Humayun Abdulali to South

Sentinel, Barren and Narcondam Islands in the Andaman Archipelago.

The majority of these specimens remain the property of the Bombay

Natural History Society, but the Society has generously agreed that

duplicate examples should remain in the collections of the British Museum

(Natural History).

Pteropus melanotus tytleri Mason, 1908

Pteropus tytleri Mason, 1908 : 162, Rutland Island, South Andaman Islands,

2?$ AN3, AN6, 1 immature? AN 5. South Sentinel Island, South Andaman

Islands.

2<&£ 9/70, 11/70; 2?$ 10/70, 12/70. Barren Island, Andaman Islands. 30th April

1970.

Included by early authors with specimens from the Nicobar Islands

as P. melanotus Blyth, 1863 or P. nicobaricus Zelebor, 1869, Andamanese

examples were separated as tytleri by Mason [Dobson had earlier (1876 :

189) invalidly applied this name] chiefly on account of the sexual colour

dimorphism which they display and which apparently does not occur in

melanotus. Andersen (1912 : 227, 820) gave further descriptions of

tytleri , pointing out (p. 820) that it could be distinguished from melanotus

by its much darker underparts. Few specimens have been collected

since Mason described tytleri and Andersen reviewed it : during the

intervening years the holotype and one other specimen from the original

material examined by Mason have been added to the collections of the

British Museum (Natural History), together with two skulls lacking

skins from Rutland Island and South Sentinel Island, and three other

specimens, one of these from Port Blair, South Andaman Island, the

others from Car Nicobar, all three coming from the Mason Collection

but collected many years after his description of tytleri.

Males (B.M. 10.7.26.1, the holotype B.M. 13.4.6.6) from Rutland

Island have the back and rump blackish brown, lightly streaked with grey,

with a dark blackish brown head, sprinkled with a few grey hairs. The

mantle is ochraceous buff and very clearly demarcated from the head

and back. The ventral surface is dark brown or blackish brown and

PTEROPUS FROM ANDAMAN ISLANDS

3

lacks any paler mid-ventral area, which is represented only by a small

area of hairs tipped with brighter chestnut brown. A young male (B.M.

13.4.6.5) from Rutland has a dark reddish brown mantle but otherwise

exactly resembles the adult. A female (B.M. 13.4.6.7) from Rutland is

uniformly dark both above and below, the mantle indicated only by a

tinge of rufous. The two adult females from South Sentinel Island*

collected by Mr. Abdulali, conform to the female from Rutland Island,

but one (AN6) has a small mid-ventral patch of buff tipped .hairs, while

the immature female from South Sentinel is exactly like the young male

from Rutland except only for the presence of a similar mid-ventral patch.

A female (B.M. 34.7.2.24) from Port Blair, South Andaman Island has

the back more liberally streaked with grey and has a browner, slightly

more prominent mantle than do females from Rutland or South Sentinel.

A young adult male (B.M. 34.7.2.23) from Car Nicobar is similar in most

respects to adult males from Rutland but has a brown head, lacking

any grey, and the mantle is dark reddish brown, closely similar to the

mantle in young specimens from Rutland and South Sentinel. This

specimen, which lacks a skull, is from the Mason Collection and has

been labelled 4 ty fieri ’ by Mason. A second specimen (B.M. 34.7.2.56)

from Car Nicobar is also from the Mason Collection and has been label-

led ‘ Pteropus n. sp. 9 by Mason. It is an unmade skin in poor condition,

with the skull in situ , and is very similar to the last but has a paler, more

buffy mantle, a poorly defined buffy crown and nape patch and a small

ochraceous mid-ventral area.

Mason (1908 : 163) remarked that tytleri occurs on Barren Island,

where according to this author it shows a tendency to become smaller

and to deviate from typical specimens by having a light and conspicuous

oval-shaped area of greyish hairs occupying the chest and belly. The

four specimens collected on Barren Island by Mr. Abdulali have the

back and rump blackish, streaked with grey. The head and nape is

similar in colour : a buffy crown and nape patch is present in males but

not in females. Males have a prominent pale ochraceous buff or pale

rufous mantle : in females the mantle is dark rufous brown or dark brown.

The ventral surface in males is reddish brown anteriorly with blackish

flanks and anal region but mid-ventrally is markedly paler, in one example

(11/70) exactly like B.M. 34.7.2.56 from Car Nicobar, in the other (9/70)

more extensively pale, the centre of the pale area becoming fawn to drab

as in the specimens from Narcondam discussed below. Both female

specimens from Barren are almost uniformly black ventrally, as in

tytleri , the mid-ventral region bearing only a few ochraceous-tipped or

rufous-tipped hairs. Specimens from Barren Island approach satyrus

from Narcondam in some points of coloration, but are referred to tytleri

chiefly on account of their larger size (Table 1) and especially larger teeth

(Table 2).

Measurements (in millimetres) of adults of Pteropus melanotus from the Nicobar and Andaman Islands

4 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (1)

Minimum, maximum and mean measurements (in millimetres) of unworn teeth of Pteropus melanotus from the Nicobar

and Andaman Islands

PTEROPUS FROM ANDAMAN ISLANDS

5

OOOO^O

^ « N T n

ON y ON VO

T m rf n

OviOM

•ntnvNM

i i i i

oONO't

co co

y 9

»A> co

ON "T

•an co

in —i

•an co

9 9

99

y O

•an co

i i

00 ON

^ <N

in

C

(2*3)

6 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (1)

Hitherto, large Pteropus from all of the Nicobar Islands have been

referred to P. m. melanotus Blyth, 1863, with P. nicobaricus Zelebor, 1869

(the name in common use until Mason wrote in 1908) from Car Nicobar

in its synonymy. Specimens from Trinkut and Great Nicobar are avai-

lable in the collections of the British Museum (Natural History) and have

been described in detail by Andersen (1912 : 224). They differ from

P. m. ty fieri in having the head generally browner and less blackish grey,

in the presence of a more evident reddish mantle in females and in a

much paler and brighter ventral surface in both males and females : the

paler area varies in colour from golden ochraceous buff to tawny, some-

times medianly faintly drab. Such specimens have been presumed

hitherto to occur on Car Nicobar, apparently since Mason (1908 : 161)

examined the holotype of nicobaricus and associated it with melanotus.

However, the two specimens from Car Nicobar examined during the

preparation of these notes seem to link tytleri to melanotus. Both have

brownish rather than blackish grey heads : one, a young adult male, (B.M.

34.7.2.23) has a dark reddish brown mantle and uniformly dark under-

parts, while the other (B.M. 34.7.2. 56"! has a brighter mantle and

ochraceous buff to rufous buff mid-ventral patch similar in colour to

that of melanotus but less extensive. Comparison with the description

by Zelebor (1869 : 11) suggests that nicobaricus may refer to such a

specimen ‘ . . . . the throat, the ventral surface and the anal region dark

blackish brown, the occiput, the nape, the sides of the neck and shoulders

are a shining glossy reddish fawn with rusty brown border. The indi-

vidual hairs of the glossy mantle are fawn at the root, glossy reddish

at the tip with a golden lustre. The central part of the chest and the

upper abdomen is blackish umber brown with fawn and glossy rust red

hair tips.’ Clearly, the precise allocation of nicobaricus must await a

re-examination of the holotype in the Naturhistorisches Museum, Vienna

but in the meantime the close agreement in size between melanotus and

tytleri, combined with a similar colour pattern which differs only in the

greater degree of melanism exhibited by tytleri suggests that the two must

be considered conspecific. There remains the possibility that pale-

bellied melanotus may co-exist on Car Nicobar with dark bellied tytleri,

a point to be resolved only by further collecting on that island or per-

haps from the holotype.

Pteropus melanotus satyrus Andersen, 1908

Pteropus satyrus Andersen, 1908:362. Narcondam Island, Andaman Islands.

lc? 8/70 (AN 12) ; 3?? 5-7/70 (AN13-15). Narcondam Island. 29th April 1970.

As long ago as 1906 Osmaston noted (p. 622) of Narcondam Island

‘ Among mammals I found two species of Fruit Bats. The Nicobar

Flying Fox {Pteropus nicobaricus) and another smaller species.’

Andersen, describing P. satyrus (which may be the Nicobar Flying Fox

PTEROPUS FROM ANDAMAN ISLANDS

7

alluded to by Osmaston) was evidently unaware of this reference and later

(1912 : 142) suggested that the affinities of satyrus lay with P. hypome -

lanus. Specimens obtained from Narcondam by Mr. Abdulali are

similar in colour to the holotype of satyrus , with blackish back and rump

overlaid with a sprinkling of grey, the head mixed black and grey, with

a patch of buff on the crown and nape. The male differs from the

reputedly male holotype in its much paler mantle which is greatly ligh-

tened with buff to the bases of the hairs, in contrast to the dark chestnut

mantle of the holotype in which buff based hairs are found only in its

posteriormost part. The three rather younger female examples have the

back and rump more generously sprinkled with grey than does the male

specimen and the mantle is browner, largely lacking red, the individual

hairs brownish to the base. In both male and female the anterior part

of the ventral surface is reddish brown, the flanks and anal region blackish

grey, with a paler mid-ventral brownish buff area, lightening to drab at

its centre. These specimens are smaller (Table 1) and have smaller teeth

(Table 2) than P. m. tytleri.

Andersen (1912 : 142) thought that satyrus was most nearly related

to P. hypomelanus geminorum from the Mergui Archipelago. However,

in colour, size and tooth dimensions it is linked to P. melanotus tytleri

by specimens from Barren Island which although nearer to tytleri are

nevertheless intermediate between the two forms, and accordingly satyrus

is considered to be a subspecies of P. melanotus. It is worth noting in

this connection that the combined colour variation of P. m. melanotus ,

P. m. tytleri and P. m. satyrus is closely paralleled by similar variation in

the series of P. hypomelanus geminorum in the British Museum (Natural

History) from the islands of the Mergui Archipelago, even in specimens of

geminorum from a single island. For example, in a series (B.M.

23.1.6.13-20) from Malcolm Island, the back and rump vary from blackish

brown in males to predominantly greyish in females : a similar variation

occurs in the coloration of the head, sometimes with an extensive buffy

suffusion of the crown and nape in males. The mantle in male specimens

varies from ochraceous brown or dark rufous to blackish brown and in

females from ochraceous brown to dark chestnut brown. The ventral

surface in two males has an extensive paler median area exactly as in

P. m. melanotus and yet in two other male examples and in two females

is uniformly dark brown or blackish brown as in P. m. tytleri , while two

further female specimens are more greyish ventrally. Similar variation

is found in specimens from the other islands of the Mergui Archipelago

and the similarity in colour variation suggests that possibly P.

hypomelanus and P. melanotus are more closely linked than is apparent

from Andersen (1912). However, the status of the poorly known P.

famulus from Car Nicobar (thought by Anderson (p. 143) to represent

hypomelanus) requires to be resolved before this point can be properly

8 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (1)

determined : furthermore, niadicus from Nias Island and modiglianii

from Enggano (where it occurs with a presumed subspecies of hypo -

melanus, P. h. engganus ) are also poorly known and further specimens

seem essential to any study of the melanotus group as it is defined by

Andersen.

References

Andersen, K. (1908) : Twenty new

forms of Pteropus. Ann. Mag. nat.

Hist. (8), 2 : 361-370.

(1912) : Catalogue of the

Chiroptera in the collection of the British

Museum. I. Megachi roptera. London.

Blyth, E. (1863) : Catalogue of the

Mammalia in the Museum of the Asiatic

Society of Bengal. Calcutta.

Dobson, G. E. (1876) : Monograph

of the Asiatic Chiroptera and catalogue

of the species of bats in the collection of

the Indian Museum, Calcutta. London.

Ellerman, J. R. & Morrison-Scott,

T. C. S. (1951) : Checklist of Palaearctic

and Indian mammals, 1758-1946. 1st.

ed. London.

Hill, J. E. (1967) : The bats of the

Andaman and Nicobar Islands. J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 64 : 1-9.

Mason, G. E. (1908) : On the fruit

bats of the genus Pteropus inhabiting the

Andaman and Nicobar Archipelago,

with the description of a new species.

Rec. Indian Mus. 2 : 159-166.

Osmaston, B. B. (1906) : A visit to

Narcondam. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

16 : 620-622.

Zelebor, J. (1869) : Reise der Oster-

reichischen Fregatte Novara um die

Erde in den Jahren 1857, 1858, 1859.

Zoologischer Theil. 1, (1), Saugethiere,

1-42. Vienna.

Foraminifera of the Gulf of Cambay

BY

K. Kameswara Rao1

National Institute of Oceanography , Bombay

(With 16 figures in two plates)

[Continued from Vol. 67 (2) : 273]

Family Rotaliidae

Subfamily Rotaliinae

Genus Rotalia Lamarck 1804

Rotalia beccarii (Linnaeus) (Fig. 69)

Rotalia beccarii Brady, 1884, vol. 9, p. 704, pi. 107, figs. 2,3 ; Cushman, 1915,

71(5), p. 67, pi. 30, fig. 3; 1931, 104(8), p.58, pi. 12, figs. 1-7, pi. 13, figs. 1,2;

Sethulekshmi Amma, 1958, p. 73, pi. 3, fig. 112 ; Ganapati & Satyavati, 1958,

p. 110, pi. 5, figs. 122, 123.

Description : Test many chambered with both faces convex, all

chambers visible on dorsal side but only those of the last whorl on ventral

side. Outer whorl of eight to twelve chambers. Sutures on the dorsal

side limbate, those on ventral side depressed. Umbilicus closed by a

mass of shell material or umbonal plug. Wall smooth. Aperture a

narrow slit situated on ventral side at inner margin of last chamber.

Diameter : 0’54 mm.

Locality : Stations A & D.

Distribution : North Pacific, Cebu, Philippine Islands, oflf Japan,

Mediterranean and Red sea, British Isles, Ceylon coast and Arabian sea

Rotalia vemista Brady (Fig. 70 a, b).

Rotalia venusta Brady, 1884, vol. 9, p. 708 and 709, pi. 108, figs. 2 a, b, c; Heron-

Alien & Earland, 1915, vol. 20, p. 720, figs. 15-22.

Description : Test slightly biconvex, compressed with two coils, the

outer coil formed of eight chambers. Sutures slightly depressed and

1 Present Address : Indian Ocean Biological Centre, (National Institute of

Oceanography), Ernakulam, Cochin-18,

10 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (1)

distinct on both faces. Wall granulated on the ventral side. Aperture

an elongate slit at the inner edge of last chamber.

Diameter : 0*14 mm.

Locality : Station D.

Distribution : South Pacific, Kerimba Archipelago and Arabian sea.

Genus Pulvinulina Parker and Jones, 1862

Pulvinulina concamerata (Montagu) (Fig. 71)

Rotalina concamerata Williamson, 1858, p. 52, pi. 4, figs. 102, 103 ; Pulvinulina

repanda var. concamerata Brady, 1884, vol. 9, p. 685, pi. 104, figs. 19,

a-c ; Pulvinulina concamerata Cushman, 1915, 71(5), p. 52, pi. 25, fig. 1.

Description : Test biconvex with six to eight chambers in final whorl.

Sutures depressed on ventral side and limbate on dorsal side. Surface

of test smooth on ventral side while on dorsal side ornamented with

numerous rounded bosses.

Diameter : 0T3 mm.

Locality : Station D.

Distribution : North Pacific, off Japan, British Isles and Arabian

sea.

Pulvinulina oblonga (Williamson) var. scabra Brady (Fig. 72)

Pulvinulina oblonga (Williamson) var. scabra Brady, 1884, vol. 9, p. 689, pi. 106,

fig. 8 a-c; Brady, Parker & Jones, 1888, vol. 12, p. 229, pi. 46, fig. 5 ; Cushman,

1915, 71(5), p. 53, pi. 27, fig. 5.

Description : Test biconvex, chambers few about seven or eight in

the outer whorl, the later formed chambers large in size and length.

Peripheral edge acute, slightly carinate. Sutures somewhat depressed.

Wall granular on the dorsal side and smooth on the ventral side.

Diameter : 0*38 mm.

Locality : Station C.

Distribution : North Pacific, off Philippines, Ceylon coast and

Arabian sea.

Pulvinulina punctulata (d’Orbigny) (Fig. 73)

Pulvinulina punctulata Brady, 1884, vol. 9, p. 685, pi. 104, fig. 17 a-c ; Cushman,

1915, 71(5), p. 52, pi. 24, fig. 1,

F OR A M1NIFER A OF THE GULF OF CAMBAY

11

Description : Test planoconvex, chambers numerous. All chambers

visible on the dorsal side but only those of the final whorl on the ventral

side. Sutures limbate and curved above and depressed below. Surface

smooth but the umbilical region somewhat granular. Aperture a curved

slit on ultimate chamber.

Diameter : 0’26 mm.

Locality : Station C.

Distribution : North Pacific, Hawaiian Islands and Arabian sea.

Family Globigerinidae

Subfamily Globigerininae

Genus Globigerina d’Orbigny, 1826

Globigerina bulloides d’Orbigny (Fig. 74 a, b)

Globigerina bulloides Williamson, 1858, p. 56, pi. 5, figs. 116-118 ; Brady, 1884,

vol. 9, p. 593, pi. 77, pi. 79, figs. 3-7 ; Brady, Parker & Jones, 1888, vol. 12,

p. 225, pi. 45, fig. 15 ; Cushman, 1914, 71(4), p. 5, pi. 2, figs. 7-9, pi. 9 ; Sethu-

lekshmi Amma, 1958, p. 12, pi. 1, fig. 20 a, b ; Ganapati & Satyavati, 1958,

p. 110, pi. 6, figs. 142-146.

Description : Test subtrochoid spire with few chambers. All

chambers visible dorsally and only three or four chambers on the ventral

side ; chambers of the outer whorl much inflated. Sutures deep and dis-

tinct. Wall calcareous and hispid. Aperture large situated on the inner

margin of last chamber.

Diameter : 0*26 mm.

Locality : Stations A, C & D.

Distribution : This species is world wide in distribution.

Globigerina dubia Egger (Fig. 75)

Globigerina dubia Brady, 1884, vol. 9, p. 595, p. 79, figs. 17 a-c ; Cushman, 1914,

71(4), p. 6, pi. 4, figs. 1-3 ; 1924, 104(5), p. 8, pi. 2, figs. 5-8 ; Sethulekshmi

Amma, 1958, p. 13, pi. 1, fig. 21.

Description : Test subglobular with many chambers, all the

chambers visible dorsally and only those of the ultimate whorl about five

or six inflated chambers on the ventral side. Wall calcareous, coarse

and pitted. Aperture opening into the much depressed umbilical region

on the ventral side.

Diameter: 0T1 mm.

12 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Fo/. 68 (1)

Locality : Stations B, C & D.

Distribution : Indo-Pacific region, North and South Atlantic, British

Isles, and Hawaiian Islands.

Genus Globigerinella Cushman, 1948

Globigerinella aequilateralis (Brady) (Fig. 76)

Globigerina aequilateralis Brady, 1884, vol. 9, p. 605, pi. 80, figs. 18-21. ; Cush-

man, 1914, 71(4), p. 12, pi. 2, figs. 1-3, pi. 10, fig. 5 ; 1924, 104(5), p. 25, pi.

4, figs. 7-8. Globigerinella aequilateralis Sethulekshmi Amma, 1958, p. 15,

pi. 1, fig. 25; Ganapati & Satyavati, 1958, p. Ill, pi. 6, figs. 152-154.

Description : Test somewhat circular in shape, many chambered

with five to six planospirally arranged chambers visible from lateral

aspect. Sutures deep and depressed. Peripheral margin rounded.

Wall calcareous, hispid with broken spines. Aperture large and arched,

situated at the base of ultimate chamber.

Diameter : 0*68 mm.

Locality : Station B.

Distribution: Indo-Pacific region, Atlantic, Honolulu, off Yokohoma,

Guam, Philippine Archipelago, Galapagos Islands, and Kerimba

Archipelago.

Family Globorotaliidae

Genus Globorotalia Cushman, 1927

Globorotalia menardii (d’Orbigny) (Fig. 77)

Pulvinulina menardii Brady, 1884, vol. 9, p. 690, pi. 103, figs. 1,2; Dakin, 1906,

vol. 5, p. 239 ; Cushman, 1915, 71(5), p. 54, pi. 22, fig. 2 ; Globorotalia menardii

Cushman, 1931, 104(8), p. 91, pi. 17, figs. 1 a-c ; Sethulekshmi Amma, 1958,

p. 17, pi. 1, fig. 28 a, b, c ; Ganapati & Satyavati, 1958, pi. 5, figs. 136, 137.

Description : Test planoconvex and compressed with usually two

convolutions, the outer whorl composed of about five chambers. Sutures

limbate above and depressed below. Periphery somewhat lobulated.

Wall finely punctate. Aperture situated on the ventral side at the inner

margin of ultimate chamber opening into the umbilical region,

Diameter : 0.33 mm.

Locality : Stat.ion|C,

Plate VII

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 68 (1)

Kameswara Rao : Foraminifera

Figs. 69-77 : 69. Rotalia beccarii ; 70. Rotalia venusta — (a) dorsal view, (b)

ventral view; 71. Pulvinulina concamerata ; 72. Pulvinulina oblonga (Williamson)

var. scabra; 73. Pulvinulina punctulata ; 74. Globigerina bulloides — (a) dorsal view,

(b) ventral view; 75. Globigerina clubia ; 76. Globigerinella aequilateralis ; 77.

Globorotalia menardii.

Figs. 78-84 : 78. Anomalina cimmonoides ; 79. Anomalina coronata ; 80. Pal-

merinella palmer ae ; 81. Cibicides refulgens — (a) dorsal view, (b) ventral view;

82. Cibicides lobatulus ; 83. Cibicides pseudoungeriana — (a) dorsal view, (b) ventral

view ; 84. Planulina waellerstorfi.

FORA MIN IF ER A OF THE GULF OF CAMBAY

13

Distribution : North and South Atlantic, North and South Pacific,

Hawaiian Islands, Mediterranean, Red sea, Ceylon coast and Indian

seas.

Family Anomalinidae

Subfamily Anomalininae

Genus Anomalina d’Orbigny, 1826

Anomalina ammonoides (Reuss) (Fig. 78)

Anomalina ammonoides Brady, 1884, vol. 9, p. 672, pi. 94, figs. 2, 3 ; Brady,

Parker & Jones, 1888, vol. 12, p. 228, pi. 45, figs. 20-22 ; Dakin, 1906, vol. 5,

p. 239 ; Cushman, 1915, 71(5), p. 46, pi. 19, fig. 2.

Description : Test with numerous chambers set in three or four

coils, the last coil composed of twelve to sixteen chambers ; chambers

slightly inflated. Sutures somewhat depressed. Peripheral edge

rounded. On the ventral side umbilical region depressed. Wall cal-

careous, coarsely foraminated. Aperture a narrow curved slit situated

at the base of margin of last chamber.

Diameter : 0*34 mm.

Locality : Station A.

Distribution : North Pacific, off Hawaiian Islands, Hongkong,

Chatham Island, off Guam and between Guam and Japan, Ceylon coast

and Arabian sea.

Anomalina coronata Parker and Jones (Fig. 791

Anomalina coronata Brady, 1884, vol. 9, p. 675, pi. 97, figs. 1, 2 ; Cushman, 1915,

71(5), p. 47, pi. 18, fig. 5.

Description : Test biconvex with few chambers, the umbilical region

depressed on both faces. Final whorl of test composed of eight in-

flated chambers. Wall coarsely perforated. Aperture a long curved

slit placed obliquely on the ventral side at the inner margin of

last chamber.

Diameter : 0*30 mm.

Locality : Station C.

Distribution : North Pacific, Hawaiian Islands and Arabian sea.

14 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 68 (1)

Genus Palmerinella Bermudez, 1934

Palmerinella palmerae Bermudez (Fig. 80)

Palmerinella palmerae Cushman, 1959, p. 333, pi. 54, figs. 11 a, b. c; Ganapati

& Satyavati, 1958, p. Ill, pi. 6, figs. 167, 168.

Description : Test with numerous chambers, much compressed, all

chambers visible above, but only those of the last whorl below. Wall

calcareous, coarsely perforated. Aperture long slit-like on the last

chamber in line with the peripheral margin.

Diameter : 0*33 mm.

Locality : Station A.

Distribution : Occurs in most seas.

Subfamily Cibicidinae

Genus Cibicides Montfort, 1808

Cibicides refulgens Montfort (Fig. 81 a, b)

Truncatulina refulgens Brady, 1884, vol. 9, p. 659, pi. 92, figs. 7-9 ; Cushman,

1915, 71(5), p. 30, pi. 12, fig. 2. ; Cibicides refulgens Daniel, 1949, p. 116,

figs. 85, 86; Ganapati & Satyavati, 1958, p. Ill, pi. 6, figs. 161-163.

Description : Test planoconvex, ventral side much convex, dorsal

side flat, chambers numerous, eight chambers in the final whorl ; the

early chambers on the dorsal side indistinct. Sutures on the ventral

side slightly depressed and somewhat sigmoid ; on the dorsal side sutures

broad and limbate. Periphery subcarinated. Wall calcareous, finely

perforated.

Diameter: 0T5 mm.

Locality : Station D.

Distribution : Indo-Pacific region, Kerimba Archipelago, Malay

Archipelago, Cebu, Tawi Tawi, Makyan Island, Macassar Straits and

Indian seas.

Cibicides lobatulus (Walker and Jacob) (Fig. 82).

Truncatulina lobatula Williamson, 1858, p. 59, pi. 5, figs. 121-123 ; Brady, 1884,

vol. 9, p. 660, pi. 92, fig. 10 ; pi. 93, figs. 1, 4, 5 ; pi. 95, figs. 4, 5 ; Dakin, 1906,

vol. 5, p. 238 ; Cushman, 1915, 71(5), p. 31, pi. 15, fig. 1 ; Cibicides lobatulus

Cushman, 1959, p. 335, pi. 36, fig. 11.

Description : Test planoconvex with numerous chambers. All the

chambers visible on the dorsal side and only those of outer whorl visible

FORAMlNIFER A OF THE GULF OF CAMBAY

15

ventrally ; outer whorl of seven or eight chambers. Sutures slightly

depressed. Surface of the test smooth, coarsely punctate or covered

with slight protuberances. Aperture a narrow slit situated ventrally at

the base of the final chamber.

Diameter : (M3 mm.

Locality : Station C.

Distribution : North Pacific, off Hawaiian Islands, Bering sea, Guam

and between Guam and Yokohoma, off Japan, Ceylon coast and Arabian

sea.

Cibicides pseudoungeriana (Cushman) (Fig. 83 a, b).

Truncatulina pseudoungeriana Brady, 1884, vol. 9, p. 664, pi. 94, figs. 9 a-c ;

Cibicides pseudoungeriana Cushman, 1931, 104(8), p. 123, pi. 22, figs. 3-7 ;

Daniel, 1949, p. 114, figs. 114, 145 ; Sethulekshmi Amma, 1958, p. 34, pi. 2,

figs. 49 a, b.

Description : Test circular in outline, planoconvex, chambers

numerous, the last formed whorl consists of ten or eleven chambers.

Sutures depressed below and limbate above in the earlier chambers but

become depressed in the last few chambers of the final whorl. Peripheral

margin rounded. Wall calcareous and coarsely perforated. Aperture

close to the peripheral margin on ventral side.

Diameter : 0f34 mm.

Locality : Station C.

Distribution : Atlantic and Indo-Pacific region.

Genus Planulina d’Orbigny, 1826

Planulina wuellerstorfi (Schwager) (Fig. 84).

Truncatulina wuellerstorfi Brady, 1884, vol. 9, p. 662, pi. 93, figs. 8, 9; Cushman,

1915, 71(5), p. 34, pi. 12, fig. 3 ; Planulina wuellerstorfi Cushman, 1931, 104(8),

p. 110, pi. 19, figs. 5, 6 ; Sethulekshmi Amma, 1958, p. 35, pi. 2, figs. 51 a, b.

Description : Test planoconvex, many chambered, the final whorl of

nine chambers. Sutures limbate. Peripheral margin rounded. Aper-

ture an arched opening situated at the base of last chamber.

Diameter : 0*32 mm.

Locality : Station A.

Distribution : Pacific Ocean, Panama Bay, off Hawaiian and Midway

Islands, Galapagos Islands, between Guam and Yokohama and Arabian

sea.

16 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (1)

General Considerations

Regional distribution of foraminiferal groups :

The regions along the Indian and adjacent coasts whose foramini-

feran fauna studied in some details are (1 ) Laccadive region (Chapman 1 895);

(2) Gulf of Cambay region (present investigations) ; (3) Travancore coast

off Arabian Sea (Sethulekshmi Amma 1958) ; (4) Bay of Bengal off

Visakhapatnam coast (Ganapati & Satyavati 1958) ; (5) Gulf of Mannar

off Krusadi and adjacent areas (Gnanamuthu 1943 & Daniel 1949) ;

(6) Gulf of Mannar off Ceylon coast (Dakin 1906). From the above

six regions a total number of thirty families representing various species

of Foraminifera are on record, they being Astrorhizidae, Rhizamminidae,

Saccamminidae, Hyperamminidae, Reophacidae, Ammodiscidae, Lituo-

lidae, Textularidae, Verneuilinidae, Valvulinidae, Silicinidae, Miliolidae,

Ophthalmidiidae, Trochamminidae, Lagenidae, Polymorphinidae,

Nonionidae, Camerinidae, Peneroplidae, Buliminidae, Rotaliidae,

Amphisteginidae, Calcarinidae, Cymbaloporidae, Cassidulinidae, Chilos-

tomellidae, Globigerinidae, Globorotaliidae, Anomalinidae, and Planor-

bulinidae.

Of the above families Astrorhizidae, Textularidae, Miliolidae,

Lagenidae, Nonionidae, Buliminidae, Rotaliidae, Globigerinidae, and

Anomalinidae are common to all the six regions. From the Laccadive

region a larger number of families has been recorded. The only families

not so far known from this region are Rhizamminidae, Hyperamminidae,

and Silicinidae. This region is also characterised by the presence of

members of the families Ammodiscidae, and Chilostomellidae which are

not known from any of the other five regions. The foraminifera fauna

of the Travancore coast is represented by twenty-one families. Rhizam-

minidae, Hyperamminidae, Reophacidae, Ammodiscidae, Silicinidae,

Polymorphinidae, Calcarinidae, Cassidulinidae and Chilostomellidae are

not on record from this region.

Visakhapatnam region is characterised by the members of the family

Silicinidae which is not known from other regions. Reophacidae, Ammo-

discidae, Valvulinidae, Calcarinidae, Cymbaloporidae and Chilostomellidae

are not on record.

In the Gulf of Mannar off Krusadi including adjacent areas and

Ceylon coast, the families Rhizamminidae, Ammodiscidae, Valvulinidae,

Silicinidae, Trochamminidae, Cassidulinidae and Chilostomellidae are

not known.

In the present investigation, from the Gulf of Cambay region fifteen

families have been recorded. Species recorded in the Gulf of Cambay

region but not known from any of the other five regions are (1) Quinquelo -

culina candeiana d’Orbigny, (2) Spiroloculina antillatrum d’Orbigny

aequa Cushman, (3) S. depressa var. rotundata Williamson, (4) Biloculina

FOR AMI N I. FER A OF THE GULF OF CAMBAY 17

lucernula Sch wager, (5) Nodosaria subperversa Cushman, (6) Nonion

depressula (Walker & Jacob), (7) Bolivina nitida Brady, (8) Bolivina

aenariensis (Costa), (9) Rotalia venusta Brady, (10) Pulvinulina conca -

merata Montagu, (11) P. oblonga var. scab'ra Brady, and (12) Anomalina

coronata Parker & Jones.

Nature of Sediments in stations and species abundance :

The distribution of the Foraminifera appears to have some relation-

ship to the type of bottom deposits. The sediment sample from Station

A which is an admixture of mud and a large amount of coarse sand, has

very rich foraminiferal fauna well represented both by the number of

species and abundance of specimens. Miliolidae are dominant followed

by Rotaliidae, Nonionidae and Textulariidae in the order of abundance.

Arenaceous forms belonging to the family Textulariidae are common

and lagenids are also found in the same frequency. Among the rotalids

the most common are Rotalia , Cibicides and Discorbis. The large sized

forms like Nodosaria , Spiroloculina and Textularia are abundant. Plank-

tonic Foraminifera like Globigerina bulloides , 6. dubia are present with the

former being most common. All specimens are well preserved in the

sediment with the exception of a few which have been found worn-out and

damaged.

In Station B where the texture of the sediment is of very fine particles

of mud, small forms like Bulimina , Eggerella and Lagena are most

common. The station is poor in the abundance of specimens. Miliolids

and Rotalids are sparsely present. Arenaceous forms are lacking.

Planktonic forms of the genera Globigerinella and Globigerina have been

observed. Globigerina dubia is most abundant and Globigerinella

aequilateralis very rare.

The sediment from Station C which is slightly rough being composed

of a fair amount of mud with a small proportion of sand has foramini-

fera represented by Rotaliidae, Miliolidae Nonionidae, Camerinidae,

Textulariidae and Peneroplidae. Specimens from this station have been

found to be in a good state of preservation. Planktonic forms are re-

presented by Globigerina bulloides , G. dubia, and Globorotalia menardii.

In Station D where the sediment is muddy, the fauna is extremely

poor. Bulimina and Bolivina are common. Miliolids and Rotalids

are uncommon. Planktonic forms are represented by Globigerina

bulloides and G. dubia .

In general, the foraminifera of the Gulf of Cambay are typical of

shallow tropical warm waters of Indo-Pacific region.

Summary

1. Eighty-four species of Foraminifera belonging to 34 genera

under fifteen families viz., Astrorhizidae, Textularidae, Valvulinidae,

2

18 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (1)

Miliolidae, Ophthalmidiidae, Trochamminidae, Lagenidae, Nonionidae,

Camerinidae, Peneroplidae, Buliminidae, Rotaliidae, Globigerinidae,

Globorotaliidae and Anomalinidae have been collected and reported

from dredge samples of INS ‘ Darshak ’ from the Gulf of Cambay.

2. Locations of the stations and the nature of the sediments and

foraminiferal complexes therein have been described.

3. Emphasis has been laid on the geographical distribution of the

species concerned. The foraminiferal fauna of different areas off the

coasts of Bay of Bengal and Arabian sea including Laccadive sea have

been compared.

4. Quinqueloculina candeiana , d’Orbigny, Spiroloculina antillatrum

d’Orbigny aequa Cushman, S. depressa var. rotundata Williamson,

Biloculi na lucernula Schwager, Nodosctria subperversa Cushman, Nonion

depressula (Walker & Jacob), Bolivina nitida Brady, Bolivina cienariensis

(Costa), Rotalia venusta Brady, Pulvinulina concamerata Montagu,

P. oblonga var. scabra Brady, and Anomalina coronata Parker & Jones

have been reported for the first time from the Indian coasts.

5. The relationship of Foraminifera to the type of bottom deposits

has been briefly discussed with regard to their species distribution and

abundance.

Acknowledgements

The author takes the opportunity to express his sinceregratitudetoDr.

N. K. Panikkar, Director, National Institute of Oceanography, C.S.I.R.,

New Delhi for suggesting the problem and advice, and to Dr. T. S. Satya-

narayana Rao, Scientist-in-charge of the Branch of the National Institute

of Oceanography at Bombay for constant encouragement given during

the course of the investigations. Thanks are due to the officers and crew

of INS ‘ Darshak ’ for the collections of the dredge samples and data.

FORAMINIFERA OF THE GULF OF CAMBAY

19

References

Anon, (1939) : Marine deposits of

Arabian Sea. Nature , 144:841-842.

(1944): Pelagic Foramini-

fera. ibid. 153 : 322.

Bagg, R. M. (1908) : Foraminifera

collected near the Hawaiian Islands by

the steamer "Albatross’ in 1902. Proe.

U.S . Nat. Mus. 34.

Brady, H. B. (1884) : Report on the

Foraminifera. Challenger, Zoology, 9 :

1-814.

5 Parker, W. K. & Jones,

T. R. (1888) : On some Foraminifera

from the Abrohlos Bank. Trans. Zoo.

Soc. London, 12: 211-240.

Carpenter, W. B., Parker, W. K. &

Jones, T. R. (1862) : Introduction to the

study of the Foraminifera. Ray Soc.

Publ. London.

Carter, H. J. (1880) : Report on

specimens dredged from the Gulf of

Mannar. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. Ser. 5,

5, 6, and 7.

Chapman, F. (1895) : On some For-

aminifera obtained by the Royal Indian

Survey Ship. SS ‘Investigator’ from the

Arabian Sea. Proc. Zool. Soc. London,

pp. 1-55.

— (1902) : The Foraminifera.

Vol. 8, Longman, Green & Co.

(1910) : On the Foramini-

fera and Ostracoda from soundings

chiefly deep water collected round the

Funafuti a toll by H.M.S. Penguin. Jour.

Linn. Soc. Zoology. 30.

Cushman, J. A. (1910-17) : A mono-

graph of the Foraminifera of the North

Pacific Ocean. U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 71.

— (1917) : New species and

varieties of Foraminifera from the

Philippines and adjacent waters. Proc.

U. S. Nat. Mus. 51.

(1921) : Foraminifera of the

Philippine and adjacent Seas. U.S.

Nat. Mus. Bull. 100.

— — (1918-31) : The Foramini-

fera of the Atlantic Ocean, ibid. 104

(1942): The Foraminifera of the tropical

Pacific Collections of the “ Albatross ” ,

1899-1900. ibid. 161.

— (1959) : Foraminifera.

Cambridge, Mass. Harvard University

Press.

Dakin, W. J. (1906) : Report on the

Foraminifera collected by Professor

Herdman, at Ceylon in 1902. Rept.

Ceylon Pearl Oyster Fisheries, 5,pp.225-

242.

Daniel, J. C. (1949) : Encrusting For-

aminifera of Krusadai Island. Jour.

Madras Univ. 18 : 27-37.

(1949) : The Foramini-

fera of Krusadai Island and adjacent

areas. M.Sc. thesis, Univ. of Madras,

Dept, of Zoology.

Ganapati, P. N. & Satyavati, P.

(1958) : Report on the Foraminifera in

bottom sediments in the Bay of Bengal off

the east coast of India. Andhra Univ.

Mem. Oceanogr. 11 : 100-127.

Gnanamuthu, C. P. (1943) : For-

aminifera of Krusadai Island. Bull.

Madras Govt. Mus. 2, (5) : 1-21.

Heron-Allen & Earland (1914-15) :

The Foraminifera of the Kerimba Archi-

pelago. Trans. Zool. Soc. London 20,

pt. 1, 1914. pt. II, 1915.

Hofker, J. (1927) : Foraminifera of

Siboga Expedition. Siboga Exped.

Monogr. 4(1) : 1-78.

(1930) : Foraminifera of

Siboga Expedition, ibid. 4a : 79-170.

Lankester, E. R. (1903) : Treatise on

Zoology, Pt. 1, Protozoa, pp. 47-149.

Millett, F. W. (1898-1904) : Report

on the recent Foraminifera of the Malay

Archipelago. Jour. Roy. Micr. Soc.

p. 406.

Nuttal, W. L. F. (1927) : The localities

whence the Foraminifera figured in

Report of H.M.S. Challenger by Brady

were derived. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.

19 (9) : 209-241.

Sethulekshmi Amma, J. (1958) :

Foraminifera of the Travancore Coast.

Bull. Res. Inst. Univ. Kerala. Ser. C.

VI (1): 1-88.

Stubbings, H. G. (1939) : Stratifi-

cation of biological remains of marine

deposits of the Arabian Sea. Br. Mus.

(Nat. Hist.). John Murray Exped. 1933-

34; Sci. Rept., 1939, 3 (2): 31.

Williamson, W. C. (1858) : On the

recent Foraminifera of Great Britain.

Ray Soc. Publ. London , pp. 107.

Maturation and Spawning of

Bregmaceros mcClellandi (Thompson)

BY

Arun Parulekar1 and D. V. Bal2

Institute of Science , Bombay

(i With a plate and three text-figures)

The maturation and spawning behaviour of Bregmaceros mcClellandi

(Thompson), a common gadid fish of Bombay, is studied for the first time.

The structure of gonads and the stages of maturity have been clearly des-

cribed. The season and periodicity of spawning is determined by ova-

diameter measurements and distribution of maturity stages in different

months . Fecundity or reproductive potential in relation to different variables

is estimated and the equations for conversion found out. The minimum

size at maturity is discussed. Ponderal index or condition factor, in

respect of size and time, has been determined for both the sexes.

Introduction

The gadid fish, Bregmaceros mcClellandi (Thompson), locally known

as 6 Bengali ’ is quite common around Bombay. It occurs almost

throughout the year and contributes about 3000 metric tons to the total

annual fish landings made by mechanised and indigenous crafts at Bombay.

Except for a short account on the food and feeding habits of this fish by

Bapat 8c Bal (1952), very little information about its biology is available.

Material and Methods

The present study is based on observations of 2000 fish during a

period of 18 months in the years 1962-64. The material was collected,

once a week from the ‘ dol ’ net catches off the local fish-landing

centres at Sassoon Dock and Versova.

The fish were properly cleaned, measured, weighed and sexed. The

gonads were weighed and their colour and length, noted. A small part

of each ovary was examined, microscopically, for determining the stage of

maturity. The gonads were then preserved in 5 % formalin, for further

examination. The spawning habits were studied by direct observations

on mature and spawning fish as well as by measuring the diameter of

intra-ovarian eggs. Details of the method of study and discussion are

included in the appropriate section of the paper.

1 National Institute of Oceanography, Miramar, Panaji, Goa.

2 Kirti College, Bombay-28.

MATURATION AND SPAWNING OF B, mcClellandi

21

Maturation of Gonads

The seasonal changes in the development and maturation of gonads,

was studied on the basis of arbitrary classification of maturity stages.

The classification, which corresponds with the maturity stages adopted by

the International Council for the Exploration of Seas, is based on obser-

vations, on the formation and extrusion of milt in the testes, and ova-

diameter range and yolk-formation in the ovaries. Fish less than 50 mm.

were indeterminate juveniles.

Male

Immature Stage I

f Stage II

j

Maturing-I Stage III

. Stage IV

f Stage V

I

Mature 4

[ Stage VI

Spent Stage VII

Testes in the form of thin thread-like strips of tissue.

Crystalline-white in colour, and measuring about

3-5 mm. in length.

Testes slightly thick and compact. White in colour.

Gonad length 5-9 mm.

Testes 9-16 mm. in length. Dorsal wall of each lobe

with a prominent ridge. Milt formation commences.

Testes much flattened and elongated (14-22 mm.). White

to milky-white in colour. Milt oozes out on hard

pressing.

Testes quite large occupying more than 3/4 of the abdo-

minal space. Milky-white in colour. Length 20-

30 mm. Though turgid, there is no oozing of milt.

More or less as Stage V. Milt oozes out on slightest

pressure.

No milt. Testes hard and dull-white in appearance.

Female

(Plate I)

Immature Stage

Stage

i

Maturity 4

Stage

l Stage

I Translucent and faint-white ovary, with minute ova

having a distinct nucleus and clear cytoplasm. Length

and weight of ovary varying between 3-5 mm. and

10-18 mgm., respectively. Largest ova 0T83 mm. in

diameter.

II Ovarian lobes well-developed and asymmetrical (right

shorter than the left). White to light-red in colour.

Length and weight of ovary varies from 4-12 mm. and

15-45 mgm., respectively.

III Ovaries gain in weight. Rosy in colour. A few large

ova measuring up to 0'444 mm. in diameter. Yolk

formation is in initial stages. Length and weight of

ovary generally, varies between 6-17 mm. and 20-

55 mgm., respectively.

IV Ovaries containing rounded ova. Dark in appearance

due to heavy yolk deposition. Peripheral part of ova

having vacuolar appearance. Ovarian length and

weight varies within the range of 9-21 mm. and 35-

70 mgm., respectively. Largest ova up to 0’570 mm.

in diameter.

22 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Fo/. 68 (1)

Ovaries appear more flattened and have a light-red

coloration. Ova with evenly spread granulated yolk.

Largest ova is 0-583 mm. in diameter. Length and

weight of ovary in the range of 12-29 mm. and 65-

270 mgm. respectively.

Ovaries very much distended. Ripe ova free in ovarian

space and occasionally come out through the oviduct.

Ova heavily yolk-ladened. Oil-globule absent. Dark

and granular yolk frequently forming a central pasty

core. Presence of a clear, colourless, fluid-filled peri-

vitelline space. Length and weight of ovary varying

between 15-35 mm. and 90-343 mgm., respectively.

Largest ova measures 0*841 mm. or more in diameter.

Blood-shot, wrinkled and thick-walled ovary, contain-

ing a few residual ova.

URATiON of Ovarian Eggs

The maturation of ovarian eggs, through different months, was studied

by taking ova-diameter measurements of intra-ovarian eggs, in different

stages of growth. The procedure followed was the same as that

of Clark (1934). The measurements were taken with an Oculometer,

giving a magnification of 1 m.d.= 0*07 mm. From each ovary, irrespec-

tive of its stage of maturity, 500-800 ova, on an average, were measured,

and in all 300 ovaries, examined. The measurements were grouped at

intervals of 5 m.d. each.

The maturation of intra-ovarian eggs takes place by striking changes

in the size and structure of the ova. The oocytes are formed by proli-

feration of germinal epithelium of the ovary. The developing ova are

borne on the ovigerous lamellae, traversing the ovary. The maturation

of the oocyte is accompanied by the deposition of yolk-granules in the

cytoplasm, therein transforming the tiny transparent oocyte into a big

opaque ripe ovum.

The monthly variations in the percentage of ova-diameter measure-

ments, as shown in Fig. 1, reveals that the intra-ovarian eggs begin to

mature from December (56*04 % of stage V ova) and further advancement

in maturation continues up to May. Details of the progression, can be

summarized as follows :

{a) In June, the ovary predominantly contains immature ova of

size described under Stage I.

(b) In July and August, majority of ova are in the Stages II and III.

(< c ) From September to November, the ovaries contain ova of the

size described under Stage IV.

( d ) From December to May, mature and ripe ova of Stages V and

VI are conspicuous. The ripe ova (Stage VI), first appear in January

and subsequently their percentage goes on increasing till May.

{ Stage V

Mature ^

l Stage VI

Spent Stage VII

Mat

MATURATION AND SPAWNING OF B. mcClellandi 23

The above-mentioned observations tend to show that the spawning

season of B . mcClellandi , falls during the months of December to May.

tvs »CROfvi ETER DsviS«ONS

F^.l

Spawning Season

The spawning season of B, mcClellandi was determined by macro-

scopic examination of gonads in different months. Presented in Table 1

is the maturity stage-distribution data of males and females in different

months.

O U. 23

24 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 68 (1)

Table 1 shows that the fish in Stage V occurs throughout the year

in varying numbers and individuals in Stages VI and VII form low per-

centages. Such low occurrence of actual spawners and spent fish in the

Table 1

Maturity Stages

d $

776 812

commercial catches may be due to the spawning migrations of the species.

Bapat & Bal (1952) collected post-larvae of B. mcClellandi in plankton

samples from fishing grounds, 5-8 miles away from the coast, which

suggests the possibility of spawning migrations.

The number of individuals, as seen in Table 1 of boih the sexes in

Stage V, goes on increasing from October to May with the highest percent-

age (72*22 %) in April. In June, there is a sudden decline in the occurrence

of Stage V fish and it continues up to September. From these observa-

tions, it can be presumed that the Stage V females in October might

spawn within the next two months. This presumption is supported by

the appearance of Stage VI individuals in December. Although the

number of such individuals is rather low, its very presence in the months

of December to May indicates that B. mcClellandi has a prolonged breed-

ing season, extending from December to May.

Spawning Periodicity :

The spawning periodicity in B. mcClellandi was determined by cri-

tically examining the distribution of ova-diameter frequencies in 20

ovaries, of which 12 were in Stage V and 8 in Stage VI, respectively.

MAW RAJ ION AND SPAWNING OF B. mcClellandi

25

A close examination of frequency polygons in Fig. 2, reveals that

there are three distinct groups of ova, represented by modes ‘ a ‘b* and

‘c\ respectively. The mode ‘ a ’ at 5-9 m.d. represents the immature

stock. The maturing ova are represented by mode ‘ b ’ at 10-14 m.d.,

while mature ova (mode ‘ c ’) are spread within the wide range of 25-49

m.d. Thus the mature ova cover more than half the total range of

intra-ovarian eggs.

Prabhu (1956) observed, 4 in species, exhibiting the spawning of

longer duration, the range in size of mature ova is nearly half the total

range of intra-ovarian eggs of the entire ovary \ Hence, from ova-

diameter measurements, it is evident that B. mcClellandi has a prolonged

26 JOURNAL , tfOA'/iMy NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 68 (1)

breeding season. Since the mature ova (mode ‘ c ’) are clearly differen-

tiated from the immature and the maturing ones, it is clear that there

is a definite periodicity in spawning and that the species may spawn in

succession, during a definite breeding season (Hickling & Rutenberg

1936). By the time withdrawal of mature ova is effected, the other

batches of egg attain maturity and are ready to be spawned, in the same

spawning season (Prabhu 1956).

Fecundity :

Ova from 33 ovaries of Stages V and VI, were counted for assessing

the reproductive potential and also to establish the relationship between

fecundity and three different variables, namely, total length, body weight

and gonad weight. The procedure of Bagenal (1957), was adopted for

counting the eggs. The fecundity in B. mcClellandi varies between

1161 and 6015 and the details are as shown in Table 2.

Table 2

Total Length, Body Weight, Gonad Weight and Fecundity of

33 Specimens of B .mcClellandi

NUCLEUS

Plate 1

II

12 tnd.

VACUOLAR yOLk^

granular VOLK

t

yoLK ORANULES

5mdl Co -07171^2)

#

MATURATION AND SPAWNING OF B. mcClellandi

27

The equations, expressing the relationship, between fecundity and

the variables, were calculated by the method of least squares, and these

were found to be :

Length and Fecundity : Y - (-1*9607) + 2*8325 X

Body weight and Fecundity : Y = 1*1961 -f 0*6563 X

Gonad weight and Fecundity : Y == 0*5459 -f 1*2857 X

where Y — Log F (Fecundity) and X = log. of the variable.

Minimum Size at Maturity :

The size at first maturity was determined by grouping the specimen

into 5 mm. size groups and by classifying them into immature, maturing,

mature and spent, depending upon the condition of gonads. It was

observed that all fish below 50 mm. were indeterminate juveniles and

those between 50-60 mm. were, immature. The maturing fish dominate

the size group of 61-65 mm. The mature fish which first appeared in

66-70 mm. size group, were, thereafter, recorded in all the size groups

up to 100 mm. Hence, it may be inferred that the fish attains maturity

at 66-70 mm. size. The inference is supported by the occurrence of

spent fish, for the first time, in the same size group of 66-70 mm,

28 JOURNAL . BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 68 (1)

Pondera 1 Index :

Ponderal index or condition factor for males and females, was calcu-

W

lated separately, by the usual formula K = x 100, where ‘ K ’ is

the ponderal index, ‘ W ’ the weight of fish and ‘ L ’ the length of fish.

As shown in Fig. 3, the ‘ K ’ value for males in 51-55 mm. size group

is higher than the corresponding value for females. This observation

probably suggests that in earlier stages of growth, the males have a

tendency to grow faster than the females. From 55-60 mm. size group,

the values for both the sexes go on decreasing until they reach the mini-

mum in 66-70 mm. size group. The point of inflexion at 66-70 mm.,

indicates the length at which the maturity is attained (Hart 1946).

The gradual increase in 4 K ’ values of fish larger than 70 mm. is in

accordance with the recovery from metabolic strain due to spawning.

The monthly variations in ‘ K ’ values for both the sexes exhibit

similarity. The decrease in values during December to May is due to

spawning, whereas the gradual rise, as seen in Fig. 3, from June to

August can be attributed to the post-spawning recovery.

References

Bagenal, T. B. (1957) : Annual varia-

tions in Fish Fecundity. J. Mar. Biol.

Ass. U.K. 36 : 377.

Bapat, S. V. & Bal, D. V. (1952) :

The food of young fishes from Bombay

Waters. Proc . Indian Acad. Sci. (B)

36 : 105.

Clark, F. N. (1934): Maturity of

Californian Sardine ( Sardinela caerulea )

determined by ova-diameter measure-

ments. Calif. Div. Fish & Game, Fishery

Bulletin 10.

Hart, T. J. (1946) : Report on trawl-

ing surveys on Patagonian Shelf. Dis-

covery Reports 23 : 223.

Hickling, C. F. & Rutenberg, E.

(1936) : Ovary as an indicator of spawning

period in fishes. J. Mar. Biol. Ass. U.K.

21 : 211.

Prabhu, M. S. (1956) : Maturation of

intra-ovarian eggs and spawning perio-

dicities in some fishes. Indian J. Fish.

3 : 59.

Orchids of Nepal — 4

BY

M. L. Banerji1 and B, B Thapa2

[Continued from Vol. 67 (2) : 152]

In this instalment, species of Chrysoglossum Bl., Liparis Reiclib.,

Malaxis Soland ex Sw. and Oberonia Lindl. that have been reported by

others and collected by the authors from Nepal, are described. These

genera, according to Schultes & Pease (1963) fall under the series Acran -

thae of tribe Kerosphaeroideae, thus the subtribes are indicated for

convenience. Also, as suggested, we have added a key to the genera.

Artificial key to the genera

Pollinia append iculate. Viscidium rudimentary, caudicle viscous. Sepals sub-

equal, two lateral ones connate to form a sac and adnate to the base of label-

lum. Labellum auricled at base, adpressed to the column and adnate to it

Column slender Chrysoglossum (Collabieae)

Pollinia not appendiculate. Viscidium and caudicle absent —

Petals very much smaller than the sepals. Labellum more or less flat with

hollow auricled lobes. Column short, winged. Anther on the back of the

column. Pollinia not deciduous. Plants terrestrial Malaxis (Liparideae)

Petals narrower than sepals. Labellum adnate to the base of the column, basal

lobes nil, posteriorly placed by resupination, edge toothed or fringed. Column

long, curved, slightly winged at the apex. Plants terrestrial or epiphytic. . . ,

Liparis (Liparideae)

Flowers minute. Sepals subequal, petals smaller than the sepals. Labellum

usually 3-lobed, hypochiie concave, column very short ; caudicle absent.

Plants epiphytic Oberonia (Liparideae)

Chrysoglossum B 1 .

Terrestrial orchids with a creeping rhizome, pseudobulbs narrow or

absent, with a solitary leaf which is elliptic-lanceolate. Flowering

scape lateral from the rhizome, erect ; flowers in a lax raceme. Sepals

subequal, lateral sepals connate into a mentum with the base of the lip,

petals narrower than the sepals. Lip not jointed on the column, erect,

broadly 3-lobed, sometimes the base auricled. Column incurved, margin

2 auricled or in some lobed to the middle ; anthers 2-celled, pollinia 2,

not connected.

1 University of Kalyani, Kalyani, W. Bengal.

2 Horticultural Assistant, Indian Co-operation Mission, Kathmandu.

30 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 68 (1)

Chrysoglossum erraticum Hk.f. Ic. PI. t. 2062, 1891 ; F.B.I. 5 : 784,

1890.

Flowers green, spotted brown, sepals and petals falcately oblong-

lanceolate, acute. Lip hastately 3-lobed, base with 2 auricles, side-

lobes broad, recurved, mid-lobe orbicular, spur very short.

Flowering during July and August. Collected from Bajrabarahi at

c. 1220 m. In F.B.I. Hooker mentions under the species as only one

specimen seen ; we have found this species only at one locality, and

there were five plants growing. It may be a rare species.

Liparis Reichb.

The genus is closely allied to Malaxis in its habit. Plants are terres-

trial rarely epiphytic, pseudobulbs usually present or absent. Leaves

solitary or more, membraneous or coriaceous either continuous with

their sheath or jointed on the sheath. Flowers generally small or of

medium size in a raceme, resupinate. Sepals spreading, recurved with

margins often rolled inwards. Petals as long as the sepals, very slender.

Lip adnate to the base of the column, usually broad; column long, curved

with 2 small wings on the sides of the stigmatic surface.

Artificial key to the species of Liparis

A. Lip not crenulate ; leaves 2, 3 or 4 —

B. Sepals 1 -nerved—

C. Flowering scape flattened or winged. Leaves 2 or 3 platyrachis

CC. Flowering scape not flattened or winged—

D. Leaves 3 - 4 ; column broadly winged at base and wings with a capillary

tail resupinata

DD. Leaves 3; column short, obscure viridiflora

BB. Sepals 5-nerved. Lip with 2 callii togashii

A A. Lip crenulate ; leaf solitary ; sepals 3-nerved—

B. Leaf broad, rounded-ovate, deeply cordate, nerves few and faint

cordifolia

BB. Leaf oblong or linear-oblong, nerves many and slender glossula

Liparis cordifolia Hk. f. Ic. PI. t. 1811, 1889 ; F.B.I. 5 : 692, 1890 ;

King & Pantl. 24, t. 28, 1896 ; Hara in FI. Eastern Himal. 440, 1966.

Plants with short and stout stem, leaf sessile, broad, rounded-ovate,

deeply cordate, nerves few and faint. Sepals lanceolate, 3 nerved ;

petals with recurved margins. Lip large, flat, obcordate or orbicular-

obovate, apiculate, crenulate, yellowish green, base narrow, callus

obscure. Flowering during July to September. Collected from

Sundarijal below Sheopuri. Distributed at 1650 m.

ORCHIDS OF NEPAL-4 31

L. glossula Reichb. f. in Linnaea 41 : 43, 1877 ; F.B.I. 5 : 693, 1890 ;

Kitamura in Fau. & FI. Nep. Himal. 104, 1955.

Plants 5-8 cm. high, leaf solitary, sessile or shortly petioled oblong or

linear-oblong, not jointed at the base on the leaf-sheath, nerves many,

slender. Inflorescence stout, 10-15 cm. long, many-flowered. Flowers

c. 1.5 cm. across, light green with a purple tinge. Sepals lanceolate,

acute, 3-nerved. Lip large, broadly obovate-oblong, cuspidate, crenu-

late and overlying the lateral sepals, callus absent. Authority Kitamura.

L. platyrachis Hk. f. Ic. PI. t. 1890 ; F.B.I. 5 : 706, 1890 ; King &

Pantl. 34, t. 45, 1898 ; Hara, 441, 1966.

Plants small, leaves 2-3, jointed at the base upon the leaf-sheath.

Inflorescence much longer than the leaves, scape flattened or winged.

Flowers c. 4 mm. across ; sepals falcate, oblong, 1-nerved. Lip much

shorter than the sepals, recurved, basal portion of the lip with two auri-

cles. Authority Hara.

L. resupinata Ridley in Journ. Linn. Soc. 22 : 290, 1886 ; Hk. f. Ic.

PI. t. 1888, 1889 ; F.B.I. 5 : 705, 1890 ; King & Pantl. 36, t. 48, 1898 ;

Hara, 441, 1966.

Plants small c.x 2.5 cm. high ; leaves 3-4, sessile, linear-lanceolate,

acuminate, submembraneous, 7-nerved. Inflorescence slender, more

than 10 cm. in length, many-flowered, bracts exceeding the length of the

pedicels. Flowers c. 8 mm. across, yellow, sepals broadly oblong,

margin rolled inwards, 1-nerved. Lip broadly ovate-oblong, basal lobes

rounded. Authority Hara.

L. togashii Tuyama in Hara. FI. Eastern Himal. 441, 1966.

Plants small, leaves 3, linear-oblanceolate, acute or acuminate.

Inflorescence smaller than the leaves, bracts smaller. Flowers

c. 4*5 mm. across ; sepals linear-oblong ; lip much shorter than the

sepals ovate-triangular, callii two. Authority Hara.

L. viridiflora (Bl.) Lindl. Gen. et Spec. Orch. 31, 1830 ; F.B.I. 5 :

704, 1890 ; Holttum, FI. Malaya, 1 : 203, 1890 ; Hara, 443, 1966.

Malaxis viridiflora Bl. Bijdr. 392, t. 54, 1825 ; Liparis longipes Lindl. ex

Wall. PI. Asiat. Rar. 1 : 31, t. 35, 1830, et Gen. et Spec. Orch. 30, 1830 ;

F.B.I, 5 : 703, 1890 ; King & Pantl. 29, t. 37, 1898.

Leaves 2, jointed at the base upon the leaflsheath. Inflorescence

10-15 cm. long, many-flowered, flowers very small, yellowish or whitish

green ; sepals flat, broad not widely spreading, 1-nerved. Lip as long

as the sepals, orbicular-ovate, very obscurely 3-lobed, callus absent,

column short and incurved. Authority Hara.

32 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 68 (1)

Malaxis Soland ex Sw.

Microstylis is a later name for Malaxis , thus according to the rules

of Botanical Nomenclature, Malaxis should, therefore, be used. These

are terrestrial or rarely epiphytic orchids. The stem is creeping with

erect leafy branches. Leaves broad, often unequal-sided at the base,

thin, more or less plicate, sheathing at the base. The Inflorescence is

terminal, few or many flowered raceme, flowers small, sepals free or the

lateral ones connate. Lip sessile, erect or spreading, entire or 3-lobed,

concave to saccate, often with a hollow near the base usually with 2

large lobes, the auricles, close to the sides of the column and extending

downwards ; column very short, terete, hollow at the top, apex toothed,

with or without fleshy arms. Anthers terminal, sessile, erect on the back

of the column with its tip pointed upwards, pollinia 4, waxy. Fruit

is a capsule which is either ovoid or ellipsoid. The genus Malaxis is

distinguished from Liparis in having a superior lip and a very short wing-

less column, while in Liparis the lip is inferior, and the column is long

with its upper part winged.

. Artificial key’to the species of Malaxis

A. Sides of lip not produced into auricles ; leaves 2 ; flowers yellowish green

lmiscifera

AA. Sides of lip produced into auricles —

B. Bracts shorter than the ovary —

C. Inflorescence scape 8-20 cm. long ; flowers golden-yellow with reddish brown

round the column, c. 1.8 cm. in diam josephiana

CC. Inflorescence scape 20-25 cm. long; flowers greenish-purple or yellowish,

c. 8 mm. in diam acuminata

BB. Bracts equalling or longer than the ovary—

C. Plants c. 4-5 cm. high ; leaves 3-4 ; flowers 4 mm. in diam khasiana

CC. Plants c. 50 cm. tall ; leaves' 2 ; flowers 8 mm. in diam tamurensis

Malaxis acuminata D. Don, Prodr. FI. Nep. 29, 1825 ; Hara, 443, 1966.

Microstylis wallichiana Lindl. Gen. et Spec. Orch. 20, 1830 ; F.B.I.

5 : 686, 1890 ; King & Pantl. 15, t. 18, 1898.

Flowers pedicellate, pedicels c. 1 cm. long, yellowish green, purplish

near the centre, c. 8 mm. in diam., sepals oblong, lateral sepals oblong,

3-5-nerved, shorter than the dorsal, dorsal sepal 1-3-nerved ; petals 3-

nerved, linear, longer than the sepals. Lip shield-like, broadly ovate,

tip notched, auricles straight and slightly overlapping. Flowering during

July and August. Collected from Tarebhir to Nagi ; Nagarjung;

Kakni ; Dhunibesi ; below Sheopuri. Widely distributed at 1650 m.

In F.B.I. and also in FI. East. Himal. a variety biloba is mentioned,

which has bracts usually longer, shorter pedicels and the blade of the

ORCHIDS OF NEPAL— 4

33

lip is contracted, but we have not been able to collect any specimen that

would compare well with the description of the variety.

M. josephiana (Reichb. f.) O. Ktz. Rev. Gen. 2 : 673, 1891. Micros -

tylis josephiana Reichb. f. in Hk. Bot. Mag. t. 6325, 1868 ; F.B.I. 5 :

687, 1890.

Inflorescence loosely-flowered, flowers large c. 1*8 cm. in diam. golden-

yellow with reddish-brown round the column, sepals broad, connate at

the base, 3-nerved, dorsal sepal saccate at the base ; petals broadly

linear. Lip deeply cupped, auricles short, broad, rounded, column very

short, thickly winged. Flowering during June and July. Collected from

Ranibari ; Sankhu. Distributed at 1200 m.

Mo khasiana (Hk. f.) O. Ktz. Rev. Gen. 2 : 673, 1891. Microstylis

khasiana Hk. f. Ic. PI. 19, t. 1831, 1889 ; F.B.I. 5 : 686, 1890.

Plants c. 4-5 cm. high, leaves 3-4. Flowers brownish-red, c. 4 mm.

in diam., bracts equalling the ovary ; sepals broad, hooded, auricle of

the lip, obtuse, shorter than or equalling the blade, blade constricted

into a broadly rounded terminal lobe. Flowering during June and July.

Collected from Chainpur ; below Sheopuri ; Dhunibesi. Distributed

at 1220 to 1525 m.

M. muscifera (Lindl.) O. Ktz. Rev. Gen. PI. 2 : 673, 1891 ; Hara, 444,

1966. Dienia muscifera Lindl. Gen. et. Spec. Orch. 23, 1830. Micros-

tylis muscifera (Lindl.) Ridley in Journ. Linn. Soc. 24 : 333, 1888; F.B.I.

5 : 689, 1890 ; King & Pantl. 20, t. 25, 1898 ; Kitamura, Fau. & FI.

Nep. Himal. 104, 1955.

Plants usually 15-30 cm. tall, leaves 2, sessile. Inflorescence a dense

flowered raceme, flowers minute, c. 3 mm. in diam., pale yellowish-green ;

sepals broadly lanceolate, petals linear. Lip ovate, acute, abruptly

pointed, no auricles, column sessile. Flowering during July and August.

Collected from Sheopuri to Bagdoar ; also Chum Gompha (Kitamura).

Distributed at 1825 to 3500 m.

M. tamurensis Tuyama in Hara; FI. Eastern Himal. 444, 1966.

Plants c. 50 cm. tall, leaves 2, nerves 7, prominent. Inflorescence

dense-flowered, bracts longer than the ovary, flowers c. 8 mm. in diam.,

sepals deflexed. Lip 5 mm. long and 6 mm. broad, more or less rounded

quadrangular, sides produced into teeth or lobes, apex truncate and

subirregular, column small, not appendiculate. Authority Hara.

Oberonia Lindl.

Erect or pendulous, tufted epiphytic orchids, which are unique.

Holttum describes them as 4 the plants are easy to recognise owing to

their much flattened leaves, looking as though they have been put into a

3

34 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VoL 68 (1)

press. The leaves are so flattened laterally that they have practically no

upper surface except at the sheathing base He adds ‘ the flowers are

never more than 2 mm. long and hardly more than 1 mm The flowers

are usually greenish to yellowish, orange or red, sometimes rich brown,

they are often beautifully shaped. The inflorescence continues to grow

at the base after the middle part is mature ; the middle flowers open first

and the basal flowers usually last of all. Usually many fruits are pro-

duced’. Sepals are equal among themselves, erect or reflexed, petals

usually narrower and shorter. Lip is sessile, concave at the base, fim-

briate, entire or more or less 3-lobed.

Artificial key to the species of Oberonia

A. Leaves ensiform —

B. Side-lobes or all lobes of the lip deeply toothed or lacinate —

C. Leaves more than 3 cm. long ; flowers pale green ; mid-lobe of lip

broadly bifid at tip iridifolia

CC. Plants small, leaves c. 2'5 cm. long ; flowers reddish-yellow ; mid-lobe

of lip truncate, side-lobes pectinately toothed clarkei

BB. Lip entire or 3-lobed, margins quite entire or erose but never pectinate —

CC. Petals broad, oblong or ovate —

D. Petals and lip pubescent ; lip longer than the sepals, mid-lobe

obcordate ensiformis

DD. Lip longer than the sepals, mid-lobe deeply 2-lobed

myriantha

CC. Petals linear—

D. Lip orbicular or rounded-ovate, entire or obscurely lobed

pachyrachi

DD. Lip with very small side-lobes, mid-lobe long —

E. Lip twice as long as the sepals, side-lobes obscure at the base ;

bracts lanceolate caulescens

EE. Lip longer than the sepals, side-lobes filiform, bracts setaceous

rufilabris

AA. Leaves falcate ; petals linear-oblong. Lip twice as long as the sepals, side-

lobes small, directed upwards, mid-lobe deeply bifid falcata

AAA. Leaves all radical, elongate, terete, fleshy. Lip with two curved spurs on

each side of its tip myosurus

Oberonia caulescens Lindl. Fol. Orcli. Oberon. 7, 1852 et Gen. et Spec.

Orch. 15, 1830 ; F.B.I. 5 : 682, 1890.

Plants with slender stem, leaves ensiform. Flowers subwhorled,

pale, bracts lanceolate ; petals narrow. Lip twice as long as the sepals,

obscurely lobed at the base and with two parallel lobes at the tip.

Flowering during May. Collected from Those to Bhitrikhani. Distri-

buted at c. 2250 m.

ORCHIDS OF NEPAL-4

35

O. clarkei Hk. f. Ic. PI. t. 1779, 1888 ; F.B.I. 5 : 676, 1890.

Plants small with leaves c. 2*5 cm., ensiform. Flowers very minute,

whorled, reddish-yellow ; petals broadly ovate, obtuse, nearly as long

as sepals. Lip 3-lobed, equalling the sepals, side-lobes pectinately too-

thed, midlobe small, truncate. Flowering during January to March.

Collected from Hitaura-Bindraban forest area. Distributed at 510 m.

O. ensiformis (Sm. ex. Rees) Lindl. Fol. Orch. Oberon. 4, 1852 ;

F.B.I. 5 : 679, 1890 ; King & Pantl. 9, t. 9, 1898. Malaxis ensiformis

Sm. in Rees, Cycl. 22, n. 4, 1812.

Plants with ensiform leaves. Flowers c. 2 mm., orange yellow ;

petals broad, ovate, pubescent. Lip longer than or equalling the sepals,

pubescent, side-lobes broad, rounded, midlobe obcordate. Flowering

during September and October. Collected from Lamidanda ; Pokhra.

Distributed at 1220 m.

In F.B.I. Hooker mentions that the lip is hardly longer than the sepals.

Our observations agree with those of Santapau & Kapadia ( J . Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 51 : 257, 1960).

O. falcata King & Pantl. in Journ. Asiat. Soc. Beng. 64 (2) : 329, 1895

et. Ann. Roy. Bot. Gard. Calc. 8 : 12, t. 14, 1898 ; Hara, 445, 1966.

Leaves falcate. Flowers minute, yellowish green ; petals linear-

oblong ; lip twice as long as the sepals, broadly oblong, slightly depressed

below the column, side-lobes directed outwards, small, midlobe deeply

bifid, divergent. Flowering during July. Distributed commonly at

2100-2300 m. Authority Hara.

O. iridifolia (Roxb.) Lindl. Gen. et Spec. Orch. 15, 1830 ; F.B.I. 5 :

675, 1890; King & Pantl. 8, t. 8, 1898; Holttum, 215, 1953; Hara

445, 1966. Cymbidium iridifolium Roxb. FI. Ind. ed. 2, 3 : 458,

1832. Malaxis iridifolia (Roxb.) Reichb. f. in Walp. Ann. 6 : 208, 1861.

Plants with ensiform leaves more than 3 cm. long. Flowers pale

green in close whorls ; sepals subequal, reflexed ; petals oblong, erose

reflexed. Lip more or less quadrate being broader than long, glabrous

or slightly pubescent, sides deeply toothed, tip broadly bifid. Flowering

during August and September. Collected from Hitaura ; Pokhra ;

Brajabarahi ; Sankhu ; Dhunibesi. Distributed at 510 to 1220 m.

We have not been able to make out the varieties as given by Hooker

in F.B.I., as the lips are not only longer than their breadth but also the

tip is bifid, thus the characters of the two var. have been combined.

O, myosurus Lindl Gen. et Spec. Orch. 16, 1830 ; F.B.I. 5 : 685, 1890.

Plants with leaves elongate, linear, terete, slightly curved. Flowers

pale ; petals narrow, linear ; lateral lobes of lip rounded, sinuate toothed,

36 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (I)

midlobe of lip oblong-quadrate with sides toothed, two curved spurs on

each side of the tip truncate. Flowering during August and September.

Collected from Nagarjung. Distributed at c. 1650 m.

O. myriantha Lindl. Fol. Orch. Oberon. 4, 1852 ; F.B.L 5 : 679, 1890.

Plants with ensiform leaves. Flowers c. 2 mm., yellow-green ; petals

broad, entire. Lip longer than the sepals, side-lobes broad and notched,

mid-lobe oblong, deeply 2-lobed, lobules rounded. Flowering during

August and September. Collected from Rhingmo to Jubing ; Pokhra.

Distributed at c. 1650 m.

O. pachyrachis Reichb. f. ex Hk. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 5 : 681, 1890 ; King

& Pantl. 4, t. 3, 1898 ; Hara, 446, 1966.

Plants with ensiform leaves. Flowers minute, c. 0*8 mm. or less, very

compact on a thick spike ; petals linear ; lip rounded-ovate or orbicular,

entire or obscurely lobed. Authority Hara.

O. rufilabris Lindl. Fol. Orch. Oberon. 5, 1852 ; F.B.I. 5 : 683, 1890.

Leaves ensiform. Flowers minute c . 8 mm. ; petals linear-oblong ;

lip longer than the sepals, oblong, reddish brown with filiform side-

lobes, close to the narrow base. Flowering during October and

November, Collected from Lamidanda ; Nagarjung. Distributed

at c. 1650 m.

(to be continued)

Food-Habits of water-birds of the

Sundarban, 24-Parganas District,

West Bengal, India— II

Herons and Bitterns

BY

Ajit Kumar Mukherjee

Zoologist , Zoological Survey of India , Calcutta

( With two text-figures)

(Continued from VoL 66 (2) : 360)

Ardea ciuerea rectirostris Gould, The Indian Grey Heron

The Grey Heron, Ardea cinerea rectirostris Gould, is a resident bird

of the Sundarban. In the reclaimed area it roosts generally on the

larger trees in the vicinity of brackish water fisheries ( bheries ) or fresh-

water jheels. During nesting period it is more common in the forested

area and nests in large numbers in mixed heronaries on the mangrove

trees. It hunts among reeds growing in water and also waits patiently

in shallow waters and mud-flats for its prey to show up.

Jerdon (1864, p. 738) made a general statement about the food of

the Ardeidae that they feed chiefly on fish, also on crabs, frogs and a few

on insects which they seek for on land among cattle. Mason & Lefroy

(1912, p. 287) stated that the herons, egrets and bitterns mostly feed on

fish, frogs and such food as is found in shallow waters and, therefore,

not beneficial to man.

In India there is a widespread belief that the Grey Heron is a fisher-

man’s foe. Since its food consists of fishes, specially these of commercial

value, it is regarded as destructive to pisciculture and is, therefore, per-

secuted to a great extent. Jerdon (1864, p. 742) states that it feeds

chiefly on fish. Dewar (1909, p. 6) considers this bird as 4 eel’s foe ’.

Mason & Lefroy (1912, p. 284) obtained three frogs from an examination

of a stomach of this heron. Whistler (1928, p. 393) states that its food

consists of small mammals and birds, mollusca, insects and Crustacea,

but the diet mainly consists of fish whose scales are ejected in the form of

castings. Baker (1929, p. 340) mentions that its food may be said to

consist of anv living thing small enough to swallow.

[17]

38 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 68 (1)

The food of the European subspecies, Ardea cinerea cinerea (Linnaeus),

is better known. Archibald (1910, p. 3) states :

‘ The heron is often persecuted by fish preservers. Of course, it

eats fish and is particularly fond of pikes and eels. It is not suffi-

ciently known, however, that it feeds largely on water-rats, mice,

frogs, snails and insects. Like hawks and owls, it disgorges

the indigestible portions of its prey in the form of large castings

an examination of which is very interesting,5

Florence (1912, 1914, 1915) examined 23 specimens and found that

these contained remains of rodents, frogs, fishes, snails, insects (injurious,

indifferent, and beneficial), crustaceans, earthworm, eggs of leech, and

vegetable matter. Thomson (1923) found that the pellets show the

remains of water-beetles, bones of water-vole, mole and other mammalian

fur, claws of mole and the claws of a rat ; bones of birds are also included.

Collinge (1927, pp. 228-229) examined the stomach-contents of only five

specimens and stated that 98.5% of the total food-contents was animal

matter of which 9.5% consisted of remains of voles, moles and shrews ;

2.5% of young birds ; 4.5% of frogs, toads and newts ; 61% of fish ; 3.5%

of molluscs ; 8.5% of injurious insects; 3% of crustaceans ; 1.5% of

earthworms; and 4.5% of miscellaneous unidentifiable matter. The

only remains of vegetable matter was 1.5% of fragments of seeds

and bits of stems of some aquatic plant. Townsend (1926) states that

the fish of all sorts are chief food of the European heron but worms,

water-insects, mites, newts, frogs, water-voles and young birds are all

taken. Brown (1927) found that the chief large prey were chub 6, eel

10, trout 6, wood-mouse 6, water-vole 7, rabbit 2, obtained from regurgi-

tated food in several nests in the Lake District, England. In Italy,

Moltoni (1936, 1948) examined the stomach contents of nestling and adult

herons during April, May and June. There were 20 snakes, 12 frogs and

one mammal and 22 fishes among the large prey. The small prey con-

sisted of insects, mole crickets, and beetles. In the opinion of Lowe

(1954, p. 65) the heron in Great Britain feeds on aquatic and terrestrial

animals such as fish, frogs, beetles, moles, water-voles and rats. It is

omnivorous since it swallows much vegetable matter for pellet formation.

Owen (1955, 1960) studied the food-habits of the heron in detail and

found that it is essentially a fish-eating bird feeding chiefly at the edges

of the rivers, streams, ponds and lakes. It also feeds on young water-

birds, shrimps and insects. Usually fishes ranging from 50 to 600 mm.

long are caught. It shows preference for prey within certain size-limits.

He has also made minute observations of the food-habits of the young.

He estimated that a brood of heron receives on an average 230 pounds

of food during the nestling period and that certain herons tended to

specialise on certain species of prey, apparently because they often returned

to the same feeding area. Voous (1960, p. 16) stated that its food consists

[18]

FOOD-HABITS OF WATER-BIRDS

39

of a wide variety of aquatic marsh animals, apparently mainly fish of

medium or small size ; also frogs, newts, aquatic insects, snails, large land

snails and small mammals. These records show how different the food

habit of the Grey Heron may be in different localities.

The detailed analysis of the stomach-contents of 76 adult specimens

of the Indian subspecies that the author collected in the Sundarban is

given in Table 4.

Table 4

Analysis of the stomach-contents of the Grey Heron

(N — Number of examples.

Weight — Total weight (in grammes) of examples of all species under a Class.

Length of fish — Its standard length).

Items of diet No. Wt.(g) %(Wt.) Remarks

Phylum Chordata

Class Mammalia

Order Rodentia

Family Muridae

Mus sp.

Total :

Class Aves

Order Passeriformes

Sturms contra ? (chick)

Total :

Class Reptilia

Order Squamata

Suborder Serpentes

Family Colubridae

Natrix sp.

Total :

Class Amphibia

Order Anura

Family Ranidae

Rana cyanophlyctis Schneider 120

Family Bufonidae

Bitfo sp. (tadpole) 15 Partly digested.

Not identifiable.

135 450 2.35

10 Partly digested.

10 350 1.8

12 Partly digested.

12 600 3.66

13 Partly digested.

13 400 2

Total :

40 JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol. 68 (1)

[20]

F OOD H A HI l S OF H A TER -BIRDS

41

Invariably present

in stomachs.

42 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VoL 68 (1)

The whole of the food consumed is of animal nature. Of this 2%

consists of mammals (rodents), 3.66% birds, 1.80% water-snakes, 2.35%

Amphibia (tadpoles, young frogs and toads), 34,55% fishes (except two

species all are of commercial value), 3.80% Mollusca, 18.27% Crustacea

(prawns and crabs, most of which are of commercial value), 6.80%

aquatic insects and 1.30% spiders (Text-fig. 3).

[22]

FOOD-HABITS OF WATER-BIRDS

43

Since nearly half the total bulk of its food is fishes and crustaceans of

commercial importance, this species may be regarded as non-beneficial

to human economy.

Ardea purpurea manilensis Meyen, The Purple Heron

The Purple Heron, Ardea purpurea manilensis Meyen, is found in

well-watered regions of India, and inhabits marshes, jheels, estuarine

creeks and the reedy vegetation along tidal rivers. It wades through

Ardea cinerea Linnaeus

Text Fig. 3. Diagrammatic representation of the percentages of food of Ardea

cinerea , Ardea purpurea , and Butorides striattis.

[23]

44 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Voi. 68 (1)

shallow waters and hunts in luxuriant vegetation of marshes, or stands

motionless hiding itself in the reeds, grass* or thickets of mangrove waiting

for aquatic organisms to come within its darting range to fall victim to it.

It feeds mostly in the early morning and late evening hours.

Jerdon (1864, p. 744) recorded : 4 It feeds on fish, frogs &c/ Blanford

(1898, p. 381) mentioned that ‘ it not infrequently feeds at night.’ Baker

(1929, p. 338) remarked : 4 Besides fish, frogs, newts, insects and mollusca,

all form part of its ordinary fare and any unfortunate young birds which

happen to come its way are at once bolted whole.’

About the food of the European form, A . p. purpurea Linnaeus, Voous

(1960, p. 16) states : 4 It seems to eat relatively more small fish and insects

than the Grey Heron.’

The detailed analysis of the stomach-contents of 70 adult specimens

that the author collected in the Sundarban is given in Table 5.

Table 5

Analysis of the Stomach-contents of the Purple Heron

[24]

FOOD-HABITS OF WATER-BIRDS

45

[25]

46 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol 68 (1)

Order Tetrodontiformes

Family Tetrodontidae

[26]

FOOD-HABITS OF WATER-BIRDS

47

The bird appears to have little selection in its food. Anything

actively moving is appropriated. Surprisingly, however, frogs and

tadpoles are absent from its diet (Text Fig. 3). The main item of diet

is fish (57%), but it also has a preference for reptiles (20.57%), specially

snakes. Crustaceans and insects are also on the list, but in small per-

centages (14.34% and 7.65% respectively). Snakes as long as 190 mm.

are swallowed, and fishes 20-100 mm. Most of the fishes are brackish

water forms but those birds which have been collected from the fresh-

water reedy swamps consumed freshwater fishes also.

Since it feeds on some commercial fishes and crustaceans it may be

considered as a bird not particularly friendly to the fisherman.

[27]

48 JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY . Vol. 68 (1)

Butorides striatus chloriceps (Bonaparte), The Little Green Heron

In Sundarbans, the Little Green Heron, Butorides striatus chloriceps

(Bonaparte), is nowhere abundant and is met with only in secluded bogs

and swamps. It prefers salt-marshes of tidal zone to freshwater marshes.

The mangrove swamps are its haunt where between the knee roots,

stilts and pneumatophores, it leads a secluded life stalking stealthily,

taking to cover of vegetation when disturbed. It is nocturnal but

sometimes hunts in the daytime under the canopy of dense foliage, spe-

cially during early morning and late evening. It perches on low branches

overhanging water and with its keen observant eyes marks the target by

swiftly diving upon it.

Its food chiefly consists, as stated by Jerdon(1864, p. 753) of crabs.

Blanford (1898, p. 396) found that it looks for crabs, frogs and small

fishes. Baker (1929, p. 358) mentions : 4 They live almost entirely on

small fish, frogs, crabs and molluscs. . . .’ According to Ali (1955,

p. 105) its food is crabs, shrimps, and mudfishes.

The detailed analysis of the stomach-contents of 26 adult specimens

that the author collected in the Sundarban is given in Table 6.

Table 6

Analysis of the stomach-contents of the Little Green Heron

[28]

POOD-HABITS OF WATER-BIRDS

49

Items of diet No. Wt.(g) %(Wt.) Remarks

Family Ariidae

Tachysurus sp.

Family Clariidae

Clarius batrachus (Linnaeus)

Family Saccobranchidae

Heteropneustes fossilis (Bloch)

Order Ophiocephaliformes

Family Channidae

Channel punctata (Bloch)

Order Perciformes

Family Anabantidae

Anabas testidineus (Bloch)

Family Gobildae

Glossogobius giuris (Hamilton)

Family Periopthalmidae

Periopthalmus sp.

Boleopthalmus sp.

Miscellaneous fish remains

1 Estuarine form.

Partly digested.

1 Length 35 mm.

Common in brackish

water ponds.

1 Length 40 mm.

Not uncommon in

fresh- water jheels

3 Length 30-50 mm.

2 Found in fresh and

brackish water.

Partly damaged.

5 Length 30-50 mm.

Found in fresh as

well as brackish

water pools.

55 Length 20-50 mm.

Invariably present

in stomachs.

Very common in

tidal mudflats.

11

Not identifiable.

Total : 108 200 29

4

[29]

50 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Foi. 68 (1)

FOOD-HABITS OF WATER-BIRDS

51

So far it has been reported to feed only on aquatic animals, but the

above analysis reveals that it also takes terrestrial insects, such as grass-

hoppers and mantids, and toads. Crustaceans which form the major

bulk of its food constitute 31.80% and consist mostly of commercial

species. Next to the crustaceans are fishes (29.0%). In the stomachs

of 26 birds, altogether 108 examples of fishes were found, representing 11

species of fresh and brackishwater forms, which are mostly mud-fishes

of little commercial value. They are small, their length varying from 5

to 50 mm. Except some orthopteran pests of agriculture and the insect

predator Mantis , other insects are of minor significance, the proportion

of total insect food being 14.50%. More tadpoles than frogs and toads

are consumed. They form 13.80% of the total bulk. Annelids, both

freshwater as well as brackish water forms, are consumed in very small

proportions (3.62%) (Text Fig. 3).

It is more or less a harmless bird, the only discredit being that it

consumes some crustaceans of commercial value.

Ardeola gray!! grayii (Sykes), The Indian Pond Heron

The Pond Heron, Ardeola grayii grayii (Sykes), is a bird invariably

associated with creeks, estuaries, rivers, tanks, ditches, and other stretches

of water. It is found throughout India. In the Sundarban, it is seen

both in the reclaimed as well as in the forested areas. It is sedentary

and is common in inundated paddy-fields and also in ditches running

along embankments. In the forested area it is less common, being seen

among reeds and mangroves, and on mud-fiats of creeks and tidal rivers.

It generally waits patiently with poised neck at the edge of water and as

soon as its prey comes within range, it strikes with its bill and collects

the prey.

Jerdon (1864, p. 751) stated : * Its special food is crabs, for which it

watches patiently, either in the water or in the fields, and specially on

the small raised bunds or divisions between rice-fields. It will, of course,

also eat fish, frogs, and various aquatic insects.5 Mason & Lefroy

(1912, p. 286) examined the stomachs of four examples and found that

of the 76 insects taken by the bird, 52 were beneficial, 14 injurious and 10

neutral ; one stomach contained a fish and a prawn, and another a blade

of grass. Whistler (1928, p. 397) mentioned : ‘It feeds chiefly on frogs,

crabs, small fishes, insects, and the other miscellaneous life that has its

being in or near water . . . . ’ Baker (1929, p. 355) wrote : ‘ When

waiting for its food, frogs, crabs, mudfish, etc., it sits hunched up, a

dowdy patient little figure not easy to spot against a dark background . . .

In addition to its fish and reptile diet it eats all kinds of large insects as

[31]

52 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 68 (1)

well as worms, grubs, and termites.’ Ali (1955, p. 105) observed that its

food is frog, fish, crabs and insects.

The detailed analysis of the stomach-contents of 105 adult specimens

that the author collected in the Sundarban is given in Table 7.

Table 7

Analysis of the stomach-contents of the Pond Heron

[32]

FOOD-HABITS OF WATER-BIRDS 53

[33]

54 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY , Fo/. 68 (I)

Unidentifiable.

[34]

FOOD-HABITS OF WATER-BIRDS

55

The food consists of arthropods, specially Crustacea (23.5%) and

some Insecta (7.50%) representing both aquatic and terrestrial forms.

Spiders are taken in very small quantity (1 %). Mollusca found in the

stomachs are generally with complete shells, representing mostly small,

freshwater forms. Tadpoles, adult frogs and toads are taken in good

proportion (16%). Tadpoles are preferred to adult frogs and toads.

From the stomachs of 105 birds, 249 examples of fishes were found,

representing six species, forming 9% of the total bulk. These fishes

represent both fresh and brackish water forms of some commercial

value, but are small-sized, the standard lengths varying from 5 to 60 mm.

A good quantity of vegetable matter of aquatic origin (22 %) is also added

to the menu (Text-Fig. 4).

It may be regarded as a harmless bird.

Nycticorax nycticorax nycticorax (Linnaeus), The Night Heron

The Night Heron, Nycticorax nycticorax nycticorax (Linnaeus), is a

common bird of the Sundarban area. It is found in colonies, and it

occupies groves near about waters of jheels, tidal creeks and mangrove

swamps. Its ideal resorts are the trees that stand in water of the brackish

water fisheries ( gheries ), where water is sufficient and fishes are in plenty.

Though it is nocturnal in habit yet it may be found to start its activities

in the afternoon hours, specially on cloudy days. Normally it starts

for the marshes for feeding at dusk, and it hunts in shallow waters of rivers,

ponds throughout practically the whole night.

The food of the Night Heron in India as stated by Blanford (1898,

p. 398) is composed of fish, frog, etc. Whistler (1928, p. 399) states that

its food is varied ; like that of the other herons, and consists of small

fish, Amphibia, Crustacea and aquatic insects. Baker (1929, p. 361)

mentions that it feeds on fish, frogs, crabs, Crustacea and worms. Ali

(1955, p. 106) stated that the food items are crabs, fish, frogs and aquatic

insects.

The food of the allied subspecies of the Night Heron in U.S.A. has

been studied in greater detail. Judd (1900, p. 435), states that 10 adults

and 10 nestlings’ stomachs contained only fish; in another heronry, young

were fed on trout, pickerel and herring. Baynard (1912, pp. 167-169)

found that 50 meals of young Night Heron in Florida consisted of 60

crayfish, 610 small catfish, 31 small pickerel and 79 dragonflies. Latham

(1914, p. 112) mentioned that it was also known to eat algae. ¥/etmore

(1920, p. 394) found the birds feeding on dead salamanders in New

Mexico. He further observed that it fed on water-dogs (Ambystoma)

and frogs, at Lake Burford, New Mexico, where they acted as scaven-

gers by eating dead Axolotls, floating on water. Gross (1923, pp. 1-30,

[35]

56 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Fo/. 68 (1)

191-214) stated that at Sandy Neck, its food could be identified as marine

annelids, chiefly Nereis virens , crustaceans, represented by numerous

shrimps, sandhoppers and a few small crabs, insects (chiefly beetles),

flies and dragonflies (nymphs), all present in negligible quantities. Of

the Mollusca he found only squids which were probably picked up dead.

The only freshwater animals found were tadpoles and adults of Fowler’s

toad. He further examined (1923, p. 19) some 100 regurgitations and

found that these consisted of 80 % fish, chiefly whiting, herring and din-

ners, the whiting found dead on beach, marine worms, crustaceans, in-

sects and mollusca, young birds. Shapeles (cited by Bent, 1926, p. 208)

found in the stomach of this species a frog and a snake about a foot long.

The European subspecies, Voous (1960, p. 18) mentions, feeds on

a great variety of aquatic animals, mainly fish.

The detailed analysis of the stomach-contents of 78 adult specimens

of the Night Heron that the author collected in the Sundarban is given

in Table 8.

Table 8

Analysis of the stomach-contents of the Night Heron

[36]

FOOD-HABITS OF WATER-BIRDS 57

[37]

58 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (1)

[38]

FOOD-HABITS OF WATER-BIRDS

59

The food of the Night Heron is chiefly composed of aquatic organisms,

namely, aquatic snakes, frogs and tadpoles, fishes, molluscs, crustaceans,

aquatic insects and annelids, both fresh and brackish water forms.

Besides, it takes vegetable matter of aquatic origin. Mostly small orga-

nisms comprise its food ; the length of snakes varies from 40-120 mm,

and that of fishes 5-100 mm. The bulk of food is, however, largely

made up of Amphibia (27.92%) and Mollusca (16,16%) consisting

mostly of freshwater and damp soil inhabiting species. The proportion

of Crustacea is 12.17%, which comprises more crabs than shrimps.

The bird consumes only 10.36% of fishes which have practically no com-

mercial value and are mostly mud-dwellers. Except two terrestrial

species (grasshoppers) all the insects are aquatic. It prefers soft-bodied

insects, such as naiads of damselflies and dragonflies, and aquatic bugs

and a few beetles also. The other group which constitute a comparatively

[39]

60 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol 68 (1)

small portion of its diet is Annelida (6.30 %). The vegetable food is made

up of aquatic weeds which form 9.0% of the total bulk (Text-Fig. 4).

Nycticorax nycticorax ( Linnaeus )

Ixobrychus cinnamomeus ( Gmelin )

MATTER

PISCES

SAND AND

MISCELLANEOUS

Text Fig. 4. Diagrammatic representation of the percentages of food of Ardeola

grayii , Nycticorax nycticorax nycticorax and Ixobrychus cinnamomeus.

Sand constitutes 4.50% and is perhaps accidentally taken while picking

food.

It may, therefore, be concluded that it is a harmless bird.

FOOD-HABITS OF WATER-BIRDS

61

Ixobrychus dnnamomeus (Gmelin), The Chestnut Bittern

The Chestnut Bittern, Ixobrychus cinnamomeus (Gmelin), is a com-

mon bird of lower Bengal, specially in the Sundarban area. It is a bird

of the inner recesses of the mangrove swamps, thick rush and reedy

marshes of the still or tidal waters. It is crepuscular in habit, and very

secretive, though during the day time under cover of darkness of thick

vegetation it frequently forages in a slow stealthy manner.

No published data on the food-habits of this bittern could be traced.

However, with regard to a close cousin of this bird, the American Least

Bittern, Ixobrychus exilis (Gmelin), Bent (1926, p. 88) found that it

hunts for various forms of animal life found in the places it lives.

The detailed analysis of the stomach-contents of eight specimens

of the Chestnut Bittern that the author collected in the Sundarban is

given in Table 9.

Table 9

Analysis of the stomach-contents of the Chestnut Bittern

[41]

62 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vo! 68 (5)

[42]

FOOD-HABITS OF WATER-BIRDS

63

identification.

Total : 91 140 23 21

[43]

64 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 68 (1)

The food of the Chestnut Bittern consists wholly of animal matter

(Text Fig. 4). Amphibia (tadpoles, frogs and toads) form the largest

bulk of its food (26.80%). The fishes taken are small 20-70 mm. in

standard length, mud-dwellers of fresh and brackish waters, and are

of little commercial value. They constitute 19.64% of the total bulk of

food. Snakes found in stomachs, representing two aquatic species are

very small (total length of 40-70 mm). The insects constitute 23.21 %,

comprising mostly of aquatic forms and some terrestrial pests of agri-

cultural crops. Out of the 91 examples of insects representing 15 species

51 representing 8 species were found to be injurious pests of agricultural

crops. The Mollusca is represented by two species of gastropods

(11.60%). A very small proportion of Annelida (3.56%) comprising

freshwater Oligochaeta and brackish water Polycha^ta are also added

to the menu.

From the above analysis it may be generalized that it is a bird helpful

to agriculture to some extent.

(To he continued)

A Review of the Recovery Data

obtained by the Bombay Natural

History Society’s Bird Migration

Study Project

By

D. N. Mathew

( With a text-figure)

Study of bird migration on a continuing basis was started by the

Society in September 1959 to investigate (1) the routes used by birds

moving into and out of India in autumn and spring and (2) the role

of birds in disseminating arthropod-borne viruses. Up to mid 1969,

1, 32, 368 migratory and resident passerine and non-passerine birds of

25 families and 150 species have been ringed, and recoveries recorded

of 520 birds ; 451 of these being from places outside India, namely

Burma, East and West Pakistan, Afghanistan, the U.S.S.R., and Cyprus,

and 69 from within the country. The gross recovery is slightly under

4 birds for every thousand ringed, a figure far too low for suggesting

definite conclusions. My aim in this paper is to review the recovery

data in a consolidated form and to examine what light these throw on

the origin and routes of our migratory birds. The recovery infor-

mation on the more numerous species is discussed in detail and com-

pared with local observations published in the Society’s Journal and

the Ibis within the last fifty years. The data obtained from random

ringing of ducks by the Society’s members between the years 1920 and

1940 are also used, but references to the total number of birds ringed

mean unless mentioned otherwise only those ringed by the Society or its

collaborators at various stations between 1959 and mid- 1969.

Recoveries of Ducks and Teals

The Society has ringed 7740 migratory ducks and teals (Family

Anatidae) mainly at Bharatpur, Rajasthan; Monghyr, Bihar; near

Dibrugarh, Assam (M. J. S. Mackenzie) and at Chilka Lake in Orissa.

At Orissa ringing was done in collaboration with the Genetics and

Biometry Laboratory, Bhubaneshwar. Including recovery data from

5

66 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (1)

other sources I have examined 438 duck recovery records, out of which

386 were either ringed or recovered in the U.S.S.R. One has to

examine not less than 50 cases of each species ringed or recovered in

their breeding area to know precisely the area of origin of our ducks.

This is possible only for one species at the present time. Yu. A. Isakov

(1965) demarcated 7 distinct populations of waterfowl in Russia.

Area of the main geographical populations of the water fowl of the USSR

After Yu. A. Isakov and T. P. Shevareva

I. The Northern Baltic — North Sea. II. The European = Siberian— Black

Sea = Mediterranean. III. The West Siberian— Caspian — Nile, IV. The

Siberian = Kazakhstan— Pakistan = India. V. The East Siberian = Amur—

Korean = Chinese. VI. The Far North = Eastern— Japanese. VII. (Not

shown on map) The Cheukotka— North American population.

Isakov’s grouping is summarised in the map above. As a rule the areas

occupied by neighbouring populations overlap one another. Popu-

lations II- VI, all contain large numbers of surface feeding ducks (Mal-

lard, Teal, Garganey, Pintail, Wigeon and Gad wall) all of which con-

cern us. The wintering grounds of population II (Black Sea and Medi-

teranean) are getting reduced due to reclamation of wetlands. Mem-

bers of IV (Kazakhstan-Indian) should, according to this grouping,

be dominant among the ducks wintering in our country. This popu-

lation breeds (Isakov 1965), in West Siberia to the north up to the

mouth of the Irtish and the greater part of Kazakhstan and Middle

Asia. Population V (East Siberian-Chinese) breeds, in an extensive

area from the Enisei (longitude c. 90°E), in Central Russia to the Pacific

REVIEW OF RECOVERY DATA OF BIRD MIGRATION

67

Ocean and from the Tundra of Siberia to the southern boundaries of

Russia. In interpretation of recoveries of ducks ringed in India, one

should keep in mind the drawbacks listed below :

1. There are only 438 recovery reports available for examination.

2. There is a possibility of mixing and interchange of breeding

populations in areas where their breeding grounds overlap. This is

possible in the cases of population II to V.

3. As Isakov points out the wintering grounds get altered by

reclamation of wetlands and creation of artificial reservoirs. These

may influence the selection of wintering grounds by birds.

4. Migration maps constructed by connecting points of ringing

with those of recovery are therefore only of limited usefulness and are

not meant to indicate actual migration routes.

Anas acuta Pintail

Out of a total of 1551 Pintail ducks ringed at Bharatpur, Chilka

Lake, Orissa, Monghyr and Dibrugarh, Assam, 64 have been recovered

from places in the U.S.S.R between Kara Kalpakskaya (c. 42° 25'N ;

59° 30 'E.) and Yakutian (c. 62° 32 'N ; 113° 48 'E). Out of the 64,

twenty-one were recovered within or before the next spring. There

were 8 recoveries within Indian limits. Including recoveries of birds

ringed elsewhere, I have examined 78 Pintail recoveries. From a total

of 22 Pintails ringed by Mr. Mackenzie near Dibrugarh in February

1966, one was recovered in Buriyatian (c. 52° 20'N ; 106° 23 'E) ASSR

on 6 May, 1966 and another in Novosibirsk Region (c. 54° 22'N; 77°

18'E) on 5 October 1966. The northernmost point from which a Pin-

tail was reported was in Tyumen Region (c. 66° 30'N ; 67° 48 'E) where

a Bharatpur ringed (19 October, 1965) bird was reported on 27 May

1967. Twelve other Pintails ringed at Bharatpur in October 1966 were

recovered in the USSR (Table 1). A female Pintail ringed at Chilka

Lake (c. 19° 49 'N ; 86° 40'E) on 15 January 1967 was reported in Tomsk

Region (c. 57° 22'N ; 83° 54'E) on 11 May 1967 at a straight-line map

distance of some 4000 km. north of Orissa. There are old records of three

Astrakhan Pintails recovered in Gujaranwala district, West Pakistan,

Ahmedabad, and 50 km. south of Madras city. Two Kurgaldzhin

(c. 50° 30 'N ; 69° 35'E) birds were recovered at Srinagar, Kashmir

and Bhuj, Kutch and a Novosibirsk Pintail near Etah, U.P. ( c . 27°N ;

72' E). The oldest recovery is of a pintail ringed at Dhar (c. 22° 35'N ;

75° 29 'E) in February 1926 and recovered near the River Tira ( c . 62°N ;

100°E) on 25 May 1927. The following observations are also

interesting :

Sheriff (1929) recorded many flights of Pintail between Yarkand and

Karghalik (c. 39°N ; 77°E) late in February. Ludlow (1934) noted

68 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 68 (1)

large flocks of Pintail passing through Kashgar, Chinese Turkestan,

in late February and saw a female with ducklings at the junction of

Rivers Agiass and Tekkas (c. 43°N ; 81'E) on 12 May, and collected

Table 1

Recoveries of Pintail ( Anas acuta) ringed at Bharatpur

Pintails at Goma (c. 37° 40'N ; 78° 15'E) in September. Further south

Pintail has been observed on passage at : Chitral ( c . 36°N ; 71 'E),

Perreau (1910); Kohat (c. 33° 30'N; 71° 30'E), Whitehead (1911);

Zuildo, east of Wular Lake ( c . 34° 20'N ; 76°E) on 27 June 1927, Osmas-

ton (1930). Ticehurst (1927) and Christison (1941) observed Pintail

passing through Baluchistan both in spring and autumn. One Bharat-

pur ringed pintail (February) was shot at Sangroor, Punjab in Decem-

ber the same year. Further east the species was observed at Ngayeze

(c. 30° 40 'N ; 81° 30'E) in June, Salim Ali (1946) ; Ghazipur (c. 25°

30'N ; 83° 30'E) Briggs (1934) ; on the large rivers at Jalpaiguri District

(c. 27°N ; 89°E) Inglis et al. (1920) ; and at KalaLake, Tibet (c. 38°20'N ;

89° 20'E) Ludlow (1928). In Northern Mongolia E. V. Kozlova (1932)

REVIEW OF RECOVERY DATA OF BIRD MIGRATION

69

recorded big flocks on Lake Orok Nor ( c . 45°N ; 101 'E), on 4 April.

All these observations— except where months were given— were made

between February and April.

An interesting local recovery of a male Pintail ringed at Bharaipur

on 18-X-1965 was made at Karimnagar in Andhra Pradesh (c. 18° 26 'N ;

79° 8'E) in the 2nd week of December, 1965. Further south, Nichols

(1945) found Pintails fairly common in Madurai District up to March.

In the recent wildfowl count organized by the wildfowl survey, Subbiah

Pillai (in lit. ; 1967) counted about 1,000 Pintail at a tank in Tirunelveli

District on January 9. Phillips (1956) considered the species as a fre-

quent visitor to Ceylon arriving at the end of November and leaving

in late March and April. Ringing of the species in south India will

help in understanding its movements in peninsular India and Ceylon.

To summarise, 78 recoveries of Pintail were examined out of which

62 were from the breeding or wintering range of Kazakhstan popu-

lation of Russia. Out of the 62, seventeen were of Indian ringed birds

recovered in Russia between April and June, a period within which these

could be either in movement or breeding. Ten Indian birds were re-

covered in East Siberia, (5 in May), and two in the range of the West

Siberian population of the USSR.

Anas crecca Common Teal

The Society has ringed 3093 birds of this species, and up to August

1969, 185 birds were recovered, out of which 175 were from outside India.

1 have examined 21 recoveries of the species ringed elsewhere. Out of

567 common teals ringed in Monghyr District ( c . 25° 30 'N ; 86° 30 'E)

Bihar (1964-65), 39 were recovered till August 1969, 24 of the recoveries

being reported in East Siberia. Of these 24, fifteen were recovered in April

and May, and 7 among these within a space of 6 months from the time

of ringing. Where these eastern birds cross the Himalayas and whether

they fly over directly north from their wintering grounds as is suggested

if one literally interprets recovery maps, cannot be satisfactorily answered

with the available information.

La Touche (1934), recorded the Common Teal as occurring all over

China in winter in very large numbers. In northern Mongolia, Kozlova

(1932) found this teal to be a common breeding bird in the Kentei

Region (they were on Lake Orok Nor from 5 April to middle of May).

Inglis et al. (1920) found the Common Teal migrating in large flocks

through Jalpaiguri District ( c . 27°N ; 89°E), in April. Ludlow (1928)

noted the species passing through Gyantse, Tibet, in spring and autumn

and in 1944 found enormous numbers of Mallard, Common Teal,

Wigeon, Pintail, Tufted and White-eyed Pochards at Yamdrok Tso

( c . 29°N ; 91°E) in mid-March (Ludlow 1927). He believed that the

70 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (1)

ducks congregating around Gyantse, cross the Himalayas directly south

and north at the appropriate time. Ludlow reasoned that since the

distance between Gyantse and the Indian plains could be covered within

a few hours’ flight the birds would prefer a direct course. Dorst

(1962) observes 4 birds do not take the easiest routes over mountains™

the travellers do not hesitate to cross the highest peaks Desiree

Proud (1949) found the Common Teal to be abundant during the mig-

rations and regularly crossing the Nepal Valley (c. 27-28°N ; 85-86°E)

both during autumn and spring. The two Bihar ringed Common Teals

recovered in Kashmir, and Uzbekistan ( c . 40° 22 'N ; 71° 47 'E) fit Savage’s

(1965) suggestion that some of the eastern Indian birds may cross the

Himalayas over the Hindukush as well.

At Bharatpur the Project ringed 2517 Common Teals up to July

1969 out of which 141 have been recovered so far; 110 of these 141

within the breeding area of the Kazakhstan population and 56 during

or before the following spring (i.e. within the next 6 months), and 7

in West Pakistan. Earlier, the Bharatpur Durbar had ringed some

Common Teals in winter from which 2 were recovered from West Pakis-

tan and one from Kabul, in the following spring. Two Bharatpur

ringed Common Teals were recovered in the breeding area of the

European population (II) of Russia. The westernmost point from which

a Bharatpur bird was reported is in Uralsk (r. 51° 17'N ; 51° 23 'E) and

the easternmost in Yakutian, ASSR (c. 60° 48'N ; 114° 12'E). Among

Bharatpur birds recovered in the breeding area of population IV, thirty-

one were reported within a narrow sector between latitudes 38° 06 'N -

45° 24 'N and longitudes 66° 56'E-79° 58'E, (e.g. Tadjik 6, Uzbek 6,

and Kazakh SSR 9) and 27 of these between 2 March and 12 April.

Further south, Bharat pur-ringed birds were also recovered in Afghanis-

tan, near Kabul* ( c . 34°N ; 69°E) ; in Pakistan, Peshawar* (c. 34°N ;

71°E), Sialkot (c. 32° 30'N ; 74° 32'E), Chiniot (c. 31° 40'N ; 73°E) ;

Sheikhpura (c. 34°N ; 74°E) ; Gujaranwala (c. 32°N ; 74°E), Swat (c, 34°N ;

73°E). One Bharatpur-ringed bird was collected at Jammu Tawi ( c . 32°

3Q'N ; 75°E) near the River Chenab on 2-1-1967, and another in Kashmir

( c . 35°N ; 75'E) according to a report dated 25-V-68, The exact date

was not given.

Going through earlier observations one finds that Whistler (1922)

noted the Common Teal to be most abundant in Jhang District. Punjab,

and considered the Jhelum and Chenab as routes for migrating water

birds moving north into Central Asia. In Afghanistan according to

Whistler (1945), Common Teals are very common winter visitors as

well as passage migrants. Ticehurst (1927), found the species passing

through Munshi Char (c. 29°N ; 62 °E) in Baluchistan ; Meinertzhagen

* Indicates birds ringed by the Bharatpur Durbar,

REVIEW OF RECOVERY DATA OF BIRD MIGRATION

71

(1927) saw a few on the Indus (at 10,500 ft.) at Moulbekh (c. 34° 20'N ;

76° 20 'E) in April which he believed to be on passage. In sum the pat-

tern of recoveries of Common Teals ringed by the Project align favourably

with earlier observations. Generally Common Teals ringed in India

were recovered in the breeding areas of 3 population, II, IV and V of

water-fowl in the USSR. More precisely, 77% of the recoveries of

Bharatpur-ringed birds were reported within the breeding area of the

Kazakhstan population of Russia, and 39% in the spring following

the ringing. Sixty-two per cent of the recoveries of Bihar-ringed Com-

mon Teals were reported in East Siberia, but only 25 % of these recoveries

were made in the spring following their ringing.

Anas querquedula Garganey

The Project has ringed '984 Bluewinged or Garganey Teals (927

of these at Bharatpur) till August 1969. Thirty-eight recoveries were

reported till August 1969. Including data of birds ringed elsewhere,

I have examined 45 recoveries of this species. Of the 38 recoveries

obtained by the Society, 31 were from the breeding area of the Kazakhstan

population of the USSR, in Kazakhstan, Altai and Novosibirsk.

Ten out of the 31 recoveries were made between the months of

May and July, and 13 were recovered in spring of the following year.

There were 2 recoveries of Bharatpur-ringed Garganeys in the breed-

ing area of the European population of Russia, one 4 months and the

other 17 months after ringing. There is a reverse case of a Garganey

ringed in Leningrad district on 22 July 1961 and recovered in Sangli

district (c. 17°N ; 75° E— Maharashtra) on 28 December 1962. A male

ringed at Bharatpur on 3 October 1965 and recovered at Krasnoyarsk

(57° 42 'N ; 93° 15'E) on 12 May 1967, is the only Bharatpur bird re-

covered in East Siberia. From the area between Bharatpur and

Kazakhstan, one Garganey was recovered in Kashmir ( c . 34°N ; 74°E)

on 9 March 1969 and another in Haryana (c. 29°N ; 76°E) on 11 January

1969. There is a record of a Russian-ringed Garganey recovered at

Larkhana, Sind ( c . 27° 50 'N ; 68° 8'E) in the same year.

In China, La Touche (1934) found the Garganey to be distributed

generally as a migrant. In North Mongolia, Kozlova (1932) found

nest with fresh eggs on the River Tola (<?. 47° 37'N ; 107°E) on 9

June. Her first date for Lake Orok Nor was 21 April. In Chinese

Turkestan, Ludlow & Kinnear (1934) found the Garganey in pairs oil

II May at Tekkes ( c . 43°N ; 80° 30 'E) and considered the species as

common in Tekkes in May and early June. Ludlow also shot birds

with gonads in breeding condition then. The same authors saw a flock

of twenty Garganey on the Gabshan Lake, Ladak, on 12 August.

72 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. (1)

Meinertzhagen (1927) while camped at Khardong (c. 34° 20 'N ; 77° 45 'E)

at an altitude of 13,500 ft. saw a party of eight Garganey Teals being

forced to settle on earth on 30 July. He considered the incident as

showing how autumn passage of ducks takes place over some of the

highest parts of the Himalayas.

In Bharatpur the Garganey is chiefly a passage migrant, numbers

arriving as early as August. Peak numbers are reached in October

and by mid-November most of the birds have passed on presumably

for S. India and Ceylon where vast concentrations occur in winter.

The species is comparatively rare in winter but becomes abundant again

in March/April when on return (northward) passage. It is one of the

earliest migrant ducks to arrive and the last to leave its winter quarters.

There are four interesting local recoveries. In one case a Garganey

ringed at Bharatpur on 17 October 1965 was shot near Madurai (<?. 10°N ;

78°E) on 21 January 1966. A second bird ringed at Bharatpur on 12

October 1966, was recovered in roughly -the same direction as the

above but some 500 miles north of it in Medak District, A.P. (c. 18°N ;

79 °E) on 8 January 1967. In another case a Bharatpur-ringed Gar-

ganey was reported two years later (in October) in Tiruchirapalli district

(c. 10° 16'N ; 78° 8'E), and the last case was of a Bharatpur bird recovered

at Attur, Salem district ( c . 12°N ; 78°E) in January, a year after ringing.

Nichols (1945) recorded Garganey as fairly common in winter in Madurai

District. Subbiah Pillai (in lit. 1967) counted flocks of a few hundreds

of Garganey at tanks in Coimbatore, Tiruppur, Palni and Tirunelveli,

Tamil Nadu. At a tank in Thatchanellur, Tirunelveli district,

Mr. Pillai counted about 2000 Garganey Teals on 4 December 1966.

In Ceylon, Phillips (1956) found the Garganey to be a regular visitor

between November and May. He surmised that the Garganeys visit-

ing Ceylon cross the Himalayas over Nepal and move southwards to

Ceylon along the east coast of India. The Bharatpur birds recovered

in Salem, Tiruchirapalli and Madurai districts point to the possibility

that the Garganeys from North-western India move down further south

across the Deccan to southern India and Ceylon. These may cross the

sea between Point Calimere and Adam’s Bridge, but as yet there is no

factual evidence to support this suggestion, and birds must be ringed

in South India and Ceylon to test it. Two Bharatpur Garganeys ringed

on successive days moved in nearly opposite directions : one ringed on

10 October 1966 was shot at Hardoi, U.P., about 160 miles east of Bharat-

pur on 1 November, the other ringed on 11 October was shot at Tonk,

Rajasthan, 125 miles SW. of Bharatpur 3 days after ringing. Inglis

(1920), and Desiree Proud (1955) found the Garganey migrating in

large flocks through Jalpaiguri district and the Nepal Valley respec-

tively between August and October. Biswas (1960) observed the

Garganey on a tank in Kathmandu in mid-March and April. To sum-

REVIEW OF RECOVERY DATA OF BIRD MIGRATION

73

marise : 31 of 38 Garganey Teal ringed in India were recovered in

the breeding area of the Kazakhstan population of Russia. These

recoveries fit neatly with the earlier observations on Garganey migration

at high altitudes in the Western Himalayas and in Chinese Turkestan.

There were two recoveries of Bharatpur birds in the area of the European,

and one in that of the East Siberian populations of Russia. There

were four recoveries of Bharatpur Garganeys in south India (Tamil

Nadu).

Anas clypeata Shoveller

Out of a total of 621 birds ringed by the Project, 36 were recovered

outside India up to October 1968. Among these were 3 (out of 9)

Shovellers ringed by P. V. George at Manjhaul, Bihar, in February and

March 1964. The latter (2 females, 1 male) were all recovered in East

Siberia : one of the 3 was recovered 78 days later, the second five months,

and the third a year later. Savage (1965) suggested that the Shovellers

wintering in eastern India breed and moult in E. Siberia. The other

shoveller recoveries were as follows : December, one recovered at

Samana, Patiala; January, one at Sargodha, W. Pakistan ; February,

one each at Amritsar (near Sutlej), Punjab, Multan, W. Pakistan ;

March, one each at Samarkand, near Asht in Tadjik, and on River

Chu in Kazakhstan, and two in Alma Ata ; April, one each at Kara-

ganda and Altai ; May, seven at Tomsk, two at Krasnoyarsk and one

at Bulaevo, Kazakhstan. Between the months August and October

there were 9 more recoveries of Bharatpur Shovellers at Fergana, Alma

Ata, Altai, Pavlodar, Novosibirsk, Tomsk and Tyumen Regions and

on the delta of the Selenga (c. 52° 20 'N ; 106° 30 'E) in the USSR. All

these birds were ringed at Bharatpur between 1965 and 1969 and fifteen

of the recoveries were reported within 6 months from date of ringing.

A Shoveller ringed at Chilka Lake on 16-1-1967 was recovered at the

Yakutian ( c . 63°N ; 118°E) in E. Siberia on 26 August 1967. In

Southern Tibet, Ludlow (1928) found the Shoveller to be fairly nume-

rous in November. In North Burma, Stanford and Ticehurst (1939)

found Shovellers passing farther south about 20 October. In north-

east Chihili, China, La Touche (1921) found the Shoveller passing about

the 10th of March to the middle of May and again in the early half of

October. According to Madame Kozlova (1932) this species breeds

in northwestern and northern Mongolia and was noted as early as 5

April on Lake Orok Nor. In the west, Meinertzhagen (1920) recorded

Shovellers on migration at Quetta (Baluchistan) up to 19 May, in large

numbers. Christison (1941) found the species on migration in large

numbers at Zangi Nawar, Baluchistan, and Fulton (1904) in Chitral.

Meinertzhagen (1927) found a large flock of the species on the Indus

74 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (1)

near Leh (c. 34° 20 'N ; 77° 36 'E) on 1 May, on passage. Ludlow &

Kinnear (1934) found the Shoveller in the following places in Chinese

Turkestan ; Charbagh (28 March) Maralbashi, Tekkes (May) and Deskit

(5 July). At Maralbashi these authors had found Shovellers in pairs

and were informed by the local people that the species breeds there.

The recovery of a female Shoveller ringed in Bharatpur on 24 October

1966 from Samana in Patiala ( c . 30° 9'N ; 76° 15'E) on 26 December

1966 is interesting. W. M. Hutton had ringed Shoveller in Patiala

some 40 years ago (J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 47 : 694) and one of these

ringed in March 1929 had been recovered near the River Tara (56° N ;

76°E) a month later. In summary the 38 recoveries obtained so far

of the Shovellers ringed in India are from the breeding area of the

Kazakhstan and E. Siberian populations of the U.S.S.R. Based on

British ringing records, Dorst (1962) estimated the Shovellers to have

a high percentage of recovery (19*8%). Perhaps we can expect more

recoveries of the species.

Aythya ferina Common Pochard

Out of 428 pochards ringed by the Society up to 1969 the follow-

ing birds were recovered (Table 2). All the recovered birds were ringed at

Bharatpur in the winter of 1968.

Table 2

Recoveries of the Common Pochard ( Aythya ferina)

REVIEW OF RECOVERY DATA OF BIRD MIGRATION

75

To sum up all our recoveries of the Common Pochard from Bharatpur

have been reported from the breeding and/or wintering area of the

Kazakhstan population of this duck in the USSR,

Recoveries of Waders

Family Charadriidae

Tringa glareola Spotted Sandpiper

The Project has ringed 4645 birds of this species to date and has

received reports of 13 recoveries, three within the country and 10 extra-

limitally. These birds were ringed at Bharatpur, in Bihar, and near

Calcutta, Besides, two of the Spotted Sandpipers ringed by Dr. B.

Biswas near Calcutta since 1967 with rings of the Zoological Survey of

India have also been recovered in Eastern Siberia in July and August

1967. Of the ten recoveries of this species mentioned earlier six were

reported in East Siberia. These six included 3 ringed at Monghyr dis-

trict, Bihar, and 3 ringed near Calcutta. A Bharatpur bird was recovered

in Tyumen Region, some 19 months after ringing and another at

Krasnoyarsk 20 months after ringing. A Calcutta bird (5 April 1967)

was recovered in Novokazalinsk ( c . 45° 45 'N ; 62° 9'E) USSR on 20

May 1967.

An interesting recovery of a Bharatpur sandpiper (ringed 30.x. 1967)

was reported from Periakotta village near Sivaganga (c. 9° 51 'N ; 78°

30 'E) on 22.xn.1968 ; and another Bharatpur bird (6.x. 1967) at Rail

Bazar, Lyallpur, W. Pakistan (c. 31° 42'N ; 73° 12'E) on 23.iv.1968. For

the very long distances covered by this species between points of ringing

and recovery, the spotted sandpipers apparently travelled fairly fast.

One individual ringed at Calcutta on 6 April reached the Magadan

Region in E. Siberia on 24 May. If one were to assume that this bird

had moved out of Calcutta on the day after ringing and had covered the

approximate straight-line map distance of c. 6100 km. within the next

48 days, its average rate of movement would be about 123 km. /day.

Between northeast India and E. Siberia there are a few records of its

movement. La Touche (1921) found the spotted sandpiper very common

on passage through Chinwangtao ( c . 40°N ; 120°E) China, in August,

1st week of September and again in the beginning of May, Kozlova

(1932) noted the species as a common breeding bird throughout SW.

Transbaikalia, and the Tola and Kangai Regions of Mongolia. It

first appeared on Lake Orok Nor on 19 May. Stanford and Ticehurst

(1939) found the species to be very common in North Burma from

August to the 3rd week of May. In the Nepal Valley, Desiree Proud

(1955) found the species to be a common passage migrant during both

spring and autumn. From the northwest there are records of the species

76 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 68 (1)

as a passage migrant in Punjab : abundant passage migrant from March

to May and July to September in the Jhang and Rawalpindi district,

(Whistler 1922, 1930) ; Baluchistan plentiful on passage in April and

May at Quetta, (Meinertzhagen 1920) ; Ladak, ( c . 34° 20 'N ; IT 36'E),

at altitude of 11,500 ft. on 7 and 14 May in Leh, (Meinertzhagen 1927) ;

and one female obtained on 18 September at Yarkand, (Ludlow & Kinnear

1934). In summary, eight out of nine sandpipers ringed in Monghyr

and Calcutta were recovered from East Siberia. There were only four

recoveries of Bharatpur- ringed birds. These were from Sivaganga (Tamil

Nadu), Rail Bazar (W. Pakistan), Krasnoyarsk and Tyumen (USSR).

There are observations on the movements of this widespread species

between India and Russia from the west as well as the east.

Philomachus pugnax Ruff

The Society has ringed 4293 birds of this species and has had 25

recoveries from Russia and East and West Pakistan and twelve from

within India. Twenty-three of the extralimital recoveries are of

Bharatpur- ringed birds. The Russian recoveries were reported from a

wide area stretching from Turkmenia (c. 42° 20 'N; 58° 55'E) in the west

to Magadan ( c . 62° 50'N ; 148° ll'E) in the east, and from Tedzhen (37°

23 'N ; 60° 30'E) in the south to Norlinsk (c. 69 0 20'N ; 88° 13#E) in the

north. Seven of these Russian recoveries were from points west of

longtitude 90°E. and 4 from east of it. There was one recovery of a

Bharatpur Ruff four months after ringing from north of Kabul City.

In West Pakistan our birds were recovered near Lahore, at Hafizabad

in Gujaranwala district and at Sargodha ; in East Pakistan in Jessore

district (c. 23°N ; 89° 30'E) and Rupganj in Dacca ( c . 23° 40 'N ; 90°

20'E).

Three interesting inland recoveries of Ruff from eastern India are

presented below (Table 3) along with two extralimital ones suggesting

Table 3

Recoveries of the Ruff ( Philomachus pugnax)

Place of recovery

Gonda, U.P.

(c. 27° 28'N ; 81° 3l'-82°46'E)

Ramkola, U.P.

(c. 26° 30'N; 83° 30'E)

Jessore Dist., E. Pakistan

(c. 23°N; 89° 30'E)

Darbhanga Dist.

(c. 26°N; 85° 54 'E)

Syrlarya, Uzbek, SSR

(c, 40° 50'N; 68° 42'E)

REVIEW OF RECOVERY DATA OF BIRD MIGRATION 11

an easterly trend of the migratory movement after arrival in the north-

west. All the birds were ringed at Bharatpur soon after arrival.

AB 8926 which was recovered 15 months after ringing in Bharatpur

had presumably returned from its breeding grounds. B 1721, a male

ringed in the same month and place as the others had already reached the

USSR (crossing the Himalayas in the Northwest?) by end February.

Another female ringed by Dr. Biswas near Calcutta on 23 March 1967

was shot at Dacca on 19 November 1967. There are some interesting

observations on the movements of Ruff. In Jhang District, Whistler

(1922) found the species to be an uncommon spring passage migrant

from late March to 18 May. At Rawalpindi he noted it as a passage

migrant found on the plateau in small numbers. In Quetta, Meinertz-

hagen (1920) observed large flocks on spring passage in March. In

Afghanistan, Whistler (1945) found Ruff to be common passage migrant

passing through all parts of the country between 19 March and 8 May.

Ludlow & Kinnear (1934) quoted Henderson as stating the species to

be very common near the city of Yarkand where it bred. In the east

Proud (1955) observed and collected Ruff at Manora in Nepal Valley

on September 16 ; these were on passage. Ludlow (1928) found the

Ruff passing through southern Tibet in autumn in fair numbers.

Kozlova (1932) found the species moving in small numbers in the Tola

River Valley towards the end of August. To summarise, there are

many more records of the movements of Ruff between northwest India

and Central Asia, and virtually none from northeastern India.

The few recoveries so far obtained of Bharatpur birds are from points

situated in nearly all directions between northwest and east of Bharatpur.

Recoveries of Passerine birds

Out of a total of some 75,398 migratory passerine birds ringed up to

August 1969, only 32 have been so far recovered (7 inland, 25 extra-

limital). There was no recovery at all of the 2895 Swallows ( Hirundo

rustica) ringed all over India. This is perhaps not so surprising since

Dorst (1962) records a recovery rate of 0.7% for Swallows in England.

Out of 55,962 migratory Wagtails ringed by the Project 7 were- recovered

within the country and 13 outside our limits.

Motacilla indica Forest Wagtail

Out of 2210 birds ringed in Alleppey District, Kerala and in Gal Oya

Valley, Ceylon (Mr. R. Mcl. Cameron) there was only a single recovery.

This bird was ringed at Edanad (c. 9° 20 'N; 76° 38 'E) on 25 February

1963 and recovered at Tiddirn in the Chin’ Hills of Burma (c. 23° 50 'N ;

93° 71 'E) on 25 April 1963. The species was recorded at Shwebo (c. 22°

78 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 68 (1)

35'N ; 95° 04'E) by Roseveare (1949) between 26-30 April. The Forest

Wagtail has been recorded on the upward and downward migration at

Gopaldhara (c. 26° 55 'N ; 88° 20'E) in the Sikkim area by Stevens (1925).

La Touche (1923) recorded the species at Mengts, E. China (c. 23° 14'N ;

103° 30 'E) both in spring and in autumn, the latest spring date being

5 May.

In Siberia (Neufeldt 1961) it is widely distributed as a breeding bird

in Amurland eastward from Kumava Village (c. 51° 30'N ; 126° 41 'E)

and breeds from the first half of June. Between Kerala and Burma,

on the eastern side of India, there is very little recent information on

the movements of this Wagtail. At Tambaram, Chingleput district

( c . 12° 30'N ; 80°E), Sanjeevaraj (1960) noted it on 19th September and

28 April. I saw a solitary Forest Wagtail at Reddipalli, Rajampet

(c. 13° 30'-14°N ; 79°-79' 30'E) on 30 September, 1969. At Mananur,

Farahabad (c. 16° 16'N ; 79°E) Salim Ali (1933) recorded it on 17

October. Since the species has not been recorded in the Eastern Ghats

it has been suggested, (Salim Ali 1953) that the bird probably reaches

India by way of the Andamans where it has been recorded as arriving in

early October and leaving in April (Osmaston 1906). On the whole the

information available on the movements of the species is fragmentary.

Motaciila flava Yellow Wagtail

Out of a total of 50,438 Yellow Wagtails {Motaciila flava thunbergi ,

M. /. beema, M. /. melanogrisea and M. /. simillima) 1 5 were recovered,

5 within the country and 10 extralimital. Those recovered belonged to

the Greyheaded and Blueheaded subspecies and were reported from West

Pakistan, Afghanistan and the USSR between latitudes 30° and 54CN

and longitudes 69° 10'E and 74° 34'E. They were ringed in Kerala and

at Bharatpur. The details of ringing and recovery of birds ringed in

Kerala, all atEdanad in Alleppey District ( c . 9° 20'N ; 76° 38 'E) are given

in Table 4 for comparison.

The birds recovered in W. Pakistan and Kabul (in May) were pre-

sumably, on the outward passage. Two Bharatpur Yellow Wagtails were

recovered in Kirghiz, SSR and Omsk ( c . 53° 33 'N ; 74° 22 'E), in May

and June the first 41 days and the second 7 months from the dates of

ringing. Between Kerala and north-western India, there are very few

records of movement of the Yellow Wagtail to support Phillips’s sugges-

tion (1956), that passerine migrants like wagtails, pipits and flycatchers

visiting Ceylon follow the western and eastern coasts of Peninsular India.

In the Maldives (8°-10°N ; 72°-74°E) Phillips (1956) observed the

Yellow Wagtail as follows ; 40 miles south of Addu Atoll ( c . 10° 13'S ;

73° 37 'E) flava or beema observed on 10 April 1957, and an immature of

thunbergi seen between October 27 and November 1, at Male ( c . 4° 10'N ;

REVIEW OF RECOVERY DATA OF BIRD MIGRATION

19

73° 45'E) Yellow Wagtails were reported to arrive in small numbers in

November. In general Phillips considered the yellow wagtails to be

passage migrants or irregular winter visitors to Maldives. At Bitra

Table 4

Recoveries of Yellow Wagtails ( Motacilla flava )

Island, Laccadives (c. 11° 35'N ; 72° 10'E), Mathew Sc Ambedkar (1963)

saw about 6 birds of the race thunbergi in October, on the beach.

At Quetta (c. 30°N ; 67°E), Meinertzhagen (1920) recorded the Blue-

headed Wagtail on spring passage from 16-20 March and the Greyheaded

only in August. At Peshawar, Briggs and Osmaston (1928) found the

Greyheaded Wagtail passing through in large numbers in both seasons,

and up to 13 May in spring. At Jhang District, Whistler (1922) found

beema abundant on both seasons (passing along the course of the Chenab

80 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 68 (1)

River), as did Waite (1948) at Salt Range (c. 32° 30'N ; 72° 50'E).

Whistler (1930) collected 2 Greyheaded Wagtails at Rawalpindi (c. 33°

36'N ; 75° 7'E) on May 4 and quoted Magrath as saying that this Wagtail

passes through the vicinity of Tret in considerable numbers up to May.

In Afghanistan, Meinertzhagen (1938) recorded the Blue and Greyheaded

Wagtails at Ghorband Valley near Bamian (c. 34° 84'N ; 67° 87'E) up

to 20 April and the Greyheaded at Kunduz ( c . 36° 40 'N ; 68° 50 'E) on

20 May. Whistler (1945) found the race beema to be a spring passage

migrant in northern and the race thunbergi to be a double passage

migrant to northern and southern Afghanistan. There were no

recoveries of the Yellow Wagtails in the east. Desiree Proud (1955)

noted Blue and Greyheaded Wagtails as regular passage migrants along

Kosi River in the Nepal Valley. In sum the few recoveries obtained of

the Yellow Wagtails align favourably with observations published earlier

from north and northwestern India, and generally support the supposition

that these Wagtails cross the Himalayas in the northwest around Kabul

moving along the course of the Indus system.

Motacilla alba White Wagtail

The Project ringed 468 White Wagtails ( Motacilla alba dukhunensis

and leucopsis) at Bharatpur, Kutch and Kerala, out of which two birds

ringed at Kutch on 16 and 17 March 1961 were recovered at Kiev (c. 50°

35 'N ; 30° 50'E) in June-July 1961 and at Stalingrad (c. 49° 35'N ; 49°

7'E) on 11 July 1961 respectively. The following observations provide

useful comparison. In the Salt Range, W. Pakistan, Waite (1948) found

the subspecies dukhunensis to be a double passage migrant in October

and March- April. At Quetta, Meinertzhagen (1920) found this

subspecies dukhunensis to be a common passage migrant in March and

October. At Rawalpindi, Whistler (1930) and Peshawar, Briggs &

Osmaston (1928) record this Wagtail as very common in winter. In

Afghanistan, Meinertzhagen (1938) found it abundant for a few days

about 20 April and passing in flocks at Khanabad and Kunduz about 2

May. Ludlow & Kinnear (1934) referred to 2 specimens collected at

Suget Kraul (c. 36°N ; 78°E) on 23 and 29 September. In the Nepal

Valley, Desiree Proud (1955) found dukhunensis to be a common double

passage migrant. The subspecies leucopsis and alboides have been

recorded as occurring at altitudes up to the snowline, in the Tsangpo

Valley, Southern Tibet, Ludlow (1944) ; at east Everest (17,000 ft.)

Kinnear (1922) ; and along the River Vishnumathi in the Nepal Valley

in thousands, Proud (1955). The data on the White Wagtails are thus

fragmentary.

REVIEW OF RECOVERY DATA OF BIRD MIGRATION 31

Passer domesticus parkin! and/or bactrianus

Migratory House Sparrow

Out of the 1728 birds ringed by the Project at Bharatpur up to 1966

December, 4 were recovered in Kazakh and Tadjik SSR in Russia in

May, June, September and November. Between 1967-69 another 3760

Table 5

Showing the Summary of Recovery Data Obtained by the BNHS/WHO

Bird Migration Project 1959-1969 July-August.

sparrows were ringed at Bharatpur; one of these, ringed on 22-1-1969,

was recovered at Kulate ( c . 37° 55 'N ; 69° 48 'E) on 19- v- 1969.

Dr. E. Gavrilov who recovered two of these, identified the specimens, as

Passer domesticus bactrianus . The limits of the subspecies parkini,

Vaurie (1965) are the foothills or outer ranges of the Himalayas in the

north and the border of Afghanistan in the north-west. The subspecies

bactrianus which comes from Transcaspia and Russian Turkestan,

according to Dr. Vaurie also winters in Sind and the plains of north-

western India. About this point Dr. Salim Ali commented ‘ If these

{bactrianus) are really different from parkini as he (Dr. Gavrilov) main-

6

82 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (1)

tains, it could make a great difference in our conclusion about the origin

of the birds. Then again there is the possibility that the birds ringed by

us contained both subspecies.’ Earlier, Whistler (1922) found large

flocks of Passer domesticus parkini flying through Jhang District in

September and October and quoted Magarth that vast flocks of migrating

House Sparrows pass through Kohat in April and May in company with

Spanish Sparrows and Rosy Pastor. Meinertzhagen (1938) considered

bactrianus to be synonymous with parkini and found the subspecies

migrating at Bamian in Afghanistan from 20-29 April. He found them

breeding at Haibak (c. 36° 20 'N ; 68°E) in mid May and at Ghorband and

in Kabul River Valley. Whistler (1945) considers Passer domesticus

griseiogularis to be the same as Meinertzhagen’s bactrianus , and records

it as a very numerous visitor both in the northern and southern parts of

Afghanistan. He referred to it as ‘ this large migratory House Sparrow

so common in Turkestan, Tibet, Afghanistan, Kashmir, and other

neighbouring areas, which winters in parts of India’. Thus the migratory

House Sparrows visiting Bharatpur may contain 2 different subspecies

(if recognized )— parkini moving between north India and the outer

ranges of Himalayas, and bactrianus between North India and

Kazakhstan. This can be confirmed only by careful study and by ringing

many more sparrows in the Bharatpur area.

Passer hispaniolensis transcaspicus Spanish Sparrow

Out of 1782 Spanish Sparrows ringed at Bharatpur in 1962 and 1963,

3 birds, ringed on 3 April, 25 and 31 March 1962 were recovered in

Chokpar (c. 43° 02 'N ; 73° 43 'E) and Dzambul (c. 42° 38 'N ; 70° 31'E)

Kazakh, SSR on 29 May 1962, 2 June 1962, and 9 May 1965 respectively.

From another lot of 2908 Spanish Sparrows ringed at Bharatpur bet-

ween 1967 and 69, one ringed on 17-xii-1967 was recovered in Dzambul

(c. 42° 38 'N ; 70° 31 'E) on 5-vii-l968. In USSR, vide Gavrilov (1963)

‘ It is distributed in Kazakhstan from the administrative frontier at the

south, northward as far as the valleys of the Rivers Sir-Daria and Chu.

It is also found in the lowlands adjoining the Kirgizsky Zailyisky and

Dzungarsk, Ala-Tau north to Lake Alakoul. It reaches Kazakhstan in

April and May’.

Emberiza melanocephala Blackheaded Bunting

Out of 399 birds ringed, there were two recoveries. One of these,

ringed at Bhuj, Kutch (c. 23° 15 'N ; 69° 49 'E) on 26 September 1959, was

recovered at Krasnodar (c. 45° 30 'N ; 40° 45 'E) on 26 May 1961 ; the

other ringed by Yuvraj Shivrajkumar at Jasdan (c. 22°N ; 71 °E) on 22

REVIEW OF RECOVERY DATA OF BIRD MIGRATION

83

September 1964, in Famagusta, Cyprus ( c . 35° 6'N ; 33° 57'E) on 16 May

1965. It is widely distributed, in south-eastern Europe eastward to Iran

and in parts of Italy, Greece, Bulgaria, Rumania, Cyprus, Crete, Iraq

and in Russia north to the region of Stalingrad (Yaurie 1965).

There was one recovery of a Rosefinch Carpodacus erythrinus ringed at

Bharatpur on 18-iii-1969, in the Vligunousk region near Inza ( c . 53°

50'N ; 46° 21'E); another of a Great Reed Warbler Acrocephalus

stentoreus ringed at Salt Lake, Calcutta on 10-IV-1965 in the Uzbek SSR,

(c. 39° 41 'N ; 66° 58'E) on 3-ix-1968.

Summary

I. The recovery rates of birds ringed by the Society’s Migration

Project is very low compared to recovery data from European ringing

study stations. In all only (0‘40%) of the banded birds were recovered,

and from only 25 % of the migratory species ringed.

II. The highest recoveries have been of migratory ducks and teals ;

among the waders, Spotted Sandpipers and Ruffs, and among the pas-

serine birds Yellow Wagtails have yielded some significant results. This

is probably due to the fact that ducks and teals are regularly shot by

sportsmen.

III. Generally, birds ringed by the Society were reported mainly at

places in West and East Pakistan, and USSR. Ducks and teals ringed

here were recovered in the breeding area of the Kazakhstan and East

Siberian populations of Wildfowl of the USSR. More than 50% of all

duck recoveries were from the Kazakhstan area. Individually 79% of

the Pintail recoveries, 77 % of the Common Teals, 80% of the Garganeys

and 82% of the Shovellers, were reported from Isakov’s Kazakhstan

population area. However, 61 % of the Common Teals and all the

Shovellers ringed in the more easterly part (Bihar) were reported in the

East Siberian parts of the USSR.

IV. Four Garganeys and one Pintail ringed at Bharatpur were

recovered in Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.

V. Among the passerine birds, the few recoveries obtained were

from West Pakistan, Burma, Afghanistan, USSR and Cyprus.

In conclusion the recoveries of ducks and teals ringed by the Society

suggest that the ducks and teals wintering in India belong to at least two

separate USSR wildfowl populations as categorised by Isakov (1965),

namely, the Kazakhstan population and the East Siberian population.

Recoveries of passerine and non-passerine birds tend to support — by and

large — the hypothetical routes of migration through northwest Pakistan

84 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (1)

and Afghanistan and along the tributaries of the Ihdus and Oxus pos-

tulated by earlier workers. There is also a suggestion, but not sufficient

evidence as yet, that a considerable amount of trans-Himalayan migration

takes place directly across the mountain barrier. To secure incontroverti-

ble proof of this, and an estimate of the extent of such migration is one of

our important aims. The recovery of Bharatpur-ringed birds in Andhra

Pradesh and Tamil Nadu suggest that certain species of ducks and teals

from northwestern India move south across the Deccan. Generally

speaking the recoveries of India-ringed birds, are as yet too meagre to

suggest any definite routes of migration or patterns of dispersal. But

our data at this stage serve to broadly supplement those obtained by

Russian workers for extralimital movements of the Anatidae. We have

no recoveries at all from the eastern Himalayas or from countries beyond,

like Tibet, China and Mongolia, though some of our birds must un-

doubtedly go there. A curious and rather striking anomaly is that while

we obtain regular and sizable recoveries of Indian-ringed Anatidae in

the territories of the USSR, we have been getting practically no recoveries

at all of Russian-ringed birds in India. And this notwithstanding the

fact that ringing is done on a much vaster scale in USSR than in India.

Acknowledgements

I am grateful to Dr. Salim Ali and to Shri J. C. Daniel, for their help

and criticism in the preparation of this paper.

R E F E R E N'c E S

Inglis, C. M., Travers, W. L.,

O’donel, H. V. & Shebbeare, E. O.

(1920) : A tentative List of the Verte-

brates of Jalpaiguri District, Bengal

ibid. 27 : 157.

Isakov, J. A. (1965) : The Main Geo-

graphical Populations of Waterfowl in

the USSR and International Measures on

their Protection and right use. VII«

Congress des Biological Du Gibier Beo-

grad— Ljubljona. September 1965.

Kinnear, N. B. (1922) : On the Birds

collected by Mr. A. F. R. Wollaston

during the First Mt. Everest Expedition.

Ibis 4 (11) : 515.

Kozlova, E. V. (1932) : The Birds of

Northern Mongolia etc. Ibis (13), 2 :

412, 577.

La Touche, J. D. D. (1921) : Birds of

North-East Chihli. Ibis (11), 3 : 45.

— (1923) : On the Birds of

South-East Yunnan, S. N. China,

ibid. (11), 5:629.

— — (1934) : A Handbook of the

Ali, Salim (1933) : The Hyderabad

State Ornithological Survey, ibid. 36 :

909.

(1946) : An Ornithological

Pilgrimage, ibid. 46 : 307.

(1953) : Birds of Travancore

and Cochin. Oxford University Press.

Biswas, B. (1960) : The Birds of

Nepal, ibid. 57 : 523.

Briggs, Rev. F. S. (1934) : A note on

the Birds of Ghazipur. ibid. 37 : 390.

— & Osmaston, B. B. (1928) :

A note on the Birds of the Peshawar

District, ibid. 32 : 754.

Christison, Brigadier, A. F. P.

(1941) : Birds of Chagai. Ibis (14), 5 :

555.

Dorst, J. (1962) : The Migration of

Birds. Hienmann, London.

Fulton, Captain, H. T. (1904) :

Notes on the Birds of Chitral. J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 16 : 64.

Gavrilov, E. I. (1963) : The Biology

of the Eastern Spanish Sparrow etc.

REVIEW OF RECOVERY DATA OF BIRD MIGRATION

85

Birds of Eastern China. Taylor and

Francis, London.

Ludlow, Frank (1927) : Birds of the

Gyantse Neighbourhood, Southern

Tibet. Part I. Ibis (12), 3 : 657.

(1928) :

Part III. ibid. (12), 4: 230.

, & Kinnear, N. B. (1934) :

A contribution to the Ornithology of

Chinese Turkestan. Part IV. ibid. (13),

4 : 95-125.

(1944) : The Birds of South-

eastern Tibet, ibid. 86 : 388.

Mathew, D. N. & Ambedkar, V. C.

(1963) : A Bird Study trip to the Lac-

cadives. /. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 61 :

190.

Meinertzhagen, Col. R. (1920) :

Notes on the Birds of Quetta. Ibis (1 1),

2 : 182.

(1927) : Systematic results of

Birds collected at high altitudes in Ladak

and Sikkim. Part II. ibid. (12), 3 : 615.

— (1938) : On the Birds of

Northern Afghanistan, ibid. (14), 2 :

480-520,671-717.

Neufeldt, Irene (1961) : The Breeding

Biology of the Forest Wagtail Motacilla

indica. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 58 :

559-579.

Nichols, Edward G. (1945) : Occur-

rence of Birds in Madura District.

Part III. ibid. 45 : 122-132.

Osmaston, B. B. (1906) ; Notes on

Andaman birds with accounts of the

nidification of several species whose

nests and eggs have not been hitherto

described, ibid. 17 : 156-163 : 486-491.

(1930) : A Tour in Further

Kashmir, ibid. 34 : 124.

Perreau, Capt. G. A. (1910) : Notes

on the Birds of Chitral. ibid. 19 : 922.

Phillips, W. W. A. (1956) : Bird

Migration with respect to Ceylon. Jour.

Ceylon Branch Roy. Asiat. Soc. New

Series 5. Part I.

Proud, Desiree (1949) : Some Notes

on the Birds of the Nepal Valley. J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 48 : 719.

(1955) : More notes on the

Birds of the Nepal Valley, ibid. 53 :

57-78.

Roseveare, W. L. (1949) : Notes on

the Birds of the Irrigated area of Shwebo

District, Burma, ibid. 48 : 528.

Sanjeevaraj, P. J. (1960) : The Forest

Wagtail, Motacilla indica (Gmelin) in

Madras, Chingleput District, ibid., 57 :

220.

Savage, C. D. W. (1965) : A Review

of Ringing Data on Wildfowl migration

in South-West Asia Working paper,

1965/2.

Sherriff, G. (1929) : Migration notes

from Kashgar Chinese Turkestan. J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 33 : 989.

Stanford, J. K. & Ticehurst,

Claude, B. (1939) : On the Birds of

Northern Burma. Ibis (14), 3 : 255.

Stevens, Herbert (1925) : Notes on

the Birds of the Sikkim Himalayas. J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 30 : 378.

Subbiah Pillai (1967) : In lit.

Ticehurst, Claude, B. (1927) : The

Birds of British Baluchistan. J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 32 : 93.

Vaurie, Charles (1965) : The Birds

of the Palaearctic Fauna, Non-Passeri-

formes. H.F. & G. Witherby Limited,

London.

Waite, H. W. (1948) : The Birds of

the Punjab Salt Range. J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 48 : 104.

Whistler, Hugh (1922) : The Birds

of Jhang District, S.W. Punjab. Part

II. Ibi (1 1), 4 : 420.

(1930) : The Birds of the

Rawalpindi District, N.W. India, ibid.

(12), 6 : 247-279.

(1945) : Materials for

the Ornithology of Afghanistan, ibid.

45 : 106-122.

Whitehead, Lieut. C. H. T. (1911):

The Birds of Kohat and the Kurram

Valley, ibid. 20 : 978.

Eco-Toxicology and Control of Indian

Desert Gerbil, Meriones hurrianae

(Jerdon)

VII. Relative number in relation to ecological factors

BY

Ishwar Prakash, G. C. Taneja and K. G. Purohit

Animal Studies Division , Central Arid Zone Research Institute ,

Jodhpur

Introduction

There is no literature on the fluctuations of desert gerbil population

except for some stray remarks by naturalists (Adams 1899 ; Blanford

1888-91 ; Jerdon 1867). To fill up this lacuna in our knowledge of the

desert gerbil, attempts were made by us to undertake a population study

on this species by the conventional capture-recapture technique, but

the inherent trap-shyness of these rodents led us to abandon this technique.

The present study was, therefore, done employing an indirect census

method which only required the counting of freshly-opened burrow open-

ings. Although this technique may have certain limitations, yet, for pur-

poses of comparison between localities and between seasons, it has

sufficient validity. This paper deals with the annual and seasonal

numbers of the Indian desert gerbil, Meriones hurrianae (Jerdon) in

the rainfall zones of the Rajasthan desert. An attempt has also been

made to correlate gerbil numbers with various ecological factors.

Methods

Number of Desert Gerbils :

It was observed that soon after venturing out of their burrows in the

morning, the desert gerbils feed continuously for 30-45 minutes and

do not indulge in burrow digging. This habit of the gerbil was utilized

in formulating the census method which involved plugging of all

the burrow openings in the evening after cessation of all surface activity

followed by counting of all the freshly-opened burrow openings in the

next morning within about half an hour of the start of their morning

activity. Since during this period a gerbil is not likely to make more

ECO-T OX1COLO G Y AND CONTROL OF INDIAN GERBIL

87

than one burrow opening, each fresh burrow opening should represent

one gerbil. This was checked in small plots by ocular counting before

initiating the study. Plots measuring 90 X 90 m. were worked and divided

in subplots of 7*5 X 7*5 m. In each subplot all the burrow openings were

closed at evening and the freshly opened ones were counted next morn-

ing. The plots were situated at Jaisalmer and Chandan (180 mm. average

annual rainfall) ; Barmer and Gadra Road (300 mm.) ; and Lachhman-

garh and Palsana (450 mm.) representing the main rainfall zones of the

Rajasthan desert. Census by burrow closing-opening method was

carried out in summer (June), monsoon (August), post-monsoon

(October), and winter (December) seasons. The trend of the population

number being similar the data for both the work sites in each rainfall

zone was pooled.

Vegetation : The vegetation was studied by the line intercept method

(Cainfield 1941) in 8 transects at each work site in every season.

Soil Characteristics : The field density of soil was worked out by the

British Standard Test No. 10 C and the per cent clay and permeability

of the soil according to Darsy’s Law method (soil mechanics for road

engineers, HMSO, London, 1961).

Climate: The. climatic data have been taken from Pramanik &

Hariharan (1952) and also from the Climatology section of the Institute.

Results and Discussion

Vegetation Cover :

The vegetation in all the three zones comprise chiefly of grasses, the

most common species being : Cenchrus ciliaris , Cenchrus setigerus ,

Cenchrus biflorus , Lasiurus sindicus , Aristida adscensionis , Eleusine com-

pressa, Perot is hordeiformis , Chloris virgata, Cymbopogon jwarancusa,

Digitaria marginata , Brachiaria ramosa and Dactyloctenium scindicum

etc. The other prominent species of plants occurring, in these sites are

Zizyphus nummularia, Tephrosia purpurea , Aerva tomentosa, Crotalaria

burhia , Capparis aphylla , Calotropis procera , Pulicaria wightiana , Lepta-

denia pyro-technica , Calligonum polygonoides , Indigofera sp. etc. The

main tree species are : Prosopis spicigera, P. juliflora, Acacia spp., Azadira -

chta indica, Salvadora oleoides, etc. On the basis of frequency and

density, the following plant communities were found at the three experi-

mental sites : Barmer and Gadra Road (BG), Cenchrus-Indigofera -

Dactyloctenium- Aristida community : Jaisalmer and Chandan (JQ,

Eleusine-Aristida-Lasiurus community ; Lachhmangarh and Palsana

(LP), Digitaria-Aristida-Cenchrus-Pulicaria community.

88 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (1)

The average annual plant cover at JC, BG and LP tracts was 6'66,

3*0, 2*69 per cent respectively and the grass cover was IT 9, 5*98, 1*80

per cent respectively. Table 2 shows the fluctuations in the total plant

as well as grass covers during the various seasons. It will be observed

that at BG and JC regions the cover was more in summer than in spring

which was presumably due to early showers in the month of June.

Soil Characteristics : The field density of soils from LP and JC

regions show very little difference (Table 3). These soils are denser than

the soil at BG region since the field density of soils in the region is

1.36 gm./cm. as compared to 1*80 to 1*82 gm./cm. at the LP and JC

regions respectively. The soils of JC region have the maximum amount

of clay whereas the clay content is least in the soils of BG tract.

Permeability of the soil for the seepage of water is maximum in the JC

region and lowest in the BG tract.

Desert gerbil number :

Average annual number in three rainfall zones : The average annual

number of the desert gerbils was maximum per experimental plot in

the Barmer-Gadra Road tract and minimum at the Jaisalmer-Chandan

tract (Table 1).

Table 1

Average annual number of desert gerbil in relation to climatic

FACTORS AND VEGETATION

Seasonal fluctuations in gerbil numbers : The gerbil numbers show

an annual trend which is identical for the Jaisalmer-Chandan and

Lachhmangarh-Palsana regions. In these two tracts, their number is

low in summer, slightly builds up during monsoon and reaches a peak

in winter ; whereas at Barmer-Gadra Road tract, their number is mini-

mum during summer, somewhat higher in winter, reaches a peak in spring

and declines in summer (Table 2). The differences in number between

ECO -TOXICOLOGY AND CONTROL OF INDIAN GERBIL

89

seasons were maximum in the JC region, which also has the maximum

adverse climatic conditions as compared to the other two tracts.

Table 2

Seasonal fluctuations in numbers of desert gerbil in relation to

CLIMATIC FACTORS AND VEGETATION

Average annual number of Desert Gerbil in relation to climatic

factors : It is evident from Table 1 that the variation in the mean maxi-

mum and mean minimum temperatures at the three zones is only of the

order of T6°C to 2*7°C whereas the gerbil number ivaries from 31 to 458.

It, therefore, appears that the number of desert gerbils is not

perhaps affected by temperature fluctuations in these three zones, which

is expected since their burrows are comparatively cooler than the

surrounding soil surface (Prakash et ah 1965). As the rodents develop

hyperthermia due to exposure to the sun during their diurnal surface

activity, they enter the burrows and the excess body heat is then inter-

mittently unloaded to the cooler environment (Schmidt-Nielsen 1964;

Fitzwater & Prakash 1969). It has, however, been observed that in JC

tract where the gerbil number was the least per plot, the mean annual

relative humidity was the highest and vice versa at BG region. It would

appear therefore, that the population density of gerbils is inversely related

to atmospheric relative humidity. However, the constancy of the humi-

90 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 68 (1)

dity conditions prevailing inside the burrows should be of more immediate

consequence for population build-up in this species. The number of

desert gerbils was found to be minimum in JC tract where the amount

of annual precipitation is also the lowest. The next higher rainfall zone

(BG), however, shows the maximum number of desert gerbils (Table 1).

It, therefore, appears that the amount of precipitation is not an important

factor for the density distribution in various zones. Another possibility

is that a medium rainfall zone like Banner- G ad ra Road region, is more

suitable for their population build up as it is neither too dry nor too wet.

Average annual number of desert gerbils in relation to vegetation : It

was observed that the number of gerbils was higher in plots which had

Dactyloctenium scindicum , Aristida adscensionis , Lasiurus sindicus, Perotis

indica , Digitaria marginata and lower in plots having a high frequency of

Cenchrus biflorus plants. The above mentioned grasses are preferred as

food by the desert gerbils. Although it also feeds on C. bijiorus but when

the inflorescence ripens the awns become so sharp that they are repulsive

to the rodents.

The average annual number of gerbils was minimum in JC tract

where the total plant cover as well as the grass cover was the highest.

In the two other tracts the higher gerbil numbers were associated with a

lower plant as well as grass cover. This would look paradoxical since in

areas with the higher plant cover food available should be more and a

higher gerbil population should therefore, be expected. This paradox

can be explained on the basis of their burrowing habit. The gerbils

cannot easily dig their extensive burrows when they are confronted with

the anastomosing, fibrous roots of grasses which form by far the majority

of the vegetation of these tracts. Moreover, the extensive root systems

make the soils more compact making burrowing more arduous. Our

observations in the field also confirm that gerbils are densely distributed

in open sandy plains as compared to heavily vegetated patches. Smith

(1958) also observed that the dense vegetation is a limiting factor in the

establishment of new dogtowns of the prairie dog, Cynomys ludovicianus.

Average annual number in relation to edaphic characteristics : A

comparison of soil characteristics and the gerbil numbers (Tables 1 & 3)

reveals that in the tracts where field density, permeability and clay per

cent of soil was maximum (JC), the gerbil number was minimum, and vice

versa (BG), which indicates that the gerbil numbers tend to be low where

the soil is denser, has a higher permeability for seepage of water and is

clayey in nature. Denser soils are usually more clayey and, therefore,

burrowing should be difficult. It may, therefore, be one of the important

factors affecting the relative abundance of desert gerbils in various

localities, Another reason for their shunning the compact clayey soil§

ECO-TOXICOLOGY AND CONTROL OF INDIAN GERBIL

91

could be that more permeable soil will allow more seepage of rain water

which would retain it for greater durations as compared to the looser

soils which would probably disturb the micro-climatic balance inside the

burrows.

Table 3

Characteristics of soils of BG, LP and JC regions

Seasonal fluctuations in gerbil numbers with respect to ecological

factors : The desert gerbils stay during the periods of unfavourable

climate inside the burrows which provide them with a comfortable and

homogeneous micro-climate (Prakash, Kumbkarni & Krishnan 1965).

Moreover, the desert gerbils are by behaviour adapted to avoid the

extremes of heat and cold in the arid regions (Prakash 1962 ; Fitzwater &

Prakash 1967). It is, therefore, expected that climatic fluctuations during

a year may not play an important role in influencing the fluctuations in

gerbil numbers. The soil characteristics are constant in all the seasons.

Only vegetation cover could be one of the factors governing the seasonal

fluctuations in gerbil numbers. However, it would appear from

Table 2, that when the vegetation cover decreases the gerbil numbers

increase. A similar situation was also reported by Ashby (1967) for

Apodemus sylvaticus in Durham. The availability of green food, how-

ever, has been reported to have a direct enhancing effect on the rate of

breeding of wild rabbits (Hughes & Rowley 1965). It was observed in a

previous study (Prakash 1963) that the rate of littering of Meriones

hurrianae also increases during the monsoon. This enhanced breeding

which is apparently due to availability of green food, would explain the

peak numbers met with during the winter in two zones, and during spring

in Barmer-Gadra Road region. A plausible cause of low numbers during

summer could be the low survival of the offsprings delivered after spring,

as has been observed in the case of the desert hare, Lepus nigricollis

day anus (Prakash & Taneja 1969). Hence the seasonal fluctuations in

gerbil numbers are influenced by the rate of breeding which is enhanced

by the availability of green food during monsoon.

Rainwater flooding the burrows of fossorial rodents, is another

factor which may matter in regulating the gerbil numbers. In all the

experimental zones their numbers tended tp increase after the monsoon

92 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (1)

and as such it may be difficult to attribute any mortality of gerbil to

this limiting factor. Moreover, the burrows of Indian desert gerbils

are so extensive (Fitzwater & Prakash 1969) that the scanty rains of the

desert region may not be sufficient to flood their burrow systems.

The role of predators, mostly snakes and predatory birds, in regulating

the gerbil numbers is not clearly known but peak gerbil numbers are

met with during the period when the snakes, their chief predators,

hibernate. The gerbil population tends to fall after winter when reptiles

are active.

To explain the seasonal fluctuations in rodent population is an intri-

cate problem since, in nature, only one factor cannot be held responsible

for these changes but several factors working together. Moreover,

without studies on their behaviour, genetics and the endocrine

mechanism, it is all the more difficult to work out the details of the popu-

lation turnover.

Summary

The annual and seasonal numbers of Indian desert gerbil, Meriones

hurrianae Jerdon, based on the counting of freshly-opened burrow open-

ings, in three rainfall zones of Rajasthan desert, are described. Their

numbers are related to soil characteristics, the population being less in

clayey and compact soils. An inverse relationship between grass cover

and population density has been observed. The seasonal fluctuations

show an annual cycle, low during summer with a build up resulting in a

high level during winter and spring. This population explosion may be

mainly due to the higher rate of breeding during and after monsoon which

is influenced by the availability of green food at this time.

Acknowledgements

Thanks are due to the Director, Central Arid Zone Research Institute,

Jodhpur, for providing facilities, to Shri K. N. K. Murti, Assistant Hydro-

logist, for working out the soil characteristics, to Shri H. P. Sharma for

assistance in the field work and to Dr. P. K. Ghosh for going through

the manuscript.

ECO-TOXICOLOGY AND CONTROL OF INDIAN GERBIL 93

References

Adams, A. (1899) : The Western

Rajputana States. Taylor and Francis,

London.

Ashby, K. R. (1967) : Studies on the

ecology of field mice and voles (Apodemus

sylvaticus , Clethrionomys glareolus and

Microtus agrestis ) in Houghall Wood,

Durham. J. zool. 152 : 389-513.

Blanford, W. T. (1888-91) : The

Fauna of British India, Mammalia.

Taylor and Francis, London.

Cainfield, R. H. (1941) : Application

of the line intercept method in sampling

range vegetation. J. Forestry 39 : 388-

394.

Fitzwater, W. D. & Prakash, Ishwar

(1969) : Burrows, behaviour and home

range of the Indian desert gerbille,

Meriones hurrianae (Jerdon). Mammalia

33 : 598-606.

Hughes, R. L. & Rowley, I. (1965) :

Breeding season of female wild rabbits

in natural population in the Riverina

and Southern Tableland districts of New

South Wales. C.S.I.R.O. , Wildl. Res.

11 : 1-10.

Jerdon,. T. C. (1867) : Mammals of

India. Thacker and Spink, Simla.

Prakash, Ishwar (1962) : Ecology of

the gerbils of the Rajasthan desert, India.

Mammalia 26 : 311-331.

(1963) : Eco-toxicology and

control of the Indian desert gerbil,

Meriones hurrianae (Jerdon). II. Breed-

ing season, litter size, and post-natal

development. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 61 : 142-149.

, Kumbkarni, C. G. &

Krishnan, A. (1965) : ibid. III. Burrow

temperature, ibid. 62 : 237-244.

, & Taneja, G. C. (1969): Re-

production biology of the Indian desert

hare, Lepus nigricollis day anus Blanford.

Mammalia 33 : 102-117,

Pramanik, S. K. & Hariharan,

P. S. (1952) : The climate of Rajasthan.

Bull. Nat. Inst. Sci. India. 1 : 167-178.

Ryley, K. V. (1913) : Bombay Natural

History Society’s Mammal Survey of

India. Report No. 10, J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 22 : 464-513.

Schmidt-Nielsen, K. (1964) : Terres-

trial animals in dry heat ; desert rodents.

Chapter 32, pp. 493-507, in Handbook of

Physiology — Environment .

Smith, R. E. (1958) : Natural history

of the prairie dog in Kansas. Univ.

Kansas Mus. nat. Hist. Miscel. Publ.

16 : 1-36.

The Thalassinoidea (Crustacea,

Anomura) of Maharashtra

BY

K. N. Sankolli1

Marine Biological Research Station , Ratnagiri

( With four text-figures)

[Continued from Vol. 67 (2) : 249]

Family Callianassidae

Key to the sub-families of Callianassidae

1 . Rostrum large ; first pair of legs equal ; no appendix interna on third to fifth

abdominal appendages Upogebiinae

2. Rostrum small ; first pair of legs unequal ; appendix interna on third to fifth

abdominal appendages Callianassinae

Sub-family Callianassinae.

Remarks : In Maharashtra, this sub-family is represented by a single

genus Callianassa Leach.

3.

Callianassa (Cailichirus) kewalramanii sp. nov. (Figs. 5 to 8)

Description

Sex : Male (Fig. 5, a) :

Length of carapace= 115 mm. T ,

T c UJ A [ Total length =46 5

Length of abdomen = 35 0 mm. j

mm.

Rostrum simple, fairly long, pointed, triangular, broad at base,

reaching about the middle of the basal segment of the antennule and

beyond the base of the second segment of the antenna. The frontal

margin, on either side of the rostrum mainly concave, sloping to form a

minute tooth-like antennal spinule, which is very much smaller than

the rostral spine. Carapace is smooth, shiny and well grooved on the

inner side all around except behind the rostrum. Cervical groove distinct.

Eye flattened anteriorly with a lobe narrowing anteriorly and its tip

curved slightly outwards and upwards. The eyes extend beyond the

1 Present Address : — Marine Zoology & Fisheries Div., Dept, of Zoology

Karnatak University, Dharwar-3, Mysore State.

THALASSINOIDEA OF MAHARASHTRA

05

Fig. 5. Callianassa ( Callichirus ) kewalramanii sp. nov. ( a ) entire animal, ( b ) carapace

showing antennule, antenna etc., (c) telson with uropods.

96 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Fo/. 68 (1)

distal margin of the basal segment of antennule and the second segment

of antenna. Cornea well-developed, situated laterally on the dorsal

surface (Fig. 5, b).

Antennule (Fig. 6, a) : Antennular peduncle about \ times longer

than the antennal peduncle. Its flagella shorter than the peduncle.

First segment slightly longer than the second and the first and second

together are less than the third in length. There are no spinules on any

of the segments. Upper flagellum shorter, more slender than the lower,

but broader at the tip and is composed of about 28 segments. The lower

flagellum is broader than the upper, gradually narrowing distalwards and

is fringed with setae.

Antenna (Fig. 6, b) : Peduncle shorter than the antennular peduncle.

The fifth and fourth segments equal, about 1J times longer than the

second segment which bears a small triangular scaphocerite. The fourth

segment has on its upper margin, a distinct proximal tubercle. Third

segment ventrally situated and covered by the second and only partly

seen in outer-lateral view ; much smaller than the second.

Mandible (Fig. 6, c) : Though well developed, it is rather poorly

calcified. The ventral plate is armed with all unequal teeth and below

these there is one tooth seen on the dorsal plate. Palp three-segmented.

First maxilla (Fig. 6, d) : Both the lower and upper endites are well

developed and its palp has a deflexed tip.

Second maxilla (Fig. 6, e) : It consists of 2 bilobed endites, of these

the upper lobe of the lower endite is small. The palp and the scaphogna-

thite are well developed but the outer margin of the scaphognathite does

not have any notch.

First maxilliped (Fig. 6, f) : Lower endite triangular and small

whereas the upper is large and elongated. The palp is well developed

and is of a peculiar shape with a distinct notch on the inner distal end.

There is no exopodite.

Second maxilliped (Fig. 6, g) : In the four- segmented endopodite,

carpus is the longest and dactylus is the smallest. The exopodite is

lamellar.

Third maxilliped (Fig. 6, h) : Exopodite wanting. The ischium is

the longest segment, slightly less than thrice as long as broad ; merus is

nearly half the length of the ischium and as broad as ischium ; carpus is

less than half as long as merus and narrows proximally ; propodus is

much expanded, nearly twice as broad as long ; dactylus is long and

narrow.

THALASSI NOIDEA OF MAHARASHTRA

97

Fig. 6. Callianassa ( Callichirus ) kewalramanii sp. nov. (a) antennule, (b) antenna,

(c) mandible. (. d ) first maxilla, ( e ) second maxilla, (/) first maxilliped, ( g ) second

maxilliped, (A) third maxilliped .

7

98 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 68 (1)

Periopods :

Chelipeds or 1st pair : (Fig. 7, a-d) : Unequal, left or right being

much larger. The distal end of the ischium extends beyond the rostrum.

The basipodite has an outer lateral spine at the articulation with the

ischium.

The ischium is slightly less than the length of carpus and bears on the

outer lower margin 12-14 minute, spine-like teeth of which the proximal

5-6 are low and granular and the remaining larger and well-spaced. Upper

margin proximally has a large tooth. The lower half of the outer sur-

face is studded with 3-4 longitudinal rows of minute granular tubercles

of which the upper 2 rows have comparatively larger tubercles which are

prominent only in the proximal half and from then on become less pro-

minent distally. The inner lateral surface in its upper proximal half is

similarly studded with 4-5 rows of bead-like tubercles, but these fade

away immediately after the proximal half. The tubercles of the inner

and outer lateral surfaces are generally very poorly developed, often

being practically absent, in smaller specimens.

The merus is about | carpus and its lower margin is produced into a

lobe which bears 12-15 unequal small teeth all along the margin. Of

these teeth, the first 3 are very low, blunt and poorly developed, the

4th-9th are prominent and well developed, 10th- 12th again low and

blunt, 13th- 14th rather well developed but smaller and last one or two

rudimentary. The arrangement and prominence of these teeth often

vary much. In a specimen of 32 mm. length, the first 2 teeth are blunt,

next 3 well developed, prominent and the remaining 7 are minute tubercle-

like and in a specimen of size 22*5 mm., first 6 teeth are large and re-

maining 7 granular, distinct tubercles but less developed. In the

Ratnagiri specimen, the 8th tooth is the longest and the last 2 are minute.

There is a longitudinal crest-like elevation at the middle of the outer

surface and a curved ridge parallel to but at some distance from the

proximal margin. The area between these 2 elevations and the lower

margin is studded with granular tubercles of which the middle ones are

large. The tubercles fade away at little distance from the toothed lower

margin and near the longitudinal crest. The upper outer surface is

smooth. The upper margin is swollen proximally at its articulation with

the ischium and bears about 7 blunt but fairly large, distinct tubercles

and another row of similar but less prominent 4-5 tubercles on the inner

side of this margin. But for these tubercles and a distal swollen structure

on the inner side at the carpal articulation, the upper margin is smooth.

There is a thin, longitudinal groove running along the inner side of the

upper margin joining the tuberculated proximal part with the swollen

structure of the distal margin, A similar groove is present on the inner

side parallel to the meral lobe. The inner surface is armed with about

6 irregular rows of well developed but blunt tubercles. This area has

THALASSINOWFA OF MAHARASHTRA

99

afc

Fig. 7. CaUianassa (Callichirus) kewalramanii sp. nov. (a) major cheliped (outer

view), ( b ) details of ‘ a (c) major cheliped (inner view), ( d ) details of ‘ c (e) minor

cheliped, (/) second leg, (g) third leg, (h) anterior part of third leg magnified, (0 fourth

leg, O') fifth leg.

100 JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (1)

proximaily a somewhat triangular, swollen structure at the articulation

with the ischium and a peculiar, swollen structure along its distal margin

as shown in the figure. Except for these studded tubercles, the remaining

upper half of the inner surface is smooth.

The carpus is broad, nearly as broad as the propodus and in length it

measures more than the ischium. The lower margin is well differen-

tiated so as to form a sort of a thin carina which is seen clearly in the

distal half only. The lower proximal margin is edged with 12-18 rounded

but distinct teeth interspersed with setae. In smaller specimens, the

number of these teeth is reduced to as low as 7. The upper border is also

thinly carinated as the lower border.

The propodus is longer than broad. The distal margin on the outer

surface at the articulation with the dactylus, is edged with about 14 small,

unequal tubercles. So also, the distal margin on the inner side is edged

with about 16 unequal tubercles which extend from the margin to the

finger gap. There are a few bead-like tubercles in two patches on the

inner surface, one patch in the finger gap with the dactylus along with

its distal tuberculated inner margin and another at the base of the fixed

finger. The dactylus is about half the length of the propodus. Its

outer-upper margin is provided proximaily with 3 well developed blunt

teeth-like tubercles and 3-6 such tubercles along the inner upper margin.

In smaller specimens, there are in all 3-4 of such tubercles. The cutting

edge is provided with about 9 tubercle-like teeth of which generally the

first 5 are confluent and rather low and about 4 of the remaining are

placed apart and well developed. The dactylus is quite robust with its

tip curved both downwards and slightly inwards. The fixed finger is

slightly shorter than the dactylus and its cutting edge is generally plain

and rarely with 1 or 2 low, small tubercles. The fingers cross each

other and leave a gap when closed.

In smaller specimens (of 24*5 mm. length), the cutting edge of both

the fingers bears several, minute, blunt, closely arranged tubercle-like

teeth, of which about 4 of the proximal are more prominent on dactylus.

The fingers leave a slight gap or none at all and are nearly straight though

their tips are somewhat bent downwards.

Smaller cheliped (Fig. 7, e) : Much smaller than the larger

cheliped. Ischium and merus slender compared to the propodus and

the ischium is slightly longer than the merus. Carpus less than 1|

times the length of the propodus and in breadth less than b its own length.

Propodus nearly as broad as the carpus. The dactylus is slightly longer

than the fixed finger but shorter than the propodus. Fixed finger bears

about 14 minute teeth on the cutting edge and these are more clearly

seen in the inner view. The upper and lower margins of the propodus

are fringed with setae. The fingers leave a slight gap or none at all,

when closed.

T HA LA SSINOIDEA OF MAHARASHTRA

101

In smaller specimens, the teeth on the fixed finger are practically

absent, though there is just a trace of them. The dactylus is smooth.

Second leg (Fig. 7, f) : The second pair is chelate with its carpus and

merus being much larger and stouter than the remaining segments. The

merus is slightly longer than the carpus and nearly three times as long as

broad ; the carpus widens distally and is nearly twice as long as broad.

The propodus is very short and the dactylus is as long as the fixed finger.

There are no spines on any segments except on the ischium which

has a distal spine on its lower margin.

Third leg (Fig. 7, g) : The merus is slightly longer than the carpus

which broadens distally. The propodus is shorter than the carpus but

is produced posteriorly beyond the articulation with the carpus. This

produced part (Fig. 7, h) extends well beyond the posterior margin of the

carpus and has parallel to its posterior margin a sort of a line, more or

less in line with the posterior margin of the carpus.

Fourth leg (Fig. 7, i) : Simple. Merus nearly 1J times the length of

the carpus which is larger than propodus. The dactylus is about one-

half the length of the propodus.

Fifth leg (Fig. 7, j) : Chelate, with all its segments long and cylindri-

cal. The merus is longer than the carpus which is slightly longer than

the propodus. The dactylus is nearly half the length of the propodus

and longer than the fixed finger.

Abdomen (Fig. 5, a) : Of the abdominal segments, the 2nd and the

6th are longer than the rest and 3rd to 5th are broader. The 6th segment

(Fig. 5, c) is one and one-fourth times broader than long. There are two

horizontal sutures, one on either side at the distal 1/3 distance, extending

inside nearly J the width of the segment. The posterior margin shows

a central suture which fades away just near the level of the horizontal

sutures, dividing the posterior margin into two halves. Each lateral

half has again a small vertical suture which is situated more on the outer

side than on the middle.

There are 5 pairs of pleopods borne on the 1st to 5th abdominal seg-

ments, of these the 1st two pairs do not have appendix interna .

1st pair : It is uniramous in both the sexes, but the ramus is

ribbon-like, oval and partially two-segmented in male (Fig. 8, a) and

slender, sabre-like in female (Fig. 8, c).

2nd pair : It is biramous, consisting of a protopodite and a terminal

exopod and a lateral endopod. In female, (Fig. 8, d), the endopod is

nine times its width and the exopod which is broader than the endopod,

102 JOURNAL . BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 68 (1)

Fig. 8. Callianassa ( Callichirus ) kewalramanii n. sp. (a) first pleopod of the

male, ( b ) second pleopod of the male, ( c ) first pleopod of the female, (d) second

pleopod of the female, (e) appendix interna, (/) uropods (magnified).

TH A LA SSINOIDEA OF MAHARASHTRA

103

is nearly seven times its own width. In male (Fig. 8, b), the stalk and

the rami are more or less of the same length, the endopod is nearly six

times longer than broad and the exopod is nearly three and a half times

its breadth.

3rd to 5th pairs (Fig. 8, e) : These are with appendix interna and are

similar in shape and size. The outer ramus is sickle-shaped, much longer

than the inner, rounded at the tip with its outer margin curved. There

is a narrow groove running almost at the middle. The lower inner part

of the inner ramus is rectangular and the upper rather conical in shape.

There are small hooks on appendix interna.

Uropods and telson (Fig, 8, f and 5, c) : Uropods are much longer

than the telson.

The protopodite of the uropod bears a small, elongated process

which is armed with two tubercles on its posterior margin. The

exopod ite is nearly two and a half times as broad as and is one and a half

times the endopodite which is oval. The exopodite is more or less

triangular in shape with its anterior and posterior borders almost straight

whereas the distal margin is finely curved. The anterior raised part of

the exopod falls short of reaching the middle and there are two longi-

tudinal carinae, one situated on the posterior margin of the anterior

raised part and the other posterior to the first and near about the middle

of the exopod. Of these carinae the anterior one fades away near the

distal 2/3 and the posterior extends a short distance beyond the anterior

one.

Telson (Fig. 5, c) ; It is one and a half times broader than long and

has a raised portion, somewhat semicircular, in its anterior half. The

portion below this, slopes down in the middle to form two longitudinal

faint lateral carinae at 1/3 distance from either lateral side. The areas

outside these carinae again slope down towards the lateral margin.

MATERIAL I

15 specimens collected from Bombay (Cuffe parade and Chowpatty)

and a single specimen from Ratnagiri. The males ranged from 2 TO mm.

to 46*5 mm. and the non-ovigerous females 20’ 0 mm. to 27*0 mm.

One holotype and three paratype specimens are deposited in the

Rijksmuseum Van Natuurlijke Histoire. Leiden, and following are their

registration numbers :

Holotype, Crust D. 21250 ; paratypes 1 cf Crust D. 16615 (col-

lected from Ratnagiri) Crust D, 21248 ; cT, Crust D, 21249.

The remaining paratypes will, in due course, be deposited in the Z,

S.T at Calcutta,

104 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (1)

Colour : Whitish with shiny carapace and cheliped.

Variation : The tubercles on the outer lateral and inner lateral

surfaces of ischium and merus of the major cheliped are well-developed

in larger specimens and very feebly developed in smaller specimens. So

also the tubercles on the proximal upper border of the merus and on the

inner surface of the palm at the base of the fingers, are feebly developed in

smaller specimens.

Ecology. This is rather a rare species as compared to Upogebia

( Upogebia ) kempi n. sp. and its burrows are generally found underneath

loose stones in sandy mud strewn with pebbles and small stones in

the intertidal zone. The opening of the burrows is comparatively

narrower than that of Upogebiid burrows and the burrows seem to extend

more horizontally than vertically downwards as in Upogebiids. The

burrows are not very rigid and their walls are quite coarse unlike the

polished walls of the Upogebiid burrows.

Three berried females were collected, in the month of October, 1965.

Relationship. According to de Man’s (1928) key for determining

the species of the sub-genus Callichirus , the species works out to be some-

what nearer to Callianasa ( Callichirus ) martensii Miers, though it does

not at all fit into the key. The description of martensii (Miers 1884a)

which was based on a single male specimen is rather poor and I have

not been able to compare with the actual type specimen of the species.

Under the circumstances, I think it best to compare the present species

with the available account of martensii , as under :

1 . In martensii , the antennal spines (lateral spines according

to Miers) of the front are fairly large, i.e. little shorter than the rostrum

whereas in this species these are minute but distinct and very much

shorter than the rostrum.

2. The eyes project very little, i.e. very slightly beyond the rostrum

and they are bluntly pointed at their inner distal angle and the cornea is

small, placed on the dorsal surface whereas in the present species the

eyes project well beyond the rostrum and though bluntly pointed at their

distal angle, their shape is quite different from those of martensii and

they are curved both upwards and outwards and cornea is fairly large,

situated on the latero-dorsal surface.

3. The antennule is less than one-half the length of the antenna, its

terminal joint very slightly exceeding the penultimate joint, but in the

present species, the antennule is distinctly longer than the antenna and its

terminal joint is 3 times the penultimate joint.

4. In martensii , the antennal peduncle has no tubercle or spine on

the penultimate segment, but the antepenultimate segment bears a small

distal spinule on the outer margin, whereas in the present species, the

T H ALA S SIN 01 DEA OF MAHARASHTRA

105

penultimate segment has a proximal tubercle on the outer margin and

the antepenultimate segment is smooth,

5. Major cheliped :

Ischium : Its lower border is crenulate with about 12 small obtuse

teeth but with no acute spines and no tooth on the upper margin (as per

de Man’s key) whereas in the present species, its lower border is armed

with 12-14 distinct spine-like teeth and upper border with a large proximal

tooth.

Carpus : It is rather shorter than but as broad as palm, smooth its

inferior margin acute and entire. The present species also agrees in this

respect but its lower margin in its proximal half is edged with minute

serrations.

Merus : It is less than twice as long as broad, its lower margin acute

and serrated but without strongly developed teeth or spines whereas in

the present species it is more than twice as long as broad, its lower margin

acute, serrated but with strongly developed teeth or spines ; granular

tubercles on inner and outer lateral surfaces.

Propodus : The present species agrees with martensii but has its

distal margin on the outer surface edged with several small tubercles, so

also the distal margin on inner surface which has 2 small patches of

granular tubercles near the base of the fingers.

Fingers : These are shorter than palm with their tips incurved and

the fixed finger with a small tooth or lobe on the inner margin whereas

in the present species, fingers are nearly -J the length of palm and dactylus

is minutely toothed on its cutting edge and the fixed finger is generally

plain and rarely with 1 or 2 low tubercles (small specimens with both the

fingers minutely denticulated).

6. Smaller cheliped : According to de Man, fingers are shorter

than palm and gaping in martensii whereas in the present species, they are

shorter than palm but leave a slight gap or none at all when closed.

7. Third leg : In martensii , the carpus is armed with a low triangular

lobe on its posterior margin and the produced posterior lobe of the

propodus is rather broad and obtuse whereas in the present species the

carpus lacks a lobe on its posterior margin and the propodus is rather

narrow, elongated, and differs distinctly in its shape.

8. Abdomen : In martensii , the 1st, 2nd and the 6th segments are

longest and the 6th is about as long as 4th-f 5th together. But in the

present species, the 2nd and 6th alone are the longest and the 6th is about

106 JOURNAL . BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY . Fo/. 68 (1)

2/3 the length of 4th and 5th together and the 6th segment has two lateral

and three posterior distinct notches or sutures which are not seen in

Mier’s figure nor is there any mention of this in his description.

9. Uropods : According to de Man’s key, the anterior raised part

of the exopod reaches beyond the middle and bears no spinules near the

proximal encl of its posterior border ; the endopodite is lanceolate and

pointed in martensii whereas in the present species, the anterior raised

part falls short of reaching the middle and has proximally an elongated

process with 2 tubercles ; its endopodite is oval.

Thus it is clearly seen from the above comparison that the present

species differs widely from martensii and has its own characters which

rank it as a distinct species.

Remarks : I am happy to name the new species as CaUianassa

(< Callichirus ) kewairamanii in honour of my guide, Dr. H. G. Kewal-

ramani of the Taraporevala Marine Biological Research Station,

Bombay.

Random notes on Birds of Kerala

BY

M. C. A, Jackson

These notes are based on observations made by the author over a

number of years, mostly in the Vandiperiyar- Peermade area of Kerala

situated at c. 3000 ft. A.S.L. They should be read with reference to Salim

Ali’s birds of kerala as they are intended to supply additional infor-

mation to that contained in that very comprehensive work.

Podiceps ruficollis (Pallas). Indian Little Grebe or Dabchick

Occurs on the lakes in the High Range 4000 ft. A.S.L. Observed on

Periyar Lake (3,000 ft.) on 16th and 17th August 1969. A solitary bird

in breeding plumage.

Phalacrocorax niger (Vieillot). Little Cormorant

Occasionally straggles up to the Periyar Lake, 3,000 ft. A.S.L.

Usually in parties of five or six birds in hot weather,

Ardea cinerea Linnaeus. Eastern Grey Heron

I have seen it during most months of the year on the Periyar Lake

but have no record of it breeding there.

Butorides striatus (Linnaeus). Indian Little Green Bittern

Rather uncommon on the Periyar Lake and stream beds in the

Peermade area, 3,000-3,500 ft, A.S.L,

Dupetor fiavicollis (Latham). Black Bittern

Rare on the edge of the Periyar Lake. I have three sight records.

Eianus caeruleus vociferus (Latham). Blackwinged Kite

Not very uncommon in Peermade area. Resident ? Nests in

Albizzia and Grevillea trees in tea plantations, June to September. A

pair was once seen mating on a high tension line, a truly acrobatic per-

formance ! Its call is a rather high-pitched ‘ choee ’ followed by a

churring note.

Pandion haliaetus haliaetus (Linnaeus). Osprey

Occurs on the Periyar Lake from October to May. The earliest

record I have of the arrival of this bird, is the one seen on 16th and

17th August 1969 on the Lake.

108 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Fo/. 68 (1)

Falco tinnunculiis objurgate (Baker), Indian Kestrel

Found nesting in May in Peermade area. Sometimes nests in open

cavities in trees on plantations. Once seen nesting on the flat top of an

old tree stump in the Periyar Lake about 16 feet above the water level.

Cottsrnix diinensis (Linnaeus). Bluebreasted Quail

I have once seen a single bird in October in elephant grass ( Imperata )

at Thanikudi near the head-water of the Periyar Lake. The bird ran a

few feet in front of me for some distance before ‘ freezing ’ thus making

identification possible.

Perdicula erythrorhyncha (Sykes). Painted Bush Quail

I have found nests with eggs in October at Peermade.

Rallina eurizonordes amauroptera (Jerdon). Banded Crake

I have sight records of this species every month of the year in

Vandiperiyar. The alarm note is a subdued ‘ chuck-chuck \

In September 1956 a pair were flushed out of the Tea by my dog and

shortly afterwards a black downy chick ran out from under the bushes

and took cover again on seeing me.

In July of the same year 3 similar black chicks were brought to me but

I could not identify them. They all died within 24 hours in spite of my

efforts to feed them.

In October 1960 I caught a quick sight of what I thought was a

Banded Crake running into lantana scrub but the identification was un-

certain. The bird was followed by three small black downy chicks such

as I have described above.

Circumstantial evidence indicates that the Banded Crake breeds here

but I have yet to find a nest.

In November 1967 a single bird flew into my sitting room through an

open window at 8 p.m. I released it in the garden.

Amaurornis fuscus zeylonieus Baker. Ruddy Crake

Seen nesting in June on small island in a pond at Vandiperiyar.

Numenius phaeopiss (Linnaeus). Whimbrel

A single straggler seen on the Peermade golf course on 15th August

1962. 3,500 ft. A.S.L. About 50 miles from the sea coast.

Arenaria interpres (Linnaeus). Turnstone

A small flock observed on sea shore near Alleppey pier feeding in

areas fouled by people. October 1960.

Capella minima (Briinnich). Jack Snipe

Occurs occasionally in paddy areas at Kumili 3.000 ft. A.S.L.

RANDOM NOTES ON BIRDS OF KERALA

109

Clamator coromandus (Linnaeus). Redwinged Crested Cuckoo

Very rare. I have only two sight observations in Peermade, January

1967 and January 1970.

Clamator jacobimis (Boddaert). Pied Crested Cuckoo

Occasionally seen in Vandiperiyar 3,000 ft. A.S.L. in dry weather. A

pair once remained for more than two months, May /June, near or in my

garden. They called to each other frequently.

Cacomantis sonneratii (Latham). Banded Bay Cuckoo

I have records of it in the Peermade Hills for all months except August

and September.

I have seen young birds being fed by loras (May) and Red- whiskered

Bulbuls (April).

Otus bakkamoena Pennant. Collared Scops Owl

Resident at Peermade — Vandiperiyar— 3,000 ft. Usually around

plantation bungalows, where they have been known to breed in holes under

the eaves.

In one bungalow I occupied they were very tame and would sit on

open windows at night and on one occasion actually entered the house.

Bubo nipalensis Hodgson. Forest Eagle Owl

I quote from my note-book : —

‘ On 9-2-1963 when sleeping in a Vullum (dug out canoe) on the

Periyar Lake I was awoken by loud screaming which I attribute to this

owl. The scream has been likened to that made by a woman in terror

but it could also be said to be like the sound made by a person blowing

violently through a blade of grass held between cupped hands.’

Shortly after being woken up by this screaming, a large owl, clearly

visible in the moonlight, flew over the boat.

Bubo zeylonensis (Gmelin). Brown Fish Owl

Not uncommon at 3,000 ft. Peermade — Vandiperiyar. Its eerie call is

considered to be very unpropitious by plantation labourers.

It is fairly alert during day-light and flies without difficulty when

approached too closely.

Caprimulgus indicus Latham. Indian Jungle Nightjar

Not uncommon in the Periyar Lake environs during the dry weather

but it is not usually heard during the monsoon and I suspect that it is a

local migrant to the dryer zone outside the S.W. monsoon belt. How-

ever, on the nights of 15th and 16th August 1969, 1 heard the call near the

Periyar Lake. This is the first occasion I have heard this bird during the

monsoon months and its presence may have been due to the excep-

110 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 68 (1)

tionally fine spell we enjoyed at that time. I heard it again on

1st September 1969, near Aranya Nivas Hotel at the Periyar Lake.

It is possible also that the Great-eared Nightjar, ( Eurostopodus

macrotis Vigors) and Franklin’s Nightjar, Caprimulgus affinis Horsfield,

which occur quite frequently in the dry weather around the Periyar Lake

move away to the dryer zone during the monsoon. This dry zone which

is not generally affected by the S.W. monsoon is only about five-ten

miles away to the east of the Periyar Lake in Tamil Nadu. I have found

Franklin’s Nightjar there in August.

Caprimulgus affinis Horsfield. Franklin’s Nightjar

As far as I can make out a dry weather visitor only from October to

May.

I have found a 4 nest ’ with a single downy fledgling on 8-V-1966 on

the shore of the Periyar Lake and on 8-iv-1967 I found two more nests,

one with two eggs and one with a single egg also on the shore of

the Periyar Lake.

All the 4 nests ’ were shallow hollows on bare ground in stony areas.

The mother bird sits very closely flying off only when nearly trodden on.

A quiet 4 chuck-chuck ’ is uttered when disturbed. She does not fly

for a long distance but usually alights within sight of the nests on the

ground where her protective colouring makes her nearly indistinguishable.

Ceryle rudis Linnaeus. Pied Kingfisher

In the past twenty years has become quite common on the Periyar

Lake. I think this may be due to the fact that several suitable breeding

cliffs at the waters edge have not been submerged for many years because

of the extra off-take from the Lake since the hydroelectric generators at

Lower Camp were commissioned. In previous times the water level

always used to rise above such banks and cliffs at least once a year.

Halcyon pileata (Boddaert). Blackcapped Kingfisher

A pair was observed by me in a secluded backwater of the Periyar

Lake on 27-iv-1963.

I have seen this species on several occasions at a tank near Uthama-

palayam in the Cum bum valley of Madurai District, Tamil Nadu, since

1961. This tank is about 20 miles from the Periyar Lake but a con-

siderable distance from the sea coast.

Merops leschenaulti Vieillot. Chestnut-headed Bee-eater

Breeds in April and May in the Peermade area.

Upupa epops Linnaeus. Hoopoe

Appears to ascend to the Peermade Hills in the dry weather only but

1 have records of seeing the species on 22.-vi-1964 during the monsoon.

RANDOM NOTES ON BIRDS OF KERALA 111

i have no evidence of its breeding in this area but once in February

l observed a bird flying with something held in its beak as if it was on its

way to feed young,

Megalaima zeylanica (Gmelin). Green Barbel

Occurs in the deciduous low elevation jungle to the east of Kumili

just outside the Kerala State boundary. Does not appear to ascend to the

wet zone surrounding the Periyar Lake.

Jynx torquilla Linnaeus. Wryneck

Single bird seen at Vandiperiyar on 10th March 1967.

Ficus xanihopygaeus (J.E. Sc G.R. Gray), Little Scalybellied Green

Woodpecker

Observed nesting in March and April in this area. Both sexes appear

to incubate.

Dendrocopus nanus Vigors. Pigmy Woodpecker

Observed nesting March, April, May.

Pitta hrachyura (Linnaeus). IndianfPitta

Earliest arrival date recorded October 3rd but usually regularly

arrives between 10th and 18th October,

Latest departure date recorded 19th May.

Hirundo concolor Sykes. Dusky Crag Martin

This little bird has become increasingly common in Peermade and

Vandiperiyar and now many bungalows and tea factories provide nesting

sites for it.

Its favourite time for breeding is August-September but I have also

observed it nesting in April. It is possible that sometimes two broods

are raised but I have yet to verify this.

The nest takes about 12 days to complete before the first egg is laid.

Eggs appear to be laid in the early morning. Old nests are sometimes

patched up and re-lined in the following year. Both sexes incubate and

feed young. Young birds have pale grey almost white gapes.

Lanius vittatus Valenciennes. Baybacked Shrike

I have one sight record of this species at Peermade (3,500 ft.) on 15th

March 1966,

Lanius schach Linnaeus. Rufousbacked Shrike

Very rare in this area. I have only one sight record on 31st January

1969 in Vandiperiyar,

112 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, VoU 68 (1)

Lanins cristatus Linnaeus. Brown Shrike

Our commonest shrike during winter months. Earliest date of

arrival recorded 16th September but nearly every year arrives between

20th and 30th September.

Latest departure date recorded 8th May but it is usually very regular

in leaving during the first week of May.

Dicrurus leucophaeus Vieillot. Indian Grey Drongo

Winter visitor only, arriving in October and leaving in April.

Artamus fuscus Vieillot. Ashy Swallow-Shrike

Nests March, April. I once found a nest in a large hole in a hollow

tree stump in the Periyar Lake. These dead tree stumps provide good

nesting sites for this species.

Acridotheres tristis (Linnaeus). Common Myna

Though becoming more abundant at Kumili (3,000 ft.) it is still rare

at this elevation. Parents have been observed feeding young in a hollow

tree in the Periyar Lake in August.

Corvus spiendens Vieillot. House Crow

In the last fifteen years this species has become more numerous at

Kumili and in the villages along the main Kumili-Kottayam highway at

about 3,000 ft. The species is by no means common at this elevation but

appears to be becoming well established along with the increase in the

human population.

Rhopocichla atriceps (Jerdon). Blackheaded babbler

I once brushed against an old nest at sundown and five or six fully

grown birds burst out of it. It would seem that parties of this species

roost together in old nests.

Garrulax jerdoni Blyth. Whitebreasted Laughing Thrush

A small isolated colony is resident at the top of the Annanthambi

Hills at about 4,000 ft. This is the highest point in the Vandiperiyar-

Peermade district and it is interesting to note that these birds never seem

to descend any lower although ‘ rubus ’ is to be found on the lower slopes

of the hills. Apart from this colony in its very restricted habitat I have

not observed the species anywhere else in the district even on the tops of

other hills with similar vegetation.

Muscicapa latirostris Raffles. Brown Flycatcher

1 have observed the species in every month of the year here but it

becomes more numerous in the winter months.

RANDOM NOTES ON BIRDS OF KERALA IB

I have found nests in March, April and May and have observed young

being fed in June.

The nests I have seen have all been rather high up in trees where

branches join the main stem, the Grevillea robusta being a favourite tree.

I have heard a faint twittering song in January.

Muscicapa parva Bechstein. Redbreasted Flycatcher

As Salim Ali (1969), writes this species is very rare. I have only

two records of having seen it in Vandiperiyar on 14th March 1948 and

9 March 1971. Both males.

Prinia hodgsonii Blyth. Franklin’s Wren Warbler

Nests commonly at 3,000 ft. elevation in Peermade district. I have

found a nest with young as late as September.

Prinia socialis Sykes. Ashy Wren Warbler

The breeding season extends until September in Peermade.

Orthotomus sutorius (Pennant). Tailor Bird

The breeding season extends until September in Peermade.

Schoenicola platyura (Jerdon). Broadtailed Grass Warbler

During May/June grass warblers attract attention by their linnet-

like song which is uttered from the top of a bush or while soaring 10-15

feet above the ground. When soaring the tail feathers are fanned.

I have found a nest with two young in August (26-viii- 1956) and

another nest with three eggs, subsequently damaged by dogs and deserted,

in July (7-vii-1963).

The nests were very well concealed in clumps of imperata grass (illuk)

about 3 feet above the ground. They were ball-shaped, rather untidy,

with a hole at the side. They were constructed from blades of coarse

grass lined with finer grass stems.

It seems that only one bird builds, presumably the female, while her

mate stays nearby entertaining her with song from vantage points close by.

The eggs were light pinkish with reddish brown specks.

Erithacus brmmeus (Hodgson). Indian Blue Chat

For some time after its arrival in its winter quarters its song can be

heard throughout October and November.

Saxicoloides fulicata Linnaeus. Indian Black-backed Robin

From about March 1965 to about March 1968 a female bird resided

in a patch of waste land near the main Kottayam-Kumili road not far

from Vandiperiyar. She seemed to keep company with Pied Bush chats.

8

ii4 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. €8 (i)

She must have straggled up from the low country, probably Tamil

Nadu, and become stranded because she is the only specimen of

the species I have seen in this district in over thirty years.

Monticola solitarius (Linnaeus). Blue Rock Thrush

The earliest arrival date I have recorded is 27th September but this

species usually appears here early in October.

Zoothera wardii (Blyth). Pied Ground Thrush

I have two observation records. A male on 8-iv-1956 and female

on 18-xii-1960. The former at 3,000 ft. in Vandiperiyar and the latter in

Peermade at 3,500 ft.

Motacilla indica Gmelin. Forest Wagtail

The earliest date of arrival recorded here by me is 19th September

and the latest I have seen it is 6th May.

Motacilla flava Linnaeus. Grey-headed Yellow Wagtail

Small parties of yellow wagtails occasionally visit the marshy area of

the Periyar Lake near Thekkadi at 3,000 ft. A.S.L. during the winter

months especially during October, November and December.

Motacilla maderaspatensis Gmelin. Large Pied Wagtail

Nested in the attic loft of Munjamullay Tea Factory, Vandiperiyar,

18th November 1959.

Nectarinia asiatica (Latham). Indian Purple Sunbird

This species and the Small Sunbird, N. minima , are the only two sun-

birds seen in the Peermade area and the population fluctuates con-

siderably, the greatest number being seen in dry weather.

Breeding here appears to be uncommon. I have found only two

nests of the Purple Sunbird in March and have not observed any nesting

of the Small Sunbird.

Zosterops palpebrosa Temminck. Nilgiri White-eye

Breeds in September and October in this area as well as March to May.

Plocetis philippinus Linnaeus. Baya

Since 1959 there has been a breeding colony at Kumili, 3,000 ft., pre-

sumably because the paddy cultivation in the area has increased

considerably in recent times.

Studies on the freshwater and

amphibious Mollusca of Poona with

notes on their distribution — Part II

BY

G. T. Tonapi

Department of Zoology , University of Poona , Poona-1

(With twenty-one figures in four plates)

Introduction

Earlier studies on the freshwater and amphibious Mollusca of Poona

(Tonapi & Mulherkar 1963) and adjoining areas had revealed their

occurrence in appreciable number both in species and genera. Further

explorations and detailed systematic studies have now confirmed some

of the earlier conclusions. A few of the specimens which were known to

occur in this region have now been collected and some others form new

records for this region. New populations of the small-sized species have

also been detected. The true identity of a few genera with annectant

forms and doubtful systematic position have now been determined. It

is needless to emphasise the importance of such field studies on the

freshwater and amphibious mollusca and their role in agriculture

(Achatina), horticulture ( Opeas ; Glessula) and still others which are casual

agents of well known diseases such as schistosomiasis.

Methods of study

Methods of collection and localities explored for this study are essen-

tially similar to those reported earlier (Tonapi & Mulherkar loc. cit.).

The sketch map has already been provided in the paper under reference.

The same contractions have been used to abbreviate the descriptive

terms used in the present study. Measurements are those of single

specimens. However, they represent a fairly average size of the species.

It was noticed in the earlier studies that Indian ink line drawings do not

always reflect the correct shape and fine contours of these delicate forms.

In the present paper, therefore, actual photographs have been provided

to facilitate their easy identification. Scale lines have been totally

omitted since detailed measurements are given with the descriptions.

The bracketed numbers indicate other localities where also a given species

occurs.

i 16 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 68 (L

Systematic list of the species

Class

S. Class

Order

Series

Prosobranchiata

Megagastropoda

Architaenioglossa

Gastropoda

Family Cyclophoridae

Cyclophorus (Glossostylus) indices Deshayes. (Fig. 1 A & B)

Shell orbicular, turbinated, with an acute apex. Spire conical and

composed of 6-7 convex whorls. Sutures hardly impressed. Body

whorl distinctly inflated bearing a projecting keel in the circumference.

Umbilicus very narrow and deep. External surface of shell covered,

particularly near the sutures, with thick and thin transpiral striations.

Circular aperture oblique to the axis with both lips thickened and re-

flected. Shell, fawn coloured but the lower part often mottled with dark

brown flames. Banding conspicuous on the body whorl and surrounding

the umbilicus. The original Latin description has been supplemented

by Gude (1921) with additional information which is in French. How-

ever, the present description is based on shell characters.

Locality : This is an uncommon species and one comes across the

dead/dry shells rather infrequently (30, 31).

Measurements : H — 14 mm. ; DM — 18 mm. ; AM — 12 mm.; AH — 11

mm. ; AW — 10 mm.

Cyclotopsis semistriata (Sowerby). (Fig. 2 A and B)

Orbicular shell conspicuously and widely umbilicated. Spire de-

pressed with obtuse apex. Whorls 4-5 inflated with distinct spiral sur-

face striations, which are more prominent on the upper side while the

lower surface is relatively smooth. Sutures distinct and well impressed.

Circular aperture inclined and feebly acuminated at the upper part.

Operculum spirally voluted. Shell whitish with straw colour and a

series of pale brownish transpiral bands.

Locality : This species is quite common in the hill ranges. It has

never been collected from plains, farms and fields (4, 5).

Measurements : H — 8 mm. ; DM — 16 mm. ; AM — 12 mm. ; AH— 7

mm. ; AW — 6*5 mm.

Family Potamiasidae

MOLLUSCA OF POONA

117

Family Amnicolidae (Hydrobiidae)

Digoniostoma pulchella Benson. (Fig. 3 A and B)

This genus has been separated from such allied and related genera as

Bithynia, Alocinma and Hydrohiodes on the basis of the lip characters.

Shells broadly and irregularly ovate with apex slightly compressed.

There are about 4-5 whorls of which the first two are not so conspicuous.

Body whorl rather inflated. Sutures oblique linear and well impressed.

Aperture small, oblique ovately round. Outer lip thickened and pro-

duced ; its extremities subangulated. Columellar callus thickened

and laminated in appearance. A distinct projection is developed where

the columellar callus meets the lip. Umbilicus almost closed. The

channel running forward from it is not well formed and is smaller.

Locality : These have been collected from several slow moving

streams around Poona. They are also found sometimes associated with

aquatic plants. Many have been collected from underside of stones in

the dried up canals (27, 28, 29, 30).

Measurements: H — 3±1 mm.; DM — 2 ±5 mm.; dm— 1’5±*2

mm. ; AH— l*l±‘l mm. ; AW — ’75dr,'l mm.

Alocinma orcula (Benson) var. producta (Nevill). (Fig. 4 A and B)

Shells narrow and elongated. However, they have typical globose

or subglobose appearance. Whorls somewhat tumid with body whorl

rather more inflated. Sutures rather wide. Aperture ovate and oblique

to the axis. In this genus the peristome is neither thickened nor

attenuated. The columellar fold is never prominent though always

forming a ridge. The umbilicus is rimate and almost entirely closed.

The groove proceeding downwards from the umbilicus is not so well

defined. Shell sculpture microscopic. Operculum incapable of with-

drawal into the shell ; its nucleus is eccentric with concentric spiral lines

on both surfaces.

Locality : An abundant species in slow moving streams. Often

found under stones in streams and canals. Any place is good enough

for collection (28, 29, 30).

Measurements : H — 6±*5 mm. ; DM — 3±*5 mm. ; dm — 2*5±‘l

mm. ; AH — 1*5±*1 mm. ; AW — 1 * 1 ± ’ 1 mm.

Family Melanidae

Paludomus obesa (Philippi). (Fig. 5 A and B)

Shell oblong, thick and solid with transpiral ridges. Three to four

rather depressed whorls (probably more in perfect shells) ; upper ones

118 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 68 (1)

often eroded, damaged and missing. Whorls regularly convex. Body

whorl at least subangular. There are distinct transpiral striae and

grooves on the shell. Aperture oblong ovate with vertical lip. External

margin sharp. Columellar slightly thickened and white. Shell yellow

olive, occasionally smoky brown.

Locality : Rather common in Poona and noticeable around hill

streams and rock pools during the wet season. Often washed down to

the plains (12, 13, 17, 31).

Measurements of eroded shells: H — 12*5 mm.; DM — 6 mm.;

dm — 5*5 mm. ; AH — 5 mm. ; AW— 3*5lmm.

Subclass Pulmonata

Order Stylomatophora

Series Yertiginacea

Family Enidae

Rachis punctatus (Anton.). (Fig. 6 A and B)

Shell ovately conical with an elevated spire forming an obtuse apex.

Six whorls with almost flattened walls. Aperture oblique-ovate with

sharp outer lip and the columellar lip reflected over the umbilicus. Shell

surface smooth and glossy ; striae fine and microscopic. Shell pale

fuscous white with a fine transverse line of infraperipheral brownish

band. This is perhaps the most distinctive character of the species.

Often an additional narrow band below the principalis also known to

occur in some specimens. But this variety has not been noticed from

this region. The recorded variety with a single band occurs in large

numbers especially during the rainy months. They are known to

hibernate during the other seasons. Considerable variation in the size

of the shell has been noticed as recorded below.

Locality : This species is perhaps the commonest in Poona during

the rainy season. It has been collected from localities with abundant

luxuriant vegetation (4, 5, 14, 18, 19, 20).

Measurements: H — 10±3 mm.; DM — 5±1 mm.; dm — 4±1

mm. ; AH — 4‘5±*5 mm. ; AW— 2'5±*5 mm.

Series Achatinacea

Family Glessulidae

A large number of species of this interesting family has been recorded

from Poona proper and many from the adjoining districts. However,

1 Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 68 (1)

Tonapi : Mollusca of Poona

1 A&B. Cyclophorus ( Glossostylus ) indicus Deshayes x 4; 2 A & B. Cyclo -

top sis semi striata (Sowerby) x 4'0 ; 3 A&B. Digonio stoma pulchella Benson

x 8-0; 4 A & B. Alocinma orcula (Benson) var. producta (Nevill) x 10;

5 A & B. Paludomus obesa (Philippi) x 6 ; 6 A & B. Rachis punctatus (Anton) x 8.

J. Bombay nat. Hist, Soc. 68 (1)

Tonapi : Mollusca of Poona

7 A & B. Glessula ( Glessula ) notigena Benson x 4; 8 A & B. Glessula

( Glessula ) ceylanica Pfeiffer x 5 ; 9 A & B. Glessula ( Rishetia ) dikarngense

Godwin- Austen x 6; 10 A & B, Sitala denselirata Preston x 18; 11 A&B

Kaliella bullula (Hutton) x 17; 12 A & Bo Macrochlamys ( Macrochlamys )

tenuicola (Adam) x 9'5

7 B

MOLLUSCA OF POONA

IV)

these records relate to conditions over five decades ago. It is interesting

to note that rapid urbanisation and industrial growth have contributed

in no small measure to the displacement and perhaps to some extent

extinction of many species. The Glessula are a case in point. Where I

had once collected these delicate animals now stands a large industrial

house, surrounded by housing colonies. Some of the well known re-

corded species are Glessula hebes Pfeiffer ( see Gude loc. cit., p. 380) :

G. tornensis Blanford (p. 389) ; G. singhurensis Blanford (p. 419) ;

G.pulla Blanford (p. 430) ; G. brevis Pfeiffer (p. 439) ; G. rugata Blanford

(p. 443). The present records make new additions to the rich Glessulid

fauna of Poona and environs.

Glessula (Glessula) ootigena Benson. (Fig. 7 A and B)

The imperforate shell is elongated, conical with an attenuated apex.

Spire slender, turretted with obtuse apex. Sutures rather deeply im-

pressed with about 9-10 whorls which are feebly convex. The body whorl

is not so tumid. The last whorl is 1/3 of the rest. Aperture

rather oblique and semiovate. The peritremal margin is acute and thin

while the columellar margin and the columella are curved and truncated

obliquely near the base. The shells are horny brown glossy with crenu-

lations particularly near the sutures. Some have even a fulvous horny

colour.

Locality : These are common in the open country around Poona

especially under trees. Abundant in the rich humus of dead and

decaying leaves under vegetation (4, 5, 14, 15, 20).

Measurements : H — 18 mm. ; DM — 7 mm. ; dm — 5 mm. ; AH — 5

mm. ; AW— 4 mm.

Glessula (Glessula) ceylanica Pfeiffer. (Fig. 8 A and B)

Shell imperforate ovately oblong with a pyramidal spire. Apex

obtuse and conical. There are about seven convex whorls, the last

being about 3/7 of the total length. Aperture semioval and obliquely

pyriform. Columella deeply arched and basally truncated, rather

abruptly. Shells not markedly sculptured though closely and minutely

striated with crenulations near the sutures. Lustrous with characteristic

horny brown glossy appearance. This species has also not been re-

corded from Poona and the measurements are smaller than those given

by Gude (1914).

120 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (l)

Locality : These occur along with the preceding species.

Measurements : H — 14 mm. ; DM — 7 mm. ; dm — 3*5 mm. ; AH— -5

mm ; AW — 3 mm.

Glessula (Rishetia) dikarngense Godwin-Austen. (Fig. 9 A and B)

This species has not been dealt with by Gude (1914). The shells are

quite small and appear pupiform. The shell is elongately conoid, rather

ovate, thick, opaque and extremely variable in ground colour. There are

about 7£-8 whorls increasing slowly at first the last two inflate rather

suddenly. The body whorl more than equals 1/3 of the shell. Spire

conoid with flattened sides and angular apex. Aperture obovate and

rather oblique. The outer peristomal margin is thickened while the

basal margin is curved and arcuate. Columella obliquely truncated.

Coloration varies from dull white, dark brown, greenish corneous to

dark fuscous.

Locality : The species occurs in the same areas as in the preceding

species and does not show any specific habitat preference.

Measurements : H — 9±1 mm. ; DM — 2‘5±‘5 mm. ; dm — T5±*l

mm.; AH — 1*7±T mm. AW — 1*1±T mm.

Series Ariophantacea

Family Ariophantidae

Sitala denselirata Preston. (Fig. 10 A and B)

Shell trochid with the spire conical. Body whorl convex basally.

Whorls 5-6 with not so convex sides and nearly flat. The last slightly

carinated peripherally. Apex obtuse. The sutures are well impressed.

The aperture is diagonal almost semicircularly lunate. The peristome

is thin with reflected columellar margin. The shell is obliquely trans-

pirally striated. The shell is whitish horny and semitranslucent. Only

two shells are in the collection.

Locality : 28, 29, 30.

Measurements: H — 2*25 mm.; DM — . 75mm.; dm — 1*1 mm.;

AH — *65 mm. ; AW — ‘45 mm.

Kaliella bullula (Hutton). (Fig. 11 A and B)

This species also forms a new record. The shell is semiperforated

with globose, turbinated and trochiform appearance. The spire is

conical with obtuse apex. There are five whorls with convex slides. The

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 68 (1)

Tonapi : Mollusca of Poona

53 A & B. Macrochlamys ( Eurychlamys ) platychlamys Blanford x 7*5 ; 14 A & B.

Xesta ( Fretum ) semirugata (Beck) x 27; 15A&B. Ariophanta bistrialis (Beck)

x 2"75 ; 16 A & B Planispira ( Trachia ) crassicostata (Benson) x 5*0 :

17 A & B. Eulot a scalpturita (Benson) x 2*75.

J, Bombay nat. Hist, Soc. 68 (1)

18 A & Bo Indonaia coerulea (Lea.) x 165 ; 19 A & B. Lamellidens consobrinus

(Lea.) x 1 ; 20 A & B. Corbiculci striatella Deshayes x 3 ; 21 A & B Corbi -

cula peninsularis Prashad x 3.

MOLLUSCA OF POONA

121

sutures are well impressed. The body whorl is slightly angulate at the

periphery, and convexly inflated below the keel. Aperture oblique and

broadly crescent-shaped. Peristome simple, thin, with slightly reflected

columellar margin. Shell horny and not so opaque, finely sculptured

with fine oblique ribs on the upper surface while indistinct concentric

striae traverse the basal surface. Only one shell was obtained.

Locality : The area of collection is the same as in the preceding

species.

Measurements : H — 2+T mm. ; DM— 2*5+ ’2 mm. ; dm — 1*5+

*2 mm. ; AH — *3+‘l mm, ; AW — *2+*l mm.

Macrochlamys (Macrochlamys) tenuicola (Adam). (Fig. 12 A and B)

Shell openly perforated with turbinate subglobose shape; apical

region convexly rounded ; spire subconical with 5-6 convex whorls obtuse

apex and well impressed sutures. Body whorl distinctly angulated and

has a developed peripheral keel, the basal part below the keel convex

and glossy. Aperture oblique and broadly crescent-shaped. Peristome

thin, sharp-edged, while the columellar margin is curved and reflected

over the umbilicus. Shell is glossy, translucent, with a pale fulvous

horny colour. The upper whorls are covered with fine microscopic

striae.

Locality : This species is quite common (2, 4, 5, 19, 20, 23, 28, 29,

30).

Measurements : H — 4 mm. ; DM — 7 mm. : dm — 4 mm. ; AH-

2*5 mm. ; AW — 1*7 mm.

Macrochlamys (Eurychlamys) platychlamys Blanford. (Fig. 13 A and B)

Shell depressedly conoid and openly perforate. Spire low with obtuse

apex. There are five feebly convex whorls. Sutures not well impressed.

Body whorl rounded at the periphery and convex beneath, the oblique

aperture is lunately suboval. Peristomal lip thin, with curved margin

while the columellar margin is diagonal and expanded over the umbi-

licus. The shell is thin, smooth, translucent and fulvous horny coloured.

Locality : This fragile species is common during the wet months.

Dry shells are common in other seasons (4, 5, 19, 20).

Measurements : H — 5+1 mm. ; DM — 9+1 mm. ; dm — 7+1 mm. ;

AH — 3‘5+*5 mm. ; AW — 2+*5 mm.

Xesta (Fretum) semirugata (Beck.). (Fig. 14 A and B)

Shell openly perforated, somewhat variable in the elevation of its

spire. Conoidal globose or depressedly conoid with dull brown or white

122 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY , Vol. 68 (1)

colour. There are 5-6 convex whorls of which the body whorl is much

swollen and descends near the aperture. Sutures are not well impressed.

Shell finely decussated with oblique striae and occasional transpiral lines,

relatively smooth Ipelow. The aperture is broadly crescent- shaped. The

peristome is thin and that on the columellar side is reflected near the

umbilicus.

Locality : This is one of the common species (5, 14, 15, 30, 31).

Measurements : H — 20 ±5 mm. ; DM — 25 ±3 mm. ; dm — 21 ±

2 mm. ; AH — 15±1 mm. ; AW — 10±1 mm.

Ariophanta bistrialis (Beck.). (Fig. 15 A and B)

Shell normally perforated, round or globosely depressed. The spire

is very low and the 4\ flat whorls increase in diameter rather rapidly.

Body whorl does not descend, and is convex beneath. Aperture large,

oblique and lunately oval. Peristome thin and columellar margin slightly

reflected. The shell is relatively thin, pale horny and finely striated above

the well impressed spiral lines. Two rufous lines separated by a whitish

band between them is the usual form available in Poona.

Locality : This is perhaps the most common Ariophantid available

in Poona area. The specimens of this species frequent particularly the

gardens and parks.

Measurements : H — 14 ±2 mm. ; DM — 20 ±5 mm. ; dm — 26 ±

2 mm. ; AH — 12±3 mm. ; AW — 9zb2 mm.

Series Heliacea

Family Helicidae (Pleurodontidae ?)

Planispira (Trachia) crassicostata (Benson). (Fig. 16 A and B)

Shell moderately sized, circular and has a perspective umbilicus.

Shell depressed with almost flattened spire which is hardly elevated.

There are four whorls ; the last or body whorl is carinated. The surface

is finely transpirally striated and oblique ribbing inconspicuous.

Aperture subhorizontal, oval, and transversely rounded. The margins

of the peristome approach each other and the columellar side overhangs

the umbilicus which is infundibuliform.

Locality : Live specimens are common in the hill ranges in the

rainy season. Dead shells can be collected from several other localities

(4, 5, 10, 16, 19).

MOLLUSCA OF POONA

123

Measurements : H — 4±1 mm. ; DM — 13±1 mm. ; dm — 9±1 mm. ;

AH — 4*5±*5 mm. ; AW— 4’5±*5 mm.

Eulota scalpturita (Benson). (Fig. 17 A and B)

Shell depressedly conical with a broad flat base and a short spire,

which is never acuminate. There are about five whorls which increase

gradually in size. The body whorl is not keeled. Sutures well im-

pressed. Umbilicus small but perforate. The parietal lip is sharp while

the columellar one is slightly reflected over the umbilicus. The shells

are whitish, almost translucent with a characteristic brown stripe around

the periphery of the body whorl. The shell is strongly striated in the

basal whorls while those on the apex have finer striae.

Locality : This species is commonly found in and around ponds and

pools.

Measurements: H — 10±2 mm.; DM — 14±2 mm.; dm — 11±

1 mm. ; AH — 4*5±*5 mm. ; AW — 4±‘5 mm.

Class Pelecypoda

Order Eulamellibranchiata

Family Unionidae

Indonaia coerulea (Lea). (Fig. 18 A and B)

Shell oblong elliptical, transversely inequilateral narrow and sub-

cylindrical. Valves thin, the anterior side short and rounded while the

posterior is feebly angulated and broader. The shell is not so swollen.

The umbones are not prominent but rounded. The dentition is lamelli-

form with a single cardinal tooth in the left valve. Beaks often sculptured

with many fine^riblets with central ones joining below, the ribbing pro-

duces a zig zag pattern. The periostracum is dirty green. The epider-

mis is bluish green often iridescent.

Locality : Common in the rivers especially near 21, 27.

Measurements : L — 48d=5 mm. ; H — 22d=3 mm. ; DV — 14±1 mm.

Lamellidens consobrinus (Lea). (Fig. 19 A and B)

Shell elongately elliptical, rhomboidal and slightly inflated. It is

inequilateral with anterior rounded and posterior with obtuse angle.

The beaks are rather more elevated than in allied forms as L. marginalis.

Moreover, the hinge arrangement is quite different from L. marginalis.

The two widely separated pseudocardinals of the right valve lie one below

124 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol 68 (1)

the other. The lower is longer and better developed. The left valve also

possesses somewhat rugged pseudocardinals ; The anterior of the two is

better developed. The lateral teeth are clearly arched. In the right

valve a rudiment accompanies a well developed one whereas in the left

both are equal. The interior is salmon-coloured with a tinge of

iridescence.

Locality : This species is also common in the river beds (20, 30, 31).

Measurements : L — 70±5 mm.; H — 40±5 mm.; DY — 18±2 mm.

Family Corbiculidae

Corbicula striatella Deshayes. (Fig. 20 A and B)

Shell triangularly oval but more rounded in the adult. The anterior

side is a little more produced than the posterior but is regularly rounded.

The shell is definitely tumid with prominent umbones. The surface is

glossy with olive green periostracum. The concentric alternate grooves

and ribs form the main sculpture. These striae are finer in the umbonal

region. The hinge is well developed with the anterior cardinals more

elongated. Muscle scars are deeply impressed with pallial line and a

trace of sinus.

Locality : Common (31).

Measurements: L— 22dz2 mm.; H— 19±1 mm.; DV — 8±1 mm.

Corbicula peninsularis Prashad. (Fig. 21 A and B)

These are definitely large corbiculids. They are thicker and

triangularly oval with the upper slope which is convex with slightly pro-

jecting curved anterior margin. The posterior margin is rather drawn

out into an indistinctly marked process. The umbones are well raised,

tumid, curved inward and forward especially in uneroded shells. The

surface is brown green and glossy with regular concentric ribs. Hinge

is well developed with the anterior laterals not so long as the posterior.

Interior is whitish but often with bluish tinge.

Locality : Common (31).

Measurements : L— 22±1 mm. ; H — 18±1 mm. ; DV — 10±*5 mm.

In addition the exact identity of the following species has been now

determined since they were reported earlier as common from Poona

(Tonapi & Mulherkar 1963).

1 . Lymnaea (Pseudo succinea) acuminata f. typica Lamarck

2. Lymnaea (Pseudosuccinea) acuminata f. gracilior Martens

125

MOLLUSCA OF POONA

3. Lymnaea (Pseudosuccinea) acuminata f. patula Troschel

4. Lymnaea (. Pseudosuccinea ) luteola f. typica Lamarck

5. Lymnaea (. Pseudosuccinea ) acuminata f. hians ? (Sowerby)

6. Vmparus bengalensis (Lamarck) phase incrassata Annandale

7. Indoplanorbis exustus (Deshayes)

General remarks

Conditions of life in Poona and adjacent areas are quite favourable

to support a wide variety of freshwater and amphibious molluscan fauna.

The continental climate is characterised by diurnal temperatures. On

account of elevation and dryness, Poona is cool during nights even in

summer. These conditions even in the absence of luxuriant forest near-

about are not so inimical to the existence of a broad spectrum of

Molluscan fauna. Since the system of rivers, rivulets, streams and canals

not to speak of lakes like Pashan provide a safe sanctuary for many of

them. However, during the last decade or two physical conditions have

changed considerably affecting the complexion of many waterways of

Poona ( see Tonapi & Mulherkar 1963). Post-war increase in the popu-

lation and industries with the consequent land and water use have

polluted the waters which are deterrent to the growth and the develop-

ment of Molluscan populations. It is a paradox that even here such

genera as Lymnaea and Planorbis bloom to further foul the water.

In all 21 species belonging to 9 families and 17 genera have been

recorded. These together with the 32 species of 20 genera of 12 families

recorded earlier constitute the rich Molluscan fauna of the area. The

spatial distribution of the Mollusca is interesting. The Planispira ,

Cyclotopsis and the not so common Cyclophorus are always seen in the

hills, and are presumably faunal elements of temporary hill streams and

other water courses. The Digoniostoma and the related Alocinma are

common inhabitants of slow moving perennial streams. There are no

true hill streams which flow vigorously throughout the year. The tem-

porary water courses do not really provide adequate support to the

existence of varied Molluscan elements. Paludomus occurs during the

rainy season on rocks and in rock pools and is often washed down from

the western hill ranges into the plains. The species of Rachis and

Glessula are commonest in wet humus soil, occurring commonly

amongst the dead and decaying leaves under large trees. The Sitala

and the allied Kaliela are found on shrubs and herbs in the vicinity of

canals, ponds and lakes. They seem to show marked preference to open

conditions as do the Macrochlamys and Ariophantids. These genera

are frequently associated with vegetation near water.

The bivalve genera Lamellidens and Indonaia inhabit that part of

126 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 68 (1)

Mula River which has muddy substratum while Corbicula predominate

in the Mutha River with sandy, gravelly and pebbly substratum.

There are no unsurmountable physical barriers or deterrent ecological

conditions for one species to intrude into a neighbouring habitat. There-

fore, more than two species may sometimes occur in the same habitat.

Acknowledgements

I wish to express my deep gratitude to Dr. H. C. Ray of the Zoological

Survey of India, Calcutta, for the invaluable help he gave in the identi-

fication of some of the specimens,

ties of the University of Poona

L. Mulherkar for interest. Thanks

for the photographs.

Refe

Annandale, N. (1920) : Indian fresh-

water Mollusca assigned to the genus

Bithynia. Rec. Ind. Mus. 19 (2) : 41-46.

(1921) : Materials for the

generic revision of the freshwater gas-

tropod Molluscs of the Indian Empire

No. 3. The freshwater genera of

Hydrobiidae. Rec. Ind. Mus. 22 : 1-7.

&Prashad,3. (1919): Fauna

of certain small streams in the Bombay

Presidency. Rec. Ind. Mus. 16 : 109-162.

& Aminuddin (1921): The

aquatic and amphibious Mollusca of

Manipur. Rec. Ind. Mus. 22 (4) : 529-

632.

& Srinivasa Rao, H.

(1925) : Material for a revision of the

recent Indian lymnaeidae (Mollusca

Pulmonata). Rec. Ind. Mus. 27 (3) :

137-190.

Blanford, W. T. & Godwin-

Austen, H. (1908) : Fauna of British

India. Series I. (Mollusca, Testacellidae

and Zonetidae).

Gude, G. K. (1914) : Fauna of British

India, Series II. (Mollusca — Trochomor-

phidae V. Janellidae).

(1921) : Fauna of British

India. Series III. (Mollusca — Land oper-

culates).

Prashad, B. (1928) : Revision of the

Asiatic species of the genus Corbicula I.

My thanks are due to the authori-

for facilities and to Prof. (Dr.)

are also due to the artist Mr. Naik

ENC ES

the Indian species of Corbicula. Mem.

Ind. Mus. 9 (1) : 13-27+4 pts.

(1929) : Revision of the

Asiatic species of the genus Corbicula II.

The Indo-chinese species of the genus

Corbicula III. The species of the genus

Corbicula from China, South-Eastern

Russia, Tibet, Formosa and the Phili-

pine islands. Mem. Ind. Mus. 9 (2) :

29-68 + 8 pts.

(1930) : Revision of the

Asiatic species of Corbicula IV. The

species of the genus Corbicula from

Sunda islands, the Celebes and New

Guinea. Mem. Ind. Mus. 9 (5) : 193-

203 + 26 pts.

Preston, H. B. (1915): Fauna of

British India (Mollusca-Freshwater Gas-

tropoda and Pelecypoda).

Tonapi, G. T. & Mulherkar, Leela

(1963) : On the freshwater Molluscs of

Poona. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 60

(1) : 104-120.

& (1963a) : Notes

on the freshwater fauna of Poona, Part I.

Fishes. Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci. 58 (B) 4 :

187-197.

(1967) : Studies on the fresh-

water and amphibious Mollusca of Poona

with notes on their distribution — Part

II. Proc. Ind. Sci. Cong. 54 (4) : Abstract,

p. 19.

A Catalogue of the Birds in the

Collection of the Bombay Natural

History Society — 8

Pteroclididae and Columbidae

BY

Humayun Abdulali

[Continued from Vol. 67 (2) : 298]

This part covers 724 specimens of 73 species and subspecies up to

No. 544a in Indian handbook (3 : 161). Miss Shanta Nair has

continued to assist.

485 Syrrhaptes tibetanus Gould (Tsomoriri Lake, Ladak, Tibetan

Sandgrouse 5 : 277

5:1<? 4 $$

1 Lake Ruhas Tal , 1500', 2 Gyantse, 13,100', Tibet ; 2 Tso Morari, Ladak.

Wing Bill Tail

252 (254-270) 14 (16-20) 215 (203-263)*

$$ 251, 253, 255, 261 12(3), 13(16-20) 164(2), 175, 182 (203-216)

(248-266)

* birds of the soviet union 2: (107) gives the male tails as 196-230, and

quotes Stuart Baker’s measurements, which are repeated in ind. handbook, with a

query.

485a Syrrhaptes paradoxus (Pallas) (Southern part of Tartarian

Desert) Pallas’s Sandgrouse 5 : 276

1 $ Gujner, Bikanir, Rajasthan. 31 December 1924.

This record is omitted in synopsis, but is referred to in ind. handbook

(3 : 79). In 1928 (fauna 5 : 276) Stuart Baker referred to the Nawab

of Dhar shooting a single specimen, presumably in Dhar, Central India,

and made no reference to the Bikanir record. No specimen from India

is available at the British Museum (Nat. Hist.).

486 Pterocles alchata caudacutus (S. G. Gmelin) (Northern Persia)

Large Pintail Sandgrouse 5 : 268

23 : 11 <?<2 (5 by plumage) 12 (4 by plumage)

12 Mesopotamia ; 2 Persian Gulf ; 1 Quetta, 1 Baluchistan ; 1 Malar Kotla,

Punjab ; 5 Bikanir, Rajasthan ; 1 Deesa, Palanpur, Gujerat.

The plumages are difficult to follow and one has to accept Stuart

Baker’s statement that the transition to the adult plumage is in patches.

[139]

128 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol 68 (1)

I have accepted the chocolate shoulder to the wing as an invariable

male character, and measure the sexes :

Wing Bill

200-219 av. 209 (213-224) 11-14 av. 13 (<?$ 12-5-14-5, ih c. 13-15)

?? 195-213 av. 204 (194-231) 12-14 av. 13*3

There does not appear to be any appreciable difference in size between

the sexes.

487 Pterocles exustus erlangeri (Neumann) (El Hota, Lahej, Southern

Arabia) Indian Sandgrouse 5 : 271

37 :24 <?<? 13 $?

2 Muscat, Arabia ; 1 Gawah, 3 miles east of Mand, Baluchistan ; 1 Ambala,

5 Bahawalpur ; Punjab ; 2 Delhi ; 1 Koshmor, Upper Sind, 1 Pithoro, 2

Barun, Kohistan, Sind ; 2 Kutch ; 5 Bhopal, 2 Shamgarh, Indore ; 3 Dran-

gadhra, 2 Bhavnagar, 3 Deesa, 1 Patan, Mehsana, 2 Kaira, 1 Kharagodha ;

1 Bassein, Thana.

Wing

Bill

24 <?<? 174-183 av. 176

(ih 177-185

13 $$ 165-180 av. 172

(ih 171-177

11-13 av. 11-7

17-20 from skull

11-13 av. 11-6

16-19 from skull

Tail, with central pin-

feathers

108-144 av. 127

105-142

87-107 av. 99

85-104

Sp. No. 13156, a female from Deesa (14 July) has no barring on the

black of the underparts and is also patchily marked on the upperparts,

being quite different from the adults of both sexes. No. 13146, a S from

Barun, Kohistan, has the black band on the upper breast extending half

way across the upper back on one side only ! No. 13138, a female from

Muscat, appears to have the upperparts more closely barred than in the

other females, but with only two specimens from Muscat it is not possible

to express any opinion as to whether erlangeri and Hindustan Meinert-

zhagen are separable.

488 Pterocles senegallus (Linnaeus) (Senegal errore, Algeria) Spotted

Sandgrouse 5 : 273

21 : 12 <Jc? 9 $$

12 Mesopotamia ; 1 Ormara ; 1 Sind ; 2 Pacham Island, 4 Dhordi in Bunni,

Kutch ; 1 no locality.

1 Birds without pins in the tail are excluded.

Four specimens (2 c?<J 2 $$) obtained in Bunni in Kutch in February

are all darker, above and below, than the others. Both males and females

show more brownish (or ochre) yellow, and almost no grey on the back.

Neumann’s description of remotus (xerox copy kindly sent by Dr. Ripley

[140]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION —8 129

and translated by Dr. Salim Ali) agrees with this, but his statement that

the 4 middle of the abdomen and spots of (are) pure black (in P. s.

senegallus mixed with dark brown) ; and the crown pure grey, not with

reddish or sandy tinge as in P. s. senegallus ’ cannot be confirmed. He

designated a obtained at Kunaria in Kutch, NW. India, as the type

and, speaking from memory, stated his impression that the Indian speci-

mens (at the B.M.), none of them from the island of Kutch, were paler

than the specimens from Kutch, which he received afterwards. In the

absence of the material which prompted this remark, he expressed his

inability to decide if on the island of Kutch 4 there lives a separate race

which is different from the birds from continental N. India

Except for the 4 specimens referred to above, all the others, including

two collected on Pacham Island, Kutch, show no separable differences,

and I am inclined to offer the following suggestions : —

(1) The resident population in Kutch is darker and separable.

(2) The material available from India, excluding that resident in

the island of Kutch, is not different from that from Mesopotamia.

(3) Though remotus is based on a specimen from Kutch, it re-

presents a migrant form which may or may not be different from nominate

senegallus.

489 Pterocles orientalis orientalis (Linnaeus) (in Oriente= Anatolia)

Imperial or Blackbellied Sandgrouse 5 : 262

21 : 17 ? 4 $$ (1 ^'partial albino)

1 Sheik Saad, Iraq ; 2 Shiraz , 1 Teheran-Kasvin Rd., Iran ; 1 Chitral, N.W.F.P. ;

1 Malarkotla, 2 Sirsa, 2 Bahawalpur, 1 Punjab ; 7 *Bikanir, 1 Rajasthan ;

1 Karachi ; 1 Deesa, Gujerat.

Both males and females show considerable variation in colour, but the

plumages do not appear to be well understood and it is not possible to

express an opinion as to whether Indian birds differ from those from Iraq

and Iran. The map in ind. handbook (3 : 87) shows arenarius Pallas

(type locality between the lower Ural River and the lower Volga) west

of the nominate race, while Vaurie (1961, pal. birds 50 : 5) refers to

it as the eastern race occurring in India.

The female wings are larger than suggested in ind. handbook (ex

fauna) and the male tails smaller.

490 Pterocles coronatus atratus Hartert (Eastern Persia*) Coronetted

Sandgrouse 5 : 267

Wing

Tail

225-248 av. 234

(226-248)

86-104 av. 97

(ih 101-128)

$$

236, 241, 243

(203-234)

94, 99, 103

9

[141]

130 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (1)

#Vaurie (1965 : 532) found that the type was collected at Kaskin,

40 kilometres north of Bambur, Persian Baluchistan.

9:6^ 3

1 6 miles, 1 18 miles, south-west of Gusht, Persian Baluchistan ; 2 Pasni, 1 Zayak

Kharun, 65° 57 'E., 21° 57'N., 1 Ormara, Kalat ; 2 Wano, 1 Waziristan.

The tails are much shorter than recorded earlier.

490a Pterocles coronatus ladas Koelz (Soneri Lake, Sind) Sind Coro-

netted Sandgrouse

3 : 2 1 $

2 Bataro, Kerchat, Kohistan, 1 Jhimpur, 80 miles east of Karachi, Sind.

The three birds listed above are outstandingly paler than the others,

except one marked $ from Wano, Waziristan. This specimen No. 13114

differs from the other females in having the lower belly unmarked, which

may be a juvenile plumage. Supported by the fact that this race is

accepted by Vaurie (1965 : 533), I am leaving them separate.

With the assistance of the Zoological Survey of Pakistan, ‘ Soneri

Lake ’ has been traced to be within two miles north-west of Sonda Dak

Bungalow, about 20 miles from Thatta on the Thatta-Hyderabad Road.

The lake is now merged with the old Kalri Lake to form the new Kalri

Lake. It may be noted that accepting Bataro as east of the Kohistan

hills west of Karachi, these birds are well isolated from those from

Baluchistan by the hills and by 400 miles from Waziristan.

491 Pterocles indicus arabicus Neumann (Lahej, Arabia) Closebarred

Sandgrouse 5 : 265

14 (details below)

(a) 4:2 <$<$ (one marked $) 2 $$ 20 miles from Muscat, Arabia.

These were obtained by Major A. R. Barton and are dated 23 October

1916. One of the original labels is marked ‘ Cage bird ’ and this would

presumably apply to all of them. They (particularly the females) are

distinctly paler than those under (b), which include two more males from

Muscat. There has been no concurrence of opinion regarding the

separability of arabicus from the race occurring in Iran and India, and

Ticehurst (JBNHS 34 : 479 and Ibis 1937 : 408) held that arabicus could

not be recognised and birds from Sind were identical with nominate

leichensteini (now synonymised with P. i- arabicus) from Nubia, pre-

sumably assuming that birds from the type locality of arabicus (Lahej,

near Aden) were similar to those from Nubia. The material available

[142]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION — 8 131

does not permit any definite opinion but suggests that a pale form (like

the cage bird) exists in a restricted area in Arabia. If so, the birds from

Muscat to India will not be arabicus. In JBNHS 25, p. 751, Major

Barton stresses the fact that he did not find it breeding near Muscat, where

it was migratory.

(b) 10 : 6 <?<? (1 juv.) 4 ??

1 near Muscat (Maj. A. R. Barton, 18 Feb. 1916), 1 Muscat, Arabia ; 2 Panj-

gur, 1 Pirander c. 180 miles SSW. of Kalat, 1 Kodap, Mand, 1 Kalat, Balu-

chistan ; 1 Wano, Waziristan, 1 Parachinar, Kurram Valley, N.W.F.P., 1

Lhandu, 20 miles from Karachi (trans-Indus).

The possibility of these specimens not being arabicus has been

referred to above. The two males from Parachinar and Lhandu show a

similarity to the cage birds from Muscat under (a), while both the males

from Muscat included in (b) are heavily blotched with black as also is a

male from Panjgur.

Sp. No. 13096 a juvenile $ from Pirander resembles the female except

that the area to be enclosed by the two blackish bands in the adult (male)

is almost unmarked.

The light and the dark males appear very distinct but, in the absence

of any evidence to the contrary, have to be accepted as variations of the

492 Pterocies indicus indicus (Gmelin) (Coromandel, India) Painted

Sandgrouse 5 : 264

20 : 14 <?<? (1 juv.) 6 $$

1 Tonk, 1 Danta*, 1 Rajputana ; 3 Bhuj, 1 Mata-No-Madh, Kutch ; 3 Shan-

garh, Indore ; 1 Kuno, Gwalior, 1 Bhopal ; 1 Vagjipur, 3 Deesa, Palanpur,

Gujerat ; 4 Vijayanagar, Bellary, Mysore.

The specimens show a certain amount of variation and, though not

referred to in the fauna (5 : 274), Stuart Baker in 4 Game Birds of the

Indian Empire ’ ( JBNHS 22: 221) says: ‘Females of this species

vary almost more than the males and the difference in tint on the back is

very great, varying from a rich almost rufous bay, which is very rare, to a

pale sandy bulf which is very common.’

l 143 |

132 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (1)

The two females from Vijayanagar, Bellary, Mysore, have their upper

parts strongly rufous, with the wing coverts similarly tinged, and are

strikingly different from the others. Two males from the same place

have the bars on the upper back rufous, and not white as in the others,

except No. 19200 from Tonk, Rajasthan. This difference is not so

striking as in the females.

Whistler ( JBNHS 38 : 680) referred, among the few from Southern

India, to two from Madras and Arkonam in the Government Museum at

Madras. As these are mounted and could not be sent, representative

specimens were sent to Dr. Satyamurthi, the Director, who kindly con-

firms that both the $ and $ resemble the birds from Vijayanagar and are

different from the others.

I have listed ( JBNHS 66 : 263) 2 Rock Bush Quail from Vijayanagar,

Bellary (also collected by G. C. Shortridge who obtained the four present

Sandgrouse from Vijayanagar) as Perdicula argoondah salimalii Whistler

(type locality Marikanive, Mysore), which are separated by their bright

rufous upper parts and which are very similar to those of the female

sandgrouse from the same area.

Though one juvenile male (No. 13087* from Rajputana) is as rufous

as the southern females, it would appear that the northern birds

are appreciably different from topotypical and southern ones, and need

separation.

Wing Bill

13 $$ 167-185 av. 175 13-16 av. 15*5

(m 166-180, once

188, once 208)

5 $$ 164, 167, 171, 12, 14, 15

176

(ih 166-176)

(<?? 158-184 c. 13-15

Tarsus

24-26 av. 24*8

Tail

68-81 av. 77

24(2), 25(3) 75, 76, 78, 80(2)

c. 23-25 80-101).

The tails are shorter than recorded and females have smaller wings.

ind. handbook does not indicate where the exceptionally large male was

obtained. The key on p. 91 (vol. 3) separating arabicus from indicus

is not very satisfactory. In <J arabicus , the closer ‘ barring ’ on the lower

throat may perhaps be better termed 6 spotting ’ and the reference to the

shape of the black bar on white forecrown can just be understood when

both are placed together. In several indicus of both sexes, the feathered

front of the tarsus cannot be seen to be barred or spotted.

493 Treron apicauda apicauda Blyth (Southeastern Himalayas and

hill ranges of Assam) Pintailed Green Pigeon 5 : 199

8 : 6 <$<J (1 by plumage) 1 $ 1 o ?

1 Sadiya, 1 Cachar, 1 Changchang Pani, Assam ; 1 Tezu, Lohit Valley ; 2

Saidon, 1 Tista Valley , Upper Burma ; 1 Mindon Yoma, Thavetmyo,

Wing <?<J 165-171 av. 167 (160-175) 1 $ 160 1 o ? 155

Tail <J<J 164-224 av. 184 (220-254) 1 $ 111 1 o? 112

[ 144]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION — 8 133

As in some of the other pigeons, there is a dense growth of upper and

undertail coverts which necessitates special care to ensure that measure-

ments are taken from the base of the tail.

494 Treron sphenura sphenura (Vigors) (Himalayas*) Wedgetailed

Green Pigeon 5 : 200

23 : 12 11 (2 pull., 1 juv.)

1 Doola, Kishtwar, Kashmir ; 7 Simla, 1 Koti State, 1 Patiala ; 4 GarhwaJ,

1 Almora, 1 Mussoorie ; 3 Nepal ; 1 Kurseong ; 2 Chin Hills ; 1 Lamta

Thack (?).

Wing Tail

175-190 av. 181*6) ) 111-127 av. 121*5 )

l (173-185) t 114-139

99 170-180 av. 174 6) j 107-129 av. 120 j

It may be worth keeping in mind the fact that Osmaston thought he

saw and heard this species in April at Pachmarhi, C.P. ( JBNHS 28 : 458).

* The type locality was restricted to 4 Simla- Almora area * in Himachal Pradesh

by Ticehurst and Whistler, Ibis 1924, p. 472.

495 Treron curvirostra nipalensis (Hodgson) (Nepal) Thickbilled

Green Pigeon 5 : 196

8 <J(J (3 by plumage)

1 Golaghat, Assam ; 1 North Kraung, 1 Megok, Ruby Mines District, Upper

Burma ; 1 Myitkyina ; 1 Taunggyi, South Shan States ; 2 Sandoway ; 1 Nam

Lai, Siam.

All the specimens, some of which were originally correctly named,

were found listed with Treron pompadora which they resemble very

closely.

The red gape and red base of the bill said to be diagnostic in live

birds are not visible in the skins.

Wing 139-150 av. 145 (124-146, repeated in ih ; Ticehurst, Ibis 1939, p. 212

measures 142-155 and opines that Baker has measured juveniles)

Tail 70-90 av. 81 (84-95)

496 Treron pompadora affinis (Jerdon) (West Coast of Indian

Peninsula) Greyfronted Green Pigeon 5 : 188

19 : 10 ^ 8 9$ 1 o ?

1 Pen, Kolaba ; 1 Poona ; 1 Ratnagiri ; 9 Kanara ; 2 Mercara, Coorg ; 1 Hik„

keri, Sagar, Mysore ; 1 Nilgiris ; 1 Ponmudi, 1 Pulanayarkotta, Kerala ;

1 Pattanpur (T. R. Bell — NortlfKanara ?)

Wing Tail

'99

140-149 av. 145

135-148 av. 142

}

78- 90 av. 84

79- 86 av. 82

[145]

(138-150)

134 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol 68 (1)

497 Treron pompadora pompadora (Gmelin) (Ceylon) Ceylon

Greyfronted Green Pigeon 5 : 185

1 3 Ceylon. Wing 147, tail 89.

Sp. No. 12768 differs from the southwestern birds in having a yellow

forehead and no chestnut on the undertail coverts.

498 Treron pompadora conoveri Rand & Fleming (Butwal, Nepal)

Nepal Greyfronted Green Pigeon

nil

Compared with phayrei it is said to be a brighter form, with the

yellow of the throat and the orange of the breast more intense, and the

green of the breast and abdomen and hind neck duller and less greyish

(Birds from Nepal, Fieldiana 41, p. 70).

499 Treron pompadora ptiayrei (Blyth) (Tounghoo, Burma) Ashy-

headed Green Pigeon 5 : 186

9:6.<?<J 3$$

2 Tezu, Lohit Valley, 1 Golaghat, 1 Sadiya, 1 Dayang, Assam ; 1 Upper

Burma , 1 Prome, 1 Myitkyina, 1 Henzada.

Wing Tail

6 3$ 153-160 av. 158 (143-165) 85-91 av. 89

3 ?? 150-155 av. 152*6 (145-160) 82, 87, 88

Stanford & Ticehurst have drawn attention ( Ibis 1939, p. 211) to the

wing measurements in the fauna as probably including juveniles, and

have corrected them to 156-165. Sp. No. 12779 from Lohit Valley,

Assam, has a bill shorter and stouter than in the others.

500 Treron pompadora chloroptera Blyth (Nicobars) Nicobar

Greyfronted Green Pigeon 5 : 188

13 : 8 33 5 $$ (2, wings only)

4 Car Nicobar ; 2 Katchal, 3 Camorta, 1 Trinkut, 1 Nankowry, Central Nico-

bars ; 2 Campbell Bay, Great Nicobar.

500a Treron pompadora andamanica (Richmond) (Macpherson Strait,

South Andamans) Andaman Greyfronted Green Pigeon

6 : 3 33 3 $$

1 Port Blair, 4 Wrightmyo, 1 South Andamans.

Wing 33 163, 177, 178 169, 177, 178

I have explained (JBNHS 64, p. 164) my reasons for maintaining this

race.

501 Treron bicincta biclncta (Jerdon) (Sea coast south of Tellicherry)

Orangebreasted Green Pigeon 5 : 191

8 : 6 33 (2 by plumage) 2 $$

3 North Kanara ; 1 Thekadi, Travancore ; 1 Sankrametta, Vizagapatam ;

1 Besai, Mourbhanj, 1 Kutri, Daspalla, Orissa ; 1 Kamaing, Upper Burma .

[146]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT . HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION- 8 135

Wing Tail

6 SA 153-165 av. 159 86-92 av. 89

2 $? 148, .153 82, 82.

(<?¥ : 153-164, once 170 (91-110)

In the synopsis the distribution is said to be 4 from Bombay and U.P.

south and east through peninsular India ......’ Though there is a

record of a single female obtained at Karachi ( JBNHS 40 : 330), on the

west the northernmost records which I can trace are from North Kanara.1

502 Treron bicincta leggei Hartert (Ceylon) Ceylon Orangebreasted

Green Pigeon 5 : 192

1 Ceylon. Wing 151 Tail 82.

The single specimen (No. 12788 obtained in 1914) is very similar to

the Indian birds listed above.

503 Treron phoenicoptera phoenicoptera (Latham) (India) Bengal

Green Pigeon 5 : 181

14 : 8-<J<$ 5 $$ 1 o?

2 Baghat State, NW. Himalayas ; 1 Saugar, 1 Mandikheri, Hoshangabad,

M.P. ; 1 Rajputtee, 1 Champaran, 3 Tirhut, 1 Hazaria, 1 Pathargata, Bhagal-

pur, Bihar ; 1 Shahjehanpur, 1 Pilibhit, U.P. ; 1 Bankulwa Morang, Nepal.

Wing Tail

<?<? 181-195 av. 188 (184-200) 98-125 av. 109 (110-118)

$? 180-185 av. 183 (180-186) 94, 100, 103, 112.

Birds of both sexes from Bihar and U.P. (Nos. 12726, 12730, and

12732) have the grey of the underparts washed with yellowish. The

yellow of the upper breast is however distinctly separate.

In many places, these pigeons disappear almost completely at certain

seasons and, though these movements are no doubt linked with the avail-

ability of their food (in places largely Ficus spp.), the directions of their

movements are quite unknown. It is possible that the birds taken in

Madhya Pradesh were non-breeding migrants, but the southern form

chlorigaster is said to have been found with the nominate form at Ambala,

Punjab (Jones, JBNHS 31, p. 1006). A more detailed examination of

larger numbers may perhaps provide an explanation.

Except for the yellow on the lower belly, Sp. No. 12738 (o ?) from

Champaran, Bihar, is grey like a Columba sp. with almost no yellow or

green. Derek Goodwin of the British Museum (N.H.) to whom I men-

tioned this informs me that they have one specimen of Treron sphenura

which similarly lacks green and adds : 6 As this is a specimen that looks

as if it has been in captivity I put its coloration down to its having been

fed with “sattoo ” (flour made from roasted grain — H.A.) and deprived of

yellow carotenoids in its foods. As you will know, many birds moult out

grey and white where they are normally green and yellow if given arti-

1 This has now been suitably altered in ind. handbook 3 : 105

[ 147 ]

136 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (1)

ficial foods that do not contain carotenoid pigments. When this is done

with the green and yellow Parus major newtoni it moults out grey and

whitish and looks very like Parus major cinereus ! I suppose one could

also get aberrant individuals that had no yellow pigment or lacked the

ability to deposit it in their feathering, as one does in blue Budgerigars

or the so-called blue Canaries (which are really grey) \

504 Treron phoenicoptera chlorigaster (Blyth) (Indian Peninsula)

Southern Green Pigeon 5 : 184

21 : 8 <?<J 13 $?

1 Sanchi, Bhopal ; 1 Kolkaz, Berar ; 1 Deesa, Palanpur, 1 Vagjipur, 3 Pandwa,

1 Mahul, Surat Dangs ; 1 Salsette, Bombay ; 1 Murbad, Thana, 1 Panvel,

Kolaba, 2 Bhor, Poona, 1 Ratnagiri ; 2 Ranker, 1 Bailadila, M.P. ; 2 Bad-

rama, Orissa ; 2 Bulandshar, U.P.

3$

Wing 170-192 av. 187 (184-200) 170-193 av. 183 (180-186)

Tail 84-118 (110-118) 116-135 av. 124

There is some confusion and uncertainty regarding the type locality.

Blyth (1843, J. Asiat. Soc. Bengal 12 (1 : 167) when describing this bird

does not refer to its origin, but Sclater, 1892, Ibis p. 86, while listing

the type specimen in the Indian Museum states that it was obtained by

Blyth 4 near Calcutta *, in which area it does not normally occur and

was no doubt a straggler. Whistler (1936, JBNHS 38 : 672) restricted it

to Salem District, South India, which if tenable would be most reasonable.

505 Treron phoenicoptera phillipsi Ripley (Nilgala, Uva, Ceylon)

Ceylon Green Pigeon

nil

EL Treron phoenicoptera viridifrons Blyth (Tenasserim)* 5 : 183

4 : 1<J 1 $ 2 o?

1 Henzada, 1 Thayetmyo, 1 Pro me , 1 May my o.

Wing Tail

192, 191, 176, 177 (184-200) 135, 125, 116, 123

* The type locality was restricted to Moulmein, Amherst District, Tenasserim, by

Deignan (1963) U.S. Nat. Bull. 226, p. 48.

EL Ducula aenea aenea (Linnaeus) (Flores, Indonesia) Malay Green

Imperial Pigeon 5 : 207

1 $ Pahang, Malaya. Wing 232, bill 26, tarsus 25, tail 139.

The upper parts are a clearer green than in most of the others.

506 Ducula aenea sylvatica (Tickell) (Borabhurn) Northern Green

Imperial Pigeon 5 : 208

16 : 9 2 $$ 5 o?

3 Chanda, 3 Bastar, M.P. ; 3 Orissa ; 1 Pasi Ghat, Assam ; 1 Chindwin R.,

2 Upper Burma, 2 S. Shan States, 1 Prome Dist., Burma.

Birds from Assam and Northern Burma are slightly larger than those

[148]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION — 8 137

from Central India, which again are very slightly larger than pusilla

from further south.

Wing Bill Tarsus Tail

3 4 o ? 229-255 av. 241 25-29 av. 27 25-27 av. 26 139-150 av. 146

Assam & N.

Burma.

6 218-235 av. 225 22-26 av. 24-3 25-26 av. 25*5 140-150 av. 144.

Chanda,

Bastar &

Orissa.

2 $$ 219, 219 25, 26 25(2) 140, 144

Bastar

pusilla

1 $ *3o ? 212*, 221, 223, 23* 25(2), 28 24*, 25, 26(2) 139*, 143, 146

224

In some birds the upper parts are dark green with little or no sheen.

Both varieties occur in the same area but, while only one of the seven

from Assam and Burma is ‘ dark seven of the nine from India are

‘ dark ’ rather than shiny green.

507 Ducula aenea pusilla (Blyth) (Nilgiris*) Southern Green Imperial

Pigeon 5 : 209

4:1c? 3 o ?

3 N. Kanara, Mysore ; 1 Chitteri Range, Salem District.

These birds have been trinomially named in accordance with the

generally accepted ranges of pusilla and sylvatica but, apart from the usual

north-south decline in size, there does not appear to be sufficient reason

for separating them.

It may also be recalled that, though the type locality is usually accepted

as 6 Nilgiris ’, Jerdon (1864, birds of india, 3 : 456) wrote : 4 Mr. Blyth

was mistaken when he stated (1849, J. Asiatic Soc. Bengal 18 : 816) that

the specimen sent in by myself, from which he made his pusilla , was from

the Neilgherries ; indeed I have not even seen this pigeon in the Wynaad.’

I have looked up Blyth (1849) where it is said to be from the Nilgiris but

I can find no reference to Jerdon.

^Whistler (Eastern Ghats, JBNHS 38 : 675) accepts the type locality

as ‘ Nilgiris 5 but states on the following page : ‘ There seem to be no

records from the Nilgiris’. It has been obtained at 2000 ft. in the Biligiri-

rangan Hills ( JBNHS 44: 24) but Baker & Inglis (1930) in birds

of southern india, p. 278, say that the only records in Madras, Mysore,

and Kerala are from the plains.

508 Ducula aenea nicobarica (Pelzeln) (Nicobars, restricted Car

Nicobar) Nicobar Green Imperial Pigeon 5 : 210 (insularis)

10 : 7 <?<? 3 $?

3 Car Nicobar ; 3 Camorta, 1 Nancowry, Middle Nicobars ; 3 Great Nicobars.

(See comments on measurements, Abdulali JBNHS 64 : 164/5).

[149]

138 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY , Fo/. 68 (1)

508a Ducula aenea andamanica Abdulali (Betapur, Middle Andamans)

Andaman Green Imperial Pigeon

8 : 5 SS* 3 $$ (including type)

1 Narcondam Island ; 3 Betapur, Middle Andamans ; 4 South Andamans.

509 Ducula bicolor (Scopoli) (New Guinea) Pied Imperial Pigeon

9 : 6 A A (1 juv.) 2 $$ 1 juv. o?

5 South Sentinel Island, Andamans ; 1 Camorta, Central Nicobars ; 3 Pulu

Bhabi, Great Nicobar.

In my report on Nicobar birds ( JBNHS 64 : 165) and in Bull. B.O.U.

86 : 162, I have offered an explanation for the patches of 4 creamy ’

colour often noted on these birds.

510 Ducula badia insignis Hodgson (Nepal) Hodgson’s Imperial

Pigeon 5 : 203

nil.

511 Ducula badia cuprea (Jerdon) (Wynaad) Jerdon’s Imperial Pigeon

5 : 205

7 : 3 SS 1 $ 3 o?

1 Gopshitta (Col. by T. R. Bell, N. Kanara?) ; 1 Castle Rock, l Supa Petha,

1 North Kanara ; 2 Thattakad, Periyar, Kerala ; 1 Madura.

Wing Tail

AS 229, 230, 243 (210-234) 171, 178

$ 230 165

512 Ducula badia griseicapilla Walden (Karen Hills, between 4000

and 4200 feet) Greyheaded Imperial Pigeon 5 : 204

8 : 3 SS 1 $ 4 o?

2 Lakhuni, 1 Dibrugarh, Assam ; 1 Htamgaw, 1 Upper Burma ; 1 Pangping ,

South Shan States ; 2 20 miles west of Raheng, Siam.

<?? Wing 228-258 (?) (228-259) Tail 170-188

Of the two birds obtained on the same day at Lakhuni, Assam, the

male (Sp. No. 12823) has a slight wash of pale lilac on the crown which

is almost concolorous with the neck, while the female (No. 12824) has it

grey. No specimens of insignis are available for comparison, but the

distribution of the races in eastern India and Burma appears to need

sorting out.

[150]

BIRDS IN BOMBA Y NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION - -8 139

513 Coiumba leuconota leuconota Vigors (Himalayas, type probably

from Nepal) West Himalayan Snow Pigeon 5 : 224

14 : 5 3$ 8 $$ 1 o?

1 Liddar Valley 1 2,000', 2 Kishtwar 10,000', 1 Kashmir ; 2 Palanpur 4000',

1 Simla 6500', NW. Himalayas ; 2 Jalki, Mussoorie, 1 Kulu, 1 Phurkia,

Pindar Valley, Kumaon, 1 Badrinath, Garhwal ; 1 Thangu 7000', 1 Lachen,

N. Sikkim.

Wing

33 228-246 av. 239

$?■ 229-241 av. 235

(ih c?? 240-258

Bill Tarsus

18(3), 19(2) 28(2), 29(2), 30

18-20 av. 18-8 28-30 av. 28 5

c. 24-25 c. 31-35

(from skull)

Tail

128-138 av. 133

121- 136 av. 126*7

122- 137)

514 Coiumba leuconota gradaria Hartert (Sungpan, Szechuan) East

Himalayan Snow Pigeon 5 : 225

nil.

515 Coiumba rupestris turkestanica Buturlin (Altai) Turkestan Hill

Pigeon 5 : 222

7 : 3 <?c? 3 $$ 1 o?

1 Pamir 13,000'; 1 Killia Drosh, Chitral, N.W.F.P. ; 2 Gaik, Indus Valley,

1 Pannanick, Nabra, 1 Lamyaru, Ladak ; 1 Badrinath, Garhwal.

This confirms Stresemann’s measurements 5 <J<? 230-240 (av. 233 '4)

6 $$219-228 (av. 233*8) quoted in ind. handbook.

EL Coiumba livia subsp.

1 A Temple of Heaven, Peking, China, 2-9-1900.

Peters (checklist 3 : 59) lists nigricans Buturlin from Mongolia, and

northern China in provinces of Shansi, Chihli, and Kansu, but adds that

he has seen no Chinese wild-killed specimen with a white rump. The

present bird has a sooty head and neck, a light brownish wash over the

whole body, and a white rump. However, it may well be a cage

or domesticated bird.

Wing 215; Bill 17; Tarsus 27; Tail 116.

EL Coiumba livia gaddii Zarudny & Loudon (Hill region of Jebel-

Tyne and in the mountains east of Ahwaz and Nasiri, Lower Karun

River, Southwestern Persia).

11 : 4 6 ?$ 1 o?

1 Ham Plain, Tigris, Mesopotamia * ; 1 Akberabad 52° 47 'E., 29° 13'N., 1

Kaftarak, 1 Shiraz, 3 Birjand, E. Persia ; 1 Chah Bahar, Persian Gulf ; 3

Gusht, Persian Baluchistan.

[151 ]

140 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol 68 (1)

This is no doubt the bird with the 4 lower back and rump white ?

said to be of the nominate race in fauna. On the average they are

noticeably paler above than those listed as neglecta ; but the croup is not

consistently white, which remark applies to neglecta also. Of the three

from Birjand only two have white croups, while of another three from

Gusht two may be included with intermedia . The measurements are

under No. 517 and do not appear to differ from those of the other races.

No. 12857* from Mesopotamia was marked C. /. palestinae which it

may well be, but the single specimen can be included in the variation

existing in this group.

516 Columba livia neglecta Hume (Ladak) Blue Rock Pigeon 5 : 220

7 : 3 $<$ 2 $? 2 o?

1 Jandola, 3 Chitral, N.W.F.P. ; 2 Ladak, 1 Hunza Valley, Kashmir.

Five of these (except one each from Chitral and Jandola) have their

croups white or grey as in gaddi , but are generally paler above than inter-

media. Hume in the original description however stated that neglecta

could be :

4 distinguished from intermedia by its much darker general hue and

by its white or more or less greyish white lower back contrasting strongly

with the blackish slaty rump and upper tail coverts. This species

replaces C. intermedia in most places in the interior of the Himalayas.

The other specimen a $ shot at Dras, June 23, belongs to what seems to

be a hybrid race between C. neglecta and C. intermedia. The general

colour of the upper back, scapulars and coverts, is that of C. intermedia ,

but the lower back is a pale albescent grey or bluish white, very different

from that of the latter, and resembling in this respect C. neglecta , but not

contrasting so strongly with the dark iron grey rump and upper tail coverts

as does the white lower back of neglecta this has been charac-

terized by Capt. Halton (in epis.) as C. spelaea , but I scarcely think it

merits specific separation.’

The formal description then reads :

4 Pure white across lower back never exceeds 1*25 and in some is

scarcely above an inch in extent. The whole rump, upper tail coverts

and basal portion of the tail is a very deep slaty grey, contrasting very

strongly with the white of the lower back. In the intermediate form the

white is more or less tinged with grey and the conspicuously white portion

of the back does not exceed half an inch in breadth.’

Though both gaddi and neglecta differ from intermedia in having a

white or pale grey croup, it will be noticed that in the description neglecta

is said to have a much darker general hue than intermedia , further com-

plicated by the statement that the ‘ hybrid ’ from Dras was similar to

neglecta in having a pale lower back and, like intermedia above, without

clarifying if this was darker or paler than neglecta. Vaurie (1965 : 545)

[152]

BIRDS IN BOMBA Y NAT . HiST. SOCIETY COLLECTION- -8 141

found a pure white rump in only two of about 125 neglecta (including the

type) examined by him. The small series available does not show much

difference in size between the sexes. Paludin (1959, birds of

Afghanistan, pp. 112/3), who discusses the races in Afghanistan and,

without access to either neglecta or intermedia , lists those from Central

and Western Afghanistan as gaddi (a la Meinertzhagen 1938 : 707) and

others with dark rumps as neglecta , does not help in clarifying

matters.

With the material available it is not possible to express any opinion

except to suggest that neglecta , like the other races, is liable to variation,

and is really an intermediate form between gaddi and intermedia.

517 Columba livia intermedia Strickland (India = Calcutta) Indian

Blue Rock Pigeon

25 : 11 33 11 ¥$ 30?

1 Rawalpindi, N.W.F.P. ; 2 Harunabad, Bahawalpur, 2 Hissar, Punjab ; 1

Delhi ; 2 Gwalior, 1 Solon, Bhopal State, 1 Indore, C.I. ; 1 Bhuj, Kutch ;

1 Gir, 1 Deesa, Palanpur, 1 Bhavnagar, 2 Surat Dangs ; 1 Nasik, 1 Kore-

gaon, Poona, 1 Bombay City, 1 Ratnagiri ; 1 Gersoppa, Mysore ; 1 Nilam-

bur Valley, Kerala ; 1 Nellore, A.P. ; 1 Garhwal, U.P. ; 1 Prome, Burma.

It is unfortunate that the type locality has been fixed as Calcutta, for

as far back as 1857 (/. Asiatic Soc. Bengal 26 : 223) Blyth said : ‘ In the

vicinity of Calcutta the pure wild race can hardly be obtained’.

There is considerable variation in the depth of grey, and the birds

from the northwest (Rawalpindi and Hissar, Punjab) are almost as pale

as neglecta but lack the pale croup. Among the others, those from the

west (Kutch southwards through Gujarat and Poona to Nilambur) appear

darker, particularly on the underparts. Series of wild breeding birds

from different parts of the country are necessary to permit any con-

clusions1.

Wing Bill

gaddi 33 215, 226, 228, 229 18, 19(3)

(Vaurie 230-240 av. 234)

neglecta 33 225, 228(2) 20(3)

(Vaurie 230-242 _av. 236)

inter-

media <3 215-227 av. 224 19-21 av. 20

gaddi $$ 215-235 av. 224 18-20 av. 18*

(Vaurie 224-235 av. 229*5)

neglecta $$ 225, 230(2) 20(2)

(Vaurie 218-241 av. 228*1)

intermedia

$$ 212-223 av. 216 18-21 av. 19*8 26-28 av. 27 107-116

1 After this was completed, I noticed among the several hundred semi-wild pigeons

which collect to be fed in the enclosed island in the middle of the road opposite the

G.P.O. in Bombay, a much greater range of intensity of colour than is shown

among the different subspecies referred to above. Though some show a pale rump,

none have it all-white, as in some neglecta and gaddi.

[153]

Tarsus Tail

27(2), 28(2) 111,116,121,123

27(2), 28 116(2), 120

27-29 av. 28-1 111-115 av. 113-7

27-29 av. 27-6 109-121 av. 114-5

27,29 110,112

142 JOURNAL . BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Fo/. 68 (!)

518 Columba eversmanni Bonaparte (Western and central Asia)

species ( JBNHS 67 (2) : 331).

One each of Columba livia gaddi and C. oenas from Persia were listed

under this species.

EL Columba oenas subsp. Stock Dove

1? Pir-i-Bann, Shiraz, Persia.

Wing 202; Bill 18; Tarsus 26; Tail 114

This was included under C. eversmanni , but differs in having a grey

(not white) croup and a grey (not vinous) head. The tail is also longer.

519 Columba palumbus casiotis (Bonaparte) (Chinese Tartary) Eastern

Wood Pigeon or Cushat 5 : 227

5:1c? 2 $$ 2 o ? juveniles*

1* Basra, Mesopotamia ; 1* Kotri, Sind ; 2 Koti State, 1 Dhami State, Simla

Hills.

The male is the greyest above, while the juveniles are the dullest in

colour.

520 Columba hodgsonii Vigors (Nepal) Speckled Wood Pigeon 5 : 234

16 : 8 <?<? 7 $$ 1 o?

2 Pujas, Kishtwar, Kashmir; 2 Mussoorie ; 3 Bhimtal 4300', 1 Rhurkia, 2

Gorikund, Kederinath, Kumaon ; 1 Chala-Khel, Nepal ; 2 Dubin , Aka Hills,

S. Shan States ; 2 Saidon, Myitkyina Dt ., Burma, 1 Lambathuch?

Wing Bill Tarsus Tail

c?c? 225-235 av. 232 16-18 av. 17*1 24-26 av. 24*6 143-148 av. 145-3

$$ 222-236 av. 230 16-19 av. 17-5 23-26 av. 24*5 139-150 av. 145

(c?$ 228-244 c. 16-18 c. 24-26 140-153)

521 Columba elphinstonii (Sykes) (The Ghauts of Dukhun) Nilgiri

Wood Pigeon 5 : 228

5 : 2 <?<? 3 o?

I Bhimashanker, Poona ; 1 Kirma Valley, Satara ; 1 Castle Rock, N. Kanara ;

1 High Wavy Mountains, 1 Edluth, Biligirirangan Hills, Coimbatore.

[ 154]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT . HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION- $ 143

Wing Bill Tarsus Tail

204-210 av. 205-8 19-21 av. 20*1 24-26 150-153

(204-224) (c. 17-18) (c. 25-26) (152-178)

522 Columba torringtoni Bonaparte (Ceylon) Ceylon Wood Pigeon

5: 229

1 A Hakgaila, Ceylon.

523 Columba pulchricollis Blyth (Nepal) Nepal or Ashy Wood Pigeon

5 : 230

3:2^ 1?

1 Hathiban, 1* Walung Forest, Nepal ; 1 Woodcot, Darjeeling.

*This specimen is out on loan to the Zoological Survey of India and not

available.

Bill from feathers, 18, 18 (16-17).

524 Columba punicea Blyth (Chyebassa, Bihar) Purple Wood Pigeon

5 : 232

2 : 1 c? 1 $

1 Bailadila, Bastar, M.P. ; 1 Tezu, Lohit Valley, Upper Assam,

Wing Bill Tarsus Tail

A 223 18 23 154

(210-236 c. 16-17 c. 23-25 152-178)

$ 218 17 24 135

(203-225) — — —

525 Columba palumboides palumboides (Hume) (Port Mouat, Anda-

mans) Andaman Wood Pigeon 5 : 233

5 : 2<?c? 3$$ (1 juv.)

1 Long Island, 1 Bakultala, 1 Betapur, Middle Andamans ; 1 Bambooflats,

1 South Andamans.

525a Columba palumboides nicobarica (Walden) (Trinkut, Nicobars)

Nicobar Wood Pigeon

3 S3

1 Nancowry, 1 Camorta, Middle Nicobars ; 1 Campbell Bay, Great Nicobar.

See Abdulali, JBNHS 64 : 166/7, re measurements and validity.

526 Macropygia unchall tusalia (Blyth) (Darjeeling) Bartailed Cuckoo-

Dove 5 : 253

8 : 5(J«J 3?$

1 Balasun, 2000' near Darjeeling ; 2 Pashok, Sikkim ; 2 Kangpokpi, Manipur ;

2 Kachin Hills, 1 Irrawady R., Ruby Mines , Burma.

Both males and females are in two plumages, presumably representing

immature and adult. In males, the young have the head and underparts

barred throughout, the barring lessening with age and being absent in

[155]

144 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (1)

both places in the adult. The females are all barred below, but only the

527 Macropygia rufipennis rufipennis Blyth (Central Nicobars)

Nicobar Cuckoo-Dove 5 : 255

3 : 2<J<? 1?

2 Camorta, 1 Nancowry, Central Nicobars.

Wing

Bill

Tail

¥

197, 199

18, 18

194 broken, 205

199 180-193)

. . (<?$ 12-13)

194 (<?? 210-233)

Sclater {Ibis, 1892, pp. 72-87) in a list of type specimens of birds in

the Indian Museum refers to types of M. rufipennis collected by

Capt. Lewis and Rev. P. Barbe, s.J. Blyth (1846) described this species

in ‘ Notes on the Fauna of the Nicobar Islands which is preceded by

‘ Notice of Nicobar Islands 9 by Barbe. Both these papers indicate that

the specimens were obtained in the Central Nicobars and, in view of the

possibility of the birds from further south (Kondal and Great Nicobar)

being separable (see JBNHS 64 : 167), I am restricting the type locality to

Central Nicobars.

527a Macropygia rufipennis andamanica Abdulali (Betapur, Middle

Andamans)

3 (J<?

1 Bakultala, 1 Betapur, Middle Andamans ; 1 Calicut, South Andamans.

I am afraid my observation in my description of M. r. andamanica

{JBNHS 63 : 421), that 6 none of my specimens show the “ lilac-purple

gloss on the crown of the male ” mentioned in most earlier descriptions,’

has led to a mistake in the key to the subspecies of M. rufipennis at p.139

of Indian handbook Yol. 3. The distinguishing character between the

two races was given earlier in my description, namely a fine rufous fringe

to the outer web of the primaries in contrast to basal two-thirds entirely

rufous in M. r. rufipennis making a striking patch of colour in the folded

wing. When I spoke later of the absence of the lilac-purple gloss I was

referring to all the specimens obtained by me in this trip, which included

both the subspecies.

[156]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION — 8 145

EL Streptopelia turtur turtur (Linnaeus) (England) Turtle-Dove

5 : 236

2 o ? Felujah, R. Euphrates, Mesopotamia.

Nos. 12933 and 12934 are slightly darker than those listed under

arenicola and are marked as of the nominate race by Ticehurst ( JBNHS

28 : 947).

529 Streptopelia turtur arenicola (Hartert) (Fao on the Persian Gulf)

Persian Turtle-Dove 5 : 237

15 : 5<J<? 9$$ 1 o ? (4 juv.)

4 20 m. from Muscat, Arabia ; 1 Wadi, R. Tigris, 1 Zobair, 2 Basra, Mesopo-

tamia ; 1 Persian Gulf ; 2 Tanhat, 3 Shiraz, Persia ; 1 4100' Kashgar, Chinese

Turkestan.

The four from near Muscat are juveniles (?) in two separate phases and

differ from the others, which show a varying amount of rufous on the

upperparts. Their underparts are also a dull khaki brown, showing

no white as in the others.

Wing <J<? 168-178 av. 172

$$ 159-167 av. 163*5

The present measurements confirm Paludin’s figures from Afghanistan

indicating that the males are larger than the females.

530 Streptopelia orientalis orientalis (Latham) (China) Rufous Turtle-

Dove 5 : 238

ih, ex Hartert)

These two with slightly larger wings, pale and almost unicolorous

underparts, followed by white undertail coverts, cannot be matched with

any of the others available for examination.

531 Streptopelia orientalis meena (Sykes) (Dukhun) Western Turtle-

Dove 5 : 239

30 : 13<?<? 12$$ 5 o ?

1 Kushak, Mashkil, Persian Baluchistan ; 1 Wano, Waziristan ; 2 Chitral ; 7

Simla ; 1 8000' Dalhousie, Punjab ; 1 Gwalior ; 1 Chikalda, Berar ; 2 Chickli

Surat Dangs ; 1 Wada, 3* Bhiwandi, 1 Vajrabai, Thana ; 1 Panvel, Kolaba ;

1 Khandala ; 2 Mahableshwar ; 1 Singewadi, 1 Supa Petha, Kanara ; 1 Raj-

puttee, Chupra, Bihar ; 2 Garhwal. *(1 missing).

All have white lower bellies and undertail coverts and cannot be con-

fused with any of the other forms accepted in Indian limits. There is

considerable variation in the intensity of the colours of the upper breast

and the upperparts, but it is not possible to isolate them in any manner

and this variation must for the moment be accepted as normal within

10 [ 157 ]

146 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 68 (1)

the subspecies. Four specimens from Persian Baluchistan, Wano, Simla

(No. 12964), and Mahableshwar (No. 19170), all obtained in October-

November, are not distinctly marked on the wing coverts and probably

represent an immature phase.

Ludlow and Kinnear ( Ibis 1934 : 97-98) have given sufficient reasons

to accept meena as the form with white belly and undertail coverts, which

is a cold weather visitor to the Deccan.

532 Streptopelia orientalis agricola (Tickell) (Jungles of Borabhum

and Dholbhum) Eastern Turtle-Dove

8 (details below)

(a) 3:2<?<J 1$

2 Sadiya, Upper Assam, 1 Manipur.

(b) 5 : 4<J<J 1$

1 S. Tibet , 1 Sipuri, Nepal ; 2 Rinchingpong, 5500', West Sikkim ; 1 Assam.

Group (a) resembles orientalis in the lack of rufous on the upper parts

but has dark grey undertail coverts. Group (b) has much rufous above,

dark grey (slightly paler in 12957 from Tibet) undertail coverts, and

cannot be separated from those listed as erythrocephala below. All

except two of the eight specimens have been marked agricola by Salim

Ali or Ripley.

Tickelfs original description is incomplete and may well apply to

either (a) or (b), but it is significant that it is prefaced by the words 4 Foxy

Pigeon ’, a term which applies better to the specimens in group (b).

Salim Ali has in recent years collected a fair series from Bastar and

also from Orissa, some of the camps in which State were a hundred miles

[158]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION — 8 147

south of Dholbhum, the type locality of agricola. These specimens are

now accepted as erythrocephala , as they are similar to the form resident

in most of peninsular India.

Roonwal (1941, Rec. Ind. Mus , 43 : 332) groups birds with dark

grey undertail coverts from Manbhum and Ranchi in Bihar, Kendrapara

in Orissa, and others from further south and east as agricola and goes on

to quote Stuart Baker (5 : 231) that agricola straggles as far south-west

as Mahableshwar ; he makes no reference to erythrocephala. A series

obtained in 1966 by Salim Ali in Bhutan is very similar to group (a)

above. There is apparently no record supported by a specimen of the

variety in group (a) north of the type locality up to the Himalayas, and

there seems to be ground for holding that the name agricola really covers

the ‘ foxy ’ birds now grouped under erythrocephala (1855) and resident

over most of peninsular India. If this is correct, the name agricola

(1833) would take precedence over erythrocephala.

533 Streptopelia orientalis erythrocephala (Bonaparte) (Mysore)

23 : 13c?c? 9?$ 1 o?

2 Bhimashanker, Poona ; 1 Mahableshwar, 1 Helwak, Koyna Valley, Satara ;

I Sirsi, N. Kanara ; 1 Jubbulpore, 1 Balaghat ; 2 Antagarh, 2 Darbha, 2

Chota Dongar, 1 Kameli, 1 Barsur, Bastar ; 1 Bhanuprattapur, 1 Lohatter,

Ranker ; 3 Koira, 2 Badrawa, 1 Kuldiha, Nilgiri, Orissa.

These birds (collected October to February) are distinguished from

the others by their dark grey undertail coverts, darker rufous above and

below, and the absence of white on the lower belly. The amount of

rufous on the forehead is variable, being tinged with grey or even having

the foremost one-third of the head pure grey (Sp. 19153, $ testes :

20x10 mm., Ranker, M.P.). Nine of them with underparts slightly

darker than in the others include 7 males, 5 of them with developed

gonads, and 2 females. The paler birds, which also include breeding

males and females, may possibly represent a first year plumage.

A male and a female (Nos. 19158 and 19167), marked juvenile by the

collector (Salim Ali) can be distinguished by their slightly paler upper-

parts and the rufous edges to the tips of the primaries.

Nos. 19151 (Jubbulpore 19 February), 1 2970 (Sonawain 28 December),

and 19172 (Bhimashanker, Poona 21 October) are peculiar in having

pale grey or almost white undertail coverts, but differ from meena in the

absence of white on the lower belly.

Under agricola I have referred to the possibility of the specimens

marked as of this subspecies being in fact the form described earlier as

agricola , and I have spent considerable time examining and trying to sort

out the differences between the specimens of this species available to me.

There is still much that is not clear, and I am certainly not in a position

to explain Davidson’s ( JBNHS 5 : 330) shooting of specimens, right-and-

left, one with white and the other with grey undertail coverts, and Barnes’s

[159]

148 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (1)

addition to this notes : 4 1 have shot moulting birds with the new under-

tail coverts white, and the old ones grey \ A more elaborate explanation

than possible in "the process of cataloguing the collection is necessary

and so I am leaving the present distribution under the subspecies un-

disturbed.

534 Streptopelia decaocto decaocto (Frivaldszky) (India, based on

a pale domesticated bird) 5 : 248

38: 18c£ <2 17$$ 3 o ? (1* albino $)

1 Baghdad ; 1 Fao, 2 Persian Gulf ; 1 Shustar, 1 Duzdab , Persia ; 1 Shadad,

72 m. south of Kalat, 1 Muradkhan, 2 Dandar (W. Kolwa), 2 Sib, 1 Rohtak

R., Baluchistan ; 2 Chitral, 1 Sarorogha, N.W.F.P. ; 1 Simla, 1 Keonthal ;

1 Bahawalpur ; 1 Garo, Sind ; 2 Bharatpur ; 1 Gwalior ; 1 Gir, 1 Ahmedabad,

1 Dabka, Baroda ; 3 Kalyan, Thana ; 1 Rewas, Kolaba ; 1* Jalna, Auranga-

bad ; 2 Satara ; 1 Bastar, M.P. ; 1 Meerut, 1 Garhwal, U.P. ; 1 Kashgar ;

1 Bhuzawani?

Four (2 (Jc2 1 $ 1 o ?) from Duzdab, Sib (2), and Kalat collected

in September/October are noticeably paler above, have the neck-rings

brownish, and are also slightly smaller (wings 159, 162, 151, 154 ; tails

117, 122, 113, 106), and are probably juveniles.

Fresh specimens of both sexes appear greyer and less brown than the

older ones, while the males have greyer heads than the females, most of

which are pale brown all over.

Wing Bill

159-175 av. 167 15-17 av. 15.9

$$ 151-180 av. 162*5 15-16

(<2$ 158-169 16-18

Tarsus

20-22 av. 21.2

20-22 av. 20*9

23-26

Tail

115-139 av. 128

113-133 av. 124

117-140)

535 Streptopelia tranquebarica tranquebarica (Hermann) (Tranque-

barica) Indian Red Turtle-Dove 5 : 250

9: 8<2c2 1$ (in male plumage)

1 Dhirpur, 1 Ambala, Punjab ; 1 Bharatpur, Rajasthan ; 1 Kalyan, Thana ;

1 Panvel, Kolaba ; 2 Poona ; 1 Bulandshar, 1 Cawnpur, U.P.

It is curious that there is only female specimen, and that in male

plumage. The measurements are included under the next form.

536 Streptopelia tranquebarica humilis (Temminck) (Bengal and

Luzon) Burmese Red Turtle-Dove 5 : 251

10 : 4<2c2 6$$ (1 juvenile*)

1 Long Island, 1 Bakultala, Middle Andamans ; 1 Wrightmyo, 1 Ferrarganj,

2 South Andamans ; 1* Mirpur, Bengal ; 1 May my o, 1 Prome , 1 Henzada,

Burma .

[ 160]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT , HIST . SOCIETY COLLECTION - 8 149

Wing

tranquebarica

33 132-144 av. 137*8

$ 138

humilis

33 137, 137, 139, 146

$? 134-143 av. 138*4

(ih c?$ 136-145

Bill

13-15 av. 13*7

14

14(3), 15

13, 14(2), 15(2)

from skull

16-19

Tarsus

17-19 av. 18-3

18

19(2), 20(2)

17, 18(2), 19(2)

17-21

Tail

77- 89 av. 83-3

84

83, 84(2), 88

78- 84 av. 81*6

84-92)

In my Andaman report ( JBNHS 61 : 527), I have already referred to

females of both races in male plumage and to the difficulty of under-

standing, with the material available, the sequences of plumage of this

species.

537 Streptopelia chinensis suratensis (Gmelin) (Surat, Gulf of Cambay)

Indian Spotted Dove 5 : 242

44 : 25 18?$ lo? (2 juveniles)

1 Chitral, N.W.F.P. ; 1 Kishtwar, Kashmir ; 1 Keonthal State, 3 Simla ; 1

Nadiad, Gujarat ; 2 Mumbra, 1 Kalyan, Thana ; 1 Andheri, 1 Powai Lake,

1 Santa Cruz, Bombay ; 1 Panvel, 2 Pen, 1 Apte, Kolaba ; 1 Santyal,

Kanara ; 1 Udipi, Mysore; 1 Nilambur Valley, Kerala; 1 Shevaroy Hills,

1 Chitteri Range, S. Arcot ; 1 Koira, 2 Konta, 1 Bijapur, Bastar, 4 Bhanu-

prattapur, Kanker ; 1 Barkot, 1 Keongarh. Orissa ; 1 Patharghatta, Bihar;

1 Meerut, 1 Almora, 1 Naini Tal, 1 Gharwal ; 1 Rongi Valley, Sikkim ;

1 Cherali, Nakacheri, Naga Hills, 1 Margherita, 1 Lohit Valley ; 3 Dimapur,

Manipur.

There is a wide range of variation in the number and colour of the

spots and the general intensity of the colour of the upper parts, but except

for a dimunition in size from north to south it is not possible to associate

any of these differences with sex, season, age, or locality. Those from

Bastar, Kanker, and Orissa appear to have heavier bills and are in series

darker above, and lack the spots on the back, showing a similarity to

those from the north-east, the tendency continuing and merging with

tigrina of Burma (q.v.). The Assam specimens are of different shades

of colour but there are none which I can separate as edwardi or tigrina ,

and I am leaving all from Indian limits as suratensis .

The collection contains only one juvenile No. 19185 3 wing 132, tail

110 Kanker, in which the upperparts and wing coverts are edged with

rufous resembling orientalis rather than this species. Another (No.

12979 $ Nilambur Valley wing 119, tail 100) appears to be juvenile, but

already has the spotted pattern on the neck. In addition the upperparts

are unevenly marked with white, indicating an aberrant plumage.

Goodwin (1959), in 4 Some Colour Varieties of Wild Pigeons ’ (Bull.

B.O.C . 79 : 3-9) refers to an unsexed female of this species at the British

Museum (N.H.) being marked with silvery grey. In his note he draws

attention to the fact that such deviations from the norm are only found

in females.

[161]

150 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 68 (!)

Wing Bill

AS 127-149 av. 139 14-17 av. 15*5

(ih 135-146

$? 128-146 av. 136 15-17 av. 15*8

(ih 132-143

Tarsus

18-23 av. 20*5

21-24

20-22 av. 20-3

20-24

Tail

106 (next 118)-143

av. 133

118-143)

122-129 av. 127

117-133)

tigrina

AS 138, 141, 142, 146 14, 16, 16, 17

? 146 15

(cJ? 137-155

20, 21, 22, 23 128, 134, 136, 137

23 144

..)

538 Streptopelia chinensis ceylonensis (Riechenbach) (Ceylon) Ceylon

Spotted Dove 5 : 245

1 o ? Ceylon

Wing 129 (123-129 ; ih 128-136); Tail 129 (<? 114-132 ; $ 118-127)

The wing measurements in Stuart Baker are smaller than those quoted

from Whistler in ih 3, p. 154. In the latter, the key requiring a wing

under 130 mm. is not in keeping with the measurements cited (128-136).

539 Streptopelia chinensis tigrina (Temminck) (Java) Burmese

Spotted Dove 5 : 244

6 : \A 4$$ 1 o?

2 Da Lu, Chindwiti R., 1 Pakoku ; 1 Khayauk , Thayetmyo Dist. ; 1 Prome Dist. ;

1 3-Stockade (collected by Linching) ?

As explained under 537, these birds have been arbitrarily separated

on geographical grounds. The birds from 3-Stockade and Pakoku

District have spots on their upperparts and may be included with those

from India. The two from Da Lu, bearing the labels of the Vernay-

Hopwood Chindwin Expedition, are dark above with black centres to the

feathers and no buff or white spots.

540 Streptopelia chinensis edwardi Ripley (Chabua, Lakhimpur Dist.,

NE. Assam.) NEFA Spotted Dove

nil.

After these notes were completed, I was able to examine through the

courtesy of Dr. Ripley and the U.S. National Museum four female

specimens of edwardi from Chabua (3) and Nangpoh, Garo Hills (1).

The upperparts of two from Chabua are darker than in any of the

others, but the other two are spotted above and may well be included

with the series of suratensis , except that all four have almost pure grey

heads with none of the vinous tinge invariably present in suratensis.

The specimens of edwardi do not show spots of “ darker buff” as stated

in ind. handbook. The measurements also average slightly larger.

Wing Tail

138, 141, 146, 147 126, 133 (2), 135

[162]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION- -8 151

A larger series from Burma and north-east India needs to be

compared with topotypes of tigrina to determine the distribution of

these races.

541 Streptopelia senegalensis cambayensis (Gmelin) (Gulf of

Cambay), Indian Little Brown Dove 5 : 246

28 : 20dc? 8$? (1 missing)

2 Quetta, 2 Karak, Baluchistan ; 1 Chitral, 1 Jandola, N.W.F.P. ; 1 Bhajji,

H.P. ; 1 Ambala ; 2 Bharatpur ; 1 Kutch ; 1 Cambay, 1 Bhavnagar ; 1 Ghoti,

Nasik, 1 Kalyan, 5 Belapur, Thana ; 1 Cumbala Hill, Bombay ; 1 Nagotna,

Kolaba ; 1 Panchgani, 1 Satara ; 1 Cumbum Valley, Kurnool ; 2 Hoshan-

gabad, M.P. ; 1 Bulandshar, U.P,

Old skins are browner than fresh ones.

The birds measure :

Wing Bill

dd 120-139 av. 129 13-17 av. 15*2

(ih 121-137 From skull

17-19

$? 123-130 av. 126-5 13-16 av. 15*1

(ih 124-134 From skull 17-19

Tarsus

17- 22 av. 18-7

18- 22

17-18 av. 17-1

20-21

Tail

103- 126 av. 116

107-119)

104- 116 av. 107-8

104-113)

The northern birds average slightly larger than the southern.

542 Chalcophaps indica indica (Linnaeus) (Amboina) Indian

Emerald Dove 5 : 215

18 : 9dd 6?$ 3 o ?

2 Simla ; 1 Mahal, Surat Dangs ; 1 Anshai Ghat, 1 Santgal, N. Kanara ; 2

Shembaganoor, 1 Palni Foothills, 1 Manalur, Palni Hills, 1* Tenmalai,

S. Travancore; 1 Lamasinghi, Vizagapatam ; 1 Berbera, Puri; 1 Hazaria,

Patharghatta, Bihar ; 1 Chang Chang Pani, 1 Margherita, Assam ; 1 My it-

kyina, 2 Singha Ling, Burma.

Two marked females (Patharghatta, Bihar, and Margherita, Assam)

have a little white on the forehead, the one from Assam further resembling

the male in being greyish- vinous and less brown on the underparts.

The type specimen* of C. indica salimalii Mukherjee, from Tenmalai,

Central Travancore, has the grey of the nape connected by a narrow

median line with the grey on the upper back, presumably resembling

robinsoni Baker, from Ceylon. Salimalii is not now recognised.

Measurements are under 544.

543 Chalcophaps indica robinsoni Baker (Cocawatte Estate, Ceylon)

Ceylon Emerald Dove 5 : 214

nil.

544 Chalcophaps indica maxima Hartert (Golapabung, South

Andamans)

6:4dd 2$$

2 Wrightmyo, 1 Bakultala, 1 Chirria Tapu, S. Andamans; l Car Nicobar ;

1 Camorta, Central Nicobars.

[163

152 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 68 (1)

Only two males, one each from South Andamans and Car Nicobar,

have been added to the collection after my notes on Nicobar birds

( JBNHS 64, p. 168). The former (wing 154, tail 98) confirms the diffi-

culty of separating maxima by size, while the latter, a poor skin, has a

large 159 mm. wing, and 95 mm. tail.

Wing Tail

Nominate 141-156 av. 147*7 85-98 av. 93

(ih 147-156

maxima <$ 150, 154, 154

(Hartert 157-164)

Nominate $ 140-149 av. 143*5

93-100)

88, 96, 98

83-98 av. 90

maxima $

Camorta $

(ih 147-149

148

148

89-91)

90

83

Subject to the remarks in the abovementioned paper, I am leaving

the Camorta specimen with maxima .

544a Calaenas nicobarica nicobarica Linnaeus (Nicobar Islands)

Nicobar Pigeon 5 : 213

7 : 3$$ 2o? (1* chick in spirit)

1 North Reef Island ; 1 Mannarghat, 2 South Sentinel Island, Andamans ;

3* Battye Malve, south of Car Nicobar.

Wing Bill Tarsus Tail

<?<? 240, 255 24, 25 38, 41 88, 90

$? 245, 265 25, 25, 25 37, 38, 41 88, 89, 94

A <J and a $ obtained on South Sentinel Island on 16 and 15 March

1969 respectively are identical, both being brilliantly green above and with

the hackles longer in the female. The other two females from Battye

Malve are not so brilliantly green, but this may be due either to the fact

that they are both poorly preserved or that they represent an intermediate

plumage.

The reference to a slaty grey pigeon in ind. handbook appears to be

in error.

The claws in the preserved specimens are all pale coloured, almost

white.

(i to be continued)

[164]

The nesting of Pareumenes

brevirostratus (Saussure), involving

a primitive form of co-operation

BY

S. D. Jayakar1 and H. Spurway2

Genetics and Biometry Laboratory , Government of Orissa,

Bhubaneswar-3, Orissa, India

Pareumenes brevirostratus is a squatter species practising mass provision,

ing. The only individual watched provisioned with pyralid prey, and all her

offspring entered diapause, one for two seasons. While working she was

disturbed by individuals of Rhynchium brunncum and R. carnaticum. Some of

the mutual reactions of these wasps may simulate the early stages of social

behaviour in some hymenoptera.

Introduction

We know no description of the breeding biology of any3 member of

the genus Pareumenes Saussure, certainly none for the present species,

for which van der Vecht (1963, p. 19) gives the bibliography, and a

reappraisal.

We are presenting the one diary which we have collected. This must

be exceptional for the species considered but reveals capabilities of the

solitary vespoids which suggest speculation on the origin of social

behaviour.

Members of the 4 vespoid families referred to have been identified by

Dr. J. van der Vecht of Leiden, Dr. K. Iwata of Sasayama has examined

the lepidopteran larvae used as prey, and Dr. M. Chujo of Takamatsu

has identified the parasitic beetle. We are extremely grateful to these

authorities for their help.

The Nest Boxes

Nest boxes were narrow strips of wood each numbered by an arabic

figure hung up on walls and vertical fitments of our house in Bhubaneswar.

In these had been bored a single row of short horizontal blind tunnels

/ 1 Laboratorio di Genctica Biochimica ed Evoluzionistica,

Present address : ( Pavia, Italy.

\ 2 Habshiguda 16, Hyderabad-7, A.P., India.

3 Pseumenes depressus (Saussure) whose habits are described by Iwata (1964) who

also refers to the previous literature, has in some of this, been regarded as a species

of Pareumenes (van der Vecht 1963, p. 21).

154 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (l)

numbered in roman figures from top to bottom. The circumference of

one tunnel was about 1 '75 cm, distant from those adjacent to it. In any

one strip all the tunnels were one length but of two diameters. As

they were bored with tools calibrated to 1/16" (T6 mm.) this is the

unit used in Table 1 which gives the diameters of the tunnels, their hori-

zontal lengths and the locations of the three nest boxes referred to in this

paper. A tunnel is referred to by the two numbers given above e.g. 7.XV

and the wasp cell built in it is referred to by the same double number

preceded by the initials of its mother’s taxonomic name and her serial

number.

Table 1

all measurements in 1/16" or 1*6 mm.

The behaviour of one female ; P.bA

On 12/9/1964, first noticed at 10.45, a long petiolate russet and yellow

vespoid later identified by her offspring as a member of Pareumenes

brevirostratus (Saussure), surprised us by working for 12 minutes cleaning

two of the empty cells of the giant nest of Eumenes emarginatus conoideus

(Gmelin) E.e.c. 10, on which we have previously published (Jayakar &

Spurway 1965). We were unaware that wasps of this body form, which is

sometimes described as an adaptation to oviposition in a small mouthed

pot, could have squatter habits. Next day (13/9) a similar wasp (now,

knowing the rarity of the species, presumed to be the same individual)

was seen in the same area.

NESTING OF PAREUMENES BREVIROSTRATUS

155

No wasp of this species was seen again until 18/9 when in the morning

one (she ?) was seen flying round electric wiring fitments indoors, and at

15.12 she was seen feeling inside tunnel l.VI. When she left it was found

that at the blind end of this tunnel there was suspended a eumenid egg of

about the size laid by some species of Rhynchium Spinola. No individual

belonging to Rhynchium has used any tunnels in this nest box before or

since. This is interpreted as being because they are too small. At the

time described, nest box 1 was empty and no other wasp used it before

she deserted it.

She did not pernoctate (Jayakar & Spurway 1966) in this tunnel but

on 19/9 was seen feeling tunnels l.VI, 1 .II and l.IV as early as 07*32.

She provisioned tunnel 1 .II and had sealed it by 09*45 ; at 09*54 she had

returned to seal l.VI and at 10.02 she was again working on 1 .II. 1 .II

must have contained an egg with adequate provisions because the indi-

vidual by which the species has subsequently been identified, emerged

from it. At 11.39 the wasp was captured etherised and a spot of yellow

enamel paint was applied to the thorax. From this time therefore the

identity of P.bA was established.

l.VI was subsequently reopened by an Antodynerus flavescens

(Fabricius), A.f. 32 on 26/9/1964. As this female had simultaneously

opened a cell in 1.1 which she herself had provisioned and sealed on 24/9

we do not know from which came the many prey dropped on the floor.

On 20/9, P.b.l once more investigated nest box 1, and 2 hours later

had returned to the verandah and the large deserted nest of E.e.c.lQ.

She was not seen again for 13 days when on 3/10 she was found, still

painted, investigating nest box 7 on the same verandah and On a similar

window shutter to E.e.cAO. An egg was seen in 7. VII.

On 4/10 this egg was absent. P.bA returned and worked on 7. VII

for over two hours, occasionally investigating and entering 6. Ill a few

metres away and in a similar position. During this time it was

established both that she spent much time in the tunnel facing out as do

the inconspicuously petiolate squatters of the genera Rhynchium and

Antodynerus Saussure, and Subancistrocerus sichelii (Saussure), and also

if the tunnel has a sufficiently large diameter she could, like these, enter

it head first and turn round inside. As with the other squatters the egg

was laid suspended during one of these periods and first seen again in

7. VII at 10.07. This egg was provisioned with a species of green glassy

caterpillar which becomes yellowish when preserved in alcohol. By

17.16 this cell was sealed, the lid being 10 mm. within the tunnel, and its

contents were thus called P.bA, 7.VII.1. It was hoped that another

egg 7.VII.2 would be laid and provisioned distal to this diaphragm. P.bA

did not pernoctate where we could observe her.

During 4/10 a Rhynchium brunneum (Fabricius) R.bA had begun

working on nest box 7, sealing 7.XIV with 2 separate diaphragms, after

156 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY , Fo/. 68 (1)

which she too was marked ; she sealed 7,1 V (details of sealing unknown),

and oviposited and provided two prey in 7. II, but did not pernoctate in

it. This is exceptional for individuals of this species of Rhynchium.

It was noticed that R.bA was provisioning with the same species of

prey as P.b. 1. This has been confirmed by Professor Iwata who informs

us that this is a species of pyralid moth, but because the early stages of so

many Indian lepidoptera are undescribed, he is unable to classify it

further.

On 5/10, R.bA continued provisioning 7.II and sealed it just before

9 o’clock. Though the tunnel only contained one offspring she made

two discrete lids with a space of over 1 mm. between them. The second

lid, often made by these Rhynchium are more granular than the first, and

these granulations are usually spread in ribbons around the mouths of the

tunnels over the wooden surface of the nest box. In texture, as

in timing, these second lids are convincingly comparable with the crepis-

sage of the pot building Eumenes Latreille (Jayakar & Spurway 1965).

At 09.28, R.bA felt 7.IV and entered 7.V, but 5 minutes later she arrived

with mud and after feeling 7.V and 7.VI she began making a diaphragm

level with the surface over the mouth of 7. VII which P.6.1 had sealed 10 mm.

within the tunnel the previous afternoon. Four minutes later, when

R.bA was next seen to arrive with mud, P.b A was present on 7. VII ;

R.bA walked up to 7.V but immediately returned to 7. VII and P.b A

made way for her. R.bA began working the mud into the incomplete

diaphragm over 7. VII ; P.b A attacked her. Both wasps pecked at each

other with their mandibles and both flew away at 09.38. We did not see

P.b A again on 5/10, but R.bA finished the second lid on 7. VII and put

on the crepissage ribbons. She immediately began working in tunnel

7.IX at 10.10 arriving with mud which she put in 7.IX and then turned

round in the tunnel into the ovipositional position. At 10.22 she was

again seen in 7.IX and at 10.46 she was absent and an egg was present

in 7.IX. The deposit behind this egg at the bottom of the tunnel was

unexpectedly white. These times are given in detail because they led us

to believe that the egg in 7.IX had been laid by R.bA. Very few eggs in

our records of all species except those of females watched continuously,

are associated with their putative mothers by a closer sequence of obser-

vations. However, though this egg did not produce an imago we became

subsequently convinced that the larva recovered from this cell had come

from an egg laid by P.b A. R.bA was not seen again on 5/10 but one

pyralid larva was found added to 7.IX by 13.40, but no more during the

afternoon.

On 6/10 by 07.53, 2 larvae were present in 7.IX, at 08.08 P.b A was

seen inserting a larva, and 2 more were added before 09.17. At this

time R.bA arrived also carrying a similar larva, landed on 7.1X and

immediately threw her larva away so that it fell from her at an angle-

NESTING OF PAREUMENES B R E V I ROSTR AT U S

157

R.bA then removed the 5 larvae in tunnel 7.IX flying with each in turn

to drop it several metres from the nest box. The egg alone was left in

7.IX, again, and incorrectly, confirming the previous diagnosis that it

had been laid by R.bA. At 10.29 P.b.l began reinserting fresh larvae

into 7.IX, and 3 were again found on the verandah at 12.52, the egg

being once more left alone.

At 13.44 there was once more a larva in 7.IX and at 13.46

P.b.l brought mud, went to nest box 6, flew to 7, and found 7. IX, but

after entering it returned to the garden still carrying the mud with her.

It was now noticed that the egg had hatched and the larva was hanging

from the shell so that it touched the prey on the floor of the relatively

enormous tunnel. Between 14.00 and 14.16 P.b.l was seen bringing

3 loads of mud, with the last she remained inside until 14.23, working on

a diaphragm deep in the tunnel.

Meanwhile, at 14.18, R.bA arrived with a larva. After hovering

near 7.IX she left with the larva and returned 3 minutes later without a

load. She then walked all over nest box 7 entering and feeling 7. XII

and 7.XIII but always pausing near 7.IX. She was hovering when

P.b.l came out and stood over 7. IX before flying for a moment to return

and feel the rim of 7.IX. When P.b.l left we saw that the diaphragm

within 7. IX was newly completed. The next load of mud was brought

at 14.29. This was brought by R.bA who added it to the diaphragm made

by P.b.l.

R.bA brought 6 more loads of mud during the afternoon, and though

with the first she entered 7. IX, she put it down on 7.XIV, with the second

she again flew to 7.IX, but only hovered over it, and continued adding

to the crepissage of 7.XIV. During this work she was continually feel-

ing other tunnels, the typical behaviour when a cell has been completed

and a new tunnel is being selected. She laid in 7.XIII and returned

through heavy rain to typically pernoctate in it. P.b.l meanwhile

brought a load of mud and after feeling her previous diaphragm to which

R.bA had contributed , began with this load a second diaphragm at the

mouth of the tunnel. To this she added 4 more loads during the after-

noon. During this she was several times attacked by a Rhynchium

carnaticum (Fabricius), R.c.5, who at 15.14 had begun investigation of

7.V.

Thus on 6/10 both P.b.l and R.bA worked mud in tunnel 7.IX, and

though P.b.l alone was seen inserting prey, no other cell was open to

receive the larvae brought by R.bA at 09.17 and 14.18, and it is difficult

not to assume that they too were intended for 7. IX.

On 7/10, R.bA continued work on 7.XI1I, R.c.5 on 7.V, and P.b.l

after feeling the lid of 7.IX spent many hours examining tunnels 7.XII

and 7.XI. P.b.l and R.bA buzzed round one another many times sti-

mulating each other to cease work and fly. R.bA sealed 7.XIII and began

158 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Fo/. 68 (1)

examining 7.XII and 7.XI herself. This produced much more definite

aggressive behaviour, especially by R.bA. R.bA for some time left the

nest box to examine a piece of bamboo. Between 13.25 and 13.27, an

exceptionally short interval, P.b.l laid an egg in 7.XI and brought the

first prey for it at 13.37. R.bA at 14.00 was in 7.XII facing out i.e. she

might be assumed to be ovipositing. She was disturbed by an Antody -

nerus flavescens on the surface of the nest box. She walked out of tunnel

7.XII and very slowly, while feeling the surface of the nest box, walked

up to 7.XI, removed and dropped the prey from 7.XI, and returned to

7.XII. This she did not re-enter backwards until after much feeling of

the tunnel with her antennae and hovering over it. R.bA laid an egg in

7.XII the same evening and pernoctated in it. At 15.00, P.b.l arrived at

7.XI without a load, worked in it, and then turned round inside it so she

was facing out. She then repeated the curious wriggling which had been

noticed before when she was ovipositing, or had just oviposited. After

53 minutes she walked out, and only 1 egg was seen in tunnel 7.XI.

On 8/10 both P.b.l and R.bA continued provisioning though R.bA

changed her prey. At 11.47 immediately after sealing 7.XIX, R.bA re-

moved 7 larvae from 7.XI and for the first time the egg as well. She

then removed the egg laid by R.c. 5 in 7.V. R.c. 5 immediately laid a new

egg, provisioned and sealed it, and laid another egg in the same tunnel.

Curiously this outer egg, R.c. 5, 7.V.2 metamorphosed successfully, where-

as the inner egg was parasitized by the rhipiphorid beetle Macrosiagon

ferrugineum (Fabricius). R.bA then inspected nest box 6 but finally

transferred her attentions to the nest E.e.c. 10 in which she laid 10 eggs.

P.b.l after examining 7.XI moved to the lid of 7.XII sealed by R.bA

10 minutes previously, from this she took wet mud, and immediately

began a diaphragm 8 mm. deep in the now completely empty 7. XI. She

continued working on this lid 7.XI, fetching mud from the garden for

the next 1| hours. She then disappeared for good. During the 6 days,

3-8/10, 2 individuals of Antodynerus flavescens were also working in nest

box 7, all 17 tunnels of which were sealed by the evening of 8/10.

The offspring

We assume we had three olfspring of P.b.l, namely 1 .11, 7.IX and

7. VII ; all entered diapause, and were removed from the tunnels to corked

glass tubes. l.II, a <J, pupated on 7/7/65 emerged on 20/7 from the pupa

and was killed on 22/7 when he had become active. 7.IX was judged to

have died on 23/7/65, but 7.VII did not die until just before 17/5/66. We

have had only one other larva remain in diapause for 2 seasons, and this

interestingly, but perhaps not significantly, was from the second egg laid

in 1.1 by A.f. 32 on 27/9/64 after she had removed both an egg and pro-

NESTING OF PAREUMENES BREVIROSTRATUS

159

visions of her own from this tunnel, and that laid by P.b.l in l.VI. This

female later squatted in E.e.c. 10 also.

That these larvae diapaused confirms that 7.IX was the offspring of

P.b.l and not R.bA. Five of the offspring of R.bA already described

developed to imagines, and 8 laid by her in E.e.c. 10. These 13 all

emerged the same autumn, the longest preimaginal period being 29 days.

Therefore the larva in 7.IX would not only have been the only member

of the family to diapause, but would have had both older and younger

sibs that did not.

Discussion

Despite the bizarreness of this single history, there can be little doubt

that despite its body shape Pareumenes brevirostratus is a typical squatter

practising mass provisioning. It also competes with the sibling species

Rhynchium brunneum and R. carnaticum for nest sites, and with the former

at least for prey. We have not yet recognised the ecological differences

which, according to Gause’s principle (see e.g. Lack 1966), must be ex-

pected between these two morphologically similar species of Rhynchium .

In a so-called domestic, environment, this individual of P. breviros-

tratus was a slower worker than the individual of R. brunneum

with which she competed, but wasps vary much, even the same indi-

vidual at different periods of their lives, in their speed of work (Jayakar

& Spurway 1965). Also, in this history, though the brunneum des-

troyed more of the effort of the brevirostratus than vice versa, more of the

effort of the brunneum effectively contributed to the care of the breviros-

tratus offspring than vice versa.

The repeated removal of prey brought by the brevirostratus by the

brunneum was not a simple example of the extreme sensitivity of solitary

vespoids to alien handling of their prey (Roubaud 1916), for this prey

was removed by the brunneum from the brevirostratus eggs. This pro-

bably was because the prey brought by the brevirostratus was of the same

species as that which brunneum was, at that time, collecting, probably

for the same egg. If the prey had been of a different species she might

not have been disturbed by the alien wasp smell on it because she would

not have interpreted this as interference with her own work.

Most important is that though such wasps resent so strongly an alien

smell on prey, they have no such reaction to an alien smell on mud,

though the gastric secretion with which this mud is mixed would be

expected to be vivid, especially before it had dried.

One of the suggestions for an origin of the co-operation shown by the

social hymenoptera is that they might be descended from species whose

solitary nests were constructed in aggregates. They might sometimes

have worked on each other’s constructs because these incomplete con-

160 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Po/. 68 (1)

structs, independently of the builder, provided the releasers to evoke the

relevant behaviour. We have previously described (1963) how the

sphecoid Chalybion bengalense (Dahlbom) is stimulated to deposit her

faecal crepissage on the naked mud lids of Antodynerus flavescens. The

present history records how similar effective co-operation may be sti-

mulated while the work is in progress. This co-operation was not only

performed by one animal, but accepted by the other, in a context where

much mutual destruction of work also occurred, and where all reactions

by the 2 wasps to each other, face to face, were aggressive.

As may have been implicit already, during the period considered

these nest boxes provided baits, producing an artificial concentration of

individual wasps in an environment in which the boxes themselves pro-

vided a somewhat unnatural, or experimental, feature.

References

Lack, D. (1966) : Population Studies

of Birds. Clarendon Press, Oxford.

Iwata, K. (1964) : Bionomics of non-

social wasps in Thailand. Nature and

Life in Southeast Asia III : 323-383.

Jayakar, S. D. & Spurway, H. (1963) :

Use of vertebrate faeces by the Sphecoid

wasp Chalybion bengalense Dahlb. J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 60 : 747-748.

(1965) : Normal and ab-

normal nests of Eumenes emarginatus

conoideus (Gmelin) including notes on

crepissage in this and other members of

the genus, ibid. 62 : 193-200.

— — (1966) : Re-use of Cells and

Brother-Sister Mating in Stenodynerus

miniatus (Sauss.) (Vespidae : Eumeninae).

ibid. 63 : 378-398.

Roubaud, £. (1916) : Recherches.

Biologiques surles Gugpes Solitaires et

Sociales d’Afrique. — La Genese de la

Vie Sociale et l’Evolution de P Instinct

Maternel chez les Vespides. Annales

des Sciences Nature lies (Zoologie) Ser.

X, 1, 1-160.

Vecht, J. van der (1963) : Studies on

Indo-Australian and East Asiatic

Eumenidae (Hymenoptera, Vespoidea).

Zool. Verb. Leiden. 60: 1-116.

Triops granarius (Lucas) (Crustacea:

Branchiopoda) from Tamil Nadu,

and a Review of the Species

from India

BY

P. J. Sanjeeva Raj

Department of Zoology , Madras Christian College ,

Tambaram , Madras-59

{With two text-figures)

Introduction

Specimens of the Notostracan genus Triops Schrank ( Apus Schaeffer),

have been reported from time to time, from isolated localities in India and

have been described under different specific names. This genus is

notorious for its intraspecific morphological variations so that some

times, the same species from a different locality, or juveniles of the same

species, have been described under different specific names, adding to the

taxonomic confusion within the genus.

Packard (1871) was the first to record from India, two specimens of

Triops {Apus) from a stagnant pool on the Himalayas and assigned them

to the species himalayanus. Walton (1911) subsequently reported Triops

{Apus) from Bulandshahr District, United Provinces and indicated their

resemblance to Triops {Apus) cancriformis (Bose). Kemp (1911) sur-

veying the records of Triops {Apus) in eastern Asia, pointed out that Major

Walton’s specimens from the United Provinces and his own from Kashmir

were identical with Triops {Apus) cancriformis (Bose) and indicated that

Packard’s Triops {Apus) himalayanus is perhaps not distinct from Triops

{Apus) cancriformis (Bose), with which view Gurney (1925) agreed.

Besides reporting Triops {Apus) cancriformis (Bose) from Kashmir,

Gurney (1925) described Triops {Apus) asiaticus from Panchgani in

Bombay State. Triops {Apus) asiaticus was only a nomen novo reluc-

tantly introduced by Gurney (1921) for specimens of Triops {Apus) gra-

narius from Baghdad. Since these and similar ones from the Chingham

Mountains in Central Asia described by Sars (1901) were thought to be

different from Triops {Apus) granarius (Lucas) from Africa, Gurney

11

162 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (1)

resorted to this new specific name. Tiwari (1951) in turn, considering the

Panchgani forms to be not identical with the Central Asian forms of

Triops ( Apus ) asiaticus of Gurney, described the Panchgani forms as

Triops (Apus) orientalis and the juvenile forms of the same species from

Mavli in Rajasthan, as Triops {Apus) mavliensis. Longhurst (1955),

however, in his exhaustive revision of the genus, synonymised Triops

(Apus) orientalis and Triops (Apus) mavliensis with Triops (Apus) gra -

narius (Lucas). Shanbhag & Inamdar (1968) basing on collections from

Port Okha (Gujarat), maintain that Triops (Apus) mavliensis (Tiwari)

is a valid species, but I feel that the armature of the telson falls within

the range of intraspecific variations described by Longhurst (loc. cit.)

for Triops granarius (Lucas).

Longhurst (loc. cit.) in his revision of the genera and species of Notos-

traca, remarks graphically, ‘ Individual Notostraca are notoriously

variable and differences in the armature of spines on the exoskeleton, or

in the body proportions can be found in any pair of animals, even those

from the same pool. This together with the lack of morphological dis-

continuities within the genera, makes the group a 6 difficult ’ one syste-

matically, and has resulted in the excessive number of descriptions of

specimens rather than species, with which the synonymies are now bur-

dened.’ Accordingly, he reduced nearly 45 4 species ’ of the genus Triops

(Apus) described in literature to just four species, providing exhaustive

synonymies for each of the valid species and a key for the identification

of the species. He indicated that these four valid species seem to con-

form to four major geographic areas of distribution, with tendencies for

sub-speciation and racial differences within each.

According to this revision, only two species, T. cancriformis (Bose)

and T. granarius (Lucas) occur within the limits of India, the former in

northern localities like the Himalayas, Kashmir, United Provinces and

Gujarat and the latter in the rest of India from Panchgani in Maha-

rashtra State to the southernmost part of India.

Subsequently, Tiwari (1955) provided additional information on

the sex-ratio and apodous segments, Pai (1958) described the post-

embryonic stages, and Karande & Inamdar (1959) analysed the taxonomic

characters of Triops (Apus) granarius from Panchgani.

Chacko (1950) reported on the occurrence of a single male of Triops

(Apus) sudanicus Brauer from Nagasunni Temple Tank in the Tirunelveli

District of the Madras State and Tiwari (1951) described it in detail under

the same specific name. Longhurst (loc. cit.) however, has not con-

sidered it in his revision, perhaps owing to lack of material. Since the

present collection of a large number of males and females are from the

same district and since the descriptions of Chacko (loc. cit.) and Tiwari

(1951) agree with the present material, with due allowances for

intraspecific variations, it is believed that Triops (Apus) sudanicus of

TRIOPS GRANARIUS FROM INDIA

163

Chacko and Tiwari are synonyms of Triops ( Apus ) granarius (Lucas),

under the present study.

The following taxonomic analysis of T. granarius (Lucas) collected

from the Tirunelveli District in Madras State and the comparison of

these specimens with earlier records of this species from India, are all

based on Longhurst’s (loc. cit.) revision.

During October-November 1965, hundreds of specimens of Triops

from rain water ponds and tanks in villages like Rajagopalpuram and

Perumalpuram around Palayamkottai, in the Tirunelveli District were

collected by Prof. M. H. Martin of St. John’s College, Palayamkottai.

Nearly thirty of them preserved in formalin were sent to me together with

notes on live specimens. Some got accidentally dried up in one vial but

fourteen in the other vials are left in good condition for study. These

specimens were said to occur commonly at other places like Srivaikuntam

in the same district.

Synonymy for Indian records of Triops granarius (Lucas)

1864. Apus granarius Lucas.

1921. Apus asiaticus (nom. nov.) for Apus granarius (Sars) Gurney.

1924. Apus asiaticus Gurney.

1 925 . Apus asiaticus Gurney.

1950. Apus sudanicus Chacko.

1951. Apus orientals Tiwari .

1951. Apus mavliensis Tiwari.

1951. Apus sudanicus Tiwari .

1955. Apus orientalis Tiwari.

1955. Triops granarius Longhur st .

1958. Triops (Apus) granarius Pai.

1959. Triops orientalis Karande and Inamdar.

1968. Triops maviiensis Shanbhag and Inamdar.

Taxonomic analysis

The six male and the eight female specimens in this collection are

mature individuals with eggs in the brood pouches of the females.

Carapace : Since the total length of specimens or the length of

abdomen are so variable, depending on growth differences so common

in the genus Triops , and also dependent on the degree of contraction of

the abdominal segments, measurements of carapace and its parts alone

are given here, because Longhurst (loc. cit.) mentions that the growth of

carapace is isometric and is therefore, a valid measurement of size at all

stages.

164 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (i)

As evident from the dimensions of the carapace, females are larger

than males in this collection. Carapace is oval and about 1/6 longer

Measurements for 14 specimens (six males and eight females) in mm.

than breadth (Fig. 1). Carina is a little over \ the length of carapace,

along its median line. Carina is in the form of a single ridge bearing a

few spines towards its hinder end nearer the sulcus. There is no pro-

minent terminal spine. Sulcus is deeply oval, about 1/3 the breadth

of carapace and about 2/3 as deep as broad. It bears about 43-54 sulcal

spines on its free edge.

Posterior angles of carapace are not drawn out nor its lateral margin

concave at angles. Edge of carapace is finely serrated towards hinder

end and the serration may take the form of minute spines at the hinder-

most part. Carapace bears fine denticles here and there on its dorsal

surface, particularly at its posterior region.

Dorsal organ triangular and is clearly elevated rather than depressed.

Fifth endite of the first pair of thoracic legs is certainly as long as carapace

length, and it may extend slightly beyond the hind end of carapace.

Coloration : Their coloration in live condition according to Prof.

Martin who collected them was, ‘ Carapace translucent greyish-brown

dorsally and orange-red ventrally. Abdomen and appendages also are

orange-red.’ This agrees with the known fact that specimens from

poorly aerated waters have more haemoglobin intensity, giving deep

orange-red colour. Sexual differences in coloration are not quite evident

in this collection.

In the preservative formalin, carapace is translucent-grey along its

lateral edges but opaque olive-green medially. Eyes dark-grey.

Mandibles and other chitinous parts anterior to them are dark-brown.

Appendages are colourless. Abdomen is light-brown and furca

dark-brown.

Abdomen : Abdomen varies in length in the preserved material but

on the average, it is slightly less than \ but decidedly over 1 /3 of the total

length of the body. Total number of movable somites in the body is

about 33-35 in females and 34-37 in males, of which 13-20 in females and

TRIOPS GRANARIUS FROM INDIA

165

15-25 in males are exposed behind the carapace. Number of apodous

segments is on the average, about 6 for females and 9 for males (Table

vide infra). Each abdominal segment has 7-11 spines dorsally and

about the same number ventrally also, but the ventral spines are smaller.

Usually, spines are more in anterior abdominal segments, so that pos-

terior abdominal segments may have just 6-8 spines dorsally. Last

abdominal segment in some cases, may be seen on one side alone, either

dorsally or ventrally.

Frequency of apodous segments in six males and eight females

5 2 ,

$$ 6 3

7 2

8 1

8

1 66 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (1)

Telson : Broader than the last abdominal segment (Fig. 2). Emargi-

nate and bears two to four median spines in a row and three to four very

large posterior marginals in a transverse row, well forward of the

posterior margin. Three setal spines on each side but setae not seen in

any specimen. Margin of telson is spiny laterally, with four to six more

spines interior to the margin. Furcal spines two to three in number are

very prominent. Ventrally, telson bears numerous small denticles along

the lateral, posterior and median regions.

Triops granarius (Lucas)

Fig. 2. Telson

Furca : Longer than carapace length. Basal joints bear scales and

bristles but distal joints bear bristles alone.

A male and a female of these specimens have been incorporated in the

National Zoological Collections with the Registration No. C 4791/1.

Observations on live animals

The following notes on live specimens, is compiled from information

kindly provided by Prof. M. H. Martin who has collected and kept these

animals alive in his laboratory for some days.

Triops granarius is noted to occur in temporary ponds alone, just after

the first rains of the northeast monsoon, obviously hatching out of the

resistant dormant eggs, deposited in the mud prior to the drought season.

They are abundant, just for a short time and dwindle down fast in

numbers, so that by the end of November, practically none of them can

be seen in the ponds.

They swim on their backs as the Common Fairy Shrimp, Strepto -

cephalus , perhaps feeding about and they can occasionally swim in normal

posture also. In the laboratory, specimens of Triops granarius were kept

TRIOPS GRANAR1US FROM INDIA

167

alive for two or three days when they were found to feed on Strepto-

cephalus, which seems to be their chief food and occasionally, they seem

to feed on dead ones of their own kind also. During the day time, they

seem to congregate in deeper ditches of the ponds, where Streptocephalus

abounds. Quite often in the laboratory, they were found to chase each

other. Whether this is a courting habit or a cannibalistic habit, is not

certain. However, Triops granarius is described by Karande & Inamdar

(1959) to have cannibalistic tendencies.

In the aquarium, when they touch the bottom as they swim about,

they turn on to their belly and can crawl fast on the floor, by their appen-

dages. Egg-laying was noticed in the aquarium when they dig the

bottom mud with their appendages, deposit eggs and cover them up with

loose mud, with the aid of the very same appendages.

Discussion

Males and females in this collection, unlike those of T. cancriformis

(Bose) are roughly equal in number. Since males in this lot are smaller

in size, they may not outnumber the females. However, Karande &

Inamdar (loc. cit.) and Shanbhag & Inamdar (loc. cit.) have reported

that females outnumber males in this species but Tiwari (1955) noted

more and larger males. It may be inferred that T. granarius may show

variability in the sex-ratio depending on season and locality.

In the present collection, the dorsal organ is not oval as described by

Tiwari (1951) for Triops ( Apus ) sudanicus but is triangular and elevated.

As Barnard (1931), while assessing the characters of taxonomic impor-

tance in Triops says, ‘ The essential differences lie not in the shape of the

pellucid area so much as in the shape and position of the raised area as

seen in profile.’

Exposed segments show a wide variation in number in this lot of

specimens also, as in the descriptions by Karande & Inamdar (loc. cit.).

The number of apodous segments is fairly constant in all individuals of

any one sample described in the past, and in the present lot the number is

smaller than what is described for this species by Tiwari (1955) and by

Shanbhag & Inamdar (loc. cit.), but certainly fall within the wide range of

variations assigned to this species by Longhurst (loc. cit.).

The present lot of Triops from the Palayamkottai region resembles

more closely the descriptions of the single male collected and described as

Apus sudanicus by Chacko (loc. cit.) and Tiwari (1951). They also agree

with Apus mavliensis with regard to the exposed abdominal segments

and the apodous segments but seem to differ to some extent from Apus

orientalis. However, the range of all these variations mentioned in

earlier descriptions, apparently come within the range of intraspecific

variations known and established by Longhurst (loc. cit.), for Triops

168 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (1)

granarius (Lucas). Therefore, there need be no further confusion

regarding the specific status of Triops that occurs in south India.

Acknowledgements

I am grateful to Prof. M. H. Martin, for providing the specimens and

notes on live specimens. I wish to thank Mr. S. Jayadev Babu, for

drawing the diagrams.

References

Barnard, K. H. (1931) : Contribu-

tions to the crustacean fauna of south

Africa. Ann. S. African Mus. 39 :

229-241.

Chacko, P. I. (1950) : Occurrence of

the Fairy Shrimp, Apus , in a temple

tank in Tirunelveli District, Madras. J.

Bombay, nat. Hist. Soc. 49 : 571.

Gurney, R. (1921) : Fresh water

Crustacea collected by Dr. P. A. Buxton

in Mesopotamia and Persia, ibid. 27 :

836-843.

(1924) : Some notes on the

genus Apus. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (9)

XIV : 559-568.

(1925) : Some Asiatic speci-

mens of Apus (i) Apus cancriformis

Schaeffer (ii) Apus granarius Lucas. Rec.

Indian. Mus. 27 : 439-442.

Karande, A. A. & Inamdar, N. B.

(1959) : Observations on the taxonomic

characters of Triops orientalis (Tiwari)

with a note on its biology. J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 56 : 215-225.

Kemp, S. (1911) : Notes on the occur-

rence of Apus in Eastern Asia. II. Notes

on Major Walton’s specimens and on

others from Kashmir with a list of pre-

vious records from Eastern Asia. Rec.

Indian. Mus. 6 : 353-357.

Longhurst, A. R. (1955) : A Review

of the Notostraca. Bull. Brit. Mus.

(Nat. Hist.) 3 (1) : 1-57.

Packard, A. S. (1871) : Monograph

of Phyllopod Crustacea. Ann. Mag.

Nat. Hist. (4) VIII : 334.

Pai, P. G. (1958) : On post-embryonic

stages of phyllopod crustaceans Triops

(Apus), Streptocephalus and Estheria.

Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci. (B) XLVIII : 229-

250.

Sars, G. O. (1901) : On the Crustacean

fauna of Central Asia. Ann. Mus. St.

Petersburg. 6 : 130-164.

Shanbag, S.V. & Inamdar N.B. (1968):

On the occurrence of Triops mavliensis

(Tiwari), Notostraca, (Crustacea), in the

Okhammandal Region of Saurashtra

(India). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 65 :

408-417.

Tiwari, K. K. (1951) : Indian species

of the genus Apus, with descriptions of

two new species. Rec. Indian. Mus. 49 :

197-206.

(1955) : Sex-ratio and varia-

bility of apodous segments in Apus

(Phyllopoda : Crustacea). J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 52 : 641-644.

Walton, H. J. (1911) : Notes on the

occurrence of Apus in Eastern Asia I.

On the occurrence of Apus Latreille, in

the United Provinces of India. Rec.

Indian. Mus. 6 : 351-352.

Pteridophytic Flora of Kodaikanal

BY

S. S. Bir and Surinder Mohan Vasudeva

Department of Botany , Punjabi University , Patiala {India)

Introduction

Matthew (1959) and Gupta (1960, 1962) have given a comprehensive

account of the Angiospermic Flora of Kodaikanal situated on Palni Hills

in south India. Detailed information is not available about the Pterido-

phytic Flora of this region. Only scanty information about the Ferns

of Palni Hills is found in Beddome’s (1863, 1864, 1865 ?) ‘ Ferns

of Southern India ’ wherein the author had enumerated 24 species in all.

As far as the ‘ Fern Allies 5 are concerned, Chowdhury (1937) and Alston

(1945) have given some information. However, detailed account about

the altitudinal distribution and ecology of different species of ferns and

fern-allies is lacking. Therefore, in the absence of any authoritative

taxonomic account of the Pteridophytic Flora of Kodaikanal, the present

work was taken up.

Kodaikanal, a beautiful health resort of south India is located at

about 10°14' N., 77°28' E. with an average altitude of about 2,100 m.

The present observations concerning the Pteridophytic Flora are

largely based on the collections made during June, 1962 and September

to November, 1966.

Areas explored

The area explored in and around Kodaikanal is very extensive. Inten-

sive collections were made in the dense forest areas falling within an

altitudinal range of 300-2400 m. Each locality was visited several

times so as to make a complete note of the habitats of different species

and also about their frequency of occurrence. Frequently visited forests

around Kodaikanal include Levinge (2100 m.), Shembaganur (1950 m.)

and Perumal Malai (1500 m.). Excursions on foot were taken to all the

places of picnic interest, namely, Coaker’s Walk (2100 m.), Observa-

tory Hill (2200 m.), Pillar Rocks (2200 m.), Bear Shola Falls (2100 m.),

Silver Cascade (1700 m.), Parvat Vihar (1250 m.), Perumal Peak

(1800 m.) and Fairy Falls (2000 m.). The sampling of high altitude

vegetation was done aroun4 Moir Point (2300 m.) and Berijam Lake

170 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol 68 (1)

(2400 m.) along Cochin road. These excursions were extended to lower

altitude areas such as Falls View (500 m.), Vellagevi village (600 m.),

Kavanji (700 m.), Uttu (900 m.), Tanikkudi (800 m.) and Periyakulam

(300 m.).

Ecological notes on Pteridophytes

Kodaikanal is very rich in Pteridophytes and the members consti-

tute a conspicuous element of the flora. Thick forests around

Shembaganur, Silver Cascade, Perumal Malai and Bear shola are parti-

cularly very rich in ferns. Most of these are either ground-growing or

lithophytic but several of them grow as epiphytes as well, usually on

angiospermic trees and very few on conifers. The epiphytes mainly

belong to fern family Polypodiaceae. Members of Aspidiaceae, Thely-

pteridaceae, Pteridaceae and Athyriaceae are largely terrestrial.

The Pteridophytes collected from the area, can be described under

following altitudinal zones :

Species growing up to 600 m. altitude :

At lower altitudes Lygodium flexuosum (L.) Sw. grows on the forest

floor and with the help of the twining rachis it climbs on the neighbouring

bushes. Ampelopteris prolifera (Retz.) Copel. and Microsorium puncta -

turn (Linn.) Copel. flourish very well at the foot of the hills. About

600 m. altitude Adiantum lunulatum Burm. grows prolifically in moist

situations. The exposed rocks and dry boulders are largely inhabited by

Hemionitis arifolia (Burm.) Moore and Actiniopteris radiata (Sw.) Link.

Adiantum incisum Forsk. flourishes extremely well en route Falls view

and Cooly ghat in open spaces.

Species growing between 600-1200 m. altitude :

Blechnum orientale Linn, prefers sunny situations on calcareous soil

along Uttu-Parvat Vihar road and near Vellagavi village. Adiantum

incisum Forsk. and Actiniopteris radiata (Sw.) Link are common every-

where up to 1000 m. altitude. Selaginella radicata (Hook. & Grev.)

Spreng., Cheilanthes mysurensis Wall, ex Bedd., Asplenium falcatum Lam.

var. bipinnatum Sledge, Polystichum amabile (Bl.) J. Smith and Asplenium

varians Hook. & Grev. are exceedingly common on rocks near

Panakaddu. Pyrrosia lanceolata (L.) Farwell colonizes several exposed

rocks near Falls view and Cooly ghat. Occasionally it also grows epi-

phytically on tree trunks. On the forest floor near Shembaganur there

is abundant growth of Adiantum hispidulum Sw. One of the most

common ferns of this zone is Hemionitis arifolia (Burm.) Moore,

PTERID OPHY TIC FLORA OF K0DA1KANAL 171

Species growing between 1200-2000 m. altitude :

The maximum number of species grow in this zone. Amongst the

ferns met with along water channels in shola near Perumal Malai or

Parvat Vihar, in Shembaganur forest and near Silver Cascade may be

mentioned Diplazium maximum (Don) C. Chr., D. latifolium (Don) Moore,

D. polypodioides Blume, D. muricatum (Mett.) V.A.V.R., Thelypteris re-

pens (Hope) Ching, Cyathea gigantea (Wall, ex Hook.) Holttum, Cyathea

nilgirensis Holttum, Marattia fraxinea Smith, Angiopteris evecta (Forst.)

Hoffm. and Microlepia trapeziformis (Roxb.) Kuhn.

On clay soil in ravines, Diplaziopsis javanica (Bl.) C. Chr. is met with,

while Diplazium esculentum (Retz.) Sw. prefers moist but rather open

situations.

The epiphytes are very conspicuous. Vittaria elongata Swartz, Loxo-

gramme lanceolata Presl and Asplenium ensiforme Wall, ex Hook. & Grev.

are seen on the middle or basal portions of the tree trunks. Occa-

sionally Selaginella involvens (Sw.) Spr. which normally grows on rocks

is found as an epiphyte. The commonest epiphytic ferns around

Kodaikanal within this altitudinal range are Antrophyum plantagineum

(Cav.) Klf., Asplenium auritum Sw., Loxogramme involuta (Don) Presl,

Pyrrosia mollis (Kze.) Ching, Lepisorus nudus (Hook.) Ching, and Cten-

opteris subfalcata (Bl.) Kunze. Several individuals of Nephrolepis

cordifolia (Linn.) Presl were seen growing on a palm tree, Borassus

flabellifer Linn, near Shembaganur. Several of the epiphytic species may

also grow lithophytically.

Among the ferns which prefer shaded moist rocks may be

mentioned Adiantum capillus-veneris Linn., A. cuneatum Langsd

& Fisch., A. aethipicum Linn., Mecodium javanicum (Spr.) Copel.

Lindsaya cultrata (Willd.) Swartz, Sphenomeris chinensis (Linn.)

Maxon, Araiostegia pulchra (Don) Copel., Leucostegia immersa (Wall.)

Presl, Nephrolepis cordifolia (Linn.) Presl, Olendra wallichii (Hook.)

Presl, Polystichum auriculatum (L.) Pr., Elaphoglossum laurifolium

(Thouars) Moore, Arachniodes speciosa (Don) Ching, Elaphoglossum

petiolatum (Sw.) Urban, Athyrium japonicum (Thbg.) Copel., A. anisop .

terum Christ., Cyclosorus dentatus (Forsk.) Ching, Asplenium unilaterale

Lamk., A. tenuifolium Don, and A. ensiforme Wall, ex Hook. & Grev.

Lycopodium cernuum Linn., Adiantum incisum Forsk., Cheilanthes

chrysophylla Hook., C. mysurensis Wall, ex Bedd., Pellaea geraniaefolia

Fee, and Pityrogramma chrysophylla (Sw.) Link, grow in exposed situa-

tions under xeric conditions either on rock boulders or gravelly soil, all

along roadside between Perumal Malai-Parvat Vihar.

Dicranopteris linearis (Burm.) Underwood, forms huge green thickets

along roadside especially near Silver Cascade. Pteridium aquilinum

(L.) Kuhn? is a weedy species and grows in open spaces along roadside

172 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 6S (1)

or forest paths. In similar situations Botrychium lanuginosum -.-Wall,

grows in abundance near Tiger shola.

Several ferns as Microlepia platyphylla (Don) J. Smith, Hypolepis

punctata (Thbg.) Mett., Dryopteris atrata (Wall.) Ching, Diplazium poly -

podioides Blume, and P ter is quadriaurita Retz., often inhabit forest floor

and forest fringes near Shembaganur and Silver Cascade.

Species met with above 2000 m. altitude :

At higher elevations the epiphytic growth in the open places or hill

tops gradually decreases. Most of the epiphytic species recorded from

this zone grow in the shola near Moir Point where enough of humus is

available on the tree trunks. The common species are Asplenium indicum

Sledge, Lepisorus amaurolepida (Sledge) Bir & Trikha (comb, nov.)1,

Phymatodes hastata (Thunb.) Ching, Microsorium membranaceum (Don)

Ching, Loxogramme involuta (Don) Presl and Pleopeltis macrocarpa

(Bory ex Willd.) Kaulf. which hang downwards from lower portions of

tree trunks. Occasionally Athyrium puncticaule (Bl.) Moore, Asplenium

erectum Bory ex Willd., and Asplenium aethiopicum (Burm.) Bech., which

are normally lithophytic or terrestrial species, also grow on the trunks

in Bombay Shola and Bear Shola falls. Mecodium exsertum (Wall, ex

Hook.) Copel. is a rare epiphyte.

The species which colonize moist and shaded rocks in this zone are

Adiantum cuneatum Langsd. &Fisch., Mecodium polyanthos{ Sw.) Copel.,

Polystichum aculeatum (L.) Schott, P. auriculatum (L.) Pr., Dryopteris

odontoloma (Moore) C. Chr., D. sparsa (Don) O. Kuntze, Athyrium

japonicum (Thbg.) Copel., A. pectinatum (Wall.) Presl, A. puncticaule

(Bl.) Moore, Thelypteris brunnea (Wall.) Ching, Cyclosorus dentatus

(Forsk.) Leptogramme totta J. Smith. Ching, Asplenium normale Don,

A. cheilosorum Kunze, A. trichomanes Linn., A. erectum Bory ex Willd.,

A. zenker anum Kze. Linn., A. affine Sw., Loxogramme involuta (Don)

Presl, etc.

At about 2100 m. Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn grows in extensive

beds in open spaces to form an extremely prolific vegetation even obli-

terating the normal footpaths. Occasionally Cyathea crinita (Hook.)

Copel. ascends higher up to about 2200 metres and grows in forest near

Pillar Rocks. Often Pteris quadriaurita Retz., Polystichum auriculatum

(L.) Pr., Arachniodes aristata (Forst. f.) Tindale, Dryopteris wallichiana

(Spreng.) Hyl., D. atrata (Wall.) Ching, and Asplenium aethiopicum

(Burm.) Bech., grow along the forest fringes.

Amongst the higher altitude ferns, Cheilanthes chrysophylla Hook,

thrives well in exposed rock crevices near Observatory. Two club

mosses, namely, Lycopodium cernuum Linn, and L. clavatum Linn, grow

1 Basinym ; Pleopeltis amaurolepida Sledge in Bull. Brit. Mus. (nat. Hist.) 2 (5) :

136, 1960.

PTERIDOPHYTIC FLORA OF KODAIKANAL 173

on calcareous soil along roads at about 2400 m. altitude near Berijam

Lake. Several species such as Botrychium daucifolium Wall., B. lanugi-

nosum Wall., Lycopodium wightianum Wall., Ophioglossum petiolatum

Hook, and Osmunda regalis Linn, grow in open grass lands near Pillar

Rocks and Moir Point.

!

Enumeration of the Genera and Species

The arrangement of families and genera is mainly based on the scheme

proposed by Mehra (1961) and later on adopted by Mehra & Bir

(1964). In our opinion taking into consideration the gross morpho-

logical characters, Pteridium Scopoli and Nephrolepis Schott belong

to family Pteridaceae and Davalliaceae respectively rather than the former

genus to family Hypolepidaceae and the latter genus to family

Oleandraceae as earlier placed by Mehra & Bir (loc. cit.). Some species

of Selaginella and Lycopodium recorded from Kodaikanal by Alston

(1945) and Chowdhury (1937) respectively have also been included so

as to compile a comprehensive account. The species included on the

basis of earlier published data, are marked with an asterisk(#).

In case of ferns only references have been made to Clarke’s (1880)

‘A Review of Ferns of Northern India’ (F.N.I.), Beddome’s (1863,

1864, 1865 ?) ‘ Ferns of Southern India ’ (F.S.I.), and Beddome’s

(1883, 1892) ‘ A Handbook to the Ferns of British India, Ceylon and

Malaya Peninsula’ (Handb.). Species mentioned in Mehra and Bir’s

account of ‘ Pteridophytic flora of Darjeeling and Sikkim Himalayas are

cited as Mehra & Bir, 1964 wherein complete information is provided

for basinyms and common synonyms. Therefore, in case of such species

references to Clarke’s and Beddome’s works or other literature are

omitted. Further, full reference to the original publication of the

specific name is given only in case of those species that are not included

in Christensen’s ‘ Index Filicum ’ with Supplements I-III (1905-1906,

1913, 1917, 1934) and Pichi-Sermolli’s Index Filicum Supplementum

Quartum (1965).

Voucher specimens are placed in the Herbarium of the Punjabi Uni-

versity, Chandigarh, India and reference to the herbarium number/s

of each species collected from Kodaikanal is given within parenthesis

after distribution.

FERN ALLIES

Family Psilotaceae

Psilotum triquetrum Swartz; P. nudum (L.) Griseb. ; Clarke, F.N.I.

589.1880.

Grows on rocks in the Botanical garden of Sacred Heart College,

Shembaganur. It is extremely rare and was not seen anywhere else.

174 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol 68 (1)

Family Equisetaceae

Equisetum debile Roxb. ex Vaucher ; Mehra & Bir 99, 1964.

Cultivated in the Botanical garden of Sacred Heart College, Shemba-

ganur. It may possibly be found at lower altitudes.

Family Selaginellaceae

Selaginella involvens (Sw.) Spr. ; Mehra & Bir 100, 1964,

It grows on calcareous soil along road side or as lithophyte on big

rocks at moist places in forests. Extremely common on forest floor

between 1500-1800 m. especially near Silver Cascade (1800 m.),

Shembaganur (1950 m.) and Perumal Malai (1500 m.). It also grows

epiphytically on trees in shola below Perumal Malai (1500 m.). (4710-

4712, 5712-5715).

S. radicata (Hook. & Grev.) Spring

Met with at low levels between 900-1200 m. altitude growing

luxuriantly on roadside slopes. It is common in the Panakaddu area

(1300 m.). (5710,5711).

*S. cataractarum Alston

Collected from rock near Silver Cascade (1680 m.) and Pambar

stream by Munch (cf. Alston 1945, p. 228).

Family Lycopodiaceae

Lycopodium wightianum Wall.

Extremely common in open grassy spaces between 1950-2250 m. alti-

tude especially in Pillar Rocks area (2300 m.) and near Holiday Home

(2100 m.). (4497-4500, 5718, 5719).

L. setaceum Hamilt. ; Mehra & Bir 101, 1964.

One of the commonest epiphytes in Tiger Shola (1700 m.) near Silver

Cascade. The plants are beautifully pendulous from tree branches.

It may also occur on moist rocks. It was not seen in any other locality.

(5720, 5721).

L. hamiltonii Spreng. ex Hook. & Grev. ; Mehra & Bir 101, 1964.

Cultivated in the Botanical garden of Sacred Heart College, Shemba-

ganur (200 m.). It is very rare. Also recorded by Chowdhury (1937)

from Kodaikanal. (5716).

PTERIDOPHYTlC FLORA OF KODAIKANAL 115

L. cernuum Linn. ; Mehra & Bir 102, 1964.

Grows on calcareous soil along the roadside slopes near Perumal

Malai (1400 m.) and Berijam Lake (2200 m.). It is common between

1300-2300 m. altitude. (5724,4725).

L. clavatum Linn. ; Mehra & Bir 102, 1964.

It is extremely rare. It was collected only once growing on

calcareous soil along the road slopes near Berijam Lake (2200 m.).

(5722, 5723).

L. phlegmaria Linn. ; Mehra & Bir 102, 1964.

Collected from the Botanical garden of Sacred Heart College, Shemba-

ganur (2000 m.). It is extremely rare. Also recorded from Bear Shola

(cf. Chowdhury 1937). (5717).

L. serratum Thunberg ; Mehra & Bir 101, 1964.

Collected by Iyengar from Bear shola (2100-2400 m. altitude) (cf.

Chowdhury, loc. cit.).

L. complanatum Linn. ; Clarke, F.N.I. 593, 1880.

According to Chowdhury (loc. cit.) this species was collected by

Levinge from Kodaikanal, 2100 m.

L. phyllanthum Hook. & Arn.

It was collected by Iyengar from Kodaikanal, 2100 m. (cf. Chowdhury

loc. cit).

FERNS

I. Ophioglossaceous series

Family Ophioglossaceae

Ophioglossum petiolatum Hook. ; Mehra & Bir 103, 1964.

Grows in the meadows near Pillar Rocks (2100 m.). The plants are

rare, small-sized and rather inconspicuous. These are usually over-

shadowed by grass. Extremely rare. (4870).

Botrychium lanuginosum Wall. ; Mehra & Bir 102, 1964.

Extremely common in the open grassy places all over between 1600-

2100 m. altitude. Collected from Tiger Shola near Silver Cascade

(1600 m.) and from Levinge Forest (2000 m.). (4477, 4780, 5728, 5729).

B. daucifolium Wall, ex Hook. & Grev. ; Clarke, F.N.I. 587, 1880 ;

Bedd., Handb. 469, t. 294, 1892. Botrychium subcamosum Wall. ;

F.S.I.t. 68, 1863.

Quite abundant in Levinge Forest (2000 m.) and grows in rather

exposed places. Not seen anywhere else. (5726, 5727).

176 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 68 (1)

II. MARATTIACEOUS SERIES

Family Marattiaceae

Marattia fraxinea Smith ; Bedd., F.S.I.t. 79, 1863 & Handb. 460,

t. 286, 1883.

Grows near water in Shembaganur forest (1800 m.). Extremely rare.

(4473, 5732, 5733).

Angiopteris evecta (Forst.) Hoffm. ; Mehra & Bir 103, 1964.

It is a large-sized fern and is occasionally met with near water in the

ravines and flourishes very well at low altitudes especially in Perumal

Malai area (1400 m.). (4785, 4786, 5730, 5731).

III. OSMUNDACEOUS SERIES

Family Osmundaceae

Osimmda regalis Linn.; Clarke, F.N.I. 583, 1880; Bedd., Handb.

450, 1883.

This is a high altitude fern and flourishes near water channel

in Holiday Home (2000 m.) and also in open meadows en route Moir

Point (2250 m.). (4474, 4475).

IV. SCHIZAEACEOUS SERIES

Family Schizaeaceae

Lygodium flexuosum (L.) Sw. ; Mehra & Bir 104, 1964.

It grows frequently at lower altitudes between 300-600 m. and some-

times covers adjacent small bushes in forests en route Kodaikanal (600 m.).

(4688, 4689, 4781, 4782).

Family Adiantaceae

Adiantum capillus-veneris Linn. ; Mehra & Bir 105, 1964.

Grows at relatively lower altitudes (below 1800 m.) on moist and

shady rocks especially along streams in Shembaganur forest (1,500 m.)

and is locally abundant. (4779).

A. lunulatum Burm. ; Mehra & Bir 105, 1964.

It is a low level fern, never ascending above 1350 m. and grows in

moist situations along motor road to Kodaikanal (600 m.). (4828).

PTERID0PHYT1C FLORA OF KODAIKANAL 177

A. cuneatum Langsd. & Fisch. ; Mehra & Bir 105, 1964.

Common on moist rocks along Coaker’s Walk (2100 m.), possibly

an escape from cultivation. Also it is extremely common at damp places

between 1600-2100 m. altitude. (4507-4510, 5739-5740).

A. incisum Forsk. ; Mehra & Bir 105, 1964.

One of the commonest species at lower levels flourishing in rather

exposed situations near Perumal Malai (750 m.), Shembaganur forest

(900 m.) and near Falls View (200 m.). It is frequently met with along

roadsides from 1000 m. downwards. (5734, 5735).

A. aethiopicum Linn. ; Bedd. ; F.S.X.t.5, 1863 & Handb. 84, 1883.

It is a low level fern found between 800-1000 m. altitude. It covers

rocks along roadside and especially near Uttu (900 m.). (5738, 5739 a).

A. hispidulum Sw. ; Bedd., F.S.I.t.3, 1863 & Handb. 86, 1883.

It mostly covers moist shaded rocks between 600-1000 m. especially

near Uttu (800 m.), and Shembaganur forest (1000 m.). This fern is

exceedingly common in moist situations on the forest floor en route

Periyakulam. (5736, 5737).

Family Vittariaceae

Vittaria elongata Swartz ; Mehra & Bir 106, 1964.

It grows as an epiphyte and is often pendulous from the tree trunks

in Tiger Shola (1700 m.) near Silver Cascade in moist dark situations.

The fronds often have a grass-like appearance. It is a very rare species

and was collected only once. (4813, 5741, 5742).

Family Antrophyceae

Antrophyum plantagineum (Cav.) Klf. ; Mehra & Bir 107, 1964.

It is common between 1000-1500 m. altitude, usually growing on

moist rocks or tree trunks in Sholas especially in Tiger Shola (1500 m.)

and in shola near Perumal Malai (1000 m.). (5743-5746).

Family Sinopteridaceae

Cheilanthes chrysophylla Hook. ; Mehra & Bir 109, 1964.

This fern is common in dry rock crevices near Perumal Malai (about

1200 m.) and Observatory (2200 m.). The stipes are scaly throughout.

Bright golden-yellow powder is present on the underside of the laminae.

The outline of the frond is similar to that of the typical C. farinosa but

much smaller in size. (4818, 4819, 5765, 5766).

12

178 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , F<?/. (8 (1)

C. mysurensis Wall, ex Bedd., F.S.I.t. 190, 1864 & Handb. 89, t.46,

1883.

It grows in dry rock crevices all along Uttu-Perumal Malai road

(700-1000 m.) and is quite common between 600-1200 m. altitude.

(4520, 5763, 5764).

Pellaea geraniaiefolia F’ee ; Pellaea concolor Bak. ; Bedd., Handb.

100, t. 52, 1883. Pteris geraniaiefolia Raddi; Bedd., F.S.I.t.

37, 1863.

It is a low level fern, common between 1000-1400 m. altitude and

grows on dry rocks near Perumal Malai (1300 m.) and Uttu (1100 m.).

Also grows epiphytically near Parvat Vihar (1200 m.). (5767, 5768).

Family Gymnogrammaceae

Hemionitis arifolia (Burm.) Moore ; Bedd., Handb. 413, t. 245, 1883.

Hemionitis cordata Hook. & Grev.; Bedd., F.S.I.t. 53, 1863.

This low altitude fern is extremely common between 600-1200 m.

and it grows on dry exposed rocks in open sunny places all along the

road between Falls View and Perumal Malai (500-1300 m.). (5747,

5748).

Pityrogramma chrysophylla (Sw.) Link ; Ceropteris chrysophylla

Link.

It is met with in rather exposed places on calcareous soil at low levels

along Perumal Malai-Parvat Vihar road. It is quite common between

. 1000-1450 m. Bright yellow powder is present on the underside of the

lamina. (5749, 5750).

Family Pteridaceae

Pteris quadriaurita Retz. ; Mehra & Bir 113, 1964.

Extremely common between 1500-2000 m. altitude. It grows in

open spaces along roadsides or in meadows and is common near Silver

Cascade (1700 m.) and along Coaker’s Walk (2000 m.). Individuals

growing in open situations have stunted growth. (4527-4529, 4687,

5772, 5774, 5775).

Actiniopteris radiata (Sw.) Link ; Bedd., F.S.I. t. 124, 1864. Actini -

opteris dichotoma Kuhn ; Clarke, F.N.I. 505, 1880 ; Bedd., Handb.

197, t. 98, 1883.

This is a fern of low levels and is frequently met with along Uttu-

Falls View road in dry exposed rocks between 500-1000 m. altitude.

(5769-5770).

PTERIDOPHYTIC FLORA OF KODAIKANAL 119

Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn ex Deck. ; Mehra & Bir 1 18, 1964.

It is one of the commonest ferns in open grassy places all over bet-

ween 1200-2300 m. especially abundant near Coaker’s Walk (2100 m.),

Moir’s Point (2300 m.). Pillar Rocks (2200 m.), Holiday Home (1950 m.), •

Shembaganur Forest (1800 m.) and Perumal Malai (1400 m.). It grows

on sunny grassy hill sides and is often very large and gregarious. (4513,

5771, 5773).

V. HYMENOPHYLLACEOUS SERIES

Family Hymenophyllaceae

Mecodium javanicum (Spr.) Copel. ; Mehra & Bir 115, 1964.

This rare fern grows on moist shaded rocks along Shembaganur foot-

path (1800 m.). Rhizome widely creeping and stipe and rachis broadly

winged. (4788).

M. exsertum (Wall, ex Hook.) Copel. ; Mehra & Bir 115, 1964.

Quite rare, epiphytic on the lower part of the tree trunk. Collected

from near Pillar Rocks (2200 m.). (4789).

M. polyanthos (Sw.) Copel. ; Mehra & Bir 115, 1964.

It grows on moist dark rock near Coaker’s Walk (2250 m.) and

is extremely rare. Fertile fronds are infrequently found. (4799).

Family Dennstaedtiaceae

Microlepia trapeziformis (Roxb.) Kuhn; Mehra & Bir 117, 1964.

M. polypodioides Bedd., F.S.I.t.15, 1863.

This species flourishes very well as forest undergrowth near Perumal

Malai (1400 m.) and Shembaganur (1900 m.) in shaded and damp situa-

tions. It is rather rare in the area. (5776, 5772).

M. platyphylla (Don) J. Smith ; Mehra & Bir 118, 1964.

This low altitude fern is of large size and grows in abundance on the

forest floor near Shembaganur (1200 m.) and in shola near Parvat Vihar

(1100 m.). (5778-5779).

Family Hypolepidaceae

Hypolepis punctata (Thbg.) Mett. ; Mehra & Bir 118, 1964.

It prefers open situations and is common near Lake (2000 m.),

Shembaganur (1800 m.) and Silver Cascade (1700 m.). It is found

180 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Fo/. €8 (1)

in large populations because of widely creeping and branching nature of

the rhizome. (4472, 5759, 5760).

Family Lindsayaceae

Lindsaya cultrata (Willd.) Swartz ; Mehra & Bir 118, 1964.

It is extremely common and grows gregariously on rocks or stone

walls near water or in moist situations between 1600-2000 m. especially

along Kodaikanal-Perumal Malai road, Shembaganur Forest (1900 m.)

and Silver Cascade (1800 m.). (4501, 4502, 4976, 5782, 5783).

Sphenomeris chinensis (Linn.) Maxon ; Mehra & Bir 119, 1964.

It is abundant on moist rocks between 1600-2000 m. altitude

especially near Lake (2000 m.) and Silver Cascade (1800 m.) (4468-4471,

5780-5781).

Family Davalliaceae

Araiostegia pulchra (Don) Copel ; Mehra & Bir 119, 1964.

Extremely common on moist rocks in Tiger Shola near Silver Cascade

(1800 m.) and in Shembaganur forest (1600 m.). Usually grows bet-

ween 1500-1800 m. altitude and is rare at higher elevations. (5785,

5785a)

Leucostegia immersa (Wall.) Presl ; Mehra & Bir 120, 1964.

It grows abundantly on moist shaded rocks in Shola near Perumal

Malai, 1500 m. altitude. Quite rare elsewhere, collected only once.

(4811, 4812, 5788, 5789).

Davallia bullata Wall. ex. Hook. ; Bedd., F.S.I.t.17, 1863 & Handb.

61, t. 31, 1883 ; Clarke, F.N.I. 445, 1880.

Cultivated in the Botanical garden of Sacred Heart College,

Shembaganur.

Nephrolepis cordifolia (Linn.) Presl ; Mehra & Bir 121, 1964.

This is a low level fern and grows lithophytically. It is quite common

up to 1900 m. altitude particularly near Shembaganur (1900 m.), Silver

Cascade (1800 m.), Perumal Malai (1500 m.) and along Shembaganur-

Perumal Malai road. Quite often it is met with as an epiphyte on the

tree ferns and other trees along Kodaikanal road. The special character

is the presence of underground tubers which help in perennation. When-

ever it grows, it forms extensive populations. (5786, 5787, 5790, 5791).

PTERIDOPHYTJC FLORA OF KODAIKANAL

181

N. exaltata (Linn.) Schott ; Bedd., F.S.I.t.93, 1863 & Handb. 282,

1883.

This is again a low altitude species and is extremely common along

roadside in exposed situations. It is quite abundant around Perumal

Malai (1500 m.) en route Thevenkariar (1300 m.) and near Parvat Yihar

(1200 m.). (5949, 5950).

0

Family Oleandraceae

Oleandra wallichii (Hook.) Presl ; Mehra & Bir 121, 1964.

It grows on moist rocks in shola near Silver Cascade (1700 m.).

An entire rock was covered with this fern. The roots are long and

wiry and the fronds are simple and soft. These possess sori in a single

row on each side of and close to the midrib. It is extremely rare in

other areas. (5792, 5793).

VI. GLEICHENIACEOUS SERIES

Family Gleicheniaceae

Dicranopteris linearis (Burm.) Underwood ; Mehra & Bir 122, 1964.

This fern forms huge thickets along roadside in exposed, sunny

places and covers extensive areas on dry barren hill sides around

Kodaikanal between 1700-2000 m. altitude. Especially met with near

Silver Cascade (1750 m.), Shembaganur forest (1900 m.) and Lake

(2000 m.). (4511, 4512, 4796-4798, 5794, 5795).

Family Cyatheaceae

Holttum (1965) construed Cyathea Smith so as to include Alsophila

R.Br., Hemitelia R.Br., Gymnosphaera Bl. and Schizocaena J. Smith.

According to him the earlier distinctions of Baker, Beddome and Clarke

on the basis of indusial characters of Hemitelia and Alsophila , are not

natural ones. Taking into consideration the stipe-scales, the com-

prehensive genus Cyathea is divided by Holttum (loc. cit.) into two sub-

genera, namely, Cyathea and Sphaeropteris.

The subgenus Cyathea as described by Holttum, is characterised by

flabelloid stipe-scales consisting of a median band of elongate thick-

walled cells, with fragile margins of shorter thin-walled cells and bearing

rather long flexuous thick-walled setae. It is further subdivided into two

sections as Cyathea and Gymnosphaera. In the former section the sori

are indusiate, induism sometimes hidden by mature sorus and the latter

section is characterised by sori without indusia. It may be mentioned

182 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 68 (1)

that Cyathea spinulosa Wall, ex Hook, and C. nilgirensis Holttum belong

to section Cyathea whereas Cyathea gigantea (Wall, ex Hook.) Holttum

belongs to section Gymnosphaera.

The subgenus Sphaeropteris to which Cyathea crinita (Hook.) Copel.

belongs is recognised by setiferous stipe-scales consisting entirely of uni-

form elongate cells with regular short, oblique dark or concolorous setae

along the edges.

•

Cyathea nilgirensis Holttum1 ; Alsophila latebrosa Wall, ex Hook.,

pro parte quoad Bedd., Handb. 11, 1883. A. latebrosa Wall, ex

Hook. var. schmidiana Kunze.

Extremely common in all the forests between 1600-2000 m. and is

especially abundant around Silver Cascade (1800 m.) and in Tiger Shola

(1700 m.), Shembaganur forest (1900 m.) and Lake area (2000 m.)

near water. It is a lofty tree fern. The costae and costules of the pinnules

characteristically possess bullate scales. The primary and secondary

rachises are often muricated. (4521-4526, 5757, 5758).

The south Indian specimens referrable to Cyathea latebrosa (Wall, ex

Hook.) Copel. (= Alsophila latebrosa Wall, ex Hook.) belong to this

species (cf. Holttum 1965).

C. spinulosa Wall, ex Hook. ; Bedd., F.S.I. t.57, 1863 ; Handb. 6,

1883 ; Suppl. 2, 1892 ; Clarke, F.N.I. 429, 1880.

It is met with in south India at 600-900 m. (cf. Holttum, loc. cit.).

It is possible that this species may also be growing in the forests around

Kodaikanal though the writers have not collected it.

C. gigantea (Wall, ex Hook.) Holttum ; Alsophila gigantea Wall, ex

Hook. ; A. glabra sensu Bedd., F.S.I. t. 60, 1863 & Handb. 14,

1883 ; Hook. & Bak., Syn. Fil. 43, 1874 (pro parte) ; Clarke,

F.N.I. 433, 1880.

This tree fern is abundant at low altitude especially in ravines or at

moist places. It was collected from Shola near Perumal Malai en route

Thevenkariar (1400 m.). (5755, 5756).

C. crinita (Hook.) Copel. ; Alsophila crinita Hook. ; Bedd., F.S.I.t.

59, 1863 & Handb. 16, t. 6, 1883.

A large-sized tree fern, occasionally grows between 1800-2000 m.

altitude, especially abundant in Shembaganur forest (1900 m.) and near

Pillar Rocks (2200 m.). It is far less common than Cyathea nilgirensis

Holttum. It has also been cultivated in Bruton Garden near Lake

(2000 m.) (5753, 5754).

* Kew Bull., 19 .(3): 468. 1965,

PTERID OPH Y TIC FLORA OF KODAIKANAL 183

Family Aspidiaceae

Polystichum aculeatum (L.) Schott ; Mehra & Bir 127, 1964.

Occasionally met with at higher altitude, generally in rock crevices.

Collected from near Bombay Shola (2100 m.). (4689, 4699, 4884-4886,

5862, 5863).

P. amabile (Bl.) J. Sm. ; Lastrea amabilis Moore ; Bedd., F.S.I.t.

109, 1863 & Handb. 228, 1883.

It is a low altitude fern, growing on moist rocks near Uttu (1000 m.).

Rhizome is characteristically creeping and the surfaces of pinnae are shin-

ing. This fern is quite rare and only a few specimens were collected.

(5860, 5861).

P. auriculatum (L.) Pr. ; Bedd., F.S.I. t. 120, 1863 & Handb. 203,

t. 102, 1883.

Met with at moist places or on shaded moist rocks between

1600-2100 m. in all forests especially in Shembaganur forest (1900 m.),

forest near Bombay Shola (2100 m.) and Silver Cascade (1700 m.).

The stipes are densely paleaceous. It was also seen, growing epiphyti-

cally on tree trunks in forest near Bombay Shola (2100 m.). (4515,

4517).

Arachniodes aristata (Forst. f.) Tindale ; Mehra & Bir 128, 1964.

It is a large-sized fern with densely paleaceous stipes and is common

in open and damp places all over between 1600-2000 m. altitude

especially near Bear Shola Falls (2000 m.), Bombay Shola (2100 m.) and

Shembaganur forest (1900 m.). A few specimens were seen growing

epiphytically on tree trunks in Levinge forest. (4696, 4697, 5846, 5847).

A. speciosa (Don) Ching ; Mehra & Bir 129, 1964.

Often met with in Shembaganur forest (1900 m.). Also common

along Perumal Malai-Thevenkariar old path (1400 m.). Pinnae are

shining. (5844,5845).

Cyrtomium caryotideum Presl ; Mehra & Bir 129, 1964.

Cultivated in the Botanical garden of Sacred Heart College, Shemba-

ganur (1900 m.). It was not collected in wild state.

Elaphoglossum laurifolium (Thouars) Moore; Bedd., F.S.I.t. 200,

1864 ; Mehra & Bir 130, 1964. E. latifolium sensu Bedd., Handb.

416, t. 248. 1883.

It grows on moist shaded rocks and was collected only from one,

place near Bear Shola (2000 m.). Fronds are dimorphic. This specie?

184 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Fo/. 68 (1)

is characterised by the fact that the margin of the frond is hyaline

chartaceous. (5840, 5841).

E. petiolatum (Sw.) Urban; E. viscosum Schott; Bedd., F.S.I. t.

196, 1864 & Handb. 420, t. 250, 1883.

Collected only once near Perumal Malai (1500 m.) growing on

moist shaded rocks. It is locally abundant. Fertile fronds are ex-

tremely rare. (5842, 5843).

E. conform© (Sw.) Schott ; Mehra & Bir 130, 1964.

Epiphytic on the lower part of tree trunk at moist shaded and pro-

tected places. It is extremely rare and was collected only once in forest

near Moir Point (1800 m.). (4814, 4815).

Dryopteris ramosa (Hope) C. Chr. ; Nephrodium ramosum Hope.

This is a high altitude fern common near Coaker’s Walk (2000 m.).

Shembaganur (1950 m.) and Tiger Shola (1800 m.). It grows on

calcareous soil. (5855, 5856).

D. marginata (Wall.) Christ ; Mehra & Bir 133, 1964.

It is a quite common fern between 1500-2000 m. and is generally

found in valleys or wooded ravines. Abundant at Silver Cascade

(1700 m.), Observatory Hill (2000 m.) and below Bombay Shola

(2100 m.). (4693, 4483-4485, 5857, 5858).

D. waliichiana (Spreng.) Hyl1. Dryopteris paleacaea (Don) Hand.-—

Mazz. ; Mehra & Bir 131, 1964.

Rhizome is ascending and the stipes are densely clothed with dark

brown scales. This is a high altitude fern and is very common near

Coaker’s Walk (2100 m.), Holiday Home (2150 m.), Pillar Rocks

(2200 m.) and Moir’s Point (2300 m.). It grows on calcareous soil.

(4690, 4691, 5850-5852).

D. odontoloma (Moore) C. Chr. ; Mehra & Bir 132, 1964.

This fern is found in and around Kodaikanal in partially shaded

situations at higher altitudes especially abundant in Shembaganur forest

(1900 m.), near Observatory (2100 m.) and near Bear Shola (2000 m.).

(4478-4482, 5848-5849).

D. sparsa (Don) O. Kuntz ; Mehra & Bir 133, 1964.

It is quite frequently met with between 1500-2100 m. especially near

Silver Cascade, Observatory Hill and in forest near Shembaganur.

(4486-4489, 4692, 5853, 5854).

1 For details of Synonymy see Alston (1957), Alston & Bonner (1956) and Nair

(1968),

PTERIDOPHYTIC FLORA OF KODAIKANAL

185

D. atrata (Wall.) Ching ; Mehra & Bir 130, 1964.

It is quite common between 1600-2200 m. and is especially met with

on the forest floor near Shembaganur (1900 m.), Silver Cascade (1800 m.)

Bombay Shola (2000 m.) and is abundant along Silver Cascade- Perumal

Malai road. Once one was seen growing epiphytically on tree trunk in

Shembaganur forest. (5859).

Family Athyriaceae

Athyrium japonicum (Thbg.) Copel. ; Mehra & Bir 144, 1964.

Extremely common at moist places between 1500-2100 m. altitude.

It is locally abundant on forest floor in damp shaded situations near

Silver Cascade (1700 m.). In similar situations it was seen near Bryant

Park (2000 m.). The stipes and the lamina are more densely hairy as

compared to the Himalayan examples. These plants have often been

described under Diplazium lasiopteris Kze. (4680-4682, 5800, 5803).

A. anisopterum Christ ; Mehra & Bir 143, 1964.

It is extremely common on moist shaded rocks between 1600-2100 m.

particularly at Silver Cascade (1700 m.) and near Pillar Rocks (2100 m.).

(4683).

A. pectinatum (Wall.) Presl ; Mehra & Bir 141, 1964.

It grows in rather moist situations between 1200-2100 m. altitude,

common near Silver Cascade (1600 m.) and near Lake (2100 m.).

(4790).

A. puncticaule (Bl.) Moore ; Mehra & Bir 143, 1964. A. macrocar-

pum (Bl.) Bedd., F.S.I.t. 153, 1964.

It is locally abundant on moist rocks near Silver Cascade (1800 m.),

in Shembaganur forest (1900 m.) and Levinge Forest (2100 m.). (4791,

4809, 4810,5796, 5797).

A. praetermissum Sledge1 ; A. nigripes sensu Bedd., F.S.I. 52, t. 157,

1864 & Handb. 166, 1883, pro parte ; non T. Moore.

Very rare, only few plants were seen growing in damp shaded situa-

tions in Tiger Shola (1800 m.). (5798, 5799).

A. solenopteris (Kunze) T. Moore var. solenopteris Sledge1.

Rhizome ascending or decumbent ; stipes upto 20 cm. long ; lamina

broadly lanceolate, 30 cm. x 15 cm.; pinnae ascending, middle ones the

1 For nomenclature see Sledge (1956, 1962).

186 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, V oh 68 (1)

largest, about 3 cm. apart, up to 10 x 3 cm., with narrowly winged rachis ;

pinnules well spaced with somewhat decurrent base.

Extremely common at high altitudes around Observatory (2200 m.).

The densely crowded fronds give a characteristic appearance. (5939).

A. solenopteris (Kunze) T. Moore var. pusillum (Kuze) T. Moore.

Fronds small, about 20x10 cm. (including 5 cm. long scaly stipe) ;

lamina narrow, 4-10 cm. wide ; pinnae patent, lower ones often deflexed,

crowded, lower ones 1-1£ cm. wide apart, 4xl| cm.; pinnules small,

approximate, inciso-serrate or often shallowly pinnatifid.

Common between 1700-2100 m. throughout, often growing in

extensive beds, near Bombay Shola (2100 m.), Observatory Hill (2200 m.)

and near Lake (2000 m.). (5940).

Athyrium sp.

This is a high-altitude fern, flourishing abundantly in crevices of

boulders near Lake (2100 m.).

Some of the specimens have morphology between Athyrium solenop-

teris (Kunze) T. Moore and Athyrium praetermissum Sledge and cannot

be with certainty referred to either of the species. (5801-5802).

Diplazium esculentum (Retz.) Sw. ; Mehra & Bir 148, 1964.

It is met with in damp situations especially along water channels and

was collected in the forest en route Kodaikanal, 7th mile stone (1400 m.)

It is a rather rare fern. Rhizome is wide creeping so that it covers large

area. (4803, 4804).

D. polypodioides Blume ; Mehra & Bir 146, 1964.

This large sized fern, often giving an impression of a ‘ tree fern *

from a distance, grows between 1000-2100 m. altitudes and is usually

found in ravines along water courses. Often it also grows on the forest

fringes. It is abundant near Shembaganur en route Periyakulam (1000 m.)

and in Shola near Parvat Vihar (1300 m.). (4700, 4805, 5826, 5827).

D. latifolium (Don). Moore ; Asplenium latifolium Don (1825),

non Bory (1803) ; D. indicum Nair1 (Moore’s name is legitimate).

Grows on forest floor, en route Kodaikanal near Silver Cascade

(1500 m,). It is usually found in damp situations. Rhizome ascending,

stipes sparsely scaly below, naked above. (4806).

D. maximum (Don) C. Chr. ; Mehra & Bir 147, 1964.

It is rather a rare fern and was collected only once as growing in

damp situations near water in shola near Perumal Malai.

1 Indian Forester, 94 : 169, 1968,

PTERID O PHY TIC FLORA OF KOD AIK ANAL 187

D. muricatum (Mett.) V. A. V. R. ; Mehra & Bir 148, 1964. Athyrium

gymnogrammoides Bedd., F.S.I.52, t. 156, 1864, pro parte, quoad

descr. & fig. ; Handb. 168, 1883. A. australe sensu Bedd., F.S.I.

52, t. 158, 1864. Asplenium procerum (Hook. & Bak.) Wall, ex

Clarke, F.N.I. 495, 1880.

It is one of the commonest ferns of ravines in all the forests between

1600-2200 m. and grows in moist situations. Collected from Picnic

Shola(2200 m.) and from forest near Bombay Shola (2100 m.). (5941,

5942).

Diplaziopsis javanica (Bl.) C. Chr. ; Mehra & Bir 149, 1964.

Only once collected from forest near Shembaganur, 1650 m. altitude

as growing along water channel on clay soil. (4792, 4793).

Family Thelypteridaceae

Thelypteris repens (Hope) Ching ; Mehra & Bir 149, 1964.

This is a high altitude fern and flourishes well in rather moist situa-

tions. Common on forest floor near Coaker’s Walk (2200 m.)

and generally grows in extensive beds near water. (5838, 5839).

T. xylodes (Kunze) Ching ; Mehra & Bir 150, 1964.

It grows in abundance near lake (2100 m.) and near Observatory

(2200 m.) and flourishes very well in rather moist situations. Abundant

between 1600-2100 m. altitude. (4492, 4493, 5836, 5837).

T. brunnea (Wall.) Ching ; Mehra & Bir 151, 1964.

It often grows near water or in damp situations all round between

1700-2200 m. altitude. Especially abundant near lake (2100 m.),

Holiday Home (2200 m.) and Observatory (2300 m.). (4495, 4496,

5832, 5833).

T. erubescens (Wall, ex Hook.) Ching ; Mehra & Bir 152, 1964.

Common on forest floor or on moist shady places near Silver Cascade

(1800 m.). Also met with along Bombay Shola and near Holiday Home.

(4491, 4494).

T. beddomei (Baker) Ching ; Nephrodium beddomei Baker. Lastrea

beddomei (Baker) Bedd., Handb. 239, 1883. Lastrea gracilescens

Bedd., F.S.I.t. 110, 1863 (non Moore 1858, nec. Hook. 1857).

It grows in rather moist situations and is occasionally met with along

road sides in open spaces at Observatory Hill (2100 m.). Rhizome is

shortly creeping. Stipe and lamina arc throughout hairy. (4709),

188 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 68 (1)

Leptogramme totta J. Smith ; Mehra & Bir 153, 1964.

It is a very rare fern and was collected only once growing on moist

shaded rocks in a ravine near Bear Shola at an altitude of 2100 m. (4490,

5828, 5829).

Ampelopteris prolifera (Retz.) Copel. ; Polypodium proliferum Roxb.;

Clarke, F.N.I. 548, 1880. Goniopteris prolifera Presl ; Bedd.,

Handb. 296, t. 153, 1883.

It is a low altitude fern. Collected only once in forest en route

Kodaikanal (450 m.). This fern is often rooting by apical bud. (4708,

4783, 4784).

Cyclosorus dentatus (Forsk.) Ching ; Mehra & Bir 154, 1964.

It is exceedingly common between 1300-2000 m. altitude along Uttu-

Shembaganur road and is found at moist places generally in the open or

along water courses especially in Shembaganur forest (1950 m.) and near

Silver Cascade (1800 m.). (4701-4707, 5834, 5845).

C. parasiticus (L.) Farwell; Mehra & Bir 155, 1964.

It is met with at low altitudes along Perumal Malai-Parvat Vihar

road (1300 m.) and grows in rather dry and exposed situations. (5830,

5831).

C. gongilodes (Schkuhr) Link ( gongylodes ) ; Dryopteris gongilodes

(Schkuhr) O. Ktze.

var. hirsutus (Mett.) Farwell ; Nephr odium unitum R.Br. ; Bedd.,

F.S.I. t. 88.

1863. Dryopteris gongylodes var. propinqua (R.Br.) C. Chr.

Extremely common on Uttu-Silver Cascade road between 1000-

1800 m. It is quite abundant near Silver Cascade (1800 m.) and grows

on gravelly soil. (5945, 5946).

C. arbusculus (Willd.) Ching ; Dryopteris arbuscula (Willd.) O. Ktze.

Nephr odium arbuscula (Willd.) Desv. ; Bedd., F.S.I. t. 87. 1863.

This is a low altitude fern around Perumal Malai (1200 m.). It is

rare and grows on calcareous soil near water channel. The fern is densely

hairy underneath and the entire lower surface is covered with sori. (5947,

5948).

Family Aspleniaceae

Asplenium ensiforme Wall, ex Hook. & Grev. ; A. ensiforme Wall,

(nomen nudum) ; Bedd., F.S.I.t. 125, 1864 & Handb. 141, t. 71,

1883 ; Clarke, F.N.I. 476, 1880.

Only one plant was observed as growing on shaded rock near stream-

let in khud below Silver Cascade (1200 m.). (4802),

PTERIDOPHYTIC FLORA OF KOD AIK ANAL 18$

A. normale Don ; Mehra & Bir 156, 1964.

It grows on moist shaded dark rocks all around between 1600-

2100 m. altitude especially near Bear Shola (2100 m.), Shembaganur

(1900 m.) and Pillar Rocks (2200 m.). Apical vegetative buds are pre-

sent on the lamina. The auricle of the pinna is very much pronounced as

compared to the Himalayan specimens. (4476, 5807, 5808).

A. indicum Sledge1 ; Asplenium planicaule Wall. ; Bedd., F.S.I.t. 139,

1864.

It is rather a rare fern, collected from near Moir Point (1800 m.).

It is locally abundant on tree trunks in the shola near Moir Point (1800 m.).

(4674).

A. cheilosorum Kunze ; Mehra & Bir 157, 1964.

It is a fern of moist shaded rocks and flourishes in protected places.

It is a rare fern in the area having been collected only once near Pillar

Rocks (2100 m.). (4829, 4830).

A. unilaterale Lam. ; Asplenium resectum J. Smith ; Bedd., F.S.I.t.

132, 1864.

It is one of the commonest species growing luxuriantly on moist

shaded dark rocks in Shembaganur forest (1900 m.) and near Pillar Rocks

(2200 m.). (5824, 5825).

A. unilaterale Lam. var. rivale Bedd. (Handb, 153, 1883).

Some plants were found growing on dark dripping rocks in Shemba-

ganur forest (1900 m.) and also few individuals were seen near Pillar

Rocks (2200 m.). (5822, 5823).

A. varians Hook. & Grev. ; Mehra & Bir 158, 1964.

This is a rare low altitude fern and grows on moist shaded rocks along

Panakaddu-Uttu road (1200-1300 m.). (4795, 5816, 5817).

A. tenuifolium Don ; Mehra & Bir 158, 1964.

Collected only once from shola below Shembaganur (1900 m.). It

grows on moist shaded rocks at protected places and is locally abundant.

(4800, 4801, 5818, 5819).

A. nidus Linn. ; Mehra & Bir 158, 1964. Thamnopteris nidus Presl ;

Bedd., Handb. 137, 1883.

Cultivated in the Botanical garden of Sacred Heart College, Shemba-

ganur (1950 m.). (5821).

1 Bull. Brit. Mus. (nat. Hist.), 3 (6) : 264, 1965.

190 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 68 (!)

A. trichomanes Linn. ; Clarke, F.N.I. 477, 1880; Bedd., Handb. 143,

1883.

Some plants were found growing on a dark shaded rock along road-

side near Moir Point (1800 m.). It is a rare fern and was collected only

at one place. (4787).

A. inaequilaterale Willd. ; Asplenium trapeziforme sensu Bedd., F.S.I.

45, t. 134, 1864 ; non Roxb. A. lunulatum var. trapeziforme Bedd.,

Handb. 148, 1883, pro parte (non A. trapeziforme Roxb.).

It is a rare and low altitude fern. It grows in crevices of moist, dark

rocks near Parvat Vihar (1200 m.). (5943, 5944).

A. erectum Bory ex Willd.; Asplenium brasiliense sensu Bedd., F.S.I.

45, t. 135, 1864 ; non Raddi. A. lunulatum var. camptorhachis

(Kunze) Bedd., Handb. 148, 1883.

This is occasionally met with as an epiphyte or lithophyte between

1600-2300 m. altitude, especially common in forest below Shembaga-

nur (1900 m.), near Bear Shola (2100 m.) and at Moir Point. (4677,

4678, 5805, 5806).

A. zenkerinum Kunze ; Bedd., Hand. 148, t. 75, 1883 ( zenkerianum ).

Asplenium persicifolium Sensu Bedd., F.S.I. t. 128, 1864.

It is an high altitude fern flourishing in the crevices of moist shady

rocks and boulders in Picnic Shola (2000 m.) and near Pillar Rocks

(2200 m.). Apical vegetative buds are frequently present. (4504,

4506, 5814, 5815).

A. decrescens Kunze ; Asplenium contiguum sensu T. Moore, Index

Fil. , 121, 1859 quoad specim. Zeyl. ;? non Kaulf. ; Bedd., F.S.I. 47,

t. 140, 1864. A. caudatum sensu Hook., Sp. Fil., 3 : 152, 1860

quoad specim. Zeyl., pro parte ; non Forst. f ; Bedd., Handb. 151,

1883.

This species prefers moist shaded dark rocks and luxuriantly flourishes

in protected places. It is quite abundant between 1500-2300 m. altitude

especially common in Shembaganur (1950 m.) and in forest below Silver

Cascade (1700 m.). (5820).

A. affine Swartz

This large sized fern is quite rare in the area and grows in the crevices

of moist shaded rocks near Pillar Rocks (2100 m.). (4670). For nomen-

clature of this as well as following species consult Sledge (1965).

A. aethiopicum (Burm. f.) Becherer; Asplenium furcatum Thunb.;

Bedd., Handb. 157, 1883. A. laser pitiifolium sensu Bedd., F.S.I.

75, t. 225, 1864 ; non Lam.

It is extremely common on moist rocks, along footpaths and

PTERID OPH YTIC FLORA OF KOD AIK ANAL

1 91

occasionally grows epiphytically on lower portions of tree trunks between

1400-2300 m. and is abundant in forests near Observatory (2300 m.),

Shembaganur (1800 m.), Tiger Shola (1800 m.) and Silver Cascade.

(4716-4718, 5810, 5811).

A. falcatum Lam. var. bipinnatum Sledge1. Asplenium spathulinum

sensu Bedd., F.S.I. 75, t. 226, 1864 ; non J. Smith ex Hook.

It is rare fern and only few plants were collected as growing on shaded

rock near Uttu (1100 m.) along Uttu-Falls View road. (5804, 5809).

A. auritum Swartz ; Bedd., F.S.I. t. 137, 1864 & Handb. 149, 1883.

It is occasionally met with as an epiphyte or on moist shady rocks

around Silver Cascade (1800 m.), Moir Point (2200 m.), Tiger Shola

(1700 m.) and in forest near Shembaganur (1950 m.). (5812, 5813).

A. caudatum Forst ; Bedd. ; F.S.I. t. 143, 1864.

It is often met with on moist shady rocks or stony walls between

1600-2300 m. especially near Pillar Rocks (2200 m.), Moir Point

(2300 m.), Shembaganur (1900 m.), Silver Cascade (1800 m.) and

Perumal Malai (1500 m.). (4671-4673, 4765).

Family Blechnaceae

Biechnum orientale Linn. ; Mehra & Bir 160, 1964.

It is extremely rare fern and grows in open sunny places usually in the

crevices of rocks along Uttu road (950 m.) and near Vellagavi village

(700 m.) (5761, 5762).

Family Loxogrammaceae

Loxogramme involuta (Don) Presl ; Mehra & Bir 160, 1964.

It is an epiphytic or a rock-loving fern and is common in all the

forests between 1600-2400 m. altitude. Abundant near Observatory

Hill (2300 m.), Moir Point (2200 m.), Pillar Rocks (2100 m.), Bear Shola

(2000 m.), Tiger Shola (1800 m.) and in Shembaganur forest (1950 m.).

(4807, 4808, 5751, 5752).

L. lanceolata Presl ; Mehra & Bir 161, 1964.

This is an extremely rare fern and was collected only once as an

epiphyte in Shembaganur forest (1800 m.).

1Bull. Brit. Mus. (nat. Hist.). 3 (6) : 262, 1965.

192 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 68 (1)

Family Polypodiaceae

Pyrrosia mollis (Kze.) Ching ; Mehra & Bir 163, 1964.

Met with on rocks or as an epiphyte in Shembaganur forest (1900 m.)

near Bear Shola falls (2100 m.) and near Silver Cascade (1800 m.).

This fern is common between 1500-2000 m. altitude (4820, 4821, 5869,

5870).

P. lanceolata (L.) Farwell ; Mehra & Bir 161, 1964.

This low level fern is found below 1000 m. altitude and generally

forms mats on rocks and walls between 500-900 m. altitude especially at

Falls View (600 m.) and Cooly Ghat (700 m.). Occasionally it may grow

as an epiphyte on the lower portions of tree trunks. (4826, 5871,- 5872).

Paraleptochilus decurrens (Bl.) Copel. ; Mehra & Bir 166, 1964.

It is an extremely rare fern and was collected only once as growing

on moist shaded rocks in forest near Pillar Rocks (2100 m.). It has

characteristic dimorphic fronds. (4503).

Lepisorus nudus (Hook.) Ching ; Mehra & Bir 169, 1964.

Occasionally grows as an epiphyte or lithophyte in Shembaganur

forest (1950 m.), along Tiger Shola road (1700 m.) and also near Moir

Point (2300 m.). (4713-4715, 5868).

L. amaurolepida (Sledge) Bir & Trikha1.

It grows on rocks or tree trunks in moist shaded situations in sholas

near Moir Point (2100 m.), Pillar Rocks (2000 m.), Shembaganur

(1950 m.) and Silver Cascade (1700 m.). (4776,4777,4825, 5866, 5867).

Pleopeltis macrocarpa (Bory ex Willd.) Kaulf2. Pleopeltis lanceolata

Kaulf. ; Bedd., Handb. 357, t. 197, 1883. P. lepidota (Willd. ex

Schlecht.) Presl; Bedd., F.S.I. 60, t. 181, 1864. (nom. illegit.).

A very rare epiphyte, collected only once as growing on a tree trunk

from near Bear Shola (2100 m.). (5864, 5865).

Phymatodes hastata (Thunb.) Ching ; Mehra & Bir 170, 1964.

This fern is extremely rare and was collected only once as growing

on tree trunk at damp shaded places in shola near Moir Point

(2100 m.). (4817, 4818).

1 Basinym : Pleopeltis amaurolepida Sledge in Bull. Brit. Mus. (nat. Hist.) 2 (5) :

136, 1960.

2 For nomenclature and synonymy see Pichi-Sermolli (1965) and Bir and Trikha

(1968).

PTERIDOPHYTIC FLORA OF KODAIKANAL

193

P. montana (Sledge) Bir & Devi1.; Pleopeltis oxyloba Bedd., F.S.I.

59, t. 175, 1864 pro parte ; Pleopeltis hastata Bedd., Handb. 362,

1883 pro parte (non Polypodium hastatum Thunb.).

It is recorded from Kodaikanal by Bourne in May and June, 1898

from Bear Shola and Pillar Rocks stream respectively ( cf \ Sledge 1960),

Sauliere in September 1913 from Shembaganur and Saldhna in September

1959 (without locality).

Colysis hemionitidea (Wall.) Presl; Mehra & Bir 173, 1964.

It is a lithophytic fern and grows in moist and shady situations near

Pillar Rocks (2100 m.). (4819).

Microsorium membranaceum (Don) Ching ; Mehra & Bir 175, 1964.

This rare fern was collected only once inside shola near Moir Point

(1500 m.) as growing on the lower part of moist shaded tree trunk.

(4822, 4824).

M. punctatum (Linn.) Copel.; Mehra & Bir 175, 1964.

This low level fern is very rare and was collected only once as growing

on moist shaded rock in a khud en route Kodaikanal (600 m.). (4827).

Family Grammitioaceae

Ctenopteris subflacata (Bl.) Kunze ; Mehra & Bir 176, 1964.

It grows at the basal portions of tree trunks in the forest near Shemba-

ganur (1500 m.) and is very rare. (4778).

Recently Bhavanandan (1968) recorded Dry op ter is hirtipes (Bl.) O.

Ktze., D. boryana (Willd.) C. Chr. [= Dryoathyrium boryanum (Willd.)

Ching], Cyclosorus unitus (L.) Ching and Thelypteris paludosa (Bl.) K.

Iwatsuki from Kodaikanal but no specific localities are mentioned.

Summary

The preceding account clearly indicates that Kodaikanal is very rich

in members of Pteridophytes. Summary of recorded species from the

area, belonging to different genera is on p. 194.

Amongst the genera very well represented at Kodaikanal mention

may be made of Lycopodium , Adiantum, Cyathea , Athyrium , Dryopteris,

Diplazium , Thelypteris and Asplenium. Eighteen species of the last

mentioned genus are met with in the area.

1 Bull. Bot. Surv. India 10 : 209, 1968.

13

194 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 68 (1)

Total : fern-allies i Genera : 4 and Species : 14.

ferns : Genera : 52, Species : 118 and varieties : 2(120 different ferns)

Acknowledgements

Our grateful thanks are due to Prof. P. N. Mehra (Chandigarh) for

constant inspiration, encouragement and for providing funds to the junior

author to tour Kodaikanal area during September to November, 1966.

A deep sense of gratitude is expressed to Govt, of India (Ministry of

Education) which financed the visit of the senior author to Kodaikanal

for attending Summer School in Botany in June, 1962 when collections

were first made.

Our thanks are also due to Dr. K. Subramanyam, Botanical Survey

of India, Calcutta for providing synonymy of some species of Thelypteris

and Cyclosorus .

PTERIDOPHYTIC FLORA OF KODAIKANAL

References

195

Alston, A. H. G. (1945) : An enu-

meration of the Indian species of Selagi-

nella. Proc. nat. inst. Sci. India 11 (3) :

211-235.

(1957) : American Fern

usually known as Dryopteris paleacaea.

Amer. Fern Jour. 47 : 91-92.

— & Bonner, C. E. B. (1956) :

Resultats Des Expeditions Scientifiques

Genevoires Au Nepal en 1952 et 1954

(Partie Botanique) 5-Pteridophyta,

Candollea 15 : 193-220.

Beddome, R. H. (1863, 1864, 1865?) :

The Ferns of Southern India. Gantz

Brothers, Madras.

(1883) : A Handbook to the

Ferns of British India, Ceylon and Malay

Peninsula. Thacker Spink and Co.,

Calcutta.

(1892) : A Handbook to the

Ferns of British India, Ceylon and Malay

Peninsula. With Supplement. Thacker

Spink and Co., Calcutta.

Bhavanandan, K. V. (1968): Studies

on the Cytology of sixteen species of

south Indian Ferns. Caryologia 21:

333-338.

Bir, S. S. & Trikha, C. K. (1968) :

Taxonomic revision of the Polypodia-

ceous genera in India — III. Pleopeltis

Humboldt, et Bonpl. ex. Willd., Amer .

Fern. Journ. 58 : 119-125.

Chowdhury, N. (1937) : Notes on

some Indian species of Lycopodium with

remarks on the distribution of the genus

in India. Trans, nat. Inst. India 1 (9) :

183-226.

Christensen, C. (1905-1906) : Index

Filicum. Hager up (Hafinnise).

(1913) : Index Filicum Sup-

plementum, 1906-1912. Hagerup (Hafi-

nniae).

(1917) : Index Filicum Sup-

plement Preliminaire. Pour Les Annes,

1913, 1914, 1915, 1916. Hagerup

(Hafinniae).

— (1934) : Index Filicum Sup-

plementum Tertium. Pro. Annis, 1917

1933. Hagerup (Hafinniae).

Clarke, C. B. (1880) : A review of

Ferns of Northern India. Trans. Linn.

Soc. London II Bot. 1 : 425-611.

Gupta, R. K. (1960) : Vegetation of

Kodaikanal in South India. I. Syste-

matic list Of Trees, Shrubs and Herbs.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 57 (1) : 45-65.

(1962) : Vegetation of

Kodaikanal in South India. II. A Supple-

mentary list of Trees, shrubs and Herbs,

ibid. 59 (1) : 185-199.

Holttum, R. E. (1965) : Tree Ferns of

the genus Cyathea Sm. in Asia (Excluding

Malaysia). Kew. Bull. 19 (3) : 463-487.

Hooker, W. J. & Baker, J. C. (1874) :

Synopsis Filicum. 2nd ed. Robert Hard-

wicke, 192, Piccadilly, London.

Hope, C. W. (1903) : The Ferns of

North Western India. J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 14 : 720-749.

Matthew, K. M. (1959) : The Vege-

tation of Kodaikanal grassy slopes. /.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 56 (3) : 387-422.

Mehra, P. N. (1961) : Cytological

evolution of ferns with particular re-

ference to Himalayan forms. Proc.

48 th Indian Sc. Congr. Session, part II.

pp. 130-153.

& Bir, S. S. (1964) : Pterido-

phytic flora of Darjeeling and Sikkim

Himalayas. Res. Bull. Punjab Univ.

(n.s.) Sci. 15 : 69-182.

Nair, N. C. (1968) : Nomenclature of

some Indian ferns. Ind. Forester 94 :

169-170.

Pichi-Sermolli, R. E. G. (1965) :

Index Filicum. Supplementum Quartum

Pro annis 1934-1960. Regnum Vege-

tabile vol. 37. Published by Inter-

national Bureau for Plant Taxonomy and

Nomenclature, Utrecht, Netherlands.

— — (1965) : On the nomen-

clature of ‘ Pleopeltis lanceolata ’. Webbia ,

20 : 349-354.

Sledge, W. A. (1956) : The nomen-

clature and taxonomy of Athyrium

nigripes (Bl.) Moore, A. solenopteris

(Kunze) Moore and A. praetermissum

Sledge. Ann. Mag. nat. Hist., Ser. 12, 9 :

453-464.

(1960) : The Polypodiaceae

and Grammitidaceae of Ceylon. Bull.

Brit. Mus. (nat. Hist.) 2 (5) : 133-158.

(1962) : The Athyrioid Ferns

of Ceylon, ibid. 2 (11) : 275-323.

— — - — (1965) : The Ceylon species

of Asplenium. ibid. 3 (6) : 235-277.

Some aspects of Bio-Ecology of

Podagrica orbiculata (Motsch.)

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) as a

pest of Abelmoschus esculentus

at Sehore (M.P.)

BY

R. R. Rawat and R. K. Singh

Department of Entomology ,

Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya, Jabalpur

( With two text-figures)

Podagrica orbiculata (Motsch.) bowringi (Baly.) appeared as a serious

pest of young plants of Lady’s finger {Abelmoschus esculentus) during

I960 from July onwards in and around Sehore (M.P.). This is the

first record of the occurrence of the pest and economic damage thereof

in Madhya Pradesh. There is no published work on this pest except

some occasional records of its occurrence in some parts of India.

Maulik (1926) included it in his key to the spp. of the genus Podagrica

in the fauna of British India on Chrysomelidae. Ayyar (1940)

mentioned it as an occasional minor pest of 4 bhindi ’ in south India.

Chowdhary (1962) recorded it as a major pest of Hibiscus cannabinus

in Tripura, the adults appearing in large numbers after rain in July

1956 and feeding on the leaves in abundance. Many other species of

Podagrica have been reported from other countries as major pests,

mostly on malvaceous plants, like P. puncticollis Weise. and P. pallida

Jac. on cotton and Hibiscus spp. in Sudan (Pollard 1955 ; Schmutterer

1962), P. breweri Baly. on cotton seedlings in Queensland (Sloan 1937),

P. malvae Illig. on cotton in Russia (Vasilev 1924), P. ceylonensis Jac.

on Hibiscus rosasinensis in Ceylon (Hutson 1939) etc. In view of the

serious infestation of P. orbiculata (Motsch.) on 4 bhindi ’ and the scanty

published work on it, some aspects of its bio-ecology were studied at

Sehore, the findings are reported in this paper.

Materials and Methods

Mass collections of the adult beetles were made from the College

Farm and other fields. The beetles were confined in glass bell jars with

BIO ECOLOGY OF PODAGRICA ORBICULATA (. MOTSCH .) 197

the open top tied with muslin cloth, and containing moist soil in

large petridishes. Fresh tender 4 bhindi 1 leaves were provided as food

regularly. The beetles oviposited readily in moist soil. The eggs were

removed from the soil under a binocular microscope with fine soft wet

brush and counted daily.

For determining the incubation period the eggs were kept on moist