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05

APRIL 1975

Rs. 35 (inland), £ 2 00 (Foreign)

Vol. 72, No. 1

Editors

1. C DANIEL, P. V. BOLE & A. N. D. NANAY ATI

NOTICE TO CONTRIBUTORS

Contributors of scientific articles are requested to assist the *

by observing the following instructions:

1. Papers which have at the same time been offered for perfora-

tion to other journals or periodicals, or have already been published

elsewhere, should not be submitted.

2. The MS. should be typed (double spacing) on one side of a

sheet only, and the sheets properly numbered.

3. All scientific names to be printed in italics should be under-

lined.

4. Trinomials referring to subspecies should only be used where

identification has been authentically established by comparison

specimens actually collected.

5. Photographs for reproduction must be clear and show good

contrast. Prints must be of a size not smaller than 8*20 x 5 60 cm

(No. 2 Brownie) and on glossy glazed paper.

6. Text-figures, line drawings, and maps should be in Indian ink,

preferably on Bristol board.

7. References to literature should be placed at the end of the

paper, alphabetically arranged under author’s name, with the abridged

titles of journals or periodicals underlined (italics) and titles of books

not underlined (roman type), thus:

Banerji, M. L. (1958): Botanical Exploration in East Nepal

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 55(2) : 243-268.

Prater, S. H. (1948): The Book of Indian Animals. Bombay.

Titles of papers should not be underlined.

8. Reference to literature in the text should be made by quoting

the author’s name and year of publication, thus: (Banerji 1958).

9. Synopsis : Each scientific paper should be accompanied by

a concise, clearly written s^popsis, normally not exceeding 200 words.

10. Reprints : Authors are supplied 25 reprints of their articles

free of charge. In the case of joint authorship, 50 copies will be given

gratis to be distributed among the two or more authors. Orders for

additional reprints should be in multiples of 25 and should be received

within two weeks after the author is informed of the acceptance of the

manuscript. They will be charged for at cost plus postage and packing.

11. The editors reserve the right, other things being equal, to pub-

lish a member’s contribution earlier than a non-member’s.

Editors,

Hornbill House, Journal of the Bombay Natural

Shahid Bhagat History Society .

Singh Road,

Bombay 400 023.

VOLUME 72 NO. 1 — APRIL 1975

Date of Publication : 30-4-1975

CONTENTS

The Sundarban of India and its biota. By Ajit Kumar Mukherjee.

(With a plate)

Status of the Nilgiri Langur, Presbytis johni in the Anamalai,

Cardamom and Nilgiri Hills of the Western Ghats, India.

By G. U. Kurup. ( With three maps)

Orchids of Nepal — 9. By M. L. Banerji and B. B. Thapa. (With five

text-figures)

A new species of spider of the genus Cheiracanthium Koch (Family

Clubionidae) from India. By B. K. Tikader. (With four text-

figures)

Some observations on birds at high altitude lake sides in Gosain-

kund, central Nepal. By Hiroyuki Masatomi. (With a map)

A new species of Rotala from Palgliat, Kerala. By R. Vasudevan Nair.

(With eighteen text-figures)

Observations on metamorphosing behaviour of Cybister larvae for

development of control measures during pupal stage.

By G. A. Shirgur. (With a text- figure)

Pseudobrassaiopsis — A new genus of Araliaceae with a note on the

status of Euaraliopsis Hutch. By R. N. Banerjee

Belly-soaking in the Charadriiformes. By G. L. Maclean

Observations on the occurrence and habits of juvenile fishes in

the nearshore region of the Mandapam area. By K. V. Sekharan

A new species and notes on the genus Anthoxanthum L. (Poaceae).

By S. K. Jain and D. C. Pal. (With three text-figures)

Bionomics and immature stages of the Barleria Lacebug Habrochila

laeta Drake (Heteroptera : Tingidae). By K. Peethambaran Asari.

(With two text-figures and three graphs)

Some observations on the colour changes of the Indian Chamae-

leon. By V. S. Durve and H. S. Sharma. (With a plate)

A Catalogue of the Birds in the Collection of the Bombay Natu-

ral History Society — 17. By Humayun Abdulali

Temperature, salinity and Plankton of Daman Ganga Estuary.

By P. Sitaramaiah

Food of Rana tigerina (Daud.). By S. Isaac and M. S. Rege

The exotic Flora of Ranchi. By J. K. Maheshwari and S. R. Paul.

(With a map)

Reviews :

1. Forced movements, tropisms & Animal conduct, (r. r.)

2. Under the Indian ocean, (r. n. gulati)

3. Turtles of the north-eastern United States, (shailaja s. somane)

4. Summer of a million wings, (s. A.)

5. Deer of the World, (j. c. D.)

Miscellaneous Notes:

Mammals: 1. A note on the Hoolock. By S. Theodore Baskaran (p. 194); 2.

Urine of Bats as means of offence. By H. Khajuria (p. 194); 3. Occurrence of

Fishing Cat ( Felis viverrina) in Orissa. By L. N. Acharjyo and R. Misra

(p. 195); 4. Age of sexual maturity of two species of wild carnivores in capti-

vity. By L. N. Acharjyo and R. Misra (p. 196); Some observations on the Wild

Dog in the Kanha National Park. By N. K. Sinha (p. 198).

Birds: 6. Whitetailed Eagles [Haliaeetus albicilla (Linn.)] at Bharatpur, Rajas-

than. By P. A. Dukes, S. C. Madge, M. C. Robinson and C. W. Westwood

(p. 199); 7. A note on the feeding of the Sarus Crane Grus antigone antigone

(Linnaeus). By Ajai M. Ghorpade (p. 199); 8. On the nesting habits of the

Small Minivet ( Pericrocotus cinnamomeus) . By Humayun Abdulali (p. 200);

9. Ornithological records for Pakistan. By. T. J. Roberts (p. 201); 10. A note

on the bird predators of the Death’s Head Hawkmoth, Acherontia styx W. By

S. Thirumurthi and E. V. Abraham (p. 204) .

Reptiles: 11. A note on Testudo horsfieldi Gray, the Afghan Tortoise or Hors-

field’s Four-toed Tortoise. By Tom J. Roberts (p. 206); 12. The Olive Keelback

( Atretium schistosum Russell) feeding on Mosquito larvae. By R. Whitaker

(p. 209); 13. Geographical variation in toxicity of venom of the Cobra and

extraction by vacuum method. By P. J. Deoras and N. E. Vad (p. 210).

Fishes: 14. On Psilocephalus barbatus (Gray), an interesting Balistoid Fish

trawled off Ganjam Coast, Orissa. (With a text-figure) . By A. G. K. Menon and

T. K. Chatterjee (p. 213); 15. On the occurrence and breeding of Labeo rohita

(Hamilton) in a section of Narbada River in Gujarat State. By S. J. Karam-

chandani and P. K. Pandit (p. 215); 16. New records of offshore fishes from

the west coast of India. By K. V. Rama Rao (p. 218); 17. A new species of

Puntius (Cypriniformes: Cyprinidae) from Khasi & Jaintia Hills (Meghalaya),

India. (With a text-figure) . By G. M. Yazdani and S. K. Talukdar (p. 218).

Acarina: 18. On two species of Ticks (Ixodoidea: Ixodidae) on a Tiger from

Arunachal Pradesh. By A. K. Ghosh (p. 221).

Crustacea: 19. Preferential feeding in captivity by a Fresh water Crab, Pota-

mon atkinsonianum Wood-Mason (Crustacea: Potamonidae) on Notonecta

undulata (Insecta: Hemiptera). By B. D. Sharma (p. 222).

Xnsecta: 20. Record of new host-plants of four Agromyzids. By R. S. Gokulpure

(p. 223); 21. New alternate host record of Leaf Roller, Marasmia trapezalis

Gn. (Lepidoptera : Pyralidae). By R. K. Patel, B. S. Choudhary and A. K. Khatri

(p. 225); 22. Further collection of the Syrphidae (Diptera) from central India.

By D. G. Sevastopulo (p. 226); 23. On a new subspecies of Aethus laticollis

Wagner (Hemiptera: Heteroptera: Cydnidae) as a serious pest of Pennisetum

typhoides (Burm.) in India. (With two text-figures). By M. S. K. Ghauri (p. 226).

Botany: 24. Datura suaveolens H. B. ex Willd. (Solanaceae) — from District

Chamoli in western Himalayas. By K. N. Nautiyal (p. 229); 25. A note on the

distribution of Spergularia rubra (Linn.) J. & C. Presl. (Caryophyllaceae) . By

J. L. Bhat and S. Kumar (p. 230); 26. Notes on some interesting plants from

south India — III. (With a photograph). By J. L. Ellis and M. S. Swaminathan

(p. 230); 27. A new record of Meineckia parvifolia (Wight) Webster from

India. By V. V. Sivarajan and K. S. Manilal (p. 237); 28. On fresh water

1 Phytal fauna of Visakhapatnam. By A. L. N. Sarma and C. Gopala Swamy

(p. 237); 29. Diatoms of Nainital. By N. D. Kamat and Rita Aggarwal (p. 240).

JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL

HISTORY SOCIETY

1975 APRIL Vol. 72 No. 1

The Sundarban of India and

its biota1

Ajit Kumar Mukherjee

Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta

( With a plate)

Physiography

The Sundarban is a tropical humid forest belt that stretches from

the Hooghly river (India) on the west to the Meghna river (Bangla-

desh) in the east. It spreads over the southern part of three districts,

namely, 24 Parganas (India), Khulna and Backarganj (Bangladesh).

The boundary of the Sundarban within West Bengal is demarcated by

the Raimangal and Hooghly rivers in the east and west respectively,

and the Bay of Bengal in the south. The northern limit cannot be

clearly defined due to progressive reclamation of the land over the last

150 years. The area lies approximately between 21° 0'-21° 21' N and

88°0'-89°0'E.

The forest spreads over the Gangetic delta which is low, flat and

alluvial, and is intersected from north to south by several wide rivers,

numerous sluggish winding creeks and is interspersed with lagoons.

The water in these creeks, pools and rivers is saline. The humid forests

y

1 Accepted August 27, 1971.

2 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

which grow on such delta is known as ‘mangrove swamps’ and such

forests stretch for about 240 kilometres (150 miles) from west to east

and are approximately 48 kilometres (30 miles) wide. Out of 11520

sq. kilometres (4500 sq. miles) the total forest area of 4096 sq. kilo-

metres (1630 sq. miles) is now under Indian administration. Of this

area, 2320 sq. kilometres (997 sq. miles) are covered with forests and

the rest is water (Mitra 1954). The principal rivers of the area have

a general north-south course towards the sea. Some of these rivers

join and lead to the estuaries, namely, Hariabhanga, Gusaba, Matla,

Thakuran, Saptamukhi and Muriganga. The principal rivers which

open into the estuaries by traversing the Sundarban from east to west

are Kalindi, Raimangal, Jhilla, Gusaba, Bidya, Matla, Thakuran,

Saptamukhi and Baratala. They are tidal rivers and receive three tides

a day. The difference in the water levels between high and ebb tides

varies from six metres (20 feet) to 20 centimetres (8 inches) depend-

ing on the phase of the moon.

The estuarine islands of the Sundarban from east to west are Ban-

gaduni, Dalhousie, Halliday, Bullcherry, Lothian, Farserganj (Mack-

leenberg). Numerous islands in the estuaries are still under formation.

The formation of alluvial surface and the alteration of river courses

in Lower Bengal has been discussed in detail by Oldham (1893). The

meandering action of rivers in the low lying Sundarban area helps in

the creation of innumerable islands. The silt and loam brought down

by the rivers from the north and poured on to the continental shelf

undergo partial transformation due to exchange reactions with sea

water (Raychoudhuri et al. 1963, p. 51). These constituents remain in

suspension and are forced into the creeks, channels and rivers by high

tides. The constituents in suspension settle down due to gravitational

force and are deposited on the bed and the salinised soil is gradually

covered with mould. After the soil is stabilised, further deposition of

alluvium helps in elevating the edges which give rise to a natural em-

bankment and a saucer-shaped depression is formed inside where in

the course of time signs of life become visible when the monsoon rains

wash the salinity off the place. Some shrubs and trees take root and

gradually a dense forest flourishes in a place which once was under

water.

The soil of the Sundarban is generally clayey loam and grey to

greyish-black in colour. Sandy and alkaline soils are found on islands

facing the Bay and at many degraded places on the surface. Raychoud-

huri et al. (op. cit., p. 40) gave the composition of the low lands of

the 24-Parganas district as follows: ‘The soils in general are deficient

in nitrogen which ranges from 0.02 to 0.09 per cent. The soils respond

to application of nitrogenous fertilizers and give a yield increase of

about 240 lbs. per acre. The phosphate in the soils varies from 0.1 to

SUNDARBAN OF INDIA

3

0.15 per cent in the riverine and flat lands, and 0.06 to 0.1 in low

lands. The pH of this soil ranges from 7.0 to 8.0 and potash varies from

0.3 to 1.0 per cent in the riverine and flat lands. Calcium oxide in the

riverine and flat lands is high, ranging from 1.0 to 5.0 per cent.’

The soils of the Sundarban may be classified into four main cate-

gories :

1. Matial : Clayey soil, whitish, loose and light in composition.

When reclaimed it is rich in plant nutrition and supports a good culti-

vation. It is also rich in calcium and magnesium and partially decom-

posed matter.

2. Baliara or Dorosa : Loamy soil reddish in colour, retains mois-

ture longer than the other three types of soil. Coarse paddy may be

grown.

3. Dhap : Whitish soil, lies at higher levels than other classes. Salt

is not washed off. This is degraded alkali soil and, therefore, only such

coarse vegetation as thatch grass ( Ulu ), grows on it.

4. Dhal: Found on newly formed islands which get flooded either

due to high tide or due to rain water. The soil is reddish in colour and

cracks when dry. Nothing substantial grows on such land.

The rivers of the Sundarban are subject to tidal influence and are,

therefore, saline. The rivers between Raimangal and Matla in the east

and Muriganga and Hooghly on the west receive fresh water from

the Ichhamati and Hooghly respectively, so that their salinity is greatly

reduced. The increase in the salinity of the rivers of the western Sun-

darban appears to be a recent phenomenon, which is evident from

Major Rennel’s atlas of 1781 and Morrieson’s of 1811; in both some

villages are shown along the Sundarban rivers where today only dense

forests exist. Those villages had evidently been abandoned by later

increase in the salinity of the adjacent rivers leading to failure of agri-

culture.

Extreme climatic conditions do not prevail in the Sundarban. The

network of creeks and rivers and the nearness of the Bay help in con-

trolling the extreme climate. A typical tropical monsoon climate with

excess of humidity is prevalent for about six months of the year, the

day being moderately warm, equitable and humid, and there is a slow

increase in the night temperature. The cold weather prevails from

November to January and the rainfall during the period is negligible

(mean of these three months is 2.5 cm). The mean maximum temper-

ature for the years 1955-1960 is 30°C and the minimum 15°C. The

temperature begins to rise from February and February, March and

April are comparatively dry. Occasional thunder-storms accompanied

by rains start from April. In May and October-November cyclonic

storms occur. The cyclone causes high waves and combined with high

tides frequently brings devastation to the area. The mean temperature

4 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

for six years (1955-1960 for February, March and April) is 31.8°C

(maximum) and 26.6°C (minimum). The monsoon generally starts

from the middle of June and continues till October, and the mean

temperature slowly diminishes during the rainy season, but the humi-

dity goes on increasing to 95 per cent. The total annual rainfall (aver-

age of the above-mentioned six years) is 265 cm and the average of

the monsoon months for those six years is 230 cm.

Biota

Flora

The vegetation of the Sundarban may be broadly classified as (a)

the sea-face (beach forests), (b) the formative island flora, (c) the

flora of the reclaimed low-lying cultivated tracts, and (d) the swamp

forests.

The present forest area covers about 2320 sq. kilometres (997.9 sq

miles) of the delta. Special type of the marsh vegetation composed of

elements mainly of the Malay Peninsula and Polynesian regions, together

with some Indo-Chinese, Ethiopian and a few of the New World, is

represented in these estuarine islands, not found elsewhere execpt in a

small part of Mahanadi and Godavari deltas and the Bay islands. Prain

(1903) listed 334 species of plants in the Sundarban, and stated that

the different possible means of dispersal and distribution of plants

such as by sea and rivers, and by wind, bird and human agencies, have

been responsible for introducing an interesting and complex flora in

the area.

Champion (1936) classified the Sundarban forests as moist tropical

serai forest type (primary serai type), which he described as (a)

IS/ 1 beach forest and ( b ) 1S/2 tidal forests. The tidal forests are sub-

divided into four sub-types, namely, 1S/2 (a) low mangrove forests,

1S/2 (b) tree mangrove forests, 1S/2 (c) salt-water Heritiera forests

and 1S/2 (d) freshwater Heritiera forests. Except the low mangrove

and the salt-water Heritiera forests the other types of tidal forests do

not occur in the Sundarban that lies within the Indian territory.

Sea- face {beach) flora.

The beach forest occurs on the sea-face islands. Sea-sand blown by

strong winds form low sand-dunes. The sands, together with lime form-

ed from disintegrating shells and salt, give rise to a pronounced xero-

phytic habitat, inspite of the facts that the rainfall in this area is over

125 cm (50 inches) and the subsoil water is just below half a metre or

so. These conditions are very different from those prevailing in swamp

islands, and thus provide a foothold for the littoral south-east Asian

species. The islands are subject to strong north-western storms from

SUNDARBAN OF INDIA

5

March till May and to cyclones which develop from Bay of Bengal

in May and October-November. These cyclones cause considerable

damage to the biota of the islands. The trees get uprooted and those

that stand the rigours are stunted and deformed, devoid of branches

and are more or less leafless. Savannah flourishes under such condi-

tions. The sand-dunes are partially covered with tall brown spear-grass

and a fence of shrubs and creepers immediately follows the sand-dunes.

A list of the more important species of plants occurring under such

conditions are given below.

Formative {new) Island or Bank Flora

The formation of a new bank is the outcome of natural process of

erosion of the banks on one hand by sets of river current and on the

other hand by the compensating acceleration of shelving alluvium on

the opposite side. The formation of a new island has already been dis-

cussed under topography. On these banks and islands “chars”, Oryza

coarctata “Bani-Dhan” appears along with Sesuvium portulacastrum

“Noona”. These are sometimes associated with Myriostachya

wightiana at the river edge when such an edge drops suddenly into

deep water. In the second line of succession a belt of undershrub bushes

of Acanthus ilicifolius “Hargoza” and young Avicennia officinalis

“Baen” appears. After these get established, Excoecaria agallocha

“Gengwa”, and Rhizophora sp. “Goran”, Sonneratia sp. “Keora”, etc.,

are the last to establish themselves under protection of “Hargoza” and

“Baen”. When all these shrubs and trees have properly established

themselves, the grass disappears.

Forest flora

Sal t-w a t e r Heritiera Forest

Salt-water Heritiera forest is a low salinity forest that exists along

the south-eastern border of West Bengal along Khulna District (Bangla-

desh). Since freshwater of the Ichhamati River flows into the Raim-

angal river, the rivers between the Raimangal and Matla have reduced

salinity. This has helped in the growth of a fairly dense forest consist-

ing of numerous species tolerant of such water. The average height of

the forest trees is from 6 to 11 metres, but some trees like Sonnerita

sp. “Keora” may attain a height of 20 metres or so. The girth of the

trunk is moderate. In the sheltered bays and creeks mangrove occurs.

The mangrove are largely Rhizophora “Garjan”, Bruguiera “Kankra”,

Ceriops “Goran” and Avicennia “Baen”. Typical pneumatophores,

that is, respiratory roots of Avicennia that project above soil, locally

known as “shulas”, occur everywhere. The stilt roots of Rhizophora

and Bruguiera are meant for support and are special adaptive features.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 72 (1) Plate

Mukherjee: Sundarban

3 4

1. Fairly dense tail-tree forest; 2. A tidal creek flowing through dense low forest;

3. Morning exercise of water-birds at Sajnakhali forest; 4. Clusters of wild date-

palm, a very common plant.

.......

SUNDARBAN OF INDIA

7

Heritiera “Sundri” which is found scattered over areas of a slightly

higher level does not seem to have natural satisfactory regeneration.

Along with Heritiera, Sonneratia, Excoecaria, Carapa spp., from the

upper storey. The palms, Phoenix paludosa “Hental” which commonly

grows gregariously everywhere on higher elevations, and Nipa fruti -

cans “Golpata” though present infrequently are met with on wet mud-

banks along the creeks. Mangrove like Rhizophora and Bruguiera ex-

hibit ‘vivipary’ (young plants germinate in the fruit while attached

to the mother plant). It remains viable until the seed is able to find

soil after it drops in water, which may take considerable time.

Low Mangrove Forest

The low mangrove forest which lies between Matla and Muriganga

is absolutely devoid of fresh-water, since the rivers in this area are cut

off from the ramifications of the Hooghly in the north.

The whole forest area is on soft tidal mud which gets submerged

by salt-water at every tide. A dense forest of very low average height

(3 to 6 metres) covers the area. Here the vegetation is identical to that of

the preceding type, except that Sundri and Golpata are practically

absent. The trees are evergreen and cluster gregariously, the leaves

are leathery and the seeds are viviparous. The most common trees are

Ceriops sp. “Goran” and Avicennia “Baen” which occupy extensive

areas but grow only up to two metres. The clusters of Phoenix sp.

“Hental” are extremely common.

A list of some important trees, shrubs and grass which compose

the flora of this type of forest is given below:

8 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

Family Euphorbiaceae

Excoecaria agallocha

Family Palmae

Phoenix paludosa

Flora of the Reclaimed Area

The reclaimed cultivated tracts are low lying islands which some

two hundred years ago were covered with dense forest. Gradual de-

forestation, cordoning of the islands with high embankments, and re-

peated monsoon washing of the salinity of the soil made the area culti-

vable. Many tanks were dug out filling up with rain-water to meet

man’s requirement of freshwater from the beginning of the human

settlement in these reclaimed islands. Various trees and other plants

were also introduced. Thus, a complex flora of the original Sundarban

species together with some plants from other parts of India and even

from abroad are found there today. A list of the more familiar in-

troduced plants are given below:

Gengwa Tree

Hental Palm

SUNDARBAN OF INDIA

9

Family Cucurbitaceae

Coccinia cordifolia

Trichosanthes cucumerina

Family Rubiaceae

lxora coccinea

Family Compositae

Spaeranthus africanus

Family Asclepiadaceae

Sarcolobus globosus

Family Amaranthaceae

Psilotrichum ferrugineum

Family Liliaceae

Asphodelus tenuifolius

Family Typhaceae

Typha angustata

Family Graminae

Paspalum scrobiculatum

Panicum sp.

Andropogon aciculatus

Phragmites karka

Arundo donax

Ban chinhinga

Ban chinhinga

Rangan

Kantapalang

Baolilata

Rakto-siranchi

Hogla

Kodo Dhan

Bharanda

Chorkanta

Nal

Sukna

Besides the flora of the northern plains a number

occur in the reclaimed area along embankments and

Such species are:

Species Local name

Family Leguminosae

Climber

Climber

Shrub

Climber

Large climber

Tall reed

Tall tufted grass

Coarse grass

Tufted coarse grass

Reed

Reed like grass

of littoral species

edges of creeks.

Type of plant

Extensive climber

Climber

Shrub

Tree

Shrub

Creeper

Tree

Tree

Tree

Tree

Tree

Tree

10 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

Fauna

Forest Fauna

The extensive saline swamp-forests of the Sundarban spread over

the greater part of the sea-face of West Bengal, are inhospitable for

animals due to lack of sweet water. In these marshy tropical jungles

which flourish on the islands that are washed by the tidal waters of

sea, the animals that have adapted themselves by adjusting their habits

are very few. Of them, special mention may be made of the Tiger,

Panthera tigris (Linnaeus), which is dreaded, since all without excep-

tion, are said to be maneaters: the Estuarine Crocodile, Crocodylus

porosus (Schneider), lies in wait for its prey on shores and creeks on

soft mud of the tidal flats between bayonet-like stilt and knee roots,

where walking is difficult and man sometimes becomes its victims; and

the large poisonous snake, the King Cobra, Ophiophagus hannah

(Cantor).

A hundred years ago the Sundarban forests were the home of many

wild animals, some of which like the Javan Rhinoceros, Rhinoceros

sondiacus Desmarest, and the Wild Buffalo, Bubalus bubalis (Linn-

aeus) are no longer there. The last record of the Rhinoceros from this

area is based on the specimen collected in 1870 and preserved in the

collection of the Zoological Survey of India, Indian Museum, Calcutta

and the Wild Buffalo was known to have existed up to 1885. It is said

that the Swamp Deer, Cervus duvauceli Cuvier, Muntjac, Muntiacus

muntjak Zimmermann, and the Fishing Cat, Felis viverrina Bennet,

existed on these swamp-islands, but these have not been recorded in

recent years from the Sundarban forests that lie in West Bengal.

An exhaustive faunistic report is not within the scope of the pre-

sent paper. However, commoner animals encountered by me in the

course of visits during 1955-1960 to the area and those found by others

are mentioned below.

VERTEBRATES

Mammals :

The order primates is represented by a single species, the Rhesus

Monkey, Macaca muiatta (Zimmermann). Mukherjee & Gupta (1965)

have studied the peculiar habits of this monkey and its specialised

SUNDARBAN OF INDIA

11

adaptation to the estuarine island life, where freshwater is not available

at all except rain-water, rendering such areas normally unsuitable for

primate life. The other mammals are the Tiger, Panther a tigris (Linnae-

us) which leads an almost amphibious life in swamps, moving from

one island to another by swimming through the large rivers and creeks,

and during tidal bores it clings to low mangrove branches or is driven

to elevated parts of some islands restricting its movement till normal

conditions are restored. Its man-hunting is perhaps due to its inability

to obtain sufficient food under such adverse conditions, as it is unable

to kill the deer or pig that are found on these islands.

In the tidal rivers, the commonest aquatic mammal is the Little

Porpoise or the Black Finless Porpoise, Neomeris phocaenoides

(Cuvier). The other Cetacea that frequent the tidal waters are Orcella

hrevirostris (Owen) and Stolia plumba Cuvier.

Birds

Sundarban forest has a wealth of waterbirds. Birds such as herons,

egrets, storks, ibises, cormorants, shags, darters, etc. which nest in

colonies find these forest areas safe and convenient for their living

and breeding. The, discovery of the existence of a natural bird sanctu-

ary, namely, ‘Pakhirala’ at Sajnakhali in this area has already been

reported by Mukherjee (1955).

Resident species :

1. White Ibis Threskiornis melanocephala (Latham)

2. Openbill Stork Anastomus oscitans (Boddaert)

3. Adjutant Stork Leptoptilos dubius (Gmelin)

4. Blacknecked Stork Xenorhynchus asiaticus (Latham)

5. Red Junglefowl Gallus gallus (Linnaeus)

6. Swamp Partridge or Kyah Francolinus gularis (Temminck)

7. Blackcapped Kingfisher Halcyon pileata (Boddaert)

8. Whitecollared Kingfisher Halcyon chloris (Boddaert)

9. Brownwinged Kingfisher Pelargopsis amauroptera (Pearson) (Prefers

broad tidal rivers)

Seasonal visitors :

1 . Whimbrel Numenius phaeopus (Linnaeus)

2. Curlew Numenius arquata (Linnaeus) (Occasional)

3. Blacktailed Godwit Limosa limosa (Linnaeus)

4. Little Stint Calidris minutus (Leisler)

5. Dunlin Calidris alpinus (Linnaeus)

6. Eastern Knot Calidris tenuirostris (Horsfield)

7. Curlew-sandpiper Calidris testaceus (Pallas)

8. Greenshank Tringa nebularia (Gunnerus)

9. Terek Sandpiper Tringa terek (Latham)

10. Snipebilled Godwit Limnodromus semipalmatus (Blyth)

Rare visitors :

1 . Giant Heron Ardea goliath Cretzschmar

2. Spottedbilled Pelican Pelecanus philippensis Gmelin

3. Herring Gull Lams argentatus Pontoppidan

4. Lesser Crested Tern Sterna bengalensis Lesson

12 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

5. Large Crested Tern Sterna bergii Lichtenstein

6. Sooty Tern Sterna fuscata Linnaeus

There are several species of smaller perching birds that frequent

the forests such as flycatchers, warblers, pipits, wagtails. Blyth’s Man-

grove Whistler, Pachycephala grisola Blyth is sometimes observed

among the wild date palm clusters.

R e p t i 1 i a

The reptilian fauna is represented by snakes, lizards, and crocodile.

No chelonians are known from the area.

1 . Keelback Amphiesma stolata (Linnaeus)

Common species :

2. Hurriah Enhydris enhydris (Schneider)

3. Hydrophis obscurus (Daudin)

4. Gerardia prevostiana (Eydoux & Gervais)

5. Wart Snake Acrochordus granulatus (Schneider)

Uncommon estuarine species'.

1 . Hydrophis nigrocinctus (Daudin)

2. Hydrophis caerulescens (Shaw)

3. Microcephalophis cantoris (Gunther)

Terrestrial snakes:

1. Cobra Naja naja (Linnaeus)

2. King Cobra Ophiophagus hannah (Cantor)

3. Whip Snake Ahaetulla nasutus (Lacepede)

4. Indian Python Python molurus (Linnaeus)

Lizards :

1. Water monitor Varanus salvator (Laurenti)

2. Monitor Lizard Varanus flavescens (Gray)

There is a single species of crocodile, the Estuarine Crocodile Crocodylus

porosus (Schneider), which inhabits the lower reaches of the tidal rivers.

Amphibia

Amphibians on these islands are very few. The toad, Bufo mel-

anostictus Schneider, is sometimes seen in certain elevated parts. The

tree frog, Rhacophorus maculatus (Gray), is quite common.

Fishes

The fishes are brackish water and marine forms, freshwater ones

being totally absent.

The tidal rivers and creeks which flow through forest blocks and

the estuaries that surround the forested islands on the sea-face contain

varied species of sharks and brackish water fishes. The species of sharks

that are commonly met with belong to the genera, Chiloscy Ilium, Stego-

stoma, Scoliodon, Carcharhinus, Rhinobatus and Dasyatis.

There are several species of Teleostomi of which a few important

and common species that are commercially exploited are:

Hilsa ilisha (Hamilton) Anguilla bicolor McClelland

1 1 is ha filigera (Valenciennes) Muraena tile (Hamilton)

Raconda russelliana Gray Muraenesox cinereus (Forskal)

Nematalosa nasus (Bloch) Pisoodonophis boro (Hamilton)

SUNDARBAN OF INDIA

13

Anodontostoma chacunda (Hamil-

ton)

Setipinna taty (Valenciennes)

Harpodon nehereus (Hamilton)

‘Nehere’

Tachysurus jella (Day)

Tachysurus caelatus (Valenciennes)

Tachysurus gagora (Hamilton)

Tachysurus maculatus (Thunberg)

Tachysurus sagor (Hamilton)

Tachysurus sona (Hamilton)

Mystus gulio (Hamilton) ‘Gule’

Anguilla bengalensis (Gray)

Xenentodon cancila (Hamilton)

Strongylura strongylura (van Has-

selt)

Aplocheilus panchax (Hamilton)

Oryzias melastigmus (McClelland)

Mugil parsia Hamilton

Mugil fade Forskal

Polynemus heptadactylus Cuvier

Polynemus paradiseus Linnaeus

Eleutheronema tetradactylus (Bloch)

‘Gurjaoli’

Lates calcarifer (Bloch) ‘Bhetki’

The sea-fishes that enter the backwaters are:

Scatophagus argus (Linnaeus) ‘But-

terfish’

Stromateus cinereus (Bloch) White

Pomfret

Parastromateus niger (Bloch) Black

Pomfret

Pampus chinensis (Euphrasen)

Datnioides quadrifasciatus (Sevasti-

anov)

Leiognathus blochii (Valenciennes)

Otolithes maculatus Cuvier

Sparus datnia (Hamilton)

T oxotes chatareus (Hamilton)

Brachirus pan (Hamilton)

Cynoglossus bilineatus (Lacepede)

Cynoglossus lingua Hamilton ‘Tongue

Sole’

Mastacembelus armatus (Lacepede)

Mastacembelus pancalus (Hamilton)

Macrognathus aculeatum (Bloch)

Pama pama (Hamilton)

The goggle-eyed Gobiids attract the attention of every person due to

their active, frog-like hopping on exposed mud-flats, specially during

ebb-tide. Generally two species occur, Periopthalmus keelreuteri (Pallas)

and Boleopthalmus boddaerti (Pallas) and several other species. They

are not of commercial importance.

Invertebrates :

The invertebrates that are found in the forest area are more or less

are represented in the reclaimed area also, except some crop-pests and

freshwater animals, and have been listed under that chapter (pp. 17-

19). Oligochaeta have been, scanty, whereas several species of Polycha-

etes are found burrowing in the mud, such as, Ficomatus macrodon

Southern, Mercierella enigmatica Fauvel, Dendronerius estuarina Fauvel,

Pomatoceros caeruleus Schmard). The Gastropods that are found on

the mud banks and in the wet places in the interior of the forests are

Nerita sp., Telescopium sp., Melongena sp., Ceratoda sp., Onchidium

sp. The Bivalva is represented by Area, sp., and several species of

Teredo which are borers of mangrove tree-trunks that get submerged

in tidal water. Arthropods are well represented on land and water.

An interesting example is the ‘Living Fossil’, the King Crab, Carcinos-

corpius rotundicauda (Latreille), which is not uncommon in the shal-

low waters of the sea-facing islands, sometimes it crawls ashore. The

low-forest trees are often found to bear combs of the Rock-Bee ( Apis

14 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

dorsata). The combs sometimes grow so large that they are hardly a

few feet above the ground. Insects affecting forest timbers are many.

Mention may be made of the Cerambycids, borer-beetles, that cause

alarming damage to Goran, Keora, Garjan, Dhudul etc. With nightfall

the dark forests of Sundarban glitter with fireflies ( Pteroptyx sp.) and

the water of the rivers and channels also pulsates with luminiscent life,

in the plankton.

Fauna of the reclaimed area

The reclamation of the land which rose from mud and clay by

deforestation and human settlement has upset the ecology, resulting

in the disappearance of major part of the wildlife. What exists today

in these cultivated tracts are some common forms of birds and aquatic

fauna of the tidal creeks, common to both the reclaimed and the forest-

ed areas. From the northern part of the district some animals have

immigrated and have established themselves in the reclaimed area,

for example, the jackal, fox, civet cats, mongoose and rats. Freshwater

fishes have been introduced in the freshwater (sweet-water) tanks, and

various insect pests have appeared on cultivated crops which were not

known when these areas were covered with virgin forests.

The fauna is represented by practically every group of animal

though the higher vertebrates, specially the mammals, are poorly re-

presented.

Vertebrates

Mammalia

The mammals in the reclaimed area are few.

Suncus murinus (Linnaeus) House

Shrew

Felis chaus (Guldenstaedt) Jungle

Cat

Felis bengalensis (Kerr) Leopard Cat

Canis aureus (Linnaeus) Jackal

Vulpes bengalensis (Shaw) Indian

Fox

Viverricula indica (Desmarest) Indian

Civet

Herpestes edwardsi ( Geoff roy) Com-

mon Gray Mongoose

Funambulus pennanti (Wroughton)

Five-striped Squirrel

Mus booduga (Gray) Field Mouse

Mus musculus (Linnaeus) House

Mouse

Bandicota indica (Bechstein) Bandi-

coot Rat

Rattus rattus (Linnaeus) Common

Rat

Cynopterus sphinx (Vahl) Short-

nosed Fruit Bat

Taphozous longimanus (Hardwicke)

Megaderma lyra (Geoffroy) Indian

False Vampire

Rhinopoma hardwickii (Gray) Les-

ser Rat-tailed Bat

Hipposideros bicolor (Temminck)

Bicoloured Leafnosed Bat

Pipistrellus mimus (Wroughton)

Pigmy Pipistrelle

Scotophilus temmincki (Horsfield)

Lesser Yellow Bat

SVNDARBAN OF INDIA

15

Birds

Marsh birds

Bubulcus ibis (Linnaeus) Cattle

Egret

Egretta intermedia (Wagler) Smal-

ler Egret

Egretta garzetta (Linnaeus) Little

Egret

Egretta alba (Linnaeus) Large Egret

Ardea purpurea (Linnaeus) Purple

Heron

Ardea cinerea (Linnaeus) Grey

Heron

Butorides striatus (Linnaeus) Little

Green Bittern

Nycticorax nycticorax (Linnaeus)

Night Heron

Ardeola grayii (Sykes) Pond Heron

Metopidius indicus (Latham) Bron-

zewinged Jacana

Freshwater Marshes

Gallinula chloropus , (Linnaeus)

Moorhen

Hydro phasianus chirurgus (Scopoli)

Pheasant-tailed Jacana

Rostratula benghalensis (Linnaeus)

Painted Snipe

Charadrius dubius (Scopoli) Little

Ringed Plover

Open Water

Podiceps ruficollis (Pallas) Dabchick

Nettapus coromandelianus (Gmelin)

Cotton Teal

Dendrocygna javanica (Horsfield)

Lesser Whistling Teal

Anas crecca (Linnaeus) Common

Teal

Tadorna ferruginea (Pallas) Brah-

miny Duck

Anas acuta (Linnaeus) Pintail

Aythya nyroca (Guldenstadt) White-

eyed Pochard

Netta rufina (Pallas) Redcrested

Pochard

Sandbanks

Tringa hypoleucos (Linnaeus) Com-

mon Sandpiper

Tringa gl areola (Linnaeus) Wood

Sandpiper

Calidris minutus (Leisler) Little Stint

Capella gallinago (Linnaeus) Fan-

tail Snipe

Numenius phaeopus (Linnaeus)

Whimbrel

In the vast cultivated tracts, the Openbilled Storks, Anastomus osci-

tans (Boddaert) feed on snails from paddy-fields, and are seen with

the Redwattled Lapwing, Vanellus indicus (Boddaert).

The birds of prey found in the area are:

Spilornis cheela (Latham) Crested

Serpent Eagle

Haliaeetus leucoryphus (Pallas)

Pallas’s Fishing Eagle

Haliaeetus leucogaster (Gmelin)

Whitebellied Sea Eagle

Haliastur indus (Boddaert) Brahminy

Kite

Milvus migrans (Boddaert) Pariah

Kite

Accipiter badius (Gmelin) Shikra

Accipiter trivirgatus (Temminck)

Crested Goshawk

lcthyophaga ichthyaetus (Horsfield)

Greyheaded Fishing Eagle

Pandion haliaetus (Linnaeus) Osprey

Circus aeruginosus (Linnaeus) Marsh

Harrier

Falco peregrinus (Tunstall) Pereg-

rine Falcon

Falco severus (Horsfield) Oriental

Hobby

Falco tinnunculus (Linnaeus) Kes-

trel

Gyps bengalensis (Gmelin) White-

backed Vulture

Tyto alba (Scopoli) Barn Owl

Otus scops (Linnaeus) Scops Owl

Athene brama (Temminck) Spotted

Owlet

Bubo zeylonensis (Gmelin) Brown

Fish Owl

Bubo bubo (Linnaeus) Great Horn-

ed Owl

16 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

A few species of terns, and kingfishers are seen on the larger rivers

and in flooded areas. These are:

Gelochlidon nilotica (Gmelin) Gull-

billed Tern

Sterna bergii (Lichtenstein) Large

Crested Tern

Sterna bengalensis (Lesson) Indian

Lesser Crested Tern

Rynchops albicollis (Swainson) In-

dian Skimmer

Larus brunnicephalus (Jerdon)

Brown headed Gull

Larus ridibundus (Linnaeus) Black-

headed Gull

Chlidonias hybrida (Pallas) Whis-

kered Tern

Hydroprogne caspia (Pallas) Cas-

pian Tern

Besides, there are many species of doves, cuckoos, parakeets, rollers,

barbets, woodpeckers, larks, swallows, drongos, crows, tree pie, shrikes,

bulbuls, babblers, flycatchers, warblers, thrushes, pipits, sunbirds,

flowerpeckers, and finches and other birds, which are not specifically

mentioned, for Law (1954, 1956) has already published observational

reports about the ornithology of the Sundarban.

Sterna aurantia (J. E. Gray) Indian

River Tern

Sterna hirundo (Linnaeus) Common

Tern

Sterna albifrons (Pallas) Little Tern

Sterna fuscata (Linnaeus) Sooty

Tern

Ceryl rudis Lesser Pied Kingfisher

Halcyon smyrnensis (Linnaeus)

White-breasted Kingfisher

Alcedo atthis (Linnaeus)

Halcyon chloris (Boddaert) White-

collared Kingfisher

Halcyon pileata (Boddaert) Black-

capped Kingfisher

R e p t i 1 i a :

The reptiles in the reclaimed area are represented by snakes and

lizards.

The snakes comprise both terrestrial and aquatic forms. The terres-

trial snakes are met with in fields and cultivation.

Ptyas mucosus (Linnaeus) Rat

Snake

Vipera russelli (Shaw) Russell’s

Viper

Naja naja kaouthia (Lesson) Indian

Cobra

Oligodon arnensis (Shaw) Kukri

Snake

Lycodon aulicus (Linnaeus) Wolf

Snake

Eryx conicus (Schneider) Russell’s

Sand Boa

Xenochrophis piscator (Schneider)

Common Checkered Keelback

Amphiesma stolata (Linnaeus) Stri-

ped Keelback

Enhydris enhydris (Schneider) Hur-

riah

Hydrophis obscurus (Daudin)

Gerardia prevostiana (Eydoux &

Gervais)

Acrochordus granulatus (Schneider)

Wart Snake

In the saline waters of rivers and creeks turtles and terrapins are

sometimes come across:

Lizards :

Varanus flavescens (Gray) Calotes versicolor (Daudin)

Varanus salvator (Laurenti) Chamaeleon zeylanicus (Laurenti)

SVNDARBAN OF INDIA

17

Turtles:

Pelochelys bibroni (Owen) Coast

Soft Shell

Morenia ocellata (Dumeril & Bibron)

Bengal Eyed Terrapin

Batagur baska (Gray) Batagur

Lepidochelys olivacea (Eschschottz)

Ridley Turtle

Geomyda tricarinata (Blyth) Three-

keeled Terrapin

In the tidal rivers and creeks no frogs have been seen. In the water-

puddles which are formed as a result of rainfall and in perennial sweet-

water reservoirs, the amphibians that are met with are:

Rana cyanophlyctis Schneider. ‘Chine- Rana tiger ina Daudin. ‘Sona-beng’

beng’ Bufo melanostictus Schneider. ‘Kuno-

Rana hexadactyla Lesson. ‘Pati Beng’ beng’. Very common. Dry land.

Rana limnocharis Wiegmann. ‘Dhani- Microhyla ornata ‘Dumeril & Bib-

beng’ ron’. Smallest frog in the area.

The fishes that are found in the sweet-water pools of the reclaimed

areas are:

Introduced species

Labeo rohita (Hamilton). Rui

Labeo calbasu (Hamilton). Kalbose

Labeo gonius (Hamilton)

Catla catla (Hamilton). Katla

Cirrhinus mrigala (Hamilton) . Mrigal

Puntius sp. ‘Punti’

Danio sp.

Chela, sp. ‘Chela’

Ambassis sp. ‘Rangachanda’

Notopterus sp. ‘Pholui’

Rita sp. ‘Rita’

Mud fishes

Mastacembelus armatus (Lacepede)

and M. pancalus (Hamilton).

Channa gachua (Hamilton). Pank-

achaks

Oryzias melastigmus (McClelland).

Techoko.

Cat fishes

Clarias batrachus (Linnaeus) Heter-

opneustes fossilis (Bloch)

The other brackish water fishes which get into creeks of the reclaim-

ed area have been dealt separately under the fauna of the forest area.

INVERTEBRATA

The common invertebrates of the area are represented by the Phyla

Mollusca, Arthropoda, and Annelida.

M o 1 1 u s c a :

Indoplanorbis exustus (Deshayes)

Pila sp. (Widely dispersed by the

monsoon waters)

Arthropoda

Crustacea :

Freshwater

Viviparus bengalensis (Lamarck)

Melanoides tuberculatus (Muller)

Melanoides scabra (Muller)

Lymnaea acuminata (Lamarck)

Several species of crustaceans abound in freshwater ponds and jheels.

The smaller prawns commonly found in freshwater are:

Macrobrachium lamarrei (Milne- Caridina gracilipes de Man. ‘Ghunso

Edward). ‘Kuncho chingri’ chingri’

Leander styliferus (Milne-Edward) Macrobrachium rude (Heller). ‘Goda

chingri’

2

18 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72 (1)

During the monsoon very large number of prawns find their way

from the brackish water into the paddy fields. In such flooded fields

two species are met with:

Metapenaeus brevicornis Milne-Edward, ‘Dhanboni chingri’

Metapenaeus monoceros Fabricius, ‘Koraney chingri’

The most common crab in the paddy fields during the monsoon

is the small grapsid crab Varuna litterata (Fabricius), ‘Chiti kankra’.

In brackish water the common forms met with are: Scylla serrata

(Forskal), Portunus pelagicus (Finnaeus), Portunus sanguinolentus

(Herbst). Matuta victor Fabricius, which is also found in the tidal rivers

but appears to be less common there. The common crab that attracts

attention is the orange-coloured Fiddler Crab ( Uca sp.) which actively

moves about on mud-flats during ebb-tide in large numbers. The fresh-

water crabs are: Paratelphusa ( Barytelphusa ) jacquemontii (Rathbun),

and Paratelphusa ( Barytelphusa ) spinigera Wood-Mason are found in

smaller numbers in freshwater tanks and flooded paddy fields. They

appear to have been introduced by human agency. Certain deep bur-

rows in soft mud banks of tidal creeks are the homes of the Ghost Crab,

Thalacina anomala Herbst, which looks more or less like Fobsters

hence it is locally known as ‘Patal Chingri’.

Insecta :

The reclaimed areas which now are used for extensive cultivation of

paddy have large number of insect pests that were probably not known

in these areas a century ago when the islands were covered with

forests. They appear to have followed paddy cultivation. Besides, there

are several insects of minor significance, terrestrial as well as aquatic.

It is not worthwhile to furnish a list of all insects that occur there but

some more important pests of agricultural crops which were observed

during 1955-1965 and some of the commoner aquatic bugs, beetles

and dragonflies are mentioned below:

The agricultural pests, mainly of paddy, were found in the sprouting

ears of A us, and the nurseries of Aman crop.

Rice Thrips Hispa ( Dicladispa ) armigera Oliver

Paddy Curculionid Tanymecus indicus Faust

Some lepidopterus larvae are:

Swarming Caterpillar Spodoptera mauritia (Boisduval)

Rice Caseworm Nymphula depunctalis Guenee

Paddy Jassid Nephotettix bipunctatus Fabricius

During September and October when young plants of Aman paddy

crop attained a height of 15 to 30 cm, the infection by caterpillars and

thrips were appreciably reduced. The additional pests that were noticed

then were: Ricehopper Hieroglyphus banian Fabricius which cause

appreciable damage and Paddy Mealybug Riper sia oryzae Green which

was found infecting certain plots only, specially those near swamp

SUNDARBAN OF INDIA

19

areas having reeds and tall grass. By December when the paddy was

almost mature some paddy pests other than these mentioned above

were found: Surface Grasshopper ( Acrotylus sp.). Blue Beetle Haltica

cyanea Weber, flower feeding Blister Beetle Epicauta sp. which affect-

ed the paddy-ears to a great extent. A large number of bugs invaded

standing crop to suck the sap of shoots and ears of paddy. Such bugs

were:

Gandhi Bug Leptocorisa acuta Thun-

berg

Caterpillars that were found affecting

paddy-shots were :

Paddy Skippers Pelopidas mathias

(Fabricius)

In freshwater or slightly brackish water pools and tanks aquatic

insects and their larval stages were found in plenty.

Paddy Leafroller Cnaphalocrocis

medinalis Guenee

Striped Bug Tetroda sp.

Climbing Cutworm Cirphis unipuncta

Haworth

Bugs:

Nepid Bug Laccotrephes robustus

Stal

Ranatra elongata Fabricius

Belostomid Bug Belostoma indicum

Lep. & Serv.

Enithares indica Fabricius

Plea sp.

Micronecta proba Distant

Micronecta striata Freb.

Water-beetles :

Eretes stictus Linnaeus

Laccophilus flexuosus Aube

Laccophilus parvulus Aube

Canthydrus laetabilis (Walker)

Gyrinids

Dineutes indicus Aube

Hydrophilus olivaceus Fabricius

Dragonflies :

Ischnura sp.

Ceriagrion sp.

Neurothemis sp.

Agriocnemis sp.

Pseudagrion sp.

Damselflies :

Brachythemis sp.

Acisoma sp.

Neurothemis sp.

Pant ala sp.

Crocothemis sp.

Arachnida :

The Arachnida are represented by several species of spiders (Ara-

nae). The commoner species that frequent paddy-fields are Argiopids,

namely, Leucage decorata Blackwell and Araneus mitifica (Thorell).

These are found on paddy-shoots as well as in bushes near about paddy-

fields. Among tall grasses and standing crop a very common species,

Ecuta jav anica Thorell, was met with and also two species of Lycocids,

the new web-fcrming, Iiippasa sp. whose webs become prominent with

dew early in the morning. The common grass spider Oxopes sp. is often

noticed on ones clothing when one moves through paddy cultivation.

Annelida

Oligochaeta: The commonest species of Oligochaeta that are found

in the reclaimed area belong to the genus Pheretima, although Perionyx

and Eutyphoeus, Dichogaster, Megascolex, Helodrilus, Chaetogaster

also occur. In some of the stagnant pools Limnodrilus socialis Stephens

was found in great abundance in tangled masses.

20 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72 (1)

Polychaeta: A small polychaete worm, Mercierella enigmatica

Fauvel which burrows in the mud, was found in great numbers.

Echiurida: In the entertidal mud flats of rivers are found the echiu-

rids which live in ‘U’-shaped burrows. The esturine echiurids of Sundar-

ban are represented by three species or perhaps more, the commoner

species being Annalassorhynchus branchirhynchus (Annandale &

Kemp).

References

Acharji, M. N. & Mukherjee,

A. K. (1964): Report on a collection

of Snakes from Lower Bengal (Rep-

tilia: Ophidia). J. zool. Soc. India 16

(1 & 2) :76-81.

Champion, H. G. (1936): A pre-

liminary survey of the forest types

of India and Burma. Indian For. Rec.

(N. S.) 7(1) :286.

Law, S. C. (1954): A contribution

to the ornithology of the Sundarbans.

/. Bengal nat. Hist. Soc. 27: 59-65.

(1956): A contribution

to the ornithology of the Sundarbans.

ibid. 28: 149-152.

Mitra, A. (1954): Census 1951.

West Bengal District Handbook, 24-

Parganas, Calcutta.

Mukherjee, A. K. (1959): Pak-

hirala, Sajnakhali — an introduction to

a bird sanctuary in the Sundarbans.

/ J. Bengal nat. Hist. Soc. 30: 161-165.

& Gupta, S.

(1965) : Habits of the Rhesus Maca-

que, Macaca mulatto (Zimmermann)

in the Sundarbans, 24-Parganas, West

Bengal. /. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 62:

145-146.

Oldham, R. D. (1893): A Manual

of the Geology of India : Stratigra-

phical and structural Geology (2nd

ed.): 432-444.

Prain, D. (1903) : Flora of the

Sundarbans. Rec. Bot. Surv. India 2:

231-390.

Roychoudhury, S. P., Agarwal,

R. R., Dutta Biswas, N. R., Gupta,

S. P. & Thomas, P. K. (1963): Soils

of India. New Delhi.

Smyth, R. (1858): Statistical and

geographical report on the 24 Par-

gunnahs District. Calcutta Rev. 31 :

385-411.

Status of the Nilgiri Langur,

Anamalai, Cardamom and

Nilgiri Hills of the Western

Ghats, India1

G. U. Kurup

Zoological Survey of India, Southern Regional Station, MadrasA

{With three maps)

The Southern Regional Station of the Zoological Survey of India

has been conducting a faunistic survey of the Western Ghats with

special reference to Wildlife. One species of special concern was the

Nilgiri Langur, Presbytis johni, which on account of a mistaken popular

belief in the medicinal or aphrodisiac properties of its flesh, has been

persecuted to the verge of extinction. The survey could be carried out

only for a month in each year and beginning from the year 1968,

representative areas in the Anamalais, Cardamom, and Nilgiri Hills

have been visited so far. Anamalais were surveyed during Jan.-

Feb. 1968, Cardamom Hills during Feb-March 1969, and Nilgiris

during Jan. -Feb. 1971. Results at present are largely impressions and

estimates of a subjective nature, which however, are presented here

in view of total lack of such surveys and information on this threaten-

ed species. A brief account of its present status in each area is given

below :

The Anamalai segment of the Western Ghats lies approximately

between 10°1'-10°30' N, and 76°30' - 77°15' E, covering parts

of Coimbatore district of Tamil Nadu and parts of Idikki district

of Kerala. The hills are divisible into higher and lower ranges. Average

in the

Anamalai ranges

1 Accepted May 5, 1973.

22 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72 (1)

elevation of lower ranges is not more than 700 m with peaks and ridges

rising to 1300 to 1600 m and mostly covered with luxurient forest. The

higher ranges lying to the west consist of extensive open grassy hills

Map 1. Map of Western Ghats showing the three major ranges in which surveys

were conducted.

STATUS OF THE N1LGIRI LANGUR, PRESBYTIS JOHNI

23

and valleys with shola (slope) forests similar to those of Nilgiris and

Palnis and varying from c 2000 to 2900 m in elevation. The chief forest

types include: (1) Tropical Wet Evergreen forest between 700 to

1600 m in elevation where the trees reach a height of 50 m or more with

dense canopy differentiated into layers (2) Tropical Moist Deciduous

holding the most remunerative teak forests situated at about 700 to

1300 m in altitude and with a rainfall of 100-250 cm. Trees reach an

average height of c 35 m (3) Tropical Dry Deciduous forest occurring

at the foot of the Hills with open canopy of deciduous trees with con-

siderable undergrowth of grass and (4) Wet Temperate Forest com-

mencing from c. 1600 m and mostly confined to summits and consist-

ing of vast stretches of grassland interspersed by compact groves of

short and branchy evergreen trees.

Altogether 26 stations were visited for the survey which form a

representative sampling of the range of the species. It became fairly

certain after the survey that the Nilgiri Langur is at present totally

confined to the first two types of forests namely the Tropical Wet Ever-

green and Tropical Moist Deciduous which together range in elevation

from 700 to 1600 m. Within these two forest types, habitat selection

was found to be considerably influenced by presence or absence of

human habitation, the langurs having generally withdrawn from their

proximity. One exception to this was found at Topslip, a forest official’s

colony in the Thunacadavu range, where a troop had selected its sleep-

ing quarters in the forest fringe right behind the forest rest house. This

is understandable as the animals were assured of protection. Settle-

ments of a largely rural nature like forest villages and tribal hamlets

occur within the habitat range. By and large the distribution in the

general range was found to be rather patchy, with preferred pockets

even in seemingly contiguous, suitable areas. One of the most import-

ant influences in the selection of such habitat-pockets was the presence

or absence of streams or water courses, the langur establishing itself in

the vicinity of such streams. Another factor influencing preference was

open or cleared patches within the forests, the troops generally adopt-

ing such areas as their sleeping quarters. This is no doubt due to the

increased visibility making possible early detection of potential danger.

In the Thunacadavu range of south Coimbatore Division and adja-

cent forests, troops were seen, heard or reliably reported from areas

like Kuchmalai, Thekkadi reserve forest, Anapadi, Sungam, Thunaca-

davu, Topslip, Thillikal etc, (see map 2). In the Punachi range of the

same Division they occur in the forests around lower slopes of Grass

Hills, Chinna Kallar, and Kalikundra estate and in the forests to the

south-east as far as Munnar in Kerala State. They were also reported

to be fairly common in the Eravikulam plateau below Rajamalai area.

The Thunacadavu range and adjacent forests of Sungam, Thillikal etc..

24 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

being contiguous and with few villages made a better habitat for the

langurs than areas like say Punachi range which was considerably

opened up by plantations, settlements and minor towns. A preliminary

trial census conducted on transects along water courses and open

clearings, the preferred haunts of the langurs gave a tentative estimate

Map 2. Map of South Coimbatore forest division (Tamil Nadu State) includ-

ing portions of Munnar forest division (Kerala State) in the Anamalai hills,

Western Ghats.

STATUS OF THE NILG1RI LANGUR, PRESBYTIS JOHNI

25

of about 80 troops in the Thunacadavu and Punachi ranges (Kurup

1973)1. The preferred types of forest habitat may cover approximately

220 sq km in the two ranges.

The species is legally protected in the two ranges of the South

Coimbatore Division and also in the Parambikulam area of the Kerala

forests. But while this protection has helped a great deal in the re-

covery of this species in recent years, the ban was not found effective

in certain areas. This was so around Valparai in Punachi range and

generally in' the Parambikulam area of Kerala State. It is considerably

more difficult to enforce the ban due to the presence of various estates

that dot the hills in the Punachi range. Adequate publicity among the

estate staff and other local people, on the need to preserve this beauti-

ful langur and on the fallacy of attributing medicinal value to its flesh

may help.

On the whole in the Anamalais the species is picking up in most

of the reserve forests. Continuation of the existing ban on its killing

and strict vigilance by the forest departments of the two states con-

cerned should see the species firmly re-established in the Anamalais.

In this connection the creation by the Tamil Nadu Government of

a wild life sanctuary in the Thunacadavu-Punachi ranges of the South

Coimbatore Division is a welcome step.

Cardamom Hills

The Cardamom Hills lie immediately to the south of Anamalai

Hills, (9°27'-10°4' N and 76°52'-77°17' E) with elevations ranging

from 650-1300 m and with a total area of 2439.89 sq km. From the

Anamalais to the north it is separated by the Devikulam plateau. On

the south, the ranges extend as far as the Aryankavu Pass separating

it from the southern spurs of the Western Ghats, which taper off near

Kanyakumari. Except for the Peermade and Periyar areas for which

road connections existed from late last century, the remaining portions,

especially the southern half falling in the Quilon district of Kerala

State were almost inaccessible and truly wild till recently. With the

advent of development in the last decade more and more areas of

what was once primeval forests were increasingly encroached upon

and thrown open for settlement. The two giant hydroelectric projects,

the Sabarigiri Project already completed and the Idikki Project now

underway were mainly instrumental in opening up this area.

An area of 777 sq km is constituted as the Periyar Wild life Sanc-

tuary, with the Periyar lake, formed in the wake of the construction of

1 Kurup, G. U. (1973): Present status of the Nilgiri Langur, Presbytis

johni in the Anamalais, Western Ghats. Indian Forester 99(8) :518-521.

26 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

Periyar Dam in Periyar river, as the focal point. The sanctuary ranges

in elevation from 914 to 1828 m. The meandering lake with its innumer-

able creeks follows the undulating hills that bear mixed miscellaneous

forest interspersed with evergreen forest and grassy summits. Sholas or

slope forests here as well as in other parts of Cardamom hills are most-

ly evergreen whereas the plateau bears deciduous and mixed miscellane-

ous forests.

Map 3. Map of Periyar Sanctuary, in the Cardamom Hills (Kerala State) of

Western Ghats.

Altogether 12 localities (map 3) both within and outside the

sanctuary were specially surveyed by transecting likely areas. A number

of boat trips were also made to different areas surrounding the lake.

In a week’s survey of the lake part of the sanctuary only twelve troops

were seen, besides three more heard calling. This is in addition to the

two troops that are living on either side of the approach road to the

boat landing at Thekkadi (the headquarters of the Sanctuary) whose

presence had created an initial impression of abundance of these

langurs in the sanctuary. This impression was soon proved to be errone-

ous. Though the Forest Department personnel as well as other local

knowledgeable people stated that the langurs are more numerous than

the sighting records would suggest, yet they also agreed that they are

by no means abundant or quite common in the interior. It was also

told that they are present in far better numbers towards the more

inaccessible eastern parts of the sanctuary i.e.; in the Malapara Pakuti.

STATUS OF THE NILGIRl LANGUR, PRESBYTIS JOHNI

27

It was believed locally that the majority of the population in the

sanctuary lived in areas near the border with Tamil Nadu.

Areas towards the west and south of Thekkadi and those around

Peermade and Sabarimala plateau proved to be very disappointing.

These are more opened up with plantations and recently laid out roads

in the wake of the Sabarigiri Pamba Hydroelectric Project and also

due to the tremendous annual Pilgrimage to the forest temple of

Sabarimala. Moreover, considerable acreage (c 4922 acres of Eucalyptus

alone by Forest Department), has been developed into plantations of

rubber and eucalyptus here. Biotope is also rather different here from

that of Thekkadi forests due to lesser rainfall. Most of the langurs have

consequently fled from these areas with the exception of very interior

areas. Not even a single troop was sighted in the forests immediately

around Vandiperiyar, Anathod, Pamba and Sabarimala although local-

ly it was told that they are sporadically seen in the interior forests,

but in small numbers. Thus the position of the species in these parts

of the sanctuary appears to be unsatisfactory.

After a survey lasting a little less than a month, a tentative estimate

is that there might be only less than a hundred troops in the sanctuary.

In the areas lying north to the sanctuary towards Panniyar, Kallar,

Bodimettu etc., on way to Devikulam they are said to be more numer-

ous but due to lack of time these areas could not be visited. They are

also said to hold their own in the forests to the south-west of the sanctu-

ary in portions of Pathanamthitta taluk of Quilon district. In all these

areas their favourite haunts are the shola forests.

Nilgiri Hills

The status in the Nilgiri ranges which conferred the common name

on these langurs is alarming. These ranges along with the high ranges

of Anamalai Hills constitute the most magnificent mountains of the

Western Ghats. Many peaks rise to more than 2250 m in elevation,

the highest being the Dodabetta peak near Ootacamund with a height

of 2634 m, second only to Anaimudi peak in Anamalais, the highest

in Peninsular India. On the whole these ranges can be divided into three

zones: (1) the lower slopes of the hill ranges up to c 1500 m (2) the

highland rolling hills and the high table lands above this and (3) the

vast plateau country at c 1000 m on the north-west side extending to

Mysore State. The lower slopes bear mainly tropical wet evergreen and

tropical deciduous forest depending on the rainfall, the latter type being

more extensive on the eatern face of the ranges. There is also a narrow

belt of tropical semi evergreen mostly as an associated strip along with

tropical evergreen. The highlands which are now mostly cleared land

28 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72 (1)

are almost extensively developed into plantations. There are only

sharply circumscribed patches of forests here which are of the wet

temperate type. In the extensive lower plateau country where the fam-

ed Mudumalai and Bandipur sanctuaries are situated, the forests are

of a typical deciduous type presenting the appearance of a “Savanna”

with a sprinkling of well distributed trees.

The Nilgiri langurs are now practically confined to the second zone

the patchy forests of the highlands. This naturally bodes ill for their

survival and is a cause of concern.

Most of the Nilgiri district was covered by Jeep travelling approxi-

mately, 2500 km in the highlands, plateau and low lands of the dis-

trict. The entire Mudumalai Sanctuary was intensively surveyed. In all

this area only six troops were actually sighted four near Paikara, and

the other two at Naduvattom. In fact, from all accounts, it ap-

pears that the Paikara area including, Mukirti, Glenmorgan and Nilgiri

Peak and areas around is the remaining stronghold of these langurs

But even here they are no means common. Two or three

wayside troops near about Paikara, being often and repeatedly sighted

have helped to create a wrong impression of plentiful presence of these

langurs in this area. Forest department personnel who are also appar-

ently taken in by this belief readily admitted that they are rather un-

common in the interior forests. But on the whole, the consensus of

knowledgeable local opinion was that there is an appreciable population

of these langurs in this area still and this is the major habitat contain-

ing the lion’s share of the population in the whole district.

More intensive surveys conducted during a fortnight in the Mudu-

malai Sanctuary proved beyond doubt that they are totally absent there

and in the adjacent Sigur range, and in fact from the entire plateau

country around 1000 m. In the Nilgiri district they are thus confined

to areas above 2000 m in elevation like Paikara-Naduvattom area

mentioned above forming a narrow strip on the western escarpment of

the Nilgiri ranges. It is curious that these langurs which are found

around 700 m in Anamalais and 1000 m at Cardamom Hills are totally

absent from these elevations at Nilgiris and are confined to the still

higher areas above 2000 m.

Of all the three segments of the Western Ghats dealt here, it is at

once obvious that the Nilgiri area is the one most depleted in popul-

ation of the Nilgiri Langur. This is no doubt due to the more “deve-

loped” state of this district compared to other hill tracts considered

here, with the steady encroachment on the forests by plantations, settle-

ments, development projects and the general urbanisation process.

The forest department should take special care to safeguard the remain-

ing population of these langurs in the Paikara-Naduvattom area and

its interior forests. There should not be any further expansion of the

STATUS OF THE N1LGIRI LANGUR, PRESBYTIS JOHNI 29

Wattle and Eucalyptus plantations in these areas. A concerted publicity

drive by the forest department in collaboration with the Nilgiri Game

Association appears necessary.

In conclusion it appears that human persecution coupled with

habitat destruction by encroachment on the forests are the main reason

for the decline of the species in recent times and that wherever they

are afforded protection from these two destructive factors, they are

recouping themselves without any other help. So it can be safely said

that given adequate protection in these respects and supported by

effective publicity on the need for its conservation and exposing the

myth of its medicinal value, the Nilgiri langur population in all these

areas have still the vitality and resilience to recoup itself in a short

time.

Note added in proof

During a recent status-cum-habitat survey of the Liontailed Macaque,

Macaca silenus in the Western Ghats conducted in Oct-Nov. 1974, it was found

that the Nilgiri Langur is establishing itself well in most portions of its original

habitat where human persecution is not acute. Additional areas in which the

species was met with or reported are: Malabar : Silent Valley and Mukkali

forests in Attapadi, Nilambur forests. Anamalais : Varagaliyar and Ulandi

sholas near Topslip; Marayoor and Topstation forests near Munnar. Carda-

mom Hills: Kallar Valley in Achankovit range. Southern Spurs : Tenmalai

forests; Papanasam Upper slopes and Singampatty ranges. Neyyar forests. In

some of the sholas in the above areas troops were met with every two km. It

now appears that habitat preservation and protection from poaching are all that

are necessary for the preservation of the species and that it is unaffected by

non-destructive human habitation.

Orchids of Nepal -9

M. L. Banerji1 2 and B. B. Thapa3

{With five text figures )

The genera that are placed under Ophryoideae are treated in this

instalment. The tribes had been divided into two by Schlecter, while

Schultes and Pease divide them into seven sub-tribes. The arrangement

of the genera is alphabetical.

Artificial key to the genera

A Lip not spurred, concave at base Herminium (Habenarieae)

AA Lip spurred _

B Stem bearing a single leaf Hemipilia (Platanthereae)

BB Stem leafy, atleast at the base -

C Spurs two Satyrium (Satyrieae)

CC Spur one -

D Stigmatic surface flat, almost confluent Platanthera

(Platanthereae)

DD Stigmatic surface not flat, but separated as swellings or stand

out as appendages Habenaria (Habenarieae)

Habenaria Willd.

One of the largest genera of Orchids. Terrestrial plants, usually

growing from tubers, rarely from a short rhizome; stem simple and

erect; bearing few to many basal and cauline leaves which are thin,

usually broad, and sheathing at the base. Inflorescence is terminal,

usually fairly long of many small or large flowers, dorsal sepal and

petals usually form a hood over the column; lateral sepals usually

spreading or reflexed; lip spurred and the blade variously shaped,

simple, 3 lobed or 3 partite; column short consisting mainly of anther,

usually with a small auricle on either side; pollinia 2, separate, clavate

or pyriform, the caudicle enclosed in long or short often prominent

tubes and separated more or less widely by the rostellum. Stigmas 2,

usually separated, convex or on elongated processes on either side of

the base of the column, often joined to the base of the lip and auricles,

while in some others flat and joined below the rostellum.

There is considerable variation in the details of the structure of the

column, especially as regards the stigmas, and some authors have ad-

opted a division of the genus on the basis of the structure of the stigma.

Thus, J. J. Smith (1905) divides Habenaria into three genera — Platan-

1 Accepted August 31, 1972.

2 University of Kalyani, Kalyani, W. Bengal.

3 Horticultural Assistant, Indian Co-operation Mission, Kathmandu.

ORCHIDS OF NEPAL — 9 3i

thera, Peristylus and Habenaria proper; Schlecter (1926) recognises

only two divisions — Peristylus and Habenaria. According to Holttum

(1953) though such divisions may appear distinct in a limited number

of species, they are said not to be sharply separable when all the known

species are considered. Summerhayes (1951) split the group into dis-

tinct genera. Santapau & Kapadia (1960) regard Platanthera and Peri-

stylus as genera which are independent from Habenaria. In the words

of Schultes & Pease (1963) “some prefer as in the case of Habenaria,

to recognise large and inclusive generic concepts, while others more

readily separate sections as good genera. There is here no question

of right or wrong, but one of personal evaluation.” According to Haw-

kes (1965), Gymnadenia is often included in Habenaria Willd., and

Peristylus is in actuality closer in relationship to Herminium R. Br.

Quoting Schweinfurth (1959) “for instance Leucorchis E. Mey., Gymn-

adenia L. C. Rich., Coeloglossum Hart., Platanthera L. C. Rich., Blep-

hari glottis Raf. and Perularia Lindl. should be regarded, we believe, as

referable to the exceedingly polymorphic genus Habenaria Willd. as

also Pectelis Raf., Gymnadeniopsis Rydb., and doubtless others”. We

have treated Platanthera as distinct from Habenaria on grounds of the

character of the stigmatic surface.

Plantanthera is a name given to those species which have a flat

stigmatic surface, usually continuous but sometimes slightly divided

beneath the rostellum, very much like the stigma of most orchids. The

other divisions of Habenaria all have two separate stigmas, which are

convex or more or less elongated often club-shaped. If the stigmas are

convex and entirely united to the base of the lip and to the auricles

of the column, we have the Peristylus condition; if the stigmas are long

and cylindric or club-shaped, we have Habenaria proper. In Haben-

aria proper, the stigmas are often quite long and prominent, they are

usually below and shorter than the tubes containing the caudicles of

the pollinia.

Artificial key to the species of Habenaria1

A Lateral sepals spreading, deflexed or reflexed -

B Lip 3-partite almost to the base into 3 narrow lobes -

C Sepals with filiform tips, spur equalling the ovary stenopetala

CC Sepals obtuse, spur shorter than the ovary aitchisoni

BB Lip 3-lobed and spurred -

C’ Side lobes lacerate to the middle, midlobe linear-—

D Spur rather longer than the ovary -

E Petals pubescent, broader than the dorsal sepal

arietina

EE Petals glabrous, linear, narrower than the dorsal sepal

pectinata

1 Habenaria arcuata Lindl. has been recorded from Phulchowki (Nepal) by

Hara (1971).

32 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VoL 72(1)

DD Spur twice as long as the ovary intermedia

C’C’ Sidelobes fimbriate, hardly longer than the lateral sepals -

D’ Spur twice as long as the ovary conopsea

D’D’ Spur longer than the ovary dentata

C’C’C’ Sidelobes much longer than the lateral sepals -

D” Spike lax flowered; lip flabelliform, sidelobes entire or toothed

plantaginea

D”D” Spike dense flowered; lip very large, sidelobes hatchet-shaped,

crenulate triflora

C’C’C’C’ Sidelobes very narrow, fiiliform, horizontal, spur much shorter

than the ovary aristata

BBB Lip 3 lobed, spur almost absent or saccate; spike densely flowered,

flowers small fallax

BBBB Lip entire -

E Spur shorter than the ovary densa

EE Spur longer than the ovary, upturned latilabris

AA Lateral sepals erect or ascending, parallel to the dorsal petal, rarely at

length spreading or deflexed-

B’ Lip usually 3-fid or 3-partite; flowers usually small —

F Spur longer than the sepals, incurved bicornuta

FF Spur shorter than the sepals -

G Stem more than 60 cm long, leaves petioled constricta

GG Stem less than 60 cm long; leaves hardly petioled

c goody eroides

B’B’ Lip entire -

H Flowers large c 1.2 cm across; lip shortly clawed, spur short,

conical galeandra

HH Flowers small c 0.8 cm across; lip recurved, terminal half solid

and terete, spur inflated urceolata

HHH Flowers large c 1.25 cm across; lip lanceolate, 3-nerved entire;

spur slender, curving and longer than the straight ovary

stenantha

Habenaria aitchisoni Reichb. f. in Trans. Linn. Soc. Bot. 3:113, 1886;

F. B. I. 6:152, 1890; King & Pantl. 311, t. 408, 1898; Kitamura, 102,

1955.

Flowers greenish, fragrant, c 1.2 cm in diam., bracts linear-lanceolate,

shorter than the ovary; sepals subequal, oblong-ovate, obtuse, 3-nerved,

lateral sepals spreading, dorsal erect, petals as long as the sepals, ovate-

lanceolate, 1 nerved. Lip straight, as the sepals, 3-partite above the

base, side segments longest, spreading and recurved, mid segment

straight, spur shorter than the curved ovary, c 6 mm long and curved

forwards. Flowering time from July to August. Collected from Banku-

khola at 3500 m. Authority Kitamura.

H. arietina Hk. f. in FI. Brit. Ind. 6: 138, 1890; King & Pantl. 311, t.

407, 1898. H. pectinata Lindl. Gen. et Spec. Orch. 341, 1830. [non H.

pectinata (Sm.) Don]

Flowers white or light greenish, fragrant, c 5 cm in diam., sepals gib-

bously dilated on the outer margin; petals broader than the sepals,

pubescent. Lip lobed only for about f of its length, sidelobes pectinate

ORCHIDS OF NEPAL — 9 33

but with fewer teeth, midlobe shorter than the sidelobes, linear, spur

much longer than the ovary, 2.5-3 cm long, tip swollen. Flowering

during July and August. Collected from Sheopuri, Bagdoar, Sundari-

jal-Manichur area. Distributed between 1800-2100 m. This species is

very similar to H. pectinata (Sm.) Don, in habit and appearance but

the pectinate lip is different.

H. aristata Hk. f. in FI. Brit. Ind. 6: 158, 1890; King & Pantl. 312, t.

409, 1898.

Flowers green, c 1.5 cm in diam., sepals subequal, linear, lateral sepals

turned upwards and spreading, petals conniving with the dorsal sepal

to form a hood, ovate-lanceolate, base oblique. Lip slightly longer

than the sepals, hastately tripartite, sidelobes filiform and horizontally

spreading, midlobe linear and shorter than the sidelobes, spur much

shorter than the ovary, curved. Flowering time during July and August.

Collected from Bagdoar at c 2290 m.

H. bicornuta Hk. f. in FI. Brit. Ind. 6: 156, 1890; Hara, 437, 1966.

Peristylus richardianus Wight, Icon. t. 1097, 1851.

Spike dense flowered, flowers c 10-12 mm across, dorsal sepal oblong,

faintly 5 nerved, lateral sepals linear, obtuse spreading, petals as long

as the lateral sepals, elliptic, 1 nerved. Lip tripartite, segments fili-

form, side lobes longer than the sepals, recurved, midlobe shorter and

straight, spur clavate, incurved. Collected from Phulchowki.

H. conopsea Benth. in Journ. Linn. Soc. 18: 345, 1880; Butcher, A new

111. Brit. FI. pt. 2, 740, 1961. Gymnadenia conopsea R. Br. in Ait. Hort.

Kew, ed. 2, 5: 191, 1813; Kitamura, 102, 1955.

Spike rather long and dense flowered, flowers 10 mm across, fragrant,

sepals reddish-lilac, lateral sepals spreading, petals linear-lanceolate,

slightly united with the dorsal sepal. Lip red with 3 equal rounded

lobes, spur filiform, twice as long as the ovary. Authority Kitamura.

H. constricta Hk. f. in FI. Brit. Ind. 6: 161, 1890; King & Pantl. 325,

t. 429, 1898.

Flowers greenish, white, bracts lanceolate, equal to or longer than the

ovary; lateral sepals linear-lanceolate, dorsal sepal lanceolate, petals

longer, ovate-oblong, gibbous on the lower side. Lip rather longer than

the sepals, 3 -fid to the middle, sidelobes slender, longer than the mid-

lobe, sometimes variable in size, spur broadly globular and very short,

claw hardly any. Flowering during July and August. Collected from

Nagarjung. Distributed at 1500 to 1600 m.

H. desisa Wall, ex Lindl. Gen. et Spec. Orch. 326, 1835; F. B. I. 6:

153, 1890; King & Pantl. 319, t. 420, 1898; Kitamura, 103, 1955; Hara

437, 1966.

3

34 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

Fig. 1. Flower and lips of Habenaria dentata (Sw.) Schltr. Fig. 2. Habenaria

stenopetala Lindl.

ORCHIDS OF NEPAL — 9 35

Flowers small, 4 mm across, erect, bracts ciliolate and longer than the

ovary; sepals obtuse, thick, 3 nerved, puberulous, petals nearly as

long, obliquely ovate or narrower, obtuse, fleshy, yellowish-green. Lip

linear, obtuse, as long as the sepals, spur half as long as the ovary.

Flowering time July and August. Collected from Chandragiri, Lamjura.

H. dentafa (Sw.) Schltr. Orch. Sino-JaP. 125, 1919; Kitamura, 103,

1955; Hara 437, 1966. Orchis dentata Swartz, in Ved. Acad. Handl.

Stockh. 207, 1800. Platanthera dentata (Sw.) Lindl. Gen. et Spec.

Orch. 296, 1835. Habenaria geniculata D. Don, Prodr. FI. Nep. 25,

1825; F. B. I. 6; 136, 1890; King & Pantl. 309, t. 405, 1898, (Fig. 1).

Spike dense, flowers dull greenish, c. 2.5 cm across, lateral sepals

acute, petals linear-oblong. Lip suborbicular, sidelobes cuneate or

rounded, fimbriate or crenate, midlobe small, much shorter, oblong,

spur subclavate, longer than the ovary. Flowering during July and

August. Collected from Nagarjung. Distributed at 1525 to 1675 m. In

F. B. I. the colour of the flowers is given as white, but we have not

seen any specimen with white flowers.

H. fallax (Lindl.) King & Pantl. in Ann. Roy. Bot. Gard. Cal. 8:325,

t. 428, 1898; Kitamura, 103, 1955. Herminium fallax Lindl. in Wall.

Cat. (Nomen nudum); F.B.I. 6:129, 1890. Peristylus fallax Lindl. Gen.

et Spec. Orch. 298, 1835.

Leaf solitary; spike lax flowered, flowers green, bracts equalling the

ovary, sepals spreading, oblong or ovate-lanceolate, 1 nerved, broader

than the petals, petals erect, falcate. Lip shorter than the sepals,

hastately 3 lobed, side lobes slightly diverging, midlobe longer than

the sidelobes, spur saccate, tip inflated. Flowering during July and

August. Collected from Sheopuri, Tarebhir, Lamjura. Distributed from

1650 to 2850 m.

H. galeandra (Reichb. f.) Benth. FI. Hongk. 363, 1861; F.B.I. 6:163,

1890. Platanthera galendra Reichb. f. in Linnaea, 25:226, 1852.

Spike 5-8 cm long, flowers pale purple, c 1 cm across, dorsal sepal

ovate or narrowly lanceolate, lateral sepals falcately lanceolate, spread-

ing, petals rather shorter and narrower than the sepals, obtuse. Lip

broadly obovate or obcordate, sidelobes recurved, spur short, conical

saccate. Flowering during June to August. Collected from Sheopuri

at c 1825 m.

H. goodyeroides D. Don, Prodr. FI. Nep. 25, 1825; F.B.I. 6:161, 1890;

King & Pantl. 326, t. 430, 1898; Holttum 86, 1953. Peristylus goody-

eroides (Don) Lindl. Gen. et Spec. Orch. 299, 1835; Sant. & Kapad.

in Journ. Bom. nat. Hist. Soc. 57(1): 133, 1960.

Spike 15 to 20 cm long, flowers small, c 8-10 mm across, yellowish-

green, crowded, bracts narrowly lanceolate, sepals green turning reddish

% JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

with age, dorsal sepal 6 mm long, ovate oblong, lateral sepals a bit

longer, obliquely obovate-oblong, obtuse, petals gibbously ovate, spread-

ing, creamy or greenish-white. Lip as long as the sepals, trilobed at

the anterior part, recurved, sidelobes linear-oblong, longer than the

midlobe and diverging, midlobe broad, and tapering to blunt apex,

spur minute, fusiform. Flowering during July. Collected from Chainpur

to Mialay at c 1825 m, locality unrecorded (Banerji).

H. intermedia D. Don, Prodr. FI. Nep. 24, 1825; F.B.I. 6:38, 1890.

Flowers few and distant, very large c 5 cm across, white or greenish-

white, dorsal sepal recurved, white inside, lateral sepals falcately lance-

olate, tips reflexed, narrower than the petals, acuminate, 5 nerved, petals

falcate, obovate, strongly 5 nerved, glabrous. Lip longer than the sepals,

3 lobed to about 2/ 3rd of its length, green or yellowish-green, base

narrow and white, sidelobes deeply fringed, midlobe entire, as long as

the sidelobes, spur twice as long as the ovary, c 3 cm, very stout and

swollen towards the tip. Flowering during August. Collected from

Gumuraung to Sard at 2300 m. Authority Kitamura.

H. latilabris (Lindl.) Hk. f. in FI. Brit. Ind. 6:153, 1890; King & Pantl.

321, t. 423, 1898; Hara, 438, 1966. Platanthera latilabris Lindl. Gen.

et Spec. Orch. 289, 1835. P. acuminata Lindl. loc. cit. 289, 1835.

Spike lax, flowers green, 8-14 mm across, bracts lanceolate longer than

the ovary, sepals ciliolate, 3-5 nerved, dorsal sepal broadest, orbicular,

lateral sepals ovate, deflexed, petals as long as the lateral sepals, broad-

ly ovate, fleshy, base slightly gibbous. Lip linear, spur stout and up-

turned, longer than the ovary. Flowering during August. Collected from

Bagdoar.

H. pectinata (Sm.) D. Don, Prodr. FI. Nep. 24, 1825; F.B.I. 6:137,

1890; King & Pantl. 310, t. 406, 1898. Orchis pectinata Smith, Exot.

Bot. 2:77, 1805. Habenaria ensifolia Lindl. Gen. et Spec. Orch. 321,

1835.

Spike may be as long as 20 cm, flowers large c. 4.0 cm across, white

or greenish-white, crowded, dorsal sepal lanceolate, erect, lateral sepals

ovate-lanceolate, petals linear-falcate, narrower than the sepals, obtuse,

3-5 nerved, glabrous. Lip as long as the sepals, 3 lobed nearly to the

base, sidelobes deeply fringed, comb-like, midlobe linear, longer than

the sidelobes, spur as long as the ovary, 2.5-3 cm long, geniculate,

swollen at the tip. Flowering during August. Collected from Bagdoar,

Lokwa (Kitamura). Distributed at about 2300 m.

H. plantaginea Lindl. Gen. et Spec. Orch. 323, 1835; F.B.I. 6:141,

1890.

Spike 5-7.5 cm long, flowers white, sepals small, subequal, acute, 3

nerved, dorsal sepal ovate-oblong, lateral sepals falcate, oblong, petals

ORCHIDS OF NEPAL — 9

37

linear-lanceolate. Lip broad, twice as long as the lateral sepals, flabel-

liform, sidelobes semi-ovate entire or faintly toothed, midlobe as long,

linear, spur as long as the ovary, green. Flowering during September.

Collected from Banepa to Dolaghat at 916 m.

H. stenantha File. f. in FI. Brit. Ind. 6:153, 1890; King & Pantl. 314,

t. 412, 1898.

Flowers green with lip yellowish, c. 1.75-2.25 cm in diam., bracts linear-

lanceolate, equalling the ovary in the lower flowers but shorter in the

upper ones, sepals unequal, 3 -nerved, dorsal sepal concave, broadly

ovate, erect, lateral sepals small, ovate-elliptic, reflexed, petals longer

than the dorsal sepal, erect, 1 nerved. Lip longer than the sepals,

lanceolate, spur longer than the ovary, curved, slightly widening to-

wards the tip. Flowering time during July and August. Collected from

Junbesi to Taksindhu. This species closely resembles H. latilabris but

differs in the shape of the petals which are erect and in the character

of the bracts.

H. stenopetaJa Lindl. Gen. et Spec. Orch. 219, 1835; F.B.I. 6: 134,

1890; King & Pantl. 308, t. 404, 1898. (Fig. 2).

Flowers greenish-yellow, sepals oblong-lanceolate, membraneous 3

nerved, tips filiform, segments of petals slender, equal or the lower

shorter or even absent. Lip tripartite, lobes filiform, lateral lobes

longer than the midlobe or as long as it, spur equalling the ovary.

Flowering during August and September. Collected from Bagdoar,

Sheopuri, Godavari, locality unknown (Herklotts). Distributed at c.

2430 m.

H. triflora D. Don, Prodr. FI. Nep. 25, 1825; F.B.I. 6:142, 1890 (Fig. 3).

Sepals suberect, dorsal sepal oblong-ovate, lateral sepals oblong-lanceo-

late, petals small, linear-subulate, 1 nerved. Lip very large, sidelobes

semi-oblong, hatchet-shaped, crenulate, midlobe shorter, linear; spur

very slender, as long as the ovary, slightly thickened at the tip. Flower-

ing from July to early September. Collected from Bagdoar, Lamjura,

locality unknown (Herklotts). Distributed at 1525 to 2135 m.

He urceolata C.B.C1. in Journ. Linn. Soc. 25:73, t. 30, 1889; F.B.I. 6:

165, 1890; King & Pantl. 316, t. 415, 1898.

Racemes 5-7.5 cm long, flowers white or rosy, sepals white or rosy,

petals 1 nerved. Lip recurved, lanceolate, terminal half solid, acumi-

nate, green, spur inflated and as long as the sepals. Flowering during

August. Collected from Lamjura at 3650 m.

Hemipilia Lindl.

These are singularly attractive terrestrial orchids. The name pro-

bably alludes to the sparsely hirsute lip of the type species. Accord-

38 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

Fig. 3. Habenaria triflora D. Don. Fig. 4. Hemipilia cordifolia Lindl. Fig. 5.

Flowers of Hermimium angustifolium (Lindl.) Benth. a. normal flower; b.

abnormal (peloric) flower.

ORCHIDS OF NEPAL — 9

39

ing to Hawkes, the flowers closely simulate, superficially atleast, some

sort of Habenaria. However, they are terrestrial, tuberous herbs with

a single broad radical leaf. The flowers are in lax racemes. The lip is

obscurely 3 lobed, and the spur is trumpet-shaped.

Hemipilia cordifolia Lindl. Gen. et Spec. Orch. 296, 1835; F.B.I. 6:

167, 1890; Kitamura, 103, 1955. (Fig. 4).

Plants 16-20 cm high, bearing a single leaf at the base. Leaf 7-8 by

4.5-6.5 cm broadly ovate, fleshy. Racemes few to many flowered,

flowers purple c 1.0- 1.5 cm across. Bracts about half the length of the

ovary, sepals equal in length, dorsal sepal oblong, obtuse, erect, lateral

sepals spreading, falcate, oblong petals smaller than the sepals, erect,

forming a hood, broadly ovate, entire. Lip obscurely trilobed, sidelobes

rounded, midlobe broad, subcrenate, spur shorter than the ovary, curved,

tip faintly 2-lobed upturned. Flowering during August and September.

Collected from Tarebhir-Manichur area, Gurmurang (Kitamura). Dis-

tributed at 1825 m.

Herminium R. Br.

Herminium is a genus of mostly small flowered, rather insignificant

terrestrial orchids. Although rare in cultivation these allies of Haben-

aria Willd. are attractive. Plants are small, erect, tuberous herbs with

oblong tubers and with a solitary or few leaves. The Herminia can be

distinguished from Habenarias by the characteristic lip, which is never

with a spur but is provided with a saccate or gibbous base. Although

it is mentioned by Hooker that the Indian Herminia attain the greatest

elevation of any orchid, we have not collected any member from a

high altitude.

Artificial key to the species of Herminium

Lip distinctly 3 lobed -

Lip deeply 3 lobed near the apex angustifolium

Lip 3 lobed near the base and very minute jaffreyanum

Lip quite entire (sidelobes very faint) -

Sides of lip dilated, lip longer than sepals, flowers c 3-4 mm in diam.,

green congestum

Sides of lip not dilated,' lip shorter than sepals, flowers c 2-3.5 mm

in diam., yellowish monophyllum

Herminium angustifolium (Lindl.) Benth. ex Hk. f. in FI. Brit. Ind.

6:129, 1890; King & Pantl. 332, t. 434, 1898; Kitamura, 103, 1955;

Hara, 439, 1966. Aceras angustifolia Lindl. Gen. et Spec. Orch. 282,

1835. (Fig. 5).

Spike 5-10 cm long, flowers decurrent, small, 1.5 cm in diam., sepals

oblong, obtuse, dorsal sepal and petals forming a hood, petals linear,

40 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

very narrow, 1 nerved, acute, membraneous. Lip as long as the sepals,

trifid beyond the middle, sidelobes filiform, curved, longer than the

midlobe, midlobe very short. Flowering during July and August. Col-

lected from Pheda to Charikot, Manichur, Sheopuri area, Aga (Kita-

mura). Distributed at 2050 to 2400 m.

H. congestum Lindl. Gen. et Spec. Orch. 305, 1835; F.B.I. 6:130, 1890;

King & Pantl. 355, t. 440, 1898; Kitamura, 103, 1955.

Spike 3-7 cm long, dense flowered, flowers minute, c 3-4 mm in diam.,

decurved, sepals, obtuse, dorsal sepal broadly ovate to orbicular, late-

ral sepals oblong to broadly oblong, petals ovate, equalling the sepals,

fleshy. Lip entire, ovate or triangular-ovate, fleshy, sides faintly dilated

into lobes, base saccate. Authority Kitamura.

H. jaffreyanum King & Pantl. in Journ. Asiat. Soc. Beng. 65:130, 1895;

et Orch. Sikkim Himal. 333, t. 436, 1898.

Spike 3. 5-7.5 cm long, densely flowered, flowers 2-2.5 mm in diam.,

sepals broadly ovate-elliptic, concave, slightly spreading, petals narrow-

ly oblong, obtuse, longer than the sepals. Lip 3 lobed near the base,

side lobes very small and rounded, midlobe elongate with a blunt apex.

Flowering during August and September. Collected from Charikot-

Kalinchok area at 3200 m. This species can be distinguished from H.

angustifolium on the characters of the lip and sepals. It also resembles

H. monophyllum which has a single leaf, floral bracts are longer than

the flowers, and the lip is entire.

H. monophyllum (D. Don) P. F. Hunt & Summerhayes in Kew Bull.

20(1) :51, 1966. Neottia monophyllum D. Don, Prodr. FI. Nep. 27,

1825. Herminium gramineum Lindl. Gen. et Spec. Orch. 305, 1835;

F.B.I. 6:131, 1890.

Spike lax flowered, flowers minute c. 2-3.5 mm in diam., yellowish,

suberect, dorsal sepal oblong or broadly ovate, lateral sepals ovate,

obtuse, spreading, petals erect, linear, falcate, as long as the sepals,

thick. Lip flat, ovate, acuminate, equalling or shorter than the sepals,

base concave, saccate. Flowering during August. Collected from Chau-

bas to Risingo, Buludanda to Risingo, Tarebhir. Common at 1985 m

Platanthera L. C. Rich.

This is a group of terrestrial orchids which are sometimes included

in Habenaria Willd. from which it is separated on technical data. The

name refers to the unusual width of the anthers.

Artificial key to the species of Platanthera

Lip pectinate, petals smaller than the sepals susannae

Lip entire and blunt, petals equalling the sepals bakeriana

ORCHIDS OF NEPAL — 9

41

Platanthera bakeriana (King & Pantl.) Kraenzl. Orch. Gen. et Spec.

1:611, 1898; Hara, 448, 1966. Habenaria bakeriana King & Pantl. in

Jorun. Asiat. Soc. Beng. 65:132, 1895 et Ann. Roy. Bot. Gard. Calc.

314, t. 413, 1898; Hara, 189, 1971.

Spike 10-15 cm long, laxly flowered; sepals oblong-lanceolate, dorsal

sepal conniving with the petals forming a hood, lateral sepals reflexed,

petals as long as the sepals, broadly ovate, oblique, subacute, base

broad. Lip fleshy, oblong, blunt, slightly broader towards the base,

entire, equalling the lateral sepals, spur long, slender, twice as long as

the ovary, curved forwards. Collected from Phulchowki.

P. susannae (Linn.) Lindl. Gen. et Spec. Orch. 295, 1835; Sant, in Rec.

Bot. Surv. Ind. 16(1): 305, 1953, Sant. & Kapad. in Journ. Bomb,

nat. Hist. Soc. 57(1): 125, 1960. Orchis susannae Linn. Sp. PI. 939,

1753. Habenaria susannae (Linn.) R. Br. ex Spreng, Syst. Veg. 3:622,

1826; F.B.I. 6:137, 1890; Holttum, 81, f. 13, 1955.

Flowers few and large, c 7.5-10 cm in diam., white, fragrant, sepals

spreading, lateral sepals 3.6 by 2.4 cm, oblong, subquadrately ascend-

ing, obtuse, edges reflexed, dorsal sepal broad, rhomboid, spreading,

petals small, linear, 1.5 cm long, acute. Lip not longer than the sepals,

3 lobed near to the base, sidelobes truncate, pectinate, midlobe 3 cm

long linear or dilated downwards, spur twice as long as the ovary, 10-

12 cm long. Flowering during August and September. Collected from

Markhu, at c. 1525 m.

Satyrium Sw.

Terrestrial leafy erect orchids with the root system consisting of

several ovoid or globular tubers with numerous fleshy roots. When the

large tubers perish after producing the flowering stem, the smaller

tubers gradually increase in size, and later produce flowering stems.

Because of the presumed aphrodisiacal properties possessed by the

tubers the plants are much sought after and possibly it is for this reason

that plants of Satyrium nepalensis are rather rare in the surroundings

of Kathmandu valley.

Satyrium nepalensis D. Don, Prodr. FI. Nep. 26, 1825; F.B.I. 6:168,

1890; King & Pantl. 338, t. 444, 1898; Kitamura, 104, 1955.

Flowering stem even up to 60 cm long, flowers crowded, c. 8-16 mm

in diam., from dark pink to white, fragrant, sepals linear oblong, obtuse,

spreading and recurved, petals rather narrower than the sepals. Lip

broadly oblong, concave, strongly keeled on the back, spurs two, longer

than the sepals and as long as the ovary. Flowering during September

and October. Collected from Chandragiri, Chaubas to Risingo, Nava-

pati to Risingo, Rolkhani to Tamchee, Kokwa (Kitamura), Bangu-

khola (Kitamura). Distributed between 2250 to 3500 m.

42 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

var. ciliata King & Pantl. 339, 1898. S. ciliatum Lindl. Gen. et Spec.

Orch. 340, 1835.

Spur hardly longer than the sepals. Collected from Tarebhir to Nagi,

Borlong forest at 1980 m.

forma albifiora has been described by Tuyama in Hara’s FI. Eastern

Himal., but we are of the opinion that there is a great variation of

colour, thus a forma on colour is not proper. However, plants with

light pink flowers which were collected from Godavari Botanic Garden,

Kathmandu, were grown in the Indian Co-operation Mission, Kath-

mandu garden and during the following year the flowers that appear-

ed had a deeper colour. King & Pantl. (loc. cit.) have also mentioned

that occasionally flowers are pure white.

(to be continued )

A new species of spider of

the genus Cheiracanthium

Koch (Family Clubionidae)

from India1

B. K. Tjkader

{With four text -figures )

The Spiders of the family Clubionidae are little known in India,

I have described previously (1962) a single species of this genus Cheir-

acanthium and subsequently Patel & Patel described a second spe-

cies (1973). This is the third species to be described from India. While

examining the spider collection received from Shri J. C. Daniel, Cura-

tor, Bombay Natural History Society, I came across a new species of

spider, of the genus Cheiracanthium, which is described here.

Cheiracanthium danieli sp. nov.2

General : Cephalothorax and abdomen light brownish-green, legs

pale-green. Total length 6.30 mm. Carapace 3.00 mm long, 2.20 mm

wide; abdomen 3.40 mm long, 1.80 mm wide.

Cephalothorax'. Longer than wide, wider in front, clothed with fine

hairs, moderately convex, cephalic region slightly higher than posterior

region. Eyes pearly white, anterior row straight and posterior row pro-

curved; lateral eyes nearly contiguous; medians oval and white, slightly

larger than laterals. Chelicerae strong, nearly vertical and dark brown

in colour, inner margin provided with two equal teeth but other margin

with one tooth large and another very small. Maxillae and labium (Fig.

2) provided with deep brown colour. Sternum heart-shaped pointed

behind, clothed with hairs. Legs long, stout, clothed with hairs. Femora

I and II provided with a dorsal long spine. Male palp as in text fig. 4.

Abdomen ; Rather long, narrowed posteriorly, clothed with pubes-

cence and some long hairs. Ventral side uniform pale colour. Epigyne

as in text fig. 3.

1 Accepted February 20, 1974.

2 It is with much pleasure that I have named this species after Shri J. C.

Daniel, Curator, Bombay Natural History Society, who collected this specimen

for my study.

44 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

Cheirdcanthium danieli sp. nov.

Fig. 1. Dorsal view of female, legs omitted. Fig. 2. Maxillae and labium. Fig. 3

Epigyne. Fig. 4. Male palp.

45

NEW SPECIES OF GENUS CIIEIR ACANTHIU M

Holotype : One female, allotype, one male in spirit.

Type locality : Borivli National Park, Bombay, India Coll J. C.

Daniel. 25.i.l974 and allotype from Western Regional Station, Zoolo-

gical Survey of India, Shivajinagar, Poona - 5 Coll. B. K. Tikader,

3 1-i- 1974.

This species resembles Cheiracanthium saraswatii Tikader, but it is

separated as follows: (i) Chelicerae, maxillae and labium conspicu-

ously dark brown in colour, but in C. saraswatii chelicerae, maxillae and

labium not conspicuously dark brown colour, (ii) Epigyne and male

palp structurally different.

References

Patel, B. H. & Patel, H. K.

(1973) : On some new species of

spiders of family Clubionidae (Ara-

neae: Arachnida) with record of

genus Castineira Keyserling from

Gujarat, India: Proc. Indian Acad.

Sci. 78(1) : 1-9.

Tikader, B. K. (1972) : Studies on

some Indian Spiders (Araneae: Ara-

chnida) : J. Linn. Soc. London Zool.

44: 568.

Some observations on birds at

high altitude lake sides in

Gosainkund, central Nepal 1 2

Hiroyuki Masatomi

Hokkaido College, Senshu University, Bibai, Hokkaido, Japan

( With a map )

Simple bird censuses by the line transect method were carried

out by the side of high altitude lakes, at about 4,300 m altitude

in Gosainkund, central Nepal on June 4-5, 1968. In total, ten species

and a few unidentified ones were noted in the cirque. Another

five species were observed outside of the census areas. The status

of each species at high elevations in Gosainkund is briefly des-

cribed together with previous records from central Nepal. The

average bird density around the lakes was 13.5 per hour or 4.5

per ha. An unusually high density of 54.0 per hour or 18.1 per ha.

was recorded on 4 June. This high concentration probably was due

to a temporary fall of snow. The density of birds at the lake sides

seemed to be higher than that of other areas, excluding tarns or

streams, at the same altitude in Gosainkund.

Since the middle of the last century reports on the distribution of

birds in Nepal have been published by many authors such as Gray &

Gray (1846), Scully (1879), Smythies (1948, 1950), Proud (1949, 1952,

1955), Ripley (1950), Rand & Fleming (1957), Fleming & Traylor

(1961, 1964), Fleming (1968), etc. Recently Biswas (1960-1966) has

compiled serial catalogues of birds known from Nepal based upon a

bibliographical survey and his original observations. But there are few

ecological observations except the important work by Diesselhorst

(1968) and no record on the actual abundance of Nepalese birds has

yet been given at all.

From March to July 1968, I had an opportunity to observe

many birds from the tarai up to the alpine zone in central Nepal and

on the Kali Gandak watershed in west-central Nepal3 as a member of

the Hokkaido University Scientific Expedition to Nepal Himalaya

1968. While trekking in the country, I tried to census birds in different

1 Scientific results of Hokkaido University Expeditions to the Himalayas,

Zoology No. 5.

2 Accepted February 28, 1973.

3 Divisions of Nepal used here conform to the usage by Biswas (1960).

BIRDS AT HIGH ALTITUDES

47

habitats. The present paper deals with results obtained at the highest

altitude the party reached.

Habitat and Methods

The Gosainkund Lekh lies at about 40 km northwards of Kath-

mandu, the capital of Nepal. Beneath its crest are seven or more mon-

tane tarns at the head of the Trisuli Khola. Trekking along the trail

running upwards to the pass from the Tadi Khola, I came across only

six small lakes, the upper three of which were completely frozen. Beside

a clear lake at an elevation of about 4,300 m, some huts and an altar

with standing tall flags ( tarcho ) were situated on a slope of debris.

This was the famous sacred lake. Three fourth of its circumference was

encircled by steep rocky inclines and water fell from a northwestern

opening down to a lower lake through a cascade of several metres.

These lakes are henceforth abbreviated as GLA and GLB respec-

tively. Accurate measurements of size and shape of both lakes were not

secured, but the circumference was estimated to be about 850 m in

GLA and 1,200 m in GLB (Map).

The slopes around the lakes were barren rock slides extending up-

wards from about 4,000 m (a few shrubs of rhododendrons were still

occasionally seen). The western sides of both lakes were covered with

dwarf rhododendron scrub; R. anthopogon with pale yellow- white

flowers and R. setosum with pink-rose ones past full bloom. Besides

these, the surroundings were covered with meagre patches of vegetation

composed of Primula and Potentilla both in bloom, mosses, lichens,

and withered sedges. Nematocera, Carabus, Lacon, Eubasilissa nepa-

lensis and small dung beetles were found under or on the debris of the

water’s edge and many active long-legged flies, Hydrophorus, on the

snow. Some earthworms and centipedes were also found under stones

on the scree. Although the quantity of these insects was not accurately

measured at each lake side, food for birds was apparently more abund-

ant at GLA than GLB.

Birds were counted twice at the side of GLA and once at GLB by

line transect method. At first all birds encountered along the GLA

side, covering about 300 x 50 m, were recorded from 8.00 to 8.30 on

June 4. It was cloudy but sometimes fine and the light snow that fell

overnight was 4-6 cm deep. Air temperature was 2°C at 8.00. The

next day was cloudy and the snow in the area had almost thawed. Air

temperature was 0.5°C at 6.00 and the second count was carried out

from 6.30 to 7.30, covering 600 x 50 m along the water side.

All birds were counted near the GLB, covering 1,200 x 50 m, from

15.45 to 18.00 on June 4. On the way the census had to be stopped

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72 (1)

1 0 km

Nepal Valley <—

Kathmandu

Map. Sketch map of Gosainkund and sacred lakes.

BIRDS AT HIGH ALTITUDES

49

for about three quarters of an hour due to heavy rain-fall and dense

fog. Air temperature was 6.5°C at 15.15.

Results

Birds encountered during each census are arranged in Table 1.

Absolute number counted, dominance, average density per unit time

and area in each species are shown in Table 2, omitting the result of

the first census which was somewhat peculiar as described in the con-

clusion.

Most of the birds observed were moving about or searching for food

among the rocks at the water’s edge, excepting the following indi-

viduals: Two Prunella preening on rocks away from the water, and two

flying towards the scrub of dwarf rhododendrons; four Anthus hodgsoni

flying over the lakes, two of them holding worms or something similar

between their bills, and one calling from a rock and another doing so

on the wing; A. cervinus giving the alarm call from a stone wall; a

pair of Leucoslicte hopping on the small grass field; one Chaimarrornis

often driving away an Anthus from the debris, and two passing over

the lake at about 2 m high; two male Monticola chasing each other

on the rock slide; a Zoothera taking insects or worms on the ground

under the shade of a large rock; two Tadorna coming from southwest

and flying away towards the eastern crest of the ridge after circular

flights at about 20 m height over my head; a female Ay thy a floating

at the margin of GLB (not seen anywhere next morning); all birds of

uncertain identification were flying rapidly between the rocks or high

overhead.

The status of each species at high altitude in central Nepal is briefly

outlined below. These comments are based upon both original obser-

vations and previous records.

Prunella coUaris nipalensis (Blyth): Eastern Alpine Hedge Sparrow.

Three male specimens collected after the census were all nipalensis.

This subspecies seems to be reported only in central Nepal after Hodg-

son’s collection; that is Smythies’ observation on the Gandak-Kosi

watershed at 4,570 m in September. But it was the most dominant and

common bird along streams and tarns at 4,160-4,500 m in the area

observed along the pilgrim trail.

On June 5, I recorded four birds of this species beneath the pass

hopping on rocks near the frozen lake at 4,500 m, another two birds

were each on different streams at 4,250-4,220 m and finally one was

searching for food on the ground of the cirque at 4,160 m at the head

of the Tadi Khola. Three specimens obtained there had already enlarg-

ed testes, 11-14 x 16-20 mm, indicating that they were just in season.

4

50 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

Table 1

Number of individuals, dominance and density of all species observed in

EACH CENSUS.

Total

42

100

13.5

4.5

BIRDS AT HIGH ALTITUDES

51

The individuals caught by Diesselhorst (1968) in eastern Nepal from

late June to mid August also had well developed gonads and he sug-

gested that their breeding would begin in June.

Anthus roseatus Blyth: Hodgson’s Pipit.

Smythies (1948) did not come across this bird at Gosainkund in

autumn, though Scully (1879), Proud (1955), and Rand & Fleming

(1957) found it not uncommon in the Nepal Valley in winter and

Polunin (1955) recorded it as abundant at about 3,000 m up in central

Nepal in summer. It seems to be common at about 4,300-4,700 m in

west-central Nepal (Lowndes 1955) and breeds in the alpine zone in

Nepal (Biswas 1960; Diesselhorst 1968).

I came across these birds at 4,160-4,300 m in Gosainkund. A speci-

men caught around the lake had developed testes 8x5 mm, and many

bits of insects, mostly broken Nematocera, were found in its stomach.

Anthus hodgsoni Richmond; Indian Tree Pipit.

It is not prudent to identify this as A. h. yunnanensis or A. h. hodg-

soni, but all previous records on the former indicate that it occurs be-

low 3,000 m while hodgsoni seems mainly to breed at the higher alti-

tude of 3,000-4,000 m in Nepal (Diesselhorst 1968).

Anthus cervinus Pallas: Red throated Pipit.

This species seems to be scarce in Nepal; after Hodgson’s collection

there are neither sight records nor collected examples except a single

one obtained by Rand & Fleming (1957). The author, however, met

with several individuals of this species at 4,220-4,350 m and they could

be apparently distinguished from other pipits found in the same area

by means of their bright cinnamon-red supercilium, throat and breast,

especially in comparison with the vinous-pink roseatus .

Chaunarromis ieucoeephalus (Vigors): Whitecapped Redstart.

Three or four birds were sometimes flying about our camping place.

This was a bird characteristic of streams or tarns as already noted by

Smythies (1948) at the eastern side of Gosainkund. These birds, utter-

ing short notes, were observed up to 4,480 m on June 5 and were also

common in the cirque beyond the pass to the Tadi Khola.

Zoothera mollissima (Blyth) or dixoni (Seebohm): Plainbacked

or Longtailed Mountain Thrush.

This thrush was very rare in the alpine zone. This sight record was

insufficient to positively identify the bird as mollissima or dixoni, but

it may furnish information. Diesselhorst (1968) pointed out the pos-

sibility of their ecological segregation with dixoni in forest and mollis-

sima in the alpine or over the forest zone. In eastern Nepal he occa-

sionally found “Zoothera Drosseln” at 4,300-4,400 m in habitats such

as rock slide areas and poor vegetation without trees similar to habitats

in my survey.

52 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

This species has been reported from central Nepal only at 1,500-

3,600 m by Smythies (1948, 1950), Proud (1955), and Rand & Flem-

ing (1957). The present case, however, may be the first sight record

at such a high altitude in central Nepal. Abe, a member of the party,

also recognized a similar Zoothera near the lake in the afternoon.

Leucosticte nemorieola (Hodgson): Hodgson’s Mountain Finch.

Moved in pairs. Neither Smythies (1948) nor Proud (1952) found

this species at the Gandak-Kosi watershed, but Polunin (1955) obtain-

ed it in the Langtan Khola, central Nepal. Diesselhorst (1968) enumer-

ated it as a typical alpine bird in Nepal and Martens (1971) found it

at about 3,000 m in non-breeding season.

Tadoma ferruginea (Pallas): Ruddy Sheld-duck or Brahminy Duck.

Scully (1879), Ripley (1950), and Rand & Fleming (1957) record-

ed it as common in the tarai and occasional in the Nepal Valley. I

saw no other individuals in the country. This case might be a rare

sight record at this high altitude in central Nepal. Biswas (1960) re-

ported that he found this species preparing to breed at about 5,000-

5,300 m, but Diesselhorst (1968) conservatively admitted its probable

propagation, considering the impossibility of its usual breeding activity

at those alpine lakes.

Monticola rafiventris (Jardine & Selby): Chestnutbellied Rock

Thrush.

The individuals observed seemed to be rufiventris, because no white

patches on wings characteristic of cinclorhynchus were seen. A pair

was seen near the frozen tarns at 4,460 m and the male was singing

loudly on a rock. Moreover, a pair calling and moving around on rock

debris at 4,250 m was found beyond the pass on the way to Thare

Pati. Hitherto the species has been recorded only below 3,350 m in

autumn (Smythies 1948) and 2,440 m even in spring (Proud 1952)

in central Nepal.

Aythya fuligula (Linnaeus): Tufted Duck.

Ripley (1950) found it in ponds and on the rivers around the Nepal

Valley and it seems to be fairly common in the lowlands during winter

(Rand & Fleming 1957). Masatomi (1971) found four males and six

females floating on a pond near Trisuli at about 700 m on May 28.

The occurrence of the species may be very uncommon at such high

altitude in central Nepal, but Biswas (1960) observed it on montane

lakes at about 5,000-5,300 m in eastern Nepal in May.

Besides the birds mentioned above, the following species were

occasionally found around the sacred lakes during 3-5 June.

Myiophoneus caeruleus (Scopoli): Whistling Thrush.

Noted resting for a moment on rocks near the lake side, then it

flew north towards the ridge. Smythies (1948) did not mention it in his

list, but Proud (1955) and Polunin (1955) found it up to only 3,500 m

BIRDS AT HIGH ALTITUDES

53

in central Nepal. On the way to Thare Pati at 3,800 m, I saw another.

Grandala coelicolor Hodgson: Hodgson’s Grandala.

One male on June 5. After stopping a while on rocks it flew away

northwards. A flock of this typical alpine species feeding on scree was

found in a cirque and three specimens were collected at the head of

the Tadi Khola at 4,160 m. A female obtained had a fully developed

egg with a soft shell in her uterus. Smythies (1948) saw it at about

4,500 m in the same area and Diesselhorst (1968) caught specimens at

4,100-5,200 m in eastern Nepal.

Caorpodacus puniceus puniceus (Blyth): Nepal Redbreasted Rose-

finch.

A female was obtained near the Kharka on June 3. On the Gosain-

kund Lekh only Smythies (1948) observed a male at about 3,650 m in

September.

Partridge and kite.

The call notes of snow partridges were heard several times from the

upper margin of the northern cliff rising at a distance from the lake,

though I failed to find them in the fog. On June 4 a bird, probably a

kite passed over the ridge far from me, gliding in a southerly direction.

Conclusion

The avifauna of the area observed in early June 1968 were charac-

terized by the most dominant alpine hedge sparrow, P. collaris,

previously recorded at 4,570 m on the Gosainkund Lekh (Smythies

1948). The next abundant birds were subalpine or alpine pipits, Anthus

group, and the redstart, C. leucocephalus, occuring up to 5,335 m in

summer (Biswas 1961). The others were typical alpine birds, that is,

the grandala and the mountain finch. Though Diesselhorst (1968) listed

six species as common dwellers in a restricted vertical range in “Feu-

chte alpine Gebusche und Matten” 4,200-5,200 m, only three of them,

P. collaris, A. roseatus, and L. nemoricola were found common at the

lake sides in the present case.

Appearance of ducks at such high elevations might be rare but

partly relates to the existence of tarns in the area. They must stay here

only temporarily, for they did not appear to be breeding here.

It was remarkable that the results of first census made on June 4

showed a concentration of birds more than three or four times denser

than in other cases. Particularly Prunella and Anthus were abundant

at GLA; about five times as many as on the next day. Although these

unusual results might depend partly on the difference of census time,

they must have been caused mainly by the snow fall on June 4 which

temporarily covered all fields and made food hard to get for the birds.

54 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 72(1)

In fact, after much of the snow had thawed by afternoon, I found birds

on the rocky slopes studded with grassy patches a little distance from

the lake. Few birds had been counted here during the first census.

The density at GLA seemed to be slightly higher than that at GLB.

Analysis of both habitats were not sufficient to specify the factors

causing such different congregations, but as described above many more

insects were found at GLA, especially at the northern side, than

at GLB. The comparison of individual numbers of birds at the different

sites seems to be of less significance statistically, because the number

of censuses was small and the conditions were fairly different.

The relative abundance of individual numbers in this census at this

high altitude might be caused by birds wandering up to their breeding

grounds. C. leucocephalus, for example, was not seen above 1,500 m

in late March on the Gandak Kosi watershed by Proud (1952), but I

recognized it as common up to about 4,500 m as Smythies (1948)

found it in September. Naturally the population at the area may

decrease in winter owing to freezing and snowfall covering all fields.

Although an actual count at other places at similar altitude was not

undertaken, I felt that rocky slopes, excluding tarns or streams, had

fewer birds than the area censused. Therefore, the number of birds re-

corded in the present case might indicate not the average (or the low-

est) but more or less high (or the highest by Elton, 1933) density at

this altitude in Gosainkund.

Acknowledgements

I would like to express my thanks to Professor Mayumi Yamada,

the leader of the expedition, and other members of the party for their

kind interest and encouragement in the present study. I am most grate-

ful to Drs. Shoichi F. Sakagami, Hokkaido University, and Robert L.

Fleming, Jr., Kathmandu, for their many suggestions and critical read-

ing of the manuscript. Drs. Biswamoy Biswas, Indian Museum, Shsichiro

Satsuki, and Mr. Mahide Yoshida kindly helped to obtain literature

on the birds of Nepal.

References

Biswas, B. (1960-1966): The birds 638-654, 63(2) : 365-377.

of Nepal. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. Diesselhorst, G. (1968): Beitrae

57(2): 278-308, 57(3) :516-546, 55(1) : zur Okologie der Vogel zentral-und

100-134, 55(2) :441-474, 55(3) :653- ost-Nepals. Khumbu Himal. 2:1-417.

677, 59(1): 200-227, 59(3) : 807-821, Elton, C. (1933): The ecology of

69(1) : 173-200, 60(2) : 388-399, 69(3): animals. New York.

BIRDS AT HIGH ALTITUDES

55

Fleming, R. L., jr. (1968) : Winter

observations on the ecology and dis-

tribution of birds on the Kosi-Gandak

watershed ridge, central Nepal. Pavo,

6.

Fleming, R. L. & Traylor, A. M.

(1961): Notes on Nepal birds. Fiel-

diana, Zool, 55(8) :441-487.

&

(1964) : Further notes on Nepal birds,

ibid., 55(9) : 489-558.

♦Gray, J. E. & Gray, G. R. (1846) :

Catalogue of the specimens and draw-

ings of mammalia and bird of Nepal

and Thibet, presented by B. H. Hodg-

son, Esq., to the British Museum,

London.

Lowndes, D. G. (1955) : Some

birds from north-western Nepal. /.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 55(1): 28- 37.

Martens, J. (1971): Zur Kenntnis

des Vogelzuges im nepalischen Him-

alaya. Vogelwarte 26(1) : 113-128.

Masatomi, H. (1971) : Aves. in

“Animals and plants of Nepal Hima-

laya” (in Japanese). 26-41. Sapporo.

Polunin, O. (1955): Some birds

collected in Langtang Khola, Rasua

Garhi District, central Nepal. J. Bom-

bay nat. Hist. Soc. 52(4) : 886-896.

Proud, D. (1949) : Some notes on

the birds of the Nepal Valley, ibid.

45:696-719.

t (1952): Some birds

seen on the Gandak-Kosi watershed

in March, 1951. ibid. 50: 355-366.

(1955): More notes on

the birds of the Nepal Valley, ibid.

55 :(1): 57-78.

Rand, A. L. & Fleming, R. L.

(1957) : Birds from Nepal. Fieldiana,

Zool 47(1): 1-218.

Ripley, S. D. (1950) : Birds from

Nepal, 1947-1949. J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 49(3): 355-417.

Scully, J. (1879): A contribution

to the ornithology of Nepal. Stray

Feathers, 8 : 204- 368.

Smythies, B. E. (1948): Some

birds of the Gandak-Kosi watershed,

including the pilgrim trail to the

sacred lake of Gosainkund. /. Bom-

bay nat. Hist. Soc. 47(3) : 432-5 18.

(1950): More

notes on the birds of the Nepal

Valley, ibid. 49(3) :513-518.

Not referred to in original.

A new species of Rotala

from Palghat, Kerala1

R. Vasudevan Nair

Govt. Victoria College , Palghat

(With eighteen text-figures)

The plant described in this paper is a new species of Rotala, collect-

ed first in August, 1964, from Malampuzha, Palghat, Kerala State,

and subsequently from other places. Details of collection are shown

below.

The plants formed dense, deep green carpets on the substratum. The

gregarious growth and short, slender, simple erect branches with crim-

son spots of flowers and fruits made the plants conspicuous and dif-

ferent in appearance from the larger species, Rotala leptopetala and

R. densi flora, which were also common in the locality. The latter two

species are not spreading forms and their erect shoots freely branch.

Because of striking differences from all other species of Rotala record-

ed from this state, dry specimens and descriptions were sent to Royal

1 Accepted March 2, 1972.

A NEW SPECIES OF ROTALA

57

Botanic Gardens, Kew, for identification (H. 868/68) where it was

identified as a form of Rotala cf. R . leptopetala. Study of fresh speci-

mens with reference to original diagnosis given by Koehne for the

sub-species and varieties of R . leptopetala, proved that this plant is a

distinct type. Due to the peculiar spreading growth and short, simple

erect branches, the plant is easily distinguished from the other species

of Rotala, even in the vegetative stage. Trimerous flower, staminodes,

and reduced number of seeds are three characteristics of the plant,

separating it from the other species. Hundreds of fresh flowers of R.

leptopetala collected from different localities were examined. Stamino-

des or anything suggestive of staminodes were not found in any. But

staminodes are invariably present in this plant. The characters of this

plant are constant. Specimens from the three localities which are more

than 150 km apart and with different environmental conditions, are

all alike. Even when growing along with R. leptopetala, at the same

spot, it is strikingly different. All evidence indicates that it is a separate

and unidentified species of Rotala. Based on its spreading growth,

small size, simple, short, erect branches, crimson trimerous flower,

staminodes, and limited number of seeds, it is described as a new

species of Rotala.

Rotala malampuzhensis sp. nov.

Herba annua amphibia profuse ramosa caespitosa perviridis, floribus

et fructibus coccineis minutis sed conspicuis instructa. Rami erecti simpli-

ces tenuesque. Folia angustata minus quam 1.5 cm longa, 2-4 mm lata.

Flores solitarii axillares coccinei trimeri, minus quam 1.5 mm diametro.

Dentes accessorii florum breves deflexi. Petala minuta coccinea. Stami-

nodia 3. Semina 10-15 coccinea.

Rotala malampuzhensis sp. nov.

Amphibious, annual herbs growing as dense, deep green carpet, spot-

ted with crimson flowers and fruits. Stem procumbent, profusely branch-

ed, spreading, rooting at nodes; erect branches simple, 5-20 cm long;

inter-nodes slender, quadrangular, upper ones short. Leaves simple, exsti-

pulate, opposite decussate, subsessile, angustate, 2-4 mm broad, up to

1.5 cm long, deep green veins indistinct, apex microscopically truncate

(Fig. 2). Flowers solitary, axillary (Fig. 1), sessile, crimson, less than

1.5 mm in dia., trimerous, actinomorphic, hermaphrodite, perigynous.

Bracteoles 2, lateral, subulate, shorter than calyx (Fig. 3). Hypan-

thium campanulate, less than 1 mm long, with 6 faint vertical veins.

Sepals 3, free, triangular, acute, crimson (Fig. 3, 4). Accessory teeth

3, very short, acute (Figs. 3, 4). Petals 3, free, very small, linear-oblong,

acute, crimson (Fig. 11). Stamens 3, antisepalous; filaments filiform.

58 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

Rotala malampuzhensis sp. nov.

Fig. 1. Habit; Fig. 2. Twig; Fig. 3. T. S. of stem; Fig. 4. Leaf and leaf-tip;

Fig. 5. Bud; Figs. 6, 7, 8. Open flowers.

A NEW SPECIES OF ROTALA

59

Rotala malampuzhensis sp. nov.

Fig. 9. Hypanthium opened; Fig. 10. V. S. of flower; Fig. 11. Petal; Fig. 12.

Anther in two views; Fig. 13. Pistil; Fig. 14. T. S. of ovary; Fig. 15. Pollen;

Fig. 16. Fruits; Fig. 17. Seed in two views; Fig. 18. Embryo in two views.

60 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

white or purplish anthers 2-celled, 4-lobed, introrse, cells semicircular,

purplish; pollen white, sub-spherical, smooth, thin- walled (Figs. 9, 12,

15). Staminodes 3, alternating with stamens, shorter than ovary, linear,

apex purplish, entire, emarginate or slightly bifid (Fig. 9). Ovary sub-

spherical, incompletely 3-celled, with vestigial septa only at base;

placenta axile, fleshy, discontinuous at apex; ovules 3-6 per cell; style

short, simple; stigma discoid, papillate (Figs. 10, 13, 14). Fruits less

than 1.5 mm, sub-spherical, crimson, half-exserted (Fig. 16), splitting

vertically into 3 valves; pericarp microscopically horizontally striate.

Seeds 10-15, crimson, obovoid, inner surface slightly excavated (Fig.

17) smooth, shining, exalbuminous.

Diagnosis

Profusely branching, tufted, deep green plants with minute but con-

spicuous crimson spots of flowers and fruits. Erect branches simple,

slender, short. Leaves less than 1.5 cm long, 2-4 mm broad, angustate.

Flowers solitary, axillary, crimson, less 1.5 mm, trimerous. Accessory

teeth very short. Petals small, crimson. Staminodes 3. Seeds 10-15,

crimson.

This species was first identified at Kew as a form coming near

R. leptopetala and at Central National Herbarium, Calcutta, as resembl-

ing the variety littorea, but in the invariable presence of staminodes and

the limited number of seeds, it is more close to R. mexicana than to the

former. However, R. mexicana is a miniature, prostrate plant of dull

green colour and pink, tetramerous flowers. In appearance it is striking-

ly different from Rot ala malampuzhensis.

Ack n owledge m e n ts

For the Latin rendering of the diagnosis I am deeply indebted to

Dr. Adelaide L. Stork of Stockholm University. I am grateful to Prof.

K. Kesavan Nair, Victoria College, Palghat, for taking the photo-

graphs of the plant. This paper would not have come out but for the

encouragement given by Dr. B.K. Nair. Professor of Botany, University

of Calicut. I am also indebted to the Director, Royal Botanic Gardens,

Kew for providing me with the original diagnosis for Rotala and helping

me in identifying the plant.

Paratype specimens are deposited at the herbarium of Botanical

Survey of India, Southern Circle, Coimbatore, along with type.

Observations on metamorphosing

behaviour of Cy bis ter larvae

for development of control

measures during pupal stage1

G. A. Shirgur

Taraporevala Marine Biological Research Station , Bombay 400002

{With a text figure)

Introduction

Several species of aquatic beetles, of the genus, Cy bister (Family

Dytiscidae) are of common occurrence in fish nurseries. Both larvae

and adults are active predators, on spawn and of fishes.

Mature larvae, at the end of last instar, pupate in moist earth at the

waters’ edge of ponds. The easy accessability of Cy bister beetles at the

pupal stage in the vicinity of fish nurseries, makes control measures

possible and studies were made on metamorphosing behaviour of the

larvae, belonging to five species, namely Cybister cognatus Sharp, C.

limbatus (Fabricius), C. sugillatus Erichson, C. posticus Aube and C.

tripunctatus asiaticus Sharp. Among these, C. tripunctatus is the com-

monest and occurs in large numbers.

The term “metamorphosis” is used in a restricted sense in the text,

only to denote the changes from last larval instar to the finally formed

imago.

Material and Methods

(a) Material

Larvae and Cybister beetles were collected from fish nurseries and

ponds mainly around Bombay. A stock of live material was maintained

at the laboratory and were fed on minnows.

Accepted September 2, 1971.

62 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

(b) Methods

(i) Initially, experiments were conducted to find out the total period

of pupation in the soil, once the mature larva encloses itself in the

pupal cell. For this purpose, a single freshly collected larvae of a species

was kept in a glass aquarium tank, measuring 30 x 23 x 23 cm. In the

tank, conditions were made to conform as far as possible to natural

conditions. A block of laterite soil, of approximately 22 x 15 x 15 cm

size, was placed contiguously to the sidewall over a stone slab of 5 cm

thickness kept on the bottom. Water level in the remaining portion of

the tank was maintained at this height in order to prevent the desicca-

tion of the clod.

Time and date of entry of the larva into the earth as well as emer-

gence, as an adult, were recorded in order to determine the total period

of pupation. The temperature of the water at the time of emergence of

the adult was also simultaneously recorded.

Since there were no pupation out of freshly brought last instar Cyb-

ister larvae in the earth-blocks, except once, the experiments were re-

peated by introducing into the tank such larvae, which were fed inten-

sively with Gambusia and other young fishes. These larvae became

progressively dull, and stopped feeding and then readily entered the

earthen-blocks. Five observations were made for each species of Cybister

which were identified later from the imagos that emerged, namely

C. tripunctatus, C. cognatus, C. limbatus, C. sugillatus and C. posticus.

(ii) Since the total periods of pupation varied further laboratory

experiments were conducted to find out whether the total period of

metamorphosis and therefore the duration of moulting into pupa and

imago were constant for each species, from the date of initiation of

metamorphosis by interning larvae of different species into artificial

pupal cells in the earth-blocks, thereby inducing them to undergo post-

larval development.

For this purpose, 20 x 15 x 12 cm size blocks, each . made of laterite

soil of dry weight of approximately 1500 g and 500 ml of freshwater,

were prepared and kept in enamel trays. Water was poured in the tray

at the base of these blocks periodically, to prevent desiccation. In each

of these blocks, two crude cells of approximately 3 x 2 cm size, were

prepared on either end 10 cm apart.

At a time, two larvae of a particular species which had stopped

feeding, were introduced in these cells, closing them thereafter from

above, with clay- tablets. Next day, the pupal cells were examined to

check whether metamorphosis had been initiated by the larvae, which

was indicated by the presence of a secondary earthen cap made by

the metamorphosing larva under clay-tablets. This was taken as first

day of metamorphosis. Subsequently, observations were made, every

24 hours, by opening the cells in one of these blocks, to examine the

CONTROL OF CYBISTER LARVAE

63

progress of metamorphosis. Thus, the duration of moulting into pupa

and imago were determined with reference to larvae of different species.

(iii) Larvae of C. tripunctatus being the most predominant in fish

nurseries, laboratory experiments were conducted on these larvae, with

a view to eradicating different metamorphosing stages infesting the

soil above the water level, by using carbon disulphide and formalde-

hyde as fumigants. In all these experiments, mature larvae, showing

no further response for feeding, were introduced in the artificial pupal

cells, in the earthen-blocks as described above. The blocks were cover-

ed with plastic sheets after injecting the fumigants.

Preliminary experiments were conducted to find out the relation-

ship of different quantities of a fumigant injected, and corresponding

period of mortality for different metamorphosing stages, contained

in the blocks.

In the experiments, four quantities of one of the fumigants, 2, 4, 6

and 8 ml were injected in four different blocks (covered thereafter

with plastic sheets), each containing the metamorphosing stages of one

of the five different age groups namely 3, 6, 9 and 18 day-old, at a

time. At the end of 24 and 48 hours, the cells in the blocks were open-

ed to examine the effects of increasing doses of the fumigant. These

experiments showed that even 2 ml of carbon disulphide was lethal

to the insects at the end of 48 hours but formaldehyde had no effect.

Thus, in subsequent experiments, varying quantities of carbon disul-

phide had to be tried for determination of quantities of this fumigant,

lethal at the end of 48 hours, for each of the advanced metamorphosing

stages (1-18 days stages, and unemerged adults).

However, it was important to find out whether the progress in meta-

morphosis of a particular stage was arrested during the 48 hours period

of fumigation. For this purpose, the blocks (covered with plastic sheets

after injection) containing 8 and 17 day-old stages were injected with

the quantities of carbon disulphide, lethal at the end of 48 hours. At

the end of 24 hours and 48 hours, the cells were opened and 8th and

17th day stages were examined to see whether these had moulted into

pupa and adults, respectively, (i.e. 9th and 18th day stages).

Similarly, experiments conducted to find out whether the arresting

effect can also be brought about by the disturbance caused by the open-

ing and closing of the cells containing 8th and 17th day stages, showed

that moulting did not take place at the end of even 48 hours. Thus,

these experiments have shown that in both cases, arresting of meta-

morphosis took place.

With these preliminary but important observations, experiments

were continued by injecting varying quantities of carbon disulphide

in the centre of the 20 x 15 x 12 cm size blocks, each with two artificial

cells, 10 cm apart, each containing one metamorphosing stage at a

64 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

time (i.e. one of the 1-18 day old stages + unemerged adults), with a

view to determining the lethal quantities at the end of 48 hours for dif-

ferent stages. Before injecting the fumigant, both cells were opened to

ascertain whether the metamorphosing stages in the blocks were in

normal state of development. This also served as a coordinate arrest-

ing factor of metamorphosis during the period of 48 hours of fumiga-

tion.

(iv) Experiments were also conducted with a view to determining

the comparative toxicity of two more fumigants, namely ethylene dibro-

mide and ethylene dichloride along with carbon disulphide. For this

purpose, a distinct stage common for all the five species, i.e. tenerials of

C. tripunctatus, C. limbatus, C. cognatus, C. sugillatus and C. posticus,

were selected as experimental material. At a time, different quantities

of one of the fumigants were injected into the blocks, forming five

sets. Each block in a set contained two tenerials of one species. Thus,

the quantity of each of the three fumigants, lethal at the end of 48

hours for different species, was determined.

Observations

i) Total pupation period

The experiments have shown that only larvae, which had stopped

feeding readily burrowed into the earth-blocks for metamorphosis after

a day of exploration. The total period of confinement in the case of

C. tripunctatus varied between 19-34 days, and in C. cognatus and

C. limbatus, the period varied between 28 to 32 days. With other two

species, C. sugillatus and C. posticus, the period ranged from 25-32

days. In no case did the larvae penetrate the soil beyond 7-8 cm. Water

temperature at the time of emergence of the adults varied from 29-

30°C.

ii) Total period of metamorphosis and the duration of pupal and

imago stages in different Cybister larvae

The artificially introduced larvae started reshaping the interior of

the artificial cells by making the inner facet smooth, and then lay coil-

ed at the bottom, at the end of 24 hours’ activity. This behaviour was

indicative of their undergoing normal metamorphosis, outwardly mani-

fested by the presence of a secondary cap underneath the clay-tablet,

placed over the opening of the artificial cell, immediately after con-

finement.

Observations at one day intervals subsequently have shown that

in the case of C. tripunctatus pupa was formed on the 9th day, and the

adult on 18th day. In C. sugillatus and C. posticus, pupa was seen on

12th day and the imago on 24th day. With both C. cognatus and

CONTROL OF CYBISTER LARVAE

65

C. limbatus, the pupation took place on 15th day and the moulting into

imago on 27th day. In all these cases, the newly formed adults remain-

ed in pupal cells for varying number of days before emergence. The

larval skin after pupation is stuck into the inner wall of the pupal cell,

whereas the pupal exuvium is seen underneath the imago in all the

species.

iii) The lethality of carbon disulphide, at the end of 48 hours for dif-

ferent metamorphosing stages of C. tripunctatus (Table 1) (Fig. 1).

Preliminary experiments, to find out whether there was any in-

verse relationship between increasing doses of the fumigant and de-

creasing survival periods, showed that at the end of 24 hours of fumi-

gant action there was no mortality with 2, 4, 6 and 8 ml of the fumi-

gant, whereas at the end of 48 hours, mortality occurred invariably

with each of these quantities of the fumigant for different metamor-

phosing stages comprising 3, 6, 9, 12, 15 and 18 day stages showing

that this period was necessary for fumigant diffusion. Similar experi-

ments with formaldehyde, another common fumigant, have shown that

there was no lethal effect during the entire period of observation.

In experiments with 8th and 17th day stages, contained in the pupal

cells, the quantities of carbon disulphide (0.75 and 2.0 m) determined

previously as lethal at the end of 48 hours, were injected. At the end

of this period, that is on the 10th and 19th days, the dead insects were

examined, and it was observed that these had not moulted respectively

into pupa and imago, showing that metamorphosis was arrested during

the entire period of fumigation.

Table 1

Quantities of carbon disulphide lethal at the end of 48 hours for dif-

ferent stages during metamorphosis in case of Cybister tripunctatus.

5

66 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

AGE IN DAYS

Fig. 1. A graph showing comparative lethal effect of 2 ml of carbon disulphide

on various metamorphic stages of Cy bister tripunctatus.

The other factor, responsible for arresting normal metamorphosis,

was the opening and quick closing of the cell-tops. The 8th and 17th

day prepupal and preimaginal stages failed to moult respectively into

pupa and imago even at the end of 48 hours, showing that such a dis-

turbance retarded the normal pace of metamorphosis.

Table 2

Experiments were conducted, based on preliminary observations,

to determine the quantities of carbon disulphide lethal at the end of

48 hours for different stages contained in 20 x 15 x 12 cm size blocks

(covered with polythene sheets after fumigant injections). The results

are given in Table 1. It can be seen from this Table that 9th and 10th

day stages requiring a lethal quantity of only 0.5 ml of the fumigant

are the least tolerant and l-4th and 16- 17th day stages requiring 2 ml

CONTROL OF CYBISTER LARVAE

67

of carbon disulphide are the most tolerant. Similar experiments on

adults (emerged), confined in the artificial pupal cells in the blocks,

have shown that even 1 ml of the fumigant was lethal at the end of 48

hours. These results are illustrated in fig. 1.

iv) Comparative toxicity of the three fumigants on unemerged ima-

gines of different Cybister species (Table 2).

From table 2, it can be seen that the quantities of carbon disulphide,

ethylene dichloride and ethylene dibromide lethal for different species

were 0.5- 1.0, 0.75 and 0.5 ml, respectively, showing that ethylene dibro-

mide is the most toxic and ethylene dichloride, the least, except in case

of C. tripunctatus.

Discussion and conclusions

Studies on metamorphosing behaviour of different last instar Cybis-

ter larvae, were made by conducting a series of laboratory experiments,

so that a suitable method for their eradication from infested moist soil

above water level in fish nurseries could be devised.

Initial experiments were conducted for determining the total periods

of confinement in the earth above the water level, after the mature

larva constructed a pupal cell for undergoing post-larval development.

These experiments were of considerable significance, as different Cybis-

ter larvae, which could not be identified to their respective species in

immature condition could be identified as belonging to five different

species from their adults. Amongst the five species of larvae, Cybister

tripunctatus resembles the larvae of C. cognatus and C. limbatus except

for its size, measuring on an average about 5 cm in length, whereas

the larvae of the latter two species are the largest of all the Cybister

larvae measuring about 7-8 cm in length. Both C. cognatus and C. lim-

batus larvae resemble each other except that C. cognatus is slightly

smaller, and possesses conspicuous longitudinal stripes on the dorsal

side. Their adults also appear almost identical except for minor dif-

ferences in abdominal colour. Larvae of C. sugillatus and C. posticus

also resemble each other, measuring 4.5 cm in length on an average.

The larva of C. posticus is slightly larger than C. sugillatus and pos-

sess conspicuous stripes on its dorsal side. The larvae of both species

can, however, be distinguished from other Cybister larvae, by their

distinct black and sclerotized head.

The total period of confinement determined, from the time of last

instar larval internment to that of emergence as an adult, varied con-

siderably in case of C. tripunctatus, being in the range of 19-43 days,

whereas with both C. cognatus and C. limbatus, the variation was in

68 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

the narrow range of only 28-32 days. At the time of emergence of the

adults the water temperature was seen to be around 29-30°C.

Considering that the total period of confinement in the earth above

the water level are variable, in different Cybister larvae, further series

of experiments were started to ascertain whether the duration of moult-

ing into pupa and adults were also variable. For this purpose, a tech-

nique of inducing the mature larvae to undergo metamorphosis in the

artificial cells (with similar dimensions of natural cell, i.e. 2x3 cm),

prepared in 20 x 15 x 12 cm size earthen blocks, was developed, thus

facilitating greatly, further series of experiments. During the metamor-

phosis period, observations at 24 hour intervals have revealed that

C. tripunctatus had the shortest period for metamorphosis, the pupa and

adult being formed on 9th and 18th day, respectively, whereas with

the other two C. co gnat us and C. limbatus, the period was 15 and 27

days respectively. During experimental period water temperature varied

around 29-30°C.

These results show that although total period of metamorphosis

was constant for each species, the period of confinement of the adult

(tenerials), were variable as indicated by the previous series of experi-

ments. Thus, the adult of C. tripunctatus remains unemerged for vary-

ing periods up to 15 days as against other species which remain quis-

cent for varying periods up to 8 days.

From the number of days required for the emergence after imago

formation, it can be seen that after the pupa moults into adult, it remains

in confinement for a minimum period of about 24 hours. Further con-

finement for varying periods prior to emergence may be dependent upon

factors such as temperature.

These observations on metamorphosing behaviour of different

mature Cybister larvae, thus formed the basis for undertaking further

studies on their eradication. For this purpose, C. tripunctatus was

chosen, as it occurred in large numbers in fish nurseries.

Formaldehyde and carbon disulphide, were selected as fumigants.

Formaldehyde is commonly used as soil fumigant in agriculture to

control root pests. Similarly, carbon disulphide is a well-known fumi-

gant, used for the purpose since 1925 (Fleming 1926, Gough 1945).

Preliminary experiments have shown that; (1) a period of 48 hours

was required for lethal action of different doses of carbon disulphide,

possibly due to time taken for initial diffusion of the fumigant vapour

through the substance of the block, before concentrating in the cavities

of the pupal cells, till mortality occurred; (2) Even 6-8 ml of formalde-

hyde was not lethal at the end of 48 hours, thus ruling out its use for

application in the field and; (3) during the experimental period of 48

hours of fumigation, different stages remained unadvanced in meta-

morphosis due to two factors, the disturbance caused by opening and

CONTROL OF CYBISTER LARVAE

69

rapid closure of the cell and sublethal concentration of the fumigant

vapour in the cell.

With these points in view, different quantities of carbon disulphide

were injected in the centre of the blocks (covered subsequently with

polythene sheets), containing different metamorphosing stages from

1-8 days and unemerged as well as emerged adults.

These experiments revealed that the quantities of carbon disul-

phide lethal at the end of 48 hours for different metamorphosing stages,

were variable. The 8th and 9th day stages were the least tolerant, even

0.5 ml of the fumigant being lethal, whereas l-4th and 16- 17th day

stages were the most tolerant requiring not less than 2 ml of carbon

disulphide. The remaining stages required 0.75, 1.0 or 1.5 ml of this

fumigant depending upon their capacity of resistance. However, in case

of majority of the stages, comprising unemerged as well as emerged

adults, 1.0 ml of the fumigant was quite lethal.

The common lethal quantity for all the metamorphosing stages,

was 2 ml of carbon disulphide per 20 x 15 x 12 cm size block of late-

rite soil, containing any of the stages, for bringing about mortality at

the end of 48 hours.

A final series of experiments on comparative toxicity of the three

fumigants on common stages in metamorphosis, i.e. tenerials of five

Cybister species, showed that 0.5 ml of ethylene dibromide as well as

carbon disulphide were lethal at the end of 48 hours, for all the species

except C. tripunctatus, which required at least 1 ml of carbon disul-

phide, whereas for ethylene dichloride, the lethal quantity at the end

of 48 hours was 0.75 ml. This indicated that ethylene dibromide is the

most toxic and ethylene dichloride, the least.

The use of ethylene dibromide would not only be more effective

but also economically feasible. This fumigant again unlike carbon disul-

phide, has no obnoxious odour and is not inflammable. This chemical

has been in use as a soil fumigant in agriculture since 1945 (Shepard

1951).

For application in the field the following recommendation can be

made. In fish nurseries the soil above the water line may be marked

into units, each corresponding to 20 x 15 x 12 cm size block. Then 2 ml

of the fumigant can be conveniently injected in the centre of each of

these units (at a depth of nearly 7 cm) with subsequent coverage of

the whole strip of 15 cm wide, infested with metamorphosing stages,

with plastic sheet or gunny cloth, which can be fastened to the surface

of the soil by applying nails along both the edges. Since metamorphosis

from last instar larva onwards, in case of C. tripunctatus extends up-

to 18 days with a few additional days for unemerged adults, further

fumigation can be done at intervals of about 18 days. In fish nurseries,

the whole period of spawn to fry stage would not take more than 18

70 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

days even if two crop rotations are taken. Hence, an initial application

of the fumigant, prior to stocking of the spawn and a second after

about 18 days would be sufficient to check the menace of emerging

adults of C. tripunctatus in fish nurseries.

Acknowledgements

I am grateful to Dr H. G. Kewalramani, Senior Scientific

Officer, in the department of Fisheries for his encouragement in carry-

ing out this work. I also take this opportunity to thank Dr. T. G.

Vazirani of Zoological Survey of India for his assisance in identifi-

cation of imagines of Cy bister spp.

References

Fleming, W. E. (1926) : A homo- London,

geneous carbon disulphide emulsion. Shepard, H. H. (1951) : The che-

/. Agr. Research 55:17-20. mistry and action of Insecticides, Mc-

Gough, H. C. (1945) : A review Graw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New York,

of the Literature on Soil Insecticides, Toronto, London.

Pseudobrassaiopsis - A new

genus of Araliaceae with a

note on the status of

Euaraliopsis Hutch.1

R. N. Banerjee

Central National Herbarium, Howrah 3

J. Hutchinson (1967) treated a group of Araliaceaeous plants with

leaves digitately lobed or fid formerly included under Brassiopsis Dene.

& Planch, sensu lato as belonging to a distinct genus. He named his

new genus as Euaraliopsis quite aware of the name given by Kurz

(1870). Kurz had not furnished a description of the genus and Hut-

chinson described it in English. In accordance with Art. 36 of ICBN

(1966) a latin diagnosis with points of alliance is to be supplied to valid-

ate the genus Euaraliopsis Hutch. It is, however, noted that Hutchinson

rejected the name Araliopsis of Kurz and gave the genus a new name

Euaraliopsis which means allied to Araliopsis. But as no legitimate

genus of that name exists, naming of the new genus as Euaraliopsis is

also not appropriate.

I therefore proposed another name for this genus as Pseudobrassai-

opsis to indicate its close relationship with Brassaiopsis Dene. & Planch.

A latin diagnosis is given below:

Pseudobrassaiopsis gen. nov.

Araliopsis Kurz, Andaman Rep. App. 39. 1870 nom. nud.

Euaraliopsis Hutch. Gen. FI. Pis. 2:80. 1967; Balak. in

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 67(1): 60. 1970 nom. illeg., nom. rej.

prop.

Affine generi Brassaiopsi, a quo differt foliis digitatim dissectis vel

lobatis.

Arbores, frutices'vel plante volubiles; rami et petiole saepe valde

aculeati; folia digitatim dissecta vel lobata, raro tantum dentata; in-

dumentum interdum stellatum; stipulae nonnunquam durae et persis-

tentes; umbellae paniculatae; bractae parvae vel nullae; flores saepe

polygami; calyx ad marginem 5-dentatus; petala 5, valvata; stamina 5,

ovarium biloculare; fructus subglobosi vel obovoidei.

Accepted April 13, 1973.

72 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

Type: Pseudobrassaiopsis polyacantha (Wall.) R. N. Ban. comb.

nov.

distribution: India, Nepal, Bhutan, Sikkim, Malay Peninsula, Indo-

China and China.

1. Pseudobrassaiopsis hainla (Buch. Ham. ex D. Don) R. N. Ban.

comb. nov.

Hedera hainla Buch. Ham. ex D. Don Prodr. 187. 1825.

Euaraliopsis hainla (Buch. Ham. ex D. Don) Hutch. Gen. FI. Pis.

2:624. 1967.

Brassaiopsis hainla (Buch. Ham. ex D. Don) Seem, in J. Bot. 2:

291. 1864, Revis. Heder. 18. 1868, pro. parte;

Clarke in Hook. f. FI. Brit. India 2:735. 1879; Harms in Nat.

Pflanzen fam. 3(8) 43. 1894.

Panax hainla (D. Don) DC. Prodr. 4:203. 1830.

Panax crucifolia Griff. Itin. Notes 2:145. 1848.

distribution: India, Nepal and China.

2. Pseudobrassaiopsis hispida (Seem.) R. N. Ban. comb. nov.

Brassaiopsis hispida seem. 1. c. 292; Clarke in Hook. f. 1. c. 736.

distribution: India, Sikkim, Bhutan and China.

3. Pseudobrassaiopsis alpina (Clarke) R. N. Ban. comb. nov.

Brassaiopsis alpina Clarke in 1. c. 736.

Euaraliopsis alpina (Clarke) Balak. 1. c. 60.

distribution: India and Sikkim.

4. Pseudobrassaiopsis polyacantha (Wall.) R. N. Ban. comb. nov.

Hedera polyacantha Wall. PI. As. Rar. 2:82. t. 190. 1831.

Panax palmatum Roxb. Hort. Beng. 21. 1814, nom. nud., FI. Ind.

2:74. 1832.

Brassaiopsis palmata (Roxb.) Kurz in J. Asiat. Soc. Bengal 39(2):

77. 1870; Clarke 1. c. 735; Harms 1. c. 43.

Brassaiopsis polyacantha (Wall.) Ban. in. Ind. For. 93(5): 341.

1967 Syn. nov.

distribution: India, Burma, Nepal, China and Malay Peninsula.

5. Pseudobrassaiopsis andamanica (R. N. Ban.) R. N. Ban. comb.

nov.

Brassaiopsis andamanica R. N. Ban. in. Ind. For. 94(10): 775.

1968. Syn. nov.

distribution: India, Nepal, Burma, China and Malay Peninsula.

6. Pseudobrassaiopsis griffithii (Clarke) R. N. Ban. comb. nov.

Brassaiopsis griffithii Clarke 1. c. 736.; Harms 1. c. 43.

Euaraliopsis griffithii (Clarke) Balak. 1. c. 60.

distribution: India and Burma.

PSEUDOBRASSAIOPSIS GEN. NOV.

73

7. Pseudobrassaiopsis mitis (Clarke) R. N. Ban. comb. nov.

Brassaiopsis mitis Clarke, 1. c. 736.

Euaraliopsis mitis (Clarke), Balak. 1. c. 60.

distribution: India, Indo-China and China.

Acknowledgements

I am grateful to Dr S. K. Mukerjee, Retired Scientist and Ex-

Keeper, C. N. H. for his guidance and to Dr N. C. Majumdar for latin

transcription of the description.

References

Hutchinson, J. (1967) : Araliaceae.

Genera of Flowering Plants 2:80, 624.

Oxford.

Kurz, S. (1870) : Report on the

vegetation of Andaman Islands 39.

App. B IX Calcutta.

Lanjouw, J. et al. (1966) : Inter-

national Code of Botanical Nomen-

clature. Utrecht-Nederlands.

Belly-soaking in the

C haradriiformes 1

G. L. Maclean

Department of Zoology , University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg,

South Africa

Belly-soaking consists in wetting the belly feathers for the

purpose of transporting water to eggs or chicks. It occurs regular-

ly in the sandgrouse for watering the chicks. It occurs also in the

Charadriiformes among the families Charadriidae, Glareolidae,

Recurvirostridae, Laridae, Sternidae and Rynchopidae. Its main

function appears to be for cooling the eggs or young; whether

the young also drink the water provided by the parents in 'this way

has not been proven. Belly-soaking appears to be absent from

all other orders of birds. Its presence may be further evidence

for placing the sandgrouse (Pteroclididae) in the order Charadrii-

formes, as suggested by Gatter (1971). The origins of belly-

soaking are discussed.

Introduction

Ever since I began field studies on the sandgrouse (Pteroclididae)

(Maclean 1968), I have been interested in water transport by birds

in their belly feathers (see Cade & Maclean 1967). In view of my con-

clusions that the sandgrouse are actually Charadriiformes, or at least

very closely related to them (Maclean 1967), it is interesting, if not

significant, that the only taxon of birds other than the Pteroclididae

in which belly-soaking occurs regularly is the Charadriiformes. The

suggestion that Ixobrychus exilis in the United States also transports

water in its belly feathers rests on a misinterpretation of the single

observation by Weller (1961) of a male Least Bittern which waded

into water about a metre deep on a very hot day, in an apparent attempt

to cool itself before returning to its young. This behaviour does not

seem to have constituted belly-soaking in the present sense. “Belly-

soaking” refers here to deliberate wetting of the ventral plumage for

the purpose of water transport to eggs or young. The term excludes

incidental wetting of the ventral plumage in aquatic birds, or in species

which do not use the water for watering eggs or young.

1 Accepted April 30, 1973.

BELLY-SOAKING IN THE CHARADRUFORMES

75

Occurrence of Belly-soaking

Belly-soaking has been observed in six families of the order Chara-

driiformes, excluding the Pteroclididae, namely: Charadriidae, Glareo-

lidae, Recurvirostridae, Laridae, Sternidae and Rynchopidae. The first

three families belong to the suborder Charadrii, the last three to the

suborder Lari. For convenience I shall deal with the published infor-

mation by families.

1 . Charadriidae

(a) Charadrius

Only two species of Charadrius have been shown to soak their

bellies. Dharmakumarsinhji (1964) writes that C. alexandrinus near

Bhavanagar in Gujarat has a frequent changeover at the nest during

the hot hours of the day, and that the relieving bird “would often have

its breast wet to keep the eggs moist”. Hobbs (1972) suggests that the

same species in southeastern Australia may do the same thing, but

his evidence is indirect, based on the muddy coating of eggs which,

however, may be attributed to nesting on a damp substrate.

The most remarkable account of belly-soaking outside of the sand-

grouse family is that of Gatter (1971) in C. dubius. He observed a

breeding population near Plochingen on the Neckar in West Germany.

Between 1200 and 1400 hours on what he considered to be a hot day

(29.2°C in the shade), both parents at a nest with newly hatched chicks

took it in turns to run to a nearby pool, soak their belly feathers by

running quickly through the water, and then run or fly back to the

young, which they brooded with their wet plumage, ostensibly to keep

them cool.

Pitman (1965) indicates that C. pecuarius in Zambia “seemed. . . .

to have wet breasts” when coming to relieve the mate at the nest in

very hot weather.

(b) Vanellus

Five species of Vanellus have been observed soaking their belly

plumage for the purpose of wetting their eggs or young. During a single

period of observation on the Benue River in Nigeria, Serle (1939)

watched V. albiceps make about 12 trips from its nest to the river where

it dipped its breast and belly several times in the water, then dipped

its bill, and finally walked back to its egg. This took place at 1300 hours

in the heat of the day. Bainbridge (1965) recorded similar behaviour

in this species on the Zambezi River, but only when the sun was shin-

ing and air temperatures were over 32°C in the shade; eggs were not

wetted on a cloudy day when the air temperature was less than 32°C.

At two nests of V. spinosus in Egypt, during hot July weather,

Crossley (1964) saw the adults go several times to the water to wet the

belly feathers immediately before returning to the nest; Dharmakum-

76 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

arsinhji (1964) recorded identical behaviour in V. indicus at Bhavnagar.

Jayakar & Spurway (1965a, b) noted the same thing in V. malabaricus

between 1114 and 1605 hours at one nest where the male parent wetted

the eggs twice and the female eight times; the source of water was a

wet concrete pavement under a dripping tap. The birds would soak

their feathers for up to 10 min at a time before returning to relieve

the mate at the nest. Red lateritic mud was conspicuous on both the

eggs and the parents’ belly feathers. This behaviour was seen only in

April, the hot season, and even occurred after all four chicks of the

brood had hatched.

Wright (1963) recorded wetting of eggs and young in V. senegallus

in Zambia. The parent soaked its abdominal feathers in a water-filled

hippo track and then settled onto the eggs and chicks. When the parents

left the chicks for 10 or 15 min, the chicks died of heat exposure.

Dresser (1902) writes of V. leucurus in the breeding season: “Dur-

ing the hottest part of the day it either rests on the shores of the lakes

or in water which reaches up to its bellly.” This may be no more than

a suggestive coincidence, but Dresser does not mention that birds that

have been resting thus in water have then gone to a nest with eggs.

2. GlareoJidae

(a) Pluvianus

In a footnote to a short communication by Abdulali (1939), to

certain terns, using their belly feathers as the transport mechanism, the

Editors of J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. state that “the Egyptian Plover

( Pluvianus aegyptius ) is said to moisten its eggs in a similar manner”.

They give no reference to their source of information. However, Butler

(1931) mentions that this species regurgitates water onto the sand under

which the eggs are buried.

(b) Glareola

Dharmakumarsinhji (1964) says that the parents at a nest of Gla-

reola lactea changed over on the eggs about every 25 to 35 min during

the hot hours of the day, and that the incoming bird would often have

its breast wet. A similar, but rather inconclusive statement has been

made about G. pratincola at a breeding colony in Zambia (Pitman

1965).

3. Recurvirostridae

Dharmakumarsinhji (1964), again observing in Gujarat, writes that

changeover between the parents at a nest of Himantopus himantopus

was frequent in the heat of the day, and that both parents would wet

their belly feathers before returning to the nest, “by bobbing down

to the water while wading.”

BELLY-SOAKING IN THE CHARADRIIFORMES

77

4. Laridae

The only account of belly-soaking in the gulls is that of Meinertz-

hagen (1954), who mentioned that parents in a colony of Lams genei

on Bahrain Island have been seen sprinkling their eggs with sea water

during the heat of the day.

5. Sternidae

Three observers have independently recorded belly-soaking in

Sterna albijrons for the purpose of taking water back to the eggs

(Abdulali 1939; Dharmakumarsinhji 1964; Tompkins 1942). The plum-

age was wetted either in flight or when wading into the water. Abdulali

(1939) recorded a changeover of the parents every minute or so

throughout an hour’s observation period on Salsette Island off the west

coast of India.

Currie (1916) found the eggs of Sterna acuticauda near Lahore

“besprinkled all over with water.” In more general terms, Lowther

(1949), who photographed extensively on the Jumna River in northern

India, wrote that “the parent terns and skimmers do overtime splash-

ing water over their eggs and young” during sandstorms in the heat of

summer.

6. Rynchopidae

Ali & Ripley (1969b) state specifically of Rynchops albicollis that

the parents soak their ventral plumage and splash water over the eggs

and young to keep them cool.

Functions of Belly-soaking

The one environmental factor associated with belly-soaking and

subsequent wetting of eggs or chicks in the Charadriiformes in all

accounts that I have read has been intense heat, but only Ali & Ripley

(1969b), Crossley (1964), Gatter (1971) and Tompkins (1942) suggest

that the function of this behaviour is to cool the eggs or young. Tomp-

kins (1942) adds that wetting may serve also to replace moisture lost

from the egg by evaporation.

The latitudes and approximate climatic conditions of the main

study areas mentioned in the literature are shown in Table 1. The driest

region is around Bhavnagar in Gujarat, India, but even this has a mean

annual rainfall of over 500 mm. All the other regions in Table 1 are

wetter than this and some, like Georgia, U.S.A., are very wet indeed.

Evaporation therefore seems to constitute a smaller hazard to the eggs

and young of birds than overheating. The lethal effects of overheating

on plover chicks has been shown clearly by Wright (1963). The best

78 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

direct evidence is probably that of Bainbridge (1965). The main func-

tion of belly-soaking in ground nesting birds would thus appear to be

cooling.

Table 1

Places in which belly-soaking has been observed in the Charadriiformes,

SHOWING LATITUDES AND APPROXIMATE CLIMATES

This conclusion is partly confirmed by the fact that sea water as

well as fresh water is used for egg-wetting. Apart from the fact that the

egg shell and membranes are only slightly permeable to water, so that

evaporation from within and penetration of water from outside are

very slow, the osmotic differences between the egg albumen [freezing

point about -0.45 °C (Romanoff & Romanoff 1967)] and sea water

(freezing point about -2°C) are such that water would tend to pass

out of the egg rather than into it when sea water was applied to the

shell. Further confirmation is the fact that Charadrius dubius seems to

wet its chicks in the same way as other charadriiforms wet their eggs

under the stress of high ambient temperatures, although of only about

29°C, which in other parts of the world in which belly-soaking has

been recorded would not constitute a hot day. Air temperature of only

29 °C accompanied by high relative humidity would certainly not result

in a dangerously high rate of evaporation from a bird’s egg ( cf . Roma-

noff & Romanoff 1949:380).

Tompkins (1942) implies that skimmers, oystercatchers, plovers

and nightjars “using a similar nesting ground” to Sterna albifrons in

Georgia do not need to counteract evaporation from their eggs by wet-

ting them as the terns do, because their eggs have much thicker shells.

I do not believe that actual measurements would substantiate this

claim — certainly it is hard to believe that a nightjar could lay a thicker-

shelled egg than a tern. In any case skimmers and plovers in other

BELLY-SOAKING IN THE CHA RADR11FORMES

79

parts of the world have indeed been seen wetting their eggs (Dharma-

kumarsinhji 1964; Lowther 1949).

Discussion

Nearly all the species of birds that regularly transport water in their

belly feathers nest near water, or fly daily to water to drink. They thus

have contact with water at least once daily even if, like the sandgrouse,

they are not primarily birds of waterside habitats. The main exception

to this rule is Vanellus malabaricus which is not a waterside breeder

as a rule (Ali & Ripley 1969a), but is sufficiently adaptable to capita-

lize on the water from a dripping tap when it is available. What does

V. malabaricus do for water in the absence of any artificial supply in

a habitat such as a fallow field?

An even more interesting question is: How have those species of

charadriiforms that nest in hot regions in the complete absence of

water become adapted at the egg stage to high temperatures without

the need for water-cooling? I am thinking here especially of the cour-

sers; but the same question could apply to any desert bird, even the

sandgrouse which, as far as I know, do not moisten their eggs during

incubation.

The answer cannot lie simply in the thickness of the egg shell as

suggested by Tompkins (1942), since even such small ground-nesting

birds as larks survive adequately without the need to wet their eggs

in any way. It may, however, lie in a reduced permeability of the egg

shell and egg membranes to water loss (and therefore probably to

water uptake — hence the absence of egg-wetting), or more likely to

an increased resistance of the embryo to high temperatures. Accurate

measurements of embryonic tolerance to high temperatures are needed

to show what differences exist among the charadriiforms, if any. It is

also necessary to know at what ambient air temperature belly-soaking

is initiated, and how this temperature correlates with embryonic tem-

perature tolerance.

Another possible factor is the thermoregulatory ability of the adults

at high temperatures. Desert forms may be more efficient at keeping

their own body temperatures lower than non -desert forms, for example.

The possibility of egg-wetting serving to counteract the effects of

water lost by evaporation cannot be ruled out as a cofactor; here again

quantitative data are essential.

A check of the breeding seasons and distributions of charadriiforms

in which belly-soaking has been recorded shows that they are mostly

spring to summer breeders in the northern hemisphere (see also Table 1),

so that they have eggs or young when air temperatures are high, espe-

cially in India where the habit is most widespread. Most southern Afri-

80 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

can charadriiforms nest from about midwinter (July) to late spring

when air temperatures are relatively low. Although the charadriiforms

of south America are mainly spring and summer nesters, the climate

is generally mild. These facts may account for the apparent absence

of belly-soaking in these southern hemisphere forms, and support fur-

ther the idea that its function is primarily one of cooling. But belly-

soaking has not been established in Australian charadriiforms, many

of which nest in summer.1

One might also expect equatorial charadriiforms of both hemis-

pheres to practise belly- soaking. It has been suggested for Pluvianus

aegyptius (Butler 1931), and has been recorded in Vanellus albiceps

at 9°N (Serle 1939) and at 18°S (Bainbridge 1965), and in V. sene-

gallus at about 15°S (Wright 1963), but surprisingly has not been seen

in these species elsewhere in their range, nor in any other species of

charadriiforms in Africa or tropical America as far as I know. This

may reflect a scarcity of observers in these regions, rather than an

absence of the behaviour pattern, so that it should be carefully looked

for in future.

What about the origin of belly- soaking? Since it is a transport

mechanism whose function seems to be mainly one of cooling, the

suggestion of Tompkins (1942) that “the origin of the practice may

be merely the wish of the bird to cool herself” is probably correct.

The incidental wetting of the ventral plumage in Ixobrychus exilis while

the parent bird was wading in deep water to cool itself on a hot day

(Weller 1961) seems to offer some small confirmation of the idea.

An alternative suggestion is that belly-soaking might have been de-

rived from bathing behaviour (Cade & Maclean 1967). This idea and

the previous idea are not mutually exclusive, except that, in my ex-

perience in southern Africa, birds bathe more frequently in cold weather

than in hot. However, I have seen a type of “bathing” in both Chara-

drius tricollaris and Vanellus armatus that resembled exactly the belly-

soaking movements of sandgrouse, involving wetting the belly plumage

only, without any of the head and wing movements typical of other

birds. These plovers were doing this on cold days in July and April

respectively. Was this belly-soaking or bathing? If the former, what

was its purpose? On neither occasion did the bird go to a nest follow-

ing the behaviour. If it was bathing, it was manifested in only the most

rudimentary form. The matter is clearly in need of closer attention.

1 In December 1974 I saw a Charadrius melanops in New South Wales soak

its belly feathers before flying to the nest to relieve its mate.

(Note added in proof)

BELLY-SOAKING IN THE CHARADRIIFORMES 31

ZUSAMMENFASSUNG

Wasseraufnahme im Bauchgefieder zum Zweck des Wasser-

transports, eine Funktion, die ich “Belly-soaking” genannt habe,

kommt nur unter den Flughuhnern nud den Charadriiformes

vor. Diese Wasserspeicherung unter den Charadriiformes dient

hauptsachlich zur Kiihlung der Eier oder Kiiken. Ob die Jungen

auf dieser Weise auch getrankt werden, ist noch nicht festgestellt

worden. Wassertransport im Bauchgefieder fehlt scheinbar in alien

anderen Vogelordnungen; sein Vorkommen scheint ein weiterer

Verwandtschaftsbeweis zwischen den Pteroclididae und den Cha-

radriiformes zu bilden, wie schon von Gatter (1971) vorgesch-

lagen ist. Das Entstehen dieses eigenartigen Verhalten wird dis-

kutiert.

References

Abdulali, H. (1939) : The sun as

a mortality factor among young birds.

/. Bombay nat. Hist Soc. 47:433-434.

Ali, S. & Ripley, S. D. (1969a) :

Handbook of the birds of India and

Pakistan. Vol. 2. Oxford University

Press, Bombay.

(1969b):

Handbook of the birds of India and

Pakistan. Vol. 3. Oxford University

Press, Bombay.

Bainbridge, W. R. (1965) : Nesting

behaviour of the White-headed Watt-

led Plover. Puku 3:171-173.

Butler, A. L. (1931): The chicks

of the Egyptian Plover. Ibis 1 (13th

Series): 345-347.

Cade, T. J. & Maclean, G. L.

(1967) : Transport of water by adult

sandgrouse to their young. Condor

69: 323-343.

Crossley, R. (1964) : Spur- winged

Plovers wetting their feathers before

incubating. Brit. Birds 57: 515-516.

Currie, A. J. (1916): The birds

of Lahore and the vicinity. J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 24:561-577.

Dharmakumarsinhji, R. S. (1964):

Some observations on the Small In-

dian Pratincole ( Glareola lactea Tem-

minck) and some other waders breed-

ing in Bhavnagar, Gujarat. Pavo 2 :

1-11.

Dresser, H. E. (1920): On some

rare Palaearctic birds’ eggs. Ibis 2

(8th Series): 177-180.

Gatter, W. (1971) : Wassertrans-

port beim Flussregenpfeifer ( Char ad -

rius dubius). Vogelwelt 92: 100-103.

Hobbs, J. N. (1972) : Breeding of

Red-capped Dotterel at Fletcher’s

Lake, Dareton, NSW. Emu 72: 121-

125.

Jayakar, S. D. & Spurway, H.

(1965a) : The Yellow- wattled Lap-

wing, a tropical dry-season nester

[ Vanellus malabaricus (Boddaert),

Charadriidae] . I. The locality, and

the incubatory adaptations. Zool. Jb.

Syst. 92:53-72.

(1965b) : The Yellow- wattled Lap-

wing, Vanellus malabaricus (Bod-

daert) , a tropical dry-season nester.

II. Additional data on breeding bio-

logy. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 62:

1-14.

Lowther, E. H. N. (1949) : A bird

photographer in India. Oxford Uni-

versity Press, London.

Maclean, G. L. (1967): Die sys-

tematische Stellung der Flughuhner

(Pteroclididae). J. Orn. 793:203-217.

(1968): Field stu-

dies on the sandgrouse of the Kala-

hari Desert. Living Bird 7: 209-235.

6

82 JOURNAL . BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

Meinertzhagen, R. (1954) : Birds

of Arabia. Oliver & Boyd, Edinburgh.

Pitman, C. R. S. (1965): The eggs

and nesting habits of the St. Helena

Sand-Plover or Wirebird, Charadrius

pecuarius sanctac-helenae (Harting) .

Bull. Brit. Orn. Club 85: 121-129.

Romanoff, A. L. & Romanoff,

A. J. (1949) : The avian egg. John

Wiley & Sons, New York.

(1967): Biochemistry of the

avian embryo. John Wiley & Sons,

New York.

Serle, W. (1939): Field observa-

tions on some northern Nigerian birds.

Ibis 7959:654-699.

Tompkins, I. R. (1942) : Least

Tern watering eggs: Gideon Mabbett’s

query. Auk 59:308.

Weller, M. W. (1961): Breeding

biology of the Least Bittern. Wilson

Bull. 73: 11-35.

Wright, P. J. (1963): Nesting be-

haviour of the Wattled Plover. Puku

7:218.

Observations on the occurrence

and habits of juvenile fishes

in the nearshore region

of the Mandapam area "1 2

K. V. Sekharan

Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute, Cochin-18

During 1952-55, I made a study of the juvenile fishes and their habits

in the nearshore region in the Mandapam area. The study, confined

mainly to the Palk Bay was facilitated largely because of the existence

of a fishery exclusively for juvenile fishes, although data from other

sources were also available. The present account deals with juveniles

observed in the region up to about 2 km from shore during the period

referred to above.

Studies were undertaken in the Palk Bay along a 5 km stretch of

the coast between Munakkad and Pullamadam, and in the Gulf of

Mannar at a point opposite the jetty of the Central Marine Fisheries

Research Institute. Three sources of data were available for this ac-

count: (i) The commercial fishery, (ii) Experimental light fishing con-

ducted by the C.M.F.R. Institute, and (iii) Independent observations

undertaken by me during weekly sea trips at night.

(i) The commercial fishery : Juveniles are landed mainly by torch

and hand-net boats (operated at night) and shore-seines (Sekharan

1955), the catches being greater during the new moon periods than

during other periods. Another net operated is Ola Valai, a small shore-

seine with the dragging ropes on either side having long dry palmyrah

leaves attached to them. Observations on the fishery were conducted

along the Palk Bay coast.

(ii) Experimental light fishing : Chellappa (1959) has described the

experimental light fishing conducted in the Gulf of Mannar at Manda-

pam. On a number of occasions I also made observations on the fishes

caught by this method.

(iii) Independent personal observations : During weekly sea trips

at night, observations were made of fishes attracted by the light from

1 Published with the permission of the Director, C.M.F.R. Institute, Cochin-18.

2 Accepted September 19, 1972.

84 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 72(1)

a 2-cell electric torch and also of fishes in the near-shore region.

Data on the important species represented in the catches are based

exclusively on the samples collected from the landings of torch-and-

hand-net boats and shore-seines. Samples were taken, usually once a

week, at night and preserved in formalin. In the laboratory, they were

sorted into species, and the total length measured. The methods adopt-

ed for estimating the landed weight and number of the two important

species of Sardinella which comprised the bulk of the landed catch of

young fishes have been described elsewhere (Sekharan 1971).

The juveniles described here measure generally less than 70 mm.

In terms of numbers and weights of all species combined, their period

of peak occurrence in the Palk Bay is March- June, and only that period

is referred to here in respect of the Palk Bay. In respect of the Gulf

of Mannar the period referred to is January- April.

About 60 species of young fishes have been identified in the near-

shore region, all common to the fish fauna of both the Palk Bay and

the Gulf of Mannar. The more common species and their length ranges

are given in the table.

Observations on the shoals of juveniles

Shoals of young fishes which consisted mostly of Sardinella spp.

and Stolephorus spp., and which are easily recognised as luminescent

patches, were either stationary or showed random movement. The noise

or vibration caused by the outboard engine (10 HP) used did not seem

to scare the fish, inasmuch as no sudden movement could be noted when

I collected plankton samples either directly over the shoals or very

close to them.

On a few occasions, I was able to watch the sardine shoals in dif-

ferent stages of encirclement by the shore-shine. The shoals touching

the wide-meshed part of the wing (made of coir rope) do not show

any tendency to escape; instead individual fishes could be seen darting

to and fro, seeming to peck at the net and then withdrawing, when

the area enclosed by the net is very wide. On the other hand, when

the enclosed area becomes smaller and smaller, the fish begin to escape

from the net, and could easily be collected with a cloth (Sekharan

1959). In other words, the tendency to escape seems caused not so much

by a slight obstruction in the path of the shoal, but by the limitation of

the area of movement. A similar reaction has been inferred from studies

of demersal fishes (Manteufel & Radakov 1964).

During March- June, the sardines are less than 65 mm on the aver-

age and are not normally found at the surface during dav-time

OCCURRENCE AND HABITS OF JUVENILE FISHES

85

Table

86 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

(Sekharan 1959). It would appear that the shoals break up or migrate to

deeper waters during day-time. But after June, the shoals are spotted

near the surface during day-time also; a change of habit with increase

in size is thus apparant.

Observations on the reactions of juveniles to light

(i) In the fishery: In the fishery using light, torches made of dried

palmyrah leaves are employed. When a torch is lighted near a lumines-

cent patch (shoal), the juveniles rapidly move towards it and around

the boat. The torch is held about 1\ metres above the surface of the

water. The fishes, especially the sardines, anchovies and Atherina spp.

even jump towards the light. Sometimes they crowd the entire near-

shore region right up to the water’s edge. Stationed about 75 metres

from a palmyrah torch, I could collect thousands with the bucket of a

\ m plankton net.

(ii) During experimental light fishing : First a 300 cc kerosene petro-

max light was used above the surface of the water. This was later sub-

stituted by an electric bulb, with power varying from 100 to 400 watts.

Later on, a submerged light with power ranging from 6 to 21 watts

was used. A dip net was arranged beneath the light. It was noted that

“while the submerged light by itself was not effective, a combination

of this with surface illumination gave a much bigger catch than either

of the lights used singly” (Chellappa 1959). Only occasionally were

sardines and anchovies seen in the catches; moreover they came in

ones and twos and not in shoals. Plotosus spp. on the other hand appear-

ed in groups of 10-15.

(iii) Independent experiments conducted during this study : An

ordinary electric torch (with two cells) was used in the Pallc Bay on

dark nights. As soon as the beam strikes the water surface, Atherina

spp. jump out of the water. When the beam moves along the surface,

the fish along the track jump out, and falling back, create a sound like

the patter of rain drops falling on water surface. Sardines were not seen

during these trials, probably because they move in groups and not as

individuals. Other fishes were not observed in the course of these trials.

In the evenings small sized Mugil spp. were seen along the water’s

edge in the Palk Bay and Gulf of Mannar.

Important fishes in the nearshore region

The data collected showed that Sardinella spp., Hilsa kelee and

Stolephorus spp. comprise the bulk of the juveniles (about 85%) in

OCCURRENCE AND HABITS OF JUVENILE FISHES

87

the nearshore region, during the March- June period. Among them,

Sardinella spp. are dominant, in terms of both numbers and mass. To

some extent, this may be correlated with the food of these fishes.

Food of important species of juveniles : On a few occasions the

stomach contents of different species of fishes from the nearshore re-

gion were examined. The important elements are mentioned below:

Sardinella spp.

Hilsa kelee

Stolephorus spp.

Copepod nauplii and

Copepodites

Copepods

Zoea

Lamellibranch larvae

Gastropod larvae

Diatoms

Dinoflagellates

Copepods

Zoea

Lamellibranch larvae

Diatoms (only small

quantities)

Lucifer spp.

Copepods

Other Crustacea

llisha spp.

Leiognathus spp.

Gazza spp.

Copepods

Larger crustaceans

Diatoms (very few)

Copepods

Decapod larvae

Diatoms (very few)

Copepods

Decapod larvae

Diatoms (very few)

It may be seen that the conformity of the food spectrum with net

plankton is more in the case of Sardinella spp. than in the case of other

species, which explains, at least partly, the dominance of the former

in the nearshore region.

The relative importance of Sardinella albella and S. gibbosa : Of

the species of Sardinella, only Sardinella albella and S. gibbosa are

important, the others forming less than 0.5 per cent of the sardine

catch. Between the two species, S. albella is the more important one,

on seasonal average. The ratio between the two species (in numbers)

in 1952, 1953, 1954 and 1955 respectively was 7:2, 7:3, 20:19 and 13:12

in torch-and hand-net catches, and 3:2, 7:8, 17:12 and 1:5 in shore-

seine catches.

Discussion

Since Sardinella spp. comprised the bulk of the biomass of juveniles

in the nearshore region, the entire group may be termed the “ Sardinella

complex”. It would be interesting to find whether Sardinella spp. are

associated with the same or related species in other regions of the east

and west coasts of India.

As Sardinella spp. occupy a lower trophic level than other fishes,

the dominance of the former in the nearshore region is explicable. But

88 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 72(1)

the dominance pattern between the two species of Sardinella in the

nearshore region cannot be satisfactorily explained in terms of feeding

relationships alone. Both species occur in the same haul, feed on iden-

tical items with little indication of any item being taken more by one

species than by the other (Sekharan 1970). Ivlev’s (1961) experiments

show that the feeding of a species in an area may be adversely affected

by the mere presence of another species; the effect would obviously

be reflected in the magnitude of the two populations in the area. It is

also generally contended by ecologists that two species with the same

ecological requirements cannot co-exist in the same habitat (Gause’s

theory). Therefore, on these considerations, equal abundance of the

two species in the area is not to be expected. But the seasonal data

indicate near parity in the relative abundance of the two species. This

is of course not true of short-term periods within a season, for which

the pattern is not constant; the dominant species was Sardinella albella

in some periods but S. gibbosa during others, both in numbers and in

biomass. Viewed in this light, the situation here would not run counter

to Gause’s theory.

It was however apparent that the balance between the two species

was delicate and could even be upset in the future. In the Gulf of

Mannar, S. gibbosa was the dominant species of Sardinella while in the

Palk Bay, the inter- specific ‘struggle’ for dominance appeared to be

still on. A reversal of the observed pattern of species abundance in the

Palk Bay could therefore be visualised.

The Palk Bay fishery for juveniles is a good example of commer-

cial sampling of young fishes. Considerable time and expense are in-

volved in the scientific survey of juveniles in fishery biological work.

If commercial fisheries on the Palk Bay model could be established

in areas where young fish are suspected to congregate, it would be

advantageous in fisheries research work.

The recent decline in torch-and hand-net fishing (Dr. R. V. Nair,

personal communication) calls for a serious study. Compared to the

1950’s the character of the fisheries in the Palk Bay had changed con-

siderably in 1960’s with a concomitant increase in mechanisation of

boats. The fishery for Leiognathus spp. is of much greater importance

now-a-days than formerly. If the abundance of sardines has declined,

it has to be determined to what extent the decrease is fishery-dependent.

Similarly the effect, if any, of the recent changes in the fishing methods

in the Palk Bay on the eco-system and the balance of the populations

there merits an investigation,

OCCURRENCE AND HABITS OF JUVENILE FISHES

89

References

Chellappa, D. E. (1959): A note

on the night fishing observations from

a kelong. J. Mar. Biol. Ass. India 1 :

93.

Ivelev, V. S. (1961): Experimental

ecology of the feeding of fishes (Trans-

lated from Russian by D. Scott) .

Yale University Press, New Haven,

302 pp.

Manteufel, B. P. & Radakov, D. V.

(1964) : Summary account of the in-

vestigations carried out in the USSR

on the behaviour of fish in the zone

of the fishing gear. Rapp. cons. Perm.

Internat. Explor. Mer. 755:21-22.

Sekharan, K. V. (1955): Observa-

tions on the Choodai fishery of Man-

dapam area. Indian J. Fish., 2:115-131.

(1959) : Size-

groups of Choodai caught by different

nets and in different localities, ibid.

5:1-31.

(1970): On the

rates of the sardines Sardinella albella

and S. gibbosa of the Mandapam

area. ibid. 75:96-141.

(1971): Growth

rates of the sardine Sardinella albella

(Val.) and S. gibbosa (Bleek.) of the

Mandapam area. ibid. 75:68-90.

A new species and notes on

the genus Anthoxanthum L.

(Poaceae)1

S. K. Jain2 and D. C. Pal

Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta

( With three text-figures)

A new grass Anthoxanthum borii is described. A dichotomous

key is provided for identification of the six species of the genus

Anthoxanthum L.. occurring in India. Important distinguishing

characters of the new species are also illustrated in a text-figure.

Some critical notes on the identity of certain taxa are given.

Introduction

The genus Anthoxanthum L. was formerly included in the tribe

Phalarideae of the subfamily Pooideae (Hooker, 221; Bor, 163, 1940;

Hitchcock, 549); it is now placed in the tribe Aveneae (Bor, 431, 1960;

Hubbard, 433).

Anthoxanthum L. is a large genus of about 50 species and numer-

ous varieties (Chase & Niles 1962), distributed in almost all continents,

particularly in Europe, the Mediterranean region and Old World.

The material of the genus from the herbaria at Shillong (ASSAM),

Coimbatore (MH) and Calcutta (CAL) was examined; this included

two type specimens of A. hookeri (Griseb.) Rendle and A. sikkimense

(Maxim.) Ohwi.

Four species, namely A. clarkei (Hook, f.) Ohwi; A. hookeri

(Griseb.) Rendle, A. odoratum L. and A. sikkimense (Maxim.) Ohwi

are reported to occur in different parts of India, particularly in the

eastern Himalayas and peninsular India. A. puelii Lee. & Lam., a grass

from southern Europe, is comparatively a recent introduction in India.

One new species occurring in south India was discovered.

Anthoxanthum L. Gen. PI. ed. 5:17, 1754.

Annual or perennial. Leaves up to about 10 mm wide. Inflores-

1 Accepted November 14, 1972.

2 Present address : Dy. Director, B.S.L, Eastern Circle, “Woodlands’*, Laith-

umkhara, Shillong, Assam.

NEW SPECIES OF GENUS ANTHOXANTHUM

91

cence a spiciform or lax panicle. Spikelets oblong to linear-lanceolate,

slightly laterally compressed, rhachilla disarticulating above the glumes.

Glumes 2, persistent, 1-3-nerved, 1-keeled, acute or acuminate, upper

longer. Florets 3, heteromorphous; first (lowest) floret male, some-

times barren; lemma oblong-lanceolate, 5-7-nerved, hairy, shortly

awned; palea 2-keeled, lodicules 0; stamens 3; second ( middle ) floret

barren. Lemma and palea similar to that of lowest floret; awn longer,

kneed, arising from near the base or from the middle. Third ( terminal )

floret hermaphrodite; Lemma much shorter than the lower two, broad-

ly elliptic-lanceolate, delicately 1-7 nerved; palea 1-nerved; lodicules

0; stamens 2; styles distinct; stigmas 2, long, exserted from the tip of

the spikelet, plumose. Grain ovoid, slightly laterally compressed.

Etymology : anthos : flower; xanthos: yellow, refers to pale yellow-

ish inflorescence. Type species: A. odoratum L.

Key to species

1. Spikelets less than 5 mm long; awns projecting, -j- equal to the

spikelet itself A. sikkimense

1. Spikelets more than 5.5 mm long; awns projecting equal to,

or much less than, the spikelet:

2. Spikelets very shortly awned, awn not projecting more than

2 mm beyond the spikelet:

3. Perennial; culms unbranched A. odoratum

3. Annual; culms branched, geniculate below A. puelii

2. Spikelets with long awns, awns projecting more than 2 mm

beyond the spikelet:

4. Spikelets about 5.5 mm long; pedicels glabrous; lower and

upper glumes acute (not acuminate); lemmas densely

brownish hairy A. clarkei

4. Spikelets more than 6 mm long; pedicels glabrous or hairy,

lower and upper glumes acuminate, lemmas less hairy,

hairs hyaline :

5. Culms unbranched; leafblades up to 5 mm broad; ligule

longer than broad; pedicels glabrous; lower glume about

half as long as the upper, rarely more; inflorescence

slender loose A. hookeri

5. Culms branched; leafblades up to 10 mm broad; ligule

broader than long; pedicels hairy; lower glumes usually

exceeding half the upper glume; inflorescence

congested A. borii

The distinguishing characters of the new species have also been

illustrated in the plate. In the following account, the species are arrang-

ed alphabetically. The new species is described in detail; for others, full

descriptions are omitted as they are available in published literature, to

which references have been cited.

92 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

■

Anthoxanthum borii sp. nov. (Figs. 1-3)

Anthoxanthum borii sp. nov. similis A. hookeri sed culmis ramosis,

foliorum laminis latioribus, pedicellis pilosis, paniculis congestis differt.

Holotype: Pulneys, Pambar stream, near Shenthadikanal, 6-xii-1898.

Bourne 1954 (CAL).

Anthoxanthum borii sp. nov. resembles A. hookeri (Griseb.) Rendle

but differs in having branched culms, broad leaf blades, hairy pedicels

and congested panicles.

A perennial rhizomatous grass, culms branched, erect, slender

0.6-1 m tall. Roots shallow. Leaf sheaths compressed, glabrous, slip-

ping, from the culms; leaf blades linear, 8-30 cm long, 4-10 mm wide,

rounded at the base, acute, glabrous or sparsely hairy; ligule truncate,

membranous, hyaline, up to 3 mm long. Inflorescence a congested pani-

cle, up to about 13 cm long, 2 cm wide; racemes short. S pikelets oblong-

lanceolate, including the awn: 8-10 mm long, excluding the awn: 6-7

mm long, 1.5-2 mm broad, on short hairy pedicels. Lower glume ovate-

lanceolate, acuminate, 4-5.5 mm long chartaceous, 1 -nerved, upper

glume ovate-acuminate, 6-7 mm long, 3-nerved, 1-keeled, keel scabrid,

margins broad hyaline. First ( lowest ) floret male or barren; lemma 5-6

mm long, thin, membranous, 5-nerved, mid-nerve distinct, others faint,

pilose with brown hairs, 2-lobed, lobes incised, awned in the sinus, awn

up to or slightly exceeding the lemma; palea hyaline, linear-lanceolate,

4-5 mm long, 2-keeled, glabrous; stamens 3 or fewer, anthers 2-2.5 mm

long. Second ( middle ) floret barren, lemma 4.5-6 mm long, oblong-

lanceolate, obtuse, bifid, hairy, awned from the back at about the middle

or lower down, awn slender, scabrid, geniculate, 6-9 mm long. Third

(upper) floret hermaphrodite, lemma almost rotund, obtuse or acute

and shortly aristate, 2.5-3 mm long, hyaline, very faintly 5-7 nerved;

palea lanceolate, about 2 mm long; stamens 3 or 2; anthers 2-2.5 mm;

stigmas 2, long, sometimes protruding beyond the floret; lodicules not

seen.

India: Tamil Nadu, Palnis, Pambar stream near Shenthadikanal,

6-xii-1898, Bourne 1954.

Distribution : India, so far endemic in Tamil Nadu.

Etymology : The grass is being named in honour of Dr. N. L. Bor,

who first suspected this taxon to be new.

Critical note :

The third floret in our new species is normally unawned, but one of

the sheets of Bourne (No. 1954, CAL 533452) shows the lemma of

the third floret also shortly aristate. This character seems to be variable,

as already recorded by Hubbard (p. 235) in an allied genus Arrhen-

therum P. Beauv.

Anthoxanthum borii resembles on the one hand, A. hookeri (Griseb.)

Rendle, and on the other, A. clarkei (Hook, f.) Ohwi. The following

NEW SPECIES OF GENUS ANTHOXANTHUM

94 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

table brings out the distinguishing characters between these species and

should help in identification.

Anthoxanthum clarkei (Hook, f.) Ohwi

Anthoxanthum clarkei (Hook, f.) Ohwi in Bull. Tokyo Sci. Mus.

18:8, 1947; Bor, 431, 1960.

Hierochloe 'clarkei Hook. f. FI. Br. Ind. 7:223, 1896; Bor, 167, 1940.

Specimens examined : Arunchal: Jabrang, 2744 m, 15-xi-1951, G. K.

Deka ( ASSAM 20945); Arunachal: Jabrang, 16-X-1955, Seshagiri Rao

1289, ( ASSAM 20944).

Distribution : Eastern India, Burma.

Etymology : The species is named in honour of C. B. Clarke.

Anthoxanthum hookeri (Griseb.) Rendle

Anthoxanthum hookeri (Griseb.) Rendle in J. Linn. Soc. (Bot.)

36:380, 1904; Bor, 431, 1960.

Hierochloe hookeri (Griseb.) Clarke ex Hook. f. FI. Br. Ind. 7:

223, 1896.

Specimens examined : Sikkim, 2700-3600 m, J. D. Hooker s. n.

{CAL) (Type); Sikkim: Zemu Valley, 2850 m, 9-vii-1909, Smith &

Cave 1036 (CAL).

Distribution : Eastern Himalayas.

Etymology : This species is named in honour of J. D. Hooker.

Critical note : The grass described by Fischer (1846) under this

name is actually A. borii Jain et Pal.

Anthoxanthum odoratum L.

Anthoxanthum odoratum L. Sp. PI. ed. 1, 28, 1753; Hooker, 222;

NEW SPECIES OF GENUS ANTHOXANTHUM

95

Bor, 431, 1960; Hubbard, 271.

Specimens examined : Assam: Sept. 1936, N. L. Bor 13765

( ASSAM 32589); Meghalaya: Shillong, 1400-1500 m, 22-vi-1937, N. L.

Bor s.n. {ASSAM 32590); Meghalaya: Shillong, 3-vi-1937, G. K. Deka

13998 (ASSAM 32592); Meghalaya: Shillong, 1500 m, 18-V-1938, G. K.

Deka 20354 (ASSAM 32591); Meghalaya: Shillong 20-V-1957, G. Pani-

grahi 4780 (ASSAM 23269); Madras: Nilgiri, 2400 m, 24-i-1957,

K. M. Sebastine 2214 (MH 4277); Madras: Kodaikanal, 19-iii- 1950,

D. Daniel, S. Roy and J. S. Rao s.n. (MH 93869); Madras; Ooty,

2220 m, 14-ix-1930, V. Narayanaswami, 4345 (MH 30312).

Distribution : All hilly regions of India; often cultivated; occasion-

ally escape and run wild; Europe to Asia.

Etymology : The specific name refers to its odoriferous nature.

Anthoxanthum puelii Lecoq. et Lam.

Anthoxanthum puelii Lecoq. & Lamotte Cat. PI. Prance 385, 1847;

Hubbard 269.

A. aristatum Boiss. Bor, 164, 1940.

The following sheets in the ASSAM herbarium bear the annotation

A. aristatum Boiss.

1. Shillong, Morollos’ Compound, l-vi-1937, Bor 13997 (ASSAM

32593).

2. Shillong, Lake garden, 3-vi-1937, Deka 13998 (ASSAM 32594).

3. Shillong, 21-iv-1941, Dhar 20653 (ASSAM 32595).

The first two sheets have been identified by Bor; and sheet No. 1

bears a note by him “This is a European grass. Pound in Morollos’

Compound, 1 -vi-37. Probably introduced and run wild. Sweet vernal

grass — Bor”.

The characters by which the grass differs from A. odoratum L.

have been brought out in the key; these are based on Hubbard (p. 269),

Hitchcock (p. 549) and Bor (p. 164, 1940). Our examination also shows

that these specimens from Shillong agree with these characters.

It may be mentioned here that Hubbard (p. 269) has described this

grass under the name A . puelii Lee. & Lam. He and Hitchcock (p. 818)

have recorded that many authors consider A. aristatum Boiss. and

A. puelii Lee. & Lam. to be synonymous.

This grass grows along with A. odoratum L.; Deka collected both

species on 3-vi-1937 from the same spot, and erroneously gave the same

field No. 13998 to both.

Anthoxanthum sikkimense (Maxim.) Ohwi

Anthoxanthum sikkimense (Maxim.) Ohwi in Bull. Tokyo Sci.

Mus. 18:8, 1947; Bor, 431, 1960.

Hierochloe gracillima Hook. f. PI. Br. Ind. 7:223, 1896; Bor 166,

1940.

96 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 72(1)

Specimens examined : Sikkim: 3300-3600 m, J. D. Hooker, s.n.

{CAL) (Type).

Distribution : Eastern Himalayas.

Etymology : The species is named after its type locality, Sikkim.

Conspectus of synonymous names

The synonyms appearing in the foregoing account of the genus

Anthoxanthum L. are listed below. Many binomials published under

the genus Anthoxanthum L. refer to grasses which are not Anthoxan-

thum at all, but belong to other genera; several such names relate to

grasses occurring in India and are included in following table:

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to the Director and Joint Director of Botanical Sur-

vey of India for facilities for these studies, and to the Regional Bota-

nists for loaning some specimens from their herbaria {MH, ASSAM).

Dr. M. P. Nayar has kindly provided the Latin diagnosis of the new

species.

References

Bor, N. L. (1940) : Flora of

Assam 5 (Gramineae). Calcutta.

(1960): The Grasses of

Burma, Ceylon, India and Pakistan.

London.

Chase, A. & Niles, C. D. (1962):

Index to World Grasses, 3 Vols.

Boston.

Fischer, C. E. C. (1934) : Flora of

the Presidency of Madras. 10.

Hitchcock, A. S. (1950): Manual

of the Grasses of the United States.

Washington.

Hooker, J. D. (1896): The Flora

of British India. 7. London.

Hubbard, C. E. (1968) : Grasses.

London.

Bionomics and immature stages

of the Barleria Lacebug

Habrochila laeta Drake

Heteroptera: Tingidae1

K. Peethambaran Asari2

Southern Regional Station , Zoological Survey of India, Madras-4

( With two text-figures and three graphs)

The life history and population fluctuation for the three prin-

cipal seasons of Habrochila laeta Drake has been studied. The

nymphal stages have been described in detail. Graphs relating to

growth rates of various parts of the body to the body length have

been provided.

Introduction

Tingid bugs, also known as lace wing bugs are phytophagous insects

which often inflict appreciable damage to plants due to their habit of

feeding on plant sap and many species are known to be pests of crop

plants. Studies on the nature of damage caused and biology are avail-

able of a few species namely Telonemia surupulosa Stal. (Khan 1945,

Roonwal 1952), Tingis beesoni Drake (Mathur 1955), Urentius echinus

Dist. (Patel & Kulkarny 1955 ), Monant hi a globulifera Walker (Sharga

1953), Stephanitis typicus Dist. (Ayyar 1963, Mathen 1960, and Mathen

et al. 1969), Monastria minutula Montandon, Tingis buddleiae Drake,

Cadmilos retiarius Dist., Urentius euonymus Dist. (Livingston 1959,

1962 and 1968) and Corythauma ayyari Drake (David 1958, Dorge

1971). Mohanasundaram & Basheer (1963) have reported on the effect

of weather factors on the population fluctuation of the Tingid, Habro-

chila laeta Drake, on Barleria cristata while David & Rangarajan (1966)

noted it as one of the important pests of the flowering shrub Barleria

spp. However, information on the habits, biology and immature stages

of H. laeta appear meagre and the results presented here provide the

necessary data.

1 Accepted June 27, 1972.

2 Present address: Lecturer -in-charge, Dept, of Zoology, Govt. College,

Port Blair, Andamans, India.

7

98 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

Material and Methods

, The observations on the seasonal abundance and behaviour of the

ihsect were made in a field at Poonamallee, near Madras. The popu-

lation of the adult and different instar nymphs on ten leaves, collected

at random was recorded at intervals of about a fortnight, during the

period March 1971 to February 1972. The studies on tfee life history

of the insect were carried out in laboratory. Temp. 29 4; 2°C, R. H.

75 ± 5%). The figures were drawn using a graticule and measurements

were taken with a micrometer. Measurements of body parts of immature

stages when plotted against body length have shown a linear relation-

ship. The regression equations have been calculated using the formula

Yc = a + bx, where ‘Yc’ is the calculated value of each observed value,

‘a’ and ‘b’ constants and ‘x’ body length. (Graphs II & III).

GRAPH I

Graph I. Seasonal fluctuation of Habrochila laeta Drake during the period from

1971 March to 1972 February.

BIONOMICS OF BARLERlA LACEBUG

9§

^Length of Tibia; O Length of Tarsus.

Graph III. Antennal segments in relation to body length.

•“First segment; ASecond segment;

(H Third segment; ©Fourth segment.

Seasonal occurrence and habits of the insect

The insect is found practically throughout the year on Barleria

cristata. The population fluctuations of the adults and different nym-

phal instars for the three principal seasons are presented in Graph I.

Infestation on the plant is more severe during summer months. The

population is much reduced during monsoon and winter, perhaps due

to adverse weather conditions. All the developmental stages occur on

a single leaf and during peak infestations a single leaf may carry as

many as 52 individuals of different stages. Adults and immature stages

feed on the leaf content mainly from the ventral side causing the de-

velopment of pale-yellow patches and ultimately shedding of the leaf.

The younger ones, particularly the first and second instars show a gre-

garious tendency during feeding. The attack on the plant is gradual

but severe. When the leaf is completely covered with excreta, the indi-

viduals migrate to fresh leaves. The adults have very weak wings and

flying ability is very low. Dispersal takes place by contact and also

100 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

by wind. It was noticed that if the plants are cultivated in separate

batches all of them may not be affected at the same time; whereas

if they are planted in a row, infestation starts from one end and spreads

to the other end.

Copulation and Egg laying

Females mate soon after emergence with males which mate only

after 40 to 50 hours of their emergence. The process of mating is

initiated by the male which approaches the female and flutters its

wings for some time, before climbing over the female. Then the posterior

end of the body of the male is bent posterolaterally and after two to

three attempts it succeeds in copulating. Still attached to the female,

the male slides down the female and takes it’s position on one side of

the female so as to make an angle of about 50°. The mating individuals

do not feed but sometimes exhibit slight movements. They remain with

heads turned downwards and antennae produced upwards. The whole

process lasts for more than one hour (60 to 70 minutes). Similar

type of mating behaviour has been reported for Tingis buddleiae Drake

(Livingston 1968). The females were observed to mate only once in

their life time, while the males mate three to four times with virgin

females.

Pre-oviposition period lasts from 30 to 36 hours and oviposition

period from 7 to 8 days. A female lays an average of 40 eggs in its

life time.

The site on the leaf where eggs are laid varies in different species

of Tingidae. H. laeta lays the eggs mostly on the dorsal surface on

either side of the midrib of the leaves after making a small puncture

with its gonopophysis. The process of egg laying lasts for 7 to 8 minu-

tes. The eggs are always placed singly and in a slanting position. The

opercular region projects out of leaf surface while the posterior part of

the egg reaches the mesophyll (Fig. Ib). Two to three days after egg

laying, the area of the leaf surrounding the egg becomes translucent.

In the case of Telonemia scrupulosa, Roonwal (1952) observed gall

formation in the leaf, where the egg is laid. No gall formation has

been observed in the present study. Johnson (1936) and Livingston

(1962) have reported smearing of the faecal fluid over the operculum

in the eggs after its deposition in Leptobrysa rhododendri and Dictyla

sufjata respectively. No such smearing of the faecal fluid was noted

in H. laeta. -

Egg. (Fig la)

Elongate, pale yellow, shining, marked with irregular sculptures on outer

surface; micropylar part brownish, narrow; inserted end blunt. Outer surface

of operculum irregular with brownish hexagonal sculptures. Eight to eleven

faint longitudinal canals present in the polarito disci (Fig. Tc); canals lead to a

circular canal present below the neck. The polarito disci similar to that of Tingis

BIONOMICS OF BARLERIA LACEBUG

ioi

stachydis (Stusak 1968). Basis operculari thick, continued through the outer

part of chorion.

The incubation period during October-November has been found

to be between 9 to 11 days. The process of hatching lasts for about

Fig. I

Fig. I. a — Egg; b — Opercular part of egg; c — Section of leaf showing the posi-

tion of egg; d — Tubercle of the abdominal segment (enlarged).

BO — Basis operculari; LCH — Limbs chorioni; PD — Polarito disci; MC — Micro-

phylar canal.

ten minutes. The opercular region is lifted and pushed to one side along

with a part of endochorion. The vertex of head emerges first followed

by the first pair of legs which, after establishing a grip on the leaf sur-

face draws out the body. For about 15 minutes the tiny whitish young

do not feed, for the rostrum is attached to the ventral body by the

ecdysial fluid.

First Instar (Fig. Ha)

Head markedly conical; clypeus prominent; anterior part of frons beset

with three small protuberances two lateral and one median, each with a long

spine, median spine bifurcated at base; vertex with a single protuberance bear-

ing two spines; all the spines globulated; ecdysial suture prominent, reaching

up to the second abdominal segment; antennae long, four segmented, hyaline

and setose; terminal segment brown with the setae longer and thicker; rostrum

hyaline, four segmented, with blackish fourth segment; stylets extend beyond

rostral sheath. Eyes rose red with five ommatidia. Pronotum broad with straight

anterior and convex posterior margins; median dorsal side with two protu-

berances one on either side of ecdysial suture, each with a spine; mesothorax

102 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

as broad as prothorax, with median tubercles placed a little away from the

ecdysial line; metathorax narrow, without dorsal spines; pro, meso and meta-

thoracic segments with spines laterally, one on each side; hind leg longer, coxa

broad; trochanter indistinguishable; femur as long as tibia; tarsus unsegmented,

brownish with two claws; setae present in distal segments, those of tarsus longer

and thicker. Abdomen as broad as thorax; first segment narrow; second seg-

ment prominent with a pair of lateral tubercles and spines, median dorsal side

with a tubercle bearing two spines; third and fourth segments similar with

lateral tubercles and spines; fifth, sixth and eighth similar to second in tuber-

cular arrangement; seventh and ninth to third and fourth; tenth narrow, conical

with three or four sharp spines at tip.

Dorsal scent glands hardly visible between third and fourth and

fourth and fifth segments.

The first instar moults to second instar between 48 to 60 hours.

Second Instar (Fig. lib)

Slightly elongate, yellowish brown.

Clypeus elongate, anterolateral sides of the frons with protuberances each

with a pair of spines; median dorsal side of the frons with a club shaped short

tubercle bearing small scoli at its tip; similar tubercles present on vertices too;

ecdysial suture similar to that of first instar; first two antennal segments equal

in length; third longest; fourth longer than the first and second; first three seg-

ments of rostrum hyaline, fourth blackish brown, reaching only up to the

second abdominal segment. Pronotum three times wider than long, with anterior

concave, posterior straight and lateral convex margins; mesonotum with anterior

straight, posterior concave and lateral convex margins; metanotum narrow;

pro, meso and metathoracic segments bear lateral club shaped tubercles, one on

each side. Legs similar and spinous. First segment of abdomen narrow, convex

anteriorly and concave posteriorly; second similar to first but with a median

dorsal tubercle; third similar to first but wider; fourth broader than third and

bears a pair of lateral tubercles; fifth with dorsal and lateral tubercles; sixth

similar to fifth in tubercular arrangement but narrow; seventh similar to fifth

in the tubercular arrangement; eighth with a small stumpy dorsal tubercle and

a pair of lateral processes bearing spines; ninth narrower than eighth and bears

lateral processes and spines as on eighth; tenth tubular with four to six spines.

The second instar transforms to third after 30 to 38 hours.

Third Instar (Fig. lie)

Elongate. Deep brown with a blackish tinge.

Anterior part of head oval; frons bears three club shaped stalked tubercles

two fronto-lateral and one dorso-median. Of the four antennal segments,

second smallest, third longest fourth longer than the first; eyes rose-red with

12 to 16 ommatidia. Prothorax large, almost half the size of entire thorax; with

lateral tergal expansions extending little beyond the level of eyes; mesothorax

smaller than prothorax but longer than metathorax; metathorax very small,

median dorsal side alone is visible; tubercular arrangement as that of second

instar. Abdomen oval. Second segment longer than the first with a median

dorsal tubercle; fourth and fifth constitute the widest part of body; ninth seg-

ment with lateral club shaped tubercles; tenth with five to seven spines.

The third instar moults after 35 to 42 hours.

Fourth Instar (Fig. lid)

Broadly oval and blackish brown.

Measurements of nymphal instars in mm. Each figure is an arithmetic mean based on 10 individuals

BIONOMICS OF BARLERIA LACEBUG

104 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

,35’nr'rr‘

Fig. II. a — First Instar nymph; b — Second Instar nymph; c — Third Instar nymph;

d — Fourth Instar nymph; e — Fifth Instar nymph.

Head oval with conical clypeus; head tubercles similar to those of third

instar except for being longer; fourth segment of antenna deep brown with

almost blackish bristles; rostrum reaches only up to the metathoracic segment;

eyes deep brown with imbricately arranged ommatidia. Prothorax with straight

anterior and convex lateral margins; posterior margin convex with a longitudinal

cleft through centre, the ecdysial suture passing through it; metathorax with

wing pads reaching upto third abdominal segment; outer margin of wing pads

BIONOMICS OF BARLERIA LACEBUG

105

convex, inner concave and posteiror blunt. The process of “translocation”

(Stusak & Stays 1959) by which the tubercles of the mesothorax become asso-

ciated with the wing pads occurs at this stage. Abdomen compact with tubercles

similar to those of third instar; tenth segment very small with five to eight

backwardly directed spines.

After 42 to 50 hours the transformation to fifth instar takes place.

Fifth Instar (Fig. He)

Oval. Blackish brown except for femur, tibia, proximal tarsus and

first three antennal segments which are pale yellow.

Head roughly triangular; tubercles (Fig. Id) much longer and brown, those

of vertices directed side ways; median part of vertex covered over by anterior

extension of pronotum; eyes red brown with imbricately arranged ommatidia.

Fourth segment of antenna black. Pronotum with large lateral and median

anterior expansions; hood developed on its posterior side; dorsal spines of

pronotum become associated with anterolateral sides of hood; wing pads long,

reaching up to posterior limit of fifth abdominal segment; wing pads of meta-

thorax smaller. Central part of abdomen forms the widest part of body; lateral

sides of first five segments almost covered by wing pads; tenth segment very

narrow with posteriorly directed spines.

The fifth instar moults to imago within 60 to 70 hours.

The adults were described by Drake (1954). The males are lighter

in colour, shorter and narrower in size than the females.

General observations

At the time of moulting all the nymphal instars are whitish in colour

which gradually turns to dull yellow in first and second instars, brownish

yellow in third and blackish brown in fourth and fifth. The body surr

face acquires a shining texture after sometime. The fifth instar, white

at the time of emergence, acquires a blue tinge a little later and finally

turns to shiny black.

In all instars the Y-shaped ecdysial suture is not prominent at the

time of moulting. It appears as a transparent streak after two to three

hours. Dorsal abdominal glands which are hardly visible in the first

instar become clearly visible in the second, third, fourth and fifth in-

stars.

At the time of emergence of the imago, the hexagonal and penta-

gonal ridges of the hood are connected by a whitish membrane. This

membrane later becomes transparent and the ridges blackish.

The adult males live from seven to eleven days and females from

eight to fourteen days.

Ack no wledge m e n ts

I am grateful to Dr. A. P. Kapur, Director, Zoological Survey of

India and Dr. K. Reddiah, Superintending Zoologist, Zoological Sur-

vey of India for giving facilities. Grateful thanks are also due to Dr.

T. N. Ananthakrishnan, Director, Entomology Research Unit, Loyola

College, Madras for suggesting the problem and his constant encourage-

ment in this investigation.

106 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

References

Ayyar, T. V. Ramakrishna (1963):

Hand book of Economic Entomology

of South India. Second edn; Govt,

press, Madras p. 516.

David, B. V. & Rangarajan, A. V.

(1966): Insects affecting Barleria spp.

in Coimbatore. Indian J. Hort. 23

(3 & 4): 191-195.

David, S. Kanakaraj (1958): In-

sects affecting Jasmine in the Mad-

ras State. Madras agri. J. 45(4): 146-

150.

Dorge, S. K. (1971): A note on

Corythauma ayyari Drake (Tingidae)

as a pest of Jasminum spp. in Maha-

rashtra State. Sci. & Cult. 57:156-157.

Drake, C. J. (1954) : A miscellany

of New Tingidae (Hemiptera). Proc.

Biol. Soc. Wash. 67, p. 12.

Johnson, C. G. (1936): The bio-

logy of Leptobrysa rhododendri Hor-

wath. Ann. Appl. Biol. Cambridge

23: 342-368.

Khan, A. H. (1945): On the Lan-

tana bug. ( Telonemia scrupulosa).

Indian J. ent. 6 (1-2) : 148-151.

Livingston, D. (1959): On the

bionomics and immature stages of

Urentius euonymus Dist. (Heteroptera,

Tingidae) a sap sucker on Hollyhock

and other garden plants. Proc. 1st.

All Indian congress Zool. part 2:

510:519.

(1962): On the

biology and immature stages of a sap

sucker on Zizyphus jujuba, Monastria

minutula Montandon, a species new

to India. (Heteroptera, Tingidae).

Agra Univ. J. Res. (Sci). 11(1) : 1 17-

130.

(1962): On the

biology and immature stages of Cad-

milos retiarius Dist. (Heteroptera,

Tingidae) a sap sucker on Compositae.

Agra Univ. J. Res. (Sci). 7763) : 47-

62.

(1968): On the

morphology and bionomics of Tingis

buddleiae Drake (Heteroptera, Tingi-

dae) Part I. Bionomics. Agra Univ.

J. Res. (Sci). 77(3): 1-16.

Mathur, R. N. (1955) : Immature

stages of Tingis beesoni Drake. En-

tomologist, London 88 (1110) :248-

251.

Mohanasundaram, M. & Basheer,

M. (1963): Population studies of

Habrochila laeta Drake (Tingidae:

Hemiptera) (abstract). Madras agri.

J. 50(2) : 104.

Patel, R. C. & Kulicarny, H. L.

(1955) : Bionomics of Urentius echi-

nus Dist. (Hemiptera: Heteroptera:

Tingidae) as an important pest of

Brinjal. (Solanam melogenea) in north

Gujarat. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 53

(1): 86-96.

Roonwal, M. L. (1952): The nat-

ural establishment and dispersal of an

important insect in India, the Lan-

tana bug (Telonemia scrupulosa Stal.)

(Hemiptera: Tingidae) with a des-

cription of the eggs, nymphs and

adult. J. Zool. Soc. India 4(1): 1-16.

Sharga, U. S. (1953) : Bionomics

of Monanthia globulifera Walker

(Hemiptera: Tingidae). J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 57(4) : 885-889.

Stusak, J. M. (1968): Notes on

the bionomics and immature stages

of Tingis stachydis Fieber (Heterop-

tera, Tingidae). Acta. ent. Bohemoslov

65: 412-421.

& Stays, P. (1959) :

Investigations on the taxonomy and

morphology of imagines and nymphs

of some species of the genus, Mon-

anthia La Pelatier et Serville 1825

(Hemiptera: Heteroptera: Tingidae).

Acta. Univ. Carolane Biologica. 3;

177-205.

Some observations on the

colour changes of the Indian

Chamaeleon1

V. S. Durve2 and H. S. Sharma

Zoological Survey of India, Jabalpur

{With a plate )

In troduction

Chamaeleons are known for their ability to change colour rapidly.

Interesting accounts on this aspect have been recorded by Hogben &

Mirvish (1928), Hingston (1933), Zoond & Eyre (1934), Zoond &

Bokenham (1935), Drimmer (1954) and Goin and Goin (1962). The

work of these authors is on Chamaeleon chamaeleon, C. pumulus and

Lophosauria pumila. In India, Trench (1912) recorded some obser-

vations on colour changes of the Indian Chamaeleon Chamaeleon

zeylanicus Peters. However, these observations are casual and scanty.

In the present study, a young C. zeylanicus was collected on Rani

Durgavati Samadhi road about 20 km south of Jabalpur. It was kept

under observations in a large rectangular aquarium jar with branches of

foliaceous shrubs. The animal was fed on grass-hoppers and water was

provided by sprinkling on the branches. When the animal was seen

adapted to captivity, the experiments on the colour changes were carried

out.

Observations

The experiments were conducted under a fluorescent tube and

white, yellow, red, blue and green backgrounds obtained by pasting

transluscent coloured papers on the experimental jar. Observations

were made from a small window left at one corner of the jar. The ex-

periments were also conducted in coloured lights by employing colour-

accepted May 5, 1973.

2 Present address : Division of Limnology and Fisheries, Department of Zoo-

logy, University of Udaipur, Udaipur.

108 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72 (1)

ed bulbs of 40 watt power. Out-door observations were made against

the background and surroundings of green grass, 'yellow flowers and

foliage of different shades. Several experiments spread over two days,

were conducted for each background, colour and environment and only

the results obtained consistently have been summarised in this paper.

Observations were also made for the whole day beginning from

sun-rise to sun-set and twilight. At the end, some experiments were

carried out by covering the eyes of the experimental Chamaeleon to

study the role played by vision on the change of colour.

Experiments with different backgrounds

These experiments were conducted against white, red, yellow, blue

and green backgrounds. The general pattern of the change of colours

against these backgrounds is summarised in Table 1. The change in

any colour pattern took about 3 to 4 minutes. There were minor devi-

ations from the general pattern of the colour changes. These are given

below.

Table 1

General pattern of colour changes in C. zeylanicus in different

BACKGROUNDS AND LIGHTS

Background /light

Colour pattern

White

Red

;/¥eMow

Blue

Green

Red

Yellow

Blue

Green

DIFFERENT BACKGROUNDS

Pale green with irregular blackish spots.

Pale green with intermittent appearance of blackish

spots.

Dark green with black spots. Within 5-8 minutes, the

black spots disappeared leaving the animal dark green.

Dark green. Black spots appeared for a short time.

Dark green, perfectly matching the background. At

times, pale green with light yellow bands.

DIFFERENT LIGHTS

Dark grey with light black spots. The side nearer the

light darker than the opposite. Occasionally, black

spots darkened and faded.

Pale lemon yellow over the body and pale green- on

head.

Green with occasional black spots.

Green with occasional black spots and yellow rings.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 72(1)

Durve & Sharma: Indian Chamaeleon

Figs. 1 & 2. The colour pattern ass, med in sunlight in the natural environment. Fig. 3 The colour pattern assumed in

cover to simulate the surroundings of foliage and sunlight passing through the leaves. Fig. 4. Chamaeleon with eyes

covered with rubber teats.

OBSERVATIONS ON THE INDIAN CHAMAELEON

109

In white background on two occasions, the blacky spots became

darker and the semi-circular lemon yellow rings appeared on the sides

of the animal excluding its head. On tail, the rings were replaced by

yellow vertical bands. When the light was switched off, the blackish

spots on the body disappeared save a few small and lighter ones on the

abdomen.

In red background, at one time, yellow spots of the size 8-10 mm

appeared on the body along with vertical yellow bands on the tail.

The spots on the body slowly changed to rings which later disappeared

giving the chamaeleon the usual pale green colour with blackish spots.

In yellow background in the third experiment in the series, lemon

rings appeared on the green body-colour in addition to black spots.

The rings alternated the black spots. On tail, light yellow vertical bands

alternated with pale green patches. Once the horizontal white stripes

appeared on the body for a few seconds.

In blue background when the animal expanded its thorax, the

portion in between ribs turned pinkish and later became light lemon

yellow within a very short period. In the green background in one ex-

periment, black spots appeared on the body momentarily.

Experiments with different lights

The general change of colour pattern in different lights for the

chamaeleon under investigation is also summarised in Table 1. As in

the case of backgrounds, there were some minor deviations in colour

changes in these series of experiments. In yellow light in one experi-

ment, the colour remained deep green. In blue light, the black spots

used to disappear when the animal was at rest. On some occasions, the

black spots alternated the yellow ring& on the body while the tail re-

mained green with vertical yellow bands. It may be mentioned here

that the animal showed considerable movement in blue light.

Observations in natural environment

These observations were made from dawn to dusk. The tempe-

rature ranged from 27.5°C at 7.00 hrs to 35.6°C at noon and at 19.15 hrs

it dropped to 26.2°C. The chamaeleon was allowed to move freely on a

green shrub, grass, dried grass-land, stones, bricks etc., both in the

shade and bright sun-light. Observations were made from a distance

of more than 25 feet with a pair of binoculars and are summarized in

Table 2. The changes in colour pattern could also be seen in Plate 1,

Figs. 1 and 2.

Besides the colours shown in the Table 2, some interesting obser-

vations were made in this study. When a small bird landed on a branch

of the shrub on which the chamaeleon was perching, the latter im-

mediately developed dark black spots on the body and expanded its

trunk assuming a grotesque posture. To avoid bright sunlight the ani-

mal entered thicker foliage. The colour pattern of dark green with

110 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

yellow spots developed at this time, is perhaps to simulate the sur-

rounding foliage and the sun-light passing through the leaves. The side

of the body facing the sun was darker than the other (Plate I, Fig. 3).

Amongst the large yellow flowers of Allamanda cathartica, the colour-

ing was so perfect that the animal was indistinguishable from a

distance.

The observations in the natural environment tend to suggest that

there is a daily colour rhythm in chamaeleon depending upon the

weather, condition of light etc. This supports the observations of

Waring (1963).

Observations with the animal’s eyes covered

In order to study the role of vision in the change of colour in the

chamaeleon, separate experiments were carried out. For the purpose,

black ink dropper teats were cut to suitable size, smoothened by sand

paper and fixed to the projecting eyes so as to cover them completely.

They were further secured in position with the help of adhesive tape

(Plate I, Fig. 4). This gave considerable discomfort to the chamaeleon

and it tried to remove these by its forelimbs and rubbing its head

against floor and sides of the experimental jar. The animal became

disoriented and started walking backward and walking in circles when

the eyes were capped.

The animal with its closed eyes was exposed to sun and also to the

green, yellow, blue and red lights. The colour changes observed in

these experiments are reported in Table 2. Here again, the side of the

body nearer the source of light was darker than the opposite side.

In the sun-light the colour changes to usual dark grey (Plate I, Fig.

4). There were thus slight deviations in the colour changes when the

eyes were closed (Table 1 & 2). This tend to indicate the role of eyes

along with the skin in the change of colour. This supports the views of

Sand (1935), Drimmer (1954) and Portman (1959), that colour change

is related to light, heat, emotional state and background colour.

General observations on colour changes

At times the grass hoppers given as food would sit on the back of

the chamaeleon which would then turn grey or deep grey. The same

reaction was given when the table on which the experimental jar rested

was tapped or the animal touched by a glass rod. The animal was alive

for five and half months. About 12 days before its death, it refused food

and water and assumed lemon yellow colour which rarely changed.

During these last twelve days it remained motionless closing its eyes.

Even in this condition, it changed its colour to greyish in sunlight but

not to black or deep grey as usual. In shade, it developed green patches

on the general lemon colour. The colour of the body at the time of

death remained lemon yellow all over.

Sand (1935) recognized five stages of progressive darkening in

OBSERVATIONS ON THE INDIAN CHAMAELEON

111

Table 2

General pattern of colour changes in C. zeylanicus in nature

AND WITH COVERED EYES

Lophosaura pumila. These stages are yellow, pale green, medium green,

dark green and black. The Indian chamaeleon C. zeylanicus investi-

gated here was found to change its colour in a few definite patterns

namely, green, yellow and grey with black spots and/ or yellow rings

and bands, irrespective of the background. Pinkish shade and white

strips reported earlier are of rare occurrence. It will match only with

green and yellow colours and their shades. With red colour, it changes

to grey just as in bright sunlight. In blue or perhaps in any mild colour,

it may remain green, yellow or shades of these two. This is more or

less in accordance with the observations of Drimmer (1954). Fright

response or defensive posture is indicated by a grey colour with black

spots and expanded body to scare away the attacker. This supports the

observations of Portman (1959) on C. chamaeleon.

Goin and Goin (1962) mention that the change of colour in Chama-

eleon is in response to changes in light, heat and emotional state and

not to the colour of the background. However, Drimmer (op. cit.) and

Portman (op. cit.) believe it to be by both. The present study supports

the views of the latter workers.

112 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

References

Drimmer, F. (1954): Lowell Tho-

mas encyclopedia of wild life, Am-

phibians and Reptiles. Educational

Book Guide, N.Y.: 1310-1314.

Goin, C. J. & Goin, O. B. (1962):

Introduction to Herpetology. W. H.

Freeman & Co., San Francisco & Lon-

don: 273.

Hingston, R. W. G. (1933) : Ani-

mal colour and Adornment. Edward

Arnold & Co., London: 164-166.

Hogben, L. & Mirvish, L. (1928):

The pigmentory effector system-V.

The nervous control of excitement

paler in reptiles. British J. Exptl. biol.

Edinburgh 5:295-308.

Portman, A. (1959) : Animal

Camouflage. Univ. of Michigan Press:

90-93.

Sand, A. (1935): The comparative

physiology of colour response in rep-

tiles and fishes. Biol. Rev. 10 : 361-382.

Trench, C. C. (1912) : Note on the

Indian chamaeleon (C. calcar atus)

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 27:687-698.

Waring, H. (1963): Colour change

mechanism of cold blooded verte-

brates. Academic Press, N.Y. : 117-

127.

Zoond, A. & Bokenham, N.A.H.

(1935): Studies in reptilian colour

response. II. The role of retinal and

dermal photoreceptors in the pigmen-

tary activity of the chamaeleon. J.

Exptl. Biol. 72:39.

Zoond, A. & Eyre, J. (1934): Stu-

dies in reptilian colour response I.

The Bionomics and Physiology of the

pigmentary activity of the chamae-

leon. Philos. Trans. London (B) 223 :

495-1934.

A Catalogue of the Birds in

the Collection of the Bombay

Natural History Society — 17

Picidae (concluded)

Humayun Abdulali

[Continued from Vol. 71 (2): 265]

495 specimens of 55 species and subspecies, up to No. 863 in Indian

handbook and Registered No. 23788 are covered by this part. Mr. S. A.

Hussain continued to assist.

818 Dinopium benghalense dilution (Blyth) (Sind) Sind Golden-

backed Woodpecker 4 : 69

4:3c?c? 19 (by plumage)

1 Rawalpindi, 1 Nawashar, Jullundur, 1 Rawani, Sujabad, Punjab;. 1

Gholan, Sind.

Northern birds of this species ( benghalense and dilutum) can be

separated from those from the south by the spotting /streaking on the

throat showing an almost equal amount of black and white, contra

largely black in the latter ( puncticolle and tehminae).

Except for $ 10240 from Kumaon, Nainital district, the specimens

listed under nominate benghalense and dilutum do not show any red

on the upper body.

No. 10242 from Sind, a poor specimen, cannot be said to have

paler upperparts than nominate benghalense, but is left here on distri-

butional grounds. The others are distinguished by the slight olive wash

on the upperparts, a character also visible in two juveniles from the

Palnis (see under 821). cT No. 18559 from Delhi is also similarly

coloured but considering that another ( $ 18560) also marked Delhi

is typical benghalense, I am leaving them together.

Koelz’s girensis from Junagadh, Kathiawar, is synonymised in ind.

handbook with dilutum which is not shown to extend into Kathiawar.

If not separable, it should presumably be synonymised with nominate

benghalense which is accepted for this area.

Measurements under No. 821

819 Dinopium benghalense benghalense (Linnaeus) (Chandernagore)

Goldenbacked Woodpecker 4 : 67

[280]

8

114 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

34: 15 tfc? 19 9 $ (3 by plumage)

1 Kalesar, Jagadhri, 1 Ambala, 1* Bahawalpur, Punjab; 2 Delhi; 1 Bharat-

pur, Rajasthan; 1 Radhanpur, 1 Balaram, 1 Cambay, 1 Gir Forest, 1

Dohad, 1 Bodeli, Baroda, 1 Pandwa, 1 Laochali, Surat Dangs, Gujarat;

1 Sanchi, Bhopal; 1 Betul, 1 Antagarh, 1 Bhanupratappur, Ranker, C.P.;

1 Vizagapatam Hills; 1 Koira, 1 Barkot, 3 Badrama, Bamra, Orissa; 2

Baghowni, 1 Rajputtee, 1 Madhubani, 1 Tirhut, Bihar; 1 Meerut, 1

Cawnpore, 1 Salukapur, 1 Kumaon, Nainital, U.P.; 1 Calcutta.

Of the two from the Surat Dangs, the & has a black chin with

white spots and the coloured back of the south-western bird, but the

white markings on the black forehead of the female are arrow-shaped

as in the present group, and they are both left here. The two from

Delhi have been commented on under 818. The young male has the

forehead black as in the female but with no white markings.

Measurements under 821.

820 Dinopium benghalense puneticolle (Malherbe) (Nilgiris) South-

ern Goldenbacked Woodpecker 4 : 69

5 : 2 a71 c? 39 $

1 Bamangoti, (T. R. Bell = N. Kanara); 1 Coonoor Ghat, Nilgiris; 1 Kurum-

bapatti, 1 Chitteri Range, Salem; 1 Seshachalam Hills, S. Cuddapah.

These specimens include some named puneticolle by Whistler when

describing tehminae and are distinguished from most of the latter by

the clearer yellow of the upperparts which lack the orange-red wash

present in varying degrees in the others, a character not referred to

in the description. The reference to the “orange-yellow” back of this

race in the key to subspecies in ind. hand. 4:196 compared with

“golden olive-yellow” in tehminae is confusing. The black shoulders are

distinctive except in the topotype from Coonoor!

Malherbe’s original description (1845, Rev. Zool.: 404) does not

isolate any subspecies now accepted. The throat is said to be black

with white streaks ( alho striolatus) while on the next page it is said that

in the adult male the throat, front of neck and breast are deep black with

numerous black (? white - HA) triangular spots. He adds that the

female has the forehead and vertex of a deep black, sprinkled with

/twee-shaped white spots; such spots and the streaked throat are charac-

teristic of nominate benghalense and though specimens from the Nil-

giris are referred to, he states that it is common in Bengal and pro-

bably throughout India. Again he refers to the back and tectrices as

orange-yellow washed with vivid red, none of which is shown in any

of the present specimens. Malherbe also said that the young of puncti-

colle lacked the red on the upperparts and resulted in their being mis-

taken for benghalense.

* *(JI 10259 from Bahawalpur was identified as halfway between dilutum and

benghalense (Whistler, JBNHS 42:733).

[281]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION— 11 115

See remarks and measurements under 821.

821 Dinopium benghalense tehminae (Whistler & Kinnear) (Raj-

ampura, 1350', Panthalam Hills, Travancore) Kerala Goldenbacked

Woodpecker.

21 : 7 cJ’cf (3 imm.) 149 9

1 Alibag, Kolaba District; 1 Dorh Village, 2 Ratnagiri; 1 Katgul, 1 Potali,

1 Kadra, 1 Alanki, 1 Anshi Ghat, 1 N. Kanara; 3 Manalur, Palnis; 1

Peermade, 1 Tekkadi, 3 Thirumalai, 1 Pulayanarkotta, 1 Maraiyur, 1

Jamestown, Kanyakumari.

The birds from the southwest lack the black shoulders and have

their backs and upperparts orange-yellow, usually with a trace of red.

The colour of the back also extends further towards the tail than in

birds of the drier country further east. But when describing tehminae

no reference was made to the richer orange-yellow of the upperparts

with touches of red, though this is the most consistent and striking

difference. Those from the Nilgiris are similar or intermediate and if

the type locality of puncticolle must remain unchanged, tehminae will

have to be synonymised with it; the birds from further east will then

either need another name or be left unnamed as intermediate between

nominate benghalense and the richly-coloured form in the southwest.

Two juvenile males (Nos. 10257 & 23759) are paler and have a

greenish yellow wash above resembling the colour of those under

dilutum.

dilution (3)&cP

(1)9

(c? 9

benghalense ( 1 5) c? c?

(19)9 9

tehminae (4) c? cT

„ (4) 9 9

puncticolle (2) c?

(3) 9 9

822 Dinopium

Ceylon)

Wing

140,147,148

148

142-147

(133), 139-148 av. 144*2

135-148 av. 142*4

(ih cP 9 136-148

143 (3)- 148 av. 144*2

140-148 av. 143*6

138,143

142,145,146

Bill

37,37*5,39*5

33*5

28-37

32-38*5 av*35*5

29-38 av.34

from skull 31-43

38,38*2,40,40*5

33*5-38*4 av.35*6

37*5

32*2,34*5,37*8

Tail

-85,87

95

83-92 av. 87

81-93 av.88*5

89-93)

87 (2), 90

80,85

80,85

-,91,92

benghalense jaffnense (Whistler) (Ulipaikkadavai,

1 c? (by plumage) Ceylon.

In the single specimen available the chin is not black with white

spots as in typical puncticolle / tehminae, but similar to that of nominate

benghalense. The back has slight traces of red, while the front portion

of the head is very weakly marked with red. The breast is heavily

stained with brownish as in other South Indian birds referred to under

821.

823 Dinopium benghalense psarodes

Ceylon Redbacked Woodpecker

2 : 1 cf 1 9

(A. Lichtenstein) (Ceylon)

4 : 71

9

[282]

116 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

1 Opanake, Hunuwella Estate, Ceylon; 1 no data.

824 Dinopium shorn shorii (Vigors) (Himalayas) Himalayan Gold-

enbacked Threetoed Woodpecker 4 : 74

8 : 5 dd 3 9 9

1* Kolatur North, S.I.R. (South Indian Railway, Madras); 1 Hazaria,

Pattarghat, Bihar; 1 Partapur, Nepal; 4 Kani, L. Chindwin; 1 Kamaing,

U. Burma.

Wing Bill Tarsus

dd 148-159 av. 155 32-36 av. 35 24-27 av. 26

(ih 154-159 from skull 39-44

9 9 151,156,157 32,34,37 24,26,27

(ih 152-164 37-41

*See JBNHS 70:200-201.

Tail

95,98(2), 102

96-104)

99,101,102

99-104)

Except for the specimens from Bihar and Nepal, the others were all

listed under Chrysocolaptes guttacri status (Nos. 861/2).

There is no evidence that Dinopium shorii and Dinopium javanense

are anywhere, at least in Indian limits, sympatric, and the difference

between them may perhaps be of a subspecific nature.

825 Dinopium javanense malabancum Whistler & Kinnear (Manan-

toddy, Wynaad) Malabar Goldenbacked Threetoed Woodpecker 4 : 73

4: 2 dd 299 (1 juv.)

1 Wynaad; 1 Santhanpara, Cardamom Hills, 2 Thattakad, North Travancore.

826 Dinopium javanense intermedium (Blyth) (Nepal, Assam,

Tenasserim = Arakan) Burmese Goldenbacked Threetoed Woodpecker

4:72

4 : 2 dd 29 9

1 N. Shan States', 1 Toungoo\ 1 Ataran, 1 Tenasserim.

preciably smaller, approaching javanense q.v.

EL Dinopium javanense javanense (Ljungh) (Java)

1 Wellesley Province, Malaya. Wing 127; bill 25; tarsus 18; tail 82.

827 Gecinulus grantia granfia (Horsfield) (Assam) Paleheaded

Woodpecker 4 : 27

5 : 2 cfc? (1 by plumage) 3 9 9

1 Berrit, 600' Sikkim; 1 Abor Country, 1 Oening, Lohit Valley, 1 Roop-

[283]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION— 17 117

chena, Cachar, Assam; 1 1000' Wantho Range, Mu Forest Div., Kolha

Dist., U. Burma.

The last two, both females from south of the Brahmaputra are

paler red, nearly pink above, and also have their heads and underparts

much paler than in the others. One of them has the wing and tail quills

in moult and this may represent a juvenile plumage, though ind. hand-

book (4:205) repeats Stuart Baker’s statement that juveniles are like

females but dark brown on mantle and very dark chocolate brown on

breast, flanks, and abdomen.

River, Western Nepal) Nepal Great Slaty Woodpecker

A yet unregistered male from Gaylegphug, C. Bhutan, measures

wing 235, bill 58, tarsus 38, tail 150. In addition to the general colour

being a darker grey, the bill is smaller than that of the next subspecies

(829) than is indicated by the measurements.

829 Mulleripicus pulverulentus harterti Hesse (Type from Pya,

Upper Chindwin River, Burma) Burmese Great Slaty Woodpecker 4:

86

5 : 3$ $

1 Yagyi, 2 Kani, Lower Chindwin, 1 Wuntho, Upper Burma, 1 Burma.

The red patch on the cheeks of the male from Kani, Lower Chind-

win, is smaller than that of the other from “Burma”. The latter

No. 10348 has several of the cream-coloured feathers of the upper

neck splashed with red.

830 Bryocopus javensis hodgsonii (Jerdon) (Indian Peninsula;

restricted type locality Telicherry) Indian Great Black Woodpecker

4:90

10 : 6 eft? 4 9? (1 juv.)

1 Songadh, Navsari Dist., 1 Laochali, 2 Mheskatri, Surat Dangs, Gujerat;

2 Kadra, 1 Supa Petha, N. Kanara; 1 Puttapudi, Travancore; 1 Amraoti,

Bastar, M.P.; 1 no data.

Wing Bill

6 d'd' 212-222 av. 216-8 57-63

(ih 213-225 from skull

63-69

56,57,60

from skull 59-65

Tarsus

34-37 av.35

37-43

Tail

156-166 av. 158

139-165)

152,154,157

130-170)

[284]

3 9 9 212,211,219

(th 212-226

35(2), 36

36-39

118 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

831 Bryocopus javeiisis hodgei (Blyth) (Andaman Islands) Anda-

man Black Woodpecker 4 : 91

5 : 2 3 9 9

1 Long Island, Middle Andamans; 1 Ferrarganj, 3 Wrightmyo, South

Andamans.

Wing Bill Tarsus Tail

tfc? 182,188 39,43 33,37 134,137

9 9 180,187,190 40,42,45 32,32,35 130,141,144

I have already ( JBNHS 61:565) referred to one of the males in

breeding condition from Ferrarganj, S. Andamans, having only half the

head red, as in females, against all-red in another from Long Island,

M. Andamans.

EL Bryocopus javensis feddeni (Blyth) (Pegu) 4 : 89

1 d71 Nyaungbinloy, Lower Chindwin, Burma.

Wing 218; bill 47; tail 140.

EL Bryocopus martius khamensis (Buturlin) (Eastern slope of the

great plateau of Tibet).

1 Tomg Kyuk, S. Tibet.

Wing 245; bill 51; tarsus 33; tail 158.

832 Hypopicus hyperythrus marshalli (Hartert) (Murree) Western

Rufousbellied Woodpecker 4:31

7 : 3 c?c? 499(1 by plumage)

1 Dunga Gali, Hazara, N.W.F.P.; 2 Narkanda 9000', 1

Simla Hills; 2 Kidernath, 1 Ghat Gharwal.

Wing

dV 120,120,126

9 9 120,122,124,126

(tf"9 126-136

Bill

26,27,28

25,28,29,30

25-27

Tarsus

20,21,23

20,22(3)

Marnauli (?),

Tail

72,73,80

62,66,74,77

)

It is customary to accept birds from Garhwal and Kumaon as of

this form, but their wings are smaller than mentioned in fauna supra

and Vaurie (124-131 av. 127*2). However, all of them can be distin-

guished from the eastern birds by their much heavier bills, which dif-

ference unfortunately is not conveyed by the measurements.

833 Hypopicus hyperythrus hyperythrus (Vigors) (Himalayas, res-

tricted to ‘Nepal or further east’ by Hartert) Eastern Rufousbellied

Woodpecker 4 ; 30

2: IV 19

1* Bolnai, Manipur Hills; 1 Mt. Victoria , 8000', Pakokku Hill Tracts,

Central Burma.

Together with 9 specimens from Bhutan, yet unregistered, the slen-

der bills are a more distinctive difference from marshalli than the slight-

ly smaller wings, though the latter tendency appears to extend east-

wards.

[285]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION 17 119

Wing Bill

6 Bhutan 116-125 av.120 21-25 av.23-7

3 $9 Bhutan 117,118,124 23,25,25

1 cJ1 Manipur Hills 111 26

1 9 Mt. Victoria 108 5

(IH cfi 9 114-122 from skull 23-28

Sp. No. 9980 from Mt. Victoria is the smallest. H. h. heinrichi

(Stresemann) was described from this place, while ICoelz described

H. h. haemorrhous from Korong, Manipur. Both are synonymised with

the nominate form by Vaurie (1965, p. 719), who also accepts Hartert s

restriction of the type locality as above and saves a great amount of

confusion.

EL Bendrocopus leucopterus leucopterus (Salvadori) (Yarkand,

Kashgaria)

1 o?

Keriya, 4300' (collected by A. Sherriff on 25 Feb. 1931).

Wing 128; bill 26; tarsus 22; tail 89.

The 6th primary agrees with that of Zarudny’s korejevi from

Kuldjin, Sinkiang, as illustrated in Vaurie’s ‘Systematic Notes on Pal.

Birds’ (Am. Mus.Nov. 1946, p. 15) but where this race is synonymised

with the nominate.

EL Picoides major tenuirostris (Buturlin) (Western Transcaucasia)

I c? Kusary, Azerbaijan, U.S.S.R.

Wing 130; bill 27; tarsus 21; tail 74.

EL Picoides major cabanisi Malherbe (Shantung).

6: 5(? c? (1 juv.) 19 All Temple of Heaven, Peking, China.

Wing Bill Tarsus Tail

cfc? 126,127,130(2) 29(3), 31 22,23,24(2) 79(2), 81(2)

9 130 27 23 81

The males have broad orange-red patches of different shades on

the nape. The juvenile male shows no colour on the head and the under-

tail coverts are faintly marked. The underparts are washed with ochre

contra white in tenuirostris.

834 Picoides major stresemaimi (Rensch) (Tsalila, on the Yunnan-

Sikang border) Blackcrowned Pied Woodpecker 4 : 34

nil.

835 Picoides assimiiis (Blyth) (Himalayas, Rawalpindi) Sind Pied

Woodpecker 4 : 35

II : 4 7 9 9

1 Lukh, 4300', 100 m. south of Kalat, 1 Chaman, Baluchistan; 1 Karung

(?), 1 Rawalpindi, N.W.F.P.; 3 Campbellpore, Punjab; 1 Sukkur, Sind;

[286]

Tarsus

19-22

20,21,21

19

18

19-22

Tail

73-88 av. 80

77,78,79

69

68

69-87)

120 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72 (1)

1 Doulatpur (Sind Frontier); 1 Manthar; 1 City Environments, Baha-

walpur.

The ji from Chaman was listed under himalayensis from which it

can be readily distinguished by the white forehead and the larger patch

of white on the scapulars. The 4 southern birds are smallest and have

their underparts a purer white than the others, which show the range

of colours referred to under himalayensis below.

*In two males (Rawalpindi and Campbellpore) the bill is heavier

at the base, contra one from Chaman and another from Sukkur, Sind.

In both the latter, the head is orange contra red.

836 Picoides himalayensis albescens (Baker) (Goona [?], Kashmir)

Kashmir Pied Woodpecker 4 : 34

11 : 4 o^cf1 (1 by by plumage) 7 9 9

1 Kilia Drosh, 3 Chitral; 1 Gora Gali, Murree, Punjab; 3 Liddar Valley;

1 Doossoo, 2 Kashmir.

See remarks under 837.

837 Picoides himalayensis himalayensis (Jardine & Selby) (Mus-

soorie, 6500') Garhwal Pied Woodpecker 4 : 32

26: 19 (3 by plumage + 1 juv.) 79 9 (3 by plumage)

1 Golhar, Kishtwar, Kashmir; 1 Dalhousie, Punjab; 3 Koti State, 9 Simla,

1 Himalayas (J. C. Anderson = Simla ?) ; 1 Dhakuri, 2 Mornaula, 1

Kumaon, 1 Ukhimath, 1 Kalia Ghat, 1 Garhwal; 1 Lambathach ?; 1

Surd 8000', 1 Nishar 7000'?; 1 no data.

There is considerable variation in the colour of the underparts of

these specimens and those listed under serial 836, and the descriptions

in fauna and ind. handbook do not permit their division into two

distinct races — hampered no doubt by the fact that the type localities

are very close together and most of the material available is from an

intermediate area.

Birds from the northern and higher portions of Kashmir together

with those from further west have whiter underparts and are referred

to as albescens. Adult specimens from Garhwal and Kumaon appear

equally pale on the underparts but are listed under the nominate form.

The males appear to show colour on the head in the first plumage,

when after the persistent black line the front half of the head is mark-

ed faintly and irregularly with orange-red spots. Later, the colour on

the head extends to the top, and finally over the whole head. In the last

[287]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION— 17 121

stage the colour turns crimson. The colour is always at the tip of the

feathers and the black base shows through to a greater or lesser extent

in all stages, no bird having a uniformly red head. Using the colour of

the head as an index of age, the youngest have the underparts slightly

streaked and appear greyish brown, the feathers around the tarsus

showing a barred effect (Nos. 9988 and 10016 from Kumaon).

The colour of the underparts then changes and is palest and most

uniform with a slight tinge of rufous in the adult. No intermediate sub-

adult plumage is recognisable in the female.

Four ( 1 & 39 Q ) from Kishtwar and Simla show irregular patches

of dark rufous on the upper breast. Two such females from S. Basil-

Edwardes’s collection obtained on 27 and 29 August are marked “juv.

9 ” and “juv. $ ?”. but a male from Koti State (20 January) similarly

marked has the whole head red and is marked “Adult” by the collector

A. E. Jones. This does not appear to be a character of juvenility.

Two males (by plumage) from Surd and Nishar are included in

nominate himalayensis but the places are not traceable.

838/839 Picoides darjellensis darjeliensis (Blyth) (Darjeeling and

Nepal) Darjeeling Pied Woodpecker 4 : 36

1 no data.

Together with 3 6"1 cf and 2 9 9 from Bhutan, yet unregistered,

the measurements are:

Wing

c?9 125-128

(123-135

Bill Tarsus Tail

30-32 21-23 79-84

32-35 c. 22-23 77-86)

840 Picoides cathpharius cathpharius (Blyth) (Darjeeling) Himala-

yan Crimsonbreasted Pied Woodpecker 4 : 37

1 $ Woodcot 5500', Darjeeling District.

Including 4 yet unregistered

Wing

99,101

98,98,100

97-101

specimens from Bhutan, they measure:

Bill Tarsus Tail

18,19 17,18 58,65

18,19,20 17,18,18 60,62,63

16-17 c.15 59-60)

2

3 9 $

(c?9

[288]

122 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

840a Ficoides cathpharius ludlowi (Vaurie) (Tsera; Pome, south-

eastern Tibet = south-east Sikang) (Tibetan Crimsonbreasted Pied

Woodpecker

nil.

841 Ficoides cathpharius pyrrhothorax (Hume) (Aimole, Eastern

Manipur Hills) Crimsonbreasted Pied Woodpecker 4 : 38

nil.

842 Ficoides auriceps auriceps (Vigors) (Simla) West Himalayan

Brownfronted Woodpecker 4 : 42

30 : 16 tfc? (6 juv.) 14 90 (3 ju'\)

2 Chitral, 1 Ghora Gali; 15 Simla, 1 Bhajji State; 1 Kishtwar, 1 Watur,

7 miles from Srinagar; 1 Jail, Tehri-Garhwal; 1 Garhwal, 1 Dwarkanath,

1 Lohaghat, Almora, 2 Chira, 1 Gurna, 1 Kumaon; 1 Nisbar 7000' (?).

Juvenile males have indistinct markings of red and yellow on the

head, but lack the distinct patch of the same colours on the occiput.

Juvenile females have various degrees of pale streaking on the centre

of the feathers of the head.

The juveniles were all taken between “May” and 22 August.

*The foreheads of the four taken in April lack the smooth sheen

of the adults, which difference together with the slightly smaller size

suggests a sub-adult phase.

All the specimens appear to be from the accepted range of the

nominate form, but the wing measurements intrude upon the limits

of incognitus 105-115 indicated in the key between the two races (ind.

handbook 4:221).

843 Ficoides auriceps incognitus (Scully) (Valley of Nepal) Nepal

Brownfronted Pied Woodpecker 4 : 42

nil.

844 Ficoides atratus (Blyth) (Tenasserim) Stripebreasted Pied

Woodpecker 4 : 42

2 : Id' 1 9

1 Thayetmyo Dt., Burma ; 1 French Indo-China-Laos.

Wing Bill Tarsus Tail

118,114 25,25 22,21 70,65

(d71 9 114-122 24-26 18-19 65-72)

845 Ficoides niacei niaeei (Vieillot) (Bengal) Indian Pied Wood-

pecker 4 : 39

[289]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION— 17 123

35 : 20 cf cf (5 by pi.) 14 9 9 0 by pi.)

2 Patiala State, 1 Kalka, 1 Bhagat State, 3 Simla; 1 Sankarametta, 1

Lamasinghi, Vizagapatam; 1 Berbera, Puri Dt., 1 Simlipal Hills, Orissa;

1 Kumaon, Nainital; 1 Hetwada, 2 Bankulwa Morang, Nepal; 1 Dehra

Dun, 1 Kurseong Division; 2 Bhutan; 3 Goalpara, 1 Dibrugarh, 1 Sadiya,

1 Tezu, Lohit Valley, 1 Cachar, 2 Dinapur Road, Manipur, 1 Assam; 5

Upper Burma, 1* Myaing, Pokkoku , Burma. *Missing.

No material from the north-west is available but if westernmost

adults really have their wings 114-120 mm. [see Ticehurst JBNHS 34:

468 and Whistler & Kinnear loc. cit. 37:2881] Blyth’s westermani needs

to be recognised. Biswas supports this view but has unfortunately

(JBNHS 58:131) restricted the type locality to Simla, which from the

material available appears to be an intermediate area, with larger birds

(113, 114) from further eastwards in Kumaon and Darjeeling.

An additional difficulty is a sub-adult plumage in which the males

are consistently smaller than the adults.

patch is paler in the adult 9 9 which have duskier underparts and

larger bills than the other (? sub-adult) females.

♦One & from Patiala (No. 10038) in sub-adult plumage has a

112 mm wing. Two S' S from Dimapur Road, Manipur, 24 October

1946, have yellow streaks on the red of the head, a character not visible

in any of the others.

In ind. handbook 4:224) Picus analis from Java is synonymised

with this form. This is not correct for the species does not extend

east and south of Hukawng Valley and Bhamo in North Burma.

846 Picoides macei andamanensis (Blyth) (Port Blair, Andamans)

Andaman Spottedbreasted Pied Woodpecker 4 : 45

10 : 7 tfc? 3 $ 9

1 Landfall Island, North Andamans; 1 Bakultala, Middle Andamans; 3

Wrightmyo, 2 Mithakhari, 1 Pochang, Shoal Bay, 1 Pyinmanala, 1

South Andamans.

[290]

124 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

Picoides mahrattensis

There has been considerable diversity of opinion regarding the

validity of the several races which have been described of this widely

distributed species, ind. handbook (4:226) only accepts the nominate

race, but there is no doubt that birds from the north and west are more

white on the upperparts and less heavily streaked below. Unfortunately,

the names available aurocri status Tickell from Borabhum and Dhol-

bhum and pallescens Biswas from Lucknow both fall within the range

of the nominate race and cannot be used. Pending examination of

more material however I am leaving the northern birds without a name.

847 Picoides mahrattensis mahrattensis (Latham) (Mahratta Coun-

try) Yellowfronted Pied or Mahratta Woodpecker 4 : 46

35 : 19 d'd' 16 9 $

1 Galkund, Surat Dangs; 2 Nasi-k, 2 Jubbulpore, 1 Raipur, Melghat, Berar;

1 Murbad Road, 1 Vajreshwari, Thana, 1 Andheri, Salsette, Bombay, 2

Satara, 2 Ratnagiri, Maharashtra; 1 Kadra, 1 Balemani, 2 Karwar, 1

North Kanara; 1 Devon Estate. Hellacuttah, 1 Wadakkancheri, Travan-

core; 1 Kurumbapatti, Salem Dt., 2 Nallamalai Range; 1 Antagarh, 1

Geedam, 1 Golapalli, 1 Chota Dongur, Bastar, 1 Bhanupratappur, Ran-

ker, 1 Gondia, C.P.; 1 Orissa; 3 Baghownie, Darbhanga, Bihar; 2 Pili-

bhit Terai.

There is some variation in the intensity of white and/or brown both

above and below but this is to some extent affected by the method of

preparation. On the west, this form extends up to the Surat Dangs and

appears further northwards on the east, extending through the type

locality of aurocristatus and into Bihar, east of the Ganges.

The measurements do not differ from those of the north-western

birds:

847a Picoides mahrattensis subsp. Northern Yellowfronted Pied

Woodpecker

25 : 13 cfcf 12 9 9

1 Campbellpore, 1 Shikohpur, 1 Ladhwa, Karnal, Punjab; 2 Delhi;

2 Bharatpur, 1 Hamavas Lake, 2 Sunda Hills, Jaswantpura, Rajasthan;

1 Radhanpur, 1 Balaram, 1 Deesa, Palanpur, 3 Kharirohar, 1 Bhujia Fort,

Kutch, 1 Cambay, 1 Dabka, Baroda, Gujarat; 1 Mathai, Narbada Valley,

M.P.; 1 Tirhut, Bihar; 2 Meerut; 1 Netour, 1 Bulandshahr, U.P.

In addition to the differences referred to above, the red on the lower

belly is slightly paler than in southern birds.

The three males from Jodhpur State (Nos. 10115, 10117 and 10118)

[291]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION— 17 125

and another from Dabka, Baroda, (cJ1 No. 10125) show much more

white above and below, the latter accentuated by the white of the chin

extending further down the upper breast.

Measurements under 847.

EL Picoides mahraffensis blanfordi (Blyth) (Tounghoo, Burma)

4:47

1 9 Prome.

Wing 102; bill 23; tarsus 19; tail 60.

The single specimen from Burma has the head paler and the under-

parts more finely streaked than in any of the others. This race was

however not based on these characters.

848 Picoides canicapillus mitchellii (Malherbe) (Nepal) West Hima-

layan Greycrowned Pigmy Woodpecker 4 : 50

10 : 5 (?(? 5?9

3 Kalka, 1 Bhagat State, 1 Simla Hills, 1 Simla; 1 Bans, Almora, 1 Kum-

aon, U.P.; .2 Bhugwada, Nepal.

The black tail, unbarred tail-coverts and tiny streaks of red on the

male’s nape (as in Picoides nanus) separate this group. One of the

birds (No. 18544) is marked male, but lacks the red.

The measurements are under 850.

849 Picoides canicapillus semicoronatus (Malherbe) (Himalayas,

Darjeeling) East Himalayan Grbycrowned Pigmy Woodpecker 4 : 49

16 : 9 7 9 9

1 Renchinpong, 3 Singtam, Teesta Valley, 2 Rangpo, 1 Sikkim; 2 Long-

view, 2 Sevoke, 1 Darjeeling; 2 Kurseong Div., U.P.; 1 Bhutan; 1 Goal-

para Dist., Assam.

The c?1 cT can be easily distinguished by the red running right across

the nape, with a slight gap at the centre in some. Only one 9 No.

10149 marked “Sikkim” (C.M. Inglis, no date) has white spots on the

central tail feathers. In all, the streaks on the underparts are heavier

(broader) than in mitchellii. The series from Sikkim (5 cf c? 1 9 )

is marked mitchellii by Ripley, though this opinion is corrected in ind.

HANDBOOK.

Measurements under 850.

849a Picoides canicapillus subsp.

11 : 4 cf cf (1 by plumage) 4 9 9 3o?

2 Shillong, 2* North Cachar, 1 Samagootling, Naga Hills, Assam; 1*

Kamaing, 1 North Kraing, 1 Suma, Myitkyina Dist., Upper Burma, 2

south-east (2500') and north-east (1200') of Maymyo, North Shan

States, 1* Loikam, Southern Shan States, Burma.

There is some little variation among these birds all from south and

east of the Brahmaputra. Three males* differ from semicoronatus in

having very little red restricted to the sides of the nape as in mitchellii;

[292]

126 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

the streaking on the underparts is heavier even than in semicoronatus.

None have the upper tail-coverts barred or the central tail feathers

spotted white as in nominate canicapillus. The three from Myitkyina

should, according to Biswas (1950, Proc. Zool. Soc. Bengal 3(i), p. 25),

be intermediate between obscurns (La Touche, S. E. Yunnan) and

omissus (Rothschild) but they appear no larger than semicoronatus

and nominate canicapillus. In the material available the differences in

the characters referred to by Biswas (loc. cit.), i.e. white marks on

inner secondaries and barring on back, are not distinguishable.

Measurements under 850.

850 Picoides canicapillus canicapillus (Blyth) (Arrakan; type from

Ramree Is.) Burmese Greycrowned Pigmy Woodpecker 4 : 51

5 : 3 . c? 2 9 $

1 Kay an Chang, U. Chindwin', 1 Kuzeik, Lower Chindwin; 1 Chaungri

Chaung, Kyankpyn Dist., 2 Kyibu, Henzada Dist., Burma.

The two from Henzada District lack the rufous wash on the under-

parts.

All have their uppertail coverts barred and the central tail feathers

spotted with white, separating them quite distinctly from the races re-

ferred to above. The red on the head is also restricted to the sides as

in mitchellii and P. nanus.

The measurements in ind. handbook are all from Biswas (loc. cit.)

and it is not possible to understand how it was determined that some

of the measurements of the bill are “from feathers” and others “from

skull”.

[293]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION— 17 127

851 Picoides nanus nanus (Vigors) (Himalaya) Northern Brown-

crowned Pigmy Woodpecker 4 : 53

14: 7 cf'cf (1 by plumage) 5? $ 2o?

6 Ambala, Punjab; 1 Dehra Dun, 2 Meerut, 1 Pilibhit, U.P.; 2 Darbhanga,

2 Rajputtee, Saran, Bihar.

Measurements under 852.

852 Picoides nanus hardwiekii (Jerdon) (Southern India = Goom-

soor, Ganjam) Southern Browncrowned Pigmy Woodpecker 4 : 52

26 : 17 cfcf 7 $ $ 2o?

1 Dohad, 2 Jambughoda, 1 Dediapada, Rajpipla, 1 Waghai, 1 Malegaon,

1 Sarwar, Surat Dangs; 1 Mandu, Dhar State, 1 Raipur, Melghat, Berar;

2 Balemani, 1 Kadra, 1 Gundbola, North Kanara; 1 Chitteri Range, 2

Nallamalai, 1 Anantgiri, Vizagapatnam; 4 Bhanupratappur, Ranker, 1

Basrur, 1 Bhopalapatnam, Bastar, M.P.; 2 Badrama, Barma, 1 Keon-

jargarh, Orrissa.

In the material available, even in series, this race is barely separable

from the nominate, the variation within each group making it impos-

sible to pick out individuals.

Four (2 cf d1 2 9 9) from Surat Dangs (3) and Dediapada, Raj-

£ipla (1), Gujarat, have their underparts more heavily streaked, though

the general effect can be matched in individuals from other places, e.g.

,9 No. 18602 from Badrama, Barma, Orissa. Unsexed No. 10131

from Balemani, North Kanara, has a pale, almost golden head, while

that of 10132 ( cf by plumage) from the same place, is as dark as in

einereigula / gymnopthalmus.

In nominate nanus the western birds from the Punjab have slightly

but consistently larger wings than those from further east.

853 Picoides nanus cinereigula (Malherbe) (Madras = Alleppy,

Travancore) Kerala Browncrowned Pigmy Woodpecker 4 : 52

6 (S' <S

1 Fraserpet, Coorg; 1 Coonoor Ghat, 1 Mudumalai, 1 Wynaad, 1 Padagiri,

Nelliampathi Hills; 1 Vambayam, Travancore.

Nos. 10179 from Padagiri, Nelliampathi Hills and 10137 from

Vambayam, Travancore, resemble Ceylon gymnopthalmus in the dark-

ness of the head and absence of streaks on the underparts. They how-

[294]

128 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

ever agree with other cinereigula in size.

Wing 73-77 av. 75 (ih. 71-76); bill 14*3-15*5; tail 32-38 av. 35 (ih. 33-37).

854 Picoides nanus gymnopthalmus (Blyth) (Ceylon) Ceylon Brown-

crowned Pigmy Woodpecker 4 : 54

1 9 Walgama, Ceylon

Wing 65 (ih 74-77); bill 11 -3 (14-15 from skull); tail 30 (33-35).

In the single specimen, the measurements are smaller than usually

accepted and there is no trace of moult on the wing or tail quills. The

underparts are dirty brown and unstreaked as in a male from Vam-

bayam, Travancore, under 853, and which it further resembles in the

darkness of the head which separates the latter from cinereigula. Jerdon

(1:479 and 3:871) placed the Ceylon race in southern India.

855 Picoides tridactylus funebris Verreaux (Mountains of Chinese

Tibet = Sikang) Yellowcrowned Threetoed Pied Woodpecker

nil.

856 Hemicircus canente (Lesson) (Pegu) Heartspotted Woodpecker

4 : 84

23: llcfc? (2 by plumage) 12 9 9 (2 by plumage)

1 Songarh, Navsari, 1 Waghai, 2 Mahal, 1 Sarwar, Surat Dangs; 1 Borivli,

Salsette, Bombay; 1 Karwar, 2 Kadra, 1 Balemani, 2 North Kanara; 1

Madumalai Forest, 1 Wynaad, 1 Thattakad, 1 Thekady, 1 Periyar, Kerala;

1 Darba, 2 Barsur, Bastar, M.P.; 1 Badrama, Bamra, Orissa; 1 Bagho

Bahar, Cachar; 1 west of Yomas, Bassein District, Burma.

Of five with white caps and dark underparts which are presumably

characters of young of both sexes, four are females and one unsexed.

Specimen No. 10327 from Periyar, dated 23 August, has a white cap

and pale underparts but is marked tfby the collector, J. P. Cook.

The extent of buffiness on the forehead varies individually, some

being almost pure white. In Bull. B.O.C. 86, pp. 162-163 (1966), I have

suggested with some evidence that the “creaminess” on the forehead,

shoulders and rump of the Pied Imperial Pigeon Ducula bicolor (Sco-

poli) was acquired in the course of preening the base of newly-growing

feathers on the rump. I wonder if this “buffiness” which affects other

white portions of the plumage on the wings and rump in the woodpec-

ker may not be similarly acquired or be associated with the tuft on the

back which secretes a fluid of unknown purpose and utility.

Wing Bill

11 93-103 av.96-6 20*5-24 av.22* 3

699 91-95 av.93-5 19*6-21*5 av. 20*4

There is a small decrease in size southwards and Jerdon’s cordatus

which was described without comparison with the nominate race is

now discarded. The 3 largest (and easternmost) specimens from Orissa,

Cachar and Burma (wing 100, 103, 98; bill 22' 5, 23*5, 24) differ from

[295]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT . HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION— 17 129

the other males in almost completely lacking the tiny white spots on

the black forehead, which though varying in extent are always distinctly

visible. The male illustrated on plate 52 facing page 208 of Vol. 4 of

ind. handbook shows no speckles on the head.

Incidentally, Jerdon when describing cordatus has mixed up the

male and the female and refers to the underparts as “dull green” and

adds “On the center of the back there is a brush of sap green feathers

The green may possibly be due to the use of some

preservative, but I must mention that in dry skins, the “tuft” which

consists of unbarbed feathers over 20 mm long, lies flat along the back.

EL Miglyptes jugularis (Blyth) (Arakan) Black and Buff Wood-

pecker 4 : 60

2 $ $ (1 by plumage) Ataran, Burma.

Wing Bill Tarsus Tail

100,103 19 21 19,19 48,49

(97-107) (18-20) (c. 18-19) (43-51)

857 Blythipicus pyrrhotis pyrrhotis (Hodgson) (Nepal) Red-eared

Bay Woodpecker 4 : 55

6 : 4 29 9

1 Trepokri, 7500', 2 between Trepokri and Ghoom, Darjeeling; 1 Laithen-

sew, Khasi Hills, 1 Roopchena, Cachar, 1 Margherita, Assam.

Tarsus Tail

26,27,28 (2) 81,82,84,86

29-30 82-98)

26,28 78,78

c. 82-85

Male No. 10191 from Margherita has a wash of the red of the

collar extending on to the upper breast, as also on the upper back.

There is variation in the amount of streaking on the head, as also the

intensity of the brown on the underparts. In No. 10186 marked “per-

haps $ ” collected by Stuart Baker at Laithensew, Khasi Hills, on

18 May 1906, the collar is paler and shows an orange tinge. The upper

back is distinctly barred, a character shared with No. 10189, the other

female from Darjeeling. This small series suggests that western birds

have greyer, less brown, heads than those from Assam.

858 Chrysocolaptes festivus feUivus (Boddaert) (Goa) Indian Black-

backed Woodpecker 4 : 77

5:1a71 49 9

1 Dediapada, Rajpipla, 1 Pimpri, 1 Galkund, Surat Dangs; 1 Chikalda,

c. 3000', Berar; 1 Ratnagiri, Maharashtra.

Wing Bill Tarsus Tail

1 d1 150 49 29 73

4 9 9 149,150 (2), 154 42,44,48 (2) 29,30 (3) 77 (2), 81,82

Two females with the shortest bills and tails, collected at Galkund

[296]

9

130 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

(26 February) and Chikalda (23 January) show traces of red on the

yellow crest, which is not visible in the other two (March and October).

859 Chrysocolaptes festivus tantus Ripley (Embilipitiya, Ceylon)

Ceylon Blackbacked Woodpecker

nil.

860 Chrysocolaptes luck! us sultaneus (Hodgson) (Simra, Central

Nepal) Western Himalayan Larger Goldenbacked Woodpecker 4 : 80

5 : 4 cfcT 1 9

1 Baijnath, Almora, 3 Ranibagh, Kumaon, U.P.; 1 Bhugawda, Nepal.

Wing

- 180,184,184,188

(ih 171-180

9 184

(ih 174-180

Bill

49,50,52,52

from skull 56-62

52

from skull 53-58

Biswas’s measurements quoted in ind.

Taisus Tail

31,32,32,34 98,99,99,103

80-100)

34 98

98-99)

handbook relate to birds

from Central Nepal. There is a distinct increase in size westwards in

the north.

861 Chrysocolaptes lucidus guttacristatus (Tickell) (Jungles of

Borabhum and Dholbhum) Eastern Larger Goldenbacked Wood-

pecker 4 : 78

24 : 12 cfc? 12 9 9

1 Chota Dongar, 1 Basrur, 2 Kameli, Bailadila, Bastar, C.P.; 1 Kutri, 1

Chamundia, Daspalla, 1 Chahala,. Simlipal Hills, Orissa; 1 Singtan, Tista

Valley, Sikkim; 1 Longview, Darjeeling, 1 Kurseong Division, U.P.; 1

Golaghat, 1 Margherita, Upper Assam, 3 Roopchena, 1 Bagho Bahar,

1 North Cachar; 3 Taunggyi, South Shan States', 2 Prome District', 1

Kyiben, Henzada; 1 Sandoway District, Burma.

The smallest wings are presumably of specimens already measured

by Salim Ali in ind. handbook, while those over 173 are from Assam

and Burma.

862 Chrysocolaptes lucidus chersonesus Kloss (Johore, Malaya)

Southern Larger Goldenbacked Woodpecker 4 : 80

22 : 12 c? d1 10 9 9

1 Mahal, 1 Malegaon, Surat Dangs, Gujarat; 1 near Kasa, Dahanu Taluka,

Thana; 1 Funnel Hill, Pen, Kolaba; 1 Satara; 1 Morda, Goa Frontier,

2 Kadra, North Kanara; 1 Linganhally, 1 Jog, Sagar, 1 Billaji, Billigiri-

rangan Hills, Mysore; 1 Munnar, High Range, 1 Parambikulam, Cochin,

3 Kodaikanal, 1 Manalur, 1 Palni Ghats, 1 Perumalmalai, 1 Devanhel-

lucotta, Travancore; 2 Madura, South India.

[297]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION— 17 131

The specimens listed above are duller and less yellow than gutta-

cristatus and the measurements appear exclusive.

It is now customary to accept birds from southern India as of this

race and identical with those from Malaya. In the absence of any topo-

typical material, it is not possible to comment except to draw atten-

tion to the fact that chersonesus was described for its short 143 mm

wing, and the only other specimen referred to also had a 146 mm wing.

8 (5 c? cf 3 $ 9 ) of the 22 specimens have stray tinges of crimson

on their backs. There is no evidence of this being a seasonal character.

863 Chrysocolaptes lucidus stricklandi (Layard) (Gillymale, Ceylon)

Ceylon Crimsonbacked Woodpecker 4:81

3:1c? 2 9 $

Wing Bill Tarsus Tail

c? 9 143,146 41,40 30,29 82,78

One female is in poor condition and has not been measured.

{to be continued)

[298]

Temperature, salinity and

Plankton of Daman Ganga

Estuary1

P. SlTARAMAIAH

Department of Biology, Govt. Arts and Science College, Daman

Temperature of air and water of Daman Ganga estuary showed

two maxima in a year and the water was warmer than the Arabian

sea. A wide range of values of salinity were associated with a wide

range of values of biomass of plankton. The values of biomass of

plankton of this estuary, at comparable salinity and temperature,

were three times less compared to the Mississippi Sound. The values

of biomass of plankton in winter were 2.3 times higher compared

to the values of biomass of plankton in summer. A plankton calen-

dar was prepared for this estuary for the year 1968-’69. An increase

in the number of copepods was associated with an increase in the

numbers of phytoplankton. Daman Ganga estuary is a special

ecological habitat with warmer water and more numbers of micro-

plankters compared to the adjoining Arabian sea. Warmer waters

and abundant microplankton of this estuary are the favourable

factors for the survival and rapid growth of planktophagous larvae

of euryhaline marine fishes. Thus Daman Ganga estuary, with its

special ecological conditions, forms one , of the natural factors

responsible for the good fish landings of this part of the west coast.

I NTRODUCTION

Information is not available on the physicochemical and biological

conditions of Daman Ganga estuary. Therefore, to find out the factors

influencing the abundance of plankton, temperature of air and water,

salinity, numbers and dry weights of plankton were studied for a period

of 54 weeks. The interrelations of organisms and the influence of hydro-

graphical conditions on the abundance of plankton were studied and

compared with other areas.

Field collections were made, always at a fixed area, between 12.00

noon and 1.00 p.m. once in every week. The area of investigation is

located at 20°25' N, 72°50' E. The width of the river at Daman is

1 Accepted February 6, 1971.

DAMAN GANGA ESTUARY

133

224 metres excluding the banks. The depth of the river is 6 metres at

the lowest low tide level and ten metres at the maximum high tide level.

Methods

Temperature of air and water were recorded in the field using a

centigrade mercury thermometer graduated to one tenth of a degree.

A sample of water was brought to the laboratory, in a clean glass stop-

pered bottle and the salinity was measured by Harvey’s method

(Barnes 1959). Ten ml of sample water was titrated against standard

silver nitrate solution using potassium chromate as indicator. The neces-

sary correction, as given by Harvey, was made. Three titrations were

made and the average values are presented. Plankton collections were

made concurrently with the h)/drographical studies. Plankton was col-

lected with half metre tow net made of best Swiss organdy. The net

was towed by boat for 5 minutes across the river from bank to bank.

Thus, a cross section of nearly 37 (36.83) cubic metres of water was

filtered by the net, as a distance of 190 metres was constantly covered,

in 5 minutes. The plankton collections were transferred to a pneumatic

trough and the plankters were examined in fresh condition in the labo-

ratory. The debris and other foreign materials were carefully hand-

picked. The plankton was then filtered with the organdy and was wash-

ed in to 5% formalin kept in an enamel tray. Later the plankton was

transferred in to a bottle. Macro-plankton and nekton were separated

and 1 ml of sample was diluted to a constant volume. From this dilut-

ed sample 1 ml was taken in to a Sedgwick Rafter cell and the numbers

of plankters v/ere counted under a microscope. Six counts were made

for each plankton sample and the average numbers of organisms are

presented. Later the plankton was filtered using Whatman No. 42

filter paper (Graham 1943) and dried in a hot air oven at 60°C to

constant weight. The average values for each month are presented.

Results

< • ■

(1) Temperature:

The results of air temperature are presented (Table 1). The tem-

perature maxima (35.2°C) was recorded on 7-iv-1969. The tempera-

ture minima (22.8°C) was recorded on 4-L1969. The submaximum

temperature (35°C) was recorded on 30-ix-1969 and also in the first

two weeks and fourth week of October, 1969. The amplitude of an-

nual variation of daily temperatures was 12.4°C. The amplitude of

variation of mean monthly temperatures was 7.44°C. The mean

134 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

monthly temperature showed two maxima one in April and the other

in October.

Table 1

Temperature of Daman Ganga estuary during 1968-’69

The results of water temperature are also presented in Table 1.

The temperature showed variation in each month. Maximum tempe-

rature (33.2°C) was recorded on 30-ix-1969 and minimum (22.0°C)

was recorded on l-i-1969 and on 4-i-1969. The amplitude of annual

variation of daily temperature was 11.2°C. The amplitude of annual

variation of mean monthly temperatures was 8.57°C. The tempera-

ture of water showed two maxima which were recorded in May and

October, 1969. The air and water temperatures of this estuary showed

two maxima in the year.

In Daman Ganga estuary mean monthly water temperatures rang-

ed from 24.08 °C to 32.65°C. Chacko & Ganapati (1949) recorded

highest temperatures in April and May and lowest temperatures during

December and January with an annual range of 22.0° - 35.0°C in

Adayar estuary. Ganapati & Murthy (1955) reported three peaks in

temperature in October, March and June and three depressions in Ja-

nuary, April and August with an annual range of monthly mean tem-

perature of 4.4°C in the sea off Visakhapatnam coast. Bose (1956)

reported a temperature range of 18.0-33.0°C in Hooghly estuary. The

temperatures of the water of this estuary are higher compared to the

sea water temperatures of Arabian sea off this estuary at 20°N and

21°N (Jayaraman & Gogate 1957) by 2.3°C (December), 1.58°C (Jan-

uary), 2.2°C (February) and 3.6°C (March). Ganapati & Sarma

(1958) recorded a variation of temperature of 24.33 - 29.9°C in sea at

Waltair with two peaks in June and September (1953-1954) and June

and October (1954-1955). Subrahmanyan (1960a) recorded at Calicut

DAMAN GANGA ESTUARY

135

25.3°C (July) and 30.0°C (April).- But in this estuary 30.44°C and

32.17°C were recorded in the respective months thereby indicating that

the temperature of the estuarine waters of Daman Ganga were 5.14°C

and 2.17°C higher compared to sea water at Calicut. The occurrence

of two peaks was reported for all the warmer areas in and around

India by several workers (Sitaramaiah 1966b). Durve & Bal (1961) re-

ported lowest temperatures during November-December and highest

temperatures during April-May in backwater and sea water respective-

ly near Bombay. Panikkar & Jayaraman (1966) have reported 27-29 °C

in Bay of Bengal and 23-29°C in Arabian sea. Qasim et al. (1969) re-

corded 28-3 1°C in a tropical estuary.

The temperatures of Daman Ganga estuary were higher by a mi-

nimum of 1.58°C (January) and ranged to a maximum of 5.14°C (July)

compared to the adjacent Arabian sea. Malhotra et al. (1970) reported

higher percentage (25-80% and 15-30%) of hatching of fertilized eggs

of Hilsa ilisha at higher temperature ranges (25.5 - 30.4°C and 26.8 -

28.4°C) and low percentage (5-20% except in one case of 70%) at

lower range of temperatures (24.8-27. 1°C). Thus, it is clear that with

its warmer water Daman Ganga estuary forms a good breeding ground

for the fishes to spawn (Table 5) and a natural nursery for the hatch-

ing and development of eggs of euryhaline fishes.

(2) Salinity:

The results of salinity are presented in Table 2. The sali-

nity of this estuary varied from 0.36%0 (on 17-vii- 1969 and on 24-vii-

1969) to 34.3%0 (on 1 8-i- 1969). During the period November 1968

through June 1969 the mean monthly salinities varied from 28.62%0 to

33.27%0> The amplitude of annual variation of mean monthly salinities

was 31.92%0. During the period July 1969 to October 1969 the mean

monthly salinities varied from 1.35%0 to 19.82%0. Thus, the salinities

of this estuary touch both the extremes with two distinct and widely

separated ranges. The high and low salinities of this estuary were due

to the maximum influx of sea water into the estuary and the rainfall

in the upper reaches of the river respectively.

Ganapati & Murthy (1955) reported minimum salinity in November

in the sea at Visakhapatnam while in this study the mean monthly

minima was recorded in August. Bose (1956) reported a salinity range

of 1.6%o to 30.0%o in Hooghly estuary. In the present study highest

salinity was recorded in January (34.3%0) and the mean monthly

maxima was recorded in February 1969, while Ganapati & Sarma

(1958) recorded, maxima in April, in the sea off Waltair coast. Jaya-

raman & Gogate (1957) have recorded, off this estuary in Arabian sea,

at 20°N, a salinity of 32.65%0 (November) to 36.02%0 (December to

May) and at 21°N salinity of 36.45%0 (June), 36.76%0 (August),

33.55%0 (November) and 36.0%o (May). Ramamoorthy’s (1953b)

136 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

Table 2

Tide, colour of water and salinity of Daman Ganga estuary

results of Madras coast are similar to those of Jayaraman (Subrahman-

yan 1960a) and vary between 23.23%0 to 34.94%0. Panikkar & Jaya-

raman (1966) have reported 30.33%0 in Bay of Bengal and 34.37%0

in Arabian sea. Qasim et al. (1969) recorded 2.2%0 in a tropical

estuary.

(3) Biomass of Plankton:

The results of dry weights of plankton are presented in Table 3.

The dry weights of plankton varied from 0.001 to 16.575 gm. The

values of biomass closely followed the salinity values. A salinity range

of 0.36%0 to 8.52%0 from 3-vii- 1969 to 7-X-1969 was associated with

an average biomass of plankton of 0.063 gm for 5 minutes per collection.

The total number of plankters was also very low in the very low sali-

nity range (Tables 3 & 4). A salinity range of 23.93%0 to 34.3%0

(except 16.23%0 on 25-i-1969 and 13.71%0 on 18-X-1969) from 2-xi-

1968 to 28-vi-1969 and from ll-x-1969 to 31-X-1969 was associated

with an average biomass of plankton of 0.796 gm for 5 minutes per

collection. The biomass of plankton at low salinity was twelve and

half times less compared to the biomass values of plankton at high

salinity ranges. The ranges of temperatures, corresponding to the higher

and lower salinity ranges, were 22.0-33.0°C and 26.6 to 33.2°C res-

pectively.

Sitaramaiah (1967a) reported rich amounts of plankton, nekton

and shrimps at higher salinity ranges in Mississippi Sound. In Missis-

sippi Sound a high salinity range of 18.02%o to 27.75%0 at Deer Island

station and a low salinity range of 12.9%0 to 24.0%o at station 28

were associated with an average production of plankton of 2.423 gm

and 2.371 gm for 5 minutes per collection respectively. In Mississippi

DAMAN GANGA ESTUARY

137

Table 3

Numbers and dry weights of plankton of Daman Ganga estuary

during 1968-’69

Sound the ranges of temperature corresponding to the low and high

salinity ranges were 28.7-3 1.4°C and 27.0-32.5°C respectively. Average

biomass values of plankton of Daman Ganga estuary during higher

salinity ranges and at almost identical temperature ranges were three

times less compared to Mississippi Sound. The results of the present

study and those of Mississippi Sound clearly show that the greater the

amplitude of variation of salinity the greater is the range of variation

of dry weights of plankton.

Table 4

Numbers of phytoplankton and copepods of Daman Ganga estuary

Nov.

Dec.

Jan.

Feb.

Mar.

Apr.

May

Jun.

Jul.

Aug.

Sep.

Oct.

1968

1969

138 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

The winter (October to March) biomass of plankton (0.817 gm for

5 minutes per collection) of this estuary was 2.3 times higher compared

to the summer (April to September) biomass of plankton (0.35 gm

for 5 minutes per collection). The temperature ranges of winter and

summer were 22.0.-31. 8°C and 26.6-33.2°C respectively. The low sum-

mer values of biomass of plankton were associated with very low salin-

ity range of 0.36-8. 52%0 during July, August and September. In order

to eliminate the low salinity factor, the biomass of plankton for summer

was calculated for the period April, May and June and compared with

the winter values. The summer value under comparable salinity con-

ditions was 0.684 gm for 5 minutes per collection. Thus, the low values

of biomass of plankton of this estuary were associated with low salinity

and high temperature ranges of July, August and September. The

average value for summer after eliminating the low salinity factor (0.684

gm for 5 minutes per collection) was still lower than the winter value

(0.817 gm for 5 minutes per collection). The low summer values may

be partly due to higher ranges of temperatures (26.6-33.2°C) of sum-

mer. It is well known that the higher temperatures enhance the respira-

tory rates of organisms and cause greater loss of energy (Sitaramaiah

1967b & 1966a).

Table 5

Young and adult fishes contained in the plankton collections of

Daman Ganga estuary during 1968-’69

The total number of young and adult fishes and prawns contained

in the plankton collections are represented in Table 5. Inspite of the

fact that the tow net is not the proper net to collect fish and fish larvae,

considerable number of young, adult fishes and prawns were collected

in the tow net which was operated only in the surface layer of half

metre of water column. The total number of fish eggs contained in the

DAMAN GANGA ESTUARY

139

plankton collections was 1268. Of the 1268 fish eggs collected during

the year 96 per cent were collected during the period November, 1968

to April, 1969. The occurrence of the fish eggs in the plankton collec-

tions clearly indicates that the fishes spawn either in the estuary or in

the vicinity of this estuary. A plankton calendar was prepared for this

estuary and is presented in Table 6.

Table 6

Plankton calendar of Daman Ganga estuary for the year 1968-’69

NAME

. Spirogyra

MDJFMAMJJASO

A —

— R

R R — R

2. Cladocera

3. Palaemon lamarrii

4. Synedra

5. Ntzchia

6. Cylendrotheca gracilis

7 . Coscinodiscus

8. Copepod;s

9 . Crustacean eggs

10. Nauplius larvae

11. Metanauplius larvae

12. Zoea larva of prawn

13. Zoea larva of Crab

14. Megalopa larva

15. Mysidacea

16. Post larval shrimps

17. Chaetognatha

18. Fish eggs

19. Hits a ilisha

20. Engraulis dussumieri

21 . Belone strongylurus

22. Syngnathus spicifer

23. Leptocephali larvae of eels

24. Gobid fishes

25 . Scianid larvae

26 . Coelenterate medusae

27. Beroc cucumis

28. Pleurobrachia

29. Sal pa

30. Doliolum

— A

— A

CAACABBRRRBA

AAAAAAAACRAA

CRA

C R — R A

RCCRAC

ARCCR — A R — A

R — RRRRR — R

RCCAACAAR — RA

— RRRRRRR

— RRRRRCR RR

RRRRRRRR — R — R

R R R

— RRRRRRRR

R

R

RRR — R — RRR R

RRCRRR

RRRRRR

— RR — RR

— RR RR

RRR — R

Rare : R : 1-100/5 minutes

Common : C : 101-1000/5 minutes

Abundant : A : 1001-100,000/5 minutes

Swarms : S : Above 100,000/5 minutes

Blooms : B :

The dry weight of biomass of plankton increased with increase in

salinity (Table 7) in the estuary, towards the sea, thereby, clearly show-

ing the existence of large sized adults of marine plankters at higher

140 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

salinities. The numbers of eggs, young ones, diatoms and copepods were

more abundant in the estuarine side at lower salinities, probably be-

cause of the presence of less numbers of plankton predators like chae-

tognath (Table 7) which were present in more numbers in higher salini-

ties. Thus, the rich microplankters (copepods, diatoms, crustacean eggs,

zoea larvae of crabs and metanauplii) form food to the planktophagous

larvae and young ones of Hilsa ilisha and other fishes. The major food

of young Hilsa ilisha consists of Crustacea and diatoms (Haider 1968).

Excluding the sand, more than 50 per cent of the gut contents of young

Hilsa ilisha consist of only diatoms and Crustacea (Haider 1968). Fur-

thermore, the low salinity estuarine areas could not be penetrated by

the stenohaline marine plankton feeders. Thus, the euryhaline plank-

tophagous fish larvae find more advantage in terms of abundance of

food, especially, in the absence of marine stenohaline planktophagous

competitors. Special ecological habitats of this nature are the natural

factors that are responsible for the greater yield of west coast fisheries.

Further studies are needed.

Table 7

Distribution of plankton in relation to salinity in Daman Ganga

ESTUARY IN THE AREA OF CONFLUENCE ON 30-X-1969 BETWEEN 8.00 AND

13.00 HRS.

(4) Phytoplankton:

The numbers of phytoplankton varied from 0.016 to 34539.7 thous-

ands for 5 minutes per collection (Table 4). Phytoplankton “Blooms”

were recorded in the months of December 1968, January, April, May

and September 1969. The phytoplankton maxima and submaxima were

recorded in December 1968 and May 1969 respectively. Ganapati &

Murthy (1956) reported two maxima one in November and the other

in April in the bay of Bengal off Waltair coast. Primary maxima of

phytoplankton production was reported in the east coast, in February

at Waltair, in March at Madras, in June at Krusadai and in the west

coast, during January to May at Trivandrum, May to September at

Calicut, September to February at Bombay (Ganapati & Murthy 1956).

DAMAN GANGA ESTUARY

141

Subrahmanyan (1960b) recorded maximum standing crop in May-

September-October attaining peak in July, minimum in November and

with one or more pulses of production. In this study, the diatoms con-

stituted the bulk of the phytoplankton. The total number of zooplank -

ters increased with increase of diatoms. Similar observations have been

made earlier (Subrahmanyan 1960b).

(5) Copepods:

The numbers of copepods varied from 0.069-362.5 thousands for

5 minutes per collection during November 1968 to October 1969 (Table

4). The mean monthly maxima and submaxima of copepods were re-

corded in September and May 1969 respectively. The results of this

study showed peak numbers of copepods associated with peak numbers

of phytoplankton or preceded by large numbers of phytoplankters. On

18-i- 1969 a “Bloom” of phytoplankton was associated with large num-

bers of copepods. During May 1969 the copepods maxima was pre-

ceded by peak numbers of phytoplankton. An increase in numbers

of copepods on l-i-1969 was preceded by large numbers of phyto-

plankton. Thus, the general statement that the appearance of phyto-

plankton will be succeeded by zooplankton holds good in this estuary.

Similar observations have been made earlier in the sea off Waltair coast

(Ganapati & Sarma 1958).

Acknowledgements

I thank the University Grants Commission, New Delhi for the grant

of financial assistance for this project. I also thank Dr. S. C. Arya,

Principal of the college for giving me facilities for this work.

References

Barnes, H. (1959) : Apparatus and

methods of Oceanography (Chemical).

George Allen & Unwin, London,

p. 341.

Bose, B. B. (1956) : Observations

on the hydrology of the Hooghly

estuary. Indian J. Fish. 5:101-118.

Chacko, P. I. & Ganapati, S. V.

(1949) : Some observations of the

Adayar river with special reference to

its hydrographical conditions. Indian-

geogr. J. 24:1-15.

Durve, V. S. & Bal, D. V. (1961):

Hydrology of Kelva backwater and

adjoining sea. J. Univ. Bombay 29:

39-48.

Ganapati, P. N. & Murthy,V. S. R.

(1955) : Preliminary observations on

the hydrography and inshore plankton

in the bay of Bengal off Visakha-

patnam coast. Indian J. Fish. 2:84-95.

&

(1956) : Phytoplankton production in

relation to depth and distance in the

Bay of Bengal off the Waltair coast.

Proceedings of the eighth Pacific

Science Congress, Vol. Ill A, pp. 1 145-

1155. Oceanography and Zoology.

142 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 1 2(1)

& Sarma, D. V.

(1958) : Hydrography in relation to

the production of plankton off Wal-

tair coast. Mem. Oceanogr. Andhra

Univ., Ser. 62, 11:168-192.

Graham, H. W. (1943): Chloro-

phyll content of marine plankton. J.

Mar. Res. 5:153-160.

Halder, D. D. (1968): Observa-

tions on the food of young Hilsa ilisha

(Hamilton) around Nabadwip in the

Hooghly estuary. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 65(3): 796-797.

Jayaraman, R. & Gogate, S. S.

(1957) : Salinity and temperature vari-

ations in the surface waters of the

Arabian sea off the Bombay and

Saurashtra coasts. Proc. lnd. Acad. Sci.

(B) 45 (4): 151-164.

Malhotra, J. C., Mathur, P. K.,

Yusuf Kamal, M. & Mahrotra, S. N.

(1970): Observations on the hatching

of fertilized eggs of Hilsa ilisha (Ha-

milton) in confined freshwaters. Cur-

rent Sci. 39 { 23): 538-539.

Panikkar, N. K. (1950) : Physio-

logical aspects of adaptation to estu-

arine conditions. Proc. Indo-Pacific

Coun., 2nd Meeting, 168-175, Austra-

lia.

& Jayaraman, R.

(1966): Biological and Oceanographic

differences between the Arabian Sea

and the Bay of Bengal as observed

from the Indian region. Proc. lnd.

Acad. Sci. (B) 64(5): 231-240.

Qasim, S. Z., Wellershaus S.,

Bhattathiri P. M. A. & Abidi,

S. A. H. (1969) : Organic production

in a tropical estuary. Proc. lnd. Acad.

Sci. (B) 69(2) : 5 1-94.

Ramamoorthy, S. (1953): Hydro-

biological studies in Madras coastal

waters. J. Madras Univ. (B), 25:148-

163.

Sitaramaiah, P. (1966a) : Studies

on growth rates of some freshwater

animals. J. Anim. Morph. Physiol. 13

(1 & 2) : 103-113.

(1966b) : Studies

on the ecology of a freshwater pond

community. Hydrobiologia 27 { 3-4):

529-547.

(1967a): On the

fertility of the Mississippi Sound. Proc.

Zool. Soc. Calcutta, 20: 39-42.

(1967b) : Commu-

nity metabolism in a tropical fresh-

water pond. Hydrobiologia 29 (1-2) :

93-112.

Subrahmanyan, R. (1960a): Stu-

dies on the phytoplankton of the west

coast of India. Part II. Physical and

chemical factors influencing the pro-

ductivity of phytoplankton with re-

marks on the cycle of nutrients and

on the relationship of the phosphate

content to fish landings. Proc. Ind.

Acad. Sci. (B) 50: 189-252.

(1960b): Stu-

dies on the Phytoplankton of the west

coast of India. Part I. Quantitative

and qualitative fluctuations of the total

phytoplankton crop, the zooplankton

crop and their inter-relationship with

remarks on the magnitude of the

standing crop and production of mat-

ter and their relationship to fish land-

ings. Proc. lnd. Acad. Sci. (B) 50

(3) : 113-187.

Food of Rana tiger ina

(Baud.)1

S. Isaac and M. S. Rege

Institute of Science, Bombay 400 032

The Indian Bull-Frog, Rana tigerina (Baud.) is a widely distributed,

important frog of India. A common species in fields under wet culti-

vation, its insectivorous habit helps in no small way, in eradicating

agricultural and other pests. However, as the frog is edible, its heavy

commercial exploitation has resulted in considerable depletion of its

number and as such its present status is a cause for concern. This study

is an effort directed not only towards collecting data on the natural

diet of the frog but also towards determining the role it plays in the

economy of nature.

Earlier literature on the food of R. tigerina includes papers, among

many others, by Gostling (1895), Chibber (1911), Agharkar (1912),

Mullan (1912), Davidson (1916) and Zutshi (1926) but most of these

refer to observations on unusual rather than the normal food of the

species. Wadekar (1963) listed the different food items of the frog

while attempting to correlate the diet with their availability during dif-

ferent months of the year. Joshee (1968) examined the stomach con-

tents of 100 frogs that were brought to the laboratory for dissection.

Materials and Methods

The stomach contents of 347 frogs, collected between September

1970 to August 1971 were examined. The majority were captured dur-

ing the early morning hours, from paddy fields near Bombay. The

specimens were brought to the laboratory, their snout to vent length

and weight were recorded and the stomachs removed and preserved in

10 per cent formalin for subsequent detailed examination of their con-

tents. Different food items from individual stomachs were identified

as far as possible and their numbers, weight and economic importance,

if any, noted. The available data was then tabulated monthwise and

also in relation to the size of the specimens with 20 mm gradation. Frogs

1 Accepted October 14, 1974.

144 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

below the size of 50 mm were not considered because the food in their

stomachs, besides being scanty, was difficult to analyse.

Food of Rcina tigerina

Table 1, gives monthwise analysis of the different food items con-

sumed by R. tigerina. It indicates that insects and crabs form its main

diet almost throughout the year in the Bombay area. A brief account

of the various food items recorded during the study is given below.

Annelids and Molluscs :

Though a few earthworms and gastropods were recovered from the

stomachs of a few small sized individuals, there is no reason to believe

that they form regular items of the diet.

Arthropod :

Anthropods as represented by insects and crabs from the bulk of the

diet of R. tigerina. An insignificant number of centipedes and arachnids

were also recorded from the stomachs of a few specimens.

Amongst the arthropods, insects appear to be most favoured diet

of this animal. As many as forty-one species of insects belonging to

ten different orders were recovered from their stomachs. There is, how-

ever, no indication to show their particular preference for any of these

species. Since a number of orthopteran and coleopteran species are

available during major part of the year, the representatives of these

two orders naturally form the bulk of their insect diet. A number of

these insects are of significant economic importance. Table 2 gives the

status of the various insects fed on by the frog. Thirteen among these

are important agricultural pests, four house-hold pests and four others

are injurious to trees. As an indiscriminate feeder, the frog feeds on

some harmless or even some of the directly or indirectly useful insects,

but this does not in any way affect the important role it plays in the

biological control of insect pests.

Crabs are next in importance to insects in the diet of R. tigerina.

These crustaceans which are often seen in the paddy-fields cause con-

siderable damage to the bunds in the fields by boring holes in them.

In addition, they also damage the paddy crop during the flowering

season of the paddy (McCann 1932, Jabir Ali 1955). The frog thus

keeps in check the population of yet another group of animals harm-

ful to agriculture. The occurrence of Varuna litterata — an estuarine

crab in the stomachs of a few individuals was thought to be rather un-

usual. However, observations on the feeding habits of this crab reveal-

ed that it often invades the adjoining paddy fields for its food and is

taken by the frog during such visits. The largest of the crabs consum-

ed weighed 27 gm.

FOOD OF RANA TIGERINA

145

Vertebrates :

Representatives of all the vertebrate groups were recovered from

the stomachs of a number of frogs, but they do not appear to form a

part of the regular diet of the frog. However, it may be mentioned that

cannibalism is quite common in R. tigerina. On one occasion a frog

measuring 175 mm in length was seen devouring another frog of the

same species measuring 110 mm. It seems that individuals of other

species of anurans are also taken.

Miscellaneous :

In addition to these varied food items extraneous material like

vegetable matter and gravel was often seen in the stomachs of a num-

ber of individuals. Most of the vegetable matter was, however, also seen

in an undigested condition in the rectum, suggesting thereby that this

material is not digested by them and as such cannot be considered as

forming part of their food. The frequent occurrence of gravel in the

stomachs of frogs is reported by a number of workers. During the course

of the present investigation an individual was seen with as many as

seven small pieces of stones weighing totally about 19 gm. It is not

known whether gravel is swallowed intentionally. It seems more likely

that the gravel as also the vegetable matter is taken up by the animal,

accidentally, along with food.

Table 3 gives the various food items consumed by different 20 mm

size groups of R. tigerina. It is evident that whereas insects and crabs

form the main diet of all the different size groups, annelids and mol-

luscs are consumed by small sized and vertebrates by the bigger frogs.

It can, therefore, be surmised that insects and crabs constitute the main

food of this frog.

The available facts thus indicate that R. tigerina plays a very

significant role in controlling agricultural and other pests in the field

and thus plays a very important role in the economy of nature.

Acknowledgements

We are thankful to the Director, Institute of Science, Bombay 32,

for the facilities provided at the Institute during the course of the in-

vestigations. We also wish to express our deep sense of gratitude to

Mr. J. C. Daniel, Curator, Bombay Natural History Society and Mr.

N. T. Nadkerny of the same organisation for the valuable suggestion?

and help in preparing the manuscript of this paper.

10

Monthwise analysis of the stomach contents of R. tigerina (Daud.)

146 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

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Table 1 (Continued)

FOOD OF RANA TIGERTNA

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150 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

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152 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 72(1)

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FOOD OF RAN A TIGERINA

154 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 72 (i)

Table 2

Insects consumed by R. tigerina (daud.) grouped according to their

ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE

Total

83

30

FOOD OF RANA TIGERINA

155

Table 2 (continued)

156 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

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References

Agharkar, S. P. (1912): The diet

of ‘Bull-frog’ ( R . tigrina). J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 27(2): 687.

Ali, Jabir (1955): Hunting the

Land Crab ( Paratelphusa guerini ).

ibid. 52: 941-945.

Chibber, H. M. (1911): The food

of a Bull-frog. 7. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 20( 3):865.

Davidson, N. (1916) : Food of the

Bull-frog ( Rana tigrina ). ibid. 25 : ( 1 ) :

152.

Gostling, D. (1895): The food of

the Bull-frog. ibid. 7(9(1) : 150.

Joshee, A. K. (1968): Food habits

of the Bull-frog ( Rana tigerina Daud.).

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 65: 498.

McCann, C. (1932) : Notes on In-

dian Batrachians. ibid. 36:161.

Mullan, J. P. (1912): The food

of a Bull-frog ( Rana tigrina ). ibid.

27(4) : 1341.

Wadekar, U. L. (1963): The diet

of the Indian Bull-frog ( Rana tige-

rina Daud.). ibid. 66(1) : 263-268.

Zutshi, B. N. (1926): A Bull-frog

( Rana tigrina Daud.) swallowing a

rat. ibid. 37(1) : 228.

The exotic Flora of Ranchi1

/ ... . </■

J. K. Maheshwari2 and S. R. Paul

Floristic Botany Division, National Botanic Gardens, Lucknow, U.P.

( With a map)

'

Ranchi, the summer capital of Bihar, has a rich, exotic flora

which forms a dominant part of the landscape. The study covers

209 exotic species and varieties of gymnosperms and angiosperms

that are cultivated or naturalized in the district. An attempt has ,

been made to determine the country of origin of the erotics,

aliens and neophytes of Ranchi which were studied both in the

field and in the laboratory during the years 1957-1959, 1964-1967

and 1970. The study reveals that exotic plants were introduced

in this region both adventitiously and intentionally for purposes

of food and fodder, forage, medicine, ornament, afforestation,

green manuring and soil conservation. In addition, a large number

of exotic weeds have also been introduced in the district, either

intentionally as ornamental plants or accidentally with food grains,

ballast, packing materials and seeds of economic plants.

I NTRODUCTION

Ranchi (23°22' N, 85°22' E), the summer capital of Bihar, is

situated on a picturesque undulating plateau at an altitude of 655 m

above sea level. It forms a distinct physical unit of Bihar (see also

map). The Damodar river forms the northern boundary of the dis-

trict. The Subarnarekha river originates near Piska and passes through

Ranchi city. The Koel, Sankh, Kanchi and Kharkai are other important

rivers which flow through the district. The Subarnarekha river forms

the most attractive waterfall in Bihar at Hundru, situated at a distance

of 35 km east of Ranchi with a drop of over 80 m. There are also

noteworthy waterfalls like Dassam, Sadni, Johna and Sita. The climate is

of the tropical monsoon type with an annual average rainfall of 1476

mm. The maximum temperature reaching to 40°C has been recorded

in the month of May. The minimum temperature of 7°C has been

recorded in the month of December. The relative humidity is higher

during the months from June to August, being maximum in the months

1 Accepted April 1 , 1971.

2 Present address : Botanical Survey of India, P.O. Botanic Garden, Sibpur,

Howrah 711 103, W.B.

THE EXOTIC FLORA OF RANCHI

159

of July and August (88%) and minimum in the month of April (39%).

The soils are of various types, i.e. sandy-loam, gravel, red-ferruginous,

alluvial and even black sticky clay.

Map showing geographic location of the study area of Ranchi District, Bihar.

Ranchi is a famous hill station of the region. In the later part of

the 19th century, it became the summer headquarters of the British.

During this period, a number of exotic plants were introduced for

beautifying the landscape. We made a systematic study of the exotics,

aliens and neophytes of Ranchi during the years 1957-1959, 1964-1967

and 1970. The exotic flora of Ranchi forms today a dominant part of

its gardens, parks and landscape. However, the existing floras are

inadequate for the identification of exotic plants. The present study,

therefore, covers 209 exotic species and varieties of gymnosperms and

angiosperms that are cultivated or naturalized in the district. The data

on the country of origin and probable time of their introduction into

India are determined. It may be mentioned that the time of introduction

of species is in many cases difficult to determine, as exact records of

their introduction are lacking. Much of the information on the early

history of plant introduction is scattered in the old travel records of

several visitors and dignitaries to India and in the classical works of

160 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

Moghul emperors, Missionary botanists and the European officials and

explorers, especially the Portuguese, Dutch, Spaniards, French and the

British.

The earliest collection of plants in this area was made by Clarke,

Gamble, Wood, Ball and Rev. Cardon. In his discussion of the immi-

gration of plants into Bengal and Bihar, Bruhl (1908) mentioned some

plants from Ranchi. The introduction of exotic plants in this region

took place both adventitiously and intentionally for purposes of food

and fodder, forage, medicine, ornament, afforestation, green manuring

and soil conservation. The exotic flora of Ranchi includes useful crops

like cereals ( Zea mays L.), pasture and fodder grasses (Clitoris gayana

Kunth, Panicum maximum Jacq., Pennisetum clandestinum Hochst.

ex Chiov., P. purpureum Schumach.), green manure or cover crops

(Calopogonium mucunoides Desv., Centrosema pubescens Benth.,

Pueraria phaseoloides Benth., Trifolium alexandrinum L.), fruits

(Manilkara achras Fosberg, Annona squamosa L., Carica papaya L.,

Anacardium occidentale L., Averrhoa carambola L., Psidium guajava

L.), vegetables and tuber crops ( Manihot esculenta Crantz, Ipomoea

batatas L., Solarium tuberosum L.), drugs and medicinal plants (Ery-

throxylum coca Lamk.), and ornamental trees, shrubs and climbers

(Schizolobium excelsum Vog., Samanea saman Merr., Bougainvillea

spectabilis Willd., Callistemon citrinus Stapf, Quisqualis indica L.,

Hibiscus schizopetalus Hook, f.. Cassia siamea Lamk., Delonix regia

Rafin., Allamanda cathartica L., Thevetia peruviana K. Schum., Jacar-

anda mimosifolia D. Don, etc.), and garden annuals, foliage or bulbous

plants ( Araucaria columnaris Hook., Cupressus sempervirens L., Thuja

orientalis L., Portulaca grandi flora Hook., Dahlia pinnata Cav., Antirr-

hinum majus L., Amaryllis belladonna L., Haemanthus coccineus L.,

Gladiolus gandavensis Van Houtte). A large number of exotic weeds

have also been introduced in the district, either intentionally as orna-

mental plants or accidentally with food grains, ballast, packing mate-

rials and seeds of economic plants. These include noxious weeds and

pests like Argemone mexicana L., A. ochroleuca Sweet, Gomphrena

celosioides Mart., Opuntia dillenii Haw., Croton bonplandianum Bail!.,

Acanthospermum hispidum DC., Eichhornia crassipes Solms, Ipomoea

fistulosa Mart, ex Choisy, Convolvulus arvensis L., Martynia annua L.,

and Hyptis suaveolens Poit.

Enumeration of Species

1. Cycadaceae

1. Cycas revoluta Thunb. Sago Cycas

Native of China and Japan (MacMillan 1952). Introduced in Indian

THE EXOTIC FLORA OF RANCHI

161

Botanic Garden, Sibpur near Calcutta in 1794 (Voigt 1845). Frequently

grown in private and public gardens for its ornamental foliage.

2. Araucariaceae

2. Araucaria columnaris Hook.

Syn. A. cookii R. Br. Columnar Araucaria.

Native of New Caledonia (Bailey 1949). Planted in gardens for its

ornamental foliage.

3. PlNACEAE

3. Pinus roxburghii Sarg.

Syn. P. longifolia Roxb. Chirpine

Native in the Outer Himalayas and extends from Bhutan to Afgh-

anistan. Commonly cultivated in public and private gardens.

4. CUPRESSACEAE

4. Cupressus sempervirens L. Mediterranean Cypress; Italian Cypress

Native of S. Europe and W. Asia. It is the ancient classical Cypress

of Greeks and Romans; introduced into India at an early time. Occa-

sionally grown in gardens for its ornamental foliage.

5. Thuja orientalis L. Oriental Arbor-vitae.

Syn. Biota orientalis (L.) Endl. Platycladus orientalis Franco.

Indigenous to China and Japan (MacMillan 1952). Introduced

into India during the last quarter of the 17th century. Frequently plant-

ed for its ornamental foliage. Local name: Morpankhi.

5. Mag NOLI ACE AE

6. Magnolia grandiflora L. Bull Bay; Southern Magnolia; Tree Lotus

A tropical American species; introduced into India probably during

the year 1840. Occasionally planted in gardens.

6. Annonaceae

7. Annona reticulata L. Bullock’s Heart; Ramphal

Native of tropical America. Introduced into India during the last

quarter of the 17th century; now completely naturalized (Voigt 1845).

Cultivated for its fruits.

8. A. squamosa L. Sugar Apple; Sweetsop; Sitaphal

Native of tropical America. It was one of the first American plants

introduced probably by the Portuguese into India during the 16th

11

162 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

century (Merrill 1954); frequently cultivated and widely naturalized

in India.

7. Papaveraceae

9. Argemone mexicana L. Mexican Poppy

Native of Mexico and other parts of Central America. Introduced

into India at an early time. Common in waste lands, roadsides, recently

disturbed soils, etc.

10. A. ochroleuca Sweet. Prickly Poppy

An introduced Mexican weed in India; often found mixed with

A. mexicana Linn, in waste lands and recently disturbed soils near

Hathikhana, Ranchi.

11. Eschsdiolzia californica Schau. Californian Poppy

Native of America (Bailey 1949). Flowers remain open during the

day, pale-yellow to orange. Cultivated in gardens as an annual.

8. Brassicaceae

12. Eruca sativa Mill. Garden Rocket

Native of Eurasia (Robbins 1940). Frequently cultivated as a

winter-season crop.

9. Caryophyllaceae

13. Oianthus caryophyllus L. Carnation

Native of Europe and North Africa (Backer & Brink 1963). Com-

monly cultivated in gardens as an ornamental annual.

14. Silene conoidea L.

Native of temperate Asia and Europe. A few plants were located

in vegetable plots and wheat fields of the district.

15. Spergula arvensis L. Corn Spurry

An introduced European weed (Ridley 1930; Backer & Brink 1963);

probably introduced as an impurity in vegetable seeds. Frequently

found as a winter-season weed in cultivated fields and fallow land.

10. PORTULACACEAE

16. Portulaca grandifiora Hook. Rose-Moss

Native of South America (Walters 1964). Cultivated in gardens and

hanging baskets; introduced into India by the Portuguese during the

last part of the 16th century.

THE EXOTIC FLORA OF RANCHI

163

17. P. oleracea L. Purslane

A well-known weed in Europe. Frequently found as a weed in

gardens and cultivated grounds.

11. Theaceae

18. Camellia japonica L. Garden Camellia; Japanese Rose

Syn. Thea japonica (L.) Nois.

Native of Japan (Backer & Brink 1963). Introduced into India

about 1795. Not common; often planted in private and public gardens.

12. Malvaceae

19. Althaea rosea (L.) Cav. Hollyhock

b Native of China or Asia Minor (Backer & Brink 1963). A tall

herb with hairy stems. Introduced into India about 1835. Common in

gardens. Local name: Gul-Khera.

20. Hibiscus mutabilis L. Cotton-Rose

Native of China. Commonly cultivated in gardens.

21. H. rosa-sinensis L. Rose of China: Chinese Hibiscus; Shoe Flower

Native of China (Li 1959; Pal & Krishnamurthi 1967). According

to Robyns (1966), it is presumably indigenous to eastern Asia; now

common in all warm countries. Extensively planted as an ornamental

hedge plant.

22. H. schizopetalus (Mast.) Hook. f. Fringed Hibiscus

Native of tropical East Africa (Robyns 1966); introduced into

India (Pondicherry) in October 1886 (Gupta & Marlange 1961). Com-

mon in private and public gardens.

23. Maladira capifata L.

Native of tropical America (Backer & Brink 1963). Introduced

into India in the middle of the 19th century as a fibre plant. Occurs

commonly in the area.

24. Malvastrum coromandelianum (L.) Garcke

A widely distributed weed of American origin; first described from

the material collected in the Old World (Merrill 1945). Common in

fields and waste lands.

h- • 13. Bombacaceae

25. Adansonia digitata L. Baobab; Monkey-Bread Tree

Native of tropical Africa. It is considered to be one of the longest

lived trees in the world. It was introduced by Arab traders and by

African negroes employed in the Moghul army. Some trees are planted

near Dorunda Bridge, Ranchi.

164 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vot. 72(1)

14. Sterculiaceae

26. Dombeya mastersii Hook. f. Masters Dombeya

Native of tropical Africa (MacMillan 1952). Occasionally culti-

vated in gardens as an ornamental shrub.

27. Kleinhovia hospita L. Tanag

Native of Malaysia. Cultivated in gardens.

15. Erythroxylaceae

28. Erytfiroxylum coca Lamk. Cocaine Plant

Indigenous to Peru and Bolivia. It was introduced into Ceylon in

1870 and its cultivation was prohibited in British colonies in 1914

(MacMillan 1952). Cultivated for the drug cocaine which is derived

from its leaves.

16. Geraniaceae

29. Achimenes grandiflora DC. Bigpurple Achimenes

Native of tropical America. Introduced into Calcutta Botanic Gar-

den in 1838. Commonly cultivated in gardens.

17. OXALIDACEAE

30. Averrhoa carambola L. Carambola; Komarac

A tropical species; now widely spread in the hotter regions. Duthie

(1903) suggested that the species was introduced into India from Ame-

rica by the Portuguese in the 16th century. Hill (1952) considered it

to be a native of South-eastern Asia. Hayes (1957) believed it to be

a native of Moluccas or of Malayan region. Cultivated in gardens for

its fruits.

31. Oxalis corniculata L. Yellow Oxalis; Yellow Wood Sorrell

A native of Europe (Robbins 1940). Common in lawns, green

houses and gardens. Local name: Pusi-ganju.

18. Tropaeolaceae

32. Tropaeolum in a jus L. Garden Nasturtium

Native from Peru to Columbia (Backer & Brink 1963). Flowers

yellow, red or scarlet. Cultivated as a garden annual in beds and

borders.

19. Rutaceae

33. Citrus maxima Merr. Pummelo or Shaddock

Native of Malaysia and Polynesia (Maheshwari 1961). Introduced

THE EXOTIC FLORA OF RANCHI

165

into India from Java and into West Indies by Captain Shaddock

(Bruhl 1908). Cultivated for its fruit.

20. Meliaceae

34. Melia azedarach L. Persian Lilac

Native of Persia, Asia Minor, etc. Commonly cultivated as an

ornamental tree.

35. Swietenia mahagoni Jacq. Mahogany

Native of tropical America (Backer & Brink 1965). It was in-

troduced into Indian Botanic Garden, Calcutta in 1795 from the West

Indies (Roxburgh 1824). Commonly planted in gardens.

21. Sapindaceae

36. Litchi chinensis Sonner. Lychee

A Chinese species; reported to have been introduced into India

towards end of the 18th century. Commonly cultivated for its fruit.

22. Anacardiaceae

37. Anacardium occidentale L. Cashew; Kaju

Native of Brazil and appears to have been under cultivation

throughout tropical America before the voyage of Columbus to the

New World. It seems to have been introduced into India from Brazil

by the Portuguese in the 16th century and is now naturalized in the

forests of Chittagong and all over the coastal regions of India (Mehra

1966).

Acosta (1578) mentioned: “This tree gives a fruit called caju,

which being a good stomachic, and of good flavour, is much esteemed

by all who know it. This fruit does not grow everywhere, but is found

in gardens at the city of Santa Cruz in Cochin”. Frequently cultivated

in private gardens.

23. Papilionaceae

38. Aeschynomene americana L. American Sensitive Plant; American

Jointvetch

Native of tropical America; introduced into India in recent years.

It was reported for the first time from Hazaribagh (Chatter jee 1960),

and found lately in the vicinity of Kanke, near Ranchi.

39. Arachis hypogea L. Peanut; Groundnut

Native of Brazil; probably introduced into India in the 16th cen-

tury. Commonly cultivated for its pods.

166 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

40. Calopogonium mucimoides Desv.

Native of America (Backer & Brink 1963). It was introduced into

Burma in 1920. Cultivated as a green manure.

41. Centrosema pubescens Benth. Centro

Native of tropical America. Introduced into India during the

early part of 19th century. It has been cultivated in Malaya since 1921

in rubber, oil-palm and coconut plantations. Cultivated at Kanke as a

cover crop.

42. Crotalaria incana L. Woolly Rattle Pod

Native of America (Backer & Brink 1963). Bressers (1951) report-

ed it from Khunti (Ranchi) where it is now naturalized. Not common.

43. Gliricidia sepium (Jacq.) Kunth ex Walp. Madre

Native of eastern region of Central and South America (Backer &

Brink 1963). It was introduced into Bombay from Ceylon in 1916 and

plants were raised from the seeds. Cultivated as an ornamental tree.

44. Lathyrus aphaca L.

An Eurasian species; found as a weed in cultivated fields and

used as fodder.

45. Lens oilmans Medik. Lentil

Syn. L. esculent a Moench.

Indigenous to Central Europe, Mediterranean region and Western

Asia including Afghanistan. Introduced into India by the early Aryan

settlers (Bruhl 1908). Cultivated for the seeds.

46. Medicago lupulina L. Black Medic

Native of Europe; introduced into India during the 15th or 16th

century by European settlers. Common as a winter-season weed in

waste grounds and cultivated fields.

47. M. polymorpha L. Bur Clover; Burr Medic

Syn. M. denticulata Willd.

Native of Europe; probably introduced into India during the 15th

or 16th century along with wool to which its fruits adhere by their

curved spines. A common weed in cultivated fields.

48. Melilotus alba Desr. White Sweet Clover; Bokhara Clover

Indigenous to Europe and western temperate Asia. Naturalized

as a winter season weed in moist situations and cultivated fields.

49. M. indicus (L.) All. Yellow Sweet Clover; Hexham Scent

Native of South Europe and South-Western Asia (Backer & Brink

1963); introduced into India at an early time. Common in waste lands

and grassy areas.

THE EXOTIC FLORA OF RANCHI

167

50. Pueraria phaseoloides (Roxb.) Benth. Kudzu

Syn. P. javanica Benth.

A native of tropical Asia; first introduced into the Tenasserim

Circle, Burma in 1929 from Java (Anon. 1936). Cultivated at Kanke,

near Ranchi as a green manure.

51. Trifolium alexandrinum L. Berseem; Egyptian Clover

Native of Egypt and Syria (Maheshwari 1963). According to a

report by the Agricultural Research Institute, Pusa, berseem was in-

troduced into India in 1917 from Egypt. Cultivated at Kanke and

other agricultural farms as a green manure.

52. Yicia hirsuta (L.) Gray. Tiny Vetch

Native of Europe, West Africa and Continental Asia (Backer &

Brink 1963). According to Duthie (1903), it was introduced into India

from Europe, where the plant is common. Common in cultivated fields

and waste lands.

53. V. sativa L. Common Vetch

Native of Europe, North Africa and West Asia (Backer & Brink

1963). Introduced as a forage and cover crop in many parts of the

world. Common in cultivated fields and moist, waste grounds.

24. Caesalpiniaceae

54. Bauhinia tomentosa L. St. Thomas-Tree

Native of tropical Asia and Africa. According to J. D. Hooker, it

was introduced at Kew in 1860, and probably came to India about

1872 (Bor & Raizada 1954). Cultivated in private and public gardens.

55. Poinciana pulcherrima L. Flowerfence Poinciana

Probably native of South America. According to Van Rheede

(1686), it was cultivated in Indian gardens as early as 1680. Commonly

cultivated as an ornamental in hedges and garden shrubberies.

56. Cassia javanica L. White and Pink Shower

Native of Sumatra and Java. Introduced into India in the late 17th

century. Planted in gardens, parks and roadsides.

57. C. occidentals L. Coffee Senna

A circumtropical weed, possibly of S. American origin. Introduced

long before the publication of Roxburgh’s Flora Indica (1824). Com-

mon along roadsides and in waste lands. Local name: Chakundar.

58. C. renigera Wall, ex Benth.

Native of dry zone of Upper Burma; introduced into India in the

late 17th century (Troup 1921). Cultivated in gardens and roadsides.

168 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

59. C. siamea Lamk. Yellow Shower; Siam Cassia

Native of South-east tropical Asia (Backer & Brink 1963). It was

planted in Namkum (Ranchi) in the middle of the 18th century for lac

culture. Planted in gardens.

60. C. sophera L.

Introduced from tropical America. Naturalized in waste lands.

61. C. tora L. Sickle-Pod

Native of America (Backer & Brink 1963). Introduced in the early

17th century and became widespread in India by 1824 (Srivastava

1964). A common weed along roadsides, in waste grounds, etc. Local

name: Chakundar.

62. Colvillea racemosa Boj. Colville’s Glory

Native of Mauritius and Madagascar. Introduced in the Indian

Botanic Garden, Calcutta in 1840 (Voigt 1845). Cultivated as an or-

namental tree.

63. Delonix regia (Boj. ex Hook.) Rafin. Peacock-Flower; Flame Tree;

Gulmohr

Syn. Poinciana regia Boj. ex Hook.

Native of Madagascar. Some plants were taken to Mauritius about

1824 and their seeds were brought to England. It was then introduced

into tropical countries (Co wen 1950). Bruhl (1908) mentioned that it

was introduced into India from Mauritius about the year 1840. Com-

monly cultivated as an ornamental tree.

64. Schizolobium excelsum Vog. Brazilian Fire Tree

Native of S. America (Backer & Brink 1963). Introduced into India

in the middle of the 18th century. Planted in avenues and gardens.

65. Tamarind us indica L. Tamarind

Probably a native of tropical Africa. It is said to be Sudanic in

origin (Murdock 1959). In India, it was introduced at an early time.

Commonly planted along roadsides, in gardens, etc. Local name: Jo jo.

25. Mimosaceae

66. Acacia decurrens Willd. Green Wattle

Native of Australia (Backer & Brink 1963). According to Matthew

(1969), Wattle was introduced in Kodaikanal by Sir Vere Levinge in

1867, but large scale introduction began only in 1883. It was also in-

troduced in the Nilgiris in 1832 by Capt. Dunn. Planted in the area.

67. A. farnesiana Willd. Cassie; Sweet Acacia; Aroma

Native of tropical America; introduced during the 18th century.

Occasionally cultivated in hedges and fields.

THE EXOTIC FLORA OF RANCHI

169

68. Leucaena leucocephala (Lamk.) Wit.

Syn. L. glauca Benth.

Native of the warmer parts of the New World; now cultivated and

naturalized in tropical countries.

69. Mimosa pudica L. Sensitive Plant

Native of Brazil and was introduced into India at a very early

time. Occurs in waste lands, roadsides, etc.

70. Pifhecellobiiini duke (Roxb.) Benth. Manila Tamarind

Indigenous to Mexico. It is an early introduction by the Spaniards

into the Philippine Islands and then into India. It is said to be sensitive

to frost and does not succeed on the Ranchi plateau (Haines 1922).

71. Samanea saman (Jacq.) Merr. Rain-Tree

Native of tropical America. Introduced in the vicinity of Calcutta

and the plantations of Kadapah and Kadur, etc. as an ornamental

tree of rapid growth during the first half of the 18th century (Bruhl

1908). Cultivated as an ornamental or avenue tree.

72. Prosopis juli flora DC. Mesquite

Native of the arid regions of Mexico and Central America; in-

troduced into India from Kew, England in 1877 for afforestation pur-

poses. Cultivated in hedges.

26. Rosaceae

73. Eriobotrya japonica (Thunb.) Lindl. Loquat; Japanese Medlar

Native of Japan (Backer & Brink 1963). Cultivated for its fruits

which are sold in the market.

74. Primus persica (L.) Batsch. Peach

Native of China (Backer & Brink 1963). It was recorded from

Palnis, S. India in 1858 by Beddome. Planted in gardens.

75. Rosa banksiae Ait. f. Banksia Rose

Native of China. Commonly planted in gardens.

76. R. damascena Mill. Damask Rose

Origin unknown; probably a cultigen. It is not till the close of the

13th century that we find any reference of rose-water. In India, attar

of roses is said to have been first discovered by Begum Nur-i-Jehan in

1612 A.D. (Bruhl 1908). Commonly cultivated.

77. R. centifolia L. Cabbage Rose

Native of Caucasus. It is one of the most ancient of cultivated

roses. Introduced into Calcutta Botanic Garden in 1841 (Voigt 1845).

170 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

27. Crassulaceae

78. Kalanchoe piimafa Pers. Lefe-Plant.

Syn. Bryophyllum pinnatum Oken; B. calycinum Salisb.

Native of Africa (Backer & Brink 1963). Introduced into Calcutta

Botanic Garden by Lady Clive in 1799 and thence spread all over

Bengal (Voigt 1845). Frequently found in private gardens.

28. COMBRETACEAE

79. Quisqualis indica L. Rangoon-Creeper

Native of Burma, Malaya, New Guinea and Philippines (Bailey

1949). Commonly cultivated in gardens for ornamental purposes.

29. Myrtaceae

80. Calllstemon citrines (Curt.) Skeels. Lemon Bottle-Brush

Syn. C. lanceolatus Sweet.

Native of Australia (Backer & Brink 1963)., Introduced into India

about the year 1804. Cultivated in gardens.

81. Eucalyptus citriodora Hook. Lemon-Scented Gum

Native of Australia. An early introduction into India; first intro-

duced at Nandi Hills by Tipoo Sultan. Frequently planted.

82. Eo camaSdulensis Dehnh. Red Gum

Syn. E. ro strata Schlecht.

Native of Australia; introduced in Punjab, Uttar Pradesh and

Rajasthan. It grov/s well in some plantations in the district.

83. Melaleuca leucadendra (L.) L. Cajeput Tree; Punk Tree

Syn. M. leucadendron L.f.

Introduced into Calcutta Botanic Garden in 1811 (Bruhl 1908).

Cultivated in gardens as an ornamental tree.

84. Psidiem guajava L. Guava

Native of tropical America. It is a typical Mexican introduction

via the Acapuloc-Manila Galleon route, after 1565 into the Old World

Tropics (Merrill 1954). Introduced into India by the Portuguese (Watt

1892). Commonly cultivated for its fruit. Local name: Tambarsa.

30. Punicaceae

85. Punica granatum L. Pomegranate

Native of Iran and now naturalized in the Mediterranean area and

southern Asia. Cultivated for its fruits.

3 1 . Caricaceae

86. Carica papaya L. Papaya

Native of tropical America. It was not known in India before the

THE EXOTIC FLORA OF RANCHI

171

arrival of the Portuguese, who introduced it in the 16th century (Mehra

1965). Commonly cultivated for its fruit.

32. Passifloraceae

87. Passiflora edulis Sims. Purple Granadilla; Edible Passion-Flower

Native of Brazil (Bor & Raizada 1954). Introduced into India

about 1826. Rather uncommon in the area.

88. P. foetida L. Stinking Passion-Flower

An American species; introduced into India during the 19th cen-

tury (Srivastava 1964).

33. Cactaceae

89. Opuntia dillenii Haw. Prickly Pear

Native of Mexico; now naturalized all over India. It was introduced

in Europe as early as at the end of the 15th century (Bally 1969). It

was brought in India well before 1800 A.D. from Europe with the object

of establishing the cochineal industry. Frequently found in waste lands

and fences. Local name; Nagphani.

34. Araeiaceae

90. Polyscias fruticosa (L.) Harms.

Syn. Panax fruticosa Hort.

Native of tropical Asia. This shrub was introduced into Indian

Botanic Garden, near Calcutta from Moluccas in 1798 (Bruhl 1908).

Cultivated in hedges.

35. Rubiaceae

91. Coffea arabica L. Arabian Coffee

Native of Abyssinia (Backer & Brink 1965). Voigt (1845) writes:

“From Arabia and Ethiopia, it has been carried to nearly all parts of

the world within the tropics”. It might have been cultivated in India

from the 18th century. Cultivated in the area.

92. Gardenia jasminoides Ellis.

Syn. G. florida L. Rosal

Native of China and Japan (Backer & Brink 1965). Introduced

into India in the 17th century. Cultivated in gardens and hedges.

93. Hamelia patens Jacq. Scarlet Hamelia

Syn. H. erecta Jacq.

Native of S. America and southern parts of N. America (Backer

& Brink 1965); introduced into India in the early 18th century. Accord-

172 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

ing to Bruhl (1908), the species flowered in Indian Botanic Garden in

1840. Cultivated in gardens and hedges.

94. Mussaenda flava (Verdcourt Bakh. f.

Syn. M. luteola Delile nom. illeg.

Native of Africa (Haines 1922). It was first introduced into Europe

about 1860 (Bor & Raizada 1954), and came to India in the later part

of the 18th century. Cultivated as an ornamental shrub in gardens and

parks.

95. Richardia brasiliensis Gomez.

Syn. Richardsonia pilosa H. B. & K. Mexican Clover

Native of S. America (Backer & Brink 1965). Introduced into India

in the early 19th century. It was first reported from Shillong by Kanjilal

et al. (1939). Very common in Kanke and Boria along roadsides, in

waste lands and cultivated fields. Local name: Hadapoda.

36. Asteraceae (nom. alt.: Compositae)

96. Acaiithospermuni hispiduin DC. Stai* Burr

Native of tropical America. It was introduced into South India

along with ballast and packing material of some imported goods.

Gamble (1921) first reported it from South Kanara and Salem districts.

Later, Srivastava (1964) reported it from Ranchi. Occurs as a weed

along roads, railways and in forest clearings.

97. Adenostemma lavenia (L.) Ktze.

Syn. A. viscosum Forst.

Native of South America, and was widespread throughout India

in the 19th century. Not common; found in grassy areas in valleys.

98. Ageratum conyzoides L. Tropic Ageratum

A South American species now well naturalized throughout India.

Ridley (1930) mentioned that it travels by adhesion to cloth or to

hair of animals. Very common in waste lands, roadsides and culti-

vated fields. Local name: Pooru.

99. Blainvillea acmella (L.) Philipson.

Syn. B. rhomboidea Cass.; B. latifolia DC.

Native of South America (Ridley 1930); introduced into India

during the 18th century. Frequently found in moist, waste lands.

100. Brachycome iberidifolia Benth. Swan River Daisy

Native of Australia (Bailey 1949). Cultivated as a garden annual.

101. Calendula officinalis L. Marigold

Native of S. Europe, (name. Calendula means ‘of the, Kalends’ i.e.

the first of every month — because Marigold can be found in bloom in

almost every month of the year). Coats (1956) mentioned: “Some

THE EXOTIC FLORA OF RANCHI

173

authorities give 1753 as the date of introduction of the marigold into

England from Europe, but there are numerous references to it in the

13th or 14th centuries and it seems to have been widespread and fami-

liar even then”. It is said that the pain of a wasp or bee sting can be

alleviated by rubbing with the flower. Extensively cultivated in gardens,

parks, etc.

102. Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium (Trev.) Vis. Dalmatian Pyrethrum

Syn. Pyrethrum cinerariaefolium Trev.

Native of Dalmatia (Bailey 1949). Introduced into Pondicherry,

India in 1886 (Gupta & Marlange 1961). Matthew (1962) mentions:

“The flowers of the Pyrethrum were in great demand during World

War II, when its value as an insecticide was realized The

Government of India urged the Madras State Government, to

undertake large scale planting The scheme was already started

in the Nilgiris in 1942 with seeds brought from Kenya”. Cultivated

in gardens and sometimes found as an escape.

103. Coreopsis tinctoria Nutt. Golden Coreopsis

A native of N. America (Coats. 1956). Several varieties were in-

troduced in many gardens near London by 1725. This species probably

came to India about 1740. Extensively cultivated in gardens.

104. Cosmos bipinnatus Cav. Common Cosmos

Native of Mexico. Common in gardens as a border annual; used

for table decoration.

105. Dahlia piimata Cav. Aztec Dahlia

Syn. D. hortensis Guill.

Native of Mexico. It was discovered by Von Humboldt in 1789,

when the seeds were sent to the Royal Garden, Madrid. From there,

it was imported into England in 1804 by the Marchioness of Bute. In

India, it was probably introduced in 1865 (Maheshwari 1955). It is a

favourite garden plant in the area.

106. Elephantopus scaber L.

An American weed; introduced in to the Old World during post-

Columbian time and is now widespread throughout the region. Com-

mon in waste lands, forest undergrowth, etc. Local name: Tape-Singh.

107. Erigeron bonariensis L. Fleabane

Syn. E. linifolius Willd.

Native of the American tropics and now pantropical in distribution.

It was introduced into the Old World in the 16th century. Common

in gardens, lawns, etc:

174 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 11 (1)

108. Gaillardia picta Sweet. Painted Gaillardia

Nativd of North America. It is a popular annual in garden beds and

is extensively used for the decoration of bowls and vases.

109. Galinsoga parviflora Cav. Kew Weed; Yellow Weed

Native of tropical America; now well naturalized in the country

and grows abundantly in cultivated plots near Ranchi. Local name:

Pardhia.

110. Lagascea mollis Cav.

An introduced Mexican weed in India; now well naturalized all

over the hilly region.

111. Sderocarpus africanus Jacq.

Native of South America. Introduced into India about 1872 and

became common throughout the region (Srivastava 1964). Bressers

(1951) first reported it from Ranchi. Common amongst grass.

112. Tagetes erecta L. Aztec or African Marigold

Native of Mexico; once supposed to be a native of Africa (Bailey

1949). Flowers yellow to orange. Cultivated as a garden annual.

113. Tithonia diversifolia A. Gray. Wild Sun Flower

Native of Central America (Bailey 1949). It was introduced in

Ceylon in 1851. Flower heads yellow, like sunflower. Cultivated in

gardens as an annual.

114. Tridax procumbens L.

Native of the New World; introduced into India about the year

1830 as an ornamental plant (Ridley 1930). It is now widespread over

tropical India. Very common on old walls, in grasslands, roadsides,

waste lands, etc. Local name: Manduli-ba.

115. Zinnia elegans Jacq. Common Zinnia

Native of Mexico (Bailey 1949). Extensively cultivated as a rainy'

and summer-season garden annual.

37. Lobeliaceae

116. Lobelia radicans Thunb.

It was accidentally introduced from China into the Indian Botanic

Garden, Sibpur, near Calcutta. Naturalized in the vicinity of Ranchi

(Bruhl 1908).

38. Primulaceae

117. Anagaliis arvensis L. Scarlet Pimpernel

Indigenous to Europe and Mediterranean region (Taylor 1955).

It was introduced into India about 1500-1665 by the early Dutch settlers

THE EXOTIC FLORA OF RANCHI

175

rrom tne Fast Indies or by the Spaniards into the Philippines. It is

probable that it was introduced into E. Bengal, Assam, etc. as an

impurity, at some time with the vegetable seeds or seeds of garden

plants. Common in garden beds and in moist situations.

39. Sapotaceae

118. Manilkara achras (Mill.) Fosberg. Sapodilla; Chikoo

Syn. Achras-zapota auct., non L.

Native of tropical America. It was introduced into India by the

Portuguese in the 16th century. Cultivated for its fruit. The most im-

portant product of the tree is “chicle” gum which is used in the manu-

facture of chewing gum.

40. Ebenaceae

119. Diospyros discolor Willd. Mabolo

Native of Philippines (MacMillan 1952). Introduced into India in

the early 18th century. Cultivated in gardens.

41. Apocynaceae

120. Allamanda cathartica L. Kampanilya

Native of tropical S. America. It was introduced into India from

Guiana (Voigt 1845). Cultivated as an ornamental in private and pub-

lic gardens.

121. Calharanthus roseus (L.) G. Don. Madagascar Periwinkle

This species might be native to America, especially West Indies;

believed in recent years to have originated in Madagascar. Probably

first introduced as an ornamental plant. Flowers rose-purple. Exten-

sively planted in gardens, private bungalows, etc.

122. Catharanthus roseus G. Don. var. albus Sweet

An erect, pubescent subshrub. Flowers white. Planted in gardens

in association with the former species.

123. Plumeria rubra L. forma rubra Frangipani Tree

Distributed from Mexico to Venezuela, Ecuador and West Indies.

Introduced into India in 1841 (Voigt 1845). Cultivated in gardens,

parks and lawns.

124. P. rubra JL. forma acutifolia Woodson. Pagoda Tree; Temple tree

Indigenous to tropical America. Introduced into India in 1841

(Voigt 1845). Cultivated as an ornamental tree in gardens. Focal name:

Guianch.

176 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 72(1)

125. Thevetia peruviana (Pers.) K. Sehum. Yellow Oleander; Cook Tree

Syn. T. neriifolia Juss. ex Miq.

Native of S. America. It is a great favourite of Hindus who offer

its flowers to God Shiva. It was brought under cultivation in Europe

in 1735 and since then distributed throughout the tropics as a showy,

ornamental plant (Bor & Raizada 1954). It might have been intro-

duced into India about 1795. Commonly planted in hedges.

126. Trachelospermum jasminoides Lem. Chinese Star Jasmine

Syn. T. divaricatum K. Schum.

Indigenous to China and Japan (Bor & Raizada 1954). It was

introduced into Europe from Shanghai by Robert Fortune and came

to India in the 17th century. Cultivated in gardens as a creeper on

walls and trellises.

42. Asclepiadaceae

127. Cryptostegia grandiflora R. Br. Rubber Vine

Native of Africa (Bailey 1949). A climbing shrub. Flowers lilac-

purple. Planted in gardens.

43. Boraginaceae

128. Heliotropium indicum L.

This species is probably of American origin (Reed 1964). It was

introduced into the Old World about 1500 A.D. in ballast or baggage

(Merrill 1954). Common in muddy soils, waste lands and periodically

desiccating pools and ditches.

44. CONVOLVULACEAE

129. Convolvulus arvensis L. Wild Morning-Glory; Lesser Bindweed

Native of Europe and Continental Asia (Backer & Brink 1965);

now widespread in subtropical and tropical regions. Common as a

weed in cultivated fields during the winter season.

130. Ipomoea batatas (L.) L. Sweet Potato

Native of Brazil; introduced into India by the Portuguese in the

early part of 16th century (Watt 1890). Commonly cultivated for the

edible tubers.

131. I. fistulosa Mart, ex Choisy.

Syn. /. crassicaulis Robins

Native of South America; probably introduced into India about

a century ago by the Agri-Horticultural Society, Alipur, Calcutta. It

was known under cultivation in Indian Botanic Garden, Sibpur, Cal-

cutta during the year 1879. It grows extensively along the water courses.

THE EXOTIC FLORA OF RANCHI

177

ponds and ditches, roadsides, railway sidings, etc. and is used as a

hedge. Local names: Thethar ka phool; Amri.

132. I. nil (L.) Roth.

Syn. /. hederacea auct. non. Jacq.

Native of Tropical America. A twining hairy annual with blue or

light purple flowers. Grown as an ornamental along the trellises and

walls of gardens.

133. Volvulopsis numinularia (L.) G. Roberty.

Syn. Evolvulus nummularius L.

Native of Tropical America (Roberty 1952). Introduced into India

during the last part of the 18th century. Bressers (1951) first recorded

it from Ranchi. Frequently found in waste lands, fallow fields, etc.

45. SOLANACEAE

134. Brunsfelsia americana L.

Native of West Indies (Backer & Brink 1965). Introduced into

India in 1841 (Voigt 1845). Occasionally found in gardens as an orna-

mental annual.

135. Capsicum frutescens L. Chilli; Spur Pepper; Chile Pepper

Syn. C. annuum L. var. frutescens (L.) Ktze.

Native of tropical America. Mehra (1966) mentioned: “Bontius

(1631) thought that it was carried from S. America to Indian Archi-

pelago and thence to India (Yule & Burnell 1886). The Portuguese

brought the plant to India from Pernambuco, according to Clusius

(Dymock et al .)”. Commonly cultivated for its fruits.

136. Cestrum nocturnum L. Lady-of-the-Night

It is an American contribution to Oriental gardens. Widely culti-

vated for its fragrant flowers at night.

137. Lycopersicon lycopersicum (L.) Karsten. Tomato

Syn. L. esculentum Mill.

Native of W. S. America (Bailey 1949). It was known in cultivation

in W. Europe by 1561 (Stafleu 1969). Extensively cultivated for its

fruits.

138. Nicotiana plumbaginifolia Viv.

Native of tropical America; introduced into India quite early, pro-

bably during 1824-1845 (Goodspeed 1954; Srivastava 1964). It spreads

from Bengal towards the west and later in the northern regions. A

common weed in cultivated fields, roadsides, etc.

12

178 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72 (1)

139. PhysaJis minima L. Wild Gooseberry

Native of S. America. It spreads through cattle, birds and horse

dung, and was introduced into India during the 17th century from

Malaysia (Ridley 1930). Occurs as a weed in waste lands and fallow

fields.

140. Solanum tuberosum L. Potato

Native of the Andean highlands of South America. It was intro-

duced into Europe in 1570 and came to India in the later part of 16th

century (Mehra 1966).

46. SCROPH U LARI ACEAE

141. Antirrhinum majus L. Snapdragon

Native of S. Europe, Syria and N. Africa (Backer & Brink 1965).

According to Gupta and Marlange (1961), it was introduced into India

in 1886. It is a popular annual for outdoor beddings and edgings.

142. Calceolaria mexicana Benth. Common Slipper Flower

Native from Mexico to the Andes of Peru and Chile (Bailey 1949).

It was introduced into India during 1845-1890. Grown in gardens.

143. Mecardonia dianthera (Swartz) Pennell.

Syn. Herpestis chamaedryoides H. B. & K.

Native of tropical America and recently introduced into India. It

was recorded for the first time from Bengal by Prain (1903). Bressers

(1951) first reported it from Ranchi. A weed in lawns, gardens and

paddy fields.

144. Scoparia dulcis L. Sweet Broomwort

Native of tropical America; now spread throughout the Old World

tropics. Common in moist waste lands, cultivated in paddy fields, etc.

Local name: Ipid-piong.

47. Bignoniaceae

145. Jacaranda mimosifolia D. Don. Jacaranda

Syn. /. ovalifolia R. Br.

Native of Brazil and N. W. Argentina (Maheshwari 1963). It was

introduced into India in 1841 (Voigt 1845). Planted in parks and gar-

dens.

146. Kigelia pinnata DC. Sausage Tree

Native of Africa (Bailey 1949). Flowers scarlet-coloured. Fruits

grourd-like, hanging on cord-like stalks. Planted in gardens.

THE EXOTIC FLORA OF RANCHI

179

147. Tecoma stans (L.) H.B. & K. Yellow Elder; Yellow-Bells

Native of Tropical America. Commonly planted in the hedges of

gardens and also found as an escape.

48. Marty niaceae

148. Martynia annua L. Tiger’s Claw; Devil’s Claw

Native of tropical America; introduced into India before 1843 and

now well naturalized. It spreads by the attachment of its hooked

fruits to goats, sheep, etc. (Ridley 1930). Common on rubbish heaps,

in waste lands and roadsides. Local name: Budi Rama.

49. Acanthaceae

149. Thunbergia erecta T. Anders. Bush Clockvine

Native of tropical America (MacMillan 1952). It was introduced

into India in 1899 from Kew (Bor & Raizada 1954). Cultivated in

gardens.

50. Verbenaceae

150. Clerodendrum philippinum Schauer. Nassau-Rose; Glorybower

Syn. C. fragrans Hort. ex Vent; C. japonicum var. pleniflorum

Mahesh.

Native of China (Bruhl 1908). Extensively cultivated in gardens and

well naturalized in tropical areas.

151. C. thomsonae Balf. f. Bleeding Heart; Thomson Glorybower

Native of tropical Africa (Backer & Brink 1965). It was introduced

into England (Balfour, Edinburgh) in 1861 by a missionary from Old

Calabar on the west coast of Africa and came to India about 1876

(Bor & Raizada 1954). Cultivated in private gardens.

152. Durauta repens L.

Syn. D. plumieri Jacq. Pigeonberry; Golden Dewdrop

Native of S. America and West Indies (Maheshwari 1963). Com-

monly planted in gardens and hedges.

153. Lantana camara L. var. aculeata (L.) Moldenke. Spiny Lantana;

Planter’s Curse

Syn. L. aculeata L.

Native of America (Backer & Brink 1965); introduced in 'the Cal-

cutta Botanic Garden in 1809. According to Ridley (1930), it was in-

troduced as an ornamental plant and was first recorded from Ceylon

in 1824. Widely cultivated and common as a weed in forest clearings,

cultivated fields and waste lands. Local name: Poostu.

154. L. trifolia L.

Syn. L. indica Roxb.

Widely distributed throughout tropical America (Moldenke 1955);

180 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

introduced into India at an early time. Bressers (1951) first reported

it from Ranchi. Occasionally found in waste lands.

155. Lippia alba (Mill.) N. E. Br. ex Britton & Wilson.

Syn. L. geminata H. B. & K.; Lantana alba Mill.

Widely distributed throughout the West Indies, Mexico, Central

America, tropical and subtropical South America to Argentina and

introduced elsewhere (Moldenke 1955). Frequently found in marshy

lands and moist situations.

156. Petrea volubilis L. Purplewreath Retrea

Native of tropical America (Maheshwari 1963). It was introduced

into India in 1841 (Voigt 1845). Cultivated in gardens.

157. Stachytarpheta jamaicensis (L.) Vahl. Jamaica False Valerian

Syn. S. indica Vahl; Verbena jamaicensis L.

Native of America (Moldenke 1955). Introduced into India in the

early 19th century. It escapes from cultivation and has become a pest

in the vicinity of Ranchi. Focal name: Sitir-kar.

158. S. mutabilis (Jacq.) Vahl. Variable False Valerian

Native of tropical America; introduced into India in the last part

of the 18th century for the medicinal properties of its leaves which

are applied to wounds and sores.

51. Lamiaceae (nom. alt.: Labiatae)

159. Hyptis suaveolens (L.) Poit. Ganga-Tulsi

Native of S. America; found throughout Africa and Asia (Epling

1936). It was introduced into India during 1872-1897 when Hooker

published his Flora of British India. Occurrs as a weed in waste lands.

160. Salvia coccinea Juss. Red Salvia

Widely distributed in tropical America. Commonly cultivated as an

ornamental in gardens under the name “Salvia” and “Scarlet Sage”.

Flowers scarlet in erect, lax spikes.

52. Nyctaginaceae

161. Bougainvillea glabra Choisy. Bougainvillea

Native of Brazil. It was introduced into England in 1860 from

Brazil by way of Mauritius and thence into India during 1884-1894

(Bor & Raizada 1954). Commonly cultivated as an ornamental in

private and public gardens.

162. B. spectabilis Willd. Hairy Bougainvillea

Native of Brazil. Introduced into India from England during 1860

(Bor & Raizada 1954). Commonly cultivated in gardens.

THE EXOTIC FLORA OF RANCHI

181

163. Mirabilis jalapa L. Four o’clock; Marvel-of-Peru

Native of tropical America (Webb 1964). Dymock et al. (quoted

in Mehra 1966) mentioned as follows: “Five varieties of this plant

with red, white, yellow, red and white, and red and yellow flowers were

introduced from the West Indies in 1596 and these must have been

carried by the Portuguese to the East shortly afterwards, as the plant

is said to have been introduced into Persia in the reign of Shah Abbas,

the First, and was established on the Malabar coast in the time of

Van Rheede.” Cultivated as an ornamental plant.

53. Amaranthaceae

164. Altemanthera paronychioides St. Hil.

Native of South America and West Indies. Introduced into India

during the 20th century. Common in moist situations.

165. A. philoxeroides (Mart.) Griseb. Alligator Weed

Native of S. America; probably Brazilian in origin. Introduced

into India during recent years and has been collected from Ranchi

Lake (Maheshwari 1964).

166. Gomphrena celosioides Mart. Gomphrena-Weed

Native of South America. Introduced into India recently (Srivastava

1964). Found in waste lands and along roadsides. Local name: Garun-

diara.

167. G. globosa L. Globe Amaranth; Bachelor’s Button

Probably native of America, but was originally described from

India. Cultivated and naturalized in tropical regions. Common in

gardens and often found as an escape in waste lands.

54. Polygon ace ae

168. Antigonon leplopus Hook. & Arn. Coral Creeper

Native of S. America. Commonly planted in gardens, along trellises,

poles and pergolas.

55. Aristolochiaceae

169. Aristolochia elegans Mast. Calico-Flower

Native of tropical America (Maheshwari 1963). It was introduced

into India in the early part of 18th century. Grown as an ornamental

climber in gardens and hedges.

56. PlPERACEAE

170. Peperomia pellucida (L.) H.B. & K. Sliiny Peperomia

Native of Central America; introduced into India in the later part

182 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

of 19th century (Srivastava 1964). Bressers (1951) first reported it from

Ranchi. Rarely found in waste lands; often grown in conservatories

and ferneries.

57. Proteaceae

171. Grevillea robusta A. Cunn. ex R. Br. Silky-Oak; Silver Oak