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Vol. 77, No. 1

Editors : J. C. Daniel, P. V. Bole & A. N. D. Nanavati

APRIL 1980 Rs: 735

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VOLUME 77 NO. 1 : APRIL 1980

Date of Publication: 29-11-1980

CONTENTS

PAGE

A NEW SPECIES, AND A NEW SUBSPECIES OF BIRD FROM TIRAP DistRICT, ARUNACHAL

PRADESH, AND COMMENTS ON THE SUBSPECIES OF Stachyris nigriceps BLYTH.

By S. Dillon Ripley. (With a coloured plate) ats 1

FRESHWATER ALGAE OF DAVANAGERE AND RAICHUR OF KARNATAKA STATE, INDIA.

By U. D. Bongale and S. G. Bharati. (With nine plates)

BIRD NOTES FROM BALUCHISTAN PROVINCE, PAKISTAN. By T. J. Roberts 55 12

OBSERVATIONS ON FOOD AND GROWTH OF Bufo melanostictus TADPOLE. By J. H. Sabnis

and Ku. S. M. Kuthe. (With a text-figure) ae 21

DISTRIBUTION OF MOLLUSCS IN AND AROUND THE CORAL REEFS OF THE SOUTHEASTERN

COAST IN INpDIA. By C. S. Gopinadha Pillai and K. K. Appukuttan. (With three

plates, four text-figures and a map) et 26

A MarcH BIRD COUNT IN Poona. By Prakash Gole , 49

MAMMALS FROM NepaAL. By David H. Johnson, S. Dillon Ripley, and Kitti hone:

longya. (With a text-figure) a 56

PARENTAL CARE IN THE SALTWATER CROCODILE (Crocodylus porosus SCHNEIDER) AND

MANAGEMENT IMPLICATIONS. By H. R. Bustard and B. C. Choudhury ee 64

EGcGs AND EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF TOR MAHSEER FISH. By C. V. Kulkarni. (With four

text-figures) 2 70

FAMILY CYPERACEAE IN KOLHAPUR AND ITS ENVIRONS. By A. R. Kulkarni, S. R. Yadav

and J. S. Pawar se 76

A CATALOGUE OF THE BIRDS IN THE COLLECTION OF THE BomBAy NATURAL HISTORY

SociETY—22. By Humayun Abdulali Pe 81

CLUTCH SIZE, INCUBATION AND HATCHING SUCCESS OF GHARIAL [Gavialis gangeticus

(GMELIN) ] EGGS FROM NARAYANI RIVER, NEPAL, 1976-1978. By H. R. Bustard .. 100

New DESCRIPTIONS:

Pseudoscorpions from south India—four New species of the Family Chernetidae

Mange and Cheliferidae Hagen (Pseudoscorpionida, Monosphyronida). By S.

Sivaraman. (With four text-figures) : 106

A New Genus of Rubiaceae from Great Nicobar Island, India. By N. P. Balakrishnan.

(With a text-figure) .. 116

A New species of Lindenbergia (Scrophulariaceae) from eastern India. By J. K.

Sikdar and G. G. Maiti. (With four text-figures) oe 4

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES:

MAMMALS: 1. Notes on the mating behaviour of Tadarida aegyptiaca (Geoffroy). By S. K.

Kashyap (p. 124); 2. Field observations on the Hanuman Langur. By S. C. Makwana and

S. Majumdar (p. 125); 3. A note on the breeding of the Leopard-Cat (Felis bengalensis)

in captivity. By L. N. Acharjyo and Ch. G. Mishra (p. 127); 4. Do Leopards use their

whiskers as wind detector? By Raza H. Tehsin (p. 128); 5. Nilgiri Tahr (Hemitragus

hylocrius) in captivity. (With a photograph). By P. R. Chandran (p. 129); 6. A further

note on Moschus. By Colin P. Groves (p. 130); 7. Report of the occurrence of the Metad

in West Bengal. By Ajoy Kumar Mandal and Santanu Ghosh (p. 133).

Birps: 8. Some observations on the Biology of the Openbill Stork, Anastomus oscitans

(Boddaert), in southern Bengal. (With a plate). By Anand Mukhopadhyay (p. 133);

9. The nesting of the Coot (Fulica atra) in the village pond of Khandala. By A. Navarro

(p. 137); 10. A note on the survey of the Great Indian Bustard (Choriotis nigriceps).

By L. H. A. Rego (p. 138); 11. On the taxonomic validity of the South Indian Black-

headed Oriole, Oriolus xanthornus maderaspatanus Franklin (Aves: Oriolidae). (With a

text-figure). By N. Majumdar (p. 139); 12. On the validity of Dendrocitta formosae sarkari

Kinnear & Whistler. By Humayun Abdulali (p. 142); 13. On the occurrence of Tytler’s Leaf

Warbler, Phylloscopus tytleri Brooks in Goa. By Trevor D. Price (p. 143); 14. Green Munia

(Estrilda formosa) at Delhi, and other interesting records for 1978. By A. J. Gaston and

J. Mackrell (p. 144); 15. A Catalogue of the Birds in the Collection of the Bombay

Natural History Society parts 1-17—Non-Passeriformes Errata and Addenda. By Humayun

Abdulali (p. 145).

REPTILES: 16. Territoriality in immature captive Saltwater Crocodiles (Crocodylus porosus

Schneider). By H. R. Bustard and S. K. Kar (p. 148); 17. Status of the Gharial (Gavialis

gangeticus Gmelin) in Bhutan. By H. R. Bustard (p. 150); 18. Extention of range of the

narrow-mouth frog. Uperodon globulosum (Ginther) te Kamrup District, Assam. By Jnan-

endra Lal Bhaduri and Subhendu Sekhar Saha (p. 151).

FisHEs: 19. Occurrence of Botia lohachata Chaudhuri in Himachal Pradesh with remarks

on the taxonomy of Indian species of Botia Gray (Pisces: Cobitidae). By G. M. Yazdani

(p. 152); 20. The giant mahseers of Kumaun Himalayas with a recent rare record. By S.

S. Pathani (p. 154).

INSEcTs: 21. Male in copulation with dead female of Hieroglyphus nigrorepletus Bol.

By Shamshad Ali (p. 155); 22. Maternal care in Oxyrhachis tarandus Fabr. (Membracidae:

Homoptera). By Sawai Singh and Surya Kant Sharma (p. 156); 23. Parnara butterfly from

Patna: A correction. By R. K. Varshney and B. Nandi (p. 157).

CRUSTACEA: 24. Occurrence of Artemia salina (Crustacea: Phyllopoda) in Didwana Lake,

Rajasthan. By S. C. Bhargava and M. Alam (p. 158).

HIRUDINEA: 25. On a small collection of Leeches collected during the Daphabum and

Subansiri expeditions, Arunachal Pradesh. By J. M. Julka and M. Chandra (p. 160).

ARACHNIDA: 26. Some interesting observations on a spider Argiope arcuata Simon (Arach-

nida: Araneidae). By Charan Singh (p. 161); 27. Observations on the silk chamber con-

struction and brooding behaviour of Pseudoscorpions (Cl. Arachnida). (With five text-

figures). By S. Sivaraman and V. A. Murthy (p. 162).

BoTANY: 28. Some interesting observations in Wrightia tinctoria R.Br. ssp. tinctoria. (With

a text-figure). By M. P. Nayar and R. K. Kochhar (p. 167); 29. Vernonia chinensis Less.—

A new record for Andamans. By Bimalendu Mitra and Girija Sankar Giri (p. 168); 30. A

new distributional record for Eupatorium adenophorum Sovreng. from Tehri Garhwal. By

Shiv Kumar Dhyani (p. 169); 31. Wiesneria triandra (Dalz.) Micheli (Alismataceae)—

an interesting and rare addition to the flora of the presidency of Madras, from Kerala,

South India. (With eleven text-figures). By J. Joseph and V. Chandrasekaran. (p. 169);

32. Chlorophytum arundinaceum Baker (Liliaceae) in Maharashtra. (With five text-figures).

By S. K. Malhotra and Sirasala Moorthy (p. 172); 33. Nomenclature of some bulbous

Liliaceae of India. By M. Y. Ansari and R. Sundara Raghavan (p. 172); 34. Hitherto

undescribed follicles of Marsdenia brunoniana Wt. & Arn. and its distribution. (With three

text-figures). By M. Chandrabose and N. C. Nair (p. 174); 35. More records of entomo-

genous fungi from preserved Dragonfly collections. By Brij Kishore Tyagi and Vijay Veer

(p. 176).

ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY FOR THE YEAR 1977-78 .. 179

STATEMENTS OF ACCOUNTS OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL History SOCIETY as 185

MINUTES OF THE ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING .. 199

JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY

SOCIETY

1980 APRIL

Vol. 77

No. 1

A NEW SPECIES, AND A NEW SUBSPECIES OF BIRD

FROM TIRAP DISTRICT, ARUNACHAL PRADESH, AND

COMMENTS ON THE SUBSPECIES OF

STACHYRIS NIGRICEPS BLYTH.’

S. DILLON RIPLEY?

(With a coloured plate)

A new species of shortwing (Turdinae) is described from five specimens collected

in dense evergreen rain forest along the Noa Dihing River, eastern Arunachal Pradesh.

The new form is close in appearance to Brachypteryx hyperythra, but somewhat larger,

the dull female plumage (in both sexes), more streaked, and lacking the concealed

white eyebrow patch found in all other species of the genus except for B. major

of South India. A new subspecies of Scimitar Babbler (Pomatorhinus), is also des-

cribed from the same locality. Comments on the geographical races of Blackthroated

Babbler (Stachyris) are given. (Both latter genera belong to Timaliinae).

During a second survey trip to Arunachal

Pradesh, my wife and I were priviledged to

join Dr. Salim Ali, and colleagues from the

Bombay Natural History Society, on a month’s

camp along the Noa Dihing River on the

border of the Namdapha wildlife reserve.

By the use of mist nets we secured and ob-

served many species of birds, otherwise al-

most impossible to record. The extremely

dense vegetation, a characteristic of mature,

1 Accepted April 1980.

2 Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. 20560,

U.S.A.

unopened rainforest was penetrated only by

a rough dirt track, accessible, at some seasons,

by jeep. Heavy rain, beginning on March 15,

greatly limited our observations. However, we

were fortunate to obtain a small series of the

following new species:

Brachypteryx cryptica sp. nov.

Enigmatic Shortwing

Holotype: United States National Museum

of Natural History, no. 583152, adult male

from 40-mile camp (Bhimraj camp), east of

Miao, Noa Dihing River road (27° 40’ N.,

97° E. approx.), elevation 820 m (2650 ft.):

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

collected 23 March, 1979, by S. Dillon Rip-

ley, field number 254.

Diagnosis: in size and coloration nearest to

Brachypteryx hyperythra, the _ little-known

Rustybellied Shortwing, recorded from Sik-

kim, Arunachal Pradesh (in Subansiri Dist.),

Assam and Nagaland. Male plumage in the

adult of Ayperythra is strongly dimorphic, dark

blue upperparts, blackish lores and sides of

throat, concealed white supercilium, ferrugin-

ous below. The female is olive-brown above

and pale ferruginous below with the center

‘of the belly whitish. In contrast males and

females of cryptica differ from the female

plumage of hyperythra by somewhat lighter

brown upperparts, Russet rather than Olive-

brown (cf. Smithe, 1975), with noticeable

buff shafi-streaks on the forehead and fore-

crown producing a_ streaked effect. The

feathers of the nares, anterior to the eyes, are

coloured creamy-buff, giving the suggestion of

a dull but distinct light patch, totally unlike

the uniform olive-brown tone of hyperythra.

Below, this species is pale creamish amber-

brown, ranging to clay brown on the throat

and upper breast, in contrast to the dark

cinnamon of hyperythra. The shafts of the

feathers of the breast in cryptica are margin-

ed at the ends with pale olive-brown, giving

a streaked effect. Lower down the breast pales

to buff and the abdomen is dull whitish, the

flanks pale olive-brown, rather than dark as

in hyperythra, and the undertail coverts warm

buff rather than reddish-cinnamon. The effect

produced is of a paler bird beneath, buff to

whitish, rather than ferruginous to creamy.

Stuart Baker (1933) writes of males of two

species of Brachypteryx as not donning the

slaty-blue upperparts of adult dress, and still

being in breeding condition, in the eastern

part of the range, namely the hills of Naga-

land and the Patkoi Range in Arunachal.

Whether these birds are fully adult and main-

tain a hen plumage throughout life is not

known. Such birds could come into breeding

condition in the first year, assuming dimorphic

adult plumage later, in the second year?

The specimens of cryptica collected shed

no light on the presence of dimorphism in

the species. One male has somewhat enlarged

gonads (holotype). At least it can be main-

tained that this species is distinct based on

these specimens obtained. If the range is as

given, namely the Patkoi foothills of eastern

Arunachal Pradesh, it may be that the species

has progressed a step further than its conge-

ners, and supressed a dimorphic male plum-

age?

From the other Brachypteryx species, as the

Key in the INDIAN HANDBOOK indicates (1973,

8: 204), cryptica differs in the creamy umber

brown throat and underparts rather than

white in /eucophrys, warm brown in montana,

or the chestnut upperparts and vermiculated

underparts in s¢ellata. It differs in size also

from these species, being close only to Aypery-

thra.

Distribution:

locality.

Measurements: See Table 1.

Remarks: The above measurements indi-

cate that this new species is a larger bird

than Ayperythra, with a longer tail, (tail-wing

index of males .80 versus .07 for hyperythra),

with a somewhat stouter, slightly longer bill

compared to the latter species. No field ob-

servations were possible with these netted

birds, often collected in heavy rain.

Known only from the type

Pomatorhinus ferruginosus namdapha,

subsp. nov.

Holotype: United States National Museum

of Natural History, no. 583153, adult male,

from 40-mile camp (Bhimraj camp), east of

TABLE 1

MEASUREMENTS OF Brachypteryx cryptica AND hyperythra

BIRDS FROM TIRAP DISTRICT, ARUNACHAL PRADESH

Middle Bill :

Tarsus Culmen Toe Width Weight

Tail

Wing

Sex

20.75 gr.

20.75

15-16.5

16.5

28.5

27.5-28.5

66 mm.

62-66

62-66.5 (63.5)

& (Type)

B. cryptica

16.5

é (1)

2G)

B. hyperythra 8 (6)

20.00 (1)

5-5.5

4-5.5

13.5-17 (15)

[oad

14.5-16 (15)

15, 15.5

28.5-30 (29.2)

27.5, 28.5

43-48 (44.5)

40, 41.5

61, 63

Q (2)

Miao, Noa Dihing River Road (27° 40’ N.,

97° E. approx.), March 22, elevation 820 m.

(2650 ft.), collected by S. Dillon Ripley, field

number 251.

Diagnosis: differs from Pomatorhinus fer-

ruginosus ferruginosus of east Nepal, Sikkim,

Bhutan and western Arunachal Pradesh in

Kameng and Subansiri districts, in lacking the

black cap and rusty red patch posterior to

the nares at the commencement of the white

supercilium, and the bright ferruginous lower

throat, breast, and center of abdomen.

From P. f. formosus of the Garo, North

Cachar, Naga and Manipur Hills, this popu-

lation differs in having the crown dark olive-

brown rather than russet, and in darker olive-

brown back, the post-nasal spot at the com-

mencement of the white supercilium is notice-

ably richer; whitish tinted with cinnamon-

rufous, rather than whitish tinted with sal-

mon. The lower throat, abdomen and breast

is lighter than formosus, cinnamon, rather than

dull dark cinnamon to pale cinnamon-rufous.

Compared to P. f. stanfordi of northeastern

Burma (as well as albogularis of eastern

Burma and northwest Thailand) this popula-

tion differs by dark olive-brown rather than

tawny brown back, a richer cinnamon-rufous

post-nasal spot rather than a pale whitish area,

tinted at its lower margin with creamy buff,

and by dark dull cinnamon to pale cinnamon-

rufous rather than dark yellowish-buff under-

parts.

In measurements all these populations seem

rather overlapping;

ferruginosus 5 0; wing 85-92; tail 98-105;

culmen 29-31.5 mm.

namdapha 2 3, 2; wing 90-93; tail 101, 104;

culmen 29-30.

formosus 3,4 2, 0 wing 89-97; tail 103-112;

culmen 29-31.

stanfordi 2 3, 2, 0 wing 92-95; tail 99-111;

culmen 29-32.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

Weight; namdapha, 2 3 47, 50, 2 44 gr.

There seems to be no difference in colour of

the eyes, bill or legs.

Remarks: On different occasions in mid-

March,. individuals of this shy and elusive

scimitar babbler were heard calling in the

dense wet evergreen forest, but seen only with

the greatest difficulty. The type specimen was

in breeding condition (testes enlarged).

Stachyris nigriceps Blyth

The collection of additional fresh specimens

of Stachyris nigriceps in eastern Arunachal

Pradesh reveals that, although my descriptions

of S. n. spadix (1948) and S. n. coei (1952)

had a certain validity, I was unwise to distin-

guish these representatives of a cline as sepa-

rate in the absence of intermediate geographic

specimens.

Siachyris nigriceps, the Blackthroated Bab-

bler (type locality, Nepal), of which I have

examined many specimens, has a tendency to

a black throat broadly or narrowly margined

with white on the individual feathers. The ear

coverts tend to be dark brown, almost black-

ish brown in some cases. As one examines

specimens from farther east along the Hima-

layas into Arunachal Pradesh (specimen from

Kameng district, 1978) east of Bhutan, the

throat becomes more uniformly blackish, lack-

ing the whitish streaks or feather margins,

until, crossing the Dihang (the main Brahma-

putra channel through the mountains), the

final outpost, namely the Mishmi Hills of

Lohit district, the type locality of coei is reach-

ed. Here the throat is nearly black, and the

ear coverts are similarly dark, blackish brown.

I feel that this population reaily does represent

a contiuous cline, and that, therefore, the

separation of a named population, coei, is

unjustified.

Stachyris n. spadix (Laisung, north Cachar)

was separated by myself (1948) from nigri-

ceps as having a dark blackish-gray unstreak-

ed throat and by having the ear coverts lighter

in colour, brown, approaching burnt-umber.

From S. n. coltarti (Margherita) this popula-

tion was alleged to differ by having ear cov-

erts brown rather than rufous-brown. The new

series collected by us in Tirap district north-

east of Margherita belong of course geogra-

phically with coltarti, (Harington, 1913) hav-

ing warm-brown to rufous ear coverts, and

unstreaked throats, but they are close enough

in the colour of the ear coverts to specimens

from the Garo Hills on the one hand and to

those from northeastern Burma and northern

Thailand on the other, to render their sepa-

ration from spadix superfluous. There is a con-

tinuous cline towards darker ear coverts and

slightly darker upper and lower parts, west to

east as one examines specimens from the

northern Patkoi Hills and east of Margherita,

but these new specimens from Tirap district

of Arunachal Pradesh have reddish brown

ear coverts, rather than the blackish brown

ear coverts of specimens to the north, in Lohit

district.

Weights of this series in March are variable:

co (testes slightly enlarged, mid-March at

808 m altitude) 9.5 gr.

2d (testes enlarged, March 6, at 290 m

altitude) 13.5 gr.

2 (non-breeding, March 6, at 290 m alti-

tude) 13.5 gr.

A single wintering male (Jan. 27) from

Kameng weighed 22 g, 5 g heavier than speci-

mens from Nepal, listed in the HANDBOOK

(1971, 6, p. 175). Presumably this difference is

explained by fat deposition at that season.

In my judgement then, number 1215 of the

HANDBOOK (1971, 6: 174-177). Stachyris nigri-

ceps coei Ripley, should be listed as a synonym

of no. 1214, Stachyris nigirceps nigriceps Blyth,

BIRDS FROM TIRAP DISTRICT, ARUNACHAL PRADESH

the range of no. 1214 to include the Lohit dis-

trict (Mishmi Hills) of Arunachal Pradesh.

Number 1216 Stachyris nigriceps spadix Ripley,

should be placed as a synonym of no. 1217

Stachyris nigriceps coltarti Harington, and the

range of the latter should thus include Assam,

Mizoram, Meghalaya south to Bangladesh

hills, the Chittagong region, Burma and north-

ern Thailand in the lower hills.

ACK NOWLEDGEMENTS

In addition to the Arunachal Pradesh Gov-

ernment authorities; Shri R. Haldipur, Lieut.

Governor, Shri Thangam, Chief Conservator

of Forests, and Shri P. P. Malhotra, Shri D. P.

Borah, and Shri B. K. Barua of the Forest De-

partment, we are deeply grateful to the then

Minister of Agriculture and Forests, Shri Sur-

jit Singh Barnala, and the present Wildlife

Department chief, Shri Nalni Jayal, for their

support and encouragement. These senior

officers gave unstintingly of their courtesy, co-

operation and willing support. Without their

help, these important records could not have

been obtained. I thank the authorities of the

American Museum of Natural History, British

Museum (Natural History), and the Bombay

Natural History Society for their gracious loan

of comparative material in their care.

REFERENCES

ALI, S., AND RIpLey, S. D. (1971 & 1973): Hand-

book of the Birds of India and Pakistan. Vol. 6;

Vol. 8. Oxford Univ. Press, Bombay, New Delhi.

HarRINGTON, H. H. (1913): Description of Sta-

chyris nigriceps coltarti. Bull. Brit. Orn. Club 33:

61.

RipLey, S. D. (1948): A New Race of the Black-

throated Babbler. Bull. Brit. Orn. Club. 68: 89.

——————— (1952): A New Race of Black-

Throated Babbler from Assam. Postilla, Yale Pea-

body Museum, No. 14: 2.

SMITHE, F. B. (1975): Naturalist’s Color Guide.

Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., New York.

SruarRT BAKER, E. C. (1933): The Nidification of

the Birds of the Indian Empire. 2: 2. Taylor and

Francis, London.

FRESHWATER ALGAE OF DAVANAGERE AND

RAICHUR OF KARNATAKA STATE, INDIA‘

U. D. BoNGALE? AND S. G. BHARATE

(With nine plates)

In continuation of the studies made on fresh

water algae of Karnataka, the present paper

deals with the fresh water algae from Davana-

gere. The diatoms which were excluded in the

earlier report on the algae of Yaragera lake,

Raichur (Bharati and Bongale 1975) have

also been included in this paper.

Algae were collected from Bathi lake of

Davanagere in February 1975 and preserved

in 4% formaldehyde for further observations.

Camera lucida sketches were made for the

identification.

CYANOPHYCEAE

Gloeothece membranacea (Rabenh.) Bornet

(Pl. I, Fig. 1) Desikachary P. 128. Cells with-

out sheath 3.5 to 5.0 » broad, 5.0 to 8.5 »

long, bluegreen, sheath unlike the type is

yellow to brownish.

Aphanocapsa banaresensis Bharadwaja (PI.

I, Fig. 2). Desikachary p. 133, Pl. 22, Fig. 8.

Cells bluegreen, granulated, 4.5 to 6.0 p» dia-

meter. Differs from the type in being much

smaller and also sheath not hyaline, but yel-

lowish.

Myxosarcina burmensis Skuja (PI. I, Fig. 3.)

Desikachary p. 178, Pl. 32, figs. 20-22. Cells

closely packed, bluegreen, 1.5 to 2.0 p in

diameter, little smaller than the type. Colonies

1 Accepted May 1978.

2Central Silk Board, Srirampur, Mysore-8, India.

3. Department of Botany, Karnatak University,

Darwar-580 003, India.

very small 20-25 p» in diameter.

Spirulina laxissima West, G. S. (Pl. I, fig.

4.) Desikachary p. 196, PI. 36, fig. 5. Trichome

bluegreen, nongranular, 2.5 to 3.0 p broad,

spirals upto 10 » broad, 12 to 20 p distant

from each other. Trichomes broader than the

type.

Oscillatoria curviceps Ag. ex Gomont (PI.

I, fig. 5.) Desikachary p. 209, Pl. 38, fig. 2.

Thallus bluegreen to brown, trichomes bent

at the apices, not spirally coiled, 9.0 to 12.0 p

broad, upto 1/3 as long as broad, cross walls

very thick, end cell rounded. Little smaller

than the type.

O. irrigua (Kutz.) Gomont (Pl. I, fig. 6.)

Desikachary p. 224, Pl. 42, figs. 7, 9. Tricho-

mes 3.5 to 5.0 » broad. Cells nearly as long as

broad, granulated. Much smaller than the

type.

©. obscura Bruhl et Biswas (PI. I, fig. 7).

Desikachary p. 207. Trichomes 4.0 to 5.0 p

broad. Cells granulated, unlike the type tri-

chome is not attenuated at the apex.

O. princeps Vaucher ex Gomont (PI. I, fig.

8 a, b.) Desikachary p. 210, Pl. 37, figs. 1,

10, 11, 13, 14. Trichomes bluegreen, slightly

attenuated and bent at the apices, cells 1/8

to 1 as long as broad, end cells flatly rounded,

slightly capitate with thickened outer memb-

rane 12 to 35 » broad.

O. subtilissima Kutz. (Pl. I, fig. 9) Desi-

kachary p. 215. Cells bluegreen, granulated,

J. BompBay NAT. Hist. Soc. 77 PraTe [

Bongale & Bharati: Freshwater Algae

¥ ea |

——

HRMS PSR R SURES ey)

PARES s

0 50M

10 x100

Figs. 1-9: 1. Gloeothece membranacea (Rabenb.) Bornet; 2. Aphanocapsa_ banare-

sensis Bharadwaja; 3. Myxosarcina burmensis Skuja; 4. Spirulina laxissima West, G.S.;

5. Oscillatoria curviceps Ag. ex Gomont; 6. Oscillatoria irrigua (Kutz.) Gomont;

7. Oscillatoria obscura Bruhl et Biswas; 8a, b. Oscillatoria princeps Vaucher ex

Gomont; ‘8 Oscillatoria subtilissima Kitz.

PLATE IT

J. BomBay NAT. Hist. Soc. 77

Bongale & Bharat

Freshwater Algae

et NOSE TELS ETAL MES

SOLS CY AA SESTTE ATTAIN

PAROLES DO ALPS ELITES

AEBS.

10 x 100

2. Lyngbya hieronymusii Lemn.

Phormidium uncinatum (Ag.) Gomont

1-7:

3. Microcoleus subtorulosus (Breb.) Gomont; 4. Phormidium mucosum

Figs.

Gardner

5. Anabaena laxa (Rabenh.); 6. Calothrix weberi Schmidle; 7. Calothrix bharadwajae

De Toni.

J. BomBay NAT. Hist. Soc. 77

Bongale & Bharati: Freshwater Algae

10x 100

Figs. 1-9. 1. Oocystis borgei Snow; 2. Pediastrum duplex var. reticulatum Lagergheim;

3. Nephrocytium obesum W. et G. S. West; 4. Scenedesmus perforatus Lemmermann;

5. Coelastrum cambricum var. intermedium (Bohlin) G. S. West.; 6. Ankistrodesmus

fulcatus var. radiatus (Chodat) Lemmermann; 7. Selenastrum gracile Reinsch;

8. Dimorphococcus lunatus A. Braun; 9. Kirchneriella lunaris (Kirchner) Moebius.

Piate Lil

J. BomBay NAT. Hist. Soc. 77 PLate IV

Bongale & Bharati: Freshwater Algae

50}!

10x62 10x 100

Figs. 1-9: 1. Closterium leibleinii Kitzing; 2. Closterium lunula (Muller) Nitzsch.;

3. Closterium venus (Kiitz.) Brébisson; 4. Euastrum spinulosum Delp.; 5. Penium

margaritaceum (Ehrenb.) Bréb.; 6. Pleurotaenium trabecula (Ehrenbg.) Nag.;

7. Pleurotaenium chrenbergii (Bréb.) De Bary; 8. Cosmarium granatum Bréb.;

9. Cosmarium lundellii var. circulare (Reinsch) Krieg.

ALGAE OF DAVANAGERE & RAICHUR

1.5 to 2.0 » broad, 3-4 times as long as broad,

slightly broader than type.

Phormidium mucosum Gardner (Pl. I, fig.

4) Desikachary P. 265, Pl. 43, figs. 6, 7. Sheath

mucilaginous, colourless, 7.5 to 8.0 » broad.

Trichomes bluegreen, cells nongranulated,

more or less as long as broad, 2.0 to 3.0 yp

broad.

P. uncinatum (Ag.) Gomont (PI. H, fig. 1)

Desikachary p. 276, Pl. 43, figs. 1, 2. Cells

yellowish bluegreen, 6 to 15 » broad cross

walls granulated, trichomes attenuated at the

apices. End cell round or flattened conical

capitate. Cells + to 4 as long as broad, larger

than the type.

Lyngbya hieronymusii Lemn. (PI. II, fig.

2). Desikachary p. 297; Pl. 48, fig. 4. Fila-

ments 15 to 18 » broad, sheath firm, yellow-

ish to colourless. Cells bluegreen granulated,

sometimes at the cross walls, 11 to 12.5 p

broad, } to as long as broad, longer than the

type.

Microcoleus subtorulosus (Breb.) Gomont

(Pl. II, fig. 3) Desikachary p. 345, Pl. 56, figs.

8, 9. Many trichomes enclosed in a colourless

to brownish gelatinous sheath. Cells granu-

lated-sibluesreen, 2:5 to..3.5. «1 broad, 3.5 to

7.0 » long, smaller than the type.

Anabaena laxa (Rabenh.) (Pi. Il, fig. 5.)

Desikachary p. 413. Trichome 3.0 to 4.0 p

broad, straight to slightly curved. Cells mostly

barrel shaped with one or two granules, 4.5

fo 5.5 » broad, apical cell rounded little at-

tenuated. Heterocyst spherical 5.0 to 6.0 u

broad and upto 7.0 » long. Spore away from

the heterocyst, 5.0 to 6.5 broad and upto

15 ps long.

Calothrix bharadwajae De Toni, J. (PI. II,

fig. 7). Desikachary p. 526, Pl. 112, fig. 3.

Filaments grouped together, sheath distinct,

hyaline. Trichomes constricted at the cross

walls, tapering into a long hair. Cells barrel

shaped 5.0 to 6.0 » broad, upto 9.0 » long.

Heterocysts spherical, upto 8.5 » broad. Spo-

res cylindrical 8.0 to 9.0 » broad and upto

22.0 p» long.

C. weberi Schmidle (P. Il. fig. 6). Desi-

kachary p. 540. Filaments unbranched, upto

9.0 » broad, ending into a long hair. Sheath

hyaline, close to the trichome. Cells half to

2-3 times as long as broad, not constricted

at the cross walls. Heterocysts spherical to

slightly conical, 7.0 to 8.0 » broad, upto 12.0

p long.

CHLOROPHYCEAE

Pediastrum duplex var. reticulatum Lagerg-

heim (PI. Il, fig. 2.). Philipose 124, fig. 43 g.

Cells 10 to 18.0 » in diameter, Colonies 16 to

32 celled, 70 to 90 » in diameter, larger than

the type.

Oocystis borgei Snow (PI. III, fig. 1) Phili-

pose p. 183, fig. 93. Cells 7 to 8 » broad and

8 to 10.0 » long. Colonies 4-8 celled 35 to

40 p» in diameter. Cells smaller than type.

Nephrocytium obesum W. et G. S. West (PI.

lll, fig. 3.) Philipose 191, fig. 106. Cells 10

to 11 » broad, 18 to 20 uw long. Colonies 30

to 35 » in diameter. Much smaller than the

type.

Dimorphococcus lunatus A. Braun (PI. LI,

fig. 8). Philipose p. 205, fig. 115. Cells 5 to

10 » broad, 15 to 20 pw long. Colonies upto

95 pw in diameter.

Ankistrodesmus falcatus var. radiatus (Cho-

dat) Lemmermann (PI. III, fig. 6.) Philipose

p: 213, .fig. 121 d< ‘Cells 2.0 to: 2.5». broad,

25 to 40 » long, shorter than the type.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

Selenastrum gracile Reinsch (PI. III, fig. 7)

Philipose 219, fig. 128. Cells 2 to 3.5 » broad,

9 to 17 p» long, smaller than the type.

Kirchneriella lunaris (Kirchner) Moebius

(Pl. III, fig. 9) Philipose p. 222, fig. 131. Cells

3 to 6.5 » broad, 6 to 11 p» in diameter. Co-

lonies upto 100 » in diameter. Cells little

smaller than the type.

Coelastrum cambricum Archer (PI. III, fig.

5). Philipose p. 230, fig. 138. Cells 7 to 10 p

in diameter and colonies upto 45 wp in dia-

meter.

Scenedesmus perforatus Lemmermann (PI.

Ill, fig. 4). Philipose p. 280, fig. 186 a, b, g.

Cells 6 to 8 » broad, 20 to 22 p» long. Per-

forations 1 to 1.5 p» broad.

Closterium leibleinii Kutzing (Pl. IV, fig. 1).

Marie p. 65, Pl. 4, figs. 12, 13. Length 200 to

220 p, breadth 20 to 25 » in the middle, 4

to 5 » at the pole. Larger than the type.

Cl. lunula (Mull.) Nitzsch. (Pl. IV, fig. 2)

Marie. p. 70 Pl. 6, figs. 2-5. Length 370 to

410 p, breadth 42 to 48 » in the middle, 9

to 10.5 » at the pole. Smaller than the type.

Cl. venus Kutzing (Pl. IV, fig. 3) Marie p.

70, Pl. 4, figs. 14-16. Length 50 to 55 yn,

breadth 10 to 12 » in the middle, 2 to 2.5 p

at the pole.

Penium margaritaceum (Ehrenb.) Breb. (PI.

IV, fig. 5) Marie. p. 87, Pl. 8, fig. 14. Length

150 to 162 p», breadth 20 to 23 pn.

Pleurotaenium ehrenbergii (Breb.) De Bary.

(Pl. IV, fig. 7) Marie p. 97, Phwlijifigs. 5, 6.

Length 200 to 220 y», breadth 24 to 27 p in

the middle, 15 to 17 » at the pole.

P. trabecula (Ehrbg.) Nag. (Pl. IV, fig. 6)

Scott and Prescott p. 18, Pl. 3, fig. 4. Length

390 to 430 p, breadth 21.0 to 23.0 p» in the

middle, 18.0 to 19.0 » at the pole, isthmus

15.0 to 17.0 ». Smaller than the type.

Euastrum spinulosum Delp. (Pl. IV, Fig. 4)

Scott and Prescott p. 40, Pl. 10, fig. 4. Length

48.0 to 51.0 p, breadth 40.0 to 42.0 p», isthmus

10.0 to 11.0 ». Smaller than the type.

Micrasterias foliacea Bail. (Pl. V, fig. 2.)

Scott and Prescott p. 48, Pl. 20, fig. 4, Length

55.0 to 62.0 » breadth 62.0 to 68.0 p, isthmus

10.0 to 11.5 p. Little smaller than type.

M. pinnatifida (Kutz.) Ralfs (Pl. V, fig. 1)

Scott and Prescott p. 51, pl. 14, figs. 17, 18.

Length 45.0 to 49.0 ,», breadth 54.0 to 56.0

u, and polar lobe 30.0 to 34.0 p, isthmus 9.5

to 10.0 pn.

Cosmarium contractum Kirchn. (Pl. V, fig.

8) Scott and Prescott, p. 56, pl. 27, fig. 4.

Length 24.5 to 27.0 p, breadth 17.5 to 18.5 »

isthmus 4.5 to 5.0 ». Smaller than the type.

C. dentiferum var. alpinum Messik. (Pl. V.

fig. 7). Messikommer, p. 156, pl. II, fig. 1.,

Length 54.0 to 58.0 p, breadth 48.0 to 51.0 pn,

isthmus 23.0 to 24.5 py.

C. dubium Borge (PI. V, fig. 4) Scott and

Prescott, p. 58, pl. 32, fig. 3. Length 16.0 to

17.5 p, breadth 12.0 to 13.5 p, isthmus 4.5

to" 5.0. in.

C. granatum Brebisson (PI. IV, fig. 8) Pres-

cott 1966, p. 15, pl. III, fig. 30. Length 29.0

to 30.5 p», breadth 19.0 to 20.5 p, isthmus

4.5 to 5.5 pu.

C. lundellii var. circulare (Reinsch) Krieg.

(Pl. IV, fig. 9) Scott and Prescott p. 60, PI. 25,

fig. 7. Length 50.0 to 54.0 p., breadth 41.0

to 43.0 p, isthmus 14.5 to 16.0 up.

Cosmarium sp. (Pl. VI, fig. 5).

J. Bombay NAT. Hist. Soc. 77 PLATE V

Bongale & Bharati: Freshwater Algae

’

‘

< Se e

BRHF ee Lk

0 10x100 50)

Figs. 1-10: 1. Micrasterias pinnatifida (Kitz.) Ralfs.; 2. Micrasterias foliacea Bail.;

3. Cosmarium retusiforme (Wille) Gutw.; 4. Cosmarium dubium Borge; 5. Cosma-

rium obsoletum var. sitvense Gutw.; 6. Cosmarium moniliforme (Turp.) Ralis.;

7. Cosmarium dentiferum var. alpinum Messik.; 8. Cosmarium contractum Kirchn.;

9. Cosmarium speciosum var. simplex Nordst.; 10. Cosmarium perfissum G. S. West.

J. BompBay NAT. Hist. Soc. 77

PLATE VI

Bongale & Bharati: Freshwater Algae

ee me ww ew we b-sy

00)

CGO0°%9 oO )

C09 903

Crew

i¢

mae

Vax 10x 100 50 p

Figs. 1-7: 1. Cosmarium subcucumis Schmidle; 2a, b. Arthrodesmus convergens

Ehrbg.; 3. Staurastrum dickie Ralfs.; 4. Cosmarium scabrum Turn.; 5. Cosmarium

sp.; 6. Staurastrum sexangulare var. subglabrum West and West; 7. Staurastrum orbi-

culare var. depressum Roy and Biss.

PraTe VII

J. Bompay NAT. Hist. Soc. 77

Bongale & Bharati: Freshwater Algae

10 x 100

Figs. 1-8: 1. Staurastrum dickie Ralfs.; 2. Staurastrum dickie Ralfs.; 3. Staurastrum

tohopekaligense var. insigne West and West; 4. Spondylosium planum (Wolle) West

et G. S. West; 5. Onychonema laeve var. latum West and West; 6. Onychonema laeve

var. micracanthum Nordst.; 7. Desmidium aptagonum Brebisson; 8. Staurastrum

leptocladum Nordst.

J. Bompay NAT. Hist. Soc. 77 Pirate Vil

Bongale & Bharati: Freshwater Algae

10x 100

Figs. 1-6: 1. Spirogyra borgeana Transeau; 2. Phacus longicauda (Ehrenb.) Dujar-

din.; 3. Mougeotia sp.; 4. Ocodogonium sp.; 5. Trachelomonas mamillosa Prescott;

6. Trachelomonas acanthostoma (Stokes) Deflandre.

ALGAE OF DAVANAGERE & RAICHUR

C. moniliforme (Turp.) Ralfs. (Pl. V, fig.

6) Marie. P. 172, pl. 23, fig. 12. Length 19.0

to 22.0 », breadth 13.0 to 14.5 p. isthmus 3.0

to: 3:5: pr.

C. obsoletum var. sitvense Gutw. (Pl. V,

fig. 5) Scott and Prescott, p. 63, pl. 25, fig. 1i.

Length 55.0 to 61.0 p, breadth 59.0 to 66.0 ph,

isthmus 15.0 to 16.5 up.

C. perfissum G. S. West (PI. V, fig. 10) Scott

and Prescott p. 65, Pl. 26, fig. 8. Length 20.0

to 23.5 p», breadth 21.0 to 24.0 p, isthmus

4.5 to 5.0 p. Slightly narrower than the type.

C. retusiforme (Wille) Gutw. (Pl. V, fig. 3).

Scott and Prescott P. 68, Pl. 32, fig. 15. Length

32.0 to 34.5 », breadth 30.0 to 31.5 p, isthmus

8.0 to 8.5 p». Bigger than the type.

C. speciosum var. simplex Nordst. (Pl. V,

fig. 9) Marie, p. 204, pl. 30, fig. 8. Length

30.0 to 32.0 », breadth 20.0 to 22.5 p, isthmus,

6.0 to 6.5 ». Smaller than the type.

C. subcucumis Schmidle (Pl. VI, fig. 1)

Marie P. 161, Pl. 25, fig. 3. Length 41.0 to

45.0 p, breadth 28.0 to 33.0 yp, isthmus 7.0 to

8.5 ». Smaller than the type.

C. scabrum Turn. (PI. VI, fig. 4) Scott and

Prescott, p. 68, Pl. 29, fig. 3. Length 30.0 to

32.5 p», breadth 30.0 to 32.0 yp, isthmus 7.0

to 7.5 ». But much differs and is smaller than

the type.

Arthrodesmus convergens Ehrbg. (Pl. VI,

figs. 2a, b). Scott and Prescott. P. 74, Pl. 34,

figs. 7-10. Length 27.0 to 34.0 », breadth 27.0

to 44.0 p», isthmus 6.5 to 8.0 », arm length

9:0) 40,/15:5° p.

Staurastrum dickie Ralfs. (Pl. VI, fig. 3, Pl.

VII, fig. 1) Marie, P. 275, Pl. 44, fig. 10.

Length 70.0 to 85.5 », breadth 60.0 to 76.0

py, isthmus 9.5 to 14.5 », arm length 10.0 to

11.5 ». Much larger than the type.

St. dickie Ralfs. (Pl. VII, fig. 2) Marie, p.

275, pl. 44, fig. 10. Length 32.0 to 33.5 4»,

breadth 29.0 to 32.0 p, isthmus 6.5 to 8.0 p,

arm 4.0 to 4.5 ». This form differs from the

type in having conical to dome shaped semi-

cells. The basal angles of the semicells are

more concave than the type. In the top view,

the margins are straight or slightly concave.

The spines appear inside the semicell.

It is possible that this may be a new variety

of the type.

St. orbiculare var. depressum Roy and Biss.

(Pl. VI. fig. 7) Scott and Prescott p. 100, pl.

52, fig. 12. Length 23:0 to 25.5 y, breadth

22.0 to 24.5 p, isthmus 4.0 to 4.5 p.

St. leptocladum Nordst. (Pl. VU, fig. 8).

Marie p. 299, pl. 53, fig. 4. Length 36.0 to

38.5 1, breadth in the middle 10.0 to 10.5 yp,

breadth total including the arms 85.0 to 88.0

p isthmus 9.0 to 9.5 p.

St. sexangulare var. subglabrum West and

West (Pl. VI, fig. 6). Scott and Prescott, p.

107, pl. 46, figs. 1 and 2. Length 35.0 to 37.5

yw, breadth total, including the arms 60.0 to

64.0 », breadth in the middle 12.0 to 13.5 p

isthmus 10.0 to 11.0 p.

St. tohopekaligense var. insigne West and

West (PI. VII, fig. 3) Scott and Prescott, p.

113, pl. 47, figs. 12-15. Length 33.0 to 34.5 yp,

breadth 26.0 to 27.5 p, isthmus 5.0 to 5.5 pn,

arm length about 24.0 up.

Spondylosium planum (Wolle) West et G.

S. West (PI. VII, fig. 4.) Marie p. 353, pl. 61,

figs. 17, 18. Length 9.00 to 12.5 yu, breadth

6.5 to 7.0 p, isthmus 5.0 p. Little narrower

than the type.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

Onychonema_ laeve var. latum West and

West (Pl. VU, fig. 5) Scott and Prescott, p.

121, pl. 60, fig. 13. Length 14.0 to 15.5 ip,

breadth 17.0 to 19.0 yp, isthmus 3.0 » arm

3.5 to 4.0 p.

O. laeve var. micracanthum Nordst. (PI.

VII, fig. 6). Marie p. 345, pl. 61, figs. 4-6.

Length 13.0 to 14.5 », breadth 11.0 to 12.0 pn,

isthmus 6.0 », arm 2.5 to 3.0 up.

Desmidium aptagonum Brebisson (PI. VII,

fig. 17)... Prescott 1966; |p. 42>" pli" 112 tig. 14)

Length 15.0 to 17.0 » breadth 22.0 to 24.5 p»

Smaller than the type.

Spirogyra borgeana Transeau (Pl. VIII,

fig. 1),;Prescott, 1951; p. 311, pk 77. figs. 7.

8. Cells 55.0 to 61.0. », in diameter, 65.0 to

77.0 » long. Chloroplast solitary making 2-4

turns. Zygospores ellipsoid, smooth wailed

37.0 to 43.0 w in diameter and 55.0 to 62.0 p»

long.

Phacus longicauda (Ehrenh.) Dujardin (PI.

VIII, fig. 2). Prescott 1951. p. 400, pl. 87, fig.

1. Cells tapering gradually in to a long caudus

at the posterior end, 55.0 to 61.0 p» in diameter

69.0 to 74.0 » long. caudus 35.0 to 40.0 p»

long. Shorter than the type.

Trachelomonas acanthostoma (Stokes) De-

flandre (Pl. VII, fig. 6) Prescott 1951, p. 410,

pl. 85, fig. 3. Test subglobose, 19.0 to 20.0 p

in diameter, 20.0 to 21.0 » long. Collar not

very low, slightly longer than the type.

T. mamiMosa Prescott (Pl. VIII, fig. 5) Pres-

cott 1951, p. 415, pl. 85, fig. 12. Test 46.0 to

49.0 » diameter and 36.5 to 38.0 yp long.

Flagellum aperture in a mamillate swelling

as in the type. But unlike the type, test is

ovate, and covered throughout with promi-

nent spines. Also it is larger than the type.

So it is possible that this might be a new

variety.

Mougeotia sp. (Pl. VIII, fig. 3).

Oeodogonium sp. (Pl. VIII, fig. 4).

BACILLARIOPHYCEAE

Synedra ulna var. aequalis (Kiitz.) Hustedt

(PI. IX, fig.. 15). Htistedt 1937, p. 199 sfie9691

a, d. Length 100.0 to 112.0 p», breadth 6.0 to

7.5 p. Striae 9.0 in 10.0 p.

S. ulma var. biceps (Kiitz.) (PI. LX, fig. 14)

Hiistedt. 1937, p. 200, fig. “6915 "es. Mengtht

300.0 to 340.0 », breadth 6.5 to 7.0 pn. Striae

9 in 10.0 up.

Cymbella ventricosa Kiitz. (Pl. LX, fig. 2.)

Hiistedt 1949, p. 116, pl. 9, figs. 8-11. Length

31.0 to 33.0 », breadth 9.5 to 11.0 p, Striae

10 sto; 23" an: OC:

Cymbella miulleri Histedt (Pl. IX, fig. 1)

Hiistedt 1949, p. 115, pl. 9, figs. 1-7. Length

89.0 to 93.5 p, breadth 20.0 to 21.5 p, striae

Pine lOO Fn.

Cocconeis disculus (Schumann) Cleve (PI.

IX, fig. 17) Hiistedt 1937, p. 345, fig. 799.

Length 24.0 to 26.5 », breadth 14 to 15.5 up.

Striae 15 to 17.0 in 10.0 p». (Raichur).

Surirella novilis Smith (Pl. [X, fig. 5) Smith

1853, p.. 32, pl. VU fig. 63. Length 1590

to 166.0 », breadth 38.0 to 42.0 p. Costae 3

in 10.0 p.

S. splendida var. minor Meister (Pl. IX, fig.

6) Majeed 1935 p. 41, pl. VI, fig. 6. Length

116.0 to 121.0 », breadth 38.0 to 41.0 p, cos-

tac 2 in 10.0 pn.

Nitzschia obsoleta (Pl. [X, fig. 13). Htistedt

1949, p. 146, pl. 13, figs. 94-99. Length 45.0

to 49.5 », breadth 7.5 to 8.0 p», Striae 10 in

10.0 p». (Raichur).

PLATE IX

J. BomBay NAT. Hist. Soc. 77

Freshwater Algae

Bongale & Bharati:

10 x 62

Kitz.;

3. Navicula

5. Surirella novilis Smith;

Cymbella_ ventricosa

1. Cymbella mulleri Hustedt;

1-17:

crucicula (W. Sm.) Donkin; 4. Pinnularia major

Figs.

’

8. Stauro-

Sm.;

)

edt;

; 7. Navicula bacilloides Hiist

9. Stauroneis elata Hiistedt; 10. Acanthes exilis

6. Surirella splendida var. minor Meister.

neis wislouchii Poretzky et Anisinova.;

umblicata Hiistedt;

12. Nitzschia

14. Synedra ulna var.

(Lagerstedt ) Cleve;

11. Caloneis clevei

Kiitzing;

15. Synedra

biceps (Kiitz.);

(Ehr.) O. Mull;

16. Rhopalodia gibberula

13. Nitzschia obsoleta Hiistedt;

ulna var.

aequalis (Kiitz.) Hustedt;

17. Cocconeis disculus (Schumann) Cleve.

ALGAE OF DAVANAGERE & RAICHUR

Nitzschia umblicata Hiistedt (Pl. IX, fig.

12) Hiistedt. 1949, p. 129, pl. 11, fig. 65.

Length 33.0 to 36.5 », breadth 10.0 to 10.5 p,

Striae 10 in 10.0 p. Slightly broader than the

type.

Navicula bacilloides Hiistedt (PI. LX, fig. 7)

Hiistedt 1961, p. 117, fig. 1250. Length 41.0

to 44.5 » breadth 15.0 to 164 p, striae 13

in 10.0 ». Larger than the type (Raichur).

N. crucicula (W. Sm.) Donkin (Pl. IX, fig.

3) Hiistedt 1962, p. 318, fig. 1436, a-c. Length

81.5 to 84.0 », breadth 27.0 to 29.5 wu, striae

16.0 to 17.0 in 10.0 » (Raichur).

Pinnularia major W. Sm. (PI. IX, fig. 4.)

Smith 1853, p. 54, fig. 162, pl. XVIII, fig. 162.

Length 130.0 to 146.0 ,, breadth 20.0 to 21.5

pw at the middle, 14.0 to 15.0 » at the pole,

costae 9-10 in 10.0 » (Davanagere and Rai-

chur).

Stauroneis elata Histedt (PI. IX, fig. 9.)

Hiistedt 1959, p. 794, fig. 1139. Length 58.0

to 61.5 », breadth 16.5 to 18.0 yp, striae 20.0

in 10.0 » (Raichur).

S. wislouchii Poretzky et Anisinova (PI. IX,

fig. 8) Hiistedt 1959, p. 792, fig. 1137. Length

51.0 to 54.5 p, breadth 15.0 to 16.5 py, striae

15-18 in 10.0 p, dissolving (Raichur).

Caioneis clevei (Lagerstedt) Cleve (Pl. IX,

fig. I?) Hustedt’ 1949, -p. 98, pl. 11; fig. 33,

Length 48.0 to 51.0 p, breadth 8.5 to 9.0 pn,

striae 12 in 10.0 pz.

Acanthes exilis Kitzing (PI. LX, fig. 10)

Hiistedt 1937, p. 378, fig. 822. Length 60.0

to 66.0 p breadth 9.0 to 10.5 py, striae 15.0

to717, an). 10:0) <5.

Rhopalodia gibberula (Ehr.) O. Mull. (PI.

IX, fig. 16) Majeed 1935 p. 36, pl. V, fig. 15.

Length 41.0 to 45.5 », breadth 23.0 to 24.5 up,

costae 9 to 10 in 10.0 », broader than the type.

16 Cyanophyceae, 48 Chorophyceae (in-

cluding 33 desmids) from Davanagere and 17

Bacillariophyceae from both Davanagere and

Raichur have been described.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are thankful to the U. G. C. for finan-

cial assistance to one of us (U. D. Bongale)

and to Prof. M. S. Chennaveeraiah, for the

facilities offered.

REFERENCES

BHARATI, S. G. AND BONGALE, U. D. (1975):

Systematic account of fresh water algae of Raichur,

Karnatak State, India. Karnatak Uni. J. Sci., 20:

130-141.

DesIKacuary, T. V. (1959): Cyanophyta. ICAR.

Publ. New Delhi.

Hustepr, F. (1937, 1949, 1959, 1961, 1962):

Dr. L. Rabenhorsts Kryptogamen Flora Akademisch

Vertagsgesellschaft M. b. H. Leipzig Publ.

MARIE—IRENE, F. (1938): Flora Desmidiale de

la Region Montreal, Laprairie, Canada Publ.

MaJeeD, M. A. (1935): The Fresh Water Algae

of The Punjab Part I. Bacillariophyta (Diatomeae).

The Uni. of Punjab, Lahore. Publ.

MESSIKOMMER, P. E. (1942): Beitrag zur Kennt-

nis der Algen flora und Algenvegetation des Hoch-

gebirges um Davos. Verlag Hans Haber Bern Publ.

PuiLipose, M. T. (1967): Chlorococcales. ICAR

New Delhi Publ.

Prescott, G. W. (1951): Algae of the Western

Great Lakes Area. Cranbrook Inst. of Sci. Publ.

— (1966): Algae of the Panama

Canal and its Tributaries-II, Conjugales. Phykos 5,

(Iyengar Memorial Volume): 1-49.

Scotr, A. M. AND Prescott, G. W. (1961): Indo-

nesian Desmids. Hydrobiologia, 17 (1 and 2).

SmitH, W. (1853): A synopsis of the British Dia-

tomaceae. Jon. van Vorst, Paternoster Row. Publ.

Vol. 1.

BIRD NOTES FROM BALUCHISTAN PROVINCE,

PAKISTAN*

T. J. Roperts?

INTRODUCTION

Practically nothing has been recorded about

the avifauna of this fascinating area since the

second world war, when Brigadier A. F. P.

Christison gave an account of the birds seen

in the south-western part of the Province

(1941) and subsequently described some new

records for the northern part of Baluchistan

(1942). In fact most of our knowledge about

the breeding birds in Baluchistan is based

upon earlier writers (Meinertzhagen 1914,

Ticehurst 1926-27, and Williams & Williams

1929). Since the area is in the south-eastern

fringe of the great Palaearctic region and is

characterised by mountain steppe or cold

desert, it tends to have faunal affinities with

Afghanistan, and Soviet Asia rather than the

rest of the Indian sub-continent. The purpose

of this note is to give detailed descriptions of

two places of considerable ornithological in-

terest in order to reflect the present day status

of one and to draw attention to the other

which seems to have been missed by earlier

ornithologists working in the region.

Sirandah lake

In Dr. Salim Ali’s HANDBOOK series (The

Birds of India and Pakistan) this lake is men-

tioned as the only locality within the territo-

rial limits covered by these ten volumes, where

the Slenderbilled Gull (Larus genei) and the

1 Accepted July 1979.

2P. O. Box 3311,

Karachi-23 Pakistan.

Malir City Post Office,

Caspian tern (Hydroprogne caspia, synonym

Sterna caspia) (de Voous 1973) are known

to breed. Sirandah is also recorded in the

HANDBOOK as a regular breeding site for Gull-

billed terns (Gelochelidon nilotica) and the

Marbled Teal (Anas angustirostris).

When I moved to Karachi in the autumn

of 1973 I was naturally keen to visit this lake

and studied all available literature. I had dif-

ficulty in locating the lake until 1974, and

because I could learn so little about the place

I feel that my limited observations are worth

recording. Perhaps some twentyfirst century

ornithologist, writing about the extinct or vani-

shing birds of the Middle East region will

find my notes of value!

General Bentham and Mr. Ludlow, two Bri-

tish Government officials visited Sirandah lake

around the turn of the century and submitted

manuscript notes to Stuart Baker, who edited

the Ornithological Journal for the region in

those times, “Stray Feathers”. Dr. Claude B.

Ticehurst, a Captain Surgeon in the Army was

stationed in Karachi from 1917 to 1918 and

mentions Sirandah in his comprehensive

account of the Birds of Sind (/bis 1922-1924)

but he did not apparently go there personally.

Kenneth Eates of the Indian Police, a great

oologist and authority on the birds of Sind,

visited Sirandah in the early 1930s. I know

of no other written records about this lake

and imagine that it has been very seldom visit-

ed by any competent ornithologists within the

past 50 years.

Despite the huge growth of Karachi City,

BIRDS FROM BALUCHISTAN

now a sprawling metropolis of 4.5 million

people, the adjacent hinterland is still very

sparsely populated being not only desert, but

rocky and unsuitable for cultivation. Sirandah

Lake lies 90 Km. west north west of Karachi

in Las Bela District in the extreme south

eastern corner of Baluchistan Province. Its

approximate location is 66° 40’ East and 25°

30’ North. It is a good three Kilometres from

the only road in the region which runs to the

towns of Uthal and Bela. There are no vil-

lages anywhere nearby and even today the

lake is seldom disturbed by human visitors.

It lies in a shallow basin near Sonmeani La-

goon connected to the open sea 64 km. to the

west, and is surrounded to the north and west

by sedimentary sandstone hills. It is cut off

from the sea by a spectacular series of 50

metre high barren sand hills. The area receives

absolutely no rainfall from end September till

early July and the monsoon influence is erra-

tic, hardly bringing any rain in some years.

The few dry nullahs which drain to the coast

are blocked off by the above mentioned high

sand dunes and hence after monsoon rains a

lake tends to form in the bottom of the basin.

It is always highly brackish and due to fluc-

tuating water levels there are no sedges or

reeds established along its barren margins. The

only vegetation consists of scattered trees of

Prosopis spicigera, much lopped for goat

browse, and in the low lying areas stunted

Tamarix troupii bushes. The ground consists

of undulating sand hills upto 2 to 3 metres in

height and dotted with salt-wort bushes, both

Sueda fruticosa and Salsola foetida. The area

is severely hot in summer with temperatures

exceeding 44°C in June.

When first visited by me in 1974, guided by

some local fisherman, the lake was much

shrunk in size and no one could recall any

terns or gulls nesting there within recent

years. Because of its remoteness, the lake

always has 100 or 200 Greater flamingos

(Phoenicopterus ruber) and a few Pelicans

(both species). In winter small numbers of

coot and dabbling ducks use it as a resting

ground and perhaps the most interesting bird

in the Common Sheld duck (7adorna tadorna)

which spends the winter in fair numbers on

the lake. In 1977 I counted a flock of 80. In

wildfowl censuses of Pakistan conducted over

5 years by Mr. F. Koning for the I-W.R.B.

during the early 1970s, at the most 3 to 5

Sheld ducks were recorded per annum _ be-

tween all the major wetlands of Pakistan and

apart from the Marbled Teal, this is Pakis-

tan’s rarest duck. In one year on June 9th I

saw many Rednecked Phalaropes (Phalaro-

pus lobatus). Vhough so close to the open

sea on which they spend the winter, it seemed

late for migrating waders to be tarrying on

this lake at the start of their migration. During

other summer visits I have got the impression

that a few Curlew Sandpipers (Calidris ferru-

ginea), Little Stints (Calidris minuta) and Dun-

lin (Calidris alpina) spend the entire summer

around the lake shores. In February 1978 the

lake was very shallow and had shrunk to a

mere 30 hectares and I did not bother to visit

it again. Indeed I believed that no terns or

gulls could have nested there for many de-

cades. I have never seen any Marbled Teal

there. Stuart Baker, who lived and worked in

North East India, referred to Caspian Terns

nesting in bushes on an island in the lake.

(FAUNA OF BRITISH INDIA Vol. VI). There are

no permanent vegetated islands in the lake

and his observations about nests on bushes

were so untypical of Sterna species as to imply

that this was some second-hand account ema-

nating rather from the reports of uneducated

egg collectors. Great was my _ excitement,

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

therefore when in May, 1979 a+ fisherman

friend from nearby Sonmeani came to report

that ‘hundreds of Terns’, were nesting at Siran-

dah. The Mekrani language for Tern is

‘“Khora’”’ and for Gull is ‘“‘Kinari”. May 24th

was the first Friday when an opportunity al-

lowed the lake to be visited. The 3 Km walk

over soft sand dunes, coupled with the terrific

heat made prolonged observations difficult.

Added to this we discovered a temporary

settlement of fishermen on the extreme south-

ern corner of the lake. These men, occupying

two palm thatched huts, insisted on accom-

panying us and this added to the disturbance

of the nesting birds. The monsoon rains of

1978 were unprecedently heavy in Las Bela

district. Road bridges were swept away and

many heads of livestock as well as people

were drowned by flash floods pouring down

normally dry sandy nullahs. The lake was

transformed from my memories of February

1978. It now stretched for perhaps 6 kilo-

metres in a north south axis with numerous

inlets and lagoons between the sand hills and

several islands. The nearest of these, located

14 kilometres from the fishing camp, revealed

great activity with wheeling flocks of Slender-

billed Gulls. By wading thigh deep, we could

reach the island which was a long narrow

sand bar, some 200 metres in length and prac-

tically devoid of vegetation. In the middle and

highest part of the island was a colony of

some 60 pairs of Slenderbilled Gulls.

Most nests contained two downy young,

and only about ten still contained eggs, all

with clutches of two. No nests had three eggs,

or appeared to have 3 young. I thought this

was due to heavy egg predation by the fisher-

men as there was a basket full of gulls eggs

in one of their huts collected the week be-

fore. However Meinertzhagen records that 2

is the normal clutch size in Sind (BIRDS OF

ARABIA 1954). The nests, about 11 cm in dia-

meter and as close as 0.75 metres apart, were

quite substantial saucers of blackened bits of

saltwort with stalks and stems and a surpris-

ing number of both gull and flamingo feathers

in the cup lining. The eggs are pale greenish

to almost white in ground colour and much

paler than any other gulls eggs I know of. I

believe that the parent birds must have to wet

their eggs regularly and incubate them also

throughout the day, simply to prevent the

developing chicks from overheating and being

killed by the intense heat. The chicks had

black feet and bills (unlike their parents),

their body covered with almost white down

with small black spots forming bars along the

crown and wings. They were most attractive

and when picked up did not regurgitate their

food as Herring gull chicks (Larus argentatus)

in Britain commonly do. Possibly this was be-

cause they had not been fed by their parents

since early morning, these gulls confining their

foraging to morning and evening.

On the far side of the island, nearer to the

waters edge were six Caspian terns nests. These

were hollows in the sand, devoid of any lining

or decoration, and located 10 to 15 metres

from each other. Unlike the wheeling flock

of Slenderbills, the Caspian terns repeatedly

dived over our head and uttered harsh alarm

cries. All contained two eggs of a pale greyish

stone colour with comparatively small spots

of olive brown and violet grey under mark-

ings. In body size the Caspian tern is not

much bigger than L. genei but its eggs are

quite remarkably bigger and more pointed at

the narrow end. Between the Caspian Terns

and the Slenderbill gulls nests, were two dis-

junct colonies of Gullbilled Terns (Gelocheli-

don) comprising about 17 nests in all—each

with two eggs only and no chicks hatched.

These nests were noticeably decorated with

BIRDS FROM BALUCHISTAN

bits of leaves and stems and shells and the

eggs were much smaller than those of the

Caspian terns or Slenderbilled Gulls. I esti-

mated in the gull colony, that nest building

must. have commenced from early April and

egg laying from mid April. Ticehurst (Birds

of Sind, op. cit.), records their nesting in June

and this is repeated in other books. The terns

had obviously started nesting three or four

weeks after the gulls and towards the middle

of May.

Conversation with the fisherman was dis-

turbing. Not only did they regularly collect

gulls and terns eggs to eat, but also one of

their number was skilled at snaring flamin-

goes. Equipped with a long shaft propellor,

out board motor and a rickety boat, they had

been at the lake since October 1978 and dur-

ing the winter had killed two adult flamingoes,

bearing rings on their legs. I have not seen

nor been able to recover these, but my fisher-

man friend said he saw them and they were

Iranian rings. Rather surprising as I would

otherwise have assumed them to be Bombay

Natural History Society rings from the Rann

of Kutch.

I arranged with another intelligent and re-

liable fisherman who had accompanied me on

May 24th that he should visit Sirandah Lake

a second time. This was possible on June 12th

and he brought back the following report.

Due to evaporation the lake had become in-

creasingly brackish and many fish were dying

off. The fishermen had abandoned their tem-

porary camp at Sirandah. Worse still, the

nearby island was also deserted and hardly

any Slenderbilled Gulls could even be observ-

ed. On this island addled eggs remained in a

‘few nests but no chicks. All the terns nests

were also deserted. The colony had deserted

either as a result of excessive human egg pre-

dation or more probably because of difficulty

in feeding the chicks. Gulls must dip for sur-

face swimming fry and monsoon conditions

would make it difficult for them to catch fish

from the open sea 64 kilometres distant. The

chicks in hunger may have attempted to swim

from the island. They were active and running

around on May 24th. There are lots of foxes

(Vulpes vulpes pusilla) and Jackals in the

area and only island nesting birds would be

safe from their predation.

Some 2 kilometres further north were two

more islands now inhabited by terns which

were not in evidence on May 24th. The largest

of these islands had an unmixed colony of

Caspian terns numbering atleast 150 pairs.

No other species were present and Natha my

fisherman friend made several interesting ob-

servations. At least two nests contained 3 eggs,

all the rest only 2 and most nests now had

some decoration around the rim of bits of

blackened Salsola leaves and stems. Also

these nest were within two metres of each

other. About ten per cent of the eggs were

olive buff in ground colour and a few also

beautifully marked with curly black lines. On

the second island were about 30 Caspian terns

nests and also 4 Gullbilled terns nests, two

containing chicks. These were more grey than

the gull chicks, with brownish red legs and

fleshy pink at the base of their mandibies. A

bluish darker area of naked skin through the

eye and almost pure white throat and breast

(a specimen preserved in formaldehyde was

brought back). The downy wings were pre-

dominantly black.

Regarding other birds, there were many

Whiskered terns (Chlidonias hybrida) hunt-

ing over the lake but no sign of breeding. Also

we encountered on the May 24th visit, a

colony of some 15 pairs of Blackwinged

Stilts (Himantopus himantopus) on the first

island. They build quite a thick pad of dried

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

stems and leaves for a nest and some had a

full clutch of four eggs. On the lake shore it-

self in the recently dried out part were pairs

of Snowy or Kentish Plovers (Charadrius

alexandrinus), and we stumbled across one

nest on May 24th. This was under the shelter

of a Sueda bush and its rim was decorated

with tiny shells. Hopefully the Caspian terns

can hunt for fish in Sonmeani Lagoon and

they will rear their chicks, as these powerful

terns dive deeply and can catch fish upto 20

cms in length.

Nearby Sonmeani is a very extensive lagoon

averaging not more than 5 to 10 metres in

depth. It is extremely rich in marine life with

mangrove fringed shores, but a description of

its ornithology is outside the scope of this

note. Only one record seems appropriate to

include. In early winter, shrimp fishing with

throw nets is the most profitable occupation

for the fishermen. The state of the tide is

apparently critical for success and they com-

monly encamp overnight with their boats along

the shores of the lagoon. Large Cormorants

(Phalacrocorax carbo) are a favoured food at

this time, the birds being skinned and roasted

over open fires. In December 1977 a cormo-

rant with a ring was shot, and though I failed

to recover this ring, it apparently bore

“foreign letters” on it and could have been

Russian. During March I have often seen these

cormorants in the distinctive breeding plum-

age of Phalacrocorax carbo sinensis which

sub-species has a Russian breeding population.

Later in the summer I have only seen birds

in non-breeding or immature plumage and I

cannot find evidence of local breeding. The

Indian Shag (P. fuscicollis) does breed during

the monsoon in the Sonmeani mangroves.

Surkhab Valley—Pishin District

Located at approximately 30° 35’ N and

67° 20’ E, the Valley is situated in Pishin

District, approximately 45 kilometres due

north of Quetta City and 65 km by road.

I first discovered the place in March 1974

and have been able to visit it in April, May

or June each year subsequently. It is almost

unique in the region as being one of the few

places with a perennially flowing stream and

some relatively well grown surviving tree

cover which stretches for a distance of about

24 km where the valley is so restricted by

surrounding hills that it does not afford op-

portunity for cultivation. Two species regu-

larly nest here which I have not been able to

locate anywhere else in Pakistan, namely the

Rufoustailed Chat (Cercotrichas galactotes)

and Ménétries’s Warbler (Sylvia mystacea)

and the area seems worthy of recording in

this note about the birds of Baluchistan. I have

searched in vain for the Rufoustailed Chat in

the Chaghai District, where Christison (1941)

thought it probably bred.

The Valley itself is relatively flat and level

with low surrounding hills of conglomerate

and gravel. The Surkhab Lora, as it is called,

is a shallow but fast stream flowing over gra-

vel beds. The elevation is 1500 metres and

average annual rainfall in Pishin town, 17 km

distance, is 22 centimetres including light snow-

fall which falls every winter. It is severely

cold and dry from October often until late

March and has a relatively restricted resident

bird population, but in summer it attracts a

number of breeding migrants. On the gravel

and shale hills abutting the valley are scatter-

ed bushes of Artemesia scoparia, Prunus jac-

quemontii (the wild almond) and_ spiny

clumps of Convolvulus spinosus with showy

white flowers in late April. In the valley floor

itself are groves of Populus species and Salix

viminalis, forming trees upto 10 metres height.

in the open drier areas are a number of

BIRDS FROM BALUCHISTAN

shrubs and thorny bushes; Tamarix species,

Berberis gambleana and Caragana ambigua

have been identified. There are also scattered

brakes of the reed Arundo donax. In spring

the ground is also carpeted with the hoary

leaved vetchlike plant Sophora alopecuroides,

which in April has creamy yellow flowers in

a cluster at the tips of its stems. Clumps of

the tall grass Chrysopogon aucheri also sur-

vive in the shelter of bushes, and though the

area is heavily grazed by goats and cattle,

there is good cover for nesting warblers.

My accumulated notes from five annual

visits between 1974 and 1979 are summarised

below, with more details covering the less well

known species.

1. Little ringed plover Charadrius dubius.

Breeding confirmed.

2. Kestrel Falco tinnunculus.

No nearby suitable breeding cliffs, but

a pair haunts the area each year.

3. See-See Ammoperdix griseogularis.

Seen drinking from Surkhab in late

evening and breeds in surrounding hills.

4. European or Common Kingfisher Alcedo

atthis.

Breeding confirmed.

5. Golden or European Bee-eater Merops

apiaster.

Nests in the earth cliffs. Exca-

vation of the nest hole is a prolonged

business and observed in one year, as

late as June 29th.

6. Little Brown Dove Streptopelia senegal-

ensis.

Very common throughout Baluchistan.

7. Common Cuckoo Cuculus canorus.

Seen every year and on May 2nd a pro-

able egg found in a Brown Shrikes nest.

See below.

8. Hoopoe Upupa epops.

This species seems to nest in holes in

10.

ik:

. Red-rumped

earth cliffs as there are no suitable tree

holes for nesting sites.

swallow Hirudo daurica

rufula.

This sub-species has a_ practically

white rump but the breast is quite fulv-

ous. They shun human habitation and

nest upto 2700 metres elevation in the

higher hills. At Surkhab they hawk in-

sects along the valley and must nest

nearby.

Magpie Pica pica.

The most conspicuous bird in the val-

ley and a family party of eight on June

29th seemed to confirm breeding. I have

also seen its old unoccupied nests in the

valley. It is an early breeder.

Brown Shrike Lanius cristatus.

In the latest Palaearctic Checklist this

species is Lanius isabellinus. The Russians

call it Lanius cristatus, whereas in

Salim Ali’s HANDBOOK it is listed

as Lanius collurio (de Voous_ 1977,

Ali 1972 and Dementiev ef al. 1954).

However, in all three instances the sub-

species is the same L. 1. phoenicuroides

and this very distinctive bird is certainly

the same species in all referred cases. It

is Pakistan’s rarest breeding Shrike and

normally prefers higher elevations than

Surkhab at least in Baluchistan. In fact

I only saw it in one year out of five. Its

nest, about 2 metres from the ground on

a horizontal fork of a Willow tree, was

not very neatly made but the cup was

snugly lined with rootlets and shredded

grasses. On May 2nd there were three

pale pinkish buff eggs thickly speckled

with grey and red brown forming a zone

at the blunt end. A fourth egg was more

green than turquoise with quite sparse

red brown speckling. I presumed this was

13%

14.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

a Cuckoo’s egg but it was the same shape

and size as the other three eggs. Demen-

tiev (op. cit.) records that in Turkestan

this Shrike frequently becomes host to the

Cuckoo (Page 19 Vol. vi). I note that in

the HANDBOOK the ground colour of their

eggs are described as greenish white. In

Dementiev’s account a reddish buff or

pink ground colour is usual.

The Brown Shrike has many similar calls

to other Shrikes, particularly the loud

harsh rasping near the nest. The female

was larger than her mate with a less dark-

ly contrasting eye stripe. The male with

shining white throat and upper breast,

warm buff flanks and vent, has pinkish

chestnut crown and tail; grey buff back

and shoulders and his dark brown flight

feathers were conspicuously bordered

with paler buff. The eye streak seemed

quite jet black and extends from the fore

crown to well behind the eye.

Long tailed or Rufousbacked Shrike

Lanus schach.

In every other year conspicuous breed-

ing pairs in the valley.

Spotted Flycatcher Muscicapa striata.

This species normally breeds in the

Juniper forest zone at higher elevations. I

could not find its nest but at least one

bird was haunting the tree groves every

year and in March a pair were seen.

Menetries’s Warbler Sylvia mystacea.

I first encountered this species in March

1974, a new record for the subcontinent

(Roberts 1975). At the time I presumed

it to be a spring passage migrant since

such avid egg collectors as Williams &

Christison (op. cit.) had failed to record

it. I have searched in vain for a nest

but the Donax thickets are impenetrable.

It seems to arrive earlier and start nest-

15%

ing sooner than the Rufoustailed Chat.

(They were plentiful on March 25th when

no Rufous Chats were in evidence). I

have seen a nest building male bird with

a beak full of vegetable floss on May

2nd and on June 29th a family of at

least three fully fledged young (with stubby

tails and wisps of head down) were be-

ing fed by their parents who attracted

me to the spot by their agitated alarm

calls. In the whole valley I estimate there

may be ten to fifteen pairs and in forag-

ing, at least, their territories seem to over-

lap considerably. The male has a notice-

able dark grey tail which is bordered with

white outer tips as he dives into a bush.

They feed well inside bushes and thickets

rarely affording a clear view but are tame

enough to allow approach to within 2

metres. Their contact call is the typically

sylvine ‘tak-tak-tak.’ It is more diminu-

tive than the lesser white throat and if it

pauses long enough for a good view the

brick red flush to its upper breast, pro-

minent white malar streaks and red eye

ring make it a striking and beautiful

little warbler. I have recordings of its

song which can continue uninterrupted

for upto half-a-minute. I have only once

seen it flutter into the air during the dis-

play song which is mostly given from well

inside a thicket. It is quite melodious in

short phases and to my ear superior to

the song of the Sykes’ Tree Warbler.

Rufoustailed Chat or Greybacked Warb-

ler Erythropygia galactotes.

In habits this bird is very like the

Indian Robin and the Himalayan Ruby

Throat and therefore the name Chat

seems much more appropriate than

warbler. It feeds mostly on _ the

ground running in little spurts at

16.

BIRDS FROM BALUCHISTAN

the end of which it raises its tail and

often fans it. It only passes through Paki-

stan for a period of a few days in Sep-

tember on its return to its wintering

grounds in North West Africa, and I was

unfamiliar with the species until I learn-

ed where to find it in the hills around

Karachi. The males probably arrive in the

extreme border regions of Baluchistan in

mid April and do not start vigorous ter-

ritorial singing until early May. The sweet

little song is always given from the top

of a bush with the bird conspicuous and

lasts two to three seconds, and may be

repeated for upto a minute. It soon re-

sumes feeding and then flies upto another

bush to sing, travelling round its territory

fairly systematically. Again I have failed

to find a nest but Donax thickets with

last year’s dried stems encompassed by

new green growth seem to be favoured

and I never went to Surkhab armed with

a suitable machete or billhook to cut open

these thickets. However, on June 29th a

pair were watched both carrying insect

larvae and ants into a reed thicket and

my annual observations leave no doubt

that they are regular breeders. From ter-

ritorial singing I estimated that there were

6 to 8 pairs in 1979.

Sykes Tree Warbler Hippolais caligata

rama.

This bird is fairly wide-spread as

a summer breeder in the lower valley of

Baluchistan and they abound in the Sur-

khab valley. Their song is given almost

continuously throughout the day in the

breeding season. It is louder and coarser

than that of Ménétries’s warbler but like

the latter invariably given from well in-

side a bush and during pauses between

foraging for insects.

18.

19:

20.

20;

23%,

Pied Wheatear Oenanthe picata picata.

This bird forages in the valley bottom

but nests in the surrounding low milk—

a hole under a rock being favoured.

Pied Bush Chat Saxicola caprata.

No different from its habits in the plains.

Rock Pipit Anthus similis.

A nest with downy young was in a

grass clump, perhaps fortituously well

roofed over and concealed. This was right

on the valley floor in sandy substrate.

Grey Wagtail Motacilla caspica.

Single birds seen and possibly breeding.

House Sparrow Passer domesticus parki-

nii(?)

Besides a small resident population

in the towns, huge migrant flocks,

shunning villages, sweep through in late

March to early May presumably breeding

further North in Afghanistan or Turkes-

tan. But small colonies stay to breed in

isolated valleys or higher _hill-slopes

where there is some tree-cover. The birds

look bigger and more richly coloured

than P. domesticus indicus and the sub-

species P. domesticus bactrianus, which

I would have expected, is supposed to

be smaller and paler than the resident

Indian race.

Trumpeter Bullfinch Bucanetes githagi-

meus syn. Rhodopechys githaginea.

This thirsty little finch is rare in Central

and Northern Baluchistan, commoner in

the warmer more southern latitudes. I

have seen it drinking from the Surkhab

stream and it may well breed locally.

Striolated Bunting Emberiza striolata.

Also seen drinking from the stream and

may well breed locally.

Birds like the Rock Nuthatch (Sitta teph-

ronota), Orphean Warbler (Sylvia hor-

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

tense) and Desert Lark (Ammomones

deserti) are typical of this elevation in

Baluchistan but I have never encountered

them in that particular patch of valley. I

did not visit the valley late enough in the

evening to identify any owls or nightjars.

REFERENCES

ALI, SALIM AND Ripley, S. D. (1968-72): Hand-

book of the Birds of India and Pakistan. Vol. I,

Vol. Ill (Laridae) and Vol. V (Lanidae). Oxford

University Press, Bombay.

BAKER, STUART (1929): Fauna of British India.

Birds Vol. VI. Francis and Taylor, London.

CurRISTISON, A. F. P. (1941): Notes on the Birds

of Chagai. [bis 1941: 531-556.

(1942): Some additional notes on

the distribution of the Avifauna of northern Balu-

chistan. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 43: 478-487.

DEMENTIEV, G. P. AND Grapkov, N. A. ef al.

(1954): Birds of the Soviet Union. Vol. VI. Moscow.

Hue, FRANCOIS AND ErcHecopar, R. D., (1970):

Les Oiseaux du Proche et du Moyen Orient. Bou-

bee & cie, Pare.

MEINERTZHAGEN, R.

(1914): Birds nesting at

Quetta. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 23: 362-363.

(1954): Birds of Arabia. Oliver &

Boyd Ltd. Edinburgh.

Roserts, T. J. (1975):

for Pakistan. J. Bombay nat.

201-204.

TICEHURST, CLAUDE, B. (1922-1924): The Birds

of Sind. /bis. Parts I to VIII.

- (1926-1927): The Birds of British

Baluchistan Parts I & II. Vol. 31 and Part III. Vol.

32)

Yoous, DE K. H. (1973): List of Recent Holar-

ctic Bird species. Ibis, Vol. 115.

——_———— (1977): ibid. Ibis, Vol. 119.

WILLIAMS, C. H. AND WiLiAMs, C. E. (1929):

Some notes on the Birds breeding round Quetta.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 33: 598-613.

Ornithological Records

Hist. Soc. 72(1):

OBSERVATIONS ON FOOD AND GROWTH OF BUFO

MELANOSTICTUS TADPOLE’

J. H. SABNIS AND Ku. S. M. KUTHE?

(With a text-figure)

Studies on the food and its effect on growth in the tadpoles of Bufo mielanostictus

were undertaken to determine food preference in natural condition on the basis of

prevalent of food items in guts of naturally occurring tadpoles. The faecal contents

of the same tadpoles indicated as to which food items were digested. Tadpoles fed

exclusively on spinach, Spirogyra, starch and detritus indicated that normal growth

occurs when fed on Spinach and Spirogyra. Weight gain in the final stage of meta-

morphosis in Bufo melanostictus is remarkable.

To obtain a complete knowledge of the life

histories and habits of each species it is neces-

sary to study the relationship between the

available food and larval growth rate.

The food and feeding habits of the frog

Rana tigrina were studied in detail recently

by Wadekar (1963), Joshee (1968), Isaac

and Rege (1975). While Behura, et al. (1971)

studied the diet and feeding habits of the

common toad Bufo melanostictus.

The studies on the role of natural food on

Jarval growth of tadpoles has received little

attention in India except for the observations

made by Kamat (1962) and Sabnis and Kol-

hatkar (1977).

This paper describes observations on the

food and its effects on the growth of tadpoles

of the toad Bufo melanostictus.

MATERIALS AND METHOD

The material for study was collected at

Amravati (M.S.) (20° 56’ N. 77° 47’ E.)

Breeding of Bufo melanostictus occurs from

1 Accepted April 1978.

“Department of Zoology, Vidarbha Mahavidya-

laya, Amravati 444 604, India.

July to September and about 8,000 eggs are

laid in long spiral strings, the diameter of the

spiral strings is about 1.4 to 1.5 mm. Each

egg measures about | to 1.3 mm. in diameter.

To study food preference and dietary com-

ponents, data were obtained from gut and

faecal analysis under microscope.

About 200 eggs were collected and kept in

the laboratory for development. A set of

twentyfive tadpoles were fed on different diets

such as Starch, Spinach, Spirogyra and Detri-

tus.

At intervals five tadpoles were collected

from experimental sets as well as from Natu-

ral Pond for comparative growth studies. They

were preserved in 10% formalin and_ their

length and weights were recorded. Atmosphe-

ric and water temperatures were also recorded.

OBSERVATIONS AND DISCUSSION

The toad Bufo melanostictus is very com-

mon in ponds, puddles and tanks at Amravati.

Data on gut contents given in Table 1 re-

veals variations in dietary components at dif-

ferent growth stages. The apparent preference

of food items is as follows: -

Eudorina > Cosmarium > Watermites >

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

TABLE 1

DATA ON PERCENTAGE OCCURRENCE OF FOOD ITEMS IN THE GUTS OF TADPOLES OF Bufo melanostictus.

(Number—25 per stage)

Intestinal Contents

Prehind limb stage

Hind limb stage Fore & Hind limb stage

Desmid 71.4

Diatom 85.7

Eudorina 100

Opalina _

Spirogyra 14.2

Ulothrix 85.7

Euglena 57.1

Seemedesmus 71.4

Cosmerium 100

Watermites 100

Navicula 71.4

Closterium —_

Pleurococcus 100

Pleurococcus > Diatom > Desmid > Clos-

terium > Ulothrix > Euglena > Navicula

> Spirogyra > Seemedesmus.

The study of excreta revealed that they

were able to digest Spirogyra and Spinach.

The Diatoms, spores of Eudorina, and zoos-

pores of Spirogyra remained unchanged in

excreta. The Eudorina, starch granules, xylem

and Phloem vessels were partially affected.

The time taken for the metamorphosis

varies when fed on different food items

(Table 2). It appears that on certain diets

they metamorphosed successfully under labo-

ratory conditions. The tadpoles fed on Spiro-

gyra metamorphosed in 2 months and 11

days and those fed on Spinach metamorphos-

ed in 2 months and 15 days, while in nature

they metamorphosed in 2 months and 6 days.

The weight gain percentage by tadpoles fed

on different food items and their percentage

of successful metamorphosis is given in

Table 3. The maximum increase in their

average body weight 31.86%, was when there

100

100 100

100 85.7

= 100

57.1 14.2

85.7 28.5

ales 57.1

14.2 14.2

100 =

— 28.5

85.7 =

were fed on Spinach, though the gain of weight

by them showed considerable variations at

different growth stages.

During the entire period of successful meta-

morphosis of Spirogyra and Spinach fed tad-

poles, the tadpoles which were fed on starch,

detritus remained in prehind limb stage only.

It is also interesting to note that under

laboratory condition tadpoles metamorphosed

successfully when fed on Spirogyra; but their

average body weights at different stages were

half that of Spinach fed tadpoles (Table 3).

Sabnis and Kolhatkar (1978) observed that

tadpoles of frog Rana cyanophlyctis fed on

Spirogyra showed maximum increase in their

average body weight, ic. 74 per cent. But in

the present observations, tadpoles feeding on

Spirogyra showed increase in average body

weight, i.e. 29.36 per cent.

In conclusion it may be pointed out that

simple analysis of gut contents of tadpoles

does not give clear idea of its food habits.

Kamat (1°62) studied the gut contents of

WEIGHT IN , fag

FOOD & GROWTH OF BUFO MELANOSTICTUS

® ® SPIROGYRA

#——s SPINACH

= 4 NATURAL

iy 720 30 40.50 GO 70) 75

DAYS

Fig. 1. Shows the comparative growth of Bufo melanostictus tadpoles fed on

different diets.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

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FOOD & GROWTH OF BUFO MELANOSTICTUS

TABLE 3

SHOWS BODY WEIGHT GAIN BY TADPOLES OF Bufo melanostictus FED ON DIFFERENT DIETS AND

PERCENTAGE OF SUCCESSFUL METAMORPHOSIS

Average body weight gain percentage for

Percentage of

Food item liege Pre hind Hind limb Hind & fore Avera Metamor-

ge 1

Tadpoles limb stage stage limb stage phosis

Spirogyra 25 DAES 25.9% 40% 29.36% 20%

Spinach 25 41.6% 9 &% 45% 31,86% a2

Starch 25 10 % — — — 0%

Detritus 25 20 % — — — 0%

tadpoles and algae of small ponds and came

to the conclusion that tadpoles do not feed

on all available algae. In 1941 Rugh states,

“the anura do better on food wih green colour

while Urodela do better on living moving

food such as Daphnia’’.

Sabnis and Kolhatkar (1978) observed in

Rana cyanophlyctis decrease in body weight

in the final stage of metamorphosis, i.e. after

shedding of the tail. No such decrease in bodv

weight was observed in the present investiga-

tion. On the contrary in the tadpoles of Bufo

melanostictus a progressive increase in weight

was maintained throuughout the process of,

ert a]

metamorphosis (Fig. 1). This disparity may

be either due to the comparatively bigger size

of the tail in Rana cyanophlyctis or it may be

due to a better tolerance of the change in

feeding habit from herbivorous to insectivorous

feeding in Bufo melanostictus.

ACK NOWLEDGEMENTS

We express our thanks to Dr. K. V. R. Mur-

thy, Head of the Zoology Department, Vidar-

bha Mahavidyalaya, Amravati for providing

necessary facilities to undertake the investiga-

tion.

REFERENCES

BEHURA, B. K., Das, P. K., MOHANTY, P. AND

Guosu, G. S. (1971): On the diet and feeding habits

of the common toad Bufo melanostictus Schneid.

Prakruti—Utkal University Journal of Science 8(1):

79-86.

Briccs, R. AND Davipson, M. (1942): Some

effects of Spinach feeding on Rana pipiens tadpoles.

J. Exp. Zoo. 90: 401.

Isaac, S. AND REGE, M. S. (1975): Food of Rana

tigrina (Daud.). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 72(1):

143-157.

JosHEE, A. K. (1968): Food habits of the Bull

frog Rana tigrina (Daud.). J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc., 65: 498.

Kamat, N. D. (1962): On Intestinal contents of

tadpoles and algae of small ponds. Curr. Sci. 31:

390-301.

RuGH, R. (1941): Experimental Embryology

Mennesota, Burgess publishing Company.

SaBNIs, J. H. AND KoLHATKAR, B. L. (1977):

Observations on the food preference of Rana cya-

nophlyctis tadpoles. Comp. Physiol. Ecol. 2 (4):

232-233.

SaBNis, J. H. AND KoLuHaTKarR, B. L. (1978):

Observations on the growth of Rana cyanophlyctis

tadpoles ibid. 3(2): 71-72.

WabeEKAR, U. L. (1963): The diet of the Indian

Bull frog (Rana tigrina Daud.). J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 60 (1): 263-268.

DISTRIBUTION OF MOLLUSCS IN AND AROUND THE

CORAL REEFS OF THE SOUTHEASTERN COAST

IN INDIA*

C. S. GOPINADHA PILLAI AND K. K. APPUKUTTAN?

(With three plates, four text-figures and a map)

INTRODUCTION

The report presents the results of a syneco-

logical analysis of the molluscan fauna asso-

ciated with the different hard and soft sub-

strates in and around the fringing coral reefs

of Palk Bay and Gulf of Mannar around Man-

dapam (Map 1) between the longitudes 79°

8’ and 79° 14’ E, and latitudes 9° 12’ and

9° 18’ N. This study forms part of a program-

me of survey of the reef-associated living re-

sources of the seas around India. An attempt

has been made to identify and to assess

the comparative dominance of the molluscan

communities in the different habitats as also

to delineate the physical and biological fac-

tors that influence their selection of habitats.

The molluscs of this area are fairly well

known, thanks to the works of Hornell (1915,

1917, 1922, 1951), Gravely (1927), Satya-

murthi (1952, 1956), Rao (1970), Jones

(1970), Silas (1968) and many others whose

contributions are listed by Nair and Rao

(1974). Though about 450 species are known

from this area, there appears to be little at-

tempt in the past to discuss the synecological

aspects of molluscan distribution but for the

work of Rao and Sundaram (1972). Satya-

murthi (1952, 1956) has mentioned the natu-

1 Accepted August 1978.

2Central Marine Fisheries

Cochin. India.

Research Institute,

ral habitat of many species he has described.

The present collection includes only 112 spe-

cies (Table 2)—-roughly one fourth of the

known species, partly because we have not

accounted the many dead shells found except

from the raised reefs. In the recent past there

has been considerable destruction to reefs due

to indiscriminate quarrying of corals and this

has directly caused a dwindling of the mol-

luscs associated with the reefs. (Pillai 1975).

MATERIALS AND METHOD

Sixteen stations (Map 1) were selected, re-

presenting almost all the types of specialised

habitats seen in this region.

The collections were made at low tide with

the aid of face mask and snorkel, where depth

permitted. In Palk Bay, the survey was car-

ried out during August-September; in Gulf

of Mannar, during January-February; when

calm conditions prevailed. The unit for the

survey and population analysis was a sample

plot of quarter square metre marked out with

the aid of a metal frame. In addition to these

observations and analyses relevant portions of

our earlier studies on corals (Pillai 1971a,

1972) and on boring bivalves (Appukuttan

1972) were also incorporated to make the

account comprehensive. The nomenclature of

the various intertidal zones used in this work

is that of Lewis (1955, 1961 & 1972), and

Newell (1969).

MOLLUSCS IN AND AROUND CORAL REEFS

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

Details of stations studied:

Station 1. Vedalai, Gulf of Mannar. Sandy

beach with open circulation, not protected by

a reef. Dominated by Wedge-clams.

Station 2. About 700 m east of station 1

Sublittoral zone. Sandy bottom with seagrass

bed. Depth about 0.5 m at low tide with

a very high concentration of Pinna bicolor.

Station 3. About 300 m further east of sta-

tion 2 below the CMFR Institute Jetty in

Gulf of Mannar. The groyne of the Jetty in

the upper zone provides an artificial habitat

and is designated as 3, whereas the lower zone,

about 50 m into the sea with a depth of about

50 cm at low tide, is marked 3a. Station 3a

has a rich growth of higher algae. The upper

zone is typical eulittoral while lower zone is

sublittoral.

Station 4. About | km east of station 3 in

Gulf of Mannar. The station slopes steeply

from the elevated sandstones on the shore at

a height of nearly 2 m to the low water mark.

(Pl. 1, Figs. 1, 2) The upper part of the sand

stones represents the littoral fringe zone while

the lower zone is typically eulittoral. Littori-

nids are the dominant molluscs.

Station 5. Manacadu Point on the Palk Bay

side of the Mandapam peninsula with remnants

of a raised reef. Semifossilised coral boulders

on the water mark which harbour many gas-

tropods and is marked 5, is typically eulittoral.

(Pl. 3; ‘Figg 1). he semufossilised! Ucoral

boulders in the lagoon bottom at a depth of

0.5 to 0.75 m at low tide, marked station 5a,

is sublittoral with a dominant assemblage of

bivalves.

Station 6. The landing centre at Mandapam

in Palk Bay. The upper sandy beach in the

eulittoral zone, marked station 6, and the

lower sublittoral with algal growth and sandy

bottom is 6a. (Plate 3, Fig. 2).

Station 7. The blocks of sandstones under the

Pamban Bridge subjected to heavy current,

mostly submerged with a luxuriant growth of

edible algae on them.

Station 8. Northwestern tip of the Rames-

waram Island on Palk Bay side. A raised reef

with an elevation of nearly 1.5 m. Equivalent

to Littoral fringe zone.

Station 9. Western side of Rameswaram

Island near the Pamban bridge. Sandy eulit-

toral zone.

Station 10. Eastern tip of Krusadai Island in

the Gulf of Mannar where the reef with a

boulder zone approaches the shore. Eulittoral.,

with a dominance of gastropods. This is the

only undisturbed reef available for investiga-

tion at present here.

Station 11. Sandy beach at the southern side

of Krusadai Island. A lower zone in the

lagoon with corals and algae is designated as

lla. The beach is protected by a fringing

reef.

Station 12. The reef of Manauli Island in

Gulf of Mannar. The reefs have mostly been

removed and only a few scattered, dead, up-

turned colonies of Acropora and Porites are

seen, with intermittent large areas of sand.

Station 13. The lagoon of Manauli Island.

Bottom sandy with sea grass and other edible

algae. Mostly submerged and represents the

sublittoral zone. The nearshore area is with-

out vegetation and gets exposed at low tide.

Station 14. A mangrove growth at the north-

eastern shore of Manauli Island. A mud flat,

that gets exposed fully at low tide, and team-

ing with Cerithidea, adjoins the mangroves.

Stations 51 and 16. The reef of Palk Bay

along the Mandapam Peninsula. The reef crest,

outer and inner sides of the reefs were in-

vestigated. The outer reef shows a preponder-

ance of ramose corals while the inner (shore-

ward) side is rich in massive corals (Pillai

J. BOMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. 77 PLATE 1

Pillai & Appukuttan: Molluscs

1. Beach sandstones at Station 4.

2. Closer view of the square cut blocks.

J. BOMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. 77 PLATE 2

Pillai & Appukuttan: Molluscs

west of Station 5.

2. Ulva reticulata. Large quantities are found washed ashore during September in

Palk Bay shore habitated by several gastropods.

Exposed lagoon bottom at Mandapam Palk Bay showing the unvegetated sand,

MOLLUSCS IN AND AROUND CORAL REEFS

197la). The reef crest is typical eulittoral and

is devoid of any living corals.

THE MOLLUSCAN ASSEMBLAGES IN DIFFERENT

HABITATS

Sandy shore

(Without vegetation)

The mainland coast along Mandapam and

the shores of the near by sand cays in Gulf

of Mannar (Stoddart and Fosberg 1972) are

mostly sandy, though outcrops of sandstones

are found along the mainland coast. Typical

rocky shore does not exist. The beach sand

is fine-grained, the grains ranging from 2 to

4 mm in size and with an admixture of corals

and molluscan shells. The molluscan fraction

is mostly of the shells of Cerithium, Umbo-

nium, Dentalium, and Donax. The subsurface

has a high percentage of black clay (at a

depth of 10 cm and below) with a foul smell

of hydrogen sulphide. At Mandapam (Paik

Bay) the grain size increases towards the

deeper layers with an unconsolidated grit of

gastropod shells. The grain size as weil as the

calcareous content of the beach sand varies

from place to place. At station 1 the sand is

0.5 to 1.5 mm in grain size and a sample

from the surface yielded 85.66% of insoluble

silicon in hydrochloric acid and 14.44% solu-

ble calcareous matter. However, the beach

sand of the islands has a very high percentage

of calcareous matter. Analysis of a sample

from station 11 in Krusadai Island yielded

96.48% of soluble calcareous matter in hydro-

chloric acid. The high calcareous content in

Krusadai is mostly due to the presence of

coral fragments. The following discussion of

the molluscs of sand is based on stations 1,

6, 9 and 11.

At the low water mark, Murex trapa,

Bursa spinosa, Drupa margiriticola and Ceri-

thium spp. are present. During December,

1973 and January, 1974 Aplysia lineolata was

found in fair numbers at Vedalai. The mud

flat at the northern side of the Manauli Island

which gets exposed at low tides harboured

plenty of Cerithidea fluviatilis, their number

varying from 100 to 150 per square metre.

However, along the mainland coast this gas-

tropod is rare and replaced by Cerithium

trailli.

On the eulittoral beaches the molluscan

fauna is rich, composed of Donax spp. and

Atactodea glabrata with a high concentration

of the individuals at the mid-beach at a depth

of 20 to 25 cm. The deeper muddy substraum

is unsuitable for these filter feeders. However,

there is local variation in the occurrence and

abundance of these two genera of burrowing

bivalves. Donax spp. are comimon along the

mainland coast. At Station 1 their concentra-

tion was 40 to 60 individuals per square metre

in January, 1974, represented mainly by D.

faba and D. cuneatus. Alagarswami (1968)

reported a concentration of 89 to 217 clams

from the same site during December 1962 to

November, 1963. He has also reported the

presence of D. spinosus, D. apertus and D.

incarnatus at Vedalai, however, our collections

during January, 1974 yielded none of these

species. On the Palk Bay side the intensity

of Donax was less, only 10 to 15 individuals /

sq. metre were recorded. This may be due to

the more muddy nature of the subsurface

sand along Palk Bay coast. At station 1,

though D. faba and D. cuneatus occur, there

seems to be a sort of grouping among the

species, i.e. individuals of the same species in-

cline to concentrate. When one sample plot

yielded one species, another plot yielded

only the other though both faba and cuneatus

are found at the same level of the beach.

Further, individuals from the same plot are

more or less of the same size probably of

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

same age. This shows that there is very little

tendency among the members to disperse.

The burrowing clams of the islands are pre-

dominantly Atactodea glabrata (20-30/sq. m

in Krusadai). Donax faba and D. cuneatus

are rare.

The ecological factors that determine such

a distribution of Donax along the mainland

coast and Atactodea on the island are not

clear. The calcareous content of the beach

sands on the islands, as already mentioned,

is much higher than that of the mainland

coast. Further, the mainland coast is subjected

to more wave action and beach circulation

than the islands protected by the fringing reef.

The tendency of Donax to concentrate on un-

protected beaches with high circulation of

water was already pointed out by Taylor

(1968). He also stated that though Donax

faba and Atactodea glabrata may occur in the

same beach at Mahe, Seychelles, the latter

species always occupies a higher and more

sheltered position on the beach. In general,

HEIGHT IN M

Fig. 1.

our observations also show that protected

island beaches with a high calcareous content

in this area form a favourable habitat for

Atactodea, while fine-grained sand with very

litile calcareous content, with good water cir-

culation, is the more favoured habitat for

Donax spp.

The sandstones:

Blocks of elevated sandstones are found

along the Mandapam Peninsula on the Gulf

of Mannar side. A small outcrop is seen near

the Pamban Bridge at the Palk Bay side also.

The sand cays situated in the vicinity of Man-

dapam are devoid of any sandstone outcrops

(Stoddart and Fosberg 1972), though Red-

diah (1972) has reported its occurrence along

the beaches of Appa Island, further north, in

the Gulf of Mannar. The sandstones are ele-

vated up to 2 m in certain places showing

signs of wave-cut aberrations. Structurally,

they are conglomerate of sand grains of dif-

ferent sizes with molluscan shells, predomi-

Zonation of various molluscs at Station 4. The thick vertical lines show the

vertical range of species. 1. Littorina undulata; 2. Nodilittorina pyramidalis; 3. N.

leucostica; 4. Cellana radiata; 5. Craspidochiton sp.; 6. Trochus radiatus; 7. Drupa

margeriticola; 8. Nerita spp.; 9. Thias (Purpurea) rudolphi; 10. Crassostrea cucullata.

MOLLUSCS IN AND AROUND CORAL REEFS

nantly of Cerithium. The sandstone assembl-

age of molluscs discussed below is based on

observations at station 4.

In the absence of any rocky outcrops in

this area, the typical rocky shore animals

occupy the sandstones. At station 4 the mol-

luscan fauna display a pattern of vertical

zonation (Fig. 1). At the higher levels repre-

senting the Littoral fringe zone (Lewis 1961,

Morton and Challis 1969, Newell 1970, Arud-

pragasam 1970) the dominant animals are the

littorinids. At a height of nearly 1.75 m from

the high neap tide level Littorina undulata,

L. krausi and large individuals of Nodilitio-

rina pyramidalis are found. The first men-

tioned species is found at the highest zone

and displays a lot of phenotypic variations in

the colour of their shells. It has a tendency

to crowd together under the overhanging cliff

and in crevices. The species is not generally

seen on the surface of sandstones exposed to

scorching sun. L. krausi is rare here. Though

Nodilittorina pyramidalis is found mixed with

L. undulata its concentration is at a lower

level, where they have a tendency to flock to-

gether, sometimes in hundreds as we observed

in January, 1974. Lower down, below the

zone of N. pyramidalis, there is a heavy con-

centration of Nodilittorina leucostica where

there is a constant splash of water. From a

sample plot we collected as many as 621 speci-

mens of N. pyramidalis and from a plot below

that 180 specimens of N. leucostica. However,

we have not observed a zone where these two

species mingle, the position of the former being

always above the level of the latter. Among the

four species of littorinids found here, N.

pyramidalis has the widest range of vertical

distribution from the upper limit of the litto-

ral fringe to the upper limit of the eulittoral

zone. The younger specimens occupy a lower

level while the large adults migrate to the

upper level of the littoral fringe. A similar

pattern of vertical distribution of this species

at Ceylon was recorded by Arudpragasam

(1970), while Atapattu (1969) observed a

similar phenomenon in JN. granularis.

Size range and density of population of

littorinids at station 4 during January, 1974

was analysed. In random samples of 284 spe-

cimens of Littorina undulata, the height of

shells ranged from 2 to 13.8 mm, the majority

being in the range of 8 to 10 mm (Fig. 2b);

only 10 specimens were in the range of 1 to

6 mm. 180 specimens of N. leucostica examin-

ed from a sample plot ranged 1 to 11 mm,

the maximum number being in the range of

8 to 9 mm (Fig. 2a). A sample plot yielded

621 specimens of N. pyramidalis ranging from

1 mm to 10 mm, the maximum being in the

range.of 6 to 7 mm’ (Fig. 2°¢). Presence: of

small specimens in the range of 1 to 2 mm

in the natural population of littorinids suggests

that breeding and recruitment of individuals

to the population occur shortly before Janu-

ary. On the Ceylon coast recruitment of WN.

granularis to the population takes place at the

tail end of Southwest monsoon, i.e. during

October to November (Atapattu 1969). This

seems to be true of all the members of the

Littorina and Nidilittorina of this area.

Below the zone of littorinids (eulittoral

zone) occur the limpets Cellana radiata and

a small species of Craspidochiton. The edible

oyster Crassostrea cucullata is seen fully ex-

posed at low tides, the habitat of which in

general is within a narrow belt between tide

marks (Hornell 1951). They attach firmly to

the sand stones. At low water marks the car-

nivorous gastropod, Thias (Purpurea) rudol-

phi and T. carnifera as well as Drupa margi-

riticola are seen. Cerithium trailli are also

found in fair numbers. Very rarely the eulit-

toral sandstones are found to have the boring

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

100

90 ial

80 80

a %e b

2 60 60

w 50 2 50

a ww

7) =

nf =

3 40 w 40

a a

2 ee

30 5 30

20 20

10: 10

12 SCN NOE OREO TNOnEIt Ta akin On GaEnS

9 0 Nn 2B 4%

HEIGHT IN mm HEIGHT IN mm

Nodilittorina leucostica Littorina undulata

24 c

WwW

4. 10

(o}

10 1 12:13:44 «15 16 7 18 19 20 21 22 23 2% 25 26

HEIGHT IN mm

Planaxis sulcatus

170

150°

130

60 d e

2 50 z

cm 2190

= a

940 vn

a. w

e pak

°o

u 30: z

ae 50

37)

7) 36) SOMO" 112! cto NNIee SUMO Mn I mOMNOM2OR2Imz2i23 Tay CUO uO mam O ROMEO

HEIGHT IN mm HEIGHT IN mm

Cerithium traitli Noditittorina pyramidalis

Fig. 2. Size range of some intertidal gastropods collected from sample plots at

different stations. a. Nodilittorina leucostica from Station 4, during January, 1974.

No. of specimens measured 180. b. Littorina undulata from Station 4, January, 1974,

based on 284 specimens. c. Planaxis sulcatus from Station 5, September, 1973, based

on 96 specimens. d. Cerithium trailli from Station 5, September, 1973, based on 271

specimens. e. Nodilittorina pyramidalis from Station 4, January, 1974, based on 621

specimens.

MOLLUSCS IN AND AROUND CORAL REEFS

bivalve, Lithophaga (Appukuttan 1972).

Raised reefs

The raised reefs of Ramanathapuram in

South India are already described (Foote

1889, Sewell 1935, Stoddart and Pillai 1972).

Two stations, 5 and 8 were studied for their

living molluscs, and were found to be mostly

similar to the elevated sandstones discussed

earlier. This includes both the littoral fringe

and eulittoral forms.

Mangroves

Mangroves are characteristic of areas with

variable salinities, muddy or sandy bottom

and calm conditions (Cooman 1969, Macnae

1968, Macnae and Kalk 1962). The moliuscan

fauna of mangroves in general includes a limit-

ed number of gastropods and bivalves. There

appears to be no earlier information on the

mangrove fauna of this area, though Stoddart

and Fosberg (1972) have recently listed the

vegetation and discussed the zonation at

Manauli Island (Station 14). The molluscan

fauna associated with the mangroves can be

broadly divided into those that actually live

on the vegetation and those that live around.

At station 14 the mangroves are of Avicennia

marina, Bruguiera cylindrica and Rhizophora

mucronata. A. marina forms a low wooded

forest. According to Macnae and Kalk (1962)

the animals found in the mangroves are only

fortuitously associated depending on the level

of water table, resistance to waterloss, demand

for protection from sun, degree of consolida-

tion of substratum and availability of food.

The breathing roots of Avicennia at Manauli

Island are inhabitated by Planaxis sulcatus

often mixed with Littorina melanostoma. They

are found 50 cm above the lowest water-

mark. On the trunks and leaves of trees, L.

scabra occupy upto one and a half metres

from the ground level. Other conspicuous

animals on the roots are the barnacles. The

spaces among the breathing roots in the eulit-

toral zone harbours Cerithidea fluviatilis in

plenty. The gastropod Cassidula sp. was also

collected. The only bivalve we could find in

the ground was Gafrarium tumidum, a species

that is found commonly in several other habi-

tats.

It is interesting to compare the mangrove-

associated molluscs of this area with those

of the East Indies and Western Indian Ocean,

though the information from this part is by

no means complete. Both L. melanostoma and

Cassidula sp. are listed as true mangrove

forms of the East Indies (Cooman 1968).

Cerithidea is common to East Indies and

Indian Coast, but the species listed by Cooman

from the East Indies is different. Cooman

(1968) lists 20 species of molluscs from the

East Indies against six species we have col-

lected from here. Jsognomon, Crassostrea,

Modiolus and Teredo found in the mangroves

of East Indies do occur in other habitats in

south India, though we could not collect any

of them specifically from the mangroves we

investigated. L. scabra is common to southern

and western Indian ocean mangroves (Tay-

lor 1968) but is not known from East Indies.

L. melanostoma found in southeast coast of

India and eastern Indian mangroves is not

listed from western Indian ocean. In this

respect, our mangroves have faunal elements

from both eastern and western Indian oceans.

However, there is need for more intensive col-

lection of the faunal elements of our man-

groves.

Eulittoral Boulders

a. Semifossilised loose lying corals:

At Manacadu Point (Station 5) the raised

reef gradually dips into the sea with a lot of

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

semifossilised loose lying coral boulders of

Favia, Favites, Platygyra, Porites, Goniastrea

and Acropora having a coating of green

algae. The boulders are exposed at almost

every tidal change and are covered only at

the spring tides. These were found to be an

ideal habitat for many algal grazing gastro-

pods. Planaxis sulcatus are abundant and

occupy the highest position in the vertical

range of distribution. They show a tendency

to crowd together in small crevices and de-

pressions of the boulders and those of the

same size are found together. In September,

1973 there were 120 to 130 individuals per

square metre and their size ranged from 10

to 25 mm. Very small animals were not seen

and this suggests that their reproductive period

probably coincides with that of Littorina at

the tail end of the southwest monsoon. The

size range of 96 specimens, all from a sample

plot is presented in Fig. 2C, and it shows

that the maximum number of individuals was

within the range of 20 to 21 mm. Onchidium

verruculatum was very common on the under-

sides of the boulders inhabitated by Planaxis.

At fully exposed condition, four to five indi-

viduals were found crowded together in cre-

vices. Lower in the vertical range there is a

preponderance of Cerithium trailli. The zone

of Cerithium is subjected to lesser duration

of exposure than the zone of Planaxis. There

is a clear-cut demarcation between the zones

of Planaxis and Cerithium and we failed to

observe any mingling of the two genera. It is

likely that Cerithium is less tolerant to ex-

posure than Planaxis. The number of indivi-

duals of Cerithium trailli per square metre

averaged 286 with an average total weight of

204 gm. In size they ranged from 7 to 22 mm

during September, 1973; specimens of smaller

size were apparently absent. The maximum

number of individuals was seen in the size

range of 10 to 17 mm (Fig. 2d). From the

analysis of the size range of individuals during

September, it is clear at these gastropods also

breed during the tail end of southwest mon-

soon as in the case of littorinids. The smallest

ones (7 to 8 mm) belonged to the latest

brood.

Below the zone of Cerithium, Nerita was

very common, represented by at least three

species, viz. N. maura, N. albicella and N.

chaemelon, found in a totally exposed condi-

tion. Mingled with Nervita were seen four spe-

cies of Gafrarium, viz. G. pectinatum, G. dis-

par, G. divaricatum and G. tumidum; how-

ever, Gafrarium has a wider range of habitat

selection and is often found on the sandy and

vegetated lagoon bottom. Crassostrea cucul-

lata is common here.

b. Eulittoral granite boulders:

At station 3 the groynes of the jetty form

an excellent artificial habitat for many gastro-

pods. At low tide, these blocks get exposed

for a long time, and reveal underneath the

loose boulders, several species such as Purpu-

rea rudolphi, P. carnifera. Conus amadis, C.

coronatus, Cyprea moneta, C. caputserpentis

and Aplysia lineolata occur. On the surface of

boulders Trochus radiatus and Turbo inter-

costalis were seen. Bivalves were not seen,

though Mytilus, recently introduced by the

Institute, for mariculture experiments was

thriving.

c. The reef crest and reef flat:

There seems to be no well demarcated reef

crest or reef flat in this area since the fringing

shallow reefs have not developed into a well

consolidated structure. Further, whatever

existed has been destroyed in many places.

In an earlier paper Pillai (197la) used the

term reef crest to denote the highest part of

the reef in Palk Bay. This part of the reef is

J. Bompay NAT. Hist. Soc. 77 PLATE 3

Pillai & Appukuttan: Molluscs

The raised reef and eculittoral coral boulders at Station 5, teamed with Planaxis

and Cerithium.

2. Eulittcral sandy beach at Mandapam Palk Bay, where Donax is plenty. One of

the Sample plots is seen in foreground.

MOLLUSCS IN AND AROUND CORAL REEFS

composed of dead boulders subjected to inter-

mittent exposure as in a typical reef flat. An

area similar to reef flat with a boulder zone

is present at Krusadai Island (Station 10)

and is subjected to heavy breakers. In the

Palk Bay, Trochus radiatus, Turbo intercos-

talis, Astrea semicostata and Drupa margiriti-

cola are seen at the top of the boulders sub-

jected to prolonged exposure at low tides. On

the sides of the boulders, at a lower level,

Arca spp. and Jsognomon isognomon are

rarely seen. Crassostrea cucullata is common.

Pinctata sp. is also rarely seen. At Krusadai

(Station 10) the fauna was found to be rich

and varied, probably due to the undisturbed

condition of the reef. Gastropods were very

common and were represented by Cerithium

morus, Pyrine versicolor, P. zebra, Drupa

margiriticola, D. tuberculata, D. horrida,

Cyprea arabica, C. moneta, Trochus radiatus,

Turbo intercostalis, Thias (Purpurea) rudol-

phi, Cantharidus undosus, and Nerita albicella.

Among the Amphineura a species of Ischno-

chiton was very common. Bivalves were poor-

ly represented, but for the presence of young

specimens of Crassostrea cucullata.

The submerged or sublittoral habitats

a. The unvegetated sand:

At several spots in Palk Bay and Gulf of

Mannar, the bottom sand is clean and fine

grained, (Pl. 2, Fig. 1) with an admixture of

clay and dead shells at the subsurface, often

with a foul smell. The muddy subsurface is

unsuitable for burrowing bivalves and digging

scarcely revealed the presence of any infauna.

On the surface, Drupa margiriticola, Ceri-

thium spp., Murex tarpa, and Bursa spinosa

are generally seen. However, the ideal habi-

tats of all these animals are elsewhere, and

many bivalves are seen either lying on the

surface or partly buried, like Gafrarium tumi-

dum. At Manauli Island, G. tumidum is found

along with Mactra cuneata, Dosinia cretacea

and Mesodesma trigona. The mud flats were

found to be teeming with Cerithidea fluviatilis

in Manauli Island. The other gastropods

rarely seen are Nassa thirstis and Polinices

mamilla, the former generally harbouring a

symbiotic anemone on the shell. The younger

specimens of P. mamilla are purple whitish

while the adults are milky white and feed on

bivalves (Taylor 1968). Cardium edulae

occurs in Palk Bay and their dead shells are

found on the surface. Rarely Pinna bicolor

is seen half buried in sand, though it is abun-

dant on seagrass beds.

b. Submerged dead coral shingle:

At Station 5a, the lagoon bottom is strewn

with loose, semifossilised coral boulders with

intermittent sandy areas. The nature and com-

position of the boulders are similar to those

already described from Station 5. The sandy

areas have many algae like Sargassum, Padi-

na, Turbinaria and the calcareous alga Aim-

phiroa. For details of the algae reference may

be made to Rao (1972). The depth at lowest

tide is about 50 cm. These boulders harbour

a rich and varied fauna of molluscs, especially

bivalves. Most of them are found attached to

the boulders, the most common being Arca

represented by at least three species, viz. A.

symmetrica, A. avellana and A. complanata.

The swimming bivalve Galeomma paucistriata

occurs in fair numbers. It is pale yellowish

white with a dark brown prolongation of the

mantle in the living condition (Satyamurthi

1956). Yet another very common bivalve seen

here is Scintilla, represented by two species,

viz. S. hanleyi and S. timorensis. Vulsella vul-

sella with its commensal sponges is fairly com-

mon. J/sognomon isognomon and_ Pinctada

anamoides are found in fair numbers. The

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

larger specimens of P. anomoides ranged from

50 to 65 mm in length. Gastropods are by no

means a conspicuous element in the fauna of

this habitat, though Drupa margiriticola, Ceri-

thium trailli, Turbo intercostalis, Cellana ra-

diata and Eumarginula obovata are re-

presented.

c. The sea grass fauna:

At station 2, 6a & 13 the sea grass vegeta-

tion is composed of Cymodocea rotunda, C.

serrulata, Halodule sp. Syringodium isoetifo-

lium and Thalassodendron ciliatum (Stoddart

& Fosberg 1972). They are locally abundant

at several places both in Gulf of Mannar and

Palk Bay. Grass beds are excellent habitat

for burrowing molluscs while their leaves and

stems afford substratum and protection to

epifaunal elements (Taylor & Lewis 1970).

Among the epifauna of this area the bivalves

are represented by Gafrarium tumidum and

rarely Circe scripta. Cyprea histrio, C. arabi-

ca, Murex virgineus and Cerithium scabridum

and C. trailli the last two being found on the

leaves and stems of sea grass. Yet another

common gastropod, Pyrene seen on the leaves

and stems is represented by three species, P.

versicolor, P. vulpeula and P. flavida. How-

ever, Pyrene is more abundant on various algae

(vide infra). During January-February young

ones of Trochus radiatus and T. stellatus were

seen on the leaves, the adults of which are

common inhabitants of eulittoral hard sub-

stratum. Neritina oualaniensis is also found

in Manauli Island. The opisthobranch Dola-

bella rumphii was found in fair numbers at

Station 2 during January, 1974.

The molluscan fauna of the grass beds in

this area is dominated by Pinna bicolor, and

a variety of animals found attached on their

shells. There is a very heavy concentration

of Pinna at Station 2 which is near a sewage

outlet. A similar situation in Seychelles, where

sewage disposal encouraged the settlement of

Pinna was recorded by Taylor (1968). The

larger specimens in Gulf of Mannar measure

30 to 35 cm in shell length and as many as

15 are found per square metre at sites of high

concentration. A few species of molluscs such

as Modiolus metcalfei and M. carvaihoi among

the bivalves and /schnochiton among the Am-

phineura and Neritina oualaniensis among the

gastropods are found attached on the shells

of Pinna.

d. Alga associated molluscs:

Stations 3a, 7, lla and 13.

The sublittoral algal communities afford a

very suitable habitat for both young and adult

moliuscs. The common algae, searched for

their molluscan macrofauna were Sargassum,

Turbinaria, Padina, Ulva, Caulerpa, Gracilaria,

Gelidiella and Hypnea. The molluscan assem-

blage associated with each of these is briefly

presented below.

Ulva recticulata forms extensive green pat-

ches in the lagoon bottom of Palk Bay along

Mandapam during July to October and is

often found washed ashore in large quantities.

(Pl. 2, Fig. 2). Many gastropods are found

attached to this alga, such as Catharidus inter-

ruptus, Thais tissoti, Cerithium scabridum,

Drupa margiriticola, and Trochus radiatus

(very small ones 3 to 5 mm in diameter) and

Planispira fallaciosa. Almost all the specimens

collected were young ones, their adults being

characteristic inhabitants of other substrata.

Caulerpa racemosa is common on the reefs

and other isolated hard substrata. Many nudi-

branchs are reported to be associated with

this alga, though our collection yielded none.

The bivalve gastropod Berthelinia limax was

found in fair numbers in Palk Bay. These ani-

mals have a brilliant green colour, perfectly

(Fig. 3)

MOLLUSCS IN AND AROUND CORAL REEFS

Fig. 3.

ny,

ae °

: Yi

LLL

ELLE

A general representation of the molluscs associated with various algae.

1. Ischinochiton sp. x 2.5; 2. Pyrine zebra « 1.3; 3. P. versicolor x 1; 4. Drupa mar-

geriticola x 1; 5. Trochus stellatus x 1; 6. Planispira fallaciosa «x 1.5; 7. Phasionella

nivosa X 1; 8. Pyrine vulpecula x 1; 9. Cerithium scabridum x 1; 10. Nodilittorina

pyramidalis x 1; 11. Pinctada anomoides x 0.5; 12. Berthelinia limax.

matching that of the alga, and it is difficult to

spot the animals in the field. There seems to

be a sort of specificity in the association be-

tween Berthelinia and Caulerpa and we failed

to collect this mollusc from any other algae

we examined. It may be noted that the first

Carribbean bivalve gastropod, B. caribbea, was

also recorded on Caulerpa (Edmunds 1962).

Padina gymnospora is found on the reefs

and in the lagoon. There is a preponderance

of this at Station 3a from where we collected

several samples during January, 1974. At least

four species of gastropods, viz. Drupa tuber-

culata, D. margiriticola, Pyrene zebra and

Trochus radiatus were found on the leaves

along with Ischnochiton sp. Bivalves were not

represented. Padina is a less favoured habitat

for molluscs when compared to other higher

algae from the same locality such as Sargas-

sum and Turbinaria.

Turbinaria sp. grows in patches in several

places and was found to be common at station

3a. The economically important small gastro-

pod Pyrene zebra is common on the stems

and leaves of this alga. Drupa mangiriticola

and D. tuberculata also occur but in very few

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

numbers. Planispira fallaciosa and Phasionella

nivosa occur rarely. Juveniles of Trochus

radiatus were found in January with planti-

grades of the bivalve Modiolus sp. Turbinaria

ornata from Palk Bay yielded Pyrene versi-

color a species which we could not collect

from T. conoides.

Two species of Sargassum, viz. S. wighti and

S. myriosystem are common here. On the

former Pyrene zebra and P. versicolor are very

abundant. Juveniles of Trochus radiatus and

plantigrades of Pinctada anamoides are also

rarely seen. Sargassum growing on hard sub-

strata seems to be the most ideal habitat for

Pyrene in this area.

Yet another common alga in almost all

localities of both Gulf of Mannar and Palk Bay

is Gracilaria edulis. G. edulis yielded Pyrene

versicolor, P. zebra, Phasionella nivosa and

Drupa margiriticola, Cantharidus undosus and

Astrea semicostata though none of the species

is common. During December-January, juve-

niles of Trochus were common. All the mol-

luscs found on Gracilaria were gastropods.

Two species of Hypnea, viz. H. musciformis

and H. valentiae, were found to be common

on the sandstone blocks under the Pamban

Bridge. (Station 7). In January, it was found

that all the samples contained several planti-

grades of Modiolus in the size range of 2 to

5 mm. Very rarely juveniles of pearl oysters

were also seen. Juveniles of Trochus, Cellana

and Ischnochiton were also collected. How-

ever, the commonest and most abundant mol-

luscs associated with Hypnea during January

was Modiolus.

A notable feature of the alga-associated

molluscs of this area during the December-

February period was the presence of a large

number of juveniles of both gastropods and

bivalves. These include those of Trochus, Cel-

lana, Cerithium, Cantharus and Pyrene among

the gastropods, and of Pinctada and Modiolus

among the bivalves. There exists a constant

association between the developing stages of

some bivalves such as Mytilus edulis and vari-

ous filamentous algae (Colman 1940; Chip-

perfield 1953; Bayne 1964). It has been shown

that mussels rarely settle on existing beds of

adults, probably to avoid competition. The

juveniles get attached and detached more than

once on filamentous substrates before they

finally get settled. The presence of juveniles

of various molluscs on different algae indi-

cates that there is no strict specificity during

their primary settlement to any alga, all avail-

able filamentous substrata being utilised. The

presence of juveniles during the December-

January period is again an indication to the

breeding period of these molluscs here coin-

ciding with those of littorinids.

Coral-associated molluscs:

Corals afford a substrate for several types

of animals, providing food and shelter. Men-

tion has already been made of the molluscs

associated with the reef flat and dead bould-

ers. In the living corals, the branching forms

provide loose interspace where many animals

including molluscs can live free from the at-

tack of predators. Massive corals provide at-

tachment surface as well as penetrable sub-

stratum for boring animals (Morton and Chal-

lis 1969). The reef associated animals can be

broadly divided into: Hypobion—those con-

cealed in the shade or under the substratum:

the parabion—composed of those animals liv-

ing on the lighted reaches of living corals;

and epibion—constituting those living on re-

cently dead corals or algae. A fourth group

is cryptobion composed of burrowing forms

or those which live in the burrows of other

animals (Morton and Challis 1969). Taylor

(197la) categorises reef-associated molluscs

MOLLUSCS IN AND AROUND CORAL REEFS

into those that use corals as a convenient sub-

strate for protection and the others that actu-

ally feed on coral polyps.

The structure of the living reef and the

zonation of corals in this area have been al-

ready discussed by Pillai (197la, 1971b) and

Mergner & Scheer (1974). Though zonation

on the fringing reef is indistinct, we recognise

here an Acropora community to include

ramose corals, a Porites community to de-

signate massive corals dominated by Porites

spp., and an Echinopora community to incor-

porate foliaceous corals such as Echinopora

and Montipora foliosa.

The major components of the Acropora

community are Pocillopora damicornis, Mon-

tipora divaricata, Acropora formosa, A. cory-

mbosa, A. hyacinthus, A. millepora, A. nobi-

lis, and A. humilis. A. millepora and A. nobi-

lis are more common on the Gulf of Mannar

reefs while A. corymbosa is abundant on the

Palk Bay side. P. damicornis is omnipresent.

Most of these small-polyped ramose corals

establish themselves at the outer side of the

reef where water is clearer and deeper (Pil-

lai 1971a).

The branching corals seem to be favoured

by many gastropods where they seek protec-

tion in the interspaces of branches and under-

sides. We could not collect any coral-eating

molluscs. Pyrene versicolor, Drupa spp. and

Cerithium spp. are common among the bran-

ches of Acropora millepora and A. corvmbosa.

Trochus spp. were found on the dead upper

regions and bases of several colonies. A. mille-

pora from Manauli Island yielded Spondylus

layardi. A. formosa and A. nobilis with their

arborescent coralla are less favoured habitats

than the corymbose forms probably due to

non-availability of closely placed branches

that afford protection. On the dead parts of

all ramose corals, Crassostrea cucullata, Arca

spp., /sognomon isognomon, Pinctada and

Lithophaga spp. were seen.

Porites community (Fig. 4) forms the basic

structure of the reefs in this area. P. solida,

P. lutea. and P. somaliensis are fairly common

both in the living and semifossilised condition.

Among and on Porites are seen Favia favus,

Favites abdita, Favia pallida, Leptastrea spp..

Cyphastrea spp., Platygyra lamellina etc. (see

Pillai, 1972 for the list of corals from this

area).

Both gastropods and bivalves are found on

the massive corals. A few gastropods such as

Drupa margiriticola, Pyrene spp. and Ceri-

thium spp., were found crawling on the sur-

face of massive corals. D. margariticola is

abundant on the Palk Bay and a large number

of them get into the traps set by the local

fishermen for catching reef fishes. Astrea semi-

costaia and Planispira fallaciosa are also seen.

Lambis lambis is found between the massive

coral heads, sometimes in the sandy areas;

sometimes the living molluscs afforded sub-

stratum to small colonies of Porites or Side-

rastrea, the corals thus getting free transport.

Among the bivalves attached to the surface

and undersides of massive corals were Arca

spp.. Zsognomon, Pinctada and Crassostrea.

However, the intensity of surface living bival-

ves was more on the dead coral shingle than

on the living corals.

The dead, and rarely living corals, harbour

a rich and varied fauna of burrowing bivalves

(Appukuttan 1972). The mytilids are by far

the commonest. Lithophaga is represented by

at least five species, viz. L. nigra, L. gracilis,

L. teres, L. stramineus and L. levigata; L.

nigra being the commonest. The lithophaga

make deep burrows generally double the

length of their shells. Botulla cinnamonea

makes shallow burrows. The venerid bivalves

Venerupis macrophyllia and the petricolid,

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol.

—=——

Fig. 4. A general representation of the molluscs a associated with massive corals.

1. Venerupis macrophyllia x 0.5; 2. Lithophaga spp.; 3. Arca spp. 4. Isognonion

isognomon xX 0.5; 5. Crassostrea cucullata x 0.5; 6. Pinctada anomoides x 1; 7. Jouan-

netia cumingii x 0.5; 8. Pyrine spp.; 9. Drupa margeriticola x 0.5; 10. Cerithium

trailli x 0.5; 11. Nodilittorina leucostica x 1; 12. Turbo intercostalis x 1; 13. Lambis

lambis x 0.5.

Petricola lithophaga and P. divergence, are

also common in shallow burrows. Aloi-

des sulculosa, Gastrochaenia, Pholadides,

Jouannetia, Parapholas and Clavagella are the

other common burrowing bivalves of this area

[For others see Table 1, a detailed account of

which has been already published by Appu-

kuttan (1972)]. Though most of the burrowing

forms are found in the dead parts of the

corals, rarely L. gracilis was collected from

the living parts of Porites solida and Favia

pallida.

DISCUSSION

Species diversity and percentage composition

The percentage composition of the main

molluscan groups in the collections from each

habitat is presented in Table 2. The entire

molluscan fauna found on the mangroves be-

longs to Gastropoda. Adult gastropods were

more on the eulittoral boulders than bivalves,

while the submerged shingle has the maximum

(85%) concentration of surface living bival-

ves. The maximum number of species was

MOLLUSCS IN AND AROUND CORAL REEFS

found in massive corals (38) of which 26 were

bivalves, 18 of them being boring forras and

the rest surface living. The mollusca of the

littoral fringe was composed entirely of

gastropods, while the eulittoral zone had

3.75% Amphineura, 68.5% gastropods and

27.75% bivalves. In the sublittoral molluscan

fauna, Amphineura constitute 1.3%, gastro-

poda 38.7% and bivalves 60%.

Taylor (1971b) has attributed increased

diversity of species in the sublittoral zone at

Aldabra to tolerance of species to emersion.

According to him (p. 206) this factor will

account for the reduced diversity of species on

higher shores. Those few species capable of

inhabiting higher zones will exploit the avail-

able habitat resulting in a high density

of population. In essence, the organisms of

the intertidal zone are predominantly physi-

cally regulated communities and their major

adaptations are of a physical nature, since the

environment is subjected to varying physical

factors. In the lower level (sublittoral) the

animal communities are biologically controlled

since the environment is mostly uniform. The

biological inter-reaction result in a greater

diversity of species (Sanders 1968). In such

a situation the density of individuals of vari-

ous species may not be as high as on the

higher levels.

Factors Influencing the Distribution of

Molluscs in Different Substrates

1) Adaptation to physical conditions:

Temperature tolerance and ability to with-

stand desiccation is the largest single factor

that restricts the distribution of many inter-

tidal animals. Smith and Newell (1955) have

shown that the initial settlement of periwink-

les takes place on a lower level, the upper

tidal levels being later colonised by adults. A

similar phenomenon is shown here by Nodi-

littorina pyramidalis on sandstone. Planaxis

sulcatus and Cerithium trailli occupy different

levels, the former always being at a higher

level at Mandapam. Ability to restrict the loss

of water during exposure and the thickness

of shell are major adaptations for a success-

ful life on intertidal areas. Among the Plana-

xis and Cerithium trailli collected from the

same station there was a notable variation in

their fresh flesh and shell weight ratio. The

ratios of flesh weight to shell weight in Plana-

xis and C. trailli were 1:7.2 and 1:5.8 respec-

tively as calculated from 50 specimens from

random samples. This clearly indicates a

higher ratio in shell weight to that of flesh in

Planaxis which will probably account for its

ability to occupy a higher position in the verti-

cal range of zonation, than C. trailli.

ii) Feeding relationship and distribution:

Availability of food is a major factor that

influences the distribution of animals. The

concentration of Pinna bicolor among the sea-

grass beds is correlated with the availability

of rich food from the plant material found

in the sediments around (Taylor & Lewis

1970). The preponderance of Pinna near the

site of sewage disposals lends further support

to the view that supply of food for these filter

feeders immensely influences their abundance.

The presence of Thias (Purpurea) rudolphi

and Drupa margariticola also appears to be

correlated with their carnivorous feeding re-

lationships. Thias feeds on Cellana, Gafrarium

and other gastropod found on the upper zone

of the eulittoral. Polinices mamilla and other

gastropod found on the eulittoral zone feed

on bivalves found on the same zone. The

mangrove associated Littorina scabra are able

to feed on mangrove vegetation. The occur-

rence of large populations of Planaxis and

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

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TABLE 2

THE TOTAL NUMBER OF SPECIES OF MOLLUSCS COLLECTED AT EACH HABITAT WITH THE PERCENTAGE REPRE-

SENTATION OF DIFFERENT CLASSES

Percentage composition

Habitat Total No.

of species Amphineura Gastropoda Bivalvia

Raised Reef 14 8 25 67

Sandstones 14 7 719 14

Eulittoral boulders 32 6 78 16

Submerged shingle 13 nil 15 85

Unvegetated sand 22 nil 63 37

Seagrass 19 5) 52 43

Algae 21 5 85 10

Mangrove 5 nil 100 nil

Reef flat 21 5 71 24

Massive corals 38 235 28.5 69

Branching corals 26 nil 43 57

Cerithium on the eulittoral boulders in Palk

Bay is also associated with the presence of

algae like Chaetomorpha and Euteromorpha

on which these gastropods feed (Rao & Sun-

daram 1972).

iii) Protection:

Many molluscs select a substratum free from

predators and wave action. Several gastropods

live among the branches of ramose corals and

algae. Wieser (1952) pointed out that the

principal factor controlling the nature and

abundance of organisms of intertidal seaweeds

is the growth form of the species of seaweed.

Variations in the density of gastropod popu-

lation on different algae have been discussed

earlier. Boring bivalves are typical examples

of marine animals on penetrable substrates like

corals and wood. Some molluscs have cryptic

colours for protection. Berthelinis limax on

Caulerpa is a classic example in this regard.

iv) Larval behaviour:

The presence of juveniles of eulittoral gas-

tropods on sublittoral algae may be due to a

larval adaptation. The larvae or juveniles are

unable to thrive or are less successful on

the more exposed conditions subjected to much

physical changes and hence first get settled on

lower levels and later migrate to their ulti-

mate ecological niches. This will also avoid

competition for food from the adults. The pri-

mary settlement of mytilid larvae on filament-

ous substrate away from the adult beds has

already been discussed. This will also help the

dispersal of young ones to an extent. The oc-

currence of juveniles of Trochus, Cellana and

Nodilittorina on sublittoral algae may be a

larval adaptation to more favoured habitats

than their adults normally live on.

SUMMARY

The eulittoral, and littoral fringe sandstones

of this area show a clear vertical range of

zonation by different gastropods, correlated

with the conditions of wave action, exposure,

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

desiccation,

food.

There is a preponderance of gastropods on

the littoral fringe and eulittoral hard substra-

tes while the submerged hard bottom supports

mostly bivalves. Wherever gastropods are

plenty, bivalves are of little significance, and

vice versa.

The molluscan fauna of the seagrass com-

munity is dominated by Pinna bicolor. At the

sites of waste sewage disposal, the density of

population is very high.

Beach-clams are represented by Donax and

Atactodea. The former is very common along

the mainland coast while the latter occurs on

the island shores.

No species of molluscs exists in large quan-

tities though Cerithium, Cerithidea, Drupa,

Thias and Planaxis are common in the inter-

tidal zones. The commercially important ges-

tropod, Pyrene spp., occurs in large numbers

on reefs and higher algae. Among the bivalves

Pinna, Gafrarium, Donax, Grassostrea and

Arca are very common. Recently there is a

settlement of pearl oysters at the bottom

boulders of Palk Bay lagoon along Manda-

pam.

The presence of juveniles and spat of several

molluscs during the onset of northeast mon-

soon indicates that most of the common mol-

luscs of this area breed towards the close of

southwest monsoon.

The young ones often choose a safer or

more protected environment different from the

ecological niche at which the adults ultimately

settle.

Quarrying of corals for industrial purposes,

resulting in the destruction of the reefs in

temperature and availability of

several places around Mandapam, has caused

the dwindling of the reef associated molluscs.

This was ascertained by a comparative study

of the fauna of disturbed and undisturbed

reef tracts.

The major factors that limit the distribution

and abundance of various species in different

habitats are—nature of bottom, wave action,

exposure, temperature, availability of suitable

food, and behavioural aspects of larvae and

adults.

The qualitative abundance of common mol-

luscs in different habitats is discussed. Numeri-

cal assessment of individuals of some com-

mon species was made by analysing sample

plots.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful to Dr’ ED iGosilas

Director, Central Marine Fisheries Research

Institute for his constant interest and encour-

agement in this work. Thanks are due to

Mr. C. Mukundan, Mr. M. S. Rajagopalan,

Dr. K. S. Rao and Mr. V. Kunjukrisha

Pillai for offering constructive criticism to-

wards improvement of the manuscript at

various stages of preparation. Mr. C. P. Gopi-

nathan gave valuable advice on the preparation

of the figures and Mr. K. L. Kesavan, artist

of this institute, drew them. It was a matter

of great pleasure for the authors to have the

constant company of Dr. K. P. Kuriakose,

and Mr. P. N. Radhakrishnan Nair during

field trips and collection of data. Mr. S. Kali-

muthu has identified the different algae men-

tioned in the text. Miss A. Kanagam offered

secretarial assistance.

MOLLUSCS IN AND AROUND CORAL REEFS

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Aldabra Atoll. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond., ser. B,

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A MARCH BIRD COUNT IN POONA’

PRAKASH GOLE?

How many birds are there in an Indian

city? To arrive at an estimate of the bird

population of the city, a group of twenty

bird-watchers from Poona decided to pool

their energies to make a bird-count. The city

was divided into sectors and a pair or group

of bird-watchers was allotted one sector to

make notes and count species and individuals.

All birds that could be seen and heard (and

definitely identified) while moving along the

streets and lanes were counted. There are cer-

tain groups of trees in the city and on its

river-banks which are favoured by birds for

roosting. Counts of common Indian mynah,

house and jungle crow, cattle and little egrets

and pond herons where chiefly made at these

places.

It was not possible to cover the city area

in one day. Sectors had to be divided into

sub-sectors. Each sub-sector was visited once

to avoid double counting. Of course, a certain

percentage of double counting is unavoidable

as birds are highly mobile. However, care was

taken to avoid it, mainly by restricting the

count of such mobile birds as crows and

mynahs to their roosting sites only. The total

effort was spread over the duration of a week

—the first week of March 1979.

During the week 130 bird-species were noted

with a total population of more than 22,000

individuals. The count was spread over about

12,120 hectares or about 30,000 acres. The

1 Accepted June 1979.

2277 Sindh Housing Society,

(M.S.).

Poona-411 007,

area includes the main wards of the city and

the cantonment but excludes suburban areas

such as Kirkee, Yerawada, Ghorpadi, Katraj,

Hingne and some other small areas on the

periphery. Out of the total area included in

the bird-count about 60% was more or less

fully covered, 24% partially covered, while

over about 16% of the area observations were

poor. Our coverage of garden birds was poor

for obvious reasons. We could not enter pri-

vate gardens and had to restrict counting to

public parks and gardens only.

The total of about 22,000 birds counted

gives a figure of less than one bird per acre

or 1.8 birds per hectare. The actual number

of birds per hectare is probably greater. As

already pointed out, our coverage of garden

birds was poor. Even if the number of garden

birds is increased by 100 p.c., we will still be

erring on the safe side. Our coverage of

water-birds and birds of grasslands and fields,

is better, believed to be around 60 p.c. This

also includes common birds like house spar-

row, house and jungle crow and common

mynah. A 40 p.c. increase in the number of

all these birds may not probably be out

of proportion. These adjustments give us a

total of about 32000 birds, i.e. 1.06 birds per

acre or 2.6 birds per hectare. Comparable

figures for other Indian cities are not avail-

able. However, for Inner London area a den-

sity of 0.9 to 1.75 breeding pairs per acre,

has been given by Murton (Murton R. K.

MAN & BIRDS, 1971).

It must be made clear that the figure in-

cludes migratory birds, both local and conti-

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

nental. A count taken in June and July wiil

probably show a lower density as most of

the migratory birds will have left by then.

However, these migrants spend almost eight

months of the year (September to April) in

our land and there is no reason why we should

exclude them while estimating the bird popu-

lation of a particular area.

Admittedly, the count was weighted in

favour of birds which are commensals of man

namely house sparrow and crow, mynah and

parakeet, pariah kite and blue rock pigeon.

In Murton’s figures also 88 p.c. of the breed-

ing birds are feral pigeons and house sparrows.

Here, the common Indian mynah formed al-

most a third of the total number of indivi-

duals. The mynah outnumbered the crow and

the sparrow by almost 2 to 1. Not all the

mynahs forage within the city however. They

are commuters, flying out every morning to

fields and grasslands to feed and flying in to

roost each evening. We were surprised to find

the number of house sparrows so low (1600).

Probably these drab-coloured birds failed to

attract our attention. Big flocks of sparrows

were seen mainly in the evening when num-

bers collected and flew to roost. One roosting

tree near the railway station attracted more

than 500 of them.

Even crows were found to be more numer-

ous than the house sparrow. About 2500 of

them were counted. It was not always possible

to distinguish between a house and a jungle

crow, as counts were made mainly in the

evenings. We suspect however, that there are

as many jungle crows as there are house crows.

Early in the morning crows appeared to be

the first to wake up and move about; while

in the evening they were preceded by the com-

mon mynah for roosting. They flew in to roost

in flocks of 20-30 or gangs of 5-10, in a lei-

surely fashion, flying at about tree-top height.

Sometimes they used to make a sudden stoop

on to a tree on the way, the flying army arrest-

ing flight suddenly and diving down to alight

on the tree to the accompaniment of much

noise. After a pause they continued their

flight. They also perched on adjacent build-

ings before settling on the roosting trees. Even

after reaching these trees some took to wing,

flew about, made a detour only to come back

to settle on the trees.

The common mynah roosts were nothing

short of spectacular. At one roost more than

4000 mynahs were counted. They flew in to

roost in flocks of 2-4, 7-8, 20-30 and 30-50.

Most of them flew at moderate heights,

though some coming into city from the west

over the hills flew higher. Before reaching

the trees mynahs too collected first in a con-

venient sport, a hill-slope, a grassy patch on a

river-bank, even a tall theatre-building. Here

they made a pause of 15 to 30 minutes before

flying in en masse into the trees to the accom-

paniment of a deafening cackle.

House and jungle crows were found to be

associating with common mynahs on all the

roosts; while at one roost near the river about

350 cattle and little egrets and 325 pond

herons came to roost with the mynahs and

crows. They however, occupied acacia trees

while the latter roosted on the banyan, the

peepul and the rain tree. Egrets came in flocks

of 10 to 25 birds, flying along the course of

the river, while pond herons came one by one.

Brahminy mynahs have smaller roosts scat-

tered all over the city. They do not associate

with the common mynah but roost separately

in groups of 5 to 50. Normally in the first

fortnight of March every year, rosy pastors

arrive and spend some days in the city. They

also were seen to roost with the common

mynah. 400 were counted at one roost alone.

While the mynah roosts are mostly in the

BIRD COUNT IN POONA

central, southern and western parts of the city,

the rose-ringed parakeet prefers chiefly the

Koregaon Park area to the east. In the even-

ing they were seen to fly energetically in

groups of 20-40 birds to settle in large banyan

and peepul trees. Smaller groups coalesced

into larger ones as roosting trees drew near

and they used to settle with an incessant chat-

ter which normally went on with interruptions

till late at night. They appear to be late-risers

too, leaving the roost after sunrise when most

of the other birds are up and about. More

than 1000 parakeets roost there.

As in other Indian cities some pariah kites

and whitebacked vultures are usually to be

seen quartering the skies of Poona city. Kites

were found to be numerous in the Canton-

ment area and in early mornings these hand-

some birds were very active, diving, swooping

on the ground for tit-bits and squealing. Breed-

ing season of these birds was on and on a

busy thoroughfare a nest with a sitting bird

could easily be seen on a peepul tree about

10 metres up from the street level. Most of

the vultures scavenge near the bone-crushing

plant located at south-east of the city. Com-

pared to whitebacked vultures, the number of

neophron vultures was insignificant.

Out of the 130 species counted, 35 may

be called garden and woodland birds which

including bulbuls, magpie and Indian robins,

sunbird, barbet, warblers, flycatchers, tit,

woodpecker, flowerpecker, koel, golden oriole,

iora, grey hornbill, white-eye, little minivet,

spotted owlet etc. 37 species belonged to grass-

land, scrub and fallow-land. These included

drongo, shrikes, babblers, munias, quails, bush-

chats, pipits, larks, doves, bee-eater, hoopoe,

Indian roller, yellow-wattled lapwing, crested

bunting etc. Ten species of birds of prey were

recorded. They included three eagle species,

blackwinged and large Indian kite, kestrel,

shikra, sparrow-hawk, redheaded merlin and

marsh harrier.

Poona’s river banks harbour a rich variety

of bird-life; 110 species have so far been re-

corded in the Mula-Mutha Bird Sanctuary

area alone. During the present count 39 spe-

cies of water-birds were recorded. These in-

cluded dabchick, kingfishers, wagtails, coots,

terns, egrets, swallows, ducks like garganey

teal and pintail, and a variety of waders such

as black-winged stilt, sandpipers, green and

redshanks, little ringed plover, little stint,

jacanas etc.

Out of the 130 bird species, 90 species were

resident birds and the remaining migratory.

Of the latter 18 are known to breed within

Indian limits, but migrate either locally from

the north or from the Himalayas. These in-

cluded Indian Roller, collared bushchat, black-

winged stilt, black redstart, blue rock thrush,

lesser whistling teal etc. Species that habitual-

ly migrate over long distances numbered 22.

They are winter visitors to our land and in-

cluded ducks like garganey teal and pintail,

wagtails, rosy pastors, desert wheatears etc.

What other peculiarities of bird-life could

be noted during the count? As the breeding

season was approaching songsters were slowly

getting into form. Though the redvented bul-

bul and the magpie robin were not yet in full

song, calls of iora and golden oriole could

be heard. The koel was making feeble at-

tempts to produce its characteristic call; the

male would burst into his full song towards

the end of the month. Surprisingly, a hawk-

cuckoo was vocal in a park even though the

weather was clear and sunny.

Pair-formation was still in its initial stages.

The male magpie robin chased the female

desultorily and without any fervour. The

Indian robin had paired already but feed-

ing of the female by the male could not yet

JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

be. observed. The rufousbacked shrike utter-

ed harsh notes from a tree or a telegraph

cable as if proclaiming territorial rights but

his mate was nowhere nearby. The purple

sunbird was not yet in full breeding plumage

and the male and the female foraged sepa-

rately.

Cattle and little egrets and pond herons and

pheasant-tailed jacanas were also not yet in

breeding plumage. However, some dabchick

pairs were busy constructing their floating

nests near the far end of a reed-bed; while

one pair of dabchick had already laid and was

incubating a clutch of two eggs. On a steep

bank even a smail blue kingfisher was seen

excavating a nest-hole.

Most of the migrants were still to be found

in the city. The Indian redstart was still here

though most would leave by the 10th. Blyth’s

reed and greenish leaf warblers could still be

heard in the trees and in the morning the bril-

liant blossom of the silk cotton attracted hor-

des of chattering rosy pastors who would

proceed north around 15th March. The blue

rock thrush still lurked in the eaves of tall

buildings and on hills and among boulders

on the river bank. The Indian roller on the

telegraph pole, the collared bush-chat on a

bush-top, a bluethroat in a reed-bed and a

lesser whitethroat skulking in bushes, was

still a common sight. Some of the yellow waz-

tails had donned their distinctive dress and

the greyheaded, the blueheaded and _ the

blackheaded could be distinguished. Even

some of the blackwinged stilts had put on

their black caps, their restless flocks flying to

and fro on the river. Most of the other waders

appeared a shade brighter but still hunted

singly or in flocks. Gatherings of common

swallows hawked insects in the sky morning

and evening though the number of redrumped

swallows appeared to be surprisingly low.

Moreover, there was a large influx of ducks,

presumably returning from the south, in the

Mula-Mutha Bird Sanctuary and the Pashan

reservoir. The number of garganey teals had

shot up from a hundred to over 500. Some

pintails and redcrested pochards could also

be seen among them. At this time and at this

time only, a flock of lesser whistling teals

visits Pashan reservoir every year. It was

dutifully there this year also.

On the outskirts of the city, song of the

redwinged bushlark and the Indian skylark

was increasingly evident. On barren patches

pairs of yellow-wattled lapwing could be seen

silently creeping away from the observer. Here

they will lay in the first week of April. Flocks

of spotted and red munias gathered seeds

quietly in grassland and along dusty tracks

and baya flocks zoomed from tree to tree as

if in search of a suitable nesting place.

A short-toed eagle, a few blackwinged kites

and an occasional tawny eagle are usually to

be seen on the periphery of the city. The

great army of tawny eagles that at one time

patronised the garbage dump is now no lon-

ger there. A large Indian kite, a booted eagle

and a few marsh harriers were recorded on

the river and reservoirs, while a kestrel, a

shikra and a sparrowhawk were encountered

in better wooded areas. Interestingly, for the

last three years a pair of redheaded merlins

have nested on the market-place tower in the

busiest and most densely populated part of

the city.

Such is the glimpse in the life of birds of a

busy Indian city. For us city-dwellers it was

an exciting and thrilling experience to count

birds and record their characteristics. As the

city continues to grow it will unwittingly affect

the lives of its birds, until a stage comes when

its citizens may feel like having a second look

at the birds living in it.

BIRD COUNT IN POONA

TABLE 1

LIST OF BIRDS OBSERVED DURING THE BIRD-COUNT

1. Podiceps ruficollis Indian Little Grebe

2. Phalacrocorax niger Little Cormorant

3. Ardeola grayii Indian Pond Heron

4. Bubulcus ibis Cattle Egret

5. Egretta intermedia Indian Smaller Egret

6. Egretta garzetta Little Egret

7. Dendrocygna javanica Lesser Whistiling Teal

8. Anas querquedula Garganey Teal

9. Nettapus coromandelianus Cotton Teal

10. Anas acuta Pintail

11. Elanus caeruleus Blackwinged Kite

12. Milvus migrans Common Pariah Kite

13. Milvus migrans lineatus Large Indian Kite

14. Butastur teesa White-eyed Buzzard

15. Gyps_ bengalensis White-backed Vulture

16. Neophron percnoptcrus White Scavenger Vulture

17. Circus aeruginosus Marsh Harrier

18. Circaetus gallicus Short-toed Eagle

19. Spilornis cheela Crested Serpent Eagle

20. Aquila rapax Tawny Eagle

21. Falco chicquera Red-headed Merlin

22. Falco tinnunculus Kestrel

23. Accipiter badius Shikra

24. Hieradetus pennatus Booted Hawk Eagle

25. Accipiter nisus Sparrow-hawk

26. Perdicula argoondah Rock Bush Quail

27. Amaurornis akool Brown Crake

28. Amaurornis phoenicurus Whitebreasted Waterhen

29. Gallinula chloropus Indian Moorhen

3 Fulica atra Coot

31. Porphyrio porphyrio Purple Moorhen

32. Hydrophasianus chirurgus Pheasant-tailed Jacana

33. Vanellus indicus Red-wattled Lapwing

34. Vanellus malabaricus Yellow-wattled Lapwing

35. Charadrius dubius Little-ringed Plover

36. Tringa totanus Redshank

37. Tringa nebularia Greenshank

38. Tringa ochropus Green Sandpiper

39. Tringa glareola Wood Sandpiper

40. Tringa hypoleucos Common Sandpiper

41. Capella gallinago Common Snipe

42. Calidris minutus Little Stint

43. Philomachus pugnax Ruff & Reeve

44, Himantopus himantopus Black-winged Stilt

PE EE

TES ES TS

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

Scientific Name

Rostratula benghalensis

Chlidonias hybrida

Gelochelidon nilotica

Columba livia

Streptopelia chinensis

Streptopelia senegalensis

Psittacula krameri

Psittacula cyanocephala

Cuculus varius

Eudynamys scolopacea

Centropus sinensis

Athene brama

Apus affinis

Halcyon smyrnensis

Alcedo aatthis

Ceryle rudis

Merops orientalis

Coracias benghalensis

Upupa epops

Tockus birostris

Megalaima haemacephala

Picoides mahrattensis

Eremopterix grisea

Ammomanes_ phoenicurus

Galerida malabarica

Mirafra erythroptera

Alauda gulgula

Hirundo concolor

Hirundo rustica

Hirundo daurica

Hirundo_ smithii

Lanius vittatus

Lanius schach

Lanius excubitor

Oriolus oriolus

Dicrurus adsimilis

Sturnus pagodarum

Sturnus roseus

Acridotheres tristis

Acridotheres fuscus

Corvus splendens

Corvus imacrorhynchos

Coracina melanoptcra

Pericrocotus cinnamomeus

Aegithina tiphia

Pycnonotus jocosus

Pycnonotus cafer

English Name

Painted Snipe

Whiskered Tern

Gull-billed Tern

Blue Rock Pigeon

Spotted Dove

Little Brown Dove

Roseringed Parakeet

Blossom-headed Parakeet

Common Hawk-cuckoo

Koel

Crow-pheasant

Spotted Owlet

House Swift

White-breasted Kingfisher

Common Kingfisher

Lesser Pied Kingfisher

Sma!!] Green Bee-eater

Indian Roller

Hoopoe

Grey Hornbill

Crimson-breasted Barbet

Mahratta Woodpecker

Ashy-crowned Finchlark

Rufous-tailed Finchlark

Malabar Crested Lark

Red-winged Bushlark

Eastern Skylark

Dusky Crag Martin

Eastern Swallow

Red-rumped Swallow

Wire-tailed Swallow

Bay-backed Shrike

Rufous-backed Shrike

Grey Shrike

Indian Oriole

Black Drongo

Brahminy Myna

Rosy Pastor

Common Myna

Jungle Myna

House Crow

Jungle Crow

Black-headed Cuckoo-shrike

Small Minivet

Common Iora

Red-whiskered Bulbul

Red-vented Bulbul

BIRD COUNT IN POONA

Scientific Name

English Name j .

92. Turdoides malcolmi

93. Turdoides striatus

94. Chrysomma sinensis

95. Muscicapa parva

96. Rhipidura aureola

97. Cisticola juncidis

98. Prinia subflava

99. Prinia_ socialis

100. Orthotomus sutorius

101. Acrocephalus stentoreus

102. Acrocephalus dumetorum

103. Prinia hodgsonii

104. Phylloscopus trochiloides

105. Sylvia curruca

106. Erithacus svecicus

107. Copsychus saularis

108. Saxicola caprata

109. Saxicola torquata

110. Saxicoloides fulicata

111. Oc¢enanthe deserti

112. Monticola solitarius

113. Phoenicurus ochrurus

114. Parus major

115. Anthus similis

116. Anthus trivialis

117. Motacilla caspica

118. Motacilla flava beema

119. Motacilla citreola

120. Motacilla alba

121. Motacilla maderaspatensis

122. Dicaeum erythrorhynchos

123. Nectarinia zeylonica

124. Nectarinia asiatica

125. Zosterops palpebrosa

126. Passer domesticus

127. Ploceus philippinus

128. Lonchura malabarica

129. Lonchura punctulata

130. Estrilda amandava

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am indebted to the following bird-watchers

who took part in this count; Messrs Thomas

Gay, Ramesh Bidwe, Sai Pattabhiram, S. In-

galhallikar, S. Dharap, Shabbir Lokhandwala,

Large Grey Babbler

Jungle Babbler

Yellow-eyed Babbler

Red-breasted Flycatcher

White-browed Fantail Flycatcher

Streaked Fantail Warbler

Indian Wren Warbler

Ashy Wren Warbler

Tailor Bird

Great Reed Warbler

Blyth’s Reed Warbler

Franklin’s Wren Warbler

Greenish Leaf Warbler

Lesser Whitethroat

Blue-throat

Magpie Robin

Pied Bushchat

Stone Chat

indian Robin

Desert Wheatear

Blue Rock Thrush

Black Redstart

Grey Tit

Brown Rock Pipit

Drees iRipit

Grey Wagtail

Blue-headed Yellow Wagtail

Yellow-headed Wagtail

White Wagtail

Large Pied Wagtail

Tickell’s Flowerpecker

Purple-rumped Sunbird

Purple Sunbird

White-eye

House Sparrow

Weaver Bird

White-throated Munia

Spotted Munia

Red Munia

Prof.

Paranjpye, Lokesh Khanna and Mrs. Swati

M. Lokhandwala, and Mrs. Vijay

Gole. Assistance from the Department of

Geography, University of Poona, is also grate-

fully acknowledged.

MAMMALS FROM NEPAL*

Davip H. JoHNSON, S. DILLON RIPLEY, AND KiTTI THONGLONGYA?

(With a text-figure)

In 1948-1949, S. Dillon Ripley led a field party to Nepal to collect natural history

specimens for Yale University and the Smithsonian Institution. One hundred twelve

specimens of mammals were obtained. Subsequent study showed that thirty-five species

were represented. New records from Nepal include Tupaia glis, Vulpes bengalensis

and Lepus grahami. The latter identification, based on an immature specimen, is in-

cluded with reservation.

INTRODUCTION

S. DILLon RIPLEY

In 1947 I made my first visit to Nepal at

the conclusion of a six-month bird collecting

reconnaissance in the subcontinent of India.

Prior to that time, my Indian colleague, Dr.

Salim Ali, and I made an informal pact that

we would work together to prepare an up-

to-date listing as well as a handbook on the

bird fauna of this huge region, a project on

which we would be occupied for the next

twenty-seven years. In fact, we are still (in

1979) engaged in revising my SYNOPSIS of the

birds of the region, published in 1961, and

now being reprinted. The first two volumes

of our joint ten-volume HANDBOOK (1968-

1974) are being re-edited and published anew.

In 1948-1949, I revisited Nepal, encouraged

by the then Government and financed with a

major grant-in-aid from the National Geogra-

1 Accepted April 1979.

2David H. Johnson (retired), and S. Dillon

Ripley, Department of Vertebrate Zoology, National

Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institu-

tion, Washington, D.C., 20560; Kitti Thonglongya

(deceased).

phic Society, as well as support from Yale

University (my then employer), and the

Smithsonian Institution, whose Secretary, Dr.

Alexander Wetmore, distinguished naturalist of

his time, was always keen to stimulate natural

history research. On this lengthy trip, 1 was

joined by two graduates of the year, room-

mates at Yale, whom I had come to know as

a Resident Fellow in theirs and my college,

Jonathan Edwards. The two young men,

Richard Mack and Howard Weaver, knocked

on my door one evening and said that they

had heard I was off again to Nepal and could

they come? I responded by saying that I need-

ed some help in small mammal collecting and

if they would learn from our Peabody Mu-

seum assistants, perhaps they could qualify.

The collection which they subsequently

made, assisted in part by Edward C. Migdal-

ski, my principal assistant, who had helped

me on my trek in the previous season, is

finally reported on herewith. The research was

begun in the late 1950’s by David H. Johnson,

formerly of the National Museum of Natural

History’s staff, and continued in the 1960’s by

the late Kitti Thonglongya, a research fellow

on a visit from Thailand. The publication ful-

fils a pledge which I made to the then Secre-

MAMMALS FROM NEPAL

tary of the National Geographic Society, Mel-

vin M. Payne, that publications in natural his-

tory would indeed follow from this expedi-

tion! I have dedicated much subsequent cor-

respondence over the years to this end, but

still have to report failure in having the col-

lection of fishes published as reported in my

Research Report to the National Geographic

Society (1975).

The collection of thirty-five species and one

hundred twelve specimens, while not startling

in its addition to new knowledge of Nepalese

mammals, seems worthy of putting on record

to inform future workers of the material that

is available for study in the National Museum

of Natural History.

I am most grateful to my _ colleagues,

Messrs Mack and Weaver, for their partici-

pation, as well as to the societies and institu-

tions which afforded us the opportunity for

our field work. It has been a recent great

Bi 82 8> Bt

Fig. 1.

pleasure to me and to the Smithsonian Insti-

tution to pick up the threads of collaboration

again with the Government of Nepal in con-

nection with the first scientifically-documented

study of the life-history of the tiger, Panthera

tigris, now being undertaken at the Royal

Chitwan National Park in Nepal by a Nepa-

lese-American team with support from the

Smithsonian Institution and the World Wild-

life Fund. Much of what I wrote earlier (1950

et seq.) about the deforestation and decline

of animal life along the broad sweep of the

Himalayas has come to pass. It is rewarding

to note, however, that the Royal Government

of Nepal has seen fit to take positive steps to

protect certain areas as national parks, and

to institute research on life-history studies of

the larger mammals such as rhinoceros, tiger,

and some species of deer. All of these studies

promise well for the future economy and pre-

servation of this unique part of the world.

3S BG a7 a8

eS el:

Collecting localities.

SY)

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

COLLECTING LOCALITIES

The itinerary of the expedition has been

outlined by Ripley (1950: 355-359), who also

gives brief descriptions of some of the collect-

ing localities. The places at which mammals

were collected are listed below in the order

that the first specimens were taken. The lati-

tude and longitude are from Army Map Ser-

vice 1:250,000 maps of India and Pakistan,

Series U-502, published in parts from 1958

to 1963. The inclusive dates on which speci-

mens of mammals were collected and a list

of the kinds found at each place are also in-

cluded. The serial numbers correspond to

those on the accompanying map (Fig. 1).

1. Raxaul-Birganj, adjacent border towns in

Bihar and Nepal, respectively, 350 feet.

27° 0’ N., 84° 57’ E. November 16-18

and December 7. Suncus caerulaeus, Sco-

tophilus heathii heathii, Canis aureus in-

dicus.

2. Chandragiri Pass, central Nepal, 7000-

7500 feet. 27° 417 N., 85° 107 EB. Novem-=

ber 22 and December 6, Dremomys lok-

riah lokriah.

3. Godaveri, central Nepal, 6000-7000 feet.

27° 34’ N., 85° 24’ E. November 27-28.

Dremomys lokriah lokriah, Rattus nitidus

nitidus, Mus nagarum..

4. Katmandu, central Nepal, 4271-4500 feet.

212-427 N., #85 420’. E.= December 2-5.

Bandicota bengalensis bengalensis, Vul-

pes bengalensis.

5. Kauriala Ghat, United Provinces, 400

feet? 28°. 2244N2 81° (02S abecember

11-12. Lepus ruficaudatus ruficaudatus,

Tatera indica indica.

6. Tikapur, western Nepal, 500 feet. 28° 30’

N., 81° 10’ E. December 13 and January

6-9. Suncus murinus tytleri, Tatera indica

indica, Rattus rattus gangutrianus, Mus

10.

13;.

booduga booduga, Mus dunni, Mus cer-

vicolor cervicolor, Herpestes edwardsii

nyula.

. Chisapani, western Nepal, 950 feet. 28°

38’ N., 81° 17’ E. December 16-21. Sun-

cus murinus tytleri, Cynopterus sphinx

gangeticus. Presbytis entellus schistaceus,

Rattus rattus gangutrianus, Mus booduga

booduga, Mus saxicola gurkha, Canis

aureus indicus, Lutra perspicillata perspi-

cillata.

. Rekcha, western Nepal, 5000 feet. 28°

53’ N., 81° 10’ E. December 27-31. Sun-

cus murinus tytleri, Rattus rattus gangu-

trianus, Rattus turkestanicus vicerex, Mus

cervicolor cervicolor.

Biratnagar, eastern Nepal, 250 feet. 26°

28’ N., 87° 17’ E. January 18. Mus boo-

duga booduga.

Dharan Bazar, eastern Nepal, 1000 feet.

26° 49’ N., 87° 17’ E. January 22. Cal-

losciurus pygerythrus lokroides, Sus scrofa

cristatus.

. Chitre, eastern Nepal, 7500 feet. A hamlet

not shown on current maps but located

on the main ridge twelve miles north of

Dhankuta (q.v.) January 28. Soriculus

caudatus, Rattus niviventer niviventer,

Mus musculus homourus.

. Dur, eastern Nepal, 8500 feet. A hamlet

not shown on current maps but located

on the main ridge eighteen miles north

of Dhankuta (q.v.). January 29. Rattus

eha eha.

Mangalbare, eastern Nepal, 38650-8750

feet. 27° 16’ N., 87° 30’ ExJanuanase-

February 6. Soriculus caudatus, Soricuius

macrurus, Lepus grahami, Petaurista mag-

nificus, Rattus rattus brunneusculus, Rat-

tus eha eha, Mus musculus homourus,

Martes flavigula flavigula.

. Chainpur, eastern Nepal, 4300 feet. 27°

MAMMALS FROM NEPAL

17’ N., 87° 19’ E. February 9. Herpestes

auropunctatus auropunctatus.

15. Richavas, eastern Nepal, 1150 feet. Not

shown on current maps. On the east bank

of the Arun Kosi just south of its conflu-

ence with the Legua river. 27° 9’ N., 87°

16’ E. February 11, Mus nagarum.

16. Dhankuta, eastern Nepal, 4200 feet. 26°

59’ N., 87° 21’ E. February 14. Callosciu-

rus pygerythrus lokroides.

17. Chatra, eastern Nepal, 500 feet. 26° 51’

N., 87° 10’ E. February 18-21. Tupaia

glis lepcha, Callosciurus pygerythrus lok-

roides, Rattus rattus brunneusculus, Para-

doxurus. hermaphroditus pallasii.

Order INSECTIVORA

Family SorIciDAE

Soriculus caudatus (Horsfield, 1851)

Ten specimens: Chitre, 7500 feet, January

28, 1 (290036); Mangalbare, 8650-8750 feet,

January 31-February 4, 9 (290037-45).

We consider Soriculus leucops (Horsfield,

1855) with very similar characters, to be a

synonym of S. caudatus.

Soriculus macrurus Blanford, 1888

Two specimens: Mangalbare, 8750 feet,

February 2 and 4 (290034-35).

The two species of Soriculus reported upon

here may be separated on the basis of tail

length and colour. $. caudatus has the tail simi-

lar to or approaching the head and body in

length (an index ratio of 80-108 per cent in

the specimens examined), and in its general

aspect the dorsal coloration is a warm dark

brown; whereas, macrurus has the tail consi-

derably longer than the head and body (an

index ratio of c. 140 per cent) and the dor-

sal coloration is a cold gray hue approaching

Chaetura Drab of Ridgway (1912).

Ellerman and Morrison-Scott (1951, p. 59)

recognize the dark caudatus and the very

similar Jeucops as separate species and un-

accountably consider the very pale and dis-

tinct macrurus to be a synonym of leucops.

Suncus murinus tytleri (Blyth, 1859)

Ten specimens: Chisapani, 950 feet, (De-

cember 16-19, 3 (290047-49); Rekcha, 5000

feet, December 27-29, 6 (290050-55); Tika-

pur, 500 feet, January 9, 1 (290056).

The entire series of brown musk shrews

from localities at different elevations in west-

ern Nepal is uniformly pale in colour, show-

ing affinity with the pallid shrews of the drier

parts of north-western India rather than with

the darker coloured races towards the east.

Apparently they are similar to the eight spe-

cimens from western Nepal referred to (yéleri

by Lindsay (1929, p. 332). No specimens of

tytleri are now available to us, but the colour

‘light rufescent sandy-brown’’ originally as-

cribed to it by Blyth would seem to indicate

a population even paler than that in western

Nepal.

Suncus caerulaeus (Kerr, 1792)

One specimen; Raxaul-Birganj, 350 feet,

November 18 (290046).

The external and cranial dimensions of this

species are less than those of adults of Sunct:s

caerulaeus but exceed adults of Suncus muri-

nus. (caerulaeus—one female head and body

length 123; breadth of braincase 13.4, vs.

murinus—four females average 112.5; 121 mm

respectively.) Ellerman and Morrison-Scott

(1951, pp. 65-66) have merged these two spe-

cies but such an arrangement is untenable

when specimens are compared.

Family TUPAIIDAE

Tupaia glis lepcha Thomas, 1922

Two specimens: Chatra, 500 feet, February

18 and 20 (290063-64).

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

This is apparently the westernmost record

of the occurrence of tree shrews north of the

Ganges river, and it definitely establishes the

presence of the group in Nepal.

Order CHIROPTERA

Family PTEROPODIDAE

Cynopterus sphinx gangeticus Anderson, 1910°

Four specimens: Chisapani, 950 feet, De-

cember 20-21 (290057-60).

Family VESPERTILIONIDAE

Scotophilus heathii heathii (Horsfield, 1831)

Two specimens: Raxaul-Birganj, 350 feet,

November 16-17 (290061-62). No. 290061 is

a skin only.

Order PRIMATES

Family CERCOPITHECIDAE

Presbytis entellus schistaceus (Hodgson, 1840)

Two specimens: Chisapani, 950 feet, De-

cember 20, 1 (290065); Chatra, 500 feet, Feb-

ruary 17, 1 (290066).

Order LAGOMORPHA

Family LEPoRIDAE

Lepus ruficaudatus ruficaudatus

I. Geoffroy, 1826

One specimen: Kauriala Ghat, U.P., 400

feet, December 11 (290067, skull only).

Among the few skulls of hares from the

Indian region in the National Museum of

Natural History, the present one best matches

specimens from Sirsa and Ladak labelled Lepus

ruficaudatus rajput, differing from them only

in having smaller auditory bullae. Contradic-

tory opinions as to the relationship of Lepus

ruficaudatus to the Oriental hares have been

expressed by Ellerman and Morrison-Scott

8 Agarwal (1973) considers gangeticus to be a

synonym of C. s. sphinx.

(1951, p. 437) and Petter (1961, pp. 36-38).

These authors studied different specimens and

relied on different morphological characters.

The need for a comprehensive revision is

evident.

Lepus grahami subsp?

One specimen: Mangalbare, 8750 feet, Feb-

ruary 2 (290068).

A woolly-coated juvenile hare from Man-

gaibare is too young for positive identification.

It is hoped that those who have the opportu-

nity to make new collections in Nepal, or to

study some of the old material will look for

adult hares of whatever race the young Man-

galbare specimen represents.

Order RODENTIA

Family ScruRIDAE

Callosciurus pygerythrus lokroides

(Hodgson, 1836)

Five specimens: Dharan Bazar, 1000 feet,

January 22, 1 (290074); Dhankuta, 4200 feet,

February 14, 2 (290075-76); Chatra, 500 feet,

February 18-19, 2 (290077-78).

As arranged by Ellerman (1947, pp. 266-

267), all the recognizable forms of this group

of squirrels are currently treated as subspecies

of a single species, which takes the earliest

name, pygerythrus. Under this convenient but

perhaps overly simplified classification, all the

populations inhabiting the base and lower

slopes of the Himalayas from northern Assam

to Nepal are referred to one subspecies, C. p.

lokroides. For present purposes, we have fol-

lowed Ellerman’s arrangement, but with some

doubt as to its ultimate stability.

Dremomys lokriah lokriah (Hodgson, 1836)

Five specimens: Chandragiri Pass, 7500 and

7000 feet, November 22 and December 6, 4

(290069-71, 290073); Godaveri, 7000 feet,

November 27, 1 (290072).

MAMMALS FROM NEPAL

Petaurista magnificus (Hodgson, 1836)

One specimen: Mangalbare, 8750 feet, Feb-

ruary 4 (290079).

Family CRICETIDAE

Tatera indica indica (Hardwicke, 1807)

Two specimens: Kauriala Ghat, 400 feet,

U.P., December i2, 1 (290080); Tikapur, 500

feet, January 7, 1 (290081).

Family MurRIDAE

Bandicota bengalensis bengalensis

(Gray, 1833)

One specimen: Katmandu, 4271 feet, De-

cember 2 (290082).

Rattus rattus gangutrianus Hinton, 1919

Eight specimens: Chisapani, 950 feet, De-

cember 16-19, 3 (290084-86); Rekcha, 5000

feet, December 17-31, 4 (290087-90).

An immature animal, sex not recorded on

the specimen tag but noted in the field-notes

as a male, from Tikapur, 500 feet, January 9,

1949 (290091).

All of the specimens treated in this and the

following accounts are of the white-bellied

type which students of Indian house rats have

generally designated as ‘“‘outdoor’’ forms. None

of the dark-bellied “indoor” rats are repre-

sented. The subspecies of Rattus rattus are

notoriously difficult to define, and it is there-

fore gratifying to find that the present Nepa-

lese material divides readily into uniform

western (gangutrianus) and eastern (brun-

neusculus) series separated by easily recogniz-

able colour differences. The simplicity of this

distributional pattern is probably in part an

illusion, made possible by the smallness and

wide geographic separation of the series. Both

Hinton (1918-1919) and Ellerman (1947)

studied much larger series and found a more

complex and confused taxonomic situation.

Rattus rattus brunneusculus (Hodgson, 1845)

Nine specimens: Mangalbare, 8750 feet,

January 31-February 4, 8 (290092-99); Cha-

tra, 500 feet, February 21, 1 (290100).

Rattus turkestanicus vicerex (Bonhote, 1903)

Two specimens: Rekcha, 5000 feet, Decem-

ber 28-31, 1948, 2 (290102-290103).

For use of the above name, see Schlitter and

Thonglongya (1971).

Rattus nitidus nitidus (Hodgson, 1845)

One specimen: Godaveri, 6000 feet, Nov-

ember 28 (290083).

An adult female, with three pairs of pecto-

ral and three pairs of inguinal mammae.

Rattus eha eha (Wroughton, 1916)

Twelve specimens: Dur, 8500 feet, January

29, 1 (290109); Mangalbare, 8750 feet, Janu-

ary 31-February 3, 11 (290110-20).

Rattus niviventer niviventer (Hodgson, 1836)

Five specimens: Chitre, 7500 feet, January

28 (290104-08).

Mus booduga booduga (Gray, 1837)

Four specimens: Chisapani, 950 feet, De-

cember 18, 1 (290127, skin only); Tikapur,

500 feet, January 7, 1 (290130); Biratnagar,

250 feet, January 18, 2 (290132-33, the first

a skin only).

Mus nagarum (Thomas, 1921)

Four specimens: Godaveri, 6000 feet, Nov-

ember 28, 1 (290126); Rekcha, 5000 feet, De-

cember 28-29, 2 (290128-29); Richavas, 1150

feet, February 11, 1 (290134).

Mus dunni (Wroughton, 1912)

One specimen: Tikapur, 500 feet, January

Or Lr (2901 31):

Mus musculus homourus Hodgson, 1845

Two specimens: Chitre, 7500 feet, January

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

28, 1 (290124). Mangalbare, 8750 feet, Feb-

ruary 6 (290125).

Mus saxicola gurkha (Thomas, 1914)

Three specimens: Chisapani, 900 feet, De-

cember 21 (290121-23).

Order CARNIVORA

Family CANIDAE

Canis aureus indicus Hodgson, 1833

Two specimens: Raxaul-Birganj, 350 feet,

December 7, 1 (290135); Chisapani, 950 feet,

December 18, 1 (290136).

Vulpes bengalensis (Shaw, 1800)

One specimen: Katmandu, 4500 feet, De-

cember 5 (290137, skin only).

This specimen is significant in that it pro-

vides a first definite locality record for the

Bengal fox in Nepal and eliminates any doubt

as to the occurrence of the species in that

country. As reviewed by Pocock (1936, pp.

49-53, and 1941, pp. 129-138), the earliest re-

cords include only two specimens presumed to

have been collected somewhere in Nepal. One

from the collection of B. H. Hodgson became

the type of Vulpes hodgsonii Gray; the other

was collected by Colonel Cobb (or Cobbe)

and, according to Pocock, it served as type

for Canis chrysurus and Vulpes xanthura, both

proposed by Gray.

The specimen is a female in fresh winter

pelage. It matches in almost exact detail the

description by Pocock (1941, p. 131). The

external measurements, as recorded by the

collectors are: Length of head and body 474,

tail 267, hind foot 105, ear 87.

Family MUSTELIDAE

Martes flavigula flavigula (Boddaert, 1784)

Three specimens: Mangalbare, 8750 feet,

January 30- February 3 (290138-40).

Lutra perspiciliata perspicillata

I. Geoffroy, 1826

One specimen: Chisapani, 950 feet, Decem-

ber 20 (290145).

The name perspicillata is applied to this

large otter for reasons discussed in detail by

Pocock (1941, pages 292-303).

Family VIVERRIDAE

Paradoxurus hermaphroditus pallasii ©

Gray, 1832

One specimen: Chatra, 500 feet, February

21 (290144).

On geographic grounds, this specimen might

be considered intermediate between Parado-

xurus h. pallasii, which has its principal range

to the eastward in Sikkim, Assam, and Burma,

and P. h. bondar of Bihar and the Nepal terai

to the westward. It is here assigned to the race

pallasii because it closely resembles the des-

cription given by Pocock (1939, pp. 401-402)

of other specimens in winter pelage under that

name.

Herpestes auropunctatus auropunctatus

(Hodgson, 1836)

One specimen: Chainpur, 4300 feet, Feb-

ruary 9 (290141).

Herpestes edwardsii nyula (Hodgson, 1836)

Two specimens: Tikapur, 500 feet, Decem-

ber 13 and January 6 (290142-43).

Variations in colour of this species have

been thoroughly discussed by Pocock (1941,

pp. 2-12).

Order ARTIODACTYLA

Family SUIDAE

Sus scrofa cristatus Wagner, 1839

One specimen: Dharan Bazar, 1000 feet,

January 22 (290146).

MAMMALS FROM NEPAL

REFERENCES

AGARWAL, V. C. (1973): Second Zoological Sur-

very of India—1967: Calcutta.

Aut, S. & RipLey, S. D. (1968-1974): Handbook

of the Birds of India and Pakistan together with

those of Bangladesh, Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan and

Sri Lanka. 10 volumes. Oxford University Press,

Bombay.

ELLERMAN, J. R. (1947): A key to the Rodentia

inhabiting India, Ceylon, and Burma, based on col-

lections in the British Museum. J. Mammal. 28:

249-278, 357-387.

ELLERMAN, J. R., & Morrison-Scort, T. C. S.

(1951): Checklist of Palaearctic and Indian Mam-

mals 1758 to 1946. British Museum (Natural His-

tory). London, pp. 810, map.

HINTON, Martin, A. C. (1918-1919): Scientific

Research from the Mammals Survey, xviii: Report

on the House Rats of India, Burma and Ceylon.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 26: 59-88, 384-416, 716-

725, 906-918.

LINDSAY, HELEN M. (1929):

from the Mammal Survey, xlviii:

ibid. 33: 326-340.

PETTER, F. (1961): Eléments d’une révision des

Lievres européens et Asiatiques du sous-genre Lepus.

Zeitschrift fiir Saugetierkunde. 26 (1): 30-40.

Pocock, R. I. (1936): The foxes of British

India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 39(1): 36-57.

(1939): The Fauna of British

India, Including Ceylon and Burma: Mammalia,

volume I: Primates and Carnivora (in part), Fami-

lies Felidae and Viverridae. Taylor and Francis,

London. pp. 463.

— (1941): The Fauna of British

India, including Ceylon and Burma. Mammalia,

Volume II. Carnivora (continued from Vol. I), sub-

Scientific Results

Indian Shrew.

order Aeluroidea (part) and Arctoidea. Taylor and

Francis, London. pp. 503.

Ripcway, R. (1912): Color Standards and Color

Nomenclature. Privately printed, Washington. pp.

43, pl. 53.

Ripcey, S. D. (1950): Birds from Nepal. 1947-

1949. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 49(3): 355-417.

(1950a): New Birds from Nepal

and the Indian Region. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington

63: 101-108.

(1950b): Peerless Nepal—A Natu-

ralist’s Paradise. Nat. Geog. Mag., 97(1): 1-40.

(1951): Exploration in Nepal. The

Minnesota Naturalist, 1(4): 7.

(1952): Search for the Spiny Bab-

bler: and adventure in Nepal. Houghton Mifflin,

Boston, pp. 301 (Republished 1953, London, Victor

Gollancz Ltd.)

(1961): A Synopsis of the Birds

of India and Pakistan together with those of Nepal,

Sikkim, Bhutan and Ceylon. Bombay Natural His-

tory Society, Bombay. pp. 703. (mew and revised

edition in press, 1980).

—— (1975): Zoological Expedition to

1948-1949. (Paul H. Oehser, editor). Nat.

Reports, 1890-1954 Projects, pp.

Nepal,

Geog. Soc. Res.

271-276.

(1978): A Naturalist’s Adventure

in Nepal. Bibliotheca Himalayica. Ratna Pustak

Bhandar, Katmandu. pp. 301. (A reprint of Search

for the Spiny Babbler, 1953).

ScuLitrer, D. A. & THONGLONGYA, K. (1971):

Rattus turkestanicus (Satunin, 1903), the valid name

for Rattus rattoides Hodgson, 1845 (Mammalia:

Rodentia). Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington 84(20):

171-174.

PARENTAL CARE IN THE SALTWATER CROCODILE

(CROCODYLUS POROSUS SCHNEIDER) AND

MANAGEMENT IMPLICATIONS*

H. R. BusTArbD? AND B. C. CHOUDHURY?

Local people, who know these crocodiles’ habitat intimately, are aware that porosus

opens the nest, takes hatchlings into their mouths, and assume this as an act of can-

nibalism. The possible role of the mother taking threatened young in the water back

into the mouth is discussed. The female in the water with her brood of approximately

25 young, close to her head is described. Three instances of human attack. two in

1978, by nest-guarding female porosus are described, and in ali the three instances,

the attack was not pursued and is considered as purely defensive of the area adjacent

to the nest.

INTRODUCTION

Detailed reviews of parental care in croco-

dilians are given by Cott (1971) and Bustard

(in press, a) with special reference to the Nile

Crocodile (C. niloticus) and Indian crocodil-

ians (Gavialis gangeticus, Crocodylus palustris

and C. porosus respectively). The present

paper, therefore, does not attempt to review

the literature for species other than C. porosus.

For accounts of parental care in general, the

reader is referred to the review papers cited

above.

Smith (1931) wrote of the female porosus,

“She is said to remain in the vicinity until

the young are hatched possibly to assist them

to the water when they emerge from the shell’.

This has now been confirmed.

C. porosus is now well-known to protect

1 Accepted January 1980.

2Central Crocodile Breeding and Management

Training Institute, Rajendranagar Road, 19-4-319,

Lake Dale, Hyderabad-500 264 (A.P.).

3 Research Scholar, Andhra Pradesh Forest De-

partment, Crocodile Conservation Project, Nehru

Zoological Park, Hyderabad.

its mound nest Deraniyagala (1939); Cott

(1971); Bustard (in press, a); Choudhury and

Bustard (1979). Nest-guarding is usually

carried out from specially constructed wallows

adjacent to the nest (Deraniyagala 1939;

Loveridge 1946; Choudhury and Bustard

1979). It is remarkable that Neill (1971) does

not believe this species constructs wallows for

nest-guarding, and that Webb et al. (1977)

could write,

“It is not known whether C. porosus protects

the nest against predators or not’’.

As pointed out by both Cott and Bustard

(see, for instance, Cott 1971; Bustard, in press,

b) behaviour of crocodiles has been much

altered by massive human hunting activity.

Nest-guarding females are particularly vulner-

able (Bustard 1969, in press, b; Choudhury

and Bustard 1979). This has resulted in

the destruction of those females which guard

the nest against humans, so that this trait—

at least in as far as humans are concerned—

is not now frequently exhibited. However,

Bustard and Kar (in press) present recent

data from Orissa, (see below for other recent

instances) and there is no reason to believe

PARENTAL CARE IN CROCODILE

that nest-guarding does not still continue

against animals other than man. Cott (1971)

documents several attacks directed against man

by nest-guarding female C. porosus. It is note-

worthy, however, that all occurred at least

three decades ago, prior to the massive hunt-

ing phase which commenced in the post-war

years.

According to our data the female crocodile

does not remain at the nest throughout the

incubation period but comes and goes from

the river (Choudhury and Bustard 1979)

along a path which may be well worn in the

presence of grassy vegetation (Bustard unpub.

obs.). The first quantitative study of nest-

guarding, by a captive C. porosus, given by

Bustard and Maharana (in press), demonsira-

tes that absences from the nest, usually of

short duration, are common place.

Pooley (1974) and Pooley and Gans

(1976) have recorded female C. nilotious col-

lecting newly hatched young, storing them in

her gular throat pouch, then taking them to

the water for liberation.

Webb ef al. (1977) record nest opening by

the female and state,

“Most hatchlings remained with the adult,

grouped in a few square metres for up to and

possibly more than two months after hatch-

ing.” |

C. porosus is, therefore, known to guard the

nest, presumably to liberate the hatchlings and

facilitate their reaching the water, and to stay

with them for an extended period thereafter.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The data presented here are based on dis-

cussions with people who have had a lifetime’s

experience with C. porosus when it was still

abundant and had litile contact with hunters.

Such data cannot be obtained today. It is also

based on personal observations where stated.

RESULTS

Discussions with Australian aborigines:

One of us (H.R.B.) worked closely with

Australian aborigines, particularly in North

Queensiand, but also in the Northern Territory

and in Western Australia, in the late 1960's

and early 1970’s. On several occasions he was

told quite adamantly by tribal aborigines,

whose very survival depends on their acute

powers of observation, that they had personal-

ly observed C. porosus taking the young into

their mouth (they said “gobbling up the

young’). This behaviour was cited as evidence

of cannibalism. The informants were tribal

elders, who had spent a lifetime observing

nature.

At the time, while I doubted that a parent

would eat its own young—as was inferred by

an adult with a brood of young taking them

into its mouth—I was unable to explain what

they had obviously seen. It was not until A.C.

Pooley told me that the mother C. niloticus

collects the young in the gular throat pouch to

take them to the water from the nest follow-

ing hatching, that I realised what the abori-

gines had witnessed. They had _ witnessed

females at the time of hatching, collecting the

young as described by Pooley (1974), and

Pooley and Gans (1976), and mistakenly de-

duced that the adult crocodile, presumbaly the

nother, was in the act of eating her young.

I have also heard from the same informants

that the adult crocodile may take the recent

hatchlings into her mouth when they are in

the waiter, that is some time after hatching.

Again they assume that this is an act of can-

nibalism. Could it be that, suddenly suprised,

the female gathers up a number of her brood

to take them to safety? This suggestion may

not be as far fetched as it sounds as is out-

lined below.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

Discussion with an Oriyan crocodile hunter:

One of us (H.R.B.) talked to an old man,

a former crocodile hunter, employed by the

former Raja of Kanika in Bhitar Kanika the

famous crocodile habitat in the Brahmini-

Baitarani deltaic area of the Eastern Indian

State of Orissa. His task was to keep a watch

on people who purchased the right to shoot

crocodiles from the Raja, in order to ensure

they kept to the stipulated conditions. ‘This

informant gave me an eye-witness account of

an event which happened over thirty years ago.

He remembered it clearly, being interested in

crocodiles, as it was the only time he ever

observed this,

“T came upon a large crocodile one day when

I was out in my dinghy and I noticed that

there were a number of babies around its

head. I paddled closer to have a good look.

Before I could get very close the adult cro-

codile took the babies into its mouth and

swam away.”

If this account is to be believed—and there

is no reason to doubt it, as the old man is

only reporting what he saw with his own eyes

—then it is a clear account of a female re-

moving hatchlings, presumably recently hatch-

ed, from the scene of presumed danger, by

taking them back into the gular throat pouch.

Discussions with a crocodile hunter in the

Andaman Islands:

While carrying out field work relating to

nest location and nesting ecology on North

Andaman Island in 1978, one of us (B.C.C.)

employed as guides, persons with at least seve-

ral years experience in crocodile hunting. One

of these guides ‘had migrated to India from

what is now Bangladesh in the late 1940’s.

He operated as professional saltwater croco-

dile hunter first in Sunderbans (West Bengal),

then in the Bhitar Kanika area of Orissa and

later with the East Bengal refugee settlement

he went to the Andamans where he continued

crocodile hunting. This informant, aged about

50 years, has an intimate knowledge of salt-

water crocodiles having observed them in all

three of their surviving Indian habitats. In a

discussion of the ease with which nest-guard-

ing females can be killed, he confirmed that

he had been charged at by many nest-guard-

ing female saltwater crocodiles.

This informant has also observed nest hat-

ching in nature. He informed that the mother

supervises the whole operation of opening the

nest and allowing the hatchlings to emerge

from the egg this fits in perfectly with

Pooley’s (1974) observations and those of

other recent authors (see Bustard, in press a

and b) for other species and then eats them

up, one after the other. It would appear that

this informant has observed the female col-

lecting the young to take them to the water as

described by Pooley (1974). He further stated

that only those hatchlings which come out

from the side of the nest mound away from

the parent crocodile survive, and he believes

that this is one reason why so few young cro-

codiles are seen.

Observation of C. porosus with young

in Andamans:

On 13 July 1978, while searching for nests

along one of the (unnamed) creeks on the

West coast of North Andaman, one of us

(B.C.C.) saw a 2.7 m crocodile, presumably

a female, with its brood of approximately 25

hatchlings. The head region of the creeks in

this area show an alternation of small rapids

and deep pools, the latter particularly on sharp

bends. The group was located in such a deep

pool below a rapid. These pools always have

overhanging vegetation on the deep water side.

The young, with the parent crocodile, were

observed at about 4.30 p.m. on a very cloudy,

drizzling day with poor visibility. The head of

PARENTAL CARE IN CROCODILE

the mother crocodile and the hatchling group

could be discerned but conditions did not per-

mit photography. All the hatchlings were

within a distance of 10 m. One of the guides

who had gone ahead to the other bank in the

meanwhile came into view, and being disturb-

ed, the mother sub-merged first, followed 1m-

mediately thereafter by the hatchlings. Most

of the hatchlings were very close to the

mother’s head rather than to the tail.

Active defence of the nest against man:

Case History 1

During the 1978 nesting season in North

Andaman, a case of human attack by a nest-

guarding female was recorded. On 22nd June

1978 while searching for nests, in the Laxmi-

pur nullah, a tributary of the Kalpang River

on the East coast of North Andaman, a cro-

codile was observed by one of us (B.C.C.)

in the stream. A robbed crocodile nest was

located very nearby. Two old ladies were fish-

ing with rods on the bank of this stream. Be-

fore leaving the place the old ladies were

warned about the presence of a nest-guarding

crocodile in the water nearby.

One of the old ladies, aged about 45-50

years, had been attacked by a nest-guarding

female crocodile, possibly the same one, at the

same spot during 1976, yet seemed not to heed

the warning. The crocodile had bitten her on

the buttocks and a portion of the flesh of this

region was subsequently removed when she

was hospitalised. At the time of attack she

was standing in water of approximately three

feet depth in the bed of the river, at low tide,

fishing with a cloth scoop.

Four days later, on 26 June 1978 returning

to that area it was learned that the same lady

had been attacked by the crocodile again that

morning. On enquiry it was learned that dur-

ing the low tide, the ladies were again using

scoop nets in the stream and while doing so

one of them was attacked by the crocodile.

She was rescued by the other lady but one

of her hands was subsequently amputated in

hospital, the crocodile having grabbed her by

the left wrist.

The nearby nest being located on hard

ground, did not have a wallow, and presum-

ably the mother crocodile was using the ad-

jacent portion of the stream for nest-guarding

purposes.

Case History 2

During the 1978 nesting season a second

case of human attack by a_ nest-guarding

female was recorded in North Andaman, in

a creek near Kishorinagar village on the West

coast. A boy, aged about 12 years, was attack-

ed by a crocodile while taking his bath, along

with a group of boys. The attack was not

severe, consisting only of a small injury at the

shoulder region.

Some days later the female was killed by

the villagers by the nest which was also rob-

bed. Tine female measured 2.6 m. The nest-

site, checked later, had only one wallow but

the permanent water in the stream was hardly

5 m away. Clearly, as in the instance cited

above, the female was watching the nest part

of the time from the stream.

DISCUSSION

In the cases of human attack recorded above

by nest-guarding females, it is noteworthy that

only minor damage was sustained. This is

thought to reflect not the assistance of another

old lady on two of the occasions or other boys

on the third occasion, but the fact that these

attacks were purely defensive—by the nest-

guarding female against a person or persons

coming too close to the nest. Food is abund-

ant and few attacks on humans are recorded

in the Andamans. It is likely that further in-

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY,

vestigation of the latter would indicate that

many/most of them were occasioned by nest-

guarding females. These data are in agyee-

ment with the discussion which one of us

(H.R.B.) held with A. C. Pooley in 1973 in

which Pooley informed that most attacks on

humans by C. niloticus investigated by him

could be attributed to nest-guarding females.

The present eye-witness accounts confirm

the actual opening of the nests by the adult

crocodile, implicitly inferred to take place by

Webb ef al. (1977) but not actually observed

for this species but observed in other croco-

diles, (Pooley 1974). These data also provide

further evidence of the mother remaining with

the hatchling brood, also described by Webb

et al.

The accounts of the tribal aborigines and

that of the Oriyan crocodile hunter also sug-

gest that in the wild the adult crocodile may

take the recent hatchlings back into the gular

throat pouch if danger threatens.

It is not suggested that parental care is able

to protect all the hatchlings effectively. In the

murky water inhabited by C. porosus an aqua-

tic predator can approach undetected and pre-

dation takes only a fraction of a second. Fur-

thermore, the large number of hatchlings

makes any attempt at individual attention—as

could be possible, were there one or at the

most two hatchlings—impossible. At least

some recent hatchlings occur scattered in

nature (Bustard, unpubl. obs., S. Kar pers.

comm.) and these have clearly left the hatchl-

ing group as noted by Webb ef al. (1977),

who also present preliminary post-hatching

movement data.

Data available, however, shed no light on the

percentage survival of young which remain

with the parental group as compared to those

which leave it. Quantitative data on this as-

pect of parental care are required before any

Vol. 77

concrete assessment of the advantages of post-

hatching parental care can be made. At the

present time it can be merely assumed that

factors which tend to keep the hatching group

together, and closely associated with the head

of the mother, have enhanced survival value.

In management of this species it is standard

practice in the Government of India Project,

on the technical advice of the senior author,

to collect all eggs of C. porosus, as soon as

laid for safe hatchery incubation. All hatchl-

ings are also captive reared to a length of

1.20 m before being ‘seeded out’ into the wild

habitat. There can be no question that this

technique enhances survival many-fold under

conditions where a substantial level of flooded

nests occur—over which the female has no

control (the situation in much of Northern

Australia), or where human interference with

the nest (egg-robbing) is widespread as in

parts of India. For instance Webb ef al.

(1977) record an 80% nest loss through

flooding alone, and Choudhury and Bustard

(1979), a 93.4% nest loss through preda-

tion (73.3% due to human agency) with only

3.3% of nests in nature hatching in 1978.

It would be difficult to imagine a natural

situation where hatching survival would not

be enhanced by collection of freshly-laid eggs,

provided, of course, that proper methods of

egg handling are used by trained operatives,

and a predator-proof hatchery, offering the

required micro-environmental parameters of

temperature and humidity, available for in-

cubation. Furthermore, hazards such as killing

of the nest-guarding female, whose eggs are

then extremely vulnerable and the enhanced

predation risk when the female is absent from

the nest (Bustard 1975) are further factors

favouring egg collection for hatchling incuba-

tion.

Similarly, a

restocking station fed with

PARENTAL CARE IN CROCODILE

freshly hatched young should be able to in-

crease the production of 1.20 m crocodiles to

many times the number surviving at this size/

age in nature. Although predation is an extre-

mely difficult thing to observe in nature there

are many hatchling predators recorded (see,

Cott 1971) and many other potential preda-

tors.

REFERENCES

Bustarb, H. R. (1969): A future for crocodiles.

Oryx 10(4): 249-255.

(1975): Gharial and Crocodile

Conservation Management in Orissa. Interim Re-

port. Crocodile Farming Project, India. UNDP/

FAO, FO:IND/71/033. Rome, 1975.

———_———— (in press, a): Parental Care in

Crocodilians with special reference to Indian Cro-

codilians—a review. In Indian Crocodiles: Conser-

vation and Research. Occ. Publs. No. 1. Cen. Croc.

Br. Mgmt. Trg. Inst., Hyderabad, India.

——————— (in press, b): Crocodile Population

Ecology and Management. Zool. Surv. Ind. Symp.

on Anim. Ecol.

& MAHARANA, S. (in press): The

Behaviour of the Nest-guarding Saltwater Crocodile

(Crocodylus porosus, Schneider)—a_ preJiminary

quantitative study. In Indian Crocodiles: Conserva-

tion and Research. Occ. Publs. No. 1. Cen. Croc.

Br. Mgmt. Trg. Inst., Hyderabad, India.

—————_—— & Kar, S. K. (in press): Defence

of the nest against man by the saltwater crocodile

(Crocodylus porosus Schneider) Brit. J. Herpetol.

CuHoupuHuryY, B. C. & Bustarp, H. R. (1979):

Predation on natural nests of the Saltwater Croco-

dile (Crocodylus porosus, Schneider) on North

Andaman Island with Notes on the crocodile popu-

lation. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 76(2): 311-323.

Cott, H. B. (1971): Parental care in the Croco-

dilia with special reference to Crocodylus niloticus.

In Crocodiles. 1. 1.U.C.N. Publs. N.S. Suppl. Pap.

No. 32: 166-180.

DERANIYAGALA, P. E. P. (1939): The Tetrapod

Reptiles of Ceylon. J. Testudinates and Crocodilians.

Colombo Museum, Ceylon.

LoverIDGE, A. (1946): Reptiles of the Pacific

World. Macmillan, New York.

NEILL, W. T. (1971): The Last of the Ruling

Reptiles. Alligators, Crocodiles and their Kin. Co-

lumbia University Press, New York.

PooLey, A. C. (1974): Parental Care in the Nile

Crocodile—a preliminary report on behaviour of a

captive female. The Lammergeyer 21: 43-45.

& GANS, CarL (1976): The Nile

Crocodile. Scientific American 234(4): 114-124.

SMITH, M. A. (1931): The Fauna of British

India. Reptilia and Amphibia. 1. Taylor and Fran-

cis, London.

Wess, G. J. W., MESSEL, H. & MAGNUSSON, W.

(1977): The Nesting of Crocodylus porosus in

Arnhem Land, Northern Australia. Copeia, 1977(2):

238-50.

EGGS AND EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF TOR

MAHSEER FISH*

C. V. KULKARNI?

(With four text-figures)

Tor tor (Ham.), normally occurring in

the rivers of northern India has been intro-

duced into the Walwhan lake near Lonavala (Dist. Pune, Maharashtra). It was bred

artificially by stripping for the first time and its eggs and larval stages are described

and compared with those of T. khudree (Sykes).

Mahseers being the most important group

of sport fishes of India and having been

threatened with severe decline in their fishery,

the National Commission on Agriculture

(Fisheries Section) felt that the biological in-

formation available to date was not sufficient

and recommended (1976) “extensive survey

and detailed ecological and biological investi-

gations’. Sporadic efforts to study larval de-

velopment had commenced with Nazir Ahmed

(1948) in the case of the Assamese Copper

Mahseer, Barbus (Lissocheilus) hexagonolepis

(McClelland) (now Acrossocheilus hexagono-

lepis). David (1953) described the early fry of

Tor mosal mahanadicus collected from Maha-

nadi river and Desai (1972 and 1973) studied

the biology and early post larval stages of

Tor tor (Ham.) and T. putitora (Ham.) col-

lected from Narmada river and Chaturvedi

(1976) investigated the spawning biology of

Tor Mahseer of the Udaipur lakes and streams.

Kulkarni (1971) and Tripathi (1978) dealt

with artificial fertilisation of eggs, embryonic

development and larval stages of T. khudree

(Sykes) and 7. putitora (Ham.) respectively.

However, fully matured eggs, their develop-

ment and early hatchlings or larval stages of

T. tor (with known parentage) have not so

1 Accepted June 1979.

2B-4, Shardashram, Bhavani

Bombay-400 028.

Shankar Road,

far been described by anybody. The present

write-up is intended to fill this lacuna with

the help of description of eggs and early deve-

lopmental stages of T. tor grown in one of

the Hydel lakes of the Tata Electric Com-

panies at Lonavala, District Pune.

T. tor (Ham.) has not, so far, been report-

ed from any waters south of Tapi river

(Tapti); but the fish being largely a herbi-

vorous form (Karamchandani ef al. 1967)

and being good as a sport fish, its fingerlings

were brought from River Narmada near Hos-

hangabad (Madhya Pradesh) in November

1973 and released into Walwhan lake at Lona-

vala, where they thrived and attained a total

length of 540 mm (Standard length 445 mm)

and weight of 1.75 kg by July 1978. They were

marked by comparatively slim body form,

short head and distinctly orange-yellow caudal

and other fins, as against the blue coloured

caudal, slate coloured other fins and deeper

body of 7. khudree. Efforts were, thereafter,

made to breed, T. tor by the artificial method

of stripping, as was done regularly in the case

of T. khudree at that lake. On August 23,

1978 a ripe female of almost the same afore-

said length was caught and stripped. It yield-

ed a first batch of 6000 eggs, which were cross-

fertilised with milt from a specimen of 7.

khudree. The second effort. after half an hour,

yielded only 400 ripe eggs and these were fer-

tilised with milt 7. tor which was reared in a

DEVELOPMENT OF TOR MAHSEER

pond in the adjoining farm. Both eggs thrived

satisfactorily. Dissection of the female yielded

another cluster of 10,800 unripe eggs.

Collection of 17,200 eggs from a female

of 540 mm only partially corroborates the

estimate of fecundity made by Desai (op. cit)

namely 7000 to 1,01,600 eggs from females of

size range of 283 to 750 mm in three bursts

of spawning. Chaturvedi (1976) estimated

fecundity of 78, 340 ova for a fish of 546 mm

total length. But in the present case, the first

batch of 6400 ripe eggs was laid during strip-

ping and the remaining ones which were un-

ripe, were probably intended for the next

spawning bursts as presumed by that author.

Moreover, in this case possibility of extrusion

and loss of some ripe and oozing eggs at the

time of entanglement in the nets before the

fish was handled, cannot be ruled out. Further,

the size of the fish is outside the size range

of 340-380 mm for first maturity; but whether

it was second or third spawning, could not be

- ascertained.

Eggs. The diameter of the eggs immediate-

ly on stripping was 2.3 mm and they absorb-

ed comparatively very little water like that

of the eggs of T. khudree; neverthless on fer-

tilisation and absorption of water, they reach-

ed a diameter was 2.8 mm. The colour of the

eggs was pale lemon-yellow, and resembled

the light coloured egg variety of T. khudree

(Kulkarni 1971). Possibility of brown or

deeper coloured variety of eggs could not,

however, be ascertained as eggs of only one

female were available. The eggs were heavy,

demersal and full of yolk and resembled the

eggs of T. khudree in all respects except a

small difference in diameter, those of the latter

being slightly larger (3.2 mm); Desai (op.

cit.) mentioned size of ovarian eggs of 7. tor

as varying from 1.0 to 2.22 mm and ‘orange

coloured’. The variation in size and colour

may be due to the fact that they were ‘ova-

rian’, i.e. yet to pass through the final stage of

maturation necessary for proper fertilisation.

The perivitel line space in the fertilised eggs

is slightly narrower than in 7. khudree and is

much smaller than found in the case of Catla,

Rohu or Mrigal. Other particulars of the em-

bryonic development of the larva within the

egg capsule are almost of the same nature as

that of 7. khudree (vide Kulkarni op. cit.)

About two hours before hatching out, the

tubular heart of the embryo was seen pulsat-

ing rhythmicaily; the blood capsules were also

seen in the vessels but they appeared almost

colourless. Auditory sacs with otoliths and

fully developed eyes were visible but the latter

were without much pigment except minute

melanic dots on the peripheral ring. Pectoral

fin buds were also discernible. The first egg

hatched after 76 hours but the remaining eggs

started hatching out after 79 to 85 hours; a

few lagging behind even up to next day. Leav-

ing aside the extremes, the average hatching

period can be said to be 82 hours in water

temperature of about 24° C.

Newly hatched larva. The earliest hatchl-

ing or the newly hatched larva is 9 mm in

total length, with a long prominent yolk sac,

a protruding head and a thin inconspicuous

tail. The eyes have a clear outline but the

pigment is not very dark. Rudiments of mouth

can be seen, though the jaws are not clear.

The pulsating heart is still visible through the

transparent overlapping tissues but the blood

corpuscles are only faintly reddish. Some of

the blood vessels can be traced even posterior

to the yolk sac, right up to the caudal portion.

The yolk sac being large and yellow in colour

is quite distinctive and measures 5.7 mm in

length. It is bilobed, the anterior one being

more rounded than the posterior one which

is rather narrow in width and elongated as

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

Fig. 1.

seen in Fig. 1; but both lobes are almost equal

in length. The dorsal finfold starts slightly

anterior to the midpoint of the total length,

and continues over the caudal end and ter-

: i a Ae aim ee am

First day hatching of T. tor (Ham.)

quiescent and lying on its side at the bottom

of the hatching tray. It exhibited jerky move-

ments intermittently and vibrated its tail when

slightly disturbed.

1,0 mm

Fig. 2. Two day old hatching of 7. tor (Ham.)

minates near the posterior end of the yolk sac

at the expected position of the anal opening.

The pectoral fin is small and seen fluttering

but no finrays are discernible in it.

The larva, though smaller than that of 7.

khudree appears to be more developed than

the latter. The myotomes and some blood ves-

sels are clearly seen. The larva, however,

manifests the same behaviour of remaining

Two day hatchling: Total length attained

10 mm (Fig. 2). Although the increase in

length was nominal, the larva looked much

fatter and stouter and continued to remain

quiescent, lying on sides and moving vigorous-

ly at intervals. The eyes have now become

distinctly black with a golden ring when seen

in reflected light. Large chromatophores are

seen on the anterior portion of the otocyst,

DEVELOPMENT OF

yolk sac and at the base of the pectoral fin.

A row of elongated pigment specks are lined

between the dorsal portion of the body and

the yolk sac. These probably mark the posi-

tion of the future lateral line scales and are

continued in the caudal region. Indented or

broken outline of the upper internal margin

TOR MAHSEER

fin lobe has no fin rays. About 25 body myo-

tomes and 15 post-anal myotomes were clear-

ly visible in the reflected light when tissues

were alive.

Three day old hatchling. After three days,

i.e. on the fourth day, the larva (Fig. 3) at-

tained a length of only 11.5 mm. The chro-

Fig. 3.

of the yolk sac which is visible provides a

clear indication of the yolk being absorbed

within the body. In the mouth area, the lower

jaws are developed and are seen twitching at

intervals. Gill covers are also seen moving

slowly. Anal opening and the anal tube are

perceptible. The dorsal fin fold shows a small

upward growth indicating the position of the

dorsal fin but no trace of. fin rays either in

this fin or the caudal lobe could be seen. A

small vertical fin fold on the posterior part of

the yolk sac also develops. Even the anal

Three day old hatching of T. tor (Ham.)

matophores at this stage increased all over

the body and the head. They are smaller in

size but larger in numbers. No finrays are yet

discernible in any of the fin lobes. The yolk

sac is yet quite prominent but it has changed

its outer form by becoming a single continu-

ous sac pointed posteriorly. The finlobe in the

pelvic area, i.e. on the posterior part of the

yolk sac is reduced in size. The larva which

recting its position and trying to swim in nor-

mal erect position of a fish but it has still

1.0 mm

Fig. 4. Ten day old fry of 7. tor (Ham.)

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

not reached free swimming stage.

Ten day old hatchling. On the eleventh

day, the hatchling has emerged into a tiny

fry of about 12.5 mm in total length (fig. 4).

The yolk sac has been completely absorbed.

Though the length has not increased appre-

ciably during the last five days the develop-

ment of the external structures has proceeded

quite visibly. The body has thickened and the

chromatophores have multiplied many fold.

They are small on the head, gill cover and

the dorsal side of the body all along the length,

but large multiradiate chromatophores are seen

on the anterior part of the body and below

the lateral line. In the caudal region there is

a large dark blotch at the base of the caudal

fin.

The dorsal fin is clearly demarcated out of

the dorsal or the median fin fold, the latter

having been completely absorbed up to the

caudal lobe where a small vestige remains. In

that fin, five rays are seen and the rest are in

developing stages. The caudal fin is also de-

marcated clearly, its terminal end which was

rounded in the earlier stage has commenced

becoming slightly bifid. Thin fin rays have

appeared in the central portion but the growth

in the outer fin rays (lower and upper lobes)

appears to be affected. The anal fin is also

marked out with its fin rays developing. A

portion of the fin fold anterior to the anal

opening is still persisting and in that region

a pair of pelvic fins are making their appear-

ance. The fry at this stage started feeding

vigorously on small nauplii of Artemia and

on small sifted Moina and started moving quite

actively in the glass tank. However the growth

during the last three days appeared to be re-

tarded on account of probable attack of fungus

and hence was irregular in some specimens.

Desai (1973) described early stages of T.

tor out of the collection of post-larvae he

made from the open shallow margins of River

Narmada. His smallest stage in the collection

which he describes as post-larva of T. tor

measures 8.74 mm whereas the youngest

hatchling obtained by me by artificially fertilis-

ing the eggs, i.e. where the parentage

is known, is 9 mm. The small difference

in the total length is negligible and normal

but the growth of certain external structures

at that length in the case of Desai’s early

stage, such as demarcation of dorsal fin, the

tail becoming forked, yolk sac becoming taper-

ing single lobed and appearance of rudiment-

ary caudal fin rays are not understandable and

are not found in the description given here of

a 9 mm larva. Development of these structures

indicate that his early stage may be a three

day old larva, though such larva is 11.55 mm

long according to the present observations.

As regards myotomes, the number is common

in both cases, namely about 40 in each. But

his 10.7 mm fry is much more advanced than

the 11.5 mm post-larva described here. these

differences are hard to explain except the fact

that in wild waters where natural stress and

competition is high the size of young larvae

is smaller than in protected waters.

Fifteen day old fry. After 15 days, the fry

was 13.5 mm in length; though it had not

progressed noticeably in length, it continued

to fatten and looked stouter than before.

Even the caudal portion which was thin pre-

viously had become thick and prominent with

a caudal blotch on it. The chromatophores

have become small and thinned out with the

result that the fry looked translucent with the

development of thin scales. It is olive-white

in reflected light. The dorsal fin has eight fin

rays, and seven on pelvic fin. The pectoral

fin rays have also been developing but only

12 could be counted. The air bladder is seen

developing. The vertical fin fold is completely

DEVELOPMENT OF TOR MAHSEER

absorbed except at a small portion anterior

to the anal opening.

This stage can be compared favourably with

that of the 12.5 mm stage of Desai (op. cit.)

except that caudal blotch is wider and more

prominent in the present observation.

ACK NOWLEDGEMENTS

I am indebted to Tata Electric Companies

for affording the necessary facilities for the

conduct of the studies covered in this paper,

at their Walwhan lake fish farm at Lona-

vla. I am also grateful to Konkan Krishi

Vidyapeeth for the laboratory facilities at the

Taraporewala Marine Biological Research

Station and especially to Dr. Dileep Jalihal

for preparation of drawings and to Shri S. N.

Ogale of Tata Electric Companies for general

assistance.

REFERENCES

ANoNYMouS (1976): National Commission on

Agriculture (Fisheries).

AHMED, Nazir (1948): On the spawning habits

and early development of the Copper mahscer,

Barbus (Lissocheilus) hexagonolepis Mclld. Proc.

Nat. Inst. Sci. India 14: 21-28.

CHATURVEDI, S. K. (1976): Spawning biology of

Tor mahseer, Tor tor (Ham.). J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 73(1): 336-344.

Davip, A. (1953): Notes on the bionomics and

some early stages of the Mahanadi mahseer. Jour.

Asia. Soc. Calcutta 19: 197-209.

Desa, V. R. (1970): Studies on the fishery and

biology of Tor tor (Ham.) from river Narmada. I.

food and feeding habits; J. Inld. Fish. Soc. India

2: 101-102.

(1973): ———., IT Maturity, fecun-

dity and larval development; Proc. Ind. Nat. Sci.

Acad. 39: 228-248.

(1972): Notes on the early larval

stages of Tor putitora (Ham.) J. Zool. Soc. India.

24 (1): 47-51.

KARAMCHANDANI S. J., DESAI, V. R. & PISCLKAR,

M. D. (1967): Biological investigation on the fish

and fisheries of the Narmada river. Bull. Inld. Fish.

Res. Inst. 19: 1-39.

KUIKARNI, C. V. (1971): Spawning habits, eggs

and early development of the Deccan Mahseer,

Tor khudree (Sykes). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

67: 510-521.

TripaTut, Y. R. (1978): Artificial breeding of

Tor putitora (Ham.). J. Inld. Fish. Soc. Ind. 9:

161.

FAMILY CYPERACEAE IN KOLHAPUR AND

ITS ENVIRONS’

A. R. KULKARNI, S. R. YADAV? AND J. S. Pawar?

This note is a continuation of our earlier

communications on the flora of Kolhapur and

its environs (Kulkarni & Mudgal 1970; Kul-

karni 1971, 1974; Kulkarni & Desai 1972,

1974: Kulkarni & Kazi 1973; Thite &

Kulkarni 1976 and Kulkarni & Thite

1979) and deals with family Cyperaceae which

is represented by eight genera and 52 species

according to a conservative estimate. The

genera have been arranged in the order fol-

lowed by Cooke (1908) and species within

each genus are arranged alphabetically. Dia-

gnostic characters of the species have been

given only in those cases where their existence

within Maharashtra has been regarded as

doubtful or where there is confusion in the

literature about their circumscription.

Kyllinga Rottb., Pycreus Beauv., and Jun-

cellus Clarke are treated as subgenera of

genus Cyperus Linn. The genus Cyperus com-

prises 24 out of 52 species reported here. The

genus Fimbristylis Vahl is represented by 14

species and Rhynchospora Vahl, Scleria Berg.

and Carex Linn. by one species each.

Identification of all the species included in

this account has been confirmed by referring

to the herbarium of Western Circle, BSI,

Poona and Blatter herbarium of St. Xavier’s

College, Bombay. Recent changes in the

nomenclature of identified taxa have been

followed.

1 Accepted November 1979.

2 Department of Biological Sciences, Ramnarain

Ruia College, Bombay 400019.

* Biology Department, Balasaheb Desai College,

Patan, Maharashtra.

A set of specimens, on which the present

account is based, is deposited in the Depart-

ment of Biological Sciences, Ramnarain Ruia

College, Bombay.

Genus Cyperus Linn.

Sub-genus Kyllinga

CYPERUS BREVIFOLIUS (Rottb.)

(Kyllinga brevifolia Rottb.)

In clayey soil along temporary water cour-

ses; University campus, Kolhapur; on the

way to Wadanige near Kolhapur; Panhala;

June-August.

C. KYLLINGA Endl. (K. monocephala Rottb.)

Common in grasslands of Katyayani, Pan-

hala, Malvan, Savantwadi, Amboli; June-

November.

C. metTcu Hochst. (K. squamulata Vahl)

Along lake margin of Kagal near Kolhapur;

August-October.

C. TRICEPS (Rottb.)

Rottb.)

Fairly common in grasslands of Kolhapur,

Kagal, Panhala; June-August.

Sub-genus Pycreus

C. ALBOMARGINATUS Mart. and Schrad. ex

Nees ,

(Pycreus albomarginatus Nees). Along

temporary ponds adjacent to sugarcane fields

on Kolhapur-Panhala road; August-October.

C. FLAVESCENS Linn. (P. flavescens Linn.)

Plants slender, with filiform stem, leaves

and bract; leaves shorter than the stem;

bract single, erect; spikelet solitary; nuts

with prominent glistening white transverse

Hassk.

Endl. (K. triceps

CYPERACEAE OF KOLHAPUR

ridges. In meadows of Kolhapur; August-

September.

C. cLoposus All. (P. globosus Alli.)

Quite common in clayey mud along tem-

porary water courses and lake margins.

Kolhapur—Rankala, Kalamba lakes, Uni-

versity campus; Kagal lake; on way to Wa-

danige; Panhala, Malvan; July-November.

C. MALABARICUS Clarke (P. malabaricus

Clarke)

Along streams, Radhanagari; August-Octo-

ber.

C. pumiLus Linn. (P. nitens Nees)

Along marshes of Kagal lake;

October.

Sub-genus Juncellus

C. ALOPECUROIDES Rottb. (Juncellus alope-

curoides Clarke)

Robust perennial herb. Common in the

marshes of ponds and lakes in Kolhapur,

Wadanige, Kagal; September-April.

C. PYGMAEUS Rottb. (J. pygmaeus Clarke)

Tufted annual with conspicuous globose

heads. Rajaram, Rankala and Wadanige

lakes of Kolhapur, Kagal lake; June-Octo-

ber.

Sub-genus Mariscus Vahl.

C. CYPEROIDES (Mariscus sieberianus Nees)

Common in grass-lands of Panhala, Gagan-

bavada; Vengurla; July-November.

Sub-genus Cyperus

CYPERUS ALTERNIFOLIUS Linn.

Ornamental species cultivated in gardens of

Kolhapur, Panhala; September-October.

C. ARENARIUS Retz.

Grows in association with Ipomoea pes-cap-

rae on the sandy coast of Vengurla. This

sand binding sedge is also reported from

Konkan by Blatter & McCann (1934)

though Cooke (1908) has not reported it

from Maharashtra. Stoloniferous; leaves with

sheathing base and linear rather fleshy lami-

August-

na; stem round, green, fleshy and smooth;

spikelets in globose heads subtended by 1-3

bracts one of which is erect appearing as if

continuous with stem; glumes distichous,

concave, membranous; keel 3 nerved, nerves

pink; stamens 3; styles 3, pink; nut trigon-

ous, dark-brown, smooth; October-Novem-

ber.

C. ARISTATUS Rottb.

Along the lake margins of Kolhapur, Ran-

kala, Rajaram, Kalamba and Kagal; Bila-

shi; June-August.

C. COMpPRESSUS Linn.

Seasonal, along lake margins, road sides and

in rice fields of Kolhapur, Kagal, Panhala

and Wadanige; June-October. This species

shows distinct ecotypic variations. Popula-

tions occupying marshy habitat have robust

erect plants, with branched spicate inflore-

scences. While those found along road sides

have creeping habit with less branched in-

florescence and smaller spikelets. Road side

plants flower earlier than the marsh ones.

C. PANGORE! Rottb.

A robust perennial sedge very common in

the marshes near ponds and lakes of Kolha-

pur, Kagal; August-March.

There appears to be a lot of confusion

about circumscription of C. corymbosus. C.

tegetum, C. tegetiformis and C. pangorei.

While Cooke (1908) has considered all the

three former species as distinct, Blatter &

McCann (1934) have merged C. tegetum and

C. tegetiformis with C. corymbosus and C.

pangorei is considered as synonym of C.

tegetum. Fischer (1928) regards C. corymbo-

sus and C. pangorei as distinct but C. tegetum

is considered as synonym of C. pangorei

and C. tegetiformis as synonym of C. corym-

bosus. Kukenthal (1909) also treats C. pan-

gorei and C. corymbosus as distinct. Our spe-

cimens resemble more closely with C. pangorei

Wis

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

in having lower bracts more than 12.7 cm

long and longer than the inflorescence and in

some-what remotely arranged scales on the

spikelet than with C. corymbosus which has

bracts upto 1.62 cm long and shorter than the

inflorescence and the scales arranged mostly

in densely imbricating fashion.

A systematic study of all the four taxa

involved is needed to solve this problem.

C. DIFFORMIS Linn.

A seasonal, common in marshy places in

Kolhapur; August-October.

C. DISTANS Linn.

Along nala, Gagan-Bavada; September-

October.

C. ELUSINOIDES Kunth.

In marshes of Kagal lake near Kolhapur;

September-November.

C. irtA Linn. var. PANICIFORMIS Clarke.

A most common monsoon weed in rice fields

and in other marshy situations; June-Octo-

ber.

C. piLosus Vahl.

A perennial salt marsh sedge; rhizome sto-

loniferous covered with scales; spikelets

spicately arranged, rather distant on the

hispidulous rachis, glumes faint brown, 3

nerved, keel not prominent, lateral sides

transparent. Malvan; October.

C. ROTUNDUS Linn.

Prominent in clayey soil along margins of

bunds, Kolhapur, Panhala, Gaganbavada,

Kagal; June-October.

C. STOLONIFEROUS Retz. In marshes on way

to Wadanige; June-October.

Fimbristylis Vahl

F. COMPLANATA Link.

Common in marshes of Kolhapur, Kagal

lake, on way to Wadanige; July-September.

F. DICHOTOMA Vahl.

In association with F. complanata Vahl. but

in more abundance; Kolhapur, Katyayani,

Wadanige, Kagal lake; July-March.

F. DIGITATA Boek.

In meadows at Radhanagari in monsoon;

August-September. This species has also

been collected recently in meadows on Rat-

nagiri-Pawas road in June.

F. DIPHYLLA Vahl.

In marshes, often in association with F.

dichotoma Vahl. Katyayani, on way to

Wadanige,, Kagal lake, Radhanagari; July-

March.

F. FERRUGINEA Vahl.

In marshes of Kolhapur and in salt mar-

shes of Malwan and Ratnagiri; September-

February.

F. JUNCIFORMIS Kunth.

In meadows of Kolhapur; June-October.

F. mMILiaceA Vahl.

In marshes of Kolhapur, on way to Wada-

nige; July-September.

F. MONOSTACHYA Hassk.

In meadows; Kolhapur, Panhala; August-

October.

F. POLYTRICHOIES R. Br.

Along the margins of lakes of Kolhapur,

and in salt marshes at Malvan; August-

October.

F. QUINQUANGULARIS Kunth.

In marshes of Kolhapur; July-September.

F. SPATHACEA Roth.

In salt marshes of Malvan; along nala at

Savantwadi; October-December.

F. TENERA Roem and Sch.

Along lake margins, Rankala, Kagal-lake;

August-December.

F. TETRAGONA R. Br.

In marshes and lake margins; Kolhapur,

Kagal, Radhanagari; July-September. Cooke

(1908) and Fischer (1928) have placed this

species in dichostylis section of the genus.

All the specimens observed by us in field

CYPERACEAE OF KOLHAPUR

as well as pressed ones show three stigmas.

The identification of our material has been

checked with reference to the sheets of

this species in BSI herbarium of western

circle and Blatter herbarium of St. Xavier’s

College.

F. wooprowil Clarke.

Occasional, along margins of Kolhapur

lakes; June-October.

Eleocharis R. Br.

E. ATROPURPUREA Kunth.

In marshes of lake margins of Kolhapur,

Rajaram talao, Rankala talao; July-October.

E. CAPITATA R. Br.

Lake margin of Kagal and salt marshes

of Malvan; September to January.

E. PLANTAGINEA R. Br.

Very dominant sedge in lakes of Kolhapur.

Rankala, Kagal lake, also in salt marshes

of Malvan; August-March.

Scirpus Linn.

S. ARTICULATUS Linn.

In salt marshes of Malvan; October.

S. KYLLINGIOIDES Boeck.

In meadows of Kolhapur; June-August.

This species is being reported for the first

time from Maharashtra. Cooke (1908) has

remarked that he could not see the specimens

of this species from Bombay state. Blatter &

McCann (1934, 1935) have recorded it from

Canara. Fischer (1928) has not included it in

flora of Madras. Shah (1973) has recently

described it from Saurashtra. During our re-

cent visit to Ratnagiri we collected it in

meadows along Ratnagiri—Pawas road. A

brief description of the species based on our

specimens, follows

Rhizomatous herbs; rhizome short, erect

and thick; stems 4 to 9 cm., solitary or tufted,

trigonous and terete. Leaves radicular, lamina

with marginal spinules. Inflorescence terminal,

of numerous small sessile conjusted white

heads, subtended by 3 spreading leaf-like

bracts. Spikelets with 8-12, spirally arranged,

ovate-lanceolate keeled many nerved glumes.

Hypogynous bristles 0. Stamen 1, ovary ti-

gonous, stigmas 3. Nut yellow, obovoid,

minutely punctate.

S. LITTORALIS Schrad.

Along marshes of Kagal lake and in salt

marshes of Malvan; August-March.

S. MUCRONATUS Linn.

Along Punchaganga river bank; October-

May. This species has been excluded from

Bombay state by Cooke (1908). Shah

(1973) has reported it from Gujarat.

Stems robust, sharply trigonous; leaves re-

duced to sheaths, heads lateral near the

apex of the stem, spikelets sessile, ovate,

glumes ovate, acute, keel not prominant;

hypogynous bristles 5, barbed with recurv-

ed outgrowths, slightly longer than the nut;

ovary trigonous, style base not swollen,

stigmas 3; nut trigonous, flat on one side

and angled on the other, blackish, surface

with faint lines.

S. sguARROSUS Linn.

In hygrophytic situations during monsoon

in Kolhapur, Bilashi and Ratnagiri; August-

October.

S. SUPINUS Linn.

Common in the marshes of lakes of Kolha-

pur, Kagal, in marshes of Sangli and Mal-

van; July-February.

Fuirena Rottb.

F. GLOMERATA Lam.

In salt marshes of Malvan and Vengurla;

September-November.

F. WALLICHIANA Kunth.

In the marshes of Kagal lake;

October.

August-

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

Rhynchospora Vahl.

R. WIGHTIANA Steud.

In meadows, Mailvan; October.

Scleria Berg.

S. STOCKSIANA Boek.

The moist areas around ponds and lakes of

Kolhapur; near Dhamapur lake, Malvan;

August-October.

Carex Linn.

C. MERCARENSIS Hochst.

As an undergrowth in forests of Gagan-

bavada, Katyayani; October-February.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are thankful to the authorities of Shi-

vaji University, Kolhapur, for financial aid

and to Dr. P. V. Bole of St. Xavier’s College

for allowing us to consult the Blatter herbar-

ium. We are also thankful to Dr. V. D. Var-

tak, MACS, Poona for checking the identi-

fication of many of our specimens.

REFERENCES

BLATTER, E. AND MCCANN, C. (1934): Cypera-

ceae—In the revision of the flora of Bombay

Presidency. Part XXIII. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

37) (lye? 16-35,

, (1934): Cyperaceae — In the re-

vision of the flora of Bombay Presidency. Part

XXIV. ibid. 37 (2): 254-277.

, (1934): Cyperaceae — In the re-

vision of the flora of Bombay Presidency. Part XXV.

ibid. 37 (3): 532-548.

, (1935): Cyperaceae — In the re-

vision of the flora of Bombay Presidency. Part

XXXVI. ibid. 37 (4): 764-779.

, (1935): Cyperaceae — In the re-

vision of the flora of Bombay Presidency. Part

XXVII. ibid. 38 (1): 6-18.

Cooke, T. (1908): The flora of the Presidency

of Bombay. Vol. Ili. Reprinted by Bot. Surv. India,

1958.

FiscHer, C. E. C. (1928): Flora of the Presi-

dency of Madras. Vol. III. Reprinted by Bot. Surv.

India, 1957.

KUKENTHAL, G. (1909): Cyperaceae in Engler’s

Das Pflanzenreich. 38: 1-824.

KULKARNI, A. R. (1971): Notes on the distri-

bution of Sesamum mulayanum Nair in Maharash-

tra. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 68: 495-96.

, (1974): Nicotiana glauca Grah. —

a tree tobacco in Maharashtra. ibid. 77 (2): 340-

42.

, AND Desal, M. H. (1972): Family

Eriocavlaceae in Kolhapur and its environs. ibid.

69: 231-235.

,» (1974): Eriocaulon tuberiferum

Kulkarni et Desai — A new species from Maha-

rashtra. ibid. 7J (1): 81-84.

AND Kazi, M. B. (1972): Contribu-

tions to the hydrophytes of Kolhapur — I. Hydro-

phytes of Kagal lake. J. Shivaji Univ. 5: (10) 73-

85.

AND MupcaL, P. V. (1971): Family

Commelinaceae in Kolhapur and its environs. J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 67: 616-618.

———_——— anp Tuite, A. N. (1979): Addi-

tions to the flora of Kolhapur district. ibid. 74 (Sup-

plement): 592-609.

SHAH, C. K. (1973): The distribution of genus

Scirpus Linn. in Gujarat. J. Biol. Sci. 16: 29-41.

TuHiTE, A. N. AND KULKARNI, A. R. (1976): Fun-

gal flora of Panhala. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

73(3): 456-468.

A CATALOGUE OF THE BIRDS IN THE COLLECTION OF

THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY——22

Corvidae, Bombycillidae

HUMAYUN ABDULALI

[Continued from Vol. 75(2): 384]

This part covers 646 specimens of 71 species

and subspecies up to No. 1063 in INDIAN HAND-

BooK. I am grateful to Miss Renée Borges and

to Mr Shahid Ali for routine assistance for

some time.

EL Platysmurus leucopterus (Temminck)

(Sumatra) Whitewinged Jay 1:58

1 0? Tavoy, S. Tenasserim. Wing 188, tail 180.

EL Garrulus leucotis leucotis Hume (Kau-

karyit, Tenasserim) Burmese Jay 1:61

Measurements on p. 94.

) 248 GMs

1 Hsipaw, 1 S.E. of Hsipaw, 1 Maymyo.

Measurements on p. 94.

EL Garrulus glandarius glandarius (Lin-

naeus) (Sweden) Jay

2:1 2 1 02. 1 Godolla, 1 Matrajured, Hungary,

The female has paler blue on the wings and

a white chin contra almost concolorous with

the underparts in the other.

Measurements on p. 94.

EL Garrulus glandarius haringtoni Rippon

(Mt. Victoria, South Chin Hills) Rippon’s

Jay. 1:65

2 86: 1 Camel’s Hump, Tiddim, 1 Mt. Victo-

ria, Pakokku, Chin Hills.

Both can be separated from Indian birds

by the pale buff, almost white, forehead and

their larger wings. Smythies, 1953, BIRDS OF

* One of them bears no locality but was collected

by J. C. Anderson.

[373]

BURMA, p. 9, synonymises haringioni with G.

oatesi but this is doubtless a slip, for the latter

is a subspecies of G. leucotis.

Measurements on p. 94.

1020 Garrulus glandarius _ bispecularis

Vigors (Himalayan Mts.—Murree) West Hi-

malayan Jay 1:63

LSS OO Wome eee) aay Ol

1 Dalhousie, Punjab; 2* Simla; 1 Grikund Ke-

darnath, 1 Bodiar, 2 Moureakher, Gharwal, 5 Da-

kuri, Kumaon, 2 Mussoorie, 1 Naini Tal, U.P.

See notes under 1021.

Measurements on p. 94.

1021 Garrulus glandarius interstinctus

Hartert (Darjeeling) East Himalayan Jay 1:64

Mee S eat: Gekld) , Chee I o,?

1 Sipuri, 1 Godaveri, 1 Bouzini, all near Khat-

mandu, Nepal; 1 Shampong, Central Bhutan, 3

Gomchu, 1 Narphong, East Bhutan; 2 Lachung,

North Sikkim, 1 Etalin 8000’, Mishmi Hills.

As has been noted by earlier writers, the

two races are not easily separated. In series,

the eastern birds are darker but the three from

Nepal and one from Mishmi Hills are very

reddish above. A of collected at Shampong,

6500 ft. Central Bhutan, has the darkest up-

perparts and the forehead slightly paler. The

birds from Bhutan and Sikkim are not yet

registered.

Three males collected in Garhwal (2 on the

same day) with pale underparts appear to be

birds of the year. Their measurements are not

included but are within the range of the adults.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

Vaurie (1959, p. 143) when comparing this

with sinensis states that the tips of the bristly

feathers at the nostril are not black as in the

latter. The specimens listed above show a vary-

ing amount of black at the tips of feathers at

the nostril, and which appears independent of

locality.

Measurements on p. 94.

1022 Garrulus lanceolatus Vigors (Hima-

jayas—Simla-Aimora District) Blackthroated

Jay 1:60

21:8 44 (1 juv.) 8 295 0?

2 Chitral, 1 Gora Gali; 1 Murree, 1 Dalhousie,

1 Dharmsala, 1 Dhami State, 3 Simla (1 collected

by J. C. Anderson?); 2 Moghul Maidan, Kishtwar,

Kashmir; 1 Lambathach, 1 Ghat, 1 Boliar, Garh-

wal, 1 Bininag, 1 Peora, Almora, 2 Morwala, 1

Dakuri, Kumaon, U.P.; 1 no locality.

Juvenile o 291 has the feathers of the chin

dishevelled, with short thick streaks, and a

brownish head.

The black barring on the central tail fea-

thers varies in distinctness but cannot be as-

sociated with sex or locality.

The largest unsexed No. 296 from Dharm-

sala, Punjab, (Wing 160, tail 165) has the

shortest tarsus (28.7). In only one other (¢

290 from Peora, Almora) is the wing (157)

shorter than the tail (159).

Measurements on p. 95.

EL Cyanocitta cristata subsp.

1 ¢ Little Lake, Barrie, Ontario, Canada.

Wing 135; bill 26.6; tarsus 33; tail 132.

EL Cyanopica cyanus interposita Hartert

(Tai pai Shan, Tsinling Range, Shensi, China)

Azurewinged Magpie

3 92 Peking, China.

These are named trinomially on the basis

of distribution in Vaurie (1959) and Peter’s

CHECK-LIST (1962, 15:245) and the measure-

ments in parenthesis are from La Touche A

HANDBOOK OF THE BIRDS OF EASTERN CHINA

82°

2, p. 15. Wing 132, 136, 137 (135-141); bill 26,

26, 28 (24-28.5); tarsus 29, 30.5 (32-36.5), tail

172, 200, 206 (199-230).

1023 Cissa chinensis chinensis (Boddaert)

(Mergui) Green Magpie 1:45

US 8s 66 5) Sa Pee OW

2 Ranibag, 1 Kumaon, U.P.; 1 Singhik, N. Sik-

kim, 1 Singtam, Teesta Valley, 3 Longview T.E..,

1 Darjeeling; 1 Laising, 1 Hungrum, 1 Roopchena,

Cachar; 1 Jamirach, Dibrugarh, 2 Margherita, 1

Rotung, Abor Hills; 1 Mishmi Hills; 1 Upper

Burma.

3 No. 214 from Longview Tea Estate ob-

tained on 25 January 1911 has one whisker

on the left 140 mm. long.

15 specimens dated 1902-1952 are varying

shades of blue both above and below. Three

Nos. 203, 207 and 211 (1 0 1 o juv. 1 0?)

from Mishmi Hills, Hungrum and Roopchena,

going back to 1904 show a wash of green,

particularly on the underparts. All wings are

yellowish olive. Stevens (JBNHS 29 p. 514)

refers to blue examples seen in the wild in

March, April and May.

Whistler’s mss. notes include a letter from

CBT (Ticehurst) asking if the black subter-

minal bars on the inner secondaries and ter-

tials are less distinct in juveniles, or if it is a

racial (Himalayan) character. Only three spe-

cimens lack this barring and they are from

Laising, N. Cachar ¢, Margherita gj and

Upper Burma o0?. The juvenile @ No. 211 is

well marked.

Measurements on p. 95.

1024 Cissa ornata (Wagler) (Ceylon) Cey-

lon Blue Magpie

1 & Rookood, Ceylon.

Measurements on p. 95.

1025 Cissa flavirostris cucullata (Gould)

(Kuloo Valley) Western Yellowbilled Blue

Magpie 1:44

[374]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY COLLECTION—22

10:3 2¢@ (1. juv.) 3 2Q (2 juv.) 4 0? (1 juv.)

1 Doniwani Village, Lolab Valley, 2 Goond, Sind

Valley, Kashmir; 1 Zokinath, 1 Chamoli, Garhwal,

4 Dakuri, Kumaon; 1 Kakam, Nepal.

In view of the small number of sexed adults,

the measurements do not appear worth de-

tailing.

Sp. No. 201 collected in Goond, Sind Valley,

Kashmir, on 8 August 1873 by F. Stoliczka is

perhaps one of the oldest specimens in the

Bombay collection. One unregistered gt from

8000 ft, Chinakotti, West Bhutan, has its bill

heavier than in the others and dark above.

See under 1027 for notes on juvenile plum-

age.

1026 Cissa flavirostris flavirostris (Blyth)

(Darjeeling) Eastern Yeilowbilled Blue Magpie

1:43

Deans Suid juv.) 1 2 juv.

3 (1 juv.) Tongloo, 10000’, 1 Phalut 11500’, Dar-

jeeling; 1 Shama Chembo, Rong Valley?

All differ from C.f. cucullata in having the

lower breast washed with grey (‘lilac white’)

which was presumably once yellow, and the

upperparts are slightly darker than in 1025.

Sp. No. 190 from Chembo, Rong Valley,

was collected by Stuart Baker on 13 July 1913.

The words “Chin Hills’? have been added with

a query by Salim Ali many years ago, but this

does not appear to be correct, for Stuart Baker

(1922, FAUNA, 1, p. 44) states that he had

seen only one from Burma and which differed

from the normal type (nominate flavirostris)

in many ways. The latter specimen was col-

lected by Wickham at about 7000 ft. north of

Falam (JBNHS 33, p. 803) and was no doubt

Shaferi Sick (q.v.).

Four specimens (2 fd 2 2 2) collected

in Bhutan by Salim Ali (1966-68) not yet re-

- gistered show a much darker grey below. Cu-

riously, in these four specimens, though the

males have larger wings (190, 197 cf. 186, 187)

[375]

the tails are longer in the females (410, 430 cf.

335,350);

EL Cissa flavirostris shaferi

Victoria, Chin Hills)

1 @ Kennedy Peak, Chin Hills, Burma.

Wing 172, bill 34, tail 345 (Sp. No. 189).

Shaferi was described on 5 ob co and 9 2 2

and the single specimen confirms the small

size, and probably represents a good subspecies

with a very restricted range.

Sick (Mt.

1027 Cissa erythrorhyncha — occipitalis

(Blyth) (Nepal and to the N.W., as at Mus-

soorie etc.) Himalayan Redbilled Blue Mag-

pie 1:41

2224 64.8 22 (3 ju), 10°07? (1h Juv.)

1 Patiala State, 1 Dharmi State, 1 Kasumti 6000’,

Keonthal, i Kufri 8000’, Punjab Hill States; 2

Simla; 1 Dehra Dun, 1 Naini Tal, 1 Lohghat, 1

Gangolihath, Almora; 1 Manauli, 3. Kumaon; 1

Godaveri, 1 Cholna Khel, 4 Loharipowa, Nepal; 2

no data.

Sorting out both the adults and the juve-

niles of flavirostris and erythrorhyncha has

taken an unexpectedly long time. The red and

yellow bills so distinct in the two species in

life, both become yellow and I have been

unable to trace any description of juvenile

flavirostris. The collection contains 8 juveniles

with the entire top of the head (except for

a fringe on the forehead) white, which also

extends down the nape. Some were listed as

flavirostris and others as erythrorhyncha. Two

juveniles of the above description collected

by J. P. Cook at Maymyo has it noted on the

original label that the bills were light red in

one and scarlet in the other. In the first plum-

age the bill is black in both species but this

noting would link the all-white head with

erythrorhyncha.

Two others a go and a @ from Dakuri,

Kumaon, whence 2 adults were also collected,

have their crowns sooty black, followed by

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

a broad white patch tapering down on the

black of the neck. They agree with Biswas’s

description of young erythrorhyncha (JBNHS

60, p. 648), but the adults from the same

place are smaller and can be included among

the variations in flavirostris. The evidence

available suggests that this is the juvenile

plumage of flavirostris, with the white being

later reduced to the collar-like band in the

adult. Intermediate phases exist, depending to

some extent upon the method of preparation

of the skin. It is significant that the 3 yellow-

billed birds illustrated in Gould’s BIRDS OF

ASIA and marked A. flavirostris cucullata by

A. Rutgers in 1969, all have the forecrown

black, followed by white extending to the nape.

Psilortinus albicapillus described by Blyth

at the same time as C. flavirostris, C. e. occi-

pitalis and C. e. magnirostris (1846, JASB

15, p. 27) was admittedly a juvenile and

agrees with the juveniles of erythrorhyncha

above.

As in the case of the previous species, the

large proportion of unsexed birds and others

in juvenile and intermediate plumage do not

make it worthwhile listing the measurements.

The bills are no smaller than in magnirosiris.

1028 Cissa erythrorhyncha miagnirostris

(Blyth) (Ya-Ma-Dong Mountains separating

Arracan from Pegu) Burmese Redbilled Blue

Magpie 1:42

8:6 24 (1 juv.) 1 2 1 o? juv.

1 Dimapur, 1 Kanglotomis, Manipur, Assam; 2

Tiddim, Chin Hills, 2 Maymyo, 1 Thayetmyo,

Burma; 1 Crawford Market. Bombay, origin?

These birds are slightly darker above but

barely separable from occipitalis (1027) and

certainly do not agree with the original des-

cription of magnirostris. The bill is not 4-5

mm longer and there is no large bare patch

near the eye. The two from Manipur and one

from Thayetmyo differ from the Himalayan

population in being darker and more suffused

with purple-blue on the upperparts, but Hume

(S.F 6, p. 385) quotes Lt. Ramsay as saying

that with large series of both groups, he has

seen a specimen of occipitalis with plumages

in all respects as fine as the best of my Bur-

mese skins’. Ramsay also says that though

some of the Burmese specimens have enor-

mous bills, others have them as small or small-

ler than Himalayan birds. He adds that the

only constant point of difference between

Burmese and Indian birds is in the colouring

of the bill(?), feet and irides as pointed out

by Hume on Captain Fielden’s authority (S.F

3, p. 145), i.e. the legs are scarlet instead of

reddish orange of occipitalis and the irides are

of different shades of brown, but never red.

INDIAN HANDBOOK states that irides of occipi-

talis are brown or red-brown and those of

magnirostris the same’.

Hume (loc. cit.) concludes “....it seems to

me very doubtful whether the species (mag-

nirostris) can be maintained. What is really

wanted is a large and carefully sexed series

from Pegu and the Arracan Hills’.

1029 Pica pica bactriana Bonaparte (Kan-

dahar) Kashmir or Whiterumped Magpie

1:38

28:15 64 8 22 5 o? (1 juv.)

1 Sulaimaniyah, Iraq; 1 Bagh-e-Jawar (4 m. S.W.

of Shiraz), 1 Baghe Jaffrain, 1 Baghe Rezi, 10

Shiraz, 1 Amirabad, Birjand, 1 Neh, Kain, Iran;

1 Iggiz Yar, Chinese Turkestan; 1 Razani, North

Baluchistan, 1 Razmak, South Baluchistan, 1 Kelat,

1 Toba, Quetta, 1 Devankot, Baluchistan; 4 Chitral,

N.W.F.P.; 2 Ugu 12000’, Indus Valley, Ladakh.

In some specimens, March to May, the rump

is greyish, but this character does not appear

to be restricted to any age(?) or area. HAND-

BOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS (1938, 1:28) refers to

the rump in nominate pica ‘“‘white or brownish

white to brown (in British specimens never

[376]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY COLLECTION—2?

very white and often nearly black)”’.

Measurements on p. 95.

1030 Pica pica bottanensis Delessert (Bhu-

tan) Eastern Blackrumped Magpie 1:39

1 0? Wangadi Cholung, Bhumtang Valley, Bhutan.

Together with six additional specimens col-

lected by Sdlim Ali at Bhumtang in Bhutan

in 1973, but not yet registered, they have a

larger wing, a proportionately shorter tail and

a black rump, which leave no doubt regarding

the validity of this race.

Measurements on p. 95.

EL Pica pica sericea Gould (Amoy) Chi-

nese Magpie

5:4 66 (1 juv.) 1 2

1 North Shan States, 1 South Shan States, 1 Kyat-

yin-Mogok Road, Ruby Mines District, Burma; 2

Peking, China.

These birds are not very distinct from bac-

triana but the pair from Peking show more

blue on the wings and in series there is less

white visible above. In the juvenile the black

is replaced by brown and there is very little

white on the rump.

The tarsus appears longer than in bactriana

and the tail proportionately shorter. Stuart

Baker quotes Gould as having affirmed the

former.

Measurements on p. 95.

1031 Dendrocitta vagabunda pallida (Bly-

th) (Galkund, Surat Dangs, Gujarat) Western

Tree Pie.

(a) 15: 8 68 (2 juv.) 4 @Q

(2 juv.)

1 Navashar, Jullundur, 3 Ambala; | Bahawalpur;

1 Delhi; 1 Bharatpur, Rajasthan; 1 Jacobabad, N.

Sind, 1 Khori, 2 Luka, 3 Jah, Tatta, 1 Londi, Ka-

rachi.

No. 20347 ¢@ from Luka, Tatta is dark rufous

below.

(b) 20: 4 @4 (2 yuv.) 16 22 (6 juv.)

1 Hamavas Lake, Pali, Jodhpur; 1 Deesa, Palan-

pur; 3 Vaghjipur, Mehsana; 1 Hingolgadh, Jasdan,

1 Amreli, 1 Gir, 1 Patan (?), Kathiawar; 2 Victoria

(1 juv.) 3 0?

[377]

1 Galkund, 1

3 Suraimal,

Park, Bhavnagar; 1 Cambay City;

Mheskhatri, 1 Pimpri, Surat Dangs;

Thana, 1 Tanda, 1 Kuno, Gwalior.

The type locality of pallida has had many

vacillations. Blyth described it from a speci-

men purchased at Calcutta (now the type

locality of nominate vagabunda) but originally

said to have come from the north-western

Himalayas (the type locality of bristoli). This

was restricted by Ticehurt to Simla (1922)

and then to Galkund, Surat Dangs, by Paynter

who, admitting the possibility of the original

description referring to parvula from the south-

west or vernayi from the south and south-

eastern India, expressed his reluctance to

change the name which had been applied for

more than a hundred years. While I agree with

his sentiments, I do not know if it is permis-

sible to ignore the original description, though

the type locality may be proved or presumed

to be wrong. As supporting the original desig-

nation of the north-western Himalayas, it may

be worth mentioning that Psilorhynus albo-

capillus now Urocissa erythrorhyncha_ occipi-

talis was described by Blyth from the same

collection and this does not occur anywhere

except in the Himalayas. Of course, the col-

lection could have included birds from diffe-

rent places.

As explained under bristoli, the specimens

from the Punjab and Sind appear nearer to

pallida both in size and colour and are includ-

ed here, as was done by Paynter. Accepting,

however, the type locality as restricted to the

Surat Dangs, the northern birds can be sepa-

rated from the southern topotypical group by

their slightly darker upper and lower parts and

the fact that the tail/wing ratio is invariably

over 160. In this subspecies the first year birds,

distinguished from the adults by the white

tips to the black non-central tail feathers, show

no other differences in colour from the adults.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

Measurements on p. 96.

1031a Dendrocitta vagabunda _bristoli

Paynter (Jabri, c. 11 miles west of Murree,

alt. 900 metres, Hazara District, West Pakis-

tan) North Western Tree Pie.

2 64: 1 2220’ Rawalpindi; 1 2500’ Kalka, Am-

bala District, Punjab.

Both specimens are outstandingly large and

dark and agree with Paynter’s original descrip-

tion of bristoli (1961, JBNHS 58:381) in

which he referred to birds from the plains near

Ambala and several other places in the Pun-

jab and Sind, as pallida. INDIAN HANDBOOK

(5, 216) indicates bristoli as extending over the

whole of the Punjab and Sind and though

clines are referred to in the text, birds from

the latter places appear much more like pal-

lida from Gujarat and I am listing them sepa-

rately under that race.

In both the specimens, the tails (315,300)

are shorter than in the cotypes (334, 342, 363)

but this may be due to different methods of

measurement, which may also affect the wing/

tail ratios.

Measurements on p. 96.

1032 Dendrecitta vagabunda vagabunda

(Latham) (India, restricted to Calcutta)

Northeastern Tree Pie. 1:48

AS a2 mcroyaCl2. Uva): 3) 2 ON (Sajuv.) eR omonnal

juv.)

1 Kudus, Thana; 1 Borivli, 1 Powai, Salsette,

Bombay; 1 Khandala; 1 Akibidu, West Goa; 1

Saugor, 2 Chikalda; 1 Ambakona, 1 Jabalpore, 1

Tamia, Chindwara; 2 Wamanpalli, Chanda; 2 Sup-

kar, 1 Sonwani, Balaghat; 1 Bhopalpatnam, 1 Kon-

ta, 1 Darbha, 1 Antagarh, 1 Chota Dongar, Bastar;

1 Bhavanipratapur, Kanker; 2 Badrama, Bamra, 1

Keonjhar, 1 Tikerpara, Angul, 1 Raipathar. Phul-

bani, Orissa; 1 Sankrametta, Vizagapatam District;

1 Partapur, 1 Nepal; 2 Meerut, 1 Bareilly, 1 Pilibhit

Terai, U.P.; 1 Madhubani, 1 Baghowni, 1 Saran,

Bihar; 1 Nanhati, 24-Parganas, Bengal; 2 Dibru-

garh, Assam, 3 Upper Burma.

There is considerable diversity in colour and

size between individuals which it is not pos-

sible to isolate by sex, age or season. The lack

of series from any one place prevents any

understanding of the sequence of plumages

and/or seasonal changes, if any, and it is quite

possible that one or more undescribed race

may be found within the conglomeration

above.

Two young from Wamanpalli, Chanda (No.

21186) and Akibidu, West Goa (No. 23333)

have very pale underparts, as in adult vernayi,

and which is accepted as the first plumage in

all races, but the black tail feathers are not

tipped white. Another collected at Chanda at

the same time (May) is slightly darker, but

paler than most other vagabunda, and may be

closer to vernayi.

In series the birds with white tips to the tail

feathers (included in juveniles) are slightly

paler than the adults but individuals are as

dark just as some of the adults are as pale.

Among the adults, the five with the darkest

underparts are slightly but consistently larger

than the others.

The three unsexed skins from Upper Burma

show a lot of rufous above and below but can

be left in this group both in colour and mea-

surements.

Measurements on p. 96.

1033 Dendrocitta vagabunda parvula Whi-

stler & Kinnear (Malabar) Kerala Tree Pie.

1:48 (Part)

Ra Ghiep yas) Seek lio

1 Karkala, S. Kanara; 1 Kalladikol, Palghat Gap;

1 Tope, 1 Kodi Motor Road, Palni Hills; 1 The-

kaddy, 1 Thattakad, Periyar; 1 Aramboli, 1 James-

town, Kanyakumari.

These are slightly smaller than vernayi and

with darker underparts (paler than in vaga-

bunda) which show some variation in the small

series. The unsexed bird from Karkala, South

Kanara, from the accepted range of this sub-

[378]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY COLLECTION—22

species, is exceptionally dark rufous below and

has dark upperparts grading into the black of

the head. It is marked juvenile and has white

tips to the black rectrices and a pale rump.

No. 4515, a male from Thekaddy, Periyar lake

has underparts as pale as in vernayi, but a

small 135 mm wing and is presumably in its

first plumage.

Measurements on p. 96.

1034 Dendrocitta vagabunda vernayi Whi-

stler & Kinnear (Nallamalai Range, 2000’, S.

Kurnool) Southeastern Tree Pie 1:48 (Part)

DESH dd 66 22 1 0?

1 Chitteri Range, Salem, 1 Edubathi, Billigiriran-

gans; 1 Shevaroy Hills; 2 Palkonda Hills; 1 Nalla-

malai Hills; 1 Dharwar-Haliyal Road, Mysore, 1

Utnoor, 1 Mananur, 1 Kaulas, 1 Farahabad, S.E.

Hyderabad; 1 Pootah, North Arcot.

The northern birds grade into vagabunda.

The juvenile, in the first plumage, as in the

other races, has pale underparts like the adult

of this form. There is a wide range of varia-

tion in the measurements of the above speci-

mens and this is no doubt due to convergence

with vagabunda on the north and parvula on

the west.

Measurements on p. 96.

EL Dendrocitta vagabunda sclateri Baker

(Mt. Victoria, Chin Hills, Burma)

Chin Hills Tree Pie

4 OOP 1-0?

2 Maymyo; 1 Mibauk Village, 1 Khayank Chaung,

Thayetmyo District; 1 Legangyi, Henzada, Burma.

These birds have very little rufous on the

* The original label(s) are missing and the en-

tries in both the old (and new) register and the

present labels show the locality as “Berimani, South

Konkan’, and I cannot find any place of this name

in the postal directory. While it may be a village

without a post office, the bird was collected by

T. R. Bell who served in Kanara and the district

is certainly an error in transcription and should be

Kanara and not Konkan.

[379]

upperparts, the black of the head is not very

distinct from the mixed colour of the back

and all have pale rumps.

Measurements on p. 96.

1035 Wendrocitta frontalis frontalis Hors-

field (Assam) Blackbrowed Tree Pie 1:54

42S Sn27 239

2 Margherita, 1 Dibrugarh, Assam; 1 Lonkin

(Chindwin Expedition) Upper Burma.

Wing 22 130, 132 92 124, 128 (1H. ex Baker

f2 120-126)) bill226:3% 27, 27:92) (e225) tar=

sus 24, 25, 27, 27.5 (c. 30); tail 4 206, 220, 2 204,

205 (245-255).

The male from Margherita (No. 273) has

the nape and upper back almost white, which

portion in the other male (No. 276) is also

whiter than the grey in the two females, as

well as in two additional females from N.E.-

F.A. (Arunachal Pradesh) not yet registered.

It is perhaps a sexual difference.

1036 Dendrocitta leucogaster Gould (Mala-

bar Coast) Whitebellied Tree Pie 1:51

LOPE Ste orG ml Zeng ae

1 Castle Rock, N. Kanara; 1* Berimani, S. Ka-

nara; 1 Wynaad; 1 Parambikolam, Cochin; 3 Thatta-

kad, 1 Promacora, 1 Ponmudi, 1 Thekadi, Travan-

core.

No. 4520 a male with enlarged gonads (9 x

5 mm) collected at Thattakad differs from all

the others in having black edges to the white

upper tail-coverts.

Stuart Baker’s Fauna referred to the tarsus

as “about 30 mm’’ which is revised in IH

5:225 to “32-34”. My measurements agree

with the former.

1037 Dendrocitta formosae occidentalis

Ticehurst (Simla) West Himalayan Tree Pie.

1:52 (Part)

11: 8 3-6 @ juv.) 3 29) (1 juv.)

7 Simla & Simla Hills; 1 Tara Devi, Keonthal;

1 Phata, Gupta Kashi, Gadhwal; 1 Pithorgarh, 1

Gomai, Almora.

Table of measurements in Note on Validity

of D. f. sarkari, p. 143 infra.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

1038 Dendrecitta formosae himalayensis

Blyth (Sikkim) East Himalayan Tree Pie 1:52

DAF NO S56. 2 O82 70)?

1 Hathiban, 1 Bans Bihari, 1 Godavari, Nepal;

1 Majhkali, Ranikhet, 1 Kurseong, 1 Sevoke, Dar-

jeeling; 1 Rinchingpong, W. Sikkim; 2 Dibrugarh,

1 Margherita; 2 Denning, Lohit Valley; 1 Kang-

pokpi, Manipur; 2 Humgrum, 2 Haflong, N. Cachar,

1 Bagho Bahar, 2 Roopchena, Cachar; 1 N. Krang,

Upper Burma; 2 south-east of, 1 Maymyo, Burma.

The three from Burma have much whiter

underparts than the others and, together with

many from Assam and eastwards, show more

brown than dusky black on their chins.

Peter’s CHECK-LIST 15, p. 248 (1962) errs

in referring to D. f. assimilis Hume from the

Andamans.

Table of measurements in Note on Validity

of D. f. sarkari, p. 143 infra.

1039 Dendrocitta formosae sarkari Kinn-

near & Whistler (Anantgiri, Vizagapatam).

no Te Gy Gee ace

2 Anantgiri, Vizagapatam, 1 Jeypore Agency; 5

Berbera, Puri, 1 Mahendragiri, Orissa.

For Note on Validity of this race.

p. 142.)

1040 Dendrocitta bayleyi Tytler (Anda-

mans) Andaman Tree Pie 1:55

is SAG ai 450979

4 Wrightmyo, 2 Chirria Tapoo, 1 S. Andamans.

Of 2 females collected at Wrightmyo on 13

February, one has darker underparts and the

colours of the head and tail more clearly de-

fined. This had bright yellow irides contra

greenish yellow in the other, and the former

would appear to be a character of maturity.

(See

EL Crypsirina temea (Daudin) (Africa, in

error for Java) Black Racket-tailed Magpie

2a Ses BIG

1:56

1 Kyibin, Henzada, 1 Ataran, Amherst, Burma.

Wing 22 117, 119; bill 25.3, 21.8. The @ has

a noticeably larger bill.

EL Crypsirina cucullata Jerdon (Thayet-

myo, Burma) Hooded Racket-tailed Magpie

1:57

6: 2 6 (1 juv.) 4 99 (@ juv.)

1 Mungin, Magwe; 1 Pyabwe, 700’, Yamethin;

1 Tarakmaw, 1 Kandin, 1 Prome, 1 Rangoon,

Burma.

42 Wing 102-109; bill 18.3-19.5; tarsus 23.5-25;

tail ¢ 162, 165; @ 173-175.

The 3 adults have the bill all black, their

plumage clear grey, while the younger birds

have a yellow patch at the gape and the plum-

age washed with pinkish.

1041 Podoces humilis Hume (Kitchik Yi-

lak-Sinkiang, near Sanju, Yarkand) Hume’s

Ground Chough 1:71

PRS ib eek: @

1 Chusha, Tibet; 1 Zunthulpuk, 16000’, W. Tibet.

EL Podoces ploskei Zarudny (Alkor, East-

ern Iran).

Dicowle von et?

2 7000’, Gulugan Plain 60°EX31°N’. East

Iran. 22 Wing 123, 115; bill 37.5, 32.5; tarsus

44, 37; tail 88, 85.

EL Pedoces hendersoni Hume (Sinkiang,

on the way to Yarkand).

Bi DO ao? a iuv:

2 Opal, 4400', 1 Kashgar, Chinese Turkestan.

The juvenile is one of the 3 young found

in a nest on the ground on 1 May 1931 (C.

H. Sherriff). The mother has a longer (46 cf.

42.5 mm) and more massive bill than in the

unsexed adult which was registered as bid-

dulphi.

EL Podoces biddulphi Hume (Maralbashi,

Sinkiang).

Sis a KORA T07.

2 Keriya, 4300', Karakoram Expedition; 1 Chinese

Turkestan.

1042 WNucifraga caryocatactes multipunc-

tata Gould (N. W. Himalayas, restricted to

_ [380]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY COLLECTION—22

Kashmir, north of the Pir Panjal Range).

Larger-spotted Nutcracker 1:67

De: fEond) di'2; ‘22

1 Chitral, 7000’, N.W.F.P.; 1 Yusmarg, 1 Gul-

marg, 1 10000’ Ketri, Badrawan, 1 Kashmir.

Measurements on p. 97.

1043 Nucifraga caryocatactes hemispila

Vigors (Himalayan Mountains, restricted Si-

mla-Almora) Himalayan Nutcracker 1:66

Ae (part)

12: 6 66 5 22 1 o? (fledgling)

2 Nagar, Kulu, Punjab; 4 Koti State, 1 Simla, |!

Bogi, Himalayas ?(), 1 Garhwal, 1 near Tonglu,

Darjeeling Division; 2 11000’, Thunsi, Nepal.

Measurements on p. 97.

1044 Nucifraga caryocatactes macella Tha-

yer & Bangs (Hsien-Shan-Hsien, 7000’, Hupeh,

China) Yunnan Nutcracker 1:66 (part)

3 66 (1 juv.)

1 Lachen, N. Sikkim; 1 Etatin, 7000’, 1 Yigang

Valley, 7500'. Mishmi Hills, Burma.

Though these cannot be separated from

1043 from the west by the size of, or the num-

ber of spots, or any other colour character, the

bills are distinctly thicker.

Measurements on p. 97.

EL Nucifraga caryocatactes _rothschildi

Hartert (s. of the Issyk Kul, Russian Turkes-

tan) Tian

1 0? Bostan Tarek, Chinese Turkestan.

The white spots are fewer and larger than

in both hemispila and macella above.

1045 Pyrrhocorax graculus digitatus Hem-

prich & Ehrenberg (Syria) Himalayan Yellow-

billed or Alpine Chough 1:70

11:4 28 6 22 1 o*? juv.

6 Chitral, N.W.F.P.; 1 Dangail, Kishtwar, Kash-

mir; 1 Sissoo, 10000’, Lahul; 2 Matari, Niti, Garh-

wal, 1* collected by S. L. Whymper, probably Garh-

wal or Kumaon, U.P.

9 No. 348 from Chitral has its legs and

feet black.

[381]

Measurements on p. 97.

EL Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax docilis (Gme-

lin) (Gilan, N. Iran).

Libis Phas Core Pay IS

1 s. of Doneh Pass, Luristan; 3 Kidri, 4000’, near

Kain, Iran.

The three from Kidri (1st year birds?) are

marked pontifex which is now accepted as a

synonym of docilis (Vaurie). They differ from

all the others in having the wings and _ tails

brownish, contrasting sharply with the black

of the head, back and rump.

Measurements on p. 97.

1046 Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax centralis

Stresemann (Djarkent, Russian Turkestan)

West Himalayan Redbiilled Chough 1:68

part)

1 0? Quetta Museum.

The 289 mm wing has narrow primaries, a

slightly greenish tinge and the sixth primary

13 mm shorter than the Sth. These characters

recur in other forms further east and the spe-

cimen is left here on geographical (?) grounds.

Measurements on p. 97.

1047 Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax himalaya-

nus (Gould) (Himalaya Mountains, restricted

to Kumaon) East Himalayan Redbilled

Chough 1:68 (part)

Owe Cae eae | 20. Cle juVva)

1 Rohtang Pass, 10000’, 1 Kyclang,

Badrinath, Garhwal, 1 Dakuri, Kumaon;

lity (juv.).

Lahul; 2

1 no loca-

The material available all appears to be

from within the accepted range of himalaya-

nus. Some show pointed wing quills and there

appear to be no specific characters which

would separate them from centralis. Including

the 3 specimens from Bhutan (not yet regis-

tered), the largest wing is 310 mm, while

Meinertzhagen, when dealing with this race

(bis 1927, p. 372) measures 7 males from

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

Sikkim and Ladak, 315 to 340 av. 328.

No. 339 a juvenile from the Jones Collec-

tion is marked Pyrrhocorax graculus.

In INDIAN HANDBOOK (5, p. 242) the bill is

said to be “widely variablle 50-100 mm’’. The

last figure if correct must refer to an aberra-

tion.

Measurements on p. 97.

EL Lycocorax pyrrhopterus pyrrhopterus

(Bonaparte) (Gilolo, Northern Moluccas)

1 Halmahera, Northern Moluccas.

EL Corvus dauuricus Pallas (circa Baika-

lem)

2:1 6 1 @ Peking, China (Nos. 130 & 131)

EL Corvus torquatus Lesson (China)

Sy ode a es a)

3 Temple of Heaven, Peking.

1048 Corvus splendens zugmayeri Laub-

mann (Las Belas, Baluchistan) Sind House

Crow 1:34

SSbLON Oud: al 1 Clo 3502,

3 Rawalpindi, N.W.F.P.; 1 Dharmi State. 5000’,

N.W. Himalayas, 1 Gunderbal, near Srinagar, Kash-

mir*, 1 Jullunder. 1 Multan, 1 Mubarikpur, 3 Am-

bala; 1 Dadil, 2 Sehwan, Larkana; 2 Bhung, Baha-

walpur, 3 Mewashah, 1 Korangin, 1 Dhakeri, 1

Dakejee, Karachi, Sind; 2 Bikanir, 2 Pirotan, Gulf

of Kutch, 2 Mandvi, 1 Tapkeshwari, Bhuj; 1 Dwar-

ka, Okhamandal, 2 Hingolgad, Jasden, Kathiawar,

1 Radhanpur, North Gujarat.

Ticehurst (1922, Jbis, p. 536) said ‘The

Sind race differs from the typical one in hav-

ing a much paler collar and underparts (as

Hume noted), pale smoke grey in fresh

feather, creamy grey or dirty white in worn

dress’’. Young birds are darker than the adults.

As in nominate splendens (q.v.) there is

some variation in the shade of grey on the

neck. Of the three from Rawalpindi (all Feb-

* Whistler (JB 29:160) referred to an_ isolated

colony in the Kashmir Valley and Ticehurst (JB 31:

692) states that its occurrence at Muscat in Arabia

must be due to introduction.

ruary) the two males are pale, while the

female could be matched with many from

Peninsular India. Similarly, the four from Am-

bala district are a little darker and interme-

diate between nominate splendens and zugma-

yeri. All 12 (8 dob 4 2 2) collected between

26 April and 13 October have worn feathers

round the neck, which show collars of sandy

or dirty white in varying shades, quite diffe-

rent from that attained by nominate splendens.

Accepting this as a racial character, the speci-

mens from Pirotan in the Gulf of Kutch, Kutch

and Saurashtra, all agree with zugmayeri,

though Salim Ali has specifically held that

this race does not occur south of the Rann,

and identified the Kutch birds (also one from

Larkana, Sind) as of the nominate form.

Birds from Larkana and Bhung, Bahawalpur,

have the palest collars. Of the two females

from Mandvi, Kutch, one agrees with zugma-

yeri and the other with nominate splendens.

The four from Jullunder (1), Multan (1)

and Bikanir (2), are albinoids in varying

phases of grey and brown, and are included

here on geographical grounds. The two from

Bikanir were obtained in 1913 and 1940.

Measurements on p. 98.

1049 Corvus splendens splendens Vieillot

(Bengal) Indian Hovse Crow 1:33

35: 16 84 (2 juv.) 12 2@Q (2 juv.) 7 o? (1

head only, 1 pure, 1 partial albino, 1 isabelline).

1 Bharatpur, 1 Meerut; 1 Jalar, Jodhpur; 1 Gir,

Amreli; 5 Bandra, 1 Andheri, 9 Bombay; 2 Kihim,

Kolaba; 2 Nagpur; 1 Ulavi, 1 Kambally Kopa,

Sagar, Mysore; 1 Edanad, Chengamner, 1 James-

town, Kanyakumari; 1 Vyampapti, Trichinopoly, 1

Karumbapatti, Salem; 1 Bhopalapatnam, Bastar; 1

Bhagowni, 1 Darbhanga, Bihar; 1 Calcutta; 2 no

locality.

Reference has already been made to the ap-

preciable variations in colour in zugmayeri

and it is no less in this subspecies. @ No. 90

from Vyampapti, Trichinopoly, (9 July) has

[382]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY COLLECTION—22

a grey neck as pale as others listed as zugma-

yeri, but the nature of the worn grey feathers

in the latter is distinctive and I would prefer

to leave the birds from the Gulf of Kutch and

the northern and western coasts of Kathiawar

with them. A single ¢@ (No. 19789 dated 15

March) from the Gir, in southern Kathiawar,

appears to be nominate splendens. Some addi-

tional specimens of this common species from

different parts of Kathiawar, Gujarat, Rajas-

than, Delhi, etc., are necessary to permit more

certain decisions regarding the determination

of the limits of the two subspecies.

Measurements on p. 98.

1050 Corvus splendens protegatus Madaras

z (Mt. Lavinia, W.P., Ceylon) Ceylon House

Crow 1:35

SE TL Ge es teak

1 Colombo, 2 Ceylon. :

Birds from Kerala are said to be of this

subspecies but I would prefer to leave the

material available among the variations in

nominate splendens which does become a little

darker in the southwest.

Ceylon birds the colour of the hindneck

grades almost imperceptibly into that of the

back, but the line of demarcation is distinct in

Indian birds.

Measurements on p. 98.

1051 Corvus splendens maledivicus Reiche-

now (Maldives).

nil.

EL Corvus splendens insolens Hume (Ten-

asserim) Burmese House Crow

8: 4 24 (i jv.) 4 22 (1 juv)

2 Maymyo; 6 Prome, Lower Burma.

The adults show no trace of a pale collar.

The three adult females, all taken on 8 March

1929, are duller than the males. Both juve-

niles, though fully feathered, are browner than

the adults.

[383]

1:34

1052 Corvus frugilegus frugilegus Linna-

eus (Sweden) Rook 1:14

{Ae Onan (amin: )) 429-9) (2. 1mm) 07563

imm.) * with nasal bristles

2 Sheikh Saad, 2 Shatt-al-Adhain. River Tigris,

1 Samarra, 1 Baghdad, 2 Mesopotamia; 2 Meshed,

3000’, 1 Amirabad, near Birjand, Iran; 2 Rawal-

pindi; N.W.F.P.; 1 Jhelum, Punjab.

Though Hartert’s ¢schusii is no longer ac-

cepted, the last three from Pakistan have noti-

ceably narrower and longer (¢@ 63.5 cf. 53.5-

62 av. 57.7; 2 2 60, 61 cf. 54, 57.1 in 2 imm.)

bills, the main characters on which this was

separated (type locality Gilgit).

EL Corvus frugilegus pastinator Gould

(Chusan, China).

1 8 Temple of Heaven, Peking.

Wing 329; bill 60.7; tarsus 49.5; tail 190.

1053 Corvus

naeus (Sweden) Jackdaw

S260%ee Cl juv.)-1 9 juv. 1 0? Juv.

1 Baghdad, Mesopotamia; 2 Chitral, 2 Peshawar,

N.W.F.P.; 1 Srinagar, 1 Kashmir Valley, 1 Kash-

mere.

Fischer’s soemmeringi from Moscow, though

accepted in Peter’s Check-list (1962), is not

recognised in INDIAN HANDBOOK.

The bird from Baghdad has the smallest

wing and bill.

Measurements on p. 97.

1054 Corvus macrorhynchos intermedius

Adams (Kashmir, Dagshai, and Simla, res-

tricted to Kashmir) Himalayan Jungle Crow.

1:28

monedula menedula Lin-

1:36

26: 18 &@4 6 92 2 0?

1 Khalid Drosh, 2 Chitral, N.W.F.P.; 1 Marge,

above Kongan, Sind Valley, 1 Wulur Lake, 2 Lidar

Valley 9500’, 1 Gilgit, Kashmir; 1 Keonthal, 1

Koti, 8 Simla; 6 Mussoorie, 1 Darjeeling 5500’,

U.P.; 1 no data (A. E. Jones Collection No. 14).

Except for 3 ¢@ od Nos. 38 Gilgit, 39 and

44 Lidar Valley, and 1 @ No. 15642 Simla,

all the others have white bases to the feathers

of the nape. No. 44 from Lidar Valley has

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

brown underparts. The bill illustrated in

INDIAN HANDBOOK (5, p. 252) is larger than

in any specimen available.

Measurements on p. 98.

1055 Corvus macrorhynchos

Lesson (Bengal) Eastern Jungle Crow.

Or ea GuoL a. 22) 32.08)

1 Bourini, 1 Godavery, Nepali; 1 *Gangtok, Sik-

kim; 1 *Tezu, Lohit Valley, Assam; 1 Tiddim, Chin

Hills, 1 s.-e. Maymyo, 1 *Kyithe, Prome; 1 *Legon-

gyi, Henzada, Burma.

No topotypes are available and these birds

separated on geographical groups are not dis-

tinctly separable from intermedius. The deeply

bowed-bill is visible only in four (2 2 2 2 0?)

marked with an asterisk, but 6 males (no

female) of intermedius from Mussoorie, Simla

and Gilgit share this character.

All the birds from Chitral, Kashmir and

Simla, have their tail-wing ratio over 60 (upte

67), while those from Mussoorie and east-

wards average under 60%. The relatively

longer tail appears to be a consistent feature

of the western birds separating them from ali

the other races referred to here. Except in

Nos. 37 Gangtok and 55 Tiddim, Chin Hills,

the nape feathers are grey.

Measurements on p. 98.

1055a Corvus macrorhynches andaman-

ensis Tytler = Beavan (Port Blair, Andamans)

Andaman Jungle Crow.

) Ae Oriel. SO alo

1 Middle Button I, 2 Wrightmyo, 4

South Andamans.

The nape feathers, as in levaillantii, are both

grey or white and the measurements of the

wing and tail can be included with them; but

the bills are much heavier (the largest 9° 65.5

not deeply bowed) which, together with the

plaintive and less harsh call (see JBNHS 61,

p. 555), appear to be sufficient to retain the

island race.

levaillanti

Port Blair.

Measurements on p. 98.

1056 Corvus macrorhynchos tibetosinensis

Kleinschmidt & Wiegold (South-east Tibet in

the Sifan Region) Tibetan Jungle Crow.

ROW one be Oe

1 Sadiya, Upper Assam; 1 no data.

The Sadiya bird has an enormous bill, and

is marked tibetosinensis by Salim Ali, who

(JBNHS 48, p. 36/7) refers to this race other

specimens taken in the area including 9 4513

taken at Tezu, Lohit Valley. This specimen has

a small 297 mm wing and I have left it under

levaillantii.

The second bird with no data was listed

with Corvus corone orientalis but the bristles

over the nostrils are not coarse and stiff as in

that species.

Much of the literature relating to earlier

work on this species is not available in Bom-

bay, and the whole group needs re-examina-

tion.

Measurements on p. 98.

1057 Corvus macrorhynchos culminatus

Sykes (Dukkun = Poona) Indian Jungle Crow.

BB Bg Al OO Gro

2 Karnal, 3 Ambala, Punjab; 1 Gir, 1 Ajwa,

Baroda; 1 Thana, 1 Malad, 1 Bandra, 3 Mahim, 2

Bombay; 1 Kihim, Alibag, Kolaba; 2 Khandala, 1

Khangaon, Dhond, Poona; 1 Santgal, North Ka-

nara; 2 Hikkeri, 1 Khambikoppa, Sagar, 1 Hona-

metti 5000’, Mysore; 2 Patton, Trivandrum, Kerala;

2 Chitteri Range, Salem, Tamil Nadu; 1 Raipur tal,

Nellore, A.P.; 1 Gondia, 2 Darbha, Bastar, M.P.;

DikanpurwU Pt?

These are the darkest black. Female No. 32

from Honametti 5000’, Mysore, has the largest

wing (315), bill (62) and tail (185), while the

tail-wing ratio remains under 60 (58.7%).

Measurements on p. 98.

EL Corvus macrorhynchos colonorum

Swinhoe (northeastern Formosa).

1 9 Peking, China.

[384]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY COLLECTION—22

This is very dull coloured, but was collected

in 1900.

1058 Corvus corone orientalis Eversmann

(Naryu R., Turkestan) Eastern Carrion Crow.

1:24

4s 3.96 6 1, 2

1 Kashgar, China; 2 Ugu Nulla 14000’, 1 Moul-

bekh, Ladakh.

The last bird collected on 3 August 1976

has the 3 outer primaries and most of the

secondaries brown, the others black. The fea-

thers of the head and body are mostly brown,

with occasional black ones showing through.

The tail is incomplete and in heavy moult.

Salim Ali and S. A. Hussain who obtained it

noted others completely black in the same

area.

Measurements on p. 99.

1058a Corvus corone sharpii Oates (Mar-

dan, Punjab) Eastern Hooded Crow. 1:32

105 Te eg 229 1 0?

1 Amara, 1 Baghdad, Mesopotamia; 1 Teheran,

3 Shiraz, 1 Birjand, 3 Meshed, Iran.

No. 76, Teheran, is a juvenile female with

a yellow bill, contra black in all the others.

Measurements on p. 99.

EL Corvus corone capellinus Sclater (Fao,

Southern Iraq)

Sele das 3 P2749?

1 Lake Akkakurf, near Baghdad, 1 Mohamma-

rah, 1 Amara, 2 Basra, 2 Mesopotamia; 1 Persian

Gulf.

Measurements on p. 99.

EL Corvus corone cornix Linnaeus Hood-

ed Crow

1 2 Mohses, Hungary.

The bill is appreciably shorter than in the

other races.

Measurements on p. 99.

1059 Corvus corax subcorax Severizov

(N.W. & S.E. Turkestan) Punjab Raven

[385]

SFO MEGA ieee no: OF)

1 Sheik Saad, Iraq; 2 Amirabad, 2 Birjand, E.

Persia; 1 Chaman, 1 Quetta, Baluchistan; 1 Razani,

Waziristan; 1 Rawalpindi, N.W.F.P.; 1 Chaurkana,

Gujranwala, 1 Yahore, Punjab; 1 Bahawalpur; 1

Jacobabad, Upper Sind; 1 Pichial Lake, Jodiipur;

1 Ping Bet, Little Rann, Kutch.

Some with short wings (396-412) including

individuals with a brown wash on the head

and other parts of the plumage were marked

ruficollis, but if the wing measurements are

considered along with those of the tail and the

height of the bill, and the fact that young

subcorax are brown, they appear to agree more

closely with the latter rather than ruficoilis.

While the wing and tail measuremenis of

subcorax and tibetanus do not overlap, some

of the former have very massive bills.

Measurements on p. 99.

1060 Corvus corax

(Tibet) Tibet Raven

SED owar Ll 22

1 Tso Morari Lake, 2 Ladakh.

While this is larger and with long neck

hackles, the latter does not appear to be an

infallible character for separating it from

subcorax, some of which have them long. The

last bird (1977) from Tso Morari is jet black,

and is outstandingly different from all the

others, which have probably faded.

Measurements on p. 99.

1061

Verde Is.) Brown-necked Raven

OPO ee Gee 2e Or

4 Amirabad, 2 Birjand, E. Persia; 1 Persian Balu-

chistan, 1 Chabar, Persian Gulf; 1 Nasirabad, 24

miles west of Turbat, Mekran; 1 Panjgur, Baluchi-

stan.

Both ruficollis and subcorax have been taken

at the same places in eastern Persia, and a

reference to the specimens shows that a brown

tinge on the upperparts and/or breast need not

necessarily identify ruficollis. The wing range

tibetanus Hodgson

1:23

Corvus corax ruficollis Lesson (Cape

123

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

in the material identified is appreciably lower

than in subcorax, and the depth of the bill and

the length of the tail are also exclusive.

The short neck hackles, the brown of the

head and the measurements all appear to sepa-

rate this from subcorax (supra).

Vaurie (1954) held that ruficollis was not a

subspecies of Corvus corax but a separate spe-

cies. The evidence available certainly supports

this view.

Measurements on p. 99.

(Lin-

3:23

1062 Bombycilla garrulus garruius

naeus) (Sweden) Waxwing

3 292 Temple of Heaven, Paking, China.

The bills are longer and the tails shorter than

in both Witherby’s HANDBOOK and _ Stuart

Baker’s FAUNA. If Poljokov’s centralasiae

(1915, Zansan District and Smeinogorsk,

Southwestern Altai) is separable, the present

specimens would distributionally be of this

race.

Measurements on p. 99.

Bonaparte

1:357

1063 Hypocolius ampelinus

(NE. Africa) Grey Hypocolius

1726 EGecieon 2.9) 16 07.

4 Sera, Tigris, 4 Shatt-al-Adhain, 1 Zad, 3 Bagh-

dad, 1 Garradah, 1 Bushire, Mesopotamia, 2 Kuar

Bett, Kutch; 1 Kihim, Kolaba district, Bombay.

The males show the following variations

among themselves which it is not possible to

associate with age, season or any other factor:

(a) Two from Garradah (?) and Bushire

(14 April) have pale, almost cream-coloured

heads, while the two from India, 14 Novem-

ber, Kihim, and 23rd March, Kuar Bett,

Kutch, have the head grey, darker than the

back, as in the remainder.

(b) Two have black bills, while the others

are largely yellow (originally horny) with

black tips.

is pure white only in two, the others being

sullied by a varying amount of brown.

The females are a pale brown all over with

darkening tips to the tail. None of them show

their primaries with ‘“‘black terminal ends and

white tips’’ as per INDIAN HANDBOOK. 5, p. 269.

Meinertzhagen (/bis, 1947, p. 666) refers

to “juvenile females being like the adult

females, but slightly more isabelline, and the

juvenile male being similar but with greyish

white tips to the wing feathers’. Some of the

unsexed birds mentioned above may be young

males, but of the three with pale tips to the

primaries, one is a reliably sexed 9 from

Kutch.

Measurements on p. 99.

MEASUREMENTS

EL. Garrulus leucotis leucotis Hume

Wing Bill Tarsus Tail

oe 170, 179, 180 30.6, 32, 33 32.8, 37.2, 40 128, 129, 131

(165-177 c. 26 c. 45 c. 130)

1020-1021 ef al. Garrulus glandarius subspp.

nominate ¢@ 2 180, 184 29, 30.5 Sess S522 140, 141

(BR. HAND. ¢ 2 174-195 from skull 28-39 39-44 140-152)

haringtoni 88 (2) Vitec dee Sle Sila7/ 40, 43 138 (2)

(170-178 — — —)

bispecularis 6 @ (8) 161-172 av. 166.5 27.8-29.6 av. 28.8 35-39.5 av. 37.4 144-150 av. 147.8

(32 160-178 Cc. 26 (a sy c. 180)

(10 ¢ 2 Central Nepal measured by Biswas and quoted in IND. HAND. 5:20, Wing 142-153)

(5) 157-171 av. 166

170; 2S 173

162-172 av. 167

GH @@2 160-170

interstinctus 4 &

bispecularis 22 (5)

interstinctus 292 (5)

94.

28.5-30 av. 29 34.7-42 av. 38 130-153 av. 146

Mfesky asx, PA) S) 34, 35, 38 144, 152, 158

28.2-30.8 av. 29.7 36.3-38.6 av. 37.3 141-149 av. 144

from skull 29-32 38-43 142-156)

[386]

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[387]

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HiST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

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[388]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY COLLECTION—22

1042-1044 Nucifraga caryocatactes subspp.

Wing Bill Tarsus Tail

re)

1042 multipunctata (3) 202, 207, 211 36, 45.3, 47.5 34, 36.5, 38 148, 150, 152

1043 hemispila (6) 209-220 (213) 44.5-46.6 (45.9) 37.5-40.5 (39) 132-150 (137.6)

1044 macella (2) DADADYES 43.8, 45 37, 40 143, 135

O79

1042 multipunctata (2) 206, 207 47, 49.7 351351 37.6 152

1043 hemispila (4) 207-209 45-48 35.5-39.2 131-149 (138)

0? =rothschildi 193 47 34 132

1045 Pyrrhocorax graculus digitatus

& 3 (4) 263, 281, 283, 286 33.2-35 36-45 1625 17d VS, 182

(1H 274-298 from skull 34-38 42-48 174-193)

2 2 (6) 254-280 31.5-34 35-38 155-171

(1H 262-273 from skull 32-36 41-46 165-178)

Etchecopar in LES OISEAUX DU MOYEN ORIENT, p.532, states that this race is larger than the nominate

with the wings 280-289 mm. contra 255-279.

1046, 1047 et al. Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax subspp.

r Wing Bill Tarsus Tail

docilis (2) 289, 298 51.8, 54.5 45.5, 49 145, 147

1047 himalayanus (4) 298-310 av. 307 49.5-65 av. 56.3 46-57 150-160 av. 154

docilis (2) 273, 282 50, 50.5 45, 47.5 133, 135

1046 centralis (IH 6 @ 290-336 from skull 50-56 50-58 —)

mostly over 310

1047 himalayanus (3) 296, 301 (2) 50:7, 5252.3 46,50, 51 152, 153, 163

(HH @@ 291-332 50-103 widely variable 55-65 —)

1053 Corvus monedula monedula

aa (6) 2330053 ave oti 32-37.5 av. 34.5 37.5-45 132-146 av. 138

(IH 3 2 230-250 32-34 c. 44 c. 135)

[389] 97

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

1048-1050 et al. Corvus splendens subspp.

Wing

me)

1048 zugmayeri (19) 252-289 av. 272

(GH @ 2 255-290 ex CBT)

246-278 av. 266

(1H 266-284

1049 splendens (14)

1050 protegatus 250

(1H_ 255-284

EL insolens (3) 245-255

1048 zugmayeri (11) 240-278 av. 261

(iH 6 Q 255-290 ex CBT)

1049 splendens (10) 256-279 av. 265

(iH: 252-282

1050 protegatus (2) 241, 252

(4H 219-264

EL insolens (3) 239, 244, 248

Bill

44-52 av. 49

47.5-52.5 av. 5.2

from skull 51-56

45.5

from skull 49-55

49.1-51

44-51 av. 46.5

45-52 av. 48.2

from skull 45-50

42.1, 46.5

from skull 42-50

48.2-50

Tarsus Tail

41-49 av. 44 150-175 av. 164

38.5-46 av. 42.8 145-173 av. 160

45-51 162-175)

44 145

45-48 147-169)

42-42.5 140, 141, 150

39.5-45 av. 42 150-175 av. 158.8

39-46 av. 42.4 154-164 av. 157.3

44-48 154-175)

38.6, 45.5 138, 150

45-48 128-155)

41-43 134, 142, 144

In zugmayeri, young birds are darker than adults, and in the material available the males measure

larger than the females.

1054-1057 et al. Corvus macrorhynchos subspp.

Wing

rac)

1054 intermedius (18) 293*, 304-362 av. 331

GH 311-378

286-330 av. 309

(1H 308-335

303-326 av. 311.7

(304-345 av. 325

343, 347

CLVS A 6322)

(iH 325-380

276-311 av. 294.6

1055 levailantii (4)

1055a andamanensis (4)

1056 tibetosinensis

1057 culminatus((11)

(iH_ 273-319

1054 intermedius(6) 296-319 av. 311

(iH 292-343

1055 levaillantii (2) 297, 321

(iH 280-329

1055a andamanensis (2) 287, 310

(290-321

1056 tibetosinensis (iH 320-341

1057 culminatus(16) 268-315 av. 290

(1H 260-301

EL colonorum 300

Bill

56.5-63.5 av. 58.5

from skull 54-73

(* albinoid with horn-coloured bill)

57.5-61.5 av. 60.5

from skull 61-69

58.6-65.5 av. 61.8

bills never under 58, usually over 60, upto 70)

69, 67

from skull 69-73

59-61.6 av. 60.8

from skull 55-67

51.5-57.8 av. 55.6

from skull 54-65

59, 60.5

from skull 55-65

60.5, 64.2

bills as in ¢ @)

from skull 60.67

56-62 av. 57.3

from skull 52-63

Tail Tail / Wing

ratio

(average)

166*, 181-225 av. 200.3 61.3

144-242)

165-193 av. 182 58.8

181-197)

172-195 av. 182 58.3

206, 198 60, 57

201-260)

155-181 av. 166 56.3

156-189)

173-210 av. 194.5 62.5

174-224)

186, — 58

165-192)

168, 177 Sen Le

186-240)

153-185 av. 168 58

147-183)

172 57.3

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY COLLECTION—22

1058 et al. Corvus corone subspp.

Wing Bill Tail

1058 orientalis 68 (3) 359, 352, 305 juv.* 57.5, 54, 49.2 212, 207, 195*

2 (1) 331 50 197

(ex Vaurie ¢ 2 345-366 from skull 59-69 200-218)

1058a_sharpii 66 (7) 302-320 av. 312 50-53.7 av. 51 168-190 av. 180

Q 300 48.5 175

Geo 320-340 47-54 c. 200)

EL capellinus 3 337 61 199

@e (3) 302, 318, 323 SOs eS 194, 195, —

EL cornix g 312 43.4 170

1059-61 Corvus corax subspp.

Wing Bill x height at centre of nostril Tail

1059 subcorax (5) 398-443 av. 423 62.5-68.5 av. 65.3 x 23.5-25.2 av. 24.1 220-240 av. 226.5

(IH 420-448 from skull 66-78 229-242)

1060 tibetanus (2) 447-459 70.5-75 x 24.5-26.8 253-270)

(iH 461, 477 from skuli 78-87 266, 288)

1061 ruficollis 382 62 x 20 206

(iH ex Meinertzhagen ¢Q 370-413 from skull 62-70 —)

one.

1059 subcorax (7) 405-438 av. 419 61-68.5 av. 64.6 x 23-26 av. 24.4 221-227 av. 223

(iH 399-430 from skull 69, 74 220, 223)

1060 tibetanus 485 13 X20-9 266

(IH 448-465 from skull 73-78 257-260)

1061 ruficollis 348-370 av. 362 57-65 av. 60.5 x 19.3-22.2 av. 20.9 186-200 av. 193

GH @Q 370-413 from skull 62-70 —)

1062 Bombycilla garrulus garrulus

Wing Bill Tail

3) eS 115, 116 (2) 13 @2)ne 13-5 57, 58.5 (2)

(112-120 10-11.5 59-67)

1063 Hypocolius ampelinus

Wing Bill Tail

11 $24 (5 by pl.) 100-105 av. 101.5 14-16.5 av. 15.5 103-116 av. 109.5

(100-110 15-16 about 115)

O es 97-102 av. 99.6 14.7-16 av. 15.3 97-106 av. 100.5

* Juvenile males may be included.

(to be continued)

[391]

CLUTCH SIZE, INCUBATION AND HATCHING SUCCESS

OF GHARIAL IGAVIALIS GANGETICUS (GMELIN)]

EGGS FROM NARAYANI RIVER, NEPAL, 1976-1978"

H. R. BUSTARD?

INTRODUCTION

Gharial eggs were collected from 1976, in

Narayani river, Nepal, for captive incubation

as part of a conservation programme on the

endangered gharial. In 1976 the eggs were

collected by myself, in 1977 by myself in asso-

ciation with HMG Nepal’s Special Officer

(Gharial), and in 1978 by HMG Nepal gha-

rial staff only.

The only published data for clutch size of

the gharial is that of Malcolm Smith (1931)

who stated,

“Their eggs, 40 or more in number, are de-

posited in sandbanks”’

and Parshad (1914), who removed 56 eggs

from the oviducts of a 9 foot 7 inch female

which he shot at Ferozpore.

The data presented below as well as provid-

ing hitherto unknown information on aspects

of the nesting biology of the gharial allow

comparison of clutch size, incubation and

hatching success between years.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Nesting took place on high riverine sand-

banks which were protected by project staff,

hence the date of egg laying was known pre-

1 Accepted January 1980.

2Central Crocodile Breeding and Management

Training Institute, Rajendranagar Road, 19-4-319,

Lake Dale, Hyderabad-500 264 (A.P.).

100

cisely (Bustard, in prepn. a). In 1976 eggs

were transported to Orissa for incubation. In

1977, in part because of the poor incubation

results achieved in 1976, and also as part of

a Nepalese training programme, all nests were

incubated in Nepal. This was carried out by

reburying the eggs as whole nests as collected

in a mid-river sandbank at Korea Mohan

which was enclosed by a predator-proof wood

and wire-mesh enclosure with access through

a hatch in the roof.

Due to unseasonable weather in 1977—pre-

monsoon showers started at the time of egg-

laying in early April and continued until the

onset of the monsoon—this sandbank flooded

well before hatching. Anticipating this the

nests were all removed several weeks prior to

hatching and completed their incubation in

sand in metal trunks in a specially-heated room

at Tiger Tops Jungle Lodge, Royal Chitwan

National Park. As far as possible this room

was maintained between 30-32°C but tempera-

tures sometimes fell below this range. In 1978

eggs were incubated in the same island hat-

chery but again had to be moved due to early

floods, this time to the Park headquarters at

Kasara, where the hatchery room was main-

tained between 30-35°C with aid of heaters.

RESULTS

The data recorded during the three years

are given in Tables 1-4. The various topics

GHARIAL FROM NARAYANI RIVER

are taken up separately below:

Clutch Size:

Clutch size in 1976 varied from 18 to 40

eggs (mean 28.6, Table 1). In 1977 the range

was 16-61 (mean 36.9) eggs (Table 2) and

in 1978 18-45 (mean 31) eggs (Tables 3 and

4).

The differences in mean clutch size between

1976 and 1977 should be noted (28.6 and 36.9

eggs) respectively—a mean increase/clutch of

8.3 eggs in 1977 as compared to 1976. In 1978

mean clutch size at 31 eggs was intermediate

between the two previous years.

Nesting Season:

The nesting season is usually very discrete,

at least in any one area. It proceeded up river

towards the hill country (Bustard, in prepn.

b). In 1976 all the nests collected on the Nara-

yani river between Royal Chitwan National

Park and the Indian border were laid between

29 March and 8 April (Table 1). However,

one nest on the Narayani upstream of the

National Park was not laid until 19 April and

two nests on the small stretch of the Kali-Gan-

daki were laid nine days apart (12 and 21

April).

The data for 1977 show very discrete nest-

ing by nesting area (Table 2). In 1978 nesting

is again all very discrete, all occurring within

six days (2-7 April) for eight nests for which

date of laying is known (Table 3).

Fertility:

In many nests (see Tables 1 and 2) a siz-

able proportion of the eggs would appear to

be infertile at least according to the criteria

for fertility given above.

The mean percentage fertility in 1976 was

50.4 (data provided by Mr. L. A. K. Singh).

In 1977 I recorded a mean percentage fertility

of 82.5 which would appear more normal.

Comparable data were apparently not recerd-

ed in 1978.

Percentage Hatch:

The percentage hatch also varied greaily

(Table 1-4) from a low of 24.2% (1976) to

a high of 75.1% (1977). The overall figure

for 1978 was 52.5% but this is increased to

65.3% if the results of the three nests left

for natural incubation are not included.

Incubation Period:

The mean for the incubation period for the

three years (excluding those three nests left

in nature in 1978) were 84, 94 and 83

days for the years 1976, 1977 and 1978 res-

pectively (Tables 1-3). The considerable varia-

tions within any one year should be noted,

the incubation spread being 16, 15 and 8

days in each of the three years respectively.

DISCUSSION

inter-year variations in clutch size:

Major interest centres around the large

mean differences in clutch size between years.

It is known that in many species of reptiles,

larger (older) females lay more eggs (Bustard

1972), although this is not necessarily the case,

as some species would appear to be exceptions

(Bustard, ibid.). However, at least in those

species laying larger egg clutches inter-year

differences in clutch size or total egg produc-

tion, may be more important than any effect

of larger clutches from larger females, as

shown by Bustard (ibid.) on the basis of very

extensive data for the green sea turtle (C.

mydas), a species in which clutch size is posi-

tively correlated with female size.

Bustard postulated that these inter-year

differences in egg production by C. mydas,

may reflect differing feeding opportunities in

the inter-nesting years spent at sea. In the cas<

of the gharial, data were recorded on a small

number of breeding females which presumably

bred annually. The 1976 data (on nine nests)

101

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

shows a mean clutch size of 25.5 eggs where-

as the 1977 data (on 16 nests) shows a mean

clutch size of 36.9 eggs—a mean increase/

clutch of 11.4 eggs. No obvious explanation

is available to explain these differences. In

1978 the data on 10 nests gave an intermediate

figure of 31.0 eggs. These differences cannot

be explained on the basis of sampling biases

as an attempt was made to collect every nest

each year.

An examination of the distribution of clutch

size variations in the various years indicates

that in all three years there were no clutches

of under 10 eggs (the smallest clutches in the

three years were 16, 16 and 18 eggs respec-

tively). The largest clutch sizes were 39, 61

and 45 eggs respectively. However, the mean

of 36.9 eggs in 1977 reflects a marked shift

towards larger clutch sizes in all nests. Twelve

(of 16) nests fell in the 31-40 clutch size

group in 1977 and three occurred in larger

groups as opposed to three (of 9) in this group

in 1976 which represented the largest clutch

size grouping in 1976.

Discrete nesting season:

The discrete nesting season of this popula-

tion of the gharial has been commented upon

elsewhere for the 1977 nesting season (Bus-

tard, in prepn. b). The data presented here

indicates that a very discrete nesting season

characterised all three years.

Fertility:

A percentage of apparently infertile eggs

are a feature of most reptiles which deposit

large clutches of eggs. However, the percentage

fertility figure for 1976 (of 50.4%) should be

treated with caution as it appears abnormally

low. It seems likely that some early embryo-

nic deaths may have remained undetected at

subsequent examination. The 82.5% figure for

1977 is considered more normal. Examination

102

of the intra-nest data (Table 2) indicates that

fertility varies from a high of 100% (two

nests) to a low of 22.8% but with the excep-

tion of this single nest and one of 59% the

lowest per cent fertility recorded was 73%.

Percentage Hatch:

The percentage hatch figures are clearly

closely related to the level of fertility. Exami-

nation of the detailed data for 1977 shows

that most fertile eggs result in hatchlings. The

differences between fertility and percentage

hatch figures are accounted for by embryonic

deaths—which except for exceptional circum-

stances such as flooding—are usually relatively

few.

Hatching results were extremely poor in

1976. Reasons for this are not known. ‘The

distance over which the eggs were transported,

1400 km. was not a key factor, gharial eggs

often being transported over very long dist-

ances in the Project either freshly laid or two-

thirds incubated and subsequently achieve very

high levels of successful hatch (Bustard in

prepn. a.; and S. Choudhury, unpubl.). The

1977 hatching figures (75%), on the other

hand are surprisingly good, as nest tempera-

tures were extremely low (near 28.3C) due to

the persistant wet weather throughout the in-

cubation period (Bustard, in prepn. b). Fur-

thermore, these eggs were dug up twice during

incubation, once when freshly laid, and again

towards the end of the incubation period, to

complete their incubation in a heated room

where, in the absence of electricity, tempera-

tures were frequently less than ideal. The 1978

hatch (65%) was likewise achieved by HMG

Nepal staff despite having to move the eggs

twice at similar times to 1977.

Natura! nest failures:

The reason for the very poor incubation

success of at least two of three nest left in

GHARIAL FROM NARAYANI RIVER

TABLE 1

DATE OF EGG LAYING, NESTING SITE, CLUTCH SIZE, HATCHING SUCCESS AND INCUBATION PERIOD (DAYS) IN

1976.

Nest Date of Location Clutch Number “Percentage ; Number Percentage Iucubation

No. Laying Size Fertile Fertile Hatched Hatched Period

1 2Fi3 Narayani River 27 19 70.4 4 14.8 85

243* 3/4 Narayani River 41 33 80.5 13 S17 85-6

4. 5/4 Narayani River 18 17 94.4 3 16.7 83

Ne 8/4 Narayani River 39 20 S13 17 43.6 716

6 8/4 Kali-Gandaki 32 29 90.6 23 71.9 92

7 12/4 Kali-Gandaki 24 0 0 0 0 -—

8 19/4 Narayani River 33 22 66.7 5 1542 84-5

9 21/4 Kali-Gandaki 16 0 0 0 0 =

Mean — a acne 50.4 ee 84

* These nests were collected by local people and the eggs mixed prior to their reaching project staff.

TABLE 2

DATE OF EGG LAYING, NESTING SITE, CLUTCH SIZE, HATCHING SUCCESS AND INCUBATION PERIOD (DAYS) IN

1977.

Nest Date of Clutch Number Percentage Number Percentage Incubation

No. Laying Size Fertile Fertile Hatched Hatched Period

1. 4/4 39 23 59.0 22 56.4 95

Dy, 4/4 16 12 75.0 8 50.0 94-6

Qe 1/4 47* 36 78.2 DS 54.3 98-102

4, 6/4 38* 27 73.0 25 67.5 93-95

5 2/4 33* 32 100.0 a2 100.0 99

6 1/4 32 32 100.0 28 90.6 95

Ti 3/4 61 53 90.6 50 82.9 95-7

8. 31/3 31 29 93.5 29 9355 99-101

9. 31/3 SOLE* 8 76.6 36 76.6 101-2

10. 3/4 34 32 94.1 28 82.3 96

11. 8/4 37* 33 91.7 33 89.1 91-2

12s 14/4 35 8 22.8 8 22.8 89

13. 14/4 Se 33 O17 33 91.6 88-89

14. 8/4 31 27 87.1 22 70.9 90-91

Se 9/4 37 ** 35 100.0 34 Sipeat 87-8

16. 10/4 33* 28 87.5 29 75.7 89-90

Mean — 36.9 = 82.5 + Baal 94

Note: Due to damage at the time of laying the number incubated may vary slightly from the number

laid. Clutches marked (*) indicate that 1 egg less, (**) 2 eggs less and (***) 3 eggs less that

the clutch size was incubated.

103

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

TABLE 3

DATE OF EGG LEYING, NESTING SITE, CLUTCH SIZE, HATCHING SUCCESS AND INCUBATION PERIOD (DAYS) IN

1978. ALL PLACES NAMED REFER TO NARAYANI RIVER.

Nest Date of Location Clutch Number Percentage Incubation

No Laying Size Hatched Hatched Period

ibe 3/4 Tamaspur 45 40 88.8 84

2, 3/4 Badarjhola 44 18 40.9 85-7

3h 4/4 Badarjhola 42 40 95.2 83-4

4. 5/4 Tamaspur 25 17 73.9 83

Se 6/4 Tamaspur 18 2, 1) pa 89

6. 6/4 Tamaspur 29 25 86.2 81

Te 7/4 Tamaspur 24 5 20.8 83

TABLE 4

DATE OF EGG LAYING, NESTING SITE, CLUTCH SIZE, HATCHING SUCCESS AND INCUBATION PERIOD (DAYS) FOR

THREE NESTS LEFT FOR NATURAL INCUBATION IN 1978

A NA BE SEE EFT FSS A SE ET SY EO TE

Nest Date of Location Clutch Number Percentage Incubation

No Laying Size Hatched —- Hatched Period

ie Not recorded Badarjhola 23 10 56.5 Not known

2. Not recorded Badarjhola 27* 0 0 Not known

8} 6.0 105

2-4-1978 Deoghat

* Eggs markedly smaller than normal.

nature in 1978 is not known.

The clutch of markedly smaller eggs may

well have been defective. The HMG Nepal

report (Maskey and Ram Pritt 1978) does

not provide information on this point. It

would seem, however, that early onset of the

monsoon resulted in water logging of the nests,

resulting in total loss of two nests and loss of

most of the eggs in the third nest the only

eggs hatching being the uppermost which were

not flooded. A similar situation has been ob-

served in the Saltwater Crocodile (Crocodylus

porosus) by Webb et al. (1977) and by Kar

and Bustard (in prepn.). In the absence of

104

concrete data this is purely hypothesis, how-

ever, Bustard (in prepn. b), on the basis of his

data, stated that in 1977 most natural nests

in Narayani would have failed to hatch be-

cause of water logging following early onset

of the monsoon. It appears that this was again

the situation in 1978.

Incubation period:

The means for 1976 and 1978 vary by only

one day (83 and 84 days respectively). The

ten-eleven day longer incubation period in

1977 is explicable on the basis of the very

low temperatures existing in the natural sand-

GHARIAL FROM NARAYANI RIVER

banks in that year, commented on by Bustard

(in prepn., b), as a result of pre-monsoon

showers commencing in early April at the time

of egg laying, and persisting until the onset

of the monsoon proper in June. Since egg in-

cubation is temperature-related, the persistant

rains, which coo! down the nesting sandbanks,

result in a lengthened incubation period.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am indebted to; HMG Nepal National

Parks and Wildlife Conservation Office, in

particular the respective Chiefs, Mr. P. B. S.

Pradhan and Mr. B. B. Shah, for authorities

to carry out this work; Mr. H. Mishra, Gov-

ernment Biologist; Mr. Ram Pritt Yadav,

Special Officer (Gharial) who worked with me

in 1977; Tiger Tops Pvt. Limited in particular

Mr. Jim Edwards, Mr. John Edwards and Dr.

C. McDougal for many kindnesses, assistances

and provision of an incubation room in 1977;

Mr. L. A. K. Singh for information on hatch-

ing success of 1976 eggs; Mr. Ashish Chan-

dola for assistance in the operation of the

heated hatchery at Tiger Tops in 1977; and

Mr. P. C. Pani, Range Officer, Gharial Pro-

ject, Orissa, who accompanied me to Nepal

during both the 1976 and 1977 egg collections

and greatly facilitated the logistical side of the

operation.

REFERENCES

Bustarp, H. R. (1972): Sea Turtles: Conserva-

tion and Natural History. Collins, London and

Sydney.

—————— _ (in prepn., a): Conservation of the

Gharial Gavialis gangeticus (Gmelin) (Reptilia;

Crocodilia) in Nepal.

(In prepn., b): Nesting Ecology of

the Gharial Gavialis gangeticus (Gmelin) in

Narayani River, Nepal.

CuHoupuary, S. (1980): Ecological Studies on the

Gharial Gavialis gangeticus (Gmelin). Ph.D.

thesis. University of Lucknow.

Kar, S. & Busrarp, H. R. (in prepn.): Nesting

ecology of the Saltwater Crocodile (Crocodvlus

porosus Schneider).

MASKEY, T. M. & Yapav, R. P. (1978): Report

on Gharial Breeding. Unpubl. Rep. to HMG Nepal,

National Parks and Wild Life Conservation Office.

SmitH, MatcoLtm (1931): The Fauna of British

India. Reptilia and Amphibia. J Loricata, Testudines.

Taylor & Francis. London.

Wess, G. J. MEsSEL, H. AND MAGNUSSON, W.

(1977): The nesting of Crocodylus porosus in ARN-

HEM LAND, NORTHERN’ TERRITORY, AUSTRALIA.

Copeia 1977 (2): 238-249.

PARSHAD, B. (1914): The Gharial (Gavialis gan-

geticus). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 23: 369-370.

105

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

PSEUDOSCORPIONS FROM SOUTH INDIA—FOUR NEW SPECIES

OF THE FAMILY CHERNETIDAE MANGE AND CHELIFERIDAE

HAGEN (PSEUDOSCORPIONIDA, MONOSPHYRONIDA)!

S. SIVARAMAN?

(With four text-figures)

Lamprochernes indicus sp. nov. of the family Chernetidae Mange and Withius suis

sp. nov., Metawithius (Microwithius) chamundiensis and M. (M.)_ bulli sv. nov.

are described from South India and compared with related species. A Key to the

new species is also given.

INTRODUCTION

The members of the super family Chelife-

roidea, Chamberlin are widely distributed in

Continental India. A number of species were

described from India and Ceylon by Beier

(1973, 1974) and Murthy and Ananthakrish-

nan (1977). In the present paper, new species

of the genera Lamprochernes Tomosvary,

Withius Kew and Metawithius Chamberlin are

described. Lamprochernes indicus sp. nov. and

Withius suis sp. nov. were collected from soil

litter by using modified Berlese funnel (Siva-

raman 1979) and Metawithius species were

collected from bark of trees. The type mate-

rial is deposited in the Museum of the De-

partment of Zoology, Loyola College, Mad-

ras.

KEY TO THE NEW SPECIES OF FAMILIES CHERNETIDAE

AND CHELIFERIDAE:

1. Accessory teeth absent: both palpal fingers with

equally developed venom tooth and venedens;

‘Accepted February 1980.

“ Department of Zoology, Loyola College, Mad-

ras 600034, India.

106

flagellum with 4-5 setae; Sternites of male most-

ly with special Setigerous area; (Family Cheli-

feridae Hagen and subfamily Withinae Cham-

berlin)e st vehicle eee eee eee 2

Accessory teeth present atleast in smaller num-

bers; only the movable finger of the palp with

venom tooth and venedens; very rarely with

rudimentary venedens on the fixed finger, if so,

the accessory teeth very clear. (Family Cherne-

tidae, Mange)...Lamprochernes indicus sp. nov.

. Carapace with sides subparallel, as wide at the

region of the anterior furrow as at the posterior

border; males with patches of microsetae on

Sternites V to IX or X (both inclusive) with

true eyes. .22.4... hate, Withius suis sp. nov.

Carapace broader at the anterior furrow region

or slightly anterior there to; sides converging

abruptly infront and gradually to the rear;

males with patches of microsetae on Sternites

VII to TX (both inclusive) only with eye-spots.

(Genus Metawithius Chamberlin and subgenus

Microwithius Redikozev). .......cs0scc5eee>s 3

Serrula exterior with 17 blades; palpal and

pedal podomeres slender. .............. Meta-

withius (Microwithius) chamundiensis sp. nov.

Serrula exterior with 15 blades; palpal and pedal

podomeres stouter.

Metawithius (Microwithius) bulli sp. nov.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Lamprochernes indicus sp. nov. (Fig. 1)

Carapace and palps dark yellowish brown

and the remaining parts light yellowish brown;

carapace smooth, with rounded granules on

the lateral margins; with anterior prominent

groove, nearly median and posterior grouve

obscure and nearly median between anterior

groove and posterior margin of carapace; eyes

or eye-spots absent; anterior end with 8, pos-

terior margin with 10 setae; carapace distinct-

ly longer than broad, 1.25 times as long as

wide.

Tergites fairly sclerotised; all tergites and

sternites except I, II and III divided more or

less clearly by a nearly linear suture; tergites

1 and II markedly narrowed; tergal chaetotaxy

of an imperfect biseriate type, with about 6

Aig

\ lif 1%

yl ty

NO AZ Z

’

discal and 16 marginal setae, posteriorly with

6 discal and 20 marginal setae; sternal chae-

totaxy similar, with 6 discal and 18 to 20 mar-

ginal setae; tergites with prominent lateral

maculae or spots occupying nearly the full

outer half of each scute; but less prominent

on sternites; X tergite with 2 and XI tergite

with 6 pseudotactile setae and X and XI

sternites with two pseudotactile setae each;

pleural membrane reticulostriate. Vestitural

setae long, slender and acuminate.

Palin of the chelicera with reticulate mark-

ings, with 5 setae sb and 6 short; flagellum

with 3 blades; fixed finger with 3 terminal

serrations followed by 3 triangular teeth; api-

cal tooth of the movable finger well developed,

subapical tooth blunt; lamina interior with 4

aA,

Wht hee

TIO0. OE

Fig. 1. Lamprochernes indicus sp. nov. A—Chela lateral view; B—Palp entire (@).

107

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

dentate sub-apical lobes; serrula exterior with

17 ligulate blades; galea of the male stout and

short and of female, prominent with 3 ter-

minal and 2 subterminal curved branches;

galea seta long and acuminate; shorter than

galea and equa! to the Jength of galea in the

male. Chelicerae, 2.5 times as long as deep,

1.5 times as long as the movable finger.

Palps longer than the body, segments fair-

ly robust; finely granulated on the flexor mar-

gins of femur, tibia and near the base of chelal

fingers. Trochanter coarsely granulated, with

a prominent cone-like protruberance; 1.75 to

1.8 times as long as wide; femur robust, gently

concave anteriorly and strongly convex post-

eriorly; pedicellate; slightly shorter than tibia

1.34 time as long as trochanter and 1.75 to

1.85 times as long as wide; tibia slightly but

distinctly shorter than carapace; with a curv-

ed pedicel, 1.85 to 1.95 times as long as wide;

chela robust; pedicellate, 2.45 to 2.55 times

(with pedicel), 2.28 to 2.35 times (without

pedicei) as long as wide; hand more or less

conical in dorsal view, slightly longer than

tibia; 1.41 to 1.45 times (with pedicel), 1.22

to 1.28 times (without pedicel) as long as

wide; fingers gently curved and only slightly

longer than the breadth of hand and shorter

than the length of hand; chela, 1.84 times as

Jong as tibia; fixed finger with 29 and movable

finger with 32 marginal teeth; movable finger

with four accessory teeth opposite to the 10th

to 21st marginal teeth at regular intervals; the

exterior accessory teeth absent; fixed finger

with two subapical accessory teeth interiorly

nearer to the 4th and 5th marginal teeth; sb

and b separated by three areolar diameters;

st in between ¢ and sb; nodus ramosus oppo-

site to 18th marginal tooth and cauded to 1;

et nearly terminal, opposite to 7th marginal

teeth; it distad of median and much distal

of est; est and ist about opposite to each

108

other; the distance between the finger tip and

it more than the distance between isb and ist;

isb, ib, esb and eb proximal of basal marginal

teeth; a submedian pseudotactile seta occurr-

ing on each finger; two dense sensory—spots

interiorly between ist and isb; four such spots

proximed of ish and esb; three more sensory

spots distal of esb exteriorly; movable finger

devoid of such spots.

Legs stout, smooth with vestitural setae;

basifemur shorter than telofemur and mov-

ably articulated.

Leg. I: femur (both segments), 2.89 times;

tibia, 3.82 times and tarsus, 3.8 times as long

as deep. Vestitural setae of tibia and tarsus

long and acuminate. Leg IV: femur (both

segments), 3.5 times; tibia, 3.88 times; tarsus,

4.18 times as long as deep. Leg III with one

pseudotactile seta at the middle region of the

tarsus and Leg IV with pseudotactile setae

one at the distal half of tibia and another at

the 1/3rd of the proximal half of tarsus.

Male genitalia of characteristic lamprocher-

netine type, female genitalia simple with tuft

of 18 setae in the anteriomedial region and

posteriorly guarded with a row of 10 setae.

Holotype: female (Measurements in mm.):

Total body length, 2.380; abdominal

breadth, 0.780; carapace, 0.612 by 0.489; che-

licera, 0.334 by 0.133; movable finger, 0.289

long.

Palps: trochanter, 0.311 by 0.178; femur,

0.417 by 0.234; tibia, 0.478 by 0.256; chela,

0.878 (without pedicel, 0.812) by 0.356; hand,

0.500 (without pedicel, 0.434) by 0.356; fing-

ers, 0.378 long.

Leg I: miofemur, 0.289 by 0.100; tibia,

0.234 by 0.061; tarsus, 0.211 by 0.056. Leg

IV: miofemur, 0.467 by 0.133: tibia, 0.345

by 0.089; tarsus, 0.256 by 0.061.

Collected from soil litter, Bangalore, Kar-

nataka, 10-7-1977.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Allotype: male (Measurements in mm):

Total body length, 2.18; maximum width,

0.712. Collected from soil litter, Bangalore,

Karnataka, 10.7.1977.

Paratype: 2 females and one male collected

from the same locality, 10-7-1977.

This new species is very closely related to

L. oblongus (Say) in having st of the movable

palpal finger in the middle in between sb and 7

and the palpal fingers shorter than that of

hand without pedicel. It couid be separated

from the same by the stouter nature of paipal

femur and slender nature of chela (L. indicus

—femur, 1.75 to 1.85 times and chela with

pedicel, 2.45 to 2.55 times as long as wide;

L. oblongus—femur, 2.0 times and chela, 2.3

times as long as wide) and the elongated

nature of the body. L. indicus sp. nov. can be

separated from L. savignyi (Simon), record-

ed from India by Beier, by the position of

st in between ¢ and sb and stouter nature of

palpal femur and tibia.

Withius suis sp. nov. (Fig. 2)

Carapace well sclerotised, anterior 1/3 re-

gion reddish and posterior 2/3 region brown-

ish in males; moderately sclerotised in females;

carapacal furrows distinct; anterior furrow

slightly anterior to the first pair of legs and

the posterior in a level with second pair of

legs; anterior region deeply convex and the

posterior region much flattened; sides sub-

parallel with the maximum width in the pos-

terior region; postero-lateral regions membran-

ous; anterior pair of eyes well developed; sur-

face of the carapace with a large number of

well distributed plumose setae; anterior end

with 6 and posterior end with 12 such setae;

carapace, 1.31 times as long as wide.

Fig. 2. Withius suis sp. nov. A—Pedipalp entire (4); B—Chela lateral view.

109

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

Tergites brownish; well sclerotised; tergites

completely divided excepting XII; tergites I

to III uniseriate and the rest biseriaie; tergal

chaetotaxy of male; 12—12—12—6/10—6/10

—6/12 — 6/10 — 6/12 — 6/10 —6/8 — 8—

2m., female with lesser number of setae with

the chaetotaxy: 8—10—12—2/10—2/8—4/10

—4/10—4/10—10—2m. Sternites less sclero-

tised than the tergites; sternites IV to X com-

pletely divided; sternal chaetotaxy of female

from the IV sternite: 2/12—2/10—4/12—4/

12—4/10—4/10—4/8—10—2m. (The num-

bers in the upper row indicate the discal

series and those in the lower row indicate the

marginal series). Sternal chaetotaxy of male

characteristic; sternite IV to IX with bristle

patches in the median region of the scute,

each patch with 25 to 30 setae; more setae

are seen in the posterior sternites. Sternite

with 14 setae, XI with 8 setae and XII with

2 setae; X and XI tergites and sternites with

four pseudotactile setae each.

Palm of the chelicera nongranulated but

with net like markings; with 5 setae; /s, es

and is long; sb and 6 short and acuminate;

fixed finger with 3 terminal serrations follow-

ed by 4 triangular teeth; lamina interior well

developed with an elongated apical dentate

process; apical tooth of the movable finger

curved and blunt and subapical tooth flattened

and blunt; galea of male short, stout with

three terminal vestigeal bud-like projections,

galea of female stout with two terminal and

one subterminal branches; galeal seta equal

to the length of galea; serrula exterior with

14 blades; flagellum with 4 blades, distal one

serrated; chelicerae, 1.73 times as long as

deep and 1.36 times as long as movable

finger.

Palps reddish brown, dorsal tubercle of tro-

chanter, flexor and extensor margins of femur

and tibia well and coarsely granulated; most

110

of the vestitural setae of the trochanter, femur

and tibia plumose; trochanter with a short

pedicel and dorsal tubercle; 1.83 times as long

as wide; femur with a short pedicel; extensor

margin strongly convex and the flexor margin

more or less straight; 3.24 times as long as

wide; tibia with a long pedicel, which 14

times as long as wide; clavate; 2.79 times as

long as wide; chela slender with a short pedi-

cel, 3.78 times (with pedicel), 3.0 times (with-

out pedicel) as long as wide; hand shorter

than femur and tibia and much longer than

fingers; 2.17 times (with pedicel), 1.83 times

(without pedicel) as long as wide, fingers,

0.74 times as long as the hand (with pedicel)

and 0.43 times as long as the chela (with

pedicel); fingers equal in length; ist of the

fixed finger proximal in position, est closer

to et than to esb; almost in the middle region

of the finger; ib and eb in a same level; /t

below the level of est and proximal in posi-

tion. Venom glands and venom ducts well

developed in both the fingers; movable finger

with 32 teeth of which the proximal teeth are

flattened and fixed finger with 30 retroconical

teeth.

Legs yellowish in female and brownish in

male; weakly granulated; vestitural setae

mostly acuminate and in some regions clavate.

Leg i: basifemur shorter than telofemur; basi-

femur, 0.83 times; telofemur, 2.0 times; tibia,

4.0 times and tarsus, 5.0 times as long as

deep. Leg IV: miofemur robust and stout;

longer than tibia; tibia more swollen along

the flexor margin; miofemur, 3.03 times;

tibia, 5.0 times and tarsus, 5.8 times as long

as deep; without pseudotactile setae; however

2 elongated setae are seen near the tip of the

tarsus, claws normal, arolium simple and un-

divided; shorter than claws.

Male genitalia complicated with 6 setae on

either side of the operculum; female genitalia

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

with one median and two lateral cribriform

plates; coxal area sexually differentiated; IV

coxa of female broader with a cluster of acu-

minate bristles (12) in the posterior area;

coxal area of male simple.

Holotype: male (Measurements in mm):

Total body length, 2.246; maximum width,

0.834; carapace, 0.70 by 0.534; chelicerae,

0.211 by 0.122; fingers, 0.156 long.

Palps: trochanter, 0.367 by 0.20; femur,

0.612 by 0.187; tibia, 0.589 by 0.211; chela

0.967 (without pedicel, 9.767) by 0.256; hand,

0.556 (without pedicel, 0.467) by 0.256; fin-

gers, 0.411 long.

Leg I: basifemur, 0.111 by 0.133; telofe-

mur, 0.267 by 0.133; tibia, 0.289 by 0.072;

tarsus, 0.278 by 0.056. Leg IV: miofemur,

0.523 by 0.172; tibia, 0.445 by 0.089; tarsus,

0.322 by 0.056.

Collected from debris of piggery, Madras,

31-3-1976.

Allotype: female (Measurements in mm):

Total body length, 2.091; maximum width,

OT7 12;

Collected from debris of piggery, Madras,

31-3-1976.

This species is very closely related to With-

ius indicus Murthy & Ananthakrishnan in

having similar number of setae on tergites

and sternites. It can be differentiated by the

slender nature of palpal podomeres; the seti-

gerous area of the sternites of males having

lesser number of sensory spines and much

slender nature of IV pair of walking leg.

It can be separated from W. subruber

(Simon) (closely related to W. indicus), by

the galea being sexually differentiated and the

longer nature of the body.

Metawithius (Microwithius) chamundiensis

sp. nov. (Fig. 3)

Carapace brownish, densely and coarsely

granulated; very distinctly constricted from

the middle region towards the distal. Anterior

transverse furrow well developed and deep,

granulated within; posterior furrow distinct

but shallow. Anterior furrow strongly arched

forwards at the sides. Eye spots two, large

and distinct and non corneate. Vestitural!

setae mostly plumose. Anterior end of the

carapace straight with 6 small clavate setae;

cucullus well developed; posterior end with 10

plumose setae. Carapace, 1.34 times as long

as wide.

Tergites transversely well granulated, and

undivided; tergal setae short and strongly plu-

mose. Chaetotaxy of male 10—10—10—8(4)

—10(4)/2 — 10(4)/2 — 10(4)/2 — 10(4)/

2—8 (4) /2—6(2) /2—10—0. Tergite XI with 2

elongated tactile setae. Sternites ill sclerotised,

sternal setae simple and acute. Sternal chaeto-

taxy of male from the IV sternite shows cha-

racteristic difference 10 — 10 — 12 — 10/

(24) — 10(2)/(25) — 10(2)/(26) — 10(2)

—10—2m. The sternites VII to IX of the

male with, roundish areas near the median line,

each with 24—26 closely approximated, rather

long and conical sensory spines. Sternite X1

with 4 slightly elongated pseudotactile setae;

in female the setal patches on the sternites

absent.

Palm of the chelicera very finely granulated

and rasplike. All the 5 setae well developed;

Is and is long and acuminate. es, sb and hb

of equal and of moderate length and acumi-

nate. Flagellum with 4 blades, the second

branch from the distal is the longest, acumi-

nate and not serrated. Fixed finger with 3

terminal serrations followed by 3 triangular

teeth. Lamina interior well developed with 6

serrations followed by 2 rounded dentate

lobes. Basally the lamina is very broad, more

or less closing the gap between the two fin-

gers. Movable finger with apical tooth well

111

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

Fig. 3.

developed and subapical tooth is lobe like.

Serrula exterior with 17 blades; in male galea

seta equal to the length of the galea; stout

and terminally blunt; in female galea slender

and terminally branched with 3 rami. Cheli-

cera, 2.11 times, as long as deep.

Palps yellowish brown, coarsely well granu-

lated excepting the pedicels and chela. Palpal

segments slender; vestitural setae of the podo-

meres excepting the chela clavate.

Trochanter with a long pedicel, dorsal

tubercle well developed; 1.4 times as long as

wide. Femur with a short pedicel, more or

less swollen along the extensor margin, with

112

Metawithius (Microwithius) chamundiensis sp. noy. A—Chela lateral view;

B—Pedipalp entire (2).

the maximum width in the basal region, 2.77

times as long as wide; tibia with a long pedi-

cel, 1.3 times as long as wide; medially swol-

len in the flexor margin and distally swollen

in the extensor margin, 2.75 times as long as

wide; chela smooth, rounded, posteriorly

swollen on the flexor margin, 3.55 times (with

pedicel), 3.32 times (without pedicel) as long

as wide. Hand, 2.1 times (with pedicel), 1.86

times (without pedicel) as long as wide; hand

with pedicel more or less equal to the length

of tibia and slightly longer than that of femur;

hand distinctly longer than fingers. Fingers sub-

equal in size, 0.40 times as long as the chela

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

and 0.70 times as iong as the hand. Venom

teeth and glands equally developed in both

the fingers. Movable finger with 30 and fixed

finger with 29 retroconical teeth. Proximal

1/5 of both the fingers devoid of teeth. The

tactile setae sb and b of the movable finger

basal in position and separated by two areolar

diameters st midway between sb and 1; ¢

in the distal half of the finger; i¢ proximal

in position in a level with ist; est in the distal

region of the finger.

Legs robust, golden yellowish in colour,

finely granulated; vestitural setae clavate and

acuminate. Leg I: basifemur shorter than

telofemur, 0.90 times as long as deep; telo-

femur, 1.9 times; tibia, 3.07 times; tarsus, 4.44

times as long as deep. Leg IV: miofemur,

2.71 times; tibia ,4.42 times; tarsus, 4.6 times

as long as deep. Tarsus with a pseudotactile

seta situated slightly distal of the middle re-

gion; 0.52 times as long as the tarsus. Claws

normal, arolium entire and equal in length to

that of claws.

Male genitalia well developed, genital sacs

well elongated. Anterior operculum with 2

setae on either side.

Holotype: male (Measurements in mi.):

Total body length, 1.946; maximum width,

0.767: carapace, 0.611 by 0.455; chelicera,

0.211 by 0.100.

Palps: trochanter, 0.20 by 0.145; femur,

0.478 by 0.172; tibia, 0.489 by 0.178; chela,

0.867 (with pedicel), 0.812 (without pedicel)

by 0.245; hand, 0.512 (with pedicel), 0.456

(without pedicel) by 0.245; fingers, 0.355

long.

Leg I: basifemur, 0.111 by 0.122; telofe-

mur, 0.233 by 0.122; tibia, 0.233 by 0.122; tar-

sus, 0.222 by 0.056.

Leg IV: miofemur, 0.422 by 0.155; tibia,

0.344 by 0077; tarsus, 0.255 by 0.055.

Collected from barks, Chamundi Hills,

Mysore, Karnataka State, 25-5-1977.

This species is related to Metawithius (M.)

indicus Murthy & Ananthakrishnan in having

the patches of setae on the sternites VII to

IX. It can be easily separated from M. (M.)

indicus by the slender nature of the chela

and the slender nature of the podomeres of

the IV pair of walking legs and by the un-

divided nature of the tergites and simple un-

branched nature of the galea of the male.

Metawithius (Microwithius) bulli sp. nov.

(Fig. 4)

Carapace with two distinct anterior furrows;

wider at the region of the anterior furrow;

brownish, densely and coarsely granulated;

very distinctly contsricted from the middle

region towards the distal. Anterior furrow

well developed and strongly arched forwards

at the sides; posterior furrow distinct but

shallow. Eye spots two, large and non cor-

neate. Vestitura! setae mostly plumose. An-

terior end of the carapace straight with 6

small clavate setae; cucullus well developed;

posterior end with 12 plumose setae. Cara-

pace, 1.1 to 1.2 times as long as wide.

Tergites transversely well granulated and

undivided; tergal setae short and strongly

plumose. Chaetotaxy of male 10—12—10—

12(2) — 10(4)/2 — 10(4)/2 — 10(4)/2 —

8(4)/2 — 8(4)/2 — 8(4)/2 — 12 — 2m.

Tergite XI with 2 elongated tactile setae. Ster-

nites ill-sclerotised, sternal setae simple and

acute; sternal chaetotaxy of male from IV

sternite shows characteristic difference 10-10

—12 — 15/(25) — 14(2)/(25)—10(2)/(25)

—10(2) — 12 — 2m. Sternites VII to IX of

the male with roundish areas near the median

line, each with 25 closely approximated, long

and sensory spines. Sternite XI with 4 slightly

elongated pseudotactile setae; in female the

setal patches on the sternites are absent.

113

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

Fig. 4. Metawithius (Microwithius) bulli sp. nov. A—Chela lateral view; B—Pedipalp

entire (4).

Palm of the chelicera very finely granulated

and rasplike. All the five setae well develop-

ed; except b all the other four setae (ls, is,

es and sb) are long and acuminate. Flagellum

with 4 blades and not serrated. Fixed finger

with 3 terminal serrations followed by 3 trian-

gular teeth. Lamina interior well developed

with 6 serrations followed by 2 rounded lobes.

Movable finger with the apical tooth well

developed and subapical tooth lobe like;

serrula exterior with 15 blades. In male galeal

seta short, stout and blunt terminally; in

female galea slender and terminally branched

with 3 rami; chelicera, 1.9 times as long as

deep.

Palps yellowish brown, densely granulated

114

excepting the pedicels and chela. Palpal seg-

ments stout; vestitural setae of the podomeres

excepting the chela clavate. Trochanter with

a long pedicel, dorsal and lateral tubercles

well developed; 1.67 to 1.72 times as long as

wide. Femur with a short pedicel, more swol-

len along the extensor margin with the maxi-

mum width in the basal region, 2.56 to 2.7

times as long as wide; tibia with a long pedi-

cel; medially swollen in the flexor margin and

distally swollen in the extensor margin, 2.3

to 2.6 times as long as wide; chela smooth,

posteriorly swollen on the flexor margin, 2.9

to 3.3 times (with pedicel), 2.7 to 3.1 times

(without pedicel) as long as wide. Hand, 1.8

to 2.0 times (with pedicel) 1.5 to 1.7 times

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

(without pedicel) as long as wide; hand with

pedicel more or less equal to the length of

tibia and femur; hand distinctly longer than

fingers. Fingers subequal in size, 0.42 times

as long as the chela and 0.63 times as long as

the hand. Venom teeth and glands equally

developed in both fingers. Movable finger

with 33 and fixed finger with 27 retroconical

teeth. Proximal 1/5 of both the fingers de-

void of teeth. The tactile setae sb and 6 of

the movable finger basal in position and sepa-

rated by one areolar diameter; sf inidway

between sb and 1; ¢ in the exact middle region

of the finger; it in the middle of the finger

more or less in a level with ist; est in the dis-

tal region of the finger.

Legs robust, golden yellowish in colour,

finely granulated; vestitural setae clavate and

acuminate. Leg I: basifemur shorter than

telofemur, 0.83 times as long as deep; telofe-

mur, 2.08 times; tibia, 3.28 times; tarsus, 4.0

times as long as deep. Leg IV: miofemur,

2.56 times; tibia, 3.77 times, tarsus, 4.16 times

as long as deep. Tarsus with a pseudotactile

seta situated in the middle region; 0.6 times

as long as the tarsus. Claws normal, arolium

entire and slightly shorter than the claws.

Male genitalia well developed, genital sacs

well elongated. Anterior operculum with 3

setae on either side.

Holotype: male (Measurements in mm.):

Total body length, 2.035; maximum width,

0.778; carapace, 0.656 by 0.578; chelicera,

0.211 by 0.111.

Palps: trochanter, 0.289 by 0.177; femur,

0.556 by 0.219; tibia ,0.567 by 0.211; chela,

0.867 (with pedicel), 0.812 (without pedicel)

by 0.30; hand, 0.578 (with pedicel), 0.523

(without pedicel) by 0.30; fingers, 0.367 long.

Leg I: basifemur, 0.111 by 0.133; telo-

femur, 0.278 by 0.133; tibia, 0.256 by 0.078;

tarsus, 0.222 by 0.056. Leg IV: miofemur,

0.456 by 0.178; tibia, 0.378 by 0.10; tarsus.

0.278 by 0.067.

Collected from barks, Bangalore, Karna-

taka State, 25-5-1977.

Allotype: female (Measurements in mm.):

Total body length, 2.072; maximum width,

0.789.

Collected from bark, Bangalore,

taka State, 25-5-1977.

Paratype: 5 males and 1 tritonymph collected

at the same locality, 25.5.1977.

This species is closely related to Metawith-

ius (M.) chamundiensis in having patches of

setae on sternites VII to IX and by the un-

divided nature of the tergites. It can be dis-

tinguished from M. (M.) chamundiensis by

the stouter nature of the palpal and pedal

podomeres and lesser number of blades in

serrula exterior, 15 blades against 17 or 18

in M. (M.) chamundiensis sp. nov. and M.

(M.) indicus Murthy & Ananthakrishnan res-

spectively.

Karna-

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am indebted to Rev. Fr. J. Kuriakose,

S.J., Principal for the kind provision of re-

search facilities and encouragement. I am

thankful to Dr. V. A. Murthy for identifica-

tion and criticisms. Thanks are due to my

colleagues for their timely help. This work

was supported by a UGC Teachers’ minor

project grant.

115

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

REFERENCES

BereR, M. (1932): Pseudoscorpionidea, II Sub

ord. Cheliferinea, Das Tierreich, 58: 1-294.

(1951): Die pseudoscorpione Indo-

chinas. Mem. Mus. Nat. Ser. A. 1, 2: 47-123.

(1963): Die Pseudoscorpionidean

—fauna Israels and einigen Angrenzender Gebiete.

Israel J. Zool. 12: 184-212.

(1973): Pseudoscorpionidea von

Ceylon. Ent. Scand. Suppl. 4: 39-55.

Murtuy, V. A. AND ANANTHAKRISHNAN, T. N.

(1977): Indian Chelonethi. Oriental ins. Monogr.

4: 1-210.

SIVARAMAN, S. (1979): Studies on some Indian

Pseudoscorpions. Ph.D. thesis submitted to Madras

University.

A NEW GENUS OF RUBIACEAE FROM GREAT NICOBAR

ISLAND, INDIA’

N. P. BALAKRISHNAN?

(With a text-figure)

A new monotypic genus, Jainia Balakr. of Rubiacae from Great Nicobar Island in

Bay of Bengal is described with illustrations. It differs from the nearest allied genus

Coptophyllum Korth. mainly in being completely glabrous, in trimerous corolla with

three stamens and erect stigmatic lobes.

The recent intensive botanical explorations

in Andaman and Nicobar Islands by the newly

established Regional Station of Botanical Sur-

vey of India at Port Blair yielded many new

species and new records for Indian Flora,

particularly from the little-explored Great

Nicobar Island. This southernmost island

in Andaman—Nicobar group is situated at

about 200 km northwest of Sumatra between

6° 40’-7° 20’ N and 93° 30’-94° 00’ E. This

island is largely hilly with the highest peak,

the Mt. Thuiller rising to about 700 m above

m.s.l. The island experiences very heavy rain-

fall, ranging from 250-350 cm per year spread

over all the months of the year, with the least

fall occurring in February-March and the ma-

ximum during June-December. It is almost

completely covered with rich, dense, tropical

1 Accepted March 1980.

2 Botanical Survey of India, Andaman—Nicobar

Circle, Port Blair-744 102, India.

116

evergreen forests except a few areas along the

southeast and southwest coasts where setile-

ments have sprung up recently. The flora of

the island is largely Malesian with more than

65% of the species showing distribution ex-

tending to Malaysia and Indonesia. About

10% of the species are endemic.

During a recent trip to the Great Nicobar

island, a species of Rubiaceae with white

flowers in terminal heads was seen growing

along shaded streamsides, in dense, evergreen

forests. On examination it is found to be a

new genus allied to Coptophyllum Korth. and

is described and illustrated below.

Jainia gen. nov.

Pertinet ad Hedyotideas e familia Rubia-

cearum et proxime accedit Coptophyllo Korth.,

a qua tamen differt plantis glabris; bracteis

involucralibus 4 vel 5; calycibus pentameris,

glabris; corollis trimeris; staminibus 3, insertis

ad bases corollarum; stigmatibus erectis.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Plantae herbaceae vel suffrutescentes, glab-

rae, simplices vel raro semel ramosae, saepe

decumbentes et radicantes ad nodos inferas.

Folia opposita, decussata, petiolata, glabra,

integra, herbacea, penninervia; stipulae inter-

petiolares, lanceolatae, integrae, glabrae, per-

sistentes. Inflorescentiae terminales, panicula-

tae, capituliformes, globosae, glabrae; involu-

cella 4 vel 5, ovata, glabra, alba; flores her-

maphroditi, parvi, sessili, bracteolati, dispositi

in cymis 1-3 floriferis, bracteatis, Calyces pen-

tameri; tubi non eminentes trans ovaria; lobi

5, ovato-lanceolati, albi, glabri, persistentes.

Corollae albae, trimerae, tubulares tubis supra

media constrictis, externe glabrae et interne

dense villosae ad fauces; lobi 3, valvati, erecti,

externe glabri, interne dense villosi. Stamina

3, inclusa infra fauces, imo corollae tubo in-

serta; filamenta filiformia, glabra; antherae

oblongae, obtusae, introrsae, basifixae, longi-

tudinales dehiscentes. Disci annulari, 4-lobi,

glabri. Ovaria bilocularia, placentis mediis

septis affixis peltatis, ovulis numeris; styli

erecti, glabri; stigmata crassa, ovoidea, erecta,

inaequaliter bilobata, inclusa infra fauces.

Fructus capsulares globosi, subovoidei, caly-

cibus coronatis irregulariter dehiscentes ad

bases, partibus apicalibus cadentibus atque

operculis; semina numerosa, subglobosa, an-

gulata, scrobiculjata, rubrobrunnea.

Species typica sequens.

Jainia nicobarica sp. nov.

Suffrutex, 40-60 cm altus, glaber; caulis

teretiusculus, 5-8 mm crassus, lignosis, glaber,

e basi breviter repente ascendens, raro post

anthesim decumbens et radicans, simplex vel

parce ramosus. Folia oblanceolata, basi leviter

oblique cuneata, apice acuta, 14-25 cm longa,

3-5 cm lata, supra glabra et atrovirentia, infra

pallide viridia et sparse puberula; nervi late-

rales 16-20 binati, recavi et anastomosentia ad

marginem, infra prominentes; costa infra por-

cata; petioli 1-2 cm longi, glabri; stipulae

lineari-lanceolatae, latae ad bases, longi-acu-

minatae, 1.3-1.6 cm longae, 2-3 mm latae ad

bases, glabrae, persistentes. Inflorescentia

globosa, capitata, 2.0-2.5 cm diam.; pedun-

culus 1-3 cm longus, glaber; bracteae involu-

crales 4-5, ovatae, triangulares, acutae, 7-8

mm longae, 4-6 mm latae, glabrae, crassae,

carnosae, albae; bracteae cymarum albae,

ovato-lanceolatae, 5-8 mm _ longae, 2-4 mm

latae; bracteae florales lineari-lanceolatae vel

oblongi-lanceolatae, 3-5 mm longae, 1-3 mm

latae, albae, extra puberulae. Calycis lobi

ovato-lanceolati, acuti vel subacuti, erecti,

subaequales, 1-2 mm longi, + 1 mm ati,

minute puberuli ad apicem, carnosi, albi, per-

sistentes, accrescentes usque ad 4 mm longos

in fructibus. Corolla alba, tubulares, 3-4 mm

longa, extra glabra, intra dense longe villosa

ad faucem; lobi 3, valvati, ovati, + 1 mm

longi, carnosi, erecti, incrassati ad margines

intra villosis. Stamina 3, inclusa, raro acce-

dentia usque ad faucem corollam; filamenta

filiformia, -+_ 0.75 mm longa; antherae oblon-

gae, -- 0.75 mm longae, apice obtusae, basi

breviter emarginatae. Ovarium calyce perfecte

connatum, album; stylus + 0.5 mm longus;

stigmatis lobi + 0.5 mm longi, oblongi, ovoi-

dei, dense papillosi. Capsula oblonga, ovoi-

dea, 7-8 mm longa, 5-6 mm lata, tenuipariete;

semina numerosa, + 0.4 mm longa, scrobi-

culata, alveolata, rubro-brunnea.

TyPUS: Insula Nicobar Magna, Balakrish-

nan 5837 A (holotypus in CAL); ibid. 5837

B-C (isotypi in PBL).

Jainia gen. nov.

Belongs to Hedyotideae of family Rubiaceae

and is related to the genus Coptophyllum

Korth. but differs in plants being glabrous:

bracts of involucre 4 or 5; calyx pentamerous,

118

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

Fig. 1. Jainia nicobarica sp. nov.; a. habit; b. flower with bract; c. & d. involucral

bracts, side and inside views; e. corolla, split open showing stamens; f. ovary with

disc, style and stigma; g. t.s. of ovary; h. fruit; i. seed.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

glabrous; corolla trimerous; stamens 3, insert-

ed at base of corolla-tube; stigma erect.

Herbs or undershrubs, glabrous, unbranched

or rarely once branched, often decumbent or

rooting at nodes below. Leaves opposite, de-

cussate, petiolate, glabrous, entire, herbace-

ous, penninerved; stipules interpetiolar, lan-

ceolate, entire, glabrous, persistent. /nflores-

cence terminal, pedunculate, capituliform,

globose, glabrous; involucral bracts 4 or 5,

ovate, white, glabrous; flowers bisexual, small,

sessile, bracteolate, arranged in cymes of 1-3

flowers, bracteate. Calyx pentamerous; tube

not projecting beyond ovary; lobes 5, ovate-

lanceolate, white, glabrous, persistent. Corolla

white, trimerous, tubular with tube constricted

above the middle, glabrous outside, densely

villous at throat inside; lobes 3, valvate, erect,

densely villous inside. Stamens 3, included be-

low throat, inserted at bottom of coroila-tube

introrse, basifixed, longitudinally dehiscing.

Disc annular, 4-lobed, glabrous. Ovary bilo-

cular with peltate axile placentae fixed to

middle of septa; ovules many; style erect, gla-

brous; stigma thick, ovoid, erect, unequally

2-lobed, included below the throat. Fruit cap-

sular, globose, subovoid, crowned with calyx,

irregularly dehiscing at base with the apical

part falling off as a lid; seeds many, subglo-

bose, angular, scrobiculate, red-brown.

Type species follows:

Jainia nicobarica sp. nov.

Undershrub, 40-60 cm high, glabrous; stem

somewhat terete, 5-8 mm thick, woody, glabr-

ous, shortly ascending from base, sometimes

decumbent and rooting at base after flowering,

simple or rarely branched. Leaves oblanceo-

late, slightly obliquely cuneate at base, acute

at apex, 14-25 cm long, 3-5 cm wide, glabrous

and dark green above, pale green and sparse-

ly puberulous beneath; lateral nerves 16-20

pairs, arched and anastomosing at margins,

prominent beneath; midrib ridged beneath;

petioles 1-2 cm long, glabrous; stipules linear-

lanceolate, broad at base, long-acuminate, 1.3-

1.6 cm long, 2-3 mm broad at base, glabrous,

persistent. Inflorescence globose, captitate,

2.0-2.5 cm diam.; peduncle 1-3 cm long, gla-

brous; bracts of involucre 4-5, ovate, triangu-

lar, acute, 7-8 mm long, 4-6 mm wide, glabr-

ous, thick, fleshy, white; bracts of cymes

white, ovate-lanceolate, 5-8 mm long, 2-4 mm

wide; floral bracts linear-lanceolate, or oblong-

lanceolate, 3-5 mm long, 1-3 mm wide, white,

puberulous outside. Calvx lobes ovate-lanceo-

late, acute or subacute, erect, subequal, 1-2

mm long, -- 1 mm wide, minutely puberulous

at apex, fleshy, white, persistent, enlarged up

to 4 mm long in fruits. Corolla white, tubular,

3-4 mm long, glabrous outside, densely villous

inside at throat; lobes 3, valvate, ovate, + 1

mm long, fleshy, erect, thickened at margins,

villous inside. Stamens 3, included, rarely

reaching up to throat of corolla; filaments fili-

form, + 0.75 mm long; anthers oblong, +

0.75 mm long, obtuse at apex, shortly emargi-

nate at base. Ovary united completely with

calyx, white; style + 0.5 mm long; stigmatic

lobes + 0.5 mm long, oblong, ovoid, densely

papillose. Capsules oblong, ovoid, 7-8 mm

long. 5-6 mm wide, thin-walled; seeds numer-

ous, + 0.4 mm long, scrobiculate, reticulate-

alveolate, red-brown.

INDIA. Great Nicobar Island: Near 15 Km

on East-West Road, dense evergreen primary

forests, shaded moist places near streams,

+ 75 m above m.s.]., 16 June 1977, in flower

and fruit, Balakrishnan 5837 (holotype 5837

A in CAL and isotypes 5837 B-C in PBL).

Jainia differs from all other Rubiaceae

mainly in the presence pentamerous calyx,

and trimerous corolla with three stamens, a

combination unknown or extremely rare in

119

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

TABLE 1

Coptophyllum Korth., nom. cons.

1. Plants with stiff hairs on all young parts, espe-

cially leaf margin, stipules, bracts and calyx-

lobes.

2. Involucral bracts 4, 5 or 8, never mixed in

same species.

. Corolla 4-5 lobed.

. Corolla-lobes stellately spreading.

. Corolla hairy outside on midrib.

. Stamens 4 or 5.

. Anthers apiculate.

. Filaments attached to the middle or below the

middle of corolla-tube.

9. Stigmatic lobes rectangularly spreading.

10. Stigmatic lobes protruding out of corolla-tube.

ONDN BW

meer ea ES Sm saa

the family. However undoubtedly this new

genus is closely related to Coptophyllum

agreeing with it in general habit, terminal

capitate inflorescence with involucral bracts

and sessile flowers, many-ovuled ovary, and

in the dehiscence of fruits. Reference to lite-

rature on this genus including the revision by

Bremekamp (in J. Arn. Arb. 28: 189. 1947)

under the synonymous generic name Poma-

zota Ridl. and study of specimens in Cal-

cutta and Leiden herbaria show several dis-

tinctive features which distinguish this new

genus from Coptophyllum as tabulated in

120

Ce ES

Jainia gen. nov.

1. Plants glabrous corolla-

tube inside.

throughout,

except

2. Involucral bracts 4 or 5, mixed in same species.

3. Corolla 3-lobed.

4. Corolla-lobes erect.

5. Corolla glabrous outside.

6. Stamens 3.

7. Anthers obtuse.

8. Filaments attached to the

tube.

9. Stigmatic lobes erect or suberect.

10. Stigmatic lobes included, reaching up to the

mouth of corolla-tube.

base of corolla-

The genus is named in honour of Dr. S. K.

Jain, Director, Botanical Survey of India, for

his valuable contributions to the taxonomy of

Tndian flora during the last 30 years.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I gratefully acknowledge the help rendered

by the Director and his colleagues at Rijksher-

barium, Leiden in comparing the new genus

with specimens of Coptophyllum and allied

genera and for their valuable opinion.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

A NEW SPECIES OF LINDENBERGIA (SCROPHULARIACEAE)

FROM EASTERN INDIA?

J. K. SIKDAR AND G. G. Maiti’

(With four text-figures)

Lindenbergia titensis sp. nov. (Figs. 1-4)

Lindenbergia titensis Sikdar et Maiti arcte

affinis L. macrostachyae Benth. sed _ bracteis

ovatis, calyce longioribus, lobis calycis ovatis,

corollae labio postico obovato, ovaris basique

styli dense piloso, facile distinguenda. I... phi-

lippensi (Cham.) Benth. persimilis, a qua

differt bracteis elliptico-ovatis, lobis calycis

ovatis acutis, ovaris dense piloso.

Herba perennis, deorsum lignosa. Caulis

50-60 cm longus, perramosus, rami adscenden-

tes, graciles, teretes, pubescentes, saepissime

ad apicem. Folia 2.5-8 x 1-2.5 cm, opposita,

vel suprema alterna, elliptico-lanceolata, acuta,

dentata, dentibus acuminatis, basi acute cune-

ata, supra glabrescentia, infra pilosa vel gla-

brescentia, nervis prominentibus, _ petiolis

linearibus, 0.5-2.5 cm longis. Racemus 3-8.5

cm longus, terminalis axillarisque, penitus

parum pubescens. Flores multi, alterni et sub-

oppositi, sessiles vel brevissime pedicellati,

flavidi, aggregati in racemo compacto tantum

ad apicem (2-3 cm), aliter laxe dispositi.

Bracteae 5-9x3-5 mm, foliaceae, elliptico-

ovatae, acutae, denticulatae, calyce longiores,

utrinque pilosae. Calyx parum dimorphus,

3.5-4 mm longus, 2-3 mm diametro, 5-lobatus,

ca 2/3 connatus, 1/3 liberus, utrinque

pilosus, quoque lobus 2x2 mm, ovatus,

acutus. Corolla bilabiata, tubo 6-7 mm

longo, 2-2.5 mm diametro, cylindrico, extus

pubescenti, labrum posticum 2.5-3x2.5 mm,

1 Accepted March 1980.

2 Central National Herbarium, Botanical Survey

of India, Howrah-711 103.

obovatum, retusum, cum 2 lobis parum angu-

latis, Jabium anticum 5.5-6x3 mm, apice 3

lobatum, lobis rotundatis, patentibus, obtusis,

intus ad medium minute pilosis. Stamina 4,

didynama, libera, inclusa, filamentis 4-4.4

mm longis, 2 mm supra basim corollae inser-

tis, glabris, filiformibus, thecis subglobosis,

0.3 mm diam., connectivis 0.3 mm_longis.

Ovarium 2.5 x 2-2.5 mm, subglobosum, dense

pilosum, stylo 3 mm longo, lineari, solum ad

basin piloso. Capsula matura non visa.

Holotypes lectus a J. K. Sikdar ad locum

Titi in area sylva Madarihat, regione Jalpai-

guri, Benghala occidentale, die 5-3-1976, et

positus in herbario indico nationali (CAL),

sub numero 4519A. Isotypi 4519 B-C_ positi

in eodem herbario.

Lindenbergia titemsis sp. nov.

It is closely allied to 2. macrostachya

Benth., but is easily recognisable by ovate

leafy bracts, bracts longer than calyx, ovate

calyx lobes, obovate posterior lip of corolla

and finally ovary and style base densely hairy.

It is also very similar to JL. philippensis

(Cham.) Benth. from which it differs in hav-

ing elliptic-ovate bract, ovate, acute calyx

lobes and densely pilose ovary.

Perennial herbs, woody below. Stem 50-60

cm long, slender to stout, many branched;

branches ascending, slender, terete, pubescent,

more often at the apex. Leaves 2.5-8 x 1-2.5

cm, opposite or the uppermost alternate, elli-

ptic-lanceolate, acute, dentate, teeth acumi-

nate, base acute-cuneate, upper surface gla-

brescent, lower surface pilose or glabrescent

121]

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

Figs. 1-4. Lindenbergia titensis sp. nov.: 1. Plant habit; 2. Calyx; 3. Corolla split open and 4. Carpel.

122

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

or pubescent, nerves distinct on the undersur-

face; petiole 0.5-2.5 cm long, linear. Racemes

3-8.5 cm long, terminal and axillary, slightly

pubescent throughout. Flowers many, alter-

nate and subopposite, sessile or very shortly

pedicillate, yellowish, aggregate into a com-

pact raceme only at the terminal (2-3 cm)

position, otherwise loosely arranged. Bracts

5-9 x 3-5 mm, uppermost leaves gradually pass-

ing upwards to bracts, foliaceous, _ elliptic-

ovate, acute, denticulate, longer than calyx,

pilose on both surfaces. Calyx slightly dimor-

phic, 3.5-4 mm long, 2-3 mm diam., 5-lobed,

about 2/3 part united and 1/3 free, pilose

on both surface; each lobe 2x2 mm, ovate,

acute. Corolla bilabiate, tube 6-7 mm long, 2-

2.5 mm diam., cylindrical, pubescent at the

outer suface, posterior lip 2.5-32.5 mm,

obovate with 2 slightly angular lobes, retuse;

anterior lip 5.5-6 x3 mm, apex 3-lobed, lobes

rotundate, spreading, obtuse, minutely hairy

at the middle inside. Stamens 4, didynamous,

free, included; filaments 4-4.5 mm long, in-

serted 2 mm above the corolla-base, filiform,

glabrous; thecae subglobose, 0.3 mm diam.,

connective 0.3 mm long. Ovary 2.5 x2-2.5

mm, subglobose densely pilose; style 3 mm

long, linear, pilose at base only. Mature cap-

sule not seen.

Holotype, J. K. Sikdar 4519A (CAL) and

the isotypes J. K. Sikdar 4519B-C (CAL)

were collected from Titi, Madarihat Forest

Range, Jalpaiguri District, West Bengal on

5-3-1976.

The specific epithet is derived after the

name of the locality ‘Titi’? from where it was

collected.

ACK NOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful to Dr. M. P. Nayar, Deputy

Director, Central National Herbarium for

facilities, to Prof. R. S. Rao of Andhra Uni-

versity for encouragement and to Dr. N. C.

Majumdar, Central National Herbarium,

Howrah, for Latin translation and helpful

suggestions.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

1. NOTES ON THE MATING BEHAVIOUR OF TADARIDA

AEGYPTIACA (GEOFFROY)

INTRODUCTION

This paper presents an observation on mat-

ing made in the course of a study of the re-

productive cycle of this species in East-Nimar.

Copulation was witnessed many times at the

roost and a few instances occurred in cages

also.

Since little has been published on this aspect

of Indian Molossid bats, this study was under-

taken to collect data on mating period of Ta-

darida aegyptiaca in East-Nimar of India.

OBSERVATIONS

The species is locally scarce in East-Nimar.

Three colonies were observed, one in a build-

ing and the other two in two dilapidated forts.

The portion of the building where these bats

roost, is being used as a class room. The forts

are ancient monuments in Asirgarh and Bur-

hanpur looked after by the State Archeolo-

gical department. Over five thousand bats

roosted in the three colonies from June till the

second week of April the following year. They

reside in crevices vertical about 8 feet in length

and three inches in width. The number of bats

at the three roosts decreases during the hot

weather but several hundreds occur during the

other seasons.

During the years 1975 to 1977 the roosts

were vacated from the second week of April

upto the month of May. On their return the

females were examined and were not found

pregnant. Ovulation occurs between the second

124

and third week of June. The strength of the

colony increases as new arrivals appear daily.

The bats are noisy and their squeaking and

chattering at the roost is audible at a consi-

derable distance.

The bats roost in a typical pattern in which

they appear as if they have been arranged in

orderly straight lines of ten to forty bats. In

the total population of bats, hundreds were no-

ticed copulating but observation was limited

to 50% of the total population of bats at

Burhanpur and Asirgarh. This investigation

lasted five to ten hours a day but not at night.

In the estimated population during 1976 and

1977, the sex ratio was approximately 40%

males and 60% females. Mating was noticed

during day light when males and females were

quite active. The majority of males collected

at this time had scars on or around the muzzle

region. Apparently these injuries resulted from

aggressive interactions with other males and

possibly females also.

The male mounted on the female in the

position of coitus posteriori. The male usually

grasped fur of the female’s head with his teeth.

However, in a few instances the neck was

grasped by the male. The male’s thumb was

always inside the dactylopatagium brevis of

the female. The male pushed his hindquarters

backwards and forwards making an angle of

20° on female’s body in the plane of coitus.

The tail of the female including its femoral

membrane was curled upwards and the male

protruded penis beneath her femoral mem-

brane. After copulating with one female, the

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

male often holds another female. Immediate

dissection and histological studies by fixation

and microscopic examination after copulation

revealed that female’s uterus and vaginal canal

were filled with sperms.

The male does not pay any attention to the

rival bats during copulation. Males were ob-

served fighting with each other, squeaking and

showing their teeth to opponents. The female

was passive.

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY,

UNIVERSITY OF SAUGAR,

SAauGAR (M.P.),

INDIA,

May 4, 1979.

2. FIELD OBSERVATIONS ON

Some 20 hours of observations (mostly be-

fore noon) were made on langurs (Presbytis

entellus) of the Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary

(Tamilnadu) during February and March 12,

1978. The Sanctury is situated at an altitude

of 885 m on the way of Mysore-Ooty road

and is 95 km from the Mysore. The forest is

moist-deciduous with ‘Teak’, Tectona grandis

as the dominent species.

ACK NOWLEDGEMENTS

I am grateful to Prof. D. R. Sharma for

suggestions. My thanks are due to the Head,

Department of Zoology, S. N. College, Khand-

wa for providing facilities for this investiga-

tion. The financial assistance offered by the

University Grants Commission, New Delhi is

gratefully acknowledged.

S. K. KASHYAP

THE HANUMAN LANGUR

There were five groups of the langur in an

area of about 2 km’. Two groups were multi-

male-bisexual and three groups were unimale-

bisexual type. There was no all-male group.

The composition of the groups as given in

Table-1 reveals that adult sex ratio was male

1:6 females; adult female to infants (new

born) ratio was female 1:0.47 infants. The

age-classification of the individuals followed is

TABLE 1

GROUP COMPOSITION OF THE HANUMAN

LANGUR

Sapadults

Group Total Adult Adult and Infant-2 Infant-1

males females Nuveniles

1. Mudum-B 18 1 10 2: 0 5

2. Mudum-E 17 1 9 3} 2 2

3. Mudum-H 21 1 8 4 4 3

4. Mudum-S 22 3 9 2 2 6

5 2 4 3 7

. Mudum-L

125,

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

according to Jay (1965).

The mean group size is similar to size re-

corded by Jay (1965), 18-25 in forests of

northern and central India; Vogel (1977),

23.5 in Bhimtal, while it was larger (34 for

bisexual groups and 18.5 for all male groups)

in open areas of Western Rajasthan (Mohnot

et al., in press). There was no apparent in-

teraction among the adult males of the multi-

male bisexual groups and also between the

two neighbouring groups.

Langurs are purely phytophagus and eat

leaves, flowers, buds, fruits, seeds and resin

of some 30 plant species (to be identified).

Some of the common food plants were Anoge-

issus latifolia, Butea monosperma, Salmalia

malabarica, Dalbergia sissoo, Schleichera tri-

juga, Mangifera indica, Terminalia chebula

etc:

The bonnet monkey, Macaca radiata co-

exists freely with the langurs and almost use

the same plants for feeding and roosting. The

Jangur avoids the bonnet macaques but hit out,

ZOOLOGY DEPARTMENT,

UNIVERSITY OF JODHPUR,

JoDHPUR-342001.

FACULTY OF Lire SCIENCES,

NorTH BENGAL UNIVERSITY,

DARJEELING-734 430,

August 31, 1978.

whenever they are disturbed by the macaques.

The langurs are afraid of Pie dogs and give

alarm barks and climb trees, whenever they see

dogs approaching them. On 6th March (9.05

a.m.) a pack of 6 pie dogs chased a langur

group which was crossing the road. The leader

of the langur group threatened the dogs but

was bitten on his right ear.

Langurs were seen in an association with

Chital (Axis axis) in the Bandipur Tiger Re-

serve, adjacent to Mudumalai. Both species

were noted together or Chitals fed under the

same tree on which langurs were feeding.

Occasionally langurs were seen sitting on the

ground near browsing chital. On Sth March

(6.40—6.52 p.m.) we saw Jangurs and chitals

giving repeated alarm calls together, probably

there was a common predator (?).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We are indebted to Prof. Madhav Gadgil,

Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore for

providing working facilities.

S. C. MAKWANA

S. MAJUMDAR

REFERENCES

Jay, P. O. (1965): The common langur of North

India. In Primate Behaviour: field studies of mon-

keys and apes. ed. I. DeVore. pp. 197-247. Holt,

Rinehart and Winston, New York.

Mounor, S. M., Gapcit, M. AND MakKwana, S. (OF

Population dynamics of the langur, Presbytis entellus

126

at Jodhpur. (in press).

VocEL, C. (1977): Ecology and sociobiology of

Presbytis entellus. In Use of non-human primates

in biomedical research eds. M. R. N. Prasad and

T. C. Anand Kumar. Indian nat. Sci. Acad., New

Delhi, India.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

3. A NOTE ON THE BREEDING OF THE LEOPARD-CAT (FELIS

BENGALENSIS) IN CAPTIVITY

The female of a pair of Leopard-Cats

(Felis bengalensis) has given birth to four lit-

ters at Nandankanan Biological Park, Orissa.

The litter size was one to two with an average

of 1.75 kittens per litter. There were four fe-

males and three males. The four births were

recorded as follows: February, 1; March, 1;

May, 1; and July, 1. At birth the seven kittens

weighed 93 to 120 g with an average of

113.14 g and measured 22 to 25 cm with an

average of 24.14 cm tip to tip including tail

lengths of 6.5 to 7 cm (average 6.86 cm). The

inter-parturition intervals recorded _ thrice

(Dates of births:; 26.11.1977, 19.v.1977,- 21 ii.

1978 and 4.vii.1978) were 81 days, 305 days

and 104 days respectively mostly depending

on the period of survival of the young. The

mother leopard-cat weighed 2.805 kg and the

male weighed 3.605 kg on 8.iii.1977. The

mother used to carry the kittens like other

cats. The eyes of the new-born kittens were

closed at birth and the details of opening of

eyes of five kittens under observation are given

in the Table 1.

TABLE 1

Dates of Age in the days w

Sl. Sex Date of opening the eves of car

No. birth of eves kittens opened

1 2 3 4 5

ils Female 19.v.1977 31.v.1977 13th (Left eye)

(Left eye) and

and 14th (Right eye)

1.vi.1977

(Right eye)

DZ Female 19.v.1977 26.v.1977 8th (Right eye)

(Right eye) and

and 9th (Left eye)

27.v.1977

(Left eye)

3. Female 21.11.1978 31.11.1978 11th (Left eye)

(Left eye) and

and 12th (Right eye)

1.iv.1978

(Right eye)

4. Female 4.vii.1978 11.vii.1978 8th (Left eye)

(Left eye) and

and 9th (Right eye)

12.vii.1978

(Right eye)

3 Male 4.vii.1978 14.vii.1978 11th (Right eye)

(Right eye) and

and 12th (Left eye)

15.vii.1978

(Left eye)

2 EE ee EC OS a

127

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

TABLE 2

Date Age in weeks Weight in kg.

| D 3

19.v.1977 Birth weight 0.120

26.v.1977 1 0.182

2.vi.1977 2 0.232

9.vi.1977 3 0.294

16.vi.1977 4 0.385

23.vi.1977 5 0.430

30.vi.1977 6 0.570

7.vii.1977 7 0.695

14.vii.1977 8 0.845

21.vii.1977 9 0.945

28.vii.1977 10 1.073

4.viii.1977 11 1.156

VETERINARY ASSISTANT SURGEON,

NANDANKANAN BIOLOGICAL PARK,

P. O. BaRANG, DIST. CUTTACK.

WILD LirE CONSERVATION OFFICER,

95-SAHID NAGAR,

BHUBANESWAR-751 007,

December 16, 1978.

The canines of two kittens under observa-

tion appeared at the age of four weeks. Week-

ly growth records of one female kitten born

here on 19.5.1977 was maintained upto the age

of 11 weeks and the details of the same are

given in the Table 2.

Prater (1971) states that the young of this

species have been obtained in March and May

and 3 to 4 kittens may be born in a litter. In

India, this species mates in May and has 3 to

4 young per litter after a gestation period of

56 days (Asdell 1964).

L. N. ACHARJYO

CH. G. MISHRA

REFERENCES

ASDELL, S. A. (1964): Patterns of Mammalian

Reproduction. Second Edition, Cornell University

Press, Ithaca, New York, pp. 490.

Prater. S. H. (1971): The Book of Indian Ani-

mals. Third (Revised) Edition, Bombay Natural

History Society, Bombay, pp. 73-74.

4. DO LEOPARDS USE THEIR WHISKERS AS WIND DETECTOR?

I had an apportunity to witness a peculiar

behaviour of a big male Leopard in the hilly

tract of Udaipur.

My father and we three brothers were sit-

ting on a hillock and admiring four sambar

(Cervus unicolor) does and two grown up

fawns grazing peacefully in a clearing on the

face of a hill about 200 yards from us. Bet-

ween us and the sambar, there was a belt of

scrub jungle and beyond there was dense

jungle. They were on a higher ground from

us. We were engrossed in watching when sud-

128

denly my elder brother caught sight of a leo-

pard in a depression, between us and the

hinds about 80 yards from us, stalking them.

A good breeze started from our direction to-

wards the hinds. When the leopard was about

70 yards from them and almost level with us

the does became uneasy. He crouched there

for about five minutes occasionally raising and

slightly turning his head sideways, his whiskers

taut and relaxed alternately, which I could

see clearly with the help of binoculars. Then

the leopard turned and retreated for about 30

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

yards towards our right side and disappeared,

reappearing again over the bank of a dry

nullah and started stalking over a comparative-

ly barren ground. Soon he was detected by a

hind, she advanced two or three steps towards

the leopard followed by two other hinds, gave

a loud bell and all of them dashed into the

dense jungle. The leopard rose from his posi-

41 PANCHWATI,

Uparpur-313 001 (INpIA),

June 25, 1979.

tion took two steps, raised his tail, gave a

woogh call and went off.

From this incidence I inferred that these

big cats know the importance of wind and

use their whiskers as a tool to detect wind

direction.

I would therefore be grateful if some na-

turalist throws more light on the matter.

RAZA H. TEHSIN

5. NILGIRI TAHR (HEMITRAGUS HYLOCRIUS) IN CAPTIVITY

(With a photograph)

Nilgiri Tahr at

Trivandrum Zoo.

129

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

One adult male was transferred to Trivan-

drum Zoo, from Trichur Zoo on 9.9.1964. A

female was added on 29.9.1965 and another

on 13.12.1967. Four offsprings were born on

the following dates, 4.2.68, 5.11.68, 1.5.69 and

11.12.69. The first one died on 1.4.69 and the

last on 30.1.72. The second was exported and

the third was supplied to the Mysore Zoo.

The original male died on 21.3.72 and the

female on 10.8.69. The other female was aiso

exported.

During this period only the original male

developed the saddle mark. As I was observing

the animal every day, it is difficult for me to

state with precision when it started dcevelop-

ing the saddle. The saddle becomes noticeable

SUPERINTENDENT,

Zoos & GARDENS,

TRIVANDRUM-1,

September 14, 1979.

very gradually. It may be from 5 to 8 years.

The food given to adults per day is as fol-

lows: Bengalgram 100 gms, Cattle feed 500

gms, Horsegram 200 gms, Plantains 500 gms,

Fodder 2.5 kg., and Napier Grass 5 kgs.

In the Zoo the tahr enjoy concentrates more

than green fodder. They like the fodder to be

tied above ground level so that they can

browse.

I have not seen them drinking during my

visits to their run. They seldom drink.

On 22.1.76 one pair of tahr aged 1 month

was caught at Eravikulam and these are

doing well. I have seen them mating recently.

However, the mating has not been successful.

P. R. CHANDRAN

6. A FURTHER NOTE ON MOSCHUS

Since contributing a note on the taxonomy

of Moschus to this Journal (Groves 1976) the

author has seen a number of further specimens

which was unavailable to the author at that

ranges, both geographical and altitudinal, of

the two species in the Indian region. A taxo-

nomic contribution by Dao van Tien (1969),

which should be recorded as they extend the

time, should also be evaluated now.

Two species of Musk-deer are found in In-

dian and Nepalese territory: M. sifanicus has

light brown fur, the backs of the ears are rim-

130

med with pure yellow, the skull length aver-

ages about 160 mm, and the lacrimal bone is

long and low; M. chrysogaster has dark brown

fur, the ear-backs are wholly dark, the skull

length is about 150:mm, and the lacrimal is

relatively short and high. The former, which

lives above the tree-line, is represented in

China by a race in which the whole tip of the

ear, not just the rim, is yellow, but which is

otherwise poorly distinguished and is an any

case unnamed; the latter species, which lives

in forest and is represented in India and Nepal

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

by its nominate form, is smaller and short-

faced, though it was pointed out that in fact

two subspecies would probably be better re-

cognised in China (see below).

It must be mentioned that in the table of

skull measurements (Groves, 1976:674), there

is a misprint. Two headings read “M. sifani-

cus’: only the second of these is correct, the

first being a lapsus for “‘M. c. chrysogaster’’.

The additional specimens examined are as

follows:

1. M. sifanicus

Two skins, one skull and a headskin in the

Powell-Cotton Museum, Birchington, Kent,

England. T.31.2 is a skin and skull; the skin

is light tobacco brown, fading to off-white on

head, shoulders and again on rump. The ears

are yellow-rimmed. Skull broken, but its length

is approximately 160, lacrimal 21 x 14; mid-

point of skull probably in orbit. Locality is

Baital, Kashmir (not found on any map). The

other complete skin (no number) and_ the

headskin (M.46.99) have no locality beyond

‘Kashmir’, but are clearly of this species.

2. M. chrysogaster chrysogaster

The Powell-Cotton Museum possesses an

incomplete skull that is probably of this form,

numbered T.31.3, from Srinagar, which (if it

is the actual locality rather than a base camp)

is in the forest zone. The length would have

been about 145 mm.; lacrimal 23 x 20; mid-

point would have been approximately at the

front edge of the orbit.

The Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta,

has three specimens: two skins with skulls

(see Biswas & Khajuria, 1957) and unmatched

skin. The first two are nos. 12448 and 12449,

of the “Daily Mail’ expedition, 1954; locali-

ties respectively Thami and Hunko, both at

13,000 feet but, because of the protected loca-

tions, in the forest zone (mainly rhododendron

and juniper). Skins are dark brown with ear-

backs dark, becoming nearly black towards

the tips. The skull of the former is 145 mm.

long, with lacrimal 25 x 19; the other speci-

men is immature, with third molars not yet

erupted, but skull length is 140, lacrimal

23 x 15. In both, skull midpoint is well within

the orbit. The metacarpal length of 12448 is

93.5, metatarsal length 126; both these mea-

surements are slightly above the figures for

M. c. berezovskii given by Flerov (1952) and

Kao (1963), but well below the limits for M.

sifanicus given by the same authors. The third

skin, no. 12451 from Khumbu, 12,000 feet,

closely resembles the other two.

Two head-skins and a partial skull are pre-

served in the palace at Wankaner, Gujarat;

they were obtained by M. K. Ranjitsinh at

Shodu, Bhutan (in the rhododendron zone),

and are the only known specimens from Bhu-

tan. The head-skins are very dark grey-brown,

the ears being dark especially on the terminal

half. The skull, which may belong with one of

the skins, is incomplete but is clearly short-

faced.

The importance of the above specimens is

that they confirm the distinctiveness of the two

species, the association of skull and skin char-

acters, where both are represented for the same

specimen, being demonstrated; and that they

confirm the association of each with a diffe-

rent habitat type, even when the forest zone

extends to a higher altitude than usual.

A recent paper by Dao (Dao 1977) refers

to a taxon, Moschus moschiferus caobangis

Dao, 1969, from North Vietnam and provides

the first description of this in French (the ori-

ginal description being in Vietnamese). Dao’s

papers were based on the old single-species

theory, and clearly written without knowledge

of Groves’s revision, but neatly extend the re-

sults. It is clear from the description that cao-

13]

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

bangis is Groves’s ‘“‘M. chrysogaster subsp.”

recorded from Kwangsi, to which the British

Museum specimens from Ichang also probably

belong:

(1) Dao’s new race is described as ‘“‘brun

grisatre”, which approximately describes

B.M.1.3.2.6 from Ichang; Wang et al.

(1962) describe a specimen from Kwangsi

as “brown’’. Skins of M. c. berezovskii from

Szechwan, Kansu, Shensi and Shansi are de-

scribed as darker than this (“dark olive-

brown with a red tinge” in Kao, 1963, which

describes B.M.3.5.15.6 and 11.9.8.144, both

from Szechwan).

(2) Skulls in two caobangis are 113 and

132 mm. long; the second of these, the type,

is figured, but it is not stated whether the

other is adult or not. Kao’s (1963) Kwangsi

skull is 121 mm., whereas all his and other

authors’ other berezovskii skulls are at least

136 mm. Wang ef al. (1962) report a

Kwangsi skull as being 116.7 mm, but this

may actually mean the basal length; it is,

at any rate, short. The Ichang skulls in the

British Museum are 135 and 141 mm, so

overlapping with one of Flerov’s (1952)

DEPARTMENT OF PREHISTORY &

ANTHROPOLOGY,

AUSTRALIAN NATIONAL UNIVERSITY,

CANBERRA, AUSTRALIA,

August 28, 1979.

specimens, whose age is however not stated.

(The locality ‘‘Peling Mts.’’, whence comes

a rather large skull, is probably not Mt.

Pai Ling in Kwangsi as surmised by Groves

(1976), but the Pai-Lung Chiang in south-

ern Kansu.)

The light colour probably, and the small

size definitely, validate Dao’s subspecies; it ex-

tends into Kwangsi and probably even as far

as Ichang. M. moschiferus caobangis Dao,

1969, and ‘“‘M. chrysogaster subsp. uncertain”

of Groves, 1976, therefore both become M.

chrysogaster caobangis.

ACK NOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank all those who have

specimens in their care which were made avail-

able to me for study: in Birchington, Mr. L.

Barton, Curator of the Powell-Cotton Mu-

seum; in Calcutta, Dr. B. Biswas, Superintend-

ing Zoologist of the Zoological Survey of In-

dia, and all staff; in Wankaner, H. H. Maha-

rana Saheb and M. K. Digvijaysinhji. I am

most grateful to all these people for their

courteous assistance in this study.

COLIN P. GROVES

REFERENCES

Biswas, B. & KuHAsuria, H. (1957): Zoological

results of the “Daily Mail” Himalayan expedition,

1954. Notes on some mammals of Khumbu, eastern

Napal. Proc. Zool. Soc. Calcutta, Mookerjee Memor.

Vol., 229-253.

DAo VAN TIEN (1969): Ve hai loai huou o Viet

nam, huou sao (Cervus nippon) va huou xa (Mos-

132

chus moschiferus). Thong bao khoa hoc, Sinh vat

hoc, Dai hoc tong hop Ha noi, 4:49-53.

(1977): Sur quelques rares mammi-

feres au nord du Vietnam. Mitt. Zool. Mus. Berlin,

53 : 325-330.

Fierov, C. C. (1952): Musk and deer. Fauna of

USSR, Mammals, vol. 1.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Groves, C. P. (1976): The taxonomy of Moschus

(Mammalia, Artiodactyla), with particular reference

to the Indian region. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.,

72 :662-676.

Kao YEUH-TING (1963): Taxonomic notes on the

Chinese musk-deer. Acta zool. sinica, 15:479-488.

WANG SUNG, LU CHANG-KWUN, DAo YUEH-TING

& Loo TAI-cHUN (1963): On the mammals from

south-western Kwangsi, China, Acta zool.

14:555-568.

sinica,

7. REPORT OF THE OCCURRENCE OF THE METAD IN

WEST BENGAL

In the afternoon of the 17th February, 1978,

while digging rodent burrows in a harvested

paddy field, south of Apurbapur village near

Singur in Hugli District, we caught an adult

female rat with five juveniles, which were iden-

tified as of the Soft-furred Field Rat or Metad,

Millardia meltada (Gray).

The known distribution of Millardia meltada

(Gray), is Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Nepal Tarai,

Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Peninsular India

south of the Satpura-Vindhya ranges, south

to Nilgiris, south-western Sri Lanka, parts of

Gujarat and the adjacent region of Pakistan,

but does not include the north-eastern part of

India (Assam, Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh,

Nagaland, Manipur, Tripura and Mizoram),

Orissa and West Bengal. The present collec-

tion, therefore, constitutes the first authentic

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

8, Linpsay STREET (1ST FLOOR),

CALCUTTA-700 016,

September 21, 1978.

record from West Bengal.

The details of the specimen is given below.

The external measurements were taken in the

field and are in mm.

Material: 1 2; ZSI Reg. No.

17.2.78; A. K. Mondal Coll.

Measurements: External—Head and body 111.0; tail

76.0; hind foot 22.0; ear 20.0.

Cranial—Occipitonasal 31.4; condylobasal 30.5;

nasal 11.5; palate 16.4; bulla 6.1; tooth row 5.6;

anterior palatine foramina 7.4; diastema 8.8.

In comparison with the recognised subspe-

cies of Millardia meltada namely, the Méillar-

dia meltada meltada (Gray) and the Millardia

meltada pallidor (Ryley), the present material

is much darker. However, without examination

of additional material nothing definitely could

be said of its subspecific status.

19935; in alcohol;

AJOY KUMAR MANDAL

SANTANU GHOSH

8. SOME OBSERVATIONS ON THE BIOLOGY OF THE OPENBILL

STORK, ANASTOMUS OSCITANS (BODDAERT), IN

SOUTHERN BENGAL

(With a plate)

The Openbill Stork [Anastomus oscitans

(Boddaert)] is the smallest and commonest

stork of our country.

This paper reports on observations made in

South Bengal in Saknakhali bird sanctuary in

the Sundarban Reserve Forest, Sagar Island,

Frazergunge and Diamond Harbour by the

author from 1975 onwards.

133

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Wol. 77

The Openbill is a tree-nester. Generally it

forms a huge breeding colony of its own but

also nests in a breeding colony with other

birds. In the Sajnakhali bird sanctuary, Sun-

darban, the breeding colony included such spe-

cies as the large egret (Egretta alba Linn.),

smaller egret (Egretta intermedia Wagler),

little egret (Egretta garzetta Linn.), little cor-

morant (Phalacrocorax niger Vieillot), paddy

bird [Ardeola grayii (Sykes)] and some others.

The situation and size of the breeding colo-

nies depend to a great extent on the available

marshy conditions, richness of feeding ground

in the vicinity and non-interference by preda-

tors and man. Colonies have been found very

close to human quarters, roads and railway

stations, where birds are not disturbed or

pestered. Some colonies are found in impas-

sable marshes in dense forested area on isolat-

ed islands for safe raising of the brood.

PAIR FORMATION AND PAIR BOND

Since the male and female are almost alike

in general appearance in the non-breeding pe-

riod, sexes cannot be differentiated, but dur-

ing the breeding period it becomes possible to

distinguish them by their behaviour, specially

the attitude of the male towards the female.

The males are rather more aggressive quar-

relling amongst themselves for nesting space

than the females. At times, subadult males

have been found courting adult females, but

such females simply change their perch and

pay little heed to them. Consort pairs are

formed just before the monsoon starts. Such

pairs often forcibly push each other which

compels one of them to fly from the perch

and again after a short flight return to occupy

the same place in close proximity of its partner

who waits for its mate. Courtship display is

not very conspicuous. The male has been ob-

134

served at times to throw its neck backward

when the female returns from flight. After

sometime the male stretches its neck up and

partially opens its wings and bill. The male

offers a stick to the female and if it is accept-

ed by the female, it signifies approval of pair

formation. In selecting the nesting site the

male and female perform a ritual. They perch

face to face, lower their heads and point at

the nest-site with their bills partly open. After

this act the pair flies away but returns to the

spot. The same performance is repeated three

or four times within an hour. When the site

selection is finalised the male is also finally

accepted by the female.

NEST-BUILDING, SEXUAL DISPLAY AND MATING

The bird selects trees that are from three

to ten metres high. In Sundarban (Sajnakhali)

most of the nests that I came across were hard-

ly four to five metres from the ground level.

The host plants selected for nesting were

mostly Bina, Avicennia alba and Avicennia

officinalis, which represented about 80 per cent

of the plant community. These provided bet-

ter support due to ramification of branches,

and also the canopy provided wider landing

space which generally varied from 9 to 16

square metres. The next choice was the Geng,

wa, Excoecaria agallocha, which represented

roughly 15 per cent. Other trees that were

sometimes selected were Passur, Xylocarpus

sp., Goran, Rhizophora sp., and Kulsi, Aegi-

ceras sp., but these were comparatively of

small percentage. In Diamond Harbour, trees

that were used for nesting were Jarul, Lager-

stroemia flosreginae, Neem, Melia azadirach-

ta, Peepul, Ficus religiosa, etc. It seems that

the bird does not bother much about the height

of the trees, some 10-12 metres height was

mostly preferred, whereas in Sagar Island and

‘[esuog ISOM

‘ueqivpuns “Aivnjourg pllg peyyeuleg Ul YI9IS []!quadO sy} Jo vale BUL}SOU DAISUDJUT

supjioso snuojspvup :KkeXypedoyyny

ALV Id LL (0S “LSIH “LVN AvaWOg ‘[

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Frazergunge areas the nesting tree heights

were only five to seven metres. Nesting sites

were generally not changed in the following

year unless there was disturbance in the area.

The tree-tops are the first choice of nesting

site and when this is not available, alternative

sites are selected further down. Generally tree-

forks are the usual sites for nests. Trees which

provide a good number of forks are preferred.

Since the birds are gregarious, congregation

is quite dense; naturally there is overcrowd-

ing and struggle for space. Nests may be 60

centimetres apart, but there is a good under-

standing between the breeding pairs in the

colony. The male with nest-building material

flies straight to the nest-fork, and as soon

as it perches it drops the material, and the

female which waits at the rim of the nest makes

a guttural buzzing sound on the arrival of the

male, and the freshly brought material is then

properly arranged. The male erects the neck

and exposes the breast feathers and produces

a buzzing sound and both bend their heads

over the nest. It is interesting to note that

the sticks that are brought by one of the

partners, generally the male, is examined by

the other. During this process the material that

falls down is not picked up. Sometimes the

female rejects the material brought by her

partner. In Sundarban heronry, as many as

30 trips per day were counted in connection

with the nest-building operation during the

whole day in the beginning but the trips were

gradually cut off as the nest under prepara-

tion was half way to completion. After almost

half the nest is ready the pairs mate usually

in the late afternoon or any time on a cloudy

day. The act is performed when the female

settles herself on a branch near the nest.

The male vigorously beats the beak of the

female with his own, thereby producing a clat-

tering sound which coaxes. the female to bend

her tail laterally to allow copulation.

It generally takes 11 days to complete the

construction of a nest. Nest may be construct-

ed even in late August. Sometimes when the

nest prepared is destroyed by storms and gales,

it is soon replaced by a fresh one.

The nest is a loose, flimsy, structure which

generally does not last till the next season

but those that withstand the rough weather

are taken as foundations and fresh nest-build-

ing material is brought for their repair. In

Sajnakhali and Frazergunge, soft and leafless

branches of Excoecaria, Avicennia and some-

times branches of Derris, Ceriops and Xylo-

carpus species are added. Soft leaves brought

by the male are properly arranged in the egg-

chamber so as to prevent the eggs from drop-

ping. Green leaves are from time to time add-

ed to replace the old dry ones in nests till the

fledglings are ready to leave the nests. The

size of nests vary largely. The circumferences

of five nests measured 100-125 cm (average

113) in Sajnakhali.

The eggs are laid by the third week of June

and egg-laying continues til! the first week of

August depending on the onset of monsoon.

Generally three to five eggs are found in a

nest but in two nests in Sajnakhali, Sundar-

ban, only two have been found. Some nests

were also found without any egg. Incubation

period varies from 28 to 30 days. Regurgita-

tion of water and mucous over eggs specially

on dry rainless days has been observed. The

parent birds also control the humidity by wet-

ting their abdominal feathers to aid fermen-

tation of nest material to help incubation.

PREDATION

Predation is largely by the Water Monitor

(Varanus salvator) which is the most common

species of reptile in Sundarban. It not only

destroys eggs but also appropriates nestlings.

135

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

The lizards has been found to swim in creeks

and climb trees to devour eggs and chicks. At

the approach of the parent birds it jumps from

trees and dives into the water. The land moni-

tors, namely Varanus flavescens and V. ben-

galensis, also predate on eggs and chicks. Other

than the Varanus species, the Jungle Crow

(Corvus macrorhynchos) destroys eggs and

steals chicks at the slightest opportunity. The

mother guards her eggs while incubating from

-predators by partially opening her wings and

bill, and tries to scare away the intruders, but

a powerful predator like the water monitor

compels the parent bird to leave the nest.

Some birds of prey, namely the Pariah Kite,

(Milvus migrans), Bonelli’s Hawk Eagle (Hie-

raaetus fasciatus) and Pallas’s Fishing Eagle

(Haliaeetus leucoryphus) have been observed

to fly over and snatch the nestlings at oppor-

tune moments.

THE REEACTION OF ADULTS AND FLEDLINGS

TOWARDS INTRUDER

As soon as the adult birds become aware

of the presence of an intruder, they react

sharply by an escaping flight in flocks, not

bothering much about their chicks and nests.

This sudden evacuation of the nests by the

adults, causes a panic among chicks and fledgl-

ings. Their fear is reflected through their

struggle by sudden hopping and beating of their

tiny wings, which enable them to escape to

safety to some other area. As a result of which

accidents occur and a few chicks do fall to

the ground to die. But, most of the nestlings

which have not developed enough strength to

stand up or beat wings lie helpless in the nest.

In Sajnakhali bird sanctuary, I have observed

that the birds are so sensitive that they be-

come alarmed even when a country boat is

traversing a creek through or near the sanc-

tuary.

136

FooD OF CHICKS AND FLEDGLINGS

Mukherjee (1975) gave a detailed analysis

of the food of the Openbill in Sundarban and

found that 85 per cent of its food comprised

of Mollusca in wet season. Both parents gather

soft body and viscera of the gastropods, which

are skillfully extracted from shells chiefly of

Pila globosa, to feed the young. Availability

of gastropods does not pose a problem since

the area is well-watered. These are collected

from wet paddy fields and marshes. The bird

flies to the nests to regurgitate the food on

the floor of the nest for the brood. The sup-

ply of food is about 5-6 times in a day. Chicks

and fledglings pick up the food-material from

the floor.

BREEDING SUCCESS

Breeding success was about 50 per cent,

based on the remaining fledglings almost ready

to fly. This was observed in ten nests in Sun-

darban which had a total of 41 eggs and the

count of fledglings in advanced age was 20

only. It takes 35-36 days for the fledglings to

fly after hatching and they finally leave the

nest after 6 weeks.

POPULATION

In approximately one hectare of intensive

nesting area in Sajnakhali, Sundarban, the

total number of nests of Openbill counted

was approximately 80 in the year 1977

(Plate). The population of adult birds toge-

ther with the fledglings at the closure of the

breeding season in that area was 320. In

about 350 hectares of the total breeding area,

the estimated population was over 10,000

birds.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

ZOOLOGY DEPARTMENT,

CALCUTTA UNIVERSITY,

CaLcuTTa-700 019,

April 6, 1978.

ANAND MUKHOPADHYAY

REFERENCE

MUKHERJEE, A. K. (1975): Food-habits of Water-

birds of the Sundarban, 24-Parganas District, West

Bengal, India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 71: 188-

191,

9, THE NESTING OF THE COOT (FULICA ATRA) IN THE

VILLAGE POND OF KHANDALA

Lavkumar Khachar’s note, in the Journal

vol. 74: 525, recording several Coots (Fulica

atra) nesting near Nasik, reminds me that last

month (December 1978) Fr. J. Hernandes of

our Institute reported a pair nesting in the

village pond along the roadside at Khandala

(Poona). There are earlier records of Coots

nesting near Poona, where Major Betham

(JBNHS 14 p. 176) found it breeding between

14th July and 17th August 1901. He speci-

fically refers to this being the first occasion on

which he found the species nesting, in India.

Some of these eggs are in the BNHS collection

which, contains another obtained at Pashan,

near Poona, on 29th August 1920 by F. Lud-

low.

Salim Ali and Humayun Abdulali in “The

Birds of Bombay and Salsette’” (1939) said

that there were no nesting records from Bom-

bay, but I later discovered in the St. Xavier

ST. XAVIER’S HicH SCHOOL,

Bomsay-400 001,

February 6, 1979.

High School collection, an egg taken at Maha-

laxmi, Bombay in 1910. It would appear that

the nesting of this species in peninsular India

is sporadic.

Incidentally, INDIAN HANDBOOK (2:181) re-

fers to Whistler’s statement (Pg. 263, The Avi-

faunal Survey of Ceylon - 1944).

“Tt has now established in Ceylon” (Giant’s

Tank, near Marungam), but adds on page

183. “It has not yet been recorded nesting

in Ceylon’. It may be worthwhile drawing at-

tention to a note by A. E. Butler in Ceylon

Bird Club notes—December 1962, where he

refers to a young Coot brought to him on 5th

December in brownish-black plumage, with

the shield undeveloped, and the bill pinkish in

colour. There would appear to be no doubt

that Whistler meant that he had nesting re-

cords for Ceylon (Sri Lanka).

A. NAVARRO

137

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

10. A NOTE ON THE SURVEY OF THE GREAT INDIAN BUSTARD

(CHORIOTIS NIGRICEPS)

Shri R. S. Dharmakumarsinhji, Regional

Honorary Secretary (West) of the Indian

Board for Wildlife, Member of the Maharash-

tra State Wildlife Advisory Board, and Mem-

ber of the Working Group of World Bustards,

was keen that we should survey the habitat of

the Great Indian Bustard (Choriotis nigriceps)

in Marathwada region, with a view to afford

stricter protection to this rare bird, which is

alarmingly on the decline and to promote

conditions for its breeding and multiplication.

The likely habitat of this bird, was indicated

as the area in the vicinity of the confluence

of the rivers Godavari and Pravara, known as

the Pravarasangam, about 40 km to the south-

west of Aurangabad district, on its border

with the adjoining Ahmednagar district. An-

other probable site suggested, was the area

near about the confluence of the rivers Goda-

vari and Purna, about 20 km to the south of

Purna in Parbhani district. The Divisional

Forest Officers concerned, as also the field-

staff, were given description the bird and were

asked to keep an eye on its occurrence and

movement and to report no sooner than it was

sighted.

Local enquiry revealed that nearly two de-

cades ago this bird was seen in fair numbers,

in the grassland interpersed with cultivation

between Vaijapur and Gangapur, along the

river Godavari on the south-western border

of Aurangabad district. The other likely areas

indicated were: Shiur 50 km to the north-west

of Aurangabad on the Malegaon road, Nim-

gaon-Chaoba in the eastern part of Ashti ta-

luka, in Beed district, bordering Ahmednagar

district, Chausala, 35 km to the south of Beed

in Beed district, and near about Ruibhar and

Tuljapur in Osmanabad district.

138

We had been in quest for the bird for near-

ly a year when on 28-9-1978 accompanied by

Shri K. K. Chavan, Divisional Forest Officer,

Aurangabad. I undertook a rapid survey, of

the tract between Vaijapur and Gangapur

along the river Godavari. After a brief halt

at Gangapur, we proceeded southwards to Pra-

varasangam (the confluence of rivers Goda-

vari and Pravara) and crossed over into New-

asa taluka, of Ahmednagar district, to the

other bank of the river Godavari. Enquiry

about the bird, with the local villagers near

Pravarasangam, drew a blank. We found there

was no access by road, along the river Goda-

vari on the other side of the Pravarasangam.

We therefore thought of returning and survey-

ing the fringe, on the other side of river Goda-

vari in Aurangabad district. As we were pro-

ceeding along this course, we met some villa-

gers near Pravarasangam, who were hacking,

Prosopis juliflora (Mesquite), which has wild-

ly overrun the low-lying tract, near the con-

fluence of the above rivers for fuelwood. En-

quiry with them, gave us a ray of hope, as

one of them said, that he had seen this bird

two years ago, in bajra fields near his hamlet,

at Babulkheda, in Newasa taluka, in Ahmed-

nagar district. He described the bird, vividly

and offered to take us to the site.

It was incredible, that almost on our arrival

I could sight two bustards foraging for food,

on the edge of a bajra field about a hectare in

extent. On two sides of the field, were small

patches of grassland, admeasuring barely 2 ha.

dotted with shrubby growth of ber (Zizyphus

jujuba) and hivar (Acacia leucophloea). The

birds were about 150 m away from us. We

tried to approach them on foot, to have a

closer glimpse and we succeeded in getting

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

within a distance of about 30 m from them.

The birds which had strayed into the bajra

field perfectly camouflaged with the crop. We

could spot another pair, in all four birds. Two

were smaller than the others, leading to infer,

they were a pair each, male and female. As

we got closer to them we could clearly see

their majestic, almost martial stride, with their

conspicuous black-crested crowns, swivelling

right and left, looking out warily for the in-

truder. As we got closer to them, within a

range of about 30 m they took off in the air,

almost instinctively, flapping their wings rhyth-

mically.

Though the common vernacular name of the

bird is ‘maldhok’’, it is locally known as: ‘‘kal-

dhok”’ or ‘“‘kuldhokmane’”’. The villagers in-

formed us, that Babulkheda fields and grass-

lands are permanent habitat of the birds and

CONSERVATOR OF FORESTS,

AURANGABAD CIRCLE,

AURANGABAD, (MS.),

November 27, 1978.

that they are also come across in the neigh-

bouring villages of Salbatpur, and Jalka. They

estimate a population of about ten birds in

this tract.

The natural habitat of the bird, is very much

disturbed with cultivation perniciously making

inroads into grasslands and the shrubby vege-

tal growth being cleared in the process. Con-

tinual human traffic too, as a result of the

spread of cultivation all round, also comes in

the way of safe and sheltered habitat for the

birds. The fringe of grassland interspersed

with cultivation and shrubby growth, on either

side of the river Godavari between Vaijapur

and Salbatpur (about 1500 sq. km.) both in

Aurangabad and Ahmednagar districts, could

be considered for protection and development,

as available habitat for the vanishing Great

Indian Bustard in Maharashtra.

L. H. A. REGO

11. ON THE TAXONOMIC VALIDITY OF THE SOUTH INDIAN

BLACKHEADED ORIOLE, ORIOLUS XANTHORNUS

MADERASPATANUS FRANKLIN (AVES: ORIOLIDAE)

(With a ttxt-figure)

During the course of a faunistic survey in

Andhra Pradesh in 1978, I collected a female

specimen of Oriolus xanthornus maderaspata-

nus Franklin on 22 February from Kotapalli,

c 48 km north-east of Mancherial, Adilabad

district, Andhra Pradesh. Its measurements

are: Wing 144, tail 87, and bill 30 mm.

The south Indian population of the Black-

headed Oriole was separated from Oriolus

xanthornus xanthornus Linnaeus, 1758, as

Oriolus xanthornus maderaspatanus by Frank-

lin, 1831, on the basis of yellow markings on

inner secondaries and tertiaries being reduced

to terminal spots. Baker (1926) considers the

whole population of Indian Blackheaded

Oriole under one subspecies, Oriolus xanthor-

nus xanthornus. Biswas (1947) also treated

maderaspatanus as a synonym of xanthornus,

since he found that the yellow markings are

very variable and not a constant character.

Rand & Fleming (1957) while studying the

birds from Nepal, commented that the

139

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

TABLE 1

Assam 6 7 8

a) ie) 20.00—22.00 20.00—23.00 19.00—24.00

(21.00) (21.40) (20.80)

Tripura

died 26.00 26.00 25.00

West Bengal

6 3 19.00--26.00 20.00-28.00 20.00—32.00

(23.00) (23.50) (23.00)

1 @ 19.00 18.00 20.00

ile? 21.00 24.00 25.00

Bihar

42 16.00-24.00 18.00-24.00 16.00—23.00

(19.00) (21.50) (20.25)

ie 27.00 23.00 22.00

Drie 21.00-23.00 18.00—22.00 18.00-23.00

(22.00) (20.00) (20.50)

Uttar Pradesh

J 8 19.00-23.00 23.00-25.00 25.00

(21.00) (24.00) (25.00)

1? 29.00 29.00 31.00

Orissa

6 4 15.00—22.00 12.00-20.00 9.00-17.00

(18.00) (16.00) (14.00)

3 9 15.00—-27.00 15.00-27.00 15.00—24.00

(22.00) (22.00) (20.00)

Madhya Pradesh

4 2 11.00--17.00 12.00-17.00 11.00—16.00

(14.50) (14.25) (12.50)

Andhra Pradesh

eS 11.00 11.00 12.00

Maharashtra

7 6 9.00-11.00 10.00—-14.00 10.00—15.00

(7.00) (11.14) (11.85)

Goa

1g 11.00 10.00 10.00

Tamil Nadu

Py} 9.00 9.00 7.00

Dime 8.00-10.00 8.00-10.00 7.00-10.00

(9.00) (9.00) (8.50)

Kerala

26 10.00-11.00 10.00-11.00 9.00-11.00

(10.50) (10.50) (10.00)

He? 10.00 10.00 10.00

SS RT ES

140

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

validity of maderaspatanus of peninsular India

was questionable. Ali & Ripley (1972, p. 110,

note) while admitting maderaspatanus stand

that the ‘subspecies is considered questionable

by some authors’.

An attempt has, therefore, been made to

review the taxonomic status of Oriolus xan-

thornus maderaspatanus on the basis of the

material present at the Zoological Survey of

India. The differences of measurements (in

mm) of yellow spots on secondaries 6, 7 and

8 (from outside) between the populations

from northern and southern India are given

in Table 1 (averages in parenthesis).

From the table 1 the difference in the sizes

of the yellow spots on three secondaries bet-

ween the northern and southern populations

appears quite clear, although a very small

number of specimens exhibit some variations

which may possibly be only individual varia-

tions. The accompanying sketch showing yel-

low spots on the secondaries of the two popu-

lations also make the issue quite clear (fig. 1).

On the basis of the data presented above,

I believe (Ali and Ripley 1972) are justified

in recognizing maderaspatanus as a_ distinct

subspecies.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I am grateful to Dr. B. Biswas, Zoological

Survey of India, Calcutta, for his valuable

suggestions and for going through the manu-

script.

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

INDIAN MUSEUM,

CaLcuTTa 700 016,

January 7, 1978.

Fig. 1. Secondary wing feathers of Oriolus xan-

thornus showing the extent of yellow spots on the

6th, 7th and 8th feathers.

A. North Indian population; B.

population.

South Indian

N. MAJUMDAR

141

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

REFERENCES

Auli, S. & RipLey, S. D. (1972): Handbook of

the birds of India and Pakistan, Vol. 5: 110.

BAKER, E. C. S. (1926): Fauna of British India,

Birds 3: 11. Taylor & Francis, London.

Biswas, B. (1947): Notes on a Collection of

Birds from the Darrang District, Assam. Rec. In-

dian Mus. 45: 233.

Ranp, A. L. & FLEMING, R. L. (1957):

from Nepal. Fieldiana, Zoology, 41(1): 108.

Birds

12. ON THE VALIDITY OF DENDROCITTA FORMOSAE SARKARI

KINNEAR & WHISTLER

In the course of the Vernay Scientific Sur-

very of the Eastern Ghats held during 1929-

30, seven specimens of the Himalayan Tree

Pie (Dendrocitia formosae) were obtained in

the Vizagapatam Hills and separated as Dez-

drocitta formosae sarkari by Kinnear & Whist-

ler (1930, Bull. Brit. Orn. Cl. 51 p. 17).

It was referred to again in the course of the

Eastern Ghats Report (JBNHS 35 p. 517) as

differing from the form in the Eastern Hima-

layas (now D. f. himalayensis Blyth).

Biswas 1964, JBNHS 60: 650-1 imeasured

three paratypes of sarkari (2 6d 1 ¢@) and

compared them with a large series (30 oo

20 ¢ 2 32 0?) from Eastern (himalayensis

Blyth) and Western (occidentalis Ticehurst)

Himalayas. Noting the slight overlap in the

measurements he expressed the opinion that

sarkari was synonymous with himalayensis.

This has been accepted in IND. HANDBOOK (5:

226)

In the course of cataloguing the Bombay

Natural History Society collection, I have

examined 9 specimens, 2 from the original

series from Anantagiri, Vizagapatam Hills,

and 7 fresh specimens collected by Salim Ali

at Berbera, Puri, and Mahendragiri, all in

Orissa.

142

While -the average measurements are not

very different, in series they are strikingly

smaller than both occidentalis and himalayen-

sis, and the range of measurements is also very

different.

The wing and tail measurements decline

from the north-west (occidentalis) through

Eastern Himalayas (himalayensis) to Orissa

and the Vizagapatam Hills (sarkari). The

measurements overlap with those of the ad-

joining race, the only consistent difference

being the acquirement of a larger wing and

tail, both by occidentalis, as compared to

himalayensis, and the latter as compared with

sar kari.

In the first two, the distribution is contigu-

ous and they no doubt form a cline. The

southern birds are, however, isolated and of

those examined, the largest wing is 143 mm.,

bill 23.7 and tail 207.

It is generally overlooked that the bird was

described only for its smaller bill. When view-

ed sideways, it is much smaller than in any

of the others and the width at the nostrils

never exceeds 11 mm., while it is always more

in the others.

On these differences, I think that sarkari

is a good race and deserves to be retained.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Wing

sarkari (4) 135-143

himalayensis (8) 135-148

Biswas’s_.,, (30) 137-151 (142.7)

occidentalis (6) 140-154

Biswas’s ,, (4) 147-156

ore

sarkari (5) 133-140

himalayensis (12) 135-150

Biswas’s_,, (20) 137-148

occidentalis @)e525153

Biswas’s_,, (7) 149-156

75 ABDUL REHMAN STREET,

BomBay-400 003,

March 31, 1979.

Bill From Width at Tail

nostril nostril

28.5-30.6 21-23 9.8-10.6 200, 207

29.8-33.3 22-25 11-12 188-224

34-39.5 (36.5) — — 194-228

32-35 24.3-26 11.3-12.3 233-249

35-37.5 (36.5) — — 243-260

27.5-30.7 21.7-23.7 10-11 193-203

29-33.2 22-25 11-12.3 188-233

33.5-39 (36.1) —— — 192-230

30, 33 222, 25:8 11.5,12.3 238, 243

35-40 (37.4) — -— 241-261

HUMAYUN ABDULALI

13. ON THE OCCURRENCE OF TYTLER’S LEAF WARBLER,

PHYLLOSCOPUS TYTLERI BROOKS IN GOA

Grubh & Ali (1976) state that they obtain-

ed a specimen of Tytler’s Leaf Warbler Phyllo-

scopus tytleri Brooks in Goa in early Decem-

ber 1972. I have examined this specimen in

the collection of the Bombay Natural History

Society. The diagnostic characters of this spe-

cies are its ‘‘peculiarly long thin bill” (Tice-

hurst 1938) and dark lower mandible. Com-

parison with specimens obtained during the

breeding season from Kashmir shows that this

specimen does not have these characters. It is

clearly a Greenish Warbler, Phylioscopus tro-

chiloides (Sundevall), of which I have made

a special study (MS.).

Presumably the mis-identification was made

on the basis of no wing bar. However, indi-

vidual Greenish Warblers in worn plumage

(as this specimen is) often show very faint

or missing wing bars (pers. obs.). The Green-

DIVISION OF BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES,

THE UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN,

ANN ARBOR,

MIcHIGAN 48109,

WEStA.,

January 3, 1979.

ish Warbler goes through its complete annual

mouit in Spring (Ticehurst 1938) and would

be expected to be in worn plumage at this

time. Tytler’s Leaf Warbler, on the other hand,

goes through a complete post-nuptial moult

(Ticehurst 1938) and would be expected to be

in relatively fresh plumage.

There are therefore only three confirmed

records of the Tytler’s Leaf Warbler in Winter

(Grubh & Ali 1976) and several sight re-

cords (Ali & Ripley 1973), all from the west

side of the Indian peninsular. The Winter

range of this species remains unclear. Ripley

records this species in the Dhenkanal District,

Orissa, which extends its known winter range

considerably further east (Ripley 1978).

I thank Dr. Robert Grubh for help with the

Society’s collections.

TREVOR D. PRICE

143

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

REFERENCES

Atl, S. & RipLey, S. D. (1973): Handbook of

the Birds of India and Pakistan. Volume 8. Oxford

University Press.

GRuUBH, R. B. & Att, S. (1976): Birds of Goa.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 73: 42-53.

Price, T. D. (1978): The Ecology of the Green-

ish Warbler, Phylloscopus trochiloides (Sundevall)

in its Winter quarters. Manuscript.

RipLey, S. D. (1978): Changes in the bird fauna

of a forest area; Simlipal Hills, Mayurbhanj Dis-

trict, and Dhenkanal District, Orissa. J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 75(3): 570-574.

TICEHURST, C. B. (1938): A Systematic Review

of the Genus Phylloscopus. British Museum (Natu-

ral History).

14. GREEN MUNIA (ESTRILDA FORMOSA) AT DELHI, AND

OTHER INTERESTING RECORDS FOR 1978

During 1978 we recorded two species which,

according to Ganguli (1975), have not been

recorded previously within the Union Terri-

tory of Delhi, the Plaintive Cuckoo and the

Green Munia, the latter record falling well out-

side the normal range of the species. In addi-

tion we obtained evidence of breeding for two

species formerly of doubtful status within the

area, the Red and Spotted Munias. All obser-

vations were made in the Government Nur-

sery, Sunder Nagar, just beside Delhi Zoo.

Plaintive Cuckoo Cacomantis merulinus. An

immature of this species was seen on 20 Au-

gust 1978 perched in the crown of a mango

tree, into which it made periodic sallies to

snatch insects. It was identified from the si-

milar Bay-banded Cuckoo C. sonneratii by the

presence of a rufous suffusion on the face and

throat, and by the fact that the legs were

orange and the bill brown, becoming yellow-

ish at the base of the lower mandible.

Green Munia Estrilda formosa. A male was

seen feeding in tall grass along with Red Mu-

nias on 11 October 1978. The bird was in

very fresh plumage and we were able to ob-

serve it at ranges down to 3 m. It took no

notice of us, but appeared unsettled, flying

round more than the other munias present,

144

and after half an hour flew off and did not

re-appear. The bird was also seen by Narender

Sharma.

According to Ali and Ripley (1974) the

species’ main range is in central India, but

there are two isolated records from the north-

ern part of the sub-continent, at Lucknow and

Lahore, and it is therefore possible that a scat-

tered population does exist north of the Vin-

dhyas.

Red Munia_ Estrilda amandava. Birds

were seen collecting and transporting nest ma-

terial on 17 September and 11 October 1978

and pairs were seen with fledglings from 31

October onwards. Spotted Munia Lonchura

punctulata. One was seen repeatedly carrying

strips of green grass blades to a nest in the

crown of a palm tree, about 6 m up. The

pieces were frequently several times the length

of the bird and could be carried only with

difficulty. Juveniles were noted in November,

but the nest seen being built did not fledge

any young.

One other record for 1978 which is worth

mentioning is that of a male Dark Grey Bush-

chat Saxicola ferrea seen by AJG on 29 Octo-

ber. The two records mentioned by Ganguli

from Delhi were apparently not certain.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

C/O OxForD UNIVERSITY PRESS, A. J. GASTON

2/11 ANsari Roab, J. MACKRELL

DaryA GANJ,

Deut 110 002,

February 19, 1979.

REFERENCES

Aur, S. & Riptey, S. D. (1974): Handbook of GANGULI, U. (1975): A Guide to the Birds of the

the Birds of India and Pakistan, Vol. 10. Delhi Area. LC.A.R., New Delhi.

Oxford University Press, Bombay.

15. A CATALOGUE OF THE BIRDS IN THE COLLECTION OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

PARTS 1-17—NON-PASSERIFORMES

ERRATA

JBNHS Serial es

Vol. p. page No. No.

65(1):189 (8) 23 “December” is month of acquisition, and not collec-

tion.

65(1):191 (10) 33 For ‘“‘Ardea imperialis”’ read ‘‘Ardea insignis Hume’’.

65(2) :423 (24) 97 Bor 25356:sread “153567,

65(2) :424 (25) 101 Specimen 15384 marked ‘‘Gadwall/Mallard hybrid’

has been re-identified as a teal/Baikal teal hybrid, Bull.

BOC 1969: 100.

65(2) :429 (30) 121 The specimen marked “‘Gangpur, Bihar’? was obtain-

ed by the ruler of that State on Ib River, Sambalpur,

Orissa.

65(3) : 700 (36) 138 ‘Bhagat State (in Simla Hills), N.W.P.” not N.W.F.P.”

65 (3) :706 (42) 157 Khojdar is not in Persia but in Baluchistan 27.48N.,

65.36E (Dr. R. D. Etchecopar, in epist.).

65(3):713 (49) 185 In line 8 for ‘‘bengalensis’’ read ‘“‘indicus’’.

65(3):718 (54) 203 For “Shaiba, Arabia’ read ‘‘Shaiba, Iraq’.

66(2) :264 (73) 264 For ‘Manipur Bush Quail” read ‘‘Assam Bush Quail’’.

66(2) :267 (76) 278 For “Bharatpur, Rajasthan” read ‘“‘Karauli, District

Sawai Madhopur, Rajasthan”. (Sent by Maharaja of

Bharatpur! ).

66(2):270 (79) 286 For “‘Tragopan satyr’’ read ‘“‘Tragopan satyra’’.

66(2) :283 (92) 314 Insert name “Yellowlegged Button Quail’’.

*Originally based on Ripley’s Synopsis.

145

66(3)

67(2)

68(1):

68(3)

69(1):

2382

69(2)

69(3):

146

2544

2547

2559

2282

:283

7284

2269

68(1):

148

152

SIA

69(1):

104

105

106

1i5

121

126

129

2385

541

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

(97)

(100)

(112)

(122)

(123)

(124)

(129)

(160)

(164)

(191)

(195)

(196)

(197)

(206)

(212)

(217)

(220)

(225)

(228)

(236)

334

347

384a

415

For ‘‘Shaiba, Arabia” read ‘‘Shaiba, Iraq’.

For ‘“‘Shaiba, Arabia” read ‘“‘Shaiba, Iraq’.

This is synonymous with No. 375 and should be en-

tirely omitted.

The measurements of Sp. No. 14793 from Chilka Lake

are erroneous and the specimen is minutus No. 416.

In the penultimate sentence the word ‘“‘omitted” is in

error for ‘“‘accepted’’.

Delete ‘“‘nil’’ for some specimens under the next may

be of this subspecies.

Delete ‘‘nil’’ for some specimens under the next may

be of this subspecies.

For ‘‘Shaiba, Arabia” read ‘‘Shaiba, Iraq’’.

Invficst dine reade noe. nee there is only one female

Ten live birds in Calcutta Zoo (1 April 1973) had

yellow claws.

Under subadult tarsus read “‘av. 40.4’.

In line 5 for ‘‘third primary” read “‘first primary” and

in following paragraph the date of the Ratnagiri speci-

men should be “8 January 1879”.

After “Supa”? add “N. Kanara’’.

The single specimen is Otus magicus (?)

For “‘Sonapura”’ read ‘“‘Sonarupa’’.

2 bdo from Nilgiris (February 1975) agree with the

bird from Yercaud and the differences from Strix lep-

togrammica indranee Sykes are probably due to the

other skins being older and having faded.

In type locality for ‘Bengal’? read “now Chaibassa,

Bihar’.

In last line after “JBNHS”’’ insert ‘69: 185”.

For “Apus acuticaudis” read ‘‘Apus acuticauda’. (R.

K. Brooke, Bull. B.O.C. 1969:97-99).

For “‘C. p. batasiensis’” read ‘‘C. p. balasiensis’’. (Wells

& Medway, JBNHS 723:539-542).

Insert locality ‘Jalawli, collected by T. R. Bell = N

Kanara?”’.

INDIAN

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

ADDENDA

Only species/subspecies of which no specimens were available or had not been

correctly identified are now listed.

HANDBOOK.

No.

108 /9

128

202

240

Phaeton lepturus lepturus Daudin

(Mauritius)

1 off Battye Maive, between Anda-

man and Nicobar Islands (pair of

central feathers only).

Ardeola bacchus Bonaparte (Malay

Peninsula), 1 < Sipighat, South

Andamans, 1 ¢ Narcondam Island.

Paget’s Pochard, a cross between

Aythya ferina and Aythya nyroca

netted at Bharatpur. JBNHS 69(2):

415-417.

Aviceda leuphotes

Abdulali & Grubh

1 ¢ 1 2 Type & paratype (Wright-

myo, South Andaman).

Spilornis cheela klossi Richmond

(Pulo Kunyi, Great Nicobar).

1 ¢ Campbell Bay, Great Nicobar,

(Topotype).

Francolinus pictus pallidus

Gray) (Udaipur).

1 o& Udaipur, 1 September 1977—

See note JBNHS 76(2): 362.

Lophurus sp.

In JBNHS 66(2), p. 276, I refer-

red to 3 specimens (2 ¢ 1 ¢) from

near Htangaw between Kachin Hills

and China which I was unable to

identify. A og and @2 were sent to

Dr. Delacour at American Museum

of Natural History and in a letter

dated 4 November 1974 he replied

“They are L. leucomelanus lathami

andamanensis

(@ ined Shs

254

345b

378

386

427

527b

543

(Horsfield’s Kalij) williamsi, but

they are much nearer to Jathammi.

There are a lot of more or less in-

termediate specimens from the Ka-

chin Hills. They are unstable and

do not deserve names’’.

Coturnix chinensis __ trinkutensis

(Richmond) (Trinkut Island, Nico-

bar Group).

266 2 22 Trinkut Island, Cen-

tral Nicobars (Topotypes).

Amaurornis phoenicurus midnicoba-

rica Abdulali (Nancowry, Central

Nicobars).

1 & (Holotype) 1

1 3 1 2 Camorta.

Charadrius hiaticula tundrae (Lowe)

(Valley of Yenessei)

1 o? Muthupet, Thanjavur dist.,

Tamil Nadu.

Numenius — phaeopus variegalus

(Scopoli) (No locality = Luzon, ex

Sonnerat).

2 obtained from Japan in exchange

for Indian specimens. Others from

Andamans & Nicobars, and | from

Pulicat, Madras, transferred from

385 (JBNHS 71, p. 497).

Phalaropus fulicarius (Linnaeus)

(Hudson Bay)

1 g& Oregon, U.S.A. (in exchange).

Macropygia rufipennis tiwari Abdul-

ali (Campbell Bay, Great Nicobar)

4 $ 1 2 Campbell Bay, Great

Nicobar.

Chalcophaps indica robinsoni Baker

(Cocawath Estate, Ceylon)

3 No. 23485, collected by S. Green

Q Nancowry;

147

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

at Colombo, Ceylon.

Phodilus badius ripleyi (Hussain &

Reza Khan (Nelliampathi Hills)

1 Peria Solai Estate, Nelliampathi,

Kerala (Type).

Otus magicus subsp. yet undescribed.

1 g Campbell Bay, Great Nicobar

(1969).

Ninox affinis affinis Beavan (Aber-

deen Point, Port Blair, Andaman Is-

lands.

1 @ South Andamans, (Topotype).

Ninox affinis isolata Baker (Car

Nicobar)

2 3 ¢ Car Nicobar*, 1 @ Camor-

610a

642¢

646

647

75 ABDUL REHMAN STREET,

BomBay-400 003,

June 8, 1977.

ta, (* Topotypes).

Ninox affinis rexpimenti

(Great Nicobar).

266 1 @ :Vopotypes:

Ceyx erithacus macrocarus Oberhol-

ser (Great Nicobar)

1 g Campbell Bay, Great Nicobar.

The specimen obtained in 1966 and

listed under this form is of the no-

minate race and was wrongly iden-

tified.

Pelargopsis amauroptera (Pearson)

(Calcutta)

2 oc Bhitarkanika, Athadhar

Forest Division, Balasore, Orissa.

HUMAYUN ABDULALI

647a Abdulali

728

7129.

16. TERRITORIALITY IN IMMATURE CAPTIVE SALTWATER

CROCODILES (CROCODYLUS POROSUS SCHNEIDER)

Since 1975, extensive rearing of saltwater

crocodiles, hatched in captivity, has taken

place at Dangmal, Orissa as one facet of a con-

servation programme on this endangered spe-

cies (FAO, 1975).

Hatchlings show a strong tendency to aggre-

gate, but by about eight months old they start

to loose this aggregation tendency becoming

progressively more solitary if space permits.

In the early spring (February/March) of their

third year, at an age of 24 years, signs of ter-

ritoriality/dominance behaviour commenced

in groups in two successive years (Table 1)).

This behaviour was exhibited by both sexes.

The dominant female of the all female batch

hatched in 1975, did not allow the other four

females to enter the 4x4x1 m deep pool

when she was in the pool or to approach her

148

on land. In September 1978 this female was

removed and housed separately, following

which the next largest female in the group

became dominant. The 1976 batch showed si-

milar dominance behaviour from February/

March 1978, the dominant in this year being

a male. Towards the end of the third year the

dominants commenced actual physical attacks

on the subordinate members of their respec-

tive groups. This behaviour was very marked

during the fourth year resulting in injuries to

the head, jaws and back legs.

We consider that this dominance behaviour

results from territoriality which cannot find

expression in a confined space, hence result-

ing in the development of a dominance hierar-

chy.

The development of strong territoriality is

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

TABLE 1

DEVELOPMENT OF TERRITORJALITY /DOMINANCE BEHAVIOR IN GROUPS OF IMMATURE SALTWATER CROCODILES.

SIZES (M) AND WEIGHTS (KG)

Date of birth of territorial /dominance

behaviour

21 August 1975

17 August 1976

Feb /Mar 1978 (24 years)

Feb /Mar 1979 (23 years)

surprising in immature individuals assumed to

have at least a further 5-7 years of immature

life prior to first breeding (Yangprapakorn

1971). Furthermore, the existence of strongly

developed female territoriality is likewise un-

expected. However, as pointed out by Neill

(1971) virtually nothing is known of the bio-

logy of C. porosus outside of nesting. Further-

more, crocodilians may represent a behaviour-

ally more diverse group than hitherto limited

data have suggested.

CROCODILE BREEDING & MANAGEMENT

TRAINING INSTITUTE,

19-4-314 Lake DALE,

RAJENDRANAGAR Roap,

HYDERABAD-500 264.

SALTWATER CROCODILE RESEARCH

AND CONSERVATION CENTRE,

DANGMAL-754 220, ORISSA,

February 20, 1980.

Time/Age of commencement

Composition . ’

: Dominant

of group : Aare

Sex Size Weight

5 Females Female 1.42 10.5

3 Females Male 1.29 ES

2 Males

It is standard practice in large-scale croco-

dilian rearing to restrict the numbers per pool,

to keep year classes separately, and to resort

individuals within year classes so that similar-

sized individuals are kept together. This is

done to prevent bullying of smaller individuals

by larger animals. However, the behaviour de-

scribed here for C. porosus is markedly diffe-

rent in degree from our experience with other

crocodilian species.

H. R. BUSTARD

S. K. KAR

REFERENCES

FAO (1975): India: Gharial and Crocodile Con-

servation Management in Orissa (based on the work

of H. R. Bustard) FAO, Rome (FO:IND/71/033).

NEILL, W. T. (1971): The Last of the Ruling

Reptiles. Columbia Univ. Press. New York.

YANGPRAPAKORN, U. (1971): Captive Breeding

of Crocodiles in Thailand. Jn Crocodiles. TUCN

Publs. N.S. Suppl. 33: 98-101.

149

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

17. STATUS OF THE GHARIAL (GAVIALIS GANGETICUS)

GMELIN) IN BHUTAN

The distribution of the gharial is given by

Malcolm Smith (1931) as, “The Indus, Gan-

ges, Mahanadi and Brahmaputra Rivers and

their tributaries, and the Kaladan River, Ara-

kan.”

The gharial formerly occurred in the Manas

River, a tributary of the Brahmaputra which

rises in the hill country in the himalayan King-

dom of Bhutan and passes through southern

(lowland) Bhutan before entering Assam. In

1978 I carried out crocodile field work in

Bhutan including Manas Sanctuary (Bustard

1979) and confirmed the presence of ideal

gharial habitat on the Bhutan portion of the

Manas river from the border with India until

the Manas enters the hill country. This area

of the Manas river appeared similar to the

so-called Satkosia Gorge of river Mahanadi

in Orissa which is one of the sanctuaries dec-

Jared for the gharial under the Government

of India Crocodile Project. Satkosia Gorge has

long been famous as gharial habitat. The Ma-

nas river within Bhutan includes good bas-

king/nesting sandbanks further enhancing its

habitat potential.

No gharial appear to occur today in this

CENTRAL CROCODILE BREEDING &

MANAGEMENT TRAINING INSTITUTE,

LAKE DALE, RAJENDRANAGAR ROAD,

HYDERABAD-500 264,

February 2, 1980.

stretch of the Manas River in Bhutan nor in

the stretch within India adjacent to Bhutan.

The last definite records of gharial were of an

adult of 5-5.5 m which was frequently seen

between 1962 and 1964 about 8 km upstream

from the Bhutanese Manas Tourist Lodge,

and another individual of about 4.5 m which

was seen daily for about 17 years until con-

struction of the Tourist Lodge at the site where

the Tourist Lodge now stands.

In November 1977 Forest Department per-

sonne! of Project Tiger brought a gharial, re-

ported to be about 1.5 m in length, and libe-

rated it in the Manas river on the Bhutanese

side of the Indo-Bhutanese border. This gha-

rial was seen for 7 months until the commen-

cement of the 1978 monsoon. However, I was

advised by Shri Deb Roy, LFS., Field Di-

rector, Project Tiger, Manas, during Decem-

ber 1979 that this gharial is still being seen

occasionally.

As recorded in my 1979 FAO report, efforts

should be made to re-establish the gharial in

Bhutan in this good habitat in Manas, espe-

cially in view of the extensive protection now

afforded to Manas Sanctuary.

H. R. BUSTARD

REFERENCES

Bustarp, H. R. (1979): Bhutan: Crocodile Con-

servation Commercial Farming. FO:DP/BHU/78/

003. FAO. Rome January 1979.

SmirH, M. A. (1931): The Fauna of British In-

150

dia including Ceylon and Burma. Reptilia and Am-

phibia. 7. Loricata Testudines: Taylor and Francis,

London.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

18. EXTENTION OF RANGE OF THE NARROW-MOUTH FROG,

UPERODON GLOBULOSUM (GUNTHER) TO KAMRUP DISTRICT,

ASSAM

The narrow-mouth frog, Uperodon globuio-

sum (Giinther), is believed to be a rare spe-

cies from its smal! numerical records from the

reported areas, although it enjoys a wide range

of distribution. The species has been obtained

from West Bengal, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh

and Maharashtra. Orissa has also been inciud-

ed in the range of distribution of this species

(Boulenger 1890) but no specimen from that

state could be traced. In West Bengal, this

species has been collected from the Botanical

Gardens, Shibpur, Howrah District in 1880's;

from Khardah, 24 Parganas District in 1928,

from Jalpaiguri District in 1956, and recently

from Barakpur and Baj Bai, 24 Parganas Dis-

trict.

In their note on its record from Jalpaiguri,

West Bengal, Bhaduri and Basu (1956) wrote:

“The presence of U. globulosuim in Jalpaiguri

in northern Bengal particularly as it is situat-

ed in the borderline of Assam, seems to be

an interesting feature. Its occurrence, there-

fore, in some parts of Assam may not be un-

likely from the point of view of its distribu-

tion’. This remark has now been fully borne

out by a recent finding of an example of this

species from a termitarium in Mothanguri,

Manas Sanctuary, Kamrup District, Assam, by

one of us (S.S.S.), who brought a live speci-

men to Calcutta.

The alleged rarity of the species is probably

because it eludes collectors from its subter-

ranean habits. There remains much to be

learnt about the biology of this narrow-mouth

frog. On earlier occasions the frog was exhum-

ed from termitarium or from fields, usually

from among debris. Abdulali & Daniel (1954)

found it in fair numbers in the Salsette Island,

Bombay, when the frogs came out of their

burrow habitats for breeding. The present col-

lection was from a forested area, in the semi-

open mixed forest tract of Manas Sanctuary,

in a block where the soil was damp and the

forest floor was littered with piles of decay-

ing logs, mostly infested with termites. The

narrow-mouth frog was located underneath a

decaying log and partly embedded in soft clay.

The soil termite, Speculitermes sp., was found

in association with this frog. This termite does

not make exposed mounds but forms a system

of tunnels in the clay as well as in the decay-

ing logs lying on the ground. The frog was

found buried in the soft clay, head and part

of its upper back out of soil but under a de-

caying log, hollowed out just over the frogs

body. Termites were apparently undisturbed

by the presence of the frog. However, it is

presumed that those termites constitute the

chief food of the frog. The live specimen was

brought back to Calcutta. No attempt was

made to feed this animal and it died after 14

days of starvation. It may be recalled in this

connection that Mukerji (1933) observed this

species died after 31 days of starvation.

Maierial: 1 2, collected on 14 June 1975

by Shri S. S. Saha from Mothanguri, Manas

Sanctuary, Kamrup District, Assam, and de-

posited in the National Zoological Collections,

Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta.

The present finding, extending the range of

distribution of Uperodon globulosum (Giin-

ther) to Assam, has significant bearing on the

zoogeography of the species. Discoveries from

further eastern part of its known range, parti-

culuarly from the Indo-Malayan subregion

may, pernaps, throw some light on the affinity

of the species.

151

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

INDIAN MUSEUM,

CaLcuTra-700 016,

January 10, 1979.

JNANENDRA LAL BHADURI

SUBHENDU SEKHAR SAHA

REFERENCES

ABDULALI, H. AND DANIEL, J. C. (1954): Exten-

tion of range of the frog Uperodon globulosum

Giinther). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 52: 637.

Buapurt, J. L. anp Basu, S. L. (1956): Further

extention of range of the frog, Uperodon globulo-

sum (Giinther) in Jalpaiguri, West Bengal. ibid.

53: 712-713.

BOULENGER, G. A. (1890): Fauna of British In-

dia. Reptilia and Batrachia. Taylor and Francis.

London.

MuKERJI, D. D. (1933): Some observations on

burrowing toad, Cacopus globulosum Giinther. J.

Proc. Asiat. Soc. Bengal, N. S. 27: 97-100.

19. OCCURRENCE OF BOTIA LOHACHATA CHAUDHURI IN

HIMACHAL PRADESH WITH REMARKS ON THE TAXONOMY

OF INDIAN SPECIES OF BOTIA GRAY (PISCES: COBITIDAE)

Recently, I came across in the fish collec-

tion of this Station 3 specimens of Botia loha-

chata Chaudhuri collected from Nakeri Khud,

10 kms from Dehragopipur, Distt. Kangra

(H.P.). These specimens, labelled as Botia

dayi Hora, agree well with the account of B.

lohachata as given by Chaudhuri (1912).

Since B. lohachata is hitherto known from

Bihar, Uttar-Pradesh, Rajasthan (Udaipur),

Delhi, Punjab and Sind (Menon 1974), the

present find extends its distributional range to

Himachal Pradesh, as may be expected from

the zoogeographical point of view (Menon

1962).

Tilak and Hussain (1977) in their check-

list of the fishes of Himachal Pradesh includ-

ed two species of Botia, B. birdi Chaudhuri

and B. dayi Hora, the latter species recorded

for the first time from Himachal Pradesh. Hi-

1See vol. 76 (3):

this record—Eds.

525-527, for the validity of

152

therto, B. dayi was known from Eastern Hi-

malayas (Menon 1974) and from the western

ghats (Rao and Yazdani. 1978).*

Day (1878-1889) referred to 6 species of

Botia, namely, B. nebulosa Blyth, B. dario

(Ham.), B. geto (Ham.), B. almorhae Gray,

B. berdmorei Blyth, and B. histrionica Blyth,

As Day’s (op. cit.) key to the species of Bo-

tia, based mainly on the differences in the fin-

ray counts and number of barbels, was not

helpful Hora (1922) analysed Botia spp. on

the basis of other characters such as size and

position of eyes and length of snout in rela-

tion to head. He (op. cit.) dealt with alto-

gether 17 species, 8 of which, namely, B. al-

morhae, B. birdi, B. dario, B. geto, B. histrio-

nica, B. lohachata, B. rostrata, and B. striata

were considered valid from India. He (op.

cit.) synonymised B. berdmorei (having 6 bar-

bels) with B. hymenophysa (Bleeker)—a spe-

cies (having 8 barbels) known from Burma,

Thailand, Indo-Australian Archipelago and re-

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

jected B. nebulosa of Day on the ground that

it was a species of Noemacheilus.

Hora (1932) described B. dayi from River

Mahanadi, Darjeeling Himalayas and synony-

mised with it the species described by Day

(1878, 1889) under the name Botia geto. Me-

non (1974), in his check-list of fishes of Hi-

malayan and Indo-gangetic plains, recorded 6

species of Botia, namely, almorhae, berdmorei,

dario, histrionica, lohachata and rostrata. He

(op. cit.) ignored the synonymy of B. berdmo-

rei with B. hymenophysa but omitted B. birdi,

perhaps inadvertently, and B. geto without cla-

rifying their taxonomic status. Thus, only 8

species of Botia, namely, almorhae, birdi, da-

rio, histrionica, hymenophysa, lohachata, ros-

trata and striata may be provisionally recog-

nised in India.

As Menon (op. cit.), in his check-list, in-

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

HIGH ALTITUDE ZOOLOGY FIELD STATION,

SOLAN (HIMACHAL PRADESH),

August 30, 1979.

cludes Botia berdmorei from India, and as

Hora synonymised it with B. hymenophysa,

Hora’s (1922) key may be modified as fol-

lows:

Under Group II. Barbels eight (Boiia s.s.),

after the position B, I, b, i and after the state-

ment ‘“‘Anterior origin of dorsal almost equi-

distant from tip of snout and base of caudal’,

add

Length of head greater than depth of body ..

....Botia hymenophysa

Length of head almost same as depth of

body... ..

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I am grateful to Dr. H. Khajuria, Deputy

Director, for kindly providing necessary faci-

lities.

G. M. YAZDANI

REFERENCES

CHAUDHURI, B. L. (1912): Descriptions of some

new species of freshwater fishes from North India.

Rec. Indian Mus., Calcutta, 7, pp. 437-444.

Day, F. (1878): The fishes of India, being a Na-

tural History of the fishes known to inhabit the seas

and freshwater of India, Burma, and Ceylon (Re-

printed in 1958 William Dawson & Co., London).

pp. 1-XX-778, pls. 195.

———_—— (1889): The Fauna of British India,

including Ceylon and Burma, Fishes, London, /, pp.

1-XTII, 1-548, 104 figs.

Hora, S. L. (1922): Notes on fishes in the Indian

Museum. IV. On fishes belonging to the genus Botia,

(Cobitidae). Rec. Indian Mus., Calcutta, 24(3):

313-321.

(1932): Notes on the fishes of the

Indian Museum XIX. On a new loach of the genus

Botia, with a remark on B. dario (Ham.-Buch.).

Rec. Indian Mus., Calcutta, 34: 571-573.

Menon, A. G. K. (1962): A distributional list

of fishes of the Himalayas. J. zool. Soc. India, Cal-

cutta, 1/4(1): 23-32.

(1974): A check-list of fishes of

the Himalayan and the Indo-gangetic plains. Inland

fisheries Society of India, Special Publication No. 1,

pp. i-vii, 1-136.

Rao, M. B. AND YAzDANI, G. M. (1978): Occur-

rence of the cobitid genus Botia Gray in the western

ghats of India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 74(2):

367-368.

TILAK, R. AND Hussain, A. (1977): A check-list

of the fishes of Himachal Pradesh. Zool. J. Syst. Ed.,

104: 265-301.

153

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

20. THE GIANT MAHSEERS OF KUMAUN HIMALAYAS WITH A

RECENT RARE RECORD

The mahseers of Kumaun Himalayas,

either from lentic or lotic waters, are famous

throughout the world. They not only provide

good sport for the angler but are also good to

eat. Records of the largest mahseers caught

in Kumaun and other waters of the Himalayas

are many in the past, but few recent records

are available.

Hamilton (1822) found a 271 cm (9 ft)

mahseer in his collctions from India; Tho-

mas (1893) reported 18 to 25 kg mahseers

as common in India without any reference to

Kumaun Himalayas; Corbett [1923, 1937, in

his observations sent to B. S. Raj (1945) in

mahseer symposium] records mahseers of

approximately 27.00 kg from Malwa tal, a

22.50 kg from Naini tal and one of 13.50 kg

from Bhim tal. Hora (1939, 1940, 1951) made

observations on the natural! history and iden-

tification of different mahseer species, with

the largest size upto 60 cm (2 ft) from his

all-India collections. Raj (1945) reported that

Mr. Langdale Smith reared a 13.50 kg mah-

seer in his pond at Bhowali near Naini tal.

McDonald (1939) reported his largest mah-

seer of 12.75 kg from Himalayan rivers. The

size and population of mahseers of Kumaun

have been going down in recent years, and

no recent record of giant mahseer is avail-

able. However, I was able to record the largest

recent catch of an 18.50 kg female mahseer

(Tor putitora) by rod and line in the early

morning (at 6.10 a.m. on 8th August, 1977)

from Bhimtal lake of Kumaun Himalayas. The

bait used was a 0.2 kg Jabua (Barilius ben-

delisis). This mahseer was caught in the in-

shore region from the lake bank in breeding

season when the fish migrates to shallow

spawning sites in Bhimtal lake. They also come

154

inshore to feed even in spawning season (Pa-

thani 1979). Thus the large female mahseet

may have come to the shallow region for

spawning and littoral feeding and was caught

by rod and line at dawn.

The fish exhibited swollen abdomen and

female secondary sexual characters (as already

recorded by Pathani 1978). The various body

measurements taken are as follows:

Total length, 126.00 cm; caudal fork length,

117.00 cm; standard length, 110.00 em; body

length, 78.30 cm; head length, 31.70 cm; eye

diameter, 3.10 cm; body depth, 31.00 cm;

depth at caudal region, 11.00 cm; length of

dorsal spine, 16.00 cm; length of pectora! fins,

16.00 cm; length of pelvic fins, 14.00 cm;

length of anal fin, 9.40 cm; and length of cau-

dal fin, 16.00 cm.

The weight of the fish with viscera was 18.50

kg. The age of the fish determined by me by

scale method was 12 = years.

Autopsy of the fish was done and length

and weight of ripe ovary was recorded, its

total length being 35.5 cm and weight being

1.5 kg. The ovarian eggs were interspersed

in four sizes confirming the observations of

Pathani (1979). The largest mature egg dia-

meter ranged from 3.0 to 3.2 mm and the

smallest egg diameter ranged from 0.66 to 0.74

mm. The total fecundity estimated was

3,56,500. The length of alimentary tract was

246 cm and length of intestinal bulb was 40

cm.

The present rare record of an 18.50 kg.

mahseer is the first such record in the last

four decades, and is higher than the last re-

cord of 13.50 kg from Bhimtal by Jim Cor-

bett. The present find also demonstrates the

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

rarity of giant sized mahseers in Kumaun_ going through the manuscript. Thanks are also

waters.

I am grateful to Dr. S. M. Das for critically

D.S.B. UNIVERSITY COLLEGE,

ZOOLOGY DEPARTMENT,

NAINI TAL, (U.P.),

December 24, 1979.

due to CSIR, New Delhi for awarding a fel-

lowship.

S. S. PATHANI

REFERENCES

Das, S. M. AND PATHANTI, S. S. (1978): Studies on

biology of Kumaun mahaseer Tor putitora (Ham.).

Indian J. Anim. Sci. 48(6): 461-465.

*HAMILTON, B. (1822): An account of the fishes

in river Ganges and its branches. Edinburgh, p. 405.

Hora, S. L. (1939): Game fishes of Tndia VII,

(The putitor mahseer). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

40: 272-285.

(1940): The game fishes of India,

IX. The tor mahseer, Tor tor (Hamilton), ibid. 40:

518-525.

*—_______—__ (1951): Knowledge of ancient

Hindus concerning fish and fisheries cf India. 2.

Fish in the Sutras and Smruti literature. Jour.

Asiastic Soc. Dett. 17: 61-68.

PATHANI, S. S. (1978): A note on secondary

sexual characters in Kumaun mahaseer, Tor tor and

Tor putitora (Ham.). Indian J. Anim. Sci. 48(10):

773-775.

— (1979): Studies on the ecology and

biology of Kumaun mahaseer, Tor tor and or puti-

tora (Ham.). Ph. D. Thesis, Kumaun University,

Naini Tal.

Ras, B. S. (1945): The decline of mahseer fish-

eries of the Kumaun lakes and possible remedy.

Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci. India, 11(3): 341-345.

Sincu, A. ef al. (1975): Souvenir of the Corbett

Centenary year, 70 p.

Tuomas, H. S. (1893): The Rod in India. W.

Thacker & Co., London.

*Original not consulted.

21. MALE IN COPULATION WITH DEAD FEMALE OF

HIEROGLYPHUS NIGROREPLETUS BOL.

Uvarov (1928) described abnormal pairing

among locusts. He mentioned that many males

copulate with dead females. Husain and Ma-

thur (1945) stated that pairing of male with

dead female locust is a physical impossibility.

Bhatia (1959) observed eight instances of ma-

ture males of Desert Locust, Schistocerca gre-

garia Forsk. copulating with females which

had died the previous night. Katiyar (1962)

observed males of Aularches punctatus Drury .

and Parahieroglyphus bilineatus Bol., to ride

and copulate with dead females. He also ob-

served a few females of P. bilineatus in coitus

with dead males.

During the normal course of breeding of

Hieroglyphus nigrorepletus Bol. males were

noticed to continue copulation even after the

death of female. This appears to be the first

report of such phenomenon in H. nigroreple-

tus.

We are highly indebted to Prof. S. M. Alam,

Head, Department of Zoology for providing

laboratory facilities and encouragement. One

of us (S.A.) is also thankful to University

Grants Commission for financial assistance.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST.

ENTOMOLOGY SECTION,

DEPT. OF ZOOLOGY,

ALIGARH MUSLIM UNIVERSITY,

ALIGARH-202 001 (U.P.),

Januuary 20, 1979.

SOCIETY, Vol. 77

SHAMSHAD ALI

REFERENCES

BuaTiA, D. R. (1959): Copulation of Locusts

males with dead-females. Indian J. Ent., New Delhi,

213): 220:

Husain, M. A. AND Matuur, C. B. (1945): Stu-

dies on Schistocerca gregaria Forsk. XIII. Sexual

life. Indian J. Ent., 7(1 & 2): 89-101.

KaTiyar, K. N. (1962): A crazy-instinet of copu-

lation in males with dead females and vice-versa

among short-horned grasshoppers (Acrididae: In-

secta). Sonderdruck Aus Z. Ang. Entomologie,

49(4): 399-401.

Uvarov, B. P. (1928): Locusts and Grasshoppers.

London (Imp. Inst. Ent.). A text Book on Locust

and Grasshoppers.

22. MATERNAL CARE IN OXYRHACHIS TARANDUS FABR.

(MEMBRACIDAE: HOMOPTERA)

Oxyrhachis tarandus is a common species

of membracid usually found on Acacia ara-

bica and Cassia fistula. \t is a brown insect

with the posterior pronotal process extending

backwards upto the posterior end of the ab-

and fulgorids. The female of this species

anterolateral processes of the pronotum are in

the form of short tricarinate horns.

This treehopper caught our attention dur-

ing field surveys for collecting the membracids

and fulgorids. The female of this species

usually sits on the egg mass laid by it on

the twig of Acacia arabica. While laying eggs

the female cuts the bark longitudinally and

inserts eggs into the twig in two parallel rows

on either side of the slit and placing them at

an acute angle to the main axis. The micro-

pylar end of the egg is exposed.

Careful examination of the tree twigs re-

vealed many females sitting over the eggs. The

tree was marked and the females were observ-

ed closely for several days. After about three

weeks the little ones were out and on account

156

of their gregarious habit they grouped a little

above the egg shells and the mother had mov-

ed a little away from the egg mass but was

still amidst the young treehoppers.

The mother always sat tightly perched over

the egg mass least disturbed by approaching

animals or man. It did not move away. even

if the twig was shaken violently. It could only

be removed from its place through a physical

push. If any object was gently directed at it

with the purpose of inducing it to move away

from the egg mass, it usually retaliated and

tried to push it aside with its pronotal horns.

The female was observed to get extremely

agitated on sighting minute hymenopterous

egg parasites which threatened to parasitise

the eggs. The female used to push aside the

hymenopterous egg parasites with the help of

its pronotal horns and by the movement of

wings and legs.

Tt was apparent that the mother never leaves

its eggs even temporarily till they are hatch-

ed and it may also be assumed that the brood

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

mothers remain foodliess during the period of

maternal care as very careful observations

have failed to reveal any punctures in the twig

in front of them.

Maternal care in this species can be attri-

buted to the fact that eggs of membracids are

frequently parasitised by the hymenopierous

parasites. In order to protect the eggs from

parasitisation by these insects the female sits

over the eggs. In this context the observation

that the most of the eggs that remain uncover-

ed are parasitised by the hymenopterous para-

site is revealing. So it can be safely conclud-

ed that this instinctive type of maternal care

exhibited by O. tarandus pertains to the pro-

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY,

PUNJABI UNIVERSITY,

PATIALA-147 002,

(PUNJAB), INDIA,

March 19, 1979.

tection of its eggs from the attack of its

enemies.

Murtfeldt (1887) observed the female of

Eutilia sinuata Fabr., a membracid, hovering

over a Cluster of her eggs laid on the leaf of

Ragweeds (Ambrosia). He found the parent

insect remaining with her eggs and young

leafhoppers. When the female was touched

with finger even with all the shaking and

brushing the mother was not dislodged.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We are thanful to University Grants Com-

mission for the grant of a fellowship to one

of us (S.K.S.).

SAWAI SINGH

SURYA KANT SHARMA

1 MurtTFeLpt, Mary E. (1887): Traces of mater-

nal affection in Eutilia sinuata Fabr. Ent. Amer. 3:

177-178.

23. PARNARA BUTTERFLY FROM PATNA: A CORRECTION

In our faunal list of butterflies from Patna

(Bihar) published in this Journal (Varshney

and Nandi 1977), the occurrence of Parnara

guttatus bada (Moore) has been shown in the

Family Hesperiidae. According to Evans

(1949) the species guttatus is now almost re-

stricted to China, Japan, Sumatra etc. eastern

countries. Only one subspecies guttatus man-

gala Moore is found in India, which too has

limited distribution — Kashmir to Kumaun,

Sikkim, Assam.

The subspecies bada Moore, which is com-

mon in peninsular India, has been placed

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

34, CHITTARANJAN AVENUE,

CaLcuTtTa-12,

June 27, 1978.

under the species naso Fabricius. The type

material of bada came from Ceylon (Sri

Lanka) and it has been collected all over In-

dia, except western parts, vide Evans (1949).

Thus, the Patna material should rightly be

named as Parnara naso bada (Moore).

Evans (I. c.) has pointed out that the fi-

gures given of guttatus in Seitz (1927) also

belong to naso bada.

We are thankful to the Director, Zoological

Survey of India, for providing facilities and

permission to publish this note.

R. K. VARSHNEY

B. NANDI

157

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

REFERENCES

Evans, W. H. (1949): A Catalogue of the Hespe-

riidae from Europe, Asia and Australia in the Bri-

tish Museum (Natural History). London: 1-502 (p.

435).

Seitz, A. (1927): Macrolepidoptera of the World.

Vol. 9-—Indo-Australian Region.

VARSHNEY, R. K. AND NANDI, B. (1977): Butter-

fly fauna of Patna (Bihar). J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc., 73(2): 325-328.

24. OCCURRENCE OF ARTEMIA SALINA (CRUSTACEA:

PHYLLOPODA) IN DIDWANA LAKE, RAJASTHAN

Recently, the study of Artemia has gained

importance because of its utility as food in

aquaculture. Artemia nauplii constitute the

best available source of live food for the young

stages of most cultured species of larval

fishes and decapods (Bardach 1972, Godwin

1976). There has been a numbr of records

of Artemia from salt pans near sea coast in

India. But barring Baid’s (1958) record of

Artemia salina from Sambhar lake in Rajas-

than, there is no record of its occurrence from

other inland sait lakes. During the course of

a limnological study of two major salt lakes

of the country, namely Sambhar and Didwana

(Rajasthan), we found A. salina in Didwana

lake. It is the first record of its occurrence

from this lake. But, surprisingly, A. salina was

not found in Sambhar lake by us.

The study of Didwana lake was conducted

from March to May 1979. Water samples were

collected in the first week of each month and

analysed for chemical factors such as pH, dis-

solved oxygen, alkalinity and salinity. pH was

measured by a battery-operated pH meter,

dissolved oxygen by Miller’s method (as sug-

gested by Walker et al. 1970), alkalinity and

salinity after APHA (1975). For collection of

zooplankton, 50 litres of water were filtered

through a bolting silk net (0.3 mm mesh size)

and zooplankton thus collected preserved in

4% formalin.

The data of the physico-chemical factors are

given in Table 1. During the course of the

study, with the advance of summer, salinity

and total alkalinity tremendously varied from

one month to another. Dissolved oxygen was

TABLE 1

PHYSICO-CHEMICAL FACTORS OF DIDWANA LAKE DURING MARCH-May 1979

Air temperature (°C)

Water temperature (°C)

Dissolved oxygen (ml/L)

Total alkalinity (ppm)

Carbonate alkalinity (ppm)

Bicarbonate alkalinity (ppm)

Salinity (%,)

March April May

24.5 35.0 30.0

23.0 26.5 26.5

8.2 8.5 9.5)

2.24 1.45 0.6

1738 2920 3700

870 1240 2000

868 1680 1700

108.0 170.0 268.0

158

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

found to be inversely related with alkalinity,

salinity, pH and water temperature.

A. salina was the only zooplankter found in

the samples. During the first sampling 40 spe-

cimens were found—all live adults. In the

second sampling 150 specimens were collect-

ed, mostly larval stages with 50% dead indi-

viduals. In the third sampling only cysts were

found. By this time the salinity had increased

to 268%, and lake water assumed the form

of saturated brine. The death of the speci-

mens occurred some time between the second

and fourth weeks of April due to the high

salinity and alkalinity and paucity of dissolved

oxygen.

During the study period, two types of indi-

viduals of different size and colour were found.

The males were pale yellow and shorter in

size while the females were reddish in colour

and longer. Probably they feed on Aphano-

theca sp., Anabaena sp. and Nitzschia sp. as

these were the only phytoplankton present in

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY,

UNIVERSITY OF JODHPUR,

JoDHPUR-342 001 (RAJASTHAN),

December 4, 1979.

the lake. The data (Table 1) reveal that the

maximum limit of tolerance for salinity lies

between 170 and 268%, and for alkalinity

2920-3700 ppm. Baid (1958) reported maxi-

mum salinity tolerance limit for Artemia salina

to be 194.3%, at Sambhar lake. But during

the course of our 15 month’s study (from

April, 1977 to June, 1978} of Sambhar lake,

the maximum salinity was only 15% and A.

salina was totally absent. The disappearance

of Artemia might be due to drastic changes

in ecological conditions, mainiy the decrease

of salinity, owing to heavy rainfall and flood

conditions for 3 to 4 years from 1975 onwards.

Our thanks are due to Prof. S. D. Misra,

Head, Department of Zoology, University of

Jodhpur for guidance and to Dr. J. Royan,

National Institute of Oceanography, Dona

Paula, Goa for help in identification of the

species. Thanks are also due to U.G.C. for

financial support to M. Alam.

S. C. BHARGAVA

M. ALAM

REFERENCES

AMERICAN PuBLIC HEALTH ASSOCIATION (1975):

Standard Methods for the Examination of Water

and Waste Water. APHA, 14th ed. Washington.

Baip, I. C. (1958): Occurrence of Ariemia salina

in Sambhar Lake, Rajasthan. Curr. Sci. 27(2): 58-

59.

BarDACH, J. E. RyrHer, J. H. & McLarney, W.

O. (1972): Aquaculture; The Farming & Husban-

dry of Fresh Water and Marine Organism. Wiley

Interscience. New York.

Gopwin, H. L. (1976): Proc. First Int.

Aqua. Nut., Delaware (USA).

WALKER, K. F., WILLIAMS, W. D. AND HAMMER,

U. T. (1970): The Miller method for oxygen deter-

mination applied to saline lakes. Limmnol. Oceanogr.

15: 814-815.

Conf.

159

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

25. ON A SMALL COLLECTION OF LEECHES COLLECTED

DURING THE DAPHABUM AND SUBANSIRI EXPEDITIONS,

ARUNACHAL PRADESH

The present note is based on a small collec-

tion of leeches collected by one of us (JMJ)

as a member of the multidisciplinary scientific

survey expeditions to hitherto unexplored

areas of Daphabum (Lohit Distt.) and Suban-

siri in Arunachal Pradesh. The leech fauna of

Arunachal Pradesh is known only from the

contribution of Chandra (1970) who records

five species, viz., Haemadipsa montana, H.

sylvestris sylvestris, H. zeylanica zeylanica, H.

zeylanica agilis and H. zeylanica montivindicis

from the Kameng District. Except H. zeylanica

zeylanica, all these species are re-recorded in

the present communication. In addition, two

species, viz., Paraclepsis praedatrix and Her-

pobdelloidea lateroculata are being recorded

for the first time from Arunachal Pradesh.

Family GLOSSIPHONIDAE

Paraclepsis praedatrix Harding

Material— 1 ex; Glo-Howel Lake, about 4

km. from Tihun (Lohit Distt.); alt. 1170 m;

9.xii.69.

Remarks. This is the first record of Para-

clepsis praedatrix from Arunachal Pradesh. It

is generally found attached to submerged arti-

cles in lakes, tanks, pools and small streams.

It often attacks molluscs, amphibians and rep-

tiles.

Distribution— India: Glo-Howel Lake (pre-

sent record) in Arunachal Pradesh; Assam;

Bihar; Haryana; Himachal Pradesh; Rajas-

than; Maharashtra; Karnataka.

Family HERPOBDELLIDAE

Herpobdelloidea lateroculata Kabu-

raki

Material 4 ex; Wakro (Lohit Distt.); under

160

stones in the vicinity of a hill stream; alt. 510

m; 1.xii.69.

Remarks.— This is the first record of Herpob-

delloidea lateroculata from Arunachal Pra-

desh. In field, this species can be easily re-

cognised by its planarian-shaped body. It main-

ly feeds on insect larvae, planktonic crusta-

ceans and debris.

Distribution— India: Wakro (present record)

in Arunachal Pradesh; Manipur; Madhya Pra-

desh; Rajasthan; Maharashtra.

Outside India: Burma.

Family HAEMADIPSIDAE

Haemadipsa montana Moore

Material— 1 ex; Tihun (Lohit Distt.); under

stones near a stream in a dense forest; alt.

1260 m; 13.xii.69.

Remarks—H. montana inhabits mountain

forests. This species is reported to attack cat-

tle and man. The colour ornamentation on the

dorsum is mainly of a black median and a pair

of lateral white longitudinal stripes.

Distribution— India: Moshing, Domkho,

Shergaon and Chug valleys in Kameng Distt.

(Chandra, 1970), and Tihun in Lohit Distt.

(present record) in Arunachal Pradesh; Sik-

kim; Darjeeling Hills in West Bengal; Paini

Hills in Tamil Nadu.

Haemadipsa sylvestris sylvestris

Blanchard

Material— 3 ex; Chowkham (Lohit Distt.);

under stones on the bank of Berang river; alt.

242 m; 22, 23.xi.69. 2 ex; Wakro; alt. 510 m;

1.xii.69.

Remarks— This land leech is known to at-

tack fresh-water crabs, cattle and man. The

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

colour in living specimens is brownish with

three black longitudinal stripes on the dorsum.

Distribution— India: Amatulla, between

Jhumla and Moshing, Dorkochu, Shergaon

village, Sangloo and Domkho in Kameng Distt.

(Chandra 1970) and Chowkham, Wakro in

Lohit Distt. (present record) in Arunachal

Pradesh; Assam; Sikkim; W. Bengal; Uitar

Pradesh; Meghalaya.

Outside India: Burma, Indonesia.

Haemadipsa zeylanica agilis Moore

Material— 1 ex; Damin (Subansiri Distt.);

under stones near a stream; alt. 1100 m,;

20.1.75.

Remarks.— H. z. agilis is commonly found in

forests and grasslands. It is known to attack

cattle and man, and can be easily recognised

by the dark-blotched pattern on the dorsum.

Distribution— India: Ankaling village in Ka-

meng Distt. (Chandra 1970), Damin in Suban-

siri Distt. (present record) in Arunachal Pra-

HicH ALTITUDE ZOOLOGY FIELD STATION,

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

SoLAN-173 212 (H.P.),

February 12, 1979.

desh; Uttar Pradesh; Himachal Pradesh; Ta-

mil Nadu; Kerala.

Outside India: Nepal.

Haemadipsa zeylanica montivindicis

Moore

Material— 2 ex: Tihun (Lohit Distt.); under

stones near a stream in a dense forest; alt.

1260 m; 13.xii.69.

Remarks— This species is very common in

forests of the eastern Himalayas. It often at-

tacks cattle and man. Dark-blotched pattern

on the dorsum is obscure or absent.

Distribution— India: Ankaling village in Ka-

meng Distt. (Chandra 1970), Tihun in Lohit

Distt. (present record) in Arunachal Pradesh;

Sikkim; Assam; W. Bengal.

Outside India: Nepal, Burma.

We are grateful to the Director and Dr. H.

Khajuria, Deputy Director, Zoological Survey

of India for the necessary facilities for this

research.

J. M. JULKA

M. CHANDRA

REFERENCES

CHANDRA, M. (1970): Notes on a small collec-

tion of leeches in the Zoological Survey of India.

Rec. zool. Surv. India, 64: 107-109.

26. SOME INTERESTING OBSERVATIONS ON A SPIDER

ARGIOPE ARCUATA SIMON (ARACHNIDA: ARANEIDAE)

During the course of desert locust survey

conducted along the Indo-Pak border area

during August-September 1976, some interest-

ing observations were recorded on an orb

weaving spider, Argiope arcuata Simon.

Habitat: The habitat of this spider was in

most difficult and inaccessible desert tracts

comprising high sand dunes with narrow ba-

sins. Even in this habitat their population was

confined to the narrow basin and lower edges

of the sand dunes as the population of Acri-

dids was heavy in the areas. Not a single

spider was detected at the top of the high

sand dunes or their upper slopes. The webs

161

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

were mostly found on woody shrubs growing

in the basins but sometimes they were also

seen on luxuriantly growing herbs such as

Boerhavia elegans Choisy. The habitats of

grasshoppers and that of this species of spider

are almost the same.

Food and feeding habits: The web formed

by this spider is an efficient trap even for very

large insects; the gossamer being quite strong.

In its web, nymphs and adults of grasshopper

such as Acroftylus sp., Oedaleus sp., Chroto-

gonus trachypterus, Thisioecertus littoralis,

Ochrilida sp., Truxalis exima exima, bugs,

dung rollers and other beetles, some unidenti-

fied caterpillars and that of Celerio sp. were

detected. At two places Solitaria hoppers of

4th instar of the desert locust were also found.

On one occasion one 7Jruxalis adult got en-

tangled in its web but by struggling hard it

escaped. It is interesting to note that large

insects such as grasshoppers etc. when trap-

ped in the web are further rendered helpless

by being speedily fastened with silky thread

on the legs and wings of the prey insect by

the spider, and this ultimately causes death

of the prey.

As many as eight insects were found in the

skins of one web. Bhatia and Singh (1966)!

recorded Argiope sp. as predator of the desert

locust adults and hoppers from Bikaner dis-

trict but it is not known to which species, the

spider belonged. It appears that many species

of Argiope may be predating on nymphs and

adults of grasshoppers and desert locust.

Cannibalism: Some instances of cannibal-

ism were also observed.

Predators: Lizards are predators of this

spider. Several specimens of Acanthodactylus

1Bhatia, D. R. & Singh, Charan (1966): Natural

enemies of the desert locust (Schistocerca gregaria

Forsk.). Plant Protection, Bull. 18 (1-2): 14-17.

162

cantoris cantoris and Skink Ophiomorus tri-

dactylus and Calotes versicolor were dissected

and spiders of this species were found in their

gut contents. Some passerine birds also pre-

date upon these spiders when they move from

one place to another.

Population: 1 have frequently visited border

areas of Barmer and Jaisalmer districts from

1974 to 1977 but only during August-Septem-

ber 1976 a significant population of this spider

was noted. Maximum number of spiders per

bush was two individuals. Prior to 1976, a web

of this spider was seldom seen; obviously po-

pulations were extremely low, thus escaping

notice.

The number of the spiders was generally

five per square metre in Dhanana-Murar area

(Jaisalmer). The population explosion (appro-

ximately 2000 per hectare) observed during

1976 was most probably due to availability

of ample insect food and good vegetation dur-

ing 1975 to 1976 in view of good rains.

Distribution: The spiders of this species

have been collected from Sundra area of Bar-

mer district and Dhanana-Murar area of Jai-

salmer district during September 1976. It was

commonly met with in the desert belt from

Sundra (Barmer) 25° 05’ N, 71° 07’ E to

Dhanana-Murar (Jaisalmer) 26° 42’ N, 70°

12’ E during 1976. It is just possible that the

belt of its distribution may be further extend-

ed into Bikaner district along the Indo-Pak

border, being of similar terrain, vegetation and

insect fauna. This appears to be the first re-

cord of its occurrence from these districts.

ACK NOWLEDGEMENTS

I am obliged to Dr. B. K. Tikader, Deputy

Director, Zoological Survey of India, Western

Regional Station, Poona for identification of

the spider and scrutiny of the manuscript and

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

helpful suggestions. I am thankful to Dr. S.

N. Banerjee, Plant Protection Adviser to the

LocusT WARNING ORGANISATION,

Locust SUB-STATION,

JODHPUR,

May 29, 1978.

Government of India, Faridabad for the faci-

lities.

CHARAN SINGH

27. OBSERVATIONS ON THE SILK CHAMBER CONSTRUCTION

AND BROODING BEHAVIOUR OF PSEUDOSCORPIONS

(CL. ARACHNIDA)

(With five text-figures)

It is the habit of pseudoscorpions to build

chambers of silk which are used for breeding,

moulting and hibernation (Gabbutt and Va-

chon 1965). The silk chamber is generally

constructed with the help of the spinneret or

galea, situated at the distal end of the fixed

finger of chelicera (fig. la). The silk glands

lie in the prosoma and ducts pass along the

fixed finger and open at the tip of the galea

(fig. 1b) or the spinneret. Savory, T.H. (1935)

pointed out the homology of the silk appara-

tus with that of the poison apparatus of Ara-

neae. It is to this presence of the silk glands

in the chelicerae, the false scorpions owe the

name chelonethi, given by Thorell.

By the issue of silk glands, the chambers

of silk are constructed in damp places under-

neath the barks of trees by the bark dwelling

forms or under decaying leaves of debris by

litter inhabiting pseudoscorpions. It is of in-

terest to know whether the method of cons-

truction, the period of nesting and the reaction

towards external disturbance differ among

the members of the three different suborders

namely Monosphyronida, Diplosphyronida

and Heterosphyronida, inhabiting different

habitats. Furthermore, extensive work has

been done in the field of population dynamics

of pseudoscorpions in different parts of the

world (Kew 1914; Morikawa 1962; Gabbutt

and Vachon 1965). However, during the

studies they have failed to take into conside-

ration nested forms, which may influence the

population fluctuation remarkably. In_ this

connection, a statistical allowance has been

thought of during the present investigation.

METHODS

Tullgrenius indicus, Calocheiridius elegans

and Lechytia indica were taken up for obser-

vation as members of the suborders namely

Monosphyronida, Diplosphyronida and Hete-

rosphyronida respectively. For each species 10

individuals were observed at the time of nest-

ing, moulting, brooding and hibernation with

reference to their behaviour variations.

OBSERVATIONS

Tullgrenius indicus: (Table-1): This species

was seen beneath the bark of tamarind trees.

During breeding season, the gravid female

carries 10 to 12 eggs attached to the genitalia

as a spherical mass and covered by a thin

membrane. With the help of the branched

galea the female deposits the silk in an irre-

gular fashion between the stem and the bark

163

164

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

1b)

g tc)

mf.

Figs. 1-5. 1) Chelicerae of Tullgrenius indicus; 1b) galea; 3) spinneret of Lechytia

indica. 2) Nests of T. indicus. 3) Nests of Calocheiridius elegans. 4) Nests of L.

indica. 5) T. indicus female carrying eggs.

Abbrevitations

bf—brooding female of Tullgrenius indicus, br—bark of tree, ch—chelicera, eg—

egg cluster, g—galea, It—litter, mf—movable finger, n—nest, sp—spinneret.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

of the tree. The deposition of sand grains and

tiny bark particles over the completed nest

have been observed. The males and_ the

females hibernate during winter (December

and January), but the females club the brood-

ing during that period. At a time, below a

bark 5 to 7 nests have been observed with the

least gap of 0.5 mm between two nests. In-

variably the ramification of the hyphae of

saprophytic fungi like Penicillium and Asper-

gillus have been observed over the silken

chambers. (Fig. 2).

After about four weeks the protonymphs

hatch from the eggs and remain with the

mother inside the nest and they feed on the

exudation from the mother. During moulting

the three nymphal stages (Protonymph, deuto-

nymph and tritonymph) build nests and the

diameter of the nest varies from 6 to 8.5 mm.

The brooding female constructs the largest

chamber.

Calocheiridius elegans : (Table 1): This spe-

cies occurs beneath the bark of tamarind

trees. During the breeding season the gravid

female extrudes 6 to 8 eggs which remain

attached to the genitalia and present a rous-

sette-like appearance.

At that time, the gravid female, with the

help of the galea issues sticky silk and screens

the gap between the stem and the bark of the

tree. The deposition of coarse wood particles

over the completed nest has been observed.

The males and females hibernate during win-

ter, during that period the females also exhi-

bit the brooding of eggs while in the silken

chamber. At a time, 4 to 5 nests have been

observed below a piece of bark with the least

gap of 4 cm. Fungal growth over the nesi

has been observed in this species also (Fig.

3).

After about three weeks the protonymphs

hatch from the eggs and remain with the

mother till moulting. The nymphs also build

nests during moulting and the size of the

nest varies among the three nymphal stages.

The diameter of the nest varies from 2.5 to

4 mm and the brooding female constructs the

largest nest.

Lechytia indica: (Table 1): This species

was observed beneath decaying leaves of soil

litter. During brooding, the gravid female

having 5 to 6 eggs as globular mass, moisiens

the leaf with silk from the spinneret (fig. 1c).

Gradually debris and sand particles deposit

over the wet silk. Some times the nest appears

like a ball of insect faecal matter. The size

varies from 1 to 3 mm in diameter (Fig. 4).

Since winter migration from litter to soil

is predominant and is subsequently followed

by hibernation in silken chambers, the indi-

viduals are fewer in number during sampling.

In all these forms, when the nest is disturb-

ed the animal comes out immediately and in

the case of brooding female the brood sac is

discarded. (Fig. 5). Besides, they cease to con-

struct another silken chamber for a minimum

period of 20 days. When the nymphal forms

undergoing moulting were disturbed, they died

within a period of 2 hrs. due to lack of chi-

tinization. The body cavity of the dead ani-

mals showed the presence of fungal hyphae.

DISCUSSION

The Chelonethi use their nest solely for

protection and the form of construction varies.

Among bark inhabiting pseudoscorpions, Tul-

lgerenius indicus and Calocheiridius elegans

there is lesser deposition of sand grains or

wood particles on their nest, whereas in Lechy-

tia indica, a litter inhabitant, the deposition

of decaying matter and sand grains is more,

which gives strength and protection to the

nest. In bark dwelling forms probably due to

165

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

TABLE 1

THE NATURE OF SILK CHAMBER CONSTRUCTION AND THE PERIOD OF NESTING AMONG PSEUDOSCORPIONS

Suborder and Silk issuing Sh f

name of organ of h Eis)

species chelicera WO WI

MONOSPHYRONIDA

Tullgrenius branched irregular

indicus galea

DIPLOSPHYRONIDA

Calocheiridius branched circular

elegans galea

HETEROSPHYRONIDA

Lechytia indica spinneret globular

Diameter pi Period of

of nest Additional nesting in

(in mm) substances days

6 to 8.5 Coarse sand 21 to 30

and wood

particles

2 to 4 Coarse 20 to 24

wood

particles

1 to 3 Sand 30 to 50

particles

and

decaying

matter

the availability of controlled microclimate, the

additional substances are not much _ utilized.

It may be inferred here that the variation in

the mode of construction of silken chamber

depends upon the habitat of the pseudoscor-

pion.

Further pseudoscorpions undergo nesting

during winter and the nymphs moult through-

out the year. Similar conditions that influence

the population study of pseudoscorpions, have

been observed in the life history analyses of

pseudoscorpions by Gabbutt and Vachon

(1965). In this connection Gabbutt (1970)

has stressed the inclusion of nested forms in

population recordings to arrive at a probable

figure. The suggestion of Gabbutt (1970),

does not seem to be sound since it has been

observed that the encumbered female rejected

the brood-sac when disturbed, thereby deplet-

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY,

LoyoLaA COLLEGE,

Mapras-600 034,

February 6, 1980.

166

ing the number of individuals during the next

sampling. In addition, the mortality rate of

nymphs increases when the nests are disturbed

during collection.

Thus, the present study suggests that nested

forms should not be disturbed during popu-

lation analysis and a statistical modulation

could be introduced inorder to incorporate the

nested forms in the population dynamics.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are indebted to Prof. Dr. T. K. Raghu-

natha Rao for the help and advice rendered

during the course of investigation. Our sincere

thanks to Principal, Loyola College for evinc-

ing keen interest and for his continuous en-

couragement throughout our work.

S. SIVARAMAN

V. A. MURTHY

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

REFERENCES

GassuTr, P. D. & VACHON, M. (1965): The ex-

ternal morphology and life history of the pseudos-

corpion Neobisium muscorum. Proc. Zool. Soc.

Lond. 145: 335-358.

GasBuTt, P. D. (1970). Sampling problems and

the validity of life history analysis of pseudoscor-

pions. J. Nat. Hist. 4: 1-15.

Kew, H.W. (1914): On the nest of pseudoscor-

pions with historical notes on the spinning organs

25%

and observations on the building and spinning of

the nests. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. 1914: 93-111.

Morikawa, K. (1962): Ecological and some

biological notes on Japanese Pseudoscorpions.

Mem. Ehime. Univ. Vol. TV. No. 3: 417-35.

Savory, T. H. (1935): Arachnida. Academic

Press, London, 1-291.

Weycotpt, P. (1969). The biology of psudos-

corpions. Harvard. Univ. Press., 1-145.

SOME INTERESTING OBSERVATIONS IN WRIGHTIA

TINCTORIA R.BR. SSP. TINCTORIA

(With a text-figure)

An interesting specimen of Wrightia tincto-

ria R. Br. ssp. tinctoria was collected by the

senior author from Kumbharli ghat, about 12

kms from Koyna, Maharashtra during a bota-

nical exploration tour in April 1978.

The species W. tinctoria R. Br. has been

divided into two subspecies namely ssp. fincto-

ria and ssp. rothii by P. T. Pgan (1965). The

specimen (Nayar 153166) collected from

Kumbharli ghat differs from W. tinctoria ssp.

tinctoria in the following characters:

1) Inflorescence less lax

2) Pedicel not exceeding 12 mm.

3) Corolla lobes acute

4) Corona segments not distinguishable as

supplementary segments and _alternipe-

talous segments.

The most interesting observation made was

on the nature and arrangement of the corona

segments. Pgan (1965) has described the

structure of corona in W. tincotria, wherein

he has explained the arrangement of corona

segments in three distinct series, i.e. supple-

mentary segments, alternipetalous segments

and antepetalous segments. Pgan had noticed

some variations in the corona segments of

W. tinctoria (Fig. 1, A-A3).

The variations observed in the corona seg-

ments of the specimen (Nayar 153166), how-

ever do not agree with any of the variations

as shown in fig. 1 (A-A3). On a critical

study it was observed that the corona segments

Fig. 1. A-A3: Diagrams showing variation in co-

rona structure; antepetalous segments white, alter-

nipetalous segments dotted; supplementary segments

solid black.

B: Diagram showing an inner row of segments

(solid black) indistinguishable as alternipetalous

segments and supplementary segments; antepetalous

segments white.

167

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

are not clearly distinguishable as supplemen-

tary segments and alternipetalous segments

(Fig. 1-B). In this case the true alternipetalous

nature of corona segment is not observed,

only an inner series of corona segments of

variable lengths (not exceeding 2 mm) and

an outer series of antepetalous segments are

seen.

These interesting observations can be inter-

preted as a result of hybridization as suggest-

BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

Poona-411 001.

December 30, 1978.

ed by Pgan or due to abberation.

The specimen (Nayar 153166) is deposited

in the herbarium of the Botanical Survey of

India, Poona (BSI).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The junior author wishes to thank the

Director, Botanical Survey of India for award-

ing him a Research scholarship.

M. P. NAYAR

R. K. KOCHHAR

REFERENCES

PcAN, P. T. (1965):

A revision of the genus

Wrightia (Apocynaceae). Ann. Missouri Bot. Gard.

52 (2): 114-175.

29. VERNONIA CHINENSIS LESS.—A NEW RECORD FOR

ANDAMANS

Vernonia chinensis Less. is known from

Malay peninsula, Burma, China and Philip-

pines. During re-organisation work we noticed

a few specimens collected from South Anda-

man which after critical study were identified

as Vernonia chinensis; a first record for

Andaman.

The plant is characterised by tomentose

slender, terete branches, leaves petioled ellip-

tic or ovate-elliptic 2.5-7.5 cm.x1.5-3.5 cm.,

puberulous, serrate, bracts pubescent, lanceo-

late, awned, receptacle pitted, achene small,

4-5 ribbed, glabrous.

Vernonia chinensis Less. in Linnaea, IV.

BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

Howrau-711 003,

May 16, 1978.

168

674, Mig. Flor. Ind. II p. 18; Clarke, comp.

Ind. 18:1876; Flora Brit. Ind. 3; 235: 1881.

Cyamosa pubescens and Cyanopsis villosa

DC., v. p. 69; Conyza punctulata, Wall. list

2995.

Specimens examined:

Tavoy, 4 nov. 1829, Wall. list 2995; Burma,

Kurz 843, Kurz 2237 (CAL); Malay Penin-

sula, King’s collector 1120 (CAL), Hook. 1325

(CAL). Philippines, Elmer 8209, Lohr 3686,

Kobbi 6582 (CAL); Andaman: North Bay,

Hill jungle, Dr. King’s Collector, 8-9-1895,

sn. (CAL).

BIMALENDU MITRA

GIRIJA SANKAR GIRI

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

30. A NEW DISTRIBUTIONAL RECORD FOR EUPATORIUM

ADENOPHORUM SPRENG. FROM TEHRI GARHWAL

During a recent survey of, ‘The Flora of

Tehri Garhwal,’ Eupatorium adenophorum

Spreng., a weed belonging to family Compo-

sitae was found growing in moist and shady

situations at Vyasi, in the Tehri Garhwal, at

an altitude of 455 metres. It is being reported

for the first time from this region. This weed

is a native of Mexico and Jamaica. It was in-

troduced as a garden plant about 1924 but

within recent years has run wild and natura-

lized.

The distribution of the taxon is not wide-

spread in the area and its migration seems to

be recent to the area.

Eupatorium adenophorum Sprengel, Syst.

Veget. 3: 420, 1826; Koster in Blumea 1:

502, 1935. Hara in Fl. E. Himal. 137, 1971.

An erect, perennial branched undershrub.

DEPATMENT OF BOTANY,

D. A. V. (P.G.) COLLEGE,

DEHRADUN-248 001.

May 15, 1978.

Bil

Branches cylindrical, densely glandular hairy.

Leaves opposite, petioled, sharply pointed,

coarsely serrate above the cuneate base, 2.5-9

cm. long. Corymbs fastigiate trichotomous,

flower heads clustered, white, pedicelled, 40-

70 flowered, slightly fragrant, receptacle flat,

involucral bracts about 20 in two rows, lan-

ceolate. Corolla tube white, 1 mm., slender,

abruptly dilated. Achenes black glabrous,

slender, crowned by a pappus of 10-12 white

scabrid hairs, twice as long.

Flowers and Fruits: March-July.

Specimen examined: Dhyani 115, 28-3-1976.

Collected from Vyasi, Tehri Garhwal.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I am indebted to Prof. Som Deva for his

invaluable help.

SHIV KUMAR DHYANI

WIESNERIA TRIANDRA (DALZ.) MICHELI (ALISMATACEAE)

—AN INTERESTING AND RARE ADDITION TO THE FLORA OF

THE PRESIDENCY OF MADRAS, FROM KERALA, SOUTH INDIA

(With eleven text-figures)

The genus Wiesneria Micheli is represented

so far by four species throughout the world.

Out of which only one species is recorded

(from Konkan, Western Peninsula) in India

hitherto. There is every possibility that an in-

tensive search for them in pools and ponds

of Kerala may result in the discovery of the

other allied species as well. The present paper

with its detailed description incorporating in-

traspecific variation and analytical sketches

would definitely facilitate in the search. This

is an addition to the flora of erstwhile Presi-

dency of Madras and thus this present dis-

covery extends its distribution to the Southern

most part of India.

Wiesneria triandra (Dalz.) Micheli in A.

DC. Monog. Phan. 3: 82-83. 1881; Benth. &

Hook. in Gen. Plant. 3: 1007. 1883; Hook.

169

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

Figs. 1-11. Weisneria triandra (Dalz.) Micheli: 1. Whole plant; 2. Single leaf; 3. In-

florescence; 4. Infructescence; 5. Basal portion of the inflorescence (2 flower with

sepals spreadout); 6. Terminal portion of the inflorescence (4 flowers); 7. 2 flower:

7a. sepal, 7b. petal, 7c. staminode, 7d. gynoecium; 8. @ flower: 8a. sepal, 8b. petal,

8c. stamen; 9. Fruits (young); 10. C. S. of young fruit; 10a. L. S. of young fruit.

11. Bract from young fruit, spreadout (not to scale).

170

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

f. Fl. Brit. India 6: 562. 1893. Buchenau in

Engler, Pflanzenr. 16: 60-61. 1903; Cooke, FI.

Press. Bombay 3: 346-347. 1958. (rep. ed.)

Sagittaria triandra Dalz. in Hook. Journ. bot.

and Kew Gard. Misc. 2: 144. 1850; Dalz. &

Gibs. Bombay Fl. 249. 1861.

Aquatic plants in shallow water in paddy

fields, gregarious, semi-submerged, caespitose,

monoecious, rooted. Roots many, long, white

spongy. Leaves radical, numerous, long petiol-

ed, linear, lamina shorter than the petiole,

ligulate; petiole + 20.0x0.6 cm, constricted

at the joint with the lamina, obtusely trigon-

ous in cross section, aerenchymatous, broad-

ened into a sheathing base; lamina + 14.0

0.7 cm, linear, keeled especially towards the

base, obtuse at tip. Inflorescence raceme, +

20 cm long, with long peduncle and very short

floriferous portion, axillary, shorter than leaves,

erect; peduncle + 18 cm long, obtusely trigo-

nous; flowering axis sharply trigonous with

unisexual flowers arranged at very short inter-

vals; floriferous portion + 2 cm long, narrow

with 5 or 7 whorls; lower 2 (or 3) whorls

with pistillate flowers (or very rarely 3rd

whorl with both sex flowers) and upper whorls

with staminate flowers, sometimes the upper

most whorls sterile, intervals of whorls (es-

pecially the lower ones) elongating very much

after fertilization. Flowers white, bracteate,

trimerous. Female flowers shortly pedicellate;

bracts three, connate at base, -+ 3.02.0 mm,

erect, trapezoid, truncate and subentire at apex,

slightly accrescent; sepals three not spreading,

+ 3.0x2.0 mm, erect, ovate, obtuse, slightly

accrescent in fruit; petals three, alternating

BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

SOUTHERN CIRCLE,

COIMBATORE-2,

May 20, 1978.

1 Present address:

Shillong, Meghalaya.

Botanical

sepals, ++ 1.00.5 mm, ovate or obovate to

ligulate, obtuse, persistent; pistils 3 or 4 (rare-

ly less), + 2.00.75 mm, flask shaped; ovary

globose to ovoid, abruptly narrowed into a

short neck and ending in a bilobed stigma;

lobes of stigma broadly auricular, warted on

the receptive surface; sfaminodes three, trian-

gular, + 0.75 mm _ long, thick, acute. Male

flowers about 3.5 mm across; pedicel + 1.75

mm long; bracts three, similar to those of

female flowers; sepals three, spreading, ovate

to obovate, slightly connate at base, obtuse to

rounded at tip, subequal, longer one + 2.0 x

1.25 mm; other two sepals + 1.51.0 mm;

petals three, much smaller than sepals, as large

as the petals of female flower, obovate, round-

ed at tip; stamens three, antisepalous, + 1.5

mm long; filaments + 1.0 mm long, dilated

towards base; anthers large, conspicuous, basi-

fixed, anther lobes reniform; pistillodes usual-

ly three, ovoid. Young fruits subglobose or

ovoid with short apical beak, one seeded; em-

bryo curved.

Specimens examined: Joseph 44444 (BSI/

SC ace. nos. 85768 & 85769), fallow paddy

fields, near Kottur dairy farm, Trivandrum

District, Kerala, 27-9-1973,+300 m; Stocks.

Law etc. s.n. (MH acc. no. 73292) Malabar,

Concan etc.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We wish to express our thanks to the De-

puty Director, Central National Herbarium,

Botanical Survey of India for confirming the

identity of the specimen.

Ji JOSEPH*

V. CHANDRASEKARAN

Survey of India,

171

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

32. CHLOROPHYTUM ARUNDINACEUM BAKER (LILIACEAE)

IN MAHARASHTRA

(With five text-figures)

Chlorophytum arundinaceum, (family Lilia-

ceae) was newly collected from Chandra-

pur district, Maharashtra. The species has not

been earlier recorded by Cooke (1901-08) or

by Haines (1916).

In view of the absence of any known pub-

lished illustration of the plant, a drawing is

given along with a few salient points below,

based on the study of our specimens (see text-

figures on p. 173).

Chiorophytum

Journ. Linn. Soc.

India 6: 333, 1892.

Herb. Leaves lanceolate-oblanceolate. Scape

long, racemes - 12 cm long. Pedicels about

arundinaceum Baker in

15: 323, 1876; Fl. Brit.

BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

WESTERN CIRCLE, PUNE,

March 3, 1978.

33. NOMENCLATURE OF SOME

In the Flora of British India, J. D. Hooker

recognised 5 species under genus Urginea

Steinh. Subsequently Blatter & McCann (1928)

described U. polyantha from Western India

and Boraiah et Fatima (1970) have added

U. govindappae from Karnataka. However,

during a recent revision of the genus from

India, Deb & Dasgupta (1974) have reduced

U. coromandeliana Hook. f. and U. govindap-

pae as synonyms under U. indica (Roxb.)

Kunth, with the result they recognise only 4

species in India, namely U. indica, U. congesta

Wt., U. polyantha and U. polyphylla Hook. f.

Jessop (1977) while critically analysing the

172

6 mm long in flower, 9-10 mm in fruit, arti-

culated at or below the middle. Perianth outer

9-103 mm oblong or elliptic oblong. Inner

9-10 3.5 mm _ oblong-lanceolate, both five

nerved. Anthers 6 mm long, filaments 2-3 mm

long. Stigma simple. Capsule subglobose. Fi.

& Frt.: July-October.

Loc.: Bhambra nallah (Allapalli) Malhotra

135799,

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are thankful to the Deputy Director,

Botanical Survey of India, Western Circle,

Pune, for facilities and to Shri M. Y. Ansari,

Systematic Botanist, for helpful suggestions.

S. K. MALHOTRA

SIRASALA MOORTHY

BULBOUS LILIACEAE OF INDIA

bulbous Liliaceae of Africa, is of the opinion

that the genera Urginea Steinh., Idotheae

Kunth, Thuranthos Wright, Urgineopsis Com-

pton and Drimia Jacq. ex Willd. are closely

allied to each other having no reliable con-

stant distinguishing character to separate them

and hence he preferred to treat them all under

Drimia Jacq. ex Willd., the earliest valid name.

The differences between Urginea and Drimia

are essentially based on their perianth being

reflexed or not, the nature of perianth tube

and colour of the bulbs. The degree of fusion

of the perianth tube considerably varies and

overlaps in both the genera and although a

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

h and Gynae-

lant

2 & 3. Peri

’

1. Habit

Baker

inaceum

Chlorophytum arund

4. Stamen; 5. Capsule. (For descr

Figs. 1-5.

wel 2)

ion see p

clum

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

majority of the species under Urginea from

India have only white bulbs, a few (from

South Africa) have red bulbs as well. Fur-

ther, in Indian species of Urginea, it is also

observed that perianth segments are spreading

and get reflexed either partially or wholly when

fully opened. The arguments put forth by

Jessop are convincing and equally apply to

the Indian species of Urginea. As a result new

combinations have been suggested for the

other 3 Indian species, the one Urginea indica

being already changed to Drimia_ indica

(Roxb.) Jessop comb. nov. along with other

22 new combinations effected by Jessop

Che))s

1. Drimia congesta (Wt.) Ansari et Ragha-

van comb. nov.

Urginea congesta Wt. Icon. t. 2064 (Left-

BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

WESTERN CIRCLE, PUNE,

May 16, 1978.

hand fig.) 1853; Baker in J. Linn. Soc. 13:

218, 1873. Deb & Dasgupta in Bull. bot. Surv.

India 16: 121-122. 1974.

2. Drimia polyantha (Blatt. et McC.) An-

sari et Raghavan, comb. nov.

Urginea polyantha Blatt. et McC. in J.

Bomb. nat. Hist. Soc. 32: 735. Deb & Das-

gupta Ic. 122-123. 1974.

3. Drimia polyphylla (Hook. f.) Ansari et

Raghavan, comb. nov.

Urginea polyphylla Hook. f. Fl. Brit. India

6: 348. 1892; Deb & Dasgupta /I.c. 123. 1974.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We are grateful to the Deputy Director,

Botanical Survey of India, Western Circle,

Poona for his kind encouragement.

M. Y. ANSARI

R. SUNDARA RAGHAVAN

REFERENCES

BoralAH, G. & FATIMA, T. K. (1970): Cytotaxo-

nomy of Urginea govindappae sp. nov. Bull. bot.

Surv. India 12: 128-131.

Jessop, J. P. (1977):

Studies in the Bulbous

Liliaceae in South Africa: 7. The taxonomy of

Drimia and certain allied genera. Jour. S. Afr. Bot.

43(4): 265-319.

34. HITHERTO UNDESCRIBED FOLLICLES OF MARSDENIA

BRUNONIANA WT, & ARN. AND ITS DISTRIBUTION

(With three text-figures)

R. Wight and G. A. Walker-Arnott (1834)

described Marsdenia brunoniana without fruits

based on his collections “‘Wight! Cat. n. 1524

—Prope Columala’’. It is understood from

correspondence with Kew Herbarium that the

4 type sheets are of specimens all in flower-

ing condition, as is another unnumbered sheet

from Wight’s herbarium; and only one sheet

174

has the reference on distribution “‘Coroman-

del’. In the literature the references on its

distribution are “COROMANDEL, near Co-

termala” (Hooker 1883); “Prope Columala”

(Wight 1834); and ‘“‘near Columala (Kolli-

malais?)’> (Gamble 1923). Further there is

no specimen of this species represented either

in Madras Herbarium (MH) or in Central

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Figs. 1-3. Marsdenia brunoniana Wt. & Arn.: 1. Follicles; 2. C. S. of fruit to show

the winged angles; 3. Seed.

175

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

National Herbarium (CAL). Thus the exact

locality of its occurrence has not yet been

clearly indicated in the floras by J. D. Hooker

(1883) and J. S. Gamble (1923); also the

description on the fruits of this species is not

available in literature since there was no col-

lection with fruits.

Surprisingly the occurrence of this species

was recently noted by the senior author on

the northern slopes of Palni hills during a

plant exploration trip, and collected with

flowers during October 1977 and with fruits

during February, 1978. Thus the rare and

interesting species has been rediscovered after

a lapse of over 100 years. Since the fruits

of this species are not known so far, a short

description of them with figures has been

provided.

Marsdenia brunoniana Wt. & Arn. in Wt.

Contr. 40. 1834; Wt. Ic. t. 356. 1840; Dene.

in DC. Prodr. 8: 614. 1844; Hooker, FI.

Brit. India 4: 36. 1883; Gamble, Fl. Pres.

Madras 846. 1923 & 2: 594. (rep. ed.) 1957.

Follicls 8-9 x 3-5 cm, green, ripe pale yellow,

BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

COIMBATORE,

TamMiIL Nabu,

December 29, 1978.

two or solitary, ovatelanceolate, 4-angled,

angles sharply winged, smooth, glabrous, ob-

tuse, slightly indented at apex, truncate at

base; seeds 1-1.5<0.7—1 cm, many, black,

white-margined, ovate-elliptic, flattened, sub-

obtuse at apex, with white silky coma up to

4.5 cm long. (Figs. 1-3).

Field note: This climbing shrub grows over

small trees in scrub jungles at an altitude

of + 700 m. Fruits are quite distinct in having

4-winged angles.

Specimens examined: INDIA. TAMIL NADU:

Madurai Dt. Poomparai-Vilpatti R. F.,

18-10-1977, Chandrabose 51367; Palani-Kodai-

kanal, 17-2-1978, Chandrabose 53371.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful to the Director, Royal

Botanic Gardens, Kew, England for providing

the details on the type specimens of the above

species and to Dr. A. N. Henry, Systematic

Botanist, Botanical Survey of India, Coimba-

tore for help.

M. CHANDRABOSE

N. C. NAIR

35. MORE RECORDS OF ENTOMOGENOUS FUNGI FROM

PRESERVED DRAGONFLY COLLECTIONS

INTRODUCTION

Several reports of fungal infestation of in-

sects have been brought out by many work-

ers. In India, however, comparatively much

less work has been carried out on this phase

of study. The most noteworthy and informa-

tive reports on fungi entomogeni have been

produced by Kamat eft al. (1952), Jagtap

176

(1958) and Narasimhan (1970) who have

reported fungi from various groups of

insects, such as, Aphids, Termites, Mosqui-

toes, House flies, Grasshoppers, Butterflies,

Honey bees, Cockroaches, Ants, Scale insects,

Beetles etc. A review of the above literature

clearly indicates that no attenion has so far

been given on the dragonflies being infested

by fungi, and the sole exception are the papers

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

of Pacioni (1977) and Tyagi and Vijay Veer

(1978). The latter workers, in their general

study of the entomogenous fungi attacking

preserved dragonfly collections, also, discussed

the various precautionary and control methods

on such fungi.

The present note is the second report on the

fungi entomogeni infesting the preserved dra-

gonfly material, which also marks the end of

our current investigations in this field.

OBSERVATIONS

In the present investigation were used some

nine dragonfly species from which the follow-

ing fungus material was recorded, altogether

for the first time. The dragonfly material exa-

mined for the purpose are as follows, Copera

marginipes, Pseudagrion rubriceps, Ceriagrion

coromandelianum, Ischnura forcipata, Rhino-

cypha quadrimaculata, Anisopleura lestoides,

Brachythemis contaminata, Trithemis festiva

and Trithemis pallidinervis. Save for the last

species, all the dragonfly material were male.

The fungus species discovered on these dra-

gonflies are, Alternaria sp., Aspergillus flavus,

Aspergillus nidulans, Coelomomyces sp., En-

tomophthora aphidis, Spicaria javanica, and

Stemphylium sp. Considering the entire

amount of fungi entomogeni thus far known

to the world, it seems worth mentioning here

that no Spicaria sp. has ever been discovered

from any insect previously and, therefore, its

first record is only from a dragonfly.

Summing up our knowledge on the prepon-

derence of all the fungus species hitherto

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY,

D.V.A. (P.G.) COLLEGE,

DEHRADUN-248 001, U.P.,

December 29, 1978.

known to occur or attack dragonflies, whether

dead, preserved or alive, it soon becomes evi-

dent that Entomophthora spp. are the most

common fungi to infest their present hosts

among which, also, the former has a good

dispersal range. Generally, a single fungus

species may be found on many different dra-

gonflies while, at the same time, several spe-

cies of fungi are apt to be obtained from the

same individual belonging to any dragonfly

species. This conclusion suggests that these

fungi are not specific to any particular dragon-

fly host and can be found attacking any part

of the dragonfly body.

This opinion regarding the general abund-

ance of more than one fungus species on a

solitary dragonfly host is in contrast to our

previous view as mentioned in the former re-

port (cf. Tyagi & Vijay Veer 1978), and

which has now become certain as to the non-

specificity of these fungi with respect to their

host under discussion and that even several

fungi can simultaneously infest one and the

same insect, and vice versa.

ACK NOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful to Dr. S. K. Sangal and

Dr. S. K. Kulshrestha (both of the Depart-

ment of Zoology, D.A.V. College, Dehra

Dun) for encouragement; to Dr. M. B. Lal

(Head of the Department of Zoology, D.A.V.

College, Dehra Dun) for laboratory facilities;

and to Mr. S. N. Sachan (Botany Depart-

ment, D.A.V. College, Dehra Dun) for kind-

ly identifying the fungus species.

BRIJ KISHORE TYAGI

VIJAY VEER

177

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

REFERENCES

Jacrap, A. P. (1958): Studies in the entomoge-

nous fungus, Metarrhizium anisophae (Metsch.)

Sorok. Curr. Sci. 27: 99-100.

KAMAT, M. N., PATEL, M. K. AND DHANDE, G.

W. (1952): Occurrence of the green muscardine

fungus on Pyrilla sp. in Bombay. Curr. Sci. 21:

317.

NARASINHAN, M. J. (1970): Entomogenous fungi

and possibility of their use for biological control

178

of insect pests in India. Indian

16-26.

Pacioni, G. (1977): Interessanti fungi entomogeni

Phytopath. 23:

italiani: I Paecilomyces fumosa-rosens, Cordyceps

memorabilis. Giornala Botanica Haliano 111 (3):

145-151.

TyaGcI, B. K. AND VEER, VIJAY (1978): A note on

some entomogenous fungi attacking the preserved

dragonfly collections. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

75 (3): 946-947.

ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY

SOCIETY FOR THE YEAR 1977-78

EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE

President

Dr. Salim Ali, D.Sc., F.N.A.

Vice-Presidents

Mr. R. E. Hawkins

Mr. G. V. Bedekar, I.C.S. (Retd.)

Mr. D. J. Panday

Membe

Ex-officio

Secretary, Dept. of Science & Technology,

Government

Elected Members

Mr. Humayun Abdulali

Dr. S. R. Amladi, M.D.

Prof. P. V. Bole

Mr. Divyabhanusinh Chawda

Dr. B. Dasgupta

Mr. H. K. Divekar

Dr. C. V. Kulkarni, M.Sc., Ph.D.

(Hon. Treasurer)

Mr. Nazir Latif

Mr. Bansi Mehta

Dr. A. N. D. Nanavati (Hon. Secretary)

Mr. M. S. Srinivasan

Mrs. Dilnavaz Variava

of India.

ADVISORY COMMITTEE

. H. G. Acharya

. F. C. Badhwar, O.B.E.

. B. Biswas

. S. Chaudhuri

. Chintaman Deshmukh, I.C.S.

. Zafar Futehally

. N. D. Jayal

. Shivarajkumar Khachar

. M. Krishnan

. Duleep Matthai

Ahmedabad

New Delhi

Calcutta

New Dethi

(Retd.)

Hyderabad

Bangalore

New Delhi

Jasdan

Madras

New Delhi

179

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

HONORARY SECRETARY’S REPORT FOR THE YEAR 1977

The report covers the activities of the Society

in the 94th year of its existence.

MEMBERSHIP

During the year 161 new members were en-

rolled. Unfortunately the total number of

ordinary members continues to be more or

less static in the region of 700-800. There has

been an increase of interest of members in the

Society’s activities and we hope to reduce the

number of members lost every year. Drop outs

were 100 and resignations 32 during the year

under review. The number of members in each

class of membership is given below:

ing the year, two of them (Vol. 73 No. 2 and

Vol. 73 No. 3) being issues of the Journal for

the previous year, and only one issue (Vol.

74 No. 1) relates to the current year. It has

been possible, with the increased page space

available in the new format to reduce the

number of pending articles.

The articles continued to cover a wide range

of subjects with emphasis on the ecology, be-

haviour, and taxonomy of Indian Fauna and

the taxonomy and regional lists of Indian

Flora.

The Society’s illustrated newsletter-cum-

popular Journal, the Hornbill has had a suc-

1974 1975 1976 1977 1978

Ordinary Members TAO = 163) eae 02 Individual 561) 721

Corporate 160)

Life Members 1989992321247 47, Individual 246) 259

Corporate 13)

Student Members 16 20 19 20 39

Honorary Members 4 4 4 4 4

Forest Dept. Nominees 90 99 9 36 — _-

pu SE SR

PUBLICATIONS

The Journal continues to be delayed in its

publication. Three issues were published dur-

180

cessful year and has served the purpose of

creating and retaining member interest in the

Society and in attracting new members. Four

issues of the Hornbill were published during

the year.

A. G. M. 1977-78—PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS

Books:

During the year the following sales were

made:

of THE BOOK OF INDIAN ANIMALS and the first

edition of the GRASSES OF WESTERN INDIA by

T. Hodd. The work on the Centenary Publi-

cation, ENCYCLOPEDIA OF INDIAN NATURAL HIS-

Book of Indian Birds

Book of Indian Animals

India’s Wildlife in 1959-70

Some Beautiful Indian Trees

Glimpses of Nature in India Booklet

Checklist of the Birds of Maharashtra

Sale Balance stock

31 December 1977

2894 5106

479 61

319 161

235 2765

267 2774

58 466

The following books were published:

BOOK OF INDIAN BIRDS by Salim Ali, 10th edi-

tion. This edition received excellent support

from members and others and nearly one third

of the copies printed were sold.

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN TREES by Blatter and

Millard, 3rd edition. We are grateful to the

Department of Science and Technology, Gov-

ernment of India for the financial assistance

which made this publication possible.

INDIA’S WILDLIFE 1959-70 by M. Krishnan.

Based on Mr. M. Krishnan’s survey of the

wildlife in India during 1970 under a Jawahar-

Jal Nehru Fellowship. The publication of this

book was made possible by the generous finan-

cial assistance of the Seth Purshottamdas

Thakoredas and Divalibai Charitable Trust.

Books under preparation:

We have in the press the second edition of

A SYNOPSIS OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA AND PAKIS-

TAN by Dillon Ripley and the second edition

of SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND

SHRUBS, by Bor and Raizada. The former is

financed by the author and the latter from

funds made available by the Department of

Science and Technology, Government of India.

Also under preparation are the 4th edition

TORY with Mr. R. E. Hawkins as general edi-

tor, is in progress. This publication is also

being financed by the Department of Science

and Technology, Government of India.

CONSERVATION

The Society continued to take an active part

in the Conservation Movement in the country

through its association with State and Central

Wildlife Boards, and through its members on

the International Union for Conservation of

Nature and Natural Resources, the World

Wildlife Fund, and the International Council

for Bird Preservation.

The Society’s Curator has been nominated

as the Co-Chairman of the SSC’s Asian Ele-

phant Specialist Group. The regional meeting

of the group was arranged at Bangalore at the

Indian Institute of Science, when the program-

me of work and regional task forces to under-

take surveys were organised.

MEMBERS’ ACTIVITIES

It has been possible to interest and encour-

age members in Bombay and elsewhere in field

activities.

181

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

Bird Count: A monthly roadside count of

birds in the Borivli National Park was organis-

ed with the assistance of members. The acti-

vity received financial assistance from the

Salim Ali/Loke Ornithological Research Fund.

The activity is being continued.

Nature Walks: Nature walks were organised

in Borivli National Park and elsewhere for

bird-watching, vegetation studies and general

natural history. A large number of members

participated.

Nature Camp: A camp was organised in

October at Bandipur National Park and the

Tahr country in the Nilgiris. 41 members par-

ticipated in two groups led by Dr. Robert B.

Grubh, Dr. Reza Khan and Mr. P. B. Shekar.

RESEARCH

Bird banding data: Computer analysis of the

data has been arranged in collaboration with

the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research;

feeding of data has commenced.

University Department: Mr. M. A. Reza

Khan was awarded the Ph.D. Degree in Field

Ornithology of the Bombay University for his

thesis on the ecology of the Black-and-Orange

Flycatcher in South India. Mr. M. K. Chan-

drahas was awarded M.Sc. degree for his thesis

on the Ecology of the Five-striped Palm

Squirrel.

Nilgiri Bird Survey: On behalf of the Gov-

ernment of Tamil Nadu two field trips to the

Nilgiri district were made by the Society’s

staff and the report on the birds of the district

has been sent to the Government.

Bharatpur Bird Sanctuary: The Maharaja

of Bharatpur has very generously donated the

Kadam Kunj rest house in the Sanctuary to

the Society. It is proposed to establish a

hydro-biological station in collaboration with

the WWF (India) to monitor the ecology of

182

the Sanctuary on a continuing basis.

Ecology of the Honeyguide: Studies were

made by Dr. Salim Ali assisted by Mr. S. A.

Hussain. Both of them made visits to Bhitan

for preliminary investigation of Honeyguide

locations. An ad hoc grant of Rs. 5000/- was

made by the Govt. of Bhutan, towards expen-

ses of the study.

ICAR Frog Project: The project with Mr.

Humayun Abdulali, as Principal Investigator

is programmed to examine the effect produced

on agricultural ecology by the removal! of frogs

for the export of froglegs.

DONATIONS

For Salim Ali Nature Conservation Fund

Rs.

Dr. Salim Ali 351,000.00

Mr. E. W. Mudge Jr. 879.57

For Charles McCann Fieldwork Fund

Mr. S. Choudhury 600.00

Mr. H. Abdulali 175.00

For Salim Ali-Loke Wan Tho Ornithological

Research Fund

Dr. Salim Ali 1000.00

For Hornbill Newsletter

Dr. Dasgupta 100.00

Mr. Dilip Patil 50.00

Dr. Scaver A. Ballard 56.00

Mr. H. K. Divekar 101.00

MEETINGS

January, 27: Talk: ‘Biological clocks and

seasonal breeding cycles in Animals’ by Prof.

B. K. Follet.

February, 1: Talk: ‘Scientific expeditions

connected with Zoology and Marine Biology’

by Dr. Ferdinand Starmuehlner.

March, 19: Talk: ‘Introduction to Bird

Watching’ by Mr. S. A. Hussain.

A. G. M. 1977-78—PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS

May, 21: Talk: ‘Introduction to Bird Wat-

ching’ by Dr. Robert B. Grubh.

May, 16: Film show: ‘The Last Strong-

hold’.

May, 27: Film show: ‘Snakes of India’.

June, 29: Talk: ‘Indian Flowering Trees’

by Prof. P. V. Bole.

July, 16: Talk: ‘Introduction to Bird Wat-

ching’ by Dr. Robert B. Grubh.

September, 17: Talk: ‘Identification of

Waders’ by Dr. Robert B. Grubh.

October, 19: Film show: ‘Antarctic’ by Miss

Meher Moos.

November, 24: Talk: ‘Wildlife of the Nil-

giris’ by Mr. Reza Khan.

November, 29: Talk: ‘Environment’ by Dr.

R. M. Naik.

November, 30: Slide show: ‘Ladakh’ and

other subjects by Mr. Prakash Gole.

December, 16: Talk: ‘Another trip to the

Andamans and Nicobar’ by Mr. Humayun

Abdulali.

December, 20: Talk: Bhutan: ‘In search of

the Honeyguide’ by Mr. S. A. Hussain.

REFERENCE COLLECTION

During the year 273 specimens were receiv-

ed at the Society:

Mammals 3

Birds 149

Reptiles 56

Amphibians 65

Total 273

Important additions are:

Birds: Ninox affinis, Micropygia rufipennis-—

Coll: H. Abdulali. New subspecies from

the Car Nicobar 1976 collection are

being described.

Phodilus badius_ ripleyi—Coll: Reza

Khan & V. S. Vijayan.

Amphibians: Philautus glandulosus—Coll: J.

C. Daniel.

Philautus chalazodus—Coll: J.

C. Daniel.

NATURE EDUCATION SCHEME

More than 400 schools were contacted from

time to time through circulars. 32 field trips

were arranged to Borivli National Park in-

cluding one for a blind school.

A nature camp was arranged for Municipal

Secondary School children. Students from 18

schools were taken to the Prince of Wales

Museum, 9 to taraporewala Aquarium and 12

to Jijamata Udyan (Victoria Gardans).

Guidance was given to schools in the pre-

paration of projects on different aspects of

nature. 40 schools were visited personally. In

addition 5 radio talks on Nature Education

were given during the year. Slide shows were

arranged in 5 schools.

During the wildlife week an xhibition of

‘Our Wildlife’ was arranged for school child-

ren. 5862 students from 46 schools visited the

exhibition.

LIBRARY

During the year 1977 thirty eight (38) books

were added to the Society’s Library. Of these:

18 were presented

8 purchased

12 received for review

Total 38

183

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

REVENUE AND ACCOUNTS ciation of the willing co-operation of the staff

in the activities of the Society.

The financial situation of the Society conti-

nued to be unsatisfactory. The year’s operation ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

showed a small surplus.

The Committee wishes to record its appre-

ciation for the assistance received from mem-

The Committee wishes to record its appre- bers towards the activities of the Society.

STAFF

184

A. G. M. 1977-78—PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST.

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198

A. G. M. 1977-78—PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS

The Annual General Meeting of the Bom-

bay Natural History Society for 1977 was heid

on Wednesday, the 10th January 1979 at 6.30

p.m. at Hornbill House, Opp. Lion Gate,

Shahid Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay, when

the following were present:

. Humayun Abdulali

Dr. Salim Ali

. G. V. Bedekar

. H. K. Divekar

. S. P. Godrej

. D. N. Goenka

. R. E. Hawkins

. J. P. Irani

. A. K. Joshee

.C. V. Kulkarni

. Duleep Matthai

. Bansi Mehta

. C. B. Mehta

.S. N. Mistry

. A. N. D. Nanavati

. Dinsha J. Panday

Mr. V. K. Paralkar

Mr. Dilip Patil

Mr. Ulhas Rane

Mr. A. Rashid

Mr. K. K. Vajifdar

Mrs. D. S. Variava

Dr. Salim Ali proposed Mr. R. E. Hawkins

to the Chair and was seconded by Dr. A. N.

D. Nanavati.

The Honorary Secretary’s report having been

circulated was taken as read, and the mem-

bers present were asked if they had any queries

on the report.

Mr. Humayun Abdulali questioned the

wisdom of carrying on with the computerisa-

tion of the Bird Banding data. His enquiries

in the company of a knowledgeable friend at

the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research

at the instance of the Society’s last AGM re-

vealed that no programme was set, and he was

doubtful if any useful purpose would be served

by carrying on with the work.

Mr. Hawkins explained that computerisation

of some 250,000 records was being carried on

for sake of a general study of the data collect-

ed during the ten years of bird banding.

Mr. Abdulali enquired about the proposed

Hydrobiological Station at Bharatpur and

whether a project proposal has been prepared

and submitted to the Executive Committee.

The Honorary Secretary stated that a pro-

ject has been prepared and incorporated in the

Society’s Five-Year Plan and that further

action depends upon the availability of funds.

Mrs. Variava proposed that the Honorary

Secretary’s report be accepted, and Mr. Bede-

kar seconded the proposal.

The Honorary Treasurer while dealing with

the Balance Sheet and Accounts stated that

the Balance Sheet showed a surplus of

Rs. 7166.35, reducing our previous deficit from

Rs. 61,973.16 to Rs. 54,806.81.

He explained that the suggestions made at

the last AGM have been executed as far as

they were practicable.

Mr. Bedekar proposed that the Honorary

Treasurer’s report be accepted and was second-

ed by Mr. H. K. Divekar.

Mr. Bedekar proposed that the auditors

Messrs Habib & Co. be re-appointed on the

same terms (viz. a fee of Rs. 1000/-) and

was seconded by Dr. Kulkarni.

The Chairman expressed the hope that, as

the business of the meeting had been complet-

ed expeditiously, the next Annual General

Meeting would be combined with a lecture or

film.

The meeting terminated with a vote of

thanks to the Chair.

199

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"a SOCIETY'S PUBLICATIONS

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Rs. 10

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many monochrome plates. Rs. 60.00

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a y s

CONTENTS

PAGE

A NEW SPECIES, AND A NEW SUBSPECIES OF BIRD FROM’ TiRAP Dis7Rict, ARUNACHAL

PRADESH, AND COMMENTS ON THE SUBSPECIES OF Stachyris. nigriceps BLYTH.

By S. Dillon Ripley Se 1

FRESHWATER ALGAE OF DAVANAGERE AND RAICHUR OF KARNATAKA STATE, INDIA.

By U. D. Bongale and S. G. Bharati Rs 6

BIRD NOTES FROM BALUCHISTAN PROVINCE, PAKISTAN. By T. J. Roberts at 12

SSERVATIONS ON FOOD AND GROWTH OF Bufo melanostictus TADPOLE. By J. H. Sabnis

and Ku. S. M. Kuthe i 21

DISTRIBUTION OF MOLLUSCS IN AND AROUND THE CORAL REEFS OF THE SOUTHEASTERN

COAST IN INpIA. By C. S. Gopinadha Pillai and K. K. Appukuttan Re 26

A MARCH BIRD COUNT IN PcoNna. By Prakash Gole : A 49

MAMMALS FROM NEPAL. By David H. Johnson, S. Dillon Ripley, and Kitti Thong-

longya ; se S6 ite ‘

PARENTAL CARE IN THE SALTWATER CROCODILE (Crocodylus porosus SCHNEIDER) AND — R

MANAGEMENT IMPLICATIONS. By H. R. Bustard and B. C. Choudhury ms 64 g

EGGS AND EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF TOR MAHSEER FISH. By C. V. Kulkarni os 70 q

FamILy CYPERACEAE IN KOLHAPUR AND ITS ENVIRONS. By A. R. Kulkarni, S. R. Yadav :

and J. S. Pawar ib 76 a

A CATALOGUZ OF THE BIRDS IN THE COLLECTION OF THE BomMBAY NaTuRAL History

Sociery—22. By Humayun Abdulali Pe 81

CLUTCH SIZE, INCUBATION AND HATCHING SUCCESS OF GHARIAL [Gavialis gangeticus

(GMELIN)] EGGS FROM NARAYANI RIVER, NEPAL, 1976-1978. By H. R. Bustard .. 100

New DESCRIPTIONS , .. 106

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES volte ae

ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BomMBAY NaTuRAL History SOCIETY FOR THE YEAR 1977-78 .. 179

STATEMENTS OF ACCOUNTS OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL History SOCIETY Ae RSS,

MINUTES OF THE ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING HRTLS

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VOLUME 77 NO. 2: AUGUST 1980

Date of Publication : 28-3-1981.

CONTENTS

CONSERVATION FUTURE OF THE SALTWATER CROCODILE (Crocodylus porosus SCHNEIDER)

IN INDIA. By H. R. Bustard and B. C. Choudhury. (With four plates & a text-

figure)

FRESHWATER SNAILS OF GWALIior (M.P.). By H. C. Goel and C. P. Srivastava. (With

nine text-figures & a map)

A CONTRIBUTION OF THE VEGETATION OF CHAIBASA (SOUTH), SINGHBHUM DIST. (Soura

BIHAR). By D. K. Biswas and J. K. Maheswari

BREEDING HABITS AND ASSOCIATED PHENOMENA IN SOME INDIAN BATS. PART Vik=Seoto:

Philus heathi (HORSFIELD)—VESPERTILIONIDAE. By A. Madhavan

STUDIES ON THE INTRASPECIFIC VARIATIONS IN Trithemis festiva (RAMBUR) (OpoNaTA:

LIBELLULIDAE). By Mahabir Prasad and Arun Kumar. (With six text-figures)

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISATION OF THE SONG OF THE KokEL Eudynamis scolopacea. By M.

V. V. Subrahmanyam and R. V. Krishnamoorthy. (With four text-figures)

OBSERVATIONS OF THE REPRODUCTIVE BEHAVIOUR OF THE TIGER, Panthera tigris tigris

LINN. IN caPTiviry. By Adhir Kumar Das. (With a chart)

PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS ON THE STATUS OF SILVER CARP IN RELATION TO CATLA IN

THE CULTURE FISHERY OF KULGARHI RESERVOIR. By S. J. Karamchandani and

D. N. Mishra. (With two text-figures)

NOTES ON THE FERNS AND FERN-ALLIES IN THE BOTANY OF ORISSA. By N. C. Nair and

R. K. Ghosh

DISTRIBUTION RECORDS OF CULICINE MOSQUITOES OF BasTAR DISTRICT, MADHNE

PRADESH, INpIA. By Zakir Husain Husainy. (With a text-figure)

NOTES ON THE BREEDING AND HUNTING BEHAVIOUR OF LION-TAILED MACAQUES (Macaca

silenus) IN CAPTiviTy. By Y. Artaud

New DESCRIPTIONS:

On a new silurid cat-fish from Uttar Pradesh, India. By S. K. Gupta, K. C. Jayaram

and K. P. Hajela. (With a text-figure)

On a new species of genus Allotrissocladius Freeman (Diptera, Chironomidae) Agnes

India. By P. K. Chaudhuri and S. K. Nandi. (With three text-figures)

A new species of the genus Herculia Walker from North India (Lepidoptera: Pyra-

lidae: Pyralinae). By H. S. Rose and S. S. Dhillon. (With seven text-figures)

Description of a new species and a key to Indian species of Belostomatidae. By P. Ven-

katesan and T. K. Raghunatha Rao. (With seven text-figures)

Aconogonon kuttiense (Polygonaceae)—A new species from N. W. Himalaya. By G.

G. Maiti, R. M. Dutta and C. R. Babu. (With five text-figures)

A new species of Jasminum (Oleaceae) from India. By A. K. Sinha, G. G. Maiti and

G. S. Giri. (With five text-figures)

A new species of Eunotia. By P. T. Sarode and N. D. Kamat. (With two eroureN

OBITUARY:

D. E. Reuben (1893-1980)

REVIEWS:

1. The Fauna of India, Spiders. (M. L. Roonwal) i

2. Collin’s Handguide to the Birds of the Indian Sub-continent, including India,

Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka & Nepal. (Humayun Abdulali) es

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES:

PAGE

201

215

311

Mammats: 1. Food habits of the Indian Wild Dog (Cuon alpinus): A preliminary analysis.

By Bruce D. Barnett, James A. Cohen. A. J. T. Johnsingh and Michael W. Fox (p. 313);

2. Observation on carnivorous habit of Irrawaddy Squirrel, Callosciurus pygerythrus (Geof-

froy). By Santanu Ghosh (p. 316); 3. Unusual Rat feeding behaviour associated with cattle

affected with foot and mouth disease. (With a text-figure). By S. Odend’hal (p. 317);

4. Bait shyness and poison aversion in Bandicota bengalensis (Gray) using RH-787 as Roden-

ticide. By M. L. Sood and’ R.-P. S: Gill -(p. 319);-5. On the unusual occurrence of the

Common Dolphin. Delphinus delphis Linnaeus in longline catches at Port Blair, Andamans.

By T. E. Sivaprakasam (p. 320); 6. Litter size of some captive wild mammals. By L. N.

Acharjyo and §. Mohapatra (p. 321).

Birps: 7. Observations on parental care of a wounded chick of the Bronzewinged Jacana,

Metopidius indicus (Latham). By Srikumar Chattopadhyay (p. 325); 8. Blacknecked Crane

in Bhutan and Arunachal Pradesh—A survey report for January-February 1978. By Subhendu

Sekhar Saha (p. 326); 9. The Bluecheeked Bee-eater Merops superciliosus Linnaeus in Kutch.

By M. K. Himmatsinhji (p. 328); 10. The Common Hawk-Cuckoo, Cuculus varius Vahl in

Kutch. By M. K. Himmatsinhji (p. 329); 11. A new nesting site of Common Myna, Acrido-

theres tristis (Linnaeus), in the Punjab. (With two photographs). By H. S. Toor and Manjit

Singh Dhindsa (p. 329); 12. On the taxonomic status of the Eastern Ghats Hill Myna,

Gracula religiosa peninsularis Whistler and Kinnear, 1933 [Aves: Sturnidae]). By N. Majum-

dar (p. 331); 13. Egg-bound death of a Purplerumped Sunbird at Baj Baj, West Bengal.

By Srikumar Chattopadhyay (p. 333); 14. Occurrence of the Bengal Black Robin, Saxicoloi-

des fulicata erythrura (Lesson )[Muscicapidae: Turdinae], and the Assam Purple Sunbird,

Nectarinia asiatica intermedia (Hume) [Nectariniidae] in Orissa State. By N. Majumdar

(p. 334); 15. Dispersal of bayas with recorded distress calls. By S. T. P. V. J. Swamy,

N. Shivanarayan and Mir Hamid Ali (p. 335); 16. On nesting association of the Whitebacked

Munia, Lonchura striata (Linnaeus) with the Mound-Forming Tree-Ant, Crematogaster

rogenhoferi Mayr. By Srikumar Chattopadhyay (p. 337); 17. Bird pests to rice at Bumbong

Lima, Province Wellesley, West Malaysia. By Michael Avery (p. 338).

REPTILES: 18. Notes on sexing crocodilians. (With two plates). By Romulus Whitaker,

Zahida Whitaker and Allen Vaughan (p. 341); 19. On the occurrence of Bifurcated Tailed

in Agama Lizard from Simla Hills, Himachal Pradesh. By Mahesh Chandra and Rathin

Mukherjee (p. 343); 20. Recent re-discovery of the rare Agamid Lizard, Otocryptis beddomii.

By T. S. N. Murthy (p. 343); 21. Growth rate of Indian Python, Python molurus molurus

(Serpentes: Boidae) in captivity with special reference to age at first egg-laying. (With two

text-figures). By L. N. Acharjyo and Ch. G. Mishra (p. 344); 22. Cobra and Little Bittern

Ixobrychus minutus. By B. D. Sharma (p. 350).

FISHES: 23. Khulnawa—A special fishing device for minnows in the river Ganga at Patna

(Bihar). (With a plate). By S. R. Banerji, M. L. Singh, S.. K. Thakur and Nirmal K. Thakur

(p. 351).

Insects: 24. A note on the Dragonflies (Odonata: Insecta). By Mahabir Prasad and

M. K. Biswas (p. 353); 25. Microtrombidium sp.—An Acarine Ectoparasite of Musca domes-

tica nebulo Fabr. By S. C. Dhiman and R. C. Dhiman (p. 353); 26. A supernumerary larval

instar and antimelanin effect on the 6th instar larvae of Spodoptera litura (F.) (Lepidoptera:

Noctuidae) by Altozar—a juvenile hormone analogue. By S. Badrul Islam and Mumtaz

Ahmed Khan (p. 354).

Botany: 27. Pteris dactylina Hook. from Silent Valley—a new record for Peninsular India.

By N. C. Nair and P. Bhargavan (p. 356); 28. The genus Macroptilium (Benth.) Urb.—A

new record for India. (With eight text-figures). By S. V. Subba Rao and R. Gopalan (p. 357);

29. Additions to the Flora of Rajasthan. By A. N. Singh (p. 359); 30. Note on the occur-

rence of Agrostis nervosa Nees ex Trin. in Western Himalaya. By B. C. L. Sah and D. N.

Joshi (p. 360); 31. On the occurrence of Cleome felina L.f. (Cleomaceae) in Maharashtra.

(With six text-figures). By S. K. Malhotra and Sirasala Moorthy (p. 361); 32. Arthraxon

meeboldii Stapf—A grass new to Kashmir. (With a text-figure). By H. Thakur and G. N.

Javeid (p. 363); 33. Notes on Vaccinium leschenaultii—Complex (Vacciniaceae) in South

India. (With two text-figures). By V. Chithra and R. Rajan (p. 365); 34. Cryptolepis grandi-

flora Wight—A new record for Andamans. By Amit Sinha and Girija Sankar Giri (p. 366);

35. Occurrence of Pithophora kewensis Wittrock in Bangladesh. (With a_ text-figure).

By A. M. Abdus Salam and Yusuf Sharif A. Khan (p. 367); 36. Distributional notes on

certain recently described Taxa. By V. V Sivarajan and J. Joseph (p. 368); 37. Powdery

mildew of walking fern (Camptosorus rhizophyllus)—a new record. By J. Raghava Reddy

and A. Purnachandra Reddi (p. 370).

JOURNAL

OM) “THe

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY

SOCIETY

1980 AUGUST

Vol. 77

No. 2

CONSERVATION FUTURE OF THE SALTWATER

CROCODILE (CROCODYLUS POROSUS SCHNEIDER )

IN INDIA’

H. R. Bustarb? AND B. C. CHOUDHURY*

(With four plates & a text-figure)

The conservation future of the Saltwater

Crocodile in India is discussed together with

reasons for the species’ decline and conserva-

tion programmes already in progress. The

Saltwater Crocodile is endangered in India at

the present time due to inadequate steps be-

ing taken to ensure the long-term survival of

its mangrove habitat. Whereas hunting was

responsible for the earlier dramatic decline in

the species’ numbers habitat loss now poses

the most serious long-term problem since the

species is fully protected by law and effective

protection can be provided in the field. Con-

servation programmes have operated since

1975 in Orissa, and 1976 in West Bengal and

1 Accepted August 1979.

2 Chief Technical Adviser, Government of India.

Central Crocodile Breeding and Management Train-

ing Institute, Lake Dale, Hyderabad-500 264.

’ Research Scholar, Andhra Pradesh Forest De-

partment, Crocodile Conservation Project. Nehru

Zoological Park, Hyderabad.

Andhra Pradesh, and work commenced in

1979 in the Andamans. However, the Bhitar-

kanika Sanctuary in Orissa is the only suc-

cessfully operating sanctuary for the species

in India and its integrity is seriously threaten-

ed by encroachment. Much of India’s coastal

mangrove forests have been destroyed and the

remnants are rapidly disappearing. Unless

sanctuaries to effectively protect the man-

groves, as well as the wildlife, can be set up

and soundly managed to ensure their long-

term integrity, the Saltwater Crocodile will

become extinct. It is suggested that well-

managed commercial utilisation of this valu-

able economic species could help to ensure

the future of the sanctuary areas and with

them the crocodile.

“No country has done more than India to

conserve its crocodilian resources and no-

where has the effort met with such marked

success” (Bustard, in press, a). Concerned

about the future of India’s crocodilians, parti-

cularly the gharial (Gavialis gangeticus).

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST.

Government of India asked UNDP for assist-

ance in carrying out a survey. The resultant

report (FAO 1974), stated that the Gharial

was on the verge of extinction, the saltwater

crocodile (Crocodylus porosus) reduced to

two pockets in its former strong-hold along

the Bay of Bengal, and the mugger (C. palu-

stris) a fast depleting species.

Following this Report, Government of

India initiated a Crocodile Project, with FAO/

UNDP assistance, and the senior author, who

had carried out the 1974 investigation, be-

came Chief Technical Adviser for the large

scale Project which subsequently ensued and

is still in progress. (The present project is

scheduled to terminate in December 1980.)

An early account of the project develop-

ment in Orissa, the first State to take up

works under the Government of India Pro-

ject, is given in FAO (1975). The gharial

occurs only in the Indian region and its fu-

ture was the subject of much international

concern. The very critical situation facing the

gharial (FAO 1974, 1975) led naturally to

maximum efforts being directed to that spe-

cies in the early years. This tended to over-

shadow the deteriorating status of the salt-

water crocodile, and delayed realisation of the

seriousness of its poor future conservation

status as a member of the Indian fauna, al-

though a project was initiated on this species

in Orissa in 1975, and a further project com-

menced in West Bengal in 1976. Today, the

very success of “Project Gharial’’ tends to

hide the urgent steps that need to be taken

to assure the future of the saltwater crocodile

in India.

As recently as 1971, Neill was able to write

of this species. “In spite of its wide range,

the estuarine crocodile has not become well

known’’ and,

“The activities of the adult estuarine croco-

202

SOCIETY, Vol. 77

diles, outside of nesting and of predation on

man, are practically unknown.”

Since then the species has been the subject

of considerable research, particularly in Aus-

tralia by Messel’s group which followed on

from Bustard’s high-lighting of its conserva-

tion predicament in the Australian region

(Bustard 1967, 1969 a, b, and c, 1970, and

numerous inter-governmental reports) and in

India as part of the Government of India

Project on Crocodile Breeding and Manage-

ment (FAO 1974, 1975, Bustard 1978, in

press, b; Choudhury & Bustard 1980; Kar

& Bustard, in press). The biology of the spe-

cies is now sufficiently well known to plan

sound conservation management.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION AND PRESENT

STATUS

The saltwater crocodile formerly had an

enormous geographical distribution from

Cochin in South-west India, eastwards to

South China, and extending Southwards

through Malaysia, Indonesia and the Philip-

pines to New Guinea and Northern Australia.

In India the species had its world Western

distributional limits near Cochin and occurred

along the Bay of Bengal in the States of

Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa and

West Bengal and the Union Territory of the

Andaman and Nicobar Islands (Figure 1).

The species is now extinct on the Asian

mainland east of Saigon. Throughout this ex-

tensive remaining distributional range the

species must now be considered rare to en-

dangered. It is listed as endangered in the

RED DATA BOOK of JUCN (1975).

This species was still common in the im-

mediate postwar years before large-scale hunt-

ing commenced. However, whole populations

were wiped out in a matter of years. In

CONSERVATION OF THE SALTWATER CROCODILE

Papua-New Guinea it had become very rare

by the early sixties (Bustard 1967), in North-

ern Australia by around the mid-sixties with

the hunting effort in Western Australia taking

place last (Bustard 1970).

India did not escape this large-scale hunt-

ing phase (FAO 1974). In 1974 no reliable

information existed on the then status of the

saltwater crocodile in India. Early writers fre-

quently commented on its abundance. The

Fig. 1. Distribution of the Saltwater Crocodile in India today. Mangrove areas are

indicated by diagonal lines and the occurrence of Saltwater Crocodile by solid black

areas. The arrow indicates the location of Cochin, the former Western distributional

limit of the species. The scale indicates 800 km.

203

JOURNAL, BOMBAY

distinguished herpetologist Giinther (1864)

wrote, ‘This is a very common species along

all the rivers of the East Indian Continent and

Archipelago.”

More recentiy Deraniyagala (1939) noted:

“Tt flourishes along the shores of the Bay of

Bengal.”

Within the memory of reliable living wit-

nesses this species was abundant in most suit-

able Indian habitat.

Following a catastrophic decline as a re-

sult of indiscriminate hunting in the total ab-

sence of controls (Bustard 1978), the salt-

water crocodile is now rare or extinct in most

of its former Indian habitat. Starting at its

Western geographical limits, it is now believed

to be extinct in Kerala (where most of the

mangrove cover has been lost), extinct in

Tamil Nadu (the last individual was shot

in 1936, Biddulph 1936), extinct in Andhra

Pradesh, [a 3.2 m individual was captured in

the Krishna estuary mangroves in January

1979 but is believed to have reached there

from elsewhere (Bustard & Choudhury, in

press)], virtually restricted to the 176 sq. km.

Bhitar Kanika Sanctuary in Orissa, which was

declared for the species under the Govern-

ment of India Project and very rare in Sun-

darbans, (FAO 1974).

The Andaman and Nicobar Islands con-

stituted a major shelter for this species until

recently, and apparently, large populations

existed there (Anon. 1931). However, the

rate at which the main islands are being settl-

ed and forest lands encroached, combined with

the high incidence of poaching, and large-scale

egg robbing recorded in North Andaman in

1978 (Choudhury & Bustard 1980) indicates

that these populations have an_ uncertain

future.

Two pockets of the saltwater crocodile still

occur, therefore, on mainland India (in Oris-

204

NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY,

Viol? 77,

sa and West Bengal) together with much re-

duced populations in the Andaman and Nico-

bar islands. The latter populations presum-

ably have had some interchange with those

in Burma, and in the case of the Nicobars,

with Sumatra. Similarly, the coastal popula-

tions were more or less contiguous from

Burma to Cochin. The present situation is that

interchange between the Sunderbans and

Bhitar Kanika populations is now unlikely

and the Andaman-Nicobar populations are

discrete from either.

REASONS FOR DECLINE

The likely extinction of the saltwater croco-

dile will be result of a number of factors some

operating sequentially and some together.

1. Commercial hide hunting. Historically

the reason for the massive depletion in num-

bers throughout its entire range was commer-

cial demand for its hide. Reptile leathers have

long been held in very high esteem. The most

sought after of the reptilian leathers has al-

ways been that of crocodiles. The saltwater

crocodile has an unsurpassed hide among the

world’s twenty-two species of crocodilians.

This is because, this giant of crocodilians has

greatly reduced armour, perhaps, as a result

of its extremely aquatic nature. The hides of

heavily armoured crocodiles are difficult (ex-

pensive) to process due to the heavy ossifica-

tion of the scutes (known as ‘“‘buttons”’ in the

trade) with the result that, in all but small

individuals, much of the total skin area is un-

usable. The saltwater crocodile hide is large-

ly devoid of such problems.

Furthermore, as pointed out by Neill (1971)

the large average size, as well as the reduced

armour, assures the hide-hunter of a hand-

some profit. Neill stressed; ‘“‘Man is the great-

CONSERVATION OF THE SALTWATER CROCODILE

est enemy of the estuarine crocodile and the

species is rapidly being exterminated.”

The coastal mangrove-fringed tidal swamps

and associated river systems favoured by this

species, are in general inhospitable to man

and in most parts of the world people for-

merly entered this ecosystem only to hunt the

saltwater crocodile. It is important to realise

that enormous sums of money were made by

certain individuals. The senior author per-

sonally knows of one shooter who claimed to

have shot over 40,000 crocodiles in North

Queensland and in Papua New Guinea pro-

bably more than half belonging to this species.

Although the saltwater crocodile now enjoys

legal protection in at least some parts of its

range (e.g. India, Australia) prevention of

poaching requires effective enforcement in the

field and any sustained level of poaching

could wipe out the small remnants of the for-

mer large populations which survive today.

This threat is still very much alive.

Commercial hunting for the hide took place

in India, as elsewhere, resulting in an equally

massive depletion of the population.

2. Loss of habitat. The phase of massive

depletion in crocodile populations is now past.

but the threat to the species’ future survival

has intensified not decreased. This is because

the very habitat of the species is now threat-

ened by land reclamation/drainage of swamps

and clearing of mangroves. Throughout most

of its geographical distribution the species is

closely tied to the mangrove ecosystem. With

the threatened loss of this whole ecosystem

the saltwater crocodile will have lost its habi-

tat. The threat now is to the very vulnerable

survivors—vulnerable because their numbers

have shrunk so drastically as a result of the

hunting phase, and with this their average

size, threatened because the habitat is con-

tracting rapidly—nowhere more so than in

India.

Habitat destruction in India has been very

much worse than the mean situation else-

where in the geographic range. This, in part,

reflects the massive depletion of India’s forests

in the last three decades, as a result of the

ever increasing timber requirements for fuel

and house construction of the rapidly expand-

ing population. The mangroves have not been

immune from this, and indeed, have proved

most vulnerable. This is because:

a. mangrove forests are not considered to

be valuable in economic timber terms in

India, and, therefore, have a low pro-

tection and management- priority with

the State Forest Departments,

b. the alluvial soil built up by the mangrove

ecosystem is extremely fertile, and when

reclaimed high quality cultivation land

is obtained, and

c. the ecological significance of the man-

groves—as a barrier to cyclone damage,

beach erosion and as a natural spawn-

ing/nursery ground for many species of

marine fish, prawns and crabs has not

been properly appreciated. So the loss

of India’s mangroves continues today.

3. Animosity. Crocodiles suffer from a

low level of public esteem. The saltwater cro-

codile, because of its very large size, and its

existence in a habitat which is itself frighten-

ing to man, is greatly feared. There have also

been instances of attacks on humans, mostly

by nest-guarding females (Bustard & Chou-

dhury, in press). These, greatly exaggerated,

have helped to turn the hand of man firmly

against the species. There was no legislation

to protect the species anywhere in its world-

wide range until the massive depletion had

already occurred.

4. Use as food. The: saltwater crocodile is

hunted as food in various parts of its range.

204

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

This subsistence hunting, when not associated

with commercial hide-hunting, is not usually

dangerous to the population and has existed as

part of the species’ ecology since time imme-

morial. The natural increase of the population

is well able to cope up with such losses in the

absence of commercial hide-hunting provided

there is not an explosion in the population of

the hunters.

There is little eating of cocodile meat in

India, apart from some tribal groups, how-

ever, the eggs are widely eaten. These are a

good source of nourishment, particularly

valuable where hens’ eggs are rare or expen-

sive—as in the Andamans.

5. Medicinal uses. In India, there have

been additional, subtle pressures on the spe-

cies not found in many parts of its non-Indian

range. These include medicinal demand for

parts of the crocodile and/or its eggs. The

liver, spleen and particularly the gall bladder

and also the fat of the crocodile, are highly

esteemed medicinally. The gall bladder is be-

lieved to cure eye diseases such as cataract,

the liver and spleen bronchitis, and the fat to

be remedial for rheumatism. In some areas

the eggs are also believed to have medicinal

value resulting in enhanced egg hunting

(Choudhury & Bustard, in press).

CONSERVATION PROGRAMMES

The first conservation programme for the

saltwater crocodile started in Papua New

Guinea following Bustard’s Report to Govern-

ment in 1967 (Bustard 1967, 1969). This has

now grown into a large-scale project, tied in to

the commercial economy of the swamplands.

This Project, now receiving assistance from

UNDP/FAO, will have major conservation

impact if it succeeds in combining the conser-

vation of saltwater crocodiles with successful

village farming as proposed by Bustard.

206

In Australia, the first legislation to protect

the saltwater crocodile was gazetted by the

Government of Western Australia in 1971 as

a result of Bustard’s (1970) report on the

status of the species in the State. Western

Australia also gazetted the first sanctuary any-

where in the world specifically for the salt-

water crocodile in 1971. Meanwhile, conser-

vation studies aimed at commercial production

of skins, and a sound conservation program-

me by tribal aborigines were commenced by

Bustard at Edward River, Cape York, North

Queensland, Australia. This work continues

on a small pilot research basis but has not

reached the commercial phase of Papua New

Guinea. Bustard’s highlighting of the conser-

vation status of the saltwater crocodile in

Australia (see earlier references) has resulted

in very extensive studies on the species by

Messel’s group (Messel e¢ al. 1977, 1978),

which are bound to have a useful impact on

its conservation at least within Australia.

In India the Wildlife (Protection) Act,

1972, which listed the saltwater crocodile to-

gether with India’s two other species of cro-

codilians in Schedule I (fully protected at all

times) was a most significant step. This legal-

ly banned all crocodile hunting in India.

Similarly, Export Instruction No. 46/73 for-

bade the export of crocodiles and gharial.,

their hides or products therefrom. This Gov-

ernment of India Act was taken up by all

States in India. Enforcement of the Act be-

came a problem and has been overcome with

varying degrees of success. The initiation of

even a small-scale project on the species has

enormous conservation effect, since the pre-

sence of even a very few dedicated workers

in India has been found to be an effective de-

terrent to poaching.

The present conservation status of the spe-

cies is presented below on a State by State

J. BomBpay NAT. Hist. Soc. 77 PLATE I

Bustard & Choudhury: Saltwater Crocodile

Above: Large male Saltwater Crocodile (over 6.5 m) in one of the typical basking

situations in the Bhitar Kanika Wild Life Sanctuary, Orissa. Such large individuals

are extremely rare in most of the species’ distributional range today.

Below: A typical ‘blank’ (Siddhu 1963) in the mangroves of Coringa Reserve Forest

(now Coringa Wild Life Sanctuary), Godavari delta, Andhra Pradesh. These result

from clear felling in the past and show little/no mangrove regeneration.

J. BomBay NAT. Hist. Soc. 77 Pirate II

Bustard & Choudhury: Saltwater Crocodile

Above: Spoor marks of a large male Saltwater Crocodile (over 5 m) the hind foot

impressions are seen on the left and on the right the massive rut left by the tail.

The hind foot impressions, from which total length was established, measured 40-45 cm.

Below: Preferred basking area of a 3.5-4 m Saltwater Crocodile. The many foot im-

prints and the semi-circular slide mark should be noted. At high tide this individual

will be basking in the grass like the male shown in Plate I.

CONSERVATION OF THE SALTWATER CROCODILE

basis.

1. Orissa. The entire remaining man-

grove forests of the Brahmini-Baitarani delta,

known as Bhitar Kanika, and comprising 176

sq. km, was declared a sanctuary in May 1975.

In the same month, fishing was banned with-

in the sanctuary. This latter action was essen-

tial as all poaching activity was carried out

by people from inter-state visiting the area

under the pretext of fishing. Furthermore, cro-

codiles readily become entangled in fishing

nets and drown or are clubbed to death. Clear-

felling had been practised on an extremely

short rotation cycle and was threatening the

very future of the mangrove forests. Subse-

quently (1976) the State Government of Oris-

sa completely ceased mangrove felling ope-

rations in the entire sanctuary area.

The sanctuary area comprises part of the

ex-zamindari lands of former Raja of Kanika.

Rajasaheb Kanika has long been extremely

interested in saltwater crocodiles and is very

knowledgeable about them. Although he al-

lowed hunting under licence, this was organis-

ed so that the species would be preserved.

The massive depletion in numbers took place

later in the 1950’s and early sixties. At the

end of 1976 the census carried out by Mr S.

' Kar, Research Scholar working on saltwater

crocodile under the senior author through

the State Forest Department Crocodile Pro-

ject, gave a total of thirty-five adults and only

six in the age classes about to recruit to the

breeding population. It is interesting that fol-

lowing twenty months of conservation-re-

search-management of the area there were 61

young crocodiles between 1-1.4 m—hatchlings

of the 1974 season. (Kar and Bustard, in

press). This contrasts markedly with the situa-

tion facing the young of the previous year

(1973), which by late 1975, had “‘virtually ail

disappeared, presumbaly as a result of poach-

ing activities prior to the declaration of the

sanctuary’”’ (FAO 1975). Clearly, the greatly

enhanced survival observed at the end of 1976

is a result of the ban on fishing and the pro-

tection afforded to the sanctuary area.

The Orissa Project, following the “‘rear and

release” technique described in FAO (1974),

proposes to increase the breeding population

to several 100 adult individuals and, there-

after, to manage the population at around

this optimal level. This is being done by col-

lecting all available natural nests as soon after

egg laying as practical for safe hatching in-

cubation and subsequent rearing of young to

a release size of 1 metre. First releases back

into the wild took place in 1977 (15 animals).

And this, combined with the excellent survival

of juveniles in the wild described above,

boosted the potentially recruiting segment of

the population over twelve times. This is an

excellent illustration of the ease with which

a population can begin to recover, if afforded

stringent protection. The 1978 release (of 80

crocodiles) has boosted the recruiting segment

over 25 times, since 1975.4 The conservation

programme will ensure that these released

crocodiles have every opportunity to recruit

to the breeding cohort of the population with-

out the risk of being killed by poachers. The

definitely recorded survival of the 1977 re-

leases was 80 per cent after two full years

had elapsed (it may, of course, have been

even higher).

2. West BENGAL. A project for the salt-

water crocodile was taken up by the State

Forest Department in Sunderbans in 1976.

One nest was collected from the wild for cap-

tive incubation and rearing of young. Excel-

lent survival was obtained and the immature

crocodiles will be released during winter

*A further thirty were released in January 1980.

207

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY,

1978/79.° Sunderbans is the largest mangrove

area in the world. A large part of it is in

Bangladesh but the Indian portion extends to

200,000 hectares (Blasco 1977). A portion of

this is already included in the State Project

Tiger Reserve, protection should be good and

the potential for the saltwater crocodile ex-

cellent.

3. ANDHRA PRADESH. The major remain-

ing mangrove area in the State, Coringa Re-

serve Forest, in the Godavari delta, was de-

clared a sanctuary (Coringa Wild Life San-

ctuary) in July 1978 with the aim of rehabi-

litating the saltwater crocodile, extinct in

Andhra Pradesh. This is being done by egg

collection in the Andaman Islands and captive

rearing at Hyderabad in order to build a stock

of the species. Three 1.2 m crocodiles hatched

from eggs collected from the Andamans, were

released into this area in March 1978. Further

releases are planned.

4. Tamir Tapu. The sole remaining man-

grove area is Pitchavaram in the Cauvery

delta. This area has been suggested as a re-

habilitation site for the saltwater crocodile in

Tamil Nadu. However, the area is extensively

fished and it may not be possible to recon-

cile the conflicting requirement of crocodile

and fishermen.

5. ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS. Vir-

tually nothing is known about the quantitative

status of the saltwater crocodile in this Union

Territory. Chaterjee (1977) noted that the

saltwater crocodile; “‘is widely distributed and

is found in almost all the islands of the Anda-

man and Nicobar groups. Unrestricted per-

secution of these animals by local people in

the past has greatly reduced their numbers.

Much destruction is also caused by collecting

May.

5 Forty 1976 hatchlings were released in

1979,

208

Vol. 77

their eggs whereby the entire brood is wiped

out. The slaughter of these animals has been

greatly reduced since the implementation of

the Wildlife (Protection) Act.”

Whitaker and Whitaker (1978) highlighted

the need to carry out detailed surveys to de-

termine the crocodile population and current-

ly available habitat, a conclusion with which

we concur. They also advocated better en-

forcement of protection by posting adequate

field staff.

The Government of India Crocodile Pro-

ject has been interested to extend conservation

work to the Andamans and to have the An-

daman Forest Department as a full member

of the Project by initiating a Government of

India-assisted Crocodile Project in the Terri-

tory.

The Andaman Forest Department has al-

lowed the Project to collect eggs since 1976.

However, due to logistic difficulties, it was

not possible to undertake a full egg collection

until 1978 when this was carried out by the

Andhra Pradesh State Project by one of us

(Bustard & Choudhury in press). In 1979, the

Andamans Forest Department started their

own project with the construction of a holding

capacity and the collection of eggs.

IMMEDIATE PROBLEMS FACING THE SPECIES

IN INDIA

1. Habitat loss. Doubts about the con-

tinued survival of the mangrove habitat, both

on the mainland and in the Andamans, gives

rise to serious concern for even the medium-

term future of the saltwater crocodile. The

model rehabilitation programme being operat-

ed by the Orissa Forest Department at the

Saltwater Crocodile Research and Conserva-

tion Centre at Dangmal, within the Bhitar

Kanika Wildlife Sanctuary declared for the

CONSERVATION OF THE SALTWATER CROCODILE

species under the Project, will be of no avail

unless the habitat can be effectively protected

against encroachment. This problem is_politi-

cal and applies equally to other projects under

initiation or planned.

2. Large-scale egg robbing in Andamans.

Choudhury & Bustard (1980) have — indi-

cated the very high level of nest predation

by settlers (84%) on North Andaman. They

also noted five instances of nest-guarding

females being killed at the nest during the

1978 nesting season. This represents a loss of

17% of the nesting females in a single season.

Clearly under such a regime, in a_ species

which does not commence breeding until it is

at least 10 years old, the population will soon

become extinct. This could be effectively stop-

ped by extending the Government of India

Crocodile Project to the Territory.

NEED FOR NEW INCENTIVES IF THE SPECIES IS

TO SURVIVE

Now that India has adopted suitable legis-

lation—the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972

—it is necessary as a second step to see that

it is fully implemented. Bustard (1969 c), in

a world-wide review on problems of crocodile

conservation, wrote; ““Few Governments have

suitable conservation legislation for crocodiles.

Where legislation does exist no attempt is be-

ing made to enforce it.” This legislation shouid

be complemented by the creation of good

National Parks or Sanctuaries for crocodiles.

It should be noted that, as pointed out by

Bustard (1971), National Parks and other

categories of refuges are not, and can never

be, any more than tools in crocodile conser-

vation. Bustard (1971) concluded that the

creation of National Parks as an act in isola-

tion would be of little help to crocodile con-

servation.

The third step in India is to ensure that the

National Park and sanctuary areas are in-

violate—both against legal and illegal en-

croachment and ail kinds of poaching activity.

This requires active co-ordination at the Cen-

tral level and staffing by a cadre of motivated

and specially trained protection staff.

The various saltwater crocodile habitats in

India are discussed below in the light of the

requirements set out above.

ORISSA

1. Ten per cent of the sanctuary area was

reportedly encroached during the year

1977/78. (de, Waard 1978). The ex-

zamindari forests which comprise — the

sanctuary have to be clearly demarcated

to prevent encroachment.

The many villages within the sanctuary

have to be carefully demarcated to pre-

vent encroachment, which will otherwise

obviously take place increasingly with

population growth.

Adequate supplies of timber for fuel pur-

poses will have to be maintained at a

number of conveniently located timber

depots within and around the sanctuary

(Kanungo 1976).

4. Protective staff will, of course, have to be

maintained as an effective deterrent to

poaching activities.

5. The research husbandry unit will have

to provide continuously updated figures

on the status and break-up of the croco-

dile population within the sanctuary, so

that proper assessment of the perform-

ance can be made and future require-

ments planned on a_ sound = scientific

management basis.

6. In order to retain the co-operation of the

local people, so essential for a project of

this kind, the crocodile management pro-

gramme should result in real material

209

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

benefit to the people. This would be pos-

sible by tying conservation in the sanc-

tuary to commercial crocodile farming at

the village level.

7. Putting such an economic price tag on

the sanctuary may be the most effective

method for ensuring its future integrity.

WEST BENGAL

There is need for the crocodile project in

West Bengal to gather momentum. Otherwise

there are at present no measures specific to

this area which require implementation. It

will, of course, be essential to completely ban

fishing in the crocodile rehabilitation sanctu-

ary areas.

ANDHRA PRADESH

1. The recently declared sanctuary will have

to be staffed and become operational.

If the sanctuary is to be of any use, fish-

ing will have to be banned throughout

the entire sanctuary as was done in the

Bhitar Kanika Saltwater Crocodile Sanc-

tuary, Orissa, immediately following de-

claration.

3. Felling of mangroves has ceased in the

sanctuary. This action must be maintain-

ed for the following reasons:

a. the mangroves are not regenerating

well following clear-felling on a

twenty year rotation cycle. Even cur-

sory examination shows that in many

areas there will not be a further crop

after twenty years.

b. furthermore, the clear-felling practice

used in mangrove areas encourages

encroachments—there is a strong ten-

dency for people to move into the

felled areas and take up cultivation.

c. finally, the amount of disturbance

caused by clear-felling is quite incon-

210

sistent with a small sanctuary like this.

4. Proper protection should be given to the

total land area of the sanctuary so that

the mammal fauna—especially the ungu-

lates—can recover. These form an im-

portant part of the diet of adult saltwater

crocodiles, and as in the case of tiger,

healthy populations of deer and wild pigs

are the best guarantee against predation

on domestic stock. In the Bhitar Kanika

Wildlife Sanctuary the chital herds have

responded excellently to the protection

and wild pigs have increased to such an

extent as to become a nuisance on ad-

jacent agricultural lands.

TAMIL NADU

Before a rehabilitation programme could be

taken up in the Cauvery delta mangrove, it

would be essential to ascertain that it would

be possible to completely prohibit fishing

throughout the proposed sanctuary area. This

matter is under investigation.

THe ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS

1. A crocodile project should be taken up in

this Union Territory under the Govern-

ment of India Project, Crocodile Breed-

ing and Management, receiving technical

assistance from FAO/UNDP.

2. In order to implement such a project it

will be essential to strengthen the Wild-

life Wing of the Andamans Forest De-

partment. The sequential tasks of the

Project would be:

a. to carry out surveys of the Andaman-

Nicobar Group in order to establish

the location of the best remaining salt-

water crocodile populations and relate

these to areas where the creation of

sanctuaries will be feasible.

b. to take up conservation/husbandry

J. Bompay NAT. Hisv. Soc. 77 Prate UI

Bustard & Choudhury: Saltwater Crocodile

PO at Bon.

ie eer. ey

ES ie $8 . M

Above: Felling of mangroves for fuel-wood and house construction.

Below: Clearing for cultivation along the sweet-water creeks used for nesting by the

Saltwater Crocodile. Note the bamboo fencing erected to keep out ungulates.

J. Bompay NAT. Hist. Soc. 77 PLATE IV

Bustard & Choudhury: Saltwater Crocodile

Above: Eighteen month old juvenile Saltwater Crocodiles (mean 1.1 m in total length)

in the Bhitar Kanika Research and Conservation Centre, Dangmal, Orissa.

Below: A general view of one part of the above hatchling pool complex.

CONSERVATION OF THE SALTWATER CROCODILE

work within the sanctuaries as they

are gazetted.

c. to assist the Wildlife Wing of the

Andamans Forest Department in re-

ducing nest-robbing and other poach-

ing activities.

3. It is urgent to locate and gazette suitable

sanctuary areas prior to increased setile-

ment.

MASTER PLAN FOR THE FUTURE

The master plan for the future combines

the creation, management, and operation of a

net-work of specially gazetted sanctuaries/

National Parks with the creation of a cadre

of highly trained and motivated wildlife staff.

Commercial utilisation is seen as an important

tool in the crocodiles’ conservation.

A. SANCTUARIES

MAINLAND

1. The future integrity of the Bhitar Kanika

Sanctuary must be guaranteed.

The Bhitar Kanika population of saltwater

crocodile is remarkable in still having quite

a number of very large individuals in the

population. In most of the species range these

large individuals were wiped out many de-

cades ago. Ninty-three per cent of the adults

in this sanctuary measure more than 3.5 m

and ten per cent exceed 6 m (Kar & Bustard,

in press). The sanctuary also has the distinc-

tion of being the habitat of the largest croco-

dile of any species in the world known to

scient (Daniel and Hussain 1974, Bustard in

press, c). Bustard, on the basis of measurement

of the intact skull, estimated this crocodile to

be 7.35 m.

In view of this, and the excellent conser-

vation management programme being operat-

ed by the Wildlife Wing of the Orissa Forest

Department it is essential that this population

be preserved for posterity. The threat to the

population arises from the threat to the sanc-

tuary itself. To ensure the survival of this

unique population of a critically endangered

species, Government of India should assume

responsibility for the territorial integrity of

the sanctuary. This might best be achieved by

making the sanctuary a National sanctuary as

has been done in case of the gharial (Gavia-

lis gangeticus) in a tri-state sanctuary (U.P.,

M.P. and Rajasthan) on Chambal river.

The size of adults of the Bhitar Kanika

population is very much larger than the popu-

lation studied on North Andaman (Chou-

dhury & Bustard 1980). Discussion with a

number of crocodile hunters, on the basis of

large samples killed a decade or more ago,

confirms that the Bhitar Kanika population

even then consisted of very much larger cro-

codiles than those of North and Middle

Andamans.

In any conservation programme for the

saltwater crocodile in India the Bhitar Kanika

sanctuary will be a lynch-pin. This is because

this is the only scheme for the saltwater cro-

codile in India which has been fully imple-

mented. It will still be essential to ensure the

territoial integrity of this area even if the

embryonic scheme in Sunderbans becomes a

success. This is in part because it is most

unwise to place total reliance for a species

survival on the animals within one single sanc-

tuary.

2. A viable population of saltwater croco-

diles, should be built up in Sunderbans

within the Project tiger reserve where

they can be assured of good protection.

ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS

The importance of the Andamans for the

saltwater crocodile lies in the following con-

211

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST.

siderations:

a. there may still be good populations in

less accessible areas of the Group

b. if these areas are located quickly it

should be possible to gazette sanctuaries

in virgin mangrove forests, prior to en-

croachment. Clearly, it is much easier

to manage a sanctuary without human

settlement within it

c. the Andamans is the home of the most

isolated population of saltwater croco-

diles in the Indian region. North Anda-

man fies at a distance of 896 km south-

east of the mouth of the Hoogly and

1300 km East of the nearest area of the

mainland. In the case of the Andamans,

urgent action is essential because of

rapid rate of settlement and consequent

encroachment. It is important to gazette

at least one large sanctuary and prefer-

ably two, for the species in this Union

Territory.

B. ComMMerciAl, UTILISATION

The saltwater crocodile is an ideal species

for economic management. Exploitation, pro-

vided it is on sustained yield basis or from

farms in which all products are produced

from eggs laid in the farm, in no way con-

flicts with conservation. On the contrary this

can provide an important tool for the con-

servation of the species resulting in a good

level of management in the sanctuaries. If the

sanctuaries and associate rearing farms can

give good revenue to government then the

integrity of the sanctuary areas is assured and

with that the saltwater crocodile.

C. STAFF TRAINING

The Government of India Project, Croco-

dile Breeding and Managment, under techni-

cal assistance from FAO/UNDP, has establish-

aio)

SOCIETY, Vol. 77

ed a Central Institute—the Crocodile Breeding

and Management Training Institute—charged

with the training of Forest Department per-

sonnel. The training programme covers not

only all aspects of crocodile husbandry and

management but also sanctuary and wildlife

management. This Institute was created be-

cause of the obvious need fcr a cadre of well-

trained management personnel without which

even the best planned sanctuary programme

of government could not hope to succeed.

The senior author has also been providing

highly technical training of seven Ph.D Re-

search Scholars recruited at post-M.Sc. level.

Their contribution to the Project has been

substantial and the junior author of this paper

is one of them.

SPECIES WORLD-WIDE SURVIVAL PROSPECTS

Neill (1971) concluded his account on this

species with these words: ‘In the 1950’s and

1960’s with the price of crocodilian leather

skyrocketing, hundreds of thousands of estu-

arine crocodiles, were killed annually and its

disappearance from all parts of its ranges is

to be expected within a very few years.”

It is our task to ensure that this gloomy

prognosis does not prove accurate—at least

for India. Neill considers that probably all

the living crocodilians are doomed to extinc-

tion. The Crocodile Breeding and Manage-

ment Project of the Government of India has

shown that this need not be the case. The

gharial is well on the way to being saved and

if proper decisions are taken now the salt-

water crocodile can look forward to a secure

future within India, even if it is doomed to

extinction throughout most of its range.

Mayor RECOMMENDATIONS

The following recommendations are sug-

CONSERVATION OF THE SALTWATER CROCODILE

gested in order to implement the proposed

Master Plan:

1. Bhitar Kanika Sanctuary, Orissa should

become a National sanctuary (100 per

cent Central funding for both capital and

recurrent costs).

2. The Government of India, FAO/UNDP

assisted Project, Crocodile Breeding and

Management should be extended to the

Union Territory of the Andaman and

Nicobar Islands with immediate eifect.

Once again this will have to be on the

basis of 100 per cent Central financing.

The reason a scheme has not been initiat-

ed already is lack of staff in the Wildlife

Wing of the Andamans Forest Depari-

ment. This Department faces special difii-

culties not being a service department.

3. Every effort should be made by the Gov-

ernment of India Project to encourage

State schemes (under the Central assist-

ance programmes to National Parks and

Sanctuaries) in order to rehabilitate the

saltwater crocodile elsewhere. It may not

now be possible to do anything in Kerala,

but Andhra Pradesh should be encourag-

ed and possibilities in Tamil Nadu should

be investigated.

ACK NOWLEDGEMENTS

Both of us acknowledge the co-operation of

our respective organisations—The Food and

Agriculture Organisation of the United

Nations and the Andhra Pradesh State Forest

Department—and assistance from the Orissa

Forest Department, especially, Mr. Sudhakar

Kar, and the Andamans Forest Department.

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Andaman Island. Jn Indian Crocodiles—Conserva-

tion & Research. Occ. Publ. 7. Cent. Croc. Br. Met.

Trg. Inst. Hyderabad. India.

— & Busrarp, H. R. (1980): Pre-

dation on natural nests of the Saltwater Crocodile

(Crocodylus porosus, Schneider) on North Anda-

man Island with notes on the crocodile populations.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 76(2): 311-323.

DaNiEL, J. C. & Hussain, S. A. (1974): The

record (?) Saltwater Crocodile (Crocodylus poro-

sus Schneider). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 7] (2):

309-12.

DERANIYAGALA, P. E. P. (1939): The Tetrapod

Reptiles of Ceylon. J. Testudinates and crocodilians.

Colombo Museum. Ceylon.

FAO (1974): India. A preliminary Survey of the

Prospects of Crocodile Farming (based on the work

of H. R. Bustard) FAO. Rome (FO:IND/71/

033) Oct. 1974.

— (1975): India. Gharial and Croco-

dile Conservation Management in Orissa (based on

the work of H. R. Bustard) FAO. Rome (FO:

IND/71/033) Dec. 1975.

GUNTHER, A. C. L. G. (1864): The Reptiles of

British India. Roy. Soc. London.

HonecGar, R. E. (1975) (Ed.): Red Data Book

3. Amphibia and Reptilia. IUCN Morges. Switzer-

land.

KANUNGO, B. C. (1976): An Integrated Scheme

for Conservation of Crocodiles in Orissa with

Management Plan for Satkosia Gorge and Bhitar

Kanika Sanctuaries. Forest Dept. Cuttack. Orissa.

India.

Kar, S. & BustarD H. R. (in press): The Salt-

water Crocodile (Crocodylus porosus, Schneider)

Population of Bhitar Kanika Sanctuary. Orissa.

India. Zn Indian Crocodiles—Conservation & Re-

search. Occ. Publ. 7. Cent. Croc. Br. Mgt. Trg. Inst.

Hyderabad. India.

MESSEL, H., BurpBipGE, A. A., WELLS, A. G. &

GREEN, W. J. (1977): The status of the Saltwater

Crocodile in some River Systems of the North-

West Kimberly, Western Australia. Rept. No. 24.

Dept. of Fish. & Wildlife. West. Australia.

. WELLS, A. G. & GREEN, W. J.

(1978): Status of Crocodylus porosus in tidal River

Systems of Northern Australia. Fourth Working

Meeting. IUCN Crocodile Specialist Group. Mad-

ras. India.

NEILL, W. T. (1971): The Last of Ruling Rep-

tiles. Columbia Univ. Press. New York.

WAARD, J. M. DE (1975): India. Economic Poten-

tial of Gharial and Saltwater Crocodile Schemes in

Orissa with Notes on the Sea Turtle Industry. FAO.

Rome (FO:IND/71/033).

WHITAKER, R. & WHITAKER, Z. (1978): A _ pre-

liminary Survey of the Saltwater Crocodile (Croco-

dylus porosus) in the Andaman Islands. J. Bombay.

nat. Hist. Soc. 75 (1): 43-49.

FRESHWATER SNAILS OF GWALIOR (M_.P.)’

H. C. GOEL? AND C. P. SRIVASTAVA®

(With nine text-figures & a map)

INTRODUCTION

With few exceptions molluscs serve as the

only or as one of the intermediate hosts of

digenetic trematodes and thereby acquire a

significant importance from the point of view

of public and veterinary health. While work-

ing on the secondary host of schistosomiasis it

was deemed necessary to study the freshwater

snail fauna of Gwalior city and its neighbour-

hood.

Few references are available on the occur-

rence of freshwater snails of various places in

India [Annandale et al. 1921 (a); Annandale

& Srinivas Rao 1925; Tonapi & Mulherkar

1963; Annandale et al. 1921 (b)] but no record

is available about the commonly occurring

snails of Gwalior. The present paper is a brief

account of various aquatic snails together with

their habitat and a list of trematode larvae

parasitising these snails in India (Table 1).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The specimens were collected regularly once

a fortnight from different aquatic habitats with

the help of various snail collecting devices such

as long handled kitchen sieve, Dipnet, Drag

Scoop etc, (Anon. 1965) from various places

1 Accepted August 1978.

2 Institute of Nuclear Medicine & Allied Sciences,

Probyn Road, Delhi-110 007.

3 Defence Research & Development Establishment.

Gwalior-2.

in and around Gwalior city as shown in the

Map. The specimens were brought to the

laboratory and kept under observation to find

out the release of trematode larvae so as to

confirm them as positive vectors.

The snails were then preserved in seventy

per cent alcohol and were identified in con-

sultation with Zoological Survey of India, Cal-

cutta. The collections were made at different

sites uniformly in terms of man-hours. This

gave a fairly good idea about the relative oc-

currence of various snails species.

Measurements of the specimens have been

taken as per standard expressions (Ward &

Whipple 1918, Barth 1958).

All measurements given here (Table 2) re-

present the commonly available size of the

adult members of the species. The place of oc-

currence of different snail species has been ex-

pressed by number in Table 2 and has been

correspondingly shown on the map

Family: VIVIPARIDAE

Vivipara bengalensis f. typica (Lamarck)

There are 54 to 64 rather inflated whorls

with well marked suture. Shell ovate, sharply

acuminate with a mouth angularly pointed

above and rounded below. Umbilicus narrow-

ly perforate. Outer lip almost semi-circular

joining columellar margin by thin glassy de-

posit. Shell sculpture of fine longitudinal ridges

forming fine irregular ribs or varias on the

body whorl.

Colour olive green with alternating and

215

SOCIETY, Vol.

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FRESHWATER SNAILS OF GWALIOR (M.P.)

TABLE 1

SNAIL HOSTS AND THEIR TREMATODE PARASITES

Snail Parasite

eee ee ha

1. Indoplanorbis exustus i) Schistosoma indicum

ii) S. nasale

iii) Cerecaria anuri Nn. sp.

iv) C. sppericauda n. sp.

v) C. Kotal n. sp.

vi) C. rajai n. sp.

vii) Furcocercous cercariae

viii) Clinostome Group

(Cercaria develops into the radiae which infest

the liver of snail).

i) The cercaria resembles to Azygia tereticola, A.

sehago and A. acuminata

ii) C. shikarii n. sp.

2. Vivipara bengalensis

3. Lymnaea luteola i) Schistosoma incognitum

ii) Schistosoma nasale

iii) Echinostome cercaria & its meta cercaria

iv) Cercaria quadradena

v) Orientolulherzia dattae

vi) Cercariae leotai n. sp., C. rajai n. sp.,

C. mathurenensis n. sp.

4. Lymnaea acuminata i) Schistosoma nasale

li) Fasciola gigantica

Note:— The information is compiled from the following publications :—

1. Emile A. Malek & Thomas C. Cheng, 1974, Medical & Economic Malacology. Academic Press, New

York & London pp. 398

2. Zoological Abstracts Helminthology Vol—II Pt—II

Section: prepared under the auspices of the Madhya Pradesh Zoological Society, Bhopal. (1973).

217

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

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FRESHWATER SNAILS OF GWALIOR (M.P.)

ee oS

Fig. 1. Vivipara bengalensis f. typica (Lamarck) x 2

narrow dark brown spiral bands. V. bengalen-

sis is abundant in the fresh water canals or

ponds etc. throughout Gwalior. Snails remain

attached to stones etc. on the banks of canal

or ponds.

Vivipara dissimiles (Muller)

This species closely resembles V. dengalen-

sis but the shell is broader and the body

whorl marked with prominent spiral ridge that

subsequently makes the aperture more rhom-

boidal than V. bengalensis. Sculpture consists

of close-set, delicate, spiral striae, and oblique

transpiral growth striae, which are prominent

bo oo oo

Fig. 2.

Vivipara dissimilis (Muller) x 3

and well marked in the peripheral region of

the body whorl. Umbilicus narrower than in

Vivipara bengalensis. Shell dirty olive green in

colour, the interior being dull bluish white

tint.

Family AMNICOLIDAE

Digoniostoma ceramepoma (Benson)

The species is rare in Gwalior and only two

specimens could be collected during the Sur-

vey work from water logged area near Morar

Dam. It closely resembles young forms of Vi-

vipara sp. but is comparatively very small in

size.

— - |

Fig. 3.

Digoniostoma ceramepoma (Benson) ™ 4.

There are about 5 rapidly increasing in-

flated whorls with well marked suture and

varix. Shell oblong, ovate, and obsoletely

sculptured, with week growth lines. Umbilicus

narrow and deep. Shell cinereous, shading to

yellowish white. Aperture ovate, and a little

oblique. Operculum, shelly, slightly concave,

having about seven convolutions.

Family MELANIIDAE

Melanoides (Melanoides) tuberculatus

(Muller)

Shell elongated with acuminate apex,

whorls increase gradually from the apex to

219

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

the mouth, and are moderately convex. Aper-

ture oval, but narrowed above, and broad be-

low. Mouth small, considerably less than one

third the total length of the shell. Sculpture

Eb Si

Fig. 4. Melanoides tuberculata (Muller) x 3.5.

of transpiral, tuberculated, ridges with rais-

ed spiral striae. Body whorl normally devoid

of transverse tuberculated ridges. Colour of

the shell dark brown with distinct longitudinal

wavy reddish marking. Interior of the shell is

glossy with external marks faintly visible.

It is found in slow flowing or stagnant

’ water. Specimens are found attached to some

substratum.

Melanoides (Plotia) scabra (Muller)

Shell markedly thick with acutely conical

shape. Whorls have well developed angular

shoulders provided with spinous projections.

Aperture small, oval sinuous above and round-

ed below. Colour variable between pale

brown to sandy brown with fine reddish tran-

spiral wavy elegant marks.

It is found in abundance in slow flowing

220

L |

Fig. 5. Melanoides (Plotia) Scabra (Muller) x 3

water to stagnant water usually attached to

some substratum or lying free at the bottom.

Family LYMNAEIDAE

Lymnaea (Pseudosuccinea) acuminata f. ru-

fescens (Gray)

The length of the suture at the base of the

spire is not appreciable or is hardly longer

Fig. 6. Lymnaea (Pseudosuccinea) acuminata f.

rufescens (Gray) x 2.5.

FRESHWATER SNAILS OF GWALIOR (M.P.)

than the height of the spire. Anterior margins

of the mouth of shell broadly rounded, or sub-

truncate. Outer lip of the shell dilated.

Shell ovately oblong, smooth, thin, and semi-

transluscent. Body whorl shortly angular above

and inflated below the middle.

Apex pointed, spire short, narrow; aperture

wide and columellar lip, twisted. Fine, close-

set, transpiral striations exist on the surface

of the shell. Colour of shell variable with a

yellowish brown tinge. The body whorl is

clearly demonstrated from the spire with an

abruptly narrowed base.

The species is frequently available in clear

water as well as in turbid, muddy water as

compared to L. luteola.

Lymnaea (Pseudosuccinea) luteola f. impura

Troschel

Spire as a rule about 1/3 as high as the

Shell and consists of 4 to 5 gradually increas-

ing transverse whorls which are never appre-

ciably convex. Suture always more or less

transverse. Length of suture never less than

the height of the spire. Mouth of shell ovate,

Fig. 7. Lymnaea (Pseudosuccinea) luteola f.

impura Troschel x 3.

evenly rounded anteriorly gradually narrow-

ing towards its posterior extremity. The outer

lip is never so extended or so convex in out-

line as that of Lymnaea acuminata. The col-

umellar gallery is thin and broad; opaque

white in colour. Shell smooth, glossy, with a

pale yellow horny tinge. Shell sculpture

consists of close-set fine transpiral striations.

The snail commonly inhabits clean clear

water as compared to L. acuminata.

Family: PLANORBIDAE

Gyraulus convexiusculus (Hutton)

Shell dextral having four to five whorls with

deep sutures, very much depressed with the

sunken spire giving the appearance of a flat-

tened disc. Aperture oblique and lunately oval;

outer margin smooth and much elevated, um-

bilicus wide. Surface smooth and pale horny

in colour, bearing close-set oblique transpiral

striae.

Fig. 8. Gyraulus convexiusculus (Hutton) x 5

G. convexiusculus inhabits clean fresh water

of stagnant or slow running nature and even

muddy polluted water.

Indoplanorbis exustus (Deshayes)

Shell discoidal, suture deeply impressed but

221

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

the whorls are convex. Aperture ear shaped,

when the shell is held with mouth on left. Shell

sinistral; foot feebly sharp, relatively broad

and short broadly rounded in front and point-

ed behind. Shell moderately thick, transpiral-

ly and finely striated throughout the body.

Body-whorl has more distinct ridges and um-

bilicus is wide. Colour varies from locality to

Jocality and varies from dull grey brown to

reddish brown.

Indoplanorbis exustus (Deshayes) x 3.

Fig. 9.

This snail is available in slow running water

or small water bodies commonly available in

the fields or on sides or road during rainy

season. Remains attached to submerged stones

or other objects.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We wish to express our sincere thanks to

Shri S. L. Perti, Assistant Director, Vector

Control Division, Defence Research & Deve-

lopment Establishment, Gwalior, for his en-

couragement and guidance and to Dr. S. C.

Goel, Reader, Dept. of Zoology, University of

Pune, Pune, for his help in preparing the ma-

nuscript. Thanks are also due to Director,

DRDE, Gwalior for interest and to Dr. N. V.

Subba Rao of Zoological Survey of India,

Calcutta for identifying the snail species.

REFERENCES

ANONYMOUS (1965): Snail control in the pre-

vention of Bilharziasis, WHO, Geneva, pp. 255.

ANNANDALE, N., SEWELL & SEYMOUR, R. B.

(1921a): The Banded Pond Snail of India. (Vivi-

para bengalensis). Records of Indian Museum 22:

217-278.

ANNANDALE, N., PRASAD, B. & AMIN-UDDIN

(1921b): The aquatic and amphibious Mollusca,

Manipur. Records of Indian Museum, 22: 530.

(1922): Material

revision of the freshwater Gastropod. Molluscs of

Indian Planorbidae. Re-

357-363.

ANNANDALE. N. for a generic

the Indian Empire No. 5,

cords of Indian Museum 24:

222

ANNANDALE, N. & Rao, S. (1925): Material for

a revision of the recent Indian Limnaedac (Molius-

ca, Pulmonata). Records of the Indian Museum,

27: 137-190.

MANDAHL BArTH, G. (1958): Intermediate hosts

of Schistosoma (African Biomphalaria and Bulinus).

WHO Monograph series No. 37 WHO Geneva, pp.

132.

Tonapl, G. T. & MuLuerKAr, L. (1963): On the

freshwater Molluscs of Poona. J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc., 60 (1): 104-120.

Warp, H. B. & Wuiepre, G. C. (1918): Fresh-

water Biology. Edited by Edmondson W. T. John.

Wiley and Sons Inc., USA.. pp. 248.

A CONTRIBUTION OF THE VEGETATION OF CHAIBASA

(SOUTH), SINGHBHUM DIST. (SOUTH BIHAR)’

D. K. Biswas AND J. K. MAHESWARI?

INTRODUCTION

Chaibasa situated between 22°5’ and 22°35’N

and 85°20’ and 85°55’E is on the southern

fringe of Chotanagpur plateau and composed

of steep rocky hills, hillocks and intervening

valleys, beside same areas which are plain.

Geologically Chaibasa is one of the most im-

portant areas in the Singhbhum dist. of Bihar

because of its mineral deposits. The soil in

this locality is characteristically of the red soil

type (Sandy loam to clay) formed on parent

rocks occurring in these areas. They are acidic

with pH varying from 5.0 to 6.5. The climate

of the area is more or less similar to that of

the district in particular and to Bihar in ge-

neral with rainfall mostly being confined to

monsoonic months, i.e. July-September. The

average annual rainfall is about 142 cm with

maximum fall during July-August. The hot-

test months in the year are May-June with

mean maximum temperature of 43°C and cold-

est months are December-January with mini-

mum temperature of 12°C.

ENUMERATION

In the following enumeration the system of

Bentham and Hooker with some delimitations

of families has been followed. Nomenclature

1 Accepted November 1977.

2Botanical Survey of India,

rah-711 103.

Sibpur, How-

has been, as far as possible, brought up to date.

It may be noted that the following species

were collected during the months of June-

July 1975. The field number mentioned against

the place of collection is indicative of the

author’s own contribution. The enumerated

taxa have been deposited in the Central Na-

tional herbarium, Shibpur, Howrah-3.

DICOTY LEDONS

ANNONACEAE

Annona squamosa Linn. Biswas 112.

Miliusa velutina Hook.f and Thoms.

Biswas 201, 181.

PAPAVERACEAE

Argemone mexicana Linn. Biswas 113.

POLYGALACEAE

Polygala chinensis Linn. Biswas 141, 144.

DIPTEROCARPACEAE

Shorea robusta Gaertn. Biswas 182.

MELIACEAE

Heynea trijuga Roxb. Biswas 171.

OLACACEAE

Olax scandens Roxb. Biswas 124.

223

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

CELASTRACEAE

Celastrus paniculata Willd. Biswas 214, 131.

VITACEAE

Ampelocissus latifolia (Roxb.) Planch. Vitis

latifolia Roxb. Biswas 165.

SAPINDACEAE

Schleichera oleosa (Lour.) Oken, S. trijuga

Willd. Biswas 163.

ANACARDIACEAE

Semecarpus anacardium Linn. Biswas 151].

Spondias pinnata (Linn. f.) Kurz. 8. mangifera

Willd. Biswas 108.

PAPILIONACEAE

Crotalaria prostrata Roxb.

C. mucronata Desv. C. striata DC.

Biswas 184.

CAESALPINIACEAE

Cassia fistula Linn. Biswas 163.

Delonix regia (Boj) Raf Poinciana regia Boj

Biswas 118.

MIMOSACEAE

Acacia leucophloea Willd. Biswas 131.

COMBRETACEAE

Terminalia arjuna (Roxb. ex DC.) Wt. & Arn.

Biswas 183, 131.

T. crenulata Roth T. tomentosa var. crenulata

Clarke Biswas 189.

T. bellerica (Gaertn.) Roxb. Biswas 179.

LYTHRACEAE

Lagerstroemia parviflora Roxb. — Biswas 175.

224

Biswas 129.

Woodfordia fruticosa (L.) Kurz. W. floribunda

Salisb. Biswas 114.

ONAGRACEAE

Ludwigia adscendens (L.) Hara. Jussiaea re-

pens L. Biswas 161.

SAMYDACEAE

Casearia elliptica Willd. C. tomentosa Roxb.

Biswas 111, 177.

MOLLUGINACEAE

Glinus oppositifolius (Linn.) A. DC. Mollugo

spergula Linn. Biswas 154.

RUBIACEAE

Mitragyna parvifolia (Roxb.) Korth Stephe-

gyne parvifolia Korth. Biswas 213.

Oldenlandia paniculata Linn. Biswas 218.

Pavetta crassicaulis (Bremek.) P. indica auct.

non Linn. Biswas 137.

Wendlandia tinctoria DC. Biswas 136.

Xeromphis spinosa (Thunb.) Keay Randia

dumetorum Lamk. Biswas 221, 164.

X. uliginosa (Retz.) Mahesh. Randia uliginosa

DC. Biswas 204.

COMPOSITAE

Emilia sonchifolia (Linn.) DC. Biswas 156.

Eclipta prostrata (Linn.) Linn. E. alba (Linn.)

Hasak. Biswas 130.

Glossogyne pinnatifida DC. Biswas 139.

Vernonia cinerea (L.) Less. Biswas 196.

SAPOTACEAE

Madhuca indica Gmel. Bassia latifolia Roxb.

Biswas 102.

VEGETATION OF CHAIBASA (SOUTH), SINGHBHUM DIST.

EBENACEAE

Diospyros exsculpta Buch.-Ham. D. tomen-

tosa Roxb. Biswas 219, 176.

D. cordifolia Roxb. D. montana Clarke

Biswas 199.

OLEACEAE

Jasminum arborescens Roxb. Biswas 210.

APOCYNACEAE

Holarrhena antidysenterica (Roth.) A. DC.

Biswas 126, 171.

Thevetia peruviana (Pers.) K. Schum. 7. nerii-

folia Juss.

GENTIANACEAE

Canscora decussata Roem. and Sch.

Biswas 155.

BORAGINACEAE

Cordia myxa Linn. Biswas 107.

Heliotropium indicum Linn. Biswas 197.

H. ovalifolium Forsk. Biswas 140.

CONVOLVULACEAE

Volvulopsis nummularia (Linn.) Roberty

Evolvulus nummularius Linn. Biswas 205.

SOLANACEAE

Solanum surattense Burm. f. S. xanthocarpum

Schrad. and Wendl. Biswas 117.

SCROPHULARIACEAE

Lindernia verbenaefolia (Colsm.) Pennell

Bonnaya_ veronicaefolia var. verbenaefolia

Hook. Biswas 160.

Biswas 110..

ACANTHACEAE

Andrographis paniculata (Burm.) f. Wall. ex

Nees Biswas 207.

Barleria cristata Linn. Biswas 193.

Ruellia tuberosa Linn. Biswas 202.

VERBENACEAE

Callicarpa arborea Roxb. Biswas 126.

Phyla nodiflora (L.) Greene. Biswas 135.

Vitex negundo Linn. Biswas 116.

LABIATAE

Leucas mollissima Wall. Biswas 145.

Pogostemon benghalense (Burm. f.) Ktze.

Biswas 206, 147.

POLYGONACEAE

Biswas 131.

Biswas 115, 192.

Polygonum barbatum Linn.

P. plebejum R. Br.

EUPHORBIACEAE

Emblica officinalis Gaertn. Phyllanthus embli-

ca Linn. Biswas 150.

Jatropha curcas Linn. Biswas 105.

MONOCOTY LEDONS

DIOSCOREACEAE

Dioscorea glabra Roxb. Biswas 182.

COMMELINACEAE

Commelina hasskarlii Clarke Biswas 183.

CYPERACEAE

Cyperus rotundus Linn. Biswas 184.

C. difformis Linn. Biswas 83.

Carex indica Linn. Biswas 85.

Fimbristylis dichotoma (Linn.) Vahl

Biswas 87.

229

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

F. junciformis Kunth Biswas 91.

Fuirena ciliaris (L.) Roxb. syn. F. glomerata

Lamk. Biswas 88|

Scripus articulatus Linn. Biswas 108, 89.

Scleria levis Retz. syn. S. hebecarpa Nees ex

Wight

Biswas 2.

POACEAE

Dichanthium aristatum (Poir) C. E. Hubb.

Biswas |.

Eragrostis tenella (Linn.) Beauv. ex Boem.

and Schult. Biswas 95.

E. pilosa (L.) Beauv. Biswas 75.

Heteropogon contortus (L.) Beauv.

Biswas 96.

Imperata cylindrica (L.) Beauv. var. major

(Nees) Hubb. ex Hubb. and Vaughan

Biswas 79.

Phragmites karka Trin. Biswas 101.

Pogonatherum paniceum (Lamk.) Hack.

Biswas 3.

Polypogon manspeliensis (Linn.) Desf.

Biswas 78.

Saccharum spontaneum Linn. Biswas 76.

Themeda quadrivalvis (L.). O. Ktze.

Biswas 78, 79.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We are thankful to Dr. M. N. Sanyal, Head

of the Dept. of Botany, Ramananda College

for providing necessary facilities, valuable sug-

gestions and encouragement.

BREEDING HABITS AND ASSOCIATED PHENOMENA

IN SOME INDIAN BATS

Part VI — Scotophilus heathi (Horsefield) — Vespertilionidae'

A. MADHAVAN*

Scotophilus heathi (Horsefield) from Trichur, Kerala State, has an annual reproductive

cycle. Copulation occurs during the second week of November and ovulation and

fertilization by the stored spermatozoa occur in the last week of December. Every

female in the colony conceives in December and young ones are delivered during the

following April and the first week of May. Lactation continues until August. Animals

are sexually quiescent during the rest of the year. The two uterine cornua are normally

functional and carry an embryo each during each cycle. The gestation period varies

in different animals from 100 to 130 days. The females far outnumber the males in

the adult stage although at birth the sex ratio is even.

INTRODUCTION

Scotophilus heathi is one of the species

chosen for detailed study under the project of

studies on the breeding habits of Indian bats.

This species has been chosen not only as a

representative from an area from which the

breeding habits of no bat has been so far re-

ported but also because this species presents

unusual features of reproduction. Detailed re-

views of earlier literature on bat reproduction

have been given (Gopalakrishna, 1947, 1948,

1949, 1955; Madhavan, 1971; Gopalakrishna

and Choudhari, 1977; Gopalakrishna and Rao,

1977).

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Most of the specimens of Scotophilus heathi

1 Accepted February 1978.

*Department of Zoology, Institute of Science,

Nagpur. Present address: Professor of Zoology,

Bharat Mata College. Cochin 21, Kerala.

examined for the present study were collected

from under the tiles of roofs of houses. A few

specimens were also collected from under the

leaves of palmyra trees, from the belfry of

churches and on one occasion from a well. All

specimens were collected in and around Tri-

chur, Kerala (approximately 10°N., 76.3°E.).

The animals were collected at frequent inter-

vals commencing from April 4, 1971 and until

February 5, 1978 except during the year 1974.

Altogether 957 specimens were studied for the

present report.

Scotophilus heathi is a large bat for a mi-

crochiropteran with an adult body weight of

36 to 39 g (the females attaining a higher

weight than the males, a wing-span of c. 40.0

cm, forearm length of c. 6.5 cm, head lengih

of c. 2.5 cm and ear pinna length of c. 1.5

cm. The specimens were collected from their

roosts with the help of a pair of long forceps

and after killing with chloroform they were

weighed in a sensitive spring balance. Obser-

vations on the disposition of the external geni-

talia, mammary teats in the females, and po-

227

“ae

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY,

sition of the testes in the males were recorded.

The genital organs and the accessory struc-

tures were dissected out and fixed in different

fixatives. After fixation for 24 hours the tissues

were preserved in 70% alcohol. The tissues

were dehydrated by passing through graded

series of ethanol, embedded in paraffin and

sectioned at thickness of 6 to 10 p. The testes

were uniformly cut at 10 p. The sections were

stained with Ehrlich’s haematoxylin, counter-

stained with eosin and mounted in DPX.

The character of a group of specimens col-

lected on a given calendar date is almost the

same during the different years when the col-

lections were made. Hence, in the following

descriptions only the date and month are men-

tioned where pertinent except where the men-

tion of the year has a special significance. A

detailed collection diary was maintained wiih

descriptions of individual specimens. Table 1

gives the summary of the collection diary and

Table 2 gives the monthwise distribution of

collections.

OBSERVATIONS AND DISCUSSION

1. GENERAL NOTES ON Scotophilus heathi

This species occurs in small groups of 5 io

15 specimens which lie huddled together.

There may be several clusters of specimens

occupying different locations in the same house.

During April, May, June and July the males

were sometimes found ‘sitting’ away from the

females although in the same house. The ani-

mals emerge from their roosts a little before

sunset and take a dive almost to the ground

level before they take to the sky. They fly

about near the roosting place for a consider-

able time before flying out to distant places.

The roost is empty by about 7 o’clock in the

evening. The suckling mothers leave the young

ones in the roosts before flying out in the even-

228

Vol. 77

ing for foraging. The mother vigorously shakes

her body and actively pushes the young from

its hold to the mammary nipple. Several times

during the night the adult specimens visit the

roosts where the young ones are left behind.

They finally return to the roosts a little before

sunrise. The mothers carry away the young

ones if the roost is disturbed and roost in some

other place, often returning with the young

ones to the old roost two or three days later.

Day light is not an impediment for them to

roost because they are found roosting in well-

lit areas in the roofs of the houses. The young

ones assume an oblique posture with the head

towards the mother’s head while sucking. The

young ones with body weights of 24 g and be-

low are not able to execute sustained flights,

but fall to the ground after flying a few yards.

The adult specimen has brown fur on the

dorsal surface and bright yellow fur on the

ventral surface of the body. The juveniles have

dark brown fur on the dorsal surface and yel-

lowish grey fur on the ventral surface of the

body. Several parous adults have brick red-

yellow fur on the ventral surface of the body.

Scotophilus heathi does not tolerate the pre-

sence of other species of bats in the roost. On

a few occasions a specimen of Pipistrellus

mimus mimus was introduced into a cage in

which Scotophilus heathi specimens were pre-

sent. But it was immediately attacked and

killed by an adult Scotophilus heathi. No other

species of bats could be found in the houses

occupied by Scotophilus heathi. The specimens

remain in partial torpidity during daytime

throughout the year.

Although normally two young ones are de-

livered each time, there were a few instances

when only one was produced. The newly born

young is reddish in colour with naked skin

and adherent eyelids. A pair of pectoral mam-

mary glands are present, one on either side,

BREEDING HABITS OF SOME INDIAN BATS—VI

TABLE 1

SUMMARY OF COLLECTION DIARY

Date

4-1-76

7-1-78

9-1-77

12-1-77

16-1-77

17-1-77

18-1-73

19-1-77

20-1-72

22-1-77

24-1-76

26-1-77

29-1-72

30-1-77

4-2-77

5-2-78

6-2-77

9-2-77

12-2-77

16-2-77

19-2-77

24-2-77

26-2-72

27-2-77

3-3-77

4-3-73

5-3-77

6-3-76

10-3-73

11-3-72

13-3-77

14-3-76

19-3-72

23-3-77

28-3-77

29-3-77

31-3-72

Males

Jmmature

Attached Free

Adult

Total

eee rior i tamOnOnConreerUse.|

vane lol ow |

Females

Immature Adult

Attached Free Non-preg-

nant

6 7 8

Preg-

nant

Total

Lacta-

ting

—_

Jou

—

PON HYYHWNHENONNAAWAANARNIOIWBYARYUANWWOA OY

—

(Hs

MPONWNYNWWNRFNONNAAWIADNA DBA

Grand

Total

jaw

_— _—

CNYMWMBWENRE NONWIADR OEP REISCHDMORYARALIAUR OCA mMoOeEe

—_—

—

229

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

as aa —— a — — — 1 a

= = 1 1 = = a 2 =

2 — Bs 2 1 ~ ae = 2

— ——— —— — — = = D2 —

= = 4 4 — = = 9 =

—- — = — — a, — 4 —

1 = — 1 — a a 3

= == 1 1 — = _ 2 =

ae mis tis aan ao = axe 5 —

3 == _ 3 1 = = == 1

= oe 5 5 = pes is a paw

= = 2 2 = = = 6 =

I = ae l i = = 3 1

4 == = 4 5 = = 1 6

ad ae ae ee = ae ae 8 ad

ae oe: = pe pels ae ae 1 os

5 a = 5 3 = = 1 5

3 = = 3 1 = a 1 2

= — = aes me — = 2 Bee

1 = = | 3 = = 1 3

6 == = 6 4 “= = 2 4

4 2 1 7 4 = = = 4

2 = 3 2 1 = _ 2

5 = = 5 3 = = = 4

= 2 3 5 3 uth, = _ 2

2 = — 2 4 = 1 = 2

2 1 ae 3 5 = 1 os 3

= == 3 3 = 3 = 2

ane a= 9) 2 = = nae a 2

i = 12 3 ] == = 2

sak a — — —— il a

= 5 2 7 = 1 2 ae 4

= 2 3 5 a = 3 = 3

\ 2 1 4 == I 1 = 3

= r 2 3 ws 1 == _ —

== a 3 r = 5

ee cent 6 6 =

= = == = = r

— = = = 1

= = I 1 — = =

~ 2 — 2 = 2 = 4

Ze = _ £ = l

= = 2 2 os = l = =

= — 2 2 == — 2 se: 1

“= = 4 4 = 1 =

—

Pw Uw & 6 lef

—

aonitiurntnrnwoonnti OF DANUND

FETS 7 Se Oh OS Ie ee

WN UAW ee

—y

PK WONDAWAUNUNUMNAwW UN FS

—

coUN waeN ns

OAWK OWNAD WO £

BREEDING HABITS OF SOME INDIAN BATS—VI1

9-7-77

11-7-72

14-7-72

17-7-76

17-7-77

20-7-75

24-7-77

6-8-77

15-8-72

15-8-76

18-8-73

21-8-72

21-8-75

21-8-76

23-8-77

24-8-75

7-9-76

10-9-76

10-9-77

13-9-75

14-9-73

19-9-76

25-9-76

25-9-77

28-9-75

29-9-71

2-10-76

3-10-71

8-10-77

9-10-76

11-10-75

12-10-75

14-10-75

16-10-71

18-10-75

18-10-76

23-10-76

23-10-77

28-10-73

30-10-76

6-11-71

7-11-76

10-11-73

12-11-77

13-11-76

15-11-75

eh roen elke es lle kk elton a &

ROS KONE [ees Gare AO) at RS to: RO | mH WWNre Ne RK Wh HY |

Ree ae Gs ese eras tos Ron eee tus, eins Core cami eee tlt 1a Comers

leeavtoe| Sagi

D aroseead |e ro ROMS warts evcas lesen) eS cuartasiostonl| nah: pacts | ec oui setae

[raven Reuse es. tou

=o -—N

—_

KH wWNN FWD ADAUMUNY wW

[icqeae aa! | ous Ra EONS Goll) oe ce Cane

on en orton el on

a KL tS)

—

_—

Ame DABNNUADA OAWD

WDnn

—

NNONNK ONFAUAN FRR ARP WH WHA WANA HW WO

231

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

18-11-73 — — 3 3 = — 3 — — 3 6

20-11-76 — — > 5 = = 1 _— — 1 6

22-11-75 — a 1 1 = —_ 3 — — 3 4

23-11-75 — — D; 2D; = = = = = = 2

26-11-77 — — 7 di — — 16 — _ 16 23

27-11-76 —_— — 4 4 — — 1 — = 1 5

1-12-73 — _ 3 3 — — 1 —_ = 1 4

4-12-77 —_ — 5 5 — _ = _ — 3 8

5-12-75 — — —_ — — — 1 = == 1 1

5-12-76 _— — 2; 2, — _ 3 —_ — 3 5

8-12-73 — — 3 3 — — — — —_ — 3

10-12-77 — —_ p) 2 — = 1 = == 1 3

11-12-76 _ — 6 6 — _— 4 — _— 4 10

11-12-77 — — 3 3 — — = — — —— 3

12-12-76 —= — 8 8 — — 3 — _— 3 11

13-12-77 —_ —— 9 9 —_ —= 3 = — 3 12

15-12-75 — — 1 1 —_— — 1 _ — 1 2

15-12-77 — — 1 1 — — 1 — — 1 2

16-12-77 —_ —_ 4 4 — — 6 — — 6 10

18-12-76 —_ —_ 1 1 — — 1 = — 1 2

18-12-77 — — 8 8 — — 6 — — 6 14

23-12-73 —_— — i 1 — —_ —_ — — — 1

23-12-76 — —_— 3 3 — —_ — — — —— 3

24-12-76 — — DZ 2 —_ = 1 = — 1 5

27-12-76 —_ — 2 2. — = = 4 = 4 6

28-12-76 — — 1 1 — = = = — = 1

29-12-71 — — ; 2 — — = 2 — Z 4

31-12-76 — — 5 3) — — — 13 = 13 18

31-12-77 — — 4 4 — —_ — 1 — 1 5

TABLE 2 and the mammary nipples are visible only

MONTHWISE COLLECTION OF THE SPECIMENS after the first lactation.

Month Males Females Total

e = 2. BREEDING HABITS

January 16 67 83

February 2 55 17 The examination of table 1 shows that preg-

March 21 51 72 nancies as evidenced by the occurrence of bul-

April 39 99 138 bous uterine cornua are present only from

vee 61 73 134 about the first week of January to about the

ae re an fourth week of April. The one female collect-

September 5 7 52 ed on January 4 showed unmistakable sign of

August 13 22 35 pregnancy since there was a swelling in both

October 24 30 54 the uterine cornua. Between January 4 and

November 39 38 77‘ January 12 progressively there was a greater

Peso lacs us 22 131 proportion of females with bulbous uterine

Total 370 587 957 cornua among the specimens collected on each

232

BREEDING HABITS OF SOME INDIAN BATS—VI1

date. All females collected between January |<

and April 4 had noticeably large conceptus

in the uterine cornua and carried progressively

advanced stages of development of the foetus.

Microscopic examination of the females re-

vealed some interesting features. Some of the

female specimens collected on November 12

had undergone copulation as evidenced by the

fact that sperms were present in the uterus

and the uterine end of the failopian tubes.

Their ovaries had follicles in the multilaminar

condition, and one or two follicles showed the

beginning of the formation of antral spaces.

Sperms were present in the uterus and the

uterine end of the fallopian tubes of all fema-

les collected on and after November 12 and

up to December 27, thereby indicating that

copulation had taken place in all the females.

One female collected on December 27 had a

four-celled egg in the uterus. Free early emb-

ryos in progressively advanced stages of cleav-

age were present in every female collected bet-

ween December 27 and January 4.

These facts indicate that although copula-

tion occurs as early as November 12, ovula-

tion does not take place until about the last

week of December (Gopalakrishna and Ma-

dhavan, 1978). Secondly, ovulation occurs

in all the specimens within a sharply defined

period in the last week of December and ferti-

lization and pregnancy follow immediately.

Although every female collected during Ja-

nuary, February and March was_ pregnant,

and although progressively advanced stages of

development of the embryos were present dur-

ing the successive weeks after December 27 it

was noticed that the size of the conceptus

carried by different females collected on any

given date during February to April varied.

This indicates that the rate of embryonic de-

velopment may not be the same in all the

specimens.

The last batch of pregnant females could be

collected on April 25 although pregnant fe-

males probably occur until May 3 as evidenc-

ed by the fact that newly delivered young

ones were available until May 3. After this

date there was not a single female which could

be assigned to having delivered recently al-

though vigorous efforts were made to collect

specimens at frequent intervals. Evidently all

females in the roost had delivered their young

by May 3. Pregnancy was not found to occur

in any other month of the year. The above

facts show that Scotophilus heathi has an aii-

nual reproductive cycle confined to a sharply

restricted period.

The first batch of postpartum mothers and

newly born young ones was collected on April

4. The young ones weighed 5.5 to 6.0 g, and

in each case the umbilical cord was still at-

tached to the body, the eyelids were adherent

and the body was devoid of hair. These char-

acters taken along with the fact that the high-

est weight of the foetus was 5.0 g, indicates

that they might have been born less than a day

before. It was interesting to note that although

all females undergo ovulation and beconic

pregnant during the last week of December

(and not a single non-pregnant female was col-

lected after December 27 until April 4 during

the six years when collections were made dur-

ing these months) all deliveries in the colony

do not occur at about the same time. After

April 4, when the first batch of postpartum

mothers were obtained in the year, progressi-

vely more females in a collection had deliver-

ed their young during the following days untii

April 25. It is very likely that a few deliveries

occur after April 25 until May 3 as mention-

ed earlier. This fact is an additional evidence

to indicate that the rate of embryonic deve-

lopment varies in the different specimens as

otherwise all females should deliver within a

233

JOURNAL, BOMBAY

short span of time since all females become

pregnant in a sharply defined period in the

last week of December. Evidently the duration

of pregnancy varies between 100 to 130 days,

calculating the minimum period of gestation

as 100 days from the first day when early

cleavage stage of the egg was noticed (Decem-

ber 27) to the date on which the first deliver-

ed young are collected (April 4) and 130

days as being the maximum period as calculat-

ed until May 3, when the last deliveries prob-

ably occurred, and allowing a margin of a

couple of days on either side.

The sucklings are carried by their motheis

at their breasts while they are in the roost or

when they are disturbed when they fly away

with the young attached to the breast. The first

batch of weaned free young ones was collect-

ed on May 1. Assuming that these were the

young ones delivered in the first batch (that

is around April 4) it is evident that the young

are suckled for about 24 to 28 days allowing

a margin of a couple of days. All the mothers

in the colony are free of their young by the

end of May. However, the females continue

to be in Jactation until the first week of Au-

gust.

From the foregoing account of the breeding

habits of Scotophilus heathi the annual life of

the adult female of this species can be re-

cognized into the following periods: (1) pe-

riod of sexual quiescence from about the se-

cond week of August until the first week of

November; (2) period of copulation from the

second week of November until the last week

of December; (3) ovulation and fertilization

during the last week of December; (4) preg-

nancy from the last week of December until

about the first week of May; (5) lactation

from about the first week of April until about

the first week of August.

On comparing the breeding habits of this

234

NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY,

Vol. 77

bat with those of other Indian bats, it is in-

teresting to note that Scotophilus heathi re-

sembles Pipistrellus ceylonicus chrysothrix

(Gopalakrishna and Madhavan, 1971) in that

the inseminated sperms remain viable and suc-

cessfully fertilize the ova released several weeks

later. It was earlier known that survival of

inseminated spermatozoa is a_ characteristic

feature present only in the bats living in cold

and temperate climates (Gates, 1936; Folk,

1940; Wimsatt, 1942, 1944; Hiraiwa and Uchi-

da, 1956). It is now evident that this pheno-

menon is also prevalent in several tropical

bats (Medway, 1972; Gopalakrishna and Ma-

dhavan, 1978). Scotophilus heathi resembles

most Indian bats in having a_ sharply

restricted annual breeding cycle (Gopala-

krishna, 1947, 1948, 1949, 1950; Ramakrishna,

1951; Ramaswamy, 1961; Madhavan, 1971:

Gopalakrishna and Rao, 1977; Madhavan ef

al., 1978, Gopalakrishna and Madhavan,

1978). Only a few Indian bats have been

known to breed more than once a year (Go-

palakrishna, 1954, 1955; Gopalakrishna ef al.,

1975: Madhavan, 1978).

3. NUMBER OF YOUNG AND SYMMETRY OF THE

FEMALE GENITALIA

Unquestionable indication of pregnancy as

evidenced by the occurrence of bulbous uterine

cornua was noticed in the females collected

between January 4 and April 25. During this

period altogether 245 pregnant females were

collected. Out of these 219 had an embryo

in each uterine cornu. There were 25 females

having a single embryo each — 15 of these

had the foetus in the right cornu and 10 in

the left. One female carried two embryos in

the right cornu of the uterus and the left had

none. Examination of the ovary of the preg-

nant females revealed that a single corpus

BREEDING HABITS OF SOME INDIAN BATS—VI

luteum was present in each ovary in the spe-

cimens having a single foetus in each uterine

cornu. In the case of the specimen which had

two embryos in the right cornu the right

ovary had two corpora lutea and none in the

left. Evidently, the two sides of the genitalia

are symmetrical morphologically and physio-

logically, and each side is equally functional

during each reproductive cycle.

4. GROWTH AND MATURITY

The growth of the body of the young one

is rapid during the early life and the young

animals weigh almost as much as the adults

when they are about 5 months of age so that

young ones cannot be distinguished from the

adults on the basis of the size of the body

after this age. Until the middle of September.

that is up to the age of 4 to 5 months, the

young ones of the year can be distinguished

from the adults by their having dark brown

fur on the back and grey fur on the belly.

Older adults have invariably bright yellow fur

on the ventral side in both sexes. Sexual ma-

turity is attained by specimens of both sexes

at the body weight of about 28 g. The young

ones are attached to the mother’s breasts for

about 24 to 28 days. The highest weight of

an attached young one was 23 g and the low-

est weight of a naturally weaned free young

one was 24 g. It is evident that the young ones

become free from their mothers when they

reach about this weight. The young ones grow

rapidly and increase in their weight by well

over four times (from 5.5 g to 24.0 g)

during the sucking period. Several juve-

nile specimens were collected from _ the

first week of June until the middle of Sep-

tember. Since the examination of the stomach

contents of these animals revealed the absence

of curdled milk it is evident that the juveniles

do not visit the lactating females after May.

The growth of the young one is not rapid

through the months of August and September,

but they gain weight during October, Nov-

ember and December. Hence, October on-

wards it is not possible to distinguish the ani-

mals born in the year from the adults on the

basis of the size of the body. However, in the

case of females the animals of the year can

be recognized as they do not have well-deve-

loped nipples. Microscopic examination of the

testes of specimens collected during October,

November and December revealed that all the

males exhibited spermatogenetic activity. All

the females become pregnant during the last

week of December. This indicates that sexual

maturity is attained in both sexes in the year

of their birth and when they are 5 to 6

months of age.

5. SEX RATIO

Out of a total of 957 specimens collected

at random and at frequent intervals for over

6 years, there were 370 males and 587 fe-

males giving a sex ratio of 630 males per 1000

females. This should reflect the natural sex

ratio in this species in the total population

since there is no segregation on the basis of

SeX, age or season in this species. There were

equal number of males and females among 86

young ones found attached to their mother’s

breasts. Evidently, there is a balanced sex

ratio during early juvenile life, and the diffe-

rence in the proportion of males to females

in the adult period is due to larger mortality

of the males during the adolescent period.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I wish to express my gratitude to Prof. Dr.

A. Gopalakrishna, Director, Institute of Sci-

235

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY,

ence, Nagpur, for constant guidance, help and

encouragement during the progress of this

work. I also thank Dr. Thakur, Dr. Bhal-

chandra, Miss Deepa Bhatia and Miss M. S.

Khan for assisting me in various ways in the

laboratory. My thanks are also due to Dr.

Vol. 77

V. B. Marathe, Head of the Zoology Depart-

ment, Institute of Science, Nagpur, for giving

me laboratory facilities. I acknowledge with

gratitude the financial assistance granted by

the University Grants Commission, New Delhi.

REFERENCES

Fotk, G. EB. (1940): The longivity of sperms

in the female bat. Anat. Rec. 76: 103-109.

Gates, W. H. (1936): Keeping bats in captivity.

J. Mammal. 17: 268-273.

GOPALAKRISHNA, A. (1947): Studies on the em-

bryology of Microchiroptera. Part I — Reproduc-

tion and breeding seasons in the south Indian ves-

pertiliénid bat, Scotophilus wroughtoni (Thomas).

Proc: Ind. Acad. Sci. 26: 219-232.

(1948) : . Part Il. Re-

production in the male vespertilionid bat, Scoto-

philus wroughtoni (Thomas). ibid. 27: 137-151.

——————_ (1949): ————————.. Part _ III.

Histological changes in the genital organs and the

accessory reproductive structures during the sex-

cycle of the vespertilionid bat, Scotophilus wrough-

toni (Thomas). ibid.; 30: 17-46.

(1950): Part VI.

Structure of the placenta in the Indian vampire bat,

Lyroderma lyra lyra (Geoffroy). Proc. Nat. Inst.

Sci. India. 16: 93-98.

(1954): Breeding habits of the In-

dian sheath-tailed bat, Taphozous longimanus

(Hardwicke). Curr. Sci. 23: 60-61.

(1955): Observations on the breed-

ing habits and ovarian cycle in the Indian sheath-

tailed bat, Taphozous longimanus (Hardwicke).

Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci. India. 21: 29-41.

& CuHoupuar!, P. N. (1977): Breed-

ing habits and associated phenomena in some In-

dian bats. Part I — Rousettus leschenaulti (Des-

marest) —- Megachiroptera. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 74 (1): 1-16.

—————————— & Mapnavan, A. (1971): Survival

of spermatozoa in the female genital tract of the

Indian vespertilionid bat, Pipistrellus ceylonicus

chrysothrix (Wroughton). Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci.

236

73(1): 43-49.

DQ a SE

(1977): Breeding habits and associated phenomena

in some Indian bats. Part III — Hipposideros ater

ater (Templeton) — Hipposideridae. J. Bombay.

nat. Hist. Soc. 74: (3): 511-517.

(1978): Viability of inseminated spermatozoa in

the Indian vespertilionid bat, Scotophilus heathi

(Horsefield). Ind. J. Exp. Biol. ~16: 851-854.

—_—_—_____—-_ —————— & Rao, K. V. B.

(1977): Breeding habits and associated phenomena

in some Indian bats. Part If — Rhinolophus rouxi

(Temminck) — Rhinolophidae. ibid. 74 (2): 213-

219.

, THAKUR, R. S. & MADHAVAN, A.

(1975): Breeding biology of the southern dwarf

pipistrelle, Pipistrellus mimus mimus (Wroughton)

from Maharashtra, India. Dr. B. S. Chauhan Com-

memoration volume: 225-240.

Hiraiwa, Y. K. & Ucuipa, T. (1956): Fertiliza-

tion in the bats, Pipistrellus abramus abramus (Tem-

minck). III. Fertilizing capacity of spermatozoa

stored in the uterus after copulation in the fall.

Sci. Bull. Fac. Sci. Kyushu Univ. 15: 255-266.

MapuwavaNn, A. (1971): Breeding habits of the In-

dian vespertilionid bat, Pipistrellus ceylonicus chry-

sothrix (Wroughton). Mammalia 35(2): 283-306.

(1978): Breeding habits and asso-

ciated phenomena in some Indian bats. Part V.

Pipistrellus dormeri (Dobson) — _ Vespertilionides.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75 (2): 426-433.

——_—_—_—_——., Pati, D. R. & GOPALAKRISHNA, A.

(1978): — Part IV — Hippohideros fulvus fulvus

(Gray) — Hipposideridae. ibid. 75 (1): 96-103.

Mepway, Lorp. (1972): Reproductive cycles in

the flat-headed bats, Tylonycteris pachypus and T.

BREEDING HABITS OF SOME INDIAN BATS—V1I

robustula (Chiroptera — Vespertilioninae) in a hu-

mid equatorial environment. Zool. J. Linn. Soc. 57:

33-61.

RAMAKRISHNA, P. A. (1951): Studies on repro-

duction in bats—I. Some aspects of reproduction

in the oriental vampires, Lyroderma lyra_ lyra

(Geoffroy) and Megaderma spasma (Linn). J. Mys.

Univ. 7: 1-41.

RAMASWAMY, K. R. (1961): Studies on the sex-

cycle of the Indian vampire bat, Megaderma lyra

lyra (Geoffroy). Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci. India 27: 287-

307.

Wimsatt, W. A. (1942): Survival of spermatozoa

in the female reproductive tract of the bat. Anat.

Rec. 83: 299-307.

(1944): Further studies on the sur-

vival of spermatozoa in the female reproductive

tract of the bat. ibid. 88: 193-204.

237

STUDIES ON THE INTRASPECIFIC VARIATIONS IN

TRITHEMIS FESTIVA (RAMBUR) (ODONATA:

LIBELLULIDAE) '

MAHABIR PRASAD?

AND ARUN

KUMAR*

(With six text-figures)

INTRODUCTION

Like many other insects, variations within

the species is common in order Odonata.

These variation have been briefly studied and

reported from time to time in different species

of dragonflies. Asahina (1952-53), while

studying the Odonata material collected from

Nepal by Japanese Himalayan expedition has

noted the variations within the different spe-

cies, similarly Singh & Baijal (1954) in Wes-

tern Himalaya dragonflies; Baijal & Agarwal

(1955) in Madhya Pradesh dragonflies: Sahni

(1965a, 1965b) in the Odonata of Kumaon

hills; Raychaudhari et al. and Lahiri ef al.

(1970) in Brachythemis contaminata (Fabri-

cius), Diplacodes trivialis (Rambur) and Cro-

cothemis servilia servilia (Drury); Varshney

& Guha (1972) in Rhyothemis variegata varie-

gata (Linn.); Lahiri & Mitra (1972) in

Acanthagyna dravida (Lief.); Kumar & Pra-

sad (1976) in Orthetrum garhwalicum Singh

& Baijal; Singh & Prasad (1976, 1977) and

Prasad & Singh (1976, 1977) in Doon Valley

and Corbett National Park dragonflies: Pra-

sad (1976a, 1976b and in press) in Western

1 Accepted May 1978.

2 Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta-700012.

3 Zoological Survey of India. Northern Regional

Station. Dehra Dun-248 001.

238

Himalaya and Eastern Uttar Pradesh Odonata;

Bose & Mitra (1977) in Rajasthan dragonflies

and Lahiri (1977) in Manipur dragonflies

studied and have made brief remarks on in-

traspecific variations. However, these records

are only occasional variations in small num-

ber of specimens, no attempt has so far been

made for detailed biometrical study of intra-

specific variations in Indian dragonflies. Dur-

ing the course of Odonata collection over

many years in Western Himalaya, we noted

distinct pattern of intraspecific variation

in Trithemis festiva (Rambur), a species

fairly common throughout lesser Himalayan

range. We noticed the occurrence of two

distinct group of specimens large sized and

small sized. Kiauta (1969) also reported the

occurrence of small size specimen (2) from

Nepal and states that “its abdominal length

amounts scarcely to 21 mm. and that of the

hind wing to 27 mm.” Keeping the above in

view we made a detailed study of intraspecific

variations in Trithemis festiva (Rambur) on

the basis of material collected from various

localities in Western Himalaya. The species is

widely and commonly distributed throughout

Indian sub-continent (Kiauta 1969). Adults

are common on the wing from March-April

to November; larvae occur in slow running

marshy streams and near the weedy banks

of rivers (Kumar 1972).

INTRASPECIFIC VARIATIONS IN TRITHEMIS FESTIVA (RAMBUR)

Figs. 1-3. Male accessory genital structures of large sized specimens of Trithemis

festiva (Rambur): 1. Ventral view, 2. Lateral view, 3. Enlarged view of Prophallus

and Vesicula spermalis.

Figs. 4-6. Male accessory genital structures of smail sized specimens of Trithemis

festiva (Rambur): 4. Ventral view. 5. Lateral view, 6. Enlarged view of Prophallus

and Vesicula spermalis.

239

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

OBSERVATIONS

Male: (Refer Tables I], HI & VI for various

measurements)

Both large and small dragonflies, present

at same localities, are violaceous black in

colour. Head small in size, eyes contiguous,

labium blackish brown in large size specimens

while small size specimens it is black, some

times yellowish brown. Labrum and mandi-

bles black, anteclypeus black to yellowish

brown, postclypeus dark olivacious brown to

black, occiput dark brown to black. Eyes

brown above and black beneath.

Prothorax dark blue to black, small poste-

rior lobe is black, not fringed with hairs.

Thorax narrow, black and coated with thin

purplish pruinecence. Legs. long. black but

hind femora with small closely set spines,

and with a single set of long spines present

on its distal end.

Wing hyaline, a dark opaque brown mark-

ing present only in hind wing of large size

specimens. but in small size it is found both

in fore and hind wings. The brown marking

in the hind wing extends upto the subcosta,

cubital space, beyond the cubital nervure and

posteriorly beyond the membrane. In fore

wing of small size specimens it extends upto

the cubital space and posterior border of the

wing. Reticulation close, and are situated be-

tween the Ist and 2nd antenodal nervurer, cu-

bital nervure one, pterostigma black and cover

2 cells. Node nearer to pterostigma than base

in both wings. Nodal index varies from

ya | oi eo a nica large sized

8-7 | 7-8 10-8] 8-9

f 6-103|104-6 9-114|114-9

specimens, while “eT 8-7 to e-8 | O-11

in small sized specimens. Discoidal cell in the

fore wing narrow, its costal side just half

240)

of proximal side and traversed only once.

Subtrigone 3-celled, sector of arc with a large

fusion at its origin. Distal antenodal nervures

incomplete, discoidal field begins with 3 rows

of cells and is convergent at wing border. In

hind wing discoidal cell entire, CUII arising

from the posterior angle of discoidal cell. Dis-

coidal field begins with 2 rows of cells. 2 rows

of cells present in between IRIII & RSPL.

Membrane dark brown and triangular in

shape.

Abdomen 20.0-25.5 mm in length, black;

anal appendages black.

Female : (Refer Tables IV, V & VI for various

body measurements)

Labium yellowish-brown, its middle lobe

black, labrum yellow and sides black. Ante

and postclypeus yellow, face and frons_ yel-

lowish brown, but some portion of upper sides

of frons metallic blue. Upper portion of eyes

brown and lower portion black, occiput black.

Prothorax black, thorax yellow and marked

with black, mid-dorsal carinal suture present

upto the anterior sinus. Hamular stripe very

thick, an inverted Y-shaped stripe present on

the mesepimeron. The posterio—lateral suture

short but oblique stripe ends across the meta-

pimeron. Lower portion of the thorax yellow

and marked with black stripe. Legs black,

inner side of the anterior femora yellow, coxae

and trochanter yellow.

Wings similar to the male, except the base

of the hind wing which is marked with opaque

brown marking upto the costal area, costal

space and upto the cubital nervures and near

the membrane. Nodal index varies from

8-103/113-7 9-124]104-8

8-7 legion 2) fore lieio

Abdomen (20-23 mm in length) black and

marked by yellow, dorsally, laterally and ven-

trally but its last three segments (8th, 9th and

INTRASPECIFIC VARIATIONS IN TRITHEMIS FESTIVA (RAMBUR)

10th) are totally black on the dorsum, marked And appendages black, long and acutely

with yellow and the lateral and ventral sides. pointed at the tips.

TABLE I

SHOWING THE FREQUENCY OF SPECIMENS WITH BOTH SMALL AND LARGE SIZED SPECIMENS OF Trithemis

festiva (RAMBUR) FROM DIFFERENT LOCALITIES IN WESTERN HIMALAYA.

SI. Locality District Large sized specimens Small sized -specimens

No. Male Female Male Female

Ny Asarori Dehra Dun 9 2 — =

de Barkot 4 4 ae a. a3

By Dehra Dun Fe | = = =

4. Donga 5 15 6 ? |

5 Herbertpur “ 4 ae mel s.

6. Jaintanwala 55 9 3 3 _—

te JShajra 5 = 2) = =

38. Mianwala . . D 3 — =

OF Motichur “ 12 2) 4 =

10. Rajpur rf 23 1 4 3

IE, Rishikesh 4 = = =

12% Sahastra Dhera a 60 3 9 2

13. Boxar (Corbett Pauri 8 9) 4 1

National Park) Garhwal

14. Dhikala (Corbett Pe 6 1 B 1

National Park)

15? Pauri ¥. 10 3 5) 1

16. Deoprayag Tehri Garhwal ? = = —

ila Tehri Tehri Garhwal 10 a on iis

18. Chamoli Chamoli 8 ot a3 as

119: Uttar Kashi Uttar Kashi 3 | = _

20. Bij Rani (Corbett Nainital 20) 4 3 =

National Park)

PALS Haldwani PA 3 — — =

22) Kathgodam * 4 I | oa

23% Sultan (Corbett ea 15 == 4 =

National Park)

24. Dhobighat Almora 2 — =e =

(Ranikhet)

sy Dwarson e 2 — | =

26. Garli Kangra = = aa I

Di. Jhankaur a — 2 — —-

28. Jawalamukhi a. 12 4 a =

29. Kangra i 2 4 | aD

30. Mataur Fe 4 3 — =

Bile Maranda © — = 2 aes

32, Ranital : 15 6 2 —

24]

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

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(RAMBUR)

VARIATIONS IN TRITHEMIS FESTIVA

INTRASPECIFIC

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243

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

8-10 10-8

TABLE VI

SHOWING VARIATION IN NODAL INDEX WITHIN THE LARGE AND SMALL SIZED SPECIMENS OF Trithemis festiva

(RAMBUR)

Large Sized | Small Sized

6-9) 198-53 > 7108 104-7 6-103/103-6 | 7-108]103-8 _,

8-7 | 7E8 92g) (Nein | Cer Rsisnieats

8-93 94-7 | T-LAAILIG-7—, 7-12$|11}-8 | 7-103/103-7

10-7 = 8-8 | 7-8 9-8 | 8-9 8-8 | 8-8.

8-103 |103-9 | 9-103/95-8 8-102'114-7 | 8-103/112-8

10-7 | 8-10 9-7 | 7-9 Tes Son eT | 7.8

9-124|10$-8 , 8-105/103-8 8-104/113-8> , - 8-113]113-9 91

9-8 | 8-9 8-8 | 7-9 9-8 | 8-10 eal ea

ei |UD oes Lobes 9-113{113-9,

9-8 | 8-9 al 9-11

TABLE VII

SHOWING VARIATION IN BODY MARKING OF BOTH LARGE AND SMALL SIzED Trithemis festiva (RAMBUR)

COMPARED W!TH THE PUBLISHED DESCRIPTION OF THE SPECIES

ea ee ae Ao sce NEV

Sl. Different parts Large sized Small sized Published descrip-

No. of body Specimen specimen tion of the species

He Labium Blackish brown Black, sometimes Black

yellowish brown

Yellowish brown

2; Anteclypeus Black Black Black

3h Postclypeus Dark olivaceous Black Dark olivaceous

brown

4, Occiput Dark brow ac

ccipu ar rown Black Black

DY. Prothorax Dark blue Some times a brown

Black

6. Wing marking Brown marking at marking at the base Brown marking at

in’ male the base of fore of fore wing in male — the base of fore

wing in male absent present wing in male absent

7. Nodal index 6-91 | 94-5, 6-104 103-6, ae rear

8-7 7-8 8-7 8-7 8-8 | 7-8 10-8 | 8-10

9-123)103-8, 8-103]113-8,

9-8 | 8-9 9-8 | 8-10

244

INTRASPECIFIC VARIATIONS IN

DISCUSSION

Both large and smali sized specimens of

Trithemis festiva occur at same localities in

Western Himalaya. The abdomen (along with

anal appendages) of 272 examples of large

sized male specimens varies from 23.00 mm to

23.5 mm, forewing 31.5 mm to 32.5 mm,

hindwing 30.5 mm to 31.5 mm and pterostig-

ma 2.5 mm to 3.00 mm. For detail of the

other body measurements in male refer to

Table II. 52 examples of large sized female

specimens were studied, their abdomen (along-

with anal appendages) varies from 22.5 mm

to 23.00 mm, forewing 31.00 mm to 32.00 mm,

hindwing 29.5 mm to 31.00 mm, pterostigma

3.00 mm (for other body measurements kind-

ly refer Table IV). Only 48 male specimens

of small size were studied, and their abdomen

(along with anal appendages) varies in between

20.00 mm to 22.00 mm, forewing 28.00 mm

to 29.5 mm, hindwing 26.00 mm to 29.00 mm,

pterostigma 2.5 mm to 3.00 mm. The 12

female specimens of small size have their

abdomen (alongwith anal appendages) 20.00

mm to 20.5 mm, forewing 28.00 mm to 29.5

mm, hindwing 26.5 mm to 28.00 mm and

TRITHEMIS FESTIVA

(RAMBUR)

pterostigma 3.00 mm (For other body mea-

surements in male and female refer Tables

Ill and V).

The large and small sized Trithemis festiva

male and female are quite distinct from each

other and can be easily separated from each

other on the basis of their body measure-

ments [the two type of specimens also have

some differences in body colour and nodal

index (refer Tables VI & VII)]. However, it

is noticeable that large and small sized speci-

mens are very close and similar to each other

in their wing venation, body colour and male

accessory genital structures (refer figs. 1-6).

Thus the variations found in large and small

sized male and female in their body measure-

ments, wing venation, body colour are treated

as intraspecific variations in Trithemis festiva.

ACK NOWLEDGEMENTS

We are thankful to the Director, Zoological

Survey of India, Calcutta, for permission to

carry out the present study. Our thanks are

also due to Dr. B. S. Lamba, Deputy Director,

Northern Regional Station, Zoological Survey

of India, Dehra Dun, for various facilities.

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70 (1-4): 21-38.

(1977): Odonata (Insecta) of Cor-

bett National Park (Uttar Pradesh, India). J. Bom-

bay nat. Hist. Soc. 73 (2) [1976]: 419-421.

SINGH, S. AND BarJAL, H. N. (1954): Entomolo-

gical Survey of the Himalaya II—on a collection of

Odonata. Agra Univ. J. Res. (Sci.), 3 (2): 385-

400.

VARSHNEY, R. K. AND GUHA, M. (1972): A note

on the wing marking of dragonfly Rhyothemis varie-

gata variegata (L.) (Odonata: Libellulidae). Patna

Univ. J., 27: 1-4.

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISATION OF THE SONG OF

THE KOEL EUDYNAMIS SCOLOPACEA’

M. V. V. SUBRAHMANYAM

AND

R. V. KrRISHNAMOORTHY?

(With four text-figures)

The koel Eudynamis scolopacea sings both in the morning and the evening.

The

morning song consists of 15 notes and the evening song 9 notes. As the note number

increases, the frequency as well as the loudness of the song increases. Evening song

usually contains high frequency notes. The frequencies range from 976 to 1818 Hz,

which probably may be the reason for the mellowness of the song. When a recorded

song was played to a singing koel, the latter stopped singing and sometimes quit its

position. This suggests that the song reflects territoriality.

INTRODUCTION

Bird song usually refers to the loud and

persistent vocalisations delivered seasonally by

males in possession of a breeding or courting

territory (Brockway 1969). The song probably

stimulates the femaie’s breeding behaviour and

also aids in spacing breeding males (Marler

1956). The same song may unleash an attack

by others when it is broadcast within the bird’s

territory (Weeds and Falls 1959, Falls 1969).

The ontogeny of bird song and its seasonal

effect has been worked out for many species

(Allard 1930, Thorpe 1956, Nottebohm 1970,

Panov eft al. 1978). For the Indian Koel, the

breeding season lasts from March to July

(Lamba 1963); its habitat and parasitic nature

has been well documented (Ali 1977, Hume

1890, Lamba 1969). However, no attempt has

been made to characterise its song, although it

is considered by some to be the pleasantest

among the songs of common Indian birds. In

1 Accepted June 1980.

2 Department of Zoology, GKVK Campus, Uni-

versity of Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore 560 065.

the present study an attempt has been made

to characterise the acoustic parameters of the

daily song of the koel.

METHODS

Two Sennheiser MKH 805 directional mic-

rophones were placed 15’ (about 4.6 m)

apart, on a tree top, which was identified ear-

lier as being visited by the koel. The micro-

phones were connected to a 5310 National

Panasonic tape recorder, placed on the ground

and 100’ away (30.5 m) from the tree. With

such a set-up the song of the koel both in the

morning (6-8 a.m.) and in the evening (4-

5.30 p.m.) were recorded during the months

April-June, 1979. Pre-recorded tapes were

analysed for quality of notes of the songs using

a Fourier Analyzer System (Hewlett-Packard).

Note frequencies and song timings were ob-

tained from the converter.

RESULTS

The morning song consists of 15 notes with

a total duration of 40.96 s, and each note in

247

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY,

Vol. 77

Fig. 1.

the song is of 0.5 s duration. The evening song

consists of 9 notes with a total duration of

20.48 s and a note duration of 0.6 s. Some-

times there were 14 notes in the morning song

and 8 in the evening song. The internote period

in both songs is not constant (Fig. 1). The

song starts with low ‘‘kuoo’’, the loudness of

which rises in scale gradually in both morn-

ing and evening songs (Fig. 1). The frequency

of the sound at which the notes are delivered

also varies as the notes proceed. In the morn-

ing song, as the note number increases the

frequency gradually increases non-linearly. In

the evening song there is linearity in the in-

crease of frequencies as the notes are delivered

(Fig. 2). The evening song invariably consists

of higher frequencies (Fig. 2). The morning

song starts with a frequency of 976-1218 Hz

and ends with 1381-1818 Hz in the fifteenth

note (Fig. 3). The evening song starts with

1200 Hz-1393 Hz and ends with 1243-1787

Hz. (Fig. 4). When the song reaches the final

frequency the koel stops singing for some time

and again resumes the song in the same fre-

quencies. When a recorded song was played

to a singing koel, it often stopped singing and

248

Spectrograms of morning and evening songs of the koel. Horizontal axis

denotes time in s and vertical axis represents loudness in millivolts.

Scale: M- x axis 1 cm 2.48 s; y axis 1 cm 2.1 mV

E- X axis. 1) cmili20s:ayeaxise lcm sum,

sometimes quit its position.

DISCUSSION

The koel breeds during March-June in

southern parts of India (Lamba 1969). The

song of the koel can be heard in the same

months and therefore, the coincidence of the

song with season could be related to the breed-

ing activity and the reproductive behaviour of

the bird. It is also known that only the male

koel sings till it mates (Lamba 1969). There

is evidence that testosterone stimulates the

mating behaviour of birds (Andrews 1964,

Hamilton 1938, Hutchinson 1970). However,

no correlations were made that the same hor-

mone induced singing in birds. We tried in

vain to check whether there were any behaviou-

ral responses in other koels of the surroundings

when the tapes were played back, but the song

has impact on the singing of a conspecific.

When’ the recorded tape is played before a

singing bird, the latter stops singing and flies

away. This suggested that the song is purely

territorial. Similar such territorial songs were

noted in male chaffinches (Thorpe 1956).

SONG OF THE KOEL (EUDYNAMIS SCOLOPACEA)

1.8

Fi ae

KHz variation

Morning song

MOM eo) ah WS Ge 7B 9-10. ff 42 19 ie. 418:

Note number

1.8

SF | me a ata ia a cad aa, eee!

iS Wola

St HES AW girl «| tee?

See i eal eet

Ne ied ete

2 iy

x |

Evening song

7 mms ©) 0 Se SR aes ae») Laon reo

Note number

Fig. 2. Changes in frequencies in relation to the note number in morning and evening

songs of the Koel.

249

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

| i

i dawns nanos | at i aghealin cacon eae

i lit \,

‘\ )

dime Aaa, YE OU see run Ki Opies eee St

Matta

Mbeya Aiea AW a AV ne eevee:

3 erravin

h sen

, ee oe Meant a WO OL SDT ea

\ if

tt | |

5_ eas ae Sree S| Mi Vital yar (oe ‘a Ray

i a oe

ee gee

ne [Wi Handbiiriaun a SUN.

Fig. 3. Spectrograms of the notes of morning song of the Koel. Horizontal axis

denotes the frequency in Hz and vertical axis represents loudness.

Scale: x axis 1 cm 62.5 Hz with 625 Hz as starting y axis 1 cm 2 x 10°°V

250

SONG OF THE KOEL (EUDYNAMIS SCOLOPACEA)

a Nid MA Me rae

)

Fig. 4. Spectrograms of the notes of the evening song of the Koel Horizontal axis

denotes frequency in kHz and vertical axis represents loudness.

Scale: x axis 1 cm 62.5 Hz with 625 Hz as starting point frequency

y axis 1 cm 2 x10°°V

251

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

Brockway (1969) suggested that the strength

of the song and its persistence may be a

measure of metabolism of the bird and climatic

conditions at any particular place. This may

be true for the difference in the number of

notes observed in the morning and evening

songs. Changes due to climatic conditions

may be over ruled as there were not much

variations in air temperatures between morn-

ing and evening in the present context. Cor-

relations between climate and song (Allard

1930) was possible in the case of the dove

which inhabits temperate lands. Probably the

metabolism of the koel determines the short-

ness of the song in the evenings.

It is interesting to note that after the 9th

note in morning song, the frequencies of the

notes remained constant. Decrease in the note

number in the evening song can be attributed

to the physiological status of the bird. Exhaus-

tion after a day’s activity may decrease the

note number.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are thankful to Dr. D. Anand and Mr.

H. S. Srinivas Chakravorthi, Department of

Electronic Communications, Indian Institute

of Science for their help in spectrographic

analysis of the song; and Dr. R. Narayana for

encouragement.

REFERENCES

ALI, S. (1977): The Book of Indian Birds. Bom-

bay Natural History Society, Bombay.

ALLARD, H. A. (1930): The first morning song

of some birds of Washington, D.C., its relation to

light. Am. Naturalist, 64: 436-439.

ANpbrREWS, R. J. (1969): The effect of testoste-

rone on avian vocalizations. In R. A. Hinde (ed.):

Bird Vocalizations, Cambridge University Press.

Brockway, B. F. (1969): Roles of budgerigar

vocalisations in integration of breeding behaviour.

In R. A. Hinde (ed.): Bird Vocalizations, Cam-

bridge University Press.

FALts, J. B. (1969): ‘Function

throated sparrow’, in R. A. Hinde (ed.):

Vocalizations, Cambridge University Press.

HAMILTON, J. B. (1938): Precocious masculine

behaviour following administration of synthetic

male hormone substance, Endocrinology. 23: 53-7.

Hume, A. O. (1890): Nests and eggs of Indian

birds. Vol. 1, (Ed. R. H. Porter, London).

HUTCHINSON, J. B. (1970): Influence of gonadal

hormones on the hypothalamic integration of court-

of the white

Bird

ship behaviour in barbary dove. J. Rep. Fert.

Suppl. 11: 15-41.

LamBA, B. S. (1963): The nidification of some

common Indian birds. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

60: 121-123.

——————— (1969): The nidification of some

common Indian birds. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

66: 72-80.

Marcegr, P. (1956): Behaviour of chaffinch, Fring-

illa coelebs. Behaviour sup. vol. 5.

NoTTEBoHM, F. (1970): Ontogeny of bird song.

Science, 167: 950-956.

PANov, E. N. Kostina, G. N. AND GALICHENKA,

M. V. (1978): Song. organisation in southern

nightingale. Zool., 57(4): 568-581.

TuorpPe, W. H. (1956): The language of birds.

Scientific American, 195(4): 128-138.

Weeps, J. S. AND FALLs, J. B. (1959): Differen-

tial responses of male oven birds to recorded songs

of neighbouring and more distinct individuals.

Auk. 76: 343-351.

OBSERVATIONS ON THE REPRODUCTIVE BEHAVIOUR

OF THE TIGER, PANTHERA TIGRIS TIGRIS LINN.

IN CAPTIVITY*

ADHIR KUMAR Das?

(With a chart)

INTRODUCTION

In view of the importance of tiger as one of

the major endangered species in India a study

of its reproductive behaviour is worth noting.

This study was undertaken to provide informa-

tion (i) on the reproductive behaviour of tiger,

(ii) to ascertain the duration of oestrus.

(iii) breeding season, (iv) gestation period,

(v) percentage of pregnancies, (vi) litter size,

(vii) sex ratio and (viii) the ratio of white

and coloured cubs produced through crossing

among coloured hybirds and between colour-

ed hybrids and pure white tigers. This paper

is based on data collected at the Calcutta

Zoological Garden from 1965 to 1977.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The Calcutta Zoological Garden has a good

record of breeding of tigers in captivity. The

first birth of tiger cubs at this Zoo took place

in May, 1880 when three cubs were born.

Two cubs were born in May, 1886 and two

more cubs in April, 1889 (Sanyal 1892).

Since then many tiger cubs have been born

in this Zoo during the last several decades.

Moreover, the acquisition of 3 white tigers

(two pure white males from Maharaja of

Rewa and one coloured female carrying gene

for white, from Delhi Zoological Park) of the

1 Accepted May 1978.

? Zoological Garden, Alipore, Calcutta-700 027.

same litter in 1963 has improved much of its

breeding potential. The tigers at Calcutta Zoo

are kept in spacious enclosures and cages hav-

ing sufficient space for exercise. Each cage

or enciosure has a small den at the back where

the tiger is shut in at night.

Tigers at Calcutta Zoo are fed six days in

a week on beef and on Thursday no food is

given. On average an adult tiger is given 12

kg of raw beef with and without bones daily.

The ration of beef given to tigers ranges from

7 to 15 kg depending on the age, size, sex

and general condition of the animals.

For the purpose of this study, data have

been collected from my own observations from

1968 onward, supported by the records main-

tained at Calcutta Zoo in the form of daily

report, birth and mortality registers etc. Mat-

ing behaviour of tigers have been recorded by

me with assistance from some of my staff.

BREEDING SEASON

The tiger in India breeds all the year round

and the cubs are born in any month of the

year (Asdell 1946, Crandall 1964, Prater 1964,

Schaller 1967, Ewer 1973).

At Calcutta Zoo the tigresses came in oes-

trus during all the months of the year. From

1965 to 1977, 48 oestruses or heat periods

of seven tigresses had been recorded, and the

females produced 61 cubs in 22 litters. This

data is presented in Table 1.

we)

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

TABLE |

BREEDING SEASON OF TIGER, Panthera tigris tigris

IN CAPTIVITY

Months Number of Percent- Number of Percent-

oestrus age litters born age

January 5) 10.4 1 (2) 4.5

February 5) 10.4 _ —

March 7. 14.5 3 (9) 13.6

April 4 8.3 3 (9) 13.6

May 3 6.4 4 (12) 18.1

June 3} 10.4 3 (8) 13.6

July 4 8.3 3 (10) 13.6

August 3 6.4 —_— _

September 2 4.1 3 (8) 13.6

October 5 10.4 1 (1) 4.5

November 2 4.1 EQ) 4.5

December 3 6.4 — —

48 100 22 (61) 100

The figures in the bracket indicate number of cubs.

tioned behaviours of a tigress were recorded

and when she permitted mounting and copu-

lation by the male.

The data of oestrus periods as recorded in

7 tigresses in Calcutta Zoological Garden are

shown in Table 2. The minimum interval be-

tween two consecutive oestruses was 26 days.

Last oestrus phase was observed upto the age

of 16 years in a tigress (Malini).

Sexual maturity:

Crandall (1964) reports that a tigress in

New York Zoo reached maturity at 3 yrs.

8 months. Sankhala (1967) reports that tiger

cubs attain maturity at an age between 34 and

6 years. In captivity female lions become

cyclic at 36 months of age (Crandall 1964).

According to Stracey (1968) tigresses start

TABLE 2

BREEDING RECORDS OF TIGER, Panthera tigris tigris iN CALCUTTA Zoo

‘ Number of Range of Average Average of Average

Specimens oestrus oestrus oestrus last day of number of

periods periods periods oestrus to cubs/Litter

(days) (days) birth (days)

Gestation

period.

Malini 16 4—7 5.1 103 2G)

Chandni 14 3—7 5 104 322 Ch)

Shashi 7 4—6 4.8 103 3.8 (5)

Sona 4 4—7 5.3 == cs

Rupa 3 6—9 7-3 = Faas

Bharati 3 6—9 Fed, 102 6S (C4)

Moti ] 5 i 103 2 1(5))

The figures in the bracket indicate number of litter.

Duration of oestrus:

The tigress in oestrus becomes restless and

moves about very frequently and sometimes

does not feed. Schaller (1967) reports that

the tigress in oestrus squirts scent, sniffs,

moans and roars in a low voice. The duration

of oestrus was calculated on the basis of the

total number of days for which the above men-

254

to breed at the age of about three years. Tig-

resses in the wild reach sexual, maturity at

about four years of age, but in the abnormal

conditions of captivity copulation has been

observed as early as two and a half years

(Mountfort 1973). Sexual maturity and birth

of Ist litter in the case of six tigresses are

shown in Table 3.

REPRODUCTIVE BEHAVIOUR OF THE TIGER

TABLE 3

OBSERVATION OF SEXUAL MATURITY OF TIGER, Panthera tigris tigris, AT CALCUTTA ZOO

Se PP A PR TE" EIS AE MSI I I ET EE I BE

Date Date of Age at Date of Age when

Specimens of first onset of birth of first

birth oestrus oestrus first litter born

litter

Malini 18.6.60 255° 2.65) 4 yrs. 8 months 12. 6.65 4 yrs. 11 months

Chandni 12.6.65 2. 3.69 BES 14. 7.69 ASO) ass

Shashi 8.9.67 INN SI 415, 10 24.11.72 Seas eee es

Rupa 25.9.70 12. 3575: Ae a Siae — = =

Sona 25.9.70 22. 3.74 3 1G os — = —

Bharati 10.6.66 10.10.70 BF 6 $3 24 ee 4 ,, 10

Mating behaviour:

Tigers and tigresses which are kept together,

except at night, from very early age, breed

freely in captivity but attempts to introduce

new specimens to each other are not without

risk of injury.

When a tigress comes in oestrus at Calcutta

Zoo, a male tiger is put in the adjacent cage

from where the two can see each other. At the

advent of oestrus the tigress becomes restless,

walks and sits frequently. While walking it

moans and roars in low voice and squirts scent

from its anal gland. She sits repeatedly in front

of the wire-netted door of the adjacent cage

where the male is confined. She sniffs at dif-

ferent places of the floor and wall and on

seeing the male in the adjacent cage she pro-

duces a purring sound.

Courtship:

When the door of the adjacent cage is open-

ed, the tigress hurriedly rushes into the ad-

jacent cage and proceeds to the male very

cautiously, sniffs the male producing puffing

sound. If the male is in mood for mating he

responds with a purring noise. If the male is

not in a mood for mating a fight may occur

and the couple have to be separated. It is seen

that after fighting on the first day of oestrus,

the male may accept the female the next day.

When mutual confidence is established, the

female approaches the male, purrs, rolls on

her back on the ground in front of the male

and pats at him playfully. The male sniffs the

genitalia of the female, purrs and squirts scent

frequently. He follows the female when she

walks with lashing tail and starts playing with

her. Mountfort (1973) states that the prelude

to mating is accompanied by periods of play

and harmless sparring which help to reduce

the normal antagonism between sexes.

Copulation:

The tigress sometimes comes very close to

the male and rubs her head, body and mouth

to the head, body and mouth of the male. She

sometimes lies on her beily stretching her fore-

limbs fully on the ground and her hind limbs

remaining half bent. The male approaches

from behind the female and arches his back,

bringing his penis in contact with the genital

region of the female. At this time the female

begins to tread by pushing against the floor

with her hind legs and when vaginal contact

is made she bends her tail sharply to one side

exposing her genital region and at the same

time she turns her hind end in the direction of

the stimulus. The male then holding the scruff

of the neck of female by his teeth begins a

series of vigorous pelvic thrusts at the female’s

255

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

urinogenital sinus. Intromission of penis is sig-

nalled by a loud copulatory cry from the

female and a tremendous roar is produced by

the male as he presses his genital region tightly

against that of female. Ejaculation occurs dur-

ing this interval. The actual time of coition

varies from 7 to 10 seconds. The female then

pulls forward, turns abruptly on the male,

hisses and paws him and throws him off her

back. Sometimes fighting takes place between

the sexes inflicting scratch wounds. There

may be unsuccessful attempts at mounting

prior to successful mating.

Post copulatory behaviours:

After each copulation the male moves away

from the female and walks about in the en-

closure or usually lies on the ground. Some-

times he passes stool and urine and in some

cases drinks water. The female tigress after

copulation rolls on the ground and sometimes

goes to the water for bathing. It is seen that

the female goes to water at 3 to 5 times a

day during her heat period.

After a short interval, the female again ap-

proaches the male and the whole process of

courtship and copulation is repeated. With re-

peated copulations, initiative and eagerness of

mating are seen more in the female than the

male. The tigress proceeds to the male, rubs

her head, body with the male and makes pur-

ring sound and sits in front of the male in the

mating posture inviting him to mount. The

entire process of copulation lasts for 1 to 3

minutes.

In Calcutta Zoo tigers are allowed to mate

from 7 a.m. to 10-30 a.m. in the morning and

again at 2.30 p.m. to 5 p.m. in the afternoon,

i.e. for 6 hours per day. The duration of mat-

ing period as observed during 48 heat periods

was from 3 to 9 days and average heat period

was 5—9 days. The range of mating was from

2 to 52 times per day and the averags per day

was 22.2 times. The minimum interval be-

tween two consecutive matings was I minute

and maximum was 90 minutes and the average

interval was 7.1 minutes. The highest number

TABLE 4

OBSERVATION OF MATINGS OF TIGER, Panthera tigris tigris AT CALCUTTA Zoo

SE SB SR SS ES

Number Duration Average

of heat of heat heat

Matings between period _ period period

(days) (days)

Malini x Neeladri 16 4—7 Sil

Chandni ~ Himadri 12 3—-6 4.9

Chandni ~ Bhanu 2 4—7 565)

Rupa x Barun* 2 7—9 8

Shashi ~« Rabi Hf 4—6 5

Rupa x Arun* 1 6 6

Sona x Bhanu* 4 6—8 6.4

Bharati x Johny* 3 6—9 lees

Moti x Bhanu l 5 5

Range Average Average Highest Lowest

of matings interval number number

matings per day between of of

per day in 6 two matings matings

(in 6 hours consecu- ina in a

hrs) tive single single

matings heat heat

(in period period

minutes)

5—52 25-1 TS 235 66

2—45 20.4 4.9 171 20

4—44 23.9 os) 174 89

3—25 17s 12.9 By? 122

7—49 25.8 6.9 167 ij

12—26 19.5 6.9 117 —

10—48 251511 7.8 206 126

10—47 26 5.6 247 170

9—35 18.4 6.7 92 —-

a ES

* Indicates the pair of tigers which lived together except at night.

256

REPRODUCTIVE BEHAVIOUR OF THE TIGER

of matings observed in a single heat period

was 235 times and the lowest was 20 times

(Table 4).

Gestation period:

The gestation period of tiger is given as 105

to 109 days by Asdell (1946). Crandall (1964)

records the gestation period as 100 to 108

days. Stracey (1968) records the gestation pe-

riod as 15 to 16 weeks. Schaller (1967) re-

ports the gestation period of tiger as 95 to

107 days. Ewer (1973) shows the gestation

period of Indian tiger as 95 to 109 days. It

Percentage of pregnancies:

The tigress does not become pregnant after

matings in each heat period. In Calcutta Zoo,

7 tigresses mated with the males in 48 heat

periods from 1965 to 1977. Out of 48 mating

or heat periods pregnancy occurred in 22 cases

and did not occur in 26 cases. The percentage

of pregnancy is therefore 45.8% only and non-

pregnancy is 54.2%. (Table 5). Jt was ob-

served that the number of heat periods and

percentage of pregnancy were less when both

sexes lived together except at night.

TABLE 5

RECORDS OF THE PERCENTAGE OF PREGNANCY AND NON-PREGNANCY OF _ TIGER,

Panthera tigris tigris, 1N

CALCUTTA Zoo

Mating between Number Number

(specimens) of of

mating pregnancy

or heat

period.

Malini x Neeladri 16 Tl

Chandni x Himadri 12 6

Chandni x Bhanu 2; 1

Shashi x Rabi 5

Bharati x, Johny* Q)

Moti x Bhanu 1

Rupa x Arun* I =

Rupa x Barun* 2,

Sona x Bhanu* 4

Percentage uber Percentage

non-

pregnancy

43.7 9 56.3

50 6 50

50 | 50

71.4 2, 28.6

66.6 1 33.4

100 = me

frie: 1 100

= 2, 100

= 4

* Indicates the pair of tigers which lived together except at night.

is difficult to compare the above data, as in

most cases the date of conception is defined

differently. Crandall (1964) shows the gesta-

tion period of a tigress from the last observ-

ed mating as 100 to 108 days.

The duration of gestation period in the pre-

sent observation has been estimated as the

period from last day of mating to birth and

the mean period was 103 days and the maxi-

mum and minimum were 107 and 101 days

respectively.

Litter size:

Asdell (1946) records that the size of the

litters varies from one to six but usually two

to three cubs are produced. Schaller (1967)

shows that the size of the litters varies from

1 to 7. Ewer (1973) reports that range of lit-

ter size is from 1 to 4 but 2 to 3 cubs are

usually produced. Schaller (1967) shows the

average size of 79 litters of tiger cubs born

in Zoos as 2.8.

Data of 22 litters of tiger cubs at Calcutta

257

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY,

Zoo indicate that one cub per litter was on

three occasions, two on nine occasions, four

on eight occasions, three on one occasion and

five cubs were born on one occasion. Average

number of cubs per litter was 2.6 and the

range of cubs per litter was 1 to 5 (Table 6

and Genealogical chart of white tigers).

TABLE 6

LITTER SIZE AND SEX RATIO OF TIGER, Panthera tigris

tigris, IN CALCUTTA Zoo

Vol. 77

Sex ratio:

Thirty two tiger cubs were born in eleven

litters to one tigress from 1948 to 1959 at New

York Zoological Park, the divisions of sexes

being nineteen males and thirteen females

(Crandall 1964). According to Schaller (1967)

the sex ratio of 196 tiger cubs at birth in va-

rious Zoological Gardens was 100 males and

100 females. Acharjyo and Mohapatra (1977)

reported that 18 tiger cubs were born from

1960 to 1975 in Nandan Kanan _ Biological

Park, Orissa of which 6 were males and 12

were females with a sex ratio of 50 : 100.

Specimens Litter Size Sex Ratio In Calcutta Zoo five tigresses gave birth to

Total Number of Average Male Female 61 cubs from 1965 to 1977 in 22 litters, the

anata he um uated divisions of sexes being 25 males and 36 fe-

litters in litter males. The ratio of male and female cubs was

Malini 7 4 2.0 8 6 100: 144 (Table Rs

Ghaniai 7 14 3.2 8 15 Ratio of white and coloured cubs:

Shashi 5 2-5 3.8 7 12 In Calcutta Zoo 56 cubs were born out of

Bharati 2 1—2 {5 1 2 crossing between pure white tigers with co-

Moti I 2 2 I | loured hybrids, among pure whites, among co-

79 55 6 loured hybrids and between pure white and

pure coloured tigers. Fourteen cubs were born

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REPRODUCTIVE BEHAVIOUR OF THE TIGER

to Malini (coloured hybrid female) being cros-

sed with Neeladri (pure white male). The

ratio of white and coloured cubs was 7 : 7.

Twenty cubs were born to Chandni (pure

white female) being crossed with Himadri

(pure white male). All cubs were white. But

Chandni when crossed with Bhanu (pure co-

loured Burmese male tiger) produced 3 co-

loured cubs. Nineteen cubs were born to Sha-

shi (coloured hybrid female) being crossed

with Rabi (coloured hybrid male). The ratio

of white and coloured cubs was 1 : 18 (Ge-

nealogical chart of white tiger).

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

Tigers mate throughout the year and cubs

are produced during all seasons in captivity

although there are peak periods of matings

and births. High percentage of mating took

place in the month of January, February, -

March, April, June and October and mating

percentage is low in other months of the year.

High percentage of birth occurred in March,

April, May, June. July and September. These

correspond to the high breeding activities in

the month of January, February, March, April,

June and October. In the month of February,

August and December not a single cub was

born. These correspond with low breeding acti-

vities in the month of November, September

and May.

The variations in the peak period of birth

and mating may be due to climatic condition

and other conditions in captivity.

All Felidae appear to be polyoestrus in

tropics (Asdell 1946, Crandall 1964, Prater

1964). Crandall (1964) shows that the recep-

tivity of tigress Jasts about 5 days on aver-

age. Sankhala (1967) states that the mating

period of the tiger ranges from 3 to 23 days.

Schaller (1967) reports the average length of

receptivity of 14 oestrus periods as 7.1 days.

At Calcutta Zoo the duration of 48 oestrus

periods of 7 tigresses ranged from 3 to 9

days and the average length of oestrus was

5.9 days. The variations in oestrus periods

may be due to age, physical condition and

frequency of copulation. Last oestrus phase

was observed in a tigress (Malini) upto the

age of 16 yrs. This suggests that menopause

starts in a tigress after 16 years. It needs fur-

ther verification.

There is much individual variations in the

age at which the tigresses become sexually

mature. It appears that tigresses attain sexual

maturity at ages between 34 to 5 years. But

no clear conclusion can be drawn from these

small examples.

The compatible pair of tigers mate freely

in captivity but there is a chance of serious

injury in first meeting. It can be seen from

the Table 4 that the range of mating period

is greater in case of tigresses which live to-

gether with the males in captivity. It may

be due to the fact that the females are with

the males at the vary beginning of oestrus

or heat period. The average heat period of

tigress in captivity is 5.9 days and the average

matings per day is 22.2 times.

The range of gestation period of four ti-

gresses in 22 litters was from 101 to 107 days

with an average of 103 days. These data com-

pare well with the gestation period given by

other authors (Asdell 1946, Crandall 1964

and Ewer 1973).

The tigress does not become pregnant after

matings in each heat period in captivity. The

data of pregnancy show that out of matings

in 48 heat periods, pregnancy occurred in 22

cases and did not occur in 26 cases. The per-

centage of pregnancy was 45.8% and non-

pregnancy was 54.2%. It is not known whe-

ther the age, physical condition, range of mat-

259

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY,

ing period and number of matings in each

heat period of a tigress have any role in preg-

nancy.

Crandall (1964) reported that the average

number at birth of tiger cubs at London Zoo

in 17 litters was 2.3 per litter. In Calcutta

Zoo, the range of tiger cubs per litter was

from | to 5 with an average of 2.6 cubs per

litter. Usually 2 or 4 cubs were born in Cal-

cutta Zoo. It seems probable that condition

of health, availability of food, and stress and

strain in Zoo condition have some role in litter

size of a tigress.

The sex ratio of tiger cubs at birth varies

widely. The ratio of male and female cubs

born in Calcutta Zoo from 1965 to 1977 was

100: 144,

Genealogical chart of white tigers shows

that the ratio of white and coloured cubs pro-

duced in a crossing between pure white male

with coloured hybrid female is 7 : 7. The pure

SSS

Wolke HH

white female when crossed with pure white

male produces all white cubs and pure white

female when crossed with pure coloured male

produces all coloured cubs. All these data

are in conformity with the laws of inheritance.

The data of crossing between coloured hybrid

female with coloured hybrid male are yet to

be observed.

The tigers’ adaptibility, wide range in choice

of habitat and above all its remarkably short

gestation period suggest that under favour-

able condition it can survive well.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am grateful to Dr. D. K. Nanda, Depart-

ment of Zoology, University of Calcutta for

kindly going through the manuscript and sug-

gesting some improvements. I am also grate-

ful to Shri R. P. Banerjee, a lover of wild life

for kindly making available some important

reference books and his encouragement.

REFERENCES

ASDELL, S. A. (1946):

Reproduction. Ithaca, New

lishing Co. Ine.

ACHARJYO, L. N. & MoHAPpaTRA, S. (1977): Sex

ratio at birth in some captive wild mammals. J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 74: 167-169.

CRANDALL,, L. S. (1964): Management of Wild

animals in Captivity. London & Chicago, The Uni-

versity of Chicago Press, The University of Toronto

Press, Toronto-5, Canada.

Ewer, R. F. (1973): The Carnivores.

feld & Nicolson, London W1.

Mountrort, G. (1973): Tigers. David & Charles

(Holdings) Ltd., South Devon House. Newton

Abbot. Devon.

Patterns of Mammalian

York. Comstock Pub-

Weiden-

260

Prater, S. H. (1964): The Book of Indian Ant-

mals. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay.

SANYAL, R. B. (1892): A Hand Book of the

Management of Animals in Captivity in Lower

Bengal. Bengal Secretariat Press, Calcutta.

SCHALLER, G. B. (1967): The Deer and the Tiger.

The University of Chicago Press. Chicago & London.

The University of Toronto Press, Toronto-5, Ca-

nada.

SANKHALA, K. S. (1967): Breeding behaviour of

Tiger in Rajasthan. Int. Zoo Yb. 7: 133-147.

Srracey, P. D. (1968): Tigers. Arthur Barker

Limited, 5, Winsley Street, London W1 & Golden

Press, New York.

PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS ON THE STATUS OF

SILVER CARP IN RELATION TO CATLA IN THE

CULTURE FISHERY OF KULGARHI RESERVOIR’

S. J. KARAMCHANDANE’ AND D. N. MISHRA”

(With two text-figures)

INTRODUCTION

The Chinese carp, AHypophthaimichthys

molitrix (C.&V.), popularly known as silver

carp, is an exotic fish introduced into India

from Japan in September 1959. it is native

to Chinese rivers, but has been introduced into

almost all the South-east Asian countries. The

work carried out at the Pond Culture Divi-

sion of Central Inland Fisheries Research tn-

stitute, Cuttack has shown that silver carp is

a fast growing fish, growing faster than catla

and that its growth in Indian waiers is faster

than in its native waters. The observations

further indicated that though the production

of silver carp alone in a pond is over double

that of catla, the presence of both in a pond

seems to affect the growth of either adversely

(Alikunhi and Sukumaran 1964). With this

background, a small consignment of silver

carp fingerlings was stocked in Kulgarhi re-

servoir on experimental basis on 11-2-1969.

Based on the recovery of 8 specimens of silver

carp (size range: 575-794 mm) from Kulgarhi

reservoir during ithe period 2.12.69 to 4.6.71,

Rao and Dwivedi (1972) have reported ex-

cellent growth of this exotic fish, thus indicat-

1 Accepted February 1979.

2 Small Reservoirs Unit, Central Inland Fisheries

Research Institute, Rewa (M.P.). Present address:

Central Inland Fisheries Research Sub-station, Alla-

habad, (U.P.).

ing a great promise for the increased fisn pro-

duction from the reservoir. However, in a

separate study, the comparison of growth rates

of silver carp and catla from Kulgarhi reser-

voir has indicated that the culture of silver

carp with catla in the reservoir adversely

affects the growth of the latter. It is well known

that the food habits of a fish have a direct

bearing on its growth and survival. With a

view to evaluate the status of silver carp in

culture fishery of the reservoir with particular

reference to catla, the observations were made

on the food habits and the growth of silver

carp and catla from Kulgarhi reservoir during

the period 2.12.1969 to 22.12.1972 and the re-

sults thereof are reported in this communica-

tion.

Kulgarhi Reservoir:

It is situated about 85 km from Rewa in

Nagod Tahsil, Satna District, Madhya Pradesh

near Kulgarhi village, its geographical loca-

tion being 80° 44’ 0”E longitude and 24° 28°

50”N latitude.

The work on the construction of the reser-

voir was started in the year 1959 and com-

pleted in the year 1966. On the north of it,

an earthen dam having a length of 1450 m and

maximum height of 18.6 m has been con-

structed across a seasonal stream called Durha

* Central Inland Fisheries Research Sub-centre,

Jaunpur (U.P.).

261

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

nalah (Ganga river basin), which originates

from hills surrounding the reservoir on east,

south and west sides and drains rain water

from the catchment area of 10.69 sq. miles

into the reservoir from south-west corner. The

waste weir is located on the north-east side

of the reservoir. The maximum water spread

area is 193.5 hectres which was attained for

the first time during 1971 monsoon season.

The live storage capacity of the reservoir is

306 me ft., whereas its dead storage capacity

is only 26 mc ft.

MATERIAL AND METHOD

The construction work of Kulgarhi reser-

voir was completed in the year 1966. The

fingerlings of major carps including catla

were stocked for the first time in Kulgarhi re-

-servoir in the year 1966 and again in the year

1968. The fry of silver carp (size range: 15-

17 mm), which were obtained from Cuttack

Sub-station of this Institute in September 1968,

were reared in a nursery pond at Satna (M.P.)

till the beginning of February 1969 and 229

fingerlings (size range: 121-216 mm) recover-

ed from this nursery pond were stocked in

the reservoir on 11.2.1969.

For comparing the growth patterns of catla

and silver carp, 137 specimens of the former

belonging to 1966 brood and captured from

the reservoir from February 1968 to June

1972 and 12 specimens of the latter belonging

to 1968 brood and captured from December

1969 to December 1972 have been utilized.

The age of the individual specimen of caila

and silver carp in terms of months has been

determined on the basis of date of their re-

covery from the reservoir, assuming period

of their hatching as August 1966 and August

1968 respectively.

For food studies, the guts of 11 specimens

262

of silver carp and I1 specimens of catla ob-

tained in the months of December 1969, Sep-

tember 1970, February 1971, June 1971, July

1971, March 1972 and June 1972 were exa-

mined and their gut-contents compared.

OBSERVATIONS

Food and feeding habits:

The observations on the gut-contents of

silver carp and catla by Alikunhi and Sukuma-

ran (1964) have shown that both are plankton

feeders and the differences in feeding habits

are only structurally indicated. Singh (1972)

has stated that silver carp competes for food

with catla, both being surface feeders. Accord-

ing to Chakraborty (1972), silver carp and

catla are both dwellers of the same strata of

water in ponds and there is some overlapping

in the food spectrum of these two species.

Laxshmanan ef al. (1971) have observed keen

competition for the same type of food be-

tween catla and silver carp.

Like catla, silver carp has a terminal mouth

indicating surface feeding habits. The presence

of insignificant quantities of decayed organic

matter and sand mixed with mud in the guts

of the two species in most of the months* in

Kulgarhi reservoir has also indicated that the

two species rarely feed at bottom.

The gut length in young silver carp (size

range; 52-367 mm) is 3.0 to 7.8 times the

total length of the fish (Inaba and Nomura

1956). In the present study, the ratio of fish

length to gut-length in adult silver carp (size

range: 575-795 mm) has been found to vary

from 1:4.36 to 1:8.6 (Av.-1:6.25) and is al-

4 Only in the month of June when the water level

in the reservoir was low, the guts of the two species

were found to contain sufficient quantities of sand

mixed with mud and the bottom debris.

SILVER CARP AND CATLA IN CULTURE FISHERY

most comparable to that of catla (Range—

Hoto 129:58;- Av.-1: 7:39). This seems to

indicate that the food and feeding habits of

the two species are almost the same, as the

length of the gut depends on the nature of

the food taken by the fish (Mookerjee and

Das 1945).

The foregoing observations seem to give

clue to the fact that when silver carp and catla

are cultured together, they mutually compete

for the same type of food. With a view to

elucidate this point, the guts of the two species

obtained during the corresponding months

were examined for their contents. The overall

composition of the gut-contents of silver carp

and catla, as determined in the present study,

has been compared and given in Table 1.

TABLE 1

COMPARISON OF GUT-CONTENTS OF SILVER CARP AND

CATLA FROM KULGARHI RESERVOIR

Items of gut-contents Silver carp Catla

Sand mixed with mud 13.29% 5.75%

Decayed organic matter 7.14 TAD

Digested matter 40.29 67.95

Blue-green algae 4.32 12.96

Green algae 9.09 0.43

Diatoms 3.76 1.79

Dinoflagellates 1.07 0.06

Rotifers 20.81 2.31

Copepods 0.23 1.30

Cladocerans — 0.26

According to Inaba and Nomura (1956),

silver carp has specialised structure of the gill

rakers adapted to micro-plankton feeding and

is predominantly phytoplankton feeder. Alli-

kunhi and Sukumaran (1964) have observed

that silver carp feeds predominantly on phy-

toplankton and it is an efficient converter of

basic food, whereas catla is predominantly

zooplankton feeder.

In the present case (vide Table 1), silver

carp and catla have been found to subsist on

almost equal quantities of phytoplankton

(18.24% and 15.24% respectively). Among

phytoplankton, the green algae was the most

dominant (9.09%) in the diet of silver carp,

followed by blue-green algae (4.32%), diatoms

(3.76%) and dinoflagellates (1.07%), where-

as catla was found to feed predominantly on

blue-green algae (12.96%) and insignificantly

on diatoms (1.79%), green algae (0.43%) and

dinoflagellates (0.06%). Melosira, Eunotia,

Cyclotella and Navicula among diatoms; Chlo-

rella, Gloeocystis, Scenedesmus, Coelastrum

and Tetraedron among green-algae; Microcystis

and Merismopedia among blue-green algae:

Peridinium and Ceratium among dinoflagella-

tes were the most dominant in the diet of sil-

ver carp. Melosira and Cyclotella among dia-

toms: Gloeocysiis and Scenedesmus among

green algae: Microcystis among blue-green

algae; and Peridinium and Ceratium among

dinoflagellates were likewise the most domi-

nant in the diet of catla. In the guts of silver

carp, the zooplankton (21.04%) was made up

almost entirely of rotifers (20.81%), the only

other component insignificantly represented

being copepods (0.23%). Catla is known

to be mainly zooplankton feeder. As the

foregut in catla has a rudimentary stomach

in the form of slightly dilated bulb, most of

the crustaceans (copepods and _ cladocerans)

get digested. As such the bulk of this group

is encountered in digested condition (67.95%)

and very little of it is in identifiable condition

(copepods: 1.3% and cladocerans: 0.26%).

In the diet of silver carp, Keratella among roti-

fers and Cyclops among copepods were the

most common forms, whereas in the diet of

catla, Keratella among rotifers; Cyclops, Nau-

plius and Diaptomus among copepods; and

Bosmina and Daphnia among cladocerans were

263

the most common forms.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

the gastrosomatic index being 20.05. In com-

The observations on the feeding intensity of parison to silver carp, catla appears to be a

silver carp and catla have indicated that the moderate feeder (9.1% of the guts full and

former is more voracious feeder than the lat- the gastrosomatic index—7.4). As catla feeds

ter. 50% of the guts of silver carp were full, on crustaceans (nutritiously rich food), it

LENGTH (MM)

nO AGE

iG Hee ELK.)

WeE

264

900

800

700

600

Figs 1;

20 30 40 50 60 70

Ally Ge (MONTHS)

Growth pattern, by length and weight, of catla (1966 brood).

(MM),

TOTAL LENGTH

WEIGHT (KG)

SILVER CARP AND CATLA IN CULTURE FISHERY

30 40 50

20 60

A G E (MONTHS)

Fig. 2. Growth pattern, by length and weight. of silver carp (1968 brood).

265

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 77

requires comparatively little quantity of food

for its normal fast growth. On the other hand,

silver carp feeds abundantly on rotifers and

sparingly on copepods. The two species sub-

sist on almost equal quantities of phytoplank-

ton. The food of silver carp is therefore not

so nutritiously rich as that of catla. Hence, it

is imperative that in order to attain fast

growth, silver carp consume food at faster

rates than catla.

Growth:

As already stated, the fingerlings of catla

were stocked in the reservoir for the first time

in the year 1966 and again in the year 1968.

From the fact that the reservoir was not stock-

ed with catla in the year 1967, it has been pos-

sible to separate catla specimens belonging

terms of months of 12 silver carp captured

from the reservoir has also been determined

from the date of their recovery (vide Appen-

dix I). Based on the data on growth by length

and weight of catla and silver carp, the growth

curves for the two species have been drawn

in figs. 1 and 2, and the growth in terms of

months, as has been read off from the curves,

is presented in Table 2.

From the analysis of growth data on silver

carp and catla, the following facts emerged:

(i) The growth of silver carp was fast in

the early period, i.e. upto 25 months (fig. 2),

when the plankton was abundant and silver

carp could feed voraciously on rotifers. But

the growth of silver carp showed decline in the

later period, i.e. in following 25 to 50 months,

a TABLE 2

GROWTH OFSSILVER CARP AND CATLA IN KULGARHI RESERVOIR

Date

Age Total length Growth Weight Growth rate

(in months) (mm) rate (mm) (kg) (kg)

SILVER CARP

March 770 20 650 — 3.00 —

January 71 30 760 110 S25) DDS)

November 771 40 800 40 6.00 0.75

September °72 50 830 30 6.50 0.50

: CATLA

March ’68 20 610 _ 4.50 =

*January *69 30 760 150 8.25 3.75

November °69 40 825 65 9.75 1.50

September ’70 50 850 2S 10.00 0.25

July ’71 60 855 5 10.25 0.25

May 772 70 855 0 10.25 0.00

* Silver carp was introduced in the reservoir in February 1969.

to 1966 and 1968 broods captured from Feb-

ruary 1968 to June 1972 and assign age to

the individual fish in terms of months on the

basis of date of their capture. As the finger-

lings of silver carp were stocked in the reser-

voir only once in February 1969, the age in

266

when rotifers were poorly represented in

plankton (vide Table 3). .

(ii) Catla belonging to 1966 brood showed

normal growth up to the time silver carp was

absent in the reservoir, but with the introduc-

tion of silver carp in February 1969, catla

SILVER CARP AND CATLA IN CULTURE FISHERY

showed retarded growth thereafter (fig. 1).

Catla belonging to 1968 brood showed

extremely poor growth from the very begin-

ning.

From the above observations, it is evident

that the culture of silver carp in Kulgarhi re-

servoir has adversely affected the growth of

catla.

REMARKS

It is evident from the data presented that

the growth of catla has greatly suffered since

the time silver carp was introduced in Kul-

garhi_ reservoir. Alikunhi and Sukumaran

(1964) and Sukumaran ef al. (1969) have

stated that catla adversely suffers in competi-

tion for food in presence of silver carp. Ac-

cording to Singh (1972), silver carp competes

for food with catla, both being surface feeders

and the former grows much faster than the

latter. Laxshmanan et al. (1971) have observ-

ed that the Indian carps and the Chinese carps

compete to some extent for the same type

of food and this competition is more pro-

nounced between catla and silver carp. Cha-

kraborty (1972) has also observed that catla

and silver carp are both dwellers of the same

strata of water in ponds and though the for-

mer feeds prodominantly on zooplankton and

the latter predominantly on phytoplankton.

there appears to be some overlapping in the

food spectrum of these two species. The obser-

vations on the feeding habits of silver carp

in Kulgarhi reservoir have, however, indicated

that it is a more voracious feeder than catla and

it feeds predominantly on rotifers. These ob-

servations are amply confirmed when the data

on the yearly fluctuations in plankton popu-

lation of Kulgarhi reservoir from 1968-69 to

1971-72, presented in Table 3, is critically

examined. As is seen from this table, the popu-

lation of rotifers and in turn that of zooplank-

ton has suffered sharp decline immediately

after the introduction of silver carp in the re-

servoir and the lower level of rotifers and con-

TABLE 3

YEARLY FLUCTUATIONS IN PLANKTON COUNT (UNITS PER LITRE) IN THE SURFACE COLLECTION SAMPLES OF

KULGARHI RESERVOIR FROM 1968-69 To 1971-72.

Plankton 1968-69 1969-70 1970-71 1971-72

Diatoms 53.0 106.2 32.6 6.0

Green algae 15 8.1 18.8 11.5

Blue-green algae 14.8 17.7 31.1 19.3

Dinoflagellates 123.3 184.2 150.9 5.0

PHYTOPLANKTON 192.6 316.2 233.4 41.8

Protozoans 13.7 15.9 36.6 0.9

Rotifers 155.6 45.4 63.6 71

Copepods 34.7 28.0 15.0 8.6

Cladocerans 6.7 1.9 6.6 2.6

ZOOPLANKTON 210.7 91.2 121.8 19.2

TOTAL PLANKTON 403.3 407.4 355.2 61.0

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY,

sequently that of zooplankton concentrations

has continued to prevail during subsequent

years (1969-70 to 1971-72). This phenomenon

cannot be considered merely a coincidence, as

rotifers in large quantities have been encoun-

tered in the guts of silver carp. Moreover, the

depletion in rotifer population in Kulgarhi re-

servoir, which has been recently constructed,

cannot be attributed to trophic depression (re-

ferred to by Jhingran 1965), as in that case

the entire plankton population would have

suffered depietion, which does not happen to

be the case here. The total plankton, on the

contrary continued to maintain almost the

same level (355.2 to 407.4 u/l) during the first

three years (1968-69 to 1970-71).

Since catla does not feed exclusively or even

abundantly on rotifers, silver carp by feeding

on rotifers does not seem-to compete directly

with catla in food. The overwhelming prefer-

ence for rotifers (mostly Keratella) by silver

carp has probably created imbalance in plank-

ton production cycle, greatly affecting the pro-

duction of zooplankton, which constitutes the

main food of catla. Thus, it is probable that

catla indirectly suffers in the presence of silver

carp. Furthermore, silver carp is known to

grow faster than catla (Alikunhi and Suku-

maran 1964, and Singh 1972). It is therefore

imperative that in order to maintain faster

growth, silver carp devours plankton at faster

rate. Singh (1972) also stated that silver carp

has the capacity to utilize the natural food

(phyto-and zoo-plankton) efficiently. As such,

it is not difficult to visualize that in any body

of water populated with silver carp, if the rate

of plankton production does not keep pace

with that of plankton consumption by silver

carp, such waters would soon result in poor

productivity and affect the normal growth of

major carps, particularly catla, cultured along

with it. It may therefore be surmised that it

268

Vol. 77

would not be a profitable proposition to cul-

ture silver carp along with catla in the reser-

voir. In. view of these considerations, it is

deemed proper to undertake further detailed

biological studies on silver carp before its in-

troduction in Indian reservoirs for large scale

cultivation. In this context, Aijikunhi and

Sukumaran (1964) have expressed the view

that ‘further detailed observations are neces-

sary before decision is taken about large-scale

introduction of silver carp for cultivation in

ponds in India’. Singh (1972) has also ex-

pressed the opinion that ‘the question of re-

lease of silver carp in open waters where it

could exercise some adverse effect on major

carps fishery, particularly of catla, may await

further investigations’, as ‘hasty transplanta-

tions for hobby or trade are likely to prove

hazardous’.

Silver carp is reported to have more or less

similar breeding habits as those of Indian

major carps (Chaudhuri 1969) and it has been

found to breed naturally in Tone river of

Japan (Konradt 1968) and in Ah Kung Tian

reservoir of Taiwan (Tang 1963). Instances

of breeding of major carps in Indian reservoirs

under suitable conditions are not rare. If silver

carp is stocked in Indian reservoirs on large

scale and it starts breeding in them naturally,

it may prove to be a menace to the culture

fishery of these waters.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful to Dr. V. G. Jhingran,

Director and Dr. Y. R. Tripathi former De-

puty Director, of this Institute for their keen

interest in this work and to Dr. A. V. Nata-

rajan, Scientist S-3 and to Shri J. C. Malho-

tra, Scientist S-3 for going through the manus-

cript critically. Thanks are due to Shri G. K.

SILVER CARP AND CATLA IN CULTURE FISHERY

Bhatnagar, Scientist S-2 and Shri P. N. Jait-

ley, Senior Research Assistant, for placing the

plankton data of Kulgarhi reservoir at our

disposal.

REFERENCES

ALIKUNHI, K. H. AND SUKUMARAN, K. K.

(1964): Preliminary observations on Chinese carps

in India. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. (B) 60 (3): 171-

188.

CHAKRABORTY, R. D. (1972): Composite culture

of Indian and exotic fishes. Silver Jubilee Souvenir,

Central Inland Fisheries Research Institute, Barrack-

pore, December 1972. 25: 29.

CHAUDHURI, H. (1969): Breeding habits of cul-

tivated fishes. FAO/UNDP Regional Seminar on

induced breeding of cultivated fishes, Calcutta, Cut-

tack, Bombay: 1-13.

*INABA, D. AND Nomurd, M. (1956): On _ the

digestive system and feeding habits of young Chi-

nese carps collected from Tone river. J. Tokyo

Univ. Fish, 42 (1): 17-24.

JHINGRAN, V. G. (1965): Report on Inland

Fisheries Research and management and fish cul-

ture in the USSR., Misc. Contri. No. 5, Central

Inland Fisheries Research Institute, Barrackpore

1-27.

*Konrapt, A. G. (1968): Methods of breeding

the grass carp, Ctenopharyngodon idella and silver

carp, Hypophthalmichthys molitrix. FAO Fish Rep.,

(44), 4: 195-204.

LAXSHMANAN, M. A. V., SUKUMARAN, K. K.,

Murty, D. S., CHAKRABORTY, D. P. AND PHILIPOSE,

M. T. (1971): Preliminary observations on inten-

sive fish farming in fresh-water ponds by the com-

posite culture of Indian and exotic species., J. Inland

Fish. Soc., India, 3: 1-21.

MOoKERJEE, H. K. AND Das, B. K. (1945): Gut

of carnivorous and herbivorous fishes in relation

to their food at different stages of their life. Proc.

32nd Indian Science Congress, Part If, Abstracts.:

109.

Rao, J. B. AND Dwivepl, R. K. (1972): On the

recovery and growth of silver carp (Hypophthal-

michthys molitrix) from Kulgarhi reservoir (M.P.).

J. Inland. Fish. Soc. India., 4: 214-215.

SINGH, S. B. (1972): Role of exotic fish on pis-

ciculture in India. Silver Jubilee, Souvenir, Central

Inland Fisheries Research Institute. Barrackpore,

30-33.

SUKUMARAN, K. K., SINGH, S. B., Murry, D. S.

AND CHAKRABORTY, P. C. (1969): Studies on com-

patibility and competition between Silver carp,

Hypophthalmichthys molitrix (Val.) and Catla,

Catla catla (Ham.). Proc. Indo-Pacif. Fish Coun.,

13 (2): 185-194.

*TANG, Y. A. (1963): Report on the investigation

of spawning of Chinese carps in Ah Kung Tian

reservoir. Bull. Taiwan Fish. Res. Inst., (8): 30 p.

* Not referred in original.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

APPENDIX I

DETAILS OF RECOVERY OF SILVER CARP FROM KULGARHI RESERVOIR DURING THE PERIOD 3.12.1969 To 22.12.72.

OEE ST RG SE ED

SI. No. Date of *Age (in months) Total length Weight Sex

recovery (mm) (kg)

1 3.12.69 16 575 2.00 M

2 5.9.70 25 155 5.00 F

s) 5.2.71 30 728 5.00 M

4 15.2.71 30 727 4.50 M

5 15-271 30 795 5.00 M

6 15:2:71 30 744 5.00 M

Ui 17.2.7] 30 ag, 5.00 M

8 4.4.71 34 768 5.00 M

9 23.7.71 36 800 6.00 F

10 2873.12 44 835 7.00 F

11 28.6.72 47 790 S575) M

12 D222 53 850 6.50 M

* Counted from August 1968.

270

NOTES ON THE FERNS AND FERN-ALLIES IN THE

BOTANY OF ORISSA’

N. C. Nair? AND R. K. GHosH®

Psilotum nudum (Linn.) Griseb., Helminthostachys zeylanica (Linn.) Maxon,

Actiniopteris radiata (Sw.) Link, Pteris biaurita Linn., Pteris quadriaurita (sensu

lato), Doryopteris concolor (Langsd. et Fisch.) Kuhn, Diplazium lasiopteris Kunze,

Sphenomeris chinensis (Linn.) Maxon, Asplenium inaequilaterale Willd., Asplenium

unilaterale Lamk. var. majus (C. Chr.) Sledge, Asplenium varians Hook. ex Grev.,

Colysis hemionitidea (Wall.) Presl, Pyrrosia mollis (Kze.) Ching and Pyrrosia naya-

riana Ching et Chandra are reported from Orissa with notes of interest.

INTRODUCTION

In an earlier paper (Nair and Ghosh 1975)

notes on eleven new distributional records to

the Botany of Orissa have been given. Further

critical study of our collections as weil as

those of earlier collectors from Orissa particu-

larly from Koraput and Kalahandi Districts

have enabled us to discover more interesting

taxa of ferns and fern-allies several of which

are found to be additions to the flora of

Orissa. Notes on these taxa are presented here

along with certain noteworthy features of other

ferns collected from the area. With the present

account the total number of ferns recorded so

far from Orissa goes up to 116 (cf. Haines

1924, Mooney 1950, Panigrahi et al. 1964,

Nair and Ghosh 1975, 1978).

The specimens mentioned are deposited in

the herbarium of the Botanical Survey of

India, Howrah (CAL). The arrangement of

homosporous ferns are after Nayar (1974).

1 Accepted December 1978. We are thankful to

Sreemathy C. K. Vijayam for typing the manuscript.

2 Botanical Survey of India, Southern Circle,

Coimbatore-641 003.

3 Botanical Survey of India, Indian Botanic Gar-

den, Sibpore, Howrah.

I. PsSILOTACEAE

Psilotum nudum (Linn.) Griseb. in Abh.

Ges. Wiss. Gotting. 7: 278, 1857; Clarke in

Trans. Linn. Soc. London 2, Bot. 1: 589, 1880;

Engl. Pflanzenw. Afr. 2: 76. fig. 75, 1908.

Lycopodium nudum Linn. Sp. Pi. 2: 1100,

1753. Psilotum triquetrum Sw. Syn. Fil. 187,

1806; Baker, Fern Allies 30, 1887; Adams et

Alston in Bull. Brit. Mus. 1: 185, 1955.

This is predominantly a tropical and sub-

tropical taxon and is common along the

coastland of India particularly among the ad-

ventitious roots of coconut trees. Sometimes it

grows on mossy moist rocks in shade. The

present specimens were collected from steep

mossy rocks along the banks of Karandy river.

The species has an altitudinal range from sea

level up to 1250 m.

Material examined. Dodari, Koraput Dist.,

1200 m, N. C. Nair 53258 (6-2-1976), 53297

(9-2-1976).

II. OPHIOGLOSSACEAE

Helminthostachys zeylanica (Linn.) Hook.

Gen. t. 47, 1840; Bedd. Handb. Ferns.

Brit. India 467, 1883; C. Chr. Ind. Fil.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

344, 1906; Haines, Bot. Bihar, Orissa, 3:

1268, 1924. Osmunda zeylanica Linn. Sp.

Pl. 1063, Ws3

Haines (1924) states that he could not find

any specimen from Bihar or Orissa. But, he

did see specimens from Bengal. This appears

to be a rare taxon in Orissa. Although we

made extensive exploration in Koraput and

Kalahandi districts we could not come across

this species. The present record is based on

the collections of Shri D. C. S. Raju. We are

thankful to him for placing his collection at

our disposal.

Material examined: Dharmagod Reserve

forest near Govindapally (Koraput Dist.), D.

C. S. Raju 1242 (19-11-1963), 2403 (10-8-65).

On southern slopes in sal forest.

{II. PTERIDACEAE

1. Actiniopteris radiata (Sw.) Link, Fil. Sp.

Hort. Reg. Bot. Berol. Cult. 80, 1841;

Bedd. Ferns. South India t. 124, 1865;

Pichisermolli in Webbia, 17: 318,

1963. Asplenium radiatum Sw. in

Schrad. Journ. Bot. 1800: 50, 1801.

Actiniopteris dichotoma_ Forsk. FI.

Aeg.-Arb. 184, 1775 (non Linn.

1753)); Bedd. Handb. Ferns. Brit.

India 197, t. 98. 1883. Actiniopteris

australis auct. (non Link, 1841).

Mooney (1950) states that “‘it seems very

doubtful if this fern occurs within the boun-

daries of our province’. We have seen several

collections from the area. This appears to be

a rare species in Orissa.

Material examined: Sunki, D. C. S. Raju

2090 (24-7-1965), D. C. S. Raju 9655; Kora-

put Dist. D. C. S. Raju s.n.

2. Pteris biaurita Linn. Sp. Pl. 1076, 1753;

Haines, Bot. Bihar, Orissa 1203, 1924.

Mooney, Suppl. Bot. Bihar, Orissa 222,

Ne)

NS)

1950. Campteria biaurita (Linn.) Hook.

Gen. Fil. t. 65A, 1841; Bedd. Handb.

Ferns. Brit. India 116, 1883.

This pantropic species has been collected

from several localities in Orissa. It has a lik-

ing for lightly shady moist places particularly

near streams and springs. This has 5 to 9 pairs

of opposite pinnae with an apical pinna hav-

ing the same shape like all the others. The

lowest pair of pinnae are the longest of the

lot and are again branched near the base. This

being the usual condition we have come across

a large plant of (over 2 m) the taxon near

a stream on Devi hill, Jeypore (Koraput

Dist.), in which each of the lowest pair of

pinnae had four secondary pinnae each, on

the basiscopic side. Each of the branches had

20-26 falcate and widely spaced segments.

Material examined. Devi Hill, Jeypore

(Koraput Dist.), N. C. Nair 51312 (25-10-73).

3. Pteris quadriaurita Retz. in Obs. Bot. 6:

SSF 17S ee

It has been shown earlier (Nair and S. R.

Ghosh, 1975) that Pteris quadriaurita Retz.

is strictly a Ceylonese and South Indian species

and that the reports of the taxon from other

parts of the subcontinent of India need con-

firmation. Typical Pteris quadriaurita Retz. has

segments with rounded and serrated apex,

sinus reaching nearly to the costa and the

lower branch of the lowest vein reaching

above sinus (Hieronymus 1914). In the pre-

sent study we have come across a plant with

venation similar to that of P. quadriaurita

Retz., but the apex of the segments was not

serrated. The costa and costules of this plant

were sparsely white hairy on the lower surface.

There are very few hairs on the upper sur-

face of the segments as well as on the costa.

On the lower surface of some of the pinnules

there were adventitious buds on the costa deve-

loping into plantlets. Generally leaves sprouting

FERNS & FERN-ALLIES IN

from bulbils have the same form as leaves of

the parent plant. But here, fronds arising froin

the adventitious buds are very different from

the ordinary parent frond. Similar heteromor-

phy in leaves of the genus has been earlier re-

ported by Masters (1868).

On an examination of specimens belonging

to Pteris from the Central National Herbar-

ium, Sibpur, we have come across a specimen

collected from Manipur, Naga Hills, by S. K.

Mukerjee 3477 and determined by G. Pani-

grahi as Pteris biaurita Linn. showing adven-

titious buds on the lower side of the frond.

It is certainly not Preris biaurita since the

lowest veins of segments are not arching. This

specimen also has segments with non-serrated

apex and the basal branch of the lowes: vein

of the segment reaches above the sinus. Bui

the specimens differ from our plant in having

(1) purplish costa and costule and (2) glabr-

ous costa and costule.

While it is certain that the Orissa specimens

do not belong to Pteris quadriaurita Retz.

(sensu stricto) their taxonomic status will re-

main open to question till further materials

are at hand.

Material examined. Devmali (Koraput

Dist.), 1500 m, N. C. Nair 53289 (7-2-1976)

under deep shade near stream.

IV CHEILANTHACEAE

1. Doryopteris concolor (Langsd, et Fisch.)

Kuhn, V. Decken Reis. 3, Bot. 19, 1789;

C. Christens. Ind. Fil. 243. 1906; Nayar

et Kaur Companion Bedd. Handb. Ferns

Brit. India 28, 1974. Pieris concolor

Langsd. et Fisch. Ic. Fil. 19, t. 21, 1816

Pteris geraniifolia Bedd. Ferns. South

India t. 37, 1863. Pellaea geraniifolia

Hook. et Bak. Syn. Fil. 146. 1865. Pel-

laea concolor (Langsd. et Fisch.) Bedd.

ORISSA

Handb. Fern. Brit. India 100, 1883.

In India this fern has been previously re-

ported only from the Western Ghats of the

former Presidency of Madras, at an altitude

above 1000 m. In these places it is reported

to be a common species.

We have collected the species from areas

adjoining Orissa, such as Anantagiri and San-

kermata in Andhra Pradesh from altitudes be-

tween 1000-1500 m, N. C. Nair 53518. From

this it can be safely concluded that it is a spe-

cies common to both Eastern Ghats and

Western Ghats at higher elevations.

Material examined. Dodari (Karandi river

bank), Koraput Dist. 1110 m, N.C. Nair 53294

(Feb. 9, 1976) in crevices of rocks, common.

V DENNSTAEDTIACEAE

Microlepia platyphylla (D. Don) J. Sm., in

Jour. Bot. 1: 427, 1842; Bedd. Ferns.

South. india t. 13, 1863 et Handb. Ferns.

India 66, t. 33, 1883; Nayar et Kaur in

Bull. Nat. Bot. Gard. 79: 12, 1963 ef

Compan. Bedd. Handb. Ferns Brit.

India 19, 1974. Devallia platyphylla D.

Don, Prodr. Fl. Nepal. 10, 1825.

This is a large elegant fern over 2 m tall.

The lamina when young is hairy on costa and

costule, and when mature, glabrous on both

surfaces or sometimes hairy on the vein above

in fertile lobes. This is a wideiy distributed

taxon in India but has not so far been collect-

ed from Orissa.

Material examined. Devmali (Koraput

Dist.), 1500 m, N. C. Nair 53280 (7-2-1976)

under deep shade near stream; common in

this area only.

VI DRYOPTERIDACEAE

|. Diplazium lasiopteris Kunze in Linnaea 17:

273

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY,

568, 1843; Bedd. Ferns. South India, 53,

t. 160, 1863; Sledge in Bull. Brit. Mus.

(Nato Hist.) 2237296, t.-305 £7103 11962-

Asplenium thwaitesii A. Braun ex Mett.

in Abhandl. Senekenb. Naturforsch. Ges.

3: 227, 1859; Hook. et Bak. Synops. Fil.

235, 1867. Diplazium thwaitesii (A.

Braun ex Mett.) Klotzsch ex T. Moore,

Index Fil. 339, 1862; Bedd. Fern. Brit.

Ind. t. 291, 1868. Diplazium japonicum

sensu. Bedd. Handb. Ferns. Brit. India

180, 1883 (Pro parte) non Bedd. (1876)

nec Asplenium japonicum Thunb.

This is a common species in South India

and Ceylon. The taxon appears to be very

variable as to its robustness.

Beddome (1883) united this species with

Diplazium japonicum sensu lato. According

to Sledge (1962) Diplazium japonicum sensu

stricto and Diplazium lasiopteris Kunze are

distinct. Beddome’s Diplazium japonicum

also includes Diplazium polyrhizon (Baker)

Sledge which is endemic to Ceylon.

In the distribution of Diplazium japonicum

(sensu Beddome), Beddome (1883) _ gives

Jeypore hills. Although we made extensive

search for the species in the mountainous re-

gion in the neighbourhood of Jeypore we

could not come across even a single specimen

of Diplazium lasiopteris Kunze in the area.

The present specimen was collected from

Devmali (Dodari), the eastern most region

of Koraput District, which is continuous with

the mountain ranges of Visakhapatnam Dis-

trict. In the Indian subcontinent this species

is usually found above an altitude of 1000 im

in deep forests.

Material examined. Devmali — (Dodari,

Koraput Dist.), 1500 m, WN. C. Nair 53274

(7-2-1976)—under deep shade in rocky place

near spring.

2. Sphenomeris chinensis (Linn.) Maxon in

274

Vol. 77

Wash. Acad. Sci. Jour. 3: 114, 1913;

Nair in Bull. Bot. Surv. India 11: 187,

1969; 7Vrichomanes chinensis Linn. Sp.

Pl. 2: 1099, 1753. Adiantum chusanum

(Linn.) Bedd. Handb. Ferns Brit.

chinensis (Linn.) Mett. ex Kuhn Fil.

Afr. 67, 1868. Stenoloma chinensis

(Linn.) Bedd. Handb. Ferns. Brit.

India 70, t. 34, 1883 (excl. Syn. Davallia

‘enuifolia Alston ef Bonner in Can-

dollea 15: 198, 1956). Odontosoria chi-

nensis (Linn.) J. Sm. Bot. Voy. Herald

430, 1897; Haines Bot. Bihar Orissa 3:

1248, 1924; Mooney Suppl. Bot. Bihar,

Orissa 219, 1950. Sphenomeis chusana

(Linn.) Copel. in Bish. Mus. Publ. 59:

69, 1929; Holttum, Fl. Malaya 2: 341,

1954; Tagawa, Col. Ill. Jap. Pterid. 257,

1959.

Haines (1924) and Mooney (1950) reported

it only from the border areas of Madhya Pra-

desh and Bihar and Bihar and Bengal (Singh-

bhum). In Koraput and Kalahandi districts

this is not a rare fern. Sometimes it reaches

a length up to 80 cm. It is generally found on

moist cuttings along hill-roads in shade.

Material examined. Along Karandi river,

Dodari (Koraput Dist.), 1550 m, N. C. Nair

53252 (Feb. 6, 1976) — along with Nephro-

lepis. Very common in this area.

VII. ASPLENIACEAE

1. Asplenium inaequilaterale Willd. in Linn.

Sp. Pl. ed. 4, 5: 322, 1810; Hieron in

Hedwigia 61: 22, 1919; Sledge in Bull.

Brit. | Mus: \(Nat. Hist.) 3'7 9 252:\41965;

Asplenium trapeziforme sensu Bedd.

Ferns. South India 45, t. 134, 1864 (non

Roxb.). Asplenium lunulatum var. trape-

ziforme Bedd. Handb. Ferns. Brit. India

148, 1883 pro parte (non A. trapezi-

forme Roxb.)

FERNS & FERN-ALLIES IN ORISSA

This is a typical tropical fern of South Ame-

rica, Africa, Madagascar, Sri Lanka, etc. In

India this species has been previously reported

only from Palnis, Nilgiris, Anamalays, and

Bombay. The present discovery extends its dis-

tribution further east. Our plants were between

30-40 cm tall and very membraneous. It loves

deep shade and grows amidst boulders near

streams.

This fern has been confused in the past with

Asplenium unilaterale. Christensen (1906)

treated Asplenium inaequilaterale and Asple-

nium unilaterale as conspecific. Beddome

(1883) considered Asplenium trapeziforme

Roxb., from Malaya, also as conspecific. But,

Roxburgh’s species is very distinct from As-

plenium inaequilaterale in the veins running

to the extremities of the marginal teeth (cf.

Sledge 1965) and in the shape of the pinnae.

This species grows side by side with Asple-

nium unilaterale Lamk. to which it has super-

ficial similarity.

Material examined. Saput, Padwa, (Kora-

put Dist.) N. C. Nair 53215 (28-1-1976).

2. Asplenium unilaterale Lamk. var. majus

(C. Chr.) Sledge in Bull. Brit. Mus.

(Nat. Hist.) 3: 246, 1965. Asplenium uni-

laterale forma majus. C. Chr. in Bernice

P. Bishop Mus. Bull. 177: 67, 1943.

According to Sledge (loc. cit.) this taxon

is found in northern and southern India. But

so far no one has collected it from Orissa.

This appears to be a variable species as far

as the size of the plant is concerned.

It is a shade-loving fern often growing on

wet mossy rocks by streams.

Material examined. Devmali, Koraput Dist.

(1500 m) N. C. Nair 53275, 53287 (7-2-1976)

common; Rastaguda forest, Kasipore, Kora-

put Dist. (900 m) N. C. Nair 51418 (8-11-

1973).

3. Asplenium varians Hook. & Grev. Ic. Fil.

Da teal 25.1829: Hook. Sp. Fil. 3, 192;

1810; Bedd. Ferns South. india 44, t.

129, 1864; Handb. Ferns Brit. India 158.

1883; Hope in J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

13: 667, t. 20, 1901; Sledge in Bull. Brit.

Mus :CNat. cist.) 3% 272, 1965.

This is a small shade-loving fern with her-

baceous and delicate fronds. It is very rare in

Orissa and has been collected only from one

locality.

Material examined. Rastaguda forest, Ka-

sipore (Koraput Dist.) 900 m, N. C. Nair

51427 (Nov. 8, 1973).

VIIL PoLyPoDIACEAE

1. Colysis hemionitidea (Wall.) Presl, Epim.

147, 1849; Nayar et Kaur Companion

Handb. Bedd. Ferns. Brit. India 87,

1974. Polypodium hemionitideum Wall

(Cat. 284, 1828 nomen nudum) ex Mett.

Farngatt. 1 : 215, 1857; Clarke in Trans.

Linn. Soc. Ser::2. 1: 561, 1880. Pleopel-

tis hemionitidea (Wall.) Bedd. Handb.

Ferns. Brit. India 359, 1883.

This fern has been previously reported froin

the western mountains of southern India, Hi-

malayas and Khasia hills. This has a single

row of rounded or elongated (oblong) sori

between adjacent main veins which separate

the two rows of areoles. In Central National

Herbarium (CAL) there are several sheets

identified by C. B. Clarke and others as Co-

lysis hemionitidea (Polypodium hemioniti-

deum, Pelopeltis hemionitidea) which have

two rows of sori between the main veins which

separate the two rows of areoles. We have also

seen several sheets of this kind from Sri Lanka.

In general they have similarity with specimens

of Microsorum zippelii (Bl.) Ching but to

determine whether both are identical or

not needs further intensive study. Holttum

21D

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY,

(1954) remarked that Colysis hemionitidea

and Colysis acuminata (Bak.) Holttum

“should perhaps be united’. Although both

the species have general similarity we could

not arrive at a definite decision with the limii-

ed material at our hand. If both turn out to

be conspecific in future, Colysis hemionitidea

(Wall.) Pres! alone can be the correct name

for the species.

In India this generally grows above an alti-

tude of 400 m in deep shade near streams and

springs. In Orissa it appears to be a rare spe-

cies having been collected only from two

places.

Material examined. Devmali, Near Dodart,

Koraput Dist., 1500 m, N. C. Nair 53281 (Feb.

7, 1976); Dodari (on the bank of Karandi

river), Koraput Dist., 1100 m, NM. C. Nair

53267, (Feb. (2/1976).

2. Pyrrosia mollis (Kze.) Ching in Bull. Chin.

Bot. Soc. 1: 53, 1935; Nayar et Chandra.

Bull. Nat. Bot. Gard. No. 117: 67, 1965;

Nayar et Kaur, Companion Bedd. Handb.

Vol. 77

Ferns Brit. India 81, 1974; Bedd. Ferns.

Brit. India 330, 1883 (pro parte).

Nayar et Chandr. (Loc. cit.) gives the dis-

tribution as Western Ghats and Nilgiri Hills,

hills of Assam, and Central and Eastern Hi-

malayas at altitude between 1000-3000 m ele-

vation. In Orissa it has been collected only

from one place. It was an epiphyte on mango

trees.

Material examined. (Kasipore (Koraput

Dist.), 1100 m, N. C. Nair 50537 (Sept. 30,

1972).

3. Pyrrosia nayariana Ching et Chandra in

Amer. Fern Journ. 54: 62, 1964 e¢ Bull.

Nat. Bot. Gard. 117: 70, 1965.

This was considered to be a very rare spe-

cies confined to Manipur (NE. India). In

Orissa this epiphyte has been collected only

from one place.

Material examined. Kasipore (Koraput

Dist.) 950 m, WN. C. Nair 51396 (Nov. 6,

1973).

REFERENCES

BEDDOME, R. H. (1864): Ferns of Southern India,

Madras.

- (1883): Handbook to the ferns of

British India, Ceylon and the Malay Peninsula,

Thacker Spink & Co., Calcutta.

CHRISTENSEN, C. (1906): Index Filicum. Hafniae.

CuaRKE, C. B. (1880): A review of the Ferns of

the Northern India. Trans. Linn. Soc. London. Sec-

ries (Bot.) 1: 425-619.

Haines, H. H. (1924):

Orissa. London.

HEIRONYMUS, G. (1914): Pteris quadriaurita

Retz. und einige asiastische, malesische und poly-

nesische Arten aus der Gruppe und Verwandschaft

dieser Art.: 325-375.

Hottrum, R. E. (1954): A revised flora of Ma-

Jaya II. Ferns of Malay. Singapore.

MAstTeErS, M. T. (1868): Vegetable Teretology.

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Mooney, H. F. (1950): Supplement to the Bo-

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Botany of Bihar and

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Narr, N. C. & Guosu, R. K. (1975): Additional

distribution of Ferns to the Botany of Orissa. J.

Indian Bot. Soc. 54: 45-49.

(1978): Pteris heteromor-

pha Fee—A new record for India. Indian For. 104:

374-376.

& GuHosH, S. R. (1977): Pteris

quadriaurita Retz. and its related taxa in Kerala.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 73: 438-443.

Nayar, B. K. (1974): A classification of homo-

sporous ferns. Jn B. K. Nayar and Surjit Kaur,

Companion to R. H. Beddome’s Handbook to the

Ferns of British India, Ceylon and Malay Peninsula.

109-201, New Delhi.

PANIGRAHI, G. S., CHowpuHurY, D. C., Ragu, 8S.

& Deka, G. K. (1964): Contribution to the botany

of Orissa. Bull. bot. Surv. India. 6: 237-266.

SLEDGE, W. A. (1962): The Athyrioid Ferns of

Ceylon. Bull. Brit. Mus. 2 (11): 275-325.

———— (1965): The Ceylon species of As-

plenium. ibid. 6: 235-277.

DISTRIBUTION RECORDS OF CULICINE MOSQUITOES

OF BASTAR DISTRICT, MADHYA PRADESH, INDIA

(DIPTERA: CULICIDAE)'

ZAKIR HUSAIN

HUSAINY?

(With a text-figure)

INTRODUCTION

Prakash and Husainy (1974) listed Ano-

pheles mosquitoes taken in 102 villages of

Bastar district, Madhya Pradesh between

October 1968 and September 1974. Outdoor

collections were made at various sites be-

tween the larval habitats and the village homes

in order to determine the outdoor resting

habits of the anophelines. In these surveys

culicines were of course encountered along

with the anophelines. The present paper lists

the Culicini (Culicidae) collected.

In all 24 villages were selected for outdoor

surveys which had the village of Asirguda

located at 48.5 m a.s.l., as the lowest, and

the locality Kirandul situated at 1275.5 m

a.s.l. as the highest altitudes of the district.

The majority of the villages are located in

the North Eastern plateau and its sub-division,

the Indravati plains. The general elevation of

these physiographic divisions ranges from 457

to 609 m a.s.]. The climate is in the hot-wet

to hot-moist range.

The villages which are sparsely populated,

consist of several hamlets each with a few

hutments situated at some distance from each

1 Accepted August 1978.

2 Assistant Entomologist, National Malaria Era-

dication Programme, Jagdalpur, District Bastar

(M.P.). Present address: C/o. D. S. P. Bungalow,

In front of Rest House, Jagdalpur, Distt. Bastar

(M.P.).

other. Each family of the village essentially

keeps such domestic animals as cow, goat,

pig, dog and poultry. Most of these are ac-

commodated in cattle sheds.

The larval habitats in the area may be

streams, ponds, ditches and seasonal pools.

Large broken earthenwares are generally thrown

in the backyard of the hutments in which

sufficient rain water accumulates to provide

larval breeding sites for aedine mosquitoes.

In between the hutments and the larval habi-

tats, grasses and shrubs are commonly tound

apart from the trees.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Outdoor collections were made in natural

vegetation, bushes, tree holes, crevices etc.,

located between the larval habitats and nearest

human dwellings. An outdoor pit shelter (2

m x1 mx2 m) was constructed in one vil-

lage (Bispur) in this connection. The collec-

tions were generally attempted in the morning

between 0600 and 0900 hr. A few man-biting

rate observations were also taken to detect

the species preferring human blood meals.

This was done by placing a man as bait in

human dwellings and collecting only the mos-

quitoes actually feeding on this bait since land-

ing rates do not always indicate biting.

RESULTS OF OBSERVATIONS

A total of 1,014 specimens representing 14

278

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

: @ Uselt .

ry ae

Five Se he

¢ aie ’

( !

' ‘

\ '

ss se sl

bs Ban Usri

ABUSH ! )

MARH \

S ;

! Chitrakot

= ies Dhar @© Asia

aes 2 Aghanpur fe Hat Kachora

ee Birangpa}@ @Adhawal

Mamadpal @Mangnar @ Machkot

a Bispure © 4 @K otamsar

E ijapur Tirathgarh Kamanat

Kesaiguda @ g

2 @Eipal Darbhe. *Kukalgut

Kirandul®

Jagargunda

16 32

SCALEURsr = oe

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Asirgudag

Fig. 1. Map of Bastar District showing the villages surveyed.

CULICINE MOSQUITOES OF BASTAR

culicine species were collected in 24 localities

of Bastar distirct. The locations of the villages

surveyed are shown in the map (Fig. 1). More

culicine mosquitoes (1,014 specimens) than

anopheline (232 examples) were encountered

in outdoor surveys. In the man-biting rate ob-

servations a total of 263 culicine and 67 ano-

pheline females were captured in 80 man-

hours. Thus more culicine than anopheline

females had bitten human beings in the given

time. Among culicines, the highest numbers

were of C. p. fatigans (76 examples) and

lowest were of M. uniformis.

The species wise habitat of all the recorded

culicine mosquitoes is given below. The classi-

fication system enumerated by Stone e/ al.

(1959) has been followed in this paper.

Genus: Aedes Meigen 1818

Aedes (Stegomyia) albopictus (Skuse), 1895

Specimens collected: Ban Usri 3 females (fm); Ti-

rathgarh 1 fm; Mamadpal 9 fm; Jagargunda 3 males

(m), 2 fm; Kirandul 7 fm; Sat Dhar 3 fm; Darbha

6 fm; Chitrakot 7 fm; Bijapur 15 fm; Kesaiguda 2

fm; Hat Kachora 1 m; Adhawal 1 fm; Useli 3 m,

4 fm; Kotamsar 29 fm; Kamanar 2 m, 8 fm; Ku-

kalgur 5 m, 2 fm; Aghanpur 1 m, 9 fm; Asna 2 fm.

Total 15 m and 110 fm.

Distribution: This species was recorded in the

North-Eastern plateau, Godavari-Sabri low-

lands, Bailadila hills, Indravati plains and

Southern plateau of the Bastar district.

Altitudes: Encountered between 48.5 and

1275.5 m a.s.l.

Seasonal prevalence: Collected in January,

May, July and November in the hot-moist,

hot-wet, moderately hot-moist and vey hot-

moist climatic regions of the district.

Observations: A. (S.) albopictus is a dominant

species in the district. A massive attack on

human being for feeding in the day was no-

ticed in the forests of the village Kotamsar.

In the township of Jagdalpur, this mosquito

is predominantly a day-time feeder. Baisas

(1974) stated that A. albopictus attacks man

but in places far away from human dwellings,

it probably feeds on animals. Specimens of A.

albopictus were captured on human body while

collecting and from bushes, tree holes and fen-

ces. Twenty females were taken inside houses.

Joshi ef al. (1965) collected five females out-

doors in jungles of Nepal. The breeding in

Bastar district was noticed in broken earthen

pots retaining rain water. Baisas (1974) stat-

ed that A. albopictus breeds mostly in tree

holes in Subic, seldom in bamboo, rock holes

and artificial containers. Huang (1972) stated

that the immature stages of A. albopictus have

been found mainly in tree holes, bamboo

stumps and artificial containers in Philippines,

Ryukyu Island, Taiwan, Vietnam, Thailand,

Malaysia, Burma and India. Peters and Dewar

(1956) reared A. albopictus and A. w-albus

from eggs contained in the dried residue in

holes in mango trees. These eggs had survived

at least seven months since the last rainy sea-

son and hatched within a day or two of addi-

tion of water.

Aedes (Mucidus) sactophagoides (Theobald),

1901

Specimens collected: Mangnar 7 m, 2 fm; Darbha

4 m, 6 fm; Adhawal 3 m. 2 fm; Ban Usri 3 fm;

Jagargunda 2 fm; Sat Dhar 1 fm. Total 14 m, 16 fm.

Distribution: Recorded in the Indravati plains,

North-Eastern plateau, Godavari-Sabri low-

lands and Tinkanpalli hills.

Altitudes: 152 to 761 m ass.l.

Seasonal prevalence: Collected in March, May.

July, September and October in the hot-wet,

hot-moist and very hot-moist climatic regions.

Observations: This mosquito was taken in

bushes near a stream (Darbha); from fence

crevices (Adhawal), underneath the logs (Ku-

kalgur) and from a pit shelter (Bispur). Joshi

et al. (1965) took three females each from a

mosquito net and inside a house in Nepal.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

Aedes (Stegomyia) w-albus (Theobald), 1905

Specimens collected: Mangnar 11 m, 3 fm; Darbha

4m, 3 fm; Adhawal 2 m; Hat Kachora 2 fm; Ban

Usri 3 fm, Useli 5 fm: Total 17 m, 16 fm.

Distribution: Recorded in the Indravati plains,

North-Eastern plateau of Bastar district.

Altitudes: Between 457 end 761 m a.s.l.

Seasonal prevalence: Collected in March, May,

July and September in the moderately hot-

moist, hot-moist and the hot-wet climatic re-

gions.

Observations: Specimens of A. w-albus were

secured in a pit-shelter (Bispur); ponds (Ban

Usri), tree holes (Useli) and from tall grass

(Mangnar). Joshi ef al. (1965) collected two

females from a jungle in Nepal.

Aedes (Stegomyia) aegypti (Linnaeus), 1762

This species was not encountered anywhere

in the district although diurnal surveys were

made in the townships of Jagdalpur, Kirandul

and Kanker. It requires further study to as-

certain if this mosquito is prevalent in Bastar

district, for this is typically a dense forest area.

However, at present, forests are being cleared

and the towns are growing in magnitude.

Baisas (1974) reported the distribution of this

mosquito in South-East Asia, Indo-Malayan

region and ejsewhere where modern transpor-

tation distributed this mosquito.

Aedes (Stegomyia) vittatus (Bigot), 1861

Specimens collected: Machkot 5 fm; Ban Usri 2

fm; Kotamsar 17 fm; Tirathgarh 1 fm; Darbha 3

fm; Mamadpal 2 fm; Mangnar 1 m; Chitrakot 6

fm; Kesaiguda 3 m, 3 fm; Useli 2 fm; Kukalgur

7 {m; Bispur 3 m, 2 fm; Aghanpur 2 m, 2 fm; Asna

2m, 3 fm. Total 11 m, 55 fm.

Distribution: Recorded in Indravati plains,

North-Eastern plateau and Southern plateau.

Altitudes: Encountered between 48.5 and 761

m a.s.l.

Seasonal prevalence: Recorded in May, from

July to November in the hot-wet and the hot-

280

moist climatic regions.

Observations: Predominant in forests of

Bastar district. Specimens of A. vittatus were

caught on human beings and from bushes in

the forests. Five females were secured in tree

holes (Machkot) in forests. Joshi et al. (1965)

collected two examples of this mosquito from

jungle in Nepal.

Genus: Culex Linnaeus 1758

Cuiex (Culex) bitaeniorhynchus Giles, 1901

Specimens collected: Kotamsar 2 fm; Mamadpal 1

fm; Kukalgur 6 fm; Kesaiguda 1 m, 1 fm; Bispur

3 m, 1 fm; Darbha 3 m. 4 fm, Kamanar 1 m, 4 fm:

Total 8 m, 19 fm.

Distribution: Recorded in the Indravati plains;

North-Eastern plateau, Southern plateau. Bram

(1967) reported distribution in Thailand, Ethi-

opia including Madagascar, Australia, New

Guinea, some islands of the South Pacific and

the Soviet Far East.

Altitudes: 152 to 671 m a.s.l. Peters and De-

war (1956) collected larvae of C. bitaenior-

hynchus from residual pools in the main river

beds at Bhimphedi, Nepal at 11,583 m_ height.

Seasonal prevalence: Encountered in March,

May, July, September and November in the

hot-wet and hot-moist area.

Biting habits: Twenty one females were cap-

tured on human bait. In Singapore the origin

of blood meals in females collected from un-

biased sources were exclusively from birds

(Colless 1959 as quoted by Bram 1967).

Observations: Recorded in forests of Bastar

district. This mosquito was taken in bamboo

fences in the courtyards (Darbha); from a pit

shelter (Bispur), green grass in the vicinity of

hutments (Tirathgarh). Joshi et al. (1965)

collected this mosquito inside houses in Nepal.

Culex (Culex) epidesmus (Theobald), 1910.

Specimens collected: Ban Usri 1 m; Kukalgur 3

fm; Jagargunda 5 m, 2 fm; Sat Dhar 1 m, 2 fm,

Darbha 5 m, 5 fm; Kamanar 3 m, 10 fm; Aghan-

CULICINE MOSQUITOES OF BASTAR

pur 32 m, 35 fm; Adhawal 18 m, 27 fm; Asna 16

m, 13 fm; Hat Kachora 28 m, 22 fm; Useli 6 m,

11 fm; Kotamsar 3 fm; Kesaiguda 6 m, 2 fm; Bis-

pur 4 m, 5 fm, Birangpal 2 m, 2 fm: Total 127 m,

142 fm.

Distribution: Recorded in the North-Eastern

plateau; Godavari Sabri lowlands; Tinkanpalli

hills, Indravati plains and Dantewara plains.

Altitudes: 48.5 to 761 m a.s.l.

Seasonal prevalence: Collected all round the

year in the hot-moist, hot-wet, moderately hot-

moist and very hot-moist climatic regions.

Abundant during August in village Hat Ka-

chora.

Biting habits: A total of 76 females were se-

cured from human bait.

Observations: Predominant species all over

the district. Collected from bushes near

the fencing of a farm; from pit shelter, and

from vegetation in the vicinity of houses.

Joshi et al. (1965) took females from inside

houses and one female from pit shelter in

Nepal.

Culex (Culex) pipiens fatigans Wiedemann,

1828

Specimens collected: Machkot 35 fm; Ban Usri 2

fm; Kukalgur 1 m, 1 fm; Mamadpal 4 fm; Mangnar

9 m, 5 fm; Kamanar 1 m, 12 fm; Kirandul 3 m, 5

fm; Chitra Kot 5 m, 3 fm; Etpal 1 m; Bijapur 1

fm; Bispur 6 m, 6 fm; Birangpal 1 fm; Asirguda

8 fm; Useli 9 m, 4 fm; Hat Kachora 5 m, 7 fm;

Adhawal 3 m, 3 fm; Aghanpur 6 m, 7 fm; Asna

2m, 5 fm: Total 51 m, 109 fm.

Distribution: Recorded in the Indravati plains;

North-Eastern plateau; Bailadila hills, Goda-

vari-Sabri lowlands. This mosquito is distri-

buted throughout the world in tropical and

sub-tropical areas (Baisas 1974).

Altitudes: 48.5 to 1275.5 m a.s.l.

Seasonal prevalence: Collected all round the

year in the hot-moist, hot-wet, moderately hot-

moist and very hot-moist climatic regions.

Biting habits: From human bait 97 females

were taken. Seven blood meals obtained from

adult females taken out of doors had two

smears positive for human and five for bovine

blood. Baisas (1974) indicates that from its

large number it constitutes the most annoying

Culex to human beings. Very seldom taken

in Carabao-baited traps but numerous in hu-

man baited traps and in unscreened houses,

barns and huts (Baisas 1974).

Observations: Predominant species all over

the district. Encountered in pit shelter and out

of doors in a variety of places namely bushes,

vegetation, bamboo fences, fence crevices and

underneath logs. It must be recognised that

the result of investigations in one geographi-

cal area are not necessarily valid when applied

to another population of the same subspecies

in a different geographical area (Bram 1967).

Culex (Culex) gelidus Theobald, 1901

Specimens collected: Kotamsar 3 fm; Tirathgarh 4

fm; Mamadpal 2 m, 3 fm; Darbha 2 m, 6 fm; Bispur

1 fm; Kukalgur 1 m, 2 fm; Sat Dhar 1 m, 2 fm;

Aghanpur 3 m, 8 fm; Useli 4 m, 1 fm: Total 13 m,

30 fm.

Distribution: Recorded in the North-Eastern

plateau; Tinkanpalli hills, Indravati plains.

Baisas (1974) reported distribution from Ma-

laysia, Singapore, Indonesia, New Guinea, Phi-

lippines, Taiwan, Japan, China, Vietnam

(N & S) Cambodia, Laos, Thailand, Burma,

Nepal, India, Pakistan and Sri Lanka.

Altitudes: Recorded between 304 and 761 m

a.s.l. Scanlon and Esah as quoted by Bram

(1967) collected gelidus females biting man

from 4,572 to 13,716 m of elevation on a

mountain in Chiang Mai.

Seasonal prevalence: Collected in July, Octo-

ber to December in hot-moist, moderately hot-

moist and hot-wet climatic regions.

Biting habits: Eleven females were secured

from human bait. Baisas (1974) stated this

mosquito as zoophilic. Bram (1967) reported

281

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

that adult females are vicious biters but feed

on man only in the absence of other suitable

hosts.

Observations: Collected from bushes near

stream, in tree holes and in pit shelter. Re-

corded in forest at higher altitudes. Joshi e7 al.

(1965) secured three females from houses and

three examples from pit shelter. Peters and

Dewar (1956) found adults in native dwel-

lings, cattlesheds and in tents in Nepal.

Culex (Culex) tritaeniorhynchus Giles, 1901

Specimens collected: Darbha 2 m, 5 fm; Kotamsar

3 m, 1 fm; Mamadpal 1 m, 2 fm; Mangnar 3 fm;

Kukalgur 8 m 6 fm; Bispur 1 fm; Kamanar 4 m,

11 fm: Total 18 m, 29 fm.

Distribution: Recorded in the North-Eastern

plateau and Indravati plains of Bastar dis-

trict. Bram (1967) reported distribution

throughout Thailand, India, Sri Lanka, Mal-

dive Islands, Malagasy, Tanzania, Kenya,

Ubangishari, Nigeria, Benin, Togo, Senegal,

Egypt, Israel, Lebanon, Syria, Turkey, Iraq,

Iran, Turkmen S.S.R., Philippines, Taiwan,

Ryukyu-Retto, Japan, Korea, China, Indo-

china, Indonesia, Malaya and Maritime pro-

vince, U.S.S.R.

Altitudes: 304 to 761 m asl. Scanlon and

Esah as quoted by Bram (1967) collected fe-

males biting man at elevation up to 1,372 m

in Chiang Mai.

Seasonal prevalence: Collected in July, Sep-

tember and November in the hot-moist and

hot-wet climatic regions.

Biting habits: On human bait, 17 females were

captured. Baisas (1974) reported that this mos-

quito is largely zoophilic, a certain percentage

bite human beings and so this mosquito be-

comes the object of interest and study in con-

nection with Japanese ‘B’ encephalitis and

other diseases of man.

Observations: Recorded in forests at higher

282

altitudes and in pit shelter. Nakao as quoted

by Bram (1967) suggested that C. tritaenior-

hynchus may be an indoor resting species. Spe-

cimens of C. tritaeniorhynchus were secured

in tree holes, underneath logs, and from bushes

in the courtyard of the hutments. Joshi ef al.

(1965) captured one female from pit shelter,

six females from outdoors and three females

inside house in Nepal.

Culex (Lutzia) vorax (Edwards), 1921

Specimens collected: Kotamsar 1 fm; Kamanar 7

fm; Mangnar 6 m; Darbha 1 m, 2 fm; Kukalgur

1 m, 1 fm; Adhawal 3 m, 1 fm; Useli 8 fm, Ma-

madaptl 3 m, 5 fm: Total 14 m, 25 fm.

Distribution: Recorded in the Indravati Plains

and North-Eastern Plateau.

Altitudes: 457 to 761 m a.s.l.

Seasonal prevalence: Collected in June, July,

September to November in the moderately

hot-moist and hot-wet climatic regions.

Observations: This mosquito was taken in

bushes in forests (Kotamsar); tree holes

(Useli), underneath logs and from tall grass.

Culex (Culex) ‘vishnui’ Theobald, 1901 Group

Specimens collected: Mamadpal 1 fm; Darbha 11

m, 35 fm; Etpal 14 m, 3 fm; Adhawal 3 m, 2 fm:

Total 28 m, 41 fm.

Distribution: Recorded in the North-Eastern

plateau, Indravati plains and Godavari Sabri

lowlands.

Altitudes: 48.5 to 761 m as.l.

Seasonal prevalence: Collected in Feb., Sept.

to Dec. in the hot-wet, hot-moist and very hot-

moist climatic region.

Biting habits: A total of 32 females were taken

on human bait.

Observations: Specimens of this species were

encountered in grass in the vicinity of hut-

ments; fences along side rice fields, bushes in

courtyards and from pit shelter.

CULICINE MOSQUITOES OF BASTAR

Genus: Mansonia Blanchard 1901

Mansonia (Mansonioides) annulifera (Theo-

bald), 1901

Specimens collected: Kotamsar 3 fm; Kamanar 3

fm; Darbha 3 m, 2 fm; Kesaiguda 1 m, 2 fm; Ku-

kalgur 4 m, 2 fm; Useli 2 m, 3 fm; Aghanpur 2 m,

3 fm; Bispur 3 fm; Hat Kachora 3 m, 6 fm: Total

15 m, 27 fm.

Distribution: Recorded in the Indravati plains,

North-Eastern plateau and Dantewara plains.

Baisas (1974) quoted distribution in Philip-

pines (Mt. Province, Sorsogen, Leyte, Olon-

gapo Zambales, Manila and Rizal), Ethiopia,

Oriental and Australian regions, Solomon Is-

lands, Japan and Ryukyu-Retto.

Altitudes: Between 48.5 and 761 m a.s.l.

Seasonal prevalence: Collected in Jan., Feb.,

May, July to Sept. and Nov. in the hot-wet,

hot-moist and moderately hot-moist climatic

regions.

Biting habits: Not secured on human bait.

Baisas (1974) reported it as both zoophilic

and anthropophilic. Specimens were collected

in Carabao-baited traps, a few were caught

while biting man in late afternoon (Baisas

1974).

Observations: M. annulifera was encountered

in bushes near perennial stream, in pit shelter

and fences along side rice fields. Joshi et al.

(1965) encountered this mosquito inside house

in Nepal.

Mansonia (Mansonioides) uniformis (Theo-

bald), 1901

Specimens collected: Ban Usri 1 m, 1 fm; Darbha

4 fm; Tirathgarh 1 m, 3 fm; Kotamsar 2 fm; Ku-

kalgur 3 fm; Kesaiguda 2 m, 2 fm; Bispur 7 fm,

Adhawal 3 m, 3 fm: Total 7 m, 25 fm.

Distribution: Recorded in the North-Eastern

plateau, Indravati plains and Dantewara plains.

Baisas (1974) reported distribution from Phi-

lippines, South-East Asia, Indonesia and

Thailand.

Altitudes: 152 to 761 m asl.

Seasonal prevalence: Collected in May, July

to December in the hot-moist and hot-wet cli-

matic regions.

Biting habits: Nine females were secured on

human bait. Baisas (1974) described it as

largely zoophilic, seldom anthropophilic.

Observations: Specimens were secured in a

tree hole at a height of 1.2 m above the

ground. Encountered in pit shelter, bushes

near ponds and from vegetation out of doors.

Joshi et al. (1965) collected M. uniformis in-

side house in Nepal.

Genus: Armigeres Theobald 1901

Armigeres (Armigeres) subalbatus (Coquil-

lett), 1898

Specimens collected: Mangnar 9 m, 1 fm; Kukalgur

4 fm; Darbha 3 m, 7 fm; Adhawal 2 m; Kesaiguda

4 fm, Ban Usri 2 fm: Total 14 m, 18 fm.

Distribution: Recorded in the Indravati plains,

the Southern plateau and the North-Eastern

plateau of Bastar district. Baisas (1974) re-

ported distribution from Philippines, Indone-

sia, Malaysia, and Japan.

Altitudes: 152 to 761 m asl.

Biting habits: Not taken on human bait. Baisas

(1974) indicated that this mosquito is seldom

anthropophilic.

Seasonal prevalence: Collected in March, July,

Sept. and Oct. in hot-wet and hot-moist cli-

matic regions.

Observations: Specimens were taken in the

bushes near a stream, tree holes and fences

of rice fields having tall grass. Joshi e¢ al.

(1965) took six females from jungle and two

females from inside houses in Nepal. Baisas

(1974) reported that A. subalbatus usually

breeds in cut bamboos, sometimes in coconut

shells and artificial containers.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am grateful to Dr. B. L. Wattal, Dy. Di-

283

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

rector, Medical Entomology Division, National

Institute of Communicable Diseases, Delhi for

identification of specimens and to Dr. Ronald

A. Ward, Mosquito Entomology Project,

Smithsonian Institution, Washington D.C. for

critical comments on the paper.

REFERENCES

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subic Bay Naval Reservation. Tech Rpt. No. 72-2

hq. First Med. Ser. Wing (PACAF), APO San

Fransisco, 170 pp.

BrAM, R. A. (1967): Contributions to the Mos-

quito fauna of Southeast Asia. IH—The genus Culex

in Thailand (Diptera: Culicidae). Contr. Amer.

Ent. Inst. 2 (1): 1-296.

HuANG, YIAU-MiIN (1972): Contributions to the

mosquito fauna of Southeast Asia XIV. The sub-

genus Stegomyia of Aedes in Southeast Asia. I. The

Scutellaris group of species. Contr. Amer. Ent. Inst.

9(1): 1-109.

JosH1, G., PRADHAN, S. AND DarsIg, R. F. (1965):

Culicine, Sebathine and Toxorhynchitine Mosquitoes

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of Nepal including New country records. Proc. Ent.

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PETERS, W. AND Dewar, S. C. (1956): A preli-

minary record of the Megarhine and Culicine mos-

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tera: Culicidae). Ind. J. Mal. 10(1): 37-51.

PRAKASH, R. AND HUSAINY, ZAKIR HUSAIN

(1974): Studies on the Anopheline Mosquitoes of

Bastar District (Madhya Pradesh). Pt. I. Distribu-

tion Pattern of Adults. The Annals of Zool., 10(2):

13-52.

STONE, A., KNIGHT, K. L. AND STRAKE, H. (1959):

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NOTES ON THE FEEDING AND HUNTING BEHAVIOUR

OF LION-TAILED MACAQUES (MACACA SILENUS)

IN CAPTIVITY*

Y. ARTAUD?

INTRODUCTION

These notes come from the continuous ob-

servation of a small group of lion-tailed ma-

caques in captivity since 1970. Most of the

facts reported however within the limits im-

posed by the title, belong to the year 1977,

after the monkeys had been transferred from

the urban zone to the countryside near Pon-

dicherry. There they have shown an evo-

lution of their dietary habits, mainly due to

the richness of the vegetal and animal life of

their new habitat as compared to the old.

A vast garden now surrounds and prolon-

gates the monkeys’ house. Beside it a pond

grows papyrus within their reach, which ex-

plains the coming of visiting frogs inside the

cages. There is the possibility for some of

our monkeys to be taken into the garden

where they can choose from a wider variety

of food than is normally put at their disposal.

The group, in 1978, was composed of a 9-

year-old male, a 9-year-old female and their

one-year-old infant, together with a 7-year-

old female. They live in a compound of three

communicating cages. The five-metre high

central cage, protected from sun and rain,

is adjacent to and entirely visible from the

two-floor abode of the observer. This is where

1 Accepted December 1978.

2 Identity Research Institute, Sr1 Aurobindo Ash-

ram, Pondicherry.

the females spend more than half of the day

and where the entire group retires at night.

A floodlamp projecting a soft artificial moon-

light captured by the pale grey beard of the

lion-tailed macaques, permits observation at

night.

FEEDING BEHAVIOUR

When we started our observation of lion-

tailed macaques in captivity, we soon noticed

their great need of animal proteins, compared

to that of the bonnet macaque (Macaca ra-

diata) which we also study in our centre. An

adult lion-tailed macaque male lent us for one

day in 1969 from an itinerant zoo, chose fish

first (we did not offer him meat) from a plate

with varied samples of food, asked several

times for more and ate practically nothing

else except grapes. When the second of our

lion-tailed females, then 4 months old, arriv-

ed at our centre at the beginning of 1972, she

disregarded the food put before her, includ-

ing milk, cereals, several varieties of fruits and

fresh vegetables. Instead she stole meat from

the dogs. That need can be expressed so vivid-

ly when they smell or foresee the possibility

of getting some cooked meat or fish, that we

have baptised its vocal expression “the pro-

tein cry”. But it is only recently that we have

witnessed some of their hunting practices.

The following parts of this article might

give the impression that our monkeys are

285

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

undernourished. That is why we have first to

explain that they are fed according to advice

given by European and American zoos. They

get, season by season, all the varieties of vege-

tal food available in the Pondicherry mar-

ket, besides plants, flowers and leaves from

the garden, and a cereal pudding with cal-

cium and vitamin supplements. Some of the

items they like to have daily, such as toma-

toes, lady fingers, guavas, grapes and a local

plant called in Tamil kirai. For years they

have received also twice a week a supplement

of animal proteins. But it has been increased

in quantity and frequency since we discover-

ed their propensity for hunting. The male eats

approximately 100 grams of liver, 100 grams

of buffalo meat, some crab or fish and half

an egg per week.

Natural Animal food:

As we have already explained, some of our

monkeys are taken regularly through the gar-

den and eat whatever they like. Small ani-

mals happen also to visit their cages and the

monkeys catch them.

Frogs: On 15 January 1977 at 10 p.m. we

noticed an unusual activity. While the females

remained on their sleeping plank, the male

was sitting on the floor, his back turned to

us, eating a frog. Acknowledging our presen-

ce, he showed us his prey and continued eat-

ing with obvious satisfaction. Following this

event, we focussed our observations on the

beginning of the night period. The same scene

occurred on the 27th, 28th, 29th and 30th

of the same month. On the 30th, the male

even succeeded in capturing three frogs at a

time and kept one in one foot while eating

the two others.

We did not wait long to start increasing the

amount of proteins alloted to our small co-

lony, but this did not seem to curb the appe-

tite of our male lion-tailed macaque for liv-

286

ing frogs. All year long he goes around after

nightfall inspecting his premises. If he finds

some frog, he likes picking it up and chew-

ing it leisurely.

The females are not permitted to hunt in

his presence. Only three times have we seen

them capturing and eating frogs inside the

cage, when the male was busy with some

other occupation, twice in day time and once

at the beginning of the night. But while sepa-

rated from the male and taking a walk in the

garden, the females know where to find frogs

in palm-roofed pavilions. On 14 June 1977,

we saw the older female fishing a frog di-

rectly out of the pond and devouring it on

the spot.

Snails: In the garden, the females some

times eat snails. They do not automatically

pick up a snail whenever they see one. Dur-

ing a period of three months of daily walks

in the garden, from the middle of June to the

middle of September 1977, we counted that

the older female must have eaten about a

dozen snails. On two occasions, she ate 3

or 4 at a time.

Insects: Insects are common food for the

lion-tailed macaques. They consume a large

variety of them—including house _ spiders,

cockroaches and white ants—when they have

the opportunity to do so. In the daily ration

of fresh plants and small branches put inside

their cages, they always look for insects before

looking for buds. They also eat several varie-

ties of water bugs and crunch them with de-

light. But only the male has been seen to

make a feast out of giant Belostomatidae, un-

appetising for his companions. When they for-

age in the garden, they often pick up at the

same time with insects, pieces of grass or

leaves. It may be quicker to capture them

that way, but it also seems to be a desired

mixture.

BEHAVIOUR OF LION-TAILED MACAQUE

Eggs: Wherever possible, the females also

rob birds’ nests, but they have never eaten

birds, not even those which happened to enter

their cages, though they killed two of them

by trying to chase them away or to play with

them.

Reptiles: During her pregnancy, the older

female became a keen and skillful hunter. She

looked not only for insects but also for bigger

prey. On 19 June 1977 we saw her for the

first time capturing and eating entirely a large

Indian Bloodsucker lizard (Calotes versicolor).

Within the three months of her maximal hunt-

ing activities she ate 9 of them and missed 2.

A huge one bit her fingers two times and she

let it go. Another one she wounded before it

could escape her. Other smaller varieties of

lizards are also eaten, but only partly.

Finally we discovered that lion-tailed maca-

ques attack and eat snakes.

Feeding behaviour of the alpha:

The rights of the chief.

As the princeps, he is the one who takes

and eats first whatever he likes. His choice is

quickly made; after that he retires a little to

give the others their turn. A titbit of food dis-

tributed outside the schedule, which someone

manages to get before the chief, is usually not

contested by him, though the others do not

hide their pleasure and vocalise it with a spe-

cial sound which means “How good!” His

permissiveness varies with the degree of rarity

of the food, its dietetic value and the distance

at which the misdeed happens—the nearest

the most reprehensible. But his attacks do not

actually injure anyone. Animal proteins are

considered by him to be his exclusive property.

When we distribute liver, for example, we have

to separate the chief from the others. And

hunting in his presence is absolutely prohi-

bited,

Ritualistic behaviour:

From time to time our monkeys are given

a complete coconut to peel off and open. One

day, in front of several spectators, the chief

had worked for ten or fifteen minutes with

his four hands and teeth and the entire mus-

culature of his body to remove the thick coat

of fibers that cushions the wooden shell. He

rejected the last mouthful of fibers and looked

at the coconut. Usually he tries to break the

shell before the peeling is over. But that day

he had carefully stripped the entire nut, which

was now lying at his feet. He looked at it,

seized it with both hands, stood up and held

it high above his head, his gaze fixed on it.

Then he turned slowly around 3 or 4 times,

lowered the coconut to his chest, held it with

a single hand and in a few jumps reached the

top of the 5 metre cage. From there he looked

to be sure that nobody was standing just be-

low, and let the coconut drop to the floor. One

second later he was drinking the water from

the open fruit. A few minutes afterwards

everybody had a piece of it.

Changes brought about by the birth of a

young:

After the birth of the first young, a change

occurred in the feeding behaviour of the alpha.

He often gave precedence to the mother to

go from one cage to another where some

simple food had been placed. He regularly

turned his back and looked somewhere else

when we offered a special food every morning

to the females. He let them eat first, on the

highest level of the cage, together with the

baby, while he sat on the floor, sometimes

picking up what they had let drop, waiting

for us to come down to give him his share.

His tolerance was limited to a few given situa-

tions. But it did not lessen today, when the

child is nearly one year old. The restraint im-

posed on his huge body and exhuberant if not

287

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

explosive vitality by the presence of the child

is amazing to observe.

The second female plays the role of the

elder sister. When the infant started to eat,

she shared her part of the food with it, so

giving the nursing mother more chance to

fulfil her energy needs.

Now the child goes freely outside the sage

and serves in a liaison capacity, bringing to the

other monkeys desired items, such as bones

abandoned by the dogs or pieces of brick,

which are very much appreciated.

HUNTING BEHAVIOUR

Monkey-snake encounters:

On 11 April 1977, a snake some 80 centi-

metres long had entered the central cage.

When we became aware of it, the male lion-

tailed macaque had already taken hold of it

at a few centimetres from the head. With pre-

cision and skill, he prevented the snake from

turning towards him. He stood in a bipedal

position, the right arm fully extended, holding

the snake. The left hand remained free. His

whole attitude reminded us of a fencer fend-

ing off the attacks of his adversary. What

happened next went so fast that we were not

able to perceive it. The monkey reached the

middle floor level of the cage and suddenly

the snake had lost 10 centimetres or more of

its tail. Then the male macaque disappeared

with the snake towards the highest level of the

cage. He soon came down empty-handed. We

asked him: ‘“‘Where is the snake?” He reach-

ed with his fingers into his mouth and labori-

ously extracted the dead snake from one of

his cheek-pouches to show it to us and then

carefully put it back. The distended pouch

was not visible behind his large facial ruff.

A little later the second female ate the tail

that she had secured for herself and the male

ate all the rest of the animal.

288

In January 1978, we discovered the male

holding a snake again, this time in his left

hand. It was the size of a viper and we gave

the danger signal. He let it drop and the snake

found its way out.

Recently, we observed the beginning of a

fight between the same lion-tailed macaque

male and another visiting snake. The monkey

had trapped the snake in a corner of the cage

and was manoeuvring to catch it. The snake

was facing the monkey and it suddenly lunged

towards him in a lightning attack. The maca-

que avoided the snake with a minimum of

movement and resumed his approach. Some

outside event interrupted the fight and the

snake disappeared.

Replacement behaviour:

The intrepid behaviour of the captive lion-

tailed macaque male confronted for the first

time by a snake, contradicts apparantly his

cautious behaviour in front of unknown ani-

mals or moving toys. Even a new wooden ball

introduced into his cage, which rolled on the

sloping floor—and though he has been playing

with wooden balls before and can recognise

one at once—became the object of a test per-

formance, leading to its identification and

classification.

He approached the ball with a commanding

gesture to keep everybody at a distance, and

covered it with a leafy branch. He started

rolling the object vigorously to and fro on the

floor, using the leaves as a protective layer.

He bent to the ground to try to see the ball

and pushed it around, always under the leaves,

to observe its reactions. As nothing happened,

he parted the leaves, smelled the ball from

a distance, pushed it a little with the branch

and finally touched it directly with his fingers.

He bent, sniffed it again and put his mouth

on it. Only then did he start manipulating it

freely and tasting a scrap on it.

BEHAVIOUR OF LION-TAILED MACAQUE

This special hunting behaviour brought

about by a new ball or whatever new or un-

known thing that moves by itself, evidently

gives him time to examine it and if possible

take hold of it. He exhibited the same kind

of behaviour, in an abridged form, in evaluat-

ing the quality of a tree frog whose skin had

turned whitish. He finally pushed it outside

the cage with a branch without touching it.

Killing techniques:

We never saw the females going through this

elaborate testing process, which seems to be-

long to the function of the chief. However

all of them roll insects under or between their

naked hands or against the bark of a tree, or

sometimes with the back of the hand which

is covered with hairs. In some cases they also

use leaves as a protection. But they most often

put insects directly into their mouth without

preparatory manipulation. When they eat

snails, they crunch the shell with the teeth or

by rolling it against something. They remove

the anal end. When the manipulation is finish-

ed, they clean their sticky hands against some

grass or bark.

The killing becomes more dramatic when

the technique of rolling the insects is applied

to frogs and this is how the male generally

operates. He almost lost one of his first vic-

tims, which jumped away partly eaten, but he

caught it again in the semi-darkness and finish-

ed eating it.

The females seem to be better killers. They

bite the animal at the head or open its belly.

When we saw for the first time the older

female killing an Indian Bloodsucker lizard,

she seemed in possession of a perfect techni-

que. She seized the animal by its upper part

and, with lightning speed and strength, bit its

head and ate it immediately. Her next choice

was the tail, followed by the thighs. She

then opened its belly, threw away the

anal part and ate the rest of the contents.

Then she sat down more comfortably, peeled

the skin off, let it drop, and ate practically

the entire body except for the front legs.

DISCUSSION

Living under the same roof with a group

of monkeys, in a proximity which makes ob-

servation possible day and night, permits the

discovery of behavioral traits difficult to ob-

serve otherwise. The many-faceted lion-tailed

macaque—a rare and little known monkey—

shows here its ingeniousness, its capacity for

adaptation and change and its nearness to man

particularly in the way its society reacts to

the birth of a child.

SUMMARY

The lion-tailed macaques in captivity, that

we have observed since 1970, have demons-

trated a great need for animal proteins and a

natural taste for living food. If given the op-

portunity, they capture insects, snails, frogs,

lizards and even snakes and rob birds’ nests.

Their way of killing and their dietary tastes

are rather individual and adapted to circum-

stances. We did not see them attacking birds

or small mammals with a view to feeding on

them. But they eagerly eat boiled meat, fish,

crab and even bones. The chief of the group

has been seen to go through some kind of

ritual performance to celebrate the opening

of a coconut and to evaluate the potential

danger or food value of some moving thing

or unknown animal.

These facts have been gathered in an en-

vironment which gives the facilities of close

and constant observation and provides at the

same time enough stimulation and freedom to

the monkeys to deploy their native psycholo-

gical capacities.

289

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

ON A NEW SILURID CAT-FISH FROM UTTAR PRADESH, INDIA?

S. K. Gupta,? K. C. JAYARAM? AND K. P. HAJELA

(With a text-figure)

INTRODUCTION

During the course of faunistic and ecologi-

cal studies of the fishes in and around Kan-

pur, Uttar Pradesh, India, three specimens of

a new cCat-fish of the family Siluridae were

collected. The specimens are akin to Wallago

attu (Bloch) but differ from it in possessing

a second rayed dorsal fin, not confluent with

caudal and for that matter from all other

forms of the superfamily Siluroidae where the

smooth adipose dorsal fin is not so uncom-

mon. After examination of the specimens and

on comparison with the material present in

the National Zoological Collections in Zoo-

logical Survey of India, Calcutta, (by one of

us KCJ), it was thought fit to describe it as

a new genus of Silurid cat-fish.

This paper presents the description of this

new fish.

Pinniwallago gen. nov.

Similar to Wallago Bleeker but distinguish-

able from it by the presence of second dorsal

rayed fin without spines. All other characters

as in the type-species.

1 Accepted March 1980.

2 Zoology Department, D.A.V. College, Kanpur,

U.P., India.

3 Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta.

290

Pinniwallago kanpurensis sp. nov.

(Fig. 1)

B.- 21; Dy 5-6; Dz’ 30-36; , Ps l4ev Sal0:

A. 84-89 (4/80-85); C. 18. Body depth 5.2

(4.8-5.5); head length 4.43 (4.2-4.6); head

width 7.73 (7.7-7.8); head depth 7.7 (7.4-8.1);

pre-dorsal length 3.3 (3.29-3.31); post-dorsal

length 1.42 (1.42-1.43); pre-pelvic distance

2.7 (2.5-2.9); in standard length. Eye 8.0

(7.9-8.1) in head length; 3.60 (3.45-3.72) in

inter-orbital space width; 3.11 (2.81-3.27) in

snout length. Width of base of first dorsal fin

9.9 (9.0-10.8); width of base of second dorsal

fin 1.21 (0.90-1.57) in head length. Least

depth of caudal peduncle 0.43 (0.40-0.47) in

its length.

Body elongate, compressed. Head broad,

large, depressed. Snout depressed, sharp but

not pointed. Eyes large, inferior, visible from

below ventral surface. Mouth large, gape ex-

tending beyond eyes. Jaws subequal, lower

jaw slightly longer than upper with numerous

depressible cardiform teeth; an oblique vome-

rine patch on either side, palatines without

teeth.

Barbels two pairs, one each of maxillary

and mandibular; former thick reaching slight-

ly beyond origin of anal fin, latter thin, fila-

mentous extending to a distance slightly pos-

terior to the eye. Two dorsal spineless fins,

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

first short with five or six rays, second long

with 30 to 36 rays and widely apart from

caudal fin. Pectoral fin short with a spine.

Anal fin long, ending near caudal fin but not

confluent with it. Caudal fin forked with

rounded lobes. Lateral line simple and com-

plete.

Fresh specimens greyish with a_ yellow

tinge along the back; sides and belly, yellow.

and second dorsal, caudal and anal,

ventral, yellow, blending with sides and

speci-

First

grey;

belly coloration. Alcohol preserved

MAQ@Q NS

Fig. 1. Pinniwallago

mens dark grey along upper half of body and

anal fin base, light grey along ventral half.

Distribution: Ponds in and around Kanpur,

Uttar Pradesh, India. All known specimens

were collected from ‘Bara Tal’ near village

Bhitargaon, Tehsil Ghatampur, District Kan-

pur.

Holotype: in Z.S.1., Calcutta, collected on

27-6-1976 from above locality; F.F. 1443.

Paratypes: Two, one in Z.S.I., Calcutta,

F.F. 1444 and the other in the museum of

Zoology Department, D.A.V. College, Kanpur,

collected on 5-vii-1976 from above locality.

Affinity: This new species is undoubtedly

related to the widely distributed Wallago attu

from which it differs in having the second

rayed dorsal fin.

Discussion: In Indian Siluroid fishes, the

second dorsal fin whenever present, is smooth

and adipose except in the genera Choca Gray

and Plotosus Lacépéde where the second dorsal

is rayed but confluent with the caudal. Jayaram

(1966),* while discussing the affinities of the

genus Clarotes Kner of the family Bagridae

from Africa, pointed out the unique modifi-

a ide cate rect

UEC

SQN

kanpurensis sp. nov.

cation of the adipose dorsal fin as a fin with

rays and spines which justified the provision

of a generic rank for the African fish. Phylo-

genetically Wallago is primitive and the new

genus can be stated to be slightly better evolv-

ed in possessing the second rayed dorsal fin.

The species is named after Kanpur, India

from where it has been first reported.

4JAYARAM, K. C. (1966): Contribution to the

study of the Fishes of the family Bagridae. 2. A

systematic account of the African genera with a

new classification of the family. Bulletin de i’? Institut

Fontamental d’ Afrique Noire. Tome xxviii, Ser. A.

n 3 tuillet pp. 1094-1095.

2911

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

ON A NEW SPECIES OF GENUS ALLOTRISSOCLADIUS FREEMAN

(DIPTERA, CHIRONOMIDAE) FROM INDIA?

P. K. CHAUDHURI AND S. K. NANDIZ

(With three

In course of our studies on the Chironomid

midges of India, a few specimens of genus

Allotrissocladius Freeman were noticed

amongst collections of insects from Darjee-

ling, West Bengal, India. The insects at

first sight seem to be members of the genus

Paratrissocladius Zaviel but close examina-

tion of characters especially the presence of

accessory appendages in male hypopygium,

assigns them to the genus Allotrissocladius.

The genus was first proposed by Freeman

(1964) on the basis of specimens from West-

ern Australia and Allotrissocladius amphibius

Freeman was the type-species.

The descriptions and terminologies used in

this paper have been followed after the works

of Saether (1976).

Allotrissocladius acutus sp. nov.

Male: Body length 3.38 (3.34-3.39, n=6)

mm; wing length 1.72 (1.68-1.74, n=6) mm;

Wing breadth 0.53 (0.52-0.53, n=6) mm.

Head: Brown in colour. Vertex brown with

6-10 setae of which 2 being postocular on each

side. Clypeus with 4 setae in transverse row.

Maxillary palp light brown, palpomere III

with a small preapical pit bearing 1-2 sensilla,

palpomere V with an apical seta, ratio of

length of palpomeres from I to V 8:13:32:

26:45, L/W ratio 4.0. Eyes reniform, bare

and slightly extended dorsally, extension be-

ing 0.1 mm. Antenna pale, flagellomeres cylin-

1 Accepted May 1979.

2 Department of Zoology, University of Burdwan,

Burdwan 713104, West Bengal, India.

292

text-figures)

drical, flagellomere XIII lance-shaped, ratio

of length of flagellomeres from I to XIII

8:7:8:8: 10211211: 10210: 11.3122 Sie ARS

0.76.

Thorax: Antepronotum with 1 lateral seta.

Acrostichals 4-6 (6), dorsocentrals 10 in a

row on each side, prealars 4, prescutellars 2

on each side. Scutellum with 4 setae on each

side, postscutellum brown with dark margin.

Wing (Fig. 1): wing without macrotrichia,

microtrichia visible in high magnification.

Brachiolum with 1 seta, R with 14-15 (14)

setae from the base, Ri and R,+; with out

setae; R.+, ends C at a distance of 0.19 mm

from R,, R,t+; ends slightly proximal to M3+,,

C extended little beyond R,+, being 0.04 mm

long, f-cu considerably distal to r-m, Cu;

straight and slightly bent at the apex, ends

slightly proximal to f-cu. Sensory organ 1 each

r-m and at the base of R,. Squama with 12

setae. Anal lobe well developed and produced.

Haltere pale. VR 1.1, CR 0.93.

Legs: uniformly brown. Spur of fore tibia

0.06 mm long, ratio of length of spur to the

apical diameter of fore tibia 5:9; spurs of

mid tibia equal 0.32 mm long, ratio of length

of spur to the apical diameter of mid tibia

8:10; spurs of hind tibia unequal 0.076 mm

and 0.032 mm long, ratio of length of spurs

to the apical diameter of hind tibia 18:12,

8:12. Hind tibial comb with 12 setae, 0.028-

0.056 mm long. Claws of hind leg equal, curv-

ed 0.028 mm long with 2 setae at the base.

Empodium smaller than claws. LR 0.47 in

fore leg, 0.56 in mid leg and 0.58 in hind leg.

TR of hind leg 1.78.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Abdomen: Terga ochreous, tergum I with

15-16 lateral setae, terga I] to VIII mottled

brown with numerous setae. Hypopygium

(Fig. 2). Anal point narrow and pointed bear-

ing 5-6 (6) setae on each side. Gonocoxite

with a thumb like basal lobe, gonocoxite with

24-26 setae; gonostylus (Fig. 3) slightly bent

SS PENSE SP Ne ere real ORF SEN

8 SES ES ae I ee PEO oS I]

at the middle, base narrow and distal part

wider with an apical tooth 0.012 mm long and

a seta on each side of tooth. Appendage two

in number, outer one narrow, profusely seta-

ceous and inner one broad. HR 2.2, HV 3.9.

Material: 6 males were collected by the

senior author from the Govt. College, Dar-

293

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

jeeling in May, 1970. Holotype male (Type

no. 60, B.U .Ent.) in the collections of insects

at the department of Zoology, University of

Burdwan, Burdwan.

Female: unknown.

The present species has been named Allo-

trissocladius acutus sp. nov. in view of its nar-

row and pointed anal point. The species shows

close similarities with A. amphibius Freeman

from West Australia in some aspects but the

differences in the setae of thorax, wing with

its venation and structure of male hypopygium

are sufficient to treat the species as a new one.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful to Prof. Ole A. Saether of

the University of Bergen (Norway) for kind-

ly confirming the species and going through

the manuscript and to Prof. D. K. Choudhuri,

Head of the department of Zoology, Univer-

sity of Burdwan for laboratory facilities.

REFERENCES

FREEMAN, P. (1964): Notes on Chironomidae

(Diptera; Nematocera). Proc. R. Ent. Soc., London

(B) 33: 147-150.

SAETHER, O. A. (1976): Revision of Hydrobae-

nus, Trissocladius, Zalutschia, Paratrissocladius and

some related genera (Chironomidae, Diptera). Bull.

Fish. Res. Bd., Canada 195: 1-287.

A NEW SPECIES OF THE GENUS HERCULIA WALKER FROM

NORTH INDIA (LEPIDOPTERA: PYRALIDAE: PYRALINAB)?

H. S. Rose Anpb S. S. DHILLON?

(With seven text-figures)

During an extensive survey of Pyralid

moths of North India, we collected six species

belonging to the subfamily Pyralinae. These

six species included two new species, one of

which has been already described (Rose and

Pajni 1978). The second species, according

to Hampson’s key (1896), is clearly referable

to the genus Herculia Walker, which includes

fourteen other species from India. The species

under reference is distinctly different from all

other Herculia spp. (Hampson 1896a, 1896b,

1916, 1917) and hence, is being described as

1 Accepted January 1980.

2Department of Zoology, Punjabi

Patiala-147 002.

294

University, .

a new species. The nomenclature of Klots

(1970) has been followed for genitalic struc-

tures.

Genus Herculia Walker

Herculia Walker, 1859, Cat. Lep. Het. Brit.

Mus., 19: 807. Type species: Herculia martha-

lis Walker (Range: Universally distributed).

Herculia hansi sp. nov. (Figs. 1-7)

Head: Vertex covered with densely arrang-

ed long and ochreous scale; frons profusely

scaled with ochreous brown scales. Antenna:

shorter than fore wing; scape over laden with

brown scales; flagellum annulated and finely

ringed with fusco- rufous and pale brown

scales; minutely pilose and without any bran-

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

ches in male. Eye: large, with a row of grey-

ish brown scales behind. Ocellus absent.

Labial palpus: upturned; second segment long,

reaching vertex of head; third segment por-

rect, short and acuminate; all segments thickly

scaled with brown scales, irrorated with fus-

cous and fulvo-rufous scales. Maxillary pal-

pus: reduced and filiform, covered with light

brown scales. Proboscis: long, furnished with

fuscous brown scales at base. Posterior end

of head densely clothed with ochreous brown

scales.

Herculia hansi sp. nov.

Fig. 1. Photograph of the adult.

Thorax: covered with dull green scales

dorsally; scales on tegula reaching beyond

metathorax; white ventrally.

Fore wing: Anterior margin straight; apex

rounded; termen evenly curved; tornus round-

ed; posterior margin straight. Ground colour

dull green, uniformly and finely irrorated with

white scales; the costal margin yellowish

brown; a slightly curved white antemedial line

from costa to inner margin; an inwardly obli-

que and straight white postmedial line from

costa to anal margin; margin whitish; marginal

fringe greyish. Discal cell shorter than half

the length of wing. Sc straight; R, free, from

anterior angle of cell; R. free; R;, Ry and

R; stalked; M, from base of R;+,+;; M, and

M; from posterior angle of cell, closely ap-

proximated at origin for sufficient distance,

diverging distally; Cu, weakly curved towards

base of M,; Cu, from cell at about two-third

the length of cell; 3A making a small loop

at base of 2 A.

Fig. 2.

Fore wing. Fig. 3. Hind wing.

Abbreviations:

1A, First anal vein; 2A, Second anal vein; 3A, Third

anal vein; Cu,, First cubital vein; Cu,, Second cubi-

tal vein; M,, First median vein; M,, Second median

vein; M,, Third median vein; R,, First radial vein;

R,, Second radial vein; R,, Third radial vein; R,,

Fourth radial vein; R,, Fifth radial vein; Rs, Radial

sector; Sc, Subcosta; Sc. R,, Stalk of Sc and R,.

Hind wing: Costal margin straight; apex,

termen, tornus and anal margin rounded.

Ground colour dull green, finely irrorated with

white scales; a fine white antemedial line from

295

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

SL SDSS .

> 7 of‘ “N\\

= 47] ol. WOW YT: Si

oo KY IWNG NAL a

= A UU IEF

Sosenge AEA eh

SBA AE

a a ) \

s : EN y

= 4

deciise juovih daira

Figs. 4-6. Parts of male genitalia,

Abbreviations:

CRN, Cornutus; GN, Gnathos; JX, Juxta; SL, Sacculus; SOC, Socii; TG, Tegumen;

TU,A, Tuba analis; UN, Uncus; VIN, Vinculum; VLYV, Valva,

996

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

middle of cell to posterior margin; an in-

wardly oblique white postmedial line from

Sc+R, to tornus; margin white; marginal

fringe grey, with a dark line. Discal cell slight-

ly less than half the length of wing; discocel-

lulars long, straight and oblique; cell closed.

Rs apposed to Sc+R, beyond cell for some

distance; Rs+M, stalked; M. and M, from

the same point at posterior angle of cell, ap-

proximated at base, diverging distally; Cu,

diverging; Cu, from slightly beyond middle

of cell; three anals present.

Legs: covered with brown scales, irrorated

with fuscous and fusco-rufous; tibiae promi-

nently and densely scaled; outer spur on mid

tibia two-third the length of inner; outer spur

of anterior pair on hind tibia exactly one-

third the length of inner; outer spur of distal

pair slightly less than half the length of inner.

Abdomen: brown dorsally, irrorated with

dull green, poorly ringed with white, under

surface ochreous brown.

Male genitalia: Uncus more or less slender,

rounded distally, tip very minutely — setose;

socii quite prominent, long, each with an an-

gular process, completely naked; gnathos well

developed, shorter than uncus, strongly scler-

tized, its arms broad at base, meeting the dis-

tal end and drawn out into a short, more or

less pointed process; tuba analis nearly as

long as uncus, simple; tegumen reduced and

well sclerotized; vinculum V-shaped; saccus

rudimentary or absent. Valva moderately long,

more or less boat-shaped, costal margin angu-

late, saccular margin arched, distal end nar-

row and rounded; costa not differentiated, sac-

culus very poorly demarcated at base only:

harpe absent. Transtilla represented by a thin-

strap; juxta more or less squarish. Aedeagus

long and slender, its walls well sclerotized:

vesica with a well developed long and thorn-

Fig. 7. Female genitalia.

Abbreviations:

ANT.APO, Anterior Apophyses; CRP.BU, Corpus

Bursae; DU.BU, Ductus Bursae; OVP, Ovipositor:

PO.APO, Posterior Apophyses; SIG, Signum.

297

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

like, strongly sclerotized cornutus and with a

few loosely arranged denticles.

Female genitalia: Corpus bursae globular,

membranous, lined by a sclerotized line on in-

ner side; signum circular, well sclerotized and

beautifully adorned with short denticles; duc-

tus bursae membranous; anterior apophyses

quite long, thin and well sclerotized; posterior

apophyses much longer than anterior apophy-

ses and slightly better sclerortized; ovipositor

lobes more or less conical, each bearing short

and long setae.

Alar expanse: Male: 20.5 mm to 23 mm

Female: 25.5 mm

Material Examined: Holotype: 1¢; 344

and 22° paratypes, India, Solan and Cham-

baghat (Himachal Pradesh) (Collected by HS

Rose). Material deposited in the Department

of Zoology, Punjabi University, Patiala- 147002,

Punjab, India.

Remarks: The genus Herculia Walker in-

cludes fourteen species, two of which namely

imbecilis Moore and dharmsalae Butler have

been described from North India (Hampson

1896a). The species under reference is, thus,

the third species from North India which dif-

fers prominently from all the described species

belonging to genus Herculia. The new species,

Herculia hansi, however, shows slight similarity

to H. imbeciles Moore in having an ante-

medial line on the dorsal surface of the fore

wing while differing from it in lacking a dark

speck at the end of the discal cell. The alar

expanse of the latter is drastically larger

(male 30 mm, female 34 mm) than as it

occurs in the former (male 20.5 mm to 23 mm,

female 25.5 mm.). The generic identity of

H. hansi sp. nov. has been confirmed from

the British Museum (Natural History), Lon-

don.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We wish to thank Dr. J. D. Bradley of

British Museum (Natural History), London

for the confirmation of the species and Dr.

Hans Raj Pajni, Department of Zoology,

Panjab University, Chandigarh for his help

in the preparation of this manuscript.

REFERENCES

Hampson, G. F. (1896a): Fauna of British India,

Moths, 4: 1-594.

(1896b): On the classification of

three sub-families of moths of family Pyralidae,

the Epipaschiinae, Endotrichinae and _ Pyralinae.

Trans. Ent. Soc. London, pp. 451-550.

(1916): Descriptions of new Pyra-

lidae of subfamilies Epipaschiinae, Chrysauginae,

Endotrichinae and Pyralinae (Lepidoptera). Ann.

Mag. Nat. Hist. London, 18(8): 126-160, 349-373.

(1917): Descriptions of new Pyra-

lidae of subfamilies Epipaschiinae, Chrysauginae,

298

Endotrichinae and Pyralinae (Lepidoptera). Ann.

Mag. Nat. Hist. London, 19: 65-100.

Kiots, A. B. (1970): Lepidoptera, in “Taxono-

mist’s glossary of Genitalia in Insects” (ed. S. L.

Tuxen), 2nd ed. Munksgaard, Copenhagen, pp. 115-

130.

Rose, H. S. AND PAJNI, H. R. (1978): Further

comments on the genus Tamraca Moore with the

description of a new species from Chandigarh (Lepi-

doptera: Pyralidae). J. Bombay nat. Hist Soc., 75

(1): 170-173.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

DESCRIPTION OF A NEW SPECIES AND A KEY TO INDIAN

SPECIES OF BELOSTOMATIDAE?

P. VENKATESAN AND T.

(With seven

Lauck and Menke (1961) showed that

Sphaerodema was synonymous with Genus

Diplonychus Laporte of sub-family Belosto-

matinae. Earlier workers in India, while re-

cording and studying the biology of the species

of this genus, had included them under Sp/ae-

rodema Laporte, overlooking Diplonychus

(Presswala & George 1936, Rao 1962, Indira

1963, Madhavan 1973). Distant (1906) dif-

ferentiated S. annulatum (Fabricius) from the

other two recorded Indian species of this genus

on the basis of the nature and the size of the

hemelytra and the measurement of the head

width between the eyes. He _ differentiated

S. molestum Dufour from S. rusticum Fabricius

on the basis of the size of the claw in the front

tarsus. Menke (1960 & 1961) stressed the im-

portance of the structure and terminology of

male genitalia and gave a more critical ana-

lysis of other characters used to distinguish

the taxa of this sub-family. Hence, it is felt

worthwhile to include the characters of the

genitalia in the present investigation while des-

cribing a new species of the genus Diplony-

chus, collected from Chetpet pond, Madras,

India and forming a key to the Indian species

of Diplonychus.

KEY TO THE INDIAN SPECIES OF

Diplonychus Laporte

1. Total body length less than 20 mm; body nar-

row and tapering; greatest expanse of hemely-

tra together shorter than the total body length.

ip}

K. RAGHUNATHA RAO?

text-figures )

Total body length more than 20 mm; body very

broad; greatest expanse of hemelytra together

equal to the total body length.

.. D. annulatum (Fabricius)

Anterior claws shorter than the width of tarsus.

Anterior claws longer than the width of tarsus.

. D. molestus (Dufour)

3, Head length shorter than the width between

the eyes; the posterolateral margin of the res-

piratory strap of male without the setal tufts

or spikes; air straps meeting at the tip of

aedeagus. .. D. rusticus (Fabricius)

Head length more than the width between the

eyes; the posterolateral margin of the respira-

tory strap of male with a cluster of setal tufts

or spikes; air straps not meeting at the tip of

aedeagus. .. D. indicus sp. nov.

Diplonychus indicus sp. nov.

(Figs. 1 to 7)

Diagnosis:

Small and elongated bug measuring 13.5

mm to 16.5 mm long, greatest width being

9.6 to 10.1 mm; ochraceous or ochraceous

brown in colour; the lateral and basal mar-

gins of pronotum and embolium always paler

than the meso—and metathoracic segments

(Fig. 1); legs and ventral part of body con-

colorous; head 14 times longer than the width

between the eyes; anteoculus moderately deve-

loped, shorter than the interoculus; eyes slight-

ly convex; interoculus half as wide as the eye;

eyes obliquely triangular, strongly flattened

1 Accepted August 1980.

* Department of Zoology,

Madras 600 034, India.

Loyola College,

Zou

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

Figs. 1-6. Diplonychus indicus sp. nov.

ja. Scutellum; 1b. Thoracic region; 2. Head; 3. Hemelytra; 4. Antenna; 5. I, II, Il

legs; 6. Ventral view of abdominal segments to show the ventrolateral pubescence.

Abbreviations:

(A,, A,)—Anals, An—Antenna, C—Claw, Cu—Cubital, Ec—Epiclypeus, F—-Fron,

Mp—Maxillary Palp, Pc—Postclypeus, Pub—Pubescence, Ros—Rostrum, R+M—

Radial + Medial, Sc—Subcosta, T-—Trochanter.

300

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

dorsally and 14 times longer than wide (Fig.

2); external margin of eye often straight and

continuous with the pronotum; bulgings pre-

sent on the margin of anteoculus; posterola-

teral angle of anteoculus variable; claws and

embolium of hemelytra paler than meso- and

metathoracic segments but not smooth (Fig.

3) and punctured with setigerous holes; mem-

brane of the hemelytra with a patch of minute

chitinous hairs at the bottom; rostrum long

and conical; segment I of rostrum 2 times

longer than segment II (Fig. 2); antenna hid-

den, four segmented and located near the eyes

with segments II and III bearing long curved

finger-like projection dorsally; IV segment

with slightly bulbous projection than that of

II and III (Fig. 4); pronotum with lateral

margin nearly straight; anterior margin of pro-

notum more than half time as wide as the

posterior margin.

Ventral laterotergites of abdominal segments

III to VII with a narrow, sinuate, central band

of pubescence, attaining the external margin

at posterolateral angles at the region of HI

segment only (Fig. 6); abdominal sternites

shiny with short spinules.

Legs shiny but often covered with minute

spinules; front femur strongly dilated, bearing

two grooves for the reception of tibia; front

tibia and tarsus usually bearing rows of large

setigerous punctures; front tarsus two-segment-

ed, terminated by two small and equal claws

that are shorter than the width of the tarsal

segment; segments II and III of the tarsus

Fig. 7a.

Genitalia of male D. indicus sp. nov.

Fig. 7b. Genitalia of female D. indicus sp. nov.

301

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

being fused; segment I of the tarsus shorter

than segment II, the division being visible on

the ventral side; two spinules project between

the claws of the mesothoracic and metathora-

cic legs (Fig. 5).

The phallus composed of the [IX abdominal

segment, articulating within the genital capsule

as on a U shaped sclerotic basal plate; arising

from sides of the genital capsule at the arti-

culations of the basal plate are the parameres,

triangular in shape with a feather of setose

hairs; a ligamentous lamina ventralis being at-

tached at the base of the basal plate which

articulated posteriorly with a rather bulbous

sclerotized caudal extension—the ventral diver-

ticulum; the basal half of the phallus surround-

ed dorsally and internally by rather heavily

sclerotized plate—phallobase; a hollow scle-

rotized tubular aedeagus arises within the phal-

lobase, which extends dorsal to the ventral

diverticulum; the VII abdominal segment

being closely associated with the genital cap-

sule, possesses the long air or respiratory

straps; air straps not bifurcate and their arms

not meeting at the tip of the aedeagus

(Fig. 7).

In the male, the lateral margins of the air

straps bearing a cluster of setae or setal tufts

to form together as a spike extending down-

wards and being visible to the naked eye; be-

sides the inner margin bearing another cluster

of the same nature distolaterally but half as

long as the cluster in the outer margin; arising

in the phallobase a hollow sclerotized tubular

aedeagus, which extends dorsally to the ven-

tral diverticulum (Fig. 7a).

In the female, the air straps not possessing

any long setae; female genital plate bearing

one tuft of setae on the lateral margins api-

cally (Fig. 7b).

Material studied:

Holotype < collected from Chetpet pond,

Madras, India on 6-2-1977.

302

Allotype @ and paratype 5 nymphs collect-

ed from the same locality.

The type series is deposited in the Museum

of Loyola College, Madras, India.

Measurements:

Holotype and Allotype in mm. (Allotype

measurements given in paranthesis). Total

body length—14.65 (16.46); greatest width—

9.6 to 10.1; anteoculus—1.78 (1.78); intero-

culus—2.12 (2.12); rostrum—2.78 (2.68);

hemelytra—11.42 (11.52); anterior margin of

pronotum—4.9 (5.2); posterior margin of pro-

notum—6.92 (6.92); head length—2.54 (2.30);

thorax length—6.24 (6.19); abdominal length

—7.87 (7.97); I leg- femur 2.88 (2.88); tibia

2.02 (1.92); tarsus 0.48 (0.48); claw 0.095

(0.095); IL lege—femur 5.8 (4.8); tibia 5.56

(5.13); tarsus 2.73 (2.63); claw 0.58 (0.46);

III leg—femur 4.08 (3.74); tibia 3.64 (3.46);

tarsus 1.54 (1.78); claw 0.48 (0.38).

Remarks:

Diplonychus indicus sp. nov. is closely re-

lated to D. rusticus (Fabr.) in having heme-

lytra shorter than the total body length, ante-

rior claws short and the presence of tuft of

setae on the lateral sides of the basal plate

in the female genitalia. It differs from D. rus-

ticus in head length being more than the width

between the eyes, cluster of setae forming the

spike being present on the posterolateral mar-

gins of the respiratory straps, air straps not

meeting at the tip of aedeagus, the pubescence

of ventrolateral tergites from III to VII reach-

ing the external margin on the segment III

only and the membrane of the hemelytra with

a patch of spinules at the bottom.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful to Dr. Margaret Parsons,

Minnesota, U.S.A. for her valuable suggestions.

We thank Rev. Fr. Kuriakose, S.J., Principal

for providing facilities and extending constant

encouragement.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

REFERENCES

Distant, W. L. (1906): The Fauna of British

India, Rhynchota, Vol. III (Heteroptera—Homop-

tera). Taylor and Francis, London, 35-37.

INpIRA, T. (1963): Biochemical and Cytochemical

studies during development and ovarian growth in

Sphaerodema molestum Duf. Ph.D. Thesis, Anna-

malai University.

Lauck, D. R. & Menke, A. S. (1961): The

higher classification of the Belostomatidae (Hemip-

tera). Ann. Ento. Soc. Amer., 56: 644-657.

MADHAVAN, M. M. (1973): Structure and func-

tion of the hydropyle of the egg of the bug Sphae-

rodema molestum. J. Ins. Physiol., 20: 1341-1349.

MENKE, A. S. (1960): A review of the genus

Lethocercus (Hemiptera: Belostomatidae) in the

Eastern Hemisphere with the description of a new

species from Australia. Aus. J. Zool., 8: 285-288.

(1961): A taxonomic study of the

genus Abedus Stal (Hemiptera: Belostomatidae).

Univ. California Publ. Ento., 16 (8): 393-440.

PrESSWALA, M. J. & Georcg, C. J. (1936): Mor-

phology of Sphaerodema rusticum Fabr. J. Univ.

Bombay, 4: 29-65.

Rao, T. K. R. (1962): On the biology of Rana-

tra elongata Fabr. (Heteroptera: Nepidae) and

Sphaerodema annulatum Fabr. (Heteroptera: Belo-

stomatidae). Proc. Roy. Ento. soc. Lond., 37: 61-

64.

ACONOGONON KUTTIENSE (POLYGONACEAE)—A NEW SPECIES

FROM N. W. HIMALAYA?

G. G. Maiti, R. M. Dutta? & C. R. Basu*

(With five text-figures)

Aconogonon kuttiense sp. nov. (Figs. 1-5)

Arcte affinis A. tortuosum (D. Don) Hara,

sed foliis anguste elliptico-lanceolatis subtus

tomento denso albo-lanato indutis, inflorescen-

tia plus minusve laxe racemosa axillaris brevis,

perianthio majore differt; a A. sericeum (Pal-

las) Hara, inflorescentia racemosa, perianthio

glabro, foliis minoribus discrepat.

Suffrutex erectus, nanus 15-45 cm altus;

radix perennis, crassa. Caulis repetite dicho-

tome ramosus, subteretis vel teretis, costatus,

rubro-brunneus, indumento fere longe erecto-

patento vel adpresse brevi-setoso vestitus.

Folia subsessilis, 1—3.5x0.3—1 cm, anguste

elliptico-lanceolata vel oblonga, ad basim an-

gusta et acuta, margine fortiter revoluta, ad

1 Accepted July 1980.

2 Botanical Survey of India, Howrah-711 103.

3 Present address: Department of Botany, Delhi

University, Delhi.

apicem obtuso-acuta, fere rubro-brunnea,

supra tenuiter adpresse pilosa, infra dense

albo-lanata, supra nervis depressis, infra ner-

vis principalibus conspicuis. Ochreae tubulares,

basin versus irregulariter laceratae, dein deci-

duae, membranaceae, distincte nervosae dense

adpresse longe setosae, setis + 1.5 cm longis

vestitae. Flores racemosi, raro brevipaniculati,

1.5—3 cm longi, terminales vel axillares, albo-

tomentosi; pedunculi 3—8 (—10) mm longi;

Bracteae membranaceae, primo tubulares

dein irregulariter laceratae, adpresse longe

albo-tomentosae 2.5—3 mm longae; pedicelli

tenues, anguste marginati, glabri, 1—1.5 mm

longi. Perianthium rubrum, campanulatum,

3.5—4 mm longum, ad trientem fissum undique

glabrum, segmentis 5, raro 6, oblongis, obtusis

+ 3 mm longis. Stamina 8; filamentis lineari-

bus, 1—1.2 mm longis; antherae minutae, late

oblongae, 0.3—0.4 mm longae. Ovarium par-

303

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

vum, 3-quetrum, 0.7—0.8 (1) mm longum; quilonga, + 4 mm longa.

styli 3, breves, 0.1—0.2 mm longi, apice capi- Holotypus (R. M. Dutta 277A) et isotypi

tato-stigmatosi. Nux rubro-brunnea, ellipsoi- (R. M. Dutta 277B) lecti die Sept. 22, 1968,

dea, triquetra acute marginata, perianthio ac- in loco Kutti, in provincia Uttar Pradesh,

a Se

2 ere . SNF ;

r <2 Soon Gy. AAS QL

Fe woul Py R ths

if ast | y .

Zz f..: an acces ESS Ni

(“es OO ee - psa : aN

: ‘Ze <“~ : oe a on, pare é

al Re One he Sigrekiet ee

yen, Oi ‘ etary UU

ue : '

} nig A ane T m ,

Qa Wi, yi;

: Ri \ "'t, a

a \ \ , // bf p

WHE:

~ SNH Wg”

Figs. 1-5. Aconogonon kuttiecnse sp. nov.

|. Habit; 2. Flower opened out with ovary removed; 3. Stamen; 4. Gynoecium;

5. Fruit.

304

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

India; Holotypus et isotypi positi CAL. Para-

typus: Kumaon, Kutti Valley, 14-15000 ft.

31-7-1886, J. F. Duthie 5929 (CAL) and

Kutti Valley, way to Samzurkchan Glacier,

3 km. from Kutti village, C. 4000 m.,

24-10-1976, G. G. Maiti 790 (CAL).

Closely allied to A. tortuosum (D. Don)

Hara but is easily recognizable by densely

white-lanate or woolly lower, surface of the

leaves, narrowly elliptic-lanceolate leaves with

a narrowed base, axillary, short, more or less

lax racemes and larger perianth. A. sericeum

(Pallas) Hara—a Siberian species, is also very

similar to this in its hairiness and shape of

leaves, but A. sericeum (Pallas) Hara differs

in having axillary flower-clusters, hairy peri-

anth and larger leaves. Whereas A. kuttiense

is characterised by flowers being in racemes,

glabrous perianth and smaller leaves.

The specific epithet is derived from the

name of the locality from where it was collect-

ed thrice, by Duthie during 1886, then by

Dutta 1968, and by Maiti 1976.

ACK NOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful to Dr. M. P. Nayar, De-

puty Director, Central National Herbarium,

Howrah, for Latin translation and helpful sug-

gestions. Thanks are also due to the Council

of Himalayan Exploration and Research, Cal-

cutta, for providing financial assistance and

opportunity to join the “Kutti Valley Expedi-

tion—1968 and 1976”.

A NEW SPECIES OF JASMINUM (OLEACEAE) FROM INDIA?

A. K. Stnua, G. G. Malti AND G. S. Giri?

(With a text-figure)

Jasminum simonsii sp. nov.

J. dispermo (J. dispermum Wall.) affinis, a

qua differt plantis glabris, foliis simplicibus,

5-nervibus, combinate venosis, cymis laxis era-

mosis, pedunculis longis gracilibus, calycis

dentibus acuminatis, et tubo corollae brevi.

Frutex parvus gracilis, glaber, partibus

junioribus pruinosis. Folia simplicia, ovata ad

ovato-lanceolata, 7-10 3.5-4 cm, apice acu-

minata basi cordata ad rotundata, integra, gla-

bra, membranacea, infra secus nervos majores

puberula, 5 nervia, combinate venosa, petioli

10-13 mm longi, glabri ad pruinosi, penitus

canaliculati. Inflorescentia cymosa axillaris,

1 Accepted July 1980.

* Central Botanical Laboratory, Botanical Survey

of India, P.O. Botanic Garden, Howrah-711 103

(W.B.).

eramosa, 2-5 flora, pedunculi 2-3 cm, pedicelli

gracili, 1-2 cm longi, glabri vel raro pruinosi.

Flores bracteati, bracteae subulatae angulares,

2-3 mm XxX 1 mm. Calyx 5-lobus, cupularis,

dentes acuminati, glabri. Corolla 5-loba, tubu-

laris, tubus 10 mm longus, lobi ovato-lanceo-

lati, 6x5 mm, acuti, glabri. Stamina 2, in tubo

inclusa, fila 7 mm, antherae 5 mm, oblongae,

2-cellulares. Ovarium ovoideum, 2 mm dia-

metro, stylus 12 mm, filiformis, glaber; stigma

lineari-oblongum, bifidum. Fructi maturi semi-

naque non visa.

Holotypus lectus a Simons sine numero, sine

loco, et positus in herbario indico nationali

(CAL) sub numero accessionis 285972.

Jasminum simonsii sp. nov.

Small slender shrub, glabrous to pruinose in

305

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

01,

he da

Figs. 1-5. Jasminum simonsii sp. nov.

1. A portion of the twig; 2. Flower; 3. Calyx split open; 4. Corolla split open

with two stamens; 5. Gynoecium.

306

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

younger parts. Leaves simple, ovate to ovate-

lanceolate, 7-10 cm x 3.5-4 cm, apex acumi-

nate, base cordate to rounded, entire, glabrous,

membranous, puberulous along the major ner-

ves below, 5-nerved, convergent with succes-

sive marginal loops. Petiole 10-13 mm, long,

glabrous to pruinose, deeply channelled. In-

florescence axillary cyme, unbranched, 2-5

flowered. Peduncle 2-3 cm. Pedicels slender,

1-2 cm long, glabrous or rarely pruinose,

Flowers bracteate, bracts subulate, angular,

2-3 mm x1 mm. Calyx 5-lobed, cupular, teeth

acuminate, glabrous. Corolla 5-lobed, tubular,

tube 10 mm long, lobes ovate-lanceolate, 6 x 5

mm, acute, glabrous. Stamens 2, included with-

in the tube, filaments 7 mm, anthers 5 mm,

oblong, 2-celled. Ovary ovoid, 2 mm diam.;

style 12 mm, filiform, glabrous; stigma linear-

oblong, bifid. Mature fruits and seeds not

seen.

Holotype: Without any precise _ locality,

Simons s.n. (CAL) [Jasminum attenuatum

Roxb. ex DC.—Det. by C.E.C. Fischer,

dated 12-8-1936, Acc. No. 285972].

Isotype: Without any precise locality, Simons

sn. (CAL) [Jasminum attenuatum Roxb.

ex DC.-Det. by CE.C... Fischer, dated

12-8-1936, Acc. No. 285972A].

The specific epithet was chosen based on

Mr. Charles J. Simons, who was a pioneer

collector in the regions of Khasia hills and

Mikir hills.

Jasminum simonsii sp. nov. differs from

J. dispermum Wall. in having glabrous plant

body, simple leaves, 5-nerved, lateral nerves

united before they reach the margin, unbranch-

ed lax cyme with long slender peduncles, den-

tate acuminate calyx lobes and short corolla

tube. It is related to J. stenopetalum Lindl,

but can be easily differentiated by the acumi-

nate leaves, 5-nerved, glabrous, except the

nerves beneath, larger peduncles and pedicels,

smaller angular bracts, shorter calyx teeth and

5-shorter ovate corolla lobes.

ACK NOWLEDGEMENT

We wish to thank Dr. N. C. Majumdar for

Latin translation and valuable suggestions.

A NEW SPECIES OF EUNOTIA’

P. T. Sarope AND N. D. KAMAT?

(With two text-figures)

During studies on the freshwater diatoms of

the Vidarbh region of Maharashtra State

we came across a species of Eunotia which is

different in many respects from all known

species of Eunotia and hence described here

as new.

1 Accepted May 1980.

2? Botany Department, Institute of Science, Auran-

gabad.

Eunotia vidarbhensis sp. nov. (Figs. 1-2)

Frustula solitariae, in aspectu zonali asym-

mertice, linearis; valvae 34.5—36.7 p» longae,

6—6.5 » latae, aliquantum arcuatae, tenuiter

curvatis ac latere ventrali paulum inflatae ad

anum apice; apicibus late rotundatis; nodulae

polares retractis, satis magnae ac raphe ter-

minalibus distinctis; striae 14—16 in 10 », plus

minus equidistante evolutae sed proxime

307

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

positae ad apicem, crassae.

In palude, Nagpur (20-1-78).

Typus lectus ab autores et positus in col-

lectione sub numero V 540.

A TTT

ee AA

1-2. Eunotia vidarbhensis sp. nov. 1.

view; 2. Girdle view.

Figs. Valve

Frustules solitary, asymmetrical, linear in

girdle view; valves 34.5—36.7 » long, 6—6.5

uw broad, scarcely arcuate, slightly inflated on

the ventral side at one end; ends _ broadly

rounded; polar nodules retracted, fairly large

with termination of raphe distinct; striae 14—

16 in 10 », more or less uniformly set but

somewhat closer towards the ends, coarse.

In a pond, Nagpur (20-1-78).

Type collected by the authors and kept in

the collections No. V 540.

The new species is close to Eunotia major

(W. Sm.) Rabh. f. ventricosa A. Cl. (Cleve-

Euler 1953, 119, f. 456d, e) and Euno-

tia asymmetrica Chol. (Cholnoky 1954, 209,

f. 21) in some respects but differs from both

of them in shape and dimensions. In addition

it differs from the former in not having pseu-

doraphe and from the latter in having denser

and coarse striations.

ACK NOWLEDGEMENT

Grateful thanks are due to Prof. Dr. L. A.

Whitford, North Carolina for help in Latin

translation and identification of the specimen.

REFERENCES

CHOLNOKY, B. J.

(1954) :

Diatomeen aus Sud-

Rhodosien. Port. Acta. Biol. (B) 4 (3-4): 197-228.

CLEVE-EULER, A.

(1953) :

Schweden und _ Finnland-II.

Die Diatomeen von

K. Svenska Vetens

Akad. Handl. Fjurde ser. 4: 1-158.

308

OBITUARY

D. E. REUBEN

(1893-1980)

It is with deep regret that we record the

death of Mr. D. E. Reuben on 24th March

1980, after a long and painful illness borne

with patience and fortitude.

David Ezra Reuben was born at Hassan,

Mysore, on 3rd September 1893 and did his

schooling at St. Joseph’s, Bangalore, and

Bishop’s High School in Poona. He then took

his B.A. in Mathematics at the Deccan Col-

lege, Poona, followed by a first class in Mathe-

matics at St. John’s College, Cambridge.

While at Poona, he participated in cricket,

rowing and rifle-shooting, and then secured

tennis colours at Cambridge.

Standing first in his batch for the ICS.

Examination in 1917, he served as a Sub-

Divisional Officer in Bihar and Orissa, and

then as an additional Magistrate. Having opt-

ed for the judiciary, he took the Bar Exa-

mination, reached the High Court in 1943,

and retired as Chief Justice of Bihar in 1953.

After retirement, he settled down in Bombay,

and served for three years as a member of

the Labour Appellate Tribunal.

1List of papers & Notes.

On the occurrence of the Clucking Teal (Nettion

formosum) in the Monghyr District 45: 609.

A jumping snake 53: 477.

The Abominable Snowman 54: 762.

The Indian Mongoose in Jamaica 54: 941.

Gazelle in North Africa 55: 343.

Occurrence of the Blue Mormon (Papilio polymnes-

tor Cramer) in Bombay 57: 231.

Migrational flights of the common Indian Crow

butterfly [Euploea core (Cramer)] 57: 673.

During the years of his service, Bihar and

Orissa were still wild areas and he shot his fair

share of deer, antelope, and the larger carni-

vores. He joined the BNHS in 1924. In Bom-

bay, he served on the Executive Committee

of the Bombay Natural History Society from

1954-1975 and though his name appears as

editor of the Society’s Journal only for two

years, he vetted the proofs and read the minu-

tes and other papers of the Committee with

meticulous care and the queries and notings

marked ‘D.E.R.’ always received the closest

attention and respect. The 2nd edition of

Prater’s BOOK OF INDIAN ANIMALS owed much

to him. The present writer was particularly

fortunate in receiving similar assistance which

permitted him to prepare, often in a hurry, the

several papers: published by him in the Journal

over recent years and as a small token of which

an Andaman bird has been named Oriolus

xanthornus reubeni.

Such unassuming and valuable assistance

is seldom available and both the Society and

individual members have suffered an irrepla-

ceable loss.

HUMAYUN ABDULALIi

Nocturnal ‘Predator’ of fruit of Yellow Oleander

(Thevetia neriifolia) 58: 808.

Occurrence of the Blue Mormon (Papilio polymnes-

tor Cramer) in Bombay 58: 816.

Intelligent behaviour by the Mason Wasp (Eumenes

petiolata Fabr.) 60: 283.

Persistent vitality in Bee-hole Borer Moth Duomitus

leuconotus Wlk. 65: 801.

Crabs summering in lakeside hotel 75: 516.

309

REVIEWS

1. THE FAUNA OF INDIA, SPIDERS. Araneae, Vol. I. Part 1, Thomisidae (crab-spiders).

By B. K. Tikader, iv+1-247 pp., 2 pls. Part 2. Lycosidae (wolf spiders), By B. K. Tika-

der and M. S. Malhotra, 249-446 pp., 2 pls, Issued by the Zoological Survey of India, Cal-

cutta, 1980, Price India: Rs. 100/- Foreign: £10/- or $20.00.

Spiders, though ubiquitous, have remained

a neglected group, and in the only consolidat-

ed volume, on the Arachnida, published 80

years ago, in the FAUNA OF BRITISH INDiA

series (now called the FAUNA OF INDIA), Po-

cock (1900) listed only some 200 species, and

the family Thomisidae (which forms half of

the present volume) was not even represented.

In the last 20 years, mainly through the work

of Dr. Tikader, an enormous amount of in-

formation on Indian Spiders has been gather-

ed together, and the present is the first of a

series of projected volumes on Indian spiders.

The volume is divided into two halves. The

first half deals with the family Thomisidae

(by Tikader) and the second half with the

Lycosidae (by Tikader and Malhotra).

The volume begins with a short but clear

and well illustrated account of the taxonomic

characters of spiders, followed by a key to

the 44 families of Indian spiders. Then follows

the descriptions of various genera and species.

The taxonomic accounts are clear, precise and

extremely well illustrated by the taxonomically

important body-parts, especially the cephalo-

thorax and the epigyne. In all cases, excellent

identification keys for genera and species are

310

provided. There is a select bibliography and

an alphabetical index of species and genera.

The Thomisidae includes 25 genera and 115

species and the Lycosidae 9 genera and 81

species.

Considering that there are still 42 families

to cover, the spider series may be expected to

run to several volumes, and we sincerely hope

that Dr. Tikader, who is to be warmly con-

gratulated upon this fine volume, will be able

to complete the volumes within a reasonable

period of time, perhaps during the next five

or six years.

A remarkable fact that emerges from a per-

usal of the volume under review is that so

many species are described from single speci-

mens. This emphasises the need for intensive

collections, by both professional zoologists and

the non-professionals, in order that the lacu-

nae can be satisfactorily filled.

The printing, which is on art paper, and

the binding are very good, and we can only

hope that subsequent volumes in the Fauna

series will be able to maintain this high

standard.

M. L. ROONWAL

REVIEWS

2. COLLIN’S HANDGUIDE TO THE BIRDS OF THE INDIAN SUB-CONTINENT, IN-

CLUDING INDIA, PAKISTAN, BANGLADESH, SRI LANKA & NEPAL. Written and

illustrated by Martin W. Woodcock. Designed by Hermann Heinzel. pp. 176 (1911.5 cm)

with coloured and monochrome illustrations. Distributed by Rupa & Co. Price £4 (Rs. 94),

Hardback; £3 (Rs. 66), paper back.

This is the first real attempt at a field guide

to the birds of the Indian Sub-Continent on

the lines established by Peterson for American

birds just about 50 years ago. 272 species are

illustrated in colour, followed by 273 sketches

in black and white.

A quick look-over has been very enjoyable

but attention may be drawn to a few points

which may be rectified in the next edition.

The first bird, the Dabchick, is referred to

as Tachybaptus ruficollis. This generic name

is probably being used for the first time in

Indian literature and raised the fear that there

was to be a plethora of name changes, but

this proved unwarranted. The sequence is not

the same as in INDIAN HANDBOOK. The pictures

are on the whole excellent, though some of the

colours do appear a bit too vivid, e.g. the

Red Junglefowl (p. 38) and the Courser

(p. 59). The stripe down the front of the

Purple Sunbird (p. 108) shows very blue.

On page 10, reference is twice made to a

1000 km contour which is presumably a slip

for the land over 1000 metres shown on the

map opposite.

In the good old days, Great Indian Bustard

were sometimes seen in small parties of 5 to

8 but these were scattered over a mile or more

and one wonders if ten would be seen to-

gether on the ground as illustrated (pp. 48-

49). Again while several snipe may rise to-

gather, it is unlikely that one would see three

of them together on the ground (p. 57). The

Fantail Snipe in flight is too heavily marked

on the underparts, and lacks the white trailing

edge to the wing (really secondaries only),

which character distinguishes it from the

Pintail. The popular name of Buceros bicornis

the Great Indian Hornbill has been changed to

the Great Pied Hornbill. As two other pied

hornbills already exist it would perhaps be

better to drop the term ‘‘pied’’ and continue

to refer to the old name. The male of the

Common Iora on page 89 would perhaps be

more distincitive with a black head, and the

colour of the male Rosefinch on page 111 is

the only one which I would call really mis-

leading.

With this example before us, we may hope

that we will in due course see a similar field

guide which covers all the Indian species and

also perhaps the subspecies which are suffici-

ently distinct. Thereiceryx zeylanica on page

76 has a streaked breast, and the Bombayman

suspects an error, for the nominate race in

western and southern India has a plain breast.

The picture represents caniceps, the northern

race of zeylanica, (which is found as far south

as Chikalda, Berar) but suggests another spe-

cies M. viridis. The House Crow of the nomi-

nate race on p. 7 shows no pale collar round

the neck, while birds around Bombay,

accepted as CC. splendens splendens do.

These are only subspecific differences and

when one considers that only 543 of some

1250 species (220 species and subspecies) are

illustrated, there is still a long way to go.

The last paragraph in the book is a hand-

some tribute to the BNHS journal.

In the Introduction (p. 15) the author says

that half the battle in bird identification is in

knowing what to expect in a given area or

311

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

season. We hope he will soon produce another Woodcock who had illustrated A FIELD GUIDE

guide which covers all the species likely to be TO THE BIRDS OF SOUTH EAST ASIA (1975) is to

seen including Martin and Woodcock. be sincerly congratulated.

It is indeed a fine effort and Mr. Martin HUMAYUN ABDULALI

312

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

FOOD HABITS OF THE INDIAN WILD DOG (CUON ALPINUS):

A PRELIMINARY ANALYSIS

From October through December of 1975,

one hundred and fifty (150) droppings of

wild dogs (Cuon alpinus) were collected from

within an area of twenty four (24) square

miles in and around the eastern entrance of

the Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary in Tamil

Nadu. The study area was bounded by the

Kalhatty slope to the east, the village of Ma-

sinigudi to the west, Anaikatti to the north,

and Bokapur to the south.

This region of the Nilgiris lies at an altitude

of between 3000 and 3500 feet and is char-

acterized by low scrub jungle, interspersed

with stands of bamboo surrounding the larger

waterways. Cultivation is common and occurs

at fairly regular intervals throughout the study

area. At the time of collection, the north-east

monsoon was well under way, providing

moisture necessary for the rapid growth of lush

vegetation. Consequently, the animal life, large

and small was abundant.

As the wild dog typically whelps from Nov-

ember through February (Cohen 1977), only

yearling and adult dogs are assumed to have

contributed to our sample.

Identification of fecal content was made

using hair samples, bone fragments, vegeta-

tion, and insect parts found in each bolus. For

this preliminary analysis, unknown hair sam-

ples were compared by gross visual inspection

with similar samples collected from known

species at the Bombay Natural History So-

ciety. A more detailed hair follicle analysis,

based on microscopic techniques will be re-

ported elsewhere. Bone fragments were iden-

tified by AJ.T. Johnsingh and K. Paraman-

antham of the Ayya Nadar Janaki Amma! Col-

lege in Sivakasi, Tamil Nadu. Assistance in

the identification of vegetational types was

kindly given by Dr. M. Joseph, Regional Bo-

tanist of the Botanical Survey of India at

Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu.

The food items represented in the droppings,

the number of times each item occurred, and

their frequency percentage in the sample are

shown in Table 1.

TABLE 1

DIET OF THE INDIAN WILD Doc (Cuon alpinus) AS DETERMINED BY FECAL ANALYSIS OF 151 DROPPINGS

Item

Times occurring Frequency percentage

Spotted Deer (Axis axis)

Sambar (Cervus unicolor)

Wild Pig (Sus scrofa)

Mouse Deer (Tragulus meminna)

Blacknaped Hare (Lepus_nigricollis)

Rodentia

Unidentified Mammal

Domestic livestock

Insecta

Fruits

Grasses & Vegetation

62 4}

10 i

3 D,

1 0.7

53 35

17 i]

11 7

1 OFF

9 6

2 I

71 47

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

A similar collection of 138 droppings was

made by Dr. Michael Fox and A. J. T. John-

singh in December through February, 1974

and will be cited in the following discussion.

These results are summarized in Table 2.

relative food abundance. It was reported to

these investigators by the Forest Ranger at

Theppakadu that the estimated chital popu-

lation in the Sanctuary in 1975 was approxi-

mately 1750 animals (by pellet count), while

TABLE 2

DIET OF THE INDIAN WILD Doc (Cuon alpinus) AS DETERMINED BY FECAL ANALYSIS OF

Item

138 DROPPINGS

Spotted Deer (Axis axis)

Sambar (Cervus unicolor)

Wild Pig (Sus scrofa)

Small Mammals (lagomorphs, rodents)

Domestic Livestock

Times occurring Times occurring Total

in adult faeces in pup faeces freq. %

102 5 78

13 0 9

1 0 0.7

12 2 10

3 0 2

Iseilema prostratum grass common in faeces

Segments of tapeworm, Taenis hydatigena frequent in scats.

DISCUSSION

Mammals :

Spotted deer (Axis axis) exceeded all other

items in the diet, except grasses. They were

six per cent (6%) more frequent in the drop-

pings than hare remains. That these animals

are the chief staple in the diet is thus reaffirm-

ed. In those scats able to be identified as such,

chital fawns outnumbered adults as prey by

almost three-to-one (3:1). Sambar comprised

a relatively small part of the diet (7%). Fox

and Johnsingh (1975) also found spotted deer

remains in seventy-eight per cent (78%) of the

samples they collected from the same area in

January and February of 1974, compared to

only nine per cent (9%) sambar. There may

be several explanations for this observed pre-

ference of chital in the diet. There is a great

size difference between sambar and chital and,

given the fact that the dogs usually hunt in

groups of three to five individuals, a full-

grown sambar may present too much of a

risk to the predator, especially in times of

314

the sambar population numbered only about

200. These facts and the additional fact that

Sambar are relatively solitary in their habits

as opposed to the chital, who tend to congre-

gate in herds of up. to 250 animals in the

evening, before breaking up into smaller for-

aging groups during the daylight hours, may

help to explain our observed results. Periods

of hunting activity in the wild dog correlate

well with the observed increase in the sizes of

chital herds in early evening and early morn-

ing hours.

The remains of wild pig, a common inhabi-

tant of the region, occurred in only two per cent

(2%) of the sample. Mouse deer (Tragulus

meminna) for Indian Chevrotain also play a

very minor role in the wild dog’s diet, com-

prising only seven-tenths of one per cent

(0.7%). This may be expected due to the

rarity of this species in the region.

Blacknaped hare ranked next to chital in

relative frequency of occurrence (35%). This

correlates well with the observed abundance

of this species of lagomorph in the study area.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

No other lagomorph species occurs in the area

of the Mudumalai.

Eleven per cent (11%) of the fecal samples

contained members of the class Rodentia.

In the present study, hare and rodents com-

prised forty-six per cent (46%) of the wild

dog’s diet. Johnsingh and Fox, in 1974 found

all small mammals to make up only ten per

cent (10%) of the total diet. It must be taken

into consideration, however, that while the

present collection was made at the end of the

monsoon season, the other was made at the

height of the dry season. Due to the extreme

ground temperatures, lack of cover, scarcity

of water, and reduced availability of food, a

reduction of small mammal activity and a pro-

bable reduction in population sizes of such

animals would subsequently result in a reduc-

tion in the frequency of these prey items in

the dogs’ diet.

According to analysis of fecal samples, do-

mestic livestock comprised only seven-tenths

of one per cent (0.7%) of the dogs’ total

diet. This is most interesting in light of the

fact that the wild dog is still considered to be

a “pest”, with bounties awarded for its ex-

termination. M. Krishnan (1972) states that

wild dogs rarely take domestic stock as prey.

Although this statement is reaffirmed in the

present study and from the collection and

analysis made by Fox and Johnsingh (op. cit.),

who found livestock remains in only two per

cent (2%) of their sample. Fox, found, upon

asking paddi owners, that nearly seven per

cent (7%) of their cattle losses are attributed

to wild dogs. It is possible that in times of

scarce food supply, the wild dogs turn to do-

mestic stock, which is plentiful in the region,

for food. Other possibilities also exist. Among

those is the possibility that the actuals kills are

not witnessed by the paddi owner, but merely

the loss of an animal is automatically attri-

buted to the wild dog. Indeed there seems to

be some disparity between observed propor-

tions of cattle in the wild dogs’ diet and their

reputed effect on livestock numbers in the

area. By studying the food habits of the wild

dog in relation to that of the leopard, tiger,

and pariah (pie) dog (Canis familiaris), a

recently introduced. predator, a true picture

of the wild dogs’ role in the region’s ecology

could be gained. The common attitude of the

wild dog as a “‘pest’’ to be exterminated re-

quires intensive re-examination.

The remaining animal matter found in the

feces (7%) were unidentifiable due to the

condition of the scats themselves. The age of

the dropping (e.g. calcification of contents)

and the quantity recovered prevented any de-

finite identification of the hair samples.

Miscellaneous :

Insects appeared in only six per cent (6%)

of the droppings. The majority of these were

identified as beetles (from elytra and wings).

It is not known if these animals were purpose-

fully eaten or perhaps entered the feces after

being deposited. Fruit of the Zizyphus genus

was found in one per cent (1%) of the sample.

Although this seasonal fruit seems to serve

as a food source for many of the mammalian

and avian herbivores of the area, it does not

appear to be an important supplement in the

diet of the wild dog.

The most frequent item found in the feces

of the wild dog was grass and vegetation.

Although only two of the one hundred and

fifty-one droppings were totally vegetable in

content, occurrance in all other cases appear-

ed incidental to the existance of animal matter.

The following grasses were identified: Hete-

ropogon contortus, Cynodon dactylon, Dacty-

loctenium aegyptium, Cynodon barberi, Aris-

tida hystrix, and Eragrostis bifaria.

315

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY,

WoRLD FEDERATION FOR THE PROTECTION

or ANIMALS,

ZURICH, SWITZERLAND.

DezPT. OF ForEST ZOOLOGY,

STATE UNIVERSITY OF NEW York,

COLLEGE OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND

ForESTRY,

SyRACUSE, NEw York, U.S.A.

AyyA NapDAR JANAKI AMMAL COLLEGE,

SIVAKASI, TAMIL NADU.

DIRECTOR OF RESEARCH INTO ANIMAL

PROBLEMS,

HUMANE SOCIETY OF THE U.S.A.

August 11, 1977.

Vol. 77

BRUCE D. BARNETT

JAMES A. COHEN

A. J. T. JOHNSINGH

MICHAEL W. FOX

REFERENCES

COHEN, J. A. (1977): A review of the biology of

the dhole on Asiatic Wild dog (Cuon alpinus).

Anim. Reg. Stnd. 1: 141-158.

Fox M. W. (1975): In Search of Wildness and

Whistling Jungle Dogs. Unpublished.

Fox, MICHAEL & JOHNSINGH, A. J. T. (1975):

Hunting and feeding in wild dogs. J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 72(2): 321-326.

KRISHNAN, M. (1972): An ecological survey of

the large mammals in peninsular India. J. Bombay

nat Hist. Soc. 69: 26-54.

2. OBSERVATION ON CARNIVOROUS HABIT OF AN IRRAWADDY

SQUIRREL, CALLOSCIURUS PYGERYTHRUS (GEOFFROY)

During a trip to North Lakhimpur, Assam,

in October 1976, an interesting behaviour of

the Irrawaddy Squirrel, Callosciurus pygery-

thrus (Geoffroy), was noted.

On October 15th 1976 at about 8.00 hours,

{ noticed the animal eating the fruit of an

Olive tree (Olea europaea) in a small orchard

(about an acre in area) having a pond and

other trees, namely Embelic (Embelica offi-

cinalis) in fruit, shrubs such as Lemon (Citrus

lemon) and undergrowth mainly of Pineapple

(Ananas sativus) and other fruit-bearing herbs,

just behind the house where I was camped.

The squirrel slipped away when an attempt

316

at closer observation was made. On that very

day at about 16.00 hours, the cackling call of

a squirrel was heard, but unfortunately, it could

not be traced. The following day two mongoo-

ses were seen busily digging the earth beside

the pond. With a view to catching them, two

traps were set in the bushes at about 13.00

hours with intestine of chicken as bait. After

about two hours, to my great surprise I found

that an Irrawaddy Squirrel, instead of a mon-

goose, had been trapped. It was still feeding

on the bait. The squirrel was allowed to con-

sume the whole of the bait without being dis-

turbed.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

According to literature (Prater 1971), Cal-

losciurus pygerythrus (Geoffroy) feeds on

fruit, leaf-buds and is particularly partial to

oranges. In spite of the availability of abun-

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

8, LINDSAY STREET,

CaLtcuTTA 700 016,

December 26, 1978.

dance of fruits on the trees in and around the

area the preference for animal food is highly

interesting.

SANTANU GHOSH

REFERENCE

PRATER, S. H. (1971): The Book of Indian Ani-

mals. ed. 3. Bombay Natural History Society, Bom-

bay.

3. UNUSUAL RAT FEEDING BEHAVIOUR ASSOCIATED WITH

CATTLE AFFECTED WITH FOOT AND MOUTH DISEASE

(With a text-figure)

An epidemiological investigation aimed at

revealing the possible role of rodents in the

transmission of foot and mouth disease was

conducted in Purulia district of West Bengal.

Rats (Rattus rattus) and squirrels (Funamz-

bulus pennanti) were trapped in and around

cow sheds which had harboured confirmed

cases of foot and mouth disease two months

previously. Their blood was collected and the

serum was tested as described below.

The study utilized an immuno-diffusicn test

(Virus Infection Associated antigen) to detect

the presence of serum antibodies specific for

foot and mouth disease (FMD). Antibodies to

the Virus Infection Associated (VIA) antigen

cross reacts with all four types of foot and

mouth disease (O, A. C and Asia,) found in

India (Cowan and Graves 1966) and is diagno-

stic with just a single test (unlike serum neu-

tralization and compliment fixation tests).

The results of this study demonstrated that

no squirrels (10 serum samples) and no rats

(47 serum samples) were infected by the FMD

virus despite an intimate association with the

infected cattle. (Many villagers reported that

they had seen rats feeding on the foot lesions

of the FMD infected cattle when they would

enter the cow shed at night.)

An unexpected result was a definite preci-

pitation line between the unknown rat serum

wells and the control bovine antisera wells in

twelve out of forty-seven cases (see figure 1).

This same phenomena was never observed

with any of the squirrel sera.

The precipitin line between the control

bovine serum and unknown rat serum depicted

in the figure may be explained by various in-

terpretations. It could be due to; a non-spect-

fic reaction, the presence of a cross-reacting

antibody, a common infective process, or spe-

cific antibodies in one serum directed toward

serum components of the other. The last ex-

planation seems more plausible for the reasons

outlined below.

Rats were seen feeding on the FMD lesions

at which time serum substances undoubtedly

317

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL GIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

could have been ingested. It is known that

mice given bovine serum orally will develope

specific antibodies to certain components

(Andre et al. 1973). No other species of ani-

mal tested (cattle, goats, sheep, chickens or

squirrels) demonstrated a similar precipitin

line in the VIA test. It is probable that not

all rats fed on the FMD lesions or fed intense

enough to become sensitized to bovine serum

factors.

While the above is admittedly a conjecture,

it does provide some possible scientific docu-

mentation to the villager’s observation of rats

feeding on the foot lesion of cattle infected

with FMD.

Even though rats are. considered. “versatile

feeders” (Barnett 1975) it is doubtful that

this particular feeding behaviour has been

reported before. It is unknown how common

or extensive this practice is.

ACK NOWLEDGEMENT

This work was sponsored by an Indo-Ame-

rican Fellowship from the Indo-U.S. Subcom-

mission on Education and Culture.

DEPARTMENT OF ANATOMY AND RADIOLOGY,

COLLEGE OF VETERINARY MEDICINE,

UNIVERSITY OF GEORGIA,

ATHENS, GEoRGIA 30602, U.S.A.,

August 25, 1978.

Fig. 1. Agar gel immuno-diffusion VIA antigen

test for serum antibodies to foot and mouth disease.

The central well contains the VIA antigen. Wells

number 1 and 4 contain known reacting control

bovine antisera. Wells number 2, 3, 5 and 6 contain

four different unknown rat serum samples. The line

between the central well and well 1 and 4 is a posi-

tive reaction of VIA antigen and its specific antibody.

The line between well 1 and 2 may be due to an

antigen—antibody complex of unknown origin which

occurred in 12 out of 47 rat sera tested.

S. ODEND’HAL

REFERENCES

ANDRE, C., BAZIN, H. & HEREMANS, J. F. (1973):

Influence of repeated administration of antigen by

the oral route on specific antibody producing cells

in the mouse spleen. Digestion 9: 166-175.

Barnett, S. A. (1975): The Rat. A study in be-

318

haviour.

318 pp.

Cowan, K. M. & Graves, J. H. (1966): A third

antigenic component associated with foot and mouth

disease infection. Virology 30: 528-540.

University of Chicago Press. Chicago.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

4. BAIT SHYNESS AND POISON AVERSION IN BANDICOTA

BENGALENSIS (GRAY) USING RH-787 AS RODENTICIDE

INTRODUCTION

Studies have been made on behavioural as-

pects of poison aversion and bait shyness in

Rattus rattus (Barnett et al. 1975), Tatera

indica, Meriones hurrianae (Prakash and Jain

1971) and Gerbillus gleadowi (Rana et al.

1975). In the present experiments, studies have

been made on bait shyness and poison aver-

sion in Bandicota bhengalensis (Gray) when

subjected to sub-lethal dose of RH—787 (N-

3-Pyridylmethyl-N-P-Nitrophenylurea)'. — Ac-

ceptability of RH-787 to B. bengalensis in labo-

ratory conditions has already been studied

(Sood and Dilber 1977).

preferred food mixed with one per cent mus-

tard oil and simple sorghum grains for 24

hours after 7th and 15th days from initial

exposure to the sub-lethal dose of RH-787

and TDI of both the food materials was re-

corded.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

B. bengalensis preferred millet over sorghum

during the first three days. The TDI of millet

was significanily more than that of sorghum

(t=7.08 P<.005). On the subsequent four

days, less millet was consumed to which 0.025

per cent RH-787 and one per cent mustard

TABLE 1

MEAN DAILY INTAKE (g/100 g BODY WT.) OF SORGHUM AND MILLET BY B. bengalensis (GRAY)

Food Ist day na fay “

Millet 10.1-+1.01 11.66+1.07 9.71-+1.46

Sorghum 4.96-+ 1.61 5.9-+0.98

MATERIAL AND MetTOoDS

Ten individuals of B. bengalensis were kept

segregated in laboratory cages for 15 days to

acclimatise them. Each individual was daily

provided with sorghum (Sorghum vulgare)

and millet (Pennisetum typhoides) grains.

Water was supplied ad-libitum. For the first

three days, total daily intake (TDI) of each

food item was measured. For the subsequent

four days, 0.025 per cent of RH-787 (Vacor)

and one per cent mustard oil were mixed with

the preferred food material, and the TDI of

both the food materials were recorded. There-

after, rats were fed on wheat (Triticum aesti-

vum) grains. They were then exposed to the

3rd day

1.45 +0.57

PSTD

4th day —«Sth day _—s 6th day_—=7th day

6464102 1.56-40.95 2.954122 4.5-41.52

2.16+0.71 1.19+-0.40 1.72-+0.61 2.39--0.60

oil were mixed (Table 1). The difference in

TDI of plain millet prior to the exposure to

sub-lethal dose of RH-787 and of millet grains

mixed with RH-787 and mustard oil is signi-

ficant (t=3.64 P<.01). There is no significant

difference in TDI of plain sorghum consumed

on subsequent four days when millet was mix-

ed with RH-787 and mustard oil.

On the 10th day, rats were provided with

plain sorghum and millet mixed with mustard

oil. TDI of millet was less than that of the

initial three days of the experiment. On the

15th day, the consumption of both the food

materials surpassed the initial level similar to

that reported in Gerbillus gleadowi using sub-

lethal dose of zinc phosphide (Rana ef al.

319

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

1975). Thus, sickness developed due to feed-

ing on sub-lethal dose of Vacor lasts for 7-15

days only. This implies that the poisoned bait

is liable to be rejected by the rats if, it is pro-

vided before the completion of 15 days from

the previous poison baiting. Hence the poison

baiting for control in B. bengalensis should

not be repeated before 15th day. of previous

poison baiting, using RH-787 as a rodenticide.

However, more studies of the type as also the

field trials need to be done before recommen-

dations.

Present studies also reveal that 30% rats

on 2nd and 3rd days of exposure and 10%

rats on 4th day of exposure did not feed on

poisoned millet.

When a second group of ten individuals of

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY,

PUNJAB AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY,

LUDHIANA,

April 7, 1978.

B. bengalensis was provided with plain sor-

ghum and millet grains mixed with one per

cent mustard oil for four days, there was no

decline in the consumption of millet. Thus

shyness can be ascribed to poison not mustard

oil.

ACK NOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful to Dr. S. S. Guraya, Pref.

& Head for the laboratory facilities provided

and Mr. M. L. Bansal, Asst. Prof. of Statistics

for help in statistical analysis and to Indofil

Chemicals Ltd.. Bombay for providing RH-

787. Thanks are also due to Dr. Ishwar Pra-

kash, Principal Animal Ecologist, C.A.Z.R.L.,

Jodhpur for going through the manuscript and

giving useful suggestions.

M. L. SOOD

RYVPSS VGH

REFERENCES

BARNETT, S. A., COWEN ,P. E., RADFORD, G. AND

PRAKASH, I. (1975): Peripheral anosmia and dis-

crimination of poisoned food by Rattus rattus L.

Behavioural Biol. 13: 183-190.

PRAKASH, I. AND JAIN, A. P. (1971): Bait shyness

of two gerbils Tatera indica indica Hardwicke and

Meriones hurrianae Jerdon. Ann. Appl. Biot. 59:

169-172.

RANA, B. D., PRAKASH, I. AND JAIN, A. P. (1975):

Bait shyness and poison aversion in hairy footed

gerbil, Gerbillus gleadowi (Murray). Proc. All India

Rodent Seminar 1975 Ahmedabad (India): 58-60.

Soop, M. L. AND Dieser, D. S. (1977): Accept-

ability of Vacor to Bandicota bengalensis (Gray)

and Tatera indica (Hardwicke) in laboratory condi-

tions. Int. Pest Control. 10-11, 20.

5. ON THE UNUSUAL OCCURRENCE OF THE COMMON

DOLPHIN, DELPHINUS DELPHIS LINNAEUS IN LONGLINE

CATCHES AT PORT BLAIR, ANDAMANS

The Exploratory Fishing Vessel, Meena-

prayas, conducting longline tuna fishing off

Port Blair, Andamans, had an unusual catch

of the Common Dolphin, Delphinus delphis

Linnaeus, on 30-3-1979. The black-skinned

320

dolphin measuring 202 cm, weighed 68 kgs.

The animal was dead when hauled on deck.

Tt was not actually hooked in the mouth, but

had fouled in the branch line of the longline

gear.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

The dolphin was fouled in the tail region

and probably lashing at the bait hanging at

the end of the line and playing around, ihe

animal must have got entangled in the line.

Being an air-breather, it has to come to the

surface periodically to breathe and because of

the fouling, it could not come to the surface

and had drowned.

This kind of behaviour has also been observ-

ed in the case of the Thresher or Fox Shark,

Alopias vulpinus (Bonnaterre), which is al-

most never hooked in the mouth which is

small. This shark has a tail, as long as the

body, with which it is believed to jash and

frighten schools of fishes and feed on them.

Similarly, this shark lashes at the bait and

gets hooked in the tail. It is also hooked in

the body or gills.

The Common Dolphin, which has world-

Govt. oF INDIA,

Port BLAIR BASE OF

EXPLORATORY FISHERIES PROJECT,

PorT BLAIR, ANDAMANS,

April 2, 1979.

wide distribution, is common in the Andaman

Sea, often found swimming in large schools.

True to the popular belief that it is fisher-

man’s friend, they are invariably found along

the bow of fishing vessels while steaming to the

fishing grounds. Other Cetaceans and Sireniar

are also common in the Andaman Sea. Re-

ports of large whales blowing ‘water-spouts’

off Nancowry, Little Andaman and Middle

Andaman are received frequently. Their iden-

tity has however not been established. Two

large False Killer Whales, Pseudorca crassi-

dens (Owen) were caught in gill nets off Port

Blair on 27-7-1976 and 9-6-1977. A Dugong,

Dugong dugon (Muller) was also caught in

gill nets off Port Blair on 8-7-1977. They were

inavriably dead while hauling for the same

reason mentioned earlier.

T. E. SWAPRAKASAM

6. LITTER SIZE OF SOME CAPTIVE WILD MAMMALS

This note presents some data on litter size

of nineteen species of captive wild mammals

Orissa. The details of our observations are

given in the Table.

observed at Nandankanan Biological Park,

TABLE

Serial ppcrice Bees eee ane rie Siz Average

No. fc) ; - co) F of young born Oe litter

mamma observation during the period) irths) size

(1) (2) ie: (3) (4) (5) (6)

Ne TIGER 1.7.1969 Gls)

(Panthera tigris) to 8 (19) 243) 2.38

31.3.1978 3 (4)

SPA

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

De LION 1.7.1969 1 (3)

(Panthera leo) to 13 (24) 2 (9)

31.3.1978 3 (1)

37 LEOPARD 1.7.1969 1 (2)

(Panthera pardus) to 2 (12)

31.3.1978 22 (54) 3 (6)

4 @)

6 (1)

4, GOLDEN CAT 1.4.1972 1 (3)

(Felis temmincki) to 4 (5) 2 (1)

31.3.1978

Di JUNGLE CAT 1.7.1976 3 (1)

(Felis chaus) to 2 (8) 5 (1)

31.3.1978

6. COMMON PALM CIVET 1.4.1964 2 (3)

(Paradoxurus to 3 (7)

hermaphroditus) 31.3.1978 12 (36) 4 (1)

5 (1)

the COMMON MONGOOSE 1.7.1969

(Herpestes edwardsi) to 1 (2) 2 (1)

31.3.1978

8. JACKAL 1.4.1964

(Canis aureus) to 1 (3) 3 (1)

31.3.1978

9. RHESUS MACAQUE 1.7.1969

(Macaca mulatta) to AGA) 1 (7)

31.3.1978

10. BONNET MACAQUE 1.7.1969

(Macaca radiata) to 3 (3) 1 (3)

31.3.1978

iit? INDIAN WILD BOAR 1.4.1969 (2)

(Sus scrofa cristatus) to 2 (4)

31.3.1978 3 (4)

40 (179) 4 (10)

5 (9)

6 (5)

7 (6)

12s SAMBAR 1.7.1969

(Cervus unicolor) to 60 (60) 1 (60)

31.3.1978

Ib 3h SPOTTED DEER 1.7.1969

(Axis axis) to 74 (74) 1 (74)

31.3.1978

14. HOG DEER 1.7.1966

_ (Axis porcinus) to 11313) 1 (13)

322

31.3.1978

1.85

2.45

1.25

4.00

3.00

2.00

3.00

1.00

4.48

1.00

1.60

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Si BARKING DEER 1.7.1969

(Muntiacus muntjak) to 23)7 (23) 1 (23) 1.00

31.3.1978

16. MOUSE DEER 1.7.1969

(Tragulus meminna) to 6 (6) 1 (6) 1.00

31.3.1978

life NILGAI 1.7.1969 1 (6)

(Boselaphus to 7 (8) 2a) 1.14

tragocamelus) 31.3.1978

18. BLACKBUCK 1.7.1969

(Antelope cervicapra) to 64 (64) 1 (64) 1.00

31.3.1978

I), FOURHORNED ANTELOPE _ 1.4.1974 1. (2)

(Tetracerus to 5 (8) 273) 1.60

quadricornis) 31.3.1978

The observations of some of the earlier

workers on litter size of these nineteen species

of wild mammals along with a study of the

above table follows.

TIGER: The litter size of eight births of this

species in this park was from | to 3 with an

average of 2.38 cubs.

The size of 79 litters born in zoos was |

to 5 with an average of about 2.8 (Schaller

1972). The litter size is usually 2 to 3 but as

many as 6 may be produced (Prater 1971).

The litter size varies from 1 to 7 (Brander

1923).

LION: The litter size of thirteen births was

from 1 to 3 with an average of 1.85 cubs.

The average of 64 lion litters in captivity

was 2.5 (Cooper 1942). The usual litter

size is 2, sometimes 3 and it may contain as

many as 5 (Prater loc. cit.). The number of

cubs per litter is 1 to 6 with an average of 3.04

and the litter size of one birth in one lioness

in Dublin was 7 including three dead ones

(Steyn 1951).

LEOPARD: ‘The litter size of 22 births at this

Park was from 1 to 6 with an average of 2.45

cubs. The birth of 6 cubs in one litter, observed

in this Park, appears to be the maximum so

far recorded.

a a =

The usual litter size is 2 to 4 (Prater, loc.

cit.). The litter size of 27 births of leopards in

the Zoological Gardens of London from 1839

to 1937 was 1 to 3 (Zuckerman 1953). The

litter size of 39 births in Delhi Zoological Park

was | to 3 with an average of 1.6 cubs (Desai

1975). The litter size of four births was 1 to

2 (Acharjyo 1970).

GOLDEN CAT: The litter size of four births of

this species was | or 2 with an average of 1.25

kittens per litter.

The litter size of one birth is one (Acharjyo

1971), of two births is 1 to 2 (Acharjyo and

Misra 1973) and 2 (Prater, loc cit.).

JUNGLE CAT: The litter size of two births

was 3 and 5 with an average of 4 kittens per

litter.

Acharjyo and Mohapatra (1977) state thai

the litter size of eight births of this species

was from 3 to 5 with an average of 3.5 kittens

per litter. Usually 3 to 4 young are born per

litter (Asdell 1964).

COMMON PALM CiIveET: The litter size of 12

births of this species was from 2 to 5 with an

average of 3 young per litter.

The usual litter size is 3 to 4 (Prater, loc.

cit.) and 3 to 4 but sometimes as many as 6

(Asdell, loc. cit.).

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

COMMON MONGOOSE: Only one birth with

two young per litter was recorded.

The litter size is small, usually 2 to 3 (Pra-

ter, loc. cit.). The litter size of two births was

1 and 3 respectively (Acharjyo 1970).

JACKAL: Only one birth with three young

per litter was recorded.

The number of young per litter varies from

2 to 6, mode 5, and mean 4 (Asdell, loc. cit.).

RHESUS MACAQUE: The litter size of seven

births was always one.

All primates usually produce their young

singly but occasionally twins are born (Prater,

loc. cit.). Twins in this species are born about

once in 90 to 100 births (Asdell, loc. cit.).

BONNET MACAQUE: The litter size of three

births was always one.

INDIAN WILD BOAR: ‘The litter size of 40 births

was from 1 to 7 with an average of 4.48.

The litter size of this species is 4 to 6 (Pra-

ter, loc. cit.). The litter size of five births was

from 4 to 7 young (Zuckerman, loc. cit.).

SAMBAR: The litter size of 60 births was al-

ways one and never twins.

One to two fawns are usually born per litter

(Asdell, loc. cit.). One pair of twins was born

in 41 births (Crandall 1965). Always single

young was born to the 30 births recorded at

Nandankanan Biological Park, Orissa upto

30th June 1969 (Acharjyo 1970). A_ single

fawn per litter is the rule (Schaller 1972).

SPOTTED DEER: Always single young per litter

was recorded at all the 74 births.

Usually one young per litter is born (Prater,

loc. cit.). Only one pair of twins was noted

in 225 births (Crandall, loc. cit.). Twins have

been born only once in 80 births in the London

Zoo (Asdell, loc. cit.). The litter size of 99

births was always one and never twins (Achar-

jyo 1970). One to three is usual with twins

being common (Brander, loc. cit.). There were

no twins in the 25 births at the Calcutta Zoo

324

and 97 births at the Bombay Zoo (Schaller,

loc. cit.).

HOG DEER:

always one.

Single young was born to all the 32 births

recorded at the New York Zoological Park

(Crandall, loc. cit.). Twins have been recorded

twice in 55 births in London Zoo (Asdell,

lochicits):

BARKING DEER:

was always one.

The young born per litter is usually one

and sometimes two (Prater, loc. cit.). Always

single young were born to all the 30 births

recorded in the Zoological Gardens of London

(Zuckerman, loc. cit.). Twin birth was re-

corded once in 47 births (Acharjyo 1970).

MOUSE DEER: The litter size of six births was

always one.

The litter size is generally two (Prater, loc.

cit.; Asdell, loc. cit.).

NILGAI: The litter size of seven births was

! or 2 with an average of 1.14 young per litter.

Always single young was born to all the

eight births recorded at New York Zoological

Park (Crandall, loc. cit.). There were two twitis

in four births (Acharjyo 1970). In about 61

births in the Zoological Garden of London,

Zuckerman (loc. cit.) states that on an aver-

age twins were born in every alternate birth.

BLACKBUCK: The litter size of 64 births was

always one and never twins.

One or two young are produced at a time

(Prater, Joc. cit.; Asdell, loc. cit.). Always

single young and never twins was recorded in

97 births (Crandall, loc. cit.). The litter size

of five births was always one (Acharjyo 1970).

FOURHORNED ANTELOPE: The litter size of

five births was 1 or 2 with an average of 1.60

young per litter.

The litter size of six births was from 1 to 2

with an average of 1.83 (Acharjyo and Misra

The litter size of 13 births was

The litter size of 23 births

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

1975). Twins were produced in 3 of the 5

births in the London Zoo (Asdell, loc. cit.).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful to Sri G. M. Das, I.FS.,

VETERINARY ASST. SURGEON,

NANDANKANAN BiOLOGICAL ParK,

P. O. Barana, Dist., CUTTACK.

WILD LIFE CONSERVATION OFFICER,

95-SAHEED NAGAR,

BHUBANESWAR-75 1007,

May 23, 1978.

Chief Wildlife Warden, Orissa, Bhubaneswar

and to Sri S. Jee, I.F.S., Chief Conservator of

Forests, Orissa, Cuttack for the facilities pro-

vided.

L. N. ACHARJYO

S. MOHAPATRA

REFERENCES

ACHARJYO, L. N. (1970): Observation on some

aspects of reproduction among common wild mam-

mals in captivity. Indian J. Anim. Health, vol. X

(2): 125-129.

— (1971): A note on the birth of a

Golden Cat (Felis temmincki) in captivity. J. Bom-

bay nat. Hist. Soc., 68 (1): 241.

AND Misra, R. (1973): Further

notes on the breeding of Golden Cat (Felis temmin-

cki) in captivity. Indian Forester, 99 (1): 53-54.

——_—_—— — (1975): A note on the

breeding habits of Fourt-horned antelope (Tetra-

cerus quadricornis) in captivity. J. Bombay nat.

His. Soc., 72(2): 529-530.

-—————— AND MonapatTra, S. (1977): Some

observations on the breeding habits and growth of

Jungle Cat (Felis chaus) in captivity. J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc., 74 (1): 158-159.

ASDELL, S. A. (1964): Patterns of mammalian

reproduction, Second Edition, Cornell University

Press, Ithaca .New York.

BRANDER, A. (1923): Cited by Schaller, George,

B. (1972).

Cooper, J.

B. (1972).

CRANDALL, Lee S. (1965): The Management of

Wild Mammals in Captivity. The University of

Chicago Press, Chicago and London.

Desa, J. H. (1975): Observations on the Re-

productive Biology and early Post-natal Develop-

ment of the Panther Panthera pardus L. in captivity.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 72 (2): 293-304.

Prater, S. H. (1971): The Book of Indian Ani-

mals, Third (Revised) Edition, Bombay Natural

History Society, Bombay.

SCHALLER, GEORGE B. (1972): The Deer and the

Tiger. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago

and London.

STEYN, T. J. (1951): Cited by Crandall, Lee S.

(1965).

ZUCKERMAN, S. (1953): Cited by Crandall, Lee

S. (1965).

(1942): Cited by Schaller, George.

7. OBSERVATIONS ON PARENTAL CARE OF A WOUNDED CHICK

OF THE BRONZEWINGED JACANA, METOPIDIUS INDICUS

(LATHAM)

While collecting waterbirds in a small fish

tank at a swamp in Senpukur, Baj Baj,

West Bengal (about 16 km SW. of Calcutta),

on 3rd October 1977 around midday, a rico-

chetting shot from my .22 bore rifle acciden-

tally hit a leg of one of the four chicks of a

brood of the Bronzewinged Jacana. At the

time of shooting they were following their

parent on the other side of the tank.

Next day when I visited the tank I observed

325

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

an extremely irritated and pugnacious Bronz-

winged Jacana chasing and driving away al-

most all the birds which came to visit the tank

for foraging, which included Cotton Teal,

Lesser Whistling Teal, Pheasant-tailed Jacana,

etc. It even chased and drove away a White-

breasted Kingfisher and compelled a Little

Grebe, an actual resident of the tank, to leave

the place. I discovered that the hostile behavi-

our of the bird was only to protect the wound-

ed chick which was unable to move with the

others and was only able to feebly paddle in

a small pool of water cleared by a parent bird

by pushing or pulling apart the thick floating

c/o. Dr BiswamMoy Biswas,

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

INDIAN MUSEUM,

CaLcuTtTa 700 016,

December 20, 1977.

aquaic weeds with its bill. This rather cum-

bersome and laborious process of making clear

spaces in the thickly entangled mass of aquatic

weeds was observed to be performed repeated-

ly whenever the chick intended to move about.

This behaviour of assistance to the wounded

chick lasted till the midday of 5th October

when the chick died.

During the period of observation, the three

other broodmates of the unfortunate chick were

unattended by the parent, but were found to

be behaving normally like typical precocial

chicks.

SRIKUMAR CHATTOPADHYAY

8. BLACKNECKED CRANE IN BHUTAN AND ARUNACHAL

PRADESH—A SURVEY REPORT FOR JANUARY-FEBRUARY 1978

For studying the status of the allegedly rare

Blacknecked Crane, Grus nigricollis Przevalski,

in the eastern Himalaya during winter, the

Bombay Natural History Society, the Zoologi-

cal Survey of India and the World Wildlife

Fund—India, organised a joint expedition to

Bhutan and Arunachal Pradesh during Janu-

ary-February 1978. Due to unavoidable rea-

sons Dr. Sdlim Ali of the BNHS and Dr. B.

Biswas of the ZSI could not join the team.

Mr. K. S. Lavkumar of the World Wildlife

Fund—India and I from the Zoological Sur-

vey of India, therefore, conducted the survey.

Earlier under the leadership of Dr. Salim Ali,

an expedition in search of the breeding ground

of the crane had been undertaken in Ladakh

during June-August of 1976, when the BNHS,

the ZSI and the WWF-India, participated.

326

On the basis of the report by F. N. Betts

(1954) from the Apatani Valley, Subansiri

District of Arunachal Pradesh and the report

furnished by Dr. B. Biswas, who led a fauni-

stic exploration in central and eastern Bhutan

from the Zoological Survey of India and actu-

ally found the cranes in the Tashi Yangtsi

Valley in eastern Bhutan during 1973, together

with the information supplied by the forest

department of the Govt. of Bhutan, Central and

Eastern Bhutan and Subansiri District (Apa-

tani Valley in particular) in Arunachal Pra-

desh were chosen for the study.

ITINERARY:

In Bhutan: 11 Jan. 1978. Dep. Calcutta

15 Jan. 1978. Arr. Bumthang (Cham-

khar Chu Valley), central Bhutan

20 Jan. 1978. Dep. Bumthang

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

(Due to road blocks produced by heavy snowfall

in the higher reaches, the party was unable to pro-

ceed further east to the Tashi Yangtsi Valley. It left

Bhutan on 23 Jan. 1978).

In Arunachal Pradesh: 24 Jan. 1978. Arr. Itanagar

27 Jan. 1978. Dep. Tarajuli

(near Itanagar)

28 Jan. 1978. Arr. Apatani

Valley (at Hapoli)

29-31 Jan. 1978. Halt at

Tale Valley

1 Feb. 1978. Dep. Apatani

Valley

2 Feb. 1978. Arr. Daporizo

4 Feb. 1978. Dep. Daporiza

5 Feb. 1978, Arr. Tarajuli

6-12 Feb. 1978. Halt at Ta-

rajuli

13 Feb. 1978. Dep. Tarajuli

15 Feb. 1978. Arr. Calcutta.

The Blacknecked Crane a bird of the Tibe-

tan Plateau, inhabited the grassy shores or

reed-beds on the shores of the lakes of the

Tibetan Plateau, or on their islands. It ranges

from Ladakh in Kashmir east to Koko Nor

region of Tibet and is believed to be migra-

tory. Very little was known about this beauii-

ful crane. In recent years, the Zoological Sur-

vey of India team, headed by Dr. B. Biswas

found nine birds in the Tashi Yangtse Valley

in eastern Bhutan during November of 1973.

And lastly, in 1976, the breeding birds with

nestlings were found in Ladakh by the joint

expedition team headed by Dr. Salim Ali.

Altogether we came across sixteen Black-

necked Cranes during our stay in Bhutan. At

Gyetsa, 42 Km east of Tongsa, in the Kagan

Chu Valley, a pair was seen foraging in the

bogs as well as in the cultivated fields, soaked

with melting snow. At Byakar, in Bumthang

area, in the Chamkher Chu Valley, fourteen

birds were seen. The composition of the flocks

in Bumthang was nine adult and five juvenile

birds. The flock broke up into family parties

during the daylight hours. There were two

pairs with two young, one pair with single

young, one pair without any young, and a

singleton male. The family parties collected

in a flock at their roost before dusk. Segre-

gated family parties were observed throughout

the daylight hours, foraging in feeding grounds,

usually in the bogs and marshes as well as in

the ploughed fields. Each party maintained its

own feeding territory. The gap between the

feeding territories were usually about a kilo-

metre or more. Only the mateless male was

seen foraging near the couple without young.

But he was not allowed to come closer than

about a hundred metre or so. Each family

party, even with the young foraged in its own

particular field. Young fed independently of

their parents but their movements from place

to place or when alarmed were always together.

Before dusk, each party came down to a parti-

cular field not far from the roost, where they

had their last feed. The congregated family

parties had their preening and other rituals and

just at dusk, they simultaneousely left for their

roosting ground in a marshy fallow field at the

foot of a hillock somewhat away from the

river bed. Whether at their last feeding ground

or at roost, the parties maintained their sepa-

rate entities. At daybreak, the parties were

seen coming out one after another over the

river and settling on their respective feeding

grounds. Usually they foraged in a particular

field throughout the day unless disturbed. They

took no notice of the local people in tradi-

tional costumes and would allow them to come

within about 20 metres, or so, but were visibly

suspicious and cautious at the sight of per-

sons not in the familiar apparrel. They became

alert and agitated at the report of a .22 rifle

and invariably left the feeding ground, sug-

gesting a familiarity with firearm sounds ap-

parently in their breeding grounds, as they

have never been shot at in Bhutan. On the day

B27

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

we left Bumthang ,a fresh pair was seen. This,

apparently, was the pair we saw at Gyetsa

on 15 January, for we did not see it there on

our return journey.

In the Apatani Valley, Subansiri District of

Arunachal Pradesh, the recorded wintering

ground of the Blacknecked Crane, a thorough

search for the bird was conducted, but with-

out any success. The crane is a well known

bird and has found its place in the folk-lore.

Information from local sources suggests that

some twenty years back flocks of twenty or

thirty Blacknecked Crane used to land in the

Apatani Valley during the winter, when on

such an occasion F. N. Betts encountered them

in 1954. At that time the bird enjoyed pro-

tection from the local inhabitants. Since then,

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

INDIAN MUSEUM,

CaLcuTTA-700 016,

December 29, 1978.

however, its population in the valley has start-

ed dwindling, chiefly due to human interfer-

ence by way of hunting. Over the years, ap-

parently, the habits of the local inhabitants

has changed. During recent years, the free use

of firearms, has made persecution of this bird

much easier, so that the population of the

Blacknecked Crane has now dwindled alarm-

ingly, so much so that during the last two

years no crane has been sighted in the Apa-

tani Valley. The last pair that appeared in

the Apatani Valley near Hang Village in Feb-

ruary of 1975 was soon collected for the

pot within an hour or so of its landing. Since

then cranes are not flying over this otherwise

beautiful country, an erstwhile favourite win-

tering ground.

SUBHENDU SEKHAR SAHA

9. THE BLUECHEEKED BEE-EATER MEROPS SUPERC/LIOSUS

LINNAEUS IN KUTCH

The Bluecheeked Bee-eater has so far been

believed to be only a passage migzant in Kutch.

However on June 25, this year I saw one

young bird which appeared to have just left

its nest, since it kept on sitting in the same

position on an electric wire and was being

frequently fed by one adult bird. This was

at the Devisar Tank, about 16 kms. north of

Bhuj. While I, along with the local bird-en-

thusiasts, Messers Bapat, Varu and others,

watched this young bee-eater no other adult

bird except one was seen. Almost all the in-

sects caught and fed to the young were dragon-

flies (sp ?). The parent bird, after catching

its prey, would settle down at some distance

on the wire and only after properly killing the

328

insect feed the young one. This, I think, is the

first breeding record of this bee-eater in

Kutch.

Dr. Salim Ali did not come across the Blue-

cheeked Bee-eater in Kutch in any season ex-

cept during their outward passage migration

in Sept.-Oct. They are known to breed in

Saurashira (Dharmakumarsinhji—BIRDS OF

SAURASHTRA—Specific breeding areas not men-

tioned). I have seen them off and on in Kutch

during summer. I first came across the bird

on May 2, 1950; this too was at the same

place (Devisar), and I saw them in the Banni

on October 6, 1950, then on November 8, 9,

10, 1973 on the sea coast of Mandvi in scatter-

ed parties in a stretch of about 19 kms. from

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Raval Pir to Panchatiya village. These birds

were obviously on their way to their wintering

JUBILEE GROUND,

Buus, KuTcH,

August 12, 1978.

grounds.

M. K. HIMMATSINHSII

10. THE COMMON HAWK-CUCKOO, CUCULUS VARIUS VAHL

IN KUTCH

The Common Hawk-Cuckoo or Brainfever

Bird is found practically all over the country,

and I have heard and seen it quite often

in Saurashtra (Wankaner) and elsewhere in

India. However, I had never come across it

in Kutch until 23rd August this year.

So far as I know, Dr. Salim Ali has

not recorded it here during his surveys

JUBILEE GROUND,

Buus, KuTcH,

September 1, 1978.

prior to the publication of the BIRDS OF KUTCH.

Thus this sighting of Cuculus varius by me

seems to be the first record for the area, at

least after the publication of the list of birds

recorded by Stoliczka and Hume (BIRDS or

KUTCH, p. 171).

I am inclined to put this bird down as an

extremely rare visitor or a vagrant into Kutch.

M. K. HIMMATSINHII

11. A NEW NESTING SITE OF COMMON MYNA, ACRIDOTHERES

TRISTIS (LINNAEUS), IN THE PUNJAB

(With two photographs)

The common myna, Acridotheres tristis

(Linnaeus), has been reported to nest in holes

in trees, rock faces, vertical earth banks, walls

of buildings and wells (Whistler 1963, Ali and

Ripley 1972 and Ganguly 1975). Occasionally

it also builds untidy nests in trees. During

July 1977, this bird was seen exploiting a dif-

rent nesting site in the Punjab. We saw this

bird making use of wheat hay stacks for nest-

ing purposes. A wheat hay stack is locally

known as kup, a dome shaped structure about

3 to 4.5 metres high and approximately of the

same diameter (Photo.1).

Only one pair of birds usually nests in a

kup. The mynas make a slit at the top of the

kup by pulling out straw and an entrance hole

is made at the bottom of the slit (Photo.2).

There is sufficient place for laying eggs and

raising young inside the hole. The eggs are

laid directly on the flat platform of hay. How-

ever, in some nests it was observed that the

bird had placed a few dry leaves and feathers.

This nesting site was discovered accidentally

on 9th July, 1977 in an agricultural farm at

village Darawan, Distt. Jullundur (Punjab).

Examinations of the nest in the kup revealed

329

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

Photo.l. A kup showing entrance hole of common

myna nest at its top.

the presence of five eggs of the common myna

on the flat platform of wheat hay. On the

same day, all kups of that village were examin-

ed and the majority of these had common

myna nests.

In 1978, during mid-July to mid-August,

DEPARTMENT OF. ZOOLOGY,

PUNJAB. AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY,

LUDHIANA-141 004,

September 12, 1978.

330

286 kKups were observed at. random in the dis-

tricts of Hoshiarpur, Jullundur and Ludhiana.

Out of these, 151 contained nests of common

myna. This number clearly indicates a change

in the nesting behaviour of this bird which is

probably due to the changed ecological condi-

tions.

SEES

Photo.2. Top portion of the same kup (enlarged)

showing common myna coming out of the nest.

The nest in the kup is well protected against

rain and sun and is not easily approached by

predators. Even if rain water penetrates to

some extent, the structures quickly dry up

owing to their porous. nature. Besides this,

the birds need not collect nesting material,

and can lay eggs directly on hay. In using

other nesting sites, mynas are known to stuff

nesting holes with twigs, roots, tow and rubbish-

(Ali & Ripley 1972).

H. S. TOOR

MANJIT SINGH DHINDSA

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

REFERENCES

Aut, S. & RipLtey, S. D. (1972): Indian Myna

Acridotheres tristis (Linnaeus). In: Handbook of

the birds of India and Pakistan. pp. 177-180. Oxford

University Press, Bombay, London and New York.

GANGULY, U. (1975): Common myna. In: A guide

to the Birds of the Delhi Area. pp. 207-08. Indian

Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi.

WHISTLER, H. (1963): The common mynah. In:

Popular Handbook of Indian Birds. pp. 203-04, Oli-

ver and Boyd. Edinburgh and London.

12. ON THE TAXONOMIC STATUS OF THE EASTERN GHATS

HILL MYNA, GRACULA RELIGIOSA PENINSULARIS WHISTLER

AND KINNEAR, 1933 [AVES: STURNIDAE]

The Eastern Ghats population of the Hill

Myna was separated from the Northern Hill

Myna, Gracula religiosa intermedia A. Hay,

1844, by Whistler and Kinnear (1933) as

Gracula r. peninsularis with Sambalpur district,

Orissa, as the type-locality, on the basis of its

being smaller in size and in having finer and

shorter bill. Ripley (1961) and Ali and Ripley

(1972) also accepted them as separate sub-

species.

However, while working out some recent

collections of birds from Orissa made by me

in 1976 and 1977, I find that my specimens

of the Hill Myna are very difficult to separate

from Gracula r. intermedia. An attempt has,

therefore, been made to settle the taxonomic

status of Gracula religiosa peninsularis on the

basis of the material present at the Zoological

Survey of India and the Bombay Natural His-

tory Society. The differences between the popu-

lations from Orissa and northern India are

given in Table.

TABLE

MEASUREMENTS IN MM.

(AVERAGES IN PARENTHESIS)

: . : Wing-Tail Wing-Bill

Wing Tail el Index Index

Gracula religiosa intermedia:

Nepal

14: 170 78 31 45.88 18.23

NORE 170 79 46.47 18.23

Darjeeling

34 : 16-166 71-74 31-33 43.82-45.62 18.91-20.62

(162.66) (72.66) (32) (44.67) (19.76)

32 : 168-172 78-80 34 45.34-47.05 20-20. 34

(170) (76.66) (34) (46.27) (20.19)

Bhutan (Data taken from Dr. B. Biswas)

3¢ 160-165 75-79 30-31 46.87-47.87 18.18-19.37

(161.66) (76.33) (30.66) (47.20) (18.97)

32 : 158-172 72-81 32-33.5 45.56-47.64 18.82-20.88

(166.66) (77.66) (32.83) (46,57) (19.72)

331

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

Arunachal Pradesh

22 : 164-168 74-75

(166) (74.50)

Khasi and Jaintia Hills, Meghalaya

3g : 161-171 714-77

(165.66) (75.33)

15 ee: 162 718

Garo Hills, Meghalaya

26 : 168-170 73-74

(169) (73.50)

Goalpara

2a : 167-174 71-79

(170.50) (78)

Orissa population (=Gracula religiosa peninsularis) :

Chahala, Mayurbhanj Dist.

2S : 160, 161 77, 78

(160.50) (77.50)

12 : 156 716

Kotagarh, Phulbani Dist.

5&6 : 156-168 72-80

(163.20) (75)

32 : 154-155 69-74

(154.66) (71)

Madpad, Koraput Dist.

58 : 154-169 74-84

(162.80) (79)

42 : 157-162 76-80

(160) (78)

Chitrakunda, Koraput Dist.

26.0: 1545163 74, 79

(158.50) (76.50)

Kutri and Gonia, Puri Dist.

Dopey 155% 160 75,77

(157.50) (76)

31-33 44.64-45.12 18.90-19.64

(32) (44.88) (19.27)

34(2) 45.02-45.96 19.88-20.60

(34) (45.47) (20.24)

34 48.14 20.98

32-34 42.94-44.04 18.82-20.23

(33) (43.49) (19.52)

32-34 45.40-46.10 18.39-20.35

(33) (45.75) (19.37)

30, 32 48.12, 48.44 18.63, 20

(31) (48.28) (19.31)

31 48.71 19.87

33-34 43.97-47.14 19.64-21.79

(33.75) (45.85) (20.79)

30-32 44.80-47.74 19.35-20.64

(31) (45.89) (20.03)

32-34 42.01-48.44 18.93-21.42

(33) (46.85) (20.29)

31-33 46.91-50.31 19.13-21.01

(31.75) (48.75) (19.84)

3733 48.05, 48.46 20.24, 20.77

(32.50) (48.25) (20.50)

33 48.12, 48.38 20.62, 21.29

(33) (48.25) (20.95)

It appears from the above data that infer-

media and peninsularis cannot be separated

from each other on the basis of either size or

bill characters. Though intermedia is generally

slightly larger than peninsularis, only about

50% and not 75% of the population can be

separated, and there is complete overlap in

332

the size of the bill between them, and in their

wing-tail and wing-bill indices. Hence, Gracula

religiosa peninsularis should be considered a

synonym of Gracula religiosa intermedia.

I am grateful to Dr. B. Biswas, Zoological

Survey of India, Calcutta for his valuable sug-

gestions and for going through the manuscript

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

and to Dr. S. D. Ripley of the Smithsonian

Institution, Washington, D. C., for his wise

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

INDIAN MUSEUM,

CaLcuTTa 700 016,

January 3, 1978.

advice in this matter. He also agrees with my

conclusion.

N. MAJUMDAR

REFERENCES

ALI, S. AND Riptey, S. D. (1972): Handbook of

the birds of India and Pakistan, together with those

of Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan and Ceylon, 5: 195.

Oxford University Press, Bombay.

Riptey, S. D. (1961): A synopsis of the Birds

of India and Pakistan, together with those of Nepal,

Sikkim, Bhutan and Ceylon. P. 304. Bombay Natu-

ral History Society, Bombay.

WHISTLER, H. AND KINNEAR, N. B. (1933): The

Vernay Scientific survey of the Eastern Ghats. Orni-

thological Section, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 36:

586.

13. EGG-BOUND DEATH OF A PURPLERUMPED SUNBIRD AT

BAJ BAJ, WEST BENGAL

The Purplerumped Sunbird, Nectarinia zey-

lenica sola (Vieillot), breeds throughout the

year. However, there is marked increase ia

breeding activities in lower West Bengal froin

the early part of March to May.

Early in February this year, with the first

incursion of the south wind that brings humi-

dity from the Bay of Bengal and heralds the

advent of spring in lower Bengal, I noticed a

female Purplerumped Sunbird building its

pouch-like pear-shaped nest which lacked the

porch-like projection over the entrance, sus-

pended from a thin branch of a Sourlime tree

[Citrus aurantiifolia (Christm.) Swingle] at a

height of c. 1.5 m from the ground at Baj Baj,

24-Parganas District, West Bengal. The nest was

built entirely by the female, while her mate

did the ‘watch and ward’ duties. She took six

days for completion of the nest, from 5th

Bas Bat,

WEST BENGAL,

July. 1, 1977.

February to 11th February 1977.

The first egg of the clutch was laid on 20th

February. The bird was found dead at her nest

on the 22nd morning. Its head was tucked in-

side the wall of the nest-chamber and the lower

part of the abdomen bulged out in such a way

that the brood-patch was completely exposed,

and the anal circlet was curved inward. The

presence of a ring formed by pollen and nectar

at the distal part of its bill indicated that it

had its early morning feed.

On postmortem it was found that the bird

died egg-bound. A thinly shelled and properly

shaped egg measuring 15.6x11.7 mm was

found in the distal part of the oviduct. Traces

of haemorrhage in the brain and in the mouth

cavity probably the effect of egg-binding were

also noticed.

SRIKUMAR CHATTOPADHYAY

333

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

14. OCCURRENCE OF THE BENGAL BLACK ROBIN,

SAXICOLOIDES FULICATA ERYTHRURA (LESSON)

[MUSCICAPIDAE: TURDINAE], AND THE ASSAM PURPLE

SUNBIRD, NECTARINIA ASIATICA INTERMEDIA (HUME)

[NECTARINIIDAE] IN ORISSA STATE

While working out a collection of birds from

Orissa State made by Dr. V. C. Agrawal in

1972, Dr. A. K. Mondal in 1972, Shri P. K.

Das in 1973 and by me in 1976 and 1977, I

came across two species of birds, namely, the

Bengal Black Robin, Saxicoloides fulicata ery-

thrura (Lesson) [Musicapidae: Turdinae] (15

examples) and the Assam Purple Sunbird,

Nectarinia asiatica intermedia (Hume) [Nec-

tariniidae] (two examples). According to the

standard literature on Indian ornithology like

Baker (1926) and Ali and Ripley (1973 and

1974), these have not so far been reported

from Orissa. The particulars of the specimens

are as follows:

Saxicoloides fulicata erythrura (Lesson)

Material—@: 2, Tikarpara, Dhenkenal dis-

trict, January 8 and 11, 1972; 1, Lathore, Bo-

langir, December 19, 1972; 2, Rairakhol, Sam-

balpur district, January 26 and 27, 1973; 2,

Madpad, Koraput district, February 21 and

24, 1974; 4, Balimela, Koraput district, March

6.7 and 8. 1977.

2: 1, Charmal, Sambalpur district, March

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

INDIAN MUSEUM,

CaLcuTTa 700 016,

December 21, 1977.

27, 1976; 2, Balimela, Koraput district, March

7, 1977; 1, Chitrakonda, Koraput district,

March 17, 1977.

Measurements (in mm.):

Wing Tail Bill

114: 68,69(3),70,71(3), 59(3),60,61,62, 16(7),17(4)

74(2),75 63(3) 64,65

42 66,67,68,69 58(2) ,60,62 15,16(3)

Distribution: Ali and Ripley (1973) stated

that it is known from eastern Bihar, West

Bengal and adjacent areas of Bangladesh.

This is the first record of the occurrence of

this subspecies in Orissa.

Nectarinia asiatica intermedia (Hume)

Material— 3: 1, Badrama, Sambalpur dis-

trict, December 27, 1972; 1, Madpad, Koraput

district, February 20, 1977.

Measurements (in mm.): 26: Wing 56,

58: Hail 37;, 383, Bille22)23:

Distribution: According to Baker (1926)

and Ali and Ripley (1974) this subspecies is

found in Assam and Bangladesh. The present

specimens, therefore, constitute the first record

of its occurrence in this region.

N. MAJUMDAR

REFERENCES

Aut, S. AND Ripley, S. D. (1973, 1974): Hand-

book of the birds of India and Pakistan, together

with those of Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan and Ceylon.

334

9: 61; 10: 37.

BAKER, E. C. S. (1926): Fauna of British India,

Birds. 3: 398. Taylor & Francis, London.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

15. DISPERSAL OF BAYAS WITH RECORDED DISTRESS CALLS

INTRODUCTION

The Indian Baya (Ploceus philippinus) is a

common crop pest causing considerable dam-

age to cereal crops. They commence visiting

the fields in flocks from the time the crops

are in milky stage of grain and continue to

damage till the harvest of the crop (Hamid

Ali et al. 1980). Though various control mea-

sures have been advocated none has given a

satisfactory result. Some investigators (Frings

and Jumber 1954, Frings and Frings 1963 and

1967, Pearson et al. 1967) used the distress

calls to frighten away and disperse the birds

from their roosts and bird pests from feeding

areas. The present experiment was conducted

to investigate whether recorded distress calls

have any repellent effect in dispersing the

bayas from crops.

- MATERIALS AND METHODS

The roosting site of bayas selected for the

present study was situated in the midst of the

Agricultural University experimental paddy

fields approximately one kilometre from the

Veterinary College, Rajendranagar, Hydera-

bad: About 350 bayas roosted in a bush. These

bayas caused heavy damage to the surround-

ing experimentl fields. The acoustic equipment

used for the experiment consisted of micro-

phone, stereo tape recorder of high quality,

30 W amplifier, speakers and 12 V battery.

The distress calls of bayas were recorded for

a continuous period of three minutes in the

laboratory. The recorded distress calls have

high signal-to-noise ratio.

The experiment was conducted during

March 1978. The amplifier feeding a speaker,

and the tape recorder playing the recorded

distress calls were operated at a distance of

200 metres from the roosting site. On March

1, 1978 at 5 p.m. about 350 bayas arrived in

groups at their roosting place. Prior to the

arrival of bayas the speaker was kept hidden

on one side of the roosting bush. After 15

minutes of the arrival of bayas and as they

began to settle down, the distress calls were

played for 30 seconds. Immediately the birds

responded to the distress calls and showed

signs of restlessness and moved to the other

side of the bush. After an interval of 5 minutes

the distress calls were again played for 40

seconds. Groups of bayas came out of the bush

and hovered around the speaker at a height of

about 12 metres and flew off in a northern

direction. The birds did not return to the site

to roost on that night.

The same experiment was repeated at inter-

vals of 2 to 7 days. The experimental data on

the effect of distress calls on baya population

are shown in the Table.

TABLE

EFFECT OF DISTRESS CALLS ON THE POPULATION OF

BAYAS DURING THE EXPERIMENTAL PERIOD

No. of bayas Time of arrival

Date in the bush of the bayas

(in hours)

1-3-1978 350 17.00

3-3-1978 350 16.50

6-3-1978 200 17.40

8-3-1978 80 17.30

10-3-1978 49 18.00

13-3-1978 20 18.20

16-3-1978 — —

23-3-1978 — —

30-3-1978 — —

In each trial the bayas came out of the bush

in small groups, hovered around the speaker

335

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

without actually settling down and after 6 to

8 seconds activity at the roosting site, the

bayas dispersed.

DISCUSSION

Observations recorded in three trials after

the last batch of bayas were dispersed show

that the birds did not return to their night

roosts till the end of the experimental period,

i.e. till 30 March when the last observation

was taken.

Pearson et al. (1967) observed that starlings

were not habituated to distress calls contrary

to the findings of Frings & Frings (1963). In

the present studies the dispersal of bayas from

their roosting site indicates that they are not

habituated to the distress calls which is in

confirmation with findings of Pearson ef al.

(1967). From the above observations it is

inferred that the bioacoustic method is effec-

ORNITHOLOGY SCHEME,

INSECTARY BUILDING,

A. P. AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY,

RAJENDRANAGAR,

HYDERABAD 500 030,

February 21, 1979.

tive in moving bayas from their roosts. Further

experiments with regard to the effective dis-

tance of audibility in cropped area, duration

of the effect and the response of the bird pests

toward the distress calls of other species are

in progress.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Thanks are due to the Indian Council of

Agricultural Research, New Delhi, for financ-

ing a research scheme for biology and control

of bird pests at Andhra Pradesh Agricultural

University, Hyderabad, under which the pre-

sent studies were carried out. The authors are

also grateful to Dr. B. Biswas, Dy. Director

and Dr. A. K. Mukherjee, Superintending

Zoologist, Zoolgical Survey of India, Calcutta

for their valuable suggestions on the manu-

script.

S. T. P. V. J. SWAMY

N. SHIVANARAYAN

MIR HAMID ALI

REFERENCES

FRINGS, H. AND Frincs, M. (1963): Pest Control

with sound. Part II. The problem with vertebrates.

Sound 2(i): 39-45.

(1967): Behavioural manipulation

(visual, mechanical and acoustical). In “Pest Con-

trol” (Kilgore, W. W. and Doutt, R. L. ed) Acade-

mic Press, New York. 387-454.

AND JUMBER, J. (1954): Preliminary

studies on the use of a specific sound to repel starl-

ings (Sturnus vulgaris) from objectionable roosts.

336

Science. 119 (3088): 318-319.

Hamip Aut, M., SincH, T. G. M., BANu, Aziz,

Rao, M. A. AND JANAK, A. T. (1980): Observa-

tions on the food and feeding habit of Baya weaver

(Ploceus. philippinus). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

75 (supplement): 1198-1204.

PEARSON, E. W. SKON, P. R. AND CorNeErR, G. W.

(1967). Dispersal of urban roosts with records of

starling distress calls. J. Wildl. manage. 31(3): 502-

506.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

16. ON NESTING ASSOCIATION OF THE WHITEBACKED MUNIA,

LONCHURA STRIATA (LINNAEUS) WITH THE MOUND-FORMING

TREE-ANT, CREMATOGASTER ROGENHOFERI MAYR

The nesting association of birds with aggres-

sive social insects like bees, wasps and ants is

well known. As early as 1866, Ramsay wrote

of Gerygone olivacea, the Whitethroated Gery-

gone: “The nests are often placed in trees

covered with ants, which insects are often on

the nests themselves but do not, as far as I

am aware, cause the bird any anxiety.” Since

then some work has been done on this subject

by various authors such as North (1904, 1909),

Jackson (1907), Maclaren (1950), Chisholm

(1952) and a collation with critical analysis

of all those works has been done by Hindwood

(1955).

In India the only bird that has so far been

recorded to form its nesting association with

tree-ants (Crematogaster, Plegiolepis, etc.) is

the Rufous Woodpecker, Micropternus, brach-

yurus (Vieillot) [Baker (1927), Ali & Ripley

(1971)], though the nesting association of the

Blackheaded Munia, Lonchura malacca (Lin-

naeus), with paper-wasps has been recorded

from Australia (Hindwood 1950), where the

bird was imported from the East as a cage-

bird.

The present paper deals with a four-year

study on the nesting association of the White-

backed Munia, Lonchura striata (Linnaeus),

with the paper nest tree-ant, Crematogaster

rogenhoferi Mayr, at Baj Baj, 24 Parganas

district, West Bengal.

In the year 1974, a pair of Whitebacked

Munia built their nest in a Kamini tree (Murya

paniculata Jack) at a height of c. 3 m from

the ground at the edge of a pond. They com-

menced building the nest on 5th August and

completed it on 14th August. On close inspec-

tion which was only possible after a good

number of ant-bites, it was found that the

nest was constructed very close to a live, oval-

shaped nest of tree-ants. The parent birds were

abie to rear successfully all the four young

of the brood that year.

The female bird was caught in a mistnet

and was marked by clipping its middle claw

of the right foot.

Next year, the same female along with a

male again commenced building their nest in

the same bough close to that nest of ants on

3rd August 1975 and completed it on 11th

August 1975. Unfortunately, however, after

the female had laid the first egg of the clutch

the local village boys damaged the nest along

with the egg on 18th August 1975. Three

weeks later, on 9th September 1975, to my

utter surprise, I found that the pair had again

started building another nest at the same spot,

and completed its construction on 19th Sep-

tember 1975. This time they were successful

in raising their brood.

In 1976 in order to study the habitat and

associate preference, I intentionally damaged

the newly built nest on 27 August. They re-

built the nest on 7th October at the same

spot.

A very interesting thing happened this year

(1977). The same female bird and a male built

their nest at exactly the same spot as in the

previous years, commencing on 15th Septem-

ber and completing it on 24th September. How-

ever, soon after the tree-ant nest was damag-

ed by torrential rain on 6th October, the birds

deserted the nest and shifted to a nearby

Bakul tree (Mimusops elengi Linnaeus) that

was heavily infested with tree-ants, to con-

struct another nest.

337.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

From the above observation it appears that

the Whitebacked Munia prefers such an asso-

ciation with the ants, and that the nesting acti-

vities of the pair are tolerated by the ants,

which can also differentiate the intruders, as

whenever I ventured near the nest, the ants

rushed towards me in hundreds, holding their

abdomen skywards like anti-aircraft guns and

within a very short time I found myself cover-

ed with ants all stinging, until I made a hur-

ried retreat. A female Longtailed Mouse,

Vandeleuria oleracea (Bennett), who built her

nest in the same tree, was, however, unable to

rear her young because of the ants.

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

INDIAN MUSEUM,

CALCUTTA 700 016,

December 22, 1977.

It appears that the munias were aware of

the arms of protection provided by the ants,

because there is no convincing alternative for

the evaluation of such an association known

at present. '

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I record my sincere thanks to Dr. Biswamoy

Biswas of the Zoological Survey of India, for

his interest in this study and helping me in

the preparation of this paper, I also thank

to Dr. Amalesh Chowdhury of the Depart-

ment of Zoology, Calcutta University, for en-

couragement. \

SRIKUMAR CHATTOPADHYAY

REFERENCES

Aur, S. & RipLey, S. D. (1971): Handbook of

birds of India, Pakistan and Ceylon. 10. Oxford

University Press, Bombay.

Baker, E. C. S. (1927): Fauna of British India

including Ceylon and Burma. 6. London.

CuisHoLmM, A. H. (1952): Bird insect nesting as-

sociation in Australia. Ibis. 94: 395-405.

Hinpwoop, K. A. (1955): Bird/Wasp nesting as-

sociation. Emu 55: 263-274.

Jackson, S. W. (1907): Catalogue and data of

Jacksonian Oological collection: 72. Sydney.

Mac aren, P. I. R. (1950): Bird-ant nesting as-

sociations. Ibis 92: 564-566.

Nort, A. J. (1904): Nests and eggs of birds

found breeding in Australia: 1-194. Sydney.

(1909): Notes on the Nesting-site

of Gerygone personata, Gould. Rec. Aust. Mus. 7:

186-188.

17. BIRD PESTS TO RICE AT BUMBONG LIMA, PROVINCE

WELLESLEY, WEST MALAYSIA

From April 1975 through March 1977, {

conducted an investigation of bird pests to rice

in northwestern peninsular Malaysia. The study

came under the auspices of the United States

Peace Corps/Smithsonian Institution Environ-

mental Program, and was conducted in co-

operation with the Malaysian Agricultural

Research and Development Institute (MAR-

DI). My study area consisted of 15 ha. of

338

experimental rice fields at the MARDI Rice

Research Center (RRC) at Bumbong Lima

in Northern Province Wellesley. The RRC

conducts research in the areas rice breeding

and varietal improvement, rice plant physio-

logy, agronomy, and crop protection, which

includes such pests as rodents, insects, weeds,

fungus and bacteria. Bumbong Lima is situated

in one of Malaysia’s most productive rice-

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

growing areas. Much of the agricultural land

is irrigated so that two crops of rice are har-

vested annually.

Throughout Asia, numerous species of seed-

eating birds cause extensive damage to cereal

grain crops such as rice. In West Malaysia,

the main bird pests are four species of munia

in the genus Lonchura (Estrildidae), and the

Baya Weaver, Ploceus philippinus (Ploceidae).

Munias have long been popular with avicultu-

ralists, and many cage studies of their beha-

vior have been made, but relatively little re-

search has been conducted under natural con-

ditions. On the other hand, the Baya Weaver

has been the subject of many field studies,

particularly with regard to its nesting beha-

vior, but as with the munias, its role as a crop

pest has not received much attention. This

study was designed to gather data on move-

ments, food habits, and breeding seasonality

of the bird pests to rice in the Bumbong Lima

area.

At the RRC, the principal rice-eating spe-

cies were the Sharp-tailed Munia, Lonchura

striata; the Spotted Munia, L. punctulata; and

the Baya Weaver. The Chestnut Munia,

L. malacca, and the White-headed Munia,

L. maja, occurred abundantly in fields within

15 km of the RRC, but only seldom did I

observe them on the study area.

The results of my study are summarized

below under three main headings. Additional

data or details of the investigation are avail-

able from me upon request.

Movements

I instituted a ringing program early in the

study to obtain data on the movements of the

three target species. During 1975, numerous

ringed birds were retrapped at the RRC, but

reports of ringed birds being trapped out-

station were non-existent. To spur interest

among farmers, I advertised in the local news-

papers and on the radio a reward of M$2.00

(US$0.80) for out-station recoveries of ringed

birds. The response was very enthusiastic, and

a total of 50 recoveries resulted.

The Sharp-tailed Munia (STM) was by far

the most numerous of the three target species

on the study area. Regular censuses showed

that STMs were most abundant during the

months of March and September, with lows

occurring in May and November. This pat-

tern of abundance corresponded with the pat-

tern of rice availability at the RRC.

Overall, I ringed 1988 STMs, and recorded

250 on-station retraps. The high rate of re-

traps indicates that STMs in the Bumbong

Lima area had rather localized movements and

returned regularly to the RRC to feed. There

were 11 out-station recoveries of STMs, all

from within 10 km of the RRC, again indi-

cating a localized pattern of movement.

At the RRC, field counts of Spotted Munias

(SPM) tended to be low during the first eight

months of the year and high during Septeni-

ber-December, probably due to the addition

of juvenile birds to the population. A total of

531 SPMs was ringed during the study, but

only 14 on-station retraps were recorded. This

suggests either that this species moves about

more extensively than do STMs, or that SPMs

are more successful in avoiding being recap-

tured. Two out-station recoveries of SPMs

were reported, one from 16 km south of the

RRC.

Numbers of Baya Weavers (BW) fluctuated

quite drastically from month to month with

no apparent pattern. Altogether, 863 BWs were

ringed and 193 were retrapped on-station.

Most of the retraps occurred within one month

of the ringing date, and retraps over longer

intervals were uncommon, indicating that once

they left the study area, BWs seldom returned,

339

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

unlike STMs which regularly came back.

There were 37 out-station recoveries of BWs.

About half of these were from locations greater

than 10 km from the RRC, suggesting that

BWs ranged over a greater area than did the

munias.

Food Habits

The food habits of the three target species

were examined through field observations and

crop analyses. In addition, cage studies were

conducted on the munias.

In the field, STMs were observed eating rice

almost 75% of the time. The only other food

item recorded in the field was the filamentous

green algae, Spirogyra. Rice was also the most

common food item for SPMs in the field, but

they were also frequently seen eating Echino-

chloa, a common weedy grass that was abund-

ant at certain times of the year. SPMs also ate

algae, but not as often as did the STMs. BWs

were never seen eating algae. Rice comprised

the bulk of their diet, according to the field

observations, although they frequently were

seen in tall grass and reed areas adjacent to

the rice fields.

Crop analyses performed on a total of 231

birds largely confirmed the field observations.

Very little other than rice and algae was found

in the crops of STMs. SPMs ate rice more

often than any other food item, but seeds cf

wild grasses as well as algae were recorded

with appreciable frequency. No algae was

found in BW crops, two-thirds of which con-

tained rice. Seeds of the grass Paspalum sp.

and various sedges (Cyperaceae) were frequ-

ently found. Insect matter was found in two

BW crops.

In the cage experiments, munias, singly and

in pairs, were given a choice of two food items

on each of five days. In the first series, the

food items were ripe rice and the grass Echi-

340

nochloa crusgalli. In the second series, rice at

various stages of ripening was used. The SIMs

tested usually showed a preference for rice

over Echinocloa whereas the SPMs displayed

no preference. This is very consistent with the

field observations. In the second series, STMs

tended to prefer younger, milky stage rice over

rice that was at least two weeks older, although

both were eaten. No distinction was made by

the birds between rice that differed in age by

just one week.

Breeding Seasonality

The breeding seasonality of the two munia

species was examined in three ways: the pre-

sence of juvenile-plumaged birds in the popu-

lation, the gonad size of autopsied birds, and

field observations of nesting activity.

The juvenile plumages of both munia spe-

cies persist until about three months of age.

Among the STMs, birds in juvenile plumage

were most common during the periods March-

April and September-October. These periods

were also the times of maximum rice abund-

ance at the RRC. The peak time of juvenile-

plumaged SPMs was September-December, al-

though birds in juvenile plumage were present

all year round.

Among the adult-plumaged STMs of both

sexes, the greatest periods of reproductive acti-

vity, as indicated by enlarged gonads, were

January-February and July-August, just prior

to the periods of greatest juvenile abundance

in the population. Thus, it appears that STMs

at the RRC have two main periods of breed-

ing activity annually.

Not enough SPMs were collected to deter-

mine their seasonal gonadal condition.

STM nesting activity was determined regu-

larly at five locations outside of Bumbong

Lima, and local (within 1 km) rice conditions

were assessed at the same time. These obser-

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

vations showed that active or very active nest-

ing occurred 12 times when rice was locally

available and 6 times when it was not. On

the other hand, only once was nesting not

recorded when rice was available in local

fields. The remaining 13 observations when ne,

or slight, nesting was recorded, there was no

locally available rice. Thus, there was a de-

231 GIBSON RoapD,

ANNAPOLIS, MARYLAND 21401,

U.S.A.,

March 15, 1978.

finite association between STM nesting acti-

vity and nearby rice conditions.

It is hoped that the results of this study will

lead to a better understanding of the relation-

ships between certain bird species and the rice

crop in Malaysia, and that these results will

provide a basis for further studies.

MICHAEL AVERY

18. NOTES ON SEXING CROCODILIANS

(With two plates)

The need for sexing crocodilians for captive

propagation or for release is self evident.

Several authors have reported the effectiveness

of the simple cloacal probe technique. The

crocodile is held and turned on its back. The

cloacal area is cleaned with water, finger (close-

cropped nail advisable) is inserted to feel for

the presence or absence of the penis.

Male crocodilians possess a single organ,

rooted to the interior ventral wall of the cloaca

immediately anterior to the anal vent. Normal

rigidity of the organ permits contact when

probed at a depth of 8 centimetres or less in

an animal 3 to 4 metres in length. The absence

of a rigid organ within the cloaca of the female

reveals only a vacant chamber when probed.

The small flaccid clitoris of the female cannot

easily be confounded with the penis of the

male if a minimum specimen size limitation

of 75 cm is observed, particularly when deal-

ing with individuals of the genus Tomistoma

and Gavialis (Brazaitis 1968).

With smaller mugger (70-80 cm) it is often

impossible to insert a finger. However the

penis was extrudable by applying digital pres-

sure on both sides of the cloaca while bending

the animal’s tail upwards (plate I).

Mugger (C. palustris) of under 80 cm are

difficult to sex. The cloacal opening is small,

the clitoris and penal tip are extrudable and

look alike. As they grow larger the clitoris

is no longer extrudable while the penis grows

and continues to be extrudable manually. At

2.5 metres (near breeding size for the male)

the penis will extrude approximately 10 cm

and is about 3 cm in diameter.

Crocodylus porosus is similar in structure

and development rate to the mugger. Animals

of 90 cm can be reliably sexed using the fifth

finger (small opening).

There is little in the literature on sexing

Gavialis gangeticus. Our experience in exan-

ing 20 Gavialis from 1 m (2 years) to nearly

3 m (20 years) suggest that this animal has

a slower rate of sexual development than the

other two Indian crocodilians. In none of the

gharial checked was the penis more than a few

centimetres in length though the 2.7 m spect-

men was over 12 years of age (plates). Capti-

vity (diet, metabolism, enclosure, disturbance)

341

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

places some developmental limits but one cap-

tive male (Nandankanan, Orissa) of about

2.5 m is reported to be developed “‘normally”’

by other known crocodilian standards (H. R.

cussion it was felt that the non-breeding of

this crocodilian in captivity is at least partly

due to the difficulty in sexing them. The Table

gives the basic details of the Gavialis checked.

I RR A RE SS

Year ee Place Size Sex Notes

1. 1974 10 Mysore Zoo 2.8m 3} No ghara, penis small, distin-

guishable.

2.° 1974 10 Mysore Zoo 2.7m g Smooth cloacal wall with small

clitoris

3. 1974 3 Mysore Zoo 1.2m 2 At this size sex probably not

determinable

4 1975 D} Madras Crocodile Bank 1.2m ou, In 1975 it was sexed as a female;

in 1978 (at 2 m) it is apparently

a male!

Sa 1975 3 Madras Crocodile Bank 1.6m 3 Penis small but distinguishable.

6. 1977 10+ Ahmedabad Zoo 2.5m 3 Thought to be a female and

penis not detected at first check.

Upon rechecking confirmed io

be a male (at 2.7 m).

eee OUT 20+ Calcutta Zoo 2.5m so) Smooth, wide cloaca with small

clitoris about six cm inside on

anterior wall.

85 LOTT 2 Madras Crocodile Bank 1.1m 9? At this size sex probably not

determinable.

9. 1977 2, Madras Crocodile Bank 1.2m ? Sex not determinable.

10. 1978 T+ Patna Zoo .3m é No ghara, penis small but dis-

tinguishable.

11 1978 Pe) Gharial Project, 1-1.6m ? Cloacal opening small and sexes

to Kukkrail, Uttar Pradesh undistinguishable.

20.

Bustard, pers. comm.). The specimen is not

particularly old (12-15 years) but has a well-

developed ‘“‘ghara” over its nostrils (plate).

The ghara is interpreted to be a dimorphic

male character (Martin and Bellairs 1977) and

may indicate sexual maturity.

At the Crocodile Bank we have 6 gharial

ranging from two 1.2 metres 2 year old to

a 2.7 m, 18 year old male. After the February

1978 IUCN/SSC Crocodile Specialist Group

Meeting, several of the specialists worked with

us checking the lower size limit for sexing

young mugger and sexing the gharial. In dis-

342

Discussion: If further studies on sexing gha-

rial confirm the difficulties mentioned above,

other methods of sex determination must be

investigated. Bellairs (THE LIFE OF REPTILES,

1969) mentions that karotyping may not work

in crocodilians (Gavialis?) but other sex cha-

racters may come to light. This problem attains

more importance considering that recent re-

search indicates that egg incubation tempera-

ture influences the sex ratio of crocodilian otf-

spring and the need in release programmes to

stock a suitable ratio.

J. BoMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. 77 PLATE [

Whitaker & Whitaker : Sexing crocodilians

Demonstrating the technique of sexing a juvenile C. palustris of 80 em by tail bending and pressure

on sides of cloaca.

Close up of extruded penis of C. palustris.

J. Bombay NAT. Hist. Soc. 77

Whitaker & Whitaker : Sexing

ars iii psy, be

crocodilians

Gavialis.

PLATE II

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Mapbras CrocoDILE BANK TRUST,

VADANEMMELI VILLAGE,

TamMiL Napbu,

January 25, 1979.

ROMULUS WHITAKER

ZAHIDA WHITAKER

ALLEN VAUGHAN

REFERENCES

BELLAIRS, A. D’A. (1969): The Life of Reptiles.

Weidenfeld and Nicholson.

BrazalTis, P. J. (1968): The Determination of

Sex in Living Crocodilians. British Journal of Her-

petology.

Martin, B. G. H. & BeLvarrs, A. D’A. (1977):

The narial excrescence and pterygoid bulla of the

gharial, Gavialis gangeticus. J. Zool. London 182:

541-558.

WHITAKER, R. (1975): A note on Crocodilian

Sex Determination. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 73

(3): 531-532.

19: ON-THE OCCURRENCE OF BIFURCATED TAILED IN AGAMA

LIZARD FROM SIMLA HILLS, HIMACHAL PRADESH

During September 1970, while undertaking

a general faunistic survey of Rajgarh and its

vicinity of district Sirmour, H.P., we observed

a good number of agama lizards basking on

barren rocks, creeping out from below stones

and crevices of boulders, of which a few lizards

were collected.

While studying these specimens, one lizard

was noted to have its tail bifurcated last one-

third of the total length of the tail. The speci-

men was identified as Agama _ tuberculata

HicH ALTITUDE ZOOLOGY FIELD STATION,

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

SoLAN (H.P.),

December 21, 1978.

20. RECENT RE-DISCOVERY OF

; OTOCRYPTIS

‘Recently I picked up a juvenile agamid

lizard from a bush near a stream in the upper

shola, Kodaikanal (2100 m), Palnis, Western

Ghats, South India. On detailed examination

later the specimen was recognised easily as Oto-

cryptis beddomii Boulenger because of its sub-

Gray.

Material: 1 ex. Loc. Rajgarh, Dist. Sirmour,

H.P., 3-9-70, M. Chandra.

Measurement: 250 mm. Total length. 123 mm.

Standard length.

We are deeply indebted to Dr. R. Bielowski,

Institute of Zoology, Polish Academy of Sci-

ence, Warsaw for his valuable comments and

confirmation during his study of Solan in 1973.

Thanks are due to the Director, Z.S.1. for the

facilities afforded.

MAHESH CHANDRA

RATHIN MUKHERJEE

THE RARE AGAMID LIZARD

BEDDOMII

dermal tympanum and the short fifth toe. Bou-

lenger (1885: 272) has described this species

based on five specimens—two females and

three juveniles—collected by Colonel Beddome

at Sivagiri Ghat, Cardamom Hills, South India.

Smith (1935: 148) says: “Ferguson obtained

343

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

two more specimens in Travancore’.

The specimen has the following characteris-

tics: snout-vent length—35 mm; tail—73 mm.

Its coloration is as follows: Dorsum with five

black transverse bars. While the dark bars on

the limbs are clearly visible, the forehead is

devoid of the dark bar observed by Smith.

No traces of gular appendage.

The specimen bearing Register Number L.

151 is deposited in the reptile collections of

the Southern Regional Station of the Zoolo-

gical Survey of India, Madras 600 028.

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

MapbraS-600 028,

June 23, 1980.

The present record of this species from

Palanis other than its type locality and nearly

after a century since its description is rather

interesting. We can definitely say that it is not

as rare as to be restricted to the Cardamom

Hills, Kerala. However, its definitive distribu-

tion should await further exploration of the

Western Ghats.

I am thankful to the Officer-in-Charge,

Southern Regional Station, Zoological Survey

of India, Madras for facilities.

T. S. N. MURTHY

REFERENCES

BOULENGER, G. A. (1885): Catalogue of the

Lizards in the British Museum (Natural History),

Vol. I, 436 pp.

Dlr

SmiTH, M. A. (1935): Fauna of British India.

Reptilia and Amphibia, Vol. 2, Sauria.

GROWTH RATE OF INDIAN PYTHON, PYTHON MOLURUS

MOLURUS (SERPENTES: BOIDAE) IN CAPTIVITY WITH SPECIAL

REFERENCE TO AGE AT FIRST EGG-LAYING

(With two text-figures)

The growth rate of Indian Python from the

time of hatching to the age at first egg-laying

has rarely been reported. Acharjyo and Misra

(1976) reported on the mating, gestation

period, egg-laying, incubation, behaviour of the

brooding female, hatchlings and quarterly

growth rate to the age of one year of Indian

Python observed at Nandankanan Biological

Park, Orissa, India. They have also stated that

it was intended to rear a batch of these hatch-

lings to sexual maturity. This communication

is a follow up to these earlier observations.

In this, studies on the quarterly growth rate

344

of 4 to 9 hatchlings of Indian Pythons from

the 12th month to the age of the first egg-

laying and beyond observed in the same park

are reported.

Growth Rate: The quarterly growth rate

of 11 to 38 Indian Python babies from the

time of hatching to one year old has already

been reported by Acharjyo and Misra (loc.

cit.).

Our further observations on growth rate

from the 12th month to the age of 51st month

are as follows (Table 1, Figs. 1 & 2).

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

TABLE 1

QUARTERLY GROWTH RATE OF YOUNG INDIAN PYTHONS FROM 12TH MONTH TO THE AGE OF SIST MONTH

Dates Age in Sample Mean length Mean weight

months size (Range) cm (Range) g

1 2, 3 4 5

4 July 1975 12 11 136.41 942.91

(126.5-153) (720-1535)

25 Sept. 1975 15 9 142.72 1251

(127-142) (780-2330)

25 Dec. 1975 18 6 144.83 1152

(128-179.5) (635-2170)

25 March 1976 21 5 167.60 1813

s (151-194) (1210-3005 )

25 June 1976 24 5 215.50 4755

(190-237) (2390-6640)

25 Sept. 1976 27 4 215.80 4378

(194-240) (2250-6110)

25 Dec. 1976 30 4 218.25 4378

(194-240) (2250-6110)

25 March 1977 33 4 219ETS 5551

(195-241) (3220-7535)

25 June 1977 36 4 23325 7945

(214-249) (6580-8540)

25 Sept. 1977 39 4 241.00 8444

(220-257) (7250-8910)

25 Dec. 1977 42 4 245.75 8408

(233-261) (7440-8870)

25 March 1978 45 4 246.75 9090

(235-262) (7750-10,600)

27 June 1978 48 4 248.75 8523

(235-266) (5570-10,970)

25 Sept. 1978 51 4 250.25 9565

(236-267) (7430-10,940)

Examination of this table and the graphs

reveals that the average growth rate in total

length in the first year was maximum (75.70

cm) and the growth rate during the second

year (44.99 cm) and third year (51.85 cm)

remained almost the same. But during the

fourth year the average growth rate was much

reduced (15.50 cm).

The weight increase graph (Fig. 2) reveais

that the maximum average growth in weight

(5115 grams) was recorded during the third

year of life and the minimum average growth

in weight (578 grams) was recorded in the

fourth year.

Two of the (female) pythons first laid eggs

in the fourth year and as usual starved for

about two months during incubation.

Age at first egg-laving: Two female pythons

hatched in the Park during the period from

23 to 25 June 1974 (whose matings were not

observed) laid eggs on 27 April 1978 and 4

May 1978 respectively at the age of 3 years

345

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

10 months and 3-5 days and 3 years 10 months

and 10-12 days respectively. Taking the gesta-

tion period as 82-83 days (Acharjyo and

Misra, loc. cit.) the age of sexual maturity in

these two cases can be said to be about 3

years and 74 months.

The two females weighed 7.750 Kg (Total

length 235 cm) and 8.920 Kg (Total length

250 cm) on 25 March 1978 before egg laying.

These two weighed 5.570 Kg (Total length 235

cm) and 6.880 Kg (Total length 251 cm) on

27 June 1978 after the incubation was over.

The two male pythons weighed 9.090 Kg

(Total length 262 cm) and 10.660 Kg (Total

length 240 cm) on 25 March 1978. They

weighed 10.970 Kg (Total length 266 cm) and

10.670 Kg (Total length 243 cm) on 27 June

1978. Since no mating was observed and since

all the eggs were found infertile and spoiled,

it is presumed that the male pythons require

a longer time to reach sexual maturity than

females.

Clutch size and eggs: The clutch size of one

female which laid eggs on 27 April 1978 was

13 (eight normal sized white coloured eggs and

five small sized light brown coloured eggs)

whereas the clutch size of the other femaie

which laid eggs on 4 May 1978 was 17 (two

normal sized white coloured eggs and fifteen

small sized light brown coloured eggs).

Five white coloured eggs measured 8.5-

12.0 4.7-5.2 cm and weighed 165-207 grams.

Five light brown coloured eggs measured

7.4-9.6 x 3.9-5.0 cm and weighed 73.97 g.

DISCUSSION

Deoras (1965) states that in the laboratory

an Indian Python of unknown age and un-

stated size and weight grew 6-8 inches (15-

20 cm).

Pope (1962) states that the Indian Python

346

holds the record growth rate of 34 feet per

year for the first two years of life. Our obser-

vations partly agrees with his observations in

that maximum average growth rate in total

length (75.70 cm) was recorded in the first

year of life but was less than recorded by Pope

(loc. cit.). This partly reflects the natural con-

ditions under which pythons are kept with a

marked winter period during which feeding was

greatly reduced.

About this species Smith (1943) states that

“the rate of growth in nature is not known, and

the records of growth in captivity vary so

greatly that they are obviously influenced by

the conditions under which the snakes live’.

According to Grzimek (1975) the boids grow

fairly quickly until they are 2-3 metres long,

but after that time, growth proceeds at a much

slower rate. Eight hatchlings of this species

grew from an average length of 19? inches to

6 feet 7 inches in twenty months, a fourfold

increase (Pope, loc. cit.).

Fig. 1 shows the effect of the cooler weather

(monsoon quarter) on growth in length. In the

year one ,growth was slow in the winter quar-

ter (October-December), picked up in the next

quarter (January-March) and was maximum in

summer (April-June).

The following comments on the Orissa

climate are essential for proper understanding

of the discussion. First quarter (January-

March) winter gives way to a very brief spring

followed by warm weather during February;

second quarter (April-June) hot (very hot)

season; third quarter (July-September) mon-

soon season (cooler); fourth quarter (Octo-

ber-December) autumn and winter, feeding

much reduced.

In the second year there was marked reduc-

tion in growth in the monsoon and winter

quarters and rapid growth thereafter which

was marked in the monsoon quarter of the

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

270

240

210

iso

oO 6 12 IS 24 30 36 42. 48

age in months

Fig. 1. Graph showing quarterly average growth rate in total length of Indian Pythons from the

time of hatching to the age of 51 months (4 years and 3 months).

347

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

in grams (thousands)

weight

ayr

lyr

Oo 6 '2 is 24 30 36 42 48

age inmonths

Fig. 2. Graph showing quarterly average growth rate in weight of Indian pythons from the time

of hatching to the age of 51 months (4 years and 3 months).

348

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

third year. After this, growth slowed down as

is to be expected with attainment of sexual

maturity.

Fig. 2 shows these effect also and makes

interesting comparison with Fig. 1. Marked

increase in weight commenced in the third

quarter of the second year at eighteen months

of age and continued until the age of three

years (36 months) with the sole exception of

the fourth quarter (October-December) of

1976, when actual loss of weight was recorded

due to cessation of feeding. Weight increase

was minimum in the fourth year. This partly

reflects brooding by the females but also mark-

ed reduction in growth following attainment

of sexual maturity. There was a good weight

increase in the third quarter of 1978 but this

reflects more regaining weight lost during the

fasting incubation period.

The rapid increase in length was over by

27th month of age, having commenced at sixth

month, thus covering 21 months. The rapid

weight increase was over at 36th month, hav-

ing commenced at 18th month and thus occu-

pying 18 months. Hence growth in length was

followed subsequently by weight increase

which took more time to catch up. The idea

of Williamson (1967) that about half of the

total length may be attained in the first 3 to

4 years of life is extremely interesting. This

hypothesis receives some confirmation from

Bustard’s finding in the Green Sea Turtle,

Chelonia mydas (Bustard 1972). To put this

more concisely this means the maximum size

of the indvidual depends upon early growth,

the rate of which is clearly dependent upon

genetic and environmental factors (Bustard,

Singh and Choudhury, MS) as observed in

Indian Mugger Crocodile (Crocodylus palu-

stris).

It is clear that much faster growth rates than

here reported could have been achieved by

winter heating resulting in greatly enhanced

feeding during the winter quarters. Such growth

rates would however have been much faster

than occurs in nature as occurring in the

Indian Crocodile (Bustard, Pers. Comm.).

Our own figures are considered to be more

closely approximates natural growth being re-

corded out-doors under ambient temperature

conditions within the natural range of the spe-

cies. However they may exceed wild growth

as a result of enhanced food supply. This in

itself may have resulted in first egg laying

at an early age than is naturally the case in

nature (Bustard, Pers. Comm.).

The boids reach sexual maturity in three

years in captivity (Grzimek, loc. cit.). Accord-

ing to Pope (loc. cit.) the smallest Indian

python to produce fertile eggs was only 8 feet

6 inches (2.55 m). He further states that the

female of a mated captive pair of this species

laid fertile eggs at the age of less than three

years.

SUMMARY

The quarterly growth rate of 4 to 11 Indian

pythons from the 12th month to the age of

51st month were observed in a natural environ-

ment at Nandankanan Biological Park, Orissa,

India.

The average growth rate in total length in

the first year was maximum (75.70 cm) and

the growth rate during the second year (44.99

cm) and third year (51.85 cm) remained al-

most the same. But during the fourth year

growth rate was much reduced (15.50 cm).

The maximum average growth in weight (5115

g) was recorded during the third year of life

and the minimum average growth in weight

(578 g) was recorded in the fourth year.

349

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We are grateful to Dr. H. R. Bustard,

F.A.0O./U.N.D.P. Consultant on Crocodiles in

VETERINARY ASSISTANT SURGEON,

NANDAKANAN BIOLOGICAL PARK,

P.O. BaraAnGc, Dists CUTTACK,

Orissa (INDIA) 754005.

WiLD LirE CONSERVATION OFFICER,

95-SAHID NAGAR,

BHUBANESWAR-751 007,

OrISSA (INDIA),

April 21, 1980.

India for his help in the preparation of this

paper.

L. N. ACHARJYO

CH. G. MISHRA

REFERENCES

ACHARJYO, L. N. AND Misra, R. (1976): Aspects

of Reproduction and Growth of the Indian Python,

Python molurus molurus, in captivity. British Jour-

nal of Herpetology, 5: 562-65.

BustTArRD, H. R. (1972): Sea-Turtles: Their Na-

tural History and Conservation. Collins, London &

Sydney.

SincH, L. A. K. AND CHOUDHURY,

B. C. (M.S.): Growth of Three Populations of

Mugger Crocodiles, Crocodylus palustris Lesson

(Reptilia, Crocodilia) from Tamilnadu, South India,

MLS.

Deoras, P. J. (1965): Snakes of India. National

Book Trust, India, New Delhi.

GRZIMEK, BERNHARD (1975): Animal Life En-

cyclopedia, Vol. 6, Reptiles, Van Nostrand Reinhold

Company, New York, Cincinnati, Toronto, London,

Melbourne, pp. 363-380.

PoprE, CLierorD H. (1962): The Giant Snakes.

Routledge & Kegan Paul, London.

SMITH, M. A. (1943): The Fauna of British India,

Reptilia and Amphibia. Vol. III, Serpentes, Taylor &

Francis, London, pp. 102-110.

WILLIAMSON, MICHAEL A. (1967): Notes on the

Growth Rate of Python reticulatus (Serpentes:

Boidae). Herpetologica, Vol. 23, No. 2, pp. 130-132.

22. COBRA AND LITTLE BITTERN /XOBRYCHUS MINUTUS

On the morning of 5th August I had the

opportunity to collect a cobra (Naja naja

oxiana) lying dead on the bank of river Tawi

(360 m), with a little bittern stuck in its throat.

Examination confirmed that the snake had

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY,

UNIVERSITY OF KUMAUN,

NAINITAL, (U.P.),

September 18, 1978.

350

died in the struggle to swallow the little bit-

tern (Ixobrychus minutus) which was com-

paratively large in size and there were no

bruises or even scratches on the body of the

snake.

B. D. SHARMA

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

23. KHULNAWA—A SPECIAL FISHING DEVICE FOR MINNOWS

IN THE RIVER GANGA AT PATNA (BIHAR)

(With a plate)

Break-up figures of fish landings from the

river Ganga at Patna during the years 1958

to 1966 indicate the larger groups, comprising

Cirrhinus mrigala, Catla catla, Labeo rohita,

Mystus aor, M. seenghala, Wallago attu and

Hilsa ilisha, constitute over 55% of the total

fish landing (Jhingran et al. 1970). From our

visits to fishing sites in the river at Patna and

also from emphatic comments of the fishermen

we gathered that there has been a sharp decline

in the catch of the larger groups of fishes in

- this stretch of the river with Hilsa ilisha on the

verge of disappearance. Increasing dependance

of the local wholesale fish market (Mussalle-

pur Haat) on the imports to the extend of

over 60% from other states for the larger

fishes is yet another evidence of fall in the

catch in the river. The fishermen recall notic-

ing the declining trend with coming up of the

Farrakka barrage across the Ganga in the

Malda district of West Bengal. While obstruc-

tional role of the barrage on the migration of

Hilsa ilisha is as per expectations, cause of the

fall in catch of the other larger fishes is in-

comprehensible beyond the point that their

number might have thinned out in this stretch

of the river due to some unobserved subtle

ecological changes associated with the instal-

lation of physical structures in the river. Natu-

rally, the fishing community dependent on the

river Ganga along Patna are obliged to adopt

the gears suitable for exploiting the smaller

group of fishes whose catch is relatively assur-

ed. During the course of a survey of these

newly adopted fishing practices, an ingenious

device for catching minnows was noticed with

quite a large concentration of the same at

Ghaggha Ghat in the Patna Sahib area. The

antecedent, structure and operation of the gear-

craft were studied by visiting the fishing sites

and interviewing the fishermen. The findings

are presented in this note.

Nomenclature and history: The device is

locally called Khulnawa which means an open

wale boat. It has been introduced here from

the Tarai region of Nepal only a decade ago

but now with its proven efficacy to fetch a

good catch of minnows, already there are one

hundred and odd of the gear-craft operating

in the 30 km stretch of the river along Patna.

Obviously, the gear-craft does not find men-

tion in any of the earlier descriptions of the

fishing methods in the Ganga river system

(Hornell 1923, Farupui and Sahai 1943, Ano-

nymous 1949, Job and Pantulu 1953, and

Saxena 1966).

Structure: The device (see Plate) has three

components namely (1) the boat with one of

the wales open (2) a screen platform and

(3) a frilled pole.

The boat; It is an ordinary plank built

narrow keel-less dinghy with equipointed bow

and stern. It is about 7.5 m long and about

65 cm broad at the middle with a shallow

depth of merely 25 cm. The wale on one side

has a cut out opening, about 5 m long and

12 cm deep. Kathal (Artocarpus integriofolia)

or Sal (Shorea robusta) wood are used in con-

struction of the boat. The boat is kept pitch

dark in colour by regular coatings of coal-tar.

The screen platform: It is a closely knit

screen of bamboo splinters measuring about

5 m by 0.5 m. To construct it, 40 and odd

number of fine flat strips of bamboo are woven

351

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

by interlacing them with 5 rows of plastic

cords. For reinforcement, the screen is sup-

ported by broader splinters of bamboo 70 cm

long at intervals of about 50 cm. The extra

length of the splinters over the width of the

screen project inwards where it is attached

to the boat and provide room for fastening

with strings to pegs fixed on the floor of the

boat. Fixed at the cut portion of the open

wale, the screen slopes out so that its free

margin is constantly immersed in the water.

The screen is always maintained in sparkling

white condition by coatings of enamel paint.

The frilled pole: It comprises of one full

length piece of 4 to 6 m long bamboo pole

with tufts of dry Save grass (Pollinidium an-

guistifolium) drooping as frill along ?th of

its length. To make the outfit, a tuft of 4 to

6 dry blades of the grass is tied to the nar-

rower end of the pole, then while half the

length of the tuft is twisted into string, the

other half is left loose. The next tuft is tied

to the portion of the first tuft and likewise

initial half of it is twisted into string and the

remaining part droops as frill. Series of the

tufts of the grass are wrought in the fashion

to make a drooping frill along the desired

length of the pole and the last tuft is twisted

into string and fastened to the pole. The whole

frill remains hanging from the pole by the

tying of it at intervals of about 50 to 60 cm.

Operation: Khulnawa is operated by two

men, keeping the boat always parallel to the

bank of the river at a distance little more

than the frilled pole. The side of the boat

with open wale and the screen faces the bank.

The man sitting at the stern rows the boat and

manoeuvres the frilled pole while the other

one sitting at the bow helps in rowing and

attends to the catching operation. The manoeu-

352

vring of the frilled pole is so done as to

keep the free edge of the drooping grass just

overhanging the surface of the water. Surface

inhabiting minnows that happen to be school-

ing in between the boat and the bank are

scare-driven towards the boat by the looming

shadow of the frilled pole. In the dark, the

bright white screen jutting down to the water

from the cut wale, possibly, gives the fishes an

illusion of flowing stream and in their attempt

to negotiate it, they leap into the boat-hold.

Khulnawa’s catch efficacy is confined to

night time with better results in moonless nights

having calm weather. Possibly, such conditions

favour the illusionary effect. The best opera-

tion period in a year has been experienced as

February to April, obviously owing to favour-

able ecological condition of the water like

higher transparency and plankton growth lead-

ing to surface foraging by the fishes.

When Khulnawa is taken out for fishing,

it is operated intermittently althrough the night

covering a distance of 5 to 10 km from the

point of sail. The catch during a single night

varies from 15 to 50 kg with the high figures

restricted between middle of March to end

of April. The species featuring in order of

abundance are Oxygaster bacaila, Gadusia

chapra, Setipinna phasa, Aspidoparia morar

and smaller species of Puntius. Major or me-

dium carps or catfishes are rarely caught.

Khulnawa seems to be a fishing device worth

trying in lakes, reservoirs and other rivers with

favourable ecology.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are thankful to Dr. P. S. Prasad, Director

of Fisheries, Bihar and Shri T. K. Chakra-

varty, District Fisheries Officer, Patna for their

cooperation.

J. BomBAy NAT. Hist. Soc. 77 PLATE

Banerji ef al.: Khulnawa

(A) The components of Khu/nawa when not in opera tion. Note the screen platform kept in rolled condition

on the boat aground, the two frilled poles kept tucked on the same boat, and the dinghy in full view in

water. (B) The components of Khulnawa being set together for a fishing round. (C) A close-up view of

the screen platform fixed up in the boat for start of operation.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

FISHERIES RESEARCH INSTITUTE,

GOVERNMENT OF BIHAR,

MITHAPUR FARM,

PATNA 800001.

CENTRAL FISHERIES (ICAR),

MITHAPUR FISH Farm,

PaTNA 800 001,

February 14, 1979.

S. R. BANERJI

M. L. SINGH

S. K. THAKUR

NIRMAL K. THAKUR

REFERENCES

ANONYMOUS (1949): Preliminary guide to Indian

fish, fisheries, methods of fishing and curing. Mana-

ger of Publications, Delhi: 137 pp (Marketing

Series, 66).

Faruqul, A. J. AND SAHAI, R. (1943): Methods

of catching fish in the United Provinces and the

scope of establishing inland fisheries in these pro-

vinces. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. 13 (B): 198-214.

HorneELL, J. (1923): The fishing methods of the

Ganges. Mem. Asiat. Soc. Bengal 8(3): 199-237.

JHINGRAN, V. G. et al. (1970): Fisheries of the

Ganga river system (MS) crossed referred to from

‘Fish and Fisheries of India’ by V. G. Jhingran,

Hindustan Publishing Corporation, New Delhi

(1975).

SAXENA, R. K. (1966): The fishing nets and traps

in a section of the middle reaches of Ganga river

system of India. Pro. Indo-Pacif. Fish. Coun. 11

(2): 250-271.

24. A NOTE ON THE DRAGONFLIES (ODONATA: INSECTA)

In October, 1976 we saw a specimen of

Orthetrum sabina sabina (Drury) flying above

the water in a small weedy pond in Sibpur

Botanical Garden, Howrah district, West Ben-

gal (India). After flying for sometime, it sat

on the vegetation in the pond. Some Acisoma

panorpoides panorpoides were also circling

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

CaLcuTTa 700 012,

February 4, 1978.

over the water and then resting on the aquatic

vegetation. The Orthetrum sabina sabina sud-

denly caught by the thorax an Acisoma panor-

poides panoropoides with its legs and sat on

the small grass stalk and chewed it slowly till

it was fully consumed.

MAHABIR PRASAD

M. K. BISWAS

25. MICROTROMBIDIUM SP.—AN ACARINE ECTOPARASITE OF

MUSCA DOMESTICA NEBULO FABR.

Recently at Saharanpur (U.P.) the common

house fly, Musca domestica nebulo Fabr., was

observed infected by the larvae of Microtrom-

bidium (Trombididae, Acarina). This is the

first record of an ectoparasite on this house

fly.

During May to August, 1976 and 1977, a

good number of house flies were collected

353

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

from different localities and examined for in-

fection by larvae of Microtrombidium. During

1976, 12.70 to 14.10 per cent of (average being

13.4 per cent) were infected by the acarine.

Similar trend was noticed during 1977 also

and the infection ranged from 11.80 to 13.70

per cent, average being 13.00 per cent. The

ectoparasite was found attached in general, on

almost all parts of the host fly, namely wings,

head, mouth parts, thorax, abdomen and legs,

the maximum individuals occurring at wing

articulation and on the mouth parts. These

suck the body fluid of the host fly and severely

infected flies fail to feed and fly, become weak

and finally die.

The larva of Microtrombidium is about

0.43 mm long and 0.19 mm wide with the

colour of the body being red. Two blackish

dots are visible externally, one each on the

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY,

MAHARAJ SINGH COLLEGE (P.G.),

SAHARANPUR (U.P.),

April 26, 1978.

thorax and the abdomen. On the thorax, blunt

small spines are present. The body and appen-

dages are densely clothed by fine spines. Late-

rally, on the dorsal surface of the body, poly-

gonal areas are present.

Transmission of this ectoparasite takes place

during the process of mating. Often the larvae

are shed off in the debris from the host body

from where they stick on to the body of visit-

ing house flies.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful to the Director, Common

Wealth Institute of Entomology, British Mu-

seum (Natural History), London for identi-

fying the ectoparasite. The help of Prof. V. C.

Chatterjee in the preparation of this note is

gratefully acknowledged. We are also thankful

to Dr. G. D. Garg for his encouragement.

S. C. DHIMAN

R. C. DHIMAN

26. A SUPERNUMERARY LARVAL INSTAR AND ANTIMELANIN

EFFECT ON THE 6TH INSTAR LARVAE OF SPODOPTERA LITURA

(F.) (LEPIDOPTERA: NOCTUIDAE) BY ALTOZAR—A

JUVENILE HORMONE ANALOGUE

A number of analogues of the juvenile hor-

mone have been obtained and tested against

several species of insects to inhibit the adult

growth and reproduction. Altozar is one of

these analogues. In the present note observa-

tions carried out with Altozar against Spodop-

tera litura, a serious lepidopterous pest of

several crops for its juvenile effect are reported.

Newly moulted 6th instar larvae of S. litura

were obtained from a stock culture maintained

in breeding jars at 27+ 1°C and 70-80%

R.H. Separate strips of filter paper each mea-

354

suring 3.0 x 3.0 cm were soaked in 0.25 ml ace-

tone solution containing 0.25 mg, 0.50 mg and

1.00 mg Altozar (Ethyl 3, 7, 11-trimethyl-

(2E, 4E)—2, 4-dodecadieonate), a juvenile

hormone analogue (supplied by Zoecon Corp.,

Palo Alto, California, U.S.A.) and dried. On

each paper strip, treated with the respective con-

centration, a group of three larvae of S. litura,

newly moulted from the 5th instar were releas-

ed to remain in contact with the treated paper

for two days. A total of 78 larvae were treat-

ed with each concentration. Strips soaked in

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

acetone alone served as control. These larvae

were daily provided with fresh castor leaves

as their food.

All the larvae kept in contact with the treat-

ed strips with the respective concentration of

Altozar developed red pigmentation on the

cuticle instead of normal dark black pigmen-

tation within 24 hrs. Further, the larvae con-

tacting 0.50 mg and 1.00 mg concentrations

of Altozar had longer (5-6 days) duration of

this instar than that of the control which had

3-4 days duration of the 6th instar.

Out of the larvae in contact with 0.50 mg

concentration, 5.0 per cent unsuccessfully tried

to moult to a supernumerary larval instar.

Such larvae developed a new cuticle below the

larval cuticle of the 6th instar but the older

cuticle could not be cast off completely in-

spite of the repeated trial by the larvae and

they died after 3-4 days. In case of the Jarvae

kept in contact with 1.00 mg concentration,

6.25 per cent larvae died in their unsuccessful

attempt to moult to a supernumerary instar,

but 13.33 per cent of these larvae successfully

moulted to a supernumerary instar which also

had red pigmentation.

The larvae when they successfully entered

the supernumerary larval instar had an average

duration of two days and their average length

and width were 4.860 cm and 0.658 cm res-

pectively as compared to 4.12 and 0.50 cm of

the normal 6th instar larvae. The supernume-

rary larvae were also heavier (0.939 g) as

compared to the normal 6th instar Jarvae

(0.616 g average). In other morphological res-

pects supernumerary larvae were like those

of the 6th instar. However, all the supernu-

merary larvae died during the larval-pupal

moult.

Melanin pigments are generally incorporated

in the substance of the cuticle, they range in

colour from yellow to black. Tyrosine (Mon-

oxy-phenyl alanine) is oxidized in the presence

of the enzyme Tyrosinase (Cordier 1928). At

least three compounds are recognized in the

tyrosinase complex: monophenolase converting

tyrosine to ‘dopa’ or 3-4-dioxy- phenylalanine;

diphenolase, a copper protein compound con-

verting ‘dopa’ to red substance, hallachrome;

and enzyme III, apparently a dehydrase which

converts hallachrome to a colourless substance

and then to melanin (Danneel 1946). In S.

litura, it appears that Altozar inhibits enzyme

III so that hallachrome did not convert into

melanin and remained to give red coloration

of the cuticle. However, in Blatella germanica,

Altozar increased level of melanization in

supernumerary nymphs and adultoids (Riddi-

ford et al. 1975).

In S. litura, the duration of larval period

increases probably because of the presence of

exogeneously applied juvenile hormone ana-

logue in the last larval stage which delayed

the pupal moult. The implantation of active

corpora allata results in the production of a

supernumerary larva in Galleria mellonella

(Sehnal 1968). Application of Cecropia Juve-

nile hormone to final instar larvae also have

the same effect (Sehnal and Meyer 1968).

Thus the formation of a supernumerary larval

instar in S. litura totally conforms to the fact

that the exogeneous application of juvenile

hormone analogue to the last instar Jarva re-

sults in the production of a supernumerary

larva. However, no significant increase in the

number of larval stadia was observed in ano-

ther lepidopteran, Porthetria dispar when its

Jarvae were treated with Altozar (Granett

1974).

ACK NOWLEDGEMENTS

We wish to express our gratitude to Prof.

Shah Mashhood Alam, Head of the Department

of Zoology, A.M.U., Aligarh, for his encour-

355

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

agement and constructive criticism and to Zoe-

con Corporation, Palo Alto, California, for

the gift of Altozar. The first author also ex-

SECTION OF ENTOMOLOGY,

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY,

ALIGARH MusLIM UNIVERSITY,

ALIGARH, U.P.,

May 9, 1978.

presses his thanks to the C.S.I.R., New Delhi,

for the award of a Research Fellowship during

the progress of this work.

S. BADRUL ISLAM

MUMTAZ AHMED KHAN

REFERENCES

CorvigER, R. (1928): Melanin pigments. Ann.

Bull. Soc. Roy. Sci. Med. Nat. Bruxelles., 43-57.

DANNEEL, R. (1946): Melanin formation: Dro-

sophila. Biol. Zbl., 63: 377-94.

GRANETT, J. (1974): Juvenile hormone analogue

toxicity to laboratory reared gypsy moth larvae,

Porthetria dispar. Can. Entomol., 106: 695-99.

RIDDIFORD, L. M., AJAMI, A. M. AND BOoaKE, C.

(1975): Effectiveness of insect growth regulators

in the control of populations of the german Cock-

roach. J. Econ. Entomol., 68: 45-48.

SEHNAL, F. (1968): Influence of the corpus alla-

tum on the development of internal organs in Gal-

Ieria mellonella. J. Insect Physiol., 14: 73-85.

SEHNAL, F. AND Meyer, A. S. (1968): Larval-

pupal transformation: Control by Juvenile hormone.

Science, 159: 981-983.

27. PTERIS DACTYLINA HOOK. FROM SILENT VALLEY—A

NEW RECORD FOR PENINSULAR INDIA

Beddome (1883, 1892) described twenty

six taxa belonging to the genus Pteris Linn.

(including Campteria Presl, p.p.), out of which

fifteen are reported by him to be present in

Peninsular India. Nair and S. R. Ghosh (1976)

described a new species Pteris furunculata

Nair et S. R. Ghosh from the Western Ghats.

Further studies on the ferns of Kerala (Nair

and S. R. Ghosh 1977 a, b) enabled them to

discover P. confusa Walker, P. gongalensis

Walker, P. multiaurita Agardh, P. praetermissa

Walker and P. roseo-lilacina Hieron. from that

area. P. tremula R. Br. was reported from

Shevroy Hills, Salem Dt., Tamil Nadu, by

Nair and S. R. Ghosh (1977 c). P. hetero-

morpha Fée and P. memoralis Willd. were dis-

covered from Orissa by Nair and R. K. Ghosh

(1975, 1978). Bole and D’Almeida (1977) des-

cribed a new species P. almeidiana Bole et

356

D’Almeida from Maharashtra. These new dis-

coveries emphasize the need for more intensive

and extensive explorations and _ herbarium

studies with regard to the genus Pferis Linn.

in Peninsular India particularly in view of the

fast disappearing forests from the region and

the consequent ecological imbalance setting in.

It must also be stressed that several species

of Pteris Linn. are very sensitive to environ-

mental changes.

The present record of P. dactylina Hook.

from the dam site in Silent Valley, Kerala is

another addition to the fern flora of Peninsu-

lar India and it is certainly one among the

threatened taxa of ferns from the area in view

of the proposed Silent Valley Project. Earlier,

this small and delicate plant was known only

from Sikkim to Khasia. The present discovery,

therefore, is also of phytogeographical signi-

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

ficance. Since a detailed description of this

species is not available in the literature, it is

provided in the present report.

Pteris dactylina Hook. sp. Fil. 2; 160. f. 13A.

1858; Bedd. Ferns Brit. India 23. f. 23.

1866; Handb. Ferns Brit. India 107. fig. 56.

1883.

Terrestrial small herbs; rhizome short, erect

or obliquely ascending, scaly at growing tips;

stipes variable, 5-25 cm long, stramineous,

glabrous; lamina digitate with 3-7 pinnae; pin-

BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

COIMBATORE 641 002,

July 26, 1979.

nae 5-15 cm long, linear, margin sharply ser-

rate towards the sterile apex; veins simple or

forked; indusium broad, subintramarginal,

membranaceous; sori submarginal, _ linear;

spores brown with light brown perispore.

Specimens examined: Kerala, Palghat Dis-

trict, Panthanthode to Silent Valley Dam site,

900 m, N. C. Nair 56637, Acc. No. 103435,

7-4-1978 (MH); Eastern India, Assam, Local

Hill, Cherapunji, + 1200 m, Gustavmann 65,

Acc. No. 87906, Sept. 1889 (MH).

N. C. NAIR

P. BHARGAVAN

REFERENCES

BEDDOME, R. H. (1865): Ferns of British India

being the figures and description of ferns of all

parts of British India. Gantz Brothers, Madras.

(1883): Handbook to the Ferns

of British India, Ceylon and the Malay Peninsula.

Thacker Spink and Co., Calcutta.

(1892): Handbook to the ferns of

British India, Ceylon and the Malay Peninsula with

a supplement, Calcutta (repr. ed. 1969, New Delhi).

Bote, P. V. AND D’ALMEIDA, M. R. (1977): Four

new species of Pteridophytes from Bombay Presi-

dency. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 74: 320-325.

Nair, N. C. AND GHOoSH, R. K. (1975): Notes on

some additional distribution of ferns to the botany

of Orissa. J. Indian bot. Soc. 54: 45-49.

(1978): Pteris heteromorpha Fee—

A new record for India. Indian Forester 104: 374-

376.

Narr, N. C. AND GHosH, S. R. (1976): A new

species of Pteris from Western Ghats. J. Indian

bot. Soc. 55: 38-40.

(1977a): Pteris quadriaurita Retz.

and a few related taxa in Kerala. J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 73: 438-443.

(1977b): Pteris roseo-lilacina Hie-

ron.—A new record for Peninsular India. ibid. 73:

424-425.

Pteris tremula R. Br.—A

240-241.

—(1977c):

new record for India. ibid. 73:

28. THE GENUS MACROPTILIUM (BENTH.) URB.—A NEW

RECORD FOR INDIA

(With eight text-figures)

Macroptilium atropurpureum (DC.) Urb.

Symb. Antill 9: 452. 1928. Verdc. in Kew

Bull. 24: 517, 1970 (in foot notes). Phaseo-

lus atropurpureus DC. Prodr. 2: 395, 1825.

Slender creeping herbs; stem terete, obscu-

rely striate, grey tomentose. Leaves alternate,

trifoliate; petioles 1-5.2 cm long, tomentose;

stipules 2-5 mm long, reflexed, narrowly del-

toid, acute, tomentose, more so without. Leaf-

lets ovate, terminal ones sometimes rhomboidal,

1.3-3.5 x 0.7-2.9 cm, lateral leaflets as long as

terminal ones and broader, acute, apiculate,

357

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

Figs. 1-8. Macroptelium atropurpureum (DC.) Urb.: 1. Part of plant. 2. Young in-

florescence 3. Calyx split open. 4. Corolla parts. 5. Androecium. 6. Gynoecium. 7, Pods

(dehisced). 8. Seed.

358

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

obscurely lobed, round or truncate at base,

nerves prominent beneath, grey tomentose

above and more so beneath; petiolules 2-5 mm

long, tomentose; stipels minute, subulate, to-

mentose. Flowers in axillary racemes; pedun-

cles 10.5-20.5 cm long, tomentose; bracts and

bracteoles minute, tomentose, caducous, Calyx

green tomentose, tube nearly as long as lobes;

upper 3 lobes shorter than lower 2, narrowly

deltoid, acuminate. Corolla purple, upto 1.5

cm long; wing petals deeply coloured, longer

than vexillum and keel; vexillum reflexed, keel

incurved. Stamens 9+ 1, vexillary stamen free;

style incurved at right angle, bearded on the

adaxial side below the capitate stigma. Fruits

nearly terete, beaked, upto 7 cm long, grey

tomentose, valves twisting after dehiscence.

Seeds dark brown, upto 3 mm long, more than

1 mm broad.

This is a tropical American species now

widely cultivated in parts of Africa (Kenya,

Malawi, Zambia, South Africa and Zimbabwe);

New South Wales and Queensland in Australia

and Hong Kong in Asia. It was found growing

SOUTHERN CIRCLE,

BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

COIMBATORE 641 002,

July 25, 1979.

in the fodder grass plot of Tamil Nadu Agri-

cultural University, Coimbatore and probably

came as an impurity with some other seeds.

An allied species, M. bracteatum (Nees &

Mart.) Verdc. is also found near Waltair in

Andhra Pradesh. (Information kindly furnish-

ed by Dr. G. Panigrahi from Kew Herbarium.)

The typical characters of the genus Macro-

ptilium (Benth.) Urb. are squarish hooked

style; wings rounded and longer than vexillum

and keel; stipules not produced below the base.

Specimens examined: Farm of Tamil Nadu

Agricultural University, Coimbatore, 487 m,

20-8-1974, Marudan 39285, in flowers and

fruits.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful to Dr. G. Panigrahi, Re-

gional Botanist at Kew, for confirming the

specimens and supplying the distribution data.

We thank Dr. N. C. Nair, Deputy Director,

Southern Circle, Botanical Survey of India

for his help and encouragement.

S. V. SUBBA RAO

R. GOPALAN

29. ADDITIONS TO THE FLORA OF RAJASTHAN

During the course of identification of plants

collected from Bhilwara and Jodhpur districts

of Rajasthan, I came across the following spe-

cies which were not recorded earlier from

Rajasthan. All the specimens cited in the

paper are deposited in the herbarium of Arid

Zone Circle, Botanical Survey of India, Jodh-

pur (BSJO).

Alysicarpus heterophyllus (Baker) Jafri & Ali,

in Biologia 12: 33. 1966; Ali, in Fl. W. Pak.

100. 343. 1977; A. vaginalis var. heterophyl-

lus Baker, in Hook. f., Fl. Br. Ind. 2: 158.

1879.

An erect or diffuse annual herb upto 45 cm,-

in moist sandy soil amidst grasses. Stem slight-

ly angular, puberulous. Leaves stipulate, 1-3,

foliolate intermixed. Leaflets 0.5-4.5 x 02-1 cm,

lanceolate, oblong-lanceolate, acute. Flowers

359

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

yellowish-pink to bluish pink in distant pairs

along a filiform, leaf opposed rachis. Calyx

teeth equalling the first joint of pod. Pods 4-6

jointed, compressed, sub-moniliform, reticula-

tely veined. Scarce.

JODHPUR: along Jaisalmer road near Tole-

sar, A. N. Singh 4350.

Flowers & fruits: August.

Eleocharis congesta D. Don, Prod. Fl. Nep.

41. 1825; Clarke, in Hook. f., Fl. Br. Ind.

6: 630. 1894.

Erect tufted herb, nearly 10 cm tall, in mar-

shy places. Stem striate. Sheath appressed, pur-

plish at base. Spikelets ovoid, solitary, terminal.

Glumes membranous, ovate, lanceolate, 1-ner-

ved. Bristles brown, scabrid. Nuts trigonous.

Common.

JODHPUR: Banganga river bed, near Bilara,

A. N. Singh 3523.

Flowers & fruits: February.

Samolus valerandi Linn., Sp. Pl. 171. 1753;

Hook. f., Fl. Br. Ind. 3: 506. 1882; Duthie,

CENTRAL NATIONAL HERBARIUM,

BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

HowraHu-711 103,

July 3, 1979.

Fl. Up. Gang. Pl. 2: 7. 1911.

A glabrous annual herb in moist shady

places, in rocky soil. Stem erect (rarely hori-

zontal), upto 50 cm tall. Leaves rosulate, spa-

thulate, apiculate at base, alternate spathulate

to obovate-elliptic above. Flowers white, in

axillary and terminal racemes, pedicelled. Pedi-

cels geniculate at the insertion of a small bract

at or above the middle. Calyx tube hemi-

spheric, half adnate to ovary, 5-toothed. Corol-

la lobes imbricate. Stamens 5, alternating with

scaly staminodes. Ovary globose, half inferior.

Scarce.

BILWARA: Mandalgarh forests along Bijolia

Road, A. N. Singh 7164.

Flowers & fruits: February.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am indebted to the Director, Botanical

Survey of India, Howrah and the Deputy

Director, Arid Zone Circle, Botanical Survey

of India, Jodhpur for encouragement.

A. N. SINGH

30. NOTE ON THE OCCURRENCE OF AGROSTIS NERVOSA NEES

EX TRIN. IN WESTERN HIMALAYA

During a collection tour of Rudranath bug-

yal (an alpine-medow) of District Chamoli

(North Garhwal) U.P. an interesting grass

was obtained. It was identified as Agrostis

nervosa Nees ex Trin. syn. A. Clarkii Hook. f.

Hook, f.; in Fl. Br. Ind. 7: 257 (1896)

‘Mentioned the occurrence of this grass from

North Western Himalaya without precise loca-

lity.

Bor, N. L. in Kew Bull. (1954) 459-60,

states, ““This grass is exceedingly common in

360

Sikkim but strangely enough the Type comes

from Western Himalaya and is the only gather-

ing from the areas’’.

Bor (1960) in Grassess Burma, Ceylon,

India and Pakistan: 388 does not indicate its

occurrence in Western Himalaya.

This note now presents the precise locality

of this grass in Western Himalaya, i.e. Rudra-

nath bugyal, alt. 4000 m. District Chamoli

(North Garhwal), U.P., where it is gregarious

in open grassy hill slopes of alpine pastures.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

This grass is relished by sheep and goats.

Specimen examined: Joshi, D. N., 87

DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY,

Govt. (PosT GRADUATE) COLLEGE,

GoPESHWaAR, CHAMOLI 246 401,

June 4, 1979..

1 Present Address:

Colleges,

(U.P.).

P.O. New Forest,

(30-8-1976) Rudranath, 4000 m., District

Chamoli (North Garhwal), U.P.

B. C. L. SAH

D. N. JOSHI

Forest Research Institute &

Dehra Dun-248 006:

31. ON THE OCCURRENCE OF CLEOME FELINA L. f.

(CLEOMACEAE) IN MAHARASHTRA

(With six text-figures)

Hooker f. & Thoms. (1872) and Gamble

(1916) have recorded the occurrence of

Cleome felina L. f. from Deccan and

Carnatic areas in South India. This species

has not been recorded earlier by Cooke (1901-

08) or Haines (1916) from areas that fall

under Maharashtra State. A critical study of

this species collected from Chandrapur district

reveals that Cleome felina L. f. is often con-

fused with Cleome chelidonii L. f. especially

in the vegetative condition, though both are

easily distinguishable in flowering or fruiting

stage. The former is characterised by slender

woody root system, densely clothed with bri-

stly hairs all over, small pink flowers and short

compressed striate capsules while the latter

has got robust fleshy root system, is less hairy,

has comparatively large rosy flowers and long

slender terete, often constricted, capsules.

The earlier collections (R. K. Bhide s.n.,

Rolla S. Rao’ 85280; K. V.. Billore 116179)

housed in the herbarium of Western Circle

(BSI) identified as Cleome felina L. f. are in

vegetative condition and on scrutiny they are

referable to Cleome chelidonii L. f. only. The

plant collected from Manikgarh hills, Lakkad-

kote area, Chandrapur district (Malhotra

140127) is Cleome felina L. f. and is a new

record for Maharashtra State extending its dis-

tribution further north.

In view of its rarity and absence of any

known published illustrations for the plant, a

line drawing is provided along with a brief

description.

Cleome felina L. f. Suppl. 300. 1781; Hk.

f. & Thoms. in Fl. Brit. India 1: 170. 1872;

Gamble FI. Pres. Madras 1: 41 (29): 1915.

An appressedly hairy herb. Leaves usually

trifoliate, obovate. Flowers small 0.5 cm, co-

rolla pink, bristly, hairy on the back. Stamens

usually 50. Capsules 2-3 cm equal or slightly

longer than the pedicel, compressed striate.

Seeds reniform, yellowish brown, spiny. tuber-

cled.

361

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

yr eS

. om.

Figs. 1-6. Cleome felina Linn. f. 1. A twig; 2. Sepal (ventral view); 3. Petal (ventral

view); 4. Stamen; 5. Gynoecium; 6. Seed.

362

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We are thankful to the Director, Botanical

Survey ot India, Calcutta for providing the

BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

Pune 411001,

September 29, 1979.

facilities.

S. K. MALHOTRA

SIRASALA MOORTHY

32. ARTHRAXON MEEBOLDII STAPF—A GRASS NEW TO

KASHMIR

(With a text-figure)

Arthraxon Beauv. (Poaceae) is a genus of

20 species (Airy Shaw 1966) native to old

world tropics. Some species are introduced ox

adventive in the temperate regions of the

world. From the Kashmir Himalayas several

species of Arthraxon Beauv. have been report-

ed (Bor 1960, Stewart 1972). During studies

on the alpine fodder grasses of Kashmir we

collected several specimens of Arthraxon

Beauv. which on critical scrutiny turned out

to be Arthraxon meeboldii Stapf. The litera-

ture revealed that this taxon has not been re-

ported so far from this area.

The present paper records for the first time

the occurrence of this grass from the Kashmir

valley. The note is supplemented by short des-

cription and illustration. The voucher speci-

mens have been deposited in the Herbarium,

Kashmir University.

DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY,

UNIVERSITY OF KASHMIR,

SRINAGAR- 190 006,

KASHMIR (INDIA),

November 22, 1979.

Arthraxon meeboldii Stapf in Kew Buil.

449 (1908)

Annual. Culms ascending to prostrate; leaf

margins ciliated with penicillate bulbous base

hairs; Racemes 2-3 paniculate, densely pube-

scent with silky silvery hairs; spikelets binate;

lower glume of sessile spikelet with a doubic

row of muricate teeth; upper glume setosely

acuminate, keeled upwards, complicate; lemma

with a dorsal basal awn; palea small; anthers

3; styles 2, free; Lower glume of pedicelled

spikelet rigidly keeled.

Flowering and Fruiting: August to Novem-

ber.

Specimens collected: Dachigam; in the

shade of forest trees, HT: 902: Phalgam;

moist places; HT: 746: Harwan; on the bund

of water reservoir; HT: 840; Telbal; on the

bank of Telbal nallah; HT: 650.

H. THAKUR

G: N. JAVEID

REFERENCES

Bor, N .L. (1960): The Grasses of Burma, Cey-

lon, India and Pakistan. Pergamon Press, Oxford.

AirY SHAW, H. K. (1966): A Dictionary of the

Flowering Plants and Ferns. Cambridge.

STEWART, R .R. (1972): Cat. Vas. PI.

Pakistan and Kashmir. Karachi.

of West

363

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

Fig. 1. Arthraxon meeboldii Stapf

H. Habit of plant; S. Sessile spikelet; PS. Pedicelled spikelet; B. Ligule; G,. Lower

glume of sessile spikelet; G,. Upper glume of sessile spikelet; L,. Lemma of sessile

spikelet; P,. Palea of sessile spikelet; F. Flower of sessile spikelet; G,. Lower glume

of pedicelled spikelet; G,. Upper glume of pedicelled spikelet; L,. Lemma of pedicelled

spikelet; P,. Palea of pedicelled spikelet; A. Anther of pedicelled spikelet.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

33. NOTES ON VACCINIUM LESCHENAULTII—COMPLEX

(VACCINIACEAE) IN SOUTH INDIA

(With two text-figures)

Wight (1848) described Vaccinium lesche-

naultii based on his collections from the Nil-

giris. He remarked, ‘‘...leaves shortly petiol-

ed, ovate-elliptic, serrated, acute...’’ Further,

Wight (1850) described another species viz.

V. rotundifolium from (Kelso cottage) Ceylon,

mainly based on the shape of the leaf, “*...

leaves orbicular, coriaceous, entire or slightly

crenulato-serrate....”. Later C. B. Clarke

(1882) treated this taxon as a variety of V.

leschenaultii. Subsequently, Gamble (1921)

reported this variety from the Nilgiris in his

Fl. Pres. Madras. The figure given by Wight

(Til. t. 139. 1850) shows only orbicular leaves

all over the branch. While undertaking critical

studies on the specimens of Vaccinium lesche-

naultii Wight represented at Madras Herbar-

ium, we came across some interesting speci-

mens [M. A. Lawson s.n. (Acc. No. 29181);

Vajravelu 34923, 43511; Subbarao 40440,

41527] bearing both orbicular and ovate-elli-

ptic leaves on the same branch. Hence we

doubt whether this variety rotundifolia can be

kept as a distinct taxon.

It is also observed that some of the speci-

mens (Collector? 13450) collected from Nete-

rikal, Tirunelveli Dt. show persistent, leafy

bracts as compared to other specimens of V.

leschenaultii Wight. C. B. Clarke (1882) des-

cribed var. zeylanica based on the presence of

persistent, Jeafy bracts and he recorded this

variety only from Ceylon. Hence the present

report of its occurrence in Tirunelveli Dt. is

of phytogeographical interest and forms a new

distributional record for India. We keep this

variety as distinct at present, as such a type

of persistent, leafy bracts are not at all seen

in any of the specimens of V. leschenaultii

Wight collected from all other areas in South

India. However, more field studies coupled with

suitable evidences from experimental taxono-

Fig.

1-2.

lanica C. B. Clarke: 1. Infructescence showing per-

sistent bracts; 2. Bract.

Vaccinium leschenaultii Wight var. zey-

365

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

my can only fix the exact status of this taxon.

KEY TO THE VARIETIES OF Vaccinium leschenaultii

WIGHT OCCURRING IN SOUTH INDIA

Bracts up to 1.5 mm broad, lanceolate, not leafy,

deciduous var. leschenaultii

Bracts up to 8 mm broad, ovate-elliptic, leafy, per-

SIStENthe Pete ween cess ccne eT var. zeylanica

V. leschenaultii Wight var. leschenaultii

Wight Ic. 4(1): 5, t. 1188, 1848; Bedd. FI.

Sylv. 3: t. 227. 1872; C. B. Clarke in Hook.

f. Fl. Brit. India 3: 455. 1882; Gamble, FI.

Pres. Madras 742. 1921 & 2: 582. 1957

(rep. ed.). V. leschenaultii Wight var. rotun-

difolia sensu Gamble, Fl. Pres. Madras 742.

19D 6c 22: 522 Vos 7a(rep, eds):

Distribution: INDIA. TAMIL NADU: Anamal-

lais, Palnis, Nilgiris, KERALA: Idukki Dt.

V. leschenaultii Wight var. zeylanica C. B.

Clarke in Hook. f. Fl. Brit. India 3: 455.

1882; Trimen in Handb. Fl. Ceylon 3; 61.

SOUTHERN ‘CIRCLE,

BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

COIMBATORE-641 002,

February 14, 1979.

1895.

Shrubs or small trees, glabrous excepting

the tender branches. Leaves 1.5-5.0 x 0.7-2.4

cm, ovate-elliptic, acute or acuminate, serrate,

coriaceous, glabrous, shortly petiolate. Bracts

0.7-2.2 x 0.3-0.8 cm, leafy, ovate-elliptic, acute,

persistent. Berries -_ 8 mm across, globose,

glabrous. (Figs. 1 & 2).

Specimen examined: INDIA: TAMIL NADU:

Tirunelveli Dt.: Neterikal, 22 September 1916,

Collector? 13450.

ACK NOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful to Dr. N. C. Nair, Deputy

Director, Southern Circle, Coimbatore for faci-

lities and encouragement. Our thanks are due

to Dr. A. N. Henry, Systematic Botanist and

Sri M. Chandrabose, Botanist for helpful sug-

gestions.

V. CHITHRA

R. RAJAN

34. CRYPTOLEPIS GRANDIFLORA WIGHT—A NEW RECORD

FOR ANDAMANS

Cryptolepis grandiflora Wight, a specimen

collected from South Andaman by S. Kurz;

was identified up to the genus. During reorga-

nisation work we noticed the interesting speci-

men and after critical examination identified it

as Crytolepis grandiflora Wight; A review of

literature and herbarium specimens available

shows that the species is reported from Tamil-

nadu, Kerala and Karnatak. It is now reported

from Andamans.

A short descriptive note is given below:—-

Cryptolepis grandiflora Wight; Wight Ic, t.

831; F.BI. 4: 5, 1883.

Twining glabrous shrubs, flowers in very lax

366

slender, few flower axillary or terminal pedun-

cle, calyx with 5 scales within, corolla lobes

overlapping, filaments free, anthers acuminate,

leaves obovate oblong, obtuse or mucronate

at apex, glaucous beneath, 6-8 pairs of nerves

arched near the margin.

Specimen examined: Mornur, South India,

2100 ft, 29-10-1906; C.E.C. Fischer 517

(CAL); Papanasam to Mundandurai, Kerala,

18th Feb. 1913, D. Hooper and M. S. Rama-

swami 39291 (CAL); Karnatak, G. Thomson

sn. (CAL); South Andaman; S. Kurz s.n.

(CAL.).

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We wish to thank the Deputy Director, Cen-

tral National Herbarium for all facilities and

BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

Howrau, W. BENGAL,

September 21, 1978.

Dr. K. Thothathri and Dr. N. C. Majumdar

for valuable advice.

AMIT SINHA

GIRIJA SANKAR GIRI

35. OCCURRENCE OF PITHOPHORA KEWENSIS WITTROCK

IN BANGLADESH

(With a text-figure)

The interesting genus Pithophora has so far

not been recorded from any part of Bangla-

desh and is reported here for the first time

with the specis Pithophora kewensis Wittrock.

It is generally found to grow in freshwater

habitat both in Tropical and Sub-tropical re-

gions. Some authors namely Hoek (1959) con-

sider P. kewensis Wittrock as a synonym of

the American species P. oedogonia Wittrock.

The algae was was collected by us from

the Karnafuli River, Chittagong (Bangladesh),

on 12th September, 1975 attached to a log by

means of its branched unicellular rhizoids. The

plants are about 4 cm tall and the filaments

are freely branched. The branches may be

solitary, alternate or on one side and some-

times opposite in the case of lowest branches.

Fig. 1.

Branches originate from a short distance be-

low the top of the cells. These morphological

characters agree well with that of the descrip-

tions given by Patel (1971). The diameter of

the main filaments varies from 55-75p which

agrees with the measurements given by Wit-

trock (1877). The length of the vegetative

cells are much variable and in general, they

are 8-15 times the diameter. The branches of

the first degree are of approximately the same

diameter as the main filament.

Thick walled, terminal and intercalary aki-

netes are found in the materials. They are

fewer in number. Intercalary akinetes are 70-

80 » in diameter and 110-224 » in length which

agrees well with the dimensions given by earlier

Pithophora kewensis Wittrock, portions of the filament with terminal and

intercalary akinetes.

367

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

workers (Wittrock 1877, Heering 1921, Patel

1971). Terminal akinetes vary. from 55-84 » in

diameter and 140-259 » in length and agree

with Patel (1971) but differ from Wittrock

DEPARTMENT OF MaArINE BioLocy,

UNIVERSITY OF CHITTAGONG,

CHITTAGONG, BANGLADESH,

April 4, 1979.

(1877) where they were rather greater.

Thanks are due to Prof. Dr. A. K. M. Nurul

Islam for his valuable comments on the iden-

tification of the species.

A. M. ABDUS SALAM

YUSUF SHARIF A. KHAN

REFERENCES

*HEERING, W. (1921): Die Susswasser Flora, 7,

Chlorophyceae. 4: 3-61.

Hoek, C. V. (1959): Caribbean Fresh and Brac-

kish water Chlorophyta. Blumea. 9(2): 590-625.

PATEL, R. J. (1971): Cytotaxonomical studies on

Pithophora kewensis Wittrock. Phykos. 10(1 &2):

36. DISTRIBUTIONAL NOTES ON CERTAIN

18-23.

Wittrock, B. (1877): On the development and

systematic arrangement of the Pithophoraceae. Nova

Acta Regiae Soc. Sci., Upsal. 3, series 1, Volumen

extra: 1-80.

* Not seen in original.

RECENTLY

DESCRIBED TAXA

Borreria eradii Ravi, Heliotropium kera-

lense Sivarajan & Manilal, and Phyllanthus

kozhikodianus Sivarajan & Manilal, are but a

few of the taxa discovered and described re-

cently from S. India. A perusal of the mate-

rial of the concerned genera at the Central

National Herbarium, Howrah, and those at

the herbarium of Botanical Survey of India,

Shillong, revealed interesting information re-

garding their extended distribution in India

and the data are presented here.

Borreria eradii Ravi (J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 66: 539-541. 1970) has been invariably

(except in the case of a single sheet, Viveka-

nandan 46570, in CAL) identified as Borre-

ria articularis (Spermacoce hispida). Though

closely resembling, these two species can well

be distinguished by the prominently winged

stems, conspicuously veined leaves, short cam-

panulate flowers and the glandular papillae on

the calyx in the former.

368

This particular species is a common weed

in the sandy loam or laterite soils, mostly on

the hill slopes in Kerala, and can at once be

recognised by its yellowish green colour. Inte-

restingly enough, this species is represented in

these herbaria from various eastern States, like

Assam, Meghalaya, Mizoram and W. Bengal

and even from the neighbouring countries like

Bhutan and Nepal. On Gauhati-Shillong road-

side, it is a quite common weed.

Specimens examined:

Assam: Panigrahi 1878, 18722 & 9246. Siva-

rajan 28637.

Meghalaya: Patnaik 10963 (Khasi & Jaintia

Hills).

Mizoram: Dutta 34103. W. Bengal: Thotha-

thri 9436 (Kalimpong), Mukherjee 6211 ‘Suk-

na’). Sikkim: Majumdar 169 (Gangtok) Sen-

gupta 296 (Rungpo). Kerala: Vivekanandan

46570, Sivarajan 464. Bhutan: Thothathri

10323, Subba Rao 136, Coll: 353, Sengupta

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

863,

1298.

Heliotropium keralense Sivarajan & Manilal

Heliotropium indicum as recognised in the

past, has been a complex with at least two

different taxa, more or less similar in vegeta-

tive condition. The one having pink flowers

with the corolia tube much longer than the

calyx and covered with short pubescent hairs

on the outside is H. indicum. Sivarajan and

Manilal (Jour. Indian Bot. Soc. 51: 348-350.

1972) separated the white flowered taxon with

corolla tube almost as long as the calyx and

covered with long villous hairs into a new

species namely H. keralense. However, there

seems to be no good character to distinguish

these species in their vegetative phase.

This species is originally described from

Kerala, where it is a very common weed in

the wet lowlands, often growing in association

with H. indicum Linn. But it is now found to

have a much wider distribution.

Specimens examined:

Assam: A. S. Rao 39038 (Kamrup), Verma

46257 (Lakhimpur), Nath 13433 (Tangla),

R. S. Rao 9827 (Kaziranga), Panigrahi 9336

(Gauhati).

Andamans: Thothathri 9189. Karnataka: Bar-

ber 6807.

Kerala: Calder 1573, Sivarajan

997.

Tamil Nadu: Wight 2065, Subramaniam 8139,

3459 (Madurai), Sebastine 801 (Coimbatore).

Orissa: G. V. Subba Rao 30198.

Phyllanthus kozhikodianus Sivarajan &

Manilal, (J. Indian bot. Soc. 56: 165-168.

1977), is however, the most confused of these.

Mukherjee 6181. Nepal: Hara et al.

191 (type),

DEPT. oF BOTANY,

UNIVERSITY OF CALICUT,

CALICUT, KERALA.

BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

SHILLONG,

February 14, 1979.

This species, originally reported from Kerala,

is closely related to P. rheedii Wt., from which

it can be distinguished by its rather unbranch-

ed habit, different disc glands and sepals; and

to P. rotundifolius Klein., from which it could

be made out by its leaves, pedicelled male

flowers, staminal filaments which are free

above, and larger capsules. The identity of

the specimens of this species at ‘CAL’ is con-

fused with other species and kept accordingly.

Puri 4306, from Maharashtra, is labelled as

P. niruri Linn., but can be distinguished by its

equilateral leafbases and the presence of six

sepals which are l-veined, in both male and

female flowers. Wadhwa 5462, identified to be

P. fraternus Webster, has two different taxa

mixed up, of which one is definitely P. kozhi-

kodianus, since this possesses spreading, deep-

ly bifid styles unlike P. fraternus. Interestingly

enough, one of us (V.V.S.) could collect it

from the grassy slopes alongside Gauhati-

Shillong Road.

Specimens examined:

Andhra Pradesh: Subramanian 6950 (Chit-

toor), Balakrishan 10804 (Visakhapatanam),

Assam: Sivarajan 28701 (Gauhati). Kerala:

Sivarajan 1762 (type).

Maharashtra: Puri 4306 (Khandesh), Patas-

kar 101445.

Rajasthan: Wadhwa 5469 (Jhalawar), Wadh-

wa 5462, in part.

Tamil Nadu: Sebastin 12616 (Madurai).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Thanks are due to the authorities of Bota-

nical Survey of India, Howrah, for the facili-

ties.

V. V. SIVARAJAN

J; JOSEPH

369

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HiST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

37. POWDERY MILDEW OF WALKING FERN

(CAMPTOSORUS

RHIZOPHY LLUS)—A NEW RECORD

Walking ferns are very common in water-

fall areas and moist shady areas of Seetham-

madhara area of Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pra-

desh. Powdery mildew fungal occurrence on

Filicineae is very rare. During our periodic

surveys of powdery mildews on flora of Visa-

khapatnam, we encountered in December 1973

some walking fern plants infected by a

powdery mildew. A brief description of the

pathogen and the symptoms it causes on the

susceptible host fern are described below.

In the early stages of infection, small circular

white powdery spots of the fungus appeared

on the upper surface of the leaves. With ad-

vancement of age, the mildew turned dusty

grey. New plants bred from the leaf-tips of

walking fern were also infected. The infected

leaves turned yellow due to the fungal infec-

tion.

DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES,

ANDHRA UNIVERSITY, WALTAIR, A.P.

DEPARTMENT OF PHARMACEUTICAL SCIENCES,

ANDHRA UNIVERSITY, WALTAIR, A.P.,

April 11, 1979.

Morphology of the fungus: Mycelium super-

ficial, hyaline, septate, 3.0-4.5 ym wide, at-

tached to the leaves by means of appressoria.

Sometimes bulbous haustoria were produced

into the host’s epidermal cells. Conidiophores

were erect, simple, septate, measuring 58-

102 x 10-18 »m and arising vertically and bears

chains of conidia. Conidia mature epigenously

and are elliptical to cylindrical, 25-36 x 10-15

um in size. No cleistothecial formation was

observed.

According to Yarwood’s key (1973) based

on conidial characters, the powdery mildew was

identified as Erysiphe cichoracearum DC.

There was no previous record of powdery mil-

dew infection on walking ferns and this is a

new record for India. and Camptosorus rhizo-

phyllus is an addition to the host range of

E. cichoracearum DC.

J. RAGHAVA REDDY

A. PURNACHANDRA REDDI

REFERENCE

Yarwoop, C. E. (1973): Pyrenomycetes: Erysi-

phales in The Fungi-An Advanced Treatise

vol.

IV A (Edited by Ainsworth, G. C., Sparrow, F. K.

and Sussman, A. S.). Academic press; New York.

pp. 71-86.

370

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VOLUME 77 (3) : DECEMBER 1980

Date of Publication : 27-4-1981

CONTENTS

PAGE

THE SPARROW-HAWKS (Accipiter) OF THE ANDAMAN ISLANDS. By .G. F. Mees.

(With a plate & three text-figures) £ 371

STUDIES ON THE CHARACTERISTICS OF HAIR IN SOME INDIAN BATS: (MAMMALIA:

CHIROPTERA). By J. H. Sabnis. (With nineteen text-figures) ae 413

SEDGES OF PUNJAB—ECOLOGY, DISTRIBUTION AND ENUMERATION. By M. Sharma .. 424

A POPULATION STUDY OF TWO SPECIES OF NON-HUMAN PRIMATES: Macaca mulatta

AND Macaca radiata. By Raghubir Singh Pirta, P. Prakash & Mewa Singh.

(With two text-figures) e, 429

THE RELATIVE CONDITION FACTOR AND LENGTH-WEIGHT RELATIONSHIP OF A FRESHWATER

Carp, Labeo gonius (HAM.) (CYPRINIDAE, TELEOSTEI). By Anil Chatterji. (With

five text-figures) ah 435

SOME ASPECTS OF THE LIFE HISTORY OF BLACKBUCK JN NEPAL. By John F. Lehmkuhl 444

MATERIALS FOR THE FLORA OF MAHABALESHWAR. By P. V. Bole and M. R. Almeida 450

FURTHER OBSERVATIONS ON THE FIELD ECOLOGY OF RAJASTHAN Bats. By Y. P. Sinha 465

FLORAL BIioLoGy OF Mimusops eclengi LINN. By C. Subba Reddi and A. Janaki Bai.

(With three text-figures) ne 471

SOME OBSERVATIONS ON TIGER BEHAVIOUR IN THE CONTEXT OF BAITING. By Charles

McDougal. (With a text-figure) a 476

New DEScRIPTIONS:

Description of a new species Drosophila gangotrii (Diptera: Drosophilidae) from

South India. By N. Muniyappa and G. Sreerama Reddy. (With seven text-

figures) - 486

A new species of high altitude spider of the Genus Erigone Audouin (Family:

Erigonidae) from India. By B. K. Tikader. (With six text-figures) e 490

A new Memecylon L. (Melastomataceae) from Tamil Nadu, India. By A. N. Henry.

(With eight text-figures) aU 492

OBITUARY:

Charles McCann (1899-1980). (With a plate) ae 494

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES:

Mammals: 1. Observations on a remarkable association between Rhesus Monkey (Macaca

mulatta villosa) and the Himalayan Langur (Presbytis entellus schistaceus) in the Kumaun

Himalayas, India. By S. M. Das and B. D. Sharma (p. 496); 2. Observations on birth of

a Musk Deer fawn. By M. S. Jain (p. 497); 3. Occurrence of the Large Brown Flying

Squirrel and Mouse Deer near Udaipur, Rajasthan. By Raza H. Tehsin (p. 498); 4. Obser-

vations on the Epidemiology of Hairy-Footed Gerbil, Gerbillus gleadowi Murray in the

Indian desert. By Charan Singh and Rajinder Singh (p. 498); 5. Occurrence of Bandicota

bengalensis and Vandeleuria oleracea in Western Rajasthan. By B. D. Rana (p. 501);

6. Impact of cyclone on the rodent population in Andhra Pradesh. By A. M. K. Mohana

Rao (p. 502); 7. Some notes on age of sexual maturity of seven species of Indian Wild

Mammals in captivity. By L. N. Acharjyo and Ch. H. Mishra (p. 504).

Birps: 8. Twelve years old Common Teal (Anas crecca). By V. C. Ambedkar (p. 507);

9. The Crab Plover (Dromas ardeola) in Kerala. By K. K. Neelakantan, K. V. Sreenivasan

and V. K. Sureshkumar (p. 508); 10. Nocturnal activity of the Turnstone (Arenaria inter-

pres) on South Sentinel (Andaman Islands). By R. Altevogt and T. A. Davis (p. 508);

11. Occurrence of the Blackwinged Stilt (Himantopus himantopus) in Kerala. By K. K.

Neelakantan and V. K. Sureshkumar (p. 510); 12. Occurrence of the Woodcock (Scolopax

rusticola) at low altitudes. By Peter Davidar (p. 511); 13. Occurrence of Dicrurus para-

diseus lophorhinus (Vieillot) in Goa (India). By Bhabesh Chandra Saha and Ajit Kumar

Mukherjee (p. 511); 14. Sparrow ‘Helping’ nesting bulbuls. By Humayun Abdulali

(p. 513).

REPTILES: 15. Defence of the nest against man by the Saltwater Crocodile (Crocodylus

porosus Schneider). By H. R. Bustard and S. K. Kar (p. 514); 16. Some observations on

the growth of captive crocodiles. (With five text-figures). By V. S. Krishnamurthi and

R. Bhaskaran (p. 516); 17. A new turtle for Nepal. By Philip M. Hall (p. 521).

FISHES: 18. First record of the milk fish, Chanos chanos (Forskal, 1775) from Iran and

the Persian Gulf. By Brian W. Coad (p. 522); 19. Occurrence of Zebrias keralensis Joglekar

(Pisces: Soleidae) off Visakhapatnam, with a note on its taxonomy. By K. Srinivasa Rao and

M. Rama Murty (p. 524); 20. On the record of the Black Ruby Barb, Puntius nigrofas-

ciatus (Gunther) (Pisces: Cyprinidae) from India. (With a text-figure). By B. F. Chhapgar

and S. R. Sane (p. 526); 21. Local names of Pomfrets from the Indian coasts. By S. Pati

(p. 527).

INsecrs: 22. Sexual dimorphism in Lohita grandis Gray (Heteroptera-Pyrrhocoreidae).

By S. C. Dhiman and V. C. Chatterjee (p. 529); 23. Occurrence of Epilachna ocellata

Redt. on Bitter Gourd, Memordica charantia L. with a note on its damage and biology.

By V. K. Koshta and S. V. Dhamdhere (p. 529); 24. Dragonflies feeding on houseflies.

By Brij Kishore Tyagi (p. 531); 25. More butterflies from Bombay. By Salman Abdulali

(p. 531); 26. Strange practice of a Caterpillar. By D. G. Sevastopulo (p. 532).

BoTraNy: 27. Vicia monantha Retz. and Sporobolus airoides (Yorr.) Torr.—New to Indian

flora. By G. P. Roy and V. Singh (p. 532); 28. Crotalaria laburnifolia L—A little known

species from Maharashtra State. (With six text-figures). By S. K. Malhotra and Sirasala

Moorthy (p. 534); 29. Pennisetum pedicellatum Trin——A new fodder grass addition.

(With a text-figure). By H. Thakur and G. N. Javeid (p. 536); 30. Davallia fejeensis

Hook.—A new additional naturalized element to the Indian flora. By N. © ™air and

P. Bhargavan (p. 538); 31. Phlebodium aureum (Linn.) J. Sm. (Polypodiaceae) —A’ 2w

record for India. (With a plate). By P. Bhargavan and N. C. Nair (p. 539); 32. Nomen-

clatural notes in the Family Lycopodiaceae P. Beauv. ex Mirb. By R. D. Dixit

(p. 540).

ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY FOR THE YEAR 1978-79 542

STATEMENT OF ACCOUNTS OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HisToRY SOCIETY 2 550

MINUTES OF THE ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING an 562

JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY

SOCIETY

1980 DECEMBER Vol. 77 No. 3

THE SPARROW-HAWKS (ACCIPITER) OF THE

ANDAMAN ISLANDS*

G. F. MEES?

(With a plate & three text-figures)

The identification of sparrow-hawks (Accipiter) collected in the Andaman Islands

has caused problems. A study of all the specimens known from these islands revealed

that they belong to three species: resident A. virgatus, represented by an endemic

subspecies here described, and the winter visitors A. nisus and A. gularis. A fourth

species, A. soloensis, has erroneously been recorded but actually is likely to occur

as a winter visitor, being already known from the Nicobars. These species and 4A.

badius (not known from the Andamans but widely distributed in south-east Asia)

have often been confused. In this paper the characters by which they may be dis-

tinguished, their distribution, geographical variation and migrations are discussed.

CONTENTS ACCIPITER NISUS NISOSIMILIS os x 380

ACCIPITER VIRGATUS ae ae nas 381

INTRODUCTION an oe a Ei 372 A. v. affinis = es ce oe

IDENTIFICATION | a BS in 273 A. v. besra a ie ne a 385

MEDIAN IPE iu. .* THE THROAT .. 373 A. v. abdulalii if x cee 357

BANDS ON THE TAIL Hs ah 374 ACCIPITER GULARIS i A ed 388

UNDER WING PATTERN 7 i ne 375 A. g. gularis = se ee a 392

COLOURS OF UNFEATHERED PARTS - 375 A. g. iwasakii a ox = 394

WING SHAPE as - a 376 ACCIPITER BADIUS ee: at ae 397

FOOT STRUCTURE a a A 379 ACCIPITER SOLOENSIS es 4 3h 398

SEXUAL DIFFERENCE IN SIZE ; ' 330 THE IDENTITY OF Accipiter nisoides BLYTH 400

IDENTIFICATION KEY a - ‘. 380 «IS Accipiter virgatus affinis MIGRATORY? .. 402

TABLE OF MEASUREMENTS te bis 407

1 Accepted July 1979. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS a is Hee 409

2 Rijksmuseum van Natuurlijke Historie, Leiden. REFERENCES ms Pi a os 409

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

INTRODUCTION

The occurrence of sparrow-hawks in the

Andaman Islands has been known for over a

century or, to be exact, since 24 April 1873,

when W. R. Davison obtained an adult female

(Hume 1874: 141). Two years later Hume

(1876: 280) recorded three more specimens:

a juvenile male and two juvenile females,

which had been forwarded to him by Captain

Wimberley. Breeding was established early in

the present century by Osmaston (1906) and

Wickham (1910).

These older authors, using binary nomen-

clature, identified their birds as Accipiter vir-

gatus, although Hume, observing some difie-

rences between mainland specimens of A. vir-

gatus and Andaman birds, wondered whether

the name A. gularis might be applicable to

the latter. With the introduction of ternary

nomenclature, the names A.

(cf. Baker 1928: 164), A. virgatus nisoides

(cf. Peters 1931: 223), A. virgatus gularis

(cf. Ali & Ripley 1968: 250) and A. virgatus

besra (cf. Brown & Amadon 1968: 469) came

into use for the Andaman resident birds.

gularis nisoides

As far as I know, the four specimens re-

corded by Hume and a single specimen of a

different species, the winter visitor A. nisus

nisosimilis (cf. Hume 1876: 280), remained

the only sparrow-hawks ever obtained in the

Andamans until Abdulali (1965: 507) re-

‘corded three more, collected by him person-

ally in 1964, under the name A. virgatus

gularis.

Incidental to a study of resident A. virgatus

from Formosa (Taiwan), I examined the adult

Andaman female previously recorded by

Hume (BM no. 85.8.19.690) which I found

to be close to A. v. affinis from continental

Sikes

Asia, but smaller. This led me to observe:

“This bird probably represents an undescrib-

ed subspecies, characterized by small size. The

breeding records quoted by Abdulali (1965:

507) would refer to this form and certainly

not to A. v. gularis, under which name he lists

them’ (Mees 1970: 291).

From the preceding notes it will be clear

that the identity of the sparrow-hawks inha-

biting the Andaman Islands was not yet de-

finitely settled. Therefore I gladly accepted an

offer by Mr Abdulali to forward for my exa-

mination the sparrow-hawks collected by him

in the Andamans, together with some speci-

mens from peninsular India and one from

Camorta Island, Nicobars, for comparative

purposes. In addition to the specimens col-

lected in 1964, this material included a bird

obtained during a more recent visit to the

Andamans, making four altogether from that

locality.

The results of this study can be summariz-

ed as follows: three species of Accipiter are

known from the Andamans, of which one

(A. virgatus) is a resident belonging to an

endemic subspecies here described, and two

(A. nisus and A. gularis) are winter visitors.

In literature one finds a fourth species listed

from the Andamans: according to a number

of recent authors, A. soloensis would occur as

a winter visitor. As will be explained in the dis-

cussion of A. soloensis, the record is errone-

ous although actually the species may be ex-

pected for it is an apparently regular visitor

to the Nicobars.

An unexpected additional result is the iden-

tification of two specimens of A. gularis from

Point Calimere, southern India. These are

apparently the first records from continental

India and their location makes it likely that in

SPARROW HAWKS OF THE ANDAMAN ISLANDS

fact this migrant is more widely distributed

but has not been recognized. Confirmation of

this has already been obtained to a certain

extent.

It proved impossible to discuss the Anda-

man sparrow-hawks properly without paying

attention to related species and _ subspecies

from the mainland of south-east Asia and for

that reason this paper has expanded. beyond

the limits, if not the scope, originally envisag-

ed. The need for this came as a surprise, for

the recent works of Brown & Amadon (1968)

and Wattel (1973) had given me the impres-

sion that litthe museum work remained to be

done on the genus Accipiter. Actually, and in

spite of the fine work done by the authors

“just mentioned, a lot of traditional miscon-

ception remains to be cleared up. In this paper

a modest beginning will be made.

Apart from the specimens individually re-

corded, I have measured as a basis for com-

parison ten adult males and ten adult females

each of A. v. virgatus, A. g. gularis and A.

soloensis from Java, all from the collection

of the Rijksmuseum van Natuurlijke Historie

(RMNH). Additional material recorded in

the text and in the tables is from the Ameri-

can Museum of Natural History (AMNH),

Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS),

British Museum (Natural History) (BM),

Merseyside County Museum (MCM), Natur-

historisches Museum Wien (MV), and United

States National Museum (USNM).

IDENTIFICATION

Several species of sparrow-hawks resemble

each other closely, especially in the immature

plumages, and this has led to frequent mis-

identifications. It is therefore necessary to dis-

cuss the characters by which the following

species can be differentiated: A. soloensis, A.

badius, A. virgatus and A. gularis. A. trivir-

gatus must also be mentioned in this conne-

xion as in plumage it shows some resemblance

to A. virgatus, but skins can always be distin-

guished by their heavy feet; for additional

characters, see Mayr (19-49).

In this section I shall discuss the various

characters that in literature have been used for

identification, and have this followed by a key.

Many of the descriptions found in literature

are quite satisfactory for the identification of

adult birds, but break down when birds in

immature plumage are studied. Indeed, it is

my opinion that plumage characters are of

little use in the identification of immature

birds, an opinion supported by the many mis-

identified specimens one finds in collections.

Therefore I have in the key almost ignored

plumage characters, but have worked with

measurements and proportions. My ambition

has been to enable anybody to identify speci-

mens by taking a few simple measurements,

and without any comparative material. There-

fore characters that can only be evaluated by

comparison have also been avoided. I believe

that correctly sexed material can always be

identified with the key. As regards wrongly

sexed specimens (of which unfortunately large

numbers clutter collections) I am not so sure.

Median stripe down the throat. This cha-

racter has been used extensively to distinguish

between A. virgatus (stripe broad) and A.

gularis (stripe narrow). Whereas in A. vir-

gatus this is indeed a reliable character in-

asmuch as this species shows in all plumages

a comparatively broad stripe, it is not so

satisfactory in A. gularis, being variable to the

extent that in some specimens it is practically

absent, in others so broad as to equal or al-

JOURNAL,

most to equal certain individuals of A. wir-

gatus. Only when direct comparisons are made

will it be seen that the former has the stripe

darker and more sharply defined. If a bird

has a broad and somewhat fluffy looking

median stripe, it is definitely not A. gularis.

Adult specimens of A. soloensis rarely show

a median stripe and if it is present, it is grey

rather than blackish, but birds in immature

plumage have it invariably, blackish and fairly

broad, usually supported by a few smaller

and narrower lateral stripes. In both adults

and immatures of A. badius the median stripe

is frequently present, moderately developed,

but other individuals only show a few incons-

picuous non-median longitudinal striae on the

throat.

Bands on the tail. In two species, A.

badius and A. soloensis, the adult birds have

or may have the middle pair of rectrices, which

in the closed tail covers the others, without

distinct cross-bars. In A. soloensis these fea-

thers are dark grey, gradually changing to

blackish towards the tips. In A. badius, which

is lighter grey above, there is a distinctive

subterminal black band followed by a narrow

white margin; sometimes there is also a sug-

gestion of one or two dark cross-bars, but

these are never fully developed. When study-

ing material of these two species, one should

be aware of the possibility that the central

rectrices are missing: the other rectrices have

cross-bars, not very pronounced in A. soloen-

sis, very distinct in A. badius.

I do not understand the remark made by

Brown & Amadon (1968: 514) under the

heading Field Characters of A. soloensis:

“Could be confused with the Shikra (A.

badius poliopsis), which occurs in part of the

range, but should be distinguishable by (1)

374

BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

upper side much clearer blue grey than the

Shikra...”’. In my material the difference is

just the other way round: the upper parts of

adult A. badius poliopsis are light blue-grey,

whereas A. soloensis is dark grey above.

In general terms the bands can be described

as follows:

A. virgatus: 4 broad dark bands, about as

wide as the pale bands separating them; in

some individuals all four bands are visible,

in others the proximal one is concealed under

the upper tail coverts.

A. gularis: 4, sometimes 5 bands, usually

narrower than the pale bands_ separating

them; usually four bands are exposed.

A. badius: central feathers in adults with

only the terminal band well-developed, the

others weakly indicated or entirely absent;

lateral rectrices of adults and juvenile tails

with 4-6 bands.

A. soloensis: central rectrices of adult males

usually without bands, of adult females some-

times without bands; lateral rectrices of adults

and juvenile tails with 4-6 bands.

One of the problems is to decide exactly

how many bands there are. Whereas in the

distal part of the tail this is no problem, in

the proximal part there is often some darken-

ing near the base of the feathers which could

or could not be counted as a band. One might

try to escape from this problem by counting

only the exposed bands, visible without look-

ing below the upper tail-coverts, but that does

not help much as usually one band is about

half covered by the coverts, and moreover

especially the larger of these coverts are fre-

quently missing in skins, so that whether or

not one counts a band comes to depend on

how many coverts the specimen has lost in

the process of preparation. In addition there

SPARROW HAWKS OF THE ANDAMAN ISLANDS

is a relatively large variation in the number

of bands, even within one species (as listed

above). Evidently the bands of the tail are of

very limited use in identification; all I would

dare to say is that A. virgatus can usually be

recognized by having the bands broad and

well-defined.

Under wing pattern. Adult individuals of

A. soloensis differ from all other species in

having the underwing not barred; the outer

primaries are blackish below, the remainder

of the underwing is white or pale buffish. Un-

fortunately, in immature birds the outer pri-

maries are more or less barred underneath and

such birds also have the underwing coverts

with some dark spotting. Previous authors

(e.g. Brown & Amadon 1968: 515) have used

this character but without mentioning its re-

striction where immature birds are concerned.

A. virgatus and A. gularis always have a

strongly barred underwing pattern, but A.

badius is variable: some specimens are as

lightly barred as immature A. soloensis, others

are almost as heavily barred as A. virgatus

and A. soloensis. In other words, only adult

A. soloensis can be readily distinguished by

this character. The illustrations in King &

Dickinson (1975: pl. 6) show the differences

between adult birds of A. badius, A. virgatus

and A. soloensis very well as far as colorir

pattern is concerned, but the artist has cor 1-

pletely missed the structural differences in

wing shape; surely A. soloensis has pointed

wings and not the extremely blunt ones indi-

cated, and the same can be said in a lesser

degree of A. badius. The figures given by

Grossman & Hamlet (1965: 247) are much

better.

Colours of unfeathered parts. As is usual

in collections, only a minority of specimens

has the colours of the unfeathered parts in-

dicated on the labels.

A. soloensis: itis of g& ad. dark brown or

dark red, of @ ad. and immature birds of both

sexes yellow or orange-yellow, bill slate to

black, cere orange-yellow to orange, feet

orange-yellow to orange. The sexual difference

in iris colour must have been noted by many

collectors, and was recorded by La Touche

(1932: 188-190), Kolthoff (1932: 138-139),

Stresemann (1941: 85), etc. It is confirmed by

material examined by me, collected by Bar-

tels, Coomans de Ruiter, Jacobson & van

Heurn, and Kooiman.

A. g. gularis: iris of g& ad. red-brown, of

g ad. and immature birds of both sexes yel-

low, bright yellow or dark yellow, bill dark

grey with a black tip, cere greenish, feet light

greenish to bright yellow, nails black. Sexual

dimorphism in colour of the iris was already

recorded by Swinhoe in Gurney (1863), fol-

lowed by La Touche (1932: 193-194) and

Shaw (1938: 153) and is confirmed by such

specimens in our collection as have the colours

of the unfeathered parts recorded on _ their

labels.

A. g. iwasakii: iris in adults of both sexes

yellow (based on only one specimen of each

sex).

A. v. virgatus: itis o& ad. dark cadmium

yellow, 2 ad. yellow, in immature birds grey-

ish yellow or greenish yellow, in a nestling

(2) greenish grey, bill dark grey to blackish,

cere greenish, feet light greenish to bright

yellow, nails black. As far as can be ascertain-

ed from the material at hand, there is little

sexual dimorphism in iris colour, but from this

species the data sheets of the Bartels collec-

tion are missing, and the assumption that the

adult male has a yellow iris is based on two

specimens only.

A. v. affinis: iris & ad. orange (BM no.

375

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

1937.1.17.85), @ ad. bright yellow (BM no.

1949 Whl. 1-161). See also Deignan (1945:

67).

A. v. besra: itis 3 ad. orange-yellow (BM

no. 1959. 19.1), orange-red (BM no. 1956.44.

8) or bright orange-red (BM no. 1956.44.7).

A. badius: iris @ ad. light orange, 92 ad.

yellow, ¢ im. greenish yellow, bill black, near

gape greyish or bluish, cere green to greenish

yellow, feet yellow, nails black.

Note that the adults of A. soloensis and

A. g. gularis have a pronounced sexual dimor-

phism in iris colour, that is absent in A. vir-

gatus and A. badius, where adult males have

the iris merely deeper in colour, orange rather

than yellow.

It is not surprising that the sexual dimor-

phism in iris colour, combined with the gene-

rally poor labelling of specimens, has been

too much for ornithological illustrators. Thus,

Brown & Amadon (1968) show the adult

male of A. gularis with a yellow iris (pl. 62

fig. 1), the adult female of A. soloensis with

a dark brown iris (pl. 77 fig. 2). The adult

male A. gularis figured in Etchécopar & Hie

(1978: pl. 4 fig. 3) also shows a yellow iris.

The bird so beautifully illustrated in Kuroda

(1936: pl. XXIV fig. 2) under the name A. v.

virgatus 3 ad. shows hardly a trace of a

median stripe down the throat, neither has it

the dark streaks on the upper breast which

are characteristic of that species. The measure-

ments of this specimen, provided by Kuroda

(1. c.: 513): wing 166, tail 118.5 mm, prove

its identity as A. gularis. Therefore the yellow

iris pictured is definitely wrong.

A. soloensis differs from all others by the

brighter more orange colours of cere and feet

and the difference remains visible in skins,

inasmuch as all specimens of A. soloensis

examined by me, be they adults or immatures,

376

can be recognized by the pale yellowish cere,

which contrasts conspicuously with the dark

bill and the dark feathers of the forehead.

For identification this is, however, of limited

value: birds with a dark or blackish cere

(in skins) are not A. soloensis, but it does

not always work the other way round as in

all three other species occasional skins are

found in which the cere (sometimes also the

bill) is pale.

Wing shape. A difference in shape of the

wing tip between A. virgatus and A. gularis

was noted as long ago as 1862 by Schlegel

(1862: 32-33), the former having the: “‘Qua-

triéme rémige dépassant a peine la cinqui-

éme’’, the latter having: “‘la quatriéme rémige

dépassant notablement la cinquiéme”. This

character was accepted as an excellent and

highly reliable one by Ogilvie-Grant (1896:

105), but rejected by Hartert (1910: 211): “I

find, however, that this character varies con-

siderably and is therefore not reliable’. Sub-

sequent authors have again paid attention to

the wing-formula, the proportional lengths of

the primaries. Apart from the existence of

variation as already noted by Hartert, char-

acters that have to be described in terms of

‘a little larger” against ‘“‘notably larger” have

an element of inexactness and subjectivity that

makes them difficult to use. A far more useful

character was introduced by Voous (1950),

probably inspired by Mayr (1949). Voous

measured the wing tip, being the difference

in length between the longest (be it the third,

fourth of fifth) primary and the tenth (in-

nermost) primary; this measure he also ex-

pressed as a percentage of the whole length

of the folded wing. Wattel (1973) followed

suit and provided a whole series of very use-

ful measurements. I find the length of the

wing tip the easiest and most reliable character

SPARROW HAWKS OF THE ANDAMAN ISLANDS

"P Ws 6S Woy ‘smwssA ca sp :uonog 'P yw s yoy ‘swiffo

‘ap ido ‘sdy Suiqy *] “Bty

JOURNAL, BOMBAY

NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

9S~ 6h

Wo] ‘Wyospm1 “8 “p :WoyVog °

G'9P

Wsit ‘6 Mol ‘sunjns “3 -p :doyz ‘sdy

378

SPARROW HAWKS OF THE ANDAMAN ISLANDS

Fig. 3.

there is. By simply measuring the length of

the wing tip, a complete separation between

A. virgatus and the other three species can be

made. In the available material a complete

separation between A. soloensis on the one

hand against A. g. gularis and A. badius on

the other hand is also possible, but the ex-

treme measurements are so close that in very

large series the possibility of some overlapping

must be envisaged. Finally, A. hbadius and A.

g. gularis cannot be separated by wing tip

length and wing tip index, these being very

sumilar in both. In their case, wing length and

tail length have to be used.

It is necessary to mention that, within the

confines of India, there is one other small

sparrow-hawk with a very blunt wing: A. but-

leri, in which according to Wattel (1973: 33)

‘the wing tip index is 22.3%. This species, being

endemic to the Nicobars where A. virgartus

does not occur, cannot be confused with it.

The blunt wing will, however, serve to dis-

tinguish A. butleri from the migrant species

68—75

Wing tip of A. soloensis 2

A. gularis and A. soloensis which visit the

Nicobars in the northern winter.

Foot-structure. Traditionally much atten-

tion has been paid to the structure of the foot

in the classification of Accipiter-species; for-

merly the distinction between the genera Astur

and Accipiter was largely based on it, species

ascribed to the first genus having generally

heavier feet with shorter toes. Of the species

here discussed, A. soloensis and A. badius used

to be placed in Astur, whereas A. virgatus

and A. gularis (as well as A. nisus) were

regarded as “‘typical’’ of Accipiter, having:

long and slender toes. Ali & Ripley (1968:

232-233) still use this old distinction in their

key, where they separate A. virgatus (includ-

ing A. gularis, regarded as a subspecies by

these authors) from A. badius by the former

having: “Middle toe without claw consider-

ably longer than outer toe with claw’, and

the later: ‘‘Middle toe without claw about

as long as outer toe with claw’. Actually, the

difference is slight and in both species as well

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

as in A. gularis the outer toe with claw is

about equal in length to the middle toe with-

out claw. It is true that A. badius has gene-

rally somewhat shorter toes than A. virgatus,

but the relative proportions of the toes do not

differ and therefore cannot be used for their

separation. Whereas A. soloensis has, com-

pared with A. virgatus, conspicuously short

toes (see table), the same cannot be said of

A. badius, which has the toes only a little

shorter and less slender than A. virgatus.

Sexual difference in size. In the absence

of weights, which would give a much better

picture of the acutal differences between the

sexes, | have been forced to use wing length

as a measure of size differences between the

sexes. It will be clear that, being one-dimen-

sional, these do not do justice to the great

differences in bulk they express so inade-

quately.

It is a pity that of several forms the num-

bers of specimens are insufficient to work out

satisfactory averages, but even so it is evident

that the sexual difference in size is a reliable

specific character: within each species, even

when that is divided into several well-diffe-

rentiated subspecies, it is almost constant, but

there are significant differences between the

species. Summarizing from the table, it will

be seen that the greatest sexual difference is

found in A. virgatus (wing length of males

80-84% of that of the females), less so but

still considerable in A. gularis (87-88%), and

in A. hadius (88.7-92.6%), and very little in

A. soloensis (97.3%). It is tempting to spe-

culate about possible explanations for these

interspecific differences, but that is outside

the scope of this purely descriptive contribu-

tion. Therefore I refer to the interesting dis-

cussions given by Brown & Amadon (1968:

26-28), and Amaden (1975), and only note

that the two species with the greatest sexual

380

dimorphism in size are bird-hunters, whereas

the intermediate A. badius has a mixed diet

and the species with the least dimorphism, A.

soloensis, appears to feed mainly on insects,

amphibians and reptiles (cf. Wattel 1973: 32).

IDENTIFICATION KEY

la. In adult plumage, under surface of folded

wings not barred; outer primaries black or

blackish, remainder white or pale buffish; in

the immature plumage, the outer primaries can

be barred below; third primary usually longer

than fourth, sometimes equal; wing tip 68-75

mm or c. 37% of wing length..... A. soloensis

In all plumages under surface of folded wings

at least on the outer primaries distinctly bar-

red dark brown-grey and white; third primary

usually shorter than fourth, sometimes equal;

wing tip 35-66 mm or 23-34% of wing length.

mm, or 22.8-28.5% of wing length; under sur-

face of folded wings entirely barred..........

SMe RIN PCL PR MARES Ini My ned-b. ty o:¢ A. virgatus

b. Wing tip in males 49-63 mm, in females 55-66

mm, or 27.6-34.2% of wing length; under sur-

face of folded wing either entirely barred, or

barring more or less restricted to the primaries.

SP ree NEM er ER ch os Soha oso 3

3a. Wing in males 160-170 mm, in females 183-

197 mm, tail in males 111-118 mm, in females

120-134 mm, or 64.7-71.3% of wing length;

under surface of folded wing entirely barred.

SOE, BER on ute ten! Siegen. att os che eee A. gularis

b. Wing in males 172-200 mm, in females 194-

214 mm, tail in males 125-150 mm, in females

143-168 mm, or 70.7-78.5% of wing length;

barring on under surface of folded wings

somewhat variable, usually weak or absent on

the ‘secondaries Geb cacti n suchen A. badius

ACCIPITER NISUS NISOSIMILIS (TICKELL.)

Falco Nisosimilis Tickell, 1833, J. Asiat.

Soc. Bengal 2: 571—-Marcha, in Borabhum.

Material from the Andamans. 9°, x.1875.

South Andaman, leg. J. N. Wimberley (BM

no. 85.8.19.594), an immature bird in its first

SPARROW HAWKS OF THE ANDAMAN ISLANDS

autumn. Wing 248, tail 174, tarsus 63, culmer

from cere 15 mm.

Discussion. This

Asia is a winter visitor to India and Burma,

but it has never been recorded from Sumatra

and the Malay Peninsula. The Andamans must

be near the south-eastern limit of its winter

range and it is unlikely that A. nisus is more

than an occasional visitor to the islands. Its

large size will serve to distinguish this species

from other members of the genus occurring

in the Andamans.

migrant from Central

ACCIPITER VIRGATUS (TEMMINCK)

Characters. A. virgatus shows in most of

its subspecies no more than a moderate sexual

difference in plumage, but a conspicttous one

in size. As regards sexual differences in plum-

age, adult males and adult females of A. y.

affinis and A. v. besra differ only in the former

having the back blackish grey, the latter hav-

ing the back with a brownish tinge. There is

no sexual difference to speak of in colour and

colour pattern of the under surface. In A. v.

abdulalii, on the other hand, the females are

in colour similar to females of the mainland

subspecies, but the male is distingiushed by

the very different underparts. A character by

which A. virgatus can in all plumages be

readily distinguished from A. soloensis, A.

badius and A. g. gularis, is found in its round-

ed wings, the wing-tip of the subspecies occur-

ring in India being 35-43 mm in males, 41-

52 mm in females, or 23.0-24.4% of the wing

length. Middle toe long. Underwing strongly

barred. A broad longitudinal middle stripe on

the throat is present in all plumages.

Distribution. This species has an exten-

sive range in south-east Asia. On the main-

land it occurs along the Himalayas to as far

west as Kashmir, in Assam, Burma, Thailand,

Indo-China, central, south and east China;

also Hainan and Formosa, southern penin-

sular India and Ceylon, the Andamans the

Philippines, Borneo, Sumatra, Java, Bali and

Flores.

Habitat. A. virgatus is essentially a forest

bird, this in contradistinction to A. gularis

which (at least in its winter quarters) prefers

the more open types of vegetation provided

by village gardens and cultivated country. The

vertical range is from the lowlands to 3000 m.

Wattel (1973: 40) stated that: ‘“The species

is found in moist-deciduous forests and plan-

tations in the mountains of southern India and

Ceylon. ..in the equatorial belt it ranges most-

ly between 1000 and 2200 m’’. However, in

Ceylon, an island certainly within the equa-

torial belt, A. v. besra ranges over all zones,

from sea-level to at least 6000 ft (Whistler

1944: 249). In southern India, Ali (1969:

56) knew it from levels of 600-1200 m, but the

specimens from Point Calimere (? ad.) and

Bhavnagar (¢ im.) prove that it does visit

the lowlands. As lowland forest has become

so scarce through the activity of Homo

sapiens, it will be difficult to decide whether

the apparent restriction to the higher levels

is actually caused by a preference for these

levels, or is due to a forced retreat from the

lowland as a result of human activities.

Although both Voous (1950) and Wattel

(1973: 40) reported A. virgatus in the Sunda

Islands as a mountain bird, it is not exclusively

so, for-Coomans de Ruiter (1936) found a

nest in Koeboe, West Borneo, a lowland re-

gion remote from any mountains. Both Voous

(1950) and Wattel (1973: map 4) overlook-

ed this record as well as a whole string of

other records from Borneo (summarized by

Smythies 1957: 578; see also Smythies 1960:

149 and 1968: 152), and concluded mistakenly

381

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

that in Borneo this species is known from Mt

Kinabalu only. On the distributional map

given by Brown & Amadon (1968; map 37)

the Bornean race A. v. rufotibialis is also

shown as restricted to Mt Kinabalu, although

in their text these authors record it also from

Mt Dulit and the Kelabit Plateau, which is of

course still giving it much too limited a dis-

tribution. The clutch from Koeboe, collected

by Coomans de Ruiter personally, is now in

our collection (RMNH no. 73548); the two

eggs agree well with eggs of A. v. virgatus

from Java and I see no reason to question

their identification. As Coomans de Ruiter

mentioned an additional clutch from Koeboe

and also two nests from Pontianak, it is evi-

dent that reproduction in the lowlands of West

Borneo is not exceptional but takes place

regularly.

In Java also, the assumption that A. vy. vir-

gatus is confined to mountain forest requires

revision. Its range as defined by Voous (1. c.)

is: “Java and Bali, at 1200-2200 m altitude;

occasionally in the lowlands (juvenile from

Brebes...less than 100 m)’’. Although Voous

did mention the juvenile bird from Brebes,

he did not comment on the material from

Buitenzorg (270 m) that he examined and he

failed to indicate that locality on his map.

Neither did he discuss Soekaboemi (600 m).

On the other hand, he extended the normal

vertical range up to 2200 m on the basis of

a single specimen from that altitude. That is

how mountain birds are created in literature.

Our collection contains specimens from the

following lowland localities: Meester Corne-

lis, Buitenzorg, Moeara Beting-Krawang (this

would have been mangrove forest), Tjibareno,

Bandjar, Tegal-Brebes, Djember (all below

300 m), Tjibadak (400 m), Soekaboemi (600

m), etc. It is necessary to state that amongst

382

birds from lowland localities there are several

in fully adult plumage, so that the occurrence

in the lowlands cannot be dismissed as merely

a matter of juvenile dispersal in the post-

breeding period. I note that Hoogerwerf (1970:

454), on admittedly very slender evidence,

assumed breeding in the lowland reserve of

Udjung Kulon. The explanation for the fact

that in Java the species has more often been

recorded from the higher levels appears to be

simply that it is a forest bird and lowland

forest in Java is and was already in the first

half of this century, extremely scarce. The

most one can say is that the bird is perhaps

more common at the higher levels (cf. Hoo-

gerwerf l.c.).

Wattel (1973: 40) refers to Sody as evid-

ence that in Java A. virgatus occurs in the

teak forests; now Tecfona grandis plantations

provide a very open kind of woodland and

in Java they are to my knowledge practically

confined to the flat lowlands, whereas accord-

ing to Wattel (admittedly erroneously as

pointed out above), the vertical distribution

of A. virgatus in Java is from 1000-2200 m.

Checking the reference given (Sody 1953:

138) I found that the bird was recorded under

the name A. v. gularis and was moreover

clearly stated to have been: ‘“‘Een exemplaar

van het trekkende ras”’.

Voous’s opinion that in the Sunda Islands,

within suitable habitat, the species is rare, is

also in need of modification. At the time Voous

was able to muster only 27 specimens from

the Greater and Lesser Sunda Islands com-

bined, but through purchases (mainly of the

Bartels collection) and bequests our collection

has grown so much that now we have 85

specimens from Java alone. The number of

skins of A. gularis from Java in our collection

is now 62, so that the ratio between the two

SPARROW HAWKS OF THE ANDAMAN ISLANDS

species has become reversed.

Geographical variation. Wattel (1973: 34-

43) divided the subspecies of A. virgatus into

three groups, the gularis-group, the virgatus-

group and the affinis-group. I consider his

gularis-group to constitute a distinct species,

A. gularis, not even very close to A. virgatus.

This leaves Wattel’s two other groups: the

virgatus-group in which he placed the sub-

species from the Sunda Islands and the Phi-

lippines, as well as A. v. besra from southern

India and Ceylon, and the affinis-group, re-

served for A. v. affinis. He explained this view

with the statement that: “Birds from southern

India and Ceylon...are closely similar to the

Malaysian races, but this similarity is due to

convergence rather than to former geographi-

cal contact’’. My opinion is that this division

is artificial. The difference between A. v. besra

and A. v. affinis, assigned to different groups

by Wattel, is merely one of size, and every-

thing points to the two being closely related,

as indeed one would expect on zoogeogra-

phical grounds. In making this unnatural divi-

sion, Wattel may have been influenced by

Hartert (1910: 210-211) and Swann (1921-

1922: 61 and 1926: 327), who treated A. v.

besra as a race of A. virgatus, but treated

A. v. affinis as a separate species under the

name of A. affinis. On the other hand it is per-

fectly true that A. v. besra as well as A. v.

affinis are also very close to A. v. virgatus

and certainly not sufficiently different for

these subspecies to be placed in different

groups. To me it seems that, if groups have

to be made at all, the Philippine subspecies

should rather be treated as a separate group.

Unfortunately our collection contains only a

single specimen from the Philippines (3 ad.,

21-x-1887, Ayala, Mindanao, leg. F. S.

Bourne) which is conspicuous by the com-

plete absence of barring on the ventral sur-

face, and by the strong reduction of cross-

bars on the tail. I note that Wattel (1973:

42-43) appears to be of the same opinion, as

he states: ““Apparently confusus originated in-

dependently whereas vanbemmeli, virgatus,

and rufotibialis had a common origin’. In

this connection one wonders why, nevertheless,

he placed them all in the same group, just

as it seems illogical that he treats besra

throughout as a member of the virgatus-

group, but ends by saying that the similarity

is due to convergence.

The subspecies of Accipiter virgatus are

the following:

A. v. virgatus (Temminck, 1822): Java,

Bali, Flores.

A. v. vanbemmeli Voous, 1950: Sumatra.

A. v. rufotibialis Sharpe, 1887: Borneo.

A. v. besra Jerdon, 1839: Ceylon and

southern India.

A. v. affinis Hodgson, 1836: Himalayas

to eastern China.

A. vy. fuscipectus Mees, 1970: Formosa.

A. v. abdulalii subsp. nov.: Andamans.

A. v. confusus Hartert, 1910: northern

Philippines.

A. v. quagga Parkes, 1973: southern Phi-

lippines.

The subspecies A. v. kashmiriensis Whistler

& Kinnear has not been included as it is only

doubtfully separable from A. v. affinis, under

which subspecies a discussion of its validity

will be given. It should further be clear that

this paper is not a revision and that subspe-

cies will only be treated in as far as they have

a bearing on the correct identification of birds

from the Andamans. Therefore I have not

attempted to study the subspecies from

383

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

Sumatra, Borneo, and the Philippines. For a

discussion of the former, I refer to Voous

(1950), for a discussion of the latter see

Parkes (1973: 17-19).

In this paper I am not particularly con-

cerned with historical zoogeography but it

will be clear that the apparently wide distri-

bution of A. virgatus in the tropical lowlands

makes at least debatable Waitel’s (1973: 18,

also 43) surmise that: ‘‘A. virgatus probably

never had a continuous distribution across the

Sunda shelf, because at present it is restrict-

ed to hill and mountain country. Therefore, its

dispersal must have taken place earlier or was

achieved by long-distance colonization. The

occurrence of A. virgatus on the Andamans

and on Flores prove that such long-distance

colonizations have occurred...”. It is also

unclear to me what exactly Wattel means with

a dispersal that has taken place earlier; earlier

than what?

Accipiter virgatus affinis Hodgson

Accipiter affinis Hodgson, 1836, Bengal

Sporting Mag. (n. s.) 8: 179—Nepal (refe-

rence not verified).

Material examined. oo, undated, before

1862, Nepal, collector unknown (RMNH cat.

no. 1, recorded by Schlegel 1862: 33 as Nisus

gularis); & im., undated, North Bengal, leg.

S. Pinwill (BM no. 76.10.20.29); &, undated,

Darjeeling, leg. J. Fortheringham (BM _ no.

77.2.20.6); @, 1873, Darjeeling, collector un-

known (BM no. 85.8.19.681); @, xii.1877,

Darjeeling, leg. Hume (BM no. 85.8.19.684);

? im., undated, Murree, Punjab, leg. J. Bid-

dulph (BM no. 97.12.10.1749); 9, xii.1910,

Sukna, Darjeeling, leg. H. K. Robinson (BM

no. 1921.7.12.31); 2, 8.v.1922, Ranikhet, U.P.,

leg. F. Field (BM no. 1949 Whl. 1-161); 9°

im., 15.viii.1922, Gulmarg, Kashmir, 9000’,

leg. B. B. Osmaston (BM no. 1949 Whl. 1-

384

170); Q. 9.41.1932, Kangkwa Cliq, Tuiwa Re-

rame, Katha Distr., Burma, 1100’, leg. H. C.

Smith (BM no. 1948.80.3652); @ juv.,

9.1x.1935, Chilung Pati, Nepal, 9500’, leg. F.

M., Bailey (BM no... 1938 7:15a2 aoe

11.vii.1936, Nyug La, Pachakshiri, S. E. Tibet,

10,000’, leg. F. Ludlow (BM no. 1937.1.17.

85); 2 im., 16.xi.1938; Chungkar, S. E. Bhu-

tan, 6500’, leg. illegible initials (BM no.

1938-12.13:99);

In addition | made use of the list of measure-

ments of material I examined some years ago

(Mees 1970: table II).

Distribution. The distribution as ascertained

from material examined and from reliable

literature records is from Kashmir and the

extreme north-east of Pakistan (Murree near

Rawalpindi) eastwards along the Himalayas,

through Assam, Burma, northern and eastern

Thailand, to Indo-China, southern, central (to

as far north as the Tsinling mountains, cf.

Cheng 1973: 47) and southeastern China. The

range does nowhere extend into the Indian

Plain. The vertical distribution is considerable,

extending from little above sea level to 3000

m (cf. list of materia! examined, which was

collected between 1100’ and 10,000’, or be-

tween 330 and 3000 m).

In Burma, A. v. affinis is widely distributed;

it is obviously a resident on Mt Victoria

(Stresemann & Heinrich 1940: 249) and has

been recorded from Pegu (BM no. 84.1.30.22,

cf. Mees 1970: 288), but I doubt that it

occurs in Tenasserim: the eggs collected by

Hopwood near Tavoy and listed by Baker

(1935: 115-116) under the name A. gularis

nisoides might be referable to A. badius rather

than to A. v. affinis.

Characters. A large subspecies: wing

length of 27 3& 159-171, 34 92 190-207 mm.

Discussion. In the discussion of range and

SPARROW HAWKS OF THE ANDAMAN ISLANDS

movements (see also the section “Is A. v.

affinis migratory”), A. v. kashmiriensis has

not been separated from A. v. affinis. The

former is still a somewhat controversial sub-

species. It was accepted by Ripley (1961:47),

Ali & Ripley (1968: 246-247) and Abdulali

(1969: 704), but rejected by Vaurie (1965:

165), whereas I (Mees 1970) was doubtful of

its validity. Wattel (1973) entirely ignored the

name, but whether this was because he did

not recognize it, or simply overlooked it (as

suggested by the fact that in his extensive

bibliography the paper in which this subspe-

cies was described is not listed) is not clear.

I have no new evidence; anyway, A. v. kash-

miriensis is at most a weakly differentiated

form, continuous in range with A. v. affinis,

so that it appears entirely justified to treat the

two together. It is perhaps relevant to mention

that although the subspecific name kashmiri-

ensis was bestowed on the western birds, the

type-locality is Murree, which is in the Pun-

jab and has never been in Kashmir although

it is close to the border. Whistler & Kinnear

(1936: 435), writing about A. v. kashmiri-

ensis, stated with much confidence: ‘The

birds which appear in winter in the United

Provinces belong to this western form’. They

remained completely silent, however, on which

birds exactly they had in mind when making

this statement. As mentioned, I have been

unable to find any reliable records of winter

birds from outside the presumed breeding

range. |

Incidentally, in dealing with the subspecies

A. v. kashmiriensis a nice point arises as to

whom authorship should be ascribed. The

paper which I am citing as being written by

Whistler & Kinnear, actually bears on its title

page the indication that it is “by Hugh Whist-

ler, assisted by N. B. Kinnear’. Even so, both

authors would be responsible for this and

other new names, but I noted that in the dis-

cussions accompanying the descriptions of the

new names, invariably the first person singu-

lar is used Kinnear’s contribution is nowhere

made clear.

Accipiter virgatus besra Jerdon

1839, Madras J.

South

Accipiter besra Jerdon,

Litt. Sci. 10: 84-—Soonda Jungles,

India. (reference not verified).

Material from Sri Lanka. 3, undated, Cey-

lon, no collector (BM no. 77.5.24.17); o&, un-

dated, Ceylon, leg. S. Bligh (BM no. 1955.6.

N.20.2802, ex Norwich Castle Mus.); o&, un-

dated, Ceylon, leg. S. Bligh (BM no. 1955.6.

N. 20.2803, ex Norwich Castle Mus.); 9?, un-

dated, Ceylon, no collector (BM _ no. 87.11.1.

242, ex. Coll. Tweeddale); o', V. 1894, Coney-

gar, leg. A. L. Butler (BM no. 1916.9.20.524);

3, 6.1i1.1956, Kalatuwawa, E. of Colombo,

leg. E. C. Fernando (BM no. 1956.44.8); 3,

20.iv.1956, Kalatuwawa, leg. E. C. Fernando

(BM no. 1956.44.7); o&, 23.x.1958, Kalatu-

wawa, leg. E. C. Fernando (BM no. 1959.

LOA)

Material from India. 3, 18.xi.1881, Coo-

noor, Nilghiris, leg. W. Davison (BM no.

85.4.10.1); 9, undated, Ootacamund, Nilghi-

ris, leg. W. Davison (BM no. Gurney 2795,

ex Newcastle Mus.); ? im., 18.ix.1901, Oota-

camund, Nilghiris, no collector (BM no. 1949

WhlI. 1-168); ¢@, 10.xi.1939, Biligirirangan

Hills, Mysore, ca. 3000’, leg. Sélim Ali (BM

no. 1949, Whl. 1-169); @ im., 1.1.1956, Bhav-

nagar, Saurashtra, leg. Dharmakumarsinhji

(BNHS no. 20773); @ juv. (large nestling or

just fledged), 24.v.1956, Perumalmalai, Palni

Hills, 5000’, leg. N. A. Fuller & Bro. Novarro

(BNHS no. 20016); “#”=9@, 8.xi.1958, Shem-

bagnur, leg. N. A. Fuller (BNHS no. 20734);

sex?=9, 21.xii.1971, Point Calimere, leg.

BNHS party (BNHS no. 23911).

385

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 77

Distribution. Sri Lanka and southern India

in forested parts: Palni, Nilghiri and Biligiri-

rangan Hills; along the Western Ghats to as far

north as the vicinity of Bombay and perhaps

beyond. The bird from Bhavnagar must have

been a straggler, the species is unlikely to

breed in Saurashtra. Discussing the distribu-

tion of this subspecies, Baker (1928: 160)

wrote: “‘there are typical specimens in the

British Museum from Mhow’’. This must refer

to specimen BM no. 75.6.24.15, the only spar-

row-hawk of the virgatus/gularis group from

Mhow in the BM collection; although labelled

A. v. besra, it is A. gularis (see further under

that species). Very little is known of the oc-

currence in the easterly regions of India: the

older records were summarized by Whistler &

Kinnear (1936: 435) and recently a specimen

was collected at Point Calimere, as listed

above.

Note that the breeding range of A. v. besra

is widely separated from that of A. v. affinis

and that the map published by Brown &

Amadon (1968: map 37), which shows the

two subspecies in broad contact along the

Himalayan foothills, is completely misleading.

Characters. This subspecies differs from A.

v. affinis merely in its smaller size: wing

length of 8 gf 150-158, 7 2 180-193, against

27 fo 159-171, 34 ¢ 190-207 mm in A. v.

affinis (see table of measurements and Mees

1970; table II). Although there is a slight

overlap in measurements, only two out of 34

females of A. v. affinis have a wing length

of less than 194 mm (190, 191 mm).

I am unable to confirm the existence of con-

sistent colour differences between A. v. affinis

and A. v. besra, which most previous authors

claimed (cf. Baker 1928: 159, Ali & Ripley

1968: 248). Admittedly some males from Sri

Lanka are conspicuously red on the under-

386

parts (BM no. 77.5.24.17 being an extreme

in this direction), but other specimens from

the same island (cf. BM no. 1916.9.20.524)

agree completely in plumage with average A.

v. affinis. Elsewhere I have commented upon

a rather red female of A. v. affinis from Tehri

(Mees 1970: 291).

Discussion. Swann (1926: 324) gave for

A. vy. besra the following wing measurements:

3 165-167, 2 188-203 mm; although he cor-

rectly mentioned that this subspecies is larger

than A. y. virgatus, the measurements he pre-

sented are much too large. Whistler & Kin-

near (1936: 436) provided correct measure-

ments, but erroneously claimed A. v. besra

to be of the same size as the nominate

race. This was repeated by Brown & Ama-

don (1968: 469), who made no direct compa-

rison between this subspecies and A. v. affinis,

but stated: “‘about the same size as the nomi-

nate race, but not so richly coloured. Wing

3 145-166, 2 182-189’. These figures were

obviously although without reference copied

from Baker (1928: 160). The range of varia-

tion given for the males is surprisingly large,

probably it includes measurements of A. v.

affinis as Baker mentions under the name besra:

“‘two specimens labelled as from North Bengal

from the Pinwill Coll. These may be wrongly

marked’’. I have examined one of the Pinwill

specimens and see no reason to query its pro-

venance, but of course it is A. v. affinis.

Wattel’s (1973: 39) diagrams and figures

indicate that A. v. affinis has a relatively longer

tail than birds of his virgatus-group (includ-

ing A. v. besra). For A. v. affinis he found a

tail-length of 78.32% of the wing-length and

for the virgatus-group this same value was

75.82%. By combining virgatus with besra,

Wattel has, however, marked the fact that

in relative length of the tail A. v. besra is

SPARROW HAWKS OF THE ANDAMAN ISLANDS

intermediate between A. v. affinis and A. v.

virgatus, just as it is intermediate in linear

measurements. The values found by me for the

three subspecies are as follows: A. v. virga-

tus 10 & 73.9%, 10 2 73.3%; A. v. besra

8 ov 74.7%, 7 2 716.5%; A. v. affinis 27 3

76.8%, 33 2 78.0%. For comparison the fig-

ures for the largest of all subspecies, A. v.

fuscipectus, are 12 & 78.2%, 9 2 80.0% (cf.

Mees 1970: table I). It looks as if there is

a direct relation between general size and re-

lative length of the tail, the larger subspecies

having relatively longer tails, but there is no

evidence at all of a break between A. v. besra

and A. v. affinis, sufficient to place them in

different groups.

The bird from Bhavnagar was first record-

ed by Dharmakumarsinhji (1956) under the

name A. virgatus; he did not go into the

matter of its subspecific identity. The same

bird was again discussed by Abdulali (1969:

704-705), who commented: “The @ from

Bhavnagar (wing 185, tail 142) which was re-

corded as besra agrees in size with the adult

female (by plumage) from the Palnis, but it

is a juvenile and much paler in colour and

appears to be of a northern race’. As explain-

ed above, Dharmakumarsinhji did not assign

the specimen to a subspecies; he used the

name Besra in a vernacular sense only, but

I have examined the specimen and do indeed

consider that it to belongs to A. v. besra. I do

not find the bird paler than other specimens of

this race and the measurements confirm its

identity. Although the bird is immature, it is

certainly full grown. Note that Baker (1928:

159 in key) claimed A. v. besra to be: “‘above

paler in both sexes at all stages” than A. v.

affinis. (A. v. kashmiriensis had not yet been

described at the time and would have been

included in affinis) and that Ali & Ripley

(1968: 249) called A. v. besra ‘much paler”

than A. v. affinis. As mentioned above, I am

unable to see any colour differences between

A. v. affinis and A. v. besra, and as regards

colours, the specimen from Bhavnagar fits

well into either.

Accipiter virgatus abdulalii subsp. nov.

Material examined. 6, 25.11.1964, Betapur,

Middle Andaman, leg. H. Abdulali (BNHS

no: 21897,. «type of . A. v.-abdulali);.. °.

14.iv.1873, South Andaman, leg. W. Davison

(BM no. 85.8.19.690); @ juv., viii.1875,

Andamans, leg. R. J. Wimberley (BM no.

85.8.19.688); 2 juv., vili.1875, Andamans,

leg. R. J. Wimberley (BM no. 85.8.19.689);

o juv., ix.1879, Andamans, leg, R. J. Wim-

berley (BM no. 85.8.19.687); 9, 25.11.1964,

Betapur, Middle Andaman, leg. H. Abdulali

(BNHS no. 21896); 2, 9.iv.1969, Wrightmyo,

South Andaman, leg. H. Abdulali and party

(BNHS no. 23111).

Distribution. At present known from Mid-

dle Andaman and South Andaman, the two

largest islands of the Andaman Group.

Diagnosis. Closest to the continental races

A. v. affinis and A. v. besra; smaller than the

former, but in size agreeing with the latter.

The adult male differs conspicuously from

besra as well as from all other races of the

species in the coloration and colour-pattern of

the underparts. The breast is greyish tawny,

flanks and belly are dull tawny, vent and

under tail-coverts are white, and the feathers

covering the tibiotarsus are uniform light grey.

Apart from on a few axillaries, there is no

trace of white cross-bars, or any other barring

or pattern, except that the feathers of the

breast have the outer margins a trifle darker

and greyer than their central parts, giving the

breast a faintly scalloped appearance. In the

387

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL GIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

races besra and affinis cross-bars are always

present, if not on the breast, at least on flanks

and thighs; the upper breast usually has white

in the middle with some dark longitudinal

streaks, and the lower breast has a white

median longitudinal streak; moreover although

there is some variation in colour of the breast,

not a single specimen has the greyish tawny

colour of the Andaman bird.

Adult females are similar to females of

besra, except that the bill appears to be a

little larger, with especially the ridge of the

culmen broader, less sharp. In addition the

three Andaman birds have the cross-bars on

the under surface a little broader and less

sharply defined, and have the barring of the

feathers covering the tibiotarsus weaker, than

the four specimens of besra with which they

were compared, but the variation found in

males and in other races suggests that indi-

vidual variation would cover these differences

if sufficiently large material were available.

Discussion. The description of A. v. abdul-

alii of which females and juveniles have been

in collections for over a century, was made

possible by the discovery of an adult male.

It is with real pleasure that I dedicate this

subspecies to the collector of this specimen,

Mr. Humayun Abdulali, who has made such

outstanding contributions to ornithological

knowledge of the Andaman and Nicobar

Islands.

Whether my statement that this subspecies

agrees in size with A. v. besra is entirely cor-

rect, remains uncertain as long as only one

adult male of A. v. abdulalii is known. Actual-

ly the two males of this race are a little smal-

ler than any of A. v. besra I have examined,

but then the juvenile male (wing 145 mm)

is perhaps not quite full grown and that may

also have influenced the figure for the sexual

388

difference in wing length (males 80% of

females, against 82.7-84% in the other races).

ACCIPITER GULARIS (TEMMINCK & SCHLEGEL)

Characters. The two subspecies of which

this species consists are in several respects so

different that it is difficult to supply diagno-

stic characters covering both. As A. g. iwasakii

is confined to two small islands in the Riu

Kius, where it is known to be sedentary,

whereas the nominate race is widely distribut-

ed and, being strongly migratory, in its winter

quarters with which this paper deals is fre-

quently confused with other species, I shall

give here the diagnostic characters of A. g.

gularis only.

Sexual difference in size is considerable, but

not so great as in A. virgatus. Sexual dimor-

phism in plumage remarkable: the adult

female plumage is quite unlike that of the

male, or than that of any of the other small

species here treated, in that the underparts

with the exception of the white throat, are

densely barred with dull brown on a white

background. Wings pointed, wing tip in males

49-56, in females 55-66 mm, or c. 30-32%

of wing length. Under wing strongly barred.

Tail relatively short. Dark median streak on

the white throat variable, almost absent in

some specimens, distinct in others, a variation

that shows no obvious relation with age or

sex.

In the immature plumage this species may

be distinguished from A. virgatus in having

the underparts less strongly marked. In A.

virgatus the spots are strong on the lower

abdomen, where they are less conspicuous

or almost absent in most specimens of A.

gularis. Moreover, in the former the markings

are usually darker, and provided with rusty

*SorlIas

aziz] B Ul pUNoJ se odi4ys Ieyns oy) JO JUaWIdojaasp Ul sawetxa ajisoddo ay} MoyYs

g pue ¢ ‘sou ayy ‘pe & supjns “8S -p (9) SWI & Slipjns “3 -p (¢) vpe & slipjns

‘Sp (p) Spe 2 supjns “Sp (¢) Spe S snwssa ca cp (Z) “pe P snipssia “a cp (J)

SYMPP-MOITVAS :Sd9JA]

ALV Ig ZL ‘O0§ “LSIH “LVN AvaWOog ‘f

SPARROW HAWKS OF THE ANDAMAN ISLANDS

edgings; the sides of the breast are tinged

with rust colour. In A. gularis, on the other

hand, all markings are of a uniform and rather

dull brown.

Habitat. The nominate race is in summer

an inhabitant of mixed forests and deciduous

forests of the cool-temperate region. In the

winter quarters it is found in all kinds of semi-

open and wooded country, not only in the

lowlands, but also at higher elevations. Mate-

rial in our collection is singularly devoid of

indications of altitude, although some of the

localities of collecting are suggestive even

without them. In Java, Hoogerwerf (1948:

123) considered it to occur at all levels, but

rare or absent above 2500 m. The habitat of

A. g. iwasakii will be discussed separately.

Geographical variation. There are two

well-marked subspecies, the widely distributed

A. g. gularis and the insular A. g. iwasakii,

confined to two small islands in the Riu Kius.

The two are so different that a strong case

could be made for the view that they are

distinct species, see the discussion of A. g.

iwasakii given on a later page.

In the literature one frequently finds refer-

ence to Accipiter stevensoni Gurney (1863),

a name based on two specimens: one from

Macao and one from Tientsin (rather than

Peking). In the original description no men-

tion is made of A. gularis, with which evident-

ly it was not compared. Later authors have

usually regarded the name as a synonym of

A. gularis (cf. Ogilvie-Grant 1896, Hartert

1914: 1161, etc.), but from time to time at-

tempts have been made to recognize it as a

subspecies. Apparently Baker (1928: 163)

was the first to revive it, in the combination

A. gularis stevensoni; compared with A. g.

gularis he claimed it to be: ‘distinctly paler,

both in the male and the female, most notice-

ably on the lower plumage’. This was accept-

ed by La Touche (1932: 195) and with some

doubt by Peters (1931: 223), who introduced

the trinomial A. virgatus stevensoni. Note that

the breeding ranges given by the mentioned

authors for the two alleged subspecies are

more or less the same; for A. v. gularis it is:

“northern China and Japan’, for A. v. steven-

soni: ‘Manchuria to northern China’’; note

also that there is no mention of the main

breeding range of A. gularis, which is in

Siberia. Voous (1950: 97) stated: “I am of

the opinion that the Chinese breeding birds

...must be recognized as a separate race

(stevensoni Gurney, 1863) from the Japanese

form (gularis Temminck & Schlegel, 1844) on

account of the conspicuous paleness of the

underparts in males [2 breeding males from

Kwantung (Berlin Museum) and one from

Shantung (Leiden Museum) examined]. Fe-

males do not seem to be different. In the series

of wintering males from Malaysia the two

types of coloration are apparent, hence the

pale males are supposed to originate from

China (or Manchuria) and are tentatively re-

ferred by me to A. v. stevensoni. The male

type specimen of Astur (Nisus) gularis Tem-

minck & Schlegel from Japan was examined

in the Leiden Museum; it has rather dark

rufous brown under parts’. In this long quo-

tation there is a lot that requires elucidation.

Firstly, it is obvious that the types of A. ste-

vensoni must have been migrants as A. gularis

is not known to breed in China proper. To

the “breeding males’ from Kwangtung and

Shantung on which Voous based his opinion

the same pertains. The Shantung specimen is

a mounted bird in our old collection from

Chefoo, May 1873 (without exact date), leg.

R. Swinhoe, received under the name A. ste-

vensonii, an identification presumably made

389

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

by its collector. Swinhoe (1874: 432) himself

regarded at least the great majority of the

birds as migrants from Korea and Manchuria,

although he left open the possibility of occa-

sional breeding near Chefoo (for which he

was unable to produce any evidence). Sub-

sequent observations, summarized by LeFevre

(1962: 31) have confirmed that A. gularis

does not breed near Chefoo. I would not des-

cribe the underparts of the male type specimen

of A. gularis (RMNH cat. no. 1) as “rather

dark rufous brown’; actually they are only a

trifle richer in colour, particularly on the

sides of the breast, than in the Chefoo speci-

men and both fit well in the not overlarge

range of variation found in material trom the

winter quarters. When Voous wrote his article,

the presence of a breeding population in

Japan had still to be confirmed; although now

this confirmation has been obtained, it is pro-

bably more common as a migrant, and whether

the type-specimens of A. gularis belonged to

a resident population is anybody’s guess. Pro-

bability is against it. None of the authors who

recognized sfevensoni could have examined

the beautiful coloured plate accompanying the

description of A. sfevensoni, for it shows a bird

which certainly is very rich rufous underneath,

of a far deeper, not paler, colour than the

male type of A. gularis.* The only species with

which A. stevensoni was actually compared in

its original description, is A. rhodogaster.

Gurney (1863) remarked that the colouring of

3 Surprisingly, the specimen from Paking/Tient-

sin kept as type (BM no. 1955.6.N.20.2763, cf.

Warren 1966: 282), which one would presume to

be the figured bird, actually is rather pale, slightly

paler than the three males from Japan in the BM

collection, and shows other differences from the

plate. It is not clear what has happened (Galbraith,

in litt., 4.vi.1979).

390

the breast was much paler in A. stevensoni

than in A. rhodogaster and in the minds of

subsequent workers this remark may somehow

have become transposed to A. gularis, leading

to the belief that A. stevensoni was a particu-

larly pale bird. As already mentioned above,

the individual variation in colour of the

underparts in specimens collected in the winter

quarters is not large, and there is no evidence

of bimodality in this variation which would

be suggestive of different subspecies. It is true

that from this generalization one specimen has

to be excluded: ¢ ad., 12.11.1917, Batoetoelis

near Buitenzorg (RMNH cat. no. 53); this

bird has the underparts a deep cinnamon,

practically unbarred; in the colour of its

undersurface it is extremely similar to adult

females of A. soloensis. Evidently the question

as to whether or not the populations of A.

gularis from continental Asia and Japan show

any geographical variation can only be answer-

ed when identified breeding birds are com-

pared.

It is true that according to Stepanyan

(1959) birds from the western part of the

breeding range show a_ clinal tendency to

larger size, whereas in females the cross-bars

on the under surface would be a little narrower

and wider apart. In my opinion these average

differences hardly justify recognition of a

separate subspecies (A. virgatus sibiricus

Stepanyan) and in the winter quarters even

the distinction of extreme individuals would

be practically impossible. For this reason I

have not further considered the name sibiricus.

Discussion. Whether or not A. virgatus

and A. gularis are conspecific is still a point

of controversy in literature. Following Strese-

mann (1923), in a majority of recent publi-

cations gularis has been treated as a subspecies

of virgatus, but Vaurie (1965: 165 footnote)

stated: “This hawk is often considered to be

SPARROW HAWKS OF THE ANDAMAN ISLANDS

conspecific with A. virgatus but it is very dis-

tinct from it morphologically and appears to

be a distinct species related to A. virgatus and

A. nisus’. The breeding range of A. gularis

as circumscribed by Vaurie overlaps exten-

sively with that of A. virgatus in southern

China (Kwangtung, Kwangsi) and Formosa,

and this may have contributed to his decision

to treat them as different species (cf. Mees

1970: 291, Wattel 1972: 27 and 1973: 42).

Since then it has, however, become evident

that the records on which this was based con-

cern migrants and that in fact the breeding

ranges of A. virgatus and A. gularis are widely

separated, except for the peculiar occurrence

of an endemic subspecies A. gularis iwasakii

on the two southernmost Riu Kiu Islands

(Ishigaki and Iriomote), adjacent to Formosa

where A. virgatus fuscipectus lives. As a con-

sequence, I considered the problem of the

status of A. gularis to be open to discussion

again, and I considered it prudent not to take

a definite stand either way.

In the course of studying A. g. gularis I have,

like Vaurie and others before me, become in-

creasingly impressed by the differences it

shows from A. virgatus. These include the con-

siderable sexual dimorphism in plumage, the

smaller sexual difference in size, the shape

of the wing, the relatively shorter tail, the

somewhat smaller bill, the relatively shorter

tarsus. Apart from morphological differences,

ecological differences deserve also to be taken

into consideration: A. gularis appears to in-

habit (certainly in its winter quarters) a more

open habitat than A. virgatus; whereas the

latter is a sedentary inhabitant of tropical

forests, where admittedly it ranges into the

cooler montane zones, the former is as a

breeding bird confined to the temperate re-

gions, and is strongly migratory. All this led

me to the conclusion that the relationship be-

tween A. virgatus and A. gularis is far more

remote than most recent authors believe it to

be; it is not only that I regard them as diffe-

rent species, but I am not even convinced that

they are particularly close to each other. Thus

my views came to be very close to those of

Ogilvie-Grant (1896: 105), expressed eighty

years earlier, and quite different from those

of Stresemann (1923) whose article has

strongly influenced later workers but was

rather superficial.

In the above summary of characters dis-

tinguishing A. gularis from A. virgatus, the

form A. g. iwasakii has been left out on pur-

pose, for it completely spoils the picture. It

shows no sexual dimorphism in plumage, the

shape of the wing is similar to that of A. vir-

gatus, bill and tarsus appear to be larger than

in A. g. gularis. Ecologically it agrees with A.

virgatus in that it is a sedentary inhabitant of

a humid near-tropical habitat (cf. tables giv-

ing temperature, humidity and precipitation

on Ishigaki, published by Hachisuka & Uda-

gawa 1953: 146). Here we come on the old

problem of which characters are indicative of

true relationship, and which ones are merely

due to convergence. On the other hand a hope-

ful point is that the adult plumage of A. g.

iwasakii is similar to the female plumage of

A. gularis, and shows no resemblance whatso-

ever to that of A. virgatus. There is, of course,

no need to point out here that the fact that

characters are adaptive, does not necessarily

invalidate them for studies of relationships as

it can safely be argued that all characters are

adaptive and some, like wing-shape, are only

more obviously so than others. All characters

add to the general distinctiveness of a form

and may contribute to a judgement about its

status in relation to other forms. More about

39)

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

the systematic position of A. g. iwasakii will

be said in the discussion of that subspecies.

In the evaluation of the specific diversity of

A. virgatus and A. gularis account should also

be taken of the fact that in the only area where

their ranges approach each other closely and

under rather similar climatological conditions:

Formosa and the southern Riu Kiu Islands,

the two most diverse subspecies of each occur.

Formosa is inhabited A. v. fuscipectus, largest

member of the species A. virgatus, and the

southern Riu Kiu Islands are inhabited by the

smallest subspecies A. g. iwasakii, which is

roughly of the size of A. v. besra, and much

smaller than adjacent A. v. fuscipectus.

Wattel (1973: 43), who treated A. virgatus

and A. gularis as conspecific, speculated: “‘The

distribution and the habitat of gularis point to

an Oriental origin. After having become iso-

lated in the Himalayas and adjacent moun-

tains, the ancestors of A. virgatus recolonized

the eastern parts of the Palearctic and diffe-

rentiated into the present form gularis. This

may have happened during one of the earlier

Pleistocene interglacials. Several other Orien-

tal birds of prey penetrate the eastern Palearc-

tic in a similar way...”. In this quotation

there is one point I do not understand, and

that is why the habitat of A. gularis should

point to an Oriental origin. As regards Wat-

tel’s speculation about the origin of A. gularis,

it will be evident that this can only be valid

when one assumes that A. gularis and A. vir-

gatus are closely related and that the former

is an offshoot of the latter. But it is exactly

this assumption which I believe to be highly

questionable.

Accipiter gularis gularis (Temminck &

Schlegel)

Astur (Nisus) gularis Temminck & Schlegel,

392

1844, Fauna Japonica, Aves: 5, pl. Ii—Japon.

Material from the Andamans. @ im.

14.11.1964, Wimberleyganj, South Andaman,

leg. H. Abdulali (BNHS no. 21895).

Material from the Nicobars. 2, 27.iii.1966,

Camorta, leg. H. Abdulali (BNHS no. 22581).

Material from Continental India. Sex not

recorded (= ? im.), undated, Mhow, ex coll.

Whitely (BM no. 75.6.24.15); ¢, 16.x.1971,

Point Calimere, leg. BNHS party (BNHS no.

23926); sex not recorded (= @? im.), undat-

ed, Point Calimere, leg. BNHS party (BNHS

no. 23700).

Distribution in India. Hitherto A. gularis

had only been recorded from the Andamans

and Nicobars. Salomonsen (1953) published

details of a specimen captured at sea in the

Bay of Bengal, c. 10°N., 90°E., 250-300 km

W. of Little Andaman, in the same general

area. The specimens listed here constitute the

first records from Continental India and their

collecting localities indicate that this species

may perhaps be found as a scarce winter vi-

sitor throughout India. Some caution is, how-

ever, necessary in the case of the specimen

from Mhow as it has no original collector’s

label and bears no date; it was provided by

Whitely who was a taxidermist and trader (cf.

Sharpe 1906: 510). Therefore it seems to me

that the provenance Mhow given on its label

is not entirely above suspicion.

Distribution. As a breeding bird this sub-

species appears to be confined to the tempe-

rate regions of Central and East Asia. For

its distribution in the Soviet Union see Flint

et al. (1968: map 52) and for its whole breed-

ing range Wattel (1973: map 4). In the east-

ern part of its breeding range it seems to be

uncommon; in Korea it is described as a

scarce summer visitor (Gore & Won 1971:

163). Until recently, breeding in Japan was

SPARROW HAWKS OF THE ANDAMAN ISLANDS

considered to be very doubtful (Austin &

Kuroda 1953: 376), and Wattel still provided

the whole of Japan with a great query, but

there are now breeding records from all three

main islands: Hokkaido, Honshu and Shikoku

(Ornithological Society of Japan 1975: 67).

The distributional map published by Cheng

(1976: fig. 68) illustrates clearly how wide the

geographical gap is in China between the

breeding ranges of A. gularis and A. virgatus,

the former being almost confined to Manchu-

ria. This is confirmed by other literature, for

example Shaw (1936: 234), who as far north

as Hopei knew A. gularis as a migrant visitor

only, passing through in May and September-

October. It is true that Fu (1937: 38) claim-

ed breeding in the mountains of Fou-Niou and

Son-Chan in Honan, but from the context it

is not clear that he has considered the possi-

bility that the nests could have belonged to

A. soloensis, a species that ought to occur in

Honan but is not mentioned by Fu.

It has been assumed by a majority of au-

thors that A. gularis occurs as a breeding bird

throughout eastern China, to as far south

as Kwangtung, Kwangsi and Formosa (Vaurie

1965: 165, Brown & Amadon 1968: 468 and

map 37, Etchécopar & Hiie 1978: 150), where

it was supposed to co-exist with races of A.

virgatus. The matter was discussed in consi-

derable detail by Wattel (1973: 42), who con-

cluded that all records of breeding in southern

and eastern China are based on late migrants

and on misidentification. Previously I had pos-

tulated the same for Formosa (Mees 1970:

291). Cheng’s map supports this.

A. g. gularis is strongly migratory, occur-

ring in winter in some numbers to as far south

as Sumatra with its satellite islands, Java and

the Lesser Sunda Islands (Flores, Timor). Un-

like A. soloensis it does not go far east; it has

only once been recorded from the Celebes and

is unknown from the Moluccas.

Discussion. The fact that breeding records

from the Andamans are due to confusion with

A. virgatus abdulalii has been made clear on

a preceding page. Ali & Ripley (1968: 250)

further wrote under the heading A. virgatus

gularis: ‘Occurs in the Nicobars; probably

breeding, but status unconfirmed”. The speci-

men listed here is the only one known from

the Nicobars (Abdulali 1967: 155). Note in

this connexion that Brown & Amadon (1968:

523) make under A. butleri the following sta-

tement: “‘The only small sparrow-hawk oc-

curring in the Nicobars, hence unmistakable’;

this is misleading as actually three species of

similar size are now known from the group

(A. butleri, A. gularis and A. soloensis). Ad-

mittedly A. butleri is the only resident but

evidence is that in winter it is outnumbered

by A. soloensis and perhaps also by A. gula-

ris. Moreover the two migrant species may be

expected to occur on all islands of the group

whereas on present evidence A. butleri is con-

fined to Car Nicobar and Katchal.

Brown & Amadon (1968: 468) gave for A.

gularis, with which the nominate subspecies is

meant (they overlooked A. g. iwasakii) a wing

length of ¢@ 160-187, 2 167-198 mm (numbers

of specimens not mentioned). The measure-

ments taken by me show a much smaller varia-

tion of each sex but a much more pronounced

difference in size between the sexes (see tables

I and II). The figures published by Hartert

(1914: 1162): 24 gf 164-171, 15 2 184-195,

by Swann (1926: 329): ¢g& 163-170, 2 184-

200 mm (numbers of specimens not recorded),

by Voous (1950; 97): tS. o'159-172, 21, 2

180-197 mm, and by Wattel (1973: 37 tab.

14): 32 og 158-174 (average 165.9), 21 9

180-197 (average 189.1) mm, agree with mine.

393

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

I must assume that Brown & Amadon have

measured a large number of wrongly sexed

specimens. Their tail lengths show a similar

over-large range of variation: o 117-137,

Q 111-143 mm.

A combination of the dated material in Lei-

den and Bombay shows that this species be-

gins to arrive in its winter quarters in Octo-

ber and stays until late April and early May.

MontH VII IX X XI XII I iW iW IV V

RMNH — — 6 10 10 8 9 10 4 2

1 eel

The earliest autumn date is 4.x.1921 (Pan-

gerango, Java, leg. Bartels, RMNH cat. no.

58), the latest spring dates are 9.v.1925 (Rem-

bang, Java, leg. Sody, RMNH cat. no. 30),

May 1912 without exact date (Medan, Suma-

tra, leg. de Bussy, RMNH cat. no. 21). The

four birds collected in April are from 16, 18,

21 and 23 of that month (all Java). Compare

this with the data from the Malay Peninsula,

summarized by Medway & Wells (1976: 107).

Voous (1950: 106), who considered A. gu-

laris and A. virgatus to be conspecific, made

in the discussion of A. gularis the enigmatic

statement: ““These birds are less closely re-

lated to the Malaysian breeding birds than

are the Philippine and Burmese races. They

are probably rather close relatives of the North

American Sharp-shinned Hawk (Accipiter ve-

lox), whereas the S. E. Asiatic breeding birds

represent a more primitive stage’. The sug-

gested relationship between A. gularis and A.

striatus (of which velox is a subspecies) has

already been discussed and rejected by Wattel

(1973: 114), so that there is no need for me

394

to cover that ground again, but what I do not

understand in the quotation from Voous given

above, and nevertheless read in it, is that the

form he calls A. virgatus gularis, and there-

fore regards as a subspecies of A. virgatus,

would be more closely related to A. velox than

to A. v. virgatus. Surely there is a contradic-

tion here between the opinion he airs and the

nomenclature he uses? I also fail to under-

stand why A. virgatus, a specialized bird

hunter of the tropical forest, should be called

‘primitive’, a word that without a lot of ex-

planation is meaningless.

Accipiter gularis iwasakii Mishima

Accipiter virgatus iwasakii Mishima, 1962,

Tori 17: 219--Ishigaki and Iriomote, southern

Riu Kius.

Material. <S ad. (originally mis-sexed as

2), 28.v.1904, Omoto-Dake, Ishigaki, leg.

Owston’s Japanese collector (AMNH no.

533881); @ ad., 6.vi.1904, Kawara-yama,

Ishigaki, same source (AMNH no. 533880).

Distribution. Endemic to Ishigaki and Irio-

mote, southern Riu Kiu Islands.

Characters. Sexual difference in size about

the same as in A. g. gularis, but contrary to

that form there is little or no sexual difference

in plumage: the adults of both sexes have a

plumage very similar to that of female A. g.

gularis, but the cross-bars on the undersurface

are a little paler, greyer, less brownish. Wings

shorter and more rounded than those of A.

g. gularis, resembling in shape those of A. vir-

gatus, as is also clear from the length of the

wing tip (see table). Tail not shorter than in

A. g. gularis, and the feet, if anything, appear

to be a trifle heavier than in that subspecies.

Viewed from above, the female has six bands

SPARROW HAWKS OF THE ANDAMAN ISLANDS

on the tail, of which four are free, one is par-

tially visible behind the upper tail-coverts, and

one is entirely concealed. All specimens of A.

g. gularis which I examined for this character

have five bands. Dark mesial streak on throat

as in the nominate race.

Habitat. To my knowledge no field notes

have ever been published, but from its mor-

phology and its localities of collecting it may

be safely deduced that A. g. iwasakii is a

forest bird.

Discussion. The knowledge that A. gularis

has a resident population on Ishigaki dates

from Bangs (1901: 263), who recorded a

downy nestling collected on 27.vi.1899. The

information about breeding was repeated by

Hartert (1914: 1162), who, without referring

to Bangs, wrote: ‘Auf der Insel Ischigaki

(siidliche Riu-Kiu-Gruppe) briitet diese Art

und ist dort Standvogel; ein ? hat den Fliigel

nur 183, 3 alte ¢ nur 160-165 mm, auch sind

letztere unterseits sehr stark gebindert; ver-

mutlich handelt es sich um eine Unterart, aber

einzelne Zugvégel aus den Tropen kommen

dieser Form so nahe, dass sie nach dem Vor-

liegenden Material nicht zu benennen _ist”’.

Hartert failed to state on what his opinion

that A. gularis was a resident on Ishigaki was

based, but probably he combined the breeding

record published by Bangs with the fact that

specimens had been collected in various sea-

sons. In all subsequent literature, the occur-

rence of A. gularis as a resident in the south-

ern Riu Kiu Islands has been accepted and

therefore it is surprising that no further study

of this isolated population was made for an-

other fifty years when finally Mishima (1962)

described it as a separate subspecies. Although

this subspecies was accepted by such critical

authors as Wattel (1973: 37), Morioka (1974)

and the Ornithological Society of Japan (1975:

67), I am unaware that it has been either ob-

served in the field or studied in the museum

since its description.

The fact that zoogeographically an endemic

subspecies of A. gularis on Ishigaki and Irio-

mote is unexpected, made me wonder if the

evidence was realiy as strong as it seemed.

The most convincing piece of evidence would

clearly be the downy nestling: if it was cor-

rectly identified, it would provide unassailable

proof. As Bangs (1. c.) is singularly uninfor-

mative about how the nestling was identified,

and whether it was actually associated with

an adult bird, it seemed worth enquiring with

the Museum of Comparative Zodlogy. Dr.

Paynter was so kind to re-examine the speci-

men for me; he reported that it is definitely

an Accipiter, but that it is too young for spe-

cific identification; indeed, somebody had _ pro-

vided the name A. gularis given on the label

with a great query. However, as no other spe-

cies of sparrow-hawk is known to occur in the

Riu Kiu Islands, it may safely be assumed that

the pullus actually is A. g. iwasakii. Anyway,

all my doubts ended when I got an opportu-

nity to examine specimens from Ishigaki.

The evidence for the occurrence on Irio-

mote, poorly documented in the consulted lite-

rature, rests on an adult female and a downy

young in the Yamashina Institute, collected

together on 5.vii.1936 (Yamashina, in itt.,

INUA9T9)..

Small as the sample of A. g. iwasakii was,

it shows some conspicuous differences in pro-

portions from the nominate race (see table).

Previous authors (Hartert) have noted that it

is a trifle smaller, but also the tail is relatively

longer. It seemed of interest to investigate

whether the tail is actually longer, or that the

395

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

difference is due to the wings of A. g. iwasakii

being relatively shorter. For the sake of con-

venience I compared specimen BNHS no.

22581 of A. g. gularis with specimen AMNH

no. 533880 of A. g. iwasakii, both of which

have a tail of 132 mm, but the wing length

of the first specimen is 192 mm, that of the

second specimen 181 mm, resulting in a tail/

wing index of 68.8% in the former, 72.9% in

the latter. However, if we take off the wing tip

(58 mm in the first specimen against 464 mm

in the second), the remaining wing length of

the first specimen is 192-58 = 134 mm, of

the second 181-464 = 1344 mm, hence vir-

tually identical. This strongly suggests, not un-

expectedly, that the shift in wing/tail ratio

between the two subspecies is due to the short-

er more rounded wing of A. g. twasakii.

This also shows that the structural differences

between the two subspecies are not, after all,

so very great. The more rounded wing of A.

g. iwasakii is an adaptation to a sedentary way

of life, of a kind common to many species of

birds and therefore of limited phylogenetic

significance. However, as I have stressed on a

previous page, it is of some significance. It

will certainly have taken A. g. gularis and A.

g. iwasakii many generations to have become

as different in wing shape as they are now.

There is always a temptation to use certain

characters when they happen to fit into one’s

theories, and to reject them as insignificant

when they do not. Although it is perhaps no

longer fair to criticize a paper over fifty years

after its publication, it is still relevant to the

problem here discussed to recall that Strese-

mann (1923: 517) used the agreement in wing

formula between A. soloensis and A.. brevipes

as evidence for their close relationship, and

proceeded to call a difference in wing formula

“ein unwesentliches Merkmal’’, to be able to

396

unite both with A. badius.

As will be clear from the discussion given

above, I started off with a strong mistrust of

this form, the main reasons for this being that

A. g. gularis is known to be a late migrant so

that specimens collected in late May and early

June could still have been on their way back

to the breeding grounds in eastern Siberia, that

the islands Ishigaki and Iriomote are not only

remote from the breeding range of A. g. gularis

but also far more southerly, and that one

would not expect an endemic form on these

two islands but absent from the larger central

group of the Riu Kius. All these prejudices

proved mistaken when I examined material,

for actually A. g. iwasakii is far more distinc-

tive than literature had made me believe. Al-

though Hartert (as quoted above) noted the

cross-bars of a male bird, Mishima’s (1962)

description is based on wing formula and

size only; no mention is made in it of colour

characters and of the wing tip. Its geographi-

cal, morphological and colour characters com-

bined, make A. g. iwasakii about as distinct

from A. g. gularis as A. butleri is from A.

badius. A. g. iwasakii and A. butleri have,

through convergence, several points in com-

mon: both are strongly modified isolates, con-

fined to a few small islands, both have shorter

and more rounded wings as well as somewhat

larger and heavier bill and feet than the spe-

cies from which they are assumed to have been

derived, perhaps both lack sexual dimorphism

in the adult plumage (I have not examined

A. buitleri, but in the literature only one adult

plumage has been described). Since A. butleri

is nowadays usually treated as a separate spe-

cies, although there is agreement that it has

been derived from A. badius, it would be con-

sistent to treat A. g. iwasakii also as a species

rather than as a subspecies of A. gularis. I

SPARROW HAWKS OF THE ANDAMAN ISLANDS

have not done so because, in spite of the diffe-

rences, there is a lot of agreement between A.

g. gularis and A. g. iwasakii in general pro-

portions, plumage of the female, etc., but main-

ly because, whatever its exact status, A. g.

iwasakii is clearly a derivative of A. gularis,

and in the framework of this paper it is con-

venient to express this relationship in nomen-

clature. As regards its true status, which must

remain speculative anyway, I would be inclin-

ed to regard it as a separate species.

According to Wattel (1973: 43): “The oc--

currence of a population on the southern Riu

Kiu Islands which is most closely similar to

Palaearctic gularis can be understood by sup-

posing that a group of migrants of the north-

ern form settled in these islands’’. It is per-

fectly possible that this interpretation is cor-

rect, but A. g. iwasakii could equally well be

a glacial relict, dating from a period that the

main range of A. gularis was farther south

than at present. In either case, its morpholo-

gical peculiarities prove that A. g. iwasakii

has been isolated for a long time.

ACCIPITER BADIUS (GMELIN)

Material examined. Small series of the sub-

species A. b. badius, A. b. dussumieri and A.

b. poliopsis. The available specimens of A. b.

dussumieri were nearly all from our old mount-

ed collection, without other data than vague

indications of provenance: ‘‘Inde”, ‘“‘Hindous-

tan’, ““Bengale’’.

Distribution. Aethiopian Africa, southern

and south-eastern Asia. In Asia ranging from

eastern Transcaucasia right across to southern

China. Occurs in Sri Lanka, but not in the is-

lands to the south-east and east of the Asiatic

mainland, except as an uncommon migrant to

Formosa and Sumatra. In India generally dis-

tributed throughout the lowlands and the lower

montane regions with an upper limit of c. 1500

m in India (Ali & Ripley 1968: 236), or at

least 1800 m in Ceylon (Whistler 1944:

249).

Characters. The distinctive characters of

this species (all subspecies occurring in south-

eastern Asia) can be summarized as follows.

Differs from A. virgatus by its much more

pointed wings; wing tip in males 50-63 mm,

in females 58-65 mm, against 35-43 mm in

males and 41-52 mm in females of A. virgatus

from India (three subspecies combined). From

A. gularis this species differs in all plumages

by having, sex for sex, longer wings although

there might be marginal overlap in large se-

ries; by having larger and heavier bill and

claws, and a conspicuously longer tail.

Adult specimens of either sex rarely cause

identification problems. The comparatively

light grey upperparts, the absence of distinct

bands on the central rectrices, apart from a

subterminal one, and the pattern of cross-bars

on the breast are quite distinctive. Only in the

last-mentioned character is there some varia-

tion that might lead to misidentification. Usual-

ly the cross-bars are vivid brown, close to-

gether, but in some specimens they tend to

be less marked and more pinkish in colour,

and such specimens can show a superficial re-

semblance to certain adult males of A. gularis

(but the back and tail pattern are always dif-

ferent).

Geographical variation. In southern and

eastern Asia the following subspecies are cur-

rently recognized: A. b. cenchroides (south-

western Asia eastwards to northern Pakistan),

A. b. dussumieri (the greater part of India),

A. b. badius (Sri Lanka, and perhaps the ex-

treme south of India), and A. b. poliopsis (from

Assam and Burma eastwards). The position

397

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

of the populations in southern India has not

been definitely settled; usually they have been

referred to A. b. badius, but Whistler (1944:

248) observed: ‘Travancore birds are really

intermediate between badius and dussumieri

but on the whole it is best to include them

with the former”, whereas according to Abdul-

ali (1969: 701) they agree better with A. b.

dussumieri. At least some of the subspecies

are migratory: A. b. cenchroides has been re-

corded in winter from north-western India

(Ali & Ripley 1968: 235) and Bombay

(Abdulali 1969: 700), whereas A. b. poliopsis

is a scarce winter visitor to the northern Malay

Peninsula (Medway & Wells 1976: 105) and

reaches Sumatra from where three specimens

are known (cf. Junge 1948: 319), all three

of which I have examined. I have not studied

the geographical variation of A. badius, being

concerned with its specific characters only, but

further study at the subspecific level might be

rewarding.

Discussion. A. badius had to be included

in this paper as in its immature plumage it has

so often been confused with A. virgatus and

A. gularis. The synonymy given by Deignan

(1945: 63-64), for example, shows that in

northern Thailand alone, A. badius has been

recorded under the names A. gularis, A. tri-

virgatus indicus (!), A. gularis nisoides and

A. virgatus nisoides. In continental India also,

this species has been consistently confused with

A. virgatus.

ACCIPITER SOLOENSIS (HOorRSFIELD)

Falco Soloénsis Horsfield, 1821, Trans.

Linn. Soc. Lond. 13: 137—Java (by inference

Solo).

Material from the Nicobars. 2 juv.,

25.ii.1858, Car Nicobar, leg. J. Zelebor, Novara

398

Exp. (MV no. 71222).

Distribution in India. Known as a winter

visitor to the Nicobars. Records from the An-

damans are erroneous (see Discussion).

Distribution. As a breeding bird known

from Korea, where it is common and widely

distributed (Gore & Won 1971: 160-163), and

the greater part of China, west to Szechwan,

south to Kwangtung. In view of the common

occurrence in Korea and the fact that this

species has even been found in Russian teri-

tory (Labzyuk et al. 1971: 58, Nazarov &

Labzyuk 1975: 271) the map in Cheng (1976:

fig. 65) in which it is shown as confined to

the southern half of China appears too restric-

tive, although it is true that there is no actual

proof yet of breeding in northern China and

Manchuria and that the number of records is

surprisingly small. Supposed breeding in For-

mosa (Hachisuka & Udagawa 1951: 97,

Vaurie 1965: 164) remains unconfirmed (cf.

Mees 1970: 286, Wattel 1973: 30). Strongly

migratory and in winter found to the limits

of an arc extending from the Nicobars in the

west, over the Greater and Lesser Sunda Is-

lands and the North Moluccas, to islands off

the western tip of New Guinea.

Characters. Of the species here dealt with,

A. soloensis is the least likely to cause con-

fusion. It is characterized by having little

sexual dimorphism, either in size or in plum-

age, a very long wing tip (the difference be-

tween the longest primary and the tenth being

68-75 mm, or 35.6-38.8% of the wing length

in 21 specimens), a comparatively short mid-

dle toe, and in the adult plumage an under-

wing pattern almost devoid of barring: seen

from below the outer primaries are dark grey

or black, the remainder of the wing is white

or pale buffish, with at most a few dark spots.

All other species here dealt with have the

SPARROW HAWKS OF THE ANDAMAN ISLANDS

primaries and much of the underwing dis-

tinctly barred. There are a few thin grey lines

on the white throat, often forming a narrow

dark median stripe.

Sexual dimorphism in plumage is compa-

ratively slight, but is not entirely absent. Adult

females have the chest, lower chest and flanks

a rich cinnamon. Some adult males come near

them, but most males have the underparts con-

spicuously paler, more pinkish.

Discussion. A. soloensis was recorded from

the Andamans by Ripley (1961: 46), Ali &

Ripley (1968: 239-240) and finally by Wattel

(1973: 30) but apparently mistakenly (see also

Abdulali 1969: 702). The error originated

probably with Baker (1928: 153) who did not

include the Andamans in the range as given

under the heading ‘Distribution’, but under

‘Habits’ observed: “Hume saw it in the den-

sest forests in the Andamans’”’. In the publish-

ed works of Hume I have been unable to find

any evidence that he ever observed A. soloen-

sis in the Andamans, nor, indeed, in the

Nicobars (cf. Hume 1874: 141) and I suspect

that Baker has misquoted Hume’s remarks

about the specimen collected in the Nicobars

by Zelebor of the Novara expedition.

In the Nicobars, A. soloensis has long been

known. A specimen was collected on Car Nico-

bar as long ago as February 1858 and was re-

ported in print a few years later (cf. Pelzeln

1865: 12). It is true that Richmond (1902:

307) questioned the identification of the speci-

men, an immature female, and speculated that

it belonged to A. butleri,a species not yet des-

cribed when Pelzeln’s paper was published.

Other authors have copied this. Since the point

had to my knowledge never been verified, I re-

examined the specimen and found that its

original identification was perfectly correct.

Why Richmond should have doubted this is

not clear anyway as he himself recorded a

series of no fewer than twelve specimens of

A. soloensis taken on Katchal, Great and Little

Nicobar. Dr. Watson has been so kind as to

re-examine these specimens for me and to con-

firm (in litt., 3.viii.1978) that they had been

correctly identified. The large number of in-

dividuals taken in the Nicobars makes it evi-

dent that it will be only a matter of time be-

fore this migrant is also recorded from the

Andamans.

It is relevant to mention that A. soloensis

is known from the island of Nias, to the west

of Sumatra, the history of the record being

as follows. Buttikofer (1896) listed a sparrow-

hawk from Nias under the name Astur poliop-

sis (Hume). Chasen (1935: 71 footnote 2)

commented: “‘Bittikofer’s ‘poliopsis’ from

Nias is stated to have the cere yellow and is

therefore probably A. soloénsis’’. On this basis

he included Nias in the winter range of A.

soloensis. Ripley (1944: 323) did not agree:

“Chasen lists this species from Nias on the

basis of Biittikofer’s record of Accipiter poli-

opsis. From the description of the specimen,

however, it is impossible to be sure that he

did not have a specimen of poliopsis’’. There-

fore Ripley restored A. badius poliopsis to

the Nias list and removed A. soloensis from

it. Examination of the specimen in our col-

lection revealed that actually Chasen’s guess

was right: the specimen is undoubtedly refer-

able to A. soloensis (2 ad., 20.xi.1895, Hili

Madjeio, Nias, RMNH cat. no. 50). It is per-

haps well to add here that the specimen re-

corded by Biittikofer (1. c.) as Accipiter vir-

gatus, is A. gularis.

Wattel (1973: 30) states of this species

that it is: “Particularly numerous in northern

Celebes and not uncommon in eastern Java’.

This more or less suggests that in western

399.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

Java it is uncommon. Our collection contains

129 specimens of A. soloensis from Java, of

which six in the old collection have no exact

locality and eleven are from East Java, so that

there are 112 specimens from West Java. This

should be compared with the numbers of A.

gularis and A. virgatus given on a preceding

page.

The available material is large enough to

give some insight in the duration of the stay

in the winter quarters. Divided over the dif-

ferent months we get the following numbers:

MontH VIII IX X XI XII I It Wl IV V

RMNH 1 Lh S3605 25 232 oa

MV 1

The earliest dates are 1.viii.1861 (Morotai,

leg. Bernstein, RMNH cat. no. 58) and

22.ix.1863 (Negri-Lama, Celebes, leg. Rosen-

berg, RMNH cat. no. 18), whereas the last

date in spring is 15.iv.1925 (Koeningan near

Cheribon, Java, leg. F.C. van Heurn, RMNH

cat. 51). The August date is so remarkably

early that Hartert (1914: 1163) expressed

doubt about it: “Ein Stiick im Leidener

Museum soll am 1. August auf Morty erbeutet

sein’’. Although the specimen is mounted and

lacks a collector’s label, there seems to be

nothing wrong with it. Schlegel (1873: 98) al-

ready listed it with this date. Compare the

above table with that given on a preceding

page for A. gularis: whereas the dates of arri-

val in autumn are not very different, A. gularis

stays longer in spring. Presumably this is con-

nected with its more northerly breeding

quarters.

Brown & Amadon (1968: 514) state that

in this species females are larger than males.

Although this is correct, the difference is slight

and unlike most other species of the genus,

400

it is quite impossible to distingiush the sexes

by size alone. The wing-lengths provided by

Brown & Amadon are 6 185-201, ? 200-

209 (number of specimens not given) and

suggest almost complete segregation, with an

overlapping of only 1 mm. The averages found

by me in 10 ¢ ad. and 11 @ ad. (see table)

are 189.0 and 194.1 mm respectively. The

averages recorded by Wattel (1973: 31) are 13

o 186.8 and 11 @ 195.5 mm, not very diffe-

rent from mine. Note that the size-ranges

found by Wattel and by me correspond close-

ly, but that the measurements provided by

Brown & Amadon are decidedly larger, espe-

cially for the females; their figures were pro-

bably copied from La Touche (1932: 189-

190) and consultation of that author’s work

revealed that his figures were based on very

few specimens. The number of males is not

given, but the female variation was based on

three specimens with wings of 200, 200 and

209 mm. Assuming that all La Touche’s spe-

cimens were correctly identified, and his des-

criptions look convincing, it seems that he hap-

pened to have one exceptionally large indivi-

dual, or perhaps it is just a difference in method

of measuring that is responsible for the large

wing-size of his specimens, compared with the

larger number measured by me. In order to

obtain a better insight in the range of varia-

tion possible, I measured the wings of all the

females, adults as well as juveniles, in our

collection, 53 specimens altogether, and found

as maxima for the wing length 202, 203 and

204 mm. All other specimens had a _ wing

length of less than 200 mm.

THE IDENTITY OF Accipiter nisoides BLYTH

The name nisoides, in a subspecific sense,

has been used for the Andaman breeding birds

SPARROW HAWKS OF THE ANDAMAN ISLANDS

by such influential authors as Baker, Peters

and, albeit with some doubt, by Wattel (1973).

Therefore the name Accipiter nisoides deser-

ves a close scrutiny to decide whether it is

applicable to the Andaman breeding popula-

tion, and more generally, what its identity is.

The type specimen was collected in the

vicinity of Malacca by R. W. G. Frith, and

presented to the museum of the Asiatic So-

ciety. It was described as follows (Blyth

1847): ‘‘Acc. nisoides. Presumed female in

mature plumage differing only from that of

Acc. nisus (common to Europe and India),

in its much inferior size, being smaller than

the male of Acc. nisus; and in having the

throat streakless white, excepting a narrow

median dark line; the usual lateral lines occur,

but not conspicuously, bordering the ear-

coverts beneath, which are observable in vari-

ous other species of Hawks, Eagle-Hawks, &

c. Length of wing 74 inches, of tail 54; tarse

13 inch; middle toe and claw 14 in.”.

Blyth (1866: 240) himself withdrew the

name: ‘When writing the foregoing remarks

I had not the ‘Fauna Japonica’ at hand. Now

that it is before me, I recognize in the figure

of the female A. gularis an exact representa-

tion of my A. nisoides’. A few years later

Blyth (1870: 158) unexpectedly retained A.

nisoides, placing A. gularis in its synonymy.

A. gularis Temminck & Schlegel (1844) has,

obviously, clear priority over A. nisoides Blyth

(1847). In those years, however, British orni-

thologists appear to have laboured under the

misconception that A. gularis was published

in 1850 (see for example Sharpe 1874: 151).

Therefore this change did not mean a change

in Blyth’s conclusion that both names referred

to the same species.

The synonymy given by Sharpe (1874: 150-

151) shows that much confusion existed in

those days. Sharpe placed the names mani-

lensis, besra, gularis, affinis and stevensoni all

in the synonymy of A. virgatus. These names

are now known to be applicable to three dif-

ferent species.

Quite apart from this confusion, one would

think that Blyth’s own identification of A.

nisoides with A. gularis was positive enough,

and it has been accepted by many later authors

(Hartert 1914: 1161; Vaurie 1965: 165), but

others have applied it to a somewhat hypo-

thetical form supposed to be a resident in

south-eastern Asia. As far as I have been

able to ascertain, the first to advance the last-

mentioned point of view was Baker (1928:

164 and 1935: 115), who recognized it as a

valid subspecies of A. gularis under the name

A. g. nisoides. As the characters ascribed to

this subspecies were apparent only in the

male sex (according to Baker), it is not clear

how he could be sure that the female holo-

type of nisoides belonged to it and was not

a migrant of the nominate race. Only a few

months later Robinson (1928: 27-28) expres-

sed similar ideas. It has now become clear

that A. gularis occurs in south-eastern Asia

as a winter visitor only and that the differen-

tial characters listed by Baker and Robinson

are within the range of individual variation.

Baker treated A. virgatus and A. gularis as

different species, and definitely associated A.

nisoides with A. gularis. The next step was

taken by Peters (1931: 223), who united A.

virgatus and A. gularis to one species, which

led automatically to the combination A. vir-

gatus nisoides. The distribution he gave to this

subspecies was much the same as that given

by Baker: ‘‘Southern China from Fohkien to

Burma, the Andamans and the Malay States’.

In part of this range A. v. affinis was also

known to occur, but by ascribing to that sub-

401

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

species a more westerly distribution, and by

assuming migration, he managed to provide

affinis and nisoides with separate breeding

ranges. The distribution he recorded for A. v.

affinis was: “Breeds from the western Hima-

layas to western China, Yunnan and south to

Assam and hills of northern Burma. Winters

over the greater part of northern India, south-

ern China (including Hainan and Formosa)

and Indo-China’. The matter of migration

will be discussed in the next section.

Authors dealing specifically with birds of

the Malay Peninsula continued to be in doubt

about the identity of A. nisoides. It is true

that Chasen (1935: 72 footnote 2) consider-

ed the name more likely to apply to a migra-

tory form than to a resident race. Gibson-

Hill (1949: 38) also regarded it as a winter

visitor, but as far as I can judge he did not

question its validity. Even Medway & Wells

(1976: 401-402) felt compelled to discuss the

name: ‘‘We have not had access to the type

of A. v. nisoides [sic], but Chasen, Gibson-

Hill and others have suggested that it was pro-

bably a migrant and possibly identical with

A. gularis. The accuracy of a 19th century

localization ‘Malacca’ is in any case suspect’.

Note that these authors introduced a new ele-

ment of doubt: that the localization ‘Malacca’

is suspect. In general this would be perfectiy

true, but in this particular case attention

should be paid to Blyth’s words that the col-

lection to which the type of A. nisoides be-

longed was: ‘“‘chiefly procured in the vicinity

of Malacca”, and from the further text it is

evident that Blyth at least believed the speci-

men to have come from near the town of

Malacca, an acceptable locality for a migrant

A. gularis. Whether or not a resident popula-

tion of A. virgatus occurs in the mountains of

Malaya, where one would almost expect it on

402.

geographical grounds, is a question that can

only be solved in the field. It should by now

be evident that the name nisoides can never

be used for such a population, being clearly

a synonym of A. gularis. For reasons which

will be obvious to the informed, I have ignor-

ed Cairns’s (1963) breeding record from

Selama, Perak.

Even though I was and am perfectly satis-

fied about the identity of A. nisoides, I have

nevertheless tried to trace the type specimen,

but have been unsuccessful. According to Dr.

Mukherjee (in litt., 19.ix.1977) it cannot now

be found in the Indian Museum, and as it is

not listed by Sclater (1892), the specimen has

probably disappeared long ago.

Is Accipiter virgatus affinis MIGRATORY?

Apparently Hartert (1910: 211) was the

first to definitely mention migration in con-

nection with A. v. affinis, in the following

words: ‘“‘Accipiter affinis appears to inhabit

the Himalayas. It is found also in Formosa

and Hainan, but it appears to be a winter

visitor on these islands, and probably migra-

tes down from the Himalayas in the cold

season”. This is the somewhat casual way in

which the notion that A. v. affinis is migra-

tory entered the literature. Hartert’s authority

ensured this casual opinion being copied un-

critically. It was echoed by Baker (1928:

161): ‘In winter...is found over the greater

part of Northern India’, further gained in res-

pectability through Peters (1931: 223), was

repeated by Ripley (1961: 47): “wintering

to the south of its breeding range”’ and is still

found in a slightly modified version in Ali &

Ripley (1968: 248). Vaurie (1965: 165) also

claimed A. v. affinis to be: ‘‘Partly migratory,

moving down to the plains of northern India

in the winter, and to the Indo-Chinese coun-

SPARROW HAWKS OF THE ANDAMAN

tries, Hainan, and southern China; resident in

Formosa where it moves down to the plains

during the winter”. The latest reviser, Wattel

(1973: 36) stated: ‘A. v. affinis shifts to

lower levels and to the plains of India, Indo-

china, and southern China in winter. It appears

in fair numbers on Hainan (Hartert 1910).

The population on Taiwan also descends from

the mountains in the winter’.

Thus it may be said that the opinion that

A. y. affinis is migratory is well-established

and time-honoured. Nevertheless it is necessary

to state that | have been unable to find much

evidence to support it.

Even fifty years ago, Swann (1926: 324)

noted that birds from Formosa (Taiwan) are

larger than birds from the Himalayas and the

former have since been recognized as represent-

ing a separate subspecies, A. v. fuscipectus

Mees, 1970. There is no evidence that A. v.

affinis ever visits the island. Why in Hainan

A. v. affinis should have been regarded as a

winter visitor only is also unclear. The first to

record the species from Hainan was J. White-

head in 1899 (cf. Ogilvie-Grant 1900: 490):

his two specimens were both obtained in the

second half of May (cf. Mees 1970: 289).

Hartert’s (1910: 209) specimens were collect-

ed in January, March, April and November.

Shaw & Hsu (1966: 97) listed specimens

taken in May, June and September. Clearly,

A. v. affinis is a resident in Hainan.

Hartert’s ideas are supported to a certain

extent by early records from the Indian Plain,

although authors who accepted these records

considered them proof of occasional wander-

ing, not of migration. Just the same, they

merit a full discussion which will be given

below.

The specimens I have examined from the

western part of the range come from Kashmir,

ISLANDS

northern India, Nepal, the extreme north of

Bengal (Duars, Jalpaiguri, Darjeeling), the

hills of Assam, etc., see specimens listed here

and the list of material with dates and Jocali-

ties provided in a previous publication (Mees

1970: table il). There was not a single speci-

men from the Indian Plain, where according

to the authors just quoted A. v. affinis would

range widely in winter.

The literature consulted provides also little

evidence for the occurrence of A. v. affinis

south of its breeding range. In the light of

the confusion between several species that was

prevalent in those years, old records from

Kutch (Stoliczka 1872: 230), Sambhar Lake

(Adam 1873: 368) and Aboo (Hume in But-

ler 1875: 445) appear questionable. These re-

cords were accepted by Blanford (1895: 404-

405) and through him have become entrenched

in the world literature. Stoliczka’s Kutch col-

lection is in the Vienna Museum. At iny re-

quest Dr. Schifter made a search for Accipiter

specimens contained in this collection and in-

formed me as follows: ‘‘Wir haben zwar Sto-

liczkas Sammelausbeute aus Kachh erhalten,

aber es hat sich darunter kein Exemplar von

Accipiter virgatus befunden. Ich habe auch in

den Eingangsbiichern mit der Originalliste der

Sendung nachgesehen und dort sind aus Kachh

nur 2 (oi und ¢) der in Stoliczkas Artikel

erwahnten ‘Micronisus badius’ verzeichnet, die

sich auch in unserer Sammlung befinden (Inv.

Nr. 71.213, 71.214)...In seiner Ver6ffentii-

chung schreibt Stoliczka bei A. nisus and A.

virgatus allerdings auch nur ‘not - common’.

Offenbar haben daher auch ihm in_ seiner

Sammlung keine Exemplare vorgelegen”’

(Schifter, zw litt., 9.v.1979). In the absence of

material to support it, Stoliczka’s record should

be dismissed. I have not traced the specimens

from Sambhar Lake and Aboo. The supposed

403

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

occurrence near Lucknow in the Ganges Plain

is based on Reid (188i: 6): “It is a coid

weather visitor, very locally distributed”. To

this the same pertains as to the older records

just listed, especially as in this case there is

no reference to a collected specimen. Jesse

(1903: 78) was unable to add anything to

Reid’s observations. Swinhoe & Barnes (1885:

50) wrote under the name A. virgatus: “‘two

specimens were obtained at Mhow in October

1881”? and the measurements provided for the

male bird: “Length 11.2 inches, wing 6.75, tail

5.1” do not contradict their identification. In

order to verify the identification, I have tried

to trace the specimens which I expected to be

in the British Museum (cf. Sharpe 1906: 495).

However, Mr. Galbraith (in litt., 13.x.1978)

informed me as follows: “Unfortunately and

oddly, we have not got Swinhoe and Barnes’

Accipiter virgatus from Mhow. Though the

History of the Collections implies that the

whole of the Mhow collection came to us in

1884, there are no A. virgatus among the 332

birds registered, nor any from Mhow in the

collection. Evidently the 332 were not all the

birds collected by Swinhoe and Barnes. Since

the A. virgatus did not come to us later, in

one of the accumulative private collections,

I suppose that Cambridge and Liverpool are

the least unlikely places for the Accipiters

to have ended up’. Following this suggestion

I wrote to Cambridge and Liverpool, ind in

the Merseyside County Museum, Liverpool,

one of the two specimens was found. It is not

the male of which the measurements were pub-

lished, but an immature bird sexed as a female.

I have examined the specimen and found it

to be referable to A. badius and_ ob-

viously a male. As I have failed to

trace the other specimen, I cannot prove

that that also was misidentified, but it is now

404

very likely that it was, so that the Swinhoe «

Barnes record of A. virgatus from Mhow ca:

be rejected. It may cause wonder that the

mentioned authors misidentified their speci-

mens, as they knew A. badius, which they

described as a very common bird in Central

India. The date and locality of collecting

(Mhow, 25.x.1881) and the identification A.

virgatus appearing on its label provide proof,

however, that it actually is one of the birds

recorded under that name. Briggs (1931:

399) knew of no other records of A. virgatus

from Mhow and it is obvious that the species

must be removed from the regional list. I] have

already shown that Baker’s (1928: 160) re-

cord of A. virgatus besra from Mhow is also

erroneous.

I am not convinced that the specimens from

Lyallpur recorded under the name A. vy.

affinis by Husain & Bhalla (1937: 840) were

identified correctly: the habitat, irrigated gar-

dens and fields in an arid country, seems un-

usual for a forest bird. If the specimens still

exist, to which their paper gives no clue, they

should be re-examined. It is true that, dis-

cussing the habits of A. v. affinis, Baker (1928:

162) made the claim that: “In Winter they

descend into the plains and at this time keep

much less to forest and may be seen in fruit-

groves and well-wooded open country’, but

in this case the alleged shift in habitat in

winter only supports my opinion that he con-

fused A. v. affinis with A. badius.

Swann (1926: 327) quotes Kelham (1881:

365-366) as evidence that A. v. affinis is mig-

ratory in the Malay Peninsula, but the birds

concerned would have been A. gularis. Chasen

(1935: 72 footnote 2) already observed that

some of Swann’s remarks given under affinis

seemed to refer to gularis. A. v. affinis is un-

known from the Malay Peninsula (cf. Medway

SPARROW HAWKS OF THE ANDAMAN ISLANDS

» & Wells 1976: 406). Medway & Wells did not

mention a specimen from Malaya listed as

A. affinis by Riley: “Dr. W. L. Abbott pur-

chased in Penang an unsexed specimen said

to have been shot in the Province of Wellesley”’.

Examination of the specimen (USNM_ no.

172966) revealed it as an adult female of

A. gularis.

For Thailand, Hartert’s tale of A. v. affinis

being migratory was eagerly taken up by

Robinson (1915: 728). Discussing under the

name A. affinis two specimens taken on Koh

Kut and Koh Rang, islands in the Gulf of

Siam, he stated: ‘“‘There can be little doubt

that these two specimens represent the Hima-

layan A. affinis in winter quarters. Specimens

precisely agreeing with them except in size

have been shot in considerable numbers on

small islands in the Straits of Malacca, in

company, however, with adult birds with little

or no barring on the under surface, that can

with difficulty be separated from the true

Sundaic A. virgatus’’. The second part of this

quotation practically proves that the birds

Robinson was discussing were not A. v. affinis

at all, but immature A. gularis. As this re-

cord has to my knowledge never been queried

in print, I have tried to borrow the specimens.

Only one of the two birds could be located

in the collections of the former Raffles Mu-

seum. It was forwarded for my examination:

o im., 21.xii.1914, Koh Rang Island, and as

expected proved to be A. gularis. Again, Ro-

binson & Kloss (1918: 120-122) claimed A. v.

affinis to be migratory, but discussing their

two specimens of A. virgatus from Sumatra

(now A. v. vanbemmeli), they stated: ‘‘both

have the 4th and Sth primaries practically

equal, whereas the 4th is decidedly the longest

in all specimens of A. v. gularis and A. v.

affinis which we have been able to examine’’.

As A. v. vanbemmeli and A. v. affinis agree

in having the 4th and Sth primaries subequal,

whereas in A. gularis the 4th is a little longer

than the 5th (see figures), the birds recorded

by Robinson & Kloss under the name A. vy.

affinis could not have been A. virgatus but

were probably the same immature males of

A. gularis referred to above. Gyldenstolpe’s

(1920: 746) record of A. v. affinis from

Thailand is based on these same two speci-

mens and therefore is equally unacceptable.

More recently the status of A. v. affinis in

Thailand was summarized by Deignan (1963:

17) in the following words: “‘A permanent

resident on the eastern plateau, but generally

distributed on migration or in winter from

Chiang Rai south to Prachuap Khiri Khan’.

The Prachuap Khiri Khan record is evidently

based on a specimen from Hat Sanuk near

Koh Lak collected by Robinson & Kloss

(1923: 105). The record looks reliable, but

as there is proof that in 1915 and 1918 Robin-

son confused A. v. affinis with A. gularis, it

seemed desirable to verify it. The bird is pre-

served in the Zoology Department, University

of Singapore, where the collections of the for-

mer Raffles Museum are now stored, but Mrs.

Yang (in litt.) informed me that regulations

forbade its being made. available on loan.

Although I was invited to come and examine

the specimen in Singpore, this was not really

convenient for me, but in November 1979 Dr.

D. R. Wells had an opportunity to examine

the Hat Sanuk specimen: @? ad., 14.iv.1919

(Sing. no. 5302), and to confirm its identity

as A. v. affinis. Dr. Wells also examined mate-

rial in the Thailand Institute of Scientific and

Technological Research, Bangkok, where he

found a @ im., 19.vi.1971, from Ban Phu Toei,

Sai Yok on the Kwai River (TISTR no. 53-

1710). The dates of collecting of these two

405

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 77

specimens point to A. v. affinis being a resi-

dent in south-western Thailand rather than a

winter visitor as has been suggested in litera-

ture.

TABLE I

SEXUAL DIMORPHISM IN SIZE

No. of Wing

specimens length 8: 2(%)

(mm)

A. vy. virgatus 10 3 146.8

10 9 174.8 84.0

A. v. abdulalii Phot 146.5

: 4 9 183.3 80.0

A. v. besra 8 3 153.6

79 185.4 82.8

A, v. affinis Qhad 165.1

33 9 199.8 82.7

A, v. fuscipectus 12S 172.4

Oya (8. 207.8 83.0

A. g. gularis 10 2 165.5

10 9 188.5 87.8

A. g. iwasakii é 157

Q 181 86.7

A. b. badius 3 3 176.7

2° 195.5 90.4

A. b. dussumieri 7-2 178.3

Die? 201.0 88.7

A. b. poliopsis 3 ¢ 194.3

oy 209.8 92.6

A. soloensis 10 ¢ 189.0

iy lypses 194.2 OTe 3

Another record that would be indicative

of migration is one from Bangkok (Riley

1938: 47). I have examined this bird (USNM

no. 306735) and found it to be a perfectly

normal adult female of A. gularis. Both this

and the Wellesley specimens mentioned above

bore already the correct identification pencilled

on their labels, probably by Deignan. Perhaps

this was done after he published his list, or

otherwise he has failed to draw the logical

406

consequences of these re-identifications, which

are, of course, that in Thailand, as in India,

A. v. affinis is sedentary and does rarely occur

far outside its breeding range.

The locality Nikhe, Thailand, from where

Junge & Kooiman (1951: 7) recorded a spar-

row-hawk as A. v. affinis 2 im., is also rather

far south for this species. A re-examination

of the specimen (RMNH no. 12585) reveal-

ed that actually it is an immature A. hadius

poliopsis. On the collector’s label the bird

had been marked as a male (without query),

but as the measurements (wing 201, tail 149,

column 14, tarsus 54 mm) were much too

large for a male of A. v. affinis, Junge chang-

ed the sex to female: “9? [=9 im J’... It

should be noted that in this small collection

from the Burma Railway there is nowhere

else evidence of mis-sexing by the collectors,

who were experienced ornithologists. The iden-

tification made by Junge was uncritically ac-

cepted by me when I drew up a list of mate-

rial examined of A. v. affinis (cf. Mees 1970:

289), as the measurements fitted a female of

that subspecies very well (wing 199, tail 149,

tarsus 623, bill from cere 134 mm). I have

once again measured the bird and I now

find: wing 200, tail 150, tarsus 52, culmen

from cere 133, middle toe without nail 32,

wing tip 59 mm, primary 2>6 (against 2<6

or at most 2=6 in A. v. affinis). The legs

of this specimen have been fixed in a stretch-

ed position, making it difficult to find the joint

between tibiotarsus and tarsometatarsus, and

the great length of the latter (agreeing with

A. v. affinis but not with A. b. poliopsis)

measured previously, was caused by my having

included the distal end of the tibiotarsus. The

measurements are entirely right for a male of

A. b. poliopsis, as sexed by the collectors.

In Indo-China, Hartert has also had: influ-

SPARROW HAWKS OF THE ANDAMAN ISLANDS

TABLE II

INDIVIDUAL MEASUREMENTS

Sex an ' Wing Tail Tarsus ‘Bill ‘from

Middle Wing Wing Tail: Museum and reg.

cere toe tip tip % Wing % no.

A. Y. virgatus

10 @ ad: 141-152 104-112 45 -49° 103-12 27-30 32-36 «6.23.4 =473.9 RMNH

10 2 ad. 170-179 120-134 504-56 123-1474 31-36 37-44 23.55 73.3 RMNH

E A. virgatus abdulalii

rs) 148 103 48 = 28 39 26.3 70.0 BNHS 21897

8 juv. 145 103 46 12s 29 40 27.6 71.0 BM 85.8.19.687

g 185 138 ee ieee 15+ 354 52, 28.1 74.6 BNHS 21896

Q 181 “129 544 152 35 514 285 71.3 BNHS 23111

9 183 137 54 15 344 50 27.3. 74.9 BM 85.8.19.690

9 juv. 184 138 56 15 37 51 27.2 75.0 BM 85.8.19.689

A. v. besra

} 152 110 49 11 , 28F 35 23.0 72.4 BM 1956.44.8

é 150 107 46 ls = 38 25.3 Fie3. BMr1959:19.1

ny 158 120 474 104 27 39 24.7 75.9 BM 1956.44.7

3 158 120 474 103 28 383 24.4 75.9 BM 1955.6.N.20.2803

} 155 119 50 103 29 > 39 25.2 76.8 BM 77.5.24.17

a 154 115 48 11 27 39... 25.3 74.7 BM 1916.9.20.524

& 152 115 $2 10 2 374 24.77 75.7 BM 1955.6.N.20.2802

} 150 112 484 104 Zi 36 24.00 74.7 BM 85.4.10.1

g 181 141 of 13 35 41 22.6 77.9 BM Gurney 2795

s) 180 140 55 134 344 43 23.3. 77.8 BM 1949 Whl. 1-169

Q im. 189 144 56 14 3 45 23.8 76.2 BM 87.11.1.242

Q im. 181 137 54 13 35 44 24.3 .75.7 BM 1949 Whi. 1-165

2 im. 184 143 554 134 344 49 26.6 77.7 BNHS 20773

Q 190 143 D5 ee — 35 44 23.2 (75.3 BNHS 20734

g 193 145 56 123 353 50 25.9 75.0 BNHS 23911

A. virgatus «ffinis

g 171 126 54 113 304 42 24.6 1357 “BMEA71-2:20-6

é 168 7” 131 52) 10} 31 42 25.0 78.0 BM 1937.1.17.85

4d im. 160 125 49 11 28 43 26.9 78.1 BM. 76.10.20.29

4a juv. 164 118 524 11 28 4] 2910 — BM .1938.7.15.121

3} 164 123 54 11 30 42 25.6 75.0 RMNH cat. 1

9 204 155 61 14 39 504 24.8 76.00 BM 1948.80.3652

ie) 199 154 61 134 38 48 24.1 77.4 BM 1949 Whl. 1-161

2 197 151 59) 133 384 46 23.4 .76.6 BM .1921.7.12.31

g 205 158 64 13 354 504 24:6 771 BM 85.8.19.684

ig) 200 162 63 141 374 49 24.5 81.0 BM 85.8.19.681

Q im. 197 156 584 13 353 Dy) 26.4 79.2 BM 1938.12.13.99

Q im. 198 149 59 14 36 50 25.3 75.3 BM 97.12.10.1749

2 im. 194 147 Sif. 13 35 50 25.8 75.8 BM 1949 Whl. 1-170

407

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

A. g. gularis

102 160-169 111-117 463-51 10-114 26-29 49-56 30.9 68.2 RMNH

10 2 183-197 120-134 49-544 12-134 294-35 55-66 31.8 682 RMNH

a 170 118 464 11 27 53 31.2 69.4 BNHS. 23926

a im. 158+ 115 46 10 274 — — — BNHS 21895

2 im. 190 134 49 124 31 57 30.0 70.5 BM 75.6.24.15

se) 192 132 52 123 32 58 30.2 68.8 BNHS 22581

2 im. 184 128 50 124 31 60 32.6 69.6 BNHS 23700

se) 187 124 49 114 30 584 31.3 66.3 USNM 172966

2 191 129 52 124 314 59 30.9 67.5 USNM 306735

A. g. iwasakii

4 157; 1124 50 11} Dil, 41 26.1 71.7 AMNH 533881

Q 181 132 53 —_— 314 46+ 25.7 72.9 AMNH 533880

A. badius badius

3 175 128 48 11 27 57 32.6 73.1 RMNH 5037

3 175 126 464 124 274 55 31.4 72.0 RMNH 5088

é 180 131 44 123 283 58 32.2 72.8 RMNH 5155

iS) 197 143 51 144 31 58 29.4 72.6 RMNH 4938

ic) 194 144 51 144 324 61 31.4 74.22 RMNH 4953

A. badius dussumieri

& im. 184 139 504 13 28 57 31.0 75.55 MCM

QO alti 184 143 48 123 25 63 B42) adel RMNH cat. 4

4 im. 172 129 45 123 26 53 31.0 75.0 RMNH 80201

3 175 127 45 12 26 50 28.6 72.6 RMNH cat. 6

é 174 125 50 114 26 53 30.5 71.8 RMNH cat. 5

3 184 130 474 123 28 534 29.1 70.7 RMNH cat. 1

é im. 175 136 47 12 aT 514 29.4 diel BM 1938 7.15.112

°) 198 148 54 14 29 624 31.6 74.7 RMNH cat. 2

2 im. 204 160 56 16 30 60 29.4 78.4 RMNH cat. 3

A. badius poliopsis

3 189 141 51 13 28 54 28.5 74.6 RMNH 12584

& im. 200 150 52 133 32 59 29.5 75.0 RMNH 12585

3 194 139 51 14 26 584 30.2 71.6 RMNH cat. 1*

2 205 154 56 15 31 58 28-3. 75 RMNH 12583

2 211 160 56 15 30 59 28.0 75.8 RMNH cat. 2*

ie) 214 168 56 154 324 59 27.6 78.5 RMNH cat. 1

2 209 158 54 14 31 65 31k6) 75:2 RMNH cat. 2

2 im. 210 154 57 143 304 63 30.0 73.3 RMNH eat. 3

A. soloensis

10 2 183-194 119-128 414-44 114-134 23-26 68-72 37.2 65.6 RMNH

ie 188-197 121-137 42 -49 114-14 23-264 68-75 36.7 65.6 RMNH

SPARROW HAWKS OF THE ANDAMAN ISLANDS

ence as will be clear from this quotation on

the distribution of A. v. affinis: “Niche dans

Himalaya jusqu’au Yunnan. En hiver, des-

cend dans l’Inde et IlIndochine. Il es!

possible qu’il soit sédentaire sur les montagnes

du nord du Tonkin et du Laos’? (Delacour &

Jabouille 1931: 111). Specimens I have exa-

mined from Djjiring, 18.11.1927; Blao, 17.11.

1930; Langbian Peaks, vi.1939; Dalat, 20.vi

1961, and Fyan, 1.viii.1961 (cf. Mees 1970:

table IL), localities in southern Viet Nam be-

tween 11°30’ and 12°N, provide proof that

even in the most southerly mountain regions

of Viet Nam the species is a permanent resi-

dent. In addition there are records from Pleiku

in May (David-Beaulieu 1939: 29), Thateng,

southern Laos, in December (Engelbach 1932:

458), Tranninh, Laos, in July and August

(David-Beaulieu 1944: 75), etc. Clearly A.

v. affinis ranges throughout the interior of

Indo-China, and is sedentary.

ACK NOWLEDGEMENTS

In the first place I want to thank Mr. H.

Abdulali (Bombay), who suggested that I

should write about his Andaman specimens,

and without whose interest and encouragement

this paper would not have been written. For

making available material and for providing

information on specimens in their care, I am

under obligation to: Mr. J. C. Daniel (Bom-

bay Natural History Society), Mr. I. C. J.

Galbraith [British Museum (Natural History),

Tring], Mr. M. J. Largen (Merseyside County

Museums, Liverpool), Mrs. M. K. LeCroy

(American Museum of Natural History, New

York), Dr. A. K. Mukherjee (Indian Museum,

Calcutta), Dr. R. A. Paynter (Museum of

Comparative Zodlogy, Cambridge, Mass.),

Mr. R. T. Sauey (International Crane Foun-

dation, Baraboo, Wisconsin), Dr. H. Schifter

(Naturhistorisches Museum, Wien), Dr. G. E.

Watson (National Museum of Natural His-

tory, Washington, D.C.), Dr. J. Wattel (Zo6-

logisch Museum, Amsterdam), Dr. D. R.

Wells (University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur),

Dr. Y. Yamashina (Yamashina Institute for

Ornithology, Tokyo), and Mrs. Yang Chang

Man (Zoology Department, University of

Singapore).

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411

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

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592-993.

STUDIES ON THE CHARACTERISTICS OF HAIR IN

SOME INDIAN BATS: (MAMMALIA: CHIROPTERA)'

J. H. Sapnis?

(With nineteen text-figures)

This paper describes the characteristics of hair of some Indian chiroptera. A series of

camera lucida diagrams depicting the hair structure of 19 species of bats is presented.

The structural pattern of the hair of bats reveals variations at generic as well as

species levels.

INTRODUCTION

The present study was undertaken in order

to contribute information on the structure of

hair in some Indian chiropteran forms in the

light of the new method of description sug-

gested by Adorjan and Kolenosky (1969).

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The hairs used for the study were from the

dorsal side of the body. They were carefully

washed in hot water and slides were prepared

in Canada balsum after they were air dried

thoroughly and passed through ether and xylol.

The camera lucida drawings were drawn of

each hair showing cuticular and medullar pat-

tern. The proximal, medial and distal regions

of the hairs were observed. The measurements

given are averages. The diagrams on the left

side in the plate show the structure of the

hair at proximal end, in the middle the medial

and the right the distal end.

OBSERVATIONS

The basic parts of a typical mammalian

hair are the cuticle, cortex, medulla, pigment

1 Accepted May 1979.

2Department of Zoology.

vidyalaya, Amravati-444 604.

Vidharbha Maha-

and hair cells. In the system of hair identi-

fication to be outlined only cuticle and medul-

la are important. The structure of these pat-

terns which form the basis of hair indentifi-

cation under study are given according to

order and family of the specimens. They are

arranged according to order and families of

the species as given by Simpson (1945).

Family PTEROPIDAE

Cynopterus sphinx gangeticus (Fig. 1)

Gross appearance:

Length 8 mm. Hair stem soft and slender.

Colour greyish, basally white, diameter of

proximal region 24 1.

Microscopic appearance:

Hair nodular with corollar serrate edges in

the proximal region and the medial region.

Borders appear spiny distally. Medulia con-

tinuous in the proximal region but fragmented

having a beaded appearance in the medial

region.

Rousettus leschenaulti (Fig. 2)

Gross appearance:

Length 4 mm. Hair stem soft. Colour white

in the proximal region followed by chocolate

grey in the middle region; distal region yellow.

Diameter at the proximal region 15 x.

413

JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

Microscopic appearance:

Scales are corollary with spinulate borders

in the proximal and medial regions. Distal

region borders appear serra‘e. Hair non-me-

dullated.

Pteropus giganteus giganteus (Fig. 3)

Gross appearance:

Length 1.2 cm. Colour white at the proxi-

mal region; brown in the media! region and

greyish yellow in the distal region. Some hairs

are pure black. Hair stems narrow at proxi-

mal becoming a little broader in the medial

and tapering in the distal region. Diameter at

the proximal region 18 uz.

Microscopic appearance:

Scales imbricate with crenate borders in the

proximal and the medial region. In the distal

region the border appears serrate. The medul-

la is not visible in the proximal region and

the distal region, but it 1s fragmented in the

middle region.

Family RHINOPOMATIDAE

Rhinopoma_ hardwickei (Fig. 4)

Gross appearance:

Length 5 mm. Hairs slender and soft. Hairs

differ in colour, some being black and some

brown. They measure 12 », in diameter in the

proximal region.

Microscopic appearance:

Scales of corollary type with three to four

dentate spines on their borders in the proximal

and medial regions. Distal region spiny. Medul-

la fragmented proximally, while it has a bead-

ed appearance in the medial region. Medulla

not visible distally.

Family EMBALLONURIDAE

Taphozous perforatus (Fig. 5)

Gross appearance:

Length 6 to 7 mm. Hair stems soft and

414

slender. Colour of hair white in the proximal

region and black in the medial region. The

remaining distal part is grey. Diameter of the

hair at the proximal region 21 4p.

Microscopic appearance:

Hairs are nodular with corollary serrate

borders in the proximal region, and dentate in

the medial region. Distal region spiny. Pig-

ment uniformly distributed along the border

ot the hair but central area appears lightly

coloured. Hairs are of the non-medullated

type.

Tapnozeus melanopogon (Fig. 6)

Gross appearance:

Length 6 mm. They measure 12 » in dia-

meter at the proximal region. Colour of hair

greyish white in the proximal region, brown

medially and white tipped.

Microscopic. appearance:

Hairs nodular with corollar serrate borders

in the proximal and medial region. Borders of

the distal region dentate. Pigment of hair

localised at the nodular girdle. Hair is of

the non-medullated type.

Taphozous longimanus (Fig. 7)

Gross appearance:

Length 6 mm. Hairs slender and soft. Hair

distally and proximally black; grey in~the

medial region. Measure 12 » in diameter at

the proximal region. tn

Microscopic appearance:

Hair nodular with spinulate borders in the

proximal region and dentate in the medial

region. Distal region with a serrate border.

Pigment uniformly distributed. The hair is

of the non-medullated type.

Taphozous theobaldi (Fig. 8)

Gross appearance:

Length 5 to 7 mm. Hair stems soft and

slender. Diameter of the proximal region

12 p». Colour of hair white in the proximal

CHARACTERISTIC OF HAIR OF INDIAN BATS

region, and dark chocolate brown in the me-

dial and distal regions.

Microscopic appearance:

Hairs nodular with corollar serrate borders.

Pigment distributed in the inter-nodular area;

nodular girdle lightly coloured. The hair is of

the non-medullated type.

Taphozous kacchensis (Fig. 9)

Gross appearance:

Length 2 to 3 mm. Measure 21 p» in diameter

proximally. Proximal one third of the hair

white, remaining section black.

Microscopic appearance:

Hairs nodular with corollar serrate scales.

Internodular areas pigmented in such a way

that the dark rectangular patches are localised

on either side of the centrally lighter coloured

area. Hair is of the non-medullated type.

Family MEGADERMATIDAE

Megaderma lyra lyra (Fig. 10)

Gross appearance:

Length 8 mm. Measure 9 » at the proximal

region. Colour of hair in the proximal region

white, remaining areas greyish black.

Microscopic appearance:

The hairs are nodular, corollar dentate in

the proximal region, medially serrate, but in

the distal region it appears spiny. The medulla

in the proximal region appears continuous but

in the medial region it is fragmented beaded

type. In the distal region the medulla is not

visible.

Family RHINOLOPHIDAE

Rhinolophus lepidus lepidus (Fig. 11)

Gross appearance:

Length 4 mm. Colour of hair white in the

proximal region gradually changing to yello-

wish grey in the medial region, distally light

brown. The hair measures 9 » at the proxi-

mal end.

Microscopic appearance:

Hairs nodular with corollar dentate borders.

Nodular pattern uniform throughout except

in the proximal region which has sympodial

nodular arrangement. The hair stems are of

the non-medullated type.

Family HIPPOSIDERIDAE

Hipposideros fulvus fulvus (Fig. 12)

Gross appearance:

Length 4 mm. Hair stems soft and slender.

Colour of hair, white in the proximal region,

medially greyish brown and distally black.

Diameter of the proximal region 9 pz.

Microscopic appearance:

Hair appears nodular with corollar pattern

with serrate borders in the proximal and me-

dial regions. Nodes reduced in size in the

distai region which appears pointed. Hairs

stems are non-medullated.

Hipposideros cineraceus (Fig. 13)

Gross appearance:

Length 4 mm. Hair stems slender. Colour

of hair half yellow and half chocolate brown.

Diameter of proximal region, 12 up.

Microscopic appearance:

Hairs appear nodular with corollar scale pat-

tern, the borders of which appear plain in

the proximal and medial regions. In the distal

region the corollar borders are serrate. Hair

stems are non-medullated.

Family VESPERTILIONIDAE

Pipistrellus coromandra (Fig. 14)

Gross appearance:

Length 6 mm. Colour of hair yellow pro-

ximally, middle two third dark chocolate and

remaining portion yellowish brown. Diameter

415

416

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

Diagrammatic representation of hair structure of bats in 1. Cynopterus sphinx,

2. Rousettus leschenaulti, 3. Pteropus giganteus giganteus.

CHARACTERISTIC OF HAIR OF INDIAN BATS

Diagrammatic representation of hair structure of bats in 4. Rhinopoma hardwickei,

5. Taphozous perforatus, 6. Taphozous melanopogon.

417

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

Diagrammatic representation of hair structure of bats in 7. Taphozous longimanus,

8. Taphozous theobaldi, 9. Taphozous kacchensis.

418

CHARACTERISTIC OF HAIR OF INDIAN BATS

Diagrammatic representation of hair structure of bats in 10. Megaderma lyra lyra,

11. Rhinolophus lepidus lepidus, 12. Hipposideros fulvus fulvus.

419

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

Diagrammatic representation of hair stucture of bats in 13. Hipposideros cineraceus,

14. Pipistrellus coromandra, 15. Pipistrellus mimus.

420

CHARACTERISTIC OF HAIR OF INDIAN BATS

Diagrammatic representation of hair structure of bats in 16. Pipistrellus ceylonicus,

17. Pipistrellus dormeri, 18. Scotophilus temmincki.

421

JOURNAL

BOMBAY. NATURAL

HIST. SOCIETY, A Viol. 77.

124

Diagrammatic representation of hair structure of bats in 19. Scotophilus heathi.

at proximal region, 9 p»

Micrcscopic appearance:

Hairs nodular with plain borders in_ the

proximal and medial regions. Distal region

spiny. Hair stems non-medullated.

Pipistrellus mimus (Fig. 15)

Gross appearance:

Length 4 to 5 mm. Colour of the first two

thirds black; and remaining one third, grey.

Diameter at the proximal region 9 p.

Microscopic appearance:

Hairs nodular with corollar scales having

plain borders in the proximal and medial re-

gions. Distal tip has the shape of a wheat

grain. Pigment localised in the inter-nodular

area.

Pipistrellus ceylonicus (Fig. 16).

Gross appearance:

Length 5 mm. Colour of hair white proxi-

mally, gradually changing to chocolate me-

422

-Gross

dially. Distal region light brown. Diameter

of the hair at the proximal region 9 yp.

Microscopic appearance:

Hairs nodular with corollar serrate scales

in the proximal and medial regions. Distal re-

gion spiny. Pigment localised in the nodular

area. Hairs non-medullated type.

Pipistrellus dormeri (Fig. 17)

appearance :

Length 5 mm. Colour of hair, uniform grey.

Diameter at the proximal region 9 up.

Microscopic appearance:

Hairs nodular with corollar scales having

plain borders in the proximal region, gradual-

ly changing to serrate scales medially. The

borders appear dentate distally. Hair stems

non-medullated.

Scotophilus temmincki (Fig. 18)

Gross appearance :

Length 4 mm. Colour of hair white in the

CHARACTERISTIC OF HAIR OF INDIAN BATS

proximal region and brown in the distal re-

gion. In the medial region the white band ts

separated by yellow band on either side. Dia-

meter at the proximal region 12 up.

Microscopic. appearance:

Hairs nodular with corollar dentate scales

having three to four denticles in the proximal

and medial regions. In the distal region corol-

lar surface plain ending in a pointed tip. Pig-

ment distributed at inter-nodular area on either

side alternately. Hair stems non-medullated.

Scotophilus heathi (Fig. 19)

Gross appearance:

Length 3 mm. Colour of hair brownish

yellow proximally and black distally, but is

brown in the medial region. Diameter at the

proximal region 12 yp.

Microscopic appearance :

Hairs nodular with corollar serrate scales

in the proximal region, gradually changing to

dentate in medial region. The distal borders of

the hair appear serrate.

CONCLUSION

According to the nature of the structure of

the chiropteran hair is of two types. The hairs

of Cynopterus sphinx, Pteropus giganteus gig-

anteus, Rhinopoma hardwickei are of the

medullated type, while those of Rousettus,

Taphozous, Pipistrellus and Scotophilus species

are of non-medullated type.

From the point of view of the scale patterns

the hairs of bats may be roughly divided into

two kinds—the nodular corollar type and the

imbricate type. The megachiropteran forms

Cynopterus sphinx and Rousettus leschenaulti

have corollar type of scales, while Preropus

giganteus giganteus showed the presence of

imbricate crenate type of scales. All the genera

and species which belong to families of Rhino-

pomatidae, Emballonuridae, Megadermatidae,

Rhinolophidae, Hipposideridae, and Vesperti-

lionidae showed corollar type of scales.

The families Pteropidae, Rhinopomatidae

and Megadermatidae show common medular

corollar hair structure, while non-medullated

corollar scales are characteristic feature, for

the majority of Microchiropteran forms stu-

died. The structural hair pattern of Preropus

giganteus giganteus is entirely different from

that of other chiropteran forms investigated.

It is medullated with imbricate crenate types

of scales.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I am thankful to Dr. H. Khajuria, Zoolo-

gical Survey of India, Jabalpur for providing

the hair specimens of bats.

REFERENCES

ADORJAN, A. S. AND KOLENOSKEY, G. B. (1969):

A manual for the identification of hairs of selected

Ontario Mammals. Department of Lands and Forests

Research Report 90.

SimMPSON, G. G. (1945): The principles of classi-

fication and a classification of Mammals. Bulf,

Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. 85: 1-350.

Lad

SEDGES OF PUNJAB—ECOLOGY, DISTRIBUTION AND

ENUMERATION'

M. SHARMA?

The paper gives a comprehensive ecological and distributional survey of the sedges

of Punjab. 50 species have been enumerated along with their flowering and fruiting

periods and field numbers. Four sedges, namely Cyperus atkinsonii Cl., C. bulbosus

Vahl, Eleocharis acutangula Sch. and Scirpus triqueter L. are new to the flora of

Punjab plain.

INTRODUCTION

The sedges are members of the Cyperaceae,

a large family comprising of about 4,000 spe-

cies distributed among nearly 90 genera

(Airy Shaw 1973). They are of cosmopolitan

distribution but are particularly abundant in

the temperate and subarctic regions of both

the hemispheres, mainly as _ marsh-plants.

Studies on the taxonomy and distribution of

Cyperaceae have received good amount of

attention throughout the world including

India (cf. Tiwari & Maheshwari 1964). But

the taxonomic treatment of this group in the

floras or botanical reports of erstwhile com-

posite Punjab or any of its parts (Edgeworth

1838, 1842; Aitchison 1868, 1869; Stewart

1869; Coventry 1901; Collett 1902; Bamber

1916; Parker 1918; Kashyap & Joshi 1936;

Sabnis 1940) has remained neglected so far.

It is pertinent to point out here that the family

Cyperaceae has not been dealt with by Bam-

ber (1916), Parker (1918) and Kashyap &

Joshi (1936). To complete the last work

Ahmad (1954) published a supplement that

deals with the sedges and grasses of Lahore,

no more a part of present Punjab (India).

1 Accepted December 1978.

2Department of Botany,

Patiala-147 002, India.

Punjabi University,

424

One exception is Collett’s FLORA SIMLENSIS

which does deal comprehensively with the sed-

ges but from the hilly terrain of Simla. This

treatment is virtually of no use to the thrice

truncated Punjab (mainly a plain country)

since 1947. Whatever little that has been

written about the sedges of this region in the

above-mentioned works is nomenclaturally

anachronistic. The present account is an at-

tempt to fill that gap and is based on the

collections made during numerous botanical

excursions undertaken by me uninterruptedly

for nearly fifteen years, as a part of the sur-

vey of the flora of Punjab state. In continua-

tion with my other preliminary floristic obser-

vations dealing with Punjab or its parts

(Sharma & Sharma 1966: Sharma 1974, 1975,

1977; Sharma & Sharma 1974) this publication

is a further step in the compilation of the flora

of reorganized Punjab.

SOILS AND CLIMATE

The present state of Punjab is essentially

monotonous plain country with arid to semi-

arid climate, scanty to moderate (48-110 cm

per year) precipitation and very low to very

high (—1.7°C to 48.3°C) temperatures. Soils

are sandy to sandy-loam. Somewhat moist,

rocky Siwaliks rising to 665 m and with an

annual rainfall of 85-125 cm delimit Punjab

along its north-eastern border,

SEDGES OF PUNJAB

ECOLOGY AND DISTRIBUTION OF SEDGES

Edaphic and climatic factors prevailing

during the different seasons of the year affect

the occurrence and distribution of sedges.

Rainy season is the most favourable for their

germination, development and survival. With

the advent of the drier season the cyperaceous

vegetation dries up. Perennials manage to sur-

vive through rhizomes and tubers. Only a few

sedges flourish in dry soil. Noteworthy among

these being Bulbostylis barbata Cl., Cyperus

arenarius Retz., C. atkinsonii Cl., C. bulbosus

Vahl, C. rotundus L. and Fimbristylis falcata

Kunth. In this category also fall the sedges

recorded from Siwaliks such as Cyperus niveus

Retz., C. paniceus Boeck. var. roxburghianus

Kuk. and Eriophorum comosum Nees; the

last one being the most conspicuous on steep

rocks or hanging from vertical cliffs. Besides,

Cyperus compressus L., C. michelianus Link

subsp. pygmaeus Asch. & Graebn., C. squar-

rosus L., C. triceps Endl., Fimbristylis bisum-

bellata Bub., F. dichotoma Vahl, F. ferru-

ginea Vahl, F. ovata Kern, F. schoenoides

Vahl, F. tenera Roem. & Sch. var. oxylepis

Cl. and Scirpus tuberosus Desf. can survive

on damp to dry soil. Most of these appear

with the onset of monsoon and have been

observed to thrive well in dry areas.

The sedges form the most conspicuous

communities in or near the banks of rivers,

canals irrigation courses, ponds, pools, pud-

dles and ditches. Common ones included here

are Carex fedia Nees, Cyperus alopecuroides

Rottb., C. alulatus Kern, C. brevifolius

Hassk., C. compactus Retz., C. difformis L.,

C. digitatus Roxb., C. eleusinoides Kunth, C.

exaltatus Retz., C. globosus All., C. iria L.,

C. pumilus L., C. rotundus L., C. sanguino-

lentus Vahl, C. serotinus Rottb., Eleocharis

dulcis Hensch., EF. palustris R. Br., Fimbristylis

bisumbellata Bub., F. dichotoma Vahl, F. fer-

ruginea Vahl, F. quinquangularis Kunth, Scir-

pus litoralis Schrad., S$. mucronatus L., S. roy-

lei Parker and S. tuberosus Desf.

In the rice-fields which provide marshy

habitat Cyperus alulatus Kern, C. compressus

C. tenuispica Steud., Eleocharis atropurpurea

Presl, Fimbristylis miliacea Vahl, F. quinquan-

gularis Kunth, Scirpus roylei Parker, S. supi-

nus L., §. tuberosus Desf. grow most

luxuriantly. Cyperus alulatus Kern, C. com-

pressus; Io... C.iria, ,..C. .rotundus 1, C.

squarrosus L. and Fimbristylis tenera Roem.

& Sch. var. oxylepis Cl. also grow as weeds

in other kharif crops. Bulbostylis barbata Cl.,

Cyperus bulbosus Vahl and C. rotundus L.

inhabit the groundnut fields which offer ex-

tremely sandy and xerophytic habitat—an

unusual locality for sedges.

While Cyperus kyllingia Endl. and C. iri-

ceps Endl. grow in gardens and fruit orchards

as a herbaceous undergrowth on moist,

grassy areas; others like Cyperus alulatus

Kern, C. bulbosus Vahl, C. compressus L.,

C. iria L., C. rotundus L. and Scirpus tube-

rosus Desf. are common in moist, waste lands

along roadsides during the monsoon period.

Cyperus flabelliformis Rottb. is the only

member of the Cyperaceae which has been

observed as an ornamental grown in the gar-

dens of Punjab in green houses or on roc-

keries.

SYSTEMATIC ENUMERATION

In all 50 species belonging to 7 genera have

been gathered by the author. For convenience,

the genera and species are enumerated in the

alphabetical order. Flowering and fruiting

425

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

season follows the correct name of the species.

The sedges collected during the course of the

investigation run into 232 fields numbers and

have been deposited in the herbaria of Panjab

University, Chandigarh (collected during July

1963 to April 1966 and indicated by a single

asterisk), Punjab Agricultural University,

Ludhiana (collected during May 1966 to Sep-

tember 1968 and indicated by double aste-

risks) and Punjabi University, Patiala (col-

lected since October 1968 and unmarked).

Collector for all may be read as M. Sharma.

LIST OF SPECIES

Bulbostylis barbata Cl. Aug.-Sept. 2272*,

103**, 345, 1452, 1563, 2109.

Carex. jedia, Nees. \Keb:-Apr 926997: 03 72%,

1843, 2804, 4252.

Cyperus alopecuroides Rottb. Throughout the

year 222 "* 43221. 3 724.

C. alulatus Kern. June-Sept.

343, 941, 3732, 4013, 4334.

C. arenarius Retz. July-Sept. 2749*.

C. atkinsonii Cl. Suly-Oct. 2992, 3073, 3102.

C. brevifolius Hassk. Apr.-Nov. 2368*, 780*,

966; °22032°289159 2973.

2277*,

DOG:

C. bulbosus Vahl. July-Sept. 2740*, 102**,

341, 1448, 4283.

C. compactus Retz. July-Oct. 2780*, 946**,

775, 1506, 4032, 4322.

C. compressus L. July-Oct. 2273*, 225**, 342,

2869, 4347.

C. difformis L. July-Sept. 2270*, 136**;' 379,

909, 1439, 1525, 2962.

C. digitatus Roxb. Aug.-Oct. 2266*, 314**,

2185, 2265, 5631.

C. eleusinoides Kunth. July-Oct. 2761*, 2246,

2949, 2985, 3766, 4329.

C. exaltatus Retz. July-Sept. 2118, 2167, 2210,

2296, 4637.

426

C. flabelliformis Rottb. Nov.-Mar. 427**,

S139:

C. globosus All. Mar.-Oct. 2267*, 781**, 913,

1361, 2284, 2495, 2504, 2825.

Cr iria L. July-Oct:' 2280*}" 14044) 3784) 902)

942, 1539, 2900.

C. kyllingia Endl. June-Sept. 2274*, 920, 2879,

2994, 3754.

C. laevigatus L. Mar.-Sept. 2350*, 1375, 2003,

2587, 2904, 3498.

C. michelianus Link subsp. pygmaeus Asch.

& Graebn. Aug.-Sept. 815**.

C. niveus Retz. June-Sept. 2271*, 187**, 1460,

2874, 3589.

C. paniceus Boeck. var. roxburghianus Kuk.

July-Sept. 2751*.

C. pumilus L. July-Sept. 2491*, 2995.

C. rotundus L. Throughout the year. 2269*,

148**" 322, 9107 1557, 3597, 4358:

C. sanguinolentus Vahl. Aug.-Oct. 2531, 4079.

C. serotinus Rottb. Aug.-Oct. 2276*, 3104,

3207, 3741, 4328.

C. squarrosus L. July-Sept. 2756*, 1517, 2116,

2195, 2993; 3746.

C. tenuispica Steud. Aug.-Nov. 1668, 4649.

C. triceps Endl. July-Sept. 2275*, 745**, 344,

993:

Eleocharis acutangula Sch. July-Oct. 3548,

S71.

FE. atropurpurea Presl. Aug.-Nov. 2770*,

963**, 1436, 1532.

E. dulcis Hensch. Aug.-Oct. 2793*, 4638.

FE. palustris R. Br. Mar-May. 542**, 1711,

1712, 2001, 2676, 3865.

Eriophorum comosum Nees. Mar.-May. 2268*.

Fimbristylis hisumbellata Bub. Mar.-Nov.

2451*, 353**, 949, 1655, 1849, 2038.

F. complanata Link. Aug-Oct. 895**.

F. dichotoma Vahl. July-Oct. 81**, 388, 971,

1000, 1376, 1484, 1534, 2093, 2289, 2494,

3576.

SEDGES OF

F. falcata Kunth. June-Sept. 2734*, 738**,

994, 2053, 2867.

F. ferruginea Vahl. July-Sept. 2279*, 193%**,

2231, 2875, 2948, 3561.

F. miliacea Vahl. Aug.-Oct. 988, 4533, 4629.

F. ovata Kern. July-Sept. 199**, 1444, 1530,

2871, 3762.

F. quinquangularis Kunth. Aug.-Oct. 2281*,

254**, 355**, 591, 1438, 1504, 2961, 3214.

F. schoenoides Vahl. July-Sept. 2278*, 2249,

35512 3773:

F. tenera Roem. & Sch. var. oxylepis Cl.

July--Sept. 2276*, 253**, 388, 1535, 5325.

Scirpus litoralis Schrad. Mar.-Apr.: Oct.-Nov.

391**;.. 1897, 2649.

S. mucronatus L. Mar.-Oct.

2518, 2588, 4247, 4327, 5661.

S. roylei Parker. July-Nov. 2789*, 359**, 911,

L6/15 3103, 3201.

S. supinus 1. Aug.-Nov. 2772*, 792**, 1633,

1676,3592:

S. triqueter L. July-Sept. 5328.

S. tuberosus Desf. Mar.-Nov. 1674*, 224**,

iaSimw ld. 2012, 3912.

Besides the listed species, the following 8

species have also been recorded from the

erstwhile united Punjab by Clarke (1893-94),

S928 Fe eQT8Ts

PUNJAB

Ahmad (1954) and Parker (1960) and are

likely to occur within the present boundaries

of the state:

Cyperus conglomeratus Rottb., C. esculen-

tus L., C. michelianus L., C.° nutans Vahl,

Fuirena wallichiana Kunth, Scirpus articulatus

L., §. juncoides Roxb. and S. sguarrosus -L.

NEW RECORDS

A perusal of the relevant literature. dealing

with the plants of Punjab shows that Cyperus

atkinsonii Cl., C. bulbosus Vahl, Eleocharis

acutangula Sch. and Scirpus triqueter L.

the new plant records for Punjab plains.

are

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am thankful to the Heads of Botany

Departments of Punjab, Punjabi, and Punjab

Agricultural Universities for help. Thanks are

also due authorities of Forest Research

stitute, Dehra Dun, National Botanic Gar-

dens, Lucknow, and Central National Her-

barium, Howrah, for herbarium and library

facilities and Director, Royal Botanic Gar-

dens, Kew, for the identification of some spe-

cimens.

In-

REFERENCES

AuMap, S. (1954): Grasses and sedges of Lahore

district. Lahore.

Airy SHAw, HH. K. (1973): J. C. Willis, A Dic-

tionary of the flowering plants and ferns. Cam-

bridge.

AITCHISON, J. E.T. (1868): Flora of Hushiar-

pur District of the Punjab. J. Linn. Soc. Lond. (Bot.)

11:17-22.

*—__________._ (1869): A Catalogue of the plants

of Punjab and Sindh. London.

BAMBER, C. J. (1916): Plants of the Punjab.

Lahore.

CLARKE, C. B. (1893-94): Cyperaceae. In J. D.

Hocker. The Flora of British India. Vol. 6. London.

CoLLet?, H. (1902): Flora Simlensis. Calcutta

and Simla.

*CoOVENTRY, E. M. (1901): A Catalogue of the

trees and shrubs of the Punjab. Lahore.

EpcewortuH, M. P. (1838): Botanico-agricultural

account of the protected Sikh States. J. Asiat. Soc.

Bengal 7: 751-766.

—————-— (1842): Note to the botanico-agri-

cultural account of the protected Sikh States. ibid.

lise 26-077

KasuyaP, S. R. & Josui, A. C. (1936): Lahore

District Flora. Lahore.

PARKER, R. N. (1918): A forest Flora for the

Punjab with Hazara and Delhi. Lahore.

427

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY,

(1960): Cyperaceae. In J. F.

Duthie, Flora of the Upper Gangetic Plain and of

the adjacent Siwalik and sub-Himalayan tracts. Vol.

2, repr. ed. Calcutta.

SABNIS, T .S. (1940): A Contribution to the

Flora of the Punjab plains and associated hill re-

gions. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 42: 124-149, ibid.

342-379, ibid. 533-586.

SHarMA, M. (1974): A preliminary survey of the

flora of Patiala District (Punjab). Bull. bot. Soc.

Bengal 28: 69-74.

(1975): A systematic account of

the cultivated flora of Punjab. ibid. 29: 141-146.

(1977): Aquatic and marshy angios-

428

Vol. 77

perms of Punjab. Bull. bot. Soc. Bengal 31: 52-60.

& SHARMA, O. P. (1974): A flori-

stic account of Ludhiana District (Punjab). Indian

For. 100: 209-215.

SHARMA, O. P. & SHARMA, M. (1966): Obser-

vations on the flora of Chandigarh and its neigh-

bourhood. Res. Bull. (N.S.) Panjab Univ. 17: 371-

405.

STEwarT, J. L. (1869): Punjab Plants. Lahore.

Tiwarl, S. D .N. & MAHESHWARI, J. K. (1964):

The Cyperaceae of Madhya Pradesh. Indian For.

90: 147-159, ibid. 616-629.

* Originals not seen.

A POPULATION STUDY OF TWO SPECIES OF NON-

HUMAN PRIMATES: MACACA MULATTA AND

MACACA RADIATA’

RAGHUBIR SINGH PIRTA,?

P. PRAKASH & MEWA SINGH?

(With two text-figures)

A population of 1496 rhesus monkeys living in 38 groups, and a population of 664

bonnet monkeys living in 31 groups, was counted in the forests of Dehra Dun and

the forests and the urban areas of Mysore respectively. The rhesus monkeys had a

mean group size of 39.37 individuals, whereas the bonnet monkeys had a mean group

size of 21.42. Significant differences were found in the group size. the adult male and

the adult female sex ratios between the two species. The importance of population stu-

dies is discussed from two view points: a) the species- and the population-specific

adaptations to a particular ecological niche. b) conservation of these two primate

species.

INTRODUCTION

A population study of non-human primates

is important for two reasons: First, the ulti-

mate group size (Crook 1972) and the ‘socio-

economic sex ratio’? (Carpenter 1934) in the

groups of primates living in their natural en-

vironment are the adaptive social behaviour

patterns to the ecological pressures, and so,

are directly shaped by the evolutionary con-

tingencies. Second, a few surveys on the popu-

lations of rhesus (Southwick ef al. 196la, b:

Lindburg 1971; Neville 1968) and bonnet (Si-

monds 1965; Nolte 1955; Rahman and Partha-

sarthy 1969) monkeys were made in early and

mid sixties. Since then, many noticeable en-

vironmental changes such as_ afforestation,

1 Accepted December 1978.

2 Dept. of Psychology, Utkal University. Bhuba-

neshwar, Orissa.

3 Dept. of Psychology. University of Mysore, My-

sore-570 006.

agricultural expansion, unfavourable attitudes

of the people toward monkeys, trapping of

monkeys for experimental and hygienic pur-

poses etc., have taken place. These drastic

changes have threatened the very survival of

these two monkey species. A new survey was

required to be made on these species from

the view point of conservation, as well as to

study their group size and socioeconomic sex

ratios with reference to the ecological forces.

STUDY AREAS AND METHODS

The present study was conducted in the

years June to November, 1975, on rhesus and

August to October, 1978, on bonnet. The study

areas included 3 divisions of Dehra Dun

forests viz., Eastern, Western and Siwalik (for

rhesus), and Mudumalai and Bandipur wild-

life sanctuaries and the roadsides in and

around Mysore City (for bonnet) (Fig. 1).

The forests of Dehra Dun are moist decidu-

429

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

( bs

Viacaca rddiata

inte

( fe) 400

bi (ees eel

km.

Fig. 1. Map of India showing the locations of study areas.

430)

POPULATION OF NON-HUMAN PRIMATES

ous type and mainly covered by sal (Shorea

robusta) trees. Large mammals such as panther

(Panthera pardus), tiger (Panthera tigris) and

elephant (Elephas maximus) are rare, but

spotted deer (Axis axis) and langur (Presbytis

entellus) are common. in the forests of Mudu-

malai and Bandipur, elephant, tiger, panther,

wild boar (Sus scrofa), gaur (Bos gaurus),

wild dog (Cuon alpinus), spotted deer, sam-

bar (Cervus unicolor)) and langur are com-

mon. Most of the bonnet groups were found

outside the forest, inhabiting roadsides near

agricultural areas covered with a thick vegeta-

tion of banyan (Ficus bengalensis), pipal (#i-

cus religiosa) and imli (Tamarindus indica)

trees.

All these areas were visited on foot, and

the monkeys were counted with naked eyes.

The individuals were classified into four cate-

gories, i.e. adult male, adult female, juvenile,

and infant (for the details of the basis of clas-

sification—see Southwick 1961; Pirta and

Singh 1978).

RESULTS

A total of 1496 individuals were counted in

38 groups of rhesus monkeys, with a mean

group size of 39.37. In bonnets, 31 groups

were counted, with an average group size of

21.42 and a total of 664 monkeys. A com-

parative analysis of the group size for the two

species yielded a significant difference (Table

I);

The per cent for each category of individuals

was computed against the total animals of

each group. A ‘t’? analysis of significance was

applied to compare the group composition for

the two species. The mean per cent, 23.7 of

males in bonnets was significantly higher than

the mean per cent, 11.5 in rhesus (P < .O1).

On the other hand, the mean per cent, 26.9

for female bonnets was significantly less

(P < .01) than the mean per cent, 32.0 for the

rhesus female. A comparison of the mean per-

centages for juveniles and infants revealed non-

significant difference between the two species

(fable. 2)

A significantly higher per cent of males in

bonnets, and a significantly higher per cent of

females in rhesus affected the socioeconomic

sex ratio (adult male: adult female) of the two

species, which was found to be 1:3.0 in rhesus

and |: 1.2 in bonnet monkeys (Fig. 2).

O |

oa!

Rhesus Bonnet

Fig. 2. Socioeconomic sex ratio (Adult male:

adult female) in rhesus and bonnet macaques.

For the study of population dynamics, a

bonnet group was observed for four years.

Inspite of an average of 5 females breeding

each year, the size of the group increased

from 23 to 29 only, though, slight changes

toox place in the socioeconomic sex ratio

(Table 3).

43]

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

TABLE 1

DIFFERENCES IN GROUP SIZES OF RHESUS AND BONNET MONKEYS.

Shecies No. of No. of Mean et

B groups monkeys group size : df P

Rhesus 38 1496 39.37 ey

Bonnet 31 664 21.42 4.67 67 0.01

TABLE 2

DIFFERENCES IN GROUP COMPOSITION OF RHESUS AND BONNET MONKEYS.

Age/sex Species Mean% “ df p

classes per group

Rhesus 11.5 c

Adult 2 6.89 67 0.01

Bonnet 23.7

he a Se ee

Rhesus 32.0

Adult 2 3.29 67 0.01

Bonnet 26.9

Rhesus 37.4

Juveniles 1.65 67 0.20

Bonnet 33.1

Rhesus 19.1

Infants 1.65 67 0.20

Bonnet 16.3

i it a a ET RL A A a a SA ARS Rs hh SS a

TABLE 3

HISTORY OF A BONNET GROUP.

Year Group Adult Adult Juveniles infants Socioeconomic

size males females sex ratio

Oct., 1974 23 4 5 9 5 eG

June, 1975 Pf 4 5 14 4 iP Sale?

June, 1976 32! 10 6 11 5 1:0.6

June, 1977 291% 8 7 11 3 1:0.8

Feb., 1978 5am 1 22 1 1

* 5 monkeys left the group.

! 4 monkeys died when the group moved out of its home range.

!* The whole group was trapped except 5 individuals.

** These 5 monkeys were also not seen in the area after some time.

432

POPULATION OF NON-HUMAN PRIMATES

DISCUSSION

It was found in the present study that the

percentages of infants and juveniles were not

different statistically between the two primate

species. On the other hand, the percentages of

adult males and adult females were significant-

ly different—females constitute a larger part

of the adult section of the group in rhesus,

whereas the bonnet group contains an equal

number of males and females. The male—fe-

male sex ratio in infant rhesus is found equal

(Lindburg 1971). This indicates that there is

no difference in the reproductive strategy of the

two species. The less number of adult rhesus

males may be due to the reason that during

the process of development, a considerable

number of males is eliminated from the group.

On the other hand, the bonnet males enjoy

an equal ratio with the females. Several in-

vestigators have indirectly attempted to ex-

plain this phenomenon. It has been reported

that the kinship ties are stronger in bonnets

than in rhesus (Rosenblum 1970). Pirta and

Singh (1979) reported that many rhesus ma-

les, who leave the group, get wider know-

ledge of the habitat. If they join the natal

group again, they will prove to be more efli-

cient leaders. It may be possible that, because

a less number of males is sufficient to insemi-

nate a larger number of females, the extra

males are thrown out of the group. But the

last two explanations are not applicable in

case of bonnet monkeys. Only a thorough in-

vestigation of the ecological forces and adap-

tations will explain such differences.

Similarly, another explanation is required

for the differences observed in the group sizes

of two different populations of the same spe-

cies. A very interesting phenomenon was ob-

served in the present study. The group size

was larger in the interior forest areas (mean

48.0) than the areas near to human interaction

(mean 31.0) in rhesus, whereas the bonnet

were in larger groups in the urban and semi-

urban areas (mean 22.8) than their forest

counterparts (mean 13.8). These variations

indicate that the group size, though, is a spe-

cies-specific characteristic, it is prone to

change according to the modification in the

ecological niche. Predation, trapping, affores-

tation and the agricultural expansion may

bring about significant variations in the group

size. It seems that these factors have brought

about the above mentioned population-——speci-

fic (urban and forest) differences in group

size. On the other hand, the differences in the

group sizes of rhesus and bonnet living in the

forest areas may be because of the differences

in the energy requirement of the two species,

though the energy yield of these forests may

be same.

The present study, with reference to the old

surveys made on rhesus and bonnet popula-

tions, reveals that the habitats of these species

are changing tremendously. Southwick ef al.

(196la) reported that 11% villages of Dehra

Dun had resident monkey groups, but during

our survey, no group was found in any of

those villages. Siddiqi and Southwick (1975)

found that ‘ta population sample of rhesus

monkeys in an agricultural area of western

U.P. declined from 403 monkeys in 21 groups

in 1962 to 197 monkeys in 11 groups by 1974.”

Similarly, Simonds (1965) reported some bon-

net groups in the forest areas, some of which

have totally vanished. In one group of Bandi-

pur forest, 15 monkeys were observed two

years before, and now there are only 5 ani-

mals. It was also observed that bonnet mon-

keys are very rare in the interior forest, and

some groups which do live in jungle are found

433

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

near tribal huts or the forest bungalows.

On the other hand, the changes taking place

in the urban groups of bonnet are peculiar. A

group was observed for four years, in which

sudden increases or decreases of sex ratio were

found. The pressures of the urban areas are

quite different than those of the semi-urban,

agricultural and the forest areas. However, the

severity of these pressures is quite threatening

to the survival of these monkeys irrespective

of the habitat.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The senior author is grateful to the help ex-

tended by H. S. Pirta during rhesus monkey

survey, and Jaswanti during the survey on

bonnet monkeys.

REFERENCES

CARPENTER, C. R. (1934): A field study of the

behaviour and social relations of howling monkeys.

Comp. Psycholo. Monog. 10: 1-168.

Crook, J. H. (1972): Sexual selection, dimor-

phism, and social organization in the primates.

Sexual Selection and the Descent of Man. (B. G.

Campbell Ed.).

LinpBurG, D. G. (1971): The rhesus monkeys

in North India—An ecological and behavioral study.

Primate Behavior (L. A. Rosenblum Ed.) Acade-

mic. Press, New York, pp. 1-106.

NEVILLE, M. K. (1968): Ecology and activity of

Himalayan foothill rhesus monkeys. Ecology, 49:

110-123.

No.te, A. (1955): Field observations on the daily

routine and social behavior of common Indian mon-

keys, with special reference to the bonnet monkey

(Macaca radiata Geoffroy). J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 53: 177-184.

Pirta, R. S. AND SINGH, M. (1978): Ecodevelop-

ment of rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) in the

forests of Doon valley. Proceedings of the Work-

shop on Wild Life Ecology. F.R.I., Dehra Dun.

434

im ——, —————— .. (1979) : Some factors

affecting the size and location of home range in

natural groups of rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulat-

ta). Pro. Ind. Acad. Sci. (Animal Sciences). (in

press).

RAHMAN, H. AND PARTHASARTHY, M. D. (1969):

Studies on the social behavior of bonnet monkeys.

Primates, 10: 149-162.

ROSENBLUM, L. A. (1970): Kinship interaction

patterns in pigtail and bonnet macaques. Procced-

ings 3rd Int. Congr. Primatol. Zurich, 1970.

Simonps, P. E. (1965): The bonnet macaques in

South India. Primate Behavior: Filed Studies of

Monkeys and Apes, (I. DeVore ed.), Holt Rine-

hart & Winston, New York, pp. 175-196.

Sippiet, M. F. AND SouTHwick, C. H. (1975):

Population trends and dynamics of rhesus in Ali-

garh District. Abstracts Winter School on Use of

Non-Human Primates in Biomedical Research.

SouTHwick, C. H., Bec, M. A. ANp Srppiqi, M.

R. (196l1a): A population survey of rhesus mon-

keys in villages, towns and temples of North India.

Ecology, 42: 538-547.

THE RELATIVE CONDITION FACTOR AND LENGTH-

WEIGHT RELATIONSHIP OF A FRESHWATER CARP,

LABEO GONIUS (HAM.) (CYPRINIDAE, TELEOSTEI)'

ANIL CHATTERJI?

(With five text-figures)

INTRODUCTION

The relative condition factor (Kn) and

length-weight relationship of a fish, Labeo go-

nius (Ham.) is reported here. These two fac-

tors are generally used for obtaining data on

robustness, gonad development, time of spawn-

ing and the size at first maturity.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The materia! for the present study were ob-

tained from the commercial catch from River

Kali at Aligarh from October, 1972 to Octo-

ber, 1973. Specimens ranging from 150-450

mm in length and 27-930 gm in weight were

included in the present investigation. The ana-

lysis of relative condition factor and length-

weight data was done using the methods

given by LeCren (1951).

RESULTS

Variations in the values of relative condi-

tion factor in relation to size are presented

in Figure 1. The value was found to be high-

est in smaller fishes of both sexes. High va-

lues were obtained upto 210 mm in males and

1 Accepted July 1979.

* Section of Ichthyology and Fisheries, Depart-

ment of Zoology, Aligarh Muslim University, Ali-

garh-202001, India.

230 mm in females. The values increased and

decreased alternately upio the length of 450

mm and three peaks and three valleys were

obtained at the lengths of 210 mm, 330 mm

and 390 mm in males, while at 310 mm, 370

mm and 430 mm in females (Fig. 1).

The gonado-somatic indices showed season-

al variation in both sexes. It started increasing

from March and reached a maximum in May

in case of males and June in case of females

when the fish possessed fully ripe gonads. The

gastro-somatic indices dropped suddenly in

July and from July to February, it almost re-

mained constant (Fig. 2).

There was a sharp increase in condition-

with gonad from April to June while the con-

dition-minus-gonad in females decreased con-

siderably. The decrease in condition-with

gonad during July and August was also very

significant whereas, condition-minus-gonad did

not show any remarkable decrease. No dif-

ference between condition-with-gonad and

condition-minus-gonad was observed during

rest of the year. A similar trend was noticed

for males. Gastro-somatic index was found to

decrease significantly from April to July in

females. During rest of the months, the values

were found to increase gradually in both sexes

(Figs. 3 and 4).

Regression analysis on length-weight rela-

tionship along with the test of significance have

been presented in Table 1 and the analysis of

435

STATISTICS OF REGRESSION OF LOG WEIGHT ON LOG LENGTH OF L. gonius

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

TABLE |

Regression §.S. due to Residual

Source coefficient regression S.S. DE. Correlation Observed 5% s

‘n’ coefficient aE: t

Male 3.1010 38.3750 3.6945 59 0.0375 2.0997 2.001 S

Female 3.0981 24.3953 3.8283 119 0.2669 1.9951 1.981 S

Juvenile 3.1322 26.3333 3.0166 13 0.5831 2.4861 2.160 S

Maturity stage—

I Male 3.0030 1.3440 0.1633 18 0.6719 1.7403 1.101 NS

Maturity stage—

I Female 3.0547 0.6868 0.0334 29 0.0815 0.4399 2.045 NS

Maturity stage—

lH Male 3.1568 0.9215 0.0383 8 0.2018 0.5396 2.306 NS

Maturity stage—

II Female 3.0677 1.1559 0.0501 20 0.7704 1.5265 2.086 NS

Maturity stage—

III Male 3.0140 1.1689 0.0627 11 0.0980 0.3408 2.201 NS

Maturity stage—

Ill Female 3.3744 1.5398 0.0300 17 0.4400 1.0831 2.110 NS

Maturity stage—

IV Male 3.6112 0.4898 0.0347 12 0.6441 1.7929 Poh: NS

Maturity stage—

IV Female 3.6625 0.6592 0.0933 25 0.2608 1.3232 2.060 NS

Maturity stage—

V Male 3.0734 0.5328 0.0254 5 0.6084 1.5332 2.571 NS

Maturity stage—

V Female 3.0377 0.5774 0.0380 23 0.0785 0.3691 2.069 NS

Total within

different maturity

stages 3.0837 16.7605 7.9044 171 = — = =

DIFFERENCE 0.0307 10 a ras ar =

Total between

means of

different maturity

stages 3.1780 0.9038 0.0407 9 — = -— —

TOTAL 7.9451 191 ~~ -— — —

Combined

(Male, Female

and Juvenile) 3.7794 17.6643 7.9450 192 0.6316 11.2874 1.960 S

DIFFERENCE 0.0001 1 = a ro =o

S.S.=Sum of squares. D.F.=Degrees of freedom NS=Not significant S = Significant.

436

RELATIVE CONDITION FACTOR OF LABEO GONTUS

TABLE 2

ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR DATA OF TABLE |

Source Sums of D:.F. Variance

square

Due to total regression 17.6643 1 17.6643

Between regression coefficient within 0.0307 10 0.0030

different maturity stages

Difference between pooled within 0.0001 1 0.0001

different maturity stages and means

regression

Deviation of means from means regression 0.0407 9 0.0045

Residual 7.9450 171 ——

Total 25.6808 192 oo

110 x-----x FEMALE

e—e MALE

108

106

1041

102

100

RELATIVE CONDITION FACTOR

98!

170 = 210 25

SIZE GROUPS

Fig. 1. Mean ‘Kn’ values at different size groups of Labeo gonius,

437

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

x----x Female

1 e—eMale

109

oO 107

| md

e105

Zz. 103

> 101

cat

ns 99

0. N... Dy JS 4 FM OAM Se

MOON TeHas

Fig. 2. Monthly variations in mean ‘Kn’ values of Labeo gonius.

438

RELATIVE CONDITION FACTOR OF LABEO GONIUS

FEMALE

100

CONDITION ( % of maximum)

Org Ne DL J

NOWZ

EM Ae

ASO

1973

MONTHS

Fig. 3.

Seasonal fluctuations in ‘condition with gonad’, ‘condition minus gonad’ and

‘condition minus gonad plus gut’ of Labeo gonius (Females).

variance for data in Table 1 is summerised

in Table 2. The ‘n’ values ranged from 2.1995

(gutted females) to 3.0981 (ripe females) and

2.3693 (gutted males) to 3.1010 (ripe males).

It was found to be highest in juveniles

(3.1322) and lowest in females (3.0981). The

calculation of ‘n’ values at 95% confidence

limits for males, females and juveniles were

always higher than 3 (Table 3). The Jength-

weight relationships of males, females and

juveniles are plotted in Figure 5a. It is quite

clear from this figure that females were lighter

439

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL. HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

than males upto a length of 245 mm, and DISCUSSION

heavier beyond it. The length-weight curves

of the two sexes interesected at a point be- The present study showed that the fluctua-

tween 245-265 mm. Figure 5b shows the tions in relative condition factor of Labeo

smooth curve of the length-weight relationship gonius (Ham.) in relation to size appear to

of combined fishes. be influenced by the number of spawnings

CONDITION ( % of maximum)

OO ND J EME AM oJ unereee eS

1972 1973

MONTHS

Fig. 4. Seasonal fluctuations in ‘condition with gonad’, ‘condition minus gonad’ and

‘condition minus gonad plus gut’ of Labeo gonius (Males).

440.

RELATIVE CONDITION FACTOR OF LABEO GONTUS

FIG.5b

3.20

3.00

2.80F

WEIGHT (gm)

2.60

150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500

LENGTH(mm )

2.40

2.20

LOG WEIGHT (gm)

2.00

2235. 2240-2365) 2.50 ; 60 2.65

LOG LENGTH (mm)

ZNSE ZO! 2.30

Fig. S(a) The length-weight relationship of males, females and juveniles of L. gonius.

Fig. 5(b) The length-weight relationship of combined L. gonius (smooth curve

represents the calculated weight).

that have taken place in six to seven years of each year (Chatterji et al. 1976, Siddiqui ef

life period. In this event the fish appeared to al. 1976). Seasonal fluctuations in the relative

have spawned 3-4 times as the fish attains condition factor were mainly due to matura-

sexual maturity when it is about two years tion and depletion of gonads. Highest values

old. Therefore, the fish successively spawns were recorded when the fish was in ripe condi-

441

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

5 g ‘ tion and lowest just after the spawning. Simi-

5 Vege lar observations have been made in majority

Se Bea of the fish species which are seasonal breeders

3 eS & (LeCren 1951, Pillay 1953, Sarojini 1957, Pan-

25 Sana tulu 1963 and Chatterji et al. 1976). Some

Fa a Sas evidences are also available showing seasonal

Z S mad fluctuations brought about by feeding rhythm

2 —o of the fish (Bal and Jones 1960, Blackburn

S 1960, Qayyum and Qasim 1964,.Khan 1972

A Sree ae and Bhatt 1977). An increase in condition-

5 Se ss & = - increased gonad weight and continued decrease

c one 5 B ga in condition-minus-gonad indicated that cer-

& B, ea cs : Be tain amount of growth potential was sacrificed

E ae ee aah for gonad building. Since ovary weight in-

z 2 | S Sos creases enormously as compared to testes

: 2G aie 3 weight, this sacrifice was more pronounced in

® ZS val ! females than in the males.

Bo Ss The length-weight relationship of the fish

n s eee did not follow the cube law as the values of

= 3 Sr 8 slope ‘n’ were recorded always higher than 3

eS i So. a 2 2 in the present case. Therefore, the weight of

- wi # sess fishes increased more than the cube of the

S e 2 Sue length. In some other carps a similar trend

a 2 aaeS has been reported (Jhingran 1952, Chakra-

z b= HP 7 To barty and Singh 1963, Natarajan and Jhingran

2 Sa See = 1963, Bhatnagar 1972, Khan 1972, Rama-

o aS S Se c mohana Rao and Hanumantha Rao 1972 and

> bs - ° : Chatterji e¢ al. 1977). In small fishes, the ob-

bs As’ 3 SSQ served weight was recorded lesser than the

z NSdos calculated weight while opposite was true for

F bBen | 2825 the larger fishes (Jhingran 1952, Chatterji ef

5 was Sece pean ree ‘ Re

' toa n ripe fishes, the values of ‘n’ were higher

£Bs ‘c g $5 S whereas, in spent fishes, they were lower. Dur-

i ie i bar 9 ing spawning period, the weight of the gonads

9 te) Sete increased considerably resulting in an increase

aa oer SAAR in the total weight of the adult fish as well as

may ch oF os a higher ‘n’ value. As soon as the fish dis-

“De charged their gonad products the weight of

3 oS 34 the fish decreased resulting in a simultaneous

3 s Eee decrease in ‘n’ value. Such changes in ‘n’

442

RELATIVE CONDITION FACTOR OF LABEO GONIUS

values reflect the onset of spawning season of

the fish (Chatterji e¢ al. 1977). The length-

weight curve of males lies above the length-

weight curve of females upto the length of

250 mm and beneath the length-weight curve

of females afterwards. The point of intersec-

tion (between 250-265 mm) seems to represent

the size at first maturity of the fish as reported

by other workers also (Olsen and Merriman

1946, Natarajan and Jhingran 1963, Khan

1972 and Chatterji e¢ al. 1977).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am grateful to Prof. S. M. Alam, Head,

Department of Zoology, for providing neces-

sary facilities. Gratitude is expressed to Prof.

A. Q. Siddiqui and Dr. Asif A. Khan for en-

couragement. IJ thank Dr. Absarul Hasnain,

Scientist-Pool for his valuable suggestions.

Thanks are also due to CSIR, New Delhi for

the award of a Post-doctoral Research fel-

lowship.

REFERENCES

BAL, J. N. AND Jones, J. W. (1960): On the

growth of brown trout of Llyn Tegid. Proc. Zool.

Soc. Lond. 134: 1-41.

BATNAGAR, G. K. (1972): Maturity, fecundity,

spawning and certain related aspects of Labeo fim-

briatus (Bloch) of river Narmada near Hoshanga-

bad. J. Inland Fish. Soc. India 4: 26-37.

Buatr, V. S. (1977): Studies on the biology of

some freshwater fishes. Part-III AHeteropneustes

fossilis (Bloch). Indian J. Fish. 15: 99-115.

BLACKBURN, M. (1960): A_ study of condition

(weight for length) of Australian Barracouda,

Thyrsites atun (Euphrasen). Aust. /. Mar. Freshw.

Res. 1]: 14-41.

CHAKRABARTY, R. D. AND SINGH. S. B. (1963):

Observations on some aspects of the fishery and

biology of the mrigal, Cirrhina mrigala (Ham.)

from Allahabad. Indian J. Fish. 10: 209-232.

CHATTERJI, A., SIDDIQUI, A. Q. AND KHAN, A. A.

(1976): The relative condition factor of bata, Laheo

bata (Ham.) from the river Kali, Uttar Pradesh.

Indian J. Anim. Res. 10 (2): 63-68.

(1977): Length-weight relationship

of a carp, Labeo bata (Ham.). Proc. Indian Acad.

Sci. 86 (B): 189-194.

JHINGRAN, V. G. (1952): General length-width

relationship of three major carps of India. Proc.

Nat. Inst. Sci. India 18: 449-460.

Kuan, R. A. (1972): Studies on the biology of

some important major carps. Ph.D. Thesis. Aligarh

Muslim University. Aligarh.

LeCren, E. D. (1951): The length-weight rela-

tionship and seasonal] cycle in gonad condition and

weight in perch, Perca fluviatalis. J. Anim. Ecol.

20: 210-219.

NATARAJAN, A. V. AND JHINGRAN, A. G. (1963):

On the biology of Catla catla from the river Jamuna.

Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci. India 29: 326-355.

OLSEN, Y. H. AND MERRIMAN, D. (1946): Stu-

dies on the marine resources of Southern New Eng-

land. IV. The biology and economic importance

of the ocean trout, Macrozoarees americanus (Bloch

and Schneider). Bull. Bingham Oceanogr. Coll. 9:

1-184.

PANTULU, V. R. (1963): Studies on age, growth,

fecundity and spawning of Osteogneiosus militaris

(Linn.). J. Cons. int. Explor. Mer. 28: 295-315.

Pittay, T. V. R. (1953): Studies on food and

feeding habits and alimentary tract of the grey

mullet. Mugil tade (Forskl.). Proc. Nat Inst. Sci.

India 19: 777-827.

QayyuM, A. AND QasIM, S. Z. (1964): Studies

on the biology of some freshwater fishes. I Ophi-

cephalus punctatus (Bloch.) J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 61: 74-98.

RAMAMOHANA RAo, G. AND HANUMANTHA RAO,

L. (1972): On the biology of Labeo calbasu (Ham.-

Buch.) from the river Godavari. J. Inland Fish.

Soc. India 4: 74-86.

SAROJINI, K. K. (1957): Biology of grey mullet

of Bengal. I-Biology Mugil persia. Indian J. Fish.

4: 160-207.

Sippiqul, A. Q.. CHATTERJI, A. AND KHAN, A. A.

(1976): Reproductive biology of the carp. Labeo

bata (Ham.) from the river Kali. India. Aquacul-

ture 17(1): 181-191.

443

SOME ASPECTS OF THE LIFE HISTORY OF BLACKBUCK

IN NEPAL*

JoHN F. LEHMKUHL?

Blackbuck antelope (Antilope cervicapra L.) were considered extinct in Nepal until

1975 when 2 small remnant populations were found in the Banke and Bardia districts

of the western Terai. Observations of these blackbuck were made from 1 October

1976 to 27 January 1977 to determine population status, behavior patterns, habitat

use, and preservation options. This report describes population numbers, daily activity

patterns, breeding seasons, territoriality, and food habits.

INTRODUCTION

In Nepal, the blackbuck was commonly

found in the eastern and western Terai, an

extension of the Gangetic Plain lying along

the base of the Himalayan foothills. Until re-

cently, blackbuck were considered extinct in

both areas. Reports by Dinerstein (1975) and

Wegge and Wilson (1976) revealed the exist-

ence of two small remnant populations in the

Bardia and Banke districts, respectively, of the

western Terai. This report describes aspects of

the life history of blackbuck in the 2 remnant

populations, obtained from a larger study to

determine the status of blackbuck in Nepal

and the means for their preservation as part

of Nepal’s unique fauna.

METHODS

The Bardia population was observed from

18 to 30 October 1976 and from 22 to 27

January 1977. The Banke population was

studied from 3 to 10 November 1976 and from

7 to 13" Vanuaty "1977.

Observations were made on foot, except in

1 Accepted July 1979.

2? USDA-Forest Service, 517 Gold SW, Albuquer-

New Mexico 87102, U.S.A.

que,

444

Bardia, where an observation platform was

built in a tree that was centrally located in

the dominant male’s territory. Population esti-

mates were made from simultaneous sightings,

individual recognition, and by drives where

appropriate. Binoculars of 7x35 power and

a 20x telescope were essential for observing

the animals.

Study Area

Bardia: The Bardia area, about 2.6 km/?, is

situated approximately 4 km north of the town

of Gularia, in a bend of the old Babai River

bed, near the village of Kaidi. A blackbuck

protection guard post, operated by the Forest

Department, is situated there.

Standing water is found in the old River

bed during most of the year, but dry areas

appear in many places during the hot season

of March to June. The area is mostly margi-

nal agricultural land and grazing land border-

ed on three sides by the old river bed and

on the other side by scrub jungle.

The agricultural land consists of a patch-

work of fallow and cultivated fields, the major

crops being corn (Zea mays), wheat (Triti-

cum aestivum), rahar dal, mas dal (Lens escu-

lenta), musoori dal (Phaseolus mungo), mus-

tard (Brassica campestris or B. junceae), and

peanuts (Arachis hypogaea). Rice (Oryza

BLACKBUCK IN NEPAL

sativa) is not a major crop as the soil is sandy

and porous. Rahar dal is the major and most

conspicuous crop because of its height (up

to 2 m), dense growth, and persistence

throughout the year.

Vegetation on fallow fields varies with the

intensity of the livestock grazing regime, which

is determined by the size of the area and the

earness of standing crops that may be dam-

aged by livestock. Short-cropped dub grass

(Cynodon dactylon), and the forbs chamcham

(Cassia tora) and ganja (Cannabis sativa)

form an herbaceous layer in large (greater than

1 ha), agriculturally unproductive, heavily

grazed fields. Ber (Zizyphus mauriteous), a

thorny shrub, is dense in heavily grazed areas

with relatively little past cultivation.

The small (less than 1 ha) fallow fields

are generally more productive and less heavily

grazed than the larger fields, and are inter-

spersed in a patchwork fashion with standing

crops. The following short graminoids domi-

nate: Eragrostis coercta; Panicum spp. (2):

Paspalum distichum; Eleusine indica; Setaria

glauca; Thylactodenia aegyptum; Fimbristylis

sp.: Cyperus sp.; Chrysopogon asciculatus;

Saccharum munja; and Sporobolus diander

(Dinerstein 1975). These graminoids, spared

from grazing, form a thick mat under the

rahar dal plants.

In the jungle to the northeast, simal (Bom-

bax malabaricum) dominates, but khair (Aca-

cia catechu) and sissoo (Dalbergia sissoo)

are also found. The understorey is dominated

by dense clumps of ber with an herbaceous

layer of chamcham and heavily grazed gras-

ses. The canopy cover is rather open, but visi-

bility is restricted in the understorey by ber.

' Banke: The Banke area is situated about

37 km southeast of Nepalganj, between the

Rapti River and the Dudwa Range, near the

villages of Jamuni and Bhaghawanpur. It is

mostly open, cultivated land with a few scat-

tered clumps of mango trees covering roughly

8 km’. The Rapti River makes a wide annual

floodplain of sandy flats vegetated mainly by

Tamarix indica and short annual graminoids.

Floodplain areas subject to periodic flooding

are partly covered with a tall grass, Vetiveria

zyzanoides. Order parts of the area are used

as transient grazing and crop lands.

Rice is practically the sole crop, with mus-

tard, wheat, and various types of dal of limit-

ed importance. During the hot season, the

fields are not cultivated, but cattle graze on

what little vegetation remains.

The jungle along the base of the Dudwa

Range has been heavily affected by grazing

and woodcutting. The dense growth of thorny

and unpalatabice shrubs, that dominates the

first few hundred metres from the edge of the

croplands, is the result of this disturbance.

Beyond the first few hundred metres, the un-

derstorey opens into small glades of 0.04-0.2

ha. These “‘dhoenias’’ are characterized by

large dhoe trees (Lagerstroemia parviflora)

with large clumps of ber, short grasses, and

chamcham below. Dhoenias “are distributed

patchily throughout the jungle up to the base

of the hills.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Population Estimates

Bardia: In the Bardia area, 11 blackbuck

were sighted by myself or forest guards (3

adult males, 1 two-year-old male, 1 yearling

male, 3 adult females, 1 yearling female, and

2 fawns).

Banke: Estimating the number of black-

buck in the Banke area was difficult because

of unharvested rice in the agricultural areas

445

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

during 1976. In addition, the nocturnal be-

havior of the animals hindered observations

in 1977. Simultaneous sightings of 5 females

(3 adults and 2 yearlings), and 1 adult male

were made by myself and villagers during

1977. Other villagers reported seeing, at dif-

ferent times, 2 groups of 6-7 blackbuck, with

1-2 adult males in each group. Whether these

groups represent different animals is difficult

to say: I observed females ranging widely

throughout the area.

From the above information, a minimum of

7 blackbuck used the Banke area. Wegge and

Wilson (1976) only saw 2 blackbuck, but they

concluded from local interviews that 15-20

biackbuck used the area during 1976. Villagers

confirmed this estimate, but said that black-

buck were extremely scarce in 1977, and they

could not give an estimate of blackbuck num-

bers. Some villagers speculated that the 1976

monsoon flooding of the Rapti River had

driven the animals to India, 1.5 km to the

south.

Daily Activities

Bardia: The blackbuck in Bardia, being less

disturbed than those in Banke, were more

easily observed. The 4 bachelor males were

usually seen feeding and interacting in open

pastures and fields outside the dominant male’s

territory, during evenings and early mornings.

Toward midmorning, when farmers and cattle

became active, the bachelor males moved to

cultivated areas where cover, in the form of

rahar dal and corn, was better.

Similarly, the main group (the dominant

male, 2 adult females and their fawns, and

the yearling female) was seen feeding in large

fields (greater than 1 ha) during the evenings

and early mornings, when human disturbance

was least. During the day, the group stayed

446

in an open, about 0.5 ha, fallow field feeding,

interacting, and resting. Upon being disturbed,

they would escape to the dense rahar fields

that surrounded the open field on 3. sides;

15-30 minutes after the disturbance ended, the

group would come into the open, usually the

dominant male first, and remain until disturb-

ed again.

Banke: Because of the limited number of

observations on Banke blackbuck, little is

known about their daily habits. The 4 females

were observed 4 times in the fallow fields near

the forest edge before sunrise. Twice they were

seen travelling across the open fields from the

direction of the Rapti floodplain, some 2 km

distant. Immediately after sunrise, the females

moved into the scrub jungle, where they pre-

sumably stayed all day to avoid contact with

farmers, hunters, and cattle. Apparently, after

nightfall they returned to the fields to feed.

Breeding Season

Bardia: On 20 October, in Bardia, 1 of 2

adult females appeared to be pregnant. On

23 October, a new fawn was seen with the

group, probably having been born to this

female a day or 2 before. On 26 October, a

second 1-2 day old fawn was seen with the

group.

Three instances of rutting behavior, such

as nose-up display (nose up and horns parallel

with the back), chasing, and attempted mount-

ing were observed in October. The 2 females

that were courted had just given birth and

were not receptive to the male’s approaches.

Copulation was not observed.

Banke: Villagers in Banke said that fawns

were born in February and March. A villager

raised a male blackbuck that was found as a

newborn in February.

Although males are sexually active at all

BLACKBUCK

times of the year (Schaller 1967), rutting

peaks are caused by the availability of estrous

females, which is influenced by fawning peaks;

these peaks, in turn, are influenced by seasonal

changes in environmental conditions that in-

fluence fawn mortality (Mungall 1978). Mun-

gall stated that females are polyestrous

throughout the year until bred; thus, in the

absence of environmental extremes, fawning,

and therefore breeding, occurs throughout the

year.

Records of 125 blackbuck born in the Lon-

don zoo (Jarvis and Morris 1962, cited in

Schaller 1967) indicate no birth peaks. Schaller

(1967), working with wild Indian blackbuck

in Kanha Park, reported that | fawn was born

during September, and 12 were born between

February and April. Conversely, at Sikandra,

near Agra, he noted that 16 fawns were born

between August and September, and only 3

were born in February. Some births were noted

at all times of the year.

With a 5-6 month gestation period (Brown

1936, Asdell 1946, and Mungall 1978), the

fawns in Bardia were conceived during late

April. This agrees with Schaller’s (1967) data

for Sikandra; but, for Kanha, he reported a

minor peak in April, and a more intense peak

from August to October. Lydekker (1924),

Asdell (1946), and Prater (1948) reported the

main rutting season as February and March.

By looking at seasonal environmental chan-

ges occurring in Nepal and northern India,

one can discern some advantages of the Feb-

ruary to April rutting peak observed in this

study, and predominantly reported in the lite-

rature. A female is bred in March, and early

gestation, the least energy demanding period

of gestation (Moen 1973), proceeds during

the hot dry season when forage quality is low

and heat stress is high. Precipitation increases

IN NEPAL

with the approach of the monsoon rains in

June, causing a flush of new vegetation at the

same time as energy demands of gestation be-

come greatest. Good conditions prevail through-

out the monsoon, which ends by the end of

September. Fawns are born in October and

mature during the mild winter season when

abundant, nutritious forage is available to the

lactating mother.

Breeding and fawning during other times

of the year would appear disadvantageous,

with respect to availability of nutritious for-

age and favourable climatic conditions, for

late gestation, lactation, and_ post-lactation

fawn survival. Nevertheless, Schaller (1967),

for Kanha Park, reported a higher fawning

peak from February to March, than for August

to October, while some births occurred

throughout the year.

Seasonal changes apparently do not strongly

limit the breeding cycle of blackbuck, as they

do with ungulates in more extreme north tem-

perate climates. Indeed, Schaller proposed the

same hypothesis, and noted that sexual cycles

of other Indian ungulates, such as chital

(Axis axis) and barasingha (Cervus duvau-

celi), varied from area to area, seemingly in

response to local environmental conditions.

Territoriality

Bardia: Of the 3 adult males, only | had

established a territory. Another adult male,

a 2-year-old, and a yearling formed a bache-

lor herd that roamed the area along the peri-

phery of the territory. Forest Department

guards said that the third adult male ranged

widely throughout the area with an adult

female. The other 3 females and the 2 fawns

were not observed outside the territory of the

dominant male.

Mungall (1978) reported that females, in

447

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

Texas, iravel a daily circuit, with a maie at-

tending them as they pass through his territory.

Schaller (1967), working in India, found that

does stayed with a territorial buck from Feb-

ruary to November; during December and

January, the breeding groups disbanded, and

the blackbuck congregated in mixed groups.

He noted, though, that the 2 breeding groups

in Kanha Park stayed intact during the entire

year. He hypothesized that variations in the

pattern of social behavior may occur with

small populations: in the absence of conti-

guous territories and competition for does,

breeding groups may remain intact for longer

periods. Apparently, that is the case for Bar-

dia blackbuck; low numbers of animals and

restricted range of movement has resulted in

a stable breeding group.

The dominant male marked his territory

by snifling, pawing, urinating, and defecating

at established dung piles. He also marked

bushes and tall forbs with scent from his pre-

orbital glands, and thrashed small bushes with

his horns. The territory covered 36-40 ha;

about 10 ha were planted with rahar dal, the

rest was mainly pasture with some fields plant-

ed with mas dal.

On 2 occasions, the dominant male was

seen chasing other males from his territory.

Once, the 2-year-old and the yearling of the

bachelor group were feeding in the dominant

male’s territory; the dominant buck approach-

ed them through the cover of a rahar dal field

and, after entering the open, immediately be-

gan chasing the yearling at full speed. The

chase lasted approximately 5 minutes and

covered about 1 km, ending in the bachelor

males’ area. The 2-year-old trotted back to

the same area. The second time, the yearling

was feeding with the females in the dominant

male’s territory; the dominant male again

448

approached through a dal field and gave chase

in the manner described above.

No territorial challenges were observed. The

dominant male was seen several times with the

bachelor group during early mornings. Once,

he sparred with the adult bachelor male for

approximately 2 minutes; after sparring, the

dominant male stotted a short distance and

trotted back to his territory. The bachelor

males continued to spar intermittently for

about 15 minutes, a third male often attempt-

ing to mount one of the sparring males.

Banke: Since I did not see any males in

Banke, little can be said of their social be-

havior. Probably, normal patterns of social

behavior are severely disrupted because of low

numbers of blackbuck and the high degree

of disturbance there.

Food Habits

Blackbuck in both areas depended heavily

on agricultural crops for food. Villagers re-

ported that blackbuck ate rice, mas dal, wheat,

and mustard. Table 1 shows the main crops

found in the blackbuck areas and their sea-

sonal availability as food items.

Schaller (1967) reported that short grasses,

such as Chrysopogon, Paspalum, and Sporo-

bolus, composed the bulk of the diet, in

Kanha Park. Young shoots of tall grasses,

Themeda and Vetiveria, were eaten after burn-

ing. He noted that blackbuck were frequently

associated with agricultural areas. Habitat dis-

placement was a major reason for this be-

havior; nevertheless, blackbuck probably

favored those areas because of the short gra-

minoids associated with early successional

stages resulting from heavy livestock grazing

and agriculture.

Preference for early successional stages is

an important consideration for blackbuck

BLACKBUCK IN NEPAL

TABLE 1

MAIN CROPS OF THE BLACKBUCK AREAS AND THEIR SEASONAL AVAILABILITY AS FOOD ITEMS

Oct

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Nov Dec

Rice x x x x > x

Corn x x x

Wheat x ms x x x

Mas dal x x Xx x

Rahar dal >a x < x x x x x x

Musoori dal x x Xx

Mustard SZ x Xx

Peanuts x x x

habitat management. According to Puri ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

(1960), in northern India _ short-grass types

are maintained by heavy grazing and periodic

fires. In the absence of grazing, large un-

broken stands of Jmperata cylindrica, a rela-

tively unpalatable 0.5-1 m high grass, deve-

lop and are maintained by periodic fires.

Where edaphic conditions are not /imiting, eli-

minating fire leads to grasslands dominated by

tall grasses (2-3 m), such as Phragmites and

Saccharum. Succession can be reversed to

favor short grasses by burning and mechani-

cally breaking Jmperata stands, making the

area more suitable for grazing animals such

as blackbuck.

Thanks are due to officers of HMG Nationai

Parks and Wildlife Conservation Office for

their support of the study. Special recognition

is due Mr. P. B. S. Pradhan, Mr. H. Mishra,

Mr. R. B. Bista, and Mr. K. M. Shrestha. I

am also grateful to Mr. O. P. Rungta and to

Mr. B. L. Das, officers of HMG Forest De-

partment, for their assistance in facilitating

the field work. Special thanks to Dr. B. W.

O’Gara, Leader of the Montana Cooperative

Wildlife Research Unit, for editing the manu-

script.

REFERENCES

ASDELL, S. (1946): Patterns of Mammalian Re-

production. Ithaca, New York.

Brown, C. (1936): Rearing wild animals in cap-

tivity, and gestation periods. J. Mammal. 17: 10-13.

DINERSTEIN, E. (1975): A second status report

on Nepal’s most endangered species, the blackbuck

of Bardia. National Parks and Wildlife Conserva-

tion Office, Kathmandu. Mimeo report, 2 pp.

JARVIS, C. AND Morris, D. (eds). (1962): The

international zoo yearbook. Vol. III. London.

LYDEKKER, R. (1924): The Game Animals of

India, Burma, Malaya, and Tibet. London.

Moen, A. N. (1973): Wildlife Ecology: An

Analytical Approach. W. H. Freeman and Co.,

San Francisco.

MUNGALL, E. C. (1978): The Indian blackbuck

antelope: a Texas view. Kleberg Studies in Natural

Resources, No. 3, 184 pp.

PRATER, S. H. (1948): The Book of Indian Ani-

mals. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay.

Puri, G. S. (1960): Indian Forest Ecology. Ox-

ford Book and Stationary Co., New Delhi.

SCHALLER, G. B. (1967): The Deer and the Tiger:

A Study of Wildlife in India. University of Chicago

Press, Chicago.

WEGGE, P. AND WILSON, P. (1976): The black-

buck of Banke district. National Parks and Wild-

life Conservation Office, Kathmandu. Mimeo report,

5 pp.

449

MATERIALS FOR THE FLORA OF MAHABALESHWAR"

P. V. BoLe? AND M. R. ALMEIDA?

Mahabaleshwar is the most popular _hill-

station of Maharashtra and sometimes refer-

red to as the queen of the Western Ghats. It

is situated at about 17° 56’N. latitude and

73° 40’E. longitude, at an altitude of 1300

metre. It receives 690 cm average rainfall and

more than 95% of it is restricted to four

months of the year, June to September. While

the maximum temperature hardly ever touches

32°C, the minimum is seldom below 13°C.

The meteorological and other ecological data

pertaining to the hill-station is proposed to be

given in the form of an appendix in the last

instalment of this contribution.

There have been several contributions to the

floristics of Mahabaleshwar but a comprehen-

sive study of flora still remains to be provid-

ed. Therefore in this work we intend to fur-

nish an up-to-date list of flowering plants. Our

studies are based on collections by the late

Rey. Fr. H. Santapau and of the senior author

who has spent more than ten years in the

study of the flora of this area.

We invite corrections, deletions or additions

to the information provided here which will

be gratefully acknowledged if and when the

FLORA OF MAHABALESHWAR is published in

book form.

The materials on which these observations

1 Accepted April 1980.

2 Blatter Herbarium, St. Xavier’s College, Bom-

bay-400 001.

3 Present address: Alchemie Research Centre Pvt.

Ltd. Thane-Belapur Road, P.O. Box 155, Thane

400 601, Maharashtra.

450

are based, are preserved in the Blatter Her-

barium, except in the cases where it is stated

otherwise.

We list below the publications which we

have referred very frequently. Other references

are cited as per standard practice in the text

wherever necessary.

Birpwoop, H. M. (1886): A Catalogue of

the Flora of Matheran, in J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 1: 203-214.

— (1887): A Catalogue of the Flora

of Mahabaleshwar and Matheran, ibid. 2:

107-132.

(1896): A Catalogue of the Flora

of Matheran and Mahabaleshwar, ibid. /0:

394-439.

(1897):

Flora of Matheran

(Rev. Ed.) (Bombay).

BLATTER, E. AND BLATTER, E. & MCCANN,

C. (1926-1932): Revision of the Flora of the

Bombay Presidency, (22 parts). J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. vols. 31-36.

Cooke, T. (1885): List of the principal

Mahabaleshwar plants, Appendix-A, in Bom-

bay Gazetteer, vol. 19 (Satara): 647-652.

(1887): Note on the Flora of

Mahabaleshwar and Matheran, in J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 2: 133-140.

(1896): Supplementary note on

the Flora of Matheran and Mahabaleshwar,

ibid. 7/0: 440-448.

(1901-1908): The Flora of the

Presidency of Bombay, vols. I-II. (London)

(Reprinted ed. vols. I-III, Calcutta, 1958).

A Catalogue of the

and Mahabaleshwar.

FLORA OF MAHABALESHWAR

DALZELL, N. A. & Gipson, A. (1861): The

Bombay Flora...together with a supplement

of introduced species. (Bombay).

GRAHAM, J. (1839): A Catalogue of the

Plants growing in Bombay and its Vicinity.

(Bombay).

Hooker, J. D. (1872-1897):

tish India (FBI), vols. I-VU.

Leg, H. H. (1885): List of Plants of Maha-

baleshwar, Appendix-A, in Bombay Gazetteer,

vol. 19 (Satara), 625-646.

Hissoa, J. C. (1883): List of the Plants

seen at Mahabaleshwar at the end of the last

hot season, in J. Royal Asiat. Soc. (Bombay)

15: 203-224.

MarkKHAM, C. R. (1862): Travels in Peru

and India. (London).

Flora of Bri-

NairRNE, A. K. (1894): The Flowering

Plants of Western India. (London and Bom-

bay).

Puri, G. S. & MaAnasan, S. D. (1960): The

Study of the evergreen vegetation of Mahaba-

leshwar area. Bull. Bot. Surv. India, 2 (1 &

2): 109-137.

SANTAPAU, H. (1953): Excursion Botanica

a Mahabaleshwar, in Anales Del, 1. Botanico,

A. J. Cavanilles 1 (11): 281-317.

— (1962): The Botanical Explora-

tion of Mahabaleshwar. Proc. Summer School

of Bot.: 395-400.

(1967): The Flora of Khandala

on the Western Ghats of India, (3rd Ed.)

(Delhi).

TaLpotT, W. A. (1909-1911): Forest Flora

of the Bombay Presidency. vols. I-II. (Poona).

VarTAK, V. D. (1962): Some imperfectly

known Plants from Poona and Satara Districts,

in J. Univ. Poona (Sci. & Tech.) 10: 5-12.

(1970): Some Imperfectly known

Plants from Poona and Satara Districts—Part

II. ibid. 78: 77-98.

WicuHT, R. (1840-1850): [lustrations of

Indian Botany. vols. I-I (London).

(1838-1858): Icones Plantarum

Indiae Orientalis, vols. I-VI. (Madras).

WIGHT, R. & WaALKER-ARNOTT, G. A.

(1834): Prodromus Florae Peninsulae Indiae

Orientalis. (London).

Wooprow, G. M. (1897-1901): The Flora

of Western India (8 parts). J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. vols. 11-13.

RANUNCULACEAE

1. Climbing shrubs, leaves opposite

Clematis

Clematis Linn.

1. Leaves glabrous except the young parts;

flowers white or greenish white.............. 2

2. Flowers exceeding 2 cm in diameter......

ER rN eee ar eR Ree eee C. triloba

2. Flowers less than 2 cm in diameter....... 3

3. Connective of anthers not produced....

C. gouriana

3. Connective of anthers much produced...

C. hedysarifolia

1. Leaves silky villous on both surfaces; flowers

yellow C. wightiana

1. Clematis triloba Heyne ex Roth. Nov. Pl.

251, 1821; Dalz. & Gibs. 1; FBI 1: 3; Nairne;

6; Lisboa: 208; Cooke 1: 2(2); Talbot 1: 3.

Included on the authority of Lisboa and

Birdwood. However while discussing the occur-

rence of this species at Mahabaleshwar with

Rev. Fr. H. Santapau, he mentioned that he

had seen it once on the slopes of Fitzgerald

Ghat, but he could not collect a specimen in

spite of his best efforts. No authentic speci-

men from Mahabaleshwar is available.

LOCAL NAMES. Morvel, Ranjai (Lisboa).

2. Clematis gouriana Roxb. ex DC. syst. 1:

451

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

138, 1818; Graham, 1; Dalz. & Gibs.: 1; FBI

1: Nairne: 5; Birdwood: 6; Cooke 1; 2(2);

Puri & Mahajan; 119.

Highly decorative plant when in flowers or

fruits. Common on slopes of Fitzgerald Ghat

and along the fringes of forests. 10-20 m long

and sometimes reaching the canopy of the

trees, especially at an altitude + 1000 m.

Fitzgerald Ghat.

FLOWERS. |November-December;

December-March.

LOCAL NAME. Morvel.

FRUITS.

3. Clematis hedysarifolia DC. Syst. 1: 148,

1818; FBI. 1: 4; Birdwood: 6; Cooke i: 2(3);

Talbot 1:1; A. S. Rao, in Bull. Bot.. Surv.

India 6(1): 19-21, 1964; Santapau. in Bull.

Bot. Surv. India 6(1): 59-69, 1964.

Found on slopes of Fitzgerald Ghat along

with the preceding species but is not as com-

mon. Flowers, when fresh, are white and rather

attractive and fruits are very conspicuous and

persistent.

Often confused with preceding one but

could be distinguished from it by its much

produced connectives. However in the herba-

rium this species could be easily separated as

it has strongly reticulate veins and more co-

riaceous texture in dried leaflets.

Fitzgerald Ghat, Koyna Valley.

LOCAL NAME. Bendrichi vel (Cooke).

FLOWERS. October-November; FRUITS. No-

vember-May.

4. Ciematis wightiana Wall. ex Wight et Arn.

Prodr.: 2, 1834; Grahm; 1; Dalz. & Gibs.: 1:

FBI 1: 5; Nairne: 5; Cooke: 648; Birdwood:

6; Cooke 1: 3(3); Talbot 1: 6; Puri & Maha-

j 119; Santapau; 305.

jan:

This is the commonest species of Clematis

confined to higher elevations. The entire plant

452

is generally covered with villous, shining, silky

hairs. An ornamental climber worthy of in-

troduction in tropical gardens.

LOCAL NAME: Morvel.

FLOWERS. November-January: FRUITS. De-

cember-March.

Thalictrum Linn.

1. Stipules oblong, membranaceous; achenes nar-

row, voblongite. 15. tae T. dalzellii

1. Stipules fimbriate; achenes compressed ........

T. obovatum

1. Thalictrum dalzellii Hook. Ic. Pl. 9: t.

868, 1852; Dalz. & Gibs.: 2; Cooke 1; 4(4);

VD, Varttak 77,8 G

Known from Mahabaleshwar from only

one collection by Mr Laxman (V. D. Vartak).

FLOWERS. August.

2. Thalictrum obovatum Blatter, in J. &

Proc. Asiat. Soc. Bengal (N.S.) 26(1): 339-

40, 1930.

A rare species, only known from type col-

lection. According to Blatter it is allied to

T. dalzellii Hook., from which it differs due

to its consulcate stem, fimbriate stipules, broad-

ly obovate and anguiculate sepals which are

also shorter than stamens, flattened filaments

and distinctly stipitate and compressed ovary.

The type of this species (E. Blatter: P-26),

collected half way between Mahabaleshwar

and Panchgani is deposited in the Blatter Her-

barium (BLAT).

FLOWERS & FRUITS. July.

DILLENIACEAE

Dillenia Linn.

1. Dillenia pentagyna Roxb., Corom. 1: 21,

t. 20, 1795; Birdwood: 6; 1897.

Besides Birdwood’s report there is no other

evidence to confirm the existence of this spe-

cies at Mahabaleshwar.

FLORA OF MAHABALESHWAR

MAGNOLIACEAE

Michelia Linn.

1. Michelia champaka Linn., Sp. Pl. 537,

1753: FBI 1: 42; Lisboa: 208; Birdwood: 6:

Nairne: 7; Cooke 1: 7(8).

A cultivated ornamental tree.

FLOWERS. May; FRUITS. May-August.

LOCAL NAME. Champa, Sonchampa.

ANNONACEAE

Following four species have been reported

by Lee and Birdwood but no specimens are

avaiable in any herbarium. They have not

been seen by any subsequent collectors. These

species were in all probability observed at the

foot of the hills on the way to Mahabalesh-

war, but do not occur on the plateau.

1. Polyalthia cerasoides (Roxb.), Benth.

et Hook. f., Fl. Brit. India 1: 63-4,

1S72;Lee? 19: 1885.

Uvaria narum Wall. ex W. & A., Prodr.

9, 1834; Birdwood: 6, 1897.

3. Uvaria lurida Hook. f. & Thomson,

Flora Indica: 101, 1855; Birdwood: 6,

1897.

4. Sageraea laurifolia (Grah.) Blatter, in

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 34: 294, 1930.

Guatteria laurifolia Graham, Cat. 4, 1839.

Bocagea dalzellii Hook. f. & Thoms. in FBI

1: 92, 1872; Birdwood: 6, 1897.

MENISPERMACEAE

(Key based on male specimens)

1. Stamens connate; anthers in a terminal head or

il 2; ATS MnO AE ee AD Rost RON Ce See Sh ee oe 2

2. Flowers stalked, solitary or in umbellate

RCA CS peg ans ceuersge tv ccnsy Sesh pec cree at Stephania

Zee PlOWers) iM “panicles ois ess eke ee 3

3. Calyx campanulate ............ Cyclea

3. Calyx of 4 spreading sepals

1. Stamens free

4. Leaves obtuse or subcordate; panicles + 30

=p ihe tee Cae cAI BORO ROE recon REE Tinospora

4. Leaves deeply cordate; panicles small......

em long ts EAn ie tits 3 altos bee Diploclisia

(Key based on female specimens)

1. Style scar terminal Tinospora

1. Style scar basal

2. Inflorescence subtended by foliaceous cordate

BEACtSH tics EE Ry nae Rod eae Cissampelos

2. Inflorescence not subtended by cordate bracts

uatiasdecaceean eter Grabtey Cee age S oars see eee seus 3

3. Ovaries 3-many ............ Diploclisia

3 (Ovary: Solitary. “cc rqa entettereusc cers shee Ae 4

4. Flowers in panicles............ Cyclea

4. Flowers in umbels.......,.. Stephania

Tinospora Miers.

1. Tinospora sinensis (Lour.), Merr. in Sun-

yatsenia 1: 193, 1934.

Tinospora malabarica (Lamk.) Hook. f. &

Thoms., Fl. Ind. 183, 1855; Dalz. & Gibs.: 5;

FBI 1; Nairne; 10; Woodrow: 121; Cooke 1:

19(19); Talbot 1: 36; Blatter 34: 549; Santa-

pau, 301.

Compylus sinensis Lour., Fl. Cochinch.: 113,

1790.

Menispermum malabaricum Lamk. Encycl.

4: 96, 1797.

Cocculus malabaricus

1818; Graham: 4.

Collected from Fitzgerald Ghat; it is a rare

plant. Young stems become terete on drying.

FLOWERS. November; FRUITS. January

(Woodrow).

DG... syst... le Sis;

Cissampelos Linn.

1. Cissampelos pareira Linn., Sp. Pl: 1031,

1753; FBI 1: 103; Nairne: 11; Woodrow 11:

121; Cooke 1: 22(24); Blatter 31: 555: Santa-

pau: 4. a

This species is known from only one collec-

tion from Mahabaleshwar.

453

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY,

FLOWERS. May-September; FRUITS. August-

October.

LOCAL NAME. Pahad vel.

LOCAL USES. Roots are considered of medi-

cinal value.

Cyclea Arn.

1. Cyclea peltata (Lamk.) Hook. f. & Thom-

son, Fl. Indica; 201, 1855; FBI 1: 104; Cooke,

T. 1: 24(25); Birdwood: 6; Puri & Mahajan:

119.

Menispermum peltatum Lamk. Encycl. 4: 96, 1797.

Frequently seen along the Fitzgerald Ghat.

FLOWERS. Throughout the year;

FRUITS. March-April.

LOCAL NAME. Padal.

Stephania Lour.

japonica (Thunb.) Miers, in

14, 1866; Blatter

1. Stephania

Ann. nat. Hist. ser. 3, 18:

31: 555; Santapau: 4.

S. hernandifolia (Willd.) Walp., Repert. 1: 96,

1842; FBI 1: 103 (p.p.); Cooke, T. 1: 22 (23);

Puri & Mahajan: 119; Santapau: 301.

Clypea hernandifolia Wt. & Arn., Prod.: 14,

1834; Wight, Icon. t. 939.

A quite common climber among the bushes

mostly in shady places. Tiger’s Path, Ling-

mala, Chinaman’s falls, Kate’s point, etc.

FLOWERS. July-August; FRUITS. September-

December.

LOCAL NAME. Tanvel.

Diploclisia Miers

1. Diploclisia giaucescens (Blume) Diels, in

Engl...Pfreich. 46: 225, t..-77, .1910;, Blatter

31: 551; Santapau: 301.

Cocculus glaucescens Blume, Bijdr. 25, 1825.

C. macrocarpus Wt. & Arn., Prod.: 13, 1834;

Graham: 5; FBI 1: 101; Cooke 1: 20(22); Bird-

wood: 6; Puri & Mahajan: 119.

454

Voli.

Common in thick forest along Fitzgerald

Ghat. Large liane over 30. m in length climb-

ing over tallest trees. The glaucous green

colour of the leaves and their distinctive

round shape renders the plant quite conspi-

cuous. The large pendulous racemes of ma-

ture, white fruits is a unforgettable sight in

the month of May.

FLOWERS. February-April;

August.

LOCAL NAME. Waroli, Watan vel.

LOCAL USES. Leaves used as beedi wrappers.

Fruits are considered to be poisonous.

FRUITS. May-

NYMPHAEACEAE

Nymphaea Linn. (Nom. cons.)

1. Nymphaea nouchali Burm. f., Fl. Ind.:

120, 1768; Santapau; 5.

N. pubescens Willd. Sp. Pl. 2:

ter 34: 294.

N. rubra Roxb. ex Salisb., Parad. Lond. 1, subt.

14, 1805; Wight, Ills. t. 10; Graham; S.

N. lotus Hook. f. & Thomson, FBI 1: 114, 1872

(non Linn. 1753); Cooke 1:25 (26).

Some plants of this species are cultivated

as ornamental plants in open tanks at Madhu-

Kosh and Bhilar Estate. Red, white and blue

flowered plants were seen.

1154, 1799; Blat-

PAPAVERACEAE

Argemone Linn.

1. Argemone mexicana Linn., Sp. Pl.: 508,

1753; Graham: 6; Dalz. & Gibs.: 6; Cooke:

699 & 1: 27 (29): Birdwood: 6; Puri & Maha-

janes 119.

A weed of waste lands and of cultivated

fields. This yellow flowered Mexican Poppy

dies quickly with the onset of monsoon.

FLOWERS. April-May; FRUITS. April-May.

LOCAL NAME. Piula Dhotra, Dharuri, Kante

Dhotra.

FLORA OF MAHABALESHW AR

BRASSICACEAE

WePlantsxeslabrOus) 2.6 ia eecssno vdeo a soe as 2

2. Fruits less than 3-times as long as_ broad.

SIT CUNT Me Ghar Bec Nees aie gs A catlosamoy sdsceyint tent ards aga 3

3. Fruits strongly compressed, flat ........ 4

4. Seeds 1-2 per fruit........ Coronopus

4. Seeds 4-many in each fruit... .Lepidium

3. Fruits not or scarcely compressed, ovoid,

inflated or with crested valve..........

Meigs cotnat f tera e ta aubeh eats S Rorippa

2. Fruits 4-times or more as long as_ broad,

SLL CU Une ats tt acd aii ee uihsit e-siaas he Sard 5

5, Fruit biarticulated, beaked or with a short.

beak-like stvlar apex........... Brassica

5. Fruits neither jointed or beaked...... 6

6. Fruits straight, opening from below

upwards; seeds one-seriate...........

Sach as nee Cathet eer eee ea Cardamine

6. Fruits + curved. opening uniformly;

seeds == 2- seriate

Impiblants pilose or chairy..........0..0.0..60..0005 7

7. Hairs simple

8. Fruits generally less than 3-times as long

as broad

9. Fruits ‘compressed }....:........). 10

(if not compressed then winged or

didymous)

10. Fruits more or less winged, culti-

vated plants Iberis

10. Fruits not winged or slightly wing-

ed above; valves keeled

Lepidium

9. Fruit not compressed, neither winged

nor didymous Rorippa

8. Fruits 4-times or more as long as broad 11

11. Leaves simple, entire or dentate ....

Ee a Rab SER ye te en I Ainae aa Brassica

11. Leaves pinnatifid or pinnatisect .. 12

12. Fruit dehiscent by valves..... 13

13. Petals yellow Sisymbrium

13. Petals white or pink.......

Ree Na eee Cardamine

12. Fruits breaking transversely into

SepmentSe eee Raphanus

7. Hairs branched or stellate, sometimes glandu-

lar and intermixed Capsella

Brassica Linn.

1. Racemes elongated, neither fleshy nor covered

with leaves B. oleracea

var. oleracea

abbreviated,

B. oleracea

var. botrytis

1. Brassica oleracea Linn., Sp. Pl.: 667, 1753;

var. capitata Linn., Sp. Pl.: 667, 1753.

Cultivated vegetable crop grown in gardens.

LOCAL NAME. Kobichi bhaji.

2. Brassica oleracea Linn. var. botrytis Linn.,

Sp. Pl.: 667, 1753.

This is also a cultivated vegetable crop grown

occasionally in farms.

LOCAL NAME. Phul kobi.

fleshy and

1. Racemes congested,

— covered with leaves

Capsella Medik

1. Capsella bursa-pastoris (Linn.) Medik.,

Pflanzengatt 1: 85, 1792; Birdwood: 7: Cooke

1: 32 (34); Puri & Mahajan; 119.

Thalaspi bursa-pastoris Linn., Sp. Pl.: 647, 1753.

An introduced weed recorded from culti-

vated fields.

Cardamine Linn.

1. Cardamine hirsuta Linn., Sp. Pl.: 655, 1753.

C. trichocarpa Hochst. cx Rich., Tent. Fl. Abys.

1: 18, 1847; Santapau: 7.

C. subumbellata Hook. f. & Thomson. in FBI. 1:

138, 1872; Birdwood: 7; Cooke: 649 & 1: 30 (32);

Puri & Mahajan: 119.

Common and abundant weed along road-

sides and among the cultivated plants:

Coronopus J. G. Zinn

1. Coronepus didymus (Linn.) Smith, Fi. Brit.

2: 691, 1804. Sinha

Lepidium didymum Linn., Mantissa 1: 92, 1767.

A weed in wastelands in town and near Lod-

wick point.

455

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

Tberis Linn.

1. Iberis amara Linn., Sp. Pl.: 649, 1753.

Collected only once at Yenna lakeside.

Lepidium Linn.

1. Lepidium sativum Linn., Sp. Pi.: 644, 1753;

Cooke, T: 1: 29 (37).

Rarely cultivated in farms at Mahabalesh-

war.

LOCAL NAME. Aliv.

R.Br.

1. Nasturtium officinale R.Br. in Aiton, Hort.

Kew., ed 2, 4: 110, 1812; Birdwood: 7; Cooke:

649 & 1: 29 (31); Puri & Mahajan: 119.

Sisymbrium nasturtium-aquaticum Linn., Sp.

Plc 70571753:

Rorippa —— nasturtium-aquaticum (Linn.)

Hayek, Sched FI. Styr. Exs.: 22, 1905.

Lingmala, Mahabaleshwar.

An introduced cultivated plant found grow-

ing wild, near water-courses.

Nasturtium

CLEOMACEAE

Cleome Linn.

1. Cleome speciosissima Lindl., in Bot. Reg.:

1312, 1836; Dalz. & Gibs. suppl.: 5; Lisboa:

209.

A native species of Mexico, commonly cul-

tivated in gardens. Often runs wild. Reported

by Lisboa.

FLOWERS. April-May.

CAPPARACEAE

Capparis Linn.

1. Flowers in corymbose inflorescence

aU Gudertnal cat Werth eps soparineneRonst Ra eRatOren C. rotundifolia

1. Flowers axillary, solitary or in umbels ........ 2

2 spines “Straights een ements C. divaricata

2, spines hooked) shen aie) ete ee 3

456

C. spinosa

C. tenera

3. Fruits ovoid or oblong

3. Fruits piseiform

1. Capparis rotundifolia Rottl. in Ges. Naturf.

Fr. Nene Schr. 4: 185, 1809.

Capparis longispina Hook. f. & Thomson, in FI.

Brit. India 1: 176, 1872; Birdwood: 7; Talbot 1:

60; Blatter, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 31: 906;

Santapau: 291 & 399.

C. pedunculosa var. longispina Cooke, Fl. Pres.

Bombay 1: 48 (51), 1901.

C. pedunculosa (non Dalz. & Gibs. 1961) sensu;

Birdwood: 7; Puri & Mahajan: 119.

This is one of the commonest straggling spiny

bushes at Mahabaleshwar. It resembles Scutia

circumscisa in appearance, but can be differen-

tiated by its green pendulous fruits on long

stalks.

Fitzgerald Ghat,

falls, Tiger path.

FLOWERS. March-May. FRUITS. May-June.

LOCAL NAME. Kolisna.

Lodwick point, Dhobi’s

2. Capparis divaricata Lam., Encycl. 1: 606,

1785; Wight, Icon. t. 889, 1844; FBI 1: 174:

Lisboa: 208; Cooke 1: 45 (48).

Capparis stylosa DC., Prod. 1: 246, 1824; Gra-

ham: 8; Dalz. & Gibs.: 10; Blatter 31: 904.

Included on the authority of Lisboa who re-

ports it from the foot of Mahabaleshwar, bet-

ween Bhima and Krishna rivers.

FLOWERS. April-May.

3. Capparis spinosa Linn., Sp. Pl.: 503, 1753;

Nairne: 17; Birdwood: 401; Woodrow: 11;

Cooke 1: 44 (47); Talbot 1: 53; Blatter 31: 903.

C. spinosa var. vulgaris Hook. f. & Thoms. in

FBI 1: 173, 1872; Birdwood: 7.

C. murrayana Graham, Cat. Bombay PIl.: 9, 1839;

Wight. Icon. t. 379; Dalz. & Gibs.: 9.

C. spinosa var. murrayana Lisboa in J. Roy. Asiat.

Soc. Bombay 15: 209, 1883.

A common plant along the banks of the lake

and on sides of nullas in stony situations. Some-

times it is seen growing on the walls of the

bridges.

Fitzgerald Ghat, Yenna lake.

FLORA OF MAHABALESHWAR

FLOWERS. December.

4. Capparis tenera Dalz. in Hook., Kew J.

Bot. 2: 41, 1850; Dalz. & Gibs.: 9; Lisboa: 209.

Included on the authority of Lisboa. No spe-

men available.

FLACOURTIACEAE

1. Flacourtia indica (Burm. f.) Merr., Inter-

pret. Rumph. Herb. Amb.: 377, 1917; Santa-

pau in Fl. Khandala: 10.

Gmelina indica Burm. f., Fl. Ind.: 132, t. 39, f. 5,

1768.

F. inermis Graham, Cat. Bombay PIl.: 10,

(non Roxb. 1820).

F. ramontchi Lisboa in J. Roy. Asiat. Soc. Bom-

bay, 15: 209, 1883.

F. ramontchi L’Her. var. latifolia Wook. f. &

Thomson, FBI 1: 193, 1872; Talbot 1: 77.

F. latifolia Cooke in Fl. Pres. Bombay 1: 56, 1901;

Blatter: 913; Santapau: 296; Puri & Mahajan: 119.

This is one of the common forest com-

ponents of Mahabaleshwar. Fruit is edible

when ripe, but very strongly astringent when

raw. Trees of this species very often found

loaded with Loranthaceous parasites.

LOCAL NAME. Tambat.

FLOWERS. January-June; FRUITS. January-

October.

1839

PITTOSPORACEAE

1. Pittosporum floribundum Wt. & Arn.,

Prod.: 154, 1834; Graham: 38; FBI 1: 199

(p.p.); Birdwood: 401; Cooke: 647 & 1: 58

(61); Talbot: 81; Puri & Mahajan: 119.

P. nepaulense Blatter, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

34: 302, 1930.

A rare tree at Mahabaleshwar.

Fitzgerald Ghat, Rotunda Ghat.

LOCAL NAME. Yekandi.

POLYGALACEAE

1. Polygaia persicariaefolia DC. Prod. 1: 326,

1824; FBI 1: 202; Cooke: 649 & 1: 63 (63);

Blatter 34: 302; Chodat, Monogr. Polygal, pt.

2, 939le te /2/, th. 22-23, 1914: Birdwood: 7;

Pari & Mahajan: 119.

Common monsoon species in grassy patches

at the edges of the forests. Rare at Mahabalesh-

war.

Lingmala.

FLOWERS. October-November.

CARYOPHYLLACEAE

le Stipules scanlousiss. erate stato = Polycarpon

Dro LIPUles! .O Xs a aus veh cation nn. Owen ds I ee deen anaes 2

2. Calyx gamosepalous; petals long clawed ....

BUstata hanes mt Mtucuchonsie’ Wokelsl scidaa acute 4 atraieas Vaccaria

2. Calyx polysepalous, petals subsessile, not claw-

ed or altogether absent Stellaria

Stellaria Linn.

1. Stellaria media (Linn.) Vill. Hist. Pl. Danph.

3: 615, 1789; FBI 1: 230; Birdwood: 7; Wood-

row: 11; Cooke 1: 64 (68); Blatter; 304: Puri

& Mahajan: 120.

Alsine media Linn., Sp. Pl.: 272, 1753.

Common chick-weed. Weed of cultivation

and wastelands.

FLOWERS & FRUITS. December.

Polycarpon Linn.

1. Polycarpon prostratum (Forsk.) Aschers. et

Schweinf. in Oster. Bot. Zeit. 39: 128, 1889;

Santapau: 12.

Alsine prostrata Forsk., Fl. Aeg.-Arab.: 207, 1775.

P. indicum (Retz.) Merrill in Phil. J. Sci. Bot. 10:

302, 1905; Blatter 34: 304.

P. loeflingiae Benth. & Hook. f., Gen. Pl. 1: 153,

1862; Cooke 1: 65 (69); Birdwood: 7; Puri &

Mahajan: 120.

A prostrate herb of wet places. When dry

whole plant turns deep brick-red.

Yenna lake, Lingmala, Dhobi’s falls, Bus

stand, etc.

FLOWERS. April-May; FRUITS. June.

457

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

Vaccaria

1. Vaccaria pyramidata Medik., Phil. Bot. 1:

96, 1789; Santapau: 12.

Saponaria vaccaria Linn., Sp. Pl.: 409, 1753; FBI

1: 217; Nairne: 22; Woodrow: 124; Cooke 1: 66

(66).

Soapwort. Often cultivated in gardens. Estab-

lished locally as an escape from gardens.

LOCAL NAME. Sabni.

FLOWERS. February-April;

May.

FRUITS. April-

Dianthus Linn.

1. Dianthus caryophyllus Linn. Sp. Pl.: 410,

1753; Blatter: 304.

Cultivated in gardens.

LOCAL NAME. Pink carnation.

FLOWERS. May-June.

PORTULACACEAE

1. Portulaca oleracea Linn., Sp. Pl.: 445, 1753®

FBI 1: 246; Birdwood: 401; Cooke 1: 72 (72)

& 469; Puri & Mahajan: 120.

The common Purslane. A prostrate succu-

lent herb in yellow flowers. Rare in Mahabal-

eshwar, in wastelands and fallow fields.

FLOWERS & FRUITS. Dry seasons.

CLUSIACEAE

Lo Galyxaok 4 core Sesepalsoes-ee eee Garcinia

1. Calyx bursting open in two valves .... Mammea

Garcinia Linn.

1. Garcinia indica (Du Petit-Thou.) Choiss. in

DC., Prodr. 1: 561, 1823; Birdwood: 7.

Brindonia indica Du Petit-Thouars in Dict. Sc. Nat.

5: 339, 1804.

This species included here on the authority

of Birdwood.

458

Mammea_ Linn.

1. Mammea suriga (Buch.-Ham.) Birdwood,

Cat. Fl. Matheran & Mahableshwar: 7, 1897;

Kosterm. in Comm. For. Res. Inst. Indonesia,

Bogor 72: 23, f. 19, 1961; Santapau: 15.

Calophyllum suriga Buch.-Ham. ex Roxb. FI.

Ind. 2: 608, 1832; FBI 1: 276, 1874.

Calysaccion longifolium Wight, Ill. 1: 130, 1840

and Icon. t. 1999.

Included on the authority of Birdwood only.

No specimen available.

TERNSTROEMIACEAE

Camellia Linn.

1. Camellia sinensis O. Kuntze. Erde; 500,

1881.

Thea sinensis Linn., Sp. Pl.: 515, 1753; C. thea.

Link., Enum. Hort. Berol. 2: 73. 1833; Lisboa

U582209:

The Tea plant was introduced for cultiva-

tion at Mahabaleshwar about the middle of

last century, but the project did not prove

commercially sound. There are still some

bushes growing on the slopes near Bhilar,

about 10 km away from Mahabaleshwar on

way to Panchgani.

FLOWERS & FRUITS. December.

LOCAL NAME: Chaha.

MALVACEAE

1. Erect trees; flowers with accrescent involucre.

BT ee ae rm es AS NA TI Bion. Kydia

1. Shrubs, undershrubs or herbs................ 2

2. Involucral “bracts absent?.495. ase

3. Flowers + 5 cm in diameter. showy;

leaves cordate) oi.) 22! }. ea eeee Abutilon

3. Flowers = 2.5 cm in diameter; leaves not

cordate «5... ..1.:.\Shy ae eee Sida

2. Involucral bracts present Sess eee 4

4. Calyx spathaceous. deciduous ..........

Fab aR ep os gna ae A belmoschus

FLORA OF MAHABALESHWAR

Kydia Rosch.

1. Kydia calycina Roxb., Pl. Cor. 3: 12, t

215, 1819; Graham: 20; FBI 1: 348, Birdwood;

8: @ooke-1: 94°(100); Talbot 1: 127, t. 78;

Blatter 34: 629; Santapau: 16.

This is a very rare tree on Mahabaleshwar

plateau. However it is very common at lower

elevations: Often cultivated along roadsides.

Koyna valley.

FLOWERS & FRUITS. August-December.

Abutilon Linn.

1. Abutilon persicum (Burm. f.) Merrill,

Philipp. J. sci. 19:. 364, 1921.

Sida persica Burm. f., Fl. Ind.:

1768.

A. polyandrum (Roxb.) Wt. & Arn., Prod.: 55,

1834; Graham, 15; FBI 1: 325; Nairne: 28; Bird-

wood: 8; Cooke 1: 95 (101); Blatter 34: 629;

Santapau: 17.

Sida polyandra Roxb., Fl. Ind. 3: 173, 1832.

A common shrub or undershrub found on

grassy slopes, very conspicuous by its very

prominent yellow or pale orange flowers. Often

associated with Carvia callosa at the edges of

the forests.

Chinaman’s falls, Fitzgerald Ghat.

LOCAL NAME. Madan.

FLOWERS & FRUITS. November-January.

1485 th 47s, te 15

Sida Linn.

WR @OCCHMaTIState, Gi e cisotn ih ei artca-e stared S.

ee Coccimactite. not “aristate ..21 secs) ese anes 2

2. Pedicels jointed below middle

S. orientalis

2. Pedicels jointed above middle............3

3) Pedicels: longer ithan: Jeaves..........:...

Puig wath Sie Mets sys wary ds a Stentor S. cordata

3. Pedicels shorter than leaves......s S. acuta

1. Sida acuta Burm. f., Fi. Ind.: 147, 1768;

Cooke 1: 93 (98); Blatter 34: 628; Puri &

Mahajan: 120; Santapau: 15.

S. carpinifolia Linn. f. suppl.: 126,

1781; Fer 1:

323; Birdwood: 8; Cooke: 648.

There is only one specimen of this species

from Mahabaleshwar. This specimen is slightly

hairy on the under surface of lamina.

2. Sida rhombifolia Linn. Sp. Pl: 684, 1753.

Sida orientalis Cav., Diss. 1: 21, t. 12, f. 1, 1791.

S. rhombifolia var. rhomboidea Masters in FI.

Brit. Ind. 1: 324, 1874; Santapau: 16.

S. rhombifolia forma rhomboidea Blatter. J. Bom-

bay nat. Hist. Soc. 34: 629. 1930.

Occasionally found in open situations on

loose, red soil. Tap root is very long.

Lodwick point. Chinaman’s falls.

FLOWERS & FRUITS. September-January.

3. Sida spinosa Linn., Sp. Pl.: 683, 1753; Lis-

boa: 209; Cooke 1: 92 (98); Blatter 34: 628.

S. alba Linn., Sp. Pl., ed. 2: 960, 1763; Dalz. &

Gibs:2), 17:

Included here on the authority of Lisboa.

4. Sida cordata (Burm. f.) Borssum, Blumea

14: 182, 1966.

Melochia cordata Burm. f.. Fl. Ind.: 143, 1768.

S. veronicifolia Lam., Encycl. 1: 5, 1763; Puri &

Mahajan: 120.

Included on the authority of Puri and Maha-

jan.

Hibiscus Linn.

|. Hibiscus rosa-sinensis Linn., Sp. Pi.: 694,

1753; Graham: 13; Dalz. & Gibs. Suppl.: 6:

Cooke 1: 113 (120); Blatter 34: 634; Santa-

pau: 18: Puri & Mahajan: 120.

Cultivated shrub which is grown for its or-

namental flowers, used for decoration as well

as for worship.

LOCAL NAME. Jasvant.

FLOWERS. Throughout the year.

2. Hibiscus hirtus Linn., Sp. PL:

Cooke, 2: 106 (113).

A rare plant at Mahabaleshwar only known

from one collection by Rev. R. D. Acland

from Chakdeo.

694, 1753:

459

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

Abelmoschus Medik.

1. Abelmoschus manihot (Linn.)

Malv. Fam. 46, 1787; Santapau: 18.

Hibiscus manihot Linn. Sp. Pl. 696, 1753.

A. tetraphyllus Graham, Cat.: 14, 1839.

H. tetraphyllus Roxb., Fl. Ind. 3: 211, 1832; Fs1.,

1: 341; Cooke 1: 111 (118); Talbot 1: 123, t.

74.

Occasional but conspicuous species due to

its large yellow flowers found on the grassy

hill-slopes, during monsoon as well as _post-

monsoon periods.

LOCAL NAME. Ran bhendi.

FLOWERS & FRUITS: September-November.

Medik.

Malva Linn.

1. Malva sylvestvis Sp. Pl.: 689, 1753.

Malva mauritiana Linn. Sp. Pl.: 689, 1753.

A cultivated ornamental plant occasionally

seen in gardens.

Azanza Alef.

1. Azanza lampas (Cav.) Alef. in Bot. Zait.

19: 298, 1861; Santapau: 19.

Hibiscus lampas Cay. Diss. 3: 154, t.

1787; Graham: 13; Wight. Icon. t. 5.

Thespesia lampas (Cav.) Dalz. & Gibs. Bombay

56, f. 2,

Fl.: 19, 1861; FBI 1: 345, Talbot 1: 124, t. 75;

Nairne 32.

T. macrophylla Blume, Bijdr. 73, 1825; Cooke.

1: 114(121).

A common monsoon shrub on_ sloping

grounds among the grasses. The bark of this

plant used by natives for cordage.

LOCAL NAME: Ran bhendi.

FLOWERS & FRUITS: September-November.

BOMBACACEAE

1. Salmalia malabarica (DC.) Schott & Endli-

cher, Melet. Bot. 35, 1832; Saldanha & Nicol-

son, FI., Hassan Dist.: 145, 1976.

460

479, 1824;

Birdwood: 8;

Bombax malabaricum DC. Prodr. 1:

Beddome, Fl. Sylv. t. 82, 1871;

Cooke. 1: 120 (127).

There is one tree of this species near 56th

milestone on Kelghar Ghat on Satara Road.

LOCAL NAME: Semul, Savar.

STERCULIACEAE

1. Flowers unisexual, petals 0............ Sterculia

1. Flowers hermophrodite, petals present........ 2}

2. Fruits spirally twisted; seeds not winged....

Helicteres

seeds winged

Pterospermum

2. Fruits not spirally twisted;

Sterculia Linn.

1. Sterculia foetida Linn. Sp. Pl.: 1008, 1753;

Graham: 18; Dalz. & Gibs. suppl. 10; Wight,

Icon. t. 181; FBI 1; 354; Cooke 1: 130 (130);

Blatter 34: 878.

A tall tree, shady in hot season. Flowers

with strong and disagreeable odour. Only seen

in cultivation near Bhilar. Seeds are eaten

locally.

LOCAL NAME: Jungli badam.

FLOWERS & FRUITS: March-May.

Helicteres Linn.

1. Helicteres isora Linn. Sp. Pl.: 963, 1753;

Graham: 16; Dalz. & Gibs. 22: Wight, Icon.

t. 180; Nairne: 35; Birdwood: 403; Woodrow

12: 129; Cooke 1: 138 (136); Talbot 1: 146,

t. 89; Blatter 34: 897; Santapau: 22.

A shrub with bright red flowers and twisted

fruits. Colour of the flowers gradually changes

to pale lead colour. Common in undergrowth

on Fitzgerald Ghat and in the Koyna Valley.

LOCAL NAME: Murad sheng.

FLOWERS: July-Septmber; FRUITS: Decem-

ber-March.

LOCAL USE: Used in children’s medicine.

FLORA OF MAHABALESHWAR

Pterospermum Schreb.

1. Pterespermum acerifolium Willd. Sp. PI.

3: 729, 1800; Graham: 20; FBI 1: 368; Cooke

1: 137 (137); Talbot 1: 149; Blatter 34: 880.

Found in gardens in cultivation.

LOCAL NAME: Kanak champa.

Friolaena DC.

1. Ericlaena candoliei Wall. Pl. Asiat. Rare.

1: 51, t. 64, 1830; Dalz. & Gibs. 24: FBI 1:

370" Cooke 1° 131 (140); Talbot 1: 151, tt.

92-93; Lisboa: 209.

Included on the authority of J. C. Lisboa.

LOCAL NAME: Bothi.

FLOWERS: April-May.

ELAEOCARPACEAE

1. Drupe Btceiledteni Aes. fu E. sphaericus

Pee rupemni-se celled ctw cs est ces eens 2

2. Drupe oblong, falcate............ E. serratus

2. Drupe ovoid, straight.......... E. tectorius

1. Elaeocarpus serratus Linn., Sp. Pl.: 515,

1753; Puri & Mahajan: 120.

Puri and Mahajan reported this species from

Lingmala.

2. Elaescarpus sphaericus (Gaertn.) Schum.,

in Engl. & Prantl. Pfam. 3(6): 5, 1895; San-

tapau: 27.

Ganitrus sphaerica Gaertn., Fruct 2: 271, t. 139,

1701; Wight, Icon. t. 66, 1838.

E. ganitrus Roxb., Fl. Ind. 1: 400, 1832; Graham:

22; Dalz. & Gibs.: 27; FBI I: 400; Cooke 1:

151 (160); Talbot 1: 170, t. 105; Lisboa; 209.

Included on the authority of Lisboa.

FLOWERS: Cold season (Lisboa).

3. Elaeocarpus tectorius (Lour.) Poiret in

Lam. Encycl. suppl. 2: 704, 1812; Saldanha,

Fl. Hassan: 131.

Craspedum tectorium Lour., Fl. Cochinch. 336,

1790.

E. oblongus auct. (non Gaertn. 1788), Graham,

Cat. Bombay: 21, 1839; Dalz. & Gibs.: 27; FBI

1: 403; Cooke 1: 138 (161); Talbot 1: 146, t.

89; Birdwood: 9; Puri & Mahajan: 120.

There are a few trees of this species on

Lingmala plateau and near Yenna Lake. It

is a very beautiful tree when in flowers.

LOCAL NAMES: Kasau, Kas, Kasso, Kasu.

FLOWERS: March-June; FRUITS: March-

November.

TILIACEAE

1. Fruit unarmed

2. Inflorescence terminal; mesocarp of the fruit

fIDTOUS HA, ee ee helene ehh eee. Microcos

2. Inflorescence axillary or extra-axillary; meso-

Carpianote mibrous™ 22.2 e tees sae Grewia

NEUES PTC KI Van 8 Seger ee rn epee vaits Bune cus e vs Sucks 3

3. Trees; fruits over 3 cm long....Erinocarpus

3. Herbs or undershrubs; fruits less than 1 cm

LON Deere te tee tie wart ana: Triumfetta

Microcos Linn.

1. Microcos paniculata Linn., Sp. Pi.: 514,

1753; Santapau, Fl. Saurashtra 1: 70.

Grewia microcos Linn., Syst. (ed. 12): 602, 1767;

Graham: 21; Dalz. & Gibs.: 26, Nairne: 38;

Birdwood: 403 & 9; Woodrow 12: 130; Cooke

1: 145 (154); Talbot 1: 168; Blatter 34: 890;

Pierre, Pl. Cochinch. t. 152; Puri & Mahajan;

120; Santapau; 309.

Common tree on Fitzgerald Ghat, in Koyna

Valley and Savitri Valley. The terminal in-

florescence and fibrous mesocarp of the fruit

are distinctive features of this species.

LOCAL NAME: Shiral.

FLOWERS: May-October; FRUITS: December.

Grewia Linn.

iL LeavesmolaDrouse amis cee cee ee 2

Qeeriruits4-lobedma. serie acre G. orientalis

Da wePUits y2-LODEMH i 20052 aspects cls eae cnegs G. glabra

Ie eaves tOmentOse ques... a ucsceei nici ater norte 3

Se ECAVESH OVALC mani nena ine een G. tilaefolia

see eavesmlineat-ODlong see t ete mee 4

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

4. Leaves 4-5 ribbed; flowers white

iA, RRP R RE ies tien sy, ay the 3-248 G. hirsuta

4. Leaves 3-ribbed; flowers yellow.........

RATE ATE APLAL AS Acne ear aoa ey caret G. pilosa

1. Grewia tiliaefolia Vahl, Symb. Bot. 1: 35,

1790; Graham: 21; Dalz. & Gibs.: 26; FBI 1:

386; Birdwood; 9 & 403; Woodrow; 11; 130;

Cooke 1: 141 (150); Talbot 1: 160; Blatter 34:

887.

G. arborea Roxb. ex Roth. in in Neve Schr. Ges.

Nat. Freund. 4: 205, 1803.

Included on the authority of T. Cooke, who

reports it from Koyna Valley.

LOCAL NAME: Dhaman.

FLOWERS & FRUITS: March-August.

2. Grewia orientalis Linn., Sp. Pl.: 964, 1753;

Blatter 34: 886.

G. columnaris Sm. in Rees, Cyclop.: 17: no. 5.

1811; Graham: .21; Dalz. & Gibs.: 26; FBI 1:

383; Nairne: 38; Woodrow 12: 130; Cooke 1:

138) aCli47) ize Dalbot s1:.0157.

Included on the authority of Nairne.

. Grewia glabra Blume, Bijdr.: 115, 1825.

G. disperma Rottb. ex Spreng., Syst. 2: 579, 1825;

Santapau: 24.

G. laevigata auct. (non Vahl, 1790) FI. Br. India

1: 389, 1874; Woodrow 12: 130; Cooke 1: 143

(152); Talbot 1: 164, t. 101; Blatter 34: 888.

A small tree along Fitzgerald Ghat with

creamy white flowers.

LOCAL NAME: Kaori.

FLOWERS: August-December;

FRUITS: October-February.

4. Grewia hirsuta Vahl, Symb. Bot. 1: 34,

1790; Graham; 21; FBI 1: 391; Nairne; 38;

Woodrow: 130; Cooke 1: 144 (153); Talbot

1: 166; Blatter 34: 889.

Reported here on the authority of Nairne.

FLOWERS: August-September:

FRUITS: November-January.

5. Grewia pilosa Lamk., Encycl. 3: 43, 1789;

Dalz. & Gibs.: FBI. 1: 388: Nairne: 38:

Birdwood: 403: Woodrow 12: 130; Cooke 1:

26:

462

143 (151).

G. flavescens Juss. in Ann. Mus. 4: 91,

Blatter 34: 888.

G. carpinifolia Masters, in Flora Brit. India 1:

1804;

387, 1874.

Included here on the authority of Birdwood.

LOCAL NAME: Khatkhati.

FLOWERS: August-October.

Erinocarpus Nimmo

1. Erinocarpus nimmonii Graham, Cat. Bom-

bay Pl.: 21, 1839; Dalz. & Gibs:: 27; Bird-

wood: 403; Woodrow 12: 265: Talbot 1: 168,

t. 104-105; Blatter 34: 889; Santapau: 25;

Puri & Mahajan: 120.

E. nimmonianus Mast. in FBI 1: 394, 1874;

Nairne: 38.

This species is found in Koyna Valley be-

low Mahabaleshwar plateau.

LOCAL NAMES: Bher, Chaora.

FLOWERS: August-September;

FRUITS: October-July.

Triumfetta Linn.

J. Bristles of fruit == 710) mm see T. pilosa

1. Bristles of fruit == S/mmi S32 T. rhomboidea

1. Triumfetta pilosa Roth,, Nov. Pl. Sp.: 223,

1821; Dalz. & Gibs.: 25: FBI 1: 394; Nairne:

38; Birdwood: 9 & 403: Woodrow 11: 265;

Cooke 1: 174 (156): Santapau: 30.

T. cana Blume. Bijdr.: 113, 1825; FBI 1: 396.

T. tomentosa Noronha ex Blatter. J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 34: 890, 1931.

This is a rare species and has been collected

only from Lingmala.

LOCAL NAMES: WNichurdi, Kutree-Wandree.

FLOWERS: November-December;

FRUITS: February-March.

2. Triumfetta rhomboidea Jacq., Enum. PI.

Carib.: 22, 1760; FBI 1: 395; Nairne: 38:

Birdwood: 403: Woodrow 11: 262; Cooke 1:

147 (156).

FLORA OF MAHABALESHWAR

T. bartramia Linn., Syst. (ed. 10): 1044, 1759

(nom. illeg.); Blatter 34: 890; Santapau: 30.

T. angulata Lam., Encycl. 3: 421, 1789; Graham:

21; Dalz. & Gibs.: 25.

Fairly common and abundant weed, often

gregarious on the outskirts of the forests, in

open situations. The plant appears in second

half of the monsoon.

LOCAL NAME: Nichurdi.

FLOWERS & FRUITS: October-December.

LINACEAE

1. Annual herbs

1. Shrubs

Linum Linn.

1. Linum mysurense Heyne ex Benth. apud

Lindl. in Bot. Reg. 16: sub tab. 1326, 1830;

Graham: 33; Dalz. & Gibs.: 16; FBI 1: 411;

Nairne: 40; Birdwood 9 & 11: 265; Cooke:

649 & 1: 155 (164); Blatter 34: 892; Santa-

pau: 401; Puri & Mahajan: 120.

A variable annual 3-30 cm tall, found on

grassy hill-slopes. Fairly common all over.

LOCAL NAMES: Undri, Bhamburti.

FLOWERS & FRUITS: September-December.

Reinwardtia Dumortt.

1. Reinwardtia Comm.

Bot.: 19, 1822.

R. trigyna (Roxb.) Planch. in Hook. London J.

Bot. 7: 522, 1848; Dalz. & Gibs.: 16; FBI |:

412; Nairne: 40; Birdwood 9 & 403; Woodrow

11: 265: Cooke 1: 155 (165); Blatter 34: 89;

Santapau: 299; Puri & Mahajan: 120.

Linum trigonum Roxb. Asiat. Res. 6:

(non Linn. 1753); Graham: 34.

This species has been collected from Ling-

mala, Fitzgerald Ghat, Chinaman’s falls and

Koyna Valley. Sometimes it is found in culti-

vation also.

FLOWERS: August-January;

indica Dumortier,

35i3 L799

FRUITS: October-January.

MALPIGHIACEAE

Hiptage Gaertn.

|. Hiptage benghalensis (Linn.) Kurz, in J.

Asiat. Soc. Bengal, 43(2): 136, 1874; Blatter

34: 893; Saniapau: 34.

Benistera benghalensis Linn., Sp. Pl.: 437, 1753.

H. medablota Gaettn., Fruct. 2: 169, t. 116, 1791;

Graham: 28; FBI 1: 418; Birdwood: 404; Wood-

row 11: 265; Cooke 1: 157 (167): Talbot 1:

178, t. 110.

This species seen occasionally along the

Fitzgerald Ghat only.

LOCAL NAME: Madhavi vel.

FLOWERS: January-March. FRUITS: March-

May.

OXALIDACEAE

1. Plants not bulbiferous; flowers yellow........ Z

2. Plants= not: hirsute)... 0.5.4. O.

2 lantsie MITSute savas eee O.

corniculata

var. hispida

1. Plants bulbiferous; flowers violet or pinkish-

WINES Magee gon Nara A acca teot Ai rs AB eck ae ee 3)

3. Bulbs fibrous; flowers violet..... O. latifolia

3. Bulbs not fibrous; flowers pinkish-white....

Ee rae ava ee ects eatou adh oe shan aysaaeean onsen Mee pains O. rubra

1. Oxalis corniculata Linn. Sp. Pl: 435,

1753; Graham 35; Dalz. & Gibs.: 42; Lisboa:

210; Wight, Icon. t. 18; Nairne: 43; Bird-

wood 9 & 404; Woodrow 11: 266; Cooke:

650 & 1: 167 (177); Blatter 34: 898.

A quite frequent weed on moist ground

in semi-shaded places. Collected from Lod-

wick Point & Kelghar Ghat.

LOCAL NAMES: Ambuti, Amrul.

FLOWERS & FRUITS: January-August.

2. Oxaiis corniculata var. hispida Blatter in

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 34(4): 898, 1931.

Only distinguishing character of this variety

from the type variety is that the whole plant

is villous.

463

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

3. Oxalis latifolia H.B.K., Nov. Gen. Sp. 5:

184, t. 567, 1821; Blatter 34: 898; Santapau:

3D.

This Mexican species is found naturalized

as a common weed of the cultivated fields.

FLOWERS & FRUITS: October-December.

4. Oxalis rubra St. Hill, Fl. Bras. 1: 124;

1824; Bailey, 601, 1949.

This species is very often found in cultiva-

tion for its showy flowers, but wherever it

grows in open fields it spreads very fast and

464

becomes a troublesome weed. Quite frequently

it is seen along roadsides.

FLOWERS: December-January.

5. Oxalis martiana Zucc. in Densksehr. Acad.

Muench. 9: 144, 1823-4 (1824); Puri & Maha-

jan: 120.

O. corymbossa DC. Prodr. 1: 696, 1824.

A rare species, only known from a single

collection. (BSI).

(To be continued)

FURTHER OBSERVATIONS ON THE FIELD ECOLOGY

OF RAJASTHAN BATS*

Y. P. SINHA?

Although some information on general acti-

vities, sex ratio, food, reproduction, fat depo-

sition, winter lethargy etc. of some bats from

Rajasthan and neighbouring areas are provid-

ed by Brosset (1962 a, b, c,), Prakash (1963),

Khajuria (1965, 1971, 1975), Agrawal (1967),

Sinha (1976 a, b; 1977) and Sinha and Advani

(1976), nevertheless there is a big lacuna in

our knowledge of ecology of bats from these

areas.

During 1972-1976, I made extensive field

surveys in Rajasthan and ecological data so

obtained for 15 species have been checked

with previous data and new findings are pre-

sented below for each species.

Family PTEROPODIDAE

Rousettus leschenaulti leschenaulti

(Desmarest)

The Fulvous fruit bat was obtained from

dark, deserted rooms of an old monument at

Gagaron-ka-kila (10 km. east of Jhalawar,

Rajasthan) in a forested area. The size of co-

lony in the Gagaron-ka-kila was about 1,000

exs. It was noticed in association with Rhino-

poma microphyllum kinneari in Jhalawar (Ra-

jasthan).

It was seen in the vicinity of bushes laden

with ripe fruit at Jhalawar late in the night

1 Accepted November 1979.

2Gangetic Plains Regional Station, Zoological

Survey of India, Patna-800016 (Bihar), India.

and was captured in mist-net between mid

night and 4 A.M. Many seeds of fruits were

seen on the ground at its roosting place. Gut

contents showed only brown thick liquid like

substances from which it can be concluded

that this bat takes only soft parts of fruits.

Several ectoparasites, ticks, mites and wing-

less fly (Nycteribidae, Diptera) were obtain-

ed from the body.

Pteropus giganteus giganteus (Briinnich)

This large fruit bat was not seen in the ex-

treme arid part of Rajasthan due to nonavail-

ability of large trees and scarcity of water but

is known to occur at Jodhpur (Prakash 1963)

in a garden on Ficus tree near a big tank. It

is common in humid parts of Rajasthan where

large trees are available. Colonies (size 100-

1,000 exs.) on banyan (Ficus bengalensis),

peepal (Ficus religiosa), tamarind (Tamarin-

dus indica), neem (Azadirachata indica) and

mango (Mangifera indica) were observed in

various localities (viz. Pali, Jhunjhunu, Dun-

garpur, Bundi, Ajmer, Banswara and Jhala-

war) in semiarid and humid parts of Rajas-

than. Further this bat was found always near

or in towns and villages near human habitation.

It was not found in deep forest nor in temples

or old buildings as mentioned by Sanderson

(1969) for some other species of Preropus.

Some ectoparasites, wingless fly (Nycteri-

biidae, Diptera), ticks and mites were obtain-

ed.

Cynopterus sphinx sphinx (Vahl)

The short-nosed fruit bat was found active

465

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

in Banswara and Bundi (Rajasthan) imme-

diately after dusk on guava trees in a garden.

Gut contents had only remains of unidenti-

fied material.

Some wingless flies (Nycteribiidae, Diptera)

were obtained from this bat.

Family RHINOPOMATIDAE

Rhinopoma microphyllum kinneari

Wroughton

Besides the desert (Prakash 1963), this bat

was obtained from various localities (Sinha

1980) in semiarid and humid parts of Rajas-

than. The colony (size varying from 25-500

exs.) was found in somewhat dark and un-

inhabited houses, temples, caverns and under

ground man made tunnels.

Besides previous records (Prakash 1963)

this bat was also found in association with

Hipposideros fulvus pallidus (in Mandore

tunnel, and Bhim Bharak cave near Jodhpur

and in Jhalara-Patan fort near Jhalawar) and

with Rousettus |. leschenaulti (in Gagaron-ka-

kila near Jhalawar) in Rajasthan. It was also

observed in pure colonies in various localities

in Rajasthan (namely Malarna Dungar, Sawai

Madhopur Dist.; Maroth village, Nagaur Dist.;

and Ransi village, Jodhpur Dist.). It seems

that this bat is often captured by birds and

mammals as it was seen in the beak of a kite

and a crow in Maroth village (Nagaur Dist.)

and being carried by a cat in Malarna Dungar

(Sawai Madhopur Dist.).

Several ectoparasites, e.g., wingless fly (Nyc-

teribiidae, Diptera), bugs (Cimicidae), ticks

and mites were collected from this bat.

Large quantities of the guano of this bat

is collected by the local people every year and

used as fertiliser. According to local people

the guano is a good fertiliser especially for

466

chilli and onion.

Rhinopoma hardwickei hardwickei Gray

Prakash (1963) collected this bat from dark

portions of ruins and the man-made caverns

in arid parts of Rajasthan. Further it was col-

lected from dark portions of deserted houses,

temples, caves and tunnels in various places

in semiarid and humid parts of Rajasthan by

me (Sinha 1980). In comparison with R. mic-

crophyllum kinneari colonies of this bat were

smaller, not exceeding 50.

Besides association with Rhinolophus 1. le-

pidus (mentioned by Prakash 1963) it was

observed with R. microphyllum kinneari, Hip-

posideros fulvus pallidus and Taphozous_ k.

kachhensis in Bhim Bharak cave (Jodhpur),

with Taphozous p. perforatus in a_ ruined

house at Dungarpur, with Pipistrellus minus

in a temple at Salawas and with R. m. kin-

neari in Surpura (both in Jodhpur Dist.), Jha-

lawar and Bundi.

Fat deposition appears to coincide with

breeding and winter conditions (Sinha 1976b).

Some information on food and reproduc-

tion of this species collected from Rajasthan

have already been reported by Sinha and Ad-

vani (1976).

Ticks and dipteran fly (Nycteribiidae) were

obtained from the body.

Family EMBALLONURIDAE

Taphozous perforatus perforatus Geoffroy

Previously this bat was known only from

arid parts of Rajasthan (Prakash 1963). I ob-

served this bat in both arid and humid parts

in deserted houses (Luni and Dungarpur) and

under ground tunnel (Mandore). It is found

in association with Rhinopoma microphyllum

kinneari (Prakash 1963). The size of colony

was small (1-5 exs.) in Rajasthan. This bat

was seen to be very active in roosting place

ECOLOGY OF RAJASTHAN BATS

even in day time and hence difficult to catch.

Winged dipteran fly (Streblidae) was ob-

tained from its body.

Taphozous longimanus longimanus Hardwicke

The haunt of this bat is quite different from

other species. Sinha (1976a) found it in hol-

lows and crevices of peepal and banyan trees

in Rajasthan. Brosset (1962a) describes simi-

lar habitat in Anand. The size of colony varies

from 6-40 exs. It was as active during day time

as T. perforatus and therefore very difficult

to catch. It was never met in association with

other bats. Brosset (1962a) also mentions

that it does not tolerate other species.

Observations on food and reproduction are

recorded by Sinha and Advani (1976).

Ticks, mites and bugs (Cimicidae) were

found on this bat.

Taphozous kachhensis kachhensis Dobson

Like Rhinopoma_ microphyllum kinneari,

this bat is common in Rajasthan. Prakash

(1963) collected it only from Jodhpur. The

present observation is based on the collections

made from different localities by me (Sinha

1980) in arid as well as humid parts of Ra-

jasthan. Its favourite habitats are cracks, cre-

vices and holes in caves, old houses etc. Its

colonies are usually small (4 to 5 exs.) but

there are several such colonies in the same

building.

Brosset (1962a) and Prakash (1963) have

not mentioned its association with other bats.

I observed this species in association with Rhi-

nopoma m. kinneari and Hipposideros fulvus

pallidus in Mandore tunnel, Bhim Bharak cave

and Jhalara-Patan fort in Rajasthan.

Sinha and Advani (1976) found one fe-

male in advanced stage of pregnancy in the

last week of September. A female obtained

in the last week of July (24.vii.1976, Bhim

Bharak cave, Jodhpur) had a suckling young

(forearm 53% of the mother; gular sac and

pectoral pore well developed; body naked;

head well furred; and eye open) in her arm.

The female had the right horn of the uterus

well swollen (width 5 mm) while the left

horn had regressed (width 2 mm). A female

collected in the last week of August (Jodh-

pur, 29.viii.1976) had early pregnancy. Bros-

set (1962 a) found pregnant females in June

at Ahmedabad and towards end of August

in Maharashtra. The present observation thus

shows that this bat evidently breeds at least

twice a year once in July-August and again

in October. The female carrying a suckling

young which had the right horn of the uterus

swollen was obviously a case of post partum

pregnancy as mentioned by Gopalakrishna

(1955) in Taphozous longimanus.

Bugs (Cimicidae) and mites were found as

ectoparasites.

Megaderma lyra lyra Geoffroy

Previously this bat was obtained by Prakash

(1963) only from the Mandore nulla and

Jodhpur fort (Jodhpur Dist.). It was observ-

ed and collected from a tunnel in the old

mine (Nangal village, Jnunjhunu Dist.), a dark

room in the Ranthambhore fort (Sawai Ma-

dhopur Dist.) and Dara fort (Kota Dist.),

dungeon (Banswara, Banswara Dist.) and Jha-

lara Patan fort (Jhalawar Dist.). The colony

size varies from 5-100 exs.

When approached the bat sometimes flies

towards the intruder. It often flies low, some-

times touching the ground.

In Nangal (Jhunjhunu Dist., Rajasthan) it

was found in association with Rhinopoma m.

Kinneari and R. h. hardwickei. Sexes may

occur mixed or separately, and no regular

sexual segregation was noted.

467

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

It harbours the winged fly (Streblidae, Dip-

tera).

Family RHINOLOPHIDAE

Rhinolophus lepidus lepidus Blyth

Prakash. (1963) observed this bat in small

numbers in a pit under the ceiling of a cavern

at Bikaner and in a well at Pilani in arid part

of Rajasthan. It was observed by me hanging

from ceiling of dark temples in forested area

(Sikar Burz, Bundi Dist. and Ranthambhore,

Sawai Madhopur Dist.). When approached it

did not fly out of the room but flew very fast

inside the room as earlier reported by Pra-

kash (1963). Only solitary bats were seen and

no colony was found. It has not been observ-

ed in association with other bats either.

Hipposideros fulvus pallidus Andersen

Inhabits dark, abandoned rooms and tun-

nels around Jodhpur (a basement in a crowd-

ed suburb; a ruined building in a sparsely

forested area; a rocky tunnel); also in an

abandoned fort (Jhalara Patna).

It is very active in day time, and flies away

on human approach. The flight is slow, low

and fluttering.

It lives in small colonies not exceeding 25

exs. (generally 4-6), in which both sexes are

found.

At Jhalawar it was found in association with

Megaderma I. lyra, Rhinopoma microphyllum

kinneari and R. h. hardwickei and in Jodhpur

only with R. A. hardwickei.

Sinha and Advani (1976) have given some

information on food of this bat in Rajasthan.

In July, at Jodhpur, a pair of infants were

found, suggesting breeding in June. This is

the sole information on breeding. [Brosset

(1962b) who combined this species with H.

bicolor recorded breeding of this ‘complex’

in April in Maharashtra].

468

Family MOoLossIDAE

Tadarida aegyptiaca thomasi Wroughton

It was obtained from dark crevices and

cracks in ceilings and walls and from narrow

space between wall and notice board from va-

rious places in Rajasthan, viz. Rajgadh fort

(Ajmer Dist.) Kishorepura temple, Kota

(Kota Dist.), Dungarpur Middle School (Dun-

garpur Dist.), ruined houses in Bundi (Bundi

Dist.) and Jodhpur court (Jodhpur Dist.).

The size of colonies varies from 5-20 exs.,

sometimes solitary individuals are also found.

Sinha and Advani (1976) have given some

information on food and reproduction of this

bat. Further, pregnant females collected in

August in Jodhpur also support the birth of

young in September as indicated by Sinha

and Advani (loc. cit.) and Brosset (1962c).

Bugs (Cimicidae), ticks and mites were

found as ectoparasites.

Pipistrellus mimus mimus Wroughton

This bat was obtained from cracks, crevices

and holes in walls and ceilings of temple and

houses in Jodhpur and Salawas (Jodhpur

Dist.). The colony size varies from 12-50 exs.;

a solitary bat was found hiding in a crack in

an old house in Tonk (Tonk Dist.).

At Jodhpur, it starts flying in the evening

about 20 minutes after sunset, and returns in

the morning 15-20 minutes before sun rise.

This bat and P. dormeri have been observed

in Jodhpur in the same hunting territory ex-

ploring among old houses and trees.

Some information on food is given by Sinha

and Advani (1976).

At Jodhpur, females with two sucklings

youngs were found in August suggesting birth

in August in Rajasthan. Sinha (1970) has re-

ported female with suckling young in Septem-

ber from Calcutta.

ECOLOGY OF RAJASTHAN BATS

Pipistrellus dormeri (Dobson)

This bat was observed in holes, cracks and

crevices in ceilings and walls of old houses

and temples at Dungarpur, Banswara and

Jodhpur in Rajasthan and in holes of banyan

trees (Ficus bengalensis) at Sukal Tirath (Bha-

roch Dist., Gujarat).

At Jodhpur, in summar it starts leaving the

roost just after Pipistrellus mimus mimus

(about 20 minutes after sunset). It was very

active in the hunting territory up to 90 mi-

nutes after sunset and then disperses. It re-

turns to the roost many times till it settles in

finally before sunrise.

It was not found in association with other

bats but observed in Surat, Gujarat in the

same building in which other bats wiz. Cynop-

terus s. sphinx, Scotophilus h. heathi and T.

k. kachhensis live in different corners. Madha-

van (1978) observed this bat often in asso-

ciation with other bats in Maharashtra.

There is no sexual segregation and both

sexes are found in the same colony.

Pregnant females with one or two foetuses

were found in July (early pregnancy) and

September (advance pregnancy) in Jodhpur

(Rajasthan). Madhavan (1978) mentions that

this bat does not have sharply restricted breed-

ing season but breeds throughout the year in

Maharashtra.

Bugs (Cimicidae), ticks and mites are found

as ectoparasites.

Scotophilus heathi heathi Horsfield

This bat was obtained from cracks, crevi-

ces and holes in walls and ceilings of build-

ings from various localities in Rajasthan. At

Sawai Madhopur it was also collected from

a hole in banyan tree. The size of colony was

generally not more than 10 exs. but in Ban-

swara a colony of 25 exs. was seen.

As mentioned by Brosset (1962 c), in Ra-

jasthan (Bundi) also two females were found

in a state of torpor in a big hole of a wall

on a very cold day of December.

Sexual segregation is not common, but in

Bundi the two sexes were found in separate

colonies.

Some observations on food have already

mentioned by Sinha and Advani (1976).

Nothing is known about its breeding from

Rajasthan.

Ticks, mites and insects (Diptera: winged

Streblidae and wingless Nycteribiidae; Hemip-

tera: bugs of family Cimicidae) were collect-

ed from this bat.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am grateful to Prof. M. L. Roonwal for

guidance and criticism and to Dr. T. N. Anan-

thakrishnan, Director, Zoological Survey of

India for facilities.

REFERENCES

AGRAWAL, V. C. (1967): New mammal records

from Rajasthan. Labdev (J. Sci. Tech.),5: 342-344.

BrosseT, A. (1962 a): The bats of central and

western India. Part I. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.,

59: 1-57.

(1962 b): The bats of central and

western India. Part II. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.,

59: 583-624.

(1962 c): The bats of central and

western India. Part II. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.,

59: 707-746.

GOPALAKRISHNA, A. (1955): Observations on the

breeding habits and ovarian cycle in the Indian

Sheath-tailed Bat. Taphozous longimanus (Hard-

wicke). Proc. natn. Inst. Sci. India, (B) 21: 41.

KuasuriA, H. (1965): A novel method for the

capture of the Indian Flying Fox (Pteropus g. gi-

ganteus Briinnich) for meat, fur and control. Chee-

469

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY,

tal, 8: 37-39.

(1971): On the habits of the Indian

Flying Fox, Pteropus g. giganteus (Brinnich).

Cheetal, 14: 37-39.

(1975): Methods of suspension,

crawling, swimming and defecation in Indian bats

with remarks on possible causes of chiropteran head-

down ward suspension. Dr. B. S. Chauhan. Comm.

Vol., 99-105.

Mapnavan, A. (1978): Breeding habits and asso-

ciated phenomena in some Indian bats. Part V-Pi-

pistrellus dormeri (Dobson)-Vespertilionidae. J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 75: 426-433.

PRAKASH, I. (1963): Taxonomic and _ biological

observations on the bats of the Rajasthan desert.

Rec. Indian Mus., 59 (1961): 149-170.

SANDERSON, I. T. (1969): Living mammals of the

world. Hamish Hamilton, London.

470

Vol. 77

SINHA, Y. P. (1970): Taxonomic notes on some

Indian bats. Mammalia, 34: 81-92.

(1976a): New record of the Indian

Sheath-tailed bat, Taphozous longimanus, from

Rajasthan with remarks on winter fat deposition in

T. kachhensis. Sci. & Cult., 42: 169-170.

— (1976b): Fat deposition in rat-tail-

ed bats (Rhinopoma sp.) in Rajasthan, India. J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 73: 206.

(1977): A new and a rare record

of fruit bat (Pteropidae) from Rajasthan (Mam-

malia: Chiroptera). Sci. & Cult., 43: 264-265.

(1980): The bats of Rajasthan:

zoogeography. Rec. zool. Surv.

Taxonomy and

India., 76: 7-63.

SINHA, Y. P. AND ADvaANI, R. (1976): Notes on

food and reproduction of some Rajasthan bats.

Geobios, 3: 37-40.

FLORAL BIOLOGY OF MIMUSOPS ELENGI LINN.'

C. SuBBA REppI AND A. JANAKI Bar’

(With three text-figures)

INTRODUCTION

There is practically no information on the

floral biology of tropical plants. Further, to

quote Percival (1965), “‘we do not know the

complete floral biology of any species of plant.

Some economic crops have attracted consi-

derable attention, but even for these the data

are incomplete. This means that. any observer

may amass original data and add to our

knowledge in this field.’ The floral biology

of Mimusops elengi has been therefore studied

and its pollination potential ascertained in all

its aspects.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Mimusops elengi Linn. is grown in parks

and road-sides because of its evergreen nature

and of its beautifully scented flowers. The

plants are mostly confined to tropics.

Morphology of the flower:—The flower mor-

phology of Mimusops elengi was earlier des-

cribed by cooke (1904), Gamble (1921), Bor

(1953) and McCann (1959), but the descrip-

tions are not from the angle of making a spe-

cial study of pollination. Three types of plants

of Mimusops elengi occur in nature. One type

with flowers having only functional stamens

(bearing no fruits); second type with flowers

1 Accepted November 1977.

2 Department of Environmental Sciences, Andhra

University, Waltair 530 003.

having functional ovaries only (bearing

fruits); third type with flowers having both

ovaries and stamens functional (bearing

fruits). The following description of the flower

is a generalised one.

The pedicillate flowers, either solitary or

fasicled, occur in the axils of newly formed

leaves, the blades of which do not completely

unfold (Fig. 1). They are pendulous because

Fig. 1.

Twig with pendulous flowers.

of the curvature of their pedicels. Calyx per-

sistent, consists of 8 lobes in two whorls of

4 each (the inner ones narrow and petaloid),

valvate. Corolla scented, deciduous, white,

tube very short, consists of 24 lobes in two

series, the exterior of 16, linear spreading

lobes, and the inner of 8 linear erect lobes.

47]

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

The inner ones are narrow at the base but

boader above (spathulate), each adpressing

against one another; they are contiguous and

convergent around the style. Aestivation of

either series imbricate. Stamens inserted on

the tube of the corolla, fertile ones opposite

to calyx lobes and the inner lobes of the co-

rolla; filaments slender, short; anthers lanceo-

late-sagittate, larger than the filament, 2-celled,

dehiscing lengthwise, extrorse; sterile ones

alternating with the fertile ones, ovate, acute,

toothed, hairy at the base; ovary hirsute, 6-8

celled with one ovule in each locule but in the

fruit only one ovule develops, others become

suppressed, style cylindrical, exserted, stigma

small, furrowed and provided with cylindrical

papillae.. Nectar produced at the base of the

ovary.

Morphology of pollen grains: Pollen grains are

monads, roughly spheroidal, dry, non-cohe-

rent, 30-45 ym in size (average of 100 grains

36 wm), (3)4(5) colporate, exine thin and

smooth, contents granular.

Viability of pollen grains: Pollen grains readily

germinated in 5% sucrose solution. They

(50% of the grains) remained viable for 6

days under laboratory conditions.

Output of pollen grains: In estimating the

pollen output, the method used by Subba Reddi

(1976) was adopted. The number of pollen

grains per anther varied from between 15,321

and 22,253, the weighted average being

19,933 (+ 2148). There are 8 anthers in a

flower and as such on an average 1, 59, 464

pollen grains could be produced per flower.

Pollen liberation: The style emerges before

the calyx and corolla expand (Fig. 2). Even

before the emergence of the style, the anthers

were found to dehisce. However, the pollen

grains are prevented from contacting the stigma

because both are separated by the inner series

472

of corolla lobes which are connivent forming

a cone surrounding the style, thereby conceal-

ing the stamens. Even when the calyx and the

Fig. 2. Flowers showing the emergence of the style

before the calyx and corolla stretch out, the con-

vergence of the inner series of corolla lobes forming

a cone around the style, and the deciduous nature

of the corolla.

outer series of corolla lobes stretch out, the

inner series of lobes remain converging around

the style. Because of this contrivance, though

the flowers are pendulous and the anthers de-

hisce even when the flower is in the bud con-

dition, the pollen grains are arrested from

being poured down.

After a day or so depending on the pre-

vailing weather conditions the flower begins

to lose its turgidity and hence the inner series

of corolla lobes become flexible. Consequent-

ly, a narrow way is formed between the tip

‘of the corolla and the style. When there are

requisite wind speeds to disturb the flowers

FLORAL BIOLOGY OF M. ELENGI

sufficiently, the pollen grains escape through

the narrow space formed between the tip of

the corolla and the style, and are wafted by

wind currents.

Unless the flowers are disturbed no release

of pollen grains would occur. This had been

verified in the laboratory. Twigs with flowers,

the calyx lobes and the outer corolla lobes

of which just unfolded, were brought to the

laboratory and their cut ends were kept in a

beaker of water. Microscope slides coated with

glycerine jelly were placed just beneath the

flowers. Under relatively still conditions no

pollen grains were found deposited on the

slides even after the corolla lobes become

flexible. When the flowers were disturbed one

could see the pollen coming out as a white

powder.

To know whether or not all the pollen

grains produced in a flower would get into

the ambient air, batches of corollas with

anthers that fell on the ground were kept in

stoppered tubes immediately after collection.

After bringing them to the laboratory, the

usual procedure for estimating the number of

pollen grains was followed. The number of

grains in such fallen corolla varied per anther

from between 1385 to 2771, the weighted

average being 2128. This means that about

11% of the total pollen that could be pro-

duced per anther might remain unliberated

into the air before the corollas drop off from

the tree.

Terminal velocity of pollen grains: Terminal

velocity was measured by releasing pollen

grains at the top of a column of still air in a

vertical glass cylinder of 160 cms in length

and finding the time taken by them to arrive

at the bottom. Calculations were made follow-

ing Weinhold (1955).

The observed terminal velocity is 4 cm/sec.

Incidence of pollen grains in the air: To know

the power of pollen grains to remain airborne,

rod impactors of 0.53 cm diameter with 18

mm square sticky cellophane strips wound

round them were exposed at a height of 2.5 m

a.g.l. and at a distance of 25 m in the down

wind direction (determined at the time of

placing the impactor) of the tree in full

bloom at Sitammadara in Visakhapatnam for

24-hour periods during April-May 1976. The

exposed cellophane strips after mounting in

glycerine jelly were scanned at 1 mm gaps

across the stagnation line and the number of

pollen grains thus counted on 81 sq. mm of

trap surface were estimated to number on

324 sq. mm, the total trap surface. The re-

664 ow

Gl2e=

372=—=

==? 90a

== 33,6 om

x ~ ro) o

o SiO o

Estimated number on 324 sq mm of trap surface

Cie

Fig. 3. Variations in the day-to-day incidence’ of

pollen grains in the air.

473

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

sults presented in Fig. 3 indicate that consi-

derable numbers of pollen grains could re-

main in suspension in air.

Pollination:—The disappearance of glistening

of the stigma before the liberation of pollen

grains indicating the loss of receptivity to-

gether with the occurrence of plants either

with only functional stamens or with only

functional ovaries undoubtedly indicate that

the flowers in Mimusops elengi are cross-pol-

linated. Also the occurence of a mechanism

for arresting the pollen grains from being libe-

rated while the stigma is receptive is a good

device for safeguarding cross-pollination.

During these observations it was found that

honey bees and other insects visit these flowers

now and then. But they were seen to alight

on such flowers which have already lost the

receptivity of their stigmas. Hence the biotic

factor apparently does not aid in the trans-

ference of pollen in this plant. The present

observations suggest the possibility of wind

as the agent of pollination.

In the literature there are certain conditions

mentioned as most propitious for effective

wind pollination. They are: (1) Flowers usual-

ly appear before the leaves are out (2)

Flowers reduced in size and unisexual (3) Re-

duced perianth (4) No nectar or scent (5)

Both anthers and stigma exposed (6) Pro-

duction and release of large amounts of single

(monads) grains; grains dry and round falling

in the size of 20-40 »m, exine of grains thin,

sculpture smooth (7) Terminal velocities

range from 2-6 cm/sec. (8) Stigma feathered

or branched (enlargement of stigma) (9) Re-

duction in number of ovules per ovary (10)

Pollen release (hence flowering) should coin-

cide with the most favourable time of the

year (low probability of precipitation, ade-

quate winds and turbulence) for transport to

474

be effective (Kerner 1895; Knuth 1906; Per-

cival 1965; Whitehead 1969; Faegri & Pijl

1971: Ehrendofer 1973).

It is remarkable that some of these tradi-

tional characters such as those under 1-5, 8

and 9 mentioned above are not met with

Mimusops elengi. Nevertheless, the pendulous

flowers and their peculiar structure with the

inner 8 corolla lobes converging and forming

a cone around the style, production of exces-

sively large number of pollen grains (as a

compensation for decreased probability of

pollination by the wind) and the improvision

of a mechanism for their liberation only dur-

ing gusty winds together with their power of

remaining airborne and their terminal velo-

city falling within the required range speak

undoubtedly in favour of wind as the agent

of pollination. The relatively large size of the

pollen grains is well suited for their deposi-

tion on the stigma by impaction (Gregory

1973). Further, the period of flowering

(March-May), with considerably high wind

speeds and no precipitation provides adequate

turbulence for the effective transportation of

pollen grains by the wind.

This is a second instance of anemophily

where all the traditional characters associated

with the syndrome of anemophily are not

seen, the first being Madhuca indica, reported

by the senior author (Subba Reddi 1976).

SUMMARY

The floral biology of Mimusops elengi, a

tropical plant, has been studied. The pendu-

lous flowers are protandrous. The inner series

of corolla lobes are spathulate, each adpress-

ing against one anther; they are contiguous

and convergent around the style. The 8 epi-

petalous stamens are concealed and the an-

FLORAL BIOLOGY OF M. ELENGI

thers dehisce longitudinally. The style comes

out well before the unfolding of the perianth

lobes.

Pollen grains are produced in abundance,

the average number per anther being 19,933.

The grains are monads, dry, non-coherent,

and 36 »m in size. They remain viable for 6

days. Their terminal velocity is 4 cm/sec. An

efficient mechanism is improvised for the libe-

ration of pollen grains during gusty winds only.

Evidence is in favour of wind as the agent of

pollination, and the grains being slightly larger

have the advantage for deposition on the

stigma by impaction.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We are grateful to Dr. P. K. K. Nair,

Head, Morphology & Palynology Division,

National Botanic Gardens, Lucknow, for his

interest and encouragement.

REFERENCES

Bor, N. L. (1953): Manual of Indian Forest

Botany. Oxford University Press.

CooKE, T. (1904): The flora of the Presidency

of Bombay, Vol. II, Reprinted Edition, Botanical

Survey of India, Calcutta.

EHRENDOFER, F. (1973): Adaptive significance

of major taxonomic characters in angiosperms, In

Taxonomy and Ecology, edited by V. H. Heywood,

Academic Press, London-Newyork.

Fagori, K. & Prit, L. VAN DER (1971): The prin-

ciples of pollination ecology. 2nd Revised edition.

Pergamon Press Ltd.

GAMBLE, S. J. (1921): Flora of the Presidency

of Madras, Vol. I, Reprinted Edition, Botanical

Survey of India, Calcutta.

Grecory. P. H. (1973): The microbiology of

the atmosphere, 2nd edition, Leonard Hill.

KERNER VON MArILAUN, A. (1904): The Natu-

ral History of Plants. Trans]. F. W. Oliver, Vol.

II, The Gresham Publishing Company, London.

KNuTH, P. (1906): Handbook of flower polli-

nation, Transl. J. R. Ainsworth Davis, Clarendon

Press, Oxford.

McCann, C. (1959): 100 Beautiful plants of

India. A descriptive and pictorial handbook. D. B.

Taraporevala Sons & Co. Private Ltd.

PercivAL, M. S. (1965): Floral Biology. Perga-

mon Press Ltd.

SusBBA Reppr, C. (1976): Floral mechanism,

Pollen Productivity and pollen incidence in Mad-

huca indica Gmelin with remarks on the mode of

pollination, New Botanist, 3: (1 & 2): 11-16.

WEINHOLD, A. R. (1955): Rate of fall of uredos-

pores of Puccinia tritici Erikss. and Henn. as affect-

ed by humidity and temperature. Technical Report

ONR Contract No. Ng onr 82400, Task order

82402.

WHITEHEAD, D .R. (1969): Wind Pollination in

An Evolutionary and Environmental

Evolution, 23: 28-35.

Angiosperms :

Considerations,

SOME OBSERVATIONS ON TIGER BEHAVIOUR IN THE

CONTEXT OF BAITING*

CHARLES McDouGAL?

(With a text-figure)

This paper deals with the response of tigers

to regular baiting, that is, the provision of a

steady and localized food supply in the form

of young buffaloes tethered at specific sites in

localities frequented by tigers, where disturb-

ance is minimal. The primary objective of the

baiting has been to afford tiger viewing by

tourists. Nevertheless, the baiting situation also

may be viewed as a type of experiment which

holds constant many environmental factors so

that individual response may be assessed and

the range of behaviour determined. It provides

an opportunity for making quantitative obser-

vations on certain aspects of behaviour not

possible by other field methods.

The Record from Baiting at Tiger Tops:

1972-79

Tiger Tops Jungle Lodge, located in Nepal’s

Royal Chitawan National Park, has been re-

gularly baiting for tigers since 1965, but no

records were kept before I joined the staff in

1972. Since then I have been able to docu-

ment the response of different indvidual tigers

to the baiting situation. Young male buffaloes

are tethered at fixed places almost every night

from October through June. In the beginning

I continued to bait throughout the monsoon

also, for I then believed that this practice

would habituate the tigers to the baits and

1 Acecpted October 1979.

2 Tiger Tops Jungle Lodge, P.O. Box 242, Kath-

mandu, Nepal.

476

ensure that their visits became regular. How-

ever, I discovered that monsoon baiting had

no effect on the frequency with which baits

were visited for the remainder of the year, so

it was discontinued.

The first essential of any serious study of

these animals is the ability to recognize indi-

viduals. Tigers have distinctive facial and other

individual markings, and so can be identified

by careful observation. This is facilitated by

the baiting situation when they can be seen

for prolonged periods. Observations are made

from blinds overlooking the baiting sites at

distances of approximately 50 metres, using

powerful binoculars, aided at night by a spot-

light—to which, incidentally, the great majo-

rity of tigers react very little. Tigers positively

identified by individual markings are counted

as having visited the bait site; doubtful obser-

vations are discarded.

My records cover the two bait sites near

Tiger Tops Jungle Lodge which have been

used at more or less the same locations con-

tinuously since 1972 (and even prior to that

when no records were kept); a site used at

Mohan Khola near Tiger Tops Tented Camp

from 1973-76; and finally a site used on Ban-

darjhola Island, where the Tented Camp was

shifted, from 1976-79.

A total of 17 individual tigers, excluding

dependent young, have been identified at one

or more of these sites during 1972-79, nine

males and eight tigresses.

Many persons believe that baiting overtime

OBSERVATIONS ON TIGER BEHAVIOUR

results in important changes in the behaviour

of the tigers concerned. The most common

assumptions are: (1) that it leads to a depend-

ence on the baits on the part of the tigers;

(2) that it causes an artificial concentration of

tigers in the area where baiting occurs; and

(3) that it leads to increased intra-specific

aggression, with resultant casualties to the tiger

population. Before setting down the results

of the study, it is necessary to demonstrate

that none of these assumptions is correct, using

what certainly is the most comprehensive re-

cord of baiting that is available. While I do

not deny that tigers are attracted to baits—

especially under certain circumstances which

will be discussed later—I contend that the

overriding dictates of this super predator’s

adaptive strategy, successfully evolved over a

long period of time, prevent these changes in

behaviour from taking place.

The Question of Dependency

Since baiting only is done for nine months

of the year and discontinued for three, the

question of complete dependence does not

arise. Moreover, there is ample evidence that,

while a given individual may make frequent

use of the baits for a temporary period to

supplement natural prey, a change in circum-

stances unrelated to the baiting situation may

cause that tiger to revert almost completely

to natural prey. Let me cite a few examples.

The two resident tigresses exposed to the

baiting situation for the longest periods are

one named Chuchchi, who has maintained

a home range in more or less the same area

from 1972-79 (and who since 1978 has been

3 Although not observed at the regular bait sites.

Bangi was seen three times at a special site further

west used for filming.

radio-collared by the Smithsonian Tiger Eco-

logy Project); and another named Bangi, first

identified in 1974, since when she has been

Chuchchi’s western neighbour.

During a four and a half year period from

mid-1974 to the end of 1978, there has been

a complete reversal in the relative frequency

with which these two tigresses have been ob-

served at the bait sites. During the first two

years Bangi was seen 43 times and Chuchchi

only five times—sometimes Bangi even was

seen at the eastern, Surung, bait site, well

within Chuchchi’s home range. When. this

period began, Bangi had small cubs, while

Chuchchi lacked cubs. Chuchchi bore a litter

a year later (mid-1975), after which Bangi

stopped using the Surung site; thereafter the

site further west at Dhakre Khola was the only

one used jointly by the two tigresses.

During the next year, mid-1976 to mid-

1977, Bangi and Chuchchi were seen with al-

most equal frequency, the former seven times

and the latter eight times. Neither had cubs

during this period, those of Bangi having be-

come independent and those of Chuchchi hav-

ing disappeared without a trace before reach-

ing a year of age.

Then, in mid-1977 Chuchchi had another

litter. During the two years which followed

she was seen at the bait sites 29 times, most

often when her cubs became large. Bangi bore

cubs a couple of months after Chuchchi.

Nevertheless, she was not observed even one

time during the same two-year period, despite

the fact that she patrolled on many occasions

up to Dhakre Khola—the boundary between

the two tigresses’ territories since mid-1975—

where baits are regularly placed.*

In this example the food supply has remain-

ed the constant factor. Nevertheless, the indi-

vidual responses of the two tigresses varied

477

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

inversely. This was due to factors not directly

related to the baiting situation. These factors

are outside the scope of this paper, but we may

state parenthetically that dominance is almost

certainly one of them, and moreover that

dominance appears to be relative, and to be

linked with reproductive status. A tigress hav-

ing young cubs may be dominant over one

lacking cubs, and may maintain her domin-

ance even if the latter produces a litter a short

time later. However, the point to make here

is that although Bangi was a regular visitor

for two years there is no question of her having

become dependent on the baits, for since she

stopped using them she has been living success-

fully on natural prey and has managed to raise

a litter of three cubs to the point where they

now (April 1979) are able to kill for them-

selves.

No. of Obsv.

20—

18-

16—

14-

Mid

Relative Frequency of Observations of Tigresses Bangi and Chuchchi at Bait Sites.

Mid

Fig. |

478

Another example is that of the large male

tiger No. 105 (radio-tagged by the Smithsonian

project). He first appeared in western Chita-

wan in September 1976 shortly after the death

of the former resident male who previously

had been his western neighbour; he began to

extend his movements in an attempt to include

most of the dead tiger’s former territory with-

in his own. At maximum expansion (Feb-

ruary 1977) he ranged all the way from

Saurah in the east to Mohan Khola in the

west, a linear distance of over 40 km. Within

a year he impregnated six known tigresses

and possibly a seventh. During that year he

was observed five times at our bait sites. The

next year (mid-1977 to mid-1978) his west-

ward movements were more restricted, another

male having established himself west of Dha:

kre Khola, but he still included the home

End

Mid

End

Mia

ind

OBSERVATIONS ON TIGER BEHAVIOUR

ranges of six resident adult tigresses within

his territory, and had access to one or two

others. He impregnated two of the resident

females (one for the second time). He was

seen at Tiger Tops bait sites no fewer than

27 times. Nevertheless he continued to patrol

his extensive territory, making an average of

three trips per month between his eastern and

western boundaries, on one occasion covering

20.5 km in less than 12 hours.* During the first

half of the year he also occasionally used baits

put out by the Smithsonian project at Jarneli

on the eastern side of the park; even after

baiting was discontinued there he continued his

patrols to that area with some regularity. One

was tempted to say that, far from tending to

localize him, the use of baits—together with an

east to west road down the long axis of the

area over which he ranged—facilitated the

maintenance of a large territory. However, the

last—not quite complete—year (mid-1978

through March 1979) he has been seen only

eight times. During this period he re-mated

with five known females.

While allowing that the bait sites, and the

resource which they provide, are an attraction,

used most frequently during a critical period

of the animal’s life cycle, we find no evidence

that individual tigers become dependent on

this easy, regular, and localized supply of food.

The Question of Artificial Concentration

The first point to make here is that tigers

are territorial animals; they maintain their

territories, patrolling and marking them, whe-

ther they come to the bait sites or whether

4 This is based on a combination of radio track-

ing by the Smithsonian project and pugmark track-

ing by myself. The data on some of the pregnancies

were provided by David Smith of the Smithsonian

project; others are from my own observations. See

Smith 1978.

they do not.” Were the use of baits to affect

the tiger’s ability to maintain its territory,

then one would expect that those individuals

that visit bait sites would have smaller terri-

tories than others. This is not so, since even

baited tigers only use this resource when they

visit the area in the course of normal patrol-

ling—the remainder of the time they are visit-

ing other parts of their territories. All evidence

indicates that the territories of tigers in west-

ern Chitawan having access to sites which are

regularly baited are just as large as those in

eastern Chitawan where they do not. One

eastern resident adult tigress monitored by

radio-telemetry for 14 months in 1975-76

maintained a territory of 30 km*; another

monitored for 12 months one of 26 km* (Sun-

quist, Tamang, and Troth 1976: 7). During

roughly the same period, of two resident west-

ern females whose movements [ monitored by

pugmark tracking, one used an area of 30 km?

and the other one of 39 km? (McDougal 1977:

69). Radio-tagged male 105 at the eastern end

of the park covered 62 km’; the Dhakre Tiger

(102) moved over 100 km.*. More recently,

of six radio-tagged tigresses monitored by

Smith the largest territory was that of the

tigress Chuchchi (23.5 km”), who during that

period used both of the bait sites near Tiger

Tops Lodge (Smith 1978: 15).

The density of tigers in western Chitawan,

where regular baiting occurs, is not greater

than in the eastern part of the park. Secondly,

although the total number of tigers in western

Chitawan has fluctuated over the years due

*Male tigers maintain large home ranges which

encompass the smaller ones of several females. In

both cases the entire home range, held more or

less exclusively with little overlap, and defended

by advertisement, may be considered a territory.

479

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

to births, deaths, and dispersal, the number

of resident adults has remained almost con-

stant.

The example of male 105 given in the pre-

ceding section shows that a bait site does not

localize an animal. The tigress Bangi used as

large an area during the time she was visiting

the bait sites as that which she ranged over

during the two years since her visits stopped.

The Question of Increased Aggression and

Mortality

The third allegation is that regular baiting

leads to more intra-specific aggression as

tigers compete for the important resource

afforded. From 1973 to the present we have

observed two or more tigers (excluding de-

pendent young) associated at a kill of one

of the baits on no fewer than 88 occasions.

Aside from occasional growling/snarling, and

even this in a minority of observations, only

two displays of aggression have been seen.

Tigers view these meetings at kills as situa-

tions of potential conflict, and have evolved

behaviour for such occasions which minimizes

the possibility of conflict actually taking place.

Typically one animal feeds at a time, while the

others lie spaced out, a few metres apart,

scrupulously respecting individual distance.

Also there is tacit recognition of the prior

right to the prey by the tiger that killed it,

as first pointed out by Schaller (1967: 250),

and confirmed by my own observations, at

least in principle (McDougal 1977: 141-42).

A tiger arriving in the vicinity of the kill site

when another already is present, advertises its

lack of aggressive intent by an almost ritua-

lized approach.

Selectively tolerant, tigers will associate

amicably with certain conspecifics at kills, but

not with others. The factors involved are not

480

all clear, but competition is one of them. Non-

competitors may be tolerated, competitors are

not. Males compete among themselves for

females, while females compete for land/food

resources for raising their young. Kinship also

is a factor. Fathers tolerate sons and mothers

daughters until such time as the offspring be-

gin to become competitors.

It is true that tigers who are competitors

may visit the same bait site, but they do so

at different times. Their behaviour is calculat-

ed to avoid confrontations. Nevertheless, mis-

takes do happen and competitors meet. I know

of two instances in which a young subadult

tiger was chased away from a baiting site by

an older male; in neither case did he ever

return there.

Aside from one case in 1970 when two cubs

less than a year of age were killed by an in-

trusive male close to a bait site, 14 years of

regular baiting by Tiger Tops has resulted in

no fatalities or even serious casualties.

Sex and Age Variation in Response to Baits

In my opinion we can use the baiting situa-

tion as a type of experiment which may shed

light on a number of different aspects of tiger

behaviour. One factor, the food resource pro-

vided by the baits, is held constant. Against

this we can test the variability of other fac-

tors. To illustrate this, I consider two exam-

ples, the first being sex/age variation and the

second seasonal variation.

To examine sex/age variation we will look

at the six year period mid-1972 to mid-1978.

The sex age categories are adult male, sub-

adult male, adult female, and subadult female.

We are excluding dependent young. Sub-

adults are 18-36 months of age, adults over

three years of age (any tiger reaching the age

of three during the course of a given year is

OBSERVATIONS ON TIGER BEHAVIOUR

counted as adult for that entire year). The sex/age breakdown year by year is as follows: °

72-73 73-74 74-75 75-76 76-77 77-78 Total Per cent

A Male ua 2 2 1 1 3 9 1 2510

SA Male 1 1 = = 3 — 5 13.9

A Female 2 3 4 2) 3 3 18 50.0

SA Female — 1 a 1 2 — 4 11.1

Total 3 7 6 5 9 6 36 100.0

The number of observations of tigers in each category is shown below:

72-73 73-74 74-75 75-76 76-77 77-78 Total Per cent

A Male — 51 23 16 20 58 168 2

SA Male 18 77 = —_ 124 — 219 35.0

A Female 6 77 58 31 27 14 213 34.2

SA Female = 8 = 2} 13 — 23 3F/

Total 24 213 81 49 184 72 623 ——~=«d100.0

One major point is that if we lump together cies below:

adults and subadults, females are a higher

proportion (61 per cent) of the total number Expected ce

of tigers than are males (39 per cent). Never- A Males 156 (25.0%) 168 (27.1%)

theless, far more males (62 per cent) were SA Males 87 (13.9%) 219 (35.0%)

seen than females (38 per cent), inversely pro- A Females 311 (50.0%) 213 (34.2%)

portionate to their representation in the sam- SA Females el D) Za 17a)

ple. The second thing that stands out is that Total 623 (100%) 623 (100%)

subadult males were observed more often than

any other category even though they constitute

only a small proportion of the sample.

Were all other factors held constant, we

might expect that the number of observations

of each sex/age category would be propor-

tional to its representation in the total number

of tigers using the baiting sites. Actual obser-

vations are compared with expected frequen-

6 These figures differ slightly from those given in

a different version of this paper presented at The

International Symposium on Tiger in New Delhi

in Februay, 1979, due to an error in calculation in

that paper for the year 1976-77.

Although the number of actual observations

corresponds closely with the expected number

in the case of the adult males, this is not true

of any other category. There were two and a

half times more observations of subadult males

than would have been expected from their

representation in the total number of tigers.

On the other hand, both categories of females

were observed much less frequently than would

have been expected.

Focusing on adult females, if we divide

them into those having offspring one to two

years old, on the one hand, and those having

younger cubs or no offspring, on the other,

we find a significant difference.

481

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

aera ee Be se Oe ee

Expected Actual

Adult females with

1-2 year old offspring 68 (11%)

Adult females with young

cubs or no offspring 243 (39%)

105 (16.9%)

108 (17.3%)

Females with large offspring were observed

more frequently than would have been ex-

pected from their representation in the total,

other tigresses much less frequently.

We may say that the different sex/age cate-

gories of tigers are attracted to the baits in

the following order, indicating what percent-

age of the expected frequency was realized by

empirical observation:

Subadult males 252%

Adult females with 1-2 yr old cubs 154%

Adult males 108%

Adult females with small cubs/

no cubs 44%

Subadult females 33%

These findings pose some challenging ques-

tions. Why the dichotomy between males and

females generally? The answer must be that it

reflects the different roles/strategies of the two

sexes. All available evidence indicates that the

ratio of the sexes at birth is parity. In a sample

from Royal Chitawan National Park, where

seven known tigresses had 20 cubs at an aver-

age age of nearly 14 months, the ratio was

3:2 in favour of males. However, in the adult

population the ratio is 4:1 in favour of

females. This strongly indicates that a high

proportion of male mortality occurs during the

subadult phase of life; attrition on subadult

females is less. Few subadult males that strike

out on their own after independence survive

to establish territories of their own, most of

them dispersing to the periphery where habitat

is suboptimal and natural prey more difficult

to secure. Competition is intense, and continues

482

into adulthood—on the part of those who sur-

vive—as males compete for larger territories

containing more females. Although caution

and discretion are essential to any tiger’s sur-

vival, within the context of intra-male com-

petition, bold and enterprising behaviour pro-

bably is adaptive. This is reflected by the

greater activity of males at bait sites. A male

is most attracted to the baits during that cri-

tical, transitional, and very vulnerable period

when he is a subadult. If he survives to grow

into an adult and manages to establish a ter-

ritory of his own, then he cannot afford to

localize himself in the vicinity of a bait site.

Otherwise he will not be able to maintain his

territory and visit the tigresses it contains. Ii

he is not out there patrolling and marking his

territory, it will not be his for long. So long

as he does this he may regularly use a bait site

in the course of patrolling an area which con-

tains one, but soon moves off to another area.

In fact, the use of baits from time to time,

saving energy which would otherwise be ex-

pended in the pursuit and capture of natural

prey, may even facilitate better territorial

patrolling.

The female, on the other hand, ensures her

survival and that of her offspring especially

by maintaining a low profile. Having a smaller

range her use of it is more intensive, more

fine-grained as it were, than in the case of

a male who must cover large distances and

keep up the pace to frequently visit all the

different parts of his territory. As a rule the

female cub becomes independent somewhat

later than the male cub, consequently bene-

fiting from a longer period of maternal train-

ing, including the art of keeping out of trouble.

One resident tigress, Bangi, invariably runs off

like a shot the moment a light is shined on

her, no doubt the result of a nasty experience

OBSERVATIONS ON TIGER BEHAVIOUR

in her past. It was interesting to note that

her female cub also took to doing this, where-

as the males did not.

When a tigress has small cubs she is espe-

cially cautious and secretive. But a female

with large, but still dependent offspring may

experience difficulty in securing sufficient food

for them. At the same time, by virtue of their

size, the cubs are less vulnerable than pre-

viously. A tigress with such offspring finds

the baits more attractive than do_ other

tigresses.

Seasonal Variation in Response to Baits

Tigers are not observed uniformly through-

out the months of the year when baiting is

done regularly, ie, October through June.

Observations rise to a peak in the spring and

then decline in frequency well before the mon-

soon. This is true of all sex/age categories.’

ON D J, F.M A.M. J.T

A Males Te (9) QA) 18)22 5-27) 22.18 121 156

SA Males 3 16 14 21 35 52 39 20 19 219

A Females ADO nie 23245 -4:1)-39035, 95, 201

S Females (eas OL On 2 3 23

Total 25 46 52 64 87 128 95 76 36 609

Looking at the month by month totals of all

categories, over half (51 per cent) of the ob-

servations of tigers at the bait sites occurred

during the three month period from February

through April; the peak for all categories was

March.

This period coincides with the time in Chita-

wan when the vegetation ground cover is most

reduced as the result of annual fires that burn

off the grassland and, to a lesser extent, forest

undergrowth. A peak in tiger observations at

7The total figure of 609 omits 14 observations

made during the months of July through September.

baits at the very time when ground cover is

most limited strongly suggests that these cats

are most attracted to the resource provided

by the baits when their natural prey is least

vulnerable. This correlation is reinforced by

examining the records of observations of de-

pendent young tigers, aged eight to sixteen

months, that we from time to time made at

our bait sites. If the baits are especially at-

tractive when natural prey vulnerability is

lowered, then this should be particularly true

for a tigress with growing cubs to feed. In

fact, 73 per cent of the observations of such

cubs were made during the two months of

March and April.

Nevertheless, even at this time of the year

the tigers are not dependent on the baits. This

can be illustrated by the incomplete year re-

cord mid-1978 through March 1979. At the

two sites near Tiger Tops Lodge there were

63 observations of tigers during the four

months October through January. Then sud-

denly the number fell from 21 in January to

only two in February and one in March, the

normal peak. Other events took priority over

the attraction of the baits during this year.

Towards the end of January the tigress Chu-

chchi had a new litter of cubs after an inter-

val of only 19 months since her last ones were

born. The latter had been visiting one of the

bait sites regularly, in particular the young

male who had been killing on his own for a

few months. These offspring dispersed out of

the area in January and have not been seen

since. Chuchchi herself was not observed at

the bait sites at all during February and only

once in March. Again towards the end of

January the two resident males had a fight

west of Dhakre Khola in a area where their

respective territories slightly overlap, at a time

when one of them was mating with the tigress

483

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY,

Bangi. Both were wounded in the fight, but

neither seriously so. The western male had

been seen ten times at the Dhakre bait site

in the preceding four months; he was seen

there only once in February and not at all in

March. The eastern male who before had been

observed seven times at the two Tiger Tops

Lodge bait sites likewise was only seen once

in February and not even one time in March.

All of these tigers have reverted almost en-

tirely to natural prey, and have done so very

abruptly; there is no evidence that they ex-

perienced any difficulty in the process. To cite

a final case, a subadult male who was observ-

ed at bait sites no fewer than 37 times in

1976-77 thereafter disappeared. Suddenly he

reappeared briefly.in January 1979 after an

absence of 19 months and was observed three

times before disappearing again. During the

interval he subsisted entirely on natural prey.

When seen again he looked in prime condition.

DISCUSSION

To summarize, by recording the visits of

identified individual tigers to bait sites it has

been possible to quantify the differential res-

ponse to this resource on the part of four sex/

age categories, and to determine that males

are more attracted to baits than females gene-

rally, although tigresses with large, dependent

cubs are frequent visitors. Subadult males,

however, are those most attracted, being seen

more frequently than any other category des-

pite the fact that they form only a small pro-

portion of the total number of animals using

the bait sites. Secondly, it has been determin-

ed that all four sex/age categories of tigers

are most attracted to the baits when ground

cover is most reduced by the action of fire—

and presumably when natural prey species are

484

Wool. 277,

less vulnerabie to these large, stalking pre-

dators.

There is no evidence that regular baiting

has the results sometimes suggested: depend-

ence on the baits, artificial concentration, and

increased aggression. This is simply because

tigers are subject to overriding pressures

strong enough to prevent these things from

happening.

Dependence on baits would be non-adap-

tive. The survival of the fittest means that

some individuals are able to increase the pro-

portion of their genes in subsequent genera-

tions. The male tiger, competing with others

of his own sex, maximizes his genetic con‘ri-

bution by impregnating as many females as

possible, and also by providing a stable situa-

tion for those tigresses to successfully raise

his offspring. This he does by establishing a

territory large enough to contain several tig-

resses, but not so large that he cannot effec-

tively maintain it. Failure to do so will result

in the intrusion of another male, who may

cancel out his genetic contribution by killing

or prematurely ejecting his offspring, and who

will mate with the females. The adult male

cannot afford to remain localized in the vici-

nity of a bait site; the consequence will be

failure to maintain his territory. (However,

the occasional use of a bait site during the

course of normal patrolling activity may con-

ceivably help the liger to maintain it.) The

subadult male, being non-reproductive and

lacking a territory, is not subject to the same

constraints; the resource afforded by the baits

may enable him to hang on during that critical

period before he is able to establish a place

for himself.

A tigress ensures that her genes get into

subsequent generations by successfully raising

her offspring. She needs an area which is free

OBSERVATIONS ON TIGER BEHAVIOUR

from competitors where she can train her

young for survival and at the same time keep

them out of harm’s way. There is less demand

on her time to maintain her territory because

it is much smaller than that of the male, but

neither can she afford to remain too localized,

as this increases the vulnerability of her cubs,

at least when they are small. [The more cau-

tious and secretive she is, the less risks to

which she subjects the cubs, the better the

chances they will survive to the point where

they can fend for themselves. She cannot afford

to rely on baits if she is going to raise her

offspring successfully, although they may help

her through a critical period when the cubs

are large enough to have lost much of their

vulnerability but still are primarly dependent

on her for food, especially during that time

of the year when it is most difficult to secure

natural prey, and also especially if her litter

is a large one.

Baiting does not result in artificial concen-

tration of tigers in the vicinity of a bait site

over any period of time due to the very effi-

cient spacing behaviour which tigers have

evolved, behavior which appears designed to

prevent the population from rising in response

to temporary abundance of prey. If the num-

ber of predators was geared to the time when

prey was most available, the predators would

be in serious trouble when prey was_ least

abundant. These highly adaptive patterns of

behaviour are not going to be changed by a

few years of baiting.

Increased aggression does not result from

bailing because tigers long ago evolved be-

haviour to deal with such situations, behaviour

which minimizes the possibility of conflict. An

essentially solitary animal dependent on its own

efforts to secure food, the tiger cannot afford

the luxury of uninhibited aggression; incapa-

citation is probably a death sentence. Weli

armed, but thin skinned, it is difficult to in-

flict injury on a conspecific without the risk

of receiving injury. Tigers visiting the same

localities know one another individually. ‘There

are some with whom an encounter to share

a kill may be tolerated or perhaps even. en-

joyed, but in these cases a dominance order

and the demonstration of friendly intentions

reduce the chances of a conflict. There are

others with whom an encounter is to be avoid-

ed. Marking and other means of advertisement

help to avoid confrontations.

REFERENCES

McDouaaL, C. (1977): The Face of the Tiger.

Rivington Books and Andre Deutsch, London.

SCHALLER, G. B. (1967): The Deer and the

Tiger: A Study of Wildlife in India. University of

Chicago Press, Chicago.

SMITH, J. L. D. (1978): Smithsonian Tiger Pro-

ject/World Wildlife Fund Project No.

port No. 13 (mimeographed).

Sunquist, M. E., TAMANG, K.. M. AND TROTH,

R. G. (1976): Smithsonian Tiger Ecology Project,

World Wildlife Fund Project No. 1051: Report

No. 11 (mimeographed).

Re-

1051:

485

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

DESCRIPTION OF A NEW SPECIES DROSOPHILA GANGOTRII

(DIPTERA: DROSOPHILIDAE) FROM SOUTH INDIA}

N. MUNIYAPPA AND G. SREERAMA REDDY?

(With seven

INTRODUCTION

Coorg district is a part of the humid belt

of hilly or mountainous country of Western

Ghats with variable altitudes ranging from

900—1200 metres. The mountainous range fac-

ing the Western side is on the threshold of

south-west monsoon and receives a full blast

of rainfail that has favoured the growth of

thick tropical forests. The access to the interior

is not easy since the valleys are surrounded

by deep gorges. The sheltered locations of the

gorges with rivulets provide many natural

habitats for the colonisation by Drosophila

species. The investigations carried out on the

Drosophila fauna of such places has yielded

number of Drosophila species in addition to a

new species Drosophila gangotrii which is here-

in described.

Drosophila gangotrii sp. nov. (Figs. 1-7)

Body length: Males 2.2 mm, Females 2.4 mm.

Head, 3 and @: Arista with 9 branches (6/

3) including the terminal fork. Front pale

brown. Antenna yellowish brown. Basal seg-

ment of the antenna dark tan. Carina narrow.

Palpi yellowish with single stiff bristle. Great-

est width of cheek 0.15 times greatest diameter

1 Accepted December 1980.

2. Department of Post-Graduate Studies and Re-

search in Zoology, University of Mysore, Manasa

Gangotri, Mysore-570 006.

486

text-figures )

of eye. Orbital bristles in the ratio 3:1:3. In-

ner verticals longer, outer verticals small and

three fourths the inner. Ocellar triangle broad

with a pair of long ocellar bristles. Eyes red.

Thorax, & and ¢: Light brown, Acrostichal

hairs in eight rows, regularly arranged. Ratio;

anterior: Posterior dorsocentrals 0.5. Scutel-

lum dark brown. Anterior scutellars conver-

gent. Posterior scutellars crossed. Sterno-index

0.5. Prescutellars absent.

Wings, & and 92: Smoky and hyaline. C—

index, 1.9, 4V—index, 2.6, 5X-index, 3.00, M-

index, 1.00 (wing indices calculated after Bock,

1976). 3rd costal section with heavy setation

on basal 0.5. Wing lengths 1.6 mm (male),

1.7 mm (female), Halteres small, yellowish.

Legs. Pre-apical bristies on all tibiae. Apicals

on first and second tibiae. Sex-comb of male

(Fig. 1) longitudinal along the entire length of

metatarsus and second tarsal segment. Meta-

tarsal comb consisting of 26-29 teeth, basal

teeth are small and contiguous, the distal two

displaced from axis of remaining teeth. Comb

on second tarsal segment with 13-17 uniform

teeth. The distal teeth are contiguous.

Abdomen 3S and ¢: ‘Tergites of both sexes

yellowish with five distinct narrow apical bands

in female and three in male. The last tergite

of female is yellowish while the remainder ter-

gites of male are shiny black. The variability

in the intensity of pigmentation of the apical

bands in females is commonly observed.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Periphallic organs (Fig. 2). Epandiium (Geni-

tal arch) broad and black dorsaily, narrow

and pale ventrally. Toe small, round with 4

bristles. Primary and secondary surstyli (clas-

rameres) long and slender reaching the tip of

aedeagus. Caudal margin of novasternum with

median truncate process, apically with a pair

of submedian spines. Basal apodeme not pro-

Drosophila gangotrii sp. nov.

Fore leg of male showing sex-combs.

Fig. 1.

pers) present. Primary surstylus yellow, broad

with 5 regulariy arranged lateral teeth and a

ventromedial cluster of 7 teeth, inner one is

long and curved. Secondary surstylus partially

separated from cerci (anal plate) with 3 curv-

ed black teeth, of which lower one is short

and a row of 5 chitinoid bristles on the dorso-

lateral borders and 2 smaller bristles on the

ventrolateral margin. Cerci light black with

16 bristles.

Phallic organs: (Fig. 3) Aedeagus yellow, non

bifid, straight with denticles. Anterior gona-

pophyses (anterior parameres) triangular with

sensilla. Posterior gonapophyses (posterior pa-

jecting the anterior border of ventral fragma.

Egg-guide: (Fig. 4) Brown with 15 teeth and

a sub-terminal hair.

Internal structures: Testes (Fig. 5) Yellowish

with 3 coils. Accessary glands large and trans-

parent. Spermathecae (Fig. 6) vestigial. Para-

ovaria small, ventral receptacle long, tightly

coiled. Malpighian tubules 2 pairs and free.

Ege filaments: (Fig. 7) 2 long slender fila-

ments.

Pupae: Anterior spiracle with 9-10 branches.

Distribution: Coorg district (Western Ghats),

Karnataka, India.

487.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

| =p

Gr Pn 0-3 mm

488

Drosophila gangotrii sp. nov.

Fig. 2. Periphallic organs: C—=Cerci, E=Epandrium, S = Secondary surstylus, P=Pri-

mary surstylus. Fig. 3. Phallic organs: A= Anterior gonopophyses, E = Aedeagus,

O=Ejaculatory apodeme, P = Posterior gonopophyses, S=Submedian spine of nova-

sternum, V =Ventral fragma. Fig. 4. Egg guide. Fig. 5. Male Reproductive organs:

D=Anterior ejaculatory duct, P=Paragonia, S=Sperm pump, T= Testes. V— Vas

deferens. Fig. 6. Female Reproductive organs: D=Oviduct,. O=Ovary, P=Para

ovaria, S=Spermatheca, V = Vagina, Vr=Ventral receptacle. Fig. 7. Egg.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Taxonomic status: The presence of 2 egg fila-

ments, the nature of banding pattern of abdo-

minal tergites and the puparia warrants its

inclusion in the sub-genus Sophophora. The

characters like the presence of long ventral

receptacle, coiled testes, convergent scutellars

and two pairs of malpighian tubules qualify its

inclusion in the melanogaster species group

(Patterson and Stone 1952). Further the pro-

minent sex-comb extending beyond the tips

of the tarsal joints, presence of 2 claspers in

the male, secondary surstylus with curved black

median teeth permit its inclusion in the mon-

fium sub group (Bock and Wheeler 1972).

Relationships and Remarks.

The new species shows certain similarities

with Drosophila punjabiensis Parshad and

Paika 1964, and Drosophila jambulina Parshad

and Paika, 1964, but differs from them in

several features (Okada personal communica-

tion, 1980). On comparison with other mem-

bers of the montium sub group, it is found

that it resembles Drosophila —nagarholensis

Prakash and Reddy, 1980 and Drosophila

agumbensis Prakash and Reddy 1979, in the

pattern and arrangement of sex-comb teeth

and in the general feautres of periphallic and

phallic organs. Even though the new species

resembles the above mentioned species in gross

morphology, it not only differs from them in

certain details in male genitalia, pattern of ab-

dominal pigmentation, sex-comb and wing in-

dices but is also found to be sexually isolated.

Therefore it deserves the status of a new spe-

cies. The new species can be cultured in the

laboratory with usual standard wheat cream

agar medium. The specific name Drosophila

gangotrii is coined after Manasa gangotri cam-

pus of the University of Mysore.

Holotype 3, India, Karnataka, Coorg district

(Western Ghats) 25.11.1980. Coll. N. Muniyap-

pa, G. Sreerama Reddy, H. S. Prakash, D.

Theerthaprasad and B. M. Sekharappa. Para-

types: 10 & & and 10 2 2, same data as

holotype. The holotype and some paratypes

are deposited in the Department of Zoology,

University of Mysore, Manasagangotri, Mysore.

Other paratypes are also deposited in the De-

partment of Biology, Tokyo metropolitan Uni-

versity, Setagayaku, Tokyo, Japan and in the

Zoological survey of India, Calcutta and some

will be deposited in the LA.R.I., New Delhi.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful to Prof. N. B. Krishna-

murthy, Head of the Department of Zoology,

Manasa gangotri, University of Mysore, My-

sore for providing necessary facilities and-en-

couragement to carry out the work. We thank

Prof. T. Okada, Tokyo, metropolitan Univer-

sity, Setagaya-ku Tokyo, Japan, for his help

in confirming the identification and to M.

Rajendra for the preparation of drawings. One

of us (NM) is thankful to the University of

Mysore for the award of Teacher fellowship

under F.LP.

REFERENCES

Bock, JI. R. AND WHEELER, M. R. (1972): The

Drosophila melanogaster species group. Univ. Tex.

Publ. 72/3: 1-102.

PATTERSON J. T. AND STONE, W. S. (1952): Evo-

lution in the genus Drosophila. The Macmillan

Company. New York.

PARSHAD, R. AND PAIKA, I. J. (1964): Drosophi-

lid survey of India II (Drosophila), Taxonomy and

Cytology of the subgenus sophophora. Res. Bull.

Punjab Univ. 15: 225-252.

PRAKASH, H. S. AND Reppy, G. S. (1979): Dro-

sophila agumbensis, sp. nov. from: Karnataka. South

489

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

India (Diptera: Drosophilidae). Oriental Insects.

12 (2): 259-263.

& — (1980): Drosophila fauna

of nagarhole, South India, including description of

a new species (Diptera: Drosophilidae). Proc. Ind.

Acc. Sci. (Anim. Sci.) 89: 235-241,

A NEW SPECIES OF HIGH ALTITUDE SPIDER OF THE GENUS

ERIGONE AUDOUIN (FAMILY: ERIGONIDAE) FROM INDIA?

B. K. TIKADER?

(With six text-figures)

The spiders of the genus Erigone (Family

Erigonidae) are little known from India. The

only species Erigone pseudoyagans Caporiacco

(1935) was described from Karakorum area.

Holm (1960) has published a comprehensive

study on spiders of the family Erigonidae from

‘East African Mountains and Locket and Mil-

didge (1935) have described many European

species of this family. The spiders of this genus

are small and inconspicuous and their webs

are irregular, generally made in the hollows

of stones at high altitudes. Only by moving the

stones and with careful observation can these

tiny spiders be seen on their irregular webs.

While examining the spider collections re-

ceived from Dr. R. K. Varshney, Superintend-

ing Zoologist, Zoological Survey. of India,

Calcutta, which were collected by him from

Rohtang Pass, I came across a new species of

spider of the genus Erigone, which is describ-

ed here. It is the second species of this genus

from India.

The type specimen will in due course be

deposited in the National Collections, Zoolo-

gical Survey of India, Calcutta.

1 Accepted October 1980.

2 Zoological Survey of India, Western Regional

Station, Poona-411 005. Present address: Director.

Zoological Survey of India, 34, Chittaranjan

Avenue, Calcutta-700 012.

490

Erigone rohtangensis sp. nov.

(Figs. 1-6)

General: Cephalothorax and abdomen

brown, legs brownish green. Total length 2.50

mm. Cephalothorax 1.00 mm long, 0.80 mm

wide; abdomen 1.80 mm long; 1.20 mm wide.

Cephalothorax: Longer than wide, convex,

cephalic region high, narrowing anteriorly.

Eyes pearly white, eight in two rows. Anterior

row strongly recurved and posterior row nearly

. Straight or slightly procurved. Sternum reddish

brown, nearly triangular or heart-shaped. Labi-

um wider than long, maxillae longer than wide,

clothed with fine pubescence. Legs moderately

strong, clothed with hairs and spine-like hairs,

legs formula 1423. Male cephalothorax high

and clothed with some spines as in text-fig. 5.

Ventral side of femur of male palp provided

with teeth like spines extending from base to

one half of length as in text-fig. 6. Male palp

with well-defined tibial apophysis apically as

in text-fig. 6.

Abdomen: Longer than wide, wider be-

hind, clothed with fine pubescence and strong-

ly overlapping cephalothorax in front. Dorsal

side provided with pale rod like and rounded

patches as in text-fig. 1. Ventral side shining

reddish brown. Epigyne as in text-fig. 3 and

internal genitalia as in text-fig. 4.

Type-specimen: Holotype one female, para-

type ten females and allotype five males in

spirit.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Figs. 1-6. Erigone rohtangensis sp. nov. 1. Dorsal view of female, legs omitted;

2. Lateral view of cephalothorax of female; 3. Epigyne; 4. Internal genitalia; 5. Lateral

view of cephalothcrax ef male; 6. Left palp outer side view.

49]

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

Type-locality: Rohtang Pass (Alt. 3955 m

near Manali, Himachal Pradesh) India, on 12th

October 1979 at mid-noon from a snow cover-

ed niche below stones.

Coll. Dr. R. K. Varshney.

Discussion: This species appears to be close-

ly related to Erigone dentipalpis (Wider) but

is separated as follows: (i) Abdomen brown

but in FE. dentipalpis abdomen yellow brown.

(ii) Male palp also different.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am thankful to Dr. R. K. Varshney, for

sending the spiders for study. Thanks are also

due to Shri P. W. Garde and Shri D. J. Kam-

ble, artists of this station for preparation of

illustrations and to Dr. Animesh Bal, for assist-

ing in various ways during the preparation of

the manuscript.

REFERENCES

Caporiacco, L. (1935): Aracnidi dell’

e del Karakoram. Mem. Soc. Entom, Itali, /3: 175.

Hoi_m, A. (1960): The spider fauna of the East

A NEW MEMECYLON L.

Himalaia

African Mountains. Zool. Bidrag. Uppsala, 35: 21-

190.

Locker, G. H. & Mitztince, A. F. (1953):

tish Spiders. 2: 307-313.

Bri-

(MELASTOMATACEAE) FROM

TAMiL NADU, INDIA’

A. N. HENRY?

(With eight text-figures)

Memecylon subramanii sp. nov.

M. hookeri sensu Henry & Subr. in Bull.

bot. Surv. India 13657-1971 *(1973). non

Thwaites 1859.

Memecyloni hookeri Thwaites affinis, diffe-

rens tamen floribus amplioribus, cymis pedun-

culatis atqne laxis aggregatis; pedunculis ad

12 cm longis, angulisque anguste alatis.

Allied to Memecylon hookeri Thwaites, but

differs in: flowers larger, clustered in pedun-

culate lax cymes; peduncules up to 12 cm long

and narrowly winged on angles.

Erect shrubs, 2-4 m tall, sparingly branched:

bark grey, flaking off into small pieces: branch-

lets stout, strongly 4-angled with narrow wings

' Accepted September 1980.

2 Botanical Survey of India. Coimbatore-641 003.

492

on the angles. Leaves 20-40 x 6.5-14 cm, oppo-

site, sessile or subsessile, lanceate, coriaceous,

glabrous, acuminate at apex, cordate at base,

penninerved, veins prominent beneath, lateral

veins numerous and joining an intramarginal

vein; foliar sclereids filiform, mostly non-bran-

ching. Flowers 6-7 mm across, clustered in

axillary (also in the axils of fallen leaves on

old wood), lax pedunculate cymes; peduncles

6-12 cm long, 4-angled with narrow wings on

angles: pedicels 6-9 mm_ long, slender, sur-

rounded at base with an involucre of bracts:

calyx 4-5 mm wide, truncate, shallowly 4-

lobed, petals 4, each 3-4 mm across, bluish

violet, broadly obovate or subrotund, concave,

thin, imbricate in bud, easily dropped at an-

thesis; disc epigynous, shallowly striate with

eight radiating ribs; stamens 8, anthers 1-1.5

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

mm long, connective with a disc-shaped gland;

ovary inferior, unilocular with several ovules

on a central placenta, style filiform. Berries

9-10 mm across, globose, crowned by calyx-

limb, blackish purple when ripe. (Figs. 1-8).

Holotype (Henry 8407, CAL) and isotypes

(Henry 8407, MH) were collected from Kan-

nikatti in Tirunelveli district, Tamil Nadu at

an altitude of 765 m on 22-4-1972; paratypes

(Henry 17365, MH) were collected from the

same locality on 29-8-1963; paratypes (Madras

Herbarium—South India Flora No. 14671,

MH) were collected from the same locality on

19-3-1917; and paratypes (Bhargavan 47482,

MH) were collected from Valayar forest near

Kannikatti at an altitude of 1000 m= on

13-7-1976.

I am pleased to dedicate this species to late

Dr. K. Subramanyam, former Director, Bota-

nical Survey of India. Calcutta for his signi-

ficant contributions to the taxonomy and mor-

phology of Indian Plants.

TI am thankful to Dr. Kare Bremer, Botanis-

ka Institutionen, Stockholm for his valuable

opinion on the plant, Dr. N. C. Nair, Deputy

Director, Botanical Survey of India, Coimba-

tore for facilities and encouragement, Rev. K.

M. Matthew of the Rapinat Herbarium, Tiru-

chchirappalli for rendering the Jatin translation,

and Dr. T. Ananda Rao, Emeritus Scientist,

Botanical Survey of India, Howrah for kindly

porviding the foliar sclereid morphology of this

species.

| Cy

Figs. 1-8.

tion of branch; 2.

Petals removed; 6. L.S. of gynoecium; 7. Stamen;

8. Fruit.

Memecylon subramanii sp. noy.: 1. Por-

Flower; 3 & 4. Petals; 5. Flower:

493

OBITUARY

CHARLES McCANN, 1899-1980

(With a plate)

Yule Mervyn Charles McCann was born

at Castle Rock, Goa Frontier, on 4th Decem-

ber 1899.

Educated at St. Mary’s High School, Maza-

gon, he worked and studied for some time at

St. Xavier’s College, Bombay, under Fr. E.

Blatter, S.J., the eminent botanist. He served

as a laboratory assistant and general facto-

tum in the biological laboratory and was

curator of the college museum. During this

period (1916-1920) he carried out research

in systematic botany both independently and

as a probationer under Fr. Blatter. Then he

left the college and worked with the Bombay

City Police for about a year. In 1921 he join-

ed the Bombay Natural History Society as a

field collector for the Mammal Survey in the

Palni Hills and later in the Indus Delta, and

soon became its Assistant Curator.

At that time the Society’s staff was working

on the construction of the Natural History

galleries of the Prince of Wales Museum of

Wesiern India and McCann played no small

part in the collecting, skinning, modelling and

vreparation of the group cases which though

now sadly jaded and somewhat out of date,

were then considered among the finest exhibits

of their kind in the world.

The following passage from a_ published

note about himself and his place of birth is

very real:

“Some of the grandest tropical forest sur-

rounded the area and the fauna abounded

with wildlife, from elephants to flies, so much

so that doors had to be closed at sundown

for fear of dangerous intruders—even the King

Cobra, though rare, occurred in the area. Such

an environment seems to have influenced my

future as a student of nature!(?) My parents

494

informed me that I was the bane of their exist-

ence for I froze on to everything that moved.

All attempts at shaping my ends had no avail.

From “misdirected” babyhood onwards the

“kink” increased out of all proportion (ac-

cording to some, I was just daft!)”

Charles McCann was a boon companion

on any natural history trip—irrespective of

whether you were chasing tiger or butterflies

—one of the great advantages of his company

was the apparent delight he took in repairing

flat tyres, skinning birds and in fact doing all

the donkey work of the trip while at the same

time keeping his eyes, ears and hands open

for all items of natural history interest.

From 1932 to 1947 he was one of the edi-

tors of the Society’s journal to which he has

contributed perhaps 200 notes and papers

covering a most extraordinary range of sub-

jects, from taxonomic botany to bats, birds,

snakes, lizards, tortoises, frogs and a variety

of insects. A short, but representative list of

his publications is appended.

At the time of Independence, the uncertain-

ty of the future for foreigners and Anglo-

Indians in India, prompted him to resign from

his post and migrate to New Zealand, a step

which he regretted as all his letters showed.

When he resigned in 1946, the Executive

Committee of the Bombay Natural History

Society recorded its appreciation of his ser-

vices, and the relative minute reads in part:

“The merit of his scientific work is evidenc-

ed in his many biological contributions to the

journal of the Society. He is one of the out-

standing botanists in India and his mono-

graph on Grasses, which he wrote jointly with

the late Fr. Blatter and which was published

under the aegis of the Imperial Council of

J. BoMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. 77 PLATE

Charles McCann

(1899-1980)

OBITUARY

Agricultural Research, will remain for many

years the standard work on the subject. Equa!-

ly outstanding in merit are his various revi-

sions of the genera and species of Indian

plants which the Society was privileged io

publish. McCann also contributed various

authoritative papers on Indian Mammals,

Reptiles, and Amphibians. The study of

nature was his absorbing passion and his main

recreation...His resignation is a great loss

to the Society.”

He soon found work as Vertebrate Zoolo-

gist with the Dominion Museum in Welling-

ton, where he concentrated on the arrange-

ment of birds and mammals and later spo-

cialized on the whale and seal collections.

After retirement and a spell in hospital he

joined the N. Z. Oceanographic Institute,

whence also be retired for a second time after

some work on deep-sea fishes (Macruridae).

He has written on the Lizards of New Zea-

land and some papers for the Japanese Whale

Research Institute.

After retirement pecuniary circumstances

forced him to work as a garage assistant for

sometime, but failing eyesight and other as-

pects of health made him spend the last few

years of his life in physical inactivity until he

passed away on 29th November 1980. With

McCann’s passing we have lost one of the most

active and versatile field naturalists that India

has produced for a long time, and we extend

our sympathies to Mrs. McCann and his child-

ren. In memory of his versatility as a naturalist

and his invaluable scientific contributions

while in India, friends and admirers have en-

abled the Bombay Natural History Society to

institute the Charles McCann Fieldwork Fund

which offers financial assistance to those in-

terested in undertaking specific projects of

field research. We hope it will give to his name

the tribute that it is due.

At the time of his death he had been a

fellow of the Linnean Society of London for

SIG years:

H.A.

On the

26: 303-4.

A note on the Habits of the Large-scaled Earth

Snake (Silybura macrolepis) 29: 1062-3.

Occurrence of the worm-like Batrachian Ichihyop-

Breeding Habits of some Myriapoda

his monochrous at Khandala. Poona District. 3/:

1039.

The Study of Plant Life—(3 paris) Vols. 32:

692-703 (2 plates & 5 text-figures) and 33: 35-46,

262-278.

Notes on the Flowering of Strobilanthes callo-

sus 34: 264-65.

Wotes on some wild species of Aroids 34: 518-

On the Fertilization of the Flowers of the Saus-

age-Tree (Kigelia pinnata) by Bats 35: 467-71.

Notes on Indian Batrachians (10 plates. 2 text-

figures) 36: 152-80.

Notes on the Flying Fox

37: 143-49,

Notes on the Common Land Crab (Paratelphusa

guerini) of Salsette 39: 531.

The Flamingo (Phoenicopterus

rum Temm.) (7 plates) 4/: 21-38.

On the road to Gersoppa and back 4/: 446-452.

(With A. R. Hughes).

A Reptile and Amphibian Miscellany. 2 parts.

(15 plates 3 text-figures) 47: 742-64; 42: 45-64.

Two naturalists visit Karwar. N. Kanara (1

plate) 42: 602-10.

The Rains come to the Abu Hills. (with a plate)

43: 641-47.

With Bratter, Rev. E., S. J. Pu.p., F.L.S.

Revision of the Flora of the Bombay Presidency

—-16 parts Vols. 32-36.

Two new species of Grasses from

(Satara District) 32: 357-58.

Some new species of Plants from the Western

Ghats. 32: 733-36.

A New Ceropegia from the Western Ghats. 34:

936.

Another new Ceropegia from the Western Ghats

35: 409.

100 BEAUTIFUL TREES OF INDIA, D. B. Tarapore-

vala Sons & Co. (1959).

(Pteropus giganicus )

ruber — antiquo-

Panchgani

495

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

l. OBSERVATIONS ON A REMARKABLE ASSOCIATION BE-

TWEEN RHESUS MONKEY (MACACA MULATTA VILLOSA) AND

THE HIMALAYAN

LANGUR (PRESBYTIS ENTELLUS SCHIST A-

CEUS) IN THE KUMAUN HIMALAYAS, INDIA

A large troop of langurs and a smali one

of rhesus monkeys were observed near Hanu-

mangarhi hill, Nainital (in the first week of

September 1978) to move together as one

group in a remarkable manner. There were

22 langurs of various ages and sizes, while the

rhesus monkeys were only eight in number.

The troop of langurs consisted of two large

males, two groups of eight adult females and

younger langurs of different age groups, there

being four baby-langurs in the group. The

eight rhesus monkeys’ group was made up

of one large male (the leader), two large

females, three smaller females and two baby

monkeys.

They lived in a ravine, at a height of about

2000 m situated between two stands of mixed

oaks, firs, Cypresses and conifers. To our utter

amazement one large female langur was’ seen

moving about on the ground, breast feeding a

tiny rhesus baby of a dark brown colour with

a short tail. While another older rhesus baby

was riding piggy-back on a medium sized male

langur.

The two large male langurs took up posi-

tion, one on each side of the ravine, each on

high boulder, as soon as they saw us. The

females and younger langurs took to the trees

and bounced about from branch to branch.

But the larger ones remained on the rocks be-

low with the rhesus monkeys, unperturbed

even when we approached as close as fifty

metres. The baby rhesus maintained their posi-

496

tions, one on the breast of an adult female

langur and the other riding piggy-back on a

young male. Four half grown baby langurs

accompanied their mothers, who moved about

leisurely at the foot of a tall tree.

However, the large male rhesus (very large

for the species) ran up the slope and took up

guard position on a rock. Thus the. whole

troop appeared guarded by three sentinels-two

on the sides and one up behind the group.

On our approaching still nearer one male

sentinel langur gave a sharp guttural note,

at which all the langurs (with the two baby

rhesus on them) bolted up the trees on the

sides of the ravine and bounded from tree to

tree. The rhesus monkeys on the other hand

moved slowly (but in an alert condition) to

the nearest trees, and climbing up about 3

metres above ground, sat watching us closely.

The large male rhesus, however, did not move

from its sentinal position and grinned at us.

The entire action described above took hardly

twenty minutes.

On our leaving scene, the rhesus male des-

cended from its high perch and started forag-

ing among the boulders and rocks and tree-

roots, as it was doing before we disturbed

them. The langurs and rhesus monkeys also

came down to the lower branches of the trees,

and started feeding on the new fruits, leave:

and buds around them.

The amazing feature in our observations was

the congenial atmosphere between the two

MISCELLANEOUS

groups of primates of different genera. This

close association appeared to be of mutual

benefit, veering to commensalism (food shar-

ing), a remarkable sight not observed by the

authors in our experience of mammals.

This extremely remarkable co-operation in

KUMAUN UNIVERSITY,

NAINITAL, U.P.,

June 21, 1980.

2. OBSERVATIONS ON BIRTH

A musk deer was born at the Musk Deer

Farm, Kufri (Simla) on 19th June 1979.

The mother had been captured as a young

fawn in Mashnoo forest of Sarahan Forest

Range in Kotgarh Forest Division, Himachal

Pradesh. It was said to have strayed into a

flock of grazing sheep. The shepherd caught

the fawn and brought it to Simla on 3-7-1977.

It is believed that the fawn was about 15 days

old at the time of capture. It was bottle fed

on cow’s milk for about 4 months and then

gradually weaned to regular feed.

Mating was noticed during December 1978,

when the mother was 12 years old. The fawn

was born to it in June 1979 (17-6-1979) at the

age of 2 years. The female was observed to be

dull in her movements and reluctant to take

her normal feed for 3 days before fawning.

The mother had mated with a young male

deer of about 12 years of age. The male deer

was also from the local stock, captured on

4-8-1977 in Throach forests of Chopal Forest

Division, Himachal Pradesh.

The animal keeper saw the fawn hidden

under the grass bedding at 10 O’clock on the

morning of 17-6-1979. The mother as usual

had left the night shed for morning feeding

in the open enclosure. Perhaps the fawn was

NOTES

danger and ‘commensalism’; and even in com-

munity feeding of babies between two different

genera of primates, appears to be a unique

phenomenon not hitherto recorded in litera-

ture.

S. M. DAS

B. D. SHARMA

OF A MUSK DEER FAWN

born sometimes during the night as the fawn

was reported to be dry and clean. The en-

closure was also clean.

The fawn was shy and alert but made no

attempts to run away.

The fawn was grey in colour having a

soft, furry body with long hair. It had a

whitish-light golden streak about 3.5 cm on

the back, running from shoulder to the back

and other thin white streaks on either side

running parallel to it. Whitish under the throat

extending to the belly. In proportion to the

body it appeared to have comparatively long

ears and looked more like a ‘Mouse deer’ with

long ears.

Some measurements of the fawn taken on

19-6-1979 (after 54 hours of birth) were as

under:

Total weight : | kg

Length: (total length tip of tail to tip

of nose) 37, cm

Height at shoulder: 25 cm

Girth at Chest: 24 cm

The mother was observed suckling the fawn

twice during the period 9 a.m. to 5 p.m. The

fawn was also fed once a day artificially with

bottle milk.

497

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

ASST. CONSERVATOR OF FORESTS,

WILD LIFE CIRCLE,

TALLAND, SIMLA, H.P.,

February 20, 1980.

M. S. JAIN

3. OCCURRENCE OF THE LARGE BROWN FLYING SQUIRREL

AND MOUSE DEER NEAR UDAIPUR, RAJASTHAN

The Large Brown Flying Squirrel (Pe/au-

rista petaurista philippensis) and the Mouse

Deer (Tragulus meminna) have not been re-

ported from Rajasthan so far (Ellerman &

Morrison-Scott 1951, Prater 1980). Recently

[ saw the large Brown Flying Squirrel and the

Mouse Deer in the teak dominated, dry deci-

duous forests of Dharyavad (c 24° 4’ N, 74°

41, PANCHWATI,

Upalpur-313 001,

RAJASTHAN,

October 9, 1980.

24’E) near Udaipur.

I have seen the Flying Squirrels in the jungles

of Jharol, Gogunda and Kotra Tehsils of Udai-

pur also. In the early thirties my father shot

two Mouse deer in the jungles of Jharol (c

24°N, 73°F). The local name of Mouse deer

is ‘Phonkra’. The forest in these areas are

Tropical dry deciduous Miscellaneous Forests.

RAZA H. TEHSIN

REFERENCES

ELLERMAN, J. R. & Morrison-Scotr, ‘f. C. S.

(1951): A Checklist of Palaearctic and Indian Mam-

mals 1758-1946. British Museum, London.

PRATER, S. H. (1980): The Book of Indian Ani-

mals. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay.

(Reprinted, 4th edition.)

4. OBSERVATIONS ON THE EPIDEMIOLOGY OF HAIRY-FOOTED

GERBIL, GERBILLUS GLEADOWI MURRAY, IN THE

INDIAN DESERT

According to Prakash (1967), G. gleadowi

is distributed in the arid belt of Jaisalmer,

Gadra Road, Jodhpur and is more common

in Gadra Road sector. Some more informa-

tion has been added to literature by Prakash

(1975) on this rodent and in this communi-

cation, we are reporting our observations on

the rodent when it invaded the kharif crop

fields in enormous numbers.

498

An explosion of the population of this rod-

ent occurred at the onset of the monsoon in

1971, in Sanchore tehsil of Jalore district,

whole of Barmer district, parts of Shergarh and

Phalodi tehsils of Jodhpur district and Pokaran

tehsil of Jaisalmer district when the following

investigations/observations were made on this

rodent.

The local name of the rodent is chotti ratod

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

which aptly signifies its size, nocturnal habits,

pinkish colour and cutting habits on field crops.

Enquiries made from very old local people

in several villages of Barmer district, revealed

that an epidemic similar to the one in 197]

had occurred some sixty years earlier when

the desert area had received abnormal rainfall

and vegetation in Juxuriant form appeared and

crops yielded bumper harvesis. Rao (1960)

stated that ratod. (Talera indica) was known

to have increased enormously in numbers in

the past as for instance in 1893-94 in Marwar,

(present Jodhpur division) so as to cause great

destruction to crops. This shows that epide-

mics of rodents in Rajasthan are not uncom-

mon.

The burrows of this rodent are generaily

found in loose sandy soil, flat or undulating

or sand dune habitats; the openings of burrows

are usually plugged with sand. Sometimes, the

burrows were also noted in compact sandy

soil. The burrows are generally associated with

hummocks of perennial desert bushes such as

‘Calotropis procera, Zizyphus nummularia, Cro-

talaria burhia, Aerua tomentosa, Lassurus sin-

dicus, Capparis decidua etc. but during the

monsoon of 1971 they also shifted their habitat

to kharif cultivated area and made burrows

there. The burrows are simple and have one

to three openings as reported by Prakash

(1967) but sometimes more than three cpen-

ings (not plugged with sand) were also ob-

served. Usually the burrow is about 60 to 90

cm deep having a main chamber in which

green parts of stems and leaves of bajra

(Pennisetum typhoideum Rich) and __ other

kharif crop plants were stored presumably as

food. When they made burrows in the crop

areas they made Kharif crops special targets

at night causing extensive damage.

Epidemic and observations on ecology

The explosion of population of the hairy

footed gerbil was mostly confined to Barmer

district and Sanchore tehsil (Jalore distiict),

though adjoining areas were also infested

heavily in Jaisalmer and Pokaran tehsils (Jai-

saimer district) and Shergarh tehsil (Jodhpur

district) of Rajasthan.

There was poor rainfall in 1965 and 1966

and from 1967 to 1969 the entire district suf-

fered from severe drought consecutively for 3

years there by greatly depleting the fauna and

flora in the desert. The year 1970 was, how-

ever, a year of prosperity because of wide-

spread rains received at well spaced intervals

during monsoon all over Barmer district. The

annual rainfall during 1970 recorded at Barmer,

Gadra Road, Chohtan, Pachpadra, Baiotra and

Siwana was 198.1, 202.5, 150.12, 149.3, 245.9,

210.3 mm respectively. Consequently, there was

abundant vegetation and the cultivators raised

bumber crops of hajra, guar (Cymmopsis tet-

ragonoloba), mung (Phaseolus radiatus),

moth (Phaseolus aconitifolius) and til (Sesa-

mum indicum). It appears that the favourable

ecological conditions induced heavy reproduc-

tion and multiplication of Gerbillus gleadowi

in the desert area although the population did

not reach a menacing level till the harvest and

therefore obviously escaped the notice of far-

mers. During winter and next spring, sufficient

food for them like seeds of grasses and herbs

and fruits of Citrullus colocynthis were avail-

able. In fact, the luxuriant growth of Citrullus

colocynthis having iarge number of fruits. help-

ed in its multiplication and survival during

winter of 1970-71. During May and June 1971,

Chohtan and Pachpadra tehsils of Barmer

district received unusually heavy premonsoon

showers. Thus conditions became most suit-

able for sowing of crops which were sown early.

There was plenty of ephemeral vegetation after

early rains. The ecological conditions for mul-

tiplication of rats also became suitable obvi-

499

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY,

ously due to their high population and avail-

ability of ample food. Heavy multiplication of

this species occurred in the whole Barmer dis-

trict which ultimately resulted in severe dam-

age to seedlings of young crops of bajra, guar

and pulses. In some areas repeated resowing

had to be done as the rodents and their young

ones devoured the seeds from soil sown by

the farmers. Outbreak in the population of

this gerbil occurred in 83,333 hectares in the

seven Panchayat Samities of Chohtan, Dhori-

mana, Barmer, Baitu, Sheo, Sindhari and Balo-

tra involving 650 villages. Government of

Rajasthan declared a rat epidemic of this spe-

cies in Barmer district as on 21st July, 1971

for a period of one month. The annual rain-

fall during 1971 recorded at Barmer, Gadra

Road, Chohtan, Pachpadra and Balotra was

198.1, 205.0, 163.00, 156.2, 258.1 mm _ respecti-

vely.

The gerbil is nocturnal in habit and active

during the whole night. It goes back to its

burrow just a little before dawn. Extensive

damage was caused to the kharif crops at

various stages, right from the sowing stage.

It picked up seeds from the soil, causing very

poor germination or no germination at all. The

Locust WARNING ORGANISATION,

Locust SuB-STATION, JODHPUR,

RAJASTHAN,

May 18, 1978.

Vol. 77

young seedlings were devoured completely.

Even when the hajra plants were 25-30 cm high,

leaves and shoots were cut near the root.

Young tillers were damaged and eaten at the

tillering stage of bajra reducing the yield of the

crop considerably. !t is interesting to note that

it is able to climb on bajra plants nearing har-

vest. At the ripening stage of the kharif crop,

the ears of hajra, pods of guar, mung and

moth and fruits of til were extensively damag-

ed.

During survey of the infested fields in

August, cultivators reported that in some fields

in Chohtan and Dhorimana areas, resowing of

bajra had to be done 4 to 5 times due to heavy

damage caused to young seedlings and picking

of seeds from the soil by this rodent.

During July-August, 1971, very heavy popu-

lations of this species was reported around

Shergarh town though earlier very low popula-

tion was present there.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We are thankful to Dr. M. L. Roonwal,

Emeritus Scientist, Jodhpur for helpful sug-

gestions and scrutiny of the manuscript.

CHARAN SINGH

RAJINDER SINGH!

REFERENCES

PRAKASH, IsHwAR (1963): Zoogeography and evo-

lution of the mammalian fauna of Rajasthan desert

of India. Mammalia, 27: 342-351.

(1967): Some observations on the

hairy footed Gerbille, Gerbillus gleadowi, Murray,

in the Rajasthan desert. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

63(2): 431-434.

————Anb Guosu, P. K. (1975):

Rodents in

1 Formerly Assistant Plant Protection Officer,

Jodhpur now Deputy Director of Agriculture on

deputation as General Manager, Fertilizer and Pes-

500

Desert Environments. Monographiae Biologicae. Vol.

28 Dr. W. Junk b.v. Publishers. The Hague 1975

(Prakash, Ishwar 1975. The population ecology of

the rodents of the Rajasthan desert, India. pp. 75-

116).

Rao, Y. RAMCHANDRA (1960): The Desert in

India. Monograph No. 21. I.C.A.R., New Delhi,

pp. 721.

ticides, Rajasthan State Co-operative Marketing

Federation Ltd., Jaipur.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

5. OCCURRENCE OF BANDICOTA BENGALENSIS AND VANDE-

LEURIA OLERACEA IN WESTERN RAJASTHAN

During the monthly trapping programme for

ecological studies on Rattus meliada pallidior

at Erinpura, Pali district, two species of rod-

ents were collected which are hitherto not re-

ported from this region.

Bandicota bengalensis kok (Gray): Lesser

Bandicoot Rat.

Material examined: 3 3S and 3 @ from

Bisalpur, 4 km east of Erinpura, Pali dis-

trict.

Measurements: Head & body 3 171.50

R50, 19-4158.0--+ 2.00; Tail o 127.0

1.0;':¢ 139.00 + 1.00; Hind foot & 33.5

50; 9 934i5'- 0:49; and Ear. dt 22.5

L589) 23.022 1.04.

B. bengalensis is being reported for the first

time from western Rajasthan. The specimens

were collected from scrub grassland and crop

fields. Wroughton (1908) had described two

new species of Gunomys (Bandicota), namely,

G. sindicus (Sind specimens) and G. Jordi

(Konkan specimens) which are now treated as

synonyms of B. b. kok (Ellerman 1961). Ac-

cording to Wroughton (loc. cit.) G. kok couid

be identified by its finer and softer fur from

the two others which have harsh fur, and in

possessing smaller (8 mm or less) upper mo-

lars (8.3 mm in G. sindicus and G. lordi. A

comparison of the body and molar measure-

ments ‘of specimens of B. b. kok (sindicus).

collected from Pithoro and Umarkot, Sind.

B. b. kok (lordi), collected from Umarkot,

Sind; as detailed by Ellerman (1961, 820-821)

and that of the present collection from Bisal-

pur (Pali district), reveals that the Rajasthan

specimens are smaller in body size than sindi-

HH OH

CENTRAL ARID ZONE RESEARCH INSTITUTE,

JODHPUR-342 003, INDIA,

December 19, 1978.

cus from Sind but compare well with fordi,

except in tail measurement which is fairly

shorter. lt resembles Gunomys kok, as describ-

ed by Wroughton in having finer and softer

fur. As regards the upper molar length, a cha-

racter used by Wroughton in splitting species,

the molar length (7.5 mm) of Rajasthan mate-

rial is shorter than that of ‘sindicus’ but it is*

comparable to that of ‘lordi’. Thus in. body

as well as cranial characters Rajasthan speci-

mens are closer to B. b. kok (lordi). . This..

comparison, which indicates overlapping of-

measurements of Wroughton’s species, justifies :

the decision taken by Ellerman (1961) in lum--

ping the species described by Wroughton

(1908) under B. b. kok. <

Vandeleuria oleracea spadicea Ryley. The.

Long-tailed Tree Mouse. .

Material examined: 23 3, from Bisalpur, :

4 km east of Erinpura, Pali district, western

Rajasthan. [

The two specimens were collected from thic-

kets of Prosopis juliflora, Acacia nilotica cup-

reciformis, Zizyphus nummularia and Mimosa

hamata. The Long-tailed tree mouse, V. o.

spadicea has been recorded from Gujarat and -

the present report extends its range further

north.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am grateful to Dr. H. S. Mann, Director:

of this Institute for providing necessary faci-.

lities and to Dr. Ishwar Prakash, Coordinator °

and Principal Animal Ecologist, for the pre-

paration of this note. See ct

B. D. RANA’

501

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

REFERENCES

ELLERMAN, J. R. (1961): The fauna of India in-

cluding Pakistan, Burma and Ceylon. 3 (P + 1 & 2)

Manager of Publ., New Delhi.

WROUGHTON, R. C. (1908): Notes on the classi-

fication of the Bandicoots. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

18 (4): 736-752.

6. IMPACT OF CYCLONE ON THE RODENT POPULATION IN

ANDHRA PRADESH

It is of interest to know about the survival

and changes in number of rodents during

catastrophes like cyclones. Hence a detailed

(Post cyclone) survey of rodent pests in 153

hectares was conducted in Bapatla taluk of

Andhra Pradesh immediately after the 1977

severe cyclonic storm which had the intensity

of a hurricane and data were compared with

pre-cyclone survey made in February, 1977.

The areas surveyed were around four villages,

Adivi, Ganapavaram, Karlapalem and Maru-

proluvandlapalem in addition to Bapatla. In

these surveys the burrows of different species

of rodents were identified and counted by live

burrow counting (Barnett, S. A. and Prakash,

I., 1975, Rodents of economic importance in

India, Arnold Heineman, New Delhi). Some

live burrows were excavated and the number,

the litter size and breeding state of the indi-

viduals were recorded.

The infestation of rodents was maximum in

paddy (Oryza sativa) fields followed by bajra

(Pennisetum americana) and ragi (Eleucine

coracana). The number of burrows of Mus

species (Mus booduga and Mus platythrix)

was more followed by Bandicota bengalensis

and Rattus rattus in the agroecosystems

(Table 1). The post cyclonic survey indicated

an enhancement in the number of burrows.

The litter size in the post cyclonic rodent popu-

lation was also more (P<0.001 in B. benga-

lensis. P<0.05 in embryo count and P<0.001

TABLE 1

DISTRIBUTION OF RODENT BURROWS IN DIFFERENT CROPS AROUND BAPATLA DURING PRE-AND POST-CYCLONE

PERIODS

Burrows per hectare

Name of the crop Ae of Period ee No. Mus* sp. B-benga- R.rattus T.indica

ectares of burrows Toner

Paddy 50 Pre cyclonic 375 4.0 2.0 1.5 —

(Oryza sativa) Post cyclonic 750 7.0 5.0 3.0 _—

Baira 25 Pre cyclonic 112 3.0 1.0 (OHS) —

(Pennisetum americana) Post cyclonic 180 5.4 1.0 0.8 —

Ragi 28 Pre cyclonic 84 0.5 2.0 0.5 —

(Eleucine coracana) Post cyclonic 70 0.5 1.0 1.0 —

Uncultivated fields 50 Pre cyclonic 10 — — — 0.2

Post cyclonic 40 0.5 — — 0.3

* Mus booduga and Mus Platythrix.

502

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

TABLE 2

DISTRIBUTION OF LITTER SIZE AMONG DIFFERENT RODENY SPECIES AROUND BAPATALA DURING PRE- AND PosrT-

CYCLONE PERIODS

Embryo count

Field collection

Rodent species Sample Pre cyclonic Post cyclonic Pre cyclonic . Post cyclonic

ae Range Mean Range Mean Range Mean Range Mean

Bandicota bengalensis iS 2-5 2.8 1-7 4.5 1-4 1.50 1-4 Die

+1.5 +2.0 +1.0 +0.75

Mus sp. 10 1-8 oho) 2-10 525 1-5 15) 2-5 Bs)

+1.5 +2.5 +0.75 +1.0

Rattus rattus 10 1-6 225) 1-7 23 — — — —_

+1.2 +1.0

Tatera indica 5) 1-5 Phi 1-5 325 oo — — -—

1.0 1.0

* Mus booduga and Mus Platythrix.

in the field collections of Mus species). It was

not significant statistically in Tatera indica

and R. rattus (YVable 2). In both the periods

Mus had more number of litters followed by

B. bengalensis and R. rattus in the fields.

fF. indica was seen only in unirrigated diy

fields at all times.

The enhancement of rodent numbers may

be due to the greater availability of good

quality food from the crops scattered by the

cyclone. Similar vegetation conditions during

both the surveys ruled out the effect of season

on the rodent number. The reduced competi-

tion due to flooding of burrows of field rodents

DeEPT. OF ZOOLOGY,

S. V. UNIVERSITY,

TRIUPATI,

January 11, 1980.

' Present address:

Junior

may be another responsible factor. Migration

by swimming may also account for the in-

crease in the live burrows of rodents in the

survey areas. However it is unlikely to be a

factor in the present case since a vast stretch

of land was flooded. The higher incidence

of Mus after the cyclone may be due to their

habitat diversity in both dry and wet areas.

In the absence of any other factor as res-

ponsible for the increased rodent numbers, the

food destroyed by the cyclonic water, and

rendered unfit for human consumption,

might have triggered the increased reproduc-

tion, thereby, resulting in high numbers.

A. M. K. MOHANA RAO?

Rodent Specialist,

Central Plant Protection Training Institute, Rajen-

dranagar, Hyderabad-500 030 (A.P.),

Les)

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

7. SOME NOTES ON AGE OF SEXUAL MATURITY OF SEVEN

SPECIES OF INDIAN WILD MAMMALS IN CAPTIVITY

Perusal of the available literature revealed

that there are not many reports on the age

‘Of sexual maturity of different Indian Wild

mammals. In this note an attempt is made

to present some notes on the age of sexual

maturity of seven species of Indian Wild

mammals observed at Nandankanan Biologi-

cal Park, Orissa.

OBSERVATIONS AND DISCUSSION

TIGER (Panthera tigris)

A tigress born in the Park on 14-12-1972

was kept along with a tiger born here on

22-6-1973 from 15-7-1974. Meee:

Mating of this pair of tigers was observed

for the first time from 6-12-1975 to 7-12-1975

and subsequently during the following periods:

4-1-1976 to 6-1-1976, 1-2-1976 to 4-2-1976,

24-3-1976 to 26-3-1976, 7-5-1976 to 10-5-1976,

26-6-1976 to 30-6-1976, 29-8-1976 to 4-9-1976

and 9-1-1977 to 14-1-1977 resulting in the

birth of three cubs on 22-4-1977.

These observations suggest that while the

tigress came to her first oestrus at the age of

TABLE

Date of

birth (Name

No. of the spe-

Dates of first mat-

ing observed (Age

at which first

SI.

cimen) oestrus observed)

1 2 3

te 20-1-1973 6-3-1975

(LATA) (2 years, 1 month

, and 15 days)

2s 23-7-1973 17-10-1975

(SHANTI) to

22-10-1975

(2 years, 2 months

and 25 days)

Bip 2-8-1973 26-1-1976

(BASANTI) to

29-1-1976

(2 years, 5 months

and 25 days)

4. 23-2-1975 Not recorded

(TORU)

Date of Age of sexual mat-

successful pias ra urity (Age at which

mating with ae littered for the

conception first time)

4 5) 6

29-3-1975 7-7-1975 2 years, 2 months

to and 10 days or say

1-4-1975 2 years and 2

months (2 years, 5

months and 18

days) -

29-1-1977 8-5-1977 3 years, 6 months

to and 7 days or say

2-2-1977 3 years and 6

months (3 years, 9

months and 16

days)

5-12-1977 14-3-1978 4 years, 4 months

to and 4 days or say

9-12-1977 4 years and 4

months (4 years,

7 months and 13

days)

Not recorded 11-2-1978 SoS

(2 years, 11

months and 20

days)

AR RO TTS ET LT A EL EL TOS

504

MISCELLANEOUS ‘NOTES

2 years 11 months and 23 days or say about

3 years, the male reached his sexual maturity

at the age of 3 years 6 months and 19 days

or say about 3 years and 7 months.

According to Acharjyo and Misra (1975)

the first signs of sexual maturity in a tigress

appeared at the age of about 3 years but a

tiger did not reach his sexual maturity at

least one week before he reached the age of

4 years. Chaturvedi (1970) states that the

first cubbing of a tigress takes place at about

the age of four and a tiger is full grown in

about 5 years. A tigress became sexually

mature soon after passing the age of 3} years

whereas a tiger became sexually mature at

least 15 days before he reached the age of

4 years (Crandall 1965). Prater (1971) states

that lions and tigers take from three to five

years to became fully adult but males and

females are capable of breeding soon after.

or even before, they are three years old. Little

has been published regarding the age at which

tigers reach sexual maturity (Schaller 1972).

At the Whipsnade Zoo a female is said to have

produced a litter at the age of 2 years (Po-

cock 1939). Abramov (1962) and Novikov

(1962) have given the age of sexual maturity

in this species as 4 years. Sankhala (1967)

states that the tiger cubs mature at an age be-

tween 34 and 6 years.

LEOPARD OR PANTHER (Panthera pardus)

The details of age of sexual maturity ob-

served in four female leopards are given in the

Table. They were living with sexually matured

males from the age of six to twelve months.

A study of this table reveals that while the

first signs of oestrus appeared at the age of

about 2 years and 2 months to about 2 years

and 6 months, they littered for the first time

at the age of about 2 years and 6 months to

about 4 years and 7 months. They were cap-

able of reproducing at the age of about 2 years

and 2 months to about 4 years and 4 months.

Five female leopards of the Delhi Zoological

Park came into oestrus for the first time at

the age of 1 year and 8 months to 3 years

and 10 months (Desai 1975). He further states

that six female leopards littered for the first

time at the age of 2 years and 3 months to 4

years and 2 months. Prater (loc. cit.) states

that leopards are generally full grown in one

and half to three years.

GOLDEN CAT (Felis temmincki)

One female golden cat born in the Park

on 2-3-1972 littered for the first time in her

life on 9-4-1974 at the age of 2 years, 1 month

and 8 days or say about 2 years and | month.

This was living with an adult male through-

out this period.

The smaller cats are almost adult when a

year old (Prater loc. cit.). Females of most

species of Felis attain puberty at the age of

12 to 15 months (Walker et al. 1964).

JUNGLE CAT (Felis chaus)

A male Jungle cat born in the Park .on

7-11-1975 was kept along with a full grown

adult female of the same species from the

age of about six months. The female gave

birth to a litter of five kittens on 10-11-1977

when the male was 2 years and 4 days old.

Taking the gestation period as above 2 months

(Asdell 1964) the age of sexual maturity of

the male can be said as 1 year, 10 months

and 4 days or say 1 year and 10 months.

The smaller cats are almost adult when a

year old (Prater, loc. cit.). Females of most

species of Felis attain puberty at the age ot

12 to 15 moths (Walker ef. al., loc. cit.)

505

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

COMMON PALM CIVET OR TODDY CAT

(Paradoxurus hermaproditus)

One female of this species born in the Park

on 30-4-1975 was living with adult males from

the age of about four months. Mating of this

‘female with an adult male was observed for

the first time from 23-2-1976 to 28-2-1976

resulting in the birth of a litter of three young

on 1-5-1976. The observations suggest that

the female became sexually mature at the age

of 9 months and 24 days or say 10 months.

The age at which the civets became fully

adult is not known (Prater, loc. cit.). Achar-

jyo and Misra (1975) have given the age of

sexual maturity of one male Common Palm

Civet as 11 months.

BLACKBUCK OR INDIAN ANTELOPE

(Antilope cervicapra)

One blackbuck doe born on 26-2-1975 has

given birth to a female young for the first

time on 16-4-1977 at the age of 2 years, 1

month and 22 days. This was living with

adult males throughout this period. Taking

the gestation period as 6 months (Asdell, loc.

cit.) the age of sexual maturity of this female

can be said as 1 year 7 months and 22 days

or say 1 year and 8 months.

The age of sexual maturity of two females

of this species is given as 1 year and 7 months

and 1 year and 11 months _ respectively

(Acharjyo and Misra 1973). From his ob-

servations of two yearling does of this species

Schaller (loc. cit.) states that possibly they

VETERINARY ASSISTANT SURGEON,

NANDANKANAN BIOLOGICAL PARK,

P. O. BarANG, Dist. CUTTACK,

Orissa 754005.

Witp Lire CONSERVATION OFFICER,

Orissa, 95-SAHID NAGAR,

3 HUBANESWAR-751 007,

December 18, 1978.

506

did not bear their first young until two and a

half to three years old. According to Taibel

(1937) the captive does of this species reach

sexual maturity at six months of age and

one female had her first young at the age of

about fourteen months.

CHITAL OF SPOTTED DEER (Axis axis)

One female of this species born here on

20-1-1975 gave birth to a dead male fawn

for the first time on 27-2-1977 at the age of

2 years | month and 8 days. This was living

with an adult male throughout the period of

observation. Taking the gestation period as 7

to 74 months (Asdell, loc. cit.) the age of

sexual maturity of this female can be said

to be about 1 year and 6 months.

Chital reach maturity at the age of two

years (Prater, loc. cit.). Many Chital appear

to conceive when they are fourteen to seven-

teen months old (Schaller, loc. cit). He fur-

ther states that a Chital doe with an estimat-

ed age of 23 to 24 months carried full-term

foetus when killed by a tiger at Corbett Park.

One doe in Hawaii was pregnant when killed

at an estimated age of eight to ten months

(Nichols 1960).

ACK NOWLEDGEMENTS

We wish to express our sincere gratitude

to Shri G. M. Das, LE.S., Chife Wild Life

Warden, Orissa, Bhubanewar and to Shri S.

N. Das, LF.S. Chief Conservator of Forests,

Orissa, Cuttack for the facilities provided.

L... N. AGHARDYO

Ch. G. MISHRA

MISCELLANEOUS

NOTES

REFERENCES

ABRAMOV, V. (1962): Cited by Schaller, George

B. (1972).

AcHARJYO, L. N. AND Misra, R. (1973): A note

on age of sexual maturity of two species of an-

telopes in captivity, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 70

(2): 378.

- AND ——— (1975): Age of sexual

maturity of two species of Wild carnivores in cap-

tivity. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 72(1): 196-197.

ASDELL, S. A. (1964): Patterns of mammalian

Reproduction. Second Edition. Cornell University

Press, Ithaca, New York. pp. 490-617.

CHATURVEDI, M. D. (1970): The Felines. Nation-

al Book Trust, India, New Delhi, p. 28.

CRANDALL, LEE S. (1965): The management cf

Wild Mammals in captivity. The University of

Chicago Press, Chicago and London. p. 387.

Desai, J. H. (1975): Observations on the Re-

productive Biology and early postnatal Development

of the Panther. Panthera pardus L., in captivity.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 72(2): 293-304.

NicHois, L. (1960): Cited by Schaller, George

B. 31972).

Novikov, G. (1962): Cited by Schaller, George

Bo (i972)e

Pocock, R. (1939): Cited by Schaller, George

B. (1972).

Prater, S. H. (1971): The Bock of Indian Ani-

mals. Third (Revised) Edition, Bombay Natural

History Society, Bombay.

SANKHALA, K. S. (1967): Cited by Desai, J. H.

(1975).

SCHALLER, GEORGE B. (1972): The Deer and the

Tiger. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago

and London.

TABEL, A. (1937): Cited by Schaller. George 3B.

(1972).

WALKER, ERNEST P. et. al (1964): Mammals of

the World, Vol. Il. The John Hopkins Press, Balti-

more, p. 1274.

8. TWELVE YEARS OLD COMMON TEAL (ANAS CRECCA)

While analysing the ringing data of the

Bird Migration programme of the Bombay

Natural History Society during the past twenty

years, I came across an interesting longevity

record of the Common Teal (C-2871).

The bird whose sex was recorded as a

female, was netted and ringed by the Society’s

field staff on 23rd October, 1966 at Bharat-

pur, Rajasthan (27°15’N, 77°30’E). It was

BoMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY,

Hornpi_L House, Opp. Lion GATE,

SHAHID BHAGAT SINGH Roap,

BomBay 400 023,

April 24, 1979.

later shot by Major Sardar Amanullah Khan

of Lahore (30°35’N, 74’20°E) on Ist De-

cember, 1978 on the bank of river Ravi about

sixteen miles from Lahore (Pakistan).

This recovery is the longest survival record

(12 Years, 1 Month and 13 Days) of the spe-

cies in India, though The Ring (Vol. VII

No. 76/1973-3) published a record of 13 years

enc 6 months.

V. C. AMBEDKAR

SS:

“I

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

9. THE CRAB PLOVER (DROMAS ARDEOLA) IN KERALA

The Crab Plover does not appear to have

been recorded in Kerala at any time and is

not mentioned in Salim Ali’s BIRDS OF KERALA

(Oxford, 1969).

On 11 February, 1979, we were at Mutha-

lappoozhi, Perumathura, 29 km north of Tri-

vandrum, where the backwaters (Kadhinam-

kulam and the southern stretches of the Para-

voor Kayal) are linked with the Arabian

Sea. In summer a sandbar forms across the

channel, but this year it had not been formed

even by the 8th of April.

Here the first bird to catch our eye was

a solitary Crab Plover resting on the damp

sand close to the surf, with the ridge of dry

sand above giving it excellent cover from

people moving about on the narrow strip of

land between the beach and the backwaters.

Between 8.20 and 11.10 a.m. we never lost

sight of the bird.

Most of the time it spent resting quietly,

often sitting on its tarsi or squatting with its

breast and belly pressed to the sand. Although

crabs were numerous and often ran right up

to the bird, it never attempted to catch them.

KERALA NATURAL History SOcIETY,

TRIVANDRUM, KERALA,

April 21, 1979.

It was a juvenile, with dull black only on

the mantle and back. The lower edge of the

closed wing had an inconspicuous black mar-

gin. The crown, sides of the head and the

hindneck were streaked lightly with grey. The

wing appeared grey when closed, but in flight

brown, with the forewing grey and a discon-

tinuous grey wing-bar below it, and a curved

band of grey just above the base of the pri-

maries. The stout bill was black except near

the tip where the inner edges of the mandi-

bles appeared to be pale brownish. The legs

were bluish, and the hind claw was promi-

nent.

The bird was sluggish and at first permit-

ted close approach. It never uttered any call

although we put it to flight three times. When

alert and suspicious, it stood erect and had

an ungainly look. It stalked rather than walk-

ed, and never ran even when we walked fast

towards it. V.K.S. went on the 23rd February

to secure some photographs and found the

bird resting amidst a flock of gulls. We went

again on the 8th of April but found no signs

of the bird.

K. K. NEELAKANTAN

K. V. SREENIVASAN

V. K. SURESHKUMAR

10. NOCTURNAL ACTIVITY OF THE TURNSTONE (ARENARIA

INTERPRES) ON SOUTH SENTINEL (ANDAMAN ISLANDS)

In spring 1973 and 1974, while studying the

behavioural ecology of the robber crab (Bir-

gus latro) on South Sentinel, a small coral

island not inhabited by man, we used to sur-

vey the beach in front of our tents almost

every night and normally spent several hours

508

to record possible nocturnal activity of the

robber and other crabs (For topographical

and habitat data on South Sentinel see Alte-

vogt and Davis 1975). :

[t was during these night watches in March

1974 that apart from ghost crabs (Ocypode

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

ceratophthalmus) foraging at the water line

a number of bird waders struck us by their

very active nocturnal habits. They would run

up and down and to and fro on the sloping

coral sand beach by leaps and darts as if

chasing quickly moving objects. In the dim

moonlight we could not identify the birds,

and we are not used to shooting them for

identification, either.

Luckily, we entered a new moon phase

with clouds and really pitch dark conditions

so that only our electric torchlights would

enable us to find our ways on the beach.

Scanning the water’s edge with our torches

showed the familiar ghost crabs of all sizes

in rapid pursuit of their prey (partly species

companions of the smaller size classes), but

also a good number of the wading birds we

had encountered during the better lit nights

before. If caught by the beam of our strong

torches they would instantly ‘“‘freeze’’ and re-

main motionless until “‘released’’. Immediate-

ly after switching off the light it was easy

to seize such birds by hand, and one night

in early March 1974 we could really stuff

our pockets with these birds for photographic

recording the next morning. There was not

much struggling while the birds were in our

pockets, and by daylight, too, they remained

quite undistressed in our hand.

Identification and the photographic record

showed these birds to be turnstones, Arenaria

interpres interpres (Linnaeus) which have

been recorded from ‘‘many islands in the

Andamans and Nicobars, the last on 29th April

in almost full breeding plumage... . Butler

found them still abundant in May at Port

Blair. and again in the Nicobars in Septem-

ber” (Abdulali 1964, p. 518, who also reports

on two specimens from South Sentinel in the

collections of the Bombay Natural History

Society, Abdulali 1970). In the time between

May and September as is well known, these

migratory birds perform enormous flights to

the far North of the Old World covering 850

km in 25 hours. They belong to the birds with

the northernmost breeding record (Ringleben

1969).

Judging from our knowledge of the beach

fauna on our isle and its habitat qualities we

feel fairly safe in stating that the turnstones’

prey consisted mainly of Ocypode ceratoph-

thalmus of the smaller size ranges. The adult

specimens on this undisturbed island reach

a considerable body size (upto 6 cm carapace

width) which makes them hardly a suitable

catch for the rather small birds’ beaks. This

was also suggested by the darting movements

of the birds visible in the semi-dark moonlit

nights. Occasionally also a Talitrid amphipod

may have been caught though we cannot i1m-

agine that this can successively be achieved

routinely. There were no other faunal beach

elements of a somewhat quick locomotion type

so that the above suggestion seems plausible.

Moreover, the birds’ name giving gesture could

not be performed on our part of the beach

as the fine coral sand did not offer stones of

turnable size classes.

As we have not come across any reports

of such nocturnal activity in turnstones, apart

from simple resting on the beach by roaming

birds en route, we would invite readers to

pay attenion to and report on this interesting

phenomenon.

509

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY,

PHYSIOLOGY AND ECOLOGY,

MUNSTER UNIVERSITY,

D-4400 MUNSTER, GERMANY.

BIOSCIENCES,

INDIAN STATISTICAL INSTITUTE,

CatcuTta 700035, INDIA,

March 26, 1979.

Vol. 77

R. ALTEVOGT

T. A. DAVIS?

REFERENCES

The Birds of the Anda-

J. Bombay nat. Hist.

(1964) :

Islands.

ABDULALI, H.

man and Nicobar

Soc. 61: 483-571.

— —— (1970): A catalogue of the birds

in the collection of the Bombay Natural History

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 67: 51-56.

Society-6. J.

' Present address:

FAO Coconut

LPTI. P.O. Box 4, Manado,

ALTEvocT, R. AND Davis, T. A. (1975): Birgus

latro, India’s monstrous crab. A study and an ap-

peal. Bull. Depi. Marine Sciences, Univ. of Cochin.

Pe ile23

RINGLEBEN, H. (1969):

In: GRZIMEKS Tierleben 8:

Unterfamilie Steinwalzer.

183-184.

Agronomist.

Indonesia.

11. OCCURRENCE OF THE BLACKWINGED STILT (HIMANTOPUS

HIMANTOPUS)

Late in the evening on 18-ii-1979 one of

us (VKS) spotted a single Stilt in the water-

logged paddy fields near the Agricultural Col-

lege, Vellayini. The next day we went to the

place at 5.15 p.m. and, in the course of an

hour, came across nine Stilts. Of these 2 had

brownish backs and looked much paler than

the others. All the iet black birds had a black

patch extending from in front of the eye to

the nape, rather like the blinkers of a cart-

horse. The only pale bird that we could exa-

KERALA NATURAL History SacleTty,

TRIVANDRUM, KERALA,

February 25, 1979.

510

IN KERALA

mine closely through our binoculars had

smoky-brown on the sides of the head and

over the nape. Without an exception, all had

greyish hindnecks (from nape to mantle).

Evidently they were all of the nominate form.

Could they have been juveniles assuming the

summer plumage?

The HANDBOOK (Vol. 2, 1969, page 329)

says, ““Not recorded in Kerala’, and the bird

is not included in Salim Ali’s BIRDS OF KFRALA

(1969).

K. K. NEELAKANTAN

V. K. SURESHKUMAR

MISCELLANEOUS NOVES

2. OCCURRENCE OF THE WOODCOCK (SCOLOPAX RUSTICOLA)

AT LOW ALTITUDES

The woodcock’s winter migration has been

an enigma. It is said to fly non-stop from the

Himalayas to the Nilgiris and associated hills

in the south, and back again, not stopping in

the lowlying area enroute.

On 3-iii-79 while driving through the Mu-

dumalai Wildlife Sanctuary, we observed a

sambar kill (the work of wild dogs) on the

bed of a jungle stream, a tributary of the

Moyar river. We stopped our vehicle and

approached the stream on foot. It was

10 a.m. I was in the lead and walking along

the stream margin when | put up a woodcock

which took off and flew across the stream,

which was quite open, and alighted on the

ground near a small thicket and ran into it

in typical woodcock fashion. I know a wood-

cock when I see one, having taken part in

woodcock beats on the Nilgiri upper plateau

(2000 m). To make sure I summoned my

father, an experienced woodcock shot, and

CANOWIE,

Coonoor-643 101,

NILGIIS,

March 21, 1979.

13. OCCURRENCE OF D/ICRURUS

while he watched I crossed the stream and

beat the woodcock out of cover. We both

watched the bird as it flew away, and it was

unmistakably a woodcock.

The elevation of the area is around 900 m,

and it is only 15 to 20 km from the upper

plateau of the Nilgiris as the crow flies (or

rather as the woodcock flies). Its flight did

not show any signs of injury. We looked

around in the immediate vicinity for the tell

tale marks woodcocks leave—the honey-comb

patterned probe marks left by the bird’s bil

in mud. There was none. March is the month

for the woodcock’s return migration. All

things considered this appeared to be just a

stopover and not its winter habitat. But why

did it have to rest after such a short journey,

or was it commuting between the upper and

lower plateaux especially since it was con-

sidered a poor year for woodcocks on the

upper plateau.

PETER DAVIDAR

PARADISEUS LOPHORHINUS

(VIEILLOT) IN GOA (INDIA)

The Ceylon Crested Black Drongo, Dicru-

rus paradiseus lophorhinus is known to be an

endemic race of Sri Lanka. It is ‘confined to

and moderately plentiful in the wet zone and

lower hills but ascending Adam’s peak to at

least c. 1700 m (Henry)’ as quoted by Ali

and Ripley (p. 141, 1972).

While working on a recent bird collection

from Goa, stored in the Zoological Survey

of India, we came across a specimen of a

female drongo conforming to the description

of the race lophorhinus of Sri Lanka. The

specimen, Z.S.I. Reg. No. 34088 was collect-

ed by Dr. V. C. Agrawal, 2 km south of Poin-

guinim Forest Rest House, Canacona, south

Goa, on 22 December 1968 in a secondary

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY,

teak piantation. According to the collector,

this was one of the two, one chasing the

other.

The measurements are as follows: Wing—

141 mm; Bill (from skuil)—36 mm, (from

feathers) 30 mm and (from nostril) 20 mm;

and Tarsus—26 mm. Tail (Central)—123 mm

and (outer) 212 mm.

Excepting the outer tail feathers, the mea-

surements of all the parts are akin to that of

the Ceylonese birds. The maximum length of

outer tail feathers were given 182 mm (Baker,

p. 373). But in one specimen it measures

196 mm when in moult (Al and Ripley,

p. 141).

Baker (1924) gave it species rank and kept

it under a separate genus Dissemurlus and

mentioned its distribution to be Ceylon (Sri

Lanka) and south Travancore (Kerala).

Salim Ali (p. 277, 1969) writes “The state-

ment of Stuart Baker (Fauna 2:373-4) im-

plying that D. p. lophorhinus is common in

‘Travancore’ and another in NIDIFICATION (2:

339) that ‘it has been found breeding freely

and in great numbers by J. Stewart (in Tra-

vancore)’ are certainly incorrect. There are

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

34 CHITTARANJAN AVENUE,

CatcuTta 700 012,

November 17, 1978.

Vol. 77

no other records or any skins from Kerala

to confirm them.

The authenticity of its occurrence in India

is now confirmed.

This record immediately raises the ques-

tion as to the taxonomic status of this species.

The collection of Dicrurus p. paradiseus by

Grubh and Ali (1976) and by the Zoological

Survey of India (1968-69, 1973 and 1978),

from this area and the occurrence of D. p.

lophorhinus from the same area as represent-

ed by this present specimen necessitates fur-

ther study of this aspect.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful to the Director, Zoological

Survey of India for enabling us to visit Bom-

bay Natural History Society. In addition, we

must acknowledge our sincere thanks to the

Bombay Natural History Society for provid-

‘ng necessary facilities to work in their labo-

ratory. Dr. Salim Ali, Shri J. C. Daniel,

Dr. Robert B. Grubh and Shri H. Abdulaii

took special interest in this problem and were

of assistance in preparing this note.

BHABESH CHANDRA SAHA

AJIT KUMAR MUKHERJEE

REFERENCES

ALI, SALIM (1969): Birds of Kerala, Oxford

University Press, London.

ALI, SALIM & RupLey, S. D. (1972): Handbook

of the Birds of India & Pakistan, together with

those of Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan and Ceylon. Vol. 5,

Oxford University Press, Bombay.

Baker, E. C. S. (1924): Fauna of British India,

512

Vol. 2 Taylor and Francis, London.

———(1933): The Nidification of the

Birds of Indian Empire. Vol. 2. Taylor and Francis.

London.

Grusu, Ropert, B. & ALi, SALIM (1976): Birds

of Goa. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 73: 42-53.

MISCELLANEOUS

NOTES

14. SPARROW ‘HELPING’ NESTING BULBULS

In July 1978, Mrs. Perin Jejeebhoy showed

me a partly-built nest of the Redwhiskered

Bulbul (Pycnonotus jocosus) which was be-

ing built in her garden just off Bhulabhai

Desai Road, Bombay, and referred to a female

sparrow (Passer domesticus) being associated

with the work. This seemed so extraordinary

that I asked her to keep written notes of all

that she saw and the following, which she

commenced to write after the first 2 or 3

days appear to be worth recording: —

“22 July 1978—A pair was noticed building in a

small bush 4’ high in my garden.

very close to the house. A hen

house sparrow brought nesting

material and appeared to be try-

ing to help.

—Both bulbuls continued to build.

The sparrow hung around.

—Building continued with sparrow

attendant in building the same

nest. The bulbuls did not appear

to appreciate the assistance.

—As above, nest empty at 4 p.m.

—No birds nearby, but c/1 at 6.30

p.m. None on nest at 9-30 p.m.

—7-30 a.m. both bulbuls nearby.

One settled on nest and when

she flew off at about 8 a.m.,

there were 2 eggs. One sat on

the nest after 11 a.m. for short

irregular periods. making — short

flights, not far from nest.

—More time spent on nest. At noon

c/3. 5-15 p.m. no trace of either

bird and no singing heard.

—Bulbul(s) sitting off and on, but

noticed the sparrow occupying

the nest when bulbul absent.

—Opening the grill door near the

nest disturbed the birds, so noth-

ing was done till 9-30 a.m.

When opened at 9-30 a.m.. the

sparrow flew off the nest and

23 July

24 July

25 July

26 July

27 July

28 July

29 July

30 July

75 ABDUL REHMAN_ STREET,

Bompsay-400 003,

March 24, 1979.

there

buls.

“For the next 10 days, the nest appeared

to be irregularly and half-heartedly attended

during the daytime and we were beginning to

worry about the fate of the eggs. The sparrow

was often seen visiting the nest when the bul-

buls were absent.

“On 10th August, however, there were two

naked chicks in the nest. Both parents fed

them on worms and berries, and also on red

flowers from Ixora bushes round the garden.

“The nest was in a precarious condition on

the 13th but our servant Carlos, who has a

natural love and interest in birds and ani-

mals, fixed it securely with a wire.

“On the 14th, crows showed interest in the

chicks and though the parents were in a dither,

they made no attempt to attack them. On

18th evening, the chicks had clambered on to

ihe edge of the nest and they had left the

nest at 7-30 a.m. on the following morning.

They were seen in the garden a couple of

hours later, when though flying well, they were

still fed by the parents. They were seen again

on the 20th and then moved away.

“Assuming that incubation commenced after

the laying of the full clutch (28th), the eggs

hatched after 13 days and the chicks left the

nest after 9 days.

“A happy ending which we hope will hap-

pen again next season.”

The same or another pair have nested

in another bush just 5 yards away and

I have placed plastic rings upon the feet of

3 naked young in the nest today.

The ringing of a few birds which are left

in the city limits would perhaps permit a closer

examination of their social and other habits.

HUMAYUN ABDULALI

Was no trace of the bul-

513

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY,

Vol. 77

15. DEFENCE OF THE NEST AGAINST MAN BY THE SALTWATER

CROCODILE (CROCODYLUS POROSUS SCHNEIDER)

Several older records of nest defence against

man by the Saltwater Crocodile have tended

to be overlooked (Boake 1870, Shelford 1916

and Robinson 1948) and with modified be-

haviour resulting from several decades of

heavy human exploitation of the species, the

nest-guarding activities of the female have

tended to be discounted. For instance Webb

et al. (1977) found no evidence of nest-guard-

ing of any kind in a detailed study of nesting

in C. porosus in the Northern Territory of

Australia and concluded,

“Tt is not known whether C. porosus protects

the nest against predators or not.”

Bustard (1967) noted the ease with which

female C. porosus could be killed at the nest

in Papua New Guinea, and Choudhury and

Bustard (1979) provided recent data for the

Andaman Islands (India).

We here confirm the presence of nest-guard-

ing by the saltwater crocodile on the basis of a

study extending over five nesting seasons in

the Bhitar Kanika Wild Life Sanctuary, Oris-

sa (India) and cite below a recent instance

of defence of the nest against man observed

during collection of eggs for captive hatching

and rearing of young—a management tool

practiced in this Sanctuary (Bustard 1975).

The nest was located on 16 May 1976 when

it was only partly constructed. It was next

visited between 0800 and 1000 hours on 29

May at which time two wallows were present,

approximately 30-45 cm deep, and the female

crocodile was motionless in the wallow imme-

diately adjacent to the nest which had been

constructed beneath a tree. One of us (S.K.)

carefully photographed the female at the nest.

The female, approximately 3 m_ in_ total

length, was apparently not disturbed and was

514

not facing the photographer. However, during

photography the female uttered a guttural

roar and turned towards the photographer

who quietly retreated.

On 31 May a party of four including S. K.

went to collect the egg sat 1200 hours. The

female was again present in the wallow from

which it charged at an assistant (who escaped

by climbing the tree beside the nest). The

three others also climbed trees. The female

returned to the nest and lay on top of it.

The assistant who first climbed the tree was

unable to leave it as he was close to the

crocodile’s mouth. The party shouted but the

crocodile remained on the nest, and then

came right to the foot of the tree harbouring

the assistant and looked upwards with open

jaws. The crocodile returned to the nest and

then again came back to this tree. The egg

collection party were ‘treed’ for about thirty

minutes. Eventually they threw sticks, and

this combined with shouting, resulted in the

female entering the first wallow and then the

second wallow whereupon they made their

escape. There can be no doubt that the female

would have physically attacked the staff had

they not been able to climb trees.

DISCUSSION

This observation on nest defence against

man is noteworthy in that the crocodile per-

sistently defended the nest against a party

of four people. Bustard & Choudhury (1980)

refer to actual attacks on people in _ re-

cent years in the Andamans by presumed nest-

guarding female porosus. In most, if not all

parts of the range, C. porosus, there has been

a long history of selection against females

MISCELLANEOUS

which guard their nest against man—such

females being invariably killed. This selection

continuous today. Choudhury and _ Bustard

(1979) noted the loss of 5 out of 30 nest-

guarding porosus (17%) to poachers in the

Andamans in a single year (1978).

Accordingly we may safely assume that

nest-guarding was commoner in former years

and has been selected against by man—-the

only serious enemy of large porosus.

Nest-guarding against man is the highest

CENTRAL CROCODILE BREEDING &

MANAGEMENT TRAINING INSTITUTE,

19-4-319, LakE DALE,

RAJENDRANAGAR ROAD,

HYDERABAD 500 264.

SALTWATER CROCODILE RESEARCH &

CONSERVATION CENTRE,

DANGMAL,

CuTTAcK. DISTRICT,

ORISSA,

September 2, 1980.

NOTES

level of nest defence possible. Like all wild

animals C. porosus is extremely frightened

of man and avoids him at every opportunity.

Furthermore, the continued presence of the

crocodile at the nest after man’s approach

(the crocodile has ample warning in the man-

groves) is in itself a clear modification of

normal behaviour and must be held to be

defensive of the nest even without actual at-

tack on man.

H. R. BUSTARD

S. K. KAR

REFERENCES

BoaKE, B. (1870): The nest of the Crocodile.

Zoologist (2) 5: 2002-4.

BustArp, H. R. (1967): Report on the Crocodile

Skin Trade in the Territory of Papua New Guinea

with Recommendations for the Future Develop-

ment of the Industry. Unpublished Report to Gov-

ernment.

--———-—— (1975): Gharial and Crocodile

Conservation Management in Orissa. Interim Re-

port. Crocodile Farming Project India. UNDP/FAO.

Rome, 1975 (FO/IND/71033).

CHoupHurRY, B. C. & Busrarp, H. R. (1979):

Predation on Natural Nests of the Saltwater Cro-

codile (Crocodylus porosus Schneider) on North

Andaman Island with Notes on the Crocodile Po-

pulation. J. Bombay nat. Ji ‘st. Soc. 76 (2): 311-323.

Boustarp, H. R. & CHouDHURY, B. C. (1980):

Parental care in the Saltwater Crocodile (Croco-

dylus porosus Schneider) and management impli-

cations. ibid. 77 (1): 64-69.

ROBINSON, ST. J. (1948): The Crocodile at the

Nest. North Queensland Naturalist. 16 (88): 3-4.

SHELFORD, R. W. C. (1916): A Naturalist in

Borneo. London, Fisher Unwin.

Wesps, G. J. W., Messer, H. & MaGNusson, W.

(1977): The Nesting of Crocodylus porosus in Arn-

hem Land, Northern Australia. Copeia, 1977 (2):

238-250.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

16. SOME OBSERVATIONS ON THE GROWTH OF CAPTIVE

CROCODILES

(With five text-figures)

Two species of crocodiles—C. palustris and C. porosus were reared in captivity to

evaluate the feasibility of growing them in view of the commercial importance of

their skins. The effect of physical factors of environment on their growth rates have

been statistically analysed. The economics of their rearing is also indicated.

INTRODUCTION

It has been known for a long time that

illegal poaching encouraged by the high pro-

fitability of foreign trade in crocodile skins has

reduced the crocodile population in India al-

most to the verge of extinction (Misra 1970).

Information regarding crocodile farming on

a commercial scale is sparse except for those

of Youngprapakorn ef al. (1971). This had

C. palustris :

>, 900

P 4

ld eo

fe) e

ire

516

necessitated the urgent need for setting up of

crocodile farms which has assumed import-

ance after the survey by Bustard (1974). In

view of these considerations an attempt was

made in this Institute to rear C. palustris and

C. porosus in captivity. The difference in

growth rates between these two species has

already been mentioned (Krishnamurthi and

Bhaskaran 1976). The present paper throws

more light on the effect of climatic conditions

1500

cost oF FooD (As)

7 72 73 74 UE) 72 73 74 75

TIME (YEAR)

Fig. 1. Food consumption by C. palustris and C. porosus.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

and food on their growth in captivity. The

cost of rearing them under artificial condi-

tions is also indicated as an aid for commercial

farming of crocodiles.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

C. palustris: Sixteen hatchlings of about 15

days old were obtained from Chidambaram,

Tamilnadu in 1970. Two of them died within

a week while eight of the remaining died at

different intervals during the course of the

year. Of the remaining, one was transferred

to the Snake Park, Madras for observation

and only five were maintained for further

study.

C. porosusS Eight specimens, ranging from 14

¢ porosus

to 2 years old were imported from Singapore

in March 1972 to compare the rate of growth

with that of C. palustris. One of them died

within 15 days after an attack of paralysis

of hind limb and another two during the year.

Five survived for the full study period.

Rearing Tanks:

In the early stages, juveniles of C. palus-

iris were reared in wooden tubs and small

cement tanks and later transferred to big tanks.

Two tanks, measuring 21’x 14’ and 14’ x9’

respectively with 3’ depth (Pooley 1971)

were used from February 1973. The two spe-

cies were segregated according to their sizes.

The sides and the roof of the enclosure were

covered with wire netting against predators.

150 15

100 10

¥ 50 5

T S

S cpatustris 7

~ 200 20 }

rT) =

8 180 is &

S 3

] 100 10

z 50 5

=| ae =

Go Ze eres & Be 2 et hk 2 e 3 ia

uw =a a = 2.vo 2

Beit Shoes SS Sie OS oy 3

1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 Ke)

TIME (YEAR)

Fig. 2. Growth measurements of C. palustris and C. porosus.

517

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

1970 197] 1972

Fig. 3.

JTASONDIFHAMITASONDIFMAMIJASOND EFMAMTTASONDIFMAMITASON DISSE MAMT

1973 1975

MONTHS

1974

Meteorological data for the period July 1970 to June 1975.

A—Maximum Temperature; B—Minimum Temperature; C—Monthly total rainfall;

D. Relative humidity at 08.30 hrs; E—Relative humidity at 17.30 hrs.

Food: The food consisted of beaf, live frogs

and fish. Feeding with live frogs was discon-

tinued from April 1973, due to non-availabi-

lity of sufficient size and numbers. As daily

feeding resulted in too much left over food

the feeding intervals were reduced. In summer

feeding was done on alternative days and in

cold months on every third day (October to

January).

Data analysis:

Using multiple regression analysis, the re-

lationship between length, girth and weight

was analysed using IBM—370/155. The values

of R* and chi-square (C. palustris, R°=0.98,

chi-square (74 df) =21.02, C. porosus, R°=

0.96, chi-square (49 df)=11.05) were very

highly significant showing a high order of cor-

relation between length, girth and weight. In

518

view of this, length has been taken as a para-

meter to decide the growth rate. Since rain-

fall which is a discrete factor can only have

a cumulative effect on this growth, the effect

of cumulative rainfall on the length has been

worked out on the assumption that line cor-

relationship exists between rainfall and growth

(Arkin and Colton 1967).

RESULTS

It is known that juvenile crocodiles develop

deformities like hunchback when fed with beef

alone (Coulson ef al. 1973). This was also

observed in the present investigation with

juvenile C. palustris exhibiting deformities

under similar feedings. There was consider-

able improvement in growth with a change

in diet to live frogs and fish. Further, the

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

young ones took about two weeks to adapt

themselves to the new surroundings when

shifted from smaller to larger tanks. The other

species under the present study namely C.

porosus was fed with live frogs and fish from

the beginning and the growth was observed

to be normal. The consumption of food ini-

tially by C. palustris was very poor and with

the increase in its size it doubled every year

from 1972 onwards. In the case of C. porosus

INCREASE IN GROWTH (c™)

197|

1972

1973

there was a drop in the food consumption

(Fig. 1) from 1973. It was estimated that the

cost of feeding of C. palustris for 58 months

amounted to Rs. 2170/- while as with refer-

ence to C. porosus it was Rs. 1735 for 40

months.

The growth rate of the two species was

recorded at regular intervals. It included

length, girth and weight and the average

measurements of five individuals of each spe-

WEIGHT (Kg)

1974 =: 1975

TIME (YEAR)

fie ENGTH sy 223

C. palustris

—_s GIRTH g__oo C.poresus

WEIGH Fegan, 5

Fig. 4. Average increase in growth rate per year (July-June).

519

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 7”

cies are presented in Fig. 2. It was observed

that in the case of C. palustris the average

maximum figures for length, girth and weight

were 176 cm, 67 cm, and 20.5 Kg_respec-

tively while in C. porosus these were 167 cm,

55 cm and 13.7 Kg. in the same order. As

between two species, the annual growth rate

of C. porosus seems to be influenced to a con-

siderable extent by annual cumulative rain-

fall while C. palustris seems to maintain a

steady increase in its growth rate. As indi-

25 C.porosus

££

E's

& 10

IS PaO’ 35 30. S546

Sic

1971). There also seems to be a certain re-

lationship between the urge to consume food

and the amount of rainfall, a decrease in rain-

fall resulting in aversion to food in general,

which is more pronounced in the case of C.

porosus. Similar observations were made with

alligators (Coulson et al. 1973). C. palustris

showed a steady increase in its annual growth

rate from 9.1 cm long in 1970-71 to 11.7 cm

in 1971-72, 37.7 cm in 1972-73, 41 cm in

1973-74 and 44.5 cm in 1974-75, while C.

C-palustris

NIG

fo}

a 2 ——

30 35 40

_ Log cumulative rainfall =x

Fig. 5.

Scatter diagram—relationship between cumulative rainfall and length of

Crocodile.

cated in Fig. 3 the annual rainfall increased

steadily from 1970, to 1525 mm in 1972, and

it decreased during the years 1973 and 1974

to 1191 and 873 mm respectively. However,

there was no significant difference in the tem-

perature and the relative humidity during the

year of study.

DISCUSSION

In assessing the factors influencing the value

of the skins it is obsrved that as between food

and environmental factors, the latter especially

the cumulative rainfalls plays a more effective

role than the former (Youngprapakorn ef al.

520

porosus affected by rainfall, recorded a de-

crease from 41.7 cm in 1972-73 to 24.3 cm

in 1973-74 and 14.2 cm in 1974-75 (Fig. 4).

This observation has been substantiated by

statistical analysis (Fig. 5) in which it is high-

lighted using a log plot of the length against

the cumulative rainfall. The log-linear relation-

ship is evident from the gord fit and a re-

gression equation is generated to explain the

relationship. In the case of C. porosus the

regression equation is log (length) = 1.5242 +

0.1851 log (cumulative rainfall) while in C.

palustris it is log (length) = —3.339 + 0.646

log (cumulative rainfall).

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

After the period of this study the crocodiles

were transferred to a natural habitat.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Thanks are due to Dr. R. Sanjeevi and

DeEPT. OF BACTERIOLOGY,

CENTRAL LEATHER RESEARCH INSTITUTE,

Mapras-600 020,

January 22, 1980.

Dr. (Mrs.) Padmini Ramaswamy, CLRI,

Madras, for statistical evaluation and Dr. N.

Ramanathan, Acting Director, CLRI, Madras

for his kind permission to publish the results.

V. S. KRISHNAMURTHI

R. BHASKARAN'

REFERENCES

ARKIN, H. & CoLTon, R. R. (1976): Statistical

Methods. Barnes & Noble Inc. New York.

BusrarbD, H. R. (1974): A preliminary survey of

the prospects for Crocodile farming (UNDP, Food

and Agricultural Organization of the United Na-

tions, Rome FO: INS/71/033).

CouLson, T. D., CouLson, R. A. & HERNANDEZ,

T. (1973): Some observations on the growth of

captive alligators. Zoologica. Scientific contributions

of the New York Zoological Society. 58(2): 47-52.

KRISHNAMURTHI, V. S. & BHASKARAN, R. (1976):

Growth studies on the species of Crocodiles in

captivity. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 73(3): 532-

533.

Misra, R. N. (1970): The endangered crocodiles

of India. IUCN Publ. (N.S.) No. 78: 77-81.

PooLey, A. C. (1971): Crocodiles rearing and

restocking IUCN publications on the proceedings

of the First working Meeting of Crocodile specialist

group held in USA 1:104.

YOUNGPRAPAKORN, U., CRONIN, B. N., & MCNEE-

Ly, J. A. (1971): Captive breeding of Crocodiles

in Thailand, In Crocodiles Intern. Union Consen.

Nat. Publ. New series, Suppl. Pap. 32: 98-101.

1FAO Expert, Project 523, Post Box 120, Bamko-

Mali.

17. A NEW TURTLE FOR NEPAL

In their appendixed review of the Nepal

herpetofauna, Swan and Leviton (1962:135)

list the turtle Kachuga tecta, family Emydidae,

as a hypothetical species and note that it

occurs in the adjacent plains of Nepal, de-

fined as “‘the plains of India within approxi-

mately 50 miles of the southern frontier of

Nepal.” They further state that for west, cen-

tral, and east Nepal they suspect the “‘possible

presence of the species in Nepal based on the

known presence of the species on the plains

of India adjacent to Nepal.” I would now like

to report the first authenticated specimen in

Nepal.

On the 27 of May, 1977, I caught, photo-

graphed, and released an individual of this

species in Janakpur, Dhanusa district, of east

Nepal. The total carapace length measured

8.5 cm. I had earlier seen two turtles of this

species at the Janakpur fish farm in January

of that year. I subsequently again captured

individuals of K. fecta at the Janakpur fish

521

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

farm. K. ¢ecta is found to regularly occur in

the pond opposite Ram Mandir in Janakpur.

I suspect the range of this species in Dhanusa

district to be from the Nepal-Bihar border

north to just south of the east-west highway,

as suitable habitat is known throughout that

area. Further north lies the Bhabar zone, con-

tiguous to the southern slope of the Siwalik

BABOA CROCODILE STATION,

Lake Murrey, WESTERN

Papua New GUINEA,

May 10, 1980.

PROVINCE,

hills, an area lacking in surface water resour-

ces to support the occurrence of K. tecta. I

have previously reported this finding along

with documented photographs to the Robert

L. Flemings of Kathmandu, Nepal.

I gratefully acknowledge the assitance of

the Dr. Flemings in reviewing this paper.

PHILIP M. HALL

REFERENCES

SWAN, LAWRENCE W. AND LEviTON, ALAN E.

(1962): The herpetology of Nepal: a history.

check list. and zoogeographical analysis of the her-

petofauna. Cal. Acad. of Science. Vol. XXXII, No

6, pp. 103-147, 4 figs.

18. FIRST RECORD OF THE MILK FISH, CHANOS CHANOS

(FORSKAL,

The milkfish is a euryhaline, littoral marine

species found from the Red Sea and the east

coast of Africa through the Indian Ocean to

Japan and Australia and through the Paci-

fic Ocean to the west coast of North America

(Schuster 1960). It is an important food fish

which can be cultured in water of various

salinities and its natural distribution is there-

fore of interest, particularly in respect to the

Persian Gulf where adverse environmental

conditions do not favour production of pro-

tein on the adjacent land and protein con-

sumption of local populations is deficient

(Surber 1969).

Eleven specimens of the milkfish were pick-

ed up dead from the Baghu River, Hormozd-

gan Province, Iran (27°18’N, 56°27’E) on

27 November 1976. This locality lies about

14 river kilometres from the Persian Gulf at

the Strait of Hormuz. There has not been any

1775) FROM IRAN AND THE PERSIAN GULF

previous record of this species from Iran or

the Persian Gulf despite surveys by Blegvad

and Loppenthin (1944), Khalaf (1961), Mah-

di (1962), Kuronuma and Abe (1972) and

Saadati (1977). Boulenger (1887) reported

the milkfish from Muscat, about 460 km.

southeast of the Baghu River.

Meristic and morphometric data are given

below and are in general agreement with pub-

lished information for other parts of the spe-

cies range (Schuster 1960, Fowler 1956, Day

1875-1878, Misra 1976). Some differences in

morphometry are due to these measurements

having been made on juvenile specimens

which also have the distal parts of paired fins

fragmented. Schuster (1960) notes that the

head is relatively shorter and broader in older

specimens. Dorsal fin TV 11-12, anal fin HI

7-8, ventral fin 9-11, total vertebrae including

hypural plate as one vertebra 42-43, lateral

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

line scales to hypural plate 70-79, scales above

lateral line 11-14, below lateral line 10-12,

predorsal scale rows 18-23. Morphometric data

is based, like meristic data, on all 11 speci-

mens unless total length or caudal fin length

is involved. Three specimens had an incom-

plete, damaged caudal fin precluding measure-

ment of total length and caudal length; these

specimens fell within the range of total length

given below judging by their standard lengths.

The range for each morphometric character

is followed by the mean and standard devia-

tion in parentheses where appropriate. Total

Jength 91.8-128.9 mm (mean 112.5); standard

length 70.5-98.5 (mean 86.91); head length

in total length 4.35-4.71 (4.52, 0.1314): caudal

fin length in total length 3.83-4.23 (4.05,

0.1447); body depth in total length 5.65-6.39

6.01, 0.2371); head length in standard length

3.34-3.57 (3.47, 0.0813); body depth in stan-

dard length 4.32-4.79 (4.63, 0.1494): orbit dia-

meter in head length 2.88-3.13 (2.99, 0.0832):

snout length in head length 4.03-4.57 (4.32,

0.1819); interorbital width in head length

3.32-3.58 (3.45, 0.1165); maxilla length in

head length 3.80-4.59 (4.28, 0.2315); orbit

diameter in snout length 0.64-0.77 (0.69,

0.0456); orbit diameter in interorbital width

0.82-0.91 (0.87, 0.0305); pectoral fin length

in head length 1.65-1.87 (1.75, 0.0665); pel-

vic fin length in head length 2.17-2.79 (2.54,

ICHTHYOLOGY SECTION,

NATIONAL MuSEUM OF NATURAI

OTTAWA, ONTARIO, CANADA,

KIA OM8,

September 12, 1979.

SCIENCES,

0.2016); caudal fin length in head length 0.81-

0.96 (0.90, 0.0424); anal fin base length in

dorsal fin base length 1.77-2.23 (2.03, 0.1398).

The specimens were found in a warm, shal-

low, mud-bottomed backwater which had a

temperature of 16°C after some insolation.

Mortality was probably due to exposure to

low temperatures in the colder main water-

course. Milkfish become paralysed at 13°C

and die at about 12°C even higher tempera-

tures where exposure is prolonged (Schuster

1960). Temperature is also the factor most

likely to be responsible for the absence of

milkfish from the Persian Gulf since surface

water temperatures fall below 19°C, and in

certain littoral areas below 15°C. in winter.

Any attempt at culturing this species in the

Gulf would therefore require a source of

heated water in winter, particularly for shal-

low ponds, as air temperatures can fall below

90°C in winter.

ACK NOWLEDGEMENTS

Field work for this research was funded

by a Pahlavi (now Shiraz) University (Shi-

raz, Iran) Research Council grant number

35-A5-149-172. X-ray and other museum faci-

lities were made available by Dr. D. E. Mc-

Allister, National Museum of Natural Sci-

ences, Ottawa, Canada. The author gratefully

acknowledges this funding and these facilities.

BRIAN W. COAD

REFERENCES

BLEGVAD, H. AND LOPPENTHIN, B. (1944): Fishes

of the Iranian Gulf. Einar Munksgaard, Copen-

hagen. 247 p. & 12 plates.

BouLENGER, G. A. (1887): An account of the

fishes obtained by Surgeon-Major A. S. G. Jayakar

at Muscat, east coast of Arabia. Proc. Zool. Soc.

Lond. 1887: 653-667.

Day, F. (1875-1878): The fishes of India being

523

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY,

a natural history of the fishes known to inhabit

the seas and fresh waters of India, Burma, and

Ceylon. 2 vols., Today and Tomorrow’s Book

Agency. New Delhi. (1967 reprint).

Fow.er, H. W. (1956): Fishes of the Red Sea

and southern Arabia. Vol. 1. Branchiostomida to

Polynemida. Weizmann Science Press of Israel,

Jerusalem. 240 p.

KHALAF, K. T. (1961): The marine and fresh

water fishes of Iraq. Ar-Rabitta Press, Baghdad.

v & 164 p.

KURONUMA, K. AND ABE, Y. (1972): Fishes of

Kuwait. Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research.

State of Kuwait. xiv & 123, p., 37 figs., 20 plates.

Maupr, N. (1962): Fishes of Iraq. Ministry of

Education, Baghdad, 82 p.

Vol. 77

Misra, K. S. (1976): The fauna of India and

adjacent countries. Pisces. Vol. II, 2nd Ed. Zoolo-

gical Survey of India, Calcutta. xxvii & 438 p.,

11 plates.

SaapaTl, M. A. G. (1977): Taxonomy and dis-

tribution of the freshwater fishes of Iran. MS The-

sis, Colorado State Univ., Fort Collins, Colorado.

xiii & 212 p.

SCHUSTER, W. H. (1960): Synopsis of biological

data on milkfish Chanos chanos (Forskal), 1775.

FAO Fisheries Biology Synopsis No. 4, vi & 58

SURBER, E. W. (1969): Report to the government

of Iran on a programme for the development of

the inland fisheries of Iran. FAO UNDP /TA, 2723:

viii & 64 p.

19. OCCURRENCE OF ZEBRIAS KERALENSIS JOGLEKAR

(PISCES: SOLEIDAE) OFF VISAKHAPATNAM, WITH A

NOTE ON ITS TAXONOMY

One soleid flat fish, belonging to the genus

Zebrias Jordan & Snyder, was collected from

trawl catches off Visakhapatnam, and identi-

fied as Zebrias keralensis Joglekar. Hitherto

it has been recorded only from the Arabian

Sea, at Aleppy on Kerala Coast (South West

India). The present record extends the distri-

bution of the species to the North East Coast

of India also.

Material: One specimen measuring 120.0 mm

(S.L.), collected from trawl catches, off Visa-

khapatnam, on 30-12-78.

Description: Counts: D.67; A.57; C.17; P.

(eyed) 13; P. (blind) 11: V. 4; L. 1.83.

Measurements: Depth of body 41.6, length

of head 20.8 per cent of S.L. Snout 24.0, Eye

diameter 20.2, Post orbital distance 60.6,

Snout to angle of mouth 32.0, angle of mouth

to gill opening 64.0, length of right pectoral

36.0, length of left pectoral 20.0 per cent of

head length.

Coloration: In formalin, light brown with 13

524

dark cross bands extending on to vertical fins.

Third cross band spindle shaped. Pectoral on

ocular side dark. Caudal dark with white

spots. Blind side white.

Diagnosis: The specimen agrees with the des-

cription of Z. keralensis, which can be easily

distinguished from the closely resembling Z.

synapturoides on the basis of Lateral line scale

count (75-93), and longer pectoral fin on

ocular side (33-42 % in head), characteristic

of the species. The range of scale count of

Z. keralensis includes that of Z. cochinensis

Rama Rao (1967).

Taxonomic note: Rama Rao (1967), describ-

ed Zebrias cochinensis as a new species, on

the basis of single specimen collected at

Cochin, off Vypeen Island. The morphometric

measurements and meristic counts of Z. cochi-

nensis are not different from those of Zebrias

keralensis Joglekar (1976). There is however

a marked difference in the band pattern and

caudal fin ray count, while the counts of ven-

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

tral fin rays and pectoral fin rays show slight

variation. In Z. keralensis the counts are C.17-

18; V.4; P. (eyed) 10-13, whereas in Z. cochi-

nensis the counts are C. 14; V.5; P. (eyed)

14. The band pattern in Z. keralensis is cha-

racteristic of most Zebrias spp., in having ver-

tical bands extending on to the dorsal and

anal. The number of bands may vary from

species to species but all the bands in all the

species are transverse. The band pattern in

Z. cochinensis is most uncharacteristic of any

Zebrias sp., as the bands in the region of the

2nd, 3rd and 4th on the trunk, instead of

being vertical, assume a semilunar shape. This

deviation from the normal pattern of Ze-

rias spp. coupled with the reduced number of

caudal fin ray count does not allow Z. cochi-

nensis to be congeneric with other Zebrias

spp. Thus Z. cochinensis appears to be an

abnormal freak specimen with modified band

pattern but otherwise agreeing in all the other

characters with those of Z. keralensis, except-

ing the marked difference in caudal fin ray

count. The caudal fin ray count of any Zeb-

rias spp., falls in the range of 16-18 (Day

1878, Norman 1928, Chen & Weng 1965, Tal-

war & Chakrapany 1967, Joglekar 1976).

Ochiai (1963) extended the lower range upto

15 in the case of Z. fasciatus and Z. zebra,

Dept. OF ZOOLOGY,

ANDHRA UNIVERSITY,

WALTAIR,

February 25, 1980.

REFE

CHAKRAPANY, S. & RAMA Rao, K. V. (1977):

Remarks on the abnormal band pattern of the sole

Aesopia cornuta Kaup. (Pisces: Soleidae) from

Madras Coast. Science and Culture. 43: 442.

CHEN, J. T. F. & Wenc, H. T. C. (1965): A

review of the Flat fishes of Taiwan, Published by

Tunghai Univ., China. Biological Bulletin 27: 39-

44,

in which the caudal is completely confluent

with dorsal and anal. This character is very

difficult for accurate count in the species in

which the caudal is completely confluent with

dorsal and anal. As the character does not

show much variation between the different

Zebrias spp., the count given for Z. cochinen-

sis is perhaps either a typographical mistake

or alternately an additional freak character.

As the validity of Z. cochinensis as a species

distinct from Z. keralensis is doubtful, it is

preferred to name the present specimen after

Z. keralensis. Accepting that the caudal fin

ray count is a typographical mistake and

considering that band pattern could be an

abnormal feature (which is not uncommon in

family Soleidae, according to Ramarao 1967,

and Chakrapani & Ramarao 1977), Z. cochi-

nensis appears to be a synonym of Z. keralen-

sis.

ACK NOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank Dr. C. C. N. Murty, Head of

Zoology Dept., Andhra University, Waltair.

and Sri Bh. V. Seetaramaswamy, Head of

Zoology Dept., Mrs. A. V. N. College, Visa-

khapatnam for providing research facilities

and for constant encouragement.

K. SRINIVASA RAO

M. RAMA MURTY

RENCES

Day, F. (1878): The Fishes of India. (Reprint-

ed ed., 1958), Dawson, London. p. 430-431.

JOGLEKAR, A. (1976): On a New Species of the

Genus Zebrias Jordan and Snyder, 1900 (Pisces:

Scleidae) from Kerala Coast (India). Zool. Anz.,

Jena 197.Y2, S.67-70.

NorMan, J. R. (1928): The Flat fishes (Hete-

rosomata) of India, with a list of the specimens

225

JOURNAL, BOMRAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

in the Indian Museum. Rec. Indian Mus. 30:

182-185.

OcuiaAl, A. (1963): Soleina. Fauna Japonica:

53-59.

RAMA Rao, K. V. (1967): A new Sole Zebrias

cochinensis from India. J. Zool. Soc. India. 19

(1 & 2): 99-100.

--———— (1967): Remarks on the band pattern

of the Sole Zebrias synapturoides (Jenkins). J. Bom-

bay nat. Hist. Soc. 64(1): 119-120.

TALWarR, P. K. & CHAKRAPANY, S. (1967): A new

flat fish of the genus Zebrias Jordan and Snyder

(Soleidae) from the Orissa Coast, India. Proc.

Zool. Soc., Calcutta. 20: 119-121.

20. ON THE RECORD OF THE BLACK RUBY BARB, PUNTIUS

NIGROFASCIATUS (GUNTHER) (PISCES: CYPRINIDAE) FROM

INDIA

(With a text-figure)

Yazdani (1977) reported the occurrence of

Puntius nigrofasciatus (Gunther) based on six

specimens of fish collected from a small rivu-

let in the forest area of Ponda (Goa), and

claimed it as a new record of this fish from

India. This fish had earlier been recorded only

from Sri Lanka.

In the course of extensive collections

throughout the Deccan region, we had not

come across any specimens of P. nigrofasciatus.

It was, therefore, a matter of surprise to us

to read about this new record. From Sanguem,

Goa (25 kilometres from Ponda as the crow

flies) the second author (S.R.S.) has been

collecting hundreds of specimens of another

barb, Puntius narayani Hora. This fish re-

sembles the Black Ruby barb in general color-

ation, having three vertical black bands on

its body, but lacking the characteristic black

coloration on the dorsal, anal and pelvic fins

(which is prominent in P. nigrofasciatus).

We, therefore, surmised that the specimens

identified by Yazdani as P. nigrofasciatus

might actually be P. narayani.

P. narayani was first described by Hora in

1937 from the Cauvery river in Coorg, and

it closely resembles P. nigrofasciatus not only

in its colour pattern, as stated earlier, but

526

also in having a complete lateral line and in

the absence of barbels. The fin-ray and other

counts for the two species are as follows:—

P. nigrofasciatus (as given by Day): D. 3/8;

Av 2/5; Pss53 V. 9y°G.95 Es Bae 2

Fig. 1.

Puntius narayani Hora (after Hora, 1937).

P. nigrofasciatus (as given by Munro): D. 3/

8; A. 3/5; «P. 1/12; Li, 20-225 ieee

(44+ 34).

P. narayani (as given by Hora): D. 3/9; A.

3/6; Pel4: V.. 93, Co 183 Dede p22

(44+ 43).

In the absence of an opportunity to exa-

mine the actual specimens determined by

Yazdani, our surmise that these specimens

might not be P. nigrofasciatus could not be

definitely ascertained. In August, 1979 we

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

could examine two of his specimens in detail,

while on loan from the Zoological Survey of

India to the Curator, Taraporevala Aquarium.

The label accompanying these two specimens

read:

Puntius nigrofasciatus (Gunther)

Locality: A small rivulet in the forest at

Ponda (Goa). Date: 13-12-73. Collector Dr.

B. S. Lamba. Det. by G.M.Y.

From these detalis it appeared quite cer-

tain that the fishes mentioned by Yazdani in

his note (cited above) as “‘collected from a

small rivulet in the forest at Ponda, Goa”

were the same that were loaned by the Zoo-

logical Survey of India for examination. Our

examination of these specimens confirmed

our earlier suspicion that the fishes claimed

by Yazdani to be nigrofasciatus were really

P. narayani.

E-31, Cusrow Baus,

SHAHID BHAGAT SINGH ROAD,

Bomsay-400 039.

““SACHETAN ”’,

L/4-5, SITARAM BUILDING,

PaLToN Roap, Bompay-400 001,

March 26, 1980.

P. nigrofasciatus is a popular fish in the

home aquarium hobby, and as such, speci-

mens are readily available (on sale in pet

shops) in large cities like Bombay, Pune,

Delhi, etc.

Yazdani (op. cit.) has attempted to give

an explanation for the occurrence of his so-

called P. nigrofasciatus in Goa, stating that

the fish first evolved in the Western Ghats

and subsequently migrated to Sri Lanka. Had

this been so, the fish would also be likely to

occur in Kerala or southern Tamilnadu. More-

over, Yazdani has not given any palaeontolo-

gical evidence to corroborate his hypothesis.

We are grateful to Shri J. N. Pande, Cura-

tor, Taraporevala Aquarium, Bombay, for

allowing us to examine the Ponda specimens

while on loan from the Zoological Survey of

India.

B. F. CHHAPGAR

S. R. SANE

REFERENCES

Yazpani, G. M. (1977): On a new record of

Black Ruby, Puntius nigrofasciatus (Gunther) from

India (Cypriniformes:

(21): 760.

Cyprinidae). Curr. Sci. 46

21. LOCAL NAMES OF POMFRETS FROM THE INDIAN COASTS

Pomfrets are highly esteemed as _tablefish

and are acclaimed as one of the tastiest fishes

of the world. Because of their commercial

importance they are eagerly sought after by

fishermen. In Indian waters, promfrets are re-

presented by three species, namely silver pom-

fret (Pampus argenteus Euphrasen), Chinese

or grey pomfret (Pampus chinensis Euphra-

sen) and black pomfret (Formio niger Bloch).

Diverse local names are applied to these fishes,

along the vast stretch of the Indian coast and

a knowledge of such names is of importance

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

to fishery scientists, administrative officers,

fish merchants and fishermen. Day (1878) in

his monumental work gave some local names

but they were in no way exhaustive. Kulkarni

(1953) and Mohapatra (1966) have listed the

local and scientific names of commercial

fishes of Bombay and Orissa respectively. A

list of local names of pomfrets collected by

me from different regions of the entire Indian

coast is given in the Table.

In certain localities fishermen apply diffe-

rent local names for the same species. The

situation is confusing where the same local

name is applied to two different species. This

is true of silver pomfret and the Chinese pom-

fret. However, the silver pomfret can be easily

recognised by its falcate median fins preceded

by stubby spines and deeply forked cau-

dal fin with a longer ventral lobe. In the

Chinese pomfret the median fins are not fal-

cate, the spines are altogether absent and the

caudal fin has almost equal lobes.

TABLE

LIST OF LOCAL NAMES OF POMFRETS FROM THE INDIAN COASTS

State Silver pomfret

Gujarat Vichuda, Pipad,

Chamana

Maharashtra Saranga,

Paplet

Karanataka Bilimanji

Kerala Velutha avoli

Tamil Nadu Vellai vavval

Andhra Tella chanduva

Orissa Chandee, Ghia

Chandi, Firki

West Bengal Chandi, Firki

Chinese pomfret Black pomfret

Vichuda Adadia

Chamana

Kalwad. Kafri Halwa

Saranga,

Chandva

Bilimanji Karimanji

Velutha avoli Karutha

avoli

Vellai vavval Karuppu

vavval

Tella chanduva Nala chanduva

Dhala Chandi Bahal, Kala chandi.

Chandi _bahal Mainsia_ bahal

Chandi_bahal Bahal

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY,

RAVENSHAW COLLEGE,

CuTTACK-753 003,

October 11, 1979.

S., PAT

REFERENCES

Day, F. (1878): Fishes of India. Vol. I. Text

XX 778 pp. and Vol. If, Atlas—198 pls.

KULKARNI, C. V. (1955): Local and_ scientific

names of commercial fishes of Bombay. J. Bom-

528

bay nat. Hist. Soc. 51(4): 917-925.

Monwapatra, P. (1966): Local names of common

sea fishes of Orissa. Orissa Fish. Res. Invest. Bull.

7: 1-11.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

22. SEXUAL DIMORPHISM IN LOHITA GRANDIS GRAY

(HETEROPTERA-PYRRHOCOREIDAE)

Distant (1902) gave details of distribution

of the bug Lohita grandis Gray in the Orien-

tal region. It was Lefroy (1909), who for the

first time, recorded this bug in Bengal and

Assam (India). He, further, stated that this

bug is sometimes a pest of cotton and bhindi.

During a survey of the Shiwalik Hills forest

(near Hardwar and Raiwala), this species was

observed in abundance sucking the sap of

fruits, seeds and leaves of some forest trees.

Interestingly sexual dimorphism was observ-

ed in this bug which is rare in other heterop-

teran insects. It is a large red and black spe-

cies. The length of the male varies from 3.9

cm to 5.4 cm while that of the female from

2.9 cm to 3.3 cm. Length of the abdomen of

male is 2.80 cm and that of female is 2.00 cm.

Total length of the antenna of male is 6.30

cm and that of female is 3.60 cm. Comparative

length of the antennal segments (scape, pedi-

cel, flagellum first and second) of male is

DEPT. OF ZOOLOGY,

M. S. COLLEGE,

SAHARANPUR, U.P.,

May 22, 1979.

2.60:2:00:1.30:0.40 and of female is 1.30:

1.10:0.80:0.40 (in cm). Rostrum of male is

1.80 cm long and of female is 1.65 cm. Com-

parative lengths of rostral segments in male

and female sexes are 0.50:0:60:0:50:0:20,

and 0.50:0:50:0:45:0.20 cm _ respectively.

Length of prothoracic, mesothoracic and meta-

thoracic legs in male is 3.10, 3.10 and 4.00 cm

while in female 2.50, 2.50 and 3.30 cm res-

pectively. During rest, the tip of the rostrum

of female reaches up to the third abdominal

sternum while in male it extends up to second

sternum. Length of fore wings and hind wings

of male is 2.40 and 1.90 cm, and that of

female is 2.10 and 1.70 cm respectively. In

female, wings extend up to the Sth abdominal

tergum while in male upto the 4th tergum.

The abdomen of male is abnormally elon-

gated. Length of exposed caudal end of the

abdomen of male is 1.20 cm and that of

female is 0.35 cm.

S. C. DHIMAN

V. C. CHATTERJEE

REFERENCES

DIsTaNT, W. L. (1902): Fauna of British India

Rhynchota Vol. If, pp. 95-96.

Lerroy, H. M. (1909): Indian Insect Life. pp.

691. Thacker Spink & Co. Ltd.

23. OCCURRENCE OF EPILACHNA OCELLATA REDT. ON BITTER

GOURD, MEMORDICA CHARANTIA L. WITH A NOTE ON ITS

DAMAGE AND BIOLOGY

The coccinellid beetle,, Epilachna ocellata

Redt. (Coccinellidae: Coleoptera) was re-

ported as a serious pest of potato, Solanum

tuberosum in higher hilly areas of Jammu and

Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh

and Bengal by Misra (1975). Jolly (1962)

gave a brief account of biology and bionomics

of this insect. So far no host plant other than

529

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

potato has been recorded. However, for the

first time the incidence of Epilachna ocellata

sect and the longevity of the male and female

are given in the Table.

TABLE

LIFE-CYCLE PERIOD, LONGEVITY AND PER CENT SURVIVAL OF DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES OF Epilachna ocellata

Date Number of Incubation Larval Pupal Life-cycle Longevity

of egg eggs under period period period period (in days)

laying observation (in days) (in days) (in days) (in days) ou Q

1Baxei7 20 3.33 + 0.68 21.42 -+ 5.80 3.30 + 0.67 28.05 21 31

(18) (14) (13)

20.ix.77 20 3.41 -+0.77 18.31-+4.61 4.56+1.04 26.28 27 34

(17) (16) (16)

eS, 20 4.70+1.65 23.53-6.15 3.35 +0.79 31.58 18 25

(17) (15) (14)

Figures in parentheses represent number of observations.

on bittergourd (‘Kerala’, Memordica charan-

tia) at Jabalpur (Madhya Pradesh) was ob-

served by us.

During September-October, 1977, severe in-

cidence of Epilachna ocellata was noticed on

bittergourd vines in the Kitchen gardens at

Krishi Nagar, J. N. Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya,

Jabalpur.

Both the adults and grubs feed on the

leaves, usually on the undersurface, and an

infested leaf may habour | to 8 grubs and

1 to 2 adults.

The duration of different stages of the in-

DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY,

J. N. Krisut ViSHWA VIDYALAYA,

JABALPUR, M.P.,

February 28, 1979.

It may be seen from the table that the in-

cubation, larval and total life cycle periods

of the beetle is longer during November but

slightly low during September. This might be

due to decrease in temperature and cooler

weather conditions.

ACK NOWLEDGEMENTS

We record our grateful thanks to the

Director, Commonwealth Institute of Entomo-

logy, London, for the identification of the

insect and to the authorities of J. N. Krishi

Vishwa Vidyalaya, Jabalpur, M.P. for provid-

ing facilities.

V. K. KOSHTA

S. V. DHAMDHERE

REFERENCES

Jotty, C. L. (1962): Biology and bionomics of

Epilachna ocellata Redt. Indian Potato J. 4 (1):

17.

530

Misra, S. S. (1975): Residual toxicity of six in-

secticides to the adults of Epilachna beetle. J./.P.A.

2(1): 23-24.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

24. DRAGONFLIES FEEDING ON HOUSEFLIES

Dragonflies are well known predators of

certain harmful insects such as mosquitoes

and termites (Corbet 1962, Tillyard 1967).

Instances of dragonfly predation on the com-

mon housefly, Musca domestica, has not been

recorded earlier and seems worthwhile io

report.

Two species of dragonflies, namely, Anax

immaculifrons Rambur and Orthetrum sabina

(Drury) have been observed predating upon

house-flies. O. sabina, was often captured

while still holding a live house-fiy between its

mandibles. Males of O. sabina were caught

on September 3, 1979 and July 28, 1980 just

ForesST ENTOMOLOGY BRANCH,

ForEST RESEARCH INSTITUTE & COLLEGES,

DenRA Dun 248001, U.-P.,

August 28, 1980.

after they had pounced on a house-fly. The

dragonfly heid the prey by its neck using the

forelegs to clasp and support from below. At

this time the body of the dragonfly is perpen-

dicular to the axis of the house-fly body. First,

the dragonfly devoured the head of its victim,

and then proceeded to eat the remaining body,

except the wings which it rejected. The time

taken by O. sabina in fully devouring a house-

fly does not exceed one minute.

Thanks are due to Dr. P. K. Sen-Sarma,

Forest Entomologist, Forest Entomology

Branch, Forest Research Institute and Col-

leges, Dehra Dun, India, for facilities.

BRIJ KISHORE TYAGI

REFERENCES

CorsET, P. S. (1962): A biology of dragonflies,

Witherby, London.

TILLYARD, R. J. (1967): The biology of dragon-

flies, Cambridge Univ. Press. London

25. MORE BUTTERFLIES FROM BOMBAY

In 1951 (JBNHS 50:331) A.E.G. Best pub-

lished a list of the butterflies of Bombay and

Salsette. Since then the list has been amend-

ed and added to by several authors (JBNHS

Doe2o2, 242219, 90°398, 97:233, 74:190, 76:

369). I now make five more additions to the

list.

Lethe europa Fabricius—The Bamboo Tree-

brown. The nearest published record I can

trace is from Matheran (Davidson, JBNHS

8:556). I took two specimens in the Borivli

National Park on 2nd February 1975.

Zizula hylax (Fabricius)—The Tiny Grass

Blue. Though this species is not included in the

lists of Bombay butterflies, E. H. Aitken and

E. Comber (A list of the Butterflies of the

Konkan, JBNHS 15: 47) mention that it oc-

curs in Bombay and Salsette. On 23rd Janu-

ary 1975 I took two specimens in the Borivli

National Park.

Lampides boeticus (Linnaeus)—The Peablue.

This butterfly was very abundant in the Boriv-

fi National Park on 9th February 1975. It was

seen on the roadside, in bushes, and on the

wet banks of the lakes. The Peablue is very

common throughout India and was probably

overlooked by Best.

Colotis eucharis (Fabricius)—The Plain Or-

aot

JOURNAL,

ange Tip. Though not included on the Bom-

bay list there are three specimens in the

Society’s collection, collected by N. B. Kin-

near in Bombay in 1972. I have a male speci-

men taken at Devnar (below Trombay Hill)

on 14th February 1973.

3, RESHMA APARTMENTS,

13 Pati HILL,

BANDRA,

BomBAY 400 050,

May 20, 1980.

BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

Arnetta vindhiana vindhiana (Moore)—The

Vindhyan Bob. I have a male specimen taken

on 9th February 1975 in the Borivli National

Park. The species has been recorded from

Matheran (see Aitken and Comber, loc. cit.,

p13):

SALMAN ABDULALI

26. STRANGE PRACTICE OF A CATERPILLAR

The incident recorded by A. S. Bhaduri

(1980, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 76 (2): 368)

under this heading is by no means unusual.

In fact it is the usual method adopted by all

Hesperiid larvae to prevent their habitation

being fouled by frass. They possess a special

organ, a comb-like flap, at the anus with which

P. O. Box 95617,

MomBaSa,

KENYA,

July 15, 1980.

they flip the pellet of frass well away from

their domicile. The action is purely automatic.

The butterfly with ‘white-spotted black

wings’ observed on the near-by wall was al-

most certainly the imago that had emerged

from the Curcuma-feeding caterpillar, pro-

bably Celaenorrhinus sp.

D. G. SEVASTOPULO

27. VICIA MONANTHA RETZ. AND SPOROBOLUS AIROIDES

(TORR.) TORR.—NEW TO INDIAN FLORA

During botanical exploration of Bikaner and

Churu districts (Western Rajasthan), two

interesting plants namely Vicia monantha

Retz. (Papilionaceae) and Sporobolus airoides

(Torr.) Torr. (Gramineae) were collected. A

perusal of relevant literature on the flora of

India and studies at Central National Her-

barium, Calcutta revealed that these are new

additions to the flora of India. Vicia monan-

532

tha Retz. (syn. V. griffithii Baker) had, how-

ever, been included in J. D. Hooker’s FLORA

OF BRITISH INDIA 2:178. 1876 on the basis of

specimens collected from Punjab and Balu-

chistan (Rawal Pindae and Futteyjung: Grif-

fith 1114, Clarke 105 CAL). Sporobolus air-

oides (Torr.) Torr., a native of North Ame-

rica, is said to be introduced into India during

present century as a fodder grass (Bor. N. L.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Grass. Burm. Cey. Ind. & Pak. 627. 1960).

No further reference is available for this taxon

in Indian floras and the herbarium specimens

representing it at Central National Herbarium,

Calcutta are also from Mexico and United

States of America. The natural population of

S. airoides (Torr.) Torr. were noted during

the present study at different places along

Rajasthan Canal in Bikaner district.

Since, these species have not been recorded

in Indian floras and are likely to be found

in other regions, detail description of each

taxon, based on Indian material, is given to-

gether with it complete synonymy, distribution,

ecology and phenology. The herbarium speci-

mens are deposited in the Herbarium of Bo-

tanical Survey of India, Jodhpur (BSJO) and

Central National Herbarium, Howrah (CAL).

Vicia monantha Retz. Obs. Bot. 3:39.

1783; Post & Dinsmore, FI. Syria Palest. &

Sinai 1 : 423-424. 1932; Burt & Lewis in Kew

Bull. 1949: 497-515. 1950; Tutin ef al. in FI.

Europea 2: 133. 1968; Plitmann in Davis, FI.

Turkey 3: 296. 1970; Zohary, Fl. Palaest. 2:

199. f. 284. 1972; Townsend & Guest, Fl. Iraq

3: 521. 1974. V. gracilis Banks & Sol. ex Russ.

Nat. Hist. Aleppo ed. 2. 2: 259. 1794. V. cine-

rea M. Bieb. Fl. Taur—Cauc. 3: 470. 1819.

V. calcarata Desf. var. cinerea (M. Bieb.)

Boiss. Fl. Orient. 2: 590. 1872. V. griffithii

Baker in Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 2: 178. 1876.

V. monantha Retz. var. cinerea (M. Bieb.)

Dinsm. Fl. Pal. ed. 2. 1: 424. 1932. V. monan-

thu Retz. subsp. cinerea (M. Bieb.) Maire in

Bull. Soc. Hist. Nat. Afr. Nord 31: 17. 1940

(Papilionaceae).

Annual climbing herbs, clothed with short,

appressed and _ spreading silky hairs. Stem

terete. Leaves alternate, 5-12 cm. long, pin-

nate; rachis ending into 2 to 3-fid tendrils;

leaflets 12-18, scattered and paired, linear-

oblong, 8-25 x 1-2 mm., obtuse, distinctly vein-

ed beneath; petiolules + 1 mm. long. Stipules:

deitoid, deeply palmately laciniate. Racemes

peduncled, not exceeding the leaves, laxly 2

to 4-flowered. Calyx-tube campanulate; upper

teeth deltoid, lower ones linear. Corolla lilac,

+ 1.3 cm. long. Style finely downy all round

the tip. Pods flat, oblong, 2-3.5x0.6-1 cm.,

glabrous, 5 to 7-seeded. Seeds oblong-subor-

bicular, smooth. (Roy 2492 B; March 18th,

1976).

Habitat: Semidesertic, common weed in wheat

and barley crops and fallow fields; Churu,

Sujangarh.

Fl. & Fr.: January-March.

Distribution: W. and S. Europe, Cyprus,

Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, Jordan, Egypt, Ara-

bia, Kuwait, Bahrain, Turkey, Caucasus, Iran,

Pakistan, Afghanistan, Central Asia (Turk-

menia to Pamir-Alai), Mocaronesia and N.

Africa (Morocco to Libya). The eastward

migration of this taxon towards India is of

phytogeographical interest.

Sporebolus airoides (Torr.) Torr. U.S. Rept.

Expl. Miss. Pacif. 7: 21. 1856; Hitchock,

Mannual Grass. United States 428-429. 1950;

Bor, Grass. Burm. Cey. Ind. & Pak. 627. 1960;

Gould & Box, Grass. Texas Coast. Bend 156.

1965; Gould, Grass. Texas 99. 1975. Agrostis

airoides Torr. in Ann. Lyc. New York 1: 151.

1824. Vilfa airoides (Torr.) Trin. ex Steud.

Nom. Bot. ed. 2. 2: 766. 1841. Sporobolus

diffusissimum Buckl. in Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci.

Phil. 1862: 90. 1862 (Gramineae).

Tufted perennials. Culms erect to spreading,

50-100 cm long. Leaf-sheaths pilose at the

throat; ligules membranous, ciliate; blades

flat, 12-40 x 2-4 mm., involute when dry. Pani-

cles spreading, 20-40 15-25 cm.; branchlets

naked at the base, with the spikelets aggre:

gated along the upper half to two-third. Spike-’

lets purplish-green, 2-2.5 mm. long, Glumes

unequal; first glume 0.4-1.8 mm. long, falling

533

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

towards maturity; second glume 1.2-2.8 mm.

jong. Lemma and palea as long as second

glume. Palea splitted to the base at maturity.

Anthers yellowish, 1.5-1.7 mm long. Caryop-

sis + 1x0.7 mm., opaque with a reddish or

blackish striated pericarp. (Roy 2154: Sept-

ember 24th, 1975).

Habitat: Semidesertic, common in sandy, gra-

velly, saline and alkaline soils. This shows its

great range of adaptability to different soil

BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

JODHPUR, RAJASTHAN,

November 13, 1979.

1 Present address:

Botanical

types; Bikaner, Lunkaransar.

Fl. & Fr.: August-November.

Distribution: United States of America and

Northern Mexico, as far south as San Luis

Potosi.

We are grateful to the Director, Botanical

Survey of India, Calcutta and Deputy Direc-

tor, Arid Zone Circle, Botanical Survey of

{ndia, Jodhpur for the facilities provided

during the course of the present study.

G, Pr ROX

V. SINGH

Survey of India,

Central Circle, Allahabad.

28. CROTALARIA LABURNIFOLIA L—A LITTLE KNOWN

SPECIES FROM MAHARASHTRA STATE

(With six text-figures)

Cooke (1901-08) included Crotalaria labur-

nifolia L. in his Flora of Presidency of Bom-

bay on the authority of Dalzell & Gibson

(1861) who in turn cited Nimmo (1839).

But Nimmo did not indicate the precise loca-

lity for the plant except Southern Konkan

(‘‘S. Concan” vide Grah. Cat. 45. 1839).

Cooke further stated that “It has not apparent-

ly been found by any other Bombay collector,

and there are no specimens from Bombay in

Herb. Kew. Woodrow did not include the

plant in his list published in Journ. Bombay

nat.” Gamble (1916-35) recorded the species

from N. Circars and Carnatic, especially near

the coast, Deccan in Mysore; W. coast at

Quilon, Travancore. From its general distri-

bution along Western Peninsula, Ceylon, Phi-

lippines and Malay isles, it is obvious that it

usually occurs along the sea shores and hence

534

it is worthwhile to note the occurrence of this

plant in Chandrapur district where it is locat-

ed in the moist sandy soils of Pranhita river

near Sironcha and thus confirms its specific

occurrence in a precise locality in Maharashtra

State.

In view of its rarity and the absence of

any known published illustration for the plant,

a line drawing is appended along with a brief

description of the ‘species.

Crotalaria laburnifolia L. Sp. Pl. 715, 1753;

Baker in Hook. f. Fl. Brit. India 2: 84. 1876.

An undershrub or a low. shrub. Leaflets

membranous, glabrous cuneate at the base.

Racemes lax, terminal and lateral. Pedicels

exceeding the calyx. Calyx glabrous, turbinate;

teeth as long as the tube. Corolla bright yel-

low, glabrous, keel very broad with a long

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Figs. 1-6. Crotalaria laburnifolia L.

1. A flowering & fruiting twig; 2. Standard petal; 3. Vexillum (wing petal); 4. Karina

(Keel petal); 5. Gynophore emerging out from the androecium sheath; 6. Persistent

calyx.

=i)

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

incurved beak. Pod cylindrical, glabrous, long

stalked, gynophore filiform much exceeding.

ACK NOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful to Dr. B. D. Sharma, De-

BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

WESTERN CircLe, PUNE 411001,

October 30, 1979.

puty Director, Western Circle, Botanical Sur-

vey India, Pune for encouragement and to the

Director, Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta

for providing the facilities.

S. K. MALHOTRA

SIRASALA MOORTHY

29. PENNISETUM PEDICELLATUM TRIN.—A NEW FODDER

GRASS ADDITION

(With a text-figure)

Pennisetum Rich. with over 130 species is

distributed throughout the Tropics of the both

old and new world and represents one of the

largest genera of the Tribe Paniceae. Pennise-

tum section pennisetum includes pearl millet

and millets, used for both grain and fodder

purposes.

While working on the ILCA.R. scheme

‘“Eco-taxonomic studies of Fodder grasses of

Kashmir with relation to productivity’, we

came across a few specimens of Pennisetum

POST-GRADUATE DEPT. OF BOTANY,

UNIVERSITY OF KASHMIR,

SRINAGAR 190 006,

KASHMIR,

October 10, 1979.

536

pedicellatum Trin.; hitherto unrecorded from

this area. The species has been illustrated for

reference. The voucher specimens have been

deposited in the Herbarium, Kashmir Univer-

sity and Botanical Survey of India.

Flowering and fruiting: August to November.

Specimens collected: Mansbal, on rocky slo-

pes, HT: 843, Chararishreef, on __ slopes,

HT: 849, Darwan (Mahadave), on_ slopes,

HT: 907, Gund. on steaps, HT: 1120.

H. THAKUR

G. N: JAVEID

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

wee

LEKRIOK xg

Oh Ke terre

Fig. 1. Pennisetum pedicellatum Trin.

H, Habit of plant: S. Spikelet: E. Bristle; B, Ligule; G,, Lower glume; G,, Upper

glume; UL, Upper Lemma; LL. Lower Lemma; P, Palea; F, Flower.

537

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

30. DAVALLIA FEJEENSIS HOOK.—A NEW ADDITIONAL

NATURALIZED ELEMENT TO THE INDIAN FLORA

During the course of a critical study of

Davallia Sm. specimens housed in the Central

National Herbarium, Botanical Survey of

India, Howrah (CAL), one of us (N.C.N.)

came across a specimen collected from She-

varoy Hills, Salem District, Tamil Nadu, by

J. Ghatak. This specimen did not agree with

other species of the genus so far reported from

this country. On further examination, this

turned out to be Davallia fejeensis Hook.

Later, one of us (N.C.N.) collected it from

the forest of Neyyar Dam area in Trivandrum

District, Kerala. Hooker based this species on

a specimen from Nukalau Island of the Fiji

group. The sori of this taxon are very char-

acteristic and probably the longest and nar-

rowest in the genus.

Several new records of East Asiatic and

Sri Lanka ferns have been recently reported

from Peninsular India. Asplenium grevillei

Wall. ex Hook. et Grev. (Nair & S. R. Ghosh

1978), Doodia dives Kuntze (Bhargavan

1973), Loxogramme grammitoides (Bak.) C.

Chr. (Bhargavan & Joseph 1979), Pteris hete-

romorpha Fee (Nair & R. K. Ghosh 1978)

and Pteris tremula R. Br. (Nair & S. R. Ghosh

1977) are some of those elements. The pre-

sent discovery of Davallia fejeensis Hook. is

another addition to the East Asiatic species

naturalized in this country. No accurate in-

formation is available as to when this taxon

was introduced in India. Beddome made ex-

tensive survey of ferns in Peninsular India

but did not record it either in his Handbook

(1883) or Supplement (1892). It may, there-

fore, be presumed that this must have been

introduced here after 1892. Blatter and Al-

meida (1922) reported it as being grown in

the Gardens of Bombay. This is probably the

538

first report on the introduction of the species

in India.

This taxon is often referred to as Davallia

fijiensis and credit the authorship to W. J.

Hooker (see Rosenburgh 1909, Bailey 1958).

Hooker did not use the epithet fijiensis. It was

Diels (in Die Naturlichen Pflanzenfamilien 1:

214. 1899) who used the spelling fijiensis

which is not in accordance with Article 73 of

the International Code of Botanical Nomen-

clature (Stafleu et al. 1978). Since Hooker has

deliberately used the spelling fejeensis, it

should be followed, although the specific epi-

thet is after Fiji.

As no full description of this taxon is

available in Indian literature, it is provided

here based on our observations.

Davallia fejeensis Hook. Sp. Fil. 1: 166. t.

55 D. 1846; Hook. et Bak. Syn. Fil. 97. 1867

(ed. 2) 1874. D. fiiiensis Diels Nat. Pflanzen-

fam. 1(4): 214. 1899; Rosenb. Handb. Fern

Mal. Isl. 507. 1909.

Rhizome creeping, woody, + 12 mm dia-

meter, densely scaly; scales dark brown, fibril-

lose, base almost truncate, adpressed, apex

long acuminate, margins ciliate. Stipes 15-

25 cm long, stramineous, glabrous, glossy,

strong, erect. Fronds coriaceous 30-40 cm long,

15-25 cm broad, deltoid, quadripinnatifid, pin-

nules of the lower pinnae deltoid-lanceolate,

pinnule segments finely dissected to linear

divisions. Sori semicylindrical, terminal on the

deltoid apices of the divisions, indusium

thrice as long as broad, semicylindrical.

Specimens examined: TAMIL NADU, Salem

Dt., Shevroy Hills, J. Ghatak E 716, 28-8-1964

(CAL); Salem; /J. Ghatak ‘sn. (GA):

KERALA, Trivandrum Dt., Forest near Neyyar

Wild Life Sanctuary, 150 m, N. C. Nair

51537, 3.9:19780ME).

J. Bombay NAT. Hist. Soc. 77

Bhargavan & Nair: Phlebodium aureum PLATE

BOTAN AL STRSEX Gb

NGA IH Serie, o£ pieherar

IRDA

BALMS

CSET. OWA Baa Fp PGE

ve PAR ODum Burm TS.

fees Folypodin cote

on pper Feagea SAQLX ay KOO re

tenes Epiphyde 0” tees Soena. Mr ccusss

Creeping ,scouly, stakes Aroure, stu

frnted to phage pereur, dros as photenes

oe poy lobeel wren cei hex

5k ORG, LR

CKWEER, Sate i Ge Gene a

Phlebodium aureum (Linn.) J. Sm.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

R. S. PurAM, COormImMBATORE-2,

September 24, 1979.

N. C. NAIR

P. BHARGAVAN

REFERENCES

BAILey, L. H. (1958): The Standard Encyclope-

dia of Horticulture I, New York. (repr. ed.).

BEDDOME, R. H. (1883): A Handbook to the

Ferns of British India, Ceylon and the Malay Penin-

sula. Thacker Spink & Co., Calcutta.

(1892): A handbook to the Ferns

of British India, Ceylon and Malay Peninsula with

Supplement. Thacker, Spink and Co., Calcutta.

BHARGAVAN, P. (1973): Studies on South Indian

Ferns—III, Notes on two rare and little known

taxa. Bull. bot. Surv. India 15 (3 & 4): 281.

& JoserH, J. (in Press): Loxo-

gramme grammitoides (Bak.) C. Chr.—A fern re-

cord for India. New Botanist.

BLATTER, E. AND D’ALMEIDA, J. F. (1922): The

Ferns of Bombay. Bombay

Nair, N. C. & GuosH, R. K. (1978): Pteris

heteromorpha Fee—A new Record for India. Indian

Forester 104: 374-376.

————— & Guosu, S. R. (1977): Pteris

tremula R. Br.—A new record for India. J. Bom-

bay nat. Hist. Soc. 73: 240-241.

-~ — & — (1978): The rare fern As-

plenium grevillei Wall. ex Hook. et Grev. (Asple-

naiaceae)—A new report for Peninsular India. Indian

Forester 104: 819-822.

STAFLEU, F. A. et al. (1978): International Code

of Botanical Nomenclature. Adopted by _ the

Twelfth International Botanical Congress. Lenin-

grad, July 1975. Bohn, Scheltema & Holkema. Ut-

recht.

VAN ROSENBURGH, C. R. W. K. VAN ALDER-

WERELT (1909): Malayan Ferns. Handbook to the

determination of the Ferns of the Malayan Islands.

Batavia.

31. PHLEBODIUM AUREUM (LINN.) J. SM. (POLYPODIACEAE)—

A NEW RECORD FOR INDIA

(With a plate)

While critically studying the specimens of

Polypodiaceae housed in the herbarium of

Southern Circle, Botanical Survey of India

(MH), our attenion was drawn to a specimen

collected by K. M. Sebastine (4840) from

Upper Tiger Shola, Nilgiri District, Tamil

Nadu. The specimen was kept under Pleopel-

tis nigrescens Bl. This specimen is not with

rhizome. Broadly lanceolate and deeply pin-

natifid lamina, thickened and notched margins

of the pinnae lobes, reticulate venation and

areoles without included veinlets are charac-

teristics of this specimen. Similar specimens

were again collected with rhizomes from the

same locality in Nilgiris, by one of us (P.

Bhargavan). As the collections present in MH

did not agree with the characters of any other

member of the Polypodiaceae reported from

India, a specimen was sent to the Central

National Herbarium, Sibpur, Howrah (CAL),

where it was identified as Phlebodium aureum

(Linn.) J. Sm. The identity was later con-

firmed by the herbarium of the Royal Botanic

Gardens, Kew.

Phlebodium aureum (Linn.) J. Sm. is an

elegant, large and epiphytic fern, native to

tropical America. It has become naturalised

in the humid zones of Upper Tiger Shola in

Nilgiris at an altitude of 2000 m. A plant

brought by one of us (P. Bhargavan) and in--

209

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

troduced in the garden of the Botanical Sur-

vey of India, Coimbatore, did not survive in-

spite of particular care. Probably this plant

can survive only in the humid zones at higher

altitudes unless controlled conditions are pro-

vided. A garden variety of the species is grown

in the Fernery of Ooty Botanic Garden.

As this species has not been reported so

far from India in a wild state and no des-

cription is available in the literature on Indian

ferns, a detailed description is included here.

Phlebodium aureum (Linn.) J. Sm. Lond.

Journ. Bot. 4: 59. 1841.

Polypodium aureum L. Sp. Pl. 2:

1753:

Epiphytes growing on tree trunks; rhizome

creeping bearing a short phyllopodium to

which the stipe is jointed; rhizome scales

abundant, peltate, calthrate, deep brown at the

place of attachment and light brown above,

+ 12 mm long, + 1-1.5 mm broad, lan-

ceolate with a long accuminate tip, scale mar-

gins with unicellular emergences; stipe as long

as the lamina or little shorter and wing-less,

1087.

30 cm, deeply pinnatifid; lateral lobes oppo-

site or subopposite, 10-15 x 1-2 cm, 4-12 pairs,

terminal lobe similar to lateral ones, apices

acute, margins entire, thickened with equidis-

tant notches; venation reticulate, areole with-

out included veinlet; sori superficial, round,

large, one on either side of the costa, median,

seated at the junction of the veins; spores mo-

nolete, plano-convex in lateral view and ob-

long to elliptic in polar view, densely tuber-

culate.

Specimens examined: TAMIL NADU, Nilgiri

District, Upper Tiger Shola, 2000 m, K. M.

Sebastine 4840, 8-12-1957 (MH), P. Bhar-

gavan 47489, 7-12-1976 (MH).

This plant may be mistaken for Polypodium

amomenum Wall. ex Mett. but can be easily

distinguished by the absence of paraphyses in

the sporangium and included veinlet in the

areoles.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are thankful to the Director, The Royal

Botanic Gardens, Kew, and to Mr. R. D.

grooved, dull brown, glossy: lamina broadly Dixit, Botanical Survey of India, Howrah

lanceolate, 40-60 10-30 cm, dull brown, for their help in the determination of the

glossy: lamina broadly lanceolate, 40-60 10- species.

BoTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, P. BHARGAVAN

SOUTHERN CIRCLE, N. C. NAIR

CotMBATORF-641 002,

July 24, 1979.

32. NOMENCLATURAL NOTES IN THE FAMILY LYCOPODIA-

CEAB SE.

Holub (Preslia 47: 103, 1975) proposed

the generic name Lycopodiastrum and gave

diagnostic characters in English. The fatin

description is provided here to validate its

publication and a new combination has been

540

BEAUYV. EX MIRB.

made for typification of the genus.

Lycopodiastrum Holub ex Dixit, gen. nov.

Planta divisa in parte sterile et in parte fer-

tile cum fasciculis strobiloideorum. Caulis

orincipalis gracilis, filo metallico similis, rigi-

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

dus, usquae and 20 m longis. Folia matura

monomorpha, squamis similia, plus minusive

spiratum disposita. Sporae scarbatae.

Genus monotypicus.

Type species: Lycopodiastrum casuarinoi-

des (Spring) Holub ex Dixit, comb. nov.

Lycopodium casuarinoides Spring, Mem. Acad.

Sci Bele: 15(1): 92:1843.

A few more new combinations in the genera

Huperzia Bernh. and Phlegmariurus (Herter)

Halub have been established :—

Huperzia cryptomerina (Maxim) Dixit,

comb. nov.—Lycopodium — cryptomerinum

Maxim, Bull. Acad. Sci. St. Petersb. 15:231.

1870.

Huperzia niligarica (Spring) Dixit, comb.

nov.—Lycopodium niligaricum Spring, Bull.

Acad. Sci. Belg. 15(1): 58.1843.

Huperzia petiolata (Clarke) Dixit, comb.

nov.—Lycopodium hamiltonii var. petiolata

Clarke, Trans. Linn. Soc. Lond. II Bot. 1:

590.1880.

Phlegmariurus phyllanthum (Hook. & Arn.)

BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

ALLAHABAD, U.P.,

July 22, 1980.

Dixit, comb. nov.—Lycopodium phyllanthum

Hook. & Arn. Bot. Beech Voy. 102. 1841;

Spring, Mem. Acad. Sci. Belg. 15(1): 73.

1843.

Love, Love and Pichi-Sermolli (Cytotaxo-

nomical Atlas of the Pteridophyta p. 25. 1977)

accepted the above name but did not provide

bibliographical details and therefore, not vali-

dly published. However, Holub (personal

communication, Feb. 1980) also did not vali-

date its publication.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

My grateful thanks thanks are due to Dr.

5S. K. Jain, Director, Botanical Survey of

India, Howrah for the encouragement and to

Dr. J. Holub, Botanical Institute, Praha,

Czechoslovakia for providing the current in-

formation regarding nomenclature of his pro-

posed genus and species. I am also thankful

to Dr N. C. Majumdar, Botanical Survey of

India, Howrah for Latin translation.

R. D. DIXIT

54]

ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY

SOCIETY FOR THE YEAR 1978-79

EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE

President

Dr. SdAlim Ali, D.Sc., F.N.A.

Vice-Presidents

Mr. R. E. Hawkins

Mr. G. V. Bedekar, I.C.S. (Retd.)

Mr. D. J. Panday

Member

Government of India.

Ex-Officio

Secretary, Dept. of Science & Technology, |

Elected Members

Mr Humayun Abdulali

Dr. S. R. Amladi, M.D.

Prof. P. V. Bole

Mr. Divyabhanusinh Chawda

Dr. B. Dasgupta

Mr. H. K. Divekar

Dr. C. V. Kulkarni, M.Sc., Ph.D.

(Hon. Treasurer)

Mr. Nazir Latif

Mr. Bansi Mehta

Dr. A. N. D. Nanavati (Hon. Secretary)

Mr. M. S. Srinivasan

Mrs. Dilnavaz Variava

ADVISORY COMMITTEE

Mr. H. G. Acharya Ahmedabad

Mr. F. C. Badhwar, O.B.E. New Delhi

Dr. B. Biswas Calcutta

Mr. S. Chaudhuri New Delhi

Dr. Chintaman Deshmukh, I.C.S. (Retd.)

Hyderabad

Mr. Zafar Futehally Bangalore

Mr. N. D. Jayal New Delhi

Mr. Shivarajkumar Khachar Jasdan

Mr. M. Krishnan Madras

Mr. Duleep Matthai New Delhi

A.G.M. 1978-79—PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS

HONORARY SECRETARY’S REPORT FOR THE YEAR 1978

This report covers the activities of the Society in the 95th year of its existence

MEMBERSHIP

During the year 210 new members were

enrolled. The total number of ordinary mem-

bers who have paid their subscription for the

year, has now crossed 800 and this trend we

hope will continue. Your Committee is also

making special efforts to increase member-

ship, particularly Compound Corporate mem-

bership valid for 25 years, so that the Society

can have a safe financial base. The objective

is to have a Compound Corporate member-

ship capital of a million rupees. This can be

achieved if 1000 members of this category can

be enrolled.

We have yet to receive subscription from

101 members and we have received resigna-

tions from 9 members. The number of mem-

bers in each Class of membership as on 1st

January is given below:

PUBLICATIONS

Journal

Three issues were published during the

year, two of them (Vol. 74 No. 2 and Vol. 74

No. 3) being issues of the Journal for the

previous year, and only one issue (Vol. 75

No. 1) relates to the current year.

The Journal unfortunately continues to be

delayed in its publication. The articles con-

tinue to cover a wide range of subjects with

emphasis on the ecology, behaviour and taxo-

nomy of Indian fauna and the taxonomy and

regional lists of Indian flora.

Diamond Jubilee issue of the Journal:

The journal for December 1978, now in

press, is being published as a special issue as

it completes 75 volumes of the Journal.

For a Natural History Journal published

by a private society with hardly any financial

Ordinary members

5 corporate members

Life members

Compound Corporate members

Student members

Honorary members

Forest Dept. Nominees

Members elected in 1978, but not paid

Members paid in 1977, but not paid for 1978

1975 1976 1977 1978 1979

578 531 512 541 640

185 188 190 180 134

231 246 246 257 274

1 1 1 2 9

20 10 20 39 96

4 4 4 4 4

90 36 oes sat =

1207

101

543

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol: 77

support other than its own resources, this is

indeed a commendable achievement.

Hornbill:

The Hornbill continues to serve the purpose

of creating interest in natural history and in

the activities of the Society. Four issues of

the Hornbill were published during the year.

It is hoped to make the Hornbill self support-

ing and we seek the assistance of members

for advertisements for publication in the

Hornbill.

Books:

study by the author in the Gir forest, Gujarat.

it is designed as a handy field guide for the

identification of Grasses of Western India. All

the species described are illustrated.

The work on this new publication was con-

tinued during the year.

A SYNOPSIS OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA

& PAKISTAN.

By Dillon Ripley (2nd edition):

The second revised edition of this definitive

work on bird taxonomy of the Indian region

During the year the following sales were made:

Balance stock

Book of Indian Birds

Book of Indian Animals

India’s Wildlife in 1959-70

Some Beautiful Indian Trees

Glimpses of Nature in India Booklet

Checklist of the Birds of Maharashtra

Books under preparation:

BOOK OF INDIAN ANIMALS.

(4th edition):

Prater’s book on mammals continues to be

the standard reference on Indian Mammais.

It is now a recognized text for students taking

wildlife courses at Universities in India. The

text of the 4th edition, now in press, has been

updated to include data published since the

last edition of the book.

GRASSES OF WESTERN INDIA.

By T. Hodd (lst edition):

The book is the result of a two-year field

544

Sales in

1977 1978 31-12-1978

2894 3410 1696

479 29 32

319 154 4

235 133 2632

267 217 2289

58 110 356

covers the changes in thinking on the taxo-

nomy of Indian birds since the first edition

appeared in 1961. The book will be a required

reference for any study on Indian birds.

The revised 2nd edition now in Press is

expected to be ready by early 1980.

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS

AND SHRUBS.

By Bor & Raizada (2nd edition):

The text of this book originally appeared

as a series of papers in the Society’s Journal

between the years 1939 and 1948. The book

deals with the wild and cultivated shrubs and

climbers occurring in India and would be a

excellent ready reference for members and

others interested in the country’s flora.

A.G.M. 1978-79—PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS

The second edition, now in the press, 1s

expected to be ready in 1981.

Encyclopaedia:

As we had indicated in last year’s report,

the Society, with the assistance of the Depart-

ment of Science & Technology, Govt. of

India, is preparing for publication in the Cen-

tenary year of the Society an ‘Encyclopaedia

on Indian Natural History’. Steady progress

is being maintained in the collection of mate-

rial and several section editors are in the pro-

cess of preparing the text for the Encyclo-

paedia.

CONSERVATION

The Society continued to take an active

part in the Conservation Movement in the

country through its association with State and

Central Wildlife Boards, and through its mem-

bers and staff serving on the International

Union for Conservation of Nature and Natu-

ral Resources, the World Wildlife Fund, and

the International Council for Bird Preserva-

tion.

Particular conservation projects in which

the Society was specially interested or in

which the Society’s services were specially re-

quested were:

Survey of Flamingo breeding colony:

Dr. Salim Ali assisted by Mr. Lavkumar

Khacher, a former Executive Committee

Member, and Mr. M. A. Rashid, Addl. Chief

Conservator of Forests (Wildlife), Govern-

ment of Gujarat, made an aerial survey of

the flamingo colony. The main objective was

to delineate the area of the proposed sanctu-

ary for breeding flamingos. The survey also

reported the occurrence of a large colony of

lesser flamingos. The Indian Airforce provid-

ed an helicopter for the survey.

Harike Lake in the Punjab:

At the invitation of the Wildlife Depart-

ment of the Punjab Govt. the Curator, assist-

ed by Mr. Shahid Ali, surveyed the Harike

Lake area in Punjab to examine its potential

as a wildlife refuge. A report has been sub-

mitted to the Govt. suggesting that the area

could be named as a Wildlife Refuge as it

offers excellent possibilities to study the con-

version of a man made impoundment into a

nature reserve. Financial assistance was re-

ceived from World Wildlife Fund-India for

the travel and the expenses in the study area

were met by the Punjab Govt.

Crocodile Specialist Group meeting:

A meeting of the Crocodile Specialist Group

of the Survival Service Commission of the

L.U.C.N. was held at the Crocodile Bank in

Madras in February. Crocodile Specialists

from different parts of the World participated

and India was represented by Society’s Cura-

tor and Mr. Romulus Whitaker a member of

the Society and Director of the Madras Snake

Park. The group noted with satisfaction the

progress that has been made in conservation

of Indian crocodilians by governmental and

non-governmental organisations. Part of the

expenses incurred for the meeting were met

by the Pirojsha Godrej Fund of the Society.

Asian Elephant Specialist Group:

The Survival Service Commission’s Asian

Elephant Group, which had the Society’s Cu-

rator as a Co-Chairman conducted several

status surveys and meetings of the group mem-

bers in India to assess the data obtained from

the Surveys. The studies are being funded by

the World Wildlife Fund.

MEMBERS’ ACTIVITIES

It has been possible to interest and encour-

545

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

age members in Bombay and elsewhere in

field activities.

Bird count:

The monthly roadside count of birds which

is held at the Borivli National Park on the

Jast Sunday of each month continues to serve

its purpose of training members in systematic

bird-watching and the collection of data on

the fluctuation in the bird fauna over a period

of time. The bird count also helps members

in interesting others in nature outings.

Nature walk:

This programme also assists in recruiting

more members for the Society and in foster-

ing interest in natural history among mem-

bers and others.

Nature walks were organised in Borivli

National Park and elsewhere for bird-watch-

ing, vegetation studies and general natural

history. A large number of members partici-

pated.

Nature camp:

A camp was organised in July-August at

the Valley of Flowers in Garhwal. 50 mem-

bers participated in three groups led by Mr.

Sumant Shah, Mr. S. A. Hussain and Mr. P.

B. Shekar.

This programme has enabled the Society

to take members on guided tours to areas of

natural history interest. Similar programmes

are scheduled for coming years.

RESEARCH AND OTHER ACTIVITIES FUNDED

FROM FIELD WORK FUNDS

SALIM ALI/LOKE ORNITHOLOGICAL RESEARCH

FUND:

supported the

students with

year the fund

of two research

During the

field studies

546

fellowship and assistance for contingencies.

Miss Priya Davidar investigated the ‘Ecology

of specialised nectar feeding birds and bird

flowers in the Nilgiris’. Mr. S. A. Yahya,

‘The Ecology of Barbets’.

SALIM ALI CONSERVATION FUND:

Arunachal Pradesh survey: Partial assist-

ance was extended from the fund for the sur-

vey of the fauna of Arunachal Pradesh by

Drs. Salim Ali and S. Dillon Ripley. A part

of the collections, including birds, insects, and

reptiles have been received at the Society and

are now under study.

Wild Buffalo survey: Assistance was given

to Mr. H. K. Divekar to investigate status of

the Buffalo in peninsular India. This project

is a follow up of the survey of the buffalo

areas in peninsular India undertaken by the

Society in 1965 with financial assitance from

Govt. of Madhya Pradesh and which result-

ed in the formation of a wild buffalo sanc-

tuary in Bastar. The present survey reports

that the buffalo has now become more end-

angered.

PYROJSHA GODREJ FUND:

In addition to the support for the Croco-

dile Specialist group meeting the fund finan-

ed:

Nature Camp for under-privileged children:

Children from Municipal schools in Bom-

bay who are normally not in a position to

go out on natural history field trips were taken

to the Borivli National Park for a nature

camp. The programme was organised under

the Nature Education Scheme of the Society.

Hingolgadh Nature camp of the World

Wildlife Fund:

Mr. R. J. Pimento, Technical Assistant at

A.G.M. 1978-79—PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS

the Society, assisted at the Hingolgadh camp

in the training of the camp members in the

methods of bird banding and the use of mist

nets.

Nature orientation camp:

Selected teachers from schools from Bom-

bay were given a Orientation course on the

methods of field study of natural history sub-

jects. The camp was held at Borivli National

Park.

Wild Dog study:

Assistant was given to Mr. John Singh to

finalise his field investigation of the ecology

of the wild dog at Bandipur. This study is

mainly funded by the World Wildlife Fund.

Insects of valley of Flowers:

Advantage was taken of the nature camp

of the Society in the Valley of Flowers, to

depute the Society’s entomologist Mr. N. C.

Chaturvedi who made field observations and

also collected insects concerned with flower

pollination. A report is under preparation.

CHARLES MCCANN VERTEBRATE ZOOLOGICAL

FUND:

Dr. J. H. Sabnis of the Marathwada Uni-

versity was offered assistance for studying

‘Feeding habits of the common Indian Hare’.

His final report is awaited.

RESEARCH FUNDED BY GOVERNMENT AND

GOVERNMENTAL AGENCIES:

DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY,

GOVT. OF INDIA

Computer analysis grant: The computer

analysis of the data collected during the bird

banding programme of the Society between

the years 1967 and 1971 is now in progress.

The data is being put on computer in the

TIFR, Bombay and assistance in the organi-

sation of the project is being received from

the scientists at the TIFR. The work com-

pleted so far includes; the preparation of ;e-

vised codes for 17 categories of information

on each bird banded; the checking and sort-

ing out of the entire ringing data; and data

on over 100,000 words being fed into the

computer.

INDIAN COUNCIL OF AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH:

‘Determination of ecological disturbances in

agricultural and adjoining lands caused by re-

moval of Rana tigrina and Rana hexadactyla

for export—A study by Mr. H. Abdulali.

The study was continued, and in this, the

second year of the project, data on frog abun-

dance and monthwise data on _ population,

feeding, breeding, growth and other ecological

factors were collected.

DONATIONS

For Pirojsha Godrej Fund from

the Pirojsha Godrej

Foundation Rs. 10,000.00

For Salim Ali Nature

Conservation Fund

Mr. E. W. Mudge Rs.

For Charles McCann Field-

work Fund

Mr. S. Choudhuri Rs.

Mr. Roger C. Whitman Rs.

684.51

600.00

88.00

Other donations:

For Preparation of blocks for

Book of Indian Birds

11th edition

Dr. Salim Ali Rs. 3,000.00

For Zoological Records

General

Dr. Salim Ali Rs. 2,600.00

547

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

Mr. G. V. Bedekar Rs. 1,000.00

Members of the Audubon

Society, USA Rs. 1,920.00

Cactus Society Rs 5325768

Other small donations Rs. 385.00

REFERENCE COLLECTION

During the year 356 specimens were received

at the society

Mammals 8

Birds 59

Reptiles 37

Amphibians 80

Insects 172

Total 356

Important additions are:

Catreas wallichii (chick) Donor S. R. Sané.

NATURE EDUCATION SCHEME

A circular regarding field trips and other

activities was sent to 456 schools in Bombay

at the beginning of the Academic year (This

includes some schools from Thane also). 29

field trips to Borivli National Park were con-

ducted during the year. This involved 1032

students. In addition a Teacher’s training col-

lege was taken (80 teachers) for a day’s field

study; the blind school which had taken ad-

vantage of our field programme during the

previous year arranged a day’s field-trip this

year also. A nature orientation course was

arranged in November 1978 for 14 Biology

Teachers.

During the year 23 visits to the Museum

involving 1054 students, 12 visits to the Aqu-

arium (339 students) and 8 visits to the Zoo

(231 students) were arranged. 35 schools were

visited personally. Students and teachers were

encouraged in activities of natural history in-

548

terest. Guidance was given to 12 schools on

different topics of Natural History. 6 schools

paid a donation to BNHS of Rs. 25/- each).

2 Radio talks on Nature Education were given

during the academic year.

The scheme continues to be popular with

schools in Bombay and Thane Districts and

it has been possible to create an interest in

nature among many of the students partici-

pating in field programmes.

MEETINGS

January, 7: Talk: ‘Introduction to Bird-

watching’ by Dr. Robert B. Grubh.

January, 13: Slide show: ‘India’s magnifi-

cent Wildlife’ by Mr. E. Hanumantha Rao.

February, 15: Slide show: ‘The — success

story of Dalma Hill’ by Mr. Ashok Kumar.

February, 17: Talk: ‘Wildlife in Papua

New Guinea’ by Mr. John Lever.

July, 14: Talk: ‘A botanist visits the Valley

of Flowers’ by Prof. P. V. Bole.

August, 30: Lecture: ‘The Role of Vultures

in the Ecology of East Africa’ by Dr. David

Houston.

August, 31: Lecture: ‘Wildlife conservation

in East Africa’ by Dr. David Houston.

September, 20: Slide show: ‘Valley of

Flowers—an experience’ by Mr. S. A. Hus-

sain.

October, 12: Film show: ‘Tiger Tiger Burn-

ing Bright’.

November,

Wilderness’.

November, 29: Lecture: ‘Ladakh—in search

of the Black-necked Crane’ by Mr. Prakash

Gole.

December, 21: Film show: 1. ‘Birds and

animals of Japan’; 2. The Japanese Macaque;

3. ‘Khairi’.

24: Film show: ‘Lokhande

A.G.M. 1978-79—PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS

REVENUE & ACCOUNTS

The financial situation of the Society con-

tinued to be unsatisfactory. The year’s opera-

tion showed a small surplus of Rs. 15,507.17

which has been adjusted against losses of

Rs. 54,806.81 incurred in our operation over

the years and carried on our books as deficit.

ACK NOWLEDGEMENTS

The Committee wishes to record its appre-

ciation of the willing co-operation of the staff

in the activities of the Society, and the special

services rendered by some of the members.

549

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

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561

MINUTES OF THE ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING HELD ON 7TH

DECEMBER 1979 AT 6-30 p.m. AT HORNBILL HOUSE, BOMBAY

The following were present:

Mr. Humayun Abdulali

Mr. K. D. Gokhale

Dr. P. J. Deoras

Mr. G. V. Bedekar

Mr. D. J. Panday

. Bansi Mehta

S. R. Amladi

Dr. C. V. Kulkarni

Dr. A. N. D. Nanavati

Mr. Vibhakar K. Paralkar

—

GTO AONDUABRWN eS

11. Br. A. Navarro

12. Mr. N. D. Sethna

13. Mr. Shahid Ali

14. Mr. M. S. Srinivasan

15. Mr. Sydney D’Souza

16. Miss E. Battrick

17. Mr. K. S. Dharmakumarsinhji

18. Miss M. M. Haribal

19. Mr. J. P. Irani

20. Mrs. D. S. Variava

21. Miss Shama Futehally

22. Prof. P. V. Bole

23. Dr. Salim Ali

24+. Mr. R. E. Hawkins

25. Mr. D. P. Bannerji

26. Mr. N. C. Chhaya

27. Mr. Bipin Chandriyani

28. Mr. Ulhas Rane

29. Mr. Chandrakant Wakankar

302 Mr: S. P.Godrej

31. Mr. J. H. Thakkar

The President (Dr. Salim Ali) requested

Mr. G. V. Bedekar, Vice President, to take

the chair.

Agenda Item (1)—Report for 1978 (which

is the 95th year of the Society’s existence).

ihe Chairman asked the Honorary Secre-

tary (Dr. A. N. D. Nanavati) to present the

report* of the Committee for the year 1978.

The Honorary Secretary stated that copies

of the report being available to members, he

would only draw attenion to the salient points

of the report. He did this and also gave some

account of the important activities of the

Society during the year 1979 to date, including

the two PL-480 research projects. The Chair-

man invited comments on the report, and the

account.

Dr. P. J. Deoras asked for information

about the nature camps. This was furnished

by the Honorary Secretary who added that in

order to give them field experience, staff for

maintenance of the Society’s collections was

occasionally deputed to camps, without detri-

ment to the work of maintenance. To the

query of Dr. Deoras regarding the Wild Baf-

falo survey, the Honorary Secretary replied

that Mr. Divekar’s report on the survey was

available in the Society’s office for perusal of

members.

Dr. Deoras and Mr. Humayun Abdulali

commented on the slow progress and certain

features of the Computer analysis of bird

banding data. The Honorary Secretary and

the Curator (Mr. J. C. Daniel) explained the

mode of the analysis of the vast data, on the

Tata Computer which was available for this

work on “shared” time, during limited hours

and which led to slow progress. It was ex-

plained that a statement of the objectives of

the analysis has been prepared and would

shortly be made available to members of the

Executive Committee of the Society. The vast

* See p. 543.

MINUTES OF THE A.G.M. OF THE B.N.HS.

data has to be analysed with reference to a

large number of variables (e.g. species, sex,

size and age of the bird and year, date, time

and place of banding and of recovery).

Dr. Deoras referred to the frog study under

the Indian Council of Agricultural Research

and asked for information about the results.

At the request of the Chairman, Mr. Huma-

yun Abdulali, the Principal Investigator of

the research project gave details of the data

collected and their significance and outlined

the conclusions reached in his report to the

LC.A.R. which is taking further action in the

matter.

The Honorary Secretary stated that the two

projects proposed for finance from PL-480

funds are:

1. Studies on the movement and population

structure of the Indian avifauna; and

2. Avian biology research station at Keola-

deo Ghana (Bharatpur).

The Honorary Secretary explained, in reply

to Mr. Humayun Abdulali, that members of

the Society interested in these and other re-

search projects may study them and that offers

of cooperation or participation by members

would be welcome.

The Curator informed the meeting that the

report on Harike Lake project, submitted to

the Punjab government was available for per-

usal in the Society’s office. Similarly the plan

prepared regarding the project for study of

bird hazards at aerodromes was available for

perusal.

The committee’s report for 1978 was ap-

proved.

Agenda Item (2)—Balance Sheet and State-

ment of Accounts for 1978.

The Honorary Treasurer (Dr. C. V. Kul-

karni) presented these* and drew attention

* See p. 550.

to the fact that though the income and expen-

diture statement for calendar year 1978 show-

ed a small surplus of about Rs. 15,000/-, the

balance sheet showed accumulated losses

amounting to over Rs. 39,000/- at the end

of 1978. He requested members to assist in

improving the financial position of the So-

ciety, by securing donations, and enrolment

of new members, particularly Corporate life

members. The Chairman then invited com-

ments on the accounts.

Mr. Humayun Abdulali repeated his sug-

guestion that the Maharashtra government

grant (of Rs. 75,000/- for 78-79) which is

shown as a single amount for ‘Establishment

and Building Maintenance” should be split up

under the two heads of establishment and of

building maintenance. The Honorary Treasur-

er stated that the suggestion has been exa-

mined carefully but could not be accepted be-

cause all these years the aggregate grant as

received from the government has been shown

in our accounts and it would not be feasible

for us to break up the grant and show it

separately under two heads in an arbitrary

way.

Dr. Deoras enquired about the items of

expenditure to cover Rs. 31,000/- and odd

spent under “18 IUCN Elephant Survey

Grant”. The Curator explained that only

actual travelling expenses are met from the

grant and no salaries etc. are disbursed, as the

investigators do honorary work; the Society

however collects usual administration charges

in respect of such grants and funds adminis-

tered by it.

The accounts were approved.

Agenda Item (3)—Appointment of Audi-

tors.

Dr. C. V. Kulkarni proposed and Mr. D.

J. Panday seconded that Messrs Habib & Co.

be appointed our auditors for the year 1979

563

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL GUIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77

on the same remuneration viz. one thousand

rupees. The proposal was approved.

The Chairman referred to the delay in hold-

ing annual general meetings—which take place

long after the close of our year in December.

Our accounts are ready for audit by April

but at that time the auditors are busy with

priority work of clients relating to the closing

and new financial and tax years. We propose

to persuade the auditors to take up our audit

work by July each year, so that the annual

general meeting could be held by September,

if not August, as it used to be held some years

ago.

Agenda Item (4)—-Election of the Execu-

tive Committee for two years 1979 and 80.

The Chairman stated that as three nomi-

nation papers for the Executive Committee

have been received in addition to the twelve

persons recommended, an election will be

necessary, under the rules. The names recom-

mended by the outgoing committee are (apart

from Secretary, Govt. of India, Dept. of

Science & Technology)—

1. Mr. Humayun Abdulali

2. Dr. S. R. Amladi

2. (Prof: %P? Vee Bole

4. Mr. Divyabhanusinh Chawda

5. Dr. B. Dasgupta

6. Mr. H. K. Divekar

7. Mr. David Fernandes

8. Dr. C. V. Kulkarni

9. Mr. Bansi Mehta

10. Dr. A. N. D. Nanavati

11. Mr. M. S. Srinivasan

12. Mrs. Dilnavaz Variava

The three nominations received are:

1; 2DriPh 1. -Deoras;

Proposed by Dr. A. K. Joshee

564

Seconded by Dr. (Mrs.) A. S. Mehta

2. Mr. G. S. Ranganathan

Proposed by Mrs. P. H. Mukherjee

Proposed by Mr. Vincent James

3. Mrs. Phillippa H. Mukherjee

Proposed by Dr. A. S. Kothari

Seconded by Dr. H. V. Shenoy

The new advisory committee will be chosen

by the newly constituted Executive Commit-

tee.

It was explained, in reply to a query that

the advisory committee does not hold meet-

ings but its members are furnished with

papers such as agenda, minutes, notes etc. of

Executive Committee meetings and are con-

sulted on important matters.

The ex-officio members (President and vice-

Presidents) will continue in office for another

year.

Agenda Item (5)—There being no other

business, the Honorary Treasurer, at the re-

quest of the Chairman invited the attention

of members to the financial position of the

Society and the need to augment the revenues

by all possible means, particularly donations

and enrolment of new members. Enrolment

of a large number of Corporate Life mem-

bers would give a good financial base for the

Society’s activities. A thousand corporate life

members would enable the Society to have a

capital of ten lakh rupees, interest on which

could be utilised for improved emoluments to

the staff and vigorous prosecution of research,

in several aspects of natural history and con-

servation. The cooperation of all present was

sought in this matter, in view of inflation,

rising costs and limited grants. Enrolment of

members as Vice Patrons on payment of

Rs. 5,000/- was also commended.

The meeting terminated with a vote of

MINUTES OF THE _.A.G.M. OF THE B.N.H.S.

thanks to the Chair. the following were elected to the Executive

In the postal ballot held on January 1980 Committee:

EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE

Mr. David Fernandes

Dr. C. V. Kulkarni

Mr. Bansi Mehta

Dr. A. N. D. Nanavati

Mr. M. S. Srinivasan

Mrs. Dilnavaz Variava

Mr. Humayun Abdulali

Dr. S. R. Amladi

Prof. P. V. Bole

Mr. Divyabhanusinh Chawda

Dr. B. Dasgupta

Mr. H. K. Divekar

565

ERRATUM

Vol. 76(1)—Behaviour of Hoolock Gibbon (Hylobates hoolock) during different seasons in

Assam, India

On page 9, Table 3,

The corrected Table 3 is as under:

TABLE 3

HOOLOCK GIBBON TERRITORY SIZES COMPARED WITH OTHER GIBBON SPECIES

Territory Size

(ha)

Species Location Mean Range N Source

H. hoolock North Assam 22 18-30 1 Tilson, this study

H. lar North Thailand 26 12-41 3 Carpenter, 1940

H. lar East Malaya 39 20-47 4 Ellefson, 1974

H. syndactylus Central Malaya 25 15-35 2 Chivers, 1974

H. klossii Mentawai Islands

Indonesia i 5-8 13 Tenaza, 1975

H. klossii Mentawai Islands

Indonesia 11 9-13 15 Tilson, in prep.

Ta Se ee ee ee ee a ee. eae eke he

ee Re Te pt ed ee eR

. os Our ig Mate PLANTS (with 8- coloured plates) in Hindi _

a on re ae

"THE SOCIETY'S PUBLICATIONS

Mammals

‘The Book of Indian Animals, by S. H. Prater, 4th edition eget, 28 ae ins

colour by. Lae Barruel and Hees other monochrome illustrations. Rs. eae

(Price to members Rs. 55) ~

‘The Ecology of the Lesser Bandicoot Rat in beac by James Juan eo oe

Birds

Tie Book of Indian Birds, by Sélim Ali is (revibed) edition, 14 coloured and

‘many monochrome plates __ Rs. 60.00

(Price to Sih Bs. 55)

Checklist of the Birds of Maharashtra, by Humayun Abdulali Rs. 2.50

(Price to members Rs. 2)

Checklist of the Birds of Delhi, Agra and Bharatpur, by Bower: Abdulali &

Poa D. Panday. Rs. 3.00.

~ Snakes”

; Identification of Poisonous Snakes, Wall chart in Gujarati, and Marathi. Rs. 5 ‘ as

Plants

Some Beautiful Indian Trees, by Blatter and Millard. With 1 many coloured and —

monochrome plates. 3rd edition (Reprint). Rs. , 40.00 :

(Price to inibare Rs. 35)_

‘Some Beautiful Indian Climbers and Shrubs, by Bor and peciae ‘With Rial .

i ee oured and monochrome Aner 2nd edition. (in Press) —

epee: of Nature Series Booklets : HA ee

|. Our Birps I. (with 8 coloured plates) in Kannada BRS, Gees

-2. Our BeauTIFUL. TREES (with 8 coloured plates) in Hindi Rs. 0.62

Marathi. Rs. 0.80

' 4. OuR agree (with 8 coloured plates) in English, Gujarati, ‘

; and Hindi p

Glimpses of Nature in India (with 40 ace tes) in Eng Rs To =

rice to mem be Re a)

Back umbers of the Society’s Journal. Rates on application.

The Society will gratefully accept back numbers of the Journal, from mem- 7

- bers who may not wish to preserve them. —

TERMS OF MEMBERSHIP

Ee eitirancd Fees: aa Le ae

Ordinary -and Life Members ey: ate SPS OS ey PGE ae |” eS

Student Members : . ae > ar . oe ¥ Rs. 10°

cgaagicrse Pesan cats Caen

@) Ordinary individual ' Messer eet nee ae Rs. 50

t) Geum’ Geatece, Members — hee ee we See oe 100

c) Ordinary Members eowulg Fae nan SNe Wie LR oe

Life Members _ me : ie a at 20 ears - stays

s. 250 ter years) me

_ Compound Corporate ie ew bers ; ren se 1500 >. *

Student Members (without Journal Re : 2 ee 10

Annual subscription to Journal 2 es Rs. 105

Members residing outside India should

January in each year. If this cannot be

done, then

_..to the Society’s London Bankers—The Grindlays Lae gree are St. James’s Sq., London

SW1Y 4LF, Account No. 1101091. ee

as The subscription of members elected in October, No vember, and December covers the

_ period from the date of ey election to the end of the folowing year.

Rs LOS

pa subscr tion by means of orders on

their Bankers to pay the amount of the subscr ini Sey lag Beet Se

should be paid ann annually

CONTENTS ©

4 Tue Sannow-Hawxs (Accipiter) oF THE, ANDAMAN Tstanps. By G. F. Meese ae,

STUDIES ON THE CHARACTERISTICS OF HAIK 1N SOME INDIAN Bats: os

_ Curoptera). By J. H. Sabnis — ~

. SEDGES OF Punsan—Ecouocy, DistRIBUTION AND wh ontieuees By M. Sharma a

x POPULATION STUDY OF TWO SPECIES OF NON-HUMAN PRIMATES: Macaca viata :

if _AND Macaca radiata, By Raghubir Singh Pirta, P. Prakash and Mewa Singh

| ee RELATIVE. conpITION FACTOR AND LENGTH-WEIGHT RELATIONSHIP OF A FRESHWATER. feet

. Carp, Labeo gonius (Ham.) (CypRINIDAE, TELEOSTE!). By “Anil Chatterji

= Sols ASPECTS OF THE LIFE HISTORY OF BLACKBUCK IN NEPAL. By John F. Lehmkubl

a MATERIALS FOR THE FLORA oF MAHABALESHWAR. By P. V. Bole and M. R. Almeida |

xs FURTHER OBSERVATIONS ‘ON THE FIELD ECOLOGY OF RAJASTHAN Bats. By Y. P. ‘Sinha

Fora. BroLocy OF Mimusops clengi Linn. By Cc: ‘Subba Reddi and A. Janaki Bai

Some OBSERVATIONS ON TIGER BEHAVIOUR IN THE CONTEXT (OF BAITING. By Chae

MeDolagal 0) Ni a ea oe ;

arg New Desceierions: z aes : Aes: a eye a ee 2

a eS is Notes hee Genet sant hae = Dateae

ANNUAL REPORT oF THE Bomnay: NATURAL History Socrery FOR THE Year 1978-79 —

"STATEMENT OF AccouNTs oF THE Bompay NATURAL History Sociery ee

Minutes OF THE ANNUAL GeNeRat. Meerinc ‘Sec, eae ss

Painted by Bro, Leo at St: itanile Snduierial. ‘Pralbing: Sneha: eartell: eas ana

r ; and published by Editors: J. C. Daniel, P. V. Bole and A. N. D. Nanavati for Bohai:

Natural -History Society, Hornbill House, Shahid Bhagat Singh Road, aise baa.

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