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Journal of the

Bombay Natural History Society

Vol. 71, No. 1

Editors

J. C. DANIEL, P. V. BOLE &

A. N. D. NANAY ATI

svc.^ V

& 7J.

Rse 18 (Inland), £1*50 (Foreign)

NOTICE TO CONTRIBUTORS

Contributors of scientific articles are requested to assist the editors

by observing the following instructions:

1. Papers which have at the same time been offered for publica-

tion to other journals or periodicals, or have already been published

elsewhere, should not be submitted.

2. The MS. should be typed (double spacing) on one side of a

sheet only, and the sheets properly numbered.

3. All scientific names to be printed in italics should be under-

lined. Both in zoological and in botanical references only the initial

letter of the genus is capitalized. The specific and subspecific names

always begin with a small letter even if they refer to a person or a

place, e.g. Anthus hodgsoni hodgsoni or Streptopelia chinensis surat ensis

or Dimeria blatteri.

4. Trinomials referring to subspecies should only be used where

identification has been authentically established by comparison of

specimens actually collected. In all other cases, or where identification

is based merely on sight, binomials should be used.

5. Photographs for reproduction must be clear and show good

contrast. Prints must be of a size not smaller than 8*20 x 5*60 cm

(No. 2 Brownie) and on glossy glazed paper.

6. Text-figures, line drawings, and maps should be in Indian ink,

preferably on Bristol board.

7. References to literature should be placed at the end of the

paper, alphabetically arranged under author’s name, with the abridged

titles of journals or periodicals underlined (italics) and titles of books

not underlined (roman type), thus:

Banerji, M. L. (1958): Botanical Exploration in East Nepal.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 55(2): 243-268.

Prater, S. H. (1948): The Book of Indian Animals. Bombay.

Titles of papers should not be underlined.

8. Reference to literature in the text should be made by quoting

the author’s name and year of publication, thus: (Banerji 1958).

9. Synopsis : Each scientific paper should be accompanied by

a concise, clearly written synopsis, normally not exceeding 200 words.

10. Reprints: Authors are supplied 25 reprints of their articles

free of charge. In the case of joint authorship, 50 copies will be given

gratis to be distributed among the two or more authors. Orders for

additional reprints should be in multiples of 25 and should be received

within two weeks after the author is informed of the acceptance of the

manuscript. They will be charged for at cost plus postage and packing.

Hornbill House,

Shahid Bhagat

Singh Road,

Bombay 400 023

Editors,

Journal of the Bombay Natural

History Society.

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

Hornbill House, Shahid Bhagat Singh Road, BOMBAY 400 023

Telephone: 2 5 7 27 7

Dear Member,

The Executive Committee, taking into consideration the increasing

cost of operation of the Society’s activities, has been reluctantly compelled to

increase the membership and entrance fees, and subscription rates for the journal.

The new rates are given below, and will come into effect from

1st January 1975.

(a) Entrance Fees (for new members) To be

Yours faithfully,

A. N. D. Nanavati, M. D.

Honorary Secretary

VOLUME 71 NO. 1 : APRIL 1974

Date of Publication: 21-10-1974

CONTENTS

Bonelli’s Hawk-Eagle, Hieraaetus fasciatus (Vieillot). By S. M. Osman 1

Indian Mammals on Texas Rangelands. By Ernest D. Abies and

Charles W. Ramsey. ( With two text- figures ) . . . . . . 18

Common edible Mushrooms of Jammu and Kashmir. By T. N. Kaul

and J. L. Kachroo. ( With five figures in two plates ) . . . . 26

Preliminary observations on the breeding of pearl oysters, Pinctada

fucata (Gould) of the Gulf of Kutch. By K. R. Narayanan. ( With

two text-figures ) . . . . . . . . . . 32

Taxonomy and distribution of Sardinella leiogaster Valenciennes,

1847 (Pisces: Clupeidae) from the Indian Seas. By A. G. K.

Menon and P. K. Talvvar. (With a text- figure ) . . . . 41

A new Copepod from Ratnagiri. By M. R. Ranade. (With three plates ) 46

Records and observations on Bats of Himalayan region of Uttar

Pradesh and West Bengal, India. By H. R. Bhat .. .. 51

Additions to the Flora of North Gujarat (Ahmedabad-Mehsana-

Sabarkantha District). By G. L. Shah and D. V. Yogi .. 58

Three new species of Aphelinidae (Hymenoptera : Chalcidoidea)

parasitic on Aonidiella orientalis (Newst.) from India.

By Mohammad Hayat . . . . . . . . . . 64

Smithsonia (Orchidacfa), a new Genus from Western India. By Cecil

J. Saldanha .. .. .. .. .. ..72

The Avifauna of introduced Eucalyptus plantations in Maha-

rashtra. By Lincoln Gray . . . . . . . . 76

Fishery resources of Ullal (Mangalore) in relation to certain

environmental factors during 1963-67. By M. S. Prabhu, S.

Ramamurthy, M. H. Dhulkhed, N. S. Radhakrishnan and G. P.

Kumaraswamy Achari . . . . . . . . . . 85

Observations on the breeding mechanism of Biophytum candolleanum

Wt. By R. Vasu devan Nair . . . . . . 99

Observations on systematics of Sessile Barnacles from West

Coast of India — 1. By Arun B. Wagh and D. V. Bal. (With ten

text-figures ) . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

The copulatory complex of Neurobasis chinensis chinensis (Linn.)

(Agriidae: Zygoptera) 1. By Basit Ali Khan. (With three text-

figures) .124

Reviews :

1. Ecological principles for economic development. (Z.F.) 131

2. A first guide to the Indian Ocean seashore. (B.F.C) . . 132

3. A revised handbook to the flora of Ceylon. (D.H.N. & C.J.S.) 133

4. Tropical Aquaria. (B.F.C.) .. .. .. ..135

5. Classification of the Animal Kingdom. (N.D.) 136

Miscellaneous Notes:

Mammals: 1. Status of the Tiger in Burma. By Tun Yin (p. 137); 2. Weight

and size at birth of two species of wild mammals in captivity. By L. N. Ach-

arjyo and R. Misra (p. 137); 3. Burrowing habits of the greater Bandicoot

Rat ( Bandicota indica). { With a text-figure ). By A. V. Arjunwadkar and

Madhav Gadgil (p. 138).

Birds: 4. Storks preying on live birds. By Jamshed D. Panday (p. 141); 5.

Breeding of the Lesser Flamingo, Phoeniconaias minor (Geoffroy) in Kutch.

( With two photographs ). By Salim Ali (p. 141); 6. Notes on a Sooty Tern

( Sterna fuscata nubilosa Sparrman) collected near Calicut. By D. N. Mathew

and E. A. A. Shukkur (p. 144); 7. More Cuckoo problems. By Michael Des-

fayes (p. 154); 8. On the occurrence of the Common Grey Hornbill Tockus

birostris (Scopoli) near Bombay. By Humayun Abdulali (p. 147).

Reptiles : 9. Feeding habits of the Star Tortoise, Geochelone elegans. { With

a photograph) . By R. Whitaker (p. 147); 10. Behaviour of the Agamid Garden

Lizard, Calotes versicolor. By M. V. Subba Rao (p. 148); 11. Cobra with king-

fisher caught in throat. By R. Whitaker (p. 150).

Fishes: 12.- Algal food of Aplocheilus blochii (Arnold). By N. D. Kama!

(p. 151); 13. On a new record of a Murrel, Channa leucopunctatus (Sykes)

from Rajasthan. By R. N. Bhargava (p. 152); 14. A special method of fish

trapping in River Ganga at Varanasi. {With a text-figure). By S. P. Singh

(p. 153).

Arachnida : 15. Cannibalism among Scorpions. By Thomas Gay (p. 156).

Insects : 16. Aleurodothrips fasciapennis (Franklin) predatory on Coccids and

Aleyrodids. {With a text-figure) . By T. N. Ananthakrishnan (p. 157); 17. Note on

the peculiar behaviour of Dragonflies. By Tridib Ranjan Mitra (p. 160); 18. Food

preferences in the larvae of two moths: Spodoptera litura F. (Fam. Noctuidae)

and Diacrisia obliqua Walk. (Fam. Arctiidae). {With a text-figure) . By Asha

Bassi (p. 161); 19. Orthetrum glaucum (Brauer) preying upon Palpopleura

sexmaculata sexmaculata (Fabr.) (Odonata: Libellulidae) . By R. N. Bhargava

and Mahabir Prasad (p. 164). a

Botany: 20. Archidiaceae from Western India. {With fifteen text- figures) . By

G. T. Dabhade (p. 164); 21. Hedyotis tavoyensis Balakr. (Rubiaceae) — a5 new

species from Burma. {With a plate). By N. P. Balakrishnan (p. 168)'; 22.

A noteworthy Sarcopyramis from Eastern Himalayas. {With a text-figure) '0 :B*y

M. P. Nayar (p. 170); 23. A synopsis of the genus {Perilimnastes Ridley

(Melastomataceae). {With a text-figure). By M. P. Nayar (p. 172); 24. On

the citation of Palaquium ellipticum (Dalz.) Baillon. By G. M. Oza (p. 175);

25. On the occurrence of Sympagis petiolares (Nees) Brerrf. and Canscora- per i-

foliata Lamk. on the eastern ghats. By B. Suryanarayana and D. Radhakrishna

Murthy (p. 176); 26. Chenopodium ambrosioides Linn. (Chenopodaceae) —

A new record for Chamoli District in western Himalayas. By K. N. Nautiyal

(p. 178); 27. Botanical identity of ‘Century Plant’ in western India. {With a

photograph). By G. M. Oza (p. 178); 28. On the occurrence of vegetative

shoots at the crown area in Cocos nucifera L. By T. Ananda Rao and G. C.

Das (p. 181).

JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL

HISTORY SOCIETY

1974 APRIL Vol. 71 No. 1

Bonelli’s Hawk-Eagle,

Hieraaetus fasciatus (Vieillot)

BY

S. M. Osman

ll-D/10, Circular Road, Dehra Dun, U.P.

One evening as I was cycling along, thinking of the hot tea and

thick slices of cake I would be enjoying once I got home to Dehra Dun,

an eagle crossed the unfrequented track I had taken. A few short wing-

beats very smoothly propelled it to a tree not more than a hundred

yards from the place where I had abruptly come to a halt. A quick

look through binoculars confirmed my suspicion. It was an eagle worthy

of any falconer’s mew.

The eagle had perched on the dead limb of an old mango tree. The

way it looked around, its alert posture, and its choice of a commanding

perch all indicated that it was hunting. At such a time, delay would

be disastrous and the sooner I got my trap into position, I thought,

the better would be my chances of capturing the eagle. I dropped the

cycle where I stood, chose a spot to set the trap, and quickly went to-

wards it with the trap in one hand and the live pigeon, used for luring

hawks to captivity, in the other. Let me describe the trap. It is a strong

Accepted February 2, 1973.

2 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 71 (1)

net made from thin silk or nylon line. When properly fixed it stands

about six feet wide, and about five feet high. On each side it is bracket-

ed by wooden rods driven into the ground, and easy to erect since an

iron spike is fixed to the bottom of each rod. The live pigeon is an-

chored to a peg also driven into the ground, in such a position that the

net lies between the pigeon and the line of approach the hawk or

eagle is likely to take.

The moment any bird of prey that flies to the bait hits the net, which

falconers call the dogaza, the supporting wooden rods are dislodged

and fall to the ground. There is not enough time for the hawk to back

out of the collapsing net, and it finds itself shrouded in the folds of

the dogaza. On very rare occasions, the hawk flies over the net and

grabs the bait, but in all the years that I have been using the dogaza,

this has happened only three or four times.

The feeling of anticipation a falconer experiences when about to

catch a hawk is indescribable. It is a mixture of ineffable joy and

tingling fear. It was with such anticipation that, after preparing the

trap, I withdrew to the cover of some bushes to watch further develop-

ments. With bated breath, I watched the eagle’s every move. It had

spotted the pigeon behind the trap and was showing its interest in the

bait by bobbing its head up and down, a sure sign that a bird of prey

is about to home in on its target. In falcons, the lifting and lowering

of the head preceding an attack is almost a continuous movement. The

eagle had by now assumed a crouching posture, dwarfing it to almost

half its normal size. It suddenly launched itself from the branch and

flew fast towards the trap.

The painful suspense of such moments for a falconer cannot be

exaggerated. He knows how keen is the eagle’s sight, how likely it is to

spot the net, or how a chance movement or sound may deflect its flight.

He cannot relax until he has his prize in hand. Fortunately I was not

to be disappointed this particular evening. The eagle crashed into the

net that had been prepared to receive it, and when I had sprinted across

I found it struggling in the shrouds of the fallen dogaza. It is one thing

to examine some object from a distance through binoculars, and quite

another to look at it at point-blank range. This was the first time I had

seen such an eagle, and I was unable to label it correctly. All I could

be sure of just then was that it was no ordinary hawk-eagle. My instinct

told me that it was a rare bird and a great killer.

Instead of cycling home directly, I went first to a friend who was

also a falconer. His name was Robin Lhockner. He had a lot of books

about hawks, eagles and falcons, and I hoped to get my capture pro-

perly identified.

The first thing Robin said, when he saw me, was, ‘Where are my

binoculars?’, and I then realized with horror that I had forgotten them

BONELLTS HAWK-EAGLE

3

when I sprinted across to the trapped eagle. I was so flabbergasted at

my carelessness that I decided to change the topic at all costs and offer-

ed to give Robin the eagle. He promptly accepted the gift but reminded

me that he needed the binoculars soon. I then hurried away, not home

to tea and cake, but all the way I had just come, and found the blessed

binoculars lying just where I had left them a couple of hours before.

Next day I triumphantly returned them to Robin.

After comparing pictures of the various eagles in Robin’s books,

we came to the conclusion that this must be the famous Bonelli’s eagle.

We had read somewhere that hawks could be trained quickly if given

camphor. It was said to be a widespread Indian method of subduing

and training hawks because camphor, given in specific doses, would

cause such a violent reaction that even the most headstrong bird would

be shocked into obedience. The article went on to say that any hawk

treated in this manner would forget its past life and freedom, and

quickly learnt to look upon man as a benefactor always ready to help

it with food. We gathered that a teaspoonful of camphor would be a

safe dose for a bird the size of an eagle. I shall never forgive myself

for trying the experiment, but like a fool I let curiosity get the better

of my judgement.

The result was disastrous. Twenty minutes after the dose had been

fed to the eagle, a very violent reaction similar to convulsions became

apparent. Even after the bird had lost consciousness the muscles con-

tinued to twitch spasmodically. To feed the eagle was not possible; we

only succeeded in pouring a small quantity of blood down its throat.

Throughout the day, though kept under close observation, there was

no improvement in its condition. I vainly tried to drain the crop by

introducing a suction tube but all our attempts were unavailing and the

eagle died on the second day.

In spite of this unhappy beginning I later found Bonelli’s eagles

easiest of all to train, soon losing their fear of man. I had many oppor-

tunities of examining them closely and will therefore attempt a fairly

detailed description.

The upperparts are yellowish brown. The base of every feather,

especially of those around the nape of the neck, is light yellow or almost

white. Bonelli’s eagle does not carry a crest like most of the ornate

hawk-eagles throughout the world, but it has a few feathers which when

raised are somewhat like a crest. The feathers of the mantle have dark

brown shafts that contrast with the rest of the plumage, which is much

lighter in colour. The upper portion of the tail is of a dark slate colour,

becoming rather more grey lower down. Running across the tail are

very dark slate-coloured bands, with narrower and less defined bands

in between. The tip of the tail is a dirty livid white. Both primaries and

secondaries are barred black and mottled all over. The wing-coverts

4 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 71 (1)

have a dark brown central quill, and the greater wing-coverts are light

brown. As the eagle gets older, with each successive moult there gradu-

ally appear traces of eyebrows similar to those seen in sparrow-hawks

and goshawks. The eagle’s cheeks are mostly of a cinnamon colour

with dark streaks running through them. These streaks are actually

shafts of feathers.

The feathers on the thigh are of a slightly darker shade than the

rest of the underpart feathers. In immature birds that have been out of

the nest no more than two or three months, the eyes are yellowish green,

but with age the eyes turn to orange, and in some very old birds I have

noticed them to be almost copper-red in colour. Normally a two-year-

old bird will have golden brown eyes.

In immature birds the cere is usually dull yellow, sometimes whitish

yellow. The feet are either dusty yellow or plain yellow but these colour-

differences are not invariable, for the feet and the base of the beak are

bound to be affected by the food the eagle has been getting, and also

on the general health of any particular bird at a given time. In females

the tail is about ten-and-a-half inches long. Each wing when fully spread

measures about twenty inches.

Young birds as a rule have lighter plumage, the feathers along the

nape of the neck being almost yellowish white.

I have come across this eagle in northern Afghanistan, in the Sind

valley, and in parts of Baluchistan. My falconer friends tell me that

these birds are found in many parts of southern Europe. The Booted

Eagle of Europe (Hieraaetus pennatus) is a very close relative of

Bonelli’s ( Hieraaetus fasciatus fasciatus). In his classical book on eagles

Leslie Brown says that the birds of the genus Hieraaetus are quite

plentiful in Africa. There are accounts of these birds by Turkish fal-

coners who have seen them in Chinese Central Asia.

Bonelli’s Eagle is met with in most of the northern provinces of

Afghanistan and in some parts of Iran also. In the Baz Nama a Nasarie

the author tells us how he once caught an eagle which he later trained,

and was able to hunt Chukor Partridge with it. From the description I

am sure it must have been a Bonelli’s Eagle. In the Baz Hama, that

famous treatise on falconry, Bonelli’s Eagle is referred to by the name

ukab-a-sena-baza which roughly means ‘the eagle with a hawk-like

breast’. Here the author is referring to the spots that normally cover

the area mentioned.

In India the eagle is often seen in the Himalayas up to a height of

nine thousand feet. During winter it may be seen all over the Penin-

sula, even as far down as Kerala. Identification in flight is not very

difficult. The salient features to be noticed are (a) elongated wing-tips,

and comparatively narrow secondaries, ( b ) flight much bolder and

faster than that of any other hawk-eagle. There is some resemblance

BON ELLIS HAWK-EAGLE

5

to an osprey, though there are colour differences and Bonelli’s Eagle

has a longer tail.

Nest-building begins as early as December in the Doon valley.

Generally speaking, eggs are hatched in April. The nest is usually big,

and mostly found two-thirds up some lofty tree on the bank of a river.

Once I saw a huge nest built on a cliff. Twigs, lined with leaves, form

the nest. It is bulky, and not very pretty, yet it manages to escape

detection, and a casual observer will only notice a nest when he sees

the eagle enter or leave it. In the western Doon in the hills along the

river Jumna, I came across two nests. In one I found eggs of a dirty

white colour, streaked with dark brown spots. In the other nest I saw

an eaglet that could only have been a few days old, for its whole body

was covered with white down.

Bonehi’s Eagle is bold and energetic. It is extremely active and

feeds much on partridges, grouse, sometimes pigeons but mostly wild-

fowl. Pheasants and peafowl are taken as well. The call is a screechy

cry like that of a goshawk, only many times greater in volume.

My second Bonelli’s Eagle was also acquired near Dehra Dun. I

had gone for a long walk in country now ruined by indiscriminate lime-

stone quarrying, and as I was watching the high peaks ablaze with

glory in the last rays of the sun I became aware that the dark object

on top of a tree a few hundred yards away must be an eagle. Without

bothering to examine it through binoculars, I set about preparing the

dogaza with a live pigeon for bait. As usual, after having pitched the

net and bait, I withdrew to a flank to watch the proceedings. By this

time the sun had sunk behind the Siwalik Hills and any detailed ex-

amination, even with the aid of binoculars, was impossible.

Just then a laughing bark drew my attention. I had often seen this

crafty old fox in the same spot before, usually in the late evening on

his way to raid a hen roost. Now it seemed that he was in great haste.

When I turned again to look at the tree with the eagle on it I found it

empty.

I stared at the net and soon realized that the trap had been sprung.

Probably the fox had seen the pigeon and had begun to stalk it at the

same time that the eagle decided to attack. On seeing the eagle

approaching from the opposite direction the fox had turned and run

for cover while the eagle, oblivious of the future that was in store for

it, had sailed into the net.

It had become pretty dark by now and only a few flashes of white

betrayed the fact that the eagle was struggling in the net. As fast as my

legs could carry me I ran to the trap, but arrived too late to save the

life of the faithful pigeon.

I got home at around eight that evening. My first object was to

find a hood. I rummaged in vain in all the boxes I had, crammed with

6 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 71 (1)

hoods of various sizes, but none would fit and I decided I should have

to seal the eagle’s eyes. This is not as painful an operation as the reader

may imagine, though it does require a certain degree of skill and prac-

tice; also needed are the services of a helper to cast and hold the bird

firmly.

I slipped a woollen sock over the eagle, my servant held it down

gently but firmly, and in a few minutes the sealing operation was per-

formed. Being confident that the eagle would remain quiet, I carefully

slid off the woollen sock and deposited the eagle on a cushion kept on

the ground for this purpose.

For a moment the eagle with sealed eyes stood sizing up the situ-

ation, then it flew straight at the light and the electric bulb exploded with

a hollow bang. In the total darkness which ensued, there was no stopping

the eagle. It kept on flying, blindly and in a rage, into strange objects.

A heavy silver frame containing my great grandfather’s picture was

soon knocked off the wall and in the process of falling started a little

avalanche of other family pictures. As befitted their subordinate status,

the descendants fell with their progenitor. And all fell on to the sofa,

where our cat had decided to take a nap.

With a terrific shriek of protest pussy leapt down, disturbing Dinky,

our fox-terrier. Immediately there began a pitched battle between dog

and cat. While this land engagement was in full swing, the air arm was

not idle. It was again and again crashing into chandeliers, old china,

and other objects that were foolish enough to get in its way. At last

it flew into one of the curtains which mercifully came down, rod and all,

on top of it.

In the meanwhile someone had opened the dining-room door and a

goodish amount of light was coming through. I immediately attacked

the heap of fury that lay helpless in the curtain and without much

difficulty obtained a good hold, though in the process the eagle deeply

scratched my hands.

The eagle was to give me some more anxious moments that night.

At about two in the morning I got out of bed to pay a visit to the

mews where the eagle had been left on a perch to roost for the night.

Shivering with cold I crept to the mews, which in fact was an outhouse

converted into a hawk-house, and was horrified to see that the door,

which I had bolted from the outside before going to bed, was now

gaping wide open.

When I got inside I found the eagle had vanished, but as I was

wondering what could have happened I heard footsteps approaching.

It was my father, who had been out with the eagle on his fist in the

frosty morning air. This is a part of the training, gradually to wear down

the eagle’s resistance by keeping it from rest.

Most of the next day was spent in carrying the eagle about and in

BONELLI’S HAWK-EAGLE

7

preparing a hood for it. When it was ready the eagle’s eyes were unseal-

ed and the hood clamped on. Round about eleven in the morning, feed-

ing was attempted. The eagle showed no interest but by alternately

pressing its claws, and rubbing pigeon meat on its beak, it began to

peck, lowering its head to pull at the meat that was being offered.

Though blindfolded, it managed to stow away almost half a cropful

before we restrained it from having any more.

At about nine o’clock the same evening, we took the eagle to a

dimly lighted room, and there gently slipped off the hood. The only

source of illumination was a lantern, placed in one corner of the room

and burning very low. I sat near the lantern, with my father a little

distance away. In accordance with his signals I gently twisted the thumb-

screw of the lantern, to raise the wick in the lamp very slightly. Gradu-

ally we increased the light in the room till the objects were well defined.

The eagle seemed to accept their presence and showed no signs of

agitation.

Now and again my father very gently stroked the eagle with a

feather. The feather (which was in fact the primary quill of a pigeon)

was drawn across its chest and, though the eagle did not positively

enjoy such treatment, it did not mind it very much either. By now the

lantern wick had been fully raised and the electric light switched on

as well. All our attention was fully concentrated on the eagle and we

watched it with hopeful expectation. For a little while we remained

quite motionless, then very slowly at first, and without any jerky move-

ment, the stroking was resumed. The eagle did not seem to mind much,

for it just sat there looking from one of us to the other. When a piece

of meat was held on the index finger and very slowly offered, to our

surprise the eagle picked it up and swallowed it.

I very slowly got up from my chair and unhurriedly walked over

to another one close by. The eagle watched me and did not attempt

to fly off the fist. We then started speaking in hushed tones, so as to

get the eagle accustomed to the human voice. The eagle did not mind

this cither and we were encouraged to raise our voices till we were

soon speaking to each other as loudly as in ordinary conversation. The

eagle bated a couple of times, but the fact that it climbed back to its

perch on the gloved fist after bating was a clear indication that it was

behaving very well. I began to think that it would soon be in flying

order.

We retired to bed at about one in the morning. I was up again by

five and the first light of the sun found me pacing the garden with the

eagle on my fist. It had responded so well to an almost non-stop train-

ing programme of handling that I did not expect any adverse effect

when I unhooded it again. But daylight, free vision, and an excellent

prospect of trees all round was enough to make the eagle yearn for its

8 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 71 (1)

lost freedom. Without any warning it became a raging lunatic. It bated

again and again, till at last it hung exhausted from my fist. In vain did

I try to help it back to a sitting posture. It simply refused to sit up

properly, even after being hooded. No matter how hard I tried, the

eagle continued to roll off my fist.

I had blundered. I ought not to have unhooded the eagle in broad

daylight at this early training stage. According to the rules I should

have punched two small holes in the hood in front of the eagle’s eyes,

permitting a very restricted field of view. Then every day these holes

would have been enlarged, until the eagle enjoyed about eighty per

cent visibility. Only then could the hood be safely removed. In my

anxiety to accelerate the process of training, I had foolishly thrown

caution to the winds.

Now that the mischief had been done, immediate steps to check any

further bating would have to be taken. Every time a newly-caught

hawk bates, it becomes excited. The excitement grows progressively

with subsequent bates till a stage is reached when it is beyond all help.

Hooding had been tried, and had failed. More drastic action was

needed, so I put the eagle under the shower and doused it with water.

After this it sat on the perch with drooping head, hooded and wet to

the skin. This was better than hanging upside-down by the jesses.

After the eagle had remained on the perch for some time, all damp

and forlorn, I attempted to feed it, but all my efforts having failed. I

resorted to force-feeding in the afternoon of the same day. Under such

circumstances it is imperative to keep the eagle well fed, for on an

empty stomach the shock of handling can prove disastrous to a bird

newly caught and undergoing training. Until late at night it was carried

about on the fist and unhooded for extremely short periods. Next morn-

ing, on the third day of the eagle’s captivity, it was collected from the

perch, hooded and taken out on to the lawn just before sunrise. When

unhooded it did not betray any unusual signs of jumpiness, though

it still remained completely indifferent to the food that was offered it

at feeding time.

Force-feeding is not a satisfactory answer to the problem, for if

continued the hawk or eagle usually starts disgorging the food thus

given. Something else had to be done, and done very quickly. Since

dead meat conveyed no meaning to the eagle, a crow was netted and

tied to a peg near the unhooded eagle, then sitting on a bow perch on

the lawn. The crow immediately attacked, and had I not intervened

would surely have damaged the eagle’s feathers severely. My plan had

failed, and the crow had to be removed. Then I tried a live pigeon,

which was understandably very disturbed to find itself so close to the

eagle, and repeatedly attempted to fly away. But the eagle remained

unmoved throughout the performance.

BON ELLIS HAWK-EAGLE

9

By now I had became absolutely desperate. As a last resort, I got

a live rat from our neighbour, tied a strong bit of twine to one of its

hind legs, and attached it to the same peg which held the crow and

the pigeon. After ignoring Master Rat for about a minute, the eagle

began to watch keenly as the rat settled down to nibbling the cord

that lay between it and freedom. After a few minutes it gathered itself

together and pounced, killing the rodent in a clean strike.

I was triumphant but had no intention of allowing the eagle to take

a meal off the dead rat. Cautiously I offered a piece of meat, and while

the eagle was busy grabbing this, I managed to pull the rat away and

hide it behind me.

The crowning moment came when standing about a foot away, I

displayed a piece of meat on my gloved fist, and the eagle jumped to

the outstretched fist and started to peck at the food. Gradually I moved

away until in a few moments the eagle was jumping to my fist a distance

of more than five feet. My hands were trembling with excitement as I

watched the eagle. Was all this possible, or was it some sort of a dream?

Half an hour earlier the eagle had been a raging, rabid brute, not caring

to eat, and only interested in trying to get away from the company of

man. Now it sat up obediently taking the food offered to it. I need

no longer harbour fears of not being able to complete my training

programme.

That afternoon, on his way out hunting, my uncle dropped in, and

at the same time Robin also arrived, on short leave from Belgaum

where he was undergoing some special military training. So we all set

out together, father with the eagle, my uncle with his goshawk, and

Robin with his peregrine falcon Comet. I took the Irish Setter I had

painstakingly trained. Only the goshawk was in flying condition and

it was decided to try her at partridges. So far as the eagle was concern-

ed, the idea was to keep up the training pressure. It was allowed to

remain unhooded for short periods only, and the moment it showed

signs of uneasiness, or a tendency to bate, the hood would be imme-

diately clamped on again. It would once again be unhooded, when all

signs of nervousness had disappeared. During one of the spells when

the eagle was unhooded, it noticed the goshawk on my uncle’s fist,

and from then onwards, whenever the hood was off and the eagle close

to the goshawk or Robin’s peregrine, it would promptly bate at them.

This was exceedingly good progress. Robin henceforth gave the eagle

a wide berth and my uncle blamed it for his goshawk’s shameful per-

formance that day. Indeed no sensible hawk could be expected to have

much appetite for hunting when it is itself the object of an eagle’s

attention.

To avoid any further disturbance of the hunting I took the eagle

from my father, and set out for home. Robin came with me and was

10 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 71 (1)

obliged to hood his falcon for she was terribly afraid with the eagle

eyeing her the way it did, and excited almost to the point of going into

a fit. I remembered how a short while ago, a crow had attacked this

very eagle with impunity and how the harmless pigeon, so much relish-

ed by all birds of prey, had completely failed to attract its attention.

Now the eagle was ready to tear a goshawk to pieces and eat a pereg-

rine falcon.

When my father got home late that evening he told me how things

had brightened up after the eagle had quit the scene. The goshawk had

bagged a grey partridge and run a junglefowl to earth, though it had

not been possible to flush it out again. It is very annoying to the fal-

coner when heavy cover and a tired dog make flushing out an impos-

sibility. Sometimes the quarry even seeks refuge in a disused rodent

warren.

I tried to digest as much of the news as I could, but was already

thinking of the future. How could I raise the money required to buy

a nice pair of bells for my eagle? I remembered an elaborate pencil-

sharpener given me by some well-meaning relative. It was just as good

as new, and after a great deal of haggling, I managed to sell it for

twelve rupees.

In those days, one could order bells to suit one’s hawk or eagle

from the hawk market at Amritsar. Eagle’s bells were more expensive,

because not many people took to training eagles. I ordered an extra

large pair which cost me Rs. 5, at a time when a pair of peregrine

bells could be picked up for a rupee.

Everything went according to plan during the next two days. At

feeding time, a whistle was blown at regular intervals, and soon the

eagle began to associate this sound with its food. Even when hooded

it would become restless, and search for food when it heard the

whistle. She (for the bird was a female) had also grown quite tame

and could be called to the fist from twenty feet or more.

Up till now the eagle had never been called from a perch higher

than my shoulder. It is always best to call a new hawk from the ground

to the fist for then it will be flying to a higher perch, which normally

birds of prey do not mind. If obliged to fly down, they are less likely

to cooperate. At this stage of training all hawks are held on what is

known as the creance. This is a long line attached to the leash of the

hawk and held by the falconer, to enable him to restrain any straying

from the course. I soon had my eagle flying from any distance and

height without any hesitation, which was a fair indication that the

creance was no longer required. I could throw her up on to the tallest

tree in our compound and when called she would obediently fly down

to my fist.

It was on the eighth day after the eagle had been captured that there

BON ELLIS HAWK-EAGLE

11

occurred an incident, which though it happened more than thirty years

ago, still makes me shiver to remember. I was visiting my uncle’s house

and was sitting with the eagle unhooded and on my fist. My uncle’s

one-year-old son began crawling towards me and I was encouraging

him to try to stand up and take a few steps. As usual I had the eagle

on my right fist. The child approached from the left, and tried to stand

up by supporting himself against my leg. When his head was almost

level with my knee the eagle attacked. I was a fraction of a second

quicker in jerking up and away the fist that held the eagle. I shudder

to think what would have been the result had the eagle been success-

ful in her attack, for a child’s soft bare head can offer little resistance

to the grip of an eagle’s powerful claws.

On the sixteenth day after its capture, the eagle took a live fowl in

great style. It was in yarak, ready to hunt. When this condition has been

attained it is advisable to fly the eagle or hawk at game as soon as

possible. For two successive days we vainly tried to find suitable quarry

in the vicinity. A couple of junglefowl were flushed, but the birds broke

cover at awkward angles and a slip was not made. It has to be remem-

bered that the first flight at game by any new hawk or eagle should

be one hundred per cent successful. If not, a bird of prey may com-

pletely lose confidence in itself.

Therefore we called a council of war, and decided to go to Riawala

by the next train, there to fly the eagle at peafowl. Riawala is in the

Eastern Doon valley, and was then one of the best areas for hunting

and shooting. Unfortunately all the beautiful forests that once stretched

from the station right to the banks of the Ganga have been cut down,

and all the game wiped out long ago.

At 7.30 in the evening we entrained at Dehra Dun and reached

Riawala an hour later. We were a party of three — my father, my-

self and an old friend whom I will call G.

It was bitterly cold and we made for a hut where we saw a fire

burning. It was occupied by a party of bullock-cart-drivers who hauled

timber from the forest to the railway station. They welcomed us, and

since there was lots of room inside the hut we decided to spend the

night there. By a happy accident a pole was slung across the entire

breadth of the hut, which would serve as a perch for the eagle. Beyond

the pole were tethered a number of oxen, wearing sackcloth coats to

protect them from the cold of the night. As I lay well wrapped up in

my blanket on a bed of straw, I was amused to see by the light of the

fire the eagle slice a mute far out which landed on one of the coats and

made a white pattern like an exploding rocket, or some fiery-tailed

comet. The mark of the eagle, I thought. Soon after, she fluffed out her

feathers, pulled one leg up, turned as though to examine the pattern

on the bullock’s coat, then tucked her head beneath her feathers and

12 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 71 (1)

went to sleep.

Before dawn we set off. Father carrying the eagle, I the shot-gun

and our lunch, and G following with a few extras such as cups and a

kettle. The sun had not yet risen and mists were rising from innumer-

able springs and gullies, lying round us and on the road as well like

teased wool. Patches of hoar frost gave evidence of the drop in tem-

perature during the night.

We had marched nearly three miles when the first rays of the sun

bathed the crests of the tallest trees in a flood of orange light. Another

five miles brought us to our hunting ground, the famous Virbather

shooting grounds on the western banks of Gangajee. The country was

one big undulating pampas-covered field, stretching for many miles.

Giant cottonwood trees grew at intervals all over this savannah type of

country, and in the depressions one would find a luxuriant growth of

bramble bushes, with as often as not a tiny spring of crystal-clear

water running in the middle. In these depressions, which looked like

tiny oases, lived peafowl, junglefowl, many a sounder of pig, a rare

tiger and even marsh deer, as well as the dainty little Chausinga ante-

lope. This last antelope has now become extinct throughout the Doon

valley.

We spread out and advanced towards a depression thickly over-

grown with bushes, trees and brambles. I was sure there would be

peafowl, and we had hardly gone twenty yards when with a shrill cry

out flew three hens. My father unhooded the eagle, and cast her after

the peahen closest to him. She made a bee line for the bushes growing

on the rim of the hollow, flying almost over my head, with the eagle

close behind and nearly underneath. This trick of chasing game and

ultimately attacking the quarry from below is adopted by all the

accipiters. As eagle and peahen were silhouetted against the blue of

the sky at the edge of the depression, the eagle turned on her back

and grabbed the quarry by the breast. Both came down in a big flutter

of wings into a monstrous bramble patch.

I reached the top of the rise just in time to see the peahen break

from the far end of the thicket and immediately take to the air. Swiftly

I drew a bead on her and brought her down. We then went to rescus

the eagle, which was hopelessly entangled in the thorny bramble. With

her greater weight the peahen had managed to smash loose from the

eagle’s grip and get away, while the eagle’s jesses had knotted round a

twig. I had to cut a path into that veritable thicket of thorn with my

hunting knife before I was able to free her. The first slip at game had

not been as successful as we wished it to be. It was only a partial

victory. Could we induce the eagle to believe that she had really made

a kill? While Father and G stood with the eagle behind some bushes,

I tied a long line to the dead peahen and hid her in some grass about

BONELLVS HAWK-EAGLE

13

twenty paces away. Then I hid and at a signal from my father, who

stood with the unhooded eagle on his fist, began to pull the peahen

into the open. As soon as the eagle saw her victim she launched her-

self and grabbed it. This sort of subterfuge works very well sometimes

but it is not advisable to repeat it often.

After the eagle had tasted a little blood she was allowed to feather

the quarry for a short while and then hooded. Later that day we hoped

to give her another try.

Any falconer will tell you that the right time for hawks and other

birds of prey to start soaring is the middle of the day. We did not

wish the eagle to do any soaring so she had to remain grounded for

the afternoon. But soon after we headed for a narrow strip of land

bordering the western bank of the river. Opposite this, the Ganga had

split into innumerable channels, most of which could be easily crossed.

There were clumps of khair trees on many of the islands and as we

reached the bank of the main stream a peacock flew out of a little

bush and headed straight for the mosaic of islands beyond.

He was a monster, with a magnificent tail. By the time my father

had managed to slip the hood from the eagle’s head and cast her, the

peacock had gained a considerable distance and was making for one

of the islands. The eagle rose sharply above the khair trees when it

reached the island on which the peacock had taken refuge, and for a

moment I thought she was starting to soar. However, she flew steadily

on till she gained the centre of the island, and then dropped like a

stone and disappeared in the dense jungle. A piercing scream from the

peacock soon followed, and we all rushed towards the spot from which

it had come. G and I were a bit delayed by tumbling one after the

other into a pit which someone had been digging for porcupine.

Father arrived first. When he got there he found the eagle, looking

very small, bothering the already dead peacock.

We allowed her to feather the kill for a while, and then cut out

and gave her the liver. We also added half a pigeon to the eagle’s

menu that evening, for she had started to earn her keep.

This had been very good going. The eagle had registered a kill

within nineteen days of its capture, the shortest time in all my experience.

Normally eagles trapped as passengers, or adult birds obtained from

dealers, require at least two to three months of gruelling work before

they are ready for the hunting field. My falconer friends agree such a

short training period is very rare. Probably my eagle was exceptionally

intelligent.

I was very happy with her, and we used to go out almost every

day after hares and junglefowl. She was always very keen, never show-

ing any lack of interest no matter how much she had been fed the day

before. Soon we found ourselves in the middle of March, the time

14 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL UlST. SOCIETY, Vol. 71 (i)

some birds get excited with ideas of nest-building and rearing a family.

Under normal conditions, a bird of the hawk tribe always mounts guard

over the spot where it has run game into cover, so that the falconer

can come along and flush the game that has taken refuge in the thicket,

giving the eagle, or hawk, another chance of flying down the quarry.

Falcons immediately start soaring over the spot where they have run

a quarry to earth, but when hawks and eagles soar, it indicates the in-

fluence of the mating instinct. My eagle had now begun soaring on two

consecutive occasions after her quarry had taken refuge in some bush.

For more than a week I was not able to devote more than half an

hour a day to my eagle, being fully occupied with training a Shahin

falcon, a tiercel, that I had captured. Then a friend came along who

wanted to see the eagle in action, and pressed me to fly her at game. In

the area where the eagle had been first netted we soon put up a hare

and cast the eagle after it. It was a thrilling chase but at the last moment

the hare twisted sideways and the eagle struck only the ground. She

rose slowly, much disappointed, and began to soar. Having foolishly

forgotten to bring along the lure, and being without any live bait with

which to coax her back to earth, I could only watch her mount till

she became a mere speck against a silvery patch of clouds in the

background. For the next two or three days I walked mile upon endless

mile, swinging the lure and blowing the whistle, vainly seeking her.

But she must have left for the hills, and I hope that there she met her

match, built a home, and reared a family.

Many years passed before I again came across a Bonelli’s eagle.

I had been marching through the Eastern Doon jungle, and was in

Motichur block where the old Hardwar-Rishikesh cart road climbs

steeply to enter the Government forest. Here there are giant trees of a

kind to be seen nowhere else in the Doon valley, towering to a height

of more than two hundred feet, and through these trees I saw an eagle

fly, heading towards the open grassland beyond.

Snatching up the trap and my binoculars, I immediately followed

in the general direction the eagle had taken. A couple of hundred yards

beyond the rim of the cliff, where the trees grew less densely, I halted

to scan some likely trees, but there being no eagle in sight I proceeded

further and further in the direction I had seen the eagle fly, till I was

standing on the edge of a huge grassy plot. Here I could see an object

looking like an eagle perched on a solitary cottonwood tree some dist-

ance away, and with the binoculars it was easy to identify.

I set the dogaza at a place clearly visible from the eagle’s point of

vantage and fastened a live partridge which I had with me behind the

net for bait. Then I withdrew to take cover and watch developments.

Almost at once the eagle flew down and was caught in the meshes of

the net but before I could reach it it had ripped the net to shreds and

BONELLl’S HAWK-EAGLE

15

was flying away with the dead partridge dangling from its claws. Even

today I do not know how it happened, for I had spun the net with

thin, strong cord. Anyway I had lost my third Bonelli’s eagle.

For me, capturing an eagle, or any other bird of prey, is more than

half the fun. I do not mean taking an eagle from the nest, or trapping

a parent when it is engaged in raising a family, for in such cases

capture is more or less a foregone conclusion. I prefer to go out into

the country at a time when the eagles, or hawks, or whatever I am

after, are not handicapped by nesting activities. I may have to tramp

for miles, day after day, before meeting the object of my desires. Then

to set a trap, and persuade a recalcitrant monarch of the air to fly into

the net requires not only skill and experience but also some element of

luck. It gives me great satisfaction to catch a bird this way.

I will now describe yet another failure. I was raking the country-

side around Danda in quest of birds of prey, in a maze of deep over-

grown ravines, interspersed with groves and a few fields, and with

Nalapani Hill crowned with the once famous Kalanga fortress rising

sharply to the east.

Soon I was attracted by a congregation of crows in a distant mango

grove. They might, I thought, be mobbing an owl, an eagle, a hawk, a

falcon, or even a harmless cuckoo. Their object might also be a stone

marten, a jungle cat or even a dead crow caught in a branch. There

was absolutely no harm in investigating, for inquisitiveness is the fal-

coner’s main attribute, so I cut across and found a whole pack of black

devils concentrating their attack on an object that looked like an eagle,

sitting in the middle of a massive old mango. Though lighting condi-

tions were not very favourable, through binoculars I was soon able to

identify an old acquaintance. It was an immature Bonelli’s eagle. There

was no time to lose, and I looked around for a favourable spot to

pitch the net.

The choice of ground for a trap is very important. The trap and

bait must be in full view of the bird that is intended to be caught,

broadside on. The background should be such that it does not throw

the net and its meshes into contrast with the surroundings, for with

the sky as a backdrop every mesh on the net would be finely etched,

and the hawk would probably take fright. On the other hand, the sharp

outline of the meshes is well camouflaged when the net is spread

against a green and dappled background of bushes, and a hawk in a

hurry to pick up its dinner will hardly notice it.

A live bait must be secured behind the trap, at a suitable distance.

If fastened too close the bait may work its way into the net and bring

down the trap intended for the hawk, but if too far away the hawk may

be able to grab the bait without having to go dangerously near the net.

Also, the line on which the bait is held be long enough to allow it to

i6 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HlST. SOCIETY, Vot. 11 (1)

flutter about, and give the hawk the impression that some easy prey

is available for capture; but if the line is too long the bait may get

caught in the net. Then the falconer must choose bait appropriate for

his purpose: a wild bird of prey is not likely to fly down to something

it has never before seized. It is essential to make a thorough study of

the feeding habits and sex of the bird of prey one is trying to capture.

It is well known that in birds of prey, the female of the species is

bigger than the male, and also stronger. The disparity is not so obvious

where eagles are concerned, and in the wild state, both male and female

birds can be seen pulling down game of the same weight. But for hawks

and falcons the difference in size must always be taken into account.

Similarly, when he has trained his hawk or falcon, the falconer must

know the sort of game to hunt as well as the country in which to look

for it.

For a Bonelli’s eagle the best bait would have been a partridge, for

with partridges it is possible to bag not only eagles, but any bird of

prey, from pretty little sparrow-hawks to powerful goshawks. But

Bonelli’s eagle is also very fond of the blue rock pigeon, which was

the only bait I had to offer that day. Having chosen my site, and set the

trap, I retired to a flank to wait and watch. I had the eagle sharply in

focus as it took off and flew towards the trap, but to my horror it

suddenly swerved out of my field of vision, and when I lowered the

binoculars I was only just in time to see it rising from behind a bush

some distance from the net, with the pigeon I had tied behind my trap

dangling from its claws.

It took me some time to figure out what had happened. It was a

wet, rainy day and I had used an old eight-inch screwdriver as a peg

to anchor the pigeon. The screwdriver was strong, and so was the

bootlace used to tie the pigeon to it. I had pushed the screwdriver deep

enough into the soil to make it firm and steady under normal condi-

tions, but in soft wet soil it should have been hammered in a few

inches more. When it saw the eagle making for it, the pigeon had made

a terrific struggle to smash loose from its mooring and had managed

to dislodge the screwdriver from the soft soil. It had escaped to the

nearest bush, but had once again run into bad luck. The screwdriver

had got entangled in a bramble, so that the pigeon was held dangling

by the bootlace. Then the eagle had struck, carrying off the screw-

driver, a bit of the treacherous branch and the game little blue rock

all together.

Bonelli’s Eagle has been prized by falconers all over the world

for its boldness and bravery. It is comparatively easy to train and when

trained loses all fear of man. Its long primaries and short secondaries

fit it for soaring, and I have on a number of occasions seen it dive from

the sky to capture game on the wing. Normally it thrives on the border

BO NELLI’S HAWK-EAGLE

17

lands where the forests merge into open country, and though it is not

as fast as the crested hawk-eagles over short distances it will follow

game for much greater distances and does not seem to be discouraged

by a long chase.

There is just one more aspect I would like to mention, for the sake

of my falconer friends. When training Bonelli’s Eagle, I noticed that it

was not at all punctual in disgorging its cast very day early in the

morning. A cast is a tight pellet of feathers thrown up each day by

hawks and falcons, the remains of the previous day’s meal. Unlike

meat and bones, feathers cannot be digested and have to be ejected in

this form; it is nature’s way of cleaning up the inside of a bird of prey.

If the cast is not thrown out every day at sunrise it indicates that the

eagle is not keen to hunt.

The language of falconry is often confusing, and while a cast or

casting is something thrown up from the crop the same word ‘casting’

is applied to any purgative dose given to a hawk. The fur and feathers

given to a hawk with his food is called a casting, and it is in these

castings the medicines are administered. Hawks are regularly deworm-

ed, and are sometimes sick or in need of a tonic. If they are not ejecting

their daily pellet regularly, the meat should be soaked in luke-warm

water mixed with isabghul. Other ways to stimulate regular ejection are

to mix crushed bird-bones with the meat or to force-feed two or three

tiny pebbles wrapped in cotton-wool or a chunk of meat. Normally

however hawks thrive on a diet of dead birds and rodents, and if only

mutton is available some feathers or fur should always be given with it.

2

Indian Mammals on Texas

Seven species of Indian ungulates have been introduced onto

rangelands in Texas. At least four of these species are successfully

established with population in excess of 4,000 animals. Similarities

and contrasts between the Texas and Indian habitats are noted

and the role of exotics on Texas rangelands is discussed.

Within the State of Texas at least 26 species of non-native ungulates,

exclusive of domestic livestock, have been introduced by landowners.

Most of these exotics exist as free-ranging herds on private ranches

which vary in size from a few hundred acres to more than 100,000 acres.

In some instances individuals of a species have escaped and spread

over large geographic areas. Most, however, are confined within indi-

vidual ranches by 7-8 foot high game-proof fences.

United States Government health regulations prohibit direct im-

portation and release of wild ruminants and swine from countries

where foot-and-mouth disease or rinderpest is declared to exist. How-

ever, animals with proper health inspections and clearance may be

imported and placed under permanent consignment to specifically

approved zoological gardens where the animals must spend the re-

mainder of their lives (Smith 1968). The progeny of these captive

animals can be purchased and released on private lands in Texas and

in some other states (Craighead & Dasmann 1966). Such releases have

1 Accepted December 27, 1972.

2 Associate Professor, Department of Wildlife and Fisheries Sciences, Texas

Agricultural Experiment Station, Texas A & M University, College Station,

Texas, U.S.A.

3 Wildlife Specialist, Department of Wildlife and Fisheries Sciences, Texas

Agricultural Extension Service, Texas A & M University, College Station, Texas,

BY

Ernest D. Ables1 2 and Charles W. Ramsey3

(With two text -figures )

Introduction

U.S.A.

INDIAN MAMMALS ON TEXAS RANGELANDS

19

been made by landowners since as early as 1924 (Sheffield et al. 1971).

As range herds produced surplus animals and the demand for animals

to stock other ranches grew, the activity of supplying exotics shifted

from zoos to private ranches. Presently the supplying of breeding stock

has become a business for some ranches.

Most early stocking of exotics was motivated by the allure of new

and different game species. However, in recent years the economic

possibilities of game ranching to supply trophy hunting to paying

sportsmen has promoted new releases. As of 1971, more than 300

ranches in Texas had one or more species of non-native big game.

Places of origin for exotics in Texas include Africa, Asia, Europe,

and the Mediterranean region. The most numerous and widespread

species, excluding wild sheep ( Ovis spp.), are native to the Indian

subcontinent. Seven species of Indian origin exist on ranches through-

out the State (Table 1). Estimated numbers are based on a 1963 survey

by Ramsey (1969) and modified by data collected since that time. A

current survey would surely show larger numbers and wider distri-

bution within the state.

Species and numbers of Indian ungui.ates that occur in Texas

The animal nomenclature follows that of Prater (1965). Subspecies

present are generally not known, or have been obscured by interbreed-

ing. Easily recognized morphological differences exist among certain

species, but it is uncertain whether or not these are genotypic or

phenotypic variations. Most chital fit the general description of Axis

axis axis, however, some ranches have a form smaller and stockier in

size, and with shorter antlers. These animals more closely resemble

Axis axis ceylonensis. The red deer or stag and the wild boar are

advertised in hunting brochures as being European in origin. How-

ever, some zoo stock came from India or the Himalayan region, and

Indian species present

Table 1

Chital ( Axis axis )

Blackbuck antelope ( Antilope cervicapra )

Wild Boar ( Sus scrofa)

Nilgai antelope ( Boselaphus tragocamelus )

Red deer ( Cervus elaphus )

Sambar ( Cervus unicolor )

Barasingha ( Cervus duvauceli )

> 10,000

> 4,000

> 10,000

> 4,500

> 300

> 100

> 50

20 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 71 (1)

doubtlessly have supplied some of the animals stocked on Texas

ranches.

Distribution and Habitat in Texas

Areas in the state which contain the greatest numbers of exotics

are the Edwards Plateau, the South Texas Plains, and the Gulf Prairies

and Marshes (Fig. 1). Reasons for this pattern of distribution are

partially cultural and partially ecological. The largest number of species

and the greatest numbers of animals are in the Edwards Plateau. This

region is devoted mainly to ranching enterprises: cattle, sheep, and

goats. It is also the area containing the greatest numbers of white-tailed

deer ( Odocoileus virginiana). In recent years the economic return

from sheep and goats has greatly declined. Landowners have conse-

quently sought means of supplementing ranch income by stocking

exotic game and charging sportsmen for the privilege of hunting.

Ecologically, the regions of Texas with the largest numbers of

exotics are very similar to their native ranges in India. The area of Texas

containing most exotics is between 26° and 31° N. latitude, and lies

Fig. 1

INDIAN MAMMALS ON TEXAS RANGELANDS

21

within the latitudinal ranges of India, approximately 8°-33° N. lati-

tude. Annual patterns of temperature and precipitation are similar in

both regions with extremes in precipitation in India being greater (Fig.

2). Temperatures in the northern Edwards Plateau sometimes drop

below 0° F. during the winter, while in some years temperatures do

not fall below 32° F. in the extreme southern tip of Texas.

The Edwards Plateau is an area of some 24 million acres character-

ized by rough, stony hills dissected by several river systems. Elevations

vary from 1,200 to more than 3,000 feet. Soils are shallow and under-

lain primarily by limestone. The climax vegetation is grassland and

open savanna. Overgrazing by domestic livestock has depleted the

grass cover and has resulted in an increase of woody plants such as

mesquite ( Prosopis juliflora), live oak ( Quercus virginiana) , shinnery

oaks ( Quercus spp.), and junipers (Juniperu s spp.).

lOO

J

NEW DELHI. INDIA

IM

ill

X

<

“■ 70

X 80

Z

M

9©

N

J

50

k

J

2

4

6

O

INCHES OF PRECIPITATION

Fig. 2

8

lO

22 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 71 (1)

The South Texas Plains and the Gulf Prairies and Marshes together

comprise an area of almost 30 million acres. This region of flat to

rolling topography originally supported a climax grassland. Reduced

numbers of fires and overgrazing by livestock have vastly altered the

plant community until now scrub woody vegetation is the predominant

growth form. Invading woody species include mesquite, live oak,

prickly pear cacti ( Opuntia spp.) and several species of Acacia. Land

use practices are similar to those of the Edwards Plateau though farm-

ing is more intensive on the Coastal Plains.

The wild boar is perhaps the most numerous and widespread

species, but because of its secretive behaviour it is difficult to accurately

estimate their population. This cosmopolitan species quickly adapted

and successfully established itself in the wild. In several regions the

animals have mated with feral domestic swine. The resultant wild hog

is not readily accepted by landowners particularly in the Edwards

Plateau where they cause damage to net-wire fencing and occasional

depredation of young sheep and goats. They are also accused of com-

peting for food with native game and destruction of turkey (Meleagris

gallopavo) nests. However, little documented information on their

true role is recorded.

The adaptability of spotted deer is apparent in that it has a wider

distribution of established herds than any other species. There are at

least two populations of chital that number more than 1000 individuals.

In addition, an unknown number have become established as free-

ranging wild animals outside of game-proof fences in the Edwards

Plateau. One large population exists on the Coastal Plains in pre-

dominately low (1-6 feet) live oak interspersed with open grasslands.

However, the majority are in the more rugged, drier Edwards Plateau.

Spillett (1966, 1968) described the habitat of the chital in India as

primarily open deciduous forest that sometimes graded into thorn scrub.

There was an indication in the drier areas that chital were associated

with water supplies (De & Spillett 1966). Chital in Texas are found

in vegetative types closely resembling those described by Spillett, and

in dry regions they are more common along streams.

The largest continuous population of a single species is the nilgai

which occupies a 1000-square mile area including King Ranch, Inc.

and adjoining ranches along the lower Texas coast. This single popu-

lation of 2200-2400 animals is reproducing well and expanding its range

(Sheffield et al. 1971). The vegetative description of the nilgai’s Indian

habitat by Spillett (1968) and Sankhala (1964) is also appropriate

to its Texas habitat — a dry deciduous forest or dry deciduous thorn

forest with nilgai being more common in the drier more open areas.

Blackbuck are found in small numbers in the coastal plains, perhaps

similar to that described by Daniel (1967) for southern India. The

INDIAN MAMMALS ON TEXAS RANGELANDS

23

largest numbers occur in rangelands of the Edwards Plateau, a habitat

consisting of an interspersion of scrub oaks and grassland. Blackbuck

are successful in the open scrub which they utilize readily as escape

cover. They seem more tolerant of overstory canopy than the native

pronghorn ( Antilocapra americana).

Sambar deer are present in smaller numbers with very limited distri-

bution and it is difficult to assess their establishment. One population

of 50 animals occurs in the Gulf Prairies and Marshes vegetative area.

On the ranch where they occur, along with 1200 chital, the sambar

remain almost exclusively in thickets of the larger live oak. They are

frequently seen feeding on submerged aquatic vegetation in 1-3 foot

deep brackish lakes adjacent to the coast. A second small herd in the

Edwards Plateau remains close to a small freshwater lake and have

been observed feeding on aquatic vegetation. It appears that their dis-

tribution is restricted by habitat preference. However, in India they

arc widely distributed through seemingly similar habitats to those in

Texas.

Red deer are more widely distributed than sambar deer, but be-

cause of their close similarity to native elk ( Cervus canadensis ) and

their large size, they are not very popular. They adapt well to semi-

captivity, but when confined together they breed with elk. The off-

spring of this mating is neither as valuable as the elk nor the red deer.

Barasingha exist on only a few ranches, and in such small numbers

that little is known about their habitat in Texas. Other species of Indian

mammals are confined to zoos.

Discussion

Climatic and vegetational similarities between habitats in India and

Texas probably account for the success of most exotics. Also, since

most populations in Texas were produced by zoo stock, they were

already somewhat acclimatized. Supplemental feeding of newly acquired

animals and protection from unwanted hunting further insured their

survival. Throughout the region where exotics have been most success-

ful there are few large predators. Coyote ( Canis latrans ) control is

practiced intensively by ranchers who raise sheep and goats.

The potential natural spread of these exotics into other parts of Texas

and into adjoining states is only speculative at the present. Low winter

temperatures would seemingly limit the northern spread of many Indian

antelope and deer. The blackbuck is sensitive to sub-freezing temper-

atures. Heavy mortality has occurred in some herds during late winter

when food supplies were minimal and either snowstorms or cold rains

produced additional stress. Young nilgai are born during all months,

24 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 71 (1)

but the peak of births is August-September, a season unfavourable

for survival of young throughout much of the northern United States.

The peak of births among chital in Texas is February-March, though

some young are born during all months. In that region of Texas con-

taining most chital late winter weather is not severe enough to hinder

survival, but would likely prove fatal to fawns born further north. The

same is true for all other species that give birth year-round or during

the winter season.

Exotic ungulates seem well established and are becoming an accept-

ed part of ranching and sport hunting enterprises in Texas. Exotics

offer the sportsman unusual and unique opportunities. He can easily

pursue trophy animals that would otherwise require considerable in-

vestments of time and finances if hunted in their native lands. To the

landowner exotics offer some advantages over native species. Native

game species are regulated by state game laws with bag limits and

seasons being restricted. However, exotics are not regulated by game

laws and may be harvested at the landowner’s discretion. A group of

several species can provide year-round hunting since reproductive

patterns of exotics are different from native animals.

The potential of exotic game for meat production has not been an

important consideration in the past, but presently there is an increasing

interest in the potential of exotic animals as meat producers. Some

species are better adapted to arid and semi-arid regions than are

domestic livestock and some range scientists now suggest that selecting

an animal species compatible with the vegetation is a better approach

than altering the habitat to fit the animal. Thus, exotics are likely to

occupy some role in ranching enterprises in Texas for some time to

come.

Acknowledgements

Unfortunately most introduced ungulates in Texas were released

with little or no knowledge of their biology, habitat requirements and

possible consequences to native biota. To increase our understanding

of exotics and their role in ranching enterprises in Texas a series of

investigations were begun in 1967 by the Department of Wildlife and

Fisheries Sciences of Texas A & M University. These studies were

financed by a grant from the Caesar Kleberg Foundation for Wildlife

Conservation. We gratefully acknowledge their support of this research

programme.

INDIAN MAMMALS ON TEXAS RANGELANDS

25

References

Craighead, F. C. & Dasmann,

R. F. (1966): Exotic Big Game on

Public Lands. U. S. Dept, of Int.

Bur. of Land Mgmt. Washington

D. C. 26 pp.

Daniel, J. C. (1967): The point

Calimere Sanctuary, Madras State —

May 1967. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

64(3) : 512-523.

De, R. C. & Spillett, J. J. (1966):

A study of the Chital or Spotted

Deer in Corbett National Park, Uttar

Pradesh, ibid. 65(3): 576-598.

Prater, S. H. (1965): The Book

of Indian Animals, Second Edition.

Bombay.

Ramsey, C. W. (1969): Texotics.

Bull. No. 49. Texas Parks and Wild-

life Dept. Austin, Texas.

Sankhala, K. S. (1964): Wildlife

Sanctuaries of Rajasthan. J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 61(1) : 27-34.

Sheffield, W. J., Ables, E. D. &

Fall, B. A. (1971): Geographic and

Ecological Distribution of Nilgai

Antelope in Texas. J. Wildl. Mgmt.

35(2): 250-257.

Smith, C. A. (1968): Protecting

the United States Against Diseases of

Foreign Origin. In Symposium: In-

troduction of Exotic Animals. Caesar

Kleberg Research Programme in Wild-

life Ecology. Texas A & M University.

Spillett, J. J. (1966): A Report

on Wild Life Surveys in Northern

India and Southern Nepal. J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 65(3) : 492-628.

(1968): A Report on

Wild Life Surveys in South and West

India, ibid. 65(1): 1-46; 65(2): 296-

325; 65(3): 633-663.

Common edible Mushrooms

of Jammu and Kashmir

BY

T. N. Kaul and J. L. Kachroo,

Regional Research Laboratory ( Branch T Srinagar-5, Kashmir, India

( With five figures in two plates)

The region, because of its varied climate and topography,

offers a rich field for mushroom collection. Description of

common edible species along with field notes for mushroom

collectors are provided. Four edible mushrooms from Kashmir

valley, Coprinus atramentarius (Bull.). Fr., C. comatus Fr.,

C. micaceus (Bull.). Fr. and Pleurotus salignus Fr. and one from

Jammu Province Pleurotus ostrcatus Fr. white form, are described.

Two Pleurotus species are new records for India, while the other

three have been recorded from Kashmir valley for the first time.

Introduction

The Kashmir valley has a variety of mushrooms, which are collect-

ed regularly by villagers for consumption. A few like Morels (Mor-

chella spp.; Verpa spp.) and to a lesser extent Pleurotus (‘Dhingri’ local

name) are collected in bulk, dried and exported to different parts of

the country. The annual export of dried morels from the State is about

12,000 kg valued at a million rupees.

Mushroom hunting if indiscriminate can lead to fatal accidents due

to eating of poisonous ones. This series of papers is published with a

view to make available to mushroom lovers a field guide for collection

and identification of edible mushrooms and also a description of the

species recorded is given to assist students of mycology.

Genus Coprinus (Pers.) Fr.

This genus is characterised by black spore deposits and conversion

of cap and gills into black inky fluid. They are commonly referred to

as ink caps and are easy to recognize in the field. The plants vary in

1 Accepted October 24, 1970.

EDIBLE MUSHROOMS OF JAMMU AND KASHMIR

27

size and some grow several inches high and more than an inch in

breadth. A number of species grow on dung or recently manured

ground, while some live on humus and others grow on wood. Most of

the larger ones are edible in immature stages. Their only drawback

is that they must be picked before they mature and used almost at

once. The three species described here are said to be the best edible

species in the genus.

Coprinus atramentarius (Bull.) Fr. Syll. Fung. 5:1081, 1887.

Cap: (Pileus) 7 mm to 30 mm wide in button stage and 30-50 mm

x 40-70 mm in adult stage, at first conical to egg shaped, later broadly

conical covered with grayish bloom which is readily rubbed off. Colour

varies from light brown to dark brown, surface mostly smooth, except-

ing small scales near the top or occasionally at the centre with fine

lines or striations marking the entire surface. The marginal half of the

cap is furrowed irregularly, forming an uneven edge.

Gills : 4-6 mm (button) and 10-15 mm (adult) wide, crowded,

creamy white in young specimens, then pinkish grey and finally black,

liquefying from the margin towards the centre.

Stem : 1.5 to 8 cm long, 10 mm to 15 mm thick, hollow, smooth,

white and shiny above the faint annulus and provide with small up-

ward pointing scale below. Annulus forms an irregularly zigzag elevat-

ed lines of thread which extend around the stem near the base.

Spores : 8-14 x 5-7 [x. elliptical, black.

Collected on ground near the base of trees or on pieces of decom-

posing wood at Chundinah willow plantation (5200' a.s.l.) 22.iii.1970,

T.N. Kaul and J.L. Kachroo, RRLS No. 1, Fig. I.

Reported earlier from Allahabad. New record from Kashmir.

Field notes : Coprinus atramentarius is the most common among

the edible species of Coprinus and forms an article of commerce in

the valley. The species fruits during cold wet weather in spring mainly

but some crop also appears during summer and fall. Extensive collec-

tions are made by villagers from Government willow plantation at

Chundinah (Kashmir). Mushrooms grow in dense clumps near the

base of standing trees, cut stumps or on decaying wood. The soil is

sandy, full of peat and submerged during summer.

An irregular zone of squamules (scales) extending from the base of

the stalk for a short distance distinguishes it from other edible species

of the genus.

There is no local record of poisoning from the species. Smith (1958),

however, refers to the controversy regarding the adverse effect of this

species specially in combination with alcoholic beverages.

28 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 71 (1)

Coprinus comatus Fr., Syll. Fung,, 5:1079, 1887. Berk, in J. Bot.

3, 8, 1856 Banerjee in Bull. Bot. Soc. Bengal 1; p. 42.

Cap : (Pileus) 4-10 cm long, 2-3 cm wide, at first egg shaped, be-

coming campanulate or barrel shaped as it matures and margin often

splitting into lobes, turning into umbrella shape at dissolution. Surface

shaggy, covered with prominent brown scales, close together on the

buttons and widely separated in the adult stage, sometimes arranged

concentrically, white between the scale.

Gills : 6-10 mm wide, free, crowded, creamy white first, pink later,

finally black and becoming liquid.

Stem\ 4-14 cm long, 10-15 mm thick at the top and 20-25 mm at

the base, tapering slightly upwards, white and mostly smooth; hollow

even at the young stage with delicate cord suspended in the cavity.

Annulus in the form of free movable ring on the stem, generally resting

at the base or vanishing entirely.

Spores : 12-18 x 5-7 a elliptic, black.

Collected on the side of a rivulet in Sanat Nagar, Srinagar (5200'

a.s.l.) 17-iv-1969 T. N. Kaul & J. L. Kachroo RRLS No. 6, Fig. 2.

Reported from Bombay, Darjeeling and Calcutta on lawns and

refuse dumps. New record for Kashmir.

Field notes’. Coprinus comatus commonly referred to as shaggy

mane is easy to identify in the field. Besides the dissolution of the

ripening cap into a black liquid it is characterised by scaly surface

and narrow loose ring round the stem in earlier stages. European

authors have classed it as one of the best among edible fungi.

It has been noticed in the valley growing mainly on the sides of

rivulets in shady places from late April to October, mostly solitary,

rarely in clumps. Villagers collect the closed button stage for con-

sumption.

Coprinus micaceus fBull.) Fr. Syll. Fung; 5:1090, 1887; Banerjee

in Bull. Bot. Soc. Bengal I: 42.

Cap (Pileus) 20-40 mm v/ide, at first ovate then conical to camp-

anulate, tan or yellowish brown in colour with prominent striations

from the margin up almost to the centre. Surface covered with shining

particles.

Gills 3-4 mm wide, crowded, first white then tan, later black, and

liquefying.

Stem 4-8 cm long, 3-6 mm thick, slender, fragile, hollow and white.

Annulus rarely visible.

Spores 10 x 5-* , blackish, sometime brown elliptical.

Collected around stumps of Robinia pseudoacacia, in shady moist

places in Sanat Nagar, Srinagar (5200' a.s.l.) 9-iv-1970. T. N. Kaul &

J. L. Kachroo, RRLS No. 3, Fig. 3.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 71 (1) Plate

Kaul & Kachroo: Mushrooms

Fig. 1. Coprinus atramentarius Fig. 2. Coprinus comatus

Fig. 3. Coprinus micaceus Fig. 5. Pleurotus salignus

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 71 (1) Plate II

Kaul & Kachroo: Mushrooms

Fig. 4. Pleurotus ostreatus white form

EDIBLE MUSHROOMS OF JAMMU AND KASHMIR

29

Reported from Calcutta (West Bengal). New record for Kashmir

valley.

Field notes : This mushroom appears in clumps near the base of

standing trees of Populus spp., Salix spp., Robinia spp. or around

their cut stumps in the valley. Grows in tufts of ten to thirty or more

individuals. It appears in spring, summer and autumn in cool wet

weather. It is commonly referred to in literature as glistening Coprinus

because of the delicate scales covering the surface of the pileus which

glistens in light like particles of mica. Prominent striations on the Cap

and glistening scales distinguish it from other species of Coprinus.

Since this mushroom occurs in clusters it offers a good meal to the

villagers who collect it.

Genus Pleurotus Fr.

The genus is characterized by spore deposits of white colour when

the cap is left for few hours on a clean surface; an eccentric or lateral

stem; fleshy or tough texture of the cap. There is no annulus. Almost

all species of Pleurotus grow on trees or on dead wood.

Pleurotus ostreatus Fr. white form, Syll. Fung., 5:355, 1887.

Cap 1.5-12 cm wide, 2-10 cm long, soft, fleshy, convex or slightly

depressed near the point of attachment. White, light grey or dark grey,

often becoming yellow on drying, spatulate to kidney shaped, margin

inrolled, imbricate in groups of 4-10 or more. Sessile or with a short

stem.

Gills 5-10 mm wide, white, broad, decurrent, anastomosing at the

base.

Stem when present short 1-3.5 cm long, 0.2-1 cm thick, lateral or

eccentric.

Spores 8-11 x 3. 3-4. 3 p. , subcylindric, not amyloid.

Collected on decaying logs of Euphorbia royleana Boiss. from

Katra Forests, Jammu (1000' a.s.l.) 13-ix-1966, T. N. Kaul & K. K.

Janardhanan, Fig. 4.

The specimens were referred to Mr. E. J. H. Corner of Botany

School, Cambridge who considers them close to Pleurotus eugrammus

(Mont.) Dennis but in the absence of thorough study identified it as

“P. ostreatus white form”. P. ostreatus has not earlier been recorded

from India. It is thus a new record. Corner (Personal communication)

records the prevalance of the same white form in North Borneo.

The detailed microscopic characters communicated by Prof. Corner

are also recorded here.

Basidia 30-38 x 6 jx , 4 sterigmata. Cheilocystidia as sterile basidia

or more inflated 5-8 pi wide, some with a short appendage, ill defined

and not forming a sterile edge. Hyphae monomitic, clamped, 4-15

30 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 71 (1)

(-25) p, wide, the cells 40-230 \i long, the walls 0.5 pi thick but strongly

thickened -2 p. at the base of the stem.

Field notes’. Pleurotus ostreatus is known as the oyster agric as

the form of the plant suggests the outline of an oyster shell. It is an

excellent edible mushroom with considerable host range. This mush-

room locally known as “Dhingri” forms an article of commerce in the

plains of Jammu and is even exported outside the State, as it can be

preserved well after drying.

The mushroom is abundant during the rainy season (August-

September) on decaying stumps of Euphorbia royleana (“Thor” local

name) which occurs commonly from Jammu to Udhampur. Extensive

collections for the market are made in Thor plantations in Katra area

of Jammu Province.

Collection and identification in the field is easy because of the

characteristic shape and specific host in the region.

Pleurotus salignus Pers (Fr.) Syll. Fung 5:359, 1887.

Cap (Pileus) 1-8 cm wide, convex to expanded, depressed in the

centre, margin involute, surface white covered with brownish black

scales which give mottled appearance especially in young stages wear-

ing off in mature specimens.

Gills 4-5 mm wide, white becoming yellow with age.

Stem nearly central, 2-10 cm long and 1-2 cm in thickness.

Spores 6-10 x 3-5 p., elliptical, white.

Collected on willow (Salix alba) stumps at Chundinah willow

plantation, Kashmir (5200' a.s.l.) 22-iii- 1970, T. N. Kaul & J. L.

Kachroo, RRLS No. 2, Fig. 5.

New record for India. P. dryinus has been recorded earlier from

Awantipora, Kashmir on undetermined host. However, most of the

authors have designated the Pleurotus on willow as P. salignus.

Field notes’. This species has been found associated throughout

the valley with willow trees, mostly growing round cut stumps in moist

shady places. It appears in abundance during spring but it also avail-

able in summer, and autumn when the weather is cool and wet. Chara-

cteristic mottling of the cap surface and association with willow trees

distinguishes the mushroom in the field.

Ack nowledge m e n ts

We are thankful to Dr. K. Ganapathi, Director for encouragement

in the work and to Prof. E. J. H. Corner, Botany School, Cambridge

(U.K.) for determination of Pleurotus ostreatus.

EDIBLE MUSHROOMS OF JAMMU AND KASHMIR

31

References

Attkinson, G. F. (1961): Mush-

room, Edible, Poisonous etc. Hafner

Publishing Co. New York.

Christensen, C. M. (1943): Com-

mon Edible Mushrooms. The Lund

Press Inc. Minneapolis, University of

Minnesota.

Cooke, M. C. (1870): Kashmir

Morels, Trans. Bot. Soc. Edi. 10:

439-443.

Krieger, L. C. C. (1967): The

Mushroom Hand book. Dover Pub-

lications, Inc. New York.

Smith, A. H. (1958) : Mushroom

Hunters field guide. The University

of Michigan Press, Ann. Arbor, USA.

Preliminary observations,

on the breeding of pearl

oysters, Pinctada fucata

(Gould) of the Gulf of Kutch1

BY

K. R. Narayanan2

Fisheries Research Station, Jamnagar-l

( With two text-figures)

The pearl oysters of the Gulf of Kutch breed twice in a year.

The primary breeding season is during winter, i.e. December to

January, which is followed by a secondary less significant breeding

period in early summer, i.e. April to May.

The stimulus for breeding does not appear to be in relation

to the changes in salinity and temperature, as there is great vari-

ation in the salinity and temperature values during these two

breeding seasons.

Introduction

While the biology of the pearl oysters of the Gulf of Mannar has

been studied in detail by Herdman (1903-06), Hornell (1916 & 1922)

and Malpas (1929 & 1933), those in the Gulf of Kutch have not

received much attention in this regard. Hornell (1909) and Easwaran,

Narayanan & Michael (1969) concentrated mainly on the fishery

aspects and Gokhale, Easwaran & Narasimhan (1954) and Narayanan

& Michael (1968) dealt mainly with the dimensional relationships of

these bivalves. So much so, the biology in general, and the breeding

habits in particular, of the oysters of this locality have not been studied

by previous authors. This paper presents the preliminary observations

made on the breeding habits, with particular reference to the spawning

season of the pearl oysters of the Gulf of Kutch. The present studies

1 Accepted May 5, 1970.

2 Present Address : Marine Biological Research Station, Govt, of Gujarat,

Port Okha (India).

BREEDING OF PEARL OYSTERS

33

form a part of the scheme for research and investigation on the pearl

oysters of the Gulf of Kutch, implemented by the Directorate of

Fisheries, Government of Gujarat, through its Research Station at

Jamnagar.

I have, made a detailed study on the taxonomy of the Gulf of Kutch

pearl oysters and find them to be the typical Indian species referable

to Pinctada fucata (Gould, 1850: Proc. Boston. Soc. Nat. Hist. 3: 309-

312) [Syn. Pinctada vulgaris (Schumacher)], which nomenclature is

used in this paper. No other species of the Genus Pinctada (Bolten) has

been observed in the collections from this locality.

Materials and Methods

About five hundred oysters collected from the pearl oyster Khaddas

of the Gulf of Kutch and reared in a Sea Water Tank at Sikka

(Jamnagar District, Gujarat State) by the Fisheries Research Station,

Government of Gujarat, Jamnagar, constitute the material for the

present studies. Regular samples of living oysters were measured,

weighed and their gonads examined afresh every fortnight. Side by

side, the salinity and temperature of the sea water of the tank were

also recorded regularly.

As adopted by Gokhale et al. (1954) and Narayanan et al. (1968),

the thickness denotes the maximum distance between the external sur-

faces of two valves and hinge-width the maximum distance between

the edges of the two valves at the hinge. The whole-weight indicates

the weight of the animal inclusive of the valves and flesh-weight, the

weight of the body exclusive of the valves. (Special care has been taken

to see that the water particles are blotted out from the flesh to the

maximum possible extent and to obtain the accurate weight of the

flesh). The linear measurements, referred to above, were made with

a pair of Dial Calipers and represented in millimeters. The flesh and

whole weights were measured in a Chemical Balance and represented

in grammes.

For the sake of convenience, the gonads were classified into five

stages, basing on their stage of development, as follows:

Stage 0 : Resting /Immature Gonad

Stage I : Developing Gonad

Stage II : Ripe Gonad

Stage III : Running or Oozing Gonad

Stage IV : Spent Gonad

While classifying the gonads, as above, there were a few oysters

whose gonads could not be catagorised, as the gonad-development was

too obscure. Such gonads are indicated as ‘Un-identified Gonads’.

3

34 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 71 (1)

Observations on the gonads and their contents were made from

fresh specimens only, so as to avoid any shrinkage of the tissue. Body

dimensions and stage of development of the gonads were recorded

against each specimen at regular intervals.

Observations

It has been observed, as a general rule, that a male gonad is creamy

white and the female gonad yellowish to dark-yellow in external ap-

pearence, when they are fully ripe. However, at times when the gonad

is infested by a trematode parasite1 — which is a very common pheno-

menon in the Gulf of Kutch oysters — the external coloration of the

gonads of either sex is pinkish-red.

The age at first maturity of these oysters has not been correctly

estimated so far. Tranter (1958a & 1958d) has observed that the

Australian pearl oysters, Pinctada albina (Lamarck) and Pinctada

margaritifera (Linnaeus) attain sexual maturity around the first year

of their life. Gokhale et al. (1954) contended that the Gulf of Kutch

oysters attain sexual maturity towards the third or fourth year. I do

not agree with their view, as on many occasions I have examined the

gonads of oysters of below one year, one year and two years and have

found them to be fully ripe. My observations reveal that, in general,

the Gulf of Kutch pearl oysters attain sexual maturity at a hinge-width

of 2 to 2.5 mm and a thickness of 18 to 22 mm. Narayanan et al.

(1968) have observed that the mean thickness and hinge- width of

these oysters at the end of the first year are 21.9 mm and 2.5 mm res-

pectively. This, therefore, should mean that the age at first maturity

of the pearl oysters of this locality cannot be more than one year.

Unfortunately, no definite conclusion can be arrived at in this regard

and the exact age at which these oysters attain sexual maturity cannot

be pin-pointed, as I have not examined sufficiently large number of

oysters of one year and below.

The percentage of sex of the pearl oysters of the Gulf of Mannar

has been estimated by Hornell (1916) as 55 males to 45 females.

Tranter (1958d) observed the proportion of sex of Pinctada margari-

tifera (Linnaeus) of the Australian waters as five males to every female.

In the Gulf of Kutch, however, the percentage of male and female

has been worked out as 35.5 and 64.5 respectively.

Tranter (1958c) observed that the ratio of sex decreases until in

old oysters the proportion is equal. According to him, such a pro-

nounced variation is the result of a sex-change within the population.

1 The taxonomy of these parasites has not been worked out as yet.

BREEDING OF PEARL OYSTERS

35

Ojima & Maeki (1955) noted bi-sexual nature in the gonads of

Pinctada martensii, but Herdman & Hornell (1903, 1904 & 1906)

though recognizing the possibility of a sex-change in oysters, stated

that their species ( Pinctada fucata) was permanently dioecious. Wada

(1938 & 1953) showed that Pinctada martensii and Pinctada maxima

experienced change of sex.

The possibility of such a change of sex in the Gulf of Kutch oys-

ters cannot altogether be ruled out as on many occasions my samples

consisted only of one sex. But the data in this connection is not suffi-

cient to substantiate this view. Also, it has not been possible for me to

observe the same stock of oysters over a long period.

Breeding Season

The stage of development of the gonads examined afresh was deter-

mined and the percentage of each stage of development was worked

out month-wise, as tabulated in Table 1.

As can be seen from the table, a great majority of the oysters were

found to be in the resting stage during the months of June, July and

August. In October, however, majority of the gonads were ripe and

in November and December, oozing (running) ones formed the major

percentage. In January and February, the spent gonads were more

than those of the other stages. In March, about a third of the oysters

were found to ripen again. In April, these were found to be in the

running (oozing) stage and in May most of them were either spent or

resting. These observations indicate that the actual or the primary

breeding season of the pearl oysters in the Gulf of Kutch is November,

December and January. This primary breeding season is followed, in

some cases, by a secondary one in April-May.

The observations made on the whole weight- flesh weight relation-

ship and other studies made on the seasonal variations in oysters also

support this view.

The mean percentage of the flesh- weight in the whole- weight of

the individual oysters were estimated monthwise and is shown in Fig.

1. As can be seen from the figure, the percentage of flesh-weight in

the whole-weight increases from November onwards and this increase

lasts up to February, after which the percentage falls. Again, from

March onwards up to May there is an increase in the percentage.

The percentage decreases in June, July, August and September. The

whole-weight of the oysters includes the shells also, but the flesh-

weight, on the other hand, indicates only the weight of the body with-

in the shells. Since during sexual development, the gonads extend to

almost all parts of the viscera, there are all possibilities of increase in

36 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 71 (1)

BREEDING OF PEARL OYSTERS

37

the weight of the body. Hence, the increase in the percentage of flesh-

weight in the whole-weight during the months of November- January

and March-May invariably indicates the excessive gonad development

and hence breeding season.

Fig. 1

Similarly, changes in the gonadial elements were also observed

during the breeding season. The average ova count per field and the

mean size of the ova were also found to increase corresponding to the

breeding peaks. These changes have been plotted in Fig. 1.

As observed by Easwaran et al. (1969), there are no heavy spat-

falls observed in the Gulf of Kutch, unlike in the Gulf of Mannar and

Palk Bay. However, I have collected a few three to four month-old

spats from the Pearl Oyster Reefs of Movada, during March-April,

1966. These spats, though scanty, do indicate that the oysters of the

Movada Reef had bred somewhere between November, 1965, and

January 1966.

Temperature and Salinity

Herdman & Hornell (1906), Hornell (1916) and Malpas (1929)

have estimated that the Ceylonese and South Indian pearl oysters breed

38 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 71 (1)

twice in a year, namely during the south-west monsoon and north-

east monsoon seasons. The present observations show that the pearl

oysters of the Gulf of Kutch also breed twice in a year; but the breed-

ing maxima do not tally with those in the Gulf of Mannar and Palk Bay.

This is probably because the hydrological conditions in the Gulf of

Kutch are entirely different from those in the Gulf of Mannar and

Palk Bay. Malpas (1929) believes that the changes in salinity and

temperature induce the pearl oysters to spawn. According to him, high

salinity in July- August and low salinity in December- January in the

southern waters both act as breeding 'stimuli.

The salinity and temperature of the Gulf of Kutch have been re-

corded regularly by the Fisheries Research Station, Jamnagar, and

are shown in Fig. 2. As can be seen from the figure, there is not much

appreciable variation in the salinity of the Gulf of Kutch waters. This

has been observed by Gokhale et at. (1954) also. The maximum

BREEDING OF PEARL OYSTERS

39

salinity observed is 39%0 in December and minimum 32.18%0 in

February-March. During the primary breeding season of the pearl

oysters of this locality, the salinity is the maximum (37 to 39%0) and

during the secondary breeding season, in April-May, the salinity is

minimum (32.18 to 31.8%0). Malpas’ (1929) contention that the

oysters get spawning stimulii from both high and low salinity may

appear to be quite true in regard to the pearl oysters of the Gulf of

Kutch. But, as Dewanesan & Chidambaram (1956) put it, it will not

be justifiable, though it cannot be proved with the information on

hand, to believe that an animal can respond to different stimulii in the

same manner.

Similarly, the contention that temperature variation too stimulates

the pearl oysters to breed cannot be agreed to, as the mean temperature

during the primary breeding season in December- January is 17.5 to

23.5°C and during the secondary breeding season, in April-May, the

temperature ranges between 30 to 31°C (Fig. 2).

Ack n o wledge m e n ts

I am grateful to the Directorate of Fisheries, Government of

Gujarat, Ahmedabad, for permission to publish this paper and to

Messrs. C. R. Easwaran and M. M. Chhaya for their encouragement.

Special thanks are due to Mrs. Sita Narayanan for her help in the

analysis of the data and preparation of this paper, to Shri. J. S. Joshi

for furnishing the hydrological data and to Shri. K. G. Dave for draw-

ing the figures.

References

Devanesan, D. W. & Chidam-

baram, K. (1956): Results obtained

at the Pearl-Oyster Farm, Krusadai

Island, Gulf of Mannar, and their

application to problems relating to

the pearl fisheries in the Gulf of

Mannar, Part-I. Contribution from

the Marine Fisheries Biological Sta-

tion, Krusadai Island, Gulf of Man-

nar, No. 4: 15-23.

Easwaran, C. R., Narayanan K. R.

& Michael, M. S. (1969) : Pearl

Fisheries of the Gulf of Kutch. J.

Bombay fiat. Hist. Soc. 66(2): 338-

344.

Gould, A. A. (1950) : Shells from

the United States Exploring Expedi-

tion. Proc. Boston. Soc. Nat. Hist.,

3: 309-312.

Gokhale, S. V., Easwaran C. R.

& Narasimhan, R. (1954): Growth

rate of the Pearl Oyster, Pinctada

pinctada, in the Gulf of Kutch, with

a note on the Pearl Fishery of 1953.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 52(1) :

124-136.

Herdman, W. A. (1903-06): Re-

port to the Government of Ceylon

on the Pearl Oyster Fisheries of the

Gulf of Mannar. Parts I-V. The

Royal Society, London.

40 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 71 (1)

Herdman, W. A. & Hornell, J.

(1903) : Observations and experi-

ments on the life-history and habits

of the pearl oyster. Rep. Pearl Fish.

Mannar, 1 : 25-46.

(1904) : Anatomy

of the Pearl Oyster, ibid. 2: 37-76.

(1906): General

summary and recommendations : Re-

production and life history of the

pearl oyster, ibid. 5: 114-118.

Hornell, J. (1909): The Marine

Resources of Okhamandal. In : Re-

port to the Government of Baroda on

the Marine Zoology of Okhamandal

in Kattiawar, Part 1 : 1-17. Williams

and Norgate, London.

(1916) : An explanation

of the cyclic character of the pearl

fisheries of the Gulf of Mannar. Mad.

Fish. Bui. 8: 17-19.

(1922): The Indian

Pearl Fisheries of the Gulf of Man-

nar and Palk Bay. Mad. Fish. Bui

16: 115-128.

Malpas, A. H. (1929) : Age and

Growth rate of the pearl oyster in

the pearl fishery of 1925. Bull. Cey-

lon J. Sci. (C) 3: 62-74.

(1933) : Further obser-

vations on the age and growth rate

of the Ceylon pearl oyster. Margari-

iifera vulgaris, with special reference

to the oysters of Donnan’s Muthu-

varattu par. ibid. 5: 21-48.

Narayanan, K. R. & Michael,

M. S. (1968) : On the relation bet-

ween age and linear measurements of

the pearl oyster, Pinctada vulgaris

(Schumacher), of the Gulf of Kutch.

/. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 65(2):

444-452.

*Ojima, Y. & Maeki, K. (1955) :

Some cytological account of the ma-

turation of gonad in pearl oyster,

Pinctada martensii Dunker. Bull. Inst.

Sci. Res. Res. Pearls., Japan, No. 2.

Contrib. 41.

Tranter, D. J. (1958a): Repro-

duction in Australian pearl oysters

(Lamellibranchia) . Pinctada albina

(Lamarck) : Primary Gonad Develop-

ment. Aust. J. Mar. Fresh W. Res.

9: 135-143.

(1958b) : idem. II, Pinc-

tala albina (Lamarck) : Gametogen-

esis. ibid. 144-158.

(1958c): idem. Ill,

Pinctada albina (Lamarck) : Breed-

ing Season and Sexuality, ibid. 191-

216.

(1958d) : idem. IV,

Pinctada margaritifera (Linnaeus),

ibid. 509-525.

Wada, S. (1953) : Biology of the

Silver Lip pearl oyster, Pinctada ma-

xima Jameson: Breding Season. Mar-

garita 1: 28.

Not referred to in original.

Taxonomy and distribution of

Sardinella leiogaster

Valenciennes, 1847 [Pisces :

Clupeidae] from the Indian

Seas1

BY

A. G. K. Menon and P. K. Talwar

Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta-13

( With a text-figure)

Introduction

The Indo-Pacific representatives of the genus Sardinella Valen-

ciennes fall into two subgenera, Sardinella Valenciennes and Ambly-

gaster Bleeker distinguished, one from the other, by the degree of

compression in the ventral keel and scutes, and by marked differences

in the arrangement of the scales along the median line anterior to the

dorsal fin. The specific identity of S. ( Amblygaster) leiogaster Valen-

ciennes has been in great confusion, the species having either placed

in the synonymy of Sardinella sirrn (Walbaum) (by Regan 1917;

Fowler 1941; Misra 1947) or confused with Sardinella clupeoides

(Bleeker) (Bertin 1944). Recently Chan (1965), Whitehead, Boeseman

& Wheeler (1966), and Whitehead ( 1967a) revised systematics and

recognised Sardinella sirm (Walbaum), S. clupeoides (Bleeker) and

S. leiogaster Valenciennes as three distinct species under the subgenus

Amblygaster.

During a recent survey of the Andaman and Nicobar group of

Islands, as a part of a comprehensive programme of survey of the

ichthyo-fauna of these islands by the senior author, a specimen 242

mm in total length, of Sardinella leiogaster Valenciennes, hitherto not

recorded from Indian waters, was collected from the Car Nicobar

Accepted March 4, 1972.

42 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 71 (1)

Island on 14th March, 1969. This species has so far been known to

occur from the East African coast, the Red Sea, Indian Ocean, Singa-

pore, the East Indies and the Philippines ( vide Whitehead 19676). It

is here recorded for the first time from the Indian waters. The specific

identity of earlier records (Day 1878; Homell 1917; Deraniyagala

1929, 1952; Munro 1955; Kuthalingam 1961) of the three species of

the subgenus Amblygaster from the Indian Seas are discussed.

Systematic Account

Sardinella (Amblygaster) leiogaster Valenciennes

Clupea caeruleo-vittata Richardson.2 1846, Ichth, China Japan, p. 305; White-

head, 1966, Bull. Br. Mas. nat. Hist. ( Zool .) 14(2) : 28.

Sardinella leiogaster Valenciennnes, 1847, Hist. nat. Poiss. 20:210 (Indian

Ocean); Kner, 1865, Reise Novara, Fische: 327; Chan, 1965, Jap. J.

Ichthyol. 72(3-6): 117, fig. 15; Whitehead, Boeseman & Wheeler, 1966,

Zool. Verhandl. Leiden 84:41 (Key); Whitehead, 1967, Bull. Br. Mus.

nat. Hist. (Zool.),: Suppl. 2: 68 (Redescription of type); Whitehead, 1967,

/. mar. biol. Ass. India 9(2) :235, fig. 13.

Clupea leiogaster Klunzinger, 1871, Verh. zool.-bot. Ges. Wien. 27:598.

Clupea (Amblygaster) leiogaster Bleeker. 1872, Atlas Ichthyol. Ind. Neerland.

6: 102; Weber and de Beaufort (partim), 1913, Fishes Indo-Australian

Archipelago 2:61; Deraniyagala, (partim), 1929, Spoilia Zeylanica 75:37.

Sardinella clupeoides Fowler (nee. Bleeker), 1941, Bull. U.S. nat. Mus. (100)

13 : 619.

Sardinella (Amblygaster) sirm Deraniyagala (nee. Walbaum) (partim), 1952,

Coloured Atlas of some Vertebrates from Ceylon 1 : 14.

Amblygaster clupeoides Munro, 1955, Marine and Fresh water fishes from

Ceylon : 26.

Sardinella ( Amblygaster ) leiogaster Val.

material:

1 ex., 210 mm in standard length; Teetop (Car Nicobar Island); 14th

2 putative nomen oblitum vide Whitehead, Bull. zool. Nomencl. 23 (pt. 1) :

62-64, 1966.

SARDINELLA LEIOG ASTER FROM INDIAN SEAS

43

March, 1969; Coll. P. K. Talwar; Zoological Survey of India, Reg. No.

F. 6168/2.

DESCRIPTION :

Br. St. VI, D IV 14, P i 16, V i 7, A iii 13.

Scales in the lateral series 42, 11 transverse.

Predorsal scales 14.

Abdominal scutes 16 + 12.

Gillrakers on first arch 17 + 1 + 35.

In percentages of standard length: body depth 22.8; head length

23.3; snout length 7.6, eye-diameter 6.0, length of upper jaw 8.0,

length of lower jaw 8.8, pectoral length 15.0, pelvic length 8.5, length

of anal fin base 11.9, pre-dorsal distance 51.4, pre-pelvic distance 51.4,

pre-anal distance 76.7.

Body oblong, elongated, sides slightly compressed; weakly keeled

medio-ventrally, with blunt scutes which are not prominent. Maxilla

not reaching to the vertical from anterior edge of eye; two supra-max-

illae, the second (posterior) almond-shaped but profiles of both por-

tions meeting the anterior shaft at about the same point as illustrated

by Whitehead (1967a, fig. la). Pseudobranch present, exposed, about

as long as eye-diameter; filaments long, ventral base crescentric and

without groove below it. Gillrakers rather short, slender, shorter than

the corresponding gill filaments. Cleithral lobe prominent. Fronto-

parietal region with 14 longitudinal striae. Teeth absent except for a

patch of minute, feeble teeth on tongue and palatines. Opercular bones,

postorbitals and suborbitals covered by translucent adipose tissue,

under which minute hollow venules spread downwards in a radiating

pattern.

Dorsal fin origin equidistant between snout tip and caudal base.

Pelvic fin base below first branched dorsal ray.

Scales cycloid, thin; deciduous. Predorsal median ridge before

dorsal fin covered by a single longitudinal series of scales. Scaly sheath

cover the bases of dorsal and anal fins. Elongated axillary scales in

angle of pectoral and pelvic fins. Alar scales present.

Colour in alcohol — Upper one-third slate-grey, flanks pale brownish;

tips of jaws dusky. Caudal slightly dusky.

Discussion

Our specimen agrees very well with the description; keys and

figures given by Chan (op. cit.), Whitehead, Boeseman & Wheeler

(1966), and Whitehead (op. cit.).

Day’s (1878, 1889) record of Clupea leiogaster (Val.) from Sri

44 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 71 (1)

Lanka with the maxilla reaching to below front edge of eye and with

13-20 blue spots along the flanks, is evidently based on an erroneous

identity of Sardinella sirm (Walb.); there are no spots along the flanks

and the maxilla does not reach the vertical through the anterior edge

of eye in S. clupeoides and S. leiogaster, ( vide Chan, op. cit.; Whitehead

et al., op. cit.). Hornell (op. cit.) listed Clupea leiogaster (Val.) as one

of the principal food fishes caught off Tuticorin (south-east coast of

India) and based his identity on Day’s (1889) description of the

species which is here considered conspecific with Sardinella sirm.

Munro’s (1955:26) record of Amblygaster clupeoides (Blkr.) from

Sri Lanka with 17-22+32-33 gillrakers, is undoubtedly Sardinella leiogas-

ter Valenciennes as S. clupeoides (Blkr.) has a lower count (26-30 vs.

31-36) ( vide Whitehead et al., op. cit.). Deraniyagala (1929, 1952),

however, correctly reported S. clupeoides from Sri Lanka with 27-29

gillrakers but his S. sirm with 30-40 gillrakers is clearly a mixture of

both S. sirm and S. leiogaster. Kuthalingam’s (op. cit.) record of S.

clupeoides from Madras is erroneous as in no species of the subgenus

Amblygaster does the maxilla reach below the middle of the eye.

Hornell (op. cit. — as Clupea leiogaster ) and later Menon (1961)

recorded Sardinella sirm (Walb.), and Bonnet! (1965) reported Sardi-

nella clupeoides (Blkr.) for the first time from Indian waters. All the

three species of the subgenus Amblygaster, therefore, occur in the

Indian and Sri Lanka waters. A key to the field identification of the

three species of the subgenus Amblygaster is given below:

I. A series of 10-12 dark blue spots along flank; maxilla reaching vertical

from anterior eye border . . . . . . . . sirm (Walb.)

II. No series of spots on flanks; maxilla not reaching vertical from anterior

eye border.

a. Body moderately heavy; dorsal fin origin slightly nearer to tip

of snout than to caudal base; gillrakers 26-30 . .clupeoides (Blkr.)

b. Body slender, elongated; dorsal fin origin approximately equi-

distant between tip of snout and caudal base; gillrakers 31-36

leiogaster Val.

Summary

Sardinella (Amblygaster) leiogaster Valenciennes, belonging to the

family Clupeidae is recorded for the first time from Indian waters,

the earlier record by Hornell (1917) being due to mistaken identity.

The specific status of earlier records of the three species of the sub-

genus Amblygaster, which was in great confusion until Chan (1965),

Whitehead, et al. (1966) and Whitehead (1966) revised the systematics,

from the Indian Seas has been cleared and the distributional limits

discussed.

SARDINELLA LEIOG ASTER FROM INDIAN SEAS

45

Ack n o wledge m e n t

We are grateful to Dr. P. J. P. Whitehead, British Museum (Nat-

ural History), London for kindly confirming the identification of our

specimen.

References

Bennett, P. S. (1965) : On Sardi-

nella clupeoides (Bleeker) from the

coasts of India. J. mar. biol. Ass.

India 7(1): 208-210.

Bertin, L. (1944) : Mise au point

sur quelques especes de clupeides.

Bull. Soc. zool. France 66: 18-25.

Chan, W. L. (1965): A systematic

revision of the Indo-Pacific clupeoid

fishes of the genus Sardinella (family

Clupeidae). Jap. Jour. Ichthyol. 12(3-

6): 104-118; ibid. 73(1-3) : 1-39.

Day, F. (1878): The Fishes of

India. Vol. I. Williams & Norgate,

London, pp. 778.

(1889): The fauna of

British India, including Ceylon and

Burma. Fishes. Vol. I. Taylor &

Francis, London, pp. 548.

Deraniyagala, P. E. P. (1929):

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(1952): A colour-

ed atlas of some Vertebrates from

Ceylon. Vol. I. Fishes. Ceylon Na-

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tions to the biology of the Philippine

Archipelago and adjacent regions.

Bull. U. S. nat. Mus. (100) 13: 1-879.

Hornell, J. (1917): A statistical

analysis of the fishing industry of

Tuticorin (South India). Madras Fish.

Bull. 11(2): 67-118.

Kuthalingam, M. D. K. (1961) :

Observations on the feeding habits of

some Sardines together with the key

to the identification of the young

ones of the genus Sardinella. Rec. In-

dian Mus. 59: 455-469.

Menon, A. G. K. (1961): On a

collection of fish from the Coroman-

del Coast of India including Pondi-

cherry and Karaikkal areas. Rec. In-

dian Mus. 59 : 369-404.

Misra, K. S. (1947): A check-list

of the fishes of India, Burma and

Ceylon. II Clupeiformes, Bathyclupei-

formes, Galaxiiformes, Scopeliformes

and Ateleopiformes. Rec. Indian Mus.

45: 377-431.

Munro, I. S. R. (1955): The ma-

rine and fresh water fishes of Ceylon.

Canberra. 350 p. + 56 pis.

Regan, C. T. (1917): A revision

of the clupeoid fishes of the genera

Sardinella, Harengula, etc. Ann. Mag.

nat. Hist. (8) 19: 377-395.

Whitehead, P. J. P. (1967a) : The

clupeoid fishes described by Lacepede,

Cuvier & Valenciennes. Bull. Br. Mus.

nat. Hist. (Zool.) Suppl. 2: 1-178.

(1967b): The clu-

peoid fishes of Malaya. J. mar. biol.

Ass. India 9(2): 223-280.

, Boeseman, M. &

Wheeler, A. (1966): The types of

Bleeker’s Indo-Pacific clupoid and

clupeoid species. Zool. Verhandl.

Leiden 84: 1-152.

A new Copepod from Ratnagiri

BY

M. R. Ranade

Marine Biological Research Station, Ratnagiri

( With twelve figures in three plates )

In the month of January 1962, a number of copepods were

collected from the mantle cavity of Solen kempi Preston, from the sandy

beaches of Purangad, ten miles south of Ratnagiri. On a closer exami-

nation of the material, it was found that the copepods were not des-

cribed previously. This was also confirmed by Dr. J. H. Stock, who

kindly examined the specimens and offered great help in the prepara-

tion of this account.

Leptinogaster stocki sp. nov.

Material and types:

Several ovigerous females and adult males were collected from the

mantle of Solen kempi -from Purangad near Ratnagiri. (Type to be

incorporated later).

The specific name stocki is proposed in honour of Dr. J. H.

Stock of Zoologisch Museum, Amsterdam (Netherlands).

Description of the adult female:

Body cyclopoid ,somewhat flattened (Fig. 1). Length of the body

excluding the caudal seta 3.0 mm, width 1.0 mm. The prosome equals

the length of urosome and is four segmented. The first prosomal seg-

ment is larger and nearly equals the length of the remaining three seg-

ments. It is slightly wider than long and the length-breadth proportion

is 45:55. Rostrum is distinct and triangular in shape. The cephalosome

is ovoid anteriorly whereas the posterior end is almost straight. The

remaining four pedigerous segments become, successively narrower

and are separated by deep incisions. There is a wide gap between the

segments bearing fourth and fifth pairs of legs. The urosome is five

segmented and bears the reduced fifth pair of legs on its first segment,

which is the widest. The genital segment is longer than wide. The re-

maining three segments are shorter than the genital segment. All the

urosome segments become successively narrower. The last three seg-

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 71 (1)

Ranade: Leptinogaster stocki sp. nov.

Leptinogaster stocki sp. nov.

Fig. 1. Adult female (x 75), dorsal view. Fig. 12. Adult male (x 75), dorsal view.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 71 (1) Plate II

Ranade: Leptinogaster stocki sp. nov.

Leptinogaster stocki sp. nov.

Adult female. Fig. 2. First antenna (x 400) ; Fig. 3. Second antenna (x 400) ;

Fig. 4. Mandible (x 400); Fig. 5. Maxillule (x 400); Fig. 6. Moxilla; Fig. 11.

Fifth leg. Adult male. Fig. 13. Maxilliped (x 400).

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 71 (1)

Ranade: Leptinogaster stocki sp. nov.

Plate III

Leptinogaster stocki sp. nov.

Adult female. Fig. 7. First leg (x 400); Fig. 8. Second leg (x 400); Fig. 9.

Third leg (x 400); Fig. 10. Fourth leg (x 240).

A NEW COPEPOD FROM RAT NAG I Rl

47

ments are also longer than wide and the last abdominal segment bears

posteriorly two slender caudal rami. The caudal rami are slightly longer

than the last abdominal segment. The caudal ramus is elongate and

slender and bears a lateral seta, a little less than half way along its outer

edge, a subterminal outer seta and three terminal setae, the middle

one being the longest. There is a slender seta present on the middle

distal position of the ramus. There is a group of spinules on the outer

edge near the base of the ramus.

The first antenna (Fig. 2) is six jointed, the first segment the

smallest and the second the longest. There are several setae on the

segments as shown in the figure.

The second antenna (Fig. 3) is four jointed, the first segment with

a seta at the distal end, the second segment bears a seta and group of

spinules at the inner anterior end. The third segment with a row of

spinules on the inner side and two recurved spines, one short and

another stout, at the distal anterior end. The fourth segment is quadrate

bearing three long setae and one short seta.

The mandible (Fig. 4) consists of a single segment and bears at the

terminal end a spine, a plumose seta and a unilaterally serrated spine.

The maxillule (Fig. 5) is unsegmented, quadrate, bearing four setae,

two distal and one on either side.

The maxilla (Fig. 6) has a broad basal segment with row of spin-

ules at the posterior end and a large recurved stout spine with a small

seta at the base.

The maxillipeds are absent.

Rami of the legs 1-4, three segmented with spines and setal formula

as follows:

Leg 1. (fig. 7):- Coxopodite with a row of spines at the outer angle.

Basipodite with an inner spine and an outer seta. There is a row of

small spines at the base of the inner spine. The terminal segment of

the exopod with four spines and four setae. The last endopodite seg-

ment bears three spines and three setae.

Leg 2 (Fig. 8):- The coxopodite with a group of spines at the outer

angle. The basipodite with a seta on the outer edge and a row of spines

terminally. Last exopodite segment with four spines and five setae

instead of four as in 1st leg.. The last endopod segment with three

spines and three setae.

Leg 3 (Fig. 9):- The basipodite with a seta on the outer edge and a

row of spinules on the inner edge. The second segment of the endopod

48 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 71 (1)

bears two setae and the last has three spines and three setae. The last

exopodite segment bears four spines and five setae.

Leg 4 (Fig. 10):- Leg four is similar to leg three except that the last

segment of the endopod bears three spines and two setae instead of

three as in leg three. The last exopodite segment bears four spines and

four setae instead of five as in leg three.

Leg 5 (Fig. 11):- Consists of two segments the first bearing on its

outer edge a single long and slender seta and a row of spinules at the

base of it. The second segment is more elongated than the first and

bears on the outer edge a seta with a group of spinules at its base and

two terminal seta and a stout slightly curved spine with spinules at

their basis. There are two rows of spinules on the inner edge of the

second segment.

Description of the adult male :

Body form (Fig. 12) as in the female. Length of the body exclud-

ing the caudal setae 2.60 mm greatest with 0.75 mm. The urosome

six segmented. The genital segment slightly wider than long and is

oval in shape. The next two segments are each as long as the genital

segment and the last two slightly smaller in length. The genital seg-

ment bears on either side two elongated setae at the postero-lateral

angles. There is a row of spines at the base of the seta.

The first antenna, second antenna, mandible, maxillule and the

maxilla as in the case of female. The maxilliped (Fig. 13) four jointed,

the first segment without any seta. The second also without a seta but

having rows of spines on the inner side which is considerably elevated,

the third segment very short and the fourth a long terminal claw bear-

ing a single inner seta.

Spine and setal formula of legs 1-4 as in female Leg 5 similar to

that of female except instead of two rows of spinules on the inner

edge of the second segment there are two patches of spinules on the

same side.

Remarks :

The genus Leptinogaster was created by Pelseneer ( 1928) 1 to

accommodate the species pholadis. The number of species so far re-

corded under the genus Leptinogaster Pelseneer is as follows:

1) Leptinogaster pholadis Pelseneer

2) Leptinogaster histrio (Pelseneer)

3) Leptinogaster major (Williams)

4) Leptinogaster inf lata (Allen)

1 Pelseneer, P. (1928): Copepods parasites de Mollusques. Ann. Soc. Rav.

zool. Belg. 59: 33-49.

A NEW COPEPOD FROM RAT NAG I Rl

49

5) Leptinogaster scobina (Humes & Cressy)

6) Leptinogaster dentata (Humes & Cressy)

Leptinogaster stocki differs from L. inflata and L. histrio in not

having an inflated metasome in the adult females. It differs from L.

pholadis in having two spines on the third segment of the second an-

tenna instead of one and in the different shape of the second segment

of the male maxilliped. It differs from L. major in the less elongate

fifth leg in female and different position of the outer edge spine on

the second segment of the fifth leg. It differs from L. scobina and L.

dentata in having spines and setae on the terminal segment of the

exopod of the fourth leg instead of six. Apart from these, the species

differs from all other species in having two setae instead of one on the

second endopod segment of the fourth leg.

The genus Leptinogaster Pelseneer is being recorded in Indian

waters for the first time. After the key given by Bocquet & Stock

( 1958) 1 three more species have been added under the genus Lepti-

nogaster Pelseneer and therefore an up-to-date key for the identifica-

tion of all the species is given below:

Key to the identification of species of Leptinogaster Pelseneer based on

female specimens

1 Metasome in the adult female inflated 3

2 Metasome in the adult female not inflated 5

3 Caudal rami longer than the anal segment L. inflata (Allen)

4 Caudal rami shorter than the anal segment. .L. histrio (Pelseneer)

5 Second endopod segment of the 4th leg with one seta 7

6 Second endopod segment of the 4th leg with two setae

L. stocki sp. nov.

7 Third segment of the second antenna with two spines 9

8 Third segment of the second antenna with one spine

L. pholadis (Pelseneer)

9 Terminal segment of the exopod of the 4th leg with 6 spines and

setae 11

10 Terminal segment of the exopod of the 4th leg with 8 spines and

setae L. major (Williams)

11 Spines on the 3rd segment of the 2nd antenna claw like

L . dentata (Humes & Cressy)

12 Spines on the 3rd segment of the 2nd antenna not claw like

L. scobina (Humes & Cressy)

1 Bocquet, C. & Stock J. H. (1958): Copepodes parasites d’invertebres des

cotes da la Manche. IV Sur lestrois genres synonymes de copepodes cyclopoider,

Leptinogaster Pelseneer, Strongylo pleura Pelseneer, et Myocheres Wilson (Clau-

sidiae). Arch. Zoo]. Exp. Gen. 96:71-79,

4

50 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 71 (1)

Acknowledgements

I wish to express my sincere thanks to Dr. J. H. Stock for kindly

confirming the identity of the new species. I am grately indebted to

Dr. C. V. Kulkarni for encouragement and to Dr. H. G. Kewalramani

for going through the manuscript and making helpful suggestions. My

sincere thanks are also due, to Shri. K. A. Narasimham who kindly

placed the copepods collected by him at my disposal.

Records and observations on

bats of Himalayan region of

Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal,

India

BY

H. R. Bhat

Virus Research Centre, Indian Council of Medical Research, Poona,

India

During a survey of haematophagous arthropods in the Hima-

layan region of Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal between November

1966 and August 1970, 362 specimens of bats were collected for

ectoparasitic search. These specimens represent 15 genera and 20

species. Additional geographical and ecological ranges for some

species are recorded. Notes on distribution, reproduction and

general natural history are presented for some of the species.

This paper presents data on bats collected in the Himalayan region

of Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal by me intermittently between Nov-

ember 1966 and August 1970 during a haematophagous arthropod

survey. A total number of 362 specimens representing 15 genera and

20 species was collected. This included 14 of the 26 species recorded

from this area in the Checklist by Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951),

two species recorded later on (Bhat, 1967, 1968) and 4 additional

species. Representative specimens of each species are preserved either

as dry skins and skulls or as wet specimens in formalin.

Additional notes on distribution, reproduction and general natural

history are given for some of the species.

Collection Localities

Brief description of the collection localities are given below. The

altitudes in many instances are approximate. The area has diverse

1 Accepted May 15, 1972,

52 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 71 (1)

geographical and ecological features represented by tropical, subtro-

pical temperate and alpine zones.

Uttar Pradesh:

District: naini tal : - 1) Bilaspur near Bhim Tal (1380 m), sub-

tropical zone; 2) Dugada (680 m), Balya valley, tropical zone; 3)

Garjia (460 m), Kosi valley, tropical zone; 4) Haldwani (430 m),

below foot hills in Bhabar, tropical zone; 5) Ramnagar (350 m), be-

low foot hills in Bhabar, Kosi valley, tropical zone; 6) Rani bag (620

m), Balya valley, tropical zone.

District: almora:- 7) Arey (770 m), near Bageshwar, Sarju valley,

tropical zone; 8) Bageshwar (770 m), Sarju valley, tropical zone; 9)

C halt hi (620 m), Ladhiya valley, tropical zone; 10) Dhakuri (2620

m), western slope of the Dhakuri Binayak range, Pindar valley, upper

temperate zone; 11) Dwali (2770 m), Pindar valley, temperate

zone; 12) Kapkot (1140 m), Sarju valley, subtropical zone; 13) Katai-

thbara (770 m), near Bageshwar; 14) Katarmal (1380 m), near

Almora, Kosi valley, lower temperate zone; 15) Khati (2300 m),

Pindar valley, upper temperate zone; 16) Loharkhet (1960 m), Sarju

valley, temperate zone; 17) Phaltaniya (770 m), near Bageshwar; 18)

Sukhidhang (1380 m), lower temperate zone.

District: pithoragarh : - 19) Aat (920 m), near Thai, Ramganga

valley, subtropical zone; 20) Dharchula (920 m). Kali valley, sub-

tropical zone; 21) Dummer (1540 m), Gori valley, temperate zone;

22) Girgaon (2000 m), on southern face of Kalamundi ridge, tem-

perate zone; 23) Khela (1540 m), near Tawaghat, lower temperate

zone; 24) Kotera (920 m), near Dharchula, subtropical zone; 25)

Kuity (1380 m), near Tejam, subtropical zone; 26) Lilam (2000 m),

Gori valley, temperate zone; 27) Martoli (3380 m), Gori valley,

alpine zone; 28) Milam (3540 m), Gori valley, alpine zone; 29) Patet

(920 m), near Thai, Ramganga valley, subtropical zone; 30) Tawaghat

(1140 m), Dhauli valley, subtropical zone; 31) Tejam (1080 m), Ram-

ganga valley, subtropical zone; 32) Thai (920 m), Ramganga valley,

subtropical zone.

District: pauri:- 33) Dalmisain (610 m), Kho valley, tropical

zone; 34) Dungripanth (610 m), Alakananda valley, tropical zone;

35) Narkota (610 m), Alakananda valley, tropical zone; 36) Raitoli

(610 m), Alakananda valley, tropical zone; 37) Srinagar (550 m),

Alakananda valley, tropical zone.

District: chamoli:- 38) Didoli (770 m), near Sonia, Alakananda

valley, subtropical zone; 39) Dogalbita (2370 m), Nagnath hill range,

temperate zone; 40) Guliyo (1230 m), near Gopeshwar, subtropical

zone; 41) Gwaldam (200 m), Pindar valley, temperate zone.

District: tehri:- 42) Ghonti (920 m), Bhillangana valley, sub-

BATS OF HIMALAYAN REGION

53

tropical zone.

District: dehra dun:- 43) Dehra Dun (610 m), tropical zone;

44) Ramgarh (600 m), tropical zone; 45) Sahasradhara (770 m), tro-

pical zone; 46) Sahaspur (600 m), tropical zone; 47) Satyanarayan

(340 m), tropical zone.

West Bengal:

District: Darjeeling:- 48) Tashiding (550 m), Tista river valley,

tropical zone.

District: jalpaiguri:- 49) Chunabhatti (200 m), Lish river basin,

tropical zone.

In addition to these localities attempts had been made to collect

bats at a number of other localities, but with negative results.

Records and notes on Species

i

Rousettus leschenaulfi Desmarest, 1820

(Fulvous Fruit Bat)

Specimens collected : Total 74 (45 21 $9,2 sex unrecorded). 2 SS,

3 $ $ (1 juvenile), Dungripanth, 18 May ’67; 1 s 1 sex unrecorded, Narkota, each

on 20 and 21 May ’67; 2 SS, 1 9, Raitoli, 23 May ’67: 5 SS, Dugada, 8

Sept. ’67; 1 cT, 1 9, Patet, 11 Sept. ’67; 5 SS, Tejam 13 Sept. ’67; 6 S S', 9

9 $, Kapkot, 30 Sept. ’67; 1 $ (juvenile), Srinagar, 24 Oct. ’67; 1 $, Sahasra-

dhara, 31 Oct. ’67; 4 SS, Dalmisain, 12 Nov. ’67; 2 SS, Phaltaniya, 6 May

’68; 2 SS, Kataithbara, 7 May ’68; 2 $ $, Kataithbara, 8 May ’68; 1 S, 2 $ $,

Thai, 5 Aug. ’70; 12 SS, 3 9 9, Thai, 7 Aug. ’70; 2 tfc?, 4 99, 1 baby, Aat

9 Aug. ’70.

Notes'. Specimens were collected in mist nets set between fruit

trees, mainly bananas, near the cultivations in tropical and subtropical

zones. Two juveniles were collected, one each in May and October.

A female collected in August was carrying a baby with eyes not yet

opened. The findings indicate the possibility of two breeding seasons

for the species in the present area, one each in March and August, as

recorded by Brosset (1962) in Western India.

Cynopterus sphinx Vahl, 1797

(Short-nosed Fruit Bat)

Specimens collected : Total 103 (45 SS, 51 99 and 1 sex unrecorded).

2$$, Dugada, 25 Feb. ’67; 1 cT, 2 9. 9, Dugada, 26 Feb. ’67; 1 sex not re-

corded, Chalthi, 6 Mar. ’67; 2 SS, ^ 9, Dharchula, 17 Mar. ’67; 1 3 99,

Dharchula, 18 Mar. ’67; 1 S', Kotera, 19 Mar. ’67; 1 2 99, Kataithbara,

23 Mar. ’67; 2 $ 9, Arey, 24 Mar. ’67; 4 SS, 3 S S, Dugada, 8 Sept. ’67;

1 9, Tejam, 13 Sept. ’67; 1 S, Dehra Dun, 28 Oct. ’67; 1 9, Ramgarh, 29

Oct. ’67; 1 9, Dalmisain, 12 Nov. ’67; 2 SS, 2 9 $, Dalmisain, 13 Nov. ’67; 2

SS, 1 9, Garjia, one each on 16, 18 and 19 Nov. ’67; 1 s, 3 99, Bilaspur

54 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 71 (1)

23 Nov. ’67; 7 c?c?, 3 $ $ and 1 $, Dugada, respectively on 28 and 29 Nov. ’67;

2 Q $, Sahaspur, 2 Apr. ’68; 1 d% 1 9 . Didoli, 24 Apr. ’68; 1 <?, 4 9 9,

Dugada, 3 May ’68; 2 c?c?, 1 9, Bageshwar, 5 Mar. ’68; 5 cf d71 , 7 99,

Tashiding, between 17 and 19 Mar. ’69; 10 c?c?, 13 9 9, Chunabhatti, between 24

and 28 Mar. ’69; 2 c?c?, 1 9, Dugada, 2 May ’69; and 1 c?, Thai, 5 Aug. ’70.

Notes: Collected in mist nets set between fruit trees, mainly bana-

nas, near cultivation in tropical and subtropical zones.

Sphaerias blanfordi Thomas, 1891

(Blandford’s Fruit Bat)

Specimens collected : Total 40 (21 c?c?, 17 9 9,2 babies and 1 sex unre-

corded) in addition to 51 specimens already reported (Bhat 1968). 1 c?, 1 9,

Sukhidhang, 4 Mar. ’67; 1 sex not reeorded, Dharchula, 17 Mar. ’67; 1 baby

born in mist net, mother already recorded (Bhat 1968), Dummer, 25 Sept ’67;

1 9 plus baby and 3 99, Khela, respectively on 14 and 15 May ’68; 1 9,

Tawaghat, 16 May ’68; 8 c?c? and 2 9 9,4 c?c?, and 2 9 9, 2 c?c? and

3 9 9, 4 c?c? and 19,1c? and 1 9,1c? and 1 9, Dogalbita, respectively

on 10 and 11 May ’69, and 8, 9, 11, and 12 July ’70.

Notes: Collected in mist nets set between fruit trees (mainly bana-

nas) near cultivation and forests in subtropical and temperate zones.

The presence of a baby and juveniles in September indicates .the

month being breeding period. Collection of one baby in May and a

number of young males in July at Dogalbita indicates a possibility of

having a second breeding season in May.

Econycferis spelaea (Dobson, 1871)

(Dobson’s Long-tongued Fruit Bat)

Specimens collected : Only one young male was collected from Thai on 5

May ’70, since the species was first recorded in the area on the basis of 7 speci-

mens (Bhat 1967).

Notes'. Collected in mist net set between banana trees near culti-

vation in tropical and subtropical zones.

Megaderma spasma Linnaeus, 1758

(Malay False Vampire)

Specimen collected :1c?, Chunabhatti, 28 Mar. ’69.

Notes: Collected in mist net set near the Bungalow. Recorded from

this part of country for the first time.

Megaderma lyra Geoff roy, 1810

(Indian False Vampire)

Specimens collected : 2 c?c?, 1 9, Ranibag, respectively on 26 and 27

Aug. ’70.

Notes : These specimens were trapped at 19.30 hrs. in mist nets set

at Dak Bungalow.

BATS OF HIMALAYAN REGION

55

Rhinolophus femimequunim Schreber, 1774

(Greater Horseshoe Bat)

Specimen collected : 1 $, Katarmal, 19 Aug. ’70.

Notes: Trapped at 19.15 hrs. in mist net set on the door of an an-

cient sun-temple. The temple dome was used by the species as day

roost along with Hipposideros armiger.

Rhinolophus affinis Horsfield, 1823

Specimen collected'. 1 S, Bilaspur, 21 Apr. ’67.

Notes: Trapped in mist net set between fruit trees.

Rhinolophus rouxi Temminck, 1835

Specimen collected: 1 9, Tashiding, 18 Mar. ’69.

Notes: Trapped in mist net set between banana trees.

Rhinolophus pearsoni Horsfield, 1851

Specimen collected". 1 S, Narkota, 20 May ’67.

Notes: Trapped in mist net set between banana trees.

Hipposideros armiger Hodgson, 1831

(Great Himalayan Leaf-nosed Bat)

Specimens collected : 3 SS, 4 $ 9, Katarmal, 1 9 on 18 and rest on 19

Aug. ’70.

Notes: 1 c? and 2 9 9 specimens were collected in mist nets set

along verandah of Dak Bungalow. The bats got trapped at 19.30 hrs.„

while entering the verandah which was being used as night roost. 2^ c?

and 2 9 9 were trapped in mist nets on the door of the temple. The

temple was being used as day roost along with Rh. ferrumequinum.

Myotis siligorensis Horsfield, 1855

Specimens collected: Total 22 (6 SS and 16 99). 3 d’o1, 6 9 9, Dwali,

2 SS and 5 99, and 1 S' and 1 9 respectively on 4 and 5 Oct. *67; 2 SS,

10 99, Dogalbita, 2 SS and 999, and 1 9 respectively on 10 and 11 May

’69; and 1 & on 12 Jul. ’70.

Notes’. At both the places the species was using roof crevices as

day roost. The specimens were collected by trapping in mist nets while

they were emerging at dusk. They were also seen while returning to

the roost in the morning about 30 minutes before sunrise.

Myotis myotis dobsoni Trouessart, 1878

(Large Mouse-eared Bat)

Specimen collected : 1 S, Katarmal, 18 Oct. ’70.

Notes'. Trapped in mist net while hunting near a Bungalow.

56 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 71 (1)

The specimens perfectly fits with the description of Vesper tilio

murinus of Blanford (1891) which is a synonym of Myotis myotis

Borkhausen, 1797, according to Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951).

Tate (1947) considers Vespertilio dobsoni Trouessart, 1878 ( Vespertilio

murinoides Dobson, 1873 and V. blythi of Wroughton) as a subspecies

of Myotis myotis occurring in Himalayas. The identity of the specimen

is based on the above reasons. The species is now recorded for the

first time from Kumaon.

Nyctalus leisleri montamis Barret Hamilton, 1906

(Hairy-armed* Bat)

Specimens collected : Total 2. 1 9 , Dogalbita, 8 Jul. ’70; 1 9 , Katarmal,

18 Aug. *70.

Notes : Trapped in mist nets set in Bungalow premises.

Nyctalus noctula labiatus Hodgson, 1835

(Common Noctule)

Specimen collected : 1 Gwaldam, 13 Apr. ’67.

Notes : Collected in mist net set in forest. The species has been

known to occur in the adjacent areas. Recorded for the first time in the

area.

Pipistrellus niimus minuis Wroughton, 1899

(Indian Pigmy Pipistrelle)

Specimens collected : Toatl 21 (6 and 15 9 9). 3 c? cf, 13 99, Hald-

wani, 1 c? and 9 9 $ and 2 and 4 9 9 respectively on 27 and 28 Nov.

’67; 3 cfc?, 2 99, Satyanarayan, one each on 29 Jun. and 2 to 5 Jul. ’70.

Notes : All the specimens were collected either by pulling them out

with forceps from wall crevices or in mist nets at dusk while emerg-

ing from their day roosts in the roof crevices. Both the collections are

from the tropical zone.

Pipistrellus babu Thomas, 1915

Specimens collected : Total 5 (1 d1 and 4 9 9)- 1 cf, Sukhidhang, 2 Mar.

’67; 1 9, Srinagar, 24 Oct. ’67; 3 9 9, Ghonti, 16 Jan. ’70.

Notes : Collected in mist nets set in Bungalow premises at dusk.

Appears to be distributed in tropical, subtropical and lower temperate

zones.

Barbastella leuconielas darjelingensis Hodgson, 1855

Specimen collected :1c?1, Kapkot, 30 Sept. ’67.

Notes : Trapped in mist net set in wooded bungalow premises. The

species has been known to occur in the neighbouring areas, but is

recorded in the present area for the first time.

BATS OF HIMALAYAN REGION

57

Scotophilus heathi Horsfield, 1831

(Greater Yellow Bat)

Specimens collected : Total 15 (7 cPtf and 8 99). 2 d'd', 3 9 9> Hald-

wani, 2 9 9 and 1 & respectively on 28 and 30 Nov. ’67; 1 cf and 1 9 on

May ’68. 5 d'd', 5 9 9, Ramnagar; 5 tfc? and 2 9 9,2 9 $ and 1 9 respec-

tively on 28, 29 and 30 Aug. ’70.

Notes : Trapped in mist nets set in wooded premises of Bungalows

while the bats were hunting. The species was found actively hunting

within 10 feet from the ground between 19.00 to 20.00 hrs. Never met

with in the hills.

Plecotus auritus homochrous Hodgson, 1847

(Long-eared Bat)

Specimens collected'. Total 3. 1 9, Martoli, 18 Sept. ’67; 2 c?d% Milam,

one each on 29 and 30 May ’68.

Notes : Specimen from Martoli was caught flying inside a deserted

building and those from Milam in mist nets set in the open ground. A

number of specimens were observed emerging from the crevices of

slate-roofs just after dusk. Never encountered in lower elevations.

Ack n o wledge m e n ts

I am grateful to Dr. T. Ramachandra Rao, former Director, Virus

Research Centre, Poona, under whose supervision the work has been

carried out. The material was collected under a scheme for the survey

of haematophagous arthropods in the mountainous regions of India,

financed by the Indian Council of Medical Research. The Assistance

rendered by the Armed Forces Medical Services during the collection

trips is gratefully acknowledged.

References

Bhat, H. R. (1967): Dobson’s

Long-tongued fruit bat, Eonycteris

spelaea (Dobson), from Kumaon hills,

U.P. An addition to the Chiropteran

fauna of India. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 64(3) : 550-551.

(1968) : Sphaerias

blanfordi (Thomas, 1891) from Him-

alayan region of Uttar Pradesh: An

addition to the Chiropteran fauna of

India, ibid. 65(2) :471-473.

Blanford, W. T. (1891): The

fauna of British India, including Cey-

lon and Burma, Mammalia, Vol. 2,

Taylor & Francis, London.

Brosset, A. (1962): The bats of

Western and Central India. Part I. J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 59(1): 1-58.

Ellerman, J. R. & Morrison-

Scott, T. C. S. (1951): Checklist of

Palaearctic and Indian Mammals,

1758 to 1946. British Museum (Natu-

ral History), London: 810.

Tate, G. H. H. (1947): Mammals

of Eastern Asia, Macmillan, New

York: 366.

Additions to the Flora of

North Gujarat (Ahmedabad-

Mehsana-Sabarkantha

Districts)1"2

BY

G. L. Shah and D. V. Yogi

Department of Botany, Sardar Patel University, Vallabh Vidyanagar,

Gujarat

Several papers have been published on the flora of some parts of

south and central Gujarat and Saurashtra. However, the information,

available on the flora of north Gujarat through the works of Saxton &

Sedgwick (1918), Saxton (1922) and C. K. Shah (1963), remains in-

complete as many of the areas within the limits of north Gujarat are

not yet botanical explored. Hence it was thought desirable to explore

botanicaljy as many areas of Mehsana and Sabarkantha districts as

possible with a view to fill this lacuna. The present study was confined

to Mansa, Mahudi, Lakroda, Pahada and Keshni in Mehsana district

and Himatnagar, Idar, Khedbrahama, Vireshwar, Sarneshwar and

Vijaynagar in Sabarkantha district. During the course of the intensive

explorations of these areas from 1965 onwards, extensive collections were

made. The total number of species so far reported from north Gujarat

(excluding Lunawada which did not fall within the limits of north

Gujarat even at the time of Saxton and Sedgwick) is 672 to which 8

cyperaceae have been added by C. K. Shah (1963). Almost all the

plants listed by earlier workers have been collected by us. In addition,

there are about 200 species in our collections, which are reported here

for the first time from north Gujarat.3 In the list cultivated plants are

omitted unless they are naturalised or escapes.

Geographically Mahudi, Pahada and Lakroda are on the banks of

river Sabarmati, Keshni on the bank of river Khari, whereas Himat-

nagar and Khedbrahama are situated on the banks of rivers Hathmati

1 Accepted October 24, 1970.

2 Based on the Ph.D. Thesis accepted by Sardar Patel University.

3 Bhatt et al. (Bull. Bot. Surv. Ind. 11: 311-321), published (1972) since

this paper was prepared lists some of the species recorded by us — gls.

ADDITIONS TO THE FLORA OF NORTH GUJARAT

50

and Harnav respectively. All the explored areas are well knit by State

Transport Buses from Ahmedabad, plying at all seasons. Ahmedabad-

Khedbrahama railway line also connects Ahmedabad, Himatnagar,

Idar and Khedbrahama.

Total number of species now known from north Gujarat is nearly

880, indicating that the flora is quite rich. However, the vegetation of

the areas explored is predominantly a scrub forest type but that of

Vireshwar and Sarneshwar is a dry deciduous type with Butea-Alan-

gium community as dominant. The forests in these areas are dense

but Tectona grandis Linn. f. and Terminalia crenulata Roth are rather

occasional.

For the details of nomenclature Santapau & Janardhanan (1967),

Rau (1969) and Shah (1969) may be consulted. The species prefixed

by an asterisk are not given in Cooke’s Flora (1901-08).

Though we have collected plants from Mehsana and Sabarkantha

districts, Ahmedabad district is also included in the title as there are

some plants in the list from Ahmedabad, collected by Saxton and/or

Sedgwick, but not listed by them. Further all the districts are adjacent.

LIST OF PLANTS

FU MARI ACE AE

Fumaria indica Pugsley

Papaveraceae

Papaver somniferum Linn.

Brassicaceae (Cruciferae)

Brassica campestris Linn. var.

sarson Prain

Lepidium sativum Linn.

Raphanus sativus Linn.

Capparaceae

Cleome aspera Koen. ex DC.

C. monophylSa Linn.

Viol ace ae

Viola cinerea Boiss. var. stockii

Beck, forma kathiawarensis

Beck.

CAR YOP H YLLACE AE

Spergula arvensis Linn.

PORTULACACEAE

Portulaca tuberosa Roxb.

Talinum portulacastrum (Forsk.)

Aschers. & Schweinf.

A. manihof (Linn.) Medic.

Abutilon glaucuin (Cav.) Sw.

Azauza lampas (Cav.) Alef.

Hibiscus hirtus Linn.

H. vitifolius Linn.

Seura iueaua Cav.

Sida acuta Burm. f.

S. gSutinosa Cav.

Linum usitatissimum Linn.

Triunifetta rhomboidea Jacq.

T. pentandra A. Rich.

Grewia damine Gaertn.

Grewia tiliaefolia Vahl

S. rhombifolia Linn. var. retusa

Mast.

Abelmoschus ficulneus (Linn.)

Wt. & Arn.

Malvaceae

Tiliaceae

Linaceae

60 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 71 (1)

OXALIDACEAE

Biophytum sensitivum (Linn.)

DC.

Burseraceae

Commiphora wightii (Arn.)

Bhand.

Garuga pinnata Roxb.

Rhamnaceae

Zizyphus horrida Roth

Z. xylopyra Willd.

VlTACEAE

Cissus quadrangularis Linn.

C. repanda Vahl

Papilionaceae

Alysicarpus rugosus DC. var.

minor Prain

Clitoria biflora Dalz.

Crotalaria albida Heyne ex Roth

C. triquetra Dalz.

Dalbergia latifolia Roxb.

Desmodium laxiflorum DC.

D. neomexicanum A. Gray

Dolichos biflorus Linn.

"Lathy ms aphaca Linn.

Medicago polymorpha Linn.

M. lacinitata All.

M. sativa Linn.

Phaseolus angularis (Willd.) Wt. .

P. dalzelii Cooke

P. mungo Linn.

P. radiatus Linn.

Pueraria tuberosa (Roxb.) DC.

Rhynchosia aurea DC.

Sesbania cannabina (Retz.) Pers.

Smithia conferta Sm.

*Tephrosia hamiltonii Drumm.

T. pauciflora Grah.

T. purpurea (Linn.) Pers.

Vigna capensis Walp.

Caesalpiniaceae

Bauhinia tomentosa Linn.

Cassia angustifolia Vahl

C. fistula Linn.

C. kleinii Wt. & Arn.

C. obtusifolia Linn.

C. sophera Linn.

Mimosaceae

Acacia ferruginea DC.

Albizzia odoratissima Bth.

COMBRETACEAE

Anogeissus latifolia (Roxb.)

Wall, ex Bedd.

Combretum ovalifolium Roxb.

Tenninalia bellerica (Gaertn.)

Roxb.

Lythraceae

*Ammannia desertorum Blatt. &

Hallb.

CUCURBITACEAE

Solena heterophylla Lour.

Trichosanthes bracteata (Lam.)

Voigt.

Apiaceae (Umbelliferae)

Centella asiatica (Linn.) Urb.

Trachyspermum stictocarpum

var. stictocarpum

Rubiaceae

Adina cordifolia (Roxb.) Hook.

f. ex Brandis

Ixora brachiata Roxb.

Xeromphis spinosa (Thunb.)

Keay

Asteraceae (Compositae)

Acanthospermum hispidum DC.

Blumea bifoliata DC.

B. membranacea DC.

B. oxydonta DC.

Gnaphalium luteoalbum Linn.

Laggera alata (Don) Sch.-Bip.

ex Oliver

L. aurita (Linn, f.) Sch.-Bip.

Lauuaea residifolia (Linn.)

Druce

Pluchea wallichiana DC.

*Pulkaria crispa Sch.-Bip.

Sonchus asper (Linn.) Hill.

S. brachyotus DC.

ADDITIONS TO THE FLORA OF NORTH GUJARAT

61

Plumbaginaceae

Dyerophytum indicum (Gibs, ex

Wt.) O. Ktze.

Salvadoraceae

Azima tetracantha Lam.

Apocynaceae

Wrightia tomentosa Roem. &

Schult.

Asclepiadaceae

CONVOLVULACEAE

Ipomoea coptica (Linn.) Roth

SCROP H U L ARI ACEAE

Lindernia oppositifolia (Retz.)

Muk.

L. verbenaefolia (Colsm.) Pennell

Gesneriaceae

Didyniocarpus pygmaea Cl.

Bignoniaceae

Tecomella undidata (Sm.) Seem.

ACANTH ACEAE

Barleria cuspidata Heyne ex

Nees

*B. prattensis Sant.

Dipteracanthus patulus (Jacq.)

Nees

Eranthemum roseum (Vahl) R.

Br.

Justicia diffusa Willd.

J. heterocarpa T. Anders.

J. simplex D. Don

Lepidagathis cristata Willd.

Verbenaceae

Gmelina arborea Roxb.

Lantana salvifolia Jacq.

Labiatae

Acrocephalus indicus (Burin, f.)

O. Ktze.

Leucas longifolia Benth.

L. zeylanica R. Br.

Salvia plebeia R. Br.

PLANTAGIN ACEAE

Plantago ovata Forsk.

*P. psyllium Linn.

Amaranthaceae

*Achyrauthes aspera var. prop-

hyristachya Hook. f.

Aerva sanguinolenta (Linn.) Bl.

Amarauthus hybridus Linn. ssp.

cruentus (Linn.) Thell. var.

paniculatus (Linn.) Hell.

A. tricolor Linn.

A. viridis Linn.

*Gomphrena celosioides Mart.

Chenopodiaceae

Salsola baryosma (Roem. &

Schult.) Dandy

Polygon aceae

Polygonum glabrum Willd.

Aristolochiaceae

Aristolochia bracteolata Lam.

Euphorbiaceae

Baliospermum montanum

(Willd.) Muell.-Arg.

Bridelia squamosa (Lam.)

Gehrm.

*DaIechampia scandens Linn.

var. cordofana (Hochst. ex A.

Rich.) Muell.-Arg.

62 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 71 (1)

Euphorbia chamaesyce Linn.

E. clarkeana Hook. f.

E. geniculata Orteg.

Jatropha curcas Linn.

Phyllanthus simplex Linn.

P. urinaria Linn.

Putranjiva roxburghii Wall.

Securinega virosa (Roxb. ex

Willd.) Pax & Hoffm.

Moraceae

i

Ficus aniplissima Sm.

F. arnottiana Miq.

Cannabaceae

Cannabis saliva Linn.

Hydrocharitaceae

Nechamandra alternifolia

(Roxb.) Thw.

Oltelia alisnioides (Linn.) Pers.

ZlNGIBERACEAE

Curcuma inodora Blatt.

Amaryllidaceae

Crinuni pratcnse Herb.

Hypoxidaceae

Curculigo orchioides Gaertn.

Dioscoreaceae

Dioscorea hispida Linn.

Do pentaphylla Linn.

Liliaceae

Asparagus gonoclados Baker

Chlorophytum tuberosum

(Roxb.) Baker

Arecaceae (Palmae)

Borassus habelliffer Linn.

Calamus rotang Linn.

Phoenix sylvestris (Linn.) Roxb.

COMMELINACEAE

Commelma forskalaei Vahl

*C. kurzii Clke.

*C. paludosa Bl.

Cyanotis cristala Schult. f.

Araceae

Amorphophallus sp.

Pistia stratiotes Linn. var. cune-

ata Engl.

Sauromalum venosum (Ait.)

Kunth

Lemnaceae

Lenina paucicostata Hegelm.

Wolffia microscopica (Griff.)

Kurz

Najadaceae

Potamogeton crisp us Linn.

P. nodosus Linn.

Eriocaulaceae

Eriocaulon eleanorae Fyson

Cyperaceae

*Cyperus alulatus Kern

C. compressus Linn.

C. cyperioides (Linn.) O. Ktze.

Eriophoruin comosum Wall, ex

Nees

*Fimbristylis sieberriana Kunth

Rhynchospora wightiana Steud.

POACEAE (GrAMINEAE)

Aristida setacea Retz.

Arena saliva Linn.

Cenchms pennisetiformis Hochst.

& Steud. ex Steud.

Crypsis schoenoides (Linn.) Lam.

Cymbopogon citratus (DC.)

Stapf

*C. gidarba (Ham. ex Hook, f.)

Haines

C. martini! Wats.

*Cynodon barber! Rang.

*Digitaria adscendens H.B.K.

ssp. adscendens var. crinifor-

mis Henr.

Echinochloa stagnina (Retz.)

Beauv.

*Ischaemum goebelii Hack.

*Setaria pallide-fusca (Schum.)

Stapf & C. E. Hubb.

Sorghum vulgare Pers.

Sporobolus piliferus (Trin.)

Kunth

Triticum aestivum Linn.

ADDITIONS TO THE FLORA OF NORTH GUJARAT

63

ACK N OWLEDGE M E N TS

We are deeply grateful to late Dr. H. Santapau, and Prof. P. V.

Bole of St. Xavier’s College, Bombay for facilities to work in the

Blatter Herbarium, Bombay. Sincere thanks are also due to Prof.

G. T. Pandya for allowing us to consult the collections of Saxton and

Sedkwick and Dr. R. S. Rao, Regional Botanist, Botanical Survey of

India, Poona, for confirming the identifications of some grasses.

References

Cooke, T. H. (1901-08): The flora

of the Presidency of Bombay. Lon-

don.

Rau, M. A. (1969): Flora of the

upper Gangetic plain and of the ad-

jacent Siwalik and sub-Himalayan

tracts. Bull. hot. surv. India 10

(Suppl. 2) : 1-87.

Santapau, H. & Janardhanan, K. P.

(1967): The flora of Saurashtra:

Check-list. ibid. (Suppl. 1 ) : 1-58.

Shah, C. K. (1963): Sedges, of

Sabarmati. /. Gujarat Univ. 6:179-185.

Shah G. L. (1969): Nomencla-

tural changes in some Bombay plants

— III. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 66:

231-233.

Saxton, W. T. (1922) : Additional

notes on plants of Northern Gujarat.

Rec. bot. Surv. India 4: 251-262.

& Sedgwick, L. J.

(1918) : Plants of Northern Gujarat,

ibid. 6(7) : 209-323.

Three new species of

Aphelinidae (Hymenoptera :

Aonidiella orientalis (Newst.)

from India1

Zoology Department, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh

The coccid Aonidiella orientalis (Newst.), an important pest of

fruit trees, is parasitized by several species of chalcids. From India the

following encyrtid and aphelinid parasites have been so far recorded:

Encyrtidae: 1. Comperiella bifasciata Howard, 1906

2. Comperiella lemniscata Compere & Annecke, 1961

3. Comperiella unifasciata Ishii, 1925

4. Thomsonisca indica Hayat, 1970

Aphelinidae: 5. Aphytis chrysomphali (Mercet 1912)

6. Aphytis lingnanensis Compere, 1955

7. Azotus qadrii Agarwal, 1964

8. Coccophagoides orientalis (Agarwal, 1964)

9. Marietta javensis (Howard, 1907)

10. Physcus reticulatus Compere & Annecke, 1961

11. Physcus sp. (near flaviventris Howard)

In this paper three new species belonging to the aphelinid genera

Marlattiella Howard, Physcus Howard, and Ablerus Howard are des-

cribed. The genera Marlattiella and Ablerus are new records for India.

3 Accepted December 23, 1971.

2 Present address'. Desert Regional Station, Z.S.I., Paota, B Road, Jodhpur

(Rajasthan).

parasitic on

BY

Mohammad Hayat2

{With fifteen text-figures)

Introduction

THREE NEW SPECIES OF APHELINIDA E

65

Marl at dell a Howard

Howard, 1907, U. S. Dep. agric. Bur. Ent. Tech. Ser. 12:73

Type species: Marlattiella prima Howard

Marlattiella maculata sp. nov.

(Figs. 1-3)

Female —

Length, 0.86 mm. Head whitish; epistoma, basal half of genal

sulcus and an inverted ‘Y’ shaped patch on occiput above foramen

brown. Antennae whitish except club which is brown on basal two-

thirds and yellow on apical third. Thorax whitish with brown or dusky

as follows: Centre of pronotum and propodeum except sides brown;

three patches on anterior margin of mesoscutum and two patches on

posterior fourth, two patches on anterior third and whole of posterior

margin of scutellum dusky. Fore wings hyaline with a faint infuscated

patch below marginal vein. Hind wings hyaline. Legs whitish. Gaster

whitish with a dark brown patch on dorsum extending from base to

level of cereal plates, sides and tenth tergum white.

Fig. 1-3. Marlattiella maculata sp. n. Q . 1. antenna; 2. fore wing; 2a. stigmal

vein; 3. distal part of middle leg.

Head as wide as thorax; frontovertex width nearly one third head

width (6.75:18), one and a half times as long as wide; eyes with short

hairs; ocelli arranged in acute triangle, lateral ocelli removed from eye

rim by one ocellus diameter and from occipital margin by two ocellar

diameters. Proportions of antennal components as in Fig. 1.

Prontoum composed of two triangular plates joined in middle by a

membrane, postero-lateral angles with a long seta; mesoscutum, parap-

5

66 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 71 (1)

sides and scutellum with 6, 2+2 and 4 setae respectively.

Fore wings a little less than three times as long as wide (20:7);

marginal vein longer than submarginal vein (17.5:7.5), these veins

with 12 and 1 setae; postmarginal vein absent; stigmal vein as in Fig.

2a; marginal fringe one fifth width of wing (Fig. 2). Hind wings six

times as long as wide; marginal fringe as long as width of wing.

Tibial spur of middle leg (Fig. 3) a little longer than basitarsus.

Gaster slightly longer than thorax (25:23); ovipositor extends from

second segment, exserted part one fifth length of gaster.

Male — Not known.

material studied: Holotype $ , India: Uttar Pradesh, Aligarh, ex

Aonidiella orientalis (Newst.), on Ficus sp., 22.vii.1968, Coll. M.

Hayat. Holotype will be deposited in the Zoological Survey of India,

Calcutta.

Comments. — M. maculata can be easily separated from the other

two known species by the following key characters:

1. Club about as long as scape; mesoscutum, scutellum and parapsides with

26, 4 and 1+1 setae respectively; submarginal vein with 2 setae

secuda Compere3

1. Club longer than scape, pedicel and funicle combined; mesoscutum, scutel-

lum and parapsides with 6, 4 and 2+2 setae respectively; submarginal

vein with 1 seta 2

2. General colour orange yellow; fore wings hyaline, speculum mesally bound-

ed by about 40 setae, marginal fringe about one third of width of wing

prima Howard

2. General colour whitish with dusky or brown patches, dorsum of gaster

except sides and tenth tergum brown; fore wings with a faint infuscated

patch below marginal vein, speculum mesially bounded by about 70

setae, marginal fringe one fifth of width of wing .... maculata sp. nov.

Physcus Howard

Howard, 1895, U. S. Dep. agric. Ent. Tech. Ser. 1:43

Type species: Coccophagus varicornis Howard

Physcus alisarhensis sp. nov.

(Figs. 4-9)

Female —

Length, 0.83 mm. Head blackish brown; eye rim and frontovertex

testaceous yellow. Thorax blackish brown with testaceous yellow por-

tions as shown in Fig. 4 (unstippled areas). Gaster white with a longi-

tudinal brown band on each side extending from base to cereal plates.

Scape except apex brown, apex of scape and rest of antenna pale

yellow. Wings hyaline. Legs pale yellow, marked with dusky as follows:

3 Rosen and De Bach (1970) consider it as a ‘dubious species of Aphytis,

possibly a “connecting link” between Aphytis and Marlattiella’.

THREE NEW SPECIES OF A PHEL1NIDA E

67

Fig. 4-9. Physcus aligarhensis sp. n. 9 , d • 4. entire female, antennae, wings

and legs removed; 5. antenna, female; 6. antenna, male; 7. stigmal

vein; 8. distal part of middle leg; 9. outer plate of ovipositor.

coxae, femora except distal ends and basal half of tibiae of fore legs;

distal half of femora and basal half of tibiae of middle legs; apices

of coxae, apices of femora and basal half of tibiae of hind legs.

Head broader than thorax (9:7.5); frontovertex about one half

of head width; ocelli arranged in obtuse triangle; antennal sockets

situated far above oral margin, their upper margins a little above an

imaginary line drawn across lower eye margins. Proportions of anten-

nal components as in Fig. 5.

Fore wings two and a half times as long as wide (22:9); sub-

marginal vein as long as marginal vein, these veins with 8 and 9 setae;

stigmal vein short (Fig. 7); postmarginal vein absent; length of mar-

ginal fringe one fifth width of wing. Hind wings six times as long as

wide, marginal fringe shorter than wing width.

Tibial spur of middle leg as long as basitarsus (Fig. 8).

Gaster as long as thorax; outer plates of ovipositor (Fig. 9) with a

submarginal ridge along dorsal margin; third valvulae one and a half

68 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 71 (1)

times longer than tibial spur of middle leg; ovipositor not exserted.

Male — Essentially similar to the female except for the following dif-

ferences :

Body completely blackish; scape except apex, pedicel and first

funicle segment brown, rest of antenna yellow; proportions of antennal

components as in Fig. 6.

material studied: Holotype 9 : 2 9 , 1 c? , paratypes, India: Uttar

Pradesh, Aligarh, ex Aonidiella orientalis (Newst.), on Ficus sp.

18 . vii . 1968, Coll. M. Hayat. Material will be deposited in the Zoolo-

gical Survey of India, Calcutta.

Comments — P. aligarhensis sp. n. comes closest to P. flavoflagel-

latus De Santis, 1940, but differs by the specific body colour, length

of marginal fringe of both fore and hind wings, and in the male by

the brown colour of the first funicle segment.

Ablerus Howard

Howard, 1894, Insect Life 7:7

Type species: Centrodora clisiocampae Ashmead

Ablerus aonidiellae sp. nov.

(Figs. 10-15)

Female —

Length, (excluding exserted part of oyipositor), 0.61 mm (0.09

mm). Head white; occiput blackish, shiny; malar space with a brown

band extending from postgenae, passing below the eyes, and touching

antennal sockets. Thorax and gaster dark brown with faint violet and

greenish reflections. Dorsal surface of scape, basal two-thirds of pedi-

cel, funicles I and III and club brownish; rest of antenna white. Fore

wings infuscated with apical third hyaline. Hind wings hyaline. Legs:

coxae except apices, fore and middle femora except base and apical

half, hind femora except base and apex narrowly, fore and middle

tibiae except base and apical half, hind tibiae except apex, and last

tarsal segment of all legs brown; rest of parts white.

Frontovertex width one fourth head width (1:4), a third longer

than its own width (3:2); ocelli in obtuse triangle, lateral ocelli near

to eye rim and removed from occipital margin by one ocellus diameter;

antennal sockets removed from facial margin by a distance equal to

length of a socket; malar space as long as eye width; mandibles with

two teeth and a dorsal truncation. Proportions of antennal components

as in Fig. 10.

Thorax shorter than gaster (3:5); pronotum (Fig. 12) with ante-

rior and posterior margins concave, each postero-lateral side with 2

brown setae; mesoscutum, axillae and scutellum with 4, 1+1 and 4

THREE NEW SPECIES OF APHEEINIDAE

69

setae respectively; scutellum over twice wider than long (25:11);

median length of propodeum a trifle over three times that of metano-

tum (13:4); mesopostphragma one-third length of gaster, its apex

truncate.

14

Fig. 10-15. Ablerus aonidiellae sp. n. Q . 10. antenna; 11. fore wing; 12. pro-

notum; 13. distal part of middle leg; 14. outer plate of ovipositor;

15. subgenital plate.

Fore wings (Fig. 11) with submarginal vein longer than marginal

vein, these veins with 2 and 4 setae; length of marginal fringe 1/3 width

of disc. Hind wings six times as long as wide; marginal fringe as long

as width of wing.

Tibial spur of middle leg shorter than basitarsus (Fig. 13).

Gaster longer than thorax; outer plates of ovipositor (Fig. 14)

narrow, dorsal margin with an inflexion extending from base to two-

thirds length of the plate; subgenital plate (Fig. 15) with a notch in

middle of posterior margin, sides of notch followed by wavy ridges,

mid-longitudinal groove and antero-lateral apodemes present; exserted

70 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 71 (1)

part of ovipositor one third length of gaster.

Male — Not known.

material studied: Holotype $ : 2 9 9 paratypes, India: Uttar Pradesh,

Aligarh, ex Aonidiella orientalis (Newst.), on Psidium guajava L.,

12. ix. 1969, Coll. M. Hayat. Material will be deposited in the Zoolo-

gical Survey of India, Calcutta.

Comments — A. aonidiellae sp. n. can be easily separated from

A. clisiocampae (Ashmead) and A. magistrettii Blanchard, to which

it is most closely related, by the following key characters:

1. Marginal vein with 4 setae; apical one third of fore wing hyaline; length

of marginal fringe one third width of wing. Hind wing with marginal

fringe as long as width of wing. Basitarsi of all legs whitish

aonidiellae sp. n.

1. Marginal vein with 3 setae; apical one fourth of fore wing hyaline; length

of marginal fringe 1/5 to 1/6 width of wing. Hind wing with marginal

fringe shorter than width of wing. Basitarsi of all legs brown 2

2. Submarginal vein with 2 setae. Second tarsal segment of all legs whitish.

Tibial spur of middle leg shorter than basitarsus

magistrettii Blanchard

2. Submarginal vein with 1 seta. Second tarsal segment of all legs brown.

Tibial spur of middle leg as long as basitarsus

clisiocampae (Ashmead)

ACK NOWLEDGE M E N TS

I am grateful to Prof. S. Mashhood Alam, Head of the Zoology

Department, for his helpful criticism and for facilities. Thanks are due

to Dr. R. F. Wilkey, California Department of Agriculture, Sacramento,

C.A. (U.S.A.), for identification of the coccids. Financial assistance

from the USDA under PL 480 A-7-ENT-36, grant No. 299, is grate-

fully acknowledged.

References

Agarwal, M. M. (1964a) : Studies

of forms of Aphelinidae (Hymenop-

tera-Chalcidoidea) collected at Aligarh

(India) — I. — Proc. Indian Acad. Sci.

B. 59: 263-286.

(1964b): Studies of

forms & c. II.— ibid. 60:315-335.

(1965) : Taxonomy

of Encyrtid parasites (Hymenoptera:

Chalcidoidea) of Indian Coccoidea. —

Acta ILymenopt. 2:37-97.

Compere. H. & Annecke, D. P.

(1961) : Descriptions of parasitic

Hymenoptera and comments (Aph.,

Eul., Ency.). — J. ent. Soc. South Afr.

24:17-11.

De Bach, P. (1959) : New species

and strains of Aphytis (Hymenoptera,

Eulophidae) parasitic on the Cali-

fornia red scale Aonidiella aurantii

(Mask.), in the Orient. — Ann. ent.

Soc. Am. 52: 354-362.

Glover, P. M. (1935): An account

of the occurrence of Chrysomphalus

THREE NEW SPECIES OF APHELIN1DAE

7i

aurantii Mask and Laccifer lacca

Kerr on grape fruit in Ranchi district,

Chota Nagpur, with a note on the

Chalcidoid parasites of Aspidiotus

orientalis Newst. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 38 : 151-153.

Hayat, M. (1970): New species of

Encyrtidae (Hymenoptera : Chalcido-

idea) reared from coccids. Mushi 44:

55-63.

(1971): Two new and

known species of Aphelinidae (Hym-

enoptera: Chalcidoidea) from India.

Bull. Ent. 72:118-121. (1972).

(1973) : On some Indian

species of Aphelinidae with a descrip-

tion of a new Coccophagus (Hymen-

optera : Chalcidoidea) . — /. nat. Hist. 7.

Rosen, D. & De Bach, P. (1970):

Notes on the genus Marlattiella Ho-

ward (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae).

Mushi 43: 39-44.

Smithsonia (Orcliidaceae),

a new Genus from Western

India1

BY

Cecil J. S aldan ha

St. Joseph's College, Bangalore

{With two plates )

In his study on Sarcochilus R. Br. and Pteroceras Hassk., Holttum

(Kew Bull. 14:263-276, 1960) doubted the generic status of two orchids

described by Dalzell from Western India.

The first was described as Micropera maculata Dalz. This species

was transferred to Sarcochilus R. Br. by Pfitzer, shifted to Saccola-

bium Bl. by J. D. Hooker and placed in Gastrochilus Don by Otto

Kuntze. Holttum withheld his opinion with the remark “I would like

to see fresh flowers of this species before assigning it to a genus.”

The second plant was named Micropera viridiflora Dalz. This was

transferred to Saccolabium by Lindley, to Sarcochilus by Cooke and

to Gastrochilus by Santapau & Kapadia. While accepting the view of

Santapau & Kapadia, Holttum observed “the lip of the species has a

rather narrow spur in place of the wide sac of Malaysian species of

Gastrochilus.”

The plants described by Dalzell cannot be retained in Micropera

Lindley as the type of the genus has itself been transferred to Cama-

rotis. As Holttum points out, the name Micropera Lindl. has no status.

These plants cannot be included in Saccolabium Bl. as this genus is

characterised by the presence of a fleshy callus inside the spur cavity

and by two, entire pollinia. Neither can they be assigned to Sarcoch-

ilus R. Br. which has four pollinia in two unequal pairs and a movable

sac-like lip with a prominent callus inside the spur. They cannot be

included in Gastrochilus Don which has a saccate-cupular, broad lip,

a transverse fringed mid-lobe and 2, only slightly notched or indented

pollinia.

Both Micropera maculata Dalz. and M. viridiflora Dalz. — fairly

common plants in Western India — have pointed spurs devoid of septa.

Accepted May 25, 1972.

J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Saldanha : Smithsonia

SMITHSONIA GEN. NOV.

73

calli or tongue-like projections within the spur cavity. The spur cavity

is hairy in the former and glabrous in the latter. The pollinia are 2,

deeply grooved and unequally lobed. I have collected a third orchid

with somewhat similar spur and pollinia. These three form a distinct

genus that can be segregated from the other genera in this group. I

am naming this genus Smithsonia in honour of James Smithson.

Smithsonia gen. nov.

Pertinet ad tribum Sarcanthinearum et distinguibile calcare amo-

vibile, attenuate, non-septato, intus glabro vel pubescente, sine callosi-

tatibus distinctis vel projecturis liguliformibus. Label lum 3-lobatum,

lobis lateralibus erectis et lobo mediano transversali plus minusve calcar

obtegente. Pollinia 2, profunde in lobis inaequalibus sulcata. Stipes

indivisus, exilis, ad apicem glandula bifida. Rostellum bifidum in direc-

tionem calcaris productum.

Dilfert a Saccolabio calcare attenuate, sine septis vel callositatibus

et polliniis profunde sulcatis. Differt etiam a Sarcochilo absentia in

calcare prominentiarum numeroque polliniorum. Distinguibile a Gas-

trochilo calcaris forma et polliniorum sulco.

Smithsonia gen. nov.

The genus belongs to the tribe Sarcanthineae and is characterised

by an immovable, attenuated, non-septate spur that may be glabrous

or hairy within and is devoid of callus pads or tongue-like projections.

Lip 3 -lobed, with lateral lobes erect and a transverse central lobe more

or less covering the spur. Pollinia 2, deeply furrowed into 2 unequal

lobes. Stipe undivided, slender with a bifid gland at tip. Rostellum bifid

pointing towards spur.

Differs from Saccolabium by the attenuated spur which is devoid

of septa and by the deeply furrowed pollinia. It differs from Sarco-

chilus by the absence of projections in the spur and by the number of

pollinia. It is distinguished from Gastrochilus by the shape of the spur

and the groove of the pollinia.

The following three species are included in the genus.

Smithsonia strain iot a sp. nov. Generis typus

Planta epiphytica. Radices 3-6 ex basi caulis orientes, usque 10 cm

longae, 0.4 cm diam. Caulis brevissimus. Folia 2-4, disticha, coriacea,

elliptico-oblonga, paulo canaliculata, ad apicem integra vel bilobata,

versus basim attenuata articulata et imbricata, usque 0.7 x 2 cm.

Racemi 1-2, generatim infrafoliares foliisque breviores, 4-8 floribus.

Flores diuturni, bracteati, sessiles, 0.5 cm diam.; sepala subsimilia,

obovata, straminea maculisque rubris. Labellum amovibile, calcaratum,

3-lobatum. Calcar roseum, subconicum, rectum, nec callositatibus nec

74 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 71 (1)

projecturis praeditum, 3-4 mm longum; lobi laterales albi, erecti, acuti,

sicuti calcaris marginis prolongationes; lobus medianus albus, trans-

versalis, arcuatus, integer, lateraiiter breviter obtusus, prope cum cal-

care juncturam paulo torulosus. Columna rosea, brevis, cum calcaris

margine conjuncta. Operculum stramineum. Pollinia 2, profunde

sulcata. Stipes simplex, angustatus ad apicem glandula ligulata. Ros-

tellum 2-lobatum, in directionem calcaris productum. Capsula ellip-

tico-obovata, prominenter costata, 0.5 x 1.5 cm.

A S. viridiflora statura coloreque florum, forma calcaris labellique

loborum differt. A S. maculata plantae statura, inflorescentiae longi-

tudine, forma staturaque florum facile distinguibilis.

Smithsonia straminea sp. nov.

An epiphyte. Roots 3-6, arising from the base of the stem, up to

10 cm long and 0.4 cm in diam. Stem very short. Leaves 2-4, distichous,

coriaceous elliptic-oblong and slightly channelled, imbricating, bilobed

or entire at apex, narrowed and articulated at base. Racemes 1-2,

generally below and shorter than the leaves, 4-8 flowered. Flowers

lasting for several days, bracteate, sessile, 0.5 cm across. Sepals straw-

coloured with red spots, subsimilar, obovate, 1.5 x 3 mm; petals slightly

smaller and narrower, yellow with red spots. Lip immovable, spurred,

3-lobed. Spur pink, sub-conical, straight, without calli or projections

within, 3-4 mm long; lateral lobes white, erect, acute, as prolongations

of the rim of the spur; mid-lobe white, transverse, arching downwards,

entire, shortly obtuse on the sides, with a small knob near junction

with the spur. Anther cap yellowish. Pollinia 2, deeply cleft. Stipe

single, narrow, ending in a tongue-like gland. Rostellum 2-lobed, point-

ing towards spur. Capsule elliptic-obovate, strongly ribbed, 0.5 x 1.5 cm.

Differs from Smithsonia viridiflora in size and colour of flowers,

shape of the spur and lobes of the lip. It is easily separated from

S. maculata by the size of the entire plant, length of the inflorescence

and by the shape and size of the flowers.

Holotype : Saldanha 13361 collected at Devalkere in Hassan Dis-

trict, Mysore State on 14 April 1969 and preserved in the Herbarium

of St. Joseph’s College, Bangalore. Paratypes: HFP 1608 and 1675

collected in the same district in April-May 1971.

Smithsonia maculata (Dalz.) comb. nov.

Micropera maculata Dalzell, Hooker’s T. Bot. 3:282. 1851.

Sarcochilus maculatus (Dalz.) Pfitzer, Vergl. Morph. Orch. 15. 1881.

Saccolabium maculatum (Dalz.) J. D. Hooker, FI. Brit. India 6:64. 1890.

Gastrochilus maculatus (Dalz.) O. Kuntze, Rev. Gen. PI. 2:661. 1891;

Santapau & Kapadia, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 59:841. 1963.

SMITHSONIA GEN. NOV.

75

Smithsonia viridiflora (Dalz.) comb. nov.

Micropera viridiflora Dalzell, Hooker's J. Bot. 3:282. 1851.

Saccolabium viridiflorum (Dalz.) Lindley, J. Linn. Soc. Bot. 3:36. 1858.

Sarcochilus viridiflorus (Dalz.) Cooke, FI. Pres. Bombay 2:697. 1907. (non

Hooker, 1890).

Sarcochilus dalzellianus Santapau, Kew Bull. 1948:498. 1949.

Gastrochilus dalzellianus (Sant.) Santapau & Kapadia, J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 59:842. t. 52A. 1963.

Key to the species

A Inflorescence longer than the leaves S. maculata

AA Inflorescence shorter than the leaves

B Midlobe of lip overhanging spur completely, prolonged

into triangular, acute lateral wings. FIs. greenish-white,

1-1.5 cm wide S. viridiflora

BB Midlobe of lip not overhanging spur completely; lateral

wings short, obtuse. Flowers straw-coloured spotted with

red, 0.5 cm wide S. straminea

Ack nowledge m e n ts

I am grateful to Prof. R. E. Holttum and Dr. Dan H. Nicolson

for their valuable suggestions and to the Smithsonian Research Found-

ation for support.

The Avifauna of introduced

Eucalyptus plantations in

Maharashtra

BY

Lincoln Gray

Department of Veterinary Biology, University of Minnesota 55101, USA

A study of the avifauna of two small introduced Eucalyptus

plantations indicated extensive changes in species composition at

the end of the monsoon season, and changes in resident species

with advancing stages of plantation development. The birds seemed

to be attracted to the outer areas of the plantation which offer

more diverse vegetation. These plantations provide an opportunity

to study the effects of introduced vegetation on local fauna.

Introduction

Small Eucalyptus plantations, started by the Indian Government

to control soil erosion, provided rare opportunities to study the wildlife

of isolated, introduced, islands of vegetation. Awsari and Pachgaon

are two such plantations, situated on the leeward side of the Western

Ghats approximately 170 kilometres east of Bombay. Eucalyptus has

been introduced extensively throughout the sub-continent to start new

plantations. In this area, plantations appeared to be widely scattered,

separated by approximately 80 or 90 kilometres. These small planta-

tions could have an important effect on the fauna of the area. Not only

are they concentrated islands of an introduced tree, but they are fenced,

cultivated, and protected. This maintenance is important because, dur-

ing the monsoon, plants grow and fruit and food seems abundant, but

after the rains the land outside the plantation fences is soon dry and

quickly over-grazed.

The two plantations presented contrasting vegetation. The planta-

tion at Awsari, started in 1966, covers 87 hectares and is planted with

Eucalyptus (E. tereticornis) , Sissu ( Dalbergia sissn), Siras ( Albizzia

lebbek), Neem ( Melia azaclirachta) , and Tarwad ( Cassia auriculata).

Accepted July 26, 1973.

AVIFAUNA OF EUCALYPTUS PLANTATIONS

77

The plantation consists of two distinct areas: one, called the “inner

area” in this paper, is almost 100 per cent Eucalyptus trees, 10-14

metres high, with little understory; the other, called “the outer area”,

has approximately 50 per cent of the ground covered with trees of

several species, 3-7 metres high, with the remainder of the ground

covered by grass and underbrush fading into the surrounding barren

grasslands. The Pachgaon plantation, 57 kilometres to the south, covers

238 hectares and is planted with Eucalyptus, Babul ( Acacia arabica ),

Silver Oak ( Grevillea sp.), and a species of bamboo. The trees are

small (7-10 metres high) and very widely scattered. The extensive

understory is composed of grass and shrubs up to one metre high.

The two plantations show stages of vegetation structure similar to

ecological succession. These stages do not represent a natural succes-

sion because the tree species are introduced and maintained by man

but they can be thought of as stages in a plantation development: from

barren grassland, through protective fencing with high grass and scatter-

ed small trees, to thick plantations with outer areas of diverse vegeta-

tion.

The aim of this study was to categorize the avifauna of each planta-

tion by species, abundance, position, and nesting activity. The study

began in July during the height of the monsoon and continued for a

total of five months into the December dry season.

Methods and Materials

Awsari or Pachgaon plantation was observed during 34 days bet-

ween 11 July 1970 and 4 December 1970. Birds were identified by

plumage with 7 x 35 binoculars on systematically walked routes through

the plantations. After September, two mist nets (12.8 x 2.1 m, 38 mm

mesh) were available which were put up for a total of 400 net-hours

in various locations within the study areas. Other observations at

Awsari included perching and nest locations of selected common species

of birds.

Results and Discussion

Extensive changes in species composition were observed at the

monsoon season. Table 1 shows that 20 of the 48 identified species

were observed in either area for the entire length of the study. Nine

species were observed for the first time at the end of the monsoon and

stayed in the area until the end of the study. Three species left the area

after the monsoon and 16 species were observed for only a short time.

Immigrants Emigrants Residents

78 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 71 (1)

As only five of these species ( Coturnix coturnix, Sylvia hortensis, S.

curruca, Carpodacus erythrinus, and Emberiza bruniceps) are des-

cribed as being migratory (Ali 1968), the extensive seasonal changes

in species could indicate the principal effect of these plantations on

local avifauna. After the monsoon, as the grazed grasslands surround-

ing the plantations become dry, the vegetative structure within the

plantations remains stable. Even though there is no additional fruiting

associated with these changes, opportunistic local birds can invade

Table 1

Identified Species

Species

Dates Observed Approx.

J. A.S.O. N.D.* No.

House Crow ( Corvus splendens ) _______ c

Jungle Babbler ( Turdoides striatus ) q

Baybacked Shrike ( Lanius vittatus ) q

House Sparrow ( Passer domesticus ) q

House Swift (A pus affinis) ______ c

White Scavenger Vulture ( Neophron percnopterus ) C

Jungle Crow ( Corvus macrorhynchos ) _ + _ + _ + c

Redvented Bulbul ( Pycnonotus cafer ) _ + _ + -+ C

Drongo ( Dicrurus adsimilis ) _ + _ + _ + n

Indian Wren Warbler ( Prinia subflava ) _ + _ + _+ n

Common Myna ( Acridotheres tristis ) _ + _ + _ + c

Whitethroated Munia ( Lonchura malabarica ) _ + _ -f _ + c

Common Green Bee-eater ( Merops orientalis ) _ + _ + _+ c

Pariah Kite ( Milvus migrans ) _ + _ + _ + c

Little Brown Dove ( Streptopelia senegalensis ) _ + _ + _ + Q

Indian Robin ( Saxicoloides fulicata ) + + _j_ _j_ C

Rufousbacked Shrike ( Lanius schach ) _|_ _i_ _j_ _j_ _j_ _j_ C

Roseringed Parakeet ( Psittacula krameri ) + + _j_ _j_ _j_ C

Alpine Swift {Apus melba) + _f _l_ _(_ _j_ _j_ C

Ring Dove ( Streptopelia decaocto ) _(_ _}_ _j_ _|_ _j_ C

Crested Lark ( Galerida cristata )

Redwattled Lapwing ( Vanellus indicus )

Common Weaver Bird ( Ploceus philippinus )

Purple Sunbird ( Nectarinia asiatica )

Blackwinged Kite ( Elanus caeruleus )

Small Skylark ( Alauda gulgula )

Common Quail ( Coturnix coturnix )

Crow Pheasant ( Centropus sinensis )

Common Babbler ( Turdoides caudatus )

Orphean Warbler ( Sylvia hortensis )

Common Rosefinch ( Carpodacus erythrinus )

Rufoustailed Finch-Lark ( Ammomanes phoenicurus )

+ - +

+ + +

+ + +

- +

- +

- +

5

2

C

C

4

C

5

2

3

Transients

AVIFAUNA OF EUCALYPTUS PLANTATIONS

79

Common Nightjar ( Caprimulgus asiaticus) +

Grey Shrike ( Lanius excubitor ) - +

Small Minivet ( Pericrocotus cinnamomeus ) — — —

Lesser Whitethroat ( Sylvia curruca) +

Rain Quail ( Coturnix coromandelica ) —

Pied Bushchat ( Saxicola caprata) — —

Yelloweyed Babbler ( Chrysomma sinense ) +

Purplerumped Sunbird ( Nectarinia zeylonica ) +

Indian Pipit ( Anthus novaeseelandiae ) — +

Quaker Babbler ( Alcippe poioicephala ) +

Redwinged Bush Lark ( Mirafra erythroptera ) +

Wood Shrike {T ephrodornis pondicerianus ) - +

Redheaded Bunting ( EMberiza bruniceps ) + +

Ashy Wren-Warbler ( Prinia socialis ) +

Whitebacked Munia ( Lonchura striata ) +

Spotted Munia ( Lonchura punctulata) -!-

1

2

2

1

1

2

C

1

12

1

1

3

2

3

1

1

Species observed at Pachgaon only , Awsari only +++, both f K

C means common. *J=July, A=August, etc.

the plantations and take advantage of the protection and food sources

offered by the more stable vegetation.

During the dry months, the grasslands outside the plantations were

observed to contain only a few Larks, Pipits, and Crows. Table 1 shows

that 13 species were observed at Pachgaon and not Awsari, 18 at both,

and 17 at only Awsari. The definite increase in vegetation seen in the

stages of plantation development and these concomitant changes in

resident species further suggest the parallel of plantation development

to ecological succession.

The results of mist netting showed that the birds at Awsari were

concentrated in the outer, more diverse, area. Over three times as

many species and almost seven times as many birds per net-hour were

captured in the outer area as in the inner area. Perhaps the higher

foliage of the Eucalyptus tree caused fewer birds to be captured in the

ground-level nets in the inner area, but walking observations support-

ed the conclusion that few birds forage in the inner area. Data taken

over nine days shows that as many birds were seen perching on Euca-

lyptus as other trees. However, tabulation of the nest locations of the

Common Weaverbird ( Ploceus philippinus ), Redvented Bulbul

( Pycnonotus cafer), Rufousbacked Shrike ( Lanius schach ), and Little

Brown Dove ( Streptopelia senegalensis ) at Awsari showed that no

nests were found in Eucalyptus trees or in the inner area but 74 nests

were found in the outer area on Babul, Cassia, Sissu, and one Toddy

Palm ( Borassus flabellifer) .

Orians (1969) has stated that the number of bird species in undis-

80 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 71 (1)

turbed forests in Costa Rica is not measurably affected by the number

of species of trees in the forest. The difference in the bird species

diversity between the inner and outer areas at Awsari seems to con-

tradict this finding. Even though there is a wider vertical distribution

of foliage in the primarily single species inner area, more birds and

more species were observed in the outer area containing multiple species

of trees. This difference could be associated with a “quality” of the

Eucalyptus tree to support bird life rather than the height of foliage

distribution or tree species diversity.

Thus, besides their economic importance and despite the contro-

versial usefulness of Eucalyptus to wildlife, these introduced planta-

tions have enhanced the local avifauna by providing stable vegetation,

It is probable that the usefulness of these plantations to wildlife would

be much increased if more diverse tree species were planted.

ACK N OWLFDGE M E N TS

This project was done under the Associated Colleges of the Mid-

west’s India Studies Programme, directed by Dr. John Stanley. Thanks

are due to Shri S. M. Ketkar, my project advisor. Drs. Paul Jenson,

Dean Amadou, Penny Williamson, Eugene Morton, and Charles South-

wick helpfully criticized the manuscript.

References

Ali S. (1968) : The Book of Indian

Birds. Bombay Natural History So-

ciety, Bombay.

Orians G. H. (1969): The number

of bird species in some tropical

forests. Ecology 50(5) :783-801.

A new species of Eriocaulon

from Maharashtra

BY

A. R. Kulkarni and M. H. Desai

Botany Department, Shivaji University, Kolhapur

(With a plate )

Eriocaulon tuberiferuin sp. nov.

•

Herbae tuberiferae, tuberibus 5-15 stipitatis c. 4 mm longis 2.5

mm latis ovalibus vel bilobatis dense pilosis, pilis unicellularibus, caule

reducto, foliis basalibus rosulatis linearilanceolatis recurvatis 1.6-4. 3

cm longis, medio 2-3 mm latis, acutis utrinque glabris 5-7 nervatis,

vaginis viridibus ad pedunculos arete adpressis 2.5-4.5 cm longis gla-

bris ad apicem oblique fissis, pedunculis 1 vel 2 (raro 3) gracilibus

11-18 cm longis 5- vel 6-costatis, in siccitate conspicue tortis glabris,

capitulis globosis niveis 3-7 mm diametro, bracteis involucrantibus

numerosis lanceolatis c. 1.7 mm longis 1.1 mm latis obtusis glabris

nigris, receptaculo glabro, bracteis receptacularibus atroviridibus con-

cavis 2-2.8 mm longis c. 1 mm latis obtusis versus apicem dorso vil-

losis; floribus masculis in omnes partes capituli numerosis, calyce spat-

haceo atroviridi c. 2.3 mm longo 1.8 mm lato distincte 3-lobato sur-

sum dorso dense piloso, petalis 3 pilosis in tubum membranaceum

album c. 1.4 mm longum connatis, loborum petalorum uno distincte

magniore et ultra bracteolos receptaculares exserto c. 2 mm longo

1 mm lato, lobis minoribus c. 1.1 mm longis c. 0.5 mm latis, lobis

omnibus medio glanduliferis, staminibus 6, antheris juventute albis

senectute nigrescentibus, pistillodiis 3 flavidis in tubo petalorum occul-

tis; floribus foemineis paucis solum in peripheria capituli dispositis,

sepalis 3 libris viridibus concavis rotundatis c. 1.9 mm longis c. 0.4

mm latis sursum dorso dense pilosis, petalis 3 subaequalibus papyraceis

spathulatis 1.9-2. 7 mm longis 0.25-0.5 mm latis dense pilosis, glandula

subapicali, ovario parvo trigono c. 0.6 mm longo c. 0.25 mm lato

triloculari, stigmatibus 3 c. 0.6 mm longis subsessilibus.

Tuberiferous herbs; tubers stalked, 5-15 per plant, about 4 mm

long, 2.5 mm broad, oval or bilobed, covered with dense growth of

1 Accepted July 27, 1972.

6

82 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 71 (1)

I

unicellular hairs. Stem reduced; leaves basal, rosulate, linearlanceolate,

recurved, 1.6-4. 3 cm long, 2-3 mm wide in the middle, acute at apex,

glabrous on both the surfaces, 5-7 nerved; sheaths green, closely ap-

pressed to the peduncles, 2.5-4.5 cm long, glabrous, obliquely split at

the apex; peduncles 1-2 (rarely 3) per plant, slender, 11-18 cm long,

5-6 costate, conspicuously twisted in the dried specimens, glabrous;

heads globose, snow white, 3-7 mm in diameter; involucral bractlets

many, lanceolate, about 1.7 mm long, 1.1 mm wide, obtuse at apex,

glabrous, black; receptacle glabrous; receptacular bractlets deep green,

concave, 2-2.8 mm long, about 1 mm wide, obtuse at apex, densely

white villous on the back towards the apex: Staminate florets numer-

ous, both towards periphery and the centre of the head; calyx spath-

aceous, deep green, about 2.3 mm long, 1.8 mm wide, distinctly 3-lobed,

densely hairy on the back towards the apex; petals 3, hairy, united

into a whitish membraneous tube about 1.4 mm long, one of the petal

lobes distinctly larger and protruding beyond the receptacular bractlets;

the larger lobe about 2 mm long, 1 mm wide, the smaller ones about

1.1 mm long, about 0.5 mm wide; all the lobes medially gland-tipped;

stamens 6, anthers white when young but become blackish at maturity;

pollen grains spheroidal varying from 26.6 to 53.2 ^ in diameter,

spiraperturate or with many distinct convoluted unthickened bands,

exine smooth; pistillodes 3, pale yellow, hidden in petal tube: Female

florets few, restricted to the periphery of the head; sepals 3, free, green,

concave, rounded at apex, about 1.9 mm long, about 0.4 mm broad,

densely hairy on the back towards the apex; petals 3, subequal, papery,

spathulate, 1.9-2. 7 mm long, 0.25-0.5 mm wide, densely hairy, gland

subapical; ovary small, trigonous, about 0.6 mm long, about 0.25 mm

wide, trilocular, 3-ovuled; stigmas 3, about 0.6 mm long, subsessile.

Holotype was collected from Panhala (938 m alt.), Kolhapur dis-

trict, Maharashtra, along the margins of puddles on 28th July 1968

and is deposited in National Herbarium, Calcutta under Kulkarni and

Desai 537 and the Isotypes 538-540 are deposited in the Herbarium

of the Shivaji University, Botany Department, Kolhapur.

E. tuberiferum is closely related to E. ritchieanum Ruhl. and E.

leucomelas Steud. From the former it differs in the transition of the

anther colour from white in younger condition to blackish at maturity

and in its distinct anisopetalous male flower, the largest petal of which

projects beyond the receptacular bractlets giving fringed appearance

to the head. From the latter species it differs in the petal characters

of the male flowers and in having distinctly oblique mouth for the

penduncular sheaths. It differs from all the species of Eriocaulon known

so far in its tuberiferous habit.

Members of this species are commonly seen along the margins of

puddles at Panhala from July-September. They grow in association

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 71 (1) Plate

Kulkarni and Desai: Eriocaulon tuberiferum

Eriocaulon tuberiferum Kulkarni et Desai

Fig. 1. Male flower. Fig. 2. Female flower. Fig. 3. Stamen. Figs. 4-6. Pollen

grains. Fig. 7. Entire plant. Fig. 8. Leaf. Fig. 9. Involucral bractlet. Fig. 10.

Receptacular bractlet. Fig. 11. Basal part of the plant showing tubers. Fig. 12.

Stalked tuber. Fig. 13. A part of peduncle showing twists. Fig. 14. Germinated

tuber. Fig. 15. Gynoecium. Fig. 16. Gynoecium with sepals. Figs. 17-19. Petals

of the female flower.

NEW SPECIES OF ERIOCAULON

83

with Isoetes. The species has also been collected from Radhanagari

(Kolhapur district) where it grows in similar habitat. Further intensive

collections may reveal its presence in other areas of Sahyadri ranges

enjoying similar ecological conditions.

Inspite of very close observations during the last three years,

we have failed to collect fruiting specimens of this species from

both the localities. It appears probable that the species mainly repro-

duces by tubers in nature.

The Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, when referred to, informed us

that the specimens resembled E. leucomelas Steud. ( E . melaleucum

Mart.) superficially, appearing to be distinct both in foliage and flower

and belonged to Eriocaulon ritchieanum Ruhl. but with abnormal

flowers possibly due to nematode attack. The structures referred here

as tubers were suspected by the authorities of Kew to be nematode

cysts. However, later studies by us on the ontogeny and the germin-

ability of the tubers (Kulkarni & Desai 1970), precluded the possibility

of these being nematode cysts. Further, detailed examination of the

specimens of Eriocaulon ritchieanum represented in national and re-

gional herbaria of the Botanical Survey of India revealed that the

tuberiferous specimens differed in some of their vegetative as well as

floral characters apart from their tuberiferous habit from E. ritchie-

anum. Compartive account of the differentiating features of E. rit-

chieanum, E. leucomelas and E. tuberiferum is given in Table I.

Table I

E. leucomelas

E. ritchieanum E. tuberiferum

Peduncular

Sheath

mouth truncate,

narrowly

scarious

mouth oblique

or divided in 2-5

segments

mouth distinctly

oblique not

scarious

Peduncles

1-4, 5-8-ribbed 1-many, not

ribbed

1-3, 5-6 ribbed,

twisted

MALE FLOWER

Calyx

spathaceous, spathaceous, spathaceous, split

split on one side split on one on one side, dis-

side, truncate or tinctly 3-lobed

obscurely 3-lobed

Corolla

2 lobes subequal lobes subequal lobes unequal,

the largest pro-

truding beyond

the receptacular

bractlet giving

fringed appearance

to the head

84 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 71 (1)

2 Though many workers (Fyson 1921, 1922; Moldenke 1969 a and b) have

described petals of the male flowers in E. leucomelas to be subequal, Fischer

(1935) describes them to be distinctly unequal with the largest petal protruding

beyond the receptacular bractlets.

Considering all these features it has now been proposed to assign

the tuberiferous specimens to a distinct species, Eriocaulon tuberiferum.

The specific epithet has been chosen from their remarkable tuberifer-

ous habit, a feature unique to the genus Eriocaulon.

Acknowledgements

We are deeply indebted to the authorities of the Royal Botanic

Gardens, Kew, England for their opinion and to Dr. H. N. Moldenke

of U.S.A. for critically going through the manuscript and translating

the description into Latin. They are also thankful to the authorities

of the Botanical Survey of India for lending the specimens of Erio-

caulon ritchieanum from their herbaria for comparison.

References

Fischer, C. E. C. (1935): Eriocau-

laceae in the Flora of the Presidency

of Madras 3, 1119-1128. Reprinted

by Govt, of India, Calcutta.

Fyson, P. F. (1921): The Indian

species of Eriocaulon, E. geoffreyi

Fyson. Journ. Indian Bot. Soc. 2: 196.

(1922): The Ind-

ian species of Eriocaulon, E. horsley-

konde var. megalocephala Fyson. ibid.

3:14.

Kulkarni, A. R. & Desai, M. H.

(1970): Tubers in Eriocaulon ritch-

ieanum Ruhl. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 67:134-135.

Moldenke, H. N. (1969a): Addi-

tional notes on the Eriocaulaceae XX,

E. leucomelas Steud. Phytologia 18:

(4), 262-265.

(1969b): Addi-

tional notes on the Eriocaulaceae

XXV, E. leucomelas Steud. ibid.

79(2) : 74-75.

Fishery resources of Ullal

(Mangalore) in relation to

certain environmental factors

during 1963-671

BY

M. S. Prabhu2, S. Ramamurthy3, M. H. Dhulkhed4,

N. S, Radhakrishnan5 and G. P. Kumaraswamy Achari6

Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute

{With four text-figures)

Introduction

Ullal, an important fishing centre situated 3 Km south of Mangalore,

was known for shark fishery in the past. However, owing to the decline

in the shark fishery, fishing for sardine, mackerel etc has been resorted

to bottom dwelling during the past two decades. While Mangalore is

at present a landing centre for ground fishes of the mechanised boats,

Ullal is of special significance, being the nearest fishing village where

various types of indigenous gears are employed mainly for pelagic

fishes. Yet, the fishery potentiality of this area has remained unknown.

However, certain observations on the mackerel fishery of this area have

been made by Rao et al. (1962). This account relates to the total fish

landings and the major categories of fishes contributing to the fishery

with observations on the relation of sardine and mackerel catches to

plankton, salinity, temperature and rainfall.

Fishing Methods

The types of gears operated at Ullal are shown in Table I.

1 Accepted May 6, 1972.

2 Present address: University of Calicut, Dept, of Fisheries, Calicut

University P.O., Kerala.

3, 4, 5 „ Central Marine Fisheries Research Substation, Bolar,

Mangalore-1, (Karnataka State).

„ Central Marine Fisheries Research Substation, Vizhin-

gam, via- Trivandrum, Kerala.

Details of fishing gears

86 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 71 (1)

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FISHERY RESOURCES OF ULLAL

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88 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 71 (1)

While most of the nets are operated by the fishermen of Ullal, fish-

ing by Rampant and Kollibale at this centre is done by fishermen from

the neighbouring villages north and south of Ullal respectively. Nor-

mally, fishing is suspended from the middle of June to end of July due

to the unfavourable conditions during the south-west monsoon. Fishing

is resumed with cast net ( Beesubale ) operations mainly for prawns,

soles and sardines during August-October following which this gear

together with Chalabale and Idabale are employed for catching sardines

exclusively. Occasionally, a small meshed (about 1 cm) cast net called

Kooribale is also operated during the monsoon for catching small

varieties of fishes. Although big meshed gill nets namely Pattabale and

Kanthabale are operated for catching medium and big-sized mackerel,

other fishes like Hi Isa kanagurta, Anadontostoma chachunda, sharks

and rays and prawns consisting of mostly Penaeus sp. are also caught.

The other types of gill nets namely Manangubale and Bolingerbale are

operated exclusively for Thrissocles spp. and Kowala coval respectively.

Odubale usually operated from September to February, catch mainly

Cybium spp., Chirocentrus spp., and sharks and rays. Kollibale and

Rampani are employed when large shoals of pelagic fishes like sardine

and mackerel occur. During the summer months of March to May

Maribale operations are carried out for catching cat fishes.

Collection of Data and Estimation of Landings

The data presented here relate to the period July 1963 to June 1967

when observations were made on all the working days. Usually about

20 per cent of the total number of each type of unit operated were

examined and the monthly total catch in respect of each type of unit

was estimated as was followed by Rao et al. (1962). While estimating

the catch, the weights of major categories of fishes such as sardine,

mackerel, prawns etc. were noted down separately. Surface plankton

and water samples for salinity estimation were collected off Ullal once

a week together with temperature readings. An attempt was made to

correlate these data with the fluctuations in the pelagic fishery resources

of this area.

Analysis of Data

The data collected have been analysed to study the seasonal vari-

ations in the catch during the different years, fluctuations in the annual

catch and the dominant species contributing to the fishery. In order to

determine the relative importance of the different gears and the com-

FISHERY RESOURCES OF ULLAL

89

mercially important species caught by them, the data have been sub-

jected to an analysis on a gearwise basis. Since the fishery for oil sar-

dine and mackerel is known to fluctuate from year to year, data on

plankton volume, temperature, salinity and rainfall of this area have

been plotted against the landings of these species during the period of

this investigation to find out the relationship, if any.

a) Annual and seasonal variations in the total catch

Comparing the total fish landings of the different years (Table II)

it is seen that catches during 1964-65 and 1966-67 (718.4 and 747.2

tonnes respectively) were better than those of 1963-64 and 1965-66

(228.8 and 454.9 tonnes respectively). From the monthly variations in

the catch for different years, it has been observed that the fishery was

generally good between September and April with the peaks occurring

during September-October and January- April, the latter being dominant

during most of the years. Usually, the catches dwindled after April

and the poor landings recorded during June- July may be attributed

to the decreased fishing activity during the peak of the south-west

monsoon.

b) Catch composition and gearwise landings

Although the category of fishes such as Arius spp. Kowala coval,

Cynoglossus spp., Leiognathus spp. and Thrissocles spp. together clas-

sified as ‘others’ constituted the bulk of the landings during 1963-64

and 1964-65 (Table II), oil sardine remained the single largest fishery

in all the years. It is interesting to note that the oil sardine landings

even exceeded those of ‘others’ during 1965-66 and 1966-67 constitut-

ing 62.4 and 51.6 per cent respectively. The trend of the monthly oil

sardine catches generally coincided with that of the total catch.

The mackerel fishery was good only during 1963-64 when it formed

29.3 per cent which was even higher than the oil sardine catch (22.8%).

Subsequently, the fishery declined with a tendency for revival during

1966-67. Unlike the sardine fishery, the mackerel fishery was restricted

to short periods with the peak occurring during October and Novem-

ber. However, a secondary peak was noticed in May during all the

years except in 1966-67. Comparing the trend of oil sardine and mack-

erel fishery, no definite relation was discernible on a monthwise basis.

However, from the annual trend it was observed that while the oil

sardine catches were on the increase leading to a bumper fishery in

1966-67, the mackerel fishery was declining touching its lowest ebb in

1965-66.

As in the case of mackerel, the prawn fishery also was active only

for brief periods during July-September which coincided with the south-

west monsoon season. The fishery was supported chiefly by a single

species namely, Metapenaeus dobsoni. The prawn fishery noticed dur-

ing January, February and sometimes April was meagre and it was

Monthwise catch in Kg of different categories of fishes during different years

90

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 71 (1)

1963-64 1964-65 1965-66 1966-67

FISHERY RESOURCES OF ULLAL

91

constituted by bigger varieties such as Penaeus indicus and P. mergui-

ensis.

Among the ‘other’ categories. Anus spp. accounted for the bulk

of this group during 1964-65 and 1966-67 forming 73 and 82 per cent

respectively, whereas Kowala coval, Cynoglossus spp., Leiognathus

spp. and A. chacundci together formed about 72 per cent during 1963-

64 and Cynoglossus spp., Leiognathus spp., A. chacunda and H.

kanagurta 73 per cent during 1965-66. It was interesting to note that

the cat fish fishery was prevalent only during alternate years. Though

this fishery was restricted to one or two months in a year ( February -

March 1965 and April 1967), huge quantities were landed within this

short period. When the cat fish shoals are sighted, the fishermen gener-

ally fish them exclusively because of the better returns. The

fishery for Kowala coval, generally lasting from December to May,

constituted about 38.0, 3.1, 13.0 and 3.0 per cent respectively during

the years 1963-64 to 1966-67. Cynoglossus spp. and Leiognathus spp.,

appeared together in large quantities from August to October, forming

about 19.0, 13.3, 51.3 and 1.5 per cent respectively during the above

years. Thrissocles spp. were caught throughout the year but the maxi-

mum quantity was landed generally between July and October, They

constituted 10.4, 3.4, 11.8 and 2.1 per cent respectively among the ‘other’

categories during the years of study.

For a study of the importance of the various types of gears, the

catches landed by these during the different years are given in Table III

from which it can be seen that Mari hale, Chalabale, Cast nets, Bolin-

gerbale, Pattabale and Kanthabale were the most important gears

accounting for the major portion of the catch during the entire period.

Among these, Mari bale landed the maximum catches during 1964-65

and 1966-67 and Chalabale during 1965-66. The landings by cast nets

were consistently good throughout the period. Except during 1966-67,

Bolingerbale brought fairly good catch. The landings by Pattabale were

best in 1963-64 and those of Kanthabale in 1966-67.

The proportion of each of the major category of fishes caught by

the different gears (Table IV), shows that sardines are netted mainly

by Chalabale and cast nets. Kollibale , the most commonly used gear

in the southern region for sardine fishery, was operated only on a few

occasions during 1964-65 and 1966-67, which accounted for a small

percentage of the sardine catch. Similarly, Rampani, a shoreseine

operated for sardine and mackerel in the northern region, was employed

only once in 1966-67 accounting for 6.2 per cent. For the other pelagic

variety namely mackerel, Pattabale was found to be the most success-

ful gear accounting for more than two-thirds of the entire mackerel

catch during all the years. The rest of the catch was by Kanthabale .

Majority of the prawn catch was by cast nets during all the years.

Gearwise catch in Kg of the major categories of fishes during different years

92

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 71 (1)

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FISHERY RESOURCES OF ULLAL

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94 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 71 (1)

However, fairly good proportion of the prawn catches was landed by

Kanthabale during 1963-64 and 1965-66.

Relation of the Pelagic Fisheries to Ecological conditions

Mean monthly temperature, salinity and displacement volume of

plankton of the surface waters off Ullal together with the sardine and

mackerel landings are shown in Text Figs. 1 to 4. Temperature was

low during August- January, the minimum value ranging between 25.4

to 25.6°C. However, within this period it showed an increase in Octo-

ber except in 1963-64 when it was in November. Temperature remain-

ed high during April-May (29.8 to 31.0°C). Salinity was low during

August-September (13.9 to 30.9%0) followed by an increase till Decem-

Fig. 1 . Monthly landings of oil sardine and mackerel in relation to temperature,

salinity, rainfall and plankton volume during 1963-64.

PLAN KTO N

FISHERY RESOURCES OF ULLAL

95

ber (29.4 to 35.1 %0) with a drop in January-February (Figs. 2 to 4)

except in 1963-64 when the salinity values were steadily rising (Fig. 1).

Maximum values for salinity were obtained during April-May (34.2

to 37.0%0). The period of low salinity coincided with the south-west

monsoon season (June to September) when the monthly maximum

rainfall ranged from 86.8 to 95.0 cm. Comparing the annual rainfall

during the four years of study, it was found to be highest in 1963-64

(306.5 cm) and lowest in 1965-66 (274.1 cm).

The characteristics of the plankton volume varied widely from year

to year with peaks in December ’63 (18.9 ml), March ’64 (22.0 ml),

October ’64 (39.0 ml). May ’65 (13.7 ml), October-November ’65

23.3-24.5 ml) and February (13.0 ml) and May ’66 (17.7 ml) and March

’67 (37.8 ml). The minimum plankton volume was recorded during

November ’66 (1.8 ml) and the maximum in October ’64 (39.0 ml).

Considering the monthly variations of the plankton volume during

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Fig. 2. Monthly landings of oil sardine and mackerel in relation to temperature,

salinity, rainfall and plankton volume during 1964-65.

96 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 71 (1)

the different years, no definite relationship was discernible between

these and the sardine and mackerel fisheries.

When the sardine fishery was good the temperature was found to

range from 25.4 to 27.7°C and salinity from 30.1 to 33.8%0. However,

in the course of this study, good catches of oil sardine were recorded

even in higher ranges of temperature (28.0 to 30.5 °C) and salinity

(33.8 to 35.5%0) during the period February- April ’67. At Calicut,

while a temperature range of 28.0 to 29.0°C was found to be favour-

able for the sardine fishery, no consistent relation was noticed between

salinity and the fishery (Sekharan 1962a). Along North Kanara coast

the period of sardine fishery had temperature and salinity ranges of

26.8 to 30.3°C and 22.2 to 34.53%0 respectively (Ramamurthy 1965).

In general, the mackerel fishery was not as good as that of oil

sardine, its peaks coinciding with the temperature and salinity ranges

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Fig. 3. Monthly landings of oil sardine and mackerel in relation to temperature,

salinity, rainfall and plankton volume during 1965-66.

PLANKTON

FISHERY RESOURCES OF ULLAL

91

of 26.9 to 30.5 °C and 29.4 to 34.4%0 respectively. In 1963-64, however,

the fishery was good even at a higher salinity of 37.0%0 in May.

Sekharan (1962b) stated that intermediate values for temperature

(27.0 to 28.0°C) and salinity (34.2 to 35.44%0) representing an up-

ward trend after their minimum values occurred during the mackerel

season at Mandapam. Subsequently, while dealing with the mackerel

fishery of Calicut, Pradhan & Reddy (1962) have reported that high

temperature and salinity affect the fishery adversely. The mackerel

season in North Kanara coast coincided with the transition period from

the low salinity and temperature conditions during the south west mon-

soon period to the high salinity and warmer conditions in summer

(Ramamurthy 1965).

Normally, the bulk of the sardine catch was landed following the

period of heavy rainfall during the south-west monsoon season. How-

i

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XX

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XX

Fig. 4. Monthly landings of oil sardine and mackerel in relation to temperature,

salinity, rainfall and plankton volume during 1966-67.

7

PLANKTON

98 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 71 (1)

ever, fairly good quantities of oil sardine were also caught late in the

season viz., February ’64 and February and April ’67 when the rain-

fall was negligible during the preceding months. The best catches of

mackerel were also made following the south-west monsoon rains. The

total mackerel landings appeared to have a direct relation to the annual

rainfall, the maximum catch (67.0 tonnes) and rainfall (306.5 cm)

occurring in 1963-64 and the minimum (9.97 tonnes and 274.1 cm

respectively) in 1965-66. Pradhan & Reddy (1962), on the contrary,

found an inverse relation between the annual rainfall and mackerel

at Calicut. The sardine fishery at Ullal, on the other hand, was at its

lowest (52.1 tonnes) in 1963-64 when the rainfall was heaviest (306.5

cm). The catches were better during 1965-66 and 1966-67 (283.7 and

385.6 tonnes respectively) when the annual rainfall was comparatively

low (274.1 and 283.6 cm respectively).

References

Pradhan, L. B. & Reddy, C. V. C.

(1962): Fluctuations in mackerel

landings at Calicut in relation to

hydrological factors. Indian J. Fish.

9 A: 100-109.

Ramamurthy, S. (1965) : Studies

on the plankton of the North Kanara

Coast in relation to the pelagic fishery.

J. Mar. biol. Ass. India 7:127-149.

Rao, V. Ramamohana, Sekharan,

K. V. & Pradhan, M. J. (1962): On

the mackerel fishery of the Manga-

lore area during the period 1957-61.

Indian J. Fish. 9 A: 653-678.

Sekharan, K. V. (1962a): On the

oil sardine fishery of the Calicut area

during the years 1955-56 to 1958-59.

ibid. 9A: 679-700.

(1962b): On the

mackerel fishery of the Mandapam

area. ibid. 9A: 714-727.

Observations on the breeding

mechanism of Biophytum

candolleanum Wt.

BY

R. Vasudevan Nair

Victoria College, Pal ghat, Kerala

{With a plate)

Among angiosperms there are 28 families with heterostylous genera

(Beryl S. Vuilleumier 1965). Of these, 5 families include trimorphic

heterostyled genera. Plants reported to be trimorphic are: Oxalis

(Mulcahy 1964; Ornduff 1964); Averrhoa (Ornduff, Pers. comm.);

Lythrum (Darwin 1877; East 1940); Nasaea (Darwin 1877; East 1940);

Houstonia (Darwin 1877); Eichhornia (Johnson 1924; Uchida 1953);

Pontedaria (Hazen 1918; Ornduff 1966); Reussia (East 1940); Anie-

lema (Vogel 1955) and Biophytum (Mayura Devi 1964).

In trimorphic hererostyly, a species will have 3 floral forms regard-

ing length of style and height of anthers. This morphological hetero-

morphism is accompanied by biological specialisation in breeding.

Considerable work has been done on the breeding mechanism of

dimorphic heterostylous plants since Hildebrand (1866) and Darwin

(1877) but relatively less is known about breeding of tristylous plants.

Nora Barlow, grand daughter of Darwin, was the first to study the

genetic mechanism of heterostylous plants viz. Lythrum salicaria and

species of Oxalis. Since then Hazen (1918), Johnson (1924), East

(1940), Lewis (1943), Uchida (1953), Vogel (1955), Bahadur (1963)

and Ornduff (1964) have investigated this phenomenon.

Mayura Devi reported in 1964, that in the tristylous Biophytum

sensitivum DC. floral trimorphism is associated with an incompatibility

system. I studied the breeding mechanism of another species of the

same genus viz. B. candolleanum, described by J. S. Gamble in his

Flora of Madras Presidency, vol. i, 94.

Biophytum candolleanum {B. sensitivium var. candolleana Edgw. &

Hook, f.) is a small unbranched annual with pinnately compound,

sensitive leaves crowded at the apex of a narrow stem up to 35 cm

in height. Peduncles many, axillary, up to 20 cm long but shorter

100 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 71 (1)

usually. Flowers pedicellate, hermaphrodite, actinomorphic, hypogyn-

ous and trimorphic. The 3 forms of flowers are:

long- styled with mid and short stamens,

mid-styled with long and short stamens and

short-styled with long and mid stamens.

Fruits 5-valved loculicidal capsules protected by persisting sepals. Seeds

20-25 per fruit, very small, brownish red, tubercled and arillate. Grow-

ing season of the plant is from July to November.

Table 1

Pollen grains are similar to those of B. sensitivum DC., in shape.

There is gradation in size of pollen from short stamen to that of long.

They form almost a regular series gradually increasing in size.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Young plants of B. candolleanum collected from wild populations

at Dharmadam, Tellicherry, Kerala, in July 1969 were used for the

study initially. In 1970, plants collected from Palghat, Kerala, were

used to repeat some of the crosses done previously. Plants were trans-

planted in the laboratory, in small wooden boxes. After flowering they

were sorted out into long, mid and short-styled forms. Out of 135

plants, 30 were long-styled, 55 mid-styled and 50 short-styled.

Pollination experiments were conducted to find out incompatibility

system, if any, in this species. To prevent visit of insects and contami-

nation of pollen, inflorescences were kept enclosed in bags of poly-

thene. In short-styled flowers, sepals had to be cut short to do artificial

pollination. Flowers emasculated in the evening were often found

withering by next morning. So when emasculation was necessary, it

was done at midnight, before dehiscence of anthers. Pollinated flowers

were again kept bagged.

BREEDING MECHANISM OF BIOPHYTUM CANDOLLEANUM 101

POPULATION STRUCTURE

Eliot (1892) recorded a population composition of 25 long; 54

mid: 21 short or about 1:2:1 ratio in the tristylous Oxalis suksdorfii.

In 1939, Faberge also reported a similar representation of forms in a

population of the same species, which was composed of 246 long:

453 mid: 207 short. Ornduff, in 1964 examined ten sample populations.

The mid-styled form made up the largest class in four of these.

As the random collection made for transplantation showed difference

in proportion of the 3 forms in B. candolleanum, 3 more populations

were counted to find out the frequency of the 3 types. Result is shown

in table 2.

Table 2

Population composition of B. candolleanum

Finney (1952) called anisoplethy (inequality of different floral forms).

In all observed cases the mid-styled form makes up the largest class

and long-styled the smallest. Short-styled form comes close to the mid-

styled, in number. But there is no definite 1:2:1 ratio.

Pollination

To find out whether self pollination was taking place, flowers of

the 3 forms were kept bagged and unpollinated, for several days.

Though flowers opened regularly, there was no fruit-setting even in one.

This shows that insect visit is essential for pollination and setting of

fruits. Insects like honey-bees, bugs and flies were found visiting the

flowers in field.

Self fertility of the 3 forms of flowers was determined by artificial

pollination. Flowers opened inside polythene bags were used for this.

In the first instance, pollen from the longer set of stafnens was trans-

ferred to the stigmas of the same flower. Later the same experiments

were repeated with pollen from the short stamens. Results are shown

below.

102 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 71 (1)

A SELFING WITH POLLEN FROM LONGER STAMENS OF SAME FLOWER

The above data show that in B. candolleanam, the 3 forms of

flowers have self sterility in varying degree. The mid-styled form is

relatively unspecialised, being fully self-fertile. Short-styled form is also

very highly self compatible. Maximum self incompatibility is found

in the long-styled form. The unspecialised mid-styled form does not

show specificity to type of pollen received; pollen from both sets of

stamens are equally effective. But in long-styled flowers, pollen from

shorter stamens is totally ineffective.

In heterostylous plants self-pollination is called ‘illegitimate’

(Darwin 1865). In Ly thrum salicaria, several tristylous species of

Oxalis, and many distylous species, the morphological adaptation for

cross-pollination is reinforced by incompatibility system, preventing

fertilization after illegitimate pollinations. But in some plants such

incompatibility does not accompany heterostyly (Hildebrand 1887;

Ray & Chisaki 1957). In B. candolleanum, there is an incompati-

bility system, though not perfect. The long-styled form is highly self-

incompatible.

BREEDING MECHANISM OF BIOPHYTUM CANDOLLEANUM 103

Cross-pollinations

Pollination between anther and stigma at the same level in dif-

ferent forms of flowers is called ‘legitimate’ (Darwin 1865), because

it is believed that heterostyly is an adaptation to promote cross breed-

ing in hermaphrodite flowers and that such pollinations are the most

productive. Where pollen grains of the different sets of anthers are

markedly different in morphology, it is easier to find out which type

of pollen falls on a stigma. But in B. candolleanum it is difficult be-

cause the pollen grains show a gradation in size. So crossing was con-

ducted to determine the productivity of pollen from different sets of

anthers. Results of some legitimate and illegitimate crosses are given

below.

A Legitimate Cross

Type of cross Number of Number of fruits Seed range

pollination formed

Long-styled flower as seed parent

Long style x Long stamen

From the above data it is evident that B. candolleanum is similar

to B. sensitivum DC. in legitimate crosses. In natural populations there

is apparently little difference in the rate of fruit and seed setting bet-

ween the 3 types of flowers. The comparatively lower rate of fruiting

observed in short-styled form in artificial legitimate crossing may pos-

sibly be due to imperfection of pollen transfer. In these flowers styles

curve out and bend down so that the stigmas are horizontal or even

104 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 71 (1)

facing down. In emasculated flowers this curving is even more. In hand

pollination it is probable that enough pollen grains do not stick on to

the stigmas.

B Illegitimate crosses

Percentage of seed formation with respect to pollination was not

determined, though the range of variation in number of seeds was

noted. It is found that the number of ovules is not constant in all

ovaries of even the same type of flower. It varies from 15 to 30. Occa-

sionally, aborted ovules are also seen. Hence, determination of fertility

on the basis of number of seeds could be exact only when large number

of pollinations are considered. Ready setting of fruits with well formed

seeds has therefore been taken as indicating compatibility.

Pollination experiments show that B. candolleanum is slightly dif-

ferent from B. sensitivum DC. in the case of illegitimate crosses. Short-

styled form of B. sensitivum DC. is reported to be self compatible only

in low degree (Mayura Devi 1964), whereas in B. candolleanum, self

compatibility is more than 70 per cent. Mid-styled form of this species

is even more self compatible than in B. sensitivum DC. and unlike in

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 71 (1) Plate

Nair : Biophytum candolleanum

Biophytum candolleanum Wt.

Fig. 1 & 2, Open flowers; Figs. 3, 4, 5, essential organs of mid, long and short-

styled flowers; Figs. 6, 7, 8, gynoetium of mid, long and short-styled flowers.

i nn

BREEDING MECHANISM OF BIOPHYTUM CAN DO L LEAN U Vi 105

the latter, there is little difference in the productivity of pollen from

long and short stamens in selling. That the mid-styled flower of Bio-

phytum is comparatively unspecialised in breeding habits, seems to be

supported by the behaviour of the closely allied species B. reinwardtii

Edgw. & Hook. f.

Specimens of B. reinwardtii Edgw. & Hook. f. were collected from

Vadakumpad village, Tellicherry, Kerala, in July 1970. The species

was identified at Kew, based on herbarium specimens and flowers kept

in liquid preservative. This species is very much like B. sensitivum

DC. in morphology, but smaller, weaker and of shorter duration. It is

more susceptible to fungal diseases. Approximate measurements in

mm of floral parts are given below.

Length of peduncle up to 100

Length of pedicel 5-6

Diameter of corolla 7-10

Length of corolla 7-9

Length of sepals 3

Width of petal 4 at apex

Length of stamen:

Long stamen .... 2-3

Short stamen .... 1

Length of pistil 2

In spite of the close similarity to B . candolleanum this species is

remarkable in its breeding habits. Two populations were observed,

collecting more than 100 plants from each. All these plants were of the

same kind, being very similar to the midstyled flower of B. candolle-

anum but the styles slightly shorter. Typical long and short-styled

forms were not found. The erect styles are held at an angle of about

45° so that their stigmas are just above the short stamens or even

touching their anthers. Because of this, at anthesis the stigmas get a

good supply of pollen from the short stamens. If this pollen is produc-

tive as in B. candolleanum , there is no need of insect agent for polli-

nation in this species. To ascertain this, inflorescence were bagged for

days on end. Of the 100 flowers which opened inside bags, 96 formed

well developed fruits with number of seeds ranging from 20 to 30.

Then, 100 bagged flowers were self pollinated with pollen from the

long stamens. All of them set fruits, with 20-30 seeds in each. From

these observations it is clear that B. reinwardtii is a totally self com-

patible species which is also remarkable in being adapted for self

pollination.

B. reinwardtii also shows partial compatibility with B. candolle-

106 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 71 (1)

anum . Results of some crosses between these two species are as shown

below.

Wnen long-styled dower of B. candolleanum is selected as seed parent,

total incompatibility is observed, though cross may be said to be legiti-

mate. But the mid and short-styled flowers show compatibility to some

extent. Reciprocal crosses with B. candolleanum as pollen parent also

show compatibility in varying degree. However, to arrive at definite

conclusions further investigation is required.

Summary and Discussion

Results of artificial breeding in B. candolleanum indicate the pre-

sence of incompatibility system associated with tristyly and varying in

degree. Long-styled form is highly self incompatible. Mid-styled form

is totally self compatible. Short-styled form is also very highly self-

fertile. Maximum self sterility is seen in the form which has the stigmas

far above all the anthers. Forms with at least one set of anthers above

the stigmas are highly self fertile.

B. reinwardtii is adapted for self pollination and is totally self fertile.

In this species the long and short-styled forms seem to have disappear-

ed, leaving only the mid-styled form with necessary modifications to

ensure self pollination.

Mather & de Winton (1941) are of the opinion that incompatibility

reaction and morphological dimorphism arose together as one insepar-

able unit and not as distinct outbreeding mechanisms which are found

together because of mutual reinforcement. <But this conclusion has

since been proved unacceptable. It is generally assumed that a homo-

morphic multiallelic incompatibility system is primarily in angiosperms

(Stebbins 1947, 1950, 1960; Whitehouse 1950; Crowe 1964). Hetero-

styly which is found in more advanced taxa is believed to be derived

from an ancestral multiallelic system either by degeneration of all

except two alleles or by the degeneration of all alleles and subsequent

BREEDING MECHANISM OF BIOPHYTUM CANDOLLEANUM 107

rise of a diallelic system and or heteromorphy (Vuilleumier 1964).

According to Crowe (1964) heterostyly is “a degenerate form of homo-

morphic incompatibility from which it arise by loss of alleles.” But

this view is not accepted by Vuilleumier who on the basis of available

evidence suggests that as alleles were lost homomorphic species became

self fertile and possibly subsequently lost all incompatibility alleles

later when environmental conditions changed, outbreeding in some

taxa could have again been selected for and diallelic system evolved.

Ornduff (1964) also supports this view.

Earlier investigators like Hildebrand (1867) and Darwin (1877)

considered that heterostyly originated as adaptation to specialised insect

visitors which would transfer pollen from a given anther level to stig-

mas of same level in other flowers, thus effecting cross pollination. The

expectation is that the same part of the body of the insect would touch

the anthers and stigmas at the same level in different flowers. But this

could hardly be an exact mechanism to ensure cross breeding. It is

more a theoretical possibility than a practical certainty. Moreover in

flowers with one set of anthers above the stigmas, visit of insect is

likely to cause shedding of some pollen from these anthers on the

stigmas below. Such flowers would therefore be getting a mixture of

own and foreign pollen. This possibility would defeat the purpose of

heterostyly as an adaptation for cross pollination. A better and surer

mechanism would be required to ensure out breeding. Incompatibility

system might ’have developed for this. Morphological heteromorphism

reducing chances of a stigma getting own pollen could have led to

physiological specialisation and brought in an incompatibility system

in course of time. In B. candolleanum while morphological hetero-

morphism is complete, incompatibility system is not so perfect, prob-

ably showing that the latter is a secondary modification. The long-

styled flower which has least chance of getting own pollen is also the

most self incompatible.

If homomorphic multiallelic incompatibility system is the primitive

condition, origin of heterostyly would appear to be an accident rather

than a definite adaptation. Self incompatibility itself being a sure me-

chanism preventing in breeding, there is no need for a less effective

adaptation. It is not reasonable to assume that such an unnecessary

adaptation appeared in so many families. That heterostyly may lead to

unisexuality or break up by losing one or more floral forms has been

shown by Ornduff (1964) in Oxalis suksdorfii and species of Nym-

phoides. Such a loss of floral forms seems to have taken place in B.

reinwardtii. Adaptation for self pollination is a derived condition in

this; otherwise the floral organisation could have been simpler.

108 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 71 (1)

Acknowledgements

1 am deeply indebted to Dr. Robert Ornduff, University of Cali-

fornia, for initiating me into the study of heterostyly, giving me reprints

of many papers on the subject and helping me with valuable advice.

I am also obliged to Mr. K. Sasidharan, Lecturer, Govt. College, Mada-

ppally, for getting me literature on B. sensilivum and helping me collect

plants.

References

Gamble, J. S. : Flora of the Presi-

dency of Madras Vol. i.

Ornduff, R. (1964): The breed-

ing system of Oxalis suksdorfii. Amer.

Journ. Bot. 57(3).

Vuilleumier, B. S. (1965): The

origin and evolutionary development

of heterostyly in the angiosperms.

Evolution 21. June, 1967.

Mayura Devi, P. (1964): Hetero^

styly in Biophytum sensitivum. Journ.

Genetics. 59(1).

Observations on sy sterna tics of

Sessile Barnacles from West

Coast of India- 1

BY

Arun B. Wagh1 2 and D. V. Bal3

{With ten text-figures)

Introduction

Studies on systematics of any group of animals is an essential

prerequisite for bio-ecological investigation. The present studies were

undertaken with this view and have been followed by investigations

on various aspects of bio-ecology of barnacles which are being publish-

ed elsewhere.

Material and methods

The present paper contains a description of sessile barnacles collect-

ed from the coast of Maharashtra which is the area lying between

20°05'N to 15°48'N on the west coast of India. The collections were

made from the intertidal region.

The usual method of treating the valves, compartments, mouth-

parts and other appendages of the specimens with caustic potash, was

employed. For staining, borax-carmine as well as picro-indigocarmine

stains were used. The diagrams were drawn with the aid of camera

lucida.

Observations

A classified list of the various forms described is as follows:

Sub-order balanomorpha Pilsbry, 1916.

1 Accepted February 13, 1970.

2 National Institute of Oceanography, Panaji — Goa.

3 Kirti College, Bombay 400 028.

110 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 71 (1)

Family Chthamalidae Darwin, 1854.

Genus Chthamalus Ranzani, 1817.

1. Chthamalus malayensis Pilsbry, 1916.

2. Chthamalus wither si Pilsbry, 1916.

Family Balanidae Gray, 1925.

Sub-family Balaninae Darwin, 1854.

Genus Balanus Da Costa, 1778.

Sub-genus Megabalanus Hoek, 1913.

3. Balanus tintinnahulum var. tintinnahulum Linne, 1758.

Sub-genus Balanus Da Costa, 1778.

4. Balanus amphitrite var. communis Darwin, 1854.

5. Balanus amphitrite var. venustus Darwin, 1854.

6. Balanus amphitrite var. stutsburi Darwin, 1854.

7. Balanus amphitrite var. hawaiiensis Broch, 1922.

Sub-genus Chirona Gray, 1835.

8. Balanus amaryllis Darwin, 1854.

forma euamaryllis Broch, 1922.

Sub-family Chelonibiinae Pilsbry, 1916.

Genus Chelonibia Leach, 1817.

9. Chelonibia testudinaria Linne, 1758.

10. Chelonibia patula Ranzani, 1818.

Sub-family Tetraclitinae Nilsson-Cantell, 1921.

Genus Tetraclita Schumacher, 1817.

11. Tetraclita ( Tetraclitella ) purpurescens Wood, 1818.

Species Description

Chthamalus malayensis Pilsbry, 1916. (Figure 1)

Remarks : The specimens conforming to both types, namely Ch.

malayensis as well as Ch. moro were collected. However, all the forms

have been described as Ch. malayensis because the view point of Uti-

nomi (1954) and Karande & Palekar (1963) is being followed.

Colour of the shell, externally, varies from light brown to grey-

brown. Some forms exhibited slightly greenish tinge. The diameter of

the shell varies from 5-6 mm to 10-12 mm Opercular valves resemble

with those described by Utinomi (1954). Tergum bears 4-5 short crests

for the attachment of depressor muscles.

Mandible possesses 3 or 4 teeth. The row of spines below the fourth

tooth consists of 10-14 spines. Maxilla has three upper spines which are

separated by a small notch from the lower spines. Hairy labrum bears

16-17 teeth out of which first two are comparatively longer and more

stout. Cirrus II is with both, toothed and serrated types of spines.

Localities’. Bombay (north and south), Alibag, Murud-Janjira, Shri

SESSILE BARNACLES FROM WEST COAST OF INDIA

111

wardhan, Harnai, Ladghar, Jaigad, Nandivade, Ganapati-Pule, Ratna-

giri, Vijaydurg, Deogad, Malvan, Vengurla, Redi.

Distribution : Indian Ocean and Malay Archipelago.

Fig. 1. Chthamalus malayensis Pilsbry

Opercular valves and mouth-parts

A. Scutum — outer view; B. Scutum — inner view; C. Tergum — outer view;

D. Tergum — inner view; E. Mandible; F. Maxilla I; G. Labrum (labail palps

not shown).

112 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi. 71 (1)

Fig. 2. Chthamalus withcrsi Pilsbry

Opercular valves and mouth parts

A. Tergum — inner view; B. Tergum — outer view; C. Scutum — outer view;

D. Scutum — inner view; E. Mandible; F. Maxilla 1; G. Labrum (labial palps

not shown).

SESSILE BARNACLES FROM WEST COAST OF INDIA

113

Chthanialus withersi Pilsbry, 1916. (Figure 2)

Remarks : Colour, dirty brown or dirty grey. Carino-rostral diameter

6-7 mm. Compartments without ridges, with simple sutures and broad

alae. The description of opercular valves generally agrees with that

given by Nilsson-Cantell (1938). Thus, spur is almost united with the

basi-scutal angle. Similarly, the narrow carinal lobe with few crests

for the depressor muscle is also found to be present. Scutum, however,

bears a distinct pit for the lateral depressor muscle and thereby differs

from that described by Nilsson-Cantell.

Mandible bears 3 teeth and a pecten of 6-7 spines. Edge of maxilla

_ has two notches thereby dividing the spines into three groups. Out of

them, upper two spines look more stout. Labrum bears numerous

minute teeth.

Localities : Bordi, Gholvad, Bassein, Bombay (south), Elephanta,

Anjarle, Ganapati-Pule, Ratnagiri, Deogad, Malvan, Shiroda.

Distribution : Indian Ocean, Malay Archipelago.

Balanus tintinnabulum tintinnabulum Linne, 1758. (Figure 3)

Remarks : The present collection contains two different sets of in-

dividuals. Those collected from Madh Island, Bandra and Chowpatty

rocks (all grouped under Bombay) have blackish purple compartments

that are moderately ribbed longitudinally and with conical shape. The

specimens collected at other localities have tubulo-conical shells; the

compartments smooth and purplish-pink in colour. Shell-walls and the

opercular valves of the former are quite thick as compared to those

of the latter. Size of the shells varies from 35 mm to 60 mm in their

basal diameters. Opercular valves agree with those described by Hiro

(1939). The scutum, however, shows a slight difference by possessing

a well-developed pit for the lateral depressor muscle.

Mandible has 5 teeth, of which, the second and third are bifid.

Maxilla I has a straight edge with its spines arranged in three groups.

Labrum shows 1-2 teeth on either side of the median notch.

Localities'. Bombay, Murud-Janjira, Hamai, Ladghar, Nandivade,

Ganapati-Pule, Ratnagiri, Vijaydurg, Mumbri, Malvan, Vengurla and

Redi.

Distribution : Definitely known from Mediterranean sea, Atlantic and

Indian Ocean.

Balanus amphitrite communis Darwin, 1854. (Figure 4)

Remarks: Coloration of shell shows a great degree of variation.

Most of them have pink coloured stripes whereas some exhibit dark

brown stripes. Shape of shell conical, but a few of them were tubulo-

conical, probably due to crowding.

8

JOtfRWAL: BOMBAY N. AYU RA WHISK." SOCIETY, YokYi (1)

Scutum is reddish brown . externally and bears a conspicuous white

stripe f long its .tergal ^iBargin.^M^n^ble has 5 teeth of which the fourth

a>nd fift^ are small and khdbjjikd! Maxilla I lias h straight edge. Labrum

deeply,, patched ..with teeth on either side of it, numbering from 4 to 8.

Spme -porkers, arc,, of the opinion that multi-denticulated forms should

b.egpuppd under dmticulaXa. However, Nilsson-Cantell ( 1938),'

Tajaspr and Zerina;’(l 957) have grouped even multidenticulate fornfis

C

($■ -TYlgAA. . ^BklanuS fintihnabtilum tintinnabulum Linn.

;o

jpp^ular^ valves ; and mouth parts;

^ ^rguth1^ dhter VieWv h: Tergum ^ -ihri^r View; C. Scutum — outer view;

BO .‘.SdilAnf inftMiMkW;VE.!' Maridihle; F.:

not shown). -

Maxilla I; G; Lab rum {labial palps

( SESSILE BARNACLES FROM WEST COAST OF INDIA

115

undtt vsLT. communis on the contention that it is merely a minor vari-

ation which does not warrant the creation of a separate variety. In

the present investigations the latter view has been accepted.

Fig. 4.

Balanus aniphitrite communis Darwin

Opercular valves and mouth parts

^.^prgroj— .irnier.1;vfew; B. -Tergum —.outer view; C. Scutum inner view;

O'. Seuturpi— outer view; E. Mandible; F. Maxilla I; G, Labrum (labial palps

not shown).

116 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 71 (1)

Localities : Bombay, Elephanta, Alibag, Shriwardhan, Harnai, Dabhol,

Jaigad, Nandivade, Ganapati-Pule, Ratnagiri, Vijaydurg, Deogad, Mal-

van, Vengurla, Tak, Shiroda and Redi.

Distribution : West India, European waters, Mediterranean, west and

south Africa, Indian Ocean, Malay Archipelago, New South Wales,

Pacific Ocean, Japan, Hawaii Islands.

Balanus amphitrite venustus Darwin, 1854. (Figure 5)

Remarks : Shells are pale rosy in colour. Orifice of the shell dent-

A. Tergum — outer view; B. Tergum — inner view; C. Scutum — outer view;

D. Scutum — inner view; E. Mandible; F. Maxilla I; G. Labrum (labial palps

not shown).

SESSILE BARNACLES FROM WEST COAST OF INDIA

117

ated. Radii are narrow with their summits parallel to the base. Tergum

possesses a broad, inclined spur with rounded head. Basi-scutal angle

is quite acute, thereby giving it a pointed appearance. Scutum is very

thin and bears a well-developed articular ridge. Mandible has 5 teeth

of which the fourth and fifth are knob-like. Maxilla I has almost a

straight edge bearing two pairs of long spines with 7 smaller spines

in between them. Labrum with a deep and narrow median notch. On

either side of the notch are 4 teeth.

Localities : Bandra, Jaigad, Ganapati-Pule, Ratnagiri, Vengurla and

Shiroda.

Distribution : Mediterranean sea, west and south Africa, Indian Ocean

and Japan.

Balanus amphitrite stutsburi Darwin, 1854. (Figure 6)

Remarks : About twelve specimens settled on a wooden test panel

were collected at Trombay (Bombay). They are all ‘typical stutsburi ’

forms. As described by Stubbings (1961) the shell is conical and has

a robust appearance. There is also incurving of the compartments to-

wards the shell opening, so that the shell presents a convex appearance

in profile.

Tergum is of typical shape with its spur very much elongated. The

longitudinal furrow is represented by a depression. The basi-carinal

lobe is well-developed and bears on its inner surface crests for tergal

depressors. Scutum has well-developed, adductor as well as articular

ridge. Pit for the lateral depressor is quite pronounced.

Mandible bears 5 teeth and 2-3 spinelike projections at its lower

angle. Maxilla I has the lower part of its edge slightly protruded which

in turn carries a pair of long spines. Labrum has deep median notch

with 3-4 teeth on either side of it.

Localities : Trombay.

Distribution : West Africa.

Balanus amphitrite hawaiiensis Broch, 1922. (Figure 7)

Remarks : Colour of the shell dirty white with violet vertical stripes.

Shell has a large rhomboid orifice and thick compartments. Apex of

the rostral plate is either straight or slightly incurved. The opercular

valves agree in appearance with those described by Utinomi (1960).

The suture between two opercular valves of the same side present a

sinuous appearance.

Mandible bears 5 teeth. Maxilla I is of the typical B. amphitrite

shape. Labrum bears numerous teeth on either side of the notch. Based

on this character alone, Broch (1922) created variety denticulata.

However, as stated previously, it is being treated as minor variation in

the present communication and hence the forms are assigned either

118 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 71 (1)

Fig. 6. Balanus am phitrite Atutsburi Darwin

Opercular valves and mouth parts

A. Tergum — outer view; B. Tergum — inner view; C. Scutum — outer view;

D. Scutum — inner view; E. Mandible; F. Maxilla I; 0. Labrum (labial palps

not shown). 1 A ■

SESSILE BARNACLES EROMAVEST, COAST OF INDIA \ 119

'!)M\

A. Tergum outor^iews? B-r.lEetfgM 'feiJMtuml-^-®uter view;

D. Scutum — inner view; E. Mandible; F. ,M axilla I; Q. Labrum (labial palps

not shown).

to communis Or ytowtiiiemi&Nkrieiy "dej^nMing upon their xntte“ Set Si

characters, • tat

120 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 71 (1)

Localities : Gholvad, Bombay, Elephanta, Dabhol, Harnai, Tak and

Aronda.

Distribution : Indian Ocean, Persian Gulf, Malay Archipelago, Hawaii

Islands, Honolulu.

Balanus amaryllis forma euamaryllis Broch, 1922. (Figure 8)

Remarks : Parietes are rosy pink in colour with bluish white alae.

Fig. 8. Balanus amaryllis Darwin forma euamaryllis Broch

Opercular valves and mouth parts

A. Scutum — outer view; B. Scutum — inner view; C. Tergum — outer view;

D. Tergum — inner view; E. Mandible; F. Maxilla I; G. Labrum (labial palps

not shown).

SESSILE BARNACLES FROM WEST COAST OF INDIA

121

Radii are oblique and are covered by persistent yellow epidermis. Alae

are comparatively broader.

Tergum externally bears a deep longitudinal furrow which is closed

in fully grown specimens. Spur is long and narrow with its end

bluntly pointed. Scutum is plainly striated longitudinally, with the striae

dividing the lines of growth into squarish beads. Depression for the

attachment of lateral depressor muscle is quite deep.

Mandible bears 5 teeth of which the second one is large and double.

Maxilla I bears a pair of long spines at the apex and another pair at

base with 7 shorter spines in between. Labrum has 2-3 small teeth on

either side of the notch.

Localities : Cuffe Parade, Chowpatty, Breach Candy, Manori.

Distribution : Indian Ocean, Malay Archipelago, China, Japan, nor-

thern coast of Australia.

Chelonibia testudinaria Linne 1761. (Figure 9)

Remarks'. Fourteen specimens were obtained from the back of a

sea-turtle ( Eretmochelys imbricata) that was brought to the Tarapore-

vala Marine Biological Station, Bombay. All the specimens were fairly

well-developed and had attained large size; some of them admeasuring

45 mm in their rostro-carinal diameter.

Remarks'. Shell much depressed and oval in outline. Colour dirty

white. Parietes are thick with numerous vertical plates extending from

the outer lamina towards the inner lamina. Radii are narrow. A hard,

yellow and horny membrane representing the articular ridge of the

tergum unites the tergum and scutum.

Labrum bears numerous teeth on either side of the notch. Mandible

has 5 teeth of which the second and third are double. Lower angle of

mandible is pectinated. Maxilla I is without any notch and its straight

edge bears 15-16 spines without any definite pattern.

Distribution: Tropical and temperate seas, attached to turtles.

Tetraclita (Tetraclitella) purpurascens Wood, 1818. (Figure 10)

Remarks’. Shell coloration of these forms is dirty brown or greenish

in the field. However, on cleaning the shell it becomes white or greyish

white. Shell is much depressed with 22-28 ribs on its outer surface.

Compartment walls are thick with parietal tubes arranged in rows. Radii

are broad with horizontal summits.

Scutum transversely elongated and with the pit for depressor muscle

being indistinct. Tergum has extremely short spur that is situated very

close to basi-scutal angle. Crests for the depressor muscle well-develop-

ed and are six in number.

Mandible bears 5 teeth with third and fourth being double. The

lower angle is pectinated. Maxilla I slightly notched.

Localities: Bombay-Cuffe Parade, Madh Island, Breach Candy.

.122 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 71 (1)

Distribution: Madagascar, Malay Archipelago, China and India.

Chelonibia patula Ranzani, 1820.

Four specimens were found attached to a spiny lobster, Panulirus

polyphagus (Herbst).

Remarks'. Shell is light, fragile and loosely cemented. Radii are

broad and smooth. The opercular valves are very much similar to those

of Chelonibia testudinaria but narrow comparatively.

Distribution: Atlantic Ocean, Mediterranean Sea, Indian Ocean, Malay

Archipelago, Pacific Ocean.

SESSILE BARNACLES FROM WEST COAST OF INDIA

123

- 1-ig. 10. Tciraclitd '(Tefraclilelta) puTpurescens Wood ! °

Opercular valves and mouth parts.

Key to .abbreviations for Figs. 9 & 10.

A. Tergum — outer view; B. Tergum — inner view; C. Scutum — outer view;

D. Scutum — inner view; E. Mandible; ;F'. Maxilla I; G. Labrum (labial palps

mot shown), . _ . .. ^ u ; .

(to he continued)

Am J.I -jari r

The copulatory complex of

Neurobasis chinensis chinensis

(Linn.) (Agriidae: Zygoptera)1

BY

Basit Ali Khan

Zoology Dept., Agra College, Agra, ( U.P .)

(With three text-figures)

This paper describes the structure of the copulatory complex of

Neurohasis chinensis chinensis (Linn.).

Neurobasis chinensis chinensis (Linn.) is distributed throughout

India, except in desert areas. The genus Neurobasis Selys, has two

species, and one Neurobasis chinensis chinensis (Linn.) is found within

Indian limits, along the banks of streams. They are generally character-

ised by the brilliant metallic green thorax, with very long and slim

legs, wings moderately rounded at apices, especially hind wings, fore-

wings considerably longer than hind wings, hind wings opaque, basal

two thirds appearing brilliant metallic green or peacock-blue, ptero-

stigma absent in all wings. Abdomen narrow, cylindrical, much longer

than wings. Anal appendages black, supra-anal appendages much

longer than the tenth abdominal segment.

As in other Zygoptera Neurobasis chinensis chinensis (Linn.) bears

two sets of copulatory apparatus the first set which is primary in nature,

is situated on the venter of the ninth and tenth abdominal segments as

in other insects. The second set, regarded as the secondary complex

is located ventrally on the entire second and the apical part of the

third abdominal segments.

The first set is used for holding the female during copulation while

the second set is used in actual coition.

Primary Copulatory Complex

Fig. 1.

The primary copulatory complex consists of a median vestigial

1 Accepted June 11, 1971.

COPUL AT ORY COMPLEX OF NEUROBASIS C. CHINENSIS 125

or primitive penis (VP), a pair of reduced appendages or gonocoxites

(C) (=gonapophyses, Fraser 1956; gonopods, Snodgrass 1935; coxites,

George 1928; valvules, Whedon 1918), a pair of supra-anal appendages

(SAA) (=cerci, Snodgrass 1935), and a pair of infra-anal appendages

(IAA) (=cerci, Fraser 1956; epiproct, Snodgrass 1935).

\

1

Fig. 1. Ventral view of the primary copulatory complex.

(i) Vestigial penis (VP). — The vestigial penis is represented by a

reduced sclerite situated almost in the middle of the ventral surface

of the ninth abdominal segment (AS). The vestigial penis has an

elongated opening, the male gonopore (MGP) (=genital meatus, Fraser

1956).

(ii) Coxites (C). — The male gonopore (MGP) and the vestigial

penis (VP) are guarded laterally by a pair of reduced, oval append-

ages or gonocoxites. The portions of the ninth sternum lying anterior

and posterior to the male gonopore are modified to form the anterior

and posterior genital plates (AGP & PGP) respectively. The anterior

genital plate (AGP) is comparatively well developed.

(iii) Supra-anal appendages (SAA). — The supra anal appendages

arise from the terminal end of the tenth abdominal segment (AS) from

its dorso-lateral sides. They are long, sub-cylindrical near the base,

forcepate, and curved towards each other, with rounded and slightly

flattened apices. Each supra-anal appendage bears many spines (SP)

on the outer and lateral margins near the apex and a prominent conical

projection on the inner and lateral side, heavily covered with hairs.

(iv) Infra-anal appendages (IAA). — The infra-anal appendages

also arise from the terminal end of the tenth abdominal segment, and

lie ventral to supra-anal appendages and lateral to anus. They are

r26 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATVRA L HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 71 ( 1 )

shorter than supra-anal appendages and broader proximal ly and nar-

rower distally with blunt apices. The infra-anal appendages aree widely

separated at the base and covered with hairs and spines. . v: v: . ;

■ .. sdni 10 : £ baM JfLLVt .. oa. : (AA«&)

; • w :v- /'.Vi .■ : ' ... \ (AAI)

Secondary Copulatory Complex

L x;t ’’ Figs. 2 & 3. .

The secondary copulatory complex consists of the genital fossa

(GF) (^fenestra, Fraser 1956), the anterior lamina (AL), the posterior

lamina, the lamina-balilliformis (LAB), the chitinous supporting frame-

work (APSF & PPSF), the hamules, the penis vesicle (PV) (-yesicula

spermalis, Fraser 1956; sperm -receptacle, Snodgrass 1935), the perils

( P) (%rophallus, Fraser 1956; intromittent organ,, Snodgrass 1935*N

(i) The genital fossa (GF). — The genital fossa is a median, shal-

low and membranous depression on the entire second and apical part

of third sterna. It is supported by three main sclerites. Anteriorly it is

supported by the anterior lamina (AL), and lamina-batilliformis

(LAB), posteriorly by a posterior lamina, and laterally by a compli-

cated chitinous framework of sclerites. All the structures of the secon-

dary complex, are placed inside the fossa.

(ii) Anterior lamina (AL). -The anterior lamina is a chitinous,

hoOd-like sclerite occupying the front part of the second venter and

extending in between the two ventral margins of the second tergurn.

e.:- If. .'.is somewhat inverted V-shaped structure. The anterior margin

of the1 anterior lamina (AL) is more or less straight and bears promi-

nent laminar processes (LP), while the posterior margin is deeply

notched. The Inner and lateral walls of the notch are furnished with

hairs and it encloses the proximal portion of the penis. The anterior

lamina has two prominent borders, the inner border (IB) and the

Outer border (OB), the inner border is broader than the outer one;'

(iii) Lamina-batilliformis (LAB).— The lamina-batilliformis is-

forceps-like chitinous structure lying inside the notch, in between the

tWQ arms of the inverted V-shaped anterior lamina (AL). According

to Thompson (T908T • the lamina-batilliformis may be regarded as :

penis sheath in Zygoptera, because it lies exactly in the same position

as the penis sheath in Anisoptera and it also ^covers the prOximal

portion of the penisi The two arms (AR) of the lamina-batilliformis

(LAB) are widely divergent, ' terminating into rounded apices and

furim^ed;wilfa)ihafels. r r ban v$smi ‘ no naaoc-mg

i: • (iv) Posterior lamina.— The posterior lamina is a simple chitinous

plate, dying at the posterior end of the genital fossa/ It is' not visible

externally, because it Uscompletely covered by the anterior portion of

CQPUL AT ORY COMPLEX OF NEUROBASIS C. CHINENSIS 127

the penis vesicle (PV).

(v) Supporting frame-work (APSF & PPSF).— The genital fossa

(GF) is strengthened and supported by a number of chitinous rods,

which together constitute the complicated net work of chitinous bars,

the supporting frame- work. The supporting framework supports the

various parts of the copulatory complex and also provides the various

surfaces or facets for the articulation of the copulatory organs with

each other.

It is divisible into two portions, the anterior portion (APSF) and

the posterior portion (PPSF). The anterior portion of the supporting

framework lies below the anterior lamina (AL), and lamina-batilli-

formis (LAB). It consists of two promient chitinous lateral bars (LB)

which unite with each other at one end below the lamina-batilliformis,

while on the other end the lateral bars are free, divergent and articulat-

ed with the posterior portion of the supporting framework (PPSF).

The anterior portion of the framework (APSF) supports the ante-

128 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 71 (1)

rior lamina (AL), the lamina-batilliformis (LAB), the anterior pair of

hamules (AH) and also the proximal part of the penis (P).

The posterior portion of the framework is very thick and well

developed. It is somewhat U-shaped structure with two thick lateral

bars (LB) and a horizontal bar (HB), lying below the anterior portion

of the penis vesicle (PV). The posterior portion of the supporting

framework (PPSF) supports the anterior portion of the supporting

framework (APSF), posterior pair of hamules (PH), the apical por-

tion of the penis vesicle (PV), together with the distal part of the

penis (P).

(vi) Hamules (AH & PH). — The hamules are chitinous and robust

structures, situated behind the anterior lamina (AL) and articulated

with the framework. There are two pairs of hamules. The anterior pair

of hamules (AH) are well developed while the posterior pair of ham-

ules (PH) are reduced to papillae and situated at the junction of the

anterior and posterior portions of the supporting framework. The

anterior hamules have four prominent plates, two inner (IP) and two

outer (OP), furnished with marginal hairs.

(vii) Penis vesicle (PV). — The penis vesicle is developed on the

anterior part of the third sternum (ST), and projects forward under-

neath the second sternum. It is enormously developed, flask-shaped,

with plane dorsal surface and convex ventral surface. At the apical

part of the penis vesicle on the ventral convex surface, there is a pro-

minent lipped groove (GR) in which the glans of the penis is placed

during rest.

(viii) Penis (P). — The penis is found on the second segment and

it does not arise from the penis vesicle as in Anisoptera. It lies on the

ventral surface of second abdominal segment in an exactly homologous

position to that of the penis sheath in Anisoptera.

It is an unsegmented, slightly curved structure and consists of a

highly chitinized stem, attached to the floor of the genital fossa by its

base, near the apex of the penis vesicle (PV). The apex of the stem, the

glans (GLA) is bulbous, partly membraneous and partly chitinous;

and bears a short flagellum (FL) and many lobes.

Acknowledgements

I am grateful to Dr. H. N. Baijal, Zoology Department, Agra Col-

lege, Agra (India), for guidance and criticism. I thank Principal, Dr.

S. Sinha and Prof. C. P. Singh, Head of the Zoology Department,

Agra College, Agra (India), for providing laboratory and library

facilities.

COPUL AT ORY COMPLEX OF NEUROBASIS C. CHINENSIS 129

— Ill ST

Fig. 3. Venetral view of the secondary copulatory complex with penis, dis-

placed from its natural position.

9

130 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 71 (1)

References

George, C. J. (1928): The mor-

phology and development of the geni-

talia and genital ducts of Homoptera

and Zygoptera as shown in the life-

histories of Philaenus and Agrion.

Quart. J. micr. Sci. London, 72:447-

485, pis. iii.

Snodgrass, R. E. (1935) : Principles

of Insect Morphology. New York-

London: McGraw-Hill Book Co.,

pp. 1-667, 319 figs.

Thompson, O. S. (1908): Append-

ages of the second abdominal segment

of male Dragonflies (Odonata). Rep.

Ent. Albany, New York, St. Ed. Dept.

Mus. Bull. 724(23) : 249-263, 12 figs.

Tuxen, S. L. (1956): Taxonomist’s

Glossary of Genitalia in Insects. Co-

penhagen: Ejnar Munksgaard (Odo-

nata). (by F. C. Fraser), pp. 25-30.

Whedon, A. D. (1918): The com-

parative morphology and possible ad-

aptation of the abdomen in the Odo-

nata. Trans. Amer. ent. Soc. 44:373-

437, 9 pis.

ABBREVIATIONS

AGP — Anterior genital plate; AH — Anterior hamule; AL — Anterior

Lamina; APSF — Anterior portion of supporting framework; AR — Arm;

C — Coxite; FL — Flagellum; GF — Genital fossa; GLA — Gians; GR —

Groove; HA — Hair; HB — Horizontal bar; IAA — Infra-anal appendages;

IB — Inner border; IP — Inner plate; LA — Lamina analis; LAB — Lamina-

batilliformis; LBy — Lateral bar; LI — Lip; LP — Laminar process; MGP —

Male gonopore; N — Notch; OB — Outer border; OP — Outer plate; P —

Penis; PGP — Posterior genital plate; PH — Posterior hamule; PPSF —

Posterior portion of supporting framework; PV — Penis vesicle; SAA — Supra-

anal appendage; SP — Spine; ST — Sternum; VP — Vestigial penis.

Reviews

1. ECOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES LOR ECONOMIC DEVELOP-

MENT. By Raymond F. Dasmann, John P. Milton and Peter H.

Freeman, pp. viii + 252 (23 x 15 cm), with 31 text-figures. London,

1973. John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Price?

One of the cherished projects of the International Union for Con-

servation of Nature and Natural Resources had been to produce a

book that would draw the attention of planners of developing countries

to the mistakes of the over-developed West and to point out that there

was no purely technological solution available to solve the problems

of the human race. Oxygen must still be produced by green plants

and for the conservation of much needed freshwater a whole range of

natural factors must be taken account of. Almost any development

which man undertakes today impinges on the natural ecosystem and

to ensure that economic planning is undertaken in such a manner that

nature is not forced to hit back and undermine these developments is

the purpose of this book.

Apart from analysing the general ecological considerations of which

planners should take note there are valuable guidelines for the develop-

ment of humid tropical lands, pastoral lands of semi-arid regions,

tourism, agriculture and river basin development.

The rate at which deforestation is going on in India, a matter of

serious concern for our country, the following statement in the chapter

on River Basin Development Projects is of great relevance to our

country:

Any change in the watershed area will affect the flow of water and

quantity of sediment carried downstream. The protective role of

forests in maintaining a relatively stable flow of water for reservoir

impoundments and irrigation works is well established. Not only does

protective vegetation decrease flood peaks, but it also usually increases

water discharge during dry periods. Forests and their root systems are

also of great importance in preventing erosion and reducing sediment

loads in streams and rivers.

It is also significant that the water hyacinth which has become such

a menace in our country by interfering with navigation, fish cultivation,

etc. should also be responsible for so much loss of water through

evapotranspiration. According to the authors ‘in the dry atmosphere

of India the loss of water through water hyacinth was 7-8 times that

of open water’. Obviously there is need for widespread research to

find some biological controls against the spread of this exotic water

132 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 71 (1)

plant. It has been suggested that the manatee ( Trichechus sp.), a herbi-

vorous freshwater mammal inhabiting parts of Africa and Latin

America and consumes large quantities of aquatic plant material may

be one possible control species.

Z. F.

2. A FIRST GUIDE TO THE INDIAN OCEAN SEASHORE.

By F. M. J. Finn. pp. 72 (19.5 x 14 cm), with many illustrations.

Nairobi, 1973. Oxford University Press. Price Rs. 11.00.

From the rather bombastic, too-inclusive title of this booklet,

accompanied by a very professional appearance of the colour photo-

graph of the head and fore-body of a hermit crab on the cover, the

reader would be led to believe that it is a taxonomic account of the

intertidal animals from several countries bordering the Indian Ocean.

It is only when one browses through the first few pages and looks at

the amateurish sketches, or cares to read the matter on the back cover,

that he gets a true idea — that the booklet is meant for schoolchildren.

If that was its intention it is a fair performance, but it should have

been so labelled.

The title is unfortunate in another respect, too. It would lead the

reader to believe that the animals treated in the booklet come from

all over, or at least from a fairly wide and representative coverage of

regions of the Indian Ocean. In reality the author would have covered

only a few of the East African beaches. It is fortunate for him that

many of the animals described therein enjoy a cosmopolitan distri-

bution, thus giving some support to his claim. It is for this reason that

the booklet might also appeal to readers from other tropical countries.

The text is clearly written and free of the coy overtones that often

ruin books intended for children. The illustrations, however, are

shoddy. Those of sea-shells are tolerable, but one would be hard press-

ed to restrain a smile when he looks at the almost droll fish which is

being squirted by the cuttlefish on page 46, or the inflated porcupine

fish on page 68. And, after looking at the crab with one claw and both

eyes missing (on page 20), the other crab (on page 22) with bent

eyes, only four legs, and rectangular mouth, or the rosebud-like goose

barnacles on page 26, one wonders how it is claimed (on the outer

cover) that the “superbly accurate and detailed” drawings “will greatly

help in the precise identification of the fish, shells and coral. ...” The

drawings, in the reviewer’s opinion, are too poor and impressionistic

and are ill-suited to be helpful to even the amateur naturalist, let alone

to the serious student of animal classification.

REVIEWS

133

The Table showing tide times and heights (on page 10) is super-

fluous in a booklet meant for children, and would better have been

left out.

The appropriateness of the booklet is best left to the young reader

to judge. If it effectively does what it is intended to do — namely, stimu-

late interest for seashore life, it will be the kind of book that makes

an attractive present for the youngster beginning to take an interest

in marine biology.

B.F.C.

3. A REVISED HANDBOOK TO THE FLORA OF CEYLON.

Edited by B. A. Abeywickrama, Volume 1 (Part 1). pp. ii + 109

(24.5 x 16.5 cm), with 11 figures. Sri Lanka, 1973. University of Sri

Lanka. Available from Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington,

D.C. 20560, USA. Price $4.50 (Sterling £1.90).

Continuing advances in plant taxonomy call for revision of most

works on the plants of tropical Asia. A combined effort on the part

of the University of Sri Lanka, the Department of Agriculture of Sri

Lanka, and the Smithsonian Institute (Washington, D.C., USA) has

resulted in the beginning of a revision of Trimen’s Handbook of the

Flora of Ceylon, published from 1893-1901 with a supplement by

Alston in 1931, a work long out of print. The first part presents nine

angiospermous families: Apocynaceae, Asclepiadaceae, and Periplo-

caceae by H. Hueber (Botanisches Institute II, Wuerzburg, Germany),

Loranthaceae and Viscaceae by D. Wiens (University of Utah, Salt

Lake City, Utah, USA), Bignoniaceae by W. Theobald (Occidental

College, Los Angeles, California, USA), Pedaliaceae, Gesneriaceae,

and Martyniaceae by W. Theobald and D. Grupe (Occidental College,

Los Angeles, California, USA).

This work has a number of fundamental strengths. It is based on

careful restudy of the original Singhalese collections made and studied

by Trimen which fortunately have been preserved in Peradeniya. The

revision is also based on unusually ample modern collections being

made in Ceylon. Finally, whenever possible, there has been an effort

to recruit specialists and to send them in the field where they can study

the populations at first hand. All of this adds greatly to the value of

the work. Drs. Abeywickrama and Fosberg and their supporters have

rendered a genuine service by initiating this happy and hopefully

serendipitous venture.

It should be noted that the title word ‘‘Handbook”, with its con-

cept of something that fits the hand, was misapplied to the original

134 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 71 (1)

edition by Trimen. That edition came out in five parts (volumes) and

totalled 2,044 pages. The “Revised Handbook” promises to be even

larger since the nine families published use 109 pages and only re-

quired 73 pages in the original edition. A rather small type face (6

point) is much used in the revision. Thus, the revision is substantially

enlarged.

Not all family treatments are of the same scope. Dr. Hueber’s

treatment include synopses of suprageneric taxa, citation of place of

publication of generic names, generic synonymy, type species of genera,

chromosome numbers, and uses of plants. Dr. Theobald omits some of

these features but includes illustrations. Dr. Wiens omitted these extras.

Users of this work will be grateful that the editors have decided to

include such valuable information when it has been submitted by an

author, rather than eliminating it for the sake of consistency or ex-

pediency.

Only a few author errors could be detected. Aganosma cymosum

(page 19) is incorrectly treated as neuter instead of feminine. Tylophora

tenuissima (Roxb.) Wight (p. 44) was accepted instead of Tylophora

tenuis Blume because Roxburgh’s basionym, Asclepias tenuissima, was

incorrectly attributed to the first edition of Roxburgh’s Flora Indica

(as “1821”). In fact, Roxburgh’s basionym dates from the second

edition (1832) and Tylophora tenuis Blume (1826-7) is the correct

name, being priorable. The authorship of Macrosolen (p. 63) and

Tolypanthus (p. 69) was attributed to “(Blume) Reichenb” [1841]

when it should be attributed to “(Blume) Blume” [1830]. The specific

epithet in Dendrophthoe lonchiphyllus (p. 66) uses an incorrect con-

necting vowel and the wrong gender and should be “lonchophylla’ .

The binomial Epithema carnosum Bentham (1835) on page 103 is

incorrectly treated as if it had Aikinia carnosa G. Don (1838) as a

basionym, instead of the other way around. The citation in the same

place of Bentham’s publication of “Scroph. Ind. 57:665. 1835” is an

error for “Scroph. Ind. 57. 1835.”

These few and minor errors only emphasize the extremely high

standards of this work. Anyone dealing with tropical plants, parti-

cularly those of tropical Asia, will need this work. The first part is

the beginning of a promising series that will have a major impact on

botany in this part of the world.

D.H.N.

C.J.S.

REVIEWS

135

4. TROPICAL AQUARIA. By G. E. Williams, pp. 48 (18 x 12

cm). Second Edition. Horniman Museum & Library, London, 1973.

Published by the London Education Authority.

The growing interest of the general public in fish-keeping at home

has prompted an increasing number of popular books on this subject.

In the present one, the author has done the fish-oriented a favour in

bringing together in popular treatment the dos and don’ts of the hobby.

The book is basically a how-to-do-it and is directed to the beginner

aquarist.

The starting “chapters”, each of two to four pages, deal with the

construction and setting up of aquarium tanks, and their lighting and

heating. That on circulation takes up more space but deals mostly

with the systems used at the Horniman Museum. A list of the most

interesting plants and fishes, with minimal description, comprises what

would be the main chapters in books of this type. Hints on feeding,

and on diagnosing and treating six common fish diseases make up the

rest of the book, being contained in two “chapters”, totalling less than

eight pages.

The book is written with considerably more accuracy than most

of the current flood of popular books in this hobby. Although written

by a scientist, it is devoid of scientific jargon, and its explicit style

shows how a technical subject matter can be written without using

fancy language. However, the book suffers considerably from its ex-

treme condensation. Readers should not, therefore, expect much more

than bare service from this overcrowded little book with its compact

arrangement.

The arrangement of the book, appropriately, appears to have been

determined as much by questions put to the author in the course of

his official duties as by the subject itself.

The few illustrations that are neat and simple, but deal only with

technicalities. Apart from two electric circuit diagrams and two water-

circulation devices, the only other pictures are those of six fishes on

the cover. More illustrations of popular fishes, aquarium plants, and

common live foods would have been appreciated.

Although the author claims that one of the aims of the handbook

is to give a description of some of the fish exhibits in the Museum, his

chapter “The Fish” is more on the lines of such chapters is most hobby

books. For example, for most of the fishes he has given colour des-

criptions. These are not at all useful to visitors to the Museum, as, any-

way, they would be seeing these colours on the bodies of the fishes.

He could have avoided this and, instead, devoted more space to des-

cribing peculiar habits, etc.

For the beautiful glossy cover and neat printing on good quality

136 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 71 (1)

paper, the price of the handbook, at 15 p. is surprisingly low.

Except for the principal shortcoming, viz. lack of detailed treat-

ment of the subjects covered therein, it is a good elementary hand-

book— hobbyists wishing to learn more will find the list of books and

periodicals on the last page very handy.

B.F.C.

5. CLASSIFICATION OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM — An

Illustrated Guide, pp. 55 (31 x 23.5 cm), with many illustrations.

London, 1972. The Universities Press Ltd. and the Reader’s Digest

Association Ltd. Price £1.35 net in U.K.

This book first appeared as a section The Living World of

Animals published by the Reader’s Digest Association Ltd. and is

now available in a separate edition for the use of students.

The introduction by Richard Freeman, a reader in zoology at the

University College, London, discusses in not too difficult terms the

need for and systems of classification. When studying an animal, the

morphological, physiological, behavioural and genetic characteristics

are all considered and these are compared with similar sets of charac-

teristics relating to another. In this way, relationships are established

and the hierarchy of groups in classification is determined.

The contributions of Francis Willughby (who, in 1676, published

a work on all the species of birds then known) and Linnaeus who

provided the starting point for all generic and specific names for animals,

are described in some detail and Freeman points out some odd results

that arose out of Linnaeus’s system of classification — for instance, the

Swedish zoologist divided mammals into orders on their dentition,

resulting in a bracketing of rhinos with mice!

Inevitably, some groups have been treated in greater detail than

others, but no phylum has been omitted. All terrestrial vertebrates — as

these are the groups that observations of nature and field workers are

most likely to encounter — have been taken down as far as families,

with brief notes on appearance and habits and examples that are illus-

trated. The very large number of families among insects and fishes

and the technical language involved. Freeman points out, precluded

their treatment in the same detail.

A useful book with excellent illustrations and not too involved.

Perhaps it is a failing that it is so simple, for the student will quickly

outgrow it.

NEELA D’SOUZA

Miscellaneous Notes

1. STATUS OF THE TIGER IN BURMA

In wild life sanctuaries by Kyaw Gyi, Sarpay Brikman of the

Printing and Publishing Corporation 1973, the author states that accor-

ding to Forest Department’s estimate there were 1621 tigers in Burma

in 1962.

Outside Reserves 1195

Inside Reserves 426

7621

The total land area of Burma is 261227 square miles. The area

under forests in known to be 149783 square miles or 57 per cent of

the total land area in the Union. The area under Reserved Forests is

34068 square miles or 13 per cent of the total land area in the Union.

J. D. Bitkinson 1948 (Forests and Forestry in Burma. Jour . Roy.

Soc. Arts, London 96:478-491) states that Burma has almost the same

area of actual forest as India.

The author of wild life sanctuaries is a retired Chief Conser-

vator of Forests, Burma.

25, Inya Myaing Road, TUN YIN

University P.O.,

Rangoon, Burma,

September 17, 1973.

2. WEIGHT AND SIZE AT BIRTH OF TWO SPECIES OF WILD

MAMMALS IN CAPTIVITY

This note deals with the weight and size at birth of two species of

wild mammals observed at Nandankanan Biological Park, Orissa. The

weight and measurements were taken within twelve hours of birth.

Jungle Cat ( Felis chaus)

The four kittens born in one litter on 17.1.1973 weighed from 103

to 126 gm with an average of 111.25 gm and measured from 22 to

24 cm with an average of 22.5 cm from nose tip to tail tip including

6 cm to 7 cm (average 6.5 cm) long tail at birth.

In available literature, there appears to be no report on weight and

size of this cat at birth.

138 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 71 (1)

Indian Wild Boar {Sus scrofci cristatus)

The seven piglets (one out of 4 born in one litter on 10.viii.’72 and

6 born in one litter on 23. ix. 1972) weighed from 325 to 665 gm

with an average of 557.43 gm and measured from 31.5 to 37 cm with

an average of 35 cm from nose tip to tail tip including 4.5 cm to 6 cm

(average 5.36 cm) long tail. The shoulder heights were from 14 to

16.5 cm with an average of 15.36 cm. The one young which weighed

325 gm and measured 31.5 cm could not stand without support as it

was very weak at birth.

The literature available to us has no report on this subject.

Veterinary Asst. Surgeon, L. N. ACHARJYO

Nandankanan Biological Park,

P.O. Rarang, Dist: Cuttack.

Wild Life Conservation Officer, R. MISRA

Old Secretariate Building,

Cuttack- 1 (Orissa),

February 21, 1973. ^

3. BURROWING HABITS OF THE GREATER BANDICOOT

RAT {BAN DICOT A INDICA)

{With a text-figure)

Introduction

The Greater Bandicoot Rat is one of our largest rodents, weighing

on an average more than one kilogram. It is a confirmed commensal

of man, always living in close vicinity of human dwellings and feeding

on refuse and storage products. The Greater Bandicoot Rat is not

conspicuous for its large burrows which cause considerable damage

to huts and godowns. Practically nothing is known of the biology of

this animal in spite of its being one of most serious rodent pests of

India. The present note is an account of its burrowing habits.

Materials and Methods

This account is based on an investigation of the structure of eighty-

three bandicoot burrows. All the burrows under study were currently

or very recently occupied as evidenced by the presence of soil produced

by fresh diggings and sighting of the bandicoot rats by local inhabit-

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

139

ants. The study involved a careful excavation of each burrow, noting

down their dimensions and any contents. The excavations were carried

out at three times of the year: 30 burrows during the second week of

October 1972, 23 burrows during the fourth week of February 1973,

and 30 burrows during the fourth week of July 1973. All the burrows

were located in the vicinity of the Chatushringi hill in Poona.

Results and Discussion

The burrow is a winding tunnel roughly circular in cross-section,

its diameter ranging from 8 to 15 cm. The tunnel is of a fairly constant

diameter throughout, and does not enlarge into any chamber-like

spaces. The tunnel makes a number of twists and turns under the

ground and may lead to several blind alleys. The total length of the

burrows excavated ranged from 44 to 520 cm. The maximum depth

of the burrows ranged from 23 to 115 cm. A single burrow may open

above ground by one to four separate openings. Fig. 1 is a sketch of

one of the burrows and Table 1 provides more detailed statistics on

the dimensions of the burrows.

None of the excavated burrows were found to harbour any stored

food materials. Many but not all of the burrows contained accumula-

tions of cloth and paper pieces, particularly at the end of a blind alley

or near a turning in the tunnel. We found a number of commensals

in many of the burrows; these included isopods, spiders, centipedes,

beetles and lizards. As we have covered a number of burrows in all

the major seasons of the year, we may safely conclude that the burrow

140 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 71 (1)

does not serve for food storage, but as a shelter for the Greater Bandi-

coot Rat.

Table I

Characteristics of the burrows of Bandicota indica

Bandicoot burrows were found to be organized into colonies of

2 to 15 burrows. Distances between openings of neighbouring burrows

in a colony ranged from 20 to 700 cm, tfie average separation being

about 100 cm. The colonies are always next to a house or a grain

storage godown generally lying at the back of the houses close to a

fence or compound wall. The burrows often extend under the floor

or the house and occasional burrow openings are produced inside the

house especially if it has a mud flooring. The burrows within each

colony are fairly compactly aligned next to each other and each colony is

a clearly discrete entity. One colony may be separated from an adja-

cent colony by several hundred metres. Whether such colonies consti-

tute a genuine deme will depend on the extent of migration of indi-

viduals from colony to colony. No data are as yet available on this

problem.

Ack n owledge men t

We wish to acknowledge the kind support of Dr. G. B. Deodikar,

Director, M.A.C.S., Poona.

Biology Department, A. V. ARJUNWADKAR

Fergusson College,

Poona 411 004.

Maharashtra Association for the MADHAV GADGIL* 1

Cultivation of Science,

Poona 411 004,

September 11, 1973.

1 |

1 Present address : Centre for Theoretical Studies, Indian Institute of Science,

Bangalore 560 012.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

141

4. STORKS PREYING ON LIVE BIRDS

In 1969, I had been informed by Shri V. S. Saxena the then Divi-

sional Forest Officer, Bharatpur, that Blacknecked Storks ( Xeno -

rhynchus asiaticus ) capture and eat coot; one of our shikaris confirm-

ed this, but I found it hard to believe.

In April 1973 during the fag end of our Bird Migration camp. I

twice observed Blacknecked Storks hunting down diving coot in

shallow water which they captured and swallowed whole. On a third

occasion another stork of the same species snapped up a flying coot

out of a group it flushed while skimming over the water.

At the same period Adjutant Storks ( Leptoptilos dubius) and

Blacknecked Storks were seen walking down flightless injured ducks

which could not dive away in the foot or two of water remaining. The

victims were invariably snapped up by the neck, and shaken till dead

and swallowed whole.

BNHS Bird Migration Camp, JAMSHED D. PANDAY

Bharatpur,

Rajasthan,

December 10, 1973.

5. BREEDING OF THE LESSER FLAMINGO, PHOENICONAIAS

MINOR (GEOFFROY) IN KUTCH

{With two photographs)

In 1945 I wrote in the birds of kutch: “Lester’s (1903) presump-

tion that it [Lesser Flamingo] breeds in Kutch has not been confirm-

ed. So far it is not known to breed within Indian limits at all.” Later

(1954), in my paper on the birds of Gujarat ( JBNHS 52: 384) I re-

corded as follows: “Between 25 February and 2 March 1946, enormous

concentrations roughly estimated as close on a hundred thousand birds

[! ?] with no admixture of ruber, were observed on the flat muddy

expanse of the shallow Banas River near its mouth (opposite Dhutari

Bet) in the Little Rann of Kutch. The species has so far not been found

breeding within Indian limits, but there seems high probability of its

doing so in the Great or Little Rann. The gathering here included

numerous birds in the brown postjuvenal plumage, perhaps not more

than 2 or 3 months old, which could well be from this undiscovered

breeding ground.” Sustained enquiry in the intervening years of likely

persons living in Kutch and visitors to the suspect areas had failed to

elicit any positive evidence, and the question of whether, and where,

the Lesser Flamingo breeds in the Rann remained baffling.

142 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 71 (1)

It is thus of particular interest to record that on a recent visit to

‘Flamingo City’ off Nir in the Great Rann (January 24, 1974) with

Shri Shivrajkumar Khachar of Jasdan and Shri Ramsinhji Rathod,

DFO Kutch, we were finally rewarded with firsthand proof of the

species breeding within Indian limits. Water conditions in the Rann

and logistics of our expedition to the colony were more or less identi-

cal with those recorded in my note “Flamingo City re-visited” in

March 1960 ( JBNHS 57: 413-15) and need not be recounted. After

the heavy monsoon inundation the edge of the Rann was still wet and

boggy and impassable for jeeps, so — as on the previous occasion — we

motored from Khavda to Kuran (c. 15 km) and then transferred to

camel-back. The route to Nir lay along the stony base of the Kala

Dongar hills across rocky hummocks and dry stony water courses,

sparsely scattered with Euphorbia, Salvadora, Zizyphus and Prosopis

scrub. The distance from Kuran to Nir, said to be c. 22 km, took 44

hours of merciless pounding in some of the most uncomfortable saddles

ever designed! The distance from our bivouac at Nir to Flamingo

City, approximately 10 km, was covered on the same mounts in 2\

hours next morning, over alarmingly slithery slush alternating with

shallow brine and stretches of billiard-table flat dry compacted sand.

Owing to abnormally heavy monsoon rains in northwestern Gujarat

in the 1973 season, the Great Rann had been deeply inundated by the

Luni River and the water level in the Flamingo City area apparently

did not become favourable for nesting till late October or early Nov-

ember. Dr. Philip Kahl, who is making a comparative study of all the

flamingo species of the world, flew over the breeding ground on 15

November and took the accompanying aerial photographs to support

his visual estimate of 10,000 nests in the two sectors of the City. On

these he was able to count 7132 nests in occupation. The majority of

birds were apparently the larger species, and he found no indication

that the few Lesser Flamingos present among them were engaged in

any breeding activity. As the nesting had apparently begun only a short

while before. Dr. Kahl felt that the numbers would increase as water

conditions improved, and he suggested our visiting the place a couple

of months later to check the position.

As our camelcade neared the ‘City’ the sight, as usual, grew increas-

ingly breath-taking. The muffled ‘roar’ of the birds in the distance sound-

ed exceedingly like the continuous grind of some mighty electric gener-

ator in action. Through binocular could be marked down on the hori-

zon at least three other separate, fairly large, breeding colonies between

the traditional Flamingo City and Bhanjda Bet, towards the east and

south. I have no recollection of these colonies from my previous visits,

and it may be that they are new extensions. They were too far to give

any idea of size, but seemed well populated. Flamingo City itself

Photo 1. Flamingo colony — Great Rann of Kutch — 15 Nov. 1973,

(photographed from the NE).

{Photo: M. P. Kahl )

Photo 2. Flamingo colony — Great Rann of Kutch — 15 Nov. 1973,

(photographed from the S).

Counts from photo show approx. 4856 nests in ‘'south colony'’ (nearest camera)

& 2272 nests in “north colony” (top of photo), for a total of approx. 7132 nests.

{Photo: M. P. Kahl)

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

143

appeared to be in two major sectors connected by a rather sparsely

populated “neck”. I have grown sceptical of visual estimates of num-

bers, including my own — specially when made from ground level But

for what it is worth, it may be mentioned that among the enormous

number of birds present (estimated as 25 to 30,000) we guessed the

total number of Lesser Flamingo in the more congested sector of the

mixed colony (“north colony”, photo 2) to be between 2000 (SA)

and 5000 (Shivrajkumar). The nests, with these birds sitting on eggs

or newly hatched chicks, were scattered among those of the Larger,

but some sections were patronized almost exclusively by P. minor.

These segregated mohallas or ‘ghettos’ stood out clearly in the distance

as patches of dark rosy pink against the white masses of roseus. Nearly

all nests of both species contained eggs in every stage of development

— mostly hard-set or chipping or just hatched — in addition to a great

many newly hatched chicks in french grey velvety powder-pulf down,

and hordes of older grey plumaged runners (pullets) of more or less

uniform size, between c. 30 and 60 cm tall (estimated as 30-40 days

old), looking like a vast stretch of mobile undergrowth around the

parents’ legs while being herded away at our instrusion. No significant

difference was apparent between the architecture of the nests or colour

and egg-size of the two species, though my impression is that eggs of

minor were somewhat less narrow and elongate. No marked difference

was noticeable in the newly hatched chicks either, except that those

of minor were perhaps of a slightly browner grey velvet. In fact the

two were not recognizable apart, and the nests of minor had to be

carefully marked down from a distance for closer examination. There

were one or two small unoccupied satellite colonies in the ‘suburbs’,

separated from the ‘metropolis’ by 200 metres or so of dry flat ground

— which had probably got left high and dry by the receding water

line before they could be fully occupied (top right, photo 1). Although

some of these nests looked freshly made there was little evidence of

their having been used, except some of them possibly by the earliest

breeders of the season. A vast area — perhaps a square kilometre or

more — on the leeward side of the City was littered fairly evenly with

individual wind-scattered white feathers which, in the lengthening

shadows of the setting sun, looked curiosuly like glistening snow flakes

or the aftermath of a hail storm.

That P. minor was breeding in Flamingo City in such large numbers

this year when none were found doing so on my previous visits, may

possibly be due to some hydrologic disturbance caused by the throw-

ing of the bund across the Little Rann (Banas River outflow) for the

National Highway to Kandla in the southern section, forcing the

birds to transfer their (suspected) breeding ground to the Great Rann.

It will be interesting to watch whether the birds will breed regularly

144 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 71 (1)

in Flamingo City hereafter.

It will be remembered that the first records of the breeding within

Indian limits of the Avocet and Rosy Pelican were also obtained

fortuitously during flying visits to Flamingo City in 1945 and 1960

respectively ( JBNHS 45:420-21; 57:413-15). The present discovery

of Lesser Flamingo breeding further highlights the potentiality of the

Great Rann as a repository of ornithological, and doubtless other,

surprises, and emphasizes the desirability of a properly planned bio-

logical survey of the entire area.

46 Pali Hill, SALIM ALI

Bandra,

Bombay 400 050,

March 19, 1974.

6. NOTES ON A SOOTY TERN ( STERNA FUSCATA

NUBILOSA SPARRMAN) COLLECTED NEAR CALICUT

In the first week of June this year a female Sooty Tern was brought

to Professor K. J. Joseph of the Zoology Department, Calicut Univer-

sity by a person who had trapped it near the campus. It was an adult

bird with very worn and moulting flight feathers. Presumably, it had

finished breeding and was blown inland from the coastal area. The

campus is about 7 miles distant from the coast of the Arabian Sea

and in June we had many strong gales.

This species breeds in the Lakshadweep from December /January

to May [Salim Ali and Dillon Ripley, 1969, handbook of the birds

of India and Pakistan Vol. 3:63]. In the specimen examined moult

of the feathers of the body had been completed, but the flight feathers

(both remiges and rectrices) were still moulting. It measured: wing

297 mm; outer tail feathers 147 mm; bill 39 mm from feathers; tarsus

23 mm. Both wing and tail had broken tips. The ovary had regressed.

Primaries 2 to 8 (counting from the proximal end) had recently

completed their growth. In the right wing the 8th primary was about

three-fourths and in the left, one-fourth grown. In both wings primaries

9-10 were old. Alula were moulting. As some of the secondaries (in-

cluding the feathers of the skin overlying the humerus) were missing,

they could not be numbered exactly, but we could count 19 in one

wing and twenty in the other. The colour, texture, and moult of the

secondary feathers suggested that their moult had started at three

different points. The outermost or first secondary was moulting in

both wings, and the 14th in the left wing alone. In both wings, second-

aries 2 to 13 were old and very much worn. The innermost group of

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 145

5-6 secondaries (or tertiaries) had apparently completed growth much

earlier and were faded to some extent but strong. This suggested that

the tertiaries had moulted at a different time.

The greater upper coverts of the remiges had either recently com-

pleted growth or were in the final stages of growth, so were the upper

lesser wing-coverts and the upper tail-coverts. The upper median wing-

coverts were old. All the body tracts of feathers had fresh feathers

suggesting a recently completed moult.

The overall pattern of moult of flight feathers suggested a gradual

exchange of flight feathers without impairing flight completely at any

point. This is important for the survival of the bird as it spends most

of its time in the air. Renewal of the upper greater wing-coverts in

advance of the moult of remiges themselves, and completing the moult

of the tertiaries earlier, are protective. Fully grown upper greater

coverts protect the sensitive areas at the base of the growing wing

quills; the tertiaries protect the rest of the wing quills in the folded

wing.

Subdivision of Ecology & Ornithology, D. N. MATHEW

Zoology Department, E. A. A. SHUKKUR

Calicut University 673635,

June 9, 1973.

7. MORE CUCKOO PROBLEMS

In the nineteen-thirties the Journal of the Bombay Natural History

Society had devoted a number of pages to “cuckoo problems” concern-

ing the parasitic habits of this bird. The present note is intended to call

attention to another “problem”: the winter quarters of some cuckoos,

especially the Common Cuckoo Cuculus canorus. It seems to be an

accepted fact that some of the Cuckoo populations spend the winter in

India. I have come to doubt this fact after checking the Indian liter-

ature and finding that we possess too few records between October

and March to accept the assumption that India is a wintering ground

for the Cuckoo; these records are: North Kanara, November and

February (Davidson, JBNHS 72:51), Trivandrum, February (Ferguson,

ibid. 75:664), Maidive Islands, January (Philipps, ibid. 60:519) and

Andaman Islands, November. (Hume, Stray Feathers 4: 288). The

two known records from Sri Lanka are from October (one) and un-

dated (one). The November records may well pertain to belated

migrants. Vaurie (the birds of the palaeargtic fauna, Non- Pas-

seriformes 1965, p. 569) writes that the Cuckoo “winters in Africa. . .

in small numbers in India* and in smaller numbers in the Indochinese

10

146 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 71 (1)

countries.” Even if we account for the fact that the cuckoo is un-

obtrusive and silent in winter, it would be very surprising that such an

abundant, widespread and highly migratory species in the Palaearctic

would pass almost un-noticed in southeast Asia. I therefore suspect

that the main winter ground of the species including the Asiatic popu-

lation is in Africa. It is the opinion of Moreau (the palaearctic-

african bird migration systems, 1972, p. 183) that probably a large

proportion of the Asiatic birds winter in Africa. Unfortunately, the

two subspecies presently recognized besides the nominate race are

so poorly differentiated as to be of no value in determining the pro-

venance of African winter guests.

Although it is usually stated that Cuculus canorus winters in south-

eastern Asia, it should be noticed that data for December to February

are almost entirely lacking for the whole area. The winter status of

this species for southeastern Asia including the Philippines, should

probably better be changed to “straggler”.

The Cuckoo appears to be abundant on passage in central India

in September and October (Butler, Stray Feathers 5:221, Barnes,

JBNHS 4: 18, and others). Indeed the pattern of autumn migration

in India is somewhat similar to that of the Redfooted Falcon Falco

vespertinus which is known to winter in Africa. Whistler was similarly

impressed by the lack of winter data for the Pied Crested Cuckoo

Clamator jacobinas and also brought to attention the possibility that

it might spend the winter in Africa ( JBNHS 55:136-145 and 57:523).

See also Wells, D. R., JBNHS 69:179-185, for an amendment to the

winter range of both Cuculus saturatus and C. poliocephalus given by

Ali and Ripley in the handbook of the birds of India and Pakistan

vol. 5, 1969. The winter range of C. canorus will also have to be

amended there.

Concerning the Emerald Cuckoo Chalcites maculatus, I have not

found any definite winter records from India. Most observers in the

Himalayan foothills refer to it as a summer visitor. In Assam, Flume

(Stray Feathers 11:15) found it only in summer. The species is known

to winter in the Malay peninsula and in southern Thailand but is a

summer visitor in northern Thailand. In winter it reaches Sumatra

and, probably at this season only, the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

The winter status of the Violet Cuckoo Chalcites xanthorhynchus in

India is quite unknown.

U. S. National Museum, NHB 336, MICHEL DESFAYES

Smithsonian Institute,

Washington, D. C. 20560,

March 22, 1974.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

147

8. ON THE OCCURRENCE OF THE COMMON GREY HORN-

BILL TOCKUS BIROSTRIS (SCOPOLI) NEAR BOMBAY

The note on the occurrence of the Common Grey Hornbill Tockus

birostris (Scopoli) in the Government House Gardens in Bombay City

(S. R. Amladi & J. C. Daniel, JBNHS 70(2) : 378-379) prompts a

few remarks.

I did record seeing a Malabar Grey Hornbill T. griseus (Latham)

at Ghodbunder in Salsette Island on 17 April 1943. The bird was being

chivvied by crows and the fleeting glimpse was put down as griseus,

for this was the nearest recorded species (from the Ghat area of

Khandala) and there was no evidence of birostris occurring in the

Konkan, away from the Deccan.

In 1945, a bird flying across at Powai was definitely noted as

'birostris (JBNHS 45, p. 242) and many subsequent sightings more

carefully examined convince me:

1) that the earlier records of Tockus griseus from Salsette and

the Konkan were in error for T. birostris, and

2) that birostris has either newly entered this area or increased

appreciably in numbers. Its occurrence in the neighbourhood of Bom-

bay was not referred to by earlier authors but in recent years it has

been seen on most trips to the Borivli National Park and also at

Kihim, across the harbour in Kolaba district, where 8 were seen to-

gether. The birds in the Government House Gardens were mentioned

to me a few years ago, but I did not have the opportunity of seeing

them.

Having been specifically noted in April, May and December, it is

unlikely that they are migratory to any large extent. The Grey Horn-

bill is essentially a bird of deciduous forests and open plains (or

gardens) interspersed with large trees. I have seen it feeding on the

fruit of the teak (Tectona grandis) and Manilkara hexandra.

75 Abdul Rehman Street, HUMAYUN ABDULALI

Bombay 400 003,

March 19, 1974.

9. FEEDING HABITS OF THE STAR TORTOISE—

GEOCHELONE ELEGANS

(With a photograph)

In keeping several pairs of the land tortoise G. elegans we note

that they are mostly vegetarians, feeding on a wide variety of grasses

and shrubs which grow in our large snake enclosure. On several occa-

148 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 71 (1)

sions we have noticed that the tortoises show an interest in dead rats

which had been placed for the snakes. The tortoise has difficulty in

breaking the tough rat skin but will consume the flesh of a rat’s leg

Geochelone elegans starts to feed on a dead rat.

in about half an hour of pulling and “chewing”. Pritchard in his

living turtles of the world mentions that G. elegans is known to

eat snails, but flesh eating by land tortoises seems a phenomenon and

perhaps applies only to captive specimens deprived of a complete

natural diet.

Madras Snake Park, R. WHITAKER

Guindy Deer Sanctuary,

Madras 600 022,

February 10, 1974.

10. BEHAVIOUR OF THE AGAMID GARDEN LIZARD,

CALOTES VERSICOLOR

Only within the last few years, thermoregulation in tropical lizards

has been investigated. The general conclusion is that selection of habitat,

behaviour and thermal sensitivity are closely interrelated. The temper-

ature is perhaps the most important limiting factor in the ecology of

an ecfotherm.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

149

The object of this report is to study some aspects of observation on

behaviour of the agamid garden lizard, Calotes versicolor.

Activity of the lizards : The activity of the C. versicolor was studied

in great detail on a section of the Ravenshaw College campus area

during the period June to December, 1971. The study involved not only

behavioural studies but also counting of the population, sex-ratio

observed on the plot at different times of the day. During this study

no distinction with respect to size or stage of thermoregulatory be-

haviour was made but the conditions of temperature and light were

noted.

Diurnal activity : C. versicolor is a diurnal lizard. The lizard starts

activity in summer at about 6.00 a.m. and at about 7.00 a.m. during

winter. Morning active phase may extend up to sunset with a short

period of rest at noon. However, these active phases are dependent

on factors like light and rain. During bright and warm weather most

of them were found at rest under some shade in the field. During

rain or stormy weather, lizards, took shelter on trunks of trees or in

bushes. Observations of marked adults indicate that most of them

were active throughout the morning when the weather conditions are

normal and many remain in the bushes.

The lizards were found active in the morning hours when the sky

was clear. Many of them left the bushes before 11.00 a.m. under

‘cloudy’ conditions of the sky, the lizards took longer time to reach

their activity threshold and they were seen basking on the rock or

stem till noon. The intensity of light in rock and stem shadow was

found to vary from c. 100-400 and 75-375 ft. respectively.

Nocturnal activity : The adult and juvenile (S-V length range: 24-60

mm) of C. versicolor were observed to be inactive during nights irres-

pective of weather conditions. The lizards just rested or slept under the

bush or on tree trunk or on branches of the tree.

Sleeping habits : The sleeping habits of adult lizards were observed.

C. versicolor was observed to prefer the tree trunks and branches. They

slept in a horizontal position, in such a habitat with their bellies touch-

ing the tree. During sleep, the legs of the garden lizard were folded

close to the body and the tail was fully extended. The average height

of the place to where they climbed and slept was 1.5 m (Range: 0.4-

3.5 m). Sometimes, rarely both, adult males and females were observed

sleeping close to each other irrespective of seasons at about 6.00 p.m.

and they awoke at about 6.00 a.m.

Thermoregulation and temperature preferences’. The adults and juve-

niles of C. versicolor were seen basking during sunshine. Mature, adults

were observed to spend more time for basking especially orientating

their bodies to receive maximum sunshine. The basking range in C,

versicolor is up to 35.0°C,

150 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 71 (1)

Since the basking behaviour was observed only during sunshine, it

is considered to be related to the thermoregulation of the lizard.

Furthermore, the activity of the lizard was found to be influenced

mostly by the environmental temperature. The preferred temperature

(is the mean of normal activity range) for the garden lizard, C. versi-

color studied here fell around 36.0°C.

The body temperature in C. versicolor was higher than their habitat

temperature (both air and substratum) during day time but almost

same during night.

Thermal thresholds : The thermal thresholds (°C) in C. versicolor were

observed as follows

Moulting behaviour : C. versicolor moults frequently, starting with

the head and finally the posterior region. During moulting the

colour of the lizards was dark brown. The moulting takes place from

3 to 10 days.

Acknowledgements

Thanks are due to : Dr. R. Mohanty, Vice-Chancellor, Utkal Univer-

sity for permission to study the lizards in his garden; Prof. B. K.

Behura, Head of the Department of Zoology for laboratory facilities

and the Secretary, U.G.C. for financial support.

Post-Graduate Dept, of Zoology, M. V. SUBBA RAO

Utkal University,

Bhubaneswar, Orissa,

November 30, 1973.

11. COBRA WITH KINGFISHER CAUGHT IN THROAT

Recently a cobra (Naja n. naja) was brought to us alive with the

head and bill of a white-breasted kingfisher {Halcyon smyrensis)

caught in its throat. The long beak and broad head of the bird

was too much for the cobra to swallow or regurgitate and the snake

would probably have died if we hadn’t carefully removed the bird.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

151

There are few records of cobras swallowing large, active birds. This

adult kingfisher was perhaps caught by the cobra on its roost at night.

Madras Snake Park, R. WHITAKER

Guindy Deer Sanctuary,

Madras 600 022,

February 10, 1974.

(

12. ALGAL POOD OP APLOCHEILUS BLOCHU (ARNOLD)

Aplocheilus blochii (Arnold) is a small fish found in the streams

of Nagpur. The fish is used as food by the poor. Microscopical study

of the intestinal contents of the fish from their natural habitats showed

the species of Oscillatoria, Spirogyra, Cosmarium and a number of

diatoms.

It is known that the study of intestinal contents only do not give

a correct idea of the food (Kamat 1966, 1969) and so a number of

algae belonging to Chlorophyceae, Euglenophyceae and Cyanophyceae

were tried to find out the algae used as food by the author’s method

(Kamat, loc. cit.).

It was found that species of Oscillatoria, Anabaenopsis (veg.),

Euglena and diatoms are digested by the fish; species of Spirogyra

and Closterium are partially digested while species of Cosmarium,

Oedogonium, Rhizoclonium, Chlorella, Scenedesmus, Pediastrum, Pan-

dorina, Elakatothrix, Trachelomonas, Chroococcus, Microcystis, Meris-

mopedia, Gloeothece, Lyngbya, Aulosira and Scytonema are not digest-

ed at all. These algae when separated and cleaned from the excreta

were found to be unaffected and could be grown in cultures. It may

be mentioned here that Pandorina colonies when freed from excreta

started swimming immediately.

The fish even when starved, did not take species of Pithophora,

Cladophora, Dichotomo siphon, Nitella, Lychnothamnus and Chara,

probably because they were too big.

One to four days old fry was found to grow much better on species

of Oscillatoria alone than on a mixture of Oscillatoria, Euglena and

diatoms. When a number of algae are given as food, the fish shows

first preference for Oscillatoria.

Twenty five medium and large sized fishes were kept in a small

cistern (3' x 3' x 3' ) containing species of Oscillatoria, Euglena and

Cladophora with epiphytic diatoms and after three years their number

rose to 832,

152 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vo\. 71 (1)

Ack NOWLEDGE M E N TS

I take this opportunity to thank Shri M. G. Radke of the Fisheries

Dept., Nagpur for kindly identifying the fish.

Botany Dept., N. D. KAMAT

Institute of Science,

Nagpur 1,

October 28, 1971.

Referen ces

Kamat, N. D. (1966): Food of (1969): Algae as

Planispira nagporensis Pfeiffer. Curr. food of Barbus conchonius Ham. et

Scl 35(7) : 179. Buch. ibid. 38( 2):50.

13. ON A NEW RECORD OF A MURREL, CHANNA LEUCO-

PUNCTATUS (SYKES) FROM RAJASTHAN

i

While collecting in lake Kailana (c. 13 km N. W. of Jodhpur,

Rajasthan) a floating dead specimen of Channa leucopunctatus, measur-

ing 647 mm in total length was collected. Subsequently, a fresh speci-

men of this species, measuring 560 mm in total length was collected

from the same lake. Freshly caught specimens of this species have also

been found in the local fish market. However, the occurrence of this

species in Rajasthan is reported here for the first time.

Four species of Channa, namely, C. punctatus (Bloch), C. marulius

(Hamilton), C. striatus (Bloch) and C. gachua (Hamilton) are re-

ported earlier from Rajasthan (Datta & Majumdar 1970). Of these

only C. punctatus and C. marulius have been recorded earlier from

lake Kailana (Menon & Krishna 1958). I have also collected C. pun-

ctatus and C. marulius along with C. leucopunctatus from this lake.

Day (1889) gives the distribution of C. leucopunctatus as Coro-

mandel and Western coasts of India, some of the rivers in the Deccan

and Cauvery in Mysore, it is also said to be found in China. The

present find, therefore, extends the known range of distribution of this

species in India further north to Rajasthan. This species is not known

to occur elsewhere in the northern and north eastern parts of India,

along the Himalayas (Menon 1962). Thus the occurrence of this species

in China presents an interesting example of discontinuous distribution.

C. leucopunctatus belongs to the ; family Channidae. The fishes of

this family are air-breathing and are commonly called murrels. They

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES j yi 153

constitute one of the important groups of food fish.

This species resembles C. marulius, but can be easily distinguished

from it by the lack of a black white-edged ocellus on the caudal fin

and numerous white spots on the caudal and dorsal fins.

ACK N OWLEDGE M E N TS

I wish tQ express my sincere thanks to Dr. A. P. Kapur, Director,

Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta for providing with necessary faci-

lities and to Dr. Asket Singh, Officer-in-Charge, Northern Regional

Station, Zoological Survey of India, Dehra Dun for encouragement.

Northern Regional Station, R. N. BHARGAVA

Zoological Survey of India,

Dehra Dun,

December 7, 1972.

Qr -1. • '• -C r..:; - - •>.

References

r. ,, •. , , • . ■ „ ‘ j-,,,,-,...,

Datta, A. K. & Majumdar, N. tributional list of fishes of tjfie Him-

(1970): Fauna of Rajasthan, India.: alayas. J. Zool: Soc. India, Calcutta,

Part 7. Fishes. Rec. Zool. Surv. India, 14(1-2) : 23-32.

Calcutta, 62(1-2) :63-100.

Day, F. (1889): The fauna of Bri- Menon, C. B. & Krishna, D.

fish Indii, including Ceylon and Bur- (1958) : A note on the, fishes of

ma. Fishes. Vol. 2. London (Taylor & Jodhpur (Rajasthan). (In Hindi).

Francis). Vijnan Parishad Anusandhan Patrika,

Menon, A. G. K. (1962): A dis- Allahabad (4) : 207-209.

14. A SPECIAL METHOD OF FISH TRAPPING IN RIVER

GANGA AT VARANASI

(With a text -figure)

Fishing methods used in river Ganga have been described in some

detail by several earlier workers. In the present communication, a

method, locally known as Koli, which had not attracted the attention

of earlier workers, and is extensively employed in Ganga at Varanasi,

is described. The method is effective for catching Chela spp., Aspido-

paria spp., Puntius spp., Mugil spp., Mystus spp., etc. along shallow,

sandy, banks where the current is sluggish. Two to six fishermen, two

to four long bamboos (4m-5m), one or two short bamboos (2m-3m),

four short “Y” shaped sticks (0.5m- lm), one big split bamboo or reed

154 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 71 (1)

screen (1.8m-2.4m x 3.6in-4.5m), one rectangular split bamboo screen

(0.3m-0.6m x 3.6m-4.5m), another comparatively smaller split bamboo

or reed screen (0.6m-0.9m x 1.5m-2.4m), one to two iron discs (0.3m-

0.4m diameter) and a few baskets of split bamboo are essential pre-

requisites for Koli fishing.

A small water area of 0.3m-0.4m depth along the shallow, sandy,

bank of the river is enclosed by raising temporary sand bunds, (0.61m-

0. 91. high). This enclosure has one or more openings connecting it

with the main river (A, Fig. 1). The enclosure remains connected with

the river all through night but is closed by bamboo screen, straw or

sand quite early in the morning before sunrise, when the fishing oper-

ation starts. (B, Fig. 1). The fishes which enter the enclosure from

the main river during night are enclosed and their escape is thus pre-

vented. The fishes, so trapped are fished out almost completely in the

following three operations, which take about two hours time.

1 . A wide, shallow, channel (4m-8m width) is prepared by the side

of the enclosure, by removing the sand from the bed with the

help of iron disc. This channel connects the enclosure with the

river. A large platform screen is made in the enclosure near its

junction with the channel (C, Fig. 1), by spreading the screen

on two long bamboos placed horizontally on four “Y” shaped

sticks fixed in the bed. The rectangular split bamboo screen is

then fixed in a slanting position in such a way that the lower side

remains embedded in the sand bed of the enclosure, while the

upper side rests a little above the screen platform. An opening is

now made removing the sand at the mouth of the channel (D,

Fig. 1) to allow the flow of water into the channel. The fishes,

mostly Chela spp., Aspidoparia spp., Mugil spp., etc. trapped in

the enclosure, move towards the channel and finding a barrier

of the slanting screen, jump, and are thus stranded on the hori-

zontal platform. These fishes are then collected by rolling the plat-

form from both the sides and then the catch is kept in the basket.

2. In the second operation, the rectangular split bamboo screen is

changed from slanting to vertical position. The fishermen, there-

after, start scaring the fish by beating the water in the enclosure

and move towards the vertical screen. The fishermen use the short

bamboos, holding them by hand and beating the water hori-

zontally. As the fishermen approach the vertical screen, another

vertical screen is fixed behind them in the enclosure, thereby

reducing the area of operation and checking the escape of fishes

into the enclosure again. In this process, the fishes which strike

against the bamboo or legs of the fishermen, are caught by hand.

Catfishes like Mystus spp., R. rita, etc., which do not jump over

the horizontal platform in the first operation, are thus trapped

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

155

and are removed by hand by the fishermen.

3. Fishes that have escaped capture, during first two operations are

generally small sized (5-10 cm) and are caught in the third and

last operation. A shallow, narrow drain (0.8m- 1m) is dug by

removing sand by iron disc as in the second operation, connecting

the enclosure with the river. A screen is fixed in the drain verti-

cally near its junction with river (E, Fig. 1). Water is allowed

to pass through the drain removing the sand at the junction of

enclosure and channel (F, Fig. 1). After, it is noticed that the

movement of fishes into the drain from enclosure has stopped,

the mouth of the drain at the enclosure is closed by putting sand.

Most of the fishes get stranded near the screen while some get

trapped on the wet sand after the flow of water ceases. Both are

picked up by hand.

The catch is collected in baskets and taken to fish market. The

enclosure is again connected with the river by removing the screens

for operation on the next morning.

This method is employed all round the year except the rainy season

(June-September). The average catch of the fish per operation per day

ranges from 10 kg to 30 kg. The effectiveness of this method may be

due to the fact that on the approach of dusk, small sized fishes moving

along the shallow banks of the river, enter the enclosure, which are

156: JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 71 (1)

devoid of current to secure rest and protection.. The efficacy of this

method, particularly during dark nights, is further supported by the

observations of the catch during moonlit nights, which is generally

much less than the catch on dark nights.

Central Inland Fisheries S. P. SINGH

Research Substation,

24, Pannalal Road,

Allahabad,

November 13, 1971.

15. CANNIBALISM AMONG SCORPIONS

The question whether scorpions ever eat each other has not been

discussed in Max Vachon’s admirable Note on “The Biology of Scor-

pions’’ ( JBNHS 54, No. 1). Having recently kept some of these

interesting arthropods,' T offer the following observations.

(1) On 3-xi-’73 I obtained a female of the common “grey-and-

yellow” type (cephalothorax and abdomen grey on top, legs and

pedipalps yellow or pale orange) with some 20-25 babies crawling

over her. The babies were so recently born that they were still colour-

less, only developing the typical colouring some-4-5 days later. Deciding

to test the widespread belief that a mother scorpion offers her body

for her babies’ first meal, I kept the family in a glass jar with no food

supply.

The babies died off one by one, while at the same time there was

a decrease in the number of bodies (both living and dead) which

could be seen. Since I feel reasonably certain that the mother ate none

of her babies, this suggests that the stronger progeny devoured the

weaker. By early December all the babies had died. Twelve bodies

were counted in the jar, and these were left for some more days, during

which the mother never touched them. That she was very hungry

was proved by the eagerness with which she seized and totally devoured

a cricket which I offered, after removing the babies’ dead bodies, on

24 December.

The common belief in scorpions’ matriphagy thus appears to be

just another popular superstition.

(2) On 26-x-’73 two full-grown “grey-and-yellow” scorpions were

found, a few inches apart, under a large stone. Not possessing the

knowledge to sex them, I assumed that they were male and female,

and kept them together in a large glass jar. As food, they were offered

large cockroaches; these however seemed to inspire the scorpions with

alarm, and were never captured and eaten in spite of being left there

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

157

for many days. For many subsequent days I was prevented from catch-

ing crickets, and it thus came about that the two scorpions fasted for

some seven weeks.

One day, about the middle of December, I examined the jar and

found the slightly larger scorpion dead, with the slightly smaller insect

in the act of feeding on its left side. All the legs on this side had been

bitten off, and the left pedipalp had been sucked hollow; there was

also a fairly extensive wound on the body’s left side between the

cephalothorax and the abdomen.

This observation suggests that scorpions — at least of the same

generation — do eat each other if no alternative food is available.

(3) On the other hand, I have three small scorpions (two “grey-

and-yellow”, one black) which have lived together peaceably in the

same jar for the last two months, during which their food supply of

crickets and grasshoppers has had to be very irregular. When these

insects encounter each other, they feel one another with their pedi-

palps and then separate in different directions. They can even crawl

over each other’s bodies without provoking any aggressive response.

Those persons who may be interested in making further obser-

vations, may rest assured that scorpions cannot climb perpendicular

glass surfaces and may be safely kept in deep glass jars. The bottom

of the jar should be covered in sifted soil, and a piece of coconut shell,

fitted with a wire hook on top for purposes of easy removal, makes a

satisfactory “stone” for the scorpions to hide under, being light enough

to cause no damage in case it is accidentally dropped into the jar.

Dev ICunj, THOMAS GAY

Prabhat Road,

Poona 411 004,

January 11, 1974.

16. ALEURO DOTH RIPS FASCIAPENNIS (FRANKLIN)

PREDATORY ON COCCIDS AND ALEYRODIDS

{With a text-figure )

Franklin (1908) described the species Cryptothrips fasciapennis

based on a solitary female on the leaf of lime in West Indies and in

the very next year erected the genus Aleurodothrips with C. fascia-

pennis as the Type, Priesner (1949) synonymised Cephalothrips

spoinous. Bagnall (1909) subsequently transferred it to the genus Micra-

canthothrips (Bagnall 1914). Aleurodothrips fasciapennis enjoys a

wide distribution being recorded from Barbados, Bermuda, Sri Lanka,

China, Cuba, Fiji, Florida, Formosa, Hawaii, Java, Jamaica and even

158 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 11 (1)

from Brussels and New York. This species was first recorded in this

country by the author in 1964 feeding on coccids on the leaves of

Palmyra (Borassus flabellifer). Since then this species has been record-

ed more frequently and recently a good series was taken on drying

Pandanus infested with coccids, in West Bengal. Its introduction from

Java to Fiji for the control of Aspidiotus destructor on coconut palms

and its close association with other aleyrodids and coccids point to

the possibility of its usefulness in biological control.

Examination of a good series of both sexes offered good evidence

for the presence of major and minor females and oedymerous and

gynaecoid males. While the genus Aleurodothrips is characterised

among other features by the banded wings, lack of epimeral suture

on pronotum, the divided pelta and by the strongly developed fore-

Fig. 1. Aleurodothrips fasciapennis: A. Head & Prothorax of major female,

a. Forelimb of normal female; b. Antenna of female; c. Head and prothorax

of normal male; d. Foreleg of oedymerous male.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

159

femoral spur or tooth in the males, the distinct presence of a com-

paratively small spur on the forefemora of major females appears

to be of interest. This is absent in the minor and normal females.

Correspondingly the three or four seta bearing warts become more

emphasised in oedymerous males and absent in gynaecoid males

(Fig. 1).

While Stannard (1968) has characterised this species in detail, it

would be proper to give the range of essential measurements (in

microns) so as to have an idea of the intraspecific variation of this

important species, information on which is lacking.

Macropterous female {male) :

Head 112-115 long (92-96), 124 (99-106) wide across eyes, 129-

131 (99-106) across cheeks and 124-126 (97-103) at base. Eyes 46

(44) long, 37-44 (34-36) wide. Antennal segments, 1-8, length (width):

Female : 18-23 (23); 32-34 (23); 51-53 (18-21); 44-46 (21-23); 37-

39 (21-23); 32-34 (18); 25-28 (11-14); 23-25 (7).

Male : 14-16 (18-21); 25-28 (18); 44-46 (14-16); 37-41 (21); 32-

37- ( 18-21 ) ; 30-34 (16-18); 23 (11); 18-23 (7-9).

Mouth cone broadly rounded, 122-124 (92-101) wide at base and 71

(48-55) at apex.

Prothorax 103-115 (76-94) long, 131-140 (103-115) wide at ante-

rior margin, 92-107 (133-166) across posterior; anteroangulars 16-21

(11-16), epimerals 16-23 (21-23) expanded at apex. Forefemora 80-

92 (80-103) wide, foretarsal tooth absent in female, with a minute

tooth in males, 5-9 long; forefemora of normal and minor females

unarmed, major females with a distinct spur; forefemora of males

with a strong tooth, reduced in gynaecoid males and well developed

in oedymerous males, 21-32 long; foretibia of males with a series of

2-3, rarely 4 emphasised tubercles better developed in oedymerous

individuals. Forewing 520 (395-441) long, comparatively narrow, and

without double fringes; basal wing bristles very short 5 (5-7), 5-7

(7-11), 7-11 (9-11) long, expanded.

Abdomen 226-237 (136-162) wide at base, 249-260 (124-136) at

middle, 158-169 (90-102) and 79-102 (68) across VIII and IX. B1-B3

of IX 39-41 (56); 64-69 (34-36) and 69 (69) long. Tube 94 (80) long,

46 (34-37), 34(25-34) and 23 (23-32) respectively wide at base,middle

and apex. Anal setae 69-80 (46-73) long.

Total body length: 1.051-1.445 (0.836-0.842) mm long.

Material'. Sibpore (West Bengal), drying Pandanus, 27-i-72; 14

females, 8 males, Kolathur, Kerala, Palmyra leaves, 3 l-vii-64; 10

females, 9 males; Calicut (Kerala), grass, 4-xi-63, 8 females, 6 males;

Chalakudi (Kerala), bamboo leaves, 5-xii-63, 4 females, 2 males;

Mangalore (Mysore), grass, 26-i-64, 4 females, 2 males.

Thanks are due to the U.S. Department of Agriculture for the

160 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VoL 71 (1)

award of a PL 480 grant during the tenure of which this work was

done.

Entomology Research Unit, T. N. ANANTHAKRISHNAN

Loyola College,

Madras 34,

May 11, 1972.

References

Bagnall, R. S. (1909): Annls. Soc.

ent. Belg. 53:174-75.

(1914) : Brief des-

criptions of New Thysanoptera. III.

Ann. Mag., Nat. Hist. 8( 13) : 295.

Franklin, H. J. (1908): A collec-

tion of Thysanopterous insects from

Proc. U.S. National Museum 33:721-

29.

Priesner, H. (1^49) : Genera Thy-

sanopterorum. Bull. Soc. Found ler

Ent. 33: 119.

Stannard, L. J. (1968): The Thrips

or Thysanoptera of Illinois. III. Nat.

Barbados and St. Vincent Islands. Hist. Sur. Bull. 29(4) : 399-401.

17. NOTE ON THE PECULIAR BEHAVIOUR OF

DRAGONFLIES

It is now known that certain dragonflies have the habit of follow-

ing, without any apparent reason, moving objects both animate and

inanimate. For example, Acharya (1961) and Worth (1962) reported

unspecified dragonflies following bicycles and Corbet (1962) reported

Brachythemis leucostcta following a walking man over a concrete pave-

ment in Africa. I have observed an Ictinogomphus rapax Ramb. fol-

lowing a moving tram car for about 10 metres on a June evening in

1966, and a Pantala flavescens (Fab.) following for about 6-7 metres

another tram car in an afternoon of April, 1968. On the latter occasion

the dragonfly was found to hit against the roof of the vehicle. One

morning in July, 1970, some examples of Crocothemis servilia (Dr.)

were observed to follow motor vehicles running along a main trunk

road in the suburbs of Calcutta for about 4 to 5 metres and then to

come back their original place. Sometimes seven

(Ramb.) and Brachythemis contaminata (Fab.)

to follow men walking along grasslands.

Acharya (1961) considered this behaviour o

but Worth (1962) considered it as hunting strategy. But Corbet (1962)

did not consider it as a preying technique because no small-winged

insect was found to rest on the concrete pavement. Similarly, no wing-

ed insect could possibly be resting near moving vehicles and men. From

the above facts it is clear, as Corbet (1962) has already suggested

il Di placodes trivialis

dragonflies are found

f dragonflies as fun.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

161 7

that the response of dragonflies towards moving objects offers promis-

ing field for research in odonata behaviour.

Entomology Laboratory, TRIDIB RAN JAN MITRA

Deptt. of Zoology,

Calcutta University,

Calcutta,

October 30, 1971.

R EFEREN CES

Acharya, H. G. (1961): Strange

behaviour of some dragonflies. J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 58(3 ) : 819-20.

Corbet, P. S. (1962): A Biology

of dragonflies, London.

Worth, C. B. (1962) : Dragonflies

and bicycles. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 59(2) :676-77.

18. FOOD PREFERENCES IN THE LARVAE OF TWO MOTHS:

SPODOPTERA LITURA F. (FAM. NOCTUIDAE) AND

DIACRISIA OBLIQUA WALK. (FAM. ARCTIIDAE)

(With a text -figure)

The larvae of the moths Spodoptera litura and Diacrisia obliqua

are serious pests of cruciferous plants in Saharanpur (U.P.) and are

responsible for considerable damage. The larvae of the former (S.

litura) hatch out in early September, and have an average larval period

of about ten days completed in five moults and mainly feed upon

cauliflower leaves of the early crop. The larvae of the latter (D. obliqua)

hatch out in late October, and have an average larval period of about

thirty eight days completed in six moults and are mainly pests on

raddish leaves. In the light of thermal constant derived by Muggeridge

( 1942) 1 in regard to the development of Pieris rapae, difference bet-

ween the duration of their larval periods — 10 days in the former and

38 days in the latter — is perhaps accountable since the normal room

temperature recorded in early September was around 30°C as against

20°-18°C in late October.

With a view to determine the extent of food preference in the

larvae of the two moths (S. litura and D. obliqua) their comparative

rate of feeding during the entire larval period was studied on their

usual food (cauliflower leaves in the case of S. litura and raddish

1 Muggeridge, J. (1942): The White Butterfly (Pieris rapae L.) : Its

establishment, spread and control in New Zeland. N. Z J. Sci. & Tech. 24(3).

11

162 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 71 (1)

leaves in case of D. obliqua) as well as unusual food (raddish leaves

in case of S. litura and cauliflower in case of D. obliqua ), as indicated

by the faecal matter produced by them in 24 hours.

S. litura lays eggs in early September on the underside of the leaves

of cauliflower plants, usually of those situated on the periphery of

the fields. D. obliqua lays eggs from late October to early December on

the underside of the leaves of raddish plants. The leaves of the host

plants with the corresponding eggs on them were taken to the labora-

tory. Eggs were reared in glass-chimneys and were observed every eight

hours for hatching.

Of the freshly hatched larvae, twelve in each case were placed in

a large petri-dish covered over by a rearing glass-chimney and fed on

leaves (of cauliflower or raddish, as per the requisite of the experi-

ment), which were replaced by fresh ones every day, between 10.00

and 11.00 a.m. During the same period every day, the faecal matter

accumulated in the petri-dish during the past 24 hours was collected

by means of a fine camel hair brush. The faecal matter was then

weighed as such, as well as after drying it in oven for 24 hours at

100°C, with a view to obtain comparative rate of feeding of the larvae

of the tv/o moths on their usual and unusual foods during their entire

larval periods, till they stopped feeding preparatory to pupation.

Results

The comparative amounts of faecal matter (wet without drying)

produced by twelve larvae each of S. litura and D. obliqua, during

their entire larval period are shown in Fig. 1. These results may be

interpreted to suggest the following

1. The larvae of S. litura have preference for cauliflower leaves

for their food as indicated by the fact that twelve of them produce

19.8 gm of faecal matter (wet) when fed on cauliflower leaves (their

usual food) but produce only 13.2 gm of it when fed on raddish leaves

(not their usual food).

2. The larvae of D. obliqua on the other hand, do not have any

appreciable preference for any one of them since they produce 18.8

gm of faecal matter when fed on raddish leaves (their usual food) as

against 18.4 gm when fed on cauliflower leaves (not their usual food).

3. Although the larval period in S. litura is completed in 10 days

and in D. obliqua in 38-39 days, the total amount of faecal matter

produced is not much different indicating thereby that the damage

done in a day by the larvae of the former is nearly four times of that

done by the larvae of the latter.

4. The shorter larval period in S. litura is perhaps due to a higher

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

163

temperature (room temp, about 30°C) during September and the con-

sequent higher metabolic activity, as also co-related by their higher

food intake. Evidently it is on this account that the early cauliflower

crops are prone to a much higher damage than the later crops when

temperature is lower.

A B A B

Fig. 1. — Comparative amount of faecal matter (wet, without oven — drying;

in gm) passed by 12 larvae each of S. litura and D. obliqua during their entire

larval periods extending over 10 days (5 moults) in the former and 38-39

days (6 moults) in the latter. A — While feeding on their usual food (cauli-

flower leaves for IS. litura and raddish leaves for D. obliqua)’, B — while feed-

ing on their unusual food (raddish leaves for S. litura and cauliflower leaves

for D. obliqua).

Acknowledgements

I am extremely grateful to Dr. Surendra Sharma, Professor of

Zoology, M. S. College, Saharanpur, for guidance and encouragement.

Also I am thankful to the College authorities for the facilities and to

Dr. Fennah, Director, Commonwealth Institute of Entomology, London,

for identification of the moths.

Department of Zoology, ASHA BASSI

M. S. College,

Saharanpur, (U.P),

December 31, 1971.

164 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 71 (1)

19. ORTHETRUM GLAUCUM (BRAUER) PREYING UPON

PALPOPLEURA SEXMACULATA SEXMACULATA (FABR.)

(ODONATA: LIBELLULXDAE)

Hobby (1934) describes the dragonflies as one of the best known

entomorphagous predators. According to Tillyard (1917) they are

the most powerful determining factors in preserving the balance of

insect life in ponds, rivers, lakes and their surroundings. They not only

prey upon other groups of insect but do not spare even weaker mem-

bers of their own kind. An interesting case was observed during our

visit to the Corbett National Park (U.P.) in November 1971. A speci-

men of O. glaucum was observed resting on a grass stalk, (grasping

a smaller dragonfly) between its extended legs. The head of the

prey had already been devoured and its thorax was in the process of

being consumed. The two specimens were collected at this stage and

no further observations could be recorded.. The prey was later deter-

mined to be a specimen of P. s. sexmaculata.

Zoological Survey of India,

13, Subhas Road,

Dehra Dun, (U.P.),

April 24, 1972.

References

Hobby, B. M. (1934): The prey Tillyard, R. J. (1917): The Bio-

of British dragonflies. Trans, ent. Soc. logy of Dragonflies. Cambridge.

S. England 8:65-16.

20. ARCHIDIACEAE FROM WESTERN INDIA

(With fifteen text figures)

Archidiaceae is a small family consisting of a single tropical genus

Archidium Brid. They are tiny perennial mosses growing on ground

in meadow, barren places usually with high silicious content. A note-

worthy characteristic of the genus is the large polyhedral spores, the

largest among the mosses so far known. Those of Archidium alterni-

folium (Hedw.) Mitt, are as much as 200 |i in diameter.

Genus Archidium Brid., Bryol. Univ. 1:747.1826.

Being the only genus of the family, its characters are the

same as those of the family Archidiaceae. They are small perennating

mosses, perennating by means of underground protonema and stolon-

R. N. BHARGAVA

MAHABIR PRASAD

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

165

like branches. Narrow, ovate, lanceolate to lanceolate-subulate leaves

with comose tuft arise on the upperside. Leaf base cells rectangular

to quadrate. Upper leaf cells prosenchymatous. Nerve rather homo-

genous.

Sporophyte immersed, with or without reduced seta. Capsule

spherical, sunken at the tip of the gametophyte and with a bulbous

foot covered by delicate calyptra. Stomata and columella absent.

Varied size of the polygonal spores range from 100 to 200 p. in dia-

meter.

There are four species in India namely A. indicum C. MuelL, A.

microthecium Dix. et P. Vard., A. octosporum Dix. et. P. Vard. and

A. birmannicum Mitt, et Dix. (Bruhl 1931). Out of these A. birman-

nicum Mitt. ex. Dix. and A. indicum C. Muell. are common in western

India. A. birmannicum Mitt, ex Dix. recorded by Sedgwick (1919)

from Jog Falls, Dharwar and Karwar in Karnataka (Dixon 1921),

whereas the A. indicum C. Muell. has been recorded by O. N. Handoo

(1966) from Pachmarhi in Madhya Pradesh and by Norkett (1966)

from Bhakra-Nangal in Punjab. A. indicum C. Muell. in western

India is a new record. The specimens of the two species were collected

at Khandala, Borivli (Bombay), Mumbra and Matheran.

Key to species

Plants comose, sporophytes on innovations, leaves widely ovate-lanceolate

with broad at basal and middle region, slowly narrowed at apex, percurrent

nerve A. indicum

Plants non-comose, sterile, lax leaved, leaves broad at base, gradually narrowed

at apex, lanceolate, nerve percurrent, concolor A. birmannicum

Archidium birmannicum Mitt, ex Dix., /. Ind. Bot. Soc., 2:175, t. 1,

1921— (Figs. 1-6).

Non-comose, sterile plants of 5-8 mm high growing on moist

ground with lax leaves (Figs. 1-2). Leaves narrow in the apical and

middle regions, broad at the base, ovate-lanceolate, 0.5 to 0.7 mm

in length and 0.2 to 0.3 mm in breadth (Fig. 3). Nerve concolor, per-

current, reaching below the apical cells (Fig. 4). Upper cells prosen-

chymatous, subrectangular to irregularly rhomboidal, 13 a long and

6-7 [i broad (Fig. 5). Leaf base cells rectangular to subrectangular

quadrate, 15 ji long and 8-10 jju broad. Border leaf base margin with

two rows of rhomboidal to rectangular cells. These cells are 20 p long

and 6 g broad. Leaf margin slightly undulated (Fig. 6). Occur

on moist ground at Khandala near Railway Station, Nov. 1966; Mum-

bar hill. National Park at Borivli, (Bombay); Matheran, near Railway

Station, July 1970.

166 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 71 (1)

Archidium indicum C. Muell., Flora. 71:8, 1888. (Figs. 7-15).

Plants comose, in the form of glossy green tufted patches, reaching

a height of 1 cm and growing on moist rocks and ground (Figs. 7-8).

Stem with innovations. Ovate-lanceolate leaves broad in middle and

basal region, 0.5-0. 7 mm long and 0.2-0.3 mm broad, acuminate

(Figs. 8-9). All the leaves alike. Upper leaf cells prosenchymatous,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

167

chlorophyllose, hexagonal to rhomboidal-rectangular, 29 ji long and

5-9 jjl broad (Figs. 11-12). Leaf base cells rectangular to quadrate,

22.4 jx long and 1 1.7 p. broad. Leaf margin slightly undulated (Fig.

13). Leaf apex cell triangular, pyramidal or dome-shaped, cutting new

cells on tree sides resulting in a new leaf laterally (Fig. 10). Nerve

percurrent.

Sporophyte present on innovating branches of stem. Seta reduced.

Foot bulbous foot, immersed cleistocarpic capsule. Sporophyte reach-

ing a length of 0.9 mm (Figs. 8 and 14). Spores few, 10 to 12, large,

hexagonal to polygonal, with yellowish exosporium 6.9 jx in thickness.

Spores brownish yellow in colour, with 125.8 jx in diameter. They

contain a large number of oil globules (Fig. 15).

Occurrence : This tropical comose moss grows on barren rocks at

Khandala, December 1968.

Discussion : A comparative analysis of the distinguishing characters

of A. birmannicum Mitt, ex Dix. and A. indicum C. Muell. shows

that these two species differ from each other in regard to their shape

of leaves, sterility or fertility of the plant and size of the spores. Leaf

of A. birmannicum Mitt, ex Dix., is broad at base and gradually narrow

from middle to apical region whereas the leaf of A. indicum C. Muell.,

is broad in the basal and middle regions and highly acuminate. Ano-

ther important differentiating character is sexuality. A. birmannicum

Mitt, ex Dix. is mostly sterile. Sporophyte of A. indicum C. Muell.

has reduced seta on innovating stem. Lastly the spores of A. indicum

C. Muell. are large, 125 ^ in diameter, polygonal in shape and limited

10-12 in number.

Acknowledgements

I am grateful to Dr. T. S. Mahabale, F.N.I., F.N.A.Sc., F.A.Sc.,

F.B.S., Professor of Botany, Maharashtra Association for Cultivation

of Science, Poona-4, for guidance and help. I am also thankful to

Mr. A. H. Norkett of British Museum (Natural History), London,

for the determination of the species.

Bandodkar Science College, G. T. DABHADE

Thana, Maharashtra State,

November 18, 1972.

168 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 71 (1)

References

Bruhl, P. (1931): Census of In-

dian Mosses. Rec. Bot. Sur. India,

75(1) : 50.

Dixon, H. N. (1921): On a collec-

tion of Mosses from the Kanara Dis-

trict. J. Ind. Bot. Soc. 2:\14, t. 1.

Handoo, O. N. (1966) : Mosses of

Pachmarhi. A paper read at Seminar

in Recent Advances in Indian Bryo-

logy, Chandigarh, (unpublished) .

Norkett, A. H. (1966) : Bryolo-

gical collection in North-West Him-

alayas (unpublished).

Wijk, R. Vander, Margadant,

W. D. & Florschutz, P. A. (1961) :

Index Muscorum. 7:93-94.

21. HEDY OTIS TAVOYENSIS BALAKR. (RUBIACEAE)—

A NEW SPECIES FROM BURMA

{With a plate)

Hedy otis tavoyensis sp. nov.

Pertinent ad sectionem Diplophragma Wt. & Arn., affinisque est

H. eleganti Wall, ex Hook, f., a qua tamen differt stipite acute angu-

lato et saepe alato, stipulis maioribus glanduloso — pectinatis, petiolis

longioribus inflorescentia axillari longe pedunculata.

Frutex ad 1 m altus, erectus, glaber, caule principe tereti, levi,

ramis et ramulis acute quadrangularibus, saepe ad angulos aliquantum

alatis. Folia glabra, chartacea, crassa, sub-olivacea cum sicca, pallida

infra, fusciora supra, elliptico — oblonga, lanceolata, acuta vel acumi-

nata ad utrumque apicem, 10-15 cm longa, 2.5-5. 5 cm lata, marginibus

integris, nervo medio supra impresso; nervi laterales 6-10-jugi, distincti,

caeteris obscuris; petioli 0.5-2.0 cm longi, ad basin lati, anguste alati

versus laminam. Stipulae triangulares, acuminatae, 5-8 mm longae,

3- 4 mm latae ad basin, marginibus glanduloso-pectinatis, saepe inter-

gris, raro revolutis. Cymae glabrae, axillares, solitariae, longe pedun-

culatae, pedunculo principe 8-14 cm longo; rami primarii trichotomi,

4- 7 cm longi, ornati bracteis duabus ovato-oblongis acutis, 1-2 cm

longis, 5-8 mm latis; rami secondarii verticillatim dispositi ad apicem;

bracteis ornati similibus sed minoribus. Flores cymose capitati ad

apicem ramorum ultimorum; bracteis ovatis acutis, 4- 0.5 cm longis,

milliter purpureo-nitentibus. Calycis laciniae 4, persistentes, + 2.5

mm longae, dentibus subulatis ad apicem glandulosis interpositis,

pallide purpureis. Corolla alba, purpuree tincta, -L- 0.5 cm longa;

laciniae 4, valvatae, + 1.5 mm longae, subobtusae, pilis albis adpressis

mollibus intus vestitae. Stamina 4, prope os corollae inserta; antheris

longitudinaliter dehiscentibus. Ovarium biloculare, compressum; stylus

paulum protrudens supra corollae tubum; stigmate bilobo. Capsula

obovoidea, turbinata, 4h 3 mm longa, calycis dentibus ovatis subacutis

persistentibus ornata.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 71 (1)

Balakrishnan : Hedyotis tavoyensis

Plate

NM

MM

Hedyotis tavoyensis Balakr.

1. plants; 2. cymule; 3. flower; 4. calyx; 5. corolla, split open; 6. stamens;

7. style; 8. l.s. of fruit.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

169

Burma: Talaingya Chaung, Tavoy, Alt. 900 m, 7-2-1919, A. T.

Gage 68 A (Holotypus in CAL); ibid. T. T. Gage 68 B (Iso-

typus in CAL); Heinye Faung, Tavoy, 1000 m, 10-3-1919, P. T.

Russell 24 (CAL); Heinye Faung, Tavoy, Alt. 950 m, 6-4-1919, P. T.

Russell 181 (CAL); Tavoy, sine nom. coll. 1805 (CAL).

Hedyotis tavoyensis sp. nov. Sect. Diplophragma Wt. & Arn.)

related to H. elegans Wall, ex Hook. f. but differs in the acutely angled

and often winged stems, the larger glandular-pectinate stipules, longer

petioles and the axillary long-peduncled inflorescences.

Shrub, up to 1 m tall, erect, glabrous; main stem terete, smooth;

branches and branchlets acutely quadrangular, often slightly winged

at the angles. Leaves glabrous, chartaceous, thick, subolivaceous when

dry, pale beneath, darker above, elliptic-oblong, lanceolate, acute or

acuminate at both ends, 10-15 cm long, 2. 5-5. 5 cm wide; margins

entire; midrib impressed above; lateral nerves 6-10 pairs, distinct,

ascending; reticulations obscure; petiole 0. 5-2.0 cm long, broad at

base, narrowly winged to the blade. Stipules triangular, acuminate, 5-8

mm long, 3-4 mm wide at base; margins glandular-pectinate, often

entire, rarerly revolute. Cymes glabrous, axillary, solitary, long-ped-

uncled; main peduncle 8-14 cm long; primary branches trichotomous,

4-7 cm long, with two ovate-oblong acute bracts, 1-2 x 0.5-0. 8 cm;

secondary branches verticillately arranged at the top with similar but

smaller bracts. Flowers capitate at the top of ultimate branches; bracts

ovate, acute, + 5 mm long, slightly shining, purple in colour. Calyx

lobes 4, large, persistent, + 2.5 mm long, with interposed glandular-

tipped, subulate teeth, tinged purplish. Corolla white, tinged purplish,

+ 5 mm long; lobes 4, valvate, 4-1.5 mm long, obtuse, clothed with

appressed white soft hairs inside. Stamens 4, attached near the mouth

of the corolla tube; cells longitudinally dehiscing. Ovary 2-celled, com-

pressed; style slightly protruding above the corolla-tube; stigma 2-lobed.

Capsules obovoid, turbinate, + 3 mm long with persistent ovate

subacute calyx-teeth (Figs. 1-8).

Auk N OWLEDGE M E N T

I am greatly indebted to Rev. Fr. K. M. Mathew, S.J. of St. Joseph’s

College, Tiruchirapalli for kindly rendering the description into Latin.

Botanical Survey of India,

Andaman & Nicobar Circle,

Port Blair,

July, 17, 1973.

N. P. BALAKRISHNAN

170 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 71 (1)

22. A NOTEWORTHY SARCOPY RAMIS FROM EASTERN

HIMALAYAS

(With a text-figure)

Sarcopyramis hum ills sp. nov. (Fig. 1)

Affinis S. subramanii Nayar, sed calycis tubo longiore, lobis caly-

cinis longioribus, integeris, antheris subrotundatis differt.

Herba parva, 3-7 cm alta. Caulis obsolete angulatus, insicco

rubescens. Folia opposita, ovato-lanceolata, 2-5.5 cm x 0.7- 1.8 cm,

basi obtusa vel subtruncata, apice acuta, margine ciliato-serrata, supra

parace setosa, subtus glabra, supra et subtus in sicco pallide viridia,

3-5 nervia, subtus venulis transversis distinctis; petiolus 5-10 mm

longus. Inflorscentia terminalis, 1-3 flora; pedicellus 2-3 mm longus;

Fig. 1. Sarcopyramis humilis sp. nov. (After Kingdon Ward 6647)

A. Plant — Habit; B. Calyx tube; C. Stamen — dorsal view,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

171

bractease spathulato-obovatae, 5-5.5 mm longae, margine ciliatae.

Calycis tubus campanulatus, 3.5 mm x 2.5 mm, extus glaber, limbus

4-lobatus, lobibus triangularibus, 1.5 mm longis, margine haud ciliatis.

Petala obovato-oblonga, 8-10 mm x 6-7 mm. Stamina 8, aequalia,

filamentis 3 mm longis, antheris subrotundatis vel rotundato-oblongis,

1-1.2 mm longis, thecis apice haud divergentibus, connectivo basi 0.4

mm producto, connectivo postice 0.8 mm prolongato. Ovarium calycis

tubo totum adnatum, 4-loculare. Stylus crassus, 4-4.5 mm longus;

stigmate capitato, papilloso.

Typus: Kingdon Ward 6647 (K).

Herb small, 3-7 cm tall, erect. Stem obscurely angular, when dry

reddish. Leaves opposite, ovate-lanceolate, 2-5.5 cm x 0.7-1. 8 cm, base

obtuse or subtruncate, apex acute, margin ciliate-serrate, upper surface

sparsely setose, under surface glabrous, upper and lower surface when

dry pale green, 3-5 nerved, transverse venules on the under surface

distinct; petiole 5-10 mm long. Inflorescence terminal, 1-3 flowered;

pedicel 2-3 mm long; bracts spathulate obovate, 5-5.5 mm long, margin

ciliate. Calyx tube campanulate, 3.5 mm x 2.5 mm, outer surface

glabrous, 4 lobed, lobes triangular, 1.5 mm long, margin not ciliate

petals obovate-oblong, 8-10 mm x 6-7 mm. Stamens 8, equal, filament

3 mm long, anther subordinate or rotundate-oblong, 1-1.2 mm long,

anther lobes at the apex not divergent, connective 0.4 mm long pro-

duced at the base, dorsally ends in a spur 0.8 mm long. Ovary totally

adnate to the calyx tube, 4-loculed. Style thick 4-4.5 mm long; stigma

capitate, papillose.

Distribution : Frontier of Tibet and Burma, Nogmung, growing amongst

roots and rocks on the edge of the jungle in the shaded valleys, alt.

500-666 m, 25 Apr. 1926, Kingdon Ward 6647 (Holotype K).

S. humilis is allied to S. subramanii Nayar, but differs in the nature

of calyx lobes, the size of anthers and the shape of the dorsal staminal

appendage. In S. subramanii the calyx tube is shorter (2-2.5 mm long)

and calyx lobes are slightly smaller and 2-3 ciliate; whereas in S.

humilis the calyx tube is longer (3.5 mm long), the calyx lobes are

slightly larger and margin entire. The shape of anther in S. subramanii

is elliptic-obovate with prominently diverging anther lobes at the apex;

whereas in S. humilis the anthers are subordinate at the apex and the

anther lobes are not divergenet.

Ack n owledge m e n t

I wish to express my gratitude to Dr. Subramanyam, Director,

Botanical Survey of India for his encouragement.

172 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 71 (1)

Central National Herbarium, M. P. NAYAR

Botanical Garden P.O.,

Howrah 3,

October 10, 1972.

23. A SYNOPSIS OF THE GENUS PERI LIMN ASTES RIDLEY

(MELASTOMATACEAE)

{With a text-figure)

Introduction

I carried out a taxonomic study of several genera in the family

Melastomataceae at the Herbarium, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, the

Rijksherbarium, Leiden and Central National Herbarium, Calcutta

from 1960-68. The present paper deals with the genus Perilimnastes

Ridl. belonging to the tribe Oxysporeae Triana.

The genus Perilimnastes is characterised by its small branching

suffruticose, rupicolous habit, its tubular or campanulate 4-angled or

8 -ribbed calyx tube having long narrowly triangular calyx lobes and

eight equal or subequal stamens which are inappendiculate both dor-

sally and ventrally. Ridley (in Journ. Roy. As. Soc. Straits Br. 79:70,

1918) established the genus on the basis of the type species Anerin-

cleistus fruticosus Ridl. typified by the specimen Robinson 5453 which

he transferred to the new genus as P. fruticosa (Ridl.) Ridl. Ridley

(in Fi. Mai. Penin. 1:761, 1922) assigned this genus to the tribe Oxy-

sporeae. The second species Perilimnastes rupicola Nayar from Mt.

Dulit in Sarawak represents an extension of the generic range. The

generic description is emended and is given below.

Perilaiimastes Ridl. in Journ. Roy. As. Soc. Straits Br. 79:70,1918;

Ridley, FI. Mai. Penin. 1:761, 1922.

Shrub or Herb. Branches glabrous or puberulous, nodes glabrous

or setose, subterete, young branches compressed. Leaves opposite,

narrowly elliptic-lanceolate base narrowed, apex acuminate, entire,

3 -nerved, cross-venules absent on the upper surface and usually indis-

tinct on the lower surface, coriaceous or membraneous, petiolate. In-

florescence terminal, few flowered cymes. Calyx tube tubular or cam-

panulate, 4-angular or 8-ribbed, limb 4-lobed, lobes long. Petals 4,

spreading, lanceolate. Stamens 8, equal, lanceolate, apex acuminate

or shortly rostrate, 1-porose, connective not produced, dorsally and

ventrally inappendiculate. Ovary concrescent with the calyx tube by

8 septa, extraovarial chambers 8, all descending to the middle of the

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

173

ovary. Disc present. Style filiform, stigma inconspicuous. Capsule

obconic, dehiscence by 4 large valves.

Type species: Perilimnastes fruticosa Ridl.

Distribution : Malaya and Borneo.

The name Perilimnastes is derived from Greek, ‘ PerV - near,

around; ‘ limne = marsh or pond, in allusion to the plants growing near

water courses.

This is an interesting genus comprising 2 species so far recorded

from the mountains of Gunong Tahan in Malaya and Mt. Dulit in

Sarawak. Perilimnastes fruticosa Ridl. is endemic to the mountains

of Gunong Tahan (alt. 666 m) which lies on the eastern side of

Malaya. Whereas P. rupicola Nayar is recorded from Mt. Dulit in

Sarawak. According to Ridley (FI. Mai. Penin. 1:761, 1922) P. fruti-

cosa “forms cushions about twelve inches tall in cracks of rocks in

the streams.” As per the field note (specimen Synge S. 503), it is

mentioned that P. rupicola grows on exposed rocks by the side of

rivers.

Key to the species of Perilimnastes

1. Branches glabrous; calyx tube 4-angled P. fruticosa

2. Branches and nodes setose, becomes glabrous when old; calyx tube

8-ribbed P. rupicola

1. Perilimnastes fruticosa Ridl. in Journ. Roy. As. Soc. Str. Br. 79:

70, 1918; Ridley, FI. Mai. Penin. 1:761, 1922.

Anerincleistus fruticosus Ridl. in Journ. Linn. Soc. 38:309, 1908;

Ridl. in Journ. Roy. As. Soc. Str. Br. 57:47 1911; Ridl. in Journ. Fed.

Mai. States Mus. 6:148, 1915.

Distribution : malaya: Pahang, Gunong Tahan, Robinson 5453

(Holotype BM); ibid., July 1911, Ridley 16044 (K, BM); ibid., alt.

666 m, 22 June 1922, Md. Haniff & Nur 8309 (K).

2. Perilimnastes rupicola sp. nov. (text-fig.)

Affinis P. fruticosae Ridl., sed caulibus ad nodos setosis, folds

junioribus villosis, calycis tubo 8-costato differt.

Herba adscendens, 15-35 cm alta. Caulis angularis, ad nodos

setosus, setis 4-7 mm longis. Folia opposita, aequalia, elliptico-lanceo-

lata, 4-7 cm x 0.5- 1.4 cm, basi cuneata, apice acuminata, margine in-

tegra, juniore supra et subtus villosa, ad maturitatem glabra, 3-nervia,

venulis transversis indistinctis, chartacea; petiolus 4-7 mm longus. In-

florescentia terminalis, cymulis 4-6 floris; pedicellus 1-1.7 cm longus,

glaber. Calycis tubus campanulatus, 3-4 mm longus, blaber, limbus

4-lobatus, lobis triangularibus, 3 mm longis. Petala 4, elliptico-oblonga,

10-11 mm x 4-4.5 mm. Stamina 8, aequalia, filamentis 4.5 mm longis,

antheris anguste lanceolatis, 5.5 mm longis, connectivo basi baud pro-

174 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 71 (1)

ducto, inappendiculato. Ovarium coronatum, calycis tubo septis 8

adnatum, loculi 8. Stylus fiiliformis, 8-9 mm longus, glaber, stigmate

punctiformi.

Typus: Synge S. 503 (K).

Fig. 1. Perilimnastes rupicola sp. nov. A. Habit; B. Stamen — side view;

C. L. S. of calyx tube.

Herb, 15-35 cm tall. Stem angular, setose at the nodes, hairs 4-7 mm

long. Leaves opposite, equal, elliptico-lanceolate, 4-7 cm x 0.5- 1.4 cm.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

175

base cuneate, apex acuminate, margin entire, when young upper and

lower surface villose, when old becomes glabrous, 3 -nerved, transverse

venules indistinct chartaceous; petiole 4-7 mm long. Inflorescence ter-

minal, 4-6 flowered cymes; pedicel 1-1.7 cm long, glabrous. Calyx tube

campanulate, 3-4 mm long, glabrous, 4-lobed, lobes triangular, 3 mm

long. Petals 4, elliptic oblong, 10-11 mm x 4-4.5 mm. Stamens 8, equal,

filament 4.5 mm long, anther narrowly lanceolate, 5.5 mm long, con-

nective not produced at the base, inappendiculate. Ovary adnate to

the calyx tube by 8 septa, extraovarial chambers 8, disc present. Style

filiform, 8-9 mm long, glabrous, stigma punctiform.

Borneo: Sarawak, Mt. Dulit, Ulu Koyan, alt. 800 m, 16 Sept. 1932,

Synge S. 503 (K); ibid., alt. c. 800 m, 7 Feb. 1932, Richards 2498

(K).

This species is immediately distinguishable by the presence of

bristles at the nodes of young branches and villose tomentum in young

leaves. In P. rupicola the calyx tube is 8-ribbed, whereas in P. fruti-

cosa the calyx tube is 4-angular.

ACK N OWLEDGDM E N TS

I wish to express my gratitude to Sir George Taylor, Director,

Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, U.K. for all facilities during my stay

at Kew from 1961-67 and to the Director, Botanical Survey of India

for encouragement.

Central National Herbarium, M. P. NAYAR

Botanic Gardens P.O.,

Howrah 3,

September 7, 1972.

24. ON THE CITATION OF PALAQUIUM ELLIPTICUM

(DALZ.) BAILLON

Under article no. 46 of the ICBN, for the indication of the name

of a taxon to be accurate and complete, for purposes of precision, it

is necessary that the citation of author’s name and of literature is

correctly recorded. The note presents the case of the Indian gutta-

percha tree, popularly called as Panchoti-palla in T “Cooke’s Flora

of the presidency of Bombay” (2:154, 1958, reprinted). The tree grows

to a height of 30 m and is distributed in the Western Ghats from

North Kanara southwards. The correct citation and synonymy are

given below:-

176 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 71 (1)

Palaquium ellipticum (Dalz.) Baillon, Traite Bot. Med. Phan. 1500,

1884; Lam in Bull. Jard. bot. Bzg, ser. 3, 8:414, 1927; van

Royen in Blumea 10(2): 509, 1960.

P. ellipticum (Dalz.) Engler, Bot. Jahrb. 12:511, 1890; Brandis,

Indian Trees 424, 1906; Gamble, FI. Madras 4:764, 1921 (2:

537, 1957, rep. ed.); Lam in Bull. Jard. bot. Bzg, ser. 3, 7:107,

258, 1925.

Bassia elliptica Dalzell in Hooker’s J. Bot. & Kew Misc. 3:36, 1851;

Dalz. & Gibs. Bombay FI. 139, 1861; Beddome, FI. Sylv. t. 43,

1869.

Dichopsis elliptica Bentham, Gen. PI. 2:658, 1876; Clarke in Hook,

f. FI. Br. India 3:542, 1882.

Isonandra acuminata Drury, LTseful Indian PI. 260, 1858.

The type specimen — Dalzell s. n. is preserved in K.

General Education Centre, G. M. OZA

M. S. University of Baroda,

Baroda 2,

March 15, 1973.

25. ON THE OCCURRENCE OF SYMPAGIS PETIOLARES

(NEES) BREM. AND CANSCORA PERFOLIATA LAMK.

ON THE EASTERN GHATS

During the course of our exploration work on the eastern ghats we

collected Sympagis petiolares (Nees) Brem., and Canscora perfoliata

Lamk. Their occurrence in these parts drew our attention to their dis-

tribution in South India, which is mainly discussed here. The relevant

data regarding the distribution of the plants were collected from Central

National Herbarium, Calcutta, Forest Research Institute, Dehradun,

and Botanical Survey of India, Southern Circle, Coimbatore. The her-

barium sheets are deposited at Jawahar Bharati Herbarium, Kavali.

Sympagis petiolares (Nees) Brem. in Mat. Mon. Strobilanthinae

255, 1944. Strobilanthes petiolares Ness in DC. Prodr. 11:189, 1947,

(pro-parte); FI. Brit. India 4:458, 1855.

Under shrubs, 60-90 cm tall. Leaves 3-11 x 1.5-6 cm, ovate, serrate,

main nerves 7-8 pairs, acuminate at both ends. Petioles 1-4 cm long.

Inflorescence 6-15 cm long, interrupted, spikes or leafy panicles, ter-

minal or from upper axils. Flowers 2. 2-2. 5 cm long, ventricose, blue.

Capsules 6-1 mm long, oblong, glabrous when mature. Seeds 4, 1-1.5

mm across, hairy.

Common and abundant on hill slopes, scattered or in mixed stands

among large bushes. The plants are eye catching by their beautiful

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

111

blue masses of flowers. It has been collected from Udayagiri hills on

the eastern ghats (A.P.).

The identity of this plant is confirmed by the courtesy of the Central

National Herbarium, Calcutta.

The herbarium specimens examined: Udayagiri: BS 4308, 30-l-’72.

distribution: Assam : Mawsami, Sonapur, 27/3 mile from Shillong

to Cherrapunji, Khasia and Jaintia hills. W. Bengal : Kurseong, Dar-

jeeling 3500' alt. Sikkim : Sitong 5000', Rungli 4000'. Bhutan. * And-

hra Pradesh : Udayagiri (Author’s collection).

From the available data on the distribution of this plant it is a new

record for south India.

Canscora pcrfoliafa Lamk. Encycl. Method. 1:601, 1783; FI. Brit.

Ind. 4:104, 1885; FI. Pres. Madras, 2:618, 1957 (Rep. ed.). C. grandi-

flora Wt. Icon. t. 1326.

An erect herb , 30-45 cm tall. Stems 4-angular, winged. Leaves lax,

2-2.5 x 0.7-0.8 cm, oblong or oblong-lanceolate, acute at both ends,

glabrous, 3 -nerved, sessile. Inflorescence dichasial cymes, terminal.

Bracts of inflorescence 1-1.5 x 0.7-1 cm, perfoliate, orbicular-elliptic.

Flowers 1.4- 1.6 cm long, bright rose, calyx 1-1.2 cm long winged;

pedicels 0.5- 1.5 cm long, winged. Capsules 6-7 mm long.

Rare in the undergrowth, under cool and shady conditions.

The identification of this plant is confirmed by matching the her-

barium sheets with those at Botanical Survey of India, Coimbatore by

one of us (B. Suryanarayana).

The herbarium specimens examined: Venkatagiri hills: BS 3901,

26-12-’70; Udayagiri hills: BS 4333, 30-l-’72.

distribution : From Bombay to Travancore (Kerala) up to 3500'

alt. Kerala : (Travancore), Malabar, Wynaad. Tamil Nadu: Coim-

batore. Karnataka : South Canara, North Canara. Andhra Pradesh:

Nellore District: Venkatagiri and Udayagiri (Authors’ collections).

Though the plant is recorded to occur widely in south India, it is

interesting to note that, it is hitherto reported only from the western side

of Deccan. Our collections are the first report for the entire belt of

eastern part of the peninsula.

Acknowledgements

Our thanks are due to Prof. P. V. Bole, St. Xavier’s College,

Bombay for his valuable suggestions. We thank Dr. M. P. Nair, Keeper,

Central National Herbarium, Calcutta; authorities of the Botanical

Survey of India, Southern Circle, Coimbatore and the Forest Research

Institute, Dehradun for furnishing necessary information and help. We

are also thankful to UGC for financial help to conduct tour to Udaya-

178 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 71 (1)

giri under College Science Improvement Programme (CoSIP).

Department of Botany, B. SURYANARAYANA

Jawahar Bharati, D. RADHAKRISHNA MURTHY

Kavali, (A.P.),

March 15, 1973.

26. CHENOPODIUM AMBROSIOIDES LINN. (CHENOPOD-

ACEAE) — A NEW RECORD FOR CHAMOLI DISTRICT IN

WESTERN HIMALAYAS

Che no podium ambrosioides Linn. C. vulpinum Wall. Cat. 695 B. is

characterized by strong unpleasant aromatic odour and long axillary

spikes of pale green flowers. Distributed mainly in Bengal, Sylhet,

Western Ghats and the Deccan. Raizada ( 193 1 ) 1 recorded it for the first

time as a weed of waste places in and around Dehradun of the Upper

Gangetic Plain.

During botanical explorations of the district, I collected this species

near Palwara (140 m) in the vicinity of Hampur village at the border

of cultivated fields (23.4/71, Nautiyal 71). The species appears to be

recently introduced into the area.

Department of Botany, K. N. NAUTIYAL

Meerut University,

Meerut,

April 30, 1973.

27. BOTANICAL IDENTITY OF ‘CENTURY PLANT’ IN

WESTERN INDIA

{With a photograph )

For nearly one hundred years, Indian botanists have identified

the naturalised American aloe, popularly known as ‘century plant’,

occurring in Western India as A gave americana Linn. The note at-

tempts to bring to light the position of the Indian literature on the

subject.

Th. Cooke (1908) in his FI. Pres. Bombay separates Agave ameri-

cana Linn, and A. vera-cruz Mill, on the basis of neck of leaf sharply

constricted and neck of leaf hardly constricted respectively. He listed

1 Raizada, M. B. (1931): Contribution to Duthie’s Flora of the Upper

Gangetic Plain from the neighbourhood of Dehra Dun. J. Indian bot. Soc.

70:155-58.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

179

A. americana Linn. var. variegata Hook, in Bombay flora stating that

the native country is unknown; commonly grown as an ornamental

plant in parks and large gardens; nowhere naturalised in India (italics

mine).

The identity of the species and its synonymy is confused. The

origin and geographical distribution have not been described accurately.

The Indian literature records A. angustifolia Haw, A. americana Linn.,

A. sisalana Perr., A. vera-cruz Mill, and A. vivipara Linn, for India.

However, A. cantula Roxb. is relegated to synonymy under A. ameri-

cana Linn. And Cooke (loc. cit.) treats A. cantula Dalz. & Gibs. Bom .

FI. Suppl. p. 93 ( not of Roxb.) as synonym of A. wightii Drummond

& Prain in Agric. Ledg. no. 7:91, 1960! At the same time A. wightii

(1906) is considered as a synonym of A. angustifolia Haw.

H. Santapau (1967) in his “Flora of Khandala on the Western

Ghats of India”, p. 280, following Berger’s monograph. Die Agaven,

1915, writes that the Khandala specimens (Western India) are all Agave

ingens Berger and treats A. vera-cruz Mill.? in the synonymy. Berger

and Agave monographer Gentry consider vera-cruz Drum. & Prain a

synonym of americana.

Agave americana is a polymorphic species, occurring in wild forms

from southern Texas to the State of Hidalgo in Mexico along the

middle slopes and valleys of the Sierra Madre Oriental. Contiguous

to this region it has been cultivated for its fibre, pulp, and juice for

several years. Many of the larger variants, mostly polyploids, were

selected for pulque culture, were propagated vegetatively by suckers,

and Gentry observed them from Durango and Coahuila to Jalisco,

Michoacan, and Oaxaca.

Gentry (1972, in a personal communication) states that in the Kew

Herbarium there is a good specimen from Berger, from La Mortola,

which he labelled as Agave ingens , but which Gentry interprets as

Agave lurida Aiton, according to other specimens in the Kew Her-

barium, the earliest being sent in 1883 from Ricasoli in Italy. The

specimen was made up almost a century after Aiton’s publication

(1789) of the taxon. That taxon cannot be determined solely by the

brief description given by Aiton. Berger interpreted Aiton’s species

in one way. Baker and R. E. Brown of Kew in another way. Gentry

is inclined to accept the older Kew specimen from Italy as the correct

or arbitrary guide and nominate it as the lectotype of Agave lurida

Aiton.

Agave lurida Aiton has not been recorded from India. It is, there-

fore, a new record. Index Kewensis gives Mexico as the home of this

plant.

180 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 71 (1)

Agave lurida Aiton — the endangered Baroda species.

The widely scattered populations of Agave in Kamathi Baug, Baroda, consisted

of small colonies extending over few areas and numbering hundreds of indi-

viduals.

In recent years, such plant colonies have been cleared extensively to make

way for common ornamental plants!

Acknowledgement

The author owes a tremendous debt of gratitude to Dr. Howard

Scott Gentry, Botanist, Desert Botanical Garden, Arizona, U.S.A., for

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

181

his notes and excellent literature which has served as a basis in the

preparation of this note.

General Education Centre, G. M. OZA

M. S. University of Baroda,

Baroda 2,

June 18, 1973.

28. ON THE OCCURRENCE OF VEGETATIVE SHOOTS AT

THE CROWN AREA IN COCOS NUCIFERA L.

During a recent study tour along the Karnataka (Mysore) coast

we saw a coconut palm of unusual interest in the vicinity of the sea-

shore at Surathkal, 3 Km away from Mangalore city. A striking

feature of this palm is the periodic production of sixty to hundred

vegetative shoots in two to three rows in place of spadices. The

tree is about 10 metres high and looked normal with a well developed

crown and was growing on the raised bund of a cultivated land. The

owner of the tree reported that this palm at no time bore fertile spad-

ices but produced vigorously growing vegetative shoots at regular in-

tervals.

Such vegetative shoots resembling bulbils at the crown of many

palms have been reported by various authors (Davis & Basu 1969). 1

The local people called this plant in Kannada language as ‘gandu

gida’ (Male tree) even though they had not seen the plant in flower.

It appears that attempts were made to grow the vegetative shoots in

the nearby villages. But our attempts to grow them in the Indian

Botanic garden, Sibpur were not successful.

Ecology Section, T. ANANDA RAO

Botanical Survey of India, G. C. DAS

76, Acharya Jagadish Bose Road,

Calcutta 14,

June 4, 1973.

1 Davis, T. A. & Basu, S. K. (1969): Two cases of Bulbil bearing Boras-

sus flabellifer L. J. Indian bot. Soc. 48: 198-201.

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CONTENTS

Bonelli's Hawk-Eagle, Hieraaetus fasciatus (Vieillot). By S. M. Osman 1

Indian Mammals on Texas Rangelands. By Ernest D. Abies and

Charles W. Ramsey . . . . . . . . . . 18

Common edible Mushrooms of Jammu and Kashmir. By T. N. Kaul

and J. L. Kachroo . . . . 26

Preliminary observations on the breeding of pearl oysters, Pinctada

fucata (Gould) of the Gulf of Kutch. By K. R. Narayanan . . 32

Taxonomy and distribution of Sardinella leiogaster Valenciennes,

1847 (Pisces: Clupeidae) from the Indian Seas. By A. G. K.

Menon and P. K. Talwar . . 41

A new Copepod from Ratnagiri. By M. R. Ranade . . . . 46

Records and observations on Bats of Himalayan region of Uttar

Pradesh and West Bengal, India. By H. R. Bhat . . 51

Additions to the Flora of North Gujarat (Ahmedabad-Mehsana-

Sabarkantha District). By G. L. Shah and D. V. Yogi 58

Three new species of Aphelinidae (Hymenoptera Chalcidoidea)

parasitic on Aonidiella orientalis (Newst.) from India.

By Mohammad Hayat . . . . 64

Smithsonia (Orchidacea), a new Genus from Western India. By Cecil

J. Saldanha . . . . . . . . 72

The Avifauna of introduced Eucalyptus plantations in Maha-

rashtra. By Lincoln Gray . . . . . . 76

Fishery resources of Ullal (Mangalore) in relation to certain

environmental factors during 1963-67. By M. S. Prabhu, S.

Ramamurthy, N. H. Dhulkhed, N. S. Radhakrishnan and G. P.

Kumarasvvamy Achari . . . . . . . . . . 85

Observations on the breeding mechanism of Biophytum candolleanum

Wt. By R. Vasudevan Nair . . . . 99

Observations on systematics of Sessile Barnacles from West Coast

of India — 1. By Arun B. Wagh and D. V. Bal . . . . 109

The copulatory complex of Neurobasis chinensis chinensis (Linn.)

(Agriidae: Zygoptera) 1. By Basit Ali Khan .. .. .. 124

Reviews .. .. .. .. .. .. ..131

Miscellaneous Notes . . . . 137

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1 Journal of the

Bombay Natural History Society

Vol. 71, No, 2

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VOLUME 71 No. 2— AUGUST 1974

Date of Publication : 20-2-1975

CONTENTS

PAGE

Observations at the dens of the dhole or Indian wild dog ( Cuon alpinus).

By E. R. C. Davidar .. . . .. . . .. 183

Food-habits of water-birds of the Sundarban, 24 Parganas District, West

Bengal, India — IV. By Ajit Kumar Mukherjee . . . . . . 188

A list of Aphids (Homoptera : Aphididae) from India and adjacent countries.

By A. K. Ghosh . . . . . . . . . . 201

On the Specificity of Madras Backwater Oyster Crassostrea madrasensis

Preston and the American Oyster Crassostrea virginica Gmelin.

By V. S. Durve. ( With two text-figures) . . . . . . . . 226

Flora of Mothronwala Swamp Forest (District : Dehr a Dun, U.P., India).

By K. M. M. Dakshini . . . . . . . . . . 235

A Catalogue of the Birds in the Collection of the Bombay Natural History

Society — 16. By Humayun Abdulali .. .. .. .. 244

Contribution to the Flora of Tirap Frontier Division. By D. B. Deb and

R. M. Dutta. . . . . . . . . . . . . 266

Miscellaneous Notes :

Mammals: 1. Further attempts to determine the food habits of the Indian Rhino-

cerosat Kaziranga.By R. L. Brahmachary, B. Rakshit and B. Malik, (p.295).

Birds: 2. On the increasing occurrence of typically Plains birds in the Kumaon

Hills. By Victor Smetacek (p. 299) ; 3 . Tawny Eagle as a scavenger. By Prakash

V. Gole (p. 302); 4. Stomach contents of the Great Indian Bustard, Choriotis nigri-

ceps (Vigors). By P. D. Gupta (p. 303) ; 5. TheNilgiri Wood Pigeon, Columba

elphinstonii (Sykes) onSalsette Island, Bombay. By J.C. Daniel and S.R. Amladi

(p. 304) ; 6. The Brownwinged Storkbilled Kingfisher Pelargopsis amauroptera

(Pearson) in Orissa. By J. C. Daniel and S. A. Hussain (p. 304); 7. Developmental

period and feeding habits of Bank Myna, Acridotheres ginginianus (Latham) in

Punjab. By G. S. Simwat and A. S. Sidhu (p. 305); 8. Study on the stomach

contents of Common Baya, Ploceus philippinus (Linnaeus). By A. K. Mukherjee

and B. C. Saha (p. 308).

Reptiles : 9. The record (?) Salt water Crocodile ( Crocodylus porosus

Schneider). By J. C. Daniel and S. A. Hussain (p. 309).

Fishes : 10. Note on Cristiceps halei Day, 1888 (Pisces : Clinidae) a junior

synonym of Springeratus xanthosoma (Sleeker), 1857. By R. S. Lai Mohan

(p. 312) ; 11. On the identity of Rat-tailed Anchovy Coilia neglecta Whitehead,

1967. By S. Dutt and B. V. Seshagiri Rao (p. 316).

Arthropoda : 12. Some soil Arthropods collected from paddy fields at Varanasi .

By S. P. Mukharji and G. P. Gupta (p. 319).

Crustacea : 13. Dispersal of intertidal Sessile Barnacle Tetraclita squamosa rufo-

tincta (Pilsbry) by water currents. {With two text-figures). ByArun B. Wagh

(p. 322).

Insects : 14. Abundance of Fleas — a review. By D. M. Munshi (p. 324); 15.

Foraging activity of Apis dor sat a Fab. on Brassica juncea Hook. & Thomas. By

R. P. Kapil and Surendra Kumar (p. 327); 16. A note on the early development

of the Marine insect Halobates sp. from the Gulf of Mannar near Mandapam.

{With a text-figure ). By R. Alfred Selvakumar (p. 333).

Botany: 17. Buttress-like structures on the upper part of the trunk of Ceiba

pentandra (L.) Gaertn. {With a plate). By V. M. Meher-Homji (p. 336); 18. Studies

on the Limestone vegetation of Sahasradhara near Dehra Dun (U.P.) — 4

‘Indicator value of Plants’. By S. K. Malhotra (p. 338); 19. Nicotiana glauca

Graham — A tree Tobacco in Maharashtra. By A. R.Kulkarni (p.340); 20. Axil-

lary Archegonia in Splachnobryum indicum Hamp. et Muell. from Bombay. {With

eleven text-figures). By G. T. Dabhade (p.342) ; 21. On the occurrence of Zizy-

phus glaberrima Sant, in Northern India. By K. P. Janardhanan and R. Prasad

(p. 344) ; 22. Stipular condition in Maytenus emarginata (Willd.) Ding-Hou.

{With two text-figures). By P. H. V. Vasudeva Rao (p. 345); 23. A few unrecorded

Taxa for the Flora of Kanyakumari shore (Cape Comorin), Tamil Nadu. By

T. Ananda Rao, L. K. Banerjee and A. K. Mukherjee (p. 346).

JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL

HISTORY SOCIETY

1974 AUGUST Vol. 71 No. 2

Observations at the dens of the dhole

or Indian wild dog ( Cuon alpinus)1

BY

E. R. C. Davidar

‘ Canowie Coonoor- 1, Nilgiris

On Christmas Day 1969, my Shikari Sidda and I went looking for a

hyena den in Chemmanatham in the Sigur Reserved Forest (east of the

Mudumalai Wild Life Sanctuary) in the Nilgiris in Tamil Nadu when

forcing our way into a thicket on the west bank of the Sigur River we

found that we Were in the midst of dhole burrows. Sidda went forward

to the nearest earth to see if it was tenanted. It was. A very angry

dhole charged him. We bolted. Fortunately it did not carry home its

charge.

In the centre of the thicket it was comparatively open. I could see

three dens. Later, after the dhole had vacated, I went in again and

counted four. The burrows were all freshly dug and occupied an area of

approximately 20' x 15L They were 2 to 3 feet deep, sloping at an angle

of 45°. Tracks led into the thicket from different directions. The river

took a wide turn at this place and one spot in particular outside the

thicket commanded a fine view of the river. The dhole used this spot

as a lookout point and had worn the turf down to bare earth by con-

stant usage.

Sidda and I selected a mango tree across the river which was about

40 yards broad at this place and spent the rest of the afternoon in it.

Between 25-xii-1969 and 14-ii-1970 I spent altogether six days (on 2

days from about 0700 hours until 1700 hours and on the other 4 days from

2 to 4 hours) on the tree keeping the thicket, the burrows not being visible

Accepted March 2, 1972.

184 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 71 (2)

from outside, under observation. That part of the jungle was elephant

infested and on that score it was not possible to get to my post earlier

or leave it later. On the day I tried to sit up until dusk I had a nasty

experience which cured me of any desire to remain there late. A tusker

came and stood under my tree, and I discovered that my perch, which I

had thought was beyond an elephant’s reach was not high enough and

that my feet were almost resting on the bull elephant’s back ! While I

was contemplating my awful predicament I found another tusker making

its way down to get his back also scratched.

At 0815 hrs on 26-xii-1969, four female dhole approached the thicket

from my side of the river. Two of them were lactating and the other

two were full grown cubs and acted like cubs of the older bitches from the

previous litter. The dhole suspected my presence and tried to sniff me out.

Then they lay down about 100 yards away for half an hour and watched.

As I did not give myself away, their suspicion dispelled, the two older

females entered the thicket, after spending a minute or so at the look-out

point. The younger females made no attempt to enter the thicket and

disappeared from the scene. At 12.30 a female came to the river from the

thicket. Otherwise there was no activity until 1630 hours, when I left.

On 1st January 1970, an encounter with a panther enroute delayed

me and it was past 0800 hours when I got to my observation post. When

I neared the mango tree the dhole were walking away. Between 0830

and 0900 hours, the dhole visited the thicket thrice. There were 5

dhole this time — the two nursing mothers and the two yearling females

and with them was another adult female in an advanced state of preg-

nancy. (The younger dogs tangled with a sounder of pigs which were

ready to put up a fight but the older ones discouraged the youngsters by

showing no interest. Incidentally, in spite of the presence of the dhole

deer freely used that section of the river.) On the last trip only the two

lactating bitches were there. There was no activity until about 1300 hours

when I left.

I could not visit the dens until 19-i-1970. At 0835 two females

approached the thicket, stopped at the look-out point for about 5 minutes,

one of them a little longer, before entering the thicket. One of the

females was limping slightly and was probably a new entrant to the

colony. On 25-i-1970 I was at my post by about 0700 hours, 4 bitches

came to the thicket at 0810 hours. Suspicious at the beginning, they

behaved normally later. At 1020 hours and 1300 hours single females

were seen coming out of the thicket. I went home after 6 hours and

when I returned at 1500 hours the whole pack was hunting in the area.

I saw five dhole at the look-out point and there were a dozen animals

altogether. On the last day I spent at my look-out post, there was no

activity, the last of the earths in use having been abandoned a few days

earlier.

THE DENS OF THE INDIAN WILD DOG

185

I tried to locate active dhole dens during the 1970/71 season,

but failed. However, I was shown 2 dens which had been abandoned

in the middle of the breeding season. I have come across single burrows

previously and evidence of dhole vacating a burrow and digging a fresh

one in a new area. A whelping female may set up a den on its own either

at the outset or on quitting a common nursery.

On 4-xii-71 a cattle grazier of Moyar guided my son Peter and me to

a den, where he had seen a pack of wild dogs ten days previously. The

den was a deep cave under a large shelving rock and was situated in the

Mudumalai Wild Life Sanctuary on the bank of a stream flowing

parallel to the Moyar-Masinigudi road. It was well located on a bend

and commanded a good view of both arms of the nallah. It was one of

the caves I had visited the previous year shortly after it had been

abandoned.

It was 1400 hours when we reached the cave. As we stood watching

the entrance from across the narrow stream, a single bitch which was

obviously lactating emerged growling. It was a relief when it rushed