n LIBRARIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOliniliSNI NVINOSH1IWS S3iavai
r~ z ,r~ 2
m m
00 ± co - co
)N NOliniliSNI NVINOSH1IWS SaidVdOll LIBRARIES SMITHSONIAN '"iNSTITUTl
z m z in * z ^
n libraries Smithsonian institution NoumiiSNi nvinoshiiws saiava
— n ~ ^ tn — 00 1
ca cu
co
o Q XTU^/ Q
Z -J Z -1 Z "■ _1
IN z NOliniliSNI ^NVINOSHillNS^S 3 I avaa IT LIBRARI ES SMITHSONIAN^ INSTITU1
2 ra 2 ra /5ds^ 2 00 /£23£a
m
m ' ~ yvAst^ m
~ C O'— co !z CO
1 LIBRARIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOliniliSNI NVIN0SH1MS S3ldVd|
z > CO ^ ^ z * co 2 co
S 1*. S x5?T£jX < ^ S -A, < x-,aNo\ -
z KSS. .V\ H /S#raw 2 m,A -( SM/Sx,.. Z — I
CO =
2 > '-222*' 5 >■ .5 >
N U,N0liniliSNI_NWIN0SHilWSy,S3 I a va a nZLI B RAR I ESWSMITHSONIAN INSTITUtj
CO ~y \ co 2 CO “
O Z X^VASV^ Q
1 "Yf B R AR I ES SMITHSON IAN ^INSTITUTION^* NOliniliSNI ""nVINOSHIIWS ~~S3 I H VH I
“ z r- 2
' CD
TO
>
TO
- \SE
m
— co — co -
1 n NoumiiSNi NViNosHims saidvdan libraries Smithsonian institut
co 2 co 2 v> . co 2
2 << V/X ST , < a\^v , SI /<TsvTT\ < •
z h r/ * ■/ 4 z -h -5- . w^>
b? iGP I
> N'Xij£S*iX ^> ' \%* > ' 2> N^VOSH^iX >’ 2
z CO 2: co — 2 <'>_,
.niliSNI NVINOSHJLIWS SaidVdSH LIBRARIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION N0L
co - co
RARIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOIlfUllSNI NVINOSH1MS S31BVBai1 LIB
z r; 2 r- 2: 1
2 • m 2 xu^Tx ~ O
co £ co \ co
LPIlllSNI NVINOSHimS S3l3Vaan LIBRARIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION N01
2 ^ co 2 .... co 2 CO
< 5 x , x- i x^x £
*h / ,-/ yu ' 2 *h ^ AW
I . O , X; X
CO CO '■ CO
£/ i t §
2 N^uvX > 2 X > XgUu<£X 2 ^ >
CO 2 CO V 2 co Z r
RARIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOIlfUllSNI NVIN0SH1IWS S3iavaai1 LIE
co =; co “ co -=;
•/
LfUliSNI. NVINOSHimS S3!BVaail LIBRARIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOI
2 r 2
O X*Is v Xav^\ O X'Sa nX O
RARIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION N-OlinillSNI NVIN0SH1MS S3 l H VH 8 IT LIE
CO 2 * CO 2 co 2
S Xl5un7X of 2 S . <
> •> ' \XV > ' 2? X^vost^X >
z CO • '*• 2 CO 2 CO
LfUliSNI NVIN0SH1IWS S3 I B Vd 3 11 LIBRARIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOI
co zr co x to
o >>yr — O Xl^vos^x __ o
z 2 _j 2 _J
RARIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOIlfUllSNI NVIN0SH1IWS S3iavaan LIE
inmsNi NviNosHiiHS S3 1 ava a n libraries Smithsonian institution no
2 CO 2 »♦'. CO 2: V CO
< 1 .v&o ? x^rx <
Journal of the
Bombay Natural History Society
3 72
Vo!. 70. No. 1
Editors
ZAFAR FUTKHALLY
J. C. DANIEL & P. V. BOLE
APRIL 1973
Rs. 18 (Inland), £ 1-50 (Foreign)
NOTICE TO CONTRIBUTORS
Contributors of scientific articles are requested to assist the
editors by observing the following instructions :
1. Papers which have at the same time been offered for publica-
tion to other journals or periodicals, or have already been published
elsewhere, should not be submitted.
2. The MS. should be typed (double spacing) on one side of a
sheet only, and the sheets properly numbered.
3. All scientific names to be printed in italics should be under-
lined. Both in zoological and in botanical references only the initial
letter of the genus is capitalized. The specific and subspecific names
always begin with a small letter even if they refer to a person or a
place, e.g. Ant hits hodgsoni hodgsoni or Streptopelia chinensis suratensis
or Dimer ia blatteri .
4. Trinomials referring to subspecies should only be used where
identification has been authentically established by comparison of
specimens actually collected. In all other cases, or where identification
is based merely on sight, binoininals should be used.
5. Photographs for reproduction must be clear and show good
contrast. Prints must be of a size not smaller than 8-20x5’60 cm.
(No. 2 Brownie) and on glossy glazed paper.
6. Text-figures, line drawings, and maps should be in Indian ink,
preferably on Bristol board.
7. References to literature should be placed at the end of the
paper, alphabetically arranged under author’s name, with the abridged
titles of journals or periodicals underlined (italics) and titles of books
not underlined (roman type), thus :
Banerji, M. L. (1958): Botanical Exploration in East Nepal.
/. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 55 (2) : 243-268.
Prater, S. H. (1948) : The Book of Indian Animals. Bombay.
Titles of papers should not be underlined.
8. Reference to literature in the text should be made by quoting
the author’s name and year of publication, thus : (Banerji 1958).
9. Synopsis : Each scientific paper should be accompanied by
a concise, clearly written synopsis, normally not exceeding 200 words.
10. Reprints : Authors are supplied 25 reprints of their articles
free of charge. In the case of joint authorship, 50 copies will be
given gratis to be distributed among the two or more authors. Orders
for additional reprints should be in multiples of 25 and should be
received within two weeks after the author is informed of the acceptance
of the manuscript. They will be charged for at cost plus postage and
packing.
Editors,
Hornbill House, Journal of the Bombay Natural
Shahid Bhagat History Society.
Singh Road,
Bombay 400001
VOLUME 70 No. 1— APRIL 1973
Date of Publication : 6-12-1973.
CONTENTS
/PAGE
bservations on Himalayan Tahr ( Hemitragus jemlahicus). By George B.
Schaller. {With two plates and a text-figure) .. .. .. 1
Orchids of Nepal — 7. By M. L. Banerji and B. B. Thapa. {With seven figures
in two plates) . . . . . . . . . . 25
Bionomics and Distribution of the land leeches of Kumaon Hills, U.P.
By M. L. Bhatia and Sarwajeet Singh Bora. {With 5 text-figures) ..36
Mud and Dung plastering in Baya Nests. By T. Antony Davis. {With two
plates and two text-figures) . . . . . . . . 57
Contribution to the Flora of Tirap Frontier Division. By D. B. Deb
and R. M. Dutta . . . . . . . . 72
Spider Fauna of India : Catalogue and Bibliography. By B. K. Tikader . . 95
Vegetation of Pachpadra Salt Basin in Western Rajasthan. By S. K.
Saxena and R. K. Gupta. {With a map) .. .. .. 104
Effects of temperature and salinity on the oxygen consumption in clams.
By M. R. Ranade. {With eight text-figures) .. .. ..128
A Catalogue of the Birds in the Collection of the Bombay Natural
History Society — 14. By Humayun Abdulali . . . . . . 147
The Food-plants of Indian Rhopalocera. By D. G. Sevastopulo .. 156
Reviews :
1. Behaviour of Wolves, Dogs and related Canids. (R.R.) .. ..184
2. Insect Pollination. (P.V.B.) . . . . . . . . 185
3. The Natural History of Sharks. (B.F.C.) .. .. .. 186
4. Patterns of change in tropical plants. (P.V.B.) . . . . 188
5. Ecology and biogeography of high altitude insects. (R.R.) .. 188
6. Cedrus. (P.V.B.) .. .. .. .. ..189
Miscellaneous Notes :
Mammals : 1 . Ecological and behavioural notes on the Liontailed Macaque
{Macaca silenus) in South India. By Janies R. Karr (p. 191) ; 2. Notes on the
birth and growth of a Slow Loris {Nycticebus coucang) in captivity. By L. N.
Acharjyo and R. Misra (p. 193) ; 3. On some melanistic specimens of House
Rat, Rattus rattus (Linnaeus) [Mammalia: Rodentia : Muridae]. By T. P.
Bhattacharyya (p. 195) ; 4. The 4 Day Nest ’ of a Rat. By M. P. Walkey (p. 196) ;
5. Albinism in the Lesser Rat-Tailed Bat, Rhinopoma h. hardwickei Gray (Chiro-
ptera : Rhinopomatidae). By H. Khajuria (p. 197).
PAGE
Birds : 6. On the occurrence of Gyps fulvus and Aegypius monachus in the Gir
Forest. By Robert B. Grubh (p. 198) ; 7. Calcium intake in vultures of the
genus Gyps. By Robert B. Grubh (p. 199) ; 8. On the occurrence of Golden-
backed Threetoed Woodpecker \Dinopium shorii (Vigors)] south of the Himalayan
Range. By Humayun Abdulali and S. A. Hussain (p. 200) ; 9. Damage to
Maize Crop by Roseringed Parakeet, Psittacula krameri (Scopoli) in the Punjab.
( With a photograph). By M. Ramzan and H. S. Toor (p. 201) ; 10. Significance
of communal roosting in the Common Myna [Acridotheres tristis (Linn.)].
By S. Sengupta (p. 204) ; 11. A crest in the plumage of the Spotted Babbler
Pellorneum ruficeps Swainson. By D. A. Stairmand (p. 207).
Reptiles : 12. Pit Viper [ Trimeresurus macrolepis (Beddome)] bites at a South
Indian Tea Estate. ( With two plates). By R. Whitaker (p. 207).
Fishes : 13. A note on ‘ Golva \ a bag net, in the Damanganga Estuary at
Daman. {With a text-figure). By P. Das (p. 208) ; 14. A generic assessment
of Corvina semiluctuosa Cuvier, 1830 (Pisces : Sciaenidae). {With a text-figure).
By P. K. Talwar (p. 211); 15. On the occurrence of Juvenile Mackerel
Rastrelliger canagurta (Cuvier) off Goa Coast. By Rajinder M. Dhawan (p. 213).
Arachnida : 16. The Social Spider, Stegodyphus sarasinorum Karsch. feeding on
the Lemon Butterfly, Papilio demoleus Linn. By A. K. Raodeo, D. T. Tikar and
Abdul Muqueem (p. 216).
Insecta : 17. A note on Idioscopus clypealis (Leth.) (Hemiptera : Cicadel-
lidae). By K. Ramachandra Rao (p. 217) ; 18. Seasonal changes in the
population of Epilachna Beetle Henosepilachna sparsa Herbst. (Coleoptera :
Coccinellidae). {With nine text-figures). By V. I. Edona and A. B. Soans
(p. 218) ; 19. The process of moulting and the number of instars in the Tiger
Beetle, Cicindela cancellata Dej. (Coleoptera : Cicindelidae). {With a text-
figure). By A. B. Soans and J. S. Soans (p. 221) ; 20. New records of
Hymenopterous parasites of Pea Leafminer Phytomyza atricornis Meigen
(Diptera : Agromyzidae). By R. S. Gokulpure (p. 223) ; 21. Contribution to
the study of Aquatic Beetles — 14. Copelatus neelumae sp. nov. (Dytiscidae) from
India. {With a text-figure). By T. G. Vazirani (p. 224) ; 22. Quisqualis
indica Linn, and Dodonea viscosa Linn, as new hosts of Castor Semilooper,
Achoea janata Linn. By V. S. Kavadia and S. K. Verma (p. 226) ; 23. The
occurrence of the Common Palmfly {Elymnias hypermnestra caudata Butler)
near Bombay. By Salman Abdulali (p. 228).
Crustacea : 24. Occurrence of the Genus Conchyliurus Bocquet & Stock
(Cyclopoida-Clausidiidae) in Ratnagiri. By M. R. Ranade (p. 228).
Botany : 25. On the occurrence of Cuscuta santapaui Banerji & Das in Western
Himalayas. By K. P. Janardhanan (p. 230) ; 26. Plant records for
Maharashtra State from Chandrapur District. By S. K. Malhotra and Sirasala
Moorthy (p. 232) ; 27. Utricularia stricticaulis Stapf from Bhubaneswar — A
New record for Orissa. By H. O. Saxena (p. 233) ; 28. Some interesting and
rare plants from Maharashtra State. {With four plates). By B. G. Kulkarni
and B. M. Wadhwa (p. 234) ; 29. On the occurrence of Ruta chalepensis Linn,
in India. {With a plate). By K. R. Ramanathan and Kamala Ramachandran
(p. 238).
Notes and News
Gleanings
Announcement
241
243
244
JOURNAL
OF THE
BOMBAY NATURAL
HISTORY SOCIETY
1973 APRIL Vol. 70 No. 1
Observations on Himalayan Tahr
( Hemitragus jemlahicus )
BY
George B. Schaller
( With two plates and a text-figure)
A small population of Himalayan tahr was observed on 20 days in eastern
Nepal. Tahr used several vegetation types, ranging from broadleaved forest
to alpine meadows between altitudes of 2500 and 4400 m, but their favoured
habitat was grass-covered cliffs with patches of forest. Adult males out-
numbered adult females by a ratio of 2 : 1 ; there were 56 young and 44 year-
lings to 100 adult females. Tahr herds seemed to confine themselves to
definite ranges . All members of herds were seldom together but congregated
into unstable groups of varying sizes. Average group size was 65. Some
adult males were with the females at the time of the study, some were solitary,
and the rest were in small male groups. Tahr were most active before 0900
and after 1330 hours. Their principal food was grass, supplemented with
browse. Courtship displays are described. Several indirect and direct
forms of threat are used by tahr and these are described and quantified. Com-
parisons with Nilgiri tahr are drawn whenever possible. In their physical
appearance, tahr represent a link between rupicaprids and the true goats of
the genus Capra. This study shows that tahr also resemble both rupicaprids
and true goats in their forms of aggression.
Himalayan tahr {Hemitragus jemlahicus H. Smith 1826) were success-
fully introduced into New Zealand in 1904. Anderson and Henderson
(1961) published notes on the biology of these animals, and Caughley
(1966, 1970, 1971) discussed their population dynamics in detail. Infor-
mation on Himalayan tahr in their natural habitat consists only of general
comments and hunting accounts (Burrard 1925 ; Stockley 1928), and
even a description of the species’ behavioural repertoire is unavailable
2 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 70 (i)
Between February 25 and April 5, 1972, I observed tahr on 20 days in
and around the Kang Chu valley (also known as the Zom valley) of
eastern Nepal. While my contact with the animals was limited to 80
hours of observation, the data contribute to the knowledge of the species
and provide a basis for comparing the behaviour of Himalayan tahr
with that of Nilgiri tahr ( Hemitragus hylocrius).
The Kang Chu has its source in the Tibet province of China but
soon crosses the border and flows southward through Nepalese territory
for about 15 km before joining the Bhota Kosi river a stretch during
which it descends from an altitude of 4000 m to 2500 m. A mountain range
with peaks exceeding a height of 6000 m borders the valley on each side.
At its confluence with the Kang Chu, the Bhota Kosi enters a canyon
whose sheer cliffs rise 1000 m or more. After about 2 km the valley
broadens, and soon after that, near the village of Lamobager, the rivet
tumbles to lower altitudes. Tahr frequent most cliffs along the lower
Kang Chu, the upper Bhota Kosi, and the adjoining Rongshar and
Chyadu river valleys. I found tahr fairly abundant and observable only
on the cliff that flanks the western bank of the Bhota Kosi between
the mouths of the Kang Chu and Chyadu valleys (86° 14' E., 27° 51' N.).
By climbing the cliff on the opposite side, I was able to observe tahr
across the narrow canyon with a 20-power scope (Plate 1).
Habitat
Himalayan tahr are found from the Jhelum river in the Pir Panjal
Range of Kashmir eastward along the southern flanks of the Himalayas
to about central Bhutan (Burrard 1925). Animals may occur from
altitudes of as low as 1550 m in winter (Stockley 1928) to as high as 5300 m
in summer (Caughley 1969). In the Kang Chu area, the species was
observed between about 2500 and 4400 m, a range of altitudes which
includes several vegetation types. The valleys and lower slopes up to
an altitude of around 3000 m (the exact limit depending on degree of
slope and exposure) are covered with a montane ‘ evergreen broadleaved
forest ’ (Schweinfurth 1957). Although Quercus spp., Buxus wallichiana,
and other trees may form almost monotypic stands, the forest usually
consists of a variety of trees among which the genera Rhododendron ,
Magnolia, Acer , Aims and Tsuga are prominent. Except for a few
tall stands with a closed canopy beneath which there is little under-
growth, the trees are seldom more than 20 m high and the understory of
saplings, shrubs, vines, and bamboo (Arundinaria) may be dense.
Boulders often litter the floor and occasional cliffs break the continuity
of the forest. Above the broadleaved forest is a belt of conifers and
rhododendrons, with particularly fine stands growing on gradual terrain
with a northern on north-eastern exposure. Fir {Abies) is the dominant
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 70(1) Plate 1
Schaller : Himalayan Tahr
The main tahr study area along the upper Bhota Kosi River, Nepal.
(Photo : George B. Schaller)
Schaller : Himalayan Tahr
A young adult male (class II) tahr on a typical ledge covered with grass and some shrubs.
(Photo : George B. Schaller)
OBSERVATIONS ON HIMALAYAN 1 AHR
3
tree, and beneath it is a sparse understory of Rhododendron and Betula.
At an altitude of about 3600 m the fir gives way to a stunted transitional
zone of rhododendron, birch, willow and juniper, and it soon grades
into the alpine vegetation of grasses, forbs, and mat-like shrubs. The
line of permanent snow is at around 5600 m. Another habitat, one not
recognized as distinct by Schweinfurth (1957), is found on cliffs, especially
steep ones with a somewhat southern exposure. The fa^es of most
cliffs are broken by many ledges and platforms which support much grass
and occasional patches of shrub, bamboo, and broadleaved forest.
With some cliffs rising for over 1000 m from the valley floor, this grassy
habitat may grade into the alpine vegetation without an intervening forest
belt.
The literature contains conflicting opinions about habitat preferences
of tahr, although all authors agree that the animal 4 revels in the steepest
precipices f (Burrard 1925). Kinloch (1892). Burrard (1925) and
others felt that tahr remain in forests and dense thickets, never ascending
above timberline. Lydekker (1924), too, labeled them as 4 essentially
forest animals, ’ but he noted that they may wander into the open. Prater
(1965) held a similar view, and added that animals are never found out-
side thickets 4 after the sun has well-risen.’ In contrast, Caughley (1969),
who observed tahr in central Nepal rather than in India as did the pre-
vious authors, stated that 4 the habitat of this species is the subalpine
zone between 3900 m and 5300 m.’ I found tahr to be considerably
more adaptable than these statements would indicate. Tahr frequented
all habitats in my study area, although the conifer-rhododendron belt
appeared to be used mainly in transit, perhaps because there was little
food near ground level, especially in winter when snow was deep. The
animals certainly were not adverse to open terrain. Old sign in the form
of droppings and rest sites indicated that tahr spent much time above
timberline during summer and autumn, and groups often remained on
open cliffs throughout the day. In fact, tahr in New Zealand have adapt-
ed to tree-less terrain (Caughley 1970). The favoured habitat of tahr
in the Kang Chu area, at least from February to April, was the grassy
cliffs broken by small stands of forest and bamboo below an altitude of
3500 m. I suspect that the animals spent the winter there too, for the
oaks and other evergreen trees provide forage as well as protection from
bad weather. Furthermore, grass on cliffs is often accessible, the snow
removed by wind and sun, while forests and alpine meadows remain deeply
covered.
Description of Animals
Tahr differ from goats of the genus Capra in that both sexes lack a
beard and have short, laterally compressed horns which curve sharply
4 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HiST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1)
backward. They resemble typical goats in their strong body odour and
in the absence of pre-orbital, inguinal, and pedal glands on the fore-
feet (Lydekker 1924). Male and female Himalayan tahr differ consi-
derably in size and appearance, as do the sexes among most members
of the tribe Caprini. I recognized several age and sex classes. The
ages of subadults and of adult males were estimated on the basis of body
size, pelage length, and other physical characteristics. It was sometimes
possible to count growth rings on the horns of males. As Caughley
(1965) has shown, one growth ring is laid down every winter of life after
the first. The approximate ages are given as they were at the time of
study.
Adult male ( Class III), almost 5 or 6 years old and older. Males
are handsome creatures with narrow, black faces and stocky bodies,
the forequarters being particularly powerful. Their shoulder height
ranges from 91 to 102 cm and their weight is around 90 kg (Lydekker
1924). Anderson and Henderson (1961) give similar figures for height
of New Zealand tahr, but they estimate that some animals may weigh
as much as 150 kg. The dark horns have a sharp keel in front. ‘ A
well-developed set of bull tahr (sic) horns will measure 12-15 inches in
length and 8|-9 inches in circumference around the base ’ (Ander-
son and Henderson 1961). A male’s most conspicuous feature is his
ruff and mantle of flowing hair which drape from his neck, shoulders,
and chest down to his knees and from his back and rump down to his
flanks and thighs. The neck ruff is light brown in colour, as is the hair
on each side of the dark mid-dorsal streak. There is also a light eye-
ring and chin. The hair surrounding the anus is rusty in colour. The
rest of the body is covered with a deep coppery brown to blackish pelage.
Young adult male (Class II), almost 4 years to perhaps 5 years old.
Males of this age class resemble those in class III in size and in the pre-
sence of the shaggy ruff on neck and shoulders, but they are not as
robust and the mantle of hair along the back is fairly short (Plate 2).
Subadult male (Class I), almost 3 years old. Class I males are only
as large as or slightly larger than adult females. Their pelage is not as
dark as that of adult males, and their horns are smooth and yellowish
rather than corrugated and dark. Although a neck ruff is conspicuous,
males of this class lack a mantle along the back.
Yearling male, almost 2 years old. Yearling males are smaller than
adult females. In colour they resemble females, but they have a notice-
able ruff.
Female, with a maximum weight of 36 kg (Anderson and Hender-
son 1961), adult females are considerably smaller than adult males.
Their neck is yellowish brown in colour, except for a dark stripe along
each side and along the mid-dorsal line. A light streak runs along each
side of the back from the shoulders to the rump ; the sides of the muzzle
OBSERVATIONS ON HIMALAYAN TAHR
5
also show a pale line. The abdomen is whitish. The rest of the pelage
is dark brown. Some females have a small ruff but most have just a
slight crest of hair on the back of the neck. The horns of females
resemble those of subadult males in appearance, except that they are
somewhat shorter and more slender. Yearling females are of the same
size as yearling males, the most conspicuous difference between the two
being that females lack a ruff.
Young , almost one year old. Young resemble yearlings, but they
are considerably smaller, and, in the case of males, lack a ruff. Most
young still followed and rested besides their mother even though they
were weaned, judging by the fact that females discouraged occasional
suckling attempts by stepping aside.
Population Dynamics
Tahr were difficult to census because they were often out of sight in
thickets. Although I often scanned the slopes of the Kang Chu
Rongshar, and upper Bhota Kosi valleys, tahr were seldom seen, suggest-
ing that they were scarce there. But there was one cliff along the Bhota
Kosi, a huge pyramid-shaped one over 1 km long at the base and some
1000 m high, on whose face I readily found tahr. At least 45 tahr fre-
quented this cliff, and, assuming a few were overlooked, the total was
probably around 50.
Table 1
Tahr population structure
Table 1A shows the population structure of the 45 tahr on the study
cliff. Since females limit themselves to distinct home ranges whereas
adult males tend to wander widely (Caughley 1966), the percentages
6 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1)
are probably biased in favour of the former. Another way to analyze
structure is to add up all tahr seen daily in the study area (Table IB).
This, however, skews data in favour of those animals which are met repeat-
edly. Nevertheless, the percentages derived by the two methods show close
agreement. Adult females outnumbered classes I to III males by a ratio
of about 2:1, in contrast to New Zealand tahr which seem to have a 1:1
ratio (Anderson and Henderson 1961). Fetuses examined by Caughley
(1966) in New Zealand showed no disparate ratio. Male and female
yearlings were represented equally in my study population. These facts
suggest that males are perhaps not quite fully represented in the sample,
solitary individuals being difficult to find, and that they may have a
higher death rate than females, but I lack evidence on either point.
Nilgiri tahr and Kashmir markhor ( Capra falconeri cashmiriensis) also
have a disparate sex ratio favouring females (Schaller 1970 ; Schaller
and Mirza 1971).
Anderson and Henderson (1961) noted that some New Zealand
tahr conceived as yearlings at the age of 18 months. The yearlings
in my study population had slim abdomens, in contrast to the extended
ones of adults, indicating that they were probably not pregnant. Hima-
layan tahr, in their natural habitat appear to have their first young at
the age of 3 years. Males do not reach sexual maturtiy until at least 2
years of age, the testes of yearlings failing in most instances to increase
in size and to produce sperm during the rut (Caughley 1971).
There was one pair of twins among 158 embryos examined by Caughley
(1971) in New Zealand, and none in 66 examined by Rammell (1964). The
180 births in the New York Zoological Garden included one set of twins
(Crandall 1964). Zuckerman (1953) reported on 115 births in the
London Zoo and noted one pair of twins for every 12 births. Thus,
single births seem to be the rule. Females in the Kang Chu had one
young at heel, except for one female which had two. Three young were
with a female on several occasions, but these were temporary associations,
the extra young joining other females later. Some 22% of the study
population consisted of young, or 56 young to 100 adult females. Tak-
ing into account that several adult females had not yet had their first
young and that an occasional female was perhaps barren, the figures
suggest that around a third of the young had died between birth and the
age of 8 to 9 months. Yearlings comprised 18% of the population, or
44 yearlings to 100 adult females, a good increment. With the tahr
seemingly healthy and reproduction good, the population should be
increasing unless an excessive number of adults die. I have no obser-
vations on causes of death. Some animals probably have accidents,
and a few are no doubt killed by leopard ( Panthera pardus ), and, in the
event that they straggle to the headwaters of the Kang Chu, by snow
Jeopard ( Panthera uncici). Meat hunters visit the area every summer,
OBSERVATIONS ON HIMALAYAN TAHR
7
according to the local Tibetans, and it is perhaps not coincidental that
I found the densest tahr population on a cliff that is almost inaccessible
to man.
Herd Dynamics
The tahr population on the study cliff was divided into two herds sepa-
rated by a strip of forest, one using the northern portion, the other the
southern. The females and young associated only with members of
their respective herd, judging by the fact that several animals which I
recognized individually were always on their usual part of the cliff, but
some males may have wandered from one herd to the other. The nor-
thern herd contained at least 10 females and 5 young, the southern herd
12 females and 5 young. Several males of varying ages were with or
near each herd. A third herd, seen only once on a slope opposite the
study cliff, contained 9 individuals of which 3 were males. Members
of a herd were seldom all together, being instead scattered in small groups
which often joined and separated in various combinations in the course
of a day. One dawn, for example, I spotted a group of 1 1 tahr, but by
mid-morning it had split into groups of 4 and 7 which moved in oppo-
site directions. A total of 36 groups (excluding groups composed solely
of males) were classified during the study, a group being defined as two
or more individuals separated by at least 200 m of terrain from others.
Groups ranged in size from 2 to 23 with an average of 6*5, as compared
with at least 22 members in each of the two study herds.
The basic social unit consisted of a female and her young. Such
pairs roamed at times far from other herd members. Another common
association included two or three females, a young or two, and often a
yearling of either sex. Table 2 shows the composition of 3 large groups.
Table 2
The composition of the largest group in each of 3 herds
SEEN DURING THE STUDY
Nine out of 12 groups with 7 or more tahr contained at least one subadult
or adult male. But, as is the case in many ungulate societies, contact
between adult males and females outside the period of rut tends to be
transitory. Males which were in a group in the morning had often
left it by evening, going off singly and in twos or threes, perhaps to
8 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1)
join casually the following day. Even when such males were with a
group, they often congregated at the periphery. For example, in the
group of 23 (see Table 2), two class III males and one class II male fed
and rested side by side near the others for several hours before leaving
together. Eighteen per cent of the subadult and adult males I tallied
were solitary or in twos. Stockley (1928) once observed a group of 6
male tahr and another time 24 of them together. Yearling males were
usually with the females. However, on three occasions, a yearling was
seen in the company of a subadult male far from any other group.
Later in the season, contact between males and females may become
even more tenuous. Caughley (1966), for instance, wrote that ‘ during
the summer tahr range in three main kinds of groups : one consists of
females, juveniles and kids, a second consists of young males and the
third of mature males.’ The males are said to join the females again in
September prior to the rut (Burrard 1925).
The herd structure of Himalayan tahr resembled that of Nilgiri
tahr (see Schaller 1970). In both species the herds tended to split into
temporary groups and males had progressively less contact with the
females after the rut. But there were two differences, at least in the popu-
lations I studied. The average group size of Himalayan tahr was 6*5
as compared to 23 in Nilgiri tahr. The latter species does most of its
feeding on rolling grassland near cliffs. Such a habitat provides a
concentrated and abundant food source, and this may well promote
cohesiveness among herd members. In contrast, Himalayan tahr spend
much of their time along narrow ledges where large groups would be at a
disadvantage. Though average group size differs in the two species,
average herd size possibly does not, but data on this point are lacking.
Another difference between the species may be in the age at which males
become solitary or join male herds. Some yearling Himalayan tahr,
not quite 2 years old, had temporarily left the females, whereas Nilgiri
tahr were not observed to join male herds until at least 3 years of age.
General Behaviour
Tahr spent most of the day feeding or resting, usually remaining
several hours, or eve A a day or two, on a small section of the cliff. Only
on a few occasions did a group move steadily for several hundred metres
to another site. Sometimes animals travelled from a shady area until
they reached one in the sun, and once they hurried away after boulders
had crashed past them. At other times no reason for their movement
was apparent. To obtain information about the activity pattern of
tahr, I recorded the number of active animals every 5 minutes. The 6
points in each half-hour period were combined and expressed in per cent
of animals active in the Figure which is based on 7146 activity observe-
OBSERVATIONS ON HIMALAYAN TAHR
9
tions between 0635 and 1730 hours. Tahr foraged and moved during
all daylight hours, but there were peaks of activity before 0900 and after
Figure. Per cent of tahr active at various times of day, 0635 to 1730 hours.
1330 hours. Although tahr were, in general, least active from mid-
morning to early afternoon, the same groups sometimes varied consi-
derably in their foraging pattern from day to day, often without obvious
cause. Weather, however, may affect activity. On several occasions a
group rested while the sky was clear, then began to forage as soon as it
became cloudy. Groups seldom reclined for more than an hour or two
10 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1)
without at least one member feeding, and, in large groups, there was usually
some activity from dawn to dusk.
Tahr had a limited selection of food plants available at the end of the
winter. Oak leaves were eaten whenever a group was in a forest patch.
To reach low-hanging leaves, an animal may rear up on its hindlegs and
bend and hold down a branch with one or both forelegs while browsing
rapidly. Once a subadult male leaped 2 m into the fork of a tree, be-
haviour common in foraging Kashmir markhor but not tahr. Bamboo
was also an important food, but the abundant leaves of rhododendron
were seldom sampled. The tahr’s principal food was dry grass. In
late February animals spent hours foraging on Danthonia schneideri,
Cymbopogon thwaitesii, ArundineUa nepalensis, and other species. After
obtaining a mouthful in one or more bites, an animal characteristically
raised its head and chewed. I recorded the type of vegetation selected
by two male tahr on two days im February. Of 155 mouthfuls, 75%
consisted of grass, mainly wads of dead leaves and stems bitten off at
the base, 7 % of twigs and leaves from several shrubs and saplings, 6 %
of bamboo, 4 % of dry forbs, and the rest of unidentified material which
was at time obtained by first pawing the ground. By early March, green
grass shoots became conspicuous, and tahr nibbled these. Yet dead
grass continued to be eaten, even late in March when much green forage
was available. Newly sprouted leaves of Polygonum molle , Leucoceptrum
canum and other forbs and shrubs were at that time also a part of the diet.
One tahr ate the blossoms of Daphne gracilis , and several others appeared
to lick crustose lichens off rocks.
From mid-February to mid-March, when average daily minimum
temperatures hovered around the freezing point, tahr tended to forage
in the forest during the early morning hours. Not until sun reached the
cliff, usually around 0830, did they venture into the open. But during
the second half of March, when the average minimum temperature was
6°C, tahr were out at dawn, and, in fact, they may not have retreated into
the forest at all during the night.
To reach the scattered patches of vegetation, tahr have to be good
climbers, and, indeed, they traverse ledges and rock faces with an adept-
ness that can have few equals among ungulates. Their hooves are well
designed for gripping rocks. ‘ The hoof pads are very soft, slightly
convex posteriorly and surrounded by a hard horny rim which must
serve a similar purpose to that of nails around the outside edge of moun-
taineers boots’ (Anderson and Henderson 1961). Further traction is
provided by the large dew claws. Tahr readily balance along ledges only a
few centimetres wide and may leap with precision onto a small grass
tussock growing on a sheer cliff 2 m below them. When confronted by a
smooth, sloping rock face, an animal may rock back and forth and sud-
denly propel itself upward with a series of leaps, using the callus on e^ch
OBSERVATIONS ON HIMALAYAN TAHR
11
knee rather than the hooves to grip the rock fleetingly. The tahr’s
breast is calloused too according to Blanford (1888-91). Callus-like
areas are also present on the hocks and these are used to supplement the
hooves as brakes when an animal slides in a squatting position down a
steep incline.
During rest periods, tahr reclined on exposed ledges, on rocky spurs,
in thickets, almost any place which offered some level terrain ; animals
also retreated beneath rock overhangs when such were available. On
warm days, when shade temperatures reached 15 to 20° C, some tahr
rested beneath trees yet others remained in the sun. Windy places were
not avoided, and a male often rested on a promontory with his mane
whipping in the breeze. ‘ It is common for a group of tahr to have one
or two sentinels posted,’ according to Anderson and Henderson (1961),
but I saw no evidence of this. Tahr were never seen to paw the ground
before lying down, behaviour which is, for example, conspicuous in
markhor (Schaller and Mirza 1971). Animals either reclined with all
legs tucked beneath the body or with one or both forelegs stretched
forward. Cud-chewing was intermittent. Two subadult males were timed
as they chewed a total of 25 boli. The average number of chews per bolus
was 78 (65-87), and the time required to chew each bolus was 49 (40-65)
seconds.
Table 3
Age and sex of tahr involved in licking interactions
Tahr sometimes interrupted their rest or search for forage to groom
themselves, licking their pelage and scratching it with hindleg or horntip.
Social grooming, with one tahr licking the head and neck of another,
was observed on 61 occasions. An interaction may be cursory, limited
to a few licks, but it may also last for as long as 10 minutes. Licking
was often reciprocal, with, for instance, a female first licking her young
and then being groomed in return, On a number of occasions an animql
12 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1)
invited licking by holding its head close to the muzzle of another. As
Table 3 shows, most licking involved either two females or a female and
a young ; subadult and adult males seldom licked each other. Most
interactions between adult females and yearling males, as recorded in
Table 3, took place between the same pair of animals. Social grooming
was a conspicuous activity among Himalayan tahr but not Nilgiri tahr,
a difference for which I have no explanation.
Reproductive Behaviour
The duration of the tahr’s rut in the Himalayas is unknown, but
since the gestation period is 6\ months (Caughley 1971), and young are
born either in May and June (Stockley 1928 ; Prater 1965) or June and
July (Blanford 1888-91 ; Lydekker 1924), most mating must take place
between mid-October and mid-January. The age difference between
some young in my study population was at least two months, and, in New
Zealand, Caughley (1971) noted that births were spread over a period
of almost three months. I saw a few instances of courtship behaviour
and one copulation long after the termination of the main rut, and my
notes are summarized here.
Males showed several behaviour patterns only in response to the
presence of females :
Lip-curl : On 5 occasions a male either sniffed the anal area of a
female or the spot where she had recently rested and then lifted his muzzle
high with the upper lip curled. Yearling, class I, and class II males
behaved in this fashion.
Low-stretch : A male may approach a female with his neck lowered
and almost parallel to the ground and with his muzzle directed ahead or
slightly raised. Males typically come up behind females in this way
and sniff their anal area. This display, which is common to many ungu-
lates, has in tahr become further elaborated. By raising the muzzle
until it points almost straight up and retracting the neck, the shoulders
of the male are transformed into a hump. Instead of remaining behind
the female, the male now faces her rigidly, a position which exposes
the front of the neck ruff to best advantage. His tail may be raised
vertically and his teeth bared. Standing there, he may lift his muzzle
higher and higher until it reaches above the level of his hump. This
posture resembles the head-up display, with head raised and neck erect,
of some ungulates (Walter 1961 ; Geist 1971).
Twist : While approaching a female in the low-stretch, a male may
twist his head so that his horns point away from her. This gesture w&s
seen twice,
OBSERVATIONS ON HIMALAYAN TAHR 13
Tooth-baring : As he faces a female in the low-stretch, a male some-
times retracts his lips to expose his incisor teeth and gums whose whitish
colour contrasts markedly with the black lips and nose. It is possible
that this gesture is an exaggerated form of lip-curling. If so, its function
has been extended from one mainly designed to test the estrous state of
the female by olfactory means to one of display value.
Head-shake : A male may interrupt the low-stretch in front of a
female and jerk his head down, as if nodding vigorously, all the while
shaking it rapidly from side to side. Then he resumes his former posture,
often to shake again a few minutes later. One male displayed behind a
female in this fashion.
Tongue-flick : As a male shakes his head, the tongue usually flicks
rapidly in and out of his mouth. This gesture may also be displayed
when a male follows an estrous female and when he faces her in a low-
stretch.
Kick : During the head-shake, a male sometimes lifted a foreleg
some 15 cm off the ground and kicked it limply and slightly bent at the
carpal joint. Such kicks did not touch the female.
Males possibly add further emphasis to their displays by vocalizing,
as noted in several goat species by Walther (1961), but I was too far
away to hear sounds.
To place the display patterns into their natural context, the only
lengthy courtship I witnessed is here described in a condensed form. The
same animals were presumably involved, but I am not certain of this.
March 24. A group of 16 tahr is scattered over a cliff. At 1050
hours, a class II male approaches a female and gives the low-stretch in
front of her. He stands with muzzle raised and head turned to one side
for 5 minutes before he shifts his gaze to face her directly. She has her
neck lowered and muzzle pointed downward. Soon he assumes a similar
posture. (Both the averted glance and lowered head seem to be gestures
of submission, showing lack of aggressive intent). After a few minutes
the female suddenly jabs him lightly in the neck, but he merely lowers
his head still more. Both stand motionless. When the male raises
his head, she jabs him again, and he promptly assumes his former posi-
tion. One hour after meeting the female, the male gives an intense low-
stretch, muzzle straining skyward, then turns aside, licks himself, and
ambles off. A class III male has been lying in full view 30 m away.
He now displays the low-stretch to the female, grazes by her side a few
minutes, then drifts off too.
March 25. At 0815, a female is attended by a class III male and two
class II males, all somewhat separated from the main group. When a
class II male approaches the female, the class III male by her side ad-
14 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1)
vances toward him in a hunch display (see below). The smaller male
turns aside, joins the other class II male, and both rest at least 10 m
from the courting pair. The class III male assumes the low-stretch, but
the female ignores it and he reclines. At 0910 hours the approach of a class
II male brings him to his feet, and a hunch display causes the interloper
to veer off. Once again he faces the female in a low-stietch. For 15
minutes they stand, he with muzzle raised, she with head averted. After
that both feed and rest. At 1 105 hours, the female approaches the male
who lifts his muzzle so high that the underside of his jaw faces her. She
licks herself, advances, licks again. Whenever she moves, he adjusts his
position so that his muzzle points at her. Suddenly he steps behind
her, his shoulder by her rump. He gives a low-stretch coupled with a
twist, then shakes his head and kicks. Twice more he shakes and kicks
before moving around to face the motionless female. There he alter-
nately low-stretches with teeth bared and shakes a total of 9 times. Occa-
sionally he nudges the female with his nose as if to get her attention, for
when she looks at him he intensifies his low-stretch. The female begins
to feed at 1200 hours. Slowly the male steps behind her and rears on
his hindlegs, mounting her. He thrusts 10 times, barely leaning against
her, without eliciting a response. The two then feed and rest near
each other without further courting for several hours.
March 26. I spot the tahr at 0800 hours. A class II male is giving
the low-stretch with teeth bared to a female. Above the pair on a ledge
is a yearling male and a young. The yearling butts the young so haid
that it falls 2 m and collides with the courting male. Although he is
nearly knocked off his feet, he calmly resumes his displaying. He alter-
nately low-stretches and shakes, also giving occasional kicks and flicks
of the tongue. Once he and the female touch horns. Between 0800
and 0835 hours he has 74 bouts of head-shaking. The female just
stands, her head turned aside, but twice she jerks her horns at him aggres-
sively and once butts his shoulder. At 0835 hours she walks off out of
sight, followed at a distance by the male.
Of particular note is the gentleness with which courtship was conduct-
ed. The males did not press their attention on the female, but limited
themselves to displaying and lingering nearby. Although I saw only
one prolonged courtship, other observations suggest that it was a repre-
sentative one. A class I male once followed a female closely for two
hours, obviously interested in her yet never approaching closer than 1*5 m.
Low-stretch displays, sometimes accompanied by tongue-flicking, teeth-
baring, and, on one occasion, by kicking, were observed a total of 17
times on 10 different occasions, in addition to the instances related
above. Fourteen of these displays were given by yearling males and the
rest by subadult and adult ones. Females usually ignored such displays,
but on two occasions, when importuned by a yearling, they rebuffed
OBSERVATIONS ON HIMALAYAN TAHR
15
them. Once, when a yearling gave a low-stretch to a female, she jabbed
him in the neck. He persisted and was rewaided with a poke in the rump.
He in turn pressed his forehead against the base of her neck, a position
which prevented her from horning him effectively. After a few futile
jabs, she stepped aside and hooked his neck, and, as he turned to leave,
his side too. Undaunted, the male displayed again, only to be butted
in the shoulder. But all such attacks lacked vigour, they were limited
to fairly gentle jabs. The males in turn did not retaliate, except twice
to butt a female. On 9 occasions a pair also locked horns and tussled
briefly and lightly. Alpine ibex ( Capra ibex) and mountain sheep
( Ovis canadensis ) also court cautiously (see Geist 1971). Aside from
other considerations, there would seem to be selective advantage in
courting with restraint on cliffs.
Anderson and Henderson (1961) wrote that in New Zealand tahr
‘ the typical family group consists of a bull, a nanny, its kid, and either
the offspring of the previous year or a 2-year-old, and together they
move to a well-chosen piece of territory to remain for some 6 to 8 weeks.’
Such 4 monogamous grouping,’ as these authors call it, was not evident
in the one courtship I witnessed. Rather the largest male in the group
claimed the estrous female, a pattern similar to that observed in markhor
(Schaller and Mirza 1971) and ibex (Nievergelt 1967).
Aggressive Behaviour
Anderson and Henderson (1961) were impressed with the placid
nature of tahr, noting that 4 a more docile assembly would be hard to
visualize.’ While it is true that fighting is relatively uncommon, at
least outside the rutting period, tahr do interact aggressively in a number
of ways, using both direct and indirect forms of threat. Among the
overt types were the following :
Jerk : A tahr may jerk down its head and point its horns at an
opponent. The gesture signifies an intent to butt, and the threatened
animal usually retreats a little. It was seen 15 times, directed mainly by
females at courting males (6 times) and at young (4 times).
Lunge : On 3 occasions a female jerked down her head and at the
same time lunged a metre or two at another animal, twice at a female,
and once at a yearling male.
Jump : A young reared up on its hindlegs in front of another young
on two occasions. A jump probably represents an intention movement
to clash with a downward thrust of the horns.
Butt : Butting was the most common form of aggression in tahr.
It consisted either of a push with the blunt edges of the horns or of a jab
16 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1)
with the tips. The attack was directed at the neck of the opponent 8
times, the shoulders and sides 8 times, the thighs 3 times, and rump 5
times. Females delivered most butts, usually to courting males; and
young butted each other several times seemingly in play. However,
butting also occurs in serious fights as described by Roberts (1971) :
‘ While observing the movements of a group composed of a mature
bull, ten females and young, my attention was drawn to a large, lone
bull about 500 feet above this herd when he started to smash into the
turpentine scrub with hooves and horns and moved downhill towards
the bull with the females The two bulls confronted each other,
whistled sharply, and began to wrestle like domestic cattle. The tactics
appeared to be to try to put the opponent off balance, for after a
period of pushing, twisting, and sliding downhill one bull was heaved
off balance and the victor immediately shot his horns under him and
ripped him in the belly. This upset him, and he tumbled down into
the steep gully.5
Clash : On 18 occasions two tahr clashed horns, or, in the case of
young, primarily foreheads. Sometimes one animal took the initiative,
the opponent merely catching the blow with the horns, but at other times
both jerked down their heads in unison. With locked horns they then
twisted their heads and pushed each other back and forth. Two to four
clashes sometimes followed in quick succession. None were violent and
all were brief. Yearling males and females clashed most often, usually
after the former had displayed the low-stretch. Once a young approached
a yearling male playfully with its head low and waving from side to side
until their horns met. A yearling male and a yearling female sparred
gently 3 times, and two young clashed twice. Probably Himalayan tahr
also rear up on their hindlegs in unison and lunge downward to clash
their horns forcefully in the manner of Nilgiri tahr, ibex, markhor and
other goats, but I did not see such behaviour.
Head-to-tail : Two young once stood parallel and head-to-tail
as they hooked at each other’s sides. On two other occasions a female
and yearling male assumed similar positions, but circled rapidly with
their heads cocked as if to jab. This method of fighting is similar to
the one I termed shoulder-push in Nilgiri tahr except that the animals
did not shove with their bodies.
As Table 4 shows, the various age classes differed in the amount of
overt aggression. In 106 animal-hours1 of observation, class I, II and
III males asserted themselves only 5 times. Females were also unaggres-
sive except when being courted. Young had a fairly high aggressive
1One animal observed for one hour equals one animal-hour.
\
Type and frequency of overt aggression used by various age and sex classes of tahr
OBSERVATIONS ON HIMALAYAN TAHR
17
g n o >
o3 co c3 JD 2
d ZM 0 3
. a
o.2
C CO
3 s
o eo
cS go
H<3
O
o
GO
e
d
iJ
O VO to r-H OO O
O o 1 o o ^
0\ r- 1
WW'
VO M VO
<N
<0 o
03 g 6
HH C3 « ,D
HH < C C«_
I— I I— I 1— t . ^ .60
ju a Th ^ T2 S
,5 5 J3 S S .0
oj
a
_o
a> a>
> £
% o
GO O
W) co
C3 Sh
1!
52
j§.i
tS §
5s
<0 VO
1/3 _
d c
03 O
O T3
•2 8
fi 03
O^)
5
3
X) c3
515
o 'd
<5 <0
.Sh
*d
o •
n-j co
P CO
II
g§
la
9.S
03 !-<
Oh 03
ft
rS d
O ««
£> T3
co O
§5
•J3 d
0^>
c3 o3
rs ft
53
I CO
O tJ
V 3
*d o
c3 o
^G0
5.s
a U
l!
co 22
5 S
0.2
O ts
-5 o3
a 3
M e
tahr in groups.
1$ JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1)
rating, though some of their behaviour was playful, and yearling males
had the highest. The goat-like blue sheep ( Pseudois nayaur), which I
observed during the same period as the tahr, showed a similar pattern of
aggressive frequencies, except that young rated low (Schaller, in press).
With respect to Nilgiri tahr, Schaller (1970) noted : 4 A ranking of the
classes based on relative frequency of fighting would place light brown
males [class I] at the top, followed in decreasing order by yearlings, females,
dark brown males and saddlebacks [classes II and IIIJ and young.’ The
phase of a species’ reproductive cycle has, of course, a considerable
influence on aggressive frequencies. Schaller and Mirza (1971), for
example, found that rutting adult male markhor were more aggressive
than any other age and sex class.
Direct threats were mainlyused by females toward individuals smaller
than themselves, by one young toward another, and by courting pairs.
Males, on the other hand, tended to employ various indirect forms of
threat to intimidate each other as this example illustrates : After
approaching to within 25 m, a subadult and yearling male halted and
horned vegetation with vigorous sweeps of their heads, one using a grass
tuft, the other bamboo. The subadult male then slowly came closer,
once stopping to lick himself. Meanwhile the yearling grazed intensively.
When the subadult had approached him to within 1*5 m, he licked and
scratched himself, fed again, and groomed once more, a changing pat-
tern he repeated 4 times. The subadult also groomed himself. But
suddenly he hunched his back and stalked stiffly past the yearling. After
that both foraged, drawing slowly parallel. They halted broadside to
each other, standing motionless for 15 seconds with heads slightly lowered
and averted before parting.
Horning vegetation : Nine instances of horning were observed, 5 of
them by yearling males and the rest by subadult and adult ones. Some
males horned during aggressive encounters, as the above example shows,
but others thrashed vegetation in no particular context.
Hunch : On 5 occasions a subadult or adult male hunched his back,
bunched his legs stiffly beneath him, lowered his neck either in an extend-
ed or retracted position, and pointed his muzzle obliquely downward.
His tail was raised vertically, as in some low-stretch displays, exposing
the small rump patch. The anus appeared puckered outward. With
the hair on his nape and shoulders more erect than usual, he may walk
or trot at another male in this posture, resembling a huge shaggy grass
tussock with a black face peering from it. The threatened animal
promptly avoided this apparition. At other times, the displaying animal
walked broadside to his opponent, a position which did not cause imme-
diate retreat.
OBSERVATIONS ON HIMALAYAN I A HR
19
Broadside : One tahr may stand close to another with its neck
stretched somewhat forward, and with its muzzle held horizontally or
tipped slightly up or down. Geist (1971) illustrates this posture in his
book. The displaying animal either stands parallel to the other and
facing in the same direction, a position which shows off the size of the
rulf, or it halts in front or behind the other. A conspicuous feature of
the display is that the muzzle is seldom pointed directly at the opponent
but is averted to show a partial to complete profile. The threatened
individual often responds by assuming the same posture with the result
that the two display side by side or face to face, a metre or two apart,
each with its muzzle turned away. I observed this display 7 times, once
between 2 yearling males, 4 times between a subadult and a yearling male,
once between an adult male and a yearling male, and once between an
adult and yearling female. Most contacts were brief, lasting less than a
minute, but on one occasion a subadult and a yearling male displayed to
each other 3 times within a period of 50 minutes, each interaction lasting
some 5 to 10 minutes. An animal sometimes terminated such an interac-
tion by licking or scratching itself before turning away.
Tahr often groom themselves in conflict situations such as during
courtship, when one male meets another, and when displaying broadside.
For instance, during the brief meeting between the two males described
earlier in this section, the subadult male groomed himself 7 times, but
he did not lick or scratch during the 30 minutes preceding the interac-
tion and only once in the hour succeeding it. A courting female groomed
herself 19 times in 6 hours, usually when the male displayed to her. By
indulging in an innocuous activity such as licking, tahr seemed to find
relief from a tense situation or were able to terminate a confrontation
without having to retreat abruptly.
Discussion
In their physical characters, tahr appear to be evolutionary links
between the rupicaprids or goat-antelopes, of which American moun-
tain goat ( Oreamnos americanus ) and chamois (. Rupicapra rupicapra )
are well-studied representatives, and the true goats of the genus Capra .
It would be of interest to find out if tahr are behavioural as well as mor-
phological links, and this can best be done by comparing the courtship
and aggressive displays of Hemitragus with those of various goats and
rupicaprids. Schaller (1970) made a few such comparisons, and this
account provides further information.
Treating first courtship among rupicaprids, Geist (1965) found that
male mountain goats approach females from behind in a low-stretch,
sometimes with tongue flicking. This may be followed by a vigorous
kick that propels the female forward. ‘ If the female turns in horn-
20 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1)
threat on him, the male turns his head away from her, and thereby shows
the broadside of his face and beard’ (Geist 1965). The low- stretch of
mountain goats is less elaborate than that of tahr, but with the kick the
reverse is true. Male mountain goats may sit on their haunches and
paw 4 rutting pits ’, as Geist (1965) called them, behaviour not seen in
tahr. Among chamois, the male approaches a female in a low- stretch,
and then 4 the courting billy stands behind the nanny with his head erected,
thereby displaying his white throat’ (Kramer 1969). Lip-curling is
common among chamois, but kicking, twisting and other patterns found
in tahr are not mentioned in Kramer’s detailed account. Rutting male
chamois may shake their body vigorously and at the same time urinate
with the result that fluid is sprayed over their pelage. The courtship
displays of ibex, tur ( Capra caucasica) and markhor are similar to those
of Himalayan tahr in many respects (Table 5). However, some varia-
tions exist even in those displays which are found in all these species.
When kicking, for example, Kashmir markhor tend to raise the leg fairly
stiffly for a few centimetres, Alpine ibex may make pawing movements
with their flexed foreleg (Walther 1961), and Himalayan tahr merely
raise a leg limply, bent at the carpal joint. Head-shaking, so typical
of courting Himalayan tahr, has not been reported in Capra , but ibex
shake their head in a somewhat different manner as a form of threat
(Walther 1961). A rutting Capra male typically urinates on his forelegs
and face, and he may insert his penis into his mouth. Although tahr
were not seen to do this, it is possible that such behaviour occurs during
the rut. As Table 5 shows, some displays, such as the low-stretch, are
found in all species listed, and, in fact, tend to be widespread among ungu-
lates, whereas others are unique to one species. In general, the two
rupicaprids appear to have fewer courtship patterns than members of the
genus Capra , and Himalayan tahr share more displays with the latter
than with the former. Nothing is known about courtship in other species
of tahr.
It is necessary to note similarities and differences in the aggressive
behaviour of Himalayan and Nilgiri tahr before fruitful comparisons
with other genera can be made. Jerking, lunging, jumping, butting,
frontal clashing, and horning are similar in the two species, but several
differences also exist. At times two Nilgiri tahr 4 stood parallel and facing
the same direction and in unison jerked their head sideways rapidly
once or twice thereby clashing their horn against one of the opponent’s ’
(Schaller 1970). Such behaviour was not observed in Himalayan tahr.
Both species horn while standing head-to-tail, but, in addition, Nilgiri
tahr push with their shoulders and may kneel while fighting. The hunch
differs somewhat in the two tahr : in the Nilgiri species the neck and head
may be arched so far down that the muzzle points back between the legs,
whereas in the Himalayan species the neck and head are merely stretched
Table 5
mi
The occurrence of some male courtship patterns in several species of the subfamily Caprinae
OBSERVATIONS ON HIMALAYAN TAHR
21
sh 3
3 03
c/5
x> ^
3—
S|
crt
r \
XA
-a c
o:g
£
O in
bflvo
a a
o3 ^
*■* >,
G T3
<3 a
C3
I a.a
++ I ~ I ++ I ++ I I +
++ I + I ++^-++ | | +
■{■+ I 4- | +++++ | f 4-
++ I I I I I ++ I I + I
++ I I I++ 1 I 1+ I I
I I I
J
S-, H
- a «o
U
So
,1§
a
>J.S
•8:5 s
G
O O id Q .
3S gbaJS^
8 £
HH
g go g-§ g.ap’S-’S
? m
22 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1)
obliquely downward. Possibly the accentuated body posture of Nilgiri
tahr is an evolutionary alternative to having a prominent display struc-
ture, such as the ruff of Himalayan tahr. I saw no display resembling
the broadside of Himalayan tahr in Nilgiri tahr, but more work will no
doubt clarify whether differences between the two species are qualitative
or merely quantitative.
Mountain goats and chamois both jerk, lunge, jump, and butt. The
former do not clash (Geist 1965) and the latter clash seldom (Kramer
1969), probably because their thin, pointed horns are unsuited to such
activity. Animals with massive horns commonly clash, a fact true also
for takin (Budorcas taxicolor ), which usually are considered to be rupica-
prids. All Capra , as well as blue sheep ( Pseudois ) and tahr clash not
only by facing an opponent on all fours and bashing horns, but also by
rearing upright in unison and with a downward lunge crashing horns
together. Interestingly, Kramer (1969) reported this type of combat in
chamois, indicating that such behaviour is not confined to the tribe
Caprini as was previously assumed. The head-to-tail method of fighting
was observed in young chamois by Kramer (1960). And Geist (1965)
noted an analogous pattern in mountain goats : ‘ They fight keeping
side by side while moving about one another. Goats strike up and
sideways with their head, driving the horns into the opponent’s ventral
body region.’ This display, common to both tahr species, has not been
described for Capra , although domestic goats may stand side by side
and push each other with the shoulders (Geist, pers. comm.). Neck-
pushing, a form of combat in which one animal places its neck over the
neck or shoulders of another and pushes downward, has been observed
in young chamois (Kramer 1969) and in adult Ammotragus lervia (Haas
1959), a species intermediate between sheep and goats. Such behaviour
has not been reported for Hemitragus and Capra .
Turning to indirect forms of threat, the mountain goat has a hunch
posture which resembles the one described earlier for Nilgiri tahr. The
hunch of the chamois is similar to that of the Himalayan tahr. Chamois
present their broadside with humped back and either lowered or raised
head, showing off their dorsal ridge of hair. Males may lip-curl in this
posture, having apparently incorporated a sexual pattern into a threat
one (Kramer 1969). The takin also exhibits the hunch display. The
three Burmese animals in the Bronx zoo commonly arch their neck far
down with chin tucked in and ears retracted, and moving stiffly, present
their broadside. The head is often slightly averted and snorts may be
given. The hunch in all these species is a broadside display, serving to
intimidate an opponent by presenting a conspicuous profile. However,
Himalayan tahr have an additional broadside display distinct from the
hunch. It was my impression that this tahr sometimes used the hunch
as a direct threat, rather than only as an indirect one as is the case in
OBSERVATIONS ON HIMALAYAN 7 A HR
23
other species, whereas the broadside was solely an intimidation display.
I observed hunch posture recently in wild goat Capra hircus. A broad-
side display has been described for markhor (Walther 1961).
There is almost no information about the Asian rupicaprids and
many aspects of caprid behaviour remain unknown. Yet even this super-
ficial review of some displays shows that the genus Hemitragus resembles
both the caprids and rupicaprids in its behaviour. In the complexity
of their courtship displays, Himalayan tahr seem to be closest to true
goats, rather than to the mountain goat and chamois, but when indivi-
dual patterns are considered the evidence remains somewhat equivocal.
For example, tahr and rupicaprids probably do not fold their raised tail over
the rump in the manner of true goats ; but, in contrast to the two rupicaprid
species, Himalayan tahr and Capra use the twist. The hunch and head-
to-tail are prominent aggressive patterns in both tahr species and in rupi-
caprids. Tahr resemble true goats in their other forms of aggression.
Thus tahr show a behavioural affinity to both rupicaprids and Capra , a
conclusion which supports the morphological evidence.
Acknowledgements
I am grateful to the New York Zoological Society and National
Geographic Society for funding the project, to J. Blower, FAO wildlife
representative in Nepal, for recommending the Kang Chu area to me,
and to His Majesty’s government of Nepal for permission to study there.
Dr. T. B. Shresta, Herbarium of Nepal, kindly identified the plants.
M. Cheney of Mountain Travels provided efficient logistic support,
and sherpas Phu-Tsering, Kanchha, and Mingma assisted ably in the
field.
References
Anderson, J. & Henderson, J. (1961) :
Himalayan thar in New Zealand. New
Zealand Deerstalkers’ Ass. Special Publ.
No. 2.
Blanford, W. (1888-91) : The fauna
of British India ; Mammalia. Taylor
and Francis, London.
Burrard, G. (1925) : Big game hunt-
ing in the Himalayas and Tibet.
H. Jenkins, London.
Caughley, G. (1965) : Horn rings and
tooth eruption as criteria of age in the
Himalayan thar, Hemitragus jemlahicus.
New Zealand J. Science 8 (3) : 333-351.
(1966) : Mortality patterns
in mammals. Ecology 47 (6) : 906-918.
(1969) : Wildlife and recrea-
tion in the Trisuli Watershed and other
^reas in Nepal. FAO, United Nations
Development Programme. Project
Report No. 6.
Caughley, G. (1970) : Liberation, dis-
persal and distribution of Himalayan thar
( Hemitragus jemlahicus ) in New Zealand.
New Zealand J. Science 13 (2) : 220-239.
(1971) : The season of births
for northern-hemisphere ungulates in
New Zealand. Mammalia 25 (2) : 204-
219.
Crandall, L. (1964) : The manage-
ment of wild mammals in captivity.
Univ. Chicago Press, Chicago.
Geist, V. (1965) : On the rutting
behaviour of the mountain goat. /.
Mammal. 45 (4) : 551-568.
— (1971) : Mountain sheep : a
study in behaviour and evolution. Univ,
Chicago Press, Chicago.
24 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 70 (1)
.. Haas, G. (1958) : Untersuchungen
Ober angeborene Verhaltensweisen bei
Mahnenspringern {Ammo tragus lervia
Pallas). Z. Tierpsych. 16 : 218-242.
Kinloch, A. (1892) : Large game
shooting in Thibet, the Himalayas,
Northern and Central India. Thacker,
Spink and Co., Bombay.
Kramer, A. (1969) : Soziale Organi-
sation und Sozialverhalten einer Gems-
population ( Rupicapra rupicapra L.) der
Alpen. Z. Tierpsych. 26 : 889-964.
Lydekker, R. (1924) : The game
animals of India, Burma, Malaya and
Tibet. Rowland Ward, London.
Nievergelt, B. (1967) : Die Zusam-
mensetzung der Gruppen beim Alpen-
steinbock. Z. Sciugetierkunde 32 (3) :
129-144.
Prater, S. H. (1965) : The book of
Indian animals. Bombay Natural His-
tory Society, Bombay.
Rammell, C. (1964) : Composition of
thar’s milk. New Zealand J. Science
7 (4) : 667-670.
Roberts, G. (1971) : Chamois and
thar in New Zealand. Animals 13 (7) :
772-775.
Schaller, G. (1970) : Observations
on the Nilgiri tahr {Hemitragus hylo-
crius Ogilby, 1838). J. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. 67 (3) : 365-389.
Schaller, G. (1973) : On the be-
haviour of blue sheep {Pseudois nayaur).
ibid. 69 (3) :
&Mirza, Z. (1971) :
On the behaviour of Kashmir markhor
{Capra falconer i cashmiriensis) . Mam-
malia 35 (4): 548-566.
Schweinfurth, U. (1957) i Die hori-
zontal und vertikale Yerbreitung der
Vegetation im Himalaya. Bonner Geo-
graphische Abhandlungen. 20 : 1-373.
Steinhauf, D. (1958) : Beobachtun-
gen zum Brunftverhalten des Steinwildes
{Capra ibex). Saugetierkundliche Mit-
teilungen 7 (1) : 5-10.
Stockley, C. (1928) : Big game shoot-
ing in the Indian Empire. Constable
and Co., London.
Walther, F. (1961) : Einige Verhal-
tensbeobachtungen am Bergwild des
Georg von Opel-Freigeheges. Jahrbuch,
G. v. Opel-Freigehege 3 : 53-89.
Zuckerman, S. (1953) : The breeding
season of mammals in captivity. Proc.
Zool. Soc. London 122 (1) : 827-95Q.
Orchids of Nepal— 7
BY
M. L. Banerji* 1 and B. B. Thapa2
{With seven figures in two plates)
[Continued from Vol. 69 (2) : 289]
This instalment describes the genera under Subtribe Sarcantheae of
Kerosphaereae and Pleuranthae of Monopodiales. The genera being
Acampe, Aerides, Chiloschista , Doritis , Esmeralda , Gastrochilus , Luisia ,
Ornithochilus, Rhynchostylis , Sar cant hus, Vanda and Vandopsis.
Artificial key to the genera
A. Lip not spurred. Column without a foot, short and not winged —
B. Sepals & petals not spreading widely; lip not jointed at base, lower part of lip
(hypochile) concave, apical part (epichile) broad and decurved Luisia
BB. Sepals and petals spreading widely —
C. Lip not jointed at the base and shorter than the sepals ; fls. of medium size
Vandopsis
CC. Lip jointed at the base and differentiated into a hypochile and epichile
Esmeralda
AA. Lateral sepals adnate to the foot of the column, forming a mentum; spur
when present distant from the base of the lip —
B\ Lip with a long claw,3-lobed, not spurred; column winged. Lateral sepals
adnate with the foot of the column to form a conical mentum Doritis
B’B’. Lip saccate at its union with the foot of the column; column wingless;
basal part of lip (hypochile) forming a hairy sac; lateral lobes of lip absent
Rhynchostylis
B’B’B’. Lip adnate to the base of the column, gibbous or shortly spurred; sidelobes
of lip large and erect; leafless when flowering, stem absent Chiloschista
B’B’B’B’. Lip jointed to the foot of the column, spurred Aerides
AAA. Lip saccate or spurred at the base ; column wingless —
D. Sepals and petals fleshy and widely spreading —
1 University of Kalyani, W. Bengal.
1 Horticultural Assistant, Indian Co-operation Mission, Kathmandu.
26 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1)
E. Flowers large ; labellum large, sidelobes large, base saccate or spurred
.... Vanda
EE. Flowers small ; labellum adnate to the base of the column, spurred
. . Sarcanthus
EEE. Flowers small ; base of labellum with a long or short and wide spur,
sidelobes absent or very small Gastrochilus
DD. Sepals and petals not spreading —
F. Flowers small and fleshy, sepals and petals concave Acampe
FF. Flowers large, sepals spreading, lateral sepals connate at the base of the
lip and together forming the mentum Ornithochilus
Acampe Lindl.
The name probably refers to the small and brittle flowers. Plants
are epiphytic and the leaves are fleshy and slightly recurved. The
floral structures are very much like those of Sarcanthus , and in fact the
genus is treated as a section of Saccolabium by Hooker. According to
Lindley this genus is characterised by the small, brittle and inflexible
flowers.
Artificial key to the species of Acampe
Leaves more than 15 cm long ; flowers pale yellow longifolia
Leaves c. 10 cm long, obliquely notched ; flowers dark yellow papillosa
Acampe longifolia (Lindl.) Lindl. Fol. Orch. 1 : 1853 ; Holttum,
621, 1953. Vanda longifolia Lindl. in Lindl. & Paxt. Flow. Gard. 2 : 21,
1851-52. Saccolabium longifolium Hk. f. in FI. Brit. Ind. 6 : 662, 1890 ;
King & Pantl. 220, t. 292, 1898.
Stem robust and densely leafy ; leaves more than 15 cm long,
upper part broader than the lower. Flowers fleshy c. 1*5 cm in diam.,
delicately fragrant ; sepals and petals pale yellow with deep brown
stripes, dorsal sepal 1*3 cm long, obtuse, lateral sepals slightly keeled,
petals slightly smaller than the sepals. Lip 1 cm long, fleshy, white
with a few purple spots, base saccate, sidelobes erect, midlobe reflexed
and hairy at the base. Flowering during September and October.
Distributed at 305 to 1075 m. Common.
A. papillosa (Lindl.) Lindl. Fol. Orch. 2, 1853. Saccolabium
papillosum Lindl. Bot. Reg. t. 1552, et Gen. et Spec. Orch. 222, 1830 ;
F.B.I. 6 : 63, 1890.
Leaves about 10 cm long, obliquely notched. Scape 2*5-5 cm
long ; flowers 1*5 cm in diam. : sepals and petals dark yellow spotted
With dull brown. Midlobe of lip ovate, rosy, spur conical, pubescent
ORCHIDS OF NEPAL— 7
27
within. Flowering during September to November. Distributed at
about 610 m. Collected from Kuroanadi at Hittaura, Bindraban
forest, Hittaura, Narayani.
Aerides Lour.
In vegetative appearance these orchids resemble the Vandas. The
inflorescence is an elongated pendulous raceme bearing a number of
flowers.
Artificial key to the species of Aerides
Terminal lobe of lip large, hastate-rounded ; spur short and straight . . multiflorum
Terminal lobe of lip small, oblong-lanceolate, incurved ; spur long and incurved
odoratum
Terminal lobe of lip slightly dilated and bifid ; spur long and straight longicornu
Aerides longicornu Hk. f. Icon. PI. 22, t. 2127, 1889 et F.B.I. 6 : 44,
1890.
Flowers white, sepals and petals with crisp margin, lateral sepals
much larger than the petals, petals orbicular or oblong. Lateral lobes
of lip curved forwards, shorter than the long spur, mid-lobe narrow,
clawed, tip slightly dilated, bifid. Flowering during September and
October. Collected from Sundarijal area at c. 1525 m.
A. multiflorum Roxb. PI. Corm. 3:63, t. 271, 1820; F.B.I. 6:44
1890; King & Pantl. 212, t. 283, 1898 ; Duthie, 142, 1906; Holttum’
694, 1955 ; Hara, 425, 1966. (Fig. 1).
Inflorescence very densely flowered, longer than the leaves ; flowers
white or rose-purple, spotted with darker purple spots, c. 2 cm in
diam., fragrant. Sepals and petals subequal, tips rounded. Lip twice
as long as the sepals, purple but darker in the middle, lateral lobes
small and recurved, midlobe hastate, c. 1*7 cm long, tip rounded, spur
short and straight. Flowering during June and July. Distributed at
304 to 915 m. Collected from Dhupu to Wana, Hittaura, locality
unknown (Herklotts).
A. odoratum (Poir.) Lour. FI. Cochinch. 525, 1790 ; F.B.I. 6 : 47?
1890. Epidendrum odoratum Poir. Encycl. Supp. 1 : 385, 1811.
Inflorescence many-flowered equalling or longer than the leaves.
Flowers purple or whitish purple, sweet smelling, 2'5 to 3’8 cm in
diam., sepals and petals 1*2 cm long, lateral sepals much longer than
the dorsal sepal and petals. Lip funnel-shaped, prolonged at the base
to form a spur, lateral lobes erect, white midlobe linear, marginate,
greenish at its apex and spotted all over, tip 3-lobed. Flowerinf
28 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1)
during July and August. Distributed at 304 to 915 m. Collected
from Hittaura area.
Chiloschista Lindl.
Dwarf, epiphytic orchids, leafless when flowering. The name
alludes to the cleft lip. Hooker (FI. Brit. Ind.), and King & Pantl.
placed it as a section under Sarcochilus. Pfitzer and J. J. Smith
recognised the genus as an independent one. Later Schlecter (1927)
again united it with Sarcochilus.
Artificial key to the species of Chiloschista
Flowers white .-. usneoides
Flowers yellow, spotted with purple lunifera
Chiloschista lunifera (Reichb. f.) J. J. Sm. Fi. Buitenz. 6 : 553, 1905.
Thrixspermum luniferum Reichb. f. in Gard. Chron. 1886, 786, 1886.
Sarcochilus luniferus (Reichb. f.) Bth. ex Hk. f. in Bot. Mag. 115, t. 7044,
1889 et FI. Brit. Ind. 6 : 37, 1890 ; King & Pantl. 207, t. 276, 1898.
Roots tufted and stem much reduced. Inflorescence elongate
7-15 cm long, many-flowered ; flowers c. 1*5 cm in diam., yellow
spotted with purple. Sepals spreading, oblong, obtuse. Lip 3-lobed,
sidelobes linear-oblong, obtuse, midlobe truncate, emarginate. Flower-
ing during February and March. Distributed at 1300 to 1980 m.
Collected from Bhadgaon to Dhulikhel, Hittaura.
Hooker remarks 4 except in the colour of the flower, no difference
from usneoides ’.
C. usneoides (Don) Lindl. Gen. et Spec. Orch. 219, 1830 et Bot. Reg.
sub. t. 1522, 1832. Epidendrum usneoides D. Don, Prodr. FI. Nep. 37,
1825. Sarcochilus usneoides Reichb. f. in Walp. Ann. 6: 497, 1861 ;
F.B.I. 6 : 37, 1890.
Roots tufted and stem absent. Inflorescence 7 to 15 cm long, densely
flowered. Flowers c. 1*3 cm in diam., white, sepals spreading, oblong,
obtuse. Sidelobes of lip erect, linear-oblong, obtuse, disk between the
lobes pubescent, midlobe truncate and emarginate. Flowering
during February and March. Distributed at 1525 to 1830 m. Collec-
ted from Sundarijal, Sheopuri area, locality unknown (Herklotts).
Doritis Lindl.
According to Schultes and Pease the name refers to the hastate lip
or perhaps to Doritis , one of the names of the goddess Aphrodite.
ORCHIDS OF NEPAL— 7
19
The column is winged, and its foot forms a spur-like mentum with the
sidelobes of the lip. The plants have short stem and the few leaves
are clustered.
Doritis taenialis (Lindl.) Benth. in Benth. & Hook. f. Gen. PI. 3 : 574,
1883 ; F.B.I. 6:31,1890; King & Pantl. 199, t. 266, 1898; Duthie,
138, 1906 ; Hara, 433, 1966. Aerides taenialis Lindl. Gen. et Spec.
Orch. 239, 1833.
Inflorescence few-flowered (about 6), pendulous ; flowers mauve-
purple, c. 2 cm in diam., dorsal sepal oblong, lateral sepals broader,
petals shorter than the sepals. Lip adnate to the foot of the column,
sidelobes of lip very narrow, spathulate, reflexed on the disk, midlobe
dark red. Flowering during May and June. Distributed at 915 to
1830 m. Collected from Chainpur to Mialay, Naudhara, Nagarjung.
Esmeralda Reichb. f.
Schultes and Pease giving the etymology of the name mention that
it may possibly refer to the overwhelming beauty of the flower which
makes this orchid a jewel in collections or perhaps to the very deep
green hue of the foliage. Hawkes considered Esmeralda a synonym of
Arachnanthe.
Esmeralda clarkei Reichb. f. Gard. Chron. 2 : 552, 1886.
Arachnanthe clarkei Rolfe, Gard. Chron. 2: 567, 1888 ; F.B.I. 6 : 28,
1890. Arachnis clarkei (Reichb. f.) J. J. Sm. in Nat. Tijdschr. Ned.
Ind. 72: 76, 1912. (Fig. 2.)
Inflorescence c. 20 cm long, few-flowered (3-4), flowers c. 7*5 cm
in diam., fleshy, very fragrant ; sepals and petals falcate, bright chestnut
brown with yellowish stripes, dorsal sepal erect. Lip almost the length
of the petals, base narrowed, sidelobes short, broad, erect, midlobe
ovate-cordate, obtuse, a small lobule at apex, surface with a number of
ridges. Flowering during February and March and again in November.
Collected from Sundarijal at 1830 m, locality unknown (Herklotts).
Gastrochilus D. Don
As the lip is belly-shaped, the name refers to that character.
J. J. Smith who had previously treated Gastrochilus as a section of
Saccolabium, raised it to generic level. Gastrochilus can be differentiated
from Sarcochilus R. Br. and Saccolabium Bl. by the fleshy flowers.
Lip, immovable midlobe, flat, hairy, and fringed column very short,
footless. The pollinia are shorter than the caudicles.
30 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST , SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1)
Artificial key to the species of Gastrochilus
Spur short —
Sidelobes of lip present, midlobe fringed, papillose-hairy calceolaris
Sidelobes of lip absent, midlobe entire, surface more or less glabrous (not hairy)
distichus
Spur long with a bilobed apex affine
Gastrochilus affine (King & Pantl.) Schltr. Fedd Rep. 12 : 314, 1913 ;
Hara, 434, 1966. Saccolabium affine King & Pantl. Ann. Roy. Bot.
Gard. Calcut. 8 : 228, t. 304, 1898.
Flowers smaller than those of G. distichus , lip not sub-orbicular but
transversely elongated, tip of midlobe obtuse, lateral margins with
irregular dentation, two lamellae in the centre of the midlobe ; spur
conical with a slightly bilobed apex. Authority Hara.
G. calceolaris D. Don, Prodr. FI. Nep. 32, 1825 ; Holttum, 675, 1953 ;
Hara, 453, 1966. Aerides calceolare Ham. ex Smith, Rees. Cyclop. 39
(11), 1818; Saccolabium calceolare Lindl. Gen. et Spec. Orch. 223,
1833 ; F.B.I. 6: 60, 1890; King & Pantl. 225, t. 300, 1898. (Fig. 3).
Scape spotted purple, stout and fleshy, shorter than the leaves,
flowers yellow or greenish, speckled with red-brown, waxy, c. 1*5 cm
in diam., mildly fragrant ; sepals and petals 6 mm long. Lip yellow
and speckled with brown spots, sidelobes 1 mm, white, midlobe 3 mm
long, twice as wide at the base, margin white, fringed, central part
yellow, hairy all over, spur short also yellow. Flowering during
February and March. Distributed at 1525 to 1830 m. Collected from
Rhingmo to Jubing, Sheopuri, Godavari.
G. distichus (Lindl.) O. Ktz. Rev. Gen. PI. 2 : 661, 1891 ; Hara, 435,
1966. Saccolabium distichum Lindl. in Journ. Linn. Soc. 3 : 36, 1859 ;
F.B.I. 6: 64, 1890; King & Pantl. 227, t. 303, 1898; Duthie, 148,
1906.
Inflorescence equalling the leaves, flowers greenish and spotted with
brown. Sepals and petals obovate-oblong, green spotted with brown.
Lip with a saccate spur, sidelobes absent, midlobe small, semicircular,
fleshy with two calli at the base. Flowering during January and
February. Collected from Borlong forest at c. 2285 m.
Luisia Gaud.
This orchid is named after a Spanish botanist Don Luis de Torres.
ORCHIDS OF NEPAL— 7
31
Artificial key to the species of Luisia
Flowers 10 mm long tr ichor rhiza
Flowers 6 mm long teretifolia
Flowers 4 mm long micrantha
Luisia micrantha Hook. f. in FI. Brit. Ind. 6 : 23, 1890.
Flowers small, c. 8 mm in diam., and 4 mm long, greenish lateral
sepals ovate, subacute, midrib very stout, dorsal sepal similar to the
petals, petals oblong, obtuse, 1-nerved. Lip as long as the sepals,
hypochile oblong, concave, two strong teeth, epichile fleshy, small.
Flowering during August and September. Collected from Hittaura at
c. 510 m.
L. teretifolia Gaud. Bot. Freyc. Voy. 427, t. 37, 1826 ; F.B.I. 6 : 22,
1890; King & Pantl. 202, t. 271,1898; Duthie, 140, 1906; Hara,
443, 1966.
Inflorescence few-flowered (2-3), flowers small, c. 1*8 cm in diam.,
and 6 mm long, foul smelling. Lateral sepals subacute, petals linear-
oblong, obtuse, hardly longer than the sepals, yellowish-green. Lip
equalling the sepals, usually dull purple and with 5 vertical lines.
Flowering during March and April. Collected from Dhunibesi,
Nagarjung at c. 1650 m.
L. trichorrhiza Bl. Rumphia 4 : 50, 1848 ; F.B.I. 6 : 23, 1890 ; Duthie,
140, 1906.
Inflorescence 4-5-flowered, flowers c. 2*5 cm in diam., and 1 cm
long. Sepals unequal with faint purple lines, petals as long as the
lateral sepals. Lip obovate-oblong, rather longer than the sepals, flat,
dull purple, constricted at the base of the cordate epichile, marking the
hypochile. Flowering during March and April. Distributed at c.
750 m. Collected from Dhulikhel to Kuwapani, Pokhra.
Ornithochihis Wall, ex Lindl.
The name is descriptive of the bilobed lip with the tips divaricate
and verticle resembling a bird in flight.
Ornithochilus difformis (Wall, ex Lindl.) Schltr. Orch. Sino-Jap. 227,
1919 : Hara, 446, 1966. Aerides difforme Wall, ex Lindl. Gen. et Spec.
Orch. 242, 1833 ; Ornithochilus fusca Wall, ex Lindl. Gen. et Spec.
Orch. 242, 1833 (pro. syn.) ; F.B.I. 6 : 76, 1890 ; King & Pantl. 200, t.
268, 1898 ; Duthie, 139, 1906.
Inflorescence somewhat pendulous, twice or thrice longer than the
leaves, many-flowered, flowers c. 1*25 cm in diam. Sepals and petals
greenish-yellow with reddish stripes. Lip much larger than the sepals,
32 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1)
clawed, yellow, sidelobes quadrate, striped with brown, midlobe clawed
and two lobulate, reddish or purple lower down, spur long, yellow.
Flowering time June. Collected from Nagarjung at 1650 m.
Rhynchostylis Bl.
Usually stout and short-stemmed epiphytic orchid. Allied to
Saccolabium Bl. and Aerides Lour, but can be distinguished by the
scarcely lobed lip and the not sharply distinguished from the column-
foot; the laterally compressed spur is directed backwards, and the
rostellum is beaked. These orchids are popularly known as 4 Fox-tail
Orchids \
Rhynchostylis retusa (Linn.) Bl. Bijdr. 286, 1825 ; F.B.I. 6 : 32, 1890 ;
King & Pantl. 213, t. 284, 1898 ; Duthie, 143, 1906 ; Holttum, 697,
1953 ; Hara 449, 1966. Epidendrum retusum Linn. Sp. PI. 953, 1753.
Saccolabium guttatum Lindl. (in Wall. Cat. 7308) Gen. et Spec. Orch.
220, 1833. (Fig. 4.)
Stem robust and completely hidden by the imbricating leaf-bases ;
leaves arching gracefully, very close together, leathery, apex obliquely
bilobed. Inflorescence c. 25-30 cm long, densely flowered. Flowers
white, spotted with pink or purple, c. 1*8 cm in diam., fragrant, waxy;
lateral sepals c. 1 cm long, gibbously orbicular-ovate, obtuse or apex
drawn out, dorsal sepal c. 1 *2 cm long, oblong; petals 1 -2 cm long, elliptic,
obtuse. Epichile of lip usually cuneiform, emarginate, saccate, purple.
Flowering during May and June. Distributed from 304 to 1830 m but
commonly at about 915 m. Collected from Naikot, Dhupu to Wana,
locality unknown (Herklotts).
Sarcanthus Lindl.
The name refers to the very fleshy flowers of most of the species.
According to Holttum (1953) ‘ this is the largest genus of the small-
flowered orchids of this group. The flowers are always rather fleshy
and last several days. Their most distinctive feature is the large callus
at the back of the spur. The back callus also sometimes interlocks
with the front callus .... ’ The flowers are complex in structure and
difficult to describe.
Artificial key to the species of Sarcanthus
Leaves filiform ; raceme 15- 20 cm long, curved filiformis
Leaves flat; racemes branched (panicle), 30-35 cm long racemifer
Sarcanthus filiformis Lindl. Bot. Reg. misc. 61, 1838; F.B.I. 6:
66, 1890.
ORCHIDS OF NEPAL— 7
33
Epiphytic with leaves filiform and narrowly cylindrical. Inflores-
cence rather dense, many-flowered, curved 15-25 cm long; flowers
c. 8 mm in diam. ; sepals oblong, obtuse, petals smaller and narrower,
both dark purple with margin and midrib green. Lip broadly conical,
fleshy, white with a broad yellow base, sidelobe acute, incurved,
midlobe short, white, callus very large. Flowering time during August
and September. Collected at 910 m at Hittaura and Narayani.
S. racenrfer (Wall.) Reichb. f. in Walp. Ann. 6: 891, 1861. Aerides
racemiferum Wall, ex Hook. f. in FI. Brit. Ind. 16 : 68, 1890. Sarcanthus
pallidus Lindl. Bot. Reg. 78, 1840 ; F.B.I. 6 : 69, 1890.
Epiphytic with leaves flat and broad, obtusely bilobed, very thick.
Inflorescence erect, branched, loosely-flowered, flowers c. 8 mm in
diam. Sepals and small petals oblong, obtuse, dark purple with edges
yellow. Lip white, sidelobes triangular, acuminate, midlobe small and
incurved, reniform, fleshy beak, spur cylindrical, obtuse, saccate,
thick-walled, as long as the sepals but shorter than the ovary, callus
bilobed. Flowering during June and July. Distributed at 1220 to
1525 m. Collected from Dhankutta, Pokhra.
Vanda Jones
The name refers to the Sanskrit word ‘ banda ’ which means an
epiphyte but also used for parasitic plants. The Vanda orchids can be
distinguished by the fleshy 3-lobed lip. The inflorescence is normally
simple and erect ; it usually arises from the leaf-axils or from opposite
the leaf-bases and near the upper part of the plant but not at its apex.
Artificial key to the species of Vanda
A. Lip spurred at the base —
B. Sepals & petals spreading—
C. Flowers small, disk of lip without ridges parviflora
CC. Flowers c. 3'5-5 cm in diam. disk of lip with fleshy ridges, sidelobes
small and rounded tessellata
CCC. Flowers c. 7‘5- 10 cm in diam., disk of lip with sidelobes broad and
incurved teres
BB. Sepals and petals incurved —
D. Sidelobes erect and triangulars; flowers 5 cm in diam cristata
DD. Sidelobes rounded; flowers 2* 5 cm in diam pumila
AA. Lip gibbous, not spurred or saccate. Flowers c. 2*5 cm in diam alpina
3
34 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 70 (1)
Vanda alpina Lindl. Fol. Orch. 10, 1853 ; F.B.I. 6 : 53, 1890 ; King &
Pantl. 217, t. 289, 1898; Duthie, 146, 1906; Hara, 452, 1966. Luisia
alpina Lindl. Bot. Reg. 1858, misc. 56, 1858.
Racemes with usually 2 flowers ; flowers nodding, faintly fragrant,
c. 2*5 cm in diam., sepals and petals narrow, yellowish-green. Lip
fleshy, sidelobes rounded, purplish inside, midlobe concave, ovate,
retuse, pale yellow with purple shallow ridges, spur absent but gibbous.
Flowering during May, one specimen collected from Sheopuri area at
c. 1370 m.
V. ciistata (Wall.) Lindl. Gen. et Spec. Orch. 216, 1833 ; F.B.I. 6 :
53, 1890 ; King & Pantl. 216, t. 287, 1898 ; Duthie, 146, 1906. Aerides
cristatum Wall* ex Hook. f. in FI. Brit. Ind. 6 : 53, 1890. (Fig 5.)
Inflorescence erect, 3-5-flowered, flowers c. 5 cm in diam., waxy,
fragrant. Sepals and petals narrow, incurved yellowish-green. Lip
green on the underside, upper surface marked with purple stripes and
spots, sidelobes of lip erect, triangular, truncate ; midlobe oblong,
golden yellow and striped with purple, tip with two divaricate oblong
lobes and a fleshy beak pointed downwards, spur short and conical.
Flowering time during March and April, even on to June. Collected
from West Nepal (Parker), locality unknown (Herklotts). (The description
and the flowering time have been based on the study of plants
growing in Botanic Garden, Godavari).
V. parviflora Lindl. in Bot. Reg. 30, Misc. 45, 1844; F.B.I. 6; 50,
1890: King & Pantl. 215, t. 286, 1898; Duthie, 145, 1906. Aerides
testaceum Lindl. Gen. et Spec. Orch. 238, 1833 ; Vanda testacea (Lindl.)
Reichb. f. in Gard. Chron. 2: 166, 1877.
Inflorescence arising below the leaves, rather loosely 5-7-flowered,
flowers c. L5-2 cm in diam. Sepals and petals usually flesh-coloured,
subequal, obovate-spathulate, obtuse, spreading. Lip 3-lobed, side-
lobes small, incurved midlobe large, broadly oblong, fleshy, crenate
at the apex, white, surface blue and purple-spotted, spur long and
curved. Flowering during May and June. Distributed at 305-915 m.
Collected from Simalbasa, Hittaura.
V. pumila Hk. f. in FI. Brit. Ind. 6 : 53, 1890, et in Ann. Roy. Bot.
Gard. Calc. 5 : 45, 1895.
Inflorescence about 15 cm long, loosely 2-4-flowered, flowers
c. 2' 5 cm in diam., fragrant ; sepals and petals narrow, pale yellow or
greenish-white. Lip 3-lobed, sidelobes erect and rounded, midlobe
broadly ovate, concave, obtuse, pale and streaked purple, spur conical
and as long as the midlobe. Flowering during April and May.
Distributed at 1220 to 1525 m. Collected from Dhunibesi, Hokse.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 70 (1)
Banerji & Thapa : Orchids of Nepal
Plate I
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 70 (1)
Banerjee & Thapa : Orchids of Nepal
Plate II
del, mH-
Fig. 6. Vanda teres (Roxb.) Lindl. Fig. 7. Vandopsis undulata (Lindl.) J.J. Sm.
ORCHIDS OF NEPAL— 7
35
V. tesseliata (Roxb.) Hook, ex G. Don, Loud. Hort. Brit. 372, 1830.
Epidendrum tessellatum Roxb. PI. Corom. 1 : 34, t. 42, 1795. Vanda
roxburghii R. Br. in Bot. Reg. 6, t. 506, 1820; F.B.I. 6:52, 1890;
Duthie, 116, 1906. V. tesselloides Reichb. in Walp. Ann. 6: 864, 1861.
Inflorescence 5-10-flowered, longer than the leaves. Flowers c.
5 cm in diam., tesselated with brown, sepals c. 2*5 cm long, petals
2*3 cm long, clawed, obovate, waxy, tessallations yellowish-green or
slightly bluish, margins white. Lip nearly as long as the sepals, side-
lobes small, purple-spotted, midlobe panduriform, dull violet and
paler at the base, tip dilated, truncate, 2-lobed, disk with fleshy ridges,
spur conical. Flowering during July and August. Distributed in
the sub-Himalayan region. Collected from Bhairwa, Hittaura,
Narayanghat.
V. teres (Roxb.) Lindl. Gen. et Spec. Orch. 217, 1830; F.B.I. 6:
49, 1890. Dendrobium teres Roxb. FI. Ind. 3 : 485, 1832. (Fig. 6).
Inflorescence 15-30 cm long and with 3-6 flowers. Flowers c.
7-5-10 cm in diam., white or mauve, fragrant. Sepals and petals
undulate, lip hairy towards the base, side lobes broad, incurved, deep
yellow or lighter and spotted crimson, midlobe much larger, deeply
cleft, purple, spur conical. Flowering during May and June. Distri-
buted at 305 to 610 m. Collected from Hittaura, locality unknown
(Herklotts).
Vandopsis Pfitz.
These are robust and spectacular orchids. The name implies that
these orchids resemble Vanda. According to Hawkes they are allied
to Renanthera Lour, and Arachnis Bl.
Vandopsis undulata (Lindl.) J. J. Sm. in Nat. Tijdschr. Ned. Ind.
72:77,1912. Vanda undulata Lindl. Journ. Linn. Soc. 3: 42, 1859.
Stauropsis undulata (Lindl.) Benth. ex Hk. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 6 : 27, 1890;
King & Pantl. 205, t. 257, 1898. (Fig. 7).
Inflorescence long, rachis thickened, 8-12-flowered, flowers c.
3-25 cm in diam., white, flushed with pink, waxy, fragrant; sepals
oblanceolate, acuminate, margins undulate, lateral sepals deflexed,
petals similar but smaller. Lip greenish-yellow or light yellow, base
saccate, adnate to the sides of the column, sides pink, midlobe laterally
compressed, 3-ridged, tip truncate, purplish. Flowering during March
and April. Distributed at about 2135 m. Collected from Kaituka,
Chandragiri, Godavari, locality unknown (Herklotts).
{to be continued)
Bionomics and Distribution of the
land leeches of Kumaon Hills, U.P.
BY
M. L. Bhatia
‘ Bhatia Laboratory L- 23, Hauzkhas Enclave , New Delhi-16
AND
Sarwajeet Singh Bora
Department of Zoology , D.S.B. Government College ,
Naini Tal , U.P.
(with 5 text-figures)
«
Introduction
Land leeches are reported from almost all the hill areas in India
where they swarm in an incredible profusion, and prove a very harmful
pest to animals and mankind by sucking their blood. Very little
accurate information concerning their activities is recorded. It is a
well-known fact that they are very active during rainy weather but no
one appears to know what actually becomes of them during the dry
season, and their appearance immediately with the coming of rains,
raises the question, ‘ Whence do they appear?’. Some believe that
they lay eggs and die with the advent of dry season, and that those
which reappear on its conclusion are a new generation. There is little
literature on the subject.
Extensive field and laboratory observations were made for three
continuous years, and it has been possible to gather first-hand infor-
mation about several hitherto unknown and doubtful aspects of land
leeches, which are recorded here.
Although several species of land leeches, commonly found in
Kumaon Hills, were collected, the observations recorded here are based
primarily on the behaviour of two very common species, Haemadipsa
zeylanica agilis, and Haemadipsa montana, which should hold good for
other varieties of land leeches elsewhere in India.
The Junior author owns an agricultural farm and also an apple
orchard, in Kumaon and thus had the advantage of first hand knowledge,
extending over several years, of the activities of land leeches throughout
a calendar year. His valuable field observations of these creatures
form subject matter of this paper.
BIONOMICS AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE LAND LEECHES 37
Habit
At the advent of rains, leeches emerge from hibernation and begin
to swarm to the upper limits of the hills. During rains they are found
on almost all patches of land in oak forests and are especially abundant
along the foot-paths frequented by cattle, wild animals, and man. They
are also present in large numbers in grass pastures adjacent to oak
forests, which are frequently visited by man and domestic animals.
Moore (1927) reports that Haemadipsa sylvestria from Assam,
enters water voluntarily during dry season and swims actively.
Contrary to this, the common leeches of Kumaon region Haemadipsa
zeylanica agilis , and Haemadipsa montana , do not enter streams during
short dry spells during the monsoon and even in the prolonged drought
period of hibernation. Their avoidance of wet and flooded areas of the
forests suggests that they dislike such habitats.
In the early part of monsoon, after the first few showers, leeches are
very active but when incessant rains set in, they crawl under dead oak
leaves on the ground. During bright sun-shine also they hide under
leaves and stones and resume their activities when it is cloudy and
humid. They remain active during night, but become much more alert
when rays of the early morning sun fall on them. Leeches are seen
either standing erect on their posterior suckers, swaying all around, or
moving on the ground. When erect they appear like small twigs among
the layers of dry oak leaves. Leeches living in forests and swamps,
may climb on leaves and branches, and wait until a suitable mammalian
prey present itself.
After a full blood-meal, they crawl beneath the leaves or under
some suitable cover and remain in a sluggish condition for a
number of days, but those that do not get an opportunity of procuring
a meal come out at the slightest disturbance.
Wounds caused by their bites generally heal up within a few days,
though land leeches have the peculiar habit of biting repeatedly at the
same spot which sometime causes pathological complications. Sometimes
the bite becomes an open sore, probably due to secondary infection.
Landleeches attack all the warm-blooded animals but find difficulty in
getting blood from animals with thick fur covering. Some bare portion
of the body of animals is selected for this purpose.
Habitat
Haemadipsa zeylanica agilis and Haemadipsa montana , along with
other land leeches are found abundantly between heights 5000 and
6000 ft. and range from ravines as low as 3000 ft. to hill-tops ranging
up to 11,000 ft. above sea level. Oak forests which cover the major
38 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1)
part of the hill-tops of Kumaon, provide the most suitable habitat.
But in late rainy season it is not uncommon to find them even in the
L. L.
pine forest, orchards, grassy meadows, and even in cultivated paddy
fields, adjacent to the oak forests. It has been noticed that they are
totally absent from some parts of the forests, particularly forests on
the southern aspects of the hills and heavily colonise some and are
scanty in other parts of the northern aspect of the hill.
Leeches are primarily aquatic and have secondarily acquired life on
land. Humidity remains their prime requirement for survival. The role
of temperature is also significant as they are limited to a temperature
between 10° and 25°C.
The extensive forests in the second and third climatic belt of
Kumaon region, provide suitable conditions to these creatures. At
elevations between 5000 and 11,000 ft. the rains during the monsoon
are fairly heavy. In the second belt the average rainfall is 70" to 120",
while in the third belt it is 40" to 80", of which eighty per cent falls
during the rainy season. The forests are dense and evergreen on the
northern face of the hill and thin on the southern side. The oak forests
have luxuriant under-growth and the trees are draped in a rich epiphytic
flora of ferns, mosses, and lichens. Other common trees in the oak
forests are 4 Brunch ’ ( Rhododendron ), 4 Ringal ’ ( Arundinaria ), 4 Kaphal '
( Myrica ), and a few species of Berberis , all with broad evergreen
leaves.
The oak forests with this kind of luxuriant vegetation and with
a rainfall of over 70", has high humidity during the rainy season
and even otherwise. The average maximum temperature does not
rise above 26°C. These two major factors coupled with a few other
attributes of the oak forests, such as the shade under the broad-
leaved, evergreen trees help in maintaining moisture. The greater
water retaining capacity keeps the valleys humid during the
hibernation period. The carpet of dead oak leaves on the ground
provides shelter during temporary dry spells and checks surface
evaporation and the luxuriant under-growth that keeps the forest
BIONOMICS AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE LAND LEECHES 39
humid and provides a substratum for their movements. All these
provide ideal ecological conditions for leeches. An additional advan-
tage is the fire resisting qualities of oak forests that have saved leeches
from total eradication.
The density of leech population varies much in different parts of the
forest, due to several factors that influence the habitat. Dense forests
on the north facing slopes provide a much more suitable habitat than-
the forests on the southern side, which are very sunny and almost bare,
comparatively warm, and less moist and sometimes quite dry. It is
interesting to note that human agency has influenced to some extent the
colonisation by leeches, and densely infested leech localities are always
found near the grazing grounds and human habitation.
Leeches found in other places, like orchards, meadows, paddy fields
and open patches of land during the rains, are actually migrants from
the main oak forests. There is evidence to support the fact that they
do not really emerge in these parts ; that they migrate to all these
localities after their emergence in the oak forests. They are seen in
these parts quite late in the season and they also disappear early.
Leeches do not permanently colonise these areas due to unfavourable
conditions, particularly during the hibernation period.
During the rains, they are also found in the neighbouring xerophy-
tic pine forests which have the same altitudinal range, but are really
migrants from adjacent oak forests. Certain mixed type of forests,
along with ravines which have a large number of oak trees, are very
heavily colonised. Leeches have not successfully colonised pine forest
because of xerophytic conditions, lack of undergrowth, the disagreeable
and repelling smell of resin, and the absence of suitable shelter among
the needle-shaped pine leaves. To all these may be added prevalence
of fire.
Although between 7000 and 9000 ft. altitude there are different
types of forests in the same altitudinal range and with almost similar
conditions of shade and temperature as those in oak forests, it is
surprising to note that leeches do not inhabit these forests. Viewing
the general conditions of these forests of Blue pine ( Pinus excelsa ,
6000 ft. to 8000 ft.) ; Spruce (Picea norinda, 7000 ft. to 9000 ft.) ;
Cypress ( Cupressus torulosa , 6500 ft. to 9500 ft.) ; and Deodar
( Cedrus deodar a, 8000 ft. to 10,000 ft.) ; it seems that the meagre
rainfall (10" to 40"), needle-shaped leaves, scarce under-growth and
lack of hibernating grounds have completely checked the infestation of
these forests.
Food
Land leeches are blood-sucking ectoparasites and they are remarka-
bly adept at taking from the host very considerable quantity of blood
40 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, V9l. 70 (1)
without being noticed. In natural conditions it has been observed that
they feed infrequently but take large quantities of blood at one time,
over ten times its own weight. Digestion and absorption are very slow
processes, and it takes nearly 8 to 10 months to assimilate a full blood-
meal.
Smythies (1953) raised the question, whether land leeches feed only
on blood or could also subsist on other food materials, such as humus
and plant-juices etc. Harrison (1953) believes that they feed exclusively
on blood, and we fully endorse this view. Hungry leeches kept in cages,
containing humus, oak leaves, succulent herbs, and a few common
invertebrate forms (earthworms, some arthropods, and slugs etc.) that
are commonly found in leech localities, remained untouched by leeches
and they starved and did not survive. On the other hand leeches fed
on blood grow well and survive up to the hibernation period. It has
been possible to keep leeches for more than three years by providing
them a single blood-meal every year, with suitable conditions of
temperature and moisture.
It is a well established fact that leeches feed on blood and biood
only, but the information regarding the favourite victim is very meagre
and it is also not known whether all the leeches are able to procure at
least a single blood-meal. They rely for their nourishment on their
ability to make contact with vertebrate hosts capable of rapid move-
ment. The common vertebrates inhabiting the forests of Kumaon,
like Barking Deer ( Muntiacus muntjak ) ; Goral ( Nemorhaedus goral) ;
Sambar ( Cervus unicolor) ; Rhesus Monkey ( Macaca mulatto) ; Langur
(Presbytis entellus) ; and Serow ( Capricornis sumatraensis), are all
attacked by leeches. Birds are not usually attacked. Some birds
(Kaleej and Koklas pheasants) were shot in the leech-infested areas
during the rainy season and a few leeches were found on their tarsus,
but there were no signs of previous bites by leeches on any of the birds
to indicate that they had frequent leech attacks.
A number of species of rats, and moles' exist in the oak forests,
which become their victim. Buc leeches kept with the common rat
{Rattus rattus) in a cage in the laboratory, did not touch the rats.
Moore (1927) refers to a freshwater crab {Potamon atkinsonianum)
as a specific host of the leech Haemadipsa sylvestris. The only large
invertebrate slug ( Limax ), common in leech localities in Kumaon, is
not attacked by these leeches.
Kinloch (1922) reported a leech attacking Dryophis , an arboreal
species of snake, in a coffee plantation at Nelliampathy hills in south
India.
Moore (1927) reports to have received specimens of land-leeches
collected from the local frogs of Ceylon. A large number of toads
BIONOMICS AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE LAND LEECHES 41
(Bufo melanostictus) very commonly seen in the same locality during
the rainy season, were found free from leeches.
The present study of leech habitats and the wide range of victims
they come across gives the impression that leeches do not get frequent
opportunity of securing a meal. Large wild animals capable of rapid
movement usually abandon heavily infested areas, while rodents with
their dense fur-coat and birds on account of feathers do not offer much
chance of a meal to leeches. We feel that domestic animals are the
main source of their subsistence. It has been noticed that some wild
animals and cattle are their primary victims. The colonisation of
grazing lands, cattle tracks and the areas near human habitat, support
the above view. On cattle that daily visit or only pass through these
areas for grazing, it is a common sight to find at least eight to ten
leeches sticking in between their hooves and bare parts of the body,
particularly the nasal and genital regions.
It has long been queried whether the entire leech population is able
to secure a meal. In this connection it is worth noting that the
reported abundance of leeches by previous workers appears to be an
exaggeration. In fact the fear and annoyance caused by these agile
creatures have probably led workers in the past to over-estimate their
population. The same view has been expressed by Moore (1932) who
made observations on land leeches in this country. Harrison (1953)
made an attempt to give an approximate estimate of leech population.
His figures seem quite reasonable but we feel that wild- stock alone, at
least in the Kumaon, is not sufficient to provide meal to most of the
leeches. During the present study an attempt was made to calculate
the approximate density and leech population in different localities in
Kumaon hills, and worked out as 4 leeches per square metre.
According to this, a total land area of 10,000 square metres would have
an approximate leech population of about 40,000 individuals.
Considering the average number of leeches attacking per cattle
(4 leeches to an animal) and number of cattle grazing in leech infested
areas (100 animals a day) ; it could be estimated that most of the leech
population is able to get at least one meal in an active season of
approximately 100 days.
Copulation
Land leeches, like other members of the group, are hermaphrodites.
Reciprocal cross-fertilization takes place by the union of two indivi-
duals. The process of copulation in land leeches was observed in
nature by Leslie (1951) and Harrison (1953). Leeches usually copulate
in the month of April and it has been possible to watch the process in
field and also in the laboratory.
Fig. 2. Sketches showing different postures, leading to copulation, a. Pre-copulation
posture, with the posterior suckers of both the leeches attached to the substratum, and body
standing erect, b. Close contact of the pre-clitellar portions of the two worms, c. Copulating
posture : anterior portion of one curves round the anterior portion of the other, entwined in a
head to tail position. Both slightly raised from the ground in the form of an arc. The male
genital pore of the one is opposed to the female aperture of the other and vice-versa. A. auricle;
E. eyes ; F. female genital aperture ; M. male genital aperture ; P.S. posterior sucker.
BIONOMICS AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE LAND LEECHES 43
Leeches move about in different directions, and when two full-
grown leeches meet head to head for a short while, they fix their
posterior suckers on to the substratum and sway their bodies till they
touch each other. The act of swaying and a sort of embracing action of
the two, taking place before the actual process of copulation was
termed by Leslie as 4 Dance ’ which lasts for a few minutes. Such
casual contacts between the two leeches are not of much significance in
the beginning as leeches often come close together, touch each other
and separate. In cases where such meeting leads to actual copulation
the animals after some preliminary muzzling establish close contact.
With the posterior suckers firmly fixed to the substratum, the anterior
portion, up to the clitellar region of one curves round the anterior
portion of the other, in a head to tail position. The part of both that
are in close contact get slightly raised from the ground and assume the
shape of an arc. The ventral side particularly the clitellar region gets
slightly flattened. In this posture the male genital pore of one is
opposed to the female aperture of the other and vice-versa. Both
remain in this position almost motionless for some time, except for a
continuous slight swaying backwards and forwards. This is followed
by alternate pressing movements of both leeches, by which the clitellar
regions of both get further flattened and develop still closer contact.
At this stage the male organs of both project, as was observed and
recorded by Leslie, and transference of seminal fluid takes place in a
reciprocal manner.
During the process of copulation a whitish jelly-like lubricant
material, probably secretion of the prostate or more likely of the
clitellar glands, is seen in between the surfaces of the two worms that
are in close contact, which becomes more evident when they separate
after the copulation. Soon after the process the posterior suckers get
detached and the leeches start moving the usual way.
In several copulating individuals it has been possible to watch the
entire process and to record the total period involved in the act.
Beginning from their coming in close contact, to actual copulation and
separation, the time involved ranges from 40 to 65 minutes. Leslie
records 4 Dance * for about 2 minutes and actual process lasting for
one and a half minutes. Harrison’s note on sexual behaviour of
leeches, leading to copulation, and the figure given by him show the
posture prior to actual copulation, which he observed lasting for an
hour and a half. Actual copulation takes place only after the male
orifices get opposed to the female apertures, a position not achieved in
the figure given by Harrison, which depicts only close contact of the
two worms. He therefore missed this important point in his
observation.
44 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1)
Cocoon Formation
Leeches that have successfully mated lay cocoons, generally in the
months of May and June and sometimes even in July. During these
months the clitellar region (segments IX, X, and XT) becomes slightly
depigmented owing to the presence of large' number of epidermal
clitellar glands, and it becomes slightly yellow in colour. The cocoon
laying process is almost similar to that in other members of the group
described by Khan (1912), Matthai (1921) and Bhatia in hirudinaria
(1941). Just before the actual process of cocoon laying, the leech
becomes sluggish and settles down at some shady place, free from any
kind of disturbance. A copious secretion of several layers of snow-
white froth, secreted by the glands of clitellum, appears all round the
clitellar region in the form of a girdle. During the formation of the
frothy material the front portion of the leech, up to the clitellum.
shows a slow rolling, as well as dorsoventral movement, while the
post-clitellar portion of the body exhibits no movement. Formation
of the frothy girdle takes about an hour. After that, large quantity of
albumen, and fertilized ova extruded through the female generative
aperture pass into the frothy girdle. By rhythmic movements, the
leech withdraws the entire front portion. The plugs at the two poles
of the cocoon are secreted by the prostomial glands, as stated by
Bhatia (1939). Cocoons are generally laid in well protected shady
places. The cocoon formation is a comparatively slow process lasting
for about 5 to 6 hours. The froth on exposure to air hardens and
forms an outer spongy layer with spacious air cavities in it. Like other
leeches, land leech lays successive cocoons after an interval of about
4 days.
Cocoon
The cocoon is barrel -shaped and measures 8 to 12 mm in length
and 6 to 9 mm in breadth. The cocoon-wall consists of two layers :
an outer formed by the hardening of frothy secretion, and an inner
chitinous layer. The froth, when fresh in the process of cocoon laying,
is in several layers of large bubbles and during hardening process the
bubbles unite and form hard partitions, and by pressure acquire a
characteristic pentagonal shape. This layer protects the contents from
minor shocks and from pressure of oak leaves and other objects
under which the cocoons are generally laid. During rains and flooding
of the area the air cavities provide buoyancy to the cocoon. The
inner layer is quite hard, smooth and tough, and enclosed in it are a
mass of albumen and fertilized ova. Both the layers are transparent.
BIONOMICS AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE LAND LEECHES
45
b
Fig. 3. Cocoon
a. Two days’ old leech cocoon.
b. Longitudinal section of 18 days old, almost mature cocoon, showing 8
embryos inside it.
C.L. cuticular layer ; E. embryos inside the cocoon ; P.P. polar plugs at
the two ends of the cocoon ; S.L. spongy layer.
46 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. (1)
Development
There is no larval stage in the life-history of the leech, and entire
development is completed inside the cocoon.
Fertilized ova develop into embryos, which swallow the entire
albumen contained inside the cocoon. After about 5 days of the laying
of cocoon, the embryos are seen making slight movements, through the
transparent cocoon wall. 8 or 9 days later the embryos become active
inside the cocoon and in about 15 days most of the organs are formed,
five pairs of pigmented eyes become prominent in each embryo. In
about 20 days typical coloration and pigmentation are developed and
development is almost complete and 6 to 9 young leeches emerge from
each cocoon.
Freshly emerged young leeches are reddish brown in colour, each
measures 5 to 10 mm. Soon after emergence they move about actively,
and they remain active throughout the rainy season. Most of these
succeed in getting a full meal, and attain maturity. At the close of
rains they hibernate and on the onset of next rainy season they again
become active, copulate, and lay cocoons.
It has been observed that land leeches survive for more than three
years, but further observations are necessary to determine definite
period of their life-span.
Life- Cycle
Observations on the life-cycle of land leeches show two distinct
phases in their activities, an active phase and a dormant phase.
Active Phase : It generally starts from the month of June and
lasts till the end of November. Since the appearance and disappea-
rance of leeches depends on rainfall and temperature, the active phase
extends mainly over the monsoon months (July to October). During
this period they perform all essential functions of life namely feeding,
growth, maturity and reproduction. Soon after emergence from
cocoons they actively move about, and spread out over a large area and
also migrate uphill. From the middle of July to the third week of
August, their activities reach a climax, and by the end of September
they start retreating to the valleys. By the middle of October they
start hibernating and thus completely disappear.
Dormant Phase : The remaining six months (December to May)
constitute the dormant phase or the hibernation period ; but generally
leeches disappear completely by November and reappear only by the
end of June, thus extending the hibernation period to about eight
months.
BIONOMICS AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE LAND LEECHES 47
Migration
Migration or mass movement of land leeches has been a subject of
much inquiry for a proper understanding of their ecology and biology.
Fig. 4. Diagrammatic representation of the life-cycle of land leeches.
Among annelids the swarming of marine Polychaete worms is a
phenomenon correlated with reproduction. In Oligochaeta and
Hirudinea such examples are rare.
Moore (1932) has hinted on the seasonal migration in Haemadipsa
sylvestris and Haemadipsa zeylanica montivindicis. In the latter species
he describes an altitudinal migration also. Richardson (1942) has
reported migratory behaviour in various species of freshwater leeches.
In case of Haemopis marmoratis, a scavenger freshwater leech, he
observed uni-directional advance of half a mile or even more and in
Glossiphonia complanata he observed a habit akin to swarming.
Land leeches hibernate in valleys during the months November to
May. On the advent of the rainy season they emerge and lead an
active life, as mentioned earlier, in the humid oak forests of the hills.
48 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1)
The first emergence of leeches as already stated, is in the first week of
June, by the sides of dry water courses or nullahs, soon after heavy
shower of rain.
The bulk of the population of leeches that emerge at this time
consists of leeches of appreciable size, small or even medium size
leeches are rarely found at this period. After more rain they become
very active and spread throughout the valley, which is still dry. By
the middle of June rains become quite a regular feature with frequent
heavy showers. Leeches, then, start spreading up towards the
northern slopes.
Continuous rain all over the oak forest creates humid and moist
conditions sufficient to provide moisture after a prolonged dry spell.
The presence of widespread humidity initiates leech migration. By
this time the number of leeches is as large as four to six per metre, and
medium-sized ones are more in number than the large adults. After
about ten days of emergence leeches spread nearly 100 metres up the
northern slope. The upward movement during June depends on the
weather conditions. If there is continuous rain, the advance is quicker,
and their activities slacken to a great extent if there is a prolonged dry
spell.
The month of July generally experiences incessant rains and
activities of leeches increase in this period. By the second week they
are found all over the summit, the cultivated fields and grasslands
near the top of the hill, and this is the time when they prove a great
menace. A study of the leech population in the middle of July reveals
that at the top of the hill leeches of large size, and in the middle region
both large and medium-sized are present in considerable number.
Freshly emerged young ones form the primary leech population in the
valley, though some are seen in the middle region also. By this time
large number of cocoons hatch resulting in tremendous increase in the
population stock of young leeches in the valley.
By the end of July the number of young ones, in the middle region
of the hill, exceeds that in the valley. This is probably due to the
emergence of large number of leeches from the cocoons, laid by the
migrating leeches in the middle zone and migration of fresh stock of
young ones from the valley upwards in search of a meal.
Freshly emerged stock of young leeches reaches the top of the hill by
the second week of August and they are most active in their attack on
animals and also human population. Observations indicate that from
the 2nd week of July to 3rd week of August, the activities of leeches
remain at their peak, and as such this period could be regarded as the
4 Peak period of activity ’. During this period even the xerophytic pine
forests are quite moist and leeches are seen advancing to all these
places. In such cases the migration is altitudinal, horizontal and even
BIONOMICS AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE LAND LEECHES 49
downward. In fact during this period leeches migrate indiscriminately
and spread to all possible directions in search of food. In oak forests
they start moving upwards from the very beginning and show definite
upward trend of migration, much more on the northern slope of the
hill. The southern slope which is mostly covered by pine forests, the
intervening areas between the xerophytic pines and the evergreen oak
forests, are comparatively exposed to sun and are warm and dry.
Hence the movement of leeches through such areas is practically
impossible till heavy and continuous rains set in.
By the third week of August a downward migration commences, as
indicated by the decline of their population at the summit ; to such an
extent that in the fourth week of August they withdraw altogether from
the top of hills and appear to concentrate in the middle region of the
hills. It is interesting to note their complete absence from the valley at
this time of the season.
Till the middle of September leeches are in great abundance in the
middle region but towards the end of September the entire stock,
consisting of the adults, medium-sized and the young individuals, get
confined to an area of about 80 to 100 metres above the valley.
By the first week of October further descent occurs and they are
found very near the valley. At this time they are very sluggish, hide
under oak leaves and come out only when induced by disturbances or
some sort of vibrations in the surrounding objects. By the second week
they disappear from the entire hill and only a few stray specimens are
seen up to about 40 ft. above the nullah in the valley. After a few days
they disappear altogether.
Thus it is observed that with the advent of rains, leeches emerge in
the valley and migrate upwards to half a mile distance. At the close
of rainy season they return to similar areas and hibernate till the next
rainy season.
Causes of Migration
The region of the valley provides enough moisture to leeches during
dry months of winter and summer and the onset of rainy season not
only provides favourable conditions for them to emerge, but also
moistens the herbage at heights. Leeches emerge just after hibernation
and the newly hatched young stock at the valley needs a meal. The
herbage and oak leaves on the ground, shady and moist conditions on
the northern slope of the hill, provide favourable conditions to them to
move about and spread all over the area in search of food. At the close
of rainy season the herbage on the heights dries up, therefore they
begin to withdraw and migrate back toward the valley which is more
moist and constitutes an ideal hibernating ground. Guiding factors for
4
50 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1)
migration are the moisture, temperature and food. The to-and-fro
migratory habit of leeches seems to be induced by the combined effects
of the following causes :
Upward Migration
(i) Overcrowding, and scanty food supply in the valley.
(ii) With an upward movement of the livestock there are better
chances of procuring food uphill.
(iii) Favourable conditions of humidity, temperature, and suitable
moving space uphill on the northern slope.
Downward Migration
(i) Decrease in humidity on the top of the hill.
(ii) Availability of favourable hibernating spots at the base of the
hill.
Hibernation
It has been observed that land leeches suddenly appear with the
first shower of rain, gradually increase in number in certain areas,
where they prove a great menace and suddenly disappear when cold
weather sets in. Much attention was drawn by the old age mystery of
their sudden emergence and disappearance. Suggestions on their
probable hibernation were made as surmises rather than on any kind of
actual field study of the problem. Tennant (1861) expressed surprise
on the complete disappearance of leeches during the dry season and
their appearance immediately with the coming of rains. Whitman (1886)
suggested that 4 they merely seek shelter under stones, sticks etc. as
they do all times when not actively moving about, and thus protected
against complete drying, await favourable conditions of moisture’.
But he denied completely the possibility of hibernation except for those
which live above the level of the occasional frost and snow.
Landon (1905) believed that land leeches died with the advent of dry
season and those which reappeared on its conclusion are a new
generation. Macrob della decora , an aquatic American leech, has been
reported by Moore (1927) to live in dry ponds during summer. Bhatia
(1941) observed the same in the leech Hirudinaria. Similarly a little
advanced type of 4 draught torpidity ’ has been described in
Ozobranchus by Oka (1922). On the contrary laboratory observations
during the present course of study show that land leeches, once they
become dry, are unable to regain activity, as is common with all living
forms.
Moore (1927) summing up the previous views comments that leeches
probably pass through a condition resembling hibernation. Later
BIONOMICS AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE LAND LEECHES 51
(Moore 1932) suggested that leeches may concentrate in the vicinity
of water sources. Recently Smythies (1953) writes, ‘ in the tropics
they are active all the year round, but in a monsoon climate they
disappear entirely for about six months, during the dry cold winter.
Do they get through this period in the form of eggs or by burrowing
into the soil ?
Our present observations are in conformity with the view of Moore
(1932) and it has been noticed during the course of our field study that :
(i) The first emergence of land leeches, on the onset of rains, is
always at the base of the hill, by the sides of dry water channels or
nullahs.
(ii) After their emergence they spread all over, generally more
towards the upper limits of the hill, and remain active throughout the
rains. At the close of rainy season they gradually migrate to the valley
and commence vanishing in the similar regions from where they first
emerged .
These observations hint at their possible hibernating grounds.
A search of the valley in winter months (December and January) reveals
that leeches do not hibernate under the layers of decaying oak leaves,
sticks etc., as was suggested by Whitman, a possible abode of their
hibernation. Instead, it has been found that they hibernate fairly deep
down in soft soil. On digging a foot or more deep, below the earth
surface and on turning the underground buried stones and pebbles in
the vicinity of water channels, a large number of hibernating leeches
were everytime obtained, attached to undersurface of the stones.
Observations made during the active phase of leeches suggest that
like all other living beings, food, congenial temperature, and moisture,
are the primary guiding factors in the life of land leeches. It has
been noticed in the laboratory that they can withstand fairly low
temperature. Moreover, the subsoil temperature in the valley does not
fluctuate beyond a critical limit. Thus, only moisture appears to be the
chief influencing factor during the hibernation period.
Several other hibernating places have been suggested by previous
workers, i.e., areas by the sides of water streams which are very damp
and flooded, but leeches have not been found from any such localities.
They do not resort to aquatic habit of any kind during hibernation.
It has been confirmed in laboratory that leeches kept partially
submerged in water or very near water, do not feel comfortable and
immediately try to escape. They do not survive long in water.
The areas in the valley are slightly different from the other parts of
the hill slopes. There is always loose layer of coarse sand and pebbles
on the surface, under which, there is a mixed layer of humus, clay and
sand. Sand and pebbles are brought down from the slopes of hill
during heavy rains. Leeches make their way in to the underground sand
52 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 70 (1)
and humus through crevices in the upper layer of pebbles. The
overlying layer of sand and stones protect leeches from dessication.
The sub-soil in the valley retains moisture and remains damp all
the year round and this kind of constant wet conditions are maintained
by various factors. In addition to the occasional rains, there is
constant occurrence of what may be called the ‘ sub-soil moisture
The soil in the oak forests retains comparatively greater amount of rain
water. After heavy showers in the rainy season, at the lower levels of
the hill there arise underground streams in the form of springs, which
become a constant source of water supply to the nullah or water stream
flowing at the base of the valley. When these seasonal springs and
nullahs dry up in winter and summer, water retained by the roots of
the oak trees in the upper limits, percolates through the underground
streamlets. The presence of such streamlets is easily revealed by the
marshy conditions even in dry season, when digging to a depth of
about \\ ft. in the region of the nullah. Such sub-soil moisture keeps
the hibernating places moist throughout the dry season. The surface
evaporation of the sub-soil moisture is further cut down by the presence
of a large number of evergreen trees and thus chances of drying up of
such places are meagre. The selection of such places for hibernating
is obvious.
Hibernating Leeches
Hibernating leeches lie in a dormant, contracted, and emaciated
condition, attached by both the suckers to the undersurface of stones
and other objects. Haemadipsa montana remains slightly more
dormant than Haemadipsa zeylanica agilis , and its brownish or yellow-
ish colour harmonises well with the surroundings to such an extent that
sometimes it becomes difficult to spot these out in their hibernating
habitat.
The hibernating leeches observed have been generally of large size,
some of median size, but none of small size.
Behaviour of Hibernating Leeches :
Hibernating leeches are very sluggish, and they shun light. They
do not respond to human breath or even touch. On pressing hard they
show slight activity and immediately try to wriggle away and again hide
under some nearby object. When submitted to slightly higher tem-
perature than what they have in their natural habitat, they become
slightly active, but not as agile as during the rainy season. Such
activity lasts only couple of minutes even when the higher temperature
is maintained for some time. When both higher temperature and
moisture are provided, they become more active than when only
BIONOMICS AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE LAND LEECHES 53
temperature is raised. Leeches that become temporarily alert try to
escape. They do not respond to light of low intensity, and they respond
negatively to strong light. They do not show any tendency to stick to
the skin, bite and suck blood.
Distribution in Kumaon
The abundance and ferocity of land leeches have been reported
from different parts of India by several naturalists. Haeckel (1883),
Hooker (1854), Semper (1863) and others : Moore (1927) casually
reported the occurrence of land leeches in Nainital district. As has
been mentioned earlier, land leeches are confined only to oak forests,
in Kumaon region. A general survey of the climate and vegetation of
different regional belts of Kumaon, assists in explaining the distribu-
tion of oak forests, which provide suitable habitat to leeches.
The entire Kumaon area may be divided into several climatic belts,
running approximately north-west to south-east, parallel to the
Himalayas. The division is mainly based on the total rainfall and its
relative percentage in winter and monsoon seasons.
I. A regional belt, the 4 Sub-Himalayan tract ’, includes the area
running along the foot-hills and consists of Bhaber and Tarai. Rains
during monsoon are heavy, 50" to 70", and there are extensive forests of
Sissu ( Dalbergia sissoo ), Khair {Acacia catechu) and Jaman {Eugenia
jambolana). The maximum average temperature does not fall below
26° C which acts as a major influencing factor for the total absence of
leeches from this region.
II. The 4 outer hill range ’ stretches from the base of foot-hills in
the region of Kotdwara, Kalagarh, Kathgodam, and Tanakpur, to the
crest of the outermost range of the hills of Nainital. The hills rise,
1000 to 2000 ft. at the base and extend up to 4000 to 8000 ft. The
general aspect of the hills is southern. Total rainfall ranges from 70"
to 120" out of which 20% is during winter and 80% during the monsoon
months. The dominant forests of Pine {Pinus longifolia ) between 3000
to 7000 ft. are on the southern side. In pine forests due to xerophytic
conditions and prevalence of frequent fire, the undergrowth is very
scarce. On higher elevations and by the sides of ravines, the common
oak {Quercus incana ) replaces the pine. These forests are more
common on the northern slopes, where the average maximum tempera-
ture does not rise beyond 26° C. The oak forests of Nainital district,
Kilbery, China forest, Ratighat, Ramgarh, Gagar, Mukteshwar,
Paharpani, Okhalkanda, Bhim-tal and Sat-tal etc. continue the upper
boundary of this belt, are heavily infested with leeches.
III. Another regional belt, 4 the central hill range ’ includes the vast
area of mountainous country stretching to the outermost range of the
25347
54 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST , SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1)
BIONOMICS AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE LAND LEECHES 55
main Himalayan peaks. The valleys of the river Sharda, Kosi, Ganga
etc. lie at low level between the hills and the temperature is surprisingly
high. Main intervening ridges range between 5000 and 10,000 ft.
Annual rainfall varies from 40" to 80", 70% of which is during the
monsoon season. Heaviest rain occurs in the prominent central
ranges covered by oak forests (Dudotoli, Bhadkot, Binser, Gageshwar
etc.). Most of the area between 3000 and 6000 ft. is covered by
extensive pine forests, which is replaced by oak above 6000 ft.
IV. In the main Himalayan range, rainfall is 10" to 40" in
monsoon, and snow during winter. Banj oak ( Quercus incana) is
commonly found between 6000 and 8000 ft. height but in damp
ravines it is represented down to 3000 ft. in the Chir zone. Moru oak
{Quercus dilatata ) is found between 6500 and 9000 ft. and the Kharsu
oak {Quercus semicar pifoli a), between 7500 and 11,500 ft. All these
forests are thinly or heavily infested by land leeches. In the upper
limits of the Kharsu zone, leeches are very rare. It is possible that on
the highest regions of the Kharsu zone which extends up to 11,500 ft.
they are absent because of extreme cold.
Some of the heavily infested places in this belt are the oak forests
of Shyahi Devi, Sittakhet, Jalna, Mornauli, Debidhura, Panwanaula,
Binsar, Jageshwar, Dholchina, Dhakuri, Loharkhet, Kapkot, Attigaon,
Munsayari, Kalamuni, Tejam, Karmi, Kanda, Gwaldom, Kaushain,
Ranikhet, Dunagiri, etc. in Almora District, and Dharchula, Chandak,
Lohaghat, Champawat, Agar, Chhera, Kalsinkatia in Pithoragarh
district.
In Garhwal district, Tehsil Deoprayag and Patti Barmabanger are
heavily infested and Patti-Sora, Hindab, Silgarh and Mandar are
thinly infested.
References
Bhatia, M. L. (1939) : The prosto-
mial glands of the Indian leech, Hirudi-
naria granulosa . J. Morph. 64 : 37-46.
(1941) : Hirudinaria (Indian
Cattle Leech). Indian Zool. Mem. 8 :
1-85.
(1956) : Extra-ocular photo-
receptors in the land-leech Haemadipsa
zeylanica agilis from Naini Tal, Almora.
Nature 176 : 420.
(1970) : The segmentation
of the Ganthobdellid leeches with special
reference to the Indian leech Hirudi-
naria and Medicinal leech Hirudo. J.
Morph. 132 : 361-376.
Haeckel, E. (1883) : From the Fauna
of British India, Hirudinea, 1927.
Harding, W. A., & Moore, J. P
(1927) : The Fauna of British India —
Hirudinea.
Harrison, J. L. (1953) : Sexual be-
haviour of Land-leeches. J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 51 : 954.
Hooker, J. D. (1854-1855) : Hima-
layan Journals. London, 1st. ed.
pp. 107, 167.
Khan, M. M. (1912) : Notes on rear-
ing leeches in Bara Banki District, U.P.
Rec. Indian Mus. 7 : 206-207.
Kinloch, A. P. (1922) : Leech attack-
ing a snake. /. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
28 : 557.
Landon, P. (1905) : The opening of
Tibet. New York, p. 49.
56 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1)
Leslie, C. J. (1951) : Mating be-
haviour of Leeches, J. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. 50 : 422-423.
Mann, K. H. (1962) : Leeches (Hirudi-
nea). Their _Structure, Physiology,
Ecology, and Embryology. Inter. Ser.
Monographs on Pure and Appl. Sci.
Zool. Div. 11.
Matthai, G. (1921) : Preliminary ob-
servations on cocoon formation of com-
mon Lahore leech, Poecilobdella granu-
losa. Proc. Assoc. Soc. Bengalis : 341.
Moore, J. P. (1927) : Fauna of British
India, Hirudinea.
(1932) : Land-leeches in the
‘ Fauna of British India ’. Some correc-
tions. Rec. Indian Mus. 34 : 1-6.
Oka, A. (1895) : On some New Japa-
nese Land-leeches. Journ. Coll. Science
Imp. Univ. 8: 275-306, Pis. XXVIII-
XXX.
Oka, A. (1917) : Zoological Results
of a Tour in the Far East. Pt. iii. Hirudi-
nea. Mem. Asiat. Soc. Bengal 6 :
159-176, pi. vii.
Richardson, L. R. (1942) : Obser-
vations on the migratory behaviour of
leeches. Canad. Fid. Nat. 56 : 67.
Semper, C. (1863) : Zeitsch. f. wiss.
Zool. xiii, p. 559.
Smythies, B. E. (1953) : Notes and
queries on Land-leeches. J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 51 : 954.
Tennant, J. E. (1861) : From the
Fauna of British India, Hirudinea, 1927.
Whitman, C. O. (1884) : The external
morphology of the leech. Proc. Amer.
Acad. Arts Sci., 20 : 76.
(1886) : Leeches of Japan.
Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci. 26 : 317.
(1888) : Some new facts
about the hirudinea. J. Morph. 3 : 286.
Mud and Dung plastering in Baya Nests
BY
T. Antony Davis
Indian Statistical Institute , Calcutta -35
( With two plates and two text-figures)
Introduction
This paper is mainly a discussion on the various explanations that have
been offered by earlier investigators on the mud-blobs or dung plastering
seen in the egg-chamber of several baya weaverbird nests. Some fresh data
on the quantity of the plastering material used in individual nests, stage in
the development of the nest when the mud/dung is brought to the nest and
the time of the day when the plaster is fixed are furnished. Among the
various theories on the mud-blobs, the following in particular have been
discussed: for fixing fireflies for illuminating the nest, balancing the nest,
protecting the inmates from rain, a relic of an ancient habit, and for cement-
ing the fibre for greater reinforcement of the egg-chamber. The chief func-
tion of the plastering materials seems to be the strengthening of the fibre-nest
particularly at regions that are subjected to great stress.
One of the best known attributes of the baya weaverbird ( Ploceus
philippinus ) that has fascinated villagers for centuries is that based on
the mud-blobs found in many of its nests. Nevertheless, observations
made on these nests as well as those of the baya’s other Asian and
African cousins for nearly a century have not highlighted the full signi-
ficance of the pasty material fixed at specific spots in the nest. A half-
built nest of the baya, at what is known as the helmet stage, is divided
by a vertical ring into two more or less equal halves. One of these,
which is always built a bit ahead of the other, is the future egg-chamber.
The other half, known as antechamber, extends downwards into an
entrance tube. When the inner walls of the future egg-chamber in such
an incomplete nest are examined, one may see on two opposite sides
small or large quantities of mud-blobs, or a plastering of clay, cattle
dung or in rare cases, human faeces. There is considerable variation
in the quantity and quality of the plaster between nests, some not having
any of these extraneous materials at all. A few explanations have been
offered by ornithologists on the significance of the plaster. Apart from
them, the most classical and romantic one based on poetic imagination
is that it holds fireflies in order to illuminate the nest at night. Every
58 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 70 (1)
second villager who is familiar with the baya is likely to vouch empha-
tically for this explanation although none of them has actually seen a
firefly fixed inside the nest. Some naturalists contend that the mud is
used to stabilise the nest during gales, while others regard the mud as a
relic of some ancient custom at one time beneficial to the species. Other
explanations offered are: the mud protects the inmates from getting
soaked in rain; prevents the nest robbers from pulling apart the initial
ring, and when dry helps to sharpen the beak of the builder.
My interest in the common weaverbird was aroused in my
early childhood (some 45 years ago) by a large colony that used to
nest year after year in our small coconut garden surrounded by paddy
fields in the southernmost district of India (Kanyakumari). As pulling
down active baya nests having eggs or fledgelings was forbidden, I used
to be contented to play with the nests that were periodically cut down by
some male birds during the breeding season, and the innumerable ones
gathered during non-breeding season. It was at this period that
I saw for the first time mud-blobs fixed inside the nest and learned
of the universally believed myth of the bird’s alleged faculty of illuminat-
ing its nest. During the past eight years, the lost thread was taken up
again and I could visit many tracts in almost all Indian States and make
detailed observations on the variation in the baya nests between different
pockets in various regions. With my observations together with what
has already been recorded, I venture to make the following comments
on the significance of the mud-blobs. Before doing so, some of my
observations are presented.
Presentation of Data
Loads of mudjdung per nest
Detailed observations on the weaving of a few baya nests were made
in 1963 on a colony founded on a palmyra palm ( Borassus flabellifer)
at the northern border of Calcutta. The observations on the activities
of the selected birds were recorded from the commencement of their
day’s work starting from about 5-00 a.m. upto their retirement at about
6-30 p.m. The starting and closing up of the activities in a day depended
largely on the intensity of daylight. Records on the number and duration
of nest-visits of the cock with or without fibre/mud ; number of visits the
hen made while selecting a nest, during brooding a clutch of eggs,
and nursing the nestlings; kind of fibre brought and the region of
the nest into which they were woven ; pilfering of fibre ; fights bet-
ween cocks; and the behaviour of the cock and hen during courtship
etc. were maintained. Hence I can say with some confidence when
exactly the bird brought the plastering material while constructing the
MUD AND DUNG PLASTERING IN BAYA NESTS
59
nest. In Text-fig. 1, the number of loads of mud and dung fixed during a
day (average for four nests watched throughout their construction)
are shown.
Crook (1964), a prodigious worker on weaverbirds, has given a
detailed description of the nest-construction by baya weaverbird. He
mentioned seven distinct stages — formation of an initial wad; wad
with horns or cone; initial ring; helmet stage; padded helmet stage;
completed nest; and construction after completion. Most of the cocks
that I observed nesting on palm leaves started attaching the initial wad
in the morning and completed the formation of the ring before dusk.
On the second day, porches developed on either side of the ring, and
the side that eventually became the egg-chamber grew much faster than
the other. On this very second day, the male started bringing loads
of mud or cattle dung and fixed them inside the nest. Though the
colony I was watching was within city lin its, the host palm was stand-
ing in a small neglected paddock, a site for a future factory. Within
two metres from the base of this tree there was a shallow pond, a peren-
nial source of water where buffaloes wallowed and cropped up the water
hyacinth that overgrew the pond. Practically the whole day the buf-
faloes laid loose dung on the paddock and the birds took beakfuls of
this fresh loose paste. The bayas of this particular colony seemed to
prefer dung although mud was abundant on the edges of the pond.
Moreover, this paddock, overgrown with Cassia tora and similar annual
weeds, was used as an open latrine by the children of a few shacks bor-
dering the paddock. At least one of the bayas also brought two loads
of faeces in a day for plastering the egg-chamber. On an average, a
male baya brought one to six loads of the paste per day from the second
to the seventh day of founding the nest. At the end of this period,
the nest had only reached the padded helmet stage, and the egg-chamber
was yet to be completed. A glance at the graph relating to the nest
visits of the male with fibre (Text-fig. 1) will confirm this point. Since
on the first day the cock struggled to attach the initial wad for making
the vital foundation for the nest, on this day he brought fibre only at the
rate of four loads per hour (average for a 14-hour day). With the for-
mation of the foundation, the rate of bringing fibre increased, and on
the fifth day he brought at the maximum rate of 27 loads per hour.
Towards the close of this day the nest attained the helmet stage. From
the sixth day, the cock’s building activity began declining, for, hence-
forth he appeared more interested in courting a hen and enticing
her to select his nest and thus have him as her future mate. This period
of courtship continued up to the eighth day; then, obviously, with the
acceptance of the nest by a hen, he resumed active nest-building to
complete the egg-chamber which is indicated by the upward trend of
the graph. It is quite obvious from the graph that no load of mud (or
60 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1)
dung) was brought once a female had approved and accepted the nest.
The hen was never found bringing mud or dung.
Text-fig. 1. Nest-visits of baya cock with fibre (per hour) and mud/dung
(per day).
On an average, each of the four males observed brought 12*5 loads
of mud during a six-day period. However, in general, the number of
MUD AND DUNG PLASTERING IN BAY A NESTS
61
loads per nest varied very greatly between nests of the same locality and
between localities. Examination of 3 to 25 nests from different regions
(or States) indicated that not all nests have mud plastering, but prac-
tically in every locality there are a few to a large number of nests, each
containing one to about twenty loads of the plastering material. The
quantity of mud (or dung) in a nest varied according to the quality of
the weaving material used, and also depended on whether the nest was
woven explicitly or shabbily.
Time of bringing mud j dung
The male baya starts collecting fibre and weaving them just after
5 a. m., and within an hour he goes for the mud or dung. The earliest
I noticed a bird bringing mud was at 5.33 a.m., and the visits extended
during the day at irregular intervals up to 4.50 in the evening. However,
all visits excepting a single one were finished before 2 p.m. As most
of the time I was observing the colony in Calcutta, I was comfortably
perched on a 6-metre high machan, I was able to make note of the males
during each of their almost vertically downward flights in search of
mud or dung. When they flew to bring fibre or left for foraging or
to the roost, the males always took a horizontal flight that was strikingly
different from that when they went in search of mud/dung. Even with-
out field glasses, I could clearly observe the male collecting the paste.
During most of their trips a majority of the birds preferred to collect
wet dung although mud of a similar consistency was available in close
vicinity on the sides of the pond. While collecting the mud /dung, the
bird inserts its bill slantingly and scoops out beakfuls. I have never
seen the bird stirring or mixing the mud/dung either with its feet or
beak. However, once or twice I noticed the bird making a second or
even a third scoop at a stretch to collect the required quantity. Only
fresh dung was used in all cases since after four or five hours a dung
heap dries up and consequently it becomes harder for the bird to scoop
out a small quantity from it.
Another point that struck me was the way groups of males
went to collect mud/dung almost simultaneously. Table 1 gives
information on the time of bringing mud/dung by two males building
nests of almost similar stage close to each other on a palm. The group
collection of mud was so striking that my attention was drawn to that
even when the birds I was watching did not participate at it.
Either at the collection centre or on their way, the males seldom
fight or spend time in fruitless conflicts. Usually, within 30 seconds
of leaving the nest, the bird brings a load of mud/dung to the nest. So
far I have never noticed pilfering of clay/dung from other nests although
pilfering of fibre is part of the nesting activity in the case of most males.
Some are more proficient than the others in the clandestine act.
62 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 70 (1)
Table 1
Ploceus philippinus : Data on number of mud/dung loads brought in
TWO NESTS
N.B. — Foundations for nests I and II were made on April 28, and no mud/dung
was brought to the nests on that day.
Weight of mudl dung loads
I could not weigh the fresh mud/dung used by a bird. Weighing
the dry material collected from nests, in some cases several months
after their fixing, may not reveal the exact situation. Nevertheless; the
data suitably adjusted for the moisture content may give some idea of the
MUD AND DUNG PLASTERING IN BAYA NESTS 63
total weight of the materials used in a nest. Approximate percentages
of moisture content in mud and dung have been calculated by weighing
known quantities of fresh mud and dung collected from the same loca-
lities and getting their weights after drying them. The figures (in gm)
are as follows :
Material Wet weight Dry weight Moisture percentage
Mud 113*3 66’ 2 41*57 on wet weight
Dung 144-0 20’2 85*97 on wet weight
Thus, fresh mud weighs a little less than twice the dry mud, but wet
dung weighs a little over seven times the weight of dry dung.
Figures 1-3 (Plate I & II) show views of mud or dung patches in four
nests. Where abundant quantities of the mud/dung are used, they are
generally dumped into a thick lump or coating. Hence by examining
a patch it is often difficult to estimate the number of loads of the
material used in such a patch, especially if it is dung plastering
(Plate I, Fig. 2, and Plate II, Fig. 3). However, where the nests have
smaller quantities of mud, it is possible to estimate the number of
loads mote or less accurately (Plate I, Fig. I). It is still more easy if the
mud-blobs are sparsely fixed. Another factor that helps in the identi-
fication of individual loads is the variation in the shades of colour of
the different loads. In some other cases mud blobs alternate with dung
(Plate II, Fig. 3). Faeces plastering is distinctly different from
Table 2
Ploceus philippinus: Number of loads and weight of mud in nests
N.B. — *The figures relate to mud blobs present on only one side. That present
on the other side was ignored as portion of it was lost while collecting.
Nest 10 had about equal quantities by dry weight of mud and dung.
64 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (i)
the rest. It is on the basis of the above facts that the weight of a single
load of mud/dung has been calculated. Table 2 gives data on the
weight and number of loads of mud/dung used in individual nests.
It appears as though the weight of a single load of mud/dung varies
from region to region, although the mean weight works out to be about
one gramme. Where smaller numbers of loads are used, as in nests
from- southern and western India, the loads seem to be heavier than
those seen in North-eastern India. The bird usually carries a load
that is maximum for its capacity and since he has to make a steep ascent
with the load to reach the nest, he often showed visible signs of strain.
On windy days, I noticed some males carrying mud to the nest were
tossed away to adjoining leaves. During two such occasions, the birds
abandoned the mud/dung and flew for safety.
The mud/dung is fixed very firmly on the inner wall of the nest so
that it is impossible to pull away the dry plaster without breaking the
fibre. Since the bird effectively spreads the sticky material with his
beak, beak marks are seen on the surface of the paste which are more
clear on mud-blobs (Plate I, Fig. 1). Often fresh fibre is woven so as
to cover part of the plaster (Plate I, Fig. 2).
Plastering in ‘ Bachelor nest *
The helmet-stage nest is also spoken of as * bachelor nest * since
up to this stage it has been owned and used during the day time only by
the male (builder) who is yet to acquire a mate. If no female selects a
nest for a long time, such a nest is either cut down by the builder him-
self, or more frequently, it is lengthened unusually with a droll look,
still maintaining the two openings. It is more appropriate to consider
only such nests as 6 bachelor nests \ The body of some such nests
measures three or even four times longer than that of a nest built by
an efficient male and accepted fairly soon by a hen. The initial ring
in such abnormal nest gets shifted downwards since the inner dome
is also proportionally filled up as the nest grows (Davis 1971). It is
rather difficult to explain the presence of mud in some ‘ bachelor nests ’
since most others do not have mud. An important reason for a nest to
get rejected by females in the normal breeding colony seems to be that
it is probably not strong enough to withstand the force of wind. Not
only such clumsy and weak nests, but also the wrongly aligned ones
are discarded by the hens. Most of these droll looking elongated nests
do not have any mud/dung plastering at all. However, in a limited
number of them, a maximum possible quantity of mud was seen. While
dissecting out one of the nests, mud coating was noticed over a length
of 25 cm. on two opposite sides of the portion meant for the egg-
chamber. Obviously, most of the mud coating was covered with fibre
because the ceiling of the dome was gradually lowered as the bridge
MUD AND DUNG PLASTERING IN BAY A NESTS 65
extended downward. Even in such a nest, not even a single blob of
mud was seen on the wall of the antechamber.
Discussion
Mud I dung present only on one side of ring
Even when the nest of baya weaverbird is incomplete, the birds enter
the nest through the opening of the antechamber and perch on the bridge
(lower part of the initial ring), facing the future egg-chamber. Accord-
ing to Collias & Collias (1962), this situation is remarkably applicable
to the African village weaverbird ( Textor cucullatus) which almost always
enters the nest from one side and faces the same way, keeping one foot
on each side of the bottom of the ring. Perching on the ring, the baya
fixes some mud/dung on the wall of only the egg-chamber, usually in
two patches, one to the left and the other to the right which happens to
be the most convenient places as the bird does not reverse the direction
of its perch. So far as the initial ring is concerned these two patches
fall only on one side (egg-chamber side). But usually it is stated that
mud-blobs are fixed on the two sides of the initial ring.
The firefly story
The purpose of the mud/dung seen inside the nest is certainly not
to hold fireflies to illuminate the nest at night. According to Dewar
(1909) and Ali (1931), this story is nothing more than a poetic exag-
geration. This is a form of exaggerated eulogy by those who have been
fascinated by the sagacity of the tiny bird who weaves an exquisite pen-
dant nest. My observations throw further light on two additional points
which would disprove this myth. From graph (Text-fig. 1), it is clear that
the mud/dung is brought between the second and seventh day of build-
ing the nest, at a period when the nest has not reached beyond the hel-
met stage. It is an established fact that the builders do not spend the
nights inside their nests, but they get back to the usual roosts. More-
over, at this stage the nest has not yet been chosen and occupied by a
female. Therefore, the 4 wet fittings ’ and the 4 bedroom lamps 5 become
meaningless in a vacant house. If at all illuminating the brood-cham-
ber is justified, it should be after the hen starts to brood, and more so,
when the mother is with fledglings. The other point is based on the
information given in Table 1. The timings of bringing the cementing
material clearly prove that the mud /dung is not meant for burying the
heads of fireflies. Most of the plastering material is carried to the nest
between 5-30 a.m. and 2-00 p.m. and by dusk, it becomes too dry and
brittle to accommodate an insect. In none of the over one hundred
nests I have examined, there was any firefly fixed to the mud — not even
a head. None of my students and associates who once believed in the
5
66 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1)
myth, could convince me by bringing a nest bearing a firefly. Although
beak marks are clearly seen on the dried up mud (Plate I, Fig. 1), they
did not resemble the impressions caused by the burying of an insect.
Balancing the nest
Jerdon (1863), who was one of the earliest to describe the baya,
mentioned the significance of mud-blobs thus: ‘ From an observation
of several nests, the time at which the clay was placed in the nests, and
the position occupied, I am inclined to think that it is used to balance
the nest correctly, and to prevent it being blown about by the wind. In
one nest lately examined, there was about three ounces of clay in six
different patches.’ Jerdon also believed that the pieces of clay are more
commonly found in the unfinished nests (built by the males for his own
special behoof) than in the complete nests. Ali (1931) reacted sharply
to Jerdon’s explanation of the mud being used for steadying the nest
during violent winds. Ali did not come across in any of the over fifty
nests examined by him, mud weighing more than 1*4 oz. and so he con-
cluded that this insignificant extra weight could not keep the nest steady
during violent winds. Usually in the same colony there are many nests
which do not possess any mud at all, but having equal survival value
like those with mud-blobs. The oropendolas ( Zarhynchus wagleri)
with long woven pendent nests do not provide any ‘ balancing material ’
against violent trade winds. Crook (1963) mentioned that the use of mud-
blobs on either side of the initial ring may stabilise the swinging nest
in high winds. But an additional or alternative function is also pos-
sible. About the quantity of mud or dung used in a nest, Ali’s figures
are somewhat less compared to some of those wet weights given in
Table 2. Most of his earlier observations relate to nests from Maha-
rashtra State where birds fix smaller quantities of mud whenever they use
it. The quantity of mud used in one of the nests taken from a mahua tree
(. Madhuca longifolia) standing in a flooded rice field near Varanasi (U.P.)
should have been more than what Jerdon had mentioned. While admitting
that any extra weight in the nest will contribute towards its stability, and
reduce the tilt during wind, it is rather unconvincing that small quan-
tities of mud, and in many cases cattle dung that becomes so light when
dry (one seventh), can prevent the nest from such violent swayings the
nest is subjected to during gales. Moreover, mud is usually smeared
only on two fixed positions. If balancing disproportionate nests, arising
out of faulty construction, is the main purpose of the mud, why is it
that it is always placed at specific regions ? Small changes in the align-
ment of the nest can be brought about by making minor modifications
in the construction of the nest. Another reason why the balancing
theory seems untenable is the fact that the ball nests of Ploceus megar-
hynchus which are placed on branches and not liable to be tossed about
MUD AND DUNG PLASTERING IN BAY A NESTS
61
by wind also have mud-plastering on the inner wall (Ali & Crook 1959).
Moreover, even in some nests hung on outgrowths on the walls of wells
which are adequately protected from wind have mud-blobs.
An ancient custom
Ali (1931) suggested that the habit of sticking mud in the nests is a
form of atavism — the relic of some ancient custom at one time bene-
ficial to the species. He also hoped that a study of allied forms, their
evolution and development might throw some light on this point. Wood
(1926) was also of similar opinion. Most of the 95 species of weavers
(Ploceinae) occur in Africa and only five are known in Asia (. Plcceus
philippinus , P. manyar , P. benghalensis , P. megarhynchus and P. hypo -
xanthus). According to Crook (1963), the ancestors of the Asian
weavers invaded Asia from Africa at a time or times, when a suitable
tract of country connected the two continents. None of the Asian
species has any particular relationship with any existing African Ploceus
species. Although at least four of the Asian weavers are reported using
mud-plastering inside the nest, none of the African species is known
to use clay or dung in its nest. Hence, the probability of this habit
being an ancestral trait is not high. Incidentally, the limited number
of nests of P. benghalensis that I had dissected (2 from Varanasi, 2 from
Karnal and 3 from Calcutta) did not show any mud or dung, one of
them shown in Plate II, Fig. 4 is from Varanasi.
Protection against rain
Crook (1963) gave yet another explanation for the mud-blobs : that
they give shelter to the inmates from pouring rain. He mentioned that
Ploceus manyar and P. benghalensis , like P. philippinus , plaster part of
the egg-chamber wall with mud which, when dry, is probably a most
effective barrier to water. But the baya nest is adequately built not
only to withstand the severe gale that accompanies the South-West
Monsoon, but also to protect the inmates from being drenched. As
the fibre nest is sufficiently thick at least at the roof, no water can enter
and stagnate in the egg-chamber. Moreover, within minutes of the
rain stopping, the nest gets dry as the porous nest allows quick evapo-
ration. On the other hand, if the nest is not otherwise proof against
rain, during heavy rains, mud plastering can soak down and cause more
discomfort and health hazards to the young. Here, cattle dung coat-
ing can be effective rather than mud-plastering. Another objection to
this proposition is that nests built in regions having high precipitation
do not have large quantities of mud plastering. Parts of west coast of
India receive over 2500 mm of rainfall every year. In the Tamil Nadu,
Kerala and Mysore regions of West Coast, coconut is the most preferred
tree siting for baya nests. This palm also provides very strong leaf
68 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1)
fibre for nest-building. In these nests, either no mud is fixed at all or
very negligible quantities are seen. In the north-eastern region of India
comprising West Bengal, Bihar and Orissa where the rainfall is only
about 1000 mm per annum, bay a nests show the maximum amount of
the plaster. Moreover, the use of dung, a relatively better rainproof
material is prevalent here. The rain-proofing theory may further run
into difficulties atleast with bay a nest, since the portion of the nest that
faces the source of rain or wind is the egg-chamber. The central strip
of the egg-chamber that faces rain most is devoid of any plaster since
the mud patch or patches are seen on either side away from the middle
line (Text-fig. 2).
i i
DIRECTION OP W/A/D j RAIN
Text-fig. 2. Male baya perching on the lower portion of ring and fixing a
mud blob at a point not far from the ring.
MUD AND DUNG PLASTERING IN BAYA NESTS
69
The hemispherical shape of the egg-chamber results from the fact
that the male baya invariably builds while perching on the bottom of
the ring. Hence, weaving is extended up to where his beak can reach.
The bird obviously struggles to weave along the middle strip of the egg-
chamber, the farthest region from the ring. This is also the region
which is least accessible to the female at the time of her critical nest-
examination. As explained earlier, the male carrying a heavy load finds
it difficult to reach the middle strip of the egg-chamber. Therefore,
he fixes the mud on the side wall nearer to the ring (Text-fig. 2). Thus,
two regions are equally close to him, and accordingly, he fixes the mud
or dung in two patches. The bird shows no preference for any parti-
cular direction for smearing the mud since there are some nests where
only one patch is seen either on the left or right side. Some nests have
an excess quantity of the plaster on one side either on the left or right.
The numerous nests not having any mud/dung do not support the
rainproofing theory.
Plastering reinforces nest
The above discussion shows that the various explanations offered
by different ornithologists on the presence of mud/dung in the baya
nest are not fully convincing. My views agree with those of Burgess
(quoted by Jerdon) who mentioned that the plastering serves to streng-
then the nest. Crook also conceded to this view indirectly. The follow-
ing information may support this point :
1. Dismantling a nest, fibre by fibre, is impossible without removing
the mud/dung coating wherever it is present. In order to find out the
total number of fibres involved in the weaving of different types of baya
nests from different regions of India, a few nests were dissembled. Sepa-
rating the fibre from the free end of the entrance tube backwards,
obviously, is the easiest possible way to dismantle a nest. The first
nest chosen was a medium-sized coconut fibre nest removed from a
coconut palm from Kerala. There were only 4 or 5 loads of mud fixed
in two small patches. Dismantling the nest beyond three-fourths the
tube was almost impossible since most of the long fibres were caught
by the mud directly, or firmly entangled with those fixed by the mud.
Removing the dry mud meant breaking of some fibre. Hence the nest
was soaked in warm water and the mud washed away. This explains
the powerful cementing capacity of even limited number of mud-blobs.
Incidentally, the process of separating the fibres of this particular nest
took a little over 14 hours, spread over 4 days. This nest had a total
of 4,002 fibres (allowing a 2-3% increase due to the breakage of fibre)
which measured a total length of about 800 metres. Since coconut
leaflets yield very long (one fibre measured even 85 cm) and strong
70 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1)
fibre, the number used in this nest is much less compared to that of a
nest made of grass blades.
2. Crook (1964) who conducted several tests on the baya, made
the following remarks on the use of mud-blobs. ‘ In tests on nests
under construction in which the ring was removed, mud-blobs were
found scattered at random on the exterior of the structure and even near
the point of attachment to the support.’ Although this illustrates the
importance of building position in determining the organisation of the
normal structure, this also clearly demonstrates the importance of mud
as a binding material. The ring being the vital framework of the nest,
restoration of damage requires the maximum effort. Since the ring is
formed directly from the initial wad at the attachment of the nest with
an organ of the host tree, the bird’s attempts to fortify even the point
of attachment only suggest baya’s response to reorient the ring from
the initial point of the foundation.
3. The plaster keeps the nest intact in spite of the female’s rather
violent examination. When a female in search of a nest and a mate
enters a half-built nest, she invariably perches on the ring and
starts examining it by poking her beak into the walls of the egg-cham-
ber and also by palling out fibre. The two regions that are easily acces-
sible to her are smeared with mud/dung which reduce her critical exami-
nation and save some more fibre from getting pulled out. On the other
hand, the plaster appears to reassure her of the strength of the nest,
and owners of such nests are likely to get mates quickly. During some of
her visits, the nest examiner spends even up to ten minutes at a time in
a nest. Daring this period, she is occasionally seen picking up small
pieces of the plastering material and working them between the beaks.
The exact significance of this is not clear. Whether there is any need
to sharpen the beak, and how far the mud/dung helps this, remains to
be investigated.
4. Nests built of long and strong fibre as those from leaves of
coconut, sugarcane and some wild sugarcane have relatively small quan_
tides of mud or none at all, while those built with weak fibre like those
of rice, maize and banana leaves have heavy plastering. Nests in high
rainfall areas generally have smaller quantities of mud in them.
5. The quantity of the plaster varies with the quality of nest-weave.
For example, in many regions, the baya uses rice leaves. Those in
north-eastern India use th- whole unsplit blade or as very broad strips,
and eventually such nests are not firm and compact and so they require
more cementing material. But the birds in parts of Andhra, Maha-
rashtra and Karnataka States, strip a rice blade into several narrow
strands and weave the nest more carefully. Such nests generally do not
possess any mud/dung.
BOMBAY NAT. HIST. &OC. /U ( 1) PLATE I
A patch ot mud-blobs showing persisting beakmarks. 2. A portion of a heavy dung plastering covered by fibre
Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 70(1) Plate II
Mud-blobs and dung plaster us^d in the same patch. 4. Inner view of Ploceus benghalensis nest.
MUD AND DUNG PLASTERING IN BAYA NESTS
71
6. A majority of the rejected nests as well as those woven by young
males do not have any mud/dung coating at all.
7. The female is not known to weave a nest although she seems
capable of selecting a durable one. The success of a brood depends on
the strength of the nest since if the nest gives way when it holds either
eggs or young, it can only end in disaster, since the female is apparently
incapable of nest-repair. Such a selection of an efficient nest becomes
all the more meaningful since the male generally deserts his mate and
nest when the hen starts brooding her eggs. Ambedkar (1964) reported
that some males not only look after the nest subsequently, but also feed
the young though not as frequently as the females. The binding effect
of the mud/dung need not be over-emphasized. The region of the nest
likely to be strained most is the egg-chamber on account of the weight
of the young and that of the mother, as well as the strain caused by the
hen’s frequent flights in and out of the nest. Therefore, additional rein-
forcement of the vulnerable part of the nest has been effected by the
cementing material that is usually seen in large quantities inside nests
which are otherwise weak.
Acknowledgement
I thank Mr. S. K. De, Artist of the Indian Statistical Institute,
Calcutta, for making the inked drawings.
References
Ali, Salim A. (1931): The nesting
habits of the baya ( Ploceus philippinus) .
A new interpretation of their domestic
relationship. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
34 : 947-964.
& Crook, J. H. (1959): Obser-
vations on Finn’s baya ( Ploceus megar-
hynchus Hume) rediscovered in the
Kumaon terai. ibid. 56 : 457-483.
Ambedkar, V. C. (1964): Some Indian
weaver birds. University of Bombay.
COLLIAS, N. E. & COLLIAS, E. C.
(1962): An experimental study of the
mechanisms of nest building in a weaver-
bird. Auk 79 : 568-595.
Crook, J. H. (1963): A comparative
analysis of nest structure in the weaver-
birds (Ploceinae). Ibis 105 : 238-262.
Crook, J. H. (1964): Field experiments
on the nest construction and repair
behaviour of certain weaverbirds. Proc.
Zool. Soc. London, 142 : 217-255.
Davis, T. A. (1971): Variation in the
nest-structure of the common weaver-
bird {Ploceus philippinus ) in India. Forma
et Functio 4 : 225-229
Dewar, D. (1909): The nesting habits
of the baya. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
19 : 627-629.
Jerdon, T. C. (1863): The birds Of
India. Vol. II, Part I, Calcutta.
Wood, C. A. (1926): The nest of the
weaver bird. Auk 43 : 295-300,
Contribution to the Flora of Tirap
Frontier Division
BY
D. B. Deb and R. M. Dutta
Botanical Survey of India , Calcutta
[Continued from Vol. 69 (3) : 573]
Anacardiaceae
Rhus semialata Murr.
Snail tree with dull white flowers ; common. Margharita-Jairampur,
Oct. 1959, Rao 19934. Namsang-Shoha, Oct. 1959, Rao 20345.
R. succedanea Linn. var. acuminata (Dp.) Hook. f.
Medium-sized tree in fruit. One of the most common trees of this
forest. Banfera-Kanubari, July 1961, Deb 26746.
Pegia nitida Colebr.
Tapiria hirsuta Hook. f.
A scandent shrub. Chenglang, March 1958, Mur thy 12913.
Aceraceae
Acer laevigatum Wall.
Large tree in fruit ; scarce. Chennhang, June 1961 , Deb 26279.
Staphyleaceae
Turpinia nepalensis Wall, ex Wt. et Arn.
Small tree in fruit ; fruits 3-seeded, globose ; common. Chennhang,
June 1961, Deb 26245, 26246, & 26249 ; Lailongsong, 510 m, June 1961,
Deb 25804.
POTALIACEAE
Fagraea obovata Wall, ex Roxb.
Medium -sized tree with yellow flowers ; common. Chennhang, June
1961, Deb 26237.
FLORA OF TIRAP FRONTIER DIVISION
73
Buddleiaceae
Buddleia asiatica Lour.
Shrub with small, pinkish showy flowers ; scarce. Chennhang, March
1958, Murthy 12926.
B. macrostachya Benth.
Shrub in fruit. Fruits dark brown on drying ; common. Lailong-
song, June 1961, Deb 26131 ; Noglo, June 1961, Deb 26352.
Strychnaceae
Gardneria ovata Wall.
Shrub in flower, rare. Pungchow, July 1961, Deb 26619.
Strychnos wallichiana Benth.
Climber with large fruits ; rare. Kanubari, July 1961, Deb 26757.
Oleaceae
Jasminum amplexicaule G. Don
Climber with white flowers. Margharita-Jairampur, Oct. 1959,
Rao 19965.
J. attenuatum Roxb.
A climber in flower ; scarce. Wakka, July 1961, Deb 26523.
J. coar datum Roxb.
Shrub with white mild scented flower, rcarce. Pungchow, July 1961,
Deb 26595 ; Chenglang-Khela, March 1958, Murthy 12940.
J. glandulosum Wall, ex DC.
A scandent climber with white flowers ; rare. Pungchow, July 1961,
Deb 26618 ; Wakka-Nagminu, July 1961, Deb 26536.
J. samhac Ait.
A wild Jasmine with white flowers, fairly common. Namchick,
152 m, Oct. 1959, Rao 20176.
J. subtriplinerve Bl.
Shrub ; scarce. Pungchow, July 1961, Deb 26631.
Ligustrum robustum Bl.
A tall shrub in fruit ; scarce. Chennhang, June 1961, Deb 26209 ;
Langsang forest, June 1961, Deb 26127.
74 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol 70 (1)
L. roxburghii Clarke
Small tree with white flowers ; scarce. Laju-Raho, Aug. 1958,
Panigrahi 14713 ; Jadua-Banfera, July 1961, Deb 26687.
Myxopyrum smilacifolium Bl.
A twiner on shrubs ; in fruit ; scarce. Deomali, Oct. 1959, Rao 20323.
Ajpocynaceae
Chonemorpha fragrans (Moon) Alston
A large climber with scented white flowers ; rare. Chenglang-
Khela, 600 m, March 1958, Murthy 12941 ; Tipang, June 1961, Deb
25716 ; Banfera, June 1961, Deb 26708.
C. griffithii Hook. f.
A stout climber with scented white flowers. Langsang forest, June
1961, Deb 26144.
Ichnocarpus ovatifolius A. DC.
Climber with white flowers; scarce. Banfera-Kanubari, July
1961, Deb 26731.
Melodinus khasiana Hook. f.
A tall climber with milky juice. Flowers white ; scarce. Langsang
forest, June 1961, Deb 26120 ; Pungchow, July 1961, Deb 26629.
M. monogynus Roxb.
Climber with white flowers. This is larger than M. khasiana
Hookf.; rare. Noglo, June 1961, Deb 26363.
Pottsia laxiflora (Bl.) O. Kuntze
A scandent shrub with purple flowers ; scarce. Tipang, June 1961.
Deb 25706.
Strophanthus wallichii A. DC.
Shrub with scented white flowers. Jangkeng village, June 1961.
Deb 25865.
Tabernaemontana divaricata (Linn.) R. Br. ex Roem. et Schult.
A small shrub with white flowers ; common. Margharita-Jairam-
pur, Oct. 1959, Rao 19919 ; Namchick, 152 m, Oct. 1959, Rao 20185 ;
Chenglang, Oct. 1959, Rao 20246.
FLORA OF TIRAP FRONTIER DIVISION
75
Trachelospermum axillare Hook. f.
A climber with milky juice. Scented red or pink flowers; rare.
Chegum-Wakka, July 1961, Deb 26470 ; Chennhang, June 1961, Deb
26208 ; Pungchow, July 1961, Deb 26607.
T. lucidum (D. Don) K. Sell.
Shrub with white flowers. Noglo, June 1961, Deb 26353.
Pereplocaceae
Cryptolepis buchanani Roem. & Schult. f.
Climber with fruits ; scarce. Pungchow, July 1961, Deb 26588.
C. sinensis (Lour.) Merr.
C. elegans Wall, ex G. Don
Climber with pale yellow flowers; scarce. Lunwa, July 1961, Deb
26640; Lailongsong, 510 m, June 1961, Deb 25801.
Pentanura khasiana Kurz
Climber with milky juice in pinkish white flowers ; scarce. Jadua-
Banfera, July 1961, Deb 26694 ; Pungchow, July 1961, Deb 26603.
Periploca calophylla Falc.
A much-branched climber in fruits. Chennhang, June 1961, Deb
26219 ; Wakka, July 1961, Deb 26510.
Asclepiadaceae
Asclepias curassavica Linn.
An undershrub. Flowers bright red with yellow projecting corona ;
scarce. Chenglang, Oct. 1959, Rao 20247.
Ceropegia angustifolia Wight
Climber with yellowish brown flowers with brown stripes ; rare.
Laju-Raho, Aug. 1958, Panigrahi 14748.
Cynanchum wallichii Wt.
A climber. Pungchow, July 1961, Deb 26573.
Dischidia bengalensis Colebr.
An epiphyte with milky juice on Schima wallichii Choisy ; common,
Jadua, July 1961, Deb 26662.
76 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1)
D. nummularia R, Br.
A small epiphyte with linear fruits ; rare. Khela, March 1958,
Mur thy 12970.
Dregea volubilis (Linn, f.) Benth. ex Hook. f.
A scarce twiner. Soha village, 1067 m, Oct. 1959, Rao 20363.
Haterostemma ala turn Wt.
Twiner with brownish-yellow flowers ; scarce. Chegum-Wakka,
July 1961, Deb 26491.
Hay a lanceolata Wall, ex D. Don.
An epiphyte with creamy-white flowers with pinkish stamens ; com-
mon. Wakka, Aug. 1958, Panigrahi 14935 ; Raho, July 1961, Deb 26457 ;
Deomali, June 1961, Deb 25909.
H. linearis Wall, ex D. Don.
An epiphyte with milky latex ; scarce. Chennhang, June 1961, Deb
26183.
H. longifolia Wall, ex Wt.
An epiphyte with white flowers ; scarce. Ko thong, June 1961, Deb
26044; Chegum-Wakka, July 1961, Deb 26475; Khonsa-Laju,
June 1961, Deb 25990.
H. parasitica Wall.
A climber on Shorea robusta Linn. f. with white flowers ; common.
Deomali, June 1961, Deb 25881.
Tylophora belostemma Benth.
A climber. Chegum-Wakka, July 1961, Deb 26480.
T. hirsuta (Wall.) Wt.
Climber with small violet flowers; rare. Pungchow, July 1961,
Deb 26579.
Rubiaceae
Acranthera tomentosa Br.
A scarce shrub. Banfera, July 1961, Deb 26709.
Coffea arabica Linn.
A bushy shrub with white flowers. Cultivated. Khela, June 1961, Deb
25933.
FLORA OF TIRAP FRONTIER DIVISION
77
Galium asperifolium Wall, ex Roxb.
A diffused herb with very small flowers ; common. Khonsa, June
1961, Deb 25971 ; Chennhang, June 1961, Deb 26218 ; Kothong, June
1961, Deb 26073.
Hedyotis verticil! ata (L.) Lamk.
Herb with small white flowers ; common. Margharita-Jairampur,
Oct. 1959, Rao 19925 ; Niausa, July 1961, Deb 26564.
H, lindleyana Hook. f. ex Wt. & Arn.
A prostrate herb with white flowers, scarce. Raho, July 1961, Deb
26427.
H. scandens Roxb. ex D. Don
An undershrub with ripe bluish fruits, common. Margharita-
Jairampur, Oct. 1959, Rao 19943 ; Nampong-Pangsupass, Oct. 1959,
Rao 20055 ; Niausa. Sept. 1958, Panigrahi 15011, Langsang forest, June
1961, Deb 26140,
H. vestita R. Br. ex G. Don
Herb with greenish violet flowers ; rare. Pungchow, July 1961, Deb
26587.
H. diffusa Willd.
A common herb. Soha village, Oct. 1959, Rao 20372.
Knoxia sumatrensis (Retz.) DC.
A rare herb. Jadua-Banfera, July 1961, Deb 26686.
Lasianthus biermanni King ex Hook. f.
Shrub with globose, winged fruits ; common. Chennhang, June 1961,
Deb 26248 ; Chegum-Wakka, July 1961, Deb 26481.
L. sikkimensis Hook. f.
Shrub in fruit ; scarce. Pungchow, July 1961, Deb 26593.
L. tubiferus Hook. f.
A common shrub. Chegum-Wakka, July 1961, Deb 26478.
Morinda angustifolia Roxb.
Shrub with white flowers ; scarce. Jadua-Banfera, July 1961, Deb
26673 & 26674 ; Deomali, June 1961, Deb 25883 ; Banfera, July 1961,
Deb 26701.
M. villosa Hook. f.
A shrub about 3 m in height with orange red fruits ; rare. Rusa-
Bimalpur, Sept. 1958, Panigrahi 16913.
78 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL tilST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76 (1)
Mussaenda glabra Vahl
Shrub with hirsute flowers and dark green fruits ; common.
Nampong-Pangsupass, Oct. 1959, Rao 20030 ; Jangkeng village, June
1961, Deb 25866 ; Raho, July 1961, Deb 26416 ; Chennhang, June 1961,
Deb 26212 ; Chenglang, March 1958, Murthy 12914.
M. glabrata (Hook, f.) Hutch.
Shrub with green globular fruits ; scarce. Jairampur, Oct. 1959,
Rao 19973 ; Nampong-Pangsupass, Oct. 1959, Rao 20018.
M. macrophylla Wall.
Shrub with globose, hairy fruits ; scarce. Kothong, June 1961, Deb
26021 & 26077 ; Lailongsong, 510 m, June 1961, Deb 25811.
M. roxburghii Hook. f.
Shrub with modified sepals white, le^F-like ; in fruit ; common.
Tipang, 540 m, June 1961, Deb 25702 ; Longsek hillock, 1500 m, June
1961, Deb 25732.
M. wallichii G. Don
An undershrub with yellow flowers; common. Tipang, 540 m.
June 1961, Deb 25700.
Mycetia longifolia (Wall.) O. Kuntze
Shrub with small, creamy white or yellow flowers ; scarce. Nam-
pong- Pangsupass, Oct. 1959, Rao 20069 ; Wakka, July 1961, Deb
26508 ; Jangkeng village, June 1961, Deb 25859 ; Banfera, July 1961,
Deb 26707.
Myrioneuron nutans Wall, ex Kurz
An undershrub with small yellow fruits ; scarce. Niausa, Sept
1958, Ranigrahi 16714 ; Banfera, July 1961, Deb 26704 ; Pungchow, July
1961, Deb 26576.
Neanotis ingrata (Wall, ex Hook, f.) W. H. Lewis
A soft herb with white flowers ; common. Rusa, Sept. 1958, Pani-
grahi 16946 ; Chenglang-Khela, Oct. 1959, Rao 20265.
N. wighti&na (Wall, ex Wt. et Arn.) W. H. Lewis
Small herb with white or violet flowers, scarce. Chennhang, June
1961, Deb 26184 & 26203 ; Langsang forest, June 1961, Deb 26136.
Ophiorrhiza calcarata Hook. f.
Herb with pink flowers ; rare. Jangkeng village, June 1961, Deb
25864.
FLORA OF TIRAP FRONTIER DIVISION
79
O. harrisiana Heyne
A common herb with white flowers. Grows gregariously and forms the
undergrowth in moist situations. Pungchow, July 1961, Deb 26612 ;
Noglo, June 1961, Deb 26333.
O. paucifloia Hook. f.
Small herb with white flowers ; fairly common. Pungchow, July
1961, Deb 26601.
O. succirubra King ex Hook. f.
Herb with pink flowers; common. Chennhang, June 1961, Deb
26262 ; Langsang forest, June 1961, Deb 26121 & 26122.
O. treutleri Hook. f.
A succulent herb with pink flowers and green fruits ; scarce.
Kothong, June 1961, Deb 26065.
Paederia scandens (Lour.) Merr.
A twiner with hairy, violet flowers with pungent odour; scarce.
Nampong-Pangsupass, Oct. 1959, Rao 20014.
Pavetta subcapitata Hook. f.
Shrub with globose berries ; scarce. Banfera, July 1961, Deb 26700.
Polyura geminata Hook. f.
A small herb with very minute red or pink flowers ; common.
Deomali, Oct. 1959, Rao 20392 ; Jadua, July 1961, Deb 26670 ; Deomali,
June 1961, Deb 25888 ; Longsek hillock, 1500 m, June 1961, Deb 25737.
Psychotria fulva Buch.-Ham.
Herb with small flowers and fruits ; scarce. Banfera, July 1961,
Deb 26699 ; Lailongsong, 510 m, June 1961, Deb 25826 ; Longsek hillock,
1500 m, June 1961, Deb 25731.
P. montana Bl.
A common shrub. Fruiting; Langsang forest, June 1961, Deb 26128.
P. thomsonsi Hook. f.
A common shrub of the undergrowth. Chegum-Wakka, July
1961, Deb 26469.
Randia griffithii Hook. f.
A tree in fruit. Khonsa-Laju, June 1961, Deb 25960.
R. wallichii Hook. f.
A medium-sized tree in flower, scarce. Chennhang, June 1961, Deb
26250.
80 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 70 (1)
Rubia sikkimensis Kurz
A rare climber. Langsang forest, June 1961, Deb 26154.
Saprosma ternatum Hook. f.
A shrub about 3 m in height. Fruiting ; rare. Nginu-Niausa,
Aug. 1958, Panigrahi 14802.
Spermacoce ocymoides Burm. f.
A common herb with woody base, white flowers and fruits. Lailong-
song, 510 m, June 1961, Deh 25824.
Spiradiclis bifida Wall, ex Kurz
A common succulent herb with very small, pale white flowers ;
common. Tipang, June 1961, Deb 25705, Lailongsong, 510 m, June 1961,
Deb 25822.
S. cylindrica Wall, ex Hook. f.
Small herb with small yellow or creamy- white flower ; scarce.
Chenglang-Khela, Oct. 1959, Rao 20279 ; Lailongsong, 510 m., June
1961, Deb 25823 ; Chennhang, June 1961, Deb 26185.
Tarenna odorata (Roxb.) Robinson
Tree with white flowers and fruits ; rare. Deomali, June 1961, Deb
25879.
Uncaria macrophylla Wall.
A large shrub, scandent, in fruit. Margharita- Jairampur, Oct. 1959,
Rao 19952.
U. homomalla Miq.
A scandent shrub with fruits; scarce. Chenglang, March 1958,
Mur thy 12915.
U. sessilifructus Roxb.
A large scandent shrub in fruit ; scarce. Namchick-Chenglang,
Oct. 1959, Rao 20211 (A) ; Raho-Wakka, July 1961, Deb 26393.
Meyna laxiflora Robyns
Vangueria spinosa Roxb.
A bushy shrub with flowers and fruits growing in clearings in the
forest. Lunwa, July 1961, Deb 26641.
Wendlandia wallichii Wt. & Arn.
A small tree with small, sessile flowers and greyish green fruits in large
bunches ; common. Chennhang, June 1961, Deb 26244; Wakka, July
1961, Deb 26505.
FLORA OF T1RAP FRONTIER DIVISION
81
BlGNONIACEAE
Radeimachera bipinnaca (Coll, et Hemsl.) Van Steenis
A climber. Flower showy, yellow outside and violet inside. This is
worthy of introduction as an ornamental plant. Langsang forest, June
1961, Deb 26124 ; Khonsa-Laju, June 1961, Deb 25943.
R. gigantea Miq.
A rare tree. Fruiting. Pungchow-Niausa, June 1961, Deb 26645.
Stereospermum personatum (Hassle.) Chatter.
A medium-sized tree with violet and yellowish tinged flower ; common*
Longsek hillock, June 1961, Deb 25720 ; Wakka, July 1961, Deb 26537.
Banfera-Kanubari, July 1961, Deb 26743.
Pedaliaceae
Sesamum indicum Linn.
Cultivated near cottages. Margharita-Jairampur, Oct. 1959, Rao
19946.
Verbenaceae
Callicarpa arborea Roxb. ex C. B. Clarke
A small tree with violet or pinkish flowers ; scarce. Banfera, July
1961, Deb 26697 ; Lailongsong, 510 m., June 1961, Deb 25788.
C. longifolia Lamk. var. lanceolaria Clarke
A shrub in the exposed region of the forest ; scarce. Deomali, Oct.
1959, Rao 20320 ; Deomali, July 1961, Deb 25892.
C. rubella Lindl.
A shrub with purple flowers and fruits ; common. Khonsa, June
1961, Deb 25916 ; Kothong, June 1961, Deb 26074.
Clerodendron bracteatum Wall, ex Walp.
A shrub with ripe bluish fruits ; Banfera-Kanubari, July 1961, Deb
26740.
C. colebrookianum Walp.
A shrub with white flower and dark green fruits with calyx ; common.
Margharita-Jairampur, Oct. 1959, Rao 19956 ; Nampong-Pangsupass,
Oct. 1959, Rao 20041 ; Deomali, Oct. 1959, Rao 20388.
6
82 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol 70 (1)
C. divaricatum Jack
A tall shrub with whitish blue flowers and oily green fruits ; common.
Lailongsong (Chenglang), 510 m, June 1961, Deb 25816 ; Deomali, Oct.
1959, Rao 20393 ; Pungchow, July 1961, Deb 26585.
C. hast alum Lindl.
A small tree ; scarce. Banfera-Kanubari, July 1961, Deb 26737.
C. iasiocephalum C. B. Clarke
Shrub with dull to deep red flowers and small green fruits ; scarce.
Chenlang-Khela, Oct. 1959, Rao 20268 ; Kothong, June 1961, Deb
26085 ; Chenglang-Khela, March 1958, Murthy 12954.
Premna racemosa Wall, ex Schaner.
Shrub or small tree with white, small flowers ; scarce. Raho-Wakka,
July 1961, Deb 26442; Pungchow, July 1961, Deb 26608 & 26630;
Pungchow-Niausa, July 1961, Deb 26651 ; Noglo, June 1961, Deb
26328 & 26364.
Verbena officinalis Linn.
An undershrub ; very common. Rhonsa-Laju, June 1961, Deb
25998 ; Kothong, June 1961, Deb 26072.
Vitex canescens Kurz
A big tree in zygomorphic, dull white flowers with externally tomen-
tose corolla ; scarce. Chennhang, June 1961, Deb 26207.
V. heterophylla Roxb.
A medium-sized tree with small white flowers and fruits ; common.
Chenglang-Khela, Oct. 1959, Rao 20258 ; Longsek hillock, 1500 m,
June 1961, Deb 25728.
V. negundo Linn.
A shrub with blue-violet flowers; common. Niausa, July 1961, Deb
26556.
Helleboraceae
Isopyrum adiantifolitim Hook. f. & Th.
A succulent herb. This is recorded to occur in Sikkim and upper
Burma only ( vide S. K. Mukerjee in Bull. Bot. Surv. India 2 : 106, 1960).
This record from NEFA indicates that it is distributed all over the
Eastern Himalayas from Sikkim to Burma. Raho-Wakka, July 1961,
Deb 26435.
FLORA of tirAp frontier division
83
Ranunculaceae
Anemone howellii W. W. Smith & Jeff.
A herb with dull white flowers ; scarce. Wakka, July 1961, Deb
26407.
Ranunculus diffusus DC.
A herb with yellow flowers ; scarce. Raho- Wakka, July 1961, Deb
26314.
R. laetus Wall, ex Royle
Herb with yellow flowers ; common. Khonsa-Laju, June 1961,
Deb 25975.
R. cantonlensis DC.
Herb in yellow flowers ; scarce. Kothong, June 1961, Deb 26050 ;
Pungchow, July 1961, Deb 26596.
Thalictrum foliolosum DC.
A herb with small flowers ; scarce. Wakka, July 1961, Deb 26514.
Menispermaceae
Aspidocarya uvifera Hook. f. & Thoms.
A climber with red flowers ; rare. Pungchow, July 1961, Deb 26616 &
26628.
Haematocarpus thomsonii Miers
A woody climber ; rare. Langsang forest, June 1961, Deb 26147.
Pericamphylus glaucus (Lamk.) Merr.
A climber with small flowers ; scarce, Chennhang, June 1961, Deb
26189 ; Langsang forest, June 1961, Deb 26148; March 1958, Murthy
12907.
Stephania japonica (Thunb.) Miers var. discolor (Miq.) Forman
A climber with red fruits ; scarce. Jairampur, Oct. 1959, Rao 19979 ;
Lailongsong, 510 m., June 1961, Deb 25786 ; Kothong, June 1961, Deb
26114.
Aristolochiaceae
Aristoloehia platanifolia Du chart.
A climber with 6-ridged fruits ; scarce. Wakka, July 1961, Deb
26501.
84 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCfETY, Vol 70 (i)
A. saccata Wall.
Climber with tan coloured flowers ; common. Chennhang, June
1961, Deb 26239 ; Raho-Wakka, July 1961, Deb 26405 ; Noglo, June
1961, Deb 26319.
) ....
Asarum himalaicum Hook. f. & Th. var. bhutanicum W. W. Smith
A succulent herb. Grows in moist, shaded area ; rare. Raho-
Wakka, July 1961, Deb 26421.
PlPERACEAE
Peperomia heyneana Miq.
A succulent herb, sometimes grows as an epiphyte ; common.
Raho-Vokanoska, Aug. 1958, Panigrahi 16845 ; Kothong, June 1961,
Deb 26090, Khonsa-Laju, June 1961, Deb 25970; Noglo, June 1961,
Deb 26354.
P. pellucida (Linn.) H.B.K.
An annual succulent herb ; common. Banfera-Longhoi, Aug
1958, Panigrahi 16755.
P. tetraphylla (Forst. f.) Hook, et Arn.
An epiphyte ; scarce. Chennhang, June 1961, Deb 26196 ; Khonsa-
Laju, June 1961, Deb 25970.
Piper attenuatum Buch.-Ham.
A climber ; scarce. Jadua-Banfera, July 196i, Deb 26667 ; Lailong-
song, 510 m, June 1961, Deb 25813.
P. betle Linn.
A cultivated twiner. Soha village, Oct. 1959, Rao 20361.
P. boehmeriaefolium Wall, ex C. DC. forma glabrifolium DC.
A scarce climber ; fruiting. Kheti-Tinchha, Aug. 1958, Panigrahi
14542.
P. mannii DC.
An epiphyte with spikes ; scarce. Raho, Aug. 1958, Panigrahi 16823 ;
Noglo, June 1961, Deb 26336.
P. mullesua D. Don
Succulent epiphyte ; scarce. Langsang forest, June 1961, Deb 26116 ;
Longsek hillock, 1500 m, June 1961, Deb 25748.
FLORA OF TIRAP FRONTIER DIVISION
85
F. nepalense Miq.
An epiphyte with about 25 cm long spike ; scarce. Pungchow, July
1961, Deb 26597 ; Longsek hillock, 1500 m, June 1961, Deb 25755.
P. nigrum Linn. var. macrostachyum C. DC.
A succulent shrub with solitary whitish green spike ; rare. Wakka,
Aug. 1958, Panigrahi 14925 ; Kothong, June 1961, Deb 26045 ; Khela,
June 1961, Deb 25935.
P. peepuloides Roxb.
A root climber with spike ; common. Deomali, Oct. 1959, Rao
20316 ; Longsek hillock, 1500 m, June 1961, Deb 25749.
P. sylvaticum Roxb.
A climber with long, pale green spike having small conical fruits ;
scarce. Soha village, Oct. 1959, Rao 20359.
P. thomsonii Hook. f.
A root climber with erect fruiting spike ; scarce. Jairampur, Oct.
1959, Rao 19995 ; Deomali, June 1961, Deb 25889 ; Jadua-Banfera,
July 1961, Deb 26676.
Saururaceae
Houttuynia cordata Thunb.
A herb ; bracts white ; scarce. Jangkeng village, June 1961, Deb
25852.
Chloranthaceae
Chloranthus officinalis Bl.
An undershrub with very small sessile white flowers ; common.
Chenglang-Khela, Aug. 1958, Panigrahi 14440 ; Jairampur, Oct. 1959,
Rao 19997 ; Lailongsong, 510 m, June 1961, Deb 25791 ; Jadua-Banfera,
July 1961, Deb 26677.
Papaveraceae
Papaver somniferum Linn.
A herb with solitary white flowers and fruits ; flowers and fruits vary
much in size. Probably an escape from cultivation. Kothong, June
1961, Deb 26037,
86 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1)
Cruciferae
Brassica juncea Czern. & Coss.
Herb under cultivation; yellow flower, Chennhang, June 1961, Deb
26272.
B. rugosa Prain
Herb. Probably an escape from cultivation. Chennhang, June
1961, Deb 26176.
Cardamine circaeoides Hook. f. & Th.
Herb. Noglo, June 1961, Deb 26318.
C, hirsuta Linn. var. sylvatica Link
An annual herb with small, white flowers ; scarce. Raho, July 1961,
Deb 26382 ; Noglo-Laju, June 1961, Deb 26368.
C. seoriarum W. W. Smith
A herb of moist shady situations at altitudes of 1800-2100 m ; flowers
and fruits in May-July. A native of China recorded for India by Deb in
Ind . For. 91(3) : 193, 1965. Wakka, July 1961, Deb 26411.
Molluginaceae
Mollugo pentaphylla Linn.
A diffused herb with greenish flowers ; scarce. Niausa, July 1961,
Deb 26561.
Caryophyllaceae
Drymaria diandra Bl.
A diffused or prostrate herb with light green or whitish flowers ; com-
mon. Nampong-Pangsupass, 791-1128 m, Oct. 1959, Rao 20087.
POLYGONACEAE
Fagopyrum cymosum Meissn.
Herb with flowers in white heads. Forms pure stands on the forest
floor ; very common. Kothong, June 1961, Deb 26050 ; Khonsa-Laju,
June 1961, Deb 26000.
Polygonum alatum Buch.-Ham.
A herb with white, yellow or pink heads ; common. Khonsa, June
1961, Deb 25917 ; Kothong, June 1961, Deb 26025 & 26068 ; Chennhang,
FLORA OF TIRAP FRONTIER DIVISION
87
June 1961, Deb 26178 ; Nampong-Pangsupass, Oct. 1959, Rao 20149;
Pungchow, July 1961, Deh 26602,
P. barbatum Linn,
A perennial herb with greenish white flowers. Common in marshy
places. Rusa-Bimalpur, Sept. 1958, Panigrahi 16960.
P. caespitosum Bl.
Herb with white or small pinkish flowers. Common in marshy
places. Lailongsong, 510 m, June 1961, Deb 25830 ; Nampong-Pangsu-
pass, Oct. 1959, Rao 20054.
P. chinense Linn.
A tall herb with white flowers in marshy regions. Lailongsong,
510 m, June 1961, Deb 25818 ; Noglo, June 1961, Deb 26323 ; Chennhang,
June 1961, Deb 26257.
P. chinense Linn. var. malaicum(Danser) Steward
A perennial herb with brownish red flowers ; rare. Laju hills, Aug.
1958, Panigrahi 14662.
P. chinense Linn. var. ovalifolia Meissn.
A herb with black fruits. Tipang, 540 m, June 1961, Deb 25719.
P. hydropiper Linn. var. hispidum (Hook, f.) Steward
A perennial herb with red flowers ; scarce. Khonsa-Kheti, Aug.
1958, Panigrahi 14520.
P. hydropiper Linn. var. flaccidum (Meissn.) Steward
A perennial herb in greenish white flowers ; scarce. Jairampur,
Oct. 1959, Rao 20003 ; Chenglang-Khela, Aug. 1958, Panigrahi 14435 ;
Khonsa-Laju, June 1961, Deb 25980.
P. runcinatum Buch.-Ham.
A herb in white flowers ; scarce. Kothong, June 1961, Deb 26057.
P. virginianum Linn.
A perennial herb in red flower buds ; scarce. Wakka, Aug. 1958,
Panigrahi 14911.
Rumex maritimus Linn.
A scarce herb that occurs in small communities. Khonsa-Laju,
June 1961, Deb 25997.
88 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1)
Amaranthaceae
Achyranthes aspera Linn.
A small herb. Longsek hillock, 1500 m, June 1961, Deb 25746.
A. bidentata Bl.
A herb with green spike with pinkish tips ; scarce. Pungchow, July
1961, Deb 26613 ; Raho-Wakka, July 1961, Deb 26418.
Alternanthera paronychioides St. Hill.
An introduced herb with whitish chaffy inflorescence. Wakka, Aug.
1958, Panigrahi 14908.
A. sessilis (Linn.) DC.
A soft herb with condensed spike with creamy white flowers ; scarce.
Jairampur, Oct. 1959, Rao 19985.
A. lividus Linn.
Prostrate herb. Langsang forest (Kothong), June 1961, Deb 26141.
Celosia argentea Linn.
A small herb with deep mauve or pinkish spike. Probably an escape
from cultivation ; scarce. Chenglang-Khela, 600m, March 1958,
Mur thy 12938.
Cyathula prostrata (Linn.) Bl.
An annual herb with greenish white flowers ; common. Jairampur,
Oct. 1959, Rao 19993 ; Longsek hillock, June 1961, Deb 25746.
Lythraceae
Cuphea balsamona Ch. & Schl.
A prostrate herb with blue flowers ; scarce. Namchick-Chenglang,
Oct. 1959, Rao 20211.
Onagraceae
Ludwigia octovalvis (Jacq.) Raven sub sp. sessiliflora (Mich.) Raven
A scarce herb with yellowish flowers. Margharita- Jairampur,
Oct. 1959, Rao 19931 ; Deomali, Oct. 1959, Rao 20303 & 20304 ; Niausa,
July 1961, Deb 26562.
Ludwigia prostrata Roxb.
A herb of marshy places; scarce. Namchick, 152 m, Oct. 1959,
Rao 20183.
FLORA OF TIRAP FRONTIER DIVISION
89
Gentianaceae
Canscora andrographioides Griff, ex C. B. Clarice
A common herb, in flower and fruits. Namchick-Chenglang,
Oct. 1959, Rao 20210,
Exacum tetragonum Roxb.
Herb with beautiful blue flowers ; scarce. Nampong-Pangsupass,
Oct. 1959, Rao 20161.
Tripterospermum speciosum (Wall.) Raizada
A twiner, in flower ; scarce. Nampong-Pangsupass, Oct. 1959
Rao 20033.
Primulaceae
Lysimachia congestiflora Hemsl.
Herb with yellow flowers ; scarce. Chennhang, June 1961, Deb
26192. This was originally described from China. Its occurrence is
an extension of its distribution.
L. evalvis Wall.
Herb with solitary, pendent flowers ; scarce. Langsang forest, June
1961, Deb 26123 ; Chennhang, June 1961, Deb 26258.
L. japonica Thunb.
A diffused much branched herb with yellow flowers ; common.
Noglo-Laju, June 1961, Deb 26371 ; Khonsa-Laju, June 1961, Deb
25962, Kothong, June 1961, Deb 26059.
L. lobelioides Wall.
Herb with campanulate flowers ; scarce. Kothong, June 1961, Deb
26061.
L. laxa Bauda
Herb with yellow flowers ; common. Raho-Wakka, July 1961,
Deb 26397 ; Noglo, June 1961, Deb 26317.
L. rubiginosa Hemsl.
Herb with yellow flowers ; scarce. Chegum-Wakka, July 1961,
Deb 26483. Originally described from China, this record extends the
distribution.
90 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1)
Plantaginaceae
Plantago erosa Wall.
A very common herb in flower. Kothong, June 1961, Deb 26095;
Lailongsong, June 1961, Deb 25815.
Umbelliferae
Eryngium foetidum Linn.
A common perennial herb of open places. Flowering and fruiting.
Sometimes cultivated for the leaves and fruits used in curries. Jadua-
Banfera, July 1961, Deb 26679.
Heracleuni wallichii DC.
A rare herb with white flowers, petiole winged with brown streaks.
Laju-Raho, Aug. 1958, Panigrahi 14787 ; Chennhang, June 1961, Deb
26252.
H. wallichii DC. var. elator Clarke
A herb of moist soil; scarce. Chenglang-Khela, Oct. 1959, Rao
20267.
Hydrocotyle nepalensis Hook.
A prostrate herb with small flowers. The juice of the leaves mixed
with charcoal is used for wounds. The fruit is reputed to be a snake
bite cure. Nampong-Pangsupass, Oct. 1959, Rao 20026; Tipang,
June 1961, Deb 25710 ; Kothong, June 1961, Deb 26058 ; Raho-Wakka,
July 1961, Deb 26396.
H. podentha Molkenb. var. podentha (Molkenboer) C.B. Clarke
A diffused runner ; scarce. Chenglang-Khela, Oct. 1959, Rao
20271 ; Langsang forest, June 1961, Deb 26142.
Oenanthe thomsonii Clarke
An annual herb with white flowers. Grows gregariously in the
ground cover ; very common. Khonsa, June 1961, Deb 25918 ; Jangkeng
village, June 1961, Deb 25860 ; Kothong, June 1961, Deb 26070.
Ptemopetalum semi Deb et Dutta
A perennial herb with purple flowers. Raho-Wakka, July 1961,
Deb 26394.
Sanicula elata Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don
Perennial herb with white flowers and small fruits ; rare. Wakka,
Aug. 1958, Panigrahi 16900 ; Kothong, June 1961, Deb 26056.
FLORA OF TIRAP FRONTIER DIVISION
91
Lobeliaceae
Lobelia afflnis Wall. var. lobbiana Hook. f. & Thoms.
A herb of moist soil with small, pale bluish violet flowers ; common.
Chenglang-Khela, March 1958, Mur thy 12946.
L. pyramidalis Wall.
Herb with solitary, axillary, bluish flowers ; rare. Chenglang-
Khela, Oct. 1959, Rao 20261.
L. rosea Wall.
Shrub with violet flowers ; scarce. Khonsa-Laju, June 1961, Deb
25993.
L. succulenta Bl.
Small herb with minute violet flowers ; common. Chenglang, March
1958, Murthy 12912.
Pratia montana (Reinw.) Hassk.
A soft herb with white flowers ; common. Nampong-Pangsupass,
Oct. 1959, Rao 20025 ; Rusa-Bimalpur, Sept. 1958, Panigrahi 16990 ;
Raho-Wakka, July 1961, Deh 26409.
P. mimmularia (Lamk.) A.Br. et Ascherson
A prostrate herb with pinkish flowers and shining chocolate brown
fruits. Common in moist places. Chenglang-Khela, Oct. 1959, Rao
20257 ; Chenglang-Khela, March 1958, Murthy 12945 ; Lailongsong,
510 m, June 1961, Deb 25827.
COMPOSITAE
Adenostemma lavenia (Linn.) O. Ktze.
Herb with whitish head ; scarce. Chenglang-Khela, Oct. 1959,
Rao 20256 ; Wakka-Nagminu, July 1961, Deb 26540 ; Raho-
Vokanoska, Aug. 1958, Panigrahi 16857 ; Pungchow, July 1961, Deb
26570.
Ageratum conyzoides Linn.
Herb in violet flowers. Very common in forest clearings. Namchick,
Oct. 1959, Rao 20174 ; Chennhang, June 1961, Deb 26186.
Ainsliaea iatifolia (D. Don) Schulz-Bip
A suffrutiscent herb with radical leaves ; scarce. Chennhang, June
1961, Deb 26259.
92 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol 70 (1)
Artemisia nilagirica (C.B. Clarke) Pamp.
A gregarious herb ; very common. Wakka, July 1961, Deb 26530.
Bidens biternata (Lour.) Merr. & Sherff.
Herb with pinkish head ; grows gregariously in shade ; scarce.
Chenglang, March 1958, Murthy 12928; Chennhang, June 1961, Deb
26188.
B. pilosa Linn.
An annual with white ligulate flowers ; common. Nampong-
Pangsupass, Oct. 1959, Rao 20053.
Blumea faenryi Dunn
Shrub. Khonsa, June 1961, Deb 25919.
B. pubigera (L.) Merr.
Shrub. Heads with yellowish stamens ; scarce. Khela-Chenglang,
March 1958, Murthy 12988.
B. laciniata DC.
Herb with pinkish head ; scarce. Chenglang, March 1958, Murthy
12925.
Cnicus griflithii Hook f.
A tall plant. Leaves deeply cleft and thorny. Heads with greenish
brown involucre of bracts ; rare. Nampong-Pangsupass, Oct. 1959,
Rao 20150.
Cosmos caudatus Hook. f.
Herb with yellow flower ; scarce. Khonsa, June 1961, Deb 25922.
Crassocephalum crepidiodes (Benth.) S. Moore
A herb with purplish flowers ; common. Chenglang, March 1958,
Murthy 12921 ; Chennhang, June 1963, Deb 26187.
Eclipta prostiata (Linn.) Linn.
Prostrate herb with white flowers ; scarce. Nampong-Pangsupass,
Oct. 1959, Rao 20024.
Erigeron linifolium Willd.
Herb with whitish disked head ; scarce. Lailongsong 510 m, June
1961, Deb 25829 ; Laju-Raho, Aug. 1958, Panigrahi 14733.
Eupatorium capillifolium (Lamk.) Small.
A perennial herb. Cultivated as a garden plant. Margharita-
Jairampur, Oct. 1959, Rao 19904.
FLORA OF TI RAP FRONTIER DIVISION 93
Gynura cusimbua (D. Don) Moore
Herb with violet, orange yellow or pink red flowers. Grows gre-
gariously in shade ; fairly common. Lailongsong, 510 m., June 1961,
Deb 25819 ; Kothong, June 1961, Deb 26048 ; Khonsa-Laju, June 1961,
Deb 25983 ; Kothong, June 1961, Deb 26046.
Gnaphalium luteoalbum Linn.
A herb with yellow flowers in moist slopes or cultivated land. Cheng-
lang, Murthy 12922 ; Chennhang, June 1961, Deb 26191.
Lactuca rostrata (Bl.) O. Kuntze
A herb with heads ; rare. Kothong, June 1961, Deb 26049, Khonsa-
Laju, June 1961, Deb 25995.
L. gracilis DC.
Herb with yellow flowers ; scarce. Wakka, July 1961, Deb 26524.
Laggera pterodonta Benth.
A herb of moist soil with mauve coloured flowers ; rare. Cheng-
lang-Khela, March 1958, Murthy 12942.
Mikania cordata (Burm. f.) Robin.
A twining weed of Jhum land ; very common. Namchick, Oct.
1959, Rao 20188.
Myriactis nepalensis Less.
Herb with dull white flowers ; scarce. Noglo, June 1961, Deb 26355.
M. wallichii DC.
An annual herb with yellowish white head ; scarce. Nampong-
Pangsupass, Oct. 1959, Rao 20151.
Sonchus arvensis Linn.
A herb with axillary and terminal inflorescence ; rare. Raho- Wakka,
June 1961, Deb 26480.
Spilanthus acmella (Linn.) Murr.
A herb with yellowish ligulate florates head ; scarce. Namchick,
Oct. 1959, Rao 20175.
Vernonia volkameriaefolia DC.
A tall shrub with brown head ; common. Pungchow, July 1961, Deb
26586,
94 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1)
Wedelia wallichii Less.
An annual herb with yellow flowers ; common. Noglo, June 1961,
Deb 26369.
Xanthium strumarium Linn.
An undershrub in fruit ; scarce. Jairampur, Oct. 1959, Rao 19986.
Yotmgia japonicum (L.) DC.
Herb with pink flowers ; rare. Chennhang, June 1961, Deb 26198.
(to be continued)
Spider Fauna of India : Catalogue
and Bibliography
BY
B. K. Tikader
Zoological Survey of India , 8, Lindsay Street , Calcutta- 16
[Continued from Vol. 69 (1) : 101]
Family Thomisidae
Genus REGILLUS Cambridge 1884
341. Regillus elephantus Tikader 1966. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. 64:
54.
Distribution : India : Shillong, Assam.
Type : ZSI.
Genus RUNCINIA Simon 1875
342. Ruiiciiiia escheri Reimoser 1934. Revue Suisse. Zool. 14: 487.
Distribution : India : Andhra Pradesh.
Type: ?
343. Runcinia roonwali Tikader 1965. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. 61 : 278
Distribution : India : Poona, Maharashtra ; Shillong, Assam.
Type : ZSI.
Genus SYNAEMA Simon 1864
344. Synaema fmmettii Tikader 1962. J. Linn. Soc. London 44 : 57 8
fig. 10.
Distribution : India : Darjeeling, West Bengal.
Type : ZSI.
345. Synaema decorata Tikader 1960. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 57 :
174, fig. 2a-c.
Distribution : India : West Bengal ; Mysore; Maharashtra.
Type : ZSL
96 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1)
Genus STRIGOPLUS Simon 1885
346. Strigoplus netravati Tikader 1963. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. 58 :
252 ; fig. 3a, b.
Distribution : India : Chikmagalur district, and South Kanara
district, Mysore.
Type: ZSI.
Genus THOMISUS Walckenaer 1805
347. Thomisus beautifularis Basu 1963. J. Asia. Soc. Bengal 5 : 23.
Distribution : India : Calcutta, West Bengal.
Type : ZSI.
348. Thomisus bulani Tikader 1960. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 57 :
178.
Distribution : India : Calcutta, West Bengal.
Type : ZSI.
349. Thomisus cherapunjeus Tikader 1966. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci.
64: 55.
Distribution : India : Shillong, Cherapunjee, Assam.
Type : ZSI.
350. Thomisus dhakuriensis Tikader 1960. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
57 : 180.
Distribution : India : West Bengal.
Type : ZSI.
35k. Thomisus elongatus Stoliczka 1869. J. Asia. Soc. Bengal 38 :
227.
Distribution : India : West Bengal.
Type : ZSI.
352. Thomisus katrajghatus Tikader 1963. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci.
58 : 259.
Distribution : India : Poona, Maharashtra.
Type : ZSI.
353. Thomisus lobosus Tikader 1965. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. 61 : 285.
Distribution : India : Poona, Maharashtra.
Type: ZSI.
SPIDER FAUNA OF INDIA
97
354. Thomisus memae Sen and Basu 1963. Sci. and Cult . 29 : 515.
Distribution : India : West Bengal.
Type : ZSI.
355. Thomisus peelianus Stoliczka 1869. J. Asia. Soc. Bengal 38 :
226.
Distribution : India : Sibsagar, Assam.
Type: ZSI.
356. Thomisus pooneus Tikader 1965. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. 61 :
283.
Distribution : India : Poona, Maharashtra.
Type : ZSI.
357. Thomisus projectus Tikader 1960. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
57 : 182.
Distribution : India : West Bengal.
Type : ZSI.
358. Thomisus pugilis Stoliczka 1869. J. Asia. Soc. Bengal 38 : 225.
Distribution : India : West Bengal ; Madras ; Punjab.
Type : ZSI.
359. Thomisus shivajiensis Tikader 1965. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci.
61 : 284.
Distribution : India : Poona, Maharashtra.
Type : ZSI.
360. Thomisus shillongensis Sen 1963. Sci. and Cult. 29 : 610.
Distribution : India : Shillong, Assam.
Type : ZSI.
361. Thomisus sikkimensis Tikader 1962. J. Linn. Soc. London 44:
570, fig. 5a-c.
Distribution : West Sikkim.
Type : ZSI.
362. Thomisus sorajaii Basu 1963. Sci. and Cult. 29 : 606.
Distribution : India : West Bengal.
Type : ZSI.
7
98 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1)
Genus THANATUS Koch 1837
363. Thanatus dhakuricus Tikader 1960. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc .
57: 177, fig. 4.
Distribution : India : Calcutta, West Bengal.
Type : ZSI.
364. Thanatus lanceoletus Tikader 1966. Rec. Indian Mus. 59 (4) : 443.
Distribution : India : Bikaner, Rajasthan.
Type : ZSI.
365. Thanatus mandali Tikader 1965. Sci. and Cult. 31 : 39, fig. la, b.
Distribution : India : Poona, Maharashtra.
Type : ZSI.
Genus TIBELLUS Simon 1895
366. Tibellus chaturshingi Tikader 1962. J. Poona Univ. Sci. and Tech.
22: 133, fig. 1.
Distribution : India : Poona, Maharashtra.
Type : ZSI.
367. Tibellus elongatus Tikader 1960. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 57 :
176, fig. 3a, b.
Distribution : India : West Bengal ; Poona, Maharashtra.
Type : ZSI.
368. Tibellus katrajgbatus Tikader 1962. J. Poona Univ. Sci. and Tech.
22 : 136, fig. 3.
Distribution : India : Poona, Maharashtra.
Type : ZSI.
369. Tibellus poonaensis Tikader 1962. J. Poona Univ. Sci. and Tech.
22 : 134, fig. 2.
Distribution : India : Poona, Maharashtra.
Type : ZSI.
Genus TMARUS Simon 1875
370. Tmarus kotigeharus Tikader 1963. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. 58 :
250, fig. 2a-c.
Distribution : India : Mysore ; Maharashtra ; Shillong, Assam.
Type : ZSI.
SPIDER FAUNA OF INDIA
99
Genus XYSTICUS Koch 1835
371. Xysticus hindustanicus Basu 1963. /. Asia. Soc. Bengal 5 : 23.
Distribution : India : Dum Dum, Calcutta, West Bengal.
Type : ZSI.
372. Xysticus joyantius Tikader 1966. J. Asia. Soc. Bengal 8 (4) : 3.
Distribution : India : Khasi and Jaintia Hills, Assam.
Type : ZSI.
373. Xysticus kamakhyai Tikader 1962. J. Linn. Soc. London 44 :
575, fig 7.
Distribution : India : Shillong, Assam.
Type : ZSI.
374. Xysticus kashidi Tikader 1963. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. 58 : 261,
fig. 11.
Distribution : India : Mysore.
Type : ZSI.
375. Xysticus mandali Tikader 1966. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. 64 : 58.
Distribution : India : Shillong, Assam.
Type : ZSI.
376. Xysticus minutus Tikader 1960. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 57 :
173.
Distribution : India : West Bengal;, Poona, Maharashtra ;
Shillong, Assam.
Type : ZSI.
377. Xysticus pynurus Tikader 1966. J. Asia. Soc. Bengal 8 (4) : 1.
Distribution : India : Khasi and Jaintia Hills, Assam.
Type : ZSI.
378. Xysticus roonwali Tikader 1964. Rec. Indian Mus. 59 (3) : 264.
Distribution : Nepal and Sikkim.
Type : ZSI.
379. Xysticus shillongensis Tikader 1962. J. Linn. Soc. London 44 :
578.
Distribution : India : Shillong, Assam.
Type : ZSI.
100 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1)
380. Xysticus shyamrupus Tikader 1966. Proc . Indian Acad. Sci. 64 :
57.
Distribution : India : Shillong, Assam.
Type: ZSI.
381. Xysticus sujatai Tikader 1962. J. Linn. Soc. London 44 : 577.
Distribution : India : Shillong, NEFA.
Type: ZSL
Family Urocteidae
Genus UROCTEA Dufour 1820
382. Uroctea indica Pocock 1900. fauna brit. India Arachnida ,
p. 243, fig. 83.
Distribution : India : Western India, Poona, Maharashtra.
Type : BMNH.
References
Basu, B. D. (1963) : A new spider of
the family Thomisidae (Araneae) from
India. Sci. and Culture , Calcutta 29 :
606.
(1 963) : On the description
of two new spiders of the family Thomi-
sidae (Arachnida : Araneae) from India.
J. Asia. Soc., Bengal, Calcutta 5 (1-2) :
23-26.
(1964) : Diagnosis of two
new species of Pistius (Thomisidae:
Araneae : Arachnida) from India. J.
Bengal Nat. Hist. Soc., Darjeeling 32 (2) :
104-109.
(1964) : Morphology of an
Indian spider of the family Thomisidae
(Araneae : Arachnida). Sci. and Cult.,
Calcutta 30 (3): 154-155.
— (1965) : Four new species of
the spider genus Pistius Simon (Arach-
nida : Araneae) Thomisidae from India.
Proc. Zool. Soc., Calcutta 18 : 71-77.
Bhatnagar, R. D. S. & Sadana, G. L.
(1965) : Sexual behaviour in Lycosa
chaprei Simon (Arachnida : Araneae),
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 62 (3) : 568-572.
Bhattacharya, G. C. (1 934) : The
lizard-eating spiders of Bengal. Sci.
Mon.N.Y. 39: 176.
(1934) : Notes on obser-
vation of some peculiar habits of an ant-
mimicking spider Amyciaea forticeps
(Camb.) J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
37 (1) : 233.
Bhattacharya, G. C. (1935) : A new
species of gregarious spider mimicking
Camponotus compressus. Sci. and Culture ,
Calcutta 1 (3) : 159.
__ (1936): Notes on some
peculiar habits of Marpissa melanog-
nathus. ibid. 1 (12) : 720.
(1939) : Observation of
some peculiar habits of spider Marpissa
melanognathus. J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. 39 (1) : 142.
(1941) : Heteropoda vena -
toria preying on a Pipistrelle bat. Curr.
Sci., Bangalore 10 (3) : 183.
— — (1941) : The food and habits
of the house spider Heteropoda vena-
tor ia. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 42 :
821.
Blackwall, J. (1864) : Descriptions
of seven new species of East Indian
spiders, received from the Rev. O. P.
Cambridge. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. 14
(3) : 36-45.
(1867): Description of
several species of East Indian spiders,
apparently new or little known to
Arachniologists. ibid. 19 (3) : 387-394.
Cambridge, O. P. (1869) : Part I of
catalogue of a collection of Ceylon
Arachnidea lately received from Mr. J.
Nietner with description of new species
and characters of a new genus. Proc.
Linn. Soc. Zool., London 10 : 375-397.
SPIDER FAUNA OF INDIA
101
Daniel, J. C. & Soman, P. W. (1961) :
Observations on the spider Latrodectus
hasseltii indicus Simon with a note on
arachnidism. J . Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. 58 (3) : 823-826.
(1962): Abdominal mark-
ings of a thomisid spider, ibid. 59 (2)
681.
Dyal, S. (1935) : Spiders of Lahore.
Bull. Zool. Punjab Univ. 1 : 119-252.
(1942) : A new water spider
from Dal lake, Kashmir. Proc. Indian
Sci. Congr. 28 (3) : 178.
(1947) : Life history and
habits of Cyrtophora citricola (Forskal).
Bull. Zool. Punjab Univ. 2:19.
Fischer, C. E. C. (1910) : Pairing of
the spider Nephila maculata Fab. J.
Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 20 (2) : 526-528.
(1910) : Further note on the
spider N. maculata Fab. ibid. 20 (2) :
528.
— (1910) : Further note on the
spider N. maculata Fab. ibid. 20 (3) :
887-888.
Gravely, F. H. (1912) : Mimicry of
a mutillid by a spider. Rec. Indian Mus.,
Calcutta 7 : 87.
(1915): Notes on Indian
Mygalomorph spiders, ibid. 11 : 257-
352.
(1915) : Notes on the habits
of Indian Insects, Myriapoda and Ara-
chnida. ibid. 11 : 485.
(1915) : The Evolution and
Distribution of oriental spiders belong-
ing to the sub-family Aviculariidae. J.
Asia. Soc. Bengal, Calcutta.
(1921): The Spiders and
Scorpions of Barkuda Island. Rec.
Indian Mus., Calcutta 22 : 399-421.
(1921) : Some Indian spiders
of the Sub-family Tetragnathinae. ibid.
22 : 423-459.
(1922) : Common Indian
spiders. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 28 :
1045-1050.
(1924) : Some Indian spiders
of the family Lycosidae. Rec. Indian
Mus., Calcutta 26: 587-613.
(1931) : Some Indian spiders
of the families Ctenidae, Sparassidae:
Selenopidae and Clubionidae. ibid. 33 :
211-282.
Hingston, R. W. G. (1922) : The
snare of the Giant wood spider (N.
maculata ) Parti. J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. 28(3) : 642 649.
(1922) : The snare of the
Giant wood spider ( N . maculata ) Parts
II & III. ibid. 28 (4) : 911-923.
(1922) : The Giant wood
spider ( N . maculata). Part IV. ibid.
29 (1) : 70-76.
Hirst, A. S. (1909) : On some new or
little-known Mygalomorph spiders from
the Oriental Region and Australia. Rec.
Indian Mus., Calcutta 3 : 383-390.
Karsch, F. (1 892) : ‘ Arachniden von
Ceylon und von Minikey gesamolt von
den Herren Doctoren P. und F. Saresin ’.
Ent. Z. Berlin 35 : 263-310.
Louis, F. (1924) : Araneids from the
Siju cave, Garo Hills, Assam. Rec.
Indian Mus., Calcutta 26 : 63-67.
Narayan, K. (1915) : Notes on Ant-
like spiders of the family Attidae in the
collection of the Indian Museum, ibid.
11 : 393-409.
Pocock, R. I. (1899): Diagnosis of
some new Indian Arachnidae. J.
Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 12 : 744-753.
(1900): The Fauna of British
India. Arachnidae. London, pp. 153-
272.
(1900) : The Great Indian
Spiders of the genus Poecilotheria : its
habits, history and species. J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 13 : 121-133.
(1901) : Descriptions of
some new species of spiders from British
India, ibid. 13: 478-498.
Reimoser, E. (1934) : Araneae aus
Sud-Indien. Revue Suisse Zool. 41 : 465-
511.
(1963) : On a new species
from India belonging to the genus Tho -
misus Walckenaer 1805 (Thomisidae :
Araneae). Science and Culture, Calcutta
29 : 610-611.
Sen, J. K. & Basu, B. D. (1963) :
Thomisus mimae, a new spider (Thomi-
sidae : Araneae) from Calcutta, ibid,
29 (10) : 515-516.
Sherriff, W. R. (1919) : A contribution
to the study of South Indian Arachno-
logy. I. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. 9 : 220-
253.
— (1927) : A contribution to
the study of South Indian Arachnology.
II. ibid. 9: 533-542.
(1928) : South Indian
Arachnology. III. ibid. 10 (2) : 177.
(1929) : South Indian
Arachnology. IV. ibid. 10 : 233-249.
(1951) : Some oriental
spiders of the genus Oxyopes. Proc. Zool.
Soc. London, 120 : 651.
Simon, E. (1887) : ‘ Etude sur les
Arachnides de 1’ Asie meridionale faisant
partie des collections de 1’ Indian Museum
(Calcutta). 1. Arachnides recucillis a’
Tavoy (Tanesserim) per Moti Ram *.
J. Asia. Soc. Bengal, Calcutta 56 : 101-
117.
(1889): ‘Etude sur les
Arachnides de V Himalaya recueillis
par MM. Oldham et Wood-Mason’,
ibid. 58 : 334-344.
(1904) : Arachnides recuel-
lis par M. F. Pavie en Indo-Chine.
Mission Pavie on Indo-Chine, 1879-
102 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1)
1895, III. Recherches sur 1* Histoire
Naturelle de 1* Indo-Chine orientale.
Arachn., pp. 270-295, pi. xvi.
Simon, E. (1905) : Voyage de M.
Maurice Msindron dans 1* Inde meri-
dional. Arachnides. Ann. Soc. Ent.
Paris 74 : 167.
(1906) : Voyage de M.
Maurice Maindron dans 1’ Inde meri-
dional, 8 Memoire, Arachnides (2=
partie). ibid. 75 : 279-324.
Sinha, T. B. (1951) : On the collection
of Lycosid spiders in the Zoological
Survey of India (Indian Museum), with
critical notes on the species. Rec.
Indian Mus. Calcutta 48 (2) : 9-52.
(1952) : Some Indian spiders
of the family Hersiliidae. ibid. 48
(3-4) : 123-126.
(1953) : Some Indian spiders
of the family Argiopidae. ibid. 49 :
67-68.
Stoliczka, F. (1869) : Contribu-
tions towards the knowledge of Indian
Arachnoidea. /. Asiat. Soc. Bengal ,
Calcutta 38: 201-251.
Subrahmanyam, T. V. (1949) : Some
Indian spiders ; Their season of pros-
perity. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 42
(1) : 217.
(1944) : Reoccurrence of the
house spider Heteropoda venatoria in
the field, ibid. 44 (3) : 493.
(1953) : On the habits of
Indian Eresid spider Stegodyphus sarasi-
norum Karsch. ibid. 51 : 521.
(1953) : Occurrence of
Nephila malabarensis in Bombay, ibid.
51 : 952.
(1968) : An introduction
to the study of Indian Spiders, ibid.
65 (2): 453-461.
(1969) : An introduction to
the study of Indian spiders, ibid. 65
(3): 726-743.
Tembe, V. B. & Thakur, M. K. (1960) :
Nephila maculata, Zoological Memoirs
No. 5. University of Bombay, pp.
1-74.
Thakur, M. K. & Tembe, V. B. (1953) :
A note on spiders of Bombay region.
Proc. 40 th Indian Sci. Congr., p. 202.
— (1956) : Bionomics of the
giant wood spider Nephila maculata
Fab.. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 53
(3) : 330-334.
Thorell, T. (1890) : Diagnoses
Aranearum aliquot navarum in Indi-
malesia inventarum. Ann. Mus. Stor.
Nat. Genova 10 (2a) : 132-172.
(1895) : Descriptive cata-
logue of the spiders of Burma. London,
pp. 1-404.
Tikader, B. K. (1960) : Revision of
Indian spiders of the genus Cyrtarachne
(Argiopidae : Araneae). J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 57 (3) : 543-556.
Tikader, B. K. (I960) : On two new
species of spiders of the genus Oxyptila
(Family : Thomisidae) from India. Proc.
Zool. Soc., Calcutta 13 .(2).: 115-118.
(1960) : On some new species
of spiders (Arachnida) of the family
Thomisidae from India. J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 57 (1) : 173-183.
(1961) : Protective devices
of some orb-weaving spiders from India,
ibid. 58 (3) : 826-829.
(1962) : On two new species
of spiders of the genus Sctophaeus and
Drassodes (Family Gnaphosidae) from
West Bengal. Proc. First All India
Congress of Zoology 2 : 570-573.
(1962) : Studies on some
spiders of the genus Oecobius (Family
Oecobiidae) from India. J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 59 (2) : 682-685.
(1962) : On two new
species of spider of the genus Philo-
dromus (Family Thomisidae) from India.
Proc. Zool. Soc., Calcutta 15 (1) : 39-42.
(1962) : Studies on some
Indian spiders (Araneae : Arachnida).
J. Linn. Soc., London 44 (300) : 561-584.
— (1962) : On some new species
of spiders of the genus Tibellus (Family
Thomisidae) from India. J. Univ.
Poona Sci. and Tech. 22 : 133-137.
(1963) : Studies on interest-
ing South Indian crab-spiders (Family
Thomisidae). Proc. Indian Acad. Sci.,
Bangalore 58 (5) : 249-262.
(1963) : A new species df
spider of the genus Oxyptila (Family
Thomisidae) from India. Science and
Culture, Calcutta 30 : 152-153.
(1963) : Further studies on
Indian spiders of the genus Cyrtarachne
(Family Argiopidae). J. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. 60 (1) : 269-274.
(1963) : On a new species of
spider of the genus Loxosceles (Family :
Scytodidae) from India. Proc. Zool.
Soc., Calcutta 16 (1) : 23-25.
— (1963) : Studies on some
spider fauna of Maharashtra and Mysore
States. Parti. J. Univ. Poona Sci. and
Tech. 23: 29-5 4.
— (1963) : On some new
species of spiders of the genus Argyrodes
Simon (Family Theridiidae) from India.
Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. , Bangalore 57 (2) :
99-105.
(1963) : On two new species
of spiders of the genera Pasilobus Simon
and Cladomela Simon of the family
Argiopidae from India, ibid. 57 (2):
96-98.
(1964) : Zoological results
of the Indian Cho-Oyu Expedition (1958)
in Nepal, Part 8. Arachnida. Rec.
Indian Mus., New Delhi 59 (3) : 257-267.
SPIDER FAUNA OF INDIA
103
Tikader, B. K. (1965) : A new spider
of the genus Marpissa (Family Salticidae)
from India. Science and Culture,
Calcutta 31 (5): 261-262.
— (1965) : A new species of
spider of the genus Thanatus (Family
Thomisidae) from India, ibid. 31 (1) :
39-40.
(1965) : On some new species
of spiders of the family Thomisidae from
India. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci.,
Bangalore 61 (5) : 277-289.
(1965) : Studies on some
little known spiders of the family Argio-
pidae from India. Proc. Indian Acad.
Sci., Bangalore 62 (2) : 92-96.
(1965) : On some new species
of spiders of the family Oxyopidae from
India, ibid. 62 (3): 140-144.
(1965) : The dispersal
devices of spiders. J. Assam Sci. Soc.,
Gauhati 8 : 135-136.
(1966) : On some new species
of spiders Qf the genus Philodromus
(Family Thomisidae) from India. Proc.
Linn. Soc., London 177 (1) : 35-44.
(1966) : Studies on some
spiders of the genus Dictyna (Family
Dictynidae) from India, ibid. 177 (1) :
45-54.
(1966) : Studies on some
crab-spiders (Family Thomisidae) from
Khasi and Jaintia Hills, Assam, India.
Proc. Indian Acad. Sci., Bangalore 64 (1) :
58-61.
(1966) : On a collection of
spiders (Araneae) from the desert area
of Rajasthan (India). Rec. Indian Mus.,
New Delhi 59 (4) : 435-443.
(1966) : A new species of
spider of the genus Scytodae (Family
Scytodidae) from India. Current
Science, Bangalore 35 (24) : 627-628.
(1966) : A new species of
spider of the genus Triaeris Simon
(Family Oonopidae) from India, ibid.
35 (20) : 520.
(1966) : Studies on spider
fauna of Khasi and Jaintia Hills, Assam,
India, Part I. /. Assam Sci. Soc.,
Gauhati 9 : 137-154.
Tikader, B. K. (1966) : Studies on the
biology of some Indian spiders. J.
Bengal hat. Hist. Soc., Darjeeling 35 (1) :
6-11
(1966) : Description of two
new spiders of the genus Xysticus (Family
Thomisidae) from India. J. Asia. Soc.,
Calcutta 8 (4) : 1-4.
(1967) : Studies on spider
fauna of Khasi and Jaintia Hills, Assam,
India, Part II. J. Assam Sci. Soc.,
Gauhati 10: 102-122.
(1968) : A new spider of the
genus Ischnothyreus Simon (Family
Oonopidae) from India. J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 65 (1) : 257-259.
(1970) : The spider fauna of
Sikkim. Rec. Zool. Survey of India,
Calcutta.
(1967) : Studies on some
Salticidae spider from Sikkim Himalayas,
India. Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci., Bangalore
66(4): 117-122.
(1968) : Studies on spider
fauna of Khasi and Jaintia Hills, Assam,
India. Part III. J. Assam Sci. Soc.,
Gauhati 10 : 102-122.
(1969) : Studies on spider
fauna of Khasi and Jaintia Hills, Assam
India. Part IV. ibid. 11 : 100-120.
(1969) : Studies on some,
rare spiders of the families Seleno-
pidae and Platoridae from India. Proc.
Indian Acad. Sci., Bangalore 69 (5) : 252-
255.
— (1969) : Two new spiders of
the genus Uloborus of the family Ulo-
boridae from India, ibid. 69 (6) : 294-
298.
— (1969) : Studies on some
spiders of the family Oxyopidae from
India. Oriental Insects, New Delhi
3 (1) : 33-36.
(1971) : Revision of Indian
Crab-Spiders (Araneae : Thomisidae).
Mem. Zool. Surv. India, Calcutta 15 (3) :
1-90.
Vegetation of Pachpadra Salt Basin
in Western Rajasthan
BY
S. K. Saxena and R. K. Gupta
Division of Basic Resource Studies , Central Arid Zone Research
Institute , Jodhpur ( Rajasthan )
( With a map )
Introduction
•
Saline and sodic soils are widespread and extensive in the arid regions
of India and form a conspicuous part of the landscape. Pachpadra
Salt Basin is one such area where common salt is produced on a com-
mercial scale. Divergent views regarding the origin of Salt have been
expressed by Godebole 1951, Auden 1952, Holland & Christie 1909,
and Ghose (1964). The area possesses sparse and specialised vegetation
due to high salinity and where grasses grow, these are heavily grazed.
Development of such areas for the production of palatable grasses is
necessary in view of the acute shortage in cattle forage. No detailed
information is available about the vegetation and flora of this basin
except in the pioneer work of Blatter & Hallberg (1918-1921), Puri et al.
(1964), Bhandari (1967), Satyanarayan & Shankarnarayan (1963), for
central Luni Basin. The list of plants species along with a short des-
cription of vegetation of Pachpadra Salt Basin is presented in this paper.
Location and Topography
The study area situated about 16 km to the west of River Luni and
about 3 km in the same direction from the town of Pachpadra is an
oval basin about 11-13 km long and 2-3 km wide in a sandy valley. It
has a south-westerly course parallel to Luni River for several kilometres
and then turns eastwards and joins the river. The eastern edge of the
valley is capped by occasional hills and sand dunes sloping towards the
Luni River, while to the west the sand dunes form an unbroken line. The
total area of the basin is 32*3 sq km. The rain water leaches the salt
from a catchment area of 560-640 sq km and carries it in to the subsoil
of the shallow basin. About 1120 salt extraction pits are scattered all
over this area, but the largest number lies in the western portion called
VEGETATION OF P AC HP ADR A SALT BASIN
105
] 06 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1)
9
Hiragarh. Pits of the eastern part are generally silted up and abandoned.
At present 428 pits are worked.
Climate
The climate is typical of Western Rajasthan (Parmanik, Hariharan &
Ghose 1952). Average annual rainfall is 300 mm but is erratic and un-
certain as is evident from the fact that in 1892 it was as high as 1200 mm
and as low as 20 mm in 1889. Sand storms are prevalent during the
months preceding the monsoon. The area is very dry and weather condi-
tions generally speaking are reasonably good for the manufacture of salt,
the average rate of evaporation being some 12*5 cm monthly.
Soil and Biota
The soil is sandy to sandy-clay-loam in texture, highly saline, overlaid
by stable sand dunes and sand sheet of varying thickness (10-80 cm),
giving the area a hummocky appearance. The sand cover is calcareous
but non-saline. Heavy textured soils are present in depressions.
Shallow to moderately deep loamy sand overlies the saline sandy clay
loam soils. The brine springs occur at a depth of 5 to 6 ’5 m. The soil
profile consists of thick layers of sand with intermittent thin layers of
silt and clay of varying thickness. The brine stratum lies within coarse
sandy layers. Zonation of these layers indicate that it was a salt marsh
of undated origin, and has now been filled up to its present level by
deposits of blown sand.
Major part of the area is occupied by grasses due to the presence of
subsoil moisture. They sprout very quickly at the commencement of the
monsoon, but are very soon eaten up by the large population of livestock
the majority of which belong to the nomadic, Banjaras, who inhabit the
area for trading in salt. Because of such constant grazing pressure
grasslands are of poor quality.
Soils from different communities have been analysed and the results
are given in table 1.
In the three representative profiles, the hummocky sandy plains are
low in calcium carbonate content and the pH value varies from 7*7-7*9.
On the abandoned pits sandy clay soils have 0*75-1 *8 per cent calcium
carbonate and pH value 8*0-8*9 but have higher water holding capacity.
The soil of the working pit has a high pH reaching up to 9*3 and calcium
carbonate content is 5*7 per cent. High amount of soluble salts, and
high pH value allow only halophytic plants like Suaeda fruticosa to
establish there.
Vegetation
Blatter & Hallberg (1918-1921) mentioned a few halophytic species,
Biswas & Rao (1953) listed halophytic species of Rajputana desert,
Table 1
VEGETATION OF PACHPADRA SALT BASIN TOT
108 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1)
Shantisarup (1958) studied the halophytes of Luni river-bed in relation
to soil structure and composition. Recently Bhandari (1968) studied the
flora of Western Rajasthan but no complete account has ever been made
from this region.
The following habitats have been recognised based on the floristic
survey of the region. 1. Sandy plain, (a) Flat older alluvial plain and
(b) Undulating hummocky plain, 2. Saline depression, 3. Salt pit,
(a) Working salt pit and (b) Abandoned pit either completely filled or
partially filled up and, 4. Sand dunes. The floristic composition of each
type is as follows : —
1 . Sandy plain
(a) Flat older alluvial plain : A part of the basin occupies this habitat
with deep sand cover and loose top. Soils are calcareous and carbonate
content increases with depth. It is dominated by a plant community of
Prosopis juliflora DC. with 90 per cent relative dominance. Main asso-
ciate is Salvadora persica L. The ground is occupied by a grass com-
munity of Sporobolus-Eleusine-Cenchrus sp. with 5-7 per cent basal cover.
(b) Hummocky older alluvial plain : A major portion of the basin
is covered by undulating topography with loose soil on the top. The
vegetation cover is very sparse and distributed in patches. Acacia
jacquemontii-P . julflora community dominates with 65 and 30 per cent
relative dominance. Dactylocienium scindicum-Eleusine compressa is
the grass community supported by this habitat with 5*4 per cent basal
cover. The percentage composition of these two grasses is 57*7 and 18*6
per cent respectively. About 13 species have been recorded with Zygo -
phyllum simplex as main associate. In this habitat one can rarely see
Lycium barbarum due to the large scale extermination for the crystalliza-
tion of salt. At present it is transported from the adjoining areas and
hence large scale plantation of this species should be encouraged in the
tract.
2. Saline depression
These are low lying patches which either occur in the interdunal
areas or between two or more pits. Here the soils are heavier, deep,
sandy-clay-loam, and highly saline. Fringes of these areas are occupied
by a community of Salvadora persica-Tamarix dioica with 55 and 35
per cent relative dominance respectively. Sporobolus marginatus-
Cenchrus setigerus is the grass community with 6’ 6 per cent basal cover.
3. Salt pit
(a) Abandoned pits : These are the old pits which are either fully or
partially covered by gradual silting. These are surrounded by a com-
munity of Prosopis juliflora-Salvadora oleoides with 85 and 15 per cent
VEGETATION OP PACHPADRA SALT BASIN
109
relative dominance. Some of the partially filled salt pits act as temporary
ponds and support a pure community of Fimbristylis ferruginea (L.)
Vahl. Acacia nilotica ssp. indica and Suaeda fruticosa (L.) Forsk. are
the two chief associates.
(b) Working pits : Pits where salt is extracted. Practically devoid
of any shrub vegetation. Tragus biflorus-Aristida funiculata-Eleusine
compressa is the grass community with 3 per cent cover.
4. Sand dune
Medium to high, stabilised, transverse and longitudinal dunes demar-
cate the boundary of the basin. Few dunes are located in the basin itself.
In the residential colony, office building and other small huts on the dunes
are dominated by a community of Calotropis procera. Boundary dunes
are generally cultivated for kharif crops. Salvadora oleoides-Acacia
jacquemontii-C. procera form a sparse community while the ground com-
munity of grass is that of Cenchrus biflorus-C. prieurerii with tv o per cent
cover. Stray plants of Calligonum polygonoides need mention.
Annotated List of Plants Collected
The list of plants collected from the basin follows Bentham and
Hooker’s system of classification. Popular vernacular names, short
description, time of flowering and fruiting and exact locality are given for
each species. Based on available literature the nomenclature has been
made up to date. The number after the description of each species refer
to Herbarium sheets stored at the Herbarium of Central Arid Zone
Research Institute, Jodhpur, India. A visual estimation of the plant
species and their distribution on different habitat of the Basin has been
given in Table 2.
Table 2
Distribution of plant species on different habitats at Pachpadra Salt Basin
T10 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1)
Table 2 ( Contd ).
Habitat
Species Loose Saline Work- Old
sandy depre- ing pits
soils ssion pits
Shrubs
Dunes
R
A
A
C
R
A
C
F
R
C
R
R
C
C
A = Abundant, C= Common, F= Frequent,
R=Rare.
J >o >o | u | | }
VEGETATION OF PACHPADRA SALT BASIN
111
Menispermaceae
Cocculus pendulus (Forsk.) Diels (Vern. Pilwan)
A large woody climber, common on Salvadora persica L. and Tamarix
dioica Roxb. Flower greenish yellow; Oct.-Feb. Common around
abandoned pits. Hiragarh. ( Saxena 2542).
Brassicaceae
Farsetia hamiltoni Royle (Vern. Pilang)
40-45 cm high, slender, annual herb. Flower white ; July-Oct.
Fruit papery. Common on deep sandy soils. Hiragarh siding-2.
{Saxena 251 A).
Capparidaceae
Capparis decidua (Forsk.) Edgew. (Vern. Kair)
1-2 m tall spiny, leafless shrub. Flower deep orange red; July-
Sept. and March-May. On loose sandy soil and hummocky plain.
Hiragarh. {Saxena 2583) .
Cleome gynandra (L.) Briquet (Vern. Bagra)
40-45 cm. high, annual herb. Flower white to creamy ; July-Sept.
Common on loose sandy soils near habitation. Posala siding-3,
(i Saxena 2649).
POLYGALACEAE
Polygala erioptera DC. (Vern. Chota Bekharia)
15-25 cm high, procumbent annual herb. Flower whitish pink to
violet; July-Dee. Circuit House. {Saxena 2529).
PORTULACACEAE
Portulaca oleracea L. (Vern. Noonkhuri, Lunki, Noonia)
A prostrate, succulent herb. Flower yellow ; Aug.-Nov. Common
on saline depressions and abandoned pits. Hiragarh pit 296. {Saxena
2587).
Tamaricaceae
Tamarix dioica Roxb. (Vern. Faras, Jhau)
1-2 m tall shrub. Flower pink ; Aug.-Dee. Common on water
logged saline areas and abandoned pits. Hiragarh siding-2. {Saxena
253 5).
132 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1)
Malvaceae
Abutilon indicum D. Don (Vern. Tarakanchi, Dabi, Jhili)
60-80 cm tall undershrub. Flower yellow ; Aug.-Dee. Growing
under shade of S. persica L. on abandoned pit. Bara Samra pit 288.
{Saxena 2671).
Hibiscus punctatus Dalz.
90-100 cm tall suffruticose undershrub. Flower pale rose ; Aug.-
Dee. Hiragarh siding-3. ( Saxena 2585).
Sida ovata Forsk. (Vern. Bila)
30-40 cm high, woody perennial. Flower yellow ; Aug. -Dec. Circuit
House. {Saxena 2528).
Tiliaceae
Corchorus depressus (L.) Stocks (Vern. Kagla-ki-tamaku, Hadu-ka-
Khet)
Small, woody, perennial herb. Flower yellow ; July-Dee. Hiragarh
siding-2. {Saxena 2568).
C. tridens L. (Vern. Kagla-ki-tamaku, Hadu-ka-khet)
20-30 cm high, annual herb. Flower yellow ; Aug.-Nov. Hiragarh
and Posala. {Saxena 2649, 2538).
Zygophylaceae
Tribulus alatus Delile (Vern. Bokhra)
Procumbent to spreading herb. Flower light yellow, fruit winged ;
Aug.-Dee. Common on sandy soil. Posala siding-3. {Saxena 2644).
T. terrestris L. (Vern. Kanti)
A prostrate annual herb. Flower bright yellow, fruit spiny ; July-
Nov. Common on sandy plains. Posala siding-3. {Saxena 2643).
Zygophyllum simplex L. (Vern. Lunwa, Lunio)
20-30 cm high or procumbent, annual herb. Stem yellow to violet
red. Flower yellow ; July-NoV. Abundant on pit wall and inter pit
areas. Hiragarh siding-2. {Saxena 2547).
There are two strains in the locality, one with pure yellow and the
other with violet-red stem. Both were recorded growing side by side.
VEGETATION OF PACHPADRA SALT BASIN
113
Meliaceae
Azadirachta indica Juss. (Vern. Neem)
A cultivated tree around Barabbangla and office. Bara Bangla.
{Saxena 2678).
Celastraceae
Maytenus emarginata (Willd.) Ding Hou (Vern. Kangkeran)
3-4 m tall, spiny tree. Flower pinkish white, ripe fruit light purple ;
Oct.-Jan. On sandy gravelly soil and sand dunes. Hiragarh boundary
dune, (- Saxena 2624).
Rhamnaceae
Zizyphus nummularia (Burm. f.) Wt. & Arn. (Vern. Bordi)
1-2 m tall, spiny shrub. Flower pale whitish, ripe drupe red ; Aug.-
Dee. Hiragarh siding-2. ( Saxena 2536).
Papilionaceae
Alhagi pseud -alhagi (M. Bieb.) Desv. (Vern. Jawasa)
30-40 cm high, spiny undershrub. Flower red ; Oct.-Feb. On
abandoned pits and saline areas. Hiragarh. ( Saxena 2597).
Crotalaria burhia Buch.-Ham. ex Benth (Vern. Sannia)
60-80 cm high, spreading perennial undershrub. Flower yellow ;
Aug. -March. Common on sandy soils. Hiragarh. ( Saxena 2556).
Indigofera cordifolia Heyne ex Roth (Vern. Bekar, Bekario)
20-30 cm long, prostrate to procumbent, annual herb. Flower pin-
kish red. Pod 2-seeded ; July-Nov. Common on sandy soils. Circuit
House. {Saxena 2526).
I. linifolia (L.) Retz. (Vern. Bekri, Bekar)
Small, wiry, annual herb. Flower pink. Pod globose, one-seeded ;
Aug. -Nov. Hiragarh boundary dune. ( Saxena 2614).
I. hochstetteri Baker (Vern. Bekrio)
30-40 cm long, prostrate to procumbent annual herb. Flower
pinkish. Pod flat ; Aug. -Nov. Common on sandy soil. Hiragarh
siding-2. {Saxena 2537).
8
114 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vot. 70 (1)
I. linnaei Ali (Vern. Bekar)
20-30 cm high, prostrate to procumbent, woody herb with pink
flowers. Pod 2-3 seeded Aug. -Dec. Common on loose sandy soils.
Hiragarh. (Saxena 2527).
I. oblongifolia Forsk. (Vern. Goila)
80-100 cm tall, pubescent shrub. Flower pink to orange pink.
Sept. -Feb. Common on abandoned pits. Hiragarh. (i Saxena 2635).
Phaseolus trilobus Ait. (Vern. Panri, Jangli moth)
20-30 cm long, trailing, annual herb. Flower bright light yellow.
Pod 6-8 seeded ; Aug.-Oct. Rare on sandy soils. Hiragarh Boundary
dune. () Saxena 2618).
Tephrosia purpurea (L.) Pers. (Vern. Dhamasia, Sarphunka)
30-60 cm tall biennial or perennial undershrub with violet pink to
red flowers. Pod flat ; July-Nov. Abundant on sandy plain. Hiragarh
siding-2. (Saxena 2561).
Sesbania bispinosa (Jacq.) Fawe & Rend. (Vern. Ekar)
80-120 cm tall, soft-wooded shrub. Flower yellow with reddish
spot ; July-Nov. Frequent on old pit walls. Hiragarh siding-2.
(Saxena 2575).
Heylandia latebrosa DC. (Vern. Gorakh-batti, Sonda)
20-25 cm long, prostrate to procumbent, annual herb. Flower
yellow ; Aug.-Nov. On dry pit walls. Bara Samra Pit 288. (Saxena
2667).
Psoralea odorata Blatt. & Hallb. (Vern. Goir, Guir)
30-50 cm high, perennial undershrub. Flower pinkish violet ; Aug.-
March. On abandoned pits only. Hiragarh siding-2. (Saxena 2661).
Caesalpinaceae
Cassia obtusa Roxb. ex W. & A. (Vern. Beephini)
60-75 cm tall, woody undershrub. Flower pale yellow. Pod flat &
wrinkled ; Aug.-Dee. On abandoned pit. Hiragarh. (Saxena 2633).
Cassia siamea Lamk.
A cultivated tree with reddish glaucous branches. Flower yellow;
July-Dee. Circuit House. (Saxena 2681).
VEGETATION OF PACHPADRA SALT BASIN 115
Mimosaceae
Acacia nilotica (L.) Del. ssp. indica (Benth.) Bernan (Vern. Babul)
Thorny tree. Flower heads yellow. Pods tomentose ; Aug.-Nov.
and March-May. Frequent on fringes of abandoned pit. Chota Samra.
{Saxena 2576)
Acacia jacquemontii Benth. ex Hook. (Vern. Bawli)
1-2 m tall, armed shrub. Flower heads yellow ; Aug.-Dee. Com-
mon on sandy hummocky soils. Hiragarh siding-2. ( Saxena 2645).
Albizzia lebbek (L.) Benth. (Vern. Siris)
A large tree. Flower greenish white to white. Pod long flat. Good
top-feed species. Cultivated around office and quarters.
Prosopis cineraria (L.) Mac. bride (Vern. Khejri)
6-8 m tall, spiny tree. Flower yellow ; Aug.-Dee. and March-July.
Common on sandy soils. A good top-feed plant. Hiragarh. {Saxena
2595).
P. juliflora (Swarti) DC. (Vern. Vilayti babul, vilayti bawli)
3-5 m tall, spiny tree. Catkin yellow. Pods eaten by goats ; Aug.-
May. Hiragarh. {Saxena 2544).
CUCURBITACEAE
Blastiniaf imbristipula (Fenzl) Kotschy et Peyr. (Vern. Ankh-phutni-bel)
A large climber on Capparis decidua (Forsk.) Edgew. and Salvadora
bushes. Flower white, fruit globose ; Aug.-Nov. Hiragarh siding-2.
{Saxena 2689).
Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Schrad. (Vern. Tastumba, Tumba)
1-2 m long trailing perennial herb. Flower light yellow ; Aug.-Dee.
Common on sandy soil and sand dunes. Seeds utilized for oil extrac-
tion. Bara Samra. {Saxena 2613).
C. vulgaris (L.) Schrad. (Vern. Matera)
1-2 m long trailing, annual herb. Flower yellow, fruit juicy with
white or pinkish pulp ; Aug. -Dec. Natural as well cultivated. Oil is
extracted from seed. Hiragarh boundary dune. {Saxena 2612).
Coccinia grandis (L.) Voigt. (Vern. Ankh-phutni bel)
Large perennial climber on Capparis, Zizyphus and Salvadora bushes.
Flower white, fruit bright scarlet ; Aug. -Dec. Hiragarh siding-2.
{Saxena 2631, 2537).
116 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1)
Cucumis callosus (Rottp.) Cogn. (Vern. Kachri)
1-2 m trailing, scabrid herb. Flower yellow ; Aug.-Nov. Posala.
{Saxena 2684).
Aizoaceae
Gisekia pharnaceoides L. (Vern. Sardi, Morang)
10-20 cm long, prostrate to sub-erect annual herb. Stem pinkish-
red ; July-Oct.
Glinus lotoides L. (Vern. Badka)
10-15 cm high, spreading herb. Flower greenish white ; Aug. -Dec.
Common on silted pits. Pachpadra. ( Shankarnarayan 1845).
Sensuvium sesuvioides (Fenzl.) Verde (Vern. Lonia)
10-15 cm long, procumbent annual herb. Flower axillary, red to
pink ; Aug. -Dec. Common on saline heavy soils. Pachpadra.
(» Shankarnarayan 1126, 1221).
Trianthema portulacastrum L. (Vern. Safedsanter, Sarta)
20-30 cm long prostrate, succulent, annual herb. Flower axillary
solitary ; Aug.-Dee. Pachpadra. ( Shankarnarayan 1222).
T. decandra L. (Vern. Sarta, Sato, Santar)
20-30 cm long, prostrate, annual herb. Flower red, fruit violet-
pink ; Aug.-Dee. On loose sandy soils with some organic content. Rly.
Station. {Saxena 2633).
T. triquetra Willd. ex Rottl. (Vern. Lunia, Lunaki)
10-20 cm long prostrate, annual herb. Flower greenish white ;
Aug.-Dee. Common on low lying areas. Hiragarh boundary dune.
{Saxena 2608).
Asteraceae
Eclipta prostrata L. (Vern. Jalbhangra)
20-40 cm long, prostrate, annual herb. Floral heads white ; Aug.-
Feb. Common on old silted pits. Bara Samra. ( Saxena 2661).
Glossocardia bosvallia (L.f.) DC.
8-15 cm long, prostrate, annual herb. Flower head yellow ; Oct.-
Jan. Pachpadra. (< Shankarnarayan 1856).
Dichotoma tomentosa Cass. (Vern. Vajradanti)
20-30 cm high, spiny, annual herb. Floral head spiny ; Sept.-Dee.
Frequent on sandy hummocky terrain. Hiragarh. ( Saxena 2623 A).
VEGETATION OF PACHPADRA SALT BASIN
117
Gnaphalium pulvinatum Delile (Vern. Kallali)
30-40 cm tall, woody perennial undershrub. Leaves whitish with
wax coating. Flower heads yellow ; Sept. -Jan. Common on silted
pits. Hiragarh siding-3. {Saxena 2636).
Launaea chondrilloides Hook. f. (Vern. Dudhia)
10-30 cm tall, perennial herb with yellow juice. Heads terminal
and yellow ; Oct.-Feb. Frequent on silted pits. Bara Samra. ( Saxena
2666).
L. nudicaulis Hook. f. (Vern. Janglio-gobhi)
15-30 cm tall, perennial herb. Floral heads yellow. Achenes
thickly ribbed ; Oct.-Feb. Frequent on silted pit. Bara Samra.
{Saxena 2665).
Pulicaria angustifolia DC. (Vern. Soneli)
20-30 cm high, annual herb. Floral heads deep yellow ; Aug. -Feb.
Common on sandy soil. Hiragarh siding-3. {Saxena 2636, 2525).
P. wightiana (DC.) Benth. ex Clarke (Vern. Sonela, Soneli)
30-45 cm tall, annual herb. Flower heads bright yellow ; Sept.-
Feb. Frequent on sandy soil. Pachpadra. {Shankarnarayan 247).
Vemonia cineraria (L.) Less. (Vern. Phulni, Shadair)
20-30 cm tall, annual, hairy herb. Flower heads pinkish violet,
white at maturity ; Aug.-Dee. Common on silted pit walls. Bara
Samra. {Saxena 2670).
V. cinerascens Sch.-Bip. (Vern. Bari phulni, Lalia)
50-70 cm tall, woody, spreading undershrub. Flower heads purple
violet ; Aug.-Nov. Common on silted pit surface. Hiragarh pit 85.
{Saxena 2637).
Voluterella ramosa (Roxb.) Sant. (Vern. Lin-katmanda, Telkant)
20-30 cm high, spiny, much branched herb. Flower heads pink ;
Aug.-Dee. Common on sand dunes. Hiragarh boundary dune.
{Saxena 2626).
Salvadoraceae
Salvadora oleoides Decne, (Vern. Mitha-jal)
3-5 m tall tree. Flower white. Drupe orange yellow ; Jan, -June.
Bara Bangla dune. {Saxena 2659),
118 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1)
S. persica L. (Vern. Khara-jal)
4-7 m tall tree. Flower white, fruit violet red ; Dec.-June. Plenty
around old and silted pits. Hiragarh siding-2. ( Saxena 2541).
Asclepiadaceae
Calotropis procera (Ait.) R.Br. (Vern. Ak, Akda, Akra)
1-2 m tall, perennial undershrub. Flower whitish-violet ; Aug.-
Jan. Common around old pit and hummocky areas. Hiragarh
siding-3. {Saxena 2594).
Leptadenia pyrotechnica (Forsk.) Decne. (Vern. Khimp, Khinmpra)
1-1.5 m tall, leafless undershrub. Flower yellowish green; Aug. -Dec.
Frequent on hummocky areas. Bara Samra. {Saxena 2679).
Gentinaceae
Enicostomma verticillatum (L.) Engl. (Vern. Jalbhangra)
Small, procumbent herb. Flower yellow ; Sept.-Jan. Hiragarh
boundary dune. {Saxena 2620).
Boraginaceae
Amebia hispidissima (Lehm) DC. (Vern. Rambas)
20-25 cm high, suberect herb. Root violet red. Flower yellow ;
Sept.-March. Rare on sandy soils. Hiragarh boundary dune. {Saxena
2615).
Heliotropium bacciferum Forsk. var. subrosa (Vern. Kalibui)
15-20 cm high, annual herb. Flower sessile, numerous in rigid
spike ; Aug.-Nov. On silted pits. Pachpadra. {Shankarnarayan
1215).
H. paniculatum R. Br. (Vern. Kalibui)
25-30 cm high, annual herb. Flower white in cylindric raceme,
fruit four lobed ; Aug. -Dec. On sandy soil. Hiragarh siding-3.
{Saxena 2554).
H. strigosum Willd. (Vern. Choti-santri)
A scabrid, prostrate to procumbent herb. Flower white in elongated
spike ; Aug.-Dee. Bara Bangla. {Saxena 2655).
VEGETATION OF PACHPADRA SALT BASIN 119
H. subulatum Hochst. ex DC (Vern. Kalibui)
30-40 cm high, perennial, woody herb. Flower pale white ; Aug.®
Dec. Common oa moist sandy soil. Hiragarh boundary dune.
{Saxena 2617).
Sericostoma pauciflorum Stocks (Vern. Kharsan, Kharsni)
30-40 cm tall, perennial undershrub, clothed with appressed hairs.
Flower white ; Aug.-March. On sand dunes only. Bara Bangla dune.
{Saxena 2654).
Trichodesma indicum R. Br. (Vern. Sal-kanta, Phuldar)
20-30 cm high, hispid herb. Flower light blue ; Aug.-March. Pach»
padra salt basin. {Shankarnarayan 1138).
CONVOLVULACEAE
Convolvulus microphyllus Sieb. ex Spreng. (Vern. Phulwati, Santri,
Kerjan).
30-35 cm long, prostrate to procumbent, perennial herb. Flower
white or light pink ; Aug.-Jan. Common on sandy soil. Hiragarh
siding-3. {Saxena 2695, 2586).
Cressa cretica L. (Vern. Lana, Ovindo, Kharia)
10-15 cm high, procumbent, annual herb. Flower white in small
axillary dusters ; Aug.-Jan. Abundant on saline soils. Hiragarh
siding-2. {Saxena 2555).
Ipomoea pes-tigridis L. (Vern. Panwa, Pherwana)
60-70 cm long, twining, annual herb, clothed with spreading hairs.
Flower whitish pink on sessile heads ; Aug.-Dee. On moist sandy
places. Bara Samra. {Saxena 2669).
I. verticillata Forsk. (Vern. Chirawri)
40-60 cm long, prostrate, annual herb. Flower white ; Aug.-Nov.
Common on shady places. Chota Samra. {Saxena 2676, 2684).
SOLANACEAE
Lycium barbarum L. (Vern. Murali, Morali)
1-2 m tall, spinous, shrub. Flower white solitary or in fascicle ;
Aug.-Jan. On hummocks and dunes. Hiragarh. {Saxena 2639).
120 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1)
Physalis minima L. (Vern. Janglo-bheri)
40-60 cm long, prostrate, perennial herb. Flower creamy ; Sept.-
Dee. On moist shady places below S. ersica tree. Hiragarh pit 85.
{Saxena 2634).
SCROPHULARIACEAE
Anticharis senegalensis (Walp.) Bhand.
30-45 cm high, branched, annual herb. Flower reddish-violet ;
Aug.-Dee. On sandy saline soils. Hiragarh siding-2. {Saxena 2558).
Striga angustifolia (D. Don) Saldhana (Vern. Misso)
20-30 cm high, annual herb. Flower in the axil of floral bract ;
July-Oct. Bara Samra. {Saxena 2665).
Acanthaceae
Justicia vahlii Roth (Vern. Kagnero, Mokrogas)
20-30 cm high, slender, annual herb. Flower violet-pink ; Aug.-Dee.
On moist shady places. Hiragarh. {Saxena 2680).
Blepharis sindica T. Anders. (Vern. Bhangri)
Small, spiny undershrub. Flower bluish ; Aug.-Nov. On sandy
gravelly soils. Hiragarh siding-2. {Saxena 2548).
Peristrophe bicalyculata (Retz.) Nees (Vern. Kagner)
80-100 cm tall, perennial herb. Flower deep violet-pink ; July-Oct.
Frequent under the shade of trees. Hiragarh siding-3. {Saxena 2539).
Labiatae
Leucas urticaefolia (Vahl) R. Br. [Vern. Goma (Hindi)]
25-30 cm high, hairy, annual herb. Flowers white, in globose ter-
minal heads ; Aug.-Dee. Common on sandy soils. Bara Samra.
{Saxena 2638).
Nyctaginaceae
Boerhaavia diffusa L. (Vern. Chelavri, Pawa, Sata)
50-70 cm long, trailing perennial herb. Flower light to dark pink ;
July-March. Common on sandy soils. Posala. {Saxena 2641).
VEGETATION OF PACHPADRA SALT BASIN
121
B. repanda Willd. (Vern. Bara-sata)
1-1*5 m long, climbing, perennial herb. Flower pink ; July-Feb.
Common on moist shady places. Posala. ( Saxena 2646).
B. elegans Choisy (Vern. Chirio-panio)
25-35 cm high, annual herb. Stem dichotomously and panicle
trichotomously branched ; July-Sept. On old working pits. Hiragarh
siding-2. {Saxena 2672).
Amaranthaceae
Achyranthus aspera L. (Vern. Unda-kanta, Andhajaro, Narkanta)
40-60 cm tall herb. Flower whitish pink, deflexed against large
rachis, fruit prickly ; Aug.-Dee. Among bushes in shady places. Hira-
garh siding-2 . {Saxena 2540) .
Aerva persica (Burm. f.) Merrill (Vern. Bui, Buida)
40-80 cm tall, woody, perennial undershrub with thick tomentum.
Greenish white spike ; Oct.-Feb. Common. Hiragarh siding-2.
{Saxena 2566).
A. pseudotomentosa Blatt. & Hallb. (Vern. Choti-Bui)
60-100 cm tall, woody perennial. Panicle leafy ; Sept.-March.
Hiragarh pit 85. {Saxena 2632).
Amaranthus spinosus L. (Vern. Kateli-cholai)
40-60 cm high, spiny herb. July-Oct. On waste places near habita-
tion. Bara Bangla. ( Saxena2606 ).
Digera muricata (L.) Mart. (Vern. Laler, Latoor, Lulero)
20-30 cm high, annual herb. Flower deep pink in lax spike ; Aug.-
Oct. Common on sandy soils. Hiragarh siding-2. {Saxena 2580).
Chenopodiaceae
Salsola baryosma (Roem. et Schult.) Dandy (Vern. Jerio-lana, Iani)
0*8-1 *2 m high, much branched undershrub. Flower in short cylindric
spike ; Oct.- Jan. Common in the area. Hiragarh. {Saxena 2627,
2543).
Suaeda fruticosa Forsk. (Vern. Kala-lana, Lunki)
0*8-1 *5 m high, diffusedly branched undershrub. Leaves thick &
fleshy, turn black on drying ; July-Dee. Abundant on saline soils, salt
pit and silted up pits. Hiragarh siding-2. {Saxena 2577, Shankar -
narayan 1130, 1180, 1217, 1849).
J 22 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1)
Haloxylon salicornicum Bunge ex Boiss. (Vern. Sajjio-lano, Lana)
1-1*5 m tall, much branched, leafless shrub. Flower yellow ; Oct.-
March. On loose sandy soils. Chota-Samra. ( Saxena 1673).
POLYGONACEAE
Calligonum polygonoides L. (Vern. Phoog, Phogra)
1-1*5 m tall, leafless shrub. Stem reddish woody. Flower pinkish
white ; Feb.-June. On boundary dunes. Hiragarh boundary dune.
(Saxena 2672).
Euphorbiaceae
Euphorbia granulata Forsk. (Vern. Dudhi)
10-20 cm long, prostrate, annual herb. Leaves coriacious ; Aug.-
Oct. Common on sandy soils. Hiragarh siding-2. (Saxena 2569).
E. jodhpurensis Blatt. & Hallb. (Vern. Duheli)
10-15 cm high, slender, procumbent, annual herb. Capsule trilo-
cular ; Aug.-Oct. Common on sandy soils. Posala. (Saxena 2652).
Phyllanthus fraternus Webster
20-30 cm high annual herb. Stipule peltate ; Aug. -Dec. Common
on moist sandy soils. Circuit house. (Saxena 2530).
P. maderaspatensis L. (Vern. Hazardana)
40-60 cm tall, annual herb. Flower axillary, greenish ; Aug.-Jan.
Hiragarh. (Saxena 2596).
Liliaceae
Aloe barbadensis Mill (Vern. Guar-patta)
A cultivated succulent under-shrub with dense, aggregate of narrow
leaves.
Cyperaceae
Cyperus laevigatus L. =C. arenarius Retz. (Vern. Motha)
15-30 cm high, sedge with creeping rhizome ; Aug.-Dee. Common
on loose sandy soils. Hiragarh boundary dune. (Saxena 2611).
C. bulbosus Vahl (Vern. Motto Mothrio)
15-25 cm high, perennial, rhizomatous sedge, bulbous root. Spike
violet-red; Aug.-Dee. Common on sandy soil. Hiragarh pit 204,
(Saxena 2604).
VEGETATION OF PACHPADRA SALT BASIN 123
C. rotundus L. (Vern. Motha)
20-45 cm high, perennial , rhizomatous sedge. Flower spike
brownish-red ; Aug. -Jan. Abundant on silted pits. Hiragarh siding-2.
{Saxena 2562, 2592).
C. tuberosus Rottb.
0*9-1 *2 m tall, rhizomatous, perennial, amphibious sedge. Spike
red when mature ; Aug.-Dee. Common on water logged area. Posala
siding-3. ( Saxena 2642).
Fimbristylis ferruginea (L.) Yahl
40-45 cm tall, perennial, amphibious sedge. Spike umbellate, spike-
lets, pale brown ; Sept.-March. Common on semi-silted pits.
Chota-Samra. {Saxena 2675).
POACEAE
Aeluropus lagopoides (L.) Trin. ex Thw. (Yern. Kharia-ghas)
30-80 cm long, trailing grass with convolute leaves. Spike terminal ;
Aug.-Dee. Common on clayey saline soils or rann. Hiragarh siding 2.
(i Saxena 2628, Shankarnarayan 1851).
Aristida adscenscionis L. var. adscensclonis (Vern. Lump, Lompra)
40-60 cm tall, diffused annual grass. Awn dark blackish on
maturity; Aug.-Oct. Common on sandy soils. Hiragarh siding-2.
{Saxena 2673).
A. funiculata Trin. et Rupr. (Vern. Lomp, Lompra)
25-40 cm high, slender, annual grass. Awn very troublesome ; July-
Oct. Abundant on sandy soils. Hiragarh siding-2. {Saxena 2565).
A. funiculata Trin. et Rupr. var. mallica (Edgew.) Henr. (Yern. Lompra)
40-50 cm high, annual grass. Awn bigger than in funiculata and
troublesome ; July-Nov. Posala. {Saxena 2642).
A. mutabilis Trin. & Rupr. (Vern. Lompra)
45 cm tall, annual grass. Spikelets brown; July-Sept. Common
on sandy soils. Posala {Saxena 2581).
Brachiaria ramosa (L.) Stapf (Vern. Kuri)
20 cm high, procumbent to spreading, annual grass. Spikelets
turgid ; Aug.-Oct. Frequent on moist soils. Hiragarh siding-2.
{Saxena 2552, Shankarnarayan 1214).
124 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 70 (1)
Cenchrus biflorus Roxb. (Yern. Bhurut)
30-40 cm high, annual grass. Involucres echinate spiny ; July-Oct.
Common on sandy soils. Hiragarh siding. ( Saxena 2563).
Cenchrus ciliaris L. (Vern. Safed-Dhaman, Anjan)
A tussocky perennial grass. Involucre not spiny ; Aug. -Dec. Com-
mon on old pit walls on sandy soil. Three different strains have been
recorded :
1. 60-70 cm tall ; spike 8-10 cm long, violet on ripening {Saxena
2598).
2. 25-30 cm tall ; with small clump. Spike 4-5 cm long, light
violet on ripening. {Saxena 2599).
3. Same as No. 2. Spike colourless on ripening. {Saxena 2571,
2579).
C. prieurii (Kunth) Maire. (Vern. Dhaman)
40-50 cm high, annual grass. Long spike ; Aug. -Nov. Common
on sandy soils. Hiragarh siding-2. {Saxena 2549).
C. pennisetiformis Hochst. et Steud. ex Steud. (Vern. Dhaman)
50-90 cm tall, perennial grass ; Aug. -Dec. Rare on moist sandy soils.
Hiragarh. {Saxena 2599)
C. setigerus Vahl (Vern. Kala Dhaman)
30-50 cm high, perennial tussocky grass. Spike of various colours,
some lax while others compact ; Aug. -Dec. Common on sandy soils of
the old pits. Three distinct strains have been recognized :
1. 30 cm tall, small, tussocky grass. Common on alluvial plain.
{Saxena 2601).
2. 30-45 cm tall, small tussocky grass. On old pit walls.
{Saxena 2589).
3. 70-110 cm tall, large tussocky grass. Rare on moist shady
places. {Saxena 2650). Hiragarh pit 296, Hiragarh siding-3 and Posala.
{Saxena 2601, 2589, 2650).
Chloris virgata Sw. (Vern : Gharnia-ghas)
24-30 cm tall, annual grass. Digits 4-5 rayed. Blackens when
ripe ; Aug.-Dee. Common on saline soils. Hiragarh pit 296. {Saxena
2602).
Dactyloctenium aegyptium (L.) P. Beauv. (Vern. Kuri, Makro, Mansa)
15-20 cm tall suberect spreading annual. Digits 3-4 rayed ; Aug.-
Oct. Common on sandy, clay, loam, soils. Rly. Station. {Saxena
2534).
VEGETATION OF PACHPADRA SALT BASIN 12 5
Dactyloctenium sindicum Boiss. (Vern. Makra, Ganthia ghas)
25-40 cm tall small tussocky perennial. Stolons rooting at nodes ;
Aug.-Dee. On hummocky terrain. Circuit House. ( Saxena 2525).
Desmostachya bipinnata (L.) Stapf (Vern. Dab)
40-60 cm tall, perennial, tussocky grass. Spike in long raceme ;
Aug.-Feb. Common on moist sandy soils. Hiragarh siding-2.
{Saxena 2549).
Dichanthium annulatum (Forsk.) Stapf (Vern. Karad)
50-90 cm tall, perennial, tussocky grass. Spike reddish to brown
purple ; Aug.-Dee. Common on silted pits. A very good fodder grass.
Hiragarh pit 85. {Saxena 2630).
Digitaria adscendens (H.B.K.) Henr. (Vern. Tara, Kuri)
25-35 cm high, slender annual grass with terminal spike, highly
palatable ; Aug.-Oct. Hiragarh siding-2. {Saxena 2550).
Echinochloa colonum (L.) Link (Vern. Soma, Homa)
A decumbent annual grass. Stem violet-red ; July-Nov. On moist
clayey soils or on semi-silted pits. Bara Samra pit 288. {Saxena 2664).
Eleusine compressa (Forsk.) Asch. ex Schw. (Vern. Tantia, Gandil)
Stoloniferous, trailing perennial grass. Spike 4-5 digitate ; July-Dee.
Common on hummocky terrain. A very good sheep grass. Hiragarh
siding-2. {Saxena2551).
Eimeapogon brachystachys (Jaub. et Spach.) Stapf
8-10 cm tall, small tufted, perennial grass. Spike 2-3 cm long ;
July-Oct. On gravelly soils. Circuit House. {Saxena 2653).
Eragrostis ciliaris (L.) R. Br. (Vern. Chirio-ghas)
15-20 cm tall, annual grass. Spike solitary ; July-Dee. Common
on sandy soil. Hiragarh boundary dune. {Saxena 2570).
E. poaeoides P. Beauv. (Vern. Chirioro-ghas)
20-35 cm tall, annual grass. Culm shining, bluish white ; Aug.°
Nov. Common on sandy soils. Hiragarh boundary dune. {Saxena
2626).
E. tremula Hochst. ex Steud. (Vern. Kiria, Phunkia)
30-35 cm tall, annual grass. Spike in lax panicle ; July-Nov. On
sandy soils. Hiragarh pit 85. {Saxena 2621).
Lasiurus sindicus Henr. (Vern. Sewan)
40-60 cm tall, stoloniferous, woody perennial grass. Spike terminal ;
Aug.-Feb. On dune bases. Hiragarh boundary dune. {Saxena 2619).
126 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1)
Latipes senegalensis Kunth (Vern. Kuri)
20-30 cm tall, annual grass. Stem light pink on maturity ; Aug.-Dee.
Hiragarh siding-2. ( Saxena 2560).
Melanocenchris jacquemontii Jaub. et Spach. (Vern. Phoolia, khargose-
chutti)
10-15 cm tall, annual grass. Spike lax and woolly ; Aug.-Nov.
Common on sandy soils of old pits. Hiragarh siding-2. {Saxena 2578).
Panicum antidotale (L.) Retz. (Vern. Gramna, Girona)
100-150 cm tall, tussocky, perennial grass. Spike long in lax panicle ;
Aug.-Feb. Recorded in bushes of Capparis decidua . Hiragarh siding-3.
(, Saxena 2582).
Panicum turgidum Forsk. (Vern. Murut)
70-100 cm tall, tussocky perennial grass. Old culm woody ; Aug.-
Dee. On dunes and hummocks. Hiragarh pit 265. {Saxena 2593).
Sporobolus coromandelianus (Retz.) Kunth
20-25 cm tall, densely tufted annual grass ; Aug.-Dee. On gravelly
soils. Hiragarh siding-2. {Saxena 2553).
S. helvolus (Trin.j Dur. et Schniz. (Vern. Deva, Lunagas, Kharia)
40-70 cm high, tufted perennial grass ; Aug.-Dee. Common on
sandy saline and clayey soils. Hiragarh siding-2. {Saxena 2564).
S. marginatus Hochst. ex A. Rich. (Vern. Deva, Kharia-ghas)
40-60 cm tall, tussocky perennial grass. Panicle pyramidal ; Aug.-
Feb. Common in the area. Hiragarh siding-2. {Saxena 2564).
Schoenofeldia gracilis Kunth (Vern. Tarwaria)
30-45 cm high, slender, annual grass. Spike terminal ; Aug. -Oct.
On low lying saline soils. Hiragarh siding-2. {Saxena 2576).
Tetrapogon tenelius (Roxb.) Chiov.
30-40 cm high, annual grass ; Aug.-Nov. Common on gravelly
soils under protection. Hiragarh siding-3. {Saxena 2588).
Tragus biflorus (Roxb.) Schult. (Vern. Sitagas, Charchada)
6-10 cm high, annual grass ; July-Oct. On gravelly soils. Hiragarh
siding-2. {Saxena 2572).
VEGETATION OF PACHPADRA SALT BASIN
12 1
Ephederaceae
Ephedra foliata Boiss. (Vern. Lanra)
A straggling climber recorded on Capparis and Lycium bushes.
Bhandari (1954) described in detail its distribution in Western
Rajasthan.
Synopsis of Salt Basin Flora
Out of 58 families, 226 genera and 440 species recorded indigenous in
Western Rajasthan. 36 families covering 97 genera and 137 species are
collected from Pachpadra Salt Basin. Thirteen families have only single
species viz. Menispermaceae, Brassicaceae, Polygalaceae, Portulacaceae,
Tamaricaceae, Meliaceae, Celastraceae, Rhamnaceae, Gentinaceae,
Labiatae, Polygonaceae, Liliaceae and Ephedraceae, Poaceae (Graminae)
has the maximum genera (34) while Papilionaceae (12) and Asteraceae
(Compositae) (1 1) stand second and third respectively.
Acknowledgements
The authors are indebted to Dr. T. R. Mehta, Director, Central Arid
Zone Research Institute, Jodhpur, for his guidance and constructive
criticism. Thanks are also due to Dr. B. B. Roy, Head of Division of
Basic Resource Studies, for encouragement, guidance and facilities for
this work. Our thanks to Dr. M. M. Bhandari, Lecturer, University of
Jodhpur, for his help in identification of some specimens.
Refer en ces
Auden, J. B. (1952) : Some geological
and chemical aspects of the Rajasthan
Salt Problem. Symp. on Rajasthan
desert. Nat. Inst. Sci. India pp. 53-67.
Bhandari, M. M. (1954) : On the
occurrence of Ephedra foliata in the
Indian Desert. J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. 52 : 10-13.
(1967) : Flora of Indian
Desert. Annual of Arid zone. 6 (2) : 200-
210.
— (1968): Flora of North-
western Rajasthan Desert. Ph.D. Thesis.
Biswas, K. & Rao, R. S. (1953):
Rajputana Desert vegetation. Proc.
Nat. Inst. Sci. India 10 : 411-421.
Blatter, E. & Hallberg, F. E. (1918-
1921): The flora of the Indian desert.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 26 : 210-246,
525-531, 811-818, 968-987; 27: 40-47,
270-279, 507-517.
Ghose, B. (1964) : Geomorphological
aspects of the formation of salt basin
in Lower Luni Basin. UNESCO
General symposium on 4 Problems of
Indian Arid Zone’ pp. 169-178.
Godbole, N. N. (1951) : Does Samb-
har Lake owe its salts to Rann of Kutch ?
Indian Sci. Congr. Ass.
Holland, T. H. & Christie, W. A. K.
(1909) : The origin of salt deposits in
Rajputana. Rec. Geol. Surv. India
38 : 154.
Parmanik, S. K., Hariharan, P. S. &
Ghose, S. K. (1952) : Meteorological
conditions in and the extension of the
Rajputana Desert. Symp. on Rajputana
desert. Nat. Inst. Sci. India 221-222.
Puri, G. S., Jain, S. K., Mukerji,
S. K., Sarup,S. & Kotwal, N. N. (1964).
Reco. Bot. Surv. India 19 (1) ; 1-159.
Satyanarayan, Y. & Shankar-
narayan, K. A. (1963) : A new species
of Lasiurus from Western Rajasthan.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc, 60 (3) : 763-766.
Shantisarup (1958) : The halophytes
of the Indian Desert. Univ. Raj. Studies
Bot. Sec. 3 : 71-76.
Effects of temperature and salinity on
the oxygen consumption in clams
BY
M. R. Ranade
( With eight text-figures )
The importance of oxygen as an oxidizing agent in energy releasing
mechanism is well known. Utilization of oxygen is, therefore, a direct
measure of degree of activity, food conversion and heat production
(Bishop 1950). In lamellibranchs, which are filter-feeders, the current
of water drawn through the inhalent siphon is used for feeding and respira-
tion. The fluctuations in the estuarine environment where clams are
found, are, therefore, bound to influence the oxygen- consumption in
clams. Dam (1935, 1954) has studied oxygen utilization in Mya arenaria
and scallops. Berkeley (1921, 1923) has studied anaerobic respiration
in pelycypod mollusks. Mitchell (1912) and Hazelhoff (1938) have given
oxygen requirements of shellfish and other invertebrates. Galtsoff
& Whipple (1930) have investigated the oxygen-consumption in normal
and green oysters under different conditions. The oxygen-consumption
of tissues in Venus mercer aria has been studied by Hopkins (1948).
Amongst various other factors that affect oxygen-consumption, the
influence of body size and temperature on respiration of some animals
has been studied by Kleiber (1947), Zeuthen (1947, 1953), Scholander
et al. (1953), RaO & Bullock (1954) and Dawson et al. (1956). But
most of these studies are made on the arctic and temperate forms. Wolve-
kamp & Waterman (1960) have reviewed respiration in Crustacea. Stu-
dies on oxygen-consumption in tropical poikilotherms have recently
attracted attention (Job 1955, Saroja 1959, and Parvatheswararao 1959,
1960).
The influence of salinity on oxygen-consumption has been studied
by Bloch and Schlieper (1953) in Asterias rubens , Eliassen (1952) in
Artemia salina , Potts (1954) in brackish and fresh water animals, Schlieper
(1955) in Mytilus edulis , Lofts (1956) in Palaemonetes varians and Gross
(1957) in some decapod Crustacea. The only work of this type in tropi-
cal species is that of Gopalkrishna (1953) on penaeid prawns and Rao
OXYGEN CONSUMPTION IN CLAMS
129
(1958) on Metapenaeus monoceros. No work has been done on the
oxygen-consumption in clams from tropical waters. The present investi-
gation was, therefore, undertaken with a view to studying the effects of
temperature and salinity on the oxygen-consumption in the common
clams Meretrix meretrix and Katelysia opima.
Materials and Methods
Clams collected from Kalbadevi estuary were stored in the same
manner as described in the earlier paper (Ranade & Kulkarni 1972).
For determining oxygen-consumption in clams, the method adopted by
Saroja (1959) was followed, except that instead of a cork to close the
respiratory chamber, a three centimetre layer of liquid paraffin was put
on the surface of the water to stop gaseous exchange between the sea
water in the respiratory chamber and the atmosphere as suggested
by Galtsoff & Whipple (1930).
Temperature being an important factor in controlling the rate of
oxygen-consumption, care was taken to keep the required temperature
constant, with a variation of only ± 1°C, by providing a thermostat.
Observations on the rate of oxygen-consumption were made at three
different temperatures namely 20, 30 and 40°C at a constant salinity
(34 %0). The temperature of the water available in the laboratory
varied between 28° and 30°C. For measuring oxygen-consumption at
40°C, the respiratory-chamber was kept in an aquarium tank filled with
water, heated to 40°C by means of a heater and maintained at this level
by a ‘Sumac’ thermostat. For obtaining a temperature of 20°C,
ice was used in the aquarium tank in which the respiratory-chamber was
kept and the tank in turn was kept in a thermocole insulated box.
The differential values of oxygen in the samples of water from the
respiratory-chamber before and after the experimental period i.e. one
hour, gave the amount of oxygen consumed. The clams were taken out
immediately after the experiment and shelled. The wet weight of the
flesh was taken after removing the extra water by using a blotting paper.
In order to study the effect of salinity on the oxygen-consumption,
observations were made at three different salinities namely 34%, 25*5%
and 17 %, which was equal to 100 %, 75 % and 50 % sea water respectively.
In these experiments the temperature was kept constant at 30°C. The
lower grades of salinities were prepared as usual, by diluting sea water
with distilled water.
As the clams remain buried in the sand in the natural habitat, the
respiratory-chamber was painted black, to avoid activity of clams on
account of light. The oxygen contents of water were determined by
Winkler’s method as described by Barnes (1959).
9
j 30 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISf. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1)
Analysis of data
The rate of oxygen-consumption was plotted as a function of body
weight (weight-specific) on a double logarithmic grid. Such a plot
over an adequate weight range gives a straight line with a negative slope
(Dehnel 1960).
The regression of oxygen-consumption on body weight assumes a
form :
02 = aWb
or Log 02 = Log a + b Log W.
where 02 is the volume of oxygen consumed in ml, W is the weight of
the body in grams and a and b are constants being respectively the inter-
cept and the slope of the line or the exponent. The regression of oxygen-
consumption on body weight at three different temperatures and salinities
were calculated separately.
Results
Results of the oxygen-consumption at various temperatures in both
the species are summarised in Tables I and II and are plotted as size
metabolism curves in Figs. 1 and 2.
Table I
Total oxygen consumption in M. meretrix at different body weights and at
DIFFERENT TEMPERATURES
OXYGEN CONSUMPTION IN CLAMS
131
Oxygen-consumption as a function of body size in relation to temperature :
From the study of the data given in Tables I and II it could be seen
that the oxygen-consumption in clams increases with increase in body
weight at all the temperatures studied. However, this increase in oxygen-
consumption with increase in body weight is not the same at the three
temperatures, which is apparent from the regression coefficients of the
size metabolism curves. The regression coefficient of oxygen-consump-
tion in relation to body size is maximal in both the species at 20°C
and decreases as the temperature increases. The straight lines of the
size metabolism curves also suggest that throughout the weight range
studied the oxygen-consumption increases with the same power of body
weight. From Tables I and II, it could be also seen that at any given
temperature, the oxygen-consumption per unit of time is lesser in smaller
clams than in larger ones.
From the curves given in Figs. 1 and 2 the values of weight specific
Q02 or the unit oxygen-consumption, (02 ml/gm/hr), were calculated
for the representative weight of clams. These are given in Tables III
and IV.
Table III
inrwiiBiMwn— wiMrmT ~i im— — PMWMaa t imim— ■wrrfiiw ■!!
The values are calculated from the size metabolism curves presented in Fig. 1.
The values are calcluated from the size metabolism curves presented in Fig. 2.
iM JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1)
From Tables III and IV, it would be seen that the unit oxygen-consump-
tion (02 ml/gm/hr) decreases with increasing body weights of clams at
all temperatures studied. However, this decrease in unit oxygen-consump-
tion is more conspicuous at 40°C and 30°C than at 20°C.
Oxygen- consumption as a function of temperature :
The values of regression coefficient ‘ b ’ are given in Table V.
Table V
The size metabolism curves given in Figs. 1 and 2 show that the
‘ b ’ (Table V) value decreases with increase in temperature and in M.
meretrix is 0*94 at 20°C, 0*66 at 30°C and 0*57 at 40°C ; whereas in
K. opima it is 0*75 at 20°C, 0*66 at 30°C and O’ 50 at 40°C. This decrease
in ‘ b 9 value with increase in temperature indicates that the increase in
oxygen-consumption in larger clams with increase in temperature is lesser
than in smaller clams, and therefore, smaller clams can be regarded as
more sensitive to temperature changes than the larger ones.
The unit oxygen-consumption values of clams of different weights
are given in Tables III and IV and are plotted as rate-temperature
curves in Figs. 3 and 4. The examination of these curves also indicates
that the weight or body size of the clam is an important parameter in
influencing the pattern of metabolic response at various temperatures.
It will also be seen from these curves that the smaller clams are more
sensitive to temperature changes than the larger ones in both the species
studied. Thus in 1 *00 gm clam of Meretrix meretrix the weight specific
Qo2 rises from 0*42 to 0*53 when the temperature rises from 30°C to
40°G and drops from 0*42 to 0*29 when the temperature drops from
30°C to 20°C. The corresponding rise and fall in 3 ’00 gm clam is very
much less. In case of K. opima also a similar trend is seen, the weight
specific Q02 rises from 0‘55 to 0*66 with the rise in temperature from
30°C to 40°C and falls from 0*55 to 0*45 with the fall in temperature
from 30°C to 20°C. The corresponding increase or decrease in case of
3*00 gm clam is much smaller.
Ql0 as a function of temperature :
To describe the magnitude of temperature effect on respiratory
processes, the frequently used expression Q10 is: a convenient
OXYGEN CONSUMPTION IN CLAMS
133
O P
© o
T3 "G
G G
cs cij
U V
Q
O
CD
134 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1)
measure over the biological temperature range. It is a factor by which a
reaction velocity is increased for a rise of temperature of 10 degrees.
10
tj 12
Q10 = (K^KO
where Kx and K2 are velocity constants corresponding to temperatures
t! and t2.
The Q10 values of oxygen-consumption in clams were calculated
from the data given in Tables III and IV for various weights and at various
temperatures studied. The same are given in Tables VI and VII and are
plotted in Figs. 5 and 6.
Table VI
Q10 of oxygen-consumption in M. meretrix in relation to body
SIZE AND TEMPERATURE
The Q10 values are calculated from the data given in Table III.
Table VII
The Q10 values are calculated from the data given in Table IV.
In case of M. meretrix Q10 values are size dependent at all tempe-
ratures studied. It systematically decreases with increase in body weight
at all the temperatures studied. However, this trend is more conspicuous
at temperature range of 20-30°C than at 30-40°C. It will also be seen
that the decrease in Q Y 0 at both the temperature ranges is more marked
OXYGEN CONSUMPTION IN CLAMS
135
Jig. 5. Q10 of oxygen-consumption in M. meretrix as a function of body size at different temperature ranges.
ig. 6. Q10 of oxygen-consumption in K. opirna as a function of body size at different temperature ranges.
?ig. 7. Total oxygen-consumption in K. opima as a function of body size at different salinities (100%, 75% and 50% sea water).
riG. 8. Total oxygen-consumption in M. meretrix as a function of body size at different salinities (100%, 75% and 50% sea water).
136 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1)
in smaller clams than in the larger ones. Thus the Q x 0 between 0*50 gm
and 2*00 gm clams, drops from T70 to T26 between 20-30°C and from
T40 to IT 5 between 30-40°C whereas the corresponding drop between
2*00 and 4-00 gm clams is from 1*26 to T03 and 1T5 to TOO between
temperatures 20-30°C and 30-40°C respectively. Similarly between
20-30°C and 30-40°C there is a decrease in Q10 from T70 to T40 in
0*50 gm clam whereas the corresponding decrease in 4,00 gm clam is
from T03 to TOO. This indicates that the Q10 of oxygen-consumption
decreases with increasing temperature at all weights, such a decrease
being once again more conspicuous in smaller clams than in larger ones.
The higher values of Qj in smaller clams at all the temperature ranges
studied suggests that they are more sensitive to temperature changes than
the larger ones.
In case of K. opima also, a similar trend is seen. The Q10 decreases
with increasing body weights at all temperatures studied. This decrease
is more conspicuous at lower temperatures (20r30°C) than at higher
temperatures (30-40°C). The decrease is also more marked in smaller
clams than in larger ones. There is also a decrease in Q 1 0 with increas-
ing temperature, the decrease being more conspicuous in smaller clams
than in larger ones. The higher values of Q 1 0 in smaller clams suggests
that they are more sensitive to temperature changes than the larger ones.
Oxygen-consumption as a function of body size in relation to salinity :
The results of oxygen-consumption at various salinities in both the
species are summarised in Tables VIII and IX and are plotted as size
metabolism curves in Figs. 7 and 8.
Table VIII
Total oxygen-consumption in K. opima at different body weights and at
DIFFERENT SALINITIES
S. No.
1
2
3
4
5
Weight in Oxygen consumed ml/hr
gm 100% 75% 50% sea water
0*36 0*45
0-51 058
059 066
0-70 0 79
0-81 0-87
0-95
6
1*26
137
OXYGEN CONSUMPTION IN CLAMS
Table IX
Total oxygen-consumption in M. meretrix at different body weights and
AT DIFFERENT SALINITIES
From the data given in Table VIII it could be seen that the oxygen-
consumption in K. opima increases with increasing body weight at all the
salinities studied. However, the regression coefficients of the size
metabolism curves presented in Fig. 7 show that the increase in
oxygen-consumption with increase in body weight is not the same at all
salinities studied. The regression coefficient of oxygen-consumption in
relation to body size is maximal in 100 % sea water (b=0*66) and decreases
as the salinity decreases. The straight lines of the size metabolism curves
also suggest that throughout the weight range studied, the oxygen-
consumption increases with the same power of body weight. It is also
evident from Table VIII that at any given salinity the oxygen-consumption
per unit time is less in smaller clams than in larger ones.
In case of M. meretrix (Table IX), however, the trend is slightly diffe-
rent. The oxygen-consumption increases with increase in body weight
at all the salinities studied. However, this increase in oxygen-consump-
tion with increase in body weight is not the same at all the salinities studied.
The regression coefficient of oxygen-consumption on body weight is
maximal in 75% sea water (b=0*84) instead of in 100% sea water as
in case of K. opima. The regression coefficient decreases as the salinity
either increases above or decreases below 75 % sea water. This is rather
an interesting behaviour and will be discussed later. The straight lines
of the size metabolism curves suggest that throughout the weight range
studied, the oxygen-consumption increases with the same power of body
weight. From Table IX it is also evident that at any given salinity
the oxygen-consumption per unit time is less in smaller clams than in
larger ones.
From the curves given in Figs. 7 and 8 the values of weight specific
Q03 or the unit oxygen-consumption (08 ml/gm/hr) were calculated
138 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1)
for the representative weights of clams. These are given in Tables X
and XI.
Table X
Oxygen-consumption per gram body weight per hour in K, opima of different
WEIGHTS AND AT DIFFERENT SALINITIES
The values are calculated from the size metabolism curves presented in Fig. 7.
Table XI
Oxygen-consumption per gram body weight per hour in M . meretrix of different
WEIGHTS AND AT DIFFERENT SALINITIES
The values are calculated from the size metabolism curves presented in Fig. 8.
From Table X it could be seen that in K. opima the unit oxygen-
consumption decreases with increasing body weight at all the salinities
studied, such a decrease being more conspicuous in 50% and 75% sea
water than in 100% sea water. However, in M. meretrix (Table XI)
though the unit oxygen-consumption decreases with increasing body
weight at all salinities, the decrease is more conspicuous in 50 % and 100 %
than in 75% sea water.
OXYGEN CONSUMPTION IN CLAMS
139
Oxygen-consumption as a function of salinity :
The values of regression coefficient ‘ b ’ are given in Table XII.
Table XII
The size metabolism curves given in Figs. 7 and 8 show that the
‘ b ’ value of the curve varies with the salinity. In K. opima the ‘ b ’ value
decreases with decrease in salinity which is 0*66 in 100%, 0*60 in 75%
and 0*50 in 50% sea water. This decrease in ‘b’ value with decrease in
salinity indicates that the increase in oxygen-consumption in larger clams
with decrease in salinity is less than in smaller clams and can, therefore,
be regarded as being more sensitive to salinity changes than the larger
ones.
As stated above in case of M. meretrix the ‘ b ’ value is maximal in
75% sea water (b=0*84) and decreases above (b=0*75) and below
(b=0*71) this concentration. This decrease in ‘b’ value on either side
of 75 % sea water also appears to be on account of the less increase in
oxygen-consumption in larger clams than in smaller ones with the change
in the salinity. The smaller clams can, therefore, be regarded as more
sensitive to changes in salinity either decrease below or increase above
75% sea water.
The unit oxygen-consumption values given in Table X for K. opima
indicate that the weight or body size is an important parameter in
influencing the pattern of metabolic response at various salinities. The
smaller clams are more sensitive to salinity changes than the larger
ones. Thus in case of 0*50 gm clam the weight specific Q02 rises from
0*56 to 0*64 and to 0*81 as the salinity decreases from 100% to 75% and
to 50% sea water. However, the corresponding rise in 4*00 gm clam
is very much less.
In case of M . meretrix (Table XI) the weight specific Q02 drops from
0*52 to 0*36 in a 0*50 gm clam as the salinity drops from 100% to 75%
sea water and then rises from 0*36 to 0*62 as the salinity further drops to
50% sea water. But the corresponding drop and rise in a 4*00 gm
clam is much less. This also indicates that the smaller clams are more
sensitive to changes in the salinity than the larger ones.
140 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1)
Discussion
It has been well established that the metabolism of animals is consi-
derably influenced by body size and temperature, of the environment.
Similarly the tendency for the rate of metabolism in animals to vary with
some power of body weight has been recognised and discussed by Zeuthen
(1947, 1953). There is a general concept that the weight specific Q02
is higher for smaller animals than the larger ones when measured at a
given temperature for a given species and, therefore, if the logarithm
of rate of oxygen-consumption is plotted as a function of logarithm
of weight a linear relationship is obtained.
On the basis of the magnitude of metabolic rate in relation to body
size, Bertalanffy (1951) has classified animals into three major groups
of metabolic types by using the slope of the regression line of the logarithm
of metabolic rate against the logarithm of body weight. According to
him the three types are
(1) respiration surface-proportional, the allometric line showing a
slope of 2/3 (b=0’67) ;
(2) respiration weight proportional (b=100) and
(3) intermediate group which is neither surface nor weight pro-
portional (b > 0*67 and b < TOO).
However, the relationship of body size to metabolism has been a subject
of controversy. In a majority of cases amongst fishes, Bishop (1950)
and Fry (1957) have shown that the increase in oxygen-consumption
with size is surface area dependent rather than weight dependent. On
the other hand intermediate condition has been shown by Job (1955)
in Salvelinus fontinalis (b=0'8 to 0*9) and Parvatheswararao (1959)
in Eutoplus maculatus (b=0’77). Job (1955) has discussed the metabloic
response to body size in fishes and states, ‘ it seems rather likely that the
Pisces fall into at least two of the Bertalanffy’s metabolic types, some
being of the first group i.e. surface proportional and others of an inter-
mediate type neither surface nor weight proportional’. However,
Parvatheswararao (1960) found that in Puntius sophoro the increase in
oxygen-consumption is nearly weight dependent (b=0’96 and 0*91)
nearabout the habitat temperature (25°C and 30°C). He has further
shown the influence of temperature on this relation, the increase in
oxygen-consumption following surface area dependence at 35°C (b=0*59)
and intermediate condition at 15°C (b=0‘86).
Studies on the different invertebrate groups have also revealed that
the value of ‘ b ’ changes within a group of animals and is not constant
for the same species under different environmental conditions and at
different developmental stages. This has been shown by Rao & Bullock
(1954) and Zeuthen (1953). Thus for Crustacea (Wolvekamp & Waterman
OXYGEN CONSUMPTION IN CLAMS
141
1960) the ‘ b 9 is generally between 0’67 and 1 ’00 i.e. between surface pro-
portional to weight proportional. Kruger (1952) and Saroja (1959)
have shown that the oxygen uptake is proportional to surface area in
case of Eisenia foetida and Megascolex mauritii respectively. Recently
Conover (1960) has shown that in case of Artemia salina the regression
coefficient varies from 0*67 at 5°C to 0*93 at 13°C indicating two very
different metabolic types. Zeuthen (1953, Fig. 4) has plotted meta-
bolism and body size in different animals from eggs or larvae into mature
stages. In the figure he has shown that in case of Mytilus sp. the ‘ b 9
value increases from 0*80 to 0*95 and then decreases to 0’65 as the
animal grows.
In the present investigation it will be seen that in both the species
studied the regression values (b=0*66) nearabout the habitat tempe-
rature (30°C) indicate that the increase in oxygen-consumption is surface
area dependent, however, an intermediate condition is seen in K. opima
at 20 and 40°C. and in M. meretrix at 40°C., whereas the latter species
shows that the oxygen-consumption may follow weight dependence at
20°C.
From the size metabolism curves presented in Figs. 1 and 2 it
will be seen that the oxygen-consumption in clams increases with the
same power of body weight at any given temperature throughout the
weight range studied. Conversely, the unit oxygen-consumption de-
creases with increasing body weight this decrease being marked at
40°C. Thus the unit oxygen-consumption in M. meretrix decreases from
0-76 to 0*29 at 40°C, whereas the corresponding decrease at 30°C and
20°C is only from 0*54 to 0*29 and 0*32 to 0*28 respectively, between
0*5 and 4*0 gm clam. Similarly the decrease in K. opima is from 0*94
to 0*32 at 40°C the corresponding decrease at 30° and 20°C being from
0*72 to 0*32 and 0’54 to 0*32, respectively in 0*5 and 4’0 gm clam. If
we consider 30°C as the habitat temperature then it will be seen that the
size metabolism curves for 40°C and 20°C (Figs. 1 and 2) considerably
deviate from the curve for 30°C. There is widest displacement of curves
between 30°C and 20°C in M. meretrix , and less so in K. opima than
between 30°C and 40°C. The curve for 20°C has the maximum slope.
The displacement of curves is also more conspicuous in younger clams
than in larger ones indicating that the former ones are more sensitive to
changes in temperature than the latter.
In both the species of clams, the regression coefficients of size rneta-
holism curves are shown to be temperature dependent. The ‘ b 9 values
decrease with increasing temperature and appear to be correlated with
the greater responsiveness of smaller clams than the larger ones. When
the temperature is lowered (20°C) the curve towards lower weight ranges
is pulled down, similarly when there is rise in temperature (40°C the
curve rises mainly due to the more sensitive nature of smaller clams
142 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1)
than the larger ones to changes in temperature. Therefore, the smaller
clams have higher Q10 values at these two temperature ranges.
In case of both the species studied, the Q10 of oxygen-consumption
is size dependent at all the temperatures, decreasing with increasing body
weight, the dependence being more marked in lower temperature ranges
than the higher ones. The Q10 also decreases with increasing tempe-
rature, the decrease being more marked in smaller clams indicating that
they are more sensitive to changes in temperature than the larger ones.
Rao & Bullock (1954) have shown that in many poikilotherms the Q10
decreases with increasing body weight within the physiologically normal
range of temperature. In the present case also the Q10 decreases with
increasing body weight at all the temperature ranges studied and it also
decreases with increasing temperature.
As in respect of metabolism in relation to temperature in clams,
salinity also has considerable influence on their metabolic activity.
In K. opima in 100% sea water, the increase in oxygen-consumption is
surface area dependent (b=0*66). The oxygen-consumption increases
with decrease in salinity and in 75% sea water (b=0*60) and in 50%
sea water (b =0'50) an intermediate condition is observed. In M.
meretrix the oxygen-consumption shows an intermediate condition in
all the salinities studied. However, in 100% and 50% sea water there
is a slight tendency towards surface area dependence (b=0*72 in 100%
and b=0*71 in 50 % sea water). The slight high value of ‘b ’ (0*72) in 100 %
sea water as compared with that at 30°C given earlier (b=0*66) may
perhaps be on account of the difference in the experimental temperature
which in the present case was around 29°C.
From the size metabolism curves presented in Figs. 7 and 8 it
will be seen that the oxygen-consumption in clams increases with the
same power of body weight at any given salinity throughout the weight
range studied. Conversely the unit oxygen-consumption decreases with
increasing body weight, this decrease being more marked in 50% sea
water. Thus the unit oxygen-consumption in K. opima decreases from
0-81 to 0*32 in 50% sea water whereas the corresponding decrease in
75% and 100% sea water is from 0*64 to 0*31 and from 0*56 to 0*30
respectively between 0*5 and 4*0 gm clam. Considering 100% sea
water as the habitat salinity, in which the clams show minimum activity,
it will be seen that the curve for 75% and 50% sea water considerably
deviates from the curve for the 100% sea water, which has the maximum
slope. It is also evident from the curves that the displacement is more
conspicuous in smaller clams than in larger ones, indicating that the
former are more sensitive to salinity changes.
In M. meretrix also the unit oxygen-consumption decreases from
0*63 to 0*33 in 50% sea water whereas the corresponding decrease in
75 % and 100 % sea water is from 0*36 to 0*25 and 052 to 0*31 respectively
OXYGEN CONSUMPTION IN CLAMS
m
between 05 and 4*0 gm clam. However, in this species the maximum
slope (b=0*84) is obtained in 75% sea water instead of 100% sea water
(b=0’72). This is rather a peculiar behaviour. Thus this species shows
minimum activity in 75% sea water and not in 100% sea water as in
K. opima. Therefore, unlike K. opima in which the oxygen-consumption
increases with decrease in salinity in M. meretrix the oxygen-consumption
decreases with decrease in the salinity from 100% to 75% sea water,
in which the minimum activity is noticed. With further reduction in the
salinity from 75% to 50% sea water, however, the oxygen-consumption
increases. Considering the importance of ‘ b ’ value it is likely that
M. meretrix is more at home in 75% sea water than in 100% sea water
and, therefore, could be considered as more adapted to low salinity condi-
tions than K. opima. From the experiments conducted on the salinity
tolerance in the two species, it has been found that M. meretrix is more
tolerant to low salinity conditions than K. opima , and has, therefore,
succeeded better in invading estuaries and backwaters and is often found
quite far up the river. The metabolic response in this species, in relation
to salinity, showing minimum activity in75 % sea water (salinity =25 ’5 %Q),
also lends support to this idea. Presuming that 75 % sea water as the
natural requirement for M. meretrix (ideal habitat salinity) it will be
seen that the oxygen-consumption increases with either increase or
decrease in this salinity, perhaps on account of the osmotic stress either
ways, to be discussed later. Considering 75 % sea water as ideal habitat
salinity, it will be observed that the curves for other two salinities consi-
derably deviate from the one for 75% sea water, the displacement being
more conspicuous in smaller clams than the larger ones, indicating their
more sensitive nature to changes in the salinity, either above or below
the ideal salinity.
Considerable amount of work has been done on the effects of osmotic
conditions of the metabolic activities. It is well-known that the animals
show an increase in metabolism when placed in stress media. Carcinus
maenas shows an increase in oxygen-consumption with decrease in sali-
nity (Schlieper 1929). Flemister & Flemister (1951) found lowest oxygen-
consumption in sea water (378 mM Cl/L) isotonic with the crab blood
in case of Qcypoda albicans , but more hypotonic than the field conditions
(480 mM Cl/L). They found that the oxygen-consumption increased
as the sea water varied from isotonicity, highest being in hypotonic
media. More or less similar results were obtained by Schwabe (1933)
in case of cray fish Potamobius fluviatilis. The observations made by
the abovementioned authors suggest that the increase in oxygen-consump-
tion has resulted from increased osmotic work. But Gross (1957) has
shown that in Uca oxygen-consumption did not always increase with
osmotic stress. Marshell et al. (1935) also found that there was 30%
reduction in oxygen-consumption when measured in 50% sea water
144 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1)
than in normal sea water (salinity=34%0). Potts (1954) also has shown
that in Eriocheir only a very small fraction of increased oxygen-consump-
tion represents osmotic work done. The results of Gross (1957), Marshell
et al. (1935) and Potts (1954) are not in agreement with those of the earlier
quoted authors.
The tendency for C02 to accumulate in lower salinities, resulting in
increased respiratory rate has been suggested by Schlieper (1929). Ano-
her interpretation of increased oxygen-consumption with lowering
of salinity was proposed by Schlieper (1935) on the idea that due to
absorption of water in low salinity, the volume of tissue and surface is
increased facilitating absorption and hence oxygen-consumption. Wik-
gren (1953) is of opinion that increase in oxygen-consumption is not
due to osmotic regulation but either on account of swelling of tissues as
suggested by Schlieper (1935) or by its influence on the endocrine balance.
Violent attempts to escape from unfavourably low salinity, leading to
extra muscular activity, resulting in increased oxygen-consumption has
been suggested by Gross (1957) in the crab Pachygrapsus. Dehnel
(1960) who studied metabolic response in Hemigrapsus oregonensis and
Hemigrapsus nudus in relation to temperature and salinity, found results
in the former species which could be considered as in accordance with
Gross (1957) or Schlieper (1935) ; whereas in the other species the results
were contradictory. Lofts (1956) compared respiratory rate of Palae-
monetes varians from two different populations, one from low saline
environment (salinity = 1*3 %c) and the other from high saline environ-
ment (salinity =23*5 %D), and found minimal respiratory rate in water
of salinity 26*00 %G for high salinity population, a condition which was
isotonic with the animal, whereas the minimal rate in low salinity popula-
tion was found in salinity 6*00 %c, a condition somewhat hypertonic to
the environment in which these animals were found. Rao (1958) who
compared oxygen-consumption in marine and brackish water populations
of Metapenaeus monoceros , found that prawns from marine environment
showed minimum activity in 100% sea water (salinity =35* 5 %Q) whereas
the minimum metabolic activity in prawns from brackish water environ-
ment was exhibited in 50% sea water (salinity— 16*75 %c), their oxygen-
consumption increasing in 100% sea water. In both the groups of
prawns the oxygen-consumption increased with decrease in salinity below
the habitat salinity, and in the brackish water population the increase
was also effected as the salinity increased to 100% sea water. He
suggested that these differences may be due to osmotic adaptation and
operation of a metabolic homoeostatic mechanism in relation to osmotic
regulation.
The results obtained in the present investigation on the metabolic
response in clams, though it involves two different species from the same
environment, could be favourably compared on the strength of meta-
OXYGEN CONSUMPTION IN CLAMS
145
bolic response as those belonging to two groups of populations physiolo-
gically, one, M. meretrix as more adapted to low saline environment
(25*5 %G) and the other K. opima as adapted to marine environment
(34-0%o). Therefore, the minimum activity in M. meretrix is found in
salinity 25*5 %Q and in K. opima in salinity 34-Q%0. Hiscock (1953)
states, ‘ In euryhaline marine species oxygen-consumption is at its
lowest when the external medium is isotonic and rises as the later becomes
hypo or hypertonic to the blood \ No data is available on the osmo-
regulation in these clams and, therefore, it is not possible to say whether
isotonic condition is found in M. meretrix when exposed to 75 % sea
water and in K. opima in 100% sea water. It would be very interesting
to study this aspect which might throw some light on the metabolic
response in clams in relation to salinity. It is only suggested here that
the differential metabolic response in clams to different saline media
might be due to osmotic stress, though possibilities of increase in oxygen-
consumption on account of absorption of water and subsequent swelling
of the tissues, as suggested by Schlieper (1935) cannot be completely
overruled in absence of any data on this aspect. In the experiments
described earlier (Ranade & Kulkarni 1972) on the opening of the shell
valves in relation to salinity, it has been shown that the opening of the
valves in clams is progressively delayed as the salinity of the environment
decreases. So in media hypotonic to blood, the closing of the shell
valves relieves the animal from osmotic embarrassment. When the
clams open after some time, depending on the strength of the solution,
chloride ions are lost. These are perhaps replaced by active absorption
from the environment as suggested by Krogh (1939). This process must
require energy and hence the increase in the rate of oxygen-consumption
with decrease in the salinity of the external medium.
References
Barnes, H. (1959) : Apparatus and me-
thods of oceanography. Part one. Che-
mical. George Allen Unwin Ltd. London
Berkeley, C. (1921) : Anaerobic respi-
ration in some molluscs. The relation of
anaerobic respiration to glycogen. Jour.
Biol Chem. 46 (3) : 579-598.
(1923) : On crystalline style
as a possible factor in the anaerobic res-
piration of certain marine molluscs. Jour.
Expt.Zool. 37(5): 477-488.
Bertalanffy, L. Von (1951) : Meta-
bolic types and growth types. Am. Nat .
85 : 111-117.
Bishop, D. W. (1950): Respiration
and Metabolism. In ‘ Comparative
Animal physiology’. (C. L. Prosse-
red.) pp. 209-289. Saunders, Philadel-
phia.
Bloch, K. J. & Schlieper, C. (1953) :
10
Uber den Eniflussdes salzgehates im
Meerwasser out den Grundumsatz des
Seesternes. Aster ias rubens. L. kieler
Meeresforsch. 9 : 201-212.
Conover, Robert J. (1960) : The
feeding behaviour and respiration of
some marine planktonic Crustacea. Biol.
Bull. 119 (3) : 399-415.
Dam, L. Van. (1935) : Oxygen utilisa-
tion in My a arenaria. J. Exper. Biol.
86-94.
(1954) : On respiration in
Scallops. Biol. Bull. 107 : 192.
Dawson, W. R. & Bartholomew,
G. A. (1956): Relation of oxygen-consum-
ption to body weight, temperature and
temperature acclimation in lizards Uta
stansburiana and Scoloporus occidental is.
Physical Zool. 29 (1) : 40-51.
146 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1)
Dehnel, Paul A. (I960) : Effect of
temperature and salinity on the oxygen-
consumption of two intertidal crabs.
Biol. Bull. 118 (2) : 215-249.
Eliassen, E. (1952) : The energy meta-
bolism in Artemia salina in relation to
body size, seasonal rhythm and different
salinities. Univ. Bergen. Arbok. Natur-
vitens, Relcke. 11 : 1-17.
Flemister, L. J. & Flemister, S. C.
(1951) : Chloride ion regulation and
oxygen-consumption in the crab Ocypoda
albicans (Bosq.) Biol. Bull. 101 : 259-273.
Fry, F. E. J. (1958) : Temperature
compensation Ann. Rev. Physiol. 20 :
207-224.
Galtsoff, P. S. & Whipple, D. V.
(1930) : Oxygen-consumption in normal
and green oysters, ibid. 46 : 489-508.
Gopala Krishnan, V. (1953) : Studies
on the biology of Madras Penaeids. Doc-
toral Dissectation, Univ. of Madras.
Gross, W. J. (1957) : An analysis of
response to osmotic stress in selected de-
capod Crustacea. Biol. Bull. 112 : 43-62.
Hazelhott, E. H. (1938) : Oxygen
utilization : Invertebrates. Ztschr. Vergl.
Physiol. 26 : 306-327.
Hiscock, I. D. (1953): Osmoregula-
tion in Freshwater mussel (Lamel-
libranchiata). II Respiration and its
relation to Osmoregulation in Hyridella
australis (Lam.). Aust. Mar. Freshw Res.
4 (2) : 330-342.
Hopkins, H. S. (1946) : The influence
of season, concentration of sea water
and environmental temperature upon oxy-
gen-consumption of tissues in Venus
mercenaria.
Job, S. V. (1955) : The oxygen-con-
sumption in Salvelinus fontinalis. Uni-
versity of Toronto Biological Series No.
61. Publ. Ontario Fisheries Research
Lab. 73 : 39.
Kleiber, Max (1947) : Body size and
metabolic rate. Physical Rev. 27 :
511-541.
Krogh, A. (1939) : Osmotic regu-
lation in Aquatic animals. Cambridge at
the University Press.
Lofts, B. (1956) : The effect of salinity
changes on the respiratory rate of the
Prawn Palaemonetes varians (Leach). /.
Expt. Biol. 33 : 730-736.
Mitchell, P. H. (1912) : Tfie oxygen
requirements of shellfish.
Marshell, S. M., Nicholls, A. G. &
Orr, A. P. (1935) : On the biology of
Calanus finmarchicus. VI : Oxygen-cons-
umption in relation to environmental
conditions. J. Mar. Biol. Assoc. 20 : 1-28.
Parvatheswararao, V. (1959) : Stu-
dies on the oxygen-consumption in tro-
pical poikilotherms. III. Oxygen-con-
sumption in fresh water fish Etroplus
maculatus (Bloch) in relation to size and
temperature. J. Anim. Morph. Physiol.
6 (1) : 34-47.
(1960) : Studies on the oxy-
gen-consumption in the freshwater fish
Puntius sop ho re (Ham.) in relation to size
and temperature. Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci.
26, B No. 2 : 64-72.
Potts, W. T. W. (1954) : The energetics
of osmotic regulation in brackish and
fresh water animals.
Rao, K. P. (1958) : Oxygen-consump-
tion as a function of size and salinity in
Metapenaeus monoceros Fab. from ma-
rine and brackish water environment.
J. Expt. Biol. 35 (2): 307-313.
Rao, K. P. & Bullock, T. S. (1954) :
Q10 as a function of size and habitat
temperature in poikilotherms. Amer.
Nat. 78 : 33-44.
Ranade, M. R. & Kulkarni, C. V.
(1972) : Observations on the behaviour
of clams in waters of low salinity.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 69 (3) : 616-634.
Saroja, K. (1959) : Studies on the
oxygen-consumption in tropical poikilo-
therms. II. Oxygen-consumption in re-
lation to body size and temperature in the
earth worm Megascolex mauritii when
kept submerged in water. Proc. lnd.
Acad. Sci. Sec. B. 49(3) : 183-193.
Schlieper, C. (1929): Ueber die Ein-
wirkung nieder Salzkonzentrationen out
marine Organismen. Zeitschr. vergl.
Physiol. 9 : 478-514.
(1955) : Uber die physiolo-
gischen wirkungen des Brackwassers.
Kieler Meeresforsch. 11 : 22-33.
SCHOLANDER, P. C., FLAGG, W., WAL-
TERS, V. & Irving L. (1953) Climatic
adaptation in arctic and tropical poikilo-
therms. Physiol. Zool. 26 : 67-92.
Sckwabe, E. (1933): Ueber die Osmore-
gulation Verschiedener Krebse (Malacos-
tracan). Zeitschr. Vergl. Physiol. 18 :
183-236.
Wikgren, B. J. (1953) : Osmotic re-
gulation in some aquatic animals with
special reference to the influence of
temperature. Acta Zool. Fennica 71 :
1-102.
Wolvekamp, H. P. & Waterman (1960):
The physiology of Crustacea. Chapter II.
Respiration. Academic Press, NewYork.
Zeuthen, E. (1947) : Body size and
metabolic rate in animal kingdom with
special reference to marine microfauna.
Compt. Rend. Lab. Carlsberg Ser. Chim.
26 (3): 17-161.
(1953) : Oxygen uptake as
related to body size in organisms. Quart .
Rev. Biol. 28 (1) : 1-12.
A Catalogue of the Birds in the
Collection of the Bombay Natural
History Society — 14
Meropidas and Coraciidae
BY
Humayun Abdulali
[Continued from Vol. 69 (3) : 546]
This part deals with 302 specimens of 20 species and subspecies upto
No. 762 in ind. handbook (4 : 123) and No. 23692 of the Society’s
register. Mr. S. A. Hussain, Research Assistant, assisted with measure-
ments.
744 Merops leschenaulti leschenaulti Vieillot (Java, errore Ceylon)
Chestnutheaded Bee-eater 4 : 240
21 : 10 <?cJ (3 juv.) 8 $? 3 o ?
1 Sawantwadi ; 1 Kadra, Kanara ; 2 Coonoor Ghats, Nilgiris ; 2 Manalur, Palni
Hills ; 1 Rajaputtee, Saran, Bihar ; 1 Kurseong Division ; 2 Goalpara,
1 Shillong, 2 Rema T.E., Sylhet, 1 N. Cachar, Assam ; 2 Singhaling, Hkanati ,
1 Manswa, W . Bank , Chindwin ; 1 Mogok, Ruby Mines ; *1 Thayetmyo ; 1
Sandoway Dt. ; 1 Ngewpharo , Prome Dt. *missing.
The males and females, and northern and southern birds show no
differences in size.
Wing Bill Tail
16 104-110 av. 106 5 26-33 av. 3T5 76-85 av. 81*3
(ih 104-1 1 1 from skull 35-40 76-84)
The tail is slightly forked with the central pair of feathers projecting
into the gap, but not as long as the outermost. Of the three juvenile
males, with incomplete breastbands, one with a short bill has green on
the forehead while another older bird has green at the rear end of the
chestnut cape.
As this bird does not appear to have been recorded from Bihar,
I may mention that Mr. D. E. Reuben saw a Chestnutheaded Bee-eater
in his compound at Patna, Bihar, on 7 March 1953 (pers. comm.).
745 Merops leschenaulti andamanensis (Marien) (Port Blair, South
Andaman Island) Andaman Chestnutheaded Bee-eater
7:5*<J 2??
3 Wrightmyo, 2 Bambooflats, 1 Port Blair, 1 South Andaman.
[242]
148 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1)
746 Merops apiaster Linnaeus (‘Europa australi ; oriente’) European
Bee-eater 4 : 233
27:8(?c? 11$$ (2 juv.) 8o? (3juv.)
1 Amara, 1 Shushan Mounds, 1 Zinjan, Karim Tabriz, (?) Mesopotamia ; 1 Fad,
1 Mishim, 1 Persian Gulf ; 5 Shiraz, 1 Kain, Persia ; 1 Randha Tanhat, Yemen,
1 Muscat, Arabia ; 4 Mastung, Baluchistan ; 1 Quetta, 1 Peshawar, 4 Chitral ;
2 Srinagar, 1 Kashmir.
14 in summer plumage between 14 February and 13 June.
8 in winter plumage between 30 May and 30 September.
5 juveniles 4 May to 14 October.
747 Merops superciliosus persicus Pallas (Shores of the Caspian Sea)
Bluecheeked Bee-eater 4 : 239
40 : 14 ss (4 juv.) 8 $$ (2 juv.) 18 o ? (7 juv.)
3 Muscat ,2 Siyahad (? Philby), Arabia ; 1 Amara, 2 Shaiba, 2 Nahr Umar, Basrah l
1 Mesopotamia ; 1 Fao, 3 Bahm-i-Shur, 1 Boghan on Nihing, Persian Baluchis-
tan ; 2 Harbud, about 55 m east of Panjgur, 2 Teghab, 107 m south of Kalat,
1 Shinzai, Patti, Baluchistan ; 2 Hyderabad, Sind ; 1 Bharatpur ; 1 Hamavas
Lake, Pali Dist., Jodhpur ; 1 Bhuj, Kutch ; 2 Bhavnagar, 1 Ajwa, Baroda ;
1 Ghoti, 1 Dindori, Nasik ; 7 Thana Dist. ; 2 Kihim, Kolaba Dist.
This race is currently accepted as breeding from Palestine eastwards
through Iraq to Baluchistan and north-western India, having been found
nesting as far south as Bhavnagar in Gujarat arriving there in May.
The young of the year (juveniles) are duller in colour and show more
blue and less green on the underparts and on the rump. The central
tail-feathers though projecting a few millimetres beyond the others are
not attenuated as in the adults. Nine of the 18 birds obtained in India
are in this plumage.
Among the adults there are differences in the intensity of colour
but extra-limital specimens appear more green than those from India.
Accepting one complete moult between November and January (Marien,
JBNHS 49 : 158) the 12 birds in fresh (green) plumage are 4 in March,
5 April, 2 May, and 1 June contra 11 in worn (bluish) plumage 1 in April,
1 July, 4 August, 2 September, 1 each October, November, and December.
Except for shorter tails, 90-140 av. 108 contra 130-150 av. 129, there is
no difference in measurements. The small proportion of sexed birds
does not suggest any difference in size between males and females, and
all are measured together.
[243]
BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION— 14 149
Sp. No. 11160 cT Kalat, Baluchistan has the second outermost tail-
feather blunt and not attenuated but projecting 15 mm beyond the
others.
748 Merops philippinus philippinus Linnaeus (Philippine Islands)
Bluetailed Bee-eater 4 : 237
30: 16 11 $? 3 o?
1 Simla Hills, 2 Jagadhri, Ambala ; 1 Mandi, Dhar State, C.I. ; 1 Thana Creek;
Bombay, 1 Ratnagiri ; 2 Karwar ; 1 Karupadana, Travancore State ,
1 Cumbum Valley, 2 Krishna Dt., 1 Vizagapatnam, A.P. ; 1 Cuttack, Orissa;
3 Baghowni, Tirhut ; 1 Kahanpur, Cawnpore, 2 Kumaon, Naini Tal ;
1 Dibrugarh, 2 Assam; 1 Maymyo, 1 Bambooflats, 1 South Andamans;
1 Camorta, 2 Trinkut, Central Nicobars ; 1 Henzada, Burma.
The juveniles, with no pinfeathers in the tail but otherwise almost
fully grown, have paler rufous throats and the underparts more bluish
than green. No. 11145 $ Baghowni, Tirhut is younger (bill 28 mm,
wings and tail in moult) but approaches the adults in colour.
749 Merops orientalis beludsdiicus Neumann (Sarbaz, Persian Balu-
chistan) Sind Small Green Bee-eater 4 : 236
6 : 4 <?<? 1 $ 1 o ? (juv.)
1 Mand, Iraq ; 2 Mishun, 2 Charbar , 1 Baba Kallu, Persian Gulf.
The four adult males with pins in the tail have pale blue underparts
which, together with the general paleness all over, immediately separate
them from all specimens from India and Pakistan, which show a fair
amount of variation among themselves.
The single female (wing 95, bill 25), which lacks the tail pins and the
black pectoral band, is varying shades of pale blue and white (reminiscent
of a Yerditer Flycatcher) with no green and very different from females
of the nominate form. The juvenile is, to use Ticehurst’s words, a
washed-out edition of the adult.
The type locality Sarbac= Sarbaz (Vaurie) is only a hundred miles
from Chah Bahar (Charbar) in Persian Baluchistan along the coast of
Gulf of Oman, west of Indian (Pakistan) limits. Two birds from Gajar
2200' and Korak 1900', which are noted as 165 and 185 m respectively
S.S.W. of Kalat, Baluchistan, are quite different, and though slightly
paler can be included among the variations in the Indian birds. They
are marked beludschicus by Ticehurst (?).
Ticehurst (1923, Birds of Sind, Ibis p. 29) refers to comparison of
Sind birds, which he calls beludschicus , with topotypes (the type loca-
lity is not mentioned) and states 4 they are paler blue on the throat, paler
Wing
<$<$ 12M36 av. 131
(ih 133-139
$9 127-133 av. 130
(ih 126-131
Bill
38-41 av. 38-5
from skull 45-48
35-40 av. 37
from skull 43-46
Tarsus
10-12
11-13
10-12
Tail
120-146 av. 134
130-141)
115-141 av. 127
115-136)
[244]
150 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1)
below and less bronzy on the nape than Southern Indian birds. This
race extends to the lower Punjab and Jodhpur at all events.’
This was before publication of Vol. 4 of Stuart Baker’s fauna (1927)
and it is not known what specimens or literature were available to Tice-
hurst.
Specimens from Rawalpindi, Jullundur, Ambala, Bahawalpur, and
Jodhpur can be unhesitatingly left with nominate orientalis as has been
done below.
Having regard to the reports of later authors, e.g. Marien (, JBNHS
49 : 162) and the material available, I cannot help feeling that a mistake
has been made in accepting all birds from Baluchistan as beludschicus
and then having difficulty in establishing that they are different from
those from India. Though beludschicus may (?) extend towards Karachi
along the coast, it does not occur all over Baluchistan and Sind and our
westernmost birds, though perhaps slightly paler than those from penin-
sular India, are really much closer to the nominate race.
750 Merops orientalis orientalis Latham (India = Pondicherry) Indian
Small Green Bee-eater 4 : 234
50 : 26 3<$ 18 $$ 6 o ?
1 Gajar, 165 m. SSW. of Kalat, 1 Korak 180 m. S. of Kalat, Baluchistan ;
1 Rawalpindi, 1 Nawashahr, Jullundur, 3 Ambala, Punjab ; 1 Bahawalpur ;
3 Delhi ; 1 Bhinmal, Jodhpur ; 3 Kutch, 1 Dalkhania, Amreli Dt., 1 Cambay
City, 1 Gir Forest, 1 Bodeli, Baroda, Gujarat ; 1 Kolkaz, Melghat, Berar ;
1 Kolshet, Thana, 1 Kandivli, Salsette, 1 Bombay ; 2 Walwan, Poona ; 2
Satara ; 2 Ratnagiri ; 1 Nilambur, S. Malabar, 1 Gudalur, Nilgiris ; 1 Kuttani,
1 Jamestown, Kanyakumari ; 1 Kalai, Trichnopoly, 1 Chitteri Range, 1 Sesha-
chalam Hills, 1 Cudappah, 1 Cumbum Valley, Kurnool Dt., A.P. ; 2 Antagarh,
Bastar ; 1 Dholpur, Band, Orissa; 1 Baghowni, 1 Tirhut, Bihar; 1 Sarun, 1
Calcutta Market, Bengal ; 1 Meerut, 1 Bulandshahr, U.P. ; 2 Bankulwa
Morang, Nepal, 1 Goalpara, Assam.
There is some variation in the amount of blue on the chin, the intensity
of green both above and below, and the extent of the golden sheen on the
head. These differences however cannot be segregated and must be
accepted as variations within the same race. One ? No. 21448 [(wing
91 ; bill 25 ; tail 116) Ratnagiri, coastal Maharashtra] collected on 7
January shows an inordinate amount of blue both above and below,
but does not resemble beludschicus.
Wing Bill Tarsus Tail
33 89-97 av. 91*5 23-28 av. 25*8 8-10 105-140 av. 121
$? 89-98 av. 92*5 22-27 av. 25 8-10 92-127 av. 109
751 Merops orientalis birmanus Neumann (Myingyan, Irawaddy
River, Burma) Burmese Small Bee-eater 4 : 236
3:1 3 2 ??
1 May my o, 1 Sinde , Pro me , 1 Kyagyun , Henzada , Burma.
[245]
BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION— 14 151
Wing Bill Tarsus Tail
89, 95, 98 25, 25, 27 9-10 103, — , 120
The golden cap on the head is larger, extending on to the nape. The
two females show very little of the black gorget across the front.
752 Merops orientalis ceylonicus Whistler (Kalawewa, Ceylon)
Ceylon Small Green Bee-eater
1 A Hambentota, Ceylon
Wing 89 (ih 92-95) ; bill 26 ; tarsus 9 (ih 9-10) ; tail 80 without pins.
This is a poor specimen, but the chin and underparts show blue,
the bill is heavy, and the golden sheen on the head extends on to the nape.
EL Merops orientalis cyanophrys Cabanis & Heine (A1 Qunfidha,
Asir, Arabia)
1 $ Muscat , Muttrah
Wing 92 ; bill 25 ; tarsus 9 ; tail 91 .
This bird received from the Peabody Museum is marked M.o. muskat -
ensis which is synonymized with cyanophrys by Vaurie, 1959, Am. Mus.
Novit ., 1971, p. 8.)
753 Nyctyornis athertoni athertoni (Jardine & Selby) (Bangalore)
Bluebearded Bee-eater 4 : 242
21 : 12 S3 6 $$ 3 o ?
2 Bhopalpatnam, Bastar ; 1 Pithabhata, 1 Gurguria, Simlipal Hills, Mayur-
bhanj, 1 Mahendragiri, Orissa ; 3 Dehra Dun, 3 Kumaon, 1 Terai, U.P. ;
1 Longview T.E., Darjeeling ; 2 Kurseong Div. ; 2 Goalpara, 2 Margherita,
Assam ; 1 North Shan States, 1 Prome Dt ., Burma.
The original description refers to the forehead and crown being
verditer-blue, and the beard ‘ a fine caerulean or verditer-blue varying
in intensity and lustre as exposed in different positions to the light.’
The accompanying plate shows a greater amount of blue on the fore-
head than is visible in any specimen, and the 6 beard ’ lacks the dark
blue feathers invariably present. The ‘ beard 5 is also followed by a
patch of chestnut absent in the specimens.
In the absence of any material from the type locality or southern
India, a cT collected by S£lim Ali at Hunsur, Mysore State, on 9 December
1939, was borrowed from American Museum of Natural History. To-
gether with the five from Bastar and Orissa, they can in series be easily
separated from the others from the north and east, by the clear grass
green (‘ sap green ’ in original description) upperparts which are darker
in the others. Some of the eastern birds are lighter above but all have
their cheeks a slightly darker green than in peninsular birds. Eastern
birds are also ‘ more richly coloured and more heavily striped on the
nderparts ’ ( a la Koelz for bartletti ).
[246]
152 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1)
5 (2 (J(J 1$ 2 o?) from Terai (1), Kumaon (2), and Dehra Dun (1)
and Goalpara (1) have their green upperparts washed with blue, a
character missing in southern birds, though Jardine & Selby refer to
the type of unspecified origin having a few of the feathers (of the upper-
parts) being tipped with verditer-blue. The evidence available suggests
that northern and eastern birds differ from those from the south, but
an examination of a larger series is necessary to permit a decision. Hodg-
son (1836, J. A. S B. v, p. 361) has already described Bucia nipalensis
from Nepal (obviously without knowledge of athertoni) while Koelz’s
bartletti (1954, Contrib. Inst. Regional Exploration , No. 1 : 25) from
Keitum, Lushai Hills, may be available for the eastern birds.
Two specimens (d1 and $) Tama, Central Bhutan, collected by Salim
Ali in March 1967, but which have not yet been registered, are an out-
standingly deeper green above and the blue on the forehead is more
prominent than in the others.
ind. handbook (4 : 112) refers to this species occurring in the Western
Ghats complex from Khandesh southwards through Surat Dangs (?),
Maharashtra, and southwards. Osmaston ( JBNHS 38 : 805) saw it at
Pachmari, Hoshangabad, C.P., while Salim Ali heard it near Songadh,
Navsari Dist., Gujarat ( JBNHS 52 : 446). I have been unable to trace
any records from anywhere else in Maharashtra, north of Karwar. Sp.
No. 18819 collected by A.E. Jones at Dehra Dun on 8th February 1940
bears the following: 6 Pair seen at Rajpur (Dehra Dun). Displaying
before another like a roller {Coracias). Notes also reminiscent of roller.’
754 Coracias garrulus semenowi Loudon & Tschudi (Transcaspia)
Kashmir Roller 4 : 222
19 : 7 <J<J (3 juv.) 7 $? (1 juv.) 5 o ?
1 Red Sea ; 1 Baghdad , 1 Hindiyeh Barrage , 1 Shustar Mounds , 1 Mesopotamia ;
2 Mishum, Persian Gulf ; 1 Mastung, Baluchistan ; 1 Razmak, N. Waziristan,
1 Quetta, 2 Chitral ; 1 nr. Kapurwara, 54 m. from Srinagar, 1 Lolab Valley,
1 Kashmir ; 1 Chadva, Bhuj ; 1 Ajwa, Baroda ; 2 Malad, Bombay.
S No. 11016, Red Sea, an old skin dated May 1893, wing 193, tail
127, with underparts showing a tinge of greenish, may be of the nomi-
nate race. Among the others, unsexed No. 11013 Mesopotamia 23rd
[247]
BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION— 14 153
April, 1917, is the specimen identified by Ticehurst in ‘ The Birds of
Mesopotamia ’ ( JBNHS 28 : 303) as Coracias g. garrulus. It differs
from most of the others in having the throat and upper breast a deeper
blue, a character shared with three others, a <$ from Razmak, N. Waziris-
tan, and two females from Kashmir.
It is curious that the 4 specimens from peninsular India are all young
birds, 3 juveniles recognized by their paler upperparts and short outer
tail-feathers and the fourth with a fully-grown tail but a brown wash on
the breast. The sexes show no differences in size and the 15 adults are
measured together :
Wing Bill Tarsus Tail
<J$ 189-213 av. 197 30-36 av. 33 20-26 av. 22 116-127 av. 124
(180-210 30-35 25-26 122-135)
755 Coracias benghalensis benghaleusis (Linnaeus) (Tulin, Purulia,
West Bengal) Northern Roller 4 : 224
31 : 17 <?<? (1 juv.) 11$$ 3 o ?
Northern birds are slightly larger than those from the south, but in
the specimens available the extra-limital and western birds have their
upperparts paler than those from the east and also the south. Though
part of the paleness may be due to wear, no dark specimen comes from
west of the Punjab and Kutch. The few paler birds from further south
(Satara and Santa Cruz, Bombay) may well be winter visitors.
A better series is necessary to take any definite decision, but I am
for the moment listing the paler birds separately though under nominate
benghalensis.
(a) benghalensis (darker)
14 : 10 <?<? 1 $ 3 o ?
1 Bhagat State ; 2 Ambala, Punjab ; 1 Sanchi, Bhopal State ; 1 Bhanupratappur,
Ranker, C.P. ; 2 Barkot, Bamra, Orissa ; 1 Baghownie, 1 Tirhut, 2 Hazaria,
Patherghata, Bihar ; 1 Nawalpur, 1 Bankulwa Morang, Nepal ; 1 Rema
T.E., S. Sylhet.
No 18995 from Bhanupratappur, Ranker, C.P., has deep blue behind
the eye, which extends backwards forming a very distinctive and differ-
ent border to the blue of the head.
(b) subspP. extra-limital and western (paler)
17 : ?<J<J (1* juv.) 10$$
1 Nahr Umar , R. Tigris , Mesopotamia ; 1 Chahrbar, Persian Gulf ; 2 Gajar (Mast-
kai) 165 m. SSW. of Kalat, Baluchistan; 1 Jajjah, Abbasian, Bahawalpur,
Punjab ; 6* Kutch, 1 Gir Forest, 1 Patan, Mehsana Dt., 1 Bodeli, Baroda,
1 Golana, Cambay, Gujarat ; 1 Santa Cruz, Bombay, 1 Mehda, Satara,
Maharashtra.
The juvenile from Kutch lacks all traces of blue on the upper breast
[248]
154 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 70 (1)
and, though paler both above and below, resembles in this respect, two
juveniles of indica (Cumbum Valley).
Wing Bill Tarsus Tail
(a) 14 c?? 175-196 av. 187 30-34 av. 32*2 21-25 av.23'5 122-132 av. 127
(b) 17 <?$ 176-192 av. 183 29-34 av. 3T5 21-25 av. 23*5 120-134 av. 125*7
(ih 178-201 from skull 39-49 25-29 117-140)
756 Coracias benghalensis indica (Linnaeus) (Ceylon) Southern
Roller 4 : 226
1 1 : 6 <?<? 3?? (2 juv.*) 2 o ?
1 Bombay, 2 Walwan, 1 Poona, Maharashtra ; 1 Karwar, 1 Cassimode, 1 James-
town, Kanyakumari ; 1 Chitteri Range, Salem ; 2* Cumbum Valley, Kurnool ;
1 Induni (?)
Wing Bill Tarsus Tail
<?? 175-184 av. 180*7 30-32 av. 31 20-24 av. 22 119-130av. 125*5
(ih 170-190 from skull 41-49 24-26 109-132)
The 42 specimens available from over a wide area covering the accept-
ed range of the two subspecies nominate benghalensis and indica cannot
be separated on the basis of the colour characters generally accepted,
namely : (1) intensity of colour of nuchal collar, and (2) darker, more
greenish upperparts of indica . Southern birds are slightly smaller,
but those from Nepal and Bihar do not differ in colour from the southern-
most specimens.
757 Coracias benghalensis affinis Horsfield (Assam) Burmese Roller
4: 226
12 : 4 <?c? 5?? 3 o ?
1 Bankulwa, Morang, Nepal ; 1 Kurseong Div., Bengal ; 2 Dibrugarh, 1 Roop
chena, 2 N. Cachar, 1 Golaghat, Assam ; 1 Kamaing, 1 May my o, 2 Prome,
Burma
Wing Bill Tarsus Tail
<?? 180-197 av. 189 32-37 av. 35 24-27 av. 25*5 117-135 av. 126*5
(184-204 30-36 26-28 118-137)
These birds are darker than benghalensis , both above and below, the
underwing coverts being deep blue, matching the colour of the wing
quills. All except No. 11062, a female from Golaghat, Assam, show a
few pale blue feathers on the underwing. cT No. 11034, Bankulwa,
Morang, Nepal, collected by N. A. Baptista on 16th March 1921, agrees
with a ffinis except for a few additional pale blue feathers under the wing
and the fact that the feathers on the throat show pale shaft streaks as in
benghalensis. Another No. 11033 collected at the same place on 5th
March 1921 agrees entirely with benghalensis with which it is listed sug-
gesting that the area of intergradation is much further east than 85 9E.
suggested in ind. handbook (4: 119).
One unregistered female from Mangdechu, C. Bhutan, has the streaks
on the chin brighter than in the others.
[249]
BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION— 14 155
758 Eurystomus orientalis cyanicollis Vieillot (Chandernagor, Bengal)
Himalayan Broadbilled Roller 4 : 228
10 : 5 4$ (1 juv.) 2?? 3 o ?
1 Almora, 2 Kumaon, Naini Tal, U.P. ; 1 Balasun, Darjeeling ; 1 Golaghat, 2
Margherita, 1 Bagho Bahar, Cachar, 2 Rema T.E., Sylhet, Assam
5 specimens, including the juvenile, do not have the clear pale blue
patch on the primaries which appears to be an adult character.
Wing Bill Tarsus Tail
(J? 178-206 av. 194 25-32 av. 27*5 17-19 av. 18 95-109 av. 10T5
(ih 178-198 from skull 27-35 20(1) 90-102)
The juvenile is duskier all over, and has a black upper mandible.
759 Eurystomus orientalis laetior Sharpe (Forests of Malabar, the
Nilgiris and Ceylon, restricted to Eiidge, Travancore) Kerala Broad-
billed Roller 4 : 228
3
2 Thattakad, North Travancore, 1 Tenmalai, Central Travancore
Wing Bill Tarsus Tail
191, 199, 200 27, 28(2) 15(2), 16 101, 105, 108
(ih 194-205 from skull 33-36 19-20 99-106)
760 Eurystomus orientalis irisi Deraniyagala (Maha-oya, Ceylon)
Ceylon Broadbilled Roller
nil.
762 Eurystomus orientalis gigas Stresemann (Rutland Island, Anda-
man Islands) Andaman Broadbilled Roller 4 : 231
8 : 6 <?<? 2 $?
3 Chirria Tapoo, 2 Wrightmyo, 1 Port Blair, South Andamans ; 2 South/Middle
Andamans
Wing Bill Tarsus Tail
<J? 190-202 av. 195*8 29-33 av. 31 18-19 102-112 av. 107
(184-205 27-30 c. 21 106-112)
162a Eurystomus orientalis subsp.
1 $ Narcondam Island
(See Ripley’s comments JBNHS 68 : 406)
Wing 193 ; bill 30 ; tarsus 18 ; tail 91.
(to be continued)
[250]
The Food-plants of Indian
Rhopalocera
BY
D. G. Sevastopulo
Some years ago I published a series of four papers in this Journal
on the Food-plants of Indian Heterocera (1940, Vol. 41, Bombyces ;
1941, Vol. 42, Agaristidae and Noctuidae ; 1948, Vol. 47, Geometridae
and Pyralidae ; 1949, Vol. 48, Supplementary Lists). The present paper
on the food-plants of the butterflies, follows the same pattern, except
that I have added the botanical family after the name of the plants.
The various books consulted are as under : —
Bingham —
Talbot —
Moore —
Seitz —
Peile —
Bell —
Common — -
FAUNA OF BRITISH INDIA, Vols. 1 & 2.
fauna of British India, 2nd edit., Vols. 1 & 2.
LEPIDOPTERA OF CEYLON, Vol. 1.
INDO-AUSTRALIAN RHOPALOCERA, Vol. 9.
A GUIDE TO COLLECTING BUTTERFLIES OF INDIA.
Common Butterflies of the Plains of India (Part
xxxii et seq., J. Bombay, nat. Hist. Soc. xxx et
seq.).
Australian Butterflies.
I regret that I have been unable to consult the earlier parts of Bell’s
paper, neither Davidson & Aitkens’ ‘ Notes on the Larvae and Pupae of
some of the Butterflies of the Bombay Presidency’ (1890, J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 5) nor Davidson, Bell & Aitkens’. ‘ The Butterflies of the
North Kanara District’ (1896/7, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 10 & 11)
but these are quoted extensively in both editions of the fauna of British
INDIA.
It must be emphasised that the term I * * 4 India ’ is here used in the zoo,
geographical sense, and not the political, and includes India, Pakistan
Bangladesh, Burma and Ceylon.
Papilionidae
troides Hbn.— -All recorded food-plants belong to the Aristo-
lochiaceae.
T. helena L .—Aristolochia indica, Bragantia wallichii (Aristolochiaceae)
(Peile, Talbot), Aristolochia (Bingham, Moore, Seitz).
FOOD-PLANTS OF RHOPALOCERA
157
polydorus Swains. — Although usually referred to as Aristolochia
Swallowtails, one species, P. alcinous Klug is reported to feed on
Cocculus thunbergi (Menispermaceae) in Japan, and another, see
below, on Nepenthes (Nepenthaceae).
P. jophon Gray — Bragantia wallichii (Aristolochiaceae) (Talbot).
P. hector L. — Aristolochia indica (Peile, Seitz, Talbot), Bragantia walli-
chii, Aristolochia sp. (Moore, mihi) (All Aristolochiaceae).
P. aristolochiae F. — Aristolochia indica (Peile, Bingham), Bragantia
wallichii (Talbot), Aristolochia sp. (Moore, mihi), Aristolochia indica,
A. bracteata (Seitz) (All Aristolochiaceae). Seitz adds ‘ Also on
Piperaceae \
P. philoxemis Gray —Nepenthes (Nepenthaceae) (Talbot, Seitz).
P. dasarada Moore— Aristolochia (Aristolochiaceae) (Talbot).
Chilasa Moore
C. agestor Gray —Machilus odoratissima (Lauraceae) (Peile, Bingham,
Talbot, Seitz). Seitz adds ‘ possibly other Laurineae \
C. clytia L. — Tetranthera apetala, Alseodaphne semicarpifolia (Bingham,
mihi), Tetranthera (Moore), Alseodaphne , Tetranthera , Cinnamomum,
etc. (Seitz), Lauraceae (Talbot). All Lauraceae.
PAPILIO L.
P. polymnestor Cr.— Citrus grandis (Peile), Citrus , Atalantia (Bingham) ?
Citrus decumana , Atalantia , Paramigyna monophylla (Talbot), Citrus
decumana (Moore), Citrus spp. (mihi), Citrus , Atalantia , Paramigyna
etc. (Seitz). All Rutaceae. Also Garcinia xanthochymus ( Bingham),
Garcinia (Talbot) (Guttiferae).
P. memnon L. — Citrus (Rutaceae) (Talbot, Seitz).
P. rlietenor Westw. — Citrus spp. and other Rutaceae (mihi).
P. protenor Cr .—Zanthoxylum alatum (Bingham), Zanthophyllum (Talbot,
Seitz). (Rutaceae).
P. bianor Cr. — Aurantiaceae (Seitz) (Now included in Rutaceae).
P. polyctor Bsd .—-Zanthoxylum alatum (Talbot, Seitz), Citrus spp., other
Rutaceae (mihi). All Rutaceae.
P. paris L. — Citrus spp. and other Rutaceae (mihi), Evodia roxburghiana
(Rutaceae) (Seitz).
158 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1)
P. arcturus Westw. — Various Rutaceae (mihi).
P. crino F .—Chloroxylon swie tenia (Meliaceae) (Talbot, Moore),
Chloroxylon (Seitz).
P. buddha Westw. — Zanthoxylum rhetsa (Rutaceae) (Talbot, Seitz).
P. dravidarum Wd-Msn. — Glycosmis pentaphylla (Rutaceae) (Bingham,
Talbot, Seitz).
P. helenus L. — Zanthoxylum rhetsa (Bingham), Citrus spp. and other
Rutaceae (mihi), Citrus , Zanthoxylum (Seitz). All Rutaceae.
P. fuscus Goeze— Citrus (Rutaceae) (Seitz). In Australia on Citrus ,
Microcitrus australasica , Fagara brachyacanthum , Halfordia scleroxyla,
Morinda citrifolia (Rutaceae) (Common).
P. polytes L. — Citrus sinensis , C. aurantifolia (Peile), Citrus spp.
(Bingham), Citrus , Murraya, Triphasia, Glycosmis , Zanthoxylum
(Talbot), Citrus spp., Aegle marmelos (mihi), Citrus , Murraya , Tri-
phasia, Zanthoxylum (Seitz). All Rutaceae.
P. liomedon Moor z^Acr onychia laurifolia [Bingham (as demoleon Cr.),
Talbot], Acronychia laurifolia , Evodia roxburghiana (Seitz). All
Rutaceae.
P. demoleon Cr.— Citrus (Rutaceae) (Seitz).
P. demoleus L. — Citrus sinensis , C. grandis , C. aurantifolia , Aegle marmelos
(Peile), Aegle , Citrus spp. (Bingham, mihi), Rutaceae spp. (Talbot),
Glycosmis , Murraya , Citrus, Ruta angustifolia, etc. (Seitz). All
Rutaceae. Also Zizyphus (Bingham), Zizyphus jujuba (Peile) (Rham-
naceae). In Australia on Citrus (Rutaceae), Psoralea tenax , P. patens
(Papilionaceae) (Common).
P. alexanor Esp. — Seseli dioicum , S. montanum, Ptychotis heterophylla
and other Umbelliferae (Talbot).
P. machaon L.—Ammi majus, A. visnaga , Ducrosia anethifolia , FoenU
culum vulgare , Conium maculatum (Peile), Foeniculum vulgar e, Conium
maculatum (Bingham), Daucus (Talbot), Baucus, Foeniculum (Seitz).
All Umbelliferae. Also Ruta tuber culata (Rutaceae) (Peile).
P. xuthus L.— Aegle sepiaria , Citrus nobilis (Rutaceae) (Talbot). In
Japan.
graphium Scop.
G. eurous Leech — Machilus odoratissimus (Lauraceae) (Talbot, Seitz).
FOOD-PLANTS OF RHOPALOCERA
159
G. nomius Esp. — Polyalthia longifolia , Saccopetalum tomentosum (Anona-
ceae) (Seitz).
G. aristeus Cr. — Mitrephora froggattii (Anonaceae) (Common). In
Australia.
G. antiphates Cr. — Unona lawii (Anonaceae) (Bingham, Talbot, Seitz).
G. cloanthus Westw. — Machilus odoratissimus (Lauraceae) (Talbot,
Seitz).
G. sarpedon L. — Machilus odoratissimus , Cinnamomum , Alseodaphne.
Litsaea , Camphora officinalis and other Lauraceae (Talbot), Machilus
odoratissimus , Geijera salicifolia , Litsaea , Alseodaphne , Camphora
officinalis (Seitz). All Lauraceae. And in Australia on Geijera
salicifolia , Daphnandra aromatica, Tristania luarina , Cryptocarya ,
Planchonella lauri folia (Laurineae), Macaranga (Euphorbiaceae), eggs
on Avocado [Per sea americana (Lauraceae) (Common)].
G. doson Feld.— Cinnamomum (Lauraceae), Polyalthia (Anonaceae)
(Talbot, Seitz), Polyalthia longifolia (Anonaceae), Michelia champaca
(Magnoliaceae) (mihi).
G. eurypylus L. — Anonaceae (Seitz). In Australia on Anona , Diploglot -
tis australis , Rauwenhoffia leichhardtii , Mitrephora froggattii (Anona-
ceae) (Common).
G. agamemnon L— Anona squamosa (Peile), Anona , Saccopetalum ,
Gualteria , Polyalthia (Talbot, Seitz), Anona (Moore). All Anonaceae,
Also Michelia (Magnoliaceae) (Seitz), Magnoliaceae (Moore), Cinna-
momum (Lauraceae) (Moore). In Australia on Anona , Mitrephora
froggattii (Anonaceae) (Common).
lamproptera Gray
L. meges Zink. — Illigera burmanica (Combretaceae) (Bingham).
TEINOP ALPU S Hope
T. imperialis Hope — Daphne nipalensis (Thymeleaceae) (Bingham, Talbot,
Seitz).
HYPERMNESTRA Men.
H. helios Nick .—Zygophyllum turcomanicum (Zygophyllaceae) (Talbot).
PlERIDAE
LEPTOSIA Hbn.
L. nina F. — Capparis heyneana, Crataeva religiosa (Capparidaceae)
(Peile, Talbot), Capers (Capparidaceae) (Bingham).
160 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1)
aporia Hbn. — Larvae on Prunaceae, Rubiaceae and Berberidaceae
(Talbot).
A. leucodice Evers. — Berberis lycium (Berberidaceae) (Talbot, Seitz).
A. agathon Gray —Berberis nepalensis (Berberidaceae) (Bingham, Talbot,
Seitz).
Delias Hbn. — Larvae on Loranthus (Loranthaceae) (Talbot, Seitz).
D. eudiaris Drury — Loranthus (Loranthaceae) (Peile, Bingham, Moore,
mihi), Loranthus longiflorus , L. elasticus , L. scurrula (Talbot). Seitz
says polyphagous, but also mentions Hibiscus chinensis (Malvaceae).
D. aglaia L. — Nauclea rotundifolia (Rubiaceae) (Bingham, Talbot, Seitz).
Talbot adds 4 It is much more likely that the larvae feed on a Loranthus
growing on the tree mentioned ’.
D. belladonna F .—Loranthus (Loranthaceae) (Seitz).
D. hyparete L —Averrhoa bilimbi (Geraniaceae) (Seitz). I think that
Talbot’s remark under aglaia might well apply here also.
cepora Bilb.-— Capparidaceae (Talbot, Seitz).
C. nerissa F. — Capparis aphylla , C. sepiaria , C. heyneana, C. horrida
(Capparidaceae) (Talbot), Capparis (Bingham, Moore, mihi).
C. nadina Luc. —Capparis heyneana , C. moonii , C. roxburghii (Cap-
paridaceae) (Talbot), Capparis (Bingham).
prioneris Wall. — Capparis (Capparidaceae) (Talbot, Seitz).
P. sita Feld.— Capers (Talbot), Capparis (Bingham), Capparis tenera
(Seitz). All Capparidaceae.
anapheis Hbn.— Capparidaceae (Seitz).
A. aurota F. — Capparis pyrifolia , C. aphylla (Peile), Capparis pyrifolia
(Bingham), Capparis aphylla , C. sepiaria , C. heyneana , Cadaba indica,
Maerua arenaria (Talbot), Capparis horrida (mihi), Capparis (Seitz).
All Capparidaceae.
appias Hbn —
A. libythea F. — Capparis horrida (Bingham), Crataeva religiosa , Capparis
sepiaria (Talbot), Crataeva , Capparis (Seitz). All Capparidaceae.
A. lyncida Cr. — Crataeva religiosa (Peile, Talbot, Moore, Seitz) (Cap-
paridaceae). Seitz also mentions Gymnosporia (Celastraceae) and
FOOD-PLANTS OF RHOPALOCERA
161
‘ cotton tree \ presumably Bombax sp. (Bombacaceae). Capers
(Bingham).
A. albina Bsd. — Hemicyclia venusta (Euphorbiaceae) (Seitz).
A. wardi Moore — Capparis heyneana (Capparidaceae) (Talbot, Seitz).
pieris Schrank
P. callidice Hbn.— No Indian records, in Europe on alpine Cruciferae.
P. napi L. — Cruciferae (Talbot), in Europe on Cruciferae and Resedaceae.
P. brassicae L.— -Cruciferae (Talbot), in Europe on Cruciferae, parti-
cularly Brassica, and Tropaeolum (Tropaeolaceae).
P. rapae L. — No Indian record, in Europe on Cruciferae, particularly
Brassica , and Tropaeolum (Tropaeolaceae). Similar Australian re-
cords (Common).
pontia F.
P. daplidice L. — Reseda (Resedaceae), Turritis, Sisymbrium , Sinapis ,
Alyssum (Cruciferae) (Talbot).
euchloe Hbn.
E. ausonia Hbn. —Cruciferae (Talbot).
ixias Hbn. — Capparis (Capparidaceae) (Seitz).
I. marianne Cr.— Capparis sepiaria , C. divaricata, C. aphylla , C. grandis
(Capparidaceae) (Talbot).
I. pyrene L. — Capparis sepiaria (Capparidaceae) (Talbot).
colotis Hbn.
C. Calais Cr. — Salvadora persica, S. oleoides , Azima tetracantha (Salva-
doraceae) (Talbot), Salvadora persica (Peile).
C. phisadia Godt. — Salvadora persica (Salvadoraceae) (Peile, Bingham,
Talbot).
C. vestalis Btlr. — Salvadora persica (Salvadoraceae) (Peile).
C. fausta Oliv. — Capparis spinosa (Peile), Maerua arenaria (Talbot).
Both Capparidaceae.
C. etrida Bsd. — Cadaba indica (Capparidaceae) (Talbot).
C. eucharis F. — Cadaba indica (Capparidaceae) (Talbot, Seitz).
11
162 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vot. 70 (1)
C. danae F. — Cadaba indica , Capparis sepiaria, C. divaricata , Maerua
arenaria (Capparidaceae) (Talbot).
hebomoia Hbn. — Capparis (Capparidaceae) (Seitz).
H. glaucippe L. — Crataeva religiosa , Capparis moonii (Peile, Talbot),
Capparis (Moore), Capparis spp., Crataeva (Seitz). All Capparid-
aceae.
Valeria Horse. — Capparidaceae (Talbot, Seitz).
V. ceylanica Feld —Capparis heyneana (Bingham, Seitz) (Capparid-
aceae).
V. Valeria Cr.— Capparis heyneana (Talbot, Seitz), Capparis (mihi) (Cap-
paridaceae).
catopsilia Hbn .—Cassia (Caesalpinaceae) (Seitz).
C. crocale Cr. — Cassia siamea (Peile), Cassia (Seitz, mihi), Cassia fistula
(Moore), Cassia , Bauhinia racemosa (Talbot). All Caesalpinaceae.
Also Butea frondosa (Papilionaceae) (Talbot).
C. pomona F. — Cassia fistula (Peile, Talbot), C. fistula, C. siamea (mihi).
In Australia Cassia fistula , C. australis (Common). All Caesalpinaceae.
C. scylla L.— In Australia Cassia glauca, C. s. etesia (Caesalpinaceae),
(Common).
C. pyranthe L.— Cassia tora, C. auriculata (Peile, Talbot), Cassia occi-
dentalis (Bingham), Cassia (Seitz). In Australia Cassia (Common).
(Caesalpinaceae).
C. florella F. — Leguminosae (Moore). In East Africa Cassia spp.
(Caesalpinaceae).
gonepteryx Leach
G. rhamni L. — Rhamnus (Rhamnaceae), Vaccinium (Ericaceae) (Talbot).
In Europe recorded from Rhamnus spp. only.
eurema Hbn.
E. brigitta Cr .—Cassia kleinii (Caesalpinaceae) (Talbot). In East Africa
on Cassia (Caesalpinaceae), Hypericum (Hypericaceae), Acacia , Albizzia
(Mimosaceae).
E. blanda Bsd ,—Wagatea spicata (Caesalpinaceae) (Peile, Bingham^
Seitz), W. spicata, Cassia spp., Delonix regia (Caesalpinaceae) (Talbot),
Cassia spp. (mihi).
FOOD-PLANTS OF RHOPALOCERA
163
E. hecabe L. — Sesbania aculeata (Papilionaceae) (Peile, Bingham), Cassia
tom (Caesalpinaceae) (Bingham), Cassia , Wagatea , Caesalpinia (Caesal-
pinaceae), Acacia, Albizzia, Pithecolobium dulce (Mimosaceae), Sesbania
(Papilionaceae) (Talbot), Leguminosae, Pithecoiobium dulce (Mimosa-
ceae) (Moore), Cassia (Seitz, mihi). In Australia on Breynia oblongi-
folia , B. nivosa , B. cernua , Phyllanthus tenellus (Euphorbiaceae), Albizzia
lebbek, Leucaena glauca (Mimosaceae), Sesbania aculeata , Indigofera
(Papilionaceae), Cassia surattensis (Caesalpinaceae) (Common). In
East Africa on Cassia (Caesalpinaceae), Hypericum (Hypericaceae),
Albizzia , Entada abyssinica , Parkia filicoides (Mimosaceae), Aeschyno-
mene , Lespedeza, Sesbania (Papilionaceae).
COLIAS F.
C. erate Esp.-— Parochetus communis (Papilionaceae) (Peile), Trifolium
(Bingham) (Papilionaceae).
Danaidae
idea F.
I. malabarica Moore — Aganosoma cymosa (Apocynaceae) (Talbot, Seitz).
I. jasonia Westw. — A climber allied to the Genus Hoya (Asclepiadaceae)
(Seitz).
danaus Klug
D. chrysippus L. — Calotropis procera , C. gigantea (Peile), Calotropis
gigantea and other Asclepiads (Bingham), Asclepias curassavica ,
Calotropis (Talbot), Calotropis gigantea, Asclepias curassavica (Moore),
Calotropis procera (mihi). In Australia Asclepias fruticosa, A. curas-
savica, Pentatropis atropurpurea , P. quinquepartita, Marsdenia leich-
hardtiana (Common). In East Africa on Asclepias , Calotropis , Caral-
luma , Ceropegia , Cynanchum , Gompho carpus, Huernia, Kanaria,
Pergularia, Periploca, Schizoglossum, Secamone, Stapelia. All Ascle-
piadaceae.
D. genutia Cr. — Ceropegia (Peile, Talbot), Raphis pulchellum , 7?. lemma,
Passularia, Ceropegia intermedia (Bingham). All Asclepiadaceae.
D. affinis F. — In Australia Cynanchum carnosum (Asclepiadaceae)
(Common).
D. limniace Cr.— Calotropis, Asclepias, Hoya (Bingham, Seitz), Dregea
volubilis, Hoya, Calotropis (Talbot), Asclepias (Moore). In East
Africa on Daemia, Hoya, Pergularia. All Asclepiadaceae.
164 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 70 (1)
D. hamata MacLeay — Vallaris dichotoma (Apocynaceae) (Bingham*
Talbot). In Australia on Marsdenia , Parsonsia (Asclepiadaceae)
(Common).
D. aglea Stoll. — Tylophora carnosa , T. tenuis (Peile), Tylophora carnosa
(Bingham), Tylophora carnosa, T. tenuis , Cryptolepis buchanani (Talbot),
Cryptolepis, etc. (Moore), Asclepiadaceae (Seitz). All Asclepiadaceae.
D. sita Koll . — Marsdenia roylei (Asclepiadaceae) (Bingham, Talbot).
euploea F.
E. core Cr. — Nerium oleander (Apocynaceae) (Peile), Nerium oleander
(Apocynaceae), Cryptolepis paucifolia (Asclepiadaceae), Ficus indica ,
F. glomerata (Moraceae) (Bingham), Nerium odorum (Apocynaceae),
Ficus religiosa (Moraceae) (mihi), Streblus asper, Eicus bengalensis,
F. religiosa, F. glomerata (Moraceae), Nerium odorum , N. oleander, Ichno-
carpus frutescens (Apocynaceae), Hemidesmus indicus (Asclepiadaceae)
(Talbot), three species of Ficus and three of Apocynaceae (Seitz). In
Australia on Oleander, Mandevillea, Trachelospermum (Apocynaceae),
Stephanotis , Hoya australis, Marsdenia leichhardtiana (Asclepiadaceae),
Ficus (Moraceae) (Common).
E. Sylvester F. — Ichnocarpus frutescens (Apocynaceae) (Talbot, Seitz).
In Australia on Ficus glomerata (Moraceae) (Common).
E. midamus L.—Strophanthus divergens (Apocynaceae) (Talbot, Seitz).
Seitz adds ‘ also occasionally found on imported oleander ’.
E. klugii Hors. — Ficus hispida (Moraceae) (Talbot), Streblus asper, Ficus
(Moraceae) (Seitz).
Satyridae
On Monocotyledons such as Graminaceae and Palmaceae (Talbot).
MYCALESis Hbn. — Grasses (Gramineae) (Seitz).
M. anapita Moore — Certain rare grasses (Gramineae) (Talbot, Seitz).
M. perseus F. — Grasses (Gramineae) (Seitz, mihi).
M. milieus L. — Grasses (Gramineae ) (Talbot, Seitz).
M. visala Moore— Grasses (Gramineae) (Talbot, Seitz, mihi).
M. patnia Moore— Grasses, Oryza (Talbot), Oryza (Seitz). All Grami-
neae.
FOOD-PLANTS OF RHOPALOCERA
165
lethe Hbn.— On bamboo or grass (Gramineae) (Seitz, Talbot).
L. sidonis Hew. — Grasses (Gramineae) (mihi), Arundimria falcata (Grami-
neae) (Talbot, Seitz).
L. europa F. — Bamboo (Gramineae) (Talbot),
L. rohria F. — Grasses (Gramineae) (Bingham, mihi).
L. drypetis Hew. — Bambusa arundinaceae (Peile, Talbot), Bambusa
(Bingham) (Gramineae).
L. insana Koll. — Arundinaria falcata (Gramineae) (Seitz).
L. verma Koll. — Grasses (Gramineae) (mihi).
L. yama Moore — Bamboo (Gramineae) (Talbot, Seitz).
pararge Hbn.
P. schakra Koll.— Grasses (Gramineae) (Talbot).
aulocera Btlr.
A. swaha Koll. — Grasses (Gramineae) (Bingham, Talbot), Wild Blue Iris
(Iridaceae) (Bingham). The latter appears doubtful.
erebia Dalm.— Grasses (Gramineae) (Talbot).
E. nirmala Moore — Grasses (Gramineae) (Talbot).
ypthima Hbn.
Y. ceylonica Hew. — Grasses (Gramineae) (Talbot, mihi).
Y. asterope Klug— In East Africa on grasses (Gramineae).
Y. sakra Moore — Grasses (Gramineae) (mihi).
orsotrioena Wllgrn.
O. medus F. — Oryza sativa (Bingham), Grasses (Talbot, Seitz). In
Australia on Grasses (Common). All Gramineae.
MELANITIS F.
M. leda L. — Oryza , Grasses (Peile, Talbot), Grasses (mihi), Gramineae
(Moore). In Australia on Imperata , grasses and Saccharum (Common),
In East Africa on Bambusa , Digitaria , Panicum repens , Pennisetum
purpureum , Zea mays , Grasses generally. All Gramineae. i
M. phedima Stoll.— Grasses (Gramineae) (Talbot).
M? zitenius Herbst. — Bamboo (Gramineae) (Talbot),
166 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1)
elymnias Hbn. — Palms (Palmaceae) (Seitz, Talbot).
E. hypermnestra L. — Various Palms, Phoenix , Cocos nucifera , Areca,
Calamus (Peile), Palms (Talbot, mihi), Palmaceae (Moore). All
Palmaceae.
E. panthera F. — Palms (Palmaceae) (Seitz).
Amathusiidae
faunis Hbn.
F. eumeus Drury — Probably on grass and dwarf bamboo (Gramineae)
(Seitz).
AMATHUSIA F.
* A. phidippus L. — Cocos nucifera (Bingham), C. nucifera , Borassus flabelli-
fer> Elaeis guineensis (Seitz). All Palmaceae, the latter two species
introduced from Africa.
discophora Bsd. — Palmaceae, Saccharum, Bamboo (Gramineae)
(Seitz).
D. sondaica Bsd. — Bamboo (Talbot, Seitz). (Gramineae).
D. lepida Moore — Bamboo (Talbot), Bamboo, Dendrocalamus and other
Gramineae (Seitz).
Acraeidae
acraea Hbn.
A. issoria Hbn. — Debregeasia bicolor (Peile), D. bicolor , Boehmeria
salicifolia (Talbot), Boehmeria salicifolia (Seitz). Both Urticaceae.
Seitz adds ‘ and all sorts of other weeds ’.
A. violae F. — Modecca palmata (Passifloraceae) and cultivated kinds
(Peile), Modecca palmata (Bingham, Talbot, Seitz), Cucurbitaceae
(Moore).
N.B. — The preceding families have been arranged in the order adopted
by Talbot in the fauna of British India, 2nd edition. The succeed-
ing families are arranged according to Seitz’ indo- Australian
RHOPALOCERA.
FOOD-PLANTS OF RHOPALOCERA
167
Nymphaudae
Biblinidi
ergolis Bsd.— On Ricinus communis and Tragia (Euphorbiaceae).
E. ariadne L. — Tragia involucrata (Peile), T. involucrata , T. cannabina
(Bingham, Seitz). All Euphorbiaceae.
E. merione Cr. — Ricinus communis (Euphorbiaceae) (mihi).
byblia Hbn. — Tragia cannabina (Euphorbiaceae) (Seitz).
B. ilithyia Drury — Tragia cannabina (Euphorbiaceae) (Seitz, by inference).
In East Africa on Tragia, Daleschampia (Euphorbiaceae).
Pseudergolidi
pseudergolis Feld.-— Debregeasia bicolor (Urticaceae) (Seitz),
P. wedah Koll.— Debregeasia bicolor (Urticaceae) (Bingham).
Issorodidi
cupha Hbn. — Flacourtia (Flacourtiaceae) (Seitz).
C. erymanthis Drury — Flacourtia (Flacourtiaceae) (Bingham), Glochidion
eriocarpum (Euphorbiaceae) (Seitz).
atella Dbl. — Ixora (Rubiaceae) (Seitz).
A. phalanta Drury — Flacourtia (Flacourtiaceae) (Bingham, Moore), Salix
(Salicaceae) (Moore). In East Africa on Gymnosporia , Maytenus
ovatus (Celastraceae), Aberia, Dovyalis, Flacourtia (Flacourtiaceae),
Populus , Salix (Salicaceae).
A. alcippe Cr. — Alsodeia zeylanica (Violaceae) (Seitz).
issoria Hbn.
I. sinha Koll. — In Australia on Xylosma ovatum, Homalium circumpin -
natum (Samydaceae) (Common).
cynthia F. — Modecca palmata (Passifloraceae) (Seitz).
C. erota F. — Modecca palmata (Passifloraceae) (Bingham).
cirrochroa Dbl. — Hydnocarpus wightiana (Flacourtiaceae) (Seitz).
C, thais F. — Hydnocarpus wightiana (Flacourtiaceae) (Seitz).
168 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1)
Cethosiinae
CETHOSiA F. — Passiflorae (Seitz).
C. nietneri Feld. — Modecca (Peile, Moore), Modecca palmata (Bingham)
(Passifloraceae).
C. biblis Drury — Modecca (Passifloraceae) but refused cultivated Passi-
flora (mihi), Passiflora foetida (Passifloraceae), Baibas baquero
(? family ?) (Seitz).
C. cyane Drury — Passiflora (Passifloraceae) (Bingham, Seitz).
Argynnidi
MELITAEA F.
M. didyma O. — In Europe on Plantago (Plantagineae).
boloria Moore
B. pales Schiff. — In Europe on Viola spp. (Violaceae).
ARGYNNIS F.
A. lathonia L. 1
A. adippe L. In Europe on Viola spp. (Violaceae).
A. aglaia L. J
A. hyperbius L. — Viola (Violaceae) (mihi). In Australia on Viola
(Common).
Vanessidi
precis Hbn.
P. iphita Cr. — Strobilanthes (Acanthaceae) (Bingham).
P. atlites L .—Hygrophila spinosa (Acanthaceae) (Seitz).
P. almana L. — Acanthus , (Acanthaceae), Lippia nodiflora (Verbenaceae),
Osbeckia (Melastomaceae), Gloxinia (Gesneriaceae) (Seitz).
P. orithya L. — Hygrophila (Acanthaceae), Antirrhinum orontium (Scro-
phulariaceae) (Seitz), Acanthus (Acanthaceae) (Moore). In Australia
on Thunbergia alata (Acanthaceae), Antirrhinum (Common). In East
Africa on Hygrophila (Acanthaceae), Englas scandens (Labiatae),
Antirrhinum , Striga lulea (Scrophulariaceae).
P. hierta F. — In East Africa on Asy stasia, Barleria , Justicia , Paulowil-
helmia, Ruellia (Acanthaceae).
FOOD-PLANTS OF RHOPALOCERA
169
PYRAMEIS Hbn.
P. cardui L. — Artemisia , Blumea (Compositae) (Bingham), Artemisia
(Compositae) (Moore), Carduus (Compositae) (mihi). In Australia
on Helichrysum , Artemisia (Compositae), Cryptostemma (? family ?)
(Common). In East Africa on Anchusa, Cyanoglossum , Echium
(Boraginaceae), Arctium , Arctotis , Artemisia , Carduus , Chrysanthemum ,
Cirsium , Cynara scolymus , Filago, Gnaphalium, Heliochrysum , Laggera
alata, Madia , Pentzia , Senecio, Sonchus , Stobaea (Compositae), Althaea ,
Malva (Malvaceae), Argyrolobium , Dolichos , Glycine , Lablab niger ,
Lupinus , Phaseolus (Papilionaceae), Boehmeria , Girardinia , Laporta,
Urtica (Urticaceae).
P. indica Herbst. — Urtica (Urticaceae) (Peile).
VANESSA F.
V. urticae L. — In Europe on Urtica (Urticaceae).
V. cashmirensis Koll. — Urtica (Urticaceae) (Peile, mihi).
V. xanthomelas Esp. — Cete australis (Ulmaceae), Pistacia integerrima
(Anacardiaceae), occasionally SW/fx (Salicaceae) (Seitz). In Europeon
S'#//* (Salicaceae).
V. polychloros L. — In Europe on t//ww,s (Ulmaceae), &*//* (Salicaceae),
Prunus (Rosaceae).
V. antiopa L. — In Europe on .W/x (Salicaceae), Urtica (Urticaceae),
Be tula (Amentaceae).
V. canace L.— Smilax (Liliaceae) (Bingham, Moore, Seitz, mihi).
POLYGONIA Hbn.
P. c -album L. — In Europe on Ulmus (Ulmaceae), Humulus , Urtica
(Urticaceae), Prunus (Rosaceae), (Ribesiaceae).
P. 1-album Esp. — In Europe on £0//*, Populus (Salicaceae).
P. egea Cr. — In Europe on Parietaria officinalis (Urticaceae).
ARASCHNIA Hbn.
A. prorsoides Blch. — Urtica (Urticaceae) (Seitz).
SYMBRENTHIA Hbn.
S. hippoclus Cr. — Debregeasia bicolor , Girardinia heterophylla (Urticaceae)
(Seitz).
170 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY , Vol 70 (1)
RHINOPALPA Feld.
R. polynice Cv.—Conocephalus suaveolens (Urticaeeae) (Seitz).
HYPOLIMNAS Hbn.
H. misippus L.— Portulaca oleracea (Portulacaceae) (Bingham), Abutilon
(Malvaceae), Abelmoschus (Malvaceae) (Moore), Batatas (Convolvula-
ceae), Portulaca (Portulacaceae), Abutilon (Malvaceae) (Seitz). In
East Africa on Asy stasia, Justicia (Acanthaceae), Portulaca , Talium
(Portulacaceae). In Australia on Pseuderanthemum (Acanthaceae),
Portulaca (Common).
H. bolina L.-— Portulacaceae, Urticaeeae (Seitz). In Australia on Sida
rhomb if olia (Malvaceae), A sy stasia scandens , Pseuderanthemum variable,
Ruellia (Acanthaceae), Alternanthera denticulata (Amaranthaceae),
Richardia (Aroideae), Synedrella (Compositae) (Common).
doleschallia Feld. — Eranthemum malabaricum , Gratophyllum hort -
ense (Acanthaceae) (Seitz).
D. bisaltide Cr. — Acanthaceae (Moore), Gratophyllum hortense (Acantha-
ceae), Urtica (Urticaeeae) (Seitz). In Australia on Pseuderanthemum
variable (Acanthaceae) (Common).
kallima Dbl. — Strobilanthes callosus, Eranthemum malabaricum
(Acanthaceae) (Seitz).
K. inachus Bsd. — Strobilanthus capitatus (Acanthaceae), Girardinia hetero-
phylla (Urticaeeae), Polygonum orient alis (Polygonaceae) (Seitz).
K. philarchus Westw. — Strobilanthus (Acanthaceae) (Bingham), Strobi-
lanthus callosus, Eranthemum malabaricum (Acanthaceae) (Seitz).
Marpesiidae
cyrestis Bsd. — Ficus, Urostigma, Covellia (Moraceae) (Seitz).
C. thyodamas Bsd. — Ficus glomerata, F. nemoralis (Peile), Ficus indica
(Bingham).
chersonesia Dist. — Possibly Uvaria sp. (Anonaceae), Ficus
(Moraceae) (Seitz).
Neptididi
neptis F.
N. jumbah Moore — Byttneriaceae, etc. (Moore), on 13 different plants
belonging to the Malvaceae, Sterculiaceae, Tiliaceae, Rhamnaceae?
Leguminosae and Urticaeeae (Seitz),
FOOD-PLANTS OF RHOPALOCERA
171
N. hylas L. — Leguminosae (Moore), Lathyrus (Papilionaceae) (Seitz),
N. soma Moore — Malvaceae, Leguminosae, Urticaceae (Seitz).
N. viraja Moore— Dalbergia latifolia , D . racemosa (Papilionaceae)
(Moore, Seitz).
rahinda Moore
R. hordonia Stoll. — Acacia , Albizzia (Mimosaceae) (Bingham).
PANTOPORIA Hbn.
P. perius L. — Glochidion velutinum , G. lanceolatum (Bingham), Glochi-
dion , Phyllanthus (Seitz). (All Euphorbiaceae).
P. ranga Moore— Olea dioica, Linociera malabarica (Oleaceae) (Bingham,
Seitz). N.B. — Seitz writes Lonicera for Linociera.
P. opalina Koll. — Berberis aristata (Berberidaceae) (Peile).
P. selemophora Koll. — Adina cordifolia (Rubiaceae) (Bingham).
P. nefte Cr. — Glochidion velutinum G. zelanica (Euphorbiaceae)
(Bingham), Glochidion spp. (Euphorbiaceae), Mussaenda frondosa
(Rubiaceae) (Seitz).
limenitis F.
L. procris Cr. — Mussaenda , Cinchona (Rubiaceae) (Bingham, Moore),
Mussaenda frondosa , Wendenlandia , Nauclea cadamba (Rubiacea)
(Seitz).
L. calidasa Moore — Mussaenda , Cinchona (Rubiaceae) (Moore, Seitz).
parthenos Hbn. — Zehneria umbellata (Cucurbitaceae) (Seitz).
P. cyaneus Moore — Modecca (Passifloraceae) (Bingham, Moore, Seitz).
Euthaliidi
EUTHALIA Hbn.
E. lepidea Btlr. — Melastoma malabaricum (Melastomaceae) (Bingham,
Seitz), Careya arbor escens (Myrtaceae) (Seitz).
E. garuda Moore — Mangifera indica (Anacardiaceae) (mihi), Mangifera
indica , Anacardium occidentale (Anacardiaceae), Loranthus scurrula
(Loranthaceae), Bryonia (Cucurbitaceae), Morus (Moraceae), Rosa
(Rosaceae), Trophis aspera (? family ?) (Seitz).
E. vasanta Moore — Mangifera indica (Anacardiaceae) (Moore, Seitz).
E. anosia Moore — Mangifera indica (Anacardiaceae) (Seitz).
172 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1)
E. phemius Dbh — Nephelium lit chi (Sapindaceae) (Seitz).
E. lubentina Cr ,—Loranthus (Loranthaceae) (Moore, Seitz).
E. nais Forst Diospyros (Ebenaceae) (Peile), Diospyros melanoxylon
(Ebenaceae) (Seitz).
E. evelina Stoll. — Diospyros candolleana (Bingham), Diospyros candol -
leana , D. melanoxylon (Ebenaceae) (Seitz).
Apaturidi
apatura F.
A. parisatis Westw. — Celtis lycodoxylon (Ulmaceae) (Moore, Seitz).
A. ambica Koll. — Ulmus wallichiana (Ulmaceae) (Seitz).
euripus Westw. — Urticaceae (Seitz).
E. consimilis Westw. — Trema orientalis (Urticaceae) (Seitz).
Charaxidi
ERIBOEA Hbn.
E. athamas Drury — Delonix regia (Caesalpinaceae), Acacia pennata,
A. coesia , Albizzia lebhek (Mimosaceae) (Peile). Caesalpinia (Caesal-
pinaceae) (Moore), Grewia (Tiliaceae), Caesalpinia, Poinciana
(Caesalpinaceae), Albizzia milletti , Acacia (Mimosaceae), Alsicia
(? family ?) (Seitz).
E. schreiberi Godt. — Nephelium lappaceum (Sapindaceae), Rourea santa-
loides (Connaraceae), Cynometra caulifora , Wagatea spicata (Caesal-
pinaceae) (Seitz).
charaxes O.
C. fabius F. — Tamarindus indicus, Wagatea spicata (Caesalpinaceae),
6 occasionally noticed on Cardenia ’ (? family ?), possibly a misprint
for Gardenia (Rubiaceae) (Seitz).
C. polyxena Cr. — Saccopetalum (printed Saroptalum) tomentosum
(Anonaceae) (Peile), Saccopetalum tomentosum (Anonaceae), Aglaic
roxburghiana (Meliaceae) (Seitz).
Erycinidae
Libytheini
LIBYTHEA F.
L. celtis Fuessl, — In Europe on Celtis australis (Ulmaceae),
FOOD-PLANTS OF RHOPALOCERA
m
L. lepita Moor e—Celtis (Ulmaceae) (Seitz).
L. myrrha Cr. — Celtis tetrandra (Ulmaceae) [Bingham, Seitz (printed
tetranta )].
Riodinini
zemeros Bsd.
Z. flegyas Cr. — Maesa montana (Bingham), Maesa chisia (mihi) (Myrsi-
naceae).
dodona Hew. — On Maesa (printed Moesa ) (Myrsinaceae), Grami-
neae and alpine bamboo (Gramineae) (Seitz).
D. eugenes Bates — Grasses, Hill Bamboo (Bingham), Gramineae, Alpine
Bamboo (Gramineae) (Seitz). I am doubtful of the correctness of this
record.
D. adonira Hew. — Maesa chisia (Myrsinaceae) (mihi), Moesa (sic) chisia
(Seitz).
D. ouida Moor e— Maesa chisia (Myrsinaceae) (mihi).
abisara Feld. — Myrsinaceae (Seitz).
A. fylla Hqw.— Maesa chisia (Myrsinaceae) (mihi).
A. echerius Stoll.— Ardisia (Myrsinaceae) (Moore), Myrsinaceae (Seitz).
Lycaenidae
Liphyrinae
liphyra Westw.
L. brassolis Westw. — Carnivorous on Ant larvae (Bingham). Also in
Australia (Common). Seitz writes ‘ Holland’s presumption that the
larvae are carnivora, is due to a rather ingenious and for the present
uncontrollable combination ’.
Gerydinae— Carnivorous on aphides (Seitz).
gerydus Bsd.
G. biosdufali Moore-Carnivorous on aphides (Seitz).
Lycaeninae
megisba Moore
M. malaya Hors. — Sapindaceae (Moore).
\
174 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 70 (1)
LYCAENOPSIS Feld.
L. puspa Horsf. — Cylista scariosa (Papilionaceae), Xylia dolabriformis
(Mimosaceae), Hiptage madablota (Combretaceae), Schleichera trijuga
(Sapindaceae) (Seitz).
L. argiolus L. — In Europe on Rhamnus (Rhamnaceae), Hedera (Aralia-
ceae), Ilex (Ilicineae).
pithecops Horsf. — Leguminosae (Seitz).
P. hylax F. — Leguminosae (Seitz).
P. zalmora Btlr. — Glycosmis pentaphylla (Rutaceae) (Seitz). Also in
Australia (Common).
spalgis Moore — Carnivorous feeding on the Aphid Dactylopius
adonideum (Seitz).
S. epius Moore — Euphorbiaceae (Moore). Almost certainly incorrect,
the real food being Aphids feeding on the Euphorbiaceae.
CASTALIUS Hbn.
C. ananda de N. — Zizyphus xylopyrus (Rhamnaceae), Loranthus (Loran-
thaceae) (Bingham).
C, rosimon F. — Zizyphus jujuba (Rhamnaceae) (Peile, Bingham, Seitz).
C. ethion Dbl. — Zizyphus jujuba , Z. xylopyrus (Rhamnaceae) (Seitz).
C. caleta Hew. — Zizyphus rugosa (Rhamnaceae) (Bingham).
tarucus Moore — Zizyphus jujuba (Rhamnaceae) (Seitz).
T. plinius F. — Plumbago (Plumbaginaceae) (Bingham). Also in Australia
(Common). In East Africa on Burkea , Crotalaria, Indigofer a, Medi-
cago, Melilotis , Mundulea, Phaseolus , Pisum , Sesbania (Papilionaceae),
Plumbago (Plumbaginaceae).
T. theophrastus F. — Zizyphus (Peile), Zizyphus jujuba (Bingham) (Rhamna-
ceae). Also in East Africa.
T. nara Koll. — Zizyphus (Peile), Zizyphus jujuba (mihi) (Rhamnaceae).
azanus Moore
A. uhaldus Cr.— Acacia sp. (Peile), Acacia arabica (Seitz) (Mimosaceae).
A. uranus Btlr .—Acacia sp. (Peile), Acacia arabica , A. Senegal (Seitz)
(Mimosaceae).
FOOD-PLANTS OF RHOPALOCERA
175
A. jesous Guer. — In East Africa on Acacia (Mimosaceae), Medicago
(Papilionaceae).
COSMOLYCE TOX.
C. boeticus L. — Cajanus indicus , Butea frondosa (Peile), Crotalaria striata
(Bingham), Lupinus, Pisum (mihi), Vigna sinensis , Melilotus , Crotalaria
striata (Seitz). In Australia on Crotalaria , Dolichos , Sesbania, Lupinus.
In East Africa on Cajanus cajan, Canavallia, Colutea , Crotalaria ,
Indigofer a, Lathyrus, Lupinus , Medicago , Phaseolus , Pisum , Podalyria ,
Sutherland ia, Virgilia. All Papilionaceae.
LYCAENESTHES Moore
L. emolus Godt. — Nephelium litchi (Sapindaceae), Heynea trijuga (Meli-
aceae), Cassia fistula (Caesalpinaceae) (Bingham, Seitz). In Australia
on Caesalpinia nuga , Cassia (Caesalpinaceae), Pongamia pinnata (Papi-
lionaceae), Clerodendron (Verbenaceae), Cupaniopsis anacardioides
(? family ?), Faradaya splendida (? family ?) (Common).
jamides Hbn.
J. bochus Cr. — Xylia dolabriformis (Mimosaceae), Butea frondosa (Papi-
lionaceae) (Bingham, Seitz).
lampides Hbn.
L. celeno Cx— Heynea trijuga (Meliaceae) (Bingham), Heynea trijuga
(Meliaceae), Butea frondosa (Papilionaceae), ‘ but presumably also
on other plants, such as Cardamomae 5 (Seitz).
L. elpis Godt.—Kaempferia pandurata , Elettaria cardamomum (Zinzibera-
ceae) (Bingham, Seitz).
nacaduba Moore
N. berenice H. Sch. — In Australia on Cupaniopsis (? family ?), Alectryon
(? family ?) (Common).
N. atrata Horsf . — Embelia robusta (Sapotaceae) (Bingham).
N. perusia Feld. — Vateria indica (Dipterocarpaceae) (Moore).
CATOCHRYSOPS Bsd.
C. cnejus F. — Phaseolus trilobus , Dolichos catjang (Papilionaceae) (Bing-
ham, Seitz). In Australia legume flowers (Common).
C. pandava Horsf. — Cycas revoluta (Cycadaceae) (Bingham, Seitz),
Cycadaceae (Moore).
176 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 70 (1)
EVERES Hbn.
E. argiades Pall. — Trifolium , etc. (Papilionaceae) (Bingham).
tali cad A Moore
T. nyseus Geur. — Bryophillum calycinum (Crassulaceae) (Bingham, Seitz),
Bryophillum (Moore).
zizera Moore
Z. lysimon Hbn. (= Zizeeria knysna Trim.) — Zornia diphylla (Papiliona-
ceae) (Bingham). In Australia on Tribulus terrestris (Zygophyllaceae)
(Common). In East Africa on Amaranthus (Amaranthaceae), Euphor-
bia (Euphorbiaceae), Oxalis (Oxalidaceae), Medicago , Zornia (Papilio-
naceae), Tribulus (Zygophyllaceae).
Z. gaika Trim. (= Zizula hylax F.) — In East Africa on Oxalis (Oxalida-
ceae).
Z. otis F. — In Australia on Legumes including Medicago (Papilionaceae)
(Common).
Z. maha Koll. — Oxalis corniculata (Oxalidaceae) (mihi).
chilades Moore
C. trochilus Frr. — Heliotropium strigosum (Boraginaceae) (Bingham),
Rhynchosia minima (Papilionaceae) (mihi). In Australia on Indigofera
(Papilionaceae) (Common). In East Africa on Indigofera .
C. laius Cr. — Citrus spp. (Rutaceae) (Bingham, mihi).
lycaena F. {—Polyommatus Latr.)
L. astrarche Bgster. — In Europe on Erodium cicutarium (Geraniaceae).
L. cyllarus Rott.— In Europe on Leguminosae.
L. icarus Rott. — In Europe on Leguminosae, especially on Ononis spinosa
(Papilionaceae).
CHYSOPHANUS Hbn. (= Lycaena F.)
C. phlaeas h.— Rumex nepalensis (Polygonaceae) (Peile). In Europe on
Rumex spp.
ilerda Dbl. (= Heliophorus Geyer)
I. brahma Moor q— Rumex (Polygonaceae) (mihi).
I. sena Koll .—Rumex hastatus (Polygonaceae) (Peile).
FOOD-PLANTS OF RHOPALOCERA
177
curetis Hbn.
C. bulis Dbl. — Pongamia glabra (Papilionaceae) (Bingham).
aphnaeus Hbn.
A. lohita Horsf. — Convolvulaceae (Moore).
apharitis Riley
A. acamas Klug — Cassia (Caesalpinaceae) (Seitz).
iraota Moore
I. timoleon Stoll. — Ficus glomerata (Peile), F. religiosa (Moore) (Mora-
ceae).
amblypodia Horsf. — On Schleichera (Sapindaceae), Lagerstroemia
(Lythraceae), Xylia (Mimosaceae), Hopea (Styraceae), etc. (Seitz).
A. apidanus Cr. — Eugenia (Myrtaceae), Lagerstroemia (Lythraceae)
(Seitz).
A. centaurus F. — Schleichera trijuga (Sapindaceae) (Moore).
A. dodonaea Moore ^
A. rama Koll. > Quercus incana (Fagaceae) (Peile).
A. ganesa Moore '
zephyrus Dalm.
Z. birupa Moor q— Rhododendron arbor eum (Ericaceae) (Peile).
chaetoprocta de Nic.
C. odata Hew. — Juglans (Juglandaceae) (Peile).
camena Hew. ( =Pratapa Moore)
C. deva Moore — Loranthus tomentosa (Loranthaceae) (Peile, Seitz).
tajuria Moore
T. cippus F. — Loranthus (Loranthaceae) (Moore, Seitz).
T. melastigma de Nic. — Loranthus (Loranthaceae) (Seitz).
T. jalindra Horsf .—Loranthus elastica (Loranthaceae) (Seitz).
T. cleobis Godt. — Loranthus elastica (Loranthaceae) (Seitz).
T. diaeus Hew .—Loranthus bicolor (Loranthaceae), Lantana (Verbenaceae)
(Seitz).
12
178 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1)
HORAGA Moore
H. onyx Moore — Coriaria nepalensis (Coriariaceae) (Seitz).
HYPOLYCAENA Feld.
H. erylus Godt. — Vangueria spinosa (Rubiaceae) (Seitz).
rathinda Moore
R. amor F. — Eugenia ceylonica (Myrtaceae), Hopea (Styraceae) and pre-
sumably on some other plants (Seitz), Ixora coccinea (Rubiaceae),
Nephelium lit chi (Sapindaceae) (mihi).
CHERITRA Moore
C. freja F. — Xylia dolabriformis (Mimosaceae) (Seitz).
LOXURA Horsf.
L. atymnus Cr .—Smilax (Smilacaceae) (Moore), Dioscorea (Dioscora-
ceae) (Seitz).
ZEZius Hbn.
Z. chrysomallus Hbn —Terminalia (Combretaceae) (Moore), Terminalia
tomentosa , T. paniculata (Combretaceae), Xylia dolabriformis (Mimosa-
ceae) (Seitz).
deudoryx Hew. — In fruits (Seitz).
D. epijarbas Moore — Punica granatum (Lythraceae), Aesculus (Hippo-
castaneae) (Peile), Connarus ritchiei (Connaraceae), Punica (Lythra-
ceae), Aesculus indicus (Hippocastaneae) (Seitz). In Australia in
fruits of Harpullia pendula (Sapindaceae) (Common).
D. perse Hew.— Randia dumetorum (Rubiaceae) (Seitz).
D. isocrates F .—Punica (Lythraceae) (Peile), Punica granatum (Lythra-
ceae), Psidium guajava (Myrtaceae), Eriobotrya japonica (Rosaceae),
Randia dumetorum , R . uliginosa (Rubiaceae) (Seitz).
rap ala Moore
R. melampus Cr.— Nephelium lappaceum (Sapindaceae), Melastoma
polyanthus (Melastomaceae), Zizyphus rugosus (Rhamnaceae), Ougei-
nea dalbergeoides (Papilionaceae) (Seitz).
R. selira Moore— Indigofera purpurea (Papilionaceae) (Peile).
R. varuna Horsf .—Lantana camara (Verbenaceae), Zizyphus xylopyrus
(Rhamnaceae) (Seitz).
FOOD-PLANTS OF RHOPALOCERA
179
R. sphinx F. — Melastoma polyanthus (Melastomaceae), Elaeagnus
ferruginea (Elaeagnaceae) (Seitz).
R. schistacea Moore — Quisqualis indica (Combretaceae) (mihi), Quis -
quails (Combretaceae), Acacia caesia (Mimosaceae), Spiraea sorhifolia
(Rosaceae) (Seitz).
Hesperiidae
Hesperinae
COLADENIA Moore
C. dan F. — Achyranthes asp era (Amarantaceae) (Seitz).
CELAENORRHINUS Hbn.
C. asmara Btlr. — Clerodendron fragrans (Yerbenaceae) (Seitz).
C. plagifera de N. — Impatiens (Balsamineae) (mihi).
tagiades Hbn.—Roxburghiaceae, Dioscoraceae, Convolvulaceae
(Seitz).
T. japetus Cr —Dioscorea oppositifolia (Dioscoraceae) (Seitz).
odontoptilum de N.
O. angulata Feld.-— Hibiscus t iliac eus, Urena lobata, Eriodendron (Malva-
ceae), and other plants (Seitz).
hesperia Latr.
H. galba F. — Sida rhombifolia (Malvaceae) (mihi).
CARCHARODUS Hbn.
C. alcae Esp. — In Europe on Malvaceae.
Ismeninae
hasora Moore
H. badra Moore — Denis uliginosa (Bell), Pongamia volubilis (Seitz)
(both Papilionaceae).
H. alexis V. —Pongamia glabra (Papilionaceae) (Bell). Also in Australia
(Common).
H. butler! Auri v.—Derris scandens (Papilionaceae) (Bell).
H. vitta Btlr. — Millettia racemosa , M. auriculata (Papilionaceae) (Bell).
180 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 70 (1)
bibasis Moore
B. sena Moore — Combretum extensum (Combretaceae) (Bell), Combretum
latifolium (Seitz).
BADAMIA Moore
B. exclamationis F —Terminalia bellerica (Combretaceae) (Bell). In
Australia on Terminalia (Common).
ismene Swains.
I. harisa Moore — Zinziber zerumbet (Zinziberaceae) (Seitz).
I. gomata Moor Q—Heptapluron venulosum (Araliaceae) (Bell), Hepta-
pluron lucidum (Araliaceae), Embelia garciniaefolia (Myrsinaceae),
Trevesia sondaica (Araliaceae), Horsfieldia (Myristicaceae), etc. (Seitz).
I. oedipodea Swains. — Combretum latifolium (Combretaceae) (Seitz).
I. jaina Moore — Combretum extensum (Combretaceae) (Bell).
rhopalocampta Wallgrn.
R. benjamin! Guer. — Sabia campanulata , Meliosma pungens (Sabiaceae)
(Bell).
Pamphilinae
suastus Moore
S. gremius F. — Palms (mihi), Caryota urens and other Palms (Palmaceae)
(Bell).
IAMBRIX Wats.
I. salsala Moore — Grasses (Bell), Bamboo (Seitz) (both Gramineae).
I. stillifer Btlr. — Bamboo (Gramineae) (Seitz).
aeromachus de Nic.
A. stigmata Moore — Grasses (Gramineae) (mihi).
A. discreta Plotz — Grasses (Gramineae) (Bell).
HYAROTIS Moore
H. adrastus Cr. — Phoenix (Bell), Rotang and Phoenix Palms (Seitz)
(Palmaceae).
matapa Moore
M. aria Moore—Bamboo (mihi, Bell, Seitz) (Gramineae).
FOOD-PLANTS OF RHOPALOCERa
m
ERIONOTA Mab.
E. thrax L. — Musa spp. (Musaceae) (Bell), Musa and other Monocoty-
ledons such as Saccharum (Gramineae), Cocos nucifera, Rhaphis (Palma-
ceae), Metroxylon (Palmaceae) (Seitz).
gangara Moore
G. thyrsis F. — Palmaceae (Moore), Calamus , Cocos nucifera , Caryota
urens and other Palms (Bell), Palms, particularly on cccoanut (sic)
trees and dwarf palms, but it is said to occur also on ratan, Calamus
rotang, and other Monocotyledons (Seitz).
sancus de Nic.
S. pulligo Mab. — Phrynium spicatum (Marantaceae) (Bell), a common
Arum (Araceae) (Seitz).
baracus Moore
B. hampsoni Elw. — Grasses (Gramineae) (Bell).
ampittia Moore
A. dioscorides F. — Qryza (Gramineae) (Bell, Seitz).
TARACTROCERA Btlr.
T. maevius F.— Grasses (Gramineae) (Bell).
T. nicevillei Wats. — Grasses, Oryza (Gramineae) (Bell).
padraona Moore
P. gola Moore — Grasses' (Gramineae) (Bell), Imperata arundinacea ,
Paspalum conjugatum (Gramineae) (Seitz).
P. dara Koll. — Paspalum conjugatum (Gramineae) (Seitz).
telicota Moore
T. bambusae Moore — Bamboo (Bell, mihi), bamboo, Saccharum (Seitz)
(all Gramineae).
T. augias L. — Saccharum , Oryza , Bamboo (Gramineae) (Bell). In
Australia on Flagellaria indica (Gramineae) (Common).
T. palmarum Moore — Cocos nucifera , Phoenix (Bell), Cocos nucifera ,
Calamus rotang (Seitz) (all Palmaceae).
T. maesoides Koll. — Bambusa, Oxytenanthera, Dendro calamus , TeinQ*
stachyum (Gramineae) (Bell).
182 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1)
GEGENES Hbn.
G. nostrodamus F. — Grasses (Gramineae) (Bell), Oryza (Gramineae)
(Seitz).
parnara Moore
P. philippina H. Sch. — Bamboo (Bell), presumably on Oryza , Saccharum ,
Bamboo (Gramineae), perhaps also on Palms (Palmaceae) (Seitz).
P. guttatus Brem. — Grasses, Oryza , Saccharum , Bamboo (Bell), Oryza ,
Zea mays , Saccharum , Bamboo (Seitz). All Gramineae.
P. colaca Moore — Grasses, Orjz« (Bell), Oryza (Seitz) (Gramineae),
Gramineae (Moore).
P. bevani Moore — Saccharum , Paspalum conjugatum, Imperata arundin -
aceae (Gramineae) (Seitz).
P. kumara Moore — Imperata arundinaceae (Gramineae) (Seitz), Bamboo
(Gramineae) (Bell).
P. oceia Hew. — Bambusa arundinaceae , Ochlandra talboti (Gramineae)
(Bell), Saccharum (Gramineae) (Moore).
P. canaraica Moore — Bamboo (Gramineae) (Bell).
P. mathias F.— Grasses (Bell), Oryza , Saccharum and other Gramineae
(Seitz).
P. subochracea Moore — Grasses (Gramineae) (Bell).
P. zelleri Led. — Grasses (Gramineae) (Bell).
halpe Moore
H. astigmata Swinh. x.
H. honorei de Nic. J
PLASTINGIA Btlr.
P. submaculata Stg. — Calamus subtenuis (Palmaceae) (Bell).
cupitha Moore
C. purreea Moore — Combretum ovalifolium , Terminalia bell erica,
T. paniculata (Combretaceae), Ehretia laevis (Boraginaceae) (Bell).
pirdana Dist.
P.hyelaHew. — Dracaena, Cordyline rumphii (Liliaceae) (Seitz).
H. moorei Wats.
H. hyrtacus de Nic.
) Bamboo (Gramineae) (Bell).
FOOD-PLANTS OF RHOPALOCERa
183
NOTOCRYPTA de Nic.
N. curvifascia Feld. — Curcuma (Zinziberaceae) (Seitz).
N. restricta Moore — Zinziber casumunar, Curcuma decipiens (Zinzibera-
ceae) (Bell).
N. feisthameli Bsd. — Zinziber casumunar , Curcuma decipiens (Bell).
Zinziber (mihi). All Zinziberaceae.
N. alysos Moore— Zinziberaceae (Moore).
udaspes Moore
U. folus Cr. — Curcuma decipiens and other Zinziberaceae (Bell), Cur-
cuma (Zinziberaceae), Fagraea racemosa (Loganiaceae) (Seitz).
KERANA Dist.
K. diodes Moor q— Zinziber, Curcuma (Zinziberaceae) (Seitz).
paduca Dist.
P. lebadea Hew.— Palmaceae (Moore), Calamus (Palmaceae) (Seitz).
unkana Dist.
U. attina Hew.— Pandanus fascicularis (Pandaneae), Psychotria sp.
(Rubiaceae) (Seitz).
HIDARI Dist.
H. ivava Moore — Various palms, particularly Cocos nucifera and Caryota
mens (Palmaceae) (Seitz).
N.B. — In most of the works consulted, the spelling of the botanical
names leaves much to be desired, Seitz is particularly bad, the same name
often appearing twice on the same page with different spellings.
Reviews
1. BEHAVIOUR OF WOLVES, DOGS AND RELATED
CANIDS. By M. W. Fox. pp. 214 (16x24 cm) with numerous black-
and-white photographs and line drawings. London, 1971. Jonathan
Cape. Price £3.60 net.
In the sub-family Canidae only the wolf forms permanent packs.
Family groups of coyotes and jackals may hunt together for a time, but
foxes drive their young away early, and the breeding pair often separate
also. The author of this interesting book shows that though these
species have the same basic behaviour patterns, these have become more
complex in the more social species. New facial expressions have
evolved, often combining more than one primitive expression. In-
terestingly these complex expressions appear later in the development
of cubs than do the primitive ones common to all species. The domestic
dog is believed to have evolved from a wolf-like ancestor, but it has
been suggested, and not yet conclusively disproved, that in some parts
of the world primitive man domesticated the jackal. As a result of
selective breeding some behaviour patterns have atrophied, others hyper-
trophied, and yet others have acquired a new significance, so no clue as
to origin can be obtained from behaviour. Dog owners will be intrigued
to know that when two dogs circle one another this is the same behaviour
as that of young pups, which circle each other until they fall asleep in a
tight warm heap. This is only one of a number of infantile behaviour
patterns which persist, and are incorporated in a changed form into adult
behaviour.
Dr. Fox’s observations have been on hand-raised canids, which he
compares with field data whenever possible. The wolves are by far the
most attractive subjects, and there are some fascinating chapters on the
development of dominance in wolves and on wolves as parents. Obser-
vations both on captive and on wild wolves indicate that normally only
one pair in a pack breeds and that the dominant wolf is not one of them.
All the members of the pack co-operate in looking after the cubs. This is
a population-regulating mechanism. In addition, in the wild numbers
are controlled by the availability of prey species, and when there is little
food there is high mortality among pups. On page 128 the author
cites a number of authorities who believe that there is no reduction in
the number of pups born in lean year, and yet on pages 113-114 he hypo-
thesises, apparently without data, that poor nutrition could lead to
infertility and resorption of foetuses. There seems to be no good reason
for the subject to be discussed in two different places. Another subject
REVIEWS
185
that is discussed at some length is submission, and its function in social
organisation. Some dominance-submission rituals would in a human
context be interpreted as affection, and the term 6 love ’ is used here.
This seems unnecessarily anthropomorphic, and also inappropriate as
the word has a wider meaning than that to which it is restricted here.
The photographs in this book are excellent throughout, but the
writing is often awkward. Lay readers will find the jargon in some of
the earlier chapters particularly trying. It is difficult to imagine anyone
being helped by descriptions like ‘ dorsal vertical postero-horizontal
retraction of lips ’, meaning a simultaneous grin and a snarl. Often
there does not seem to be any connection between sub-titles and subject
matter. This is due to poor organisation. For example, a discussion
of the development in hand-reared wolf cubs of allegiances to pack
members and nervousness of strangers occurs at the end of a section on
mate preferences, when it belongs at the beginning of the same chapter,
which deals with social organisation, or perhaps in another chapter
entitled ‘Development of Social Relationships: Wolf Socialisation’.
It is to be hoped that these irritations will be corrected in future editions.
One would now like to have a comparison between wolf socialisation
and that of the dhole, the South American bush dog, and the Cape hunt-
ing dog, all pack-hunters which belong to the sub-family Simocyoninae.
These lack the range of complex facial expressions which characterise
the wolf, and apparently do not all show dominance. Dr. Fox is the
obvious person to make these comparisons and I hope that he will do so
before too long.
R. R.
2. INSECT POLLINATION. By J. B. Free. pp. xi + 544
(15x23 cm) with 170 figures. London & New York, 1970. Academic
Press. Price £7.25.
This reviewer is indeed struck by the wealth of information this book
possesses. It reviews all the important information on the subject into
a most comprehensive volume and makes it a very valuable reference
work on pollination of the most important crops of temperate regions.
6 Although there are many facets of pollination of different crops that are
similar, it is very striking how many crops have their own unique polli-
nation problems.’
The author who is connected with the Rothamsted Experimental
Station, Hampenden, Herts, England, is without doubt fully conversant
with this subject. In the first part of the book, he has discussed the
pollinating insects — particularly the honey bee and points out how it
186 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1)
can be used by man to supplement wild pollinators and the ways in which
this can be done most effectively.
In the second part, each crop — over a hundred treated in the book —
is discussed individually. In every case the flower structure as related to
the pollination is effectively illustrated. The insect species which are
reported to pollinate the flower together with the crop’s pollination
requirement are specifically mentioned. Admittedly the information
from tropical crops is rather sparse and it is felt that lack of sufficient
pollination may be one of the reasons for only a small proportion of
fruit and seed set in the tropics.
The book is written very lucidly and the simple and logical way in
which the process is explained in each case should inspire anyone who
wishes to carry out useful work on this fascinating and highly important
aspect of biological productivity in nature. In the context of the present
whole-scale use of insecticides, the publication of the book is timely and
worthy of serious attention by agriculturists, horticulturists and foresters
in India. The book opens an immense scope of similar type of work
to be carried out in India and the tropics. The book contains about 1500
reference titles, a separate index of plant names, also of animal names
and a general index. All the above features make this book a very
valuable and important reference work in the field of reproduction of
crop plants.
p. v. B.
3. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF SHARKS. By Thomas H.
Lineaweaver III & Richard H. Backus, pp. 256 (22 X 14 cm). London,
1970. Andre Deutsch Limited. Price £2.75 net U.K. only.
Until recent years, man had not succeeded in crossing the boundary
that separated him from the world of marine life. He had never ob-
served sharks in their natural habitat, except in a few brief and involun-
tary encounters, as in a shipwreck, and mostly ending in disaster for him.
Brought face to face with these marine monsters, man’s perplexity has
been considerable, and his attitude variable. The first emotion was,
understandably, terror. And, as always when fear plays a part, legends
about sharks multiplied.
The increasing tempo of undersea exploration, aided mainly by
scuba diving and submersibles, has led to increased exploration,
so that much more is known about sharks. And, after all, there is
nothing simple about any aspect of the relations between the monarch
of the sea and the ruler of the lands of the earth. The result is that
numerous books dealing specifically with sharks have appeared during
REVIEWS
187
the last several years. These books have covered the subject reasonably
well, and one or two could be classified as superb. The present one is
rather a late-comer on the scene.
Starting, in the first chapter, by summarizing the differences bet-
ween sharks and bony fishes, the authors go on to an inventory of things
found in sharks’ stomachs, and the few animals inside whose stomachs
sharks have sometimes been found. The third chapter describes the
habits, factual and fancied, of two constant companions of the shark,
pilot fish and remoras. The fourth chapter is a listing and analysis of
shark attacks on man. Chapters 5 to 10 relate to the different kinds of
sharks found both in the seas and in fresh water. Chapter 1 1 is a review
of the reproduction, or rather, whatever little is known about it.
Chapter 12 deals with sense organs and anatomy. The final chapter
tackles the problem most vital to man when he faces a shark in its own
element — survival.
A key to the families of sharks, prepared by Dr. John Musick, is
given towards the end, followed by a glossary which will be of little use
to ichthyologists already familiar with biological nomenclature but will
be of considerable use to non-scientists who might be newly involved
in the study of sharks. The bibliography, at the very end, is only a brief
listing, but is meant to be sufficient for the layman to follow up.
A good deal of researching into earlier literature, especially scientific
papers, must have gone into the writing of the book, and the book is
excellently edited, with no technical mistakes. The fact that the
senior author is not a professional biologist, but a journalist, does not
reduce the scientific value of the book.
But the greatest difficulty with collections of this type is the lack of
focus, and the frequent mention of sources and dates in the text tends to
slow down the narrative. A few of the chapters are quite interesting, but
a large part of the space used in the book presents a rehash of information
that has been previously published over and over again.
The photographs are uninspiring, and the drawings shoddy (although,
here, I might add that my opinion might have been prejudiced because
this book happened to be reviewed immediately after seeing the excel-
lent quality of the colour photographs in Jacques-Yves and Philippe
Cousteau’s book the shark : splendid savage of the sea).
A valuable source book.
B. F. €.
188 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1)
4. PATTERNS OF CHANGE IN TROPICAL PLANTS. By
G. P. Chapman, pp. 112 (21*5x14 cm) with 9 plates and 12 figures,
London, 1970. University of London Press Ltd. Price £1.00.
The quotation on the title page ‘ Botanical teaching based on the
temperate flora must necessarily be ill-based and inadequate ’ C.G.G.J.
van Steenis — defines the objective of this little but most valuable book.
The author aims to indicate the value of cytogenetics in understanding
the process of plant speciation and in the case of crop plants he wishes to
point out how these processes can be turned to our advantage. With the
help of examples of some well-known taxa viz. Casuarina, Catharanthus,
Euphorbia, Musa, Lycopersicon, Dichanthium, Maize, etc. the author
has discussed the processes of reproduction and plant breeding in the
past.
The author succeeds in building up an optimistic picture of food pro-
duction in the tropics while advocating intensive research on evolutionary
patterns of other tropical plant species of agricultural interest.
In his concluding remarks, the author brings out clearly the need for
more botanists to live and work in the tropics for several years, experienc-
ing at first hand the march of environmental change and plant response.
He is aware of the fact that every aspect of botany will not develop equally
in the tropics but commends the important activity of continuing
appraisal and reappraisal of traditional systematics followed by the work
of an evolutionist and plant breeder who can recognise the tropics as the
area of greatest potential interest.
This little book must be read by all botanists in the tropics —
especially in India — where a new phase of agricultural development has
been ushered in and many of our food plants like pulses, oil seeds, spices,
etc. can be developed with better understanding of reproductive processes
in tropics.
p. v. B.
5. ECOLOGY AND BIOGEOGRAPHY OF HIGH ALTITUDE
INSECTS — series entomologica volume 4. By M. S. Mani. pp. xiv+
527 (25x16 cm) with 79 figures. The Hague, 1968. W. Junk N.V.
Publishers.
Professor Mani’s studies on high altitude entomology in the
Himalayas are well-known. In this book he discusses in general climatic
conditions at high altitudes, and the adaptations which make it possible
for insect life to survive. He then goes on to describe in detail the
physiography, vegetation, and insect fauna of each of the major moun-
REVIEWS
189
tain ranges in the world. The flora and fauna of a mountain have partly
evolved from the lowland species of the area at the time when the moun-
tain range was uplifted, and have been remoulded at every phase of the
slow process of rising. Other species have colonised the mountain
from the lowland or from distant mountain ranges. Then there are
relict species which have survived glaciations on widely separated
high mountains though extinct elsewhere. Specialisation has every-
where tended to produce local subspecies and races, some restricted to a
single peak.
This comprehensive book is likely to be an essential reference book
on this subject for a long time to come. There are 1141 papers cited.
R. R.
6. CEDRUS. botanical monograph no. 5. By P. Maheshwari
and Chhaya Biswas, pp. 115 (16*5x24*5 cm) with 55 figures. New
Delhi, 1970. Council of Scientific and Industrial Research.
Price Rs. 24, sh. 48, $8.
This botanical monograph has been the last one in which the cele-
brated Indian botanist, late Professor P. Maheshwari actively partici-
pated. In fact, the other author points out in the footnote of the preface,
Prof. Maheswari passed away when the manuscript was almost
completed for the press. This monograph gives an excellent account
of the phytomorphology of the genus Cedrus. The major part of the
text deals with Cedrus deodara , one of the most valuable timbers found in
India.
Of the 108 pages of the text, 90 are taken up by phytomorphology—
53 dealing with embryology. Eighteen pages are utilised to give a
resume of cytological studies, phytopathology, ecology, sylviculture and
economic importance of the genus. The illustrations are excellent and
take about 50 pages.
Figure no. 55 giving time relation of Cedrus deodara is interesting.
It appears that one of the figures of years (June 1956 or January 1957)
needs correction in view of the explanation in the relevant table and
text — 18 months from June 1956 should make 1958 January.
The Introduction gives 4 interesting biblical and Chinese legends
on Cedar wood. It would have been in the fitness of this monograph
to mention a few from ancient Indian literature wherein 4 Devdaru ’ is
well-known. This monograph forms a valuable review of the phyto-
morphological studies of the genus Cedrus and will certainly prove useful
in that field of study with its comprehensive bibliography. In view of
190 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 70 (1)
its economic importance to lumber and perfumery industry, further
ecological and sylvicultural studies of this most valuable of temperate
conifer in India appear desirable.
The production values of the publication are kept very high and the
printers must be congratulated along with the artists for good reproduc-
tion of figures and photographs.
p. v. B.
Miscellaneous Notes
1. ECOLOGICAL AND BEHAVIOURAL NOTES ON THE
LIONTAILED MACAQUE ( MACACA SILENUS ) IN SOUTH INDIA
The Liontailed Macaque ( Macaca silenus ) has the most restricted
range of all primates of the Indian subcontinent, where it is restricted
to the evergreen forest of the Western Ghats (Krishnan 1971). Blanford
(1888) indicated that the species occurs from 14°N. to the southern
limits of the Western Ghats while Sugiyama (1968) found the species
between 9°30' and 11° 30'N. Krishnan (1971) indicates that it is no longer
present in the forests of Thirunelveli District at Courtallam. I was
very fortunate to observe the Liontailed Macaque on two consecutive
days (2-3 March 1972) at the Manjolai Tea Estate of Bombay Burma
Trading Company above Kalladaikurichi. This area is located in
Thirunelveli District of Tamil Nadu State at about 8° 38'N., 77° 25 'E.
and about 1000 metres elevation. The region can be characterized as
extensive tea and cardamom plantations interspersed with stands of
relatively undisturbed forest.
I first observed a group of Nilgiri Langur ( Presbytis johni) near the
edge of a tea field. After several minutes an individual with the distinct,
short, drooping tail of Macaca silenus was observed walking slowly along
a branch. Later, when tea pickers moved into the area three Macaca
were observed fleeing along with the group of langurs. A noteworthy
difference in the behaviour of the two species was observed ; the langur
moved through the canopy with long jumps accompanied by swishing
of branches while the macaque walked slowly and deliberately in single
file along the interior branches of the large forest trees. Only subdued
vocalizations were heard from the macaque (see below), while the langur
has loud call reminiscent of the whooping of the Black Howler Monkey
(Alouatta) of Central America.
The following morning one, and perhaps two, females with young
infants were observed in the same area. Judging from the size of a
known age infant in the Zoo Negara, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, the
infant at Manjolai was about two months old in early March.
Sugiyama’s observations (1968) indicate January is the season of birth
while Prater (1971) suggests that young are seen regularly in September.
As many as six adult individuals were counted simultaneously but
no doubt more were present on March 3. Throughout the observations
individuals appeared and disappeared in the forest canopy over an area
of several hectares, indicating that bands spread out rather widely during
feeding.
192 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vot. 70 (1)
Several types of feeding activities were observed. The female with
infant ate fruits of unknown identity in addition to probing into the cup
formed by a broken off branch. I could not determine if water or
perhaps arthropods were taken from the cavity. Another adult climbed
to the uppermost branches of a tall emergent tree where several dead
branches projected above the surrounding canopy. Pieces up to a foot
long were broken off and torn apart, presumably in search of arthropods
in the rotting wood. The macaque moved lower in the tree before
dismantling the branch and then moved to the upper branches again,
peered into the broken stub and tore off another dead branch. A third
adult was observed feeding on small red or dark brown fruits.
In addition to the perhaps fortuitous association between the langur
and macaque on 2 March I did observe one aggressive response by a
macaque female with infant to the close approach of an Indian Giant
Squirrel ( Ratufa indica).
Two vocalizations were heard during these observations. One,
written as ughh or uhhh, carried only very short distances. This call
reminded me of a warning cry of the white-faced monkey, Cebus
capucinus, in Panama. The second call was a cooo or oooo very similar
to the single cooo of many pigeons but of shorter duration. This call
has been reported earlier but Krishnan (1971) had questioned the nature
of this call as being monosyllabic or, alternatively, polysyllabic like the
modulated calls of several species of Tver on.
The most discouraging aspect of my observations is the apparent lack
of subadult individuals in this group of macaques. Several factors
could be responsible for this but the most likely seems to be capturing
of infants for sale in the market of large cities. I am told that young
Liontailed Macaques can frequently be found in the Calcutta market
despite the fact that capturing them is illegal. It seems that two major
factors threaten this species : (1) Habitat destruction in its restricted
range, and (2) Illegal capture of infants for sale in markets.
These observations were made during the tenure of grants from the
Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Balboa, Canal Zone and the
Office of International Activities of the Smithsonian Institution,
Washington, D. C. Special thanks go to Mr. J. C. Daniel and
Mr. Z. Futehally of the Bombay Natural History Society for their advice,
S. Poolappan for his assistance with field work and to the Bombay Burma
Trading Co. and Mr. J. J. Bland for allowing me to use their facilities at
Manjolai.
Department of Biological Sciences, JAMES R. KARR
Purdue University,
West Lafayette, Ind. 47907,
U.S.A.,
January 2, 1973.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
193
Refer
Blanford, W. T. (1888) : The Fauna
of British India — Mammalia. Taylor &
Francis. London.
Krishnan, M. (1971) : An ecological
Survey of the larger Mammals of Penin-
sular India. /. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
68 : 503-555.
E N C E S
Prater, S. H. (1971) : The Book of
Indian Animals. 3rd ed. Bombay Nat.
Hist. Soc., Bombay.
Sugiyama, Y. (1968) : The ecology of
the Lion-tailed Macaque [Macaca silenus
(Linnaeus)] — A Pilot Study. J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 65 : 283-292.
2. NOTES ON THE BIRTH AND GROWTH OF A SLOW
LORIS ( NYCTICEBUS COUCANG) IN CAPTIVITY
A pregnant Slow Loris ( Nycticebus coucang) received at the
Nandankanan Biological Park (Orissa) on l.ii.1971 from the forests of
Assam, gave birth to a female young on 21. ii. 1971. After delivery the
mother weighed 1*4 kg.
The new born young weighed 50 gm and measured 14 cm in total
length. The eyes were open at birth. The young had a coat of dense
fur and numerous long glistening grey hairs were scattered throughout
the body and projected far beyond the fur. These long hairs gradually
disappeared when the young was about 11 weeks old. The body
coat was grey throughout except the hands and limbs which were silvery
white. The brown stripe on mid back was very prominent.
A single young is usually born (Prater 1971 ; Walker et al. 1964 ;
Asdell 1964). Crandall (1965) reported that all births were of single
young except the two twin births which were found dead within a day or
two. The eyes of a Slow Loris young are open at birth (Crandall, loc.
cit.). There is no mention of birth weight and size in the available
literature.
Up to the age of seven weeks the young was seen clinging to the
mother’s abdomen and sucking her teat throughout the day. From the
eighth week onwards and up to the age of 10 months, the young was
clinging to the mother’s abdomen throughout the day, partly keeping
her hind quarters on the ground either in between the two limbs of the
mother or over the mother’s lap. Whenever attempts were made to
handle or see the young during the day time, the mother with her baby
curled up like a ball and twittered in annoyance. The mother cleaned
the baby by licking. After sunset the young was always seen separated
from the mother and was either clinging to the chainlink mesh wall or
moving about in the house from the very first day. From the third day
it was able to produce a feeble noise when handled and this noise im-
mediately attracted the attention of the mother. Up to 8 weeks of age
the young one was at times seen clinging to the abdomen of another
13
194 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1)
female kept in the same house. Later the second female did not allow
the young to cling to her, probably because of its increased body weight.
The young one took bananas for the first time at the age of about one
month. The mother was able to crawl along with the baby clinging to
her abdomen till the baby was seven months old.
Hill (1937 b) reported that the female Slow Loris may deliberately
place her baby on the ground, later picking it up but this behaviour
was neither observed by Crandall (loc. cit.) nor in this Park. Crandall
(loc. cit.) reported that a young born in New York Zoological Park was
found clinging either to the mother or to the father and he has never seen
a mother touch an infant, beyond the usual cleaning treatment with the
tongue. The young remains with the mother until it is as large as the
mother (Prater, loc. cit.). The young appeared to be dependent upon
the mother for at least 9 months or more and a youngster was seen
nursing when it was as large as the parent (Crandall, loc. cit.).
The young one reached its maximum weight of 1605 gm at the age
of 44 weeks (about 10 months) on 26.xii.1971. Weekly weight growth
records were taken at the end of every week and an abstract of the growth
records of this animal up to the age of one year is as follows :
Veterinary Assistant Surgeon, L. N. ACHARJYO
Nandankanan Zoo,
P.O. Barang,
District Cuttack.
Wild Life Conservation Officer, R. MISRA
Orissa,
Old Secretariat Building,
Cuttack4,
March 3, 1972.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
195
References
Asdell, S. A. (1964) : Patterns of
Mammalian Reproduction, Cornell Uni-
versity Press, Ithaca, New York, p. 130.
Crandall, Lee S. (1965) : The
Management of Wild Mammals in
Captivity, The University of Chicago
Press, Chicago & London, pp. 75-77.
Hill, W. C. Osman (1937b) : Cited
by Crandall, Lee S. (1965).
Prater, S. H. (1971) : The Rook of
Indian Animals. Bombay Natural His-
tory Society, Bombay, pp. 43-44.
Walker, Ernest P. et al. (1964) : Mam-
mals of the World, Vol. I, The Johns
Hopkins Press, Baltimore, p. 418.
3. ON SOME MELANISTIC SPECIMENS OF HOUSE RAT,
RATTUS RATTUS (LINNAEUS) [MAMMALIA :
RODENTIA : MURIDAE]
It is a well-known fact that the coat colour of rodents, specially the
rats, is subject to great variations. But extreme colour variations, com-
monly known as albinism and melanism, are rare. The latter has been
reported in several species of mammals, including rodents, but I find no
record of it in Rattus rattus (Linnaeus). It is therefore recorded here.
The note is based on a collection of five adult rats, Rattus rattus
(Linnaeus), present in the collection of the Zoological Survey of India.
Two are males (Z.S.I. Reg. No. 8366, 8374) and three females (Z.S.I.
Reg. No. 8365, 8369, 8370), all collected from Calcutta in the year 1906.
The colour of the body and the tail is completely black, with no line
of demarcation between the dorsal and ventral aspects. In three out of
five specimens, the pinna is of lighter colour than in the other two.
All measurements are in millimetres and are taken after Ellerman
(1963).
Measurements :
External: 2<$d — Head and body 181, 182; tail 190, 231; hind-foot 33, 34°;
ear 23, 24.
3 $$ — Head and body 145, 147, 178 ; tail 193, 195, 224 ; hind-foot 33*5, 34-5, 34-5 ;
ear 19, 21, 24.
Cranial: 1 £— < Occipitonasal 42*3; nasal 16*0 ; palate 22*3; palatal-foramina
7*6 ; diastema 12*0 ; upper tooth-row 6-3 ; bulla 7 -2.
3 $?. — Occipitonasal 36*8, 39‘0, 44*2; nasal 13*5, 14*0, 16*3; palate 19*3, 20*2,
24*0 ; palatal-foramina 6*5, 6*6, 8*9; diastema 10*0, 10-8, 13*0 ; upper tooth-
row 6*0, 6*1, 6*8 ; bulla 6*8, 7 0, 7*7.
Different views have been put forward as to the causes of melanism.
Keeler & King (1941) are of the opinion that melanism acts as a simple
Mendelian recessive character. Rohe (1961) found a melanistic popu-
lation of the Norway Rat (. Rattus norvegicus), confined to underground
sewers. The fact that the population was completely isolated and that
the litters were all melanistic led him to believe that it was a true breed-
ing melanistic colony. Svihla’s (1956) finding that heat conservation at
196 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1)
low temperatures does not differ in white from dark coloured rats, shows
that melanism does not have any beneficial effect over non-melanistic
forms. However, no opinion can be given on this aspect as my obser-
vations are based on dead specimens.
Acknowledgements
I am thankful to the Director, Zoological Survey of India, for pro-
viding facilities. I am grateful to Dr. B. Biswas for going through the
manuscript and to Dr. V. C. Agrawal for valuable suggestions.
Zoological Survey of India, T. P. BHATTACHARYYA
8, Lindsay Street,
Calcutta- 16,
November 24, 1971.
References
Ellerman, J. R. (1963) : The fauna of
India including Pakistan, Burma and
Ceylon, Mammalia, 3 (Rodentia) (2)
(Murinae). Govt, of India, Delhi.
Keeler, C. E. & King, H. D. (1941) :
Multiple effects of coat colour genes in the
Norway Rat with special reference to the
‘marks of domestication’. Anat. Rec.
81 : 48-49.
Rohe, D. L. (1961) : Melanistic nor-
way rats in Southern California. J.
Mammal. 42 : 268.
Svihla, A. (1956) : The relation of
colouration in mammals to low tempera-
ture. J. Mammal. 37 : 378-381.
4. THE ‘ DAY NEST ’ OF A RAT
Our house has mosquito netting in the windows. Outside one first-
floor bedroom window grows a creeper which we believe is the Rangoon
Creeper ( Quisqualis indica ). It has sweet pink and red flowers, fragrant
in the evenings. There are some dead branches of the creeper close to the
window. On these a few months ago a platform of twigs roughly 5
inches long appeared. For some days we saw no creature near it, but
one day we saw a large male rat with a long tail, stretched out upon it.
As we were close to the window and looked, he got a bit nervous and
slowly got off the platform and hid beneath it. This rat continued to
be all day long on this platform for at least a week. Then he disappeared
and we wondered if he had been sick and had died. But about a week
later, we noticed some activity and saw that the rat had plucked off some
leafy twigs from the creeper and arranged them all around the platform
and was again lying there, partially hidden from us by the leaves. As
the leaves withered, he plucked off more twigs and replaced them. He
lay there for over a week in this way and appeared most of the time to be
sleeping. Then he again disappeared.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
197
For many weeks we did not see him at all. Then on Wednesday,
November 29, 1 entered the room and to my surprise the rat was there !
It was about 1 p.m. He looked fatter than before, his fur in very good
condition. The platform on which he lay was in a sorry state after weeks
of disuse, but on Wednesday he brought no twigs and did not repair it in
any way.
When my husband returned about 6 p.m., I showed him the rat and
it was still there after 10 p.m. when we went to bed, but the following
morning it was not there and has not been seen since. This is its briefest
visit so far.
C.M.C. Hospital, M. P. WALKEY
Vellore 632004,
Tamil Nadu,
December 1, 1972.
5. ALBINISM IN THE LESSER RAT-TAILED BAT,
RHINOPOMA H. HARD WICKEI GRAY
(CHIROPTERA : RHINOPOMATIDAE)
Allen (bats 1939, p. 154) has mentioned a few cases of albinism in a
few species of bats with the remarks that both albinism and melanism
are rare in bats. No case of albinism came to my notice in the Indian
species during examination of over four thousand specimens belonging to
several species particularly from Central India. On 26th April, 1972,
however, a beautiful albino adult female of the Lesser Rat-tailed Bat
was collected alive along with others from a colony of about 100 indi-
viduals in caves under granite boulders near Jabalpur city. The general
pelage, the wing membranes, the metacarpals, the phalanges and the
ears are white or dirty white. The legs, the feet, the arms, the tail, the
face, the chin and the throat are pinkish. The colour of eyes was not
noted in the living specimen but in the dead specimen it is blackish. The
specimen has been exhibited in the departmental museum. The speci-
men was kept in captivity along with other specimens for a few hours
but died during night possibly because of an injury on the chest. Some
parts of it were found eaten by ants during night. It kept aloof from
other specimens in captivity.
Recently a friend reported that he collected an albino of Hipposideros
sp. from a large colony in a cave in another district of Madhya Pradesh.
183/581, South Civil Lines,
Jabalpur,
June 26, 1972.
H. KHAJURIA
198 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol 70 (1)
6. ON THE OCCURRENCE OF GYPS FULVUS AND
AEGYPIUS MONACHUS IN THE GIR FOREST
The known range of the Fulvous Griffon Vulture Gyps fulvus
(Hablizl) within the limits of the Indian subcontinent is Pakistan and
northern Gujarat, although stragglers have been recorded east to western
Assam, and south to Bombay (once). It has been known to be a regular
winter visitor only as far south as Kutch and northern Gujarat (Salim
Ali & S. D. Ripley 1968).
However, during my field study of vulture in the Gir forest (2-1 °6'
N., 70°46' E.) for two years from 1970 to 1972 I found this species a
common bird in the whole of the Gir forest during winter. From
November to March this vulture constituted approximately five per cent
of the total individuals of Gyps vultures observed at carcasses. The
other species were the Longbilled Vulture ( Gyps indicus) and the Indian
Whitebacked Vulture (Gyps bengalensis).
During their stay at Gir the fulvous griffon used the cliffs of Charakio
Hill which is the highest in the Gir, for roosting and resting. Conti-
nuous usage has left droppings that gave a white-washed appearance
to the broad face of these cliffs which could be seen from a long
distance. The name Charakio has been derived from the Gujarati word
charak which means bird droppings. Fulvous griffon were also found
roosting on the cliffs of the Girnar Hills, about 40 km north of the Gir,
along with Gyps indicus which also breed there. In addition to roosting
on cliffs the fulvous griffon spent nights on trees with other vultures
near carcasses, to enable feeding early next morning. One such bird
was caught at night with the aid of a search light and was used for captive
experiments. A specimen (Reg. No. 23524) has been deposited in the
bird collection of the Bombay Natural History Society.
Another species of vulture which was recorded for the first time in
the Gir forest, although within its known range, is the Cinereous Vulture
(Aegypius monachus). On 3 March 1972 at 1340 hrs a single bird came to
feed off the remnants of a dead buffalo beside Hiran river at Karam-na-
Dadea ness in the western Gir. It approached a King Vulture ( Torgos
calvus) which was feeding on the hard tissues of a limb, chased it aside
and started pulling at the limb. This bird was similar in general
appearance to the king vulture but bigger, had pinkish white legs and
head, and had no lappets. Dharmakumarsinhji (1955) has observed
this bird as a rare winter visitor in other parts of the Kathiawar Peninsula,
namely, Bhavnagar, Dhrangadhra, and the Girnar.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
199
Acknowledgements
The study was made possible through a Smithsonian Research
Foundation Grant (SFG-O-1894) made available by the Bombay Natural
History Society.
Bombay Natural History Society, ROBERT B. GRUBH
Hornbill House,
Shahid Bhagat Singh Road,
Bombay- 1,
January 25, 1973.
References
Ali, Salim & Ripley, S. D. (1968) : Dharmakumarsinhji, R. S. (1955) :
Handbook of the Birds of India and Birds of Saurashtra : 41, 43.
Pakistan, Vol. 1 : 298-302.
7. CALCIUM INTAKE IN VULTURES OF THE GENUS GYPS
Vultures grouped under the genus Gyps were known to feed only on
meat and other soft tissues of carcasses and not on bones, and therefore
their mode of calcium intake, required to build up bones, had always been
a mystery.
During one of my observations on vultures at Gir Forest I came
across the following incident. In the western Gir, close to Sasan village,
about ninety-five Whitebacked ( Gyps bengalensis), seven Longbilled
(Gyps indicus ), four Griffon (Gyps fulvus ), and three King (Torgos calvus)
vultures were feeding off the skinned carcass of an ox on 23rd January
1972 at 1245 hrs. Soon a few vultures with bulging crops emerged from
the squabbling flock, walked about twenty feet aside, and started picking
up and swallowing pieces of old, dry bones including ribs of small
animals and chopped up pieces of skull. It is a village carcass dumping
site, adjacent to the forest.
To further check this up on captive birds I introduced old bone pieces
into my vulture aviary. The vultures were not kept hungry. Soon after
introducing bones, Longbilled, Whitebacked, and also the only Griffon
I had came one by one and swallowed some bones, one of the birds
dipping a piece into water before swallowing it. This observation on
captive birds was also witnessed by Dr. Salim Ali during his visit to the
Gir two weeks later,
200 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1)
Acknowledgements
My study was sponsored by the Gir Project of Bombay Natural History
Society with financial assistance through Yale University from Smith-
sonian Foreign Currency Programme Grant No. SFG-O-1894.
Bombay Natural History Society, ROBERT B. GRUBH
Hornbill House,
Bombay,
January 1, 1973.
8. ON THE OCCURRENCE OF GOLDENBACKED
THREETOED WOODPECKER [DIN OPIUM SHORII
(VIGORS)] SOUTH OF THE HIMALAYAN RANGE
In the course of cataloguing the Society’s collection, we came across
a specimen of Dinopium shorii (Vigors) [wing 158 ; bill 34 ; tail 98]
No. 10298 (collected by Major F. T. Williams) marked ‘ Kolatur North,
S.I.R., 31st October 1897 ’. Kolatur North is on the South Indian
Railway not far from Madras. This is so far out of the currently
accepted range of the species that we decided that though Major
Williams obtained a partridge at the same place on 6th February 1898,
there was some error in the labelling and that it may have been obtained
in Burma where Williams had collected birds in May and June 1897.
That the labelling was not incorrect is suggested by references we have
come across later. Blyth (1849) in ‘ The Catalogue of Birds in the
Collection of Asiatic Society ’, p. 56, refers to a specimen from Gumsur
(Coll. Capt. McPherson) while earlier in 1845 in Jour. Asiat. Soc. 14 :
193, he said that this species inhabits 4 the sub-Himalayan region as well
as the hilly ranges of peninsular India Also we have Jerdon’s (1862)
statement in birds of india (1 : 299) that he saw it on the slopes of the
Nilgiris up to about 5000 ft. It may be noted that Blanford (1895)
(fauna 3 : 63) referring to Blyth’s record said : ‘ The reported
occurrences in the Indian peninsula need confirmation ; they may have
been founded on large specimens of T. javanensis ’. Later, Stuart Baker
(fauna 4 : 74) ignored the continental records but included Orissa in
the range of Dinopium javanense rubropygialis. Whistler & Kinnear
(/. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 37 : 294) said the last name could not refer
to a bird from the southwest and called it D. j. malabaricus. They
objected to Baker’s inclusion of Orissa in its range, but though they also
referred to Blyth’s record, made no attempt at its identification.
The discovery of Major William’s specimen prompts us to draw
attention to the probability of the earlier records being correct, and to
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
201
ask observers not only in the field but also those with access to other
collections, to see if they can obtain corroborative evidence.
75, Abdul Rehman Street, HUMAYUN ABDULALI
Bombay-3.
Bombay Natural History Society, S. A. HUSSAIN
Shahid Bhagat Singh Road,
Bombay- 1,
September 21, 1972.
9. DAMAGE TO MAIZE CROP BY ROSERINGED
PARAKEET, PSITTACULA KRAMERI (SCOPOLI)
IN THE PUNJAB
(With a photograph )
Introduction
Damage by birds to crops and fruits is not a new problem and
references to their damage have been listed periodically in the last five
centuries. The Roseringed Parakeet has been reported to be very
destructive to crops and ripening fruits thus reducing subsequent yields.
It eats by gnawing, thus wasting far more than what it actually eats
(Whistler 1949 ; Lamba 1952 ; Ali 1964 and Ali & Futehally 1967).
Taking into consideration its destructiveness to crops and fruits the
present studies were undertaken to evaluate the extent of damage to
maize crop.
Material and Methods
To evaluate the extent of damage to maize crop by parakeets, a plot
having a total area of F5 acres was selected at the Punjab Agricultural
University Farm, Ludhiana. The data were recorded on ten rows
selected at random when the grains were set in the cobs. The damaged
cobs were graded on the basis of the amount of damage done as fully
damaged, f damaged, \ damaged, i damaged and | damaged. Total
number of fully damaged cobs were calculated by summing up the
damage done to all cobs put together. The percentage of loss to the
grains on cob basis was then worked out.
Result and Discussion
On an average, there were 60*7 cobs per line, each having 39*2 un-
attacked cobs. Maximum damage was observed in the form of
No. of cobs with different amount of damage
Row No. f i l | Nil Total
Average 2-3 7T 6-3 5-8 39*2 60*7
202 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1)
\ damaged followed by i and } (see photograph). The damage in the
form of f was the least and no cob was found fully damaged (Table 1).
Table 1
Incidence of damage to maize cobs by parakeet
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
203
Per cent loss to maize crop on cob basis was also worked out and is
given in Table 2.
Table 2
Per cent loss to maize by parakeet
* Obtained by adding figures f of column 2, i of column 3, \ of column 4
and | of column 5 of Table 1.
The data presented in Table 2 reveal that the percentage of loss to
maize crop varied from 10T to 16*5, average being 12-4 per cent. How-
ever, Sekhon (1966) recorded on an average 20*6% loss to maize crop
due to Roseringed Parakeet. His observations were based on just
three rows of plants in a field. Whistler (1949) reported that it feeds bit
by bit and causes damage in the gardens and fields. Ali (1964) and
Ali & Futehally (1967) mentioned it to be a serious pest to the farmers
and fruit growers, causing enormous losses to their standing crops and
ripening fruits by gnawing at and wasting far more than it actually eats.
On the basis of the present study it may be concluded that the Rose-
ringed Parakeet causes considerable loss to maize crop and warrants
control.
Acknowledgements
We are thankful to Dr. O. S. Bindra, Professor & Head, Zoology-
Entomology Department, for providing the necessary facilities to carry
out these investigations.
Dept, of Zoology & Entomology, M. RAMZAN
P. A. University, H. S. TOOR
Ludhiana,
November 11, 1971.
204 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1)
References
Ali, S. (1964) : The Book of Indian
Birds. Bombay Natural History
Society, Bombay.
& Futehally, L. (1967) :
Common Birds. National Book Trust,
India, New Delhi.
Lamba, B. S. (1952) : Birds of
Hoshiarpur. M.Sc. Thesis Punjab Univ .,
Hoshiarpur.
Sekhon, S. S. (1966) : Studies on the
nidification, behaviour and damage by
sparrows and parrots in Punjab. M.Sc.
Thesis Punjab Agric. Univ., Ludhiana.
Whistler, H. (1949) : Popular Hand-
book of Indian Birds. Oliver and
Boyd, Edinburgh and London,
10. SIGNIFICANCE OF COMMUNAL ROOSTING IN THE
COMMON MYNA [ACRIDOTHERES TRISTIS (LINN.)]
Although some species roost alone, in pairs or small groups, there
are numerous cases in which hundreds or thousands of birds gather at a
communal roosting place both during and after the breeding season.
Yet till recently very little attention has been paid to explaining the func-
tion of this phenomenon in bird life. This paper summarises the result
of relevant observations on the Common Myna.
The Common Myna, a black-headed vinous-brown bird about 18 cm
long, is one of the most familiar species in India. It occurs in close
association with man and can be found wherever man normally lives,
except in high mountains, sandy desert and dense forest. It is basically
an insectivorous bird but due to its association with man it is omnivorous.
It roosts communally on trees in enormous flocks throughout the year.
Berhampore, a district town, is situated on the eastern side of the
Bhagirathi river in the midlands of West Bengal. The eastern bank of
the river is lined for about half a mile with double rows of densely
growing heavily spinous babul {Acacia arabica) trees. A large number
of tall trees like sisu {Dalbergia sissoo ), mango {Mangifera indica ), banyan
{Ficus benghalensis) and peepal {Ficus religiosa ), etc. are scattered all
over the town. During the course of my study on the life of the Com-
mon Myna (Sengupta, 1969, Proc. Zool. Soc. Calcutta 22 : 129-137) I
found that the babul trees formed the only roosting place of the Com-
mon Myna in Berhampore (area : ten square miles) although many other
suitable roosting trees were abundant. As the shadow lengthened, party
after party arrived from all directions and settled for the night to the
accompaniment of a great deal of cacophony.
Chuchura is also a district town at a distance of 40 km away from
Calcutta and is situated on the western bank of the Hooghly river. The
town encompasses 6 square km and contains a large number of tall trees
like banyan, mango, peepul. At Chuchura I have found only two roost-
ing sites. The largest roosting congregation of the Common Myna is,
however, on a tall banyan tree standing very close to the Chuchura
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
205
Railway Station. This railway station is situated on the outskirts of the
town where the human population is very scanty. The other roosting
site at Chuchura is a banyan tree standing on the bank of the Hooghly
river on the eastern boundary of the town.
Sinthi is a densely populated suburb of Calcutta (population : 50,000)
with large trees (coconut, banyan, mango and peepul, etc.) scattered all
over the arda. Here the Common Myna can be seen in abundance from
dawn to dusk feeding solitarily most of the feeding time on the house-
hold refuse. But at dusk the birds leave the area to roost on trees on the
outskirts of Sinthi.
Santiniketan is a university town in the district of Birbhum, West
Bengal. Here I have found only one roosting site of the Common Myna ;
a clump of bamboo ( Bambusa sp.) growing inside a walled graveyard at
the southern boundary of the university campus (area : c. 6 square km).
It is therefore, clear that the preferred roosting on babul trees above
all others at Berhampore, on a banyan tree on the outskirts of Chuchura,
and on bamboo in a secluded graveyard at Santiniketan is because
these sites are relatively undisturbed.
At Berhampore construction of a bridge over the Bhagirathi river
near the rows of the babul trees was started in the early part of June
1963. Soon tents and huts were installed to house a large number of
people who were connected with the construction of the bridge on the
river bank close to the rows of babul trees. Work continued all through
the day and night. At first I observed a sudden awakening of the
Common Myna accompanied with puffing of body feathers and loud
calls at intervals during the night. This behaviour was noticed till the
last week of June 1963 when one evening I found three or four mynas
had taken to roosting on a banyan tree about 300 metres away from the
bank of the river towards the town. Within a week that banyan tree
was heavily crowded with roosting mynas. Around the middle of July
1963 there were no mynas roosting either among the babul trees or on the
banyan tree. I searched for their new roosting site within the town
but without success. I left Berhampore in September 1967 when the
bridge was still under construction. Later I learnt that the bridge was
completed in the early part of 1969 and the river bank reverted to the
previous undisturbed condition around July 1970. On February 10,
1971, I happened to pay a visit to Berhampore and made a trip to the
Bhagirathi river. To my surprise I found a large congregation of the
mynas on the rows of babul trees as before. I presume that this was
due to the return of undisturbed and safe conditions on the river bank,
though I was not sure if these were the same birds that had roosted on
the babul trees earlier.
It appears, therefore, that selection of the roosting site in the Com-
mon Myna is dependent on protection against predators and distur-
206 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 70 (1)
bance by man. It was found in all the abovementioned places that at
dawn the mynas leave their roost and disperse for foraging far and near.
Several ringed mynas were found feeding 3 km away from the roost site.
Mynas feed individually in populated town areas and in small parties of
four to eight in the countryside yet roost communally. This habit is
also found in many other birds. However, where plentiful food is
available considerable congregations of mynas are found. This also
happens after a moderate shower, especially in the countryside when
insects come out from their hideouts. Therefore, in the Common Myna
the feeding pattern (i.e. gregarious, or individual) is determined by the
amount of food available in a particular area. Since the Common
Myna is omnivorous its food source is not localised in patches, as for
instance in granivorous birds, but is generally distributed. Hence
Ward’s (1965, Ibis , 107 : 173-214) contention that communal roosting
helps birds to find patchy food source seems untenable in the case of a
semi-domesticated omnivorous bird species with an unlocalized food
source. Siegfried (1970, Proc. XV Int. Ornith. Cong. : 197) and Zahavi
(1971, Ibis, 113: 107-109) while discussing the communal roosting in
Ardeola ibis and in Motacilla a. alba respectively have also suggested
its origin in relation to food supply. Zahavi’s (loc. cit.) contention that a
species feeding individually cannot have communal roosting also seems
untenable in a species like the Common Myna which feeds both indi-
vidually and gregariously yet roosts communally. Simmon (1965, Brit.
Birds 85 : 161-168) has also found some solitary feeders to roost com-
munally. Therefore, the relationship between feeding habit and com-
munal roosting as postulated by Siegfried and Zahavi (loc. cit.) cannot be
applicable to all bird species especially whose food source is not patchy
like the mynas. The position and pattern of the roost sites of the
Common Myna suggest that communal roosting behaviour may have
evolved through natural selection primarily as an antipredator adaptation
leading to the survival of the species thus supporting the view expressed
by Lack, 1968, the ecological adaptation for breeding in birds.
Dept, of Zoology,
Visva-Bharati University,
Santiniketan, W.B.,
May 2, 1972.
S. SENGUPTA
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
20 1
11. A CREST IN THE PLUMAGE OF THE SPOTTED
BABBLER PELLORNEUM RUFICEPS SWAINSON
On 2nd May, 1971, I was on a hillside at Khandala when I came
across a party of Spotted Babblers {Pellorneum ruficeps) some of which
were siitging on horizontal branches of trees. I had a close view of these
birds for about ten minutes and noticed that the birds in song had crests.
During the course of rather casual conversation with Mr. Humayun
Abdulali a few days later I mentioned this fact. He informed me that
the standard reference works on Indian ornithology do not mention that
the Spotted Babbler has a crest and he, therefore, arranged to show me
specimens of Pellorneum ruficeps in the Society’s collection.
We found that this bird does have slightly elongated feathers on the
crown which can apparently be raised in life into a fairly noticeable tuft.
In the prepared skin the elongated feathers have to be looked for.
C/o Mercantile Bank Ltd., D. A. STAIRMAND1 *
P.O. Box No. 128,
Bombay- 1,
June 22, 1971.
[The occipital feathers, when they are slightly elongated, as in this
species, give an impression of having a crest when the bird is excited and
fluffs out the feathers on the crown. Some species of the family Pycnono-
tidae, e.g. Redvented Bulbul ( Pycnonotus cafer ) show this character, as
also some other babblers, e.g. Browncapped Babbler, Tickell’s Babbler.
It is interesting to note that in such cases the birds show a definite 4 cap ’
on the crown — the feathers on this area being different in structure and
colour from the feathers on the back — Eds.]
12. PIT VIPER [TRIMERESURUS MACROLEPIS (BEDDOME)]
BITES AT A SOUTH INDIAN TEA ESTATE
{With two plates )
The Singampatti Group of tea estates lies on the eastern side of the
southernmost reach of the Western Ghats. The estate and nearby
forests are very interesting for many herpetological reasons. One is the
abundance of certain species of snakes which are limited to a certain
biotope corresponding to specific elevations and flora. Trimeresurus
1 Present address: Oddicombe House Hotel, Chillington, Near Kingsbridge,
South Devon, England.
20 $ JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1)
macrolepis is one of over a dozen Indian pit-vipers and is common in the
estate and in certain forest types (wet bamboo, streamsides) over 3000 ft.
Dr. Krishnamurthy, the Medical Officer of the Singampatti Group
gave me the following interesting notes concerning T. macrolepis
(Beddome) and the incidence of bites to the workers. This snake often
spends the day quietly in tea and coffee bushes, at the base of cardamom
plants, ferns near streams and in passion fruit and other vines. The
snake is nocturnal and will sometimes snap when poked or pulled at.
There were 18 cases of pit-viper bite in the Group estates from June
1970 to April 1971, from Trimeresurus macrolepis which often rest in
places where pickers will put their hands, or step.
Workers invariably tie a rope tourniquet above the bite. Bites are
about 60% on women (being in the majority in field work). Incidence
for hand and foot bites is 50/50 ; all bites occur during the day, an average
of 18 to 20 a year.
Condition on admission. Generally no tooth marks visible ; slight
swelling at the alleged site of bite (which a tourniquet can cause). The
limb gradually swells (hard oedema) up to shoulder or knee. The victim
experiences intense burning pain at site of bite for some hours and pain
in the limb for 3-4 days after the bite, after which swelling subsides. No
neurological or cardiac symptoms.
Treatment. Elevation of the limb. Magsulph fomentation to the
swollen area and antibiotics given. Septic bite is rare, no mortality or
serious symptoms caused by these bites. No known incidence of bites
from other venomous snakes at the estate.
Madras Snake Park, R. WHITAKER
Madras-22,
November 13, 1972.
13. A NOTE ON 6 GOLYA ’, A BAG NET, IN THE
DAMANGANGA ESTUARY AT DAMAN
(With a text-figure)
Approximately 80 per cent of the inshore fish catches at Daman are
by ‘ Golva ’ nets set in the Damanganga estuary. The Damanganga is
a comparatively sluggish river, generally shallow except during peak
monsoon months.
‘ Golva’ is a fusiform wide-mouthed bag net made of cotton twine, of
different dimensions depending upon available operational space. It is
kept in position by attaching it to two poles by its mouth in the tidal zone
of the estuary for catching miscellaneous fishes. Being a fixed net,
Plate I
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 70(1)
Whitaker : Pit Viper
Cardamom plantation at 4,500 ft. above MSL, typical habitat of Trime-
resurus macrolepis.
Whitaker : Pit Viper
Trimeresurus macro lepis from Manjolai, Tirunelveli Dist., Tamil Nadu.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
209
strong tidal current is necessary for its successful operation. Principally
it is a ‘ filter gear which depends on the fact that many of the small
fishes and Crustacea carried by the tidal currents are swept into the sta-
tionary bag, from which they cannot normally escape while the water
filters out.
A typical ‘ Golva ’ measures 22 metres in length, with 1300 meshes
at the mouth and tapering to 150 meshes at the cod end. Lengthwise,
it consists of five parts, locally called ‘ Galu 4 Tija ’, ‘ Bara chauthi
‘ Chota chauthi ’ and ‘ Khola ’ with mesh sizes of 10, 7*5, 5, 2 and 1
centimetres respectively. A bunch of 4 ropes each of 5 mm diameter is
tied to the mouth or the head rope all along the circumference to provide
additional strength at the mouth. The bunch is tied to the head rope at
an interval of 3 meshes both at upper and lower portions of the mouth
while the interval is 2 meshes laterally to make them stronger for resisting
the pressure of fast currents. It is set during the low tide by fixing two
strong long poles on which the mouth of the net is tied at four points
facing the incoming high tide making a rectangle, as shown in the figure.
The rectangular mouth, at this stage, measures 9’5x6*25 m. The open
cod end is knotted and is left adrift in the water. A 10 m long rope is
loosely tied around the anterior portion of ‘ Khola ’ (Cod region) through
loops by one end and the other end is attached to a floating indicator
buoy. The small fishes and prawns which drift with the high tide current
pass through the long net and accumulate at the cod end. The
catch is periodically hauled by pulling the rope thereby lifting the
‘ Khola ’ into the canoe and untying the knot. The net is easily removed
during low tides for drying by simply pulling the few strings that are
fastened by special knots. Refixing of the net by the skilled fishermen
before the onset of the high tide also takes about 15 to 20 minutes. A
14
210 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1)
small dug-out canoe with two men can operate a number of such nets.
One such net costs about Rs. 750 and remains serviceable for about
five years if properly maintained by timely repairs and tanning.
Generally, these nets are tanned once a month with the bark of a Termi-
nalia species. The bark is boiled for about 5 to 6 hours and the nets,
thoroughly washed in freshwater, are kept immersed in the decoction for
10 to 12 hours and thereafter these are dried in the sun.
Large quantities of immature fishes in the catch shows also the
destructive nature of the net. It is operated almost all the year round and
is admirably adapted for use in the fast tidal currents of the spring tides
of each fortnight. In weak currents, the hinder part of the net bends
little downwards, thereby obstructing the fishes from entering ‘ Khola ’
region ; moreover, powerful fishes sometimes burst out of the bag,
resulting in a lesser catch. Small and medium-sized Peneus sp., Meta-
peneus sp., Harpodon nehereus , Cuilia spp., Pellona spp., Engraulis sp.,
Setipinna spp., Mugil spp., Lutianus spp., Therapon spp., Otolithus spp.,
Polynemus sp., etc. constitute the catch. Bombay duck, H. nehereus ,
forms the bulk (60-70 %) of the catch during its peak season from October
to December. Generally, the catch is sold fresh locally except during
the peak 6 Bumla ’ (H. nehereus) season, when the heavy catch is
sundried for export to Surat, Bulsar and Bombay markets. The space
for operation of ‘ Golva ’ are leased out by the Department of Fisheries
on auction for a specific period of time, and in Daman, 97 families almost
exclusively earn their livelihood from the income of such nets.
Acknowledgements
The author is grateful to Dr. V. G. Jhingran, Director of the Central
Inland Fisheries Research Institute, Barrackpore, and Dr. J. C. Almeida,
Ex-Director of Fisheries, Goa, for their encouragement in the preparation
of this note. The author is also thankful to Shri P. S. Prabhakar,
Chairman of the Fisheries Co-operative Society, Daman, for his help.
Superintendent of Fisheries, P. DAS1
Daman, Union Territory,
January 1, 1971.
i Present address : Junior Fishery Scientist, Central Inland Fisheries Research
Institute, Barrackpore, via Calcutta, West Bengal.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
211
14. A GENERIC ASSESSMENT OF CORVINA
SEMILUCTUOSA CUVIER, 1830 (PISCES : SCIAENIDAE)
(With a text-figure)
Corvina semiluctuosa was originally described under the genus
Corvina by Cuvier (1830) followed by Gunther (1860). Kner (1865)
included the species under Jolmius Bloch and this nomenclatural combi-
nation was recognised by all subsequent workers (Bleeker 1874 ; Fowler
1933 ; Weber & de Beaufort 1936 ; Misra 1959 ; and Chu, Lo & Wu
1963). Day (1876), however, considered Johnius Bloch as a subgenus of
Sciaena Linnaeus and hence treated semiluctuosa under the genus
Sciaena in the group Johnius. The assignment of semiluctuosa Cuvier to
any of these genera is considered inappropriate since the species has a
carrot-shaped Otolithine gas-bladder (text-figure) with 15 pairs of arbo-
rescent tubular appendages, the anterior appendages branching in the
head under the skull, surrounded by the soft tissue of the head-kidney
and various ligaments, blood vessels and muscles.
Text-Fig. — 1. Gas-bladder of Nibea semiluctuosa (Cuvier) in ventral view
(diagrammatic) ; appendages shown on one side only.
a. position of septum transversum.
b. position of vent.
c. position of second anal spine.
Recent workers (Trewavas 1962, 1964 ; Chu, Lo & Wu 1963 ; Sinha
& Rao 1969) have emphasised the taxonomic value of the gas-bladder
structure in the generic groupings and nomenclature of the Sciaenidae.
This discovery of a basis for the generic classification of the Sciaenidae
has completely reoriented the classification when the gas-bladder struc-
ture was ignored in favour of tropic adaptations which have proved to be
only due to convergence. The species is, therefore, much more nearly
related to Nibea mitsukurii (Jordan & Snyder), the type species of Nibea
112 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1)
Jordan & Thompson, 1911, than to the species associated with it under
Johnius.
Corvina Cuvier has the same type-species as Sciaena Linnaeus,
Sciaena umbra Linnaeus which has a gas-bladder without appendages ;
and Johnius carutta Bloch, the type of Johnius , has a hammer-shaped
Otolithine gas-bladder. 4 Corvina 9 semiluctuosa Cuvier has no hammer-
shaped expansion of the front of the gas -bladder and this, the mandi-
bular pores and strong second anal spine place it in Nibea.
Nibea semiluctuosa (Cuvier, 1830) comb. nov.
Corvina semiluctuosa Cuvier, 1830, Hist. nat. Poiss ., 5 : 106 (Malabar, Goa &
Pondicherry).
Corvina semiluctuosa Gunther, 1860, Cat. Fish. Brit. Mus. 2 : 304 ; Day, 1865,
Fish Malabar : 53.
Johnius semiluctuosa Kner, 1865, Reise Novara Fische : 124 ; Bleeker, 1874, Verb.
Akad. Wet., 14 : 54.
Sciaena semiluctuosa Day, 1876, Fish. India : 191 ; Day, 1889, Fauna Brit. India.
Fish. 2: 121.
Johnius semiluctuosa Fowler, 1933, Bull. U.S. Nat. Mus. (100) 12 : 404 ; Weber &
de Beaufort, 1936, Fishes Indo- Australian Archipelago 7 : 535 ; Misra, 1959,
Rec. Indian Mus. 59 : 271 ; Chu, Lo and Wu, 1963, Fish. China : 22.
Material Examined :
3 specimens, 115-295 mm S.L., Bombay, F. Day (ZSI Reg. No. 986,
987 & 1001).
2 specimens, 156-223 mm S.L., Karachi, W. D. Cumming (ZSI Reg.
No. F2816/1).
1 specimen, 222 mm S.L., Ratnagiri, G. Ramakrishna, 1.6.1954
(ZSI Reg. No. F6159/2).
Distribution : India, the East Indies, the Philippines and China.
Acknowledgements
I am thankful to Dr. A. P. Kapur, Director, for encouragement and
to Dr. A. G. K. Menon, Superintending Zoologist, Zoological Survey
of India, for guidance in the preparation of this note.
Zoological Survey of India,
Calcutta- 13,
October 24, 1970.
P. K. TALWAR
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
213
References
Bleeker, P. (1874) : Memoire sur les
sciaenoides et les sillaginoides de l’lnde
Archipelagique. Verh. Akad. Wet.
14(4) : 1-76.
Cuvier, G. (1830) : In Cuvier and
Valenciennes. Histoire naturelle des
poissons 5 : 106-107. Paris.
Chu, Y. T., Lo, Y. L. & Wu, H. L.
(1963) : A study on the classification of
the sciaenoid fishes of China, with
description of new genera and species.
Shanghai Fisheries College, Shanghai.
Day, F. (1876) : The Fishes of India.
Williams & Norgate, London.
Fowler, H. W. (1933) : Contribu-
tions to the biology of Philippine Archi-
pelago and adjacent regions. Bull.
U.S. Nat. Mus. (100) 12 : 404-405.
Gunther, A. (1860) : Catalogue of the
acanthopterygian fishes in the collection
of the British Museum, 2. London.
*Kner, R. (1865) : Reise Novara
Fische : 124.
Misra, K. S. (1959) : An aid to the
identification of the common commercial
fishes of India and Pakistan. Rec.
Indian Mus. 57 : 1-318.
Sinha, N. K. & Rao, M. B. (1969) ;
Dendrophysa hoogliensis, a new species
of sciaenid fish from India. Copeia
(1) : 77-82.
Trewavas, E. (1962) : A basis for
classifying the sciaenid fishes of tropical
West Africa. Ann. Mag. nat. Hist. (13)
5 : 167-176.
(1964) : The sciaenid fishes
with a single mental barbel. Copeia
(1) : 107-117.
Weber, M. & Beaufort, L. F. de
(1936) : The fishes of the Indo-Austra-
lian Archipelago, Leiden 7 : 1-607.
*Not referred in original.
15. ON THE OCCURRENCE OF JUVENILE MACKEREL
RASTRELLIGER CANAGURTA (CUVIER) OFF GOA COAST
Goa along with the west coast of India has a flourishing mackerel
fishery solely, supported by Rastrelliger canagurta. Though the small-
sized mackerel have been observed elsewhere yet from the Konkan Coast
except for isolated records of small-sized mackerel off Karwar (Pradhan
1956) and off Ratnagiri (George & Annigiri 1960) young mackerel below
10 cm length have not, so far, been reported. I collected juvenile
mackerels several times during 1964-69. The details are given in the
Table. Peter (1969) has reported the occurrence of larvae from Persian
Gulf, Red Sea and Bay of Bengal in Indian Ocean (22° 22'N., 60° 50'E.,
16° 37'N., 41° 09 'E, 18° 15'N., 87° 48 'E.) from deeper waters.
The occurrence of 48-70 mm juveniles at Goa in May 1965, indicates
that the spawning must have commenced much earlier than June-
September as reported by Devanesan & John (1940), whereas
Balakrishnan (1957) observed that breeding of mackerel commenced
during March- April. George & Annigiri (1960) considered the occur-
rence of small sized mackerel in September as a result of spawning a
few months earlier. Similar inferences can be drawn from five instances
in Goa also, as recorded above. Peter (1969) has recorded occurrence
of small larvae of mackerel in the Indian Ocean in October-November.
This difference in the time of occurrence of larvae and juvenile in earlier
214 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1)
reports may be due to the difference in breeding at far off places from
where the larvae were obtained. Nevertheless, some observations at
Table
Juvenile of Rastrelliger canagurta off Goa coasts
Goa support Balakrishnan (loc. cit.) that spawning probably takes place
as early as March.
The mackerel fishery in this area generally commences in September
with the appearance of younger size groups varying between 160-200 mm.
However, from November onwards the fishery is supported by
220-240 mm groups with mode at 230 mm during January-March.
These are mostly with gonads in III stage of maturity. The largest speci-
men measured during this period was 290 mm in April 1968. During
April and May, in all the years of observations, occasionally spent speci-
mens were observed indicating probably termination of spawning.
However, in August 1971, some stray specimens of mackerel from
Rampan Catches which were in advanced stages of maturity, being V or
early YI were observed on this coast. This suggests that mackerel perhaps
has a prolonged breeding season with periodic spawning (more than once)
during this period. There is need for further detailed investigation to
confirm this observation. Plankton collections made during this period
in the area do not seem to have eggs showing resemblance to mackerel
eggs.
The main season of spawning of the mackerel along Konkan Coast
according to Pradhan (1956), is from May to September. A subsidiary
spawning season was reported on Mangalore Coast during January and
February by George et al. (1959). Since the spawners and young
mackerel have been obtained from this area at several places though in
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
215
small numbers during the course of this study, it indicates that these are?
stragglers from the main shoals which probably are not very far from the
actual spawning ground. This could be a useful clue towards
exploration of the spawning grounds of mackerel. The occurrence of
small-sized mackerel from May-September adds strength to the con-
tention that the Indian mackerel may have a prolonged spawning season.
No doubt, the occurrence of juveniles and even adult with spent gonads
in an area does not always reveal correct picture about spawning grounds
and spawning season yet the probability of these grounds being close to
the area of occurrence cannot be completely ruled out. Prolonged
breeding season with periodic spawning during the season (more than
once) indicates the possibility of different races coming into commercial
fishery with gonad in different stages of maturity.
Food of juvenile mackerel :
The food of the small-sized mackerels up to 95 mm size as revealed
in the gut contents consisted of diatoms, dinophysids, and a few cope-
pods and protozoa. The gut contents of mackerel, between 95-105 mm
was mainly post-larvae of fishes, and crustacean larvae, with negligible
phytoplanktonic organisms. The feeding intensity was appreciably
high. The food of size groups constituting the commercial fishery
between 170-230 mm was mainly diatoms like Consinodiscus , Rhizo-
solenia , Biddulphia , Planktoneilla, Pluerosigma and Chaetoceros sp. The
zooplankton constituents of mackerel food, along this coast are forms
like calanids, copepods, cladocera and advanced stages of crustacean, and
molluscan larvae, tintinnids and dinoflagellates. The feeding intensity
of mackerel is generally high from September to March but moderate
from April to June. During April-June period fish scales were often
found in the stomachs of mackerel caught by purse seines.
Acknowledgements
I wish to express my thanks to Dr. M. S. Prabhu, formerly Director
of Fisheries, Panjim, for his guidance during the course of this work. I
am also grateful to Dr. P. V. Dehadrai, Scientist, National Institute of
Oceanography, Panjim, for going through the manuscript.
Research Laboratory, RAJINDER M. DHAWAN1
Department of Fisheries,
Panaji, Goa,
March 23, 1972.
1 Present address ; National Institute of Oceanography, Miramar, Panaji (Goa)
216 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1)
References
Balakrishnan, V. (1957) : Occur-
rence of larvae and young mackerel
Rastrelliger canagurta (Cuvier) off
Vizhingam, near Trivandrum. Curr.
Sci. 26 : 57-58.
Devanesan, D. W. & John, A. (1940) :
On the Natural history of Rastrelliger
canagurta (Russel) with special reference
to its spawning season and eggs. Curr.
Sci. 9 : 462-464.
George, P. C., Dhulkad, M. H. &
Rao, V. Rammohan (1959) : Obser-
vations on the mackerel fishery of the
Netravati Estuary, west coast, South
India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
56 (1) : 32-38.
George, P. C. & Annigiri, G. C.
(1960) : On the occurrence of small size
mackerel Rastrelliger canagurta (Cuvier)
off Ratnagiri. Curr. Sci. 29 : 319-320.
Peter, K. J. (1969) : Larvae of Rastrel-
liger (Mackerel) from the Indian Ocean.
Bull. Nat. Inst. Sci. India. Part II, 38 :
771-777.
Pradhan, L. B. (1956) : Mackerel
fishery of Karwar. Ind. J. Fish. 3 :
141-185.
16. THE SOCIAL SPIDER, STEGODYPHUS SARASINORUM
KARSCH. FEEDING ON THE LEMON BUTTERFLY,
PAPILIO DEMOLEUS LINN.
The senior author during a visit to Hatta village in Parbhani District
found the webs of the Social Spider holding the dead bodies of the adult
lemon butterflies Papilio demoleus Linn, on orange trees in a citrus garden.
Some of the webbed branches were collected and brought to the labora-
tory where the webs were kept under a bell jar with a piece of cotton
swab dipped in chloroform and spiders that emerged out of the web
and died were counted and preserved in 70% alcohol. The webs were
then cut and the butterflies separated and counted. It was observed
that the bigger webs on an average had 58 spiders and the smaller webs 26
spiders, living almost in the heart of the web. On an average 18 and
8 adult lemon butterflies were collected from the bigger and small webs
respectively. The abdomen of the butterflies were completely eaten.
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to Dr. A. P. Kapoor and Dr. B. K. Tikader of the
Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta, for identifying the spider ; and
to Shri L. Sreenivas, Associate Dean, College of Agriculture, Parbhani,
for his interest and for providing necessary facilities.
Entomology Section,
College of Agriculture,
Parbhani (Maharashtra),
April 7, 1972,
A. K. RAODEO
D. T. TIKAR
ABDUL MUQUEEM
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
217
17. A NOTE ON IDIOSCOPUS CLYPEALIS (LETH.)
(HEMIPTERA : CICADELLIDAE)
During local faunistic surveys of Poona and its surrounding areas I
collected some Jassids on mango leaves from Nasrapur, about 40 km
east of Poona. They were studied at the laboratory to find the nature
and distribution of clypeal spots in both the sexes. Distant (1907)
while examining the species observed ‘ face immaculate or with the small
black median spots ’. Capriles (1964) also made a similar observation,
but while classifying the species, described the presence ol the spots
in the female. I, therefore made three collections in June, July and
August 1968, in order to study the exact nature of the distribution of the
spots in both of the sexes and the results are tabulated below :
Idioscopus clypealis (Leth.)
It is clear from the above data that the males also possess these spots
although their number and ratio is very small when compared with those
of the females. Almost all the females possess the spots.
Acknowledgement
I thank Shri B. S. Lamba, Officer-in-Charge, Western Regional
Station, Zoological Survey of India, for laboratory facilities and
encouragement.
Zoological Survey of India, K. RAMACHANDRA RAO
Western Regional Station,
Poona,
March 21, 1970.
218 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1)
References
Distant, W. L. (1907) : The Fauna
of British India. Rhynchota, Vol. IV :
1-50L
Capriles, J. M. (1964) : Studies on
Idiocerinae leaf hoppers II. The Indian
and Philippine species of Idiocerus and
the genus Idioscopus (Homoptera :
Cicadellidae). Proc. Ent. Soc. Wash.,
66(2 ) : 89-100.
18. SEASONAL CHANGES IN THE POPULATION OF
EPILACHNA BEETLE HENOSEPILACHNA SPARS A HERBST.
(COLEOPTERA : COCCINELLI DAE)
(With nine text-figures)
Observations have been made by the authors on the seasonal changes
in the population of Epilachna beetles, Henosepilachna sparsa Herbst.
in the field and laboratory. The beetles were reared in the laboratory
in rearing cages specially designed by Edona and Soans. Outside the
beetles thrive on Datura fastuosa in the Malabar Christian College com-
pound. Seasonal changes affect the population both inside the labora-
tory and outside, but outside the seasonal changes are more pronounced.
The presence of Epilachna beetles can be best determined by examin-
ing the leaves of Datura fastuosa. The leaves are seen eaten up in irre-
gular patches with the thin upper cuticle of the leaf entirely or partly
covering those areas. When the underside of these injured leaves is
examined, one is likely to find epilachna beetles in one stage of develop-
ment or the other.
The beetle population reaches its highest numerical strength about the
middle of October and continues till the end of November. The
favourable climatic conditions which succeed the rainy season seem to be
responsible for this increase. Beetles breed rapidly and feed voraciously
in the field. Both the larvae and adults feed on the under surface of the
leaves skeletonizing them and producing a new crop of adults. Dry
yellow leaves with practically all the tissue eaten and with a fine net
work alone remaining indicates heavy infestation.
In the laboratory also beetles multiply rapidly during these days.
Specimens with different elytral maculation appear during this season.
The basic elytral maculation consists of 6 black spots always present on
each elytron arranged as in fig. 1 ; but these may be augmented by the
presence of 1-5 black non-persistent spots variably present (figures 2-6).
Both persistent and non-persistent spots are variable in size, the former
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
219
being usually bigger than the latter. Occasionally some spots may
coalesce.
Henosepilachna sparsa Herbst. : Figs. 1-9
1. Basic elytral maculation of 6 black spots. 2-6. spot patterns of elytra
showing presence of 1-5 non-persistent spots on each elytron. 7-8. coalescence of
spots. 9. left elytron, persistent spots numbered 1-6.
From the middle of December throughout January a slight reduction
in the population is noticed. This becomes more pronounced in
February and in March. By this time only six-spotted beetles are seen
and occasionally7-spotted ones. By April the reduction in the popu-
lation reaches its climax. Of the insects present only few lay eggs and
there is considerable reduction in the number of eggs in each batch.
Due to the heat and dry air most of the eggs, larvae, pupae and adults
are killed. Mortality is highest in the first and the second instars. The
eggs remain dead and dry on the plants ; the larvae and adults are killed
220 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1)
and fall to the ground ; while the pupae are left dark brown and black to
dry up on the plants. These conditions are common both in the field
and the laboratory. Occasionally a few beetles emerge one at a time
during late March and April. But none of these develop normal feeding
habits and therefore have a shorter span of life.
By the second week of May when the rains start the temperature is
slightly reduced, the beetle population begins to improve in the cages
and in the field. Mortality is reduced. More insects begin to appear.
The population increases in June and July. When the rainfall increases
in the last week of July and at the beginning of August, the normal acti-
vities of the beetles are curtailed but rain storms seldom continue without
intermission for very long and the temperature is always high enough for
activity to be resumed as soon as the rain stops. In August there is a
slight reduction in population because the torrential showers wash away
the eggs and larvae from exposed places. In September again there
is an increase in the population, which continues till the middle of
December but reaches its climax in November. By September adult
beetles of different elytral maculation begin to appear.
Variations in number among these beetles therefore seem to depend
largely on weather conditions. The population increases in numbers
and the beetle becomes a major pest in the years of normal temperature
and rainfall, but decreases in numbers in years of high temperature and
droughts, especially when these periods are prolonged. Thus there was
greater increase in numbers in November 1968, when the climatic condi-
tions were more favourable than in November 1969 which was a period of
inclement weather.
There were a few places where the mortality was not very high even
under generally adverse conditions. Because they contained vigorously
growing Datura plants which were irrigated and thus protected from un-
favourable climate. However inclement climatic conditions may be, it
does not seem likely that total eradication of the beetle will occur. The
insect either persists on Datura throughout the year or is only temporarily
held in check by unfavourable weather conditions.
Department of Zoology,
Malabar Christian College,
Calicut- 1, Kerala,
December 27, 1969,
V. I. EDONA
A. B. SOANS
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
221
19. THE PROCESS OF MOULTING AND THE NUMBER
OF INSTARS IN THE TIGER BEETLE, CICINDELA
CANCELLATA DEJ. (COLEOPTERA : CIC1NDELIDAE)
{With a text-figure)
Cicindela cancellata Dej. is a tiger beetle which is widely distributed in
India. Its larvae live inside burrows in the soil and therefore it is very
difficult to observe all the details of its life-history under natural environ-
mental conditions. The authors have been rearing this species in the
laboratory in specially designed glass rearing jars. As a few of the larvae
excavate their burrows accidentally, along the wall of the rearing jar, it is
possible to observe through the glass wall the process of moulting in the
larva inside the burrow. This paper gives an account of the process of
moulting and also the result of an indirect investigation into the number
of larval instars in this beetle by the application of Dyar’s Law.
The process of moulting. The larva, after a period of active feeding
and just before the moult, blocks the opening of the burrow with sand,
stops feeding, settles down at the bottom of the burrow and becomes
inactive. At this stage, the abdomen of the larva, which at other times is
light brown or grey in colour, becomes yellowish. The larva occasionally
wriggles its body rapidly in an undulating fashion. Frequently, the body
is suddenly bent ventralwards in a snapping manner.
Moulting takes place during the night. As a result of the charac-
teristic movements of the body and other internal factors, the larval
cuticle splits along the ecdysial lines which are present on the head and
the thorax. On the head, splitting of cuticle takes place along the short
coronal suture and the arms of the frontal suture which are relatively
long and slightly wavy, diverging widely and terminating anteriorly
at the dorsal edges of the antennal sockets. In the thorax, the cuticle
splits along the mid-dorsal line of weakness or ecdysial line. The pattern
of ecdysial splitting of the cuticle is clearly seen in the exuviae collected
from the burrows.
The number of instars. — Dyar (1890)1 stated that in lepidopteran
larvae, the width of the head capsule increases in a regular geometric
progression through successive instars, by a ratio of about 1*4. This
principle which is known as Dyar’s law, has been used successfully to
determine the number of larval instars in some insects.
iDyar, H. G. (1890) : The number of moults of Lepidopterous larvae. Psyche.
5 : 420-422.
Ill JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1)
A large number of larvae of Cicindela cancellata in the various stages
of growth, were collected from the field and from the rearing jars in the
laboratory. The measurements of the width of their head capsules were
recorded and the frequency distribution of the various values was studied.
The text-figure gives the results in the form of an histogram.
4or
(Trims)
Histogram of the width of head capsules of the larvae of Cicindela cancellata.
The histogram clearly shows that the width of head capsules
fall under three distinct and discontinuous classes, indicating that there
are three larval instars in the life cycle of Cicindela cancellata. The mean
width of head capsules of the three instars are, 1*31, 2T2, and 3*36 milli-
metres respectively. The growth ratio between the first and second
instar is 1 *63 and that between the second and the final instar is T59. It
miscellaneous notes
11$
is seen that the growth ratio between successive instars is approximately
constant.
Grateful acknowledgement is made of a grant from the University
Grants Commission to one of the authors (A.B.S.).
Calicut- 1, Kerala,
July 7, 1969.
20. NEW RECORDS OF HYMENOPTEROUS PARASITES
OF PEA LEAFM1NER PHYTOMYZA ATRICORNIS
MEIGEN (DIPTERA : AGROMYZIDAE)
The pea leafminer Phytomyza atricornis Meigen is the most common
and widespread leafminer throughout the world. The larva of this pest
is polyphagus and attacks a large number of plants belonging to several
natural orders. According to Trehan & Sehgal (1963), the larva feeds
indiscriminately on pallisade and spongy mesenchymatous tissues but
never consumes the entire tissues between the upper and lower epidermis
and the endodermal cells containing starch are largely avoided.
Ahmad & Gupta (1941), while studying the biology of this pest on pea,
reared an Eulophid, Solenotus sp. from its larval stages. Narayanan
et al. (1956) reared an ectoparasite Solenotus sp., an endoparasite,
Rhopalotus sp. and an unidentified braconid on the larval stages of this
host fly. Only recently Odak et al. (1968) have recorded Opius sp.
(Braconidae) and Neochrysocharis sp. (Eulophidae) as parasites of
P. atricornis from Gwalior (India). The present study was, thererfore,
undertaken to investigate parasites of this leafminer in the Ranchi area
and leaves of pea ( Pisum sativum Linn.) were collected. The following
six hymenopterous insects emerged from the leafmines.
1. Chrysocharis sp. (Eulophidae)
Thompson (1943, 1954) has recorded Chrysocharis sp., C. elongatus
and C. syma from New Zealand, Yugoslavia and England respectively,
as parasites of this leafminer.
2. Tetrastichus sp. (Eulophidae).
3. Cirrospilus sp. (Eulophidae).
4. Opius sp. ? phaseoli Fischer (Braconidae).
5. Opius sp. ? lantanae Bridw. (Braconidae).
6. Sphegigaster sp. (Pteromalidae).
Department of Zoology,
Malabar Christian College.
A. B. SOANS
J. S. SOANS
224 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1)
Acknowledgements
My thanks are due to Sri Y. Sankaranarayanan, Director and
Dr. A. Bhattacharya, Entomologist of the Institute, for encouragement.
Thanks are also due to Sri B. P. Mehra, Scientific Officer of the Institute
for constant help and going through the manuscript and to Mr. R. D.
Eady, Commonwealth Institute of Entomology, London, for the identi-
fication of the parasites.
Indian Lac Research Institute, R. S. GOKULPURE
Namkum, Ranchi, Bihar,
May 20, 1970.
References
Ahmad, T. & Gupta, R. L. (1941) :
The pea leafminer Phytomyza atricornis
(Meigen) in India. Indian J. Ent.
3 : 37-49.
Narayanan, E. S., Subba Rao,
B. R. & Kaur, R. B. (1956) : Studies on
the biology of the parasites of the pea
leafminer, Phytomyza atricornis (Meigen).
Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. (B) 44 :
137-147.
Odak, S. C., Dhamdhere, S. V. &
Kaurava, A. S. (1968) : New records
of hymenopterous parasites of Phyto-
myza atricornis (Meigen), a serious pest
of pea. Indian. J. Ent. 30(3) : 250.
Thompson, W. R. (1943) : A catalogue
of the parasites and predators of insect
pests. Parasites of the Dermaptera and
Diptera. Sect. 1, Part 2. Common-
wealth Institute of Biological Control :
60.
Thompson, W. R. (1954) : A catalogue
of the parasites and predators of the
insect pests. Hosts of hymenoptera
(Galliceratid to Evaniid) Sect. 2, Part 3.
ibid. 274.
Trehan, K. N. & Sehgal, V. K.
(1963) : Range of host plants and larval
feeding in Phytomyza atricornis Mg.
(Diptera : Agromyzidae). Entomo-
logist's mon. Mag. 99 : 1-3.
21 . CONTRIBUTION TO THE STUDY OF AQUATIC BEETLES
—14. COPELATUS NEELUMAE SP. NOV. (DYTISCIDAE)
FROM INDIA
( With a text-figure)
Copelatus neelumae sp. nov.
Holotype — c?, Tamilnadu : Ottokovil, Tiruchirapally District,
from a tank near Uppada river, 13.iii.1971, K. V. Lakshminarayana
coll. In the National Collections, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta.
Z.S.I. Regd. No. gg.
Length 5’4 mm. Breadth 2*8 mm.
Head rufo-ferruginous, slightly paler anteriorly ; punctation on the
disc quite dense, separated by its own diameter, irregular, more sparse
anteriorly and towards the sides ; surface distinctly microreticulate.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
225
Pronotum rufo-ferruginous with sides slightly paler ; anterior row of
punctures quite regular ; punctation of surface finer and less dense than
on the head, on the disc separated by 2-3 times its own diameter ; surface
micro-reticulate as on the head.
Text-figure. Copelatus neelumae sp. nov., A — left elytron ; B — lateral view of
penis ; C — pro tibiae in male. All from holotype specimen.
Elytra (Text-fig. A) pale testaceous with irregular rufo-ferruginous
spots between the suture and third striae, but neither touching the base
nor the apical one-third of the elytra. Elytral striae disposed as under.—
Striae 1, 2 and 5 abridged at base (1 more than the other two), while
striae 3, 4 and 6 commence from the base ; striae 1 more abridged at
base than striae 2 and striae 2 less abridged at base then striae 5 ; sub-
marginal striae extending a little beyond the middle anteriorly and ter-
minating almost near the apex of striae 6. Striae 6 shorter than 5 at
apex, striae 5 shorter than 4 at apex, striae 4 and 1 terminate beyond
apex of 3 and 2, nearly enclosing both of them. Punctation and reti-
culation as on pronotum but less impressed.
Ventral side pale testaceous; metacoxae and 3 visible abdominal
sternites with short, oblique, profound strioles, those on the abdominal
A l_
0*5mm.
O'lmrn.
15
226 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vot. 76 (1)
sternites a little longer than on metacoxae. Male protibiae (Text-fig. C)
enlarged towards apex, distinctly curved and notched at base ; basal
three segments of protarsi and mes otars i moderately enlarged ; penis
(Text-fig. B) slender, curved, asymmetrical from dorsal surface (rather
twisted).
Female — unknown.
Remarks : This species belongs to the irinus group, Guignot (1961)
and comes close to C. hangalorensis Vazirani, C. indicus Sharp and
C.freudei Guignot ; in coloration and elytral markings. It differs from all
the above species in having elytral striae 1, 2 and 5 abridged at base as
against elytral striae 1 abridged at base. In the shape of penis, which is
without a dorsal lobe, it comes close to C. indicus and C.freudei , while in
size it is larger than both of them. The specimen under report is freshly
emerged, therefore the coloration described above is to be viewed accord-
ingly. In mature specimens the coloration will be darker, but the basic
pattern of markings will remain the same. The penis had protruded
and had separated and was glued to the card along with the specimen.
Vazirani (1970) has given key to the species known from India and has
figured the genitalia of the other species mentioned above.
Zoological Survey of India, T. G. VAZIRANI
Calcutta- 16,
November 13, 1972.
References
Guignot, F. (1961) : Revision des
Hydrocanthares d’ Afrique (Coleoptera
Dytiscoidea). Ann. Mus. R. Congo
Beige Sci. Zool. 90 : 659-995.
Vazirani, T. G. (1970) : Contribu-
tions to the study of Aquatic Beetles
(Coleoptera). VII. A. revision of Indian
Colymbetinae (Dytiscidae). Oriental
Ins. 4 : 303-362.
22. QUISQUALIS INDICA LINN. AND DO DONE A
VISCOSA LINN. AS NEW HOSTS OF CASTOR
SEMILOOPER, ACHOEA JANATA LINN.
Castor semilooper, Achoea janata L. (Lepidoptera, Noctuidae) is a
serious pest of Castor ( Ricinus communis ), guava fruits (Psidium guajava )
(Srivastava 1960) and citrus fruits (Ayyar 1940 and Rakshpal 1945) in
orchards, Pruthi & Mani (1945) reported rose ( Rosaindica ), pomegranate
( Punica granatum) and Euphorbia pilulifera as the alternate hosts while
Khan (1946) further included ‘ Kachnar ’ ( Bauhinia variegata ), ‘Ber*
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
227
(Zizyphus jujuba ), 4 Dudhi ’ ( Euphorbia hirta) and banyan ( Ficus
bengalensis) as the alternate hosts. The larvae were also observed,
in forests, to feed on 4Babool’ ( Acacia arabica) and Albizzia amara
by Bhasin & Roonwal (1954). The present report records the
feeding of A. janata larvae on two additional hosts, namely the
hedge plant Dodonea viscosa (Family Sapindaceae) and the ornamentaj
Rangoon creeper, Quisqualis indica (Family Combretaceae). Both these
plants are important garden ornamentals. So far, we have observed
feeding of this pest in laboratory on more than a dozen hosts in varying
degrees of intensity but observations made during the last two years at
Jobner, Udaipur and Jaipur revealed that the two plants reported here
suffer substantial damage by this insect from July onwards. Further,
both Quisqualis and Dodonea were observed to be attacked in the field
simultaneous to the occurrence of the insect on castor within a distance of
7 metres and 13 metres respectively. This showed that even in the
presence of the primary host the gravid female moths oviposited on these
garden plants indicating a potential preference of the insect to these
plants. Detailed studies on the host preference of this insect are under-
way.
Department of Entomology, V. S. KAVADIA
Agricultural Experiment Station, S. K. VERMA
University of Udaipur,
Udaipur,
September 12, 1970.
Referen ces
Ayyar, T. V. R. (1940) : A Handbook
of Economic Entomology for South
India. Madras Govt. Press, Madras,
xvm+528 pp.
Bhasin, G. D. & Roonwal, M. L.
(1954) : A list of insect pests of forest
plants in India and the adjacent coun-
tries. Indian Forest Bulletin (New
Series) Entomology, No. 171 (1) : 1-93.
Khan, M. Q. (1946) : Life history and
bionomics of castor semiloopers in
Hyderabad (Deccan). Indian J. Ent.
8 : 111-115.
Pruthi, H. S. & Mani, M. S. (1945) :
Our knowledge of the insect and mite
pests of Citrus in India. Scientific
Monograph, No. 16, I.C.A.R., Delhi. :
27 : 31-35.
Rakshpal, R. (1945) : Cirtus fruit
sucking moths and their control. Indian
Fmg. 6 : 441-443.
Srivastava, B. K. (1960) : Achoea
janata as a pest of ripening guavas.
Proc. 47th Indian Sci. Congress 3 : 558.
228 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1)
23. THE OCCURRENCE OF THE COMMON PALMFLY
{ELYMNIAS HYPERMNESTRA CAUDATA BUTLER)
NEAR BOMBAY
On 27th September 1972 I captured a female of the Common Palmfly
( Elymnias hypermnestra caudata Butler) at Kihim, Kolaba District, a
few miles south of Bombay. This appears to be an extension of its range
as there are no definite records of this butterfly from anywhere near
Bombay.
According to Wynter-Blyth (butterflies of the Indian region) the
species may be found 4 at low elevations in suitable localities in the penin-
sula as far north as Madhya Pradesh ’, but till now E. h. caudata has not
been apparently recorded north of Karwar (N. Kanara) which is the
northernmost point from where a specimen in the Society’s collection
has been obtained.
The specimen, now in the Society’s collection, was seen settled near
the ground on a bush along the seashore. As the wings were rather
tattered it may have been carried northwards by the monsoon winds.
I am grateful to the Society for the use of their equipment and in
particular to Mr. N. T. Nadkerny who kindly confirmed the identification
of the specimen and supplied some of the references.
Sunbeam, SALMAN ABDULALI
Perry Cross Road,
Bandra, Bombay- 50,
November 24, 1972.
24. OCCURRENCE OF THE GENUS CONCHYLIURUS
BOCQUET & STOCK (CYCLOPOIDA-CLAUSIDIIDAE)
IN RATNAGIRI
While studying the biology of Meretrix meretrix L., I came across a
number of semi-parasitic copepods in the mantle cavity of the clam.
These copepods belonged to two different species of the genus Conchy -
liurus. This genus was created by Bocquet & Stock (1957) with C.
solensis as the type species. From Indian waters, the genus Conchy -
liurus was first recorded by Reddiah (1960), who described a new species
C. maximus Reddiah from Sanguinolaria ( Soletellina ) diphos (Gmelin)
from Portonovo. In the following year, Reddiah (1961) described two
more new species, C. bombasticus Reddiah and C.fragilis Reddiah from
Meretrix meretrix (L.) from Portonovo. A detailed examination of the
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
229
local specimens revealed that they belonged to the last two species des-
cribed by Reddiah (op. cit.) from M. meretrix (L.). This is thus the first
record of the genus Conchyliurus from the West Coast of India.
So far about nine species have been described under this genus. Con-
sidering the richness of the molluscan fauna of India, more species are
likely to be discovered in future. It is therefore, considered, that the
distribution (Table) of all known species of this genus, together with their
type hosts and localities, would be useful for future workers on this
group.
Table
* Type host, ** Type locality, *** Bocquet & Stock (1958) downgraded Gooding’s
species C, cardii into a subspecies and referred to it as C. cardii cardii Gooding,
230 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1)
I wish to express my sincere thanks to Dr. K. Reddiah, Officer-in-
Charge, Eastern Regional Station, Zoological Survey of India, Kench’s
Trace, Shillong (Assam) for his help in identification of the species and
loan of some important references. I am also grateful to Dr. C. V.
Kulkarni, Director of Fisheries, Maharashtra State and Dr. H. G. Kewal-
ramani, Senior Scientific Officer, for their helpful criticism.
Marine Biological Research M. R. RANADE
Ratnagiri, Station,
March 4, 1970.
References
Bocquet,, C. & Stock, J. H. (1957) :
Copepodes parasites d’ Invertebres des
cotes de France. I. Sur deux genres de
ia famille des Clausidiidae commensaux
de Mollusques : Hersiliodes Canu et
Conchy liurus nov. gen. Proc. Kon.
Nedrl. Akad. Weteusch. Amsterdam,
Ser. C, 60(2) : 512-22.
(1958) : Copepodes para-
sites d’ Invertebres des cotes de France.
VII a. Characters specifiques et sub.
specifiques a i’ interieur de genre Conchy -
liurus Bocquet & Stock. Proc. Kon.
Nedrl. Akad. Weteusch. Amsterdam,
Ser. C, 61(3) : 308-24.
Gooding, R. U. (1957) : On some
Copepoda from Plymouth, mainly asso-
ciated with invertebrates including three
new species. J. mar. Biol. dw. U.K.
36 : 195-221.
Humes, A. G. & Cressey, R. F.
(1958) : Copepod parasites of Mollusks
in West Africa. Bull, de I I.F.A.N. ,
T. XX, Ser. A (3) : 921-942.
Reddiah, K. (I960) : Copepods asso-
ciated with Indian Molluscs, (a) Des-
cription of Conchyliurus maximus,
Sanguinolaria ( Soletellina ) diphos
(Gmelin) (Lamellibranchiata-Psammo-
biidae). J. Zool. Soc. India 12(2) :
137-146.
(1961) : Copepods associa-
ted with Indian Molluscs. (B) Descrip-
tion of two new Conchyliurus species
from Meretrix meretrix (L.). Crustaceana
2(4): 300-312.
25. ON THE OCCURRENCE OF CUSCUTA SANTAPAU1
BANERJI & DAS IN WESTERN
HIMALAYAS
While working on the flora of Kinnaur district, Himachal Pradesh,
the author came across a few plants of this species growing along
the banks of Tangling khud nala at Shongtong and at Kilba. The
species was first described by Banerji & Das (loc. cit.) based on materials
collected from East Nepal and Assam. Vaid & Naithani (loc. cit.) recently
reported its occurrence in Chandanwari (Kashmir) and in New Forest
(Dehra Dun). The present report from Shongtong and Kilba, besides
being additional information about its distribution in the country,
helps to some extent also in bridging the vast discontinuity in its distri-
bution from Assam and East Nepal in the east to Chandanwari at the
northwestern limit of the Himalayas. A careful search in the field and
n herbaria may provide more data of its distribution elsewhere in the
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
231
Himalayas. The data on the distribution available now indicate that the
plant has a wide distribution, probably occurring over the entire range
of the Himalayas.
This species is often confused with C. reflexa Roxb. which it resembles
closely. The characters which enable one to distinguish the two species
have been dealt with in detail by Banerji & Das (loc. cit.) and Vaid &
Naithani (loc. cit.). The figures of the floral parts of the two species in
the plate in Banerji & Das (loc. cit. 88) are also very helpful in distinguish-
ing the present species from C. reflexa Roxb.
The nomenclature of the plant is as follows :
Cuscuta santapaui Banerji & Das in Journ. Arn. Arb. 46(1) : 87, 1965 ;
Vaid & Naithani in Ind. For. 97(8) : 467-468, 1971.
The plant is usually seen in open situations on the margins of forests.
The whole plant is creamy white or hay-coloured when young and turns
pale reddish-brown later. The fruits are creamy white when mature ;
they also turn pale reddish-brown on ageing. The stem and fruits are
dotted with brownish-black spots which are clearly visible even in dried
herbarium material.
Specimens examined : himachal pradesh : Shongtong, on
the banks of Tangling khud nala, alt. ± 1970 m, 6th October 1971,
K. P. Janardhanan 46486, in fls. & frts., parasitic on Prunus persica (Linn.)
Stokes ; Kilba, hillslope above the Forest Rest House, alt. ± 2100 m,
10th October 1971, K. P. Janardhanan in fls. & frts., parasitic on
Desmodium tiliaefolium G. Don ; Sangla, alt. ± 2700 m, 25th September
1964, N. C. Nair 34272, in fls. & frts., parasitic on Desmodium tiliae-
folium G. Don (BSD).
Acknowledgement
I am thankful to Dr. M. L. Banerji, Reader in Botany, University
of Kalyani, Kalyani, for confirming the identity of the above specimens.
Botanical Survey of India, K. P. JANARDHANAN
Dehra Dun,
September 18, 1972,
232 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 70 (1)
26. PLANT RECORDS FOR MAHARASHTRA STATE
FROM CHANDRAPUR DISTRICT
During botanical explorations of Chandrapur district of Maharashtra
State, some interesting plants new to the state were recorded.
In this note the correct nomenclature, diagnostic characters, details
of collection and critical notes are given. All the specimens cited here
are deposited in the herbarium of the Western Circle, Botanical Survey
of India, Poona ( BSI ).
Rubiaceae
Hedyotis coerulea Wt. & Arn. Prodr. 412, 1834 ; FI. Brit. India 3 :
60, 1880.
An erect herb. Leaves linear, sessile, bristle pointed. Flowers
greenish blue. Capsules nearly globose. FIs. & frts. : August-
December. Rare, on sandy soil. Pamburna, Malhotra 123790 ;
Wamanpalli, Malhotra 123806.
Gamble (1921) records this plant from eastern coast (Rampa in
Ganjam, Nellore to Tanjore) and also South Kanara on West coast.
The present record of the species from Chandrapur district (Maharashtra)
extends its distribution further north.
CONVOLVULACEAE
Ipomoea sindica Stapf in Kew Bull. 346, 1894; Rolla Rao & Kanodia
in Ann. Arid Zone 2(1) : 38, 1963.
A trailing herb. Leaves oblong, hastate, acute. Flowers light pink.
Capsule glabrous ; seeds velvety. FIs. & frts. : August-October. Rare.
On coarse soil. Taroba National Park, Malhotra 122594 & 122787.
This plant has been earlier recorded from drier parts of Kutch
(Gujarat State) and also from Jodhpur division of Rajasthan. There-
fore, the occurrence of this plant in such dry deciduous forests of
Chandrapur district (Maharashtra) indicates the possibility of locating
this taxon in the surrounding deciduous forests and hilly tracts of central
India.
Euphorbiaceae
Acalypha lanceolata Willd. Sp. PI. 4 : 524, 1805 ; A.fallax Muell-Arg.
in Linnaea 34 : 43, 1865 ; Hook. f. FI. Brit. India 5 : 416, 1887.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
233
Annual slender herb. Leaves ovate-lanceolate cuneate at the base.
Flowers pale greenish. Capsules longer than the bracts, hispid. FIs. &
frts. : August-October. Not common, on coarse soil. Taroba National
Park, Malhotra 122596.
The present record is interesting, as it links up the earlier known
distribution in southern India, namely N. Circars, Deccan and Carnatic
to S. Travancore (Gamble 1925) and Central Bengal in the east (Prain
1903). It is quite possible the species might occur in the deciduous
forests of Bihar and Orissa.
Poaceae
Arthraxon echinatus (Nees) Hochst. in Flora 39 : 188, 1856 ; Bor,
Grass. Burma, Ceylon, India and Pak. 99, 1960 ; A. spathaeeus Hook f.
in FI. Brit. India 7: 145, 1896.
Annual grass. Spikelets greenish yellow. Lower glume of sessile
spikelet narrowly lanceolate, nerves on back echinulate. FIs. & frts. :
August-November. Rare, growing along the rocky crevices. Taroba
National Park, Malhotra 122823.
This species was recorded by Gamble (1934) from Madras State. The
present record extends its distribution further north.
Acknowledgements
We are thankful to Dr. R. S. Rao, Regional Botanist, Botanical
Survey of India, Poona for kindly going through the manuscript and
giving constructive suggestions and to the Director, Botanical Survey
of India, Calcutta, for providing the facilities.
Botanical Survey of India, S. K. MALHOTRA
Western Circle, Poona- 1, SIRASALA MOORTHY
November 30, 1971.
27. UTRICULARIA STRICTICAULIS STAFF FROM
BHUBANESWAR— A NEW RECORD FOR ORISSA
Utricularia stricticaulis Stapf ( =U . reticulata Sm. var. uliginosa
C.B. Cl.) a species known from south Deccan Peninsula, Bengal and
Ceylon, is recorded here for the first time from Orissa. The species is
characterised by short scape with basifix scales, linear bracteoles ; suberect
pedicels in fruiting, acute, yellow, decurrent calyx, enlarged in fruit,
bluish corolla about equalling the calyx ; obovoid, slightly dorsiventrally
15a
234 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1)
compressed capsule ; elongate obovoid striated seeds with elongate
epidermal cells. The species is closely related to Utricularia uliginosa
Vahl, U. graminifolia Vahl and the African U. spiralis Sm. which, however,
differ in the seeds or the corolla. Seeds in U. uliginosa and U. spiralis
are globose with isodiametric epidermal cells. U. graminifolia differs in
twining scapes, larger corolla and the lower corolla-lip and spur exceed-
ing the purplish calyx.
Bhubaneswar, in rice fields, fl. & fr. 22-xii-1971. Saxena 277.
Regional Research Laboratory, H. O. SAXENA
Bhubaneswar,
January 7, 1972.
28. SOME INTERESTING AND RARE PLANTS FROM
MAHARASHTRA STATE
( With four plates)
During botanical explorations in the Phonda-Ambolighat area of
Ratnagiri district (Maharashtra State) from the year 1965 onwards, some
interesting and noteworthy plants have been collected and are being
reported as additions to the Flora of Maharashtra.
The species reported here are not only new records for Maharashtra
but also interesting from phytogeographic point of view as these were
earlier recorded southwards from North Kanara and the present report
shows their wider distribution.
While examining critically the collections from Ratnagiri district,
another interesting plant Polygonum s trie turn All. collected from Maha-
bleshwar (Satara district) was also worked out and has been reported
in this paper. The collection includes two rare grasses namely, Bhidea
burnisiana Bor and Danthonidium gammiei (Bhide) C. E. Hubbard,
obtained in recent explorations in Ratnagiri.
In this paper, correct nomenclature, diagnostic characters of each
species, collector’s name, field no., habitat as well as critical notes are
given.
All the specimens cited in this paper have been deposited in the her-
barium of Western Circle, Botanical Survey of India, Poona (BSI).
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
235
Boraginaceae
Heliotropium cornutum Johnst. in Contr. Gray Herb. Henr. 92 : 90,
1930 ; Fischer in FI. Mad. Pres. Part 11 : 1883, 1936 ; Arora & Banerjee
in Bull. bot. Surv. India 8 : 341-342, 1966.
Prostrate to suberect herb. Flowers white in small helicoid cymes.
Rare, as a weed, in the rice fields in association with Heliotropium
scabrum Retz. and Coldenia procumbens Linn.
Arora & Banerjee (loc. cit.) reported this plant as endemic to South
Kanara (Mysore State). The present collection is an extension of distri-
bution further north along the Western Ghats and is also a new record for
Maharashtra.
Specimens examined. Ghotge, Kudal taluka, Kulkarni 107868.
SCROPHULARIACEAE
Racopa floribunda (R. Br.) Wettst. in Engl. & Prantl Pflanzenfam.
4(3b) : 77, 1895. Herpestis floribunda R. Br. Prodr. 442, 1810 ; Hook. f.
FI. Brit. Ind. 4 : 273, 1884. Moniera floribunda Cooke, FI. Bomb.
Pres. 2: 286, 1904.
A delicate erect herb, 8-10 cm tall. Flowers pedicellate. Capsules
long, subglobose. Seeds oblong, truncate at both ends.
Rare, on wet sandy soil associated with Cyanotis sp.
Cooke (loc. cit.) states ‘ The occurrence of this plant in the Bombay
Presidency is somewhat doubtful. Woodrow reports its occurrence from
S. Kanara. Law has in his Herbarium Kew, specimens from Kanara
and Mysore and of these the Kanara ones are most probably also from
S. Kanara \ The present records show extension of distribution through
Goa (Rolla Rao 1969, unpublished).
Specimens examined. Deobag, Malvan, Kulkarni 121336.
POLYGONACEAE
Polygonum strictum All., Auct. Syn. 42, 1773 et Misc. Taur. 5 : 94,
1774-76 ; Wt. Icon. t. 1800, 1852 ; Dandy in Taxon 19(4) : 623, 1970.
P. minus Huds. FI. Angl. 148, 1762; Meissn. in DC. Prodr. 14: 111,
1857 ; Hook f. FI. Brit. Ind. 5 : 36, 1886 ; Gamble FI. Mad. Pres. Part 7 :
1189, 1925.
Annual herb, rooting at nodes. Stipules sparsely strigose, ciliate.
Flowers, minute, pink. Bracts stiff, ciliate on the margins. Perianth
eglandular.
Rare, in water logged soil.
236 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 70 (1)
This species has been earlier reported from Nilgiris and Palni hills in
south India. This report is an extension of distribution and a new record
for the State.
Specimens examined. Near lake, Mahableshwar, Ansari 67688.
POACEAE
Coelachne simpliciuscula (Wt. & Arn.) Munro & Benth. in Journ.
Linn. Soc. Bot. 19 : 93, 1881 ; Bor, Grass. Burma, Ceylon, India, Pak.
576, 1960. Coelachne pulchella R. Br. var. simpliciuscula Hook. f. FI.
Brit. Ind. 7 : 270, 1896 (non R. Br. 1810).
Suberect or trailing annual grass. Spikelets in speciform panicles,
with short usually ascending branches.
Rare, near the streams or nallahs in association with Centella asiatica
(L.) Urban.
This species has been reported from South Kanara downwards from
an altitude of 600-1825 m. Of late, it has also been collected from
Londa in Belgaum district (Mysore State) by the Botanical Survey of
India. The present record is a northward extension of its range.
Specimens examined. Solia jungle, Chaukul(10 km from Ambolighat),
Kulkarni 108631 ; Londa, Ansari 78597.
Dimeria hohenackeri Hochst. ex Miq. in Verh. Nederl. Inst. 3 : 35,
1851 ; Bor, Grass. Burma, Ceylon, India, Pak. 142, 1960. (Plate I).
Annual grass, 20-30 cm high, golden yellow. Spikelets parallel to
rachis, delicate.
Rare, on rocky plains in association with Dimeria stapfiana C. E.
Hubb. and Cyperus sp.
This species is distinguished from other closely allied species, namely
D. stapfiana on the basis of parallel arrangement of spikelets on the
rachis.
Bor (loc. cit.) mentions this species as endemic to Mangalore (Mysore
State). There is every possibility of its occurrence between Mangalore
and Ambolighat but it has escaped the attention of botanists so far.
Besides being a distributional record, the present report is also a new
record for Maharashtra.
Specimens examined. Mangaon, Kulkarni 106428.
Dimeria woodrowii Stapf in Hook. Icon. PI. sub tab. 2312, 1894;
Bor, Grass. Burma, Ceylon, India, Pak. 144, 1960. (Plate II).
Annual grass. Spikelets awned. Rachis of each raceme coiled into
a hoop.
Plate I
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 70 (1)
Kulkarni & Wadhwa : Plants from Maharashtra
Dimeria hohenackeri Hochst. ex Miq.
1. Whole plant; 2. Spikelet ; 3. Upper glume ; 4. Upper lemma ;
5. Lower lemma ; 6. Lower glume ; 7. Stamens; 8. Ovary with style
and stigma.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 70 (1)
Kulkarni & Wadhwa : Plants from Maharashtra
Plate II
« mm
Dimeria woodrowii Stapf
1. Whole plant; 2. Spikelet; 3. Upper glume ; 4. Upper lemma; 5. Lower
glume; 6. Ovary with style and stigma ; 7. Lower lemma ; 8. Stamens.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 70 (1) Plate III
Kulkarni & Wadhwa : Plants from Maharashtra
Ischaemum dalzellii Stapf ex Bor
1. Whole plant ; 2. A pair of spikelets. Sessile Spikelet ; 3. Lower glume (dorsal view) ; 4. Upper
involucral glume ; 5. Lower lemma (ventral view) ; 6. Upper lemma. Pedicelled spikelet : 7. Lower
glume; 8. Upper glume.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 70 (1)
Plate IV
Kulkarni & Wadhwa : Plants from Maharashtra
Schizachyrium paranjpeanum (Bhide) Raiz. et Jain
1. Whole plant; 2. Pedicelled spikelet ; 3. Lower glume (ventral view);
4. Upper glume ; 5. Lower lemma ; 6. Stamens.
2a. Sessile spikelet ; 3 a. Lower glume ; 4a. Upper lemma ; 5a. Upper
glume ; 6a. Lower lemma ; la. Stamens ; 8a. Ovary with style and stigma.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
237
Common, on rocky plateau in association with Manisuris goaensis
Rolla et Hem. and Ischaemum spp.
Talbot No. 2557 (type sheet) cited by Bor (loc. cit.) from Bombay is
actually not from Bombay, but from Goa (Marmagao, collected on
October 15, 1891) as per locality given on the isotype available in her-
barium of Western Circle, Botanical Survey of India, Poona. The new
report is the second collection after a lapse of 79 years from an adjoining
area of the type locality.
Specimens examined. Adari-Nandruk, Malwan, Kulkarni 121287.
Ischaemum dalzellii Stapf ex Bor in Kew Bull. 1951 : 448, 1952 ; Bor,
Grass. Burma, Ceylon, India, Pak. 178, 1960. (Plate III).
A robust grass up to 1 m tall. Lower leaves petiolate, hastate at base
of lamina. Joints of the racemes linear-clavate ; lower spikelets often
hairy.
Rare, on rocky plateau along with Ischaemum pilosum (Klein
ex Willd.) Wt., I. timorense Kunth. and Schizachyrium paranjpeanum
(Bhide) Raiz. & Jain.
This species has so far been collected from North Kanara (type loca-
lity). The present report indicates its extension further north into
Ratnagiri district.
Specimens examined. Ambolighat, Kulkarni 106369A.
Schizachyrium paranjpeanum (Bhide) Raiz. & Jain in Proc. Ind. Sci.
Congr. Abst. Part 3 : 130, 1953 ; Bor, Grass. Burma, Ceylon, India,
Pak. 216, 1960. Andropogon paranjpeanum Bhide in J. Proc. Asiat.
Soc. Beng. (n.s.) 7 : 514, 1911. (Plate IV).
Annual tufted, delicate grass. Spikelets in long exerted racemes
from the subtending sheaths.
Rare, on open rocky plateau of Ambolighat Reserve Forest in asso-
ciation with Ischaemum pilosum (Klein ex Willd.) Wt. and Ischaemum
dalzellii Stapf ex Bor.
Bor (loc. cit.) states that this species is probably endemic to Castlerock
(North Kanara district, Mysore State). The present report indicates its
extension of distribution and is a new record for Maharashtra. Besides,
this species is extremely rare from the fact that it is collected after a lapse
of 56 years. The last collection (type material) was made in 1909, by
R. K. Bhide from Castlerock.
Specimens examined. Ambolighat, Kulkarni 106365.
238 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1)
Acknowledgements
We are thankful to Dr. R. S. Rao, Regional Botanist, Botanical
Survey of India, Poona, for kindly going through the manuscript and
giving constructive suggestions and to the Director, Botanical Survey
of India, Calcutta for providing the necessary facilities.
Botanical Survey of India, B. G. KULKARNI
Western Circle, B. M. WADHWA
7-Koregaon Road, Poona- 1,
January 1, 1972.
29. ON THE OCCURRENCE OF RUT A CHA LEPENSIS LINN.
IN INDIA
( With a plate)
While reviewing the literature on the species of Ruta Linn, for the
wealth of India, a Dictionary of Indian Raw Materials, published by
the Council of Scientific & Industrial Research, some doubts were cast
on the identity and nomenclature of the plant reported from India.
Hooker in flora of British india, recorded under the name R. graveo-
lens Linn. var. angustifolia Hook. f. (syn. R. angustifolia Pers. and R
chalepensis Wall., Cat. 7113), a plant said to be introduced and cultivated
in India and comprising one or more forms. He seems to have con-
sidered the Indian plant as a variety, on the basis of the floral petals hav-
ing ciliated margins, a feature by which R. angustifolia Pers. and R .
chalepensis Linn, have been distinguished from R. graveolens : in R.
graveolens the petals have wavy or slightly dentate margins. All the
subsequent Indian works mentioned the plant as R. graveolens var.
angustifolia , or as R. graveolens , and attributed many of the economic
properties known mostly for R. graveolens to the Indian plant. Some
reproduced along with their account, also a figure of R. graveolens re-
drawn evidently from European sources. In the figures reproduced, the
petals of the flower are clearly shown to have wavy or slightly toothed
margins so characteristic of R. graveolens and not ciliated as recorded
for the Indian plant in flora of British india (Vol. I, pt. 3, p. 485).
According to recent European works, such as flora European, vol.
2, p. 227 ; 1968, the three species mentioned above, namely R. graveolens ,
R. chalpensis and R. angustifolia are considered distinct from one another,
differing in their floral characters. R. graveolens is distinguished from
the latter two, in having the petals with more or less wavy or denticulate
J. Bombay nat. Hist Soc. 70 (1)
Ramanathan & Ramachandran : Rut a chalepensis
1. Ruta chalepensis Linn, flowering branch (x2).
2. Flower showing the ciliated margins of petals ( x 2).
4. Fruiting branch showing the sharply pointed lobes (x2).
3. Ruta graveolens Linn, flower showing the denticulate margins of petals (Redrawn
from Bentley and Trimen).
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
239
margins (Fig. 4), while R. chalepensis and R. angustifolia are similar to
each other, in having petals with ciliated margins, i.e. with long, con-
spicuous, upstanding, tooth-like hairs (Fig. 1 and 2). Further in R.
graveolens the capsules are reported to have somewhat rounded lobes,
while in the other two, the capsules have sharply pointed lobes (Fig. 3).
Between R. angustifolia and R. chalpensis , the former is said to differ from
the latter, mainly in the marginal hairs being as long as the width of the
petals and the bracts not broader than the subtending branch. However,
according to some authorities, (Chittenden 1951, Uphof 1968) R. angusti-
folia is considered as a synonym of R. chalepensis or only as a variety,
R. chalepensis Linn. var. angustifolia (Pers.) Wilke et Lange (Mansfeld
1959).
While dealing with R . graveolens in Malaya, Burkill (1935) stated,
that R. graveolens seems to have spread into India overland at no very
distant date and 4 the Rue has been adopted so thoroughly in India that,
in some parts such as Bombay, it is planted in almost every garden.’
In order to confirm whether the plants are still grown in Bombay, fresh
specimens were obtained from Poona and Bombay, through the courtesy
of Prof. V. S. Rao, Ramnarain Ruia College, Matunga, Bombay. An
examination of the floral parts showed that the plant commonly grown
in Bombay and Poona agreed closely with the description of R. chalepensis
Linn, rather than with R. graveolens or even var. angustifolia. Fresh
plants obtained from other centres also, namely Bangalore, Coimbatore
and Banaras, all appeared to be of R. chalepensis and not of R. graveo-
lens. All of them had hairs on the margin of their petals, but not as
long as reported for R. angustifolia ; none of them had denticulate or
wavy margins, characteristic of R. graveolens. As far as present
enquiries indicate, all the plants examined from various centres in India
appear to be of R. chalepensis Linn. Although it is not improbable that
R. graveolens may be grown in some places, its record in India could not
be confirmed at present.
Besides the differences in the floral characters mentioned already
between R. graveolens on one hand and R. chalepensis and R. angustifolia
on the other, there is also a difference in their chromosome number
(Darlington & Wylie 1965). R. chalepensis is reported to have X=36
chromosomes, while R. graveolens has X=72 or 81. The characteris-
tics of the essential oil obtained from the two species are also known to
differ in detail (Guenther 1952). Oil distilled from R. graveolens is said
to contain chiefly methyl nonyl ketone, while oil from R. chalepensis
(syn. R. bracteosa DC.) contains chiefly methyl heptyl ketone.
The plants received recently from various places are all reported to be
cultivated and used for the same purpose for which R. graveolens is
reputed, although as shown above they truly belong to R. chalepensis.
While it is not improbable the plants may possess all those attributes,
240 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1)
no actual investigation has been made either of the chemical constituents
or the medicinal properties of the Indian material. This note has been
written mainly to bring to the notice of Indian scientists the need for a
detailed investigation of the Indian material.
Acknowledgements
Our thanks are due to Prof. V. S. Rao (Bombay), Dr. M. H.
Marigouda (Bangalore), Dr. Daniel Sundararaj (Coimbatore) and
Dr. R. S. Singh (Banaras), for their ready response in sending fresh
specimens from their localities and to late Sri S. Jayaram Sharma for
preparing the illustrations. Our thanks are also due to Sri A.
Krishnamurthi, for his interest.
Publications & Information K. R. RAMANATHAN
Directorate, CSIR, KAMALA RAMACHANDRAN
New Delhi- 12,
December 12, 1970.
References
Burkill, I. H. (1935) : A Dictionary
of Economic Products of the Malay
Peninsula 2 : 1921-22. Crown Agent for
the Colonies, London.
Chittenden , F. J. (1951) : Dictionary
of Gardening 4 : 1842. J. Cramer,
Lehre.
Darlington, C. D. & Wylie, A. P.
(1965) : Chromosome Atlas of Flowering
Plants : 185. George Allen &^Unwin
Ltd., London.
Guenther, E. (1952) : Essential Oils 3 :
383. Van Nostrand Col Inc., New York.
Mansfeld, von Rudolf (1959) : Vor-
laufiges Verzeichnis Landwirtschaftlich
Oder Gartnerisch Kultivierter Pflanzenar-
ten. Die Kulturpflanze, Beheft 2.
Uphof, J. C. Th. (1968) : Dictionary
of Economic Plants. 2nd ed. : 461.
J. Cramer, Lehre.
Notes and News
Symposium on Ecological Studies in the Gir Wildlife Sanctuary
Under the auspices of the Bombay Natural History Society, World
Wildlife Fund — India, and the Indian Board for Wildlife, a symposium
on ecological studies in the Gir Wildlife Sanctuary was held at the India
International Centre, New Delhi, on 17th November 1972. Paul Joslin
of the University of Edinburgh, K. T. B. Hodd of Aberdeen University,
and S. H. Berwick of Yale University, all of whom had studied
some aspect or other of the Gir Forest ecosystem were invited to parti-
cipate in the symposium.
Zafar Futehally, introducing the speakers to the audience referred to
the special responsibility of conservationists towards fostering good inter-
national relationships, ‘ for the simple reason that nature respects no
man made boundaries and we cannot do better than follow her wise
example \
Paul Joslin summarised some of the important reasons for the present
decline in the lion population in Gir forest. The lion’s habitat in the
Gir forest has been considerably reduced in the last few decades by
human encroachment, and this has reflected on the number of lions since l
they are territorial animals.
The population of domestic livestock living permanently inside the
Sanctuary as well as the migrant cattle which come during the rains has
had a strong impact on the feeding habits of the lion. Domestic
buffaloes and cattle now far outnumber the natural prey species of the
lion. An analysis of 500 lion droppings showed remains of 75 % domes-
tic animals and 25% wild animals. While studying the lion kills in
the Sanctuary Joslin found that 24 % of the kills were not consumed by
lions. This was largely due to human interference, as fifty per cent of
the kills were appropriated by local harijans for hide and meat and this
operation disturbed the lions. Incidentally I was concerned with the
study of the ecology and behaviour of vultures in the Gir and I found
that the remains of most of the lion kills visited by harijans were
consumed by vultures. The reasons were : (1) by dragging out the kills
from dense cover to the open the harijans helped vultures to spot the
carcasses much more easily ; (2) by chasing away the lions they enabled
vultures to come down and feed fearlessly, and (3) by skinning the kills
they made it possible for vultures to clean up the carcasses in minutes.
K. T. B. Hodd’s research was aimed at finding out how the lion
habitat was changing because of grazing by domestic livestock, and to
investigate ways to prevent the habitat from further deterioration. He
studied some aspects of the domestic animals’ impact on the lion’s
habitat, namely the effects of domestic animals on the grass and forbes,
the effects of domestic animals and their graziers on the capacity of the
241 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 70 (1)
forest trees to regenerate naturally and the effects of domestic animals
on the structure of the soil.
His significant findings were :
1. There are about four times as many domestic animals as can
be safely allowed to graze in the Gir. This has resulted in overgrazing
and trampling of the soil, which in turn has inhibited the growth of
grass.
2. Trampling has begun to destroy the porosity of the Gir soil,
which is essential for productivity. Also exposure of the soil due to
overgrazing has resulted in heavy soil erosion which is detrimental to the
flora. By reducing the number of cattle to the optimum it is possible
to recover the porosity and fertility of the soil. One of Hodd’s recom-
mendations was a rotational grazing system for the domestic livestock,
involving splitting of the grazing lands around each ness into three equal
parts and allowing the livestock to graze in one part for only four months
a year.
S. H. Berwick studied the habitat relationships, numbers and distri-
bution of wild ruminants of the Gir forest. He estimated about 6,800
wild ungulates in the Gir as against the 30,000 or more of the domestic
buffaloes and Zebu cattle which graze within the sanctuary. The wild
ungulates are the chital, sambar, nilgai, fourhorned antelope,
chinkara and wild boar. Food preferences of domestic and wild rumi-
nants for various plant species were studied by observing free-ranging
animals. Additional data on this was collected from feeding choice
experiments using captive animals, from feeding choices of captive
leashed animals in the field, from analysis of rumen contents of animals
recovered in the field, and from identification of microscopic plant frag-
ments in fecal pellets of free-ranging wild ruminants. Other studies
included energy flow and balance of nature in the Gir ecological system.
He found that up to 90% of the annual production of grasses is removed
primarily by domestic livestock and this constitutes a serious imbalance
between vegetative production and grazing. Also much of the energy
and nutrients cycled through domestic stock is lost to the Gir ecosystem
because of the removal of dung and butter for use outside the Sanctuary.
Since the researchers had not yet fully analysed their data they did
not submit written papers at the symposium but papers will be
published when ready.
After the talks by the three researchers, Shri Dharmakumarsinhji
led a floor discussion in which many members of the audience
participated.
ROBERT B. GRUBH
Gleanings
India a Hundred Years ago
‘ The lion, which was long supposed to be unknown in India, is now
ascertained to exist in considerable numbers in the districts of Saharanpur
and Ludhiana. Lions have likewise been killed on this side of the
Ganges, in the northern parts of Rohilkhand, in the neighbourhood of
Moradabad and Rampur, as large, it is said, as the average of those in
the neighbourhood of the Cape of Good Hope. Both lions, where they
are found, and tigers, are very troublesome to the peoples of the villages
near the forest, who, having no elephants, have no very effectual means
of attacking them with safety. The peasantry here, however, are not a
people to allow themselves to be devoured without resistance, like the
Bengalees, and it often happens that, when a tiger has established him-
self near a village, the whole population turns out, with their matchlocks,
swords, and shields, to attack him. Fighting on foot and compelled
to drive him from his covert, by entering and beating the jungle, one or
two generally lose their lives, but the tiger seldom escapes ; and
Mr Boulderson1 has seen some skins of animals of this description, which
bore the strongest marks of having been fought with, if the expression
may be used, hand to hand ; and were in fact slashed over with the cuts
of the “ talwar ” or short scimitar. A reward of four rupees for every
tiger’s head brought in, is given by Government ; and if the villagers of
any district report that a tiger, or lion, is in the neighbourhood, there
are seldom wanting sportsmen among the civil or military officers, who
hear the news with pleasure, and make haste to rid them of the nuisance.
A good shot, on an elephant, seldom fails, with perfect safety to himself,
to destroy as many of these terrible animals as he falls in with.’ (india
a hundred years ago, by Bishop Heber, D.D. First published by
Longmans in 1927).
i Collected in 1824-5 of what are now Shahjehanpur and Pilibhit districts. — Eds.
Announcement
Salim Ali/Loke Ornithological Research Fund
The Fund has been established by the Bombay Natural History
Society with the object of promoting scientific ornithology and bird
preservation in India.
Monetary assistance will be given to biologists, whether graduates
or not, preferably between the ages of 20 and 30 years and preferably
resident within the Indian sub-Region, desirous of undertaking research
projects approved by the Executive Committee of the Society.
Assistance may take the form of small grants, either a lump ad hoc
sum or tenable over a specified period. Details of the problem inten-
ded to be followed should be submitted to the Honorary Secretary,
along with particulars of the candidates qualifications to undertake the
study and details of the financial assistance required.
Research Fellowships may be granted for more serious problems
extending over a long period. The rules relating to the Fellowships
may be obtained from the Honorary Secretary.
Charles McCann Vertebrate Zoology Field-Work Fund
This Fund originated in 1972 in a grant Rs. 14,398.55 made by Mr.
Humayun Abdulali, being the unspent balance of a sum of Rs. 20,000
paid by him towards the expenses of three natural history expeditions
to the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, reports of which have appeared
in the pages of the Journal. In 1972 at the instance of Mr. Humayun
Abdulali the Fund was given its present name in honour of Mr. Charles
McCann (at present in New Zealand), Assistant Curator of the Society
from 1922 to 1947, who during bis stay in India made several notable
contributions to our knowledge of the botany and zoology of the
Indian Region. Recently the Society has received a generous contri-
bution of Rs. 2,500 towards the Fund from Shri Fatehsingh Rao
Gaikwad of Baroda. Further contributions will be welcome. Persons
wishing to avail themselves of help from the Fund should apply to the
Honorary Secretary, giving particulars of the proposed field-work and
the extent of the help required.
PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY T. DURAI AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS,
10 CHURCH ROAD, VEPERY, MADRAS — 6-12-1973. C5139
EDITORS: ZAFAR FUTEHALLY, J. C. DANIEL & P. V. BOLE
THE SOCIETY’S PUBLICATIONS
Mammal#
Th« Book of India* Aaiaude, by S. H. Prater. 3rd (revised) edition. 2 plates in
colour by Paul Barrucl and many other monochrome illustrations. Rs. 30
{Price to members Rs . 25)
The Ecology of the Lesser Bandicoot Rat in Calcutta, by James Juan Spillett Rs. 10
Bird®
Ihe Book of Indian Birds, by Sdlim Ali. 9th (revised) edition. 66 coloured and
many monochrome plates. Rs. 25
{Price to members Rs. 20)
Checklist of the Birds of Maharashtra, by Htimayun Abdulali. Rs. 2-5b
{Price to members Rs. 2)
S stakes
Identification of Poisonous Snakes. Wall chart in English, Gujarati, and Marathi.
Rs. 5
Miscellaneous
Picture Postcards of 12 representative Indian Birds (In colour) per set Rs. 2*50
Glimpses of Nature Series Booklets :
1* Our Birds I (with 8 coloured plates) in Hindi, and Marathi, Rs. 0 80
Kannada. Rs. 0*62
2. Our Birds II (with 8 coloured plates) in Hindi. Rs. O' 62
3. Our Beautiful Trees (with 8 coloured plates) in Hindi and Marathi. Rs. 0*62
4. Our Monsoon Plants (with 8 coloured plates) in English,
Gujarati, Hindi, and Marathi. Rs. 0 80
5. Our Animals (with 8 coloured plates) in English, Gujarati,
Hindi, and Marathi. Rs. 1’25
Glimpses of Nature in India (with 40 coloured plates) in English. Rs* 3
Back numbers of the Society’s Journal. Rates on application.
Correspond with :
The Honorary Secretary,
Bombay Natural History Society,
Horabill House, Shahid Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay 400001
Agents in England :
Messrs Wheldon & Wesley Ltd.,
Lytton Lodge, Codicote, Near Hitchiu,
Herts, England.
The Society will gratefully accept back numbers of the Journal , particularly
numbers prior to Vol. 45, from members who may not wish to preserve them.
TERMS OF MEMBERSHIP
Life Members pay an entrance fee of Rs. 5 (25/7.) and a life membership fee of
Rs. 600 (Inland), ^‘45*50 (Foreign).
Ordinary Members pay an entrance fee of Rs. 5 (25/7.) and an annual subscription of
Rs. 36 (Inland), £3 (Foreign).
Members residing outside India should pay their subscription by means of orders
on their Bankers to pay the amount of the subscription to the Society in
Bombay on the 1st January in each year. If this cannot be done, then the sum of
,£3*00 should be paid annually to the Society’s London Bankers— The National &
Grindlays Bank Ltd., 23 Fenchurch Street, London E.C. 3.
The subscription of members elected in October, November, and December
covers the period from the date of their election to the end of the following year.
CONTENTS
PAG!
Observations os’ Himalayan Tama ( Hemitragm jimiahkus). By Qmrge B.
Schallcr . . . . . . . . . < 1
Orchids of Nepal — 7. By M. L. Banerji and B. B. Tb&pa . . 25
Bionomics and Distribution of the land leeches of Rumaom Hulls, U.P
By M. L. Bhatia and Sarwajeet Singh Bora . . 36
Mud and Duno plastering in Baya Nests. By T. Antony Davis . . .57
Contribution to the Flora of Tirap Frontier Division. By D. B. Deb and
R. M. Dutta . . . . . . . . . . 72
Spider Fauna of India : Catalogue and Bibliography. By B. K. Tikader 95
Vegetation of Pachpadra Salt Basin in Western Rajasthan. By S. K.
Saxena and R. K. Gupt? . . . . . . . . . . 104
Effects of temperature and salinity on the oxygen consumption in clams.
By M. R. Ranade . . . . . . . . 128
A Catalogue of the Birds in the Collection of thi Bombay Natural
History Society — 14. By Humayun Abdulali . . , . .147
The Food-plants of Indian Rhopalocera. By D. G. Sevastopulo . . 156
Reviews . . . . . . 184
Miscellaneous Notes . . . . . . . . 191
Notes and News . . . . . . . . ... 241
Gleanings . . . . , . . . 243
Announcement . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
Journal of the
Bombay Natural History Society
25 7*2- Vol. 70, No. 2
Editors
ZAFAR FUTEHALLY
J. C DANIEL & P. V. BOLE
AUGUST 1973
Rs. 18 (Inland), £1*50 (Foreign)
NOTICE TO CONTRIBUTORS
Contributors of scientific articles are requested to assist the editors
by observing the following instructions:
1. Papers which have at the same time been offered for publica-
tion to other journals or periodicals, or have already been published
elsewhere, should not be submitted.
2. The MS. should be typed (double spacing) on one side of a
sheet only, and the sheets properly numbered.
3. All scientific names to be printed in italics should be under-
lined. Both in zoological and in botanical references only the initial
letter of the genus is capitalized. The specific and subspecific names
always begin with a small letter even if they refer to a person or a
place, e.g. Anthus hodgsoni hodgsoni or Streptopelia chinensis surat ensis
or Dimeria blcitteri.
4. Trinomials referring to subspecies should only be used where
identification has been authentically established by comparison of
specimens actually collected. In all other cases, or where identification
is based merely on sight, binomials should be used.
5. Photographs for reproduction must be clear and show good
contrast. Prints must be of a size not smaller than 8-20 x 5*60 cm
(No. 2 Brownie) and on glossy glazed paper.
6. Text-figures, line drawings, and maps should be in Indian ink,
preferably on Bristol board.
7. References to literature should be placed at the end of the
paper, alphabetically arranged under author’s name, with the abridged
titles of journals or periodicals underlined (italics) and titles of books
not underlined (roman type), thus:
Banerji, M. L. (1958): Botanical Exploration in East Nepal.
J. Bombay not. Hist. Soc. 55(2): 243-268.
Prater, S. H. (1948): The Book of Indian Animals. Bombay.
Titles of papers should not be underlined.
8. Reference to literature in the text should be made by quoting
the author’s name and year of publication, thus: (Banerji 1958).
9.. Synopsis: Each scientific paper should be accompanied by
a concise, clearly written synopsis, normally not, exceeding 200 words.
10. Reprints: Authors are supplied 25 reprints of their articles
free of charge. In the case of joint authorship, 50 copies will be given
gratis to be distributed among the two or more authors. Orders for
additional reprints should be in multiples of 25 and should be received
within two weeks after the author is informed of the acceptance of the
manuscript. 1 hey will be charged for at cost plus postage and packing.
Hornbill House,
Shahid Bhagat
Singh Road,
Editors,
Journal of the Bombay Natural
History Society.
Bombay 400 001-BR.
VOLUME 70 NO. 2— AUGUST 1973
Date of Publication : 15-2-1974.
CONTENTS
Kaziranga Wild Life Sanctuary, Assam. By P. Lahan and
R. N. Sonowal
Dry Evergreen Forest of Point Calimere and Marakanam.
By F. Blasco and P. Legris. (With three plates)
he Langurs of the Gir Sanctuary (Gujarat) — A Preliminary
Survey. By Hafeezur Rahaman. (With three plates and two text-
figures) ~
The Birds of Inya Lake, Rangoon, Burma. By J. Bruce Amstutz.
(With a map)
A New Species of Ischaemum Linn, from India. By R. B. Patil and
R. D’Cruz. (With a plate)
Notes on the Nest and Behaviour of the Yellowbrowed Titmouse,
Parus modestus (Burton). By Robert L. Fleming, Jr. . .
Orchids of Nepal — 8. By M. L. Banerji and B. B. Thapa. (With four
text-figures)
A Catalogue of the Birds in the Collection of the Bombay Natural
History Society — 15. By Humayun Abdulali
A new species of Themeda Forsk. from India. By Shrikant P. Birari.
(With a plate)
Systematics of Molluscan wood borers recorded from India. By
L. N. Santhakumaran
Reviews :
1. The Environmental Revolution. (Z. F.)
2. A field guide to the snakes of southern Africa. (H. A.)
3. Proteaceae. (P. V. B.)
4. Researches on living Pteridophytes in India, Burma and Ceylon.
(P.V. B.)
5. Ngorongoro — The eighth wonder. (S. A.)
6. Pollution. (A. N. D. N.)
7. The Fascination of Reptiles. (Neela D’Souza)
8. The Oxford Book of Birds. (H. A.) . .
9. The Wealth of India. Vol. IX. (G. V. B.)
M ISCELL ANEOUS NOTES :
245
279
295
315
324
326
330
339
346
348
361
362
362
363
364
367
369
370
371
Mammals : 1. Dhole or Indian Wild Dog (Cuon alpinus) mating. By
E. R. C. Davidar (p. 373); 2. On the domestication of the Otter by
fishermen in Bangladesh. By R. N. Biswas (p. 374); 3. A note on the
birth of a Malayan Giant Squirrel (Ratufa bicolor) in captivity. By
L. N. Acharjyo and R. Misra (p. 375); 4. A white Indian Gerbil, Tat era
indica indica Hardwicke. By Ishwar Prakasb, A. P. Jain and B. D. Rana
(p. 375); 5. Mudaliar Ootu — A last stronghold for the rare Nilgiri
Tahr. By A. J. T. John Singh (p. 376);\£f A note on age of sexual
maturity of two species of Antelopes in captivity. By L. N. Acharjyo
and R. Misra (p. 378).
Birds : 7. Occurrence of the Common Grey Hornbill ( Tockus birostris )
in Bombay City. By S. R. Amladi and J. C. Daniel (p. 378); 8. On the
status and distribution of the Great Grey Shrike, Lanins excubitor
Linnaeus in Mysore. By Kumar D. Ghorpade (p. 380); 9. The Jungle
Crow, Corvus macrorhynchos Wagler, plucking hair from tail of Cow
to line nest. By Kumar D. Ghorpade (p. 381); 10. Baya ( Ploceus
philippinus ) feeding on frogs. By N. J. George (p. 381).
Reptiles: 11. Snake bite case histories. By R. Whitaker (p. 382); 12.
Climbing response of two snake species during rain. ( Echis carinatus
and Vipera russellii) . ( With a plate). By R. Whitaker (p. 387); 13.
Colour variation in Russell’s Viper ( Vipera r. russellii). ( with a plate).
By R. Whitaker (p. 388).
Fishes : 14. On the sexual dimorphism of a Siluroid Fish, Ompok
bimaculatus (Bloch), with particular reference to pectoral spine. By J.
Bhimasena Rao and S. J. Karamchandani (p. 388); 15. On Chrionema
chryseres Gilbert, a rare bathypelagic fish in the Indian Ocean. (With
a text-figure). By P. K. Talwar (p. 390); 16. Diodon holacanthus
Linnaeus (Pisces ; Diodontidae) from India. By B. V. Seshagiri Rao
(p. 392).
Mollusca : 17. Molluscs of economic value from Great Nicobar Island.
(With a map). By A. Daniel and A. S. Rajagopal (p. 394); 18. Occur-
rence of Lima (Limaria) fragilis Gmelin (Mollusca: Pelecypoda) in the
coastal water of Ratnagiri. By M. R. Ranade and P. B. Joshi (p. 399).
Crustacea : 19. Probable transportation of Balanus amphitrite stutsburi
(Darwin) by ships. By Arun B. Wagh (p. 399); 20. New records of
Brachyuran Decapods from the Gulf of Kutch. (With a map). By
Mohan Chandy (p. 401).
Insecta : 21. New records of Odonata from north-west India. By Asket
Singh and Mahabir Prasad (p. 403). 22. Hexagonal cell of Lac insect.
By Gouri Ganguly and R. K. Varshney (p. 405); 23. Occurrence of
Melanagromyza obtusa (Molloch) on Bhindi. By R. K. Patel and M. L.
Verma (p. 406); 24. First record of the Encyrtid genus Callipteroma
Motschulsky 1863 (Hymenoptera : Chalcidoidea) from India. (With
five text-figures). By Mohammad Hayat (p. 407).
Botany: 25. Notes on Bombay plants. (With five photos in two plates).
By P. V. Bole and P. R. Fernandez (p. 409) ; 26. Mitracarpus verticil-
latus (Schum. & Thonn.) Vatke — A new record for eastern India. By
H. O. Saxena (p. 412); 27. Solanum triquetrum Cav. — An adventive
species in Rajasthan. By Vijendra Singh (p. 413); 28. 3-Valved Endo-
carp of Juglans regia Linn. (With a photo). By G. M. Oza (p. 413);
29. Schoenorchis latifolia (Orchidaceae) newly transferred from Rhyn-
chostylis. (With a plate). By Cecil J. Saldanha (p. 414).
An Appeal
417
JOURNAL
OF THE
BOMBAY NATURAL
HISTORY SOCIETY
1973 AUGUST Vol. 70 No. 2
Kazi range Wild Life
Sanctuary, Assam1
A BRIEF DESCRIPTION AND REPORT ON THE CENSUS OF
LARGE ANIMALS (MARCH 1972)
BY
P. Lahan2 and R. N. Sonowal3
Introduction
In Kaziranga Wild Life Sanctuary the object and methods of
management are to a large extent Rhino oriented in so far as the
sanctuary holds the largest number of surviving great Indian one-
horned rhinoceros. For sound scientific management of wild life basic
data are required on the Ecology of the habitat, species living in the
habitat, population dynamics of each species, inter and intra specific
reaction of the various species of wild life and their influence on the
habitat, carrying capacity of the area, and food habits. To collect such
basic data considerable amount of field research is necessary.
As a part of this programme a census of the rhinoceros in
Kaziranga was carried out in 1957, 1963 and 1966. However the first
1 Accepted November 3, 1972.
2 Divisional Forest Officer, Eastern Assam Wild Life Division, Bokakhat,
Assam.
3 Range Officer, Kaziranga Range, Kaziranga, Assam.
246 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (2)
scientific and systematic census of larger mammals of Kaziranga in-
cluding the rhinoceros was conducted in 1966 only by the Forest De-
partment with the help of Mr. H. K. Nath and Dr. J. J. Spillett. Due
to various reasons census of the wild animals in the Kaziranga Sanc-
tuary could not be carried out during the subsequent years after 1966.
A census of the larger mammals of the Kaziranga Wild Life Sanctu-
ary was carried out during the year on the 24th and 25th of March
1972, after a lapse of six years.
A brief description of the Kaziranga Wild Life Sanctuary and the
details of the census operation form the text of this report.
Kaziranga Wild Life Sanctuary
Situation, Topography and Area :
The Kaziranga Wild Life Sanctuary is situated partly in the civil
district of Sibsagar and partly under Nowgong district in the state of
Assam, India (90°5' and 93°40'E) (26°30' and 26°45'N) in the flood
plain of the Brahmaputra River at the foot of the Mikir Hills south
of National Highway No. 37. The area has been formed by the deep
alluvial deposits of the Brahmaputra River and is flat with a east to
west slope.
The general climate of the area is tropical characterised by heavy
rainfall evenly distributed throughout the year. Comparatively dry
months are from November to February and hottest months of the
year are June to September.
The mighty Brahmaputra River flows along the northern bound-
ary of the sanctuary, the River Mora Diflu along the southern bound-
ary and the Rivers Diflu and Bhengra flow through the sanctuary from
the east to west. Other important small streams originating in the Mikir
Hills draining into the sanctuary from south to north are Borjuri,
Diring, Kohora, Dehing, Bhalukjuri, Deopani, etc. There are numer-
ous seasonal nullahs inside the sanctuary. All rivers and nullahs dis-
charge into the Brahmaputra River. In addition to the rivers and
streams the whole sanctuary is dotted with numerous beels (lakes).
The total area of the Kaziranga Sanctuary is 42,496 hectares or
429.96 sq. km. However there is constant change in the exact area
of the sanctuary due to erosion and formation of new land on the
northern boundary of the sanctuary by the Brahmaputra River. The
present area of the sanctuary is 37,822.43 hectares only.
Legal Status :
Originally Kazinranga was formed into a reserve forest in the
KAZIRANGA WILD LIFE SANCTUARY, ASSAM
247
year 1908 with the primary objective of preserving the rhinoceros and
other wild animals. Hunting and shooting in this reserve forest has
been prohibited since then. The area was declared as a game sanctu-
ary in the year 1916 for the first time and later rechristened as a wild
life sanctuary.
With the passing of the Assam National Park Act of 1968 and
obtaining of the assent of the President of India on 29th April 1969,
it is now proposed to convert the sanctuary into National Park under
this act. Preliminary notifications in this regard has already been pub-
lished vide notification No. FOR|WL|722|45, dt. 23-9-1969 and other
necessary formalities have been completed.
It is expected that the final notification declaring the sanctuary as
a National Park will be published shortly.
No rights and privileges are exercised in the sanctuary for any
forest produce or right of way etc. There is no exploitation of any
forest produce in the sanctuary.
Grazing inside the sanctuary is allowed to a limited extent near
Arimora, Bhawani and Kaziranga to some professional graziers. But
grazing will be completely eliminated as soon as the sanctuary is de-
clared as a National Park.
Biotic and Edaphic factors:
Fire: Every year the grasses are burnt by the wild life staff of the
sanctuary from December to February. Accidental fire is also not
uncommon. However burning is never complete all over the area.
Burning is done with a view to encourage new growth of grasses as
well as to facilitate patrolling. It has been observed that new and ten-
der shoots of grasses come up immediately after the burning as soon
as the area gets a winter shower. Animals concentrate in such burnt
patches for the ash. The rhinoceros and the elephants relish the parti-
ally burnt stems of tall grasses like Arundo donax, Phragmites karka,
Erianthus spp. etc.
The frequency of sighting of animals in the unburnt areas is
minimal. In areas not burnt every year the grasses grow into a tall
thick mass that animals passing through have to tunnel through it.
No other grasses grow under such thick masses of tall grass and hence
such areas are not used by animals for grazing. The tall grasses grow
to such heights that no other animal except the elephant can reach
the shoots.
The practice of burning the grasslands have been continued for
the last so many years without affecting the nature of the vegetational
growth and it appears that fire is one of the essential factors in main-
taining the grasslands in its present state. Fire hardy tree species try
248 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY , Vol 70 (2)
to colonise the grasslands every year by profuse natural regeneration
along the existing tree patches. But this process is arrested by the
annual fires of the grasslands.
No burning takes place in the evergreen tree forests and such
areas along with the unburnt patches of grasslands provide shelter for
the animals.
Flood: Like fire, flood is also an annual feature of the sanctuary.
During rainy season the numerous rivers and streams passing through
the sanctuary flood the entire sanctuary. During high floods the water of
the Brahmaputra River also enters the sanctuary and the entire area
is submerged leaving only a few high ground above water. The flood
water maintains its highest level from 5 to 10 days. During this period
the animals concentrate and take shelter on the roads and high
grounds in the sanctuary.
A large number of animals migrate from the sanctuary to the
nearby Mikir Hills after crossing the National highway. The deer
population suffers extensively during high floods. The rhinos and
buffaloes are not much affected.
High floods submerging the whole sanctuary and the highlands
inside it and depriving the animals of fodder and shelter is definitely
detrimental to the wild animals which are forced to seek shelter in
the hills outside the sanctuary exposing themselves to the danger of
predation by man. During such high floods herds of deer are found
resting at night on the highway. Sighting of elephants, buffaloes,
rhinos and pigs crossing over to the hills are also not rare.
The receding flood waters wash away the water hyacinth from
the beels, streams and nullahs which grows into thick inpenetrable
mass depriving ducks etc. of foraging grounds. The flood waters
replenish the beels and nullahs. The flood waters recede slowly and it
takes considerable time for the low lying areas to dry maintaining the
swampy nature which helps to arrest species succession. The flood
waters add to the fertility of the soil with fresh alluvial deposits which
in turn support a rich growth of fresh green grasses throughout the
year.
With the flooding of the beels the numerous fishes living in them
come out to lay eggs in the current of the flood water. The fishes
from these beels go out to the Brahmaputra River along with the
receding flood water. Thus Kaziranga serves as a breeding ground
for fishes and for replenishing the fish stock of the Brahmaputra River.
The flooding of the sanctuary has been a recurring feature for the
last so many years that it is difficult to think of Kaziranga without
flood. Fire and flood are considered to be two essential agents for
maintaining the present vegetational stage. Floods of lower intensity
are beneficial to the wild life and the sanctuary in general. But high
KAZ1RANGA WILD LIFE SANCTUARY , ASSAM
249
floods submerging the entire sanctuary is definitely injurious as ani-
mals are lost during such floods. However high floods do not occur
annually.
Erosion: Erosion is one of the major factors playing a vital role
in the future of the sanctuary. Every year large chunks of land from
the northern boundary of the sanctuary are washed away by the
Brahmaputra River. New river islands are also formed near the sanc-
tuary.
But due to legal complications such islands cannot be added into
the sanctuary prior to completion of many formalities. Other new
areas formed by silt deposition adjoining the sanctuary takes time to
stabilise and support vegetational growth. The seriousness of the
damaged done by erosion can be gauged from the fact that the present
area of the sanctuary is 37,822.43 hectares against the original area
of 42,496 hectares.
The areas of severe erosion go on changing according to the
change in course of the Brahmaputra River. At present the worst affect-
ed area is in the western part of the sanctuary in Baguri block near
Kawaimari.
Water Hyacinth: Water hyacinth has invaded almost all the rivers
and beels of the sanctuary. The rapid growth and excessive spreading
capacity of this weed has covered up many beels of the sanctuary de-
priving the migratory and resident water-birds of the sanctuary of
their feeding grounds. The dry mass of water hyacinth lying on the
banks of the beels after the drying up of the water is so thick during
winter that it does not allow any grass to grow under it. However dur-
ing high flood the bulk of the water hyacinth is washed out to the
Brahmaputra River by the receding flood water.
Mikemia: Recently this climber has been observed to be spread-
ing in many areas of the sanctuary. Though it has not created any
problem until now it is a weed to be observed and controlled.
Disease: The wild animals of the sanctuary have not been affect-
ed by any serious epidemic disease during recent years. In 1944 and
1947 heavy casualties were reported amongst the rhino population
due to Anthrax and another unidentified disease. As the sanctuary is
within easy reach of the village cattle of the surrounding population
the danger of epidemic spreading to the wild animals is always present.
As such preventive measures against epidemic diseases are taken by
innoculating the cattle population of the surrounding villages.
Poaching: Poaching has been almost eliminated from the sanc-
tuary. The measures taken against poaching have become so strict
and severe that no one thinks of taking the risk for shooting deer and
such other animals. Poaching is confined to rhinoceros only. This
problem will have to be faced for an indefinite period due to the
250 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (2)
high value attached to the rhinoceros’ horn. In Government auction
market the horn fetches a price of Rs. 10,000 per kilogram. However
the poaching of rhinoceros has also been brought almost under con-
trol. The incidence of rhino poaching can be judged from the following
figures: —
Some animals get killed during high flood when they migrate
from the sanctuary and take shelter in the surrounding villages. But
such incidents are inevitable. Occasional cases of illegal fishing inside
the beels of the sanctuary in the vicinity of the villages are detected.
Other human Interference:
The sanctuary is free from all other human interference as there
is no exploitation. No one is allowed to enter the sanctuary except
visitors accompanied by wild life staff. The only human interference
is by way of patrolling and cutting of roads and paths by labourers
under supervision of the wild life staff during winter.
Regular traffic of visitors on elephant back to the Mihimukh
centre near the Tourist Lodge has so conditioned animals in the area
that one can approach as near as 2 metres of a rhino, drive close to
swamp deer and hog deer without disturbing them in any way and
approach to within 3 to 4 metres of a herd of buffaloes. The rest of
the sanctuary is an undisturbed wilderness.
The Habitat :
The entire area of the sanctuary is covered by extensive grass-
lands interspersed with evergreen tree forests and numerous beels.
The number of such beels are more towards the western part of the
sanctuary (i.e. Baguri block). The following table gives the areas under
grassland, tree forests and beels (water) in different blocks.
Year
No. of rhinos killed by poachers
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
18
5
12
10
8
2
8
KAZIRANGA WILD LIFE SANCTUARY, ASSAM
251
Name of block Forest areas
in acres
Grassy areas
in acres
in acres
Water areas Total area
in acres of the block
in acres
Baguri
Haldhibari
Kaziranga
Panbari
Tamulipathar
Boralimora
Charighoria
Bhawani
3.969.98
1,111.80
2.047.02
2,071.00
3,211.14
3.464.02
5.909.98
4,379.62
11,429.24
8.146.66
8,652.42
8,155.38
6,271.86
4.549.66
6,110.54
8,921.18
1,601.02
551.26
346.86
593.16
436.00
444.72
316.34
929.04
17,000.24
9,809.72
11,046.30
10,819.54
9,919.00
8,458.40
12,336.86
14.229.84
Total: 26,164.56
62,236.94
5,218.40
93.619.90
27.95 per cent of the total area of the sanctuary is covered by tree
forests 66.47 per cent by grasslands and 5.58 per cent by the beels.
The percentage of tree forests is more towards the eastern part of the
sanctuary than on the western part. Champion and Seth ( 1968) 1 have
described the forest type as eastern wet alluvial grasslands (4D/252)
which is an early arrested stage of a primary sere.
Tree forests:
The tree forests occupy the comparatively higher grounds along
the bank of the streams and nullahs. The newly colonised areas along
the bank of the Brahmaputra River consist mostly of scattered and
sparse growth of semul and koroi. Evergreen trees predominate in
the stable high grounds with scattered cane breaks. The undergrowth
is very dense ?aid the forests are almost impenetrable. Grasses are
completely absent from the ground. On the other hand the under-
growth in the open forests of semul and koroi consists mainly of
grasses.
Profuse regeneration of fire hardy species occurs in the periphery
of the tree forests trying to colonise the grasslands. But the annual
fire and flood prevents such colonisation by tree species and maintains
the status of the habitat.
The main species found are Salmalia malabarica, Albizzia procera ,
A. lebbek, A. sdpulata, A. odoratissima, A. lucida, Careya arborea ,
Premna latifolia, P. bengalensis, Lagerstroemia parviflora, L. flosre -
ginae, Trewia nudi flora, Tetramalis nudiflora, Stereospermum chelon -
oldes, Alstonia scholaris, Spondias mangifera, Vitex peduncularls, V .
1 Champion, H. G. & Seth, S. K. (1968): A revised survey of the Forest
types of India. Manager of Publication. Delhi. 404 p.
252 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (2)
trifolia, Dysoxyhtm procerum, Eugenia jambolana, E. operculatum,
Ehretia acuminata, Chukrasia tabularis, Ficus cuneata, F. glomerata,
F. religiosa, F. bengalensis, Bischofia javanica, Dillenia indica, Pteros -
permnm acerifolium, Cedrclla toona, Anthocephalus kadamba, Bridelia
retusa, Kydia calycina, Sterculia villosa, Crataeva religiosa, Termin-
als belerica, Listea polyantha, Sterculia alata, Artocarpus chaplasha,
Mallotus philippensis, Oroxylum indicum, Salix tetrasperma, Talauma
hodgsoni, Wrightia tomentosa, Holarrhena anti dy sent erica. Barring -
tonia acutangula, Aesculus punduana, Schima wallichii, Emblica
officinalis, Zizyphus jujuba, Gmelina arborea, Bauhinia spp.. Cassia
fistula, Randia dumetorum, Erythrina indica, Zanthoxylum budrunga,
etc.
The main species forming the undergrowth are Polyalthia jenkinsii,
Laportea crenulata, Phlogacanthus curriflorus, Melastoma spp., Alpinia
allughas, Clinogyne dichotoma, Calamus spp., Rauwolfia serpentina,
Solanum ferox, Solarium indicum, Xanthium strumarium, Ageratum
conyzoides, Eupatorium odoratum, Mimosa pudica, Tamarix dioica,
Amaranthus spinosus, Flemingia chappar, Chenopodium album, Clero-
dendron infortunatum, Colocasia esculenta, Aeschynomene indica,
Cassia tor a, Polygonum spp. etc.
The main species of climbers are Vitis latifolia, Paederia foetida,
Ichnocarpus frutescens, Cardiospermum halicacabum, Mikenia spp.,
Trichosanthes dioica, Smilax vaginata, Mucuna pruriens etc.
Grasslands: Almost two-thirds of the sanctuary is covered by
grasslands consisting of both grasses and reeds. The reeds grow up to
a height of fifteen to twenty feet during the rainy season. The main
species of grasses and reeds are Saccharum spp.. Imp er at a cylindrica,
Erianthus spp., Arundo donax, Phragmites karka. Although these
grasses grow side by side the various species have site preferences
depending upon the moisture conditions of the soil.
The newly formed riverain areas along the Brahmaputra River
are mostly covered by Saccharum spontaneum, Imperata cylindrica,
Erianthus flijolius etc.
Erianthus ravaneae (Ekra) is the most common and widely dis-
tributed species in the sanctuary. It prefers the areas which get flood-
ed during the rainy season and remain dry during the winter season.
Mixed with Ekra, Borota kher ( Saccharum elephantinus ), Ulnkher
( Imperata cylindrica) and Hankher ( Pollinia ciliata) are also found.
But the later three species prefer slightly drier soils.
Phragmites karka (Khagori) and Meghela ( Saccharum arundi-
naceum) are found in low lying damp areas. On the other hand
Arundo donax (Nal) is found in the water-logged and marshy places.
The low grasses which are the favourite fodder grasses are found
along the open areas around the beels which remain under water dur-
;
KAZ1RANGA WILD LIFE SANCTUARY, ASSAM 253
ing monsoon but dry up during winter. These grasses are Cynodon
dactylon, Chrysopogon aciculatus, Andropogon spp., Cenchrus ciliaris.
In the beels some floating and creeping species are found in the
water. These are Dalgrass ( Andropogon spp.), Erali ( Andropogon
spp.), Kalmou ( Ipomoea reptans ), Helonchi ( Enhydra fluctuans ),
Borpuni ( Pistia strafiotes ), Harupuni ( Lemna pancicostata) , Meteka
( Eichhornia spp.), water hyacinth etc.
Water areas: About 5.58 per cent of the total area of the sanctu-
ary is covered by the beels and streams during the dry months. The
area under water is much more during the flood season. This 5.58 per
cent represents the area permanently covered by water surfaces. In
addition to some grasses these beels teem with fishes of different kinds
and sizes providing food for birds and other fish eating animals like
otters etc.
Census
The extent of area to be covered, the nature of the terrain and the
thick and tail cover of the grasses presented a problem for determining
a suitable method of census. Added to these difficulties was the problem
of lack of means to traverse the sanctuary except on elephant back.
Moreover from experience it was known that preferred habitat of the
animals were not evenly distributed all over the sanctuary. As such
most of the known methods of taking a sample count had to be dis-
carded. Hence it was decided to take a total count of the animals by
dividing the sanctuary into small compartments as was done in 1966.
The whole sanctuary was divided into eight blocks namely Baguri,
Haldhibari, Kaziranga, Panbari, Tamulipathar, Boralimora, Charig-
horia and Bhawani with the help of natural boundaries like rivers,
roads and paths etc. The boundary of the blocks and its sizes were
kept the same as that of 1966. This was done for the sake of compara-
bility of figures blockwise.
Each of these blocks was subdivided into a number of compart-
ments of 2,000 to 3,000 acres each keeping in view the nature of
terrain, density of grass cover, concentration of animals etc. The division
of the sanctuary into number of compartments was limited by the
number of riding elephants available. With the help of 16 elephants
belonging to the sanctuary we could take only 16 compartments for
carrying out the census on a single day. Hired elephants were not
easily available. However we managed to get four hired elephants.
As such the whole sanctuary was divided into 40 compartments with
a view to complete the census operation in two days taking 20 com-
partments on each day. But due to difficulties of moving elephants
254 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (2)
from one place to another Baguri compartment number I and III had
to be combined as one compartment for taking the census. Thus the
total number of compartments became 39.
Considering the large concentration of animals the Baguri block
was divided into 10 compartments of smaller sizes. On the other hand
the compartments of the Bhawani block which consist of short open
grasslands due to the presence of graziers and where there is less con-
centration of animals were slightly bigger than the average compart-
ment.
For the purpose of completing the census in two days the Diflu
River was taken as the dividing line. This river flows through the
sanctuary from east to west dividing it into two almost equal halves.
The river is quite deep with well defined high banks. The chances of
animals crossing over from one side of the river to the other during
the night was very little. Except for elephants other animals were not
expected to cross the river in large numbers so as to affect the results
of the census.
It was also assumed that the two way crossings of animals would
neutralize the overall effect of the situation. With this view in mind
the compartments falling on the southern side of the Diflu River were
censused on the 1st day and the compartments falling on the northern
side of the river were censused on the 2nd day. There were 21 com-
partments on the southern side and 18 compartments on the northern
side.
The grasslands of the whole sanctuary was then burnt repeatedly
and in areas where there were no natural boundaries artificial com-
partment boundaries of 10 feet width were cut and burnt. But due to
intermittent rains, burning was not very successful and thorough all
over the sanctuary.
After completion of the field preparations an accurate map of
the sanctuary was prepared in l\" - 1 mile scale showing the
blocks and compartment boundaries, beels, grasslands, tree forests,
roads and paths etc. On this map the points from where counting was
to be started and the point where counting was to be finished was
plotted. The direction of traverse in the various compartments was
also plotted keeping in view of the nature of the terrain, grass or tree
cover, beels, known points of animal concentration etc. Altogether 39
maps were prepared for use in the 39 compartments.
39 census parties were formed, each party consisting of an enu-
merator as the incharge, one helper, one guide and a mahout with
the elephant. The duty of the enumerator was to count the animals and
record the figures as well as to plot the approximate location of the
animals and the direction of the line of traverse on the map. The duty
of the guide was to see that the census parties remained within the
KAZIRANGA WILD LIFE SANCTUARY, ASSAM
255
boundary of their respective compartments. The helper assisted the
guide and enumerator in locating the animals. The mahout was engag-
ed in driving the elephants as well as in locating the animals.
The guides and the helpers were selected from the local staff and
were posted in their own jurisdiction and therefore had intimate know-
ledge of the area including the location of favourite grounds of the
animals, isolated water holes, wallows, nullahs etc.
In addition to the census parties some patrol parties of three to
four persons were formed. They were assigned selected boundaries of
blocks and compartments to observe and record the movement of
animals from one compartment to other noting the time and approxi-
mate place of crossing. However such parties were few and could
cover only a negligible portion of some prominent boundaries like
roads.
Each census party was assigned one compartment to census. The
enumerator was supplied with a copy of the map of Kaziranga Wild
Life Sanctuary with the compartment allotted to him prominently
demarcated and showing the direction of traverse. Two copies of
enumeration forms one for the forenoon and one for the afternoon,
a clip board and an appointment letter containing instructions regard-
ing the census operation were also given to the enumerator.
Fifteen species of mammals were listed in the counting sheets.
Columns were provided against each species for classifying the ani-
mals into two age classes of old and young and for sex differentiation
into male and female. A column for recording mother with calf and
another column for entering the number of animals as “non sexed”
were provided. A remark column was provided for recording interest-
ing behaviour observations or for sightings of animals not listed in the
form.
The enumerators were instructed to follow the direction of the
traverse as far as practicable depending on field situations. While pro-
ceeding along the traverse on the elephants they were to record the
number of different kinds of animals sighted. They were instructed
not to approach too close to an animal so as to provoke it or frighten
it into cover.
Mothers accompanied by calf of one year old or less were to be
recorded under the column of mother with calf. Since it might not
be possible for the enumerator to know the approximate age of the
calf they were instructed that a calf of approximately 2' to 2'6" should
be considered as one year old.
The guides, helpers and mahouts were trained and tested prior
to the commencement of census operation. The enumerators were also
trained and given instructions regarding the method of census, pro-
cedure to be followed in filling up the forms, different kinds of animals
256 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (2)
and their general behaviour etc.
Operation :
The census operation was carried out on 24th and 25th March,
1972 in two shifts on each day i.e. from 5.30 a.m. to 10 a.m. in the
first shift and 2 p.m. to 5.30 p.m. in the second shift. The elephants
along with the mahout, and grass cutters, the guides and the helpers
took up positions at their respective starting point of the assigned
compartments on the evening of 23rd March. The enumerators were
dropped at the starting points by jeep on 24th morning. In places where
the jeep could not go the enumerators camped at the starting points
on 23rd evening.
The census parties started counting of animals punctually at 5.30
a.m. of 24th March, 1972 setting off from their respective starting
point simultaneously in 21 compartments on the southern side of the
Diflu River. After completion of the first day’s work the enumerators,
guides and helpers who were not assigned for duties next day were
brought to the camp. The elephants were dispatched to camp at the
starting points of next days’ compartments on the northern side of the
Diflu River. The enumerators, guides and helpers for the count on
25th took up position at their respective starting points on the evening
of 24th. Some enumerators were dropped at their respective starting
points by jeep on 25th morning. Counting of the animals in the 18
compartments north of the Diflu River also started simultaneously on
the 25th at 5.30 a.m. After completion of the day’s work some of the
enumerators, helpers and guides were picked up by jeep but census
parties in areas where the jeep could not go returned to the Range
Head Quarters with their elephants the next day, 26th March, 1972.
Most of the rhinos, buffaloes and swamp deer were sighted near
and around the beels. The census parties after completion of the count-
ing in the first shift took rest on the banks of the beels.
Since the tendency of the animals was to come to the beels for
their afternoon forage the enumerators ruled out any possibility of
crossing over of animals from the counted portion of the compartment
to the uncounted portion during the rest period. Rhinos are not wan-
derers and specially during day time prefer to lie down in mud wallows
inside the tall grass rather than walk over from one beel to another.
The buffaloes and the swamp deer were never seen to go away from
the beels which they had selected for the time being. The hog deer
population was very numerous and they were encountered everywhere
in the sanctuary.
The patrolling parties did not report any incident of crossing over
of animals from one compartment to another.
KAZ1RANGA WILD LIFE SANCTUARY, ASSAM
257
Census parties assigned to compartments consisting mostly of
grasslands reported different degrees of burning varying from 30 per
cent to 80 per cent. While traversing the census parties avoided the
thick patches of unburnt dry grasses. No purpose would have been
served by driving the elephant through such tall grasses as the visi-
bility is limited to the portion of the grasses trampled by the elephant
and no animal generally prefers such areas excepting an occasional
rhino passing through tunnels in the grass. Most of the mud wallows
were also dry at this time of the year. Almost all traverses were taken
along the burnt patches and open beels and most of the animals were
sighted in such areas only. Thus although the area covered during the
census was approximately 60 per cent to 70 per cent almost all the
animals were covered by the count.
In the compartments consisting mainly of evergreen tree forests
the census parties could traverse only areas in which the undergrowth
was not very thick. In certain compartments the undergrowth was so
thick that many such areas were impenetrable. The heavy cane growth
in such forests presented another difficulty. These forests held sambar,
barking deer, bear, langur, elephant, tiger etc. There were a number
of rhinos also near the beels. Only approximately 40 per cent to 50
per cent of such animals living in them were counted.
Effectiveness of the census Method :
The method of census employed for counting the animals gave
us figures of only the total minimum population of the species inha-
biting the area actually covered during census. Since visual counting
of animals in dense forests is difficult the method is ineffective for
counting animals in dense cover. Similarly nocturnal animals cannot
be effectively counted by this method. A drawback detected while
analysing the results of the census was that the counting sheets pro-
vided no columns to classify the animals into different age groups of
adult and young in case of the non-sexed animals. As such the pro-
portion of adult and young animals in the various populations could
not be found out correctly.
The census parties found it difficult in the field to differentiate
between the adults and the young of the species accurately. All the
grown up looking animals including the old ones were classified as
adults. There was no difficulty in classifying the comparatively younger
looking animals. All the rhinos with undeveloped horns and having
smaller horns were classified as young. The confusion was so great
in case of other animals that the census parties did not try to clas-
sify the age groups at all. This is again due to lack of experience of
the census parties and our failure to give them adequate instructions
258 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (2)
and a criterion to differentiate the age group of the different species.
Similarly the census parties found it difficult to identify the sex
of the animals accurately. In case of rhinos it was much more difficult
as the males and females of the species look alike. But as the main
emphasis during the census was given to the rhinos the enumerators
tried their best to identify the sex of the rhinos. The experienced staff
of the sanctuary and the mahouts claim to be able to identify the sex
of the rhinos on the basis of size and the shape of the horn and the
neck. Some of them were tested from time to time and their identi-
fication of sex were found to be fairly accurate. Sometimes the enume-
rators consulted the guide, helper and the mahout in identifying the
sex.
In case of elephants also the same confusion was present. More-
over as the elephants are met in large herds and it was difficult to
make a close approach the idea of identifying the sex of the elephants
was given up. It was easy to identify the sex of the buffaloes. But the
problem was that on closer approach the buffaloes ran for cover. So
also was the case with the deer species, the antlers of most of them
being in velvet at that time. The number of hog deer were found so
numerous running from one cover to the other that the census parties
gave up their effort to identify their sex. A great deal of difficulty in
this respect could have been overcome if the census parties could have
been provided with field glasses.
As a result of these difficulties the age and sex composition of the
animals except that of the rhinos could not be collected from the cen-
sus operation.. The census has thus partially failed to achieve the de-
sired objectives. The age and sex composition of a population indicates
the status of the species in a given locality. A population well repre-
sented by young is a viable and dynamic population where as propor-
tionately higher number of adults with very few young represents a
static and senile population.
Thus the result obtained from this census has given us only the
basic information regarding the size of the population of various
species without throwing any light on the factors governing population
dynamics. However the figures have given us enough data for planning
the future management of the sanctuary.
Check census :
After completion of the census operation on the 24, 25 March,
1972 it was proposed to check the data collected by repeating the
operation in Baguri block on 8 April, 1972.
The reason for selecting the Baguri block for this purpose was
the fact that this block had the highest concentration of animals. But
KAZIRANGA WILD LIFE SANCTUARY, ASSAM
259
due to heavy and continuous rain this could not be done on the
appointed day.
Due to various difficulties it was later on decided to carry out
the check census at least in one compartment of each block selected
at random. This was carried out on June, 1972 in three compartments
of the Baguri block and one compartment in each of the remaining
blocks.
The grasses had shot up by this time and probably the animals
had also changed their places of grazing. Though there was appreci-
able difference in time, weather, temperature, vegetational cover etc.
between the original census and the check census the figures obtained
for the different compartments do not show any appreciable variation
in the number of the various species, suggesting that the earlier
figures are reliable.
Population Estimates’.
With a view to present the figures of the census conveniently in
round figures to visitors the estimated total population of each species
has been shown. These estimates are based on local experience and
knowledge.
Results
The census figures have revealed an overall increase of population
of all species of animals. Only in case of sambar the number of ani-
mals sighted during this year is slightly less than the number sighted
during 1966. This is due to the fact that the compartments consisting
of dense forests could not be thoroughly covered. The number of dif-
ferent species of animals counted in the various compartments and
blocks are given in Table 1.
A comparative statement showing the figures of 1966 census and
that of the 1972 census along with the total estimated population is
given in Table 2. It would not be correct to attribute the increase or
decrease of the animals sighted during this year entirely due to in-
crease or decrease of population over the period of six years. The
increase is probably due to more intensive coverage of the area during
this years’ census in addition to the natural increase of population.
Similarly the decreased number of sighting of sambar during this
year is due to the fact that its habitat was not as intensively covered
as in 1966. The fall does not represent a decrease of population for
the reason that the method of census employed does not provide us
a comparable base of the total population of the area. Specially be-
COMPARTMENTWISE FIGURES OF WILD ANIMALS IN THE KAZIRANGA WlLD LIFE SANCTUARY DURING MARCH 1972.
260 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (2)
Total: 309 13 318 1 123 23 6 1,187
Table 1 (contd.)
COMPARTMENTWISE FIGURES OF WILD ANIMALS IN THE KAZIRANGA WlLD LlFE SANCTUARY DURING MARCH 1972.
KAZIRANGA WILD LIFE SANCTUARY, ASSAM 261
COMPARTMENTWISE FIGURES OF WILD ANIMALS IN THE KAZIRANGA WlLD LlFE SANCTUARY DURING MARCH 1972.
262 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 70 (2)
pjEZIT[ J I I I I I
jopuoui J3>EA\|
£ J
Z“
I I I
I I I
I I I
I I I
~ I I
I 2 I
O W-1 [
\0 ~~ \
in r-H m
Mi ON rj- -3- (M m
a m
- I I I I
I I I I I
I I I I
cc o r — in cm
rj- — vo >n
•^ m
I I I I
a a > >
I I I
I I
O) o
cm m
I I 2
I I ~
* I I
I I I
- 2 |
<n ■'T r-
COMPARTMENTWISE FIGURES OF WILD ANIMALS IN THE KAZIRANGA WlLD LlFE SANCTUARY DURING MARCH 1972.
KAZIRANGA WILD LIFE SANCTUARY, ASSAM
263
pjRziq
ICqiUOUI -131^1
uoqiAj
•ON
JUSUIJiRdUICQ
£ o
7: pq
.2
"Eh
o
JO
.SP
*Eh
a
JO
u
1
Total :
Table 1 (contd.)
COMPARTMENTWISE FIGURES OF WILD ANIVIALS IN THE KAZIRANGA WlLD LlFE SANCTUARY DURING MARCH 1972.
264 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (2)
Grand Total: 658 422 555 7 516 105 76 4,551 6 18 1 522
KAZIRANGA WILD LIFE SANCTUARY, ASSAM
265
Table 2
Comparative figures of 1966 and 1972 Census and the Estimated Population
Comparative figures of Main and Check Census
266 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (2)
KAZIRANGA WILD LIFE SANCTUARY, ASSAM 267
cause of the wide gap of six years between the two census operations.
As such probably it would not be wise to draw any conclusion from
these comparisons. Perhaps intensive repeated annual counts of the
total minimum population or repeated annual sample counts over a
considerable period may provide us comparable data to enable us to
derive some conclusion regarding the factors governing the population.
In Table 3 the comparative figures of this years’ census and that
of the check census carried out later in the month of June are given.
There was no difference between these two censuses as regards level
of efficiency, intensity of area covered etc. except the interval of time,
change of weather and vegetation. The number of rhinos counted
during the check census was 12.2 per cent more than the original
census. In case of elephants it was 60.4 per cent less, in case of buffa-
loes it was 3.1 per cent more and in case of swamp deer it was 19.3
per cent less. The large variation in case of elephants can be easily
understood from the fact that they are great wanderers and are con-
stantly on the move while grazing. The check census show that the
figures obtained during the main census operation are authentic as the
variation in case of other animals is insignificant.
Analysis of census data :
1. Rhinoceros
A total of 658 rhinos were counted during the census operation.
Out of these 203 were classified as adult males, 121 as adult females,
44 as young males, 37 as young females, 119 as non sexed and 67
mothers with calves. These 67 mothers have not been included in the
number of 121 adult females. The figures for rhinos are given in
Table 4.
Table 4
Total:
203 121 44 37
119
67
658
268 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (2)
The confusion in determining the sex of the rhinos occured mostly
in case of the young ones where the horn was not properly developed.
As such most of the nonsexed animals may be considered to be young
ones. On this assumption the age composition of the population will
be 59.4 per cent adult, 30.4 per cent young and 10.2 per cent calves
less than one year old. As stated earlier only comparatively younger
looking animals were classified as young. Considering the fact that the
rhinos live up to an approximate average age of 40 years probably
many young animals were included in the adult group.
Out of the total count of 658 rhinos 472 were classified into males
and females. Of the entire adult population of 391 rhinos, 203 are classi-
fied as males and 188 as females (including the 67 mothers). The sex
ratio in the adult population thus works out to 100 males for 92
females.
In case of 81 young rhinos of whose sex was identified 44 have
been recorded as males against 37 females. The sex ratio in the young
population thus works out to 100 males for 84 females.
In the check census out of a total count of 229 rhinos 100 were
classified as males, 93 as females, 34 calves and 2 were nonsexed.
Here also the sex ratio comes out to 100 males for 93 females. Thus
we can roughly estimate that the males and females in a population
are equally distributed with the sex ratio of one is to one,
But considering the fact that an adult female rhino gives birth to
a calf after every three to four years after a gestation period of 16 to
18 months it is apparent that in any particular time of the year there
will be a group of pregnant adult females, females with less than one
year old calf and females with 2 year old calf who will not go into
heat and will not accept the services of any male. Hence the sex ratio
of one is to one appears to be unlikely. Probably the disparity in the
sex ratio can be explained to some extent by the fact that for success-
ful mating of rhinos the heat period of both the male and the female
must coincide.
In a population of 658 rhinos there were 67 adult females with
calves less than one year old. That is 10.2 per cent of the total popu-
lation were calves less than one year old representing the annual rate
of calving. Again out of 188 adult females 67 were with calves. That
is 35.6 per cent of the total adult female population were accompanied
by calves.
It is not difficult to differentiate between one year old and two
year old calves in the field. Yet possibility of error in some marginal
cases cannot be ruled out. The calves generally accompany the mother
up to 3 years and in some cases till the next calf is born. But the be-
haviour of a very young calf and its mother and that of a grown up
calf and its mother are quite different and can be easily distinguished.
KAZIRANGA WILD LIFE SANCTUARY, ASSAM
269
The following table gives us the record of death of rhinos in Kaziranga
Wild Life Sanctuary over a period of seven years.
Table 5
From the figures for the last seven years the average mortality of
rhinos is 30 annually which is 4.6 per cent of the total rhinos counted
during this year. On the basis of these figures the annual rate of growth
of rhino population in Kaziranga comes to 37 which is 5.6 per cent of
the population.
From this table it appears that most of the deaths amongst young
rhinos are caused by tiger. Approximately 6 young rhinos die annu-
ally due to tiger attack. The number of natural deaths amongst the
adult population are due to old age and fighting. Thus in an average
approximately 16 rhinos die of old age and fighting etc. The annual
mortality rate is considerably affected by poaching.
Rhinos were found in all the compartments of the sanctuary. The
Baguri block was found to have the maximum concentration of rhinos.
As many as 309 rhinos out of a total of 658 rhinos were counted in
Baguri block only. The reasons for such concentration requires detail-
ed investigation. It is true of course that the area of the Baguri block
was bigger than any other block. The following table gives the area
in acres available per rhino in each of the eight blocks.
Thus it is seen that in Baguri block there is one rhino in every
55 acres against 1 rhino in every 142.2 acres for the whole sanctuary.
The nature of vegetation and availability of fodder grasses in the re-
maining parts of the Sanctuary have no appreciable difference with
that of Baguri block. The only difference is the fact that the number
of beels and the area under water in Baguri block is more than in any
of the remaining blocks of the Sanctuary.
The rhinos in Baguri block as well as in the rest of the sanctuary
were found in excellent health. Hence it can be safely assumed that
the population of rhinos in the Sanctuary has not yet reached the
saturation point. This is also indicated by the presence of vast areas
of unused grasslands in the Sanctuary.
As a result of increase in population gradual diffusion of rhinos
along the bank of the Brahmaputra River to the river islands and
other suitable forested areas have started as a natural process. But
due to the high value of the horn such animals are not safe in isolated
areas where effective protection cannot be given. Till the rhinos esta-
blish themselves and build up sizable population in such areas the
species cannot be considered as free from the danger of extinction.
With more than half of the world’s surviving population of Great
Indian Onehorned Rhinoceros concentrated in one place, Kaziranga
has a special and unique role to play.
Wild Elephants :
A total of 422 elephants were counted during the census. They
were mostly met in herds of varying sizes except a few solitary males.
Out of the 39 compartments of the Sanctuary, elephants were met in
24. Most of them were found in the eastern part of the Sanctuary.
KAZIRANGA WILD LIFE SANCTUARY, ASSAM
271
The elephant population of the sanctuary does not remain static
throughout the year. Some of them migrate to the adjoining Mikir
hills on the southern side of the boundary during the rainy season.
The to and fro movement of the elephants from the Sanctuary to the
Mikir hills take place generally at two different places. One is through
the Panbari Reserved Forests situated midway in the southern bound-
ary of the sanctuary across the National highway. The other is near
Kanchanjuri on the western end of the sanctuary. Some elephants use
the corridor through Haldhibari also.
But such migration of elephants have been greatly reduced during
the recent years due to the opening up of the valley lands and the
lower hills for cultivation. The tribal population of Mikir hills have
started cutting and burning large areas of forests even on steep hills.
As a result there are large scale depredation by elephants all along the
foot hills as well as along the southern boundary of the sanctuary
during the crop season. These elephants then retreat to the sanctuary
when driven away. Thus a gradual decrease of habitat in the hills and
widening of the gap between the sanctuary and the nearby hills by
human settlement will in time force the elephants of the sanctuary to
remain within it.
There is no corridor for the elephants to cross over to Mikir hills
in the eastern part of the sanctuary. The presence of a large number
of elephants in the eastern part of the sanctuary suggest that these
elephants have probably already given up the habit of going back to
the hills. The elephants are of course great wanderers and are con-
stantly on the move while grazing and the possibility of these elephants
coming to cross over through Panbari reserve cannot be ruled out.
Probably the elephant population accounts for the largest contri-
bution to the biomass of the sanctuary. The elephant population needs
to be watched carefully because of its wandering habits, the amount
of food consumed and the amount of destruction it causes to the
habitat. The elephant has the highest reach of any terrestrial mammal
in the country. Therefore it can utilize both forested areas and the
grasslands for foraging. Though elephants were met in 24 compart-
ments only at the time of census actually they traverse almost all the
compartments of the sanctuary at one time or the other.
Wild Buffalo
t
In the sanctuary wild buffaloes are found grazing around the beels
in the morning and afternoon. During day time they are found lying
in the mud wallows. Except in case of solitary males they are always
in herds of varying sizes. The herds generally consist of one dominant
adult male, immature males and cows of all ages. The social grouping
272 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (2)
of buffalo is quite cohesive and the most cohesive unit is the cow
herd with calves. The immature males may form small sub-groups
and the dominant males may wander about in the vicinity.
During the census 555 buffaloes were counted in the sanctuary.
They were found in 27 compartments leaving only 12 compartments
without any of them. The highest number of buffaloes were counted
in the Baguri block (318 individuals).
Though it was not difficult to identify the age groups, count the
calves, and identify the sex of the buffaloes the same was not done by
most of the census parties due to some reason or the other. However
during individual interrogation the census party reported that calves
were well represented in the herds. From field observations also I have
noticed that an average herd of 10 to 12 buffaloes always included 3
to 5 calves.
Swamp Deer
In olden days the swamp deer was found in suitable localities
throughout the basins of the Indus, Ganges and the Brahmaputra
Rivers as well as in central India. But today the swamp deer exists
only in a few isolated pockets. The main centres of its survival at pre-
sent are in West Kheri Forest Division of U.P. and its adjoining areas
in Nepal, Kanha National Park of M.P. and in scattered places of
North Bengal and Assam. Schaller estimates that fewer than 5,000
swamp deer exist in the whole country.
Probably the largest number of surviving swamp deer in the
eastern zone at present exist only in Kaziranga Wild Life Sanctuary.
During the census 516 swamp deer were counted in the sanctuary
against 213 counted during 1966. Nineteen out of the 39 compartments
reported no swamp deer. The highest number was recorded in Baguri
block. The largest single herd encountered during the census consisted
of 58 individuals.
The swamp deer population inside the sanctuary are always found
in herds grazing or lying down in the open grassland around the
beels. The males were congregated in a separate subgroup in the same
herd. At the time of census the antlers of the males were in velvet.
Sarnbar
In Kaziranga the sarnbar is distributed only in the heavily wood-
ed compartments. They are usually solitary animals except in case
of small social groups of a hind, an yearling and a fawn. Sometimes
2 to 3 adult hinds accompanied by fawns, yearling stags etc. may be
found to form bigger herds. The adult stags are solitary except in the
KAZIRANGA WILD LIFE SANCTUARY, ASSAM
m
rutting season.
During the census 105 sambar were sighted against 120 sighted
during 1966. Out of total 39 compartments 21 compartments reported
no sambar. As stated earlier the forested compartments of the sanc-
tuary could not be covered intensively due to the presence of thick
undergrowth and cane brakes. This explains the low figure of sighting
of these animals. There is no apparent reason to suspect that there is
any decline in the population of sambar in the sanctuary.
Hog Deer
Hog deer tops the list in numerical density among all other ani-
mals of the sanctuary. They were scattered everywhere in the sanctu-
ary and were too numerous to be counted accurately. Though usually
they do not form cohesive herds sometimes groups of hog deer con-
sisting of 50 to 60 individuals were found together, sometimes in
smaller groups of 3 to 5 individuals and sometimes solitary males or
females with a fawn or an yearling were also found. At the time of
census some stags had hard antlers and some were in velvet.
During the census 4,551 hog deer were counted. It was difficult
to see them when they were under grass cover or when they rushed
into such cover at the sight or sound of the riding elephants. Only
one compartment reported no hog deer. It is certain that quite a good
number of them were missed.
Judging from their excellent condition and the presence of fawns
and yearlings in the groups observed during field investigation probably
it can be safely concluded that the population has not yet reached its
peak in the Sanctuary.
Barking Deer
The barking deer or the muntjac also prefers the same habitat as
that of the sambar. Due to their small size and the forested habitat it
was difficult to locate and count them accurately. Only 76 barking deer
were counted during the census in 15 out of 39 compartments.
Wild Boar
The wild boar was common in many parts of the sanctuary. They
are commonly sighted around the beels as well as in the heavily forest-
ed areas. They seem to avoid the tall reed grasses. Except in case of
solitary males they are found in family groups of 4 to 6 individuals.
Their shy nature and relatively small size make it difficult to locate
and count them accurately.
During the census 522 pigs were counted against 155 counted
during 1966. Pigs were sighted in 35 out of 39 compartments of the
274 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (2)
sanctuary. This distribution itself suggested that probably only a small
portion of their total population could be counted during the census.
Gaur
Three census parties reported sighting of the gaur on the second
day of the census. No gaur was sighted by any of our sanctuary staff
during the last four years. The gaur are actually not residents of the
sanctuary. They come to the sanctuary from the Mikir hills during
winter when large scale felling and burning for jhum cultivation takes
place in the hills. It was thought that due to gradual opening up of
the forests in the foothills and widening of the gap between the Sanc-
tuary and the hills by human settlement the gaur have gone to the
interior hills never to visit the sanctuary again. However judging from
the point of location of these animals it appears that the gaur sighted
during the census are permanent residents of the sanctuary.
Altogether 18 gaur were sighted in Boralimora and Charighoria
blocks. One was a solitary male in one compartment, 5 in a herd in
one compartment and a herd of 12 in another compartment.
Tiger
Seven tigers were sighted by the census parties. But it is apparent
that this method of census cannot be employed to count an animal
like tiger which is nocturnal in its habits and is extremely alert and shy.
However the sighting of as many as 7 tigers is quite significant and is
an indication of its relative numerical strength in the Sanctuary.
A separate census for counting the tigers in Kaziranga along with
the rest of the state and the country was conducted from 22nd April to
,28th April 1972 by Chowdhury’s “Tiger tracer” method. The total
number of tigers counted by this method in the sanctuary was 29. Out
of these 29 tigers 9 were male, 13 female and 7 cubs. During the period
of this census there was very heavy rains in this area submerging most
of the low lying areas around the beels. As a result the census could
not be carried out as effectively as planned. Probably quite a few
tigers missed the count. Co-ordinators working on this census have
reported definite missing of some known tigers in certain parts of the
sanctuary. It is planned to repeat the census during the next winter.
Leopard
Only one leopard was sighted in the sanctuary near Panbari Re-
served Forests. There are no leopards in the interior parts of the sanc-
tuary. Only a few leopards probably stay in the periphery of the sane-
KAZIRANGA WILD LIFE SANCTUARY, ASSAM
275
tuary adjoining the villages. But they are quite common in the foot
of the nearby Mikir hills where they are heard to call at night and
often seen also. There are some leopards even near the Tourist Lodge.
Other animals
Other animals recorded during the census are sloth bear, otters,
capped langurs etc.
Though bears are common in certain parts of the sanctuary in
wooded areas near Kanchanjuri, Bimoli, Kathpara etc. only 6 of them
were seen during the census. This is due to the type of forests where
they live during the day time and due to their nocturnal habits.
Otters in large family groups are common in almost all the beels
of the sanctuary. The otters usually escaped the notice of the census
parties and the number recorded were only the results of sighting. 95
otters were counted during the census.
Langurs and macaques are found in the wooded areas in the peri-
phery of the sanctuary. During the census 25 capped langurs and 6
rhesus monkeys have been recorded. Probably many were missed.
The recorded figures for common lizards, water monitor lizards,
pythons, hog badgers are insignificant.
Some census parties have recorded figures of sighting barheaded
geese, pelicans etc.
Concentration of animals :
The Baguri block situated on the western end of the sanctuary
has the maximum concentration of almost all the animals. 46.9 per
cent rhinos, 3.08 per cent elephants, 57.3 per cent buffaloes, 23.7 per
cent swamp deer, 21.9 per cent sambar, 26.08 per cent hog deer, 7.89
per cent barking deer and 37.54 per cent wild boar of the total number
of animals counted were found in this block. The total area of this
block is 17,000.24 acres or 68.79 sq kms representing 18.15 per cent
or roughly l/5th of the total area of the sanctuary. The density of
different species of animals in this block works out to 4.49 rhino, 0.18
elephant, 4.6 buffalo, 1.79 swamp deer, 0.33 sambar, 17.4 hog deer,
0.08 barking deer and 2.84 wild boar per sq km. Though the numeri-
cal density of various species of animals was so high the habitat as a
whole in this block did not appear to be overused. There was lush
green grass everywhere and the animals observed were in excellent
health.
Against this density in Baguri block the density of various animals
in remaining parts of the sanctuary comprising an area of 310.07 hec-
tares representing 81.85 per cent or roughly 4 /5th of the sanctuary
276 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (2)
works out to 1.01 rhino, 1.31 elephant, 0.76 buffalo, 1.26 swamp deer,
0.26 sambar, 1.84 hog deer, 0.22 barking deer and 1.05 wild boar per
sq km. There seems to be no competition amongst the different kinds
of herbivorous animals at present even in the Baguri block due to the
availability of adequate quantity of fodder. Areas where rhinos, swamp
deer, hog deer and buffaloes are seen grazing together are full of green
grass. The hog deer population is widely distributed and their grazing
grounds are not confined to the beels. So also is the case with the
buffalo.
Taking all these factors into consideration it can be safely con-
cluded that the sanctuary is not overcrowded and it has the capacity
to support a much bigger biomass than the present one.
Distribution of animals :
It is not understood why the Baguri block is favoured and pre-
ferred by most of the animals even though the range conditions of
this block and the rest of the sanctuary have no apparent difference.
The vegetational cover is almost the same all over. Though the area
under beels are highest in Baguri block, water is not a limiting factor
in any of the remaining blocks of the sanctuary. The only difference
observed was that the intensity of burning is less in Tamulipathar,
Boralimora and Panbari blocks where large areas remained covered
with tall grasses. The second difference is that these tall and thick mass
of reeds in these areas grow almost upto the banks of the beels leav-
ing very little area of shorter grasses like Chrysopogon aciculatus,
Cynodon dactylon, Andropogon spp. around the beels. The third dif-
ference is the fact that the Baguri block is nearer to the adjacent Mikir
hills and provides a corridor to the animals to cross over to these hills
during high floods, in two places. To what extent these factors or any
other unknown factor influence the concentration of animals is to be
studied further.
From wild life management point of view such heavy concentration
of animals are not desirable specially in the present condition when
poaching is a major factor. Moreover Baguri block is in the extreme
western end of the sanctuary from where the animals may go out of
the sanctuary to raid crops of villagers and expose themselves to the
danger of poaching. Steps must be taken to disperse these animals into
the remaining parts of the sanctuary by providing artificial salt licks,
improvement of range conditions and grazing grounds.
Recommendations
Fodder grasses'.
Most of the animals prefer shorter grasses growing around the
KAZ1RANGA WILD LIFE SANCTUARY, ASSAM 277
beels and other open areas. The tender shoots of the reeds coming out
immediately after burning are also relished by the animals. But as the
reeds grow taller shooting up to a height of 10 to 15 feet they go out
of the reach of the rhinos, hog deer, swamp deer etc. The reeds dry up
during the winter and provide no food for the animals except the
elephants. The major portion of the sanctuary’s grasslands consist of
such tall reeds. Some of these reeds around the vicinity of the beels
should be replaced by shorter edible fodder grasses mentioned earlier.
Annual control burning to reduce the density of the thick reeds
are to be continued.
Flood and Erosion :
Though flood is essential for maintaining the habitat and clearance
of water hyacinth it must not be allowed to go out of hand. Some of
the sanctuary’s channels and outlets for flood water which have since
silted up need to be renovated.
The large scale migration of animals from the sanctuary to the
adjacent hills during high floods should be brought down to the mini-
mum. To provide shelter to the marooned animals during flood high
grounds should be created within the sanctuary. This can be done by
raising the levels of the existing roads near the beels. If the roads are
widened and raised near the beels it will not only provide shelter for
the animals during flood but will also enable the visitors during winter
to observe the animals grazing around the beels from their motor cars.
In the meantime the proposal already initiated to include a portion of
the Mikir hills into the sanctuary should be speeded up.
Instead of depending on the annual flood to wash away the water
hyacinth some other mechanical device should be provided to clear
them. Moreover it must be mentioned here that flood of lower inten-
sity cannot clear the water hyacinth as seen during the last year.
As stated already the erosion of the sanctuary has greatly redu-
ced its area. As such effective steps require to be taken up to halt this
process by erecting spurs and dykes in suitable places.
Scientific research :
Research to collect some of the basic data like popula-
tion dynamics, reproductive behaviour, food habits etc. of the various
species of animals should be carried out, the ecology of the habitat
should be studied. Census of animals should be carried out annually.
Financial Aspects :
Instead of continuing as a burden to the state treasury Kaziranga
has the potential to become a major source of revenue for the state,
specially much needed foreign exchange. To achieve this objective
2
278 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (2)
some imaginative measures are to be taken. But this is outside the
purview of this report.
However it is suggested that some rhinos may be captured and
sold to foreign and Indian Zoos of repute whenever such demands
are received. It is also suggested that to keep the population of ele-
phants under control as well as to reduce the depredation of wild
elephants in the surrounding villages some elephants should also be
captured in and around the sanctuary under direct departmental super-
vision on an experimental basis. The elephants thus captured may be
sold to outside agencies or may be used for tourists and visitors.
Expenditure :
The total expenditure incurred during the whole census operation
amounted to Rs. 2,594.87 paise only (Rupees two thousand five hun-
dred ninetyfour and paise eightyseven only). The break up figure is
as follows:
One rhino horn weighing 1.139 kg was recovered while cutting
Compartment lines. The value of the horn is about Rs. 11,000/-
( Rupees eleven thousand only). Thus the expenditure incurred for
the census operation have yielded not only much information but have
also yielded some revenue after covering the whole expenditure.
Elephant hire charges
Cost of cutting Compartment lines
Miscellaneous contingencies
Rs. 1,020.00
Rs. 812.00
Rs. 762.87
Total : Rs. 2,594.87
Dry Evergreen Forest of Point
Calimere and Marakanam1
BY
F. Blasco and P. Legris
lnstitut Francais, Pondicherry
{With three plates)
The “tropical dry evergreen forests” have been distinguished by
several authors, notably by Champion (1936); they represent a pecu-
liar type that is confined to Northern Ceylon and to the coastal regions
of Coromandel.
In Ceylon, this group comprises dense formations that constitute
true forests. In India, these formations are essentially thickets, more
or less dense, well characterised in the littoral reserved forests of the
Bay of Bengal, notably in Point Calimere and Marakanam. For the
latter region there exist some publications concerning forestry and
ecology (Krishnan 1940; Dabholkar 1962; Legris 1963; Krishnan 1971)
or history and zoology (Daniel 1967), but no detailed study on ecology,
physiognomy or dynamism seems to have been done so far in these
regions. Therefore, our investigations deal with these points essentially.
Ecology
Four principal ecological factors should be considered . rainfall,
duration of dry seasons, seasonal variations of temperature and finally,
physical properties of soils.
The temperature varies very slightly from locality to locality and
from season to season at these latitudes of 10° to 12° North. During
the least hot month, January, the mean temperature is of the order
of 24°C with absolute minimum 17°C and absolute maximum
30°C. During the hottest months. May and June, the average is 31.5°C,
the absolute maximum of the order of 40°C and the absolute minimum
rarely under 25 °C.
1 — Rainfall , dry seasons and relative humidity
The average annual rainfall in the region of Vedharanyam— Naga-
1 Accepted April 26, 1972.
280 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (2)
pattinam is about 1300 mm i.e. practically of the same order as in
the Marakanam-Pondicherry region.
The distribution of rainfall in the course of the year (Plate II, figs.
1 and 2) brings out well-marked maxima in October, November or De-
cember whereas the summer is dry or sub-dry according to the years.
Compared to the normal tropical rainfall regime with maxima in July
and August of the west coast of southern India, there is a shift of the
high rains towards the end of the year. The first consequence of this
regime is prolongation of the average dry season up to June. Thus
the climates of the east coast of S. India manifest a long average dry
season of at least six months duration from January to June.
Another fundamental characteristic of these climates is the large
variability of rains from year to year. Even the months appearing as
the most humid on basis of averages may be totally dry in certain
years. The number of rainy days during the months of October and
November varies from 2 to 21.
There are years with high rainfall but containing a very long dry
season; this is the case of 1969 during which was recorded 1743 mm
at Nagapattinam but 9 consecutive months were dry (Plate II, fig. 3).
Some other years like 1970 have an attenuated and discontinuous dry
season (Plate II, fig. 4).
Another essential character of the rainfall is the violence of pre-
cipitation. The usual number of rainy days per year is 55 to 70 mm but
often amounts exceeding 100 mm are recorded in a day. Some recent
examples are given below:
Nagapattinam — 1969 : 19 Nov. 20 Nov. 16 Dec. 27 Dec. 30 Dec.
155 mm 100 mm 108 mm 133 mm 127 mm
Pondicherry — 1969 : 20 Oct. 23 Oct. 19 Nov. 20 Nov. 9-10 March, 1971
165 mm 150 mm 209 mm 201mm 242 mm
There are even more serious cases of excessively rainy cyclones
precipitating more than 1000 mm in 3^4 days. This was the case in
Pondicherry in May, 1943 (1097 mm).
The high amount of rains are almost always of cyclonic origin.
In three years (1968 to 1970) we have counted 13 cyclonic depres-
sions and 7 cyclones that affected these coastal areas from September
to December.
Detailed examination of meteorological data shows that in a nor-
mal rainfall year, on the eastern coast of S. India, 70 to 95 per cent
of the rains from September to December and 40 to 70 per cent of
the annual rainfall are due to the cyclones.
This uneven distribution of rain has two disadvantages: a strong
erosive force of the precipitation causing considerable damage to the
terrain, and a low efficiency for the vegetation. It is evident that 200
Plate I
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 70 (2)
Blasco & Legris: Forest of Point Calimere and Marakanam
COROMANDEL COAST
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 70 (2)
Blasco & Legris: Forest of Point Calimere and Marakanam
Plate II
0M8R0THERMIC - DIAGRAMS
FOREST OF POINT CALIMERE AND MARAKANAM
281
mm rainfall in some hears has not the same effect on the vegetation
as 200 mm in 10 days.
In these regions near the ocean, the relative humidity does not
remain high throughout the year. The continuous records maintained
at the French Institute may give some precision.
From October to March-April, its values vary between 70 and
90 per cent. On the rare rainy days the values remain practically con-
stant between 90 and 95 per cent; on the days without rains, one obser-
ves a classical rhythm of maximum at day-break (6 to 8 a.m.) and
minimum between 1 to 3 p.m.
The relative humidity is minimum in June and July when the
winds are blowing over the dry land. The variations are between 50
and 70 per cent with minimum of the order of 40 per cent in the be-
ginning of the afternoon. At this time of the year, the mean monthly
deficit of saturation reaches high values of the order of 15 mm. This
factor may explain certain xeromorphic structures.
Remarks
The rainfall regimes of these coastal regions of Coromandel re-
semble to a certain extent those of the mediterranean climate with
autumn and winter rains, the summer being dry but there the compari-
son ends because the day-length, thermic amplitudes and the absolute
minima of temperature differ completely. The tropical climates with
dissymetric rainfall regime raise the problems of classification and one
may question whether the distribution of the rains in the year is an
important or minor factor at these latitudes where the thermic ampli-
tude is relatively low.
The physiognomy of the vegetation types much resembles the
mediterranean maquis and amongst the species which may be culti-
vated figure the Carob-tree ( Ceratonia siliqua) and the olive (Olea
europaea). The trial of acclimatization of mediterranean species covers
only 4 years but we may say that their vegetative growth has so far
progressed normally under the climate of Pondicherry.
2 — Physical properties of Soils
It does not seem that there exists a very distinct edaphic unity
on the littoral. At Point Calimere, the thickets develop on the dunes
and alluvia; at Marakanam on a relatively light colluvium, rich in
quartzite; at Ousteri and Thirouvakarai on ferruginous sandstone.
Elsewhere the rock of the coastal hillocks is a type of Charnockite,
hardly altered at the surface. Some precisions are given below.
282 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (2)
“ Alluvial soils and Regosols” on sand dunes of Point Calimere
Included in the Cavery delta, this coastal region is essentially for-
med of fluvial alluvia and dunes. The “dry evergreen” thickets grow
on these types of soils.
In the coastal plains having a very slight slope, the recent deposits,
essentially of fluvial origin, are called the alluvial soils.
The pedologic horizons are not distinct there having no clear cut
separation between the horizons. The only well individualised horizon
is at the surface of greyish colour in a humid state. It contains a little
of organic niatter. This A1 horizon is usually clayey sand, with peb-
bles, gravels or concretions. The average depth is 30 to 40 cm; it con-
tains the majority of roots and rootlets. A1 may be dry in summer
(May to July) but it may be covered with a thin layer of brackish
water during the strong tides of September and October.
Below 40 cm, the layers are permanently humid, richer in clay
but poorer in organic matter. Below the depth of 60 cm begins to appear
a pale grey layer very rich in clay which is penetrated only by some
big roots. Here the water-table persists even in the dry season.
As a rule these soils are halomorphic with a muddy structure in
moistened state and a compact structure in dry state. The saline efflo-
rescence is often formed at the surface due to the capillary rise of salts
(mainly Sodium chloride). Their formation is favoured because of
the proximity of the sea and the length of the dry season. This fact
explains the presence of halophytes in the dry evergreen thickets and
in the discontinuous grasslands they contain.
The “regosols” on the sand dunes at Point Calimere
Their morphology is extremely simple; the dune is composed of
fine sand, yellowish white in colour. It bears a single vegetation type:
evergreen thicket, more or less dense, without halophytes. A small
quantity of superficial organic matter appears under the woody ele-
ments. Wherever the plant-cover is interrupted, the barren sand is
exposed. These soils are consolidated only under the thicket stage;
elsewhere they are continuously altered by the eolian erosion.
The “lithosols” on ferruginous colluvium of Marakanam
They have probably originated from the Cuddalore sandstone
through erosion. This has caused a general loosening of the soil with
apparent bed formations resulting in the accumulation of quartz peb-
bles alternating with layers less encumbered with coarse material. The
fine material has generally disappeared at the surface, removed by the
violent run-off three months per year.
FOREST OF POINT CALIMERE AND MARAKANAM
283
The “lithosols” on colluvium or on Cuddalore sandstone have
several characteristics in common:
— Their richness in quartz is such that all the farming implements
are rapidly worn out.
— Only the top 20 cm of soil is of value from agricultural point
of view. Below this level, the clay layers are more or less in-
durated. The management technique should therefore try to
limit the working of the soil to the thin surface layer by scrat-
ching, superficial at the beginning, going deeper each year.
— These terrains are excessively poor in organic matter and very
dry if deprived of the vegetation. A cover of trees, even scatter-
ed, is sufficient enough to change radically the properties of the
upper horizon by increasing organic matter and moisture content.
Some floristic peculiarities
Thanks to the publications of Sebastine (1967) on Vedharanyanx
(Point Calimere) and Marlange & Meher-Homji (1965) on the Pondi-
cherry-Marakanam region, precise botanical information is available
but this is not yet complete. Here is a list of the common woody plants
that we collected from Vedharanyam, not cited by Sebastine (l.c.) :
Maba buxifolia, Ehretia microphylla, Ehretia aspera, Carissa spinarum ,
Canthium parviflorum, Pterolobium indicum, Erythroxylon monogynum ,
Maytenus emarginata, Atalantia monophylla, Pleurostylia opposita ,
Murraya exotica, Breynia rhamnoides. A common species like Cap pa-
ns zeylanica (Daniel 1967, p. 513) is also not mentioned.
Based on the botanical information available till present, we may
draw the following main conclusions.
— This part of littoral belongs to the “eastern floristic province,
Carnatic sector” (Blasco 1971), in which the number of endemics
(about 50) may be considered as low.
— Over the whole of the littoral, the Dicotyledonous species would
be about 500 including aquatic, mangrove and terrestrial forms.
— Over a given regional area, the maximum number of the Dico-
tyledons is 200 to 300. In the Point Calimere Sanctuary covering about
25 square kms of ligneous and herbaceous vegetation, one may collect
about 200 species of non-parasitic Dicotyledons.
The following observations may be made from the floristic analysis
of the area:
— The more or less radicant herbs form the majority, about 50
per cent of the species.
— The shrubs and undershrubs with nearly 22 per cent of species
and the climbers mostly ligneous (17%) occupy second place. Arbo-
284 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (2)
rescent vegetation contributes only about 10 per cent of species.
— An important fraction of this flora has a very vast distribution.
There are about 42 (21%) pantropical species occuring in all the tro-
pical floristic empires: Tamarix gallica, Abrus precaiorius, Tephrosia
purpurea , Vernonia cinerea, Achyranthes aspera, Ageratum cony -
zoides etc. There are also zoochore and anthropochore plants whose
dispersal through the agency of animals and man make them ruderals
or weeds of cultivated fields; examples are Desmodium triflorum, Evo -
Ivulus alsinoides, Borreria articularis, Boerhaavia diffusa.
— 40 species (20%) are typically Asian. A large number of species
of the warmer parts of Asia is naturally to be expected in these for-
mations: Carissa spinarum, Erythroxylon monogynum, Atalantia mono-
phylia, Capparis zeylanica, Gmelina asiatica, Calotropis gigantea,
Premna serratifolia etc.
— 36 species (18%) belong to India and Ceylon. Their number
is inferior to the pantropical species. This Indo-Ceylon flora comprises
fundamental ligneous elements like Manilkara hexandra, Ixora arborea,
Randia malabarica, Cadaba fruticosa, Maytenus emarginata, Canthium
parviflorum or very common herbs like Mollugo disticha, Blumea
obliqua, Justicia prostrata etc.
— 28 species (14%) are Afro-Asian (some of these are Afro-
Indian) : Toddalia asiatica, Cissus quadrangularis, Oldenlandia her -
bacea, Salvadora persica, Azima tetracantha, Pleurostylia opposita etc.
— 14 species (7%) are common to the warm regions of Asia,
Australia and Africa: Maba buxifolia, Dichrostachys cinerea, Xerom -
phis spinosa, Asy stasia gangetica etc. The species common to Asia and
Australia are only about 10 (5%) but some of the ligneous members
are very important in these regions: Zizyphus oenoplia, Pongamia
pinnata, Pavetta indica.
— The endemics play a minor role. According to our releves,
there are only 7 of which 4 are endemic in the flora of south India
( Ceropegia candelabrum, Sarcostemma intermedium, Leucas diffusa
and Jatropha tanjoorensis) , the remaining three are confined to Penin-
sular India ( Rivea hypocrateriformis, Ehretia aspera, Pterolobium
indicum). Mention may be made of Salacia chinensis, a Hippocrate-
aceae, very common in these regions but which does not seem to have
been recorded in India, south of Visakhapatnam.
— This flora contains nearly 20 introduced or cultivated species
which are naturalised (Phaseolus trilobus, Mimusops elengi, Cathar-
anthus roseus, Prosopis juliflora, Ocimum canum etc.) and a small
number of species with exceptional geographic distribution.
— A number of halophilous species occurs in the Vedharanyam
region. Certain are characteristic of the saline soils, others withstand
a certain amount of salinity: Salvadora persica, Clerodendrum inerme.
FOREST OF POINT CALIMERE AND MARAKANAM
285
Solarium trilobatum, Excoecaria agallocha, Prosopis juliflora, Helio-
tropium curassavicum, Enicostemma hyssopifolium etc.
— The above results are in general valid for the reserved forest
of Marakanam too. However, the halophytes are totally absent in the
thickets. A detailed examination reveals further floristic differences.
The “dry evergreen thickets” of Marakanam region contain little of
Manilkara hexandra, on the other hand Memecylon umbellatum and
Cant hium didymum are much better represented here. Besides, Albizzia
amara, A. lebbek, Acacia cacsia, Pterospermum suberifolium, Jasminum
spp., Gelonium lanceolatum and especially Chloroxylon swietenia are
found in Marakanam whereas these have not been noted in Point
Calimere.
One may therefore conclude that the flora of the evergreen thickets
is essentially formed of species having a vast geographic distribution
and consequently a large ecological tolerance; the endemics are not
only small in number but are of rare occurrence.
Principal vegetation types
1) The dry evergreen thickets of Point Calimere
At Vedharanyam the ligneous formations are found on clayey
alluvium and dunes. In our opinion this is an example of the tallest
and the most dense type of “dry evergreen forest” described by Cham-
pion (1936) and Champion and Seth (1968) that may be taken up
for investigation.
As a matter of fact, even the best formation is stunted, almost
exclusively formed of bushes much branched practically up to the soil
level and measuring 2 to 4 m in height. Here and there emerge some
evergreen arborescent shrubs ( Manilkara hexandra ) under 10 m in
height with dark green voluminous crowns.
On the sand dunes are found the formations that we may refer
to as “high, thorny, evergreen thickets”. A schematic profile diagram
of this formation is given (Plate III).
There is a discontinuous arborescent stratum of Manilkara hex-
andra with some Canthium dicoccum that is far less voluminous than
M. hexandra.
The continuous and principal stratum is thorny with a slight nume-
rical dominance of Maytenus emarginata, Maba buxifolia, Randia
malabarica, Zizyphus oenoplia. Other non-thorny ligneous species are
also very common but their density varies from place to place. This
286 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (2)
is the case with Memecylon nmbellatum, Murraya exotica, Sapindus
emarginatus, Premna serratifolia, Ixora parviflora, Pleurostylia opposita,
Canthium didymum. Therefore, in the thicket, the majority of the
species are non-thorny though the number of the individual thorny
plants appears to be higher than the others. They make the entry into
the thicket particularly difficult especially the invading spinescent climb-
ing shrubs like Toddalia asiadca var. gracilis. Moreover, the number
of stems per unit area is very high.
The general impression of thorny thicket is also given by the
abundance of Dichrostachys cinerea, Securinega leucopyrus, Carissa
spinarum, Gmelina asiatica, Phoenix pusilla, Azima tetracantha bushy
elements at the borders of the thickets, covered with spines. They be-
come rare or disappear in the interior of the thicket. At the borders
are also found some unarmed species like Clerodendrum inerme , Cassia
auriculata, Breynia rhamnoides and spiny climbers like Solanum trilo-
batum and Asparagus racemosus. Generally, the lianas grow well even
in the interior of the thickets but relatively few species are encountered:
Asy stasia gangetica, Cissus quadrangularis, C. vitiginea, Pergularia
daemia that do not extend up to the top of the thicket whereas Sarcos-
temma intermedium (a leafless Asclepiadaceae), Gloriosa super ba and
Rivea hypocrateriformis reach the highest branches.
Phanerogamic parasites are rare with the exception of Cassytha
filiformis. The herbaceous ground cover is excessively poor.
Being accessible, this vegetation is often traversed by man and
openings are made in places. Also, some anthropic stages appear here
and there with anthropochore trees like Syzygium cumini, Borassus
flabellifer, Lannea coromandelica and others.
On alluvial halomorphic soils, “the forest is not continuous but
intersected by numerous tidal inlets and creeks” (Daniel, l.c., p. 513).
There exist various stages of transitions between the purely sandy
dune and the essentially clayey alluvial soils. Amongst the ligneous
elements of the dunes there are many that withstand slight salinity and
form thickets like those described above. Only Manilkara hexandra,
the principal tree on the dune disappears totally or nearly on poorly
drained, salty terrain. The thicket then presents a more regular appear-
ance, less high, but the natural openings are many wherever there is
saline efflorescence. Certain shrubs like Hugonia mystax, Scutia myr-
tina, Salvadora persica and Excoecaria agallocha are very common.
Dynamism. In absence of a detailed study, it is difficult to give
precise results on the dynamism of the vegetation in these regions.
One thing certain is that the thickets are often invaded by the popula-
tion to get their requirement of fuel wood. On the dunes, the equili-
brium of the woody species is precarious. There are hardly any seed-
lings of these species observed colonising the cleared areas. As their
FOREST OF POINT CALIMERE AND MARAKANAM
287
growth is apparently very slow, special attention should be paid to the
protection of the vegetation. It may be added that the herbaceous
Bulbostylis barbata and Gisekia pharnaceoides do not appear to be
very efficient in checking the eolian erosion in these regions frequently
affected by the cyclones.
Practically all the thorny shrubs of the thickets may be considered
as the pioneers. Under their light shade and protection, and due to the
thin superficial humus layer they form, seedlings of Manilkara, Drypetes,
Pleurastylia, Canthium etc. may develop. These shrubs, if not cut, may
give rise to the discontinuous dominant stratum of the formation.
On the halomorphic soils of the tidal inlets and creeks, things are
different because almost a continuous herbaceous cover precedes the
woody species and also because there appear quick growing species
like Prosopis juliflora, Salvadora, Excoecaria, Clerodendrum inerme
capable of forming a bush within 5-6 years. Here is a case of vigorous
dynamism, the precise stages of which yet remain to be investigated.
Between the clumps of shrubs develops a low but dense grassy
carpet of Cyperaceae (about 10 cms in height) on the halomorphic
soils. It is grazed by the cattle and represents a sort of equilibrium
between dynamism of shrubs on the one hand and the biotic factors on
the other.
This pasture is likely to be immersed under a thin layer of brackish
water during the strong tides of October-November. Two Cyperaceae
play an essential role — Fimbristylis spathacea and Kyllinga monocep-
hala; in number they dominate over the other species. Another Cyper-
aceae— Cyperus arenarius may be locally very abundant. Two Gra-
minae are not rare: Eragrostis riparia and Tragus biflorus.
The remaining flora is essentially comprised of Phyla nodiflora *,
Portulaca oleracea, P. wightiana, Leucas diffusa , L. aspera, Oldenlandia
umbellata, Evolvulus alsinoides*, Hybanthus enneaspermum, Tribulus
terrestris *, Boerhaavia diffusa *, Phyllanthus niruri, Borreria articularis.
In these pastures, isolated shrubby elements are not rare. These
are almost always Prosopis juliflora and some species of the back man-
groves like Excoecaria agallocha, Clerodendrum inerme, Suaeda mari -
tima and Salvadora persica.
2) The dry evergreen thickets of Marakanam — Physiognomy and flora
The colluvial terrain includes an important proportion of clay
between gravel. Therefore these soils are apparently more favourable
to the shrubs than the dunes of Vedharanyam as they have larger
moisture retentive capacity. However, the abusive and selective ex-
ploitation of unarmed shrubs for the production of green manure has
* These are pantropical species.
288 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (2)
totally altered the physiognomy and floristic composition of the for-
mation. But away from the roads there remain some vestiges that are
only slightly disturbed and that may be considered as quite represen-
tative and probably near the climax.
At first view the formation resembles a mediterranean maquis.
However, it contains an extraordinary quantity of large shrubs, the
girth of stems being 1 to 30 cm, and lianas. Over one square metre
one may count up to 10 ligneous species, confusedly intermingled.
Therefore, in our opinion, it is not possible to give a correct account
of the structure of the formation with a photograph as there is too
much of overlapping and lack of clarity.
The overall aspect is that of a dense and continuous thicket of an
average height of 2-3 m, from which emerge isolated or in clumps
some small trees with thick foliage. The principal cover bristles with
thin terminal branches, mostly spiny, hanging like an arch above the
thicket.
At the margin, many shrubs belong to complex life-forms, com-
monly referred to in the English literature as scrambling, straggling or
climbing shrubs; it is sometimes difficult to distinguish between these
forms. The more common species make the formation impenetrable;
amongst these may be cited Gmelina asiatica, Carissa spinarum, Cap -
paris stylosa, Hugonia mystax, Pterolobinm indicum, Fluggea leuco-
pyrus, Cansjera rheedii, Acacia caesia, Calycopteris floribunda, Stry-
chnos colnbrina. These microphyllous, spinescent, light demanders
form a spiny, dense rampart around the thicket. They may penetrate
deeply in the formation because of the clearings made in the thicket.
In the openings are found pioneer species, the most remarkable being
Dodonaea viscosa, Cassia auriculata, Dichrostachys cinerea, and some
rare succulent species: Euphorbia antiquorum, Caralluma spp., San-
severia roxburghiana etc.
In less disturbed thicket, the flora changes. Amongst the more
common species may be cited Maba buxifolia, Erythroxylon mono -
gynum, Ehretia microphylla, E. aspera, Xeromphis spinosa, Atalantia
monophylla, Premna serratifolia, Drypetes sepiaria but special mention
must be made of Memecylon umbellatum, Canthium didymum, Ixora
parviflora and Murraya exotica. The last mentioned three species some-
times emerge 2 to 3 m above the thicket but sometimes are at the level
of the thicket or below it, flowering and fruiting at the stage of dwarf
under-shrubs, 50 cm high. These variations in life-forms of a same
adult species, in a same formation, baffle phytogeographers and bota-
nists. Two other factors also add to the confusion; these are the extra-
ordinary density of the branches and the convergence of the growth-
forms. Most of the species are spiny microphyllous or squamophyllous
with thick and dark cuticle.
FOREST OF POINT CALIMERE AND MARAKANAM
289
This continuous stratum of under-shrubs (2 to 3 m) contains a
large number of climbers belonging mainly to the genus Jasminum
(J. sessiliflorum, J. angusti folium, J. auriculatum) , others are spiny like
Asparagus racemosus and Zizyphus xylopyrus, certain are succulent
and nearly aphyllous like Cissus quadrangularis or totally aphyllous
with chlorophyllian stem: Sarcostemma acidum. The last mentioned
reaches the dominant shrubby stratum (6 to 10 m high), like Ipomoea
sepiaria, Ventilago calyculata, and Pachygone ovata. The dominant
stratum is discontinuous, poor in species and the small trees and shrubs
composing it are morphologically very distinct. The most characteristic
(but much scattered and even rare at places) is undoubtedly Manilkara
hexandra with its stocky bearing, low branching, clothed with a thick
bark that is deeply vertically striated. Chloroxylon swietenia on the
other hand has compound leaves with thin light green leaflets and
light and smooth bark. This Meliaceae of India and Ceylon that is still
in demand for its wood is found much scattered in these thickets. It
is a heliophilous species and hence cicatricial and non constitutive.
Then, in the decreasing order of abundance comes Memecylon
umbellatum, a hardy Melastomataceae, known through different varieties
in most countries of tropical Asia. It is clearly distinguished from
Canthium didymum, another species with simple, opposite but larger
leaves with stipules and bearing flowers in the axil of the petioles.
Another common shrub that may be easily identified in the field is
Pterospermum suberifolium; it is mesophyllous with the lower surface
of the lamina covered with a white tomentum.
These five species are invariably the most to be seen with some
Albizzia lebbek, Dalbergia paniculata and Albizzia amara.
The parasites are not rare. Cassytha filiformis, a pantropical Lau-
raceae, is seen on several host species; Dendrophthoe falcata grows
on Ehretia monophylla and Vi scum orientate on Manilkara.
The herbs cover a small portion of the ground in discontinuous
patches. A Graminae, Aristida hystrix, is quite common and Acan-
thaceae are well represented by Lepidagathis crist at a (apparently en-
demic to India), Blepharis maderaspatana (a radicant plant, in our
view indicator of biotic interference,, known almost throughout Asia
and parts of Australia), Barleria prionitis, Stenosiphonium russelianum
var. subsericeum and Andrographis paniculata (all the three being
rare).
Bulbous plants are very rare.
Phenology of the principal species
Almost all the bushy species are evergreen, although some may be
290 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (2)
partially defoliated for some days per year. The arborescent species
are evergreen ( Manilkara , Pterospermum) or deciduous for a very
short time ( Maba buxifolia) or yet distinctly deciduous ( Albizzia ,
Dalbergia, Vitex, Gyrocarpus, Chloroxylon) . Anyway, the number of
individuals of deciduous species is quite low compared to that of the
evergreens.
From the point of view of flowering, rarely we have come across
such complex formations in south India. In spite of the long dry sea-
son, the period of vegetative growth and flowering is spread over the
entire year. Everything seems to depend on the species. Some like
Cadaba indica, lxora parvi flora, Tarrena asiatica, Gmelina asiatica,
Asystasia gangetica, Cassia auriculata flower throughout the year. How-
ever, every species seems to have its own phenological rhythm. Here
there are two peak seasons of flowering, one during the dry season
(January to May), the other during the rainy season. Certain species
have even two periods of flowering. Manilkara hexandra flowers abund-
antly in November; the fruits mature till February; this is followed by
some flowering in March and April We have also noted that Murray a
exotica flowers several times a year: end of November, end of Febru-
ary— beginning of March and sometimes also in July.
Those flowering essentially during the dry season are Cansjera
rheedii, Hibiscus micranthus, Sapindus emarginatus, Croton sp., Ven-
tilago maderaspatana, Pachygone ovata, Fluggea leucopyrus, Drypetes
sepiaria, Maba buxifolia, Scutia myrtina, Carissa spinarum, Flacourtia
indica, Capparis brevispina, Gyrocarpus jacquinii, Calycopteris flori-
bunda and the above mentioned Acanthaceae.
Species flowering essentially during the rainy season (August to
November-December) are Jasminum angustifolium, J. auriculatumy
Sarcostemma brevistigma, Strychnos colubrina, Premna serratifolia ,
Ehretia aspera, E. microphylla, Hippocratea obtusifolia, Pterolobium
indicum, Gmelina asiatica, Dichrostachys cinerea, Manilkara hexandra ,
Zizyphus spp., etc.
Therefore, the determinism of flowering in these regions is com-
plex, so to say unknown. Besides, the flowering periods are not con-
stant from year to year. For the same species, the period is variable from
one individual to another in the same year and in the same habitat.
No doubt this population contains many individuals possessing abso-
lutely fixed characters but others fluctuating according to the habitat*
the latter conferring on the population a large ecological plasticity
thus explaining their vast distribution.
The dynamism
Totally bare soil is limited in extent over the lateritic caps. The
FOREST OF POINT CALIMERE AND MARAKANAM
291
reconstitution of vegetation on such a site seems excessively slow. Here
we observed:
— a characteristic Graminae Chrysopogon fulvus with short leaves
gathered in narrow rosettes.
— Justicia prostrata, a very small Acanthaceae of about 5 to 8 cm
and Evolvulus alsinoides with branches lying flat on the soil, spre-
ading horizontally.
— Heteropogon contortus, rare because of browsing. Stylo santhes
mucronata, non-spiny suffrutescent, also browsed and Xeromphis
spinosa are observed at some places. The last mentioned thorny
Rubiaceae known throughout the old tropical world plays the role
of a pioneer species over the sandstone lithosols in south India.
Cassytha filiformis spreads its long, slender, leafless branches on
the soil.
— Generally the barren lands are the fallows. In course of some
months they get covered with an almost continuous vegetation.
s — The coarse sand, partially cleared of pebbles and quartz gravel,
is colonised by small plants: Rhynchosia aurea, a Papilionaceae,
occupies most of the area with Mollugo pentaphylla, Crotalaria
medicaginea var. herniarioides, Euphorbia corrigioloides, Bui bos-
tylis barbata and Merremia tridendata. However, the most abund-
ant species is Leucas lavandulifolius.
— The fine sand from which the gravel is artificially removed, evid-
ently contains the preceding species but the vegetation is more
dense and the dominant species is Borreria hispida. In addition
are found Cyperus compressus (quite abundant), Sida rhombifolia,
Commelina attenuata, Rothia trifoliata, Zornia diphylla, Z. gibbosa
and others.
Four Graminae are commonly present: Chrysopogon fulvus,
Heteropogon contortus, Cymbopogon flexuosus and Aristida setacea.
The last mentioned dominates largely as the soil becomes rich in clay.
However, these grasses that form important grasslands elsewhere in
south India (Blasco 1971), play only a secondary role here so that
the grassland fires are unknown in these regions. This may explain the
rapid rate of progression of the shrubs that almost always begins by
the vigorous implantation of the thorny species: Xeromphis spinosa,
Scutia myrtina, Flacourtia sepiaria, Carissa spinarum and Phoenix
pusilla, a dwarf palm with a short stem or stemless. In the first stages,
these species tend to eliminate the herbaceous plants, spread their
branches at the soil level and thus occupy a large area in spite of the
small number of individuals. Later on, by their own seeds and that of
the other species arriving afterwards, some spiny ( Dichrostachys ,
Pterolobium, Cadaba ), some toxic or left untouched by animals
( Dodonaea viscosa, Cassia auriculata, Vitex), they multiply consider-
292 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (2)
ably the number of stems making the young formation inextricable.
Thus a seedling or a young plant of these pioneering shrubs has every
chance of producing an adult if man has no need of firewood. A
return to a stage close to the climax, — tall, dense thicket, — seems pos-
sible even from the much degraded pseudo-steppic type. Furthermore,
it does not appear that a period as long as a century is required by
this young formation to reach the climax physiognomy, because the
vigour of these species under the climate with a long dry season is
indeed surprising. Certain experimental plots of Eucalyptus plantations
raised in 1963 and subsequently abandoned are presently covered with
an impenetrable thicket, more than 2 m high. It is so because the flora
of the region essentially contains species endowed with a remarkable
colonising capacity.
The convergence of forms
The preliminary contacts with these formations leave the same
general impression on everybody: the remarkable convergence of forms,
to such an extent that without an attentive examination of each spe-
cies, it is difficult, even for a botanist, to distinguish species belonging
to totally different families. Most are bushy, sclerophyllous, with thin,
twisted stems, branching near the soil and intermingling. The leaves
of Ehretia microphylla, Xeromphis spinosa and Maba buxifolia, for
example, do not measure more than 1 cm by 0.5 to 0.8 cm. Those of
Flacourtia indica, Fluggea leucopyrus, Gmelina asiatica and various
jasmines are not much different.
A careful study soon reveals that in these thickets are encounter-
ed practically all the terrestrial forms of low altitude ranging from
evergreen shrubs to tropophytes, from thorny or unarmed bushes with
chlorophyllian stem ( Capparis brevispina, Cansjera rheedii ) or not to
succulents ( Caralluma , Euphorbia ) to leafless climber (Sarcostemma) .
The complex mixture comprises microphyllous, evergreen bushes, spiny
or not, mesophyllous unarmed shrubs with simple, evergreen leaves
( Manilkara , Pterospermum) (leaves measuring at least 10 cm x 5 cm);
others are non-spiny with compound leaves, mostly deciduous, ( Chlo -
roxylon, Albizzia, Dalbergia, Sapindus). A peculiar aspect is that non-
deciduous shrubs with large, elongated lamina have a dense and thick
foliage whereas certain microphyllous species are less leafy.
What is the exact significance of the physiognomic convergence
in the formations separated from each other by long distances? The
evergreen thickets of south India, the “sclerophyllous-xerophytic eda-
phic” maquis of New Caledonia (Virot 1956, p. 172), the evergreen
sclerophyllous formations described for Chili (Mooney 1971) etc.
FOREST OF POINT CALIMERE AND MARAKANAM
293
constitute phytocoenoses comparable in their physiognomy but appear
to be quite distinct in ecology and flora.
As regards the anatomical structure of the leaves, one often obser-
ves, though not always, a thick cuticle, a waxy coating, much develop-
ment of the palisade tissue, reduction in spongy parenchymatous tissue,
increase in the number of stomata and pilosity. These characters are
generally taken as adaptations to a dry habitat. However, on a purely
physiological basis Maximov (1929) has demonstrated that such ana-
tomy facilitates gaseous exchange and sometimes also transpiration. In
very humid sites of the evergreen forests, the leaves also possess a
thick cuticle and waxy coating although there is no necessity to econo-
mise water.
It may also be noted that the exact role of trichome remains to
be defined for if the lower surface of the lamina is very hairy in some
species ( Pterospermum suberifolium) , the leaves of most of the species
are glabrous. Finally, the reduction in the size of the leaves does not
necessarily correspond to a reduction in the evaporating surface if the
large number of leaves compensates for the small size.
These apparently contradictory explanations resulting from a super-
ficial examination should be supplemented by physiological studies in
connection with the habitat of which we have given fundamental
characteristics.
Conclusion
The climate of the littoral is often classified, not in a very precise
manner, in “dry sub-humid” (Koelmyer 1957, Subrahmanyam &.Sastry
1971) complex climatic types in which the averages have no real value
because according to the year the climate may be considered as humid
or very dry.
The adaptational forms of the species to these fluctuations are
very diverse. Anatomical and physiological studies are required to
determine whether the shrubs of the formation are effectively adapted
to economise moisture.
In our view, there do not exist any “dry evergreen forests” (Cham-
pion & Seth 1968) in south India but only thickets, more or less dense
and tall. They are at least of two types, quite distinct in their flora,
phenology, soil type on which they develop- one evergreen on halomor-
phic soils and on dunes (Point Calimere), the other on ferruginous
lithosols include a number of deciduous shrubs (Marakanam).
294 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (2)
References
Blasco, F. (1971) : Montagnes du
Sud de FInde: Savanes, Forets, Eco-
logie. Trav. Sect. Sci. et Tech. Inst,
fr. Pondichery, T X, 436 p.
Champion, H. G. (1936): A pre-
liminary survey of the forest types
of India and Burma. Indian For.
Rec. 1: 1-286.
& Seth, S. K. (1968): A
revised survey of the Forest types
of India. Manager of Publication.
Delhi. 404 p.
Dabholkar, M. V. (1962) : Suc-
cession of vegetation in South and
North Arcot Districts. J.BioI. Sci. 5
(l):l-7.
(1962) : The mapping of the
natural vegetation of South Arcot
District and Pondicherry at 1:253.440
scale according to the method of
Gaussen. ibid. 5(2): 40-50.
Daniel, J. C. (1967) : The Point
Calimere Sanctuary. J. Bomb ay nat.
Hist. Soc. 64(2): 512-523.
Koelmeyer, K. O. (1957-58) :
Climatic classification and the dis-
tribution of vegetation in Ceylon.
Ceylon For. 5(2): 144-163; 5(3-4):
265-288.
Krishnan, E. K. (1940): Ever-
green in Cuddapah. Indian Forester
66(8): 482-485.
Krishnan, M. (1971) : An ecolo-
gical survey of the larger mammals
of Peninsular India. J. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. 68(3): 503-555.
Legris, P. (1963) : La vegetation
de l’lnde: Ecologie et Flore. Trav.
Sect. Sci. et Tech. Inst. fr. Pondi-
chery, 6 : 1-596.
Marlange, M. & Meher-Homji
V. M. (1965) : Phytosociological
studies in the Pondicherry region.
J. Indian bot. Soc. 44(2): 167-182.
Maximov, N. (1929): The plant
in relation to water. George Allen
& Unwin Ltd. London.
Mooney, H. A. & Kummerow, J.
(1971) : The comparative water eco-
nomy of representative evergreen
Sclerophyll and drought deciduous
shrubs of Chili. Bot. Gaz. 132(3) :
245-252.
Moorman, F. R. & Panabokke,
C. R. (1961): Soils of Ceylon. Tro-
pical Agriculturist. CXVI1, (1) : 1-69.
Sebastine, K. M. & Ellis, J. L.
(1967) : A contribution to the vas-
cular flora of Vedharanyam and
Talaignayar Reserve Forests, Tanjore
Dist., Madras State. Bull. bot. Surv.
India 9(1-4): 190-200.
SUBRAHMANYAM, V. P. & SASTRY,
C. V. S. (1971): Studies in drought
climatology, Part. I. Dry climates of
South India. Tropical Ecology, 12
(2): 250-256.
Virot, R. (1956) : La vegetation
Canaque. Museum National d’Hist.
Natur. Serie B. Botanique, T. VII,
398 p.
The Langurs of the Gir
Sanctuary (Gujarat) —
A preliminary Survey1
BY
Hafeezur Rahaman2
{With three plates and two text figures)
Department of Zoology, Bangalore University, Bangalore 1.
The findings presented here relate to observations made on the
social life and allied aspects of langur ( Presbytis entellus ) behaviour
at Gir Forest. The investigations were carried out for a period of one
month during July /August, 1971. In all 24 troupes were actually en-
countered though a few more were reported to be present over an area
of about 6 square km along the trekkable roads. The majority of
these troupes were located in the western Gir where the vegetation
was typically riverine with deciduous trees, while only a small number
were seen and were reported to exist in the eastern part with its scanty
food supply and poor cover. Though a variety of trees exist in eastern
part they do not provide enough food for the choosy langurs. Some
of the troupes lived near cultivated fields which they sometimes invad-
ed in quest of food.
Out of the 24 troupes encountered, the composition and size of
eleven troupes was studied. Of these 9 were bisexual, one an exclusive
male troupe, and one a ‘male-bisexual’ troupe. The average troupe size
was 30.44 for the bisexual troupe and 2.0 for the exclusive male
troupe. The average male-female ratio in a bisexual troupe was 1:5.28.
The linear extent of the home range was between 2\ to 4 km and the
troupe size appeared to influence the extent of area covered.
Description of the study area
The Gir Wild Life Sanctuary is a managed teak and acacia forest.
Located in Junagadh district of Gujarat State, about 320 km north-
1 Accepted November 24, 1972.
2 Present address : Dept, of Zoology, Univ. of Agricultural Sciences, Hebbal,
Bangalore 560 024.
296 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (2)
west of Bombay and 280 km southwest of Ahmedabad, it is approxi-
mately 64 km long by 24 km wide and encompasses about 1255 square
km with elevations ranging between 226 m and 648 m above sea
level.
The region has three seasons: cool dry from early October to
February with minimum temperature reaching 7.2°C; hot dry between
February and June with maximum temperatures of 43.3 °C; and mon-
soon from late June to early October with irregular precipitations ac-
counting for most of the annual rainfall of 300-450 mm. Several types
of recognisable plant associations have been identified: open teak
forest on red soil, about 10 m high and the canopy consisting of 70-90
per cent of aged teak. The understory consists of Carissa carandas and
other dense shrubs along with deciduous shrubs like Helicteres isora
and thorny species of Acacia and Zizyphus. Grasses include Themeda
quadrivalvis and Sehima nervosum. Dense teak forests, found on gentle
slopes with black soil, are close and spread over 60 per cent and are
about 15 m high. Other trees are non-thorny and deciduous. A domi-
nant grass is the tall, shade tolerant Apluda mutica. Dense thorn forest
4-8 m high with an overstory of 70 per cent of Acacia arabica occurs
commonly on flats or gentle slopes and around nesses. This formation
is typically found on rich and black soil with relatively poor drainage.
A dry tropical riverine vegetation is restricted to both the perennial
and intermittent drainages. It is dominated by evergreen species like
Syzygium rubicundum and Pongamia glabra which rises to 25 m; the
dense understory consists of evergreen shrubs such as Carissa carandas
and the ground is covered with shade tolerant grasses like Oplesmenus
burmanii.
About 8000 maldharis1 occupy 129 nesses2 within the sanctuary.
Several “forest settlements” or pockets of agriculture, occur within the
sanctuary. The forest is an important watershed for much of the sur-
rounding agricultural land. Four miles north of Sasan, Kamleshwar
dam impounds the largest man-made lake in Junagadh district.
Equipment and Meteiod of Study
Observations required only a camera, binoculars, compass, field
notebook and occasionally a hand drawn map of Sasan Gir locale.
For nearly a month regular trips were made into the forest, espe-
cially into those areas that had running streams with riverine vegeta-
tion, and the negotiable roads were investigated for the presence of
1 Graziers.
2 Villages.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 70(2)
Rahaman : Langurs
Plate I
Typical riverine habitat
[Photo : Author )
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 70(2)
Rahaman : Langurs
Plate II
Overhead canopy formed of entangled branches across a stream
[Photo : A uthov )
LANGURS OF THE GIR
297
monkeys. As the study period was short, the discrimination and identi-
fication of a few members from different troupes was not possible.
Thus for the study of the population the main interest was focussed
upon the size and composition of different troupes, as either or both
varied for different troupes. As the vegetation was too dense to permit
an easy count of all individuals, the counts were taken as the animals
crossed open terrain such as roads or patches of grass or nullahs.
Sometimes they were manoeuvered by me into crossing areas where
they could be properly counted.
The troupes located near Sasan village were then selected for stu-
dies on home range, roosting places, day range, interspecies and intra-
species interactions etc. These two troupes were constantly followed,
sometimes with the help of a local guide, from sunrise until the langurs
settled down for the night which was sometimes as late as 1930 hrs.
The troupes were followed on foot along the dry nullah bed or across
the river for about a week.
Observations were recorded briefly and later transcribed and ex-
panded. The movement, feeding, and roosting places were plotted on a
hand drawn map. The daily notes included such details as feeding,
boosting, social interactions, procession pattern, number of progres-
sions, preferred areas and extent of area covered etc.
The observations recorded were not totally free from bias as they
were greatly hindered by the limitation of time and observations during
the monsoon at Gir. The time spent in contact with monkeys was
short and the animals were visible only for a few hours a day. The
animals were difficult to find and were likely to be lost on crossing a
Tiver or moving away. They did not become habituated to the author’s
presence during the short period. It thus took much time to gather a
reasonable body of data.
The quality of data gathered was also affected by poor visibility,
as many monkeys were screened behind leaves and their activities
could not be determined. The observations were sometimes fragmen-
tary as the animals could not be observed from close range as a silent
approach was impossible in the thick growth. In any behavioural inter-
action all the participants were rarely visible and thus the amount of
data collected during the month of study was not sufficient for correct
interpretation. A long term study covering other seasons would avoid
these drawbacks.
Results
Population
During the study period 24 troupes were seen. Although more
298 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (2)
monkeys were reported to be present, only those that were actually
seen have been marked on the map (fig. 1). Of these 24 troupes, 22 were:
located in the western and the other 2 in eastern Gir. Apparently the
majority lived in western Gir owing to the preferred habitat (riverine)
and abundance of food. The scrubby vegetation with acacia and zizyphus
of the eastern Gir did not harbour many monkeys. Though, not much
time was spent in the quest of monkeys in east, I was advised by the
local inhabitants that they were rare. The few rivulets of the eastern
Gir and the trees such as Wrightia, Terminalia and Syzygium associated
with them harboured the few langurs that were encountered.
Of the 24 troupes, the size and composition of 11 were analyzed
(Table 1). Twenty troupes were bisexual; one exclusively male, and
one ‘male-bisexual’. Among the bisexual troupes the largest one had 48
individuals (Sasan-fence troupe) while the smallest (Jamwadla and
Hiran troupes) had 16. The largest proportion of males to females with-
in a bisexual troupe was 8 males: 11 females in the Chitrode troupe
and the smallest was 1 male: 22 females in the Amrutvel troupe. The
average bisexual troupe size was 30.44 while the average was 15.1 for
Hanuman langur at Dharwar (Sugiyama et al. 1965). The average
ratio was 1 male: 5.5 females in bisexual troupes. The exclusive male
troupe consisted of 3 males and was located about 4 km from Sasan
village. The adult member of this troupe was seen attempting to join
the Chitrode troupe.
The single male (Sasan station troupe) which for unknown reasons
led an isolated existence, visited human dwellings and ate preferred
food. This male joined the Sasan fence troupe at will without being
resented by others and it is possible that he belonged to that troupe
originally but became isolated from them by visits to human habitation.
Nevertheless he was sometimes away from the troupe and completely
cut off from it for as long as a couple of days leading a solitary life
and hence treated as a separate male-bisexual troupe. No solitary
langur was seen in the Dharwar area (Parthasarathy, personal
communication) .
Home range and roosting places
The daily movement of two selected troupes (Sasan fence and
Sasan hiran) was studied over a ten day period to determine the extent
of home range, number of roosting places and the core areas etc. The
Sasan fence troupe had its home range running along the nullah and
stretching roughly between Chodia road to the north and Visavdar
road to the south. The area covered was roughly 4 km (fig. 2).
The Sasan hiran troupe made excursions over an area of about
km along the Hiran river bank, more often along its northern bank.
LANGURS OF THE G1R
299
ffiX=CT= 3=3
Q $ *OA.
Fig. 1. Location of the 24 troupes at Gir.
1 to 11 are the troupes whose size had composition was studied, a to m are the
ones whose size and composition could not be studied.
CHODIA ROAD
ANIMAL
& ENCLOSURE
Fig. 2. Home range of the troupes.
.Sasan-fence troupe is represented by small dots and Hiran troupe by larger ones.
Composition of the troupes studied at Gir
300 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (2)
3 73
^ S
-o ^
3
CO
<n
■§ e
V5 co
-2 <u
T3 f-h
3 3
■§ s
CO
,23 D
3
on co
(N OO
I I
\c cl
I *
co
O o O
0)
£3
3
CD O
ft £
2 -3
O
o &
*3
O 3
.-3 73
O o
ft ft
g 3
P O
£ .g
s |
fH Cl!
03 oJ
t-h d co
00 ON
subadult male killed and eaten by dogs.
Rahaman : Langurs
Left : The solitary male (station) individual visiting human dwellings. Right : The solitary male
grinds his teeth on the approach of a dog
LANGURS OF THE GIR
301
The langurs that lived on riverine vegetation spent only 10 per cent
of their time on the ground while the ones in more open habitat
(Talala road) spent as much as 30-40 per cent time on the ground.
The former fed on tree tops while the latter spent much of their time
on the ground searching for worms and pupae that formed a major
part of their diet.
It was difficult to make out specific core areas unlike the langur
at Dharwar (Sugiyama et al. 1965) as they had the habit of spreading
out over a wide area. The feeding areas however, appeared to serve
the function of core areas as well, where the langurs spent a consi-
derable amount of time. This observation is further strengthened by
the fact that though suitable feeding trees are present all along the
length of the home range, only a few selected ones are usually visited
by the langurs.
Morning activities (0600 to 0700 hrs) on a bright sunny day and
in the evening between 1700 to 1800 hrs were quick. They left the
roost in the morning for feeding and usually covered the whole extent
of the home range. There was no clear pattern of troupe movement.
The subadult females in many cases led the procession and, rarely,
the dominant male who usually whooped before leaving the sleeping
quarters.
The home ranges of the two troupes studied did not overlap at
any point and there was an actual gap of about 200 yards between
them made by Hiran river. It was therefore not possible to study inter-
action between these troupes. However langur at Gir did move within
clearly demarcated boundaries. This was illustrated by the behaviour
of the Sasan station solitary male who sometimes joined the Sasan
fence troupe. This male had the habit of threatening and chasing mov-
ing jeeps. He had a specific area within which he was found and he
chased vehicles only up to a certain point and then returned. He was
never seen chasing any vehicle beyond that point as if he was satisfied
with seeing the vehicle off his range.
The Talala road troupe that was studied for 5 days again appear-
ed to keep clear of the boundary of Chitrode and Karanya troupes.
It seemed probable that the overlapping of home ranges studied else-
where for other primates was mainly due to pressure on available
space.
However the Karanya troupe sometimes did invade the home
range of Chitrode troupe but this did not indicate an overlap in true
sense as the former was an all-male troupe and had no fixed range.
All-male troupes have been noted not to observe strict territoriality
(Sugiyama et al. 1965).
As the extent of range was not studied during different seasons
of the year, especially summer, it was difficult to record whether the
302 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (2)
range remained unaltered throughout. Starin (personal communica-
tion) stated that there was no marked difference in the extent of area
covered by Jamwadla troupes between summer and monsoon. Bonnet
macaques are known to move over long distances, sometimes even
beyond the confines of home range, if food is insufficient and more so
during summer. If the contrary was true for the Gir langurs it would
suggest :
(a) that food was uniformly available during different seasons*
either in the form of leaves, fruits or flowers as the vegetation along a
stream or river was not dependant upon rains.
(b) that the langurs continued to roam about over the whole ex-
tent of the home range even during the monsoon irrespective of the
availability of food.
The troupe between Asundrali and Odi Ness in the eastern part,
confined its movements to a small area along the Kogham stream. It
roamed over an area of about 2]| to 3 km, but stopped about \ km
short of Odi Ness, though the vegetation was similar and extended as
far as Odi Ness itself. This indicates that the langurs did not exploit
a larger area than necessary and that the area between its home range
and Odi Ness was too small for another troupe to occupy. It is probable
that the langurs, atleast those in eastern Gir, extend their range in
summer as the food becomes scanty when the nullahs dry up.
The dominant male and sometimes adult females watched from
tree tops. If vision was obstructed by branches, they were parted and
held apart. While on the ground, two langurs often sat back to back,
as if to watch in opposite directions. The topmost branches were nor-
mally occupied by vigilant males and mothers with infants, the middle
part of the canopy by adult females and subadult males and the lower
part by juveniles. The vigilant individuals warned others of any ap-
proaching danger by giving out a whoop or alarm bark. Two males
of Karanya troupe invariably watched while the third fed in cultivated
fields.
The whoop sounded very much like the call of the crow pheasant
( Centropus sinensis ) and was given out by the adult male in various
contexts. The earliest whoop was heard at 0600 hrs and the last at
about 1920 hrs before retiring. The animal may call once or more.
The maximum number heard was 9 whoops within 3 minutes. The
Chitrode troupe whooped on spotting the Karanya troupe. The whoop
may accompany the bark of alarm on detecting danger such as a pan-
ther. Whoops were given out from tree tops but never from the ground.
In many cases a deep whoop resulted in an involuntary agitation of
the branch which could be related to branch shaking noticed among
other primates. The whoop accompanying the bark of alarm indicated
panic and sounded like ahoon, ahoon, eh, eh; ahoon, ahoon, eh; ahoon,.
LANGURS OF THE GIR
303
ahoon, eh, eh, and so on and the animals in this state urinated and de-
fecated. Ghrr, Ghrr. ... by the dominant male announced the passing
of danger. A whoop with or without the accompaniment of teeth grind-
ing announced dislike and threat and was directed at less dominant
individuals or the observer. The teeth grinding sounded very much
like the croaking and was emitted by opening the jaws with a snap
and then closing slowly and was sometimes directed at dogs also. The
juveniles gave out a squeal which might mean dislike or fear as direct-
ed at the observer, but they were silent on seeing a panther. The squeal
was very similar to that given out by a bonnet baby that was left alone.
A soft squeal given out by juveniles to the more dominant individuals
indicated their desire to groom.
Langurs did not have a single roosting place, but a number of
selected tall trees served the purpose. Sometimes they slept on the
feeding trees. The Sasan-fence troupe slept mainly on a ficus tree to
the north of the Railway bridge and sometimes on a Terminalia clump
to the south of Chodia road. On two occasions the troupe was seen
roosting on tall teak trees to the south of Visavdar road.
While the Hiran river troupe was seen roosting on Tamarind and
Syzygium trees, the Talala road troupe slept consistently on a ficus
tree, the only large tree located in that area of low teak and cultivated
fields. The Kapuria troupe was seen roosting on a very tall Holoptelea
tree next to the Forest quarters on two consecutive nights.
It was not uncommon for the troupe to spread over four to five
trees and sleep. The Talala road troupe on one occasion split up into
two parties and slept in two different places. One party of two females
with infants and two juveniles led by a subadult male slept on the
usual ficus tree, while the rest (Table 1, for composition) led by the
dominant male slept on a Soymida tree about l\ km from the ficus,
but well within the home range. The next morning the parties reunited.
The troupes living in thick forest areas with riverine vegetation
settled down for the night’s rest around 1800 hrs while the ones in the
more open areas continued to spend time on the ground sometimes until
as late as 1915 hrs. Before retiring the dominant male would whoop
or yawn. There was no definite pattern in the act of climbing a tree
by members of different status or sex. After having settled down, some
individuals displayed a vocalisation like teeth grinding but lower in
pitch, whose significance could not be determined as it was given out
in darkness; possibly it served to establish relative positions.
Thick horizontal branches were selected to lie down. The animals,
either individually or in groups of two or more, huddled together or
lay with their limbs and tails dangling. Sometimes a fork with one
horizontal and another vertical branch was selected and the animal
sat on the horizontal branch and embraced the vertical one; sometimes
304 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (2)
the head was also placed on the latter. To prevent the baby from;
slipping and falling at night, the mother while sitting in a fork, raised
her legs about half as high as her body height and placed them on
the vertical branch. The baby was thus held between the horizontal
branch below and the mother’s legs on either side. The mother in this
position might rest her head on the baby’s head and sleep. Some indi-
viduals rested their heads on their drawn up knees. The baby either sat
close to its mother or clung to her. On waking, the langurs bared their
teeth and jerked their heads forwards and backwards and again settled
down to sleep. This act of teeth baring and head nodding was used in
the same context as lip smacking among bonnets but might or might
not be directed at any other individual (3). At night their eyes reflect
red in a beam of light.
On a cloudy day they were still dozing on tree tops around
900 hrs, but on a sunny morning they were up and moving about by
600 hrs. While leaving the roosting place the dominant male might
whoop. If they slept on a feeding tree, on waking up the next morning
they moved on to the end of a branch and started to feed. The mother
might nurse her infant a little before starting to feed.
Day Ranges
For the study of day ranges the activities of langurs were record-
ed from the time they left the roosting place till they settled down in
another. Four major activities were recorded as in other primates.
(a) Movement
Langurs left the roosting places for feeding during the early hours
of morning and vice versa during evening. On reaching a feeding tree,
if the food was a preferred one like Terminalia or Tamarindus, they
spent hours without visiting other food trees. Heavy showers some-
times impeded their movement. During group movement it was com-
mon for any monkey to move in any one direction and sit for a while
before moving ahead and another individual very often came to the
same spot and sat there before the former moved further on. This was
continued till the whole troupe moved away. It appeared that owing
to their habit of spreading out over wider areas than bonnets, this
mode of progression, like a relay race, ensured that all the members
of a troupe moved in one particular direction. A similar mode was
often resorted to during tree progression too.
Some individuals, juveniles and mothers with young babies, avoid-
ed long leaps. Sometimes the baby playfully took the lead and the
LANGURS OF THE GIR
305
mother followed it, to be in turn followed by others, but this happen-
ed only on the ground. During movement, the one in the lead made
way for the next individual by moving away, irrespective of age, sex
or status. At times a part of the troupe remained behind in one core
area while the other moved on to another. During progression all the
individuals including young ones held their tails curled over their
backs with the tip facing forwards and downwards. This physical pose
was different from that of Dharwar langurs whose tails arched back
with the tips facing down and to the rear. About 50 per cent of the
area was covered by running during ground progressions. Sometimes
they waded through water across streams.
(b) Feeding
The morning and evening hours were spent in vigorous feeding.
The langurs fed on the leaves, fruits and flowers of a variety of trees
and climbers (Table 2). The young ones were observed eating bark
and tendrils. They ate pupae found on leaves. Usually tender leaves
were selected but in the case of large leaves like those of Wrightia,
the blades were stripped free of the mid rib and eaten while the latter
was discarded. Likewise compound leaves such as of Tamarindus were
stripped from the stalk. One or both hands were used in feeding. At
times a slender branch was brought closer and held with one of the
hind limbs while the leaves were released with fore limbs. If afraid
of the observer, they would squat on a top branch, lean down steal-
thily to take a quick handful of leaves and went back to the old posi-
tion and ate there. Long fruits like those of Wrightia were plucked
and held in the hand and eaten candy-like, with short bites. Fruits of
Terminalia were most preferred. They wasted a considerable amount
of fruits but not leaves. Sometimes pupae were released from the leaves
and then put into the mouth, or the mouth was applied directly to
them. Once eggs of nesting birds were seen being eaten. On one occa-
sion a female was noticed carefully watching a Phalangium on a Ster-
culia tree, but did not eat it.
As many as 4-5 individuals of different sex and status sat very
close to one another and fed indicating the absence of competition for
food. Sometimes they spent hours together in uninterrupted feeding.
Though feeding might commence with dawn it reached a peak around
1000 hrs and again in the evening around 1700 hrs. During light
showers the langurs continued to feed but heavy rain interrupted this
activity. Even during the monsoon about 80 per cent of the langurs
were seen drinking hence water consumption should be much more
frequent in summer. This is contrary to what is reported for langurs
elsewhere (Jay 1965). The water was taken by the mouth and the ani-
306 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (2)
Table 2
List of trees and creepers on which langurs fed
SI. No. Local name Scientific name Part eaten
Note. * in fruit during the study period.
I Cultivated.
LANGURS OF THE GIR
307
mal drank for about half minute. Sometimes the young baby from
its clinging position lowered its head and lapped water.
(c) Social Grooming
A characteristic tactile stimulation that serves many purposes in
primate society is grooming (Marler 1965). As in the case of bonnets
there appeared to be considerable variation in the grooming frequency
depending upon the time of day, reaching a peak when the sun was
at its zenith. The grooming was indulged in when other individuals
were inactively relaxing or dozing. For the purpose of grooming two
or more individuals gathered and groomed one another. Sometimes
there was self grooming as well. The mother groomed her infant and
vice versa, a juvenile groomed another or a subadult or an adult. The
grooming could thus occur in any one of the combinations irrespective
of sex, age or status. The grooming was either of short duration, as
in the case of a subadult grooming another or when grooming occur-
red on the ground. But it was of a considerably longer duration when
a mother groomed her infant or an adult female groomed an adult
male. The groomed animal might sit or lie down or doze while being
groomed and shifted position exposing the desired parts to be groom-
ed or the grooming animal itself fixed the position by pushing or pull-
ing by the limb or neck or ear. The groomer very carefully scanned
the area for dust particles and the like and on spotting one, picked
it up by hand or put the mouth to it.
The desire to be groomed was expressed by an individual ap-
proaching another and making soft noises ( koon..koon ..) or by ap-
proaching and/or reaching out and holding a passerby by its limb or
back. The latter invariably groomed the former. Sometimes the ex-
pression of this desire became more complex in dealing with an unco-
operative partner. An adult female held a subadult female to be
groomed. The latter skipped over the former and sat a few feet away.
The adult female followed her and sat down close to her with her
right leg resting on the latter’s back. Once again the latter moved a
short distance away, but the adult female persistently followed her and
on reaching her gave her a gentle pat on her back. The subadult female
turned and faced the adult female and was immediately embraced by
her. The subadult female settled down to groom the adult female.
Sometimes the juveniles approached adult individuals and ex-
pressed their desire to groom by giving out a squeal but keeping a
short distance away from them. They faced the animal that they want-
ed to groom and leaned forward squealing. If the latter expressed the
desire to be groomed by exposing chest or loin, the juveniles immedia-
tely closed the distance and started to groom, but if the latter bared
its teeth they backed away still squealing.
308 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (2)
While grooming her infant, the mother held it pressed tightly
against her, then stretched out a limb and groomed it. The baby might
rest its head on the mother’s lap and doze a bit while being groomed.
Even if there were no parasites or dust, as indicated by the groomer
not picking up and eating them, the mother continued to groom her
infant for long periods. Mothers with young infants groomed more
frequently than others and this might be due to reduced activity and
movement by them.
The groomed animal sometimes stood upright on all fours and
was groomed in the hind quarters. At times an open palm was passed
over the body to part hair and occasionally both hands were used.
The groomed animal to expose the chest and armpit and yet save
strain on the hands, raised them and gripped an overhead branch. The
tail being long and flexible was held in one hand while it was groomed
with the other. The groomer probed even eyes and nose. Babies some-
times groomed their mothers and the female langur groomed more than
the male. There were fewer grooming frequencies among langurs than
bonnets and out of 51 instances of grooming observed, 23 occurred
on the ground and the rest on trees. Many instances of self grooming
and scratching were also observed. To scratch the region above the
chest they generally used hind limbs and to scratch the region below
the chest they used the forelimbs.
(d) Social Play
Social play was indulged in mostly by babies and juveniles. For
the purpose, two or more individuals asssociated and were sometimes
joined by subadults and adults. Play was either very brief or prolonged
based upon the activity of other individuals of the troupe and other
interferences. The peak period of social play coincided with the peak
period of resting and social grooming by adults.
Play comprised a complex of whirling, jumping, chasing, somer-
saulting and swinging on slender branches etc. Play should be more
important for a langur baby than for a bonnet as the former is more
arboreal and taken less care of by its mother. Thus accommodating to
its mode of life should depend more on itself and its activity than on
any other agency or individual. It was obvious that even 3-4 month
old babies, as determined by coat colour, could very easily negotiate
vertical branches. The juveniles and babies spent more time in active
play, feeding and moving than in dozing or grooming.
Hierarchy
Though a clearcut hierarchy was not observed, some individuals
LANGURS OF THE G1R
309
did behave in a more dominant manner than others. This was especi-
ally so with adult males and mothers with infants. An adult male at
close approach of the observer came down to a lower branch and
ground teeth while others sought shelter higher. On detecting danger
or while leading the troupe the dominant male whooped and barked.
Whenever there was a quarrel or a sudden and loud snapping of
branch, it was the dominant male that rushed to the site. When the
troupe was running on the ground and away from the observer it was
he who ran last and resented the approach of the observer.
Likewise a mother with young infant expressed her dominance
over others, especially the juveniles that harassed her infant, and suc-
cessfully chased them away.
Even among juveniles some males appeared to be more dominant
than others in that they were consistently watchful and it was these
individuals that approached the observer as close as 20 yards and
gave out squeals of resentment from a tree top. The squeal was given
out by an individual that slouched forward, bared teeth and made
trilling sounds accompanied by tail vibrations. On hearing such sque-
als some individuals approached closer to investigate the cause.
Troupe organisation was loose and lacked cohesiveness as they
spread out over very wide areas while feeding or sleeping, with
few(er) interactions between members. Hanuman langurs neither ex-
hibit a strict functional ranking order nor a differentiation in their
social organisation (Sugiyama & Parthasarathy 1969). But the fact that
there were not many intertroupe fights and friction indicated the pre-
sence of a hierarchial system that minimised such encounters. But
more observations are necessary on this aspect.
Mating and maternal behaviour
Mating behaviour and other social interactions were studied when
the langurs were in the open. Langurs display sexual dimorphism in
their physical build, males being very much bigger than the females.
A total of nine mountings was witnessed during the study period. In
eight of the nine copulations observed, the adult male initiated the
mount as among bonnets (Simonds 1965) and on no occasion was
a subadult male seen either mounting or even attempting. Only once
was a female seen offering herself by shaking not only her tail as re-
ported by Jay (1965) for common langurs of north India, but
also the rump, and she was immediately mounted by the male. Once
a male ground his teeth at an unwilling female, who after brief surren-
der dislodged the mounted male by lowering her hind quarters and
running short distance. She was chased by him, but again she ran a
short distance. The male ground his teeth and chased her again at
310 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 70 (2)
which she surrendered herself and they copulated. Usually a female
after being copulated approached some other individual and expressed
her desire to be groomed.
Occasionally the copulation was interrupted by another female.
On seeing the adult male mount an adult female, another adult female
approached the pair and squealed bringing her snout close to that of
the mounted female at which the latter lowered her hind quarters and
forcibly dismounted the male. The females then ran away together.
None of the mounts observed were preceded by testing. The
female held her tail awkwardly pushed between the legs of the male
during copulation, while in the bonnet it was arched over the back
and well out of the males’ way. There was no instance of masturba-
tion by langurs of either sex as in the case of Japanese monkeys of
Taishaku-kyo (Imanishi 1957), in this aspect they differed from the
howlers (Altman 1959) and bonnets (Rahaman & Parthasarathy
1968).
When the study was continued in July /August, most of the females
had 4-6 month old babies that must have been born around January /
March. The peak period of births in langurs was from December to
March (Sugiyama et al. 1965). Only one female in advanced stage of
pregnancy was seen. Thus the langurs at Gir too had a peak period for
breeding and the period more or less coincided with those for bonnets
(Rahaman & Parthasarathy 1969) and rhesus (Southwick et al. 1965).
This indicated two important features: (1) essential uniformity of the
environmental factors in these three places (North, South and West)
control the onset of mating and consequently births among these pri-
mates. (2) that these animals gave birth to infants during the period
that enabled weaning to coincide with the monsoon season. Weaning
during monsoon appears to have two advantages for the baby:- (a)
it provides enough food in the form of tender leaves, flowers and a
few fruits, (b) it ensures safety as it is during this period that the young
one is left more to itself by its mother and is safer in the thick canopy
of leaves than otherwise.
Young babies appeared darker in colour than the older ones. The
dark babies usually clung to their mothers and suckled or slept hold-
ing the teat in their mouth. Mothers with such babies were inactive
and spent less time feeding but more in resting and nursing the baby
on top branches well concealed behind leaves. They usually avoided
the close approach of the observer. At times small babies were left
behind on trees when the mother moved away for food. On such
occasions the babies screeched and tried to follow, but on failing to
keep pace settled down to await their return. When she moved from
one place to another, the mother carried the baby clinging to her belly
and no instance of riding by the infants was witnessed. While progress-
LANGURS OF THE GIR
311
ing on the ground she led or followed it. When the mother was on the
ground the baby mostly rested or suckled, or played with others. The
baby stood on its hind limbs and reached for the teats when the mother
sat on a high level. To prevent the baby from leaving her and yet
facilitate the availability of both teats, the mother held the baby press-
ed between her body and one of the fore and the hind limbs while
she raised the forelimb of the other side and gripped an overhead
branch.
Though the baby fed on its mother’s breast for a long period, the
mother sometimes prevented it. On such occasions she just left the
baby and moved away or jerked the nipple free or pushed the baby’s
head aside with her hand or hugged the baby in such a way that the
mouth lost contact with the nipple. She sometimes bit the baby also.
The 4-6 month old baby slept either clinging to its mother or pinned
between her legs and branch or it might sleep a few feet away from
her. On waking up the mother just extended her hand to the baby’s
direction and the latter moved and clung to her. The babies were seen
biting at the bark and tendrils.
It appeared that the early mother-infant association among lan-
gurs was not intense but breast feeding continued for a long period.
Young ones about a year old (obviously born the previous season)
were seen suckling. Such individuals sat a little distance away from
her, put their head forward and got at her nipples. Such individuals
were only slightly smaller than their mothers. At times even juveniles
were seen attempting to put their mouths to teats of adult females
(probably mothers) after grooming them but were prevented by the
latter.
In general the baby was readily allowed to mingle and play with
other individuals. Often the mother abandoned the baby even at times
of danger. A baby of Kapuria troupe was attacked by a hawk (Acci-
piter sp.). The mother that was on the ground, a few feet away, hastily
made for safety. Sugiyama & Parthasarathy (1969) report that in the
Hanuman langur the mother does not take special care and sometimes
deserts the injured baby. This is unlike the maternal behaviour obser-
ved in bonnets (Rahaman & Parthasarathy 1969). On a rainy day a
langur baby was left behind by the mother. Such babies were usually
accompanied and escorted by other individuals. When the mother was
on the ground, the baby separated itself from the mother and played
with other individuals or objects available. For most of the time the baby
kept making trips to and from the mother. These trips were short and
brief when the baby was alone (about 20 trips were made in 3 mts.
by the baby once) but they were prolonged in time and area in the
company of others (one trip took about a minute). A young baby has
a springy gait and holds its tail as do the older ones.
312 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 70 (2)
The mother on spotting the observer made a neighing sort of sound
to call her baby. She sometimes tolerated other individuals handling it
but at the same time resented it. In fact the attitude of the mother to-
wards other individuals handling her baby depended mainly on their
approach. If the approach was straight and bold as with adult indivi-
duals, the mother did not object them. But it was fidgety and playful as
with the juveniles, she resented their approach. Sometimes a mother ob-
jected to one female taking liberties with her baby while she readily to-
lerated another. A mother after being groomed by a female was groom-
ing her in turn. The latter took the former’s baby and hugged it. Another
female approached the one that was hugging the baby and reached for
it playfully. The mother with a snort chased the intruder away. Some-
times even the infant does not like being handled by others. The mother
at times slapped juveniles that tried to play with her baby. Even the
baby acted sometimes similarly.
The babies readily recognised their mothers and went only to
them at times of need. Three mothers were once seen engaged in
mutual grooming on ground while their babies were at play a short
distance away. The relative positions of the mothers were marked and
then a panic was created among them by a person suddenly rushing
at them. The mothers ran helter-skelter but the babies ran only to
their respective mothers without any confusion.
Interspecific interactions and predation
On two occasions langurs were witnessed feeding in close proxi-
mity with the monitor ( Varanus sp.) and once with a mongoose
(Herpestes sp.), but with no interaction from either side. But on certain
other occasions they were seen to be distinctly associated with and to
interact with other animals.
On two occasions when some birds (unidentified) took panic and
flew for some unknown reason, the langurs feeding close by scampered
up the treeposte haste. During ground progression the Talala road
troupe was once seen closely following a pair of peafowl, apparently
to be forewarned of any danger. Incidentally it was noticed that the
peahen was more wary than the peacock. When the langurs took panic
the peafowls took to flight and vice versa.
Once on finding the author blocking its way, a squirrel ( Funam -
bulus sp.) gave out a continuous chrip from the bole of the tree. Three
adult langurs came out to investigate the reason. On one occasion a
young langur tried to catch a squirrel that was avoiding and approach-
ing the langur carefully. After the fourth attempt, the langur gave up
and moved away.
Halfway between Shirvan and Amrutvel a herd of chital. Axis
LANGURS OF THE GIR
313
axis (1 male and 4 females) was seen feeding under a ficus tree occu-
pied by langurs. The langurs were the first to spot the observer and
dash off along the tree top. The chital immediately bolted without
attempting to find out what had disturbed the langurs. They stopped
some hundred yards away and then faced the direction from which
they had fled to investigate the cause and on finding the observer they
vanished. Such association had twofold benefits for the chital, in that
the langurs not only informed them of any lurking danger but also
provided them food in the form of dropped fruits etc. Such associations
between langurs and chital have been repeatedly observed by Starin
(personal communication) especially during summer months when
the chital are likely to depend more on langurs for food with the grass
drying up. The deer if undisturbed would feed in the company of
langurs for hours together as could be made out by the absence of
dropped leaves, fruits and the like and the large amount of faecal pellets
dropped by them. In south India such associations between deer and
bonnet macaques have been recorded by me.
Leopards ( Panthera pardus ) were common in the study area and
were on several occasions heard from close quarters, which disturbed
langurs. Obviously the langurs were preyed upon by them. The lions
( Panthera leo persica) were reported to kill langurs occasionally. Dur-
ing the study period two village dogs killed and ate a subadult male
langur from the Chitrode troupe. When the monkey was caught on the
ground by the dogs, the dominant male gave out a bark of alarm and
a subadult female gave a wailing cry. But after two minutes of the
incident they settled down and were calm. However every time the
dominant male viewed the site of the carcass being torn by the dogs
he ground his teeth.
On July 30, 1971, an adult female langur was killed by a python
{Python molurus) near Bhojde. When the snake was in the act of
swallowing it, the villagers saw this and decapitated the snake in an
attempt to save the monkey, which was by then dead.
Once a hawk {Accipiter sp.) was observed attacking a baby
langur of the Kapuria troupe. The baby was on the ground and a few
feet away from its mother. On the approach of the bird the mother
sought shelter without rescuing the baby. The dominant male sitting
on a high branch rushed to the site and his jump on to the lowermost
branch jerked it in such a manner that it brushed against the bird and
prevented it from taking hold of the baby. After the bird flew off the
mother collected her baby.
Jungle crows {Corvus macrorhynchus) at times descended in num-
ber in the feeding locality of langurs to feed upon insects displaced
by the langurs.
314 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (2)
Acknowledgements
I am indebted to the Gir Project of the Smithsonian Institution
and the Bombay Natural History Society, for having made this study
possible and for having provided all necessary facilities. Thanks are
due to Professor K. Pampapathi Rao, Head of the department of
Zoology, Bangalore University, Bangalore, for his kind encouragement
and favourable recommendations; to Bangalore University, Bangalore,
for granting permission to associate with the project. I am grateful for
the help extended to me by research associates at Gir and my thanks
are also due to local guides who were of help in many ways.
I am grateful to Dr M. D. Parthasarathy, Department of Zoology,
Bangalore University, Bangalore, for his kind suggestions and wise
counsel on his visit to Gir, and Shri Dharmakumarsinhji of Bhavnagar
for advice from his experience and impressions about the langur popu-
lation at Gir.
References
Altmann, S. A. (1959): Field
observations on a howling monkey
society. Jour. Mammal. 40: 317-
330.
Imanishi, K. (1957) : Social be-
haviour in Japanese monkeys, Ma-
caca fuscata. In Primate Social Be-
haviour: Chap. 6 Southwick, C. H.
(ed) New York.
Jay, P. (1965) : The common lan-
gurs of North India. In primate
behaviour: 197-249. DeVore, I (ed)
New York. Holt, Rinehart & Wins-
ton.
Marler, P. (1965) : Communica-
tions in Monkeys and Apes. ibid.
544-584. DeVore, I(ed) New York.
Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
Rahaman, H. & Parthasarathy,
M. D. (1968). The expressive move-
ments of the Bonnet Macaque. Pri-
mates, 9: 259-272.
(1969): Studies on the social
behaviour of Bonnet Monkeys, ibid.
10: 149-162.
Simonds, P. E. (1965): The Bon-
net Macaque in South India. In
primate behaviour: 175-196. DeVore,
I(ed) New York. Holt, Reinehart &
Winston.
Southwick, C. H., Beg, M. A. &
Siddiqi, M. R. (1965): Rhesus Ma-
caque in North India, ibid.: 111-
159. DeVore, I (ed) New York.
Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
Sugiyama, Y. & Parthasarathy,
M. D. (1969) : A brief account of
the life of Hanuman langurs. Proc.
Nat. Inst. Scie. Ind., Vol. 35, B.
No. 4: 306-319.
, Yoshiba, K. & Parthasrathy,
M. D. (1965): Home range, mating
season, male group and inter-troop
relations in Hanuman langurs (Pres-
bytis entellus). Primates, 6: 73-106.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 70 (2)
I NY A LAKE
Jungle area
Park land
Lakeside houses
1.
2.
3.
A.
Writer's house.
Xnya Lake Hotel-
Statehouse.
U.S. Ambassador's Residence.
/ #5$ » /C
The Birds of Inya Lake,
Rangoon, Burma1
BY
J. Bruce Amstutz
650 W. Harrison St., Claremont, California 91711, U.S.A.
(With a map)
There has been little in the way of serious bird study in Burma
during the last decade, and so far as I could ascertain no published
work on the birds of Rangoon since H. H. Harington’s contribution,
“Some Rangoon Birds” J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 19 in 1909. Believ-
ing that future ornithologists in Burma might be interested in noting
any change in the pattern of bird species in a representative area of
Burma’s capital, my son Mark and I undertook for three years a sur-
vey of the birds on and about Inya Lake.
One of Rangoon’s most attractive landmarks, this lake measures
about 2 by 1.5 miles, has a shoreline of probably 10 miles, and a
water area of perhaps 2 square miles. Built as a reservoir for Rangoon
in the 1880’s, the lake shore is bordered by jungle, park land, Burma’s
biggest hotel, and some of Burma’s finest residences (including the
temporary Statehouse of General Ne Win).
I was fortunate to live in one of the houses bordering the lake,
and to have access to its waters by canoe and sail boat. All its many
bays and coves were visited at one time or another, but considerations
of distance restricted the most thorough coverage to shore areas with-
in half a mile of my home. Over the three years July 1968 to July
1971, we averaged one bird outing every three weeks.
Though we can only claim to have identified 82 species, we be-
lieve that given time and patience the lake area and its environs might
have revealed a population of between 100 to 125 species. These figures
may, however, never be attained because Rangoon’s suburbs creep
ever outwards, the parkland and waters of the lake are becoming
more crowded with visitors, and the jungle areas are being ravaged
by illicit woodcutters and by guard houses covering the approaches
to the Statehouse. Fortunately, hunting and motorboats are not allow-
ed on the lake.
Perhaps the most interesting feature of the area’s bird population
has been its migratory character. Probably less than one quarter of
1 Accepted July 21, 1971.
316 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (2)
the species are truly resident, the remaining being seasonal visitors.
There are roughly three bird seasons: the dreary, wet monsoon period
(June to September) when the number of species drops to its yearly
low; the fall season (October to January) when the lake is visited by
many migratory species from the north; and the hot, dry season
(February to May) when birds from the parched countryside visit the
lake. Some migratory birds from the north not seen in the fall also
visit the lake during this last season.
In terms of sheer abundance, the House Crow and Common Myna
clearly lead the field. Rangoon is notorious for its crows, and several
thousand roost at night in high trees around the lake. Next to these
two species, probably the most common are the Tree Sparrow, Indian
Pond Heron, Lesser Whistling Teal, Black Drongo, and Little Cormo-
rant.
The survey unearthed few distributional tidbits for science. The
only possible contributions are two additions to the distribution of
birds in the plains area of lower Burma, as given in the chart in
Smythies’ the birds of Burma (1953). These are: the Chestnut-
headed Bee-eater; and the Daurian Starling. The former is a regular
annual winter visitor to the lake. Its omission from Smythies’ chart
may have been inadvertent since he mentions its being encountered
at Hlawga Lake which is just outside the city. A flock of Daurian
Starlings was seen once by me on one of the jungle islands in the lake,
and it may be an occasional visitor. According to Smythies, the Daurian
was a rarity in the plains, having been sighted only once, in Pegu, a
city 55 miles from Rangoon.
Three somewhat puzzling omissions from my bird list should be
mentioned: the Redvented Bulbul ( Pycnonotus cafer)\ the Paddyfield
Pipit ( Anthus novaeseelandiae ); and the Brownheaded Gull ( Larus
brunnicephalus) . The first two are common on the outskirts of Ran-
goon, while the Gull is abundant during the winter months on the
Rangoon river. We never found them about Inya Lake.
Podiceps ruficollis Little Grebe
Common seasonal visitor. Usually encountered only in the eastern-
most arm of the lake where it is abundant from January to May. As
many as 100 were seen at one time. Often seen in association
with Lesser Whistling Teals which rest in the same inlet. Disappears
during the monsoon.
Phalacrocorax niger Little Cormorant
One of the commmonest birds on the lake from September to
May. Disappears during the monsoon months. Usually seen singly or
in small, loose groups but flocks of 40 or so have been counted swim-
ming together in November. Rests at night in flocks of about 20 in
BIRDS OF INYA LAKE
317
small lakeside trees, often in company with Darters.
Anhinga rufa melanogaster Darter or Snake-bird
Common on the lake during the dry season, September to May.
Usually seen singly. Roosts at night with Little Cormorants. Disappears
during the monsoon. Can be approached to within about twenty yards.
Exciting bird to watch at all times.
Ardea cinerea Grey Heron
Occasional visitor. Encountered only three times, twice in January
and once in May. Once it was perched on a lakeside tree; the other
two times it was standing in shallow water adjacent to small grass-
covered islands.
Butorides striatus Little Green Heron
Probably occasional visitor. Seen only once in March 1969, when
a flock of three were seen perched on low branches overhanging the
lake on a jungle-fringed narrows.
Ardeola grayii Indian Pond Heron
Probably a resident. One of the most common birds on the lake-
shore, from October to May. Uncommon during the monsoon.
Bubulcus ibis Cattle Egret
Seasonally common, from January to May. During this period,
a flock of as many as 20 can be seen feeding on the spacious lake-
side lawn of the American Ambassador’s residence.
Egretta alba Greater Egret
Common only in the dryest months, March to May. Occasionally
seen during the monsoon.
Egretta intermedia Intermediate Egret
Occasional visitor. Is the least common of the Egrets.
Egretta garzetta Little Egret
Very common during the dryest months, March to May. Not
often seen at other times. The evening flights of these to their roosts
is always a lovely sight.
Nycticorax nycticorax Night Heron
Probably a resident. A small flock of about 20 birds lives on two
tiny jungle-covered islands in the lake. Most commonly seen from
September to December.
Ixobrychus cinnamomeus Cinnamon Bittern
Probably a resident. Common from March to May in reed and
water hyacinth-fringed inlets. Usually seen only in the very early morn-
ing. Much less frequently at dusk.
318 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (2)
Ixobrychus sinensis Yellow Bittern
May be resident. Single birds regularly encountered from March
to May in late afternoons in rush and water hyacinth shore areas and
islands.
Dupetor flavicollis Black Bittern
Uncommon. Encountered only in October and November in early
morning and at dusk on edge of jungle islands.
Botaurus stellaris Bittern
Uncommon visitor. Encountered only once, in April, when two
were flushed from reedy islands in the lake.
Dendrocygna javanica Lesser Whistling Teal
Very common from January to May. Always in flocks which
number up to 300 birds. Always very wary and difficult to approach.
At dusk and early evening, commonly heard flying and calling over
the lake.
Nettapus coromandeliamis Cotton Teal
Common from March till May where water plants are abundant.
Seems to be increasing annually. Often seen in loose flocks of up to
20 birds.
Elanus caeruleus Blackwinged Kite
Probably an occasional visitor. Seen once in February.
Miivus migrans Pariah Kite
Very common from October to May but most abundant from
November to December. Roosts at night in trees on some of the jungle
islands. Disappears during the monsoon.
Miivus (migrans) lineaius Blackeared Kite
Appears also to be common but not easily distinguishable from
above species. Same habits and habitat.
Accipiter badius Shikra Goshawk
Uncommon. Seen in September and October in garden trees along
the lake shores, often being harassed by crows.
Gyps bengalensis Whitebacked Vulture
Uncommon. Single birds seen on two occasions in winter months
resting in tall lakeside trees and being pestered by crows.
Pandion haliaetus Osprey
Uncommon from October to April. Seen flying over lake or rest-
ing on some lakeside tree.
BIRDS OF 1NYA LAKE
319
AmaurornSs phoenicurus Whitebreasted Waterhen
Common. Often seen from November to June along lakeshore.
GalMcrex cinerea Watercock
Common. Single birds can be seen at dawn or dusk in marshy
inlets from March to May.
Gallinula chloropus Moorhen
Uncommon visitor. Single birds seen in April in reedy, shallow
portions of the lake.
Hydrophasianus chirurgus Pheasant-tailed Jacana
Common from January to May. Sometimes seen with next spe-
cies. Seems to be increasing in population on the lake. In breeding
plumage with its long tail, it is particularly attractive. Always lovely
in flight with its pied wings.
Metopidius indicus Bronzewinged Jacana
Very common from January to June in every marshy inlet. Less
shy and more abundant than above species. It also seems to be grow-
ing in population.
Charadrius dubius Little Ringed Plover
Uncommon visitor. Seen only in March and April at the height
of the hot, dry season when mud-flats sometimes appear in the lake.
Singles and pairs seen.
Tringa glareola Wood Sandpiper
Seasonal visitor in April and May at the height of the dry season,
when it is not uncommon on mud-flats on the lake.
Tringa hypoleucos Common Sandpiper
Commonly encountered from September to April. Usually seen
singly along the shores of the lake and around tiny islands.
Chlidonias hybrida Whiskered Tern
Regular visitor from December to April. Usually seen in pairs
or threes quartering the lake. Never seen at rest.
Gelocheiidon nilotica Gullbilled Tern
Regular seasonal visitor from February to April. Seen singly and
in threes, always in flight over the lake.
Streptopelia chinensis Spotted Dove
Resident. Common garden bird in the villas surrounding the lake.
Cuculus can or us Cuckoo
Occasional. Seen in October and December.
320 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (2)
Cacomantis merulinus Plaintive Cuckoo
Possibly a resident. Common from January to July, particularly
from March to May when its distinctive call is frequently heard.
Eudynamys scolopacea Koel
Possibly a resident but commonly heard only from October to
April, particularly on small jungle-covered islands. Hard to spot. Usu-
ally keeps to thick canopy of tall trees.
Centropus sinensis Greater Coucal
Probably a resident on the jungle-covered islands where it has
been encountered throughout the year.
Tyto alba Barn Owl
Occasional. Its screech is heard from time to time in lakeside
gardens in winter months.
Strix selopoto Spotted Wood Owl
Occasional. Heard and seen while flying over a lakeside garden in
March.
Cypsiums parvus Palm Swift
Resident. Groups flying are a common sight year round along
the lakeshore.
Ceryle rudis Lesser Pied Kingfisher
Occasional visitor. Encountered only in April and May. Specta-
cular diver.
Alcedo atthis Common Kingfisher
Seasonally common, from September to March, along the lake
shore.
Halcyon smymensis Whitebreasted Kingfisher
Often encountered from August to April. Most common king-
fisher on the lake. Noisy. Usually seen perched on some branch over-
hanging the lake.
Halcyon pileata Blackcapped Kingfisher
Uncommon visitor. Only seen once, in October, perched on a
lakeside tree.
Merops leschenaulti Chestnutheaded Bee-eater
Uncommon but regular visitor. Small flocks of 3 to 6 birds seen
from October to February on two jungle islands.
Merops philippinus Bluetailed Bee-eater
Uncommon but regular annual visitor. Small flocks occasionally
encountered from September to April, hawking from lakeside trees.
BIRDS OF 1NYA LAKE
321
Merops orientals Green Bee-eater
Common, perhaps a resident. Seen all year round, usually found
perched in small flocks on lakeside trees.
Coracias benghalensis Burmese Roller
Common, from September to May in lakeside gardens.
Upupa epops Hoopoe
Occasionally encountered in October and November in lakeside
gardens.
Megalaima haemacephala Crimsonbreasted Barbet
Resident. One of the most common garden birds, more often
heard than seen.
Hirundo rustica European House Swallow
Common from September to May, particularly from January to
April. Singles and groups often seen flying over the surface of the lake
hawking for insects.
Lanius cristatus Brown Shrike
Common garden bird from October to April.
Orioles tenuirostris Slender-billed Oriole
Annual visitor but uncommon. Small flocks occasionally encount-
ered from October to April in canopy of lakeside trees.
Dicrtirus adsimilis Black Drongo
Very common, from September to April. One of the most fami-
liar garden birds. Disappears during the monsoon months.
Dicrurus leucophaeus Ashy Drongo
Uncommon. Singles seen occasionally on jungle islands from
October to February.
Artamus fuscus Ashy Swallow-Shrike
Uncommon. Seen only in July and August perched on high, ex-
posed limbs of trees in lakeside gardens.
Stumus malabaricus Ashy-headed Starling
Common in flocks of 20-30 birds from mid-November to mid-
February.
Stumus stuminus Daurian Starling
Occasional visitor. A flock of about ten birds encountered once,
in mid- April, in trees in open section of a jungle island.
Stumus contra Pied Starling
Commonly encountered in April-May and again in September
along the lakeshore. Usually found close to water’s edge.
322 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (2)
Sturnus tristis Common Myna
Resident and abundant. Shares with the House Crow the distinc-
tion of being one of the two most common birds in the lake area.
Almost always seen in pairs.
Sturnus javanicus Jungle Myna
Commonly encountered from March through June in meadow
parkland fringing the lake. Rarely met in gardens.
Corvus spleedens House Crow
Abundant and a conspicuous, noisy bird at all seasons. Every
garden has them and at night they roost in thousands in high trees in
certain areas fringing the lake.
Tcphrodornis pondiceriaeus Common Wood Shrike
Occasional visitor. Encountered only once on top of lakeside
tree in September.
Aegithina tiphia Common Iora
Uncommon visitor. Encountered only in March and April in
lakeside gardens in trees and big shrubs.
Pycnonotus melanicterus Black-crested Yellow Bulbul
Common in small flocks in November and December on jungle
islands.
Pyciionotus blanfordi Blanford’s Olive Bulbul
Common in small flocks from March to May in garden trees and
on jungle islands.
Muscicapa parva Red-breasted Flycatcher
Very common in garden trees and shrubs from October to Febru-
ary. All disappear by April. Except in late March, the bird is always
seen in its drab brownish-grey winter plumage.
Phylloscopus inornatus Yellow-browed Willow Warbler
Uncommon. Pair encountered only once in November on jungle
island.
Phylloscopus inornatus Yellow-browed Willow Warbler
Uncommon. Seen only once, a pair, in October, in canopy of
garden tree.
Orthotomus sutorius Common Tailorbird
Common resident in lakeside gardens and on the more open jungle
islands. More often heard than seen.
Copsych us saularis Magpie Robin
Common resident in lakeside gardens and in open parkland
fringing the lake.
BIRDS OF 1NYA LAKE
323
Monticola solitarius Blue Rock Thrush
Uncommon visitor. Encountered only in March in lakeside gardens.
Motacilla alba Pied Wagtail
Common from October to January. Never seen at other times.
Visits lawns of lakeshore gardens.
Motacilla caspica Grey Wagtail
Least common of the three Wagtails. Singles seen occasionally
from September to November on lawns.
Motacilla flava Yellow Wagtail
Most common of the Wagtails and often encountered from Octo-
ber to May, on lakeshore lawns. Is most common from February to
March.
Prionochilus thoracic us Scarlet-breasted Flowerpecker
Uncommon. Pairs encountered only in April on jungle islands.
Passer montanos Tree Sparrow
Resident and very common around every lakeside home.
Ploceus Philippines Baya Weaverbird
Common from March to June, especially on rushes along the
lakeshore. Nesting area was not found.
Lonchura punctulata Spotted Munia
Common from March to May in groups of as many as 20 birds
in lakeside gardens. Occasionally seen during the monsoon months
through to October when it disappears.
Lonchura malacca Chestnut Munia
Less common than above species, and never seen in large groups.
Two to three birds is usual. Encountered from March to August, but
most commonly during April to June when it nests in shrubs around
lakeshore houses.
Emberiza aureola Yellow-breasted Bunting
Uncommon visitor. Encountered only in April along lakeshore:
once a pair was seen in a small tree overhanging the lake on a jungle
island; and a single was met a year later perched on a marsh plant in
an inlet.
A new Species of Ischaemum
Linn, from India1
BY
R. B. Patil2 and R. D’Cruz3
Botany Section, College of Agriculture, Poona 5
{With a plate)
Ischaemum vembanadense sp. nov. (Poaceae) is described and
illustrated.
Ischaemum vembanadense sp. nov.
/. magno Rendle similis sed differt caule et ramis omnino serpen-
tibus, spiculis sessilibus minus quam 7 mm. longis, pedicellis et rha-
chidibus permitus glabris, ligula integra et spiculae pedicellatae gluma
inferiore ad unam marginem late alata.
Ischaemum vembanadense sp. nov. (Figs. 1-7)
Allied to /. magnum Rendle but differs in the completely trailing
or prostrate stem and branches, the sessile spikelet which is less than
7 mm long, the completely glabrous pedicel and rachis, the entire
ligule and the lower glume of the pedicelled spikelet which has a
broad wing on one margin.
A perennial grass, oulms 150-160 cm, completely glabrous and
smooth, densely tufted; trailing or prostrate, branching from each node,
branches prostrate, nodes glabrous and tumid, internodes heavily
prunose.( Leaf blades up to 15 cm long, 1 to 1.5 cm wide, acuminate,
lower leaves tapering to the base; upper sub-cordate with a small hairy
petiole, ligule 0.5 to 1 cm long, entire and hairy on the margins, sheath
loose slipping from the culms and open at the top with ciliate or hairy
margins at top. Inflorescences two, appressed, not more than 7 mm
long, lower two joints of rachis confluent, joints of rachis trigonous,
smooth all over, pale yellow. Sessile spikelet: Lower glume 6.5 to 7 mm
long; 1.5 to 2 mm wide; oblong-acute in shape, coriaceous-crustaceous
1 Accepted July 21, 1971.
2 Present address : Turmeric Breeder, Agril. Research Station, Digraj,
Sangli Dist., Maharashtra State.
3 Present address : Behind Municipality, Margao, Goa.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 70 (2) Plate
Patil & D’Cruz: Ischaemum vembandense
Ischaemum vembanaclense Patil et D’Cruz (Figs. 1-8).
1. A portion of culm with leaf and inflorescences; 2. Lower glume of sessile
spikelet (dorsal); 3. Upper glume of sessile spikelet (side view); 4. Lower
lemma of sessile spikelet (ventral) ; 5. Palea of sessile spikelet (ventral) ; 6.
Upper lemma of sessile spikelet (side view); 7. Palea of sessile spikelet (ven-
tral) ; 8. Mitotic metaphase of In — 50.950 X.
NEW SPECIES OF ISCHAEMUM
325
in the lower half, herbaceous above with numerous fine green nerves,
lower half smooth; transversely and irregularly wrinkled; margins
narrowly incurved from base to apex, ventral side with greenish red
tinge in the lower 3/4 portion. Upper glume : 6.5 to 7 mm long; 1 mm
wide; glabrous; boat shaped, strongly keeled with incurved and ciliate
margins. Lower floret : , lemma hyaline; 6 mm long; oblong lanceo-
late, 3 nerved, margins slightly ciliate and keeled, palea about 5 mm
long; hyaline strongly keeled on margin; margins slightly ciliate. Upper
*
floret: lemma 5mm long, boat shaped; ciliate on the margins,
cleft in the middle with or without awn, palea membranous 4.5 mm
long; stamens 3, anthers 3 mm long, styles 2, stigmas plumose and
whitish yellowish when young. Pedicelled spikelet: Pedicel triangular
in section, stout; 2 mm long, not ciliate on outer angle. Lower glume:
6 mm long, with 3-5 nodules on inner margins; upper glume strongly
keeled in the lower half, glabrous, ciliate on the margins, chartaceous-
herbaceous in texture. Lower floret: & , stamen 3, anthers 2.5 mm
long, lemma 6 mm long, oblong-acute, ciliate on the margins, palea
4.5 mm long, hyaline strongly keeled. Upper floret: ^ , stamens 3,
anthers 2.5 mm long, styles 2, stigmas plumose, lemma 4.5 mm long,
hyaline, 3 nerved, mucronate, palea 3 mm long, hyaline.
Holotype collected at Allepy backwaters, Kerala, India by Patil
on 10th January 1970 and deposited in the Herbarium, Botany Section,
College of Agriculture, Poona 5 under the field number 1-919. Isotypes
to be deposited in Herbarium at Botanical Survey of India, Western
Circle, Poona- 1.
Etymology: This taxon is named after the well known lake
“Vembanad” in Allepy District, Kerala, India. The root tip study in
this species gave somatic count of 2 n = 50 chromosomes (Fig. 8).
Meiosis was abnormal but seed setting was normal.
Acknowledgements
This research has been financed in part by a grant made by
U.S.D.A. under P.L. 480 Research Project A7-CR-130. Our grateful
thanks are also due to Rev. Fr. Cecil J. Saldanha, Principal Indian
Investigator, Hassan Flora Project, St. Joseph’s College, Bangalore for
kindly translating the diagnosis into Fatin.
Notes on the Nest and Behaviour
of the Yellowbrowed Titmouse,
Parus modest us (Burton)1
BY
- %
Robert L. Fleming, jr.
P.O. Box 229, Kathmandu, Nepal
The Yellowbrowed Titmouse, Parus modestus (Burton), is dis-
tributed widely through mountainous country from Kashmir east to
Fukien in south China (Ripley 1961:553). Although usually consider-
ed uncommon, this species is met frequently in the oak forests of
Nepal where it would appear to be overlooked rather than rare (see
Fleming & Traylor 1968:185).
Little is known about this bird; the nest has not been described
(see Ali 1962:342-343). Since this titmouse resembles a leaf warbler
( Phylloscopus ) in both size and colour, some authors have placed
it in a distinct genus, Sylvi parus, to indicate its affinity with the war-
blers. Other workers, noting this bird’s typical titmouse behaviour,
have retained it in the genus Parus.
The nest of this bird is of special interest. Nest building is usually
a highly stereotyped behaviour pattern and the way the nest is con-
structed is often a strong indicator of phylogenetic affinity. Sylvi parus
advocates believed the nest would be of a warbler type: a ball of moss
not secreted inside a hole (see Disselhorst 1968:349). The Parus
people felt that the nest would be typically titmouse: a pad of hair
or feathers placed in a natural cavity either in a tree or in the ground.
The first Yellowbrowed Titmouse nest was discovered on 4 May,
1968, in a hole of a rhododendron tree at 2378 metres (7800') eleva-
tion on Phulchowki, Patan District, Central Nepal. The nest was found
by Mr. and Mrs Gene Boster and their daughter Barbara, of the U.S.
Embassy, Kathmandu,.
My father. Dr Robert L. Fleming, Sr., regularly organizes bird
walks for the residents of Kathmandu; on one of these excursions this
first nest was discovered. We already had determined that the nesting
season of this titmouse was in April and May and that Phulchowki
1 Accepted August 14, 1972.
THE YELLOWBROWED TITMOUSE, PARUS MODESTUS
327
fell within its breeding grounds, but following the small birds from
tall oak to tall oak and across steep hillsides proved difficult. The 4
May trip was one of many that had been aimed at finding this nest.
On 5 May we observed the titmice for a period of 4 hours and
17 mins, beginning at 0845. During this time, the parents fed the young
a total of 114 times. The feeding frequency was: 0901 to 1000 — 19
visits; 1001 to 1100—20 visits; 1101 to 1200—25 visits; 1201 to 1300
— 46 visits.
Consistant behavioural differences in the two parent birds were
noted. One bird, presumably the male, was more timid than the other;
it also appeared larger than the second. The first bird sang frequently
and, if in the company of the second, often shivered its wings in a
courting routine. The male approached the nest in the following
fashion: overhanging branch to bush, two or three position shifts in
the bush and then to the nest. The female approach pattern was: over-
head branch to bush to tree trunk to nest. She did not pause long at
each stop. If the female appeared at the nest while the male was out-
side, shifting positions and hesitating to go in, she would dart past
him and quickly feed the young. After she left, he would enter.
Only once were the two birds noted in the nest hole together.
On this occasion, the male was already in the nest when the female
arrived in her rapid approach pattern and quickly disappeared inside.
Several squeaks later, one bird (sex undetermined) exited with consi-
derable speed.
Ninety-nine visits to the nest were recorded after the probable
sex of each parent was established. Of these, 51 were by the male, 43
by the female and 5 undetermined.
Light rain began at 1034 and continued until 1052. During this
period, the young were visited 8 times with no apparent let up in feed-
ing frequency.
Food items were identified on 65 trips. Light green, apparently
hairless larve, approximately 1 cm long were fed 64 times. Only one
caterpillar was brought per trip. A katydid, also light green, was fed
once.
The birds were not silent around the nest site. The male sang
lustily from both the overhanging branch and the bush near the hole.
Its “song” consisted of a high, squeaking tee repeated between 5 and
8 times in a 5 second period. The alarm call was a very high pitched,
buzzy, tzee tzee. Occasionally the male appeared to wait near the nest
for the female. He would sing loudly and when she arrived, he would
court her with much wing shivering. The female also shivered once,
briefly.
When agitated or excited, the titmouse erected its diminutive
crest; at this time the yellow eyebrow was clearly visible at close range.
328 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 70 (2)
Thus the eyebrow is seen during courtship as well as when the bird
is scolding intruders.
The entrance hole to the nest, a natural, vertical slit about 45 mm
long by 17 mm wide at the widest point, was located 42 cm from the
ground. The opening was so narrow that the birds had to flatten verti-
cally and then push themselves against the side of the tree to get in.
The nest was in a Rhododendron arboreum tree that was growing in
fairly open oak ( Quercus semecarpifolia) forest with a light under-
story of viburnum, barberry, daphne, symplocos, and strobilanthes.
The nest was not thoroughly examined as we did not wish to
endanger the young. Using flashlights and dental mirrors, we counted
four young on a pad about 15 cm below the bottom of the entrance
slit. The young appeared to be nearly ready to leave the nest.
The second Yellowbrowed Titmouse nest was found on 25 April
1972; it contained eggs. This nest was discovered by Professor Richard
S. Morgan of Pennsylvania State University. Professor Morgan was
resting quietly beside a moss covered boulder at about 2488 metres
(9800') elevation on a trek to Ganesh Himal (Rasuwa District,
Central Nepal) when he noticed a small bird disappearing into an
astoundingly small hole in a tree. This was the nest opening.
This nest was placed about 6 m (20') above the ground in a
maple (Acer) tree. This particular maple divided into three major
“trunks” about 2 metres above the ground; the nest was located in the
trunk that leaned farthest away from the hillside. The degree of lean
was estimated at about 20 degrees from vertical. The selected tree
stood in a relatively open part of a mixed forest consisting of fir ( Abies
spectabilis ), hemlock ( Tsuga dumosa), oak (Quercus semecarpifolia )
and rhododendron (R. arboreum and R. bar bat um).
The opening of the nest was again in a natural cavity; it measur-
ed 50 mm vertically by 17 mm wide at the widest point.
On this occasion the tree was cut open so that the nest could be
examined carefully. Unfortunately the location of the nest made it diffi-
cult to enlarge the opening sufficiently to extract the contents. Eventually
the nest was removed but all the fragile eggs were broken in the
process.
The nest pad lay about 20 cm below the entrance in a natural
cavity that slanted diagonally towards the center of the tree. The nest
entirely filled the lower part of the cavity. The top of the pad, which
stretched from wall to wall, was about 10 cm across. The eggs were
placed on a top layer constructed entirely of fur which measured about
5 mm thick. The next layer, of about 10 mm depth, was fur mixed
with a little soft, brown moss. Underneath this “crown”, and filling
the entire cavity down to the base (about 15 cm), was soft, green moss
mixed with a little fur.
THE YELLOWBROWED TITMOUSE, PARUS MODESTUS
329
The reddish fur, some hairs tipped with white, of the Giant Fly-
ing Squirrel ( Petaurista petaurista) was used in the nest. The birds
apparently found a dead squirrel for some of the fur had come away
in small clumps with the skin still attached. A small amount of grey
fur, apparently from a Vole ( Alticola ), was used in the second layer
of the nest.
There appeared to have been six eggs in the clutch. The fragile
shells were white without noticeable blotches. Titmice often have
faintly to boldly marked eggs so it was surprising that no markings
were detected on these fragments.
References
Ali, Salim (1962) : The Birds of
Sikkim, xxx + 414 p. Oxford Uni-
versity Press, Madras.
Diesselhorst, Gerd (1968): Bei-
trage zur Okologie der Vogel Zen-
tral- und Ost-Nepals, 1-420 p. In
Khumbu Himal, Universitatsverlag
Wagner Ges. M.B.H.. Innsbruck-
Munchen.
Fleming, Robert L. & Melvin
A. Traylor (1968) : Distributional
Notes on Nepal Birds. Fieldiana :
Zoology 55(3) : 147-203.
Ripley, S. Dillon II (1961): A
Synopsis of the Birds of India and
Pakistan, xxxvi + 703 p. Bombay
Natural History Society, Bombay.
Orchids of Nepal
BY
M. L. Banerji1 2 and B. B. Thapa3
{With four text -figures in a plate)
This instalment on the orchids of Nepal deals with the genera
that are placed under the tribe Polychondroideae, the subtribes are
indicated accordingly e.g. Listera (Listereae), Cephalanthera & Epipac-
tis (Cephalanthereae), Arundina & Thunia (Sobralieae), Nervilia
(Pogonieae), Spiranthes (Spirantheae) and Herpysma, Goodyera and
Zeuxine (Erythroideae). The genera are arranged alphabetically.
Artificial key to the genera
A. Stem with a thick underground part or a pseudobulb, or a stout subtuber-
ous rootstock —
B. Inflorescence terminal; lip sessile not spurred, base concave and em-
bracing the column. Terrestrial herbs, stem leafy, leaves distichous
Arundina
BB. Inflorescence lateral. Lip spurred, sidelobes embracing the column
Thunia
AA. Stem not bulbous, roots often bulbous —
C. Stem simple, erect, roots tuberous —
D. Spur long, lip exposed beyond the base of the lateral sepals
Herpysma
DD. Spur short i.e. saccate, lip flat —
E. Lateral sepals not free; spike dense flowered and spiral;
leaves several Spiranthes
EE. Lateral sepals free —
F. Two leaved herbs Listera
FF. Many leaved herbs —
G. Lip clawed beyond the spur, column with two
linear appendages in front; stigmas 2 Zeuxine
GG. Lip not clawed beyond the spur, column not
appendaged; stigma 1 Goodyera
1 Accepted August 31, 1972.
2 University of Kalyani, Kalyani, W. Bengal.
3 Horticulture Assistant, Indian Co-operation Mission, Kathmandu.
ORCHIDS OF NEPAL— $
331
CC. Stem sample, erect from an underground tuber; 1 — leaved; sepals
erect or spreading; column elongate not winged Nervilia
CCC. Stem simple, erect from an underground rootstock, leafy, leaves plicate —
D\ Sepals conniving; lip hidden by the sepals, not clearly divided
into epichile and hypochile Cephalanthera
D‘D\ Sepals free, spreading; lip clearly divided into epichile and hypo-
chile. Anthers dorsal, caudicle rudimentary Epipactis
Arundina Bl.
These are terrestrial orchids some 1.5 to 2.0 m tall and having
reed-like stems because of which the genus gets the name. Leaves are
numerous, membraneous and narrow. Flowers are large in racemes
with petals broader than the sepals, and labellum large and semi shap-
ed, which is bright red or pale violet while the sepals and petals are
white.
Arundina graminifolia (Don) Hochr. in Bull. N.Y. bot. Gard,
6:270, 1910; Holttum, 186, 1953; Hara^-425, 1966. Bletia graminifolia
Don, Prodr. FI. Nep. 29, 1825. Limodorum graminifolia Buch. Ham. ex
D. Don, loc. cit. Arundina bambusifolia Lindl. Gen. et Spec. Orch.
125, 1831; F.B.I. 5:857, 1890; King & Pantl. 113, t. 156, 1898. Cym -
bidium bambusifolium Roxb. FI. Ind. ed. 2, 3:460, 1832. (Fig. 1).
Flowers large, catleya-pink, sepals and petals c. 5.0 cm long, orbi-
cular-obovate, apiculate; lip brighter red than the sepals, sidelobes
short, midlobe small, bifid, crisped, disk with 3 lamellate nerves. Flow-
ering time during late August to October, rarely in June or July.
Collected from Nilkanth area, Suparitar, Pokhra, Phidim to Moktara,
Pisapur (Kitamura), locality unknown (Herklotts).
Cephalanthera L. C. Rich.
Stem creeping, subterranean (rhizome), roots tuberous when the
plant is leafless or they may be fiberous when the stem is leafy. Lower
leaves lanceolate while the upper ones are linear. Flowers on a lax
raceme, c. 1.5 cm long, white with yellow spots on the lip which has
a short ridged epichile.
Cephalanthera ensifolia Rich. Orch. Annot. 29: 1817;Lindl. Gen.
et Spec. Orch. 412, 1840; F.B.I. 6: 125, 1890; King & Pantl. 271, t.
362, 1898; Hara, 2nd. Rpt. 180, 1971.
Flowers white or lip spotted with yellow, sepals lanceolate, acute,
petals elliptic, obtuse; ridges in lip, hypochile concave or saccate,
embracing the column, epichile (midlobe) short, triangular, obtuse,
5-ridged, often marked with yellow spots. Flowering during April to
332 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (2)
June. Collected from Pisang to Tatopani (Kitamura), Dhunche-Goss-
ainkund (Hara).
Epipactis Sw.
Large terrestrial erect orchids with sessile leaves. Flowers in
racemes, pendulous, bracts leafy. The lip is short, sessile on the base
of the column. This orchid differs from Cephalanthera in structural
details of the flowers which are rather large and showy.
Artificial key to the species of Epipactis
Flowers 2.5 — 3.75 cm in diam.; hypochile narrow consimilis
Flowers c. 2.5 cm in diam,; hypochile much broader than the epichile
royleana
Epipactis consimilis Wall, ex Hook. f. in FI. Brit. Ind. 6: 126,
1890; King & Pantl. 272, t. 364, 1898. Parker, Forr. Bull. bot. ser. 76:
8,1931.
Terrestrial with fiberous roots, leaves sessile, broadest lower ones
while the upper ones narrow. Flowers orange-green, rarely spotted,
drooping; sepals and petals pubescent; lip as long as the sepals, hypo-
chile (sidelobes) narrow, oblong and turned upwards, epichile (mid-
lobe) longer, lanceolate, inflexed at the base and then recurved. Flo-
wering during February and March. Collected from West Nepal
(Parker).
E. royleana Lindl. in Royle, 111. Himal. 368, 1839, et Gen. et
Spec. Orch. 463, 1840; F.B.I.6: 126, 1890.
Flowers green with yellow lip which is longer than the sepals,
sepals and petals nearly equal, glabrous. Hypochile of lip large, saccate
and much broader than the ovate epichile. Collected from Thulo
Gompha khola at 3100 m, authority Kitamura.
Goodyera R. Br.
The genus is named after an English botanist — J. Goodyer.
These are known as ‘rattle snake plantains’, the name being given
because of the mottlings on the foliage. These are also terrestrial leafy
orchids with stem decumbent or creeping. Leaves are usually thick,
petiolate and with a sheath. Flowers small on racemes, sepals often
pubescent outside, dorsal sepal concave and along with the petals
forming a hood over the column. Stigma is undivided.
Artificial key to the species of Goodyera
A. Stem stout, 45-60 cm tall, many leaved; spike dense flowered, bracts
equalling the flowers procera
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 70 (2)
Banerji & Thapa: Orchids of Nepal
Plate
Fig. 1. Arundina graminifolia (Don) Hochr.
Fig. 2. Goodyera procera Hk. f.
Fig. 3. Herpysma longicaulis Lindl.
Fig. 4. Thunia alba Reichb. f.
ORCHIDS OF NEPAL— 8
333
A A. Stem 10-20 cm tall, few leaved —
B. Lip smooth, channelled, lamellate within, with no hairs or soft
setate repens
BB. Lip within setose and tubercled —
C. Leaves 3-5 nerved, never reticulate; bracts exceeding the flo-
wers; fls. pink foliosa
CC. Leaves mottled with white —
D. Bracts exceeding the flowers, sepals with pink tips
hemsleyana
DD. Bracts about equalling the flowers —
E. Leaves ovate-lanceolate, fleshy (thick) vittata
EE. Leaves cordate cordata
DDD. Bracts shorter than the flowers; fls. white secundiflora
Goodyera cordata (Lindl.) Bth. ex Hook. f. in FI. Brit. Ind. 6:114,
1890; Holttum, 122, 1953; Hara, 2nd Rpt. 187, 1971. Georchls cor-
data Lindl. Gen. et Spec. Orch. 496, 1840.
Plants slender, c. 15-30 cm long; leaves ovate-cordate, basal sinus
variable in depth, petiole slender, 6-12 mm long. Inflorescence a lax-
flowered spike, flowers pubescent, bracts equalling or shorter than the
flowers. Lip gibbous. Authority Hara.
According to Hara, the scape is shortly hairy, while the bracts
are more densely hairy and the lip is also hairy on the lower half of
inside.
G. foliosa (Lindl.) Bth. ex Hook. f. in FI. Brit. Ind. 6:113, 1890;
King & Pantl. 281, t. 374, 1898; Holttum, 121, 1953; Hara, 435, 1966.
Georchis foliosa Lindl. Gen. et Spec. Orch. 496, 1840.
Bracts exceeding the flowers. Lip saccate, beak dilated, base setose
within. According to Hara, the chief distinguishing characters are
“blunt tipped papilla-like hairs on the bracts and scape”. Authority
Hara.
G. Henisfieyaoa King & Pantl. in Journ. Asiat. Soc. Beng. 64:342,
1895 et Ann. Roy. bot. Gard. Calcut. 8:281, 1898.
Plants 15-25 cm long; leaves 3 to 5 unequal, broadly ovate,
acute; bracts lanceolate, exceeding the ovary. Flowers 1.5 cm long,
white, sepals with long sparse hairs, tips pink, petals falcate. Lip with
a sharp tooth on either side of the mouth of the saccate base, apical lobe
oblong. Flowering time during July and early August. Extremely rare,
only collected from Bagdoar at 2135 m.
G. procera Hk. f. Exot. FI. 39, 1823; F.B.I. 6:111, 1890; King &
334 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (2)
Pantl 282, t. 278, 1898; Kara, 436, 1966. (Fig. 2).
Flowers minute, whitish, fragrant, sepals broadly ovate, obtuse,
1 nerved, petals spathulate; lip not longer than the column, base sac-
cate, softly setose within, 2 large calli within the obtuse recurved tip.
Occasional in the tropical region. Flowering during June. Collected
from Eastern Nepal (Banerji).
G. repens (Linn.) R. Br. in Ait. Hort. Kew, ed. 2, 5:198, 1813;
F.B.I. 6:111, 1890; King & Pantl. 282, t. 279, 1898; Hara, 436, 1966.
Satyrium repens Linn. Sp. Pi. ed. 1, 945, 1753. Goody era marginata
Lindl. Gen. et Spec. Orch. 493, 1840.
Flowers whitish, lateral sepals ovate, acuminate, 1 nerved, dorsal
sepal narrow, petals linear-falcate; lip ventricose, shortly beaked,
channelled within, rostellar arms short. Flowering during July and
August. Collected from Bagdoar, Taksindhu forest, Chandragiri.
G. secundlflora Lindl. in Journ. Linn. Soc. 1:182, 1857; F.B.I.
6:113, 1890; King & Pantl. 283, t. 376, 1898; Hara, 2nd. Rpt. 188,
1971.
Plants c. 15-30 cm long, covered with loose sheathing leaf-petioles.
Leaves few, ovate-lanceolate, lamina base rounded, petiole stout and
sheathing, dark green with silvery white veins. Inflorescence many
flowered, c. 15 cm long, bracts shorter than the flowers. Lip saccate
with setae within. Authority Hara.
G. vittata (Lindl.) Bth. ex Hook. f. in FI. Brit. Ind. 6:113, 1890;
King & Pantl. 280, t. 382, 1898; Hara, 437, 1966. Georchis vittata
Lindl. in Journ. Linn. Soc. 1:184, 1857.
“This is determined only by the unicate sterile specimen with
leaves silvery striated on the midrib and white reticulated at the apex
of the blade” — authority Hara.
Herpysma Lindl.
Due to the creeping habit, the orchid is named as such. The leaves
are membraneous with large hyline tubular sheaths. Flowers are dense
on a short raceme, white but the sepals and petals have a pinkish tint.
Lip is deflexed from the middle, apical lobe is blunt and broad, ?pur
is as long as the ovary and parallel to it.
Herpysma longieaulis Lindl. Gen. et Spec. Orch. 506, 1840; F.B.I.
6:98, 1890; King & Pantl. 276, t. 367, 1898. (Fig. 3).
Flowers suberect, pale pink, sepals subequal, free, 5 nerved, dor-
sal sepal forming a hood with the petals, petals oblong, obtuse. Lip
shorter than the sepals, subpand uniform, reflexed from the middle,
adnate to the sides of the column, spreading, spur elongate and
ORCHIDS OF NEPAL— 8
335
straight, tip bifid. Flowering during September to November. Collected
from Bajrabarahi at c. 1370 m.
Listera R. Br.
The genus is named after an English physician — Martin Lister.
These orchids are known as ‘Tway blades’ in the United States. These
are rather insignificant terrestrial orchids with two leaves and fibrous
roots. Flowers are small in racemes, with sepals and petals spreading;
lip is pendulous from the base of the column.
Listera pinetoruin Lindl. in Journ. Linn. Soc. 1:175, 1857; F.B.I.
6:104, 1890; King & Pantl. 256, t. 338, 1898; Kitamura, 104, 1955.
Terrestrial two leaved orchids. Inflorescence a few flowered raceme,
flowers decurved, greenish-brown; sepals and petals subequal, free,
spreading or reflexed, yellowish green. Lip cuneately broadly obcordate
from a narrow base, deeply 2-lobed, twice or even thrice as long as
the sepals, brownish, but deeper than the sepals. Collected from Thu-
lo Gompha khola at 3500 m. Authority Kitamura.
Nervilia Comm, ex Gaud.
Perennial tuberous, coming into leaf after flowering. Tubers glo-
bose with small warty knobs. Leaf one, broadly cordate or orbicular.
Sepals and petals subequal, spreading; lip adnate to the base of the
column and embracing the same at its basal region, column broaden-
ed upwards. Schlecter and later Santapau & Kapadia consider Nervilia
Comm, ex Gaud, as a distinct genus “primarily differing from Pogonia
Juss. by the production of their flowers before the leaves and by hav-
ing a separate stem which bears no leaves but may have scales or
scaly sheaths”.
Artificial key to the species of Nervilia
Flowers solitary, c. 2.5 cm long; sepals & petals white, anterior lobe of
lip with 2 obscure sidelobes macroglossa
Flowers 7-15, c. 1.5 cm long; sepals & petals green, anterior lobe of lip
undulate-crenate scottii
Nervilia macroglossa (Hk.f.) Schltr. in Engl. Bot. Jahrb. 45:402,
1911; Hara, 445, 1966. Pogonia macroglossa Hk. f. in FI. Brit. Ind. 6:
120, 1890; King & Pantl. 267, t. 356, 1898.
Leaf reniform, petiole c. 7.5 cm long; flowering stalk bearing a
single nodding flower, c. 2.5 cm long; sepals and petals subequal.
336 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (2)
linear-lanceolate. Lip gibbous, apical half expanded, with two obscure
sidelobes near its base. Authority Hara.
N. scottii (Reichb. f.) Schltr. in Engl. Bot. Jahrb. 45:404, 1911.
Pogonia scottii Reichb. f. Flora, 276, 1872; F.B.I. 6:120, 1890; King
& Pantl. 269, t. 360, 1898.
Leaf ovate-reniform, petiole 10-20 cm long. Inflorescence a race-
me of 7-15 flowers, flowers horizontal, sepals and petals connivent,
linear-lanceolate, acuminate, dull green with red nerves. Lip 3 lobed
to about the middle, subclawed, base saccate, yellowish-white with
purple nerves, sidelobes obtuse, midlobe suborbicular, velvety. Flow-
ering time April to May. Collected from Ranibari at 1370 m.
Spiraotlies L. C. Rich.
Terrestrial leafy orchids with tuberous roots. Flowers are small
in spirally twisted spikes, due to which the genus gets the name.
Sepals more or less connate and with the petals forming a hood, the
lateral sepals are gibbous at base, thus the spur is short or saccate.
The bracts are longer than the ovary.
Spiranthes sinensis (Pers.) Ames, Orch. 2:55, 1908. Neottia
sinensis Pers. Syn. PI. 2:511, 1807.
Flowers small, pink or white crowded on a spiral spike; lateral
sepals 3 mm long, obtuse, tips recurved, spreading, dorsal sepals com-
bined with the petals to form a 3 -lobed hood enclosing the column.
Lip oblong, crisp, base saccate having 2 glands. Distributed widely at
1980 to 2285 m. Flowering during September to early November.
Collected from Manichur, Chaubasa to Risingo, Nayapati to Risingo,
Godavari, Gumurang to Sard (Kitamura), Lokwa (Kitamura). King
& Pantl. mention that the flowers produced in spring are white, while
those appearing in autumn are often pink. Our observations do not
support this seasonal change to effect the colour of the flowers. White
flowered specimens are common in Godavari throughout the year ex-
cept the cold months.
sub. sp. australis (R. Br.) Kitamura in Acta Phytotax. Geobot.
21:23, 1964, et FI. Nep. Himal. 451, 1966. Spiranthes australis (R.Br.)
Lindl. Bot. Reg. t. 823, 1824 et Gen. et Spec. Orch. 464, 1840;F.B.L
6:102, 1890.
Kitamura has separated this subspecies from the nominate race
by the latter being glabrous on its inflorescence and ovary. The
Himalayan species collected by Kitamura are all puberulous on the
spikes and ovaries. Collected from Nagarkot by Kitamura.
TSiunia Reichb. f.
The orchid is named in honour of Count von Thun Hohenstein
ORCHIDS OF NEPAL— %
337
of Bohemia. These are terrestrial with a tall and fleshy stem, leaves
are numerous, membraneous and thin. The inflorescence is terminal,
bracts persistent and pollen masses are in 4 pairs. The flowers turn
brown or remain white on drying. This genus has been included under
Phajus by many authors, but Reichenbach.f. distinguishes between
Thunia and Phajus. Further, the genus Phajus is placed under sub-
tribe Phajeae of Sympodiales-Pleuranthae (Kerosphaeroideae) accord-
ing to the classification proposed by Schlecter.
Thunia alba Reichb.f. in Bot. Zeit. 764, 1825; F.B.I. 6:818, 1890.
Phajus albus Lindl. in Wall. Cat. 3749 (n.n.) et PI. Asiat. Rar. 2, t. 198,
1831. (Fig. 4).
Flowers large, 3-5, sepals and petals erecto-patent, white. Lip
white or pale yellow with purple red nerves, shovel-shaped with a
broad toothed, crisp midlobe, disk with 5 crested ridges, spur short.
Flowering from late May to early July. Collected from Godavari,
Dhunibesi, Dhaitarbesi, Baseri (Kitamura), locality unknown
(Herklotts).
Zeuxine Lindl.
The name refers to the partial union of the lip and the column
and possibly also to the growing together of the pollinia. These are
also terrestrial herbs with membraneous leaves. Flowers are in spikes
and the posterior sepal is concave and lies on the petals forming a
hood. The genus can readily distinguished in the field by the character
of the leaves and the stigmas being two.
Artificial key to the species of Zeuxine
A. Leaves sessile, linear-lanceolate; scape dense flowered; apical lobe of lip
suborbicular strateumatica
AA. Leaves shortly petioled; scape lax-flowered —
B. Apical lobe of lip very small; bracts equalling the ovaries; leaves with a
median stripe goodyeroides
BB. Apical lobe of lip 2-lobulate; bracts exceeding the ovaries; leaf sheath
inflated, hyaline flava
Zeuxine flava (Lindl.) Benth. in Benth. & Hook.f. Gen. PI. 3:600,
1883; F.B.I. 6:108, 1890; King & Pantl. 289, t. 386, 1898; Hara, 452,
1966. Etaeria flava Lindl. in Wall. Cat. 7380 (nomen nud.).
Scape lax flowered, bracts exceeding the ovaries, flowers small,
white with a pink lip, sepals obtuse; lip shorter than the sepals termi-
nal lobe of lip 2 winged, wings broadly obovate or hatchet-shaped.
338 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (2)
sac with 2 long spurs. Flowering during April and May. Collected
from Banepa to Dolaghat at c. 1220 m.
Z. goodyeroides Lindl. Gen. et Spec. Orch. 486, 1840; F.B.I. 6:107,
1890; King & Pantl. 287, t. 383, 1898.
Scape lax flowered, bracts reddish, equalling the ovaries; flowers
pinkish, sepals ovate, acute, lateral sepals lanceolate, 1 nerved, petals
falcate, very obtuse. Lip slightly exceeding the sepals, cymbiform, ter-
minal lobe orbicular, apex subtruncate, rolled inwards along the mar-
gins, membraneous. Flowering during April and May. Collected from
Dolaghat to Chaubas at c. 1830 m. Probably this species is rare as it
has been collected only once.
Z. stirateuniatica (Linn.) Schltr. Orch. Deutch. N. Giun. 77, 1911.
Holttum, 131, 1955. Orchis stratenmatica Linn. Sp. PI. 943, 1753.
Zeuxine sulcata Lindl. Gen. et Spec. Orch. 485, 1840; F.B.I. 6:106,
1890; King & Pantl. 286, t. 381, 1898.
Scape dense flowered, bracts much longer than the ovaries; flowers
small, white or light yellow, sepals 3 mm long, oblong, membranous,
petals oblong, obtuse. Lip yellow, equalling the sepals, cymbiform,
contracted into short pubescent claw, bearing a terminal lobe or 2
small lobes. Flowering probably during December. Collected from the
banks of Trisuli Khola area, (also Burkill).
(to be continued)
P.S. After going to the press, we have noticed Balakrishna has described a new
species — Listera nepalensis (Blumea, 74(1): 287-290, 1966).
A Catalogue of the Birds in
the Collection of the Bombay
j
Natural History Society — 15
Upupiclae and Bucerotidae
BY
Humayun Abdulali
[Continued jrom Vol. 70(1): 155]
This part deals with 175 specimens of 16 species and subspecies up to
No. 776 in ind. handbook (4:143) and No. 23744 of the Society’s
register. Mr. S. A. Hussain, Research Assistant, assisted with measure-
ments.
763 Upupa epops cpops Linnaeus (Sweden), European Hoopoe
4 : 308
1 6 : c? 9oo | o?
1 Siyahad, Arabia; 1 Baghdad, 1 Shaiba, Iraq; 1 Raixe Besk, 2 Shiraz ,
Iran; 1 Teghat, Kalat, Baluchistan, 1 Chitral; 2 Ambala, Punjab; 1 Kotri,
Sind; 1 Pali, Jodhpur, Rajasthan; 1 Amreli, 1 Ajwa, Baroda, Gujerat;
1 Nawacot, Nepal, 1 Dibrugarh, Assam.
As is evident from the literature available, the races of the
Hoopoe cannot be easily separated and the difficulties are increased
by two, or even perhaps three, races being found at the same place
during winter and on migration.
The present series covers birds with the palest heads, in all of
which the white subterminal patches to the rear feathers of the crest
are distinct. None have an all-black first primary.
The measurements are under No. 766.
764 Upupa epops saturata Lonnberg (Kjachta, Southern Trans-
baicalia) Tibetan Hoopoe 4: 310
54 : 25c? <? 23 o 9 60?
1 Meshed, 1 Chahrbar, Persian Gulf; 2 Mastung, Baluchistan; 1 Pesha-
war, 1 Chitral; 1 Kashmir; 4 Ambala, 1 Ladhwa; 1 Keonthal State, 3
Simla; 2 Delhi; 1 Bharatpur, 1 Haroonabad, Bahawalpur; 1 Bhong,
Indus River; 4 Karirohar, 1 Devisar Tank, 1 Chobassi, Kutch; 1 Nadiad,
Kaira District, Gujerat; 1 Santanpara, Gwalior; 4 Kalyan, 1 Juhu, 2
Andheri, Salsette, Bombay, 2 Panvel, Kolaba, Maharashtra; 1 Mavli,
340 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (2)
1 North Kanara; 1 Dantwara, 1 Geedam, Bastar; 1 Almora, 1 Buland-
shahr, U.P.; 1 Nawacot, Nepal; 1 Banhar, Bihar; 1 Manaktala, Calcutta;
1 North Cachar, 1 Dibrugarh, Assam; 1 Abor 1 Upper Burma; 3 Temple
of Heaven, Peking, China.
There is considerable variation in the colour of the underparts
and the head and crest is darker than in nominate epops, most males
lacking the pink on the breast and the females being duller and some
having a greyish-brown tinge. Both types of females occur in the same
areas at the same time and I have been unable to determine if the
latter represents a first-year plumage of the same race or the female
of another. They show no difference in size, and for the moment, I am
listing them as first-year females.
Only 2 & (Nos. 18879 and 18889) from Simla 6700' (21
August) and Keonthal State (3 July) appear similar to first-year
females referred to above.
2 cT c? (Nos. 18876 and 18887) from Delhi (29 March) and
Ambala (23 February) differ from the others in having the small first
primary all-black. The former has an exceptionally long (74 mm) bill
and the latter, which barely shows any other colour difference is mark-
ed “juv.” by the collector, but a sketch of the testes on the obverse
of the label measures 4x3 mm.
Some of the specimens referred to above are marked U. e. epops
by earlier workers.
The popular name Tibetan Hoopoe appears to be a strange name
for a bird whose type locality is apparently far away in Transbaicalia.
The measurements are under No. 766.
765 Upupa epops ceylonensis Reichenbach (Ceylon) Ceylon Hoopoe
4:311/2
15 : 5 c?c? 0* pull.) 8 Q 9 20?
2 Bharatpur; 1 Delhi; 2 Chikalda, Berar; 3 Kanyakumari; 1 Gingee,
South Arcot; 1 Nellore, 1 Anantgiri, Vizagapatam, A.P.; 1 Bhusandpur,
Chilka Lake, Orissa; 1 Baghowni, Darbhanga, 1 Muzaffarpur, Bihar;
1 Meerut, U.P.
These can be separated from the others by the darker rufous
heads and crests. The white subterminal tips to the black ends of the
hindmost crest feathers are either absent or greatly reduced. They are
also smaller, and in 8 individuals of both sexes, the first primary is
all-black. The series includes specimens obtained in April (2), May
(1), July (1), August (1) and September (2) which were almost cer-
tainly resident in the areas where collected.
The measurements are under No. 766.
766 Upupa epops longirostris Jerdon (Burma) Burmese Hoopoe
4: 312
1 9 No. 11494, Thayetmyo, Burma.
BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION— 15 341
This bird is separated only on a geographical basis. It resembles
others under ceylonensis in their darker colour, absence of white sub-
terminal tip to the hinder crest feathers and an all-black first primary.
Incidentally, Jerdon when describing this said that the main difference
from ceylonensis was the white spot on the first primary, which was
all-black in ceylonensis. The 7 specimens of ceylonensis in which the
first primary is spotted include one taken on 27 July at Gingee, South
Arcot, which was no doubt resident in the area.
* Ticehurst (JBNHS 34 : 427) said this was in error and all were over 140.
** “mostly under 135”.
767 Tockus birostris (Scopoli) (Coromandel, India) Grey Hornbill
4: 301
20 : 5 tfc? (1 juv.) 13 $ 9 2 o ?
1 Kalka, 1 Jagadhri, 1 Ambala, Punjab; 2 Delhi; 1 Kathiawar; 1 Nandur,
Niphad, Nasik; 1 Chitted Range, Salem Dist.; 2 Hoshangabad, 2 Barkot,
Bamra, 1 Central Provinces; 1 Besai, Mayurbhanj, 1 Singbhum, Orissa;
1 Hazaria, Patharghatta, 2 Baghowni, Tirhut, Bihar; 1 Meerut, U.P.; 1
Bankulwa Morang, Nepal.
Wing
&& 213,215,224,225
5 ad. 9 9 204-216
av. 207
6 juv. 9 9 192-215
av. 208
(ihc? 9 196-228
Bill
101,105,106,110
84-101 av. 91
72-107 av. 86
81-105
Tarsus
40,42,45(2)
41-46 av. 43
36-45 av. 43
42-46
Tail
270,278,280
220-268 av. 248
237-268 av. 247
237-297)
The material available does not support the suggestion that nor-
thern birds are less brown and more grey than those from the south.
Fresh specimens are greyer than old ones. Four males and five
342 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (2)
females have the tips of the primaries white, and are presumably adult,
but such females do not have their wings any longer than the eight
specimens without the white.
In addition to the characters mentioned in ind. handbook (4:
132) first year males have small grey tips at the end of the white on
the outer primaries, which are all white in the adults (as in birostris).
The single adult female from Palni Foothills is darker on the
underparts than the males. The pullets, both taken from nests and
reared in captivity for some time, have rufous edges to all the visible
wing feathers and coverts contra whitish in the first-year birds.
769 Tockus griseus gingalensis (Shaw) (Ceylon) Ceylon Grey Horn-
bill 4: 304
1 g\ Ceylon. Wing 201; bill 89; tarsus 37; tail 216.
Unlike Indian birds, the single specimen has a dark bill with “a
long sharply defined white patch on the lower portion of upper man-
dible” tapering to a point some distance before the tip, which pattern
is presumably characteristic of the female (ind. handbook 4:133).
770 Ptilolaemus tickelli austeni (Jerdon) (Asalu, Cachar Hills)
Assam Brownbacked Hornbill 4: 298
2 o ? (1 juv.*) North Cachar, Assam.
Wing 297*, 320; bill 107*, 136; tarsus 43*, 48; tail 247*, 272.
Both specimens are fragmentary.
771 Aceros nipalensis (Hodgson) (Nepal) Rufousnecked Hornbill
4 : 294
2:1* d71 (head only) lo?
1* Sangur, Darjeeling; 1 Aijal, Lushai Hills, Assam.
772 Rhyticeros undulatus ticehursti Deignan (Huai Oi, 14 km.
north of the Ban Pak Li, Nan Province, Thailand) Assam Wreathed
Hornbill 4 : 291 (part)
BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION— 15 343
3:3 tfc? (by plumage; 1* head only).
1 Aijal, Lushai Hills, 1* Dafla Hills, Assam; 1 no date.
cfcfWing 469, 505; bill 230, 245; tarsus 64, 66; tail 322.
9 * Wing 450; bill 202; tarsus 67; tail 306.
The female* which is all black except for the white tail was bor-
rowed from Bengal Natural History Society at Darjeeling.
The head* presumably of a young male, has only traces of corru-
gations at the side and at the top of the bill. The rich rufous on the
head is already present.
773 Rhyticeros (undulatus) narcondami (Hume) (Narcondam
Island) Narcondam Hornbill 4 :293
6:3 c? & 3 9 $ Narcondam Island.
In ind. handbook 4:137, the wing is required to be under 130
mm. This is doubtless in error, as also “100-199” for female bills,
from skull, on p. 139.
EL Rhyticeros plicata subruficollis (Blyth) (Tenasserim)
5 9 9 (4 by plumage; 1* juv. with no corrugations on top of bill).
1 Pegu; 1 Ataran, 1 Amherst; 1 Mergui; 1* no data (J. P. Cook).
Wing Bill Tarsus Tail
406, 430(2), 432 171, 180, 196(2) 52,54(2), 58 230, 253, 254
(420-445 196-205 55-59 252-270)
The adult birds show wavy lines corresponding to corrugations
at the base of the upper and lower mandibles, and are otherwise exact
miniatures of R. undulatus ticehursti. Narcondami are still smaller
and, without access to specimens of nominate plicata, it would appear
that all three are of the same species.
774 Anthracoceros malabaricus malabaricus (Gmelin) (Chander-
nagore) Indian Pied Hornbill 4 : 288
10 : 6 (1 juv.) 3 9 9 1 o ?
1 Kalisar, Jagadhri, Punjab; 1* Berbera, Puri Dt., Orissa; 4 Hazaria,
Patharghatta, Bihar; 1 Lenda Ghali, Nepal; 1 Bagho Bahar, Cachar,
1 Rangti, Lushai Hills, Assam; 1 Baronghola (col. J. A. 1876 = Bar-
angoli, Dacca?).
Wing
&& 295-316 av. 306
(m 249-315, once 336
9 9 290, 291, 305 *
(ih 280-301
Bill
158-164 av. 162
159-170
134, 140*, 141
136-146
Tarsus
57 62 av. 59
60-68
48, 52*, 54
c. 60
Tail
276-291 av. 285
259-318)
267,275,290*
259-290)
Sp. No. 18867 from Berbera is marked female, but has the bill
marked with a small black patch on the upper mandible and front
lower end of casque, as in the male, and the measurements are also
closer to that sex.
344 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (2)
In this species, the black central tail feathers are slightly longer
than the others but do not appear to project as far out as in corona -
tus.
The Lushai Hills would appear to be within the range of A. m.
leucogaster, but as the single specimen is a juvenile, it is not possible
to determine its adult size.
EL Anthracoeeros malabaricus leucogaster (Blyth) (Tenasserim)
Burmese Pied Hornbill
10: 5 o 9 (1 head only)
1 Kawya, 1 Singhaling Hkanti, 1 Sainnaing, E. Bank, Chindwin River,
1 Kani, Lower Chindwin; 1 Maymyo, 1 Kama, Theyetmyo, 2 Ngaphaw,
Prome Dist., 1 Sandoway, 1 Ataran, Burma.
Wing
c?c?270-292 av. 281.5
(262-290
$ 9 237, 254,265,276
Bill
141-153 av. 148.5
98-135
127(2), 138, 151
Tarsus Tail
56-58 240-272 av. 253
— c? 9 225-266 one 290)
47(2), 213,228,242,248
48,49
(245-286
92-122
m
775 Anthrococeros coronatus coronatus (Boddaert) (Malabar)
Malabar Pied Hornbill 4:286
10 : 5 (?■(? 5 9 9
1 Kansardey, 1 Fanasgaum (= Phanasgaum, Deogad), 1 Khawar, 2 Rat-
nagiri; 1 Supa Patha, N. Kanara; 1* Supkhar, Balaghat, 1* Chota Dongar,
1 Orcha, Bastar; 1 Demiria, Bund, Orissa.
The two specimens from Kansardey and Fanasgaum were collect-
ed by “J. A.” on 21 March 1875 and 16 March 1878. Several other
birds obtained by Dr./Mr. Amstrong in 1878 are from Ratnagiri, and
it may be assumed these were obtained by the same person in the
same district. Sp. 11414 collected by G. Vidal at Ratnagiri in 1878 is
in tatters, literally tied together with string! The bill has the shape and
the large patch of black on the casque as in coronatus, but the tail
feathers are tipped white as in malabaricus and is so marked by Salim
Ali. In view however of the possibility of the tail belonging to another
specimen, I am not extending the accepted range of malabaricus but
leaving this in coronatus!
Wing
d’c? 326-335 av. 331
(ih 315-342
9 9 297-305 av. 300
(ih 295-328
Bill
210-223
216-227
142*, 152*, 175
185,195
from gape 126-166
Tarsus
61-64 av. 62
c. 65
52-65 av. 57.5
c. 61
Tail
270-337 av. 308
295-335)
245,291,295,296
-)
The bills have been measured from the posterior of the casque.
The two females marked * have short casques without the pointed front
and also traces of black on the white outer tail feathers — on outer basal
portion in one, and on basal half of shaft in the other.
BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION— 15 345
In ind. handbook the bills of the males and females are measured
in separate ways.
776 Buceros bicornis homrai Hodgson (Nepal) Great Pied Horn-
bill 4 :284
12: 3 Q 5 9 o ? [4 ad., 3 juv. (1 head only), 2 chicks]
1 Paladhur, Mahad Tal., Kolaba Dist.; 1 Ratnagiri, 2 Goa Ghats; 1
Honavar, 1 Karwar, N. Kanara; 1 Sumasheri, Nepal; 1 Eastern Bhutan,
1 Ataran, Burma; 3 no data.
An adult female (Goa Ghats) and an immature bird with no data
show a large amount of brown on the neck. Various stages of the
growth of the bill are represented, but the absence of data regarding
sex etc. prevents any observations.
{to be continued )
A new species of Themed a
Forsk. from India
BY
Shrikant P. Birari
Botany Section, College of Agriculture, Poona-5
(With a plate )
According to Bor, (1960), grasses of Burma, ceylon, India
and Pakistan, eighteen species of the genus Themed a are found in
India, the rest being distributed in Australia, Ceylon, Burma, Pakistan,
Java, China, Indo-China, Indonesia and South Africa. A new species
of Themeda has been recently found in India and is described below.
Themeda dacruzii sp. nov. (Figs 1-5).
Themeda anatherae (Nees) Hack. Similis sed dilfert spiculis
involucralis glabris, 8 mm longis et Pedunculis 17-20 mm longis.
Allied to Themeda anathera (Nees) Hack, but differs with regard
to the glabrous involucral spikelets, which are 8 mm long and the
peduncles which are 17-20 mm in length.
A perennial grass; culms up to 120 to 130 cm, very slender,
completely glabrous and smooth, polished geniculately ascending,
branching at every node, branches erect; nodes-tumid and pruinose;
internodes solid, glabrous, polished and completely round; leaf blade
35-40 cm long, 0.4-0.6 cm wide, leaves linear acuminate, ciliated at
the base; ligule membranous or chartaceous, 0.2 cm long; sheath com-
pressed, smooth, glabrous and clasping on the culm halfway.
Panicle elongate, very narrow, occupying about half the culm
with sparse racemes of spikelets issuing from the spatheole which turns
brownish at maturity; racemes consisting of the usual four homoga-
mous involucral spikelets surrounding a sessile and pedicelled spikelet.
The involucral spikelets are in pairs and situated at different level,
involucral spikelets completely glabrous; peduncle 1.7 to 2.0 cm long,
capillary; raceme 1.6 to 2.0 cm long, oblong, imbricate, glabrous,
green, brownish, joints between the hermaphrodite spikelets 0.15 to
0.20 cm long.
Involucral spikelets 6-8 mm long, lower glume scabrous above,
7-9 nerved, upper glume boat shaped papery and 1 nerved, 6-8 mm
1 Accepted November 13, 1971.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 70 (2)
Birari: Themeda dacruzii
Plate
Fig. No. 1-5 — Themeda dacruzii sp. nov.
1) A drawing of a herbarium specimen.
2) Culm showing the papery ligule and small hairs at the base of sheath.
3) a. Showing the length of the raceme and penduncle.
3) b. A raceme showing the involucral and inner spikelets.
4) a4, b4, c4, d4, showing the glumes of involucral spikelet.
e4 their anthers with two lodicules.
5) Fig. a5, b5. c5, d5, glumes of the bisexual spikelets.
e5, shows the bifid stigmatic ovary with three anthers and two lodicules.
NEW SPECIES OF THEMEDA
347
long; lemma-hyalin^ and 7 mm long while palea 6 mm long; sessile
spikelet 6.5 to 7 mm long, linear, lanceolate; lower glume, acute, en-
tire, ciliated on the keel, distinct 7 nerved, 7 mm long; upper glume
lanceolate, acute, one nerved, smooth on the keel, margins hya-
line, 7 mm long. Upper floret bisexual, lemma lanceolate and ciliated
on the upper half and 5.5 mm long; palea very narrow, chartaceous,
4.5 mm long; pedicelled spikelets are as involucral spikelets. Stamens
3, anthers 2.5 mm long; pistil usually one and sometimes two in the
hermaphrodite spikelet. Stigma plumose, bifid; ovary superior; lodi-
cules two (Figs. 1-5).
Holotype collected on Mussoorie hill, 20 km from Dehra Dun,
U.P., India by the author on 17th December 1969 under the field No.
1-774 and deposited in the Herbarium of Professor of Agricultural
Botany and Specialist to Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth, College
of Agriculture, Poona-5. Two isotypes bearing the same number have
been deposited in Herbarium of the Botanical Survey of India, Wes-
tern Circle, Poona.
Etymology :
The species is named after Professor Rui D’Cruz, under whose
guidance, this work was carried out.
Ack no wledge m e n ts
I am grateful to Dr. R. D’Cruz, Professor of Botany and Specialist
to Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth, Poona-5 for his valuable guid-
ance and for providing facilities; to the Director, Royal Botanic Gar-
den, Kew for confirming the identification of the species; and to Rev.
Cecil J. Saldanha, S.J. for the Latin translation of the diagnostic
characters. The drawings were made by V. C. Deo of Maharashtra
Association for the Cultivation of Sciences, Poona-4. This research
was financed in part by a grant made by United States Department
of Agriculture, under P.L. 480 Research Project A7-CR-130.
Systematics of Molluscan wood
borers recorded from India
BY
L. N. Santhakumaran1 2
Introduction
Molluscan wood borers, because of the damage they cause to
marine wood construction, have attracted active attention of scientists
in most countries. In India appreciable work has been done on this
group of pests under the scheme for “Protection of Timber against
marine organisms’ attack” sponsored by the Wood Preservation Branch
of the Forest Research Institute and Colleges, Dehra Dun, and also
by other workers. As a result of this about 57 species of Teredinidae
and 4 species of Pholadidae have been recorded from various parts of
the Indian coast, and out of the above Teredinidae, 20 have been des-
cribed as new to science.
Turner (1959), while reviewing the problems inherent in the study
of the Teredinidae, emphasised the need for a catalogue of the family
and stated that “there are far more names available than there are
good species”. In a very valuable recent contribution. Turner (1966)
has carefully examined the type specimens of all the species described
under the Teredinidae and has suggested a new classification of the
family that has resulted in reducing the number of valid species from
over 600 to about 65. The reasons given by Turner for this drastic
rearrangement are as follows:
1. Many species have been described on the basis of shells only
or upon a few dried specimens or on a single specimen and
sometimes on a fragment of a pallet.
2. A number of new species have been introduced on the basis
of zoogeographic provinces little knowing that the Teredinids
are readily distributed by drift-wood and ships.
3. As the literature on the systematics of this group is scattered
and no illustrated work covering the whole family available,
different workers engaged in the study of local faunas created
numerous synonyms.
4. All the subgenera have been scrapped in the new classification,
as in most cases there are transitional species between them.
1 Accepted November 25, 1969.
2 Research Officer, Wood Preservation Centre, CIFE, Versova, Bombay.
MOLLUSCAN WOOD BORERS
349
5. Most of the work on shipworms has been done on the rest-
ricted basis of either a limited geographic area or a museum
collection. Hence “the percentage of synonyms created has
been directly proportional to the narrowness of outlook”.
The new classification of the Teredinidae, proposed by Turner,
thus appears justified and acceptable. Under this arrangement quite
a number of Teredinids described from India are reduced to synonyms.
In order to avoid confusion in future references to these “species” an
attempt is made in this paper to arrange all the species recorded from
India under Turner’s new classification. The genera and species are
arranged in alphabetical order and under each species the localities
from which it is recorded are given and against each locality the syn-
onyms by which it was reported together with the name of the author
and the year of publication.
Systematics and Distributional Records
phylum
CLASS
ORDER
FAMILY
SUBFAMILY
MOLLUSCA
PELECYPODA
EULAMELLIBRANCHIATA
TEREDINIDAE
TEREDININAE
Genus BACTRONOPHORUS Tapparone Canefri
1. Bactronophorus thoracites (Gould)
Bombay
Sunderbans
(West Bengal)
Teredo {Bactronophorus) thoracites Gould
(Palekar & Bal 1957; Palekar, Santha-
kumaran & Bal 1964).
Teredo {Bactronophorus) thoracites Gould
(Roonwal 1954, 1966).
Visakhapatnam T. {Bactronophorus) thoracites Gould
(Nagabhushanam 1955).
Genus DICY A TH1FER Iredale
2. Dicyathifer manni (Wright)
Bombay Teredo {Kuphus) manni (Wright) (Pal-
ekar, Santhakumaran & Bal 1964).
Cochin Teredo manni (Nair 1964), Teredo {Ku-
phus) manni Wright (Saraswati 1964).
T. {Kuphus) manni (Wright) (Palekar &
Bal 1957 a).
Karwar
350 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (2)
Madras
T. { Kuphus ) manni (Wright) (Daniel
1958).
T. manni (Nair 1964).
Pulicat lake
(Tamil Nadu)
Sunderbans
(West Bengal)
T. ( Kuphus ) manni (Wright) (Nair 1963).
T. ( Kuphus ) manni (Wright) (Roonwal
1966).
Visakhapatnam T. {T eredothyra) manni Wright (Naga-
bhushanam 1955).
Genus LYRODUS Gould
3. Lyrodus affinis (Deshayes)
Visakhapatnam Teredo { Lyrodus ) milleri Dali, Bartsch
& Rehder (Nagabhushanam 1960).
4. Lyrodus pedicellatus (Quatrefages)
Bombay
Cochin
Kayamkulam
(Kerala State)
Madras
Mylapore, Madras
Pamban, Rameswaram
(Tamil Nadu)
Tondi
(Tamil Nadu)
Adirampatnam
(Tamil Nadu)
T. ( Lyrodus ) malaccana Roch, T. ( Lyro-
dus) pedicellata Quatrefages (Palekar,
Santhakumaran & Bal 1964).
T. ( Teredops ) diegensis Bartsch, T. ( Tere -
dops ) samoaensis Miller (Erlanson
1936). T. malaccana (Nair 1964),
Teredo ( Lyrodus ) malaccana Roch
(Saraswati 1964).
T. ( Teredo ) madrasensis Nair (Nair 1954).
T. ( Teredo ) madrasensis Nair, T. ( Tere-
do) indica Nair (Nair 1956).
T. singaporeana Roch (Nair 1964).
T. {Teredo) madrasensis Nair (Nair 1954).
T. {Teredo) madrasensis Nair, T. {Lyro-
dus) malaccana Roch (Nair 1962).
T. {Teredo) indica Nair, T. {Teredo)
madrasensis Nair (Nair & Gurumani
1957a).
T. {Teredo) madrasensis Nair (Nair &
Gurumani 1957a).
MOLLUSCAN WOOD BORERS
351
Visakhapatnam
Visakhapatnam
Bombay
Cochin
Godavary estuary,
near Yanam
Madras
Visakhapatnam
Bombay
\
Cochin
Godavary estuary,
near Yanam
Kayamkulam
(Kerala State)
Madras
T. ( Teredops ) diegensis Bartsch, T. ( Tere -
dops) samoaensis Miller (Nagabhush-
anam 1955).
T. ( Coeloteredo ) singaporeana RocV, T.
{ Lyrodus ) malaccana. Roch (Nagabhush-
anam 1960).
Genus TEREDO Linnaeus
5. Teredo bartschi Clapp
T. ( Teredo ) bartschi Clapp (Nagabhush-
anam 1955).
6. Teredo clappi Bartsch
T. clappi Bartsch (Santhakumaran 1966).
T. renschi (Nair 1964), Teredo ( Coelo-
teredo) renschi Roch (Saraswati 1964).
T. {Zopoteredo) trulliformis Miller (Gana-
pati & Rao 1959).
T. ( Teredo ) renschi Roch (Daniel 1958).
T. ( Zopoteredo ) trulliformis Miller (Naga-
bhushanam 1955).
7. Teredo furcifera Von Martens
T. ( Teredo ) parksi Bartsch (Palekar, San-
thakumaran & Bal 1964).
T. furcifera (Nair 1964), Teredo ( Teredo )
furcifera Martens (Saraswati 1964).
T. ( Teredo ) furcillatus Miller (Ganapati &
Rao 1959).
T. {Teredo) furcillatus Miller (Nair 1955).
T. {Teredo) parksi madrasensis Nair
(Nair 1955).
T. {Teredo) furcifera Martens, T. {Tere-
do) parksi Bartsch, T. {Teredo) furcilla-
tus Miller (Nair 1956).
T. {Teredo) furcifera Martens (Daniel
1958).
352 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (2)
Genus TEREDORA Bartsch
10. Teredora princesae (Sivickis)
Genus TEREDOTHYRA Bartsch
11. Teredothyra excavata (Jeffreys)
Royapuram, Madras T. ( Teredothyra ) liniaris Nair (Nair 1955).
12. Teredothyra smithi (Bartsch)
MOLLUSCAN WOOD BORERS
353
Ramnad (Tamil Nadu) T. ( Nototeredo ) nambudalaiensis Nair &
Genus UPEROTUS Guettard
13. Uperotus clavus (Gmelin)
T. ( Uperotus ) clava Gmelin (Daniel 1958).
Ramnad (Tamil Nadu) T. ( Teredora ) vattanansis Nair and Guru-
mani (Nair & Gurumani 1957b).
Subfamily bankinae
Genus BANKIA Gray
14. Bankia bipalmulata (Lamarck)
Kovilam (20 miles B. ( Bankia ) bipalmulata (Lamarck) (Nair
15. Bankia bipennafa (Turton)
16. Bankia carinata (Gray)
Adirampatnam B. ( Bankiella ) indica Nair (Nair & Guru-
(Tamil Nadu) mani 1957a).
354 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (2)
MOLLUSCAN WOOD BORERS
355
Sajnakhali (West Bengal) B. ( Nausitora ) sajnakhaliensis Rajagopal
Genus NAUSITORA Wright
20. Nausitora dunlopei Wright
Hoogli River (Calcutta) Nausitora dunlopei Wright (Wright 1864).
Royapuram and B . ( Nausitora ) madrasensis Nair (Nair
Triplicane, Madras 1954, 1956).
Sajnakhali (West Bengal) B. ( Nausitora ) lanceolata Rajagopal (Ra-
jagopal 1964; Roonwal 1966).
356 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (2)
Madras B. ( Nausitora ) gabrieli Nair (Nair 1956).
Pulicat lake B. ( Nausitora ) hedleyi Schepman (Nair
(Tamil Nadu) 1963).
Genus NOTOTEREDO Bartsch
22. Nototeredo edax (Hedley)
Bombay
Godavary estuary,
near Yanam
Nototeredo edax Hedley (Santhakumaran
1971).
T. ( Dactyloteredo ) juttingae Roch (Gana-
pati & Rao 1959).
Tondi (Tamil Nadu) T. ( Psiloteredo ) tondiensis Nair and Guru-
mani (Nair & Gurumani 1956, 1957a).
Visakhapatnam T. ( Teredora ) thomsoni Tryon (Nagabhu-
shanam 1955).
T. ( Dactyloteredo ) juttingae Roch (Naga-
bhushanam 1960).
Family pholadidae
Subfamily martesiinae
Genus MARTESIA (Leach) Sowerby
SUBGENUS MARTESIA (LEACH) SOWERBY
Cochin
23. Martesia (Martesia) fragilis Verrill & Bush
Martesia fragilis (Nair 1964).
Madras
Porto Novo
(Tamil Nadu)
M. ( Martesia ) fragilis Verrill & Bush
(Daniel 1958; Daniel & Srinivasan 1956;
Srinivasan 1959).
M. ( Martesia ) fragilis Verrill & Bush
(Srinivasan 1959).
Bombay
Calcutta
Cochin
Kayamkulam
(Kerala State)
24. Martesia (Martesia) striata (Linnaeus)
(Palekar & Bal 1955).
(Annandale 1923).
(Erlanson 1936).
(Srinivasan 1959).
MOLLUSCAN WOOD BORERS
357
Krishna estuary
(Andhra Pradesh)
Krusadai Island
(Tamil Nadu)
Madras
Porto Novo
(Tamil Nadu)
Tuticorin (Tamil Nadu)
Visakhapatnam
(Rao, Murthy & Krishnakumaran 1957).
(Satyamurthy 1956).
(Daniel & Srinivasan 1956; Daniel 1958;
Srinivasan 1959).
(Srinivasan 1959).
(Srinivasan 1959).
M. ( Martesio ) striata Linnaeus, M. (Dip-
loplax) americana Bartsch (Nagabhush-
anam 1955).
Subfamily Xylophaginae
Genus XYLOPHAGA Turton
25. Xylophaga sp.
Mahanadi estuary, off Puri (Ganapati & Rao 1961).
(Orissa State)
Two more species of shipworms, namely Teredo ( Teredo ) elon-
gata Quatrefages and Teredo (Teredo) navalis Linnaeus, have also
been reported from Indian waters. Of these T. elongata , mentioned by
Becker (1958), is a nomen dubium. Similarly T. navalis recorded from
Visakhapatnam (Nagabhushanam 1955) is probably Teredo bartschi
Clapp and that recorded from the Madras coast (Nair 1955, Nair &
Gurumani 1957a) is probably Teredo furcifera Martens. (Turner, per-
sonal communication.)
Thus, although a survey of the literature on T eredinidae from the
Indian coasts shows the presence of about 57 species, only 22 of them
are actually valid in the light of the new classification put forward
by Turner (1966). She has redefined the genera on the basis of the
anatomical characters of the soft parts, and of the 14 teredinid genera
recognised by her, 10 are represented in Indian waters. Among the
various species of molluscan wood-borers, Lyrodus pedicellatus Quat-
refages, Dicyathifer manni (Wright), Teredo furcifera Martens, Bankia
campanellata Moll and Roch, Bankia rochi Moll, Bankia carinata
Gray and Martesia striata Linnaeus are the most destructive and wide-
ly distributed.
It is necessary to mention in this connection that there are vast
stretches of coast line which still remain unexplored and the richness
of the already recorded borer species indicates that a thorough survey
358 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (2)
all along the coast can reasonably be expected to bring to light several
manuscript and making the necessary corrections.
Acknowledgements
The above work was carried out at the Central Institute of Fish-
eries Education, Bombay, under the scheme on the “Protection of
Timber against the Attack of Marine Organisms” sponsored by the
Wood Preservation Branch of the Forest Research Institute & Colle-
ges, Dehra Dun. I wish to express my deep sense of gratitude to Shri
K. H. Alikunhi, Director & Research Guide (Central Institute of
Fisheries Education), for his guidance and valuable suggestions dur-
ing the preparation of this paper and to Dr. A. Purushotham, Director
of Biological Research, Forest Research Institute & Colleges, for his
constant encouragement. Grateful thanks are also due to Dr. (Miss)
Ruth D. Turner of the Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard
University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, for critically going through the
more species.
References
Annandale, N. (1923) : Bivalve
mollusks injuring brickwork in the
Calcutta docks. Jour. Asiatic Soc.
Bengal ( n.s .) 18 (10): 555.
Becker, G. (1958) : Report to the
Govt, of India on the protection of
wood against marine borers. F.A.O.
Rep. No. 795, Project IND/FO,
Rome.
Clapp, W. F. & Roman Kenk.
(1963) : Marine Borers, an annotat-
ed bibliography. Sponsored by office
of Naval Research Deptt. of the
Navy, Washington, D.C.
Clessin, S. (1893) : Die familie
Pholadea. In: Systematisches Con-
chylien-Cabinet Von Martini und
Chemnitz, ( 2nd ed.) band II, Abth.
4: 1-88.
Daniel, A. (1956) : A new wood
borer, Bankia ( Neobankia ) denti-
culoserrata, from Madras. J. Madras
Univ. b. 26(3) : 593-597.
(1958) : Notes on the
distribution and seasonal variations
of marine borers of the Madras
area. ibid. 28(2 & 3) : 115-127.
& Srinivasan, V. V.
(1956) : Occurrence of two wood
boring pholads at Madras. Curr. Sci.
( Bangalore ), 25 (2) : 59.
Erlanson, E. W. (1936) : A pre-
liminary survey of marine boring
organisms in Cochin harbour. Curr.
Sci. ( Bangalore ), 4(10) : 726-732.
Ganapati, P. N. & Rao, M. V. L.
(1959) : Incidence of marine borers
in the mangroves of the Godavary
estuary. Curr. Sci. ( Bangalore ), 28
(8) : 332.
& (1961) : The
marine wood borer, Xylophaga,
from Bay of Bengal. Curr. Sci.
( Bangalore ), 56(12): 464-465.
Gravely, F. H. (1941): Shells
and other animal remains found on
the Madras beach. 1. Groups other
than snails etc. (Mollusca, Gastro-
poda). Bull. Madras Govt. Mus.,
N.S. Nat. Hist. Sect. 5(1): 1-112.
MOLLUSCAN WOOD BORERS
359
Lamy, E. (1929) : Note sur la
collection conchyliologique d’Adan-
son. Jour, de Conchyliol. (Paris)
72(4) : 314-316.
Nagabhushanam, R. (1955) : A
systematic account of the molluscan
wood borers of Visakhapatnam har-
bour. Rec. Indian Mus. 53 (Parts
I & II) : 1-11.
(1960) : Notes on ship-
worms from Visakhapatnam harbour.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 57(2) :
362-370.
Nair, N. B. (1954) : Shipworms
from India. Part I. Report on ten
species of shipworms from Madras
coast. Rec. Indian Mus. 52 (Parts
II-IV) : 387-414.
(1955) : Shipworms from
India. Part II. Seven more ship-
worms from South India, ibid. 53
(Parts I & II) : 261-278.
(1955a) : On a new
species of shipworm of the sub-
genus Neobankia from Madras. J.
Madras Univ. B. 25(1) : 109-113.
(1956) : Destruction of
timber structures by shipworms in
Madras waters. J. Sci. lndustr. Res.,
15C(3) : 81-82.
(1957) : Shipworms of
South India with a note on the
breeding season of Bankia indica. J.
Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 54(2) : 344-
357.
(1961) : Some aspects of
the marine borer problem in India.
J. Sci. lndustr. Res. 20 A (10) : 584-
591.
(1962) : Incidence of
marine wood boring mollusks on
the South East Coast of India. Curr.
Sci. ( Bangalore ), 31(1 ) : 290.
• (1963): Shipworms of
the Pulicat lake. ibid. 32(5 ) : 215.
(1964) : Some observa-
tions on the problems of marine
timber destroying organisms of In-
dian coasts. Fishery Technology 1
(1) : 87-97.
Nair, N. B. & Gurumani, O. N
(1956) : A new shipworm from
Tondi. Curr. Sci. (Bangalore) 25
(11) : 361-362.
(1957) : Teredo (Noto-
teredo) nambudalaiensis, a new
shipworm from the Madras coast
of India. J. Wash. Acad. Sci., 47
(5) : 157-158.
(1957a) : Timber boring
mollusks of the Indian Coasts. 1.
Report on a collection from Tondi
and Adirampatnam, East Coast of
India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
54(3) : 663-673.
(1957b) : A new ship-
worm, Teredo (Teredora) vattanan-
sis from the east coast of India.
Ann. Mag. nat. Hist. 70(Ser. 12) :
174-176.
Palekar, V. C. & Bal, D. V.
(1955) : Marine organisms injuri-
ous to submerged timber in Bombay
harbour. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
53(2) : 201-204.
(1957) : Occurrence of
Bactronophorus thoracites (Gould),
a marine wood borer in Bombay.
Curr. Sci. (Bangalore) 26(9) : 359-
360.
(1957a) : Destruction of
timber by marine organisms in the
Karwar Port. J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. 54(4) : 962-964.
Palekar, V. C., Santhakumaran,
L. N. & Bal, D. V. (1964) : A
preliminary note on the Teredinidae
of Bombay coast. Journal of the
Timber Dryers’ and Preservers’ As-
sociation of India, 10(3) : 11-13.
Rajagopal (Aiengar), A. S.
(1961) : A new species of the
marine borer, Bankia (Neobankia)
roonwali ( Mollusca : Teredinidae)
from India. Sci. & Cult. 27(11) :
550.
(1964) : Two new species
of marine borers of the genus Nau-
sitora (Mollusca: Teredinidae) from
West Bengal, India. J. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. 67(1) : 108.
Rao, K. P., Murthy, V. S. R. &
Krishnakumaran, A. (1957): Occur-
rence of Martesia striata L. in com-
360 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (2)
pact clay in the Krishna Estuary re-
gion. Curr. Sci. ( Bangalore ) 26
(4) : 113.
Roonwal, M. L. (1954) : Bact-
ronophorus thoracites (Gould) as a
pest of living trees in the Sunder-
bans, Bengal. ( Mollusca , Tereclini-
dae). Curr. Sci. ( Bangalore ) 23(9):
301.
(1966) l Wood-boring
Teredinid shipvvorms ( Mollusca ) of
mangroves in the Sunderbans (West
Bengal) . Proceedings of the Dacca
Symposium on Scientific problems
of the Humid Tropical Zone Deltas
and their Implication, 1964 : 277-
283.
Santhakumaran, L. N. (1966) :
Further records of marine wood
borers ( Teredinidae : Mollusca)
from Bombay waters. J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 62(3) : 580-581.
(1971) : Two new re-
cords of marine wood-borers ( Mol-
lusca : Teredinidae ) from Bombay
waters. Curr. Sci. 40(8) : 199-200.
Saraswati, M. (1964) : Ship-
worms from the Cochin harbour,
South West Coast, India. /. Mar.
Biol. Assoc. India. 6(2) : 309-310.
SatYamurthy, S. T. (1956): The
Mollusca of Krusadai Island (in the
gulf of Mannar) II — Scaphopoda,
Pelecypoda and Cephalopoda. Bull.
Madras Govt. Mus. (N.S.), N.H.
Sect. 1(2) pt. 7: 1-202.
Srinivasan, V. V. (1959) : Two
species of wood boring pholads of
Madras. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci.
(Bangalore), 50 B : 105-111.
Turner, R. D. (1955) : The
family Pholadidae in the western
Atlantic and the eastern Pacific II.
Martesiinae, Jouannetiinae and Xy-
lophaginae. Johnsonia (Harvard
Univ.) 3(34) : 65-160.
(1959) : The status of
systematic work in the Teredinidae.
In Marine Boring and Fouling Or-
ganisms. Ed. by Dixy Lee Ray.
Univ. Washington Press.
(1966) : A survey and
illustrated catalogue of the Teredi-
nidae (Mollusca : Bivalvia). Pub-
lished by the Museum of Compara-
tive Zoology, Harvard University,
Cambridge, Mass.
Wright, E. P. (1864) : On a new
genus of Teredinidae. Trans. Lin-
nean Soc. London 24 : 451.
Reviews
1. THE ENVIRONMENTAL REVOLUTION, a guide for the
new masters of the world. By Max Nicholson, pp. 366 (22.5 x 15
cm) with 56 Black-and-White photographs. London, 1970. Hodder
and Stoughton Ltd.
Max Nicholson is one of the giants of the environment movement.
From his youngest days he was passionately interested in birds and
at a very early age he wrote in quick succession six books on different
aspects of birdlife. His penetrating mind soon acquired a synoptic
view of nature and he recognized the vital connection between all
forms of life including man to the environment around it. Being also
deeply immersed in sociology and economics he could take a rounded
view of the role of the conservationist and as the founder director of
the Nature Conservancy in England he moulded the institution to
serve the best needs of the country. ‘It is pointless to express aspira-
tions he says ‘without being able to show that the task is administra-
tively practicable and politically sustainable’. Being confident of the
role of conservationist and being in a position to demonstrate so ably
the value of good land use practices for economic progress he is, in
spite of being the keenest of naturalist, able to enter into a meaning-
ful dialogue with the administrator. The global view of this book and
the wealth of references provided makes it an education by itself.
One of the ecological challenges of our country is to persuade
the administrator that wetlands and forests are not luxuries to be
drained or hacked down but that these are in fact invaluable assets
which should be conserved. In the chapter on the Earth and its Living
Pattern, the author cites the case which shows how agriculturists
benefit if the ecology of neighbouring lands is not disrupted. For many
years the agricultural interests in Huntingdonshire were opposed to the
maintenance of a peat bog and the ‘sterilisation’ of much valuable
land. It took them a long time to realize that the vast sponge of peat
soaked up huge quantities of flood water which would otherwise fre-
quently inundate much farmland. ‘Although normal rainfall in this
area is lower than almost anywhere in England it is liable to severe
sudden downpours, which in 1968 caused deep flooding of nearby
villages in early July and again in August. This is one of the most
efficiently and scientifically farmed areas in Europe and it is a reveal-
ing commentary on the limited environmental understanding of agri-
cultural authorities and of farmers that even in such circumstances
it should have needed the chance presence of a nature reserve to prove
such an elementary point.’
362 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (2)
We have a long way to go to understand living processes of the
earth and this book stimulates us to ask the right question about the
manner in which the natural ecosystems of our country should be made
to fuse with the technosphere which is shaping so rapidly around us*
Z.F.
2. A FIELD GUIDE TO THE SNAKES OF SOUTHERN
AFRICA. By V. F. M. Fitzsimons, pp. 221 (13 x 20 cm), with 32
plates including 12 in colour. London, 1970. Collins. Price £2-10 net.
This book deals with 138 species and subspecies of snakes, of
which 70 are endemic.
The introduction of 22 pages covers a comprehensive survey of
their origin and classification, external covering, shapes and sizes,
colours and markings, habitat and distribution, food, reproduction,
hibernation, senses, locomotion, longevity etc., etc. Each aspect though
sometimes only a paragraph, is comprehensively dealt with and re-
flects the wide experience of the author, both in the field and in the
museum.
The key to identification is based entirely on colour and consider-
ing that several species in India show widely differing colour phases,
one is a little hesitant to accept it. However, the main text in which
the species are listed one by one, refers to the scalation and this to-
gether with the occasional figures and many illustrations no doubt
ensures correct identification.
As in India, the multitude of snakes, including large and poison-
ous species, has left their mark on the culture and beliefs of the local
people and there is an interesting list of fallacious beliefs, many of
which are similar to those prevalent in India.
Opposite the title page, it is stated that the Peterson Identifica-
tion System is used and that arrows indicate the most important field
marks. No arrows are visible in any of the illustrations in this book;
presumably the remark applies to other books in the series.
This is an excellent contribution to a useful series of field guides*
It is unfortunate that with all the materials available in our country,
no attempt has yet been made to produce a similar book for our
snakes, lizards and frogs.
H.A.
3. PROTEACEAE. Botanical monograph no. 6. By C. Venkata
Rao. pp. vx + 208 (23.5 x 15.5 cm) with 9 plates, 75 figures. New Delhi,
REVIEWS
363
1971. Council of Scientific and Industrial Research. Price Rs. 34.00,
$h. 68/-, $ 11.00.
This monograph keeps to the good tradition of these published
by the CSIR, New Delhi. The forwarding note by H. Newton Barber
recalls the author’s visit to Tasmania under the Colombo Plan, when
he was introduced to the Australian Proteaceae. Since then Venkata
Rao continued his studies of the morphology, cytology and taxonomy
of the group. The studies have culminated in the preparation of this
monograph which came out of the press only a few days after the
author’s death.
Chapter i gives the distribution and economic importance of the
family Proteacea. Chapter ii discusses the piorphology of the vegetative
and reproductive parts of the plants. Chapter iii discusses the anatomy
of the leaf, flower and fruit in the family. Chapters iv and v give an
account of the development of endosperm, embryo and seed. Chapter
vi gives cytological data and classification of the family based on various
criteria. The last chapter gives the fossil history and discusses the evolu-
tionary trends. An extensive bibliography and index are appended at
the end.
As a result of his detailed studies the author concluded that the
nectary is only an enation and therefore the flower is primitively mono-
chlamydeous. The book gives a new classification of the Proteaceae
(mainly based on Brown’s) and gives a good historical review of the
classification. The origin and spread of Proteaceae is discussed in
detail and various views on evolutionary trends are presented in a lucid
manner. Similar monographs on groups of plants well-represented in
India would be most welcome to the students of botany in India. The
production standard of the book is very good.
P.V.B.
4. RESEARCHES ON LIVING PTERIDOPHYTES IN INDIA,
BURMA AND CEYLON. By N. P. Chowdhury. pp. viii + 80 (14 x
21.5 cm) with 5 plates. Bombay, 1971. Asia publishing house. Price
Rs. 22.00.
Dr. N. P. Chowdhury, senior lecturer at the University of Delhi,
has attempted to present a brief but comprehensive survey of pteri-
dological studies in India, Burma and Ceylon. According to the author,
this book is compiled to help the postgraduate and research level
studies, and it highlights the contributions on the subject upto 1968.
This 80 page book contains 20 pages of bibliography enlisting 344
references including 98 from the proceedings of Indian Science Con-
364 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (2)
gress some of which may not be regarded as scientific publications. It
contains 6 pages of index of names. The 50 page review of researches
is treated under 16 families of pteridophytes including 6 subfamilies
of Polypodiaceae. The author seems to follow Christenson’s classifi-
cation.
This book is an improved production of the Progress of Science
in India — VI. botany (Pteridology) by the author and P. N. Mehra,
1959.
In the absence of any other comprehensive review on the subject,
this publication should find a place in the libraries. The price of the
book may deter many research workers in India to acquire personal
copies.
P.V.B.
5. NGORONGORO — THE EIGHTH WONDER. By Henry Fos-
brooke. A Survival Special on African Wildlife (ed. Colin Willcock).
pp. 240 (21 x 15.5 cm) with 15 coloured, 12 black-and-white photo-
graphs, 7 figs., 6 tables, end-paper maps. London, 1972. Andre
Deutsch. Price £3.95.
Among the enviable repletion of National Parks and Game Re-
serves that E. Africa possesses the Ngorongoro Crater in Tanzania is
certainly unique and may justly be regarded as one of the wonders
of the world. It is a vast caldera or explosion-crater, 9 miles across and
102 square miles in area, encircled by a mountain wall 2000 ft or more
in height. The crater floor itself, 5000 ft above sea level, is for the most
part a great expanse of grassy plain alternating with acacia woodland,
swamps and lakes and occasional outcrop hills. The crater teems with
almost every form of wildlife including a large variety of birds, and
is in effect an epitome of the country around the rim — the highlands
rising from the Serengeti plain — now known as the Ngorongoro Crater
Conservation Area. When the animals first entered the Crater is not
known, but most of them are permanent residents there. The steep
crater wall, though not an insuperable barrier, offers little temptation
to the animals inside to climb out, or the animals outside to descend,
life conditions and security being equally suitable in both places.
The author, Henry Fosbrooke, was Conservator of the Ngoron-
goro Conservation Area for a number of years prior to the political
changes in E. Africa. It is apparent that he was deeply interested in
the welfare of the human population as well as the country’s rich heri-
tage of wildlife. As such, he could take a balanced view of the com-
promises essential for making the best use of the land from the fores-
REVIEWS
365
try, tourism and sociological standpoints. Formerly the Crater formed
part of the Serengeti National Park. It, and a considerable surround-
ing area — The Ngorongoro Conservation Unit — was excised in 1959
in order to conserve its natural resources while at the same time safe-
guarding the interests of the indigenous Masai, a pastoral people who
were long settled there with their herds of cattle. The author was always
opposed to the entire removal of the Masai from the Crater, against
the suggestion of ‘experts’. It is now realized that their cooperation
has been the most effective way of preserving the Black rhino whose
population had become seriously depleted by commercial poaching.
Generous rewards for informers and heavy fines and imprisonment
for poachers, in addition, produced the desired results. From a mere
19 in 1958 the number of rhinos in the Crater had increased to 109 by
1966, i.e. just over one beast per sq. mile.
From tested practical experience, Fosbrooke puts forward many
wise observations and suggestions which are of direct relevance to
our own efforts to develop National Parks, Wildlife Sanctuaries and
promote wildlife tourism in India. Many of the problems are the same
in both countries, or differ only in degree, therefore what he has to
say is well worth a careful study by those responsible here.
In spite of its heavy stock of Masai cattle and of large wild herbi-
vores, erosion is not a serious problem in the area as yet, but its man-
made acceleration as a result of rapidly expanding tourism must be
vigilantly guarded against. To restore the ravages of uncontrolled fires
and to ensure an adequate supply of domestic fuel — even for beautify-
ing the surroundings of tourist lodges etc. — the author justifies the
planting of indigenous trees in specially demarcated parts of wildlife
and wilderness areas, but is strongly critical of exotics such as Euca-
lyptus and Araucaria. (Indian forests and tourism planners N.B.!).
Descriptions of the large animals of the Crater that follow, the
carnivores and the herbivores — predator and prey — with their inter-
actions among themselves and with the biotope as a whole make fas-
cinating reading. Giraffe and impala are curiously about the only two
absentees from the Crater though common enough in the surrounding
area above the rim. Absence of the former may be accountable by
the absence or paucity of acacia trees, its staple food, but the case of
impala is less easy to explain. The total absence of fish in the Crater
is another unexplained anomaly.
The Spotted Hyaena is apparently not the scavenger it is popular-
ly believed to be. It is lauded as a predator and effective check on the
over-increase of wildebeeste, of which the population in the Crater
alone was given as 10,438 in the 1966 census. (Wildebeeste blackening
the plains with their bewildering numbers, especially on migration, is
without doubt one of the most impressive sights for the safari tourist
366 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (2)
in East Africa). These hyaenas are known to attack man when food is
scarce. It will be recalled that there were frequent reports of the same
thing also happening in India a few years ago when large-scale jungle
clearing for mechanised farming was in progress in the U.P. tarai. The
Cheetah’s chasing speed, given in books and commonly credited as
60 to 70 mph has been greatly exaggerated according to the author.
The proven speed is about 45 mph — which is fast but not phenomenal.
The latter parts of the book deal largely with matters anthropo-
logical— the past and present history of man in the Conservation area:
the romantic discovery of remains of ancestral man one million seven-
hundred and fifty thousand years old and up to relatively recent times
in the Olduvai Gorge (outside the actual Crater), made famous by the
excavations of Dr. and Mrs. Leakey. The remains of gigantic sheep-
like beasts with a horn-spread of over 6 feet which co-existed with
early man throw light also on the topography and fauna of the region
in prehistoric times. Present-day tribal man — the various tribes and
sub-tribes inhabiting the area and the impact of their cattle-keeping
customs upon the gazing resources of wildlife are some of the topics
discussed. Various suggestions are made of how the viability of the
environment could be maintained by a system of migration or ‘trans-
humance’ as practiced in Norway, Switzerland and elsewhere, of mov-
ing up and down mountains with the snow line and lush conditions,
as the only feasible method for finding sufficient grazing for the herds.
A permanent home and a seasonal one for the cattle owners could
thereby be established. The vicissitudes and history of the Crater since
the first European colonization in the last decade of the 19th century
— the growing expansion of tourism in recent years, the building of
roads and lodges, the increase of motor traffic and the problems of
maintaining a balance between the conflicting demands of tourism and
nature conservation — hold much of relevance for our own as well as
other wildlife tourism-developing countries.
The last chapter poses the question ‘Can Ngorongoro survive?’
and answers that since zoologically the Crater is a part of a larger
ecosystem, it can survive only if the entire surrounding highland forest
— on which it is dependent for its water resources — is conserved by
wise optimum multiple land use — agriculture, forestry, wildlife, tourism
— involving a judicious compromise between compatible and incom-
patible factors and complete elimination of those that are entirely
incompatable. The Crater cannot exist in isolation ‘as a glorified Whip-
snade’; it is essential for it to be able to draw reinforcements of animals
from the reservoir of the surrounding highlands and Serengeti National
Park.
Suggestions are mooted for developing these surrounding areas to
meet the various conflicting pressures. The conclusion is that Econo-
REVIEWS
367
mics of expanding tourism offer the best chances for the Crater’s sur-
vival. With the development of lodge facilities the number of tourists
is increasing by leaps and bounds every year: from about 6000 in 1961,
the Crater attracted over 70,000 in 1970!
A postscript reviews the situation during the 2\ years since the
author left the Ngorongoro Conservation Area. It ends on an optimis-
tic note: the prospect of survival is bright if present beneficent trends
in policy and administration continue.
Ecologists and conservationists alike — not to mention safari tour-
ists and intending visitors to E. Africa — will find this comprehensive
account of the World’s unique 8th Wonder of absorbing interest. Many
of the author’s observations on conservation vis-a-vis wildlife tourism
problems are equally applicable to Indian conditions today, and our
planners should find them of much practical import.
S.A.
6. POLLUTION: economy and environment. By Peter A.
Victor, pp. 247 (22 x 14 cm) with 48 tables. London, 1972. George
Allen & Unwin Ltd. Price £5.85.
For centuries man has used natural resources, the land surface,
air, water etc. without paying for them. The resources of nature were
so vast that they appeared to be inexhaustible. With the advance of
technological civilization, human population and its encroachment on
the environment, increased by leaps and bounds. There was not only
less of the earth left in its natural state, but the demands of the grow-
ing human population on the resources that remained also increased.
At the same time, the dumping of human wastes and the end products
of technological processes which could not be easily assimilated into
the natural cycle of events, increased apace. As a result, we have been
depleting our environment and have begun to realise that replenish-
ment of these resources is essential if our civilization is to survive. For
instance it has been estimated that the United States of America con-
sumes annually 40 per cent more oxygen than its trees and forests are
able to produce. At some stage means must be found to make good
this deficit. The conversion of wastes into material fit for natural pro-
cesses is complicated and expensive and, in many instances the tech-
nology for such conversion has yet to be developed. What then shall we
do? The logical solution, to have no further industry until methods
are found to reverse this resource drain, is manifestly impossible both
economically and psychologically. But we can adopt a more rational
approach to individual industries and processes if we can evaluate the
i
368 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (2)
degree of damage, both in terms of actual use of natural resources and
in polluting or damaging the environment in ways which harm the
community and future generations. This is the province of the economist.
In traditional economic practice, the cost of a product is calculat-
ed on the basis of raw materials and services paid for, while natural
resources are considered as externalities which do not contribute to
the cost. Economists have been considering, in recent times, evaluation
of the raw materials from natural resources, as well as of the cost to
the community due to dumping of wastes and pollution, since these
must ultimately be “made good” if the community has to survive. The
example of water is easily understood. If an industry uses 1000 gallons
of fresh water for its processes, and discharges it in polluted form,
the cost of this water, at standard rates (even where it is actually ob-
tained free from a natural source) and the cost of purifying the pollut-
ed waste so that it can be reintroduced into natural water sources with-
out harm, can both be legitimately considered part of the manufactur-
ing cost. Similar calculations can be made for other natural resources
though it may involve a number of presumptions and approximations
which may need considerable revision in time. Utilizing such approxi-
mations, economists are attempting to derive formulae and equations
for input output calculations which would give the true cost to the
community of any industrial product or service industry. The mathe-
matical formulae proposed by various authors are discussed and the
author gives further modifications of his own to obtain a more realistic
assessment. The mathematical discussion, involving the use of matrices
and set theory, form the greater part of the book and are beyond the
competence of this reviewer to discuss. However, the basic argument
is clear that a true costing taking account of ecological considerations
in input output calculations, is necessary for every industrial activity,
and that when the true costs are estimated, it would be possible by
fiscal measures and price adjustment, to encourage the less harmful,
in environmental terms, alternatives, and to encourage expense on
measures to repair the damage to the environment. Further, it maybe
possible to calculate in advance, the true cost of any new technique
or modified process which is proposed, to enable us to decide whether
it is worth while. As an example, he gives the calculation of relative
costs of transportation by private cars and by public vehicles to show
the high cost of the former and to suggest measures which could en-
courage a change over to greater use of the latter.
The success of such calculations would naturally depend on the
accuracy of the data available for each industrial process. The author
has given tables derived from data collected by the Dominion Bureau
of Standards of Canada on the use of natural resources by industry
and the wastes and effluents produced. The industries are classified
REVIEWS
369
into 40 groups, which makes interpretation in matters of detailed
comparison sometimes inexact. However, with increasing studies of
this nature the collection and tabulation of data will doubtless become
more detailed an accurate.
This book is written for the economist, not for the naturalist. How-
ever, the type of study attempted is important for every person interest-
ed in conservation of nature, since it attempts to impress, in quanti-
tative terms, the ideas which all conservationists desire to impress upon
the community.
A.N.D.N.
7. THE FASCINATION OF REPTILES. By Maurice Richardson,
pp. 240 (24 x 16.5 cm) with 8 coloured plates, 33 drawings in text.
London, 1972. Andre Deutsch. Price £3.25.
Maurice Richardson is not just a herpetologist but an engaging
writer with a passionate interest going back to childhood, in reptiles
of all kinds. His knowledge of reptilia is not just scientific; it is erudite
and literary with more than a touch of whimsy to it.
In an earlier autobiographical volume of prep school memories
Little Victims, Richardson writes how his passion for reptiles and
amphibians was at its height when he was barely six. His favourite
reading then was the volume on Reptiles in the Rev. J. G. Wood’s
natural history and he describes the lizards, crested newts, adders
and slow-worms that he caught with great delight and dexterity.
the fascination of reptiles is not another routine book that
lists uncommon snakes and lizards. While it does not pretend to equal
classics like Ditmars reptiles of the world or Richardson’s own
childhood mentor’s natural history, it is immensely readable and
casts its spell on you from the very first paragraph. Richardson more
than dazzles you with his knowledge of reptiles — mostly from personal
observation — with notes on the idiosyncracies or peculiarities of indi-
vidual species: he spices his book with anecdotes and asides and his
own lively comments.
The structure of the book is uniquely Richardson’s. He explains
the classification and evolution of reptiles in a manner simple and in-
teresting enough to wholly engage the attention of even a non-scientific
reader. After this he branches into the different orders, devoting a
chapter to the chamaeleon (his most favourite of all reptiles) and
splitting the sub-order serpentes into pythons and boas, elapidae and
viperidae.
Despite his preoccupation with the green mamba he is quite gener-
ous toward pythons and anacondas. The royal python of West Africa
370 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (2)
is ‘a dear little python with a most gentle disposition and genuinely
pleasing personality’. This is rivalled only by the Indian rock python,
the lighter coloured subspecies of which he describes as the possessor
of a ‘charming, friendly disposition’ and recommends highly as a pet
for playtime or show business. A sequel to this is the rather hair-raising
account of Miss Ongawa, a Japanese cabaret artiste who includes an
act with a live snake in her bag of tricks. ‘She inserts the head of a
living snake into her mouth and guides it so that the head emerges
through one of her nostrils Miss Ongawa then proceeds to eat
the snake alive’. I was sorry to observe that Richardson had failed to
mention — or observe? — the species of this particular snake.
Apart from these delectable asides, Richardson gives you a great
deal of scientific information and observation. On the courtship and
mating habits of the sand-lizard, for instance, or the ability of the
crested lizard of the Nevada deserts to endure temperatures of 115°F
(the body cavity is lined with black which may help to protect it from
ultra-violet rays). It is a pity that parts of the book, particularly the
chapters on elapidae and vipers, get a bit breathless as there is so much
information crammed into them.
The range of Richardson’s knowledge and herpetological lore is
impressive and he easily demolishes accounts of snakes that all of us
have read, pointing out ‘the herpetological howlers’ committed by
Kipling or the inaccuracies in Conan Doyle’s the speckled band. He
pays warm tribute to eminent herpetologists like Dr. Schmidt of the
Chicago Natural History Museum, the Belgian, Dr. Rollinat and Con-
stantine Ionides the naturalist and snake catcher to whom there are
frequent references.
The book is illustrated with line drawings and colour plates by
Shaun Milne. An unexpected and quite delightful bonus is the antho-
logy of reptilian belles-letters which ends the book with a fine flourish.
The poems and extracts here start way back with Virgil and Ovid
(shades of Richardson’s prep school days — were these in part respon-
sible for his interest?) and go through D. H. Lawrence (his Baby
Tortoise is wonderfully evocative as anyone who has possessed one will
confirm), Collette and Desmond Morris.
An exhilarating book. If, like me, you have an unreasonable dis-
like of reptiles — left over from a nursery horror of creepy-crawlies? —
Maurice Richardson’s book will certainly arouse your interest in this
class of vertebrates. That is, if he fails to win you over completely.
NEELA D’SOUZA
8. THE OXFORD BOOK OF BIRDS. Pocket Edition. By Bruce
Campbell. Illustrations by Donald Watson, pp. 207 (15.5 x 11.5 cm).
REVIEWS
371
including 94 colour plates. London, 1972. Oxford University Press.
Price £ 1.35 in U.K.
This is a revised pocket edition of a book published in 1964.
The 94 colour plates, each with several species in their varying
plumages, illustrate most of the birds likely to be met with, while all
the 468 species recorded from the British Isles are referred to in the
text.
Curiously, the title gives no indication of the area dealt with. The
reduction in size has the colours slightly darker than in the first edition,
but the pictures are excellent. One wonders when such a pocket book
will be available for India.
H.A.
9. THE WEALTH OF INDIA: A Dictionary of Indian Raw
Materials and Industrial Products. Raw Materials — Vol. IX; Rh to So;
pp. xxxviii + 472 + xiv (27.5 x 21.5 cm), with 7 plates and 144
text-figures. New Delhi, 1972. Council of Scientific & Industrial Re-
search. (Price not shown).
It is gratifying to note that the ninth volume of this series, to be
completed in ten volumes, has been issued after an interval of about
three years since the publication of the previous volume in 1969. It is
hoped that the tenth volume of this outstanding work of reference will
be published without delay, which is not uncommon these days in im-
portant publication activities and that on completion of this monumental
task a revision will be undertaken as soon as possible.
This volume which maintains the high standard associated with the
series contains the largest number of entries so far: 500 relating to
plants and 5 each relating to minerals and animals including animal
products. The important topics covered include: Ricinus (Castor),
Road Metal, Rose (including garden roses), Saccharum (sugarcane).
Salt, Santalum (sandal), Semecarpus (marking nut), Sesamum (ses-
ame), Silk and silk-worms, Sillimanite, Solarium (brinjal) and Sorghum
(jowar).
The articles are useful to laymen as well as scientists and have
been compiled after a great deal of study and investigation, a number
being based on contributions from specialists. Every effort has been
made to present precise and comprehensive information. A notable
feature of this alphabetical dictionary is the index which gives with
common English names, the names in Indian languages, in addition
to regional and trade names. The index contains some three thousand
entries and the arrangement will be appreciated by readers. This volume
372 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (2)
has been printed in 10/11 point type, compared to 11/12 of the pre-
vious volume, but as glossy paper has been used and the work is well
printed, the change has not affected the readability.
There appears to be an omission on p. 99 where the Marathi
name of sugarcane has not been listed.
Miscellaneous Notes
1. DHOLE OR INDIAN WILD DOG ( CUON ALPINUS)
MATING
On 10 September 1972 between 06.45 and 07.40 hours I had a
pack of dhole under observation from a ground hide on the western
bank of the Sigur river in the lower plateau of the Nilgiris not far from
the Mudumalai Sanctuary. I counted 12 dhole of which 5 were sub-
adults. The subadults (9 to 11 months old cubs) were playing in the
water with, what I afterwards discovered to be, the putrid remains of
a langur. Some of the adults were resting on the dry half of the river
bed and the others were lolling, occasionally sniffing the genitals of
each other.
One of the dhole, a dog, grew suspicious and ran down the river
bed towards me until it was opposite my hide, only the water spread
of about 10 metres separating us. It barked or rather yapped in my
direction. As I did not give myself away it went back to the main
group which was some 50 to 60 metres away. Soon the same dog, along
with two companions returned to make further investigations. While
it and another dhole stopped in the low undergrowth on the opposite
bank about 30 to 35 metres away, the third dhole with a large growth
on its chin ran forward and stopped on the slope about 25 metres
away. All three sat looking in my direction, more curious than suspi-
cious.
It soon became apparent that the dog’s companion on the bank
was a bitch, as the dog after smelling her genitals tried to mount her.
Twice the bitch repulsed the dog’s advances by sitting tight and snarl-
ing. The third time the dog succeeded. The copulation took place in
a crouching position, more in the manner of lions and tigers than dogs
which stand on all fours.
At the moment of copulation the bitch whimpered, sounding like
a juvenile begging for favour. This attracted half the pack. As half
a dozen dhole rushed towards the pair, I apprehended an attack. In-
stead, some actually crawled up to the pair in a submissive manner,
wagging their tails and whimpering. The adults circled the pair and
went away. But two subadults (probably the cubs of the bitch) remain-
ed in the vicinity a while longer.
The copulating pair were tied together, dog fashion. But unlike
dogs they did not stand back to back nor were they engaged in a tug-
of-war. But they lay flat on their sides, their bodies forming a semi-
circle and facing each other. They spent the 7 minutes they remained
374 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (2)
tied occasionally struggling to get up. On one occasion they nuzzled
each other at the corners of the mouth, as dhole cubs do when beg-
ging for food.
The moment they got untied, the male moved away yelping.
This again attracted the pack. Five dhole, two adults and three sub-
adults surrounded the bitch. One of the adults smelt her genitals before
moving away. But the subadults showed greater interest and smelt her
all over and one licked her as she lay on the ground.
The male was not the biggest dog in the pack and it was
not one of those which had shown interest in the females earlier. When
the pairing took place the pack was all around thus disproving the
popular theory that pairing dhole strike out on their own. In a well
knit pack, breeding would appear to interest the whole pack and ceases
to be the private affair of a pair.
The dhole bitch with an unmistakable growth on her chin pro-
mises to make identification of the pack simple and further obser-
vations interesting.
“Canowie” E. R. C. DAVIDAR
COONOOR-I,
Nilgiris,
October 30, 1972.
2. ON THE DOMESTICATION OF THE OTTER BY
FISHERMEN IN BANGLADESH
The use of cormorants for fishing is well known. Apparently, in
certain areas of Bangladesh (Jessore District), certain tribes of
fishermen have an age-old tradition of domesticating otters for catch-
ing fish. This note is based on the enquiries made by the author during
two visits to Bangladesh in 1972. As trained animals may be sold
at a price of Rs. 800 1- or more the advantages in fishing with them
must be quite considerable.
The trained otters begin to bark at about 4 a.m. which is the
fishermen’s time for fishing.
The fishermen carry the otters with them in their boats to the
fishing grounds. Once the nets are set in the water, the otters are
released and they herd the fish into the net. The otters also catch large
fishes sometimes weighing more than the otter. These big fish the
otters bring to the boat, for the fishermen to collect. Small fish arc
consumed by the otters during the hunt.
J/146, Paharpur Road, R. N. BISWAS
Garden Reach,
Calcutta - 24,
January 29, 1973.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
375
3. A NOTE ON THE BIRTH OF A MALAYAN GIANT
SQUIRREL ( RATUFA BICOLOR) IN CAPTIVITY
A female Malayan Giant Squirrel ( Ratufa bicolor ), living with
a male of the same species since 17 June, 1971 at Nandankanan Biolo-
gical Park, Orissa gave birth to a female young on 15 July 1972 in one
of the wooden boxes kept inside the squirrel cage.
At birth the young weighed 77 gm and measured 29.5 cm in-
cluding the 12.5 cm long tail. The upper parts of the body coat were
black whereas the under parts were light brown. The eyes were closed
at birth and opened on the 22nd day (5 Aug. ’72). At the age of
two weeks the young was fully haired and the brown colour of the
underparts gradually turned to white. The mother used to collect
leaves and small branches from a plant inside the cage and keep in-
side the wooden box probably to use as bedding material or to con-
ceal the baby. The mother carried the young by her teeth till the young
was 8 weeks old while she jumped from one box to another. The baby
was lifted by holding a fold of skin at the back with the teeth, or lift-
ed the young by holding the base of one of the hind limbs. At times
the young one used to make the typical giant squirrel call, immediately
drawing the attention of the mother. The young was once seen taking
banana for the first time at the age of five weeks and was able to come
out and get into the wooden box kept at a height of about 90 cm from
the ground on a wooden post at the age of eight weeks. It measured
59 cm from nose tip to tip of tail and weighed 445 gm at the age of
two months.
Nandankanan Biological Park, L. N. ACHARJYO
P.O. Barang, Cuttack Dt.
Wildlife Conservation Officer, R. MISRA
Orissa, Old Secretariate Buildings,
Cuttack - 1,
November 28, 1972.
4. A WHITE INDIAN GERBIL, TAT ERA INDICA INDICA
HARDWICKE
A pregnant female Indian Gerbil, collected from natural
pastures in Jodhpur, delivered a litter of four in the laboratory. One
of the offsprings, a female, was much paler than the rest. When pelage
developed, it bore pure white hair over the entire body including the
tassel at the tip of the tail, the eyelashes and hair on the plantar sur-
376 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 70 (2)
face. The exposed skin was devoid of pigmentation and was trans-
luscent white. But the iris was black unlike in albinos.
As the young ones started growing, the white female was slower
in movements and less aggressive. Its reaction to external stimulus
also was rather slow. It always kept its eyelids half closed. Its growth
rate was, however, similar to others in the litter. When it weighed
100 gm, one of the males was released in its cage for mating. The
female died at the age of 201 days without breeding, and its vagina
was imperforate. Autopsy results showed that all its internal organs
were normally developed.
Romer (1949), Harrison (1950), Harrison and Lim (1951), Gib-
son-Hill (1950), Joshee & Kamath (1963) and Rajgopal & Mandal
(1965) have reported and reviewed the observations on the occurrence
of ‘albinism’ among commensal rodents. Most of these reports pertain
to the genus Rattus and one to Bandicota bengalensis.
Central Arid Zone Research Institute, ISHWAR PRAKASH
Jodhpur, A. P. JAIN
October 20, 1972. B. D, RANA
References
Gibson-Hill, C. A. (1950): Feral
albino and piebald rats. J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 49(2) :298.
Harrison, J. L. (1950) : The oc-
currence of albino and melanic rats,
ibid. 49(3) : 548-459.
& Lim, B. L. (1951): Al-
binism in Rattus cremoriventer
(Miller), ibid. 49(4) :780-782.
Joshee, A. K. & Kamath, K. M.
(1963) : A piebald Rattus norvegi-
cus (Berkenhout) from Bombay,
ibid. 66:449-451.
Rajagopal, A. S. & Mandal, A. M.
(1965) : Partial albinism in white
bellied rat, Rattus niviventer Hodg-
son, from Khasi hills, ibid. 62(1) :
299-300.
Romer, J. D. (1949): Naturally
occurring albinism in a specimen of
Rattus norvegicus Besk. ibid. 48(2) :
579-580.
5. MUDALIAR OOTU — A LAST STRONGHOLD FOR THE
RARE NILGIRI TAHR
Mudaliar Ootu, a perennial spring, is situated next to an old bun-
galow in the Western Ghats near Srivilliputhur in Ramnad district,
Tamil Nadu.
Mudaliar Ootu is easily accessible from Pudupatti and Srivilli-
puthur. The hill track which had been well maintained in the past is
now eroded by rain. Along the track one can see many birds including
red spurfowl and grey junglefowl. It is not uncommon to see Malabar
giant squirrels, common and Nilgiri langur, bonnet macaque, mon-
goose, mouse deer, hare, elephants and Varanus at different altitudes.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
377
During the monsoon water is available throughout the trail but in
summer water is restricted to some deep nullahs. Anyhow trekers
can quench their thirst after reaching the bungalow at the Mudaliar
Ootu.
Mudaliar Ootu Bungalow, surrounded by evergreen trees, is locally
well known for its cool atmosphere, scenic beauty, and for the herds
of Nilgiri Tahr or Ibex that are found on the peaks adjoining the Bun-
galow. The neighbouring peaks, Peimalai Mottai, Udumbu Theri and
Veilkathanmottai, are covered with an abundant growth of lemon grass
and Phoenix humilis. The precipitous rocky slopes of these peaks are the
favoured haunts of the once abundant Nilgiri Tahr now reduced to a
small population owing to excessive shooting. A sixty five year old
hunter said that in his forty five years of shooting career he had bag-
ged more than five hundred Nilgiri Tahr and that there are scores of
hunters who have shot more than a hundred mainly for the pot. Like
all goats the Nilgiri Tahr lives in small herds but the old males are
often solitary. If the hunter could reach the herd unnoticed and re-
main hidden he can shoot down the entire herd. But once they get
a glimpse or smell of man, they disappear into the deep valleys. Now-
adays the local hunters use well-trained dogs which sometimes corner
the sure-footed animals and the hunters have an easy task of approach-
ing the almost petrified animals and bringing them down unawares. It
seems that the once abundant Nilgiri Tahr is fighting its last but vain
battle on the precipitous rocky slopes of these hills which are not an
impediment to the sure footed local hunters.
While standing on the Veilkathanmottai one can have a bird’s
eye-view of the surrounding hills. To anyone interested in the preser-
vation of wild life the free movement of domestic cattle throughout
the hills will be an unpleasant surprise. The thick forests around Mud-
aliar Ootu are devoid of big cats. Herdsmen boast of having eradicated
by poisoning the food, the big cat population, which was fairly good
five years back.
Inspite of this vandalism it is still possible to restore the Nilgiri
Tahr and other wild life of Mudaliar Ootu area, if entry of cattle is
prohibited and all types of hunting stopped. If action is not taken im-
mediately Mudaliar Ootu will lose all its fine animals within five years
and it will be populated only by elephants, man, and his domestic
animals.
Sankar Nagar, A. J. T. JOHN SINGH
Nanguneri,
Tirunelveli Dist.,
Tamil Nadu,
June 26, 1973.
378 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (2)
6. A NOTE ON AGE OF SEXUAL MATURITY OF TWO
SPECIES OF ANTELOPES IN CAPTIVITY
This communication deals with the age of sexual maturity of the
female of two species of antelopes observed at Nandankanan Biological
Park (Orissa).
1. Blackbuck ( Antilope cervicapra)
A female blackbuck born at the Park on 25. ix. 1969 gave birth
to a young for the first time on 20.ii. 1972 at the age of 2 years, 4
months and 27 days. Another female blackbuck born at the Park on
20.i. 1970 gave birth to a young for the first time on 22.ii.1972 at the
age of 2 years, 1 month and 3 days. These females were kept along
with adult males throughout this period. Taking the gestation period
as about 6 months (Asdell, 1964: patterns of mammalian reproduc-
tion, pp. 617), the age of sexual maturity of these animals can be said
to be not more than 1 year, 10 months and 27 days or 1 year and 11
months and 1 year, 7 months and 3 days or 1 year and 7 months
respectively.
There is no mention of age of sexual maturity of this species
in the available literature.
2. Nilgai ( Boselaphus tragocamelus)
A female nilgai born here on 13.iii. 1968 gave birth to a dead
male young for the first time on 1 . iv . 1 97 1 at the age of 3 years and
20 days. This female had remained with adult males throughout this
period. Taking the gestation period as 8 months and 7 days (Asdell,
loc. cit.) the age of sexual maturity of this female can be said to be
not more than 2 years, 4 months and 13 days or say 2 years and 4
months.
Acharjyo & Misra (1971: J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 68 (2):
446) have given the age of sexual maturity of one female nilgai
as 2 years and 1 month.
Veterinary Assistant Surgeon, L. N. ACHARJYO
Nandankanan Biological Park,
P.O. Barang, Dist: Cuttack.
Wild Life Conservation Officer, R. MISRA
Orissa, Cuttack - 1,
July 29, 1972.
7. OCCURRENCE OF THE COMMON GREY HORNBILL
( TOCKUS BIROSTRIS) IN BOMBAY CITY
On the afternoon of the 7th April 1973 we saw, while on a visit
to the wooded environs of the Raj Bhavan at Bombay, a pair of the
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
379
Common Grey Hornbill ( Tockus birostris ). The characteristic casque
on the beak of the hornbills was clearly visible.
We saw two hornbills actively chasing each other in the trees in
the same area again on 13 April. They were joined by a third while
we were watching them. We watched them for over ten minutes with
a pair of binoculars and there was no doubt about their identity as
Common Grey Hornbills, thus confirming the earlier identification of
the birds on 7 April 1973.
In their paper on the birds of Bombay and Salsette, Salim Ali
& Humayun Abdulali (1940) have not reported on the occurrence of
the Common Grey Hornbill in the region. Salim Ali (1964) also states
that this hornbill is replaced in the heavy rainfall Western Ghats
country north to Bombay by the Malabar Grey Hornbill ( Tockus
griseus ) which lacks the casque above the bill. Salim Ali & Ripley
(1970) also do not refer to its occurrence in the Bombay region while
specifically mentioning the occurrence of the Malabar Grey Hornbill
around Bombay.
However, Salim Ali & Abdulali (1945) have recorded the sighting
of a Common Grey Hornbill in April 1945 and the present record
substantiates the occurrence of this species in an area which has so
far been considered more or less exclusively within the range of the
allied species Tockus griseus, the Malabar Grey Hornbill. These sight-
ings raise some interesting possibilities. Since both sightings are in
April, these could be the result of a seasonal movement in search of
better forage or a movement brought about by the severe drought
this year. We do not know whether 1945 had similar weather condi-
tions. Another possibility is that environmental changes in the Bombay
area, has made it suitable for this species. The colonisation of the
Bombay area by the species and its effect on the resident population
of Tockus griseus would be worth investigating.
We wish to thank Mr. J. S. Serrao for assistance in literature
reference.
Department of Pharmacology, S. R. AMLADI
Seth Gordhandas Sunderdas Medical College,
Parel, Bombay 400 012.
Bombay Natural History Society, J. C. DANIEL
Hornbill House,
Bombay 400 001,
April 15, 1973.
380 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (2)
References
Ali, Salim & Abdulali, Huma-
yun (1940): The birds of Bombay
and Salsette. J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. 40:ll\.
(1945) : Additions to the
birds of Bombay and Salsette and
neighbourhood, ibid. 45:241-244.
Ali, Salim (1964) : The Book of
Indian Birds. 8th Ed. Bombay Nat-
ural History Society, Bombay p. 58.
& Ripley, S. Dillon
(1970) : Handbook of the Birds of
India and Pakistan. Vol. 4. Oxford
University Press, p. 130 et seq.
8. ON THE STATUS AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE GREAT
GREY SHRIKE, LANIUS EXCUBITOR LINNAEUS IN MYSORE
The Great Grey Shrike, Lanius excubitor Linnaeus, is not known
to occur in southern India south of Belgaum (Mysore) or the Krishna
River in Andhra Pradesh and except for a couple of records of this
species from Cuddapah district of Andhra Pradesh and a single sight-
ing in Ceylon (Ali & Ripley 1972), nothing is known of its status or
distribution in the southern India.
I found this shrike throughout Mysore State all round the year.
One or two birds were invariably found in patches of dry, open scrub
around Bangalore and were also seen in the open semi-arid country
in the Raichur and Dharwar districts of northern Mysore. This shrike
has also been observed in the Sandur taluk of Bellary district (Ghor-
pade, in press). Although the bird has not yet been found breeding,
the above observations indicate that it is probably a resident in the
Mysore plains, south to Bangalore, inhabiting dry open country, short
thorny scrub and similar biotope.
Department of Entomology, KUMAR D. GHORPADE
University of Agricultural Sciences,
Bangalore-560 024,
December 21, 1972.
References
Ali, Salim & Riplfy, S. D.
(1972) : Handbook of the Birds of
India and Pakistan. Volume 5. Ox-
ford University Press, Bombay,
xvi + 276 pp.
Ghorpade, K. D. (in press) : A
Preliminary Note on the Orintho-
logy of Sandur. J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
381
9. THE JUNGLE CROW, CORVUS MACRORHYNCHOS
WAGLER, PLUCKING HAIR FROM TAIL OF COW
TO LINE NEST
It is a recognised fact that most of the crows ( Corvus Linnaeus)
line their nests with, among other material, mammalian hair (Ali &
Ripley 1972; Lamba 1963, 1965). Lamba, in his account of the breed-
ing biology of the Jungle Crow, quotes Hutton who states that ‘human,
horse or other animal hairs are sometimes pulled off the backs
of live animals or skins laid out for drying.’
In February 1972, I watched a pair of jungle crows ( Corvus ma -
crorhynchos ) investigating the tail of a cow sitting under a large jack
tree on a farm near Bangalore at around 1230 hrs. One of the birds
walked up to the bushy black tail tip and started tugging at the hairs.
In a few minutes, it had pulled out a beakful of hair and then flew
on to its unfinished nest on a nearby Araucaria pine. It was plucking
out the hairs one by one and was accumulating them at the base of its
bill, giving it the ridiculous appearance of sporting a gigantic moust-
ache. I estimated that it had collected at least 30-40 separate strands
of hair in the operation. The bird did not return for an additional
supply of hair for the next hour. The cow seemed quite unconcerned
with the crow and did not attempt to move its tail.
Department of Entomology, KUMAR D. GHORPADE
University of Agricultural Sciences,
Bangalore - 560 024,
December 21, 1972.
References
Ali, Salim & Ripley, S. D.
(1972) : Handbook of the Birds of
India and Pakistan. Volume 5. Ox-
ford University Press, Bombay,
xvi + 276 pp.
Lamba, B. S. (1963): The Nidi-
fication of some common Indian
Birds — Part 1. /. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. 60: 121-133.
(1965) : The Nidification of
some common Indian Birds — Part 2.
ibid. 62: 425-433.
10. BAYA ( PLOCEUS PHILIPPINUS) FEEDING ON FROGS
On 8th May, 1973, while I was trying to collect some larks, I saw
two parties of bayas ( Ploceus philippinus) feeding at two different
parts of a large paddyfield at Paddyadikol, Cherpu, Trichur District,
Kerala State. In both places, two or more individuals were seen to
382 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (2)
catch small frogs, which were plentiful in the paddyfield where the
rice was being harvested. The frog was caught in the bill, carried to
the overhead electric wires, battered to death and swallowed piece by
piece. One frog obtained in the field has been identified as Rana
limnocharis.
I do not know if such food habits have been recorded for the
baya.
Natural History Section, N. J. GEORGE
Prince of Wales Museum,
Bombay - 400 001,
June 27, 1973.
11. SNAKE BITE CASE HISTORIES
(1) May 24th, 1971. Medavakkam, near Madras.
Girl, 18, suspected krait bite, fatal. Sleeping on a mat on the floor
of the hut when bitten on leg. Snake was killed and described as
being long, thin and black. Girl was given “country” remedies but
died before daybreak.
(2) August 25th, 1971. Tambaram, near Madras.
Gurkha, Nepali night watchman, about 40 years old, suspected
krait or cobra bite. At 7 a.m. men came rushing to me to say
that this man had been bitten and died but could I somehow help
anyway!? (This has happened several times). Watchman stepped
on and was bitten at 1 a.m. by an unknown, “large” snake. His
wife and he then sat around. By 3 a.m. the man succumbed. No
help was sought, till morning.
(3) January, 1972. Boy, 10 years, died possibly as a result of compli-
cations from bite of Echis carinatus. ( see case 9, Echis bites).
(4) May 26th, 1972. Madavakkam, near Madras. Friday morning —
rainy, windy. 8 a.m. two men arrive with news of snake bite at
Medavakkam (4 miles away on Velachery Rd.). I reached the hut
8.15 a.m. A crowd of people, mostly women were crying and yelling
and beating themselves on the breast in anguish. The young man, of
about 22, lay flat on back, arms folded, flower petals on eyelids,
only light in the room was an oil lamp. No pupil response, no
pulse, heartbeat or breath. The left lower leg quite swollen, with
two obvious punctures below ankle bone. An Irla (tribal snake
catcher) was digging around the hut trying to find the snake which
was supposed to have been called cobra by the bitten man — he
saw it crawl away in the moonlight. Possibly krait. It was as likely
or more so that it was a krait since it is a common nocturnal
prowler and seems less wary than a cobra; these “bites while
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
383
sleeping” are common. The sleeping man may have felt the
snake brushing against him and in his sleep pressed the snake
with his foot (perhaps rolled over it). He woke up, saw the snake
which seemed to go into a hole in the hut. Many people woke
and carried him to a village 2 miles away for “country medicine”,
a plaster of green paste supposed to contain the remedy. He came
back and sat and was slowly paralyzed to death by the neuro-
toxins in the venom. Had trouble breathing at 6 a.m. and collap-
sed at 7 a.m. Just 4 miles away is a dispensary and my home;
it is well known that we have antivenom serum. We treated or
supplied serum for about 2 dozen bites in the last year (mostly
Echis ). If the use of antivenom was publicized, there would be
very few fatal snakebites in India and the public attitude towards
snakes could gradually become realistically tolerant. At present
a supernatural fear of snakes prevails and no wonder when the
venom can kill so surely in spite of all the “remedies” tried out.
(5) 17th August, 1972. Madras City.
Lady, 58 years, suspected krait bite, fatal. At 6 a.m. went into
bathroom to take a bath, stepped on ‘small black snake about
2 feet’. Local symptons absent, small single wound, little bleeding,
slight oozing. In the first 6 hours the blood pressure rose, com-
plained of trouble in swallowing, breathing, 6 hours after bite she
went into a coma. 2 vials antivenin given, supportive therapy, anti-
histamines, blood pressure drugs, haemodialysis. Lady succumbed
without coming out of coma next day at 11-30 a.m. (about 36
hours later).
(6) June 2, 1972 — Chinnappa — 18 year old Irula tribal snake-catcher
of Sotalapakkam village near Tambaram, Madras 44, cobra bite,
recovered.
The day after a heavy shower Chinnappa was hunting snakes with
his uncle. They were hunting in separate farm areas near rocky hills
about 18 miles from Madras City. Chinnappa, searching carefully for
tracks made out the fresh track of a large snake (he thought cobra)
going into a rat hole. Rat holes are everywhere on the earthen and
rock mounds and bunds near paddy fields. He dug with a small crow
bar and poked with a thin stick down the various branches of the hole.
In one the stick moved. He dug forward carefully; he was only about
2 feet deep into the mound when he gradually uncovered a very fine
healthy cobra just under 5 feet long. Quickly he pressed the flat side
of the little crowbar on the snake’s head and grabbed a secure hold on
the neck with his left hand. He had a small cloth shopping bag with
handles to tie the open end shut. Then he did an odd thing for an ex-
perienced snake catcher, “not thinking for a moment”: holding the
bag open with thumb and forefinger encircled, he pushed the cobra’s
384 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (2)
head into the resultant hole. The cobra partly entered the bag then
very quickly turned and bit Chinnappa through the cloth on the fleshy
part of the left hand below the little finger with both fangs. He imme-
diately threw the snake down (which was caught in the same mound
the next day!) and clutched his left wrist. He walked a little and called
to his uncle about half a mile away. His uncle tied a piece of cloth
tightly on the upper arm, the hand had already begun swelling. 3^
hours later (4 p.m.) he had walked and ridden on the back of a cycle
the 6 or 7 miles to Madras Snake Park. The swelling was halfway up
the arm and he complained of much burning pain throughout the
arm below the tourniquet. Antivenin was ready and we removed the
tourniquet to relieve the pressure on his arm. Until 8 p.m. there was
little change except the steadily increasing swelling now above the
elbow. At 8.30 p.m. Chinnappa started having the symptoms of droop-
ing eyelids and puffed lips called ptosis, the first sign of systemic
neurotoxic poisoning. We immediately drove him to the clinic nearby
where the lab tech, supervised by Dr. Sarangapani gave lOcc Haffkine
polyvalent antivenin with 5 mg cortisone IV. Shortly afterwards, Chin-
nappa vomited but looked more lively. We waited at the clinic for an
hour and then returned home where Chinnappa, with his old mother
watching over started a fitful night. His arm was less painful, most
of the pain was at the site of the bite. At about 11 p.m. he started
shivering violently so he was covered with blankets and rubbed by
mother and cousin. The shivering went away in 20 minutes (maybe
allergic reaction to antivenom). Gave two aspirins and he slept
well till morning. His arm swelling reached a painful peak and then
subsided except for the hand within 12 hours. A ten day supply of
multivitamins given. Twelve days later hand is still very swollen, site
of bite appears as some skin will slough. Advised daily dressing
changes. Thirty days later, bit of skin loss took place but except for
stiffness hand and arm are OK, advised exercises for hand.
Bites of Echis carinatus
1) Panvel, near Bombay, October, 1967. An adult male Adivasi
aged about 35 was bitten in the evening just behind big toe on top of
right foot by an Echis about 10 inches long. Came next day 2 p.m.
for treatment. Dorsum of foot edemal, slight discoloration of site of
bite. Blood pressure 100/60, complains of pain, didn’t sleep. Slight
bleeding from gums. Treated with tetanus toxoid and antibiotics. Next
evening (48 hours post bite) gum-bleeding stopped, foot seems more
swollen, complains of pain and discomfort. Aspirin and sulfa tablets
given. Adivasi plastered jungle medicine that looks like cow dung all
over bitten foot. Six days later Iodex applied to bitten limb and patient
said swelling went down soon after application. Eight days later foot
appears normal, no necrosis or swelling.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
385
2) Deogad, Ratnagiri District, Maharashtra, September, 1969, 7 a.m.
N. Gate, a male worker, aged 30 walking to work through a field near
Deogad town, stepped on a 300 mm long echis and was bitten on
right lateral side of ankle joint on the right foot. The victim walked
two miles to the dispensary with a friend’s help. Snake was killed and
brought in at 8.30 a.m. When the patient reached the doctor there was
swelling and tenderness around the site of bite; dark bluish discolora-
tion about 2 inches in diameter. Shooting pain in calf muscle, adenitis
behind knee and in lower inguinal glands. Swelling of ankle and foot
increasing.
9 a.m. as patient did not exhibit any alarming or systematic
symptoms, 10 cc of Haffkine serum was injected intramuscularly. Pro-
caine-pencillin injected, aspirin given and patient sent home.
Next day, 8 a.m. patient reported to doctor that he had recovered;
only slight signs remained at the site of bite.
3) Jamsande, Ratnagiri Disk, 15 January, 1963, a.m. S. S. Bhadsabe,
a male worker age 25 years was moving stones and got a toe bite from
an echis. Within one hour he came to dispensary with severe local
bite symptoms. Urine cloudy and bloody. 15 cc Haffkine antivenom
given intravenously which provoked immediate allergic reaction includ-
ing: urticaria, severe itching, heat, headache, asthmatic breathing.
Administered .5 cc adrenalin and treated patient for shock for half an
hour. Additional 5 ml antivenom given. Calcium lactate given. Next
day local symptoms diminished, urine trace blood; calcium gluconate
and calcium lactate given. Third day patient seemed completely re-
covered, calcium lactate given.
4) Deogad, Ratnagiri Disk, 27 January, 1965 a.m. A. G. Kawale,
a year old male child was playing in the garden and picked up an
echis which he mistook for a rope. He was bitten on the right palm
and there was swelling at site of bite and whole of palm within half
an hour. The child’s crying attracted attention and he was brought
to the doctor within 45 minutes after the bite. 10 cc Haffkine antivenom
injected intramuscularly in the buttocks one hour after bite. 20 grains
calcium gluconate given. Local symptoms subsided by evening of the
same day, recovery complete.
5) Deogad, Ratnagiri Disk, August, 1964 a.m. Female age 65 was
bitten on the instep of left foot by an echis and came to dispensary
within one hour. 10 cc Haffkin antivenom was given intramuscularly as
local symptoms of swelling and pain were apparent. After five hours
there was bleeding from gums and evidence of blood in stools. An
additional 10 cc serum was injected intravenously. The patient had
moderate allergic reaction which was treated and patient recovered
but weak after 6 hours. Second day recovery complete.
386 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (2)
6) Sembakkam, near Madras, October 20, 1970. A male child
about 10 years, was bitten the evening before by an echis on the big
toe while going out to the bathroom. When he came at 10 a.m. foot
was moderately swollen and slight swelling of the lower leg. Little
pain, weakness and discomfort evident. Taken to a nearby doctor where
he was observed for a few hours treated locally and sent home with
instructions to parents to look for bleeding gums etc. Swelling subsided
within 2 days and there were no after effects.
7) Sembakkam, near Madras, November 17, 1970. A woman
about 40 years old was bitten by an echis while cutting branches from
a low thorn tree. Finger was tied tightly with a string and was tautly
swollen. I released the string. The patient exhibited great pain and
anxiety. Took her to doctor where she was kept for observation that
afternoon then sent home. In two days there was a little tissue loss
and dressings were applied. Swelling and sloughing persisted a week.
8) Tambaram, near Madras, December 15, 1970. An Irula snake-
catcher, was bitten by an echis on the right thumb while catching it.
Didn’t suffer on the first day. Second day had swollen hand and for
2 days had difficulty using hand. Untreated and no more symptoms.
9) Tambaram, near Madras, November 25, 1970. Natesan, an Irula
snake catcher about 40 bitten on base of left index finger while catch-
ing. Swelling slight, stiff hand for two days, pain only for first hour
or so. No other symptoms, complete recovery without treatment.
10) Sembakkam, near Madras, September, 1971. Boy about 10
years bitten on foot in evening near home by echis. Two hours later
when he arrived at my house leg was greatly swollen and boy very
frightened, near collapse. No evidence of systemic poisoning. Gave local
treatment, observed for a few hours then told them to go home unless
something like bleeding gums occurred. One month later the father
came to say that the swelling still hadn’t gone down though they had
seen doctors. In January, four months later the boy died, cause un-
known but the father feels it’s the same snake bite. (?)
11) Sembakkam, near Madras, July, 1971. Adult male 35 years
bitten by echis on right foot at night while walking on road. Arrived
at our house 8 a.m. foot and lower leg greatly swollen and bleeding
profusely from gums. Otherwise he was feeling all right and normal.
I gave him 2 vials of serum to take to the nearby doctor and asked
him to check with me later. Few days later he came back with still
swollen leg and asked what to do. I advised soaking in salts and see-
ing a doctor. In April 1972, 8 months later, this man came obviously
in great discomfort with his foot still swollen. It seems that the lym-
phatic and general circulatory congestion so common in viper bites
can persist for a long time and cause permanent defects.
A group of small vipers perched above the wet ground after a night
rain.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 70 (2)
Whitaker: Vipers
Plate
{Photo: Madras Snake Park Trust )
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
387
I am most grateful to Dr. Nene, Deogad for cases 2-5 and to my
sister, Nina Chattopadhyaya for helping with most of the other cases.
The following notes were given to me in an interview by Dr. B.
Bapiraju, presently working at King Institute, Guindy, Madras.
During the years 1963 to 1965 Dr. Bapiraju practiced medicine
at the medical station in the town of Panjapatti, 30 miles from Trichy.
During this two year period 40 to 50 cases of snake bite came to hos-
pital for treatment. 60 to 70 per cent occurred at night and over 95
per cent were on the feet, a small per cent on legs, hands and arms.
Most bites appeared to be from Echis carinatus which abounds in that
area.
Patients arrived usually within a few hours of the bite; in this
area the villagers are aware of the effectiveness of antivenom due to
the work of the doctors. There was swelling of the limb and pain, often
severe, at the site of bite. Some cases complained of severe pain in
pharyngeal region. Bleeding gums not noticed. Blood in vomit in a few
cases, bloody urine in 70 per cent of cases.
Treatment was by Haffkine polyvalent antivenom serum, intraven-
ously when serious, intramuscularly when not severe. Antivenom pre-
ceded by adrenalin and cortisone. Two or three cases of anaphylaxis
from sensitivity to serum. Most patients vomit within 15 minutes after
receiving serum intravenously. There were no fatalities or after effects
like necrosis or prolonged swelling or permanent stiffness.
The south Indian Echis carinatus only average 10 or 12 inches
in length thus making it too small to be of great medical significance
for which the big northern race is notorious.
Madras Snake Park, R. WHITAKER
Guindy Deer Sanctuary,
Madras 600 022,
November, 1972.
12. CLIMBING RESPONSE OF TWO SNAKE SPECIES DURING
RAIN. ( ECHIS CARINATUS AND VIPER A RUSSELLll )
{With a plate)
Thirty adult saw-scaled vipers and forty-eight juvenile Russell’s
vipers were kept in a smooth sided concrete pit 4' x 8' x 4' with grass,
rocks, shrubs and cacti during 1972. During nocturnal rain showers
in August and subsequent months it was noticed that rain stimulates a
climbing urge in these snakes. Sometimes a mixed mass of twenty
snakes could be observed on the top of one cactus or small shrub. The
Irula tribals already know this as they systematically collect Echis in
shrubs and behind tree bark during the wet part of the year.
388 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (2)
It is often noticed that humidity alone causes a dramatic increase
in reptile activity in general. Some snake species are especially active
during heavy rain, the hole dwelling and smaller forms perhaps be-
cause of the direct flooding action of the rain. Cobras (and other
species notably susceptible to cold) spend much of their time in trees
during the cold, rainy part of the year in south-eastern India.
Madras Snake Park, R. WHITAKER
Guindy Deer Sanctuary,
Madras 600 022,
January 29, 1973.
13. COLOUR VARIATION IN RUSSELL’S VIPER
{VIPER A R. RUSSELL11)
{With a plate)
Russell’s vipers from the Indian sub-continent and Ceylon are
fairly uniform in colour. The exception is the geographic race from
the northern part of the western ghats in Maharashtra.
The typical Indian Russell’s viper is light brown above with
brown, black and white ringed oval spots dorsally. The Maharashtra
form is a light yellowish brown snake with almost completely uniform
dark spots with only a suggestion of the white ring. The underside
is uniformly yellowish white. The Madras form is brightly marked
with occasional black markings ventrally. Those from the Calcutta
area are similar to the Madras colour form but darker and always
with black spots ventrally.
Madras Snake Park, R. WHITAKER
Guindy Deer Sanctuary,
Madrass 600 022,
March 29, 1973.
14. ON THE SEXUAL DIMORPHISM OF A SILUROID FISH,
OMPOK BIMACVLATUS (BLOCH), WITH PARTICULAR
REFERENCE TO PECTORAL SPINE
While handling large numbers of specimens of Ompok bimaculatus
(Bloch) in the laboratory and in the field in connection with investi-
gations on its biology in Kulgarhi reservior (MP) some disparity was
observed in the dentition pattern, size and stiffness of the pectoral
spines of males and females. The genital papilla was also observed to
Whitaker: Russell’s Viper
Vipera russellii russellii from Maharashtra with typical solid dark dorsal spots, fading at the tail.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
389
be present in both of the sexes but with marked difference in their
morphological characters during breeding season. Day (1889) obser-
ved female specimens of Ompok bimaculatus at Trichinopoly having
entire (i.e. smooth) pectoral spines. He stated that the character of
pectoral spine whether smooth or serrated is not a specific distinction.
While giving the systematic account of Ompok bimaculatus , Parames-
waran et al. (1967) have reported ‘pectorals with a strong internally
serrated spine in males, and entire or feebly serrated in females’. The
validity of sexual dimorphism on the basis of pectoral spine and genital
papilla has been established in the present study by examining 600
specimens of Ompok bimaculatus (size range 172-394 mm) spread
over one year. The sex determination was first attempted with the aid
of pectoral spine and genital papilla and then confirmed by gross ex-
amination of the gonads. The detailed observations made on the sexual
dimorphism of this species on the basis of these characters are re-
ported in the present note.
In the initial stages of observations, the male and female speci-
mens of comparable sizes were selected to differentiate the sex on the
basis of pectoral spine and genital papilla. Observation on the pectoral
spine and genital papilla of both sexes were also made monthwise
throughout the year to elucidate whether the differences were seasonal
or of permanent nature. These observations showed that the variation
in the dentition pattern, size and stiffness of the pectoral spines in
males and females was valid as a secondary sexual character and a
permanent feature throughout the year, whereas the variations in the
morphological characters of genital papilla of the two sexes were pre-
valent during breeding season only.
The significant difference in the pectoral spine and genital papilla
in the two sexes are enumerated below: —
Distinguishing characters of Pectoral spine
Male
1) Strong and Hard.
2) Laterally flattened, broad and
somewhat thick along the entire
length.
3) Abruptly tapering into blunt
spine.
4) Inner edge of the spine with
strong and prominent serrations.
Female
Weak and flexible.
Thin and narrow along the entire
length.
Gradually tapering into sharp spine.
Inner edge of the spine feebly ser-
rated or nearly smooth.
Genital papilla : —
It lies behind the vent in both the sexes. In the case of male, it
appears as a small outgrowth, whereas in females it is somewhat fleshy
390 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (2)
and comparatively larger in size, almost double the size of that of
male. In male it is visible during the breeding season only.
The field observations have confirmed that with the aid of these
contrasting differences it is possible to segregate the sexes irrespective
of the size of the fish, throughout th year with good accuracy and
more so during the breeding season.
Ack nowledge m e n ts
We are greatly indebted to Dr. V. G. Jhingran, Director and Dr.
Y. R. Tripathi, Deputy Director, of the Institute for kindly going
through the manuscript and for valuable suggestions.
Small Reservoirs Unit, J. BHIMASENA RAO
Central Inland Fisheries S. J. KARAMCHANDANI
Research Institute,
Rewa, (M.P.),
August 4, 1971.
References
Day, F. (1889): Fauna of British
India. Fishes, Vol. 1:131.
Parameswaran, S., Selvaraj, C. &
Radhakrishnan, S. (1967): A re-
view of the Indian Freshwater fishes
of the genus Ompok Lecepede.
Zool. Soc. India 79(1&2).
15. ON CHRIONEMA CHRYSERES GILBERT, A RARE
BATHYPELAGIC FISH IN THE INDIAN OCEAN
(With a text -figure)
Gilbert (1905) established the genus Chrionema for two new
bathypelagic fishes from the Pacific Ocean: C. chry seres and C. squa -
miceps. Fowler (1928) synoymised these two species as he considered
the latter as the juvenile of the former species. In a revision of the
family Percophididae, Ginsburg (1955), however, recognises squami -
ceps as a valid species based on a study of the types but considered
the species congeneric with Chriomystax squamentum Ginsburg, 1955
and restricted the genus Chrionema to its type species.
During a recent faunistic survey of the south-west coast of India,
a specimen of Chrionema chryseres Gilbert, was captured along with
numerous other deep-water fishes in an otter trawl from a depth of
300 metres at a station about 85 km off Quilon by the ship “Blue Fin’*
of the Central Institute of Fisheries Operatives, Cochin. This communi-
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
391
cation is the first record of this rare bathypelagic fish since its original
discovery from the Pacific Ocean off the Hawaiian Islands and adds
an interesting species to the fish fauna of India. A description of the
single specimen collected is given below.
Chrionema chryseres Gilbert
Chrionema chryseres Gilbert, 1905, Bull. U.S. Fish. Comm.,
23(2): 645, pi. 85 (type loc: Off Oahu, Hawaiian Islands); Fowler,
1928, Mem. Bernice P. Bishop Mus., 10: 423 (after Gilbert); Gins-
barg, 1955, Proc. U.S. nat. Mus., 104 (3347): 629 (name only).
Material :
One ex., 173 mm in standard length, off Quilon (Kerala) at station
Lat. 09° N. Long. 76° E., 300 metres depth, 3 March 1971, coll. P. K.
Talwar; ZSI Regd. No. F 6310/2.
Description :
B 7; D VI. 16; A 24; P 24; V 6
Scales in lateral series 76, transverse 12/6.
Gillrakers on first arch 4+14; upper arm with one and lower
arm with 3 low tubercles.
Body elongate, slender, depth 14.5 in per cent of standard length.
Head and anterior part of body depressed, head length 39.3 in per-
cent of standard length. Mouth rather large, horizontal, superior, lower
jaw extending beyond upper; maxillary extending to vertical from
half eye diameter, distal end without fleshy tentacle, length 38.7 in
per cent of head length. Eye diameter 24.8, inter-orbital width 4.4; both
in per cent of head length. Snout notably depressed, somewhat duck-
like, slightly shorter than eye diameter, twice in postorbital distance.
Teeth — villiform bands in jaws, vomer and palatines; tongue
edendate.
392 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (2)
Scales — ctenoid on body and head; snout, maxilla and space bet-
ween mandibular rami naked. Pectoral and caudal fin bases scaled,
dorsal and anal fin bases scaleless.
Fins — Dorsal fin spines flexible; second dorsal fin similar to anal
fin, rays notably well placed. Pelvic fin origin in advance of pectoral fin,
under vertical from preopercular margin. Caudal fin truncate with 13
principal rays.
Colour in alcohol — Dark brown above, lower surface creamy.
Four large dusky blotches along the sides slightly low and smaller dark
blotches in interspaces. Inner rays of pelvic fin dusky, outer two rays
and spine creamy white.
Distribution: Hawaiian Islands and the south-west coast of India;
bathypelagic.
ACK N OWLEDGE M E N TS
I am grateful to Dr. A. P. Kapur, Director, for encouragement
and Dr. A. G. K. Menon, Superintending Zoologist, Zoological Survey
of India, Calcutta for kindly reading through the manuscript critically.
Zoological Survey of India, P. K. TALWAR
Indian Museum New Bldg.,
Calcutta - 13,
October 16, 1972.
References
Fowler, H. W. (1928): The
fishes of Oceania. Mem. Bernice P.
Bishop Mus., 7(9:1-540.
Gilbert, C. H. (1905): The deep-
sea fishes of the Hawaiian Islands,
in Jordan and Evermann. The aqu-
atic resources of the Hawaiian Is-
lands. Bull. U.S. Fish. Comm. 25(2) :
575-713.
Ginsburg, I. (1955): Fishes of
the family Percophididae from the
coasts of eastern United States and
the West Indies, with descriptions of
four new species. Proc. U.S. nat.
Mus., 704(3347) : 623-639.
16. DIODON HOLACANTHUS LINNAEUS (PISCES:
DIODONTIDAE) FROM INDIA
Fishes belonging to the genus Diodon (Family: Diodontidae),
popularly known as porcupine fishes inhabit coral lagoons of warm
oceans. Linnaeus (1758) described Diodon holacanthus from India
and the species has subsequently been recorded from several parts of
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
393
the Indo-West Pacific (Herre 1953; Smith 1961; Anon 1962) but sur-
prisingly not rediscovered from India. During a collection tour four
topotypes of D. holacanthus were collected from Trivandrum (South-
west coast of India) and are described below.
Diodon holacanthus Linnaeus
Diodon holacanthus Linnaeus, 1758, Syst. Nat. 10th Ed. 335 (India).
Diodon maculatus var. a, Gunther, 1870, Cat. Fish. Brit. Mus., 8:301.
Diodon holacanthus Anon, 1962, Fish species of South China Sea: 1100-1102
(China).
Material examined :
4 fishes, 143-161 mm S.L. ex Trivandrum (16:9:1968).
Description :
D13, P21-22, A 13, C8-9. Gill-rakers on first arch outer 2+7; inner
0+10.
In percentages of standard length; body depth 26.5-41.0, head
length 39.2-43.1, snout length 13.5-16.6, eye diameter 9.2-10.8, postor-
bital length 18.9-22.7, interorbital width 25.0-34.4, caudal peduncle
depth 5.4-6.0, dorsal height 15.7-18.1, anal length 15.7-23.2, pectoral
length 17.1-21.5, caudal length 15.7-20.4, height of longest spine in
first row 17.8-22.4, height of shortest spine in first row 16.4-18.9, pre-
dorsal distance 72.1-84.8, pre-anal distance 72.8-84.4, width of mouth
13.6-14.7.
Body covered with numerous spines, spines on forehead com-
mencing with level of front border of eye. First transverse row of four
spines on forehead longest, on dorsal and ventral sides shortest, on
flanks and behind pectorals longer than the latter. Thirteen spines
from forehead to the origin of dorsal fin. Origin of pectoral behind
gill opening, middle rays shorter. Origin of dorsal nearer to caudal.
Origin of anal below origin of dorsal.
Colour. Ground colour generally brown on dorsal side becoming
pale yellow or white towards ventral side, broad blackish-brown band
between the orbits, interrupted in middle, extending downwards beyond
eye; behind this parallel transverse band not descending downwards.
Large subtriangular or nearly irregular spot in the middle of back;
similar spot on and in advance of the base of dorsal fin. Kidney shaped
spot above the pectoral.
394 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (2)
ACK NOWLEDGEM E NTS
Messrs S. Rama Rao and K. Varahala Raju of this department
rendered valuable assistance during investigations. I am indebted to
Dr. Yoichi Shojima, Seikai Regional Fisheries Research Laboratory,
Nagasaki, Japan, for his help in the identification of species. I am
thankful to Professor G. P. Sharma and Dr. K. K. Tandon, Zoology
Department, Punjab University, for critically going through the manu-
script.
Zoology Department, B. V. SESHAGIRI RAO
D. N. R. College,
Bhimavaram, A.P.,
December 18, 1971.
References
Anon (1962) : A Record of the
Fish species of South China Sea,
Scientific Publishing House, China:
1098-1104.
Day, F. (1878): The Fishes of
India. Wm. Dawson and Sons, Lon-
don 7:708.
Herre, A. W. (1953): Check List
of Philippine Fishes.
♦Linnaeus, C. (1758): Systema
naturae, sive, regna tria naturae sys-
tematice proposita per classes, ordi-
nes, genera et species. 10th ed. 335 p.
Smith, J. L. B. (1961): The Sea
Fishes of Southern Africa, 4th ed.,
Central News Agency, South Africa:
414-415.
* Not referred to in original.
17. MOLLUSCS OF ECONOMIC VALUE FROM GREAT
NICOBAR ISLAND1
{With a map)
During a scientific expedition to the Great Nicobar Island in
February-May, 1966, the Zoological Survey of India team surveyed,
the littoral, sub-littoral and offshore zones to assess the potential mol-
luscan resources of these areas for exploitation. Fairly extensive shell
beds of living and dead molluscs were found in these areas. The species
of molluscs of economic value classified under three main categories,
namely (i) as a source of food (ii) of ornamental value and (iii) as
raw material for manufacture of lime and cement are listed here to-
gether with remarks as to their occurrence in and around the island.
1 This paper was presented at the “Seminar on the achievements of the
Scientific Expedition to the Great Nicobar Island” organised by the National
Institute of Sciences of India at Varanasi on 2nd January, 1968.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
395
(i) Molluscs as a source of food :
The bivalve Cyrena galatheae Morch was found in abundance in
all the major rivers of the island i.e. the Galathea River on the south
coast, the Rivers Alexandra, Dogmar and Amrit Kaur on the west
coast and the River Jubilee on the north coast (see map). The
Nicobarese and Shompens are aware of its food value. They parti-
cularly consume this mollusc during the monsoon when the sea is very
rough. They utilize the empty shell for scraping the pulp of steamed
Pandanus which is one of the regular items of their diet.
The large edible clams, Tridacna crocea Lamarck and Hippopus
hippopus (Linnaeus) were found abundantly in the inshore regions
amidst coral reefs around the island. The different bays on the West
Coast were rich with Tridacna crocea Lamarck in the 4-6 metres depth.
Farther deep, between 30-50 metres, both the species occurred in con-
siderable numbers on the eastern side off Galathea bay.
According to Rao (1951), in the Indian mainland, “ species
of Tridacna from the reefs, from the littoral zones are
occasionally used as food whenever they occur in large numbers”.
Though our team did not observe the local people utilizing these bival-
ves for food, it would be worthwhile to exploit them either for direct
use for people in the mainland or for processing them for export.
There were also numerous beds of the smaller bivalves such as
Donax cuneatus (Linnaeus), Donax lubricus Hanley and the back-
water clam Meretrix attenuata (Dunker) in the sandy patches bet-
ween the littoral fringes at Campbell bay, Galathea bay and Casu-
arina bay. Detailed investgations may well reveal more extensive beds
in several other places around the island. The two species of Donax
were found along the coast adjacent to the mouths of rivers and creeks,
while Meretrix attenuata (Dunker) was found right in the mouths of
the rivers where there is considerable lowering of salinity. Hornell
(1917) and Rao (1951) have dealt with the edible value of these
three species.
The bivalve. Pinna vexillum Born was seen in the deeper inshore
regions (10-20 metres) amidst coral reefs off the western coast of the
Island, particularly off Pulobabi (see map). Although no one eats
it in India, it is in great demand in Japan and China (Hornell 1917).
The cephalopod. Octopus cyaneus Gray frequents inshore coral
reef regions of the island in large numbers. It is captured commonly
by the coastal Nicobarese who seem to relish its meat.
Beds of the gastropod, Oliva ispidula Linnaeus were found at
several sandy location sites along with cake urchins (Irregular Echin-
oids) at the mid-littoral fringe of the island and an extensive bed was
encountered at Casuarina bay. The Scorpion-shell Lambis Iambis
Linnaeus was found in smaller patches in the infralittoral region of
396 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (2)
the inshore waters among coral reefs all around the island, and in
greater concentration at 4-6 metres depth between Pygmalion point
and Pulobaha and between Hayward point and Mataita Anla. Lam-
Map OF GREAT NICOBAR ISLAND SHOWING LOCALITIES OF COLLECTIONS
bis chiragra Linnaeus was also found in Galathea bay but not in such
large numbers. In addition to their food value which is sufficiently well
stressed by Hornell (1917) and Rao (1951) the two species of Lambis
are also commonly used as weights for fish nets in the mainland. These
molluscs could be exploited to form subsistence fisheries of local im-
portance.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
397
(ii) Molluscs of Ornamental Value :
Dry shells of Nautilus pompilus Linnaeus were found washed all
along the shore in considerable numbers. Nicobarese use them to bale
out water seeping into their canoes.
Trochus niloticus Linnaeus (Top shell) and Turbo marmoratus
Linnaeus (Turban shell) were found abundantly all along the off shore
regions of the entire coast of the island. On the eastern side of the
Galathea bay, they were in greater concentrations as evidenced by many
specimens brought up by divers. Also, the inshore regions of the dif-
ferent bays on the west coast abounded with the smaller-sized indi-
viduals a depth of 4-6 metres. They were also detected at similar
depths between Pygmalion point and Pulobaha and between Hayward
point and Mataita Anla, where Lambis lambis Linnaeus also was found
in appreciable numbers ( vide supra). Nautilus shells are used in the
manufacture of lamp-shades, buttons and decorative pieces such as
ash-trays, and cameos and for inlay work.
(iii) Molluscs as raw material for the manufacture of Lime and Cement
The shells of the following molluscs occurring here can rank as an
important source of lime: Trochus niloticus Linnaeus, Trochus radiatus
(Gmelin), Telescopium telescopium Linnaeus, Lambis lambis Linnaeus,
Lambis chiragra Linnaeus, Oliva ispidula Linnaeus, Crassostrea mad -
rasensis Preston, Ostrea cucullata Born, Cyrena galatheae Morch, 777-
dacna crocea Lamarck, Hippopus hippopus (Linnaeus), Meretrix at-
tenuata (Dunker), Donax cuneatus (Linnaeus) and Donax lubricus
Hanley.
Although Comber (1905), Hornell (1917), Rai (1932) and Rao
(1951 & 1958) stressed that the rich molluscan fauna available around
the Indian mainland can possibly supplement the animal protein food
supply to the people, not much progress had been made towards its
proper exploitation. Even in 1962, the condition appears to have re-
mained practically the same necessitating the remark that, “Molluscan
fisheries of India are insignificant as compared to those of the true
fish; they, however, play a considerable role in the economy of fisher-
men and other coastal people who depend upon them for food when
fish is scarce or not within their means” (cf. wealth of India — Raw
materials, vol. iv. supplement — Fish and Fisheries — C.S.I.R., Delhi,
1962, p. 124).
The problem has received greater attention only very recently.
In 1968, the status of the different molluscan fisheries of India and
their potential has been discussed by Jones {vide. Abstracts of papers
on Symposium of Mollusca — 1968) and a detailed account of Molluscs
in Indian tradition and economy has been given by Mukundan {vide.
398 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (2)
Souvenir, Symposium on Mollusca — 1968). Further, two important
resolutions (3 and 8) have been unanimously adopted at the symposium
on Mollusca held at Ernakulam in January, 1968, which focus the
attention on the urgent need to conduct surveys in developing coun-
tries to enable optimum utilization of their molluscan food resources
and recommend steps to popularise the utilization of molluscan shell-
fish hitherto utilized only by the poorer classes of people.
The species recorded here are not exhaustive as the survey
was brief. Therefore, detailed investigation extending over longer
periods are necessary for a fuller understanding and estimation of the
resources and for determining the possibility of their sustained ex-
ploitation.
ACK N OWLEDGE M F, N TS
We are thankful to Dr. A. P. Kapur, Director, Zoological Survey
of India, for facilities to undertake this work; to Shri C. Karunakaran,
Deputy Director-General, Geological Survey of India — leader of the
expedition for facilities provided during the expedition. Thanks are also
due to the various members of the Zoological Survey of India team
for helping in the survey.
Zoological Survey of India, A. DANIEL
Calcutta 700 012, A. S. RAJAGOPAL
December 18, 1969.
References
Anon (1962): The Wealth of In-
dia, Raw materials, vol. iv (supple-
ment) Fish and fisheries, iv + 132
+ xv pp. Council of Scientific & In-
dustrial Research, New Delhi.
Comber, E. (1905) : The econo-
mic uses of shells. J. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. 76(3) :462-472.
Hornell, J. (1914-1915): The
utilization of coral and shells for
lime-burning in the Madras Presi-
dency. Madras Fish. Bull. 8: 105-126.
(1917): The edible mol-
luscs of the Madras Presidency, Re-
port No. 1. Madras Fish. Bull. 11:
1-51.
Jones, S. (1968): The molluscan
fishery resources of India. Sympo-
sium on Mollusca. Abstract of
papers, Mandapam Camp, p. 75.
Mukundan, C. (1968): Molluscs
in Indian tradition and economy.
Souvenir, Symposium on Mollusca,
Cochin, pp. 45-52.
Rai, H. S. (1932): The shell-fish-
eries of the Bombay Presidency. J.
Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 35(4) : 826-
847.
Rao, K. V. (1951) : Section on
“Molluscan Fisheries in Hand-book
of Indian Fisheries, Crustacean and
Molluscan Fisheries” (Ministry of
Agriculture, Government of India),
Ed. by B. N. Chopra, pp. 64-69.
(1958) : Molluscan Fish-
eries in Fisheries in the West Coast
of India (Central Marine Fisheries
Research Station) , Mandapam
Camp, Ed. by S. Jones, pp. 55-59.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
399
18. OCCURRENCE OF LIMA { L1MARIA ) FRAGILIS GMELIN
(MOLLUSCA: PELECYPODA) IN THE COASTAL
WATERS OF RATNAGIRI
Live specimens of Lima ( Limaria ) fragilis, are available mostly
from August to December, in the intertidal zone of Mirkarwada and
Jaki-Mirya in Ratnagiri. Some specimens were kept alive in labora-
tory aquaria for about four months. The beautiful reddish pink colour
of the animals started fading after four to six days and finally they
became uniformly pale. Several attempts to feed them in captivity
failed. After two to three weeks, they started building a nest from
byssus threads. During this period of nest building they were left un-
disturbed. Once the nest was complete they stayed within the nest. The
nest had an opening at either end. Water entered through one opening
and came out through the other.
Members of the family Limidae are known for their beautiful
coloration and capacity to swim. So far, Lima {Lima) lima Linn., Lima
{Lima) annulata Lammark, Lima {Lima) lischkei Lamy, and Lima
{Limaria) fragilis Gmelin have been recorded from the Indian ocean.
Of these the first two are widely distributed in the Indo-Pacific
region, whereas the third species is recorded from Japan and Philip-
pines in the Pacific to Mauritius in the Indian Ocean. Lima {Limaria)
fragilis Gmelin is distributed throughout the western pacific (except
Japan and Hawaii), Australia, East Indies, Bay of Bengal, Cocos Keel-
ing and Maidive islands, (Dr. Abbotts, personal communication).
Maidive appears to be the westernmost limit for this species in the
Indo-Pacific area. Occurrence of this species at Ratnagiri extends its
distribution slightly northwards in the Arabian Sea.
The records of Lima sp. from Indian coastal waters are few. This
is the first record of Lima fragilis from the west coast.
We are indebted to Dr. R. Tucker Abbott for identifying the
species.
Marine Biological Research Station, M. R. RANADE
Ratnagiri, M.S., P. B. JOSHI
May 21, 1971.
19. PROBABLE TRANSPORTATION OF BALANUS
AMPHITRITE STUTSBURI (DARWIN) BY SHIPS
Occurrence of Balanus amphitrite var. stutsburi Darwin, has been
reported from three widely separated localities along the west coast
of India (Wagh & Bal 1969). According to Stubbings (1961) distribu-
400 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (2)
tion of this variety is restricted to the west coast of Africa and is re-
ported to be found especially in estuarine environments (Sandison
1966). In India also, localities from where these forms were collected
are situated near the openings of river-mouths and possess some-
what similar ecological conditions. It was, therefore, expected that
this variety may be found at other localities on the west coast having
apparently same environmental conditions. However, it could not be
found at any other place along the Konkan and Goa coasts of western
India (personal observation).
This anomaly in distribution can be explained by suggesting that
these barnacles might have been transported to the west coast of India
by certain agency which could restrict their transportation to selected
localities only. A possibility of their being transported through water-
currents cannot be entertained because in that case their distribution
would not be restricted to a few localities. Hence, the only alternative
explanation that can be advanced is the possibility of these forms
which belong to the category of fouling ones (Darwin 1854) settling on
ships as fouling organisms and being brought to the Indian ports. In
this way occurrence of these barnacles only at selected localities can
be explained. The stations where these specimens were collected are
known to have maritime connections with the west African coast since
centuries. This explanation is further supported by the similar pheno-
menon in which forms of Elminius modestus (Darwin) have been re-
portedly transported from the Australian coast to Europe (Bishop
1951).
National Institute of Oceanography, ARUN B. WAGH
Sea-Shell (I Floor),
7 Bungalows,
Versova, Bombay 400 061,
July 23, 1971.
References
Bishop, M. W. H. (1951): Distri-
bution of Barnacles by Ships. Nature,
London, 167 (4248): 531.
Darwin, Ch. (1854) : A mono-
graph on the sub-class Cirripedia.
II. Ray Society, London, 2.
Sandison, E. E. (1966): The
effect of salinity fluctuations on the
life cycle of Balanus pallidus stutsburi
Darwin in Lagos Harbour, Nigeria.
J. Anim. Ecol. 55:363.
Stubbing, H. G. (1961): Cirripe-
dia thoracica from Tropical West
Africa. Atlantidae Report 6.
Wagh, A. B. & Bal, D. V. (1969) :
New records of inter-tidal Barnacles
from India. Curr. Sci. 38(14) : 344.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
401
20. NEW RECORDS OF BRACHYURAN DECAPODS FROM
THE GULF OF KUTCH
(With a map)
Earlier reports of the Brachyuran fauna from the Gulf of Kutch
were those of Alcock (1900), Elornell and Southwell (1909), Gideon
et al. (1956), Chhapgar (1957) and Chandy (1969). The present ac-
count is based on a collection of 49 species of which 19 have been
reported new from this area. The material was collected during 1966-
69, from the intertidal areas, of Okha reef, Adatra reef, Beytbalapur,
Hanumandandi, Keu Island, Poshitra, Pirotan Island and Karumbhar
Island (see map), using trawls and dredges.
Map of Gulf of Kutch showing areas of collection. 1. Okha reef. 2. Adatra
reef. 3. Hanumandandi. 4. Beytbalapur. 5. Keu Island. 6. Poshitra. 7. Dona reef.
8. Karumbhar Island. 9. Pirotan Island.
A systematic list of these species is given below along with the
localities of collection. The classification is based on Alcock’s “Mate-
rials for Carcinological fauna of India” (1895).
Family : Calappidae
Calappa lophos (Herbst) — Okha reef, Pirotan Is.
Matuta planipes Fabricius — Pirotan Is.
Family: Leucosjdae
Parificulus rostraius Alcock — off Pirotan Is.
Family: Hymenosomidae
Doclea gracillipes Stimpson — off Pirotan Is.
Schizophrys aspera (Milne-Edwards) — off Karumbhar.
402 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY Vol. 70 (2)
Family: Portunidae
Scylla serrata (Forskal) — Hanumandandi.
Neptunus pelagicus (Linnaeus) Hanumandandi, Adatra reef.
Charybdis ( Goniosoma ) natator (Herbst) — Okha reef.
Chary bdis ( Goniosoma ) annulata (Fabricius) — Hanumandani, Okha reef.
Charybdis ( Goniosoma ) callianasa (Herbst) — Pirotan Is.
Charybdis ( Goniosoma ) orientalis (Dana) — Dona reef.
Family: Xanthidae
Xantho ( Lophoxanthus ) scaberrimus baccalipes Alcock — Adatra reef.
Leptodius exaratus (Milne-Edwards) — Okha reef.
Galene bispinosa (Herbst) — off Karumbhar.
Family: Goneoplacidae
Eucrate crenata dentata (Stimpson) — Keu Is.
Litocheira angustifrons Alcock — Beytbalapur.
Family: Ocypodidae
Gelasimus dussumieri Milne-Edwards — Poshitra.
Sesarma quadrata (Fabricius) — Okha reef.
Sesarma oceanica de Man — Hanumandandi.
I wish to express my grateful thanks to Mr. K. V. Navathe, Direc-
tor of Fisheries, Gujarat State, for the facilities given for this work. I
am also indebted to the Director, Zoological Survey of India, who
helped in confirming the identification of some of the species; to Mr.
M. Bhaskaran, Asstt. Research Officer, Marine Biological Research
Station, Okha for the encouragement given in the course of this study,
and to M/s P. Gopalakrishnan and P. Sharma for assisting in collect-
ing the material.
Marine Biological Research Station, MOHAN CHANDY
Government of Gujarat,
Okha,
March 11, 1970.
References
Alcock, A. (1895) : Materials for
a carcinological fauna of India. No.
1. The Brachyura Oxyrhyncha.
Journ. As. Soc. Bengal 64(2): 157-
291.
(1900): ibid. No. 6. The
Brachyura Catometopa, or Grapso-
idae. Journ. As. Soc. Bengal 69(2) :
279-456.
Chandy, Mohan (1969): Thala-
mita poissonii (Audouin & Savigny)
de Man, (Brachyura) a new record
to Indian coasts. J. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. 66 : 635-637.
Chhapgar, B. F. (1957): On the
Marine Crabs (Decapoda-Brachy-
ura) of Bombay State J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 54: 399-439.
(1957): ibid. J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 54: 503-549.
Hornell, James & Southwell, T.
(1909): Description of a new spe-
cies of Pinnotheres from Placuna
placenta, with a note on the genus.
Report on the Marine Zoology of
Okhamandal in Kathiawar, pt. I,
pp. 99-103.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
403
21. NEW RECORDS OF ODONATA FROM NORTH-WEST
INDIA
Dragonfly fauna of north-west India is very inadequately known.
Except for the reports of Singh and Baijal (1954), Mani et al. (1955)
and Singh et al. (1955) on the Odonata collected from north-west
Himalayas; and by Sahni (1965 & 1965a) on the Odonata of district
Nainital (U.P.), no serious attempt has been made to study these in-
teresting insects from this region.
Working on the collection of Odonata from Garhwal and Siwalik
Hills we came across several species which have not been recorded
from this region so far. These species are fairly common in this region
and can be collected without much effort. Records of these species
from this have considerably extended the known distribution of these
species as given by Fraser (1933, 1934 & 1936).
Following is the list of species, arranged systematically, recorded
for the first time from north-west India.
Suborder Zygoptera
Family Coenagriidae
Lestes viridula Rambur
Known distribution : Peninsular India especially Deccan and west
India.
New Records'. Kangra (Himachal Pradesh) and Dehra Dun (U.P.)
Drepanosticta carmichaeli Laidlaw
Known distribution : Sikkim, Kalimpong and Pashoke.
New records'. Chamoli, Dehra Dun, Pauri Garhwal, Tehri and
Uttarkashi (U.P.).
Calicneinis pulverulans Selys
Known distribution : North Bengal and Sikkim.
New records : Uttarkashi and Tehri (U.P.).
Calicneinis miles Laidlaw
Known distribution : Upper Burma (Gokteik), Sikkim.
New records : Chamoli, Pauri Garhwal, Uttarkashi, Dehra Dun,
Tehri (U.P.) and Kangra (H.P.).
Copera inarginipes (Rambur)
Known distribution : Lower Burma, Java, Thailand, Ceylon,
Bombay, Poona, Mahableshwar, Bengal and Assam.
New records : Dehra Dun (U.P.) and Kangra (H.P.).
Family Agriidae
Rhinocypha unimaculata Selys
Known distribution : Bengal, Assam, Sikkim (Mungpoo).
404 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY Vol. 70 (2)
New records : Dehra Dun, Chamoli, Pauri Garhwal, Tehri and
Uttarkashi (U.P.).
Bayadera indica (Selys)
Known distribution : North Bengal and Assam.
New records : Dehra Dun, Chamoli, Pauri Garhwal, Tehri, Uttar-
kashi (U.P.) and Kangra (H.P.).
Anisopieura lestoides Selys
Known distribution : Bengal, Assam and Sikkim.
New records : Dehra Dun, Chamoli, Pauri Garhwal and Uttar-
kashi (U.P.).
Suborder Anisoptera
Family Gomphidae
Anonnogoniphus kiritschenkoi Bartenef
Known distribution : Iraq, Persia, Persian Gulf, Mesopotamia*
Baghadad, Zobeir, Mekran Coast and Sind.
New records : Dehra Dun (U.P.). This species has been recorded
from India for the first time.
Family Libellulidae
Cratilla lineata (Brauer)
Known distribution : West coast of India, Nilgiris, Malabar, Ben-
gal, Burma, Ceylon, Malaysia, Sunda Archipelago, Borneo, New
Guinea and Philippines.
New records : Dehra Dun (U.P.).
Brachydiplax sobrina (Rambur)
Known distribution : Bombay, Travancore, Malabar, Coorg, Ban-
galore, Bengal, Assam and Ceylon.
New records : Dehra Dun (U.P.), Kangra (H.P.) and Hoshiarpur
(Punjab).
Diplocodes nebulosa (Fabricius)
Known distribution : West coast of India, Madras, Fraserpet,
Coorg, Mysore, Ceylon, Australia, Java and Lower Burma.
New records : Dehra Dun (U.P.) and Kangra (H.P.).
Acknowledgement
We are highly grateful to Dr. A. P. Kapur, Director, Zoological
Survey of India, for providing us facilities to do this work.
Zoological Survey of India,
Dehra Dun,
November 24, 1970.
ASKET SINGH
MAHABIR PRASAD
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
405
References
Fraser, F. C. (1933): The Fauna
of British India including Ceylon
and Burma. Odonata Vol. 1. Taylor
and Francis, London, pp. 423.
(1934): idem. Vol. 2. ibid.
pp. 398.
(1936): idem. Vol. 3. ibid.
pp. 461.
Mani, M. S., Singh, S., Gupta,
V. K. & Baijal, H. N. (1955): En-
tomological Survey of the Himala-
yas. Part 9. First Annotated Check-
list of Insects from the north-west
(Punjab) Himalayas. Agra Univ. J.
Res. ( Sci .) 4(2): 471-512.
Sahni, D. N. (1965): Studies on
the Odonata (Zygoptera) of Naini-
tal. Ind. J. Ent. 27(2): 205-216.
-(1965a): Studies on the
Odonata (Anisoptera) of Nainital.
ibid. 27(3): 277-289.
Singh, S. & Baijal, H. N. (1954) :
Entomological Survey of the Hima-
layas. 2. On a collection of Odo-
nata. Agra Univ. J. Res. (Sci.) 3
(2): 385-400.
Singh, S., Baijal, H. N., Gupta,
V. K. & Mathew, K. (1955): En-
tomological Survey of the Himalayas,
Part 14. Notes on some Insects col-
lected by the Second Entomological
Expedition to the North West Him-
alayas (1955), with description of
three new species of Odonata. ibid.
4 (Supplement) : 741-766.
22. HEXAGONAL CELL OF LAC INSECT
The normal shape of the cells of lac insects is elongate for male
and globular for female. All lac male insects perish after mating and
then entire colonies consist of females. A single female lac cell is nor-
mally smoothly rounded. However, occurrence of hexagonal abnormal
cells, referred to as ‘crown shaped cell’ (Mahdihassan 1968), has also
been reported occasionally.
Hexagonal cells are not characteristic of any particular species of
lac insect or the host-plant (Chauhan 1967), but they have been so
far noticed only in 3 species of lac insects:
(i) Mahdihassan (1948) has reported that in Kerria communis
some male insects on dispersal and due to sex reversal become hexag-
onal females.
(ii) Mahdihassan (1968) has reported that such crown shaped
cells are numerous in Kerria sindica.
(iii) Chauhan (1967) has found such cells in both rangeeni and
kusumi forms of common Indian lac insect, Kerria lacca.
The number of host-plants, on which such cells have been report-
ed earlier, is also small. Whereas the above records of Mahdihassan
are on Zizyphus jujuba , Ficus mysorensis and Acacia arabica, Chau-
han (1967) has found them on 9 plant species, excluding Ficus.
Recently in our colonies of lac insects, one hexagonal cell, be-
longing to Kerria sp., has been growing on a fig plant. Ficus carica
Linn. (Fam. Moraceae), at the Science College campus of the Patna
406 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY Vol. 70 (2)
University. It is developing in complete isolation from any other lac
cell, and is following the summer generation life cycle (i.e., Oct. /Nov.
1969 — May /June 1970).
Department of Zoology, GOURI GANGULY
Patna University, R. K. VARSHNEY
Patna,
May 1, 1970.
References
Chauhan, N. S. (1967): On the
abnormal celled female lac insect.
Indian J. Ent. 29(4): 395-396.
Mahdihassan, S. (1948) : An ab-
normal form of lac cell and its ear-
liest illustration. J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. 48(1): 161-163.
(1968): Architecture of the
crown shaped cell of Kerria sindica.
Zeits. f. angew. Ent. 67(1) : 17-24.
23. OCCURRENCE OF MELANAGROMYZA OBTUSA
(MALLOCH) ON BHINDI
The pod fly, Melanagromyza obtusa (Malloch) has been record-
ed as a serious pest of Cajanus indicus, “cajan”, (Hindi- Arhar) in
Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh
and Orissa by Pradhan (1969)1. So far no host plants other than
Cajanus indicus were recorded. However, the authors have noted the
incidence of Melanagromyza obtusa on Hibiscus esculentus (Hindi-
Bhindi) at Raipur in Madhya Pradesh.
During the couse of observation in the month of April, 1970, the
attack was noted on leaf pedicels of Bhindi plants. The infested leaves
were found dried and dropping down. The maggots bored the leaf
pedicels (stalks) which consequently resulted in drying of leaves.
While recording the incidence of pest in the field, 30 per cent plants
were found attacked by this pest. There were 1 to 3 larvae per pedicel-
In the course of rearing work, it was found that 17.4 per cent of
the pupae were parasitised by Eurytoma sp.
This is the first report of the incidence of Melanagromyza obtusa
(Molloch) on Hibiscus esculentus in Madhya Pradesh.
We are thankful to R. G. Fennah, Director of Commonwealth
Institute of Entomology of London for identification of insects.
J. N. Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya, R. K. PATEL
College of Agriculture, M. L. VERMA
Central Rice Research Station,
Raipur (M.P.),
January 15, 1971.
1 Pradhan, S. (1969): Insect pests of Crops. National Book Trust, India,
Delhi, pp. 71.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
407
24. FIRST RECORD OF THE ENCYRTID GENUS CALLIPTE-
ROMA MOTSCHULSKY 1863 (HYMENOPTERA: CHALCIDO-
IDEA) FROM INDIA
(With five text -figures )
The genus Callipteroma Motschulsky, 1863, has four species, and
three of these, namely, C. quinqueguttatum, C. sexgutttatum and C.
testacea were described by Motschulsky (1863) from material collect-
ed in Ceylon. The fourth species, C. nigrum, was described by Mercet
(1924) from Spain.
The species collected by me has five hyaline spots on the fore
wings and is identified as C. quinqueguttatum (Figs. 1-5). This species
is known to occur in Ceylon (Motschulsky 1863) and Japan (Ishii
1928; Tachikawa 1962, 1963). This is the first record of the genus
Callipteroma from India.
Material : 1 9 , Uttar Pradesh, Aligarh, 6. iv. 1968, Coll. M. Hayat,
on grass by sweeping. The specimen is deposited in the Zoology Mu-
seum, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh.
Ack n o wledge m e n t
I thank Prof. S. Mashhood Alam, Head of the Department of
Zoology for useful suggestions and for providing research facilities in
the Department.
Entomology Section, MOHAMMAD HAYAT
Zoology Department,
Aligarh Muslim University,
Aligarh, U.P.,
March 22, 1971.
References
1'ile Ceylon. Bull. Soc. Natur. Mos-
cow. 36: 1-153.
Tachikawa, T. (1962): On Calli-
pteroma kiushiuense Ishii (Hymeno-
ptera: Encyrtidae). Trans. Shikoku.
Ent. Soc. 7(3) :79.
(1963): Re visional studies
on the Encyrtidae of Japan. (Hym-
cnoptera : Chalcidoidea) . Mem.
Ehime. Univ. (6) 9(1) : 1-264.
Ishii, T. (1928) : The Encyrtidae
of Japan. Bull. Imp. Agr. Expt. Sta.
Japan 3(2): 79-160.
Mercet, R. G. (1924) : Los gene-
ros Leptomastidea, Callipteroma
gyranusa. Bol. R. Soc. espan. Hist,
nat. Madrid. 24: 252-260.
Motschulsky, V. de (1863): Es-
sai d'un Catalogue des insectes de
408 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY Vol. 70 (2)
UDWfr .Q
Figs. 1-5. Callipteroma quinqueguttatum Mots. (1) Antenna, (2) Fore wing,
(3) Part of venation of fore wing, (4) Hind wing, (5) Part of
middle leg.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
409
25. NOTES ON BOMBAY PLANTS
(With five photos in two plates)
1. Observations on the genus Asparagus at Khandala and the adjoining
Plateau (Maharashtra).
The genus Asparagus was known to be represented in the Wes-
tern Ghats and its adjoining Deccan Plateau, from a group of three
species, namely. Asparagus racemosus Willd., A. jacquemontii Baker,
and A. laevissimus Steud. ex. Baker. These are detailed by Cooke in
his flora of the presidency of Bombay. Recent publications, however,
do not distinguish all the three taxa. Father Santapau, after over two
decades of critical work on the plants of Khandala has reduced A.
jacquemontii Baker to the synonymy of A. racemosus Willd. Vartak
(1953, 1956-57 & 1971), lists a single species of A. racemosus Willd.
in these areas.
Further, A. racemosus Willd. is known under the name of shat-
avari and though is of wide economic interest for its roots, yet none
of the floras give a full description of the roots. Hooker says ‘roots
tuberous’, while Cooke describes ‘rootstock tuberous’ in respect of A.
racemosus Willd. Cooke adds: ‘The oblong fleshy tubers are often
candied for the table’. There is no mention about the roots of the other
two species either by Hooker, or by Cooke. Subsequent authors in-
cluding Father Santapau, too do not make any mention of roots.
In our routine botanical exploration in Wadgaon taluka adjoin-
ing the Khandala area, the junior author had a whole plant of aspara-
gus, the roots included, carefully dug and lifted out of ground. This
revealed a cluster of long roots all cylindrical and of uniform thick-
ness (see plate 1, photo I, fig. a). We have counted up to 100 roots in a
plant which measured 20 to 100 cm in length, 0.9- 1.2 cm in thickness.
Their tips never taper. The roots are borne on a sympodial rhizome
which gives rise generally to a single shoot each season at one end. The
shoots are apparently annual or biennial. These plants are further
characterised by scandent habit, small cladodes and pedicels which
are articulated below the centre (in fruit). This taxon is referable to
A. laevissimus Steud. ex Baker.
We have also similarly examined in the field the roots of the
Khandala plant. Here too the roots are borne in a bunch but the in-
dividual roots are different, being tuberous, spindle-shaped and taper-
ing especially at the apex into a long thread-like beak. They also have
a narrowed fibre-like basal stalk (see plate 1, photo I, fig. b). The roots
are up to 75 in number, comparatively short and stout, being 13-38 cm
long and 0.9 to 1.6 cm (mostly 1.5 cm) thick. These plants are further
410 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY Vol. 70 (2)
characterised by slender climbing habit, large cladodes, and pedicels
articulated above the centre (in fruit). This is A. racemosus Willd.
re-established by Father Santapau in the flora of khandala. The
plants in the adjoining Lonavala hills, as well as in Purandhar Fort
hill and Mahabaleshwar belong to this taxon.
Our investigations also show that shatavari roots are marketed in
about 5 cm long cut pieces. Further as stated by Kanitkar et al. (1969),
commerical drug samples in Maharashtra are cylindrical with even thick-
ness as compared to the north Indian samples which have mostly a
tapering end. Apparently enough, the Maharashtra and the north
Indian materials are referable to Asparagus laevissimus Baker and A.
racemosus Willd. respectively, but more data is needed for confirma-
tion of their botanical identity.
2. Abnormal flowering of Zingiber macrostachyum Dalz. in Khan-
dala.
There are two species of Zingiber in Khandala, both of which are
known to produce flowers (in cone-like spikes), directly from the
ground. Recently the junior author has come across an abnormality
and a plant was noticed to bear flowers at the tip of the leafy shoot.
This plant is referable to Zingiber macrostachyum Dalz. in all other
characteristics.
A specimen was collected for the Herbarium and a photograph
of the same is reproduced here along with the normal plant (plate 1,
photos II and III).
3. Premna latifolia var. viburnoides C, B. Clke. — a new record for
Western India — (plate 2, photos IV and V).
This is a plant thus far reported only from south India (Kerala
and Tamil Nadu). It is not listed in any floras dealing with the plants
of Bombay. However, the plant very rarely flowers in Bombay which
may be a reason why it escaped the attention of previous botanists.
Further, none of the floras give a full description of the plant.
We give below the nomenclature, botanical description based on
our collections, etc. of the taxon:
Premna latifolia Roxb. var. viburnoides C. B. Clke.
In Hopk. /. FI. Brit. Ind. 4:578, 1885; Gamble FI. Pres. Madras,
767, 1923.
P. viburnoides Wall. Cat. 2646b, 1831, nomen nudum.
A large shrub 4-8 m high with corky light-yellow bark; young
green branches, and leaves drying olive green. Leaves thin, pleasantly
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 70 (2) Plate 1
Bole & Fernandez: Bombay Plants
Photo II: Zingiber macrostachyum Dalz. —
Terminal part of the flower-bearing
leafy shoot.
Photo III: Zingiber macrostachy
Dalz. — Habit (normal).
Photo I. fig. a: Asparagus laevissimus Steud. ex Baker — Roots with basal
part of the shoot.
fig. b\ A. racemosus Willd. — Roots with basal part of the shoot.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 70 (2) Plate]!
Bole & Fernandez: Bombay Plants
Premna latifolia Roxb. var. viburnoides C. B. Clke.
Left. Photo IV: Habit. Right. Photo V: Herbarium sheet showing branches with flowers and with
lit
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
411
scented, notably when crushed, decussate, glabrous, generally ovate to
ovate-lanceolate, or ovate-oblong, serrate, or less often entire (notably
on fruiting branchlets), 5-9 cm long, and 3.3-6 cm broad, acute-apicu-
late, rarely somewhat obtuse at the tip; base variable, generally cune-
ate or rounded; petiole 1.5-3. 5 cm long. Inflorescence corymbose pani-
cle, terminal on branchlets; peduncles and pedicels tomentose-ferru-
ginous being covered with scales and hairs. Flowers hermaphrodite,
often polygamous, greenish-white in dichasial cymes, bracts and brac-
teoles present; pedicels up to 1.6 mm long, pubescent. Calyx 1.8 x 1.8
mm, glabrous being covered with scales on the outside but devoid of
hairs, 2-lipped, one lip 2-lobed, the other indistinctly 3-lobed, lobes
ovate-obtuse, 0.75 mm long, the calyx acrescent, and about 4 mm
broad in fruit. Corolla 5 mm long, 2-lipped, densely bearded within,
glabrous outside, lobes 2 + 3. Stamens 4, didynamous, epipetalous.
Ovary hypogynous, depressed-globose, 1 mm long, glabrous; style ter-
minal 2.5 mm long, bifid. Fruits few, drupe, 5 mm across, light green
at maturity, drying black, pericarp leathery endocarp stony, verrucose,
4-celled.
Flowering I fruiting: April to August.
Local Names: Narval (narvala palo — leaves), Naroli, Narvela.
Specimens examined: a. Bombay — R2715 (16 September, 1956)
R3344 (November, 1956), R4206-4207 (July, 1957). These specimens
are housed in Blatter Herbarium, b. Goa — February, 1971 (in leaf
only), c. Poona — October, 1971 (in leaf only), d. South Kanara —
R5378-87 (May, 1971). These specimens are housed in the Herbarium
of the JNAMPG & H, Poona.
Ecological and distribution notes: Semi-wild often grown in gar-
dens, near homes, more as a useful species (see also below, under
economic uses), in Bombay, Poona, Goa and South Kanara. Appar-
ently more common in the coastal areas. It is often associated with
Premna obtusifolia R. Br. (syn. P. integrifolia Linn. nom. ill eg.), but
may be differentiated at once by its characteristic pleasant aroma, thin
leaves, larger flowers, etc. The latter P. obtusifolia R. Br. gives, a most
offensive odour; leaves coriaceous, flowers decidedly smaller and
calyx different.
Economic uses: Tender leaves ground with rice, etc., then fer-
mented and fried into a much sought-after sweet called “dosa”. Leaves
are also used in medicinal oils. Roots are said to be used as agnimanth,
one of the 10 constituents of a time-honoured Ayurvedic medicine call-
ed dasamula.
412 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY Vol. 70 (2)
ACK N O WLEDGE ME NT
We are grateful to Dr. Harold N. Moldenke of U.S.A. for kindly
confirming the identity of the taxon.
St. Xavier's College, P. V. BOLE
Bombay.
JNAMP Garden & Herbarium, P. R. FERNANDEZ
Kothrud,
Poona,
March 3, 1972.
References
Cooke, Th. (1901-1908): The
Flora of the Presidency of Bombay
(Vol. 2, 1907).
Hooker, J. D. (1872-1897): The
Flora of British India (Vol. 6, pp.
316-17, 1892).
Kanitkar, U. K., Dange, P. S.
& Pendse, G. S. (1969): Compari-
son of Commercial Shatavar ( Aspa-
ragus racemosus Willd.) from the
Northern and Southern Parts of In-
dia. J. Res. Ind. Med. 3(2) : pp.
138-154.
Santapau, H. (1952): The Flora
of Khandala. Rec. Bot. Surv. India,
16(1) : 1-392.
Vartak, V. D. (1953): Contri-
bution to the Flora of Torna Hill,
Poona District. J. Poona Univ. Sci.
No. 4, p. 10.
(1956-57): Some Additions
to the Flora of Singhagad Hill,
Poona District. Poona Agric. Col.
Mag. 47 : 272.
(1971): Beautiful wild
plants from Dangi Hills, Maharash-
tra State. J. Univ. Poona Sci. &
Tech. Sec. 40: 183.
26. MITRACARPUS VERTICILLATUS (SCHUM. & THONN.)
VATKE— A NEW RECORD FOR EASTERN INDIA
Mitracarpus verticillatus (Schum. & Thonn.) Vatke (Rubiaceae),
a species of S. America and S. Africa was first reported from India
by Sebastine and Ramamurthy (Bull. bot. Surv. India 9:291-292, 1967)
from Madras and Kerala States. The present record from Orissa
(Bhubaneswar and Cuttack) extends its range up to eastern India. The
species is often confused with Borreria spp. because of their close
general resemblance but can easily be distinguished by the circum-
cissile fruits.
The plant is usually an annual herb flowering in rainy season
but often also found flowering in other seasons. Old fruiting plants
with somewhat rigid stem were found giving out new flowering shoots
from the main branches in the month of February.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
413
Bhubaneswar and Cuttack, common along roadsides and in fields,
fl. 24.ix.71, fr. 8.ii.72. Saxena 142, 626.
Regional Research Laboratory, H. O. SAXENA
Bhubaneswar,
Orissa,
July 25, 1972.
27. SOLANUM TRIQUETRUM CAV.— AN ADVENTIVE
SPECIES IN RAJASTHAN
Solanum triquetrum Cav. is a native of America. This species was
reported for the first time from India near Aligarh (Uttar Pradesh)
by Hussain (Bull. Bot. Soc. Beng. 22 (2): 223, 1968).
During the course of a botanical exploration of south-eastern part
of Rajasthan, I collected some specimens of S. triquetrum Cav. from
the vicinity of Devari village in Kotah district, Rajasthan. Devari is
situated at a distance of about 100 km to the east of Kotah on Kotah-
Shivpuri road. Here, the species is found in dry, bare fields.
The specimens have been deposited in the ITarbarium of National
Botanic Gardens, Lucknow ( V . Singh 90608, LWG).
Department of Botany, VIJENDRA SINGH
J. V. College, Baraut,
(Meerut),
March 17, 1972.
28. 3-VALVED ENDOCARP OF JUGLANS REGIA LINN.
( With a photo )
The drupe of Juglans regia Linn, is characterised by the green fleshy
exocarp and hard endocarp- the ‘shell’. The ‘shell’ splits into a pair
of similar ‘boats’. Such a 2-valved (normal) endocarp is also reported
in the wealth of India, Raw Materials (H-K), 5:298-305; 1959.
However, during field studies in the Kashmir valley in the year 1972,
I found a 3 -valved endocarp which has not been recorded in our floras1.
Popularly known as the walnut, Juglans regia trees yield delicately-
flavoured nut with edible seed; the wood is expensive.
1 Such uncommon abnormalities are not usually recorded in floras but
may perhaps be recorded elsewhere. — Ed:
414 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY Vol. 70 (2)
2-valved 3-valved
Endocarp of Juglans regia Linn.
General Education Centre, G. M. OZA
Maharaja Sayajirao University
of Baroda,
Baroda 2,
July 25, 1972.
29. SCHOENORCHIS LATIFOL1A (ORCHIDACEAE) NEWLY
TRANSFERRED FROM RHYNCHOSTYLIS
(With a plate)
A fairly common epiphytic orchid from Kadmane, Hassan dis-
trict, Mysore State, was described under the name Rhynchostylis lati -
folia by Fischer in 1927. It was based on a collection made by Barber
( Barber 6093, preserved at Kew and at Coimbatore, MH).
A closer study of the type material as well as of living plants from
the type locality, shows that it cannot be included under Rhynchostylis
Blume, an Asiastic genus of about 15 species and represented in south
India by the elegant R. retusa Bl. This taxon has a laterally flattened,
thin walled spur covered on the inside by numerous hairs (fig. G).
The epichile is more or less dorsiventrally flattened and projects for-
wards and upwards. There are 2 slightly notched, round pollinia attach-
ed to a fairly long slender stipe having a small gland at the tip (fig. H).
Saldanha: Schoenorchis latifolia
I
!
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
415
However, Rhynchostylis latifolia Fischer has a fleshy rounded spur
which in cross-section shows a thick wall (fig. F). The wall is slightly
swollen to form a constriction half way down the glabrous interior of
the spur. The epichile is uniloaded, recurved and ends in a solid fleshy
conical knob pointing towards the spur. It has a median furrow start-
ing half way from the tip and leading to the spur. There are 4 pollinia
in 2 pairs (fig. E). Each pair consists of 2 slightly unequal, closely
appressed pollina, sub-globose in situ but semilunar and slightly hol-
lowed when separated. The stipe is relatively short and ends in a nar-
row gland. The rostellum has 2 tongue-like projections (fig. D) block-
ing the entrance to the spur and fitting into the groove of the epichile.
This plant is not a Rhynchostylis.
It has to be shifted to the heterogenous complex that has been called
Saccolabium Bl. by Hooker (1894, p. 54). Several studies made on
this complex especially by J. J. Smith, Hoittum and Seidenfaden have
resulted in the revalidation of many earlier genera and in the erection
of some new ones. Schoenorchis Bl. is one of the revalidated genera.
The plants in this genus have 2 stem forms — elongated slender droop-
ing stems with long internodes or short thick stems with crowded im-
bricating distichous leaves. There is a tendency towards rounded fleshy
spurs with at most a small callus within the spur cavity. The epichile
shows a reduction in the lateral lobes accompanied by a thickening of
the midlobe. In Schoenorchis micrantha Bl. & S. gemmata (Lindley)
J. J. Smith the midlobe curves backwards and the tip is swollen into
a knoblike structure (fig. I). Another characteristic of the genus is the
prolongation of the tip of the anther cap and of the rostellum into a
drawn out tongue like structure which is parallel to the column.
Most of these characteristics are found in the Kadmane plant.
The indistinguishable side lobes and the perpendicular rostellar pro-
jections are minor variations which can fit in well into the generic con-
cept of Schoenorchis Blume. The following combination is therefore
proposed :
Schoenorchis latifolia (Fischer) Saldanha com. nov
Rhynchostylis latifolia Fischer in Kew Bull. 1927:358. 1927.
Our thanks are due to Prof. R. E. Hoittum and Dr. D. H. Nicol-
son for their valuable suggestions and to the Smithsonian Research
Foundation for support.
St. Joseph’s College, CECIL J. SALDANHA
Bangalore,
March 24, 1972.
416 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (2)
References
Fischer, C. E. C. (1927) : Rhyn-
chostylis latifolia Fischer (Orchid-
aceae) in Kew Bull. 1927: 358.
Hooker, J. D. (1894) : The Flora
of British India Vol. 6.
Seidenfaden, G. & Smitinand, T.
(1963): The Orchids of Thailand,
Vol. 4(1) .
An Appeal
Scientific Collections and Endowments
In the present-day changing pattern of life, many people who have
made scientific collections of plants and/or animals and have preser-
ved them diligently for long periods find it increasingly difficult to
maintain or retain them to shortage of storage facility, lack of suitable
man power to look after them and other reasons. In some cases, the
younger generation may have different interests and be unable to bes-
tow sufficient time and energy, to maintain or utilise the collections.
The fruits of valuable efforts made by devoted people are thus likely
to be wasted or lost to the nation. This can be obviated if the colle-
ctions are handed over to the Bombay Natural History Society who
will house them, maintain them and make them, available to resear-
chers and scientists for study and research. Many valuable collections
in U.K. and other countries are preserved in this manner and there is
no reason why we should not follow the example in our country also.
Similarly, family endowments which are not to be passed on to
the heirs could also be bequeathed to the Society to avoid being auto-
matically merged in the public trusts. This will retain the identity of
the donor, and will enable utilisation of funds in scientific research
and conservation of nature, for which large funds are urgently needed.
THE SOCIETY’S PUBLICATIONS
Mammais
The Book of Indian Animals, bv S. H. Prater. 3rd (revised) edition. 28 plates
in colour by Paul Barrucl and many other monochrome illustrations. Rs. 30
(Price to members Rs. 25)
The Ecology of flic Lesser Bandicoot Rat in Calcutta, by James Juan Spillet.
Rs. 10
Birds
The Book of Indian Birds, by Salim Ali. 9th (revised) edition. 66 coloured and
many monochrome plates. Rs* ^5
(Price to members Rs. 20)
Checklist of the Birds of Maharashtra, by Humayun Abdulali. Rs. 2,50
( Price to members Rs. 2)
Snakes
Identification of Poisonous Snakes, Wall chart in English. Gujarati, and Marathi.
D ... <
Miscellaneous
Picture Postcards of 12 representative Indian Birds (In colour) per set Rs. 2.50
Glimpses of Nature Series Booklets :
1. Our Birds I (with 8 coloured plates) in Hindi, and Marathi, Rs. 0.80
Kannada. Rs. 0.62
2. Our Birds IT (with 8 coloured plates) in Hindi. Rs. 0.62
3. Our Beautiful Trees (with 8 coloured plates) in Hindi and
Marathi. Rs. 0.62
4. Our Monsoon Plants (with 8 coloured plates) in English.
Gujarati, Hindi, and Marathi. Rs. 0.80
5. Our Animals (with 8 coloured plates) in English. Gujarati.
Hindi, and Marathi. Rs. 1.25
Glimpses of Nature in India (with 40 coloured plates) in English Rs. 3.00
Back numbers of (he Society’s Journal. Rates on application.
Correspond with :
The Honorary Secretary,
Bombay Natural History Society,
Hornbill. House, Shahid Bhagat Singh Hoad, Bombay 1-RR.
Agents in England :
Messrs Wheldon & Wesley Ltd.,
I ytton Lodge, Codicote. Near Hitch in,
Herts, England.
The Society will gratefully accept back numbers of the Journal, from
members who may not wish to preserve them.
TERMS OF MEMBERSHIP
Life Members pay an entrance fee of Rs. 5 (25 p) and a life membership fee
of Rs. 600 (Inland), £45 '50 (Foreign).
Ordinary Members pay an entrance fee of Rs. 5 (25 p) and an annual sub-
scription of Rs. 36 (Inland), £3 (Foreign).
Members residing outside India should pay their subscription by means of
orders on their Bankers to pay the amount of the subscription to the Society
in Bombay on the 1st January in each year. If this cannot be done, then the
sum of £3 -00 should be paid annually to the Society’s London Bankers — The
National & Grindlays Bank Ltd.. 23 Fenchuroh Street, London E.C. 3. Account
No. 101095.
The subscription of members elected in October. November, and December
covers the period from the dale of their election to the end of the following
year.
CONTENTS
Kaziranga Wild Life Sanctuary, Assam, By P. Lahan and R. N.
Sonowal . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Dry Evergreen Forest of Point Calimere and Marakanam. By F.
Blasco and P. Legris . . . . . . . . 279
The Langurs of the Gtr Sanctuary (Gujarat) — A Preliminary
Survey. By Hafeezur Rahaman . . . . . . 295
The Birds of Inya Lake, Rangoon, Burma. By J. Bruce Amstutz .. 315
A New Species of lschaemum Linn, from India. By R. B. Patli and
R. DCruz . . . . . . . . . . 324
Notes on tfie Nest and Behaviour of the Yellowbrowed Titmouse,
Parus modestus (Burton). By Robert L. Fleming. Jr. .. 326
Orchids of Nepal — 8. By M.L. Banerji and B. B. Thapa .. 330
A Catalogue of the Birds in the Collection of the Bombay
Natural History Society — 15. By Humayun Abdulaii . . 339
A new species of Themeda Forsk, from India. By Shrikani P. Birari 346
Systematics of Molluscan wood borers recorded from India. By
L. N. Santhakumaran . . . . . . . . 348
Reviews . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
Miscellaneous Notes , . . . . . . . . 373
An Appeal . . . . . . , . . . . . 417
Printed by Bro. Leo at St. Francis Technical School, Borivli, Bombay 400 092,
and Published by Editors: Zafar Futehally, J. C. Daniel and P. V. Bole for the
Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay 400 001.
S' y
7 ZL
Vol. 70, No. 3
Editors
ZAFAR FUTBHALLY
J. C. DANIEL & P. V. BOLE
DECEMBER 1973
Rs. 18 (Inland), £ 150 (Foreign)
NOTICE TO CONTRIBUTORS
Contributors of scientific articles are requested to assist the
editors by observing the following instructions :
1 . Papers which have at the same time been offered for publica-
tion to other journals or periodical or have already been published
elsewhere, should not be submitted.
2. The MS. should be typed (double spacing) on one side of a
sheet only, and the sheets properly numbered.
3. All scientific names to be printed in italics should be under-
lined. Both in zoological and in botanical references only the initial
letter of the genus is capitalized. The specific and subspecific names
always begin with a small letter even if they refer to a person or a
place, e.g. Anthus hodgsoni hodgsoni or Streptopelia chinensis suratensis
or Dimeria blatteri.
4. Trinomials referring to subspecies should only be used where
identification has been authentically established by comparison of
ipecimens actually collected. In all other cases, or where identification
is based merely on sight, binominals should be used.
5. Photographs for reproduction must be clear and show good
contrast. Prints must be of a size not smaller than 8*20x5*60 cm.
(No. 2 Brownie) and on glossy glazed paper.
6. Text-figures, line drawings, and maps should be in Indian ink,
preferably on Bristol board.
7. References to literature should be placed at the end of the
paper, alphabetically arranged under author's name, with the abridged
titles of journals or periodicals underlined (italics) and titles of books
not underlined (roman type), thus :
Banerji, M. L. (1958): Botanical Exploration in East Nepal.
/. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 55 (2) : 243-268,
Prater, S. H. (1948) : The Book of Indian Animals. Bombay.
Titles of papers should not be underlined.
8. Reference to literature in the text should be made by quoting
the author’s name and year of publication, thus : (Banerji 1958).
9. Synopsis : Each scientific paper should be accompanied by
a concise, clearly written synopsis, normally not exceeding 200 words.
10. Reprints : Authors are supplied 25 reprints of their articles
free of charge. In the case of joint authorship, 50 copies will be
given gratis to be distributed among the two or more authors. Orders
for additional reprints should be in multiples of 25 and should be
received within two weeks after the author is informed of the acceptance
of the manuscript. They will be charged for at cost plus postage and
packing.
Editors,
Hornbill House, Journal of the Bombay Natural
Shahid Bhagat History Society .
Singh Road,
Bombay 400023
VOLUME 70 No. 3— DECEMBER 1973
Date of Publication : 18-10-1974
CONTENTS
PAGE
The Changeable Hawk-Eagle, Spizaetus cirrhatus (Gmelin). By S. M. Osman 417
Some Snakes from Nepal. By Robert L. Fleming, Jr. and Robert L. Fleming, Sr. 426
The aquatic and marshland plants of Bundi District, Rajasthan. By
J. K. Maheshwari and V. Singh . . . . . . . . 438
Ecology of the Soft-furred Field Rat, Rat t us meltada meltada (Gray) in
Kolar, Mysore State. By R. K. Chandrahas and A. K. Krishnaswami . . 447
Fisheries survey of Himachal Pradesh and some adjacent areas with special
REFERENCE TO TROUT, MAHSEER, AND ALLIED SPECIES. By K. L. Sehgal . . 458
A study on the Bionomics of Chauliops fallax Scott (Heteroptera: Lygaeidae)
at Sehore (Madhya Pradesh). By R. R. Rawat and H. R. Sahu .. 475
Blenniid fishes from Godavari Estuary. By. V. Visweswara Rao. (With
five text-figures ) . . . . . . . . . . . . 480
Trapping of small mammals in relation to the vegetation types in the
Kyasanur forest disease area, Mysore State, India. By M. A. Sree-
nivasan . . . . . . . . . . . . 488
New Plant records for the Upper Gangetic Plain. By Kr. N. Bahadur,
R. Dayal and D. P. Raturi. (With two plates) .. .. .. 493
Preliminary notes on the Ornithology of Sandur, Karnataka. By Kumar
D. Ghorpade . . . . . . . . . . . . 499
Obituary :
1. Norman Loftus Bor (1893-1972)
2. V.K. Chari (1912-1972)..
532
534
Reviews :
1 . The Natural History of Infectious Disease. (A.N.D.N.)
2. Genetic Diversity and Natural Selection. (R.R.)
3. Termite Problems in India. (N.T.N.)
4. Pippa’s Challenge. (R.R.)
5. Forests of Nepal. (M. L. Banerji)
6. Indian Sardines. (B.F.C.)
535
536
538
538
539
541
PAGE
Miscellaneous Notes :
General : 1. A trip to silent valley — March 1972. By Christopher Pruett
(P. 544).
Birds : 2. The Kanjirankulam Breeding Birds Sanctuary in the Ram.nad District
of Tamil Nadu. By S. Abraham (p. 549) ; 3. Interesting distributional records
for Pakistan. By Tom Roberts (p. 552) ; 4. The Indian Lorikeet (. Loriculus
vernalis ) : its courtship and mating. By K. K. Neelakantan (p. 554) ; 5. Occur-
rence of the Starling, Sturnus vulgaris Linnaeus near Bangalore. By Kumar D.
Ghorpade (p. 556) ; 6. Tree Sparrow Passer montanus (L.) in the Eastern Ghats.
By K. S. R. Krishna Raju and Trevor D. Price (p. 557).
Amphibia : 7. Food and feeding habits of the Toad, Bufo melanostictus
Schneider (Amphibia : Bufonidae). By H. R. Rangaswamy and G. P. Channa-
basavanna (p. 558).
Fishes : 8. Biometric studies on Therapon jarbua (Bloch). (With a text-
figure). By A. Rahim (p. 563) ; 9. On the occurrence of a record shoal of Red
Snapper Lutianus argentimaculatus Forskal off Cochin. By V. Narayana Pillai
and V. S. Ramachandran (p. 566) ; 10. A partial ambicoloration in the Indian
Halibut Psettodes erumei (Bloch) (Psettodidae : Pleuronectiformes) from Porto
Novo, S. India. (With a text-figure ). By V. Ramaiyan (p. 567).
Insecta : 11. An artificial diet for the rearing of Acarid Mite. By A. K. Som
Choudhury and A. B. Mukherjee (p. 569) ; 12. Occurrence of Micropro sthema
semilaeve (Decapoda, Macrura) in Ratnagiri. (With three text-figures).
By M. R. Ranade (p. 570) ; 13. Two new records of soil Collembola from South
India. (With thirteen figures in a plate). By N. R. Prabhoo and M. Abdul Haq
(p. 572) ; 14. Occurrence of Rhinyptia meridionalis v. puncticollis Arr. (Scara-
baeidae: Coleoptera) as pest on Bajra in Western Rajasthan. By S. K. Pal and
V. P. Sharma (p. 574).
Botany : 15. Occurrence of Lepidium virginicum Linn, in Netarhat Plateau
(Bihar). (With a plate). By J. K. Maheshwari and S. R. Paul (p. 575) ;
16. Limnocharis flava (L.) Buch. An aquatic plant on the move in Kerala
State. By T. Ananda Rao and G. C. Das (p. 577) ; 17. Some plant records for
Rajasthan. (With a plate). By K. B. S. Dhillon and M. M. Bhandari (p. 577) ;
18. Algae of Nainital. By N. D. Kamat (p. 582) ; 19. Further contribution to
the Flora of Bailadilla (Madhya Pradesh). By H. O. Saxena (p. 586) ; 20. The
occurrence of Chrysanthellum indicum DC. in Gujarat State. (With a plate).
By S. J. Bedi and D. N. Thaker (p. 590) ; 21. Notes on the identity and nomen-
clature of Ventilago bombaiensis Dalz. By G. M. Oza (p. 591) ; 22. Valeria-
nella locusta (Linn.) Laterrade — A new record for India. By G. M. Oza and
Gurucharan Singh (p. 593) ; 23. Notes on some interesting plants from south
India — II. By J. L. Ellis and S. Karthikeyan (p. 594) ; 24. A note on the distri-
bution of some plants in Chandrapur district (Maharashtra State). By S. K.
Malhotra and S. Moorthy (p. 599).
Annual Report of the Bombay Natural History Society for the year
1972-73 . . . . . . . . . . . . 602
Statements of Accounts of the Bombay Natural History Society . . 610
Minutes of the Annual General Meeting
.. 622
JOURNAL
OF THE
BOMBAY NATURAL
HISTORY SOCIETY
1973 DECEMBER Vol. 70 No. 3
The Changeable Hawk-Eagle,
Spizaetus cirrhatus (Gmelin)1
BY
S. M. Osman
ll-D/10, Circular Road , Dehra Dun , U.P.
The Changeable Hawk-eagle is particularly common along the foothills
of the Himalayas, and is seen all over the terai. In the Dun valley,
where I have spent the greater part of my life, it is very common. I have
been fortunate in having not only watched it in the wild state, but also
to have trained quite a few of these birds and enjoyed hundreds of hours
hunting with them.
My father had twice failed to subdue the cast-iron will of this bird.
On the first occasion, one of these eagles had broken loose and devoured
a fine sparrow-hawk in the same mews, after which the attempt to train
it had been abandoned and it was released. A second attempt,
though training pressure was maintained for months, was equally un-
successful and this bird too was finally released.
My own first brush was also frustrating. I was on the cart track to
Tapoban, only about a mile and a half from Dehra Dun, when I saw an
eagle fly out from the sal forest and perch on a cottonwood tree growing
on the near bank of the dry bed of the Nalapani river. Its stealthy move-
ment and the fact that it had perched on the topmost branch of the
cottonwood, commanding a wide view, were clear indications that it
was on the hunt. I had with me a brand-new dogaza which I had knitted
the day before from Krishen Mark twine. I quickly set up my trap and
took cover. Through binoculars I identified the eagle as a cirrhatus ,
l Accepted April 19, 1973.
418 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vot. 70 (3)
probably a three-year-old female. She was keenly interested in the
baited trap and soon took off and flew towards it. To my delight she
crashed into the net, but almost immediately after rose again and headed
back towards the sal forest from which she had emerged. To my intense
chagrin I found the eagle had made an enormous hole in my net.
The bird deserves the appellation Changeable for I have come across
it in what seem to be three distinct varieties. The eagles seen along the
foothills of the Himalayas are predominantly of the white variety. They
are extremely short-crested with their upperparts dark grey-brown in
colour. The tail is barred with dark brown bands, that appear in a faded
form on the underside. The subterminal band is the broadest and the
most prominent. The underparts are mainly white, with brown or dark
chocolate streaks. The flanks and thighs are barred a brick-brown shade,
and the prominence of these bar-shaped markings is a good guide to the
age of the eagle. The tarsus, which is feathered, is livid white with
faint reddish-brown markings that show up more and more prominently
as the eagle advances in age.
Then there is a variety that may be seen in the thick rain forest. I
call them dark-phase birds. I have only once had the opportunity to
handle this variety and the bird was of a very dark chocolate-
brown colour. Its breast was covered with broad, dark brown streaks or
elongated spots, in such profusion that the general impression was of an
almost totally dark brown breast. The upperparts also were of a black-
chocolate colour. There were a few erectile feathers on top of the head,
looking rather like a dilated hood when the eagle raised its hackles.
Somewhere between the dark and the light birds there is yet a third
variety. It is to be found along the lower Siwaliks in the Saharanpur
Division jungles. In this variety the crest is well defined and the upper-
parts are similar to those of a Goshawk. Rarely if at all is a large female
more than twenty-five inches in length. The average length of an adult
female of the first two varieties is about twenty-three inches.
I have found nests in many different places, and have come to the
conclusion that Changeable Hawk-Eagles confine their nest-building
activities to the largest trees, right in the middle of the forest. I have
found no evidence that nests are ever built on ledges of rocks in the hills
or on inaccessible cliffs. On the plains and in the forests it is generally
the biggest banyan tree that harbours a nest. Rarely a giant mango may
also be chosen, and on one occasion I found a nest on top of a colossal
sal. Once I heard of a pair of the third variety nesting in a pipal tree
not far from a village, though I was unable to see the nest myself.
I have observed these birds flying noiselessly about the forest. They
are very careful not to expose themselves, and flit from tree to tree like
shadowy ghosts. They sit as still as stuffed specimens waiting for game
to come out of cover, and noiselessly launch their attack with lightning
THE CHANGEABLE HAWK-EAGLE
419
speed. Nothing within reasonable size and weight is safe from their
attack.
I was doing reclamation work near the Susuwa river, and was watch-
ing one of these birds through binoculars. The tree where the eagle
sat was surrounded by patches of bramble bushes with open spaces in
between, a most likely spot for junglefowl to come out to feed. Then a
partridge began calling some distance away. The eagle immediately
changed its position to face the sound, and took off towards it. It flew
low, a few feet above the ground, making a cunning and stealthy
approach, but when near its target the eagle shot up high above the trees
before it swooped. A scream from the partridge indicated that it had
been taken, and I ran over just in time to see the eagle fly into the forest
with the dead partridge in its claws.
The eagle had estimated the approximate whereabouts of the
partridge by sound alone, had approached it low down, and then soared
to pin-point its victim visually, and to be in a position to dive on its
prey instead of having to chase after it. The hawk-eagle hunts with a
deliberate calculating intelligence not found in many other hawks. It is
small wonder that it takes all the skill and patience of a falconer to train
these birds, almost human in their reasoning power.
The Changeable Hawk-Eagle is the most vociferous of all the hawk-
eagles, calling throughout the year, even when soaring high above the
forest canopy. One male bird that I owned used to call all day whether
on the perch or on the fist. The sound was shrill and unmusical at close
quarters but it had a plaintive sort of resonance, not altogether unpleasing
to the ear, when heard floating down from the heights where the bird
was soaring. When not hunting, the call is a sharp, plaintive kwe , kwe,
kwee repeated at regular intervals, but the hunting or contact call is a
soft kee , kee frequently repeated. The kwe , kwe , kwee call is audible
for a mile or more.
Nesting in the Boon valley begins early in the month of March. At
that time the pairs are heard calling almost non-stop to each other, and
all the while they are busily engaged in the business of nest-making.
During this period they generally hunt in pairs, and hare, junglefowl
and other small game and rodents are taken. If short of food they will
attack and tackle peafowl and fawns also. They do not scorn rats and
on several occasions I have watched them feeding on locusts. They are
even known to attack cats when hungry, and a jungle cat is quite a power-
ful little beast that does not easily permit liberties to be taken with it. I
really do not know whether these eagles, like some of the others, indulge
in piracy. I suppose they would and could rob other, less powerful
raptors of their kills if need arose.
In 1945 a very big and almost white eagle had taken up residence close
420 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (3)
to Jhora Block in the Motichur Range, in a pretty patch of jungle teeming
with game of all kinds. Whenever I visited the area I saw the eagle.
I think it was towards the end of March, when I one day disturbed
her as she sat feathering a Sarus crane. Whether the job had been
accomplished alone, or she had been helped by her mate in pulling down
the big crane, I do not know, but she was the biggest eagle in this group
of birds that I have ever seen and definitely looked capable of
pulling down a Sarus all by herself. In the months that followed, I tried
very hard to capture this bird. She never got to the stage of flying down
to the net though she was not afraid of man and would allow me to
stand right under the tree on which she was sitting.
No matter how early I arrived I would always find her with a full
crop, having finished her breakfast, so it is not surprising that she was not
in the least interested in the live pigeon I repeatedly offered behind my
dogaza.
Though I have examined quite a number of nests, I have never
found a bigger clutch than two. Soon after the eggs hatch, and for more
than a fortnight afterwards, the parents are feverishly active, coming
and going to the nest with food for the eaglets. I have watched the
mother bring gamebirds sometimes, but usually rats and squirrels. As
they grow the young birds become more and more noisy at meal-time,
and when about two and a half months old the eaglets display a great
deal of ferocity, snatching food from the parents’ claws. At the sight
of their parents, the eaglets generally demonstrate by much wing-flapping
and screaming. Though the idea does not appeal to me personally, it
would be an interesting experiment to see how a three-quarter-grown
bird would respond to training.
The first cirrhatus eagle that I trained was of the dark phase, and I
shall never forget the trouble she caused me. Not far from Dehra Dun?
on the way to Hardwar, there used to be a tea-garden where the Indian
Institute of Petroleum now stands, and we were shooting junglefowl in
the tea-garden. The eagle came down to the net almost immediately,
so capturing her was no problem. She was not pretty. Her feathers
from crop to belly were all dark chocolate, with the upperparts and head
almost black. She did not have a crest but presented a most savage
and ferocious appearance, with hackles raised like a dark hood around
her upper neck and head. She was extremely shy in the beginning, a
characteristic she never totally lost.
In fact she was so shy that for almost a month she would not preen
her feathers if anyone was present. I was up against a wall of resistance
every day for three months, but gradually she started to jump to the fist
from very short distances. But she would only fly up. She would
readily fly to the fist if called from the block perch, or from the lawn,
but would not fly down from the branch of a tree or the top of a building.
THE CHANGEABLE HAWK-EAGLE
421
This was naturally very annoying, and my skill as a falconer was at stake.
My uncle took to deriding me by saying ‘ It’s time you admitted defeat.
No point in wasting any more effort on that bird.’
With a tremendous amount of handling and attention I was able to
dispel some of the bird’s fear. Little by little, I got her to fly down from
heights of more than ten feet, and after a lot more gruelling work I was
able to get her down from the top of any tree. Even sol was never sure
she would come when called. She never showed any real interest in game,
and the only time she was really flown was at a squirrel. This she some-
how managed to bag, but it is not much to make a song about. So I
abandoned the attempt to make this bird fieldworthy, took her back to
Motichur and liberated her. Almost a year later, when I was again in
that part of the eastern Doon valley, I found her sitting on a khair tree.
How, the reader may ask, could I be sure this was the same bird I had
released ?
In this case identification was not at all difficult. My eagle had a
slightly deformed beak, and I could see through my binoculars that the
lower mandible of this eagle was distorted in exactly the same way. The
colour scheme also matched to the last feather. The falconer who has
spent many months toiling away, sapping at the foundations of an eagle’s
will to resist training, will at a glance be able to discriminate between a
wild eagle and an old aquaintance.
Looking back to the time when I suffered so much just to get the
eagle flying to the fist, I now feel that the labour and the wounds were not
totally unavailing. I am reminded of the old saying that ‘ No man is
entirely worthless, for he can always be pointed out as a horrible
example ’. At least one common assertion of falconers, that a hawk of
the dark phase is very difficult to train, had been proved correct. And
my eagle had had the characteristic which Oriental falconers look upon
as a real disqualification, a drooping tail. According to the masters,
the bird will be difficult to break if the tail droops and does not extend
in the same plane as the body of a hawk or falcon. They say that in any
bird of prey the tail should be in line with the body slant when it
is perched.
I never had much trouble with the light-phased cirrhatus hawk-eagles,
though I have kept and trained many of them. I have been observing
them for well over twenty years and have faithfully recorded changes in
their colour scheme and markings after each moult. During the first
year, when birds are in juvenile plumage, all markings are faint and
irregular, and the general impression is of faded hues, so that the eagle
has an almost ivory-white appearance on the breast. The wing-coverts
are not as contrastingly shaded as in grown-up birds. A few faint and
thread-like streaks on the breast help to break the monotone of the front
coverage.
422 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (3)
After every moult, each year the streaks become more numerous and
darker in shade, till they extend right down to the belly of an eagle that
is more than five years old. After the third moult, the markings on the
front and especially around the crop and breast start becoming broader.
This broadening of the streaks is particularly evident at the lower ends of
the markings, until the spots are like tear drops in a bird more than
eight years old. The faint bar-shaped markings on the thighs of im-
mature birds gradually become firmly etched, and in a five-year-old
eagle extend down along the tarsus right to the toe-joints. Here
the feathers end. The feathers of the cirrhatus hawk-eagles, unlike
those of the Mountain Hawk-Eagle, do not grow in between the toe-
joints. Generally speaking, the old birds I have seen are more prettily
marked than juvenile birds of the same group.
In the Himalayas Changeable Hawk-Eagles are not found above
nine thousand feet, and in all my wanderings I have not come across
any nest above that height. I have never seen them chasing birds of
prey with the intention of robbing them of their kill, but it would not be
wise to fly a sparrow-hawk or a goshawk in their vicinity.
Most birds of prey defend their hunting ground, but this is not so in
the case of these eagles. I once came across two pairs of these eagles
nesting quite close to. each other. On another occasion, I found a
Serpent Eagle’s nest hardly a hundred yards away from the nest of one of
these hawk-eagles. Obviously they are sociable birds, not given to
quarrelling amongst themselves.
In one of his books about maneaters Col. Corbett mentions having
seen a fight between a hawk-eagle and a wild cat, somewhere in the
jungles of the terai. A fight to the bitter end. The cat, we are told, was
after a long struggle killed on the spot, while the eagle dragged itself
away to die some time later. Some years ago I sent a Changeable Hawk-
Eagle to a German falconer friend, which made hawking history in that
part of the world by eliminating cats from the countryside.
These eagles were really very plentiful in the Doon valley, but then
so used to be big and small game of all kinds. Years ago I was shooting
junglefowl at a place called Chiderwala. There I saw for the first time a
wild cirrhatus chase a peacock with great determination into a thick patch
of pampas grass. Immediately there followed a terrific commotion, and
other peafowl in the area were screaming their heads off as I followed up.
I almost stepped on to the eagle which was grasping the dead peafowl.
The eagle, much disappointed, watched from a tree as I collected the
peacock. Much before sunrise next day I returned to the patch of
pampas grass and was overjoyed to see the eagle rise from the place which
had witnessed its struggles with the peacock the day before. It flew up
into a large tree a short distance away, and in a very few minutes I was
pulling her out of the net,
THE CHANGEABLE HAWK-EAGLE
423
It did not take me long to get her fully trained, and within a month I
could call her from the top of any tree into which I had thrown her.
Some days previous to the capture of this eagle, however, I had rashly
promised to give a friend my next eagle, sol had to send her away.
On a shooting expedition in the middle of March 1944 I stayed for
more than a week in the zamindar’s cottage at Gobindwala and noticed
that every afternoon, about 2 o’clock, a Changeable Hawk-Eagle would
fly out of the thick sal forest and perch on a dead haldu ( Adina cordifolia )
tree about a hundred yards from the veranda. It would stay there for
about a quarter of an hour and then soar in huge spirals until it was a
mere speck against the blue of the sky. We were out after Spotted Deer
and I was without my dogaza , but the temptation to capture our regular
visitor was too strong to be resisted and I sent a messenger to Dehra
Dun to fetch the net and a live pigeon. I lay down that night confident
of success, but ‘ Man proposes, God disposes In the night a jungle
cat smashed the wicker basket containing the pigeon, and as we had to
leave the next day I did not have a second chance.
Fate is not always unkind, however, as the following story will show.
Between Dehra Dun and Mussoorie there is a stretch of eroded country,
about seven miles broad, where the valley bottoms are so thickly over-
grown with lantana, brambles and ber (Zizyphus jujuba) bushes that they
are almost impenetrable for man. The prickly thickets however provide
excellent cover for hares, junglefowl and grey and black partridge, and
one winter day when I was out with spaniel and shot-gun I disturbed an
eagle in one of these overgrown depressions. As it flew out it passed
quite close and I was able to see that it was a cirrhatus and that three of
its secondary feathers were broken. The day was far spent and it would
§oon be dark, so I hurried home resolved to return early next day
to attempt a capture.
Next morning at 4 I set out. It was early, it was dark, and
I remember it was bitterly cold. In fact walking in the open, immediately
after getting out of a warm bed, felt like wading through cold water.
To escape the dew-drenched grass that soakqd me up to the knees with icy
water, I decided to take a short-cut across an open field, but this proved
to be my undoing, for the field had only recently been ploughed and the
clayey soil clung to my boots, so that I felt that I was moving tons of
earth with each step that I took. I felt really cold and miserable.
As soon as there was enough light I went down into the hollow, but
the eagle was nowhere to be seen. I did not waste much time down there
among the dripping cold bushes, but climbed up to the rim and scanned
the horizon all round with binoculars. But the eagle had vanished so I
gave up the search, and as I was numb with cold, decided to trot
back home.
A sprint of less than two hundred yards was enough to part the sole
424 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (3)
of my sodden boot from its upper portion, and the going then became
torture. I am not used to walking barefoot, and soon my toes were raw
and dripping with blood in spite of the fact that I had wrapped my scarf
round my foot instead of the boot that was lost.
By the time I got home I was pretty exhausted and in considerable
pain. I had a hasty breakfast and hurried off to see the doctor about a
shot of A.T.S. But I had hardly gone two hundred yards when I noticed
crows mobbing an eagle in a pipal tree. It was an eagle similar to the -
one I had been out to capture, and was in a place where netting was
possible, with open country and hedges all round. Forgotten were my
appointment with the doctor and the pain in my toes as I raced back home
to grab net and bait.
I soon returned to plant the dogaza in a likely spot, with the live
pigeon as bait, and had hardly moved into cover when the eagle flew
into the trap. As I extricated it from the meshes of the net, I noticed that
it had three secondary feathers on the left wing badly broken. It was
the same cirrhatus hawk-eagle I had seen the day before, and all the early
morning’s pain, suffering, and disappointment were richly compensated.
From a falconer’s standpoint, this eagle is second to none if trained
properly and handled with care. I have hunted with Bonelli’s eagle
and with these eagles too, and when fully trained there is not much
difference between them. In the wild state, perhaps cirrhatus may kill
more game, but for falconry they are both equally good. There is how-
ever one big difference. Bonelli’s eagle is much better able to tackle
game in the open country, has a stronger and swifter flight, and will perti-
naciously follow the quarry for long distances, until it is captured. On
the other hand the cirrhatus hawk-eagle is perfectly adapted for hunting
in thickly wooded country. There it is in its element and performs best.
Its talons are very powerful. Hares are generally caught by the small of
the neck and if the eagle attempts to lift the quarry thus gripped the neck
is generally broken.
In all the cirrhatus eagles I have come across, I have found symptoms
of tapeworm infestation. I have tried all sorts of remedies for
the removal of this pest, but it seems impossible to eradicate the parasite.
Dicestal, as recommended by the makers, may be tried, and has a
favourable short-term effect, but usually the head of the worm remains
embedded in the intestines, and grows again. Therefore repeated doses
are necessary, and the interval between doses may be easily determined
by a pathologist by examination of the mutes.
In this species, male birds (tiercels) are easier to handle. They are
smaller than the females and much more manoeuvreable, with the ability
to dart in and out of thick bushes with amazing dexterity. They are
quite capable of running down hares, peafowl, and other game generally
taken by the female birds. They are very good in catching junglefowl?
THE CHANGEABLE HAWK-EAGLE
425
but the falconer should know how and when to tackle the wary cock
birds. The best time to strike is when the birds are feeding in the open.
Then a long slip may be tried. As soon as the junglefowl see the eagle
they rush for cover and the eagle perches in a tree from which he can keep
watch. You then have to flush the fowl again, in such a way that the
birds are so to speak driven towards the eagle. With a well-trained dog
this is not difficult. As the birds fly from cover the eagle will shoot out
of the tree to bind with its quarry in mid-air. I have tried this method
many times, and have very rarely failed to register a kill.
Some Snakes from Nepal1
BY
Robert L. Fleming, Jr.
and
Robert L. Fleming, Sr.
P.O. Box 229, Kathmandu , Nepal
Data on 103 specimens representing 29 species of snakes from Nepal are
given. These snakes were collected in central and eastern Nepal at altitudes
ranging from 100 m to 2470 m. Twelve species of snakes reported
from Nepal for the first time are : Dendrelaphis tristis, Elaphe Helena, Boiga
cyanea, Boiga forsteni, Enhydris enhydris, Enhydris sieboldi, Elachistcdon
westermanni, Bungarus caeruleus, Bungarus fasciatus, Naja naja, Ophiophagus
Hannah, and Typhlops braminus. Early collections from Nepal lack accurate
data, thus Elaphe hodgsoni, Amphiesma himalayana, Sibynophis collaris and
Calliophis macclellandi are reported from Nepal for the first time with accurate
locality and altitude data. Boiga trigonata, Ly codon aulicus, Xenochrophis
piscator, Amphiesma stolata, Ptyas mucosus and Trimeresurus albolabris were
not previously known from the Nepal lowlands. Likewise Amphiesma
himalayana, A. platyceps, A. stolata, Xenochrophis piscator and Trimeresurus
monticola have been found for the first time in east Nepal.
Introduction
Despite scattered collections made during the past 150 years,
the reptile fauna of Nepal remains poorly known. An excellent sum-
mary of herpetological work done in Nepal up to 1960 was presented by
Swan & Leviton (1962).
Since 1960 there has been little herpetological work done here. In
the mid-1960s an enthusiastic Swiss national collected snakes as a hobby
while working at the Tibetan Refugee Camp in Pokhara. Unfortunately
he was bitten by a snake (probably the Coral Calliophis macclellandi)
and died within the day. His fine collection, we heard, was then
destroyed.
Snakes reported in this paper are from central and eastern Nepal at
altitudes ranging from 100 m (305 ft.) to 2470 m (8100 ft.). Specimens
are preserved in alcohol and are deposited in the various museums men-
tioned or in the Fleming Collection in Kathmandu. Identifications
i Accepted July 22, 1970,
SOME SNAKES FROM NEPAL
427
were made with the aid of comparative material where possible and with
keys and descriptions in Smith (1943). Scientific terminology follows
that of Swan & Leviton (1962).
A total of 29 species were represented in the 103 specimens examined.
Of these, 12 species were new for Nepal, so the known snake fauna of
Nepal now comprises 45 species. We have located nine species of
poisonous snakes in Nepal ; three of them are from the Kathmandu
Valley.
Account of Species
BOIDAE
Python molurus (Linnaeus)
Specimens examined (none).
Remarks. The Python is a well-known snake of south Nepal. It is
found in forests near streams and large marshes. We have received
reliable reports of this snake from west, central and east Nepal. Joseph
Rheinhart, anthropologist, spoke of seeing several during his research
activity in the Surkhet region of west Nepal. On 20 November 1969
we talked with an elephant ‘ pundit ’ who had that morning run across
two medium-sized ( c . 10 feet) individuals in the forests of Chitwan.
One snake was under some dead leaves ; another partly concealed by
grass. In February 1966 we saw ‘ tracks ’ of a large python in the sand
of a Chitwan stream. The following reports are from east Nepal :
1. A small python, c. 8 feet long, was killed on the Tarhara Agri-
cultural Station grounds, Morang Dist., in 1968.
2. A very large ( c . 15 feet) individual was seen on the banks of the
Bagjhora Jheel, Morang Dist., in 1968. When discovered by our
informer, it had captured and partly swallowed a Chital (Axis axis)
hind. Rushing back to the village a kilometre away, he recruited several
men to help kill or capture the snake. Upon returning to the jheel, the
men made so much commotion that the python regurgitated its meal and
slipped into the water. Small pythons also live in this jheel.
COLUBRIDAE
Dendrdaphis tristis (Daudin)
Specimens examined (6). rupandehi dist. : Butwal, 300 m (4), 1969 : 1020 mm,
830 mm, 790 mm, and 655 mm; chitwan dist. : 50 km S. Narayanghat, 300 m
(1), 15 Nov. 1969 : 590 mm ; mackwanpur dist. : Hetaura 300 m (1), Oct.
1969 : head and neck only.
Remarks. The Indian Bronzeback appears to be a fairly common
snake of the Nepal lowlands. The specimens were found around human
428 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 70 (3)
dwellings located in forest ; they are the first records of this species from
Nepal ( see Swan & Leviton 1962 : 140).
Boiga cyanea (Boulenger)
Specimens examined (1). mackwanpur dist. : Anandaban, 15 km S. Kathmandu,
1525 m (1), 15 Feb. 1970 : 880 mm.
Coloration and Scalation. Uniform ferruginous above ; light cream
below darkening to pale orange-cream posteriorly. Temporal scales
are 2 + 2, not 2 + 3 as listed by Smith (1943 : 355).
Remarks. This snake was caught in semi-open Pine (Pinus roxbur-
ghii ) forest ; it is the first record for Nepal (see Swan & Leviton 1962 :
140).
Boiga forsteni (Gunther)
Specimens examined (1). rupandehi dist. : Butwal, 210 m (1), 1969 : length
c. 1690 mm. A heavy specimen.
Coloration. Fairly typically marked with brown above interrupted
with black crossbars. The lower head and neck is creamy yellow with
the rest of the ventral surface light brown covered with irregular, small
dark markings.
Remarks. This is the first record of the Forsten’s Cat Snake from
Nepal.
Boiga trigonata (Schneider)
Specimens examined (5). rupandehi dist. : Butwal, 210 m (4), 1969 : length
880 mm, 805 mm, 785 mm, and 435 mm ; mackwanpur dist. : Hetaura, 300 m
(1), Oct. 1969 : head and neck only.
Scalation. The third to fifth supralabials touch the eye as opposed
to fourth to sixth as mentioned by Smith (1943 : 345).
Remarks. This Cat Snake is apparently fairly common in the central
Nepal lowlands. They were caught near houses. These are the first
specimens from the Terai and Duns of Nepal. Previously they have
been seen in the hills around Kathmandu and Gurkha.
Elaphe helena (Daudin)
Specimens examined (2). mackwanpur dist. : Hetaura, 300 m (1), 1968 ;
palpa dist. : Tansen, 1525 m (1), May 1969 : length c. 760 mm.
Remarks. The Trinket Snake does not appear to be common in
Nepal. It is found, though, from the Duns up to at least 5000 feet in
the Pahar (Middle Hills). This is the first record of this species from
Nepal (see Swan & Leviton 1962 : 140).
SOME SNAKES FROM NEPAL
429
Elapfae hodgsoni (Gunther)
Specimens examined (5). kathmandu valley, 1370 m (2), 1968 : 365 mm and
285 mm ; mackwanpur dist. : Anandaban, 15 km S. Kathmandu, 1525 m (2),
10 Jan. 1969 : 370 mm, 27 May 1970 : 1310 mm. rasuwa dist. : Thangbajet,
1525 m (1), 20 April 1968 : 335 mm.
Coloration and Scalation. Typical grey with two faint brown dorso-
lateral stripes over the grey scales becoming most distinct towards the
posterior half of the body. No presubocular in any of the five specimens
examined.
Remarks. All our specimens of Hodgson’s Racer come from about
the 5000 feet altitude level ; all are from the Central Pahar (Middle
Hills). Earlier collections of this snake were without accurate locality
and altitude data.
Two specimens are in the Anand Kuti Science College collections,
Kathmandu.
Enhydris enhydris (Schneider)
Specimens examined (1). dhanusa dist. : Janakpur, 100 m (1), 27 July 1969 :
length c. 665 mm.
Remarks. This snake is reported to be common in freshwater ponds
and small streams of the Janakpur area. The local name is ‘ Mach
giddi This is the first specimen of this species from Nepal (see Swan &
Leviton 1962 : 140).
Enhydris sieboldi (Schlegel)
Specimens examined (1). chitwan dist. : 50 km S. Narayanghat, 300 m (1), Oct.
1969 : length 360 mm.
Coloration . Dark brown above with mostly incomplete cream-
coloured rings on the dorsal aspect. Below blackish with white spots.
Remarks. This snake was found along the edge of the Rapti River
and was not thought to be common in that area. This is the first record
of this freshwater snake from Nepal (see Swan & Leviton 1962 : 140).
Lycodon aulicus (Linnaeus)
Specimens examined (10). kathmandu valley, 1370 m (7) ; sindhu dist. : Sindu-
liphichowk, 1525 m (1) ; rupandehi dist. : Butwal, 270 m (2).
Remarks. The Common Wolf Snake is one of the most conspicuous
snakes in Nepal for they are often caught in houses . This non-poisonous
species is often mistaken for the Common Krait (Bungarus caeruleus)
for both are cross -banded. The wolf snakes we have seen, though, have
yellow bands whereas the Kraits have nearly white bands. Of eight
‘ Kraits ’ sent to us from Duncan Hospital, Raxaul (located 0*5 km from
430 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (3)
the Nepal border opposite Birganj), seven were Wolf Snakes ; only one
was a Common Krait. Our specimens are the first reported from
the Nepal lowlands.
Amphiesma himalayana (Gunther)
Specimens examined (1). ilam dist. : Jamuna, 1830 m(l), 21 April 1970 : length
c . 920 mm.
Coloration. The interstitial skin towards the anterior third of the
body was an attractive bright orange ; it was especially noticeable when
the snake was excited.
Remarks. Our specimen was caught in a cultivated area of terraced
rice fields, hedgerows and small paths. This species has been reported
once from Nepal (but without exact locality data) ; this is the first record
from the eastern part of the country.
Xenochrophis piscator (Schneider)
Specimens examined (4). morang dist. : Biratnagar, 100 m (3), 11 Nov. 1968 :
length 690 mm, weight 105 gm, 14 Nov. 1968 : 950 mm and weight 212 gm,
Nov. 1968 : length 845 mm : bara dist. : 5 m S. Simra, 120 m (1), Sept. 1969 :
length 705 mm.
Coloration. The specimen from S. Simra was considerably different
from the others examined. This individual was a uniform dark brown
on the dorsal aspect with a bright deep yellow on the ventral surface.
This yellow extends up to scale row three. A dark, almost black line,
occurs on scales lines three and four.
Remarks . The Checkered Keelback is common in south Nepal.
Our specimens were caught near water. Some people in Morang District
told us that this snake was non-poisonous for man, but very dangerous
for cows. Previous collections of this snake are all from the Central
Pahar (hills). These are the first records from the Terai of central and
eastern Nepal.
Amphiesma platyceps (Blyth)
Specimens examined (5). kathmandu valley : Godaveri, 1830 m (1), 5 May
1970 : 600 mm ; mackwanpur dist. : Anandaban, 15 km S. Kathmandu, 1525 m
(1) ; rasuwa dist. : Syabrubesi, 1525 m (1), 22 Oct. 1969 : length 770 mm ; ilam
dist. : Hake Tham (Jamuna), 2135 m (2), 22 April 1970 : 650+ (tail broken) mm,
11 May 1970 : 715 mm and weight 45 gm.
Coloration. Four specimens are quite uniform and very similar :
brown above, cream bordered with a creamy-orange below. The
Syabrubesi specimen, however, is liberally marked with dark brown and
hardly appears to be the same species as the others.
SOME SNAKES FROM NEPAL
431
Remarks. This Keelback is apparently widely distributed in the hills
of Nepal. Our specimens were caught in or near cultivations and human
habitations. This species has not been reported previously from east
Nepal ( see Swan & Leviton 1962 : 114).
Amphiesma stolata (Linnaeus)
Specimens examined (26). kathmandu valley : Kupendol (2), Anand Kuti
College collection (2), Tribhuvan University collection (6), Shanta Bhawan Gate
(3), Patan Gate (1) ; kabhre dist. : Sanku-Reli, 1220 m (1) ; rupandehi dist. :
Butwal, 300 m (3); bara dist. : Simra Airport, 150 m (1), Pawnaipur, 100 m (1) ;
dhanusa dist. : Janakpur 100 m (1); jhapa dist. : Gailadhuba, 100 m (1); ilam
dist. : Ilam, 1300 m (1), Jamuna, 1525 m (2) ; chitwaN dist. : 50 km S. Narayan-
ghat, 300 m (1).
Coloration. Several specimens had (in life) a most conspicuous and
attractive yellow on the upper labials, lower jaw and extending down the
first two centimetres of the neck.
Measurements. Our longest specimen measured 550 mm ; a speci-
men 525 mm long weighed 27 gm ; another 505 mm weighed 21 gm.
Remarks. The Striped Keelback is undoubtedly the most common,
or at least the most conspicuous, snake in Nepal. It is found commonly
in Kathmandu in grassy areas near cultivation. Our specimens from the
Terai were caught fairly close to water ; none were in forest regions.
Strangely enough, this snake has been reported previously only from the
Kathmandu area ( see Swan & Leviton 1962 : 114). The Nepali name of
this snake is ‘ Harhara ’.
Oligodon erythrogaster Boulenger
Specimens examined (2). kathmandu valley : Godaveri, 1525 m (1), 2nd Aug.
1969 : length 555 mm, weight 97 gm ; mackwaNpur dist. : Anandaban, 15 km
S. Kathmandu, 1525 m (1).
Coloration and Scalation. Markings and scale counts differ some-
what from those published by Smith (1943 : 196 and 232) for this species.
The body scales are in 15 rows (vs. 17 for previously known specimens).
There are 188 body scales ; 49 caudal scales. The arrangement of the
head scales is that given by Smith. The base colour of the snake (taken
from the live specimen) is grey or brownish-grey. There is a distinct
vertebral stripe, 2 scales wide, running from the neck to the vent region
where it changes to 1 scale wide on the tail. This stripe encompasses the
vertebral scales and \ of each adjoining scale row. This vertebral stripe
is bordered by a dark maroon stripe covering exactly one scale row in
width but occupying \ of one scale row and \ of the adjoining row. This
stripe is darkened with a black border. A black stripe with a maroon
tinge covers J scale row 2 and scale row 3. Another distinctive black
432 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (3)
stripe, ■§• scale wide covers | scale row 4 and \ scale row 5. All except
the vertebral stripe originate at the neck and remain uniformly wide to the
vent and are not found on the tail. Ventrally, the snake is greyish
maroon. The maroon of each ventral scale is edged with a distinctive
white dot on the caudal half of the scale while the anterior part is black.
Towards the lateral edge the ventral scales are concolorous with the grey
of scale row 1. The tail is a lighter maroon than the body and from
directly below the tail looks uniformly maroon with white dots on the
edges just showing. The ventral caudal scales curve around the body
so that the black lateral edges of these scales join to form a continuous
stripe down either side. Dorsally, an orange-brown line, reduced to 1
scale in width, runs the entire length of the tail while the dark maroon
stripes are reduced to b scale in width. The tail ends in a sharp point
which pushed into the hand when the snake was handled.
Remarks. This snake appears to be uncommon. The Godaveri
specimen was caught on a cloudy day in leaf litter within dense
subtropical forest.
Pseudoxenodon macrops (Blyth)
Specimens examined (1). ilam dist. : Hake Tham (Jamuna), 2225 m (1), 22 April
1970 : length 810 mm.
Remarks . This snake was caught in dense forest as it moved along
the forest floor through very damp moss, ferns and leaf litter. A severed
hand of a tree frog was recoverd from the GI tract. This snake has
been reported once before — from the same valley system (Mai Khola)
as our specimen.
Ptyas mucostis (Linnaeus)
Specimens examined (8). kathmandu valley : Anand Kuti Science College col-
lection (2), Tribhuvan University collection (2), Chobar Gorge (1) ; rupandehi
dist. : Butwal, 300 m (2) ; bara dist. : Pawanipur (1).
Remarks . Outside of the Striped Keelback, the Dhaman or Rat
Snake is perhaps the most conspicuous snake in Nepal. In Kathmandu
Valley they are often found around and sometimes in houses. The speci-
men from Chobar Gorge was curled up in the sunshine while resting on
a cow dung patty. A friend was amazed recently at seeing a large snake
swimming up through the Chobar Gorge, making good progress against
the swift current of the Bagmati. This was likely a Rat Snake. The
large individuals of Kathmandu are grey ; we have yet to see a black one.
A large Rat Snake near our house in Kupendol was watched while it
slowly swallowed a very large toad.
SOME SNAKES FROM NEPAL 433
Sibynophis collaris (Gray)
Specimens examined (1). mackwanpur dist. : Anandaban 15 km S. Kathmandu,
1525 m (1), May 1968 : length c. 485 mm.
Remarks. This is apparently a rare snake in Central Nepal. This
species has been listed from Nepal but without previous locality or alti-
tude data ( see Swan & Leviton 1962 : 115).
Trachischium tenuiceps (Blyth)
Specimzns examined (1). nawakot dist. : 3 km S. Palung, 2000 m (1), 20 Sept.
1969 : length 410 mm.
Remarks. This snake was found on the Tribhuvan Rajpath in an
area of rocks and loose soil. In Nepal this species is known only from
the Mahabharat Range.
Elachistodon westermanni Rheinhardt
Specimens examined (none). In Nov. 1964 a specimen was caught in Chitwan
Dist., 50 km S. Narayanghat, 300 m, and sent to the Field Museum, Chicago,
where it was identified by Dr. Robert F. Inger.
Remarks. This Indian Egg-Eater Snake was caught on a footpath
at the edge of heavy forest and a hundred yards from the Rapti River.
It was moving at dusk. This rare snake has not been reported before
from Nepal ( see Swan & Leviton 1962 : 141) and only a few specimens
are known.
ELAPIDAE
Bungarus caeruleus (Schneider)
Specimens examined (6). rupaNdehi dist. : Butwal, 300 m (3) ; mackwanpur dist. :
3 km S. of the Churia Passr S. Hetaura, 400 m (1) ; moraNg dist. : Biratnagar
Town, 100 m (1) ; Nepal : Locality uncertain (a specimen in Peace Corps Office
presumably from bara dist. : Pawanipur).
Our largest specimen was 1219 mm (4 feet) long and weighed 540 gm ;
14 Nov. 1968.
Remarks. The Common Krait, though not previously reported from
Nepal (see Swan & Leviton 1962 : 141), is a fairly frequent snake of the
lowlands. The Mackwanpur snake was found some distance up into the
Churia Hills and not close to water. The Biratnagar specimen was
crossing the road right at the edge of Biratnagar town at about
10.00 p.m. The road here was flanked on both sides by standing water.
Bungarus fasciatus (Schneider)
Specimens examined (1). morang- dist. : 1 km S. Ithari, 120 m (1), 12 Nov. 1968 :
length 1232 mm (4' %").
Remarks. The Banded Krait, not reported from Nepal before (see
Swan & Leviton 1962 : 141), does not appear to be common here. Our
2
434 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (3)
specimen was found early one morning on the Dharan Road where it
had been killed trying to cross. On both sides of the road at this point
were pools of water. People here recognized the snake but said it was
not common.
Calliophis macclellandi (Rheinhardt)
Specimens examined (1). kathmandu valley : Swyambu Hill, 1300 m (1), Sept.
1968 : length 482 mm.
Coloration. Dorsally this snake is uniformly light brown with an
indistinct vertebral row of black dots ; the head is black with a wide
transverse, cream-coloured bar.
Remarks. The Coral Snake has been reported from Nepal but with-
out exact locality data. This very poisonous snake is not common in
Nepal and so far our only specimens are from the Kathmandu Valley.
Besides the one specimen reported on here we have seen individuals
caught on Toka Hill and in the Rabi Bhawan Compound, Kali Mati.
The specimen given here is well preserved and displajed in the collec-
tion of the Anand Kuti Science College, Kathmandu.
Naja naja (Linnaeus)
Specimens examined (1). morang dist. : Biratnagar Town, 300 m (1), Oct. 1969 :
length 615 mm.
Remarks. Although the Common Cobra is frequently seen in low-
land Nepal, it has not been reported previously from this country (see
Swan & Leviton 1962 : 142). The Common Cobra occurs in the Terai
and Bhabar, but is apparently less common in the low hills and Duns.
Our specimen was caught by Mr. Das, DFO, in the Forest Department
Compound situated in the center of Biratnagar Town. Cobras are
thought to be fairly common here. We also heard they are common
around Dharan where the Town Panchyat has received several hundred
individuals after offering bounties. In March 1969 we saw a large, light
tan Cobra at the edge of cultivations along the Kosi Embankment Road,
Sunsari Dist., but could not secure the specimen.
It is also possible that some Cobras were introduced into the
Kathmandu Valley early in the 1900’s by a Rana Prime Minister.
Rumors persist that Cobras occur at Balaju but these are unsubstantiated.
Ophiophagus hannah (Cantor)
Specimens examined (2). chitwaN dist. : 18 km W. Hetaura, 300 m (1), Sept. 1960 ;
rautahat dist. : 3 km N. Mahendra Rajmarg, c. 30 km E. Simra-Amleckganj
Rd., 200 m (1), Oct. 1969. Both were approximately 3 m long.
Coloration. Both snakes were very dark brown without yellow
chevron markings. The head and foreneck of the Chitwan specimen is
now in the collections of the Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay.
SOME SNAKES FROM NEPAL
435
Remarks. The King Cobra is not a common snake of Nepal. The
Chitwan individual was in tall grass at the edge of forest. It hid under
a large log when approached. The Rautahat snake was in dense Sal
forest and came towards a jeep in which hunters were riding, whereupon
it was shot. This Cobra is a forest snake here in Nepal but is not neces-
sarily found in the hills. The Rautahat Cobra was in Bhabar forest some
10 km from the Churia foothills.
TYPHLOPIDAE
Typhlops braminus (Daudin)
Specimens examined ( 4). kathmandu valley: American Club, Kali Mati(2),
TU collection (1), Anand Kuti collection (1).
Remarks . The Common Blind Snake, although fairly common in
Kathmandu, has not been reported before from Nepal (, see Swan &
Leviton 1962 : 142). Other specimens have been caught and sent to the
Bombay Natural History Society and to The Field Museum, Chicago.
VIPERIDAE
Trimeresurus albolabris Gray
Specimens examined (2). kathmandu valley: TU Collection (1) ; chitwan dist. :
50 km S. Narayanghat, 300 m (1).
Remarks. This Green Pit Viper is not common in Nepal. All
previous specimens taken here are from the hills (see Swan & Leviton
1962 : 116) but this range should be extended to include at least the low-
lands of the Chitwan Dun. Our Chitwan Viper was caught near the
edge of a dense heterogenous forest of Sal and other broad-leaved species.
Trimeresurus monticola Gunther
Specimens examined (4). kathmandu valley : Swyambu Hill (1), Patan Gate
(1), Patan City (1) ; ilam dist. : Hake Tham (Jamuna), 2250 m (1), 15 May 1970 ;
weight 68 gm, length 472 mm.
Coloration. These snakes are typically brown with dark brown
mottling.
Remarks. The Mountain Pit Viper is the most common poisonous
snake in the hills of Nepal. We have seen several individuals from the
Kathmandu Valley besides those listed here. These vipers are found in
yards and sometimes within houses of Kathmandu. The Patan Gate
specimen had grey hair (presumably rat) in the GI tract. All previous
records of this species are from central Nepal (see Swan & Leviton
1962 : 116), thus our individual from far east Nepal is of interest. Our
Hake Tham snake was resting in dense forest under a covering of wet
moss and leaves when its head was accidently touched while we were.
436 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 70 (3)
searching for a rare bird’s nest. The sluggish snake did not attempt to
bite until greatly disturbed.
Trimeresurus stejnegeri Schmidt
Specimens examined (2). kathmandu valley : Anand Kuti collection, reportedly
from Swyambu Hill (1) ; sindhu dist. : Malemchigoan, 2470 m (1).
Coloration and Scalation. Our specimen from Malemchi differs
somewhat from the description given by Smith (1943 : 517-518). Our
snake has 8 supralabials (as opposed to 9-10, Smith 1943 : 517). Other-
wise it is similar to typical stejnegeri in that the first labial is completely
divided from the nostril ; there are 21 scale rows at mid body ; most of
the scales are distinctly keeled ; the temporal scales are smooth ; the
right supraocular is divided by a transverse suture, the left only partly so.
The snake is greenish-bluegrey on the dorsal aspect with irregular
ferruginous markings on the head and body. These blotches involve
single scales on the body, but combine several scales on the head so that
irregular lines occur. These brown markings appear to be somewhat
similar to those of T. gramineus of S. India. There is a pale whitish line
of scale row 1 which is not bordered by orange or chocolate (as described
for typical stejnegeri).
Remarks. Specimens previously collected in Nepal have been from
about 4000 feet altitude (see Swan & Leviton 1962 : 116). Our
Malemchi snake is from c. 8100 feet. It was caught on a grassy slope.
Acknowledgements
Many people have assisted to make this paper possible. We would
like to thank the following for taking an interest in Nepalese snakes and
bringing us specimens from various parts of the country : Richard
Mitchell (Patan and Helembu), Dr. John Harris (Anandaban), Eric
Murry (Ananadaban), S. K. Bista (Anandaban), Basant L. Das (Birat-
nagar), W. Bloodworth (Hetaura), B. K. Shah (Hetaura), B. Kyasthra
(Hetaura), Terry Beck (Kathmandu), Mrs. F. Fiorini (Patan), Helen
Fleming (Patan), Richard Pfau (Shindhulipulchowk), Lee Miller {Ilam)?
Lai Bahadur Tamang (Dhulikhel), Keshar Bajracharya (Janakpur),
Dr. Milton (Kali Mati), Daisy Clasen (Kali Mati), Stella Chapman
(Godaveri), Colin Smith (Godaveri), John Coapman (Chitwan), Stever
Ekherd (Simra), Charles Smith (Jhapa), M. Francis (Palpa), Shambu
Rana (Rautahat) and Merv Olsen (Bara).
We would especially like to thank Dr. Bernard Rosedale for securing
9 species of snakes from Butwal, Rupandehi Dist.
Our appreciation also goes to Prof. S. S. Singh and Dr. T. C. Maja-
puria of the Tribhuvan University, Zoology Dept., Mr. Rajendra Shresta,
SOME SNAKES FROM NEPAL
437
Biology Department, Anand Kuti Science College, and B. P. Kayastha,
former Principal, Nepal Forestry School, Hetaura, for permission to
examine the snakes in their collections.
We also take this opportunity to thank the Foreign and Home
Departments of His Majesty’s Government for permission to live and
travel in Nepal.
References
Smith, Malcolm A. (1943) : The
fauna of British India. Reptilia and
Amphibia, Vol. Ill, Serpentes, xii + 583
pp. Taylor and Francis, London.
Swan, Lawrence W. & Leviton,
Alan E. (1962) : The Herpetology of
Nepal : a history, checklist, and zoo-
geographical analysis of theherpetofauna.
Proc. California Acad. Sci., fourth series
32(6) : 103-147.
The aquatic and marshland plants of
Bundi District, Rajasthan1
BY
J. K. Maheshwari and V. Singh
Floristic Botany Division , National Botanic Gardens , Lucknow
The paper gives a detailed account of the aquatic and marshland flora of
Bundi district in south-eastern part of Rajasthan. The district has remained
botanically unexplored from lack of facilities. The region, apparently un-
suitable for the growth of luxuriant vegetation, maintains a rich aquatic and
wetland flora. The present study shows that 97 species of vascular plants
belonging to 42 families inhabit the lakes, ponds, puddles and marshes in
the district.
Introduction
The flora of Rajasthan has been studied in great detail since the
publication of Blatter & Hallberg’s (1918-21), ‘ The Flora of the Indian
Desert’. In recent years, studies have also been undertaken on the
hydrophytic and wetland flora of the terrain (Ratnam & Joshi 1952 ;
Sarup 1958, 1961 ; Nair & Kanodia 1959; Vyas 1962; Gupta 1966 ;
see also Biswas & Calder 1937 ; Subramanyam 1962). There is, however,
a lacuna in our knowledge of the flora of Bundi district in south-eastern
part of Rajasthan. The present paper deals with a detailed floristic
survey of the aquatic and marshland plants of the district. The region
was surveyed in different seasons during the years 1968 and 1969. Speci-
mens of aquatic and marshland species collected during this study are
preserved in the Herbarium of Floristic Botany Division, National
Botanic Gardens, Lucknow.
Location and Habitats
Bundi district is situated in the south-eastern part of Rajasthan bet-
ween 24°59' and 25°59' N., and 75°18' and 76°21' E. It is bounded on
the north by Tonk district, on the east by Kota district and on the west
l Accepted May 11, 1970.
AQUATIC AND MARSHLAND PLANTS
439
by Bhilwara district. In the south, it is delimited by Kota and Bhilwara
districts. The district occupies an area of 3473 sq. km and is situated
at an altitude of 302 m above m.s.l.
The present study was conducted over a greater part of the district,
with special reference to the following areas :
1. Bundi : The town of Bundi is situated in a narrow and
picturesque sandstone gorge. It forms part of the south-
eastern plateau of Rajasthan where the Aravallis meet the
Vindhyas. The northern part is covered with Aravalli rocks
and in the south are the Vindhyas and sedimentary rocks con-
sisting of sandstone and limestone. The soil is deep black and
fertile. The area has been provided with a canal system hewn
out of the rocks. The hydrophytes and marsh plants are found
in places like Bara Talao, Talao Gaon, Shikarburj and in the
vicinity of Mangli and Ghodapachad rivers. Besides, there
are extensive low-lying areas including paddy fields which sup-
port a thick growth of these plants. The artificial lakes like
Phool Sagar, Nawal Sagar and Jaith Sagar have only sparse
vegetation.
2. Hindoli : Hindoli is a small tehsil of Bundi district and
is situated at a distance of about 20 kmTo the north of Bundi
on Bundi-Ajmer Road. Besides several ponds and ditches
which dry up during the winter and summer months, it in-
cludes a large perennial lake occupying an area of about
2 sq. km. This lake supports rich aquatic and marsh vegetation
throughout the year. The Mej river flows at a distance of
about 8 km in the south-west of the town and is another habitat
for the growth of hygrophilous vegetation.
3. Talera : Talera is situated at a distance of about 15 km in the
western part of Bundi on Kota-Bundi Road. The River Talera
and a number of ponds and puddles are the habitat for the
hydrophytic vegetation.
4. Indragarh : Indragarh is situated at a distance of about
70 km in the north-eastern part of Bundi. It is a low-lying
area which gets flooded during the rainy season. In the follow-
ing months, it is richly covered by a luxuriant vegetation of
aquatic and wetland species.
5. Kishorapatan : It is situated in the immediate vicinity of Kota
district. A number of tanks, ponds and paddy fields support
thick growth of aquatic and marsh vegetation.
440 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (3)
\ ■
Soil and Climate
The climate of the area is dry monsoonic and shows three well marked
seasons, namely rainy, winter and summer seasons. During the months
of May and June, the mean maximum temperature of 42-3°C has been
recorded. The mean minimum temperature of 6*6°C has been recorded
in the months of December and January. Out of the total annual rain-
fall, the months of July to October receive 750-9C0 mm of rains which is
99% of the total fall of the year. The rains are infrequent during the
winter season. The soil can be broadly classified into clay and clay-loam
types. The clay content varies from 25-48%, and shows 25-50% silt
and 25-50% sand. The dispersion co-efficient has been found to be
very low, thus indicating a good water stable structure and a resistance
to detachability by flood water.
Plant Associations
The aquatic and marsh vegetation of the district shows a number of
associations in different localities and situations. Besides, there are
pure communities of Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms, Nelumbo nuci-
fera Gaertn., Pistia stratiotes Linn., Potamogeton pectinatus Linn., P.
perfoliatus Linn., Trapa bispinosa Roxb., and Typha angustata Bory &
Chaub. in different parts of the district. The present investigation
shows that associations of following plants are noticeable in the area : —
1. Aquatic habitat : Associations —
A. Zannichellia — ■ Hydrilla — Ceratophyllum — Nymphoides —
Utricularia (Hindoli) ;
B. Azolla — Spirodela (Kota-Bundi Road) ;
C. Nymphaea — Nymphoides — Zannichellia (Bundi) ;
D. Potamogeton — Hydrilla — Ceratophyllum (Talera) ;
E. Nymphaea — Hydrilla (Talab Gaon).
2. Marshy and wetland habitats : Associations —
A. Typha — Crinum — Phragmites — Sarcostemma — Scirpus
(Talera) ;
B. Bacopa — Marsilea — Cyperus (Kota-Bundi Road) ;
C. Phyla — Marsilea — Eclipta (Kota-Bundi Road) ;
D. Hygrophila — Eclipta — Alternanthera — Bacopa (Talera) ;
E. Eriocaulon — Cyperus — Fimbristylis (Bundi-Hindoli Road) ;
F. Juncellus — Polygonum (Kota-Bundi Road) ;
G. Monochoria — Marsilea (Bundi-Indragarh Road) ;
H- Ammannia — Caesulia — Aeschynomene (Indragarh).
AQUATIC AND MARSHLAND PLANTS
441
Table 1
Showing the habitat, flowering period and detailed distribution of
HYDROPHYTES AND MARSHLAND SPECIES
Explanation of symbols :
4* = present ; — = absent ; A = Free-floating ; B = Attached with floating
leaves and/or shoots; C = Suspended submerged; D = Attached submerged;
E = Aquatic or Amphibious emerged ; F = Wetland ; 1 = Bundi ; 2 = Hindoli ;
3 = Talera ; 4 = Indragarh ; 5 = Kishorapatan.
442 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (3)
Table 1 ( Contd .)
AQUATIC AND MARSHLAND PLANTS
443
Table 1 ( Contd .)
444 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (3)
Table 1 ( Contd .)
Flowering Localities
Species Habitat period
1 2 3 4 5
37. POTAMOGETONACEAE
AQUATIC AND MARSHLAND PLANTS 445
Discussion
The area, apparently unsuitable for the growth of luxuriant vegeta-
tion, is rich in aquatic and marshland species. The Chambal river passes
through the hilly terrain and supports aquatic and marsh vegetation in
the ravines. Its tributaries like Talera, Mej and Mangli carry a con-
siderable amount of sand and are favourable spots for the ecesis of hydro-
phytes. The Hindoli Talao, Talera river and Bara Talao in Bundi are
among the important habitats for the growth of aquatic and marsh
vegetation.
The present study shows that 97 species of vascular plants inhabit the
riverain and wetland areas of the district (Table 1). Of these, 34 species
occur in aquatic situations, 51 in marshes and wetlands and the rest,
both in aquatic and wetland situations. This paucity of aquatic species
may be due to rocky bottom and wide amplitude of water level in puddles
and reservoirs. Some species are restricted to a single habitat, e.g.
Equisetum ramosissimum Desf. subsp. ramosissimum , Nelumbo nucifera
Gaertn., Bergia ammanioides Roxb., Amaranthus tenuifolius Willd.,
Ammannia multiflora Linn., Sarcostemma esculentum (Linn, f.) Holm,
Limnophila indica Druce, Potamogeton pectinatus Linn., P. perfoliatus
Linn., Scirpus articulatus Linn., Arundo donax Linn., Isachne miliacea
Roth, Phragmites maxima Blatt. & McC., and Najas marina L. Among
the species occurring throughout the area may be mentioned Marsilea
minuta Linn., Ammannia baccifera Linn., Potentilla supina Linn., Trapa
bispinosa Roxb., Caesulia axillaris Roxb., Eclipta prostrata Linn.,
Ipomoea aquatica Forsk., Bacopa monniera Pennell, Lindernia Crustacea
Muell., Veronica anagallis-aquatica Linn., Hygrophila auricula ta Heine,
Justicia quinqueangularis Koen. ex Roxb., Phyla nodi flora Greene, Alter -
nanthera sessilis DC., Polygonum glabrum Willd., P. plebejum R. Br.,
Ceratophyllum demersum Linn., Hydrilla verticil lata Royle, Crinum
defixum Ker-Gawl., Eichhornia crassipes Solms, Typha angustata Bory &
Chaub., Spirodela polyrrhiza Schleid Potamogeton crispus Linn., Zanni-
chellia palustris Linn., Fimbristylis bisumbellata Bub., Cyperus dijformis
Linn., C. iria Linn., C. pygmaeus Rottb. and C. rotundus Linn.
The following species are rather uncommon in the flora of Rajasthan
and have been collected during the course of this study : Ludwigia perennis
Linn., Utricularia gibba Linn, subsp. exoleta Tayl., Ottelia alismoides
(Linn.) Pers., Cyperus flavidus Retz., Cyperus pangorei Rottb., Cyperus
alopecuroides Rottb., Monochoria vaginalis Presl, Eleocharis atropur-
purea Kunth, Amaranthus tenuifolius Willd. and Najas marina L.
446 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 70 (3)
Acknowledgements
We are thankful to the Director, National Botanic Gardens,
Lucknow, for facilities. The junior author is also grateful to the Council
of Scientific and Industrial Research,
research fellowship.
Refe
Biswas, K. & Calder, C. (1937) :
Handbook of common water and marsh
plants of India and Burma. Delhi.
Blatter, E. & Hallberg, F. (1918-
1921) : The flora of the Indian desert.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. Vols. 26-27 .
Gupta, R. S. (1966) : A study of
hydrophytes and marsh plants of Kota
and Environs (India). Trop. Eco. 7 :
153-160.
Nair, N. C. & Kanodia, K. C. (1959) :
A study of the vegetation of Ajit Sagar
Bundh, Rajasthan. J. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. 56 : 524-557.
Ratnam, B. V. & Joshi, M. C. (1952) :
New Delhi, for the award of junior
ENCES
An ecological study of the vegetation near
about temporary pond in Pilani. Proc
Rajasthan Acad. Sci. 3 : 1-15.
Sarup, S. (1958) : Hydrophytes of
Jodhpur. Uni. Rajputana Studies (Bio.
Sci.) 3 : 61-70.
(1961) : Hydrophytes of
Bharatpur. A preliminary study, ibid.
4: 1-10.
Subramanyam, K. (1962) : Aquatic
Angiosperms. C.S.I.R., New Delhi.
Vyas, L. N. (1962) : Vegetation of
Jaisamand lake, Alwar. Proc. Rajasthan
Acad. Sci. 9 : 45-63.
Ecology of the Soft-furred
Field Rat, Rattus meltada meltada
(Gray) in Kolar, Mysore State15
BY
R. K. Chandrahas1 2 and A. K. Krishnaswami3
Introduction
Of the ten species of wild rodents encountered in the south Indian
plague focus4 5 (Chandrahas & Krishnaswami 1971), Soft-furred Field Rat,
Rattus meltada meltada (Gray) has been found to be widely distributed in
good numbers. Krishnaswami et al. (1970) reported serological evidence
of the presence of plague anti-bodies in this species. Bhatnagar (1966)
also recorded plague infection among M. meltada in Uttar Pradesh. The
species is also considered to cause damage to food crops, especially
paddy and has been reported to be a serious pest in cotton fields (Prater
1965). In view of its public health and economic importance attention
was focussed on studies on its ecology.
Detailed studies on the ecology of Rattus m . meltada in India are
relatively few. Ellerman (1961) and Prater (loc. cit.) have described
the external characters and habitat of this species. Bindra & Premsagar
(1968) reported findings on the breeding of Millar dia meltada on the basis
of laboratory work at Ludhiana. This paper describes the burrowing
habit, breeding season, litter size and sex ratio of Rattus m. meltada on
the basis of the studies undertaken in the neighbourhood of Kolar town,
Mysore State.
Material and Methods
Systematic collection of rodents was undertaken at a monthly interval
by excavating the burrows from January 1969 to December 1970.
Studies were mostly confined to Hodalavadi, Chinnapura and Kolar
1 Studies were partly financed by the Indian Council of Medical Research New
Delhi.
2 Asst. Research Officer, Indian Council of Medical Research, Kolar. Present
address : Research Assistant, WHO/ICMR Project, 2, Ring Road, Kilokri, New
Delhi-110014.
3 WHO Consultant, Colombo, Sri Lanka.
4 Comprising the adjoining districts of Kolar and Bangalore (Mysore State),
Dharmapuri (Tamil Nadu) and Chittoor (Andhra Pradesh).
5 Accepted February 23, 1972.
448 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (3)
Amani Tank localities. The rodents collected from each burrow were
kept separately in well ventilated cages. The total number of rodents
encountered in each burrow was recorded. The rodents thus collected
were anaesthetised in the laboratory, weighed, sexed and dissected for
the presence or absence of embryos in females and sperm in males.
Sperm smears were drawn from the epididymis and recorded after
examining under a microscope by adding a drop of saline over the slide.
All the females were dissected irrespective of age and those exhibiting
embryos were grouped as gravid.
Observations and Discussion
Burrows
Rattus m. meltada generally inhabits irrigated fields. Burrows of
this species could be readily seen on the bunds bordering irrigated fields.
However, some burrows were also encountered in the middle or
the fringes of dry fields and in the neighbourhood of fields where wet culti-
vation is carried out by well water or irrigation channels. After monsoon
showers, those living in dry fields take shelter in deserted ant-hills
as their burrows get flooded by rain water. Rattus m. meltada also fre-
quents village environs as evidenced by their being trapped in villages
(Sheshadri — Personal Communication). In the Rajasthan desert also,
Prakash (1971) found that Rattus meltada pallidior occupies two types
of habitat, namely open grasslands and irrigated fields.
The burrow of Rattus m. mgltada is generally shallow, simple and does
not penetrate beyond 30 to 50 cm into the soil. Usually, the main entry
is characterised by the presence of more than one opening, of which one
is the emergency exit. The emergency exit is covered by grass /hay
or combination of both with leaves. The tunnel of the main entry and
other openings are completely open without a plug of soil unlike the
burrows of Tatera indica hardwickei. In some burrows seen in the
middle of fallow fields the opening was found to be plugged with the
excavated earth. The main tunnel bifurcates into one or two side
tunnels. These side tunnels terminate blindly after 15 to 30 cm.
Burrow occupation
During the two year study, 519 burrows of Rattus m. meltada were
excavated and the number of animals found in each burrow ranged
from 1*86 (July) to 4-23 (December), average being 2*69 (Table 1).
The average number of animals per burrow was maximum during the
period October to January. It was probably because of the higher re-
productive activity during this period.
ECOLOGY OF RATTUS M. MELTADA IN KOLAR 449
Table 1
Average number of Rattus m. meltada per burrow
Male fecundity
No seasonal variation in sexual activity among males was observed.
Only 17*0 per cent specimens of the total adult males collected did not
exhibit sperms in the epididymal smears. The percentage of fecund
males in different months for both the years combined varied from 62 -0 to
100-0.
Breeding season
Rattus m. meltada breeds practically throughout the year with a
lower intensity during February and March. Pregnant females were
encountered in the population throughout except during March 1969,
March and April 1970. Likewise, lactating females were not collected
during February and April 1969 and March 1970. The reproductive
activity was higher from October to January. The percentage of
pregnant animals ranged from 25 -0 in February to 89*3 in December
during 1969 and from 31*2 in July to 84*6 in December during 1970 ;
the annual average being 67*7 and 65*3 per cent respectively for both the
years (Table 3). The peak in the reproductive activity could be ex-
pected to synchronise with the harvest of the first crop in December.
Generally two crops are expected if water in the tanks is found sufficient
for the second crop to be harvested in May. Hence, the minor peak
in the breeding activity encountered in May 1969 and April and May
1970 could be a synchronisation with the second harvest. Climatic
conditions are, however, favourable during October-January period as
compared to that in the hotter months. Trapping results in the area has
also revealed that R. rattus breeds throughout the year1. Bindra and
Premsagar (1968), however, reported that M. meltada litters from March
to May and from August to October in Chandigarh. The distribution of
pregnancy in Rattus m. meltada according to the weight group of pregnant
females is summarised in Table 7. It is evident that pregnancy was
maximum in the weight group 36-50 gm and minimum in very heavy
specimens weighing beyond 81 gm.
1 NICD— unpublished.
3
Table 2
Age and sex composition of Rattus m. meltada in various months
4$0
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (3)
Number of not pregnant, pregnant and lactating females of Rattus m. meltada and prevalence of pregnancy during the
VARIOUS MONTHS OF THE YEARS 1969-1970
Ecology of rattus m. meltada in kolar
451
p a
y &
a
JW 60
g 2
6 O*
° 60 -h
pl
6-i ^
o o
o
+-> hf)
%.S
I "S
60 tJ
<D C
cS
PL a
CLC
4-> Cj
>>
o
<D JH
y
fi C3
® 60
£ Oh
6-h
CL O
60
^ fi
fl
o3 *2
o C o
S-,
c3 O
§5!
<3 B
*<2 8
452 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol 70 (3)
00
Pi
<
w
>4
w
X
H
o
g
2
D
Q
•8
Q
w
_)
<
* §
w Hh
« Q
< Z
H <
ECOLOGY OF RATTUS M. MELTADA IN KOLAR
453
Litter size
The litter size based on 87 samples of live young dug out from the
burrows, ranged from 2-9 ; the average being 4*8 (Table 5). Litters of
3 to 6 comprised 85*0 per cent of the total. Based on their field collec-
tions, Bindra & Premsagar (loc. cit.) reported a mean litter size of 6*0 and
5 to 8 young ones in Punjab. Although litters were encountered through-
out the year, the period from August to January yielded 56 litters (64*3
per cent). The average number of animals per litter varied from 2*7
in July to 5*6 in November and December. Larger litters were, however,
encountered during October-February (ranging from 5*0 to 5 -6) and
smaller litters were found during March, April and July ranging from
2-7 to 3*3 young. It could be attributed that climatic conditions and
availability of food apart from paddy might be largely responsible for
the larger litters during the period October-February.
Observations on implanted embryos
Of 112 samples examined, the average size was 5.47 embryos per
gravid animal (Table 6). Five and six embryos had the maximum
frequency (56*0 per cent). The analysis of the number of embryos
encountered during different months indicated that the average number of
embryos per female ranged from 3*9 in July to 6T in October and
generally between 4*8 and 6T during the period September to December.
Sex ratio
Of 980 animals both adults and sub-adults collected in both the years,
452 (46*0 percent) were males, yielding a ratio of one male to 1T6 females.
Males comprised 45*84 per cent among adults and 46*47 per cent among
sub-adults (Table 2). Study of sex ratio among 269 young ones collected
in the field indicated a slight preponderance of males, 50*5 per cent. The
gradual decline of males in the population from the young to the adults
suggested that males probably suffered from a higher rate of mortality.
Sex ratio in various weight groups has been summarised monthwise in
Table 4. The percentage of males and females collected in various
months according to weight group for both the years is also summarised
in Table 4. It is evident that males comprised 46*4 per cent in
10-35 gm and 43*78 per cent among 36-70 gm range. But, in the weight
class 71-105 gm males predominated with 68*0 per cent ; indicating
greater proportion of males in the higher weight class. It is interesting
that the percentage of males in the weight group 36-70 gm was minimum
while it was significantly high in the weight group 71-105 gm comprising
68*0 per cent. This could indicate that males might grow faster and the
rate of disappearance is more in the weight group 36 to 70 gm than
10-35 gm range. Iyer (1933) who surveyed some localities in Mysore
454 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (3)
S £
1-3
c a
» bo
5-1 5
<u o
> >>
<o
C/3
JU
u-i 13
° s
c SP
B S
3 43
£3
»ooPfovooot^-m^-iT-ivovo
vo^-csvoo\voTtr>.i>t^est^
mOV©o<NONT-<00\vooo«o
mcs
OOOOOOOOOO^O
(NOOOO^hOOOO^-hO
-hOOO^OOOO(NO<N
ONOOOOOONHTtM
hhOOMNOmOh^^
OOO'tTitSOfnMfSHO
'-H<NOO^HCn^HT-M-l,-lr-<
^00<N00— • ©*- IOOO
<3 « <3
•2 ^ -2 ^
i J "§ -c >. a >» 3.-1 s i i
Distribution of litters of various sizes by embryo count in the monthly collections of Rattus m. meltada
ECOLOGY OF RATTUS M. MELTADA IN KOLAR
455
<D u O
_o o>
3 g §
s
2 S d
o a> bo
< o *
S n
a a
!z ^
^ &o
o
J8 5
l|
a g
—I <U
c3
-t->
H
'0I^OOO(p0\H(>0HO'O
«o^o^vb<ot^<oN-,ov©io
osfnOfNoot^oovooot^^o
t-i ro
t^-r^ooooot^-H^osmTtoo
O i-i n n nn ’t oo
OOOOOOOOOO'-hO
r-nooo^^oooT^otN
^OOOMOrtO)HM(^Tt
^NOONMOOOm^OO
fOOONHMNMHOOO
OOOOOOmO’-H'-iOm
OOOOOO’- <00000
VO
U u u
gjls
2.S |‘C &S >»§f,S I 8
q.,5 § -a a g- o O o
456 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (3)
State observed that the females predominated among live trapped
R. rattus forming 55*0 per cent.
Table 7
Distribution of pregnancy by weight group of pregnant females
The body weights of 452 males and 528 females of Rattus m. meltada
were analysed placing them in three groups of 35 gm each. The weight
of males ranged from 10 to 102 gm and females from 10 to 85*5 gm.
On the basis of laboratory observations, the minimum weight of 10 gm
indicated that the animals are about 14-16 days old. The animals
grouped under 10-35 gm range are sub-adults in the age group about 6 to
8 weeks. The animals weighing 36-70 gm consist of a mixture of indi-
viduals just attained maturity as well as older specimens ; and could
therefore, be about 10-12 weeks. The weight range of 36-70 gm has the
highest frequency among both the males and females.
I yy I - ' ' | i ; ■ ;-:i
I ' 1: , : • . , : .. ; - ' • ‘
| Acknowledgements
F | j 1 ;r_
We areiindebted to the Indian Council of Medical Research, for the
financial support given to the enquiry on the ‘ Epidemiology of dis-
appearing and reappearing plague ’.
The help given by the Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta, in the
taxonomic studies is also gratefully acknowledged. We are grateful
to Dr. Ishwar Prakash, Animal Ecologist, Central Arid Zone Research
Institute, Jodhpur, for his constructive suggestions in analysing
and presenting the data. Grateful thanks are also due to the staff of
the enquiry, particularly to Shriyuths R. Venkatappa, M. V. Anantha
and R. Chandrasekhar for their able assistance in field and laboratory.
I "> k ' 1 “ ** j ■ r ; i ' s :• ' 5
r; )"■ V c ... '1 " i" j
J /' ; :■ ; ; ^
ECOLOGY OF RATTUS M. MELTADA IN KOLAR
457
References
Bhatnagar, J. K. (1966) : The role
of rodents in the epidemiology of plague
in Uttar Pradesh. Indian Rodent
Symposium . Calcutta . pp . 204 .
Bindra, O. S. & Premsagar (1968) :
Breeding habits of the field rat. Mil-
lar dia meltada (Gray). /. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. 65 (2) : 477-481.
Chandrahas, R. K. & Krishnaswami,
A. K. (1971) : Host preferences of sipho-
naptera on wild rodents in the South
Indian plague focus. Ind. J. Med. Res.
59 : 1808.
Ellerman, J. R. (1961) : The fauna
of India, Mammalia, Vol. 3 (Rodentia).
Govt, of India, Delhi, 849 pp.
Iyer, P. V. Seetharama (1933) :
A rat flea survey of the Mysore State.
Ind. J. Med. Res. XX (4) : 975.
Krishnaswami, A. K., Ray, S. N. &
Chandrahas, R. K. (1970) : Serological
survey of small mammals in the South
Indian plague focus. Ind. J. Med. Res.
58 : 1407-1412.
Prakash, I. (1971) : Personal Com-
munication.
Prater, S. H. (1965) : The book of
Indian animals. Bombay Natural
History Society and Prince of Wales
Museum of Western India, Bombay.
Sheshadri, K. S. (1971) : Personal
Communication.
Fisheries survey of Himachal Pradesh
and some adjacent areas with special
reference to trout, mahseer and
allied species1
BY
K. L. Sehgal2
Cold Water Fisheries Research Unit of the Central Inland Fisheries
Research Institute , Kangra ( H.P .)
Introduction
Our knowledge of the fish and fisheries of Himachal Pradesh is very
meagre. Menon (1954) listed some of the species of fish while describing
4 Fish Geography of Himalayas The hill areas of Himachal Pradesh
range in elevation from 353 to 6470 metres above sea level. Innumerable
streams with clear water traverse the various parts of the State and hold
trout, mahseer and other species. The climatic conditions in the State
vary from temperate to arctic. Due to varied climatic conditions, the
survey was done according to the approachability of a particular part of
the State. The survey was undertaken from February to June 1965 and
in November 1965. The aims and objective of the survey were (a) to
gather data on the position of trout and mahseer fisheries in the hill
streams (b) to collect data on hydrobiological conditions of the streams
containing trout, mahseer and other species (c) to make inventory of fish
species present in the various drainages and to determine their distri-
bution and relative abundance and (d) to assess the total fishing potential
by gathering data on fishing methods and gears.
Material and methods
For survey, important sampling stations on the basis of the number of
fishing licences issued for each stream in each district were marked and
collections made. Since there are no fish landing or assembly centres in
the State, catch composition from each stream was determined by 50
castings done with a cast net of 0*6 cm mesh. The diameter of the net
1 Accepted May 5, 1970.
2 Present address : Cold Water Fisheries Research Unit, Harwan, Srinagar,
Kashmir.
FISHERIES SURVEY OF HIMACHAL PRADESH
459
when extended by casting was 2*5 m. Small fish and insect life inhabiting
the shallow areas of the streams below stones were collected by enclosing
one square metre of the substratum with fine square mesh netting cloth
and sweeping this area completely. Small fish and insects were collected
in the cloth and then picked up. Water samples were analysed according
to standard methods of water analysis.
Physiographical features of the drainage
Himachal Pradesh, in north-west Himalayas, is a hill territory of
28,241 square kilometres and is bounded on the south by Uttar Pradesh
and Punjab ; on the north-west by Jammu and Kashmir and on the
north-east by Tibet. The State is divided into six districts (Chamba,
Mandi, Bilaspur, Mahasu, Kinnaur and Sirmur) for administrative
purposes.
The five major rivers which drain the water sheds of the Pradesh are
Chenab, Ravi, Beas, Sutlej and Yamuna. Since the Chenab flows only
through a short length of Chamba and the area is not accessible it was
not included in the survey programme. The region between the water
shed of Dhouladhar bordering Kangra Valley and that of Pirpanjal
constitutes the Ravi basin. The Ravi is the principal drainage of
Chamba district. In its westerly flow, the Ravi receives Sal and Suil
streams on the right and Mehla, Chanet and Naini streams on the left
banks. The Beas which drains part of Chamba district and the whole
of Mandi district has its origin at Beas Kund in Kulu. While flowing
in a south-westerly direction the river receives Tirthan, Bakhili, Juni,
Suketi and Seon streams on the left and Uhl, Rana, Googli, Bharal,
Dehar and Chakki on the right bank. Each of these tributaries in turn
receives several side streams forming independent water systems. The
Sutlej after flowing through Tibet enters Himachal Pradesh at Shipkila
and drains the entire water sheds of Kinnaur, Bilaspur and part of
Mahasu district. The principal tributaries are Baspa, Mangla, Gassi,
Nogli,Behra, Ali, Ghambar and Ghambrola on the left and Wangad,
Barari, Seer and Suker on the right banks. In addition, the Sutlej receives
several seasonal streams in Bilaspur district draining the Siwalik hills.
The Yamuna which drains the water sheds of Sirmur and partly
of Mahasu districts has comparatively few tributaries within Himachal
Pradesh. The major ones are River Paber which joins with River Tons
near Tiunni in Uttar Pradesh, Tons, Giri, Bata, and Markanda all debouch
from the right bank. A complete list of the streams surveyed along-
with places of sampling and approximate elevation is given in Appendix I
while the five rivers and their principal tributaries are shown in Fig. 1.
460 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (3)
Physico-chemical conditions and insect life of the streams
(a) Physico-chemical conditions :
The study of physico-chemical factors included air and water tem-
perature, pH, dissolved oxygen, total alkalinity, chlorides, silicates,
nitrates and phosphates. On the basis of the ecological conditions and
physico-chemical factors, the streams have been divided into three cate-
gories as described in the following paragraphs and Table I.
(1) ‘ Trout streams ’ are snow fed and situated at an elevation of
1470 metres and above. The other conditions are fast and turbulent
currents, forest flora of the surrounding hills mainly of deodar, kail and
ral trees and a substratum of boulders and rocks either pitted or smooth.
(2) 4 Snow trout streams ’ which receive partly snow water and partly
spring water flow at elevations ranging from 875 to 1470 metres above sea
level. Other features are moderate current forming rapids and pools
alternately, hilly forest flora consist mainly of sal, pine and bushy plants.
The substratum consists of sand, boulders and stones covered with slimy
algal matter and moss.
(3) ‘ Mahseer streams ’ which receive spring or rain water are situated
at an elevation below 875 metres above sea level. Other features of such
streams are slow current forming deep pools at places which sometimes
are choked with filamentous algae and submerged vegetation ; forest
flora on the surrounding hills consist of pine, shisham and thorny bushes ;
soil erosion is a great problem and streams carry great quantities of silt
during rains. The substratum is composed of pitted rocks and small
stones covered with slimy algal matter.
(b) Insect fauna :
Insect fauna in the mountain streams depend primarily on the velocity
of the current and nature of the substratum (Hora 1936). In the streams
where current is swift and the stones of the substratum are bare or
covered with algal matter, insect life is largely nymphs of Ephemeroptera
and Plecoptera and larvae of Trichoptera, Diptera and Coleoptera in
percentages of 67#42, 7*20, 1T40, 7’20 and 6*78 % by number respectively.
Important forms of insects inhabiting such streams are Baetis, Epeorus,
Ephemerella, Heptagenia and Iron among Ephemeroptera ; Perlidae
among Plecoptera ; Philopotamus and Rhyacophila among Trichoptera ;
Blepharoceridae and Simuliidae among Diptera ; and Haliplidae and
Psephenidae among Coleoptera. Distribution of Baetis and Epeorus
and Blepharoceridae is interesting. In Baspa and Paber streams, which
show substrata consisting of bare stones and fast current, Baetis, Epeorus
and Blepharoceridae are abundant. On the other hand Uhl river which
has pitted rocks and a substratum stones covered with brown, slimy algal
matter, the three forms were not abundant. Nymphs of Plecoptera
FISHERIES SURVEY OF HIMACHAL PRADESH
461
g B
w 00
S g
p4 <
o «S
P-l Ph
! a
I “
W KH
o M
£ S
a cp
.a a
OQ
<D •
3 S
M CP
Cl CP
-E3 c3
O-S
_ A
g'SB
fis o,
H^o.
OS
T3 C
o —
^ C <4
o » E
t>o ^ CP
.2
Q o
ffi
CP
CP
£
<L>
o°
"S
£
CP
o cj
ft ^
s B
=3 £
’T- o3
Ai i/5
<D
CP
H
o ^
vb'P
oS
4r
o
Pin
<N w
m
O
So
do'P
©3
rl"
«n ^
doO
IN oo
r-
o
IN O
IN <N
r- w
p
Q / — \
T «0
©m
To
o w
VO'
o 9
g? °? o
A vb P do
Ss
IN w VD
IN
9 rt
JZj (o' do
O ON OOOO
do W
op
do ( o'
in do
do w
462 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 70 (3)
were abundant in Suil and Andhra streams which have strong current
and a substratum of bare stones with algal encrustation.
Insect life of the streams which have moderate current forming pools
and rapids alternately consist mainly of the nymphs of Ephemeroptera,
Odonata and Plecoptera and larvae of Trichoptera, Diptera and Coleo-
pterain percentages of 38*83, 6*34, 3*53, 28*20, 9*40 and 13*70% respectively
by number. In these streams nymphs of Ephemeroptera are represented
mainly by Ephemerella and Epeorus ; Odonata by Gomphidae and
Agrionidae ; Plecoptera by Perilidae and Chloroperlidae ; Trichoptera
by Leptoceridae and Rhyacophila ; Diptera by Blepharoceridae, Tipulidae
and Simuliidae and Coleoptera by adults and larvae of Dytiscidae and
Psephenidae. Nymphs of Odonata have been recorded in maximum
number in Suketi, Ali and Ashmi streams. These streams were choked
with mats of Spirogyra and other aquatic plants like Hydrilla and Pota-
mogeton.
A complete list of insects and other aquatic animals recorded from
the various hill streams is given in appendix II.
Fishing Methods
The common methods of fishing prevalent in Himachal Pradesh are
simple but well-suited to the mountain streams. Fishing methods can
broadly be divided into two sub-heads namely (a) nets and (b) other
methods.
(a) Nets
The principal types of nets used for fishing in the hill streams are
cast net, drag net, gill net and stake net. Since the shape and operation
of these nets differ considerably from the conventional types used in the
plains, they are briefly described below.
Cast Net
It is a universal gear used for catching small and medium-sized fish.
It is known by different names depending on the size of the mesh used.
The different names given to this net are ‘ sorru ’ (1*2 cm mesh), ‘weru ’
(1*8 cm mesh), ‘ dobajju’ (2*5 cm mesh) and 4 palka 9 (3 cm mesh). The
diameter of the net when extended by casting varies from 1 to 2 metres.
A major feature of the net is that solid iron sinkers weighing about 5 kg
are fixed to the net on the peripheral cord. On account of heavy sinkers
the net settles down immediately at the bottom thus preventing the fish
from escaping. As the net after casting settles at the bottom, the fisher-
man with his feet disturbs the stones which helps in bringing the fish
to the pockets of the net. It is generally used for catching Labeo dero 9
FISHERIES SURVEY OF HIMACHAL PRADESH
463
Oreinus plagiostomus , Garra gotyla, Barilius spp. and yearlings of Tor
putitora.
Drag net
Drag net or 4 Bigha ’ or 4 Kadh’ etc. as it is called locally is generally
used to fish in pools of the rivers and their principal tributaries in the
lower reaches having moderate current. Its use is limited to dry season
when water level in the streams is low. In the rivers it is often employed
in shallow pools and places where the river breaks up into several chan-
nels. Drag net is always employed in conjunction with stake net. A
stake net is fixed across the shallow tail end of the pool. The minimum
of 3’0 cm mesh is the common type used in Mandi, and Sirmur. The
net is gradually brought downstream from the head end of the pool by
a line of men swimming and diving to drive the fish. Heavy sinkers are
attached to the lower end of the net so that while being dragged down-
stream the net remains close to the bottom preventing fish from escap-
ing. As the drag net is brought downstream and approaches the stake
net, large number of fishermen with cast net fish the area between the two
nets. This method is employed for commercial fishing of Tor putitora,
Labeo dero and L. dyocheilus.
Gill net
It is known as 4 Nilotu ’ or 4Pand *. The minimum permissible mesh
is 4'5 cm. It is a kind of gill-cum-wall net fixed across the stream near
the head end of the pool having slow current. The net is usually fixed
at night with the bottom resting on the bed of the pool. To keep the net
in an upright position, small stones and dry grass (Kana) are used as
sinkers and floats respectively. The two ends of the net are tied to a
tree or boulder on either banks of the stream. During movements the
fish gets gilled.
Nylon gill nets are operated in Gobindsagar Lake near Bilaspur by
the State Fisheries Department.
Stake net
It is known as 4 Bar Patta 5 locally. Its operation is limited to certain
areas of the main rivers. These nets are operated from August to
November. The net with minimum mesh of 3 '1 cm is fixed across a
stream with stones and perpendicular bamboo stakes. The net near
the two banks is kept low in height. Fish which descend down to the
river after spawning find their way obstructed and try to escape through
the sides near the banks. While doing so, they are caught by number of
fishermen with cast nets. This is one of the specific methods used for
catching mahseer in descending phase of spawning migration.
464 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol 70 (3)
(b) Other Methods
Under this sub-head are included rod and line with artificial lures for
trout fishing ; long lines with spoon for mahseer fishing ; spear fishing for
mahseer and other species. In addition, indiscriminate destruction of
young and big fish is done by adopting illegal methods like dynamiting,
diversion of water for killing of young fish and poisoning with certain
indigenous plants.
Fish fauna
During the survey, forty-four species of fish belonging to various
orders and families have been collected. Of these four species have
been recorded for the first time in Himachal Pradesh. These are Raimas
bola (Hamilton), Tor mosal (Hamilton), Puntius chagunio (Hamilton) and
Glyptosternum reticulatum (McClelland). Table II gives a list of the
species, distribution in the State and their general distribution. Certain
species have been recorded to prefer particular ecological conditions and
are described below.
Barilius bendelisis chedra (Hamilton)
This species was taken from streams with moderate current having
substrata of stones covered with slimy algal matter. Temperature tole-
rance is wide, ranging from 18*5°C to 35*0°C. This species has not been
recorded from upper Mahasu and Kinnaur districts where purely snow
fed streams occur. Large number of fry have been collected during
February-March and June-July. Fertilised eggs have been collected in
June from certain streams beneath the pebbles in shallow, slow running
areas. The eggs are characterised by the orange colour of the yolk.
Its maximum limit of distribution in the State is up to 1180 metres above
sea level.
Raimas bola (Hamilton)
R. bola has been collected from a pool in Markanda river at Kala.
Amb in Sirmur district. This river is seasonal and retains water during
the whole year only in some of its deep pools. The pools are covered
with filamentous algae and aquatic vegetation. The species was asso-
ciated with the fry and fingerlings of B. bendelisis chedra and B. barna.
Tor putitora (Hamilton)
T. putitora or the mahseer inhabits the major rivers of the State and
their tributaries situated below 1180 metres m.s.l. excepting River Ravi
in Chamba district, though this stretch of the river lies well below the
FISHERIES SURVEY OF HIMACHAL PRADESH
465
optimum elevation mentioned. This species appears to prefer streams
maintaining temperature from 19-5°C to 25*5°C. The water tempera-
ture of Ravi system in Chamba district during May- June was 12,5°C to
18*5°C. Fry and fingerlings in thousands have been collected from
shallow pools and below big boulders near the shore which are con-
stantly flushed by the main current of the stream throughout the period
of the survey. Large-sized fish prefer deep pools of the main rivers
and their principal tributaries. In majority of the streams it is associa-
ted with Labeo dew and L. dyocheilus along with several unimportant
species.
Table II
List of fishes recorded from Himachal Pradesh
4
466 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol 70 (3)
Table II ( contd .)
FISHERIES SURVEY OF HIMACHAL PRADESH
467
Table II ( contd .)
Oreinus plagiostomus (Heckel)
This is the only indigenous species which thrives in the ice cold waters
of trout streams at high altitudes. They have been collected with some
exceptions from areas having elevation ranging from 1180 to 3000 metres
m.s.l. The species has been collected in River Ravi during May at
468 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (3)
Bhasoli and Thein, the places situated at an elevation of 500 metres
m.s.l. The temperature tolerance of O. plagiostomus ranged from
8‘0°C to 22‘0°C. The occurrence of this species at Bhasoli and Thein
may be on account of low water temperature (12,5°C-18,5°C). Fertilised
eggs are of yellow to orange colour and have been collected at
different periods in the various river systems. In Sutlej and Beas sys-
tems in Mandi and Bilaspur regions fertilised eggs have been collected in
March. On the other hand in Sutlej system in Mahasu and Kinnaur
districts and Ravi system in Chamba district, fertilised eggs have been
collected from May to June. In general, the spawning grounds of O.
plagiostomus have been located not in the main rivers but in the
tributaries with temperature between 18*5°C and 2F5°C,
Fisheries
Commercial catches of fish in Himachal Pradesh are entirely lacking
on account of three main factors. Firstly, the hill streams are shallow
and do not hold enough water excepting in some of the deeper pools
during the year so as to facilitate the holding of large-sized fish. In the
main rivers, conditions are somewhat better but due to strong current
and very deep pools, fishing gears are not effective. Secondly, the
permanent inhabitants of the hill streams are species which do not grow
to large size and it is they which constitute the bulk of the catches. The
average catch does not exceed 2 kg per net provided the fisherman work
for at least 4 hours. Thirdly, due to difficult hilly terrain and lack of
communication it is impossible for the professional fishermen to assemble
their catches at a fixed place for disposal. They sell their catches indi-
vidually. In the whole of Himachal Pradesh there are no fish assembly
or marketing centres. Four types of fishery have been recognised in the
State as described below.
(a) Trout Fishery
Trout fishery in the streams is constituted only by brown trout, Salmo
trutta fario Linnaeus though rainbow trout, Salmo gairdeneri Richardson
has recently been introduced at Barot Trout Hatchery. There are two
trout farms in the State at Barot and Chirgaon in addition to a few hatch-
ing troughs at Sangla. Regular stocking of the streams is done every
year with the fry and fingerlings grown in the two farms. Introduction
of brown trout in Himachal Pradesh dates back to 1916 when eyed-ova
from Kulu were transplanted in Uhl valley. Independently, eyed-ova
from Kulu were transplanted to a small hatchery near Chamba at Siran
Ghat in 1910. From Uhl valley, trout was further transplanted in Paber
and Baspa streams. Since then trout has established itself very well
excepting in Chamba. The trout fishery in Chamba perished after the
FISHERIES SURVEY OF HIMACHAL PRADESH
469
devastating floods of 1947 in the Ravi. The old revenue records of the
former princely State of Chamba reveal a flourishing trout fishery in
Ravi till 1947 and fish up to 3 kg had been recorded. At present fish up to
3 kg in some of the best trout streams of the State is rare. The normal
weight does not exceed 1*5 kg as revealed by anglers records. Efforts
are being made by the State Fisheries Department to explore new areas of
the State for development of trout fishery to attract more tourists.
(b) Snow trout Fishery
Snow trout fishery covers the species Oreinus plagiostomus and 0.
sinuatus. The two species account for the major catches in Chamba,
Mahasu, Kinnaur and parts of Mandi and Bilaspur districts. Good
quantity of the two species is caught in the Ravi from Chamba to down-
stream as far as Bhasoli (Jammu Province) ; in the Sutlej and its main
tributaries from Kalpa to the tail end of Gobind-sagar reservoir ; in the
Beas and its principal tributaries between Aut and Mandi town and
in the Yamuna and its tributaries including Paber, Tons, and Amlawa
(U.P.). O. plagiostomus measuring 47 cm in length and weighing T4 kg
has been taken by cast net at Seema in Paber river.
(c) Mahseer Fishery
Tor putitora is the only species giving commercial catches in the State.
It forms a good fishery in the main rivers and their tributaries at lower
elevations. In Ravi, as mentioned earlier, no trace of existence of
mahseer fishery upstream of Madhopur Head Works has been recorded.
It may probably be on account of two factors, firstly the water tempera-
ture above the barrage is low and secondly on account of barrage which
may be an hindrance in the migration of this species. Good mahseer
fishery below the barrage has been noted by Sehgal, Shukla and Shah
(unpublished) in Gurdaspur district of Punjab. Important streams
having mahseer in substantial quantity are the Beas from Aut to Sanghol
and its principal tributaries Suketi, Seon, Bharal, Dehar and Chakki ;
the Sutlej (Gobind Sagar Lake) and its principal tributaries Gambhar,
Gambhrola, Ali, Seer and Suker and the Yamuna between Kalsi (U.P.)
and Paonta and its tributaries Giri, Bata and Markanda. Major mahseer
fishing centres are Mandi, Sanghol, Ghumarwin, Bilaspur, Dadahu and
Paonta.
Mahseer being a migratory fish ascends regularly from the main
rivers to the tributaries for spawning in monsoon months and descends
back before the onset of winter. Fish weighing upto 3 kg are generally
caught in the pools of some of the major tributaries. Fish weighing
more than 3 kg are caught in the rivers.
470 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (3)
(d) Miscellaneous Fishery
Several small-sized species like Labeo dero, L. dyocheilus , Garra
gotyla , Barilius spp. etc. constitute this category of hill fisheries. L. dero
and L. dyocheilus rarely exceed 20 cm in total length and constitute the
main catches in the tributaries.
Conclusions
1. Physico-chemical conditions of the mountain streams at higher
elevations are characterised by low water temperature, pH close to
neutral point, high value of dissolved oxygen and low value of silicates.
Trout and Oreinus plagiostomus are the species thriving in such streams.
Insect life is also specialised and best suited to the swift running waters.
Algae and other aquatic vegetation are scanty. The mountain streams
at lower elevations on the other hand have higher water temperature,
alkaline pH, higher values of total alkalinity and silicates. Such streams
contain different types of insects, fish and other aquatic animals.
Trout waters in Himachal Pradesh, at present, are confined only to a
few areas in the State. Possibilities of exploitation of new areas in
Himachal Pradesh are many. For instance in Chamba district alone
Sal and Suil along with their main side streams are some of the streams
which afford suitable conditions for transplantation of trout. The
analysis of physico-chemical factors and insect life has shown that the
conditions are more or less similar to the typical trout streams of the
State. These streams are very rich in Oreinus plagiostomus of all sizes.
3. Mahseer fishery needs an immediate protection. Destructive
methods of fishing like dynamiting, poisoning and diversion of water for
catching fish are some of the important factors responsible for decline in
mahseer fishery. Even the sanctuaries have not been spared from these
destructive methods. In the tributaries, juveniles need full protection,
when water level goes low in summer months. To protect them from
poaching, certain artificial pools need to be created. Fishing should be
prohibited during spawning migration. Some of the deepest pools in
the principal tributaries need to be declared as protected and reserved
waters. Mass killing of mahseer during migratory phase has adverse
impact on the mahseer fishery of the Beas and the Sutlej at Amritsar,
Ferozepore, Harike, Ludhiana and Jullunder. The mahseer fishery as
per Punjab Fisheries data, in these areas, have declined from 3*57% in
the total catch during 1961 to 0*67 % in 1965. As mahseer affords an
excellent sport even better than trout, adequate conservation measures
are necessary.
Cultural possibilities of common carp in the hills of Himachal Pradesh
needs further exploration particularly in impounded waters.
FISHERIES SURVEY OF HIMACHAL PRADESH
471
Acknowledgements
I wish to express my gratitudes to (Late) Shri H. L. Tandon, Director
of Fisheries, Himachal Pradesh, for providing facilities to complete the
survey. Thanks are also due to the district officers who rendered
valuable help in the field. I am grateful to Dr. V. G. Jhingran, Director,
Central Inland Fisheries Research Institute, Barrackpore, for critically
going through the manuscript and making valuable suggestions.
Refer
Anonymous (1947) : Report on the
Administration of Sirmur State, Nahan,
for 1946-47.
Day, F. (1879) : Fishes of India,
Burma and Ceylon. William Dawson and
Sons, London : 778.
Eaton, A. E. (1883) : A revisional
monograph of recent Ephemeridae (May
flies). Trans. Linn. Soc. London (2nd
series) * 352
Hora, S. L. (1930) : Ecology, biono-
mics and evolution of the Torrential
fauna with special reference to the organs
of attachment. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc.
London, Ser. B, 218 : 171-282.
(1936) : Nature of substra-
tum as an important factor in the ecology
of torrential fauna. Proc. Nat. Inst.
Sci. India 2 : 45-47.
E N C E S
Hora, S,L. & Silas, E. G. (1952) :
Notes on fishes in the Indian Museum-
XLVII. Revision of the Glyptosternoid
fishes of the family Sisoridae, with
description of new genera and species.
Rec. Indian Mus. XLI (1) : 5-30.
Menon, A. G. K. (1954) : Fish Geo-
graphy of the Himalayas. Proc. Nat.
Inst. Sci. India 20 (4) : 467-493.
Negi, T. S. (1963) : District Gazetteer
(Himachal Pradesh), Chamba. Govern-
ment Press, Simla.
Sehgal, K. L., Shukla, J. P. &
Shah, K. L. : On survey of the Fish
and Fisheries of Kangra valley and
adjacent areas with special reference to
mahseer and other indigenous fish. (Un-
published).
472 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (3)
APPENDIX I
Table giving the list of trout, snow trout and mahseer streams surveyed
in Himachal Pradesh along with the actual places of sampling and
ELEVATION (A.S.L.)
Approximate
Name of the stream Places of sampling elevation (A.S.L.)
in feet
TROUT
FISHERIES SURVEY OF HIMACHAL PRADESH
m
APPENDIX I ( contd .)
474 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (3)
APPENDIX II
List of insect and other aquatic animals genera recorded
FROM HILL STREAMS OF HlMACHAL PRADESH
1 . Trout streams
EPHEMEROPTERA (Nymphs)
Baetis
Ephemerella
Epeorus
Iron
odonata (Nymphs)
Gomphidae
plecoptera (Nymphs)
Chloroperlidae
Perlidae
trichoptera (Larvae)
Philopotamus
Rhyacophila
HEMIPTERA (Adults)
Gerris
coleoptera (Larvae and Adults)
Psephenidae (larvae)
Gyrinidae (adults and larvae)
DIPTERA
Blepharoceridae
Chironomidae
Leptidae
Simuliidae
MOLLUSCA
Planorbis
2. Snow trout streams
turbellaria : tricladida
Dendrocoelidae
Planariidae
NEMATODA
Unidentifiable forms of nematodes
EPHEMEROPTERA (Nymphs)
Baetis
Epeorus
Ephemerella
Heptagenia
Iron
odonata (Nymphs)
Agrionidae
Cordulegastridae
Gomphidae
plecoptera (Nymphs)
Chloroperlidae
Perlidae
trichoptera (Larvae)
Philopotamus
Rhyacophila
Hydropsyche
coleoptera (Adults and Larvae)
Dytiscidae (Adults)
Gyrinidae
Haliplidae
diptera (Larvae)
Blepharoceridae
Leptidae
Simuliidae
Tipulidae
DECAPODA
Unidentified species of crab
3. Mahseer streams
EPHEMEROPTERA (Nymphs)
Baetis
Ephemerella
Epeorus
Heptagenia
Iron
odonata (Nymphs)
Agrionidae
Calopterygidae
Gomphidae
Lestidae
Libellulidae
plecoptera (Nymphs)
Chloroperlidae
Perlidae
trichoptera (Larvae)
Philopotamus
Rhyacophila
Hydropsyche
HEMIPTERA (Adults)
Corixa
Gerris
Nepa
coleoptera (Adults and Larvae)
Berosus (adults)
Dytiscidae (adults and larvae)
Gyrinus (adults and larvae)
Psephenidae (larvae)
diptera (Larvae)
Blepharoceridae
Chironomidae
Leptidae
Tipulidae
DECAPODA
Unidentified species of crab
MOLLUSCA
Corbicula
Limnaea
A study on the Bionomics of
Chauliops fallax Scott
(Heteroptera : Lygaeidae)
at Sehore (Madhya Pradesh)1
BY
R. R. Rawat and H. R. Sahu
Department of Entomology , J. N. Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya , Jabalpur
Phaseolus aureus (‘ Moong ’) and P. mungo (‘ Urid ’) are widely culti-
vated pulse crops in India. Among their various insect pests, Chauliops
fallax Scott was noted to be the most important one at Sehore by the
senior author during 1963 and 1964 and was subsequently also recorded
feeding on these crops from Indore and Seoni districts in Madhya
Pradesh. This is the first record of its occurrence and economic damage
to these pulses in India. Distant (1904) gave a brief account of its
characteristics, distribution and damage. He reported its distribution
only in Ceylon and Japan. Young (1960) reported its occurrence in
Western Hunan (China) and studied its biology during 1957-58. Schwarz
(1927) and Van Der Goot (1928, 1929) reported an allied species
C. bisontula Banks as the most important pest of green manure plant
in Dutch East Indies. An earlier report (Fletcher 1919) records its
occurrence and damage to Soybeans in Kumaon, U.P., in India.
Materials and Methods
Mass collections of nymphs were made from the fields in July-August
for rearing in laboratory. The adults reared in laboratory and the
copulating pairs collected from the fields were confined in glass jars on
potted plants to record oviposition, longevity etc. Freshly hatched
nymphs were reared singly on tender leaves of host plants in petridishes
to study the life history. The average monthly minimum and maximum
room temperature during the course of studies (July to October) ranged
between 28-3 to 30*8°C and 30*5 to 33-3°C, respectively, while the relative
humidity ranged from 68 to 86 per cent. The incidence of the pest was
recorded at 10 days interval on 50 randomly selected and tagged plants.
i Accepted November 11, 1968.
476 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (3)
Results and Discussion
Host Plants :
Previously, the pest has been reported feeding only on Dolichos
unguiculata in Ceylon (Distant 1904) and on soybean in Western Hunan
(China) (Young 1960) and India (Fletcher 1919). During the course of
present study the pest was mostly found feeding on 4 Moong ’ and 4 Urid \
It was also occasionally observed on soybean, cowpea and 4 moth bean ’
(. Phaseolus acontifolius) ; the lesser suitability of these plants was also
found in laboratory due to higher mortality of young nymphs when
reared on them. All these plants, except soybean, are the new host
records of the pest.
Nature and extent of damage and seasonal incidence :
Both nymphs and adults suck the cell sap from the leaves and tender
shoots. Badly damaged leaves show several minute whitish spots caused
by feeding and small black pustules formed by the dried up excreta of the
pest. The attacked leaves gradually wither due to drain of sap and
subsequently fall off the plants. The badly infested plants thus lose all
leaves and die prematurely. The severity of damage was maximum
on 4 Moong ’ and ‘ Urid 9 during August-September when more than
75 % plants were infested and more than 50% leaves fell off the attacked
plants.
The data on the seasonal incidence of the pest are given in Table L
The pest was active from second week of July to third week of October.
The incidence was at its peak during August-September, when up to
45 nymphs and 12 adults were recorded per plant and up to 20 nymphs
and 7 adults per leaf.
Table 1
Seasonal incidence of C. fallax
Average population per plant
Date of — — *
Observation Nymphs Adults
BIONOMICS OF CHAULIOPS FALLAX
477
Life history and description of Stages :
Mating : Mating occurred freely in the field but failed to occur in
confinement. Copulating pairs were observed in the field any time
during day but mostly during morning and evening. The time taken in
mating varied from 100 to 135 minutes, with an average of 118 minutes.
Oviposition : Eggs are laid singly attached to the plant hairs on
leaves and tender shoots, but mostly on the basal part of the lower surface
of leaves, during night as well as day. The female first exudes a darkish
fluid on a plant hair and then deposits an egg on it. The fluid soon dries
up thus keeping the egg attached to the hair. When copulating pairs
were collected from the field and confined on potted plants, only 4 to 8
eggs were laid per female in one or two days after which oviposi-
tion stopped.
Egg : The freshly laid egg is smooth and shining. Light brown in
colour later changing to dark brown. It is oval in shape, measuring about
O’ 63 X 0*31 mm with a slight convexity on one side and the correspond-
ing slight concavity on the other side. Incubation period, during August,
ranged from 8 to 10 days (average 9T days) and the egg viability ranged
from 50 to 75 % (average 64.8 %).
Hatching occurs during night as well as day, but mostly during night.
While hatching, the lid at the anterior end of the egg is pushed open by the
nymph but it remains partly attached to the egg shell. Through this
opening, the nymph first protrudes its head and then gradually wriggles
out completely.
Nymph : The nymphs undergo five moults to reach the adult stage.
After hatching, the tiny young pinkish red nymphs are often found in
groups up to 3rd instar on the basal part of the undersurface of leaves.
The older nymphs subsequently get dispersed. The average durations
of 1st to 5th nymphal instars and total nymphal period, during August-
September, were 3T5, 3*75, 3*95, 4T5, 5*30 and 20*30 days, respectively
with slight variation in different weeks.
First instar : It is oval in shape and measures about 0*66 x 0*28 mm
in the beginning, later increasing to about 0*72 X 0*39 mm. The freshly
hatched nymph is shiny light pinkish red. Later, the general body
colour deepens to dark pinkish red, while the thorax and basal part of
abdomen turn dark brown dorsally. Minute clubbed hairs, borne on
slightly raised tubercles, are distributed all over the dorsal side of the
body and head. The hairs on the legs and 3rd and 4th antennal segments
are, however, simple and unclubbed. The 1st and 2nd antennal seg-
ments are reddish, while the 3rd and 4th segments are whitish. The
coxae and femora are red ; the remaining parts of the legs are
478 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (3)
pale whitish. Tarsi are two-segmented. Paired lateral claws are small,
curved and dark brown.
Second instar : Measures about 0*86 x 0*41 mm, later increasing
to T08 X 0*72 mm. The freshly moulted nymph is light pinkish with
a yellowish tinge along the lateral margins of the abdomen. Later, the
colour becomes reddish brown. The 1st, 2nd and distal part of the 4th
antennal segments and the proximal parts of legs up to the basal part of
tibiae are reddish brown ; the remaining parts are light yellowish.
Third instar : Measures about T23 X 0*78 mm, later increasing to
1*44 x 0*84 mm. The parts having reddish brown colour in the second
instar become dark brown in this instar. Lateral abdominal margins
are pale yellowish and there is a transverse narrow pinkish band on either
side of the dorsum of each abdominal segment.
Fourth instar : Measures about 1*50 X 0*86 mm, later increasing to
1*80 X 0*95 mm. The body colour is similar to that of third instar.
Small triangular wing lobes appear in this instar. Ventrally, there are
two dark circular raised spots on each abdominal segment.
Fifth instar : Measures about 1*84 x 1*00 mm, later increasing to
2*41 X 1*08 mm. The dark brown wing lobes now extend up to the
middle of the abdomen.
Ecdysis : A few hours before each ecdysis the nymph stops feeding
and its colour becomes somewhat dull. The old cuticle ruptures along
the mid-dorsal region of the thorax and through the rupture the thoracic
region of the next instar protrudes out. The legs, head and abdomen are
then gradually extricated out of the old cuticle by the bending move-
ments. Within half an hour the process of ecdysis is completed and
the exuviae is completely shed. Just after ecdysis the nymph is sluggish
and pale but after sometime it becomes active and darker in colour.
Adult : The adult is elongate, oval. The female measures about
2*59 X T26 mm and the male 2*50 X 1*08 mm. The females are dark
brown whereas the males are pale brownish. The body is slightly con-
stricted at the junction of the thorax and abdomen on either side and
bears minute whitish mealy patches and minute filamentous hairs, aris-
ing from slightly raised tubercles. The head is broad and cone-shaped
with dark stylated compound eyes and 4-segmented antennae. The
rostrum is pale brownish, 4-segmented and elongate.
Total life cycle : The total life cycle from egg to adult, during
August-September (average temperature 30°C to 33*3°C), varied from
27 to 31 days. This is in conformity with the findings of Young (1960),
who reported the length of one life cycle as 33 days at 24-2 6°C.
BIONOMICS OF CHAULIOPS FALLAX
479
Sex-ratio and longevity : Based on the examination of 70 adults
that emerged in laboratory rearing, the average ratio of females to males
was found to be 1*5 : 1.
The longevity of adult males and females varied from 20 to 28 days
(average 24*4 days) and 24 to 30 days (average 27*6 days), respectively.
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to Shri H. P. Dwivedi, the then Principal, R.A.K.
Agriculture College, Sehore, for providing necessary facilities and to the
Director of Commonwealth Institute of Entomology, London, for identi-
fication of the pest.
References
Distant, W. L. (1904) : Fauna of
British India, Rhynchota II (i), pp. 35-
36.
Fletcher, T. B. (1919) : Rep. Proc. 3rd
Ent Meet. Pusa, p. 261 .
Schwarz, M. B. (1927) : Some
diseases of Unknown Nature in Green
Manure Plants. Korte Meded. Inst.
Plziekt. 5 : 19 (R.A.E. 16 :190).
Van Der Goot, P. (1928) : Diseases
and Pests of Cultivated Plants in Dutch
East Indies, ibid. 74: 85 (R.A.E. 17:
291).
Van Der Goot, P.(1929) : Some Insects
of Cowpea and Calopogonium sp. ibid,
11 : 16 (R.A.E. 17 : 692).
Young, V. L. (1960) : Preliminary
studies on Chauliops fallax Scott in
Western part of Hunan Province. Acta
ent. Sin. 10(1) : 67-74 (R.A.E. 50 : 593)]
Blenniid fishes from Godavari
Estuary1
BY
V. VlSWESWARA RAO2
Department of Zoology , Andhra University , Visakhapatnam
{With five text-figures)
The lower reaches of Godavari estuary, with a vast net-work of creeks,
support a rich mangrove vegetation composed of species of Avicennia,
Excoecaria , Ceriops , etc. Due to constant tidal action and the conse-
quent erosion of the banks of creeks, the roots of these plants towards the
water are generally exposed. Part of the stems and exposed roots were
generally infested with wood boring organisms mainly Teredo and Bankia
(Ganapati & Rao 1959). The extent of damage done in some cases is
so great that the entire stem appears like a sieve, some of the
holes measuring from about 300 mm to 500 mm in length and 5 mm
to 50 mm in diameter. In the course of investigations on the fish fauna
of these creeks, blenniids were observed for the first time to inhabit the
bores vacated by molluscan borers (Dutt & Rao 1961). It is also
possible that these blenniids might occupy the bores after eating away the
original inhabitants. Prompted by this possibility, an extensive survey
of all creeks in the estuary was carried out during which blenniids were
collected from mangrove plants of all the creeks. It is interesting to
note that these fishes, in spite of intensive search, could not be collected
outside the mangrove plants in any part of the estuary.
Blenniids of Godavari estuary fall under two genera represented by
five species. All the five have restricted gill openings (Smith 1959) and
can be identified by the following key. (The new species is described
in detail.)
Key for the identification of Godavari Blenniids
1 . Gill openings entirely above pectoral base Omobranchus Swainson
(i) Lower canines twice the upper :
(a) Membrane from the last ray of dorsal and anal reaches base of caudal,
9-10 incomplete vertical bars on sides in upper half, 7-8 round spots
along mid side, first dorsal edge black, no spots
O. bhattacharyae (Chaud.)
1 Accepted July 18, 1970.
2 Present address : Assistant Director, Offshore Fishing Station, Port Area,
yisakhapatnam-1 (A.P.).
BLENNIID FISHES FROM GODAVARI ESTUARY
481
( b ) Membrane from the last r-ay of dorsal and anal does not reach caudal
base, no markings on sides of body, two dark blotches on 1st dorsal
O. bipunctatus (Day)
(ii) Lower canines about 1£ the upper: Upper half of sides with about 11
broken vertical bands, horizontal lines in the lower half, a dark band
along the middle of entire dorsal, a black spot of the size of eye above
gill openings O. japonicus (Bleeker)
2. Lower edge of gill openings opposite pectoral base Cruantus Smith
(i) Ventral much shorter than head ; males with a crest and tentacle on head,
sides with 9-10 dark vertical bands, horse-shoe-shaped black ring behind
eye, a dark oblique blotch anteriorly on first dorsal
C. smithi sp. nov.
(ii) Ventrals as long as head : no crest and tentacle on head, a short white
and black band behind eye, sides with a double row of spots below base
of dorsal and a single row along middle, a round black spot posteriorly
on dorsal in males . . C. dealmeida (Smith)
Some features are common to all the five species. The presence of
pores and their arrangement on snout, around eye and from above gill
openings to lower jaw across the preopercular margin is more or less
same (Fig. 1, A, B.). All the species exhibit sexual dimorphism in the
nature of anal fin rays, the tips of which in males develop fleshy spade-
like expansions mounted on fleshy bases (Fig. 4, B). This modification
becomes apparent in maturing males being more pronounced in fully
mature specimens. The anal papilla is very well developed in females
while it is simple in males (Fig. 4, A, C) ; the first and shortest anal ray is
attached to the anal papilla and appears as if extending out of it in
females while it is free from the anal papilla in males. The shape and
arrangement of teeth is same in all the species. All the species have dark
vertical bands on head, however, the number and position of these bands
vary from species to species. There are downward flaps on both lips
at the corners of mouth in all the species, those on the upper jaw covering
the junction of both lips.
Omobranchus bhattacharyae (Chaud.)
Many specimens ranging from. 20 mm to 72 mm total length.
This species occurs in good numbers in the mangroves of the lower
reaches and is rarely found in the middle reaches.
5
482 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (3)
Fig. 1. A. Lateral view, and B. dorsal view of the head of blenniid showing the
arrangement of pores on head.
BLENNIID FISHES FROM GODAVARI ESTUARY 485
Omobranditis bipunctatus (Day)
Only two specimens (51 and 65 mm in total length) could be collected
during the course of the investigations.
Omobraiidius japonicus (Bleeker)
Fig. 3. Omobranchus japonicus (Bleeker), male, total length 67 mm.
This species (34 to 70 mm in total length) occurs in considerable
numbers in the estuary but is restricted to creeks nearer to sea.
Cruantus smith! sp. nov.
Holotype : Male, 65 mm standard length.
Paratypes : Two males, 46*5 mm and 52 mm and two females 49 mm
and 40 mm standard lengths. Specimens deposited in the Zoology
Museum, Andhra University, Visakhapatnam.
Description ; Based on many specimens ranging from 27 mm to
75 mm total length.
484 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (3)
Fig. 4. Cruantus smithi sp. nov. type, male, total length 75 mm and enlarged
views of A. anal papilla of male, B . tip of anal ray of male showing the spade-like expan-
sion mounted on a fleshy base and C. anal papilla of female showing the nature of
attachment of the first anal ray.
D 31-32 ; A 23-24 ; Y 1+2 ; P 13 ; C 13 ; GR 2*6 ; Vert. 10-11 + 26-28.
Head bulky, body elongated gradually narrowing to caudal base.
Depth 5*2-6’0, head 3 -5-4-5 in standard length. Eye 3*0-4-0 in head,
snout slightly rounded, a little less than eye. Males with a semicircular
crest on head from before eye to dorsal origin with a tentacle in it above
eye which is more than orbit. Downward flaps on both lips at the cor-
ners of mouth. Each jaw with 18 teeth, lower canines one and half the
upper. Pores on snout, around orbit and from gill opening to lower
jaw across preopercular margin. Lateral line as a faint groove, bends
below 9th dorsal spine, continues to caudal base along mid side. Anal
papilla well developed in females .
Dorsal origin above gill openings, margin slightly concave in the
middle, otherwise spines and rays of same height which is equal to depth.
Anal origin below 11th dorsal spine, more or less equidistant from snout
tip and caudal base, first two rays short, rest gradually increase in length
posteriorly, height two-thirds in depth. Ventral a little less than two-
thirds in head, split at half the length, outer ray one-fourth smaller than
the inner. Pectoral less than three-fourths in head. Tips of anal rays
spade-like in males. Membrane from the last ray of dorsal and anal
joined to caudal base. Head and body pink to violet in males and pin-
kish yellow in females and juveniles, head and anterior third of
body being darker. Males when agitated or kept against a dark back-
ground attain deep violet colour. Light blue spots on head corres-
ponding to pores. Snout dark, a horse-shoe-shaped black ring of about
BLENNIID FISHES FROM GODAVARI ESTUARY
485
the size of orbit behind eye on either side. Three dark violet bands
radiate from the lower margin of orbit, the 1st passes down the corner of
mouth to lower jaw, 2nd and 3rd extend only to upper third of preopercle.
Two bands one from preopercle and the other from opercle to ventral
side of head, both meet bands from opposite side below, a short band
from below posterior part of the horse-shoe-shaped ring behind which is
somewhat curved band extending from above the band on opercle to
dorsal origin. Crest on head light violet, tentacle dark violet to black.
Sides with 9-10 dark violet bands, slightly narrower than the ground
colour, these bands are lighter in females and juveniles. Dorsal and
anal violet, the latter much darker, the former with a dark violet blotch
obliquely across 2nd and 3rd spines and about 12-13 irregular white
streaks on the entire fin, entire free margin of dorsal bright yellow.
Pectoral, ventral and caudal pale yellow, a dark band on pectoral base.
Tips of anal rays pale.
A comparative account of the new species and the other two known
species of Cruantus, C. dealmeida and C. petersi (Kossman & Rauber)
(Smith 1959) is given below.
St. length
Depth
St. length
Head 1th.
Head Ith.
Eye
Gill opening :
Teeth in each jaw
Pelvic fins :
C. smithi
5-2-6-0
3*5-4-5
3-0-4-0
To upper part
of pectoral
base
18
Shorter than
head
Dorsal and
anal joined
to caudal
base
C. dealmeida
5T-5-5
4*2-4*5
2,8-3*5
To upper part
of pectoral
base
18
Equal to head
Dorsal and
anal joined
to caudal
base
C. petersi
5*7
4-5
4-0
Over almost
whole pectoral
base
30
Shorter than
head
Dorsal and
anal joined
to caudal
peduncle
Apart from the abovemention ed differences C. petersi also differs
from the other two species in the colour pattern which is according to
Smith (1959) : 4 Blue white, scattered deep blue spots. Black stripe along
back from snout, tapers to caudal. On 13- 17th anal rays an oval white
spot, other fins colourless.’ The presence of crest with a tentacle on head
in males and the characteristic coloration distinguishes the new species.
The new species is named after late Prof. J. L. B. Smith who has
contributed much to our knowledge on the blenniid fishes.
486 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (3)
This species is very widely distributed among the creeks of Godavari
estuary and occurs in moderate numbers even in the middle reaches of the
estuary.
Cruantus dealmeida (Smith)
Fig. 5. Cruantus dealmeida (Smith), male, total length 54 mm.
Many specimens ranging from 20 mm to 60 mm total length.
Outside India it has been recorded only from Ponte Maeone, Delagoa
Bay, South Africa (Smith 1959). The Godavari specimens slightly
differ from the South African specimens in the nature of coloration.
The black spot at the end of dorsal fin is restricted only to males. Smith
(1959) has not mentioned any such sexual specificity of this character,
probably because his description is based only on two specimens.
The species is the most widely distributed, occurring in good numbers
in the lower reaches as well as in the middle reaches of the estuary.
Habitat : As stated earlier, Godavari estuarine blenniids inhabit
mangrove stems and roots exclusively and are not found elsewhere.
They occupy the stems and roots at the level of high water mark
in relatively higher numbers than those at the low water mark. The
stems and roots at the entrance of creeks are occupied in greater numbers
than those in the interior. In a few instances they also inhabited dead
and decaying stems jutting out 15 to 30 mm above the mud. In each
case, juveniles always occupied the upper part of the stem and adults
were found deeper down. Each long bore with several interconnected
small bores is occupied by many fish, always belonging to the same
species, thus, showing species segregation. Few experiments carried
out did not indicate any homing instinct among these fish. Whenever
they were removed from the bores and placed on mud they used to crawl
BLENNIID FISHES FROM GODAVARI ESTUARY
487
back to the nearest stem or root and enter the bore. In no case were
they observed to make any attempt to return to the original stem or root
they inhabited.
The fish are more abundant in creeks nearer to sea, and their frequency
gradually decreases up river. However, they were also seen on mangrove
stems of creeks where the salinity varies from about 2 %Q to 33*5 %c during
different seasons. In one creek which is about 15 km away from the sea
(the maximum distance at which these fishes were collected) where the
salinity drops down to zero now and then due to fresh water drainage
from the adjacent irrigation fields, these blenniids, especially C. smithi ,
were not only found to be unaffected by this fluctuation in salinity, but
also bred in the bores. This clearly shows that these fishes are capable
of tolerating wide fluctuations in hydrological conditions and, the de-
crease in their numbers from sea up the river is perhaps to be attributed
to the sparse distribution of mangrove plants in the middle and upper
reaches of the estuary.
It is difficult to say what happens to these fishes during the flood
season (July to August) when the sea water in the entire estuary is re-
placed by flood waters. As stated above, these fishes generally occupy
the roots and stems at the level of high water mark which are not likely
to be submerged for a prolonged period by the flood waters ; it is likely,
therefore, that they remain unaffected by the rise in water level or might
crawl further up inside the bores. The fact that the stems and roots
examined soon after the flood period, when it was possible to reach the
creeks, were occupied by these fishes suggests that they do not leave the
bores even during flood period.
Acknowledgements
I am thankful to Prof. S. Dutt for kindly going through the
manuscript and offering valuable suggestions. My thanks are due to
Mr. P. J. P. Whitehead for useful criticism. I am grateful to
Prof. P. N. Ganapati for facilities. To the Indian Council of Agri-
cultural Research I am indebted for the Research Assistantship, during
the tenure of which this work has been carried out.
References
Dutt, S. & Rao, Visweswara, V. borers in the mangroves of the Godavari
(1961) : On the breeding habits and early Estuary. Curr . Sci. 28 : 332.
developmental stages of Petroscirtes Smith, J. L. R. (1959) : Fishes of the
bipunctatus Day. J. Zool. Soc. India families Blenniidae and Salariidae of the
12:158-161. Western Indian Ocean. Rhodes Univ.
Ganapati, P. N. & Rao, M. V. Ichth. Bull, 14 : 229-252.
Lakshmana (1959) : Incidence of marine
Trapping of small mammals in relation
to the vegetation types in the
Kyasanur forest disease area,
Mysore State, India1
BY
M. A. Sreenivasan
Virus Research Centre , Indian Council of Medical Research ,
Poona , India
During the course of investigation of Kyasanur Forest Disease
(KFD), several isolations of KFD virus were obtained from the organs of
wild caught small mammals and their tick ectoparasites (Boshell et al.
1968 a & b ; Rajagopalan et al. 1969). Since this indicated a possible
involvement of small mammals in the natural cycle of KFD, attempts
w^re made to study the relationship between small mammals and
vegetation types, with a view to understand the interrelationship
between vectors, hosts and habitats in the Kyasanur Forest Disease
area.
Materials and Methods
Four different areas each having one or more habitat types were
selected for trapping the small mammals. These areas were located
near the villages of Kuruvari, Balagodu, Kalkoppa and Kangodu. The
different habitat types selected for trapping are shown in Table 1. In
areas around Kuruvari and Balagodu, the trapping was done from May
1969 to April 1970 ; in areas around Kalkoppa, from August 1969 to
April 1970, and in areas around Kangodu, from Sept. 1969 to April
1970. Eighty to one hundred sherman traps were set in marked places
30 to 40 ft. apart with ‘pakoda’ as a bait. The traps were left overnight
and collected on the following morning. The trapped small mammals
were released after identification.
1 Accepted July 29, 1972.
TRAPPING OF SMALL MAMMALS
489
Description of Areas
Kuruvari :
This trapping area consists of semi-evergreen forest, scrub forest,
edge of the forest and paddy field. The semi-evergreen forest is com-
posed of tall trees and thick undergrowth, providing a good un-
interrupted ground cover. The top soil consists of dead and decaying
leaves and other forest litter. Scrub forest encircles the semi-evergreen
forest on three sides. Here the ground cover is sparse and consists
mainly of wild date palm ( Phoenix sp.) and a few short trees. This
leaves considerable areas of the ground exposed and open. The paddy
field is situated in the shallow valley and has a terraced appearance. The
edge of the forest which runs along the paddy field is an abrupt end of the
semi-evergreen forest.
Balagodu :
This study area includes the edge of a semi-evergreen forest with
large thickets of lantana ( Lantana aculeata), and a paddy field.
Kalkoppa :
Here the trapping was done in a teak plantation ( Tectona grandis),
which has a thick undergrowth composed mainly of lantana bushes.
Kangodu :
Peridomestic areas was selected in a narrow patch of cleared zone
adjacent to Kangodu village.
Results
In all 493 small mammals belonging to 8 species were trapped in
6810 trap nights. The composition of the species of small mammals,
in the order of numerical abundance were : Rattus rattus wroughtoni
(39T%), Suncus murinus (35.9%), Rattus blanfordi (14-4%), Mus sp.
(6T %), Rattus rufescens (3.0%), Funambulus tristriatus tristriatus (1*0%),
Golunda ellioti (0.2%) and Tatera indica (0*2%). Of the 8 species of
small mammals trapped the relationship between the habitat types and
the distribution could be assessed only for three species, viz., Rattus r.
wroughtoni , S. murinus and R. blanfordi. The other species of small
mammals were trapped in small numbers, and it was not possible to
associate them with any habitat types.
Table 1 gives the distribution of small mammals according to
the habitat types. The total number of small mammals trapped at the
edge of the forest exceeded the number trapped from other habitat types.
Rattus r. wroughtoni was trapped most frequently from semi-evergreen
Table 1
Number and species of small mammals trapped from four localities
ACCORDING TO HABITAT TYPES (NUMBERS IN THE PARENTHESIS GIVE THE PERCENTAGES)
490
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 70 (3)
&
^ <N <N w w w _ — i
O 7^
m vo
Co
m cn
; — I 'T on — < — r"~
r-~ «o
n- ^ o o 9 ?
ON t-> m <N cn ’ — 1 1~~- NO oo
W CN* <N rsj w
^ "T
4i-
ON T (N ^ Os^ON^olTm'f’cN^ON^ooT1
vo Tt- — n r-~ vo ■— 1 ro’-'-H
go Tf m rNw^n ^ — ' m — i
ro •
ON ON
^h m
o 2.s?
VO © ©
oo © o
<N r-
© © o ©
<N <N vo r-H
ON ON ON t^.
Ch £h C/>
<D c/i <U TO
<U D <U -0
u c (-1 <D
?o,o &oy=i
<L>
<u >>
cu ^ QJ ^
> > 73
vsv-d
'a a a a
> crb
.O
O P >.
<U ^ <D ^
^ T3 ^ oj
Oh
w
C t/3
(O TO
<o 4h
Si <D
bOcC
<u >.
> ©
S &
p >.
<D £ TO
^0 <73
2 O
3 z
R.r.w. = Rattus rattus wroughtoni F.t.t. = Funambulus tristriatus tristriatus
R. b. - Rattus blanfordi R.r. = Rattus rufescens
S. m. = Suncus murinus G.e. = Golunda ellioti
M. sp. = Mas booduga or Mus cervicolor T.i. = Tatera indica
TRAPPING OF SMALL MAMMALS
491
forest (84*1 % of small mammals trapped in this habitat type) and a lesser
extent from the edge of the semi-evergreen forest (52*9%), teak planta-
tion (51*3%) and scrub forest (41*4%). S. murinus formed 71*8% and
93*9% of small mammals trapped from peridomestic area and paddy
fields respectively. Except for the edge of the forest along the paddy
field at Kuruvari, in the other habitat types the trapping of S. murinus
was considerably low. R. blanfordi was trapped more frequently in the
lantana thickets of forest edge (27*9%) and teak plantation (27*0%)
than in other habitat types.
Discussion
The trapping results of the present observations indicate a certain
degree of preference in at least 3 species of small mammals to a particular
habitat type. Though Rattus r. wroughtoni were trapped most frequently
from the semi-evergreen forest at Kuruvari, to a lesser extent they were
also trapped in the scrub forest and teak plantation. This species is
known to inhabit the tree holes (Rajagopalan 1970). Therefore, the
presence of large number of Rattus r. wroughtoni in semi-evergreen forest
may have some bearing with the availability of tree holes in this habitat
type. The trapping of large number of S. murinus from the paddy fields
and peridomestic area, is an observation of considerable interest. Be-
cause, this habitat does not seem to favour other species of small
mammals. The paddy fields also remain flooded during the monsoon
months between June to September. The trapping of S. murinus in the
paddy fields during monsoon months indicates that flooding does not
affect their distribution. The only other habitat where S. murinus was
trapped in considerable number was the edge of the semi -evergreen
forest adjacent to the paddy fields at Kuruvari. Another observation
of some interest is the trapping of more R. blanfordi from the lantana-
covered edge of the forest and teak plantation. This gives a slight indi-
cation of their preference to the thickets.
Constant exploitations by man over several years have brought about
marked ecological changes in the Kyasanur Forest Disease area. While
analyzing the results of this nature one should ponder over the possi-
bility of several factors responsible for the distribution of small mammals,
such as : availability of food, shelter, presence or absence of predators
etc. However, not much information is available on this aspect for most
of the species. Perhaps a more intensive study giving consideration to
the several parameters, may reveal the complex nature of inter-relation-
ship between the small mammals and their habitats.
492 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (3)
Summary
Four hundred and ninety-three small mammals belonging to 8 species
were trapped at different habitat types in the Kyasanur Forest Disease
area. The habitat types selected for the study were : semi-evergreen
forest, scrub forest, edge of the forest, paddy fields, teak plantation and
peridomestic area. While 84T % of small mammals trapped in the
semi-evergreen forest was Rattus r. wroughtoni, S. murinus formed 71*8%
and 93*9% of small mammals trapped at peridomestic area and paddy
fields respectively. R. blanfordi were trapped more frequently in the
lantana thickets along the edge of the forest and teak plantation, where
it formed 27*9% and 27 *0% respectively of the small mammals trapped
in these regions.
Acknowledgements
I am grateful to the Director, Virus Research Centre, Poona,
for his constant encouragement ; to Dr. V. Dhanda and Dr. H. R. Bhat
for valuable suggestions and help in the preparation of the manuscript.
Acknowledgement is also made of the assistance given by the staff of the
Virus Research Centre, Field Station, Sagar.
References
Boshell, M. J., Rajagopalan, P. K.,
Goverdhan, M. K. & Pavri, K. M.
(1968a) : The isolation of Kyasanur
Forest Disease virus from small mammals
of Sagar-Sorab forests, Mysore State,
India : 1961-1964. Ind. Jour. Med. Res.
56 : (Suppl.) 569-572.
, Patil, A. P. &
Pavri, K. M. (1968Z>) : Isolation of
Kyasanur Forest Disease virus from
Ixodid ticks : 1961-1964. ibid. 56 :
(Suppl.) 541-568.
Rajagopalan, P. K., Paul, S. D.,
Sreenivasan, M. A. (1969) : Involve-
ment of Rattus blanfordi (Rodentia :
Muridae) in the natural cycle of
Kyasanur Forest Disease virus, ibid.
57 : 999-1002.
— , (1970) : Notes on
the arboreal nests of some rodents, ibid.
58 : 1192-1194.
New Plant records for the Upper
Gangetic Plain1
BY
Kr. N. Bahadur, R. Dayal and D. P. Raturi
Systematic Botany Branch, Forest Research Institute , Dehra Dun
( With two plates)
Five species are reported in this paper as new records for the Upper
Gangetic Plain. These are : Erigeron karvinskianus DC., Eupatorium riparium
Regel, Hibiscus furcatus Roxb., Indigofer a arrecta Hochst. and Justicia
prostrata (Clarke) Gamble. Apart from being a new record for the above-
mentioned area, H. furcatus is also reported here for the first time from the
N.W. Himalayas. Illustration for this taxon as well as for E. riparium are
provided.
During the course of identification of plants in the F.R.I. (Dehra
Dun) Herbarium the following five species were detected by the
authors to be new records for the Upper Gangetic Plain. This area of
c. 480,000 sq km is defined to cover the States of Uttar Pradesh, Delhi,
East Rajasthan including the former Ajmer-Merwara and the northern
portion of Madhya Pradesh including the former Madhya Bharat, Bhopal
and Vindhya Pradesh ; places above 700 m of altitude within the area are,
however, excluded.
These plants were not included by Duthie (1903-29) in his ‘ Flora of
the Upper Gangetic Plain ’, nor have they been reported by subsequent
botanists working on the vegetation of this region. The present paper,
therefore, records for the first time the occurrence of these taxa in this
region.
Apart from being a new record for the Upper Gangetic Plain, Hibiscus
furcatus Roxb. is also reported here for the first time from N.W.
Himalayas. Eupatorium riparium Regel, an ornamental plant from the
Americas, does not find mention in any of the Indian Floras. Recently,
Raizada & Saxena (1967) have listed it as occurring occasionally under
‘ apparently wild 9 condition in the vicinity of Mussoorie. The plant is,
however, reported here as occurring under fully naturalised condition in
our country. Illustrations for both these plants are provided.
Relevant synonymy, brief description, phenology, general distri-
bution and places of collection (within the area and in some cases in
1 Accepted July 9, 1970.
494 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 70 (3)
adjoining areas also) of each species are given. The descriptions are
mainly based on the specimens collected from within the region and
quoted in the paper, but they have invariably been compared with the
original descriptions of the types and also with the accounts appearing
in various earlier publications cited under synonymy. The specimens
quoted in the paper, unless otherwise stated, are lodged in Dehra Dun
Herbarium. The species are arranged alphabetically.
Erigeron karvinskianus DC.
Prod. 5 : 285 (1836) ; Standley Trees & Shrubs Mexic. 2(5) : 1499
(1961).
Syn. E. mucronatus DC. loc. cit. (1836); Fyson Hillt. FI. 1: 223 (1915) ;
Gamble FI. Mad. 2 (4) : 682 (1921) ; Raizada in Indian For.
85 (11): 679 (1959).
E. trilobus Sonder in Hamb. Gart. Zeit. 12 : 78 (1856) excl. syn.
E. karvinskianus var. mucronatus Hieron. in Engler Bot. Jahrb.
28 : 585 (1900).
Vittadinia triloba auct. non DC. nom. al. Fyson loc. cit. (1915) ;
Standley loc. cit. (1961).
V. australis auct. non. A. Rich. nom. al. Fyson loc. cit. (1915) ;
Gamble loc . cit. (1921).
A slender, decumbent herb, 60 cm long or less. Leaves alternate,
xanceolate, entire or lobed, lobes mucronate, base attenuate, glabrous
or minutely ciliate. Heads long-peduncled and solitary, terminal or
axillary ; ray-florets white or pinkish ; disc-florets yellowish. Ligules
biseriate. Pappus double.
Flowering and fruiting : Throughout the year.
Indigenous to Mexico and Central & South Americas where it was
erroneously called Vittadinia triloba DC., earlier. Cultivated and run
wild in Nilgiris, Mussoorie and Dehra Dun. Common along water
channels.
In Nilgiris it has for long been known under the wrong name of
Vittadinia australis A. Rich, which is an Australian species and is al-
together different (cf. Fyson loc. cit. 1915 & Gamble loc. cit. 1921).
Dehra Dun : Ballupur (Dec. 1965) R. Dayal 460 ; New Forest
(Apr. 1969) H. B. Naithani 6555 ; Tons Nullah (Apr. 1969) H. B. Naithani
6556 ! ; Bijapur Canal (June 1969) H. B. Naithani 6940.
PLANT RECORDS FOR GANGETIC PLAIN
495
Eupatorium riparium Regel
Gartenfl. 324 (1866) ; Standley Trees & Shrubs Mexic. 2 (5) :
1464 (1961) ; Raizada & Sa&ena in J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
64 (1) : 83 (1967). (Plate I).
Syn. E. flexicaule Schnittspahn Zeitschr. Gartenb. ver. Darmstadt 6 :
Anlage 2 : 5 (1857) nom. nud.
E. riparium Schultz in Schnittspahn loc. cit. (1857) nom. nud.
E. harrisii Urban Symb. Antill. 1 : 460 (1900).
A slender, herbaceous plant with terete, flexous, finely pubescent, at
length somewhat lignescent stems. Leaves opposite, lanceolate, atte-
nuate to each end, serrate from near the middle outward, 3-nerved from
the base, 5-10 X 1-2-5 cm, sparingly pubescent on the nerves. Corymbs
numerous, small, panicled; phyllaries pale-green, lanceolate, scarious-
edged ; corollas white.
Flowering : January-March. Fruiting : April-June.
Indigenous to Mexico and West Indies. Flowers copiously. In
Mexico it has long been valued for hot-house cultivation. Cultivated
in gardens in northern India. Run wild in Mussoorie and Dehra Dun.
Dehra Dun : Bamboo Plantation, F.R.I. (March 1965) R. Dayal
4 ! ; near M.F.P. Nursery, F.R.I. (January 1967) H. B. Naithani 1928 ;
Teak Gate Road, New Forest (May 1967) R. Dayal 21759 ; Tons Nullah
(Feb. 1969) R. Dayal 21800.
Mussoorie : Bhatta Falls, 1494 m (March and April 1961) H.O.
Saxena 1668 and 1820 (b).
This plant is not mentioned in any of the Indian Floras. Raizada
and Saxena (1967) have, however, mentioned it as occurring occasionally
near Bhatta Falls in Mussoorie. But, most probably, not being sure of
its naturalised condition, on account of the collection being only from
one small locality, they have preferred to call it ‘ apparently wild \ Now,
since this species has also been collected from at least 3 different localities
in Dehra Dun, it can safely be said to have escaped from cultivation and
thus become completely naturalised in our country. It has already
established itself in Dehra Dun, and it would be interesting to watch
its further spread, particularly in the plains districts.
Hibiscus furcatus Roxb.
Hort. Beng. 51 (1814) ; DC. Prod. 1 : 449 (1824) ; Spr. Syst. 3 : 102 (1826) ;
Roxb. FI. Ind. 3 : 204 (1832) ; W. & A. Prod. 1 : 48 (1834) ;
496 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 70 (3)
Dalz. & Gibs. Bomb. FI. 19 (1861) ; Mast, in Hook. /. FI.
Brit. Ind. 1 : 335 (1874) ; Prain Beng. PI. 1 : 267 (1903) ;
Talbot For. FI. 1 : 119 (1909) ; Gamble FI. Mad. 1 (1) : 97
(1915) ; Haines Bot. Bihar & Orissa 2 : 67 (1921) ; van Waalkes
in Blumea 14 (1) : 59, 84 (1966). (Plate II).
Syn . H. rostellatus Guill. et Perr. FI. Seneg. 1 : 55 (1830); Mast, in
Oliv. FI. Trop. Afr. 1 : 201 (1868) ; Keay in FI. W. Trop. Afr.
2nd ed. 11 (2): 346 (1958).
H. aculeatus Roxb. FI. Ind. 3 : 206 (1832).
H. hispidissimus Griff. Not id. 4 : 52 (1851).
H. furcellatoides Hochr. in Ann. Conserv. & Jard. Bot. Geneve 20 :
157(1917).
An erect (or rambling ?), suffruticose, slender, shrub up to 4 m high
with pungent, recurved prickles. Leaves 5 cm across, entire or slightly
lobed, cordate, pubescent, crenate ; stipules up to 0’5 cm long, linear-
lanceolate. Flowers large (5 cm in diam.), axillary, sub-racemose, dis-
tant with 10-12 setose forked bracteoles ; calyx enlarged in fruit, very
hispid and with shining bristles ; corolla yellow with a crimson centre.
Capsule 1 cm long, enclosed in the enlarged calyx.
Flowering: September, October. Fruiting: November, December.
Tropics of the old world. Common in hotter parts of India, ascend-
ing to 1220 m in N. W. Himalayas. (This species was so far known to
occur in the plains of peninsular India, Bengal and Orissa.)
Dehra Dun : Saura Village, Raipur (Sept. 1968) D. P. Raturi 6251 ;
Song River, Raipur (Sept. 1968) D. P. Raturi 6252 ; Pump-House, near
Ordnance Factory (Sept. 1968) D. P. Raturi 6253.
Tehri-Garhwal : Tehri, 1219 m (Sept. 1875) anonymous s.n.
Apart from being a new record for the Upper Gangetic Plain, this
species is reported here for the first time from the N.W. Himalayas,
namely Tehri-Garhwal.
It is interesting to note that the specimens of this species collected
from North India have a very short peduncle (5-7 mm), a character
which compares favourably with Roxburgh’s description of the type.
The specimens from South India available in Dehra Dun Herbarium,
however, show a very long peduncle (4-5 cm) and agree with the des-
cription of Talbot (1909) and others. This variation has to be looked
into, and for this, further material from South India needs to be examined.
Plate I
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 70 (3)
Bahadur, Dayal & Raturi: Plant Records
Eupatorium riparium Regel
1. a portion of the plant ; 2. inflorescense ; 3. phyllaries ; 4, a single flower ;
5. seed with pappus.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 70 (3)
Bahadur, Dayal, & Raturi : Plant Records
Plate II
Hibiscus furcatus Roxb.
1. a portion of the plant ; 2. stipules and bractioles; 3. capsule with enlarged calyx ;
4. opened capsule showing seeds.
PLANT RECORDS FOR GANGETIC PLAIN 497
There also seems to be a correlation between the size of the peduncle
and the lobation of leaves. The leaves in the specimens from North
India which have very short peduncles are either entire or only superfi-
cially lobed as shown in the illustration (Plate II), while in the South
Indian specimens having long peduncles they are invariably deeply
lobed and are seldom entire.
H. furcatus Roxb. is very close to H. surattensis L., a widely distri-
buted Indian species. It can, however, be distinguished from the latter
by the oblong lanceolate stipules and linear forked bracteoles (epicalyx).
H. surattensis on the other hand, has broad auriculate stipules and
spathulate bracteoles which are provided with an appendage.
Indigofera arrecta Hochst. ex A. Rich.
Tent. FI. Abyss. 1 : 184 (1847) ; Baker in Oliv. FI. Trop. Afr .
2 : 97 (1871) ; Haines Bot. Bihar & Orissa 2 : 239 (1921) ;
Koorders Exkursiansfl. Java 4 (7) : 947 (1926) ; Nicholls &
Holland Text Book Trop. Agric. 38 (1929) ; Nicholes in Bull.
Dept. Agric. Gold Coast 16, t. 61 (1929) ; Hepper in Keay FI.
W. Trop. Afr. 2nd ed. 1 (2) : 541 (1958).
Syn. I. tinctoria var. arrecta Berhaut in Chev. Bot. 50 (1920).
An erect, deep-green, leafy undershrub 1-2 m high, with angled and
grooved thinly strigose stems. Leaves pinnate, 10-13 cm long with c.
7 pairs and 1 odd leaflet. Flowers inconspicuous, pink-red, in solitary
axillary racemes up to 4 cm long, gradually elongating and becoming
double the size but bearing pods only near the base. Pods straight and
reflexed, c. 2*5 cm long.
Flowering and fruiting : September-February.
Indigenous to tropical Africa and Java. Cultivated in indigo planta-
tions in northern India. Run wild in Dehra Dun.
Dehra Dun : ‘ Chir ’ plantation area F.R.I. (Dec. 1954) T. C. Naithani
s.n ., (Sept. 1965) R. Dayal 419 ; New Forest (Aug. 1966) R. Dayal
490.
Justicia prostrata (Clarke) Gamble
FI. Mad. 2 (6) : 1081 (1924) ; Santapau in Bot. Mem. Un. Bombay
2 : 88 (1951) n.v. ; Ramamurthy in Bull. Bot. Surv. India 5
(3 & 4) : 264 (1963) ; Subramanian in Indian For. 92 (3) :
46 (1966).
6
498 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (3)
Syn. J. diffusa Willd. var. prostrata Clarke in Hook. /. FI. Brit. Ind.
4 : 538 (1885) ; Trim. TV. Ceyl. 3 : 338 (1893) ; Cooke FI. Bomb.
2 : 410 (1908).
A small, pale, prostrate herb with diffusely spreading branches.
Leaves small, opposite, ovate or sub-orbicular, hairy on both surfaces,
slightly acuminate or with blunt apex. Spikes 7-8 cm long. Flowers
small, mauve or white. Bracteoles & sepals broad and hairy. Corolla
4 mm long, pubescent. Stamens 2, hairy at the base. Ovary glabrous
or nearly so ; styles long, cylindric, hairy at the base ; stigma obliquely
capitate. Capsules small, puberulous ; seeds minutely tuberculate.
Flowering and fruiting : Throughout the year.
Peninsular India extending southwards to Ceylon and northwards to
the plains of North India. (In India this plant was so far known from
southern and western regions only.)
Uttar Pradesh : Bijnore (March 1958) Y. K. Sarin 5133 ; Mirzapur
Town (Feb. 1961) U. C. Bhattacharya 12849 ; Mirazpur District (Feb.
1961) U. C. Bhattacharya 13275; Ghajipur, Manipur (Feb. 1961) U. C.
Bhattacharya 13759 ; Lacchiwala, Dehra Dun (March 1961) M. A .
Rau 13995 ! ; Mirzapur (Sept. 1961) U. C. Bhattacharya 17509 ;
Mahoba, Hamirpur (Sept. 1961) U. C. Bhattacharya 17795 ; Sahawar
Town, Distt. Etah (Apr. 1966) R. Dayal 5 a-d. (All these specimens
excepting the last which is deposited in Herbarium DD, are available
in Herb., BSD, Dehra Dun).
Acknowledgements
We are thankful to Shri K. C. Sahni, Officer-in-Charge, Systematic
Botany Branch, F. R.I., for kindly going through the manuscript
and offering valuable suggestions, and to Dr. M. A. Rau, Regional
Botanist, Botanical Survey of India, Northern Circle, Dehra Dun, for
having allowed the examination of herbarium material of Justicia de-
posited in Herb., B.S.I., Dehra Dun (BSD). We also wish to thank
Shri P. N. Sharma, Chief Artist, F.R.I., for drawing the plates which
accompany this paper.
References
Duthie, J. F. (1903-29) : Flora of soorie Hills. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
the Upper Gangetic Plain and of the 64 (1): 83.
Adjacent Siwalik and Sub-Himalayan Talbot, W. A. (1909) : Forest Flora
Tracts. 3 Vols. (Govt. Press, Calcutta), of Bombay Presidency and Sind. 1 : 119.
Raizada, M. B. & Saxena, H. O. (Govt. Press, Poona).
(1967) : Additions to the Flora of Mus-
Preliminary notes on the
Ornithology of Sandur,
Karnataka1
BY
Kumar D. Ghorpade2
Department of Entomology , University of Agricultural Sciences ,
Bangalore- 560024
{With a map )
This paper introduces the avifauna of Sandur taluk (Karnataka State,
India) which includes the former princely state of Sandur, demarcated by
two main ranges of high forest-covered hills, joining at both ends to enclose
a spindle-shaped valley and presenting a geographical feature quite distinct
from the adjacent dry Bellary plain more typical of the Deccan plateau.
Notes relating chiefly to the status and distribution of 166 species of birds
so far recorded from the area are presented together with 16 further
species from other parts of Bellary district. The Sirkeer Cuckoo Taccocua
leschenaultii and Spotted Babbler Pellorneum ruficeps are recorded from
Karnataka state and the Deccan plateau respectively for the first time.
Occurrence of the Indian Lorikeet Loriculus vernalis, Great Grey Shrike
Lanius excubitor, Whiteheaded Babbler Turdoides affinis, Whitebrowed Blue
Flycatcher Muscicapa superciliaris and Greyheaded Flycatcher Culicicapa
ceylonensis in the tract are other findings of interest. A brief discussion
on the composition of Sandur’s bird life is included.
Introduction3
The former princely state of Sandur (14° 58' to 15° 14'N. and 76° 25'
to 76°42'E.), now a taluk of Bellary district (Karnataka State, India)
consists of two main ranges of high forest-covered hills running NW. to
SE. and enclosing an elongate spindle-shaped valley, these together
presenting a geographical feature quite different from the surrounding dry
Bellary region more typical of the Deccan plateau. The present taluk
was formed by the addition, to the former state, of parts of the adjacent
plains on both sides of the two hill ranges. Sandur state had an area of
approximately 375 sq. km and the present taluk is roughly three times this
area.
1 Accepted January 3, 1973.
2 Present address : Dept, of Zoology, University of Delhi, Delhi-110 007.
3 The details of physiography, vegetation and climate are from Krishnan (1948),
500 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY , Vol. 70 (3)
Geologically, the Sandur hills belong to the oldest formations of the
earth’s crust and are flat-topped with a mean elevation of 900 m above
m.s.l., the highest point (1100 m) being above Kumaraswamibetta on the
Southern range. The soil is deep red and consists of rock, disintegrated
MAP OF SANDUR TALUK * -*>' * \
trap and sandy gravel with outcrops of lime ‘ kankar ’ here and there
Sandur is well known for its manganese ore which together with iron ore
occurs in immense quantities in the hills and is being extensively mined.
Jasper, ochres, red oxide, white clay and limestone are also found in
plenty and old derelict gold mines exist on the Donimalai range. The
valley is dotted with smaller hillocks and trenched with numerous nullahs
most of which flow into the Narihalla, a large stream, which cuts through
both ranges almost bisecting them in two. The gorges so formed serve
as the only accessible entries into the Sandur valley.
The Sandur area receives considerably greater rainfall than the sur-
rounding plains, the average annual precipitation varying from 500 mm to
1140 mm in different years with a mean of about 860 mm. The climate
is even and pleasant with high winds in July and August and the hot
weather limited to a month or two. The local hill resort of Ramgad
(990 m) on the Ramandrug range has an equable temperature and a
supply of mineral water from the nearby Thayammankolla. The holy
shrine of Shri Karthikswami is located on an undulating hill on the
ORNITHOLOGY OF SANDUR
501
Southern range and beyond this lies the extensive, flat plateau of
Deogiri — noted for its heavy jungles and unlimited mineral wealth. The
taluk headquarters, Sandur town (Pop. c. 9,500) is situated at the centre
of the fertile valley on the banks of the Narihalla. Smaller townships
and larger villages like Bandri, Choranur, Lakshmipur, Krishnanagar,
Nandihalli, Sushilanagar and Yeshwantnagar are scattered all over the
taluk (, see map). The railway town of Tornagal is situated near the
Daroji tank at the eastern border of the taluk and a broad gauge line link-
ing it to Mudukulpenta within the valley is under preparation. Sandur
town is linked by road to Bellary, 48 km to the east ; Kudligi, 28 km
to the south-west and Hospet, 34 km to the north-west. The nearest
railway station at Tornagal is approachable through Hubli, Gadag and
Hospet from the west, and Guntakal and Bellary from the east. There
is a Traveller’s Bungalow at Sandur town and a newly constructed
Forest Rest House is located in a beautiful spot overlooking the Nari-
halla and encompassed by forested hills.
The forest is restricted to the hill ranges, hillocks and foot-
hills, within the valley and is of the open dry deciduous type, bordering
on to moist deciduous on the summits of the highest hills. Although
there is natural growth of teak, the trees do not attain anything like their
greatest size in Sandur. Local timber is not restricted to Teak ( Tectona
grandis) — Chloroxylon swietenia, Anogeissus latifolia , Terminalia tomen-
tosa, Pterocarpus marsupium, Hardwickia binata , Soymida febrifuga,
Diospyros melanoxylon and D. ebenum also grow well here. Besides
these the forest abounds with other species of trees, particularly Gmelina
arborea, Azadirachta indica, Mangifera indica, Adina cordifolia , Albiz-
zia amara, Acacia catechu , A. ferruginea, Elaeodendron glaucum , Bauhi-
nia racemosa, Cassia fistula , C. auriculata, Pongamia glabra , Ailanthus
excelsa, Semecarpus anacardium , Emblica spp., Terminalia chebula ,
Sapindus trifoliatus , Tamarindus indicus and several species of Ficus.
The Sandal tree, Santalum album grows sporadically throughout the
area but is found mainly in the Ramgad, Swamimalai and Thimappa
blocks. The undergrowth on the hills and hillocks consists mainly of
short tussocky grass, identified as Cymbopogon martinii (Rosa grass),
C. coloratus , Heteropogon contortus and Sehina nervosum. Bamboo,
chiefly Bambusa arundinacea and Dendrocalamus strictus , grows in
dense clumps particularly on the southern hills. The exotic lantana,
introduced into Sandur for ornamental purposes (Ramachandra
Rao 1920) has spread considerably all over the hills and in the valley.
The valley is more open and cultivated every bit of fairly
level land being converted into fields. Only the hillocks and foothills
with forest cover have not been touched but signs of even these being
brought under cultivation are evident. The main crops grown here
are jowar (the staple food), bajra and groundnut with a fair acreage
502 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (3)
being put under other grain, pulse, oilseed, fibre and cash crops.
Mango orchards abound and the tamarind flanks the roads, paths and
streams.
The outer plains on the Bellary side are more open and dry with the
hillocks gradually showing a poorer tree growth as one goes away from
Sandur until near the edge of the taluk they take up the rocky character
typical of the bouldery Bellary hills covered only with a sparse growth
of xerophytic vegetation. The only reasonable tree growth here is along
the Narihalla which emerges through the Sandur hills and flows eastward
towards its ultimate destination — the Daroji tank. On the Kudligi
(western) side, the Sandur plains within the taluk limits are more forested,
the open jungle on the foothills of the western ranges spreading westward
and covering most of the lower hills and hillocks with a shortish, scrub
forest. One of these hills, Jarimalaibetta, rises to 730 m above m.s.l.
and is the source of the Narihalla. A distinctive feature of this western
plain is the number of small lakes and tanks scattered all over the area.
The mammalian fauna of Sandur is rich but steadily decreasing, owing
to much poaching and ‘ shikar \ Leopard, wild boar, sambar, four-
horned antelope, the grey langur, jungle cat, the small Indian civet,
common mongoose, jackal, the Indian fox, the Indian porcupine, pan-
golin, the blacknaped hare, several small rodents, bats and other small
animals occur, mostly in forest on the hills. The Indian gazelle
(Chinkara) and the sloth bear are sometimes seen on the adjacent plains
while stray and miserably depleted herds of blackbuck roam the black-
cotton soils outside the taluk near Bellary and Hospet. The tiger once
wandered into the forested hills but has been completely shot out and
only rare unconfirmed reports of tiger crossing into the hills are obtained
at present. The monitor lizard, Varanus bengalensis and the pond
tortoise, Geomyda trijuga are common. Other forms of life including
snakes, lizards, frogs, freshwater fish, earthworms and other annelids,
molluscs, millipedes and other arthropods including scorpions, crabs,
spiders and a great variety of insects and mites are abundantly evident
here and could offer interesting material for study. The plant wealth
of the Sandur hills is certainly undocumented and here is an absorbing
field of investigation for the interested botanist, both pure and economic*
the latter finding much of value for there is undoubtedly an abundance
of medicinal plants, herbs and roots here.
Regarding the bird life of Sandur, Krishnan (1948) writes — ‘ The
avifauna of the State is exceptionally rich and provides the student of
bird-life with interesting local variations. Several migratory birds seem
to linger within the seclusion of these hills longer than at other places.’
The only other references to Sandur’s ornithology are by Krishnan
(1955) on the Rosy Pastor, by Whistler (in Ali 1942) on the Yellow^
throated Bulbul and by Campbell (1906) on the Whitebellied Drongoi
ORNITHOLOGY OF SANDUR
503
There is no published account of the Ornithology of Sandur and this
paper makes an introductory attempt to supply the deficiency.
There are other reasons which have prompted me to offer these preli-
minary notes on the avifauna of Sandur. The Deccan plateau as a whole
and the northern portion of Karnataka east of the Western Ghats have
been largely neglected by ornithologists as substantiated by the following
statements :
‘ There is a huge area in the centre of the Peninsula between the
Central Provinces and the southern boundary of Karnataka which is vir-
tually unknown and over which we have found no indication of the
distribution of the most common species.’ (Whistler & Kinnear 1932a).
* This bulbul .... is apparently much overlooked because of its
skulking habits and the fact that the region it inhabits has not received
much attention from ornithologists.’ (Whistler in Ali 1942).
This being largely true even today, it was thought to be a matter of
some urgency to publish my notes, however sketchy, on the birds of this
interesting but neglected area if only to put on record the status and
distribution of the birds occurring here. In addition, as the Sandur hills
constitute a peculiar feature of the Deccan, presenting a habitat very
different from neighbouring arid areas, the writing of these notes is
further justified. A third point of importance is that the recent accelera-
tion in the development and expansion of the mineral industry in the area,
the building of a dam across the Narihalla to enable extensive irrigation
facilities to be available to farmers in the taluk, the felling of forests to
bring more land under cultivation, the opening up of the tract by modern
means of transport and the subsequent increase in population with its
resultant side effects, all threaten to change the entire character of this
rich area, from a calm and secluded valley to a bustling, industrial com-
plex. It was felt therefore, that an idea of the composition of the
avifauna of Sandur that existed here before the terrain was extensively
and intensively exploited was essential to appreciate these changes some
years hence.
This is an initial attempt to put on record the as yet unaffected bird
life of Sandur, as has best been possible through several short trips by the
author to the area over the last ten years.
Account of Species
The list that follows is placed in the order of Ripley (1961) and the
nomenclature followed is from the same work and the published volumes
of the Indian handbook (Ali & Ripley 1968-1972). Subspecies are not
discussed (with a few exceptions), although several specimens were
collected, as I considered these unimportant as a rule, complicating
matters unnecessarily and tending to diminish unjustifiably the real
504 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (3)
significance of the species category. Species personally seen and identi-
fied without doubt and those recorded from Sandur limits by other
workers are not bracketed. Birds reported to occur in other taluks of
Bellary district are placed in square brackets and are expected to be of
some value. The terms valley, hills and plains should be self-explanatory
from the introductory notes.
Podiceps ruficollis (Pallas) : Little Grebe
A rather sparse resident, some individuals staying throughout the year
on tanks with water. One or two pairs are invariably found on the tank
at Shivpur where they often breed.
Phalacrocorax carbo (Linnaeus) : Large Cormorant
Krishnan4 has seen this cormorant on the tank at Bandri. A solitary
bird was seen by the author on the tank near Chilkanhatti (Hospet taluk,
Bellary district) in February 1968. Krishnan noted it on a large tank at
Bellary.
Phalacrocorax fuscicollis Stephens : Indian Shag
One unconfirmed record from the tank at Bandri by Krishnan who
also reports seeing one at a tank near Bellary town.
Ardeola grayii (Sykes) : Pond Heron
Fairly common resident, locally distributed along the Narihalla and
its larger tributaries and around the tanks within and outside the valley.
Neginhal (1971) saw these on the water’s edge on an island in the Tunga-
bhadra river near Shingtalur (Mundargi taluk, Dharwar district), just
across the northern border of Bellary district.
Bubulcus ibis (Linnaeus) : Cattle Egret
Seen only twice attending herds of grazing cattle in the valley in small
numbers. It is probably more common in the adjacent plains but my
limited work on the bird life of these plains prevents any definite con-
clusions here. Five normal and two black [melanistic ?] individuals of
this species were seen on the Tungabhadra near Shingtalur in February
(Neginhal 1971).
Ciconia episcopus (Boddaert) : Whitenecked Stork
Recorded from Daroji tank by Krishnan. Neginhal (1971) reports
seeing this stork on the Tungabhadra reservoir. This large stork is
quite common in northern Karnataka east of the Western Ghats and
some individuals are invariably found frequenting most of the tanks with
water.
4 References to Krishnan not accompanied by citation of year indicate data com-
municated by him personally to the author,
ORNITHOLOGY OF SAN DU R
505
Threskiornis melanocephala (Latham) : White Ibis
Krishnan saw these at the Daroji tank and Neginhal (1971) noted them
on the Tungabhadra reservoir.
Platalea leucorodia Linnaeus : Spoonbill
I have never seen this bird in Sandur but Krishnan reports seeing it
at the Daroji tank.
[The Blacknecked Stork Xenorhynchus asiaticus (Latham), Black Ibis
Pseudibis papillosa (Temminck), Flamingo Phoenicopterus roseus Pallas
and Ruddy Sheld-duck Tadorna ferruginea (Pallas) were recorded from
the Tungabhadra reservoir by Neginhal (1971).
One specimen of the Barheaded Goose Anser indicus (Latham) was
taken at Tungabhadra (Abdulali 1968) and Neginhal (1971) saw them
‘ resting on sandbanks, in low water, in the middle of the (Tungabhadra)
river near an islet.’]
Anas acuta Linnaeus : Pintail
Recorded from the tanks at Kereyaginahalli (Sandur taluk, western
plain) and Shivpur by A.M.G.5, but I have no knowledge of it in Sandur.
Seen on the Tungabhadra river near the reservoir (Neginhal 1971).
Anas crecca Linnaeus : Teal
Krishnan and A.M.G. report having seen this duck on the tanks at
Kereyaginahalli and Shivpur. Noted on the Tungabhadra river near
Shingtalur (Neginhal 1971).
Anas poecilorhyncha J. R. Forster : Spotbill
A.M.G. has seen this large duck on the tank at Kereyaginahalli.
Noted about ten individuals of this resident duck on the tank near
Chilkanhatti in February 1968.
Anas penelope Linnaeus : Wigeon
A couple of these birds were seen and shot on Shivpur tank on
December 3, 1971, and were identified as this species. Also reported
from Kereyaginahalli tank by A.M.G. in winter.
Anas querquedula Linnaeus : Garganey
A.M.G. records this common wintering duck from Kereyaginahalli
tank. Observed on the Tungabhadra river near Shingtalur (Neginhal
1971).
6 Ajai M. Ghorpade, a resident birdwatcher of Sandur, has kindly supplemented
the author’s observations with his own experiences of Sandur’s birds,
506 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (3)
Anas clypeata Linnaeus : Shoveller
A solitary bird was seen and shot along with the two wigeon on
December 3, 1971, at Shivpur tank. A.M.G. has seen it at the tank near
Kereyanginahalli in winter.
Aythya ferina (Linnaeus) : Redheaded Pochard
Recorded by A.M.G. from the tanks at Kereyaginahalli and Shivpur
in winter. I have no record of this species from Sandur although it
must surely be one of the more abundant wintering ducks in the area. I
saw about fifteen pochard in February 1968 on the Chilkanhatti tank.
[Baker (1900) quotes Hume who states that the Tufted Duck
Aythya fuligula (Linnaeus) has been shot near Bellary and that though
certainly rare there it visits Mysore. Ali and Ripley (1968) comment in
the Indian handbook — 4 Decreasingly in the Deccan and farther south
to Mysore (rare).’ In November 1971 a female of this species was
secured from a tank in Yelburga taluk (Raichur district) and in November
1972 a male was shot on the same tank. Though rare, this pretty pochard
seems to visit reedy tanks in Karnataka regularly in small numbers
in winter.]
Nettapus coromandelianus (Gmelin) : Cotton Teal
I have only seen this duck twice in Sandur, on both occasions at the
tank near Bandri. A party of seven was present in April 1963 and twenty
teals were noted in November the same year. It is also reported from the
tanks at Kereyaginahalli and Shivpur by A.M.G.
Elanus caeruleus (Desfontaines) : Blackwinged Kite
One record only, of a single bird flying over cultivation near Shivpur
tank on June 19, 1970. Krishnan mentions seeing it occasionally near
Sushilanagar and Lakshmipur in the valley.
Milvus migrans (Boddaert) : Pariah Kite
A fairly common resident in Sandur though not in very great
numbers . During the last week of December (1965) which is the breeding
season of this kite in south India, I observed several pairs at Sandur and
along the route from Bangalore to Sandur engaged in what I believe is the
courtship behaviour of this raptor. It consisted of the pair, soaring fairly
high up in the air, indulging in aerobatics in which one bird (the male ?)
would ascend a little higher and then 4 dive-bomb ’ the lower bird in a
spiralling stoop causing the latter to take 4 evasive action ’. Such be-
haviour was observable all through the day during the breeding season,
when it seems to be more frequently practiced than during other months
of the year. Ali and Ripley (1968) mention this type of mannerism for
this kite but do not associate it particularly with its courtship behaviour.
ORNITHOLOGY OF SANDUR
507
Haliastur indus (Boddaert) : Brahminy Kite
Krishnan states that though not common, this kite definitely occurs
within the valley soon after the rains when he has watched them fishing
for tadpoles at inundated flats at such times. Reported as observed near
the Kereyaginahalli tank by A.M.G. I have not seen it within the taluk
but noted one bird soaring above a nullah in the outskirts of Kudligi
in August 1972.
Accipiter badius (Gmelin) : Shikra
A breeding resident throughout the Sandur area and fairly common.
Once seen swooping down on a jungle babbler sitting in a sparsely
foliaged bush on the bank of a nullah near Yeshwantnagar. Couples
are often observed soaring high over cultivation in large circles. In June
1970, two immature shikras were seen harassing a group of yellow.
wattled lapwings in the valley. The lapwings took to wing and retaliated
fiercely by diving at the hawks, all the time keeping up their screaming
calls.
Butastur teesa (Franklin) : White-eyed Buzzard-Eagle
This common raptor of the Indian plains seems widely but thinly
distributed all over the taluk, including the hills. I have found the white
throat patch with the dark central stripe through it a most reliable guide,
when visible, to its identification in the field.
Hieraaetus pennatus (Gmelin) : Booted Hawk-Eagle
One record only, of a single bird seen perched on the stump of a dead
tree beside a nullah in the valley in December 1965. When approached
it took to wing and soared about in circles, slowly ascending. In flight,
a small white patch on each side at the base of the neck near the wing
base is a good identification mark in the field, when visible clearly.
Aquila rapax (Temminck) : Tawny Eagle
According to Krishnan, this eagle, common in the Guntakal downs
(Andhra Pradesh), strays into Sandur occasionally.
[Several other large and medium-sized hawks and eagles have been
observed on many occasions in Sandur by the author, but owing
to the difficulty in identifying without doubt this confusing complex of
birds in the field more details are not available here.]
Torgos calvus (Scopoli) : Black King Vulture
A single record, from Yeshwantnagar, of a solitary individual sitting
atop a huge neem tree in the company of some whitebacked vultures.
There have been several reports of late that this vulture is becoming very
scarce, especially in the south. My observations in recent years fully
508 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (3)
endorse this point of view. In the last five years, I have only some three
to four sightings on record. It may not be out of place here to mention
that one king vulture was seen along with whitebacked and white sca-
venger vultures sunning themselves on a dusty path in the Bandipur
Sanctuary (Mysore district) in June 1970. I feel the cause for the decline
of this huge vulture in recent years needs to be studied.
Gyps bengalensis (Gmelih) : Indian Whitebacked Vulture
The most familiar vulture in Sandur, most often seen soaring high in
the air with effortless ease.
Neophron percnopterus (Linnaeus) : White Scavenger Vulture
Another fairly common vulture in Sandur, often teaming up with
whitebacked vultures at a carcass or in the air.
Circus spp. : Harriers
This is another group which presents problems in the correct identi-
fication of its members, especially of females and immatures. Harriers,
however, are not very common in Sandur and I have only a couple of
records of unidentified females flying low over fields in the valley in
characteristic fashion.
Circaetus gallicus (Gmelin) : Short-toed Eagle
Krishnan informs me that this eagle occurs, though rarely, in Sandur
and recollects how he once freed one of his racing pigeons from the
clutches of this eagle in Sandur.
[The Osprey Pandion haliaetus (Linnaeus) was seen flying high above
the Tungabhadra river near a place called Anaigudi near Hampi (Hospet
taluk, Bellary district) on February 6, 1968. It was in bad plumage and
looked to be in moult.]
Falco biarmicus jugger J. E. Gray : Laggar Falcon
I have a single sight record of the Laggar Falco biarmicus jugger
J. E. Gray, when a single bird was seen perched on a tree on the banks of
a nullah in the valley on December 26, 1965. The thin dark cheek-stripe
diagnostic of the above race was clearly noticeable. Krishnan has also
seen it in Sandur.
Falco peregrinus Tunstall : Peregrine Falcon
While watching the Booted Hawk-Eagle in the valley in Decembei
1965, this falcon was also seen soaring in the air in large circles. It then
only slightly drew in its wings and just shot out of sight heading towards
the crags on the eastern hills. The speed which this renowned falcon can
achieve is truly fantastic and has to be seen to be appreciated. Several
inaccessible, almost vertical craggy spots on the Sandur hills can offer
ORNITHOLOGY OF SANDUR
509
excellent breeding places for this falcon (resident breeding race : Falco
peregrinus peregrinator Sundevall) and more careful observation could
well reveal nests of the Shaheen within Sandur. Krishnan has also ob-
served the Shaheen Falcon in Sandur.
Falco tinnunculus Linnaeus : Kestrel
A fairly common winter migrant to the Sandur valley, seen soaring
or hovering characteristically over cultivation or thin jungle.
Francolinus pictus (Jardine & Selby) : Painted Partridge
Rare, only observed in thin scrub adjacent to cultivation near Yesh-
wantnagar on the western plain outside the hills. Krishnan mentions
seeing it on Kumaraswamibetta and says it perches on tops of trees to
call. Neginhal (1971) saw these near the rest house at Shingtalur.
Francolinus pondicerianus (Gmelin) : Grey Partridge
Common in the valley and plains, but not noted at any elevation on
the hills. The long grass flanking the numerous nullahs provide very
good cover for this partridge. Seen near the rest house at Shingtalur
(Neginhal 1971).
Coturnix coturnix (Linnaeus) : Grey Quail
One record of a party of four of these migrant quails seen scuttling
off into long grass bordering a road on one of the hillocks in the valley,
in winter. Neginhal (1971) reports having seen them near the rest house
at Shingtalur in February.
Coturnix coromandelica (Gmelin) : Blackbreasted Rain Quail
Not very common in Sandur, seen only near Yeshwantnagar on the
western plains. Coveys are often seen searching for food among
manure heaps dumped in fields, especially soon after a shower.
Perdicula asiatica (Latham) : Jungle Bush Quail
This is by far the most abundant and widely distributed quail in
Sandur, occurring on the plains, in the valley and on the hills. The sight
of these quails trooping down to their roosting place almost punctually
every evening in single file is most heart-warming. Altogether an ex-
tremely interesting bird to observe and study. Perdicula asiatica vellorei
was described as new by Abdulali & Reuben (1964) from specimens col-
lected at Vijayanagar (Hampi, Bellary district) and several other loca-
lities. However, the subspecies is not mentioned in the Indian handbook
(Ali & Ripley 1969). Abdulali (1969) placed two examples taken at
Vijayanagar with this species but was uncertain of its subspecific identity.
[Two examples of the Rock Bush Quail Perdicula argoondah (Sykes)
collected at Vijayanagar by G. C. Shortridge were placed with the race
510 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 70 (3)
P. a. salimalii Whistler (Abdulali 1969, 1971) and are in the collection
of the Bombay Natural History Society. This race is separated on the
basis of its bright brick-red upper plumage and is supposed to be con-
fined to Chitradurga (Chitaldrug) district in east-central Karnataka the
specimens from Vijayanagar extending its range a little further north.]
Galloperdix lunulata (Valenciennes) : Painted Spurfowl
One of the commonest game birds in the forested parts of the valley
and the hills. It often sought refuge in trees while I was pursuing it and
I have come across birds roosting in short trees well after dusk. This
spurfowl is addicted to gleaning spilt grain on the dusty hill roads, usually
in the evenings.
Gallus sonneratii Temminck : Grey Junglefowl
Uncommon and sporadic, only occasionally seen on the hills where it
seems to be restricted to the open forest ; no records from the valley or
the plains.
Pavo cristatus Linnaeus : Indian Peafowl
This stately bird was once very common in Sandur some years ago
especially as it was protected in the erstwhile princely state. Now one
can see it only near the shrine of Shri Karthikswami on the Deogiri
range with any amount of frequency. It is subjected to much poaching
and persecution, being hunted for its excellent flesh and for the wonder-
ful ‘ tail ’ feathers. The peafowl also gleans spilt grain from dusty
hill roads in the evenings. Neginhal (1971) reported seeing peafowl
commonly in herds on an island in the Tungabhadra near Shingtalur in
February.
Turnix sylvatica (Desfontaines) : Little Bustard-Quail
In February 1968, several birds were flushed, singly, on three separate
occasions, from the dense tangle of vegetation on the nullah banks lit-
tered with fallen leaves, in the valley. One of these was shot and identi-
fied as this species.
[Four examples of the Indian Bustard-Quail Turnix suscitator
(Gmelin) were taken at Vijayanagar in July and are in the Bombay
Natural History Society’s bird collection (Abdulali 1969).]
Amaurornis akool (Sykes) : Brown Crake
A single record, of a solitary bird hunting for food on the edges of a
nullah flanked by thick bushes, in the valley a little before sunset. I
watched this crake for quite some time retreating into the interior of the
bushes at the slightest alarm, only to reappear stealthily a little further up
the water-filled streamlet, all the time jerking its stubby tail.
ORNITHOLOGY OF SANDUR
5ll
Amaurornis phoemcunis (Pennant) : Whitebreasted Waterhen
Fairly common around the tanks and the many nullahs which fill up
after the rains in the valley and plains.
Gallinula chloropus (Linnaeus) : Indian Moorhen
Krishnan saw this moorhen frequenting discontinuous pools of water
along the Narihalla near Taranagari. It was recorded on the Tunga-
bhadra river near the reservoir (Neginhal 1971).
Fulica atra Linnaeus : Coot
Reported from the tank at Kereyaginahalli by A.M.G. but not seen
in Sandur by me.
Vanellus indicus (Boddaert) : Redwattled Lapwing
This plover is not uncommon in Sandur, keeping near tanks and
nullahs with some amount of water. Also a crepuscular and nocturnal
bird, its unmistakable ‘did, did-he-do-it ? ’ is a familiar sound in the
night.
Vanellus malabaricus (Boddaert) : Yellow- wattled Lapwing
Frequently seen in the valley and plains in open dry country, only
coming to water to quench its thirst. A much quieter bird than the
Redwattled Lapwing but equally as attractive. See also under Shikra.
Charadrius dubius Scopoli : Little Ringed Plover
These little plovers were seen in small numbers on the Shivpur tank
during December 1966. Probably visits other tanks in Sandur regularly
each winter.
Tringa nebularia (Gunnerus) : Greenshank
One record only of a single bird at Shivpur tank on December 3, 1971.
May winter on other tanks in Sandur in limited numbers. I saw two
greenshanks at the tank near Chilkanhatti in February 1968.
Tringa ochropus Linnaeus : Green Sandpiper
Least numerous of the three sandpipers seen by the author in Sandur.
Found singly or in small groups around small pools and water-filled
depressions away from the main tank. Winter visitor in very small
numbers .
Tringa glareola Linnaeus : Spotted Sandpiper
The most abundant sandpiper in Sandur in winter distributing itself
on nearly all the tanks in the plains and valley. Its eye catching spotted
upperparts, long dainty legs and exquisite slender form make it a delight
to watch as it trips over the muddy edges of tanks in search of food. In
512 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (3)
character it is exactly opposite to the Green Sandpiper, preferring
company and being easily approachable. Four of these waders were
noted in February 1968 at the Chilkanhatti tank by me. Neginhal (1971)
saw them on the banks of the Tungabhadra near Shingtalur
in February.
Tringa hypoleucos Linnaeus : Common Sandpiper
A rather common wintering sandpiper to the tanks in Sandur, and
one of the earliest migrants to arrive here. Extremely tame and con-
fiding and also prone to a solitary habit. Seen on the Tungabhadra
river bank near Shingtalur in February (Neginhal 1971).
Capella spp. : Snipe
Another group which presents problems in correct identification in the
field. I have flushed several solitary birds from, the wet grassy margins
of Shivpur tank in winter but have not been able to identify them down
to species with certainty.
Himantopus himantopus (Linnaeus) : Blackwinged Stilt
A regular and fairly common winter visitor to the tanks in Sandur. A
party of 10-15 birds is invariably present during the winter months at
Shivpur tank. Four stilts were seen by the author at Chilkanhatti tank
in February 1968 and Neginhal (1971) saw them on the banks of the
Tungabhadra near Shingtalur.
Burhinus oedicnemus (Linnaeus) : Stone Curlew
Shy and secretive ; apparently rare in Sandur, having been recorded
only once in the valley by the author. Krishnan states it is not uncom-
mon in the valley and he has often heard it calling at night over Sandur
town. Two examples, assigned to the subspecies B. o. indicus
(Salvadori), present in the collection of the Bombay Natural History
Society (Abdulali 1970), were collected from Bellary.
[Neginhal (1971) saw the Whiskered Tern Chlidonias hybrida (Pallas)
flying to and fro over a stretch of the Tungabhadra near Shingtalur in
February. I saw a Blackbellied Tern Sterna acuticauda J. E. Gray also
on the Tungabhadra near Anaigudi in February 1968.]
Pterocles exustus Temminck : Indian Sandgrouse
According to A.M.G. this sandgrouse occurs in Sandur, but I have
never seen it here. However it should be fairly common in the dry
open areas of the taluk.
Pterocles indicus (Gmelin) : Painted Sandgrouse
I have only one record of a pair seen in the dry mid-eastern pait of the
Sandur valley. Four examples of the typical race P. i. indicus (Gmelin)
513
ORNITHOLOGY OF SANDUR
obtained from Yijayanagar and deposited in the collection of the Bombay
Natural History Society include two females with strongly rufous upper-
parts and wing coverts and are held to be strikingly different (Abdulali
1971).
Treron phoenicoptera (Latham) : Yellowlegged Green Pigeon
Affects trees in fruit (especially of the genus Ficus ) throughout the
year in the valley and on the hills in groups of 10-20 or more. This
attractive pigeon is easily identified on account of its yellow legs, unlike
those of any other green pigeon in India.
Columba livia Gmelin : Blue Rock Pigeon
A common resident in Sandur affecting rocky areas on the hills, on
buildings, in wells, and the like. A large breeding colony exists on the
gorge formed by the Narihalla cutting through the western range of hills.
Streptopelia decaocto (Frivaldszky) : Indian Ring Dove
An abundant resident, more common in the drier country in the plains
and valley. Neginhal (1971) saw this dove on one of the islands in the
Tungabhadra near Shingtalur.
Streptopelia tranquebarica (Hermann) : Red Turtle-Dove
This small dove is fairly common in the valley especially in winter
when its numbers are probably augmented by influx of outside popu-
lations. Affects the tree-lined nullahs in the valley and flies out to
adjacent fields to feed. The females are apt to be mistaken for those of
the Ring Dove. This is the least common of the four doves within
the valley.
Streptopelia chinensis (Scopoli) : Spotted Dove
Extremely abundant wherever cultivation and groves of trees are
present together with a water source nearby. The shady tree-lined nul-
lahs in the valley and outside it attract teeming numbers of this dove,
partial to moister facies, hence dominating the valley as far as the doves
are concerned. Also occurs in good numbers on the hills.
Streptopelia senegalensis (Linnaeus; : Little Brown Dove
I think this is the commonest dove in the taluk as a whole, but is more
abundant in the drier open country in the plains where it somewhat
appreciably replaces the preceding species. Also occurs in fair numbers
in the valley and on the hills. Comparatively easier to approach and
less shy than other doves, it is common on trees around habitation. I
have also seen it in large numbers around Hospet and Bellary. Neginhal
(1971) observed them on an island in the Tungabhadra near Shingtalur*
7
514 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (3)
Psittacula eupatria (Linnaeus) : Alexandrine Parakeet
Krishnan says a large parakeet, possibly this species, occurs in Sandur.
I have not seen it here.
Psittacula krameri (Scopoli) : Roseringed Parakeet
Common and well distributed all over the extensively cultivated valley
and a menace to agriculture. An extremely destructive bird, it feeds on
several grain and fruit crops. I have seen parakeets cut off whole ears
of jowar and bajra, fly on to adjacent trees to pick off a part of the grains,
discard the rest of the earhead and go back to the standing crop to cut
off yet another! Two parakeets were observed eating flowers and buds
of a silk-cotton tree ( Bombax ceiba ) in the valley in February 1968. An
especial item of food here is the green fruit of the neem tree ( Azadirachta
indica). Neginhal (1971) saw these birds near the rest house at
Shingtalur.
Psittacula cyanocephala (Linnaeus) : Blossomheaded Parakeet
Almost as common as the preceding species in the valley and equally
as destructive to grain and fruit. The proximity of forest to cultivated
areas in Sandur being very amenable to this beautiful parakeet, it is found
in much larger numbers here than elsewhere in the Deccan.
Loriculus vernalis (Sparrman) : Indian Lorikeet
Though I have no knowledge of this little psittacine in Sandur,
Krishnan tells me that he has definitely observed lorikeets in Sandur.
From the account of this species in the Indian handbook (Ali & Ripley
1969), it appears that this lorikeet is not found outside the coastal strip
and ghats in the west and the ghats in the east, in the southern peninsula.
In this light, the record by Krishnan from Sandur is very interesting and it
only remains to confirm its occurrence and to establish whether it is
resident here or just a local migrant.
Clamator jacobinus (Boddaert) : Pied Crested Cuckoo
I have but a single record, of two birds seen in bushes flanking a nullah
at the base of the hills near Yeshwantnagar on 30 May 1964. Whistler
(1928) discusses the status of this species in the region.
Cuculus varius Vahl : Lesser Hawk-Cuckoo
Fairly common in the valley, the birds keeping well inside densely
foliaged trees, hence difficult to observe. Their unmistakable calls are
a familiar sound during the rains.
Eudynamys scolopacea (Linnaeus) : Koel
A familiar and well distributed resident throughout the better wooded
areas of the taluk, particularly in the valley and on the hills. Its mono*
Ornithology of sandur
515
tonous ‘ ku-oo, ku-oo . . . ’ on an ascending scale during the hottest
months, though pleasant to the ear in the early mornings, becomes
almost unbearable in the afternoons. Krishnan comments that he found
it not very common in Sandur.
Taccocua leschenaultii Lesson : Sirkeer Cuckoo
Not uncommon on the grassy scrub-and-bush covered foothills in the
valley as well as on the hills. A ground frequenting sombre-coloured
cuckoo with a striking red bill. Ali and Ripley (1969) do not specify
Karnataka as being within the range of this bird in the Indian hand-
book although it is recorded by them from all other states in the south.
This observation therefore is probably the first authentic report of the
Sirkeer Cuckoo from Karnataka6.
Rhopodytes viridirostris (Jerdon) : Bluefaced Malkoha
Though I have not observed this cuckoo in Sandur, Krishnan states
he has positively seen it in bushes along the Narihalla. This species is
usually called the Small Greenbilled Malkoha, but I adopt Bluefaced
Malkoha in concordance with Henry (1955) to prevent confusion with
the (Larger) Greenbilled Malkoha Rhopodytes tristis (Lesson).
Centropus sinensis (Stephens) : Large Crow-Pheasant
Another common resident of the well wooded areas in Sandur.
Favours the vicinity of dark mango groves and the like. Neginhal (1971)
saw it near the rest house at Shingtalur.
Otus scops (Linnaeus) : Little Scops Owl
According to Krishnan this tiny owl occurs in Sandur. I have not seen
it here.
Otus bakkamoena (Pennant) : Collared Scops Owl
Observed in Sandur by Krishnan but not recorded by me in the taluk.
Bubo bubo (Linnaeus) : Great Horned Owl
Two individuals of this large owl were heard and seen at midnight
by Krishnan near the Narasimhaswami gorge (where the Narihalla cuts
through the western ranges of hills).
Bubo zeylonensis (Gmelin) : Brown Fish Owl
One was seen by Krishnan near the Narasimhaswami gorge and I
have also recorded one near a tank in the western plains, in the night.
6 SalIm Ali (1943 : The Birds of Mysore. 7. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 44 : 10),
has a sight record of a pair in heavy thorn scrub ih a ravine at Satnur. — eds.
516 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 70 (3)
Glaucidium radiatum (Tickell) : Jungle Owlet
I have no knowledge of this owlet in Sandur but am told by Krishnan
that it occurs here.
Athene brama (Temminck) : Spotted Owlet
This delightful little owlet is common and widely distributed through-
out the taluk. During the day pairs may be seen resting in shady trees
along the nullahs or in mango orchards. Frequently seen in and around
habitation.
[I seem to have rather overlooked members of the owl family in
Sandur though several owls were occasionally ‘caught’ in the headlights
while driving in the night through jungle. Such fleeting glimpses un-
fortunately could not result in their identity being legitimately
established.]
Caprimulgus asiaticus Latham : Little Nightjar
The only nightjar seen or heard by the author in Sandur. Common
and widely distributed all over the taluk, its distinctive call a familiar
sound in the night. Prone to sit amongst littered leaves on the stony
nullah beds during the day where they are remarkably obliterative.
Several are bound to be put up in the course of an extended ‘ nullah-bed
excursion
Apus affinis (J. E. Gray) : House Swift
Large numbers of these small swifts are commonly seen hawking
insects in the air above the towns and villages. Nests in colonies under
eaves of large buildings. Krishnan found this swift especially common
around Krishnanagar.
Cypsiurus parvus (Lichtenstein) : Palm Swift
A few of these slender brown swifts were seen hawking insects in the
ail above the Palace and the adjacent Shivpur tank. Some six palm
swifts were observed flying about near the Tungabhadra at Anaigudi in
February 1968. They were also noticed to shoot up into the folds of a
dried-up hanging palmyra leaf and come out almost immediately
(building ?).
Hemiprocne longipennis (Rafinesque) : Crested Tree Swift
Seen along with the palm swifts flying gracefully in the air above the
Palace and the Shivpur tank.
[One Lesser Pied Kingfisher Ceryle rudis (Linnaeus) was seen by the
author on the Tungabhadra near Anaigudi in February 1968.]
ORNITHOLOGY OF SANDUR
517
Alcedo atthis (Linnaeus) : Small Blue Kingfisher
Said to occur about some nullahs by A.M.G. ; never seen in Sandur
by me. Seen on the banks of the Tungabhadra by Neginhal (1971),
Halcyon smyrnensis (Linnaeus) : Whitebreasted Kingfisher
Common and resident in Sandur in all locations preferably near
water. In flight its brilliant blue wings outshine even those of the Indian
Roller.
Merops philippinus Linnaeus : Bluetailed Bee-eater
A regular winter visitor in small numbers to the Sandur valley where
it is seen unfailingly near Shivpur tank. Here it perches on the topmost
branches of the large tamarind trees overlooking the tank and launches
aerial sallies after winged insects, notably large Anisopteran dragonflies.
Merops orientalis Latham : Small Green Bee-eater
An extremely common resident within and outside the valley and on
the hills. Uses varying types of perches in open country, from treetops
and electric wires to clods of earth from where it darts after flying insects.
Neginhal (1971) saw a group of these bee-eaters on the banks of the
Tungabhadra.
Coracias benghalensis (Linnaeus) : Indian Roller
Another very common bird of cultivation and open country,
invariably seen perched on electric wires. Together with the Green
Bee-eater and black drongos dominates the avian scene in such situations.
Neginhal (1971) saw it near the rest house at Shingtalur in February.
Upupa epops Linnaeus : Hoopoe
A remarkable bird, resident and fairly common all over the taluk.
Frequents open cultivation where it may be seen looking for food on the
ground in its characteristic fashion. Nests in holes in walls of build-
ings. Recorded near the rest house at Shingtalur (Neginhal 1971).
Tockus birostris (Scopoli) : Grey Hornbill
Inhabits the better forested parts of the taluk, venturing into mango
orchards in fruit to feed. Also affects fig trees laden with fruit along
with a multitude of other frugivorous birds. Its slow, almost reptilian
movements in fully foliaged trees often go unnoticed but the shrill kite-
like squeal never fails to locate it.
Megalaima zeylanica (Gmelin) : Large Green Barbet
Curiously uncommon, seen only in the hills with any regularity. One
bird was noted along with yellowlegged green pigeons feeding on ripe
figs on the Ramandrug range.
518 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 70 (3)
Megalaima haemacephala (P. L. S. Muller) : Crimsonbreasted Barbet
The ‘ Coppersmith ’ is resident and very common in Sandur in lightly
wooded areas and on large trees near habitation. Fig trees in fruit never
fail to attract it.
Jynx torquilla Linnaeus : Wryneck
One record only, of a single bird seen on December 29, 1965 near a
nullah in the valley.
Dinopium benghalense (Linnaeus) : Lesser Goldenbacked Woodpecker
The only woodpecker seen in Sandur by me. It is fairly common
in the valley and on the hills in well wooded situations.
Picoides mahrattensis (Latham) : Yellowfronted Pied Woodpecker
Reported as occurring in Sandur by Krishnan but not seen here by
me.
Pitta brachyura (Linnaeus) : Indian Pitta
This splendidly plumaged ground bird is often seen in the thick vege-
tation lining nullahs. Probably only a winter migrant to Sandur but I
have records of the Pitta from Sandur as late as May and even the first
week of June.
[Koelz (1947) took four specimens of the Singing Bush Lark Mirafra
javanica Horsfield from Hospet in March which he described as a new
race — M. j. bangsi , now synonymised with M. j. cantillans Blyth.]
Eremopterix grisea (Scopoli) : Ashycrowned Finch-Lark
This little lark is mainly found in the drier, more open parts of the
taluk in paris or small parties. In January I saw a small flock of reddish
larks come down for a drink at one of the nullahs in the valley. On
close observation, however, I found that the brick-red coloration was
not original but only a coating of red soil probably acquired in the process
of a dust bath. One male was obtained in March at Hospet by Koelz
(1947).
Ammomanes phoenicurus (Franklin) : Rufoustailed Finch-Lark
Occasionally seen in the same type of biotope as the preceding species.
Pairs are seen feeding on the ground in scrub or fallow fields. Koelz (1947)
secured a female from Hospet on March 25, 1937, which he placed with
the nominate subspecies A. p. phoenicurus (Franklin). According to the
Indian handbook (Ali & Ripley 1972) this race does not occur in Karna-
taka at all but is replaced south of c . 15°N. latitude by A. p. testaceuk
Koelz, the type of which came from Salem in Tamil Nadu,
ORNITHOLOGY OF SANDUR
519
Alauda gulgula Franklin : Small Skylark
Krishnan observed a small skylark in Sandur, which he thinks was this
species, singing on quivering wings, high in the air in characteristic
fashion.
[A female Dusky Crag Martin Hirundo concolor Sykes was taken at
Hospet in March (Koelz 1947).]
Hirundo smithii Leach : Wiretailed Swallow
Fairly common in Sandur, always seen near water hawking insects in
the air. A trim and neat swallow with long ‘ wires ’ in the tail not readily
visible in flight but the pure white underparts are suggestive pointers to
its identity. A male was taken at Hospet in March (Koelz 1947).
Hirundo daurica Linnaeus : Striated Swallow
Resident and common, in fact the most abundant swallow in Sandur.
Its numbers are increased in winter through the ai rival of migrant popu-
lations.
Lanius excubitor Linnaeus : Great Grey Shrike
Stray individuals only noticed in the eastern plains. This shrike has
not been recorded in the valley or on the western plains but it must surely
occur in the latter. According to the Indian handbook (Ali & Ripley
1972) this shrike is not recorded in Karnataka south of Belgaum. It is
in fact a fairly common bird throughout the Karnataka ‘ maidan ’ in
suitable biotope (Ghorpade, 1973).
Lanius vittatus Valenciennes : Baybacked Shrike
The commonest shrike in Sandur, frequenting all types of terrain in
the valley and plains to the top of the hills.
Lanius schach Linnaeus : Rufousbacked Shrike
Fairly abundant in open country and scrub in the plains and valley,
often seen side by side with the preceding species. In most individuals
here, the rufous of the rump and lower flanks does not extent further
up the back. Koelz (1947) took a male and two females of the race
L. s. caniceps Blyth at Hospet in March.
Lanius cristatus Linnaeus : Brown Shrike
This shrike is a regular cold weather visitor to Sandur and is found
singly in scrub, cultivation and the edges of forest. Duller in plumage
than other shrikes, but is itself a very handsome bird.
Oriolus oriolus (Linnaeus) : Golden Oriole
This splendid bird is a familiar sight in Sandur at all elevations in the
hills, valley and plains. It affects forest and field alike with a preference
520 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol 70 (3)
for the shady mango groves. A shy and retiring bird, it keeps to taller
and fuller foliaged trees as a rule. It appears to be only a winter visitor
here.
Oriolus xanthornus (Linnaeus) : Blackheaded Oriole
One record only of a single bird in the company of several golden
orioles perched on top of a huge mango tree in the valley.
Dicrurus adsimilis (Bechstein) : Black Drongo
This pugnacious bird is commonly met with almost everywhere in
Sandur including on the hills. It often accompanies grazing herds of
cattle, using their backs as a vantage point from where it darts after
insects disturbed by the animals. Neginhal (1971) noted it near the rest
house at Shingtalur.
Dicrurus caerulescens (Linnaeus) : Whitebellied Drongo
Recorded only once from the Sandur valley when a solitary bird with
a distinct white belly was seen sitting on a tree in the middle of a field
near a tree-and-shrub choked nullah. Apparently a scarce resident in
Sandur, but Krishnan found it fairly common at Ramgad on the
Ramandrug range of hills. Campbell (1906) found nests of this drongo
on the Ramandrug range.
[Krishnan observed the Greyheaded Myna Sturnus malabaricus
(Gmelin) to be common at Tungabhadra, feeding on ripe banyan figs.]
Sturnus pagodarum (Gmelin) : Brahminy Myna
This attractive myna is a common breeding resident and is frequently
seen in all types of habitat, mainly near cultivation and habitation. One
bird was seen feeding on flower nectar of a silk-cotton tree, Bombax
ceiba , in the valley in February. Koelz (1947) took a male at Hospet
in March ; several were seen on trees surrounding Chilkanhatti tank in
February by the author.
Sturnus roseus (Linnaeus) : Rosy Pastor
I have never seen this migrant anywhere in the taluk but Krishnan
(1955) writes — ‘ Rosy Pastors arrive in thousands in the Bellary country
outside the Sandur hills about September-October. No crop in that area
is then ripe, but the birds are probably still to be found there in November
when a few early heads of jowar may be available to them. By December
they appear to have quit. The remarkable thing is that they never cross
the Sandur hills into the Sandur area where grain is available to them in
plenty. On this point I am certain, but having been only an occasional
visitor to the Bellary area outside the Sandur hills, I have formed only
ORNITHOLOGY OF SANDUR
521
rough impressions of the movements of the Rosy Pastors there.’
Abdulali (1947) discusses the movements of this bird in India.
Acridotheres tristis (Linnaeus) : Indian Myna
One of the commonest birds in Sandur especially about habitation
and open country. Being omnivorous it competes with the crows and
house sparrows for scraps thrown out of houses. Nests in holes in
buildings, old wells and such like. Noted near the rest house at
Shingtalur (Neginhal 1971).
Dendrocitta vagabunda (Latham) : Indian Tree Pie
This bird is a common resident all over Sandur from the forest-
covered hills to village groves and scattered trees in the plains. An
attractive avian, one is not quite prepared for its harsh calls completely
different from the liquid 4 bob-o-link ’ uttered with body arched and tail
tucked under, which helps to locate it in some leafy tree. It has three
other types of calls — a raucous ‘ crrrh ’, a crow-like 4 kak, kak, kak ....
and another peculiar note emitted with feverish bobs of the head.
Corvus splendens Vieillot : House Crow
In Sandur, this crow is found synonymous with the town and villages
but is much less common than the following species especially in open
country. Its nests are parasitised by the Koel who for ages has been
fooling the seemingly 4 intelligent ’ crow into hatching its eggs and rear-
ing its young. Devours the ripe fruits of fig trees with obvious relish,
though clumsy in the act.
Corvus macrorhynchos Wagler : Jungle Crow
Certainly more numerous than the House Crow, inhabiting almost
all types of terrain including the hills. When in good plumage it is a
coarsely handsome bird with shining black feathers and a strong bill. A
useful scavenger of refuse in and around habitation but sometimes
destructive to grain and fruit crops. Also feeds on fruit of trees of the
genus Ficus.
Tephrodornis pondicerianus (Gmelin) : Lesser Wood Shrike
Frequently seen singly or in pairs in and outside the valley. Affects
the trees and shrubbery along nullah banks and also scattered tree-and-
bush country on the foothills. Has a pleasant musical call and hunts
insects in the manner of a flycatcher. Koelz (1947) secured a male at
Hospet in March 1937.
Coracina novaehollandiae (Gmelin) : Large Cuckoo-Shrike
This fine bird has a liking for tall stately trees and is not uncommon in
the valley.
522 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (3)
Coracina melanoptera (Ruppell) : Blackheaded Cuckoo-Shrike
Seen only once near the tree-choked nullah at Yeshwantnagar in May
1964. Its light grey plumage seemed almost blue in the dark interior of
the nullah but the black head was distinct. One male was obtained at
Hospet in March (Koelz 1947).
Pericrocotus cinnamomeus (Linnaeus) : Small Minivet
Small groups of four to twelve birds are frequently observed on larger
trees hunting insects and constantly uttering feeble musical calls. Fairly
common in dry open forest and groves of trees in the valley.
Aegithina tiphia (Linnaeus) : Common Iora
A very common and delightful little resident of the Sandur area. It
has a bewitching mellow whistle, surprisingly loud for so small a bird.
Affects well wooded open country with groves of large trees and also the
forested hills. In breeding plumage the male is a striking golden yellow
and black bird, its antics on trees an immense joy to watch. Koelz
(1947) took a male in March at Hospet.
Chloropsis cochinchinensis (Gmelin) : Jerdon’s Chloropsis
A.M.G. reports this bird as resident and breeding in Sandur but I
have not seen it here. Krishnan mentions seeing it along a nullah in the
valley.
Pycnonotus jocosus (Linnaeus) : Redwhiskered Bulbul
A somewhat scarce and local resident, keeping to moister and more
forested areas, thus being more familiar on the hills.
Pycnonotus cafer (Linnaeus) : Redvented Bulbul
Extremely abundant everywhere and resident. Wild fig trees in
fruit invariably attract this species which gorges itself on the delicacy.
It is no doubt an important dispersal agent for the Sandal tree Santalum
album , found all over Sandur. Several of these bulbuls were seen by the
author near the tank at Chilkanhatti in February 1968. Koelz (1947)
secured a male in March at Hospet.
Pycnonotus xantholaemus (Jerdon) : Yellowthroated Bulbul
C. L. Wilson shot and identified one of this species at Bellary on June
13, 1901 and also noticed some 20 pairs frequenting the rocky hills there.
He also took a nest on June 23 the same year and felt that June-July was
the breeding season of these bulbuls there (Allen 1908). This is again
quoted by Whistler and Kinnear (1932b) in their report on the Eastern
Ghats bird survey. Whistler (in Ali 1942) refers to the Eastern Ghats
survey report and comments further — ‘ this bulbul .... is apparently
much overlooked because of its skulking habits and the fact that the
region it inhabits has not received much attention from ornithologists,
ORNITHOLOGY OF SANDUR
523
.... a specimen was collected at Ramandrug on 6 May 1919 (?) by
Mr. E. H. Pooler Ali and Ripley (1971) include only Chitaldrug
(Chitradurga) and Bangalore districts as within the range of this un-
common bulbul, possibly overlooking the above reports from Bellary
district. I have not seen this rare bulbul in Sandur and Pooler’s speci-
men from Ramandrug in the hills is the only record of the bird from the
taluk.
Pycnonotus luteolus (Lesson) : Whitebrowed Bulbul
Another familiar bulbul in Sandur but not as abundant as the
Redvented. It prefers open country and cultivation but also affects the
tree-lined nullahs in the valley. Possesses a loud call which is a good
indication of its presence on walks.
Pellorneum ruficeps Swainson : Spotted Babbler
One record only, of a pair hopping about on the bed of a nullah
littered with fallen dry leaves near Yeshwantnagar in the western plain
near the foothills of the southern range, on May 1, 1963. Ali and Ripley
(1971) state that this babbler is not known from the Deccan plateau so
this record is of considerable interest. The Sandur hills with their
densely forested slopes provide an ideal habitat for this babbler.
Dumetia hyperythra (Franklin) : Whitethroated Babbler
Observed in small flocks in scrub near Yeshwantnagar. They keep
to small bushes, hopping about in them and uttering sharp chirpy calls.
Chrysomma sinense (Gmelin) : Yelloweyed Babbler
A compact babbler with a loosely held long tail and striking yellow
eyes. Keeps to the interior of bushes and thickets along nullahs and is
very shy and evasive, thus being difficult to observe. Koelz (1947)
shot a male of this species at Hospet in March.
Turdoides caudatus (Dumont) : Longtailed Streaked Babbler
The 4 Common Babbler ’ of many authors, it is decidedly uncommon
in Sandur, keeping to the drier, scrub-covered areas of the western plains.
Here it lives in small flocks which are seen following each other across the
scrub. I prefer to call this the ‘ Longtailed Streaked Babbler ’ as the
bird is hardly common throughout its range7. A male was obtained on
March 25 at Hospet (Koelz 1947).
: i ; i : \ • Sfe
7 The word ‘ common ’ is best restricted to an indication of the abundance of a
particular bird in a given area rather than as an English name designating a species.
The latter procedure usually results in ambiguity especially among amateurs when the
common name is not accompanied by the scientific name of the species. Thus the
term ‘ Common Babbler ’ in Sandur may apply either to T. striatus or to T. malcolmi
depending on whether the reference is in respect of the hills or the plains respectively.
If there is to be a standardisation of English names of Indian species (not for sub-
species too, please, as in the Indian handbook), I strongly suggest elimination of the
term ‘ common * in favour of a more descriptive word,
524 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (3)
Turdoides malcolmi (Sykes) : Large Grey Babbler
Very common in parties of 3-7 birds about cultivation, scrub, vegeta-
tion lining nullahs and roads, and edges of forest. Less common than
the following species in the forested areas where it is rare. Frequently
seen in company with the preceding species in scrub jungle. Moves
about very stiffly on the ground and is very noisy and demonstrative if
disturbed, the rabble taking refuge in nearby trees and keeping up a
constant nasal ‘ goinya, goinya, goinya . . . . ’ which gives them their
local name. Two juveniles were taken at Hospet in March by Koelz
(1947).
Turdoides striatus (Dumont) : Jungle Babbler
Possibly the commonest babbler in Sandur as a whole, particularly on
the forested hills where it alone rules the roost so to speak as far as babblers
are concerned. Moves about in ‘ sisterhoods ’ of 6-8 individuals, feed-
ing mostly on the ground. On the slightest alarm, the whole flock
flies into the nearest tree and sets up a terrible squeaking din, gesticulating
with loosely held tail and flicking wings drooping at the sides.
Turdoides affinis (Jerdon) : Whiteheaded Babbler
Somewhat similar to the preceding species in size, shape, coloration
and habits but easily separated on account of its creamy-white head, dark
brown breast and more musical calls. Somewhat uncommon and noted
only around Yeshwantnagar in the western plains. Ali and Ripley (1971)
state that this babbler is ‘ absent or scarce in Mysore east of the Western
Ghats.’ I may mention here that this babbler also occurs fairly commonly
around Bangalore.
Muscicapa latirostris Raffles : Brown Flycatcher
An uncommon resident in Sandur, usually seen hunting insects in the
seclusion of the numerous shady mango orchards in and outside the
valley.
Muscicapa parva Bechstein : Redbreasted Flycatcher
A regular and plentiful winter visitor to the Sandur area. Each
bird occupies a distinct ‘ territory ’ on arrival and is found day after day
in the same stretch of garden, nullah-bank vegetation or tree-grove. I
have never seen the redbreasted male either here or at Bangalore (where
it is also a common migrant). It has a characteristic habit of jerking
the white marked black tail upwards and at the same time uttering a
curious creaky chatter.
Muscicapa superciliaris Jerdon : Whitebrowed Blue Flycatcher
One record of a single bird seen twice on the same day (April 30,
1963) in the vicinity of an overgrown nullah near Yeshwantnagar*
ORNITHOLOGY OF SANDUR 525
According to my notebook I do not seem to have noticed the white super-
cilium (if there was one) but the broken blue pectoral band on each side
of the breast was definitely observed. A single male collected at
Namadachilume (Tumkur district) in southeastern Karnataka on January
2, 1940, by Salim Ali (1942) is the southernmost and only record of this
flycatcher from Karnataka. My record is the second report of this bird
from Karnataka and suggests that this flycatcher is possibly an erratic
winter visitor here in favourable biotope.
Muscicapa tickelliae (Blyth) : Tickell’s Blue Flycatcher
A common resident all over Sandur particularly in nullah-bank
vegetation and well-wooded country. One of the prettiest of the penin-
sular flycatchers, it delights in perching on roots jutting out of nullah
banks and launches aerial sallies after insect prey.
Muscicapa thalassina Swainson : Verditer Flycatcher
This brilliant blue flycatcher was seen only once at Shivpur in
February 1968 when it flew out of a ‘ bakul ’ ( Mimusops elengi ) tree on
to an electric wire where it sat for some time, quivering its tail, before
dashing back into the tree’s interior.
Culicicapa ceylonensis (Swainson) : Greyheaded Flycatcher
One record only, of a single bird frequenting a shrub-lined nullah
near Yeshwantnagar on October 3, 1963. Ali and Ripley (1972) state
it is not found south of the Krishna river except on the Western Ghats
and the Ceylon hills. I have also seen this flycatcher in winter
near Yelburga (Raichur district) and it seems to occur further south (in
winter only ?) than so far recorded.
Rhipidura albogularis (Lesson) : Whitespotted Fantail Flycatcher
This delightful flycatcher is met with fairly frequently in groves of
trees in the valley, along nullah-bank vegetation and edges of forest,
where it flits about gracefully, displaying its tail and picking up
insects. A breeding resident in Sandur, also occurs on the western plain
especially near Yeshwantnagar. Koelz (1947) took a female on March
25 at Hospet.
Terpsiphone paradisi (Linnaeus) : Paradise Flycatcher
A graceful flycatcher, it is resident and fairly common in Sandur.
Mango orchards and shrub-laden nullahs aro its favourite haunts. Very
elegant in flight, its long tail feathers (in the male) floating behind as it
wends its way through the dark canopy of trees.
Prinia spp. : Longtail Warblers
Parties of longtail warblers numbering from three to fifteen are fre-
quently seen flying from bush to tree-top, in long grass, shrubs bordering
526 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (3)
cultivation and such like but are very difficult to place. They constantly
utter feeble calls to each other while flitting about in search of food.
These birds are difficult to identify in the field with certainty but I think
Prinia hodgsoni Blyth and P. subflava (Gmelin) occur most commonly
in Sandur.
Prinia socialis Sykes : Ashy Longtail Warbler
Fairly common in bushes, nullah-bank vegetation, open forest, scrub
and long grass. An attractive little warbler especially when in breeding
plumage. Koelz (1947) took a male at Hospet in March ; Neginhal
(1971) saw them in bushes on an island in the Tungabhadra in February.
Orthotomus sutorius (Pennant) : Tailor Bird
An exceedingly common resident, principally found scrummaging in
bushes and on trees in open country as well as along nullahs. Tame and
confiding, it has a remarkably loud call.
Acrocephalus dumetorum Blyth : Blyth’s Reed Warbler
A common winter visitor to Sandur, found hopping about in shrub-
bery along nullahs or tanks, generally near water. An unobtrusive
warbler with a distinct pale supercilium.
Phylloscopus inornatus (Blyth) : Yellowbrowed Leaf Warbler
Noted only once in the Palace garden hunting insects on a fig tree.
A distinct yellow supercilium and two wing bars suggested its identity.
Probably winters here in small numbers.
Copsychus saularis (Linnaeus) : Magpie-Robin
A fine songster common around habitation, gardens and orchards.
Also in cultivation interspersed with trees and along nullahs. Partial
to groves of large trees but also in scrub.
Phoenicurus ochruros (S. G. Gmelin) : Black Redstart
A fairly common winter visitor, frequenting the Palace garden,
orchards, cultivation and tree-lined nullahs. A beautifully coloured bird
with the habit of shivering its tail constantly.
Saxicola torquata (Linnaeus) : Stone Chat
Evidently a rare winter straggler to Sandur, single birds seen
occasionally in the valley in cultivation and scrub.
Saxicola caprata (Linnaeus) : Pied Bush Chat
Common and abundant in Sandur in all situations, often perched on
top of a thorny bush or on telegraph wires, flicking its tail regularly.
The resident race is probably S. c. burmanica Stuart Baker but I have one
ORNITHOLOGY OF SAN DU R
527
sight record of a single individual with white extending up to the breast
which seemed to belong to the migrant subspecies S. c. bicolor Sykes.
I saw this species on the banks of the Tungabhadra near Anaigudi in
February. Koelz (1947) took a male at Hospet in March.
Saxicoloides fulicata (Linnaeus) : Indian Robin
One of the commonest birds in Sandur, extremely abundant every-
where but prefers the neighbourhood of cultivation and scrub inter-
spersed with rocky areas. After a cloudburst it is one of the first
feathered creatures to hop down from shelter and burst into song.
Keeps its tail cocked up at an acute angle showing the chestnut under-tail
coverts. Neginhal (1971) saw it near the rest house at Shingtalur ;
Koelz (1947) collected a male at Hospet in March.
Zoothera citrina (Latham) : Orangeheaded Ground Thrush
This interesting thrush is rarely seen, being extremely elusive and
seldom venturing out from concealment under some overgrown bushes
flanking a nullah. Rummages about among dry littered leaves on stony
nullah beds for insects and fallen fruit.
Parus major Linnaeus : Grey Tit
One record only, of a single bird in company with some redwhiskered
bulbuls in moist forest at the edge of Thayammankolla on the Raman-
drug range in August 1972.
Anthus hodgsoni Richmond : Hodgson’s Tree Pipit
A small party of these migrants were observed for several days affect-
ing the Palace garden and the tamarind trees on the grassy banks of
Shivpur tank.
Anthus novaeseelandiae Gmelin : Paddyfield Pipit
A common resident in Sandur in the open areas, grassland and culti-
vation. Gregarious, always found in loosely scattered flocks searching
for food on the ground. Koelz (1947) took a female on March 24 at
Hospet.
Motacilla caspica (Gmelin) : Grey Wagtail
A few individuals of this species winter at the tanks in the taluk.
One or two birds sometimes enter the Palace garden.
Motacilla alba Linnaeus : White Wagtail
This wagtail is found about the tanks at Shivpur and Bandri in the
winter in small numbers, walking about on the edges and wagging the
tail ceaselessly.
528 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 70 (3)
Motacilla maderaspatensis Gmelin : Large Pied Wagtail
Not uncommon along the Narihalla, various tanks and around culti-
vation in the valley and plains. I saw one at Anaigudi on the banks of
the Tungabhadra in February 1968.
Dicaeum agile (Tickell) : Thickbilled Flowerpecker
Not uncommon in well-wooded country especially along vegetation
lining banks of the numerous nullahs. I located a nest of this species
with two young on a tree with sparse reddish brown leaves beside a
nullah near Yeshwantnagar in April 1963. This flowerpecker is an
important dispersal agent for the plant parasites Loranthus and Viscum.
[TickelPs Flowerpecker Dicaeum erythrorhynchos (Latham) was
obtained at Hospet in March by Koelz (1947). Not recorded so far from
within Sandur limits, but it must surely occur here.]
Nectarinia zeylonica (Linnaeus) : Purplerumped Sunbird
A very common resident, found plentifully wherever flowering trees
or shrubs are present. This is where the lantana bush comes as a reve-
lation, sunbirds being very fond of its nectar. Also in gardens about
habitation not unduly disturbed by the presence of humans. Koelz
(1947) secured a male in March at Flospet.
Nectarinia asiatica (Latham) : Purple Sunbird
A shimmering sunbird, superbly plumaged, with a long curved bill
which it inserts into flowers to sip nectar. Associates in small groups of
4-6 birds at times and may be found along with the preceding species in
the country. The immature male is like the female but with a dark line
running vertically down the centre in front from chin to vent. I have
seen the glorious male bird chasing away large carpenter bees {Xylocopa
sp.) visiting the same flowering tree with audible snaps of the bill. Resi-
dent and common in Sandur.
Zosterops palpebrosa (Temminck) : Oriental White-eye
Another well distributed bird in Sandur. Completely arboreal, it
keeps in parties of 5-20 birds which restlessly hunt insects in densely
foliaged trees or bushes in light forest, orchards, gardens and the like.
Constantly utter a feeble chirpy call while feeding.
Passer domesticus (Linnaeus) : House Sparrow
Extremely abundant in the town and villages, a constant hanger-on
of man. Only found in and about habitation or cultivation near villages.
When the adjacent fields are in grain, large hordes of sparrows will visit
them, causing considerable damage. I saw these on the banks of the
Tungabhadra near Anaigudi.
ORNITHOLOGY OF SAN DU R
529
Petronia xanthocoilis (Burton) : Yellowthroated Sparrow
A locally distributed but common resident. I found this sparrow in
great numbers affecting the central valley. From the tree and shrub
bordered nullahs they would fly onto adjacent fields to feed on ripening
earheads of jowar and bajra. Also ventures into the Palace garden.
One bird was seen feeding on the nectar of silk-cotton ( Bombax ceiba)
flowers in the valley in February.
Ploceus philippinus (Linnaeus) : Baya Weaver
Fairly common resident, breeding during June-August, building its
wonderful nests on trees overhanging nullahs, wells, ponds or tanks.
Does some damage to grain crops, especially rice and jowar.
Lonchura malabarica (Linnaeus) : Whitethroated Munia
Fairly common about cultivation, dry open scrub and forest edges
usually in small to large flocks. Feeds on standing grain crops doing
appreciable damage.
Lonchura pimctulata (Linnaeus) : Spotted Munia
This little munia is seen from time to time in small flocks and family
parties about cultivation associated with light forest. Sometimes teams
up with whitethroated munias to feed on ripening grain in cultivated
areas. Also feeds on a large variety of grass seeds. A common breeding
resident in Sandur.
Discussion
The above account includes a total of 166 species recorded from
Sandur taluk with an additional 16 species from other parts of Bellary
district. In order to get a reasonable idea of the composition and variety
of Sandur’s bird life, a comparison with areas of similar dimensions and
terrain would be ideal. Table 1 provides such areas together with the
number of species recorded from each.
Species recorded from areas of comparable size and terrain to Sandur
Table 1
Area
Species recorded
Reference
Madhya Pradesh :
Saugor (Sagar) and
Damoh districts
Sehore (Bhopal)
Balaghat
Pachmarhi
Betul
155* J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 21 : 87 (1911)
294 ibid. ,21 : 153 (1911)
162 ibid., 21 : 1158 (1911)
135 ibid., 28 : 453 (1922)
i oiu. , |
168 ibid., 41 : 286 (1941), 44 : 471 (1944)
Maharashtra :
Berar (Akola and
193 ibid., 43 : 428 (1942)
Buldana districts)
* Resident birds only recorded.
530 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (3)
Comparing the number of birds so far observed in Sandur (166)
with those recorded from the localities mentioned in the table of some-
what similar terrain and size, it seems that in numbers at least, Sandur is
in no way inferior. When one considers that Sandur has almost no
habitats for water birds and that it is mainly an area of hill forest, open
cultivation and dry scrub, a possible total of about 200-250 species would
be a conservative estimate for the taluk. Only Bhopal with 294 recorded
species is comparatively richer in its avifauna. My own estimate is
that the 166 species recorded in this paper make up only about 60-70%
of the possible total of species for this distinctive area. The noticeable
omissions from the list are birds attached to inland waters like egrets,
herons, storks, waders, snipe, ducks, wagtails and crakes, the paucity of
such habitats in the taluk accounting for the absence of these species in
Sandur. Other groups such as the diurnal birds of prey, owls, nightjars,
cuckoos, warblers, flycatchers and larks must certainly make up a large
proportion of the avian population especially in the hills and will need a
more careful and exhaustive search.
My observations on the ornithology of Sandur have been necessarily
limited, having been carried out in bits and pieces on short trips to the area
over a period of ten years. Many areas in the taluk such as the eastern
plains were virtually neglected and others were poorly worked for in-
stance the highly interesting hill forests and the western plains. Only
the valley was more or less fairly well studied for its avifauna but even
here much more field work needs to be carried out in a more systematic
manner. An extended residence in the area for a couple of years would
be ideal which indicates that ‘ residents ’ in the taluk could achieve far
more than an ‘ occasional visitor ’ like the author. Meanwhile, it is
hoped that this preliminary list will serve as a broad indication of the
type of bird life existing in the Sandur area and as an aid to future work
on the avifauna of the taluk.
Acknowledgements
I wish to acknowledge, with pleasure, the help rendered by
Mr. M. Krishnan, of Madras, in reading the manuscript and offering
valuable comments and much additional and supplementary information
based on his personal observations on the birds of Sandur. I am grate-
ful to Dr. G. P. Channa Basavanna, Prof. of Entomology, University of
Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore, for reviewing the manuscript. I am
also thankful to my nephew, Mr. Ajai M. Ghorpade of Sandur, for
many useful discussions and am greatly indebted to my uncle, Mr. Y. R.
Ghorpade for his many courtesies during my stays at Sandur and
for his sustained interest in this work.
ORNITHOLOGY OF SAND UR
531
References
Abdulali, H. (1947) : The move-
ments of the Rosy Pastor in India
[Pastor roseus (L.)]. /. Bombay nat.
Hist . Soc. 46 : 704-708.
(1968) : A Catalogue of the
Birds in the Collection of the Bombay
Natural History Society. Part 2.
ibid. 65 : 418-430.
(1969): op. cit., Part 4.
ibid. 66:251-285.
(1970) : op. cit., Part 7.
ibid. 67: 279-298.
(1971) : op. cit. Part 8.
ibid. 68 : 127-152.
& Reuben, R. (1964) : The
Jungle Bush Quail [Perdicula asiatica
(Latham)] : a new race from south India,
ibid. 61 : 688-691.
Ali, Salim (1942) : The Birds of
Mysore. Part II. ibid. 43 : 318-341 .
& Ripley, S. D. (1968-
1972) : Handbook of the Birds of India
and Pakistan. Volumes 1-7. Oxford
University Press, Bombay.
Allen, P. R. (1908) : Notes on the
Yellowthroated Bulbul ( Pycnonotus
xantholaemus). J. Bombay nat . Hist.
Soc. 18 : 905-907.
Baker, E. C. Stuart (1900) : Indian
Ducks and their allies. Part IX.
ibid. 13 : 1-24.
Campbell, W. H. (1906) : Nesting of
the White-bellied Drongo (Dicrurus
caerulescens) . ibid. 17 : 248.
Ghorpade, K. D. ( 1973) : On the
Status and Distribution of the Great
Grey Shrike, Lanius excubitor Linnaeus
in Mysore, ibid. 70 (2) : 380.
Henry, G. M. (1955) : A Guide to the
Birds of Ceylon. Oxford University
Press, London, xl + 432 pp.
Koelz, W. (1947) : Notes on a Collec-
tion of Birds from Madras Presidency.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 47 : 128-142.
Krishnan, M. (1948) : Sandur State
1948. Hosali Press, Bangalore, vi +
83 pp.
(1955) : The Rosy Pastor in
the Bellary area. J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. 53 : 128-129.
Neginhal, S. G. (1971) : Tunga-
bhadra reservoir birds. Newsletter for
Birdwatchers 11(5) : 6-8.
Ramachandra Rao, Y. (1920) : Lantana
Insects in India. Mem. dept, agric.
India ent. Ser. 5 : 239-314.
Ripley, S. D. (1961) : A Synopsis of
the Birds of India and Pakistan.
Bombay Natural History Society,
Bombay, xxxvi + 703 pp.
Whistler, H. (1928) : The migration
of the Pied Crested Cuckoo ( Clamator
jacobinus ). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
33 : 136-145.
& Kinnear, N. B. (1932a) :
The Vernay Scientific Survey of the
Eastern Ghats (Ornithological Section).
Parti, ibid. 35 : 505-524.
& (1932b) : op.
cit. Part 2. ibid. 35 : 737-760.
Obituary
NORMAN LOFTUS BOR
(1893-1972)
Dr. N. L. Bor. c.i.e., o.b.e., m.a., d.sc., f.l.s., f.r.s.e., the distin-
guished authority on Asiatic Grasses, died on 22nd December, 1972,
at the West London Hospital, after a brief illnessBorn on 2 May 1893
at Tramore, Co. Waterford, Ireland, his death at the ripe age of eighty,
will be considered by many as the end of an era in Indian botany.
He took his M.A. and later D.Sc. at Trinity College, Dublin. A
thesis on the vegetation of the Naga Hills, Assam, subsequently earned
him a D.Sc. from the University of Edinburgh.
During the First World War, he served with the Connaught Rangers
in France, Salenica and Palestine. He entered the Indian Forest Service
in 1921 and during the next 27 years occupied a number of important
posts, both professional and administrative ; as a Forest Officer, Botanist,
Political Officer and Chief Refugee Administrator (1943-1946), and at
his retirement, held the rank of Conservator of Forests*.
Dr. Bor had an uncanny knack of learning the languages of the tribals
of Eastern India and we have the testimony of his wife, Eleanor Constance
Rundall, that he could converse effectively in as many as seven tribal
languages of Assam by the time of their marriage in 1931. Her book
adventures of A botanist’s wife published hardly five years before her
death in 1957, makes entertaining reading. Her definition of a botanist
is 4 a species that seeks untrodden ways, often perilous, in search of . . .
specimens ’. This could be considered as a pointer to the character and
drive of her botanist husband during their botanising in Eastern India.
She narrates many anecdotes and reminiscences which depict eloquently
Dr. Bor’s quiet courage, foresight and presence of mind in the face of
numerous hazards faced during his (and also their) travels in the rugged
mountainous terrain clothed with impenetrable forests, infested with
bears, elephants, leeches and dreadful insects, rather than with snakes
and tigers. She narrates, how, during their travel through forest on an
elephant’s back, within the first six days of their marriage, she suspected
her husband might be going mad, because he suddenly started scratching
himself ferociously and then flung himself from the elephant and dis-
appeared into the forest. She learnt later that he had rushed to a nearby
stream to wash off the intensely irritating bristles of Mucuna prurita.
OBITUARY
533
Some of which must have fallen on his neck, face and shoulders, when
their elephant brushed against the creeper.
The opportunity to study the grasses in a more comprehensive manner
came to Dr. Bor when he was deputed by the Government of Assam to the
Kew Herbarium for three months during 1936 for training, to bring
out a manual of the Grasses of Assam ; and flora of Assam, Yol. V,
the Gramineae (1940), was the result thereof. Sir Joseph Hooker’s
remark about the grasses of his time being 4 dreadfully difficult and
systematically a chaos of imperfect descriptions, erroneous identi-
fications, confused synonymy and imbecile attempts ’ to study the grasses
(Taylor in Bor 1960) might have stimulated the young botanist in Bor
of 1936-40 to accept the challenge and to continue undiminished his
interest and dedication for the study of the Asiatic grasses at Kew
Herbarium, first as Assistant Director from 1948 to 1959, and then as a
self-employed honorary member of the grass section from 1959 almost
till his death in December 1972. Apart from his numerous publications,
particularly on the vegetation of flora of Eastern India, and his books
such as MANUAL OF FOREST BOTANY (1953), and BEAUTIFUL INDIAN
climbers and shrubs (with M. B. Raizada) (1954), his monumental work
on the GRASSES OF BURMA, CEYLON, INDIA AND PAKISTAN (1960), of the
flora of iraq (1968), of the flora iRANiCA (1970) and of the forth-
coming flora of Cyprus will stand as his memorial and bear testimony
to the fruits of many years of thorough and persistent labour and the
splendid realization of a dream come true ! While his admirers abroad,
particularly those interested in the study of Asiatic Grasses, will benefit
immensely from his masterly elucidation of the complexities involved
in the systematics and nomenclature of one of the most difficult families
of flowering plants, his younger colleagues and admirers closely asso-
ciated with him at Kew during the last 24 years, in the words of
Dr. W. D. Clayton, ‘ will remember with delight the burly figure amid a
litter of specimens, dispensing fudge, German translations, and an in-
exhaustible supply of outrageous reminiscences. They will recall, with
a sense of gratitude, tl^at his encouragement, advice and wise counsel
were also available to all who sought them .... We shall all miss him
as a colleague and many of us will mourn him as a friend.’ I consider
myself extremely unfortunate that I did not arrive at the Kew Herbarium
until a week after he had left it.
>Dr. Bor was awarded the Paul Johannes Briihl Medal of the Royal
Asiatic Society of Bengal 1945 and the Gold Medal of the Linnaean
Society of London in 1962. For his distinguished services in India, he
was awarded the C.I.E. in 1945 and the O.B.E. in 1957 for his services
to the Kew establishment.
G. Panigrahi
534 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (3)
V. K. CHARI
(1912-1972)
Vanaharam Krishnama Chari was born on 12 January 1912 at
Ballampet, Cuddapah District, Andhra Pradesh. He graduated from
the Christian College at Madras and after working as a school master
in Andhra Pradesh joined the Society as its Assistant Curator in 1946.
Under the then existing arrangement Mr. Chari was also Assistant
Curator of the Natural History Section of the Prince of Wales Museum,
Bombay. In 1960 Mr. Chari took over as Curator of the Natural
History Section of the Museum and continued in that capacity till his
death on 31 January, 1972.
A kind-hearted gentleman and a genial companion ever ready to
assist anyone who needed help, his untimely death is a grievous loss to
his many friends.
Mr. Chari’s special interest was Herpetology and he contributed
several useful papers to the Society’s Journal which are listed below :
J. C. Daniel
The record Black Earth Boa [ Eryx j ohm (Russell)] 49 : 127.
Breeding habits of Thais bufo (Lamarck). ( With two text-figures ) 49 : 317.
A Dhaman or Rat-Snake [ Ptyas mucosus (Linn.) ] jumping 49 : 561.
Occurrence of the fish Danio aequipinnatus (McClelland) in Nela Bilam-an Under-
ground cavern in Kurnool District, South India 49 : 565.
The Great Indian Rorqual or Fin-whale Balaenoptera indica Blyth, off Umargam
(Bombay State) 50 : 167.
Bull Frog ( Rana tigrina Daud.) preying upon the Common Toad {Bufo melanos-
tictus Schneid.) 50 : 679.
Localization of the striped variety of the Roughtailed Earthsnake — Uropeltis
macrolepis (Peters) — to Mahableshwar 50 : 950.
Some more notes on Uropeltis macrolepis (Peters) with special reference to speci-
mens from Mahableshwar (Western Ghats, Bombay) 51 : 512.
New locality record of Rana hexadactyla Lesson 51 : 751.
An addition to the list of Snakes of Bombay and Salsette — Uropeltis macrolepis
(Peters) — Uropeltidae 52 : 213.
A new form of the burrowing snake, Uropeltis macrolepis (Peters) from Maha-
bleshwar 52 : 901.
A blind snake from Nepal 53 : 7 1 1 .
The Horned Helmet, Cassis cornuta Linn. — an addition to the list of Marine Gastro-
pods of Bombay 53 : 736.
Distribution of the skink, Riopa lineata (Gray) 57 : 226.
A description of the hitherto undescribed tadpole of, and some field notes on the
fungoid frog, Rana malabarica Bibron 59: 71.
Reviews
1. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF INFECTIOUS DISEASE,
By Macfarlane Burnet and David O. White. Fourth Edition, pp. 278
(13-5X21-5 cm). London, 1972. Cambridge University Press. Price
£1.20.
The fourth edition of Sir Macfarlane’s already well known book
has been extensively revised and brought up-to-date in collaboration
with Dr. David White. It is a tribute to their talents and literary
skill that this revision, has not made the book more bulky, and the
lucid, conversational style of the original has been retained. This
is all the more impressive when it is seen that the book is full of
useful information, some of which is sought in vain, even in more
comprehensive treatises.
The authors have discussed, from an evolutionary and ecological
standpoint, the progress of many of the common infectious diseases. The
interplay between an infecting organism and the host animal or man, in the
rise and decline of epidemics, as well as the influence of socio-economic
factors, and of scientific advances, like the discovery of antibiotics, on
health and disease, have been ably presented. A brief survey is made of
advances in immunology and its importance in human disease processes.
The prevalence of newer diseases, and the importance of viral infections,
many hitherto of minor importance, have been examined in the light
of the ecological situation. Finally, the importance, applications, and
possible misapplications, of newer knowledge of microbiology, and the
possible effect on human beings, e.g. in biological warfare, are considered,
in a brief, but very balanced appreciation of current trends.
The charm of a book like this cannot be analysed. In addition
to the obvious discussion of interplay between host and parasite, the
authors cover, directly or by implication, the interplay of social and
economic changes, the problems of population pressures, the impor-
tance of psychosocial factors and behaviour patterns e.g. our failure
to make any impact, in spite of our knowledge, on the spread of
venereal disease or on smoking habits; and many other facets of the
human situation, which make for stimulating reading.
It is usual when reviewing a book of this nature to start by
asking for whom it is intended. It is obviously not intended as a
text-book for the medical or microbiology student, but it is a book
with a very wide appeal. Because it opens up wider horizons, it
can be an illuminating supplement to the standard text-books, for the
536 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (3)
student of medicine or of microbiology, as well as for the practising
physician and public health worker; it can also be read with inte-
rest by the general reader who seeks entertainment and instruction
‘without tears’.
It is not generally appreciated how much the get-up and pre-
sentation can affect the acceptance and the readability of a book like
this for the general reader. The publishers are to be congratulated
on the practical format and excellent get-up. In particular, the
combination of the paper and the pleasing type face used, makes the
book aesthetically satisfying and a pleasure to handle and to read.
A. N. D. N.
2. GENETIC DIVERSITY AND NATURAL SELECTION.
By James Murray. University Reviews in Biology, pp. vii-i-128
(14x21-5 cm). With 23 text-figures. Edinburgh, 1972. Oliver and
Boyd. Price £1-25 (cased £2 50).
This book is intended to be an introduction to the field of eco-
logical genetics, and is addressed to senior undergraduate and post-
graduate students, but anyone who knows the principles of genetics and is
familiar with its terminology will find much of interest here.
Darwin wrote his origin of species at a time when the laws
of heredity were not known. He believed that there was a great
deal of inherent variability within species, with breeding tending to
eliminate differences, while selection preserved them. Now, a hundred
years later, evidence has accumulated to show that Darwin was
essentially correct in his views on the role of natural selection.
Modem electrophoretic techniques have made it possible to investigate
the extent of polymorphism in groups of enzymes known to be pro-
duced at single loci. In every species and every population investi-
gated a large proportion of loci were polymorphic; forty-one per cent
in the house mouse, sixty-three per cent in the snail Cepea nemorails ,
and fifty-four per cent in Drosophila melanogaster. Human blood
groups have been studied; thirty-three per cent of the loci determining
these are polymorphic, and the average individual is heterozygous for
sixteen per cent of them.
How are these polymorphisms maintained in nature? It was
believed by the post-Darwinian geneticists that there was a ‘wild type’
of individual, and that mutations were frequent. Selection Was con-
stantly eliminating the less advantageous mutations, while favourable
REVIEWS
537
ones spread in the population. This theory does not explain the
many very stable polymorphisms which exist in natural populations,
in which different forms have characteristic frequencies. For example,
Cepea snails may have yellow or brown shells, the proportions of
which may vary in different places. Shells from Neolithic and
Bronze Age sites show the same frequencies of these morphs as
do living populations of these snails in the same area. The first
explanation that cames to mind is that such characters have no selec-
tive value. There is however, evidence to show that this is not true in
many cases. It has been shown that heterozygosity in itself an ad-
vantage (‘hybrid vigour'), but this is also not the whole answer.
In one of the most interesting sections of the book Dr. Murray
describes experimental evidence that frequency-dependent selection
operates in nature to maintain polymorphisms. One of the ways this
may happen is through predatirn. Predators, for example, birds, may
tend to take the kind of prey they are used to, and therefore take
proportionately more of the commonest form, to the selective advan-
tage of rare variants, as long as they remain rare.
When each of two morphs is advantageous while the heterozygote
between them is disadvantageous, one of two things happen. Either
dominance develops, so that the harmful effects of the heterozygote
are masked by the dominant character, or reproductive isolation
develops which could lead to speciation. An example of the first
alternative is found in the African butterfly Papilio dardanus , which
has females which mimic a number of different models, as well as
non-mimetic males and females. In mainland Africa where mimics
and non-mimics occur together, there is clear dominance of one
form over another in heterozygotes. In Madagascar there are no
naturally occurring mimics. In crosses between mainland mimics
and non-mimetic island butterflies the resulting heterozygotes are
intermediate between the parent forms, showing that dominance rela-
tionships have had no chance to develop in the island population.
The evidence for incipient speciation when forms are subjected to
different ecological conditions is conflicting. Certainly they rapidly
differentiate into distinct well-adapted forms, which are maintained
in spite of breeding between them. Further research is needed in this
area to show whether species can arise in this way.
Dr. Murray has dealt with a complex subject with admirable
clarity and the many examples he quotes in support of his argument
should be read in full.
R. R.
538 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (3)
3. TERMITE PROBLEMS IN INDIA. Edited by Dr. M. L.
Roonwal. pp. viii + 82 (24x 16 cm). New Delhi, 1972. Council
of Scientific and Industrial Research.
"■-■US j
This is a compilation of papers read at symposium of Termitologists
of India, convened by the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research
at New Delhi in March 1970. In this conference the experts have
expressed their experiences in their work on termites, very briefly and
in some cases have recommended measures of control and have
suggested future lines of work. Taking into consideration all the
papers together, they may be divided into five groups: (1) Termites
affecting buildings, factories etc., (2) Resistance of some timber to
termite attack, (3) Ecology and destruction of agricultural and horti-
cultural crops and forest plantations, (4) Cytology and physiology of
the insect, and (5) Taxonomy.
It is pointed out that very little work has been done of the pest
from the academic point of view. There is a vast scope for phy-
siological and Cytogenetical study of this pest. Problems on the
physiology of digestion are discussed. It is also noted that very
little cytogenetical work has been done in this country. Its impor-
tance is stressed and suggestions have been made as to how the
Universities can help.
The taxonomy of termites was a neglected field and what has
been accompalished now is only a decade’s work. In this period fairly
impressive results were obtained and new genera and species were
added to the fauna of India. Faunistic studies have been carried
out only in a small part of India and the rest of the country is
yet to be surveyed.
One of the most important part of study of an insect is its life
history and habits. Though the termite is found everywhere and
does so much damage, practically no work has been carried out
in this direction. For such a study and to carry out co-ordinated
research on this important insect a unified centre has been suggested.
N. T. N.
4. PIPPA’S CHALLENGE. By Joy Adamson, pp. 175 (23x18
cm). With 14 coloured and 64 black-and-white plates. London,
1972. Collins and Harville Press. Price £2*75.
Very little is known about the cheetah. All the more reason.
REVIEWS
539
therefore, to be grateful to Joy Adamson for a second book about
these attractive cats. Readers of the spotted sphinx will
know how Mrs. Adamson successfully rehabilitated Pippa, her pet
cheetah, to life in the wild. Pippa had four litters, of which two
survived to maturity. This book is mainly concerned with the fourth
litter, which Mrs. Adamson continued to observe after Pippa’s death.
Meanwhile the three females of the previous litter were in excellent
condition, and at least two of them brought up litters on their own.
According to Schaller cheetahs are solitary animals which do not
defend territories but which normally simply avoid encountering one
another. Thus what Mrs. Adamson refers to as ‘territory’ is really
home range. Her female cheetahs maintained three distinct home
ranges most of the time. Their occasional meetings are of interest.
When mother and daughter met after months of separation both
threatened each other, but the daughter gave way and rolled on her
back in submission. When the same young female met her sisters,
who had remained together, one greeted her, but the other snarled
and rebuffed her friendly overtures.
There is an interesting account of how the cubs of the fourth
litter came to sexual maturity. The female came into oestrus when
the cubs were still together. She was courted by and mated with
both her brothers but developed a preference for the larger of them.
The photographs of courtship and mating are probably unique.
Mrs. Adamson recognises her cheetahs by the individual patterns
of markings at the base of the tail. It would have been interesting
if she had included the photographs she says she took showing
these individual differences. Scientists at the Serengeti Research
Institute use patterns of spots on the cheek to recognise individual
cheetahs.
The photographs, as usual, are excellent.
R. R.
5. FORESTS OF NEPAL. By J. D. A. Stainton. pp. xvi+181
(14 cmX ? cm), with 5 maps and 8 charts and 156 coloured illustrations
London. 1972. John Murray. Price £6-50.
For a long time the kingdom of Nepal was closed to travellers,
even the Nepalese passed through India to reach the eastern or
western districts of their country when official duties compelled them
to leave Kathmandu valley. However, conditions have changed
540 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (3)
* . v ' '
since 1950-1951. Earlier, in 1947 and 1948 the Indian Government
was permitted to survey the Kosi catchment and some mountaineering
expeditions were also allowed in 1949 and 1950.
J. D. A. Stainton was a member of the 1954 expedition to
west Nepal which was sponsored jointly by the British Museum
(Natural History) and the Royal Horticultural Society. Over the next
fifteen years, Adam Stainton made eighteen journeys all over the
country, visiting remote regions which are very difficult to access,
collecting plants and recording his observations, more widely than
any botanist had done so far. The reviewer knows of another — Toni
Hagen, a geologist who can claim to have travelled through the
country and in all directions over a period of seven years. Adam
Stainton, however, continued on his own and makes it clear (p. 2)
that he was not connected with the British Museum in any official
capacity, although he had been collecting for the herbarium of the
Museum on many occasions. It is but natural for one to deposit his
specimens in a herbarium, and Adam Stainton has been collecting
extensively, an idea of which one can get from the Appendix of his
book under review, and also from the fact that a large number of
species have been named after him.
The book forests of Nepal besides the Introductory remarks and
notes on climate, is divided into three parts : I — Geographical divisions
of Nepal, II — Forest Types and III— Notes on Distribution. The
reviewer finds that in the text, part I is titled as ‘Climate and Vege-
tational Divisions of Nepal’ although climate is already dealt with
in the earlier pages, and in this part I there is very little about
climate.
On page 3, the author is very modest when he says ‘being
entirely self-taught in matters of botany and ecology, I am well aware
that the notes must have many imperfections’. But his treatment
on the Forest Types and Notes on Distribution are very analytical,
well documented and masterly Adam Stainton mentions of the great
variety of climate and vegetation within a small country and in the
valley of Kali Gandaki, he has seen abrupt change of climate and
vegetation telescoped into a short distance (p. 47). The author has
had difficulties to follow Champion’s forest types for the classification
of forests of East Nepal. In an earlier publication [Rfc. Bot. Surv.
hid . xix (2), 1965] sudden changes in the vegetation of East Nepal
and difficulties to fit in Champion’s type in the east have been recorded,
and recourse to Gamble’s system was taken. Adam Stainton has also
divided his Tropical Evergreen Forest by altitude (p. 63), and again
REVIEWS
541
depends on altitudinal division for the Temperate Mixed Broadleaved
Forests, when he divided them into a Lower which lies between
5-7000 ft. and an upper between 8-10,500 ft. altitude. While the
author refers to all the recent publications, he seems to have missed
this 1965 publication. In 1966 and 1967 when the reviewer was on
collecting tours with Adam Stainton, difficulties to follow Champion’s
forest types for the classification of forests of East Nepal and the
handicaps of Schweinfurth’s System were also discussed at length.
In part III — Notes on Distribution, the author rightly says that
the species which were previously regarded as East Himalayan or
West Himalayan are now known to occur in Nepal. This has been
possible only because of the extensive recent collections made by
various botanists working on Nepal flora and evidenced by the
presence of the specimens in the herbaria or by some publications.
The author has indicated the geographical positions of sixteen tree
species on maps 2, 3, 4 and 5. On p. 151 the author refers to the
presence of Juglans regia in Eastern Himalayas * as often due to
cultivation. The reviewer is tempted to mention that in parts of
East Nepal this species occurs at many places and bears no indi-
cation whatsoever of having been cultivated, particularly on the slopes
of Solu khola and the reserve forest lying to the south of Okhaldunga.
There are a few printing errors, such as on pp. 18 and 175: J. H.
Burkhill for I. H. Burkill; p. 82 Reinwartia for Reinwardtia; pp. 91,
94 and 99: Sarocococca for Sarcococca , and Sarauja for Saumui a or
Saurauja appear at many places. It is ‘bhitri madesh’ and not
‘bhitri mardesh’ as it appears on p. 18.
The book is full of information and is a valuable contribution
towards the knowledge of the forests of a country which was till
recently botanical ly unknown. The book should prove extremely use-
ful to all interested in the vegetation of Nepal and will stimulate
further interest in the study of the vegetation of Nepal.
The author and the publishers are to be congratulated for the
156 colour photographs most of which assist in the identification of
the common shrubs and trees of Nepal.
M. L. BANERJI
6. INDIAN SARDINES (their biology and fishery). By
R. V. Nair. CSIR Zoological Monograph No. 2. pp. 107 (24-5 X
16 cm), with 24 text-figures. New Delhi, 1973. Publications and
Information Directorate. Price Rs. 22-00, $7-00, £2-20.
542 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (3)
Sardines, one of the most economically important clupeoid fishes,
contribute almost a third of the marine fish production in India.
It is not, therefore, surprising that many biological investigations have
been carried out on these fishes. So far, however, such work was
scattered among more than a hundred scientific papers. Moreover,
the contradictory views expressed by investigators, especially on
raciation and reproductive biology, have created some confusion.
The need was, therefore, long felt for bringing together this mass
of information into one consolidated compilation. The present
monograph does just that.
The format of dealing with the different fishes is fairly uniform.
Starting with a brief morphological description and local names of
each species, the author goes on to its distribution and seasonal
variation (where known). In the section on bionomics, the author has
included age and size at maturity, fecundity (where known), spawning
season, early life-history, food and feeding habits, size and age
composition, and predators and parasites.
Since the oil sardine, Sardinella longiceps, is the most economically
important as well as the best known, over a third of the book is
devoted to it. In addition to the topics mentioned above, the aspects
of variability (races), annual variations in catch, legislation, length-
weight relationship, shoaling behaviour, and large scale mortality are
also included.
The latter part of the book deals with fishery. Since some of the
lesser sardines, namely Sardinella sirm . S . melanura, S. sindensis,
and S. clupeoides are not very well known, it is to be expected that
their fishery is dealt with cursorily, only one small paragraph being
devoted to each of these. However, as the author has thought fit
to separate the sections on biology and fishery, it would have been
better if the fishery of Dussumieria hasselti and of Kowala coval had
been included in the part on fishery, instead of mixing these up in
the biology section. Incidentally, the Marathi name of Kowala coval
is ‘Bhilji’, and not 4Bhitgi\ as stated on page 74.
While the photographs of fishing are excellent, the same cannot
be said about those of fishes, which appear to have lost their quality
during printing. It would have been preferable to have line drawings
of these fishes instead of photographs, as drawings give a clearer
picture of taxonomic characters such as scales, fin-rays, etc. More-
over, photographs of Sardinella melanura, S . sindensis, S. dayi , S.
clupeoides, and Dussumieria acuta have not been given in the book.
REVIEWS
543
Also, although the author has broken up the contents into three
main parts; biology of the oil sardine, biology of the lesser sardines,
and fishery of the lesser sardines, the reading matter runs continuously
from beginning to end of the book, without being separated into
different chapters, each to start on a separate page. This makes it
confusing to the reader who desires to refer to a subject in the
middle of the book, even though bold sub-titles help to some extent.
Apart from these few very minor faults, the book is flawless,
having been excellently written and edited. Accurate author, syste-
matic, and subject indices enable the reader to have easy cross
reference, while the, by no means small, list of references is valuable
for the researcher wishing to refer original papers.
The monograph will be a valuable source book for fishery
students as well as research workers.
Miscellaneous Notes
1. A TRIP TO SILENT VALLEY— MARCH 1972
Mukailly is a small village in the Attapadi or Rhavani Rivei
Valley, eighteen miles from Mann ai ghat, which is a small town on the
plains of Kerala below the Western Nilgiris. From Mannarghat, you
must ascend the ghat by bus, lorry or jeep, and once over the top of
the ghat you are three kilometres from where a forest road meets the
main Mannarghat-Coimbatore road at Mukailly at 1200 feet.
It was from Mukailly that David Hayles, an English held naturalist
and myself left at 6 a.m. on a fine clear morning in mid-March, our
destination a valley, the saddle of which lay twenty miles away and
three thousand feet higher. Our purpose was to study insects and
snakes and other animals in an area of relatively untouched ever-
green rain-forest.
By ten o’clock we had climbed up the side of the Panthan
Todu river valley and were traversing a thick piece of savannah in
which avenues of crushed grass had been made by the passage ot
elephants. There we saw barking deer which dashed off through
the high elephant grass. After coming out of the grass we sat by
a clear, cool bubbling stream on the edge of the forest and ate
the brown dough balls we had brought with us from Mukailly.
These having filled our stomachs and our feet being cooled off we
continued our journey and walked for three miles on the eastern side
of the valley. The way was through thick and steep forest and we
saw several rat snakes or dhaman, jungle fowl and a barking deer that
w'as moving parallel to us in the forest for about fifty yards
affording us a good look, before moving off down to the river. We
also saw some leopard spoor showing us that the dinner previously
consumed was one of the black monkeys, lion-tailed macaque or the
Nilgiri Langur.
We arrived at a parting of paths. We could either go on to Silent
Valley, the saddle of which lay some five miles in front, to the
north or we could go down to the left (west) and meet the
Panthan Todu, a small stream at this elevation — and camp there.
We had brought along sleeping bags, ‘rawa’, sugar and tea for
material comforts, and a butterfly net, collecting bottles, snake bags,
note books and pencils for the rest.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
545
Being rather weary of foot we opted to go down to the stream
and camp there. We walked a mile or so down the path, which
leads to a cardamom plantation, crossed the stream and then
descended the river bed for a mile and picked a ‘safe’ place to camp
near the edge of the stream under a huge tree. There was ample
sign of elephants all around, and having been there before I knew
that a herd of eighty or ninety elephants lived in that area plus
a couple of solitary tuskers, one relatively docile and the other not
so docile. Last year I had met a tribal who collected jak-fruit in
the forest who claimed the huge scar across his chest came from
this second tusker!
In the afternoon we wandered around, looking at the multitude
of birds and insects, also I saw three Nilgiri Langurs taking
themselves away, crashing through the tops of trees and later I
watched two Malabar Squirrels, one on my left the other on my
right, each on different sides of the stream. One called the other
which came from my right and crossed the river about fifty feet
up by way of branches and joined his companion. Toward evening
the bird chorus intensified, southern treepies, racket-tailed drongos
and the hill Mynas, the raucous, entertaining relative of the plains
myna. We watched the sun sink and the colours change to night,
Venus the evening star and the multitudes following shortly after.
We made a huge fire, kept it burning all night and slept well into
the bargain.
After a breakfast of tea and ‘rawa’ we went for a look around
the locality and found fresh spoor of a solitary elephant fairly near
our camp on the stream, also we had the pleasure of watching five
Nilgiri Langur feeding in the trees next to the river. We came and
went without disturbing them. We paid a visit to the cardamom
plantation, after ascending the stream for two miles or so, and in
the settlement we heard that the elephants had been around for the
last few days and were under that hill in the thick bamboo if we
wished to see them.
We spent the day collecting insects and making observations.
That night we had a feast of rice and dry fish obtained from the
plantation. Another night passed in the same place with an equally
large fire. No elephants disturbed our dreams and after breakfast
we stashed our sleeping bags in a bush and at six thirty retraced
our path up the river, back up the road to the cross roads. We
saw in some sand by the stream fairly near our camp fresh sambar,
barking deer and leopard tracks.
9
546 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (3)
From the junction of the forest roads it was five miles and a
steep climb that took us to the saddle of Silent Valley and the
end of the Panthan Todu Valley. On the way to the saddle we saw
a lot of Nilgiri Langur and Malabar Squirrels and heard many
more hooting, chuckling and crashing in the treetops. Large numbers
of grey jungle fowl were scratching and feeding on the leaf covered
road and ran away through the forest as we approached.
Whilst walking through this evergreen forest consisting of huge
trees with the canopy a hundred feet or more above our heads, we
heard that incredible noise, the wing beat of the Great Hornbill.
After a few moments a pair flew overhead, crashed into a treetop
nearby and in a typical raucous manner fed noisly, crashing about
in the branches and dropping fruit on the ground. We left them
to their pleasures and continued on our way.
We descended into Silent Valley from the south-eastern side and
looking out, could see what a vast area of forest lay before us.
We continued for about five miles and stopped and ate some coconut
and jaggery for lunch on a stream. This was a tributary of the
Kundi Puzha the main river of Silent Valley. We sat by the clear
cold tasty water watching butterflies flying up and down the river
on their different flight paths. The Red Helen a startling black and
white swallowtail and the Blue Mormon, a beautiful iridescent blue
and black swallowtail, both some four inches across the wings,
using the same flight paths while the white pieridae butterflies always
flew straight down the middle of the stream playing follow-the-leader,
in lines of twenty or thirty individuals. After spending an hour or
two in this place we decided to go and see what lay around the
comer and walked on.
After half a mile I thought 1 heard human voices, so we stopped
to listen, and after five minutes heard the noise again, from the
thick forest above us, like yet unlike humans. We continued on our
way, ‘pussyfooting’ and after a hundred yards we saw three black
monkeys feeding some fifty yards from the path. We were able to
see them because of a small nullah running up in that direction.
Without a sound we concealed ourselves in the nullah, and after
five minutes or so we saw three more monkeys, casually walking a
branch from one tree to another some thirty yards away. From their
lesser size and the short tail with a knot on the end I knew them to be
Lion-tailed Macaques and not Nilgiri Langurs, as we had supposed,
and were overjoyed at seeing this rare monkey. (I had only seen
it once before in the Singampatti Hills, Tirunelveli Dist., a few weeks
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
547
previously with Dr. Karr, an American ornithologist.) It soon
appeared that there were eleven or twelve adults in this group and
unaware of our presence they were feeding all around us. Two of
them moved down the nullah, slowly feeding, walking carefully from
branch to branch and jumping very little. During half an hour of
watching them pluck fruit, eat it, clean themselves, clean the young
(two females were with young clinging to their stomachs) we heard
them make only three or four quiet vocal sounds. By this time one
of the members of the troop was in a tree not ten feet from us and
then walked out on the branch across the stream by way of another
branch and then into another tree. The first was followed by a
second, (both monkeys passing not more than five feet from our
upturned noses. I clearly recall the face peering down surrounded
with white outlined against the afternoon sky and treetops, an
unforgettable sight. The two adults stayed in the tree next to us for
five minutes before one left and the other one must have seen a
movement from us and he gave a low sharp call and moved off
quickly, the others who were near us also moved away but after
going about fifty yards they stopped and watched us as we left. It
is interesting to note how quietly these monkeys move in contrast
to the Nilgiri Langur who calls loudly and crashes through the
branches, and I wonder if there might be more Lion-tailed Macaques
in more places than previously believed, and they have escaped notice,
luckily for them, as they sometimes do associate with Nilgiri Langurs
and most people would naturally pass them off as being black
langurs. Also at the end of March a sighting of Lion-tailed Macaques
was made in Shimoga Dist. at two thousand feet in evergreen forest
by Romulus Whitaker. For two years, I believe, there have been no
official sightings and now we have three sightings in three places
hundreds of miles apart all in the same type of forest within a month.
After seeing the Lion-tailed Macaques, David and I returned to
our camp in a very elevated mood. We brewed a cup of tea, sat
down and had a smoke before gathering wood and settling down for
the night. The next morning we were to try to descend the Panthan
Todu river to the Bhavani River — impossible as far as local people
were concerned.
We left our camp at six in the morning after tea and a smile.
The river bed ran fairly flatly for the first eight miles through thick
evergreen jungle. We followed the river and where that was impossible
we went by elephant trails. We found the skeleton, complete with
horns of a large Sambar lying by the edge of the water. The horns
548 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol 70 (3)
were very fine and David tried cutting them off with his machete.
He eventually threw the blunted implement away.
It took a long time to traverse the next five miles due to deep
pools and steep sides around which v/e had to climb. Mostly we
were able to follow a recent elephant path, the newest amongst the
many old ones trampled through the undergrowth. We left the river
following this trail cutting off, a bend as we thought, and found
ourselves descending into one of those three sided nullahs, full of
bamboo, still, quiet and hot under the midday sun. As we reached
the flat bottom of the nullah we saw fresh elephant spoor of that
morning. From the vibration of the place and the silence it seemed
evident to me that one of the solitary tuskers was there, well aware
of us no doubt, and not making a sound. We retreated quietly back
to the river and then continued downstream. We eventually reached
a place where the river descended over the edge of the upper part
of the valley for five hundred feet or so in a series of spectacular
waterfalls. In the lower part of the valleys we could see the usual
signs of civilization, dirt tracks, fires burning, forest burning, ground
cleared and left to waste, and tribal huts. It seemed very dry and
hot down there after the lush greenery we had been travelling through.
We managed to descend these waterfalls by going round to the
left of the river and descending down the steep granite slopes and
by following an old elephant trail, it’s really amazing the gradients
that an elephant can negotiate. I could just picture a number of
them, crossing this area, by the light of the moon, on their way to
the Attapadi valley.
After a swim in the pool at the bottom of the last falls and a
rest and smoke, the time being about four o’clock and us being
hungry, we walked on quickly the last four miles to Mukailly, picked
up our luggage, filled our stomachs, and set out for Shimoga
Dist. where we were to meet our associate and friend Romulus
Whitaker in search of king cobras.
Longthorns,
Blandford,
Dorset, England,
July 18, 1972.
CHRISTOPHER PRUETT
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
549
2. THE KANIIRANKULAM BREEDING BIRD SANCTUARY
IN THE RAMNAD DISTRICT OF TAMIL NADU
Ramnad District has a rich and varied avifauna, particularly the
eastern part of the district with its numerous lakes, ponds and tanks.
To mention a few ; near Manamadurai is the 6 Pasalai Kanmai ’
(Kanmai = big lake) now divided into two by the Manamadurai-Aruppu-
kottai railway line. Ramnad town has two lakes nearby, the
Chakkarakottai Kanmai, where Flamingos can be seen in March, and
Periakanmai which looks like an inland sea. These two lakes alone
can offer considerable material for a study of the avifauna. This part
of District does not have any hills, or forest ; but a good portion of it
is covered with scrub jungle with its peculiar fauna.
In this paper a brief account is given of a Bird Sanctuary situated
in a small hamlet called Kanjirankulam which is about 4 km from Mudu-
kulathur in Ramnad District of Tamil Nadu. It can be reached either
by rail and road from Madurai through Paramakudy and Mudukulathur
or by road through Aruppukottai, Kamuthi and Mudukulathur. The
distance by either route may be about 70 miles. There is no place to
stay in the hamlet. There is however an Elementary School, whose
teachers offer assistance to visitors.
The history of this little known sanctuary is interesting. About
25 years ago Pelicans and Painted Storks began to be seen in some
coastal villages like Cheluvanoor, Komboothi, Pillayarkulam and also
at Chitrankudi and Kanjirankulam. The latter two villages are away
from the sea but have tanks. Now the birds have disappeared from all
the other villages except Kanjirankulam where they were left unmolested
by villagers, otherwise the colony would have been decimated long ago.
This nesting area was not established by any statute of the State, nor
by any Government Department but by the common consent of the
villagers of Kanjirankulam. They guard the colony zealously and
trespassers are summarily dealt with.
The nesting colony is of about sixty trees. The important species
being Ficus religiosa , Thespesia populnea and Acacia arabica . The
trees stand on the tank bund and also in the tank bed ; the latter are
surrounded by water in the rainy season. The ubiquitous Prosopis
juliflora is found in abundance making it impossible for the observer to
move about. In the biggest banyan trees many nests of pelicans with the
young ones can be seen. Many trees have been denuded of slender
branches probably by the birds of the colony for use in their nests.
There is constant traffic of birds in the Kanjirankulam area. Some
birds arrive at the colony with material for building nests, others may
arrive after foraging, with food for their young ones. What may look
550 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (3)
like a speck on the horizon may land on the trees as a pelican. The
birds go out and return singly or in parties.
The nesting species of the colony are Spotbilled or Brown Pelican,
Pelecanus philippensis and Painted Stork Ibis leucocephalus. Besides
these one can see the White Ibis, Threskiornis melanocephalus and the Black
Ibis, Pseudibis papillosa. These birds nest in trees a mile away from
Kanjirankulam. Even from a distance of about two furlongs one can
hear the din made by the inhabitants of the colony. Every tree in the
sanctuary sags under the weight of a number of/nests, holding eggs and
growing young chicks. One of the banyan trees has numerous of nests,
of pelicans and painted storks. Every branch at different heights pre-
sents some tens of nests.
In the same tree on adjacent boughs one can see nests of both species.
During my visits I did not see any fight between the birds over territorial
rights but pilferage of nesting material occurred with only mild protests
by the loser. Every member of the colony was found busy bringing
nesting materials or feeding the young ones. This consociation of
painted stork and pelicans was also recorded in a valley east of Cuddapah
District at the close of the last century by Rev. Howard Campbell. This
pelican-painted stork association exists in the small colony of birds at
Moontudaippoo near Palayamkottai ; and also in Kundakulam in
Nangunery Taluk in Tirunelveli District. The pelicans’ sociability is
shown in their nesting and foraging habits.
Clumsy as the pelican looks, it can Soar high ; and this can be ob-
served near the colony. It shares this habit with the vultures and the
storks.
In this dry zone area the pelican is distributed wherever suitable
sheets of water such as large lakes, tanks and coastal lagoons exist. It is
common nearer the sea than inland. I have seen pelicans in a lake in
Chingleput district fishing in company in a horseshoe formation into
which the fish may be driven into a mass So that the participants can
take their fill. Pelicans take considerable quantities of fish especially
when feeding young and the lessees to whom the fishing rights are sold
by Government scare away these birds by shooting them or by explo-
sives, lest these birds come and fish heavily thus depriving the lessees
of a good portion of their profit. But at Kanjirankulam such acts are
not allowed by the inhabitants of the hamlet.
The Painted Storks are also as numerous as the pelicans in the
Sanctuary.
The villagers assure me that the parent birds stand on eastern side of
the nest in the forenoon and on western side of the nest in the afternoon
to protect their young ones from the sun. This has to be verified during
my next visit to the Sanctuary. However, even the casual visitor cannot
but notice the way the Painted Stork protects the young ones from the
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
551
sun by spreading its broad and long wings over the young ones as a sort
of improvised roof.
It is believed that the Painted Stork lays 3-5 eggs. But according to
Blandford usually 4 eggs but sometimes as many as 8 eggs are laid.
However, as I went about counting the young ones in the various nests
there were never more than 4 young chicks . I have watched the young
ones clambering among the thorny materials around the nest and among
the thorny branches of the acacia trees without being hurt by the thorns.
When X visited the Sanctuary last in the fag end of April the water in the
neighbouring tanks had dried up and no evidence of existence of water
in the neighbourhood could be seen. I was told by the villagers that as
there was no source of Water within a radius of 10 miles the birds must
go to sea coast for their food. This has to be verified. I have been
informed that even in hottest period of summer some birds stay in the
Sanctuary.
Unlike the villagers of Kundukulam in Nangunery of Tirunelveli
District, who propose to destroy the pelican colony because of the noise
and bad odour produced by the pelicans and Painted Storks, the villagers
in the Kanjirankulam very zealously guard the colony, even to the extent
of caring for the young which fall from their nest due to wind or some
other cause- The villagers feed these forlorn young with a meal of fish,
frogs and snakes which are chopped up for the purpose. I have been
told that even the village dogs do not molest these hapless young chicks
which slowly grow and finally join their tribe and fly away. The vil-
lagers make use of the guano to manure their land. Each villager col-
lects it by turn. The yield of crops is said to double in quantity on the
application of the guano.
If the State Government can declare an area within a radius of 10
miles around Kanjirankulam as a ‘ protected region ’ where shooting
is prohibited, it will be rendering a great service to the birds. Secondly,
to make up the deficiency of nesting material for the birds, the Forest
Department may consider planting more Acacia trees or Thespesia trees
in and around the sanctuary. I heard that in some of the tanks in other
parts of Ramnad District such a scheme is implemented.
Lastly if it is possible, the Government can let some water into the
nearest tank during summer so that the birds need not fly about 14 miles
each way for water (as the villagers allege).
Acknowledgements
I thank Prof. S. Krishnaswamy, ph.D., d.sc., Head of the Department
of Biological Sciences, Madurai University, for providing me all the
facilities for this work. This work was carried out during the tenure of
552 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 70 (3)
a U.G.C. Fellowship. I am thankful to the villagers of Kanjirankulam
for giving me information in response to my queries.
Dept, of Biological Sciences,
Madurai University, S. ABRAHAM
Madurai-21,
September 22, 1972.
3. INTERESTING DISTRIBUTIONAL
RECORDS FOR PAKISTAN
It has long been recognised that the outer foothills of north-eastern
Pakistan abutting on the Punjab plain represent the westernmost range
extension of many interesting endemic Indo-Malaysian plant species
characteristic of tropical dry-deciduous forest with a richness of variety
quite lacking in any other part of Pakistan (McVean 1962). The Murree
foothills, Kahuta and Margalla hills have vegetation typical of this
narrow zone (Stewart 1958).
Not unnaturally there are a few mammals and many bird species
characteristic of the oriental faunal zone, which enter Pakistan in this
region only. Apart from the resident species, many of which are in
themselves unique and interesting, there are always occasional or regular
avian wanderers which invade westwards from the Siwaliks. I have
passed many hundreds of hours of pleasurable bird watching in these
hills with always the excitement of seeing a potential rarity and after one
such recent visit to the region in early January 1973, feel that it would be
useful to record the more interesting records, which are at variance with
known distribution as published in S. Dillon Ripley’s synopsis (1961).
557 . Blossomheaded Parakeet Psittacula cyanocephala. In his
account of the birds of Rawalpindi district, Whistler (1938)
describes it as an irregularly occurring visitor to the northern
Punjab and Salt Range mostly in winter. Having encountered
it in April and May in the Murree foothills I had long suspec-
ted that a few might stay to breed. On June 6th 1972 I found
two occupied nestholes of these parrots in a dead pine tree in
the Lehtrar valley at about 4000 feet. The young birds were
visible coming to the mouth of the nestholes when the parents
arrived with food.
788. Bluethroated Barbet Megalaima asiatica. Not specifically
included within Pakistan territory in the synopsis. This
Barbet was nevertheless recorded by Hugh Whistler (1938) — as
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
553
an occasional sighting and appears to have increased since it
is now a resident species in the Murree foothills whose ringing
call in summer is a familiar sound.
1335. Redbilled Leiothrix Leiothrix lutea. December 23rd 1968 an
adult male seen at Lehtrar at about 2500 ft. It was extremely
tame and allowed approach to within a few feet and was
watched for about one hour by myself and two companions.
The late H. W. Waite (1926) also secured a specimen from the
Margalla Hills in December which is now in the B.M. (N.H.)
Collection.
1892. Thickbilled Flowerpecker Dicaeum agile. 5 Specimens col-
lected September 1967 at Marala on the Chenab River at
800 feet. A group of four seen feeding June 6th 1972 in the
Margalla Hills at 2500 feet.
1919. Mrs. Gould’s Sunbird Aethopyga gouldiae. Two adult males
observed from December 30th 1972 to January 1st 1973 at
Nurpur Shahan, Margalla Hills at about 1600 feet. These
birds were regularly seen around the vicinity of a grove of
trees and Shrine for three successive days, feeding on the
nectar of the plant parasite Loranthus longiflorus which was at
that time in flower.
1973. Spotted Munia Lonchura punctulata. It is surprising that this
species was not recorded by Hugh Whistler from Rawalpindi
district in the Murree Hills as it is a fairly common resident
in the outer foothills extending westwards to Swat. In 1965
I found a nest presumed to be of this species at Gora Gali
at 4500 feet in the Murree Hills. I have sight records in the
Margalla Hills in late December, mid September and late July.
2017. Pinkbrowed Rosefinch Carpodacus rhodochrous. In late winter
and early spring this beautiful little finch can invariably be
found in some of the more secluded ravines in Margalla Hills
and it is therefore more than a straggler as described in Ripley’s
SYNOPSIS.
There are two negative observations which might also be made
with reference to this region of Pakistan and the synopsis.
1657. Golden Bush Robin Erithacus chrysaeus. The synopsis states
that it occurs in Hazara and the border of Murree. To the
best of my knowledge this is based on a single record of a nest
taken by Colonel Rattray near Changla Gali in 1904. Many
of Colonel Rattray’s records have subsequently proved to be
554 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 70 (3)
unreliable especially covering the genus Phylloscopus. He
collected eggs mostly using native collectors. There are no
subsequent published records and it was not observed by
Whistler or Waite in the region.
1733. Orangeheaded Ground Thrush Zoothera citrina. In the
synopsis it is stated that this species breeds in West Pakistan
from Murree eastwards. I have in former years often seen it
in the Chittagong Hills of Bangladesh and I am positive it does
not occur anywhere in the Murree foothills having never
encountered it in periodic residence and visits dating from
about 1952. Neither Waite nor Whistler observed this species
and both knew the region well.
Roberts Cotton Associates Ltd.,
Khanewal, TOM ROBERTS
Pakistan,
January 29, 1973
References
Champion, Harry, Seth, S. K.,
& Khattak, G. M. (1966) : Forest
Types of Pakistan. Pakistan Forest
Institute, Peshawar.
McVean, D. N. & Robertson, V. C.
(1962) : An Ecological Survey of Land
use and Soil Erosion in the West Pakistan
and Azad Kashmir catchment of the river
Jhelum. Unpublished report to Govt,
of Pakis: n.
Parker, R. N. (1956) : A Forest Flora
for the Punjab with Hazara and Delhi.
3rd edition. Reprinted by Govt. Print-
ing Press, Lahore. . Y ,
Rattray, R. H. (1905) : Birds
Nesting in the Murree Hills and Galls.
/. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 16 : 421-428 &
657-663.
Ripley, S. D. (1961) : Synopsis of the
birds of India, Pakistan & Ceylon.
Bombay Natural History Society,
Bombay.
Stewart, Ralph (1958) : The Flora
of Rawalpindi District, West Pakistan .
Pakistan Journal of Forestry VII (4) &
VIII (1) Peshawar.
Waite, H. W. (1926-1947): Un-
published Manuscript notes on a Collec-
tion of over 5000 Bird Skins now in the
British Museum (Natural History),
London.
Whistler, Hugh, (1938) : The Birds
of the Rawalpindi District. Ibis.
January.
4. THE INDIAN LORIKEET ( LORICULUS VERNALIS) :
ITS COURTSHIP AND MATING
On 23-xi-1972 I observed a pair of Indian Lorikeets courting and
mating. As what I saw differed from G. M. Henry’s (1955) account of
the courtship of the Ceylon Lorikeet {Loriculus beryllinus) to which the
handbook of the birds of india & Pakistan (1969) makes a reference,
and as F. G. Buckley (1968) states that ‘ Information on copulation in
Loriculus spp. (how, when or if it is done while hanging or upright) is
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
555
not at present available in the literature ’, even this isolated, chance
observation of mine may have some value.
On 23-xi-1972, while watching a party of four Fairy Bluebirds ( Irene
puella ) in the Kallar Reserved Forest (altitude 640 m, Ponmudi Hills,
c. 56 km north-east of Trivandrum) something green and red moving
on a branch of the thinly foliaged tree caught my eye. It was a Lorikeet
which had just extended its neck and gently pecked at another Lorikeet
sitting a few inches away on the same branch. The first bird (which later
mounted the other and is, therefore, referred to as the male hereafter)
was evidently highly excited whereas the other appeared to be rather
indifferent and inert . The male shot out his head and as soon as he had
touched the bill of the female, smartly retracted his head. To this the
female responded by slowly extending her neck and touching the male’s
bill. As soon as she had withdrawn her head, the male again smartly
thrust his head forward, touched her bill, and swiftly pulled his head
back. The female again responded, but her movements were consis-
tently much slower. After repeating this half a dozen times, the male
sidled up to the female and they sat shoulder to shoulder, almost pressed
against each other for a short while, perched across the branch. Then
the male suddenly leaped over the female’s back, sat for a few moments
on the other side, and then leaped back to his former position. This too
was repeated a number of times .
The male then attempted to mount on the other’s back. Three
times he failed to gain a hold but at the fourth attempt he managed to
effect coitus. Unfortunately, I was unable to see whether he took hold
of the female’s neck or back feathers to maintain himself on her back.
As soon as the mating was over, they settled down again shoulder to
shoulder on the branch. The female had never moved from her original
perch throughout this period.
I jotted down notes as quickly as I could and again directed the bino-
culars at the branch. But the birds had disappeared. They must have
flown off without uttering their usual squeaky calls. All the time I was
observing them, the birds uttered no note that was audible to me at a
distance of some 40 feet.
Throughout, the male kept his scarlet rump (and upper tail-covert ?)
feathers erect. They stood out like a long scarlet mound between the
wings which, however, seemed to be kept close to the body. The female
erected her rump feathers only just before the male started vaulting over
her back; and the feathers did not stand, out as prominently as did those
of the male.
The three-inch-thick horizontal branch on which the Lorikeets were
was about 25 feet above the base of the tree and had many leafy branches
above and below it. As the tree stood on the lower slope of the hill, I
was almost at the same level as the birds.
556 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (3)
The whole incident took only five minutes (16.15 to 16.20 hrs.).
Visibility was quite good. Throughout the birds were in an upright
position, perching across the branch like ordinary passerines.
It is not quite improbable that some other components of courtship
display (such as the 4 strutting ’ described by Henry in L. beryllinus and
by Buckley in L. galgulus) had preceded the display observed by me,
though one would expect such manifestations of mounting excitement
(no pun intended !) to occur just before copulation. Still, in the incident
reported above, the two birds sat quietly shoulder to shoulder for a few
moments just before the male began leaping over the female.
[ do not think that during the period when the birds were under
observation the male fed the female ; nor did he hold his body erect or
fluff out his throat feathers. For most of the time the male held his
body in a horizontal position.
I am very grateful to Sri S. Parameswara Iyer, District Forest
Officer, Trivandrum, and Sri R. Parameswaran, Professor of Zoology,
College for Women, Trivandrum, but for whose kindness I would not
have been at Kallar on that day.
University College,
Trivandrum, K. K. NEELAKANTAN
April 14, 1973.
References]
Ali, Salim & Ripley, S. Dillion Hanging Parrots. Ibis 110 : 145-164.
(1969) : Handbook of the Birds of Henry, G. M. (1955) : A Guide to the
India & Pakistan, Vol. 3, pp. 188-191. Birds of Ceylon, p. 189.
Buckley, F. G. (1968) : Behaviour of
5. OCCURRENCE OF THE STARLING,
STURNUS VULGARIS LINNAEUS NEAR BANGALORE
According to the Indian handbook (Ali & Ripley 1972), the Starling,
Sturnus vulgaris Linnaeus is not known to winter in southern India,
only a few stragglers having been taken from Madras, Bombay and near
Minicoy Island. Whistler & Kinnear (1934) opined that the starling
was evidently only a winter straggler to the erstwhile Madras Presidency
and Phillips (1963) reported a sight record of a single starling at sea,
about 40 miles west of Minicoy Island on December 10, 1954. Abdulali
(1965) collected three specimens out of a flock of about a dozen starlings
at Re was in Alibag taluk (Kolaba district, Maharashtra) and put them
down as S.v. poltaratskyi Finsch. Ali & Ripley (1972) state that this
subspecies is an abundant winter visitor to southern Pakistan and conti-
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
557
nental India south to Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Bihar. Besides
the abovementioned records of stragglers, the starling is not known to
winter in southern India.
On October 24, 1965, while out birding some 7-8 miles north-east of
Bangalore, I saw a huge flock of about 300-350 myna-like birds in a
harvested field adjoining an extensive patch of short open scrub. One
specimen was shot out of this flock and later identified as S. vulgaris,
most probably of the race poitaratskyi. The remarkable thing about this
record is the large number seen as opposed to single or at the most 12
birds recorded previously as stragglers.
Department of Entomology,
University of Agricultural Sciences, KUMAR D. GHORPADE
Bangalore- 560024,
December 21, 1972.
References
Abdulali, H. (1965) : On the Occur-
rence of Finsch’s Starling Sturnus vul-
garis poitaratskyi Finsch near Bombay.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 62: 161.
Ali, Salim & Ripley, S. D. (1972) :
Handbook of the Birds of India and
Pakistan. Volume 5. Oxford Univer-
sity Press, Bombay, xvi + 276 pp.
Phillips, W. W. A. (1963) : The Birds
of the Maidive Islands, Indian Ocean.
/. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 60 : 546-584.
Whistler, H. & Kinnear, N. B.
(1934) : The Vernay Scientific Survey
of the Eastern Ghats (Ornithological
Section). Part V. J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. 36 : 561-590-
6. TREE SPARROW PASSER MONTANUS (L.) IN THE
EASTERN GHATS
During the banding session of the B.N.H.S. bird migration study
project at Lammasinghi in the Visakhapatnam section of the Eastern
Ghats in April-May year 1972, we obtained a few specimens of the
Tree Sparrow Passer montanus (Linn.).
This is an interesting record as the distribution of the species accord-
ing to the synopsis and fauna is northern parts of India along the
Himalayan ranges east to Nepal, Tibet, Bhutan and south to Assam and
Manipur etc.
The present record is the first from the E. ghats and adds northern
Andhra to its known range.
The population of tree sparrows at Lammasinghi is more or less
localised and the male specimen we preserved for record was in breed-
ing condition as evinced by the enlarged gonads. Two species of
558 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 70 (3)
sparrows (Passer domesticus and P. montanus) co-exist at Lammasinghi
and it is desirable to study their ecology.
Alamanda (R.S.),
Visakhapatnam Dist., K. S. R. KRISHNA RAJU
Andhra Pradesh.
Fernhill Cottage,
Camberley, TREVOR D. PRICE
England,
April 27, 1973.
7. FOOD AND FEEDING HABITS OF THE TOAD*
BUFO MELANOSTICTUS SCHNEIDER (AMPHIBIA :
BUFONIDAE)
In India practically no attempt has been made to study the feeding
habits of the common toads, excepting for a stray record of Rai et al.
(1969) of the adults of the white grub, Holotrichia consanguinea Blanch,
being fed upon by the common Indian toad, Bufo melanostictus . Prasad
(1961), while reviewing the natural enemies of the sugarcane white
grubs, indicated the beneficial effect of introduction of the Surinam
toad, Bufo marinus , into Puerto Rico and Hawaii in the control of scara-
baeids.
The present study involed examination of the stomach contents
of 362 individuals of the common Indian toad, Bufo melanostictus
Schneider carried over a period of 14 months during 1968-1970. The
toads were collected during the evenings almost every fortnight during
the period in various agricultural fields and near lamp posts around
Dharwar, Mysore State. The toads thus collected the previous evening
were sexed and dissected, the stomachs were cut out and preserved
separately in 10 per cent formaldehyde for future examination of the
contents. The stomachs thus preserved were slit open, the contents
were taken out and identified taking care to see that the number of indi-
vidual insects and other animals was correctly recorded. The data are
summarised groupwise in Table 1 .
Results and Discussion
Toads in general are well known to feed on different groups of
animals of which insects constitute the major bulk. In the present
study also insects were recovered from stomachs and constituted 99
per cent of the total number of various animals consumed. Two other
Table 1
Analysis of the stomach contents of Bufe melanostictus
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
559
I I
«4— . 3
O 3
. d
3
ooflE
3'qJ
3
o B
!z o 3
^ v o ^
<*> O .3
CO’Hfflh-OWOS^^
in T-M ^
a>
3
Cl
3
Cl
d
3
3
50
i r*-) ^ m
I O'. 1-H
n
(D
3 2 <u
d o>v2 3
d 3J2 d
«§SS§3l
S3 §3= S3
g- 3 & S §'g £
8 3 ois
oUUUUOW
o ^
to
.3
£ d
3 3 >3
3S8
Sot
3
O ,« X
75 H O
c
H
•81
r- N < 03
75
£ -
<D
3
d a)
g 3 s CL §
£<t£>o
® >.
11 : : *
o i2
1326
Table 1 — ( Continued )
560 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (3)
M-t r-f
o’>
Z''S
oon
. 03
o S2
£2g
Sh OS
a
o
aS
_ w 4>
<» o -£
a,
3
o
in
bfi
a
‘a
<
C/5
*43
£ |
<u O
<N
O g
(30 o
m2
OS Vh
a tj
O
6)
>
o o
<M O
<M ^
bO
P
a oI«
iS os y bo
g -5*5
ft P<w
P <Z>
.&&ss
Q » 5
C
2 «J
o a
T3 a
s-i r5*
o
CP\ (N
—i VO
Oh Oh
aS d) o
Sh ■+-»
u oj rt
O o
73 -S-c
|ffio
!h
<u
TJ
Sh
o
0>
<D _
8 §
g-S
<+r
°Sh
r<">
■'t
m m ‘o
’xf
«S ..
In <u
«u as
a 3
l §
.a 5
Q >>
i!
Sh r?
o
Order Orthoptera
Family Acrididae
„ Gryllidae
,, Gryllotalpidae
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
561
m Tt
oo so co m
<N
4>
ci
T3 0)
SJ'S J2
£ §3
O
(D -O fi.
+-> .in O-n <*)
ft <u -ts > si
o cs ^ 3 u
M 00 pH 'd rd
O sJ ft P4 O
Hh >,
u
a s
o
4> d
ctf T3
c3 3? ’3
a 'si
c.2§
o
X >i
I'l 5
6
os
&0 o
Si y
<U C/3
TO V
'ftiS
M.’S
w c
o o
c3
(U Cl
n
<
Q
NH
£
lo-
oo
a
I
JL
co g
Q-i
a
rf\ 'N'
© in
<n m
T3
4>
ft
ftro:
if
O d
. . £
O oo
a «
o o
C/3 Ph
M Sh
-S-S
Si Si
OO
£55
— w-
ctf
Si
3 l
4) O
a -o
C £ '
Q 3
‘ w
2
§3
fe°
02
10
Less than 1
Table 1— {Continued)
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY,
562 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (3)
groups of arthropods, namely Arachnida and Myriapoda, were also
represented in the stomach contents but formed only less than one per
cent. Snails and slugs were also noticed to be consumed by the toad to a
negligible extent.
Of 362 toads examined, the largest number, namely 284 stomachs
contained insects belonging to Coleoptera, and the next was Hymenoptera
which were recovered in 149 stomachs. But, in the percentage of indi-
viduals of different groups consumed, the Hymenoptera tops the list
contributing 46 per cent of the total number of insects consumed, whereas
the Coleoptera accounts for only 26 per cent.
The table indicates clearly that excepting for a few coccinellids and
cicindellids which may be considered as beneficial, most of the other
beetles recovered from the stomachs are either Phytophagous or sapro-
phytic. The curculionids, chrysomelids and cerambycids which are
all phytophagous constitute less than 5 per cent of the beetle diet of
the toad . The other beetle groups, like Elateridae, Tenebrionidae found
in the stomachs also have plant feeding species. The toad appears to
be fond of tenebrionids which constitute nearly 50 per cent of beetles
consumed. The scarabaeids, several of which are phytophagous account
for 23 per cent and the Carabids for 16 per cent. The total beetle diet in
relation to other insects recorded during the present study agrees very
well with the finding of Kirkland (1897) who reported that beetles consti-
tuted 27 per cent of the insect diet of Bufo lentiginosus americanus (LeC.)
As stated by Garman (1901) and Kirkland (1897) the present study
also revealed that this toad fed to a large extent on ants which constitute
nearly 46 per cent of the insect diet. Of the Diptera (which forms 1 1
per cent of the insect diet) it is interesting to note that 66 per cent of these
were in the form of maggots, which are generally not active movers.
The order Lepidoptera was represented to the extent of 3 per cent in the
stomachs dissected in the form of larval stage only of which nearly 30
per cent was in the form of hairy caterpillars alone. This is not in con-
formity with the findings of Kirkland (1897) who reported that
Lepidoptera constituted 28 per cent of the diet of the toad, Bufo lenti-
ginosus americanus. It is significant to note that 3 per cent of the insect
diet of the toad consisted of the cockroaches and most of these were
Periplaneta americana. This finding supports the suggestion of
Sweetman (1936) that the toads could be usefully employed for the
control of cockroaches in dwelling houses. It is also interesting that the
plant feeding bugs constituted about 4 per cent of the food of the toad
and only a very few predaceous bugs were noted in the stomach contents.
On the whole, it may be stated that the present study on the food_of
the common Indian toad, Bufo melanostictus , has revealed that the toad
feeds mostly on insects and most of these insects do not belong to the
beneficial groups. Thus the species may be considered as a useful amphi-
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
563
bian which may be encouraged in gardens and orchards that afford cool
and moist environment congenial for the life of this toad.
Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful to Mr. C. A. Viraktamath, Assitant
Professor of Entomology, College of Agricuture, Dharwar, for his help
in supplying the photostat copies of the previous literature. Thanks
are also due to the staff members of the Department of Entomology,
College of Agriculture, Dharwar, for their constant help during the course
of investigation .
Asst. Prof, of Zoology, H. R. RANGASWAMY
College of Agriculture,
Dharwar- 5 80 005 .
Asst. Prof. ofZoology & G. P. CHANNAbASAVANNA
Entomology,
University of Agricultural Sciences,
Bangalore-560 024,
December 22, 1972.
References
Garman, H. (1901) : The food of the Rai, B. K., Joshi, H. C., Rathore,
toad. Kentucky Agri. Expt. Sta. Bull. Y. K., Dutta, S. M. & Shinde, V. K. R.
91 : 60-68. (1969) : Studies on the bionomics and
Kirkland, A. H. (1897) : The control of white grub, Holotrichia con-
habits, food and economic value of the sanguined Blanch, in Lalsot, District
American toad, Bufo lentiginosus ameri- Jaipur, Rajasthan. Indian J. Ent. 31(2):
cams (LeC.). Hatch Expt . Sta. Mass. 132-142.
Agric. Coll. Bull. 46 : 29. Sweetman, H. L. (1936) : The Biolo-
Prasad, S. K. (1961) : Sugarcane and gical control of insects. Comstock,
its problems, white grubs injuring sugar- Publishing Company, Inc. New York
cane and their control. Indian Sugar, pp. 1-461.
pp. 379-382.
8. BIOMETRIC STUDIES ON THERAPON JARBUA (BLOCH)1
(With a text-figure)
Introduction
T.jarbua occurs in brackish waters and in the sea off Madras through-
out the year. At Porto Novo (11° 29'N 79° 49'E) and also in the Vellar
estuary, this species occurs at all times of the year, but larger specimens
of the size 12*0-14*6 cm were obtained from the sea. This note deals
1 This study formed a part of the dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment of
the requirements for the degree of M.Sc., from the Annamalai University, 1969.
564 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (3)
with certain biometric characters of the perch Therapon jarbua of the
Porto Novo area.
Material and methods
Random samples were collected from the catches landed by gill nets,
drift nets and cast nets . The collections were made between first week of
July and end of December, during which period, T. jarbua is landed
abundantly. The data on the morphometric characters were subjected
to statistical analysis to estimate the population parameters. A total of
92 specimens belonging to different size classes, were used for this study.
All the fishes were measured, in fresh condition, for standard length,
total length, fork length, head length, pre-orbital length, post-orbital
length, pectoral fin length, pelvic fin length, depth occiput, depth at
dorsal origin, depth at anal origin, snout to the pelvic origin, snout to
the anal origin, first dorsal lobe and second dorsal lobe. Standard
length of the fish was used as a basic character, against which regression
curves, for other variables were drawn. The data is arranged according
to numerical values and Separated into 10 classes of 0*9 cm interval.
With a view to finding out the relationship between the various para-
meters and standard length, the general equation y = a + bx was em-
ployed. The 4 a 5 and 4 b ’ values for each parameter are given in the
Table 1.
Table 1
Regression coefficient, ‘ a ’ and ‘ b * values and the
ANGLE OF THE TANGENT FOR DIFFERENT BODY REGIONS
Angle of tangent
MI SC ELLA AEO U S NOTES
565
Allometry
GROWTH RATE OF VARIOUS PARAMETERS
566 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (3)
Results and Discussion
The data analysed are presented in table 1. The regression lines
based on the angle of the tangent are presented in Fig. 1, where the
growth rate of various parameters are shown. The regression lines
reveal that the total length has the fastest growth followed by the fork
length. Snout to second dorsal grows faster than the snout to anal.
A comparison of the relative growth of the fins shows that the first dorsal
lobe grows faster than the pelvic fin, second dorsal lobe and pectoral fin.
The rate of growth of head length falls between depth dorsal and depth
anal. Eye diameter recorded the slowest rate of growth, the second
least being the snout length.
Acknowledgements
I am greatly indebted to Professor R. V. Seshaiya (Retired Director,
C.A.S, in Marine Biology, Annamalai University, Porto Novo) for faci-
lities and advice and to Dr. M. S. Prabhu, Scientist, National Institute
of Oceanography, Panjim, Goa, for going through the manuscript and
offering helpful suggestions.
Dept, of Zoology, A. RAHIM
The New College,
Madras- 600 014,
April 21, 1973.
9. ON THE OCCURRENCE OF A RECORD SHOAL OF
RED SNAPPER LUTIANUS ARGENTIMACULATUS
FORSKAL OFF COCHIN
Landings of perches are common along the east coast of India even-
though they appear sporadically along the west coast. However, it is
of interest to record a shoal of 170 Red Snapper Lutianus argentimaculatus
Forskal weighing 1141 Kg which were caught off Cochin by the vessel
4 Blue Fin 93’, training-cum-fishing vessel of the Central Institute of
Fisheries Operatives, Cochin.
The fishes were caught by the vessel on 31st January 1972 when she
was on her 142nd voyage at a depth of 25 m between 0830 and 1015 hrs
in a single haul. The weight of the specimens ranged between 7 to 10 Kg
and were 51 to 63*5 cm in length. The most interesting feature which
needs special mention is that eventhough the vessel operated the same
gear (450 meshes Trawl-Garfil) in the same ground and at the same depth
and made five hauls, not a single specimen was caught in the other four
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
567
hauls. The skipper of the vessel confirmed that this is the first time that
such a shoal of Red Snapper was caught by the vessel. There seems to
be no record of occurrence of such large shoals of this particular species
around Cochin Waters.
The sea bottom at the fishing grounds was predominantly muddy
with plenty of shells. Other varieties of fishes which were found with the
catch were Sharks, Skates and Rays (20 Kg), white fish (2 Kg), small
carangids (3 Kg), small jew fishes (3 Kg), flat fishes (5 Kg), Barracuda
(3 Kg), Cat fishes (100 Kg) and Sand lobsters (3 Kg).
The catch/hr for Red Snapper, at this ground worked out for this
particular haul to 652 Kg/hr.
Acknowledgements
Thanks are due to Shri M. C. Perumal, Director, Central Institute
of Fisheries Operatives, Cochin, for his encouragement and permission
to publish this note. Thanks are also due to Shri K. Balan, Skipper and
crew of the vessel for the keen interest shown for recording the details
of operation.
Central Institute of Fisheries V. NARAYANA PILLAI
Operatives, V. S. RAMACHANDRAN
Cochin- 16,
June 2, 1972.
10. A PARTIAL AMBICOLORATION IN THE INDIAN
HALIBUT PSETTODES ERUMEI (BLOCH) (PSETTODIDAE :
PLEURONECTIFORMES) FROM PORTO NOVO, S. INDIA
( With a text-figure)
Ambicoloration or pigmentation on the blind side of the flatfishes is*
said to be associated with the tendency to regain bilateral symmetry
(Norman 1934) 1.
On 19th February, 1971, an ambicolorate specimen (Fig. 1) of the
Indian halibut Psettodes erumei (Bloch) (Psettodidae) was caught in a
commercial catch of 17 normal specimens of the same species was made
at Porto Novo. This is the first time that an ambicolorate specimen
has been collected from this area. The specimen measuring 312 mm in
total length, is normal on its ocular side. On the blind side, however,
xNorman, J. R. (1934) : A systematic monograph of the flat fishes. (Heteros-
tomata) I. pp . 22-27. London .
568 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 70 (3)
one-third of the body towards the anterior side shows a white patch
towards the dorsal fin. The pigmentation extends posteriorly from the
Fig. 1. Psettodes erumei (Bloch). View of ambicolorate specimen from
blind side.
pelvic fin ending along the 30th ray of the dorsal fin in a diagonal manner.
Excepting for the coloration the fish was normal in all other respects.
Acknowledgements
I wish to express my sincere thanks to Dr. R. Natarajan, Director,
Centre of Advanced Study in Marine* Biology, Porto Novo for facilities.
Thanks are also due to Mr. Antony Fernando and Mr. Joel for help with
literature. The award of a Junior Research Fellowship by the U.G.C.
is gratefully acknowledged.
Centre of Advanced Study in V. RAMAIYAN
Marine Biology,
Porto Novo, Tamilnadu,
March 20, 1971.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
569
11. AN ARTIFICIAL DIET FOR THE REARING OF
ACARID MITE
Some acarid mites are well known as important pests of stored agri-
cultural products. While studying the biology of some acarid mites,
difficulty was experienced in finding a suitable medium for rearing them
on a large scale for experimental purposes. The assessment of the
nutritional requirements of the mites would also be simplified if a suita-
ble diet was available.
Preliminary studies were made by Kanungo & Behura (1958) on the
effect of synthetic food on Ca'loglyphus sp. Recently two species of
acarid mites were reared on an artificial diet by Bot & Meyer (1967).
Another artificial medium, originally developed by Mykola H. Hay dak
(1936) for rearing of some laboratory insects, was also found highly
suitable for rearing of Tyrophagus sp. by us.
The composition of the diet is as follows :
I. Corn flour . . 4 parts by weight
Whole wheat flour
Skim milk powder
Dried powder yeast
Wheat bran
2 parts by weight
2 parts by weight
1. part by weight
2 parts by weight
These ingredients are mixed thoroughly.
II. Equal parts of honey and glycerine are mixed by volume.
Then equal parts of I and II are mixed by weight and the mixture
is allowed to stand for about 24 hours for penetration of the liquid into
the dry components of the food.
The diet infested with insects and kept for more than one month,
was found to be better than the freshly prepared one for the mite growth
probably due to the fungal growth in the diet. The mites reared on this
diet were found to complete their life-cycle within 8-1 1 days at 25 1°C
and 80% R.H. and their multiplication was very rapid under these
conditions .
Acknowledgement
We are grateful to Dr. N . Dutta, Head of the Department of Ento-
mology, Kalyani University for providing facilities.
Department of Entomology, A. K. SOM CHOUDHURY1
Faculty of Agriculture, A. B. MUKHERJEE
University of Kalyani,
Kalyani, West Bengal,
February 17, 1971.
1 Present address : Division of Entomology, I. A. R. I., New Delhi-12.
570 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (3)
References
Rot, J. & Meyer, M. K. P. (1967) : Kanungo, K. & Rehura, R. K.
An artificial rearing medium for acarid (1958) : Preliminary studies on the
mites. J. ent. Soc. Sth. Afr. 29 : 199. effect of synthetic food on Caloglyphus
Haydak, M. H. (1936) : A food for sp. (Tyroglyphoidea : Acari). Proc. 45th
rearing laboratory insects. J. econ. Indian Sci. Congr. Ill : 367.
Entomol. 29 : 1026.
12. OCCURRENCE OF MICROPROSTHEMA SEMILAEVE
(DECAPOD A, MACRURA) IN RATNAGIRI
( With three text-figures)
During one of the shore collection trips to Mirkarwada foreshore in
the month of December, 1968, a specimen of Microprosthema sp. measur-
ing 14 mm in length was obtained. The animal was found in a small de-
pression on the rocky bed. There is paucity of literature on this peculiar
group from Indian waters. Gravely (1927) recorded Microprosthema
validum Stimpson (= Stenopus robustus Borradaile) from Krusadai and
Shingle Islands. Pillai (1961) recorded this species from Adams Bridge,
Pamban, and gave a short description with a good figure. Recently,
Mahadevan et al. (1962) collected two specimens from Palk bay which
they have referred to as Microprosthema semilaevel.
Holthuis (1947) who has given a detailed account of the family Steno-
podidae has recognised four species of Microprosthema (M. validum ,
M. semilaeve, M. plumicorne and M. scabricaudatum ). Of these M>
validum and M. semilaeve are very close, differing from one another in
the presence or absence of a short longitudinal median carina at the
posterior half of the dorsal surface of the third abdominal segment and
in the number of teeth along the outer margin of the scaphocerite.
However, Mahadevan et al. (op. cit.) have shown that in their specimens
the number of teeth on the outer margin of the scaphocerite show a range
of variation which can embrace both the species, commenting that much
reliance cannot be placed on this character in distinguishing the two
species. Based on other characters such as the absence of the median
longitudinal carina on the posterior half of the dorsal surface of the
third abdominal segment, the uninterrupted nature of the transverse
carina on the same segment and presence of a longitudinal shallow groove
at the upper half of the inner margin of the carpus of the third periopod,
they have tentatively referred their specimens to M. semilaeve , comment-
ing that if much reliance cannot be placed on the character of presence
or absence of the short longitudinal median carina at the posterior half
of the dorsal surface of the third abdominal segment, then M. semilaeve
should be treated as synonym of M. validum .
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
571
The local specimen shows more closeness to M. semilaeve in the
following characters :
(1) Absence of a double row of spinules on the carapace behind the
rostrum.
(2) The transverse carina on the third abdominal segment entire.
(3) The upper inner side of the carpus of the third periopod has a
fairly deep longitudinal groove.
(4) Absence of medium longitudinal carina on the posterior half
of the dorsal surface of the third abdominal segment.
(5) Ischium of the third maxillipede with four spines externally.
(6) Propodus and carpus of the fourth and fifth periopods undi-
vided.
However, the local specimen differs from M. semilaeve in the following
characters :
(1) Rostrum with three spines on the dorsal side and none on the
ventral (fig. 1).
(2) Scaphocerite with four small teeth on the outer margin (fig. 2).
(3) Propodus of the fourth and fifth periopods with 13 movable
spines (fig. 3).
(4) Uropodal exopods with 10 teeth and endopods with 4 teeth on
the outer margin.
(5) Telson without teeth in between the two longitudinal carinae.
Microprosthema semilaeve : Fig. 1. Rostrum in lateral view ; Fig. 2. Scapho-
cerite of the left side ; Fig. 3. Propodus and dactylus of fourth periopod.
\ MM
572 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 70 (3)
On the other hand the local specimen shows only one similarity
with M. validum in having 4 teeth on the outer margin of the scaphocerite,
a character which Holthuis considers as specific. However, considering
the similarity of the local specimen with M. semilaeve given above and in
the light of comments made by Mahadevan et al. (op. cit.) the present
specimen is tentatively referred as M. semilaeve . This is thus the first
record of this species from the west coast of India and second from Indo-
Pacific region.
Acknowledgements
I am grateful to Dr. C. V. Kulkarni, Director of Fisheries, Maharashtra
State, for encouragements and to Dr. H. G. Kewalramani, Senior
Scientific Officer, for going through the manuscript and helpful criticism.
Marine Biological Research
Station, Ratnagiri,
March 4, 1970.
Refer
Gravely, F. H. (1927) : The littoral
fauna of Krusadai Island in the Gulf of
Mannar. Bull. Madras Govt. Mus. 1(1) :
135-155.
Holthuis, L. B. (1947) : Biological
results of the Snellius Expedition. XIV.
The Decapoda Macrura of the Snellius
Expedition. 1. The Stenopodidae,
Nephropsidae Scyllaridae and Palinuri-
dae. Temminckia 1 : 1-178.
M. R. RANADE
ENCES
Mahadevan, S., Rangarajan, K. &
Shankaran Kutty, C. (1962) : On two
specimens of Microprosthema sp. (Deca-
poda, Macrura) from Palk Bay. J.
Mar. Biol. Assn. India , 4 (1 & 2) : 235-
238.
Pillai, N. K. (1961) : On the occur-
rence of Microprosthema validum Stimp-
son in Indian Waters, ibid. 3 (1 & 2) :
267-269.
13. TWO NEW RECORDS OF SOIL COLLEMBOLA
FROM SOUTH INDIA
(With thirteen figures in a plate)
About sixty species of soil and litter inhabiting Collembola have
been reported by Prabhoo (1971 a, b) particularly from the western
ghats in Kerala. These reports contain the majority of the widely distri-
buted collembolan species of Kerala. The two species reported here
seem to have a comparatively restricted range of distribution and further
they show certain morphological features distinguishing them from
conspecific populations described from other parts of the world.
Acherontiella bougisi Cassagnau and Delamare Deboutteville 1955
(Figs. 1-6)
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 70 (3)
Prabhoo & Haq : Soil Collembola
Plate
Figs. 1-6. Acherontiella bougisi Cassagnau and Delamare Deboutteville.
1. Habitus. 2. Dorsal chaetotaxy of the right half. 3. Ant. III-IV. 4. Hind
tibiotarsus and foot. 5. Female genital field. 6. Male genital field.
Figs. 7-13. Folsomina onychiurina Denis. 7. Habitus. 8. Ant. IV. 9. Ant. Ill
sense organ. 10. Hind foot. 11. Ventral tube in profile. 12. Ventral side of
furcula. 13. Mucro.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
573
Material : 1 ?and 1 from soil, 9-1-1971, Nilakkamukku, Trivan-
drum Dt., Kerala, India. Coll. Haq.
Description : Body up to 600/^ long and white in colour. Cuticle
coarsely granulated. Clothing of smooth setae. Antennae slightly
shorter than head. Ratio of antennal segments as 7:8:8: 10. Ant.
Ill organ composed of two stalked globular sense rods and two slender
guard sense rods. Ant. IV dorsally with one globular sense club and
externally with one globular and two elongated sense clubs and one short
sense rod. Mandible with well developed molar area and four apical
teeth. Maxilla head with fringed lamellae. Labrum with 6/5, 5, 4 setae,
the distal four setae provided with basal sockets. Eyes and post- antennal
organ absent. Claws without teeth. Unguiculus and tenent hair absent.
Tibiotarsus with 15 setae. Furcula and tenaculum absent. Chaetotaxy
of the body as in Fig. 2. On meso- and metanota m6 and p4 are sense
setae (ss). On abd. I-III p5 is ss. On abd. IV p4 is ss. on abd. V p3
is ss . On abd. VI p4 is anal spine. The anal spines are short, as long as
1/5 the hind claw and mounted on short papillae.
Remarks : The Indian examples differ from the European form,
whose chaetotaxy has been recently studied by Thibaud (1967), mainly
in the following details of chaetotaxy ; head without a0 ; ocularis with
oc1? the setae oc2 and oc3 being absent ; meso- and metanota without
m3 ; abd. I-III without a2, a4, p4 ; abd. IV without ml5 m4 and p4.
The chaetal nomenclature of Yosii (1961) is followed here.
Distribution : Europe (France), India (new record).
Folsomina onychiurlna Denis (1931) (Figs. 7-13)
Material : 12 expl., from soil. 9-1-1971, Nilakkamukku, Trivandrum
Dt., Kerala, India. Coll. Haq.
Description : Body up to 700 p long and white in colour. Clothed
with short smooth setae arranged in transverse rows. Abd. II, III
and V with a sense rod each laterally. Antenna : head as 7/6 ; antennal
ratio as 7 : 12 : 12 : 19. Ant. I with a ventral sense rod. Ant. Ill sense
organ normal. Ant. IV apically with two stout sense clubs and eight
sense rods. Eyes and post-antennal organ absent. Claws without teeth.
Unguiculus less than 1/3 the hind claw. Tibiotarsal tenent hair absent.
Ventral tube with 1 + 1 anterior, 4 + 4 lateral and 2 + 2 posterior setae.
Rami tenaculi with 4 + 4 dents and corpus with one seta. Ratio of
furcula as 9:15:1. Manubrium dorsally with 8 + 2 + 8 setae and
ventrally with 1 + 1 setae. Dens with 4 setae on the proximal 1/3 and
19 setae ventrally arranged as v, v, oi, v, oi, oi, oi, ovi, oi, oi, v. Mucro
hook-like and provided with a tooth-like short lateral lamella.
574 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 70 (3)
Remarks : The Indian form is characterised by the presence of a
tooth-like lateral lamella on the mucro giving the latter a bidentate
appearance.
Distribution : Cosmopolitan (?), new record for India.
Acknowledgement
We are thankful to Professor K. K. Nayar for his keen interest in
this study and for facilities provided in the department.
Dept, of Zoology,
University of Kerala,
Trivandrum, Kerala,
May 22, 1971.
Refer
Cassagnau, P. & Delamare Debout-
teville, C. (1955) : Collemboles. Mis-
sion H. Coiffait au Liban III. Arch.
Zool. Exp. et Gen. 91 : (4) 370-372.
Denis, J. R. (1931) : Collemboles de
Costa Rica avec une contribution au
espece d’lordre. Boll. Lab. Zool. Portici
25 : 69-170.
Prabhoo, N. R. (1971a) : Soil and
Litter Collembola of South India. I —
Arthropleona. Oriental Insects 5 :
(1) 1-46.
N. R. PRABHOO
M. ABDUL HAQ
N C E S
Prabhoo, N. R. (1971b): Soil and Litter
Collembola of South India. II —
Xymphypleona. ibid. 5 : (2) 231-250.
Thibaud, J. M. (1967) : Description
d’une espece nouvelle de Collembole
Acherontiella cassagnaui n. sp. Ann.
Spel. , XXII : (2) 393-400.
Yosn, R. (1961) : Phylogenetische
Bedeutung der Chaetotaxie bei den
Collembolen. Contr. Biol. Lab. Kyoto.
Univ. 12: 1-37.
14. OCCURRENCE OF RHINYPTIA MERIDIONALIS
V. PUNCTICOLLIS ARR. (SCARABAEIDAE : COLEOPTERA)
AS PEST ON BAJRA IN WESTERN RAJASTHAN
Bajra ( Pennisetum typhoides Stapf and Hubb.) is one of the most
important crops in Western Rajasthan occupying more than 50% of the
total crop area.
We observed Rhinyptia meridionalis v. puncticollis Arr. voraciously
feeding on the milky grain of different varieties of bajra namely RSK,
RSJ, Chandy, Improved Ghana, local Shekhavati of bajra in Churu
areas, Hybrid bajra , HB-I, and local varieties in Mathania areas of Western
Rajasthan. These Scarabaeid beetles are probably a new record as
agricultural pests. Besides these, Mylabris phalerata Pall, and Cantharis
tenuicollis Pall. (Coleoptera : Meloidae) caused considerable loss by
sucking the juice of milky grain. In case of severe attack, the earhead of
bajra was observed to be almost without any grain.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
575
These pests are a great menace to the bajra crop in arid regions and
require detailed investigation regarding their biology and bionomics in
order to plan effective control measures. In a preliminary study during
the year 1968-69 at Churu, monthly collections of Rhinyptia meridionalis
v. puncticollis Arr. were made during full moon and new moon nights.
Observations were taken, two hours after sunset with the help of a
petromax lamp in a fixed spot as the beetle is nocturnal in habit.
Out of the total collection (564) of the beetle 95*2% occurred during
the crop season (July to November), 3*6 % during the summer (March to
June) and 1*2% during the winter (December to February). This indi-
cates their predominant occurrence during the crop season. Marked
differences were also observed in the frequency of the beetle during the
nights of new and full moon. For instance, out of the total collection
(537) of the beetles in crop season only 2*4% were observed during bright
nights. Similarly out of total collection (20) of the beetles in summer,
only 5% were collected on bright nights. These observations indicate
that the beetles prefer dark night for their activity. Therefore suitable
and timely control measures should be devised for minimising the loss
in crop yield.
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to Dr. T. R. Mehta, Director and Dr. G. C. Taneja,
Head of Division, for providing necessary facilities. Sincere thanks are
also due to Shri A. C. Mathur, Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun,
for kindly identifying the insect species.
Animal Studies Division, S. K. PAL
Central Arid Zone Research Institute, V. P. SHARMA
Jodhpur, Rajasthan,
April 6, 1971.
15. OCCURRENCE OF LEPIDIUM VIRGINICUM LINN.
IN NETARHAT PLATEAU (BIHAR)
(With a plate)
While studying the flora of Netarhat Plateau, Bihar, in 1971, we
collected some specimens of Lepidium virginicum Linn. (Brassicaceae)
growing as a weed in gardens and lawns . In Indian Herbaria, this taxon
has often been labelled as L. rude rale Linn. ; the latter characterized by
576 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (3)
upper cauline leaves entire, petals much shorter than sepals or absent,
silicula deeply notched, and incumbent cotyledons. The species is,
however, very similar to L. densiflorum Schrad. but can be distinguished
by its glabrate stems and flowers with white petals as long as or longer
than sepals. L. virginicum Linn, is a native of North America and is
widespread from the Atlantic Coast to the Rocky Mountains, W. Indies,
Mexico, Central and South America. It is a new introduction into India
and has not been reported earlier from Bihar State. The species has
also been widely introduced and naturalized in Europe and some parts
of the Old World (see Rydberg, FI. Rocky Mts., ed. 2, 326. 1954 ;
Vasconcellos in FI. Europaea, Vol. 1, 332. 1964). The distinguishing
features of the taxon are : cauline leaves not auriculate ; upper cauline
leaves dentate or incised ; flowers white, with 4 petals as long as or
slightly longer than the sepals ; silicula 2-5-4 X 2'5-3’5 mm, orbicular-
ovate or suborbicular, with shallow apical notch ; and accumbent coty-
ledons . The specimens have been deposited in the Herbarium of National
Botanic Gardens, Lucknow (S. R. Paul 81073, Herb. LWG). The
botanical nomenclature of this species, naturalized in different parts of
India, is presented below :
Lepidium virginicum Linn. Sp. PI. 645. 1753 ; Jepson, Man. FI. PI.
California 439. 1951 ; Strausbaugh & Core, FI. W. Virginia 424.
1953 ; Wills & Irwin, Roadside FI. Texas 118. 1961 ; Steyermark,
FI. Missouri 738. 1963 (Plate, Figs. 1 & 2).
Common names : Virginia Peppergrass ; Birds Pepper; Virginia
Pepperweed.
Notes : Virginia Peppergrass, named for its pungent seeds and
narrow grass-like leaves, is usually a weedy plant and is frequently
abundant in disturbed places, such as vacant lots, fallow fields and
neglected lawns. The peppery seed pods are relished by birds and in
this way, plants are often disseminated. The seeds furnish tasty seasoning
for soups and salads, and can be mixed with vinegar and salt for a meat
dressing. The young spring shoots can be eaten raw sprinkled in salads
as a substitute for water cress.
Floristic Botany Division,
National Botanic Gardens,
Lucknow,
January 22, 1973.
J. K. MAHESHWARI
S. R. PAUL
4CM
Plate
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 70 (3)
Maheshwari & Paul : Lepidium Virginicum
Lepidium virginicum Linn.
JEitl J T7 rilling tnn'o Fna 9 ^I’lirnlq
3-5
J. Bombay nat. Hist Soc. 70 (3)
Dhillon & Bhandari : Plant records
Plate
1. Hypecoum procumbens Linn. 1. a plant ; 2. a node bearing a fruit — enlarged
view ; 3. a petal ; 4. stamens ; 5. a carpel ; 6. one of the joints of the subcompressed
fruit ; 7. seed.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
577
16. LIMNO C HARIS FLAVA (L.) BUCH. AN AQUATIC
PLANT ON THE MOVE IN KERALA STATE
During the recent ecological study tour to coastal Kerala we observed
and collected Limnocharis flava , a robust water plant from a number
of sites along the fringes of canal banks and paddy fields in Tirchur and
its vicinity. From the field survey, it is obvious that this adventive plant
is making a fast headway northwards at several places in the Trichur
District bounded on the north by Palghat, on the east by Coimbatore,
on the south by Ernakulam and Kottayam districts and on the west by
Arabian sea. In the year 1961, this plant was collected at Alleppey.
Subsequently in the year 1967 it was collected and reported from
Ambalapuzha (Kammathy et al. 1967).1 Undoubtedly this aquatic herb
is gradually establishing itself everywhere and if early steps are not taken
to eradicate this Weed it may become a pest in the same way as Salvinia
natans (Linn.) All. or Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms.
Specimens examined. Kerala. Trichur Dt : Trichur, 7.11.1972,
T. A. Rao 9796 (CAL). Kerala. Alleppey Dt. : Alleppey ; 30.10.1961,
Ramachandran s.n. (CAL) ; Ambalapuzha, 5.2.1967, Kammathy 64
(CAL).
Ecology Section,
Botanical Survey of India,
76, Acharya' Jagadish Bose Road,
Calcutta- 14,
February 7, 1973.
17. SOME PLANT RECORDS FOR RAJASTHAN
(With a plate)
Much work has recently been done on the Flora of the various parts
of Rajasthan. However, no Flora of Rajasthan as such has been pub-
lished. As far as Ganganagar is concerned, no systematic work has
ever been published concerning its vegetation. Ganganagar district,
which is now a land of greenery, was all barren, scattered over with
heaps of sand-dunes prior to 1927-28, when the Gang canal was con-
structed. The face of this desert has been completely changed with the
coming of this canal. Green fields have replaced thedesolate wastes. This
change has affected the natural vegetation of the entire region. New
1 Kammathy, R. V. & Subramanyam, K. (1967) Limnocharis H.B.K. A genus
new to India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 64 : 389-390.
11
T. ANANDA RAO
G. C. DAS
578 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 70 (3)
plants from the hilly areas of the Punjab have spread downwards and
have established themselves all along the banks of the canals or are found
as seasonal weeds in the irrigated areas . Since these plants are not found
in other parts of Rajasthan, it is worth reporting them as new records for
Rajasthan. Out of the sixteen species mentioned in this note, almost
all of them have not been reported from any part of Rajasthan previously.
The specimens have been deposited in the Herbarium of the University
of Jodhpur and the duplicates at the Botany Department, Khalsa College,
Ganganagar and one set of the specimens at Forest Research Institute,
Dehra Dun and National Herbarium, Calcutta.
Hypecoum procumbens Linn. Sp. PI. 124. 1753 ; FBI. 1 : 120. 1872.
A small procumbent annual. Leaves 2-3-pinnatisect. Flowers
few, yellow, pedicillate ; outer petals 3-lobed, inner toothed or fimbricate,
obtuse with mid-lobe entire, retuse or 2-fid. Fruit subcompressed, at
length breaking into 1-seeded joints (Fig. 1).
FI. & Fr. : — Jan-March.
Specimens examined: Dhillon 244, Chak 3Z, 29.3.67.
Distr. /—India (Part of Punjab), W. Pakistan, W. Asia, Mediterranean
region.
Brassicaceae
Malcolmia africana R. Br. in Ait. Hort. Kew ed. II 4 : 121. 1872 ;
FBI. 1 : 146. 1872.
A stout, stellate hairy plant with oblong slightly dentate, broad leaves
and long pods .
FI. & Fr. : — Feb. -March.
Specimen examined : Dhillon 88, Khalsa College Farm, 13.3.67.
Distr . : — India (Punjab, Kashmir), Tibet, W. Asia, Mediterranean
region.
Fabaceae
Medicago denticulata Willd. Sp. PI. 3: 1414. 1802 : FBI. 2 : 9. 1876;
M. polymorpha Roxb. FI. Ind. 3 : 390. 1832.
A prostrate herb with lacinate stipules. Flowers 1-5 on peduncle,
yellow. Pods netted, disc-shaped, spiral, with usually variable number
of spines.
FI. & Fr. Jan.-March.
Specimens examined : Dhillon 133, Khalsa College, Farm, 23.3.67.
Distr. : — India (Punjab, Himalayas, Bengal), W. Pakistan, China.
Japan, Siberia, Europe etc.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
579
Apiaceae
Oenanthae javanica (Bl.) Dc. Prodr. 4 : 138 1830 ; Sium javanicum
Bl. Bijdr. 15 : 881. 1826 ; Oenanthae Stolonifera DC. Prodr. 4 : 138.
1830; FBI. 2:696. 1876.
A stoloniferous, glabrous, fistular herb, 45-80 cms high. Leaves
unipinnate : petiole sheathed. Flower white, fragrant, in compound
umbels. Cremocarps dorSally compressed.
FI. Sc Fr. : — April-Oct.
Specimens Examined : Dhillon 44, Sadhuwali, 19.8.66.
Distr. : — India (Kashmir, Punjab, Assam ; plains of Bengal) Java,
China, Japan.
Psammogeton biternatum Edgew. in Trans. Linn. Soc. 20 : 57. 1846 ;
FBI. 2 : 719. 1879.
Segments or lower leaves ovate, pinnatifid into narrow lobes, of the
upper narrowly cuneate, lacinate, hairs on the ridges, white, capitellate,
longer than the carpel.
FI. Sc Fr. : — Feb.-March.
Specimens examined : Dhillon 149, Khara chak on Hanumangarh
Road, 25.3.67.
Distr. : — India, Punjab, ascending up to 300 ft. in Himalayas ; W.
Pakistan.
Asteraceae
Cirsium wallichii DC. Prodr. 6 : 643. 1837 ; Cnicus wallichi (DC.)
Hook. f. in FBI. 3 : 363. 1880.
A variable plant 1-3 m high. Stem pubescent leafy. Leaves sessile,
sinuate — pinnatifid. Heads 2-4 cm, solitary or on peduncles fascicled,
involucrate.
FI. Sc Fr. /-—Feb.-March.
Specimens examined : Dhillon 155, Lyallpur. Fruit Farm, 25.3.67.
Distr. : — India (Temperate Himalayas, Kashmir, Nilgiris), Bhutan.
Ifloga fontanesii CaSs. in Die. Sc. Mat. 23 : 14. 1822 ; FBI. 3 : 277.
1881.
A much branched, ascending, leafy annual. Leaves spreading,
narrowly linear. Heads 2-3 nate, nestling among the leaves through-
out the length of branches : Involucre reddish. Bracts scarius, aristate.
FI. Sc Fr. /—Feb. -April.
Specimens examined : Dhillon 161, Govt. College Campus, 26.3.67.
Distr. : — India (Upper Gangetic plains) Westwards to Canaries.
580 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 70 (3)
SCROPHULARIACEAE
Antirrhinum orontium Linn. Sp. PL 860. 1753 ; FBI. 4 : 253. 1883 ;
A. gibbosum Wall. PL As. Rar. 2 : 44. 1930.
A glandular, slender herb, 15-45 cm high. Leaves 2*5 x 2-0*3 cm
linear, entire. Flowers solitary axillary, white or pinkish, Capsule
pubescent.
FI. &Fr. : — Feb. -April.
Specimens examined : Dhillon 78, College lawns and College Farm,
13.3.67.
Distr. /—(Punjab plains & W. Himalayas up to 4000 ft. and common
in Nilgiris), Westwards to N. Africa & Britain, Egypt, Arabia, Syria
and Greece.
a ’• H ‘V1 hi *
Plantaginaceae
Plantago amplexicaulis Cav. Icon. 2 : 22. 125. 1799 ; FBI. 4 : 706.
1885.
A scapigerous herb, subcaulescent, 5-10 cm high. Leaves 7-15 cm
margins entire or very sparingly toothed. Spikes 1 *5-2*5 cm boat-
shaped, bracts cupular.
FI. & Fr. Jan.-Feb.
Specimens examined : Dhillon 304, Khalsa College Farm, 13.3.68.
Distr. : — India, (Punjab), W. Pakistan, Egypt.
POLYGONACEAE
Polygonum barbatum Linn. Sp. Pl. 362. 1753 ; Royle 1. 11. 313 ; FBI
5 : 37.
An erect, glabrous annual. Leaves linear, lanceolate, acuminate
tapering to the acute base, glabrous. Stipules strigose. Peduncles
glabrous. Raceme 5-10 cm perianth white, eglandular. Stamens
5-8. Styles 3-cleft. Nutlets trigonous.
FI. & Fr. : — Almost throughout the year.
Specimens examined : Dhillon 17, Z canal, 13.8.66.
Distr . ; — India (Assam, Bengal, M.P., S. India), W. Pakistan, Ceylon,
Burma, Malay peninsula, China, Japan. Tropical Africa.
Polygonum lanigerum R. Br. Prod. 419. 1810 ; FBI. 5 : 1886.
A robust annual 1-2 m high. Stem prostrate rooting at the nodes
below, clothed with snow-white tomentum, branches deep red within
node's Leaves shortly stalked, narrowly lanceolate accuminate, densely
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
581
white cottony beneath. Stipules membranous. Raceme 2 to 5 cm long.
Bracts densely white woolly, crowded, Stamens 6 style 2-cleft.
FL ScFr. : — Aug.-Sept.
Specimens examined : Dhillon 55, Sadhuwali, 19.8,67.
Distr . : — -
Poaceae
Alloteropsis cimlcina (Linn.) Stapf. in Prain, Fl. Trop. Africa 9 :
487. 1919 : Bor, Grasses Ind. etc. 276. 1960 ; Milium cimicinum Linn.
Mant. Alt. 184. 1771 ; Axonopus cimicinum P. Beauv. Ess. Agrost. 12.
1812; FBI 7: 64. 1896.
An erect or procumbent grass. Culms & leaf margins clothed with
long, horizontal cilia. With somewhat swollen nodes. Leaf margins
clothed with long bulbous-based cilia. Racemes spike-like, occurs
sporidically in moist, stony ridges and fissures.
FL & Fr. : — Almost throughout the year.
Specimens examined : Dhillon 32b, Sohan Lai orchard, Ganganagar
20.3.68.
Distr. .-—Throughout India (in the plains of lower foot-hills) Burma,
Ceylon, Trop. Africa and Australia.
Hemarthria compressa (Linn, f.) R. Br. Prodr. 207. 1810 ; Bor.
Grasses Ind. etc. 161. 1960 ; Rotboellia compressa Linn. f. Suppl. 114,
1781; FBI 7:153: 1896.
A perennial, hygrophilous, erect or decumbent grass, usually branched
and leafy throughout. Spikes solitary or fascicled.
Fl. & Fr. : — June-September.
Specimens examined : Dhillon 60, Z canal, 20.8.66.
Distr. : — Throughout the hotter parts of India, Ceylon, Burma and
Malaysia.
Imperata cylindrica (Linn.) Beavu. Agrost. 165, t. 5, f. 1. Planch 5.
1812 ; Bor, Grasses Ind. etc., 169, 1960 ; Langrus cylindrica Linn. Syst.
878, 1759 ; I. arundinacea Cyr. PL Rar. Neap. 2 : 26. t. 11. 1792 ; FBI
7 : 106. 1895.
An erect or creeping annual grass. Panicle cylindrical and silvery
white. Anthers orange.
Fl. & Fr. June-Oct. & Jan. -April.
Specimens examined : Dhillon 337, Lyallpur Farm, 13.3J68.
Distr. : — Mediterranean region extending to Iraq, Iran, Afghanistan
(arid region) & U.S.S.R.
582 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (3)
Lolium temulantum Linn. Sp. PI. 83. 1753 ; Bor, Grasses Ind. etc. 546.
1960.
An annual, tufted grass, with erect spikes. Spikelet 5 to 10 flowered.
FI. & Fr. : — Dec. -April.
Specimens examined : Dhillon 339, Khalsa College Farm, 13.3.68.
Distr. : — Native of mediterranean region, now extended into many
parts of the world in the wheat fields.
Lophochloa pumila (Desf.) Bor, Grass. Ind. etc. 445. 1960 ; Avena
pumila Desf. FI. Atlant. 1 : 103, 1798.
Tip of the lemma not produced into 2 awns, glumes subequal, densely
and shortly hairy, rachilla always produced, clothed with long hairs.
FI. & Fr. : — July-Sept.
Specimens examined: Dhillon 340, Khalsa College Farm, 19.8.68.
Distr. : — Northwest India to Mediterranean region.
Khalsa College, K. B. S. DHILLON
Ganganagar, (Rajasthan).
Botany Department, M. M. BHANDARI
University of Jodhpur,
Jodhpur, (Rajasthan),
March 3, 1972.
18. ALGAE OF NAINITAL
In this paper, 58 taxa belonging to Cyanophyceae, Chlorophyceae,
Euglenophyceae and Xanthophyceae are recorded for the first time.
These algae have been collected during a botanical excursion in October
1970.
Nainital is situated at 29°24/N lat. 69°28/E long, in the valley of
Gager range on Kumaon Himalayas at an altitude of 1920 metres above
m.s.l. The rainy season is from the middle of June to September and the
average yearly rainfall is about 254 cms.
Rhizoclonium hieroglyphicum (Ag.) Kuetz. appears to be the common
alga. A number of species of Spirogyra and Oedogonium were present
in vegetative condition only and hence could not be identified. Diatoms
are present in good numbers in the collections and are being studied.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
583
Cyanophyceae
Syne choco ecus aeruginosus Naeg.
In a pond on way to Hanuman-
gad,. Cells 14-16 p broad.
Synechocystis crassa Woronichin
In a puddle.
Aphanothece bullosa (Menegh.)
Rabenh .
Irregular, mucilaginous masses
on dripping rocks, Bhowali
Road.
Aphanothece conferta Richter
Ellipsoidic, microscopic masses
floating in a puddle on way to
Hanumangad.
Gloeothece palea (Kuetz.)
Rabenh .
In a puddle, on way to Bhowali.
Merismopedia punctata Meyen
Rare. In Naini lake.
Chroococcus minutus (Kuetz.)
Naeg.
In a puddle on way to Hanuman-
gad.
Chroococcus turicensis (Naeg.)
Hansg.
In a puddle.
Microcystis flos-aquae (Wittr.)
Kirchner
Floating in a pond, Bhowali.
Myxosar l na burmensis Skuja
In a pool.
Endospores not observed,
Xenococcus kerneri Hansg.
Epiphytic on Cladophora in a
pond, Bhowali.
Chamaesiphon siderphilus Star-
mach v. glabra Rao
Epiphytic on Cladophora sp. in
a pond.
Spirulina n&rdstedtii Gom.
Common. In ponds, puddles.
Spirals slightly less in breadth
being 4-4*5 p broad. Distance
between two consecutive spirals
is 3-3*5 p.
Oscillatoria pseudogeminata G.
Schmid
In Naini lake.
Oscillatoria rubescens D.C. ex
Gomont
On shore of Naini lake. In
gutters. On moist soils.
Oscillatoria splendida Grev. ex
Gomont v. attenuata W. et
G. S. West
In a puddle .
Phormidium africanum Lemm.
On moist soil.
Phormidium corium Gom. v.
capitatum Gardner
On moist soil near a puddle on
way to Naini peak. Cells
6*45-13 p long.
Phormidium frigidum Fritsch
In a puddle,
584 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (3)
Phormidium lucidum Kuetz. ex
Gom.
In Naini lake.
Trichomes smaller, 6 /x broad.
Phormidium mode Gom.
On moist soil, Bhowali road.
Phormidium subincrustatum
Fritsch et Rich
In Naini lake.
Lyngbya digue ti Gomont
In a puddle.
Lyngbya lagerheimii (Moeb.)
Gom.
In Naini lake.
The filaments are not plankto-
nic. They are 2‘6 /x broad ;
trichomes 2. 2-2. 4 [l broad ; cells
T6-3.2 /x long.
Lyngbya nordgardhii Wille
Epiphytic on Rhizoclonium sp.
floating in a pond on way to
Bhowali.
Schizothrix braunii (A. Br.) Gom
Forming a leathery mass on the
dripping rocks on way to Bhowali .
Nos toe commune Yauch. ex Born,
et Flah.
Irregular, firm masses on drip-
ping rocks .
Nostoc microscopicum Carm. ex
Born, et Flah.
On dripping rocks on way to
Bhowali. Spores not observed.
Nostoc paludosum Kuetz. ex
Born, et Flah.
In Naini lake.
Colonies up to 70 /x diam. and
cells up to 5 /x broad .
Calothrix stellaris Born.et Flah.
In a puddle on way to Hanuman-
gad. Cells mostly not con-
stricted.
Chlorophyceae
Ankistrodesmus falcatus (Corda)
Ralfs v. acicularis (A.Br.)
G. S. West.
In Naini lake.
Cells usually curved.
Oocystis naegelii A. Braun
Common in a puddle on way to
Hanumangad.
Pediastrum integrum Naeg.
In a puddle on way to Bhowali.
Colonies ujsually irregular in
shape.
r
Ulothrix tenerrima Kuetz.
In puddles .
Two pyrenoids were present
in almost all the cells and in this
respect it agrees well with U.
bipyrenoidosa Fritsch et Rich.
However in general structure the
present alga agrees more to U.
tenerrima.
Microspora pachyderma (Wille)
Lagerh.
In a puddle.
Cylindrocapsa gemenella Wolle
In a small pond.
Coleochaete orbicularis Pring-
sheim
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
585
Epiphytic on Hydrilla plants in
Naini lake.
Rhizoclonium hieroglyphicum
(Ag.) Kuetz.
Common. In puddles, ponds
and a lake.
Rhizoclonium hieroglyphicum
(Ag.) Kuetz. v. horsfordii
(Wolle) Collins
In puddles, ponds.
Cladophora glomerata (L.)
Kuetz. Common. In puddles,
ponds .
Closterium acutum Breb.
In Naini lake.
Closterium lanceolatum Kuetz.
In a puddle on way to Bhowali.
Closterium moniliferum (Bory)
Ehrenb. v. concavum Klebs
In a puddle.
Closterium tumidulum Gay
In Naini lake.
Cells are longer up to 170 p
long.
Closterium venus Kuetz.
In a puddle.
Cosmarium fontigenum Nordst.
In a pool.
Cosmarium fontigenum Nordst.
v. pseudofontigenum (Gutw.)
West et West
Common. In puddles.
Cosmarium garrolense Roy et
Bisset
In a puddle.
Cosmarium garrolense Roy et
Bisset v. pyramidatum Kriger
In Naini lake.
Cosmarium laeve Rabenh. v.
acervatum Forster
In a puddle.
Cosmarium venustum (Breb)
Arch. v. induratum Nordstedt
Rare. In Naini lake.
Staurastrum gracile Ralfs
In a puddle.
Spirogyra gracilis (Has sail) Kuetz.
In a puddle.
Euglenophyceae
Lepocinclis ovum (Ehrenb.)
Lemm.
In a small pool.
Phacus pleuronectes (O.F.M.)
Dujardin
In a puddle.
Phacus unguis Pochmann
In a pond on way to Bhowali.
Trachelomonas volvocina Ehrenb.
Common. In pools, puddles,
Naini lake.
Xanthophyceae
Tribonema bombycinum (Ag.)
Derbes et Sober
In ponds .
586 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 70 (3)
Acknowledgements
I take this opportunity to thank my colleagues Prof. R. S.Nadkarni,
Dr. A. B. Sapre and Shri G. G. Wadkar for kindly collecting the algae.
Botany Department, N. D. KAMAT
Institute of Science,
Nagpur-1,
February 5, 1972.
References
Croasdale, H. (1955): Freshwater algae
of Alaska. I. Some desmids from the
interior. Farloma 4 (4) : 513-565.
Desikachary, T. V. (1959) : Cyano-
phyta. New Delhi.
Geitler, L. (1932) : Cyanophyceae.
In Rabenhorst’s Kryptogamenflora
Deutschlands, Osterreichs und der
Schweiz. 12. Jena.
Gomont, M. (1892) : Monographic
des Oscillariees (Nostocacees homo-
cystees) I & II. Ann. Sci. nat. Bot. Ser.
15 (7) : 263-368 ; 16 (7) : 91-264.
Huber-Pestalozzi, G. (1955) : Das
Phytoplankton des Susswassers. Tei
4. Stuttgart.
Irene-Mairie, (Fr.) (1939; : Flore
desmidiale de la region de Montreal.
Laprairie (Canada).
Prescott, G. W. (1951) : Algae of the
Western great lakes area. Michigan.
Printz, H. (1964) : Die Chaetophora-
len der Binnerngewasser. Hydrobiologia
24 : 1-376.
Ramnathan, K. R. (1964) : Ulotri-
chales. New Delhi.
Transeau, E. N. (1951) : The Zygne-
mataceae. Ohio.
19. FURTHER CONTRIBUTION TO THE FLORA OF
BAILADILLA (MADHYA PRADESH)
Bailadilla, a remote hill range in Bastar district of Madhya Pradesh,
is about 402 kilometres south of Raipur on the South-Eastern Railways.
Owing to its vast resources of high quality iron ore, the hill gained
enough importance in recent years with the starting of iron ore project.
It lies between 1 8*30 and 19* 5° north and 81 TO and 81 T 5° east, ranging in
altitude from 900 to 1276 metres.
The botany of Bailadilla is interesting as it includes a number of
species otherwise occurring in Himalayas and south Indian hills. A
number of west and east Indian elements and also a few coastal form also
make their appearance in this east central Indian hill.
The flora of the area has been studied by several workers. However
in the past.
The following list of 65 species of vascular plants are being reported
for the first time from the area. Two species out of these are new records
for Madhya Pradesh (marked by single asterisk) and four for Central
India (marked by double asterisk). This paper is the outcome of several
collection tours made in the area in different seasons for four years. The
specimens cited, are preserved in the herbarium of the State Forest
Research Institute, Jabalpur.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
587
PlTTOSPORACEAE
**Pittosporum nepaulense (DC.)
Rehder ex Wilson var. rawal-
pindiense Gowda
Bailadilla. Khotele 8050.
Malvaceae
Abelmoschus moschatus Medic
Loc . name : Gumamata.
Kirandul. Singh 4216.
Abutilon polyandrum (Roxb.)
W. & A.
Bailadilla. Hewiston s.n.
Hibiscus tetraphyllus Roxb.
Kirandul. Saxena 1365.
Sida veronicaefolia Lam.
Kirandul. Saxena 1386.
Tilliaceae
Corchorus olitorius Linn.
Kirandul. Saxena 1358.
Triumfetta pilosa Roth
Kirandul. Saxena 1400 ;
Singh 4258 .
Linaceae
Reinwardtia indica Dumort
Bailadilla. Singh 4274.
OXALIDACEAE
Oxalis corniculata Linn.
Kirandul. Singh 6766.
Papilionaceae
Alysicarpus vaginalis (Linn.) DC.
Loc . name : Bhui Kurwa , Phad -
kuli.
Bailadilla. Singh 4366.
Atylosia scarabaeoides (Linn.)
Benth.
* Bailadilla. Saxena 1352.
Desmodium velutinum (Willd.)
DC. var. velutinum
Loc. name : Badi Chat Kani.
Kirandul. Singh 2568.
Teramnus labialis (Linn, f.)
Spreng.
Bailadilla. Singh 2567.
Zornia gibbosa Spanoghe
Bailadilla. Khotele 10295.
Mimosaceae
Acacia pennata (Linn. )& Willd.
Kirandul. Singh 2507, 4222.
Cucurbitaceae
Cucumis sativus Linn.
Kirandul. Singh 2590.
Diplocyclos palmatus (Linn.)
Jaffrey
Kirandul. Singh 2593.
Melothria maderaspatana (Linn.)
Cogn.
Kirandul. Singh 2540.
Rubiaceae
Hedyotis hispida^Retz.
Kirandul. Singh 4212.
588 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (3)
Konotheca ovatifolia (Cav.)
Sant. & Wagh
Kirandul. Saxena 1366.
Rubia cordifolia Linn.
Bailadilla. Saxena 1294, Singh
4273.
COMPOSITAE
Bidens pilosa Linn .
Kirandul. Singh 214.
Blumea virens DC.
Bailadilla. Saxena 1285 ;
Khotele 8358.
Centanthrum anthelminticum
(Willd.) O. Ktze.
Kirandul. Singh 2530.
Conyza canadensis (Linn.) Con-
quist ; Cuatr. in Webbia 24 :
222, 1969 Syn. Erigeron cana-
densis Linn .
Bailadilla. Singh 6796.
Cosmos sulphureus Cav.
Kirandul : escape. Singh 2546.
Crassocephalum crepidioides.
(Benth.) S. Moore Syn. Gynura
crepidioides Benth.
Bailadilla. Khotele 9023.
Guizotia abyssynica Cass.
Bailadilla : escape. Singh 4321.
Siegesbeckia orientalis Linn.
Loc. name : Katkan
Bailadilla. Singh 4318.
Sonchus asper Vi 11 .
Kirandul. Singh 2259.
Primulaceae
Lysimachia obovata Hk. f.
Bailadilla : in shady places.
Singh 221 A.
Oleaceae
Jasminum officinale Linn.
Bailadilla : escape. Singh
6638.
Boraginaceae
Cynoglossum lanceolatum Forsk.
Bailadilla. Singh 2266.
Convolvulaceae
Argyreia sericea Dalz.
Kirandul. Singh 2573.
Ipomoea eriocarpa R. Br.
Kirandul. Singh 2595.
Acanthaceae
Dipteracanthus prostratus (Poir .)
Nees
Bailadilla. Singh 2284.
Verbena ceae
Callicarpa macrophylla Vahl
Bailadilla. Khotele 6077.
Labiatae
Micromeria biflora Benth .
Bailadilla. Singh 4336.
Ocimum americanum Linn.
Loc. name : Vantulsi
Bailadilla . Singh 2257.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
POLYGONACEAE
Polygonum stagninum Buch.-
Ham.
Kirandul. Singh 4211.
Euphorbiaceae
*Cleistanthus patulus Muell.-Arg.
Bailadilla, along stream.
Khotele 9013.
Phyllanthus urinaria Linn.
Bailadilla. Khotele 6082.
Orchidaceae
Acampe praemorsa (Roxb.)
Blatter & McCann. Syn.
Saccolobium wightianum Hk. f
Kirandul. Saxena 1459 ;
Khotele 8096.
ZlNGIBERACEAE
Curcuma aromatica Salisb.
Kirandul. Khotele 8080.
Globba racemosa Sm.
Bailadilla. Khotele 8077,
**Zingiber capitatum Roxb.
Loc . name : Zerkan .
Bailadilla. Singh 6798.
Liliaceae
Asparagus gracilis Royle. Loc.
name : Mali Muthore Do kin
Jade .
Bailadilla. Singh 2296,
COMMELINACEAE
Cyanotis axillaris R. & S.
Bailadilla. Singh 2211.
589
Araceae
Arisaema tortuosum Schott.
Kirandul . Singh 259 1 .
Remusatia vivipara (Lodd . ) .
Schult.
Kirandul. Saxena 1397 ;
Khotele 8058.
Cyperaceae
Cyperus melanosperma (Nees)
Suringer. Loc. name : Roda-
ghas .
Near Kirandul, along stream.
Singh 2521 .
**Elaeocharis chaetaria R. & S.
Bailadilla hill top in moist
places. Singh 4343.
Fimbristylis littoralis Gaud .
(. F . miliacea sensu. C.B. Cl. in
FI. Brit. Ind.)
Kirandul. Singh 2526, 4339.
Eleusine coracana (Linn.) Gaertn.
Bailadilla. Singh 4327.
Eragrostiella brachyphylla (Stapf)
Bor
Bailadilla. Singh 6603.
Eragrostis viscosa (Retz.) Trin.
Kirandul. Singh 4290.
Eulalia trispicata (Schult.) Henr.
Kirandul. Singh 2559.
Panicum notatum Retz.
Kirandul. Singh 2520. m
Panicum psilopodium Trin.
Bailadilla. Singh 4291.
590 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (3)
Panicum sumattrense Roth.
Kirandul. Singh 4324 ;
Khotele 8092.
Syn. Dryopteris parasitica (Linn.)
O. Ktze.
Kirandul. Singh 2544.
Pseudopogonatherum contor
turn (Brongn.) A. Camus
Kirandul. Singh256\.
Aspleniaceae
Aspidiaceae
**Asplenium dalhousiae Hook.
Syn. Ceterach dalhousiae (Hook.)
*Cyclosorus parasiticus (Linn.)
Tardien ex. Tardien & C. Chr.
C. Chr.
Bailadilla. Singh 4294.
Acknowledgements
The author is grateful to the Director, National Botanic G.arden,
Lucknow, to Dr. J. K. Maheshwari, Asst. Director, National Botanic
Garden, Lucknow ; to the Director, State Forest Research Institute,
Jabalpur ; to the Conservator of Forests, Bastar Circle, Bastar ; to the
Divisional Forest Officer and Staff of the South Bastar Division ; to
the Director, Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta ; to the President,
F.R.I., Dehra Dun; to the Officer-in-Charge, Botany Branch, F.R.I.
Dehra Dun and to the Regional Botanist, Botanical Survey of India,
Central Circle, Allahabad for their kind co-operation in various ways.
Scientist, H. O. SAXENA
Regional Research Laboratory,
Bhubaneswar, Orissa,
November 6, 1971.
During the course of botanical explorations of Panch Mahal district,
Central Gujarat, Chrysanthellum indicum DC., was collected. So, as
far as could be ascertained from the available literature, this species
seems to be a new record for this region and most probably for the
W. India.
20. THE OCCURRENCE OF CHRYSANTHELLUM
INDICUM DC. IN GUJARAT STATE
{With a plate)
J. Bombay nat, Hist, Soc, 70 (3)
Bedi & Thaker : Chrysanthellum indicum
Plate
TK£- MAHARAJA SAYAm&O UNSVgP StTV Of
so?*** department-
HERBARIUM
fiow m centra1
■U JAR AT
No B 6990
A $ T & & AC E A;
‘ (At 'J, /A ■
iA&h BAP.iA,
CS-->
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
591
Chrysanthellum indicum DC., Prod, v, 631 ; FBI. 3 : 310
A small, erect, annual, glabrous herb, 10 to 40 cm tall, leaves alter-
nate, bipinnatifid, 2 to 8 cm long. Segments lobed or cut, final segments
broadly linear or cuneate. Heads peduncled, yellow, 3 to 5 mm in
diameter in flower and 5 to 7 mm in fruit, with the invol. bracts spreading,
golden-yellow. Achenes 3 mm long, linear-oblong, sub-compressed,
outer thick, tubercled externally, 3-grooved on each face, inner ridged on
each face ; pappus a minute corona.
The plants, though not common, were found growing on open grassy
places on hilly forest slopes of Devgadh hill and along the roadsides
near Baria Palace, Devagadhbaria, Panch Mahal District, Gujarat State.
Flowering and Fruiting time : July to August.
Herbarium specimen No. BEDI 6990 (3-8-1970).
This species has been earlier reported from upper gangetic plains,
Bihar, Orissa, Bengal and erstwhile central provinces. Recently,
M. Oommachan & K. V. Billore, (1971) have reported it from Bhopal,
M.P. The species has also been reported from Tropical Africa and
Madagascar, from where probably it was introduced into the Indian sub-
continent.
Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful to the authorities of the Baria Forest Division
for facilities during the tours, and the research staff, Systematic Botany
Branch, F.R.I. & Colleges, Dehra Dun, for their kind co-operation.
We are also thankful to Prof. P. V. Bole and Dr. S. D. Sabnis for criti-
cally going through the manuscript.
This research has been financed in part by a grant made by the United
States Department of Agriculture under PL-480.
Taxonomy Laboratory, S. J. BEDI
Department of Botany, D. N. THAKER
The M. S. University of Baroda,
Baroda-2,
September 16, 1972.
21. NOTES ON THE IDENTITY AND NOMENCLATURE
OF VENTILAGO BOMBA IENSIS DAlZ.
In the course of revising the Indian species of the Rhamnaceae,
I had an opportunity to go through 4 Studies in the Rhamnaceae,
III — A Taxonomic Revision of Indian Ventilagineae’ by Banerjee &
Mukerjee (1970), and do find myself under the necessity to dissent
from their opinion with regard to the identity and nomenclature of
592 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (3)
Ventilago bombaiensis Dalz. Santapau’s (1944, 1953) views and findings
and that of (1968, 1970) are now endorsed as in all probability correct.
Banerjee & Mukerjee (1970) have stated that, 4 V. bombaiensis Dalz.
appears to be a species of Smythea and not of Ventilago and hence it
has been transferred to the genus as a comb. nov. : Smythea bombaiensis
(Dalz.) S. P. Ban. et P. K. Mukh The confusion in the identity
of S. bombaiensis arose due to the non-availability of mature fruits .... 5
Santapau (1953) listed this species in his flora of khandala on the
western ghats of India. Santapau spent twelve years in the explora-
tion of Khandala where this pretty climbing shrub is very common on the
slopes below Echo point at an altitude of about 500 m and common also
below Elphinstone point about half way down to the ravine. In the
fruiting season — February to March, fruits may be seen scattered
over large tracts of forests.
All Khandala specimens of Santapau were checked against the actual
types, when these were available in London, or with the best specimens
in Kew Gardens, British Museum of Natural History, London, and the
Linnean Society.
According to the note on 4 Ventilago bombaiensis Dalz. ’ by Santapau
(1944), there seemed to be a good deal of confusion regarding the identity
of this plant, due principally to the fact that the fruit was not seen or was
not fully described till Santapau prepared his note. Both Cooke I : 239
and Talbot For. FI. I : 293 confessed that they had not seen the fruit.
Gamble gave a very meagre description of the fruit.
Santapau observed the plant and collected the material on several
occasions from Khandala over and above basing his findings on the
abundant Herbarium sheets of the Blatter Herbarium. Even ripe fruits
and seeds were observed in the field !
I, therefore, feel strongly that there should not be any
confusion whatsoever in the identity of V. bombaiensis Dalz. The
generic transfer case of 1970 in Indian For. 96 : 214 with regard to Smythea
bombaiensis (Dalz.) S. P. Ban. et P. K. Mukh. should be relegated to the
synonymy of a distinct taxon V. bombaiensis Dalz.
General Education Centre,
Maharaja Sayaji Rao University of Baroda,
Baroda-2,
April 26, 1973.
G. M. OZA
MISCELLANEOUS notes
593
References
Banerjee, S. P & Mukerjee, P. K.
(1970) : Studies in the Rhamnaceae,
III — A Taxonomic Revision of Indian
Ventilagineae. Indian For. 96 : 203-217,
f.I.
Cooke, T. (1901-8) : The Flora of the
Presidency of Bombay. London.
Gamble, J. S. (1915-36) : Flora of the
Presidency of Madras. London.
Oza, G. M. (1968) : Smythea calpi-
carpa Kurz renamed. Indian For. 94 :
267.
Oza, G. M. (1970) : Key to the Venti-
lago of India, ibid. 96 : 406-407.
Santapau, H. (1944) : Ventilago
bombaiensis Dalz. J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. 44 : 496.
— (1953) : The Flora of Khan-
dala on the Western Ghats of India.
Rec. bot. Surv. India 16(1) : xxvii -f 1-
396, map, tt. 3.
Talbot, W. A. (1909-11) : Forest
Flora of the Bombay Presidency and
Sind, Poona. 1 : 1909 ; 2 : 1911.
22. VALERIANELLA LOCUSTA (LINN.) LATERRADE—
A NEW RECORD FOR INDIA
The unspectacular genus Valerianella can easily be missed in the field,
Valerianella locus ta is, therefore, presented as a new record for India,
in the Kashmir valley.
The authors owe a debt of gratitude to Dr. I. A. Linczevski of the
Komarov Botanical Institute, Leningrad, U.S.S.R., for confirming the
identity of the species and for sending the literature on the subject. The
authors are also grateful to Mr. B. L. Burtt, F.L.S., Royal
Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, for his help in making the literature
available for the present study.
Valerianella locusta (Linn.) Later rade, FI. Bordelaise (ed. 2) 93, 1821 ;
Betcke, Animadv. bot. Valer. 10, 1826 ; Linczevski in FI. U.S.S.R. 23 ;
663, t. 34, f. 1, 1958 ; Coode in Notes Royal bot. Gdn. Edin. 27(3) :
235, f. 4(1-4), 1967.
V. olitoria Pollich, Hist. PL Palat. 1 : 30, 1776 ; DC. Prodr. 4 : 625,
1830 ; Krok in Vet.-Akad. Handl. Stockh. 5(1) : 88, 1864 ; Boiss.
FI. Or. 3 : 104, 1875.
Valeriana locusta Linn. Sp. PI. 33, 1753, cum var. olitoria.
Valerianella locusta Linn. FI. Suecica (ed. 2) 12, 1755.
V. olitoria Willd.^). pi. 1 : 184, 1798.
Fedia olitoria Vahl, Enum. 2 : 19, 1806.
F. striata Stev. in Mem. Soc. Nat. Mosc. 2 : 177, 1809.
Description : Erect annual herb up to 40 cm tall ; stem dichoto-
mously branched, almost glabrous to slightly puberulous, more pro-
minently at the nodes, slightly ridged. Basal leaves spathulate to nearly
oblanceolate, prominently narrowed towards base, almost entire, 3-6 cm
long, up to 15 mm broad ; stem leaves opposite, lanceolate-oblong, entire
with few distant teeth near base, sessile, upto 4 cm long, apex acute or
12
594 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (3)
subobtuse. Flowers on long peduncles forming 6-12 mm broad flat
topped cymes, 1*5-2 mm across, pale lilac. Bracts oblong, 3-5 mm long,
ciliate especially on margins . Calyx indistinct, single toothed. Corolla
tube nearly 2 mm long, lobes 5, oyate-oblong. Stamens 3, shortly
exserted. Style equalling the stamens in length, stigma capitate
an4 trifid. Fruit somewhat orbicular to ovoid with short apical tooth,
2* 1-2’ 5 mm long, 4*8-2 mm broad, three celled, two cells barren and as
large as the third fertile one ; fertile cell single seeded with a corky mass
on the back, sterile cells separated by a membraneous, partition, exter-
nally by a shallow groove ; fruit pubescent more prominently over the
fertile side.
Distribution in Jammu and Kashmir State , India :
Orchards near Kashmir University Campus, Srinagar ( Gurcharan
Singh 665b, dated 15-V-1970, alt. 1590 m) ; Emporium Garden, Srinagar
(Gurucharan Singh 4212, dated 5-vi-1972, alt. 1590 m). Sheets deposited
in the herbarium of Botany Department, Kashmir University, Srinagar.
Geographical distribution :
index kewensis gives Europe, Oriens as the home of this plant.
Europe, U.S.S.R., Turkey, Iran.
General Education Centre, G. M. OZA
M. S. University of Baroda,
Baroda-390002.
Department of Botany, GURUCHARAN SINGH
Kashmir University,
Srinagar,
April 10, 1973.
23. NOTES ON SOME INTERESTING PLANTS FROM
SOUTH INDIA— II
Alloteropsis semialata (R. Br.) Hitchc. var. viatica (Griff.) Ellis et Karthik,
stat. et comb. nov. Aira viatica Griff, pi. Asiat. 3 : 54. 1851. Axono-
pus semialatus (R. Br.) Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 7 : 64. 1896 ,pp.
The collection of this interesting grass from Kozhikode (Calicut)
Dt., Kerala, records its occurrence for the first time from peninsular
India ; hitherto it has been recorded only from Assam and Ceylon.
Since Fischer (1934), and Bor (1960), working on Indian grasses, have
not indicated its occurrence from this part of India, nor are there earlier
collections in MH, it probably is a new entrant.
MISCELLANEOUS notes
595
Bor (l.c.) has indicated that an interesting variant of Alloteropsis
semialata with a broad membranous wing on the margins of the upper
glume is occasionally found, and tentatively advocates for its recognition
even ‘ ... as the colour variant var. eckloniana ’ ; this has been previously
named Aira viatica by Griffith.
Studies of the plants from Ceylon, Assam, Khasia and Jaintia Hills,
Manipur and Kerala reveal an interesting array of characters with speci-
mens having the upper glumes winged, and some without. It is
remarkable that no intermediate forms have been observed regarding
this character. Thus, it is possible to separate the two varieties, viz.,
semialata and viatica depending on this character. It has not been the
same with the purple bands on the lower lemma ; their presence is seen
as indistinct purple dots even in those not having the bands, indicating
the stability of the character.
From the characters given in the following table, it seems to appear
that emphasis on the colour character cannot be relied on and that
eventually var. eckloniana Hubbard may have to be merged with the
species proper.
Herbarium specimen
1 . Collector and date
not given (Acc.
No. : mh 88903)
2. M. A. Lawson 20
3. N.L.Bor,s.n.
(Acc. No : assam
34014)
4 . S. R . Sharma 20 1 66
5 . Shri Rangdar
12751 (confirmed
by N.L. Bor)
6. P. C. Kanjilal
10389 (confirmed
by N.L. Bor)
7. George Watt
6786
8. J.L. Ellis SC
24089
596 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 70 (3)
Mikania cordata (Burm. f.) B. L. Robinson in Contrib. Gray Herb. CIY.
65. 1934 ; Koster in Blumea 1 : 504. 1935 ; Bhaskaran Nair in Sci. &
Cult. 34 : 254-255. 1968. Eupatorium cordatum Burm, f. FI. Ind. 176.
1768. Mikania scandens C.B. Cl. Comp. Ind. 35. 1876 ; Hook. f.
FI. Brit. Ind. 3 : 244. 1882. M. cordata forma undulata, Koster, l.c.
506 ; forma dentata Koster, l.c. 508.
Josephine Koster (1935) has given a critical and detailed description
of this plant, describing 3 forms under the species. The differentiating
characters given by her are as follows : f
forma cordata forma undulata Koster forma dentata Koster
1 . Leaves entire, cordate-
ovate or cordate ; auri-
cles rounded.
Leaves crenate or undu-
late, shortly mucronu-
late.
Leaves angularly cordate
or hastately cordate,
shortly dentate, acute,
mucronate,apically taper-
ing.
Hooker f. (1881) gives the characters of leaves of M. cordata as ‘ ovate-
acute or acuminate, base rounded, cordate or truncate, crenate or angled,
sometimes villous beneath, . . . ’. Recently, Bhaskaran Nair (1968)
has reported the occurrence of M. cordata near Kottayam, Kerala, having
leaves ‘ submembranous, broadly triangular, palmately reticulate,
wavy . . . ’ From the accompanying figures given of the leaves, they
seem to be undulate and irregular on the margin and not dentate or
angular. The leaves of the plants collected by us in 1967 from Chenda-
nathode, Cannanore Dt., Kerala, are dentate and deeply dentate-cordate.
In fact, the leaves of plants collected agree more or less with both the
forma undulata and forma dentata.
As this plant comes under the category of a weed, it is natural for
it to have aggressive type of propagation and spreading, adopting itself
to various kinds of environment, showing variability in the shape of
leaves, etc. To segregate a number of forms to accommodate all the
variations seen in these types of plants cannot, therefore, be taken too
seriously. The recent collections of Kottayam and Chendanathode —
places separated by about 280 km are the indications of the variations.
It is, therefore, concluded that the forms of Koster under M. cordata
may not stand ; they have to be taken as variations of the typical. It has
been treated so in this note.
It is, however, interesting to note that the plant is gaining ground
in south India and may become yet another weed to invade the western
ghats. All possible steps should be taken before it becomes a serious
pest.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
597
Exsicc. : Chendanathode, Cannanore Dt., Kerala, Dec. 1967, Ellis
SC 29547.
Eryngium foetidum Linn. Sp. PI. 1 : 232. 1753 ; Wolff in Engler’s Das
Pflanzenr. iv : 228. 203. 1913 ; Buwalda in Blumea 2 : 164. 1936 and
in Flora Males, serr. I, 4 (2) : 126. 1949.
This strongly scented plant is hitherto known in India only from
Assam (Kanjilal et al. 1938) and Bengal (Mukerjee 1965). The present
collection from Chendanathode, Cannanore Dt., Kerala, is a new record
for peninsular India.
Herman Wolff (1913) and recently Buwalda (1949) have dealt with
this plant in detail. As the plant is poorly known in India, it is thought
that a description of the same will be of use.
Herbs about 30 cm high, strongly scented ; roots long and fusiform ;
stems monochasially repeatedly branched, prominently grooved, gla-
brous. Leaves radical, rosette, alternate at base, elliptic-obovate, spathu-
late, prominently spinous dentate, petiole winged, sheathing ; nerves
dichotomous, prominent near the margin, in the dentature and on the
edge, midrib rather broad and diffused. Inflorescence in cylindric heads
at ends of branches, subtended at base by strongly dentate bracts, about
1 cm long. Bracts rosette, elliptic-obovate, often long-spinously lobate,
glabrous, strongly 3-5 parallel-veined, marginal edge thick, ± 2*5 X
TO cm lowermost bract foliar. Bracteoles small, Scarious-margined,
amplexicaul. Calyx 5-lobed ; lobes lanceolate, scarious-margined,
persistent. Petals 5, greenish white, elliptic, indexed with a central
prominent thin membrane within, deeply grooved without, caducous.
Stamens 5, recurved in buds ; anthers 3-celled, dorsifixed, vertically
dehiscing. Ovary subglobose, rugose ; styles 2, linear. Cremocarp
warted, glabrous .
Exsicc.: Chendanathode, Cannanore Dt., Kerala, 3-11-1965, Ellis
SC 26414.
4. Ichnanthus vicinus (F. M. Bail.) Merr. in Enum. Philipp. FI. PI. 1 :
70. 1923 ; Bor, Grasses 314. 1960. Panicum vicinum F. M. Bail. Syn.
Queens. FI. Suppll. 3 : 82. 1890. Ichnanthus pallens Hook. f. FI. Brit.
Ind. 7 : 60. 1896 (non Munro, 1861).
This grass has been collected so far only from the hills of north-
east India and from Ceylon, and now for the first time it is recorded from
peninsular India.
It grows densely under shade as a forest undergrowth, and at first
sight it can be mistaken for a Panicum. But the peculiar twisting of the
upper lemma through 90°, presence of lateral appendages at the base,
and the sub-aristate lower glume immediately separate it from that genus.
598 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 70 (3)
This plant is rather poorly known in India and, therefore, a descrip-
tion is appended to facilitate identification.
Herb many branched, perennial, rooting at nodes ; culms striate,
sparsely hairy; nodes puberulous. Leafblade 1*5-10 X 0*8-2*75 cm,
ovate to ovate-lanceolate, cordate, sub-amplexicaul, setose from tuber-
cles present at base, pilose below when young, glabrous at length, scaberu-
lous on the margin, Scabrid on the nerves and sparsely pilose above ;
leaf sheath 0*9-4*8 cm long, striate, sparsely pilose, densely hairy along
the margins ; ligule a fringe of hairs about 2 mm long. Inflorescence
lax 2T9 X 0*5-5 cm ; peduncle 1-20 cm long, main rachis subterate,
striate, sparsely pilose ; secondary branches 0*9-8 cm long. Spikelets
4-5 X 2-4 mm, elliptic-ovate, pedicelled; pedicels 1-5 mm long, capillary,
angled scabrid ; florets 2, dissimilar ; lower male or barren, upper herma-
phrodite ; lower glume 3*5x1 mm, green with hyaline margin, keeled,
ovate-lanceolate, very shortly aristate, 3-nerved, nerves scabrid ; upper
glume 4-5 x 1*5 mm, ovate-lanceolate, acuminate, 5-nerved, nerves
scabrid; lower lemma 3* 5-4 X T5-2 mm, ovate, acute, 5-nerved, nerves
scaberulous, 2-keeled, margins hyaline ; upper lemma 2-2* 5 x 1-1*25 mm,
oblong, acute, coriaceous, smooth, shining, margins involute ; appen-
dages 2, lateral, hyaline ; lower palea 2*5-3 x 0*5-*75 mm, hyaline, elliptic-
lanceolate, acute, 2-keeled, shortly ciliate ; upper palea 1*75-2 X
1*5-1*75 mm, margins involute, thinly coriaceous, smooth, shining;
lodicules 2, linear Stamens 3. Ovary small, styles 2 ; stigmas feathery.
Exsicc. : INDIA : Meghalaya (Assam) J. D. Hooker Sc T. Thomson
s.n. (Acc. No. : MH 87651). Tamil Nadu (Madras)— Nilgiri Dt., Santhi
Estate, Ouchterlony valley, Gudalur, 29-1-1971, J. L. Ellis SC 37749.
Andhra Pradesh — Visakhapatnam Dt., Way to Gudem, Chintapalli,
900 m, 13-11-1970, J. L. Ellis SC 37135. CEYLON : C.P., no definite
locality, 1882, M.A. Lawson 61.
Acknowledgements
We are thankful to the Director, Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta,
for his interest and facilities extended and to Dr. N . L. Bor, England, for
examining the grass sent and giving his valuable opinion on the varieties
of Alloteropsis semialata .
Southern Circle,
Botanical Survey of India,
Coimbatore-2,
March 2, 1972,
J. L. ELLIS
S, KARTHIKEYAN
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 599
Refer
Bor, N. L. (1960) : The grasses of
Burma, Ceylon, India and Pakistan (ex-
cluding Bambuseae). Oxford.
Buwalda, P. (1949) : Umbelliferae in
Flora Malesiana, ser. I 4 : 113-140 (126-
127).
Fischer, C. E. C. (1934) : In Gamble’s
Flora of the Presidency of Madras, part x:
1766.
Kanjilal et al. (1938) : Flora of Assam
2 : 340.
Koster, Josephine Th. (1935) : The
Compositae of the Malay Archipelago.
NCES
I. Vernonieae and Eupatorieae. Blumea
1 : 351-536.
Mukerjee, S. K. (1965) : A sketch of
the vegetation of Jalpaiguri District of
West Bengal. Bull. Bot. Surv. India 7 :
134-137.
Nair, U. K.Bhaskaran (1968): A note
on the occurrence of Mikania cordata
(Burm. f.) B. L. Robinson in south India.
Sci. & Cult. 34 : 254-255.
Wolff, Herman (1913) : in Engler’s
Das Pflanzenreich iv. 228. Umbellifera.
24. A NOTE ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF SOME PLANTS IN
CHANDRAPUR DISTRICT (MAHARASHTRA STATE)
The district of Chandrapur in Maharashtra State lies between 78°51 7-
81° north latitude and 20°50/-18°40/ east longitude, bordered by the
States of Madhya Pradesh on the eastern side and Andhra Pradesh on
the western side.
In the course of a few botanical explorations during the years 1969-
71, a few plants have been reported for the first time from this district
which have not been earlier recorded by Cooke (1901-1908) or Haines
(1916) which serve as a new record or an extension of their known distri-
bution.
All the specimens are deposited in the Regional Herbarium of the
Botanical Survey of India, Western Circle, Poona ( BSI ).
Melastomataceae
Osbeckia zeylanica Willd. sp. pi. ii : 300, 1799 ; Clarke in FI. Brit.
India 2 : 516, 1879.
An erect herb. Leaves oblong, lanceolate. Flowers purple mauve.
Calyx tube with stellate bristles. Anthers beaked. Fruits-ovoid, oblong.
Flowers & fruits : October-November. Locality : Repanpalli,
Malhotra 123331 ; Taroba, Malhotra 122732.
Herb growing on moist sandy soils. Common in peninsular India
and the present record from Chandrapur district is an extension of its
distribution further north. This is the first report of the plant from
Maharashtra State,
600 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 70 (3)
Rubiaceae
Dentella serpyllifolia Wall, ex Airy Shaw in Kew Bull. 1932 : 289,
1932. D. repens sensu Hook. f. FI. Brit. India 3 : 42, 1880.
Herb. Leaves subsessile, oblong elliptic, glabrous. Flowers sub-
sessile. Calyx membranous, corolla white. Capsules glabrous.
Flowers & fruits : April-May. Locality : Kolsa, Malhotra
135268.
Herb growing on sandy soils. Distributed in the States of Andhra
Pradesh, Bihar and Orissa etc. The present record from Chandrapur
district indicates its specific occurrence in Maharashtra State.
Gentianaceae
Canscora sessiliflora Roem. & Sch. Syst. iii. Monat. 230, 1818 ;
Clarke in FI. Brit. India 4 : 104 1883 ; Gamble in FI. Pres. Madras 618,
1923.
An erect herb. Leaves subacute sessible. Flowers pink. Calyx
not winged. Capsules oblong.
Flowers & fruits : October-November. Locality : Aksapur,
Malhotra 123698.
Herb. Rare, growing on moist clayey soils.
Earlier recorded only from southern India and now reported for the
first time from Maharashtra State.
POACEAE
Dimeria connivens Hack in DC. Monogr. Phan. 6 : 689, 1889 ; Hook,
in FI. Brit. India 7 : 104, 1897 ; Bor, Grasses of Burma, Ceylon, India
and Pakistan, 140, 1960.
Annual. Spikelets subsessile, sparsely ciliate. Upper glume
narrowly winged all along the keel.
Flowers & fruits : October-November. Locality : Ghot, Malhotra
123156.
Rare on moist gritty soil.
Earlier reported from Bihar and Orissa only. However, it is
interesting to note its occurrence in Chandrapur district. There is every
possibility that the species may extend its distribution to adjoining states
of Madhya Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh also.
Mnesithea laevis (Retz.) Kunth, Rev. Gram. 1 : 154, 1829 ; Bor loc.
cit. 197, 1960. Rottboellia perforata Roxb ; Hook. loc. cit. 158, 1897.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
601
Annual. Spikes slightly exerted, pedicelled, spikelets suppressed.
Lower glume of the sessile spikelet oblong with a slightly oblique apex.
Flowers & fruits : September-October. Locality : Taroba, Mal-
hotra 122835.
Rare on moist gritty soil.
Though reportedly common in many States of India it has not been
reported from Maharashtra proper and the present record is an extension
of its known distribution.
Acknowledgements
The authors are thankful to Dr. K. Subramanyam, Director, Botanical
Survey of India, Calcutta for providing the necessary facilities in carrying
out this work.
Botanical Survey of India, S. K. MALHOTRA
Western Circle, Poona-1, S. MOORTHY
November 18, 1972.
References
Bor, N. L. (1960) : The Grasses of
Burma, Ceylon, India and Pakistan.
London.
Cooke, T. (1901-1908) : The Flora
of the Presidency of Bombay.
Gamble, J. S. (1915-1936) : Flora of
the Presidency of Madras.
Haines, H. H. (1916) : Descriptive
list of trees, shrubs and economic herbs
of the Southern Circle, Central Provinces,
Allahabad.
ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL
HISTORY SOCIETY FOR THE YEAR 1972-73
Executive Committee
President
Mr. Sumant Moolgaokar
Vice-Presidents
Dr. Salim Ali, d.sc., f.n.a.
Mr. R. E. Hawkins
Mr. G. V. Bedekar, i.c.s. (Retd.), j.p.
Hon. Secretary
Mr. Zafar Futehally
Hon . Treasurer
Mr. J. D. Kapadia, i.c.s. (Retd.)
Member
Secretary, Ministry of Education, Govt, of India
Elected Members
Dr. S. R. Amladi, m.d.
Prof. P. V. Bole
Dr. E. B. Fanibunda, f.d.s.r.c.s. (Eng.), f.r.p.s.
Dr. C. V. Kulkarni, m.sc., pIi.d. ( Jt . Hon. Secretary)
Dr. A. N. D. Nanavati, m.d.
Mr. D. J. Panday
Mr. B. B. Paymaster, i.c.s. (Retd.)
Mr. G. S. Ranganathan
Mr. D. E. Reuben, i.c.s. (Retd.)
Mr. Sandip Thakore
Advisory Committee
Mr. H. G. Acharya
Mrs. Jamal Ara
Mr. F. C. Badhwar, o.b.e.
Mr. S. Chaudhuri
Sir Chintaman Deshmukh, i.c.s. (Retd.)
Dr. A. P. Kapur
Mr. M. Krishnan
Mr. Duleep Matthai
Mr. Ranjit Sinh, i.a.s.
\
) ex-o fficio
Ahmedabad
Ranchi
New Delhi
Calcutta
Hyderabad
Calcutta
Madras
New Delhi
New Delhi
A.G.M. 1972-73— PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS
603
HONORARY SECRETARY’S REPORT FOR THE YEAR 1972
Membership
During the year 158 new members were enrolled as against
71 resignations and death. The slight increase in membership is welcome
but we have a long way to go. 157 are in arrears since 1971 .
Comparative figures for three years are given below :
The Society’s Publications
Journal : Three issues of the Journal were published during the
year: Vol. 68, No. 3 and Nos. 1 & 2 of Volume 69.
The articles covered a wide range of subjects with special emphasis
on ecology, behaviour and taxonomy of Indian fauna and taxonomy
and regional lists of the flora. Special mention needs to be made of
the report by Mr. Krishnan on the Mammals of Peninsular India which
started as a serial in Vol. 68(3) and will be completed in Vol. 69(3). As
we reported last year the financial assistance received from the Seth
Purushottamdas Diwaliba Trust enabled us to print all the excellent
photographs submitted by Mr. Krishnan.
The editors regret that in spite of their best efforts it has not been
possible to publish the Journal issue within the stipulated publication
dates. This is largely due to delay in printing. The Journal has been
printed by the Diocesan Press at Madras since 1926, and at rates much
lower than those obtained at Bombay. We will continue our efforts to
publish in time.
Books : During the year the following sales were made :
book of Indian birds (8th & 9th Editions)
book of Indian animals (3rd Edition)
PICTURE POST CARDS
SNAKE CHARTS
. . 943 copies
. . 407 „
. . 127 „
122 „
604 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (3)
The 9th edition of the Bird Book appeared during the year. The
text and plates have been re-arranged to bring the book in step with recent
classification. We are indebted to Lady Peng McNeice for guaranteeing
overdraft facilities for the publication of the book.
Conservation
The Society continued to take a leading part in the Conservation
movement in the country through its representatives on the State and
Central Wild Life Boards, and through its members on the International
Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, the World
Wildlife Fund and the International Council for Bird Preservation.
The Maharashtra State Forest Department has been persuaded to
establish a floral sanctuary at Khandala to perpetuate the memory of the
late Fr. H. Santapau, a former Vice-President of the Society, and one of
India’s foremost botanists.
Efforts are being made to have a bird sanctuary in Mahim Creek
within Bombay City, a haunt of waders during the migratory season.
This proposal has received considerable support from many quarters
and we hope that the various departments concerned will take the neces-
sary steps to save the area from further degradation.
The Central Government has been approached by the IUCN to
request the Tamil Nadu Government to declare the Kalakkadu forest in
South Tirunelveli Dist. a wilderness area. The area had been earlier
surveyed by the Society’s staff and the action taken by the IUCN is the
result of the Society’s recommendations. The Society has been in touch
with other organisations at Bombay who are concerned with the
deteriorating environment and some meetings were held to stimulate
officials and others to make an attempt to improve the situation.
Field Surveys
Two field collection trips were arranged during the year, one to
Narcondam Island under the overall supervision of Mr. H. Abdulali.
The field party spent a month on the Island and brought back an in-
teresting collection of various forms including two live specimens of the
rare Narcondam Hornbill.
The Goa area was surveyed by a field party led by Dr. S61im Ali. A
representative collection of birds was made but more were caught in mist
nets, examined and released after recording data.
Research Studies
Gir Project : Field work under the project ended in August when the
Researchers returned to Bombay with the project equipment. Further
A.G.M. 1972-73— PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS 605
field activity was curtailed by the lack of funds. A symposium on the
achievements of the Gir Project was held in November at New Delhi.
The Society continued to receive offers of collaborative studies on
Indian Fauna. Some on which the Society plans to collaborate or has
offered assistance are listed below :
(1) Studies on the Langurs and Macaques on the Peninsula by a
research team from Kyoto University, Japan.
(2) A study of the Lion-tailed Macaque by the Rockefeller Uni-
versity, New York.
(3) The Population of Crocodiles in India — New York Zoological
Society.
(4) The ecology of the Wild Dog.
(5) The biology of Whistling Teals of the genus Dendrocygna.
Advice and assistance was given to the Government of India in the
preparation of a plan for an ecological station at Bharatpur Sanctuary.
Assistance was made available to Dr. Sibley of Yale University for the
collection of egg yolk of birds.
University Department: The Society is affiliated to the Bombay
University for research leading to the degree of Ph.D. in Field
Ornithology and M.Sc. in Field Ornithology, Field Mammalogy and
Field Herpetology. During the year, Mr. D. N. Mathew was awarded
the degree of Ph.D. in Field Ornithology. The subject of the thesis was
4 Ecology of the Baya and comparative feeding habits of certain species
of Indian Birds associated with agriculture \ He was the first to receive
the degree through Bombay Natural History Society.
Bird Migration
The Bombay Natural History Society’s bird ringing project under the
direction of Dr. Salim Ali has so far ringed 2,70,294 birds belonging to
both migratory and non-migratory species. The total number of re-
coveries to date amount to 3175 and these have been mainly from Russia.
One result of these bird migratory studies has been that bird populations
from almost all biotopes in the Sub-continent have been sampled. The
success of the scheme has been due largely to the co-operation between
the Scientists of three countries : India, United States and Russia. The
Bird Banding Scheme has also played a significant part in arousing an
interest in our Avifauna in both official and non-official circles.
Local Activities
During the year members resident in Bombay had the opportunity of
taking part in field activities, lectures and exhibitions organised by the
Society.
606 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 10 (3)
Leopard Study efforts were made by a small group of members to
obtain information and to draw to baits, leopards living in the Borivli
National Park near Bombay. Baits were taken twice and leopards seen
on several occasions. The study group is supported by funds received
from World Wildlife-India and Fauna Preservation Society, U.K., and
is continuing its activities.
Nature Walks were organised at Borivli National Park for bird
watching and study of the vegetation at different times of the year.
Other Activities : An attempt Was made to census the population
of crows in Bombay City and some interesting data was obtained.
Meetings/Exhibitions
Dr. James Karr spoke on ‘ Studies of Tropical Forest
Bird Communities
Mr. M. Krishnan spoke on 4 Wild Life Photography \
Dr. C. V. Kulkarni spoke on ‘Fishes and Fisheries’.
Mr. Christian Zuber spoke and showed his film on
4 Galapagos Wildlife Paradise ’.
An exhibition of Sea Shells from the collection of
Mr. A. R. Bhagat.
Prof. Carl Gans spoke on ‘ Locomotion in Snakes \
An exhibition of Snakes from the collection of
Mr. Romulus Whitaker.
Mr. S. A. Hussain spoke on ‘ Natural History of
Narco ndam ’.
Mr. P. D. Stracey spoke on ‘ Wildlife Conservation in
Africa ’.
Mr. S. P. Shahi spoke on ‘ Wildlife Photography ’.
Dr. S. Dillon Ripley spoke on ‘ Ecological studies in
India ’.
Discussion on ‘ Some Aspects of the Bombay Environ-
ment ’.
Mr. Zafar Futehally spoke on ‘ National Parks ’.
Dr. D. R. Smith spoke on ‘ Rangeland and Wildlife
Resources ’.
The Orchid Club held a show of exotic orchids.
Discussion on ‘ Some Aspects of the Bombay Environ-
ment ’.
January
February
March
April
May
July
August
September
October
November
A.G.M. 1972-73 — PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS
60 1
It will be recalled that at the last Annual General Meeting it was
decided that whenever non-members of the Society were also present
an appeal should be made to them to join the Society. The procedure
occasionally leads to embarrassment particularly when small discussion
meetings are held. The Committee therefore decided to have a board
placed outside the auditorium with the message ‘ We need more members,
please pick up an application form \ Apart from this, whenevef appro-
priate, a personal appeal continues to be made.
Grants & Donation
The Society acknowledges with gratitude the following grants
received for specific purposes :
Rs. 40,000 from the Government of India for manufacture of
Cabinets to house the collection.
Rs. 10,000 from Dr. S. D. Ripley for field work.
Rs. 3,000 from Dr. Salim Ali towards expenses of the Goa
Field Survey.
Rs. 3,500 from Dr. Salim Ali as donation to the Salim Ali/
Loke Ornithological Research Fund.
Rs. 500 from Dr. (Miss) Hamida Saiduzzafar.
Research & Field Works Funds
Salim Ali/Loke Ornithological Research Fund :
The Corpus of the fund amounts to Rs. 1,65,636.52.
Expenses during the year were Rs. 6666.33 and Rs. 7822.26 is avai-
lable for distribution. Two awards were made during the year.
Charles McCann Vertebrate Zoology Field Work Fund :
The assets of the fund totalled Rs. 11,936.10 at the end of the year.
Payments were made from the fund towards the cost of the Narcondam
Survey trip and other expenditure (Rs. 2462.45).
Col . Burton Field Work Fund :
From the interest received and accrued (Rs. 1454.55) Rs. 503.39 was
used towards expenses connected with Nature Walks at Borivli National
Park.
Fauna Preservation Society Membership Funds :
At the end of the year the assets of the fund amounted to Rs. 3771 .05
aiter payment of grants made by the Fauna Preservation Society for field
work in India. The following grants were made :
Rs. 1,000 to the Leopard Study Group of the Society.
608 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 70 (3)
SAlim Ali 75th Birthday Fund
To honour Dr. Salim Ali on his 75th Birthday a Committee of
members was formed on the initiative of Yuvraj Shri Shivrajkumar and
Mr. R. E. Hawkins and an appeal sent out for contributions so that a
purse could be presented to Dr. Salim Ali. The contributions received
from members in India amounted to Rs. 12,585.76 and from well-wishers
abroad 662.00 dollars was received. The money collected will be uti-
lised for printing a Festschrift issue of the Journal and this volume will
contain contributions from some of the leading Ornithologists of the
World.
Nature Education Scheme
The activities under the Scheme such as field- trips for children and
teachers, talks and guided tours at the Museum, Zoo and the Aquarium,
talks at schools for children and teachers were organised throughout
the year. Seasonal field-trips to study aquatic life and monsoon plants
during monsoon and migratory birds and flowering trees during winter
and summer were organised in Bombay and Poona. A newsletter sum-
marising the observations was published in Marathi for restricted
circulation.
Library
During the year 140 books were added to the Library, of which 32
were purchased, 80 were donated and 28 received as review copies for the
journal.
Additions to the Collections
During the year 339 specimens were received at the Scciety.
Revenue and Accounts
The financial situation of the Society continued to be difficult, but
the year’s operation showed a small surplus Rs. 5518.25 as against a
deficit of Rs. 11,541 last year.
A.G.M. 1972-73— PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS
609
Staff
The Committee wishes to record its appreciation of the willing co-
operation of the staff in the entire activities of the Society.
Acknowledgements
Committee’s thanks are due to Mr. M. J. Dickins who looked after
the Society’s affairs in the U.K., and to the members and others who
gave help in its field projects and other activities.
13
6lO
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 70 (3)
£
W
HH
o
o
oo
£
8
oo
H-l
c
&
D
i
CQ
S
o
«
ttj
d
T3
4)
OJ
_!/>
'So
BALANCE SHEET AS AT 31 DECEMBER, 1972— (continued)
A.GM. 1972-73 — PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS 611
o
00
* **
at ©
w vo
8
i ©
I 2
e 9
w 2
8 "
<
,d
GO
2
PQ
t« .
0) .
o3
o
5go
So
Un
8 ^
dtf
4J
O O
Q D
s
d £
•2S
••
ci-d
ta •
3
</5
(0
>»
Q b
i §
*§«
|S
T3
O
O
60
a *
8
22
2 w
c p
s o oi
J*J3 o
SiH
-! 8-
• •do
§ og
s-jo
2 s
■ts 5
S »
£ C/5
S o
.2 o
■ts a
2
*$ PQ
o
o
m
.. o
<5 c
Sa 63
<2
BALANCE SHEET AS AT 31 DECEMBER , 197 2— (continued)
612 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 70 (3)
BALANCE SHEET AS AT 31 DECEMBER, 1972— {continued)
A.G.M. 1972-73— PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS
613
o
o
00
< £ &
a Q
cn
a
5 a, o
P ox
° si <U
't? a c
.2 c
He03
^ «j o
3 U &
O 3 H)
Registered No. F. 244 (BOM)
BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY
THE BOMBAY PUBLIC TRUST ACT, 1950
SCHEDULE IX [VIDE RULE 17(1)]
INCOME AND EXPENDITURE ACCOUNT FOR THE YEAR ENDED 31 DECEMBER , 1972
614 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 7# (3)
(2
cu
&
■<t vo
co t"-
r-T rn
ih cfl (S l'- c i jg
av gov op- 5
o <d o «
U Q UiQ In Q
o W 0M O w O w
tu Pm tu h
INCOME AND EXPENDITURE ACCOUNT FOR THE YEAR ENDED 31 DECEMBER, 1972 —{continued)
A.G.M. 1972-73— PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS 615
INCOME AND EXPENDITURE ACCOUNT FOR THE YEAR ENDED 31 DECEMBER, 1972— {continued)
616
JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (3)
fn
r"
Os
I
As per our report annexed.
(Sd.) Habib & Co.,
Chartered Accountants ,
BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY
A.G.M. 1972-73— PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS
61'
CM
os
§
Q
t-H
m
Co
I
Co
I
a
£
§
a
£
i
i
i
Co
8 00
^ J2 Ҥ n a
SJ <3 Cu os *S 0,
S
§ Q
3- os
so so
r- 6
OO CM
CM
co"
ss
^ s<-
^ (>°v
II*
« <=>»
£ **
>. <5>
sS *j»
Ilf | s
si*
& 8"
Os O
OO CM
CM CM
£ ^
in
|f£
h*.
II
•£ bo Q £*>
*r
o o
o ©
O o
o o
o O
*-? rf
>>5
8 § 8?
*§ gjgCQ
Si
os o
OO CM
CM CM
CM VD
*
<u
I
£
.-’S
IS
3 3
PQ.2
- 1
o >
U
11 :
is
2 2
< o
<n a,
g o
•= »H
3 <2
U ©
gg
O <u >,
fti’SS
£
gc*-, 3
2 OXA
O
0t3O
2 §3
■8fc-g
tJr^ X5
^ 3
3 rr j S*>
BJ 2 g
S»®
Jll
i S ' « *
P.'S'p 3 J
3 -3 g rt.g
3 5 afi3
o.£ 03 c
3Q5.S2«
i-g °
£§‘2--^
• T~-H
•M ^ O *Z
> 3
3 _ J-, fc
M‘3. -S rr\
SS 2 3
«S-a£‘E 3
- 3 <2t*-1 ^
^"3 0??
300
c 3 « ^ 35
£-23 O g
,C -P .2 g Sb
^Ht.2o
3 t/5 2 3 o
2-§S^
o
3-1 §
5 3
3 pc
•2 o g
3 0-3
333 in
£~Q
a 8
OCC
£ O 3
s-> (/>
b 3'm
33 M
c/> '
M TO •
O 3 •
O 3 oo
Si <D
-g.s g
§?g
o
t35t->
° O c
3 <D
°«h
'33 ^
3-^3
.am--
*§ <D 3
£$%
O ^
2"o£
o
13a
618 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (3)
«r>
Q
sj
*2 g
^ oo
ISl®
«n
So
- ii>
E^
VO
1,1 •§
so>^ e
COS
.3«
— "w **
1 .15? |
"o
VO
so
R Tt
si«
E? S ro
«St3
ii"*
r
•§ a
S 1
R S» *“
§ .5 18
**
«o
<3 ■*-. O
e « O
tm
•&
■ i
a 2P •
e
2 t5
3 b .
3 <u %
£ ^ CO
w * >?
-O xJ
3
2
*•3 a
^S.o
3 b +2
Sts 2
o
os'
£?3 M
.3 .25
*=§£
"S »2 *"
<D 3 c
3*^3
s&i
•i3>
K^'S
U •§'
*3"m g
SB-
£ «i_ t_ ^
tjOOW
O
: i£
o 13
<D go
£
5— <
.o
’8<
3
>>b a>
■3 60 3
ao o 5
<ub 3
j-i o -
2 He P-1 M
O
'll? '
hh o a>
e o 3
§«i
O » H
f£|
«3o
£££
O Si— i (/3
*§2
CJ 3
sas
o
CN
I§«
2flo
> .2 "5
>33
3 >
?sl
1^3
:i§
« j. *->
2 oii
-'g §
s §pq
i-jPh 3
O
I a« :
Sffl 3
^ 8
?0 s
o-h a,
>30
!> 3 <D
O J
£ 00
o“t-
**>28
XJ <U
fill
o
gfi :
u
<I> „
CO _, iJ
2 o o
a,'§8'
§3^
I „st
s-§“
<S<8s
a ° °
I-Sj
O
A.G.M. 1972-73— PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS
619
o3
a r
« o
SU
O
i-t ffl O
O
1> HH
£5j
I-* m
3 O
■ea Je
^ -g
a -*-•
<u
a, <u
c/3 rj
^ 3
o <c
O P
60
a
&p *S
.g -a
*1
s |
OO 2
m
r-
On
ft
§?
BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY
620
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (3)
1
5
co
0
§
1
As per our report annexed
(Sd.) Habib & Co.,
Bombay, 17 th August, 1972. Chartered Accountants.
A.G.M. 1972-73 — PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS 671
>«
H
O
oo
5
8
oo
3
2
£
£
g
2
o
PQ
I
o
o
o
a ^
O 05
E^
1
I
§
§
0
1
0
js
1
s
Co
<N
r-
On
&
<5
I
8
^3
§
I
*R
v,
Q
R
x.
3
3
R
.<$
.O
RS
H
SR
*R
■Ki
JR
<5
5
m
x
3
00
a
x
oo
!*— (
4>
x
S
<u
*2*n
CS ^
LZl I
c t"-
H-« ON
<*-. — (
O U*
« 3
6 £
b 3
ji S
<d o
> *-»
o
o
JC < C3
XI o>
<u >»
Q<u
£5 :
<D
£ *-
>»— <
C 3
« s
3g .
CD £
<C
a> O
cd
3 a
.22 o
’o 'X
c/5 3 •
CD •
11
•2 a
^ <N
b b £:
CCS O ON
•— i Om r- 1
XJ
G
<U-rf 0) CO
fl gtM o,c
§§•5 g>j_
s3S|1
og^-Sg
s£ gm
-ata.o
1
., 3
y?
<u <o
“ >
. 3 C
xl S o
00 ^ „
O^ ?°
11
ll
0 s
8.3
e 73
11
II
3 1
hf) rj w
B B S oU
••3.2 "*
3 3 M d, « .
g^.Sgga
•S'S.sl S
G s-i
CO O Qj
« 8
ca^5
x 55
t&s I
0»U[L
H c«
X v a> 5? a .43
3 oo c “ -d
*4'3 C -i
B » 32
•' </? w
y5 <i> b
% 8» 5
§
A
g'a
X t-
.
S? nl o 2
-- -m’ M
C/5 d TO
‘o to
• ph r-i GJ <L> ^
^ O JO § O <
°ooa « o
a „
<3 <U «
^ ge«)
R ^ g •rt
S> , a o
.a *S 2c2
fli P-H
5 8
o *-g
=-g
^ <D
c&
OT3
43 c
a ca
o
■§§s
«»x So
-4_ CCS
S OX
4> o
I ^ 00
^.s
x o -d
UlC c
3 -5
>> a-o
8 »
x « 5
i-3 3 ^
'o -d
^ o c
O & §
rl|«
CD
E
^3
.. *3
to >
s; O
^ O
co
Rl
<3 4)
« X
£ CD
2S TJ
3 C
R> HH
As per our report of even date
(Sd.) Habib & Co.,
Bombay, \lth August, 1973. Chartered Accountants.
MINUTES OF THE ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING OF THE
BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY HELD AT
HORNBILL HOUSE, SHAHID BHAGAT SINGH ROAD,
BOMBAY 1, ON FRIDAY, 7TH SEPTEMBER, 1973,
AT 6.30 P.M., WITH MR. R. E. HAWKINS, A
VICE-PRESIDENT OF THE SOCIETY, IN THE CHAIR.
FORTY-TWO MEMBERS WERE PRESENT
1. In the absence of the President Mr. S. Moolgaokar, Dr. Salim
Ali proposed and Dr. A. N. D. Nanavati seconded that Mr. R. E.
Hawkins, a Vice-President of the Society, be elected Chairman of the
Meeting. The proposal was accepted.
2. The Chairman asked the Honorary Secretary to present the
Annual Report of the Committee.
The Honorary Secretary stated that before he commented on the
report, he would like to announce that the Prime Minister of India
had agreed to become a Patron of the Society. The announcement was
received with acclaim. The Honorary Secretary said that traditionally
the Viceroys used to be the Patrons of the Society and Shri C. Raja-
gopalachari was the last patron as Governor-General of India.
Coming to the Report, the Honorary Secretary said that the trend of
membership, if not very satisfactory, was at least positive and there
had been a small increase in the membership as the figures indicated.
On the date of the meeting he had been informed by the Office that the
total membership was in the region of 1250. But this included a number
of members who had yet to pay for the current year.
As a result of financial constraints it had been necessary to limit the
number of pages of the Journal to around 225 for each issue. As was
now the practice with some scientific institutions abroad, a circular
letter Was sent out to contributors whose articles had been pending
for a long period, stating that in the event of their agreeing to pay for
the publication cost, their articles would be published within a guaranteed
period. The response to this announcement had not been very
favourable.
Because of the long delays in bringing out the Journal from the
Diocesan Press in Madras, it had been decided to print the forthcoming
issue of August 1973 at St. Francis Technical School Press, Borivli,
Bombay. It was hoped that by utilising the services of two presses, one
in Madras and the other in Bombay, it would be possible to print the
Journal without too much delay.
The Honorary Secretary referred to the information in the report
MINUTES OF THE A.G.M. OF THE B.N.H.S.
623
relating to our publications and gave the following figures of sale during
the past three years.
Regarding Conservation, there was no doubt that there was an in-
creasing awareness about the need to preserve our forests and wild areas,
but it was unfortunate that the Maharashtra State Wildlife Advisory
Board had not met since 10th of November 1971, in spite of the fact that
the statute demanded that the meeting be held twice a year.
Regarding our research activities, the Honorary Secretary said that
as a result of the unfortunate differences of opinion between India and the
U.S. relating to the use of PL 480 funds, the Society had been put into
difficulties, as no funds had been released even for the bird migration
scheme. The Government of India, however, had made some ad hoc
grants during the past year.
With regard to the financial situation, the Society had made a compre-
hensive Five Year Plan which had been submitted to the Ministry of
Science & Technology. The Plan covered the main activities of the
Society namely : Publications, Reference Collections, Bird Banding
Scheme and Research in the Field. Recent inquiries in Delhi reveal
that there is a reasonable chance of getting substantial funds for these
activities .
The Honorary Secretary referred to the information in the section
of grants and donations and expressed his gratitude to both Doctors
Dillon Ripley and Salim Ali for the generous grants which had been made.
After these comments from the Honorary Secretary, the Chairman
enquired if any members would like to ask questions on the Honorary
Secretary’s cyclostyled or verbal report.
(1) Mr. Humayun Abdulali and Mr. A. A. Dikshit referred to the
resolution passed at the last Annual General Meeting to the effect that
a verbal invitation to join the BNHS should be made at all meetings at
which non-members were present and said that the Executive Committee
had exceeded its powers when it decided instead to display a printed
invitation.
The Honorary Secretary admitted he was human and had sometimes
forgotten to issue such a verbal invitation. He agreed that the board
which was now prominently displayed, with the message ‘ We need more
624 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 70 (3)
members, please pick up an application form should be regarded as a
supplement to a verbal invitation, not a substitute for it.
(2) Mr. Amarnath Dikshit said that there seemed to be some
confusion about the membership figures. He said that in the Annual
Report for the year 1971 published in the Journal of December 1972, the
total membership was mentioned at 1143, while in the Report now pre-
sented the membership for 1972 was 1089. How could such a drop in
membership be explained? The Honorary Secretary said he would
look into the matter and write to Mr. Dikshit.
(3) Mr. Dikshit enquired about the studies carried out by Mr. J. C.
Daniel at Kalakkadu and enquired whether the report would be available.
The Honorary Secretary said that he would send the report on to the
member.
(4) Dr. Deoras asked why the Society had sponsored a bird sanctuary
in the Mahim Creek when the area was so polluted, and whether a prior
survey had been carried out. The Honorary Secretary replied saying
that there were still a very large number of birds that congregated in
the area and by making a sanctuary out of the creek, there would be a
good possibility of getting the authorities to check the pollution from
the neighbouring establishments.
(5) Dr. Deoras complained that the Society in association with World
Wildlife Fund- India had held a seminar on ‘ Conservation — An Answer
to Drought ’ to which only a few members of the Society were invited.
Why was this discrimination made ? Mr. Humayun Abdulali also
objected to his having been specifically asked not to attend the meeting
when he saw the notice of it in the papers and enquired of the Honorary
Secretary. Replying to this the Honorary Secretary said that this
Conference was held particularly to educate the Legislators of
Maharashtra State on good land-use practices, and on the need to main-
tain forests . No members apart from the Executive Commitee were
invited.
(6) Dr. R. N. Vasa asked why the Society’s jeep was used for giving
lifts to members of the Bird Watchers’ Field Club of India and World
Wildlife Fund. He also enquired whether it was proper that the
Society should spend its funds for assisting members of other clubs.
Replying to this the Honorary Secretary said that all notices sent
out to members of associated clubs were paid for by the respective insti-
tutions . With regard to petrol expenses of the jeep, on several occasions
the World Wildlife Fund had agreed to bear the cost of petrol. He
maintained that it was in the interest of the Society to associate all
people who Were interested in these outings (whether they were mem-
MINUTES OF THE A.G.M. OF THE B.N.H.S.
625
bers of the Society or not) because one of the objectives of the Society
was to arouse interest in natural history.
Mr. Bansi Mehta supported this view and said that we should not
allow any factionalism of this kind to grow in the Society.
(7) A member stated that a fee had been charged for admission to the
exhibition of snakes organized by Mr. Romulus Whitaker in July and
asked whether the Society had received any part of the money collected.
The Honorary Treasurer said that, if indeed a fee for admission had been
charged, no part of the proceeds had come to the Society. The Chairman
undertook to verify whether charges for admission could, consistently
with the Society’s agreement with the Prince of Wales Museum, be
levied by outside bodies which had been given permission to use the
Society’s premises.
(8) Mr. Humayun Abdulali asked questions relating to the report and
the activities of the Society :
(a) He asked what research was being done on the pair of Horn-
bills collected in Narcondam.
Dr. Salim Ali replied that their growth and plumage changes were
being studied by Mr. S. A. Hussain.
(b) Mr. Abdulali enquired what advice was given to the Govern-
ment of India in the preparation of a station for ecological studies at
Bharatpur and the Honorary Secretary undertook to send him the letter
containing the Society’s suggestions.
(c) Mr. Abdulali enquired whether the Society had made any
recommendations to the Government of India in connection with the
Wildlife Protection Act of 1972 which according to him was very
defective.
The Honorary Secretary said that the Society had pointed out
that the Schedules were defective. The Honorary Secretary also stated
that the Act had to be rushed through Parliament on practical grounds
and the sponsors were aware that some of the changes suggested (as for
example removing Parakeets from the Vermin list for sentimental reasons)
was unfortunate, but had been accepted with a view to avoiding further
delays.
(< d ) Mr. Abdulali asked whether the grant of Rs. 10,000 received
from Dr. S. D. Ripley for field work was earmarked for any particular
purpose, and on being informed that it was a contribution towards the
expenses of field work in Bhutan, asked why the specimens already
collected in Bhutan had not been added to the Society’s Reference Collec-
tions and whether all specimens collected in future would come to the
Society’s Reference Collections. He considered that, before any such
626 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (3)
expedition set out, the way in which specimens collected were to be
disposed of should be clearly defined. Dr. Salim Ali (at the Chairman’s
invitation) replied that the specimens collected in Bhutan were still being
worked on and only some of the duplicates may be given to the Smith-
sonian Institution.
( e ) Mr. Abdulali and Mr. Amarnath Dikshit enquired whether the
Sanctuary designated to perpetuate the memory of Fr. Santapau at
Khandala was adequately protected and what its status was, and where it
was located.
The Honorary Secretary said that he was informed by the
Forest Department that the area was already part of a Reserve Forest
and full protection was being provided. For the moment therefore all
that remained to be done was that a board naming it as the Fr. Santapau
Sanctuary would have to be put up. The Area selected was one where
Fr. Santapau and his students had done a lot of work.
There being no further comments Dr. C. V. Kulkarni proposed the
acceptance of the Report, Mr. G. V. Bedekar seconded, and the Chair-
man declared the Report adopted. He then called upon the Honorary
Treasurer to present the Balance Sheet and Statement of Accounts for
the past year.
A member deplored the small amount spent on books for the library.
After several other questions had been asked and answered by the
Honorary Treasurer the Statement of Accounts was adopted, having
been proposed by Dr. A. N. D. Nanavati and seconded by Professor
P. V. Bole.
3. The Chairman said that the following nominations were deemed
to be approved :
President :
Dr. Salim Ali
Vice-Presidents :
Mr. R. E. Hawkins
Mr. G. V. Bedekar, i.c.s. (Retd.), j.p.
Honorary Secretary :
Mr. Zafar Futehally
Honorary Treasurer :
Mr. J. D. Kapadia, i.c.s. (Retd.)
MINUTES OF THE A.G.M. OF THE B.N.H.S.
627
Advisory Committee :
Mr. H. G. Acharya
Mrs. Jamal Ara
Mr. F. C. Badhwar, o.b.e.
Mr. S. Chaudhuri
Dr. Chiataman Deshmukh, i.c.s. (Retd.)
Dr. A. P. Kapur
Mr. Shivrajkumar Khachar
Mr. M. Krishnan
Mr. Duleep Matthai
Mr. Ranjit Sinh, i.a.s.
Ahmedabad
Ranchi
New Delhi
Calcutta
Hyderabad
New Delhi
New Delhi
Calcutta
Jasdan
Madras
Mr. Humayun Abdulali rose to a point of order maintaining it was
improper to re-appoint as Honorary Secretary a person whose conduct
was the subject of an enquiry committee and who did not attend to the
correspondence of the Society as required by the Rules . He was over-
ruled by the Chairman, who pointed out that the Society could not func-
tion efficiently for the six weeks necessary to hold an election without the
services of a duly appointed Honorary Secretary and Honorary Treasurer.
With regard to the Executive Committee, the Chairman stated that
apart from the nominations of the Executive Committee, four other
nominations had been received, namely :
Mr. Humayun Abdulali proposed by Dr. P. J. Deoras seconded by
Mr. A. A. Dikshit.
Dr. P. J. Deoras proposed by Dr. R. N. Vasa seconded by
Mr. A. A. Dikshit.
Mr. Amarnath A. Dikshit proposed by Dr. R. N. Vasa seconded
by Mr. Humayun Abdulali.
Dr. R. N. Vasa proposed by Mr. A. A. Dikshit seconded by
Mr. Humayun Abdulali .
It would therefore be necessary to hold a postal ballot as provided for
in Rules 32 and 33.
4. Mr. Humayun Abdulali had given notice that he would be moving
the following resolution :
That the report of the Sub-Committee appointed by the Executive
Committee to consider the proposals made by Dr. P. J. Deoras at the last
Annual General Meeting be published and circulated to members of the
Bombay Natural History Society.
On the Chairman’s assurance that, at a meeting of the Executive
Committee held a few hours earlier, it had been decided that, when the
sub-committee’s full report had been received and considered by the
628 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (3)
Executive Committee, it would be made available to members at the
Society’s premises, Mr. Abdulali withdrew his resolution.
The meeting terminated at 8 p.m. with a vote of thanks to the Chair.
In the postal ballot held in October 1973 the following were elected
to the Executive Committee :
Executive Committee
Mr. Humayun Abdulali
Dr. S. R. Amladi, m.d.
Prof. P. Y. Bole
Dr. E. B. Fanibunda, f.d.s.r.c.s. (Eng.), f.r.p.s.
Dr. C. Y. Kulkarni, M.sc. ph.D.
Dr. A. N. D. Nanavati, m.d.
Mr. D. J. Panday
Mr. B. B. Paymaster, i.c.s. (Retd.)
Mr. G. S. Ranganathan
Mr. D. E. Reuben, i.c.s. (Retd.)
ERRATA
629
errata
Volume 69(3) : December 1972
Miscellaneous Note No. 23 — The habitat and distribution of
Psilotum nudum in South India.
On Page 682, para 1, line 5
for 6 The labels of’ read 4 The labels on *
para 1, line 6
for 4 herbarium sheets of specimens from Kartikeyan
(M.H. No. 26863, Sebastine, K.M. & M.H. No.
3945, 12965)’, read 4 herbarium sheets of Kartikeyan
(M.H. No. 26863), and Sebastine, K. M. (M.H. No.
3945, 12965)’.
para 1, line 9
for 4 Hydnacarpus ’ read 4 Hydnocarpus
para 1, line 10
for 4 (on rocks) ’ read 4 on rocks
On Page 682, insert
Dept, of Botany,
Jawahar Bharati,
Kavali, (A.P.) 524202,
November 23, 1971.
References
Prain, D. (1894) : The genus Psilotum
Sw. in India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
8 : 428.
Raizada, M. B. (1935) : The genus
Psilotum Sw. in India. Indian Forester
61 : 654-658.
V enkatesw arlu , V. (1943) ; On the
occurrence of Psilotum triquetrum Sw.
in the East Godavari District. Sci.
Cult. 9(4) : 165.
PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY T. DURAI AT THE
10 CHURCH ROAD, VEPERY, MADRAS — 1 8~1(
EDITORS! ZAFAR FUTEHALLY, J. C. DANIEL
DIOCESAN PRESS,
1-1974. C6024
& P. V. BOLE
THE SOCIETY’S PUBLICATIONS
Mammals
The Book of Indian Animals, by S. H. Prater. 3rd (revised) edition 2 plates in
colour by Paul Barruel and many other monochrome illustrations. Rs. 4®
{Price to members Rs. 33)
The Ecology of the Lesser Bandicoot Mat in Calcutta, by James Juan Spillett Rs. 1®
Birds
The Book of Indian Birds, by Sdlint Alt. 9th (revised) edition. 65 coloured and
many monochrome plates. Rs. 35
{Price to members Rs. 30)
Checklist of the Birds of Maharashtra, by Humayun Abdulali. Rs. 2*5®
{Price to members Rs. 2)
Snakes
Identification of Poisonous Snakes.
Wall chart in English, Gujarati, and Marathi.
Miscellaneous
Rs.
5.
Picture Postcards of 12 representative Indian Birds (In colour) per set Rs. 2*5®
Glimpses of Nature Series Booklets :
1. Our Birds I (with 8 coloured plates) in Hindi, and Marathi, Rs. O S®
Kannada. Rs. 0*62
2. Our Birds II (with 8 coloured plates) in Hindi. Rs. 0*62
3. Our Beautiful Trees (with 8 coloured plates) in Hindi and Marathi. Rs. 0*62
4. Our Monsoon Plants (with 8 coloured plates) in English,
Gujarati, Hindi, and Marathi. Rs. 0*80
5. Our Animals (with 8 coloured plates) in English, Gujarati,
Hindi, and Marathi. Rs. 1*25
Glimpses of Nature in India (with 40 coloured plates) in English. Rs. 7.5®
(Price to members Rs. 5)
Back Bombers of the Society’s Journal. Rates on application.
Correspond with :
The Honorary Secretary,
Bombay Natural History Society,
Homhill House, Shahid Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay 400023
Agents in England :
Messrs Wheldon & Wesley Ltd..,
Lyfton Lodge, Codicote, Near Hitchin,
Herts, England.
The Society will gratefully accept back numbers of the Journal , from
members who may not wish to preserve them.
TERMS OF MEMBERSHIP
Life Members pay an entrance fee of Rs. 5 (2 5p.) and a life membership fee ©f
Rs. 600 (Inland), ^45*50 (Foreign).
Ordinary Members pay an entrance fee of Rs. 5 (25 p.) and an annual subscription of
Rs. 36 (Inland), O (Foreign).
Members residing outside India should pay their subscription by means of orders
on their Bankers to pay the amount ©f the subscription to the Society in
Bombay on the 1st January in each year. If this cannot be done, then the sum of
A 3*00 should be paid annually to the Society’s London Bankers— The National &
Grindlays Bank Ltd., 23 Fenchurch Street, London E.C. 3.
The subscription of members elected in October, November, and December
covers the period from the date of their election to the end of the following year.
CONTENTS
The Changeable Hawk-Eagle, Spizaetus cirrhatus (Gmelin). By S. M. Osman
Some Snakes from Nepal. By Robert L. Fleming, Jr. and Robert L. Fleming,
Sr.
The aquatic and marshland plants of Bundi District, Rajasthan. By
J. K. Maheshwari and V. Singh
Ecology of Soft-furred Field Rat, Rattus meltada meltada (Gray) in Kolar,
Mysore State. By R. K. Chandrahas and A. K. Krishnaswami
Fisheries survey of Himachal Pradesh and some adjacent areas with special
REFERENCE TO TROUT, MAHSEER , AND ALLIED SPECIES. By K. L. Sehgal
A study on the Bionomics of Chauliops fallax Scott (Heteroptera : Lygaejdae)
at Sehore (Madhya Pradesh). By R. R. Rawat and H. R. Sahu
Blenniid fishes from Godavari Estuary. By V. Visweswara Rao
Trapping of small mammals in relation to the vegetation types in the
Kyasanur forest disease area, Mysore State, India. By M. A. Sree-
nivasan
New Plant records for the Upper Gangetic Plain. By Kr. N. Bahadur,
R. Dayal and D. P. Raturi . .
Preliminary notes on the Ornithology of Sandur, Karnataka. By Kumar
D, Ghorpade .. .. .. .. ..
Obituaries . . . ,
Reviews
Miscellaneous Notes
Annual Report of the Bombay Natural History Society for the year
1972-1973
Statements of Accounts of the Bombay Natural History Society
page
417
426
438
447
458
475
480
488
493
499
532
535
544
602
610
Minutes of thb Annual General Meeting
622
q
'\
cr
<
cn
O pc>/ _ O v “ xv^TiTs^
\j Z NOliniliSNI^NVINOSHXIWS _S 3 IdVaaiT LIBRARI ES^SMITHSONIAN^JNSTITUTIC
LIBRARIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOliDlliSNI NVINOSHilWS SBIdVas
- ^ ^ 2: v cn 2 cn
*— — /MW/'s ~
g NOIinillSNI_ NVINOSHilWS SBiaVdail LIBRARIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTE
£ 2 _ "> .... 5 P
h menm\ - wrn'M. h /satrw*
LIBRARIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOlifUliSNI NVIN0SH1IIAIS SBIdVda
m xj'VDcy ^ m
NOiinillSNs"”NVINOSHlllNS S3 I BVB 8 ll~LI B RAR I ES ^SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTI
cn 2 ___ cn Z vV- . cn z:
«wkt\ -h „ z — i
x
cn ^
> >
12LIBRAR I ES^SMITHSONIAN^ INSTITUTION NOlifUliSNI NVINOSHIIWS^S 3 1 UVHE
oo ~ co ir ...... to
.4 CO
O X^v.o.o^ ~ O q
N2N0lini!lSNl“JNVIN0SHlUNs"’S3 I HVd 3 ll^LI B RAR I ES*~ SMITHSONIAN”* INSTITUTI
~ v Z r~ Z ""
o y
HI 2 N^lVASV^ m X^VOSV^ ^ m Nt^OS^l
1 LI B RAR I ES SMITHSONIAN~INSTITUTION%OlinJLIlSNI ~ NVINOSHilWS S3 I dVdfi
Z \ CO ___ 2 > cn 2
N NOlifUliSNI NVINOSHimS SHIdVdail LIBRARIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTI
cn z co cn
-A H x - y3Sl1W&\ 3 /&***SSn -
cz
<
(Z
nilXSNI-,NVIM0SHlUNSZS3 I d Vd a n ^ L I B R AR I E S SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOli
r~ v. Z r- 2 ‘“
GO •'*'• ± CO " " ± 00
(ARIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOIXfUIXSNI NVINOSHXIIMS SBIdVdail LIB
co z oo 2: z
S /<uSTIt77?x «£ <!! -ZCt!kf» ^ >^vnTT>'v 2
> ^ >' 2 ^los^y >
nillSNI NVINOSHlIWS^Sa I HVU a nZLI B rar i es^smithsonian institution noij
5 \ 00 ^ ™ co = 00
OO y§k ^ 00 zfo^oX ^ J^^y fn
O " W ™ O
z -1 z
VARIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOliniliSNI NVIN0SH1IWS S3ldVdail LIB
m — x^mxs^x m
c/> ~ Co x. ± co
.nillSNI NVIN0SH1IINS S3 I 8VB 8 11 LIBRARIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOI
Z 05 z CO 2 .... CO
< y^vASOA^x 2 , < jilx . . s <
R AR I ES°°SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOliniliSNI NVIN0SH1IIN$C°$3 I 8 V8 8 Ilf L 1 B
co =; ^S'v co i3 co
O DC^x ~ X^/uixs^X o N> Z O
milSNlAlVINOSHIMS^Sl IdVaail^LlBRARI ES^ SMITHSONIAN^ INSTITUTION 2 NOI
r~ x, z r* z f~ z
co ' ' ± CO ™ CO
RARIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOliniliSNI NVIN0SH1IINS S3IHVH8I1 L,B
c£ ^ z > co z to z n
y 1 l i> ^ l 1
CO
CO
■ OXIXSN I _ NVINOSHXIIMS' S3 I d Vd 8 IT LI B RAR 1 ES”SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION N0I
. 2 \ CO — CO ™ CO
^tito^v 1x1 v<Tatit7IX i.i